Issued by Ihe Governmenl1 of S.AUSTRAUA. THE NORTHERN TERRITORY WESTERN AUSTRALIA South ^USTRfLlfl QUEENSLAND BRISBANEO\ NEW SOUTH WALES LJL VICTORIA^ WlbournK David. J.Gordon. tn Qs0 1»l ml ^Itve^^ YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY H A SDBOOE SOUTH AUSTRALIA DAVID J. GORDON, AUTHOR OF 'The Central State: South Australia, Its Histor}', Progress, and Resources" (1903) "The 'Nile' of Australia. Nature's Gateway to the Interior" (1906); "Conquering the Desert" (1907), &c, &c. ISSUED BY THE GOVERNMENT OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. With over 280 Illustrations. C. E. BRI8T0W, irDVEENMEXT PRINTER, NORTH TERRACE. 1908. PREFACE. ' *HIS Handbook has been prepared under instructions from the .Hon. the Chief Secretary (Hon A. A. Kirkpatrick), and is published by the authority of the Government. Its object is to serve as a Guide to Immigrants, Tourists, and Settlers, as well as an official record for reference within and beyond the Commonwealth. The aim has been to supply a brief outline of the history of South Australia, an account of the growth of leading industries, and to provide such information of the resources of the State as will indicate the scope for further industrial expansion. Every effort has been made to select illustrations typical of the industries treated and of pleasure resorts within easy reach of the traveller. So far as possible each section has been made complete in itself, but the whole work is intended to convey an accurate idea of the remarkable progress and prosperity of the State, and to set forth the opportunities which are available to all who wish to share in the further development of the great natural resources of a well-favored land. DAVID J. GORDON. Adelaide, December \st, 1908. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter. PAGBS. I. STATE AND COMMONWEALTH 1-3 II. DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA 4-6 III. PROCLAMATION OF THE PROVINCE 7-16 IV. SOUTH AUSTRALIA AS A FIELD FOR SETTLERS AND TOURISTS 17-20 V. INDUSTRIAL GROWTH AND TRADE 21-43 VI. SEVENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS 44-48 VII. CLIMATE 49-52 VIII. PASTORAL INDUSTRY 53-92 IX. LAMB- BREEDING INDUSTRY 93-97 X. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY 98-112 XL AIDS TO AGRICULTURE 113-120 XII. CEREAL CULTIVATION 121-132 XIII. DAIRYING INDUSTRY 133-137 XIV. FRUIT-GROWING 138-148 XV. RENMARK IRRIGATION COLONY 149-155 XVI. WINE INDUSTRY 156-168 XVII. POULTRY-RAISING 169-173 XVIII. MINOR RURAL INDUSTRIES 174-179 XIX. HOW THE STATE HELPS PRODUCERS . . 180-182 XX. LAND LAWS 183-188 XXI. MINING 189-200 XXII. MANUFACTURES 201-205 XXIII. FISHERIES 206-208 XXIV. FORESTRY 209-215 XXV. WATER CONSERVATION AND IRRIGATION 216-221 XXVI. WATERWORKS AND ARTESIAN WELLS . . 222-227 XXVII. SHIPPING 228-239 XXVIII. RAILWAYS 240-248 XXIX. FINANCE AND TRADE 249-260 XXX. FACTS ABOUT SOUTH AUSTRALIA.. 261-278 XXXI. EDUCATION 279-293 XXXII. NORTHERN TERRITORY 294-309 APPENDICES 310-324 IN DEX Adelaide — Queen City of the South PAGE. 21 Education PAGE. 43, 277, 279-293 Advertisements . 325-343 Expenditure 44, 249, 320 Agricultural advisers 180 Explorers, Early 4 Agriculture, Aids to . 113-120 Exports . . . . 42, 44, 45, 48, 254,313,314 Agricultural College 289 Agricultural industry . . 98-112 Factory legislation 202 Agricultural staff 181 Facts about South Australia .. 261-278 Agriculture, Tropical 302 Farming, Diversified 110 Angas, George Fife 10 Farms, Demonstration 180 Angora goats 179 Federal finance . . 2, 250 Appendioes 310 Kgs 176 Apple industry 141 Financial 2(12 Area of South Australia 1 Financial : A crisis 32 Artesian wells . 223-227 Finance and trade .. 249-260 Australia compared with Europe 3 Fish, Varieties of 208 Australia, Progress of 2 Fisheries 206 Fisheries legislation 208 Banking 43,256,320,321 Flinders, Captain 4 Bank, Savings . 44, 257 Flocks and fleeces 59 Bank, The State 258, 321 Flocks, Stud 66-83 Barker, Captain 6 Flour, Exports of 316 Barley 131 Forestry 209 Bee-farming 178 Fowls, Breeds of 173 Births, Marriages, and Deaths 310 Fruit cases from local timber 213 Brandy industry 168 Fruit colony .. 146, 149 Breadstuffs 41 Fruit-growing .. 138-148 Bullen, Frank : Description of Adelaide 24 Fruit- preserving 176 Cab fares 324 Gardens, Market 178 Cadell, Captain 36 Geographical strength of South Australia 18 Cattle 41 44, 84-89 Goats, Angora 179 Cereal and other crops 128 Gold mines 195 Cereals, Cultivation of . 121-132 Graving dock 237 Cheese, Choice 136 Climate 49-52, 264 Harbor accommodation 232 Climate, Charm of . . 28 Harbor, Outer 234 Closer settlement 184 Harbor trust 239 Coal .. 197 Hardwoods 214 Colonisation, Company 10 Harvester, Modern 115 Commonwealth and State 1-3 Hay 130 Continent, Gift of . . 1 Hindmarsh, Governor 11 Copper 194 Hops 176 Cost of living 205 Horses 41, 44, 90-92 Crops and rainfall Crops, Details of Crown lands, Occupation of Cultivation and rainfall 128 312 Imports 42,44,254,313 183 103 Impressions, First Industrial conquests 20 219 Cultivation, Extending area of Currants and raisins 186 146 Industrial growth and trade Industries, Various Information, Where to get . . 31-43 201 181 Dairying industry Dairyman, State aid to the . 133-137 135 Iron, Deposits of Irrigation colony 196149 Date plantations Davitt, Michael : Adelaide 215 23 Irrigation and navigation Irrigation and water conservation 219 216 Days, Early 13 Jury, Trial by 11 Deaths, Marriages, Births 310 Debt Public 250 Lamb-breeding industry . . 93, 97 Diagrams 47 Lamb exports 97 VI. INDEX. 41 Lambs as by-product Land of contrasts . . Land : How held . . Land laws . . ... Land, Occupation of Land open for application Land repurchased for closer settlement Land under cultivation Land, Wealth from Lands, Farming Lands, Pastoral Lands (Swamp), Reclamation of. Landseekers, Points for Laws, Mining Legislation, Factory Lemon culture Library, Public Light, Colonel Light dues Live stock Living, Cost of Loans, Repaying Manufactories Manufacturers' day Manures, Artificial Marine Board Marketing Markets, Finding Marriages, Births, Deaths . . Merino, Stud MineralsMinerals — Quantities produced Mineral phosphates Mines, Gold MiningMining in Northern Territory Mining laws Mining operations Minor rural industries Mountain scenery Murray, River 39. Navigation and irrigation Northern Territory, The OatsOlive oil Orange groves Ostrich farms Outports, Principal Pastoral industry . . Pastoral lands Pastoral pursuits in Northern Territory Pastoralists as pathfinders. People, Pursuits of Peas, Field . . Phosphates, Mineral Pigs .. Pilotage Pines, Forests of Pioneer as pathfinder Pirie, Port . . Population . . Postage rates Potato growing Poultry-raising Proclamation of Province . . Producers, Primary 40, 44 12-2, PAGE. 96 17 108 183 102-183,311 187 311 186 45 110 187 106, 186188 198 202 146 291 13 237 ,44,264,312 205252 201,276 205 113 238 276 181 310 68-80 317, 318 200 197195189 306 198 191 174, 274 2126 41, 44 219 294-309 131 174 144 178 236 53-92 187 301 54 44, 260 132197 132, 176 237209 15 278 40, 44, 310324 178 9-173 7-16 45 H PAGE. Produce Export Department 95, 322 Production and trade 266 Production, Cost of . . .. 117, 124- -126, 272 Products, Primary value of 111 Progress, Marvellous 40 Progress, Seventy years of 44-48 Railways . . . . 37, 40, 44 240 -248, 319 Railway fares 324 Rainfall and cultivation 103 Rainfall and crops 128 Raisins and currants 146 Randell, Captain 36 Renmark Irrigation Colony 149 Rents 205 Resources, Tapping 35 Revenue 44 249, 320 Ridley, Mr 33, 116 Saltbush : " Where the Saltbush Grows " 25 Schools 43,44 School of Mines 287 Settlers, Call for 278 Settlement, Closer 105, 106 Sheep, Increased yields of wool per 60 Sheep 41,44 Shipping . . . . . . 42, 44, 228 -239, 318 Silver-lead 196 South Australia, Discovery of 4-6 South Australia — How to get there 324 Soil, WTealth from 111, 112 Squatter, Inside and outside 28 State and Commonwealth 1-3 State, A garden 28 State as landlord 187 Stump-jumper 118-120 Sturt, Captain 4-5 Telegraph 37, 40, 44 Tourists, South Australia as field for . . 17 Trade of South Australia 39, 249-260, 264, 313 Trees, Distribution of 209 Twain, Mark : Description of Adelaide University, Adelaide Vineyards, Description of . . VintageVisitors, Views of . . Voyage, A cheap Wages and work Wages, Seamen Wakefield's system of colonisation Water conservation and irrigation Water route to the interior Waterworks . . Wattle bark . . Wheat, Exports of Wheat, Production of Wine Wine industry Wine, Manufacture of Wool Wool, Exports of Wool, Prices of Wool-classing Work and wages Workmen, Good country for 23 283 164 312 22 20 202, 323 239 8 216 26 222-227 175 315 122, 123 41 156-168 162 41,65 317 317 57 202205 HON. a. A. KIRKPATRICK Chief Secretary. HON. T. PRICE. Premier funl Cottllni.isioner of Publie Works. PARLIAMENT HOUSES, NORTH TERRACE, ADELAIDE. HON. L. O'LOUGHLIN, Commiusioner of Croiun Lands. HON. A. H, PEAKE, Treasurer. MEMBERS OF THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MINISTRY, {1--TO FACE l'AGE VI.) *s> = ~-rf\ = =3 ~. Ai Ai m ~J ¦*i- ¦ca q o ^ o (2 —TO 1 U I. PAGE VI.) AUSTRALIA : THE ISLAND Distances by Sea and DISTANCES From. To. Miles. From. To. Miles. AdelaideMelbourne . Sydney Brisbane Port Danvin. Fremantle Albany Melbourne . . Sydney Brisbane Port Darwin Fremantle . . Albany Adelaide 508 57+510 2,247 1,786 350 1,028 Adelaide . Adelaide . Adelaide . Adelaide . Adelaide . Adelaide . Adelaide . Adelaide . Capetown . Adelaide, v a Sut 2 ColomboCalcuttaSingapore . . Hongkong . . Yokohama . . New York . . San Francisco Capetown . . London London 4.578 s.640 3,8505.^90 6,720 11,580 9,082 5,760 Re und tl e Continent 7-003 6,129 10,760 GEOGRAPHICAL AND STANDARD TIME. The following are the geographical positions of the Australian capitals and the differences of their respective standard times from Greenwich mean time: — Longitude. Adelaide . Melbourne SydneyBrisbane . , PerthHobart . . 34 5<7 s 37 50 b 3327 5228 S S 3' 42 57 52 S S Latitude 0 / 138 35 E '44 59 E 151 12 K '53 2 E "5 SO' E '47 ZI E Standard Time Fast on Greenwich Mean Time. 9h. 30m. OS. ioh. om. OS. 1 oh. om. OS. 1 oh. om. OS. Sh. om. OS. 1 oh. om. OS. PICTURESQUE SCENERY^ MOUNT LOFTY RANGES, NEAR ADELAIDE. 1 " '•> [Govt. Photo. SOUTH AUSTRAL/ A: The Central State ITS PROGRESS AMD RESOURCES. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. Chapter I. STATE AND COMMONWEALTH. *^50UTH Australia is the Central State of the Australian group. It links East with jj^ "West, and its borders touch four out of the six States forming the Commonwealth of Australia. The waters uf the Southern Ocean wash its shores in temperate latitudes, the waves of the Indian Sea beat upon the coastline of Tropical Australia. South Australia, with its dependency the Northern Territory, extends from sea to sea through the heart of the Continent, covering 26 degrees c>[ latitude and 12 degrees of longitude. The State is four times the size of France, and could accommodate within its borders seven United Kingdoms ! The area of South Australia is 578,361,600 acres, and, as will be understood, there is in this immense extent of country variety of climate and soil and vast resources. The total population is approximately 400,000. South Australia was proclaimed a province on December 28th. 1836, and on January 1st, 1901, the province became one of the six States constituting the Commonwealth of Australia. Historv fails to supply a parallel to the peaceful occupation of the The Gift of a Australian Continent. Not one British soldier or sailor has been called Continent. upon to sacrifice his life in order to secure or to hold it for the Empire. An English writer stated in 1818 — " Australia is the greatest accession to substantial power ever made by England. It is the gift of a Continent unstained by war, usurpation, or the suffering of a people." The bloodless conquest of the " Great South Land " was followed by the trial of various systems of colonisation. That employed in the. founding of South Australia was unique because of its ideal principles and the new theory of political economy which they represented. The colonisation and expansion of the Australian group represent one of the most glorious triumphs of the nineteenth century. A continent had to be explored, rivers bridged, forests cleared, and a never-ending war waged against unknown natural conditions. Fire, flood, and famine confronted the early settler as he sought to make a home in the bush. These and other foes continued to cross the path of the pioneer as he pushed his way into the heart of an unknown continent, undismayed by the failure of others, confident in his own strength, unconquerable in patience and determination. Progress in other directions has been no less substantial and significant. In no other country is there to be found greater political freedom or social equality ; better facilities for education in all its branches — more certainty that each " shall reap where he has sown " — than in that Commonwealth representing the union of once divided States. At the beginning of the nineteenth century Australia was practically unknown. A handful of white people were located on one little spot on the eastern shore within sound of the Pacific Ocean. To-day there are few blanks in the map, although much remains to be done in develop ing the known resources of the country and seeking newT avenues of employment. On SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. December 31st, 1906, there was a population of 4,119,481. "Although Australasia," says Mr. Coghlan, in "The Seven Colonies of Australasia," "has but the population of a province of some of the great European powers, in the wealth and earnings of its people it stands before most of the secondary States, and as regards wealth and income per head of popula tion it compares favorably with any country." An Official (Federal) Statement. Sir John Forrest, when Federal Treasurer, concluded his Budget Speech, delivered on July 31st, 1906, in the following terms :— " I would ask Honorable Members to try to realise what the 4,000,000 of British people in Australia have done and are doing. They have £107,000,000 upon deposit at the banks, of which over £23,000,000 are in coin and bullion. Thev have deposits in the Savings Banks of over £37,000,000, and the number of depositors is l,"l52,506. They have produced minerals to the value of £636,000,000, of which £24,766,000 were produced during 1905. Of this £636,000,000, the sum of £462,439,000 represents the production of gold, and of that quantity £15,500,000 worth was produced in 1905. They have 9,380,000 acres under cultivation, not including grass and fallow lands. During the last two years they have produced wheat valued at £18,766,000, and have exported butter valued at £4,792,000. They have 75,000,000 sheep, 8,000,000 cattle, 1,600,000 horses, and 1,000,000 pigs. Their sheep have increased during the last three and three-quarter years by 22,000,000, and the value of the wool produced is now over £20,000,000, having increased during the same period by £7,000,000. In 1906 their oversea trade represented £95,000,000 ; their imports being of the value of £38,000,000, and their exports of the value of £57,000,000. I am glad to say that 71 per cent, of this trade was with the people of the British Empire — our own people — the remaining 29 per cent, being with the people of foreign countries. The value of their imports is £15,000,000 less than those of Canada ; but their exports exceed in value those of Canada by £13,000,000 (the population of Canada being 6,000,000, as compared with our population of 4,121,000), and of South Africa by £25,000,000. The people of Australia produce annually about £3,000,000 worth of hay, £1,400,000 worth of potatoes, and 6,000,000galls. of wine. They have a grand total of primary annual production, including manufactures, representing a value of about £120,000,000 a year. They have great and populous cities, railways, tramways, water supplies, telegraphs, telephones, shipping facilities with the world and on their coasts, and are in the enjoyment of most of the advantages, con veniences, and luxuries of the old world. They have thirty times as many sheep and produce forty times as much wool as Canada, whilst they have five times as many sheep as in the whole of South Africa. They produced last year 54,000,000bush. of wheat, being only 15,000,000bush. less than the output of Canada, which is regarded as the granary of the world. They produced nearly five times as much gold as Canada, their product being valued at only £1,500,000 less than that of South Africa, which has been considered as the greatest gold producer of recent times. This is what the people of Australia — 4,000,000 British people — are doing." Prize Horses and Cattle at an Agricultural Show. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. Australia Compared with Europe. C.YOflK PORT DARWIN [Prepared bv A. C- MacDonald. Secretary of the X'ictoriati Branch 0/ the Royal Geo^r/iphiral Society of Australasia ] Some idea of the vastness of the Australian Continent may be gathered'from the above map, which shows that Australia could swallow up nearly the whole of Europe. Drawn to scale, without alteration of their positions, with the exception of Sweden, Norway, and Russia, there is a balance (the black portion) which wovdd provide for Sweden and Norway, and for more than two-thirds of Russia. For further comparison study the areas given below. , Austria-Hungary Belgium British Isles Bulgaria DenmarkFranceGermany . GreeceHolland . . Square Miles. 240,942 11,373 120,994 24,380 15,360 204,092208,830 ! 25,914 12,048 110,646172,576 Portugal Roumania Russia Spain Switzerland Turkey Total Square Miles .... Australia's Square Miles Difference . . Square Miles. 36,93850,720 . . 2,095,616 197,670 15,976 65,752 . . 3,609,827 . 2,972,906 Italy Norway and Sweden . . 636,921 Chapter II. DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. LTHOUGH Lieutenant Grant sighted the southern shores in 1800, and named Mount Gambier, Cape Northumberland, and other places along the coast, Flinders, by forestalling his rival — Baudin — in. 1802, and Sturt, in following the Murray river to its mouth in 1830, were the real founders of South Australia. These great Englishmen explored as well as discovered. They were keen observers, possessed of cool deliberate judgment. When circumstances compelled deductions to be made from uncertain premises there, came to their aid a natuial instinct suggestive of prophetic vision. Especially is this true of Captain Sturt. His estimate of the potential value of the rivers Murray, Darling, and Murrumbidgee has been more than justified. Flinders, Sturt, and subsequently Captain Barker, removed many false impressions concerning the character of the southern portion of the continent. In 1627 Dutch navigators sighted the southern coast of New Holland. Beyond christening it '• Nuytsland " they took no notice of what they regarded as a rough, inhospitable, barren country. Matthew Flinders was the first to set foot on the shores of Southern Australia, and to his painstaking inspection was chiefly due the settlement which followed. He discovered, named, and charted capes, bays, . gulfs, and islands, often landing to make a careful examination of the soil and to take observations from hilltops. The general opinion in New South Wales as well as in England was the same as that expressed by the early Dutch voyagers : that the southern portions of the con tinent consisted of inhospitable country, not fit for habitation by white people. In 1822 a naval captain read a paper before a society in New South Wales, in which he stated : — " The south coast of Australia is barren, and in every respect useless and unfavorable for colonisation." The following is probably the earliest expressed opinion of South Australian soil. It was written by Matthew Flinders in 1802 :— " The soil of that part of Kangaroo Island examined by us was judged to be much superior to any before seen, either upon the south coast of the continent or upon the islands near it ; with the exception of King George's Sound. The depth of the soil was not particularly ascer tained ; but from the thickness of the wood it cannot be very shallow. Some sand is mixed with the vegetable earth, but not in any great proportion, and I thought the soil superior to some of the land cultivated at Port Jackson, and to much of that in our stony counties in England." Captain Sturt, the first man to discover that the country had many natural advantages, floated down the Murray in a small rowing boat, with convicts as companions. This journey represents one of the greatest triumphs in the annals of Australian exploration. He ran the gauntlet of hostile natives, endured terrible hardships, and, keenly disappointed at finding that the noble stream ends at a point which encounters the full force of the Southern Ocean turned about and rowed up stream to his starting place. It was a wonderful achievement— Captain Matthew Flinders, R N. Early Explorers. ^L .-"'AA AL mu! i ' 7* t >Y WV7L1.JJ*- ' ;-• ••¦• -£<.y"i0 iil-t t ¦• *e- (CH. II.) THE NATIONAL PARK: THE PEOPLE'S PLAYGROUND. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 5 one of the most daring and successful accomplished during a long and chequered career. In his account of this memorable journey down the Murray in 1830, Captain Sturt wrote : — '" We were borne over the ruffled and agitated surface of Lake Alexandrina with such rapidity that I had scarcely time to view it as we passed, but, cursory as my glance was, I could not but think I was leaving behind me the fullest reward of our toil, in a country that would ultimately render our discoveries valuable, and benefit the colony for whose interests we are engaged. Hurried, I would repeat, as my view of it was, my eye never fell on a country of more promising aspect, or of more favorable position, than that which occupies the space between the lake and the ranges of St. Vincent's Gulf, and, continuing northerly from Mount Barker, stretches away without any visible boundary. It appeared to me that, unless Nature had deviated from her usual laws, this tract of country could not but be fertile, situated as it was to receive the mountain deposits on the one hand, and those of the lake upon the other." View of King William Street, the Main Thoroughfare of the City of Adelaide. [MeGann. Photo. Captain Sturt (after his great inland journey in the forties) wrote : — " Taking South Aus tralia in its length and breadth, the quantity of available land is, beyond doubt, very limited ; but I regard it as exceedingly good, and believe that its capabilities have by no means been ascertained. I feel satisfied, indeed, that necessity will prove not only that the present pastoral districts are capable of maintaining a much greater number of stock upon them than they have hitherto borne, but that the province is also capable of bearing a very great amount of population ; that it is peculiarly fitted for a rural peasantry, and that its agricultural products will be sufficient to support masses of the population employed either in its mining or manu factures. In this view of the subject it would appear that Providence has adapted the land to meet its new destimes, and that nothing we can say, either in praise or censure of its natural capabilities, will have the effect of concealing either the one jar the other as time shall glide on The climate of South Australia is admirably adapted for the growth of fruit SOOTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. trees of the hardier tropical kinds. The vine, the fig, the pomegranate, and others flourish beyond description, as do English fruit trees of every kind. Such trees as are congenial to the climate arrive at maturity with incredible rapidity, and bear in the greatest abundance. There are in South Australia two periods of the year which are equally deceptive to the stranger. The one is when the country is burnt up and suffering under the effects of summer heat — when the earth is almost herbless, and the ground swarms with grasshoppers — when a dry heat prevails in a calm still air. The other, when vegetation is springing up under the early rains and everything is green. Arriving at Adelaide during the first period, the stranger would hardly believe that the country, at any other season of the year, would be so clothed with herbage and look so fresh ; arriving at the other, he would equally doubt the possibility of the vegetable kingdom being laid so completely prostrate, or that the country could assume so withered and parched an appearance ; but these changes are common to every country under a similar latitude, and it would be unjust to set them down to its prejudice or disadvantage. . . . Both in climate and other respects it is a country peculiarly adapted to the pursuits and habits of my countrymen. It is a country to which an Englishman may migrate with the most cheerful anticipations." In 1831 Captain Collet Barker, of the 39th regiment, when on his way from King George's Sound to Sydney, entered St. Vincent's Gulf and landed on its eastern shore twelve miles north of Cape Jervis. With six members of the ship's company Captain Barker crossed the Mount Lofty Ranges, discovered the mount which bears his name, and proceeded along the shores of Lake Alexandrina to the Murray Mouth. For the purpose of making observations from the top of a sandhill he successfully performed the dangerous feat of swimming across the river where it joins the ocean. This gallant officer and daring explorer was killed by the natives, who threw his body into the sea. Captain Barker's name stands first in a long list of explorers who have laid down their lives in the bush of Australia in the service of humanity. A member of Captain Barker's party wrote : — " The soil was rich, there was abundance of the finest pasturage, no lack of fresh water, and it was a spot in whose valleys the exile might hope to build for himself and for his family a peaceful and prosperous retreat." Flinders, Sturt, and Barker made possible the colonisation of South Australia by their early travels and the favorable opinions they expressed concerning the quality of the soil and the splendid climate. Experience has shown that their judgment was sound, but that the quantity of " good land " is larger in proportion than they were able to estimate. Once the Province was proclaimed and settlement established, the work of exploration was vigorously continued. South Australia has been fortunate indeed in her explorers and pioneers, for they have made possible the rapid forward march of a resourceful industrial army. Mr. Anstey, a pioneer colonist, writing of Sturt and Eyre, said : — " Both Eyre and Sturt were men of rare mark. They were the most courageous of explorers ; the hardiest, most original minded of men in the pursuit of their darling objects of noble ambition. In mind and personal manner they were widely different the one from the other, but they were both impelled by the same strong impulse — an all-absorbing sense of duty." WATERFALL MOUNT LOFTY RANGES. Chapter III. PROCLAMATION OF THE PROVINCE. IE revised opinions of Flinders and Sturt concerning the capabilities of Southern Australia reached England during a period of political upheaval and social unrest. The effect of the great financial panic, which started in 1825, was still felt. The French Revolution threatened to spread across the channel. When this danger had passed, the long and bitter struggle in connection with the Reform Bill began. Riots were frequent, and the hero of Waterloo was bombarded in his own house by a London mob. So gloomy was the outlook for political and religious liberty that longing eyes were cast toward distant outposts of the Empire, and the spirit which induced the Pilgrim Fathers to go West in the Mayflower was at work once more. This leavening influence spread rapidly, and caused a ready response to an attractive proposal of colonisation in southern latitudes then announced for the first After Seventy Years.— Scene at Glenelg on Commemoration Day, 1906. [McQann, Photo. time. The results of the voyage made by Flinders were well known, and when Sturt's graphic account of his trip down the Murray reached England, it fired the imagination of those looking for distant fields in which to establish peaceful homes far removed from all the strife and oppression of the homeland. In 1831 a committee was formed and negotiations opened with the Government for a charter to found a colony. These fell through, but the scheme SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. was not bv any means abandoned. The promoters were not the kind of men to lose heart at the first rebuff. They had studied the history of colonisation in Canada, New South Wales, and Western Australia, and their purpose was to avoid the mistakes made in those countries. Their intention was to start a settlement on sounder principles of political economy, and with a higher regard to the rights of colonists. Undismayed by failure, a second committee was formed in 1834, under the name of " The South Australian Association." With the valuable co-operation of " The South Australian Com pany," an offspring of it, this association " well and truly " laid the foundation of South Australia. " Colonel Torrens, at a preliminary meeting held at Exeter Hall in June, 1834, moved the main resolution :— " That in establishing colonies, great care Wakefield's System of Colonisation. The Town Hall and Adjoining Municipal Offices.— Scene at the Swearing-in of a Governor. [Qazard, Photo. ought to be taken to combine labor and capital with land in such proportions as are best calcu lated to ensure the prosperity of all classes of society, and that, in establishing modern colonies, this important consideration ha« been generally overlooked." The colonel, in confident and eloquent phrases, spoke of the failures of colonisation in the past, and explained that in the new province about to be founded the aim was to so apportion the land as to ensure success from the outset. " It is in the first place determined that the whole of the land in the colony shall be declared to be public property. No individual can, by any means, or through any interest, acquire any portion of the land by gift. Not a single acre will, under any circumstances, be given away to individuals . . . All will be set up at a fixed minimum price, or as much above that price as the competition of public auction will determine." The theory was that of Mr. Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and his plan was by the sale of lands to provide funds ; keep the new settle ment in a state of solvency ; supply labor ; and at the same time check trafficking in land. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 9 Closer settlement was aimed at if it were not altogether accomplished. The Wakefield system — " to fix the price of land sufficiently high to create an emigration fund, consisting of the entire proceeds of all the land sold, and to apply such fund to the exportation of laboring emigrants " — upon which South Australia was founded, and to which great importance was attached by pioneers, fell into disfavor owing to the financial crisis of the early forties. This ideal of colonisation, if one may so term it, has been subjected to considerable criticism, but the principle of utilising a portion of the revenue derived from land sales to induce immigra tion was followed for some years. On April 22nd, 1853, a leading article was published in The Register, under the heading " Superiority of the South Australian Land Sale System." It was stated, inter alia : — " Sad as were the immediate prospects for South Australia when drained of the industry of a large portion of her population at the first outbreak of the gold North Terrace, looking East, showing the Institute, Public Library, and University Buildings on the Left. [HeGann, Photo. discoveries in Victoria, infinitely worse would it have been for her had not the previous work ing of her admirable land sale system furnished a moral guarantee for their eventual return. It was that which gave its crowning value to the restorative instrumentality of our providential Bullion Act. ... To feel convinced how strong is this desire to purchase Crown lands, and how eagerly the people avail themselves of the extreme facilities which our Government has wisely provided for its gratification, it is enough to look at the sales which have latterly been effected of South Australian lands. In the year 1852 there were sold upwards 'of 85,000 acres, realising £99,081. A grand total of 52,913 acres of Crown lands was sold during the first three months of the present year, realising an aggregate amount of £65,906, being at the rate of upwards of a quarter of a million sterling per annum. . . . Though we may not be able to invite to particular spots where gold may be grubbed up wholesale in its native state, we can offer the far more important attractions of an immense extent of first-rate land, of which moderate-sized sections can be purchased of the Government any day of the week 10 SOUTH AUSTRALIA THE CENTRAL STATE. at £1 per acre, and the industrious cultivation of which will bestow upon its possessors in the long-run more health, more wealth, more happiness, and more wisdom than the precarious and unimproving search for nuggets in the gullies and mountain ranges of the gold regions of our squatter-oppressed and land-cultivation-prohibiting sister colony of Victoria." Many of those who now so strongly condemn the Wakefield principle owe their presence in South Aus tralia to the help it gave them to cross the seas. Mr. Dutton, writing of it in 1846, said : — " That this (Wakefield) system was a sound one and worked successfully is now not a matter of doubt, but of historical record ; but it is equally certain that its early operations were fraught with difficulty and trial." The principle somewhat outgrew itself as the province progressed, and it had to be modified. Mr. Rowland Hill, the secretary to the Board of Colonisation committee, put his finger on the weak spot of the Wakefield theory, as a theory. " There is an essential difficulty," said Mr. Hill, " namely, the necessity for selling land, or doing that which is equivalent to the sale of land, which no one knows anything about." The Act of Parliament provided that a minimum of £35,000 had to be raised by land sales, and, like many other principles, the great difficulty about that put forward by Mr. Wakefield was in its practical application. His system was a splendid inspiration for the orator, while the enthusiasm of the British taxpayer was thoroughly aroused in a scheme of colonisation which represented neither expense nor risk for him. But the map of South Australia was a blank. The commissioners knew nothing about the country, quality of soil, or climate. It is not surprising, therefore, that 18 months after King William had assented to the Act, 102 land orders out of a total of 347 remained unsold. A crisis was reached which threatened to nip in the bud the new method of settling distant portions of the Empire. At this critical period Mr. George Fife Angas, a member of the A Colonisation Board of Commissioners, came to the rescue. It was his creative Company. brain that outlined the basis upon which the South Australian Com pany was founded ; it was because of his faith in his own plans that that company was established, and the province of South Australia emerged from the nebulous stage and became a reality. In his Herculean efforts to make a success of the colonisation scheme Mr. Angas kept five leading principles in the foreground : — (1) The exclusion of con victs ; (2) the concentration of the settlers ; (3) the taking out of persons of capital and in telligence, and especially men of piety ; (4) the emigration of young couples of good character ; (5) free trade, free government, and freedom in matters of religion. Thus was the way made clear for the prac tical work of colonisation. The first ships were soon on the berth, and with their departure the province of South Australia was successfully launched. " A free country for independent liberty-loving people." That, in effect, was the alluring promise held out. That in reality was the corner-stone of the foundation of South Australia, upon which a great structure is still in course of building. The new province when it first saw the light was free from any " birth- stain." It has continued clean ever since. The Act of establishment said : — " That no person or persons convicted in any Court of Justice in Great Britain or Ireland, or elsewhere, shall at any time, or under any circumstances, be trans ported as a convict to any place within the Mr. George Fife Angas. limits hereinbefore described." A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 11 The leading principles of the legislation which authorised the Trial by Jury, settlement were that South Australia should not be a charge upon Great Britain ; that no convicts should be transported ; and no State church established. An attempt to violate the latter principle a few years later was warmly and successfully resisted. The province was also favored with trial by jury from the outset, the full right of which privilege it had been found necessary to withhold in neighboring colonies. The first court of gaol delivery was held as far back as May 13th, 1837. The presiding judge (Sir J. W. Jeffcott) was subsequently drowned at the mouth of the Murray. In his address to South Australia's first jury, His Honor congratulated the free inhabitants of the province in being able to claim as their birthright that most valuable privilege of the British Con stitution — trial by jury. The judge went on to say : — " The only obstacle which seemed at first sight to interpose itself was the presumed difficulty of procuring in so new a colony a suffi cient number of intelligent gentlemen to take upon them the highly important duties which you will have to discharge. That difficulty was, however, at once obviated in my mind after I had been a few days amongst you, and I had seen and conversed with the very many respec table colonists whom I had had the pleasure of meeting in private society, and amongst the many interesting and novel features which the formation of the colony presents it is not the least interesting that, within four months of the landing of the Governor and the first colonists on these shores — shores hitherto untrodden by the foot of civilised man — there were found the means of assembling together a number of gentlemen capable of constituting a grand and petit jury, who, in point of intelligence and respectability are, I will venture to say, not inferior to any similar body seen in the mother country." That of itself constitutes a remarkable tribute to the character of the early settlers — a testimony which the pioneers justified in every particular. The Proclamation. Captain Hindmarsh, R. N., was gazetted Governor of the new province of South Aus tralia on February 4th, 1836. A month later the Cygnet, 239 tons, left London, having on board Mr. (afterwards Sir George) Kingston, Captain Lipson, R.N., Dr. Wright, surgeon ; Messrs. Finniss, Neale, Symonds, Hardy, and Caiman, surveyors ; Mr. T. Gilbert, storekeeper ; Mr. John Morphett, and a number of passengers. The Rapid, 136 tons, with Colonel Light, left some weeks after the Cygnet, but arrived at Kangaroo Island nearly a month before that vessel. Colonel Light, as Surveyor - General, with an energy characteristic of him, at once began his great work of finding a suitable site for the capital, choosing a place for the chief seaport, surveying the country, and starting to fill up a blank map. The process is still going on. South Australia has unknown fields to be explored, vast tracts of country to be occupied, so that splendid opportunities are offered for courageous enterprising men seeking homes in a comparatively new land. The Buffalo, with His Excellency Captain Hindmarsh on board, dropped anchor in Holdfast Bay on December 28th, 1836, The Governor landed the same day, and under the generous shade of gumtrees close to the beach the Union Jack was hoisted, the proclamation read, salutes fired, and South Australia officially started on its course. The following is a facsimile of the historic document . Sir John Hindmarsh, R.N., First Governor of SotUh Australia. 12 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. PROCLAMATION By His Excellency John Hindmarsh, Knight of the Eoyal Hanoverian Guelphic Order, Governor and Commander-in-Chief of HIS MAJESTY'S PROVINCE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. In announcing to the COLONISTS of HIS MAJESTY'S PROVINCE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA the establishment of the Government, I hereby call upon them to conduct themselves on all occasions with order and quietness, duly to respect the laws, and by a course of industry and sobriety, by the practice of sound morality and a strict observance of the Ordinances of Religion, to prove themselves worthy to be FOUNDERS of a great and free Colony. It is also, at this time especially, my duty to apprise the Colonists of my resolution to take every lawful means for extending the same protection to the NATIVE POPULATION as to the rest of His Majesty's Subjects, and of my firm determination to punish with exemplary severity all acts of violence or injustice which may in any manner be practised or attempted against the NATIVES, who are to be considered as much under the Safe guard of the law as the Colonists themselves, and equally entitled to the privileges of British Subjects. I trust, therefore, with confidence to the exercise of moderation and forbearance by all Classes in their intercourse with the NATIVE INHABITANTS, and that they will omit no opportunity of assisting me to fulfil His Majesty's most gracious and benevolent inten tions towards them by promoting their advancement in civilization, and ultimately, under the blessing of Divine Providence, their conversion to the Christian Faith. By His Excellency's Command, ROBERT G0UGER, Colonial Secretary. Glenelg, 28th December, 18H6. GOD SAVE THE KING. Glenelg : Printed by authority by Robert Thomas and Co., Government Printers. " The commission was read," wrote an eye-witness of the proceedings, " to the settlers, of whom about 200 were present. . . . The health of ' His Majesty,' ' The Governor,' ' Officers,' and ' Success to South Australia,' were given and drunk with great enthusiasm. Our National Anthem, combined with the circumstances in which it was sung, had more grandeur in its simplicity than those who only hear it at a theatre can conceive." The progress of the State is well illustrated by the contrast presented every Commemoration Day to what must have been the scene when Governor Hindmarsh read his commission. The boundaries of the colony at this time were comprised between the 132nd and 141st degrees of east longitude, and between the Southern Ocean and 26th degree of south latitude. The territory of the province amounted to nearly 300,000 square miles, or 192,000,000 acres, including Kangaroo Island, which contains 2,500,000 acres. In 1861 80,000 square miles of land between the western boundary of South Australia and the eastern boundary of Western Australia — a tract of country then known as No Man's Land — was added, and the western boundary is now the 129th degree of east longitude. In 1863 the boundaries were further extended by the addition of what is known as " The Northern Territory," which consists of the country stretching northward from the 26th degree of south latitude to the Indian Ocean, and lying between the 129th and 138th degrees of east longitude. South Australia, therefore, now extends from the Southern to the Indian Ocean, and contains an area of 903,690 square miles, or 578,361,600 acres. A oUide for Immigrants, tourists, and settlers. 13 It was not to be expected that the heterogeneous company dumped Early Days, on the shores of an unknown land would work out their destiny without friction. There were naval officers who had fought under Nelson, accus tomed to prompt obedience without questions being asked ; soldiers who had been through the Peninsular wars and at Waterloo with Wellington ; men with money, and men without money, each possessing strong individuality and a large supply of human nature. Governor Hindmarsh was a warm-hearted bluff sailor, who had served under Nelson, at whose hands he had the honor to receive a presentation sword, accompanied by high compliments for gallant conduct. He combined all the strength of the average naval officer to give orders with the weakness of the average sailor to administer civil affairs and bear with the failings of an un disciplined public. He wanted his own way over the site of the capital, and lost his temper when opposed by a- gallant soldier who had won distinction under the Iron Duke. The Governor appealed to the Home authorities, but was in formed that " when he applied for the office of Governor he was distinctly informed that the right of selecting the capital would be vested solely in the Surveyor - General." The little community ranged itself into two hostile camps, and a fierce wordy war took place over the site of the capital. In the preface of his " Journal of Proceedings," published in Adelaide in 1839, Colonel Light wrote : — " The reasons that led me to fix Adelaide where it is I do not expect to be generally understood or calmly judged of at present. My enemies, however, by dis puting their validity in every particular, have done me the good service of fixing the whole of the responsibility upon me. I am perfectly willing to bear it ; and I leave to posterity, and not to them, to decide whether I am entitled to praise or blame." When Colonel Light won the day it seemed as if all his fellow-colonists were bent on justifying the theory of the great German philosopher, that so soon as a man does anything remarkable " there is a general con spiracy to prevent him doing it again." Colonel Light wras worried into an early grave, and if his wishes as a man of retiring disposition were that he and his work might be speedily for gotten, those wishes for a time were singularly respected. Time has vindicated him and the w7ork he did. Efforts were made at various periods to erect a substantial memorial to per petuate the memory of the man who fixed the site and laid out the capital oi South Australia. Possibly a feeling that no such emblem was needed partly explains why nothing was done for many years. Even the modest monument at his grave was permitted to crumble away. " If you seek his monument, look around you," was after all the most enduring reminder the fortunate dweller in the cleanest and most beautiful city in the Commonwealth was able to convey to the visitor. In 1906 a fine bronze statue was erected in Victoria Square to the memory of the founder of Adelaide, and by this act citizens removed the reproach that had previously rested on them of having failed to publicly recognise the services of Colonel Light. Statue of Colonel Light, the Founder of Adelaide. [Gazard, Photo. 14 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. " What a land is this to which you have sent me ! The loveliness The Pioneer as and glory of its plains and woods, its glens and hills ! But of these Pathfinder. you will hear from others. I cannot, however, leave it out of my estimate of God's goodness to me, that He has placed me in so fair and sweet a portion of His earth." So wrote the Rev. T. Q. Stow to the Colonial Missionary Society. A keynote of gratitude was struck by many others, who described in glowing terms the beauty of the new land. The " Pilgrim Father " type was well represented among the early settlers. They were " self -selected " colonists — men who felt that they were hampered in the homeland. Pride of race was a dominant characteristic, but stronger still was their love of liberty. They possessed King William Street, at Junction of North Terrace.— Unveiling the National Memorial Erected to the Memory of South Australians who Fell in the Boer War, South Africa. [G'izard, Photo. physical and moral courage to an unusual degree, cool determination in the face of all diffi culties. Troubles soon began, but the pioneers emerged triumphant and made substantial progress when once initial difficulties were overcome. For many months the first settlers had been huddled together on small vessels lacking in everything that helps to modify the dis comforts of a long sea voyage. When the landing took place on the shores of Holdfast Bay each family had to shift for itself. Some had tents, others had to imitate the natives and build bough wurlies. When a move was made to the spot where the city of Adelaide is situated, women and children had to walk and carry as much of their househbld furniture as they could'. The men placed the balance on wheelbarrows, which they had to push through five or six miles of scrub. Then came the " reed hut period." Houses of all shapes and sizes were made from reeds growing in the River Torrens, and for some time colonists clustered together, making occasional excursions back to the landing-place, or down to where Colonel Light had decided A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 15 the chief seaport of the new province should be established. The time soon arrived when the practical work of colonisation with all its accompanying privations had to be faced. When it came there was ready as fine a band of stalwart men and noble women as ever set out to subdue a wilderness or wrest from Nature her choicest gifts. As the pioneers pushed out into the country they caused the sunlight to break through the dark clouds which by this time hung like a pall over the little city of reed huts erected on the banks of the Torrens. The crack of the bullock-driver's whip as he turned his leaders northwards, the music of the axe as roadways were made through the bush, stirred the colonists to fresh activity and filled them with new hopes. The advance guards of civilisation moved outwards from the new centre of settlement, and the subjugation of South Australia began. The hardships endured, the failures View of a Portion of the City of Adelaide, Mount Lofty Ranges In the Distance. which came in place of success, only served to prove the mettle of the sturdy people who so well and truly laid the corner-stone of a great structure, which at the end of 66 years typifies national progress and prosperity. The hottest day was not too hot, the longest journey not too long, the bush was not too dense, nor the hill too steep for the men and women who had turned their backs on the newborn city. The Pathfinders for posterity moved out toward the unknown to conquer the bush, bridge the ford, and pave the way for their children and their children's children. By unremitting toil, with primitive appliances, backed by rare patience and endur ance, they created the magnificent heritage which is ours to-day. Their sons and daughters have well" maintained the family reputation. Nowhere in the British Dominions is a better stamp of colonists to be found than in South Australia. The work of subduing the wilds continues, but with greater vigor and more systematically than in the early days. Growth is some times checked, but the movement is ever outward. The stockman, the miner, the farmer, seek fresh victories out in the heart of our great continent, where there is almost unlimited room for expansion. Central Australia possesses a vast treasury of wealth awaiting exploita tion by capital and labor. The pioneers have made the way easy and safe for those who 16 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. come after them. Roads cross and recross one another, forming a perfect network of com munication. From Adelaide to Port Darwin there stretches a telegraph wire— the first connecting link between the old world and the new. Railways have been built and rivers bridged. Newcomers have but to enter and take advantage of the splendid self-denying labors of the early settlers. South Australia is a "Land of the Vine."— Vineyard and Cellars, near Adelaide, (CH IV.) A ROADSIDE BEAUTY SPOT NEAR ADELAIDE : A FAVORITE RESORT FOR TOURISTS. Chapter IV. SOUTH AUSTRALIA AS A FIELD FOR SETTLERS AND TOURISTS. gHE State of South Australia recently passed the allotted span of human life, having celebrated the seventy-first anniversary of its birth on December 28th, 1907. The years have been full of activity, resulting in substantial progress in every direction. In three-quarters of a century the wilderness has been explored and subdued, bridges and railways built, homes made under skies as blue as Italy's, civilisation advanced, and the Empire, of which the State is an important outpost, made more secure. No other 400,000 people on the globe to-day are more prosperous, happier, or more hopeful than are the favored citizens of the Central State of the Commonwealth. Established by free, independent, sturdy, and resolute colonists — men A Land of and women from good British stock — South Australia forged ahead from Contrasts. *ne nrst, until its record of progress is one of continuous expansion. The object of this book is to tell the story of the settlement of that portion of the great Southland known as " South Australia," to recall some of the trials and triumphs of the pioneers, but above all to show how wonderful has been the growth of rural industries, On the Hindmarsh River, near Victor Harbor: a Popular Tourist Resort. [A. E. Summers, Photo. and how marvellous are the resources yet to be developed in this land of alluring contrasts — a land of golden fleece and golden grain, of luscious fruit and choice wine, of orange groves and apple orchards, of gold, silver, and copper ; a land of sunshine, where the climate is healthy and invigorating ; a land of extended horizons and great distances, wherein the highest ideals of civilisation may be realised by a free, independent, and happy people. B 18 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Elder Park and Torrens Lake, within the City, where Band Concerts are given from a Rotunda. [ Gazard, Photo. If the intending settler or the tourist, anxious to become acquainted Geographical with the " Antipodes," will study the map, he will at once realise the Strength. strength of South Australia's geographical position. The law of latitude has been described as the " Law of God," in so far as latitude determines climate and climate regulates production. A country that stretches north and south through the heart of the largest island continent of the world must necessarily possess more than one weather zone, and a corresponding variety of resources. South Australia connects with Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland on the east, while its western border touches Western Aus tralia from sea to sea — from the Southern Ocean to the Indian Ocean. King William Road, looking North towards the Anglican Cathedral and North Adelaide. [Gazard, Photo. o csm o 9 r— I Sg3 3 O a S3 > a THE TOURIST'S INTRODUCTION TO THE CITY.-THE ADELAIDE RAILWAY STATION. 20 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The palatial mail steamers which supply a weekly service between A Cheap Australia and England land mails and passengers for Eastern Australia Voyage. and New Zealand at South Australia's chief port, and embark mails and passengers on the return voyage. A commodious " Outer Harbor " Has been constructed for the accommodation of ocean-going vessels, and passengers are able to step from the deck of their steamer into a train which will land them in Adelaide in .20 minutes. Through passengers to and from the Eastern States are thus provided with every opportunity for breaking their journey and spending a few days, or weeks, in visiting rural South Australia, and the numerous beauty spots and pleasure resorts which the State supplies. All the big liners trading to the Commonwealth call at South Australia, so that the immigrant or the tourist has a variety of fares from which to make a choice. The voyage may be made via the Suez Scene on the River Murray, which Flows through South Australian Territory for a Distance of over 500 Miles. [Dr. W. Ramsay Smith, Photo. Canal or the Cape of Good Hope, and the alternative offers a remarkable contrast to the experiences which early settlers were compelled to undergo. The journey may now be accomplished in a few weeks, with a minimum of risk and a maximum of comfort and enjoyment, in steamers that are scheduled to time with the certainty of railway trains. The tourist from the deck of a steamer coming up St. Vincent's Gulf First cannot fail to admire the magnificent panorama of landscape spread out Impressions, before him. A high range of hills, running north and south, shuts off the eastern view and concentrates the vision on the plains situated on which, close to the foothills, is Adelaide, the capital of the State. The country is open and undulating, rising in easy gradients from the seashore to the mountains. Cultivated fields give the country a chess-board appearance, vineyards alternating with cereal and irrigated fodder crops ; grass meadows contrasting with the chocolate color of the fallow land. The tourist receives a favorable impression as he approaches the harbor, and cannot fail to come to the conclusion that the lowlands and the highlands near Adelaide will repay closer inspection. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 21 Adelaide the "Queen City of the South." A fertile plain, bounded to the south and east by a circling range oE softly rounded hills, separated by a succession of ver dant valleys ; on the west fringed by the waters of St. Vincent's Gulf ; while northward the plain loses itself in a series of un dulations merging in the dark blue of the horizon. Such is the site of Adelaide, the best laid-out and cleanest city of the Commonwealth, justly designated the " Queen City of the South." Dr. Parkin, the representative of the trustees of Cecil Rhodes, said he considered Adelaide " one of the most beautiful and one of the most highly favored cities he had seen in all his travels." Mr. Peter Barr, the " Daffodil King," was charmed with the beautiful squares in the heart of the city and the extent of the park lands which surround it. Another distinguished visitor declared that the capital of South Australia " presents an aspect of substantial comfort and solid opulence which is not equalled by Enghsh cities counting as many generations of existence as Adelaide does years." Said a River Murray. — Passenger Steamer. [Dr. W. Samsay Smith, Photo. world- travelled American journalist recently : — " Adelaide is the prettiest city of the Common wealth. The gardens and parks are beautiful, the city is well kept and clean, and your climate is just perfect. From choice I would sooner make my home in South Australia than any place I have ever visited." South Australians are justly proud of their Botanical and Zoological Gardens, and the visitor to the city ought not to fail paying both a visit. One hour's railway journey along the foothills, then zig-zagging Mountain among high ranges, now through a long tunnel, now over a viaduct bridging Scenery. a deep ravine, takes the visitor from the lowlands to the highlands which form so picturesque a background for the city of Adelaide. Glimpses of a fertile plain stretching far to the south along the coast, a bird's eye view of the blue waters of the gulf, and then from the summit of the Mount Lofty group of hills the tourist is favored with a panorama of undulating country towards Mount Barker and beyond to Lakes Alexandrina and Albert and the River Murray — the " Nile " of Australia. This is one of the finest railway 22 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE" CENTRAL STATS'. trips to be had in Australia. The visitor has nature's choicest gifts lavished upon him. The train dashes through tunnel after tunnel, skirts along a canyon, and winds its way upward to high altitudes. In their season may be seen forests of golden-decked, sweetly-pertumed wattle, the national flower— emblem of Australia, well-laden apple orchards, or acres of luscious strawberries. Terraces of gardens, mansions erected by successful colonists, and strips of country in natural wild state add variety to an excursion which is unequalled for beauty. These 'hills may be reached by a number of roads leading from the city. Motoring or driving through the ranges provides a delightful outing. A representative of the Canadian Pacific Railway, after a visit to these Views Of hills, said :— " I had a drive through the suburbs and the Mount Lofty Visitors Ranges on Sunday, and it was a perfect revelation to me— a revelation, indeed, in a world's tour. The profusion of blossoms in the orchard lands was particularly striking, and the roses in the suburbs would have delighted the hearts View in Botanic Gardens, Adelaide. of thousands of Canadian ladies. You must remember that we in Canada do not understand the floral kingdom as you do in Australia. It is a common thing for a lady to pay as much as 25 cents (Is.) per rose for a ballroom decoration, and to see that flower growing in the pro fusion that was permitted to me on Sunday was indeed a reason why Adelaide and its environ ments should be placed before the people of a country who see such flowers at their best for only two months in a year. For you who have grown up with these floral charms my point may appear an empty one, but there is real attraction in such conditions, suburban to Adelaide, for people who are used to a rigorous winter climate. I say unhesitatingly that there is money for my company and for your tradespeople and railways in the suburban beauties of Adelaide. The orchard lands which I had a sight of on Sunday were more than satisfying. I think I liked them even better than the rose boweries. There is nothing like them in California or Florida. The cherry blooms looked more like snow than blossoms. I have never seen fruit trees so A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 23 attractive, and, hot as the day was, I enjoyed the drive immensely. South Australia ought to be reaping a rich tourist revenue, but it really does not appreciate its potentialities in this connection. The scenery here is so delightfully different in comparison with what Canadian people are used to that I am sure only advertising in the proper quarter is needed to open the desired influx into Australasia-." Mark Twain, in " More Tramps Abroad," says : — " Approaching Adelaide from Melbourne we left the train and were driven in an open carriage over the hills and along their slopes to the city. It was an excursion of an hour or two, and the charm of it could not be overstated. The road wound around through gaps and gorges and offered all varieties of scenery and prospect — mountains, crags, country houses, gardens, forests — color, color, color everywhere, and the air fine and fresh, the skies blue, and not a shred of cloud to mar the downpour of the brilliant sunshine. And finally the mountain gateway opened, and the immense plain lay spread out Victor Harbor: a, Popular Seaside Resort. [McGann, Photo. below and stretching away into dim distances on every hand, soft and delicate, and dainty and beautiful. On its near edge reposed the city ; with wide streets, compactly built ; with fine homes everywhere, embowered in foliage and flowers; and with imposing masses of public buildings nobly grouped and architecturally beautiful." Mr. Michael Davitt, Member of the House of Commons, in his book " Australasia," wrote : — " The drive from Adelaide to Mount Lofty is ideal in almost everything that can render a drive truly pleasurable " ; and he continues — " The many-sided hospitality of this charming city always includes this treat when strangers from ' the old countries ' are fortunate enough to find themselves in Adelaide ; and full as Australasia is of the choicest work of Nature's handi craft in scenery, the visitor to Mount Lofty, if he has an eye and a soul that can attune them selves to the beautiful in landscape and in sea view, will never forget or regret such an experience. Right and left of the zigzag road, on to the top of the range, you pass deep and verdant valleys that remind you of the greenest of Wicklow's vales. Vineyards and fruit gardens are seen on 24 south Australia-— the central state. every hand, with pretty villas and cosy-looking cottages perched on places from whence the finest prospects are to be commanded of the fruitful plains beneath the hills, and of the coastline midway between vou and the sea-bounded horizon. The view from Mount Lofty, looking down upon Adelaide, the plains and the seacoast, is a delightfully varied one. Midway between you and St. Vincent's Gulf lies the City, extending out over th~ *- "-- , '-.«*.. 7MC& *• !- *;• ';,.-''' "'" ¦ ¦ '' A* ;; |V '" '¦' '. ¦ A' " A : J^rA'A^ Vi':~ ¦-'¦'' ';' ^:VV','"''V'-'V'-'-'""'-.'' ^^'^'s Si.;, • - - » 'l *-- ¦ ¦ 1 1 ¦HMBpi^w. '•- l^TOTOHKHE^HMaaHHBEiib - ; .'Vjjfef m, Along a Country Road. [C. J. Tuekwell, Photo. suspicion or aversion at a distance, where the peculiar circumstances which rendered it necessary, however forcibly described, can be faintly appreciated. Such an act on his part was a graceful concession to the popular will, as expressed in one of its most intelligent forms, and as such is calculated to strengthen the good understanding which ought to subsist betwixt the Govern ment and the people." These were exciting and critical times for South Australia, but they Tapping soon passed away. As the gold seekers began to return home the wave Resources. °^ depression receded even more rapidly than it had approached. Many of the adventurers came back with considerable quantities of gold to their credit in the banks. Inspector Tolmer had established his famous escort, and the much-needed yellow metal, as well as miners, flowed back to South Australia. An era of increased activity in all branches of industry began. The land office was once more besieged by applicants wanting broad acres, and sales of land jumped from £32,000 in 1848 to £383,000, and the pubhc revenue from all sources stood at £595,000 in 1854. Between September, 1852, and January, 1853, £17,000 of gold from the Echunga fields was purchased in Adelaide. By 36 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. 1851 imports from Great Britain had aggregated £3,000,000. Two years later they had increased to £5,000,000. It was during the successful regime of Governor Young that the River Murray was opened to navigation. Sir Henry was a firm believer in the Murray as a highway of trade to the interior, and it was largely due to his splendid enthusiasm that navigation was inaugurated and the possibilities of that noble stream adequately recognised. Captain Cadell had come down stream in a canvas boat, and Captain Wm. Randell, who is still alive, was engaged build ing a small steamer at Mannum. Captain Randell's boat, the Mary Ann, was actually the first vessel to steam up the Murray, but the Lady Augusta, brought around from Sydney by Captain Cadell, fulfilled the conditions which accompanied the Parliamentary offer of a bonus. Thus the reward of £4,000 went to Captain Cadell. Governor and Lady Young and party accompanied Captain Cadell on the first voyage of the Lady Augusta. At times the Murray and Darling are navigable for a distance of 3,000 miles, and, despite the combined efforts of various States to tap by railways the legitimate river trade, the waterway continues to be the cheapest means of transit for a large number of producers. In years of average rainfall the river more than holds its own against land carriage. The forties provided a copper boom ; the fifties were known as the golden decade. The population having exceeded the prescribed limit fixed by the Imperial Act, the first Constitution Bill was passed, and a Parliament, consisting of two Chambers, established. At about the same time railways connecting Adelaide with Port Adelaide, also with Gawler and Kapunda, were begun, and the first telegraph line was erected. The extension of the telegraph went on apace, and within three years from that time wires were stretched between Adelaide and Melbourne. The ten-year period ending with 1859 was an important one in the history of the province, and progress from 1836 to that time, though spasmodic, was considerable, as is shown by the following comparisons ¦ — Year. Population. Land under Cultivation. Revenue. Total Trade. Total Shipping. Acres. £ £ Tons. 1836 546 — — — — 1840 14,600 2,687 30,618 335,436 83,787 1845 21,759 26,218 32,433 333,278 26,558 1850 63,700 64,728 238,983 1,416,389 174,000 1855 96,982 140,000 453,641 2,359,153 226,000 1859 122,735 361,884 511,927 3,163,370 216,000 The sixties provide one of the brightest chapters in the history of South Australia. In opening Parliament in 1864, the then Governor was able to make this official pronouncement: — " I believe I am warranted in saying that at no other period of the colony's history have we had greater evidence of substantial prosperity." It was a period of great activity, of splendid achievements on the part of explorers, and glorious triumphs in the work of developing natural resources. Rich copper deposits were again discovered, this time on the northern end of Yorke's Peninsula. These have proved the most valuable copper deposits yet found in AustraUa. Exploring parties pushed their way north and west. On the third attempt John McDouall Stuart, the famous explorer, crossed the continent from south to north, and returned over his own tracks, thus solving the problem of the interior and providing a base Une from which others could operate in laying bare the mysteries of inland Australia. In 1863 the Northern Territory, a tract of semi-tropical country consisting of 340,097,280 acres, was by Royal Letters Patent annexed to South Australia, and active operations were at once begun to settle the newly- acquired possession. Colonists were further excited by a visit from the Duke of Edinburgh, the first member of the Royal Family to cross the seas to AustraUa. By 1864 exports of staple produce had reached an annual value of £3,000,000, or over £20 per head of the population — a splendid achievement for a handful of people to accompUsh within a period of 28 years. Shipments of cereal products amounted in that year to £1,464,000 ; wool contributed £775,000 ; metals and minerals, £691,000. In an official report dealing with trade in 1864 it was stated : — " Agricultural, pastoral, and mineral produce formed, as usual, the great bulk of the year's A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 37 exports, and wool and copper were«shipped in quantities of nearly equal value ; but the bread- stuffs exported were worth as much as the pastoral and mineral produce put together. This was, however, the result of exceptional circumstances, the value of cereal produce usually averaging from 10 per cent, to 15 per cent, higher than that of the other two staples. In fact, comparing the average yearly exports of each class during the past five years with the averages for the preceding similar period, it will be found that the shipments by agriculturists bore a less percentage to the value of the total exports during 1860-64 than in the years 1855-9. For instance, in the two periods, breadstuffs, &c, have decreased from 39-3 per cent, to 38-8 per cent, of the total exports of produce ; minerals from 27-1 per cent, to 25-7 per cent. ; and, on the other hand, wool has increased from 31-5 per cent, to 31-8 per cent." The population increased from 124,112 in 1860 to 181,146 by the end of 1869, and the public revenue rose from £438,827 to £777,351 in the same period. In 1865 the national income ¦c-^t- A Mammoth Stack of Grain, containing 25,000 bags. exceeded a milhon sterling. Agricultural expansion was of steady growth. In 1860 the cul tivated area was 428,816 acres, by 1869 the acreage tilled had risen to 850,576 acres. At the end of that year the total trade turnover was valued at £5,747,805. There were 4,436,000 sheep, 119,000 cattle, and 73,000 horses in the colony. Staple produce exported was valued at £2,722,438. This forward movement was well maintained during the next decade. The industrial expansion, though less sensational in the seventies, was substantial, and in other directions some remarkable work was accomphshed. In the face of numerous difficulties, and at great expense, the province — then comprising less than 200,000 inhabitants — ran a telegraph wire through the heart of the continent, a distance of 2,000 miles. The cost exceeded half a million. The completion of this undertaldng povided the first connecting link between the old world and the new. Australia Telegraph, and Railway Construction. 38 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. has ever since been indebted to South Australia for the .enterprise thus exhibited. A few years later a telegraph Une connecting Adelaide and Perth was constructed. The route of this second transcontinental service followed the tracks of the dauntless Eyre, and its completion represented a second triumph for an enterprising people who were bridging the continent and increasing the means of communication. Further explorations were conducted, which helped to remove wrong impressions concerning Central Australia. In political circles considerable activity was displayed, and important public works were carried out. During one session a loan of £3,000,000 was authorised, and Bills were passed sanctioning the construction of 380 miles of railway. Agriculturists were pushing their way northward, and, assisted by improved transport facilities, production increased at a rapid rate. In 1875 over 500,000 acres were sold, and two years later 638,000 were alienated— the largest area dealt with in one year, with the exception of 1881, when 640,000 acres were dis posed of by auction. A Harvesting Scene.— Threshing Wheat. Railway construction was pushed forward rapidly during the next few years, including the important railway connection between Adelaide and Melbourne. Trade steadily improved until combined exports and imports reached an annual value of £17,000,000 in 1870. Staple produce worth £4,670,000 was sent away to oversea customers in 1888. Total acreage under cultivation rose to 2,864,000 acres in 1889, in which year 1,610 miles of railway were open to traffic. In 1887 South Australia celebrated its jubilee by holding an exhibition, and a magnificent demonstration was given of the industrial progress made since the proclamation. The building cost £68,000, and was kept open six months, during which time 790,000 persons attended. The aggregate value of imports had by that time reached a total of £119,644,000, while exports amounted to a total of £102,000,000. Toward this latter sum shipments of wheat and flour contributed £36,000,000 ; other agricultural produce, £1,300,000 ; wool, £39,000,000 ; and copper, £19,000,000. At the end of 50 years of colonising efforts L950,000 A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 39 acres were under wheat ; 360,000 utilised for hay, and 610,000 acres were devoted to other crops. The sheep in the province mustered 6,700,000 ; cattle, 389,000 ; and horses, 168,000. The population within the city boundary was 45,000, and in the whole of South Australia there were 308,000 inhabitants. The eighties witnessed one of the most important industrial Minerals. developments in the history of South Australia. Valuable mineral deposits were discovered near the border of the province which led to a remarkable improvement in trade and exercised far-reaching influence. The great Barrier silver and tin fields — including some of the richest silver mines in the world — though in New South Wales, belonged, geographically and commercially, to South Australia. For 15 years they have been exploited by our capitalists — large and small — by merchants and producers, and tapped by the railways of the State. Some idea of the magnitude of the business Silver-lead Smelting Works, Port Pirie. [J. Jobson, Photo. done can be gathered from the fact that in 1906 produce to the value of £2,200,000 came over the border from New South Wales, while local produce worth £2,705,000 was sent over the border in return. It was South Australian capital that opened up the leading mines,' and for many years the largest interests in these great properties were held by our people. South Australian enterprise gave the Barrier silver districts railway communication to the seaboard, and ever since this State has enjoyed an immense carrying trade to and fro. The prosperous mining town of Broken Hill, with a population of nearly 40,000 persons, has provided South Australian producers with an excellent market. There was a growth in the general trade of South AustraUa during the period 1881-91, which can only be characterised as " marveUous." Mr. Coghlan draws special attention to the " marked impetus," and says that South Australian trade in 1891 represented a trade of £64 3s. 4d. per inhabitant, " being almost without parallel in any important country." By 40 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. 1890 the population had grown to 314,195 inhabitants, the pubUc revenue reached £2,557,732 ; total land under cultivation stood at 2,649,098 acres ; total trade amounted to £17,090,051 ; exports of staple produce had risen to £4,410,062. The last decade of the century proved disastrous in many directions for the whole of Aus traUa, and South Australia suffered in common with its neighbors. Early in the nineties financial troubles began to appear on the surface, and the year 1893 witnessed the suspension of several banks. The seasons were unfavorable, and the rainfaU was below the average. South Australia came through the crisis remarkably well, and, considering the severity of the drought, production was well maintained, while there was no appreciable increase in the list of insol vencies as a result of bank failures and bad times. By the consummation of Federation at the opening of the century the term " State " was substituted for that of " colony " or " province," as South Australians preferred to have their country described, and South Australia became a member of the Commonwealth of Australia by the voluntary act of a substantial majority of electors. The seventh decade in the history of what is now the Central State of United Aus tralia opened full of promise. Confidence was restored in financial and commercial circles, trade moved on the up grade, and the outlook for rural producers was never brighter. There is increased activity in aU departments of industry. The public revenue is buoyant — so much so that deficits have given way to surpluses — and in all directions there is a strong demand for land and a growing disposition to develop the natural resources of the country. » The wonderful record of industrial and commercial growth made during the 70 years of South Australia's history may be gathered by a glance at the following tables. The increase of population has not been rapid, but a steady growth is shown by the following : — Marvellous Progress. 18401850 I860 1870 Total inhabitants. 14,600 63,700 124,112183,797 1880 1890 1900 1907 Total Inhabitants. 267,573 314,195357,099392,431 Settlers early devoted attention to the making of roads and building railways and tele graphs. The whole of these belong to and are worked by the State. In the construction of railways alone over £13,000,000 has been expended. The gradual extension of transit facilities is thus disclosed : — Year. Main Roads. Railways. 1' Telegiaphs. Year. Main Roads. Railways. Telegraphs. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. 1840 — ! — i — 1880 1,449 667 6,904 1853 33 — — 1890 4,485 1,610 12,178 1860 .. 175 56 654 1900 4,500 1,736 17,543 1870 .. , 597 ; 133 1,718 1906 4,500 1,832 21,179 Production was materially assisted by the improvements made in the means of conveying goods to and from the seaboards. The " area under cultivation " has steadily expanded : — Land under Cultivation. Acres. 1840 2,687 1890 1850 64,728 1900 1860 428,816 1902 1870 959,006 1907 1880 . . 2,574,489 Land under Cultivation, Acres. . 2,649,098 . 3,279,406 . 3,122,800 . 3,239,891 A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 41 Wool and wheat have been the two great staple products from the first. In later years wine has come rapidly to the front. Fluctuation in market prices reduced the monetary returns in recent years, but a diminution in the cost of production has helped to compensate the grower : — Year. Wool. Breadstuffs. Wine. Year. Wool. Breadstuffs. Wine. £ £ £ £ £ £ 1840 8,740 — — 1890 1,353,762 2,018,719 50,738 1850 131,731 38,312 — 1900 1,003,391 863,463 78,153 1860 573,977 499,102 1,430 1902 1,061,809 1,229,212 124,916 1870 902,696 470,828 12,097 1906 1,561,564 2,676,959 99,247 1880 1,716,171 2,469,720 8,481 In minerals copper has easily led. Year. Copper. Minerals, Total Value of. Year Copper. Minerals, Total Value of. £ £ £ £ 1840 — — 1890 226,992 284,893 1850 353,890 365,464 1900 394,446 448,289 1860 420,905 446,537 1902 430,712 517,625 1870 568,780 574,090 1906 802,260 820,460 1880 346,174 347,246 i Animal life thrives in all parts of South Australia. There is no better climate in the world for the rearing of high-class sheep, cattle, and horses. The mildness and evenness of the tem perature makes the housing of Uve stock unnecessary ; consequently artificial feeding has never been practised. The number of sheep, cattle, and horses in the State at the periods named is shown as under : — 184018501860 1870 Sheep. 200,160 ! 15,100 984,199 | 60,034 2,824,811 | 278,265 4,400,655 I 136,832 1,060 6,488 49,399 83,744 188018901900 1907 Sheep. 6,463,8977,004,6425,235,220 6,624,941 Cattle. 307,177 157,915 359,938 ! 187,688 214,761 I 166,790 325,724 i 206,633 South AustraUans have always enjoyed a high reputation as traders. The State has been frequently referred to as the " Scotland of Australia," a title which is intended to convey a compUment to the sagacity, honesty, and prudence of her merchants and traders. On a per capita basis of comparison there are few countries in the world that have a better trading record than South Australia. At one period — the decade 1881-91 — South AustraUa had an annual 42 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. turnover equal to £64 3s. 4d. per head of population— a record certainly without parallel in Australasia, and scarcely exceeded by any country. The following statement is an instructive comparison — one which bears eloquent testimony to the progress and prosperity of the State : — Value or Imports. i Value op Exports. Year. Total. Per Inhabitant. Total. Per Inhabitant. £ £ £ £ 1840 303,357 20 15 6 32,097 2 5 3 1850 845,572 13 5 5 570,817 8 19 2 1860 1,639,591 13 4 2 1,783,716 14 7 7 1870 2,029,793 12 1 8 „ 2,419,488 13 3 3 1880 5,581,497 20 17 2 5,574,505 20 16 8 1890 8,262,673 26 5 11 8,827,378 28 1 0 1900 8,034,552 22 9 11 8,029,157 22 9 8 1906 9,702,264 25 10 7 11,933,171 29 0 7 1907 . , 12.120,052 1 30 18 4 j 13,769,399 35 7 0 The expansion of the export trade in articles the produce of the colony is an inspiring record : — Year. 183S 1839 1840184518501855 1860 1865 Staple Exports. £5,0409,165 15,650 131,800 545,040 686,953 1,576,326 2,574,657 Staple Exports £ 2,123,297 4,442,100 4,829,577 4,385,599 4,410,062 3,610,517 7,439,841 8,338,213 Average per head of Population. £ S. d. 11 11 0 21 11 0 18 0 11 14 6 5 14 0 8 10 2 2 19 11 6 21 5 5 The value of " total trade per head " stood for South Australia at £35 9s. lOd. in 1881 ; £64 3s. 4d. — the highest for Australasia — in 1891 ; and £42 19s. 7d. in 1901. On a per capita basis of comparison ranks second highest among the States for exports of staple produce and total trading. The growing trade of the State required the services of a large fleet of ships, and in no direction has there been a more remarkable evolution than in the class of vessels trading to our ports. The number and tonnage of vessels entering and leaving South Australian ports is set out below : — ¦ Year. Number o f Vessels 1840 . 425 1850 559 1860 . 662 1870 916 Tonnage. 83,787 174,455 209,036287,989 1880 1890 1900 1906 Number of Vessels. Tonnage. 2,156 1,200,904 2,122 2,190,442 2,013 3,552,630 2,605 5,564,308 A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 43 The claim that South Australians as a people are frugal is supported by this record of the Savings Bank : — Number of Amount ^X^er Depositors. Deposited. Depositor" Year. Xumber of 1 lepositors. Amount Deposited. Credit per Depositor. || Year. £ £ *. d. 1848 214 6,473 24 16 7 1880 1850 672 10,255 17 3 5 1890 1860 2,567 52,293 34 12 6 { 1900 1870 12,569 203,620 33 13 8 1907 £ £ t,. d. 34,287 004,637 30 4 10 69,193 1,054,351 27 15 11 106,122 1,832,369 32 17 6 139,670 2,872,517 37 19 7 South Australia stands highest among the nations of the world with respect to the per capita sum to the credit of depositors at savings banks. The reserve fund of the " people's bank " rose from £8 in 1848 to £25.000 in 1870, and £191,707 in 1907. The total funds of the Savings Bank stood at £5,414 in 1848 ; £448,658 in 1870 ; £3,631,537 in 1900 ; and £5,532,524. in 1907. In 1870 183,797 persons in South Australia had on deposit in various banks — other than the Savings Bank — £1,196,678. This represents £6 10s. 2d. per inhabitant. In the periods named the comparison was as follows : — Year. Amount of Deposit in Bank. Average per Inhabitant. Year. Ymount of Deposit in Bank. Average per Inhabitant. £ £ S. d. £ £ a. d. 1SS0 4,265.274 15 18 9 1900 5,778,32:", 13 7 9 1890 7,198,636 26 2 0 1906 7,485,24(1 19 8 7 The public debt of the State now stands at £27,636,468, representing £72 5s. 4d. per inhabitant. It is necessary to bear in mind, however, that the greater portion of this outlay is represented by public works of a reproductive character, such as railways £13,000,000, water works £4,500,000, telegraphs £1,003,236. Apart from public works earning interest the debt represents a deficiency to be made good by taxation of only £1 9s. 2d. per head of the population — a small amount when compared with the services rendered. The growth of the State educational system may be gathered from the following multi plication of public schools and the large increase of scholars : — Year. State School-. Scholars. Year. State Schools. Scholars. 1850 64 1,867 1890 551 44,804 I860 210 9,843 1900 690 62,439 1870 300 15,108 1907 722 60,000 1880 1 370 36,277 Chapter VI. SEVENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS. JEW records of progress are more striking than those that can be put forward to de monstrate the substantial expansion which has taken place in South Australia during the 70 years of its industrial history. The State was founded in 1836, but production did. not begin immediately, and 1842 is selected as a convenient statistical starting point. The following figures speak volumes for the enterprise of a people who have had an enormous territory to develop : — PopulationLand in cultivation . . (acres) Sheep . . . . . . (number of) Cattle . . . . . . (number of) Horses . . . . . . (number ofl Revenue . . . . . . . . (£) Expenditure . . . . . . (£) Imports . . . . . . . . (£) Exports (£) Staple produce exported . . (£) Mineral production . . . . (£) Savings Bank deposits . . . . (£) Railways open . . . . (miles) Telegraphs and telephones (miles) Shipping . . . . . . (tonnage) Public schools . . . . (number of) 1842. 1872. 1902. 1907. 16,000 192,223 362,000 392,431 18,940 1,164,846 3,137,175 3,239,891 300,000 4,900,687 5,012,216 6,624,941 26,000 151,662 225,256 325,724 1,560 82,215 165,803 206,633 23,404 697,422 2,428,560 3,195,285 68,434 700,255 2,650,875 2,897,611 147,349 2,801,571 6,073,782 9,702,264 75,248 3,738,623 7,698,514 11,933,171 29,070 3,542,087 4,768,947 7,439,841 186 806,000 518,000 821,000 — 578,517 3,974,709 5,304,704 — 133 1,7364; 1,832 — 3,731 20,000 21,172 25,354 347,360 3,959,352 5,564,308 307 716 708 The following statement of the number of persons engaged in agricul- Pursuits of tural, pastoral, and other productive pursuits in South Australia is taken the People, from the last census — 1901. The same details and comparisons will not be available until the next census is taken m 1911. It is certain, however, that during the past six years there has been an all round increase in the foUowing totals : — Total population (1901), 362,604 ; total breadwinners, 153,296 : Classification of Occupation. Persons, Percentage of Population. Percentage of Breadwinners . Primary producers — Agricultural pursuits Pastoral pursuits Mining . . . . . . Other primary producers 34,186 7,0616,301 1,613 9.43 1.961.74 .44 22.30 4.614.11 1.05 Total 49,161 13.57 32.07 Industrial — Manufacturing Building and construction Indefinite 24,924 8,8367,473 6.872.442.06 16.26 5.764.88 Total 41,233 11.37 26.90 [(II VI.) THE CITY OF ADELAIDE LOOKING SOUTH-EAST FROM NORTH ADELAIDE. [McGannt Photo, A UUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLEIIS. 45 South Australia is a country where the primary producer is King. The Primary His sovereignty is undisputed, his reign continuous. Upon the Producer's Becord. products of the soil depends the prosperity of the people. The flockmaster with his sheep, the herdsman with his cattle, the tiller of the soil with his cereals and fruits, have made South AustraUa what it is to-day, one of the most self-contained and prosperous States in the Commonwealth of Australia. From the earliest days of the State's history primary products have been the dominating factor of national progress. Were seasons favorable and harvests bountiful then the merchant, the trader, the professional man, and the laborer, down through all departments of industry, participated. Did the droughts come and blight the cereal crops, and cause mortality among the flocks and herds, the evil influence was felt by all. Notwithstanding the initial handicap of a handful of people having to control and develop so vast a territory ; in spite, too, of periods of falling markets — the primary pro ducer has a splendid record to his credit. The following is a statement of the declared value of the staple exports of the State during 1896, 1901, and 1906, with the aggregate value of each class from the first exportation of the several products and manufactures of the State to 1906, inclusive (arranged under 28 heads) : — Articles. 1896. 1901. 1906. Abrogate. £ £ £ £ Wool 1.228,991 1,029,063 1,561,564 65,687,370 Flour 523,541 440,226 559,555 20,849,787 Wheat 89,515 839,731 2,012,915 30,869,741 Copper ore and metal . 222,202 491,617 802,260 25,703,028 Hides and skins 180,657 233,162 411,830 5.559.905 Live stock 132,776 130,230 317,685 3,182,516 Hay and chaff 124,288 75,798 165,420 2,211.594 Bark 51,682 67,601 59,996 1,792,237 Wine 73,316 92,418 119,247 1,744,012 Bran and pollard 28,549 43,872 52,716 1,354,448 Tallow 20,391 4,826 27,065 1,112,142 Eggs 40,353 73,520 106,873 1,460,901 Butter 26,194 17,620 103,171 898,255 Fresh fruit 19,567 62,662 48,196 784,698 Gold 14,350 16,613 52,384 783,251 Preserved meat 21,130 28,181 29,026 620,413 Other minerals 1,562 722 8,000 482,849 Frozen meat 5,664 58,477 133,805 759,047 Manure 136 3,000 8,325 227,870 Barley and oats 1,589 5,223 42,856 320,764 Honey and beeswax 2,805 2,522 6,460 155,123 Vegetables 1,646 8,063 23,405 201,094 Bacon and hams 5,051 9,329 13,550 185,944 Preserved fruit 3,109 2,628 28,967 154,224 Cheese 739 1,258 3,721 28,413 Frozen poultry, game, &c. 132 1,144 195 10,697 Salt 25,050 53,286 76.248 654.613 Unenumerated 449,677 477,095 760,554 9,548,470 Total values 3,269,612 4,216,601 7,439,841 185,343,350 Imports re-exported 4,324,442 3,799,288 4,493,330 99,051,025 Total exports 7,594,054 8,015,889 11,933,171 284,394,375 Total imports 7,160,770 7,371,587 9,702,264 263,368,004 Imports retained 2,836,328 3,572,299 5,208,934 164,316,981 Combined imports and exports £14,754,824 £15,387,476 £21,635,435 £547,762,379 46 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Apple-packing, Angaston. Large Quantities of Apples are Shipped to England. The following diagrams, prepared by Mr. W. L. Summers, Secretary Wealth from for Agriculture, demonstrate in a striking way the wealth obtained from the Land. *^e land- The first two drawings show the area under cultivation for various crops. South Australia is essentially an agricultural State, and the production of cereals is an important branch of the great rural industries of the country. The second diagram illustrates the land devoted to other crops than cereal. These columns have no comparative relation to the preceding diagram, but are drawn to scale, with the area under " orchard and garden " as a basis. Considerable attention is being devoted to fodder crops by flockmasters and farmers, and sown grasses, lucerne, and such favored crops as rape and kale are sure to occupy a largely increased area in tne near future. By the growing of summer fodder crops the carrying capacity of the country will be appreciably increased during the next few }'ears. Another diagram shows the approximate values of the principal agricultural productions of the State on the basis of the season 1906-7. Wheat, it will be observed, comes first, with £2,570,000 to its credit, and wool is next with £1,900,000. Exports of produce from orchards and gardens are increasing each year, and it will not be long before this column, as well as those representing butter and cheese, eggs, and wine, will have to be extended. The last statistical comparison is interesting as showing the relative values of products exported to all countries in a given year. During recent years there has been a marked increase in the shipments of staple produce, as may be gathered from the fact that whereas in 1898 exports were worth £2,487,000, staple products sent away in 1907 were valued at £8,338,213. The diagrams give ample evidence of South Australia's prosperity. If the returns of primary production are studied it will be seen that the State has been passing through wonderfully favorable seasons. The man on the land is, after all, at the base of prosperity. The population figures were never before so full of hope, and among other things this has meant a larger home market for the commodities which producers and manufacturers have had to sell. Land is in strong demand ; employment is good ; savings are accumulating ; and there is an air of contentment about the " man in the street " that is convincing. 3TAIAREA"1.239.891 acres WHEAT A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 47 29.678ac ORCHARD iCARDEN UNDER CULTIVATION 2i6?9«S0WN GRASSES : VINES BARLEY 1,— Diagram showing Areas under Cultivation of Cereal Crops in South Australia, Season 1906-7, and Proportion of each to Total Area Cultivated, LUCERNE :894ac POTATOES 7,l09ae.PEAS 2. — Diagram showing Acreage of " General " Crops (all other thaTi Cereals) in South Australia, Season 1906-7. WHEAT £.570,000 Comparative Value of Principal Agricultural Productions of South Australia, Season 1906-7. WHEAT MEAT HAY»CHAFT FRUIT raSl yM»ji6s .p n \\-- iHi \i - , ' * fmk. iLJM "fi%^ • xL-ti^i ¦ ¦i-.^-. t Jtll'*'*/ *¦****—- - - - Xf' ;jy ¦Mm r*Jkj \" ' ¦:'- ~^-Li *i~' ,A,_^:5^^ Ny -- * A Pastoral Scene, Macdonnell Ranges, Central Australia. [F. J. Gillen, Photo. of chairs. For beds, the floor, with a saddle as a pillow, a rug or blue blanket for covering. Menu for breakfast : mutton and damper. Ditto for dinner and tea, with a few Johnny cakes as a rare luxurv. Tea was the standing beverage — newly- made billy-tea — a most refreshing stimu lant. A rifle or two and some old-fashioned guns hung on the walls, which were well plastered with cartoons from the comic press, colored pictures from Christmas numbers of the weekly 56 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. papers, and representations of racehorses. A few fly-speckled, broken-edged photographs disputed the ownership of the only mantelpiece with short-stemmed clay pipes and jars contain ing tobacco. There would be a blackfellows' camp a few hundred yards down the hill from " Government House " (as the head-station hut is called), and close up were the drafting yards. It was from some such centre as this — typical of the out-back station-manager's residence — that runs carrying vast flocks or herds, as the case may be, were controlled. Dwelling-places have undergone more or less changes with time and improved conditions. Very often the owner or the manager and his men are absent from the head station for weeks at a time. Then they live in the open : the earth for a mattress, the blue sky for a roof. This description applies to life out-back — a life that is free and healthy and has great advantages. In the more settled parts of the State there are many handsome houses and fine estates, and station life as there repre sented has numerous attractions. So mild and healthy is the climate of South Australia that man and beast require practically no protection against the weather. This is a most important point for would-be settlers to remember in weighing the advantages of Australia against other n ^*~f|i> A"" -/' ,~r2*".,~-'~ '.. * " <¦' ¦¦ ¦*¦* - "''A-- ¦..--• ¦*.- u* ; * * • -, t~\.' ifc "* w" £': ""A "A 'AA"'~;*~ -\ A^'-A-^-'- 1 ** - .. :.¦¦¦:-"¦ :-• \i--. - a%0--* ¦ ' -''¦"*'¦. *-iL'A. w -:±;A~.:'^ **"~ ""*• "'¦ -;4V'.-t- "• ; . .¦Si... . ' ¦ jjj.- \ :3| " : ¦ > A" A ¦ A ' Camel Teams Carting Wool from Outback Sheep Station. countries as a field for their enterprise. The fact that neither sheep nor cattle are ever housed. and no artificial feeding of stock is required, enables a great saving to be made in the cost of production, and partly explains the rapid expansion of the pastoral industry. In the early days the pastoralist paved the way. He did more. He Natural tested the country in a variety of ways, sometimes perishing in his attempt Enemies. *° occupy territory which even his pertinacity could not subdue. It was the pioneer stockman who first proved that the cUmate and soil were admirably adapted for the raising of live stock, and that certain locaUties were favorable for growing cereals ; while several of our most valuable mineral deposits were discovered by shep herds and boundary riders. He did all this in face of many dangers and difficulties. While the white settlers at times dealt out justice in a rough and ready manner, the blacks often took vengeance by murdering shepherds and putting firesticks to grass or huts. The greatest sources of anxiety and expense against which the grower of the " golden fleece " has had to contend — excepting, of course, the rainless seasons — have been wild dogs and rabbits. Vermin have proved a never-ending worry, hundred of thousands of pounds having been spent in carrying A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 57 on a relentless warfare against the dingo and the rodent. From the shepherding in the early days — when the flock was guarded by day and yarded at sundown — the evolution has been sheep-proof fences of five or six wires, to wire-netting barriers of various types, topped with barbed wire, in order to check the movements of both stock and vermin. Main lines of vermin- proof fences are now erected at the expense of the lessee, assisted by the Government, in various parts of the State. This tract of country is then divided and subdivided until each lessee is able to cope with his natural enemies within his own boundaries. It was a long time before fencing was substituted for shepherding. The old squatter was prejudiced against posts and wires, but their advantages eventually appealed to him. The modern tendency is toward reducing the size of the paddocks, which saves sheep the necessity of travelling long distances for water and facilitates the preservation of the grass and bushes. Shearing Sheep by Machinery. [A. Vaughan, Photo. Before a man can be regarded as competent to do classing he must Wool- classing. have a thorough knowledge of every portion of a fleece and its relative value as compared with every other part. Every fleece is dissimilar from every other in quality and condition, according to the circumstances under which it is grown. At a glance trained men can appreciate variations of quality where a layman would see no difference. The grades are exceptionally fine in a large clip, as classing is almost an exact science. At one time there was much opposition to the work at the shearing sheds, but the prejudice has yeen rooted out by the demonstration of the fact that classification yields higher rates to the producer, so that now there is a demand for the students in excess of the supply. The standard of the Adelaide School of Mines is very high, and the wool expert is deter mined that it shall be maintained, and if possible raised even higher. Already he has done 58 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. excellent work on the stations, and wherever he goes he receives a cordial welcome, as it is recognised that his presence and the work of his students is a real asset. It takes four or five years for a student to get a diploma, and during that period he will have classed considerably over 100,000 sheep. Then he has to pass a board of examiners and possess satisfactory recom mendations from station managers as to character and ability to manage men. The School of Mines is sending teams to a number of stations. Mr. Mathews constantly lauds the magnificent pioneering work of Mr. George Jeffery, who was the first to fight the prejudice against classing, and really blazed the path through the forest of difficulty for his successor. The first School of Mines teams are sent out at the end of July, and others are going from one station to another till Decem ber. It requires care and energy to superintend these students, and so arrange their work that no Wool-classing by School of Mines Students. [A. Vaughan, Photo. station shall be kept waiting. The North-Eastern sheds start their shearing about the end of July ; in the Far North, early in August; in the majority of stations in the North -East, m the. first or second week in August ; and in the South-East, about the middle of October or beginning of November. Stations are always in charge of a qualified student, who does the actual classing, and the other members of the team carry out the detail work of skirting. The classing is done on sound commercial lines, and fleeces are graded according to quality and condition. South Australia, more than any other State, has a big robust type of sheep, which has been found very stable under the conditions which exist. The character of the wool is largely governed bv the condition of the country, and so the classification adopted in one station would not necessarily do for another. Many stations have so improved their flocks that, though they now carry fewer sheep than formerly, they get more wool in the bales. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 59 The foundation of sheep-breeding and wool-growing in this State Flocks and was laid by the South Australian Company importing Merinos from Tas- Fleeces. mania and New South Wales ; also rams from Mecklenberg. The first fleet which sailed for South Australia had on board some Leicester and Southdown sheep, and purchases were also made at the Cape of Good Hope, where sheep were then selling at 5s. each. From the very beginning of settlement in this State the value of the squatting industry has been recognised, and South Australians have every reason to be proud of the success achieved in the various enterprises for the rearing of sheep and the production of wool. " The South Australian Company had purchased," says The Register, in its first number published in June, 1836, " a very fine lot of rams and ewes of the finest and purest breed of Merinos, which were selected with great care and at much expense in Saxony, by the son of a great sheepholder of Van Diemen's Land for his own stock. They also sent out in their different vessels a supply of pure Leicesters and Southdowns, and ordered the ship Emma to call at Capetown and procure other sheep for mutton and for crossing purposes." The policy pursued jsi^r#^ A Mob of Ewes from a North-Eastern Station.— After rearing 88 per cent, of Lambs, the Ewes Cut an Average of lllbs. 7ozs. of High-quality Wool. by the company had the vigorous support of Colonel Torrens, Chairman of the Board of Com missioners, who, in speaking of the wool staple of Australia, said that " as the population sweeps over the vast regions of America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and as the free trade in China opens to British enterprise hundreds of millions of additional consumers, the natural, the neces sary conclusion seems to be that for generations to come the still increasing demand for Aus tralian wool will be in advance of the constantly augmenting supply ; and that the value of this important staple will maintain an elevation sufficient to secure to the British nations growing up in New Holland a degree of prosperity hitherto unexampled in newly settled countries." Heavy losses occurred on the voyage from Tasmania, and the overland journeys from Sydney proved expensive and dangerous. Notwithstanding such drawbacks, however, the South Australian Company and private individuals continued to make importations, so that within two years of the proclamation of the colony the flocks numbered 28,000. By the end of 1841 the company owned 20,000 sheep, and Messrs. Dutton and Bagot, Mr. Duncan MacFarlane, and Mr. G. A. Anstey about 10,000 each. In December, 1837, Messrs. Hallett and Duff shipped four bales 60 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. of wool at Port Adelaide for London by the Orator. This was the first clip from a South Aus tralian flock. A month later a joint stock sheep company was formed in the colony with a capital of £20,000, and in a very short time the shares were all taken up and the company was in possession of a flock of 600 maiden ewes and 300 wethers. From this time onward there was a rapid increase, so that by 1851 there were over 1,000,000 sheep, early in the sixties over 3,000,000, in the seventies over 6,000,000, the eighties 7,000,000, while in 1891 the high-water mark was reached, when the flocks aggregated 7,745,541. The decline which has since taken place is due to a variety of causes, but the flocks of the States are yearly increasing and wool- production has become a more important industry than at any other period in the history of the State. The following shows the increase of the flocks since 1840 : — Years. Number of Sheep. Value of Wool Exported. Tears. Number of Sheep. Value of Wool Exported. £ £ 1840 . 200,160 8,740 1880 6,453,222 1,716,171 1845 . 480,699 72,235 1885 6,696,406 1,417,245 1850 . 984,199 131,731 1890 7,004,642 1,353,762 1855 . 1,768,724 283,419 1896 6,233,993 1,228,991 1860 . 2,824,811 573,977 1900 5,667,283 1,003,391 1865 . 3,779,307 821,656 1905 5,820,301 1,491,943 1870 . 4,400,655 902,696 1907 6,624,941 1,561,564 1875 . 6,179,395 1,833,519 According to Coghlan (" The Seven Colonies of Australasia,"), the weight of wool per sheep has been increasing regularly in each of the States, and that authority says : — " In South Australia the weight of wool per sheep has been consistently higher than in the other States," and the following table supports that view : — Increased Yields of Wool per Sheep. State. 1861. 1871. 1881. 1891. 1901. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. South Australia 4.69 6.41 6.93 6.85 7.9 New South Wales 3.28 4.57 4.47 5.74 7.2 Victoria 4.52 6.17 6.87 5.68 6.9 Queensland 3.40 4.73 4.50 4.73 7.1 New Zealand 3.48 4.76 5.32 6.42 8.1 The comparisons for recent years will not be available until the next census is taken, but it is well known that the weight of wool per sheep has been increased since 1901. A few years ago, when 120,000,000 sheep were shorn, the yield was 1,959,000 bales, while in 1906 103,000,000 sheep produced 2,130,000 bales, showing that 12 and 13 years ago it took the fleeces and skirtings from, say, 61 sheep to fill a bale, whereas last year the wool (fleeces, skirtings, &c.) from 49| sheep did so. Within the last 12 months Australasia has been paid £30,240,000 cash for wool, or £4,410,000 more than in 1905-6 ; £10,000,000 more than in 1904-5, and no less than £16,300,000 more than in 1903-4. South Australian woolgrowers have shared in this wonderful increase in the yearly value of the wool cUp. The following comparative statement over a period of years shows the number of sheep per bale and number of bales per 1,000 sheep produced in Australasia : — 1896-7 1897-81898-91899-19001900-1901 1901-2 Numbar of Sheep Number of Bales Year. Number of Sheep Number of Bales Shorn per Bale per 1.000 Sheep. Shorn per Bale. per 1,000 Sheep. 59.65 16.75 1902-3.. 51.20 19.53 60.08 16.64 1903-4.. 55.41 18.04 59.61 16.77 1904-5.. 52.21 19.15 57.95 17.25 1905-6.. 50.19 19.92 54.91 18.21 1906-7.. 49.5 20.2 55.47 18.21 A OUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS. AND SETTLERS. 61 62 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. This increase in the weight of fleece per sheep is what flockmasters in this State have been con sistently aiming at for years, and it is the pride of our stud-breeders that they are able to produce rams and ewes which will give the best results. That growers in other States, also in New Zealand and South Africa, recognise this quality in South Australian stud sheep is proved by the heavy drafts they make on leading flocks each year. South Australian sheep are singularly free from disease. It is quite a mistaken idea that the area adapted for raising sheep in The Outlook. South Australia is limited, and that we can look for no great expan sion in the future. Given a return of fair seasons, the multiplication of facilities such as water supplies in the interior, additional railways (like those projected, north and west), and there is every reason to expect that the unoccupied lands will be gradually taken up and stocked. lWQj$$iffiyjm [rilfify Scene on a Northern Sheep Station : a Mob of High-class Merinos. [A. Vaughan, Photo. Economically managed there are millions of acres in South Australia which are capable of profitable occupation. Water conservation and additional transit facilities will one day cause these idle lands to be made highly productive. " Taking all circumstances into considera tion," says Mr. Coghlan, the statistician, " it may be fairly estimated that under the pre sent system the States are capable of maintaining, in ordinary seasons, stock equivalent to 390,000,000 sheep— that is, about 180,000.000 sheep, or their equivalent in cattle, more than are now depastured." A leading South Australian pastoral authority in the course of a public address pointed out that of 318,000 square miles of country " outside counties " 200,000 c'ould be profitably occupied. Of this 200,000 miles, 100,000 will admit of an expendiutre of £50 a mile, or of £5,000,000, while the remaining 100,000 square miles will probably profitably admit of an out lay of £2,500,000. being the minimum amount which is necessary for development. This will probably mean an ultimate increase to the flocks of South Australia of 20,000,000. Every million of sheep means permanent employment for something like 500 regular hands on a station. Although occupation is not proceeding as rapidly as could be wished, there is a steady A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 63 expansion of the industry and a yearly growth of the flocks of the State. Perhaps the most important points are the wonderful recuperative powers of the pastoral country, the increasing number of farmers' flocks, and the expansion of the fat lamb exports. Those factors are helping the pastoralist and increasing the value of the wool business in South Australia. It is a truism that the misfortunes which at the time seem hardest to bear are often blessings in disguise. So long as the squatter could carry on in a happy-go-lucky way, and yet make an ample income, it was not to be expected that he would turn his thoughts to the frozen meat trade, or to water conservation on a large scale, to artesian boring, to many other more or less important matters which now occupy his attention. But we have reached the period when the careless producer must go to the wall. Gradually his place is being taken by the pastoralist always on the look-out for improved methods of conducting his industry, who knows that he can only thrive by using his head as well as by undergoing physical privations. Perhaps there is something to be regretted in the change. The old-time From "Squatter" to " Pastoralist." Mule Team Carting Stores to Outlying Stations, Central (South) Australia. squatter was often a rough diamond, but he was racy of the Australian soil, and not devoid of a certain picturesqueness. The modern pastoralist — the change of designation is of itself significant — has to be a smart man of business. He must be better educated and see further ahead than his predecessors had to look. In short, the pastoral industry is more and more assuming a new character. • Principles of the modern counting-house and the banking chamber are driving out the poetry. This was in any case inevitable as the States grew older and were more settled, but the demands of the present position will give the movement a marked impetus. It cannot be doubted that the new responsibilities devolving upon the pastoral lessee entail new responsibiUties upon his landlord. If the day of the squatter has gone, so have the times of bitter antagonism between the pastoral tenant and the selector. After much beating about the bush it has been discovered that there is room enough in South Australia for both the pastoralist and the agriculturist, and that there is work enough for both to do without worrying each other by a policy of pinpricks. After many years of negotiations land laws have been adopted which the lessee regards with more favor, while more elasticity has been introduced into the methods of administration. To the capitalist in search of fields of invest ment, the pastoral industry in South Australia is one which provides scope for capital and oppor tunity for energy and business acumen. 4^ O aHa> a V7 HSO> aWO ts H> fenHt»H69 A Fine Mob of Wethers, Bred in the Far North of South Australia.-They Clipped an Average of 191bs. lOJozs. for 14J Months and 16ilbs. for 12 Months' Growth. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 65 The bulk of the wool produced in South Australia is sold in Production and Sale the local market at auction sales attended by buyers who come of Wool from all parts of the world. In the season 1906-7 high-water mark was reached with respect to wool shipments and the quantity sold on the spot. The following are the particulars over a series of years : — Season. Exports of South Quantities Sold at Percentage Australian Wool. Adelaide Auction Sales. oi' Local Sales. Bales. Hales. 1900-1 115,774 42,637 37 1901-2 111,676 65,239 58 1902-3 96,524 61,215 63 1903-4 98,484 58,509 59 1904-5 108,838 71,018 65 1905-6 124,472 85,691 68 1906-7 146,431 105,925 72 WA-icrTit<3 anrl ^e following shows the average weight of wool per bale in pounds ° and values per bale of greasy and scoured wool during the last six Values. seasons : — Average Weight per Bale. Value, Average Greasy. Value per bale, Scoured. lbs. £ s. d. £ s. d. 1902-3— Greasy . Scoured . 337 9 8 2 13 16 5 1903-4— Greasy . Scoured . 348 10 8 1 14 0 7 ] 904-5 —Greasy . Scoured . 346 10 2 1 11 13 9 1905-6— Greasy . Scoured . 341 10 18 4 14 3 6 1906-7— Greasy . Scoured . 338 11 2 3 13 14 0 1907-8— Greasy . Scoured . 330 12 12 7 15 15 1 The destinations of the wool sold in Adelaide during the past three seasons are as follow • United Kingdom France . . Germany Belgium . . ItalyAmerica Local and Inter-State Scourers and Manufacturers and Speculators Totals 1905-6. 40,961 20,877 8,5293,177 1,519 10,433 85,496 1906-7. 49,973 25,331 12,540 4,808 1,661 11,238 105,551 1907-8 to Date. 51,916 37,705 8,6206,921 122 2,344 198 11,989 119,815 This table is misleading, in so far as large quantities of wool bought for the United States and the Continent are shipped via United Kingdom. 66 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Allowing for small lots of South Australian wool sold in Melbourne, about 86 per cent, of the clip is sold in AustraUa, and every year the local auctions are expanding, because growers find it more profitable to sell their produce on the spot than ship to London and take the risk of market fluctuation. One of the most important factors in favor of the local auction sales has been the large increase during recent years of farmers' wool — small lots running from one to twenty bales. Mixed farming — wheat and wool — is coming more and more into general use, and the small sheepfarmer is making his influence felt in the local wool market. About 10 years ago the School of Mines and Industries instituted a class for instruction on wool-classing, at which period the subject was practically dead ; but by a comprehensive system of teaching in Adelaide, as well as in the different country townships in centres where wool was grown, enthusiasm was established, and those wishing further instruction were en couraged to go on the larger sheep stations, where arrangements were made with the different squatters to allow the students to handle these large clips. The result of all this work has been that tens of thousands of pounds have been put in the pockets of the large and small sheepfarmers of South Australia. This is only reasonable when the importance of the work is considered. ¦¦. ..; T7 PliP'* i ~ " ' ' ' 1 ¦ ¦. | ^¦hhH ¦ . ¦ '¦< .¦/¥**¦'¦'"' ¦ ¦¦ ' \ *¦¦ l'*S~ , fj « S) \ '->• tftifm* Wm \'\ 1 Jg./j' fe- > '.".'' fife'' ^.tfcW VI ' ii' U 1 flip*- ¦•¦1 WffijMmjmV ~. ~£L MB Un' I'-rJH Kfl - 'iiilE w^^mar- ' IPSE iSSSmwf- ^^^&$M *^m r^ •*: • ' aa- "" - % t ' mk "'. v <:A' *A,*£^^JM . "Z~~ *^a« ay*sflh «*»_ ' 7 %9lfl W^A "Afr -.- ki. ' Wool-classing Students at Work at an Outback Station. for it is no longer possible to get anything Uke satisfactory results where the wool is not graded, both on account of the commercial value and the requirements of the different sections of the trade. Mr. G. Jeffrey was the first instructor of the wool class at the School of Mines, and, on that gentleman joining the firm of Bagot, Shakes, & Lewis, he was succeeded by Mr. W. J. Mathews, who is ably carrying on the useful work. The breeding of stud sheep has proved a profitable business in this Stud Flocks of State. Certainly it is one of the most interesting occupations en- South Australia. gagmg tne attention of some of the best and brainiest men in South Australia. The first sheep introduced into AustraUa were imported into New South Wales about 1788. Although not the first importer of sheep, Captain Macarthur was the pioneer flockmaster of AustraUa, and from his stud sprang most of the great flocks which have made AustraUa famous throughout the world as the home of the profitable aU-round Merino. During recent years various types of mutton breeds have found favor in South Aus tralia. Shropshire, Lincoln, Leicester, and Dorset Horn studs, now exercise an important influence on the rapidly expanding lamb export trade, and no review of stud sheep breeding would be complete that omitted a reference to them. ' :*-i V Typical South Australian Merino : A Hill River Ram, the Property of the Trustees of the late J. H. Angas. 68 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. DeaUng first with the Merino, it is a singular fact that the stud-breeding The Merino, has been in the hands of exceptional men— men who combined stern un bending determination with rare perception and sagacity. According to Darwin, not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgment sufficient to become an eminent breeder. The Merino flockmasters of South Australia possessed these qualifications to a remarkable degree. More than that, they had faith in themselves and a clear, intelUgent conception of the type of sheep they desired to produce. At different periods, when leading Australian breeders were blown hither and thither, like thistle-down in a breeze, by a popular fancy for some new breed, the majority of South Australians paid no heed to the voice of the siren of fashion. They kept steadily onward — practising the delicate and intricate art of in-and- in-breeding ; others building up from without, but with the one goal in view. The result is that mFIjI ....... ¦: 1 ¦ -"^¦jH PIUK j : " Jn -; -A-^i 1 . ' ¦ $j * "¦-''¦/•.¦¦A- V * 1 Ir RyP' -Jfl :-"K • ¦; rf^'-s.. ^aWt * 1 tfT- Ufa 1 W ¦•*' ¦"..'.- ¦/•¦ ' ¦;-. ly'vfi ft» ':^%¥&A KiHMt?,.'^'>.' *« j: 9$* -SpSv'' 'A* •¦:¦¦¦ Q^Ar^^. *%&M^*m South Australian Merinos are Noted for Size and Constitution. This Wether had travelled 300 miles. Its height is 8.'. hands. The Pony is IOJ hands. there is a fairly uniform type of Merino in South Australia — a high-class animal remarkable for constitution, carrying a heavy fleece, long and strong in staple, and commanding top market prices. A Russian expert, who recently inspected many of the leading flocks of Australia, spontaneously declares that the " South Australian stud Merino sheep are the best in the Com monwealth." It has been my privilege to inspect most of the stud flocks in this State, and opportunities were afforded me at various times of studying the methods of leading breeders, and noting the results obtained. The impression has been strongly conveyed to me that our flockmasters work along scientific lines, displaying remarkable consistency and determination. An animal is being produced in South Australia which is eagerly sought after by sheepfarmers and pastoralists throughout Australia and South Africa, whose aim is to increase the average yield of wool of their flocks. Breeders in Argentina have not yet discovered the South Australian Merino, or they would hardly have failed to obtain a type of sheep which, for constitution and A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 69 character of wool, is just what is required to improve the flocks of South America. Efforts have been made to induce breeders here to make a trial shipment of rams to Buenos Ayres ; but the demand, for regular drafts from all parts of the Commonwealth, New Zealand, and Southern Africa has prevented the experiment being made. A typical South Australian bred Merino is an animal of large symmetrical frame and robust constitution, carrying a heavy fleece, of long staple, showing character, possessing lustre and softness. Artificial feeding is never on any consideration resorted to on the Merino stud farms of this State. The law of the " survival of the fittest " is allowed to work in its own relentless way. The weaklings are not spared by pampering methods. Mount Crawford, the property of Mr. Alick J. Murray, is one of the oldest stud-breeding estates in the State. Unquestionably it has proved itself to be the most successful, for at Mount Crawford the late Mr. John Murray, in 1843, laid the foundation of the now famous Murray Merino sheep. It was in this well-favored district that the flock was gradually built up, and it was from Mount Crawford that the additional estates purchased by the founder for The Mount Crawford Stud. •'Lion II.," Bred by and the Property of A. J. Murray. [Chas. P. Scott, Photo. his sons were all stocked. Mount Crawford lies about 35 miles north-east of Adelaide in the high lands of the Barossa Ranges, and the best testimony of the country is that the flocks which have sprung from Mount Crawford are — after more than 60 years' close breeding — unsurpassed in Australia for constitution, size, symmetrical frames, weight of fleece, and uniformity of type. Mount Crawford Merinos are to be found all over Australia and New Zealand, and a number of them have gone to South Africa. At a Christchurch Show in New Zealand Mr. Andrew Rutherford nearly .swept the ring in the one and two year old classes both for rams and ewes, and won both champion prize for ram and for ewe with stock by the famous 500-guinea ram, Fame, which he bought from Mr. A. J. Murray. Four hundred culled ewe weaners in the Mount Crawford stud were sold to Mr. George Maslin, of North Bundaleer, in 1902, taken home, shorn in 1902, and 12 months after running on Bundaleer when shorn again averaged 141bs. of clean wool. The champion ewe, Flora van Senden, won second prize in 1902 at Adelaide Royal Show, first in 1903, ano) champion in 1903, and won Dalgety Challenge Cup, not only right out, but for the third year in succession. 70 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The Rhine Park stud, the property of Mr. John Murray, was formed Tbe Rhine Park by a carefully selected draft from the Mount Crawford flock. From the Stud outset the flock was worked on precisely the same lines as those followed at Mount Crawford, and when, on the death of his father, the present owner came into possession he continued the same system. With the exception of exchanges with his brothers no outside blood has been introduced, and the Rhine Park sheep have won an enviable name for masculinity and all round high qualities. The above illustration is a typical specimen of the Rhine Park sheep. A fleece shown from one of the Rhine Park champion ewes was sent to London some years ago, and the following reports on it were received : — " We have examined the prize fleece with the greatest interest, and may at once say that, of this class of wool, it is the most beautiful specimen we have ever seen. The growth is deep and sound, the staple clear at the root and evenly and compactly formed — a picture of vigor and strength. The fibre is of strong quality, especially towards the skirts, but it is not too coarse considering the great depth of the staple. The condition is light (about 55 per cent, yield) and the appear- " Admiral," Bred by and the Property of John Murray. [Chas. P. Scott, Photo. ance bright and lustrous. Such wool as this will always command attention, for, of its kind, it is a perfect article. — Helmuth, Schwartz, & Co." " We had the greatest pleasure in viewing this fleece, as we have never had such a perfect specimen under our notice before. Our report on same is that it is a marveUous fleece and perfect in its kind, good length, and remark able even of staple, of good lustre, and of a yield of about 54 per cent, when the skirts and pieces have been removed. The quality, though near 56/, the best quality of crossbreds, is all the same a desirable and useful one, and is at all times considered by the trade a favorable quaUty. The fleece is of immense size, and weighed close upon 181bs., and it was a pleasure to look at it. It was examined by brokers, spinners, and manufacturers, both EngUsh and Continental. — H. Anders, Manager Elder, Smith, & Co., Ltd., London." Rhine Park is situated near Eden Valley, 50 miles north-east of Adelaide, in a beautiful valley where the ridges run down from the high lands of the Barossa Range to the great plain of the River Murray. The country has an attractive appearance, and the climate is favorable to the production of healthy stock. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 71 This famous flock of South Australian stud sheep was founded The Hill River over 50 years ago by the late Mr. J. H. Angas, soon after his arrival Merinos ^n *ne State. In 1845 he purchased some sheep from the South Australian Company, who had formed their stud in 1836 by the importation of a very fine lot of pure Merinos, selected from Leutewitz, Nischwitz, and Oschatz flocks, in Saxony : while, later on, several shipments were brought from Tasmama. About 750 pure-bred ewes were procured from the company ; also a very choice lot of stud ewes and rams. Fresh blood was brought in in 1855 from the stud of M. Godin, of Chattillon-sur-Seine, Cote d'or, France ; and further impor tations in foUowing years, including shipments of Spanish Merinos descended from the historic royal flock of King George III. In 1885 the celebrated stud ram " Hercules " was purchased at the high price of £1,207 10s., and in 1887 the champion ram " Csesar " — both bred by Mr. David Taylor, St. Johnstone, Tasmania. These rams were remarkable for their covering, density, and evenness of fleece, and left a marked effect by trans mitting these quaUties to their progeny. The density of the wool all over, and particularly the good backs of the Hill River sheep, are, to some extent, due to the judicious use of these high-class sires : and by continued careful selection in breeding, also by the blending of his own stud with selected ewes bred by the late Mr. C. B. Fisher when Mr. Angas acquired the Will River Estate and Uve stock, this type of sheep has been brought to its present state of high exceUence. The Angas breed, which is so deservedly held in the highest estimation throughout Australasia, and even beyond the ocean, is characterised by low-set, large frames, carrying heavy fleeces of combing wool of the first quaUty, which reaUses top prices in the London market, and is highly appreciated by American and other buyers of such wool. With the exception of the Murray Merinos the Hill River sheep have taken more prizes, including a championship at the Royal Show, than any other studs during the last 10 years. . It is noticeable that the Hill River sheep have scored very consistently in the " Aged " classes at the various shows, and particularly in the class of " Aged Rams." For example, the prize ram " Progress," having won the second prize at the Adelaide Show in 1897, was first at that of the following year ; and in several other instances sheep of this breed have won higher prizes as they grow older. These proofs of consistent improvement afford a very valuable criterion of the thriving qualities of the Hill River sheep. The South Australian Merinos fbrm, in many respects, a type of their own — differing from most of the same-named sheep of Victoria and New South Wales. Perhaps the nearest approach to the South AustraUan kind is to be found in the Riverina District. The judges of the sheep classes at the Adelaide Show this year, Messrs. A. Austin, sen., and A. Austin, jun., of Lake Bolac, Victoria — names associated with the famous Wanganella flock — were, to judge from their remarks, greatly taken with the South AustraUan exhibits. Mr. Austin, sen., is reported by the South Australian Register to have said that he " believes in breeding sheep that combine the greatest length with the greatest density ; " while his coUeague in the judging is mentioned as having been greatly impressed with the Hill River sheep shown, and described them " a fine type of Merino, being well-covered, particularly good on the back, with a good staple, and a fine-framed sheep with splendid constitutions." In addition to these high tributes of approba tion from acknowledged experts, valuable testimony of the hardy and suitable character of the Hill River sheep for dry and rough saltbush country has been received from various parts of AustraUa from purchasers of rams of this strain, resident principally in the north-western portions of New South Wales and Western AustraUa, the south-western districts of Queensland, and along the valley of the Darling River in New South Wales. The averages of the wool produced by each class of the Hill River sheep are as follows : — Ewes, all ages, lOlbs. 5Jozs. ; lambs, 41bs. 3ozs. ; ram lambs, 51bs. lOozs. ; stud rams, 2-tooth, up to 151bs. lOozs. ; stud rams, 4-tooth, up to 201bs. l£ozs. ; stud rams, 6-tooth, up to 191bs. 8ozs. ; stud rams, aged, up to 171bs. 12ozs. And on the averages Mr. Hawkesworth, lecturer in charge of the sheep and wool department of the Sydney Technological Museum, remarks : — " It must be admitted that the above are great results, and, as the wool is not by any means heavily-conditioned or yolky, the results are aU the more satisfactory." The Hill River Estate comprises a stretch of fine, healthy, open, undulating grass land, between two Unes of hills. The property is situated about 90 miles north of Adelaide, and has an altitude of 1,500ft. above sea-level. HiU River can be reached by rail via FarrelPs Flat. 72 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Group of Hill River Rams. Group of Hill River Ewes. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 73 Situated about 90 miles to the north of Adelaide and seven miles The Koonoona Stud south of the Burra is Koonoona, the stud flock of which assists Merino Sheep. m no smau degree to promote the great wealth-producing quali ties of the Australian Merino sheep. It is a flock built up upon the Unes of maximum wool and mutton propensities. The sheep are fed under natural condi tions and are essentially what is known as belonging to the big-woolled, large-framed type. The estate consists of about 30,000 acres of high stony range, low undulating and some flat country, having an annual rainfall of about 17in. It is much exposed, and therefore lends itself to the production of a hardy sheep. The property was originally formed by one of South AustraUa's pioneers, the late Hon. Walter Duffield, and is now carried on, in the interests of the family, by the trustees, Messrs. Makin, Duffield, and Bullock. Koonoona is under the management of Mr. W. G. Hawkes. The flock numbers about 28,000, but the dry sheep are fed on a northern property, Winnininnie, situated in the saltbush country on the Broken Hill Stud Ewes, Bred by and the Property of Koonoona Proprietors. [Chas. P. Scott, Photo. line of railway. This property was recently acquired by the trustees in order to ease Koo noona. The stud proper comprises about 1,800 breeding ewes, but, owing to the rigid system of culling adopted, the whole of the breeding ewes, numbering some 9,000 odd, are of a class approximating closely to stud sheep. It was formed in 1863 upon a small high-class selection of the original Fisher ewes mated to valuable rams from the late Mr. John Murray's Mount Crawford Stud. For many years only the Murray rams were used, and up to the year 1892, from which date until 1902 rapid progress was made under a system of selection from within. In 1902 one of the best Wanganella rams procurable, Wamor VL, was purchased from Mr. Albert Austin at a high figure, this ram being Mr. Austin's leading ram of the Warrior succession. The manager of Koonoona selected this new strain as the only safe one owing to similarity of uprearing for many generations, to mate with Koonoona ewes. The result has reaUsed the highest expectations. The new blood has given a somewhat higher class, denser wool, with no loss of staple and no infringement of the great cardinal virtues of the sheep, viz., size 74 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. and constitution. At the recent shearing (1907) the whole of the grown sheep clipped an average of exactly 121bs. of wool, which sold up to 13|d. per pound in the Adelaide market. They were hand-shorn, and over 6,000 of the 20,000 referred to had only lOf months wool on. The Koonoona rams are much sought after by runholders in the interior of Australia, and large consignments are sent to the tropical regions of North- West Australia, where a_ strong, robust staple is such a necessity. The system of farming on the share principle is carried on to some considerable extent on the more favored portions of this estate, and some excellent wheat yields have been obtained. The application of phosphate manures, which this involves, is found to greatly increase the early feed properties of the soil, giving a quick, strong growth whenever the autumn rains are favorable, which withstands the bitterly cold, frosty nature of the winters. Against this, however, and owing to the uncertain character of the rainfall, it is found necessary to proceed cautiously with the plough, and to preserve the bulk of the country and its responsive native, hardy, perennial grasses for the preservation of the sheep in dry seasons. Some idea of the great commercial qualities of the Koonoona sheep may he gained from the accompanying excellent photographs of rams and ewes. Stud Ram "Centurion," Bred by and the Property of Koonoona Proprietors. [Chas. P. Scott, Photo. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 75 The Hawker Merino (Oalcannia and Anama Studs). The Hawker Merino flock was founded in 1841 by the late G. C. Hawker by the purchase of 2,000 ewes, descended from George III. Merinos (the same blood as the Camden House flock) in lamb to Steiger rams. These were bought from a Mr. Icely, of Bathurst, New South Wales, and travelled over land to South Australia. In 1858 five Negrete rams were used, but their progeny was inferior to the Hawker stud sheep, so were discarded from the stud. In 1861 five Rambouillet rams were imported from France ; their stock was in every way satisfactory. Mr. John Noble, who then had charge of the stud, described these rams as large-framed, straight-backed, big-boned, robust sheep, well covered with a good fleece of payable wool. About the year 1862 Mr. John Hope made Mr. Hawker a present of one more Rambouillet ram, which proved to be the best of them all, and it was chiefly to this ram that the Hawker Merino owes the position it holds to-day. In 1874 three rams were purchased from the late Mr. John Murray, of Mount Crawford. These did not suit the Hawker Merino ewes, so were discarded. In 1887 an old ram was bought from the same owner, and was used with success in the stud. In 1884 three rams were obtained from Messrs. J. Gibson & Sons, of Scone ; and in 1888 three rams were obtained from the Wanganella stud, Riverina. Neither of these strains (Gibson and Wanganella) nicked with Hawker ewes, so their produce was entirely discarded from the stud flock. The flock for 47 years, up to 1901, was under the management of Mr. John Noble, and he established a very uniform type of sheep, in which the influence of the Rambouillet blood is plainly visible. Mr. Noble's first aim was to produce a large frame and sound constitutioned sheep, and then to clothe the large frame with a fleece of robust clothing wool — long and strong, and yet at the same time to stand our dry and arid North. The average weight of the cUp of grown sheep is 10£lbs. to lllbs. per head, according to the season. As surplus sheep sell readily from this flock a large number of breeding ewes are kept (45 to 55 per cent.). As a rule not more than 5 per cent, of wethers are kept. This year the two-tooth stud ewes average lllbs. 8ozs. ; the lambs, 4J months old, 41bs. 7ozs. of greasy wool. E. W. Hawker (Calcannia) and Walter Hawker (Anama) continue to breed the Hawker Merino. The estates are situated near Clare, South Australia, about 100 miles north of Adelaide. Hawker Merino Stud Ewes. E. W. and Walter Hawker, Calcannia and Anama, Clare. [W. S. Smith. Photo. 76 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Edc < X A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 77 Canowie Station, the property of the Canowie Pastoral Company, lies The Oanowie 130 miles north of Adelaide and 12 miles due west of Hallett Railway Stud Flock. Station. The property extends towards Jamestown on the west, adjoins Yongala on the north, Cappeedee on the east, and Booborowie on the south, and comprises some of the soundest grazing area in the State. The climate is hot and dry during summer, and excessively cold in winter, the elevation being about 2,000ft. above sea level. The present holding is approximately 67,000 acres, and about 60,000 sheep are shorn. Canowie sheep are favorably known to Australian sheepbreeders for their massive frames, hardy constitutions, and profitable character. The stud was formed in the early fifties with 200 of the choicest ewes in the breeding flock, and with them were used some imported Spanish Negreta rams, which arrived in 1857. In 1859 the stud flock comprised 500, in 1862 it was 780 strong, and in 1864 it totafled over 1,000. In 1860 the owners decided upon a change of blood, and introduced tkree French Rambouillet rams, and the result proved highly satisfactory. The Rambouillets gave the sheep large frames, with a long staple of a bold type of combing wool. It is on record that one of these rams lived until he was 14 years old, and his last fleece weighed 131bs. Since that time the rams used on Canowie have been drawn from their stud flocks. The breeding flock now comprises 130 stud rams, 1,200 first stud ewes, and 5,000 second studs, 350 selected flock rams, and 17,000 flock ewes. Flock of 120 Prime Fat Merino Wethers, four years, from Canowie Station, Hallett. Sold at Adelaide, September, 1907. The above Sheep were of extraordinary size, of prime quality (estimated to dress 8S-901bs.), and carried a superior Fleece. In one line these Sheep realised the Record Price of £1 13s. per head. As an early date illustration of the comparative excellence of the Canowie sheep, it is recorded that in 1875 the proprietors decided to bring these sheep under the notice of the Victorian and New South Wales pastoraUsts, and entered their sheep for competition at the Victorian Stud Sheep Show held in Melbourne that year. Accordingly, 23 Canowie rams were sent to Melbourne — half way by boat and half way in wagons by road. They showed abundant proof of their rough travelling, but, notwithstanding this, figured prominently in the prize list, and afterwards conspicuously at the ram sales, bringing the top price and averaging 150 guineas for the whole consignment. The result of such enterprise presented a new era for South Aus tralian flockmasters, and a steady demand sprang up for Canowie rams. In 1882 no less than £24,000 was received from sales of Canowie rams alone. The demand for these rams at the present time is far-reaching — not only within the Common wealth and New Zealand, but to South Africa as well. The great merit of the Canowie sheep bhat impresses pastoralists is the general average of the flock, symmetry, and vigor of constitu tion, combined with covering almost unequalled for length of staple, bulk, and weight of wool. While the size and constitution remains unchanged, the fleece is denser and finer than 'ormerly ; the staple runs about 4in. in length — elastic, soft, and attractive, and full of maracter, with sufficient body and nature to withstand the heat of the arid districts. Apart from the stud sheep flocks, Canowie provides much that is interesting to the horse )r cattle breeder, as on the station some fine specimens of the Suffolk Punch and Shorthorn sattle (the majority of which are imported animals of special merit) are to be seen. 78 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The Wirra Wirra stud, the property of Mr. Murray Dawson, was Wirra Wirra formed in 1892, and a splendid foundation was laid with selected rams Stud Merinos. an(i ewes obtained by Mr. Dawson from his uncle and neighbor, Mr. Alick J. Murray. The Wirra Wirra property was at one time part of the Mount Crawford Estate. The sheep have been bred in with great care since 1892 with excellent results. Mr. Murray Dawson has sent some splendid representatives of his stud to Stud Ram, Wirra Wirra. the Royal Show at Adelaide for many years, and has had the satisfaction of taking a number of prizes in the leading classes for sheep, and also for fleeces. Mr. Dawson aims at producing Merinos of strong masculine characteristics, carrying heavy fleeces of high quaUty wool. In addition to the Wirra Wirra Estate, Mr. Dawson has a property near Gawler Plains, to where the sheep are taken during the winter. The accompanying photos, illustrate a typical Wirra Wirra ram — a large-framed animal, weU-proportioned, and covered all over with a valuable fleece ; also a group of handsome ewes, exhibiting great quality throughout. Stud Ewes, Wirra Wirra. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 79 The Keyneton Merino flock, the property of R. R. Keynes, of Keyne- ton, though not large, is a choice one. It was established 65 years ago by the late Joseph Keynes, the foundation of the flock having been formed by the purchase of sheep from early settlers, including In 1858 two rams were imported from the flock of A. Steiger, Saxony. Subsequently Murray rams were again introduced. Since 1877 no rams but those bred at The Keyneton Merino Stud. the late John Murrav. Keyneton Merino Ewes. Keyneton have been used. The Keyneton Merinos are noted for their robust constitutions, and do well in any State of the Commonwealth, where they are well known. Prizes for fleece have been won at Adelaide, viz : — First prize three rams' fleeces in 1858, International Exhibi tion, Philadelphia, bronze medal and certificate of award, 1876, and Colonial and Indian Exhibi tion with Commemorative Medal, 1886. The latter fleeces were from sheep bred by the present owner. Prizes for sheep have also been taken at Angaston, 1858, and Mount Pleasant and Kapunda Shows at later dates. The Keyneton Estate is situated in one of the best districts of the State, where the country and climate are eminently suited for the production of high- class animals with robust constitutions. *^¥4r] *» -;f *33* View of Keyneton Estate and Homestead. 80 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Mob of Sheep Crossing a Brushwood Bridge. These two pictures vividly portray the difficulties which confront AustraUan drovers. A mob of 20,000 sheep was on the road from a remote part of Central AustraUa to the Adelaide markets. When the drovers arrived with their charges in the " Barcoo " country they found the Cooper Creek — usually a dry watercourse — had been transformed, owing to floods, into a wide stream of water. Retreat was impossible, the advance was cut off, and to remain until the floodwaters subsided was out of the question. That resourcefulness which characterises the Australian bushman was put to a test, and it did not fail the drovers. They built a brushwood bridge one and a half miles long, and over this temporary structure the mob of sheep was driven in single file. Every one, of the 20,000 sheep was safely transported to the opposite bank and the long march to Adelaide was resumed. 71»**7. ¦'¦¦¦¦ ; -¦'«¦{ The Brushwood Bridge Across the Cooper. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 81 During recent years considerable attention has been devoted to im- Other Types. proving mutton qualities. To this end the Shropshire breed of sheep was introduced in 1888 by His Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor, the Ihief Justice of this State, Sir Samuel Way, Bart., who has ever been a practical friend to the len on the land. He acted on the advice of his manager, Mr. F. H. Weston, who confidently redicted that the Shropshire would thrive well in Australia, producing a good fleece of wool, nd providing a splendid crossing strain for mutton purposes. That judgment has been abun- antly justified by results. The 10 ewes and ram imported by Sir Samuel Way and placed on is Kadlunga Estate thrived so well that success was early assured. Other enterprising ten quickly recognised the profitable qualities of the breed. The introduction of the Shrop- hire had a wonderful influence on the lamb export trade, then attracting attention, and exped ients proved that the Shropshire crossed with Merino produced an early maturing lamb of xcellent quaUty, well suited for British markets. Within a few years •f the first importation there were [uite a number of studs, and a Shropshire Sheepbreeders' Association vas formed, the members of which iad two objects in view — (1) To breed tud rams and ewes, and (2) to breed ams for crossing purposes. The pro motion of mutton breeds of sheep such ,s the Shropshire, Lincoln, Dorset lorn, and Leicester has become an un- iortant industry in South Australia. i¥ith the steady growth of the meat ixport business, flockmasters find no limculty in disposing of their annual [rafts to farmers, who are beginning to ealise the importance of introducing resh blood into their small flocks at requent intervals. A feature of the Shropshire breed is its wonderful adaptability. These heep thrive equally well in the dry climate of our northern districts and in the cold and wet lortions of the. South-East. They are remarkable " doers," and have exercised a great nfluence in the promotion of the lamb export trade. Dorset Horn sheep, imported in 1895 by Mr. John Melrose, of Ulooloo, have well main- ained their English reputation. The Dorset Horns are hardy, and well able to develop and eep in condition on our ordinary indigenous herbage ; they are exceedingly prolific, twins eing frequent, and three lambs not uncommon. They are large-framed sheep, with well- eveloped bodies and limbs. Nobody supposes that any English breed of sheep will ever upplant the Merino in Australia. Nevertheless, in the rearing of early maturing lambs, their id is indispensable. Which breed will be chosen will perhaps be decided by local conditions, r even by personal predilections. The Dorset Horn, Lincoln, English Leicester, Shropshire, nd the Southdown all have their special claims. The Romney Marsh sheep are coming into ivor in the wet districts, chiefly in the south-eastern portion of South Australia. It does not t present seem probable that any one breed is likely to be adopted to the exclusion of all others. l Dorset Horn Breeder's Association was formed early in 1908 for the purpose of forming a tud book, in order to guarantee the purity of the breed. The Shearer at Home: After the Day's Work. Stud sheep breeding constitutes an important industry in South Australia, and, with a iew to illustrating the type of sheep favored by prominent stud flockmasters, short descriptive articulars are given of leading studs, with photographs of their best sheep. There is a large emand for South AustraUan rams throughout Australasia and South Africa, and the day is ot far distant when flockmasters in Argentina and Mexico will see the wisdom of introducing le South Australian strain of Merinos. 82 South Australia — The central state. Glenthorne, the property of Mr. Norman Brookrnan, is situated at Grlenthorne Dorset O'Halloran Hill, 11 miles south of Adelaide, and is one of the most Horn Sheep. compact stud farms to be found in the State. It was once the home of that splendid old colonist and characteristic pioneer, M-jor O'Halloran, whose name must ever occupy an important place in the early history of South Australia. The estate, which consists of about 2,000 acres, runs from the banks of the Happy Valley Reservoir down to the sea at the Marino Cliffs. The situation is a beautiful one, and Glen thorne gives promise of providing many valuable object lessons to producers and stud-breeders. Mr. Brookrnan made his purchases of Dorset Horn sheep from Mr. W. R. Flower, of West Stafford shire, one of the leading breeders in England, and the foundation of the Glenthorne Dorset stud consisted of 30 ewes and five rams, imported in 1904. Included in the shipment from Mr. Flower was a pen of three shearlings, which won the first and champion prizes at the Royal Counties and Bath and West of England Show in 1903. The Live Stock Journal of London, referring to the sheep purchased by Mr. Brookrnan, described them as being of " rare good quality and character, of first rank, merit, and type." The owner of Glenthorne has carefully worked along the Une of breeding followed by Mr. Flower, and he has had the satisfaction of obtaining excellent Dorset Horn Ram, Bred by and the Property of Mr. Norman Brookrnan. r n. „ „ _, [Chas. P. Scott. Photo. results. At the Royal Show for 1907 the judge gave the championship prize to a ram bred by Mr. Brookrnan, but as the animal was under age, the award went to one of the imported rams, which, in the opinion of the judge, however, had been beaten by its progeny. Although only recently introduced to Australia, the Dorset Horn breed is rapidly coming into favor owing to its splendid mutton qualities, its prolificness, and its hardy characteristics. Crossed with the Merino, the Dorset gives a particularly good lamb, which matures early, and is popular as a freezer. Professor Perkins, in his recent report on the Roseworthy Agricultural Farm flock in 1906-7, remarked — " Early maturity and development is so important a feature in the rearing of lambs that we can readily sacrifice to it at times other points of lesser moment. In this respect the half-breed Dorset Horn lambs appear in our experience generally to run away from any other cross." Mr. Brookman's experience confirms this, and he has found that the Dorset cross produces a lamb of exceptional carcass, carrying meat of fine texture and tasty flavor. The sheep are wonderful doers, are docile and contented. Mr. Brookrnan recently purcha?ed the whole of the Ulooloo stud of Dorset sheep, and has added them to his flock at Glenthorne. Farmers report that they have found that the cross with the Merino gives excellent results, while the halfbreeds do extremely well, the lambs maturing early and being of a hardy nature. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 83 The Merrindie English Leicester Stud. The Merrindie English Leicester stud flock is owned by Mr. Robert ELelly, and is managed by his son, Mr. W. S. Kelly. The estate is situated near Giles' Corner, in the leart of one of the best of the fertile Midland districts of the State. The Merrindie flock was formed by the purchase of sheep from the noted lock of Mr. Threlkeld, New Zealand, md the animals were selected by Professor Lowrie, formerly Principal )f the Government Agricultural Col- ege in this State. Mr. Kelly supple - nented these purchases from New Zealand by obtaining a few selected iheep from a local flock from imported stock, and he is gradually breeding rp a first - class stud of Leicesters. The growing popularity of this type imong farmers and large breeders is shown by the fact that this year's Irop of rams at Merrindie have been sold in advance. The English Leicester md Merino cross is popular with ambgrowers because of the fine mut ton qualities of the progeny. The Leicester is regard- ' 3d as the " corner stone " of the New Zealand lamb trade, md the breed is ;oming into favor n South AustraUa. ^ot only does the lalf - bred Leicester iarry a long, heavy leece of wool of splendid lustre, but t has the additional idvantage of provi- Ung a large carcass )f excellent quality. The pictures show ' Merrindie," a par ticularly fine speci- nen of the Leicester rue to type, and hree handsome ewes >f good frame and tigh-class quality. "Merrindie," English Leicester Ram. [Chas. P. Scott, Photo. Stud English Leicester Ewes. [Chas P. Scott, Photo. 81 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Tasmania was the chief source of meat supply for a few years after the Cattle Raising, proclamation, but owing to heavy losses during transit, importations were few and far between. But for the splendid daring of the " over- landers " who pushed their way over trackless mountains and unknown forests, and swam their flocks and herds across the rivers, it would have taken many years to build up the wool and meat industries. As it was the flocks and herds multiplied so rapidly that within seven years boiling down works — the common outlet of surplus years — were established. With the advent of the meat export trade, boiling down works have passed away, never to be re-established. There are other and more profitable outlets for surplus stock. It was on April 3rd, 1838, that the first herd of cattle and horses arrived in Adelaide overland from Sydney. It comprised 335 head, and was in charge of the owner, Mr. Joseph Hawdon, who, during the journey of 10 weeks, lost only four bullocks. To celebrate this important event 90 gentlemen sat down to a public dinner, and an ox chosen from the herd was roasted whole. A snuffbox was presented to Mr. Hawdon in the name of the people of South Australia, and the recipient, in returning thanks, announced his intention of settling in Adelaide " with all the force he could gather." Of the arrival of Joseph Hawdon and Charles Bonney, Mr. Anstey, an old colonist, has written— " Never can I forget the impression made on my mind by the arrival in Adelaide of Messrs. Joseph Hawdon and Charles Bonney, successfully conducting from New South Wales the first overland herd 'of cattle and horses from the Sydney side. Their arrival was unexpected by us. In those early days of the colony there were no intercolonial posts save at long intervals, and it was the natural desire of the first overland parties organised for Adelaide to keep their journeys with their herds of cattle and flocks of sheep as secret as,possible from the public. The news of their arrival spread like wildfire." Mr. Eyre, who subsequently won renown for his exploring exploits, was the second overlander with cattle, and Captain Sturt was in charge of the third party. From that time onwards cattle raising became a profitable industry, and the herds gradually increased, as may be gathered from the following : — Year. Number ot Cattle. Year. Number of Cattle. 1838 ¦2,500 1880 . . 307,000 1840 . . 15,000 1890 . . 359,000 1850 . . 60,000 1900 . . 214,000 1860 . . 278,000 1902 . . 225,25(5 1870 . . 1 36,000 1907 . . 325,724 The highest point reached was in 1893, when it was estimated there were 423,000 cattle in the country. The fifties witnessed a marvellous expansion of the cattle stations, but progress was checked when the pastoralist, forced to make room for the pioneer, had to carry on his operations in less favored localities. Cattle-raising on an extensive scale is now restricted to what is termed " outside country " — that is, the saltbush plains of Central Australia and the Northern Territory, where there are extensive runs. There is a vast tract of splendid cattle country in the north of South Australia, only the fringe of which is occupied. Difficulties of transit have hitherto prevented the development of this territory, but with the improvement of stock routes, ranchmen should be attracted to the possibilities of establishing themselves in localities where the rent is low, and where climate and natural advantages are eminently suited to cattle raising. Mr. David Lindsay, the explorer, states : — " Oodnadatta to Charlotte Waters is in the driest belt in Australia, the average rainfall being about 6in. ; yet much of it will stand light stocking, and as it is within the artesian water area the precious fluid can be obtained by boring. Including the wonderful nest of springs known as Dalhousie, it should carry, say, 30,000 cattle, besides being an ideal country for the Angora goat. Proceeding northwards the rainfall gradually increases, and we find belts of fair to good pastoral country, with some natural waters — and water can be had by sinking — whilst there are many places suitable for conserving water. This should depasture at least 15,000 cattle. The Macdonnell Ranges, extending east and west of the proposed railway, present a large area of excellent pastoral country, good for sheep or cattle, and magnificent for horses ; perhaps unequalled for breeding a hardy type of horse suitable for military purposes. The climate is beautiful. This tract of country should A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND S HITLERS. 85 carrv, say, 150,000 head of great cattle. The mineral belt — the development of which awaits the advent of the railway — is, I feel sure, an extensive one of great promise. The district known as Arltunga is already proved to contain payable gold mines ; but how can this field be exploited when for over 400 miles the supplies and machinery have to be carried on camels or wagons \ Still on northwards, the rainfall increasing at every stage, we pass through pastoral country, capable of carrying, say, 30,000 cattle, to Tennant Creek, which is on the edge of another belt of auriferous country, in which prospectors have found quartz reels carrv ing gold in sufficient, quantities to be payable with rail communication. Just east of Powell Creek we find the edge of a magnificent pastoral country stretching away to the Queensland border, having many natural waters, and promising to have abundant supplies underground. This belt of country Fat Cattle Ready for Market. 'A. VaUjiJwn, Photo. should carrv, say, 900,000 great cattle. Then away to the westward, right over to the border of West Australia, is a large tract of magnificent pasture, land fit for sheep or cattle, with, I believe, another belt of auriferous country. This extensive, region, which would be served by the railway, is capable of carrying, say, 300,000 great cattle. Newcastle Waters is on the edge of another large area of good pastoral country. At this station at present there are 7,000 fat cattle, but no means of getting them to any market. The whole of the country to the coast would carry stock, say, 200,000 cattle. From the break of the tableland to the coast, a strip of country containing about 100,000 square miles is not only capable of carrying some stock, but is rich in all the minerals, and the soil and climate are admirably adapted for the growth of all products indigenous to those latitudes." Mr. Ernest Favenc, a recognised authority on 86 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Central Australia, states that back from the Powell Telegraph Station to the head of the Nichol son River he found " a large quantity of valuable cattle land, country well and permanently watered. . . . The country on the southern slope is of a nature known all over Australia as being of the best description for sheep. The country drained by the coast rivers is of a different character — better watered, not so well grassed, and only adapted for cattle, with the exception of the Macarthur and theJhead of the river I called the Parsons. The territory possessed by South Australia, viz., from the sixteenth to nineteenth parallels of latitude, is of a description calculated to invite settlement. The rivers, though rough and not exactly traffic- able, are full of large, deep, and permanent lagoons. The country is not suited for sheep, although in these spinifex ridges there is any amount of herbage and vines, which are very fattening for the cattle. In fact, during my various trips across the Territory I have always found that, in even what is known as the worst spinifex desert, there are vines and grasses that horses are always eager for and do well on. With regard to the spinifex country, I should like Typical Australian Stockmen on Horses and Mules, Stuart's Creek Cattle Station, Far North, South Australia. to bring under your notice the fact that many people are now recognising the value of these hitherto abused tracts. The spinifex itself is valueless, but the country on which it grows is often rich in different kinds of herbage and vines that alone serve to fatten." Many years ago the late John Howard Angas imported high-class Shorthorns and Here- fords, and established studs, which have since become famous throughout Australasia. Angas Shorthorns and Herefords have taken numerous championship prizes at all the leading Royal Shows. The trustees of the late J. H. Angas are continuing the studs, and fresh importations of high-class animals are to be made from England at an early date. Considerable attention has been devoted by several breeders to the production of high- class Ayrshires, milking strains of Shorthorn-Jerseys, while splendid specimens of the noted milkers, Holstein-Freisans, have also been imported. The Shorthorn and Hereford breeds are the mainstay of the cattle industry, and some splendid herds of these are to be found through out South Australia. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 87 The Aneas Stud Probably no breeder of Shorthorns and Hereford cattle south of ¦p «>, -n+Vi /I *ne ^ne can snow a better record of success than that credited to the ol bnortnorns ana kte Mr_ j H Angas and to the studs now controlled by tne trustees Herefords. 0f his estates. South AustraUa has been the home of several well-bred studs of Shorthorn cattle during the past 60 years which have won honors at the metropohtan shows in the other States ; but the only prominent stud left to-day is the well-known Angas stud. In the records of pure stock husbandry in Australia the most prominent position will be given to the late John Howard Angas, of ColUngrove. For a period of over 60 years his life was spent in a close study of pure stock breeding ; and, Uke almost everything else he took in hand, success rewarded his efforts. He was winning prizes at the first shows of the Royal Agricultural Society of South AustraUa with his cattle, and the exhibits from the same stud more than hold their own to this day in the neighboring States. Many studs of cattle have been formed in Australia by wealthy breeders, but few, if any, remain which have been in existence for more than 30 years. To maintain the leading position for 60 years is a record which is rarely seen even in the home of stud stock breed ing — Great Britain. The late Mr. Angas was gifted with all the talents of a skilful breeder. He laid a sound foundation in all his selections of Shorthorns. In 1884 he founded his celebrated stud by pur chasing 20 picked heifers and an imported bull of the Bates breed — a direct descendant of the famous sire " Comet " (155) bred by Charles Colling. These cattle were descended from pure stock imported by the South Australian Company. From that time neither trouble nor expense was spared to improve the breed up to its present high standard. From time to time high-class and costly animals have been added, including several shipments of bulls and cows from England. Competing for the last 17 champion group prizes offered at Melbourne, the Angas exhibits have won all but four ; at the Sydney Royal show they have won all the group prizes for which they have competed, also 26 out of a possible 32 champion prizes for bulls and females. At the last Sydney show (April, 1908) these cattle won first prize in all the classes in which they com peted except one, also champion and reserve champion in cows. Those competent to form a judgment on the point have frequently asserted that Mr. Angas would stand a good chance of wresting the supremacy from the EngUsh cattle-breeders were he only permitted a fair opportunity of competing at the agricultural shows in the old country. With a view of sending some of his cattle to England for show purposes, and also with the object of opening up a trade in stud buUs, both Herefords and Shorthorns, Mr. Angas, some years ago, made inquiries through the Chief Inspector of Stock, and subsequently through Mr. John Thornton, the well-known stud stock salesman in England, as to the proper course to be taken. Permission was sought to land animals in England for competition at the Royal and and other agricultural shows ; but all these efforts were unsuccessful. The EngUsh authorities were immovable, their decision being that, were the cattle landed, they would — irrespective of health, or any other considerations — have to be slaughtered a few days after arrival. In addition to the exceptionally fine herd of Shorthorns the trustees of the late J. H. Angas own a magnificent stud of high-class Hereford cattle. These animals have taken numerous prizes at all the leading shows in AustraUa. Recognising the value of this picturesque breed as an animal eminently suitable on account of its hardy nature, good feet, and aptitude for traveUing long distances, for the far northern portions of AustraUa in general, and South Australia in particular, Mr. Angas imported in 1869 the Hereford buU " May Duke " (3985), bred by Mr. W. G. Preece, of Salop, and the cows " Lady Wilson," " Stately," and " Winifred." Two years later a bull named " Bruce," bred by Mr. P. Turner, Pembridge, was used in the herd. In 1871 another bull, " Bringewood," (2981), bred by Mr. Price, of Hereford, was added to the stud. Again, at a later date, Mr. Angas purchased from the late C. Price, of Hindmarsh Island, for 200 guineas, the very handsome Hereford cow " Jennie Deans," with her bull calf. This latter animal, afterwards named " CharUe Deans " (5252), won five first prizes and a champion cup in Adelaide, in addition to first prizes at the National Agricultural Society of Victoria's Show in 1881. In 1884 Mr. Angas purchased the two-year-old prize bull " Sir Roger," from Mr. F. Reynolds. Tocal, New South Wales ; and a sire more fruitful and more impressive has seldom been seen. A fine string of Shorthorn and Hereford cattle are annually sent to the Melbourne and Sydney Royal Shows by the trustees of the late J. H. Angas. SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATF. Angas Stud Shorthorn Cattle. i^™**** Group of Angas Stud Shorthorn Cows, Point Sturt, Lake Alexandrina, A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 89 Mr. Alick J. Murray, of Mount Crawford, owns one of the The Mount Orawlbrd choicest herds of Jersey cattle in Australia. The great " utility " Jersey Herd. now to°k his fancy some years ago, and the more he studied the records of the island butter-producers the more strongly was he persuaded that they fulfilled all the conditions required by dairymen with whom the production of butter was the first consideration. He laid the, foundation of his herd by careful purchases made in Victoria from high-class imported stock. He was fortunate in obtaining possession of Progress III., a very superior imported bull, and this animal stamped his high qualities on the Mount Crawford herds. Mr. Murray also bought several imported cows from the late Mr. Wood mason, of Victoria, and at a later date a bull and two heifers, imported by the Rev. Ralph Brown, were added to the Mount Crawford herd. The most important purchases were made on Mr. Murray's behalf in the Island of Jersey. Messrs. Fowler and De La Perrelle, of England, re.cog- •' ¦¦> Y *^5 *" . «£V/ 7*^ '-¦'. \ ¦ !¦¦ ¦', fV * - . v&M^^^t^BE IHE fa ¦" *' I^tF Was Wfv '¦* "Black Antimony," the Property of A. J. Murray, Mount Crawford. [Chas. P. Seolt, Photo. nised authorities on Jersey cows, spent some time ariiong the best breeders and farmers of Jersey Island making these purchases for Mr. Murray. They wrote to him — " We are really proud of our selection, for we do not consider that there has been a better lot sent out to Australia. The older bull is by far the richest that has passed through our hands. We cannot say too much of the younger bull. He is really an almost perfect animal. The heifer is really a picture, and should be an easy prizewinner." This high estimation of the animals has since been abun dantly confirmed at the Royal Shows in Australia, where they have taken numerous prizes. The Mount Crawford Jerseys have practically swept the boards at the Royal Shows in Adelaide, and are largely sought after by the stud-breeders and dairymen throughout Australia. All the Mount Crawford Jerseys are descended from cattle in the Island Herd Book. One cow, Mait land Charlotte, yielded 17lbs. 5ozs. of butter in one week, eight and a half months after calving, when grazing in the paddocks on natural grasses. One of the latest additions to the Mount Crawford herd is " Black Antimony," a handsome typical Jersey. 90 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Horse-breeding received early attention at the hands of pioneer Horse-breeding, settlers, and within a few years of the proclamation leading colonists began importing high-class stallions and mares, mostly on the light side. An attempt was made in the forties to induce the Legislature to grant a bonus to the importer of the best animals in a given period suitable for " cart and farm work," but this form of State aid was not resorted to. High-class stock was imported by leading breeders at various periods. South Australia is the natural home of the horse, climate and herbage being un equalled in aiding the production of a hardy animal. The horses bred in the far northern parts of this State are wonderfully staunch, and are good " doers." They are capable of making long journeys without shoes on a minimum supply of water and feed. Astonishing feats of endurance are recorded in favor of the South Australian bred horse accustomed to the stony South Australian Bred Horses. [A. Vaughan. Photo. saltbush plains of some of the north country. Stuart, the explorer, on his great trip across the continent, used northern-bred horses, and they carried the party long stages day after day. Only one animal was lost on this arduous journey. Captain Creswell, C.M.G., for some years interested in horse-breeding in northern Australia, in a report to the Indian Government on the advisableness of estabUshing breeding stations in Australia to provide supplies for the remount service, wrote : — " In AustraUa the horse in the bush, and on nearly all runs, ' cuts his own grass ' ; he is, in fact, ' allowed nothing a year to find himself.' To realise how exceedingly well he ' does himself ' on this small aUowance he should be seen and ridden. On cattle runs, where a day's muster and ' cutting-out work on a camp ' is as hard as any day's hunting, he gets nothing but the grass he picks up for himself. They are worked off the grass continuously for a fortnight or three weeks — not all cattle-muster ing days ; that goes without saying. Far the greatest number have never had a mouthful of A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SUTTLERS. any fodder in their lives. One very fine old warrior of mine literally starved in the stable for two nights, refusing to eat good corn and wheaten hay out of a manger. Used to a free life in the open, his legs were the only portions of him that ' fiUed,' yet he carried me home 70 miles, and ' reefed ' at his bit for the last half-mile canter to the home paddock gate. The fattening and growing qualities of Australian grass are really wonderful. I have seen many fat horses brought in from the ' run,' but I shall never forget the condition of two we chanced upon when exploring on the tableland which lies to the west and south-west of the Gulf of Carpentaria. They were masterless exiles, the property — we found out afterwards — of an unfortunate who had been killed by the blacks 18 months before. They were so pleased to meet some of their own kind again after such a long solitude that they ran in amongst our spare loose horses, and we caught them and hobbled them as easily as our own. One of our party thought he would take a turn out of one of them the next day, and accordingly saddled him. The ' going ' was certainly sticky after rain, but less than two hours was more than enough for this obese animal, and he simply laid himself out at full length, quite pumped out and done up. They would have taken prizes in a ' fat gelding ' class at Smithfield, and their coats — like all horses on good grass — shone like satin. It is from these parts — the Northern Territory table land, where horses on nothing a year can do themselves so very well — that the Indian army should draw its horse supply. The most weighty objections to a reserve store of horses, viz., fodder, grooming, and attendance would weigh nothing here. The writer was out on the country with the first men who took their stock there, and well re members their delight with those splendidly grassed rolling downs and plains on the vast tableland. Occasionally broken by a wooded ridge or belt of timber, the downs stretched away for mile upon mile, as far as one could see." For a time little attention was paid to horse-breeding, owing to the low prices ruling ; but with the in creasing demands from South Africa and for the Indian remount service the industry has been revived. During recent years a great improvement has taken place in quaUty, and further efforts are being made to produce the right stamp of animals. During 1902, 2,400 horses were exported, of a value of £53,000. Frequent drafts are sent to India, Java, and South Africa. The Australian turf owes much to the enterprise of early South Australians. The high standard in the thoroughbred classes up to the eighties was largely due to the influence of South Australian horses. Some writers have hastily given the whole credit to breeders in New South Wales, but a careful perusal of the turf statistics between 1850 and 1880 will go far to convince the unprejudiced that the turf is chiefly indebted to South Australian enterprise. Breeders have introduced a great line of stayers. The Messrs. Fisher, of South Australia, did a lot for the industry in Australia. The famous " Fisherman " first trod South Australian soil. Then the name of Gerrard stands out prominently as a benefactor of the turf, as he introduced, among others, " Talk o' the Hill " and " Ace of Clubs." Sir Thomas Elder imported " Gang Forward " at a cost of over 4,000 guineas in 1876, and it is generally admitted there is no assessing the value of the mares got by the great Stockwell horse. 'Rendelsham Collegian," imported, the Property of Mr. Norman Brookrnan. [Chas. P. Scott, Photo. 92 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. During the seventies the thoroughbred class was particularly strong, and nearly every settler commanded two or three blood mares as part of his stock. The success of the early South Australian breeders was largely due to their judicious choice of sires. During 1877 an effort was made to form a stud company for the purpose of establishing horse-breeding stations, but nothing came of the scheme. The honor of introducing the first thoroughbred stallion rests with the late W. S. Whitington, who in 1840 brought ont from England " Acteon " and the thoroughbred mare " Falkladina." They afterwards figured prominently in the stud of the late John Baker, of Morialta. As early as 1839 a lot of mouse- colored Timor stallions, all pure bred, were brought down from their volcanic pastures by Captain Hughes. Sir Thomas Elder, the late John Howard Angas, Mr. Charles H. Angas, the Proprietors of Canowie Estate, and the Hon. George Brooknian have done yeoman service for the State at different times in introducing and breeding high-class horse stock. Attention has also been devoted to the heavier classes, and some fine specimens of the Clydesdale, Suffolk-Punch and pony breeds are now to be found in the State, while Sir James Penn Boucaut has ably advocated the Arab breed, and has imported some fine animals. It is estimated that there were 206,000 horses in South Australia on March 31st, 1907, compared with 180,000 in 1897. Parade of Prize Winners at the Royal Agricultural Show, Adelaide. W. S. Smith, Photo. CHOICE LAMBS READY FOR FREEZING FOR EXPORT TO LONDON MARKET. Bred by T. R. & A. P. Bowman, at Campbell House Station, Lake Alexandrina. [ 7T". 8. Smith, Photo. Chapter IX. THE LAMB BREEDING INDUSTRY. i)T was Charles Dickens who once remarked, at an agricultural dinner, that " the field which paid the farmer best to cultivate was the one within the ring fence of his own skull." That statement contains a more important truth to-day than it did in the time of the great novelist. Science is conspicuously aiding the tiller of the soil who places himself in a position to be assisted. Improved ocean transit has brought the producer in Australia and the consumer in the centres of population in Europe closer together, and the refrigerating chamber is providing almost unlimited opportunities for the expan sion of trade. The remarkable, success which attended the experiments made in New Zealand in the shipment to England of frozen meats compelled Australian breeders to look askance at the " boiling down " works which were employed for the purpose of dealing with surplus stock in times of plenty, and relieving the pressure when droughts came. With a threatened scarcity of feed and water before them, pastoralists were sometimes forced to sacrifice their stock in a full market. Sheep used to be killed for the sake of the skins, and the carcasses either left to rot on the ground or sold for a few pence per head to the owner of the nearest boiling down works and turned into tallow. The advent of the freezing process and the refrigerating chamber in the ocean steamer altered all this, and the day of the " boiling down " works passed away never to return. The results obtained in the land of the Maori suggested to enterprising breeders in South Australia the need of introducing types of English mutton breeds of sheep. These were wanted for the purpose of crossing with the hardy Aus tralian Merino, which had hitherto been raised chiefly from a wool point of view. Breeding lambs for export followed closely on the importation of the typical mutton types of sheep. A gratifying feature in connection with this industry was that from the outset burners rather than pastoralists went into the business. This led to the multiplication ol farmers' flocks, and the innovation has had a marked effect, not only on the agricultural industry, but upon the wool trade. The introduction of sheep to the farm was the means of directly increasing the producers' resources of revenue on the one hand whilst improving his methods of cultivation to his general advantage. The wool trade benefited to a considerable degree ; the steady increase in the number of sheep within hundreds largely compensating for decimation caused in the flocks of pastoralists in the outside country. During recent years there has been a large increase in the flocks within hundreds, notwithstanding the increasing number of carcasses sent away. The local wool sales are largely assisted by the small lots of wool sent in by farmers who keep sheep mainly for the purpose of breeding lambs for the export trade. Early in the nineties attention was directed to the advantages which Removing would be likely to follow the erection i if freezing works. Leading pastoralists Obiections were sceptical. They gave three main reasons for not joining forces in order to follow the example set by New Zealand. First, that a continuity of the supply was uncertain under conditions then existing. It was pointed out that local consumption took all the sheep that were in any degree suitable for export, and " surplus " supplies would have to be imported. The second objection was that the right kind of animal required for freezing was not bred ; and thirdly, that the bulk of the country was not adapted for the carrying of the large-sized mutton breeds. All three objections have been removed. There is a ""continuity of supply " from sources undreamt of 10 years ago. The " right land " of sheep are now bred in various parts of the State, and a large portion of the country has been proved to be eminently suited for the raising of animals that meet with reidy approval in England. The grass-fed lambs of South Australia mature earlier than do those grown in any other part of the Commonwealth, but efforts are being made to supplement the natural 94 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. grass by the growing of fodder crops. By the cultivation of lucerne, rape, kale, and other fodders the business of growing lambs for export is capable of considerable expansion on profit able Unes. In every respect the South Australian article is equal to the best that are shipped from any other State. The first practical attempt made in South AustraUa to establish freezing works was in 1894. It was my privilege to become possessed of information concerning what had been done in New Zealand. Valuable facts were tabulated and brought under the notice of sheep-owners, merchants, and capitaUsts. Whilst without exception they were impressed with the wonderful results which had been obtained in New Zealand, the objections already stated were put forward as reasons why South Australia could not hope to make a success of the business. Eventually I was invited by several gentlemen, who began to reaUse that something had to be done, to draw up Breaking New Ground. \7.^4r'f* Corner of State Freezing Works, Port Adelaide.— Frozen Lambs Ready for Shipment to London. [A. Vaughan, Govt. Photo. a prospectus for a company. Because of its historical interest in connection with the frozen meat trade, in view of the developments which have taken place, a summary of the document, which represents the first practical effort to introduce what is now an important industry, is given in response to requests that it should be placed on record. The company was to be called the " South Australian Freezing Co., Limited," and the capital was fixed at £10,000. The " objects " set out were — " 1. To estabhsh a butter factory and produce stores in or near Adelaide. 2. To establish freezing works and cold stores at Port Adelaide. 3. To receive and forward to Australian, British, and foreign markets butter, bacon, pork, beef, mutton, poultry, rabbits, eggs, cheese, wine, fruit, and other farm, dairy, and garden produce, frozen or otherwise. 4. To arrange for the sale and distribution of produce in London and other populous centres. 5. To provide local outlets for produce of all kinds and in any quantity. 6. To improve the quality of produce and the methods of placing it before consumers. 7. To assist farmers and A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 95 others to start creameries, &c. 8. To minimise the present high charges to which producers are subjected. 9. To bring producer and consumer into closer business relations. 10. To act as salesmen and forwarding and commission agents." It was further stated — " It is proposed that the freezing works and cold stores at Port Adelaide shall be placed afloat, and so obviate the heavy lighterage and other incidental charges now paid by producers. The provisional directors are in possession of special advice as to the construction of these floating freezing works and cold stores, and believe that some of the latest and best machinery is immediately available." The prospectus also said — " The successful development of the colonial produce trade in the future depends upon the ability of producers to compete against keen and well favored rivals in quaUty and price. The company will seek to make available for producers and shippers the most approved means for enabling them to participate, on a remunerative basis, in this trade to an ever-increasing extent." In the light of experience there are portions of the foregoing which .Private would now be modified, but it represented at the time the best scheme Enterprise " that could be devised on the basis of the information then available. Apathetic. ^ne aPathy of stockowners, the indifference of merchants, and the timidity of capitalists proved obstacles too great to be overcome. The promoters were in earnest, and some progress was made, but the company was never formed. A year or two elapsed, and during that period the demand for some establishment for dealing with perishable produce on its way from the farm to the refrigerating chambers of the ocean steamer became more and more apparent. An attempt to promote private freezing works in the South-East met with no better success than did the efforts which had been put forward in the city. With private enterprise holding back — exhibiting indeed considerable scepticism and apathy — and producers demanding better facilities, the State stepped in and the Govern ment Freezing Works were erected at Port Adelaide. The establishment of the Government Produce Export Depart- Ine State ment, on the 17th April, 1895, may be said to have opened up a Produce Export new and prosperous era to the producers of South Australia. The Department. development of the frozen meat trade has revolutionised the methods of sheep husbandry. The original freezing chambers were erected when the outlook was becoming serious to producers, because of the decline in prices of produce and the want of a market for the disposal of surplus stock. The original aims of the Govern ment in building works were — (1) Give opportunities of opening up oversea markets for the products of this State not then being shipped. (2) The development of the production of minor perishable products, and finding new markets for these increased productions. In order to properly carry out this work a London Depot was established, and while this may be said to have been for a time a movement for the benefit of winegrowers particularly, the Manager, sent from Adelaide, was instructed to also deal with other lines of produce, and it was through this depot that the first experimental shipments of produce were sold. The depot was eventually sold in 1903 to a private company, who undertook to continue the wine trade along the lines the Government had adopted, and so that the Government should have a proper supervision of the marketing of South Australian produce in London, a Commercial Agent was appointed in 1906, and by his special attention to the English requirements of the present day some very valuable information has been received and distributed amongst growers. The services of the Commercial Agent are also employed in extending trade with the Continent, and in advertising the State by making exhibits of our products at the leading shows, &c, throughout England, besides having a permanent and up-to-date exhibit in a special show-room connected with the Agent- General's suite of offices in London. In addition to the lamb trade, the Department has shipped large quantities of butter. In 1893 the Government of the day provided a bonus on all butter coming up to a required standard and shipped to oversea markets from South Australia. This bonus firmly established the trade, and while only 16 tons had been previously shipped, in the next two years 766 tons 7cwts. were sent forward, on which the Government paid a total bonus of £11,508 17s. 3d. The bonus was refused on only 57 tons of the butter offered for shipment. 96 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Since then the trade has fluctuated through the vicissitudes of the various seasons, but a record for the, State was established last year, the total shipment to London amounting to 876J tons. The resources of the State have by no means been yet exhausted, and dairying is making rapid strides, with the result that in average seasons exports will expand until our figures are doubled and doubled again. The Department has also paid attention to the development of the fruit trade. South Australian apples hold pride of place amongst all Australian apples sold on the English markets. Great care has been taken by the majority of shippers to uphold their repu tation, and with stringent measures to preserve this reputation there is every prospect of not only increasing our output for the United Kingdom, but the Continent is gradually becoming one of the largest customers. Rabbits have been shipped for years, and while the trade is firmly established, shipments vary considerably in sympathy with the fluctuations of the prices obtainable in England. During the last 12 months a forward movement has been made in obtaining markets in the United Kingdom for South Australian honey, eggs, and poultry. Success depends entirely upon the ability to produce the right quality for European require ments, at a cost that will enable producers to profitably sell at prices that are now ruling in \ .X, *'¦' *rtO, i-j 't-J 7- "K'»^ „-,> The New State Freezing Works in course of Erection at Port Adelaide. They adjoin the present Depot. London for these goods being put on the market from foreign countries. Experimental ship ments of eggs and poultry have proved so successful that arrangements are now being made for extensive shipments during the coming, season, and the Commercial Agent in London reports that he is quite confident that he can obtain paying sales for South Australia. Lambs as a By- Product. Producers have tasted the sweets of a profitable branch of the export produce trade, and it is not likely that further opportunities of pro moting it will be neglected. Certainly the same undercurrent of apathy and in some quarters active opposition which characterised the early days of the lamb trade are not likely to recur when new departures are suggested. Brains more than anything else are required in the development of the natural industries of Australia. The resources exist. In order to tap them and turn on a stream of prosperitv into private and national channels, the primary producer and those who fill the gap between him and the consumer in the old world must work intelligently and exhibit enterprise. Know ledge is power ; it is also profit when properly directed in the by-ways of commerce. As a by-product of trie farm lambs for export are proving highly remunerative, and the future of A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 97 this steadily expanded industry is assured. The value of the trade can be realised when it is pointed out that in years before the export trade was inaugurated, although the productions of fat lambs was infinitesimal in comparison with present conditions, in the glut of the season they were hard to sell at 5s. or 6s. each. At the present time there is no possibility of a glutted market, and the approximate standard value is at least 10s. per lamb, while the department last year returned growers as high as 16s. each for lambs shipped for sale through the Com mercial Agent in London. Freezing The Government, recognising the growing importance and re- Accommodation. quirements of the trade, has decided to double the present capacity of the works, which will give accommodation for the treatment of 8,000 lambs per day. Extensive works are in course of erection at Port Adelaide. Exports. ¦'^ie following table shows the number of carcasses sent away from South Australia yearly since the inception of the trade in 1895 : — 1895-6 . . . 1896-7 . . . 1897-8 . . . 1898-9 . . . 1899-1900 1900-01 . . 1901-2 . . . 1902-3 . . . 1903-4 . . . 1904-5 . . . 1905-6 . . . 1906-7 . . . 1907-8 . . . Lambs. Mutton. Total. Total. Season's Total. Depot. Privately. Depot. Privately. 1,751 1,751 1,097 1,097 2,848 10,606 — 10,606 • 675 — 675 11,281 3,534 — 3,534 463 — 463 3,997 38,620 — 38,620 2,052 — 2,052 40,672 89,980 — 89,980 1,334 — 1,334 91,314 94,597 — 94,597 7,122 — 7,122 101,719 45,440 47,134 92,574 — — — 92,574 63,798 53,045 1 1,6843 19,464 18,656 38,120 154,963 64,930 91,436 156,366 10,521 10,390 20,911 177,277 155,858 37,822 193,740 2,254 311 2,565 196,305 161,066 66,317 227,383 — — — 227,383 163,819 87,750 251,569 2,613 434 3,047 254,616 198,687 72,942 271,629 4,490 — 4,490 276,119 1,092,686 456,446 1,549,192 52,085 29,791 81,876 1,631,068 Chapter X. THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY. |0R many years South Australia was known as the granary of Australia. That title was legitimately earned, this State having been the first of the AustraUan group to export breadstufis on a large scale. At the outset the pioneers hung about the city, fearing to break away from the companionship of shipmates — doubtful if the land available would repay cultivation. For some time a wrong impression prevailed concerning the quaUty of the soil on the Adelaide plains. Even Captain Sturt was misled by the parched appearance of the country. When delivering a lecture to the settlers in 1838, he remarked — " If you attempt to cultivate the land around Adelaide you wiU be grievously disappointed. You must not expect to get crops of grain or fruit on this side of the ranges." Within three years of the delivery of that address sections on all sides of the city were yielding 30 and 40 bushels of wheat to the acre ! Breadstufis were imported from Tasmania, and at one time flour was sold up to £100 per ton in Adelaide. Cereal growing was a pronounced success from the start, and in this branch of industry progress continued by leaps and bounds for many years. The population, exclusive of Northern Territory, shipping, and aborigines, in 1891 was 310,426, and at the census of 1901 had increased to 354,001, an addition of 43,575 persons, or 14 per cent. During the same period the area ander cultivation had increased from 2,649.098 acres to 3,279,406 acres, an addition of 630,308 acres, or 24 per cent., as compared with an increase of 3 per cent, during the preceding decade, 1882-91. There were 9-0 acres of tilled ground per head of the population, as compared with 8-4 acres at the date of the census of 1891. The following table shows the area under cultivation in each division in South Australia at the date of the census of 1881, 1891, and 1901 respectively, and the increase or decrease respectively : — ¦ Increase or Decrease, CentralLower North Upper North South-Eastern . . Western Total 1881. 931,783 822,615699,391 90,31329,802 894,593967,627 665,479 73,085 48,314 1,152,340 980,536841,036 97,784 207,710 2,573,904 2,649,098 3,279,406 1891 on 1881. 1901 on 1891. - 37,190 + 145,012 4- 33,912 - 17,228 + 18,512 + 257,747 + 12,909 + 175,557 + 24,699 + 159,396 + 75,194 + 630,308 Inside and Outside Country. Bringing these figures up to latest date, it must be mentioned that the population of the State proper at March 31st, 1907, was 381,797, the increase on the number when the census was taken in 1901 being equal to 7-85 per cent. The land under cultivation at the same date was 3,239,891 acres, a decrease of 39,515 acres, or 1 per cent. These figures would at first sight convey the impression that with an accession of population less attention has been given to the cultivation of the soil. The real reason of the decrease which has been shown, however, is the tendency of recent years to allow land in the " outside " country, where the rainfall is light, to be devoted to a much greater extent to mixed farming. Nature never intended that wheat should be regularly grown on such A TYPICAL HARVEST SCENE ON A SOUTH-EASTERN FARM, a- =3 - Ernest Gall, Photo.'. The climatic conditions of the south-eastern portion of the State are much wetter and cooler than the main cereal -growing centres. Here barley and oats take the place of wheat to a large extent ; the crops also ripen much later, and the stripper is replaced by the binder and the steam-thresher in the harvesting operations. 100 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. areas, and so to-day farmers are making a much better living by " spelling " their land, culti vating less, and going in more largely for sheep and dairy cows. At the same time everywhere within the regular rainfall area cultivation has increased, and in spite of the great impetus which has been given of recent years to the frozen lamb industry, the farm lands of the Lower North and Central districts were never put to such good use, regarding the matter from a purely agri cultural point of view, than they are at present. Emphasis will be given to these remarks if comparison is made of the cultivated area of the State by divisions at the last census and at latest date. This is done in the following : — Division. 1901. 1907. Increase or Decrease. 1907 on 1901. Central Lower North Upper North South-EasternWestern 1,152,340 980,536841,036 97,784 207,710 1,192,6091,044,671 585,886 151,826 271,843 + 40,269 + 64,135 -255,150+ 54,042 + 64,133 Total 3,279,406 3,246,835 - 32,571 Our Landed Estate. The following statement shows the area of the State, also of the several divisions referred to, of the land wholly or conditionally alienated, of Crown leases, and of the total occupied : — Division. Square Miles. Alienated. Occupied. Crown Leases. Total Acres I. Central II. Lower North III. Upper North IV. South-Eastern V. Western 13,89112,40114,06515,585 24,511 8,890,2407,936,640 9,001,6009,974,400 15,687,040 Acres. 3,302,298 2,494,907 916,435 1,572,043 282,693 Acres. 3,797,4424,420,4457,487,6944,356,528 6,506,221 7,099,7406,915,3628,404,1295,928,5716,788,914 Total counties Remainder of State 80,453 299,617 51,489,920 191,754,880 8,568,376 1,129 26,568,34067,579,569 35,136,716 67,580,698 Total South Australia . . Northern Territory 380,070 523,620 243,244,800335,116,800 8,569,505 473,279 94,147,909 103,280,346 102,717,414103,753,625 Grand total 903,690 578,361,600 9,042,784 197,428,255 206,471,039 There is inspiration here for those who like to study large maps and think " continentally," as well as scope for the active pursuit of agriculture in all its varied branches. From the foregoing figures it will be seen that, roughly speaking, one-half of the area of the State proper is in occupation. By occupation is meant land which has gone out of the possession of the Government, either by sale or lease. To what use all of it is being put cannot be exactly said ; but it is fair to assume that, even if only occasionally and to some extent, the whole has been acquired with the object of utilising it for profit. The remaining half of the State is still in the hands of the Government, and, being unoccupied, is making no contribution to the collective wealth. Of unoccupied country 231,363,175 acres are in the Northern Territory, 124,174,182 acres outside of proclaimed counties in South Australia proper, and only 16,353,204 acres within the settled parts included in counties, A QUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 101 Reference to the divisions into which the State is for statistical purposes divided will be meaningless to the reader across the seas unless accompanied by some statement of the outstanding features of each from an agricultural point of view. The Central Division enjoys a temperate climate, with a reliable rainfall varying over a number of Interesting Natural Features. •^v**^ ¦'?% *# '<¦#¦ years from 42in. to 16in. in the hills and plains respectively, 21in. being the average fall at Ade laide. The Lower North also has a temperate climate, but an earlier season by some weeks. There is a fair rainfall, averaging from 13in. to 25in. according to the level of the country. Two mountain ranges stretch from south to north, with broad, well-watered plains of exception ally good arable land intervening. Some of the tableland is 1,500ft. to 2,000ft. above sea level. It possesses the advantage of being the nearest agricultural land to the Broken Hill mining 102 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. district, with which it is connected by rail. The Upper North contains a large proportion of country popularly known as " beyond Goyder's line of rainfall," where the climate is hotter and drier, the average rainfall in the farming districts approximating 12in. to 15in. The country chiefly consists of extensive plains, with low rises and little surface water. To the eastward much is tableland considerably above sea level, with a consequent lower temperature. The South-Eastern Division comprises all the country east of the Eiver Murray as far as the Victorian boundary, and on the south extends to the Southern Ocean. The climate is colder and the rainfall heavier than in any other part of the State, with the exception of the Mount Lofty Range. The land is low-lying, with isolated hills or ridges. Large tracts are now being drained. The Western Division is confined to lands within counties adjacent to the west coast of Spencer's Gulf and that portion of the southern coast lying between Port Lincoln and Fowler's Bay. It has an equable climate, and an average coastal'rainfall of 20in. It may be mentioned Threshing Wheat and Baling Straw at Roseworthy Agricultural College. [Jt. K. Lawrence, Photo. that the large island known as Kangaroo Island, lying across the entrance to St. Vincent's Gulf, is included in the Central Division. As will be seen by visitors approaching the State by sea, either from the east or the west, the height of the island above sea level and its proximity to the Southern Ocean secure for it a cool climate and a good rainfall. Settlement is rapidly extending, while townships along the coast promise to become popular watering places and natural sanitoria of the State. Of the total area of the State, exclusive of the Northern Territory, less Land, in than one-fourth is within the 46 counties which have been proclaimed. Occupation. These counties represent the more closely settled portions of the State, and the proportion of " occupied " land is greater, amounting to two-thirds. Beyond the limits of agricultural settlement 119,380 square miles, or 76,402,950 acres, are held by 500 Crown lessees as sheep or cattle runs. The conditions under which land may be acquired in South Australia are set out in another chapter, and it is sufficient to remark here that the freehold has been parted with to the greatest extent within the assured rainfall area, while A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. [0.3 outside the limits of counties the alienated land is infinitesimal. In proportion to population South Australia has the largest area under cultivation of any of the Australian States, the ratio per head being about nine acres. At the same time the cultivated area in proportion to the wide expanse of the State is but fractional. The reason for this is that the rainfall in some parts is not sufficient to make agriculture more than a hazardous calling, and much of South Australia's landed estate will on this account have to be put to other use. Still, that this State makes good use of its opportunities in comparison with other parts of the Commonwealth will be seen from the following figures, which deal with country where the rainfall is lOin. and over per annum : — South Australia Northern Territory New South Wales . Victoria Queensland Western AustraUa Tasmania . . Commonwealth loin. :uul over. Area Cultivated. Proportion Cultivated. Acres. Per cent. 40,360,000 2,275,506 5.64 223,000,000 small — 1 82,200,000 2,674,896 1.47 56,240,000 3,321,785 5.91 339,000,000 539,216 0.14 234,200,000 327,391 0.14 16,000,000 226,228 1.41 1,151,000,000 9,365,022 O.S1 Years ago the late Mr. Goyder, then Surveyor- General of South Aus- Oultivation tralia, traced on the map what has ever since been known as " Goyder's and Rainfall, rainfall line." This was nothing else than the demarcation of country inside of which the natural " saltbush " and other herbages so charac teristic of Australian back country do not grow. The " line " takes a southern semi-circular sweep to the coastline of Eyre Peninsula, and strikes the opposite side of Spencer's Gulf about Moonta. Then it makes a long northerly curve to just south of Booleroo Centre, terminating in a second peak at Orroroo. Thence the direction is south-east, crossing the River Murray about Swan Reach. This observant official did a great service to all succeeding settlers by roughly, and yet with wonderful accuracy, indicating the country inside of which the rainfall is regular, but outside of which agricultural pursuits must, in the nature of things, be hazardous. Twenty years ago, for instance, when the far northern areas were thrown open for farming occupation one or two wonderful seasons were experienced and " bumper " crops were taken off the virgin soil. This " outside " country is being more successfully devoted to mixed farm ing. The land will produce anything with a fair rainfall ; the soil is easily worked, and by means of farming and dairying many men are making a living where formerly ruin stared settlers in the face. The pertinacity and courage with which in dry years this country has been tilled, and methods adopted to meet changing circumstances are a tribute to the stamp of farmers who have made South Australia what it is from an agricultural standpoint. Tne Surveyor- General of the State, after an extended tour round the world, states in a report to the Govern ment that in. his opinion the system of soil-culture known as " Dry Farming " would help towards the successful occupation of what is known as outside country. He wrote — " In South Australia entirely outside the limits of a reliable rainfall, where wheat is now successfully grown, there is an area of approximately 24,000,000 acres, having an average rainfall of from lOin. to 15in. Of this area about 2,000,000 acres are occupied, and partially but not satisfac torily cultivated, which leaves a balance of 22,000,000 acres, comprising a large area of rough ranges, stony hills, and land useless for cultivation purposes. After deducting all that, it is estimated that from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 acres, as far as the soil is concerned, is available for dry farming. Should it be found on trial that farming can be profitably carried on with a rainfall of lOin. to 12m., what an immense benefit the extension of this system would be to the State ! A more careful system of farming on these methods, even in the districts with a fair rainfall, would, I feel certain, result in an average increase in our yields of several bushels per acre." o od H M>7f'H W > HWISO 2!HW a»CO H> The above shows five complete harvesters at work in a large field of wheat at Mount Templeton. The crop is left until the grain is quite ripe, and these machines strip, thresh, winnow, and bag the grain at one operation. From 12 acres to 16 acres per day is harvested by each machine. A GUIDE FOE IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 106 It cannot be otherwise than interesting to the intending settler to see how the land within the area of regular rainfall is utilised. The official calculation of the area of land within the rainfall area is 27,776,000 acres, but in the following table the information is given in a different form and somewhat more exactly : — Within " Goyder's Line." Division. Area. Cultivated. „. , , Wheat and Iotal- Hay. CentralLower North Upper North South-Eastern Western Acres, 6,132,5332,514,520 576,000 8,297,600 .. 11,700,840 Acre*. 1,187,810 743,809 189,443144,839 218,848 Acres. 888,445725,379 186,227 84,876 213,748 Total within rainfall area . . 29,221,493 2,484,749 2,098,675 Closer settlement is the last word in agricultural policy, and by this " Closer " and other means the " cultivated area " — the true test of agricultural Settlement, progress — is steadily expanding ; and as large estates in favored localities are being purchased by the Government or private persons and cut up into small holdings suitable for farmers, the area under cultivation will continue to increase. There is room for considerable development, more particularly in the south-eastern portions of this State, regarded by competent authorities as " the New Zealand of Australia." " One of the lessons taught by the late drought," says the Government Statist, " has been to impress upon farmers that, even in dry seasons, careful husbandry and the adoption of modern systems will ensure returns for their labor otherwise unobtainable. Utilising sheep in the stubbles and on the fallows, thereby clearing the land of wild oats and noxious weeds, is very general, as also is early sowing with the aid of the drill, depositing such chemical manures as are required by the soil to produce good and clean crops of superior grain. Ground so husbanded has yielded more than double the return in frequent instances, both of wheat and hay, and conduces to the fuller development of the staple products of the country, and consequently to the additional value of real estate. Not many years ago the use of artificial manures was, except to a few, unknown on farms ; at present about^l.OOO.OOO acres, or one-half of the entire crop, is so treated." An initial error made by the pioneer agriculturist was an attempt to transplant English methods of farming. Original blocks of 80 acres were surveyed, but it was not long before these " garden plots " were found to be quite inadequate to support a family with wheat as the only product. Then the pendulum swung the other way, and in some instances farms held by one person became too large in the best interests of the country, and often for the good of the owner. The ambition of the tiller of the soil was to be able to point to large fields of waving corn — to carry on his operations on an extensive scale. Quality was often sacrificed for quantity in the desire to cultivate a maximum area in a minimum period. Thus it came about that pros perity in agricultural centres was wont to be measured by the acreage sown. All this, how ever, belongs to the past, and methods of farming are not now the subject of reproach that they were 20 years ago. The acreage cultivated means far more in South Australia to-day than an equal area did 15, or even 10, years ago. In other words, the productive capacity of the farm ing country has been steadily increased, until our people are able to better understand what " intense culture " means. Said Professor Lowrie (till recently head of the State Agricultural College) — " If we get a return to one of our normal years the wheat acreage of South Australia, with the attention farmers are giving to manuring, will be raised to a degree that even the most sanguine scarcely expects. In a relatively few years we will find the wheat average in this country somewhere about llbush. or 12bush. to the acre, and it will involve very little more work than at present." 106 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Under an Act of Parliament passed in 1903 the Government is Buying Estates authorised to repurchase estates for closer settlement purposes, and for Farmers. UP *iu *ne eno^ °^ June» 1907, the provisions of the Act had been availed of to the extent of obtaining possession of 345,890 acres, nearly the whole of which is in well- watered country. In place of a comparatively few persons on the land prior to the repurchase of the estates, there was on June 30th, 1907, a population of 3,646 adults and children. The cost to the Government of acquiring these estates was close on £900,000, but the purchasers and lessees have on the whole fulfilled the covenants of their agreements and leases remarkably well, and arrears of rent and instalments of purchase-money represent only a fraction of the total indebtedness. New provinces have virtually been added to South Australia by the opening up of land in the Western Division, where a railway from the back country to the coast is nearing completion ; and the construction of a line of railway from near Murray Bridge, on the overland route to Melbourne, to Pinnaroo. Ever since the return of good seasons some years ago there has been a veritable land hunger. Prices of broad acres have advanced rapidly ; but so great has been the demand that many applicants for blocks have not been satisfied. Government survevs parties have been kept busy. In 1904 thev dealt with 460.694 acres ; in 1905, 570.907 acres ; in 1906, 518.607 acres : while the total for 1907 was still larger. Farmers Visiting the State Agricultural Farm, Roseworthy Agricultural College. South Australia is not an arid country. Its public estate includes Reclamation of wide expanses of swamp lands — land contiguous to the River Murray, Swamp Lands. DU* subject to inundation, and land in the South-East, with a bounti ful rainfall, but badly drained. A vigorous policy of drainage and reclamation is converting such sour and otherwise unprofitable land into smiling farms. The land authorities are persisting in the effort to successfully utilise valuable swamp country. A large area is situated on either side of the River Murray for nearly its whole length— a distance of about 350 miles — and it is capable, with moderate expenditure, of keeping many thousands of people. The Surveyor- General is of opinion that the area of low-lying land along the river valley between Wellington and the State boundary is, excluding freehold property, approximately 170,000 acres ; and, with an average outlay of about £6 an acre, that land would be worth, at the lowest calculation, £20 an acre, or £3,400,000. About 10 acres would keep a family (say of four persons), and the whole area should support a population of about 68,000. As the bulk of this land is Crown property, and the balance held on lease could easily be acquired, it is one of our most valuable assets. Up to the present close on 600 acres have been reclaimed, and nearlv the whole of the area has been allotted. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 107 JJrainage applied to the swamp lands adjacent to the River Murray has produced mar vellous results. Irrigation promises to become a significant factor in the agricultural industry of South Australia. In addition to the irrigation colony at Renmark, which will be dealt with separately, settlements are steadily multiplying in the valley of the Murray. What within the memory of young men was a wilderness — barren, inhospitable land, or swamps covered with useless rushes — is being made productive. The transformation scene has been worked so quietly and quickly that few people realise what the change really signifies. It is materially affecting the producing strength of South Australia. A few years ago Millicent — a typical centre of the drainage area in the South-East — was little better than a swamp, with here and there a hillock modestly raising its head out of the water, generously offering itself as a perch for the wildfowl to rest upon. The land, when not so covered, was sour and irresponsive to the persuasive devices of the cultivator. The town was small, and nothing ever happened to disturb the peaceful meditations of a somnolent Crop of Sorghum on Land Reclaimed from River Murray. people. To-day Millicent hums. There is a whirr and buzz everywhere you go. Out on the lowlands, where rank grass used to grow, you can get up to your knees in a lucerne patch or a rape crop. Where a mower and binder has been at work for a week an army could be hidden out of sight behind great stacks of hay, which stand close together, and are eloquent of the large yield which the paddock has produced. There are root crops as well as grain crops grown on the farms, lambs are being bred for the export trade, and more attention is now devoted to dairying. The more one sees what has been done the more impressed one becomes with the possibilities of this country. It is no reflection on the settlers to say that they have yet to realise the full extent of the natural resources of the district. Some of them have only begun to discover the capabilities of their land ; a few will not live long enough to do that, but those who take their places will find it out. Few problems have so exercised the minds of past and present legislators than the question of draining the lands of the; South-East, and yet it seems one of the surest and most profitable investments in which public money can possibly be em ployed. 108 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The area of unoccupied land in South Australia at the end of H6w Land is Held. 1906 represented 57-28 per cent, of the total landed estate, and in the Northern Territory 67-12 per cent. These figures are higher than the percentage for the whole of the Commonwealth ; but, as previously explained, large tracts of country are not suitable for occupation in the sense in which the term is popularly employed. The State is still the largest landowner, only 3-68 per cent, of the area of South Australia proper having been alienated, while 30-04 per cent, is under lease. The percentage for the Commonwealth in the former instance is 6-44 per cent., and in the latter 29-21 per cent. A comprehensive statement of the disposition of the public estate is officially supplied in the following : — Statement of Lands Sold, Geanted, Leased, and Available, on March 31st, 1907. On March 31st, 1907. Alienations held in fee simple (exclusive of 311,998 acres 3 roods 29 perches repurchased, together with 14,529 acres 22 perches of leasehold) for homestead and closer settle ment at £841,872 9s. ld. . . University lands Agricultural College lands Schools, institutes, &c. Renmark irrigation scheme Dedicated for commonage, Renmark settlement Dedicated under control of Conservator of Forests . . Held under credit agreements Held under agreements to purchase Held under agreements to purchase repurchased lands Right of purchase leases Scrub leases, with right of purchase, 21 years Special leases, with right of purchase, 21 years Homestead leases, with right of purchase, 21 years . . Homestead leases, with right of purchase, 21 years . . — Repurchased lands Homestead leases, perpetual Homestead leases, perpetual, repurchased lands Homestead leases, perpetual, closer settlement lands. . Perpetual leases Perpetual leases of closer settlement lands Perpetual leases of forest lands Perpetual leases of village settlement lands Miscellaneous leases Selectors' leases Grazing and cultivation leases Reserved lands (South-East) leases Aboriginal leases Pastoral leases Totals of land sold, &c. . . Surveyed roads, railways, and other reserves Open to allotment by the Land Board — Homestead lands Pinnaroo lands Other Crown lands Open under miscellaneous leases (for allotment or selection) Open to allotment by Pastoral Board . . Before Land Board for recommendation IVesh water lakes Salt lakes and lagoons Unleased vacant lands exolusive of above Total area of South Australia (exclusive of the Northern Territory) . . Number of Agreements Area in Acres. Purchase-money. or Leases £ s. d. 7,780,021 10,044,334 18 3 — 49,970 — — 50,000 — — 8,511 — — 13,348 — — 16,652 — — 167,973 — 24 10,193 8,794 6 2 1,110 618,196 343,576 4 6 691 168,829 458,138 14 1 Annual Rental. 7,144 4,676,282 25,746 8 6 154 62,433 — 1 989 25 19 3 1,526 25,747 1,500 6 9 142 1,903 442 18 6 541 ' '¦**. 8,674 625 5 4 130 808 435 12 5. 80 1,686 212 18 7 7,282 11,528,185 50,848 4 3 241 77,640 6,603 9 8' 148 55,104 1,175 16 9 91 17,420 144 5 0 1,725 1,435,101 7,104 1 9 193 74,704 767 14 6 27 79,481 207 15 8 15 28,086 214 16 7 24 505,476 11 5 0 516 77,171,910 23,848 4 11 21,805 104,835,322 119,915 4 3 1,400,500 — 2,207 — — 121,200 — — 2,192,648 — — 240,058 — — 16,328,320 — — 145,874 — — 224,000 — — 7,680,000 — — 110,074,671 — — 243,244,800 — S**«*«J&i ¦ m&fot*z~.'~'rr CARTING GRAIN TO MARKET. g5 SIo w a st— i ow(? ?3Od WINNOWING-CLEANING WHEAT FOR BAGGING. o 110 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. _ „ _ . South Australia possesses a stretch of country at least 500 itoom tor Expansion. miles long by an average of 60 mileg fo^ wherein agricul tural pursuits of every description can be followed. Beyond this limit the country is more suitable for mixed farming and pastoral pursuits. There is room for expansion — plenty of room for the making of homes and the building up of fortunes in a country where the climate is perfect. The agricultural lands hug the coastline, and the farthest grain-producing Farming district inland is well within 150 miles of a shipping port. The average dis- Lands. tance of grain transport by rail is about 50 miles, an important factor in reducing the transportation charges to a minimum. In the Central Division, which lies between the seacoast and the River Murray, the facilities for transit are excellent. The bulk of the arable land is situated within 15 miles of a railway station or a shipping port. It is within the Central Division that production has become most diversified. : ¦¦"¦¦ Fine Crop of Lucerne on Reclaimed Swamp Land near Murray Bridge. All this means cheapness of transit to the seaboard, thus materially reducing the cost of the grain by the time it is afloat. There are few countries in the world better situated in the matter of climate, soil, and machinery for the cheap production of grain ; and proximity of the cultivated territory to the seaboard is a great factor when prices are. governed — as they are always when there is a surplus available for export — from Mark Lane. Further reference to the. cost of pro duction is made in the section devoted to cereal production. Wheat is the principal crop cultivated, but production is becoming more Diversified diversified every year. The farmer does not carry his eggs in one basket Farming. to anything like the extent he once did, and " minor " industries are as suming an importance which will, at the present rate of progress, no longer justify the use of that term. Most farmers now run a flock of sheep on their holdings, while the opening up of new outlets oversea for perishable produce which comparatively recently A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. Ill threatened to glut the local market has been responsible for the virtuarcreation of a new class of rural producers. In the following table, is shown the area of land devoted to cultivation in South Australia at selected periods : — Perce itaRi'. Increiise (i ¦ Di crease. 1884-:.. 189C-7. 1900-7. * 1897 on 1885. 1907 on 1897. Acres. Acres. Acres. 1'er cent. Vr cent. Wheat 1,942,453 1 ,693,045 1,681,982 , - 12 - -65 Hay 308,429 339,257 295,895 + 9 - 12 Oats 7,2C,4 40,215 57,000 453 + 41 Barley 15,697 14,484 28,122 - 7 + 93 Fallow 450,530 512,561 1,065,921 + 13 + 107 Total cereals 2,724,379 2,599,562 3,128,920 - 4 + 20 Vines 4,590 18,333 22,575 + 299 + 23 Green forage 33,296 27,398 41,(164 + 17 + 52 Garden 4,942 6,669 8,379 + 34 + 25 Orchard 5,825 1 1,746 18,199 + 101 + 54 Potatoes 5,666 6,417 9,894 + 13 + 54 Peas 4,(101 3,519 7,109 - 30 + 102 Totals 2,785,490 2,584,395 3,2;i!),891 - 7 + 25 111 connection with this table it should be explained that official statistics of production were not collected in 1886, so that an earlier period has had to be selected as the starting point. Ten years ago the State was afflicted with a drought of unusual severity, but a complete recovery has since been made and many valuable lessons have been taken to heart by the " man on the land," not the least important of which is that more attention must be paid to diversified pro duction. The differences in the acreages have been expressed in percentages, so that there may be some common basis of comparison. At the 1901 census the number of persons engaged in primary "Value Of production was 49,161, or 13 per cent, of the total population. Primary Products. By far the greater number were engaged in agriculture — 34,186 ; dairying and poultry-farming claiming 2,868 ; and pastoral pursuits 4,193. The average number of acres cultivated per person engaged was 69-3 — the, highest for any of the Australian States. This State also leads in the average value of agricultural produce per head of population. Allowing the same proportion of people to be engaged in primary pro duction at present as six years ago, the^total would appear to be 49,996, and those following agriculture 34,612. The result of the labor of these 50,000 people last season and on the basis of prices then ruling is a wonderful tribute to the growth of the agricultural industry in South Australia. The increase in the acreage devoted to the various crops does not, how- Wealth from ever, completely explain the advance which has taken place of recent years the Soil. m nu'al industries. The application of scientific methods to farming, the rotation of crops, water conservation, selection of localities best suited to particular products, and other up-to-date methods are responsible for an acre of land being more productive than hitherto. If one proof of this were required it would be found in the greatly increased price of land. While the prices of commodities have had an upward tendency of recent years rural industries would not have returned such a profit if at the same time the productiveness of the soil had not been increased. It will, therefore, be interesting to see exactly what the State is producing, and for this purpose the crops of last season are compared with the average of two quinquennial periods, the influence of exceptional seasons being by this 112 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. means minimised. Unfortunately in the earliest period statistics were not collected on as broad 'a basis as they are at present, but in any case the following table is one of which any people might be proud : — WheatHay Barley Oats Peas Potatoes . . Almond trees Almonds . . Orange trees Apple trees ApplesLemon trees Lemons . . Olive trees Olive oil . . Hives of bees Honey Vines bearing " not bearing Wine made Currants dried Raisins made ButterCheese Wattle bark 1880-1885. 1900-1905, Five Years' Five Years' 1906-7. Average. Average. (bush.) 10,664,128 10,170,691 17,145,796 (tons) 286,027 356,585 395,766 (bush.) 164,705 321,251 491,246 (bush.) 57,933 582,987 896,166 (bush.) 55,380 74,009 140,367 (tons) 19,841 21,774 22,277 123,320 152,405 199,413 (cwts.) 2,149 5,726 7,010 — 109,490 161,200 (cases) — 72,572 114,150 — — 755,930 (cases) — — 311,538 — 61,330 65,955 (cases) — 29,937 37,378 44,956 61,740 83,153 (galls.) 1,175 11,622 16,161 — 26,700 24,107 (lbs.) — 857,702 1,088,489 3,216,122 9,207,935 10,599,712 369,451 1,215,908 1,523,999 (galls.) 398,699 2,096,599 2,441,504 (cwts.) — 6,405 23,281 (cwts.) 588 9,758 16,123 (lbs.) — 5,566,660 8,873,632 (lbs.) — 922,838 1,398,785 (tons) — 8,324 7,274 (ch. XI.) CULTIVATORS AT WORK. Modern "Aids" have Helped the Farmer to Greatly Reduce Cost of Production. {J. Marshall, Photo. Chapter XI AIDS TO AGRICULTURE. [EFORE passing on to a review of the various industries which come naturally under the head of agriculture, it will be interesting to briefly refer to a few potent " aids " to farming. There is the influence which artificial manures have had in restoring fertility to over-worked soil, while no reference to the agricultural industry would be complete which omitted to direct special attention to the remarkable evolution in farm machinery. South Australia has led the way in both. The stripper was invented in this State, and has been perfected here. Similarly, the stump-jumping plough, which has been the means of revolutionising farming in the scrub lands of Australia. Just at a time when it seemed as if the agricultural industry had got into a blind alley — as if the limit of production had been reached — science came upon the scene and provided a key capable of fitting every lock. Unknown portals flew open and showed a clear passage where apparently insurmountable obstacles had previously blocked all progress. To Mr. A. Molineux — at that time agricultural editor of the Adelaide Observer — great credit is due. He was the first man to preach the gospel of hope to rural producers. He did more than preach ; he demonstrated and Kleven-furrow Stump-jump Plough, Covering about 8ft. in Width. [Ziegler, Photo. proved. It was Mr. Molineux who founded the Agricultural Bureau system, promoting experiments which led to the introduction of so many improvements in the growing of cereals, and in fruit culture. One success led on to another, so that, from having been a class of sceptics, rural producers took a pride in adopting new methods. Science continues to be a mighty lever in agricultural fields, and it is only those who are ignorant of the forces at work who doubt the future of the rural producer in these lands. No Australian State has a better agricultural record, while in South Australia the cost of production is lower than elsewhere. Fertilisers have had an important influence on the fortunes of producers. Artificial They have helped more than anything else to bring about a revival in Manures. agricultural pursuits. Constant cropping had exhausted the soil. The farmer in many parts sowed but reaped not, and the average production of the State began to suffer. Fallowing was resorted to in order to check the drift. There was a recovery, but not sufficient to compensate for the rapid decline which took place about H 114 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. the same time in the price of wheat. The position became critical, but the dawn followed the darkest hour in the agricultural history of the State. In 1879 an Experimental Farm and Agricultural College were established at Roseworthy, distant some 30 miles north of the city. Professor Custance was the first Principal, and in his first report he stated—" Perhaps the most important result is the beneficial effect of bonedust and guano, 5cwts. of each, which pro duced 26bush. per acre. Should this result be confirmed next season it would indicate the value of phosphates and nitrogen in increasing the wheat crop. Probably mineral phosphates and nitrate of soda may be found in the colony. If so, by means of the application of about l^cwts. of nitrate of soda and 5cwts. of phosphates per acre on well- cultivated lands^the yield of wheat may be increased considerably, in many districts as much as 50 per cent." In his next report, 1883, Professor' Custance wrote—" Wheat may be grown year after year on the same land under certain conditions with profit to the farmer, one of the conditions being a cheap A Motor-power Winnower— 3J-brake Horse-power Engine. This winnower will clean over "l,000 bushels of wheat per day. [Gordon Bails, Photo. supply of suitable manure — that is, manure containing the ingredient deficient in the soil and required by the wheat plant, which proves to be phosphoric acid." In 1885 the same authority wrote — " Some important facts will be noticed, notwithstanding the unfavorable season, such as the yield of 22bush. per acre from 3cwts. of superphosphates . . . The quantity of superphosphates used, viz., 3cwts., costing, at 4s. per hundredweight, 12s. per acre, should induce farmers to give this manure a fair trial. After numerous experiments carefully con ducted during the last four years, I can strongly recommend superphosphates as the cheapest and best manure for the wheat crop." Professor Lowrie, who succeeded Professor Custance at the Agricultural College, enthusiastically worked along the same line, and did yeoman service for the State. In 1894 he put the following opinion on record : — " The phosphatic manures are found specially suitable under our South Australian conditions. The practice of bare fallowing and the absence of under- drainage and summer leaching of the nitrates in the soil A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 115 are the means of maintaining a relatively high proportion of nitrogen in the soil, and experience is leading us more and more to the use of phosphatic manures in relatively high proportion compared with nitrogenous manure. Speaking generally, it is more from deficiency of phos phates than any other element of plant food that our average wheat yield in the colony is so unfortunately and discreditably low." In a paper read before the Agricultural Bureau Congress in 1896, Professor Lowrie observed — " The phosphatic manures are the most beneficial in the first instance at least. In all districts where the rainfall exceeds 15in. or 16in., I believe it will be found, if the cost of carriage of the manure be not prohibitive, that manures can be profitably used for wheat ; and in all hay-growing districts I have not the slightest hesitation in saying that no practice open to us is more profitable, as far as agriculture proper extends, than the regular judicious use of artificial manures. For grain probably ljcwt. to 2cwts. will be found a good useful dressing for an acre." Subsequently Professor Lowrie — in the light of further experiments conducted by himself — declared : — " We only want a good season to thoroughly establish the confidence our farmers now feel in the use of artificial manures. I am sure that with a fair season the wheat average will be nearly double what it would have been had the practice of farmers been what it was eight or ten years ago." Whilst this educational process was at work at the Agricultural College, enterprising farmers were supplying practical demonstrations. Farmers on Yorke's Peninsula led the way, and in no part of the State have fertilisers worked so wonderful a change. A few years ago land on Yorke's Peninsula, which is now firmly held at £5 to £8 per acre, could not be sold at 25s. per acre. Artificial manure, and that alone, was responsible for the change in land values, and a corresponding movement has taken place in other parts of the State. In 1894 11 acres were drilled in with wheat and superphosphate to the extent of 901bs. per acre. The result was satis factory, and next year the area was extended to 200 acres. It is estimated that about 1,456,000 acres are annually treated with artificial manures. The following table shows the acreage under cultivation, the quantity of artificial manures used, and the acreage treated in the years stated : — Acreage Under Cultivation. Tons Used. Acres Manured. 1898 2,148,000 12,500 250,000 1900 2,298,000 24,600 500,000 1902 2,144,000 37,500 845,000 1904 2,154,000 52,000 1,170,000 1906 2,063,000 59,000 1,321,000 1908 2,154,000 68,000 1,456,000 The percentage of " manured land " increased from 11-6 per cent, in 1898 to 54-4 per cent, in 1904, and 67-6 per cent, in 1908. A tempting bonus was offered by the Government to the discoverer of a payable phos phate mine, and this amount has been paid to a prospector on Northern Yorke's Peninsula. Several other phosphate claims are being worked with excellent results. The introduction of fertilisers led to a largely increased demand for seed drills. The machinist has ever been a good friend to the agriculturist. Early in the forties there was an agricultural crisis, and so serious did the position become that an official decree went forth pro hibiting the exportation of wheat ! From 4,000 acres under grain in 1841, the area under cultivation rose to 14,000 in the next year. The problem of harvesting the crop by means of the ancient sickle, and in the absence of a supply of laborers was apparently insolvable. Imperial soldiers then doing duty in South Australia were ordered— if not to actually turn swords into ploughshares and spears From the Primitive Sickle to the Modern Harvester. 116 .SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE". into pruning hooks — to go out into tne fields and assist to gather in the harvest. Harvesting charges ranged up to £2 per acre. It was doubtful whether, in view of their experiences, land owners would sow wheat the following year. The necessity of some contrivance to aid producers in harvesting having been made so apparent, a body called the " Corn Exchange Committee " took the matter up with zeal, and announced, through the columns of The Register, that they would be prepared to give a reward for the best invention to be exhibited to the committee. Thirteen persons presented models and drawings of various machines, but the committee came to the conclusion that there was none which they were justified in recommending for general adoption. In the meantime, Mr. John Ridley, a miller, of Hindmarsh, who did not compete, built a working machine, on the principle of stripping the heads off the straw. He acknowledged his indebtedness for the idea to an article in an encyclopaedia, in which was the cut of a machine used in ancient days on the plains of Gaul. This was at once a complete success. The machine was propelled by a pole from behind, the pole being supported on two wheels. Two horses did the work. Mr. Ridley presented the invention to the public, and got no profit out of it except a margin on the actual implements which he made and sold. Describing the first public trial of this stripper, the late Mr. Francis Dutton said — " One afternoon during the summer of 1843-4, some friends met in Adelaide and asked me to join them in their ride to a neighboring farm where Mr. Ridley's The Original Ridley Reaper. reaping machine, which they said both reaped and threshed the corn at the same time, was successfully at work. It was not generally known at that time what the machine was, and, although we were all incredulous, we started to see with our own eyes how far the reports we had heard were correct. Presently we saw from several quarters other horsemen all steering to the same point. By the time we reached the farm a large ' field ' had mustered to witness the proceedings, and there, sure enough, was the machine at work, by the agency of two horses and two men — one to guide the horses and the other the machine ! There was no mistake about it — the heads of the corn were threshed perfectly clean ; and, a winnowing machine being at hand, the corn was transferred out of the reaping into the latter machine, and carts were ready to convey the cleaned wheat to the mill, two miles off, where the wheat, which an hour before was waving in the fields in all the lustre of golden tints, was by Mr. Ridley's steam- mill ground into flour. Never before was, perhaps, such a revolution in the appliances of agriculture caused as was done by this machine ; success attended the very first trial of it, and during seven days it reaped and threshed the 70 acres of wheat of which the paddock was composed." In The Register of January 30th, 1844, it is stated that the following resolution had been passed at a meeting of the South Australian Association the previous evening : — " That in the opinion of the Society the machine for reaping and threshing wheat in the field, invented by Mr. Ridley, is calculated to assist agriculturists and benefit the province in enabling the grain to be brought to the place of shipment at a price which will afford encouragement A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS, 117 for a speedy extension of grain culture for exportation, and that Mr. Ridley is entitled to the thanks of this Society for his invention." There is no room for doubting that the stripper, 6r'< reaping machine, from which the complete harvester was evolved, is a South Australian atfd not an American invention. New hope was given to settlers, and agriculture progressed bv leaps Reducing Cost and bounds, the "area under wheat" being nearly doubled in one Of Production, year. The late Captain Bagot wrote a letter to The Register giving his experience of the machine in the following harvest, 1844. He said that he reaped a field of 39$ acres of wheat in nine days, and obtained 843bush. of. good clean, grain. He figured out the cost thus : — £ «. d. Two men with the machine, one to steer and the other to drive, nine days, at 2s. 6d. each Use of the machine, at 2s. 6d. per acre Cost of stripping 843bush. Or a little more than 2d. per bushel. Three men were employed for 12 days winnowing and carting in the corn to the store. £ .-. d. Three men, 12 days each, at 2s. (SA. . . . . . . . . . . 4 10 0 Use of winnowing machirife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 0 25 50 00 £7 5 0 Cost of winnowing . . •' . . . . . . . . £5 10 0 Or less than lid. per bushel. ^=^^ Thus the Ridley stripper at once reduced the cost of harvesting from 2s. per bushel to 3id., or for a 20bush. crop from £2 per acre to 5s. lOd. ! No wonder Captain Bagot spoke of the " extraordinary value of Mr. Ridley's admirable invention " ! From the Ridley machine sprang the splendid strippers which are now to be seen all over Australia and the " complete harvester " at present commanding attention. ' In the fifties the late Hon. James Martin obtained £150 for the first reaper he made. To-day the greatly improved modern machine can be bought for a third of that price. The principle of propulsion from behind soon gave way to a side application of motive power. Then followed the thimble comb, which prevented a loss of grain. A simplification of the machine enabled one man to steer and regulate, whilst a reduction in the draught lessened the number of horses required. The addition of the " damp weather gear " followed. This enables stripping to be done in cold weather, when the straw is not so brittle as it is on a hot day. South Australian makers export a large number of strippers every year to neighboring States and Argentina. From the perfected stripper, or reaping machine, to the " harvester " — a combination of stripper and winnower — appears a simple evolution. The adaptation cost the machinist a great deal in time and money. The advantages of being able to strip, clean, and bag a crop in one operation have long been recognised, but accompanying disadvantages and difficulties prevented such a machine coming into extensive use until recently. South Australia took the lead in endeavoring to produce such a machine, for late in the seventies the Government offered a bonus of £4,000 to the successful inventor of a machine that would reap, thresh, clean, and bag in one operation. As the outcome of this offer three trials were held in December, 1879, at the farm of Mr. John Riggs, near Gawler. On the 17th there were 14 machines entered and on the 23rd 10 competed. The result of these tests was that the judges — Messrs. E. W. Pitt, Robert Smith, James Clark, William Fergusson, and John Riggs — selected four machines to be tried again on the 24th. The judges, in their report to the Commissioner of Crown Lands, were of the opinion that no machine as exhibited to them did its work in such a manner as to entitle the owner to the £4,000 offered. Of the machines exhibited those which possessed the most merit stood in this order : — George Marshall, of Alma ; J. H. Adamson, of Auburn ; George Phillipson, jun., of Wangaratta, Victoria ; James Martin & Co. of Gawler. To these exhibi tors the judges recommended that the following awards should be made : — Marshall, £100 ; Adamson, £70 ; Phillipson, £50 ; Martin & Co., £30. The adjudicators also recommended that, considering the amount of money spent by some of the competitors and the importance 118 SOUTH AUSTRALIA— THE CENTRAL STATE. of labor-saving machinery, trials should be arranged for the following harvest. Among the machines which the liberal bonus attracted was a monster implement from America, which required 14 horses to draw it. South Australian machinists were not to be denied, however, more particularly when Victorian competitors came into the field. After repeated attempts and some failures, " complete harvesters," fulfilling all requirements, have been made available, and a large number of them are in use in South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales. An important auxiliary to the stripper is the winnower. This machine has occupied an important place among the implements on the farm. The climate of South Australia is par-. ticularly favorable to the gathering of grain crops. The weather at harvest time is dry. There is little or no humidity. When the wheat is reaped by the stripper — that is, the heads taken off and threshed — the grain mixed with chaff is placed in heaps. As soon as convenient the winnower is brought into requisition, and it separates the wheat from the chaff. A Modern Stripper.— Evolved from the Ridley Reaper. Haymaking has also been simplified in the great fields of The Stumpjumper. Australia. English methods were quite inadequate to cope with the work to be accomplished. First there was the scythe and hand-rakes. Then came the old-fashioned mowing-machine and horserake. These have been completely superseded by the binder, which does all the work in the one operation. Not the least important "aid to agriculture" in. South Australia is the stump- jumping plough. The early settlers used wooden implements similar to those which did service in ancient Egypt. Wooden ploughs and harrows were manufactured in South Australia, but they soon became relics, and as such they still command a small value. The two-furrow was quickly followed by the three, four, and five, but the most significant development took place when the mallee scrub lands were occupied. For a time settlers cut down the trees and dug out the roots, but this process proved costly and tedious. Scrub farming in the mallee lands of Australia would astonish an English farmer. Mallee scrub consists of light timber varying in size from whip- sticks up to timber a few inches in diameter. At first the practice was to cut down the trees and grub up the roots, but soon South Australia led the way in a new system which revolu tionised agriculture in the mallee lands of the Continent, A man named Mullens cut down tbe A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 119 trees on his scrub sections level with the ground, and, taking a V-shaped log, he drove long spikes through it. He hitched the horses on to the pointed end of the V-log and dragged the home-made implement over the stump-covered field. The wheat thus scratched in did well, and the crop yielded a good return. There was no difficulty in working a reaping machine over the stumps and stripping the grain. This system of farming in the scrub country was termed " Mullenising." Its simplicity, cheapness, and effectiveness soon caused it to become popular. The next evolution was the rolling down of the light mallee by means of heavy rollers — old boilers from a mill furnace proved the most serviceable, and they were eagerly sought Clearing Light Scrub Prior to Cultivation. [Dabovich, Photo. ¦The heavy timber frame shown above is shod with steel plate. This cuts or drags up all before it. When the brush is dry it is burnt, and the land is then ready for ploughing. Horses or bullocks are also used for this work. These implements are made to clear from 12ft. to 30ft., according to the power employed. after. The owner of a good roller had no difficulty in obtaining contracts for the levelling of the mallee. The roller was pushed in front of bullocks or horses, and the scrub was flattened down. When the timber was dry enough a fire was started, and in the early days of this system this practice led to a number of disastrous bush fires. Traction engines drawing huge rollers are now used for breaking down mallee scrub. The V-shaped log soon gave place to improved implements of the stump-jumping class, and so perfect have these become that fields full of mallee roots below the surface can be cultivated as successfully as meadow lands. The problem which presented itself when the timber had been cleared off was how to cultivate the land with the roots still in the ground. The brothers Smith, on Yorke's Peninsula— Messrs. R. B. and C. H.— solved the difficulty by inventing and perfecting a stump-jumping plough. There is more than one claimant for the honor of having introduced this exceedingly useful invention. It is contended, on behalf of Mr. R. B. Smith, that his plough, " The Vixen," made in June, 1876, was the pioneer. He registered his invention on February 19th, 1877. This secured him for 12 months, but on account of the difficulties and expenses attending the taking 120 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. t out of patents under the old Act, he did not apply for one. Mr. J. W. Stott, formerly of Alma, claims to have made the first practicable stump-jump plough, and supplied a large number of these implements to farmers. Mr. Shapland is another who has urged his rights to be con sidered the inventor of the principle. Messrs. Martin & Co., of Gawler, assert that they were the first to put the idea into practical form, and that they did so at the instance of Mr. Mullen, of Wasleys, the father of the process of scrub-clearing known as " Mullenising." No matter to whom the idea originally occurred, or whether it was thought of by two or more at the same time, the stump-jump plough has, next to that of the stripper, been the most valuable invention in connection with our agricultural industry. It is a coincidence that neither of these were patented, and that the public received the benefit of them without any reduction for royalties. Mr. R. B. Smith worked very hard at his idea, and it was unfortunate for him that his implement did not immediately achieve the success it subsequently obtained, as he would have then been encouraged to take advantage of the full protection of the Patent Act. In a letter he wrote later he remarked, somewhat pathetically — " My invention has cost me some money, some anxiety, and condemned my little ones to all the miseries of poverty and banishment in the bush, whereas if I had been a successful cricketer, a good bowler, or a rifle-shooter" "without pluck, a Blondin, or an acrobat, I and mine would have escaped these ills." Ploughing with Multi-furrow Plough. W. S. Smith, Photo. The above shows a 12-furrow Plough working in light land. Six horses are drawing this plough, which, however, is only turning over the ground a few inches in depth. In 1882 Parliament voted Mr. Smith £500. Perhaps no one has done more than did the late Mr. C. H. Smith, of Ardrossan, to improve the stumpjumper and make it the popular imple ment it is to-day. Messrs. R. B. and C. H. Smith were working together in 1876, and it was from the interchange of ideas between the two brothers that the first stumpjumper is said to have originated. Certain it is that Mr. C. H. Smith is entitled to much credit for the present position which this implement occupies. His factory is now under the contrcl of his sons. Professor Lowrie observed in one of his annual reports — " Our leading farmers are satisfied that they get a better seed bed hy the use of the multiple plough in place of the scarifier. On land where the dandelion or Cape weed is plentiful it will be found far superior to the scarifier as a means of cleaning the fallows in autumn, and, indeed, wherever there is a growth of vegeta tion fairly established, and especially in damp weather, the scarifier is not in it with the multiple plough." The improvements which South Australian manufacturers have effected in the plough, and its kindred cultivators, the scarifier and harrows, must have cheapened the cost of cultiva tion very considerably. The introduction of the seedsower, which has displaced the old and laborious process of hand-seeding, has also saved valuable time and secured greater efficiency. The net result of these improved " aids " to agriculture has been a substantial reduction in the Cost of production, and has added interest to farming pursuits in South Australia, [ch. xii.) HARVESTING A WHEAT CROP. f Chas. P. Scott, Photo. Chapter XII. CULTIVATION OF CEREALS. fg»OW that South Australia is a large exporter of cereals, the value of shipments of breadstufis during the past decade having exceeded £14,500,000, it is instructive to note that on September 7th, 1839, an Act was passed " in Council " and signed by Governor Gawler, " To impose certain Rates and Duties upon Wheat and other Grain, Flour Meal, and Biscuit exported from the Province of South Aus tralia, and to prevent the clandestine exportation of the same." The preamble -" Whereas the present scarcity of wheat and flour in this province renders it most urgent for the public welfare that the improvident exportation of these articles should be checked in consequence of the constant increase of population therein, and its almost total dependence upon external supply," &c. Power was given to the Governor to " fix such sets Out- Stripping and Winnowing Wheat. [ TV. S. Smith, Photo. rates and duties " as " shall seem fit and expedient on all cereals exported." Persons intending to ship such produce had to give four days' notice, and any omission to do this rendered[them liable to forfeit the goods and " pay treble the value of the article so attempted to be shipped." The provisions of this Statute were carefully worded in order to guard against " clandestine exportation " of cereals. Within 12 years of this peculiar decree grain grown in South Aus tralia took first prize in London against the world ! This was at the great Exhibition of 1851 promoted by the late Prince Consort. A few years later and this State had firmly established its claim to be regarded as the granary of Australia. From that time onward South Australian wheat has enjoyed a world-wide reputation for quality. The favorable character of soil and climate enables the farmer to develop the wheat plant to a high standard. For milling into a " straight " flour there is no grain in the world to excel that produced in this State, It commands a high The Granary of Australia. 122 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. price in Mark Lane, and is in demand throughout the Commonwealth for seed purposes. The official " standard weight " of wheat annually fixed by the Chamber of Commerce of various States has averaged 62|lbs. in South Australia for 20 years, 621bs. in Victoria for 17 years, and 61£lbs. in New South Wales for eight years. South Australia has the largest cultivated area in proportion Cultivated Area. to population of any of the Australian States. According to the latest figures the average area in cultivation (exclusive of artificial grasses) to each person at the end of 1906 was in South Australia 8.46 acres. Vic toria was next with 3 . 47 acres per capita. It was Mark Twain who declared that " farming is healthy work, but no man can run a farm and wear his best clothes at the same time." The underlying truth in that remark has been well observed by the average South Australian rural producer. He is a hard worker. Delivery of Wheat at a Railway Station. The agricultural industry would not be in the prosperous condition it is were it not for the energy, skill, and enterprise of the farmer. If labor-saving machinery has helped the grain-grower to minimise the cost of production and lighten his labors, science has also come to his aid. By products of the farm have greatly assisted in making agricultural pursuits more profitable as well as more interesting. The struggle is not such an uphill one as it was, so that a man of ordinary intelligence and a little capital can do well and live a healthy life in following farming pursuits in this State. The production of wheat early received the attention of the pioneer. In 1838 20 acres were under wheat. The following year about 120 acres yielded at the rate of 25bush. per acre. Wheat was worth 15s. per bushel in the local market. All doubts concerning the fer tility of the soil were soon removed, but as the area of cultivation extended fresh difficulties arose. Mr. Francis Dutton, writing in 1846, said — " The farmers all knew that the land would grow corn in abundance : but they put in their grain with fear and trembling, not knowing but that when the crops were ripe the half of them might be shed before they could get sufficient Production of Wheat. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 123 hands to reap them." The invention of the stripping machine helped to solve the labor problem, and from that time the " area under cultivation " rapidly expanded. As new hundreds were surveyed and thrown open for selection farmers moved further away from the centres of settlement, and within 20 years of the proclamation of the province breadstufis to the value of £556,000 were shipped abroad. In 1864 exports totalled £1,464,000. The area under wheat had by that time increased to 390,000 acres. During the next 10 years the area under culti vation was more than doubled, and over 6,000,000bush. of wheat were reaped. By 1884 the acreage under grain had risen to 1,942,453, and the production was 14,621, 755bush., or an average yield for the whole State of 7 . 53bush. Shipments of grain in 1883 reached a value of £2,491,896. The following table shows acreage sown for wheat, the total yield, and the average per acre in the seasons named : — Year. Acreage. Produce. Average. Year. Acreage. Produce. Average. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. 1884-5 1,942,453 14,621,755 7.53 1900-1 1,913,247 11,253,148 5.88 1889-90 1,842,96 1 14,577,358 7.91 1901-2 1,743,452 8,012,762 4.60 1890-1 1,673,573 9,399,389 5.62 1902-3 1,746,842 6,354,912 3.64 1891-2 1,552,423 6,436,488 4.15 1903-4 1,711,174 13,209,465 7.72 1892-3 1,520,580 9,240,108 6.08 1904-5 1,840,157 12,023,172 0.53 1896-7 1,693,045 2,804.493 1 . 60 11)05-0 1 ,757,036 20,143,798 11.40 1897-8 1,522,668 4,014,852 2.64 1900-7 1,686,374 17,466,501 10.30 1898-9 1,788,770 8,778,900 4.91 1907-8 1,723.489 19,098,547 11.08 1899-1900 . . 1,821,137 8,453,135 4.04 The foregoing are official figures gathered by the Statistical Department of the Government. Every care is exercised by the officers in their compilation, but there is an impression abroad that the tendency of the official information collected direct from the farmers is to understate actual production. Unofficial estimates of the harvest of 1906-7 was that approximately 20,000,000bush. were produced ; while the results of the 1907-8 harvest is given as 1,850,000 acres, 20,720,000bush., giving an average yield per acre of llbush. 121bs. The summary of wheat-production during the past 46 years illustrates the growing impor tance of this industry : — SHIPMENTS Breadstuffs. Average Acres. Bushels. Average Yield. Annual Rainfall Price per (Port (Adelaide). Tons Value. Adelaide). 1861-1865 353,600 19,785,248 11.20 21.03 329,762 £ 4,748,831 6 7 1866-1870 . 535,603 24,328,799 9.08 19.15 342,748 4,220,176 5 4 1871-1875 . 795,112 39,484,334 9.93 22.63 711,280 7,471,992 5 2 1876-1880 . 1,348,973 47,091,784 6.98 20.67 811,633 8,311,589 5 4 1881-1885 . 1,837,226 49,875,134 5.43 18.95 941,018 7,921,981 4 7 1886-1890 . 1,808,307 60,010,747 6.64 22.26 1,032,777 8,192,353 4 0 1891-1895 . 1,558,724 43,005,181 5.52 19.81 728,492 4,618,714 3 4 1896-1900 . 1,747,773 35,304,528 4.04 18.37 589,397 3,470,630 3 6 1901-1905 . 1,759,732 59,744,289 6.79 20.42 1,262,681 8,580,259 3 8 1906-1907 . 1,686,374 17,466,501 10.36 26.51 438,415 2,784,854 3 6 1907-1908 . 1,723,489 19,098,547 11.08 — During the 46 years (1861-1906) the total number of acres of wheat sown was 60,411,627 acres, off which 396,096,545bush. were reaped, giving an average yield for the acreage sown of 6.56bush. per acre. The average rainfall (Adelaide) was 20.55 inches. The quantity of breadstuffs shipped during the same period was 5,487,107 tons, of the total value of £48,956,268, and the average price of wheat at Port Adelaide 4s. 9d. per bushel. The table affords an opportunity of comparing the results of the first 20 years (1861-1880) with those of the following 25 years, and of tracing some of the movements in wheat-growing in that period. During the first half 15, 166,441 acres were sown, producing 130,690,165bush., averaging 8.62 to the acre, the average rainfall being 20.87 inches ; 2,195,423 tons of breadstuffs were exported, £24,752,588 value, the price 124 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. of wheat averaging 5s. 7d. per bushel. In the next half 34,760,151 acres were sown, yielding 188,195,590bush., or 5.41bush. per acre ; the average rainfall was 19.85 inches, and 3,291,684 tons of breadstuffs, value £24,203,680, were shipped, the price of wheat averaging 3s. lOd per bushel. It will be interesting at this stage to inquire what is the average cost of Oost of production. There are few countries where the cost of growing cereals Production. ^s lower than it is in South Australia. Mr. T. A. Coghlan, the late Statistician of New South Wales and now Agent-General in London for that State, writing in 1896, said- — " Owing to favorable conditions of culture, a yield of 7bush. in South Australia is financially as satisfactory as one of 15bush. in New South Wales, or of 20bush. in New Zealand." This was the experience almost from the first, but in later years economies on the farm have been made possible as the result of the introduction of labor-saving machinery. Mr. Coghlan's statement is confirmed by the experience of Professor Lowrie, at one time head of the Agricultural?Department in South Australia and now Principal of the Lincoln Agricultural College. In giving evidence in a case brought by the Canterbury Agricul tural Laborers' Union against the farmers for higher wages, he said — " Many people hope lessly overestimated the results which a farmer got from his property. He doubted very much whether the average farmer in Canterbury, working on land at its present selling value, had an income of 6 per cent, on the capital value after his own labor had been given in free. On coming to New Zealand six years ago he had expected to find more profitable conditions, especially when the yields of the farms were stated at about 90bush. of oats to the acre and 60bush. of wheat, but the conditions under which these results were obtained, the high price of land, the cost of labor, and the amount of labor required made the story read considerably different. Working £6,000 worth of land in Australia, his total sales were greater than when he worked £27,000 worth of land in New Zealand." The reference to Australia is really to Eoseworthy College, where the land is not regarded as first-class. Staok Containing Over 500,000 Bushels of Wheat at Wallaroo. [Govt. Photo. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 125 A prominent farmer was paid in the early days £1 an acre for harvesting with a sickle and Is. a bushel for threshing with a flail, equal tojj£2 an acre for a 20bush. crop. Taking figures made public by the late Captain Bagot as a basis, the cost (minus rent, taxes, and seed) in 1842 worked out thus : — Ploughing and sowing, per bushel Harvesting £0 2 5 In 1843, with the Ridley reaper, the cost per bushel figured out as follows : — £ s. d. Ploughing and sowing . . . . . . . . . . . . ..005 Harvesting 0 0 31 £ a. d. 0 0 5 0 2 0 £0 0 £ ¦f. d. .. 0 2 H .. 0 0 2 .. 0 0 H .. 0 I H .. 0 0 5 .. £0 4 11* £ s. d I) s 3 (I I) 10 0 4 0 0 1 10 £0 15 5 A few years ago a leading farmer on Yorke's Peninsula published some interesting statistics concerning the cultivation of 1,000 acres of land by himself. The particulars were in detail, and bore the impress of actual experience. The mechanical operations of his farm cost him as follows : — Ploughing, per acre Sowing HarrowingReapingWinnowing Cost per acre This was generally regarded as being below the cost of the average farm in South Australia. The following estimate was given by a well-known farming authority in the Lower North, where holdings are smaller : — Cultivation, including ploughing, scarifying, harrowing, providing for fallow SowingReaping (say 18bush ) Winnowing Total per acre Or 9Jd. per bushel. This may be taken as a fair estimate of the purely mechanical opera tions of the farm in those districts where temporary soil exhaustion was a few years ago plainly indicated. Another estimate, made by a farmer of the Lower North, places the cost of wheat production on fallow land as follows : — Land cropped every third year — One and three-quarters' rent at 5s. per Ploughing, at 5s. per acre Harrowing, at 9d. per acre Cultivating, at 2s. per acre Harrowing at 9d. per acre Seeding. — Cultivating, at 2s. per acre Harrowing, at 9d. per acre Drilling, at Is. 6d. per acre lbush. of seed wheat, at 3s. 56-601bs. manure Harvesting, at 5s. per acre Bags and twine Carting, at 4d. per bag Eighteen bushels of wheat at 3s. per bushel . . Leaving a credit balance of £ s. d. 0 8 9 0 5 0 . 0 0 9 0 2 0 . 0 0 9 0 2 0 . 0 0 9 0 1 6 0 3 0 . 0 2 6 0 5 0 . 0 2 6 . 0 1 8 £1 16 2 2 14 0 . £0 17 10 126 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Production at 18bush. per acre and price at 3s. are both moderate. The transformation which has taken place in methods of farming of recent years has reduced costs to the farmer, and has made small holdings financially possible. A farmer not 50 miles north of Adelaide, where there are a number of holdings of from 200 to 500 acres in extent, undertook not long ago to prove what it was possible to make on a farm of 350 acres by cereal-growing, it being understood that the farmer had his live stock and implements. Half the land was to be cropped each year, and the other half left fallow. Allowing six acres for house, garden, stables, and other buildings there would be 172 acres under crop each season. Allowing that over an average of years 80 acres would be cut for hay and 92 acres left for wheat, and figuring on fair prices, costs worked out thus — 172 acres — Manure, at lcwt. per acre, at £4 per ton 994bush. wheat (651bs. per acre), at 3s. per bushel . . 60bush. oats ( ljbush. per acre), at 2s. 3d. per bushel 30 tons hay for live stock, at 30s. per ton 400 wheat sacks, at 7s. per dozen, and 7 bales twine at 5|d. per pound. Blacksmith, for repairs SaddlerWages at harvest time (man) (lad) " at seed time (lad) Water rates District rates and land tax 10 acres sown for seed Sundry £ s. d. 34 8 0 14 19 0 6 15 0 45 0 0 21 14 7 9 0 0 3 0 0 13 10 0 4 10 0 4 4 0 5 8 3 6 0 3 3 12 3 10 0 0 £182 1 4 Total Against this were the following receipts : — £ s. d. 92 acres of wheat (18bush. average), at 3s. per bushel .. .. .. 248 8 0 80 acres hay (2J tons per acre), at 30s per ton . . . . . . . . 270 0 0 Total , £518 8 0 Credit balance „ ..£336 6 8 The cost per acre works out at £1 Is. 2d. No allowance has been made in these calculations for the upkeep of horses and implements ; but, as regards the latter, it is contended that in from 15 to 20 years the farm should be able to replace those worn out. Another estimate which allows for wages at current (high) rates, cost of seed, manure, &c, puts the cost of production at 25s. per acre. The figures vary according to locality and methods of working. In 1905 The Register instituted through its columns an inquiry into the cost of growing wheat. In the Middle North the cost of an acre of wheat on fallow land was worked out at £1 9s. 7d., a profit of 18s. lOd. per acre, or of Is. 2d. per bushel being shown. Deprecia tion on stock and implements was allowed for. " I am satisfied," remarked one correspondent, " that wheat can be grown profitably at 2s. 6d. per bushel, after allowing for all reasonable expenses." Another correspondent further north gave a decided affirmative to the inquiry whether wheat-growing pays in South Australia, and gave the following figures to prove his contention : — Six hundred acres— Rent at 5 per cent, or £2 per acre, 2s. per acre if the whole were cultivated and 4s. if only half ; ploughing 200 acres for fallow, Is. 6d. per acre ; culti vating twice, Is. ; manure, 3s. 6d. ; drilling, 6d. ; cost of harvesting, including bags, 3s. ; cost of cultivating 100 acres of stubble once, 6d. ; manure, 2s, ; drilling, 6d. ; harvesting, including bags, 3s. ; seed for whole, Is. 9d. ; hay for feed, Is. 9d. ; hay for feed, 20 acres. This gives an average of 12s. 9d. per acre for 300 acres cultivated, with an average of 7bush. and wheat at 3s. per acre. A return of 21s. per acre would leave a profit of 8s. 3d. per acre, out of which taxes, &c, and cost of stock would have to be paid. Other correspondents, without entering into elaborate calculations, came to the conclusion that where an average of 8bush. could be secured, and wheat ruled at not less than 3s. per bushel, wheat-growing is a profitable occupa tion. STACK OF 680,000 BUSHELS OF WHEAT, VALUED AT £135,000, ON PORT WAKEFIELD WHARF. A. 0 <2 z ss 0>1 ?J oc ES > a 1-= r-ts [Goo?. PArfo. extent Shipments of wheat are made from various ports in proximity to the wheat areas, thus lessening transit charges to a material The following table shows the quantities of wheat exported in 1907 from the respective ports :— 8 m!«euai Bushels. Port Adelaide 4,237,631 Port Wallaroo 2,696,133 Port Pirie ' 2,612,716 Port Augusta 930,787 Bushels. Port Germein 715,360 Port Victoria 525,976 Port Wakefield 353,316 Port Broughton 232,313 Bushels. Tumby Bay 109,548 Franklin Harbor 93,613 Streaky Bay 71.556 Point Turton 56,847 128 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Cereal and Some The extent of land under cultivation and the description of crop Other Crops. are shown in the following : — For Grain — Wheat Barley Oats Peas For Green Forage- Wheat, Oats, &c. .. Lucerne Sown Grasses) Other Crops Hay Potatoes Orchard Garden Vineyard Fallow Land Total 2,604,122 Acres undkr Cultivation. 1897-8. 1898-9, 1,522,668 13,232 31.398 2,917 1,2667,452 20,1183 2,617 449,167 6,449 13,051 7,574 18,761 507,484 9-1900. 1900-1. 1,821,137 1,913,247* 15,767 15,352 20,229 27,988 3,842 4,454 1,104 3,009 11,356 10,127 21,593 22,186 1,520 2,556 311,440 341,330 8,406 6,628 15,477 16,001 8,524 8,830 19,438 20,158 -,822,018 887,540 3,081,846 1,743,452+ 15,517 34,660 4,938 2,172 11,523 23,510 2,066 369,796 6,248 16,315 9,005 20,860 862,738 1902-3. I 1903-4. 1904-5. 1905-6 1906-7. ),279,406 3,122,800 1,746,842 21,49350.296 5,4522,096 12,841 [ 23,636 3,464 325,789 7,763 | 17,376 , 9,489 21,692 888,946 5,137,175 1,711,174 28,69757,558 6,4612,271 16,970 24,118 3,619 370,152 8,616 18,725 9,964 22,617 1,010,141 3,291,083 1,840,157 23,904 50.630 7,0781,964 18,398 24,912 3,192 269,626 8,315 18,872 10,160 23,210 1,016,156 3,316,574 1,757,036 26,25056,950 6,6903,338 20,50426,082 3,726 317,924 9,540 19,32010,68823,603 1,087,057 3,368,708 1,681,982 28,12257.000 7,109 15.055 23,679 3,151 295,895 9,894 18,199 8,397 22,575 1,065,921 3,239,891 •Owing to drought 339,230 acres were not reaped. + 169,795 acres lees wheat sown, 28,466 acres more hay cut, and 299,348 acres not reaped owing to drought. In the following table is shown the gross produce and average yield of the various crops :- 1889-90... 19C0-1 .... 1891-2 .... 1892-3 ... 1896-7 . . 1897-8 .... 1898-9 .... 1899-1900. 1900-1 .... 19H1-2 1902-3 .... 1903-4 .... 1904-5 .... 1905 6 .... 1906-7 .... Wheat (bushels) . Produce. Avg. 14,577,358 9.399,3896,436,4889,240,1082,804,4934,014,852 8,778,900 8,453,135 11,253.148 8,021,762 6,354,912 13,209,16512,023,172 20,143,798 17,466,501 7-915-62 4-15608 1-66 2-64 4-91 4-645-884-60»¦( 772 6-53 11-46 10'36 Barley Oats Peas Hay Potatoes (bushels) . (bushels) . (bushels). (tons • (tons). Produce. Avg. Produce. Avg. Produce. 57,800 Avg. Produce. 395,920 Avg. 1-20 Produce. 23,853 Avg. 246,841 12-54 131,449 12-77 13-65 3-74 175, 83 12-13 116,229 9-32 64,068 14-70 310,125 •90 23,963 3-62 107,183 9-35 80,876 6-40 68,655 1600 193,317 ¦64 27,824 4-04 175,468 13-21 166,489 10-57 60,922 14-86 389,277 •90 20,057 3-34 107,798 744 189,716 4-72 30,350 8-62 170,808 •50 16,139 2-52 162,005 12-25 204,444 6 51 31 936 1U-95 298,184 •66 9,308 1-44 234,135 13-M) 304,002 11-77 51,151 14-65 258,518 •82 14,445 217 188,917 11-98 218,331 10-79 52,883 13-76 229,800 ¦74 19,716 2-35 211,102 13-75 366,229 1309 67,415 15-14 353,662 1-03 14,566 2-20 243,362 15-68 469,254 13-51 97,577 19-76 346,467 •94 15.059 2-41 317,155 14-70 620,823 10-35 89,654 16-62 308,825 •95 28,312 3-6S 487,920 17-00 902,936 15-69 121,580 18-80 479,723 1-30 31,415 3-65 346,718 14-50 555,696 10-98 93,818 13-25 294,252 1-09 19,5il 2-36 505,916 19-27 869,146 15-26 120,340 18-00 435,546 1-37 20,238 2-13 491,246 17-46 896,166 15-72 140,367 19-;4 398.866 1-34 22,277 2-25 Wattle Bark (tons). 4,372 3,904 3,1315.030 6,830 8,2178,0388,330 8,566 9,2128,170 7,348 8,506 7,274 Rainfall and Crops. The question of rainfall is of great interest to farmers in South Aus tralia, though mere figures showing the annual precipitation are mislead ing unless all the circumstances are taken into consideration. Sir Charles Todd, when Government Meteorologist of South Australia, well said — " We have to look, not so much at the quantity of rain which falls in any year — which may be swelled by summer storms — nor even at the mean annual rainfall, but at the general distribution of the rain, or the months in which rain may be looked for in sufficient quantities to adequately reward the labor expended in cultivating the soil." He further remarks—" We cannot, as a rule, expect a good harvest without copious rains in the period May to October. The total rainfall for the year may, however, be comparatively small, and yet the harvest good (as in 1864, when it only averaged 18 83in., taking the whole of the agricultural districts), provided the rainfall is ample in the six months just specified. On the other hand, the total rainfall may be large, but the yield small, if the winter rainfall is deficient, or if heavy rains and adverse atmospheric conditions occur late in October, November, and December, as was the case in 1871, when the rainfall averaged 23-25in., and the yield was ,only 5bush. 451bs." Fallowing and the adaptation of the Campbell system of dry farming are doing much to make wheat-growing profitable with a minimum quantity of rain. HAYFIELD NEAR THE CI7Y, SHOWING MOUNT LOFTY RANGE IN BACKGROUND. 0 G 5 c 3 3 5 > -5 3 3 [G'ottf. Photo, The annual hay crop varies from 300,000 tons to 500,000 tons, of an average annual value of between £800,000 and £600,000. A considerable export trade is done with several of the neighboring States. 130 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Hay-growing is a popular and profitable auxiliary to the production Hay. of grain. Fields sown for wheat are for various reasons — mostly because hay at harvesting time promises to pay better — cut for hay. On this account the acreage devoted to' hay fluctuates considerably. At the same time there are dis tricts, particularly to the south of Adelaide, where hay as fodder is regularly grown. During the last few years chafi mills have sprung up all over the State, while compressed fodder works have been erected. The compressed fodder industry, however, has not advanced, as was hoped would be the case. According to latest official returns there are 76 chaff-cutting mills in the State, with machinery equal to 944 horse-power, and employing 938 hands. Large exports of chaffed hay have taken place to other States and South Africa. The quantity -of hay cut last season was estimated at 395,766 tons. In some years prices have gone to £5 and even £7 per ton, and in many cases farmers are known to have realised as much as £3,000 to £5,000 for their hay alone. According to the official returns the total quantity of hay reaped was 395,766 tons, taken from 295,895 acres. The Central District, which is the largest producer of hay, Hayfleld Carrying a Crop of about 3 Tons per Acre. [Govt Photo. contributed 200,881 tons from 138,613 acres, and the Lower North 110,382 tons from 81,870 acres. The South-Bast supplied 27,928 tons from 22,490 acres ; while the Upper North reaped 42,458 tons from 36,059 acres ; and the Western District 14,117 tons from 16,863 acres. The following is the official returns of the hay yields for the seasons stated, together with exports of hay, chafi, &c, from South Australia : — Year. Produce. Tons. Average Exports. Year. Produce. Average Exports. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1896-7 170,808 .50 4,178 1902-3 308,825 .95 70,768 1897-8 298,184 .66 8,916 1903-4 .. 479,723 1.30 25,801 1898-9 258,518 .82 10,965 1904-5 .. 294,252 1.09 30,402 1899-1900 229,800 .74 9,185 1905-6 .. 435,546 1.37 68,808 1900-1 353,662 1.03 23,981 1906-7 .. 398,866 1.34 58,517 1901-2 346,467 .94 98,382 1907-8 .. 314,406 1.16 — A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 131 The cultivation of oats receives considerable attention on Yorke's Penin- Oats. sula, where last season 9,296 acres were sown, from which 109,081bush. were gathered. The largest producer is the South-Eastern District, of which Mount Gambier is the centre. The acreage there was 15,271, but so prolific was the harvest that no less than 299,966bush. were reaped. There are two oatmeal factories at Mount Gambier, where the bulk of the oatmeal consumed in the State is manufactured. Oats grow luxuriantly in the South-East, where there is great scope for the expansion of what appears to be a profitable industry. The total area under oats last harvest was 57,000 acres, which produced 896,166bush., as against 869,146bush. the previous year. The following is the official statistics of the production of oats for the seasons stated : — Year. Produce. Average. Year. Produce. Average. 1890-11891-21892-31890-7 1897-81898-9 1899-1900 Bushels. 116,229 80,876 166,489189,716 204,444304,002218,331 Bushels. 9.326.40 10.57 4.726.51 11.7710.79 1900-1 1901-21902-31903-41904-51905-61906-7 Bushels. 306,229 469,254 620,823 902,936 555,696 869,146 896,166 Bushels. 13.0913.54 12.3415.09 10.98 15.2615.72 Last year's oat harvest was the largest ever reaped in South Australia. This is due partly to the increased demand for fodder purposes, and also to the manufacture in the State of break fast foods. The Federal tariff, which governs importations of goods into Seuth Australia, im poses a duty of Jd. per pound on oatmeal, rolled oats, and similar preparations, and this has had the effect of encouraging local production. In the following it is interesting to notice how demand has been met to a greater extent by the South Australian prepared commodity by setting out the imports retained for home consumption and staple exports respectively of these foods : — Year. Imports Retained. Staple Exports. Year. Imports Retained Staple. Exports, 1902 1903 1904 Lbs. 355,439 516,796 225,088 Lbs. 210,392 354,963 1,040,415 1905 1906 Lbs. 118,670143,436 Lbs. 970,153 1,080,365 Increasing attention is being given to the cultivation of barley. The Barley- acreage under crop last year was 28,122 acres, which yielded 491,246bush., as compared with 26,250 acres, producing 505,916bush. in 1905-6. The following show the production and average yield of barley :— Year. Produce. Average. Tear. Produce. Average. 1890-1 1891-2 1892-3 1896-7 1897-81898-91899-1900 Bushels. 175,583107,183 175,468107,798162,065 234,135 188,917 Bushels, 12.13 9.35 13.21 7.44 12.2513.80 11.98 1900-11901-21902-31903-41904-5 1905-61906-7 Bushels. 211,102243,362317,155487,920 346,718505,916 491,246 Bushels. 13.75 15.6814.7617.0014.50 19.2717.47 132 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Nearly half the barley produced in South Australia is grown at Mount Gambier, Yorke's Peninsula, and Kangaroo Island, in each of which places conditions are peculiarly favorable. Particularly of recent years increased attention has been given to the cultivation of this cereal on Kangaroo Island, and it will be interesting to note over a series of years the increase in acreage at each of these centres : — 1896-7 . . 1897-8 . . 1898-9 . . 1899-1900 1900-1 . . 1901-2 . . Mount Gambier. Acres 1,5821,746 2,7002,345 1,918 1,964 Yorke's Peninsula Acres. 1,259 662 1,0851,3781,306 1,592 Kangaroo Island. Acres. 1.514 962 1,3281,2621,3961,474 Mount Yorke's Kangaroo Year. Gambier. Peninsula. Island Acres. Acres Acres. 1902-3 .. 3,455 3,032 2,124 1903-4 3,790 4,102 2,833 1904-5 .. 3,458 3,913 3,138 1905-6 .. 3,763 4,145 3,425 1906-7 .. 4,861 4,194 4,280 Field peas, mostly cultivated in the hilly country in the counties Ade- JTield. Peas, laide and Hindmarsh, where pig-rearing and bacon-curing are chiefly carried on, is a crop which, as a rule, gives a better' return than wheat, and is well known for its recuperative action on exhausted soils. It appears to have stood the drought well, as the average of 1897-8 was llbush.; in 1898-9 it was 15bush.; in 1899-1900, 13-76bush. ; in 1900-1901, 15-14bush. ; in 1901-2, 19-76bush. ; and last year, 19-63bnsh. The production and average yields of field peas is shown in the following : — Year. Produce. Average. Year. Produce. Average, Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. 1890-1 64,068 14.70 1900-1 67,415 15.14 1891-2 68,655 16.00 1901-2 97,577 19.76 1892-3 69,922 14.86 1902-3 89.654 16.44 1896-7 30,350 8.62 1903-4 . . 121,580 18.80 1897-8 31,936 10.95 1904-5 93,818 13.25 1898-9 51,151 14.65 1905-6 120,340 18.00 1899-1900 52,883 13.76 1906-7 140,367 19.63 This crop, grown in the midst of our largest dairying districts, seems to be a factor in the future expansion of the bacon industry. Out of 7,109 acres under cultivation in 1906-7 no less than 6,844 acres were in the Central District, where 135,183bush. of the total production_oi 140,367bush. were raised. In consequence of the intimate relation between this crop and the bacon industry it will be interesting to trace in the following table the increase in the production of peas in the Central Division of the State, the number of pigs in the same division, and the excess of staple exports of ham and bacon over imports retained for home consumption of the same commodities : — Excess Excess Exports, Exports, \ ear. Peas. Pigs. Hani and Bacon. Year. Peas. Pig • Ham and Bacon. Bushels. No. Lbs. Bushels. No. Lbs. 1896-7 28,348 31,447 26,171 1902-3 .. 87,503 46,202 825,872 1897-8 30,505 25,547 * 14,968 1903-4 .. 118,102 49,254 656,461 1898-9 49,175 32,444 150,491 1904-5 91,492 58,799 391,786 1899-1900 51,930 44,150 269,717 1905-6 111.715 01,924 336.641 1900-1 65,696 47,040 245,663 1906-7 .. 135.183 59,674 1901-2 95,696 46,848 793,089 * Excess of imports. Chapter XIII. THE DAIRYING INDUSTRY. M many ways South Australia is favorably placed for the manufacture of butter and cheese. A reputation for choice produce has long been established and it has been maintained with increasing merit. To-day the industry is on a sound financial basis. Its monetary importance, indeed, has never been greater, and progress is such that present figures must soon be easily eclipsed. This happy position is due to the re markable capabilities of our soils, the strong, nutritive herbages and grasses which _ form a rich natural food for milking stock, and the beneficial climate, combined with intelligent and painstaking zeal on the part of modern, go-ahead dairymen. Land holders all over the State are recognising that dairying is a steady, profitable branch of agri culture. Development has been rapid. In 1892— that is, within seven years of the starting of the factory system — 25 factories were in operation. At present there are 76 up-to-date butter and cheese factories and creameries. A significant feature which promises well for this industry is the splendid Natural record of progress achieved in the Northern Areas, where severe and often Advantages. errati° climatic conditions prevail. The cow, in fact, has proved the salva tion of many farmers in drought-affected localities, and the returns from the dairy have more than compensated for general expenditure and losses made in other directions. " Give us enough feed for a few cows and fowls, and we can live comfortably. The rest is profit." Many have said that with the conviction of experience. An eminently satisfactory fact is the superior butter-fat quality of the milk supplies, while the attractive aroma in the cream and butter is substantial proof of the improved methods adopted by the factories. The milking herds are yearly receiving more attention, and the standard of quality is being, raised. The general suitability of our climate for dairy-farming affords scope for a still wider expansion of producing operations. In the south and south-eastern portions of the State, where the rainfall exceeds 30in., and where the soil is above the average, intense culture is being practised, and with its extension the milking stock will be comfortably reared at a correspondingly smaller cost. In the volcanic country near Mount Gambier the ideal home of the dairyman is to" be found, and it is questionable whether more favorable natural conditions are to be found in Australia. An important feature of the industry is the wealth of natural herbage which grows with luxuriant vigor in many parts of the State. The rich nutriment contained in the native grasses during the warm months of summer is calculated to astonish the visitor by its rapid fattening properties for milking and other stock. Cows grazing on the plains and undulating lands yield milk of magnificent flavor, producing butter of remarkably dry texture, and unexcelled in any part of the world. " Maitland Charlotte," a champion Jersey cow belonging to Mr. Alick Murray, produced over 17lbs. of butter per week eight and a half months after calving, when her supply of food consisted solely in what the animal found in the paddocks. Another cow owned by Mr. Alick Murray, " Dinah," the champion at the Adelaide Show for two successive years, gave 451bs. of milk, producing 31bs. of butter, equal to 211bs. per week. A great number of instances could be given of crossbred cattle yielding from 151bs. to 201bs. of butter weekly. Leading dairy-farmers do not allow their stock to entirely depend upon natural grass, but supplement with sweetly-flavored nutritious wheaten hay. Bran and meals are liberally fed, and consider able quantities of copra or cocoanut cake are also consumed. 134 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. In the production of fodders great attention has been devoted to the cultivation of lucerne. At present about 16,000 acres are under cultivation, or an increase of 9,000 acres on the figures for 1890. Sown grasses have also commanded the enterprise of the agriculturist. The turning of green crops into ensilage has, too, received attention. Many other crops are cultivated in extent according to the suitability of climate arid rainfall. Among these are peas, rape, kale, cabbages, clover, maize, sorghum, and mangolds. In one of the five volcanic districts over 60 tons to the acre of mangolds have been produced without the aid of manure. South Australia is strong in stud cattle, and several breeders have done great service for the dairying and agricultural industries of the State by producing and importing high-class animals. Throughout the milk-producing districts the profits of the Shorthorns for milk and beef production testify to their value for all-round dairying purposes. These splendid cattle Government Butter Factory at the State Freezing Works, Port Adelaide. [A. Vaughan, Govt. Photo. lose none of their characteristic features here, and probably a more congenial climate for them could not be found anywhere in the world. Jersey stock are also well represented, and the exhi bition of those famous "butter machines" at our agricultural shows supplies conclusive evidence that neither expense nor attention is wanting in connection with the importation and main tenance of the breed. The Jersey is a popular animal in South Australia, and few herds are without a sprinkling of the blood. The value of this cow in the advancement of butter pro duction cannot be accurately assessed, and it has been adequately demonstrated that the breed reaches perfection in our climate. Dairymen are rendering admirable service by proving the value and importance of the Shorthorn- Jersey cross for dairying purposes. Ayrshire, milking strains of Shorthorns, and Holstein breeds are to be found in the State. Recently there have been importations of Red Danish cattle, new Jersey blood, and Guernseys. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS. AND SETTLERS. 135 The Government has always been an important factor in dairying progress State Aid. At the Roseworthy College there is an excellent herd, and dairy and to the stud farms have been established. These will be a distinct guide to Dairyman, settlers as to proper methods, and important assistance will be provided by the distribution to dairymen of bulls of undoubted breeding, coming, as they will, of heavy milking ancestors. Shorthorn and Ayrshire cattle have been purchased, and the bulls are leased out on reasonable terms. This is a wise policy, and must have the efiect of increasing the annual yield per cow and improving the general type of dairying stock. It is intended to run these farms as going concerns, and give young men exceptional opportunities for educational experience. The breeds to be kept will be Guernseys, Ayrshires, Shorthorns Jerseys, and Red Polls, together with a number of good-grade stock to illustrate the effects of cross-breeding. In this way dairymen with small capital and unable to pay big figures for bulls of special milk merit will have a chance of building up a herd at reasonable expense. Quality Above Everything Else. A Typical Country Butter Factory. There are in South Australia (1908) 100,000 milch cows. The quality of the milk is declared by experts to be high. Latest factory records for a year show the high percentages of butter- fat in two samples : — January. February. March. April. May. June. July. August. % 433-9 Sept. °/ /o 42 3-9 October. Nov. Dec. /o 4-3 4-1 % 4-5 4-1 /o 4-34-3 % 4-4 4-2 /o 4-2 4-3 % 4-3 4-1 % 4-54-0 °/ /o 4-4 4-2 °/ /o 4-8 4-2 /o 5-0 4-5 The aim is " quality " above everything else. These figures represent tests made at two of our largest factories, while a third factory of some V^rni^nce has given ^n ayeragej-or ttie year of 44 per cent, of butter-fat. It is not uncommon for a factory to produce a months' 136 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. yield of butter with an average of less than 201bs. of milk for a pound of butter during the dry season and mid-winter when food supplies are short. Instances are to be found of cows yielding milk with over 8 per cent, of fat, and 5 per cent, is a frequent occurrence. World-wide Triumphs. South Australian butter-makers have won a high reputation in the Commonwealth and in over-sea markets. During 1907 the Government Expert (Mr. P. H. Suter) arranged with manufacturers to forward exhibits of butter to the Islington Show (London) for the purpose of competition. The numbers of entries received from the various States were — Victoria, 36 ; New South Wales, 20 ; a few from Queensland ; and seven from South Australia. The result, so far as this State is concerned, can be considered extremely satisfactory. One-half of the prizes awarded were secured, including first and third for fresh or unsalted butter, third prize for salted butter, and one exhibit was highly commended. This clearly demonstrates that South Australia can produce quite as good flavored and good keeping quality butter as can be manu- actured in any part of the adjoining States. The rapid means of transit provided by modern ocean steamers, Exploiting with their spacious refrigerating chambers, have enabled producers Foreign Markets. *° place their article on foreign markets in first-class condition. The following figures, showing exports, illustrate the progress of the dairy industry : — Year. Tons. Cwts. Year. Tons. Cwts. 1893-4 167 15 1901-2 86 4 1894-5 598 12 1902-3 — _ 1895-6 349 15 1903-4 229 3 1896-7 70 1 1904-5 352 8 1897-8 8 5 1905-6 590 1898-9 166 13 1906-7 878 . — 1899-0 390 13 1907-8 620 ' 1900-1 312 13 In Cheddar cheese production the State holds a creditable position. Owing Choice to the demand being in excess of the supply, an export business with England Cheese. nas not yet beg™- The richness of the product has won the confidence of consumers, and the local market is bound to be increasingly active for many years. One authority declares that the article is equal to anything in the world. A consign ment sent to Glasgow and tested when eight months old secured considerable praise from the highest authorities. When it is remembered that an average British cheese contains about 32 per cent, of fat, the superiority of the shipment is all the more apparent. The percentages were 43-95, 39-81, 39-50, and 40-74. What Has The accomplishments of the past always suggest hope in the future. Been Done. Here is an interesting and suggestive table concerning the industry :— Season. Butter Made. Cheese. Milch Cows. Seasuli. Butter Made. Cheese. Milch Cows. 1896-7 4,616,675 907,123 84,265 1902-3 .... 4,521,246 705,969 75,011 1897-8 3,900,118 849,845 73,524 1903-4 .... 5,995,756 972,584 83,438 1898-9 4,559,683 923,123 76,709 1904-5 .... 6,836,169 851,800 88,156 1899-0 5,581,231 946,930 83,527 1905-6 .... 8,226,805 1,174,867 93,067 1900-1 5^525,606 1,030,680 75,942 - 1906-7 .... 8,873,630 1,398,785 97,843 1901-2 4,954,523 1,053,160 74,995 The value of the dairying industry last season (1906-7) may be set down at about £500,000. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 137 Science Indications of earnest endeavors on the part of the Government to in the Dairy thoroughly equip men for the dairying industry are every where apparent. At the Agricultural School, the preparatory institution, the student is first taught the rudiments of dairy science and practice, and at the conclusion of his elementary training he passes into the Agricultural College for the higher courses. Here he is brought into contact with the practical part of his duties, having to assist in the operations of the farm and dairy, and on the more scientific side give his attention to the work of the chemical laboratory. When he has completed his studies the young man has a knowledge which enables him to under take the difiicult work connected with factory management. At this stage in his career he is not left unaided, for the Dairy Expert attached to the Department of Agriculture visits the leading centres and conducts demonstrations on any branch of work desired by the manager. Matters demanding careful investigation — such as taint in milk, butter, and cheese, which in volve the farmer and factory in heavy loss — receive attention, and at the conclusion of his inquiries the expert issues printed information dealing with the cause of the trouble, its action on the produce, and methods to obviate it. The expert has a fully equipped laboratory, where scientific work in all its branches is carried out, from the testing of factory thermometers to the bacteriological and chemical examination of samples of dairy produce. Dairy Herd on River Swamps near Murray Bridge. Chapter XIV. FRUIT-GROWING. gOUTH AUSTRALIA is the " Garden State " of the Commonwealth. It can be con fidently asserted that no part of the world is more admirably suited to the pro duction of the very wide range of fruits which are cultivated in temperate and sub tropical zones than is this State. What would the horticulturists of Europe and North America think of strawberries, cherries, pears, apples, walnuts, raspberries, plums, apricots, peaches, quinces, loquats, almonds, figs, grapes, oranges, lemons, mulberries, and other varieties growing together on a 10-acre block, with no aid save the rainfall and the sunshine ? Yet this is a common sight in the gardens dotted over the hills and gullies a few miles from Adelaide and elsewhere. The possibilities of fruit-production in consequence of the magnificent climate and fertile soils, are almost incalculable. oThrough- out the State such varying meteorological and physical conditions are encountered that every A Portion of the Largest Vine in Australia. [R. B. Ball, Photo. phase of the industry is catered for, every requisite for the flavor and development of the fruit provided. The altered circumstances of the different districts enable growers to diversify production and extend the season for each variety. There is always an abundance of fruit in the shops. The produce from South Australian trees has a world reputation to be envied. Horticulture has long since passed out of the experimental stage. From a spasmodic enterprise there has been evolved an established industry, having a firm and profitable com mercial basis. The business of fruit-growing now contributes an important amount to the national revenue and employs many thousands of people. The men in it are up to date, recognising that only scientific methods and unceasing labor can win in the war of legitimate commerce. During the recent years the acreage of orchards has extended with remarkable vigor, and the scope for expansion is still great. The campaign against pests is never relaxed, (CH. XIV.) SECTION OF A FRUIT EXHIBIT AT THE ROYAL SHOW ADELAIDE. South Australian Fruit has Taken Numerous Prizes in the United Kingdom. [Govt. Photo. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS. AND SETTLERS. 139 and no cleaner gardens are to be found in the Coi union wealth. There is a surplus production of many kinds of fruit, and the balance over and above requirements is exported. All European markets have been successfully exploited, and our products find their way to Africa, East Indies, and even North America. Beginning with a few trees brought out by the pioneers from England and Cape Colony, and plants introduced from New South Wales later on, the industry slowly expanded, until the freez ing chamber and improved transit facilities brought the great consuming centres of the Old World nearer to producers. The possibilities of a profitable export trade were realised, the horticul turist awoke, and at once began extending his orchards and improving his methods of cultiva tion. A wonderful evolution has been witnessed during the last 15 years. From " any sort of tree " the grower now makes a careful selection of the best kinds. , "Science has also entered A Heavy Crop on a Currant Vine. [Govt. Photo. the garden, and the successful horticulturist has become a close student of formulse for spraying, also of the latest methods of pruning and manuring. There are colonists who remember the time when seedling peaches were produced in such abundance that the surplus supplies were fed to pigs. The export trade has changed all this and impressed growers with the importance of obtaining quality as well as quantity. It may be said that there are three defined fruit-growing areas in South AustraUa— The cool, semi-humid localities embraced in the large tract of country in the elevated districts of Mount Lofty, Barossa, Stanley, and the Wirrabara Ranges, and the South-East. Here is the home of the apple, pear, cherry, prune, and all the berry fruits, which are distinguished by exquisite flavor and fine development. The rainfall varies from 25m. to 40m. annually. The second zone includes the low hill country and the plains, where the summer temperature is 140 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. higher and the rainfall from 18in. to 22in. Within this area the citrus family, stone fruits, and grapes, olive, and almond grow to great perfection. Summer irrigation is practised by the largest orchardists. The water is either drawn from the State waterworks or from natural springs. The third zone includes the valley of the River Murray, which follows a serpentine course of 600 miles through South Australia to the Southern Ocean. Fruit-growing of a dis tinctive character on an increasingly large scale is being carried on by means of irrigation. The raisin and the currant vine, apricots, figs, oranges, and lemons find here a congenial climate. Sun-dried fruits of excellent flavor are being produced in large quantities, the clear, dry heat preserving the natural bloom and aroma of the fruit. There are evaporation factories in the fruit- growing districts, and this process of drying is largely favored. Preserving and jam- making establishments also account for a large annual home consumption, and South Aus tralian preserved fruits and jams find a ready demand in Australia and abroad. Fruit-growing in South Australia has taken a high place among the primary industries- . Growers have entered vigorously into competition for the world's markets, and have won con siderable success. Inter-State interchange, too, has advanced in a remarkable way, and the export business was never on a surer footing. Within the last decade the production of dried fruits, such as raisins and apricots, has exceeded the local demand. The growers of currant and sultana vines are making a bold bid to exclude the imported fruits by placing upon the markets of the Commonwealth a locally grown article of superior excellence. Fifteen years ago the export of fresh fruit to London comprised a few scattered cases of apples sent in a spasmodic manner by one or two venturesome growers. Now the trade has reached large and profit-increasing dimensions. The success obtained by shippers of apples has encouraged experiments to be made with fresh grapes, oranges, and pears with the most satisfactory results. An increased area of country is being planted with fruit trees, the horticulturist having been satisfied that he can easily over come his natural enemies, and that increased transport facilities will help to guarantee to him a regular and profitable outlet for his produce. The following is the official return of the area represented by " gardens " and " orchards " (vines are not included) : — 1884-5 1889-901890-1 1891-2 1892-31896 -7 1897-8 1898-9 Acres. 4,942 5,763 6,626 5,4945,8536,6697,5747,994 Acres. 5,8257,4378,7368,9289,918 11,74613,05414,396 1899-19001900-011901-2 1902-3 1903-4 1904-51905-61906-7 Gardens. Orchards. Acres. Acres. 8,524 15,477 8,830 16,001 9,005 16,315 9,489 17,376 9,964 18,725 10 160 18,872 10,688 19,320 12,520 20,150 The following shows the growth of the export trade in fresh fruit and South Australian jams Year. Fresh Fruit, Jams. Year. Fresh Fruit. Jams. £ £ £ £ 1893 21,164 9,671 1900 42,567 16,245 1894 16,817 15,085 1901 . 62,662 20,499 1895 17,299 17,661 1902 . 37,315 16,783 1896 19,567 21,548 1903 . 60,695 17,572 1897 29,968 20,889 1904 . 75,487 21,532 1898 22,211 12,523 1905 . 82,040 20,695 1899 32,842 10,063 1906 . 77,163 24,394 A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 141 The Apple Industry. South Australia produces apples of prime quality which commend themselves highly to English palates. The growing of what is often called the " king of fruits " is no longer an experiment in this State, nor isthe export trade on its trial. Both are established successes. The questions which 'are engaging the attention of producers, merchants, and experts have reference to the best varieties to be cultivated, methods of shipment, and the cheapest and most effective systems for waging war against pestiferous insects. Here, again, important advance has been made. The industry has had its ' ups and downs," partly owing to the cultivation of varieties not suitable for distant markets, whilst planters have had to contend against unfavorable seasons. But they have come through these difficulties triumphantly, and now enjov the satisfaction of having their produce highly praised and strongly competed for by buyers in Covent Gardens as well as at other centres. Our apples, in fact, have established in England a record price for Australia. The manager of the State Produce Depot in the English capital has reported a " very marked improvement generally in the selecting, grading, and packing," and this judg- Packing Apples (or Export [S. H. Ball, Angaston, Photo. ment is confirmed by the Victorian produce representative, who has declared that the South Australian apples " invariably reach London in better condition than those from Melbourne and Hobart." Equally favorable comments have been passed on the quality of our fruit by colonists resident in England, who have critically sampled shipments and closely watched the improvement in quality and methods of packing. The successful inauguration of the industry and of the export trade has been accomplished. Old growers have extended their operations under improved methods, and new orchardists have entered the business in large numbers. The days of scepticism have long since passed. There is ample evidence available that new orchards have been extensively planted, and that growers are well satisfied that a profitable outlet can be found for all the fruit of good quality that they can grow. Mr. Quinn, the State Horticultural Expert, says " producers have come to realise that cleanliness, like honesty, is, after all, the best policy, and they are more and more systematically applying methods recom mended by the experts to check disease," A VIEW OF APPLE-GROWING COUNTRY NEAR KERSBROOK. to ¦o G H ¦W > a U7 ¦H » ¦O IS H> t-1 w HH [Govt. Photo. South Australia has a considerable area devoted to apple trees, and there is room for a large expansion of this industry. An English orchardist of many years' experience stated recently that he had visited various fruit districts in Caaada, United States, and Australasia, and nowhere did he find better prospects for extension of the apple industry than exist in South Australia. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. The following shows the production so far as apples are concerned :— 143 Tear. Trees. 1 Cases. 320,324362.43(1 i Y'ear. Trees. Caseh. 1903-4 \ 580,217 1904-5 ' 688,031 1905-6 1906-7 753,540755,930 405,223 407,215 About 1897 an attempt was made to export apples on a commercial scale to England, and so great was the success achieved that not only was an immediate outlet found for a surplus which was beginning to trouble growers, but also a stimulus was imparted to fresh planting. Many of the trees which were put in because of the encouraging results which followed the first export of apples oversea are no w coming into full bearing, and the export trade is still expanding, other markets having been added to that of Great Britain. Exports in the 1907-8 season were, approximately, 150,000 cases, which constituted a record. In the following is shown destina tions of apple exports from February to April in the past three seasons : — ;| 1906. 1907. 1908. Cases. Ca-cs. Cases. London 47,228 14,689 108,290 Liverpool 280 763 2,002 Total United Kingdom 47.50S 15,452 1 10,292 Hamburg . 1 16,337 ¦-'.792 13,970 ¦ Bremen 1,395 ¦270 3.464 Antwerp . ' 25 50 624 ; Genoa 1,336 _ 1,000 Various 2,371 — — Total Europe 68,972 18,564 129,350 Colombo 2,667 1,126 1,749 : Bombay.. 1,446 2.274 1,900 Calcutta 462 75 — Java 694 343 2,240 Straits Settlements — — 75 ; South Africa 900 810 1,500 Grand Totals 75,141 23,192 136,814 No apples are sent to London after the end of April, though shipments to other markets continue for some time. The hope for South Australia in connection with this trade is the main tenance of a high standard of quality. South Australian apples have always been favorably received on the London market, and have generally commanded rather better prices than fruit from other parts. The coloring of our apples is fine, while proved varieties cannot be beaten anywhere as regards size or flavor. In the future competition will tend to become keener, and hope lies in satisfying buyers that a uniformly good commodity can be obtained from the Central State. There is a general agreement that the industry is a profitable one, and one of our best orchardists is of opinion that from 10 to 12 acres of good land planted with suitable varieties of apples well looked after will afford a decent living for any industrious man. 144 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Among the Orange Groves. South Australia possesses some of the finesr orange groves in Australia. Those at Eenmark are dealt with elsewhere, but orange and lemon culture are not confined to the irrigation colony on the banks of the Eiver Murray. Some of the most productive groves are within a few miles of the city. The gardens in the valley of the Torrens within a radius of 10 miles of Adelaide appeal to visitors from over the seas, who never fail to be impressed with the grandeur of the scene and the practical demonstration supplied of the progress of intense culture in South Australia. Deep, ferruginous soil, absolutely free of extraneous vegetation, and so soft that you sink almost to your boot tops ; healthy, vigorous trees, bending beneath View in an Orange Orchard. [Govt. Photo. their rich load ; clusters of yellow fiuit — all this tells a tale of scientific attention. Admittedly there is money in orange cultivation for those who understand it, and a good many understand it. There are localities in South Australia which embrace ideal conditions for the industry, and the favored spots are being taken up with avidity. For years planting has been going on apace, and when all the young trees have come into bearing the harvesting of the crop will be a much bigger business than at present, although progress has been marked and consistent. Growers of citrus fruits have been systematically digging up vines and other trees for the pur pose of devoting the land to what they believe to be the more profitable undertaking of orange growing. South Australian oranges have found great favor with the Australian consumer, and to the foreign buyer many thousands of miles across the water they are an indescribable A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 145 delicacy. An English report, referring to a shipment from Australia, stated-" The pick of the oranges from your end of the world were some magnificent ' navels ' from South Australia. These created quite a star m the trade, for the fruit were so large that in some of the cases there were only 72 oranges all told. These sold at about 18s. a case on the average, and 3s. a dozen for oranges wholesale is quite a phenomenal price. Without doubt the South Australian navels are the finest oranges ever put on Covent Garden market, and though retailers cannot afford to sell them at less than 4s. or 5s. a dozen, it is very certain that fruit of such quality will always command a high price. The South Australian navels are not only fine fruit to 'look at, but splendid eating. The only fault one can find with them is that the dominance of juice in them renders it undesirable to attack one without arming yourself with a bib, or some such protection for your clothes For several years shipments of the golden fruit— small, certainly, but typical— were made to the London market, and the fact that buyers there are ever asking for more is unmistakable evidence of satisfaction with the article. In 1897 a few thousand cases were sent to the old country, but in the following year, owing to a short crop, only about 500 cases were dispatched. Then in 1899, when the trees brought forth more fruit, nearly treble that quantity left these shores. The oranges which were shipped to the depot averaged 14s. 2d. a case, but this consignment was by no means a first-class one. Much of the fruit had shrivelled, and the grading was faulty. Since then shipments have been spasmodic, but official reports from the world's metropolis have consistently called attention to the spirited demand which exists for oranges of the best quality, provided they are landed in London between August and the end of the year. Australian growers tested the English market about 12 years ago, and found it highly favorable to the development of an export business. A trial shipment of 1,740 cases of oranges was forwarded from Sydney, and the prices realised ranged from 23s. to 13s. 3d., or an average of 13s. 8d. a case. After the payment of expenses the returns showed a net profit of close on £134. As this was an experimental consignment, the charges were heavy. As yet South Aus tralia is not a large contributor to oversea markets, but exports are assuming appreciable dimen sions. If landed in London between the months mentioned above thousands of cases of Aus tralian oranges would be absorbed, because during that period consignments from other countries, such as Jamaica, Florida, and California, are not forthcoming. One authority esti mates that even if 5,000 or 6.000 cases were sent from these ports for several months the London market would not be supplied, to say nothing of provincial requirements. The South Australian industry, however, is making splendid progress, and it is not to be doubted that in two or three years' time markets will have to be discovered for our surplus fruit. In 1895 there were only 73,000 orange trees in South Australian soil ; at present there are nearly 162,000 trees. When all these have attained maturity thousands of cases of this luscious fruit will be available for foreign consumption. The development of orange cultivation can be gauged from the following figures, which deal with the number of trees planted and the annual yield : — Year. Trees. Cases. Year. Trees. Cases. 1895-6 73,365 43,817 1902-3 127,762 62,814 1896-7 99,098 42,705 1903-4 141,856 97,717 1897-8 104,612 46,469 1904-5 151,593 103,893 1898-9 106,674 27,520 f 1905-6 164,98* 130,171 1900-1 109,490 40,073 i 1906-7 .. 165,230 143,261 1901-2 117,452 58,366 K 146 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Lemon trees thrive well in almost any part of the State, and Lemon Culture, considerable attention is devoted to the growing of lemons. The official statistics give the number of trees in 1907 at 76,500, producing 49,230 cases. The manufacture of candied lemon-peel is an established industry, and, with the prospect of a growing surplus, efforts are being made to cure lemons as is done in Sicily, and also for niaking citric and oil of lemon. Some idea of the growth of lemon cultivation may be gleaned from the attached particulars : — Year. Trees. Cases Year. Trees. Cases. 1897-8 54,124 9,775 1902-3 67,557 27,057 1898-9 63,654 6,860 1903-4 67,882 40,315 1899-1900 63,838 13,975 1904-5 69,510 37,720 1900-1 61,330 17,548 1905-6 75,982 48,990 1901-2 65,696 27,045 1906-7 76,500 49,230 Currants and Raisins. Another industry closely connected with viticulture and fruit growing is the cultivation of the Zante currant and grapes suitable for raisins. The practice of ringing the currant vine is now largely practised throughout South Australia, with gratifying results. Fifteen years ago some 36 tons was the total production of raisins, whilst last year over 800 tons of the local article were put on the market. In 1888 43 tons of currants were produced, and in 1906-7 1,164 tons. The business is rapidly expanding, and the quality is superior to the imported article. Professor Perkins writes — " Currant- growers have not as yet to look for an outside market ; it will, in fact, be many years ere we succeed in supplying even the Commonwealth's requirements. If we admit that the Commonwealth, with its rising population, is in a position to absorb 6,000 tons annually, and assume that the average yield of currants is not likely to exceed half a ton per acre, even an area of 12,000 acres under Zante currants would not unduly congest the local market. We are far yet from the possible 12,000 acres. Currant-growing can be confidently recommended to those who have taste for the kind of work it involves. I know of no more profitable method of utilising good land." The supply of the locally-dried raisins and currants is insufficient for the demand. The quantities made during 1906-7 were the highest on Record. The following figures show the growth of production : — Year. Currants. Raisins. Year. Currants. Raisins. 1902-3 1903 4 1904-5 Cwts. 4,886 10,406 16,714 Cwts. 11,562 13,063 8,697 1905-6 1906-7 Cwts. 19,870 •23,281 Cwts. 11,919 16,123 The Coonawarra Fruit Colony in the south-eastern portion of A Fruit Colony, the State, was founded about 16 years ago by the late Mr. John Riddoch, who set aside a portion of the Yallum Estate for the experi-; ment. Two thousand acres were surveyed and cut into blocks of 10 acres and upwards. The blocks vary from 10 to 20 acres. Settlers were charged £10 an acre for the land, and were given 10 years in which to pay it, 5 per cent, interest being charged on the balance due. Many of those who took up land have since bought straight out through the medium of the State Bank, enjoying the benefits offered by that institution in the shape of lower interest, and the system's! of paying off the principal and interest together over an extended period. Anybody visiting Coonawarra at the present time cannot fully appreciate the uphill struggle which most of the colonists have had to make during the last 10 years. Some of the settlers went into the enter prise with insufficient capital, and the period of waiting for the fruit trees to come into bearing A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 147 proved too much for them, and the inevitable happened. Those who have been able to remain and work their land are now beginning to reap some reward for their labor and fortitude, and the impression created by a tour of the vineyards and orchards suggests that success is within measurable distance for the industrious husbandmen. There are about 22 families settled at Coonawarra at the present time. In several instances two brothers took up blocks, and the one went out working, earning a little money to keep the pot boiling, while the other brother brought the orchard into full bearing. Among the varieties of apples grown at Coonawarra are Cleopatra, Cox's Orange Pippin, Five Crown (London Pip), Rome Beauty, Mickajack, Scarlet Nonpareil, Jonathan, Newtown Pip, Stone Pip, and Roakewood. The apples are exported chiefly to London, and the soft fruits are sun-dried. The variety of peaches includes Brigg's Red May, Early Silver, Royal George, Merchant Campbell, Dr. Hogg, and Lady Palmerston. The varieties of apricots are Oullin's Early, Moorpark, and Hemskirk. The plums include Green Gage, French Prune, Felamburg, Prime Pons Seedlings, and Coe's Golden Drop. The Coonawarra Fruit Colony is looking well, the trees and vines having a healthy appearance, and promising good crops. The soil at Coonawarra might be described as being of a chocolate loam in some places and a lighter sandy loam in others, with a limestone formation running throughout the colony. The country in the vicinity of Coonawarra is what some bushmen describe as " pockety," and these httle depressions in the land generally represent the richest patches. There is an average rainfall of 27in. during the year, and water is obtainable anywhere at a depth of 12ft. to 15ft. Irrigation is not required, owing to the splendid rainfall and the good supply of water so near to the surface ; and this, of course, is a great advantage, and represents a substantial saving. Ever since the fruit colony was founded Mr. Riddoch has given every possible encouragement to the settlers, and to serve as an object lesson he planted about 250 acres with vines and fruit trees on his own estate. Of this area about 139 acres are under vines. All the grapes growing in the settlement are carted to the wine cellar. Settlers are now receiving good prices for these, and there is a tendency to increase the acreage of several of the vineyards. Large Consignment of Export Apples on the Way to Shipping Port. [R. H. Ball, Photo. ORCHARDS ON THE HILL SLOPES NEAR ADELAIDE. 00 oa i-3w feciCOS3 >t- 1-3WH O H 1-3W?t"1 co 1-3?1-3 In the Uount Lofty Banges (within a few miles of the city) there are some thousands of acres of orchards. grow to perfection on these hill slopes. [Govt. Photo. Apples, pears, cherries, and plums CORNER OF THE WHARF AT THE RENMARK IRRIGATION COLONY, SHOWING A BEND IN THE RIVER MURRAY. (ch. 5 v.) Fruit to the Value of nearly £100,000 was Shipped Last Year. [Chas. P. Scott, Phr* CHAPTER XV. RENMARK IRRIGATION COLONY, And the wilderness shall put on tho glory of a fruitful garden ; the desert shall be made to blossom as the rose ; the drv land shall laugh with gladness ; the valley shall be filled with joy ; the husbandman shall reap the increase and enjoy the fruits of his labor under his his own vine and fig tree. gHE Benmark Fruit Colony was wilderness in 1887, and the 20 years that have passed since then have witnessed a wonderful evolution. Benmark was the name given by Chaffey Bros., Limited, to the second irrigation colony which they founded on the Murray ; but, however good that company's designs were, it was not their operations that made Benmark what it is to-day. Rather it was the energy and perseverance of the settlers who held on after Chaffey Bros, retired. Conditions have changed greatly since the agreement between the company and the South Australian Government was signed on February 24th, 1887. The outlying virgin scrub is convincing evidence of what the settlers have done ; but the visitor does not learn, either by the prosperity he sees there or by comparisons with other fruit-growing areas, the extent to which Renmark settlers have had to fight in order to subdue the wilderness and overcome financial and trade difficulties. Renmark is situated practically in an elbow of the River Murray. Water and. Soil. The plan of the settlement is almost in the shape of a fan, with the township at the handle and roads and irrigation channels as ribs. Into these channels — known as main channels — is pumped water from the Murray by a fine piece of machinery on the river bank capable of spouting forth l,620,000galls. an hour. This is called No. 1 pump, and is inspected by every visitor who wishes to know anything at all about Renmark. There are four others in the settlement, which distribute the water from the long reservoir that No. 1 pump fills into a series of smaller channels, from which, in turn, the settlers take their supplies. The rich, sandy loam to be found in many parts of the settlement is said to be equal to the best Californian lands where irrigation has been profitably conducted for many years. It is easily cultivated, and retains the moisture for a considerable time. In other parts of the settlement the soil is heavier and requires more working, but Muscatel (or Gordo Blanco) vines flourish in it and bear heavy crops. The Murray water contains much organic and inorganic matter and is a useful fertiliser. No one who sees the succession of plantations brought up to a high HOW a Desert state of cultivation, the whole reliance of the settlers on the irrigation Was Conquered system, the Fruit Packing Union's busy shed in the fruit season, and the enormous quantity of dried and fresh fruit that is poured into it, can fail to be impressed with the vital importance of a full river to Renmark. More than once the growers— because of the vast diversions made by the upper States and the natural conse quence to those situated lower down — have been compelled to resort to the expedient of carting their export fruit for 75 miles along a rough and sandy track to Morgan^the railway terminus. Before even this gigantic labor the hearts of the Renmark growers have not flinched. Only after such trials does the dry land laugh. Only after such superhuman effort is the valley joyful because of its people, who are yearly becoming more resourceful and prosperous. In creasing production and the danger of low rivers are responsible for the emphatic demands for the locking of the river in order to ensure a permanent waterway. The distance between Renmark and Morgan by water is about 180 miles. The river trip— the shorter one from Morgan or the longer one from Murray Bridge— is becoming a popular holiday for the tourist, and o CURRANT AND RAISIN VINEYARD AT RENMARK. DRYING CURRANTS ON IRRIGATION SETTLEMENT f C P. Scott, Photo. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 151 inspires more patriotism, more appreciation of what Australians can do in Australia, than does the most learned study of blue books or the most enthusiastic flight of the imagination. Here along the Murray, the visitor assures himself, fertility and prosperity is a matter only of steady development. When the home-seeker is able to appreciate the fertility of the soil and the fertiUsing power of water the valley of this great river will represent the addition of another province to South Australia. Astonishing as it may seem, many people have been blind to one of the State's best assets. While men have tried to coax the dry interior to grow wheat and feed stock, these valleys have been left to the rabbits, and the rich Murray water has been allowed to pour its precious contents into the ocean. The foundation of the village settlements and their subsequent partial failure proved in the end a good advertisement for the valley of the Murray. Attention was directed to the problems involved in the artificial application of water to the soil, and from the ashes of the village settlements prosperous settlers rose Phoenix-like and proved that the country was capable of carrying a large population. Renmark suffered severely from the failure of the Chaffey Bros., and for a time the place was regarded as little better than a glorified village settlement ; but the settlers had their backs to the wall and they fought hard. Renmark turned the corner several years ago, and the battle has been won, and the prosperous settlement represents South Australia's greatest vested interest in a share of the waters of the River Murray. The visitor to the Irrigation Colony must know all this before he is able to adequately appreciate what the conquest of the desert means to the individual settler and the State. Irrigation Channel, showing how the Water is Taken to Different Parts of the " Colony." \J, C. Reiners, Photo. to o a « H SS> ¦M ¦> I •Q a 21 H •W i> f GRAPEPICKERS AT WORK IN A RENMARK VINEYARD. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS, 153 The Irrigation Colony to-day represents a conquest and a contrast. A Conquest and The country in its natural state consisted of low mallee scrub, with a Contrast. a *ew blades of grass fighting for a miserable existence, and sand shifting from place to place at the caprice of every breeze. The irrigation, the sunshine, and scientific cultivation have shown how fertile that soil really is. Citrus fruits, vines (grape, sultana, currant), apricots, peaches, and pears are the fruits princi pally grown, though apple, nectarine, and olive trees also bear well. During recent years the apricots and lemons, which were planted in the early years, have been rooted out— in some instances in favor of younger trees of the same sort, but in most cases to be displaced by sultana or currant vines. The reason for this is that from the vines the grower gets his return first. It is not too much to say that the Gordo Blanco raisin has seen Renmark through her troubles. Apricots have grown to a standard market demand and value, as have also peaches, nectarines, and pears. The sultana has of recent years come greatly into favor. The capital cost of plant ing the sultana exceeds that of the ordinary raisin vine on account of trellising ; but the great demand for this dried fruit, which has all the advantages of the ordinary raisin without the ordinary raisin's stones, fully justifies and returns the additional expenditure incurred. Since science has introduced and constantly improved the process of cincturing, and led to the pro duction of quite wonderful crops, many more acres than formerly have been planted with Zante currants. Oranges, such as navels, Malta bloods, Compudas, and mandarin and other varieties, are good property, and the market results have always been good. Although in the past the cultivation of the lemon has not, for market reasons, been completely satisfactory, the future is more hopeful. The lands assessed by the Irrigation Trust, which controls the fruit colony, are valued at over £150,000 and comprise 4,183 acres, and consist of apricots, 344 acres; peaches, 118; oranges, 202; lemons, 83; Muscatel vines, 757; sultanas, 670; currants, 433 ; olives, 26 ; pears, 78 ; nectarines, 4 ; apples, 4 ; mixed (various kinds around home stead), 71 ; and lucerne, 369. There is also about 1,000 acres paying water rates and classed as unplanted. One boast of which Renmark may well be proud is that there are no fruit diseases in the settlement. Though vine-growing districts in the other States are infested with phyl loxera, South Australia is free ; and Renmark (the largest grape-producing area in the State) has never known it. How much the care and industry of Renmark has protected South Aus tralia from ravages of phylloxera can never, of course, be calculated. There is a little citrus scale in places, but this, owing to healthy precautions and drastic remedies, has assumed no dangerous proportions. No fruit boxes — whether for export packing or for use in the settle ment — are imported. The local government of Renmark is constituted in what is known Local as the Irrigation Trust. The members of that body are charged, by Government. Act °* Parliament, with the duty of raising and distributing water in the horticultural areas. The expenditure is balanced by a uniform annual rate of £1 per acre, payable on assessed lands whether watered or not. The Trust has district council powers over the horticultural area. During the last year or two the township, which was for a long time under no organised control, has been governed, as are the majority of towns in South Australia, by a district council— the Hamley District Council. The Trust Act of 1893 provided for a loan of £3,000, and that of 1900 for a loan of £16,000. This advance of £19,000 was in order to make good the deficiencies of construction in plant and works as left by Chaffey Bros., Limited. Renmark settlers have earned a reputation at home and abroad for Quality and the quality of their products. Not only have they established a recog- Quantitv nised export trade within Australia, but the fame of Renmark oranges ' and dried fruits has spread to London, and the quality of Renmark table raisins has enhanced the reputation of London dessert tables. In spite of all obstacles— of which the greatest, after all, has been, and is, the uncertainty of a navigable river— the pro duction of Renmark has improved year after year, and to-day the consumers of Australia to a large extent rely on this irrigation colony for supplies of oranges and dried fruits, The figures OI4- O c H « H SO> C"1 H ao M > Currant Vineyard at Renmark, showing Thirty Months' Growth from Time of Planting A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 155 showing the value of annual production tell their own tale. Appended is a table showing the values of Renmark produce exported from the settlement, exclusive of the settlers' own consumption : — Year. : £ | Year. £ 1895 6,878 1902 35,000 1895 7,398 1903 39,250 1897 16,869 1904 40,250 1898 11,968 1905 41,550 1899 18,167 1906 52,000 1900 22,086 1907 . . 78,000 1901 28,167 1 Let the visitor, as he reads these figures, take into account the history of the years since 1887, when the first English pioneer fruitgrower marked out his block on uncleared land in Benmark settlement, and say whether these hardy settlers have not shown courage and accom phshed' a monumental task. The hard times were a severe but a refining test, and to-day there are over 1,100 happy people living there, rejoicing in the prosperity of their " colony," and all the better for the fight against Nature which they won. A Bill has been introduced to Parliament providing for the establish- New ment of a second irrigation colony on the Murray, below Renmark, and Settlement. *° create boards for controlling reclaimed swamp lands. The first scheme will deal with about 1,500 acres ; but additional settlements are contem plated. The success of Renmark and other irrigation schemes at various points has had the effect of attracting attention to the advantages offered in the valley of the river to home- seekers. Prying Pears at Renmark, Chapter XVI. THE WINE INDUSTRY. 5Hl§K£UR wines as a class are undoubtedly superior to the bulk of the European wines, wfew' an<^ are' therefore, well able to hold their own on the markets of the world." This «^|s|P> is the opinion of Professor Perkins, the Government Viticulturist, and it has been confirmed by leading authorities in Europe, as well as experts in Australia. Viscount des Garets, a champagne-maker of Epernay, France, visited a number of South Australian cellars in July, 1903, and when in Western Australia, on his way back to France, he publicly made the following statements : — " Some of the best wines I have tasted in Australia were those of South Australian production. I am taking several cases of claret, white wines, and brandy to France with me. Before many years the French market will be killed out, and I am quite sure that the export of Australian wine will improve day by day and year by year. Many of the ideas employed by Australian winemakers came from their own heads. These young countries can teach the older places many things, and I have learnt some ideas which I will put into practice in France. My countrymen do not travel enough ; there is always something to be learned in the changed conditions of younger countries. I intend to tell them that when I get home, and persuade them to come and see what Australia has to show. Land, land, land everywhere, and out here I see the best means, not to become wealthy, but to live very comfortably and make money. It is a great mistake for the old countries not to send more people out to these places. Land is to be had cheaply, and I think the French farmer comes out on top of the list. I will speak about these things when I get home." The high quality of the South Australian product is command- Establishing the ing increased appreciation in foreign markets. There has been Industry. a vast amount of prejudice to overcome, and an uphill fight to secure a footing in conservative trade circles, but these difficulties are gradually passing away. The viticultural expert of the State has affirmed that with due care there will be no difficulty in placing wine making in the front rank of the revenue-yielding industries of this State. There is no room for doubt concerning the suitability of South Aus tralian soil and climate to the growth of the vine. There never was from the time that the first vine cuttings were imported. " With the wonderful climate of Australia," wrote Dr. Taylor many years ago, " with its volcanic and other weathered soils full of potash, iron, and other vine food, it would be surprising indeed if Australia were not supplying the world with ' wine that maketh glad the heart of man ' long after the worn-out vineyards of the Old World have succumbed to horticultural starvation and entomological ravages." " Experience has shown," says the State Viticultural Expert, " that South Australia is pre-eminently suited to the growth of the vine ; and that the manufacture of a good sound wine, capable of holding its own in +he world's markets, can readily be obtained from a large portion of our agricultural areas." The vine flourished in South Australia from the first, and wine made with the most primitive appliances was pronounced by connoisseurs to be of excellent quality. Governor MacDonnell, writing to a friend in 1859, said — " I have lately been going through the dozen duplicate samples of wine you sent me from Tanunda, and at least eight of them are excellent. I have been quite surprised at their quality ; but I have no doubt this country will be a good wine-producing country. People are setting to work energetically planting vines in all directions, and in four years I have no doubt we shall obtain a tolerable footing in the English market." " With time and care Australia ought to be the vineyard of the world," said Sir Charles Dilke in his " Greater Britain," written after his visit to these lands in 1867. He continued— " The colonial wines are excellent, better indeed than the growths of California, which, however, they resemble in general character. The Albury Hermitage is a better wine than can be bought in Europe." South Australian wines have improved out of all knowledge since Sir Charles (ch. xvi.) THE SOURCE OF THE WINE INDUSTRY. [McGann, Photo. VI N EYARDS ON THE HILL SLOPES ABOUT FOUR MILES FROM ADELAIDE. 0ai—a H t=J O 9% %0w> o G D HHHtr1B M A number of vineyards and wine-making establishments are situated on the slopes of the Mount Lofty Eauges, within a few miles of the city. 158 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Dilke expressed his views. Mr. P. B. Burgoyne (the London- Australian wine merchant), after a visit to this State, declared — " The wines of South Australia as a whole are a great improve ment on those which I tasted in 1893. I find the types exhibit a distinct individuality, and I have tasted wines with an elegance and finish not surpassed by other wine-growing countries. Of this you might indeed be proud." The London Times, in 1887, stated that Mr. Richard Bannister, in reporting on the subject in connection with the late Colonial Exhibition under the auspices of the Society of Arts, emphasises the fact that soil and climate in many parts of Aus tralia are eminently suited to certain kinds of grapes. " It depends on the choice of the grapes, on the care with which they are grown and tended, and on their subsequent manipulation and the storing of the wines, whether colonial wines will find permanent and increasing favor among winedrinkers. Recent improvements in South Australia have had such marked beneficial results that there is every hope of a successful future for these wines." During the interval of 16 years since those words were penned, South Australian growers have made great strides, and wines of splendid quality are produced in increasing quantities. According to a report by the Federal Statistician the vineyards Where South of the Commonwealth covered 62,546 acres last year. This is Australia Leads. ^ess than m aIiy other year since Federation. The area was greatest in 1904-5, when 65,673 acres was under vines. Of the total area last year 55,922 acres was classed as productive. Of this 23,368 acres was in Victoria and 19,753 acres in South Australia. New South Wales has 7,853 acres, Queensland 1,788 acres, and Western Australia 3,160 acres. Despite the possession of greater acreage, the Victorian vineyards do not produce as much wine as those of South Australia. Last year in Victoria there was produced 2,044,833galls., while in South Australia 2,441, 504galls. was made. The total production for the Commonwealth was 5,891,945, most of which was -made in Victoria and South Australia. During the last six years wine-production in South Australia has been remarkably constant, showing the stable position occupied by the industry. Starting in 1901 with a production of 2,007,923galls., it gradually increased, until in 1905 it was 2,845,853gaHs., with a falling off of 400,000galls. last year. In Victoria, on the other hand, the production has varied in a curious fashion. In 1901-2 it was 1,981, 475galls. In 1902-3 it was 1,547, 188galls., 2,551, 150galls. in 1903-4, l,832,386galls. in 1904-5, l,726,444galls. in 1905-6, and last year 2,044,833galls. With all this production the imports of wine continue to be high. Last year 43,324galls. of sparkling wine and 71,980galls. of still wine was imported. The exports of wine are far greater than the imports, though they have fallen off in recent years. In 1902 the exports totalled l,078,914galls., valued at £148,983, while the imports amounted to 181,337galls., valued at £127,769. Last year the exports were only 720,260galls., valued at £97,683. The imports last year were valued at £106,133, so that the balance of value was on the side of the imports. This fact has received striking confirmation from various experts who Praise from have come to the State to act as judges at the annual shows. Mr. Browne Outsiders. acted as sole judge at the annual Wine Show held in August, 1903, and at the conclusion of his labors he said that — " In his experience as a judge he had never met wines so universally good and of such high standard. It showed that the growers, or those interested in the trade, thoroughly understood and appreciated their business when they put forward wines of such quality as they had done. It had generally been his experience in years past to be able to pick out four or five wines from the 10 or 12 samples in a class because they stood above the others ; but in the present instance the exhibits all ran very close. They would see this when he furnished them with a copy of the points. It had been a very difficult and anxious matter to pick out the best wines. Their full red wines were good, honest wines, and approached the Burgundy. They were good export wines. They had got over the difficulty of producing wines. It was now a question of finding a market for them. He had never come across wines equal to the sweet wines he had judged. They could produce Tokay, Madeira, and Verdeilho which would commend themselves anywhere. He had had an interesting conversation with Mr. Fueerhard, the Portuguese seller, who assured him they could produce as good a port wine as any in Oporto. He did not know they wanted anything better than the port wine he had judged." The Lancet, the well-known medical journal, GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS. AM) SETTLERS. 159 expressing an opinion on South Australian wines submitted in London, wrote-" Australia at a moderate cost ,s sending us really good wines of the excellent type of those before us. Each year sees a marked improvement m the tone and quality of the vintage." Pvnwfh «f t^ Natural characteristics of soil and situation of our vineyards Growth Of the must needs always be a vital point of consideration if growers" con- Industry, template the production of high-class wines. In South AustraUa, , . , ., *s ln other countries, this potent fact is already making itself felt, and wmes of the rarest types are met with in many cellars. The growth of the wine industry^ has been remarkable considering the difficulties associated with the business. Some vignerons had a lot to forget m the cultivation of the vine in a new land. All of them had much to learn. The process of education was slow and costly, but most of the problems which troubled the early makers are problems no longer. Present-day cellarmen have a clear course, and when r^m^i Grapepickers at Work in a Large Vineyard. a few difficulties connected with the marketing of the produce in foreign markets shall have been overcome, as they soon will be, the expansion of the industry will be assured. Early history connected with the introduction of the vine to South Australia was so well reviewed by the late Mr. Crompton at a banquet held at McLaren Vale a few years ago, that I cannot do better than summarise the interesting statement made by him. It appears that Sir William McArthur, of New South Wales, to whom Australia was especially indebted for the introduction of the Merino sheep, also imported vines suitable for wine-making. That was the beginning of the well-known Camden vineyards. There was also a very valuable collection of vines made by Mr. Bushby, which was subsequently entrusted to the Sydney Botanic Gardens. There were Mataro, Grenache, and Carignan, and probably nearly all the vines of the South of France, and this collection was large in the number of varieties. Mr, Bushby spared no pains to make it complete. About Perpignan his tracks were to be found years afterwards. It was probably from Mr. Bushby's collection that South Australians obtained the varieties named, as well as the Shiraz. It was known in South Australia that those vines were to be had from Sydney, and cuttings were sent here before 1850, probably to various applicants, notably to Mr. Daven port, at Macclesfield (now Sir Samuel Davenport) . In addition to those importations to New 160 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. South Wales there were two collections of Spanish vines. From one of these originated the Clarendon vineyard belonging to Mr. Leigh, after whom Leigh Street in Adelaide was named. The collection went to form a vineyard at Marino. In 1866 Mr. Crompton was introduced to the gentleman at St. Mary's, near Cadiz, who selected these cuttings for Mr. John Brown, a name well known to all old colonists, from whom they passed to Sir George Kingston. The introduction of the Zante currant vine is credited to Mr. Bailey, well known as giving his name to Bailey's Garden at Hackney. Various other vines were brought to the State at different times, as, for instance, the white Sauvignon, by Dr. Kelly, the Sultana vine, for raisin-making, which was first grown at the Botanic Garden. To the late Mr. John Reynell, however, is due the credit of having imported cuttings of wine grapes from Sir W. McArthur, and of planting the first vineyard and making the first wine. Reynella did not exist as a township for some years afterwards, but there was a vintage there in 1846 — probably the first in South Australia. Cuttings from Mr. Reynell were used in planting Dr. Kelly's vineyard at Trinity, Morphett General View of Seppeltsfleld, South Australia, showing portion of Cellars comprising the Largest Winery in the World. (The cellars at the close of last vintage held over l,000,000galls. of wine.) Vale, and of Mr. Perry ; also of some vineyards in the Tanunda district. The varieties planted in the first vineyard at Reynella were the Gouais and Verdeilho, white grapes, two kinds of Pineau, Malbec, and Carbenet grapes, red grapes. That was no mean collection as regarded quality, even judged with the experience of half a century. " It might interest my younger hearers," concluded Mr. Crompton, " to know when passing through the now large acreage of vines at Reynella, to recollect that it was the first vineyard for wine-making in South Australia, and the parent of an industry from which much was now being realised, and from which much more might be confidently expected." South Australian wines have gained a large number of prizes at foreign exhibitions and inter-State wine shows. In 1891, in Tasmania, the awards to South Australian makers were greater in number and value than the combined prizes which went to other States. The Colonial Surgeon, in one of his recent reports, stated — " Colonial wine still continues to be used (in the hospitals) , and the experience verifies the remark made in pre vious reports that, while it costs less, it is superior to the imported article." South Australian wines and brandies are now in general use in the hospitals of Australia, and in many similar institutions in England. GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. lei The Force of Figures. The following table shows the quantity of wine made since 1861 in the years given : — Tear.1861 . . 1865.. 1870..1875.. 1880..1884..1890. . 1895.. Gallons. 182,087 798,647895,795648,186 500,955473,535 1,052,086 1,578,590 Year. 1900. 1902.1903. 1904.1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. Gallons. 1,558,285 2,431,563 2,573,4242,345,270 2,045,458 2,655,9472,495,4342,061,987 The acreage under vines has steadily increased. In 1892 there were 12,314 acres, with 4,030,724 vines in bearing, and 3,146,564 non-producing. During the next 10 years the area had increased to 20,860 acres, the number of productive vines to 9,504,880, and 1,396,531 vines not in bearing, aggregating over 10,000,000 vines. During the succeeding five years there was a substantial expansion of the area under cultivation for vines. The increase in the area has been gradual for some years as the following table will show : — Tear. Acres. In Bearinc. Not in Bearing. Year. Acres. In Bearing. Not in Bearing. 1892 12,314 4,030,724 3,146,564 1902 20,860 9,504,880 1,396,531 1893 15,418 4,206,880 4,545,737 1903 21,692 10,067,139 1,396,531 1897 18,333 6,809,737 2,493,928 1904 22,617 10,380,926 1,853,810 1898 18,761 8,021,070 1,803,367 1905 23,210 10,648,126 1,710,674 1899 19,159 8,814,086 1,355,014 1906 23,603 10,924,209 1,802,237 1900 19,438 9,032,083 1,310,948 1907 22,575 10,599,712 1,523,999 1901 20,158 9,207,935 1,215,908 The rapid increase in production during the last 10 years has, notwithstanding a substantial advance in exports, compelled winemakers to extend their cellars and carry increasingly heavy stocks. Free trade between the Australian States, as the outcome of Federal Union, has given an impetus to the inter-State wine trade, and South Australia has greatly benefited. In 1896 the locally grown wine reported in stock was 3,713,381galls. ; it is now returned as 4,641,622galls. The wine export increased from 391,233galls. to 737,664galls. in 1907. During recent years there has been a strong local demand, while the export trade has also improved. The following table shows the wine in stock, the quantities exported, and the value thereof since 1893 :— Wine in Stock as on June 30th. 18931894 18951896 1897 1898189919001901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 Gallons. 2,776,6642,908,320 3,579,6053,713,381 4,371,9513,717,008 3,896,3073,521,637 4,915,636 5,027,7595,535,694 5,300,000 5,304,236 5,800,498 5,392,245 4,641,622 Wine Exported. Value. of Stills. Spirits Made. Dutv Paid. Gallons. £ 260,251 47,300 36 109,239 6,410 256,216 49,475 39 76,951 5,832 343,405 58,826 36 98,718 7,096 391,233 73,316 38 147,093 12,628 513,714 82,553 38 128,376 11,346 514,065 78,381 37 149,488 11,195 496,610 77,773 38 94,045 12,930 476,646 78,153 40 123,302 13,807 595,853 92,418 57 122,214 15,897 846,691 124,916 63 172,728 22,480 561,830 94,660 — 201,407 28,221 686,159 107,573 — 282,929 32,136 727,746 107,792 — 306,314 31,594 562,819 99,247 — 335,412 38,083 737,664 120,393 — 398,300 60,318 — 162 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Australia is admirably fitted to grow large quantities of Scientific Methods excellent wholesome wine. The growers in that country have of Manufacture. 8one *° great expense, and have manifested much enterprise in obtaining the best varieties of grapes, and the most improved plant and appliances, for producing wine of a high quality. They have also induced French experts to emigrate to Australia to teach the best methods of dealing with the vine, the grape, and the wine, at every stage, from the planting to the bottling of the finished product. One point, which everyone connected with the Australian wine trade is insistent upon is that the wine consists of the pure juice of the grape without any admixture or " faking," such as have recently been shown to take place in connection with some Continental wines. The pioneer vigneron in South Australia employed the same primitive methods of extracting the juice from the grape as those followed by the Egyptians in the days of Pharaohs. All kinds of " presses " were requisitioned in the " early days," from the naked feet of young Australians to the home made hand crusher. South Australian vignerons have had to pass through a long and trying Adelaide Wine Cellars, belonging to Thos. Hardy & Sons, Limited, Proprietors of Tintara Vineyards. course of evolution before they reached the position which at this moment marks them as ranking amongst the most enlightened winemakers of the day. Few countries have been so alert to the requirements which different climatic conditions have brought along with them. Not only are our wineries models of cleanliness and perfect fermenting-houses in every sense of the word, fitted up as they are with the most approved cooling systems, but they have been almost universally built to take advantage of the slope of the land which enables the pulp or liquid to gravitate from the top end of the cellars to the terraces lower down the hill. South Australians may pride themselves with having originated and perfected a scheme for treating enormous bulks of grapes, which is not only being copied by the other wine-growing States of the Commonwealth, but has attracted the attention of interested visitors from many of the largest wine-growing centres of the world. Viscount des Garets, after a visit to one of these establishments, expressed himself in terms of the highest encomiums at the practical principles which have been introduced to minimise the handling of the grapes when they have once passed the stemmers and crushing mills. New machines of the latest patterns are continually taking A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 163 164 SOUTH AUSTRALIA— THE CENTRAL STATE. the place of older types, and powerful hydraulic and continuous presses are used for treating the " marc " at the final stage. . Spontaneous fermentation, which is still almost entirely relied on in old and conservative countries, is fast being replaced by more scientific methods. Culti vated levures are introduced into the " must," and, although it cannot be claimed that a superior wine may be produced from an inferior grape, it has nevertheless been proved that when a ferment of energetic qualities has gained the upper hand it suppresses the numerous undesirable germs which would otherwise develop to the detriment of the fermented product. Every country that desires to attract the permanent attention of those interested in the industry must necessarily produce larger quantities of a uniform class of wine whose quality may be thoroughly relied upon. Our vignerons recognise all this, and they know that it is useless for Australia to endeavor to create a market for herself by imitating the thin, almost unsaleable wines of France, or the more acrid types of the Rhenish districts, while her generous climate is so favorable for the production of so rich and full-bodied a wine which is already gaining the serious consideration of the English merchants. There are two features in connection with the wine industry to Vineyards Free which vignerons attach great importance. One is the entire absence from Disease. °^ disease in any of the vineyards, and the other is that with the removal of the border Custom House on the establishment of Federa tion a large inter-State market was at once thrown open. A few years ago a Phylloxera Board was established under Act of Parliament, and complete machinery was created for preventing the introduction of the pest so much dreaded by the vinegrower. Mr. Henry Lowcay, an expert of considerable experience in other countries, was appointed inspector under the Board, and he has made two complete inspections of every vineyard in South Australia, over two years having been occupied in this critical examination. Mr. Lowcay, in his official report, has been able to declare that not only is there not the slightest trace of phylloxera in South Australia, but that the vineyards are completely free from disease of any kind. Mr. Frank T. Bullen, the well-known author and lecturer, after a Tribute by a visit to the vineyard districts near Adelaide, gave the following Visitor. striking testimony : — " Each suburb that is passed on the upward journey is neat and well groomed, and, moreover, a characteristic feature of this favored land looks as if the inhabitants had come to stay. There is no ' I'm but a stranger here ' appearance about the snug houses and well-kept lots, while the fruit trees suggest a veritable garden of the Lord. All the home fruits grow here in rich profusion side by side with oranges, lemons, and grapes, grapes, grapes, until you cease to wonder how it is that the Adelaide hawkers can afford to stand all day selling grapes that are simply perfection for size, flavor, and variety at a uniform rate of a penny a pound. But gladly as I always welcome the view of an orchard or a vineyard, I confess that my attention was always more quickly arrested by the fat, black, level land in the valleys whereon were growing in most lavish pro fusion all the vegetables that we love at home — peas and beans, onions and potatoes, parsnip and beet, side by side with luxuriant tomatoes, huge melons, and many other tasty agricultural products of sub-tropical countries. A gentle land, where frost is unknown, and where the temperature is so kindly that temperate and sub-tropical fruits and vegetables grow side by side ; the only trouble being to find sufficient markets for the abounding crops, garnered with the minimum of labor. But what, I think, impresses all visitors to this favored spot more than any thing else are the vineyards, especially if he be conversant with Continental grape-growing districts. This strong, red soil, bearing evidences of abundance of iron on every hand, seems to be the natural home of the grape, and to be free in an amazing degree from those insect pests which have made the lot of the French and Italian vignerons such a weary one. Every variety of grape seems to flourish here in such wonderful luxuriance and fecundity, and withal in such healthfulness of foliage and fruit, that the eye wearies of admiring their prolific masses. Quite unintentionally it so happened that I was invited to go and visit first one of the youngest of the vineyards and its ' winery,' as it is called, in company with two gentlemen, proprietor and editor respectively of a great newspaper out here. And I must confess that I was amazed at everything I saw. The wagon-loads of tiny but rich-tasting, luscious grapes coming in from the adjacent vineyards, where they were being picked by a merry troop of boys and girls; the ceaseless elevator, upon whose revolving shelves a burly, silent man hurled huge forkloads of A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 165 grapes, the drum above in which those same grapes were separated from their stalks and crushed at the same time, the juice flowing one way and the stalks another, and the crushed skins another. together with other swift processes, were mightily interesting, especially as contrasted with the old crude methods of the Continent, with their maximum of dirt. I thought of Macaulay's— This year the must shall foam 'Neath the white feet of laughing girls. and felt that this method was infinitely preferable. Then down below, to where the great square tanks, full of juice, were bubbling and boiling in the throes of fermentation, where I elicited information about the hastening of that wonderful process by the addition of special cultures a 'a Pasteur — for your Australian winegrower is nothing if not scientific. Here is a flood of claret, here of Sauvignon grape, here of Muscat, here again of claret ; but all busy, and none allowed to waste an unnecessary moment in the preliminary processes, however long they might have to lie and mature afterwards. And I was especially interested to see how the tint of the grapes Interior Yiew of Large Wine Cellars. was reproduced in the wine, so that a very slight acquaintance with wines and a keen eye for color would be sufficient to name the particular grape from which any given backful had been crushed. " There was an air of absolute purity, of precise cleanliness Spotless Cellars. everywhere which was exceedingly pleasant to notice; but there was also a curious solemnity, a brooding over everything that was most impressive. Even on the top floor, where the machinery was in evidence, there was only a subdued hum, all being driven by an English-made petrol engine, which I was proudly informed had run for four or five years — that is, ever since it was put in — without any attention beyond an occasional wipe and the necessary feeding with petrol, it having never once giyen the slightest trouble. But as we descended into the vast cellars amid vats and tuns of maturing wine, varying in their contents from 500galls. to 2,500galls., the silence became positively oppressive, and I found myself involuntarily speaking in a whisper, as if in some stately fane. Again, anything more unlike the wine cellars of the Old World that I have seen could not possibly be imagined. There cobwebs, mildew, fungi, and a damp, earthy smell, as of the tomb ; here, hot a spot of dirt or speck of dust to be seen anywhere, as if scores of busy housemaids went 166 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. all over the place every morning, which, of course, could not be the case. There were very few men about ; labor is costly here, and, consequently, every labor-saving appliance that can be devised is employed. But I was glad to learn that all the bottles I saw being filled were of Australian, not Belgian or German make j that these people had too much patriotism to let a home industry be filched from them by free importers who would take nothing in return. And certainly these hocks and clarets and ports looked very beautiful in their neat bottles, with attractive labels, especially when I remembered — having watched the whole process so far as the human eye can follow it — that their contents were all absolutely the pure juice of the grape, without any extraneous admixture whatever ; and for that I will not claim any special virtue on the part of the vigneron, only pointing out that the pure article is cheaper to make than any adulterated one would be. ¦piirH-v aT1(q "We then went into the stillhouse, where an absolutely pure brandy ^ . was being distilled, and I remembered vividly the outcry at home, where .Prestige. ^ was gaj(j ^0 jje impossible to get pure brandy. I am assured that it does not pay the Australian winegrower to sophisticate his brandy. That it is infinitely superior to any foreign brandy on the market at double the price I can also well believe, and, as far as a novice's taste may decide, it certainly is more palatable than any French brandy I have ever tasted at any price. Why, then, is it not in its rightful place at home ? Brandy is not a drunkard's drink ; it is largely medicinal, and it is essential that it should be pure. And I believe if the people who now pay large sums for inferior foreign brandy would only try the pure product of the Australian grape they would never purchase any other. The wine is said to be too strong, too alcoholic, and I can easily believe that to be the case ; but so far as the brandy goes it can only be described as the best obtainable, because absolutely pure. I came away from the vine yard with a feeling of great pleasure, on the one hand that I had been privileged to witness so beautiful a process, and of intense sadness on the other that these splendid natural products of our own loyal kin should still be in the struggling stage, should still have to fight for a bare existence against far inferior Continental wines that have nothing to recommend them but the prestige of their name." The wine cellars at Coonawarra are an adjunct of the fruit colony, and they represent a profitable outlet for a portion of the produce raised by the settlers. Mr. McBain, who was for some time Assistant Viticulturist at the Roscworthy College, is manager of the cellars, and his experience has enabled him to bring the accommodation quite up to date and supply it with all necessary appliances. Coonawarra has won a high reputation in the local as well as on the London market. In connection with the cellars is an up-to-date distillery, where any surplus wine is converted into wine or rectified spirit, for both of which there is a ready sale. One of the most remarkable features in connection with the wine in- The Brandy dustry has been the increase in the production of brandy. The superior Industry. quality of the brandy produced in South Australia from the pure juice of the grape has secured the approval of the medical faculty at home and abroad. Considerable capital has been invested in the industry and the latest appliances brought into use. The Viticultural Expert of Western Australia (Mr. Despeissis, M.R.A.C), in his official handbook, referring to Australian brandy, says — " Three or four of the leading brandy manufacturing firms of the Eastern States have lifted it up, in the face of unreasonable prejudice, to the level of the best brands of French brandy. The trade is a rapidly increasing and profitable one, and the Army Commissariat, recognising its merits, now puts it on a par on its tender list with the best brands of French cognac placed on the market." The distilling of brandy is in so many ways closely allied to the wine industry that it is almost essential that the two should be taken together. Whatever advancement has been made in the latter branch has also had the efiect of improving the quality of the former. There is no doubt that spirit- drinking is as much susceptible to the fashion of the day as the consumption of any other liquor, and it cannot be denied that the tendency in Australia to-day is towards the consumption of distillations of the malted liquors. There is a steady increase in the production of pure Aus tralian brandies which are only able to create a demand for themselves at the expense of the imported French article. It is not unlikely that the purity of the spirit has greatly assisted to open up this branch of the industry, and if its high standard and quality are maintained The Chateau Tanunda, where Chateau Tanunda Brandy is distilled. Storage capacity, 1,290,000 gallons. The cellars are fitted with all modern conveniences. 168 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. there is no doubt that it will in time completely drive the imported article from its shores. The distinctive character and flavor which distinguishes a pure grape brandy from any other spirit is due to the presence of delicate aethers and essential oils which are passed over with the spirit during the process of distillation. Brandies of the highest qualities are usually distilled on the old pot-still principle, but care has to be exercised to divide the distillate in such a manner that only the higher grade spirits are retained for consumption. As the young spirit passes from the still it is conveyed into the bonded warehouses, where, under the supervision of the Government official, it is allowed to mature until during the course of time the fragrance of the oenanthic and other settlers is developed and the spirit itself becomes mellow. So highly are Australian brandies esteemed for their purity that they are used in almost every hospital throughout the Commonwealth, and medical men are loud in their praises as to the stimulating qualities of the spirit. Distilleries began to spring up during the earliest period of the settle ment of South Australia, and no doubt many a quiet out-of-the-way place that was not within the direct knowledge of the suspecting excise man drove a thriving trade by avoiding the Customs duties. It is only natural that much crude spirit in this manner found its way into consump tion ; for the doubtful method under which distillation was conducted, combined with a ready sale, rarely ever permitted the spirit so produced to be aged until its coarser properties were reduced. The introduction of stricter laws, a more settled manner of life, and a refinement of the palate of the drinking public, however, altered this lax state of affairs. The production also grew larger than the consumption, and thus the demand for aged brandies soon forced the distillers to adopt more rational methods for carrying on this important industry. Apart from such spirit that is consumed as brandy pure and simple, there are thousands of gallons that are annually used in the manufacture of sweet wines such as ports and sherries. This has necessi tated the erection of large distilleries, which are fitted up with the usual elaborate and com plicated plant for the distillation of high-grade rectified spirit. Each distiller favors such methods as he thinks most applicable to his own particular case, and, although stills of every description have been introduced from England as well as the Continent, the principle on which they are all based relies on the fact of different degrees of caloric being requisite to convert different liquids into vapor. Such, then, is the development that has taken place during the course of time, and, although it is more often considered but a branch of the wine industry itself, it is nevertheless of sufficient importance as to be a great source of revenue to the State. Corner of Bottling Department in the Largest Winery in the World - Seppelt & Sons, Limited, Seppeltsfleld, South Australia, A SPRING SCENE: {c-a. xvn.) ALMOND TREES IN BLOSSOM Adelaide In the Distance. ALONG FOOTHILLS. Chapter XVII. POULTRY RAISING. jjjHERE is probably no other country where poultry thrive as they do in South Australia. Whether in the cool hills districts, the South-East, where colder conditions prevail, or the warm northern areas, the birds do excellently, and constitute a source of profit to the farmer or the fancier. This is particularly true of the drier regions of the State, in the North and on the Murray Flats. There is no better egg- producing country in Australia than the limestone regions in the Valley of the Murray. Both the climate and the soil are perfect for live stock of all descriptions, and poultry do extremely well. Weather conditions are such that the fowls need shelter for practically only a few weeks of the winter season, and there is unlimited scope for flesh development and egg producing qualities. Disease is practically unknown in the poultry yards of South Australia. The reclamation of swamp lands is a work which is being vigorously pursued, and, with the growth of fodders, especially lucerne, the possibilities of cheap production on a large scale are almost unlimited. Green feed grows luxuriously ; lucerne is cultivated with remarkable ease and at trifling cost. Ducks grown on it will give a greater profit than any other stock. Fowls and turkeys can be advantageously fed with from 30 to 40 per cent, of lucerne, which promotes health and stimulates production, at a con siderable saving compared with ordinary methods of feeding. Money in Fowls. -^ ^ew figures wm illustrate the development that has already taken place in the industry, and will serve to indicate that there is " money in fowls " : — Year.1895 1897 18981899 Export df Eggs. £ Year. 45,000 1900 50,034 1901 55,719 1907 64,932 Export oi Poultry. £ Year. 2,002 1901 2,783 1907 3,391 £ 73,67973,520 106,800 Year. £ i Y'ear. £ 1898 2,002 1901 2,564 1899 2,783 1907 20.000 1900 The statistics fluctuate, but that is due to the hitherto spasmodic and unorganised character of the export business. The first shipment of eggs in bulk was made in 1906, and it proved two significant things — that South Australian eggs can be landed in England in a perfectly fresh condition, and that there is a splendid market for them with a satisfactory profit. The expert says the net price in the over-sea market represents the local minimum. He is sanguine that the ruling minimum of 6d. will, by this means, be raised to 7£d. or 8d. Each penny per dozen on eggs exported will represent about £20,000 additional revenue yearly to our pro ducers, and, including local consumption, at least £50,000. Production is increasing rapidly, "and on this basis we may, in a few years, expect the figures to reach £200,000 and more, as our annual receipt for eggs exported from the State. In 1907 two shipments of eggs total ling 40,000doz. were made. These landed in excellent condition and at an appreciable profit to the senders. Special stress was laid by the English newspapers on the splendid quality of the infertile eggs, the export of which has been consistently advocated by the expert. Last year the inter-State market was exceptionally active, and large consignments to other parts of the Commonwealth were made, further indicating the popularity of the article. Everything points to an expanding trade and enhanced returns for poultry-raisers. Cold storage accom modation in Adelaide is being increased to a great extent, so that no fear may be entertained by breeders regarding the preservation of their produce, 170 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 171 Exnortine- Fvn^r, vUntiI u° m\ y6arS n0 organised attempt had been made to Exporting Frozen ship poultry through the Produce Depot to London and South Poultry. Africa. Small lots sent from 1895 to 1905 met with varying ? vr v ^ -a * success. It was not until 1906 that an effort was put forth to establish the industry on sound business lines. The Government sent its expert into the country cTiLTKoX^^r^?8 mf& °f ^ P°Ultry CentreS- Instructions to breed rsweTe l£ll Wn ?ft Y ,ate' ?d aS f fulther induce^nt a table poultry exhibit-said he Rovnl Lri ?^f „and TS* °™V^ ™ the world-was organised in connection with the Royal Agricultural Society's Autumn Show of that year. The experiment was a pro nounced success, and gave a desired Slip to the trade. Over 400 birdsof excellent qual ty ThL fiTh^ 8Uq ^Tf 7 eX?°rted *° L°nd0n' the t0tal shiPments for **» seasonlggre gating 670 birds. Satisfactory prices were realised, and the general get-up of the show consign- Poultry Yards at Mr. G. G. Legoe's, Unley Park, near Adelaide. / [ TV. S. Smith, Photo. ment won the unanimous approval of buyers. Stimulated by this success, shippers be»an to extend their operations, and the 1908 season saw an export of nearly 4,000 birds. The enormous yearly increase of egg and poultry imports into England indicates that an excellent outlet exists for any surplus that South Australia may have. The Government has spared and is sparing no effort to help Helping the poultry-raisers and generally promote the industry. Bulletins are Poultry. Farmers. issued giving instructions concerning suitable breeds, methods of breeding, and the requirements of inter-State and over-sea markets. The State expert delivers lectures at suburban and rural centres, and gives practical demonstra tions in the yards, j Interest in the industry was never so great as it is at the present time. Breed ing-houses are springing into existence everywhere. At the Roseworthy Agricultural College a well-equipped breeding and experimental poultry station has been established. Here large numbers of birds will be bred for export, and a less number of pure stock for sale to those desirous of purchasing. Experiments in feeding, housing, and incubation are being carried out, and 172 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 173 aviculture is included in the college diploma course. In addition, the Government has pro vided a large block of convenient yards and houses, in which laying competitions are being held. The competition pens each contain six hens. At the first test tne winning pen produced 1,032 eggs in the twelve months ; at the second competition, 1,251 eggs ; the third, 1,343 ; and the fourth, 1,531, conclusively showing what splendid results are following high-class breeding. In the last test the average was 1,080 eggs for each of the 75 pens of six hens. These com petitions are doing a great deal to arouse public attention to the commercial possibilities of the industry. South Australian bred fowls hold the world's record for the greatest number of eggs produced in a given time. Good work is also done in the direction of organising numerous small centres on the Danish system. At various points throughout the State breeders combine to collect and deliver their poultry and eggs, and forward them at frequent intervals, so that they may be marketed in the best condition. Special effort is made by the expert to encourage the pro duction of infertile eggs on account of their superior keeping qualities. Duck-raising is a Profitable Industry. [ TV. S. Smith. Photo. Improving the Breeds of Fowls. During the last 10 or 12 years there has been a marked im provement in the general type of farm poultry. Birds of greater productive powers have been distributed far and wide, and this fact accounts largely for the satisfactory increase in the trade. There is an extensive area of suitable poultry country within 50 miles of our railways and ports. South Australia has the climate and the soil. The most satisfactory foods can be grown next to the poultry yard. The transit is short, and although the business of over-sea export is a comparatively new one, the facilities of carriage and treatment are m every way commendable. Either a railway or a shipping centre may be quickly reached by the producer, and the possi bility of deterioration is reduced to a legitimate minimum. Whereas 10 years ago few had any faith in the poultry industry, it is now recognised that poultry-farming can be made a profit able business. The commercial aspect has been proved, and breeders are opening out on a big scale. Altogether the trade is being carefully organised under the direction of the Govern ment Expert, Mr. D. F. Laurie, and in a few years it must become one of considerable national importance. Chapter XVIII. MINOR RURAL INDUSTRIES. j HE climate and soil of this State are so favorable to the production of all kinds of grain, fruit, vegetables, and fodders, that there is practically no limit to what, in a comparative sense, may be regarded as " minor rural industries." The term is employed for convenience of classification and to ensure completeness. Many of the " minor " articles, indeed, really come in the category of important in dustries. Take the essentials for the fattening of stock. Maize and lucerne are grown extensively in various parts of South Australia, while peas, beans, and other fodder plants are largely cultivated. The gospel preached by agricultural experts has not fallen on deaf ears. On the Adelaide plains the production of lucerne for feeding dairy cows and for " topping up " cattle that have travelled long distances from Central Australian stations has developed into a large and lucrative business. " South AustraUa is among the favored few places to which Nature Olive Oil. has granted a monopoly of olive cultivation." This is what the late Sir Samuel Davenport, the father of the industry, wrote many years ago, and his judgment cannot be questioned. Visiting experts, indeed, have affirmed that our natural conditions are in no respect inferior to those of the best olive districts of Southern Europe, and, years ago, the great Italian authority, Caruso, recognising the potentialities ,of this State as a producer of oil of the finest quality and in unlimited quantity, urged that the Italian cultivators should strengthen and increase the industry in view of the severe South Australian competition to which they would be subjected at no distant date. Olive oil manu factured in South Australia was sent to the Great Exhibition of 1851 and gained " honorable mention " on account of " its clearness, color, and flavor." South Australian oil has since that time taken numerous prizes in different parts of the world. It has been officially stated by experts that " no oil that has ever been sent into a market surpasses in quality, lucidity, and creamy delicateness of most delicious flavor the oil that is produced on the Adelaide plains." South Australia is rich in the possession of olive stocks of reputation from Malaga, Gibraltar, and Lisbon, from Cannes, Nice, and South of France, and from Florence and Bari. " The calcareous nature of the soil around Adelaide," Sir Samuel Davenport once said, " and the warm and dry climate assist in bringing the fruit of the olive, as of the vine, to remarkable perfection ; while for the benefit of the laborers, as well as of the farmers, the olive harvest conveniently follows on the vintage as the vintage follows on the harvest-time of various cereals. In 1896 the number of trees in bearing was 49,609, and these produced 6,512galls. of oil ; in 1906 the number of trees had increased to 85,433, while the yield of oil had reached 17,762galls. As far back as 1882 the olives planted at the Adelaide Gaol, from which the oil is extracted by prisoners for the City Corporation, were vielding a net return of £9 per acre, while at the present time there are 70 acres surrounding the institution. The following figures indicate the progress of the industry : — Year. Number of Trees. Oil Made. Year. Number of Trees. Oil Made. 1897-8 1898-9 1900-1 1901-2 1902-3 51,82457,33761,57761,74066,852 Gallons. 5,3103,180 4,8656,520 11,327 1903-4 1904-5 1905-6 1906-7 1907-8 78,64280,560 83,13885,433 83,153 Gallons. 12,42211,86415,98017,76216,164 •:%*#»- VIEWS ON A SOUTH AUSTRALIAN OSTRICH FARM. (ch. xviii). (Campbell House, Lake Alexandrina.) [ JI". S. Smith, Photo A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 175 The proprietor of the Beaumont olive plantation has stated that from 14 acres he harvested in 1908 40 tons of olives worth £8 per ton. The cost of picking amounted to £120, leaving a return of £200 from 14 acres. With a view to encouraging the planting of olives, Mr. Cleland recently ofiered to supply free of cost olive truncheons, and as a result received applications for 4,000, there being over 100 separate applicants, who were only asked to pay cost of carriage. The best oil commands a substantial price locally, while the pickled berries are retailed at amounts which work out at not less than one halfpenny a piece. It may be pointed out that these figures rule in face of the fact that the appliances necessary for the extraction of the oil are of the simplest description, and that any man may, with a very small outlay, become his own oilmaker ; while the preserving of the green berry, though necessitating time and care, involves very insignificant expense. The wattle is extensively cultivated for its bark, and the industry Wattle Bark- is a growing one of some commercial importance. Thousands of tons are exported annually, and large quantities are used locally. Froduc- tion has risen from 4,372 tons in 1891 to 9,212 tons in 1902, and 10,000 tons in 1907. Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., Curator of the Technological Museum, Sydney, and Consulting Botanist to the Forest Department, has written — " The broad-leaved wattle of South Australia is one of the richest tanning barks in the world. South Australia has practically the monopoly of this bark, and it is a grand heritage — the envy of the eastern States." The growing of wattles (acacia) for the bark for tanning is carried on mainly in the southern part of the State. Over a large area the wattle grows naturally, and regular crops of bark are obtained without any outlay in respect to sowing and cultivation. Considerable areas of com paratively poor land have been cleared of the natural growths and sown to wattles with satis factory results. The trees are fit to strip at five to seven years old, according to soil, &c. A Good Crop of Piemelons— Grown Without Irrigation. [Govt. Photo. 176 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Pig-breeding is carried on in conjunction with farming operations in Pig-raising, most districts, while there are also several big establishments specially devoted to the breeding of pigs for bacon-curing. A large number of bacon-curing factories are in operation, and in addition to supplying the local demand, a con siderable export trade is carried on with the neighboring States. Mops. >phe south Australian climate in favored spots is admirably suited for hop production, and the same may be written in respect to tobacco. A few experiments have given satisfactory results, but nothing has been attempted on a commercial scale. ¦" ^-S3, Figs thrive luxuriantly, and attention is now being paid to drying. quantity is utilised for jam- making. A large Fruit drying, preserving, and canning are important industries conducted Preserving under the most approved methods. A large number of factories exist. Pru.it. Jam is extensively exported to the other States and to oversea markets. and the quality of the product has established a reputation of some value, In 1906-7 £24,394 worth was sent away. South Australian jams have been supplied to the War Office and to the navy stations, and repeated orders have testified to appreciation. On the Murray — at Renmark, in South Australia, and Mildura, in Victoria — the dried fruit business has assumed considerable dimensions. Here the sun-drying process, which ensures the reten tion of flavor and condition, is resorted to. The Australian Dried Fruits Association, which consists of growers from these big centres, has given the industry an organised status. The extent of operations may be gleaned from the fact that a recent conference in Adelaide the Irrigated Maize, 15ft. to 16ft. in Height, Grown on the Adelaide Plains. [ TV. S. Smith, Pholo, A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 177 growers present represented fruit as follows : — Lexias, 3,549 tons ; sultanas, 2,648 tons ; currants, 661 tons ; apricots, 180 tons ; peaches, 70 tons ; muscatels, 100 tons ; total, 7,208 tons, valued at £350,000. On this production it was estimated by an authority that there were dependent approximately 8,000 people. The total production in South Australia last season IftSKt^SMWHBMK' '$ .-, MaHi ; j K .«'» .:•;¦ jRH j WKL-m :1 |:| | dl i 1 '/' _: " 'if -ft ¦ Kb-. ¦ -yi?v!sir;-i i# '¦*¦* Bfcj ¦; '4rPw : ' ¦ '"¦¦¦'¦: .•' ..'¦. Baft1' \ ¦ Sw'-* ¦¦* - Juv p» BE' ' -'& 'iBslM^l ¦ St. ~agBS»'&ra -3 ; 'INGEeE ¦ ¦-¦¦- ' '.--'¦ BBr'^ltV'''' t ~m* % BR.>Jn ag^MHBHHK ¦ ?-"'¦. £« Bjby^ -.'¦ *:gt* JS B . fc. . WA$&G$fe. l-Al.'A-A 4 i'^S 'i'Sfl Br»H"W Mfffw'Tff bbBt^bI HbK'w 'AiA . - ^ R jhIbH^'^ ¦ Jul ^m^BBkBBB^P ' - .'. - . Y'j s 3 SB s (1907-8) was 250 tons apricots. 41 tons apples, 60 tons pears, 40 tons prunes, 1,250 tons raisms and about 1,600 tons of currants. Out of this quantity of fruit the whole of the currants and muscatels and a large proportion of the apricots and peaches were consumed within the Commonwealth. The production of lexias and sultanas, however, had already exceeded the M 178 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Australian consumption, and 2,300 tons had been exported. It was noted with pleasure that Australian fruit had met with a good reception, not only in the heart of the Empire, but throughout Canada, India, and other British possessions. For the first time the people of the United States of America in 1906 had been permitted to enjoy the dried fruits of Australia. In South Australia the local production of currants, apples, apricots, and peaches is short of requirements. In almost every part of the State bees do well, and honey production Bee-farming, is being fostered. The number of hives in 1898 was 9,692, and 155,6651bs. of honey was produced. The latest figures (1908) show 24,866 hives and l,200,0001bs. of honey. Up to the present local and inter-State markets have been depended upon to absorb the annual output, but the efforts of the South Australian Commercial Agent to open up an export trade with Great Britain promise well, the prices realised for shipments made during the past year being satisfactory to the producers. A South Australian Bee Farm. I Ostrich Farms Ostrich farms of some magnitude have been established in Far \ Northern localities and in the lakes districts, where the climate and ji physical conditions make home congenial to the birds and profitable to the owners. The feathers are large and lustrous. Potatoes are cultivated to a considerable extent, the area under this crop 1 Potatoes. exceeding 10,000 acres. Consideration has been given to the utilisation of the unmarketable potatoes for the manufacture of starch and alcohol^ for power purposes ; and in view of the large areas in the South-East suited to the production of this crop, there should be room in the future for development in these directions. Onions for domestic use constitute another profitable crop. Turnips, mangolds, and other roots receive some attention in the cooler portions of the State, while rape is largely grown as a fodder crop, f Market Gardens. An area of about 3>()0() acreg ig devoted to tte pro(juction 0f vege tables, the city, Broken Hill, Port Pirie, and the mining towns being the principal markets. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 179 Angora Goats. Herds of Angora goats are owned by South Australian pastoralists, and some beautiful fleeces have been cut. Although it has been proved return payable quantities of hair, the that the animals do excellently in certain localities and industry remains to be definitely and consist ently established. The Angora does well in the drier regions of Central Australia. In the Nor thern Territory the pro geny of a herd sent up some years ago return ed highly remunerative prices, and extensive breeding is to be under taken by the Govern ment. The fleeces re tain all their virtues under the conditions that obtain here. Flock of Angora Goats, Central Australia. Angora Goats.— These Animals do well in Central Australia. Chapter XIX. HOW THE STATE HELPS PRODUCERS. jN' South AustraUa the State helps the producer in a variety of ways. The Government seeks to be philosopher, guide, and friend to the man on the land. Even after the homeseeker has secured his block and the equipment for working it, he is not left entirely to his own resources. The Government comes to his aid and assists him in securing the best results from his holding and in finding markets. No phase of soil cultivation escapes attention. There are experts on agriculture, viticulture, horti culture, dairying, poultry, wool, veterinary science, fertilisers, and so on. These officers are attached to the Department of Agriculture, and may be consulted without fee. Lectures are delivered by them at country centres all the year round, and in addition they conduct courses at the School of Mines and at the Roseworthy Agricultural College. The Department of Agriculture is available to present and prospective Agricultural settlers who may desire advice and instruction on agricultural matters — Advisers. such as soil manipulation, the growing of various crops, the preparation of produce for market, the marketing of produce, the feeding and treat ment of stock, &c. There is no excuse for ignorance. A monthly Journal of Agriculture is published at a small cost, and bulletins on special subjects are issued at frequent intervals. Several State farms have been established in addition to numerous Demonstration experimental plots for the guidance of settlers. Attached to the Farms. Agricultural College is a farm of about 1,500 acres. Here cereal- growing, stock-rearing, dairying, wine-making, and other pursuits are practised. At Parafield, comparatively close to the city, 80 acres are devoted to the testing of wheat varieties and to the improvement of wheats by cross-breeding and by selection. In the dry areas, with an average rainfall of about lOin. annually, two experimental blocks have been established. A small area of reclaimed swamp land is cultivated at Murray Bridge by the Agricultural Department in order to demonstrate to occupiers of similar land the best crops to grow and methods of cultivation, and at Kangaroo Isl tnd test farms have been started. The Roseworthy Agricultural College is situated in the centre of the farming areas, about 25 miles from Adelaide. It was established in 1885 for the purpose of teaching young men the principles and practices of scientific agriculture. Attached to the College are chemical labora tories and lecture rooms, while on different parts of the farm are situated a well-equipped wine- making plant and cellars, a butter and cheese factory, incubator house, &c, besides the usual farm buildings. There is accommodation for 60 students, and each one is given full opportunity of making himself thoroughly acquainted with every detail of farm work and relative machinery. A few competent and experienced men are employed to help and instruct the students, but the bulk of the work on the farm is done by them. Each year from 250 to 500 acres are cropped with cereals and green crops, while the stock comprise about 80 head of dairy cattle, from 1,000 to 1,600 sheep, over 300 pigs, and a large number of poultry. The technical subjects taught at the College are general agriculture and live stock, viticulture and cenology, fruit culture, dairying, elementary veterinary science, book-keeping, surveying, wool-classing, and poultry-breeding. The fee is £30 per annum, and the course comprises nine sessions extending over three years. A dairy farm has recently been estabhshed, where dairying is carried on under advanced scientific methods. At Turretfield, some miles from Gawler, there is a stud station for dairy cattle and a centre for expert demonstrational work. (t'H XIX. J SCENE ON A SOUTH AUSTRALIAN CATTLE STATION. [Chas. P. Scott, Photo. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 181 In order to promote the export trade in perishable produce, the Government Finding Export Department was established at Port Adelaide, with freezing works and Markets. cold storage accommodation. This institution has done excellent exploratory works. Butter, wine, fruit, lambs, rabbits, poultry, eggs, honey, and other products are treated and shipped in behalf of the exporters at reasonable rates, which are based on charges sufficient to cover the cost and to ensure a return to the Government of fair interest on the capital invested. If desired by the shipper, the State undertakes the disposal of produce in Great Britain, where the Agent-General and the Commercial Agent are alert in the interests of the men on the soil. Altogether the system of legitimate State aid to producers is an elaborate one, and con siderable benefit has accrued therefrom to individual producers and the State in general. Aornr>nl+nrn1 m-a+T ^e f°uowmS is a list of Government experts who are always ° ' available for the education and guidance of producers : — Director and Professor of Agriculture — W. Angus, B.Sc. Principal of Roseworthy Agricultural College and Professor of Viticulture — A. J. Perkins. Horticultural Expert — G. Quinn. Dairy Expert — P. H. Suter. Poultry Expert — D. F. Laurie. Wool Expert — W. J. Mathews. Veterinary Surgeon — J. Desmond. Chief Inspector of Stock — R. J. Needham. Agent-General for South Australia — 28, Threadneedle House, Bishopsgate Street Within, London. Commercial Agent — 28, Threadneedle House, Bishopsgate Street Within, London. The undermentioned officers of the Government are Where to Get Information, charged with duties to the public in the branches mentioned — The Surveyor-General deals with all questions pertaining to the surveying of, and making available, lands for selection. The Land Board fixes the prices of the blocks and allots the land. The Surveyor-General has prepared the leases and agreements, and sees to the collection of rents and purchase-money as they fall due. He also deals with all questions respecting vermin-destruction, blockers' loans, road deviations, &c. The Principal of the Roseworthy Agricultural College presides over that institution and carries on experiments on the College farm. The Director of Agriculture is responsible for research work, scientific investigation, wheat hybridisation, and dry farming, and other experiments at various stations throughout the State. The Agricultural Department, North Terrace, Adelaide, furnishes information on all matters connected with agriculture. The Conservator of Forests has charge of tree conservation and the rearing and distribu tion to the public of forest trees. The Dairy Expert gives instruction in dairying, and delivers lectures on the subject at the Agricultural College and throughout the country. He will control the Government Dairy Farm about to be established at Turretfield, near Gawler, where students will be taken. The Government Butter Factory is also under his charge. 182 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATU. The Manager of the Produce Department takes charge of all descriptions of produce at the Produce Depot, Port Adelaide, stores same, and if desired forwards to London for sale. He has charge also of the lamb-buying and freezing operations. The Director of the Tourist Bureau, King William Street, and the Intelligence Officer, Crown Lands Office, Government Offices, will afford inquirers information on any subject respect ing South Australia. The Horticultural Instructor and Chief Inspector of Fruit gives instruction on all horti cultural questions, including planting, pruning, budding, and grafting. He also has under his care the inspecting of plants and fruits imported, for the prevention of introduction of fruit and plant diseases. The Poultry Expert advises with respect to rearing, housing, and feeding poultry, and marketing of eggs. Decorated Camel and Afghan Owner.— Much of the Carrying Trade of Central Australia is done by Camel Teams. [F. J. Gillen, Photo. „w ' ' . ¦ >- I - WX!'W$ v'Sf ^ (p^jll RMKPlHfe pBp fcr' Ou:, ' «... ¦''[-' V\V- '¦• v •¦- ¦• ""-"Si - ^ . A COUNTRY SCENE: "THE GORGE." (ch. XX.) Chapter XX. LAND LAWS AND HINTS FOR INTENDING SETTLERS. i)N the Imperial Act establishing South Australia as a British province the price of land was originally fixed at £1 per acre. Owing to difficulty experienced in raising the prescribed sum of £35,000 from the sale of lands— £20,000 of which was to be invested in Government securities in order that the mother country should bear no financial risk in the founding of the new province — the minimifm was subsequently reduced to 12s. per acre. Under the modified scheme 437 lots of land, comprising a total of 58,995 acres, were granted under preliminary land orders, which also entitled the holder to a town acre, and these realised £35,397. There were also sold at the same price 20 town lots of 80 acres each, bringing the total territorial revenue up to £36,357. The minimum price of land in South Australia was thereupon raised to £1 per acre. Regulations made at the time provided that every applicant for land, in order to entitle himself to a grant, should pay a certain sum into a fund to be employed in bringing out laborers. Persons paying cash for 4,000 acres had the right to call for the survey of any compact district not exceeding in extept 16,000 acres. Under these provisions, up to December 22nd, 1837, in addition to the area akeady stated, 3,300 acres of country lands at £1 per acre, and 563 town acre lots for £3,594, had been alienated. In 1838 48,000, and in 1839 170,841 acres were disposed of, making a total of sales effected and amount realised up to January 1st, 1840, 283,507 acres for £262,240. Land continued to be dealt with under the original regulations until 1843, when the first local Act was passed. The land laws have undergone frequent alterations since then, and a large volume would be required to review the process of evolution necessary to meet the changing requirements. The initial mistake made was in seeking to transplant English methods of land tenure to a new country. Much mischief also resulted from the attempt to apply the same laws to lands varying in quality and subject to different chmates. The difficulties of colonisation were indefinitely multiplied by these and other legislative and administrative errors. It was only after years of bitter experience and fluctuating fortunes that the vast territory which forms the State of South Australia came to be better understood. The flockmaster pushed his way back from the seaboard, testing the climate and the productive capacity of the soil as he went. The farmer followed with his plough, never heeding the warnings uttered by the squatter or such an authority as the late Mr. Goyder, for many years Surveyor-General. This officer personally surveyed and inspected large areas, and, being a man of keen observation, he noted the sudden ness with which the country changed from large trees and rich grasses to stunted scrub and hare hills or vast plains of saltbush, bluebush, cotton-bush, and other herbage. He fixed what has since been known as Goyder's Line of rainfall — a theoretical division which has proved to be singularly correct. The ancient theory, however, that rain " follows the plough " was firmly believed, and the agriculturist set his face northwards with a determination which was admirable. For some time land legislation was dictated by a popular demand for broad acres. The upset price of country lands was fixed at £1 an acre, and as the Encouraging financial wants of the province increased every effort was made to Occupation of Pusn on ^h the sale of land in order to bring in revenue. It was p shortly after the first flush of excitement over the Victorian goldfields Orown -Lands. had subside(j an(j tne stream of population had begun to flow towards South Australia that settlement began to increase. In the year 1853 213,221 acres were sold for £291,660, and from that time onwards the acreage under cultivation rapidly expanded. In 1854 it stood at 129,692 acres. Five years later the cultivated area had increased to 361,884 acres, and in 1865 it was 660,569 acres. When power was granted to the local Legislature to pass land laws an attempt was at once made to encourage occupation. In 1869 an Act was passed providing for free selection after survey in declared areas, the selector being allowed a certain number of years in which to pay his purchase- money. He was compelled in the 184 South Australia — the central state. meantime to pay interest at a moderate rate and to comply with conditions of residence and improvement. Reforms followed in quick succession, so Tapid indeed that the land legislation of the country was confusing even to those whose duty it was to administer the laws. Every new Parliament made an attempt to improve on the land laws, and whole Acts were bodily repealed, or special clauses were amended and patchwork legislation was resorted to. The chaotic condition of the land laws, after such lightning changes, made a consolidating measure imperative, and in 1878 the Crown Lands Consolidation Act came into operation. The area alienated from the Crown in fee simple, including completed purchases, at that time totalled 4,970,940 acres, realising £6,362,059, and the area held on credit after deducting revoked and abandoned selections and completed purchases was 2,509,606 acres, on which the sum of £3,534,576 was agreed to be paid. The population then stood at 236,000, and the area under Camel Caravan, Central Australia (Carrying Calves). [F. J. Gillen, Photo. Closer Settlement Liberal Terms. cultivation at 1,828,000 acres, giving an average area of about 31 acres sold or selected land for each person, of which area seven and three-quarter acres were under cultivation. Crown lands continued to be alienated for some years until a resolution was carried in Parliament stopping the sale of public lands and adopting exclusively a system of leasing. This method has since been partially abandoned. In 1898, in order to meet the growing demand for land, an Act was passed providing for the purchase of freehold lands for closer settlement. These were to be let on perpetual lease at a fixed rental of not less than 4 per cent, on the amount paid for purchase- money, together with any expenses incurred in connection with the purchase. Subsequent legislation provided for lands so purchased being disposed of on agreement with covenant to purchase, the purchase-money being payable by 60 half-yearly instalments, with interest at the rate of not less than 4 per cent, per annum. During the 1903 session of Parliament an Act to consolidate the Crown Lands Acts became law. This Act re-enacted the provisions for Crown lands being let under perpetual lease at a fixed rental for all time and not subject to revaluation or disposed of under agreement with covenant to purchase by 60 half-yearly payments, with interest at not less than 2 per cent. nor more than 4 per cent, per annum. The purchase may be completed at any time after the 0 a5 H o > >-3 o GW izf H- GIANT GUMS ALONG THE FOOTHILLS NEAR ADELAIDE, oo 186 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. first six years of the agreement. In the case of lands repurchased by the Government and subdivided for closer settlement, more recent legislation (1905) provides for payment of interest only at 4 per cent, per annum for the first five years, after which interest and principal become payable as in the case of ordinary Crown lands. Provision is also made for those holders of repurchased lands let on perpetual lease surrendering and obtaining agreements with covenants to purchase in lieu of the perpetual leases. The purchasers of closer settlement land may obtain the fee simple of their holdings at any time after the first nine years on payment of the balance of the purchase-money and interest up to date. Up to the 30th June, 349,802 acres, including 14,716 acres of leasehold, have been purchased at a cost of £883,150 and disposed of to suitable purchasers, most of whom are successfully occupying their holdings. In place of comparatively few persons on the land at the time of purchase there is now a population of 3,945 adults and children on these repurchased lands. Extending the Area of Cultivation. Typical Survey Camp.— The First Step in Making Crown Lands Available for Settlement. [E. Duryea, Photo. Since 1905 the railway from Tailem Bend to Pinnaroo has been completed and opened, and an area of land over 700,000 acres on either side of this line, and within the schedule to the Pinnaroo Railway Act, has been taken up under covenant to purchase. A. considerable area is already cleared and under crop, and it is esti mated that during the next two or three years at least 100,000 acres of the area already held will be under cultivation. The purchasers of these lands can obtain their titles at any time on payment of the balance of purchase-money and interest. In 1905 a measure was placed on the Statute Book providing for the Reclaimed reclamation of swamp lands. This has already resulted in nearly Swamp Lands. 1>000 acres at Murray Bridge having been reclaimed and allotted on per petual lease in small blocks of sufficient area, under intense culture, to support a family. The terms of payment are very liberal. During the first year one quarter of the rental is paid, one-half during the second year, three-quarters during the third year, and the full rent becomes payable during the fourth year of the term. A much larger area is now in course of reclamation, and will be available for settlement during the next 12 months. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, Tot'RISTS, AND SETTLERS. 187 The reclaimed areas are under the control of boards of trustees, and the State may advance loans to lessees for the purpose of effecting improvements which permanently increase the capital value of the land. In connection with these swamp lands adjoining higher lands have been purchased where such are necessary and disposed of to lessees of swamp blocks for resi dential purposes on similar conditions of purchase as obtain in lands purchased for closer settle ment or perpetual lease. In no direction have greater changes been made in the land law? Pastoral Lands, than in the treatment of pastoral country outside of hundreds. A pastoral lease is now practically identical with a perpetual lease. The country can only be resumed when it can be shown that it is required for purposes of " intense culture." Pastoral country likely to be required for closer settlement may be leased for 21 years ; all other pastoral lands may be let for 42 years, subject to revaluation of the rent for the last 21 years. In each case the Pastoral Board fixes the rent, having regard to the carrying capacity of the land for depastur ing the stock, the value of land for agri cultural or other purposes, the proximity and facilities of approach to railway stations, ports, rivers, or markets, and any other circumstances affecting the value of the land to a lessee. In revaluing the rent for the second period of 21 years, the amount fixed shall not be more than 50 per cent, higher or lower than the rent payable for the first period of 21 years. The lessees are required to pay the value of the improvements as fixed by the Pastoral Board in 21 or 42 annual instal ments (according to the term of the lease), principal, and interest at 4 per cent, per annum. The lands are advertised open to a given date, and all applications received up to that time are considered by the board, which allots the leases to the most desirable applicants. All such allotments must be approved by the Commissioner of Crown Lands. In the event of resump tion for any purpose the lessees are entitled to be paid the value of the improvements effected by them, as well as compensation for loss occasioned by resumption. If the land is required for any public purpose one month's notice of intention to resume is necessary. If for intense culture one year's notice of intended resumption is required. The lessees are entitled to receive payment for improvements from the incoming tenant if the lands are let to other tenants at the expiration of the term of the lease. The land laws of the State are on a liberal basis, and The State as Landlord, elasticity and sympathy characterise their administration. There is a genuine desire to encourage settlement, and in no other State in the Commonwealth is the outlook brighter for the producer possessed of brains and moderate capital. Homeseekers will find the State a liberal landlord. Lands Onem for Crown lands are continually being surveyed and offered to the upen ior u^c un(jer agreement with covenant to purchase and perpetual Application. lease. Much of this land, although not of first-class quality, is suitable for wheat-growing with the aid of superphosphates and the improved methods of cultivation. There are now about 1,290,000 acres of Crown land open to application. A Beauty Spot on the Hindmarsh River, near Victor Harbor' — A Popular Tourists' Resort. 188 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Points for Landseekers. Areas suitable for farms may be taken up of sizes varying accord ing to the quality, of a value of £5,000, or of pasture land only, for 5,000 sheep, or in dry areas 10,000 sheep. These lands may be held either on perpetual lease or on agreement to purchase. In the latter case the payments, made half-yearly, after deducting interest, go towards purchase-money, and on 60 such payments being made the purchase is complete. If taken on perpetual lease the annual rental will be according to the value of the land, from about Jd. to about Is. per acre, according to quality. If on agreement to purchase the price will be from 2s. 6d. to about £1 per acre. Repurchased lands must be taken on agreement to purchase, and may be held up to £2,000 worth unimproved value ; improved blocks and grazing land up to £4,000 worth. The purchase- money must be paid in 70 half yearly instalments (the first 10 payments will be interest only, which will be 4 per cent, on the purchase-money). Purchase may be completed by paying balance of purchase-money after holding the land nine years. Homestead blocks up to £100 worth may be taken on perpetual lease or agreement to pur chase. These are meant for workmen's homes, not to make a living on, but to devote their spare time upon while not employed elsewhere. Leases are issued for 21 years, 640 acres for removal of guano, or other deposits, and for lands resumed for water, or if artesian, five square miles, also for small areas for sites for manu factures, wharves, buildings, or other purposes. Town allotments are small blocks for townships, and are sold by auction for cash. The Land Board, composed of three members, arranges the subdivision of lands. As soon as surveys are completed the board fixes the price at which each block is to be offered, and, when approved' by the Commissioner, full particulars of area, &c, are published. Advances up to £50 may be made to homestead blockholders to assist in erection of buildings and other improvements. Advances up to £75 may also be made to lessees of reclaimed lands for the purpose of effecting improvements on their holdings. Vermin-proof wire netting is advanced to landholders on easy terms, repayable in annual instalments. The cost of preparing land, sowing, and harvesting a wheat crop varies, according to methods adopted and the districts, from about 15s. to 30s. per acre ; 25s. an acre is considered a fair average cost, including seed and all expenses excepting manure. Phosphate is the fertiliser used for wheat crops. In South Australia there are immense deposits of this, many of which are being worked and treated ; large quantities are also being imported. The quantity placed on the land varies from 701bs. per acre in dry districts to 1401bs. where there is a good rainfall. The cost is from 4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. per hundredweight, accord ing to quality. MimimiM The Pioneer as Pathfinder.— Donkey Teams at Work on the Outposts of Civilization. -^feJ^^-''"^Fi TWO VIEWS OF THE SILVER-LEAD SMELTING WORKS AT PORT PIRIE: ('"¦xxi.) The Largest Silver-lead Smelters in the World. Chapter XXI. MINING, jjN a valuable compilation, " Record of the Mines of South Australia," compiled under the authority of the Hon. L. O'Loughlin (Minister of Mines) by Mr. Lionel C. E. Gee (General Assistant and Recorder , the Government Geologist (Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, F.G.S.) supplies a sketch of mining, from which the following is taken : — " What is believed to have been the first authentic discovery of gold in AustraUa, to which public attention was called and from which actual mining operations resulted, was made in January, 1846, about 10 miles E. from the city of Adelaide ; but although the precious metal has been found at many places over large areas, yet as a gold-producer South Australia ranks last of the States of the Commonwealth. The principal auriferous districts are in the main range from its S. portion through Echunga, Talunga, Barossa, and Ulooloo to Wonna, about 140 miles N. from the city ; thence N.E., Mount Grainger, Waukaringa, Mannahill. %¦%' '.Jt ya ^z&~jsi>s*r Prospectors Looking for Gold, MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia. Wadnaminga, and Olary districts. The best find of alluvial gold yet made was in the saltbush and low hills country of Teetulpa, about 200 miles N.E. by N. of Adelaide ; this was discovered in October, 1886. The area was small, and the ground was soon worked out, but it is estimated that about £300,000 worth of gold has been obtained from an area not exceeding one square mile. An immense district of similar country surrounds this place, and much desultory pros pecting has been done, but so far Teetulpa remains the solitary rich patch unearthed here. Rich gold reefs have been discovered at Tarcoola, about 300 miles N.W. from Port Augusta. Gold has also been found in the Peake and Denison ranges, and near Yudnamutana, in the N. portion of the main range. To compensate for the lack of gold, South AustraUa is the chief 190 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. copper-producer of the group. The Burra Burra Mine, about 100 miles N. of Adelaide, has yielded nearly £5,000,000 worth of copper. The Wallaroo and Moonta Mines on Yorke's Penin sula have extracted up to date copper valued at about £12,500,000. The Kapunda Mine, which is the oldest copper mine in the State, having been discovered in 1842, situated 50 miles N. of Adelaide, has also produced a large quantity of very high-class copper. Throughout a large portion of the State more or less copper is found, and in the N. portion of the main range and the adjacent country a large number of copper mines and prospects are being worked. Silver-lead mines exist in the main range S. of Adelaide. The Wheal Gawler Mine, near Glen Osmond, was originally opened in May, 1841, and is probably the first mine worked in Australia. Deposits of silver-lead exist also in the N.E., from Farina and W. from Beltana. Large deposits A Gold Escort conveying £90,000 from Mines to Bank. of iron are numerous, the principal one being the Iron Knob, situated about 40 miles W.S.W. from Port Augusta. Here a vast quantity, estimated at 21,000,000 tons, of high-grade (66 per cent.) iron ore and manganic iron is in sight. It is connected by a railway with False Bay, on Spencer's Gulf, and the ore is used at present as flux in the Broken Hill Proprietary's works at Port Pirie. The magnitude and importance of this deposit are, so far, not equalled in Aus tralasia. Large deposits of phosphate rock, containing as high as 81 per cent, tricalcic phos phate, have been found for a distance of 200 miles along the main range — from Mount Mag nificent in the S. to Carrieton in the N. — and at Clinton, on Yorke's Peninsula. The principal localities are Belvidere and St. John's, near Kapunda ; hundred Bright, near Burra ; hundred Bendleby, near Carrieton in the N. ; CUnton and hundred of Cunningham, Yorke's Peninsula : A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 191 and Mount Magnificent and near Noarlunga in the S. Respecting the rare minerals, a discovery of uranium (carnotite) and vanadium ore has been made in the Olary district, but it has not, so far, proved of economic value. Vanadium ores are also found in other localities. Monazite in small quantity has also been recently discovered." The State contains a large area of metal-bearing rocks, and Mining Operations, the Government Geologist, after many years of patient, intelli gent labor, is able to make this official declaration — " I have no hesitation in saying that South Australia is exceptionally well endowed with minerals. The full recognition and exploitation of its wealth in this direction is in any case only a matter of time." The area held under Mining Acts on December 31st, 1907, was as follows :— Nature of Holding. Mineral leases Gold leases Gold dredging leases Miscellaneous leases Mineral claims Occupation licences Search licences Total holdings Registered from July 1st, 1907, to December 31st, 1907. Mineral claims Gold leases Mineral leases Miscellaneous leases Miners' rights Search licences Total Area. 13,920 acres 2,0085,944 7,265 29,568 120 111,360 170,185 acres 151 4,983 acres 9 180 " 35 1,390 " 2 79 " 813 — 43 35,840 '¦ 853 42,472 acres The number of men employed in mining and mineral works, December 31sf, 1907 Copper Gold Salt .. Silver-lead . . Other minerals Total 4,500 900 450 50 500 6,400 The Secretary for Mines (Mr. T. Duffield), writing on March 2nd, 1908, said—" The great fall in the price of copper, our chief mineral, has had a depressing effect on all mining matters ; but despite this the total value of the mineral productions of the State for the six months ended December 31st, 1907, is estimated at £330,000, and there is good reason for believing that the inevitable demand for the red metal for increasing industrial activities will ensure for it a price at which our deposits can be profitably worked." From the far northern part of the State to the Northern Territory precious stones have been found. Of the products which come out of the earth, South Australia has valuable salt deposits, as well as superior marble and slate. Mineral oil is said to exist in several places, but so far the expectations of experts have not been realised. Coal has been struck 370 miles north of Adelaide. It is to copper that South Australia is chiefly indebted for the development of. the mineral industry. The bronze metal was first brought to Ught early in the forties, and 192 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. about the same time the existence of gold became known. The manner in which the first copper mines were discovered would form material for the novelist. The lonely boundary rider, the shepherd intent on finding the best pasture for his flock, the roving prospector literally stumbled across stores of treasure which have yielded enormous wealth to individuals and the State. From 1840 to the end of 1906 the following quantities and values account for the " ascertained " extent of the industry in this State. It is quite certain, however, that the figures greatly understate the true position, as for many years no official statistics were kept : — Quantity. Value. Gold 185,687 ozs. £ . 1,256,479 Silver 12,516 ozs. 1,770 Silver-lead ore 15,000 tons 218,979 Copper 5,091,448 cwts. 18,743,481 Copper ore and regulus 699.737 tons 6,654,884 Lead 118,410 cwts. 102,153 Manganese ore 13,267 tons 46,232 Bismuth ore 1,402 cwts. 16,679 Ironstone flux 291,328 tons 156,232 Limestone flux 119,878 tons 16,098 Phosphate rock 14,850 tons 14,850 Crude salt 167,500 tons 64,500 Other minerals — 15,624 Total value — £27,308,351 Such a record is striking testimony not only to the pioneer work done in this department of industrial development, but to the extent of mineral deposits in the State. Mining Camp near Arltunga Goldfields, MacDonnell Ranges. [J. V. Harris. Photo. 0 aam *jos sS>¦z-3 33 a MOONTA COPPER MINES YORKE'S PENINSULA, CDCO 194 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. South AustraUa has always been recognised as the " Copper State " of Copper. AustraUa. The first discovery was made in 1842 by Messrs. F. S. Dutton and C. S. Bagot, at Kapunda, about 50 miles north-east of Adelaide. Opera tions were started in the foUowing year, and from the outset they proved profitable. There were many obstacles to be overcome in those early days, but the pioneers of the State were men not to be daunted. All the material raised had to be carted to Adelaide by road, while bullock drays had to be requisitioned for the conveyance of stores to the field. The first ore was raised on January 8th, 1844, and on the 23rd of the same month a small parcel was sent away. Four lodes were revealed varying from 4ft. to 6in. in width, the proportion of metal to the ton running about 18£ per cent. In 1879 the mine was sold under liquidation, having yielded 70,000 tons of ore. For a number of years afterwards the property was worked by tributprs, but of recent years operations were suspended owing to a large influx of water. The Burra was also the centre of considerable activity at one time, and the mine there paid £800,000 in dividends on a capital investment of £12,520. When work was suspended the total value of ore raised Wallaroo Copper Mines.— Office Shaft, Ore-dressing Plant, &c. was computed at £4,750,000. The most profitable copper mines are to be found on Yorke's Peninsula. The Wallaroo and Moonta Mining Companies were amalgamated in 1889. In an interesting review of the operations of these companies Mr. H. Lipson Hancock (the General Manager) states that the Wallaroo Company was for some time a private concern, and during that period did not pubUsh any records. From what information is available, however, it would appear that during its separate existence it produced £2,229,096 worth of copper, in addition to £339,000 from purchased ores, and paid about £430,254 in dividends. The Moonta Com pany during its existence produced £5,396,146 worth of copper, and distributed £1,168,000 amongst shareholders. It had the distinction of being the first mining company in Australia to pay over £1,000,000 in dividends, notwithstanding that the rich gold reefs of Victoria had been worked for years before the Moonta lodes were discovered. Since the amalgamation in 1889, and to the 30th June, 1907, about £5,463,565 worth of copper has been produced, of which £412,000 has been distributed in dividends. In 47 years these mines have provided about £13,944,445 worth of copper, and paid £2,018,254 as dividends. The foUowing statistics may A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 195 also be of interest ; although the figures are not absolutely correct they may be taken as sub- stantiaUy so :— Total dressed ore produced from the mines to June 30th, 1907, 1,670,360 tons ; average copper contents, 15 per cent., representing in fine copper, 248,993 tons ; average yearly production of dressed ore, 35,540 tons ; maximum output of dressed ore in any one year, 53,518 tons; total expenditure, £11,285,809; average annual expenditure, £240,123; average cost of each ton of dressed ore, £6 15s. 2d. ; number of employes, June, 1907, 3,107; total amount of dividends, £2,018,254. Four thousand one hundred and thirty-seven acres are held under mineral lease from the Government for a term of 99 years, of which about 70 have yet to run. The rental is Is. per acre per annum, and a royalty of 2J per cent, on the declared profits. In connection with these mines are extensive smelting works, situated at Wallaroo, and sulphuric acid works. There are extensive, well-defined copper lodes in various parts of the State, and before the price of metal decUned extensive operations were being conducted in the Far North. Wallaroo Copper Mines, showing Ventilating Fan. The remarks regarding the wide distribution of copper apply in an even Gold Mines, greater degree to the gold, though it unfortunately cannot be said that the gold mines have come within measurable distance of the copper mines as regards the value of the yield. The precious metal was unearthed as early as copper, the Vic toria Mine, about 10 miles from Adelaide, being opened in 1846. The major portion of the gold-bearing country to the south of Adelaide is on land which was alienated from the Crown in the early days, and consequently returns are incomplete. AUuvial gold has been worked for many years in the numerous gullies in the Adelaide hills. Amongst other localities in the northern areas, Teetulpa may perhaps be considered the most important aUuvial field, it being estimated that over £300,000 worth of gold was quickly obtained there. Valuable reefing fields have been discovered in the Echunga district, at Mount Grainger, Barossa, Wadnaminga, MannahiU, NilUnghoo, and other locaUties, and it is generaUy agreed that these reefs have not been developed as their undoubted richness warrants. The Echunga diggings became known early in 1852. Prospectors came across some very rich surface shows, and even down to the 196 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. present day smaU bodies of men have made a good Uving as the result of mining operations at this part. No " mines " have, however, been developed. It is estimated that at least some 300 reputed gold mines have at various times been started, but most of them have been aban doned. A few years ago gold was discovered at Tarcoola, situated about 360 miles north westerly from Adelaide, and 170 miles from the Coward Springs Eailway Station. This field is still being worked. In the Mount Lofty Banges, close to Adelaide, and to the southward, Silver-Lead, are large deposits of silver-lead, in many cases associated with gold, copper, and zinc, so far only partially and unsatisfactorily prospected and worked, As instances may be mentioned the Glen Osmond Mines (close to the City of Adelaide), Aclare. Almanda, Kangarilla, Mount Malvern, Scott's Creek, Talisker, and Wheal Ellen. In the North- East many prospecting shows have been found, and in the North large bodies of ore exist at Ediacara, Avondale, Duck Ponds HiU, and other places. Wallaroo Smelting Works from the South-West. South Australia possesses an abundance of iron. Many deposits Deposits of Iron, are in close proximity to railway lines and the sea coast. Large quantities of iron raised in the State are used as flux for smelting purposes, and in most localities the ore carries a small percentage of gold. When giving evidence recently before the Federal Boyal Committee appointed to inquire into the provisions of a Bill relating to bonuses for the encouragement of the manufacture of iron in the Commonwealth, Mr. H. Y. L. Brown (Government Geologist) stated that South AustraUa was capable of supply ing all the ore required for smelting works for centuries. He was not, however, prepared to say what kind of iron the ore would make, but did not think it advisable to smelt on the spot, but to ship the ore to some place where coal could be easily got. He instanced numerous places where some millions of tons of ore were available. The best known deposit at present being worked is the Iron Knob, a veritable hill of iron of high percentage, about 50 miles from the Spencer's Gulf seaboard. The property on which the deposits occur has been leased by the Broken Hill Proprietary Company, which has constructed a railway to the coast to facilitate the transport of the ore to the company's smelting works at Port Pirie. Qoal. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 19? So far as is known there are no coal measures in South Australia of the age of those that are worked in New South Wales. There is! a great gap in the series of formations, namely, from the Lower Palasozoic (Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian) to the CretaCeous; none of the intervening rocks in that series having been observed outcropping upon the surface. Although this is unfortunately the case, still it is considered possible that beneath the thick deposits of Tertiary and Cretaceous age, which overlie the greater part of the older rocks, there may exist any of the older formations which occur in other parts of Australia. In 1890 boring for coal was started at Leigh Creek, and not long afterwards the labor of those concerned was crowned with success. The fuel however, differs from the bituminous coal of Great Britain, New South Wales, or Victoria, and in some respects resembles the dense brown coal of Europe. When lighted it burns well, but the absenc 3 of cinder and the powdery ash produced render it difficult for economical use on ordinary fire bars. Tests made by the Locomotive Department of the railways proved that the coal was not Wallaroo Smelting Works, from the Sea. as weU adapted for use on the railways as that of New South Wales. Brown coal deposits have been found at Noarlunga, a few miles south of Adelaide, and work is in progress on a promising seam. The large extension of the use of artificial manures by farmers in this Mineral State causes great importance to be attached to the existence of rock Phosphates, phosphates. Partly as the result of a reward offered by the Government for the discovery of beds of this material a diligent search was instituted. Deposits have been unearthed in several locaUties, and large quantities have been placed upon the market. The phosphate deposits of South Australia are extensive and valuable, but at present, owing mainly to the competition of the high-grade rock from Christmas and Ocean Islands, the market for the local production is limited. As an example of the value of South AustraUan rock as a fertiliser, a parcel of over 1,000 tons was recently sold at 64| per cent, tricalcic phos phate and contained only 2 per cent, of iron. 198 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Mining in South Australia is regulated by the Mining Act of 1893, Mining Laws, which is characterised by extreme UberaUty and the inducements ofiered for prospecting an enormous area of practically new country. A miner's right is obtainable at a cost of 5s. This right holds good for' one year from the date of issue, and may be renewed at any time during its currency for another term of one year on payment of 5s. The holder of a miner's right is authorised to prospect on any mineral lands for any metal, mineral, coal, or oil, and to peg out (of the prescribed shape and dimensions) gold, mineral, coal, and oil claims, and also leases of a like nature. A fee of 2s. 6d. is charged for registration. Gold claims must be registered at once and mineral claims within 30 days of pegging. The miner's right under which the claim was pegged must be produced to the registrar before regis tration can be effected, and must be renewed from year to year during its currency, or the claim is liable to forfeiture. Gold claims must be constantly worked — one man for each claim; — and mineral claimholders must employ two men for each claim. Amalgamation of either gold or mineral claims reduces the labor conditions by one half. Carrying Ore to Government Cyanide Works, Macdonnell Ranges. Gold, mineral, coal, and oil leases are granted for a term of 42 years — the two former at a rental of Is. per acre per annum and a royalty of 6d. in the pound on net profits, the latter at a rental of 6d. per acre per annum until coal or oil is found in payable quantities, when Is. per acre is payable and a royalty of 6d. in the pound on the net profits. Working conditions provide in the case of gold leases for one man for every five acres ; mineral leases, one man for every 10 acres ; coal or oil leases, one man for every 40 acres. The Minister may permit the concen tration of labor of the amalgamation of from not more than four adjoining gold or mineral leases. Miscellaneous leases are granted for salt, gypsum, mineral springs, site for smelting works and mining works. Maximum area of leases are — Gold, 20 acres ; mineral, 40 acres ; coal or oil, 640 acres ; salt or gypsum, 640 acres ; mineral springs, 40 acres ; mining works, 10 acres ; smelting works, 10 acres. Any number of gold, mineral, coal, or oil leases may be held by one person _ A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 199 Under the Mining Act Amendment Act of 1900 licences to search for 12 months for precious stones, mineral phosphates, oil, rare metals, minerals, and earths are issued on specific mineral lands, not exceeding five square miles in area for one person, a fee of 20s. being charged for each square mile or portion thereof. These licences give a preferential right to a lease over a portion of the area, as prescribed. Subsidies are granted upon the recommendation of the Govern ment Geologist and Inspector of Mines to persons or companies engaged in deep sinking, pros pecting, or mining ; and diamond drills are loaned under special conditions, and rewards for discoveries are paid out of money appropriated by ParUament for that purpose. A rebate of one-third of cost of freight if carried over the radway line for treatment is allowed to prospectors on the first 50 tons of ore raised — a concession which is largely availed of, and greatly assists prospectors in the initial development of their properties. Assays are made at the School of Mines free of cost for aU samples obtained from Crown lands, wuile special arrangements for practical work in the laboratory can be made at very low fees. A Prospector in Central Australia. Respecting mining on private property the Act "f 1888 and amending Acts of 1895 and 1899 provide for the resumption of private lands, proclamation of private land as an alluvial goldfield, and compulsory mining leases. In 1882 a Government Geologist was appointed, and results amply justified the wisdom of this step. In Mr. H. Y. L. Brown the State possesses an able, energetic, and withal cautious official, who has done much to help forward the mineral industry of South Australia, and also in connection with artesian water supplies. His efiorts are well supported by the Chief Inspector of Mines (Captain W. H. Matthews) and the other members of the Mines Department, which comes under the control of the Minister of Mines. No genuine prospector will appeal in vain for advice to the department, while long distances are annually travelled by the officers in reporting upon or inspecting likely properties. Applica tion made to Mr. L. C. E. Gee, Department of Mines, Adelaide, for information concerning the mineral deposits of the State will meet with a ready response. fi B Eh B > o o en"4 s M t> -4 3 ta > O 53 Eh p ShE-i& o «Eh a.D o ow H P3 a HoH Q CONOltDr-.r-l« WtDO <-rt Tt< © rH CO OO t-N CO X o -*OI>©OOhoO(NhoJ > eM-«*coTtOCON K fl -rfcsir-r-asaoioasi— i co 1 wat>^to©ioo^ oo C? QOCJircmMNtocDio o to r~ o r~ o o CD IO NiO"*tO o -* crt en OMC-CT | 1 1 °- 00 o > c-T _i of — 1 ^H CO ce ¦X M CO o O -H o CO fl 1 rf 00 -H I 1 o 1 1 -# co cm 1 1 1 o 1 3 H — ' oa -# T* O Oj r>i CO co s 2 1 1 1 1 °° 1 1 O T* 1 5 1 1 1 1 o 1 1 ooS 1 o r- IO fflN^nooomnoo ^ OJ l>OOQi-T-lfDC<|iOO^ r— i '-rlCOLCfCCOCDOCOOlO CO > OlO^cDTJiCOCDmoO o HHHHNN>il(M(N COI>OiNOcOO)OCD 1 pCJCOM'tC-COrr-OGOlC a o r"H^ CDCDOOOOOOOO GOCOOJCSiCDCDtCDOlCDCD "3> CO ^ ^h O t— 1 as as 0 lOI>I>M ^ | ^ | | | | <0"# ** ic OC a-OC0 o 1 1 Tons. 43,440 44,498 31,940 31,100 1 Moao £"3 r> (NhMMO «rt l 1 ^OOooh 1 CD t^ CO « GO* Tt< CM T* CO « COCOtH"as 1 CO (N(NcDhO(NI>'^ COCOCM— co" cm" 1 5s 00 0)0- 1 CM CO Th IO CO Ir- OlCDOOOOOOOO COCOCJSCOOSCOCOCrsCSOS Vcr. ¦+- c E- ¦=5 c EH 3 ^1— iiflf t-C-CO ©«0(N -j ^^^f^fcO^i^COOTt*' (N T|t ¦* lO •>* O W IO X CO 0 0 0" 00 TT* ShS.S 3 3 > Ot->— lOiWOCOi— (CftO tOitjHH^OOiCOOO c+llOCOThtMr-r-H^CNCqiO r-T l> r-H ^-t ^H CM CO 000CN0 1Of 00000 CO OOOOO Pf j 1 1 | 1 O O XO O O P. 1 1 ' ' ' 0" 0" ci 10" 0" r-i tp Th co 10 t- 1 00 as 0 3 0 3 OOOOO0 0 0 >o 0 «rt 1 1 1 j 1 qqq coq 1 ' ' ' ' ^h" co" io" io" co" 0 00 IM S3 OOOOO t" O O O IO O d 1 1 1 | qqqooq £ ' ' ' ' ' i-h" CO" IO" IO*" CO" 1 tS 0 H ccoso^-iojcoThiocDr- CDCDOOOOOOOO COCOCDGiCDCDCftOlOlOl (ch. XXII.) ENGINEERING SHOP STATE LOCOMOTIVE WORKS AT ISLINGTON. Chapter XXII. /»$$* MANUFACTURES. jLTHOUGH essentially a country of primary production, the conversion of raw material into commercial articles received early attention. For some time secondary production was mainly in the direction of providing agricultural implements and commodities required by those who were engaged in occupying the country. As conditions became more settled industries increased in number If and variety, and now that Federation has given inter-State free trade manu- ' facturers are looking forward to growing markets throughout the Common wealth. The discovery of silver in the western districts of New South Wales and the opening up of some of the richest silver-lead mines in the world proved a great boon to South Australian manufacturers. Engineering firms and boilermakers received large orders, and, by the excel lence of their work, have retained valuable connections with Western AustraUa. The following are the pubUshed returns of manufactories and the hands employed : — ¦ Tear. Establish ments. Males. Females. Total Hands Employed. Year. Establish ments. Males. Females. Total Hands Employed. 18851892 1896 646815 767 7,9529,642 10,974 1,350 1,847 1,811 9,302 11,489 12,785 1899 19001907 841 1,0361,018 12,94114,800 16,466 2,214 2,8593,800 15,155 17,659 20,266 As the production of grain increased flour mills were started in the city and at Port Adelaide, and the manufacture of breadstuffs became an established industry. At the present time there are 63 flour nulls in various parts of the State, and the South Australian article finds a ready demand throughout South Australia, South Africa, and Java. Factories devoted to metal works and machinery number 132, employing 6,793 hands ; chaff-cutting 76, with 469 employes ; boots and shoes 17, 1,212 ; tanneries 12, 282 ; brickmaking 36, 276 hands ; coachbuilding 46, 464; aerated waters 31, 246; breweries 20, 297; distilleries 13, 62; clothing 131, 4,048; cabinetmakers 23, 377 ; printers and bookbinders 41, 1,366 ; butter and cheese 55, 137 ; chemical works 4, 188 ; basket and brushware 7, 130 ; and sawmdls 25, with 457 hands. Extensive locomotive shops have been estabUshed by the Government near Adelaide, where most of the locomotives required by the railways are made, and where railway repair work is attended to. These shops are well equipped with machinery. Locomotives have also been built at Gawler. The Government has erected a plant at Port Adelaide for the making of cast-iron pipes for water reticulation purposes. South AustraUa has always been noted for the excellent quality of its Various flour, and some of the finest flour mills in the Commonwealth are to be Industries. seen ^n *^s State. South AustraUan flour is shipped in large quantities to London, South Africa, Java, Singapore, and Australian States. Another important branch of manufacture is that devoted to the making of agricultural implements. There are also a number of bark nulls and tanneries, where the best leather to be found in the world is made. Salt works do a large business in refining the raw material taken from salt lagoons, and a big trade has been built up throughout AustraUa. Not the least interesting " industry " for which the State is famed is the Cement Works near Brighton, where an exceUent quaUty of cement is manufactured. The cement finds a ready sale throughout the Common wealth, having satisfactorily passed the severest official tests. The largest tinware factory 202 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. " south of the line " is to be found in Adelaide, while furniture-making is carried on to a large extent. A winding engine for mining purposes, recently manufactured by a South Australian engineering firm for Broken Hill, is credited with having a world's record for hauling power. Legislation affecting factories was passed during the Parliamentary Factory session of 1907, under which boards have been created • in respect to Legislation, certain trades for the regulation of wages. There is inspection and super vision by Government inspectors. The principle of the eight hours system is in general operation throughout South Australia. Considerable assistance has been given to manufacturers by an A Chamber Of active organisation which holds exhibitions and in other ways pro- Manufactures. m°tes the interests of factory- owners. The South Australian Chamber of Manufactures is the oldest institution of its kind in Australia. It was estabhshed in 1869, and has steadily progressed with the growth of the State ; in fact, it claims that in many directions the progress made has been due to the untiring efforts of its members. By means of free public lectures, practical demonstrations, and hundreds of thousands of pamphlets the public has had the opportunity of being informed and instructed by the best recognised authorities on a variety of subjects. No new invention of importance is launched without being brought under the notice of members. ParUamentary Bills and methods of administration affecting manufacturers and producers are constantly being placed before those directly interested, and many valuable suggestions emanating from the Chamber have reached and been given effect to by the powers that be. Periodically the Chamber holds exhibitions, the educational and practical advantages of which it is impossible to adequately gauge. The objects of the Chamber are — " To promote the development of South Australian manufactures and products, and in furtherance of such objects (a) to hold meetings at which lectures may be delivered, papers read, and, discussed, and, where deemed of sufficient value, pubUshed for distribution amongst members ; (b) to hold exhibitions for the display of manu factures and products, and such of the arts as may be deemed advisable ; (c) to offer premiums or prizes for new inventions, and to encourage skill in connection with work appertaining to the objects of the Chamber ; (d) to establish a library and industrial museum, accessible to the members of the Chamber ; (e) to closely watch all legislation and decisions of the courts on matters affecting the objects of the Chamber, and to take such action as may be deemed neces sary. Federation has emphasized the importance of the manufacturing Work and industry of the State. With the abolition of border duties not only W^ages. nas a wider inter-State market been made available to South Australian makers of the finished product, but in addition they have been brought into closer contact with AustraUan competitors in the local market. In both ways the goods of this State have had to bear comparison and withstand competition, which are at the same time broader and keener than before union. This has caused manufacturers to look to their laurels, and results have shown that South Australian factory- owners are more than holding their own. The workshops of the Central State are gradually assuming larger proportions, and there are not wanting signs that a steady expansion is taking place. The demand for skilled and other labor is largely governed by the seasons and the state of trade, and it fluctuates from one year to another. At the present time it is generally admitted that there is a " good demand " for labor all round ; but a statement of this kind made in all good faith one year may not stand for the whole twelvemonth. With this qualification it may with safety he asserted that for rural workers and artisans there is a fair opening in South Australia. Farmers are paying ploughmen from 17s. 6d. to £1 per week and their keep. There has been a demand for labor in the furniture-making trade, in which the ruling rates of wages have been — Cabinet makers, from £2 lis. to £3 12s. for a week of 48 hours ; machinists, 35s. to £3 ; turners, 30a. to £3 ; general hands, 30s. to 50s. " There is plenty of room for top workmen " was the re sponse to the inquiry concerning the demand for workmen in the building trade. Masons, plasterers, painters, and carpenters have been kept fully employed for some time past, the ruling rates of wages having been — Masons and bricklayers, is. 4£d. an hour ; carpenters A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 203 and joiners, Is. 3d. ; builders' laborers, Is. ; plumbers and plasterers, 10s. a day ; and painters 8s. to 10s. In the boot trade the factories have been running at full time. The Wages Board has fixed a minimum rate of pay for machinists at £2 5s. per week ; skilled operators up to £3 and £4. There has been a demand for good mechanics in all branches of trade devoted to engineering and the making of agricultural implements. The following minimum rates of wages were agreed to at a conference between representatives of employers and workmen at the deputation room, Victoria Square, Adelaide, on June 4th, 5th, and 6th, 1907 :— 1. Standard —Per day of eight hours— Patternmakers, average capacity, lis. ; patternmakers, under average capacity, 10s. ; blacksmiths and fitters, average capacity, 9s. ; combmakers, turners, machinists (iron), working milUng machines, slow, less than average capacity, 8s. ; machinists (iron), working planing machines, 8s. ; carpenters, average capacity, 10s. ; carpenters, slow, under average capacity, 9s. Woodworkers — Tradesmen, average capacity, 9s. ; tradesmen, slow, under average capacity, 8s. ; not tradesmen, average capacity, 8s. ; not tradesmen, slow, under average capacity, 7s. 6d. ; machinists (wood), 8s. ; wheelwrights, 9s. ; decorators if ' ' ¦ • z ill ' '¦ '" " 3|:?I!UJ::::«':^Jv^SU-.- Adelaide Chemical and Fertilizers Co., Ltd., New Thebarton, Works, ground space of which covers 234,550 square feet. (defined as painters, doing scroll work and writing), 10s. ; painters, qualified, 8s. ; moulders, average capacity, 9s. 6d. ; moulders, under average capacity, 9s. ; coremakers, when not apprentices to be classed as moulders ; furnacemen (cupola), 8s. Sheet iron workers — If tin smiths or qualified tradesmen of average capacity, 9s. ; same, slow, under average capacity, 8s. ; sheet iron workers; not qualified tradesmen, 7s. 6d. ; driU men, strikers, and fettlers, 7s. 6d. ; laborers (1) used to trade, 7s. 6d. ; laborers (2), not used to trade, 6s. 6d. ; steam engine drivers, 7s. 6d. Apprentices or learners — First year, 7s. 6d. per week ; second year, 10s. ; third year, 12s. 6d. ; fourth year, 17s. 6d. ; fifth year, 22s. 6d. To come into operation at once. Youth laborers — Fifteen to 16 years, 10s. per week ; 16 to 17 years, 13s. ; 17 to 18 years, 16s. ; 18 to 19 years, 20s. ; 19 to 20 years, 25s. ; 20 to 21 years, 30s. With regard to aged and infirm men proposed to be employed at less than the standard wage, the masters shall not engage such men at a wage less than in each particular case shall be agreed between the master and the representatives of his employes elected from among them selves by the employes over 21 years of age as foUows : — Where there are 25 such employes or under, one representative to be elected ; where over 25 and not exceeding 50 such employes, two representatives to be elected ; and where over 50 such employes, four representatives to be elected. 204 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. For two years after the expiry of the five years' term of apprenticeship a man may be deemed an improver, and for improvers the rate of pay may be Is. 6d. per day less than the rate fixed as the standard minimum for the particular class of work. The rates of wages shall be on the basis of 48 hours per week. Overtime — Outside usual hours, time and an eighth ; holidays, time and a quarter. The following is an official return supplied to Parliament showing the rates of pay and class of work paid for skilled, partially skilled, and unskilled labor at the Islington State Loco motive Workshops : — Minimum Maximum Per Day. Per Day. a. d. a. d. s. d. Skilled Labor — Apprentices 1 0 3 6 Blacksmiths 9 0 11 6 Boilermakers 7 6 10 6 " leading 10 6 12 0 Brassfinishers .... 8 6 10 0 Carpenters .... 8 0 9 6 " leading 9 0 12 6 Carriage-builders 8 0 10 0 " leading 10 6 14 0 Carriage- trimmers 8 0 10 0 Coppersmiths .... 9 0 9 6 Fitters 7 6 11 0 " brake .... 9 6 12 0 " leading 10 6 12 6 " in charge 12 6 14 0 Foremen, under — 14 0 — Frenchpolishers 8 0 — 9 0 Moulders .... 7 6 — 10 6 Painters .... 8 0 — 10 0 leading — 10 0 — Patternmakers 9 0 — 10 0 Tinsmiths .... 8 0 — 9 6 Turners .... 7 6 — 10 6 wheel 7 0 — 9 6 Wagon-builders 8 6 — 9 0 Partially Skilled Labor — Boilermakers' assistants 7 0 — 8 0 Drillers 7 0 — 7 6 Lifters .... 7 0 — 7 6 " leading — 9 0 — Machinists .... 7 0 — 9 0 " woou 7 0 — 9 0 Painters, rough — 7 0 — Strikers 7 0 — 7 6 Unskilled Labor — ¦ Laborer, foreman 9 6 — " leading 8 0 — Laborers, adult 7 0 — " youth 1 6 — 5 0 The following are the current rate of wages in Adelaide for tradesmen. The quotations represent a fair average for skilled hands working at the rate of 48 hours a week : — Bakers, per week (minimum), £2 10s. ; blacksmiths, per hour, Is. l|d. to Is. 3d. ; boilermakers, per hour, Is. l£d. to Is. 4|d. ; bootmakers (male), per week, from 45s. to 75s. ; brassmoulders and finishers, per hour, lid. to Is. ; brickmakers, per hour, Is. 4|d. ; butchers (minimum), per week, £2 10s. ; cabinetmakers (minimum) per week, £2 lis. ; carpenters and joiners, per hour, Is. 3d. ; carriage-building (all branches), per hour, Is. l£d. to Is. 3d. ; coopers, per hour, A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 205 Is. l£d. to Is. 3d. ; coppersmiths, per hour, Is. to Is. 3d. ; dressmakers (minimum), per week, 16s. ; fitters and turners (engineering), per hour, Is. l£d. to Is. 4£d. ; galvanized iron workers (indoor), per hour, lid. to Is. ; ironmoulders, per hour, Is. l£d. to Is. 4£d. ; masons, per hour, Is. 4Jd. ; painters and paperhangers, per hour, Is. to Is. 1 $d. ; patternmakers, per hour, Is. 4£d. ; plasterers, Is. 3d. ; plumbers, Is. 3d. ; polishers from Is. ; saddlers, Is. to Is. 3d. ; stonecutters, Is. 4£d. ; tailoring (female), per week, from 18s. to 36s. ; tinsmiths, per hour (minimum), lid. ; upholsterers, per hour, from Is. ; wheelwrights, per hour, Is. 3d. ; woodturners, from Is. Equally important to the rate of wages is that of the cost of living to the Cost Of wage-earner. A high scale of wages may be made to look alluring, but if, Living. m order to earn them, the worker has to pay high rents and purchase the necessaries of life at enhanced rates, his net income may easily be reduced to vanishing point. With the quaUfication that the prices of food suppUes are subject to more or less fluctuations owing to the seasons, which regulate the supply, the following quotations of commodities are given as they were on a recent date :— Bread, per 21b. loaf, 3d. ; butter, factory, per pound, Is. ld. ; jam, first grade, per tin, 8Jd. ; flour, 251bs., 2s. 9d. ; oatmeal, 71bs., Is. 3d. ; eggs, per dozen, 8d. ; tea, average, per pound, Is. 3d. ; coffee, first grade, per pound, Is. 9d. ; sugar, per pound, 2Jd. ; kerosine, per tin, 3s. 6d. ; bacon, per pound, 9£d. ; soap, first grade, per pound, 8d. ; sago, per pound, 4d. ; candles, per pound, 8d. ; milk, per quart, 4d. ; coal, per Jton, 7s. 6d. ; beef, rump steak, per pound, 8d. ; corned beef, round, per pound, 5d. ; mutton, hindquarter, per pound, 4£d. ; pork, per pound, 7d. ; sausages, beef, per pound, 4d. ; tripe, per pound, 6d. ; potatoes, per 141bs., 3s. 3d. ; onions,, per pound, 3d. ; boots, size 8, Hungarian nails, 9s. 6d. ; cod, 21bs., Is. 8d. Penny sections prevail on city and suburban tramways and cheap fares are available on suburban railways. r, , The following are the rents of houses let to workmen within a two-mile, radius of the post office : — Four rooms, per week, 9s. ; five rooms, per week 12s. ; six rooms, per week, 15s. ; seven rooms, per week, 20s. The President of the Federal Council of Chambers of Manu- Good Country for factures of Australia, when asked " What are the conditions Good Workmen. °^ *he working classes in Australia as regards remuneration and living ? " replied that he agreed with a correspondent of his who wrote — " The conditions of the working classes are good, and the wages paid compare favorably with any other country in the world, the hours of labor being limited to the popular rate of eight hours per diem. The cost of living is as cheap, if not cheaper, than that prevaiUng in other places, while the rents are normal. They can get good, wholesome food at bedrock prices. From my knowledge of mechanics I believe that their remuneration and living are such that they can enjoy Ufe and make due provision for old age." On a recent occasion the Chamber of Manufactures arranged "For Our Country. " for a "Manufacturers' Day," when throughout the city and suburbs there was a splendid display of articles made in Aus tralia. About 200 merchants and shopkeepers dressed their windows, and a creditable exhibi tion was provided. This served to bring forcefully before the general public the great advances made in manufactures during recent years. Chapter XXIII. FISHERIES. ^|3KsOUTH AustraUa has over 2,000 miles of coastUne, with innumerable inlets favorable for the feeding and breeding of fish, and many of them eminently suitable as working bases for fishermen. The temperatures of the coastal waters and general conditions j|% are conducive to healthy fish life, and, though the industry has so far been most sadly neglected, there is every reason to beUeve that those varieties of fish which flourish in the same latitudes elsewhere abound here. Mark the unquaUfied opinion of that experienced traveller Frank T. BuUen, who, in his work, " Our Heritage — The Sea," penned the following paragraph : — " AustraUa ! How can I do justice to the plenitude and amiabiUty of your splendid fish ? Everywhere I have saUed or steamed around the shores of that noble country in or out of harbor, the story is the same — the most marveUous assortment of fish, easy to be caught, and of most deUcious flavor. I consider that AustraUa' s fisheries are most unaccountably neglected, even when it is remembered how plentiful, good, and cheap are all kinds of other food. What fishing there is has fallen mostly into the hands of industrious foreigners Our kindred in AustraUa do not care to engage in any work that involves long and irregular hours, and also precarious gains ; or if driven by any pressure of circum stances to engage in such employment, they always relinquish it as early as possible. Nature has been exceedingly kind to Australia in many ways ; but in none more than in the matter of food to be obtained from the sea." South AustraUa is undoubtedly rich in the possession of fishing grounds, and its greatest need is an experienced and industrious population which wiU cast net and line for a living, and gather this harvest which experts affirm is fully developed, and only awaits reapers. Of the inland waters the River Murray and its lakes and biUabongs are the best for fish, and they abound with them. The famous Murray cod is in demand through out Australia. About 300 tons of fish are sent annuaUy to the markets of other States. Perch do weU in the Onkaparinga and other rivers, and some rainbow trout placed in various waters throughout the State are increasing. Fish also thrive in the reservoirs, and as these become spread over the country so will a means of increasing the fish supply be provided. The possi- biUties of the fish industry in this State are considerable, and there should be no difficulty in promoting fisheries, thus finding profitable employment for thousands of men with their wives and families. At present there are about 400 licensed men who depend upon fishing Expanding for a liveUhood, but this number could be greatly increased by a syste- the Industry, rnatic exploitation of our coastal waters. Scientific research is essential in order to accurately chart the spawning grounds and ascertain the habits and migrations of edible fish, and the basis for this is being prepared in the form of a catalogue of the various species which frequent these waters, the compilation of which is now weU in hand. About 2,000 tons of fish are now annually taken from our waters, of which 250 tons come from the Murray, while South Australia imports £40,000 worth of preserved fish every year. With the industry properly established in the hands of men skilled in drying fish this State should be an exporter. It is recognised that concurrently with increasing supplies greater facUities must be provided for marketing and delivering to consumers. There is no reason why fish fresh from the sea should not be at the consumer's door with the milk on the morning after being caught. South Australians are not large consumers of fish — partly because of the dearness, and also for the reason that there is no regular delivery to private houses. Enterprising persons who would receive fish on arrival of the trains from seaports, place it direct into cool chambers, and deUver to customers early next morning would so establish a large connection. In that way a regular trade would soon be built up and the industry graduaUy expanded. >- r- O Q. s < ccu I w A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 207 . . „ , ^shermen delegated by those engaged in the industry in Scot- Inqumes from land visited various fishing places off our coast during September. Scotland. 190»> and expressed themselves favorably impressed with the harbor . „ ,. . n and transport facilities, as well as the prospects of establishing a lucrative fishing industry combined with by-product manufactures. " South Australia wants only men and boats to work its fisheries " was their conclusion. The Government intended to offer facilities to fishermen from across the sea to settle in this State, and to establish drying and preserving grounds and for residential sites. The delegates stated that if sufficient inducement ofiered a large number would be prepared to emigrate. They said South Australia alone could do with 5,000 British fishermen. Preparing Fish for the Adelaide Market.- Cleaning Murray River Cod near Renmark. Helping the Industry. This State has not yet reared fish artificiaUy, but the question of estabUshing a floating hatchery for the Murray waters is under con sideration. Much has been done to protect the supposed spawning grounds in various parts of the State, to secure natural replenishment of our fish supply, and the destruction in three years of 30,066 cormorants and 90,067 turtles must naturally help to keep up supphes. Each shag is beUeved to devour over 21bs. dady, and the turtle's capacity for spawn is enormous. The establishment of hatcheries is generaUy advocated by our fishermen, but the expense of separate establishments is not warranted if the subject be dealt with federaUy and supplies drawn from the Sydney hatcheries. It is expected that the expert who was instrumental in getting the Prospect and Port Hacking hatcheries, and who is now the Federal officer of fisheries, wiU advise federally and enable this and other States to procure fresh stock for our waters in the most approved manner. 208 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Among the varieties of fish to be found in South Australian waters may be mentioned schnapper, whiting, garfish, salmon, mullet, tommy rough, barracouta, flying gurnard, snook, flatheads, flounders, crays, cod, and bream. Varieties. The action taken under existing fisheries laws is as foUows • — Inspec- Fisheries tors have been appointed, including every member of the police. These Legislation, officers are empowered to issue fishermen's licences, to certify to the destruction of cormorants and turtles, to apprehend persons infringing any of the provisions of the Act, to enter any fishshop and destroy fish unfit for food, to enter any fishing boat, examine nets, and enforce the provisions of the Acts. Regulations have been made prescribing certain description of nets for specified waters, providing for measurement of nets and how they are to be used, to prevent taking of underweight fish, and requiring them to be returned to the water. To prevent the use of explosives and wire-netted pounds. Close seasons have been proclaimed, and the use of nets has been prohibited in various waters through out the State for the protection of fish during spawning season. Other powers given by the Act for the furtherance of the industry will be brought into operation as occasion requires. Fishing is a vocation that cannot be always under the eye of the inspectors, and the department look confidently to bona fide fishermen to shield the industry from exploitation by unlicensed or unscrupulous persons The object of the law and the desire of the department is to protect and further the industry in the interest of the fishermen whose living it is so long as they ply their trade honestly and with due regard to preserving the permanence of the industry. It is important to fishermen to have supplies preserved, and equally important to the consumer to have ample quantities of this popular article of diet at reasonable prices. Not until scientific investigation has solved many of the problems common to all fisheries can legislation be placed on a thoroughly satisfactory footing. %:-s . .'¦ Jts^B/BBS^^U % ^^'4^b^ij^''f^p^^ W:) '7 *&. A A '¦¦¦ " ^Spl h> ¦ B^*1^ Is Hp ^BB5u -LiJ^LHr JmK" H iS ¦masses 9 ^*'S? «*¦ 388? ' ¦'&»¦¦¦. A i ..'¦"' ' .- -. rem $B Favorite Spot for Picnic Parties on the Hindmarsh River. VIEW IN PINE PLANTATION STATE FOREST WIRRABARA, Chapter XXIV. FORESTRY. jfOUTH Australia, as in so many other movements, was the first State of the Australian group to establish State forests. Early settlers were permitted to draw upon the suppUes of native timber without restriction until it became apparent that the limited extent of natural forests would soon become exhausted. In 1870 Mr. F. E. H. W. Krichauff persuaded the House of Assembly, of which he was then a member, to call for reports on the best size of reserves for forest purposes, where they should be made, the best and most economical means of preserving the native timber on them, and of planting and replanting the reserves as permanent State forests. Three years later the Forest Act became law, and a bonus was offered of £2 per acre of land on which forest trees were planted and maintained for a period of five years. The practical results of this proved disappointing, for Uttle or no effort was made by private landowners to earn the subsidy. The State forest system was inaugurated in 1875, when the Forest Board was appointed, and 195,398 acres were set apart for tree-planting and conservation of the indigenous timber by natural regeneration where desirable. This board was subsequently aboUshed by the Woods and Forests Act, 252/1882, and the Woods and Forests Department was created in its place, with a Conservator of Forests at its head, under the control of the Commissioner of Crown Lands, as a body corporate under the name and style of " The Commissioner of Forests." Ultimately this area was increased until the first reserves comprised 239,336 acres. Alienations for perpetual leases have reduced the territory under the supervision of the Woods and Forests Department to about 164,113 acres. For the whole 31 years of the forests' history the expenditure Distribution of has been £198,987, and the revenue £155,793. In only seven out. Trees of the 31 years has the revenue exceeded the expenditure. The best results were in 1887-8. when the receipts amounted to £12,080, and the expenditure to £7,262. In considering this aspect of the question it must be remem bered that one prominent feature of the department's work has been the distribution gratis of forest trees for 26 years, during which period over 7,000,000 trees have been issued to corpora tions, district councils, and other public bodies, and to farmers and others in the State for the purpose of beautifying their residences, providing shelter for stock, and ornamenting the various towns. A fair measure of success has been attained in this way, and the beneficial effects pro duced—especially in the originally treeless districts— have been considerable. As no charge has ever been made for the trees, and the cost of production has been very considerable, the discrepancy between the revenue and expenditure previously alluded to can be easily under stood, and it wiU readily be seen that if a fair value had been assigned for the trees year after year, and the amount passed to the credit of the Department, the financial position would have been very materiaUy altered. Reckoning the value of 7,000,000 trees at 2d. per tree the result is £58,333. The last year's returns show the expenditure as £198,987 and the revenue as £155.793 ; but had the value for the trees been credited as indicated the position would have been reversed, and a credit of £15,139 would have been shown to the department. ™ . The present Conservator of Forests (Mr. Walter Gill) was appointed H OrestS OI .^ lg9(^ and te has done exceUent work with the limited funds at his Pines. command. People and Parliament of South Australia have been singu larly apathetic in the matter of afiorestation, and the pruning knife of economy has more than once been appUed to this department. In all the South Australian forests 1,100 210 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. acres of pines have been planted, and over half of this area is represented at Wirrabara, where the trees vary in age from 1 to 25 years. To-day 85 per cent, of the world's timber demand is for pine, and the amount which goes out of South Australia for this useful class of timber is between £100,000 and £200,000 every year. The world's newspaper press alone devours many millions of tons a year for its pulp paper, and in all countries supplies are rapidly being depleted. The Conservator is an extremely cautious man, but after many anxious years he has thoroughly satisfied himself that pines which are suitable to local conditions can be grown in South Australia without risk and with great profit. The pines which have proved most suitable for general culture are the Remarkable or Monterey pine (Pinus insignis), the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), the Stone pine (Pinus pinea), the Maritime pine (Pinus mariiirm). The most rapid grower and most profitable tree, when planted under suitable conditions, is tho Remarkable pine, a native of California. This was first introduced into this State by the lite View in Pine Plantations, White Park, Wirrabara (State) Forest. [ TV. Gill, Photo. distinguished botanist, Baron Sir F. von Mueller, in 1859, on which occasion he sent some plants to the Botanic Garden of Adelaide in the time of the late Mr. Francis. Speaking of this pine the Conservator says — " Strong views have frequently been advanced against this pine, in most cases by those who were practically unacquainted with its nature and behavior under systematic culture, and judged it either by hearsay or from ornamental specimens they had seen. The Forest Department, having fully tested it for a series of years, is able to prove beyond doubt its special excellence for box lumber, and its general utility for wagon and dray bottoms and sides, ladders, barrows, rafters, planking, flooring boards, and other purposes ; but any special pleading in its favor is rendered unnecessary* in the present instance because, in districts where once it was condemned untried, those falUng into that error are now convinced of its value, and are anxious to obtain cases when available ; and when the purchaser is satisfied mere theoretical discussion is useless. Calculating the areas of Remarkable pine by them selves, we find the average annual growth or increment per acre to amount to 100 cub. ft. ; A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS. AND SETTLERS. View in National Park, the People's Playground, showing Giant Gums and Natural Forest. [J. Marshall, Photo. 212 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — -THE CENTRAL STATE. but when the other pines, Aleppo and Maritime, are averaged with it, the annual acre increment falls to 80 cub. ft. : as, though the Aleppo tod Maritime give valuable results, their growth is not so rapid as the Remarkable pine, nor do they give so large a yield per acre. When, however, it can be plainly demonstrated that averaging. the three pines indicated-— after thoroughly testing them — the yield per acre even at such an early stage of growth as 25 years comes out at 80 cub. ft., or 960 (nearly 1,000) super, feet per annum (excluding branch and top wood), the depart ment feels justified in claiming that the question ' Can South Australia grow any pine timber ? ' has been answered in the affirmative." On the question of the character of climate and soil for the growing of timber the Conservator further remarks — " There are thousands of acres in the. State suitable for pine-growing now carrying inferior timber of practically no value or scrubby vegetation. The cost of clearing, fencing, and planting varies according to circumstances ; but, speaking broadly, a Suitability of Soil and Climate. Tree-planting, Bundaleer Forest Reserve. f TV. Gill, Phnte.. plantation of pines may be established under suitable conditions, and maintained till it repre sents the gross value alreadv indicated of £200 per acre, at a cost varying from £5 under the most favorable conditions to £10 per acre where more work is needed to prepare each acre for planting. The ultimate return to the revenue shown as probable from the estimates given, is surely in itself a highly satisfactory one ; . but there are other aspects of the matter quite as important as the revenue one. The German forests, which are rightly regarded as of incalculable value to the State, support directly 1,000, 000, people in employment ; while another 3,000,000 are maintained by industries connected with them. Making and maintaining forests means that men must be employed to do it. It will pay well, given the requisite time and patience for development. It will pay in revenue ; but it will pay better in the healthy, strong men it rears admidst healthy forest conditions, in the increase of the producing power of the country, A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 213 and in assisting to prevent the congestion of our population in our cities. The Maritime pine forests in the south-west of France now cover 300,000 acres of what was once waste, useless land, and support a considerable population employed in producing turpentine and its by products from trees that afterwards yield large quantities of lumber for the boxes required in the onion and orange export trade of Spain." The pine plantations established by the department were the Praise from subject of very favorable comment on the occasion of a visit made a Visiting Expert. witn tne Conservator in February last by Mr. E. O. Faulkner, the manager of the tie and timber department of the Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, one of the largest American systems. Speaking to a representative Fruit Cases Made from Remarkable Pine Grown at Wirrabara Forest. [TV. Gill. Photo. of one of the leading papers he said—" The pine plantations, I understand, are giving excellent financial results after 25 years, which is much better than we can do in America, although the trees are indigenous to our soil. I saw pine trees from llin to 14in. in diameter in less than 25 years which would do credit to any country." Since the industry of case-making was first started in the Wirra bara Forest 41,121 cases of various kinds— mainly apple export, raisin, and apricot — have already been sold, resulting in a sub stantial increase to the revenue. It is interesting to note that some of the apples which brought the highest prices in Berlin within the last year or two were carried in cases made by the department in the Wirrabara Forest. Fruit Cases from Locally Grown Timber. 2i4 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Turning to the Eucalypts, or hardwoods, results are not so rapid as Hardwoods, with the pines, as, owing to the purposes for which they are required, they must generaUy attain a greater maturity ere they can be utilised. From these, however, large quantities of useful material for general farming and estate requirements have been obtained from the thinnings, as weU as a constant supply of firewood ; but the main bulk of properly matured timber has yet to be realised. The extension of railways has created a large demand for redgum sleepers, and a large number of cutters are employed in various parts of the State under contracts to the Government. In view of the growing demands for commercial timbers the Government intend increasing the vote to the Forestry Department, in order that planting operations should be extended. Load of 2,300 Fruit Cases from the Wirrabara Forest for Renmark. I TV. Gill. Photo. Opinion of Members of a Boyal Commission. During last March the New South Wales Royal Commission on Forestry visited the Wirrabara and Bundaleer Forests. In giving an account of their work they stated that they visited these reserves in South Australia, between 30 and 40 miles from Port Pirie, and found " that splendid work had been done there under the direction of Mr. W. Gill (Conservator of Forests) in the propagation of exotic pines and various hardwoods. The most valuable pine in a commercial sense was found to be Pinus insignis, which has been planted about 25 years in these forests, and is now being cut to provide wood for fruit cases, &c. A small mill has been established at Wirrabara Forest, and an order for 25,000 fruit cases for the Renmark Irrigation Settlement is now being executed. Many exotic pines are making satisfactory growth, but the growth of the Pinus insignis is about twice as great as the volume of timber of any other pine. This experience was subsequently confirmed by the evidence taken at Ballarat and other centres in Victoria." A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 215 Amongst other things the department has successfully proved that the Date date palm will produce excellent fruits in the dry Far Northern districts Plantations. °f *ne State. As in the case of many other fruits, variations in the seasons sometimes mar the quality ; but for 15 years good dates have been grown in the plantations at Hergott and Lake Harry, the latter being the principal one, con taining 2,193 palms. Though the quantity was not large, South Australia can claim to be the first State to produce and place on the market a good sample of merchantable dates, a quarter of a ton having been sold in Adelaide in 1906. Deglet Nour (Date) Palm in Fruit, Lake Harry Reserve, South Australia. [ W. Gill, Photo. Chapter XXV. WATER CONSERVATION AND IRRIGATION. >M order to get close to the heart of Australia it is necessary to travel up the streams which spread themselves like veins in the human body across the eastern portion of the con tinent. The Murray is the main artery. With only two of its many tributaries, it is capable of being navigated for a distance equal to one and a half times across the Aus tralian continent from south to north — from Adelaide to Port Darwin and half way back ! An Australian unacquainted with these waterways is ignorant of the resources of his native land. For the last 500 miles of its course the Murray passes through South Australian territory. The importance of the favorable geographical position enjoyed by the " Central State " was realised by Captain Sturt and many pioneer settlers. One of them, writing in 1838, pointed out that " the farmer to the westward and northward of the Blue Mountains Renmark, on the River Murray. [Frank TVyllie, Photo. and of the Australian Alps is, in fact, nearer to the markets of South Australia when 1,200 miles distant by water than he is to the port of Sydney when distant 300 miles by land." In 1851 Parliament offered a bonus of £4,000 to the person who would give a practical demonstra tion of the navigability of the Murray. The proof was supplied by Captain W. R. Randell and Captain Cadell in 1853, and for half a century the river has been a highwa)' of trade. The Murray is the great natural main drainage line of the south eastern part of Australia. The basin of the river and its tributaries comprises 414,253 square miles (265,121,920 acres)— an area double that of France — out of a total of 2,950,000 square miles in the whole The river basin includes within its limits nearly one-seventh of the An Extensive Watershed. Australian continent. entire mainland subject to the jurisdiction of the Commonwealth, being five-sixths of New South THE RIVER MURRAY SHOWING RECLAIMED SWAMP LANDS WHICH CAN BE IRRIGATED BY GRAVITATION. (CH. XXV.) A GdlDfi FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 217 Wales, considerably more than half of Victoria, over 100,000 square miles of Queensland, and 24,000 square miles of South Australia. The greatest height reached at any point on the boundary is in the south-east, where Kosciusko, the highest land in Australia, attains an altitude of 7,256ft. If to this vast catchment there be added the strip of coast land lying between it and the sea — from the Condamine River in the north-east to Lake Alexandrina in the south-west — the total would become one-fifth of the Australian continent, containing at least three-fourths of its entire present population, and much more than half of its agricultural and pastoral possibilities for the sustenance of human life. Born on the snowclad heights of Kosciusko, cradled in rich glens, and fed by tributaries that rise in four States, the Murray moves leisurely and maj estically to the sea. The river is one of the longest in the dominions of King Edward, with a watershed that has few rivals. To know Australia, to appreciate its magnificent resources, it is necessary to understand how the Murray and its sister streams can be made to serve the producer and the trader. These channels reach far towards the heart of the continent. They are gateways of trade to the interior Irrigation Channels and Orchards at Renmark. [Frank Wyllie, Photo. —great fertilising agencies, by means of which vast treasure caverns yet untouched may be unlocked. These waterways can be utilised as bearers of burdens as well as in the capacity of aids to production, and AustraUans will shortly enter upon the glorious inheritance represented in the Murray and its tributaries. Australia is looking to the valleys of its rivers for agricultural expansion. Where irrigation is possible there will be seen the best examples of intense culture, of " closer " settlement— that system of farming which was the salvation of France, and is still the hope of that country. Water is wealth. If rightly used, it will cause the desert to blossom and semi-arid lands to become fruitful. Early in 1905 a party of South AustraUan legislators travelled 550 miles up the Murray, and they realised more than many of them had ever done before that this stream is not only a highway of trade to inland Australia, but that its water may be made to unlock thousands of acres of semi-arid country. With a permanently navigable river the valley of the Murray is practically a land without limit. The scenery is often grand in its wild beauty ; and the variety of game and of bird Ufe, the giant gum trees, boxgum, and weeping The Future of the Biver Valley. 218 SOUTfi AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. willows, through avenues of which the steamer threads its way, lend fresh charm to every bend and make an excursion most instructive and enjoyable. Tnrrty years ago two-fifths of the United States was regarded as a desert. One day a cowboy, breaking further away from civiUsation than was usual, saw an alleged arid wilderness, and exclaimed — " This is no desert ! This can be turned into pasture land ! " and 30,000,000 cattle were soon grazing on the plains ! A company of Mormons, possessing the faith and determination of a Moses, driven out into the desert, settled in the midst of it, and in a few years cities sprang up and green fields broke the monotony of long distances. The cactus had to give place to the fruit tree and the fodder plant. Water was the golden key which unlocked the lands of Western America. There is no reason why history should not be repeated in South AustraUa. The whole population of the State might be profitably employed in the valley of the Murray. Dr. Moorhouse, when Bishop of Melbourne, remarked — " The Murray is 10 times as long as the Thames, and is bound to play an important part in the development of this country. The people are missing the chance of maintaining an immense population, and of accumulating untold wealth, by letting View on the River Murray, the "Nile" of Australia. the waters of the Murray roll uselessly and wasteful^ into the sea. In times of drought 1 have been asked to pray to God for rain. I have replied that the only supplication I could make would be, ' Oh, God, forgive us for our idleness, folly, and unthankfulness, and give us grace in the future to use better and more wisely Thy gracious gifts." Australia is not the dry, arid country it is sometimes caricatured to be by uninformed people. The continent is well supplied with rivers, great and small, which require only to be regulated and turned to account. "Among the anomaUes which may be said to distinguish the continent of Australia from other inhabited portions of the globe, not the least remarkable has been the almost unnoticed existence of one of the largest and most navigable rivers in the world." Half a century has gone by since Mr. Arthur Kinloch, chronicler of the trip of the Lady Augusta, made that statement, and Australians have been too busy to appreciate what Bishop Moorhouse characterised as a " gracious gift " of Providence. The time has arrived for harnessing the Murray and its tributaries so that they may be made to serve the producer and the trader, and at the present time a Bill is before the Parliaments of New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia providing for the locking of the river and the building of storage reservoirs. GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURTSTS, AND SETTLERS. 219 . The Murray, which flows through South Australia for a distance of about Navigation 400 miles, not only represents a great highway of trade to the interior, but and for a comparatively small outlay the water can be utilised as a fertilising Irrigation. agent for many thousands of acres ot what would Oe among tne most productive land in the State under irrigation. South AustraUans who know their country and appreciate its resources are expansionists. They challenge the future, confident in the knowledge that the State has rich stores of hidden treasure as yet unrevealcd. This particularly appUes to the valley of the Murray and to lands adjacent to good supphes of water — surface and subterranean. The achievements recorded by colonists in this State are but an indication of greater victories which will be shared by immigrants who, aided by a Uttle capital, are prepared to make their homes in South Australia. It is officially estimated that there are 160,000 acres of low-lying lands along the Murray within this State which at moderate cost can be made avadable for intense culture. In addition, Lake Albert, near the mouth of the river, is capable of reclamation, and this would provide an additional 40,000 acres. The S.S. "Gem," with Parliamentary Party on Board, River Murray, near Renmark, January 13th, 1909. higher lands on each bank of the river within a distance of five nules are for the most part very suitable for cultivation under irrigation, and aggregate an area of over 1 000,000 acres. This land is quickly coming under cultivation for cereals. The country served by this magnificent waterway is a land of aUuring contrasts and limitless possibiUties. The Eivers Murray, Darlmg, and Murrumbidgee, which supply a navigable highway for a distance of 3,000 mnes represent from a trading point of view, " gateways » to the interior When they are locked they wdl prove more serviceable than 10,000 miles of raUways would be to the settlers, and in addition will supply a permanent stream which can be indefinitely drawn upon for purposes of production. Australia is a land of striking contrasts and widely divergent interests. It is unreasonable to expect that methods of industrial conquest conceived in one corner of so vast a continent are applicable to all parts of it. It is necessary to diversify systems as it is imperative that products should be varied and the demands of markets at home and abroad carefully studied. Beyond aU argu ment is the fact that to have a contented community of rural people there must be some guarantee Striking Contrasts. 220 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. of certainty of crops. Attempts have been made in various parts of Australia to do that ^and, notwithstanding temporary checks and occasional failures, the results on the whole have shown that, with a ripened experience, irrigation can be made to pay in Australia as well as elsewhere. Marvellous results have been obtained at Mildura and Renmark. In the one case about 5,000 acres of mature vines have vielded in one season produce equal to £40 an acre. The 10,000 acres of cultivated land at MUdura is carrying a population of 5,000 persons. Renmark carries 1,000 people on 3,000 acres, chiefly under orchards and vineyards, and produces an annual crop of fruit worth last season about £80,000. A case is quoted from there of 100 acres of vineyard having been leased at a rental of £11 an acre per annum ; in other words, £1,100 is to be paid for the right to take the crop off 100 acres each season ! Over the fence, where the country is in its natural state, the passer-by would label it " desert," and would not pay a rent of lid. per square mile ! At Lyrup, near Renmark, success has been achieved by a Village Settlement. From 262 acres last season they secured currants and dried fruits to the value of £5,896. Some of^the^est results obtained from irrigation are being secured from the growing of fodder for dairy On the River Murray.- -Mouth of Rufus Creek, through which Lake Victoria is Emptied as the River Falls Below the Level of the Lake. cows, fattening stock, or producing lambs for the export trade. Irrigation is becoming more and more an exact science, and the better it is understood the greater the variety of industries it wiU be made to influence. There are other Irrigation Settlements and private irrigation works, and a BiU is before Parliament giving increased faciUties for settlement. A Magnificent Asset. The Surveyor-General, in an annual report, stated that the area of low- lying lands on the banks of the Murray in South Australia was about 170,000 acres, but to that must be added the 40,000 acres represented by Lake Albert, which, from the point of view of redemption, is a simple proposition. The reclaiming of Lake Alexandrina, if practicable, is a scheme which will probably be left to future generations, because of its colossal proportions. The Surveyor-General wrote — '• An effort is being made to successfully utilise some of our most valuable but hitherto Uttle- used swamp lands, a very large area of which is situate on either side of the River Murray for nearly its whole length, and capable, with moderate expenditure, of keeping many thousands GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 221 of people. The area of low-lying lands along the river valley between Wellington and the State boundary is, excluding freehold property, approximately 170,000 acres, and with an average outlay of about £6 an acre that land would be worth at the lowest calculation £20 an acre, or £3,400,000. About 10 acres would keep a family, say, of four persons ; and the whole area should support a population of 68,000. As the bulk of this land is Crown lands, and the balance held on lease that could be easily acquired, it is one of our most valuable assets. An area of 656 acres has been reclaimed on the east side and north of the Murray Bridge, and is now awaiting settlement, and about 1,100 acres at Monteith's Flat — situated about seven and a half miles south of the Bridge — are in course of reclamation." In addition to the 211,000 acres thus accounted for, adding the Lake Albert scheme to the Surveyor-General's estimate, there are a number of swamps and a larger area of low-lying lands held privately which are capable of similar treatment. What is true of the Murray within the State of South Australia is more or less applicable to river valleys in the up-stream States. In the problem of the conquest of aridity it is important, therefore, that attention should be devoted to the work of reclamation. In this work of conquering unutilised lands men of vision and imagination Expansion are needed — men who will welcome difiiculties as something to overcome ; and men who, having faith in Australia and in themselves, will take pleasure in Efficiency, extolling their country and their fellow-citizens of the Commonwealth. In the bridging of the continent by railways the conserving of water when the floods come, so that the great lifegiver and fertiliser may be available as required, there are questions involved which are worthy the attention of statesmen. In the expansion of the wool and wheat-growing industries, in the raising of more cattle and horses, in the extension of dairy ing, and in the hundred-and-one so-called " minor " industries of the farm, there is scope for the intelligence of young Australians who have grit and grip. As a people, Australians are beginning to realise what a great country they possess. Their goal is national expansion with national efficiency, and the holding of their great island continent for a white race. Junction of the Darling River with the River Murray, near Wentworth. Chapter XXVI. WATERWORKS AND ARTESIAN WELLS. ! HOUGH in the 72 years since its first colonisation the population of South Australia has only ranged from about 400 people in 1836 to not quite 400,000 at present, this smaU community had, up to last June, expended more than four and three-quarter millions of money in water conservation and reticulation — to be exact, £4,754,916. Roughly, the £4,000,000 was spent in reservoirs and reticulation for the settled areas, and the odd £750,000 in water provision for outside and remote districts and the opening up of mad and cattle tracks into the central and noith- eastern borders of the State. fe Weir at Clarendon, in connection with Happy Valley Reservoir, from which the City of Adelaide Draws Portion of its Water Supply. Between Happy VaUey, a few miles south of Adelaide, and Port Reservoirs and Augusta, in the north, there is a stretch of country 200 miles long— Reticulation. an(i 80 miles wide in one part, between Moonta and Freeling— reticulated with a constant and ample supply of water from the various reservoirs of the Metropolitan, Barossa, Bundaleer, Beetaloo, Port Germein, and Port Augusta systems. In all that distance there are only three spaces between the main pipe ends, viz., 12 miles between Port Augusta and Beetaloo mains, four miles between the Bundaleer and Barossa, and 14 miles between the Barossa and Metropolitan terminals. In connection with these systems the area of land gazetted for water rating totals 3,910 square miles, and this is served by more than 2,000 mUes of mains. (CH. XXVI.) AN ARTESIAN BORE. Over 110,000 Square Hiles of the Great Artesian Basin Lies in South Australia. [Chas. P. Seolt, Photo. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 223 The Barossa Reservoir. [ Govt. Photo. Bundaleer Weir. [Govt, Photo. 224 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The respective details are as follow : — The Principal System. Reservoirs. Capacity in Gallons. Acreage Served. Miles of Mains. Metropolitan group . . . . . . — Bundaleer Port Augusta (including Nectar Brook and Mundallio) Port Germein 3,899,924,000 993,626,000 856,179,000 1,333,177,000 180,005,000 1,500,000 76,532 610,842 1,074,674 618,509 106,655 11,347 667 293 783 147 116 12 7,264,411,000 2,498,559 2,018 Artesian Water under Control by Valves, Mungeranie Bore. In addition to these there are other country districts served, reticulating 311 square miles. The total extent of country for which reservoir water was available last year was 4,211 square miles, the reservoirs holding in the aggregate 7,370,000,000galls., and the main pipe-lines reach ing 2,177 miles. The capital cost of the works under the waterworks branch, as distinct from the water conservation branch, which deals with isolated and remote districts, was £4,016,000, and the net revenue in 1906-7 £121,250, returning a net percentage of 2-133 on the cost of the works. The above figures show that provision has been made for a supply that would give more than 18,000galls. of water annually for every man, woman, and child in the State. At intervals on all the main routes to the furthest borders of the State Wells, Tanks, wells have been sunk and provided with troughs, buckets, and whips for and Dams. *ne use °* travellers in obtaining water for drinking and for watering stock ; or catchment dams and tanks serve the same 'purpose" where underground supphes are not to be got by sinking. The various storages and apparatus are A GUlDfc tfOft IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AM) SETTLERS. 225 regularly inspected and maintained in the best order practicable. These various supplies and the construction of artesian tube wells are provided out ot water conservation loans, and to last June £739,269 had been thus expended. The State oi South Australia and its " dependency," the Northern Territory, Artesian are blessed with a large share of the Great Artesian Basin of Australia. The Wells. intake bed of this is the western slope of the coast range from Cape York, the northernmost point in Queensland, into the north-eastern corner of New South Wales. Over this range the rainfall is exceedingly heavy, averaging 51in. at Brisbane, 70in. at Cooktown, 72in. at Mackay, and H9in. at Geraldton. These figures will give an idea of the fall in the territory referred to. On the western slope there is a large sandstone formation so porous that the rain water a,s it runs off the hiUtops is mostly absorbed by the sandstone rocks, Kopperamanna Artesian Bore. and the volume along the surface is considerably decreased by this loss. Were it not for this enormous absorption by the porous band no doubt the Diamentina "River, Cooper's Creek, and other streams which flow southward from Queensland into South Australia would, instead of running intermittently, be strong rivers. Thus yearly a very large supply of water flows through the intake beds and passes underground to replenish the water-bearing area of the Artesian Basin. This annual contribution is so large that, according to an eminent authontv, the com paratively small quantity discharged by the bores, however numerous they may be, will probably make no permanent difference to the subterranean storage. The extent of the Australian Artesian Basin is 590,000 square miles, of which South Australia, has about 120,000. South Australia was one of the first States to move in extensive artesian boring. Every successive experiment was keenly watched, and before long a delimte area was mapped out, covering parts of Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia, in which it was tolerably 226 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. certain that water in great quantity could be obtained almost anywhere by the use of the boring rods. The theory formed — that the excessive rainfall on the Queensland Great Dividing Range soaked down into an immense layer of porous strata between two impervious rock beds, forming a sort of water sandwich — has proved so good a datum that hydrostatic and other calcula tions based upon it give close approximation to the depths required for boring wherever the contours of the country in that region have been mapped out. South Australia has 130 Govern ment wells described as " bores," and an unascertained, but rapidly increasing, number put down by private enterprise. Life in Central Australia.— Manager of an Artesian Boring Party and his Wife. Opening Up of Stock Routes. South Australia has conferred an enormous boon on the whole of the Commonwealth by providing immense subterranean supplies along four great routes used for driving stock from the border districts of Queens land, the Northern Territory, and New South Wales to the markets of the various capitals. Some of these tracks were at one time absolutely impassable for months together, owing to the dearth of water, where now immense herds can travel over them in the driest seasons, and in one or two instances the stream from a single bore is said to flow along the line of route for as far as 30 miles. The accompanying table shows the enormous volumes of liquid liberated and the great thickness of rock that had to be bored through to get at the porous beds. The hottest water in Australian artesian flows is found in South Australia — that at Goyder's Lagoon coming up at a temperature of 208° Fahr., and the flow at Mount Gason being at 204°. There are also a number of flowing wells outside the Great Artesian Basin, including the Tintinarra bore, on the Adelaide to Melbourne Eailway (253ft. deep, giving 4,300galls. daily) ; Boolcunda (687ft. deep, giving 19,200galls.) ; and others in various parts of the State. A GUIDE FOR IMM KUi ANTS, TOUKISTK, AND SHTTLKItK. Principal South Australian Artesian Wklls. 227 Goyder's Lagoon Mount Gason •Patchawarra Mirra Mitta Mulka Mungeranie Kopperamanna . . Ihilkaninmt Ooonanna |Coorie Appa (Coward Lake Crossing . . Yadama Creek . . JMirrabuckina . . Oodnadatta Storm Creek Muloowurtina Hamilton Creek . . Lake Harry Anacoora Petermorra (stock water Stevenson Creek PortPirie Hergott . . , ; Coward Springs . . William Creek . . to Tarcoola) 4,5804,420 3,9953,5293,4333,3703,000 2,220 2,030 1,8581,7031,042 1,635 1,5711,5501,432 1,417 1,360 1,2501,2431,192 852 342308 229 Gallons Daily. Temp, r-'ahr. 600,000480,000 0 208 204 470,000539,000 600,000800,000 1,000,000 500,000 190 187 170 148134 200,000 432,000 115 132 — — 270,000 86,400 314,000 232,000 100,000 700,000 192,0001 80,000 50,000 ' 100,000 1,250,000 20,000 112115 128 115 110135 78 * Small supply. ¦ Very lar^c supply. : Large supply ; brackish. Weir Across Torrens, near Adelaide. [Govt. Photo. Chapter XXVII. THE SHIPPING TRADE. j HE shipping trade has always occupied and must retain an important position in the develop ment of South AustraUa. It cannot be otherwise with a producing country of extended coastline situated thousands of miles from the chief markets of the world. Nothwithstanding a splendid inter-State railway system, the bulk of the produce exchanged with other parts of the island continent is transported by water. South Australia has 2,000 miles of coastline within her own borders, thus making necessary the employment of a large fleet of coasting vessels. The development in the maritime branch of industry within the short period of the State's existence has been no less marvellous than in other directions, and the achievements are as worthy of being recorded, even though they form part of a world-wide movement. Especially is this true of the bringing into existence of a distinctly Australian mercantile marine, in which South Australian enterprise and capital have played an important part. The history of South Australian shipping i? the record of the rise and development of long-distance steam communication by water. It was a year after South Australia was proclaimed that Brunei demonstrated that a regular steam service could be maintained between the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Experts at that time considered that steamers would never be able to make the voyage to India, much less to Australia. The first steamer entered Sydney harbor in 1831. Attempts were made soon afterwards to establish regular steam communication with the newly-founded British dominions beyond the seas, but as the Cape route had to be followed the cost of coal proved prohibitive. For many years South Australia had to depend for intercourse with the old world upon a type of sailing vessel long since obsolete, manned by as intrepid navigators as ever sailed the ocean. Later on came the clipper barque, which made such remarkable passages. Then followed the ocean leviathan, cutting off corners, and making the voyage as safe and regular in point of time — and indeed more so — as the Channel service between England and France was half a century ago. What may be regarded as the first trading vessel to touch these shores was the Duke of York, the pioneer ship chartered by the South Australian Company. This barque, of 197 tons, in command of Captain R. G. Morgan, anchored in Nepean Bay, Kangaroo Island, on July 27th, 1836. She brought 36 immigrants, and was foUowed on August 2nd by the Rapid, with Colonel Light on board, by the Lady Mary Pelham and the John Pelham about the same time, and by the Buffalo, with Governor Hindmarsh, in December of the same year. At that time over 100 days was required to complete the voyage from England to South Aus traUa. Mails are now delivered within the month, and this time could be considerably reduced by the completion of the railway from Adelaide to Port Darwin. The State in its early years of existence was dependent much more than it is to-day upon the maintenance of communica tion with the outside world. Thus the foundation was laid of an oversea and inter-State trade which annually reaches many millions sterling. The commerce of South Australia was first carried on by means of wooden sailing vessels. The early arrivals included such names as the Pioneer Trading Vessels. TWO VIEWS OF PORT PIRIE HARBOR. [C. Mallyon, Photo. Port Pirie is the Largest Outport in South Australia and the Fourth Largest Port in the Commonwealth, (ch. XXVII.) DAVID, 204 Tons HENRY PORCHER, 510 Tons. GOSHAWK, 245 Tons. EDEN, 527 Tons. EMERALD ISLE, 501 Tons. VIEW OF PORT ADELAIDE IN THE EARLY DAYS OF THE STATE. to LO 230 SOUTH AUSTRALIA— THE CENTRAL STATE. Africaine, Orleana, Platina, Hoogly, Lalla Roohh, and Competitor. In those days a vessel of 500 tons was considered a large craft. These ships with bluff bows have passed out of recollection. About the sixties composite vessels having iron frames and wooden planking began to become popular. Among the best known of these were the Glen Osmond, Beltana, Collingrove, and Torrens. In the wake of the composite vessels came those constructed of iron, and native names were perpetuated in the Barossa, Barunga, and Kadina. Clipper built barques sprang into prominence about this date, and surprisingly smart were some of the passages logged by wool-laden " wind-jambers " timed to catch the London sales. Built for freight and yet for speed,, • A beautiful and gallant craft. The last stage in the evolution of sailing vessels was the substitution of steel as the material of construction. Transition from Sail to Steam. Half a century of progress is shown in the following table of entries and clearances at South Australian ports : — Number. 1850 I860 18701880189019001907 2S4 324 445 1,045 1,041 1.010 1,300 86,583 100,681 140,081 590,085 1,075,133 1,780,383 2,925,792 Outwards. Number. Tons. 87,872 108,3501 7,908 610,819 1,115,3091,772,253 2.937,319 The most significant change in the shipping industry was the superseding of sail power by steam. The bulk of South Australia's oversea traffic is now conducted by large steamers ranging up to 10,000 tons, and these almost invariably bring cargo for more than one State; consequently their stay in port is only a fraction of the time which used to be spent by the old style traders which ran direct between Port Adelaide and the United Kingdom. The evolution from sail to steam and the growth of tonnage is illustrated by the following table of arrivals in South Australia : — 18481858 IS68 1878 1-888 18981902 1907 Sail. Steam. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. 46,640 98,802 Al 1 sail ) 136,051 452,738 225,098 748,381 973,479 156,753 1,565,605 1,722,358 155,014 1,789,598 1,944,612 204,408 2,721,384 2,925,792 The first steam communication between England and South Australia was opened in 1852 via the Cape of Good Hope. The service did not last long. The same year, however, a branch line was established by the P. and O. Company between Singapore and Australia. In 1857 the need of an improved connection with the outside world was felt. The Chamber of Commerce, in a petition to Parliament, expressed the opinion that direct steam communication with Great Britain combined with emigration and a postal service would prove highly advantageous. The opening of the Suez Canal now effected a complete revolution in ocean traffic between Europe and Australia. Branch lines became trunk services, and South Australia occupied a more A GUIDE FOR I MMK.ill ANTS, TOURISTS, AND SIOTTLERS 231 232 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. prominent part in the time table of ocean steamers. To-day the steamers of four large mail companies include Port Adelaide in their timetables, and the flags of three nationalities float over the splendid specimens of marine architecture which regularly convey large numbers of passengers to and from these shores. Increased harbor accommodation is now being provided TOT" TinP^P * Swift shuttles of an Empire's loom that weave us main tn main The inter-State shipping business furnishes a picturesque chapter The Inter- State in South Australian history. For many years water carriage was Service. *ne on^y means °f maintaining relations with the other settled portions of the island continent. The bulk of the goods traffic between the States is still carried on by sea, the proportion being over 60 per cent, of the carrying trade of each portion of the mainland. In 1847 no fewer than 115 ships out of 150 arriving in South Australia came from British colonies. The discovery of gold in Victoria in the fifties led to a rush for berths on every available craft which could be pressed into service. P. & O. R.H.S. " Macedonia," Trading to Australia, 10,312 tons, 15,000 horse-power. In 1859 clearances for the adjoining State of Victoria numbered 199 ships, of 30,967 tons, out of a total of 319 vessels, of 73,789 tons, including river traffic. Gradually trade became established, a tourist movement was encouraged by the purchase of modern steamers, and, notwithstanding the construction of railways, the coastal service has steadily expanded. Past and well-appointed steamers trade between South Australia and all the chief Australian ports. The inter-State service includes steamers of 7,000 tons and 400ft. in length, and these come into the inner harbor. South Australia has participated in the benefits arising from the Inner Harbor increase in the size of ships during the past 50 years. Of 102 vessels Accommodation, which arrived in 1858 the largest was 600 tons, and for many years the greater number fell beneath 1,000 tons. Of 315 arrivals in 1868, only one exceeded 1,100 tons, while in 1878 the limit was 2,700 tons. Ten years later no fewer than 40 vtfSacls-Avhioh reported in South Australia were from 3,000 to 3,500 tone register. Now A GU1DK FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 233 the majority of merchantmen calling here are of mammoth proportions. As illustrating this, the following list of the largest steamers to enter Port Adelaide harbor during 1907 stands out prominently : — Name. Delphic Cunc Tropic Everton Grange . . Geelong Ayrshire Palma Dorset Suffolk Essex Tydeus Oswestry Grange Somerset . . Ajax Tons, Gross. Tons, Net . 8,273 5,41.1 1 . 8,250 5,444 8,230 5,4 1 1 8,090 5,212 . 7,954 5, 1 34 7,713 4,928 7,632 4,913 . 7,630 4,905 . 7,573 4,854 . 7,530 4,831 7,441 4,800 . 7.368 4,742 7,150 4.570 7.0411 4.478 Increased tonnage and greater draft of water have necessitated a vigorous policy of harbor improvement. In the early days the mariner had to guard against the danger of having his ship left high and dry on the mudbanks when the tide receded. At the present time steamers of from 5,000 to 8,000 tons comfortably berth at the wharves. Captain John Jones was the first mariner to enter the Port Adelaide inlet. In 1836 Colonel Light, in an official report, referred to what was destined to become the chief port of South Australia in the following terms : — ¦" I have no hesitation in saying that with the entrance buoyed ships drawing 16ft. of water may go in with ease, and when in there is no safer or more commodious harbor in the world for merchant ships." On May 25th, 1839, Governor Gawler turned the first spadeful of earth in connection with the construction of a road leading from the river to the high ground at the rear of the swamps. This marked the establishment of the city of Port Adelaide at its present site, the " old Port " having been laid out higher up the river. McLaren Wharf was formally declared open to the commerce of the world on October 14th, 1840. Improvements since then have been continuous, it being the boast of the authorities that any vessel which can pass through the Suez Canal may with perfect safety proceed to the wharves. During 1907 the longest vessel to enter the harbor was 476ft. in length, and the most deeply laden steamer on departure drew 28ft. 2in. As, however, there was depth of water of 31ft. 6in. at high water on the day of departure of the most deeply laden vessel, shipowners have no occasion to fear that the river cannot be expeditiously and safely navigated at almost any time. The con struction of a first-class harbor at the chief ports of the State has been effected by the outlay of a large sum of money. Total expenditure upon deepening and improving the ports of South Australia to June 30th, 1902, exceeds £1,000,000, of which Port Adelaide has absorbed, June 30th, 1907, £776,000, and Port Pirie, June 30th, 1907, £150,000. The channel leading from the anchorage, where the English mails are loaded and discharged, to the wharves at Port Adelaide, a distance of about nine miles, is deepened to 23ft. low water springs, but ordinary high water springs give from 31ft. to 32ft. of water. The width of the channel is nowhere less than 250ft., and in some places it is as much as 500ft. The work of deepening and widening certain portions 80 as to straighten out curves and make the channel still more easily navieable by steamers of great length is stUl in process. No harbor tolls have beer charged to ships to meet this heavy outlay. Port Adelaide has two and a half miles of wharves, mostly privately owned, representing an outlay roughly of £1,000,000 sterling. Further wharf construction is at present in hand on the Birkenhead side of the river, to give a depth of 28ft. at low water spring tides. A swinging berth 600ft. long, deepened to 23ft. at low water, meets the convenience of large vessels unable to turn in the harbor, and a mooring berth 700ft. long, with a depth of 26ft. at low water, is available for special occasions, and has been utilised by visiting war boats. four patent slips privately owned are capable of taking on vessels of from 300 to 1,500 tons. 234 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. A description has been given on a previous page of the wharfage accOm- An Outer modation at the inner harbor at Port Adelaide, and when quick dispatch Harbor. sucn as th^t, required by mail steamers is not of prime importance the facilities provided there leave little to be desired. But in the case of large ocean steamers calling at the Semaphore anchorage only, to which time is of great conse quence, it has long been felt that the primitive method of landing passengers by transfer to launches, in all sorts of weather and occasionally under conditions of great danger, is greatly behind modern requirements and not creditable to the harbor or the State. After several schemes had been introduced for the solution of the difficulty, none of which gave complete satisfaction, a plan was submitted by the Engineer-in-Chief (Mr. Moncrieff) for the con struction of an outer harbor at Light's Passage, and in 1903 a Bill was passed through Parliament authorising the construction of the same. The work was put in hand at once, but difficulties were experienced in carrying out details, and it was not until January 16th, Mail Steamer "Asturias" at the Wharf, Outer Harbor. 1908, that the harbor was declared open to the shipping of the world. The works are still in an incomplete state (1908), but there is even now ample accommodation for the largest steamer visiting Australia to berth in perfect safety alongside the wharf. The wharf when complete will have a frontage of 1,500ft. The entrance channel will be 400ft. wide, and there will be a swinging berth 3,000ft. in length by 1,126ft. wide. The depth of water in the entrance channel, swinging berth, and alongside wharf will be 33ft. L.W.S. throughout. The railway has been extended from Largs Bay, and a commodious railway station is in course of construction in close proximity to the wharf. Post and telegraph office, refresh ment-rooms, Customs sheds, and all necessary facilities for handling and disposal of cargo are provided. An up-to-date acetylene gas plant has been installed for the efficient lighting of wharf and railway. The Eailway Department have provided a convenient service of trains for the benefit of passengers en route by the mail steamers who may desire to visit Adelaide or go overland to the Eastern States. In view of the increased demand by ocean steamers using the harbor, the wharfs are to be extended at an early date. Ocean Steamers alongside a Wharf in the Harbor at Port Adelaide, the Chief Port of South Australia. Li 236 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. There are over 40 proclaimed ports around the coastline of Principal Outports. South Australia. Port Pirie, situated in Spencer's Gulf, ranks next in importance to Port Adelaide. The channel has been deepened and widened, and the harbor is able to accommodate the largest vessels. Port Pirie is known as the Liverpool of South Australia. The greater portion of the Broken Hill traffic passes through Port Pirie. The silver-smelting works at Port Pirie are said to be the largest of their kind in the world. At Port Germein, situated 10 miles from Port Pirie, is a jetty 5,459ft. loner, frequented bv manv large vessels which load wheat drawn from the upper north and middle divisions of the State. Victor Harbor is the outlet for the River Murray trade, and a splendid breakwater there gives protection to the largest steamers in all weathers. Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer's Gulf, has lost much of its former importance owing to the decline of the pastoral industry in the Far North of South Australia. The fine harbor causes Port Augusta to be specially favorably situated with regard to the great interior country stretching to the Queensland and New South Wales borders. Wallaroo, further south than Port Pirie, assumes importance as a wheat and copper shipping port, and is a regular calling place with many inter-State steamers. There are large copper-smelting works at Wallaroo. Kingston, on the south-eastern coastline, forms the outlet for most of the wool grown in that part which finds its way direct to London. At present an effort is being put forward to secure a harbor for the South-E ist capable of accommodating deep-sea steamers. Edithburgh, on the south-eastern point of Yorke's Peninsula, has come into prominence of recent years owing to the development of a salt industry in the neighborhood. The following table shows the inward and outward tonnage at the chief ports of South Australia during 1907 : — I iwards. Outwards, Total Trade. Vfssels. Tons. Vessels Tons. Port Adelaide £ 12,553,140 851 2,288,334 780 2,208,045 Port Pirie 1,886,570 118 254,342 197 386,732 Wallaroo 036,814 76 126,282 50 88,728 Port Augusta 185,391 21 39,722 10 17,459 Edithburgh 6,412 1 674 35 34,672 Port Germein 120,843 6 10,314 7 11,992 Kingston 167,520 10 25,923 8 7,730 The coasiine of South Australia is remarkably well lighted, The Lighthouse especially considering the comparatively short time that the State Service. nas been established. The earliest guiding beacon set up was exhibited from the masthead of an old vessel moored outside the entrance to the Port Adelaide River. This light was first shown on July 17th, 1840, and it was 12 years later before a permanent mark was erected. Lighthouse construction dates from 1852, when a revolving light on Cape Willoughby, situated on the eastern extremity of Kangaroo Island, was set up. Thenceforward, as trade increased and, unfortunately, in some instances as disastrous wrecks demonstrated the necessity, fine lighthouses were constructed around the shores of the State. To-day from 14 towers warm rays of Ught warn of hidden dangers and guide the way into the desired haven. A lighthouse is in course of erection at Cape De Couedie, on the south-western point of Kangaroo Island. This number is exclusive of smaller local lights, a lightship on Middle Bank. Snencer's Gulf, and the lip-hthouse at Point Charles, Northern Territory. The total salaries of lightkeepers in 1907 was £6,473, and the aggregate expenditure on lighthouses to June 30th, 1906, amounted to over £160,000. A new light, to give additional safety in the navigation of Backstairs Passage, is about to be erected on Cape St. Albans, A GTJlt)fi FOR IMMIGRANTS, I'OURlSTS, AND SETTLERS. 237 T . , , n . Tlle cost of lighting the coast is borne by light dues imposed on Lilgnt JJU6S visiting shipping, the sum raised by this means during 1907 being and Pilotage. £25,782. In 1845 the Government of the day considered the state of m, • nllances justified the abolition of port charges on ships of all nations without exception. This condition of affairs did not last long, however, and to-day, in addition to light dues, visiting shipmasters, unless they have been successful in obtaining an exemption certificate, have to submit to compulsory pilotage. The minimum rate of pilotage at Port Adelaide is £2 10s., and the maximum £12, and a sliding scale is provided on the basis of l|d. per ton. At Port Adelaide the sea pilots are Government servants, the fees being credited to revenue. Wharfage rates on goods landed and shipped over the various wharves are levied by the various owners. With the exception of an enumerated list of goods, the wharfage rate is uniform at Is. 8d. per ton weight, or 2s. per ton measurement, or, if oversea, 2s. 6d. The necessity of making South Australian ports as cheap as possible has been repeatedly urged upon the authori ties, and as a step in this direction a concession was made not long a"go whereby the payment Mall Steamer Entering the Outer Harbor. of light dues was made to cover a definite period. Tonnage dues are levied by wharf-owners upon vessels loading or discharging at the wharves. FacUities for expeditiously handling cargo have greatly increased with the growth of trade. In the fifties the landing of 130 tons of goods at McLaren Wharf, Port Adelaide, in 10 hours was considered a smart piece of work. Nowadays South Australian stevedores, who have won a reputation for dispatch, can handle as much as 800 tons of goods in the same time. A company was formed for the purpose of constructing a graving A Graving Dock, dock at Port Adelaide, and a Bill was passed through Parliament granting the necessary powers ; as, however, the conditions were not carried out, the concession has lapsed. It is the intention of the Government to construct an up-to-date commodious graving dock, the dimensions of which will be, approximately — length., 800ft. ; width, 80ft. ; and depth over sill at low water, L'Stt. Such a dock will provide ample accommodation for the largest ships afloat. 238 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Among the early Acts passed in the colony in the first year The Marine Board, of the reign of the late Queen Victoria was one entitled " An Act for the better preservation of the ports, harbors, havens, road steads, channels, navigable creeks and rivers in Her Majesty's Province of South Australia, and for the better regulation of shipping and entering crews in the same." Originally the marine administration was practically in the hands of Captain Lipson, who was appointed in England as naval officer and harbormaster, and who arrived in the Cygnet in September, 1836. It was subsequently found necessary to subdivide his duties between four departments — Customs, Trinity Board, Local Marine Board, and Harbor Trust. The Trinity Board was constituted in 1851, and Captain Lipson was selected as first master of the body. He held office for only three years. The functions of the board were chiefly to license pilots, fix rates, superintend lighthouses, regulate wharves, and supply ballast to ships. Later on the board was charged with deepening operations. Deepening in the Port Adelaide River was started in 1849, but not Kangaroo Beaeh, near Spring Coyb, Kangaroo Island.- Government Steamer, '-Governor Musgraye," Landing Stores. vigorously prosecuted till. 1854. The Trinity Board, finding itself hampered for want of funds, secured a grant of £100,000, and to administer this the four senior members were appointed to give effect to the Act. Thus the Harbor Trust was brought into existence. A few years later the Commissioners passed under the control of the Parliamentary head of the Public Works Department, and to-day all harbor improvements are under the direction of the Engineer-in- Chief. The local Marine Board, of which the late Captain Douglas was first chairman, and Mr. Arthur Searcy is now President, took over and performed for some years the duties discharged by the harbormaster as shipping master ; but in 1860 all earlier enactments were repealed, and the Marine Board of South Australia constituted to generally administer marine matters. For years the Government nominated members, but in 1881 that system gave way to semi-election, and at present three members of the board are appointed by the Government, representation being conceded to seamen and engineers ; two are elected by shipowners and one each by the Chamber of Commerce and the Marine Underwriters. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 239 Harbor Trust. A ^iU has been introduced to Parliament providing for the full control of all wharves and jetties under a trust. Wages. Average Wages per Month Paid to Seamen by Sailing Ships and Steamers /rom South Australian Ports. Sailing Ships. Steamers. Inter-State. Coasting. Inter-State. Over-Sea. Coasting. Over-Sea. £ £ £ £ £ £ First Mate £7 to £8 £7 10s. to £8 £10 to £12 £14 to £16 £15 to £17 £9 Second Mate . — £6 to £7 £7 £12 to £13 £12 to £14 £8 Third Mate — — £6 £10 £10 to £11 — A.B. . . £6 to £6 10s. £5 £4 to £7 £7 £7 £4 10s. to £5 O.S. . . £2 10s. to £3 £2 10s. £2 to £3 £2 10s. £3 £2 10s. Boatswain £6 10s. £5 10s. £6 £8 £8 £5 Sails — £5 10s. £3 to £5 — — £5 Carpenter — £5 £6 £9 £9 — Steward — £6 £6 10s. £2 to £11 £3 to £12 £4 to £5 Cook . . £7 £6 £6 to £7 £3 to £1 1 £6 to £12 £6 Cook and Steward £7 £6 10s. £7 — — — First Engineer — . — — £18 to £22 £22 to £27 — Second Engineer — — — £14 to £17 £17 to £19 — Third Engineer — — — £14 £14 to £15 — Firemen — — — £9 £9 £4 lo £9 Trimmers — — — £7 £7 £3 to £5 Six Steamers Loading at Wallaroo, an Important Outport, Chapter XXVIII. THE STATE RAILWAYS. jHE honor of building the first State-owned railway in the British Empire belongs to South Australia ! That claim may sound extravagant, but it can be estab hshed beyond doubt. There is another extraordinary fact in favor of this State. In South AustraUa there are approximately five miles of railway to each 1,000 inhabitants. Compared on that basis, South AustraUa leads the world as a builder of railways ! An influential railway journal admits the accuracy of this, and says — " Comparing the railway mileage of the world, South Australia is first with 52-3 miles for each 10,000 people, this result, of course, being due to the comparative sparseness of the population. In the United States there are 26 miles to 10,000 inhabi tants." " Sparseness of population " does not take anything away from so creditable an achievement. The " sparse population" pluckily shouldered the responsibility of running a telegraph line through an unknown continent in order to connect Australia with the world beyond, and boldly adopted a vigorous railway construction poUcy. In a direct line from south to north there is a clear run by railway — unfortunately with a break of gauge — of over 1,000 miles. The total railway mileage open to pubUc traffic is 1,879 miles, and every inch of it is the property of the people. The only privately-owned line in South Australia is a short span of 33 miles built by the Broken Hill Proprietary Company for the carriage of flux from Iron Knob to the seacoast near Port Pirie. Several new lines are in course of construction. Within 10 years of the proclamation of the province a few pushful Progress pioneers wanted to know why George Stephenson should be supplying Of Railway locomotive traction to Englishmen and South Australians be left to Building1. wield the bullock whip, taxing both their strength and their vocabu laries ! An agitation began late in the forties in favor of linking the city with the chief soaport. A company was formed in 1848 for thar purpose, and legislative authority was given two years later for the construction of a railway from Adelaide to Port Adelaide, " with a branch to the North Arm." The latter was never built. The representa tive of the company had at least three objections to the terms offered. Maximum toUs of 2d., l|d., and ld. for first, second, and third classes were claimed. The Government reserved the right to purchase the Une, and a limitation was placed upon the grant of lands. Negotiations were suspended, and the Legislature came forward with a guarantee of 5 per cent, for 10 years on the estimated cost of construction. The company promoters were not satisfied, and the Government stepped in and did the work, thus laying the foundation for the extensive system of State-owned railways in Australia. It was not untU April, 1856, that the seven and a half miles of track connecting Adelaide and Port Adelaide was opened as the result of an expendi ture of £204,000 — or over £27,000 per mile ! The next railway in Australia to be opened was a short Une in Victoria between Melbourne and Sandridge. Platelayer and bridgebuilder then began to work in earnest in South Australia. They turned their faces northward. The first section was 25 miles to Gawler. That line was opened in 1857, and the little province owned at the end of that year 41|- nudes of railway. The next step was to Kapunda, where copper had been discovered. The north-eastern section was available in 1860, and for many year3 Kapunda remained a terminus, and was greatly frequented by Northern settlers when visiting the city or returning to their homes. For 10 years it represented the " outpost " of the railway system, but in 1870 the copperopolis of South Australia — the Burra (then regarded as being in the Far North) — was connected. The opening up of the Northern Areas a few years later took tlie " iron horse " to Crystal Brook and Port Pirie. The northward movement steadily continued until Port Augusta, 260 miles from Adelaide, was connected. The two (ch. xxviii.) TRAIN CROSSING VIADUCT MOUNT LOFTY RANGES NEAR ADELAIDE. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 241 gTeat engineering feats in connection with railway-building in South Australia were the con struction of the Great Northern system, which has its terminus at Oodnadatta, and the line through the Mount Lofty Ranges, across the River Murray, connecting with the inter-State system which now extends to Longreaeh in Queensland — 3,301 miles from Oodnadatta without a gap ! The mountain ranges between Quorn and Port Augusta — in which is situated the bold and strikingly grand Pichi Richi Pass — tested the skill of the engineers. Greater difficulties South Australian System, which comprises 1,900 Miles of Lines. confronted them in finding a passage through the Mount Lofty Ranges, but they emerged from the ordeal with infinite credit to themselves ; and few railways in the world better demonstrate the slrill of engineer and workmen than the line which winds its way to high altitudes between Adelaide and Mount Lofty. Nine tunnels aggregating a total length of nearly 2,000 yards) and a wrought-iron skeleton-looking viaduct 620ft. long and 108ft. 6in. high were necessary m the first 30 mUes To cross the " Nile of Australia " a bridge consisting of five 120ft mam spars- each containing 140 tons of ironwork— and 23 60ft. spans across a swamp had to be built. 242 SOUTH AUSTRALIA —THE CENTRAL STATE. The above map, published by the Sydney Morning Herald, shows the main existing Unes of railways in Australia (Tasmania excluded) and suggested routes for linking up the States. The Transcontinental aspect of the Australian railway systems is emphasised by the alterna tive dotted lines between Oodnadatta and Pine Creek, and Mildura, Bourke, and Pine Creek ; also the Trans- AustraUan line joining east and west by the linking of Kalgoorlie and Port Augusta. A preliminary survey of alternative routes between these two points is being made. The impressive lesson conveyed by the map is that, while Australians have built over 14,000 miles of railways at a cost of £137,196,000, the dotted Unes indicate the aspirations of Australians to connect outlying districts. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 243 The RaUway Department has a fine record, very few accidents Immunity from having occurred during half a century of working. In his annual Accidents. reports the Railways Commissioner has been able to write — " I record with pleasure the fact that no passenger has sustained an injury for which the department could be held responsible, and no better tribute to the general carefulness and attention to duty of the staff can be necessary." Actuated by the very best intention — that of lessening the cost Break Of Gauge, of construction — a dominant section of legislators in the seventies introduced what is known as the narrow gauge, viz., 3ft. 6in., as against the 5ft. 3in. gauge, which was first estabhshed. There are three narrow systems in the State separated from one another by the broad gauge. This increases the cost of management. There are breaks from the broad to the narrow width at Hamley Bridge and Terowie, north of Adelaide, and at Wolseley, in the south, and in the event of a glut of traffic in the Far Northern, the Western, or the South-Eastern divisions it is not an easy matter to quickly concentrate hauHng power or increase the carrying capacity at a given point. The 5ft. 3in. prevails between Adelaide and Melbourne, and thence as far as Albury, the border of Victoria and New South Wales. In the latter State there is one gauge — the EngUsh, 4ft. 8Jin. The question of uniformity is one that has frequently been discussed, and as often put aside, because of the divergence of opinion concerning the best width to adopt and the enormous outlay involved in bringing about one common system. An interesting feature in connection with the South Australian rail- Inter- State ways was the enterprise of this State in constructing a line to the border Connections. °^ New South Wales to tap the rich Barrier silver fields. The whole of the trade of Broken Hill passes over the South Australian railways. The other inter-State connection is with Victoria, and through that State with New South Wales and Queensland. Splendidly equipped workshops exist at various centres, but the main Railway shops are at Islington, about three miles north of the city. From this Workshops. establishment locomotives, carriages, and wagon stock are supplied. Some of the most powerful engines in Australia have been designed and manufactured at Islington. The Way and Works Shops, Glanville, under the control of the Engineer-in-Chief, in addition to railway work, are capable of turning out cast-iron piping of various sizes for the reticulation of water. Two projects are before the pubUc at the present time for bridging Trans- Australian the continent with railways northwards to connect with the Pine Lines Creek railway, and westward from Port Augusta to join the Western Australian line at the goldfields. The construction of the latter is a matter for the Federal Government, subject to the approval of the South Aus tralian ParUament, to aUow the building of a railway through its territory. The cost is esti mated in round figures at £5,000,000, and its advocates assert that the work would pay after a few years'. It is claimed that the connecting by railway of Perth in the west with Brisbane in the east via Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney would be of immense benefit in the expedition of mails, and, if the occasion should arise, the transport of troops. Surveyors are now engaged mapping the route and making estimates of cost. For some time past it has been proposed to extend the Great Northern system of railways. The terminus of that is at Oodnadatta, 688 miles from Adelaide, and between that point and Pine Creek in the Northern Territory there is a gap of 1,063 miles, It is claimed that it will be practicable for passengers and mails to reach Port Darwin by the Siberian railway route in 14 days from London, or in 17 days to Adelaide. A tentative agreement to transfer the Northern Territory to the Commonwealth of AustraUa may ultimately affect the route of the Transcontinental railway. 244 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. .'A WATERFALL MOUNT LOFTY RANGE. GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AXli SETTLERS. 245 Places Worth Visiting Served by the South Australian Railways. THE HILLS DISTRICT, THE NATIONAL PARK, AND THE SOUTH COAST WATERING PLACES. Tho line over the Mount Lofty Ranges passes through beautiful scenery. Where nature undisturbed has ceased to hold sway, art and industry have steppedjn, and all along the lino, picturesquely dotted about on L>lls.de andm valley and surrounded by fruit and flower gardens, the majority of which are models of horti- cultural and floneultural skill and artistic arrangement, are to be found pretty residences, charming villas, A pleasant day's outing in the midst of lovely surroundings may be enjoyed at any point and neat cottages. along the line. At Belair, 40 minutes' journey from Adelaide, is the National Park, a reserve for recreative purposes, some 2,000 acres in extent. Its exceptional natural advantages have been added to by judicious improvements, under the direction of a board of management. Miniature lakes have been formed, drives and walks laid out bowers, shelter-houses, &c, &c, erected, so that now visitors find here everything necessarv for their pleasure and comfort. The Rugged Coastline of the South-Eastern portion of South Australia is a Popular Resort of Tourists and Holiday-makers. After crossing the Ranges the line extends through the districts of Strathalbyn, Black Swamp, Currency Creek, and Finniss to the charming South Coast watering places of Goolwa, Middleton, Port Elliot, and Victor Harbor. The first-named is the nearest station to the Murray Mouth and the Coorong (a favorite resort of sportsmen), and especially interesting as the place at which Captain Sturt, the earliest explorer, after coming down the rivers, reached the sea. At Middleton there is a fine stretch of shell beach. Port Elliot stands second to none in natural attractions for visitors. The never-ceasing roll of the huge breakers of the Southern Ocean, the lovely spray dashing over the fine old granite boulders, and the charming little bays, providing secluded nooks for picnic parties, bears a striking resemblance to New Zealand or New South Wales coast scenery. Victor Harbor is situated a little further south on the north-west coast of Encounter Bay — the bay of islands, composed of granite boulders — and is a most picturesque place for a summer holiday. Granite Island, the nearest to the mainland, is connected with the town by a long and convenient pier, which forms a delightful promenade. The island itself has many pleasant walks and boulder-shaded nooks, where a summer day may beenjoyably passed. A tram-car runs to the island during the summer months. For geologists this is perhaps tlie most attractive resort on the continent, signs of glacial action being apparent on the rocks, while the country- is strewn with ice-carried boulders. 246 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. At each place there are a number of commodious hotels, well-kept and replete with every comfort for visitors, also numbers of boarding-houses, where rooms or board and lodging can be obtained at prices to suit the pockets of all classes. Boating and yachting may be indulged in either off the coast, on the River Murray at Goolwa, or on the Hindmarsh River, near Victor Harbor. Safe, fast-sailing, little centre-board cutters, manned by capable men who spend their working hours sailing for profit (fishing) and their spare time scullmg for pleasure, can be hired for a few hours or a week if required. Excursion steamers take tourists to the mouth of the great river and up stream to various points of interest. Good fishing is obtainable all round the coast, and in the Murray and Hindmarsh ; schnapper, sweep, whiting, mullet, &c, in the sea, and cod, butter-fish, &c, in the river, being often very abundant. The breakers from the Southern Ocean dashing against the granite rocks are an endless attraction. Laurie's Grotto, Victoria Cave, Naracoorte. [TV. A. Francis, Photo. THE LAKES, CAVES, AND ROCK-BOUND COASTS OF THE SOUTH-EAST. Mount Gambier and Environs. — One of the principal pleasure spots in the State is Mount Gambier, with its wonderful crater lakes, many curious caves, and English scenery. The Blue Lake, the most important of the group, is nearly a mile across from east to west. It is surrounded by rocky banks, varying from 200ft. to 30ft. in height, and the water can only be approached at two points by prepared paths. The lake varies in depth from 180ft. to 330ft. The many beauties of the surrounding scenery, the adjoining lakes and caves, and the mountain and view therefrom, and the indigenous flora cannot be here described ; but an extended visit to this district will give holiday-seekers considerable enjoyment. The Glenelg River. — This is one of the most beautiful streams in the southern portion of Australia. Nelson, or " The Punt," about two miles from the mouth of the river, is 24 miles from Mount Gambier, and is reached by a good road the whole length. The banks of the river are in some places rugged and steep, and in others clothed to the water's edge in magnificent specimens of trees, ferns, shrubs, and wild flowers, particularly brilliant in spring and summer. The river is full of perch, bream, salmon, and trout, and duck and other wild fowl abound in large quantities. Beachport. — This excellent watering-place is reached by rail from Mount Gambier, a distance of 51 miles. The sea being broken by the bars at the entrance to the bay, the water is always comparatively smooth, and boating can be indulged in at all times. There is plenty of fishing and also shooting on lakes George and Frome, and smaller sheets of water adjacent. The Barr Smith steam lifeboat, City of Adelaide, is stationed at Beach- port ; and Penguin Island, with its lighthouse, is easily reached by water. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS. AND SETTLERS. 247 Jfofc.-This is another favorite watering-place in the South-East, and is very prettily situated on the southern side of Guichen Bay. Its temperature in summer is said to be the coolest in the StaV It is reached !Thot Montis7 Kmg8t0n' mld thenC6 "y C°aCh ; and Vi8it0rs from the metr°P0l- are numerous duS rocW tuSrorio^iSwfering"pla0e i8 18 mile8 B0Uth of Kount Gambier- The seac°ast is wild and 7(L ^Northumber 1 I? T *"' maUy f ° Uded SP0t8 favored by Piunlc Parties- There is a lighthouse at Cape Northumberland, two miles away, and the port contains public sea baths, under good management. Naracoorte CW-The Rev Julian Woods, F.G.S., &c, &c, after his visit to the caves, said-" In point InomenatThe iffi?'' ^ " a scientiflo ™^, they do not- yield in importance to such woXu few? wltt 7 Tg °aVeS>'. th^ca7es ln the P«ak of Derbyshire, the Guarcharo Caves, and those M ™S Hri™ rl ^ Tas'uaula- Alighting from the train at Naracoorte, the caves are reached after an e.ght-mile drive. No description can convey an adequate idea of their vastness and the natural wonders to 4 fl ' - ¦ f.'.'.v'v' 7'-" .A. •- 777. ; 1H Opening to Third Chamber, Old Cave, Naracoorte. [ TV, A. Francis, Photo be found there, but all travellers should visit these subterranean phenomena. A specially interesting cave, which was discovered a few years ago, has recently been opened to the public. It is near the others, and is in a perfect state of preservation, the careful oversight of the Woods and Forests Department, under whose control the caves are placed, preventing the mutilation of the beautiful stalactites with which it is studded. Applications must be made to the resident forester for permission to visit this cave, a charge of Is. being col lected from each visitor. The Government has recently spent some hundreds of pounds in improving the facilities for visiting the caves. As they become better known they will rightly take their place as one of the show sights of the Australian States. THE WORLD-FAMED BARRIER MINING FIELDS, AND SOME PLACES OF INTEREST NORTH OF ADELAIDE. Rail communication between the Barrier Fields, New South Wales, the seaboard, and Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane, is given via the Silverton Tramway (33 miles) and the S.A. Railways (Adelaide 299 miles, and Port Pirie 219 miles). There is a daily express (14 hours) in each direction between Adelaide and Broken Hill ; sleeping cars are attached for the night journey — berth fee, 7s. 6d. ; and adequate refreshment-room accom modation is to be found at convenient points. 248 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Port Augusta. — This township is within a day's journey of Adelaide, and that portion of the country between Quorn and Port Augusta, through Pichi Richi Pass, in the Flinders Range, with Mount Brown (3,200ft. high) frequently in view, is extremely picturesque. Port Augusta is at the head of Spencer's Gulf, one of the finest waterways in Australia. The town is healthily situated, and contains many fine buildings. First-class hotel accommodation is provided, and the port offers a most enjoyable holiday to Ihose fond of yachting and fishing. Gawler and Angaston. — Visitors should certainly see this charming district the home of the vine. Gawler, often termed the " Colonial Athens," is 25 miles from Adelaide, and five trains a day run to it. It is an exceedingly pretty town, situated on the banks of the South Para River, and two large iron foundries give the town a busy appearance. Continuing tb» journey north-east through Rowland's Flat, Tanunda, and on to Angaston and Schlunke's Creek, a most fertile tract of country is passed through, teeming with vineyards. These towns will shortly be connected by railway. At present passengers alight from the train at Freeling or Gawler. Another well-known place is the Roseworthy Agricultural College, about seven miles from Gawler ; in fact, the whole of this district is interesting, the scenery beautiful, and the roads good. Clare. — Alighting at Saddleworth, Clare is reached by a 22-mile drive over an excellent road and through delightful scenery. After passing Auburn the road thence to Clare follows the windings of the River Wakefield. Commencing 13i miles to the westward of the Laura Railway Station, tourists may drive or cycle through Wirrabara Plantation and Forest and the Telowie Gorge, en route to Port Germein, amidst scenery both varied and picturesque. The Telowie Gorge is very fine. A Yiew of Hill River Estate, near Clare. [A. Vaughan, Photo. THE GATEWAY OF THE INTERIOR. [Chas. p. Scott, Photo. (ch. xxix.) The R'Ver Murray and its Trlbutarie8 are Navigable for a Distance of 3,000 Miles. South Australia Opened the Murray to Navigation in 1833. Chapter XXIX. FINANCE AND TRADE. SHE pioneers of South Australia were more bent upon subduing the wilderness and establishing homes for themselves and their children than they were in inaugurating any elaborate system of government. Still, it soon became necessary to institute some form of public finance, and as early as 1837 South Australia's " general expendi ture " amounted to £5,283. It was 12 months later before the province enjoyed a public revenue, and for years the amounts on this side of the account fell below the outgoings. It is not the purpose here, however, to write a financial history of South Australia. The record is one of a struggle for popular rights, with its sidelights of comedy and tragedy. More than once it seemed as if the infant settlement would come to grief on some financial rock, but the determination and common sense of the early settlers prevailed. South Australia enjoys to-day what some older countries lack — financial autonomy. The power of the purse is in the hands of a representative Chamber elected on adult suffrage ; there can be no taxation without representation. An expenditure of close on £3,000,000 sterling per annum Public Expenditure, may seem at first sight a lavish outlay for a community of about 400,000 souls, but it must be remembered that large sums of money are required by the Government for the purpose of carrying on public services which elsewhere are performed by private enterprise. No better idea of the extent to which this is true can be gained than by analysing the main items of expenditure during the financial year which ended on June 30th, 1907. The figures are as follows : — Head oi Expenditure. Amount. £ Interest on public debt. . . 993,388 Reduction and redemption of public debt . 87,553 Railways . 863,773 Education (including grants to educational bodies) . . . 184,578 Public works (chiefly maintenance) and main roads . 142,718 Police . 76,433 Hospitals, asylums, destitute, and State children . . . 92,775 Gaols, law courts, &c. . 33,898 Grants-in-aid to local government . 33,238 Legislature . 31,675 Marine Board . 26,286 Printing . 24,602 Produce Export Department . 15,827 Department of Agriculture . 12,834 he following agures suggest the quarter from which South Australia Public Revenue, derives tne mam portion of her revenue. An income corresponding to an expenditure of £3,000,000 would be impossible if it had to be raised solely by taxation. The public undertakings, however, provide the Treasurer with the 250 south Australia — the central state. greater part of his cash. In the following is shown the main sources of revenue during the financial year to June 30th, 1907, with the percentage of each to the total : — Head of Revenue. Total. £ 1,552,919 Per Cent Railways 49 Taxation (exclusive of Customs) 408,156 13 Rents of land, &c. 228,805 7 Waterworks 123,568 4 Total . . £2,313,448 Returned by Commonwealth 627,102 19 All other revenue 254,735 8 Grand total . . £3,195,285 100 The absence of any reference to posts and telegraphs and defence in the foregoing is ex plained by the fact that these departments have been taken over by the Commonwealth. Posts and telegraphs yielded an income in 1906-7 of £327,268, and cost £252,539 for ordinary outlay and £25,695 for new works. Defences accounted for an expenditure of £87,776, and returned a revenue of £255. From 1838 to 1907 the total general revenue of the State amounted Federal and to £91,035,449, and the general expenditure to £92,394,006. Federa- State Finance. ^on ^as altered the basis of State finance, inasmuch as the taking over by the Commonwealth authorities of the Customs house upon the establishment of inter-State free-trade deprived the State of its second largest revenue -ear ping department. In 1899 — before Federation — the total revenue amounted to £2,665,477, of which no less than £907,504 was derived from taxation, the Customs having been responsible for £597,846. In 1907 out of a total of £3,195,285 taxation was responsible for only £408,155. The difference was rather more apparent than real, since it is provided in the Federal compact that up to 1910 three-fourths of the receipts through the Customs shall be handed back to the States. During the financial year to June 30th, 1907, the amount so returned by the Com monwealth Treasurer was £627,102, and since the total Customs duties actually collected in South Australia, including a small amount for the Northern Territory, during that period was £781,926, it will be seen that the people of South Australia were taxed to a greater extent than appears by the State accounts. It must be remembered, therefore, that the proportion of revenue received by means of taxation, as indicated earlier, refers only to State and does not include Commonwealth taxation. The form of taxation adopted by the State is — Income tax (proceeds in 1906-7, £163,930), land tax (£89,990), stamp duties (£74,636), probate and suc cession duties (£60,204), licences (£19,396). It is not possible to understand South Australian public finance Public Debt, without reference to the system of borrowing, which was inaugurated in 1854. At latest date the public debt of the State stands at £30,473,968, inclusive of borrowings amounting to £3,867,470 on account of the Northern Territory, for which the southern part of the Central State is responsible. To the European critic Australian obligations appear to be abnormally large. There is an important dis tinction, however, to be drawn between the national debts of European countries and those of Australia. In the one case loans have disappeared in smoke, having been employed chiefly for war purposes. In these lands Government borrowings have been undertaken for the con struction of railways, harbors, waterworks, telegraphs, and in other revenue-earning works. If ofiered for sale theBe assets would bring considerably more than the amount borrowed for their construction. In the light of these facts there is nothing appalling in an indebtedness per head of £79 9s. 7d., or in an interest charge of £2 12s. 4d. per capita chargeable to South A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 251 Australia proper, and of £2 17s. 8d. including Northern Territory interest. This is how the money which has been borrowed for South Australian undertakings has been invested, together with the return per centum from the revenue-earning departments : Loans Raised t'or- Undertaking. RailwaysTelegraphs and post offices . . WaterworksSewers Jetties and lighthouses Improvements on pastoral leases Land repurchased for homestead blocks Vermin-proof fencing Roads and bridges Defences Drainage, &c. Harbor improvements School buildings Other works and buildings Aid to revenue Redemption of public securities Municipal Tramways Trust . . Northern Territory , . Total borrowed Less redeemed . . Reissued and cancelled . Public debt on July 1st, 1 907 13,752,445 1,011,567 5,004,986 096,422 211,593 1,066,500 726,469319,081 £2,745,725 5,187,550 22,789,663 1,497,885 316,919324,492 1,711,741 552,369 425,396 1.699,925 4,926,533 294,850 34,539,773 3,807,470 38,407,243 7,933,275 ,£30,473,968 Capital Cost, including Maintenance Charged to Revenue. £ 13,699,029 4,748,633 663,941 ' 427,384 973,992836,029300,590 21,649,598 Earnings tor Year 1906-7. £ 1,575,368 123,171 41,043 33,838 9,795 31,044 8,383 Cost of Maintenance; Management. etc., tor Year 1906-7. 1,822,642 £ 868,005 37,880 12,49414,782 98651(1905 Per Centage of Net Profit over WorkingExpenses on Capital Cost. 935,562 5.16 1.79 4.30 3.99 1.11 3.6 2.81 4.09 ( These undertakings not being directly repro- i ductive, and in some cases in progress, the i net profit cannot be given. Another way of regarding the matter is to see what burden the public debt of the State actually throws upon taxation, for if some ol the undertakings upon which borrowed money has been expended are revenue-earning it is clear that they are not responsible for taxation. Money has to be raised in this way to assist in meeting interest, redemption, and cost of general administration. The position, as it appeared m the financial year to June 30th, 1907, was that the interest payment on account of the South Australian debt proper was £993,388, or including the Northern Territory, £1,105,823. The earnings of the eight under takings on which borrowed money had been spent, and which showed a profit over working expenses, were £1,822,642. The cost of maintenance and management of these eight under takings came to £935,562, so that there was a surplus of £987,080, which was almost sufficient to meet the interest charge on the total debt. The rest of the undertakings, on which close on £12,000,000 of borrowed money has been expended, are not directly revenue-producing, so that the interest must be made up some other way. It will be seen from this that there is most approved security for the payment of interest on South Australian debt, as well as for the invest ment of the money. The Customs receipts per head of the population amounted in 1906-7 to £2 0s. 9d., the average of land tax receipts per taxpayer were £1 10s., and of income tax £8 14s. ld. Total taxation (including Customs) per head of population was £3 Is. 9d. It is always difficult to arrive at the taxable capacity of any people, but it will not be advanced 252 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. that the limit in South Australia has been reached when, according to Coghlan, the value of private property per head is £234, and has more probably increased than decreased since the computation was made. Taxation per head of the population in other States in 1905-6 was— New South "Wales, £3 Os. 7d. ; Victoria, £2 14s. 7d. ; Queensland, £3 3s. 6d. ; Western Aus tralia, £5 Is. 4d. ; Tasmania, £3 3s. 7d. ; so that South Australia shows well by comparison. Reference to South Australia's policy of public borrowing — the Repaying Loans. " broad and comprehensive " policy of erstwhile legislators — would not be complete without a word as to the provision which exists for repaying loans as they fall due. When South Australia first entered the money market as a borrower the form of security adopted was 6 per cent, bonds, the money having been required for the city and Port Adelaide railway. This rate of interest continued to rule till 1871, when it became possible to borrow at 5 per cent., and the tendency since has been to enjoy the advan tage of lower interest charges. Up to 1866-7 £1,135,000 had been borrowed, and the whole of this has been redeemed out of revenue. Other loans since contracted for have been either in whole or in part (mostly the latter) redeemed out of revenue, the total amount which has been thus dealt with to date having been £2,745,725. Some other loans as they have become due have been reissued as consolidated stock and Treasury bills, the total having amounted to £5,187,550. Still, South Australia is only now having to seriously face the repayment of debt. In 1907 there fell due in London £1,000,000 of 4 per cent, bonds, and the Treasurer was in the happy position of being able to discharge £818,600 in cash, while the balance was, at the option of the holders, reinvested in 3J per cent, inscribed stock. In January, 1908, a further £500,000 became due in London, and again the State met its obligation, and paid nearly the whole in cash, allowing those who desired to do so to take up South Australian stock. The splendid seasons which are being experienced are rendering the work of redemption comparatively easy, but those who in the past have been unkind enough to suggest that Australia would repudiate when it suited her should know by now that such an idea is altogether foreign and repugnant to the sslf-governing people of these parts. In 1908-9 the most important redemption will take place — £5,098,750, most of which was expended on railways, .between 1907-8 and 1916-17 South Australia will have to meet £12,793,150, of which £8,735,300 is represented by bonds and £4,057,850 by Treasury bills. It is unlikely that the whole obligation will be discharged. In 1877 the Imperial Government passed the Colonial Stock Act, which provided for the inscription and transfer of stock raised in the United Kingdom. Certain steps were necessary to be taken before advantage of this Act could be enjoyed, but in 1882 South Australia passed the Inscribed Stock Act. In 1896 a sinking fund was established, and £ per cent, of the principal of the public debt has since then annually been set aside out of revenue. To date the sum of £662,063 has been " earmarked " in this way. Then it is provided that all surpluses on the year's finances shall be similarly devoted, and certain receipts have been set aside for the same purpose. The aggregate made available from all sources for the redemption of debt since that date is £1 230,088. A clear understanding of the public finance of South Australia A Trading People, furnishes the key to an insight into the position of the State as a trader. Imports were first made in 1838, and exports went out the same year. To date total trade has amounted to over £550,000,000 — truly a prodigious total. In the early years exports of domestic produce were naturally comparatively small, and the requirements of the settlers had to be drawn to a considerable extent from other parts. With the increasing productiveness of the virgin lands, however, shipments attained greater dimensions, and now for many years the balance has been on the side of exports. To arrive at an understanding of South Australia's trading account it must be remembered that she is a debtor country. Imports have to be paid for by exports, but in addition interest on public and private indebtedness has to be remitted to London, and freight on inward and out ward goods has to be paid oversea. In years when public borrowing was proceeding merrily the effect was shown in swollen imports, the proceeds of loans having been sent out in the shape of material and goods. Now that the rate of borrowing has slackened, and almost the only A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 253 appeals that arc being made to the London money market are for redemption purposes, imports represent more nearly ordinary trade purchases abroad. In the circumstances it will be seen that there will be an excess of exports. In the following is shown the trade position over 10 years ; — Decennial Return showing Total Import and Export Trade, and Balance of Trade, &d„ or South Australia. Year. 1896.1897.1898.1899.1900.1901 . 1902. 1903.1904.1905. 1906. Total Import and Export Trade. Total Imports. Imports retained for Home Consumption £ £ £ 14,754,824 7,160,770 2,836,328 14,054,800 7,120,385 2,682,110 12,980,579 6,184,805 1,876,040 15,272,754 6,884,358 2,441,007 16,063,709 8,034,552 3,615,912 15,387,477 7,371,588 3,572,300 13,772,296 6,073,782 3,144,215 14,919,072 6,618,627 3,475,701 16,115,716 7,450,716 4,515,821 17,930,276 8,439,609 4,980,561 21,635,435 9,702,264 5,208,934 imports Re -exported Total Exports. Exports Produce of the state. Balance S.A. Produce Exported jver lrnportb Consumed. Balance Imports Con sumed over S.A. Produce Exported. £ £ £ £ £ 1,324,442 7,594,054 3,269,612 433,284 — 4,444,275 6,928,415 2,484,140 — 197,970 4,308,765 6,795,774 2,487,009 610,969 — 4,443,351 8,388,396 3,915,045 1,504,038 — 4,418,640 8,029,157 3,610,517 — 5,395 3,799,288 8,015,889 4,216,601 644,301 — 2,929,507 7,698,514 4,768,947 1,624,732 — 3,142,926 8,300,445 5,157,519 1,681,818 — 2,934,895 8,665,000 f5,730,105 1,214,434 — 3,459,048 9,490,667 T6,031,019 1,051,058 — 4,493,330 11,933,171 f7,439,841 2,230,907 — Note. — Northern Territory included from 1904. t Estimated as regards proportion of inter-State transfers. Including the movement of goods inter-State, South Aus- Who South Australia tralia's total trade, which reached high-water mark in 1907, Trades "With.. was ecjual to £67 8s. 4d. per inhabitant. Even if it be allowed that large quantities of ore from Broken Hill — which geographically is in New South Wales, but commercially belongs to South Australia — merely pass through the State on the way to foreign markets, the result is not altered to any material extent. Including the population of Broken Hill in that of South Australia, the value of total trade still represented over £60 per inhabitant. Even as transit trade, and it is by no means all such, South Australia's inter-State dealings are of great importance. The record for 1907 was as follows : — Commonwealth United Kingdom Foreign countries British possessions Total Deducting trade done with other parts of the Commonwealth, South Australia's imports from oversea were valued last year at £12 10s. 9d. per inhabitant, and exports at £20 15s. per head. Again, excluding transit goods, and taking into consideration only exports of South Australian Imports from — Exports to— £ £ 7,304,593 5,798,852 3,060,416 3,762,823 1,192,113 2,838,101 562,930 1,309,618 £12,120.052 £13,769,399 254 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. produce oversea — valued in 1907 at £5,424,213 — the value per inhabitant was £14 2s. 6d. As a trader, therefore, South Australia has something of which to be proud. South Australian goods enter nearly every civilised country, but the bulk of the trade is done with the United Kingdom, as the following, setting out the main destinations of domestic produce in 1907, will make clear : — To United Kingdom, £3,498,485 ; foreign countries, £1,157,083 ; British posses sions, £768,645. London acts as a distributor of this State's produce, especially wool, to quite an important extent, but almost every year sees some progress in the direction of connect ing the State direct with the chief markets of the world. South Australia's record as a trader over 70 years is as follows : — Imports, £275,488,058 ; exports, £298,107,859 ; staple exports, £193,681,563 ; total trade, £573,595,917 ; total in 1838, £165,024 ; total in 1907, £25,889,451 ; annual average value, £8,194,227. Imports and Exports Classified. As showing the class of goods which South Australia is importing the following table of imports (not distinguishing those retained for home consumption) is useful : — 1905. 1906. 1907. £ £ £ Apparel and all soft goods 959,985 1,093,625 1,401,483 Ale and beer 26,408 37,946 41,998 Boots and shoes 33,884 36,749 44,217 Clocks and watches 28,912 32,797 39,338 Cocoa and chocolate 18,967 27,136 30,311 Coffee and chicory 7,760 9,054 10,159 Confectionery 9,461 10,644 14,008 Cordage and twines 45,570 55,136 66,047 Drugs and chemicals 46,251 75,686 78,659 Earthen and china ware 23,099 25,919 36,881 Fish 34,815 38,021 38,736 Furniture 21,780 23,855 31,815 Glassware 26,897 32,025 39,222 Hats and caps 40,905 51,937 53,036 Indiarubber goods 22,440 32,825 38,194 Iron and steel 214,607 297,239 375,689 Jewellery 54,517 80,101 83,501 Jute goods 166,703 272,133 253,358 Kerosine 30,517 58,273 53,895 Leather, &c. 35,658 45,121 37,574 Machinery — Agricultural 51,424 46,181 109,499 Other 164,605 261,631 324,316 Manures 145,486 127,100 116,107 Metals — Manufactures of 245,442 306,685 438,010 Milk, preserved 12,385 12,509 11,646 Paper 80,979 89,563 104,114 Paints, &c. 21,122 33,015 31,917 Rice 17,569 17,228 23,216 Spirits — Brandy 11,554 11,143 13,783 Gin . . 6,321 8,043 9,379 Whisky . . .... 43,248 48,135 50,341 Tea 87,030 100,191 130,516 Tinplates 15,652 22,059 24,710 Tools of trade 29,554 43,515 57,465 Tobacco, manufactured 9,749 8,664 9,457 Tobacco, unmanufactured 10,210 7,908 10,028 Cigars 8,578 9,751 9,882 Cigarettes 2,359 2,516 2,510 Timber (rough) 104,495 113,909 188,680 Timber (dressed) 23,153 33,933 52,980 Vehicles 56,823 75,570 76,470 a d — i a H *JO g3—I Qsa >2!H 1-3Oa H H Weir and Torrens Lake, showing Parliament House and Mount Lofty Range in the Distance. [T. McGann, Photo. towOI 256 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The export of South Australian produce and manufactures during 1906 and 1907 is shown in the following : — Staple Exports. (No.) 1906 1907. Quantity. Value Quantity. Value. Horses 355 £ 7,054 623 £ 14,844 Baik . . (tons) 1,786 16,141 1,043 9,637 Butter (lbs.) 1,806,134 89,279 1,623,944 79,855 Copper ingots . . (tons) 2,829 236,526 3,739 335,579 Copper in matte . . (tons) 1,135 88,314 233 22,363 Eggs (doz.) 20,653 689 59,348 1,982 Fodder . . (tons) 832 2,737 96 323 Fruits, dried (lbs.) 15,827 350 713,578 10,082 Fruits, preserved — 1,658 — 1,034 Apples . . (centals) 35,067 26,883 10,361 9,728 Grain and pulse — Beans and peas . . (centals) 864 252 435 105 Oats . . (centals) 660 196 4,731 1,476 Wheat (bush.) 12,037,744 1,968,531 12,613,165 2,152,842 Flour . . (tons) 57,961 421,271 49,427 403,920 Bran and pollard . . (centals) 2,860 686 674 161 Oatmeal, &c. (lbs.) 390,100 1,357 4,000 16 Gum .. (cwts.) 18,060 3,261 17,202 4,750 Hair (lbs.) 36,682 2,327 24,633 2,898 Hay and chaff . . (t3ns) 85 235 121 382 Honey (lbs.) 12,595 146 53,720 577 Jams and jellies (lbs.) 582 10 2,760 34 Meats, preserved — Frozen mutton and lam b .. .. (lbs.) 8,614,360 132,996 9,898,118 170,028 Babbits and hares (P'S.) 242,006 10,413 185,982 8,273 Tinned meats (lbs.) 996,504 13,309 21,600 360 Salt . . . . (tons) 7,218 10,693 3,550 5,180 Hides . . (No.) 3,311 2,709 4,591 4,003 Rabbit skins . (lbs.) 1,014,280 ! 46,755 842,747 35,006 Sheepskins (No.) 1,117,591 1 336,072 1,392,995 385,204 Other skins . — : 7,107 — 5,741 Soap . . ;; y. abs.') 571,853 3,781 391,800 2,856 Brandy (galls.) 2,973 754 2,764 709 Wine . . (galls.) 230,339 23,985 353,381 31,989 Tallow . . (cwts.) 18,952 25,027 30,663 45,657 Beeswax (lbs.) 4,439 280 3,548 211 Wool, greasy . (lbs.) 38,741,059 ! 1,328,706 46,629,943 1,823,146 Wool, scoured (lbs.) 2,513,560 .! 150,072 2,391,935 155,948 The net balance of South Australian produce exported over Trade and Banking, imports retained for home consumption has averaged for the past decade about £1,000,000 sterling annually. If there were no withdrawals or importations of capital, imports over a series of years should balance exports, after provision had been made to meet interest on public and private indebtedness, freights, and other charges. As, however, debt has been increased during the past 10 years, and it is almost impossible to arrive at the freight charge, it is not possible to do more than generalise on this aspect of the subject. As long as South Australia offers such undoubted security for the investment of capital, and no difficulty is experienced by bondholders in getting their money at the due date, a reasonable addition to public debt need occasion no adverse comment. It is worth noting, though, that, particularly of recent years, disposition has been shown to carry a portion of the debt locally. Redemption is not being wholly effected out of revenue, but by providing the Treasurer with funds from the local market. The only alteration is the substitution of local in place of London creditors. Of an interest bill of £1,138,160 the A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SCTTLERS. 257 sum of £287,285 is now payable in Adelaide, and as long as the market for commercial under takings is not prejudicially affected by local borrowings there is something to be said in favor of South Australia carrying a portion of the principal of her debt. Such has, of course, been rendered possible by increasing prosperity, which has added to local resources. Since the banks afford one medium of measuring the liquid resoiur.es of a country a little attention may be given to these institutions. There are seven banks of issue carrying ou business in South Australia. The only local establishment is the Bank of Adelaide, which since its inception has had a remarkably successful career. The others are the Union Bank of Australia, National Bank of Australasia, English, Scottish, and Australian Bank, Commercial Bank of Australia, Bank of New South Wales, and Bank of Australasia — all of which have a London office. The head office of the Bank of Adelaide is in Adelaide , and the London office is at 1 1 , Leade nhall Street, B.C. The following table shows the amount of public money at fixed deposit and current account, total advances, and excess of total deposits over advances : — tjurrent Accounts. Fixed Deposits. Advances. Excess Deposits over Advances, 1900. Juno 30 : Dec. 31 £ 2,681,9802,481,007 £ 3,201,8733,251,543 £ 4,137,9854,244,528 £ 1,826,0541,537,913 1901. June 30 Dec. 31 2,475,830 2,312,778 3,339,1053,476,942 4,226,5534,272,816 1,720,8201,631,105 1902. June 30 Dec. 31 2,2)2,5732,268,316 3,481,549 3,523,234 4,327,8304,262,522 1,571,8691,658,108 1903 June 30 Dec. 31 2,460,227 2,297,912 3,658,1973,598,011 4,332,7004,345,348 1,945,8651,700,715 1904. June 30 Dec. 31 2,270,6852,256,511 3,619,7783,858,6,06 4,305,7354,531,793 1,748,2971,765,830 1905. June 30 Dec. 31 2,233,742 2,395.418 4,121,066 4,277,088 4,693,8044,877,761 1,871,797 1,593,717 1906. June 30 Doc. 31 2,684,5652,878,536 4,346,1794,352,077 4,933,503 5,305,871 2,261,397 2,179,373 1907. June 30 Dec. 31 3,169,2383,186,907 4,522,3504.776,387 5,428,5325,499,168 2,504,660 2,664,797 An excellent institution in South Australia is the Savings The Savings Bank. Bank, established in 1848, " for the encouragement of frugality, and that persons possessing small sums of money beyond what they required for the supply of their immediate wants, should be afforded an opportunity of depositing the same on good security to accumulate at interest." That the bank .has more than accomplished the most sanguine intentions of the founders will be admitted when it is mentioned that in 60 years 42 in every 100 persons m the population have become possessed of an account with the bank. The following figures, taken from the repoi : and balanc - sheet to June 30th, 1907, are eloquent of progress and thrift on the part of the peop -TTansac- tions per diem during the year, 1,780 ; depositors (with accounts bearing mteret) 139^70 (with accounts not bearing interest), 22,185 ; amount deposited in year £2.872,517 amount epaid, £2,462,704 ; amount at credit of depositors (with accounts bearing mt ere st) £5 304 704 (with accounts not bearing interest), £16,167 ; average amount to credit of ach depos^or £37 19s. 7d.; invested on mortgage at end of year £1465 591 ; mwted m G °™e^ securities, &c„ £3,124,603 ; average rate of expenses to total funds. 6s. 4|d. per £100. As 258 iOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. regards the amount of deposits per head of population South Australia leads the world. The following table of deposits and withdrawals during the bank year to June 30th reflects the growing prosperity of the State and the greater disposition of the people to save : — Dcposi'.s. Withdrawals, Excess Deposits. £ £ £ 1897 . ¦ * . • .. •¦ 1,685,636 1,593,567 92,069 1898 1,561,782 1,589,763 *27,981 1899 1,699,193 1,600,196 98,997 1900 1,832,368 1,696,373 135,995 1901 1,918,708 1,727,806 190,902 1902 1,985,689 1,903,664 82,025 1903 2,159,347 2,076,423 82,924 1904 2,021,106 2,117,896 *90,790 1905 2,110,977 2,070,222 40,755 1906 2,459,331 2,233,775 225,55(i 1907 2,872,517 2,462,704 409,813 * Excess withdrawals. Deposits reached high-water mark last year, as did also withdrawals. This is a testimony to the popularity of the bank as well as an evidence of good times and active trade. The largest class of depositors is that with deposits not exceeding £20. The Savings Bank is essentially the small man's bank, but it is also something better — it is the children's and young people's bank. Deposits will be taken down to Is., and special provision is made for opening accounts in the name of infants and minors. The bank has just been empowered to establish penny banks, and steps are being taken to encourage school children to deposit their savings. In the following table is shown the disposition of depositors' savings during the past three years :— 1905. 19(16. 1007. Accounts. Amount. Accounts. Amount Accounts. Amount. [ £ £ ! £ To £20 . | 88,619 347,474 90,905 351,944 94,612 394.103 From £20 to £50 13,840 432,737 14,533 466,719 15,935 504,415 From £50 to £100 . . . ' 8,987 623,349 9,585 666,388 10,441 1 721,856 From £100 to £150 . . 5,229 630,367 5,465 663,413 5,969 723,39s From £150 to £200 . . 3,058 525,879 3,273 565,050 3,599 621,915 From £200 to £250 . . 2,934 654,434 3,241 727,310 3,781 844,657 Over £250 4,154 1,166,117 4,647 1,308,362 5,333 1,493,360 The State Bank was established by the State Advances Act of 1895, The State under which it was authorised to lend to producers to the extent of three- Bank, fifths of the value of their properties as determined by the bank's valuators. Advances were also authorised to be made on Crown lands, and by a subsequent Act power was given to make advances on any freehold property irrespective of whether the borrower was a producer or not. Subsequently the legislation regarding loans on Crown lands was liberalised. The bank is not permitted to lend more than £5,000 to any one person, nor must advances current at any one period exceed £3,000,000. Money is raised by the issue of mortgage bonds, payment of interest and principal being guaranteed by the Government, and these bonds are redeemable by ballot after five years' currency. The bank also has power to purchase mortgage bonds instead of balloting for their redemption. The maximum rate of interest allowed to be charged to borrowers is 5 per cent, per annum, and the maximum currency of a loan is 42 years. All loans are repaid by equal half-yearly instal ments, which include interest at the rate agreed upon, hitherto 4£ per cent., and a portion of the principal. Borrowers have the right at any time to make repayment of principal in excess of the amount included in the instalment, or they may repay the whole advance. In cases A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 25) where excess payments are made a corresponding reduction of interest is allowed by the bank. The following table will show at a glance the operations of the State Bank from its inception up to the date of the last balance-sheet, March 31st, 1907 : — Advances and Repayments since the State Bank's Inception jn March 1896. Period. Five months — June, 1896 One year — June, 1897 . . Nine months — March, 1898 One year— March, 1899 One year — March, 1900 One year — March, 1901 One year — March, 1902 One year — March, 1903 One year — March, 1904 One year — 1905 One year — 1906 One year— 1907 £ 30,425 231,595 110,500 91,63265,72990,82492,02381,28095,96735,095 80,038 98,251 Repaid. 2,007 9,70!) 32,137 31,47437,96762,52556,44155,07155,52265,88786,886 lJulance Outstanding; at End oi Year. £ 30,423 260,011 360,802 420,296 454,551 507,408 536,905 561,745602,641582,214602,365 613,730 The Adelaide Steamship Company's s.s "Grantala," one of the Popular Inter-State Passenger Steamers of the Line. The total morteage bonds sold to date, bearing interest at 3| and 4 per cent., is £1,083,150, of which £490,550 have been redeemed. The total advances to the end of the financial year 1907 amounted to £1,233,264, and the repayments £601,853 Altogether advances have been made to 5,618 persons, and of those there are now about 3 500 on the bank book* The .amount of principal that has become due under instalments is £211 992 Of this sum £201 890 has been paid, leaving £10,101 in arrear. That shortage is accounted for by the fact that many of the 260 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. loans were taken for brief periods, and fliat borrowers found the instalments heavier than they could meet. Although they are in arrears in connection with a portion of their principal, how ever, the persons concerned have in almost every case made considerable reductions in the amount of the loans originally granted to them. The sum which has accrued for interest during the 12 years of the bank's existence aggregates £250,267 ; £249,595 of this has been paid, leaving only £672 in arrears — roughly one-tenth per cent. To meet the requirements of the bank, mortgaged bonds have been sold to trie amount of £1,187,660 ; and of these redemptions to the extent of £596,580, leaving bonds current on March 31st £591,080. The total funds of the bank amount to £650,429, and the surplus to the credit of profit and loss is now £30,000, of which approximately £4,000 are the profits on the operations of the past year. The total losses made by the bank since it was formed in 1896 are £586, and this total has been deducted from the profit and loss account. At present the bank has only one property o:i its hands, and the rent which is being collected from it is more than sufficient to pay instalments on principal and interest. The greater number of advances have been made on country freehold lands, and next upon town freehold lands. The bank is managed by a paid board of five members appointed by the Government. In addition to an annual audit of the accounts by two auditors appointed by the trustees, subject to the approval of the Treasurer, the Commissioner of Audit examines the accounts and makes an annual report to Parliament. South Australia's prosperity is due chief!)' to the development How the People are of primary industry. In the following is shown the number Employed. °^ Persons engaged in agricultural, pastoral, and other pro ductive pursuits in South Australia at the time of the last census, in 1901. The total population at that date was 362,604, and total breadwinners 153,296. Since the census was taken the population has increased to 400,000. Classification of Occupation. Primary producers — AgiiculturalPastoralMining Other primary producers Total Industrial — Manufacturing Building and construction Indefinite Total 34,186 7,0616,301 l,6i3 49,161 24,924 8,8367,473 Percentage of Population. 9.43 1.90 1.74 .44 13.57 6.87 2.442.06 Percentage oi Breadwinners. 22.30 4.61 4.11 1.05 32.07 10.26 5.764.88 41,233 11.37 26.90 ;cn. xxx.) HIS MAJESTY'S MAIL COACH IN THE BACK BLOCKS NEGOTIATING A RIVER BANK, [Cliaa. P. Scott, Photo. Chapter XXX. FACTS ABOUT SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Area and Government. ^OUTH Australia was proclaimed a province under the British Crown on December 28th, 1836, and was granted self-government in 1857. The first session of the first elected Parliament was opened on April 22nd, 1857. The State became a member of the Commonwealth of Australia on January 1st, 1901. The Legislature now consists of a Legislative Council, with 18 members elected on a property franchise, and a House of Assembly, with 42 members elected on an adult franchise. South Australia, including its dependency the Northern Territory, contains an area of 578,361,600 acres, and stretches through the heart of the continent from the Southern Sea to the Indian Ocean. The area of South Australia proper (excluding the Northern Terri tory) is 243,244,800 acres, which has been disposed of as follows : — Sold and selected (exclusive of land repurchased and leased for homestead and closer settlement), 7,812,636 acres ; sold closer settlement lands and homestead blocks, 2,983 ; sold with covenant to purchase, 1,132,849 ; held on lease with right of purchase on June 30th, 1907, right of purchase leases, Act 444, 1888, etc., 4,618,588 ; scrub leases, 66,038 ; homestead leases, 26,881 ; leases for pastoral purposes, 77,431,430 ; miscellaneous leases, 1,341,712 ; grazing and cultivation lands, 67,463 ; selectors' leases, 67,165 ; reserved lands (within schedule B to Act 393, 1886), 28,086 ; perpetual leases, 11,994,989 ; homestead (perpetual lease), 10,999 ; aboriginal leases and licences, 505,476 ; mineral (including gold) leases, 33,725 ; granted for University, schools, &c, 58,481 ; forest reserves, 164,113; Renmark Irrigation Trust, 30,000; Agricultural College endowment lands, 50,000; unoccupied land (including lakes), 137,805,186. The State has a coastline of 2,000 miles, and numerous fine outports exist where produce is loaded into ocean-going vessels. There is a population of approximately 400,000. Births, in 1907, numbered 9,209, and deaths, 3,736. Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is known as the '' Queen City of the South," and is one of the best laid out, cleanest, and most beautiful cities of the world. Citizens enjoy a large measure of political freedom. For the Commonwealth Parliament elections every man and woman of 21 years of age has a vote. For the State Parliament elec tions every man and woman has a vote for the House of Assembly. There is a property qualifi cation for the Legislative Council. This was recently reduced to a basis of £17 per annum rental value. The power of both Houses of Parliament is co-ordinate, excepting that Bills for appro priating any part of the revenue, or for imposing, altering, or repealing taxation must originate in the Assembly. South Australia was the first State to introduce a fine system of local self-government by means of Municipal Corporations and District Councils. These bodies, in addition to having control over streets and certain roads, are vested with considerable local authority. In addi tion to fostering the important principles of self-government, the plan has encouraged self-help among people in remote districts, and has had the efiect of lightening the labors of the State Legislature regarding matters of local concern, whilst relieving the central government of much detail administration. 262 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. A travelling American journalist wrote in 1907 — " If I had the choice of the most picturesque there would not be any doubt that Adelaide would rank first. It is in some respects the most beautiful place I have visited. I recall but one — Viemia — that has such a magnificent park system. If Adelaide ever has 300,000 or 400,000 people it will attract the attention of the world." The public debt stands at £30,473,968, or £79 9s. 7d. per capita. The interest Financial, bill amounts to £993,388, or £2 12s. 4d. per head. The money raised by borrowing has been expended as follow: — Railways and tramways, £13,752,445 telegraphs and post offices, £1,011,567 ; waterworks, &c, £5,004,986 ; sewers, £696,422 jetties and lighthouses, &c, £211,593 ; improvements on pastoral leases, £1,066.500 land repurchase and homestead blocks, £726,469 ; vermin-proof fencing, £319,681 ; roads and bridges, £1,497,885 ; defences, £316,919 ; drainage, &c, £324,492 ; harbor improve ments, £1,711,741; school buildings, £552,369; other works and buildings, £425,396; aid to revenue, £1,699,925 ; redemption of public securities, £4,926.533 : municipal tramwavs trust, £294,850 : Northern Territory, £3,867,470. Punt Across the River Murray. The greater portion of borrowed money has been devoted to the construction ot interest- bearing public works. South Australia possesses about 1,900 miles of railways, which have cost over £13,000,000. Earnings during the year to June, 1907, were £1,575,368, and working expenses £868,005; pas senger fares came to £370,983 ; parcels, luggage, and mails, £81,295 ; and goods and live stock, £1,083.504. The percentage of expenditure to revenue was 55.10 per cent., which was the lowest for 10 years, and the percentage of net revenue to capital cost was £5 3s. 2d., the highest for the decade. Minerals earned £398,841 for the railways last year ; coaching, £452,278 ; and goods, £480,660. The gross tonnage carried over the railways last year was 2,042,931 tons. i During the past 20 years South Australia has enjoyed surpluses on all but three occasions, aggregating £1,926,000, while deficiencies have been £338,698. During the past three years surpluses to nearly a million sterling have accumulated, and the money has been devoted to reduction of debt, enabling a saving to be made in interest of £40,000. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 263 There was a surplus of £297,673 on June 30th, 1907, on the year's operations. The credit balance devoted to the redemption of public securities. The surplus for the year ending June 1908, was £480,000. South Australia's total private wealth is estimated at £94,468,000, or £260 per head of the population. This amount per capita is higher than the United States, Canada, France, New Zealand, Switzerland, Argentine, and is only exceeded by two other Australian States. The average bequest per adult dying in South Australia is £507— the largest, with one exception, of any of the Australian States. No less than 42 persons out of every 100 of the population have accounts with the Savings Bank. The amount deposited last year was £2,872,517; amount withdrawn, £2,462,704; depositors' balances at end of year, £5,320,871, or an average of credit of each depositor, £37 19s. 7d. The revenue of 1907-8 was greater by £460,000 than that of 1906-7. View in Botanic Garden, Adelaide. South Australia leads the world in thrift. Savings Bank deposits amount to £2,872,517— an increase of nearly £2,000,000 in 20 years. Including companies there are 19,140 payers of income tax in South Australia, and the average amount paid was £8 14s. ld. There are 60,102 land tax payers, and the average is £1 10s. There are 626 absentee land tax payers, and the average tax paid last year was £3 Is. 2d. The cost of collecting land and income tax last year was £5 3s. 8d. per cent. The net income brought into account in income tax returns for 1906 was £7,080,590, compared with £8,447,043 in ions. A 21 years' financial review— revenue, £55,821,274 ; ordinary expenditure, £35,281,288 ; interest, £18,392,506 ; total expenditure, £53,673,794 ; surpluses, £2,486,178 ; deficiencies (three), £338,698 ; set aside out of revenue to meet redemption and reduction of debt, £2,269,435 ; grand total expenditure, £55,943,229 ; deficits for which securities have had to be issued, £500,750. South Australia is absolutely solvent. Apart from the indisputable security for money borrowed for public purposes there is every year a substantial balance of exports over imports, thus representing ability to pay interest and freight charges. 264 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The climate of South Australia is one of the best in the world. There A Charming is to be found the maximumof genial sunshine. Climate. Nature smiles on the healthy man, and he experiences the full joy of living. Sunless days are rare. . Winter has no terror for man or beast. It neither depresses nor destroys. It invigorates and cheers. The mean temperature of the three winter months is — June, 53-5 ; July, 51-5 ; August, 54-0. Many successful South Australians have journeyed to England or other European countries to spend their remaining years, but have found the climate so depressing compared with that of the southern land that they have returned to the State. The healthiness of the climate is indicated by the low death rate, which in 1907 was 9-72 per 1,000 of the population, as compared with 15-5 in the United Kingdom, 19-6 in France, 19-6 in the German Empire, 21-7 in Italy, 23-7 in Austria, 25-9 in Spain, and 27-8 in Hungary for the vear preceding. The system of drainage adopted in"1 Adelaide is a model for the Commonwealth. Even after heavy rains little concentration of water is to be seen. It is facilitated by the contour of the roads. It is carried away to the river by a huge network of gutters and channels The city of Adelaide is one of the best drained and one of the cleanest in the world. Infant life thrives in South Australia. The death rate of infants in 1906 was 7-58 per cent. of births registered, as compared with 13-78 in England as the mean of the five years ended 1905. The glorious natural conditions of climate are aided by intelligent methods of public hygiene. Epidemics of serious sickness are rare, because they are watched for and dealt with at the outset. The Rev. E. G. Gange, F.R.A.S., who visited Australia in 1907, wrote on his return— " Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is surrounded by a belt of park lands, so that children, invalids, or athletes have not to trudge long distances to find an open space ; but, striking out from centre to circumference in any direction, this zone of health is quickly found, with its carpet of grass and canopy of trees, where men can rest or indulge in athletic sports without let or hindrance." This is the opinion of a distinguished visitor after an extended visit to the State—" There is no more delightful land than South Australia in its wealth of natural products and beautiful scenery Nowhere else in the world, perhaps, are there any more beautiful sunsets than those which are to be seen as one looks out over the Gulf of St. Vincent from the Mount Lofty Ranges. This is indeed an ideal place for peace, quiet, rest, and meditation. The summer climate of these hills is incomparable. The air is always cool and of a fresh, light, sparkling purity that makes breathing a tingling delight The sky is usually so clear, and there is such an affinity of depth in its brilliant blue that it seems higher than the sky of our northern latitudes, while at night the moon and stars rain down upon the earth a golden fire that touches tree and shrub, hill, valley, and plain with a strange magic that transforms them into a scene of indescribable mystic beauty. The spirit of a child of God, as he stands upon these South Australian hills and looks up into the glorious radiance of these summer skies at night, cannot but be filled with awe and adoration for the great Father and Creator. It is never too dry in the South Australian hills ; it is never too hot ; it is never too cold ; and in the summer time at least it is never too wet. Consequently almost anything can be grown here, and the gardens are almost of tropical luxuriance. About ten miles to the north-west oi Mount Lofty lies the city of Adelaide, with its suburbs— a city which is, in some respects, the most beautiful of the three capitals of the Australian States that we have seen. . • • South Australia's daily newspapers enjoy the unique distinction of being the fairest secular press in the world." In " The Great Outposts of the Empire " the author, Wilson le Couteur, describes his arrival at Port Adelaide thus—" The large number of oversea and inter-State ships lining the wharves, the unloading of great cargoes from the homeland, the thousands of tons of bagged wheat in A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 265 266 SOUTH AUSTRALIA THE CENTRAL STATE. huge stacks awaiting shipment, the great flourmills with their incessant hum, trains passing and repassing — passenger and goods laden — made up a scene of such activity as to surprise the future colonists, who had evidently discounted what they had heard, but now wore smiles of gratification at its truth. Later on, when they took train to Adelaide, the capital, seven and a half miles distant, and gazed on the beautiful city, with its long, tree-ornamented, wide thoroughfares, in rectangular lines broken at intervals by wide garden-bedecked squares, all scrupulously well kept, with the whole overlooked by imposing stone structures, their amaze ment knew no bounds. Returning after a lapse of five years, I was much struck with the signs of prosperity observable on all sides I must here declare, as many others have before me, that once an Australian — either born or by adoption — an irresistible desire possesses you to return, roam you never so far." Incidentally Mr. le Couteur mentions that South Aus tralia has the giant's share of stone habitations of all the States in the Commonwealth. Live stock as well as human beings thrive remarkably under the The .Live Stock sunny skies of South Australia. The housing of animals is un- Industries. necessary, and in no country is less artificial feeding required. South Australia is the home par excellence of the sheep, and her stud stocks are in great request for the improvement of flocks elsewhere. A sheepfarmer in another State had his fleeces doubled in weight in ten years through introducing South Australian blood. Climatic and pasture conditions so aid the sheepbreeder that he has produced some wonder ful results. Fortv-fivc vears aero the average fleece on a certain station was between 51bs. and 61bs. Now it averages from lllbs. to 131bs., and lately a flock of wethers sold for shipment to Western Australia yielded the enormous average of 161bs. 14£ozs. ! Heavier fleeces and better prices are causing owners to secure more money for their clips. Wool now contributes about a million and a half sterling to our exports ; the total for the current season will be nearer £2,000,000. Horses, cattle, pigs, and poultry thrive equally as well as sheep. The pastoral industry is estimated to represent an annual value of over £3,000,000. The State owns 6,829,634 sheep, 344,671 cattle, 208,639 horses. South Australia owns some of the highest class stud sheep, cattle, and horses to be found in Australia. " South Australian stud Merino sheep are the best in the Commonwealth," said a European authority after an extensive tour of inspection. The breeding of lambs for the export trade has become an extensive industry. Exports have grown from practically nothing 10 years ago to nearly 300,000 carcasses in one season. A typical South Australian Merino sheep is an animal of large symmetrical frame and robust constitution, carrying a heavy fleece of long staple, strong in character, possessing lustre and softness. The fact that neither sheep nor cattle need to be housed, and that artificial feeding is not necessary, enables a great saving to be made in the cost of breeding live stock in South Aus tralia. The country is well adapted to the raising of high-class sheep, cattle, and horses. The " largest horse sale held in the world " took place at Kapunda, South Australia, during October, 1908 ; over 2,500 animals were sold. Large numbers of South Australian horses were purchased for military purposes in South Africa during the war, and big drafts of remounts are annually bought for India South Australia has an annual total trade of just on £26,000,000. Trade and. Imports in 1907 were valued at £12,120,052, and exports £13,769,399. Production. ^ke nrst shipments of South Australian produce were made in 1838. Minerals were first exported in 1841, wheat and flour in 1843. The total value of staple produce exported to the end of 1907 amounted to £193 681 563. South Australia exported in 1907 to places beyond Australia — Wool, to the value of £1,979,094; Wheat and Flour, £2,556,762; Copper, £357,942; Wine, 31,989. Wool sold at the Adelaide sales in 1907 amounted to 119,815 bales. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 267 268 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The annual primary production of the State is estimated to reach £7,895,000, towards which agriculture contributes £3,861,000, pastoral and dairying £3,443,000, poultry £591,000. Mining products are valued at £652,545, forests £205,000, and manufactures £2,600,000, with a total annual production of £11,352,545. Since these figures were compiled, " total production " is computed at £13,000,000. Some market values of production — Cereals, £4,010,326 ; pastoral (exports, 1907), £2,556,448 ; breadstuffs (shipped, 1907), £2,974,860 ; hay, £1,523,448 ; orchards and gardens, £668,054. " Owing to favorable conditions of cultivation," says Mr. Coghlan, in his " Seven Aus tralasian Colonies," " a yield of 7bush. per acre in South Australia is financially as satisfactory as one of 15bush. in New South Wales, or of 20bush. in New Zealand." South Australia, in 1907, had an area " under cultivation " of 3,239,891 acres. There were 1,681,982 acres under Wheat, 295,875 acres under Hay, 57,000 acres under Oats, 28,122 under Barley, 17,985 under Fodder Crops, and 23,679 under Grasses. The State possesses some of the finest orchards and orange groves in Australia. There are 22,575 acres devoted to Vineyards, 18,199 acres Orchards, and 8,379 acres Gardens. Trees in bearing include Apples, 755,930 ; Oranges, 16i,200 ; Lemons, 65,955 ; Almonds, 199,413 ; Olives, 83,153 ; Vines, 10.599,712. South Australia produced, in the season 1906-7, Wheat, 17,145,796bush. ; Hay, 395,766 tons; Oats, 896,166bush. ; Barley, 49l,246bush. ; Wool, 126,000 bales; Wine, 2,441,504galls. ; Raisins, 16,123cwts. ; Currants, 23,281cwts. ; Apples, '311,538 cases; Oranges, 114,150 cases; Lemons, 37,378 cases; Almonds, 7,010cwts.; Olive Oil, 16,161galls. ; Potatoes, 22,277 tons ; Peas, 140.367bush. ; Wattle Bark, 7,274 tons; Honey, l,088,4891bs. ; Butter, 8,873,6321bs. ; Cheese, l,398,785lbs. South Australia was awarded the gold medal for wheat against the world at the great Exhibition of 1851, and the gold medal for the best collection of fruit at the Exhibition of the Royal Horticultural Society of Great Britain, and of the Royal Botanical Society of London in 1906. South Australian farmers were the first in Australia to use artificial manures in the cultiva tion of cereals. In 1896 600 tons were employed, but in the seeding season 1907 no less a quantity than 68,000 tons was used. In 1898 250,000 acres were manured for cereal crops ; in 1908 1,456,000 acres. " South Australian wines," says the State Viticulturist, " are undoubtedly superior to the bulk of the European wines, and are, therefore, well able to hold their own on the markets of the world." " Some of the best wines I have tasted in Australia were those of South Australian pro duction." — Viscount Des Garets, a champagne-maker of Epernay, France. In 1861 the production of wine was 182,087galls. In 1907 the " make " was nearly 3 000 OOOgalls The vines " in bearing " in 1897 numbered 6,807,000, in 1907. There is a large extent of mineral country in South Australia. Copper-mining is conducted on an extensive scale. A State forest system was inaugurated in 1875, and at the present time 190 000 acres are devoted to forestry. South Australian enterprise opened the River Murray to navigation in 1853, and it is now proposed to lock this stream in order to make it permanently navigable. Settlement is increas ing in the valley of the Murray, which offers a splendid opening to men with a little capital. Agriculture has been a foremost factor in contributing to the State's prosperity. Not till the early seventies did the land under cultivation exceed 1,000,000 acres. Ten years ago the acreage' was 2,604,122 acres ; latest figures are well over 3,000,000 acres. The area of land devoted to wheat has doubled in 30 years. In 1875 it was 898,820 acres ; at last harvest 1.681.982. The wheatfields of South Australia have yielded magnificently for four seasons in suc cession. Here is the record — 1903-4, 13,209,465bush. ; 1904-5, 12,023,172bush. ; 1905-6, 20,143,798bush. ; 1906-7, 17,145,796bush. ; 1907-8, 20,720,000bush. A GUIDE For immigrants, tourists, AND SETTLERS. 269 South Australia now sends away as wheat and flour the equivalent of 16,000,000bush. of grain in round figures. The value of shipments last season was nearly £2,500,000. Notwith standing expenditure on artificial manures, wheat-farming was never so profitable as it is to-day. While record wheat harvests are being taken off the land, cultivation is every year becoming increasingly diversified. South Australian apples are the finest in the world. Between 300,000 and 400,000 cases are annually produced, and the quantity is being rapidly added to every year. South Australian apples and pears were awarded a silver-gilt medal at the Franco-British Exhibition in 1908. The " make " of wine now amounts to about 3,000,000galls. The quantity has been more than doubled in the past 10 years. Side Show at a Corrobboree, Central Australian Natives. Flocks and herds are being restored to dimensions existing before years of unfavorable seasons and care is being exercised not to overstock. Sheep compare thus— 1857, 2,075,805 ; 1867,4,477,445: 1877,6,098,359; 1887,6,000,000; 1897,5,032,541; 1907,6,624,941; 1908, 6,829,634. Dairying in South Australia is an important industry. The factory system was inaugurated in 1885. The figures for 1907 show that 8,873,6301bs. of butter were made, and l,398,7851bs. of cheese. Exports were 2,202,8851bs. of butter and 154,3241bs. of cheese. There are in South Australia 98,000 dairy cows. Butter from this State has won com petitive honors in London. The dairying industry is worth £500,000 per annum. In 1908 South Australian salted butter secured first prize at the British Dairy Show against world competitors. The average natural fertility of the soil is high. Productiveness depends upon atmospherical conditions as well as natural fertility. In the northern portion of the State the rainfall is insufficient for agriculture, and is used only -"0 SOUTH AUSTRALIA— THE CENTRAL STATE. for pastoral purposes. In the central portion, which is several times the size of England, the rainfall is good, and agriculturists prosper. In the south-eastern division the rain register is heavier, and more intensive cultivation is possible. The absence of excessive moisture in the central division limits the labor and expense of the farmer, and favors the production of cereals, fruits, &c, of unsurpassable quality: Owing to the absence of excessive rain there is no leaching of the soil, and therefore the delicate elements which make up fineness of flavor and high quality are retained in the land and transferred to its products. South Australian wheat is the best in Australia. For whiteness, dryness, and plumpness it is the best in the world, South Australian wheat and flour have taken prizes in London and Paris against the rest of the globe. The best South Australian butter is unsurpassable for fineness of flavor. South Australian apples have topped the London market because of their beautiful flavor. The soft fruits, such as peaches and apricots, grow to a remarkable degree of perfection. South Australian grasses are particularly nutritious, and hence cheese, butter, lambs, &c, oE the finest quality are producible. Where conditions are favorable for intense culture the soil responds magnificently to the aids of irrigation and fertilisation. In addition to the absence of excessive rains South Australian farmers have a great advan tage over their European competitors in that the addition of nitrogenous manures is unnecessary for cereal-growing. The soil is self-nitrogenating. The nitrogen-producing bacteria thrive wonderfully in the warmer and drier conditions of this State. Phosphatic manures are in general use in the State, and are very profitable. Dressings of 401bs. or 501bs. up to lcwt. per acre of superphosphate are the most popular. Superphosphate is produced from local deposits of phosphatic rock, and costs under £4 per ton. The combination of cereal-growing and lamb-raising is a popular and profitable practice. The number of sheep which can be kept and lambs raised on an ordinary-sized farm is surprising. As many as 500 ewes can be maintained on a 300-acre farm, 100 acres of which is cropped every year, 100 acres fallowed, and 100 acres pastured if the best methods are adopted. These ewes would produce between 400 and 500 lambs, and the proceeds of wool and lambs would realise for best quality over £400. All the while the sheep would be helping to put the land into the best possible heart for crop-raising. The Agricutural College farm at Roseworthy carried an average of 1,354 sheep on the 538 acres available for grazing in 1906-7, in addition to from 70 to 80 head of cattle and from 250 to 300 pigs. Much hope is entertained that with greater knowledge of the best methods to adopt the vast areas of low rainfall country — from 5in. to 12in. per annum — will be utilised for agriculture. One farmer in 1907 obtained 38bush. per acre from 100 acres, with a rainfall of less than 9in. In the south-eastern division of the State, where the rain register reaches higher figures, a suitable rotation of crops is being worked out, and individual instances of abnormally prolific yields are frequent. Where irrigation is practised yields are enormous, thus testifying to the remarkable fertility of the soil. A State Department of Agriculture exists for the extension of the rural industries, the discovery of the best methods, and the promotion of efficiency in those who are engaged in agricultural and kindred pursuits. An excellent Agricultural Bureau system is in existence. Nearly every district has its bureau for the discussion of agricultural problems and practices. A central body organises annual conferences, and acts as an advisory council to the Government. Messrs. F. B. Guthrie and G. W. Norris, writing on the " Milling Characteristics of Aus tralasian Wheats " in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, April, 1907, stated— >0-771 §s5 > 2 O c - - THE ADELAIDE HOSPITAL. [£. Gall. Photo. ~3 272 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. " The South Australian samples undoubtedly attain the highest average of excellence as milling wheats. The types most generally cultivated in South Australia — such as Marshall's No. 3, Gluyas, CarmichaePs Eclipse, Petatz Surprise, Dart's Imperial — are all attractive-looking, plump samples of good bushel-weights, yielding a straight-grade flour of first-class baking quality. In strength and gluten contents they are above the New South Wales wheats, and in color thev are just as good, and the f.a.q. sample is the best milling f.a.q. sample of any of the States." The cost of production in the primary industries is the lowest in the Cost Of world- Production. Land is cheap, the soil is easily worked, and local implements are admirably adapted for economical and efficient operation. South AustraUa is the home of the stripper, the multiple plough, and the harvester, which reaps, winnows, and bags the grain in one operation. In the central districts the cost of the mechanical operations of the farmer, together with the expenditure for rent, manure, seed, &c, may be put down at £1 5s. per acre, or Is. per bushel for a crop of 25bush. to the acre. Many crops in these districts exceed this, and in 1907 one field averaged 71bush. per acre. The cost per acre in Argentina is £1 12s. 6d. per acre, and in England, in 1890, it was £4 lis. 7d. per acre, without manure. A farmer in one of the central districts, whose holding is 344 acres, crops one-half every year. His average receipts from the 172 acres he crops are £518 8s., and his average expenditure £182 Is. 4d., leaving an average return for his labor and capital of £336 6s. 8d. His land is worth from £5 to £7 per acre. Land may be purchased privately in the central districts for from £4 to £10 per acre, well equipped for farming. In the picked spots of the South-East the price varies from £20 to £80 per acre. In the dry districts of the North the land may be secured for less than 10s. per acre. Crown lands, unimproved, but suitable for farming, away from the centres, ranges from 3s. to £1 per acre, with 30 years in which to pay the principal, or Jd. or upwards per acre on perpetual lease or lease with right of purchase. Said Professor Lowrie, formerly Principal of the South Australian Agricultural College, and a shrewd, level-headed Scotsman — " I question whether there is a better investment in land for a small capitalist who is prepared to put his money into it and work it. In this State there is a better return where there is legitimate farming, if you take the full range of it, than in any place of which I have had experience or where I have taken note of farming. Can those people who cry out about the ' poor farmer ' mention any other country where they can buy land and win from the first crop the whole of the purchase-money and half the expenses, and with the second crop be standing on carpet ? I honestly believe that there is from 10 to 15 per cent, on the money if you like to put it in." Since the preceding utterance Professor Lowrie has presided over an Agricultural College in New Zealand, and he recently stated that he obtained a greater value of product from £6,000 worth of land in South Australia than from £27,000 worth in New Zealand. The land laws are on a liberal basis, and there is a genuine desire on the part of the adminis tration to encourage settlement. Pastoral lands can be secured on long leases, and every assistance and encouragement is given by the Government to persons wishing to purchase Crown lands. Persons wishing to become possessors of freehold can obtain advances on favorable terms from the State Bank. Up to the end of June, 1907, the Government had purchased 37 large estates, com prising 326,576 acres, at a cost of £842,000. These have been subdivided into blocks suitable for farmers. The purchase-money is paid back to the Government in half-yearly instalments spread over a long period. During the last 12 months several^more estates have been purchased, and these will shortly be surveyed and thrown open for application. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 273 s 3oDC C3>< COLU_lQ. oUJQ- LU I r-*:DC< 0- _l < Z o r- <2 LdIH 5LU 274 SOUTH AUSTKALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Poultry-farming on a large scale and on scientific principles Minor Industries. is a coming industry. There are 1,634,333 head of poultry in the State. Last year's exports of eggs amounted to £106,873. Shipments of eggs and frozen poultry have been made to England, and a profitable trade is likelv to be opened up in course of time. It has been officially stated by experts that " no olive oil surpasses in quality, lucidity, and creamy delicateness of most delicious flavor the oil that is produced in South Australia." Olive oil manufactured in South Australia was sent to the Crystal Palace Exhibition of 1851, and gained " honorable mention " for " its clearness, color, and flavor." Since then South Australian olive oil has taken numerous prizes all over the world. Large quantities are used in the hospitals and also by the British Navy on the Australian Station. The " make " of olive oil last season was 20,000galls. In the Macdonnell Ranges.— (Note the Aborigines at the Base and Top of Rocks. Currant-growing is an established industry in several parts of South Australia. " I know of no more profitable method of utilising good land than in currant-growing," says the Professor of Agriculture in an official report. The finest apples in Australia are grown in South Australia. South Australian apples fetch the highest prices in the London market. Oranges grown at Renmark (South Australia's Irrigation Colony) are successfully exported to England, where they are much appreciated. During the 1907 season high prices were obtained for South Australian oranges in London. Horticulture has long since passed beyond the experimental stage. Soil and climate are eminently suited to the production on a large scale of all kinds of fruit. Hay- growing is a profitable auxiliary to the production of grain. Large quantities of chaffed hay are exported to other States, and South Africa is frequently a big purchaser of com pressed fodder. There are a number of fine natural salt lakes in South Australia. This State led the way in the Commonwealth in giving a commercial value to the crude article. \ GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOUISISTS, A.N'li SETTLKIiS. 275 Large deposits of blue cement rocks were discovered near Adelaide a few years ago, and large quanti ties of the finest quality cement are now made by a local cement com pany. The annual bark yield in South Australia is from 8,000 to 10,000 tons ; worth, say, £50,000. The area under orchards and gardens is 26,578 acres. Nearly 600 tons of honey is pro duced annually in this State. The demand for South Australian dried fruits is in excess of supply. Currants and raisins of the highest quality are grown in South Aus tralia. Enghsh and Continental experts have written — " No oil that has ever been sent into a market sur passes in quality, lucidity, and cream delicateness of most delicious flavor the oil that is produced on the Ade laide plains." In 1907-8 there were in South Austraha 83,153 olive trees, and 16,164galls. of oil were made. A big grower of olives states that from 14 acres he had a net return of £200 ! The climate and soil of South Austraha are so favorable to the production of all kinds of grain, fruit, vegetables that there is practi cally no hmit to what in a com parative sense may be regarded as " minor industries." " South Austraha is among the favored few places to which Nature has granted a monopoly of olive cultivation." Thus wrote Sir Samuel Davenport, the father of the in dustry in South Austraha. Last season 16,164galls. of oil were made. Four representative Scotch fisher men visited South Australia in Sep tember, 1908, and said the waters of the State were well supplied with many varieties of fish. They pro pose to settle in South Australia and bring a number of their country men to the State. 76 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Bee-farming, ostriches, Angora goats, and pig-raising are among the profitable "minor. industries of South Austraha." Wattles are extensively cultivated and the wattle-bark industry is steadily expanding " The broad-leaved wattle of South Australia," says the Consulting Botanist of the Forest Department of New South Wales, " is one of the richest tanning barks in the world. South Australia has practically the monopoly of this bark, and it is a grand heritage— ^the envy of the eastern States." In South Austraha the State helps the producer in a variety of ways. The Government seeks to be philosopher, guide, and friend to the men on the land. Experts are provided for every department of rural life, and " demonstration " farms in various localities act as every day object lessons to farmers. A: ^a&^.*-vK A^jj^ Drying Apricots in the Sun at Renmark. [J. C. Seiners, Photo. South Austraha 's annual production from its workshops is com- Manufactures. puted at about £3,000,000. Employment in some of the Australian manufactories is as follows: — Smelting, 2,500 men ; chaff mills, 678 ; soap factories, 526 ; sawmills, 347 ; agricultural imple ments, 246 ; engineering, 1,000 ; butter and cheese, 375 ; sugar refinery, 1,450 ; wine, 300 ; printing, 360 ; chemical works, and fertilisers, 200. No Australian State has better facihties for transportation than South Australia. It has 1,814£ miles of railway, owned and managed by the State ; 5,000 miles of main roads, con structed and maintained by the State ; and scores of jetties, constructed and maintained by the State, along its extensive coastline. In addition to numerous private agencies for the marketing of produce, there is a Govern ment Produce Depot, which exports lambs, fruit, butter, cheese, poultry, eggs, honey, &c, for producers. The Government Depot charges the settler with the bare cost of dealing with his consign ments, and has been a great boon to him. Transportation and Marketing. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 277 A State Commercial Agent resides in London and facilitates the marketing of exports with England and elsewhere. He tenders advice as to packing, quality, &c, and is always on the lookout for new outlets and for information which will make for the production of the best quality and secure the most economical handling and the highest prices. Educational. Religious freedom is a prime factor of life in South Australia. No State aid of any kind is given to any church. All stand on the same basis and owe their success to voluntary effort. In South Australia education is free, compulsory, and secular. There are 708 State schools in various parts of the State, and the Education Department employs 1,316 teachers. The average daily attendance of children during 1906 was 40,000. The higher grades of education receive attention at the Adelaide Universit}T, the School of Mines, and the State Agricultural College. A Vegetable Exhibit at an Agricultural Show.— Large Quantities of the Finest Vegetables are Grown in South Australia. [ TV. S. Smith, Photo. Literary institutes are estabhshed in most of the towns in the State. They provide current and classic literature and promote intellectual tastes. These institutes are liberally supported from the public revenue. Agricultural shows are held annually in all the principal districts. They promote a healthy stimulus in quality of production and serve as opportunities for friendly intercourse between settlers of widely distant residence. Opportunities for recreation are numerous, and recreation grounds are attached to many towns. In the charming climate games of all kinds flourish, and the youth of the State develop into active and sunny men and women. The press is admirably represented. The city of Adelaide has two excellently conducted daily papers, which supply the news of the world with as much promptness as do the British dailies. The price is ld. per copy, and an issue frequently comprises 16 pages. There are also well-illustrated weekly publications and many provincial newspapers. South Australia presents one of the best opportunities for living a full life. A glorious climate, splendid material resources, excellent aids to the development of the intellectual and moral faculties, and an atmosphere of religious and political freedom. Why live half a hfe elsewhere ? 278 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. South Australia has numerous beauty spots and resorts A Call for Settlers. for tourists. Mr. Frank T. Bullen, author and lecturer, wrote — " When you reach the upper slopes of Mount Lofty and are suddenly bidden to turn and look down upon the city, which lies basking in the golden sunlight, edged by the glittering sea, you recognise that you are in the presence of one of the fairest scenes that earth can afford." " Of all the cities I have ever seen Adelaide comes easily first in the perfect beauty of its situation and arrangement." — Mr. Frank T. Bullen. South Australia offers splendid prospects to settlers with some capital wishing to enter into agricultural pursuits. Land suitable for farming, sheep-farming, poultry-farming, fruit growing, or viticulture can be taken up or be purchased on reasonable terms. Loans on mortgage can be obtained on favorable terms for the development of settlers' holdings. Produce of all kinds is handled, prepared, and packed for export by the Government Ex port Department and shipped to European markets for disposal at low charges. Fruit, dairy, poultry, and farming experts have been appointed by the Government to assist producers with advice as to the best methods of cultivation, breeding, &c, and as to the most up-to-date ways of marketing produce. The Government has recently established a State Tourist Bureau, and this department is prepared to give every assistance to tourists and settlers. Intending settlers and tourists from England can see maps and obtain information from the office of the Agent-General for South Australia, at Threadneedle House, 28, Bishopsgate Street Within, London, E.C. Port Pirie, the chief outport of South Austraha, has a population, of Port Pirie. 10,000 inhabitants, and occupies the position of fourth shipping port in the Commonwealth. Its yearly imports, according to the latest figures, show, in round numbers, 554,037 tons, the estimated value of same being £849,627. The exports for a like period amount to 516,840 tons, the value of these being £4,174,470 ; the total imports and exports, therefore, standing at 1,070,877 tons, valued at £5,024,097 sterling. The railway traffic in and out is close on 1,000,000 tons yearly. The bulk of the inward traffic consists of ore from the Broken Hill mines, of which about 250,000 tons is treated annually by the Broken Hill Proprietary Company here. The net registered tonnage of vessels inward and outward — extra colonial, inter-State, coastal, and flux barges — exceeds 1,000,000 tons per annum. " Droving." [ TV. S. Smith. Photo. Now this is the law of the Overland, that all in the West obey: A man must cover with travelling sheep a six-mile stage a day ; But this is the law which the drovers make, right easily understood : They travel their stage where the grass is bad, hut they camp where the grass is good. — Pati-erson. (CII. XXXI.) EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS ON NORTH TERRACE, Showing University, Art Gallery, Museum, Public Library, and Institute. [Ernest Gall, Photo. Chapter XXXI. EDUCATION, ^HETHER or not the system of education in South Australia realises Huxley's ideal — l" a great educational ladder with one end in the gutter and the other in the University " — experts agree that it represents a gradation in regular steps towards " practical education " not excelled in any part of the world. A remarkable evolution in educational methods has been witnessed in this State since the passing of the first legislation on the subject in 1847 ; and the move ment has been in the direction of a scientific development of mind and bodv. During the pioneer days there were no public schools, and little attention The State was devoted to the training of the young. Towards the end of the forties System. a capitation grant was paid out of the State funds to the few private schools then in existence, but the plan did not work well. " The pilgrim fathers " had no toleration for anything that looked like " State aid to religion." Five years later the Government assumed direct control of primary education, and early in 1852 a Central Board of Education was created — (1) To estabhsh schools, or recognise such schools as were already in existence, in which good secular instruction, based on Christian principles, but free from sec tarian difference of belief or opinion, should be imparted. (2) To grant licences to teachers, and to pay them out of State revenues salaries ranging from £40 to £100 per annum in augmen tation of the fees paid by the parents of the children. (3) To appoint inspectors, who should visit the schools and make reports on the character of the instruction given to the Central Board ; and (4) to recommend the Colonial Government to give grants in aid of buildings erected by local subscriptions, up to an amount not exceeding £200 per school. The next important step was taken in 1875, when the management of the public schools was given to a Council of Education under the presidency of a paid officer. A wise choice was made in select ing for this responsible post Mr. John Anderson Hartley, B.A., B.Sc. (Lond.), at that time headmaster of Prince Alfred College. Mr. Hartley is regarded as having been the father of the educational system of South Australia. For over 20 years he controlled the destinies of the department, exercising a noble influence on the child-life of the State. The Council of Education was superseded by direct management with Mr. Hartley as Inspector-General in January, 1878, and on his death the control was vested in a Board of Inspectors, consisting of Messrs. L. W. Stanton (Chairman), Thomas Burgan,- and C. L. Whitham. In July, 1902, the Board was abolished, and an Inspector-General again appointed (Mr. L. W. Stanton). In 1906 Mr. Alfred Williams was appointed Director of Education, Mr. Stanton becoming secretary to the Minister. Prior to 1891 the State system of primary education was known as a The Primary secular and compulsory system, but not free. The Act of 1875 was, System however, further amended in 1891, and as from January, 1892, this Act provided that " no fee shall be payable by any parent to the Minister, or to any teacher of a public school established under the provisions of the Education Act, 1875. for the education of anv child in any such school." This Act further provided that in the case of children between the age of 9 and 13 years the compulsory distance should be increased from two to three miles. To satisfy the compulsory requirements of the Act each child in the State between the ages of 7 and 13 years, residing within the compulsory radius, must attend an efficient school for at least 35 days each quarter. Legislation was passed in 1905 by which the compulsory attendance was increased to eight half-days out of every 10 for children living in or within one mile of any corporate town. 280 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The curriculum is of an elastic character to permit of some display of individuality on the part of teachers. The regulations fix the course of instruction ; but while the main line of sub- jects is defined in order to secure uniformity of work in all grades of primary schools, variation is permitted under the approval of the district inspectors. Head teachers also exercise dis cretion within the hmits of the general organisation, but greater freedom is allowed in the teach ing of such subjects as elementary science, horticulture, agriculture, and other various kinds of manual work. The following is a summary of curriculum : — 1. English — Clear and distinct articulation, correct speech, reading, writing, spelling, oral and written composition, grammar, poetry. 2. Mathematics — Arithmetic, mensuration, algebra, geometry. 3. Civics and Morals — History, conduct, citizenship. 4. Handwork — Drawing, brushwork, "Kindergarten" exercises, modelling in clay, cardboard, &c, needlework. 5. Music and Physical Culture- Singing, breathing, physical exercise, drill. 6. Nature Knowledge — Observation lessons, nature study (whenever possible allied with gardening), geography, elementary science (in Classes V. and VI.). Typical Public School (Norwood). -Visitors' Day. [ TV. S. Smith, Photo. Considerable attention is devoted to physical culture. Drill and physical Physical exercises are part of the curriculum. Swimming is taught by experts. To Culture. *ne accompaniment of their own drum and fife bands the State school children can " march past " or engage in military manoeuvring with the accuracy and precision of well-trained soldiers. Sewing, drawing, and vocal music are taught in all State schools. In the larger centres instruction in cookery and household management is given to the girls, and the boys are trained in the various branches of manual work. The State primary schools are of two kinds— public schools, under certificated teachers, and provisional schools, taught by uncertificated teachers. The latter, however, are required to undergo a special examination, and to serve in an efficient school for a specified time. The public schools are divided into nine classes, and the salaries of head male teachers range from A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 281 £110 in a Class IX. school, with an average attendance of 20 to 40, to £420 per annum in a Class I. school, with an average attendance of 600 or over. The salaries of head female teachers range from £92 to £156. A lady cannot be appointed as head teacher to a school in any class above VII. The salaries of male assistants begin at £100 and rise by annual increments to £150. Chief assistants receive further yearly increments to a maximum of £200. Female assistants' salaries, beginning at £84, rise to £124, with a maximum of £156 for chief assistants. The course of study and the standard of examination is exactly the same in both public and provisional schools. A strict supervision is kept upon the daily working of the schools by means of a staff of inspectors. Districts are allotted, and the inspectors pay periodical visits, subjecting the classes to a critical examination, and allotting merit marks which affect the reputation of both teachers and scholars. A Public School Kindergarten Class. (The Observation School, Currie Street. For the benefit of those desirous of devoting their lives to teaching an Training excellent Training College was established in 1876. All students were non- Teachers, resident. In 1900 a new scheme of training was introduced. The Council of the University of Adelaide, having received a large bequest under the will of the late Sir Thomas Elder, made a generous offer to the Minister of Education, by which those in training for teachers would be allowed to have a two, and some a three, years' course of study for the B.A. or B.Sc. degree free of cost. It was, therefore, arranged that candidates, after showing a capability to teach (as monitors), should be admitted to the Pupil Teachers' School, where they study for two years to pass the Junior and Senior Public Examinations (the latter being the matriculation standard of the University). After this they spent two years teaching in the larger public schools, and then enter the University Training College for another two, and possibly three years, as stated above. During the term of training students receive a maintenance allowance of from £30 to £80, according to circumstances. 282 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. To assist in the training of teachers, an Observation School has been established in Adelaide. While at the High School the young teachers pay weekly visits to this school — for which a special staff is provided — and observe methods of teaching, besides receiving instruction in the art of teaching from the head master. In connection with this school special steps are being taken to develop a system of practical training for provisional teachers. A small school has been erected in the grounds which will serve as a model provisional school, and before being sent to an appointment provisional teachers will be required to spend some time here under the supervision of an experienced and expert teacher. It is intended to establish one such model provisional school in connection with each district high school. A High School has been estabhshed in Adelaide. The old Grote Street school has been converted into a well-furnished, well-equipped school, with well-Lit, airy classrooms, chemical, physical, and nature- study laboratories, and roomy and convenient lecture-rooms. This school, with the old Training College and Advanced School, will accommodate 500 pupils. There State Secondary '^Education. High School, Grote Street, Adelaide. are at present 400 in attendance. It is intended to have one such school, on a smaller scale, in each inspector's district. Classes for more advanced work than that done in the public schools have been established in connection with the schools at a number of rural centres. These classes provide children living in country districts with opportunities for higher educa tion which are keenly appreciated. These primary schools with higher classes for advanced pupils resemble the " higher grade " schools of Scotland. The subjects taught in these classes are — English, mathematics, history, geography, elementary science (experimental), geometry, and Latin. There were 722 State schools in South Australia, with 57,270 on the roll in 1906, with 1,426 teachers, including 170 monitors, and the salary list amounted to £132,959 for the year 1906. The cost of education for the year ending December, 1906 was — Primary, £150,542 ; secondary, £2,170; or a total of £152,712. Exclusive of expenditure on buildings, improve- Number of State Schools. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 283 ments, repairs, &c, the amount spent on buildings, improvements, land, &c, from 1876 to 1906 amounted to £525,660. The cost per child educated, and also per child in average atten dance since 1888, are shown thus — Cost per Child Cost por Child (o,t ner Child Cost pir Child educated Attendance. Kducated. in Average Attendance. £ *. d £ s. d. £ *. d. £ x d. 1888 2 10 3 4 0 3 1898 . . 2 4 6J 3 10 Oi 1889 2 12 OJ 4 2 2 1899 . 2 4 0i 3 6 1J 1890 2 11 10 4 4 3 1900 . 2 Ii 6J 3 7 4J 1891 I 2 10 8-f- 4 0 2 1901 . 2 7 4-1 3 8 5 *I892 ! - • ' 3 11 1 1902 . 2 7 5-| 3 9 11 1893 2 5 3 3 14 10 1903 . 2 7 0 3 8 li 1894 2 3 0i 3 5 2| 1904 . 2 7 11J 3 9 If 1895 2 3 7i 3 5 5 1905 . 2 10 6| 3 11 4J 1896 •2 3 10 3 4 11 1906 . 2 12 6| 3 14 4i 1897 2 4 4| 3 4 10i 1907 . 2 15 Oi 3 19 3| ' r'ree education introiluceu. The higher grades of education are well represented in a splendidly The Adelaide managed University, School of Mines, agricultural and private colleges. University. ^hc University of Adelaide was established by Act of Parliament in 1874. In 1881 Royal Letters Patent were issued by Her Majesty Queen Victoria declaring that the degrees granted by it should be recognised as academic distinctions and rewards of merit, and be entitled to rank, precedence, and consideration throughout the British Empire as if granted by any University in the United Kingdom. The University owes its origin to the munificence and public spirit of the late Sir Walter Watson Hughes and Sir Thomas Elder, G.C.M.G., each of whom gave £20,000. Parliament provided for an annual grant from the public revenues of a sum equal to 5 per cent, on the capital funds then or afterwards to be possessed by the University, the grant, however, not to exceed the sum of £10,000 in any one year. Under the authority of the same Act there was an endowment in land of 50,000 acres and a grant of five acres in the City of Adelaide as a site for the University buildings. The University grants degrees in Arts, Science, Law, Medicine, and Music, and Diplomas in Music and Commerce, and in conj unction with the School of Mines and Industries in Mining Engineering, Metallurgy, Mechanical Engineering, and Electrical Engineering — (see Calendar for 1908, p. 107). It was the first University in Australia to provide for the granting of degrees to women, as .authorised by Act of Parliament in 1880. At first the professorships founded in the Uni versity were four in number, their subjects being the following : — (1) Classics and Comparative Philology and Literature ; (2) English Language and Literature, Mental and Moral Philosophy ; (3) Mathematics ; and (4) Natural Science. The first and second were estabhshed in accordance with the terms of Sir Walter Watson Hughes' donations, and bear his name; the third and fourth carry in the same way the name of Sir Thomas Elder. The academical work of the University was commenced in March, 1876, the number of matriculated students having been eight, and of non-graduating students attending lectures 52. The foundation-stone of the University buildings was laid by His Excellency Major-General Sir W. F. D. Jervois, K.C.M.G., on July 30th, 1879, and the buildings were opened by him in April, 1882. Their total cost, including that of subsequent additions, was about £38,000. In 1883 Sir Thomas Elder. G.C.M.G., made a second gift to the University amounting to £10,000, for the foundation of a School of Medicine. The University Council thereupon established a Chair of Anatomy and a Lectureship in Physiology, and made further provision for a medical course. In 1884 the Hon. J. H. Angas, M.L.C., gave £6,000 for the endowment of a Chair of Chemistry, and in the following year tne first Angas Professor of Chemistry was appointed. The Chair of Music was established in 1884 and a Professor of Music appointed. This chair had no special endowment, but through the efforts of His Excellency Sir W. C. F. Robinson, K.C.M.G., it was supported for the first five years by voluntary subscriptions from the public amounting to over £530 per annum, of which 284 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. sum Sir Thomas Elder contributed £300 yearly. In 1890 the Council established a Professor ship of Law in place of the Lectureship in Law which had existed since 1883. In 1878 the Hon. J. H. Angas gave £4,000 to provide for scholarships to encourage the training of scientific men, and especially civil engineers, with a view to their settlement in South Australia. Since 1892 Mr. Robert Barr Smith has presented to the University £8,000 for the purposes of the library. The library now, in consequence of the large additions rendered possible by these gifts, contains about 20,000 volumes. Sir Thomas Elder bequeathed to the University the sum of £65,000, his total gifts to the institution amounting from first to last to £100,000. . By the terms of his will the bequest was apportioned in the following manner, namely — £20,000 to the School of Medicine and £20,000 to the School of Music, while the residue was left available for the general purposes of the University. An Elder Conservatorium of Music was accordingly estabhshed in 1898, in which instruction is given in all branches of musical education. The foundation-stone of the Conservatorium building was laid by Governor Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton on September 26th, 1898. The Conservatorium, which contains a large public hall Nature Study Room, High School, Adelaide. f Gazard, Photo. and an admirable suite of classrooms for instruction in music, was completed in February, and formally declared open by His Excellency the Governor, Lord Tennyson, on the 26th September, 1900. In consequence of the large increase in the number of students and the absolute necessity for increased accommodation for the Engineering and Science Schools, a large suite of rooms has been built. His Royal Highness the Duke of Cornwall and York laid the foundation stone on July 11th, 1901, and gave his consent that the structure should be called the Prince of Wales Building. In 1898 the Council was enabled, by means of Sir Thomas Elder's bequest, to make arrangements for a post-graduate course in Mining Engineering and Metallurgy, and for the granting of a diploma in these subjects, but since 1903 the University and School of Mines have combined in regard to the applied science courses. The University is governed by a Council, which usually consists of 20 members, elected by the Senate, but which consists of 21 members whenever the Chancellor at the time of his election to that office is not a member of the Council. The Senate consists of all graduates of the degree of Master or Doctor, in any of the several faculties, and of all other graduates of three years' standing, A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 285 besides graduates of other Universities who have been admitted ad eundem gradum by the Council. The number of graduates admitted by examination since the establishment of the University is 445. The number of undergraduates in the year 1907 wat 388, and non-graduating students 266, exclusive of those studying at the Elder Conservatorium, of whom in 1907 there were 336. The teaching staff of the University comprises 10 Professors and 25 Lecturers, and that of the Elder Conservatorium 10 teachers. During recent years in the interests of education some of the benefits provided by the University have been extended to country districts. In many country towns permanent centres have been formed, committees appointed, and facilities provided for holding the various public examination in general education and in music and for courses of Extension Lectures. The Adelaide University has important relations with Western Australia. As that State has no University full advantage of the facilities offered by Adelaide has been taken. The Technical School at Perth is affiliated ; some of the courses of lectures are recognised by the University, thus enabling a number of students in the western State to proceed with degree courses. In addition, the University holds all its public examina- Physics Laboratory, High School, Adelaide. [Gazard. Photo. tions in Western Australia, for which many hundreds of candidates enter each year. This extension of University privileges to remote parts of the State and to a sister State represents one of the most significant evolutions in higher education, and emphasises the fact that the University is for the people, and shows that the Council has adopted a progressive and broad- minded policy. The scope of University teaching has been widely extended during the past few years. The extension of the curricula and the steady growth of students have compelled the Council to provide extra accommodation. A public demand for commercial education has been met by providing first an advanced course and subsequently a Diploma course. The Elementary Commercial Examination was held for the first time in December, 1902. A Senior Commercial Examination has since been provided. The success of the experiment induced the Council to establish a Board of Commercial Studies. Mr. Joseph Fisher, a pioneer colonist, provided an endowment of £1,000 to provide for a public lecture (subsequently published) on a subject relating to commerce. A popular form of University teaching are the Extension Lectures given by the professorial staff. These are largely attended during the winter months. An 286 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. important development of the University movement in South Australia is the training of school teachers. The Chancellor of the University, in a recent public utterance, claimed that there was no other country in the world in which the University provided for candidates in elementary school teachership a free, a compulsory, and a liberal education. The University aims, said its Chancellor on a recent occasion, at giving a " complete academical and professional and special training to all the candidates of the teaching profession in Adelaide free of charge, and without adding a sixpence to the burdens of the taxpayers. There was no event in the history of education in South Australia of more far-reaching importance " than the arrangement which had been concluded for traimng school teachers. " It secured to every teacher in South Austraha, to every one of that important Public Service, the social status to which they were entitled. It secured to them a professional training of a high class, and some of the benefits of the endow ments of the University of Adelaide. He know of no other University in the world that attempted anything of the kind." The Chancellor went on to say that the teachers get " the advantage of training at the University for two years, which in the aggregate amount of fees «¦!£§§•!? "-' -^ Nature Study Class (in Connection with State Education Department) at Work. High School in the Quarry at Tanley's Hill. Students from would total about £1,400; that was to say that the University presented the students with £1,400. They had the assistance of 34 professors and lecturers and four demonstrators. They had the use of a library of 20,000 volumes, and laboratories which had cost £10,000. They were the pioneers in breaking down the narrowness and exclusiveness of class which recognised the republic of letters alone, and demanded that the teacher was as much a member of the learned professions as the doctor and the lawyer. They had on a small scale the University pupil con tinuation school in those who were working in the evenings for the completion of the course and to obtain the authorisation of the University degree. The number of professors, lecturers, and teachers has increased from five in 1882 to 45 in 1907 ; undergraduates from 12 to 388 ; non-graduating students from 99 to 266, and the number of Conservatorium students from nothing to 336 ; or a total advance in the number of students from 111 in 1882 to 990 in 1907. The number of candidates for public examinations in the same period has risen from 141 to 2,976. A large number of valuable scholarships and exhibitions are made available every year. The University of Adelaide is affiliated to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Information can be obtained from Mr. C. R. Hodge, Registrar. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 287 The School of Mines. March 14th, 1889. South Australia is greatly blessed in its School of Mines and In dustries—an institution which in everything but name is a high-grade technical college. It is the largest and most efficient training establish ment of its kind in Australia. The actual work of the school began on On that day 26 students were enrolled, and the curriculum contained II subjects. Success was immediate, and at the time of the formal opening of the institution by the Governor (Lord Kintore) three months later the most sanguine expectations of the officials had been more than reahsed. The necessity for increased accommodation was felt for many 288 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. years. The Government had decided to place on the Estimates the sum of £10,000 for a new building, but the princely generosity of the Hon. G. Brookrnan, M.L.C., who gave £15,000, prompted them to at once proceed with the erection of premises more commensurate with requirements. The cost of the new building, apart from that of the site, was over £37,000. e & The Council was soon able to congratulate itself on the possession of a building in every way second to none in the Australian States. On the occasion of the opening ceremony of this magnificent structure the following letter, addressed to the President (Sir Langdon Bonython) by Lord Tennyson (the Governor-General), was read : — " Commonwealth of A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 289 Australia. Governor-General, Marble Hill, Adelaide, February 23rd, 1903. Dear Sir Langdon — I congratulate the Government and you on the opening of the fine building where is to be housed your excellent School of Mines, of which you have been for so many years the leading spirit. I am glad to learn that you are working hand in hand with the University of Adelaide, and I have much pleasure in testifying again to the very valuable service your school performs for Australia. It is certainly one of the best of its kind that I know, and many of the men trained here are to be found in all parts of the world holding good positions. Yet Australia is, generally speaking, a long way behind in the race of technical handicrafts and industries. For instance, when I have visited agricultural shows throughout this continent everywhere I have found the stump-jumpers and strippers of which the South Australians are justly proud ; but, be it observed, most of the other implements and agricultural machinery are made in Canada and America. In order to keep pace with the times Australia will have to bestir herself, to welcome fresh ideas and inventions, to encourage the introduction of new and improved methods, to place no artificial restrictions — to the detriment of production and trade — on the output of commodities and manufactures ; and, above all, she must multiply her technical schools and better her technical education. It is, more than anything else, the training (in the workshop) of those directing scientific industries, as well as of the workers themselves, which makes a great industrial community. By adopting such means, with the aid of practical enthusiasts like your Lieutenant- Governor, Mr. Brookrnan, and yourself, Australia will, I feel sure, be able eventually to develop her wonderful resources, and to attain to her rightful position among the industrial and com mercial peoples. — Yours truly (Signed), Tennyson." The reproach that Australia is a laggard among nations in the matter of " technical handicraft and industries " is rapidly being removed by such institutions as the South Australian School of Mines. In December, 1907, an important addition to the equipment of the School was made, when new Metallurgical and Chemical Laboratories were made available for students. The new building — named the Bonython Building, after the President of the School, who contributed £1,500 towards its cost, which totalled £5,400— now comprises the finest laboratories in the Commonwealth. In another direction, early in the present year, the facilities for study were improved by the addition of the Angas Wool Laboratory. Wool-classing is an important subject taught at the School. The President (Sir Langdon Bonython), who has devoted many years of splendid service to the institution, said on the occasion of the opening of the laboratory that he was told, and had no reason at all to doubt the statement, that the operations of these wool classes directly and indirectly had added to the wealth of South Austraha in hard cash a sum far larger than the total expenditure from its origin to the present time on the Adelaide School of Mines and In dustries. This was in the highest degree satisfactory, and was a wonderful tribute to the value of technical education. It is not so difficult to understand the position when the statement made some years ago is remembered that " the wool of 250,000 sheep had passed through the hands of School of Mines students this year, and wool experts estimate that by reason of better classing the wool has yielded to the producer fully £6,000 more than would otherwise have been received." The chief executive officer is the Registrar, Mr. Laybourne Smith, from whom all information relative to the School is obtainable. Technical education on the agricultural side has received considerable Agricultural attention. In addition to a well-equiped Agricultural College, situated College. at Roseworthy, 30 miles north of Adelaide, there are Agricultural Bureaux scattered throughout the State, whilst secondary agricultural instruction is obtainable at many of the public schools. Upon the establishment of the institution its objects were stated to be — (1) To train young men for the practice of agriculture, horticulture, and viticulture ; (2) to conduct experiments with a view to the advancement of the rural industries in South Austraha. Professor Custance, the first principal, was in charge from 1881 until 1886. He was succeeded by Professor Lowrie, M.A., B.Sc, who arrived in February, 1888, and retained the position until September, 1901 — 13J years. Professor J. D. Towar, M.S., succeeded him in May, 1902, and held the position of Principal to June, 1904. In August, 1904, Professor A. J. Perkins, at the time Secretary for Agriculture and Departmental Professor of Viticulture, was appointed Principal, which position he still occupies. He has been connected previously with the institution since 1892. Six scholarships are offered annually, 290 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. (JJ. K. Lawrence, Pltoto. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. ^91 the State being divided into so many districts for the purpose. For several years the course of instruction at the college covered two years ; but soon after his arrival Professor Lowrie pointed out that this term was too short, and urged that it should be extended to three years. The recommendation was adopted as from the beginning of 1893. The curriculum is as follows : —First year— Mathematics, anatomy, book-keeping, agriculture, chemistry, meteorology, heat, electricity, and botany. Second year— Mathematics, physiology, chemistry, agriculture, viticulture, fruit culture, mechanics, surveying, and wool-classing. Third year— Chemistry] agriculture, veterinary science, viticulture, cenology, surveying, mechanics, physiology, and wool-classing. Students who desire to attend only two years are required to pass an entrance examination equivalent to the sessional examination at the end of the first year. The fees were originally fixed at £50 per annum, but in 1888 they were reduced to £30. Students are admitted for a six months' course in dairying or poultry. It is impossible to estimate in sterling value the beneficial influence Educating exercised by this college on the agricultural industry during the past the Farmer. ^0 years. It has led the way in revolutionising farming methods in South Australia, and to Professor Lowrie more than to any other man is due the rapid expansion of the system of drilling in seed with artificial manures. His staff and enterprising farmers ably seconded his efforts, but Professor Lowrie headed the revolu tionary band. The work he began is being carried on with skill and enthusiasm by his successors. Special attention is devoted at the Agriculture College to " diversified farming," and valuable experiments are conducted in live-stock breeding — more particularly the production of lambs suitable for export. The scope of experiment work in agriculture has, within recent years, been extended considerably. It embraces everything likely to prove of advantage to Lower North farming. New buildings have been ereoted for accommodation of students and teaching purposes, and a well-equipped dairy has been established in connection with the college. The Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Austraha Public Library, was estabhshed in 1884. Under the name of the South Australian Art Gallery, Institute it was incorporated in 1856. It comprises a free public and Museum. reference library, a natural history museum, an art gallery, an art museum, and a school of design, painting, and technical arts. Affiliated with it are the Royal Society of South Australia, the South Australian Society of Arts, the Astronomical Society of South Australia, the Geographical Society of Australasia (South ¦ Australian Branch), and 166 country institutes. It is governed by a board of 18 members, of whom eight are nominated by the Government, five are elected by the country institutes, two by the University of Adelaide, and one each by the Royal Society of South Australia, the South Australian Society of Arts, and the Adelaide Circulating Library. At the laying of the founda tion stone of the Public Library building, Mr. Rowland Rees referred to the University of Ade laide as "an institution which will provide that higher education hitherto unattainable at com mon or ordinary schools. ... It remains to supply the middle course of the structure to connect primary with secondary schools by links composed of higher subjects, the secondary education being that acquired after the elementary school days are passed, and composed of teaching bearing on the life-work of the people, if need be, where social necessity arises, culti vation in the highest form which the University provides, as well as in the ' elegancies of litera ture and art and the pursuit of science for its own sake apart from its utility.' .... We are met to-day to witness the laying of the first stone of an institution intended to provide those missing links in the great educational chain to which I have alluded." The objects thus outlined have been strenuously pursued by the Board with much success, although very often under adverse circumstances. The Public Library was opened in 1884 with a collection of about 21,500 volumes, which had increased in June, 1908, to 67,933. A travelling library, containing 6,000 volumes, is circulated in boxes among affiliated country institutes. Each box contains 30 volumes, and each institute changes its boxes three times a year. A special library of techni cal and scientific works is also available for circulation among country institutes. The Museum in 1884 occupied the northern half of the Library building, but in 1895 the present Museum building was "handed over to the Board, and even this building, 200ft. x 45ft., is now taxed to 292 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. A GUtDE for Immigrants, tourists, and settlers 293 its utmost to accommodate the specimens. Recognising this position, the Government has pre pared plans for the eastern wing of the Pubhc Library block, so that rehef may be afforded to the Museum and Art Gallery, each of which is now overcrowded. The Australian ethnological col lection in the South Australian Museum is claimed to be the finest in the world. The purchase in 1907 of the Reuther ethnological collection for £400 has much enhanced the institution's im portance in this connection. The Art Gallery in 1884 was located in a room at the south end of the Pubhc Library, but was afterwards removed to rooms in the Exhibition Building. Here for some years the collection was housed in a building of a very inflammable character. The Board felt that this was a serious menace, and it was therefore greatly relieved when it became known that Sir Thomas Elder, K.C.M.G., had left a legacy of £25,000 for the purchase of pictures. The Government at once admitted the necessity of erecting a suitable Art Gallery building. This was opened to the public on April 7th, 1900. The Elder bequest has made it possible for the Board to add some fine examples of the leading modern artists to the collection, and a large portion of the bequest still remains unexpended. The Art School, under the control of the Governors of the Library, has grown to large proportions. The students in training under the Education Department, as well as those in the South Australian School of Mines and Industries, receive their art education in this school. Art examinations are held under the authority of the Board in Adelaide and various country towns, and also in Perth, Western Austraha. Since 1904 drawing has been a subject for the University Primary, Junior, and Senior Public Examinations, and the Board's certificate is accepted by the University authorities as proof of efficiency in art subjects. A South Australian Mechanical Draughtsman's Certifi cate is issued jointly by the Board and the Council of the South Australian School of Mines and Industries, and another bv the Board and the Council of the Moonta School of Mines. Over 806 students were taught in the Art School in 1907, and since 1886 28,076 examination papers have been worked by candidates for the Board's certificates, of which 16,599 have been issued. The prospects of the institution have been greatly improved by a magnificent legacy from the late Dr. Morgan Thomas. This estate was wound up in June, 1908, and the Board, which is the residuary legatee, has received nearly £65,000. The Public Library and its associated departments is doing excellent educational work. The Royal Society of South Australia, the South Australian Society of Arts, the South Australian Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, the Zoological Society (with its magnificent collection of animals), the Botanical Gardens, are all rendering great public service in the same direction. South Australia is also well served by an excellent metropolitan and country press The Secretary and Principal Librarian is Mr. J R. G. Adams, from whom all required information can be obtained. A Typical Pastoral Homestead in the Saltbush Country, Bimbowrie, in the North-Eastern Portion of the State. Chapter XXXII. THE NORTHERN TERRITORY. gHERE are two Austrahas. One hes within the tropics and the other is in the tem perate zone. Nobody disputes that fact because nobody who cares to look at the map can doubt it. Northern Australia is in the same latitude as Mozambique, Samoa, Abyssinia, and Senegambia. It has been estabhshed — also beyond doubt — that the country is capable of producing on a commercial basis such products as sugarcane, rice, maize, linseed, varieties of oil plants, tea, coffee, indiarubber, tobacco, cotton, millet, and cocoanuts. Yet, with a soil capable of raising such choice pro ducts, a rainfall that can be measured in feet, and no lack of sunshine, the Northern Territory continues to be a nightmare to Australian statesmen and a geographical enigma to the rest of the world. After 45 years of unsuccessful occupation South Australia has agreed to transfer the great tract of country to the Government of the Commonwealth, on certain conditions providing for financial readjustment and railway connection. The Northern Territory is that range of country which commences Area and 100 miles north of Oodnadatta, the northern terminus of the railway Climate. system of South Australia proper, and extends to Port Darwin, on the north coast of Australia. It comprises about one-fifth of the whole of Australia, and extends from latitude 26° S. to latitude 11° N., and lies between longitude 129° and 138°. It thus covers about 15° of latitude and 9° of longitude, or, roughly, 560 miles wide by 900 miles long, and contains an area of about 523,620 square miles, or 335,116,800 acres. With the exception of about 2£° the country is within the tropics or torrid zone. The area of the United Kingdom is in round numbers 77,000,000 acres, and of France 130,000,000 acres, so that the Territory is about two and a half times the size of France, and four and a half times the size of Great Britain. The area sold is 473,230 acres, leaving unalienated 334,643,482 acres. The Northern Territory has a frontage of 1,200 miles to the Indian Ocean, intersected by numerous rivers, many of which, such as the Roper, the Adelaide, the Daly, the Victoria, &c, are navigable for from 20 to 100 miles from the sea. The number and volume, therefore, of these great rivers may afford some indication of the fertility of the country through which they flow. Along the extensive northern seaboard there are many valuable harbors, of which Port Darwin is equal, or superior, to any other in Austraha. Situated as it is in a commanding geographical position with regard to India and the East, at no distant time it must become one of the greatest trading emporiums of the Southern Hemisphere. Port Darwin, the principal harbor for shipping in the Northern Territory, is situated in latitude (of Fort Hill) 12° 28' 30" S., and longitude 130° 52' E. The harbor is fine and spacious, com prising many square miles of water, varying in depth from 4fms. to 15fms. It is high-water at " full and change," 5 hours 25 minutes. Springs rise from 16ft. to 24ft., and neaps from 2ft. to 12ft. The tides are irregular — the ebb stream commencing some 40 minutes before high water. The year has two climatic divisions, consisting of the wet season (from November to April) and the dry period (from May to October). The different changes of these seasons are so uniform and regular that they may be predicted almost to a day. Signs of the approach of the wet season appear immediately after the sun has crossed the equator during the spring equinox (in September), when the strong east-south-easterly monsoon — which has been blowing continually throughout the dry season — ceases, and is succeeded by calms and light, variable winds ; the weather becomes intensely hot, and small thunder-clouds gather over the land, [CH. XXXII. VIEW OF PORT DARWIN, NORTHERN TERRITORY FROM FORT HILL. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 295 View of Port Darwin Harbor, North of Fort Hill. femmmr -;.Igsr J|^" f *i5f^m%jsti*^r::.: y^0wSm. ' ' " ¦¦¦77- i The Township of Stuart (Alice Springs), Macdonnell Ranges, Central Australia. [F. J. Gillen, Photo. 296 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. increasing in size and density day by day until they burst into terrific thunder-storms, accom panied by hurricane squalls of wind and rain. These squalls, at first, take place every four or five days, gradually increasing in number until the end of November, when they occur almost daily. They come up in a dense black bank, and travel so very rapidly that they are generally out of sight on the western horizon within 40 minutes. These simple statements of facts — a tropical country four and Idle Lands a half times the size of Great Britain, with a total population of Awaiting Hands. 3,600 persons — are sufficient of themselves to indicate that here in this part of the continent of Austraha there is room for develop ment. As a matter of fact the country is very httle improved since the Portuguese visited it in 1500, and the Dutch a hundred years later, or since Torres passed through the straits that bear his name in 1606. Cook sailed along the coast in the next century, and Flinders in 1801. View on the Flora River, Northern Territory. [P. Foelsche, Photo. Portuguese, Dutchmen, and Englishmen, and in later days Australians, have all been unanimous in their praise of the country's natural beauties, the brilliancy of the tropic flowers, the rapid fecundation of tropic fruits, the grandeur of the jungle, and the luxuriance of growth every where to be seen. The late Duke of Manchester, after an inspection lasting over several weeks in the Northern Territory, said — " I have seen other parts of Austraha, and I must say before coming to Port Darwin I had certainly thought Queensland the finest part of Australia, but I now consider, as far as I can judge by that portion of the Northern Territory which I have seen, that the Territory is superior to Queensland, inasmuch as the vegetation seems richer, the grass thicker and of a more permanent character, and the country much better watered." "P 1 r'nn ^he population of the Northern Territory on December 31st, 1907, was .ropuiaTAOii. egtimated at s^—made up of 1,302 Europeans and 2,295 Chinese. On only three occasions in 27 years has the European population exceeded the present number. A GUIDE FOR TOURISTS, IMMIGRANTS, AND SETTLERS. 297 How South Australia Annexed the Northern Territory. Sir Gordon Bremer took possession of Raffles Bay on behalf ot the British Government, and for a time a military settlement was formed at Melville Island. In 1827 a military depot was established, first at Raffles Bay and then at Port Essington. Leichhardt, the explorer, visited the place in 1845, just before its desertion, and he was followed by Gregory and Stuart. It was the successful journey of the latter from south to north and the additional knowledge supplied by his party of the resources of the country that induced South Australia to become foster-mother to that portion of tropical Australia. Not only did John McDouall Stuart practi cally " discover " the Northern Territory, but his advocacy led to its annexation by South Australia. Prior to the expeditions of Leichhardt and Gregory the great north-central part of Australia lying north of 26th parallel of south latitude and between the 129th and 138th meridians of east longitude was technically attached to New South Wales. The boundaries of Queensland, South Australia, and Western Austraha, even to the disposal of " no man's View on the McKinley River, Northern Territory. land," had been agreed upon, but no mention had been made of the territory in between. One of the first proposals made was that it should be proclaimed as a new Crown colony, and subse quently that it should be divided between Queensland and South Austraha. When Stuart crossed the continent and planted the Union Jack on the shores of the Arafura Sea, and returned through the heart of Australia to Adelaide, the South Australian Government of the day applied for the land in question. This request was acceded to by the British authorities, and in 1863 letters patent were granted incorporating the Northern Territory with South Aus traha. Since that time it has been managed from Adelaide, with a Government Resident located at Port Darwin. Of the great resources of the country under review there never could A Land be any dispute. " Facihties to obtain suitable land ; facihties to obtain of Fromise suitable cheap labor ; capital to take advantage of the first two con- 1 " " ' ' ' ditions ; intelligent management to use and not to squander the capital." " Given these four conditions," says Dr. Holtze, for many years Curator of the Botanic Gardens 298 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. at Port Darwin, and now occupying a similar position in Adelaide, " and the Territory wiU surely become a prosperous field for plantation enterprise." My own journeyings have taken me through the heart of the continent and out in the north-east towards the Queensland border and the Gulf of Carpentaria, and I can confirm many of the statements made concerning the quahty of land and the supply of water and good grasses. As in other parts of the world, soil and chmate and natural conditions over such a vast area vary. There are all sorts of country and several kinds of chmate. Port Darwin in the north has an average annual rainfall of over 60in. ; Charlotte Waters, the southern point of the Northern Territory, has about 6in. The traveller between these two points and west and east finds well-grassed downs, rich well-watered plains, heavily timbered, and in every way well suited for stock-raising. In a paper read before the Geographical Society, Queensland, in 1901 Mr. J. P. Thomson, Hon. F.R.G.S., said — " One of the first to publicly express an opinion in favor of the existence of artesian water in Central Australia was the late J. E. Tenison Woods, who was a most intelligent observer, had travelled a good deal in Central Australia, and from an enlightened study ¦'"i* ** . Lover's Walk, Port Darwin. of the rock structure and certain surface indications there he was led to believe that an under ground supply of water existed in that portion of the country For richness of soil and dryness of chmate the great inland plains and tablelands of Australia are nowhere else surpassed. An adequate water supply is all that is needed to render them fertile, and this may now be obtained from the effective artesian wells to which I have alluded, and from others where the underground storage reservoirs of the far interior have been tapped." Mr. Charles Winnecke, F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., explorer and surveyor, wrote — " My experience of the Northern Territory extends over 35 years. I have been astounded at the frequent mention of desert country. My experience is that some of the finest pastoral country in the world is found in Central Australia. Water, principally artesian, is more abundant than supposed. Gold is scattered all through this vast area, one quartz range showing gold Finest Country in Australia. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 299 for fully 36 miles. The Orabarra Reef, in the Jervois and Tarlton Ranges, has" never been visited by any white man but myself. Professor Tate stated thatj]the best indications of diamonds exist to the west of Charlotte Waters. Coal of good quality is found in the Macdonnell and more northern areas. It speaks for itself that more than a fourth of the Territory is settled with stations, mines, &c. I have no hesitation in declaring that it will be the finest and most remunerative country in Austraha. The extent of auriferous country is simply unknown, and a railway would increase all these resources a hundredfold. My past remarks on the fer tility of the Northern Territory should be a guarantee that I am not in error." Mr. L. A. Wells, who recently returned to Adelaide from the Northern A Bright Territory, where he had been engaged for two years completing the trigono- Outlook. metrical survey and fixing the boundaries of pastoral leases, has given an interesting account of his trip—" I had ample opportunities for noting the character of the country, having traversed on foot about 3,000 miles whilst conducting the Steamer "Victoria" on Adelaide River, Northern Territory, with Lord Kintore and Party on Board, 1891. trigonometrical survey. This kind of work necessitates traveUing twice over the area embraced. The Northern Territory has an enormous area of land suitable for grazing and culti vation purposes, and in the vicinity of Victoria River, Sturt's Creek, and the Ord River I am of the opinion that sheep-farming over a large extent of country capable of carrying 2,000,000 sheep, could be profitably carried on if means of transit were facihtated. A large tract is at present waterless, but water can be obtained by well-sinking, and a railway from Broome to a junction with the proposed overland fine at, say, Newcastle Waters would open up an enormous extent of country suitable for wool-growing. If the proposed hne is constructed from the south through the Barclay tablelands to Port Darwin, another extensive area will be thrown open to sheep-raising. Without a railway transit becomes too costly, and it does not pay to provide water by artificial means for cattle-raising where the markets are far distant. The Victoria and Ord Rivers country is ideal grazing land, and I think these locahties would hold their own 300 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. with any others in the world at beef-producing. The natural advantages, where all waters are provided by nature, splendid grasses, and an assured rainfaU over rich soil make cattle- raismg easy, and up to the present time it has rarely, if ever, been found necessary to shift stock for feed or water. Ord River, chiefly in Western Australia, has approximately 100,000 head of cattle, and Wave Hill and Victoria River Downs about 70,000 head each. About 17,000 head of calves were branded at each of the latter runs this past season ; but, owing to want of horse flesh, Ord River were unable to complete their muster. However, the previous season 18,000 head were branded. In a detailed description of the country authorised by the Minister I have previously spoken of the beautiful soil on the basaltic plains, grasses, carrying capacity, timber, etc. The Northern Territory will, in my opinion, be a great producing country when opened up and required by the rising generation. At the present period there are large tracts of land equally as good in Queensland, where markets for produce are within easier reach. I firmly .(rj.-i*:.:-:- :>:,-7*. ., ¦; --¦•;-.-- Baobab Tree on the Victoria River, Marked by Gregory's Exploring Party, 1836. Stocking the Interior. believe that when the Territory is developed it will be done by white men, and I think no white race more suitable to settle theTe than Australians, more particularly those from the northern portions of our States." At the present time only a relatively small portion of the Northern Territory is stocked with cattle, leaving an enormous area of splendid pastoral country unoccupied. This is by no means confined to the more "tropical lands on the fine rivers flowing into the northern seas, or even the vast tablelands further in the interior, but embraces much of the broad expanse of the Territory extending right to the 26th parallel — country with a less rainfaU, but in many respects better adapted to horned cattle, and undoubtedly for horses, and even more certainly for sheep. Over this country, where surface waters do not exist, there is strong evidence that abundant supplies can be obtained at shallow depths by sinking wells and artesian bores. It is a remarkable and significant fact that on passing the 26th parallel of latitude the climate A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 301 becomes more temperate in these respects. The rainfaU increases, the fierce north wind that plagues so much of Australia, loses its force, and the nights become cooler. The pastora SOO^andTo^Om8 f^7 ? ^ ^^ Territo^ -d » is "timated that between 300,000 and 400,000 cattle are at present depastured on the various runs. Pastoral ^he government Resident (Mr. Justice Herbert), in his last official report p.,-,,,,-,.,, t0 the trOTernment of South Australia, said that the pastoral' land transac- auiut,. tl0ns and the resulting revenue for 1907 were as follows •— Area held under lease Area held under permit Area declared stocked Leases surrendered or forfeited Permits surrendered or forfeited Permits applied for Rents received Square Utiles. 1 35,822 j 32,306 111,182 2,947 1,464 6,471 £ 7,532 Typical Anthill, Northern Territory. About 36,000 cattle, valued at £180,000, were exported during 1907. The Government Resident looks for a steady increase in the export of cattle to the extent of justifying the erection of meat works. As an outlet for surplus cattle from cattle stations — and as a necessary adjunct to the scheme for the introduction of settlers to be engaged in mixed farming — the estabhshment of meat works is expected to take practical shape in the near future. If the carrying capacity of that portion alone of the Northern Territory that is permanently watered were reduced to figures, the result would be almost more than surprising. But if we consider the immense area of partiaUy-watered country as thoroughly developed by means of dams, tanks, weUs, and artesian bores, the magnitude to which the pastoral industry may attain is even more strongly forced upon the attention. There are also large tracts of exceUent pastoral land as yet without surface water, land such as in other States (particularly New South 302 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Wales and Queensland), through the energy and enterprise of the lessees, has, by the judicious expenditure of capital, been formed into the finest stations in Austraha. The practical out come of stocking of but a smaU portion of the vast area of the Crown lands of the Northern Territory would mean not only the estabhshment of meat preserving, canning, and freezing works (when the Transcontinental Railway is buUt), but also an extensive five stock export trade, not only to the neighboring colonies, but also from Port Darwin to Singapore and other Eastern States. An approximate estimate of the carrying capacity of the country to the north of Barrow Creek — some 200,000 square miles, at 10 head of cattle per mile — gives a total of 2,000,000 head. This is a low estimate, as much of the rich pasture land on the rivers flowing from the tableland to the coast wiU support and fatten many more, probably double the number. The health of the hve stock is exceUent, and httle or no trouble has been experienced. The tablelands of the Northern Territory are eminently suitable for horse-breeding, and more attention is being devoted to this industry. Kv&-w-!m&BmM Pineapple Field, Northern Territory. Prospects of Agricultural Development. The Government Resident at Port Darwin writes — " After another year's experience and further consideration, with the added advantage of my recent visit to Papua, I am confirmed in the opinion which I expressed in the last annual report — that mixed farming on reasonably large holdings is the industry which should occupy the attention and energies of settlers, assisted and unassisted, who may be intro duced into this country. Upon quite recently looking up old records I found an account indi cating that one of the reasons for the past rapid settlement in the Argentine Republic was the enactment of liberal land laws, to tempt immigrants into the country and settle them in the agricultural districts. The terms upon which land was there offered to settlers were quoted by the late Hon. J. Langdon Parsons in one of his annual reports — ' Each head of a family is entitled to 250 acres free, and as much more as he desires to purchase to a hmit of 1,500 acres at about 75 cents per acre, or the settler may acquire 1,500 acres free after five years by planting 200 acres to grain and 24 acres to timber. Free transportation from Buenos Ayres to place of A GUIDE FOR TOURISTS, IMMIGRANTS, AND SETTLERS. 303 location is granted to all settlers and their families, exemption from taxation for 10 years • and colonisation societies are organised which issue bonds guaranteed by the Government the proceeds of which are loaned to the settlers in sums not greater than 1,000 dollars for five years at 6 per cent., upon the cultivation of a certain number of improvements. The result of these beneficent laws is conspicuous. In 1386 nearly 900,000 acres of wild lands were ploughed and planted.' Although the above was written 20 years ago, it is the history of a country at a time when in need (as we now are) of population, and which took effective measures to obtain it. The plan suggested in my last annual report for inducement of unassisted immigration approaches nearly that adopted 20 years ago in the Argentine with immediate success, though my suggestion erred in being in some degree less enticing. I made no reference to any scheme for the financial assistance of the unassisted immigrant, but I have since suggested that a system of financial aid to settlers might weU be adopted as a corollary to a systematic immigration and land settlement scheme— such system to be based upon that obtaining in New Zealand : no advances to be made until at least 12 months after settlement, and until a certain amount of improvements have been effected." Bermuda Arrowroot Crop in the Northern Territory. There is no doubt that the Northern Territory is singularly Tropical Plants. noted for the growth of cotton. Although not indigenous, it is now found growing wild through the jungles, and there is no place in the world more adapted for its successful cultivation. Dr. Holtze, when Director of the Botanic Gardens at Port Darwin, sent some of the produce to the Manchester Exhibition, where it was most favorably reported on. The millowners of Lancashire, with the view of emanci pating themselves from the rings that control the American supply, are now reported to be searching for some part of the British dominions where they can successfuUy promote the growth of cotton. They might search in vain for a better place than the Northern Territory. Provision would undoubtedly have to be made in the near future for the labor required. Two kinds — Sea Island and Egyptian cotton — were cultivated in 1906 and they did well, the latter 304 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. yielding a heavy crop. In a paper read before the Geographical Society in Adelaide on July 4th, 1901, by Mr. Maurice Holtze, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. (Lond.), who for many years was Director of the Botanic Gardens, Palmerston, Port Darwin, he states there is quite enough suitable land in the northern extremity of the Territory for very considerable cultivation, quite enough to make the country prosperous. The agricultural land is situated near the seacoast and on the banks of the rivers flowing to the sea. Plantations should therefore be kept within a belt of, say, 80 miles wide round the coast, which would give us an area of about 80,000 square miles, or upwards of 51,000,000 acres. A small part of the Northern Territory indeed ; but yet even granted that less than a quarter of this area is suitable for agriculture, it is sufficiently large to employ several hundred thousand people in tropical agriculture. This assertion may seem greatly exaggerated till it is remembered that Java, within less than five days' steam from Port Darwin, carries on something like 80,000 square miles a population of considerably over Wine Palm, Northern Territory. 30,000,000. At the end of 1906 an area of 55 acres was under sisal hemp plant in the Botanic Gardens and Experimental Nursery, planted by prison labor. The growth has been satisfac tory to the curator, who hopes that in two years' time machinery will be required for the pro duction of fibre. The Curator of the Botanic Gardens at Port Darwin (Mr. N. Holtze),- in his report to the Government Resident, said — " Whether the fibre can be produced at a profit with European labor is a moot point, but I feel very sanguine that with proper management it can. If this can be proved by our experiment, then the problem of the profitable utilisation of a very large area of our Crown lands wiU have been solved. That the industry is no mean one will, I think, be reahsed when it is known that America last year imported 200,000 tons of the raw sisal fibre, valued at eight and a quarter millions of pounds sterhng. Further, it is estimated that Australia for binder twine alone can consume 10,000 tons of sisal fibre yearly. The rice crop last season was a failure, owing to the want of sufficient rain. This is the first A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 305 Northern Territory Natives. [P Foi-lsrhr, Photo. War Dance, Central Australian Natives. P. Foelsche, Photo. 306 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. failure recorded here, and the rainfall returns show that such another season has not been experienced since the records were commenced — 35 years ago. This season I have five kinds under trial, and so far they look well." Rubber trees also grow well in this part of Northern Australia. Of the mineral wealth of the Northern Territory the Rev. T. E. Tenison The Mining Woods, F.G.S., the famous geologist, after much exploration work and Industry. years of experience, said — " I confidently assert that the Northern Terri tory is exceptionaUy rich in minerals, only a small portion of which has been made known to the public. I do not beheve that the same quantity of mineral, veins of gold, silver, tin, copper, and lead will be found in any equal portion of Australia ; in fact, I doubt if many provinces will be found in any country so singularly and exceptionally favored as Arnheim's Land in respect to mineral riches. Of the mines that have already been worked in gold especially, they cannot be said to have gone to any great depth, but nearly all have Copper Ore at Pine Creek, Ready for Export. [P. Foelsche, Photo. shown unusually good ore, and it is unquestionable that not 25 per cent, of the veins visible have been worked at all. Years will not exhaust the discoveries to be made here when the difficulties of labor have been got over, as they will be surely ere long. The peninsula of Arn heim's Land will become one of the great mining centres of Australia." Professor Tate, F.G.S., declared — " The development of the mineral resources of the Northern Territory is but in its infancy, and I beheve that rich stanniferous lodes will yet be found. Rich auriferous lodes abound over a large tract of country. It is my honest conviction the gold reefs can be worked profitably and to a considerable depth." Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, F.G.S., Government Geologist in South Australia, in his evidence before the Commission, said — " The present gold mining fields are capable of much further development. They should go in for deep mining." Mr. J. V. Parkes, late Inspector of Mines in the Northern Territory, wrote — " I have no hesitation in saying that the Northern Territory is phenomenally rich in minerals, especiaUy in gold and tin." Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, Government Geologist of South Australia, has also reported favor ably on the mineral resources of the country. The total number of men engaged in mining for A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 307 the year 1906 in aU capacities, was 1,197 (of whom 179 were Europeans and 1,018 Chinese), as against 1,120 m 1905. The output of all minerals, verified by Customs returns, reached for the year a value of £132,146. This result constitutes a record for the Territory. The total production of gold bullion (exclusive of Macdonnell Ranges) was 15,321ozs., valued at £50 001 f°ilWOn at , Alltm^& Battery and Cyanide Works, and forwarded thence to Adelaide was l,079ozs., valued at £3,971, as against l,114ozs., value £4,146, for 1905. The total yield of the Northern lerntory, therefore, for 1906 was 16,400ozs., value £53,972, as against 15 475ozs valued at £48,347, for 1905. Only 315 miners were engaged in gold mining last year (out of a total of 1,197), as against 490 in 1905. Of mineral claims 182 were registered In 1905 the number registered was 185. In 1907, 1,166 men were employed and 200 claims were registered. The year's production of tin concentrates, as shown by export figures, was 398 tons valued at £36,907, as against 288 tons, valued at £22,072 for 1905. This result was obtained by 391 men, of whom 77 were Europeans, engaged on the various tinfields. View on Katherine River, Northern Territory. Copper exports for 1906 consisted of blister copper, copper bars, scraps, copper contained in matte, and copper ore, and had the aggregate value of £25,062, as against £15,380 in 1905, and is a record output. The substantial increase is mainly due to the operations of the Nor thern Territories Mining and Smelting Company, Limited, at Yam Creek, which had a most successful but at the same time very short run of three months. The copper output was obtained by 157 men engaged in that class of mining. Exports of wolfram mineral reached 102 tons, valued at £6,981, as against 63 tons, value. £3,379, for 1905. This is the highest point yet attained in wolfram exports. The year's take of pearlshell amounted to 57 tons, valued at Pearlsaell and £7,833, as against 115 tons, valued at £14,352, for 1905. The Trepans Pishing, number of pearling boats hcensed during the year was 45, but the harbormaster states that only 17 were engaged in fishing. The sxport of trepang reached 84 tons, of a value of £6,056, as against 62 tons, valued at £2,929. for 1905. 308 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The total value of imports for the year was £74,659, showing a decrease The Trade as against the preceding year of £12,219. The large decrease is believed Record. Dy tne Sub-Collector to be accounted for by a depression in commercial matters, but at the same time points out that £7,000 of the shortage is due to the prohibition of the importation of opium. The total value of exports for the year was £154,222, exclusive of cattle exports, which equalled another £100,000. The result is a very material excess on the figures of 1905, and is mainly due to exports of minerals. The total revenue actually collected was £17.711 7s. 4d., as against £20,617 0s. 5d. for 1905, or a decrease of £2,905 13s. ld. The principal heading responsible for the decrease in revenue is narcotics, but this was expected, and it .was estimated in last year's report that it would reach £6,000. The actual decrease on this item was £5,699 19s. 5d. The Sub-Collector's estimate &'- "TCft "f ^ ^ ' :*wl- JUte* ;,.; - :.¦¦''. ,'y ' 7ry.: ¦ 77' '¦ ¦ ¦'¦' ¦ ¦': : _ ¦ . ,. ; -77 Warn .'.., 7~ '. BS8fc;';'":'"- " ¦ ¦¦?:¦'¦:;.'¦' %PAA*A*7. "¦VAAr " &&"\>%*A''i$A.mA-.*!, 'r^:^i*^^^ *¦-¦¦¦ '*'' ¦¦ A.A$4^m *&:y?i&jj& $k >•»* ¦¦ .... .¦'¦77 ''--¦/ :.Y iHffi § Cotton Plantation, Northern Territory. of last year was that revenue for 1906 would not reach £15,000, but the almost inevitable law of compensation came to his assistance, and £2,303 16s. 4d., and £602 15s. 2d. excess was received on spirits and rice, respectively — the excess on these items being directly attributable to the prohibition of opium causing a greater consumption of spirits and rice by the Chinese. For 1907 imports were valued over £78,996, and exports £139,261, exclusive of cattle. The Future of the Territory. Major-General Sir William Jervois, R.E., once Governor of South Australia, when visiting Port Darwin some years since in connection with defence matters, said — " Port Darwin is the key to the East," and some enthusiastic believers in the country declare that at Port Darwin the future emporium and gateway of Australia will be found. The same gentleman, in speaking of its commercial importance, used frequently to remark, in vindication of South Australia's independent undertakings in the Northern Territory, that it would not only well repay the Government their outlay, but present such a source of national wealth as to see in A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 30(1 future " the tail waggle the dog." At the present time the Northern Territory is indebted to South Australia for advances made to the extent of several millions sterling, and what with interest payments, losses on the short line of railway from Port Darwin to Pine ( 'reek, cost of government there is an annual deficit of over £100,000. A tentative agreement has been made for the transfer of the country to the Commonwealth Government. A Bill agreed to by the State Parliament during the session of 1907 is now in the hands of the Federal Government. Various proposals have been made for connecting the Northern Territory with Southern Australia by a railway, but up to the present time there is a gap of 1,100 miles between Oodnadatta and Pine Creek Further information concerning the Northern Territory can be obtained upon application to Mr. F. E. Benda, Secretary to the Minister Controlling the Northern Territory, Government Offices, Adelaide. Cocoanut Avenue, Botanic Gardens, Port Darwin. [P. Foelsehe. Photo- APPENDICES. The following tables give the latest available statistical information at the time of going to press : — POPULATION. RETURN SHOWING ESTIMATED POPULATION OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA PROPER, METROPOLITAN, AND EXTRAMETROPOLITAN DISTRICTS. Total- South Australia Proper. Metropolitan (Adelaide and Suburbs) . Extra-Metropolitan Districts. December 31st. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. L904 187,906 180,746 368,652 81,489 89,240 170,729 106,417 91,507 197,923 1905 194,241 180,157 374,398 82,581 90,654 173,235 111,6(0 89,503 201,163 1906 200,451 179,794 380,245 83,661 91,980 175,641 116,790 87,814 204,604 1907 209,294 183,137 392,431 84,851 93,449 178,300 124,443 89,688 214,131 June 30, 190 208,575 186,117 394,692 — — — — — On September 1st, 1908, it was estimated that the total population exceeded 400,000. BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, AND DEATHS. RETURN SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, AND DEATHS WHICH WERE REGISTERED IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA (EXCLUSIVE OF THE NORTHERN TERRITORY) IN THE YEAR 1907, AND THE PROPORTION OF BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, AND DEATHS TO EVERY THOUSAND PERSONS LIVING. Districts. Total Number o: Proportion to every Thousand of the Mean Population of — Births. Marriages." Dealhs. Births. Marriages. Deaths. „ , ,., ) City of Adelaide Metropolitan j gu^urbs ,. 871 3,174 687996 879 1,176 21-7123-19 1713 7-28 21-91 8-59 Total Metropolitan Extra-Metropolitan 4,045 5,164 1,683 1,387 2,055 1,681 22-86 24-91 9-51 6-69 11-61 8-11 Total South Australia . . 9,209 3,070 3,736 23-97 7-99 9-72 Y-. ¦ *H (appendices.; ALONG A COUNTRY ROAD. STRATHALBYN. [Govt. Photo. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 311 LAND. TRANSACTIONS IN LAND SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF THE STATE TO JUNE 30th, 1908. Area sold in fee simple Area granted University, &o. . . Dedicated to Renmark Settlement . Dedicated to Conservator of Forests Agreement to purchase Credit selections Scrub leases, instalment paying Total alienated, &c. Leased Lands — Right of purchase leases Perpetual leases Miscellaneous leases Selectors' leases Grazing and cultivation leases. . Reserved lands, South-East District Aboriginal leases and licences . . Pastoral lands Total leased Area in Acres. 8,275,696 122,027 16,652 162,262 1,092,651 3,713 60,397 9,733,398 4,521,469 12,810,523 1,330,616 58,651 58,916 27,192 505,476 80,334,450 99,647,293 Amount Received. £ s. d. 10,144,829 19 10 424,371 19 4 3,881 17 11 55,065 16 8 10,628,169 13 9 25,763 19 56,274 6 6,676 5 590 15 150 19 209 4 10 11 5 0 24,431 17 8 £114,108 13 3 Area Surveyed. Open to allotment — Crown lands Pastoral lands Miscellaneous lands . . 1.118.322 acres 14,423,040 " 173,366 " LANDS REPURCHASED FOR CLOSER SETTLEMENT AND HOMESTEAD BLOCKS. 338,623 acres 1 rood 7 perches (15,831 acres 3 roods 22 perches leasehold given in). Original purcha money, £421,067 2s. lOd. : repurchased at £911,166 19s. 7d. Area in Acres. Sold for cash Agreements to purchase Total alienated, &c. Right of purchase leases (homestead) . . Perpetual leases Miscellaneous leases Amount Received. 7,724 263,047 £ 20,483 17 *20,401 6 t9,007 13 d. 0 4 2 270,771 49,892 16 6 1,704 77,249 211 389 19 7,334 2 25 4 2 73 79,164 7,749 6 0 * On lands. + Improvements. Grand total of closer settlement lands in occupation, 349,935 acres. 312 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STRATH. CROPS. RETURN SHOWING THE GROSS PRODUCE AND AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE OF THE UNDERMENTIONED CROPS. 1903-4 1904-5 1905-61906-7 1907-8 Wheat Produce. Average. Barley. Oat ^J. Produce. Average. Produce. Average. Bushels. 13,209,46512,023,172 20,143,798 17,466,501 19,135,557 Bushels. 7-72 6-53 11-46 10-3610-91 Average. 487,920 346,718505,916491,246566,937 Bushels, 17-00 14-5019-2717-471519 Bushels. 902,936555,696869,146896,166874,388 Bushels. 15-6910-9815-2615-721319 1903-4 . . 1904-5 . . 1906-7 . . 1907-8 . . Average. Bushels. 121,580 93,818 140,367117,994 Bushels. 18-80 13-2519-63 15-70 Hay Tons. 479,723 294,252 398,866376,170 Potatoes. Tons. 31,415 19,521 22,27720,373 Average. Tons. 3-652-362-25 2-24 Wattle Bark. Tons.8,170 7,343 7,2747,787 THE VINTAGE OF 1908. The Government Statist having communicated with the wine manufacturers of the State respecting the last vintage, reports that from the returns received he estimates that 2,061, 987galls. of wine were made, against 2,495,434galls. in 1907, a decrease of 17-37 per cent. Owing to weather conditions a decrease variously estimated from 15 per cent, to 25 per cent. had been expected. The wine in stock on June 30th, 1908, amounted to 4,641, 622galls., against 5,392,245galls. on June 30th, 1907. The quantity and value of wine exported during the year 1907 has only been exceeded once, viz., in 1902. The following are the exports of wine during the last six years : — 1902, 846,691galls., value £124,916; 1903, 561,830galls., value £94,660; 1904, 686,159galls., value £107,573; 1905, 718,660galls., value £103,138 ; 1906, 562,819galls, value £99,247 ; 1907, 737,664galls., value £120,393. LIVE STOCK. RETURN SHOWING THE NUMBER AND DESCRIPTION OF LIVE STOCK IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Horses. Year. Sheep. Goats. Milch Cows. Other. 1903-4 1904-5 1905-6 1906-7 1907-8 176,648183,481 196,114 206,633 208,639 83,34888,15693,069 97,843 100,743 161,262184,303 207,652227,881233.928 5,298,720 5,820,301 6,140,6006,624,9416,829,637 11,650 13,38614,13814,317 13,428 88,246 111,497 117.762111,240 90,741 A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTtERS. 313 TOTAL TEADE WITH ALL COTJNTBIES. RETURN SHOWING TOTAL TRADE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA WITH ALL COUNTRIES. Counti V. Commonwealth of Australia — New South Wales . VictoriaQueenslandWestern Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Total Commonwealth United Kingdom Total Other British Possessions Total British Possessions Total Foreign Countries Grand Total 1904. 1905. 19l)(i. 1907. 4,725,727 1,805,564 787,631736,516 61,155 £ 5,669,2602,163,405 640,606 695,416 126,347 £ 6,893,528 2,193,274 739,292813,150 142,575 £ 8,706,973 2.643,506 839,173916,930 126,049 8,116,593 9,295,034 10,781,819 13,232,631 4,642,245 4,588,477 6,064,311 6,823,244 1,377,978 1,548,279 1,730,126 1,932,548 14,136,816 15,431,790 18,576,256 21,988,423 1,978,900 2,498,486 3,059,179 4,030,214 16,115,716 17,930,276 21,635,435 26,018,637 TOTAL IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. DECENNIAL RETURN SHOWING TOTAL IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE, AND BALANCE OF TRADE, &c, OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Your. Total Import and Export Trade. Total Imports Imports Retained for Home Consumption. Imports Re-exported. Total KxpoiN. Exports Produce of the State. Balance S.A. Produce Exported over Imports Consumed. Balance Imports Con sumed over S.A. Produce Exported. £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ 1898 . . . 12,980,579 6,184,805 1,876,040 4,308,765 6,795,774 2,487,009 610,969 — 1899 ... 15,272,754 6,884,358 2,441,007 j 4,443,351 8,388,396 3,945,045 1,504,038 — 1900 ... 16,063,709 8,034,552 3,615,912 4,418,640 8,029,157 3,610,517 — 5,395 1901 ... 15,387,477 7,371,588 3,572,300 3,799,288 8,015,889 4,216,601 644,301 — 1902 ... 13,772,296 6,073,782 3,144,215 i 2,929,567 7,698,514 4,768,947 1,624,732 — 1903 ... 14,919,072 6,618,627 3,475,701 3,142,926 8,300,445 5,157,519 1,681,818 — 1904 ... 16,115,716 7,450,716 4,515,821 2,934,895 8,665,000 t5,730,105 1,214,434 — 1905 ... 17,930,276 8,439,609 4,980,561 3,459,048 9,490,667 t6,031,619 1,051,058 — 1906 ... 21,635,435 9,702,264 5,208,934 4,493,330 11,933,171 t7,439,841 2,230,907 — 1907 ... 26,018,637 12,120,052 7,023,505 5,096,547 13,898,585 t8,802,038 1,778,533 — t Estimated us regards N ote. — Northern proportion of inter-State trimeters. Territory included from 1904. su SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. EXPORTS— SOUTH AUSTRALIAN PRODUCTS. VALUE OF PRODUCE OR MANUFACTURES OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA EXPORTED TO EACH COUNTRY. Commonwealth of Australia- New South Wales Victoria QueenslandWestern Australia Tasmania Northern Territory • United Kingdom Total Other British Possessions . . Total British Countries Total Foreign Countries Grand Total Staple Exports 1904. 1805. ). *2,322,695 *2,383,260 2,409,758 435,986 5,168,439 2,335,377 498,226 5,216,863 561,666 5,730,051 814,756 6,031,619 1906. *2,401,067 3,064,812 626,683 6,092,562 1,347,279 7,439,841 * Estimated. Note.— Northern Territory included from 1904. 1907. *2,963,825 3,498,485 768,465 7,230,955 1,571,083 8,802,038 PRINCIPAL STAPLE PRODUCTS EXPORTED. QUANTITIES AND VALUES OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES EXPORTED, PRODUCE OR MANUFACTURES OF THE STATE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. ^ Quantity. Declared Value 1905. 1906. 1907. 1905. 1906. 1907. £ £ £ Agricultural implements value — — — 51,767 54,118 38,876 Animals — Live " — — — 243,897 317,685 383,885 Bark tons 7,040 7,138 6,242 54,475 59,996 57,248 Beer gallons 33,433 52,598 123,014 3,267 4,429 9,807 Biscuits lbs. 70,225 54,196 54,047 1,611- 1,302 1,500 Butter " 1,479,895 2,202,885 2,362,388 73,264 103,171 1 12,739 Eggs doz. 2,842,078 2,779,625 3,135,992 102,932 100,873 122,191 Fruit — Fresh and preserved . value — — — 82,640 77,163 73,443 Dried " — — 25,185 37,914 86,021 Grain — Barley . bushels 58,460 152,258 201,522 10,342 26,795 39,094 Bran and pollard tons 7,917 12,043 9,869 36,809 52,716 47,339 Flour " 60,292 76,328 70,967 j 474,867 559,555 583,448 Oats . bushels 75,272 137,565 223,115 8,806 16,061 26,758 Wheat " 7,805,512 12,306,087 13,146,662 1,341,752 2,012,915 2,267,735 Hay and chaff tons 30,462 68,866 59,318 93,922 165,420 231,946 Jams lbs. 1,572,915 1,789,971 1,321,248 20,695 24,394 18,454 Leather value — — — 36,469 33,521 42,353 Meat — Fresh lbs. 130,959 136,061 201,053 ; 2,200 2,605 2,712 Frozen mutton and lamb lbs. 7,442,415 8,670,795 9,962,324 119,920 133,805 171,593 " poultry value — — — 990 195 107 " rabbits — — 12,678 10,417 8,281 Preserved lbs. 1,808,477 1,649,738 877,168 32,181 30,633 27,069 Metal — Copper and matte . tons 6,853 9,008 9,146 448,092 763,377 774,667 Gold ozs. 23,090 16,219 10,407 76,558 52,384 32,200 Ore, copper . . tons 4,247 3,087 3,006 35,339 38,883 47,096 A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. Kl.J PRINCIPAL STAPLE PRODUCTS EXPORTED— continued. Quantities and Values of some of the Principal Articles Exported, Produce or Manufactures of the State of South Australia — continued. Salt Skins and hides Tallow..Wine Wool .. All other Total Quantity. Declared Value. tons 40,442 value tons 026 gallons : 718,660 lbs. 40,784,013 value 44,080 1,046 562,819 41,771,682 49,124 1,595 737,664 50,639,368 1905. 1006. 1907. £ 68,368 345,708 12,127 103,138 1,491,943 620,397 £ 76,248 411,830 27,065 99,247 1,561,664 577,460 £ 85,604 443,295 47,209 120,393 2,100,067 798,908 *6,031,619 ?7,439,841 ?8,802,038 * Estimated as regards proportion of inter-ataLu transfers Note. — Northern Territory included from 1904. WHEAT EXPORTED. RETURN SHOWING QUANTITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN WHEAT EXPORTED, AND COUNTRIES TO WHICH EXPORTED. I Country to which Exported. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. Commonwealth of Australia — Qrs. Qrs. Qrs. Qrs. New South Wales 1,425 2,092 1,815 23,298 Victoria 227 591 25 8,874 Queensland 3 — 4 55 Western Australia . , 1,692 2,732 3,161 777 Tasmania . , 17,047 39,027 28,538 30,854 Northern Territory . . • — — — — Total 20,394 44,442 33,543 63,858 New Zealand — — — 1,054 United Kingdom 678,303 622,165 992,331 1,120,560 Cape Colony 127,534 213,284 253,977 319,786 Hongkong — — 8,033 Malta — — — — Mauritius — — Natal 30,451 15,726 9,200 17,484 St. Helena — — — Belgium — 1,746 — 1,867 Chili — — 112,226 30,687 Delagoa Bay . ; — — — — Egypt 2,121 — 20,184 — France 2,334 — — — Germany — — — 3,208 Italy — 1 23,744 — Java 4 6 13 1 New Caledonia — — — Peru 5,587 57,116 62,451 25,277 Portuguese East Africa 47 — — 526 Spain . ! 21,203 20,540 — Sweden — 10,052 — Ceylon — — — 8 India — — — 1,606 China — — — 48,818 Japan — — — 560 Grand total 866,775 975,689 1,538,261 1,643,333 1 316 SOOTH AUSTRALIA — THU CENTRAL STATE!. FLOUR EXPORTED. RETURN SHOWING QUANTITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN FLOUR EXPORTED, AND COUNTRIES TO WHICH EXPORTED. Country to which Expoited. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. Commonwealth of Australia — Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. New South Wales 5,562 6,012 5,909 11,233 Victoria 236 280 744 403 Queensland 7,547 6,160 6,738 7,152 Western Australia. . s,!U2 4,522 4,866 2,732 Tasmania 386 310 110 20 Northern Territory '- — — — — Total 22,653 17,284 18,367 21,540 New Zealand 80 10 — 509 United Kingdom 11,654 13,640 10,239 4,358 Cape Colony 3,306 1,996 3,389 2,655 Ceylon 647 1,677 1.153 1,557 Egypt — — 33 11 Fiji U — — — Hongkong 55 — 529 — India — — — — Mauritius — 261 2,892 1,000 Natal 13,186 8,198 9,827 11,174 St. Helena — 100 50 50 Straits Settlements 576 5,481 12,261 8,349 Bourbon 500 — — — Chili — — — — China — — — — Delagoa Bay — 15 — — Friendly Islands — — — — Germany — — 25 — Japan — — 10 — Java 8,027 10,916 13,680 14,722 Netherlands — — — — New Caledonia 21 — — — . Philippine Islands 51 — — — Portuguese East Africa 5 — 2,825 4,630 Reunion — 500 700 — Sumatra 38 215 348 412 Grand total 60,843 60,293 76,328 70,967 BREADSTUFFS, ETC., EXPORTED. RETURN SHOWING QUANTITY AND VALUE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN BREADSTUFFS, ETC., EXPORTED. Flour. Bran and Pollard. Wheat. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. 1905 '. Tons, 60,84360,292 76,32870,967 € 477,132 474,867559,555 583,448 Tons. 9,486 7,917 12,199 9,869 £ 31,23336,80952,716 47,339 Bushels. 866,778975,689 1,538,2611,643,333 £ 1,115,2811,341,752 1906 2,012,915 1907 2,267,735 A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 317 BREADSTUFFS, ETC., EXPORTED— continmd. Return showing Quantity and Value of South Australian Breadstuffs, Etc., Expouted— continued. Barley. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Bushels. 54,27275,272 137.505 223,115 I j Value. £ 5,(13!)8,OM0 10,001 2d,75N 1904 Bushels.140,760 58,460 152,258 201,522 £ 18,507 10,342 26,795 39,094 £ Tl,649,414 tl,877,318 12,076,959 112,974,800 1906 1907 * Includes maize, oatmeal, &c, C'2,H>2 t Includes maize, oatmeal, pease, &e., tt>,!)17. + Includes maize, oatmeal, &e., £.;,-l(>2. || Includes maize, oatmeal, pease, Lw>., £lu,-is.(i. EXPORTS OF WOOL. RETURN SHOWING THE SHIPMENT OF WOOL. Year, South Australh n. Othei l,bs. Australia Bales. i Value. Lbs. Total. Hales. Lbs. Bales. Value. Value 190419051900 1907 37,530,200 : 112,018 40,784,013 121,250 41,771,082 124,074 50,039,308 , 150,231 +: 1,307,4731,491,943 1,561,564 2,100,067 2,609,551 4,430,154 12, 1 62,879 10,570,078 8,421 13,632 37 087 30,274 £ 111,729176,271 437,700410,084 40,199,751 45,214,70753.934,561 61,209,446 120,439 134,882101,851180,505 1,479,202 1,668,214 1,999.270 2,510,751 WOOL— LONDON PRICES. RETURN SHOWING THE PRICE PER POUND OF ADELAIDE WOOL (AVERAGE GREASY) AT THE LONDON SALES. Sales. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. Sales. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. d. d. d. d. d. d, d. d. January February March April 87* 8i 1* 99.1 91 9j July AugustSeptember . . October Si 8i 9? 9 9 H 1010 May June 8 8.1 9f "1 ~ i November December H 9 9i 9i 8f METALS AND MINERALS. RETURN SHOWING OUTPUT AND VALUE OF VARIOUS METALS AND MINERALS PRODUCED IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 1904 1905190619^7 Value. Ounces. I £ | 17,897 j 76,025 10,983 45,853 8,037 27,000 5,609 | 20,540 i i Quantity. Ounces. 801 5,845 Value. Silver Lead Ore. Quantity, I Value. 104 780 Tons. 1,000 , 11,000 Copper. Quantity, Value. Cwts. £ 125,560 i 382,356 139,059 | 426,511 164,160 718,609 158,620 690,000 318 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. MINES AND MINERALS— continued. Return showing Output and Value of vamous Metals and Minerals Produced in South A ustralia — continued. 1904 190519061907 Ironstone Flux. Limestone Flux. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Tons. 46,68784,483 1 75,226 84,600 i £ 27,091 48,57733,85238,100 Tons. 43,440 44,49831,940 31,100 £ 6,516 4,791 4,7915,800 1904 1905 19061907 Phosphate Rock. Quantity. Value Tons. 3,0005,000 5,8508,000 £ 3,0005,000 5,8508,000 Crude Salt. 1 Other Metals and Minerals. Value. Total Value. Quantity. Value. Tons. 40,000 32,500 55,00075,000 1 £ 12,000 13,000 27,50037,500 £ 198 1,261 2,209 2,500 £ 531,783573,796820,465 814,220 SHIPPING. HEIURN SHOWING NUMBER AND TONNAGE OF VESSELS ENTERED INWARDS. From United Kingdom. Other British Possessions. No. Tonnage. 19J119051900 1907 145149164 183 496,460540,576 574,945641,341 122 113 115 Tonnage. 115,822182,888159,402 178,891 Fiom Foreign states No. 135 138151 175 Tonnage. 336,384 331,375 306,060449,509 Note. — Northern Territory included from 1905. No. 1,190 1,273 1,3011,300 Total. Tonnag 2,367,849 2,025,9972,785,199 2,925,973 RETURN SHOWING NUMBER ANT TONNAGE OF VESSELS CLEARED OUTWARDS. Year. From United Kingdom. Other British Possessions. From Foreign States. Total. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. No. Tunnagc. No. Tonnage, 159 151193 201 437,928442,264542,095603,778 •47 519884 46,40547,300 128,549125,771 57 107 131137 173,383 266,732 331,549389,700 1,2081,264 1,3041,300 2,398,135 2,632,233 2,779,109 1907 2,957,319 Note. — Northern Territory included from 1905. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 319 RAILWAYS. COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF THE WORKING 'OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN RAILWAYS FOR YEAR ENDED JUNE 30th, 1908, WITH YEAR ENDED JUNE 30th, 1907. So Miles open at close of year, 3ft. Oin. gaug> Miles open at close of year, 5ft. 3in. gauge Average miles open for the year Capital cost on miles open and completed Capital oost per mile open and completed Passenger traffic by ordinary and season tickets Coaching traffic other than the above Mineral traffic freight Wheat traffic freight Wool traffic freight Goods trafno freight other than the above Livestock traffic freight Miscellaneous earnings Revenue — i Gross earnings) Working expenses Net Revenue (balance after paying working expenses) Percentage of Working Expenses to Revenue Percentage of Net Revenue to Capital Cost (on average miles open) Number of passenger journeys Minerals carried Wheat carried Wool carried Goods carried other than the. above Livestock oarried Goods and livestock, gross tonnage, freight paying Train miles Total earnings per train mile Total working expenses per train mile Total earnings per average mile open Total working expenses per mile open Locomotives Coaching vehicles Goods and livestock vehicles Departmental wagons, travelling tanks, cranes, &c. Population, excluding aborigines, at close of year, approximately Miles of line open for every 1,000 of population, approximately Population for every mile of line opened No. No.No. £ £ £ £ o/ o /o No. tons d. ¦i. £ £ No. NoNo.No No 1,280 599J 1.860J 13,909,035 7,402 418,789 92,634 475,210 84,24034,219 491,069 99,52944,969 1,741,259 969,530771,729 55-68 5-57 12,839,428 1.146,305 291,875 22,485 743,255 47,010 2,25 ,993 1,238 594i 1,814), 13,724,301 7,491 5,010,121 83-41 46-44 936 521 331 443 6,226 221 400,000 4-70 213 370,983 81,295 398,841 93,590 31,835 484,054 75,18439,586 1,575,368 868,005 707,363 55-10 5-16 11,497,802 997.348310,548 20,578 069,546 38,919 2,042,939 4,334,243 87-2348-06 868478 328 429 6,140 221 383.000 4-78 209 The above is exclusive of the Palmerston line. 320 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. EEVENUE. RETURN OF STATE REVENUE, 1904-5 TO 1907-8. Year. Estimated, Actual. Excess exceeded by Estimate not realised by 1904-5 1905-6 1900-7 1907-8 £ 2,618,9472,619,951 2,858,234 3,095,329 £ 2,725,7242,800,011 3,195,285 3.054,606 £ 106,777180,060 337,051559,337 £ EXPENDITURE. RETURN OF STATE EXPENDITURE, 1904-5 TO 1907-8. Year. Estimated. Actual, Unexpended. Excess. 1904-5 1905-6 1900-7 1907-8 £ 2,585,4762,050,4022,851,7683,086,900 £ * 2,650,020 <¦ 2,718,537 d 2,897,612 «3,171,143 £ | £ 64,544 — 68,135 — 45,84484,237 b Exclusive of £43,475 d Exclusive oi £297,673 ( 1)aicl 0Ter t0 Plll>1'c I100' Winking Fund to meet redemption of public securities e Exclusive of £483,'523 ) BANKS— LIABILITIES AND ASSETS. RETURN SHOWING THE AVERAGE LIABILITIES AND ASSETS OF THE SEVERAL BANKS IN THE LAST QUARTER OF EACH YEAR. LIABILITIES. Year, .Notes in Circulation, Bills in Circulation. Balance due to Other Banks. Deposits. Total Average Liabilities. 19041905 1900 1 907 £ s d 378,548 17 7 373,604 8 8 418,071 17 11 496,326 15 0 £ s. d. 12,475 5 6 7,969 3 9 11,820 11 11 9,505 11 2 £ s. d. 42,825 8 4 52,929 0 0 03,061 18 1 56,422 19 10 £ s. d. 0,297,025 19 5 6,866,281 8 9 7,485,246 10 10 8.103.905 0 5 £ s. d. « 7,058,019 12 4 b 7,623,060 4 2 c 8,291,952 7 3 d 9,039,843 11 0 a Including- £326,544 Is. 6d, Perpetual Inscribed Stock. c Including £313,751 8s. 6(1. Perpetual Inscribed Stock. h Including £322,276 3s, Perpetual Inscribed Stock. d Including £313,563 4s. 7d. Perpetual Inscribed stock. Assets. Y'car. Coined Gold, Silver, and other metals. Gold and Silver in Bullion or Ingots. Government Securities, Landed Property and Bank Premises. 1904 1905 1906 1907 £ s. d. 1,554,651 3 4 1,847,191 4 11 1,755,613 13 3 1,964,458 8 0 £ s. d. 14,980 10 3 14,499 13 11 15,212 7 2 10,827 12 3 £ s. d. 95,571 10 10 99,874 15 10 121,409 17 6 123,309 17 6 £ .9. d. 425,941 0 3 411,071 18 1 407,981 9 4 362,450 5 10 A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 321 BA.NKS— LIABILITIES AND ASSETS— continued. Return showing the Average Liabilities and Assets op the several Banks in the Last Quarter of Each Year — continued. Assets -continued . 1904 . . 1905 . . 1906 . . 1907 . . Notes and Bills of other Banks. £ .5. d. 56,761 19 3 58,818 1 7 56,353 6 7 61,226 16 4 Balances due from ether Banks. £ s. 71,505 0 116,253 16 97,857 12 97,489 2 Notes and Bills Discounted, and other Debts to Banks not before enumerated. £ 4,532,0734,878,065 5,306,245 5,499,607 Total Average Assets £ 6,751,490 7,425,7747,760,6738,119,369 SAVINGS BANK— DEPOSITS. No. of Accounts. Amount. No. of Accounts. 19041905 123,455126,821 4,202,637 4,380,357 19061907 131,649 139,670 4,750,1925,304,704 THE STATE BANK. The State Bank of South Australia, estaWished under " The State Advances Act, 1895," makes advances to farmers, producers, and others to the extent of three-fifths (60 per cent.) of the value of land and improvements, and to the extent of half the selling value of Crown leases. Advances are repayable by uniform instalments, which include principal and interest, for terms from one to forty-two years. These instalments entirely liquidate the loan, with interest at 4£ per cent, per annum. The instalments for the following terms are as under : — For each £100. 5 years 7 10 15 20 25 3036 42 And a proportionate instalment for all sums under £100. Up to June 30th, 1908, the bank has advanced : — On country freehold lands On country leasehold lands On rural industries To municipal corporations and district councils On city, town, and township lands [Legislation is being passed giving the Government authority to make advances to settlers on Crown lands. This will be a great convenience, by enabling the settler to improve his holding while waiting for the first crop.] X 11 5 7 half •yearly 8 8 1 ii 6 5 4 a 4 12 5 a 3 16 4 a 3 7 0 a. 3 1 1 '.t 2 16 4 a 2 13 3 ct .. £661,047 5 2 . . 111,558 13 6 1,750 0 0 12,920 0 0 . . 445,988 11 3 322 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. GOVERNMENT PRODUCE DEPARTMENT. SCALE OF CHARGES FOR THE TREATMENT OF PRODUCE AT THE GOVERNMENT PRODUCE DEPARTMENT. (FREEZING WORKS ARE SITUATED AT PORT ADELAIDE.) Produce, Treatment, &e. Extra Storage. Lamb Mutton ButterFruit — Apples, pears, oranges RabbitsHaresPork Poultry — Duoks Chicks Geese and tur keys Poultry — for storage only 0-4d.

Lewis, LIMITED. STOCK AND STATION AGENTS. WOOL, HIDE, SKIN, and GRAIN BROKERS. auction ee:rs. Valuators, Land and Financial Agents. HEAD OFFICE: No. 18, KING WILLIAM STEEET, ADELAIDE. WOOL STORES : PORT ADELAIDE. HIDES and SKINS STORES : GILBERT PLACE, ADELAIDE. Directors : E. H. Bakewell (Chairman), C. H. Angas, Herbert White Hughes, W. L. Ware. Managing Directors : Wool and Produce Managers : G. W. Bagot. Geo. Dowling. John Lewis. Geo. Jeffrey. Inspector of Branches : Manager Land Department : James Wilkinson. A. C. Catt. Secretary : John Jacob, Jun. Branches and Agencies in all the principal Towns in the State, and at Broken Hill, N.S.W. 328 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Dalgety and Company (LIMITED), GRENFELL ST., ADELAIDE. BltAXCHES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA : Port Adelaide, Jamestown, Port Augusta, Wilmington, Mount Gambier, Port Pikie, Millicent, Burra, Snowtown, Naracoorte, Kingston, Robe, Beachport, and at Broken Hill, New South Wales. WOOL, GRAIN, AND PRODUCE BROKERS, STOCK AND STATION AGENTS, FAT STOCK SALESMEN, Merchants, Financial. Shipping, and Insurance Agents. Weekly Sales of Sheepskins, Hides, Tallow, Rabbit Skins, Opossum and all other Furred Skins, Horsehair, Beeswax, &c. SPECIAL ATTENTION PAID TO THE SALE AND DISPLAY OF WOOL. The Company is prepared to Advance on approved Station Properties, the Ensuing Clip of Wool, Grain, Frozen Meat, Butter, and other Produce. SOLE AGENTS FOR; QTJIBELL'S POWDER and LIQUID DIP, KOERSTZ WOOL PRESSES and PUMPS, IDEAL POISON CARTS, HEMMOOR and COMMONWEALTH CEMENT, ELASTIC CARBON PAINT, "GISKO" RABBIT KILLER, "RENBOY" SHEEP BRAND, BULLOCH, LADE, and McCALLUM "PERFECTION" WHISKY. Fencing Wire, Wire Netting, Cornsacks, Woo/packs, always Stocked. Orders for Station Requisites receive Careful Attention, Agents for the WHITE STAR and ABERDEEN Lines of Steamers, the MESSAGERIES MARITIMES, SHAW, SAVILL, & ALBION CO. Royal Mail Steamers. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 329 . P. HAEEIS, SCABFE, h 00, LTD. Ironmongers, Hardware, ar>6 General Machinery ,/Aerchants. LARGE STOCKS of BUILDING MATERIAL and BUILDERS' HARDWARE. MINING MACHINERY and REQUISITES. IRRIGATION and STATION SUPPLIES. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. ROPES and TWINES. FURNITURE and ALL HOUSEHOLD NECESSITIES. Gawlep Place, Adelaide. BRANCHES AT Port Adelaide (S.A.), Perth and Fremantle (W.A.), Broken Hill (N.S.W.), and 144-148, Coronation House, 4, Lloyd's Avenue, London, E.C. 330 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE, ¦iMM'i'iM'i'i'i.'.i'i'i'i'i'i'i'i' mi 'i ii'i' ! i'1'i'iu'i'i'i'i'i'i'ihrri I'l'l'LLlil'l'l'l'l'l'i HARROLD, COLTON, & COMPANY, LIMITED, 53, 55, & 78, CURRIE ST., ADELAIDE, General .Hardware Merchants, Leather Goods .Manufacturers. IMPORTERS AND MAKERS OF SADDLERY, HARNESS, BAGS, & PORTMANTEAUS. Tents, Tarpaulins, Waterbags, Cow and Knee Rtigs, and Every Description of Saddlers' Ironmongery. PLATEDWARE, CUTLERY, GLASSWARE, & CROCKERY. Fancy Goods, Stationery, Wall Papers, and Picture Mouldings. WOODWARE, & COACHBUILDERS' IRONMONGERY. Bar, Sheet, and Plate Iron. Steel Bars and Plates. Blacksmiths' Tools and Machinery. Band Saws. Upsetting, Tiring, and Drilling Machines. PAINTS, OILS, COLORS, & VARNISHES. BUILDERS' REQUISITES, viz:— All Brassfoundry, Locks, Hinges, Mantels, Grates, and Stoves. Enamelled Baths, Sinks, and Basins, &c, &c. Galvanized Iron, Gutter, and Ridge Cap. " "WUNDERLICH " STAMPED STEEL CEILINGS. Gas Tubes and Fittings. Engineers' Packings and Fittings, Belting, Shafting, and Pulleys. AT 53, 55, & 78, GURRIE STREET, ADELAIDE, TOPHAM STREET & LIGHT SQUARE; Also at PORT ADELAIDE. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 331 A. SlflPSON & SON ( ESTABLISHED 1855). GAWLER PLACE and PIRIE ST., ADELAIDE. Manufacturers of High-Grade Fire- and Thief-Resisting Safes and Strong-Room Doors. Our Safes are used Commonwealth Government of Australia. New South Wales Government. South Australian Government. Tasmanian Government. Western Australian Government. H.H. the Nizam of Hyderabad, India. by the following: — The Bank of Adelaide. The Bank of Australasia. The English, Scottish, and Australian Bank. The National Bank of Australasia. The Bank of New South Wales. The Bank of New Zealand. The Savings Bank of South Australia. The Union Bank of Australasia. DYNAMITE UNSUCCESSFUL. The following description of a recent burglary attests the value of our PATENT EXPLOSIVE-RESISTING LOCK (the Look of the other maker's Safe mentioned was shattered and the Door rendered capable of being opened without difficulty) :— " Dear Sirs— We beg to advise you that on the night of Friday, February 28th, 1908, burglars broke into our premises at Port Adelaide and made a very determined attempt to burst open our Tire-proof Safes with some high explosive, either Gelignite or Dynamite. Some idea can be formed of the quantity of explosive used from the fact that the large glass partitions enclosing our Omees were shattered, and windows were also more or less broken. The excessive noise must have disturbed the burglars, who apparently, fearing detection, fled without waiting to see the result of their work. One of the Safes was of your own manufacture, and was fitted with your Patent Lock, which successfully resisted the energy which was mainly expended harmlessly on the interior of the Safe. We may mention that this is a second occasion on which burglars have unsuccessfully attacked the same Safe, the previous time being in August, 1904, when explosives were also unsuccessfully used. We have great pleasure in testifying to the excellent workmanship of the Safe we have of your manufacture. Yours faithfully (signed), D. & J. FOWLER, Limited, For Particulars apply for Catalogue F.] ^^^^^__^^^^^^^^^^ RoB- J- Phillips, Director." VITREOUS ENAMELLED SIGNS and TABLETS. KEEP TO THE RIGHT The Most Effective form of Advertising known. EMOUMlt These Signs, unlike Painted Work, neither Fade nor Tarnish, but always remain CLEAR and BRIGHT. For Particulars apply for Catalogue Z,] ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ MANUFACTURERS: A.. SIMPSON & SON, ADELAIDE. 332 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. THE- BANK OF ADELAIDE (Incorporated by Act of Parliament, 1865 J. PAID-UP CAPITAL UNCALLED CAPITAL BESEEVE FUND BESEEVE LIABILITY of SHAEEHOLDEES £400,009.£100,000. £305,000. £500,000. HEAD OFFICE : King William Street, Adelaide, SOUTH AUSTRALIA. DIRECTORS : A. G. DOWNER, Esq. (Chairman). Hon. Sib. JENKIN COLES, K.C.M.G., M.P. Hon. H. C. E. MUECKE, M.L.C., J.P. JAMES HARVEY, Esq., J.P. ARTHUR WATERHOUSE, Esq. MANAGER: ASSISTANT MANAGER and ACCOUNTANT: JOHN SHIELS. R. SCOTT YOUNG. SOLICITORS : Messrs. BAKER & BARLOW. BRANCHES AND AGENCIES : Aldinga Angaston Edithburgh Edwardstown Lameroo Lobethal Owen Parrakie Streaky Bay Tarcoola Balaklava Freeling Lochiel Pinnaroo Thebarton Blumberg BlythBrinkworth Georgetown Gulnare Gumeracha Loxton MannumMcLaren Vale Port Adelaide Port Augusta Port Broughton Truro Tumby Bay Unley Caltowie Hammond Minlaton Port Lincoln Warooka Carrieton Hawker Morgan Port Pirie W illowie Clarendon Hindmarsh Mount Pleasant Port Vincent Willunga Cowell Hoyleton Mount Torrens Snowtown Woodside Crystal Brook Curramulka Kapunda Koolunga Mundoora Noarlunga SpaldingStansbury Yacka Yankalilla Yorketown LONDON OFFICE : II, LEADENHALL STREET, E.C. DIRECTORS: WILLIAM LUND, Esq. W. A. HORN, Esq. K. S. ANDERSON, Esq. MANAGER -¦ ACCOUNTANT : PERCY ARNOLD. W. J. MASSON. BANKERS : THE UNION OF LONDON AND SMITH'S BANK, LIMITED. AGENTS and CORRESPONDENTS all over the World, through whom the usual Banking Business can be transacted. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 333 Bank of New South Wales. ( ESTABLISHED 1817.) Paid-up Capital . . . . . . £2,500,000 Reserve Fund .. .. .. £1,600,000 Reserve Liability of Proprietors £2,500,000 £6,600,000 Senator The Hon. JAMES THOMAS WALKER. The Hon. REGINALD JAMES BLACK, M.L.O. Sir JAMES READING FAIRFAX, Kt. DIRECTORS The Hon. C. K. MACKELLAR, M.L.C. (President). RICHARD BINNIE, Esq. The Hon Sir NORMAND MacLAURIN, Kt., M.L.C. GENERAL MANAGER : J. RUSSELL FRENCH. ASSISTANT GENERAL MANAGER AND CHIEF INSPECTOR : THOMAS HUNT IVEY. AUDITORS : ALFRED G. MILSON, Esq., WILLIAM HARRINGTON PALMER, Esq. INSPECTORS : E. J. FINCH, C. G. ALFORD, W. J. EDWARDS, G. EDDINGTON, L. WHITEHEAD. ASSISTANT SECRETARY: GENERAL MANAGER'S INSPECTOR: CHIEF ACCOUNTANT: R. T. HILDER. D. S. K. MILLER. W. E. SOUTHERDEN. SOLICITORS : Messrs. ALLEN, ALLEN, A: HEMSLEY. HEAD OFFICE: SYDNEY, NEW SOUTH WALES. W. E. FRAZER, Manager. \ WALTER POTTS, Assistant Manager. LONDON BRANCH: 64, OLD BROAD STREET, E.C. DIRECTORS : Sir ROBERT L. LUCAS-TOOTH, Bart. (Chairman). FREDERICK GREEN, Esq. DAVID GEORGE, Manager. BANKERS : THE BANK OF ENGLAND. THE LONDON JOINT STOCK BANK, LIMITED. MELBOURNE. RODERICK MURCHISON, Esq., Advisory Director. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. ADELAIDE PORT ADELAIDE .. .. .. .. .. .. .. J 1. WALD, Manager, BRANCHES THROUGHOUT AUSTRALASIA AND FIJI A.GENTS AND CORRESPONDENTS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. 334 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The UNION BANK OF AUSTRALIA, Established 1837. LIMITED. Incorporated. 1880. Paid-up Capital £1,500,000 !(of which £654.166 invested in Consols ; £195,834 in Local Loans i (Imperial Government.Stock) ; £150,000 in National War Loan, [ 1,230,000 1890. Balance employed in the business of the Bank) ) Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reserve Liability of Proprietors £2,730,000 3,000,000 £5,730,000 Head Office — 71, Cornhill, London, E.C. Directors. WM. 0. GILCHRIST, Esq. Rt. Hon. LORD HILLINGDON WILLIAM R. MEWBURN, Esq CHARLES PARBURY, Esq. Sir WESTBY BROOK PERCEVAL, K.C.M.G. H. P. STURGIS, Esq. ARTHUR FLOWER, Esq., Chairman ARTHUR P. BLAKE, Esq. CHAS. E. BRIGHT, Esq., C.M.G. The Rt. Hon. the EARL OF CHICHESTER JOHN DENNISTOUN, Esq. CHAS. A. GALTON, Esq. Trustees. The Rt. Hon. LORD HILLINGDON, MAURICE G. C. GLYN, Esq., and ARTHUR FLOAVER, Esq. Manager— A. C. WILLIS. Bankers— THE BANK OF ENGLAND, and Messrs. GLYN, MILLS, CURRIE, & CO. ESTABLISHMENT IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. • General Manager's Office— 351 - 357, Collins Street, Melbourne. General Manager-S. HALLAMORE. Chief Inspector— C. W. T. F. RUSSELL. Inspectors— P. COLLEY (Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania) A. H. CHAMBERS, New South Wales and Queensland) J. B. PERCY (Western Austraha) G. E. TOLHURST (New Zealand). VTfTAPTA Melbourne— Brunswick, Colling - VH/lUltia. wQod; Fitzr0Tj Moonee Ponds, New market, Prahran, South Melbourne ; Alexandra, Bairnsdale, Ballarat, Bendigo, Camperdown, Casterton, dunes, Cohuna, Colac, Daylesford, Geelong, Hamilton, Kyabram, Loch (Receiving Office at Poowong), Mary borough, Portland, Rochester, Rupanyup, Stawell, Tarnagulla (Receiving Office at Newbridge), Toora (Receiving Office at Fish Creek), Traralgon, Wanga- ratta, Warracknabeal, Yarram Yarrani. NEW SOUTH WALES. ^Zt, oSd It] Albury, Berrigan, Broken Hill, Burrowa, Casino, Oootamundra, Cowra, Deniliquin, Forbes, Grenfell, Gunnedah, Hay, Henty, Inverell. Junee, Narandera, Newcastle, Orange, Paikes. Tamworth, Temora, Trundle, Wagga Wa'gga, Wellington, West Maitland, Young. „ .„„__. _.« Adelaide, Gawler SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Tamestown> Kadina (Bute Agency), Kingscpte (Kangaroo Island), Laura, Mait land, Melrose, ]\filUcent, Moonta, Mount Gambier (Keceiving Office at Tantaiioola) , Naracoorte (Receiving Office at Kingston), Port Adelaide Port Pirie, Port Victor (Victor Harbor). TASMANIA. Hobart, Burnie, Launceston. QUEENSLAND Brisbane, Bundaberg, Charters ' Towers, Clifton, Dalby, Gympie (Receiving Office at Kilkivan), Kilcoy, Kingaroy, Mackay, Maryborough, Pittsworth, Rockhampton, Toowoomba, Townsville, Warwick. WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Perth, Albany, Beverley, Broome, Bunbury, Carnarvon, Coolgardie, Cue (Day Dawn Agency), Fremantle, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Kanowna, Katanning, Kookynje, Lawlers, Marble Bar, Narrogin, Northam, Pingelly, Port Hedland, Ravensthorpe, Roebourne, Sandstone, Wilunai, York. NEW ZEALAND. Wellington, Ashburton, Auckland, Blenheim, Christ- church, Dannevirke, Dunedin, Feilding, Geraldine, Gisbome, Gore, Greymouth, Hamilton, Hastings, Helensville, Invercargill, Lyttelton, Martiriboro', Masterton, Napier. Nelson, New Plymouth, Oamaru, Opotiki, Palmerston North, Rangiora, Stratford, Timaru, Waimate, Wanganui, Whakatane (Receiving Office at Taneatua) . Circular Notes are issued in sums of £10, £20, and £50, negotiable by correspondents in the chief cities of Em ope; North, South, and Central America; Ceylon, Mauritius, India, China, Japan, and Africa. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 335 THE NATIONAL BANK OF AUSTRALASIA, Limited, INCORPORATED UNDER THE "COMPANIES ACT, 1890. Authorised Capital Capital Paid Up £1,498,220 Reserye Fund Account .. .. .. 180,000 (Used in the business of tho Bank) Reserve Liability op Shareholders .. 715,464 £3,407,904 £2,393,684 Head Office— 273, 275, 277, 279, Collins Street, MELBOURNE. Hon. J. M. PRATT, Chairman i ' JOHN GRICE, Esa. EDWARD TREXCHARD, Vice- Chairman Hon. Sir W. A. ZEAL, K.C.M.G. Auditors- W. M. HYNDMAN, Esa., C. H. TUCKETT, Esa. Solicitors - Messrs. MALLESON, STEWART, STAWELL, & NANKIVELL. Chief Manager— JOHN G. ADDISON (on leave). Acting Chief Manager— A. W. CUNNINGHAM. Acting Manager--W. G. SEWELL. Accountant— BRANCHES AND AGENCIES. VICTORIA. I SOOTH AUSTRALIA. Inspector of Branches. . T. A. EDMEADES : Adelaide: 26, King William Street. Pro. Inspector of Branches J. W. DAGNALL Inspectors F. W. STRICKLAND Manager J. G. JENNINGS Accountant H. D. SUTHERLAND Solicitors Messrs. GALL and ISBISTER Inspector of Branches P. FIELDWICK Angaston (Nuriootpa Agency), Auburn, Clare, Eudunda, Gawler, Gladstone, Hamley Bridge, Hindmarsh, Jamestown, Kadina (Paskeville Receiving Office), Kapunda, Kooringa, Maitland. Moonta. Mount Barker, Mount Gambier, Naracoorte, North Adelaide, Orroroo, Penola, Port Adelaide, Port Augusta, Port Germein, Port Pirie, Quorn, Redhill (Koolunga Receiving Office) , Renmark, Riverton, Strathalbyn, Wallaroo, Wilming ton. Yongala. NEW SOUTH WALES. Sydney: 60, Pitt Street. Manager GEORGE TURNBULL Accountant R. S. GREGSON Barham, Broken Hill. WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Perth: 48 to 54, St. George's Terrace. Manager H. R. ENGLAND Sub-Manager A. McDONALD Accountant A, W. BALLHAUSEN Albany, Bridgetown, Broome HiB, Claremont, Cuballing, Fremantle Geraldton (Northampton Agency), Goo- malling, Kalgoorlie, Katanning, Kellerberrin, Kojonup, Leonora, Mingenew, Moora, Mount Morgans, Narrogin, Northam, Wagin, Williams. London Office 123, Bishopsgate Street Within, E.C. Manager G. V. SHILLINGLAW | Secretary E. H. WREFORD Alexandra (with Receiving Office at Yarck), Bacchus Marsh (with Receiving Office at Myrniong), Bairnsdale, Ballarat, Benalla Bendigo. Birchip, Boort, Bridge- water, Bright, Buninyong, Casterton, Castleinaine, Clifton Hill, Cobden, Cobram, Colac (with Receiving Office at Cororooke), Coleraine, Cressy (with Receiving Office at Lismore), Dimboola, Dookie, Euroa, Fitzroy, Footscray (with Receiving Office at Yarraville), Foster, Geelong, Goroke (wtth Receiving Office at Gymbowen), Hamilton, Hawthorn, Horsham (with Receiving Office at Jung), Jeparit, Kerang, Kew, Koroit, Korumburra (with Receiving Office at Outtrim) Kyneton (with Receiving Office at Taradale), Lake Boga, Lancetield, Learmouth (with Receiving Office at ^Vaubra), Linde- now, Macarthur, Maffra, Malvern, Melton, Mildura, Moonee Ponds, Myrtleford, Xatimuk (with Receiving Office at Noradjuha), Xewstead, Nhill, Northcote (with Receiving Office at Preston), North Melbourne, Pens- hurst, Port Melbourne, Prahran, Pyramid Hill (with Receiving Offices at Gumbowerand Mitiamo), Quamba- took, Rainbow", Richmond, Ronisey, St. James, St. Kilda, Sale, Shepparton, Smeaton (with Receiving Office at Allendale), South Melbourne, Stratford iwith Receiving Office at Briagolong), Swan Hill, Swan Street (Richmond). Trarahron, Trentham, Tungamah, Victoria Street (Abbotsford). Violet Town, Wangaratta (with Receiving Offices at Milawa and Thoona) , Wan- gerrip (with Receiving Offices at Laver's Hill and Rivernook), Warrnambool, Yarrawonga. Accountant. . . Bankers-THE BANK OF ENGLAND: W. B. BROCK THE LONDON JOINT STOCK BANK, LIMITED. AGENTS.— New South Wales; Queensland; Tasmania; New Zealand; Fiji; Europe— The Continent ; Asia and East Indies ; Africa ; North Ajierica— The United States, Cuba, Mexico, West Indies ; South America, 3<*6 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. ENGLISH, SCOTTISH, AND AUSTRALIAN BANK, LIMITED. Subscribed Capital, 43,155 Shares £1,078,875 Paid up to £12 10s £539,437 10s.' Further Liability of Proprietors . . , £539,437 10s. Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits (used in the general business of the Bank) £201,990 The Perpetual Inscribed Stock of the Bank amounts to over . . £2,650,000 Head Office: 38, LOMBARD STREET, E.C, Chairman— C. J. HEGAN, Esq. The Hon. SYDNEY HOLLAND JAMES JACKSON, Esa. Directors : JAMES TULLOCH, Esa. WILLIAM GEORGE ELDER, Esq. The Hon. Sir JNO. A. COCKBURN, K.C.M.G. Secretary— JOHN PATERSON. Bankers-THE BANK OF ENGLAND; THE LONDON AND COUNTY BANKING CO., LIMITED. COLONIAL ESTABLISHMENTS. Colonial Inspector and General Manager — ALEXANDER URQUHART. Branches. VICTORIA— MELBOURNE. Manager— S. G. P DAVIES. Accountant— H. J. LIMBERT. Albert Park (Agency of South Melbourne), Ascot Vale, Ascot Vale West (Agency of Ascot Vale), Auburn (Agency of Hawthorn), Ballarat, Berringa (Agency of Ballarat), Box Hill, Brighton, Camberwell, Canterbury, Caulfield, Collingwood (Agency of Fitzroy), Cheltenham. Doncaster (Agency of Box Hill), Elsternwiek (Agency of Brighton), Essendon, Fitzroy, Hawthorn. Hay Market (City), Kew, Malvern, Malvern South (Agency of Malvern), North Carlton, North Melbourne, Oakleigh, Richmond (Bridge Road), Richmond (Swan Street), Ringwood (Agency of Box Hill), South Melbourne, South Yarra, Surrey HDls (Agency of Canterbury), West Hawthorn (Agency of Hawthorn), West Melbourne, Williamstown, Windsor. NEW SOUTH WALES— SYDNEY. Resident Inspector— C. W. WREN. Manager— N. F. CHRISTOE. Accountant — R. H. MANN. Sub-Branch Inspector — A. W. RAE. Albion Park, Balmain, Bangalow, Berry, Brushgrove (Agency of Uhnarra\ Bulli, Burrawang, Byron Bay, Crookwell, Dapto (Agency of Wollongong), Drummoyne (Agency of Rozelle), Dulwich HiB, Enmore, George Street West (Sydney), Gerringong (Agency of Kiama), Grafton, Jamheroo, Kangaroo Valley, Kempsey, Kiama, Lismore, Lithgow, Mosman, Moss Vale, Mullumbimby, Murwillumbah, Nowra, Paddington (Pitt Street, Sydney), Pyrmont, Queen's Wharf (Sydney), Rozelle, Shellharbor (Sub. to Kiama), Southgate (Agency of Grafton), Tweed Heads (Agency of Murwillumbah), Ulmarra, Waverley, William Street (Sydney), Wollongong, Woonona (Agency of Bulli). SOUTH AUSTRALIA— ADELAIDE. Manager— R. J. HAWKES. Accountant— P. LAMPHEE. Appila-Yarrowie, Booleroo Centre, Blyth. Brinkworth, Bute, Clare, Eastern Market, Hamley Bridge, Kalan- gadoo (Agency of Mount Gambier), Lyndoch (Agency of Tanunda), Manoora, Marrabel (Agency of Saddleworth), Mintaro (Agency of Manoora), Millicent, Mount Gambier, Petersburg, Port Darwin (N.T.), Riverton, Saddleworth, Snowtown, Tanunda, Tarcowie (Agency of Appila-Yarrowie), Tarlee (Agency of Riverton), Terowie (Agency of Petersburg), Wirrabara (Agency of Appila-Yarrowie), Wasleys (Agency of Hamley Bridge), Yacka (Agency of Snowtown). QUEENSLAND— BRISBANE. Manager— A. J. HOOPER. Accountant— J. J. CALDWELL. Nambour, Maleny , Eumundi (Agency of Nambour) . Letters of Credit and Drafts on the Branches and Agencies of the Bank in the Australian States can be obtained at the Head Office or through the Agents of the Bank in the chief provincial towns throughout the United Kingdom. Remittances made by telegraphic transfer. Circular Letters of Credit to any part of the World. Bills Negotiated, or forwarded for collection. Banking and Exchange business of every description transacted with the Australian States. Deposits Received at Interest for Fixed Periods on terms which may be ascertained on application. ¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦'a, *.'¦'¦ (AltVKK'l'lSKMKMS.) MOUNT GAMBIER, GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 337 The Bank of Australasia. £1,600,000. (Incorporated by Royal Charter, 1835. ) PAID-UP CAPITAL RESERVE FUND (£500,000 invested in Consols at 80, the remainder being used in the business) . . . . . , . . . , _ i 550 000. RESERVE LIABILITY of Proprietors under Charter 1, 600^000. £4,750,000. U»\l>0\ OFFICE 4. 1 1! ICI \ li\ I I Ml STREET, E.C. COURT OF DIRECTORS : The Right Hon. Lord Aldenham ; William R. Armuthxot, Esq. ; C. E. Barxett, Esq. ; Hon. Sir Charles W. Frpmantle, K.C.B. ; The Right Hon. Lord Geohge F. Hamilton; C G. Hamilton, Esq. ; Right Hon. Earl op Lichfield; Hon. Alfred Lyttelton, MP.; Sir E. M. Nelson, K.C.M.G ; Leslie Sanderson. Esq. ; The "Right Hon. Sir Andrew Richd. Scoble, K. C.S.I., K.C. Manager: R. VT. Jfans. Assistant Manager : John Laird. ESTABLISHMENT IN AUSTRALASIA. Superintendent's Office: 3!>4 and 396, COLLINS STREET, MELBOURNE. SUPERINTENDENT ¦ C. R. COWPER. Assistant Superintendent : C. J. Henderson. Inspectors : Alex. Christie, Samuel Farrell, E. J: O'H. Fulford, J. H. Reed, A. P. Webster. Sub-Inspectors : J. P. Doyle, James Kell, A. S. Murdoch, R. O. Ede, and A. J. Meldrum. VICTORIA. Melbourne: 394 and 396, Collins Street. Manager: H. J. Ralph. Sub-Manager : F. A. Pohlman. Inspector E. J. O'H. Fulford. Bairnsdale, Ballarat. Beechworth Bendigo, Bright, Burnley (Melb.), CaBtlemaine, Charlton, Chiltem, Cobram, Collingwood (Melb.), Corryong, Creswick, Drouin, Elizabeth St. (384, Melb.), Foster, Geelong, Katamatite, Kingston, KorongVale, Korumburra, Leongatha, Mirboo (North), Mooroopna, Morwell, Nathalia, Numurkah, Port Fairy, Port Melbourne, Prahran (Melb.), Rosedale, Rutherglen, St. James, St. Kilda (Melb.), Sale, Shepparton, Stawell, Strathmerton, Talbot, Tallangatta, Terang, Traralgon, Tungamah, Walhalla, Warragul. Warrnambool, Wedderburn, Welshpool, Williamstown, Wunghnu, Wycheproof, Vackandandah, Yarram Yarram, Yarrawonga. NEW SOUTH WALES. Inspector . . . . . . Samuel Farrell, Sydney. Sydney, Kogarah (Syd.), Leichardt (Syd.), Marrickville (Syd.), Newtown (Syd.), Northern Branch (Syd., 64, Pitt St.), Petersham (Syd.), Southern Branch, (Syd, 55.5, George St. South); Albury, Ballina, Bathurst, Bega, Broken Hill, Cootamundra, Corowa, Crookwell, Dubbo, Forbes, Goulburn, Grenfell, Howlong, Jerilderie, Kyogle, Lismore, Maitland (West), Maitland (East), Murwillumbah, Muswelibrook, Narrabri, Narromine, Neweastle, Nowra, Orange, Parkes, Peak Hill, Stroud, Tamworth, Wagga Wagga, Wallsend, Wee Waa, Young. QUEENSLAND. Inspector . . . . . . Samuel Farrell, Sydney. Brisbane, Beaudesert, Cairns, Charters Towers, Chillagoe, Crow's Nest, Heiberton, Hughenden, Ipswich, Longreach, Maryborough, Oakey, Richmond, Rockhampton, Roma, Toowoomba, Townsville. NEW ZEALAND, Inspector .. .. . . A. P. Webster. Wellington, .Ashburton, Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Eltham, Featherston, Fielding, Gisbonie, Gore, Hamilton. Hawera, Invercargill, Levin, Manaia, Marton. Masterton, Napier, New Plymouth, Otaki, Palmerston North, Patea, Stratford, Taihape, Temuka, Timaru, Waipawa, Wanganui, Waverley, Whangarei. TASMANIA. Inspector . . . . . . E. J. O'H. Fulford, Melbourne. Hobart, Burnie (Emu Bay), Deloraine, Devonport, Fingal, Latrobe, Launceston, Sheffield, Stanley, Ulverstone, AVynyard, Zeehan. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Inspector . . . . . J. H. Reed. Adelaide. Adelaide, Kooringa, Mount Barker, Port Adelaide, Port Lincoln, Port Pirie. WEST AUSTRALIA. Inspector . . . . . . Alex. Christie, Perth. Perth, Bunbury, Coolgardie, Cue, Davyhurst, Fremantle, Kalgoorlie, Laverton, Menzies, Peak Hill. AGENTS and CORRESPONDENTS. Circular Notes are issued in sums of £10 and £25, negotiable by Correspondents in the Chief Cities of Europe, North and South America, Africa, and the East. 338 SOCTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. SEPPELTSFIELD. Largest Winery in the World. One Million Gallons in Stock. HEAD OFFICE: GREENOCK, SOUTH AUSTRALIA. BRANCHES: ADELAIDE, BROKEN HILL, FREMANTLE (W.A.), and BRISBANE. &o ois AD8Te4^ -4.. u QUELLTHALER = HOOK == "SAN CARLO" OLARET ^= AS SUPPLIED TO NORTH GKEMAN LLOYD, ADELAIDE S.S. Co., Ltd., etc. PORTS. SHERRY. EXPORT BERGUNDY. MADEIRA. FRONTIGNAC. II. BURI1VG «SC SOBELS, Proprietors "SPRING VALE VINEYARDS," Adelaide. A GUIDE POR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 339 G. F. CLELAND & SONS, LTD., AUSTRALIAN WINE MERCHANTS, AND OLIVE OIL MAKERS. Sir Samuel Davenport's Pure Olive Oil. CELLARS: BEAUMONT. HEAD OFFICE: 21, KING WILLIAM STREET, ADELAIDE. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN PORTLAND CEMENT. WORKS AT BRIGHTON (Near Adelaide). Made with Entirely New Machinery, and by the Most Modern Process. EQUAL TO THE BEST IMPORTED. GUARANTEED TO PASS ALL GOVERNMENT TESTS Used in the Reinforced Concrete Buildings recently erected in Adelaide, by Proprietary and other Broken Hill Mining Companies, Municipal Tramways, and in Government Contracts. __ Obtainable from all Merchants and Storekeepers. In Bags and Casks. WHOLESALE ONLY FR^OM THE WORKS. [Telephone 717.] 340 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. The Adelaide jSteamship Company, LIMITED. WEST AUSTRALIAN SERVICE, Regularly, by New Express Passenger Steamers, Fastest on the Coast, connecting at Fremantle with Mail Steamer for Geraldton, and all North- West Ports. SPENCER GDLF SERVICE. Steamers twice a week to all main Ports in Spencer Gulf ; weekly to others. The EUPAEA and PAEINGA Round Trips have become the Favorite Outing for those whose time is limited. ) MELBOURNE, j SYDNEY, and \ QUEENSLAND j SERVICE. \ Weekly, by j Well-known and ! Favorite Steamers. < The far-famed Trip < to North Queensland < through Whitsunday \ Passage is \ unrivalled, \ und time is \ allowed to visit the j Picturesque j Barron Falls <, at (JAIRNS. } NORTH-WEST SERVICE. Maintained by monthly sailings to all North-West Ports from Fremantle. HEAD OFFICE, STEAMSHIP BUILDINGS, CURRIE STREET, ADELAIDE. FASTEST and MOST LUXUEIOTTS STEAMSHIP SEEVICE on the COAST. Every Comfort for a Sea Voyage.— Hot and Cold Sea Water Baths, Electric Light < Fans, Excellent Cuisine, Wines, Cigars, &c, Dining Saloons on Deck, Deck Cabins, Latest Systems of Ventilation. LAEGE CAEGO STEAMEES SPECIALLY FITTED FOE THE CAEEIAGE OF LIVESTOCK. EEFEIGEBATING CHAMBEES for the Carriage of FBOZEN CAE^GO. LOWEST RATES of FREIGHT and PASSAGE MONEY, CONTEACTS ENTERED INTO FOE COAL# DELIVEEIES AT ALL AUSTEALIAN POETS. BRANCHES AND AGENCIES THROUGHOUT AUSTRALASIA. A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. 341 Pei\iivs*ala,r and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, Conveying His Majesty's Mails, under Royal Contract, between England, India, Australia, China, and Japan. DIRECT FOUTXICiHTLY SERVICE BETWEEN AUSTRALIA AM> LOJt'IMIft. The Company's Steamers call at Fremantle, Colombo, Egypt, and Marseilles, en route to London, transhipping passengers at Port Said for Brindisi, and at Colombo for ports in India, Straits Settlements, China, and Japac ROUND-THE-WORLD TICKETS ISSUED, vii Suez Canal to London, returning vid New York and Vancouver, thence to Honolulu and Queensland ; vid Canadian Pacific Line to Vancouver, thence vid Japan, China, and Tones Straits, or vice versa. SPECIAL EETUEN TICKETS TO COLOMBO, available for Two Months from departure from Australia. LOCAL TBAFFIC. — Passengers booked to Fremantle, also to Melbourne or Sydney (including trip to Hobirt during Fruit Season). Holders of First Saloon Return Tickets to Melbourne and Sydney have option of returning either by Bail or by Orient, Messageries, or N. D. Lloyd Lines. Holders of First Saloon Return Tickets to Fremantle have option of returning by Orient, Messageries, or N. D. Lloyd Lines. The P. & 0. COMPANY beg to draw Special Attention to the Superior FIRST and SECOND SALOON ACCOMMODATION on board their Steamers in point of VENTILATION, ELECTRIC LIGHTING, MUSIC and SMOKING ROOMS, &c, and to the Special Arrangements made for the comfort of Second Saloon Passengers. For Fares and all other information apply to the P. & 0. S. N. Company's Superintendent, Sydney ; or to the P. & 0. S. X. Company's Agents in Melbourne, Hobart, Adelaide, or Fremantle. ELDER, SMITH, & Co.. Ltd , Agents P. & 0. S. N. Co. George "Wills & Co. ADELAIDE, PORT ADELAIDE, PORT PIRIE, PORT AUGUSTA, WALLAROO (S.A.), BRISBANE (Qslnd.), and PERTH (W.A.). LONDON OFFICES : (General) 3, Chapel Street, Whitecross Street ; (Shipping) 96, Leadetshai/l Street. Shipping, Grain, and General Merchants. AGENTS FOR LUND'S BLUE ANCHOR LINE of Fast Passenger Steamers, between Port Adelaide Wharf, Durban, Capetown, and London. HOLT'S BLUE FUNNEL LINE of Cargo Steamers, between Adelaide Wharf, London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Hull, Dunkirk, Antwerp. GERMAN AUSTEALIAN S.S. COY.'S LINES of Cargo Steamers, between Adelaide Wharf, Colombo, Suez, Port Said, Marseilles, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Java Ports, Singapore, and Penang. NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING COY. LINE of Royal Mail Steamers, between New Zealand, Monte Video, Teneriffe, Plymouth, London, homewards ; calling also at Cape Town and Hobart, outwards. Exporters of WHEAT, FLOUR, OATS, APPLES, FROZEN MEAT, &c, &c. ^ SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. EXPORTERS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN FROZEN LAMBS, MUTTON, RABBITS, PRESERVED RABBITS. GEO. WILCOX & Co., Adelaide, S.A. EXPORTERS OF HIDES, SHEEP SKINS, RABBIT SKINS, FUR SKINS, TALLOW, &c, &c. GEO. WILCOX & Co., ADELAIDE, S.A.-93, GURRIE STREET. SYDNEY, N.S.W.-9, 11, 13, YOUNG STREET. BRISBANE, QUEENSLAND— 200, 202, MARY STREET. ROGKHAMPTON, " TOWNSVILLE, " LONDON OFFICE 26, GREAT ST. HELEN'S, E.G. TH A GUIDE FOR IMMIGRANTS, TOURISTS, AND SETTLERS. ^ADELAIDE CHEMICAL 343 AND FERTILIZER CO., LTD., — Manufacturers of the well-known— TOP R R A N D Fertilizers. Also SULPHURIC, ACETIC, NITRIC ACID, &e., &c. Works : NEW THEBARTON AND PORT ADELAIDE. Offices : ODRRIE STREET, ADELAIDE. R. BURNS CUMING, Managing Director. Conversion of Horse Trams to Electric Traction.— Breaking up Grenfell Street, preparatory to putting down the rails. [ W. S. Smith, Photo. 344 SOUTH AUSTRALIA — THE CENTRAL STATE. Testing the First Electric Tramcar in Adelaide. [ W. S. Smith, Photo. Trial Bun of the First Electric Tramcar.— An electric system 01 tramway traction was opened by Mrs. Price, wife of the Premier (Hon. T. Price), on December 23rd, 1908. \W. S. Smith, Photo. St'RVCTOR GENERALS OFFICE . ADELAIDE A fe^jWi . Phcrelijhcgrvphtr *3k