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GEOGEAPHY

CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND

GRESWELL

HENRY FROWDE

Oxford University Press Warehouse
Amen Corner, E.C.

GEOGRAPHY

OF

THE DOMINION OF CANADA

AND

NEWFOUNDLAND

THE REV. WILLIAM PARR GRESWELL
M.A. (oxon.), F.R.C.I.
Late Scholar of Brasenose College
Author of *A History of the Dom inion of Canada '

WITH TEN MAPS
UNDER THE AUSPICES OF
THE ROYAL COLONIAL INSTITUTE

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1891
[All riglits reserved]

PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
BY HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

PEEFACE.

The following geographical study of the Dominion of
Canada and of the Island of Newfoundland is intended
to be supplementary to the short history of those
countries recently published by the Clarendon Press. It
has been compiled from the latest and most trustworthy
maps and statistics, and has been corrected throughout
by the same gentlemen of the Educational Committee
of the Eoyal Colonial Institute, who have revised the
history, viz. Lieutenant -Greneral E. W. Lowry, C.B.,
Dr. Eae, F.E.S., and Mr. Peter Eedpath. Under the
ever-changing conditions of the Dominion, especially
in the West, it has been a somewhat difi&eult task to
obtain precise accuracy of details as to the increase and
distribution of population, trade, and native industries.
Even the boundaries of the older Provinces of Quebec
and Ontario, which we might have regarded as long
since fixed and permanent, have recently (May, 1890)
been undergoing revision on the North. The Province
of Quebec, once called Lower Canada, is no longer
contained in the Valley of the St. Lawrence, but, ac
cording to the Honourable Honore Mercier's statement
on pp. 7-8 of 'A Greneral Sketch of the Province of
Quebec,' must be extended northwards across the height

vi Preface.
of lands to James' Bay, and to the watersheds of the
Hudson's Bay Rivers. Further, the Province of Ontario,
once called Upper Canada, has long since ceased to mean
only that fertile peninsula and centre of British colonisa
tion surrounded by Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, but
has been expanding northwards to the shores of Hudson's
Bay, and westwards along the shores of Lake Superior to
the meridian of the Lake of the Woods, and to the
boundaries of Manitoba.
The geographical expression 'The North-West Terri
tories' has also been undergoing recently some modi
fication. In Keith Johnston's 'School, Physical, and
Descriptive Geography,' 1884, the term is said to mean
(p. 340) 'all the vast region of North America through
which the trading stations of the Hudson's Bay Company
are scattered. It extends from the boundary of the
United States away north to the Arctic Ocean, and
from the Inner Watershed of Labrador westward to the
heights of the Eocky Mountains.' It might have been
added that before British Columbia was created a Province
it was regarded as part of the North-West Territories.
Now, however, the term has been narrowed down to
the extreme northern parts of the continent north of
British Columbia and west of longitude 100° W., and of
the boundaries of Manitoba and the Keewatin District.
It includes at present the judicial districts of Assiniboia,
Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Athabasca, the official and
governing centre of these vast domains being at Eegina.
The Keewatin District, over which the Lieutenant-
Governor of Manitoba exercises jurisdiction, is a long
strip of territory lying directly north of Manitoba, with
an eastern boundary line extending from the north-east

Freface. vii
corner of Manitoba, at the meridian of Lake Winnipeg,
to Fort Churchill on Hudson's Bay, and with a western
boundary line following longitude ioo° W. northwards.
The North-East Territories is a recent geographical
term for the comparatively unoccupied regions lying to
the north of the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and
bounded on the east by Labrador, the dependency of
Newfoundland. Unlike the North-West Territories, the
term ' North-East Territories ' has no political signi
ficance. Meantime it may be noticed that, in a Bill
before the Parliament of the Dominion of Canada to
amend the ' North-West Territories' Act, a clause has
been inserted, at the instigation of the Government,
changing the name ' North-West Territories' to 'The
Western Territories of Canada,' the reason given for this
change being that the use of the word 'North' was a
misnomer, and conveyed a wrong impression to intend
ing settlers. Ultimately, no doubt, these Territories, as
they are claimed by the nearest Provinces, or separately
occupied and inhabited, will lose their customary and
historical nomenclature. An unorganised and unoccu
pied territory quickly becomes a judicial district, and in
due course of time a Province. In the future a series of
fair and fertile Provinces will arise upon the Prairies of
the North-West Territories, fully organised, surveyed, and
equipped with local and provincial autonomy. At present,
however, and perhaps for some time to come, the geogra
phical nomenclature adopted in the text may stand.
The orthography of certain names and places still
seems a matter of doubt and uncertainty, a fact which
may be explained by the presence of a French-speaking
community alongside of British colonists. Writers on

viii Preface.
Canadian history have not yet adopted in every case
a uniform spelling. I have spelt Mines thus instead of
Minas, in accordance with the fashion set by Mr.
Kingsford, the latest historian of Canada, although the
precedent of the poet LongfeUow is against this. On
p. 37 I have suggested that the County of Eichelieu, like
those of Charlerois, Montcalm, and Joliette in the Pro
vince of Quebec, was so called to commemorate a great
Frenchman. Hayden and Selwyn have remarked in
their ' Geography of North America,' p, 459, that it was
so named, like the County of Terrebonne I presume, to
denote simply the richness of the place. Canadian
Eivers also occasionally have two names, as the Dauphin
or Little Saskatchewan, the St. Charles or Assiniboine,
the Souris or St. Pierre, the Peace or Unjigah, a fact
which may sometimes puzzle the student. Moreover,
Canada would seem to be as famous for its patron saints
as Cornwall in our own country. St. John, for example,
is commemorated so often in the New World that the
reader is apt to be puzzled.
Although many remarks have been made in the text
on the ocean currents, winds, raiafall, atmosphere,
climate, soils, and general physical conditions of the
country, there is no attempt made to arrange these
conditions under any general system. The first chapter
is simply a very brief and prefatory account of some of
the more striking features of the land. In the last
chapter a few remarks have been offered on the in
dustries, wealth, and social progress of the country, taken
chiefly from 'Agricultural Canada: a Eecord of Progress '
by Professor W. Fream, LL.D., and published under the
direction of the Government of Canada (Department of

Preface. ix
Agriculture), 1889; also, from an 'Ofiicial Handbook
of Information relating to the Dominion of Canada,'
published by the Government of Canada (Department of
Agriculture), i8go; and from 'British Columbia, its
Resources and Capabilities,' reprinted from 'Canada:
a Memorial Volume,' Montreal, 1889. For the para
graphs on educational progress I am indebted to a paper
read by Mr. Henry F. Moore before the Fellows of the
Eoyal Colonial Institute, April, 1889, entitled 'Canadian
Lands and their Development.' For general information
on the Dominion I have consulted the following papers
read before the Fellows of the Eoyal Colonial Institute : —
' The British Association in Canada,' read by Sir Henry
Lefroy, K.C.M.G., C.B., January, 1885 ; ' Newfoundland :
our oldest Colony,' read by Sir Eobert Pinsent, D.C.L.,
April, 1885; 'Eecent and Prospective Development of
Canada,' read by Mr. Joseph G. Colmer, C.M.G., January,
1886; 'British Columbia,' read by the Eight Eev. the
Bishop of New Westminster, March, 1887.
My object throughout has been to obtain the most
trustworthy information from official sources, and from
the accounts of those who have had the most recent
personal experience of the Provinces of the Dominion.
Occasionally there are disputed points in the geography
as there are in the history of the country. The climate
itself is often variously described by those who have
lived in the Dominion. This is only natural when we
consider the vast area and extent of the country, exceed
ing, if we take into account the water surface of the
lakes, the whole area of Europe. To convey correct
ideas on this point, a few remarks have been offered
in the text on the climate of each Province. The

X Preface.
climate of Hudson's Bay has often been a vexata quaestio
with experienced sailors. Some years, no doubt, the
waters of this bay are navigable for a longer time
than others ; and it is impossible to foretell with exact
ness what kind of winter will prevail in the Arctic
regions, or the number of days in the year when any
particular waters will be open. The nature and extent
of ice in Hudson's Strait cannot always be known before
hand, but as the Hudson's Bay route to the interior of
the continent is more generally used, the climatology of
these regions will be better known. On another point,
viz. the northern limit of the grains and grasses in the
Dominion, various opinions have prevailed, but perhaps
it is safer to put the wheat limit at 58° N. As in other
countries so in the North-West Territories of Canada,
there are, even at the same levels, both sheltered and
exposed places. In certain chosen localities, favoured
by soil and sun, wheat and barley may ripen at high
latitudes, even beyond 61° N. latitude, but it is not safe to
argue that at every spot along the same parallels of
latitude equally favourable results will be obtained.
The summer isotherms, however, of the Dominion are
deserving of very careful study before we pass judgment
on the climate of the Dominion, even under the Arctic
Circle. Further, with regard to the wheat-bearing zone,
it must be remembered that some kinds of wheat,
notably the Onega and Saxonka varieties, will ripen more
quickly and more surely than the usual kinds. Generally
speaking, it must be assumed that there is no such
^(ISapos apovpa, to use an Homeric phrase, as this in the
world. Nowhere is healthy colonisation and settlement
carried on so quickly. In my ' History of the Dominion '

Preface. xi
I have pointed out, on p. 263, in a table quoted from
' The British Association in Canada ' (Proceedings of
the Eoyal Colonial Institute, vol. xvi. 1884-5), that by far
the largest portion of the immigrants have been recruited
from the British Isles, and latterly from Iceland and Scan
dinavia. In 1888 the French and Belgian immigrants
only numbered 255 out of a total of more than 28,000,
the Germans only numbering 403. The fiUing-up pro
cess is going on, of course more especially in Manitoba
and British Columbia and the adjoining judicial districts.
The extraordinary traffic which passes down the Sault
Ste. Marie Canal, and promises to exceed greatly that of
the Suez Canal, is a remarkable proof of the growth
and wealth of the Far West. This canal passes through
United States Territory, but, as pointed out on p. 48, the
Canadians are making a canal of their own. This will
be another and extremely important link in that system
of unrivalled waterways and canals which exists in the
Dominion. On p. 321 ofthe 'History ofthe Dominion'
I have given a list of the canals of the Dominion
with their mileage, gathered from ' Canada : a Statistical
Abstract and Eecord,' 1887. In addition to authorities
already cited I have quoted, for the purpose of general
and descriptive accounts, from Sir W. Butler's 'Wild
North Land ' and ' The Great Lone Land ; ' from
'Picturesque Canada,' edited by the Very Eeverend
G. M. Grant, Principal of Queen's University, Kingston,
Ontario; from 'Hochelaga,' by Sir F. Head; from
' Manitoba, its Growth and Present Condition,' by Pro
fessor Bryce; and from 'Canadian Pictures,' by the
Marquis of Lorne. With regard to the latter authority
I have ventured to alter, in a quotation on p. 48,

xii Prefcbce.
the words 'if the ships be of 1400 tons' to 'a ship of
small tonnage,' some of the canals having only nine and
not fourteen feet of water over the sills of the locks.
I have also quoted occasionally from Lord Dufferin's
speeches, and from the pages of Parkman, the well-
known historian of Canada. For kind supervision and
invaluable help I am indebted to my revisers and to
Mr. J. S. O'Halloran, the Secretary of the Eoyal Colonial
Institute. For special information on the subject of
Newfoundland I have to express my thanks to Sir Eobert
Pinsent, and for the latest statistical and other infor
mation on the Provinces of the Dominion, I am largely
indebted to the gentlemen of the High Commissioner's
Office in London. With regard to maps and geographical
nomenclature, it will be seen that I have not found
space on the maps for every place mentioned in the text,
but a sufficient number, perhaps, have been given for the
purposes of guidance and illustration.
WILLIAM GEESWELL.
DODINOTON, June 17, 1890.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE I. PAGES
The Geography op the Canadian Dominion . 1-28
CHAPTEE II.
The Peoyince op Quebec . . . 28-41
CHAPTEE III.
The Peotinoe op Ontario . .... 42-51
CHAPTEE IV.
The Province op Nova Scotia . . . . 51-58
CHAPTEE V.
The Provinces op New Brunswick and Prince Edward
Island ... . . . 58-66
CHAPTEE VI.
The Province op Manitoba ... . 67-73
CHAPTEE VII.
The North-West Tereitoeies . . 73-8 1
CHAPTEE VIII.
The Peovince of Beitish Columbia . . . 81-93
CHAPTEE IX.
The Island of Nevpfoundland . . . 93-102
CHAPTEE X.
Industries, Weaith, and Social Peogeess . 102-123
Appendices ... . . • 126-141
General Index ... . . 143-154

LIST OF MAPS.

I. General Map, showing the boundaries of the pagi
Provinces, with Eailways . . To face i
II. Historical Map, showing Ancient Settlements ,, 7
III. Physical Map, showing cultivable zone of
grains and grasses, sage country, region
of droughts, summer and winter isotherms,
cold and warm ocean currents, the prairie
steppes . . . . ,,17
IV. The Province of Quebec . . • >, 29
V. The Province of Ontario ... • ,> 43
VI. The Provinces of Nova Sootia, New Bruuswick,
and Prince Edward Island . . . . ,, 51
VII. The Province of Manitoba, with southern
portion of the North-West Territories . ,, 67
VIII. The Province of British Columbia ,, 81
IX. The Island of Newfoundland . . „ 93
X. The Townships of the North-West . . „ 112

T<^ fnrp paee L

WI.

GENERAL MAP OF
SKo-vving Present Provincial
B ound aries ,Distr] c ts , Railwz^,
& Shipping Statistics.

TimJyvays Otoe ..

Populati-cm
Sbippin^ StaHatics ¦

99.79lf99,213
3,163,567 4-5,100
59,643

NovaSootia] ^^'

\ Annapolis

1,200

\ -fi^V

1,Z00

36,000

3.00 0

ILun^nburq

a.aoo

BOO

Fzj^eov.

3.200

Shelburrxe

1,00 0

WinAfor

6,500

'Verrmouth.

s.aao

Ontario

SconUwn
43,000
JS,000
36,0 0 0
StCaihei-mea
10,500
ToronZD
J 55,000
Qimbee
190,000
Quebec
63,00 0
JHaniiDbEL
fVbtJvpeff
20.Z38
.^j-tud-e West 90 -from. Gre en-vricK.
Oasfbrd Vniversity Fr-ess.
CHAPTER I.
The Geography of the Canadian Dominion.
(i) Aftee its first discovery by Cabot (1497) the
continent of North America remained for many years
untenanted by genuine colonists and settlers. Time
alone could prove its complete adaptability to the nations
of Northern Europe, and convince French, English,
Germans, and Scandinavians, that here along the same
lines of latitude was the natural home for the develop
ment of their energies. In the first place, the very nature
of the climate and its sea-coast was suited especially to the
life of a seafaring folk. The great island of Newfound
land, the bulwark of the St. Lawrence Gulf, is indented
with numerous bays and inlets, and boasts of a larger
coast-line for its size than any other important island
in the world. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince
Edward Island have peculiar attractions for fishermen
and adventurers. To explore them thoroughly from bay
to bay, from fiord to fiord, in the ardour of first dis
coverers, must have been a fascinating occupation. And
these maritime provinces lay at the threshold of undis
covered worlds beyond. The St. Lawrence was a grand
natural highway, which took the traveller into the very
heart of a country abounding in natural wealth. There
was nothing in the known world to equal the marveUous
chain of the great lakes. To those who had been ac
customed to look with wonder and surprise upon the
small inland lakes of Great Britain, nestHng amongst
picturesque hills, how noble these great inland seas,
fringed with forest wealth to their edges, must have

, 2 The Geography of the Cannadian Dominion. [Ch.
appeared ! As lake beyond lake was discovered, and this
splendid natural highway was opened up, the heart of the
colonist and trader rejoiced. In dry countries like South
Africa and Australia the main want is water and means
of transport : and places only a few miles distant from
one another are effectually cut off and isolated by a tract
of country where it is difiS.cult, nay, impossible, to con
struct a road. Before the days of railways, the colonists
in South Africa and Australia were debarred from all
the innumerable benefits which come from easy and
quick communication. The merchant needs speedy dis
tribution for his produce, the farmer an easy road to his
market, and the politician, who guides the affairs of the
colony, needs to be as quickly as possible in touch with
all sections of the community.
(2) In Canada the great lakes give all classes the means
of communicating with one another, and out of this
natural advantage has arisen the extraordinary prosperity
of the Dominion. To gain an idea of the vastness of the
Lake Districts of Canada, we need simply refer to the
map and see how wide is the area they occupy. Lake
Superior is the largest sheet of fresh water in the world,
being 420 miles from east to west, with an average
breadth of 80 miles. The St. .Lawrence and the Cana
dian lakes are estimated to hold 12,000 cubic mUes of
water, or more than half the fresh water on the globe.
The shores of the Dominion are not mere barren benches
such as border the sea, but hundreds of miles of green
fir-clad banks along which vast and solemn pine-forests
grow, and the lumberer's axe finds ready and profitable
spoU. In spite of the rigour of the cKmate, the country
proved to be extremely healthy for Europeans, and here
more than elsewhere in the New World the stock has
thriven. For races dwelling in the north of Europe,
Canada is a natural habitat, especially for the Bretons

!¦] The process of Settlement. 3
and Scots. Steam has come as a powerful auxiliary, and
has made the most of the advantages already at hand.
Without losing any of its native fibre and hardihood,
as it must do in tropical colonies, the British stock has
lived and prospered, and heaped up wealth. There is
a greater equality of wealth amongst all classes, and a
more evenly distributed population in the Dominion,
than in Australasia or South Africa. The lakes and
rivers are partly the cause of this. They have encouraged
dispersion by the facilities of travel and transport.
Especially during summer their open waters have pro
vided a cheap and easy transit. In the colonies of the
South Pacific we hear of congested towns and crowded
thoroughfares, and all the ills 'that, along with many
advantages, centralisation ever brings in its train. Many
railways exist there, and their mileage is constantly
being increased ; still they are narrow and expensive
arteries, compared generally with the placid lake and
broad river as a medium. There is, therefore, no such
town as Melbourne or Sydney in the Dominion.
(3) The industries of a new country also determine the
character of the population. The great mining centres of
Australia and South Africa localise trade, and cause a
divergence of population towards themselves. In Canada
the occupations of agriculture, of lumbering and of fishing,
which are the chief ones, spread the people abroad over
many country towns and villages. The purely rural
population of Canada is extremely numerous, and con
stitutes a most healthy and substantial class. It is the
' mascula proles docta ligonibus ' who so often have
proved the mainstay of a country. The seamen and
fishermen of Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Nova
Scotia are the hardiest perhaps in the world, and re
produce the stern and wholesome qualities of Scandi
navian ancestors. B 2

4 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
(4) As useful waterways in connection with the St.
Lawrence we must consider the Ottawa, St. Maurice,
Saguenay on the left, and Eichelieu, St. Francis, Chau
diere on the right bank. To the north lie the vast
inland waters of Hudson's Bay stretching 600 miles
from east to west, and 1 300 miles from north to south,
and providing a waterway for five months of the year to
the very heart of the continent. Port Nelson, the trade
entrepot on the west shores, is only 2941 miles distant
from Liverpool, being 100 miles nearer than New
York\ Thence by river, lake, and portage, for hun
dreds of mUes the way lay open to the utmost bounds
of the Great West. For 200 years fur- traders have ex
plored the continent and planted their Forts. From Hud
son's Bay Franklin undertook his land journey to the
Polar Seas, and from Hudson's Bay the Selkirk colonists
started to found the Prairie Province of Manitoba.
(5) From the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and from
Hudson's Bay, explorers could press westward to solve
the geographical problems of a new continent, till
beyond the sources of this great river and the latitude
of Lake Superior, they found the ground rise steppe
above steppe'*, and so reached the huge barrier of 'the
Eocky Mountains.' This mountain chain runs down the
whole continent for 3000 miles from north to south.
Once this range and its subsidiary elevations were passed,
the European found a more genial l^nd and milder hill
sides abutting on the great Pacific, and facing the eastern
world with its countless nations and peoples. Here, too,
was found an island — Vancouver — guarding the entrance
to this northern land on one coast, just as Newfoundland
guards it sentinel-like at the entrance to the St. Lawrence
on the other. On these two islands floats the British
» See p. 317 of Hayden and Selwyn's ' North America."
' Appendix I.

I-] The beginnings of ' Canada.' 5
flag, and at either end, at Halifax and Esquimault, is
stationed a squadron of British men-o'-war, keeping watch
over the ocean paths, and over that vast limb of England's
empire, which has grown so mighty since the day when
the sailors first crept cautiously into the St. Lawrence,
hoping, perchance, to find that North-West Passage
which had filled the imagination of Columbus when he
dreamt of Cipango and Prester John. Here in truth is
the true North-West Passage, not a permanent sea-way,
but a quick communication by ship and rail.
(6) The term Canada is said to have been an Indian
word, Kamatha, meaning a collection of huts, which the
French discoverers applied to the country around the
St. Lawrence. At the present time it is used somewhat
loosely to express the whole of the Canadian Dominion,
but Canada Proper was originally the geographical
expression for the watershed of the St. Lawrence from
its mouth to the Lake of the Woods, a distance, roughly
speaking, of 1 300 mUes from east to west. It was not
so used by Cartier in 1534, being limited more precisely
by him to the central part of the territory between
Montreal and Anticosti \ In the French annals of coloni
sation it may be regarded as the northern part of New
France, distinguishable on the east from the Island of
Newfoundland and Nouvelle Bretagne or Labrador and
the regions included under the term Acadia, on the south
from French Florida and Louisiana. According to Sir W.
Logan's report, dated May 1863, Canada Proper, meaning
the basin of the St. Lawrence, has an area of 530,000
square miles, being nearly five times as large as Great
Britain. (7) In the early history of North America charters
and grants given by both French and English kings to
companies and individuals were constantly altering and
' Kingsford, vol. i. p. 3.

6 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
upsetting previous boundary lines and landmarks. In
the first instance there was a grand simplicity about
Pope Alexander's bull (May 1493), the year succeeding
Columbus' discovery of the Bahamas, in which he drew
an imaginary line from the North to the South Pole, a
hundred leagues west of the Azores, assigning to Spain
aU that lay to the west of that boundary, while all to
the east of it was confined to Portugal. This was
virtually handing over to Spain by papal sanction the
whole of North and South America, excepting that
smaU part of the latter which Ues, roughly speaking, to
the east of the mouths of the Amazon, and is contained
in the Eepublic of BrazU. This imaginary geographical
definition was not accepted by other nations. Francis I
of France exclaimed, ' What ! shaU the kings of Spain
and Portugal divide all America between them, Avithout
suffering me to take a share as their brother ? I would
fain see the article in Adam's wiU that bequeaths this
vast inheritance to them.' So in 1524 Verrazano, com
missioned by the king, conducted a series of explorations
along the sea-board from Cape Fear to the Bay of New
York and Narragansetts, and called the country New
France. In 1534 Cartier set up on the Peninsula of
Gaspe both the cross and the arms of his country
claiming the vaUey of the St. Lawrence, a river so
named by him on August 10, 1535, the martyr's anni
versary. (8) Further north it must be remembered that Cabot,
by his discovery of Labrador and Bacalaos (Newfound
land, 1497), had given England a prior claim to the
continent of North America by right of discovery,
although it was not tUl 1583 that Sir Humphrey GUbert
unfolded the flag of England on the Island of New
foundland and exacted homage from the fishing fleet.
The Spaniards and Portuguese, it will be seen, left this

HISTORICAL, MAP SHOWING AN^CIEWT SETTLEMENTS.
To face page 7. N?II,

I.] The Old Charters. 7
part of North America almost entirely to France and
England. Cortereal, the Portuguese saUor, reached in
1 50 1 the Gulf of the St. Lawrence and explored the
North American coasts up to 50° N. He is said to have
freighted his vessels with more than fifty Indians whom
he sold as slaves. As the historian Bancroft remarks,
Labrador (from Laboratores or slaves transferred from the
territory south of the St. Lawrence to a more northern
coast) is a memorial of his voyage and the only per
manent trace of Portuguese adventure within the Umits
of the North American continent, just as Portugal Cove
is said to have been the only sign of their fishing expe
ditions in the neighbouring island of Newfoundland \
(9) In 1540 Francis de la Eoque, Lord of Eoberval,
obtained from the French king a commission as Lord of
the unknown Norumbega , (comprising the littoral and
mainland of New Brunswick) and Viceroy, with full
regal authority over the immense territories and islands
which lie near the Gulf and along the river of St. Law
rence. This clashed with the Cabots' Charters, given them
by Henry VII and Henry VIII, and assigning them all
lands that might be discovered with sole right to trade.
In June 1578 a Eoyal Charter was given to Gilbert with
' licence to discover - . . such remote and barbarous lands
not actually possessed of any Christian Prince or People,
as to him, his heirs and assigns . . . shall seem good, and
the same to have, hold and occupy and enjoy to him, his
heirs and assigns for ever, with all commodities, jurisdic
tions and royalties both by sea and land ;' also, according
to the Charter of March 1584, Walter Ealeigh obtained
even greater concessions by sea and land. He had a
monopoly of all commodities, jurisdictions, royalties and
privileges by sea and land, and power to repel all intruders
1 According to some authorities Labrador is so named after La
Bradore, a Spanish captain.

8 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
that came within 200 leagues of his settlement or dwell
ings. In July 1584 his captains, Amadas and Barlowe,
took possession of Eoanoke, an island of fifteen or sixteen
mUes in length, and a beginning of colonisation was
made. Virginia meant all the country between the French
dominion of Canada and the Spanish dominion of Flo
rida. Here was the beginning of the power that wedged
itself firmly between the northern and southern parts of
New France and held the seaports and littoral of the
east. The Virginia Patent, discarded Verrazano's barren
proclamation along the coast, but did not touch Cartier's
acquisitions to the north.
(10) In 1606 the Virginian settlements which had
failed at first were revived. They received the right,
according to King James' Patent, to have and hold all
the land from Cape Fear to the St. Croix Eiver. This
territory was divided into two districts : (i) the north
part, controlled by the Plymouth Company, and taking
in all land from east to west between latitude 41° N. and
45° N., thus including the coast-Une from the mouth of
the St. Croix to the Hudson Eiver, and embracing the
Lake country in the interior ; (2) the London Company
included the littoral from the mouth of Cape Fear Eiver
to the mouth of the Potomac, lying between latitude
34° N. to 38° N. Jamestown was founded by the London
Company in 1607, and the two capes at the entrance of
the bay were named after Henry and Charles, King James'
two sons. This was the first permanent settlement of
EngUshmen in the continent of North America. It
may be remembered that the first permanent French
colony had been settled at Port Eoyal (AnnapoUs)
by De Monts in 1604, three years previously. In
1620 the Plymouth Company was reorganised as the
Council of Plymouth for New England, and included
within their boundaries the whole North American coast

I.] Extent of New France. 9
from latitude 40° N. to 48° N., thus embracing the whole
of Canada from Tadousac along the valley of the St.
Lawrence to the interior.
(11) It must be borne in mind that in 1598, more
than fifty years after Eoberval and Cartier, a charter
was given to De la Eoche by the French king. He was
Viceroy of Canada, Acadia (meaning Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick and part of Maine) and the adjoining ter
ritory, with sole right to carry on the fur-trade. In
1603 an exclusive Patent was given to De Monts from
40° N. to 46°N. latitude. To this territory and more
beyond it the Plymouth Company laid claim in 1620.
Thus one charter is constantly overlapping and including
another, and the confusion of rights could only be
settled by the strong arm. It may be however some
help to notice here what New France meant at difi'erent
dates, before the name disappeared altogether from the
North American continent.
(12) In 1655 New France meant, according to French
claims, Newfoundland, Labrador, Acadia and Canada,
and the country beyond as far as it was discovered to
the west and south by the Jesuits and others. It also
meant French Florida ,\ This was a tract of country
wedged in between Virginia on the north and Spanish
Florida on the south. The Cape Fear Eiver on the
north and the Altamaha Eiver on the south formed
definite geographical limits. It was a tract of country
including the watershed of the Savannah, Santee, and
Great Pedee Eivers. Between the St. Croix Eiver and
Cape Fear Eiver, that is between Acadia and French
Florida, lay New England, from St. Croix to the Con
necticut and Hudson, New Netherlands along the Hudson
and Delaware, Maryland and Virginia from the Sus
quehanna to Cape Fear Eiver. Along the interior the
' See Labberton's ' Historical Geography.'

IO The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
AUeghanies formed a boundary between New France and
the Coast Settlements.
(13) In 1 7 13, by the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht,
New France lost the Atlantic sea-board she possessed in
Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and also Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick ; but she stiU retained the vaUey of the
St. Lawrence, Cape Breton, St. John's Island, (Prince
Edward Island), and the vast region lying on either
side of the Mississippi from the Lakes to the Gulf of
Mexico, known as Louisiana, claimed for Louis XIV by
Dela Salle (1682) \
Louisiana was an empire in itself, bounded by Oregon
territory on the north-west and New Spain on the west.
After February 10, 1763, New France disappeared
entirely. The settlements comprised in the St. Lawrence
valley, the Lake region, the Great North-West with its
vast hunting preserves, and the command of the whole
country southwards as far as the Gulf of Mexico, with
the Mississippi as the western boundary, had fallen into
EngUsh hands. This was the land Voltaire said was
'not worth fighting for, because, after aU, it only con
sisted of a few acres of snow.'
(14) After September 3, 1783, the United States Terri
tories appear upon the map, and the dividing inter
national Une is shown from St. John's Eiver and the
coast to longitude 95° W. or about the meridian of the
Lake of the Woods. In 1803, Napoleon sold Louisiana
to the American Government for £3,000,000, more than
doubUng the area of the EepubUc. The international
boundary Une then appears (lat. 49°) upon the map,
twenty degrees further west, as far as long. ii5°W.
up to the Oregon territory. This boundary line was
completed to the Pacific coast after the acquisition of
Oregon territory from Great Britain in 1846.
^ Appendix II.

!•] Present Boundaries and Area. ii
There were two minor disputes, already aUuded to,
between Canada and the United States on the question
of boundaries ; (i) that touching an area of 1 2,000 square
miles between the Province of New Brunswick and the
State of Maine, settled in 1841 by the Ashburton Treaty ;
(2) that touching the possession of the island of San
Juan, decided in favour of the United States. -Alaska
was bought from Eussia by the United States in 1868.
It was not till 1873 that the present boundaries of the
Canadian Dominion appeared upon the map.
(15) The Southern boundary line, as it now exists
between British America and the United States, follows
the 49° north latitude from British Columbia to the Lake
of the Woods, thence in a wavy line along Eainy Eiver
to Thunder Bay on Lake Superior. Thence to the east
through Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, Ontario till the
45° line is touched upon the St. Lawrence. The State of
Maine is thrust northwards, forming a rough-shaped
triangle, with New Brunswick on its eastern side. The-
45° line is again touched at the Bay of Fundy. At the
extreme north-west, British North America is separated
from Alaska along the 141° of west longitude. The
Dominion of Canada comprises, therefore, the whole of
the continent north of the United States frontier, with
the exception of Alaska, stretching up to the Arctic
regions, bounded on the east by the Atlantic and on
the west by the Pacific oceans. It includes the following
Provinces and Territories : — Quebec, Ontario (Canada
Proper), Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward
Island, Manitoba, North-West Territory, British Columbia.
(16) The Area of the Dominion, not including the Lakes,
is 3,470,253 square miles, the greater part being in the
North-West Territories. This is nearly equal to that of
the United States, which with Alaska is 3,585,900 square
miles, while that of Europe is computed at 3,800,000.

12 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.

The following Ust shows the estimated population of
the most important cities in the Dominion (1890) ^ : —

Montreal

. 202,000

Halifax (N. S.) .

40,000

Toronto

. 172,000

London

27,000

Quebec

65,000

Winnipeg

22,000

Ottawa (capital) .

. 44,000

Kingston

17,000

St. John (N. B., with

Victoria (B. C.) .

14,000

Portland)

. 44,000

Charlotte Town .

13,000

Hamilton .

. 43,000

Brantford

13,000

Compared with Australia the urban, as distinguished
from the rural, population is far less in proportion. For
instance, the city of Melbourne, the capital of the colony
of Victoria, is now said to contain a population of 410,000
out of a total of 1,000,000 ; and the city of Sydney, the
capital of New South Wales, contains 351,000 out of a
total of about a simUar number. Mr. Macfie, an Austra
lian colonist, has recently pointed out that this crowding
of one-third of the populations of New South Wales and
Victoria in Sydney and Melbourne respectively is an un
healthy sign. ' How striking is that abnormal and un
productive concentration of an excessive proportion of the
inhabitants of AustraUa in a few towns, compared with
the wholesome distribution of population in the most
prosperous countries of Europe and America where land
culture is properly held to be the chief industry. In
the United States in which agriculture and horticulture
take their rightful place, less than one-seventh of the
total population is diffused over twenty-four cities, each
containing inhabitants exceeding 70,000. Some idea of
the importance of American agriculture may be formed
from the fact that it produces an annual yield of nearly
.£800,000,000, and employs on 5,000,000 farms 10,000,000
persons. Sweden and Norway, with 6,000,000 industrious
people, have only half a miUion living in towns, the
' See 'Official Handbook,' published by the Government of
Canada, January, 1890.

'•1 Dispersion of Population. 13
remaining 5^ miUions being thrifty, hard-working
peasants \'
The population of the Dominion of Canada was dis
tributed thus, according to the last Census : —
Males. Females.
Ontario  976,461 946,767
Quebec  678,109 680,918
Nova Scotia . . . 220,538 220,034
New Brunswick . . 164,119 157,114
Prince Edward Island . . 54,729 54,162
Manitoba  37,207 28,747
The North-West Territories . 28,113 28,333
British Columbia . . . 29,503 19,956
2^188,779 2,136,031
4,324,810
• It is now (1890) calculated to exceed 5,000,000. We
may argue, therefore, that a very large proportion of the
colonists are agriculturists, fishermen, and farmers. This
is a more wholesome sign of a country's wealth, a pros
perous rural population being regarded at all times as
the 'backbone of a country.' In the question of the
distribution of the population, it must be remembered
that Canada's unrivaUed lakes and rivers have helped
largely to create many points of industry in all quarters '*-
The growth of the town populations has been remark
able nevertheless. For instance : —
In 1801 the population of Toronto was 336
„ 1830 „ „ 2,860
„ 1845 „ >. 197708
„ 1851 i> II 30,775
„ 1881 „ „ 86,445
In 1816, Quebec contained 14,880 inhabitants; in 1851
it contained 42,052 ; in 1881, 62,446. Montreal, fifty
years ago, held less than 30,000 with suburbs ; it is
now the largest city. Winnipeg provides us with a
' Extract from Paper entitled ' Aids to Australian development,'
read before the Fellows of the Eoyal Colonial Institute, December,
1889. ' Appendix III.

14 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
more recent example of quick growth. In 1888 its
population numbered 25,000, in 1870 it was only 200.
Contrasted with Cape Town, the capital of a country
which has been colonised for 300 years by Europeans and
only numbers 30,000 white inhabitants, this growth in
Canada;, although it does not touch the rate of the
AustraUan cities, is very remarkable. It is calculated
that British North America could easUy support a popu
lation of 140,000,000 at the rate of 40 to the square mUe.
The population of England is 450 to the square mile.
(17) Physical Features. — River Systems, — The Cana
dian Dominion is pre-eminently a land of wide lakes and
long rivers. There is no such waterway as that of the St.
Lawrence in the world. From BeUe Isle to the head of
Lake Superior, a distance of 2400 miles, there are only 72
miles of canal. Ocean-going steamers can steam 1300 mUes
up its course into the country. At its mouth (usually
placed between Cape Chatte on the southern bank and
Pointe des Monts on the north) the St. Lawrence is 20
mUes across. There are four main river systems in the
Dominion : (i) That of the St. Lawrence; (2) the Nelson
Eiver with Lake Winnipeg, into which the Saskatchewan,
Assiniboine, Eed, and Winnipeg Eivers find an outlet ;
(3) Mackenzie Eiver — each of these draining a basin
of half a milUon of square mUes on the average ; (4) the
Fraser Eiver, in British Columbia. For purposes of in
land communication these systems are invaluable, but in
addition the Dominion has deeply indented shores on the
Atlantic and Pacific sides, and a coast-line of many
thousand mUes, along which are the most profitable sea-
fisheries in the world. The products of the fisheries,
both exported and used for home consumption, were
calculated (1888) to be worth £6,000,000 \
(18) Plains and Mountains.— On the east there are
* 'Official Handbook,' 1890.

I-] Rivers, Mountains, and Lakes. 15
a series of plains, divided from one another by com
paratively low ranges. In the centre is the northern
slope of the great central plain of North America, so
flat and even that for many mUes it seems possible to
drive a carriage straight ahead without natural barriers.
A small tumulus seems a hill on the vast unbroken
level. Near Winnipeg, a small rising called 'Stony
Mount,' of 60 to 80 feet high, is the only elevation
along an immense river valley. The blizzards, or
sudden and severe snowstorms, which are one of the
drawbacks of the American continent along its interior
plateaux, are much less frequent north of 49° of latitude.
No doubt the lower the plateaux the less liable are the
inhabitants to this terrible scourge. It is in the United
States Territories that blizzards are chiefly felt.
On the extreme west is a rough mountainous country,
including the northern portion of the Eocky Mountains
and Cascade Mountains. The geographical features of
British North America are simply a continuation, al
though under very important variations of cUmate and
latitude, of those of the United States. As there are
plains in Texas, Montana, Kansas, Dakota, Nebraska, so
there are in the prairies of the Great North-West. As
there is a Pacific slope in United States Territory dis
tinguishable in features and cUmate from the interior
plateaux, so there is a Pacific slope, only of greater width,
in British Columbia. The Eocky Mountains are the
Great Divide, the high wall cutting off one part of the
continent from the other. Mount Brown and Mount
Hooker are the highest peaks in the Dominion, and reach
the altitude of 16,000 and 15,690 feet respectively.
(19) Lakes. — It is however its magnificent laJce system
which is the pecuUar characteristic of British North
America. There are three main lake systems lying upon
the surface of the country ahnost in a straight Une from

t6 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
south-east to north-west. Confining our attention simply
to the largest sheets of water, under Group I we may
place Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior ;
under Group II, Winnipeg and Winnipegosis, and
Manitoba ; under Group III, Lakes Eeindeer, Athabasca,
Great Slave, and Great Bear. The extent of country
through which this chain of lakes stretches is from
latitude 40° N. to the Arctic Circle. The minor lakes
and lakelets of the Dominion may, in each system, be
counted Uterally in thousands. For the sportsman,
fisherman, and naturaUst, they provide, in many cases,
a most picturesque and productive recreation ground.
If we except, perhaps, the newly discovered lakes of
Equatorial Africa, there are no lake systems anywhere
in the world approaching those of North America. In the
account of the Provinces the lakes wiU be treated more
particularly. Michigan, of course, Ues outside Canada.
(20) Climate and Products. — The Canadian Dominion
extends from the latitude of Eome to that of the North
Cape in Norway,- and has consequently a great variety of
cUmate. Generally speaking, it is much colder in winter
and warmer in summer than in the British Isles. The
average summer temperature of England is about 60-62°,
that of Canada between 60° and 70°. Taking a few points
from east to west, we shaU find that the heat is greatest
in the interior plateaux, as we might expect in a con
tinental cUmate. The average summer temperature of
Halifax is 60°, of Fredericton 64°, of Quebec 69°, of
Montreal 70°, of Winnipeg 65°, and of Vancouver 61°,
In the United States, further south, we shall find the
summer hotter than at any of the above places. Central
lUinois has an average summer temperature of 74°,
Ohio of 70-74°, Iowa of 72-78°, Kansas and Missouri are
hotter stUl. These latter temperatures are ten degrees too
high for wheat, which ripens best at 60-65°. With a

To face pa.ge 17

•s.

I ' <' Sff'""

>^
Jl
Longitu-d-e West 90 from &reeii-YrLclL. 80
Oxford UhM^-er'sUjf Press.
1-] Cli/mate and Products. 17
temperature above 70° it withers up, and ripens pre
maturely. Although situated further south, Kansas,
Nebraska, Dakota, and Minnesota, in the United States,
are often colder in winter than the Canadian provinces of
Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba. The apparent anomaly
of a milder climate further north in winter may be ex
plained by the fact that the interior plateaux of North
America are very«lofty in Mexico, and retain their ele
vation through the United States till they reach the
Canadian frontier. They then sink to 800 and 600, and
even 400, feet. It is well known that one mUe in height
(•5280 feet) means a difi«rence of fifteen degrees in tem
perature. The variation of temperature within a spate
of twenty-four hours is great in Canada, but it is more
remarkable in the desert areas of the United States.
There the thermometer will drop from 80° or 90° during
the day to freezing point at night. This is prejudicial
both to plants and animals. The country to the west of
" the 98th meridian in the United States Territory is chiefly
a desert, owing to the absence of summer rains. The
soils also are deeply impregnated with salts and alkalies
destructive of vegetation. The great central prairies of
the Canadian Dominion have, therefore, many climatic
advahtages over the United States to the south. The
temperature is more even, the soil is richer, the alkalies
disappearing as you travel north across the border, and
the rainfall in summer is more plentiful. Here is the
best wheat area in the world, extending over 1,400,000
square mUes of country. Grasses and the coarser
grains can be raised over more than 2,000,000 square
miles. In the warmer parts maize, quinces, melons,
tomatoes, apricots, and grapes ripen easUy.
At Toronto in 1876 the spring and summer rainfaU
was about 12 inches ' ; at Winnipeg this rainfaU reached
' See Hayden and Selwyn's ' North America,' p. 467.
C

1 8 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
more than 15 inches. This copious moisture is of the
greatest importance in quickening vegetation when the
temperature is high, and everything shoots up with mar
veUous rapidity. In the treeless regions of the United
States there are excessive droughts, where the artemisia,
or sage of the desert, is the only form of vegetation..
It would seem as if the Great North-West were meant
by nature to be the wheat granary of the continent.
(21) The following are the ofiicial tables of crop aver
ages for six years, 1 882-1887, in Ontario, compared with
those of New York and Ohio in the south '¦: —

Ontario.

New York.

Ohio.

Fall-Wheat per acre

20 bushels.

14 bushels.

12-8 bushels.

Barley „

26.1 „

22.6 „

24 „ .

Oats

35-7 „

28.6 „

31-3 ,,

Another table of statistics proves the fertUity of the
Province of Manitoba : — •

"Manitoba ..... 40 bushels per acre.
Minnesota (best wheat area of United States) 20 ,, „
Wisconsin . . . . .12-2
Pennsylvania . . . 12-3
<^^i°  12.8 ," "„
In evidence before the Canadian House of .Conuiions :
on agricultural matters, it was eUcited that no less than
60 bushels of spring wheat had been raised to the acre.
Hay also is very cheap and plentiful, and prairie grass
when cut and dried averages 2 tons per acre. What
is left out does not rot quickly, but is preserved rather
than destroyed by the Ught dry snow, and the animals
find winter sustenance by pawing away the snow and
eating it.
The northern limits for grams and grasses reach a
' Seep. 18 of ' Agricultural Canada,' by Professor Fream. Pub
lished under the direction of the Canadian Govemment, 1889.

I.] Limits of Grains and Grasses. 19
ft
very high latitude in the Canadian Dominion. Eye,
barley, and roots can be grown nearly as far north as
latitude 65°. The whole available area for grasses and
coarser grains is calculated at 2,300,000 square miles.
Maize, a tropical plant, sometimes ripens at latitude 54°
on the Saskatchewan. At Vermillion (latitude 53° 24")
every kind of garden stuff can be grown. Barley sown
on the 8th of May is ready to be cut within three months'
time. At Fort Chippewyan, at the entrance to Lake
Athabasca, good samples of wheat and barley can be grown.
At Fort Simpson, in latitude 6i°N., barley always ripens,
and wheat is sure four times out of five. At Fort Liard
in latitude 6i° N. there is the warmest summer tempera
ture in the whole region, and it is said by those who
live on the Yucon that barley sometimes ripens under
the Arctic Circle in longitude 143° W.' At the Porks of
the Athabasca, garden produce will grow well, and it was
here in 1787 that the explorer Mackenzie found a garden
cultivated by a European, who grew all kinds of
European vegetables. These are facts elicited from Pro
fessor Macoun by a Committee on Immigration to Canada.
The following assertion also on the climate was then
made : ' It will be seen that about the 20th of April
ploughing can commence on Peace Eiver, and from
data in my possession, the same may be said of the
Saskatchewan region generally. It is a curious fact that
spring seems to advance from north-west to south-east at
a rate of about 250 miles a day, and in the fall winter
begins in Manitoba first and goes westward at the same
rate.' (22) The summer isothermal of 70° crosses Long
Island in latitude 41°, passes Chicago at 42°, and then
rises on the Saskatchewan to latitude 52° in longitude
' See p. 83 of ' Guide Book for Settlers.' Published at Ottawa by
the Government of Canada, 1882. C 2

20 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.

110°. It sinks again at the desert areas of the United
States to latitude 35° in longitude 105°, and rises to lati
tude 47° in Oregon. The isothermal of 65° which, on the
Atlantic coast, is oif Boston, in latitude 42°, rises through
Canada to north of Quebec, crosses the Eed Eiver at lati
tude 50° on the 97th meridian, and Mackenzie Eiver near
the 60th parallel. This gradual advance northward of
the isothermal line in proceeding from east to west, is
a fact of the utmost significance with reference to the
vegetation of the country.
The following table represents the mean temperature
of Toronto and Winnipeg : —

August September
October .
NovemberDecember
JanuaryFebruary March
AprilMay
June
July

Toronto. 66.38 58.18
45-84 36-06 25.78
22-80
22-74 28-93
40.72 61-74
61-85
67-49

Winnipeg. 67-3452-18 35-84
30.66 11-97 6-IO
12-32
14-14
39-10 53-13
63-20
68-19

This second table illustrates the average July to August
temperature, fit for ripening cereals, at various lati
tudes ^ : — Summer.

Cumberland House
Fort Simpson
Fort Chippewyan . . .
Fort William
Montreal 
Toronto 
Temiseamingue . . .
Halifax 

Lat. N.
53-37 61-51 58-42
48-24
45-31
43-4047-19
44-39

Spring.

62° 59°58°
69°
67°
64°65°
61°

- 33°

-. 32° ..

... 26°

- 27° ..

... 22°

- 31° -

-.. 39°

.. 37° -

... 39°

.. 45° ..

... 42°

- 46° ..

- 37°

.. 40° -.

... 31°

.. 46° ..

Autumn, -^fy ""f -
August. 64°62°60°
60°68"66°
66°66°

See p. 83 of ' Guide Book for Settlers,' 1882.

1.] The Trees and Forests. ai
It will be noticed that although there are many
degrees of latitude between Fort Simpson and Toronto,
there is, according to the table, a difference of only four
degrees of heat during the ripening months of July and
August. (23) The Forests. — There is a great variety of trees
in the Canadian forests, some of very large dimensions.
The black walnut (Juglans nigra) has an average height
of 120 feet, the chestnut attains a height of 100 feet'.
The cUmate of the Dominion is a peculiarly suitable
one for large trees. They require a large rainfall
and a high summer temperature as well, of 65° to
67° F. Such a tree as the sugar-maple will not flourish
in Europe, the summer temperature being too low.
The deciduous trees are the most numerous in Canada.
Of the 114 known species of pines, twenty-one are
natives of Canada or of the Hudson's Bay Territory.
Alluding to their evergreen appearance in the midst of
the Canadian winter, Humboldt has said, ' They proclaim
to the inhabitants of the northern regions that, although
snow and ice cover the land, the internal life of the
plants, Uke the fire of Prometheus, is never extinguished.'
The Pinus balsamea, or balm -of- Gilead -fir, and the
spruce-hemlock are veiy beautiful trees. The Pinus
alba or white-spruce is well known, with its height of
1 40 feet and long feathering branches. The king of the
pine forests is the Pinus strobus or Weymouth-pine, so
called from the attention given to its cultivation in Eng
land by Lord Weymouth. This tree attains the height
of 200 feet. ' Some attain a green old age, vigorous to
the last, but are prostrated suddenly by the storm which
has swept harmlessly over younger heads. Others that
have outlived the eagle, sheltered from their earliest
youth in some sequestered glade, but now tottering to
' See Article in the ' Quarterly Eeview,' No. 217.

23 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
their faU, stand bald, spectral, and desolate, waiting only
for " Some casual shout that breaks the silent air.
Or the unimaginable touch of Time,"
to bow their heads to the earth. Then geraniums, honey
suckles, wood-UUes, fox-gloves, and fine flowers shoot up
around them, and cover for a short time the prostrate
trunks with a gorgeous paU, whUe they collapse and
crumble into dust. The tints of the autumnal woods
have always excited the astonishment and enthusiasm of
travellers. Even in cloudy days the hue of the foliage is
at times of so intense a yellow that the Ught thrown
from the trees creates the impression of bright sunshine.
Each leaf presents a point of sparkling gold. But the
colours of the leafy landscape chiange and intermingle
from day to day, until pink, vermUion, purple, deep indigo
and brown, present a combination of beauty that must
be seen to be realised, for no artist has yet been able
to represent, nor can the imagination picture to itself,
the gorgeous spectacle.' The exports of the produce
of the forests are worth to the Canadians more than
double the combined value of the exported produce of
the fisheries and mines ^. In 1888
The produce of the Mines was $4,110,000 (,f 822,000).
„ „ Fisheries „ $7,793,000 (^1,558,000).
II II Forests „ $24,719,000 (,f 4,943,000).
The following is a description of the Canadian cUmate
during the various seasons : —
'In the summer the excessive heat — the -violent
paroxysms of thunder— the parching drought— the occa
sional deluges of rain — the sight of bright-red, bright-
blue and other gaudy-plumaged birds— of the briUiant
humming-bird, and of innumerable fire-fiies that at night
'- See 'Official Handbook of Information,' 1890.

1.] The progress of the Seasons. 23
appear like the reflection upon earth of the stars shining
above them in the heavens, would almost make the
emigrant beUeve that he was in the tropics.
'As autumn approaches, the various trees of the forests
assume hues of every shade of red, yellow and brown, of
the most vivid description. The air gradually becomes a
healthy and delightful mixture of sunshine and frost,
and the golden sunsets are so many glorious assemblages
of clouds — some like mountains of white wool, others of
the darkest hues — and of broad rays of yeUow, of crimson,
and of golden light, which, without intermixing, radiate
upwards to a great height from the point of the horizon
in which the deep red luminary is about to disappear'.'
As winter approaches the birds migrate south ; first
the humming-birds, then the pigeons, and next the
geese, wild ducks, and plovers, all returning from their
breeding haunts in the far berth. Those descriptions of
scenery and climate painted so often and so vividly by
our Arctic explorers along the Polar Seas do not apply to
the cultivable zones of gTains and grasses further south.
The eternal winter night, and the brilliant coruscations
of the Aurora Borealis, are reserved for those who ad
venture deep into the realms of the Ice King. In the
latitudes of 50-60° winter is shorn of the extreme
terrors of the Arctic Circle, and the colonist enjoying
the same amount of daylight as in England, forms for
himself regular occupations and regular amusements.
The cold, though severe, is dry and conducive to health.
In some places cattle graze out all winter, and early in
April ploughing begins, and both seeding and ploughing
can go on together.
(24) The climate of British North America is determined
by great physical causes. The greater extremes in the
interior can be explained by the fact that a ' continental '
1 Extract from ' The Emigrant,' by Sir F. B. Head.

24 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
as opposed to a ' maritime ' or ' insular ' cUmate is always
subject to great variations. The ocean is able to store
heat for a longer time than land, and on the sea-coast or
on islands temperature is more uniform. In England,
surrounded by water, our average temperature ranges
from 40° to 60°, in corresponding latitudes in Central
Asia the average is from 0° in -winter to about 70° in
summer. The ocean currents also play a great part in
determining the cUmate of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts
of the Dominion. The coasts of Labrador and Newfound
land and the Gulf of St. La-wrence, are chUled and frozen
by the icy current down from Davis's Straits and Bafiin's
Bay, bringing with it floes and icebergs do-wn into the
Atlantic almost to the latitude of Malta. The Gulf
Stream, escaping from the Gulf of Mexico, just misses
Newfoundland, and flows in a north-easterly direction
past the British Isles into the Arctic Gulf, between
Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. It thus happens that
the water which reaches the North Cape of Norway
in 71°, is of nearly the same temperature as that of the
harbour of New York on the opposite side of the Atlantic
in latitude 40°.
The vast expanses of the North American lakes have
an effect upon the climate and keep it more uniform.
The waters of the deeper lakes do not freeze in the -winter
except for a few miles out from shore, because the storage
of heat gained during the summer months does not
quickly escape from these immense inland seas of vast
depth. In a small way they perform, as at Toronto, the
functions of the seas, and reproduce, if we may so term
it, an inland maritime climate on a modified scale.
As the Canadian Dominion is a land of forests, the
trees make a great difference to the climate. If the
surface of a land is stripped of trees and herbage by fires
or other destructive agencies, it becomes more quickly

1.1 The Effects of Climate. 25
heated by the sun, and evaporation goes on more speedUy.
The immense forests of North America have materially
assisted the rainfall in the country. At the same time
they have contributed to its richness. For centuries the
rotting leaves and foliage from deciduous trees have been
accumulating, until the surface of the earth is covered
with a fruitful and reproductive soil which the axe of the
lumberer discloses to the light.
The action of snow upon the land is beneficial. It
acts as a covering and protection, and prevents the
earth being frozen down to any great depth. As a rule
the earth in Canada is not frozen to a greater depth than
twelve or eighteen inches. When the snow melts
beneath the thaws of spring, the husbandman, especially
in Manitoba, finds the fertile soil which he has ploughed
in the autumn easily worked, thus saving him much
labour. From another point of view the ice and snow
are beneficial. For purposes of traffic and communication
they open up the whole country. King Frost is the great
Macadam of the country, providing an easy way for
wagon and sleigh through the most inaccessible districts.
The lumberer carries on his most active operations in
the winter months.
The question of soils is most important to husband
men who have to make their Uving on them and from
them. The extreme richness and variety ' of the Prairie
soils have only recently been fully known, as the re
sources of the North-West have been more scientifically
analysed. Moreover, in the absence of agues and fevers
these soils are especially healthy to live upon.
(25) Dr. PhUpot, Surgeon to Her Majesty's Forces,
1 87 1, writes as follows: — 'Canada is an exceptionally
healthy country. I do not hesitate to make the state
ment after seven years in the country, engaged in an
' Appendix IV.

%6 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
extensive medical practice. As a race, the Canadians
are fine, tall, handsome, and powerful men ; weU buUt,
active, tough as pine-knot and bearded like pards. The
good food upon which they have been brought up (-with
the in-vigorating cUmate), appears to develop them to the
fullest proportion of the " genus homo ".'
On the sea-coast and along the shores of Ne-wfoundland
and Nova Scotia a hardy population of saUors and fisher
men have been reproducing for generations the skill and
daring of the old stock : if there were a Transatlantic wing
of an Imperial fleet, here would be the raaterial to recruit
from. The Ne-wfoundland ' Jack Tar ' is as loyal as his
compatriot at home, and perhaps hei has more skiU and
experience in practical arts of seamanship. His is a
coast that tests to the uttermost his native courage. Al-"
though chUly and extremely rigorous at times, the cUmate
of Canada is not so trying, by sea or land, as that of
England, and it gives a new vigour. There is a dis
cernible difference between the Canadian and American
types, and it is thought that the northerners contrast
very favourably with the southerners. They are Uving
as a nation in a home which is more like that of Northern
Europe, from which they sprang. In the vaUey of the
St. La-wrence we may expect a hardier stock than in the
valley of the Mississippi. The low readings of the ther
mometer during the Canadian -winters, which at first
sight seem extremely prejudicial to health, are not really
so. The Prairie air is extremely dry, and 'enveloping
the body in a medium, conserves its animal warmth,
ofi'ering no faciUty for escape'.' The frames, therefore,
of the Canadian colonists are hardy and robust. Their
national courage remains the same, prompting to great
enterprises. On more than one occasion Canadians have desired to
' See p. 33 of S Agricultural Canada,' 1889.

1.]

Military Organisation.

27

share the perUs and burdens of the mother-country.
The most recent and perhaps the most notable instance
of this was during the Soudan campaign, when a number
of Canadian voyageurs took part in the NUe Expedition
under Lord Wolseley.
(26) The Canadian army. — The Canadian Eeserve
nominally consists of aU male British subjects between
eighteen and sixty, numbering about 700,000 men'.
The following was the disposition of the active force,
January i, 1888 : —

CavalryField Artillery
Garrison Artillery .
Engineers .
Infantry and Eifles

1,987
1,4403,479 179
31,506
38,591

The Dominion is divided into twelve mUitary dis
tricts : — Ontario . ... 4
Quebec
Nova Scotia .
New Brunswick
Prince Edward Island
British Columbia
Manitoba

The different provinces of the Canadian Dominion
have, in each case, their geographical and climatic pecu
liarities, as may be gathered from a study of the general
features of the continent. The maritime provinces of
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island
dififer from the river and lake provinces of Quebec and
Ontario. Manitoba and the districts of the prairies
naturally differ from both, and when we cross the Eocky
Mountains we find in the province of British Columbia
' See Hayden and Selwyn's ' North America,' p. 543.

28 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
distinctive and peculiar features. The range of country
is vast, running for a distance of 3000 miles through 75°
of longitude, i. e. from 55° to 130°, from Ne-wfoundland to
Queen Charlotte's Island. At each step westward we are
brought face to face -with new revelations of nature on a
grand and colossal scale. The sky is bluer, the mountains
higher, the rivers larger, the forests bigger, the plains
broader, than in the Old World.

CHAPTEE n.
Quehec.
il) The Pro-vince of Quebec, the first important centre
of French colonisation, is traversed by the St. La-wrence,
and has the advantages both of a maritime and a con
tinental country. It extends from east to west between
57° 50' and 80° 6' W. longitude and from south to north
between 52° and 45° N. latitude \ Its shape resembles
that of a triangle with its base to the south-west and its
apex at L'Anse au Sablon, just inside the Straits of
Belle Isle. Its greatest length from the north-west
corner to the Straits of Belle Isle is about 1350 miles;
its greatest width along the 71st and 72 nd degrees of
W. longitude about 500 miles. It is bounded on the
' See p. 7 of ' General Sketch of the Province of Quebec,' by the
Hon. Honors Mercier, Premier ofthe Pi-ovinoe, 1889.

II] Quebec. 29
east, south-east, and south by the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
the Bay des Chaleurs, the river Eestigouche, and the
interpro-vincial line which divides it from New Bruns
wick, thence by the international line di-viding Canada
from the United States to the Hall Biver ; thence by the
45th degree of N. latitude to its intersection -with the
middle of the river St. Lawrence at Point St. Begis ; to
the south-west, west, and north-west by the middle of
the river St. Lawrence from Point St. Begis to Point a
Beaudet ; thence by the interprovincial line which sepa
rates it from Ontario to Point Fortune on the Ottawa ;
thence along the middle of the Ottawa and Lalce Temis
eamingue to the northern extremity of that lake ; thence
by a meridian line to James' Bay ; to the north-west and
north by James' Bay as far as the mouth of the East
Main Eiver', by the right shore of this river from its
mouth to its source ; thence going north by a line strik
ing the most northern waters of the great river Esqui
maux, thence in a circular line till the 52nd degree N.
latitude is struck, and thence to the St. Lawrence
Eiver. (2) The area ofthis Province is 258,634 square miles.
Deducting the surface of the inland waters and those of
the Eiver and Gulf of St. Lawrence, the land amounts to
188,688 square miles or 120,764,651 acres. The whole
area exceeds that of France by 54,000 square miles. The
perimeter of the whole province is about 3000 miles, of
which 740 miles are sea-coast and 2260 miles land-frontier.
If we count the north and south shores of the St. Law
rence as "an interior development of coast along which
steamers can pass we get an extra distance of 11 50 mUes.
The Islands of Anticosti and Brion, the Bird Eocks, the
Magdalen Islands, a barren group about fifty mUes north
of Prince Edward Island, and all the islands near Gaspe
' See p. 8 of Honors Mercier's 'Sketch ofthe Pro-vince of Quebec'

30 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
belong to the pro-vince of Quebec. Anticosti is an un
cultivated island about 145 miles long and 30 miles broad,
di-viding the St. Lawrence Gulf into two channels. It is
chiefly used as a fishing station in the summer. Montreal
Island and the Isle of Orleans are in the St. Lawrence,
AUumet and Calumet in the Ottawa '.
The province of Quebec is chiefly made up of that great
basin, whose waters flow towards the St. Lawrence. The
valley of the Eichelieu forms a kind of inner triangle
¦with its head at the entrance of Lake St. Peter and its
base at the international boundary on the south. The
area is 1400 square mUes, and the surface is level -with
the exception of a few eminences. From one of these
•eminences caUed 'BelceU,' about 1400 feet high, a mag
nificent -view of this fertile plain can be taken in. To
the north Montreal and the great Victoria Bridge can
be seen, to the south Lake Champlain, fifty miles
distant. (3) Mcuntains. — Quebec has two mountain systems.
(i.) The Laurentian with a general trend from north-east
to south-west. From Labrador on the east to the neigh
bourhood of the Saguenay these mountains form a com
pact barrier only broken through by the large rivers
which cut them transversely. In approaching the Sague
nay the chain separates into two distinct ranges : (i) that
of the ' height of lands ' which describes a great curve to
the north in the direction of Lake St. John ; (2) that
of the Laurentides, properly so called, skirting the north
bank of the St. Lawrence Eiver and receding gradually
from it to a distance of thirty miles in rear of Montreal,
forming the southern watershed of the basin of Lake St.
John and the Ottawa Eiver. Along this whole distance
the average height is about 1600 feet. Near Lake St.
John the principal crest of the mountains is 4000 feet.
' See Honors Mercier's ' Sketch of the Province of Quebec'

II-] Quebec. 3 1
Cape Tourmente, just below Quebec, is 19 19 feet ; St.
Anne's Mount, twenty mUes below, 2687 feet. It is the
presence of these mountains which adds to the romantic
beauty of Quebec. In the county of ArgenteuU, north
of the Ottawa Eiver, the highest summit is that of ' the
TrembUng Mountain,' eo6o feet. The average elevation
of the interior plateau of the province in which the basin
of Lake St. John and the Upper Ottawa is situated is
about 600 feet above the sea. Lake St. John is 293 feet
above the sea. Amongst these mountains there are dense
forests of conifers and hard woods. The valleys espe
cially abound in pine, spruce, and cedar.
To the geologists, the Laurentian Eocks, extending
over an area larger than France, have been extremely
interesting as throwing light upon their science and
opening out an older leaf of the world's history than any
hitherto known. Amongst the limestone beds of the
Laurentian range a fossil was discovered and named the
Eo2oon Canadense, the oldest relic of life which has been
found upon the globe.
' The Laurentian Eocks must have been separated by
a vast lapse of time from the next formation which suc
ceeds them. For during that interval they had been
changed from the state of sand, mud, and gravel, into
gnarled crystalline gneiss, schist, and quartz-rock, and in
that altered state had been anew exposed to denudation.
It is beyond that immense gap that Sir William Logan's
discovery enables us to throw back the beginning of
life. . . . Whilst chronicUng this Canadian discovery —
which marks an epoch in the history of geology — Sir
Eoderick Murchison has shown that a, representative of
the Laurentian rocks exists in Great Britain, and the
whole of the Scottish Highlands has been brought into
relation with the rocks of the rest of the island '.'
' 'Quarterly Eeview,' No. 249. ' Siluria,' by Sir Roderick Murchison.

32 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
(ii.) The Alleghamy system. This chain is simply a
prolongation of the Appalachians. Beginning from the
east end of the Gasp6 Peninsula they skirt the southern
shores of the St. Lawrence, and only begin to trend
away from it at Kamouraska. The first principal axis
bends towards the river and runs to the north-west in
the direction of St. Ann's Mount, and then inclines
towards the south-west to form the heights between the
Cape Chatte and Matane Eivers, diverges in the direction
of the Chaudifere Eiver opposite Quebec, beyond which
the principal ridge runs south-west and then southward
into Vermont territory, where it is known as the Green
Mountain. From Gaspe to Quebec this mountain chain
forms the watershed between the basin of the St. Law
rence to the north and the Bay des Chaleurs and Bay of
Fundy on the south. It gives a very imposing appear
ance, especially at Cape Chatte, to the St. La-wrence
Eiver. Some of the peaks in the region between St.
Anne and Matane Eivers attain a lofty height. Mount
Logan is 3768 feet high. These mountains are known
generally as the Notre Dame Eange.
(4) Lakes. — The small lakes of Quebec province are
very numerous and can be counted in hundreds, espe
cially on the north side of the St. La-wrence amongst
the Laurentian Mountains, between the Ottawa and
Saguenay Eivers, but as a rule they are comparatively
small. Lake St. John has a superficies of 360 miles ;
Grand Lake, latitude 48 and longitude 77 W., one of
550 miles. Lake Crossways lies at the sources of the
St. Maurice, Lakes Kempt, Manouan, and La CoUotte
form a group further south. Lake Temiseamingue lies at
the sources of the Ottawa, Lake Shecoubish at those of
the Saguenay, Mistassinnie at those of the Eupert.
Lakes Edward and Kajoualwang are south of St. John's
Lake. Lake St. Peter is formed by the St. Lawrence.

^'•] Quebec. 33
(5) Bivers.— The St. Lawrence rises in a small lake
in Minnesota, which discharges its waters into Lake
Superior by the Eiver St. Louis. It is designated by
different names ; St. Mary's between Lake Superior and
Lake Huron ; St. Clair or Detroit between Lake Huron
and Lake Erie ; Niagara between Lake Erie and Lake
Ontario ; and lastly, St. Lawrence, from the latter lake
to Pointe des Monts, which is regarded as the Une of
separation between the river and the gulf. ' The total
length of the St. La-wrence is 2180 mUes. Its ordinary
width varies between one and four miles in its upper
course, increasing below Quebec to twenty and thirty
miles at its mouth. It is navigable for ocean vessels to
Montreal, which is 833 miles from the Straits of BeUe
Isle ; and from Montreal to the head of Lake Superior, a
distance of 1398 miles, can be navigated by vessels of 700
tons -with the aid of canals built to overcome the rapids.
The smaUest locks of these canals are 270 feet long, 45
wide, -with 9 feet of water \' The tidal current is felt on
the St. Lawrence as far as Three Eivers, half-way between
Montreal and Quebec.
The Ottawa is the largest tributary of the St. La-wrence.
It is about 600 mUes long, and drains an area of 80,000
square mUes. It rises in the west of the province, and
forms a boundary Une between Quebec and Ontario for
400 miles. It is navigable for 250 miles, the rapids and
falls being avoided by canals. The Ottawa is a picturesque
river, and is fringed by the noblest forests in the world.
It is on the Ottawa and its tributaries that the lumberer
finds the best timber. The Ottawa is described as 'a
long succession of reaches studded with islands, narrow
passes, fair lakes, impetuous rapids, and magnificent falls.
The voyage on its water, day after day, is a succession
of charming surprises. At one time a wide prospect of
' See P: 43 of Honors Mercier's 'Sketch of the Province of Quebec'

34 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
open lake reaches almost to the horizon ; at another, you
look over an endless undulating extent of hill and dale ;
then you are shut up -within a narrow gorge without
-visible escape. To increase the feeling of exhUaration
which variety gives, the traveller is compelled to change
perpetually his mode of conveyance — from steam to stage,
from boat to ferry, from car to scow. At some intervals
the traveUer may have to walk ; for instance, where a
narrow platform, thirty feet high, crossing a rocky valley,
has been burnt by a fire in the woods.' The tributaries
of the Ottawa are^

Eiver du Moine "

80 miles

„ Noire

115 ,.

„ Gatineau

- 250 „

,, du Lifevre

• 170 ,.

,, Petite Nation .

50 „

„ Eouge .

120 ,,

„ du Nord

60 „

The Saguenay is a tributary of the St. La-wrence, and
fiows from Lake St. John. It is a stern and gloomy river
of immense depth, and has been described as ' a tremen
dous chasm cleft in a nearly straight line for some sixty
miles.' It brings down the waters of Lake St. John,
which receives the infiow of fourteen streams. Like the
Ottawa, it boasts of magnificent scenery and forests.
Thirty-five miles from its mouth are two lofty capes,
some 2000 feet high, called Capes Trinity and Eternity.
At the mouth of the Saguenay is Tadousac, 134 mUes
from Quebec, one ofthe first posts occupied by the French
with the purpose of securing the fur-trade. Some distance
up the river is Ohicoutimi, an Indian word meaning
' deep water,' where the na-vigation ends.
The Montmorency joins the St. Lawrence 8 miles below
Quebec. It is noted for its famous Falls, where a stream
of water 50 feet -wide rushes over a steep precipice 250
' See p. 15 of Honors Mercier's 'Sketch of the Province of Quebec'

II.]

Quebec.

35

feet high. It is one of the many ' sights ' of Canada, and
its appearance in winter when a soUd dome of ice 200
feet high is piled up is wonderful. These Falls, being
near Quebec, are often -visited by ' sleigh ' and ' toboggin '
parties. Close by is Haldimand House, where the Duke
of Kent, Queen Victoria's father, once lived.
Other important rivers on the north side of the St.
Lawrence are : —

Length. 280 miles
93 80
112 234224150100

St. Maurice
Batiscan
Portneuf
Betsiamite Outardes .
Manicouagan .
St. John's
Des Esquimaux
On the south side the chief rivers are : —
The Bichelieu, fiowing from Lake Champlain on the south
side into the St. Lawrence. It has a course of 50 miles.
The St. Francis rises in Lake Memphramagog, and
after a course of 100 miles flows into Lake St. Peter.
The Yainaska is about the same length.
The Chaudiere flows from Lake Megantic, and enters
the St. La-wrence nearly opposite Quebec. This river is
noted for its beautiful FaUs.
(6) Counties and Districts. — The pro-vince of Quebec
is di"vided into sixty counties : —

I.

Argenteuil.

10.

Champlain.

2.

Bagot.

11.

Charlevoix.

3-

Beauce-

12-

Chateauguay-

4- 5-

Beauharnois.Berthier.

13-

f Chicoutimi-
1 Saguenay-

6.

Bonaventure.

14.

Compton-

7-

BeUe Chasse.

15-

Dorchester.

8.

Brome.

, /•

/ Drummond
1 Athabasca.

9-

Chambly.

16.

36 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.

17-

Gasp6,

40.

Pontiac.

18.

Hochelaga.

41.

Portneuf.

19.

Huntingdon-

C Quebec, C- \

20.

Iberville.

42.

\ " ^r

21.

Jacques Cartier.

-

I „ W-i

22.

JoUette.

Quebec Co.

23-

Kamouraska-

A 0

/ Eichmond. )
1 Wolfe. 1

24.

La Prairie-

43-

25.

L' Assomption.

44.

Eichelieu.

26.

Laval.

45-

Eimouski.

27.

Levis.

46.

Eouville.

28.

L'Islet.

47-

St. Hyacinthe-

29.

Lotbinifere-

48.

St. John's-

30.

Maskinonge-

49.

St- Maurice.

31-

Megantic.

50.

Shefford.

32-

Missisiquoi.

51-

Sherbrooke.

33-

Montcalm-

52.

Soulanges.

34-

Montmagny-

53-

Stanstead.

35-

Montmorency.

64-

Temiscouata.

{ Montreal, C. \

55-

Terrebonne

36.

¦ J, E. I

56.

Three Eivers.

( „ wj
57-
Two Mountains.
37-
Napierville.
58.
Vaudreuil.
38.
Nicolet.
59-
Verchferes,
39-
Ottawa.
60.
Yamaska.
In these 60 counties there are 65 electoral districts,
the difference being caused by Montreal having 3, and
Quebec 4 electoral districts.
The total area of these counties is calculated to be
130,000,000 acres. This is distributed as foUows : —
Acres.
Conceded in iiefs .... 10,678,981
In full aud common socage (townships) . 8,950,953
Surveyed in Tovm Lots . . . 6,400,000
Awaiting Survey .... 103,970,066
130,000,000
I1-] Quebec. ^y
(7) Towns and Cities.— Quebec has an historical
interest of its own, which makes it different from all
others. The French language, laws, and customs, are
perpetuated amongst its inhabitants. A recapitulation
of the names of its counties and towns alone would
be a proof of its history. Such names as Champlain,
Jacques Cartier, Montcalm, Montmorency, Eichelieu, St.
Hyacinthe, St. Maurice, St. John's, Vaudreuil, recall
vi-vidly the chief epochs of the history of what was once
called New France. Of the whole population 80 per
cent, are of French extraction \
Each county has a county-town, and next to Montreal
and Quebec the most important are : — Eichmond, the
county-town of Eichmond ; Sherbrooke, of Sherbrooke ;
Three Eivers, of Three Eivers ; St. John's, of St, John's ;
St. Hyacinthe, of St. Hyacinthe.
Quebec (65,000) is the pro-vincial capital of the immense
province of Quebec. It is a very old and interesting
city. In 1608, Samuel Champlain, the great French
explorer, founded Quebee at the confluence of the St.
Lawrence and St. Charles Eivers. It occupies a most
magnificent site, and was formerly so strongly fortified
that it was deemed to be impregnable. Here, on the
'Plains of Abraham,' the decisive battle for the possession
of Canada was fought in 1759, and here Wolfe and Mont
calm fell. It is 360 miles from the mouth of the St.
Lawrence, and 180 mUes from Montreal.
'Let the spectator stand on the Flagstaff Battery
¦within the lines won by Wolfe's gaUantry, but which he
could not Uve to enter. Below lie the steep narrow
streets of a city as French as Havre or Calais. Yonder
is an open market-place, -with groups of women sitting at
their stalls with kerchiefed heads. At a distant corner-
house you may see a shrine to Our Lady, newly white-
' Honors Mercier's ' Sketch of the Pro-vdnce of Quebec'

38 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
washed by the piety of the inmates. The first stone
block adjoining the Cathedral is the celebrated Eoman
CathoUc CoUege, the Laval University, nanied in honour
of the first Bishop of Quebec. Another great pUe of
stone is the Parliament House for the pro-\ineial legisla
ture. . . . Then, stUl below, the shores are lined with
warehouses and quays and masses of shipping. AU the
surrounding waters are fiUed with saUs ; the scene is one
of sunlight and life. Steamers -with their filmy Unes
of smoke pass up and down the river, or rapidly across.
At Point Levis, opposite the citadel, lie stranded or
lazily floating incalculable masses of timber, waiting
for transit to the British Isles, South America, or
AustraUa. 'Quebec sits on her impregnable heights a queen
amongst the cities of the New World. At her feet flows
the noble St. La-wrence, the fit highway into a great
empire, here narrowed to a mUe's breadth, though lower
down the water -widens to a score of miles, and at the
Gulf to a hundred. From the compression of the great
river at this spot the city derives its name, the word
signifying in the native Indian tongue a strait. On
the east of the city, along a richly fertUe valley, flows
the beautiful St. Charles, to join its waters -with that of
the great river. The mingled waters di-vide to clasp the
fair and fertUe "Isle of Dreams."
'The city, as seen from a distance, rises stately and
solemn, Uke a grand pUe of monumental buUdings, clus
tering houses, tall, irregular, -with high-pitched roofs
crowd the long Une of shore and climb the rocky
heights. Great pUes of stone churches, coUeges, and
pubUc buildings, crowned -with gleaming minarets, rise
above the mass of dwellings. The clear air permits of
the use of tin for the roofs and spires, and the dark
stonework is reUeved with gleaming Ught. Above all

II'] Quebec. 39
rise the long dark Unes. of one of the world's famous
citadels \'
(8) Montreal has a population of more than 200,000.
It stands on Montreal Island, and was founded on the
site of Hochelaga in 1642. This is a description by
Parkman of the first founding of Montreal. It was in
its beginning a religious enterprise, conducted by enthu
siastic men and women of France. ' Maisonneuve sprang
ashore and fell^ on his knees. His followers imitated
his example ; and all joined their voices in enthusiastic
songs of thanksgiving. Tents, baggage, arms, and stores
were landed. An altar was raised on a pleasant spot
close at hand, and Mademoiselle Nance, with Madame
de la Peltrie, aided by her servant Charlotte Barre,
decorated it with a taste which won the admiration
of the beholders. Now all the company gathered
before the shrine- Hare stood Vimont in the rich vest
ments of his office. Here too were the two ladies
-with their servant, here Montmagny, no very -willing
spectator, and Maisonneuve, a warlike figure tall and
erect, his men clustering round him. They kneeled
in reverent silence as the Host was raised aloft, and
when the rite was over the priest turned and addressed
them. " You are a grain of mustard seed that shall rise
and grow tUl its branches overshadow the earth. You
are few, but your work is the work of God. His smile
is on you, and your children shall fill the land." '
In addition to the above may be mentioned the follow
ing cities and towns ^: — Le-vis, 12,175; Hull, 6,890;
Sorel, 5,791; Valley Field, 3,9°^ I Nicolet, 3j764;
Joliette, 3,268 ; Lachine, 2,406 ; Longueil, 2,335 ;
FrazervUle, 2,291; St. Jerome, 2,032; Ohicoutimi, 1,935;
Farnham, 1,880; IberviUe, 1,847; Beauharnois, i,499 5
' Marshall's ' Canadian Dominion.'
2 Mercier's 'Handbook,' 1890-

40 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
Eimouski, 1,417; Terrebonne, 1,398; Louisville, 1,381;
L'Assomption, 1,313; Berthier, 1,039. According to the
statement of the Honourable Honor6 Mercier, Premiei: of
Quebec, the rural population constitutes 76-29 per cent.
He also observes that from 1871-1881 the Eoman CathoUc
population showed an increase of 150,866 or 14-79 per
cent. Supposing the progression to continue in the same
ratio, the present decade -wiU give an increase of 173,149,
which -wiU bring the number of Eoman CathoUcs in 1891
to Ij343)867, or 87-97 per cent, of the total population
of the Pro-vince.
As regards calUngs the Census of 1881 grouped the
Quebec population as follows : —

Agricultural IndustrialCommercialDomestic
Unclassified

201,963 or 48-68 per cent.
81,643 „ 19.67 „
34,346 „ 8.27 „
241267 „ 5-85
72.635 » 17-50 ..

(9) The Eastern Townships are a pecuUar feature of the
province of Quebec. They lie close to Vermont and the
United States frontier on the parallel of 45° N., in the
vicinity of Lakes Memphramagog, Megantic, and Mas-
sawippi, which are of surpassing beauty. The soil is
very fertUe, and the forests are full of timber. It is a
purely agricultural district. These townships were ori
ginaUy settled by United Empire Loyalists, who adhered
to England at the time of the American War. It is
regarded as the 'EngUsh' portion of the province of
Quebec. (10) There are five main centres of colonisation in the
province of Quebec^: (i) The VaUey of the Saguenay,
where the extent of disposable land is 616,600 acres,
valued at lod. per acre ; (2) The Valley of St. Maurice,
' See p. 140 of Silver's ' Handbook to Canada ' (1881).

II.]

Quebec.

4i

with 440,000 acres, for sale at is. 3d. per acre ; (3) The
Valley ofthe Ottawa, with 1,358,000 acres, at is. 3d. per
acre ; (4) The Eastern Townships, with 850,000 acres, at
2s. id. or 2s. 6d. per acre ; (5) Gasp6, where there are
491,100 acres, at the rate of lod. to is. 3d. per acre.
Besides these centres, there are ij million acres dis
posable in the valley of the Lower St. Lawrence. An
emigrant, therefore, may find abundance of room in the
province of Quebec which, although it is the oldest of all,
does not hold on the average six persons to the square
mile. Elsewhere in the Dominion the space is abso
lutely unlimited.
(11) The shipping of the pro-vince of Quebec in 1886
was as follows : —

Ships.

Tonnage.

Amherst .

33

1,092

Gasp^

44

2,347

Montreal .

. 1,007

. 136,286

Perc^

3

133

Quebec

. 856 .

. 101,481

Ij976

232,556

This is exclusive of the fishing fleet ^. At the close of
1885 more than 160 vessels were afloat, and 7,949 boats
gi'ving employment to nearly 11,322 men.
In 1888 the total shipping of the Canadian Dominion
was 1,089,642 tons. ' See Biggar's ' Canada,' 1889.

42 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.

CHAPTER III.
Ontario.
(i) When Champlain first explored the St. Lawrence,
beyond Montreal, he came to a lake which for beauty
and size seemed to surpass aU others. The Indians
called it Ontario, meaning in their language 'The
Beautiful Water,' and the explorer accepted the name.
The Province of Ontario is the pro-vince of great lakes,
as Quebec is the pro-vince of the great river which drains
them. Formerly Ontario was caUed Upper Canada, and
it received its present name and meaning in 1867.
In contrast again -with Quebee, Ontario is almost a
purely British colony in population, customs, and tradi
tions. Quebec and Ontario, although they are near
neighbours occupying conterminous territories, are to aU
intents and purposes distinct French and British colonies.
That they should be so completely in accord on common
subjects, and so loyal to a common centre of govemment,
proves the power of Federal principles.
Area. — The area of Ontario is calculated to be about
181,800 square mUes", one and a half times the size
of Great Britain and Ireland. No less than 25,000,000
acres have been surveyed. The boundaries of the Pro-
-vince are the Eiver Ottawa and Quebec on the north
east, the St. La-wrence and the Lakes of Ontario and Erie
on the south. On the west, it is bounded by Manitoba
and the North-West Territories. The Western Peninsula,
' See p. 7 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890.

Ifl-] Ontario.

43

extending from Toronto to Lake St. Clair, has been
called the ' Garden of Canada.'
(2) Surface. — The highest mountains in Ontario are
the Blue Mountains, on the south of Nottawasaga Bay.
They do not exceed 1000 feet. As a rule the country is
flat or gently undulating, thus differing from the sister
province of Quebec.
The physical features and characteristics of the Pro-
¦vince of Ontario are comparatively easy to understand.
A glance at the map wiU show that Nature has given it
a commanding position. Bordering on United States
territory on the south and south-west, and reaching in
its furthest north-west Umits to the Manitoba lake
system, it seems fitted admirably by nature to be a dis
tributing centre for the north and south parts of the
continent. The traffic by the Sault Ste. Marie is said
already to be equal to the tonnage that passes through
the Suez Canal. Its railway system connects with that
of the United States at half a dozen different points : the
markets throughout the pro-vince are within easy range
of the farmer in every settled district, the highways are
kept in good repair, the towns and -villages are thickly
dotted over the country, being seldom more than five to
ten miles apart, and, excepting in the new and far northern
settlements, almost every farm is -within fifteen miles of
a railway station, showing a healthy distribution of rural
population. (3) Soil and Products. — The country has many varieties
of soil, nearly all of which are fertile and easy of cultiva
tion. The farms yield a good return if cultivated with
a view to stock-raising or dairy farming, fruit and mixed
farming, the branches which promise in the future to be
the leading features of agricultural industry in Ontario.
Means of transport are ample, and freights are low.
Au Agricultural Eeturn, collected by the Bureau of

44 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.

Industries for the Province of Ontario, gives the foUow
ing average production of field crops per acre for the
whole Province of Ontario in 1888, together -with their
yields : —

Total yield.

Per acre

FaU-wheat (bushels)

. 18,071,142 .

16.7

Spring „ „

- 9.518,553 -

17-5

Barley ,,

- 19.512,278 .

26.1

Oats „

. 58,665,608 .

36-4

Eye

1,106,462 .

15-4

Peas „

- 16,043,734 .

20-5

Buckwheat

1,678,708 .

21-2

Beans „

482,072 .

23-5

Potatoes ,,

. 16,012,358 .

144.7

Mangolds „

- 8.787.743 -

467.0

Carrots ,,

- 3,478,751 •

338-3

Turnips ,,

- 47.061,053 .

420-9

Hay and clover (tons)

• 2,994,446 .

.88

(4) To-vras. — The first town that claims attention in
Ontario is Ottawa (44,000), the seat of the Federal
Government. It is the centre also of the Ontario lumber
trade. The Ottawa is the river by which, it will be
recoUected, the early explorers journeyed to the West
across Lake Nipissing and French Eiver, when the
Niagara route on the south was closed against them by
the hostility of the Iroquois. The city is in easy and
quick communication with the St. Lawrence. It is thus
described by the Marquis of Lorne in his ' Canadian
Pictures ' : —
'The city is placed on the banks of a broad stream,
which narrows at one spot above the town and pours
over a steep ledge of rock to expand immediately after
wards to fiow on in a channel navigable except at one
place where there are rapids, until it empties itself, about
80 mUes away, into the St. Lawrence. Forty mUes to
the south, the last named mighty river is the boundary
' Extract from ' Oificial Handbook,' published by the Canadian
Government, Oct. 1890.

Ill-] Ontario.

45

between Canada and the State of New York. To the
north-west the Ottawa stretches on far into the wilds,
having its head-waters at the height of land which
divides the basin of the St. Lawrence from that of
Hudson's Bay.'
Kingston (17,000) is described by the same writer as
one of the pleasantest of Canadian towns. It lies in one
of the oldest settled districts of Ontario and is situated
on the Cataraqui Eiver, being connected -with Ottawa by
the Eideau Canal. The Grand Trunk Eailway passes
through it, and the steamers from Toronto and Montreal
call at the port, ' Picturesque Martello towers rise from
the waters and are posted along the en-virons of the town
to where Fort Henry, on the hill to the southward,
dominates the landscape. The streets of the lime-stone
buUt city are well planted. Ship and boat-building -with
the several manufactories and the stir at the wharves
caused by the transhipment of grain, keep a good deal of
life in the locality, deserted as it is by troops and
poUticians. The traces of the old French fort built by
Frontenac are yet -visible . . . From Kingston the so-
called thousand isles may be seen by taking the steamer
down to Montreal . . . The -width of the stream near
Kingston is about seven miles and the whole area for
many miles down is a labyrinthine maze of water, the
rocky wood-clad group of islets separating the deep,
strong-running channels.'
(5) At the west end of Lake Ontario is Toronto,
meaning 'the meeting place of the tribes,' once called
TorJc (172,000). It is the seat of the Provincial Govern
ment, and has many important manufactories. Toronto
is as near Liverpool, by the St. Lawrence and the
Straits of Belle Isle, as New York is by the ordinary
sea-route. It is called the ' Queen City of the West '
with its ' array of dome and turret, arch and spire, and

46 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
the varied movement of its water-frontage is one that
cannot faU to evoke pleasure and create surprise . . .
The city, which covers an area of eight or ten square mUes,
is built on a low-lying plain with a rising inclination to
the upper or northern end, where a ridge bounds it,
probably the ancient margin of the lake. Within this
area there are close upon 120 mUes of streets, laid out
after a rigid chess-board pattern, though monotony is
avoided by the prevalence of Boulevards and ornamental
trees in the streets and avenues. What the city lacks in
picturesqueness of situation is atoned for by its beautiful
harbour and by its private gardens and pubUc parks.
The Custom House, -with its adjacent examining ware
house, is perhaps one of the most striking instances of
the new architectural regime. The business done here
rates the city as second port of entry in the Dominion^.'
Mr. Marshall remarks in his work on ' The Canadian
Dominion,' that 'the University of Toronto is perhaps
the only piece of coUegiate architecture on the American
continent worthy of standing in the streets of Oxford '.'
Niagara. The Falls of Niagara have been a theme of
wonder ever since Father Hennepin first saw them and
described them in his travels. No description can do
them justice. Sir Charles Lyell calculated that 1,500,000
cubic feet of water pass every minute. The waters are
gradually wearing the rock away and the shape of the
Falls has changed much since the Jesuit explorer saw
them. The height of the Ainerican FaUs is said to be
164 feet, of the Horseshoe Falls 158 feet. To Hennepin
they seemed 600 feet high. It is said that the only Falls
to be compared with them are the Victoria Falls of the
Zambesi in South Africa. Charles Dickens in his
' ' Picturesque Canada,' edited by the Very Eeverend G. M. Grant,
Principal of Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.
^ This beautiful structure -v^as destroyed by fire, Feb. 14, 1890.

Ill-] Ontario. 47
' American Notes ' has pourtrayed the ' -wreathing waters
in the rapids hurrying to take their plunge,' then ' the
giant leap ' and the ' rainbows spanning them a hundred
feet below,' and that 'tremendous ghost of spray and
mist which is never laid, arising from its unfathomable
grave.' The Indian says that this rising mist is the
'incense of the world rising to the Great Spirit.'
St. Catharine's (11,000) is situated on Twelve MUe
Creek, and is the principal point on the WeUand Canal.
' The country in its neighbourhood is like that of a great
part of the peninsula between Lakes Erie and Huron,
very fertile and originally covered -with a fair growth of
maple and other hard wood. It has now been carved
out into exceUent farms, occupied by people mainly Scots
and EngUsh in descent.'
(6) London (27,000) in Middlesex is one of the most
enterprising and prosperous of the Canadian cities. It is
built on a little stream called the Thames ; her bridges
are named Blackfriars and Westminster ; her principal
church is St. Paul's ; her streets are Piccadilly, Oxford
Street, Eegent Street, and Pall MaU. On the east on
Lake Erie is Port Dover. Amongst other important towns
are IngersoU in the county of Oxford; Gnelph (11,000)
famous for its Agricultural College; Woodstock (8,314)
in the county of Oxford ; Stratford (9,000) -with an adjacent
vUlage of Shakespeare in Perth ; Wallertown in the county
of Bruce on the river Saugeen ; Hamilton (43,082) near
Niagara, sometimes called ' the ambitious ' with a desire
to rival Toronto; Brantford (13,000) which is brought
into communication with Lake Erie by a canal. The
name of Milton is commemorated in County Halton.
Along Lake Ontario, on the northern shore, there is a
Scarborough and Whitby. There is another Chatham
in County Kent, and not far off a Colchester, Eochester,
Maidstone, and Windsor, and Sandwich. The very

48 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion, [ch.
names of the counties and towns of Ontario betray their
English origin.
A journey by steamer from Montreal to the extreme
end of the great Pro-vince of Ontario is thus sketched by
the Marquis of Lorne : —
' But here (at Montreal) if she be a ship of small ton
nage her journey need not be terminated. Eapid waters
flash over the rocky ledges in the stream above, and the
continuation of these rapids, which are often almost
cascades, bars her direct progress ; but at these she finds
magnificent canals constructed with 9 and sometimes
14 feet of water over the sills of the locks, and she can
proceed until the majestic waters of Lake Ontario allow
her again for 150 mUes to proceed upon her course.
Then, when the steam of the Falls of Niagara rises above
the plains which seem to shut out further advance, she
slips quietly into the WeUand Canal which carries her
over 30 miles, until she passes out again upon the
shallowest of the great lakes. Lake Erie. Onwards for
another 140 mUes, and then through simUar works she
reaches Lake Huron. Through a wonderful archipelago
of islands, scattered on the water on its northern shore,
she wends her way until the old French post called
the Eapids of St. Mary is seen upon the low and wooded
shores. Here for the first time in her long inland voyage
she has to leave Canadian territory, the canal which
takes her onwards being buUt on American ground ^
And now at last she -will have arrived at the ultimate
stage of her wanderings, for before her stretch the 400
mUes of the deeps of Lake Superior, 600 feet above the
level of the sea.'
(7) The Lakes. — Besides Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron,
and Superior, many lesser lakes may be noticed in
' A new canal is being constructed in Canadian territory.

III.] Ontario. 49
Ontario. There is Lake St. Clair, placed as a link between
Lakes Erie and Huron.
Lake Simcoe, the scene of early missionary efforts
amongst the Hurons.
Lake Nipissing, on the old canoe route to the West, now
on the track of the railway which points westward to
Sault Ste. Marie.
Lake Couchiching, the ' Lake of many Winds-'
Lake Muskoka, described as a lovely sheet of water
dotted -with picturesque islands with steep -winding banks-
Lake Bosseau, a lake of irregular shape and filled with
picturesque islands and fringed with noble forests.
The greater Georgian Bay, an eastern arm of Lake
Huron, may be regarded almost as a lake in itself.
Lake Nipigon, caUed by some 'the most beautiful of
all lakes.'
Lake of the Woods and Bainy Lake, which feed first of
all the great St. Lawrence Eiver.
(8) Divisions. — Ontario is divided into 46 counties,
which may be grouped as follows : —
I. Five in Lake Erie District, viz. Essex, Kent, Elgin,
Norfolk, Haldimand.
II. Three in the Niagara District, viz. Monck, WeUand,
Lincoln. '
III. Three in Lake Huron District, -viz. Lambton,
Huron, Bruce.
IV. Seven in the Inland District, viz. Middlesex,
Perth, Oxford, Waterloo, WeUington, CardweU, Brant.
V. Two in the Georgian Bay District, viz. Grey and
Simcoe. VI. Three in the Northern District, viz. Victoria,
Haliburton, Peterborough.
VII. Seven in the Lake Ontario District, viz. Went
worth, Hatton, Peel, York, Ontario, Durham, North
umberland. E

5o The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.

VIII. Four in the Quinte District, -viz. Hastings,
Lennox, Addington, Prince Edward.
IX. Six in the St. Lawrence Eiver District, viz. Fron
tenac, Leeds, GrenvUle, Dundas, Stormont, Glengarry.
X. Five in the Ottawa Eiver District ; viz. Eenfrew,
Lanark, Carleton, Eussell, Prescott.
In addition to these there is the great Manitoulin Island
on the north of Lake Huron, which is rapidly being settled.
In the above counties there are 88 electoral districts.
The power of self-government is carried out in the
Dominion. Any -vUlage -with 750 inhabitants may be
incorporated under the Municipal Acts. If such a -vil
lage increases to 2000 it acquires the status of a town,
and if it reaches 15,000 it gains the full dignity of a city.
(9) The shipping of Ontario is on a great and in
creasing scale. The chief ports are as follows : —
Names. County.
1. Ottawa Carleton
2. Brock-ville . . Leeds
Cornwall . . Stormont
Kingston . . Frontenac
Morrisburg Dundas
3. Belle-sdUe . . Hastings
Cobourg . Northumberland
Hamilton . . . Wentworth
Napanu . Lennox
Oak-vdlle . . . Halton
Port Colborne . Northumberland
Port Hope . Durham
Pictou . . Prince Edward
Toronto . York
Whitby . Ontario .
4. Niagara . . Lincoln 1
St. Catherine's Welland j
5. Amherstburg Essex
Dun-yille . . . Monck
Port Burwell . Elgin
Port Dover . . . Norfolk
Port Eowan . . Norfolk
Port Stanley - - Elgin

Lake 0)- River.
on the Ottawa.
on the St. Lawrence.

V ou Lake Ontario.

on the Niagara.

on Lake Erie.

To face pa-^e 51

Oxfbrd- Uniyersttf I>ess ,

'.1

Nova Scotia.

.51

6.

Names.
Chatham .
Windsor .

County.
KentEssex

Lake or River.
on Lake St. Clair.

7-
8.9-

Goodrich . .
Collingwood .
Sydenham . .
Sault Ste- Marie

Huron
. Simcoe
. Grey

!

on Lake Huron.
on Georgian Bay.
on Lake Superior.

Of these the most important are — Arrivals and Departures.
Kingston, with a tonnage of 1,066,592
Toronto, „ „ 906,704
Ottawa, ,, „ 727,796
St. Catherine's, ,, ,, 413,231
Hamilton, ,, ,, 129,175
including coasting trade '-

CHAPTER IV.

Nova Scotia.
(i) Or all the Provinces of the Canadian Dominion,
Nova Scotia has the most interesting and romantic history.
Around its stormy coasts and bleak capes, the great
struggle between the French and British was being
incessantly carried on in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. The ruins of Louisburg, on the north of
Gabarus Bay, are memorials of the broken Power
¦vyhich aimed at exclusive dominion in North America,
from the St. Lawrence to the Lakes and Western
' See General Map No. i, with list of Shipping and Population.
E 2

52 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
Prairies. By the twelfth article of the Treaty of Utrecht,
'All Nova Scotia or Acadia comprehended within its
ancient boundaries, as also the city of Port Eoyal, now
called Annapolis, were yielded and made over to the
Queen (Anne) of Great Britain and her Crown for ever.'
Much of the romance of early colonisation has taken
place in Nova Scotia. Those 150 adventurers styled The
Knights Baronets of Nova Scotia, created by Charles I,
give us a specimen of that determined spirit of colonisa
tion of the New World in the wake of the Elizabethan
heroes, which was characteristic of Englishmen. Little
by little the British advanced, and fought many a
sanguinary battle for the possession of Port Eoyal, Canso,
and Cape Breton, the key of the St. Lawrence in those
days. At last the struggle closed -with the expulsion of
the Acadians from their country. The poet Longfellow
has, with deep pathos, made the vUlage of Grand Pr6,
Blomidon and the Basin of Mines historical.
Nova Scotia, as the principal Maritime Province, has
its peculiar and distinct features. The colonists who live
there are chiefly fishermen and toUers of the sea, like
those of Newfoundland. But mining and lumbering are
carried on also to a large extent, and the coal trade is
steadily gro-wing, 1,576,692 tons being sold in 1888, while
very much less than half was sold ten years ago '.
(2) Boundaries. — The Province of Nova Scotia is
situated between 43° and 47° N. latitude and 60° and 67°
W. longitude, comprising the Peninsula of Nova Scotia
and the Island of Cape Breton. It is bounded on the
north by Northumberland Strait and the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, on the east and south by the Atlantic Ocean,
on the north-west by the Bay of Fundy and the Bay of
Chignecto. It is long and narrow in shape, running in a
north-easterly and south-westerly direction.
' See p. 48 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890.

IV.] Nova Scotia. 53
Area. — Nova Scotia is about 300 miles long and 100
miles broad. Its coast-line is 1200 mUes, and the whole
area is 20,000 square miles, of which one-fifth is covered
with lakes and smaU rivers. It is about one-ninth the size
of Ontario.
(3) Surface. — There are no very high mountains in
Nova Scotia. The central watershed extends down the
whole length, giving a northerly and southerly slope.
The highest mountains are found along Cape Breton in
latitude 46° N. The South Mountains are in AnnapoUs
and King's counties, and form the western part of the
central ridge. The North Mountains run parallel with
them and, border on the Bay of Fundy. Between them
flows the Annapolis Eiver, along a most sheltered and
fertile valley, which was the home of the Acadian
peasantry, celebrated by the poet LongfeUow in 'Evange
line." The Cobequid Mountains lie in the county of
Colchester, north of the Basin of Mines. The boldest
scenery is found in Cape Breton from Inganische to St.
Anne's Bay.
(4) Coast. — Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, whicli are
di-vided by the narrow Gut of Canso, have a very long
coast-line, deeply indented with innumerable bays,
especially on the Atlantic sea-board. It is, therefore,
especially adapted for a seafaring and maritime popula
tion. The Bay of Fundy is remarkable for its tides,
especially on its eastern arm, which terminates in the
Bay of Mines. At the Equinoxes the tides rise some
times to the height of fifty feet, and form a bore similar
to that seen in the Bristol Channel.
Rivers. — .There are no long rivers in the peninsula,
owing to its natural configuration. No river exceeds
fifty miles in length. The largest are the Shubenacadie,
fio-wing into the east corner of Mines Basin, East Biver of
Pictou into Pictou Harbour, St. Mary's La Have, Mersey

54 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
into the Atlantic on the south, Annapolis into Annapolis
Basin, and Cornwallis into Mines Basin.
Lakes. — There are many lakes, but none exceed twelve
miles in length. The chief are : Darkies, Bossignol,
Malaga in the south ; Ship Harbour Ijoke and Lake Ainslie
in Cape Breton. Bras d'Or is the great lake in the inte
rior of Cape Breton.
(5) Islands. — Isle Madame, near the Gut of Canso, is
sixteen miles long, and has a large fishing population.
Boularderie is a long-shaped island north of Cape Breton,
and forms part of Victoria County in Cape Breton.
Sable Island lies 100 miles south of Cape Breton where
La Eoche's con-vict colony was starved in 1598, and
St. Paul's Island lies beyond Cape North. Amongst
others are Pictou, Scatari, Cariboo, Tancock, Long Island,
Briar Island.
Capes. — The principal capes are : Cliignecto, Split,
D'Or, Blomidon, Mulagash, St. Lawrence, St. George, Eg
mont, Granby, Dauphine, Sambro Head, Breton, Sable.
Bays. — On the Bay of Fundy : St. Mary's Bay, Grand
Passage, Digby Gut, Annapolis Basin, Mines Basin, Cobe
quid Bay, Cliignecto Bay, Cumberland Basin.
On the Northumberland Strait : Baie Yerte, Pugwash
Harbour, Pictou Harbour, George Bay.
On the Atlantic side : Chedabucto Bay, Milford Haven,
Torbay, Sheet Harbour, Musquodoboit Harbour, Halifax
Harbour, Bedford Basin, Lunenburg Harbour.
Nova Scotia possesses unrivalled opportunities for
fishing, and the annual value of her fish exceeds i^
miUions sterling, a large portion of which is exported.
She also exports enormous quantities of tinned lobsters
to all parts of the world. Her best markets are the West
Indies, and then the United States.
(6) CUmate and Soil. — The eUmate of Nova Scotia,
especiaUy on the south and western portions, where it is

IV.]

Nova Scotia.

55

sheltered by the high ground, is far milder than that ot
the inland provinces. The Gulf Stream sweeps up from
the Gulf of Mexico within a short distance of its southern
shores. The average temperature of Annapolis County
is 8° warmer than that of Cape Breton, which is a bleak
and stormy region, and 6° warmer than that of the
State of Massachusetts. The Valley of AnnapoUs is
famed for its beautiful orchards, and fruits of many
descriptions. Although the peninsula is not an agricultural country
in any remarkable degree, its chief productions being those
of the sea, the mine, and the forest, still there are some
very rich tracts, especially in Hants, King's, and Anna
poUs counties'. The average production of the crops of
Nova Scotia are as follows : —
Wheat Eye .
BarleyOats
Buckwheat Indian Com (Maize)
Turnips .
Potatoes .
Mangold Wurtzel
Beans
Hay
The ungranted lands in the different counties amounted
in 1887 to 2,116,811 acres, of which 236,000 were in
HaUfax County, 475,000 in Victoria County, 202,000 in
Yarmouth County, 139,000 in AnnapoUs County, 136,000
in Shelburne County, 135,000 in Queen's County, 147,000
in Inverness County, 114,000 in Lunenburg County,
101,000 in Guysborough County ^-
But it is impossible for Nova Scotia to compete -with
' Appendix V.
= See p. 53 of 'Official Handbook,' 1888.

. yield per acre

. 18 bushels

. 21 „

) '.' '

• 35
• 34
- 33
. 42
- 430 250
- 500
- 22

2 tor
IS.
56 The Geography of the Canadian Dooninion. [Ch.
the great grain-producing region of the North-West. In
the future she will probably become a great manufactur
ing centre. Her coal-fields at Pictou County, Cumber
land County, and Cape Breton, combined Avith her iron,
gold, and other mineral wealth, must give her a leading
position. The Marquis of Lorne has written : — ' If
wages were only as low in Nova Scotia as they are in
England and Scotland, one of her ports — the port of
Pictou — would soon rival Glasgow or Belfast or London
as a great iron ship-buUding port. Near it are mines
almost as vast as those of Lanarkshire, close to the water
are great veins of coal of twenty to thirty feet in thickness.'
Her geographical position also is very favourable
for the distribution of her manufactures to all parts,
whether by sea or land. The railway across the isthmus
connects her with the whole Canadian system and the
Pacific coast. From HaUfax to Vancouver, a distance of
about 3000 miles, there is uninterrupted communication.
(7) The following is the list of the counties and chief
towns of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton : —

Counties.
AnnapoUs
Antigonish Colchester Cumberland
Guysborough
HaUfaxHants King's
Lunenburg
Pictou Queen's
Shelburne .
Yarmouth

Chief To-wns.
AnnapoUs.
Antigonish. Truro.
Amherst. Guysborough.Halifax.
Windsor. Kent-viUe.Lunenburg. Pictou.
Liverpool. Shelburne.
Yarmouth.

IV.] Nova Scotia. 57
Cape Beeton.
Counties. Chief Towns.
Cape Breton .... Sydney.
Inverness .... Port Hood.
Eichmond .... Arichat.
Victoria  Baddeok.
(8) HaUfax, the capital of the Province, has a popula
tion of 40,000', and occupies the west side of what was
once called Chebucto Bay. It was called after Lord
Halifax, the President of the Board of Trade and Planta
tions (1749).
' It is one of the two British combined naval and mili
tary stations in British North America, and as an Imperial
stronghold is of the greatest value. It lies on the high
way to the East and the Pacific, being connected with
British Columbia by the Canadian Pacific Eailway. It
possesses one of the finest harbours in the world. Sir
Charles Lyell, in an account of his travels in North
America, remarks that the harbour of HaUfax reminded
him more of a Norwegian fiord such as that of Chris-
tiania than any other place he had seen.
(9) Population. — The population of Nova Scotia is
about 500,000, well distributed over the counties ; nearly
three-fourths of them being Protestants, and the re
mainder Eoman Catholics. Their chief industry is in
their 'fisheries,' and Nova Scotians own more shipping in
proportion to their numbers than any other country in
the world. Along the deeply indented coast-line there
is an admirable nursery for seamen. If there were a
North Atlantic squadron of a combined Colonial and
Imperial fleet. Nova Scotia would furnish a large con
tingent. The number of vessels belonging to the port of
HaUfax alone exceeds 1000. Yarmouth owns a smaller
number, but the tonnage is greater.
' See p. 49 of 'Ofiicial Handbook,' 1890.

58 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
In addition to the chief to-wns already given, may be
mentioned Barrington, Digby, Londonderry, Maitland,
Pugwash, Parrsborough, Port Hawkesbury, Port Med-
way, Weymouth. Many names and towns in the Province
remind us of historical events in and near the Peninsula.
Eossignol, now Liverpool, on the south-east coast, was a
name given by De Monts, 1604, to a place where he found
a fellow-countryman trespassing on his patent. Lunen
burg close by indicates the German immigration in 1753,
Liverpool on the Mersey marks on the coast itself the
English occupation. Torbay, Dartmouth, and Bridgwater
recall the west-country names and probably indicate a
local migration. CornwalUs, named after the iU-starred
soldier, recalls less agreeable memories of surrender and
defeat in the adjoining continent ; in Shubenacadie the
old French name for the Peninsula has been preserved,
and perhaps Canso, Chebucto, Chedabucto, Cobequid,
Chignecto recaU the earUer nomenclature of the ab
original Micmacs or perhaps of the Malicites, tribes of
the Algonkin famUy.

CHAPTEE V.
New Brunswick.
(i) Boundaries. — The Province of New Brunswick
is situated between the Eestigouche Eiver and Bay
Chaleur on the north, and the Bay of Fundy on the south ;
between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Northumberland
Strait on the east, and the United States on the West.

v.] New Brunswick.

59

Area. — Its area is 27,322 square miles, equal to
171486,280 acres. It is 210 miles in length and 180
miles broad.
Surface. — New Brunswick is connected with Nova
Scotia by the narrow isthmus of Chignecto. It has a
coast-line of 500 miles, being deeply indented with
bays, harbours, and inlets. On the north-east side there
are very few hills, and the most picturesque side is
towards the Pro-vince of Quebec, where the hiUs rise
to a height of 500 to 800 feet, covered with lofty forests
nearly to their summits.
(2) Rivers. — Bestigouche, an Indian name, meaning
'the broad,' or, according to others, the 'five-fingered'
river. It is 200 miles long.
The Nepisiguit is eighty miles long and fiows very
swiftly. It empties into Bathurst Bay, an arm of Chaleur
Bay. The Miramichi flows into Miramichi Bay on the east
coast, and is na-vigable for some distance.
The Peticodiac flows into Shepody Bay on the south.
The Sf. John is the largest river in New Brunswick,
and is 450 mUes long, being na-vigable for large steamers
as far as Fredericton, a distance of eighty-five miles, and
for small steamers as far as Woodstock, a distance of 150
miles. The river is noted for its beautiful scenery and
for its magnificent ' Grand FaUs,' seventy-four feet high.
Amongst its tributaries are the Oromocto, Madawaska,
Tobique, the Washademoak and the Kennebecasis in the
Province itself, and Aroostook and Allagash from the
State of Maine. The St. John rises in Lake Temiscouata,
close to the south bank of the St. Lawrence.
Amongst the smaller rivers on the east coast are the
Eichibucto and Cocagne. The St. Croix is on the United
States frontier and fiows into the Bay of Fundy.
Everywhere in this Province we shall find rivers and

6o The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
streams affording easy access from one place to another.
They abound in every kind of fish useful for the purposes
of man. The value of the fish taken annually is cal
culated to be £500,000. The Eiver Eestigouche is con
sidered to be one of the finest salmon-fishing rivers in
the world, although perhaps not equal in this respect to
the Cascapedia, further north in the Pro-vince of Quebec.
Lakes. — Although New Brunswick cannot boast of
such lakes and rivers as her sister pro-vinces to the west,
she possesses, nevertheless, some very fine sheets of
water. Grand Lake in Queen's County, twenty-eight miles
long, with a width of six mUes, and communicating with
St. John's Eiver.
Washademoak, also in the Queen's County.
Maquapit and French Lake.
Temiscouata Lake at the head of the Madawaska Eiver.
Loon Lake, Eel Lake, and the Oromocto, form a chain
along the boundary in the county of York.
The Miramichi, Salmon, Nepisiquit and Nictaux are in
the eastern division of the Pro-vince.
(3) Coast. — The Province of New Bruns-wick has a
very long coast-line, -with many fine harbours on all sides.
Chaleur Bay extends along the north for about ninety
miles, and affords access far into the interior. It in
cludes two minor bays, Nepisiquit and Caraquet Bay.
Miscou and Shippegan are two islands on its southern
extremity. Miramichi Bay is on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and
facing Northumberland Strait are Shediac Bay and Baie
Verte. On the south is the Bay of Fundy, noted for its
strong currents and tides. Amongst its bays are Cum
berland Basin and Shepody Bay, St. John Harbour, and
Passamaquoddy Bay on the extreme south-west corner.

v.]

New Brunswick.

6\

(4) Population. — The population of New Brunswick
was in 1881 computed at 321,000. Most of them are of
British and Irish descent, but there are many descend
ants of the early French settlers.
The various Protestant bodies include about two-thirds
of the population, the Eoman Catholics one-third. The
capital, Fredericton, has a Cathedral of the Episcopal
Church, and is the seat of the present Metropolitan of
Canada. The date of the founding of the Bishopric is
1845- The Indians number a little over rooo. Their re
serves are found on the Tobique Eiver in Victoria
County, and on the St. John and Madawaska Eivers.
The Micmao Indians, whom we hear of in the early
history of the Colony, number 913, and the Malicites
500. (5) Di-visions and Counties.
St. Lcmrence Counties. County town.
Eestigouche . - Dalhousie. Bathurst.
Newcastle. Eichibucto.
Dorchester.

Gloucester .
Northumberland Kent
Westmoreland

Bay of Fundy.
Albert St. John .
Charlotte .
Inland CouMties.
King's Queen'sSunbury
York .
Carleton
Victoria

Hopewell.St. John.
St. Andrew's.
Hampton.Gagetown.
Oromocto.Fredericton (capital).
Woodstock. Grand FaUs or Colebrooke.

62 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
(6) Towns. — Fredericton is the capital, -with a popula
tion of 7,000. The largest city and most important port is
St. John, with a population of 50,000, including Portland.
The tonnage of its shipping is very large, the timber
from the State of Maine being shipped through its port.
This city has been called 'the Liverpool of British
America.' FoUo-wing the coast-line east and north the foUo-wing
are the most important ports. Hopewell and Dorchester
at the head of the Bay of Fundy, Shediac, Chatham,
Bathurst, Dalhousie, Campbelltown along Northumber
land Straits and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Other rising
towns are Moncton (6,000), Sack-viUe, St. Stephen, Harvey
and Bay Verte.
The fishing industry is very important in New Bruns-
-wick, and in 1888 the number of boats and vessels was
calculated at 4863, employing 9840 men'.
(7) The chief wealth of New Brunswick Ues in its
forests, as the foUo-wing table of exports -wiU show ^ : —
£

Products of the Mines

19,000

Fisheries .

167,000

Products of the Forests .

736,000

Animals and their produce

80,000

Agricultural

50,000

Manufactures

75,000

Miscellaneous

10,000

(8) Railways. — The chief railway in New Brunswick is
' The Intercolonial,' the first section of which was opened
between St. John and Shediac in i860. It was finished
in its entire length, between HaUfax and the St.
Lawrence, in 1876. This railway enters New Bruns
wick at Dorchester, and skirts the eastern coast to
Chaleur Bay and Campbellton. Thence it enters into
' See p. 53 of 'Official Handbook,' 1890.
^ See 'Official Handbook,' 1890-

v.] New Brunswick. 6'3,
Bonaventure and the Province of Quebec until it reaches
Eiviere du Loup on the St. Lawrence. On the south of
New Brunswick there is a branch connecting with St.
John and Fredericton, and with the United States
Eailway system to the West. By means of this commu
nication New Bruns-wick is on the high road to Quebec and
the Far West in one direction, and to the State of Maine
and the United States in another. The through distance
from Halifax to Ei-viere du Loup and Quebec is 561 mUes.
This intercolonial railway, therefore, Unks the Naval
Station of Halifax with the old fortress of Quebec.
Those travellers who wish to reach the Far West may
either take their passage by steamer straight to Quebec or
to Halifax. It may be noticed that the Canadian Pacific
EaUway Company has a line to St. John from Montreal,
running by way of Sherbrooke through the State of
Maine in a south-easterly direction. This is the most
direct of all routes, and saves several hours in reaching
the water on the Atlantic coast.
Those who -wish for the shortest route between Europe
and America, advocate a line of communication from
Ne-wfoundland at some point on St. George's Bay, to
Shippegan at the corner of Chaleur Bay in New Bruns
wick. In this case, Newfoundland and then New
Brunswick "wUl be on the main Une of communication.
The distance by sea between the nearest point of the
Irish coast and Ne-wfoundland is only 1640 miles, occupy
ing less than four days' steaming, then comes the railway
journey across Ne-wfoundland to St. George's Bay, and a
short run to New Brunswick, thus linking -with the
present system at Bathurst.
(9) Immigration. — The following account has been
given of the immigration into New Brunswick :— ' The
position of New Brunswick is not favourable to immigra
tion. The stream of immigrants from Europe divides into

64 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
two main portions, passing respectively north and south
of the Province. The great river St. Lawrence, -with the
wealthy and populous towns on its banks, and the great
chain of Canadian Lakes, -with the rich north-west
prairie lands, attract emigrants to the north, while the
pushing industries and untiring enterprise of the United
States draw off others to the south, so that the really
valuable lands in New Brunswick have been too much
overlooked. However, according to ofiicial returns (1890),
there are now about fifty free grant settlements in the
Province, settled by thousands of industrious men who
had no means of purchasing farms.
The available lands in the various counties of New
Brunswick amount to 6,000,000 acres, and are classified
as ' upland, ' ' intervale " and ' swamp. ' In the future New
Bruns-wick may become a farming country, although at
present her main wealth consists of her magnificent
forests and fisheries.
Out of the total acreage of the Province of New
Brunswick (17,300,000 acres) about 10,000,000 have been
granted and located and 7,400,000 are still vacant. Of
this 1,900,000 are in the County of Northumberland,
1,600,000 in Eestigouche, 820,000 in York, 630,000 in
Gloucester, and 550,000 in Kent. The proximity of
extensive coal fields must help to develop the manufac
turing industries of the country. At present there are
four large cotton-miUs in the Province giving employ
ment to about 1300 people ^-
Prince Edward Island.
(10) This island is the most thickly populated Pro-vince
of the Dominion, and is traversed by a railway from end
1 Appendix VI.
" Extract from 'Official Handbook,' issued by the Canadian
Government, October, 1888.

v.] Priri^ce Edward Island. 6^
to end, from Georgetown to Tignish. Its area is 2,135
square mUes or 1,365,400 acres, and the population is
about 109,000. It Ues between 46° and 47° N. latitude
and between 62° and 64° W. longitude. Its length is
about 140 miles and its greatest breadth thirty-four
miles. It lies in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is distant
nine miles from New Bruns-wick, fifteen miles from the
mainland of Nova Scotia, and thirty miles from Cape
Breton Island.
Climate. — O-wing to its insular position. Prince
Edward Island enjoys a more equable cUmate than the
inland Pro-vinces. The population, unlike that of Nova
Scotia and New Bruns-wick, is mainly agricultural, and
the most important products are oats, barley and potatoes.
A larger proportion of land is under cultivation here than
in any other province. Much of the produce is exported.
Ship-building is also carried on extensively, and the
fisheries round the island are very productive. A great
trade in canned lobsters is being Carried on. The prin
cipal coast waters are Eichmond Bay, Cardigan Bay,
Hillsborough Bay, Bedeque Harbour and Egmont Bay.
The surface of the island is low and undulating, and the
watershed runs east and west, so all the rivers are smaU.
The soil of the island is very fertUe, being composed
largely of the ' alluvium ' or deposit of the St. La-wrence
river \ For three months of the year ' — from December
to March — communication with the island is rendered
difficult by the ice round its coasts. It was called Prince
Edward Island after Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, and
came first into the possession of the British by the Treaty
of Paris. Its first name was St. John's Island.
(11) Early Settlements. — This island was first colonised
in 1715, but immigration was slow, there being in 1752
' Appendix VII.
" See p. 12 of ' Agricultural Canada,' 1889.

66 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. CC"-
only 1354 inhabitants. The first Governor was appointed
in 1780, the whole population not being more than 5000.
In 1803, Earl Selkirk, who colonised the North-West
Territories, settled about 800 Highlanders here.
Counties. — Prince Edward Island is di-vided into three
counties, Prince, Queen's, and King's. The first named
lies to the north, Queen's in the centre, and King's on
the south.
(12) To-wns. — The chief towns are Charlottetown, the
capital, with a population of 12,000, lying about the
centre of the south coast of the island, with a fine harbour.
Georgetown Ues about thirty mUes east of Charlotte-
to-wn. It is the chief port of the island, and has a mag
nificent harbour, which remains open nearly all the year.
Summerside is the second to-wn in trade and population,
and lies on Bedeque Bay.
Tignish is at the extreme north-west end of the island,
fifty-five mUes from Summerside, where a large fleet of
fishing boats is employed in catching mackerel.
Souris is at the eastern corner of the island. At Alber-
ton, also, there is a busy trade carried on by a fishing
population. There is quick and easy communication by boat and
rail between all parts of this prosperous little island.
It has 210 miles of raUway in operation. The distance
between Bedeque Bay and Shediac Bay in New Bruns
wick is short, and communication is gained there -with
the Canadian Eailway system.

118  TO  m  na  no  m  loe  104  302  100  98

^ A

MANITOBA
ith the Soiifhem. portioc
the'Norfli West Territory.
Scale of lEntflish lUEles .

ai-Ji'0^'^

^.

SuzZifiyj -thuf _,

Ssj~' ^ '>>

I J-he Creak FUuns
¦ -^"^ '^''-¦^^-'^^ffillSe^CTil^
iSfr
ID8 IoBff''iJa'WMrt:TOfla.oiu<]aaamricTi304
'iaEl.'i:-.L  :si<;-f ^-
iD IS ¦I*-^:A
VI.] Manitoba. 67

CHAPTER VL
Manitoba.
(i) Manitoba is a province carved out of the Domain
over which the Hudson's Bay Company used to exercise
their rights, the rest of the country being now called the
North-West Territories. It consists almost wholly of
prairie land, and the settler has no trouble to begin -with
in tree-felUng and log-burning in order to clear the soil.
In Manitoba are -wide, open, and Umitless plains, and,
in contradistinction to the Eiver and Lake Provinces of
Quebec and Ontario, it is called 'the Prairie Pro-vince.'
Before the Pro-vince was settled it was known as part
of the Hudson's Bay Territory, the Selkirk Settlement,
Eed Eiver Country, and Eupert's Land. As a home for
settlers its history dates from 1811-16, when Thomas
Douglas, Lord Selkirk, brought a number of Scotch
men out under his own care and supervision. He
reached the Eed Eiver not by the St. Lawrence, but by
Hudson's Bay, during the few summer months when
na-vigation is possible. For a long time the Eed Eiver
Settlement was an isolated tract of country, the nearest
point to the head of Lake Superior being Port Arthur,
distant 435 miles.
The word Manitoba is a contraction of two Indian
words ' manitou ' (spirit), and ' waban ' (strait), and was
originally appUed to a lake which seemed to the imagina
tive Indians to be troubled by some god or spirit. It is
pronounced Manitoba.
(2) Boundaries. — On the east and north lie Ontario
p 2

68 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
and the Keewatin district ; on the south the Intemational
Boundary Line, on the west the districts of Assiniboia
and Saskatchewan. It occupies a central position in the
continent, being half-way between the Pacific and Atlantic
Oceans. It Ues between 49-53° N. latitude, and 90-101°
W. longitude. Its shape is that of a parallelogram.
Area.— Its area is calculated to be 60,520 square itiiles,
or as nearly as possible one-half the size of Great Britain
and Ireland. The slope of the country is towards the
north. The Eiding Mountain and the Duck Mountain
to the north, rising nearly 2000 feet, and the Tui-tle
Mountain to the south on the Boundary Line are the
only elevated points in this province, its surface being for
the most part level or undulating. In the words of the
Earl of Dufferin (1877), 'From its geographical position
and its pecuUar characteristics Manitoba may be regarded
as the keystone of that mighty arch of sister pro-vinces
which span the continent from the Atlantic to the
Pacific. It is here that Canada, emerging from her
woods and forests, first gazed upon her rolUng prairies
and unexplored North-West, and it was hence that as a
prelude to future expansion she took a fresh departure.'
Winnipeg is 1423 miles west of Montreal, about 200
mUes further than Madeira from London, and the crea
tion of the Province of Manitoba at so great a distance
from the old province is another Ulustration of the im
mensity of our North American domain. Yet, Manitoba
is only in the centre of the continent after all, and is
equidistant from British Columbia on the west and
Quebec on the east. The prairies seem absolutely Umit
less, and they stretch to the base of the ' Eockies,' which
by their trend to the north-west make the central plateaux
of British North America -wider than in the more southern
latitudes of the United States \ This immense region for
* Appendix VIII.

VI.] Manitoba. 69
hundreds of miles, is famed for its grains and grasses.
Acre for acre, the country here could support a thicker
population than any similar tract on the globe. It is on
the wonderful capacity of Manitoba and the North-West
for producing grain and vegetables that the assumption
is based that British North America could sustain a
population of nearly 200,000,000 ; the northern limit for
wheat being placed by Hurlbert at 58° N. lat.
(3) Population.— The Pro-vince of Manitoba is in its
infancy. In 1870 the population was 11,965, of whom
only 1 61 4 were whites. Since then the latter have
rapidly increased, and were estimated in 1887 at over
112,000, of whom about three-fourths are British. The
city of Winnipeg alone is calculated to number 22,000'.
Besides British there are a large number of Germans,
French and English half-breeds, and Icelanders. Of all
nationalities the Scotch have been perhaps the most
persistent and successful colonists of British North Ame
rica. The Mennonites or German makers form a pecu
liar element in the population of Manitoba. They are
settled along both banks of the Eed Eiver in twenty-five
districts or reserves, embracing 512,000 acres, of which
300,000 are under settlement.
(4) Lakes. — Manitoba, and the country to the north
and north-west, is covered with a network of rivers and
lakes extending far north. It is calculated that the great
Lake Winnipeg drains a basin of 400,000 square miles,
an area of country almost equal to the St. La-wrence
Valley. Unlike Lake Superior and the others to the
west. Lake Winnipeg is comparatively shallow, and is
nowhere more than 70 feet deep. Its elevation above
the sea is 710 feet. Its length is 280 miles, and its
breadth 57 miles ^-
' See p. 68 of ' OfScial Handbook,' 1890.
' See p. 416, Hayden and Sel-wyn.

70 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
Lake Wimiipegosis, or Little Winnipeg, is 120 miles
long, 27 miles broad, and covers 2000 square mUes.
This lake pours its superfluous waters through the Water-
Hen Eiver into Lake Manitoba, which is 120 mUes long,
about 24 mUes broad, and covers 1900 square miles.
This lake, in its turn, pours its waters into Lake
Winnipeg. (5) The Rivers of this region are : —
Winnipeg Biver, 163 mUes long, fio-wing north-west
from the Lake of the Woods, and gathering in its course
the waters of many small lakes.
The Bed Biver, nearly 600 miles in length, flowing
from the south, and entering Lake Winnipeg.
The Assiniboine, from the north-west, joining the Eed
Eiver at Winnipeg, and carrying the waters of the Souris
from the south.
The Barens Biver, draining some lakes from the east.
Through the Little Saskatchewan the accumulated waters
of Lakes Winnipegosis and Manitoba flow into Lake
Winnipeg, the communication between the two smaUer
lakes being by the Water-Hen Eiver.
The waters of Lake Winnipeg, which are gathered
from so many different sources as far asunder as the
Lake of the Woods through the Eiver Winnipeg on the
east, the ' Eockies' through the Great Saskatchewan on
the west, and the hiUs of Minnesota through the Souris
on the south, flow finaUy into Hudson's Bay on the
north by the great Nelson Eiver. This river is 350 mUes
long, and passes through a large number of smaU lakes.
Its course is rendered diflScult to navigate by the count
less numbers of rapids. Its volume of water is enormous.
Communication -with the north-west, vid Hudson's Bay
and the Nelson Eiver, is carried on with great difiiculty,
the Hayes route from York Factory being the usual
inland route from Hudson's Bay. In the first place

VI.] Manitoba. 71
the great bay itself is frozen over for six months in the
year ; and in the second place, there is no navigable
river which can take the colonist and explorer into the
heart of the continent from the bay during the brief
summer months. In Manitoba itself we have the key
to understanding the drainage and slope of the country
surrounding Lake Winnipeg, for on the south the Winni
peg Eiver opens up the route eastwards by lake and
river to Thunder Bay, whilst on the north the Great
Saskatchewan is ' the high-road to the north-west.' In
course of time a railway may link Winnipeg -with
Hudson's Bay.
(6) CUmate. — There is no very marked difference
between the cUmate of Manitoba and that of Quebee
and Ontario. It is warmer in summer and colder in
winter. Spring opens up at nearly the same time along
the country from Lake Superior to Athabasca : —
' The juncture of the seasons is not very noticeable.
Spring glides insensibly into summer, summer into fine
autumn weather, which, during the equinox, breaks up
in a series of hea-vy gales of -wind accompanied by rain
and snow. These are followed by that divine aftermath,
the Indian summer, which attains its true glory only in
the north-west. The haziness and dreamy fervour of this
mysterious season have often been attributed to the
prairie fires, which rage over half a continent in the fall,
and evoke an enormous amount of heat and smoke.'
The -winters are also described : —
' The -winters of the north-west, upon the whole, are
agreeable and singularly steady. The mocassin is dry
and comfortable throughout, and no thaw, strictly speak
ing, takes place tUl the spring, no matter how mUd the
weather may be. The snow, though shallow, wears well ;
and differs greatly from eastern snow. Its fiake is hard
and dry, and its gritty consistence resembles white

72 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion, [ch.
sUppery sand more than an3i;hing else. Generally speak
ing, the further west the shallower the snow, and the
rule obtains even into the heart of the "Eocky Mountains."
In south-western Ontario the -winter is milder, no doubt,
than at Eed Eiver, but the soil beats the soil of Ontario
out of comparison ; and, after all, who would care to
exchange the crisp, sparkling, exhilarating -winter of
Manitoba for the rawness of Essex in south Ontario ? ^ '
The mean -vnnter temperature of Manitoba is 5° below
freezing point, and for the summer 65°. In the depth of
-winter the atmosphere is generally calm and stUl, and
the cold is, therefore, not felt in the proportion we
should imagine in the raw, damp, and blustering climate
of the British Islands. Probably there is no weather
in North America so disagreeable as the cold raw
spring-weather of England when the winds blow from
the east.
(7) Divisions. — Manitoba is di-vided into four counties :
Selkirk, Provencher, Lisgar, Marquette. These are sub
divided into twenty-four districts or electoral di-visions,
returning 38 members to the pro-vincial assembly -.-^
Westbourne. St. Paul's.
Portage la Prairie. St, Andrew's, S.
Poplar Point. \ St. Andrew's, N.
High Bluff. / St. Clement's.
Baie St. Paul. Eock Wood.
St. Fran? ois Xa-vier, W. Springfield.
St. Franfois Xavier, E. St. Boniface.
Headingley. St. Boniface.
St. Charl-es. St. Vital.
St. James. St. Narbert.
Winnipeg. St. Agathe.
KUdonan. St. Anne.
• Extract from Bi-yce's ' Manitoba-'

vn.] North-West Territories. 73
(8) Tcwns. — Winnipeg. In 1878 the first railway ran
into Winnipeg, and since then a new era began for the
North-West, and the prosperity of the town commenced.
Standing at the confluence of the Eed Eiver and Assini
boine it is the doorway to the great prairie region beyond,
and is a great distributing centre. In 1874 the assess
ment of real and personal property was 2\ million dol
lars ; in 1883 the assessment of the to-wn had risen to
32 J million dollars. The site of Winnipeg was occupied
originally by a post of the Hudson's Bay Company, and
was known as ' Upper Fort Garry.'
Portage la Prairie ' (2500) is 56 miles west of Winnipeg
along the railway, and is becoming a mercantile and
manufacturing centre. Brandon is a rapidly rising town
further west, with a population of 3000. Amongst others
there is Selkirk (1000), Emerson (800), and other smaller
towns and -villages. Gladstone, Minnedosa, Shoal Lake,
and Birtle are on the Manitoba and North-West Eailway,
which is opening up the Great Saskatchewan valleys.

CHAPTER VII.
North-West Territories.

(i) Under this general term may be included all the
land of the Canadian Dominion not contained in Quebec,
Ontario, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Bruns
wick, the North-East Territories, Manitoba and British
1 See p. 69 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890.

74 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
Columbia. These territories ^ are the great unorganised
domain of North America, and stretch over a vast tract
of country far northward to the Arctic Ocean. On the west
they are traversed by the Eocky Mountains. The main cha
racteristics of the climate and country have been already
described. Towards the extreme north the cold is more
intense, and Great Bear Lake is said to be frozen over for
eleven months in the year. Near the Arctic Ocean trees
cease to grow, and the vegetation consists only of mosses
and lichen. In winter it seems to be perpetual night, and
in the shortest day there are only a few minutes between
sunrise and sunset. In the summer the sun seems
hardly to set at all, and this is the time when the
explorer and traveller has to push liis journey forward.
(2) Pro-visional Districts. — Assiniboia contains about
95,000 square miles, and is bounded on the south by the
International Boundary, on the east by Manitoba, on the
north by a Une drawn near 52° lat-, and on the west by a
line near no" west long.
The Qu'Appelle Valley is in the district of Assiniboia,
and is one of the favoured parts of the North-West.
Here was the site of the famous Bell Farm, now partly
broken up, which covered an area of 100 square miles,
being managed by a Company. The original capital was
£120,000, and in 1887 no less than 10,000 acres were
under cultivation. The Bell Farm was one vast wheat-
field -with furrows four mUes long. To plough a furrow
outward and another returning was a half-day's work for
a man and team. The soil of this vaUey is very good,
and a rich black mould has been found to extend many
feet below the surface. The general features of this
district, especiaUy on the eastern side, resemble those
of Manitoba, but the land itself lies somewhat higher,
as the second plateau or steppe is reached with its
' Appendix IX.

VII.] North-West Territories. 75
average altitude of 1600 feet. It is to this Province that
a number of emigrants from Scotland and the East End
of London were sent in 1883, 1884, 1885. Still later in
1888 and 1889 about 80 famiUes of crofters from the
Hebrides were settled under a system of aided emigra
tion, each famUy receiving an advance of £100 to £120
to start -with. Progress is very marked in this district,
which -will, sooner or later, attain to the dignity of a
Pro-vince of the Dominion. Within twelve months a
settlement can be formed and schools established on the
-wild and unoccupied prairies. ' The Government aUow
ance is always Uberal, and the arrangements are such
that directly a district becomes even sparsely settled
every child can find a school within two miles '.' To the
north of Assiniboia district, and on either side of the
Manitoba and North-West Eailway, the country is being
rapidly developed, especially in the neighbourhood of
Saltcoats and Yorkton. Here is a small colony con
sisting principally of small farmers or farm labourers
from England, and numbering 340 souls, although the
first settlers did not come tiU September, 1887. In the
Saltcoats district there are also German and Icelandic
colonies. Alberta. This district has an area of 100,000 square
mUes. It Ues west and north-west of Assiniboia, and is
bounded on the west by the Eocky Mountains. On the
south both Assiniboia and Alberta are terminated by the
49th parallel of N. lat., the International Boundary Line.
Alberta has, more than any other district of the North-
West, attracted English capital and become the scene of
EngUsh enterprise, for here the ranches are the best in
Canada. The great characteristic of the climate is the
' Prof. Fream, 'Agricultural Canada.' Published under the
direction ofthe Government of Canada, 1S89.

76 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
Chinook wind which blows from the west. ' The district
of the Chinook -wind — the country of the great cattle and
horse ranches — extends from the International Boundary
on the south to the Eed Deer Eiver on the north, and from
the Eocky Mountains on the west to about 140 miles east.
The foot-hills stretching for about twenty mUes east of
the mountains, are generally bare of trees, but in spring
they are soft and green -with the verdure of innumerable
grasses, which, once the favourite food of the buffalo, are
now as eagerly sought after by the cattle that have taken
their place. This is the celebrated grazing countrj^
where, in the latitude of Labrador, cattle and horses
range -winter and summer -without shelter. It is more
than probable that the farmers on the east side of the
Eocky Mountains, especially those of Alberta, wiU find a
steadily growing market, particularly for meat and dairy
produce, in British Columbia. From Calgary, the capital
of Alberta, through the Eockies, the Selkirks, and the
Gold Eange to the Pacific coast is 36 hours' journey by
the Canadian Pacific Eailway, which should act as a line
of distribution all along its route \'
The district of Saskatchewan coxa^nBes about 114,000
square mUes. It lies to the north of Assiniboia and
Alberta. As the branches of the great Saskatchewan
pass through its valleys it has many fertile tracts which
in eourse of time must be opened up and prove very
profitable. Emigrants are now able to travel from the
Canadian Pacific Eailway to Prince Albert by the Mani
toba and North-West EaUway, and a line is in course of
oonstruction from Eegina in Assiniboia, constituting two
profitable arteries of trade in the future.
The district of Athabasca has an area of 122,000
square mUes. It is bounded on the south by the district
' ' Agricultural Canada,' 1889.

VII.] North-West Territories. 77
of Alberta, westward by the Province of British Columbia
along the 120th west longitude, on the north by the
60th parallel of latitude. The eastern boundary is,
roughly speaking, the Athabasca Eiver from the northern
boundary of Alberta to Athabasca Lake, and then the
Slave Eiver to the point where it is intersected by the
60th paraUel of latitude.
(3) Rivers. — The Mackenzie is the longest river in the
great ¦ North-West Territories, and following its tribu
taries — the Peace Eiver and Finlay — to the Eocky Moun
tains its length is about 2000 miles. This is as long as
the St. Lawrence from its head-waters beyond Lake
Superior. This is a country indeed of 'magnificent
distances.' The Athabasca is also a tributary of the
Mackenzie, rising near Mount Brown in the Eockies and
flowing into Lake Athabasca. It is 900 miles long.
The Slave Biver carries the waters of Lake Athabasca
to the Great Slave Lake and is 200 miles long. The
Pelly, Yukon, and Great Fish Eiver also belong to the
Arctic system.
The Saskatchewan, which flows into Lake Winnipeg and
is connected -with the Hudson's Bay system, has two
branches, North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan.
The north branch is 770 miles long, the south 800 miles.
The sources of the Saskatchewan are near those of the
Athabasca, not far from Mount Brown and Mount Hooker
in the Eocky Mountains. The Bow Eiver also, which is
an afiluent of the Saskatchewan, rises near a tributary of
the Missouri which fiows southward into the Mississippi.
Within a short distance different waters rise which flow
northwards through the Mackenzie into the Arctic Ocean,
westwards through the Saskatchewan into Lake Winnipeg,
and thence by the Nelson into Hu4.son's Bay, and, south
ward, through the Missouri and Mississippi into the Gulf
of Mexico.

78 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
The Churchill Biver rises in Saskatchewan Province
and flows into Hudson's Bay a Uttle north of the Nelson.
Its length is noo mUes.
The Coppermine Biver rises in Point Lake and flows north
into the Duke of York Archipelago and the Arctic Ocean.
The Assiniboine rises in latitude 52° N., longitude 103"
W., and after flo-wing southerly about 120 mUes -winds
to the East and, joining the Eed Eiver, flows into Lake
Winnipeg, and so into Hudson's Bay.
The Albany and Moose Eivers flow into the south-west
side of Hudson's Bay. The Albany Eiver is fully 450
miles long.
On the east shores of Hudson's Bay there are a few rivers
flo-vring from the direction of Quebec and Ontario pro-
-vinces, such as the Eupert, East Main Eivers — of no
great size and length. To the north is Great Whale
Eiver, but the interior of the country does not resemble
the great North-West. There is a large tract of country
called the ' Barrens ' stretching across the northern parts
of the continent.
(4) Lakes. — Wollaston Lake. This lake is on the
watershed and sends part of its waters northerly to Lake
Athabasca and to the Mackenzie Eiver, and part to Deer
Lake on the south and so through ChurchUl Eiver into
Hudson's Bay.
Lake Athabasca is 200 mUes long.
Great Slave Lake is situated between latitude 60° 40'
and 63° N., and longitude 109° 30' and 117° 30' N., its
greatest length from East to West being 280 mUes, and
its greatest breadth 50 mUes. It is frozen over for six
months of the year.
Great Bear Lake. Here in the north is almost per
petual winter, the Une of grasses and grains has been
passed at about 65° north latitude, and this lake is partly
within the Arctic, Circle.

VII.] North-West Territories. 79
There are many smaller lakes, such as Trout Lake on
the river Deer, a tributary of the Severn.
Severn Lake, on the Severn.
Setting Lake and Knee Lake on the Hayes Eiver, flow
ing into Hudson's Bay near the Nelson.
South Indian or Big Lake, and North Indian or Sandy
Lake on the Churchill Eiver basin.
Baker Lake and Doobaunt Lake are connected -with the
Chesterfield Inlet on Hudson's Bay.
Beechy Lake, Lake Pelly, and Lake Macdougall are in
the Great Fish Eiver Valley.
In the vicinity of Great Bear Lake and Great Slave
Lake there are numberless lakes such as Lakes Tache,
Gravelin, Sequin, Eey, Fabre, Aylmer's Lake, Artillery
Lake, and many others, affording means of communi
cation through the country from Hudson's Bay to the
Eocky Mountains.
In fact, the whole vast region of the North-West is
a network of lakes and rivers through which hunters and
voyageurs have, little by Uttle, found their way by well-
known routes and 'portages.'
(5) Towns. — In the North-West Territories there are
fe-yv to-wns or -villages except along the line of the Canadian
Pacific Eailway, from the Manitoba frontier to the Eocky
Mountains. Battleford (Saskatchewan District) on the Battle Eiver,
near its junction -with the North Saskatchewan, was
formerly the capital of the North-West Territories, but
its place has been taken by Begina in the Assiniboia
district. Battleford is 300 mUes distant from the Pacific
EaUway. The city of Begina is 356 mUes west of
Winnipeg- In 1882 the only sign of human occupation
was three large canvas tents. Eegina owes its sudden rise
and importance to the Canadian Pacific Eailway. It is the
home of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West

8o The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
Territories, and the meeting place of his council, and the
head-quarters of the Mounted Police. The city contained
in 1886 300 houses and about 1000 people. It now
contains 9540 inhabitants. Here Louis Eiel, who headed
a rebellion of Indians and French half-castes, was executed
in 1885. The region round Eegina and along the
Qu'Appelle Valley was a favourite haunt of the buffalo
in former times. The surrounding prairie is fiat and for
the most part treeless.
Moose Jaw, Assiniboia, is 42 miles west of Eegina, and
bids fair to rival the capital itself.
Medicine Hat is a station 300 miles from Eegina and
2083 miles from Montreal.
Lethbridge is on the BeUy Eiver in the south-western
part of Alberta district. It is a busy town of 1000 in
habitants. From this point, 100 mUes away, the great
range of the ' Eockies ' is visible, rising up from the
immense level plains as land from the ocean. Near Leth
bridge the hills are crossed, dividing the watersheds of the
north and south. Within a few hundred feet the waters
here fiow in opposite directions. Near Lethbridge, which
is connected by a branch Une with the Canadian Pacific
Eailway, extremely valuable coal mines have been dis
covered, of immense advantage to the Dominion.
Formerly coal had to be brought to the districts of the
North-West from Pennsylvania.
Banff is a celebrated sanatorium in the midst of a .great
National Park in the Eocky Mountains.
Calgary, in Alberta, is 2262 miles west of Montreal,
and is the great western outpost of the North-West
Territories. Its beginnings do not date further back
than four or five years. It is the rising town of the pro
visional district of Alberta, the great ranching division
of the North-West.
Other important towns are Saltcoats, Broadview

To face page 81

IiOii^i.tTiAe West 12S from. Gre enwi cli

Oarrtjrd. Uhi.versiJ/j' Frees

VIII.] British Columbia. 8i
Summersberry and Indian Head, Dunmore in Assiniboia,
Edmonton in Alberta north of Calgary, Prince Albert
in Saskatchewan, soon to be connected by rail with the
main route.
(6) In addition to the above we must notice the Forts
and Factories of the Hudson's Bay Company. The most
important of these are: — (i) York Fort, Severn Factory,
Haye's Factory, Bupert's Factory, Main Factory, and Moose
Fort on Hudson's Bay and James's Bay. (2) Carlton House,
Fort Edmonton, Fort Pitt, Cumberland House, Fort Mac
Leod, Hamilton, Calgary in the Saskatchewan Basin. (3)
Fort Simpson, Besolution, and Chippewyan on the Mac
kenzie. The latter Fort was the starting-point of the great
explorer, Mackenzie. (4) Fort Pelly and Fort EUice not
far from the trading post of Qu'Appelle, in the valley of
the Assiniboine.
A tract of country in the North-West which will
probably be opened up shortly is the Peace Eiver Valley.
The na-vigation of the river opens and closes about the
same time as the Ottawa. In course of time the Mac
kenzie Eiver VaUey, -with its vast forests and other
wealth, may be opened up and brought into commu
nication -with the rest of the Dominion.

CHAPTER VIIL
British Columbia.
(i) Until recently British Columbia, which is the
most remote of the seven Confederated Provinces of the
Dominion, seemed to be cut off by the huge barrier of the
G

8a The Geography ofthe Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
Eocky Mountains, but it has now been Unked to the rest
by the Canadian Pacific EaUway. In natural features
this Province differs from the others in a remarkable
degree. Once past the Eockies, a different climate is felt
on the slope of land which trends to the Pacific Ocean.
Warm currents of air and ocean from the west come to
the coast and keep the climate, especiaUy in the maritime
districts, mild and equable \ The northern limits of the
grains and grasses extend up to Fort Liard and to the
Yukon, almost under the Arctic Circle. South of the
Boundary Line a region of summer droughts is reached.
The tropic currents perform for British Columbia the
same ser-vice which the Gulf Stream does for the British
Isles and Norway. They enable vegetation to flourish
at high latitudes. Lieutenant Maury has described
the physical conditions which prevail along the western
shores of North America. There are, he observes, two
large currents of warm water, ha-ving their beginning in
the Indian Ocean. One of them is the weU-kno-wn
Mozambique current, called at the Cape of Good Hope
the L'AguUias current. Another of these warm currents
from the Indian Ocean makes its escape through the
Straits of Malacca, and, being joined by other warm
streams from the Java and China Seas, flows out into the
Pacific, like another Gulf Stream, between the PhUip-
pines and the shores of Asia. Thence it takes the great
circle route for the Aleutian Islands, tempering climates
towards the north-west coast of America- The winds
also passing over its waters carry warmth in winter far
inland to the Eockies. Between the physical features
of this ' the Black Stream ' of the Pacific, and the Gulf
Stream of the Atlantic, there are several points of re
semblance. Sumatra and Malacca correspond to Florida
and Cuba, Borneo to the Bahamas. The coasts of China
' See p. 83 of ' Guide Book for Settlers,' Ottavra, 1882.

VIII.] B'ritish Columbia. 83
answer to those of the United States, the PhUippines to
the Bermudas, the Japan Islands to Ne-wfoundland. As
with the Gulf Stream, so also with this China current,
there is a counter current of cold water between it and
the shore. The climates of the Asiatic coast correspond
with those of America along the Atlantic, and those of
British Columbia, Washington and Vancouver resemble
those of Western Europe and the British Isles.
(2) The cUmate of British Columbia may be classified
as insular, semi- continental, and continental. The first
variety is found in Vancouver, Queen Charlotte Islands,
and along the broken coast-Une ; the second between the
Cascade Eange and the coast ; and the last on the plateaux
between the Cascades and -the Eockies. The climate of
the coast regions is like that of the British Isles. Here
the southern wind prevails, laden with moisture from
the ocean currents, resembling the Gulf Stream winds
which sweep over England from the south and south
west. East of the Cascade Eange, which is the lesser
di-vision of the country, the variations of heat and cold
are greater, and droughts frequently prevail. But British
Columbia is naturally free from the extremes of the
North-West Territories, and also from the fogs and the
cold mists which descend on the eastern shores of North
America from Bafiin Bay, and make the exposed parts
of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia cold. On the Pacific
side of North America there are no great reservoii'S for
ice and icebergs as in Bafiin Bay on the east. Behring's
Strait is a comparatively shallow and narrow outlet com
pared with Bafiin Bay, and the drift of the ocean currents
is towards, rather than from, the Arctic Circle. Moreover,
the long projecting shores of Alaska, which are con
tinued for a long distance by the broken Aleutian group,
form a natural breakwater to shield the coasts of British
Columbia from the rigours of the north.
G 2

84 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
(3) The fishing grounds ofthe North Pacific are espe
cially prolific off Queen Charlotte Islands, the Skeena
Eiver and Stikeen Eiver, and testify to the fact that the
cold currents, which are best suited for fish, prevail here \
Following the line of the coast, the cUmate of Victoria in
British Columbia has been described as being beyond
comparison the best suited to the taste of the English on
the Pacific coast. ' It has all the sun and none of the
evening fogs of San Francisco ; the blue sky without the
rain of Portland ; snow close in sight on the tower
ing Olympia range, and yet it is never cold ; hundreds
of miles of inland navigation, fish at all seasons, sea
and land otter, deer, elk, beaver, mink, marten, silver
and sable fox, and the finest grouse shooting in the
world.' (4) Boundaries and Area. — British Columbia is
bounded on the north by the 60th parallel of latitude,
west by Alaska and the Pacific, south by the 49th parallel
or United States boundary, and east by the Eocky Moun
tains. In virtue of a well-known decision, the line
between Vancouver and Washington runs through the
Haro Channel and the San Juan Archipelago. This
archipelago breaks up the main channel into three straits.
(i) The Eosario Strait on the east ; (2) the Douglas
Channel in the centre ; (3) the Haro Strait on the west.
The United States, therefore, gained the control of the
coast and islands from the east to the Haro or Western
Channel. The area of this Province is 341,305 square mUes, or
nearly three times the size of the British Isles ^.
(5) Mountains. — The main mass of Vancouver Island
is a partially submerged mountain chain, the highest
peak of which. Mount Arrowsmith, rises to the height of
' Appendix X.
2 See p. 7 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890.

VIII.] British Columbia. 85
nearly 6000 feet. It is continued to the south in Wash
ington Territory and to the north in Queen Charlotte
Islands. The range is precipitous and descends abruptly
to the coast. On the mainland there are four ranges ',
(i) The Coast or Cascade Eange, which is in reality a
prolongation of the Sierra Nevada of California. It com
mences above New Westminster, and extends parallel
with the coast as far as Mount Elias. (2) The Gold
Eange. (3) The Selkirks, with their extensions north
and south. (4) The vast range of the Eocky Moun
tains. At certain intervals there occur the following well-
known gaps through the Eockies : —
Twenty miles north of the Boundary Line the Koo
tenay Pass traverses the Eocky Mountains. The waters
of the Belly Eiver upon the east and those of the
Wigwam Eiver upon the west have their sources in this
valley 6000 feet high.
Fifty miles north of the Kootenay, the Kananaskis
Pass cuts the three parallel ranges which traverse the
Province running north and south. The height of land
is 5700 feet.
Thirty miles to the north is the Vermillion Pass,
4900 feet.
Twenty miles further stiU the Kicking Horse Pass,
5210 feet^, utilised by the Canadian Pacific Eailway.
The Howse Pass, 4500 feet.
The Leather Pass (Jasper's House^ or Yellow Head),
3760 feet.
The outflow of all these passes, with the exception of
the Yellow Head, seeks on the east the river system of
the Saskatchewan and on the west the Columbia and its
tributaries. The Yellow Head on the other hand sends
'¦ Appendix XI.
' See p. 342 of Hayden and Selwyn's ' North America."

86 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
its dividing waters into the Athabasca on the east and
into the Fraser Eiver on the west \
(6) Rivers. — In the Island of Vancouver there are no
navigable rivers, those that exist resembling winter
torrents flowing -with great velocity from the mountains
and high ground of the island. On the mainland the
most important rivers are : —
The Peace Biver, formed by the waters of the Findlay
and Parsnip Eivers in the Eocky Mountains, near the
sources of the Skeena. It finds its way through the
gorges of the. mountains eastward by the defile known
as Peace Eiver Pass, and fiows across the great North
American plains until it reaches Lake Athabasca. It
was along the valley of this river that Mackenzie, the
intrepid explorer of the Mackenzie Eiver Basin, found
a route to the Pacific Ocean over the Eocky Mountains.
Gold is said to be found in the Peace Eiver Valley, at
Omineca and along the western slopes of the mountain
range, and the whole course lies within the grain and
grass-bearing zone, which reaches its highest latitude
here. Of this river Sir W. Butler has written : ' Unlike the
prairies of the Saskatchewan, the plateau of Peace Eiver
is thickly interspersed with woods and thickets of pine
and poplar. Its many lakes are free from alkali, and
the -willows affords sustenance to the moose.' The river
is sharply furrowed and so deep that sometimes it
seems to fill up the entire bottom of a narrow valley
through which it runs. More frequently a wooded ter
race lies between the foot of the ridge and the brink
of the water. The soil is a dark sandy loam, the rocks
are chiefly lime and sandstone, and the numerous slides
and huge landslips along its lofty shores render -visible
strata upon strata of many coloured earths and layers
' Butler's ' Wild North Land.'

VIII.] British Columbia. 87
of rocks and shingle, lignite and banded clays in rich
succession. A black bituminous earth in many places
forces its way through rock and shingle and runs in
long dark streaks down the steep descent. Even when
April comes the river lies in motionless torpor solid
with its weight of ice four feet in thickness. Then
comes the sudden break up and the irresistible rush
of waters. Where the Peace Eiver passes the Eockies
the valley is about two miles -wide, the river 250 to
300 yards -wide. The gorge is one of magnificent beauty,
with the ' glittering crowns of snow ' 8000 feet above
and the 'wide beautiful vaUey almost filled by the
river, tranquil as a lake and bearing on its bosom, at
intervals, small inlets of green forest.' The scenery is,
perhaps, more beautiful than the dizzy glory of Shasta
and the precipices of Yosemite.
The Skeena fiows westward into the Pacific, and is
ascended for some distance by steam vessels from Na
nalmo, in Vancouver Island. It is one of the routes to
the Omineca gold mines.
The Nasse is at the extreme north, near the Alaska
boundary, and flows out at Observatory Inlet. It is
navigable for twenty-five mUes, and its vaUeys are be
lieved to abound in gold. The shortest route yet sketched
out to the Pacific is by the YeUow Head Pass, along the
valley of the Fraser Eiver and thence northward to the
Skeena VaUey, and down that valley to Port Essington,
or crossing over to the Nasse Valley and down to Fort
Simpson near its mouth on the sea. The route of steamers
would then be along Dixon Channel, north of Queen
Charlotte Island, and in the future such an alternative
route may be adopted.
The Findlay Biver, called after a fur-trader, has many
large tributaries. It is something like a huge right
hand spread out over the country, of which the middle

88 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch-
finger would be the main river and the thumb the
Omineca. ' There is the North Fork which closely hugs
the main Eocky Mountain Eange. There is the Findlay
itself, a magnificent river, flowing from a vast labyrinth
of mountains, being unchanged in size or apparent
volume 1 20 miles above the Forks we had left. . . . The
Omineca lay before us stretching to the westward amid
cloud-capped cliffs and snowy peaks, known to the gold
seeker but not accurately. It is but one of that score of
rivers which 2500 mUes from these mountains seek the
Arctic Sea through the gateway of the Mackenzie \'
The Fraser Biver rises near the Yellow Head Pass,
not far from Mount Hooker and Mount Brown and the
sources of the Athabasca, and flows northward first of
all, untu it breaks through the Cariboo mountains near
Fort George. Turning suddenly to the south, it passes
through that part of British Columbia which Ues be
tween the Cascades and Gold and Selkirk Eanges, and
is the chief river of the district. The Cariboo plain is
a promising agricultural district "-
Crreat Columbia Biver. The Canadian Pacific EaUway
crosses the Eocky Mountains at 'the Kicking Horse
Pass.' At the summit of this pass is a lake, whose waters
drain in two directions, eastward by the Bow Eiver
into the South Saskatchewan and then into Hudson's
Bay and ultimately the Atlantic, and also westward
to the Columbia Eiver, and so to the Pacific. Here, in
these Alpine regions, are the sources of the Columbia
Eiver, which, after a great bend round the Selkirk Eange,
fiows south into the Pacific in Oregon (United States)
territory. It is deserving of note that the Yukon in
Alaska, the Fraser, the Skeena, the Colorado, and the
Columbia, are the only considerable rivers in North
' Butler's ' Wild North Land.'
' Appendix XII. ,

VIII.] British Columbia. 89
America west of the Eocky Mountains which find their
way over the western plateaux through the gorges of
the intermediate mountain ranges to the Pacific Ocean.
The great loop of this river round the Selkirk Eange
has been called the ' Big bend of Columbia. " The region
thus included is rich in minerals, timber, game, and
fish. Out of its district no less than £10,000,000 worth
of gold has been procured. The Canadian Pacific Eail
way, instead of following the course of the Columbia
Eiver, cuts across the Selkirk Eange by some very skilful
engineering. The Thompson Biver, a tributary of the Fraser, upon
which the town of Kamloops, meaning in Indian lan
guage ' the junction of the waters,' is founded, is a note
worthy river. In crossing the Eocky Mountains and
traversing British Columbia, the railway engineers have
made use of a series of deep caiions. At the summit
of the Eagle Pass begins the Eagle Eiver, and the rail
way foUows it down till it reaches the Shuswap Lake.
' This is a most remarkable body of water. It lies
amongst the mountain ridges, and consequently extends
its long narrow arins along the intervening valleys like
a huge octopus, in half a dozen directions. These arms
are many miles long, and vary from a few hundred
yards to two or three miles in breadth, and their high,
bold shores, fringed by the little narrow beach of sand
and pebbles, give beautiful -views. The railway crosses
one of these arms by a drawbridge at Sicamous Nar
rows, and for fifty miles it winds in and out the bending
shores. This lake, with its bordering slopes, gives a
fine reminder of Scottish scenery \' The Eagle Biver
flows into the Thompson Eiver and the Thompson into
' See p- 41 of 'A Canadian Tour,' by the London 'Times' Cor
respondent, 1886.

go The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
the Fraser, and it is along the vaUeys of these rivers that
the railway is constructed.
(7) Coast-line.— The coast-line of British Columbia,
owing to its broken character and the number of islands
that adjoin the continent, is unusually long. It measures
no less than 7000 miles, a distance equal to twice that
of the British Isles, and is most beautiful and pic
turesque. This is the description given by the Earl of
Dufferin in 1876 : —
' Such a spectacle as this coast-line presents is not to
be paralleled by any country in the world. Day after
day, for a whole week, in a vessel of 2000 tons, we
threaded an interminable labyrinth of watery reaches,
that wound in and out of a network of islands, promon
tories, and peninsulas for thousands of mUes, unruffled
by the sUghtest sweU from the adjoining ocean, and pre
senting at every turn an ever-shifting combination of
rock, verdure, forest, glacier, and snow-capped mountains
of unrivaUed grandeur and beauty.'
(8) Lakes. — In the south Lakes Kootenay, Okanagan,
Upper and Lower Arrow, Shuswap, Harrison, and LUloet.
In the centre Quesnelle, Horse Fly, Cariboo, Cross,
Babine, Tacla ; in the north Stuart, Thutage, Dease. But
of course the lake and river system of this country cannot
compare -with (i) the St. Lawrence ; or (2) the Mani
toba ; or (3) the Mackenzie. However, from its natural
harbour advantages and diversified coast-Une there is an
easy access from one end to the other, which compensates
for the difiiculties of travel in the interior.
(9) Porests and timber. - The great currents of
westerly -winds blo-wing across the Pacific, strike upon the
coasts of British Columbia and Alaska. These -winds are
laden with moisture gathered in their course over the sea,
and discharge it in copious showers upon the land.
Wherever they touch North America we find magnificent

VIII.] British Columbia. 91
woods and forests. More than half the area of British
Columbia is covered with the finest trees in the world.
For hundreds of miles the vaUeys are densely wooded, and
gigantic pines and huge cedars clothe the sides of the
mountains, even up to the regions of eternal snows. The
king of the British Columbian pines is the Douglas fir,
which rivals the Weymouth species of New Brunswick, on
the east coast of North America. Under the name of the
Oregon pine it is a most valuable article of commerce.
It frequently grows 300 feet high with a diameter of eight
to nine feet. The white-cedar is a well-known forest
giant of the Fraser Valley, and on Vancouver a species
of oak grows plentifully. Amongst other trees are the
hemlock, maple, and arbutus. Burrard Inlet is the centre
of the British Columbian timber trade, and is only a few
miles distant from New Westminster. It is nine miles
long, and is deep and safe. The total annual produce is
estimated at 200,000,000 feet of timber.
(10) Population. — The population of British Columbia,
including Vancouver Island, is calculated to be 100,000,
including 25,000 Indians and 7000 Chinese. However,
the country is filling fast, and in 1888 no fewer than
11,000 fresh immigrants settled there. In the cities of
the coast large numbers of Americans are to be met
-with, and the dollar is the usual currency. Tlie Chinese
immigrants are more numerous here than elsewhere in
Canada, and the character of a Pacific seaport is semi-
oriental. In the interior chiefly are found the 25,000
Indians, who are kept in ' reserves' or 'locations.'
European settlers must recollect that the mainland of
British Columbia, apart from the sea-board, is divided
into three sections, each differing from the other two in
its climatic and geological features., (1) From the Fraser
Eiver to Yale Eapids is the 'New Westminster,' or
settled district ; (2) from Yale to Alexandria, the SimU-

93 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
kameen district ; (3) from Alexandria to the Eocky Moun
tains, called the Lilloet-Clinton district.
(11) To-wns. — The principal cities on the mainland
are Vancouver (12,000), the terminus of the Canadian
Pacific Eailway, and New Westminster (5000). Kamloops
has a population of about 700, and is the entrepot of a
fine ranching district.
Tale is a settlement of about 1000, and is buUt on a
comparatively level place amongst the mountains. Just
here the railway, which has passed over 600 mUes of
mountain work since it entered the 'Eockies,' comes into
the more fruitful and level valley of the Fraser Eiver.
Lytton is a small town built by gold-miners at the
junction of the Fraser and Thompson Eivers.
Amongst other towns and settlements on the mainland
are Pemberton, WiUiam Creek, a gold centre, Hope,
Quesnelly, Barker-ville, Okanagan.
Before this country, which has been called, not inaptly,
the ' England of the Pacific,' a great future is opening
out. With its wealth derived from rich gold mines,
forests, and fisheries, it must become rich and attract
from all quarters an enterprising population.
Vancouver Island.
(12) Divisions. — i. Victoria; 2. Saanich Peninsula;
3. Tooke ; 4. Cowicham ; 5. Salt Spring Island ; 6.
Nanaimo ; 7. Comox and Nelson.
The area of the island is about i6,ooo square mUes,
or 10,000,000 acres. Of these divisions Victoria and
Cowicham and the Saanich Peninsula are best suited for
farming purposes.
(13) Towns. — Victoria, situated at the extreme south
east of Vancouver Island, originally the depot of the great
Hudson's Bay Company, has a population of 1 5,000. It is

To faire pa^e 93 -

N°IK.

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iij.*f otaft I.
CJireton, ^^

isr T I

Grande V~^

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O C\ i: A N

58 Imgitude West 56 feoiiL GreeawicJi. .tLt

OxfoTd, UhiyersitnT Pi-ft,

IX.] Newfoundland. 93
distant 70 mUes from New Westminster, and between 700
and 750 miles from San Francisco. ' Its narrow harbour,
which is scarcely so large as Huskisson Dock, Liverpool,
is rock-bound, and surrounded by the most charming
miniature bays, exhibiting grassy knolls, and here and
there evergreens in aU the luxuriance of tropical foliage.
A river opening out above the town invites the visitor to
a boating excursion ; the fresh green of the grassy reaches
which stretch into the bay, the rocky promontories, the
snow-covered mountains, combine to form a landscape
which deeply impresses itself upon the stranger fresh
from the waves of the ocean or the sombre fir-hills of
Oregon and Washington.'
Esquimault is noted for its magnificent harbour,
and is distant three mUes from Victoria. This har
bour is thirty-six feet deep, and almost land-locked,
and is an imperial naval station of the North Pacific
squadron with a magnificent gra-ving-dook for refit
ting. Nanaimo (5000), sixty-five miles from Victoria, has
also a good harbour. It is the headquarters of the deep-
sea and whale fisheries, and is a thriving coal-mining
town.

CHAPTER IX.
Newfoundland.
(i) Newfoundland is an island off the North American
coast, lying between the paraUels of 46° 36' 50" and

94 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
51° 39' north latitude, and the meridians of 52° 37' ^^^
59° 24' 50" west longitude.
Boundaries. — It is bounded on the north-east and
south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by the GuU of
St. Lawrence and the Straits of BeUe Isle.
Extent.— Its length from Cape Eay to Cape Norman
is 317 miles, and its breadth from Cape Spear to Cape
AnguUle is 316 miles. With it must be reckoned the
dependency of Labrador, extending from Anse Sablon
in the Straits of Belle Isle to Cape Chudleigh, latitude
60" 37'-
Population. — In 1884 the population was found to
number 197,539, of whom nearly 100,000 lived in the
Peninsula of Avalon.
(2) The foUo-vnng is a description of the island given
by a recent writer in the 'Nineteenth Century' Magazine,
December, 1888 : —
' The island is larger than Ireland ; the greater portion
of it is covered -with thick and almost impenetrable
forests of spruce and pine-trees, interspersed -with birch,
larch, and poplar. The forests give way occasionally
to open spaces known locally as Barrens. They are
covered -with a dense carpet of mosses, which, in places,
attain a depth of from one to two feet. There is a great
variety of mosses, and some of them are of much beauty.
Long trails of stag's-horn moss strike the eye amongst
the velvety greens and deep oUves, and the delicate grey
and intricate tracery of the reindeer-lichen gives a pleas
ing contrast of colour and form. Besides mosses the
barrens are rich in bUberries or hurts, partridge-berries,
swamp-berries, and berries of various other kinds in
extraordinary abundance . . . Innumerable lakes, or as
they are called in Ne-wfoundland ponds, are thickly
dotted over the country, and though there is nothing
that can be caUed a mountain in the island (the highest

IX.] Newfoundland. 95
elevation being only 2400 feet), there are hills froin one
of which no less than 180 lakes or ponds have been
counted. Large rivers traverse the island in various
directions, but none are navigable for any distance, for
craft larger than a canoe, as they are broken by falls
and rapids and soon become shallow. The two principal
rivers are the Humber, running west into the Bay of
Islands, and the Exploits, which falls into Notre Dame
Bay, to the north-east.'
(3) General features.— The geography of Newfound
land is almost entirely the geography of a sinuous and
broken coast-line. Everywhere this coast-line is deeply
indented with bays and inlets of the sea, and there is
scarcely a -village in the island which has not a close
access to the sea. Perhaps no country in the world has
such a coast-line in proportion to its size. In the inte
rior there are several hills stretching across the island
in a north-easterly and south-westerly direction, at whose
bases are low and undulating valleys full of lakes and
ponds. Here and there are isolated peaks or ' tolts '
rising up to a height of 2000 feet. The highest land
is on the south and west. The poorest land is on the
east and south, and the best nearer the north, where
the largest lakes and finest timber are found.
(4) CUmate. — The cUmate of Newfoundland varies very
much. At St. John's, on the extreme east, where the
Peninsula of Avalon stretches far out into the Atlantic,
the weather is cold and chilly, being affected by the
Arctic current fiowing down laden with ice from Bafiin's
Bay. As this icy current meets the warm waters of the
Gulf Stream, it meets and creates vapour which lies upon
the eastern sea-board in a dense and thick fog, making
the navigation off the Ne-wfoundland banks difiicult and
dangerous. The fogs rarely extend inland for a distance
of more than fifty mUes, and the climate on the west

96 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
coast is fairly equable, far more so than in most portions
of the Canadian Dominion. The thermometer in wirier
seldom falls below zero, and rarely rises to 80° in summer.
The mean temperature for the whole year is about 43°,
the mean height of the barometer about 29'^ 40'^.
(5) Soil — The best soil is found at the heads of the
bays and inlets, as Gander Bay, the Bay of Exploits, on
the shores of Eed Indian Lake, the Bays of St. George
and Port-a-Port, and in the valley of the Humber Eiver,
where the best timber grows. The Laurentian system is
the lowest and oldest, and spreads over two-thirds of
the island ; the Carboniferous is the highest series, and
is found on the western side, and here and there are
seams of coal. The primordial Silurian rocks are found
only in isolated patches ; the Huronian system prevails
on the eastern part of the island. The foUo-wing is the
order of the formation : — (i) Carboniferous, (2) Devonian,
(3) Middle Silurian, (4) Lower Silurian, (5) Huronian,
(6) Laurentian. Although it does not exist in large
quantities, stUl there is gold, found in quartz veins, and
associated with iron ore ; sUver, both native and asso
ciated with galena, copper ores, copper in various forms,
galena, plumbago, iron ores of great variety, marble and
limestone, slates, and building stones of every material.
Copper is perhaps the most plentiful metal.
(6) Capes.— On the east Cape Prima-vista, said to have
been first sighted in 1497 by Cabot ; Cape Francis, once
caUed Cape de Portogesi, sho-wing by its name, as well as
that of Portugal Cove, that the Portuguese had fisheries
here. Cape Spear, in the Peninsula of Avalon at the en
trance of the magnificent harbour of St. John, on the east •
Cape Eace, so wellkno-wn as one of the first points of
land seen by outward-bound steamers. Cape Pine on the
' See paper by the Honourable Mr. Justice (no-w^ Sir Eobert)
Pinsent, read before the Eoyal Colonial Institute, AprU, 1885.

IX.] Newfoundland. 97
south ; Capes Eay and Anguille at the extreme south
west ; Cape Norman on the north at the entrance of Belle
Isle Strait, and on the eastern side of Pistolet Bay, Cape
Bauld. In such an island as Ne-wfoundland, with its
unparalleled coast-line, the minor heads and promontories
are almost innumerable.
Peninsulas- — (i) That of Avalon, with a very irregular
coast-line, joined by a very narrow isthmus of a few
miles in -width, -with Placentia Bay on one side and
Trinity on the other. (2) The Northern Peninsula or
Petit Nord of the French. (3) Port-k-Port on the west.
Bays. — On the eastern side. Conception, Trinity, Heart's
Content, Bonavista, Goose, Freshwater, Hall, Green,
Canada and Griguet Bays.
On the north. Sacred, Ha Ha, and Pistolet Bays.
On the south, Trepassey, St. Mary's, Placentia, For
tune, Connaigre, Hermitage, Despair, and White Bear
Bays. On the west, St. George's, Port-a-Port, Bay of Islands,
Bonne, St. John's, St. Margaret, St. Barbe Bays.
(7) Islands. — On all sides of Newfoundland there are
a large number of small islands, especiaUy in Bona-vista
and Notre Dame Bays on the east, St. John's and the
Bay of Islands on the west, and Fortune and Placentia
Bays on the south. Belle Isle is the most northerly ;
and St. Pierre, Great and Little Miquelon, which latter
belong to the French, and are used as depots for their
fishing fieet, are the most southerly.
The Cabot islands are a baiTen group on the west
side, to which a name has only been recently given by
the Newfoundland Legislature, on the occasion of the
erection of a lighthouse. This is the only place in
Newfoundland where the name of the great explorer
has been preserved.
St. John's Harbour, lying to the north of Cape Spear,
H

98 The Geography ofthe Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
is the nearest port of call from Europe, and must be
distinguished from St. John at the mouth of the St.
John Eiver, New Brunswick, -with its population of
44,000. This patron saint was popular in Canada, as
Prince Edward Island was originally called St. John,
and north of the city of Quebec there is a St. John
District. (8) Straits and Channels are very numerous in New
foundland, and they are called by many different names,
e. g. tickle, gut, sound, run, passage, reach, partly accord
ing to their size, the ' tickle ' or ' run ' signifying the
narrow, tortuous channels through which the tides run
s-wiftly. On the east coast the Baccalieu Tickle is between
Baccalieu Island and the mainland ; Chandler's Eeach
is at the entrance to Clode Sound, WilUs Eeach between
Willis and Cottel's Islands, Trinity Gut between Le-wis
Island and the mainland in Bonavista Bay, Dildo Eun
between New World Island and the mamland. Long
Island Tickle between Long Island, Triton and Pilley's
Island in Notre Dame Bay.
On the south, CoUnet Passage between Great CoUnet
Island and the mainland, Eastern Passage and Western
Passage between Dead Islands and the mainland.
On the west. Main Gut, St. George's Bay, and BeUe
Isle Straits between the Great Northern Peninsula and
Labrador. Isthmuses. — (i) Avalon, between Trinity and Pla
centia Bay. (2) New Bay, between Bay of Exploits and
New Bay. (3) The Gravels or Isthmus of Port-k-Port,
connecting the Peninsula of Port-k-Port with the main
land. Rivers. — The rivers of Newfoundland are very nume
rous, but none of very great importance. The Gander
and Exploits rivers empty into Notre Dame Bay; St.

IX.] Newfoundland. 99
John's into the harbour of that name ; the Dildo and
Black Brook into Trinity Bay ; the Humber Eiver into
the Bay of Islands. It has been said that to enumerate
all the rivers and lakes in the island would fill a book,
the number being prodigious. One quarter of the surface
of Newfoundland is covered by fresh-water lakes and
ponds. Much of the interior of the island is still un
known. It is a paradise for the fisherman and sportsman.
(9) As a field for emigration Ne-wfoundland offers room
for farm-labourers. Her soil is fertile enough to keep
an agricultural population. As a mineral-bearing coun
try she is rich and capable of development. The deposit
of gypsum is enormous, and building slate, granite, lime
stone and marble abound. At the heads of the great
lakes in the interior there is said to be 3,000,000 acres
adapted for settlement and cultivation, where there are
large areas of fine timber land. There are many ways
in which the fishing industries can be made more pro
ductive even than they now are, and employment found
for more fishermen. For fishermen, miners and agri
culturists Newfoundland is a country which, only 1700
miles distant from the nearest shores of the British
Islands, holds forth many attractions. Hitherto the
great stream of emigrants bound for more distant Trans
atlantic abodes have passed it by.
(10) Newfoundland is useful to us as a nursery for sea
men. Her rough weather and difiicult coast navigation
call into play the best kind of seamanship. The number
of able-bodied fishermen is about 30, 000 \ The number
of sailing vessels cleared at their ports in 1882 was 1107,
their crews numbering 7200 ; the number of steamers
cleared during the same year was 176, with crews num
bering 6568. Amongst such a population as this would
' See Paper by Sir Eobert Pinsent, 1885.
H 2

loo The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
be found a nucleus of a strong naval force ready, in case
of emergency, to defend their own or British shores.
The average annual value of the fisheries is as
follows ^ : —

Cod fishery

- §6,034,242

Seal fishery

1,026,896

Herring fishery

581,543

Salmon fishery

ii4>505

Lobster fishery

104,184

All other fish

40,000

$7,901,370
(or ,f 1,646,118).
(11) Government. — Eesponsible, (i)-with a Governor at
the head appointed by the Crown. (2) Executive Council
of seven members. (3) Legislative Council or Upper
House of fifteen members, chosen for life. (4) House of
Assembly of thirty- one members, elected every four
years by the people. The judges are generally appointed
for life.
Electoral Districts are ten in number.
In the centre, (i) District of St. John's, (2) Ferryland.
In the north, (3) District of Conception Bay, (4) Trinity
Bay, (5) Bonavista Bay, (6) TwilUngate and Fogo.
In the south, (7) District of Placentia, (8) of Burin,
(9) Fortune Bay, (10) Burgee and LapoUe.
These districts are not mapped out with any regu
larity, and little account is taken of the interior, which
is virtually unoccupied. The Ne-wfoundlanders are de
prived of the control of over one-third of their coast
line on the west and north by the claims of the French.
The ' French shore ' is the great and open grievance of
the colony, and interferes greatly with the progress of
the island ^.
(12) Religion. — There are of the (i) Church of Eng-
' Paper by Sir Eobert Pinsent, 1885.
' Appendix XIII.

IX,] Newfoundland. loi
land, 69,000 ; (2) Wesleyan Methodists, 35,000 ; (3)
Church of Eome, 64,000. The number of churches is
about 250 \
Education is purely denominational, and is repre
sented (i) by five Higher Schools or Academies, (2) Com
mercial and Elementary Board Schools, (3) Colonial and
Continental Church Society Schools, (4) Institutions of
the Christian Brothers.
The Public Debt of Newfoundland is very small, and
does not exceed £2 per head of the population ^ Direct
taxation is unknown, and even the municipal works of
St. John's and the large towns are under the Board of
Public Work's.
(13) Telegraph. — Newfoundland is noted as being the
first place where the project of the submarine cable was
conceived and carried out. The first idea was not a
Transatlantic cable, but a short line connecting New
foundland with Cape Breton, and so reducing by two or
three days the period of communication between England
and New York. The first section of the designed cable
lay across the island between St. John's Harbour and
Cape Eace before it entered the sea. Just at this time
(1852) a United States naval expedition was surveying,
by means of deep-sea soundings, the bed of the Atlantic
Ocean, and between Ne-wfoundland and Ireland they dis
covered the existence of a plateau which seenied expressly
designed for the wires of a submarine cable. After four
repeated trials, the oceanic cable was successfully laid
do-wn by the Great Eastern, in 1866. The shore end of
it is situated in Heart's Content Bay, a small inlet in the
-wider reaches of Trinity Bay, on the eastern coast. This
was the beginning of the system of ocean telegraphy
which, spreading in every direction over the world, and
' See Paper by Sir Eobert Pinsent, 1885-
= Ibid.

I03 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
bringing every nation within speaking distance, is effect
ing a revolution, not only in the general ideas of the
day, but also in the operations of war, commerce and
diplomacy.

CHAPTER X.
Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress.
(i) The above are in brief outline the bare geographi
cal details of the Canadian Dominion, and of Ne-wfound
land, but they fail naturally to convey in themselves an
adequate idea of the wealth and enterprise of the
5,000,000 people who have made these countries their
home. A brief glance at the results already gained in
the various departments of industries will show that
the Canadians have already developed in a remarkable
way the resources of their country. In other colonies,
such as Natal and the Cape Colony, the presence of an
overwhelming native population brings with it a large
number of responsibilities and many administrative
problems. In Canada there is now no native question
to embarrass the politician, nor has the country to
grapple, as the Eepublic on the south, with the negro
difiiculties. For in the more Southern States of the
Union emancipation has brought in its wake a kind of
social revolution which threatens in course of time to
be of a serious nature and introduce class animosities
in a free EepubUc. Happily for themselves the Cana
dians can boast of a comparatively unembarrassed poll-

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 103
tical existence. The problems they have to face are not
those of a struggUng and anxious community, but re
late chiefly to the development of the land and its
wealth. (2) Agriculture is a leading industry of Canada, and
to prove how much the colonists grow in excess of their
own requirements we learn that in 1887 they exported
i£8, 600,000 worth of farm produce. During this year
the number of cattle alone exported was 116,274, of which
63,622, valued at £1,000,000, were shipped to Great
Britain. There is no cattle disease in Canada, largely
through the precautions of the Department of Agri
culture. The cattle themselves are of good pedigree stock
from the old country and show no signs of deterioration.
The herds of Shorthorns, Jerseys, and Herefords will
bear comparison with those of England, which of all
countries on the globe is rightly considered to be the
best adapted for cattle rearing. In dairy-farming \ a very
important branch of industry, great progress has been
made of late years in Canada, and the best American
cheeses are admittedly Canadian. Poultry raising has
gradually been developed by a thrifty farming population,
more numerous and more -widely dispersed than in any
other colony, as has already been pointed out, and it is
calculated that poultry to the value of £21,780 and
thirteen millions of eggs were exported in 1887 to the
United States. The fruit and vegetables of the Dominion
are too well known to need noticing here, and whilst
the climate is singularly adapted to English fruits, such
as peaches, apples, strawberries and currants, it is also
favourable to many crops which are raised -with diffi
culty in England. Melons ripen as a field crop, and
tomatoes are so plentiful that they sell for less than 2s.
a bushel, while in various localities, such as County Essex
^ Appendix XIV.

I04 The Geography ofthe Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
on the shores of Lake Erie, there are -vineyards resem
bling those of France. The account given of the common
cereals shows that the Dominion is par excellence the
country for them up to high latitudes.
(3) Generally speaking, mixed farming is carried on,
the growing of grain and fruit, stock raising and dairy
farming being all combined in a greater or less degree.
The best immigrants undoubtedly for Canada are small
farmers, -with a small amount of capital ranging from
£500 to £1000. There exists also in the Dominion a
special Department of Agriculture, with a member of
the existing Cabinet at its head; and, in 1887, legisla
tive authority was obtained for the establishment of five
government experimental farms in various parts of the
Dominion to test the capacity of soU and climate — one at
Ottawa, for the convenience of the Provinces of Ontario
and Quebec, a central institution, one at Nappan (N. S.)
for the maritime Pro-vinces, one at Brandon for the
Prairie Provinces, one at Indian Head for the North-
West Territories, one at Agassiz in British Columbia,
from which the most profitable results may be obtained.
The Agricultural College at Guelph in Ontario has long
been known as the Canadian Cirencester, and there have
not been wanting men Uke Principal Sir W. Dawson and
Professor Macoun, and others, who have by their world
wide learning contributed largely to the science of agri
culture. The meeting of the British Association at Mon
treal in 1887, in itself a kind of Pan- Anglican conclave
for the advancement of science, afforded abundant proof
that the range and appUcation of modern science, espe
cially with reference to agricultural chemistry, was being
indefinitely advanced in the Dominion. Sir Charles Lyell
has written in his ' Travels in North America,' p. 5 : —
' In the course of this short tour I became convinced
that we must turn to the New World if we wish to see

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 105
in perfection the oldest monuments of the earth's history,
so far at least as relates to its earliest inhabitants. In
no other country are these ancient strata developed on a
grander scale or more plentifully charged with fossils,
and, as they are nearly horizontal, the order of their
relati-*-e position is always clear and unequivocal-'
Moreover, as if to show that the wonderful prairies of the
North are practically inexhaustible for the uses of man,
it has been pointed out by Professor Macoun that even
those plains where alkali is found, and for a long time
regarded as profitless, -will become the most valuable of
the wheat lands as settlement progresses, the alkali
being converted into a valuable fertiliser by the ad
mixture of barn-yard manure ^
(4) Forestry. — In connection with agriculture and
husbandry comes the science of Forestry. To conserve
the existing forest wealth of the Dominion, to thin out,
plant, and experiment should be one of the chief tasks of
the Department of Agriculture. Nowhere in the world
has Nature been more prodigal in her gifts of the forest
than in the Dominion. Although there are many durable
woods in South Africa and Australia, still they require
protection. In the settled parts of AustraUa, and in
Cape Colony tree-planting has gradually become a state
necessity. In the latter country, European occupation
has too often been followed by veldt fires, which have
destroyed in a short time and with terrific destructive -
ness the scanty gro-wth of hUl and valley. Consequently
the surface of the earth has been exposed to the dis
integrating action of sun and rain, the hills have been
quickly denuded, and, literally speaking, the ribs of the
earth seem to be exposed. Evaporation takes place
quickly and the rain clouds become scarcer and scarcer,
' See ' Official Handbook,' published by the Department of Agri
culture, Canada, October, 1888.

io6 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
and the increased radiation from the earth is destructive
to natural organisms. The water-courses run dry and
droughts set in with all their concomitant miseries. In
Canada the earth is sheltered and screened from the heat
of the sun by means of its forests, rivers never run dry
there, and the accumulated mould of ages lies many
fathoms deep upon the surface. Earely do poisonous
and deadly malarious exhalations arise from the earth
which are so fatal in more southern latitudes of North
America and other Colonies, and the Canadian Dominion
seems like a providential and beneficent extension of
the temperate zone for the welfare of the northern races
of Europe.
At the same time the Canadian forests are a very
rich mine of wealth, always encouraging a whole
some and vigorous occupation for lumberers and axe
men. It is estimated that Canada exports 700,000,000
feet of timber for the United States market — a significant
fact in itself — and a simUar amount for England, South
America, and Australia. To carry on this trade an army
of 30,000 men are employed at the rate of 5s. a day.
Inthe Quebec Province there are 100,000 square mUes of
timber territory awaiting purchase. To the North-West,
and especially beyond the Forks of the Saskatchewan,
immense areas of forests are still to be opened up as the
tide of immigration rolls forward, and the means of
cheap transit are pro-vided. The Government holds a pro
prietary right over these timber lands, and leases them
for a general term of twenty-one years to the highest
bidder. The conservation of forest wealth should be
one of the first cares of Canadian statesmen.
(5) Fisheries. — Passing on to tho fisheries we shall
find that here too the Canadians have at hand an im
portant supply of wealth which they are developing
with increasing perseverance. From the Arctic regions

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 107
the currents are always bringing down a food-supply for
the fish, especially along the eastern coasts. This is
described as ' living slime formed of myriads of minute
creatures which swarm in the Arctic seas, and are
deposited in vast and ever-renewed quantities upon the
fishing grounds.' In addition, the fresh-water fisheries
in a country so completely honeycombed with lakes as
the Canadian Dominion, are of great importance. It is
approximately estimated that the value of the home
consumption in 1887 was worth £2,600,000, which to
£3,400,000 worth exported and sold on the Dominion
markets, gives a total of £6,000,000.
(6) Further, it is calculated that the Canadians possess
a fieet of 7294 vessels, 1198 steamers -with a total net
tonnage of 1,217,766. Assuming the average value to
be £6 per ton, the value of the registered tonnage
would be £7,300,000. It must be noted that about
seventy per cent, of the sea-borne trade was under the
British fiag. On the Pacific sea-board there are not
wanting signs of a growing traffic, and of trade com
munication -with the countries of the east and -with the
Australasian colonies. This trade carries with it great
opportunities of expansion.
As in agriculture proper, and in forestry and lumber
ing, this shipping industry re-acts most favourably upon
the physique of the nation. It is different indeed from
the existence of a South African and Australian miner,
and in some respects is hard and perilous ; but there is
a healthfulness in the sea breezes, rough as they are at
times, which toiler and digger in search of gold along a
malarious belt of country can never realize. The moral
effect also of Canadian industries, compelUng as they do
the colonists to live apart, and in widely separated
regions, is healthy and sound.
(7) Manufacture.— Since 1878 the development of

io8 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
manufactures has been more marked than during any
pre-vious period in the industrial history of Canada. The
statistics of the increase in the capital invested show the
advance that took place in the decade from 1871-1881 \

1871-

1881.

Capital invested

^15,500,000

£33,ooo.°°o

Hands employed

187,000

254,000

Amount of yearly -wages .

£8,170,000

£12,000,000

Total value of articles produced

£44,100,000

£61,000,000

, A partial investigation made in 1884-5 indicated that
in the older pro-vinces there had been an estimated in
crease of 75 per cent, in the number of hands employed
(over the 1878 estimate), in the amount of wages paid,
and in the capital invested, while the value of the goods
produced had just doubled itself. Yet these manufac
tures are only in their infancy. For considering the
prospect of their development it is necessary to glance
at the resources Nature here again has placed at the
disposal of the Canadians. In nearly every Pro-vince iron
has been discovered and coal-fields of immense area are
being worked in Nova Scotia — most conveniently placed
on the Atlantic highway — in the North-West Territories,
and also in British Columbia, here again placed most
conveniently on the Pacific highway and the road to the
east and the native markets. Whether for purposes of
coaling war vessels or for the more peaceful object of
supplying merchant steamers, the fields are equaUy useful.
In addition petroleum is known to exist in several
parts of the Dominion, and weUs have been worked most
profitably in Ontario where the production is very large.
It is stated that in the North-West very extensive
sources of petroleum have been discovered, and a raUway
is projected to connect them with the Canadian Pacific.
What were formerly considered to be the gloomy regions
' See p- 19 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890.

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 109
of the north, therefore, may be gradually illuminated by
light and fuel, and Nature provide for men a suitable
compensation. In the North-West Territories anthracite
and in all the provinces excellent peat is found. With
regard to another motive power useful for the purposes
of mankind, viz. that of water, it is evident that the
Dominion is more favourably situated than any other
colony. In the first place, perhaps no country has, from
its natural configuration and extensive coast-line, greater
facilities for utilising tidal action, the rise and fall of the
tidal wave being, especially in the Bay of Fundy, a most
remarkable phenomenon. The water-power afforded in
the interior is absolutely limitless, and a glance of the
mighty rush of Niagara conveys an idea of the storage of
force beyond and above the Falls. The Falls of Niagara
are a symbol of that Titanic and ever-present power,
which can be made to subserve the services of man in
the smallest as well as the greatest things. The
Canadian saw-mills are at once the most extensive and
best appointed in the world. It is a wonderful sight to
see a log taken out of the water by an automatic process,
placed in position under the saws, and speedily reduced
to inch boards. This summary process of reducing to
boards in a few minutes a giant pine which has taken
more than a century to grow is a triumph of the
mechanical skiU of mankind.
(8) Revenue and Expenditure. — The consolidated
revenue for the year ending June 30th, 1888, was
made up as follows ^ : —
Customs . £4,422,000
Excise . 1,216,000
Other sources 1,746,000
^7>384>ooo
the expenditure for the same period being £7,343,000,
1 See p. 17 of 'Official Handbook,' 1890.

IIO The Geography ofthe Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
leaving a slight balance in hand. It will be noticed that
considerably more than half the whole Eevenue was
derived from Customs. Taxation as represented by
Customs and Excise amounted in 1888 to £5,635,000, or
23s. 3d per head, as compared with 40s. 6d in the United
Kingdom, 27s. M. in the Cape of Good Hope, and
6 IS. 8d in Australasia. The public debt on July ist,
1888 was £56,902,000: and deducting the assets of
£9,996,000 this sum is reduced to £47,006,000, or about
£9, 13s. I cd per head of the population. It may be re
marked that at the time of the Confederation of the Pro
vinces (1867) the net debt was only £15, 145,000. Within
twenty years, therefore, it has been more than trebled.
But this fact need not cause any apprehension when we
consider that the debt has been mainly incurred for the
sake of facilitating communication between the Pro-vinces
by means of Eailways, and for the general improvement
of the country by reproductive public works. The
country which the Canadian Pacific Eailway has thrown
open to colonization is practically limitless, and the new
townships and settlements carry with them the germs of
a greater prosperity. England has been the money market
from which the colonists have borrowed, and the total
amount of debt payable in England on June 30th, 1888,
was £35,320,000, and the several investments for sinking
funds amounted to about £4,198,000. That the Cana
dian Dominion investments are considered safe and
secure is evidenced by the comparatively low rate of
interest on which the Government can borrow. The
average rate of interest paid on the gross debt in 1888
was 3-12 percent.^ At the time of Confederation the
Provincial debts were taken over by the Dominion
Government. The result of this simple transfer of
liabilities to the Central Government was very satis-
' See p. 17 of 'Official Handbook,' 1890.

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 1 1 1
factory, this Government being able to exchange the
high interest-bearing bonds of the provinces for their
own bonds at a lower rate.
(9) The accumulated wealth of the country may be
shown in the statistics relating to banking. The increase
in business in twenty-one years, between 1868-1889,
-will be found to be very large '.
1868. 1889.
Assets - . . £15,500,000 £51,153,000
Liabilities - 8,700,000 35,012,000
Deposits- - . 6,500,000 24,731,000
Notes in circulation 1,600,000 6,441,000
Discounts . . 10,000,000 37,891,000
In 1868 there was no reserve fund, but in 1889 it
reached the sum of £3,993,000. Altogether the paid-up
capital invested in banking on May 30th, 1889, was
£12,000,000. 'In addition to the ordinary chartered
banks there are the Post Office and Government Savings
Banks, the deposits in which have increased from
£300,000 in 1868 to £8,000,000 in 1888, the number of
depositors being now estimated at 120,000, an undeni
able sign of the prosperity of the working classes in
Canada since Confederation. These estimates do not
include the deposits in one or two chartered Savings
Banks or investments in the various Loan, Friendly
and Building Societies, all of which show great develop
ments ^'
The condition, however, of a country which boasts of
13,000 miles of railway, an unrivaUed system of canals,
a mercantile marine ranking fourth in the world, and a
growing population of 5,000,000 cannot but be prosperous
in the highest degree.
( 1 o) With regard to immigration, it is a well-known fact
' See p. 27 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890.
^ An' Official Handbook of Information,' published by the Govern
ment of Canada, 30 October, 1888.

] 12 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
that Manitoba and the North-West Territories are being
quickly filled up both by immigrants from England and
settlers from the Eastern Provinces. To get on quickly
many colonists from the older and more cultivated regions
of Canada follow the well-known advice, and 'go
west and grow up with the country.' The Government
themselves have aided and systematized immigration by
every means within their power. Lands are surveyed,
official descriptions given, and full information both in
England and Canada suppUed to the intending settler.
The township in Manitoba and the North-West Ter
ritories presupposes a complete and accurate survey of
the country from the International Boundary Line
northwards. The unit of the township's survey is the
statute mile or section of 640 acres, all the townships
being made sis statute miles or sections square. The
section of 640 acres is divided into half-sections of 320
acres, and quarter-sections of 160 acres. A settler may
obtain a grant of 160 acres of land free on condition of
three years' residence and cultivation, and payment of
an office fee amounting to £2, or otherwise at the upset
price of 8s. or i os. per acre.
The townships are arranged in their running from
south to north, and starting from the southern frontier
which is on the International Boundary Line. These
tiers are marked on the map with ordinary numerals
thus, I, 2, 3, 4, &c. Further these townships are grouped
in certain ' ranges ' or large sections, running from east
to west, divided by lines called ' principal meridians.'
The first principal meridian starts from a point on
the International Boundary Line about eleven miles
West of Emerson between 97° and 98° W. longitude
and is extended northwards. The second starts from
102° W. longitude, the third from 106° W. longitude.
the fourth from 110° W. longitude, the fifth from

To fa.ce page 112.

THE TOWNSHIPS OP THE STORTH-^rEST.

N?10.

OxfoTd> Vrdjve.TsiAy Press .

X.] • Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 113
114° W. longitude, &c., &c. These ranges include there
fore four degrees of longitude in each case. From the
first principal meridian, which is a kind of Greenwich,
and the point from which to calculate, the ranges
naturally fall into two hemispheres, those on the
East and those on the West. The advantages of this
simple method of division, aided so materiaUy by the
level surface of the country and a wide unobstruct'ed
horizon for hundreds of miles, are numerous. In the
first place there is no danger of confusion and encroach
ment, so often arising in new countries from the shifting
and alteration of cairns and beacons. In the North-West
Territories the surveyor having been beforehand with
the occupier, the ordinary course of events has been re
versed. The occupier can at once recognise by a reference
to the map the nature and limits of his little freehold
of 160 acres '^. The surveyed lines are marked on the
ground itself by iron and other kinds of monuments or
posts at the corners of the divisions and sub- divisions :
and as soon as the settler makes himself acquainted with
these, he will instantly understand the position and ex
tent of his own farm on the prairie, or of any other in
the country. Or, when travelUng in any part of the
country, these posts will tell him at a glance exactly
where he is, so that he cannot get lost upon any surveyed
district. The Government surveyor has in fact left an
accurate and trustworthy sign-post behind him, wherever
the scene of his operations has been laid. Moreover,
distances on the map may be calculated with very
fair accuracy by the simple method of counting the
number of six-mile townships East or West, North
or South. The boundaries of these six-mile townships
are all laid out according to the cardinal points of the
* See Map of the North-West Territories -with Land Eegulations,
published by the Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, 1886.

1 14 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
compass. North, South, East, and West. The section can
therefore be divided and described as having a North-
East, J^orth-West, South-East, or South-West quarter.
(ir) The transfer of property, it is needless to say, is
made with the utmost speed and simpUcity. There are
no mouldy parchments to unfold, no ancient title-deeds
to consult, no greedy la-wyer's fees to pay. A Deeds'
Eegistry Office does the transfer for the colonist, and the
expense of transfer to the first holder is only nominal.
The emigrant does not need a very large amount of capital
to begin with. The German Mennonite famUies began
life in the North-West on an outfit of only £54 each. A
sum of £150 is calculated to carry the emigrant famUy
through the first year -vdth a moderate degree of comfort,
but they ought to be accustomed to farm work. There
is no better opening in the world than here for the
agricultural colonist who desires to be a freeholder as
quickly as possible. With respect to the population that
a township of six square miles is supposed to carry, it is
clear that under the favourable conditions of soil in the
North-West it wiU in the future be very large, even if we
allow the low average of 100 persons to the square mile.
The township is a kind of parish in itself, and is the
unit of colonial society. Public provision is made in
these sections for the purposes of education, and natu
raUy the section will be utUised for aU purposes of local
and municipal rating. It wiU be noticed that the prin
cipal meridian Unes do not exactly tally -with those of
the Provinces, such as Manitoba, and those of the judicial
districts, as Assiniboia ; but in course of time for the
sake of exactness and clearness the Provinces may pos
sibly have their boundaries determined in the North-
West by these meridian Unes. Thus, the double divi
sion of boundaries, namely, that adopted to separate the
Districts and Provinces and that adopted to organise and

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 115
locate the constant supply of settlers, may disappear from
the map altogether. The township of the Far West is
in itself a wonderful example of orderly colonisation, and
of nineteenth-century enterprise. It may seem uniform
and stereotype, and slightly lacking in the elements of
picturesqueness, but it secures comfort and plenty to
the homes of thousands-
(12) Unlike the early settlements along the AUeghanies
and the coasts of Maine, the -victims often of reUgious
Township Diagram.
640 Acres. N.

sl

...31-.

...32...

...33...

...34...

..-35...

-.36...

School

:

H.B.

...30...
...29... Lands
...28...
...27...
...26... Lands
...25...
w.
...19...
...20,..
...21...
...22...
...23...
...24...
-18...
...17...
...16,,.
..-15...
...14...
...13...
H.B.
School
...1 ...
...8... Lands
.-.9...
...IO...
...II... Lands
-.-12...
..6...
... .s ...
...4...
...3 '¦¦¦
..- 2 ...
... I ...
E.
persecution at home, and the victims oftener of French
reprisals and cruel Indian outrages, the township of the
North-West grows up in peaceful and undisturbed pros
perity, the protege of two paternal governments. Unlike,
again, the homestead of the Virginian planter, with its
dark defilement of slave labour, and the gloomy memories
of the Middle Passage, the North-West township grows
up with clean hands, and an untarnished heritage. No
I 2
ii6 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
cruelty has stained its annals, no native war defaced its
gro-wth, no revolution marred its fortunes, no class hatred
and reUgious bigotry made coarse or bitter the passions
of the occupants ; it rises as a full-grown community
upon the level plains, full of promise and a rich prairie
instinct with destiny ; a second Acadia -with an un
encumbered heritage, and an assured position in the
world. (13) No question of naturalisation arises in connection
-with the emigration of British subjects to Canada, and
settling in the Dominion makes no more change than a
removal from York to London, Kent to Suffolk. But U'
an emigrant removes to the United States he has to take
two oaths, one of intention and one of fact, the latter
after five years' residence. The effect of these oaths is
to renounce allegiance to the Queen, and surrender the
British birthright. The postal system of Canada extends
to every village and hamlet in the land, and is remark
ably ch,e3.p. In course of time there may be a universal
penny postage between the mother-country and her co
lonies, and a link of union created between the poorer
emigrants and their relations which does not exist at
present. The Money Order system is similar to that in
operation in England, and the price for orders locaUy
ranges from 2 cents (id) for i6s. to 50 cents (2s. id) for
£20. The Telegraph system is worked at a very moderate
rate, some of the -wires being in the hands of Govern
ment, and the telephone is used perhaps more in the
Canadian than in EngUsh cities. Newspapers are to be
found in almost every viUage of considerable size, and
they are suppUed -with full telegraphic reports from all
parts of the globe. All important news that transpires
in the United Kingdom and Europe is instantly published
in Canada ; and, in fact, o-wing to the difference in mean
time, an event which takes place in London at 5 p.m.

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress, 117
may be kno-wn in Canada at 1 2 noon the same day. It
cannot be said, therefore, that the colonist of the North-
West, if he is within range of a village centre and tele
graph -wire, is out of the range of civUisation.
(14) With regard to other matters the colonist will
find that there is a very perfect system of Municipal
Government throughout the Dominion. Both the counties
and townships have their Local Councils, which regu
late taxation for roads, schools, and other purposes.
The burning questions of education and religion
seem to have been satisfactorily adjusted in the Domi
nion. With regard to education every township is
di-vided into sections sufficiently large for a school.
Trustees are elected to manage the affairs, and the ex
penses are defrayed by local rates and grants from the
Pro-vincial Legislature. Where mixed schools, for ex
ample, of Protestant and Eoman Catholic chUdren are
not possible, the law enables separate ones to be pro-
-vided. Teachers are trained at normal schools at the
public expense. The State assists both primary and
secondary education, and there are coUeges and uni
versities open to students prepared in the lower schools.
There are Schools of Medicine at Toronto and Montreal,
and elsewhere, and Theological Colleges for students of
Divinity. In no country in the world is general education
more generally diffused than in Canada, and the highest
prizes the country offers are open to all, rich and poor
alike. Throughout the land the utmost religious Uberty
prevaUs, and colonists wiU find in most places churches
and chapels afready erected by men of the same per
suasion with themselves. The clergy are nominated, as
a rule, by the various congregations, and their stipends
paid out of endowments, pew-rents, and coUections.
There are no tithes or church rates excepting in the
Province of Quebec, where the Eoman CathoUc Church

[i8 The Geography ofthe Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
holds a power over persons professing its faith. The
principal reUgious denominations of Canada are —
Eoman CathoUcs numbering about 1,791,982
Church of England „ 590,537
Methodists „ 768,608
Presbyterians ,, 697,460
Baptists „ 291J136
CongregationaUsts ,, 27,000
The Eoman CathoUc schools owe their existence to the
generosity of the Eoman CathoUc clergy. The professors
are nearly all ecclesiastics, and are content to receive as
remuneration £10 per annum. This explains the low
fees paid by pupUs for board and tiution, amounting to
about £20 per annum. The Eoman CathoUc University
of Laval was founded in 1854 by the Seminary of Quebec
(1678), and is maintained by that body -without help from
the State. The two great keynotes of Canadian history
are poUtical liberty and reUgious toleration, and it is the
carrying out these principles to their utmost under the
British fiag that has made the Dominion prosperous in
private and pubUc departments.
(15) Education for the professions is carried out very
completely and thoroughly in the Dominion. In the
Military College at Kingston, the Canadian Sandhurst,
the cadets receive a careful and accurate training in
accordance -with the spirit of a country which in the past
has proved how strong and true the martial character of its
sons can be. There are stUl some veterans ofthe 1812 war
alive in the country, and during the American Civil War
the number of Canadian substitutes found in the Northern
armies proves the aptitude of the colonists for arms, even
when their services are not impressed. The supply of
saUors for a colonial na-vy, both on the east and west
coasts, is practicaUy unlimited, and in due course of time
this arm of defence will probably be strengthened and

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 1 1 9
fostered by naval depots, arsenals, and training-ships, so
that by sea as well as by land the Canadian colonists will
undertake the duties of self-defence, if needed, under the
guidance of skilled and educated colonial officers. In a
country where it is a law that military ser-vice can be
demanded of all the inhabitants between the ages of
eighteen and sixty, it is not likely that honourable miU
tary traditions will be allowed to die out. To prove also
how valuable the fishing industry is regarded as a
nursery for a na-vy, it is well known that the French
Government have always encouraged the Newfoundland
fishing fleet, under the con-viction that an occupation
carried on far from home, in a trying and severe climate,
must give greater skill and hardihood to their sailors, and
keep up their ancient spirit. From similar motives, the
Admiralty at home have encouraged in past times the
Polar expeditions and the search for the North-West
Passage. It is, perhaps, to the more peaceful arts of husbandry in
all its branches that the Canadian Government have turned
their chief attention, realising the fact that, sooner or
later, the Dominion must become, by virtue of its natural
advantages, one of the greatest, if not the greatest, agri
cultural country in the world. The Ontario Agricultural
College at Guelph, established fifteen years ago, is train
ing and sending out year by year large numbers of
Canadian pupils, who by means of their careful and
special education keep up the name of the Canadian
farmers. In addition to this College there is the central
experimental farm at Ottawa, as weU as those already
mentioned at Nappan in Nova Scotia ; Brandon in
Manitoba ; Indian Head in the North-West Territory ;
Agassiz in British Columbia. In England we have
such centres as Cirencester and Downton Colleges, where
the practice and theory of farming are taught, and pupils

lao The Geography ofthe Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
are prepared for the careers they may have before them
in the colonies- At HoUesley Bay CoUege in Suffolk,
great stress is laid upon 'Home training for Colonial
life,' but it is impossible that a pupil can be equipped
for his task so completely in England for Canadian
farming as he would be in Canada itself. Perhaps
the best plan would be, by means of some reciprocity
between the Colleges at home and in the colonies, to
unify the system throughout and make the curriculum
and the examinations as far as possible identical, so
that a pupU beginning his work in England might
continue it in Canada where he left off and without
loss of time. Some kind of affiliation of the Home and
Colonial Agricultural Colleges for common purposes
would be advantageous to aU. The ground covered by
the experimental farms in Canada is a wide one, as the
foUo-wing objects enumerated by a Canadian committee
on the whole subject of agricultural teaching prove : —
(a) To conduct researches and verify experiments
designed to test the relative value, for all purposes,
of different breeds of stock, and their adaptabUity
to the varying climatic or other conditions which prevail
in the several pro-vinces and in the North-West Terri
tories. (6) To examine into scientific and economic questions
involved in the production of butter and cheese.
(c) To test the merits, hardiness, and adaptabUity of
new or untried varieties of wheat or other cereals, and of
field crops, grasses, and forage-plants, fruits, vegetables,
plants, and trees, and to disseminate among persons
engaged in farming, gardening, or fruit-growing, upon
such conditions as are prescribed by the Minister of
Agriculture, samples of such surplus products as are
considered to be especially worthy of introduction.
With regard to this field of enquiry, it may be noticed

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. lai
that most valuable experiments are now being made on
the experimental farms to ascertain what kind of early-
ripening wheat is best adapted to the North-West, If a
sharp frost should occur on an August night, as it does
occasionally in the higher latitudes, before the grain is
' out of the milk,' the sample becomes shrivelled and is
deteriorated. The result of experiments is to prove that
a Eussian variety, caUed Ladoga wheat, a hard spring
wheat obtained from the territory north of Eiga in about
60° N., about 600 mUes north of the latitude of Winni
peg, was the best, as it ripened with fewer summer days
than the other varieties. Further, boreal types of cultiv
able plants have been extended to the Mackenzie Basin,
where, besides Ladoga spring wheat, parcels of Onega
spring wheat, Saxonka wheat, Petchora barley, Polar
barley. Polar winter rye, and Onega oats are under
cultivation \
(d) To analyse fertilisers, whether natural or artificial,
and to conduct experiments -with such fertilisers, in order
to test their comparative value as applied to crops of any
kind. (e) To examine into the composition and digestibility of
foods for domestic animals.
(/) To conduct experiments in the planting of trees for
timber and for shelter.
(g) To examine into the diseases to which cultivated
plants and trees are subject, and also into the ravages of
destructive insects, and to ascertain and test the most
useful preventives and remedies to be used in each case.
(h) To investigate the diseases to which domestic
animals are subject.
(i) To ascertain the vitality and purity of agricultural
seeds. ' ' Agricultural Canada,' p. 42. By Professor Fream. Published
under the direction of the Department of Agriculture.

122 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch.
{k) To conduct any other experiments and researches
bearing upon the agricultural industry of Canada which
may be approved by the Minister of Agriculture \
(i6) With regard to the question of general education
in Canada, it may be gathered from what has been
already said that it is cheap and popular, and admirably
adapted to meet the wants of the colonist, whether U-ving
in a prairie district or in one of the crowded centres of
the Dominion. The foUo-wing brief sketch of the whole
system will however give in outline its chief aspects : —
' In the early days of the Pro-vinces of Ontario and
Quebec, the Government set aside large areas of Crown
lands, the money accruing from the sales of which have
been and are appUed to educational purposes. Com
mencing with the primary schools, which in those
Pro-vinces at any rate are free, we find them maintained
partly by a school-tax levied on the lands situated in the
school sections, and partly from grants from the Govern
ment which are given out of the funds above alluded to.
' These schools furnish a good English and commercial
education, whUe recentlyagriculture has been added to the
list of subjects taught. For this a very good text-book
has been adopted. Besides these there are the high, or as
we should call them, the grammar schools, in which the
classics and modern languages are added to the course
taught in the primary schools. Then there are the
various coUeges, which in a large degree were fostered by
the various denominations. Each Pro-vince has several
such institutions, which are officered by men of noted
talent in their particular branches, and many of them by
men of world-wide reputation. Some e-vidence of the
work done by these institutions may be found in the
great spirit of religious toleration which is evident in all
' See ' Canadian Lands and their Development.' Proceedings of
the Eoyal Colonial Institute, vol. xx.

X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 123
parts of Canada. The Toronto University is composed
of the various sectarian colleges, including the Catholic
one, and the same is the case at Winnipeg University,
which is also an amalgamation of all the sectarian
colleges of Manitoba, all of which work together as one
University under the Presidency of the Bishop of
Eupert's Land. In the Arts Faculty of Toronto no fees
of any kind are exacted, and in most of the colleges of
the Dominion (as in the case of the high schools where
fees are exacted) they are only nominal. The Faculties
in connection -with Toronto University, and those of
M<=Gill University at Montreal, will compare favourably
with those of the old Universities of the older world-
Sir Daniel Wilson is the President of the Toronto Uni
versity, Sir WUliam Dawson of the M«GU1 University,
and Dr. G. M. Grant of the Queen's University at
Kingston ; and it is sufficient to mention their names
to show that too much has not been claimed for the
institutions over which they preside \'
' ' Canadian Lands and their Development.' Proceedings of the
Eoyal Colonial Institute, vol. xx.

APPENDICES.

1. The three Prairie Steppes of the North-West (p. 4).
2. Louisiana and de la SaUe (p. 10)-
3- Herman Merivale and causes of the Dispersion and Congrega
tion of Population in Colonies (p- 13).
4. The Prairie Soils (p. 25).
5. The Dyked Lands of Nova Scotia (p. 55).
6. The Intervale Lands of Ne-w Brunswick {p. 64).
7. The Farms of Prince Ed-ward Island (p. 65).
8. The Eocky Mountains (p. 68).
9. Districts and Sub-districts ofthe North-West (p. 74).
10. Fish and Fisheries of British Columbia (p. 84).
11. Mountain Eanges of British Columbia (p. 85).
12. Agricultural Districts of British Columbia (p. 88).
IB. The French Shore in Newfoundland (p. 100).
14, Dairy Farming in Canada (p. 103).

APPENDIX I.
The theee Pkaieie Steppes of the North- West.
Thk foUo-wing is a more particular account of the three
remarkable prairie steppes reaching from Winnipeg to the
Rocky Mountains, and causing the ground to rise slowly west
wards : —
'The lowest and most eastern prairie level is that which
includes the Red River Valley and Lake Winnipeg vrith its
adjacent lands on the west. The average altitude of the plain
is about 8co feet, the surface of Lake Superior being 627 feet
above the sea ; its -svidth on the 49th parallel is only 52 miles,
but its average breadth exceeds 100 miles, and ita area is about
56,000 square miles of which one-fourth is water. A great part
of it is more or less densely wooded, particularly that part
adjacent to the lakes. The southern part, extending southward
from Lake Winnipeg, includes the prairie of the Red River with
an area, north of the 49th latitude, of about 6,900 square miles.
This steppe is bordered on the east by the Laurentian plateau,
and on the west by the first escarpment which is ascended in
the neighbourhood of Macgregor, 80 miles west of Winnipeg.
This escarpment, where it crosses the 49th parallel, is known
as Pembina Mountain, and, trending north-west, its line is
marked by the Duck, Riding, Porcupine, and Basquia Hills
which lie to the west of Lake Winnipegosis. The superficial
deposits of the first steppe are chiefly those of a former great
lake, called Lake Agassiz, in the deeper waters of which was
accumulated the fine silty material now covering the Red River
Valley, and constituting a rich loamy soil of unsurpassed
fertility- The valley itself is about 40 miles wide, and extends
along either side of the river from north to south of the
Province of Manitoba. Its surface is perfectly flat and un-
diversified, " the most absolutely level prairie region of
America." ' When the summit of the first escarpment is reached, in the

Appendix I. 127
neighbourhood of Macgregor, a vast open country called the
Great Plains, forming the second prairie steppe, is entered
upon. On the 49th latitude this second steppe is 230 miles
¦wide, while further north its -width is not more than 200 miles.
The surface of the second prairie steppe is not so even as that
of the Red River Valley and is covered with thick deposits of
drift, consisting chiefly of detritus worn from the soft under
lying rocks, but mingled -with other mineral rubbish trans
ported from a distance. Prom the prairie level there arise in
certain localities low hills, such as Turtle Mountain and the
Touchwood Hills, composed of accumulation of drift materials
similar to those of the Missouri Coteau on the west, the latter
being a huge glacial moraine. Turtle Mountain nowhere at
tains a height of more than 500 feet above the prairie. It is a
region of broken hilly ground about 20 miles square, is thickly
wooded, and hence presents a marked contrast to the general
features of the prairie. The average elevation of the second
steppe is about 1600 feet, and it is bounded westward by the
remarkable physical features known as the Grand Coteau or
hill-slope of the Missouri, whioh is chiefly a great mass of
glacial detritus and ice-travelled blocks, resting upon a sloping
surface of rocks of Cretaceous age, and extending diagonally
across the central region of North America, from south-east to
north-west, for a distance of about 800 miles. On the 49th
parallel, near the 104th meridian, the C5teau is 30 miles -wide,
and it broadens out somewhat as it is traced northward, east of
Old Wives Lakes, to the South Saskatchewan- It is then con
tinued to the north by a range of high lands, of which the
Eagle Hills constitute a part, to the elbow of the North
Saskatchewan - . . . The Coteau belt is particularly destitute of
drainage valleys, hence the waters of its pools and lakes are
charged with salts, particularly magnesium and sodium sul
phates. The western part of the Coteau contains deep valleys
with tributary coulees whioh are mostly dry, or else occupied by
chains of small lakes which dry up in summer, and then leave
large white patches of efilorescent salts .... The Missouri
Coteau, whioh is perhaps the most remarkable monument of
the Glacial Period now existing in the western plains, is about
400 miles west of Winnipeg and fringes the eastern margin of

128 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion.
the third and highest prairie steppe, which extends -with a
gentle ascent westward, to the base of the Rocky Mountains.
'The third steppe, lying west of the Coteau, has a much
thinner covering of drift deposits, a good deal of which consists
of fragments of quartzite from the Rocky Mountains. Its
eastern part presents in places thick deposits of true tilt or
boulder clay- Its surface is more worn and diversified than is
the case -with the first and second steppes, and, as the Rockies
are approached, it is found to consist of fragments of quartzite
with softer shaly and slaty rocks and limestone. In various
localities boulders are numerous, and some of these have been
used in modern times by the buffalo as rubbing-stones, and are
surrounded by basin-shaped depressions formed by the feet of
these animals. The average altitude of the third steppe is
about 3000 feet, though its eastern edge is generally a httle
over 2000 feet, whilst it attains an elevation of over 4000 feet at
the base of the Rocky Mountains- Its area, including the high
land and foot hills along the base of the mountains, is about
134,000 square miles, and of this by far the greatest part,
or about 115,000 square miles, is almost devoid of forest, the
wooded region being confined to a small area of its northern
and north-western extension near the North Saskatchewan
River and its tributaries. Its breadth, on the 49th parallel,
is 465 miles, but it narrows rapidly northwards. The total
area of prairie country between the parallels named, including
that of all three steppes,, may be estimated at 192,000 square
miles. Underlying nearly the whole of tho prairie region are
clays, sandstones, and limestones of Cretaceous age or (in the
more western parts) shales and sandstones of the Lignitic
Tertiary group, the age of the latter being probably inter
mediate between that of the Cretaceous and of the Eocene of
England. The nearest parallel to be found at home is afforded
by the greater part of the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk,
where Cretaceous rooks (chalk in this case) are overlaid by
glacial detritus or drift.' — Extract from ' Agricultural Canada,'
by Professor Pream. Published under the direction of the
Department of Agriculture, Canada, 1889.

Appendix II, III. 129
APPENDIX IL
Louisiana and de la Salle.
Louisiana was so named after Louis XIV of Prance, by
de la Salle the French explorer, who in 1682 descended the
Mississippi to its mouth. De la Salle returned to Prance after
his discovery, and -with the help and countenance ofthe French
Court arranged the details for a French colony on the coast of
the Gulf of Mexico. In July, 1684, a fleet of four vessels with
280 persons, of whom 100 were soldiers, 30 volunteers, 6 priests,
set sail from Rochelle. The fate of this colony was a miserable
one. The store ship was -wrecked — a great loss in those days
when infant settlements depended on the mother country for
supplies— de la Salle failed to find the mouth of the Mississippi,
and the settlement, after lingering out a miserable existence
for two years, came to an end, de la Salle losing his life at the
hands of his associates. In spite of its splendid beginnings,
the colony was neglected by Louis XIV, who was engrossed at
home in that miserable policy which led to the Revocation of
the Edict of Nantes (1685). Moreover the French enterprises
in the Gulf of Mexico had always incurred the enmity of the
Spaniards, who regarded this sea as a mare clausum. It has
been suggested that if any considerable number of French
Huguenots had been allowed to settle in the valley of the
Mississippi, with leave to worship God in the way they -wished,
a great French Empire might have arisen in Louisiana and
Texas.

APPENDIX in.
Herman Merivale and causes op the Dispersion and
Congregation op Population in Colonies.
Mb. Herman Merivale, in his lectures on Colonisation and
Colonies delivered before the University of Oxford (1839, 40,
41), has pointed to several natural causes which make for

130 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion.
concentration in new countries, p. 276. 'The causes which
increase to its maximum the natural tendency to dispersion
are, a -wide extent of fertile soil, a wholesome climate, the
absence of dense forests, and other natural obstacles, and the
want of navigable rivers, upon the banks of which men are
usually inclined to settle themselves in communities.' In
North America it has been the presence of so much fresh water
that has helped dispersion of population. It has been com
paratively an easy task for the wandering colonist or pioneer
to shift his home westwards, and the nature of the occupations
both of fur hunter and lumberer have taken them to distant
parts of the Prorinces. It is a curious fact that Quebec, which
commands a magnificent position on the St. Lawrence, and is
the oldest city of the Dominion, should number only 65,000 out
of a population of 5,000,000. Montreal (202,000) has of course
largely taken her place, but the population is not centred
there to the extent we might have supposed.

APPENDIX IV.
The Prairie Soils.
' A SOMEWHAT common error made in this country, concerning
Manitoba and the North-West, is to suppose that the soUs
covering that vast area are aU alike. Such is not the case.
In the Red River Valley may be seen one of the finest soils in
the world, whose fertility is beyond aU question. Along the
route of the Canadian Pacific Railway, between Moose Jaw and
the Saskatchewan River, there is a large tract of land which
does not seem to offer much inducement for arable cultivation,
although I was informed that it resembles the extensive sheep
runs of Austraha ; and it is not unhkely, therefore, that it may
become utilised foj: summer sheep-grazing, as the herbage is
undoubtedly veiy nutritive. The area of which I speak is, in
fact, the northern Umit of what are called the " bad lands " of
the United States ; in other words, the Great American Desert.
This region extends over considerable portions of the States of

Appendix IV. 131
Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, between the latitude
of Santa Fe (36° N-), and that of Cheyenne (4i|° N-), and
between the meridians of 99° and 111° W. Much of it is
occupied with the " bad lands ; " and it is these, with their arid
climate and scant vegetation, which impart the desert character.
They also extend around the Uinta Mountains, in latitude 41°,
due east of Salt Lake City, and in this locality were traversed
by the original settlers in that city before their eyes were
gladdened -with a sight of the " promised land." It is these
" bad lands " — so extensive in the States — that cross the inter
national boundary south of the track under notice, and, rapidly
decreasing in breadth, at length die out altogether as they are
traced northward. But, independently of this region, there are
oceans of land of excellent fertility awaiting cultivation, and I
proceed to refer to the composition of some of the prairie soils
of Manitoba, the remarkable richness of which arises from the
accumulation for ages past of the excreta of animals, the ashes
of prairie fires, and the decaying remains of plants and animals
in a loamy matrix, resting upon a retentive clay subsoil. In
1884, Sir John Lawes, P.R.S., and Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S., the famous
agricultural investigators of Rothamstead, Hertfordshire, pub
lished the results of some analyses they had made of four
samples of Manitoba soils which they compared with typical
English soils. The samples came respectively from NiverviUe,
44 miles west of Winnipeg ; from Brandon, 133 miles west of
Winnipeg ; from Selkirk, 22 miles north-east of Winnipeg, and
from Winnipeg itself. These soils showed a very high per
centage of nitrogen ; that from NiverviUe nearly t-wice as high
a percentage as in the first six or nine inches of ordinary
arable land, and about as high as the surface soil of pasture-
land in Great Britain. That from Brandon was less rich, still
the first twelve inches of depth is as rich as the first six or nine
inches of good old arable lands. The soil from Selkirk showed
an extremely high percentage of nitrogen in the first twelve
inches, and in the second twelve inches as high a peicentage
as in ordinary pasture surface-soil. Lastly, both the first and
second twelve inches of the Winnipeg soil were shown to be
very rich in nitrogen, richer than the average of old pasture
surface-soil. Commenting on their results, Sir John Lawes
K 2

132 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion.
and Dr. Gilbert state that, whilst ofiBcial records show that the
rich prairie soils of the North-West are competent to yield large
crops, yet, under present conditions, they do not give yields
commensurate with their richness compared with the soils of
Great Britain, which have been under arable cultivation for
centuries. This is due partly to scarcity of labour, absence of
mixed farming, burning the straw, and deficiency of manure.
Three other surface-soils were examined by Sir John Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert. No. I was from Portage la Prairie, 56 miles
west of Winnipeg, and had probably been under cultivation for
several years, the dry mould containing 0-2471 per cent, of
nitrogen- No. 2, from the Saskatchewan district, about 140
miles from Winnipeg ; its dry mould contained 0*3027 per cent.
of nitrogen. No. 3, from a spot about 40 miles from Fort
EUice, might be considered a virgin soil : the dry mould con
tained 0-2500 per cent, of nitrogen. In general terms, these
soils are about twice as rich in nitrogen as the average of the
Rothamstead arable surface-soils, and, so far as can be judged,
are probably about twice as rich as the average of arable soils
in Great Britain.'— Extract from 'Agricultural Canada,' by
Professor Fream. Published under the direction of the Depart
ment of Agriculture, Canada, 1889.

APPENDIX V.
The Dyked Lands of Nova Scotia.
'The climate of Nova Scotia, and its extraordinary grass-
gro-wing capacity, at once indicate its adaptability both to
grazing and dairying purposes. Its wonderful salt marshes
merit a brief notice. Much of the soil along the Bay of Fundy
consists of rich marine alluvium. The configuration of this
bay is such that it presents, southwards to the open ocean, two
coast-lines, those of Nova Scotia and the mainland, receding
from each other at an acute angle ; consequently, when the
north-flo-wing tidal wave enters the bay it finds its lateral
extension gradually contracted, and so its waters get piled up.

Appendix VI. 133
Farmers along the lower reaches of the Severn Valley in
Gloucestershire (and it might be added along the banks of the
Parrett in Somersetshire), will be familiar with a similar
phenomenon, which there, however, occurs only with the
spring-tides and produces the Bore. The tides of the Bay
of Fundy spread themselves out over the adjacent coast-lands,
and have there deposited marsh-soils of inexhaustible richness.
In some of these saline swamps marsh grass grows abundantly
and yields a heavy crop. But large areas of the salt marshes
have been reclaimed by means of mud dykes, so built as to
prevent the irruption of the tidal water, and it is these dyke
lands which constitute so interesting and peculiar a feature in
Nova Scotia along the Bay of Fundy and around the Basin of
Mines, and on the adjacent shores of New Brunswick. The
eastern dykes are strong and broad, six to eight feet high ; and
the land -within them is hard and dry, and produces an abund
ance of coarse but nutritious herbage. Year after year will
these reclaimed marsh lands give upwards of two tons of hay
per acre, and show no signs of running out. The Salt Hay,
as it is termed, costs about £1 per acre to make, and is worth
from £^ to £6 per ton in the market. The cost of reclaiming
and dyking these salt marshes varies between £1 ios. and £4
per acre .... In no country of America is fruit-gro-wing better
understood or more successfully practised than in Nova Sootia.
The magnificent apple orchards of the Annapolis Valley stand,
perhaps, unrivalled.' — Ibid., pp. 9, 10.

APPENDIX VI.
The Intervale Lands op New Bruns-wick.
' One of the most interesting natural features of the Province
of New Brunswick is afforded by the intervale lands, that is,
lands lying between the slopes of the valleys. Respecting
these Professor Sheldon -writes: "The intervale lands are, as
the name suggests, found in the valleys. The name is pecu
liarly appropriate and expressive. In England we should call

134 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion.
them bottom-lands or alluvial soils. They are, in fact, allurial
soils to all intents and purposes, -with this peculiarity— they
are still in process of formation- In some cases these intervale
lands consist of islands in the rivers, and there are many such
in the magnificent river St- John ; but for the most part they
are level banks on each side of the river, in some cases several
miles -wide and reaching the foot of the hills, which form the
natural ramparts of the valley they inclose- These intervale
lands are rich in quality and the grass they produce ia very
good."' — Ibid., p. II.

APPENDIX VII.
The Farms op Prince Edward Island.
'The most recent agricultural statistics relating to Prince
Ed-ward Island are those obtained in the Census of 1881, in
which year there were 16,663 owners of land, 13,629 occupiers
of land, 1,126,653 acres occupied, and 596,731 acres improved.
The hve stock comprised 31,335 horses, 90,722 cattle, 166,496
sheep, and 40,181 pigs. The population at the time was
108,891, and is now about iig,ooo. The agricultural produce
in 1881 included 3,538,219 bushels of oats, 540,986 of wheat,
119,368 of barley, 90,458 of buckwheat, 3,169 of peas and beans,
15,247 of timothy and clover seed, and 143,791 tons of hay ;
also 1,688,690 lbs- of butter, and 196,273 lbs- of cheese- There
is a considerable export trade in horses, cattle, and sheep to
other parts of Canada and to the New England States. Perhaps
the most peculiar feature in the farming of the island is the
extent to whioh the mussel mud of the rivers is used as manure.
The mud is obtained by a dredging machine, worked by horse
power on the ice over the beds of nearly all the rivers where
oyster and mussel deposits occur. These deposits are from ten
to thirty feet thick, and are made up of oysters, mussels,
decayed flsh, and sea-weed. Used as a fertihser, this material
acts promptly and effectively and produces very large crops of
hay. Improved farms can here be bought at £^ per acre.

Appendix VIII. 135
Professor Macoun, naturalist to the Geological and Natural
History Survey of Canada, writes thus : " Prince Edward Island
is a lovely spot and resembles very much an English landscape,
as instead of the log fences used in Ontario there are hedges of
English and Canadian hawthorn along the roadsides and round
the farms- The houses, too, resemble the English farm houses.
The soil is of sandy clay or sandy loam, red in colour. The
farmers never have droughts on the island, but the seasons are
very late. The ice in the Gulf of St. La-wrence during April
and May renders the spring late, while the autumn is long in
consequence of the heating of the Gulf waters during summer.
Gro-wth starts late in spring, is slow in summer, and has a long
time to mature in autumn. As a result, there are no absolute
failures of crops. The island has the best pasturage land on
the continent of America." ' — Ibid-, p. 12.

APPENDIX VIII.
The Eocky Mountains.
' The western boundary of the Prairie Region is formed by
the magnificent natural rampart of the Rocky Mountains, which
often present to the east almost perpendicular walls of rock,
though the junction of plateau and mountain is usually flanked
by foot hiUs, such as those to the south or west of Calgary,
among which the cattle ranches of Alberta have been estab
lished- In this superb mountain range the loftiest peaks are
clad with pei-petual snow, thrown into bold relief by the dark
green hues of the pine trees which clothe the lower slope-
The spectacle of this steep straight line of snowy peaks is said
to surpass the view of the Alps from the Milan Cathedral,
or that of the Pyrenees from Toulouse- The range seems to
culminate between the 5 ist and 52nd parallels about the
head waters of the North Saskatchewan, and to the north
gradually decreases in elevation till on the borders of
the Arctic Ocean it is represented by low elevations- A
common impression is that the whole of the mountainous

1 3^ The Geography of the Canadian Dominion.
region between the western boundary of the prairie and the
coast of the Pacific is constituted by the Rocky Mountains.
Such, however, is not the case, the Rocky Mountains being
only the eastern. portion of this region. Parallel -with them
run the Gold Range, and, further west, the Coast Range.
From the western edge of the prairies to the Pacific, between
the 4gth and s6th parallels, the average breadth is 400 miles.
The Rocky Mountain range of Canada is narrower than it is
further south, in the United States the average breadth near
the boundary line is about 60 miles, which further decreases
near the Peace River to 40 miles. True glaciers appear only
about the head waters of the Bow, North Saskatchewan, and
Athabasca- On the western, or Pacific, side the Rockies are
defined by a very remarkable and straight and -wide valley,
which can be traced uninterruptedly from the 49th parallel to
the head waters of the Peace River, a distance of 700 miles.
' The Rockies therefore must be distinguished from the Gold
Ranges, which include the subsidiary ranges called the Selkirk,
Purcell, Columbia and Cariboo Mountains. The Selkirks also
have more rounded and flo-wing outlines, but are very difficult
to penetrate, the forests being extremely dense and tangled.
It has been said that the younger Verendrye was the first
European traveller to see the Rocky Mountains, but his
description of the mountains he saw is hardly glowing enough,
and certainly not what we should have expected, if his eye
really rested on those magnificent ramparts. Others have
claimed the honour for Clark and Lewis (1806).' — Ibid., p. 23-

Appendix IX, X.

^31

APPENDIX IX.
Districts and Sub-districts op the North-West.
The following is a Census of the three prorisional districts of
the North-West Territories (August 24, 1885) :—

District.

Sub-distrid.

Popuiatii

^Broadview

8,367

Qu'Appelle and Eegina

9.540

Assiniboia

Moose Jaw

2,616

Swift Current .

363

Maple Creek
46s
^ Medicine Hat
732
Carrot Eiver
i.yyo
Saskatchewan
Prince Albert .
5>3?3
. Battleford
3.603
Edmonton
5,616
Alberta
Calgary .
6.467
M<:Leod . . . .
4.450
Ibid., p. 39.
48,362
APPENDIX X
Fish and Fisheries op British Columbia.
' The fishery products of the Prorince are already remarkable,
considering the small population yet engaged in the trade. The
exports of fish and of fish products from Victoria alone, in the
year ending June, 1888, were ;^279,ooo in value, and the total
yield, including the consumption by Indians, is over £1,000,000.
The salmon of British Columbia are famous. There are twenty-
one factories for making canned salmon, twelve of them being
on the Fraser, and their annual out-put is from 150,000 to
200,000 cases (each containing forty-eight l lb. tins), with 4000
to 5,000 barrels of salt salmon. The take of salmon from the
Fraser is over 8,000,000 lbs., exclusive of what the Indians
138 The Geography ofthe Canadian Dominion.
procure- Fresh salmon, as well as tinned salmon, are now
being shipped frozen to the markets of Eastern America and
England- A remarkable British Columbia fish is the oolachan,
or candle fish. It is smaller than a herring, and so oily that
when dried it -will burn like a candle. They are caught chiefly
in the Nasse and Fraser Rivers. The fish begin running in the
Nasse about the last day of March, and enter the stream by the
million for several weeks. Another fish destined to be of great
commercial value is the skil or black cod, which is caught in 1 50-
300 fathoms of water and at some distance from the shore. It is
found in countless numbers between Vancouver and Queen
Charlotte Island- The sealing industry is productive, the catch
of seals in 1887 being valued at £47,000. There are disputes
however between the Canadian sealei-s and the Alaska Com
mercial Company.' — See 'Canada, a Memorial Volume,' Montreal,
1889.

APPENDIX XI.
Mountain Eanges op British Columbia.
' After the ramparts of the Rocky Mountains are passed
there are the Gold Ranges, known more particularly as the
Selkirk, Purcell, Columbia, and Cariboo mountains. The width
of the Gold Range is about 80 miles, but north of the Cariboo
district, above the head waters of the Peace River, it dies away.
Between the Gold and Coast, or as they are sometimes called
the Cascade Ranges, is the interior plateau of British Columbia,
¦with an average -width of 100 miles and an elevation of 3500
feet- Its height increases southward, but declines northward
at the sources of the Peace River- It is dissected by deep and
trough-like valleys. In the north it is closed at about latitude
55° 3°' by several intercalated mountain ranges.
' The Coast, or Cascade Range, have an average -width of 100
miles. These mountains are extremely rugged, and receive on
their seaward slopes the moisture from the sea, and have a very
luxuriant vegetation. Vancouver Island, and the Queen Char
lotte Islands to the north-west, are constituted by another

Appendix XII. 139
parallel series of mountains, the Vancouver Range which is
continued southward in the Olympic Mountains, and northward
in the peninsular portion and islands of Alaska. The highest
mountain in Vancouver Island is 7844 feet.' — 'Agricultural
Canada,' by Professor Fream, pp. 52-53.

APPENDIX XIL
Agricultural Districts op British Columbia.
'British Columbia cannot be called an agricultural country
throughout its whole extent, and the province -will probably
be supplied with produce for some time from Alberta and
Assiniboia. Its forests are very valuable, and in 1888 the
exports of timber were valued at £115,000, as compared with
£30,000 ini88i. Yet the agricultural resources are very great.
In the Cariboo district there is a plain 150 miles long and 60-
80 miles wide, and between the Thompson and Fraser Rivers
there is an immense tract of arable and grazing land. The
hills and plains are covered -with bunch grass, on which the
cattle and horses live all winter, and its nutritive qualities are
said to exceed the celebrated blue grass and clover of Virginia.
Between 5000 and 6000 square miles of the Peace River prairie
land is -within this province- Besides the mainland, there are
on Vancouver Island about 1,000,000 acres of land well suited
to agriculture, and on Queen Charlotte Islands about 100,000
acres, most of this being now covered -with dense forests.
Further, it should be mentioned that from 1858-1885 about
ten millions of pounds sterling was yielded by the Gold mines,
also that extremely rich coal deposits exist on Vancouver
Island, and at Burrard Inlet and Nicola Valley in the main
land.' — Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, vol. xviii.
p- 195, 1886-7- Paper by the Bishop of New Westminster.

140 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion.
APPENDIX Xin.
The French Shore Eights in Ne-vtooundland.
Bt the Treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, various places on the
south coast, of which Placentia was the French capital, were
kept in the possession of the French. In 1702 they held nearly
the whole island in their o-wn hands. Placentia was almost as
firm a stronghold of the French as Port Royal in Nova Scotia.
The Treaty of Utrecht secured the complete sovereignty of
England, but it conceded certain Fisheries Rights which have
been a continual source of trouble. The French sailors were
allowed the right of catching fish, and drying them on land
from Bonarista to the eastern shores of Newfoundland, and
thence northward to Point Riche on the western shore. These
rights have been left much as they were then defined. The
Treaty of Versailles in 1783 and the Treaty of 1814 touched
them, but did not alter them materially except in changing the
limits, so that they now commence at Cape St- John on the
east coast on latitude 50°, and extend north and west to Cape
Ray, the south-west point of Ne-wfoundland- The anomaly
still remains that, although England's sovereignty is acknow
ledged, the French claim exclusive rights of Fishery along that
shore.

APPENDIX XIV.
Dairy Farming in Canada.
'The value of the cheese exported has more than doubled
within recent years, Canadian cheese being now recognised as
the best made in America ; and of late years it has competed
successfully with the EngUsh-made articles. The folio-wing
figures tell the progress of this trade in eleven years : —
Qmuniity Exported. Value.
1874 . . 24,050,982 lbs. . . £700,000
1884 . . 69,755,423 „ . . 1,400,000
1887 . . 73,604,448 „ . . 1,400,000
1888 . . 84,173,267 „ . . 1,800,000

Appendix XIV. 141
' Such a rapid development in the cheese trade has naturally
had the effect of limiting the production of butter : but
nevertheless 4,415,381 lbs., of the value of £160,000, were
exported in 1888.
'In September, 1888, there were in the Province of Ontario
more than 750 cheese factories, using up the milk of 250,000
cows. At the same time there were 40 creameries at work.
There are three associations, called the (i) Dairymen's Associ
ation of Western Ontario, (2) of Eastern Ontario, (3) the
Creameries Association of Ontario. The average quantity of
milk used per annum in the factories is 661,147,200 lbs.,
yielding about 28,660 tons of cheese, the value of which is
£1,247,300, or 4-85 pence per lb. The farmers who send milk
to the factories are called " patrons-'' The average aimual
number of patrons was 24,207, and of cows 148,560, the average
per factory being 56 patrons, and 341 cows. Short-horns and
their grades predominate in Western Ontario, but the Ayrshire
is the favourite along the St. Lawrence.'— Extracts from
Professor Fream's 'Agricultural Canada,' and Official Hand
books, i88g.

GENERAL INDEX.

A-
Acadia, 5, 9, 52, 116.
Africa, Equatorial, 16.
— South, 46.
Agassiz, 104.
Agriculture, Canadian, 103, 121.
Ainslie Lake, 54.
Alaska, 11, 83, 84, 87, 88.
Albany Eiver, 78.
Albert County, 61.
Alberta District, 75, 76, 80.
Alberton, 66.
Aleutian Islands, 82, 83.
Alexander, Pope, 6.
Alexandria, 91.
Algonkins, 58.
Allagash, 59-
Alleghanies, the, 10, 32, 115.
Allumet Island, 30.
Altamaha Eiver, 9.
Amadas, Captain, 8.
Amazon, 6.
America, South, 38.
Amherst, 56.
Anguille, Cape, 94, 97.
Annapolis, 8, 52, 56.
— County, 55, 57.
— River, 53, 54.
Anne, Queen, 52.
Anse Sablon, 28, 94.
Anticosti, 5, 29, 30.
Antigonish, 56.
Appelaehiaus, 32.
Arctic Circle, the, 16, 19, 78, 82,
83-
— Current, 95-
— Ocean, 74, 77, 78, 88.
Argenteuil County, 31, 35-
Arichat, 57.

Army, Canadian, 27.
Aroostook, 59.
Arrow Lake, 90.
Arrowsmith, Mount, 84-
Artillery, Canadian, 27.
— Lake, 79.
Ashburton Treaty, 11.
Asia, 82.
— Central, 24.
Assiniboia District, 68, 74, 81.
Assiniboine Eiver, 14, 70, 73, 78.
Athabasca District, 71, 76.
— Lake, 16, 19, 77, 78, 86.
— Biver, 77, 86, 88.
Atlantic, the, ii, 20, 24, 52, 53,
83, 88, 94, 95.
Aurora Borealis, 23.
Australia, 12, 38, 105.
Avalon Peninsula, 94, 95, 97, 98.
Aylmer's Lake, 79.
Azores, 6. B-
Babine Lake, 90.
Baccalieu Tickle, 98.
Baddeck, 57.
Baffin's Bay, 24, 83, 95
Bagot County, 35.
Baie St. Paul, 72.
Baie Verte, 54, 60, 62.
Baker Lake, 79.
Banff, 80.
Banks, Savings, iii.
Barens Eiver, 70.
Barkerville, 92.
Barley, Canadian, 18, 19.
Barrfi, Charlotte, 39-
Barrens, the, 78.
 Newfoundland, 94

144

General Index.

Barrington, 58.
Bathurst, 61, 62, 63.
— Bay, 59.
Batiscan Eiver, 35.
Battle Eiver, 79.
Battleford, 79.
Bauld, Cape, 97-
Bear Lake, the Great, 16, 78, 79.
Beauce County, 35-
Beauhamois, 39.
— County, 35.
Bedeque Harbour, 65, 66.
Bedford Basin, 54.
Beechy, Lake, 79-
Behrlng's Strait, 83.
Belfast, 56.
Bell Farm, 74-
Belle Chasse County, 35.
— Isle Straits, 14, 28, 33, 45, 94,
97, 98-
Belly Eiver, 80, 85.
Belceil Mountain, 30.
Bend of Columbia, 89.
Bermudas, 83.
Berthier, 40.
_ County, 35.
Betsiamite Eiver, 35.
Big Lake, 79.
Bird Eocks, 29.
Birds, migratory, 23.
Birtle, 73.
Black Brook, the, 99.
— Stream, the, 82.
Blackfriars, Ontario, 47.
Blizzards, 15.
Blomidon, 52.
— Cape, 54-
Blue Mountains, 43.
Bonaventure County, 35, 63.
Bonavista Bay, 97, 98.
Bonne Bay, 97.
Boston, 20.
Boularderie Island, 54.
Bow Eiver, 77, 88.
Brandon, 73, 104.
Brant County, 49.
Brantford, 47.
Bras d'Or Lake, 54.
Briar Island, 54.
Bridgwater, 58.
Brion Island, 29.
Bristol Channel, 53.

British Association, the, 104.
— Isles, 16, 24, 38, 83, 84.
Broadview, 80.
Brome County, 35.
Brown Mountain, 15, 77, 88.
Bruce County, 49.
Bureau of Industries, 44.
Burgeo District, 100.
Burin District, 100.
Burrard Inlet, 91.
Butler, Sir W., 86. C.
Cabot, X, 6, 7.
— Islands, 97.
Calais, 37.
Calgary, 76, 80, 81.
California, 85.
Calumet Island, 30.
Camatha, 5.
Campbellton, 62.
Canada, Dominion of, 11, 16, 25,
27.
— Bay, 97.
— Proper, 5, 9, 11.
— Upper, 42.
Canadian people, 26.
Canals, 33, 48.
Canso, 52, 58.
— Gut of, 53, 54.
Cape Breton, 10, 52, 54, 57, loi.
— Colony, 102, IDS, no.
— of Good Hope, 82.
Capes of Nova Scotia, 54.
Capetown, 14.
Caraquet Bay, 60.
Cardigan Bay, 65.
Cardwell County, 49.
Cariboo Island, 54.
— Lake, 90.
— Mountains, 88.
— Plain, 88.
Carleton County, 61.
Carlton House, 81.
Cartier, Jacques, 5, 6, 9, 37.
Cascade Mountain, 83, 85, 88.
Cascapedia, 60.
Cataraqui Eiver, 45.
Catholics, Eoman, 40, 57, 61, loi,
117, 118.
Cavalry, Canadian, 27.
Census of Quebec, 40.

General Index.

145

Chaleurs, Bay des, 29, 32, 58, 59.
Chambly County, 35.
Champlain, Samuel, 37.
Champlain County, 35.
— Lake, 30, 35.
Chandler's Eeach, 98.
Charles I, 52.
Charlevoix County, 35.
Charlotte County, 61.
Charlottetown, 12, 66.
Charters, Eoyal, 7, 8.
Chateauguay County, 35.
Chatham, New Brunswick, 62.
— Ontario, 47.
Chatte Cape, 14, 32.
Chaudiere Eiver, 4, 32, 35.
Chedabucto Bay, 54, 58.
Chesterfield Inlet, 79.
Chicago, 19.
Chicoutimi, 34, 39-
— County, 35-
Chignecto Bay, 52, 54, 59.
— County, 54, 58.
China Seas, 82, 83.
Chinese, the, 91.
Chinook winds, 76.
Chippewyan Port, 19, 20, 81.
Christiania, 57.
Chudleigh Cape, 94.
Churchill Eiver, 78, 79.
Cipango, 5.
Cirencester, 119.
Climate, Canadian, 16, 23.
— of British Columbia, 83.
— of Manitoba, 71.
Clode Sound, 98.
Coal Mines, Canadian, 52, 56, 80,
108.
Cobequid Bay, 54.
— Mountains, 53, 58.
Cocagne Eiver, 59.
Colchester, Ontario, 47.
Colebrooke, 61.
Colinet Island, 98.

Colorado Eiver, 88.
Columbia, British, 11, 13, 14, 27,
68, 76, 77, 81.
— Eiver, 88, 89.
Columbus, Christopher, 5, 6.
Comox, 92.
Company, London, 8.

Company, Plymouth, 8.
Compton County, 35.
Conception Bay, 90, loi.
Connaigre Bay, 97.
Connecticut Eiver, 9.
Coppermine Eiver, 78.
Cornwallis, 58.
— Eiver, 54.
Cortei-eal, 7.
Cottel's Island, 98.
Couchiching Lake, 49.
Council of Plymouth, 8.
Councils, Local Canadian, 117.
Counties of Cape Breton, 57.
— of Manitoba, 72.
— of Nova Scotia, 55, 56.
— of Ontario, 49.
— of Quebee, 35, 36. ^
Covpicham, 92.
Crop averages, 18.
Cross Lake, 90.
Crossways Lake, 32.
Cuba, 83-
Cumberland Basin, 54, 60.
— House, 20 81.
Currents, ocean, 23, 24.
D.
Dakota, 15, 17.
Dalhousie, 61, 62.
Darkies Lake, 54.
Dartmouth, 58.
Dauphine, Cape, 54.
Davis's Straits, 24.
Dawson, SirW., 104, 123.
Dead Island, 98.
Dease Lake, 90.
Debt, Canadian, no.
— of Newfoundland, loi.
Deer Lake, 78.
— Eiver, 79.
De Monts, 8, 58.
De la Peltrie, 39.
— la Eoche, 9.
— la Roque, 7.
— la Salle, 10.
Delaware Eiver, 9.
Deserts of United States, 17, 20.
Despair Bay, 97.
Des Esquimaux Eiver, 29 35.
Detroit, 33.
Dickens, Charles, 46.

146

General Index.

Digby, 58-
— Gut, 54.
Dildo Eun, 98.
Dixon Channel, 87.
Doobaunt Lake, 79.
D'Or Cape, 54.
Dorchester, 61, 62.
Douglas Channel, 84.
— fir, 91-
— Lord Selkirk, 67.
Dover Port, Ontario, 47.
Downton, 119.
Duck Mountain, 68.
Dufferin, Lord, 68, 90.
Du Lifevre Eiver, 34.
— Moine Eiver, 34.
— Nord Eiver, 34.
Dunmore, 81.
Durham County, Ontario, 49.

E.
Eagle Pass, 89.
— River, 8g.
East Main River, 78.
— Eiver, 53.
Edmonton, 81.
Education in Dominion, 118, 121,
122.
— in Newfoundland, loi.
Edward Lake, 32.
Eel Lake, 60.
Egmont Bay, 65.
— Cape, 54.
Electoral Districts, 36, 50, 100.
Elgin County, 49.
Elias, Mount, 85.
Ellice, 81.
Emerson, 73, 112.
Engineers, Canadian, 27.
England, 16, 24, 83.
— ofthe Pacific, 29.
Eozoon Canadense, 31.
Erie Lake, 11, 16, 33, 42, 47, 48.
Esquimault, 5, 93.
Essex County, 49, 72.
Essington, Port, 87.
Eternity, Cape, 34.
Europe, 11, 21.
Evangeline, 53.
Exploits Bay, 95, 96.

F.
Fabre Lake, 79.
Factories of the Hudson's Bay
Company, 81.
Falls ofthe Chaudifere, 35.
— of Montmorency, 34.
— of Niagara, 46.
— of St. John, 59.
Farnham, 39.
Pear, Cape, 6, 8.
Ferryland County, 100.
Findlay Eiver, 77, 86, 87, 88.
Fish Eiver, Great, 77, 79.
Fisheries, Dominion, 14, 22, 106.
— New Brunswick, 62.
— Newfoundland, 100.
Florida, 83.
— French, 5, 9.
— Spanish, 8.
Fogo, 100.
Forests, Canadian, 21, 22, 23, 105.
Fort Garry, 73.
Fortune Bay, 97, 100.
France, 31, 119.
Francis I, 6.
Francis, Cape, 96.
Franklin, 4.
Fraser Eiver, 14, 86, 87, 88, 89,
90, 91, 92.
Frazerville, 39.
Fredericton, 59, 61, 62, 63.
French Lake, 60.
— Eiver, 44.
— Shore, the, 100.
Freshwater Bay, 97.
Frontenac, 45.
Fundy, Bay of, 11, 52, 53, 58, 59,
60, 61, 62, 109. G.
Gabarus Bay, 51.
Gagetown, 61.
Gander Bay, 96.
Garden of Canada, 43.
Gasp6 County, 36.
— Peninsula, 6, 29, 32, 41.
Gatineau Eiver, 34.
George Bay, 54.
Georgetown, 65, 66.
Georgian Bay, 49.
Germans, the, 58, 69, 75.

General Index.

147

Gilbert, Sir H., 6, 7.
Gladstone, 73.
Glasgow, 56.
Gloucester County, New Bruns
wick, 61.
Gold Eange, 76, 85, 88.
Goose Bay, 97.
Grains and Grasses, 18.
Granby County, 54.
Grand Falls, New Brunswick, 61.
— Lake, New Brunswick, 60.
— Lake, 32
— Passage, 54.
— Pre, 52.
Grant, Dr. G. M., 123.
Gravelin Lake, 79.
Great Bear Lake, 74.
— Britain, 10.
— Eastern, the, loi.
Green Bay, 97.
— Mountain, 32.
Grey County, 49.
Griguet Bay, 97.
Guelph, 47, 104.
Gulf Stream, 24, 55, 82, 95.
Guysborough, 56. H.
Ha Ha Bay, 97.
Haldimand County, 49.
— House, 35-
Haliburton County, 49-
Halifax, 5, 12, 16, 20, 56, 57, 62,
63-
— Harbour, 54.
— Lord, 57.
HaU Bay, 97.
— Eiver, 29.
Hamilton, Fort, 81.
— Port, 12, 47.
Hampton, 61.
Hants County, Nova Scotia, 55.
Haro Channel, 84.
Harrison Lake, go.
Harvey, 62.
Hatton County, 47, 49.
Havre, 37.
Hay, Canadian, 18.
Hayes Factory, 81.
— Eiver, 79.
— route, 70.
Heart's Content, 97, lor.

Hebrides, 75.
Hennepin, Father, 46.
Henry, Fort, 45.
Herefords, 103.
Hermitage Bay, 97.
High Bluff, 72.
Highlanders, 66.
Hillsborough Bay, 65.
Hochelaga, 39.
HoUesley Bay College, 120.
Hooker, Mount, 15, 77, 88.
Hope, 92.
Hopewell, 61, 62.
Horse Fly Lake, go.
Howse Pass, 85.
Hudson Eiver, 8, 9.
Hudson's Bay, 4, 10, 70, 77, 78,
79, 81, 88.
— Company, 73, 92.
— Territory, 67.
HuU, 39.
Humber, the, 95, 96, 99.
Humboldt, 21.
Huntingdon County, 36.
Hurlbert, 69.
Huron County, 49.
— Lake, 11, 16, 33, 47, 48, 49.
Huskisson, 93.

Iberville, 39.
— County, 36.
Icelanders, 69, 75.
Illinois, 16.
Immigrants to New Brunswick,
63-
Immigration, 112.
Indian Head, 81, 104.
— Ocean, 82.
Indians, the, 47, 61, 91.
Indies, West, 54.
Infantry, Canadian, 27.
Inganische, 53.
IngersoU, 47.
International Line, 10, 11, 74, 75.
Iowa, 16.
Ireland, loi.
Irish, the, 61.
Islands, Bay of, 95, 97, 98.
Isle Madame, 54.
— of Dreams, 38.
Isotherm summer, 19.

L 2

I4«

General Index.

Jacques Cartier County, 36.
James I, King, 8.
James' Bay, 29.
Jamestown, 8.
Jasper's House, 85.
-Java Seas, 82.
-Jerseys, 103.
-Jesuit, 46.
.Joliette, 39.
— County, 36. K.
Kajoualwang, 32.
Kamloops, 89, 92.
Kamouraska, 32.
— County, 36.
Kananaskis, 85.
Kansas, 15, 16.
Keewatin District, 68.
Kempt Lake, 32.
Kennebecasis, 59.
Kent, Duke of, 35, 65.
Kent County, England, 116.
— New Brunswick, 61, 64.
— Ontario, 47, 49.
KentvUle, 56.
Kicking Horse Pass, 85, 88.
King's County, Nova Scotia, 55.
— Prince Edward Island, 66.
Kingsford, the historian, 5.
Kingston, 12, 45, 118.
Knee Lake, 79.
Knights of Nova Scotia, 52.
Kootenay Lake, 90.
— River, 85. L.
L'Agulhas current, 82.
L'Assomption, 36, 40.
Labrador, 5, 6, 7, 9, 24, 30, 76, 94,
98.
Lachine, 39.
La CoUotte, 32.
Ladoga wheat, 121.
Lakes, Canadian, -..1, 15.
— of British Columbia, 90.
— of Manitoba, 69.
— of New Brunswick, 60.
— of Nova Scotia, 54.
— of Ontario, 48.
— of Quebec, 32.

Lakes of the North-West, 78.
Lanarkshire, 56.
Lapoile District, 100.
La Prairie County, 36.
Laurentides, 30.
Laurentian Mountains, 30, 31, 96,
Laval, Bishop, 38.
— County, 36.
Leather Pass, 85.
Lethbridge, 80.
Levis, 39.
— County, 36.
Lewis Island, 98.
Liard, F., 19, 82.
Lilloet-Clinton District, 92.
Lilloet Lake, 90.
Lisgar County, 72.
L'Islet County, 36.
Liverpool, 4, 45, 93.
— Nova Scotia, 56, 58.
Logan Mountain, 32.
Logan, Sir W., 5, 31.
London, 12, 56, 68, ii6.
— Ontario, 47.
Londonderry, 57.
Longfellow, 52.
Long Island, 19.
— Newfoundland, 98.
— Nova Scotia, 54.
Longueil, 39.
Loon Lake, 60.
Lorne, Marquis of, 44, 48, 56.
Lotbiniere County, 36.
Louis XIV, 10.
Louisburg, 51.
Louisiana, 5, 10.
Louisville, 40.
Loyalists, United Empire, 40.
Lumbering, 25.
Lunenburg, 54, 56.
Lyell, Sir Charles, 46, 57, 104.
Lytton, 92. M.
Macdougall, Lake, 79.
Macfie, Mr., 12.
Mackenzie Eiver, 14, 20, 77, 78,
81, 87, 88, 89.
Mackenzie, Sir J., 19, 86.
MacLeod, Fort, 81.
Macoun, Professor, 19, 104, 105.
Madawaska, 59, 60, 61.

General Index.

149

Madeira, 68.
Magdalen Island, 29.
Maidstone, Ontario, 47.
Main Factory, 81.
— Gut, 98.
Maine River, East, 29.
Maine, State of, 9, 11,59,62,63, 115.
Maisonneuve, 38.
Maitland, 58.
Maize, 19.
Malacca, Straits of, 82, 83.
Malaga, Lake, 54.
Malicites, 58, 61.
Malta, 24.
Manicouagan, 35-
Mauitoba Lake, 16, 43, 70, go.
— Province, 11, 13, 18, ig, 25, 27,
42, 67, 79.
Manitou, 67.
Manouan, 32.
Manufactures, Canadian, 107.
Maquapit Lake, 60.
Marquette, 72.
Marshall, 46.
Maryland, g.
Maskinonge County, 36.
Massachusetts, 55.
Massawippi, 40.
Matane River, 32.
Maury, Lieut., 82.
M^Gill University, 123.
Medicine Hat, 80.
Megantic County, 36.
— Lake, 35, 40.
Melbourne, 3, 12.
Memphramagog, Lake, 35, 40.
Mennonites, 6g, 114.
Mercier, Honors, 40.
Mersey River, Nova Scotia, 53.
Metropolitan of Canada, 61.
Mexico, Gulf of, 10, 24, 55, 77.
— Plain of, 17.
Michigan, Lake, 16.
Micmacs, 58, 61.
Middlesex County, Ontai-io, 4g.
— Ontario, 47.
Milford Haven, 54.
Military Districte, 27.
Milton, 47.
Mines, Basin of, 52, 54.
Mines, Canadian, 22.
Minnedosa, 73.

Minnesota, 17, 18, 33, 70.
Miquelon Island, g7.
Miramichi Bay, 60.
— Lake, 60.
— Eiver, 59.
Miscou Island, 60.
Missisiquoi County, 36.
Mississippi, 10, 26, 77.
Missouri, 16, 77.
Mistassinnie Lake, 32.
Monck County, 49.
Moncton, 62.
Money Orders, 116.
Montana, 15.
Montcalm, 37.
— County, 36.
Montmagny, 39.
— County, 36.
Montmorency, 34.
— County, 36.
Montreal, 5, 12, 13, 16, 20, 30, 33,
39. 45. 48, 68, 80, 117.
— County, 36.
— Island, 30.
Moose Fort, 81.
— Jaw, 80,
— Eiver, 78.
Mozambique current, 82.
Mulagash, Cape, 54.
Municipal Government, 117.
Murchison, Sir E., 31.
Muskoka, Lake, 49.
Musquodoboit Harbour, 54.
N.
Nanaimo, 87, 92, gs.
Nance, Mademoiselle, 39.
Napierville County, 36.
Napoleon I, 10.
Nappan, 104.
Narragansetts, 6.
Nasse Eiver, 87.
Natal, 102.
Native question, 102.
Nebraska, 15, 17.
Nelson County, Vancouver, g2.
— Eiver, 14, 70, 77, 78, 7g.
Nepisiguit Eiver, 59, 60.
New Brunswick, 7, g, 10, 11, 13,
27, 29, 58, 91-
Newcastle, 61.
New England, 8, g.

I.^O

General Index.

New France, 5, 6, 8, g, 10, 37.
Ne-n'foundland, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10,
24, 26, 28, 63, 83, 93.
New Netherlands, 9.
New South Wales, 12.
New Spain, 10.
New York, 4, 24, 45.
— County, 18.
New Westminster, 85, gi, g3.
New World Island, g8.
Niagara, 33, 46, 47, log.
— route, 44.
Nicolet, 39.
— County, 36.
Nile Expedition, 27.
Nipigon Lake, 49.
Nipissing Lake, 44, 49.
Noire Eiver, 34.
Norfolk County, Ontario, 49.
Norman County, 94, 97.
North Cape, 16, 24.
North Indian Lake, 7g.
North Mountain, 53.
Northumberland County, Ontario,
49-
— New Brunswick, 61, 64.
— Strait, 52, 54, 58, 60, 62.
North-West Territories, 11, 13, 73.
Norumbega, 7.
Norway, 12, 16, 24, 82.
Notre Dame Bay, g5, g7, g8.
— Mountain, 32.
Nottawasaga Bay, 43.
Nouvelle Bretagne, 5.
Nova Scotia, g, 10, 11, 13, 26, 27,
51, 83-
Nova Zembla, 24. 0.
Oats, Canadian, ig.
Observatory Inlet, 87.
Ohio, 16, 18.
Okanagan, Lake, 90, 92.
Olympia, Mount, 84.
Omineca, 86, 87, 88.
Onega wheat, 121.
Ontario, Lake, 11, 16, 33, 42, 47.
— Province, 11, 13, 18, 27, 42,
49, 53, 78-
Oregon, 10, 20, 88, 93.
— pine, 91.
Orleans, island of, 30.

Oromocto, 5g, 60, 61.
Ottawa, city of, 44, iig.
— County, 36.
— Eiver, 4, 12, 2g, 30, 32, 33, 41,
42, 45, 81.
Outardes River, 35.
Oxford, 46.
— County, Ontario, 47, 4g.
— Street, Ontario, 47.

Pacific, the, 4, 11, 14, 24, 82,
87, 88, 90.
Pacific slope, the, 15, 84.
Pall Mall, Ontario, 47.
Park, a national, 80.
Parliament House, 38.
Parrsborough, 58.
Parsnip River, 86.
Passamaquoddy Bay, 60.
Passes, mountain, 85.
Patent, King James's, 8.
Peace Eiver, 19, 77, 81, 86.
Pedee Eiver, Great, 9.
Peel, 49.
Pelly, Fort, 81.
— Lake, 79-
— Eiver, 77.
Pemberton, 92.
Pennsylvania, 18, 80.
Perth County, Ontario, 47, 49.
Petchora barley, 121.
Peterborough, 49.
Petit Nord Bay, 97.
Petite Nation Eiver, 34.
Petroleum, 108-
Philippines, the, 82.
Philpot, Dr., 25.
Piccadilly, Ontario, 47.
Pictou, 53, 54, 56.
Pilley's Island, 98.
Pine, Cape, 96.
Pines, Canadian, 21.
Pistolet Bay, 97.
Placentia Bay, 97.
— County, 100.
Plains of Abraham, 37.
Point a Beaudet, 29.
— Fortune, 29.
— Lake, 78.
— Levis, 38.
— St- Eegis, 29.

General Index.

151

Pointe des Monts, 14, 33.
Police, Mounted, 80.
Pontiac County, 36.
Poplar Point, 72.
Port Hawkesbury, 58.
— Hood, 57.
— Medway, 58.
— ¦ Nelson, 4.
— Eoyal, 8, 52.
Portage la Prairie, 72, 73.
Port-k-Port Bay, g6, g7.
Portland, 12, 62, 84.
Portneuf County, 36.
Portneuf Eiver, 35.
Ports of Ontario, 51.
— of Quebec, 41.
Portugal Cove, 7, 96.
Portuguese, 6.
Potomac, 8.
Prairie, the, 25, 26.
Primavista, Cape, 96.
Prince Albert, 70, 81.
— County, 66.
Prince Edward Island, 10, 11, 13,
27, 29, 64, 65, gS.
Protestants, 57, 61, loi, 117, 118.
Provencher County, 72.
Provinces, the, 27-
Pugwash Harbour, 54, 58.

Qu'Appelle VaUey, 74, 80, 81.
Quebec, Province of, 11, 13, 28.
35. 63, 78-
— city, 12, 13, 16, 27, 31, 34, 37.
— County, 36.
Queen Charlotte Island, 28, 83, 84,
85. 87.
Queen's County, New Brunswick,
61.
— Prince Edward Island, 66.
Quesnelle Lake, go.
Quesnelly, 92.

Eace, Cape, 96, loi.
Eailway, Grand Trunk, 45.
— Canadian Pacific, 76, 79, 80, 81,
88, 89, no.
— Intercolonial, 62, 63.
— North-West, 75, 76.
Eailways of New Brunswick, 62.

Eainfall of Canada, 17.
Eainy Lake, 49.
— Eiver, n.
Raleigh, SirW., 7.
Eay, Cape, 94, 97.
Eed Deer Eiver, 76.
Eed Indian Lake, g6.
Eed Eiver, 14, 20, 67, 69, 70, 73,
78.
Eegent Street, Ontario, 47.
Eegina, 76, 79, 80.
Reindeer Lake, 16.
Religious sects, 118.
Reserves, Canadian, 27.
Eesolution, Fort, 81.
Eestigouche, 29, 58, 59, 60.
— County, 61, 64.
Revenue, Dominion, 109.
Eey, Lake, 79.
Eichelieu County, 36, 37.
— Eiver, 4, 30, 35.
Eichibucto River, 59, 61.
Eichmdnd, 37.
— Bay, 65.
Eideau Canal, 45.
Eiding Mountain, 68.
Eiel, Louis, 80.
Rifles, Canadian, 27.
Rimouski, 40.
— County, 36.
Eiviere du Loup, 63.
Eoanoke, 8.
Eoberval, Lord of, 7, 8.
Eochester, Ontario, 47.
Rockies, the, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76,
77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 88.
Eockwood, 72.
Rosario Strait, 84.
Rossignol Lake, 54, 58.
Eouge River, 34.
Rousseau Lake, 49.
Rouville County, 36.
Eupert Eiver, 32, 78.
Rupert's Factory, 81.
— Land, 67.
Eussia, II.
Eye, 19, 121. S.
Saanich Peninsula, 92.
Sable, Cape, 54.
— Island, 54.

152

General Index.

Sackville, 62.
Sacred Bay, 97-
Saguenay County, 35.
— River, 4, 30, 32, 34, 40.
St. Agathe, Manitoba, 72.
St. Andrew's, Manitoba, 72.
St. Andrew's, 61.
St. Anne's Bay, 53.
St. Anne's Mountain, 31, 32.
St. Anne, Manitoba, 72.
St. Barbe Bay, 97.
St. Boniface, Manitoba, 72.
St. Catherine's, 47.
St. Charles, Manitoba, 72.
St. Charles River, 37.
St. Clair, 33, 49.
St. Clement's, Manitoba, 72.
St. Croix, 8, 9, 59.
St. Francis River, 4, 35.
St. Franyois Xavier, 72.
St- George's Bay, 63, 96, 97.
St. George, Cape, 54.
St. Hyacinthe, 36, 37.
St. James, Manitoba, 72.
St. J6r6me, 39.
St. John, city of, 12.
St- John's County, New Bruns-
vrick, 61.
St. John's Harbour, 60, loi.
St. John's Island, 10, 65.
St- John's Lake, 30, 31, 32, 34.
St. John, New Brunswick, 61, 62,
63. 98-
St. John's County, Newfoundland,
100.
St. John's, Newfoundland, 95, 96,
98.
St. John's County, Quebec, 36, 37.
St. John's Eiver, 10, 59, 60, 61.
St. John's River, Quebec, 35.
St. Lawrence, Cape, 54.
St. Lawrence, Gulf of, 7, 24, 52,
94.
St. Lawrence River, i, 4, 5, 7, 14,
28, 32, 33. 34, 35, 37. 45, 49.
52, 77, go.
St. Lawrence VaUey, 10, 26.
St. Louis, 33-
St. Mary's, 33.
St. Mary's Bay, 54, g7.
St. Mary's La Have, 53.
St. Margaret Bay, g7.

St. Maurice County, 36.
St. Maurice River, 4, 32, 35, 37,
40.
St. Narbert, Manitoba, 72.
St. Paul's Island, 54-
St. Paul's, Manitoba, 72.
St. Paul's, Ontario, 47.
St. Peter's Lake, 30, 32, 35.
St. Pierre Island, g7.
St. Stephen, 62.
St- Vital, Manitoba, 72-
Salmon River, 60.
Saltcoats, 75, 80.
Salt Spring Island, g2.
Sambro Head Cape, 54.
Sandhurst, a Canadian, 118.
Sandwich, Ontario, 47.
Sandy Lake, 79-
San Francisco, 84, 93-
San Juan Archipelago, 84.
Santee River, 9.
Saskatchewan District, 68, 76, 78,
81.
— River, Little, 70, 76.
Saugeen Eiver, 47.
Sault Ste. Marie, 43, 48.
Savannah Eiver, 9.
Saxonka wheat, 121.
Scarborough, Ontario, 47.
Scatari Island, 54.
Schools, Canadian, 122.
Scots, the, 3, 47, 69, 75.
Selkirk Colonists, 4, 67.
— Earl, 66.
— Mountains, 76, 86, 88, 89.
— town of, 72.
Sequin Lake, 79.
Setting Lake, 79.
Severn Factory, 81.
— Lake, 79.
— River, 79.
Shakespeare, Ontario, 47.
Shasta, 87.
Shecoubish Lake, 32.
Shediac, 62.
— Bay, 60, 66.
Sheet Harbour, 54.
Shelburne, 56.
Shepody Bay, 59, 60.
Sherbrooke County, 36, 37, 63.
Ship Harbour Lake, 54.
Shippegan Island, 60.

General Index.

^52.

Shipping, Canadian, 107.
— Quebec, 40.
Shoal Lake, 73.
Shorthorns, 103.
Shubenacadie River, 53, 58.
Shuswap Lake, 8g, go.
Sicamous Narrows, 89.
Sierra Nevada, 85.
Simcoe County, 49.
— Lake, 49-
Similkameen, 91 -
Simpson, Fort, ig, 20, 81, 87.
Skeena River, 84, 86, 87, 88.
Slave Lake, the Great, 16, 77, 78,
79-
— River, 77.
Soils, Canadian, 25.
Sorel, 3g.
Soudan, the, 27.
Soulanges County, 36.
Souris Eiver, 66, 70.
South Indian Lake, 7g.
South Mountain, Nova Scotia, 53.
Spain, 6.
Spear, Cape, g4, g6.
Spitzbergen, 24.
Split, Cape, 54.
Springfield, 72.
Stanstead County, 36.
Steppes, Prairie, 4.
Stikeen River, 84-
Stony Mountain, 15.
Stratford, Ontario, 47.
Stuart Lake, go.
Suez Canal, 43.
Suffolk, England, 116, 120.
Sumatra, 83.
Summersberry, 81.
Summerside, 66.
Sunbury County, 61.
Superior, Lake, 4, n, 14, 16, 33,
48, 71.
Susquehanna, g.
Sweden, 12.
Sydney, 3, 12.
— Cape Breton, 57.
T-
Tache, Lake, 7g.
Tacla, Lake, 90.
Tadousac, g, 34.
Tancock Island, 54.

Telegraphs, loi, 116.
Temiseamingue, 20, 29, 32.
Temiscouata County, 36.
— Lake, 59, 60.
Terrebonne, 40.
Texas, 15.
Thames River, Ontario, 47.
Thompson Eiver, 89, 92.
Three Eivers, 33, 37.
— County, 36.
Thunder Bay, 11, 71.
Thutage, Lake, 90.
Tidal action, 109.
Tignish, 65, 66.
Tobique, 59, 60.
Tooke, Vancouver, 92.
Torbay, 54, 58.
Toronto, 12, 13, 17, 20, 24, 45,
47. "7-
Tourmente, Cape, 31.
Townships, Quebec, 40, 41.
— ofthe North-West, 112.
Trees, Canadian, 25.
Trepassy Bay, 97.
Trinity Bay County, Ne-wfound
land, 100.
Trinity, Cape, 34, 97, loi.
— Gut, 98.
Triton Island, g8.
Trout Lake, 7g.
Truro, 56.
Turtle Mountain, 68.
Twelve Mile Creek, 47.
Two Mountains County, 36.
TwUlingate, 100. U.
United States, 10, n, 12, 15, 16,
20, 2g, 43, 54, 58, 83, 84.
Universities, Canadian, 123.
Utrecht, Treaty of, 10, 52.
V.
Valley Field, 3g.
Vancouver Island, 4, 16, 56, 83,
84, 86, 87, 91.
Vaudreuil County, 36, 37.
Verchferes County, 36.
Vermillion, Fort, 19.
— Pass, 85.
Vermont, 32, 40.
Verrazano, 6.

154

General Index.

Viceroy of Canada, g.
Victoria, Colony of, 12.
— Bridge, 30.
— County, New Brunswick, 61.
•  Nova Scotia, 54.
 Ontario, 4g.
 Vancouver, 7, g2.
— FaUs, 46.
Vimont, sg.
Vii-ginia, 9, 115.
Voltaire, 10.
Voyageurs, Canadian, 27.
W.
Walkerton, 47.
Washademoak, 59.
— Lake, 60.
Washington Lake, 83, 84, 85, 93.
Water-Hen River, 70.
Waterloo County, 49.
Wealth, Canadian, in.
Welland Canal, 47.
— County, 49.
Wellington County, 49.
Wentworth County, 49.
Westbourne, 72.
Westminster, Ontario, 47.
Westmoreland County, New
Brunswick, 61.
Weymouth, 58.
— pine, 91.
Whale River, Great, 78.
Wheat averages, i8.
Whitby, Ontario, 47.
White Bear Bay, 97.
Wigwam River, 85.

William, Fort, 20.
— Creek, 92.
WUlis Eeach, 98.
Wilson, Sir Daniel, 123.
Windsor, Nova Scotia, 56.
— Ontario, 47.
Winnipeg, city of, 12, 13, 15, 16,
17, 20, 68, 69, 73.
— Lake, 14, 16, 69, 77, 78.
— River, 14, 70, 71.
Winnipegosis Lake, 16, 70.
Wisconsin, 18.
Wolfe, 37.
Wollaston Lake, 78.
Wolseley, Lord, 27.
Woods, Lake ofthe, 5, 10, 11, 49.
Woodstock, Ontario, 47, 59, 61.

Yale County, 92.
— Rapids, 91.
Yamaska County, 36.
— River, 35.
Yarmouth, 56.
YeUow Head Pass, 85, 87.
York, Ontario, 45.
— Archipelago, 78.
— County, New Brunswick, 61,
64.
— Factory, 70, 81.
Yorkton, 75.
Yosemite Valley, 87.
Yukon River, ig, 77, 88.
Z.

Zambesi Falls, 46.

THE END.

By the same Author.

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