»Y^ILIle¥]MH¥E]^S]Iir¥e

Gift of

Frederic M. Stevens

1883

m.ai

MAP OF THE ROADS

of part of Andalusia

N?S.

J

' Jfaefesc 352 Strand/.

-VIEW-QP SPAIN;
,'; ^COMPRISING
A DESCRIPTIVE ITINERARY,
OF
EACH PROVINCE,
''.-¦ AND A . - '
GENERAL STATISTICAL ACCOUNT
OF THE COUNTRY;
INCLUDING
3TS POPULATION, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, COMMERCE, AND FINANCES 5
, ?ITS GOVERNMENT, CIVIL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS;
THE STATE OF THE ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE;
ITS MANNERS, CUSTOMS, NATURAL HISTORY, SfC.

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF
ALEXAN»Ej& DE LABORDE.

IN FIVE VOLUMES.
VOL. V.

LONDON'.
PjfelNTED FOR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, AND ORME, PATER-
NOSXER^ROW ;. AND R. DULAU AND <?0. SOIIO SQUARE. ,

180$.

T. DAVISON, Whitefriars,
¦London.

CONTENTS

OF THE

FIFTH VOLUME.

Page
Ecclesiastical Government . . i
Religion of Spain . . .2
Ecclesiastical division of Spain into bishoprics and
metropolitan provinces ... 8
Chapters, abbeys, and religious orders . . 12
State of the Spanish clqrgy ... 14
State of the clergy of France before the revolution . 16
Ecclesiastical tribunals . . . .18
Rights and jurisdiction of the pope in Spain . 23
Nomination to benefices . . .26
Impost on the clergy of Spain ... 30
General observations en the Spanish clergy . 34
Administration of Justice ... 37
Inferior tribunals .... jj.
Superior tribunals ..... 4i
Council of Castile . . . , , 45
Tribunals of exception .... 48
Situation of the magistracy in Spain* . . 5&
Laws of Spain • • . . . ib.
Remarks

IV

CONTENTS.

Remarks on the organization of the Spanish tribOnals,
and the forms of legal process
Nobility of Spain
Royal and military Orders of Spain
Tableof the monks and nuns attached to the military
orders, according to the enumeration of 1 788
Mayorazgos State of Science in Spain
State of Medicine in Spain
Medical police
Spanish Literature
Spanish Theatre
Spanish Language
State of the Arts in Spain
Spanish music
Spanish dances
Physical Constitution of Spain, and its
Inhabitants
Spanish Character and Manners
Spanish Costume
Ceremonies and public Festivals of Spain
Observations on certain detached Por
tions OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OfSpAIN
Vegetable kingdom ....
Animal kingdom
Mineral kingdom
Mines of gold
¦ of silver
 of copper
''•  of lead
— — of iron
— — of antimony
— ¦ — of cobalt
 of mercury
Inflammable minerals

Page 61 6792
100105 110 144146154192
220
228247
252 26l
271 307325332 ib.
333335
336 ib.
337
338
338839 ib.
340 ib.
Minerals

CONTENTS.

V

Page

Minerals salts ....

341

Earthy minerals

342

Salt springs and marshes

343

Mineral waters

344

Composition of some of the mountains of Spain

ib.

ACCOUNT

OF

SPAIN.

A SKETCH OF THE DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS OF
GOVERNMENT, AND OF THE VARIOUS BRANCHES
OF PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY IN SPAIN.

CHAP. L
ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT,
It is a common error to suppose that the Spanish
clergy form an ecclesiastical despotism which, at
the same time, influences the general tenour of the
civil administration^ and subjects to its lawv its
interests, and caprices, the domestic regulations of
private families. The dreaded name of the inqui
sition comes in aid of these prejudices, and effectu
ally deters timid and credulous people from all en-
vox, v. b .. . quiry

2 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
quiry on the subject. Another equally common
and important mistake relates to the supposed in
fluence of the papal court over both the civil and
ecclesiastical government, and the greatly exagge
rated representations that are current concerning
the riches of the Spanish clergy, and the numbers
and conduct of the members by whom that body
is composed. It is not so much by philosophical
or sentimental declarations that these errors can
be removed, as by a plain and impartial represent
ation of the actual state of the ecclesiastical esta
blishment in that kingdom ; whence it will appear,
that the Spanish nation, while paying high respect
to the sovereign pontiff", has yet been able to cir
cumscribe his power within due limits; and that
the inquisition, now reduced to a branch of the
general police, exercises a superintendence, preju
dicial indeed, but of a kind wholly different from
what formerly distinguished this terrible tribunal. ¦
Religion qf Spain.
The ancient inhabitants of Spain, according to
Strabo, adored a nameless god, of whom they
formed no visible representation, and to whom
they erected no temples, performing their simple
rites in the open air, on the first night of every full
moon. This antique worship was, however, suc
cessively modified by the commercial establish
ments which the Phenicians and Greeks founded
on their coasts, and the more extensive conquests and

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. . 3
and usurpations of the Carthaginians and Romans
iri the interior of the country. Spain being first
feduced by her allies to recognise their gods, was
afterwards forced by her conquerors to receive all
the superstitions and fables of paganism. Christi
anity early met with a welcome receptio?i in Spainr
which, from the first ages of the church, furnished
many martyrs to the faith. Arianism was intro
duced by the Goths and Suevi, who established
themselves in this country ; and for some time
Spain was nearly equally divided between two
parties, the natives of the country adhering to the
Roman Catholic church, while their conquerors
were Arians. Each party had their separate
priests, bishops, and churches. In the year 550,
Carciarius, king of the Suevi, abjured Arianism ;
and, his people following the example of their
sovereign, the provinces of Galicia and Asturias,
which they occupied, were re-united to the Catho
lic communion.
The Goths were still Arians, but their kings
saw with pain the dissensions which a difference of
religious faith occasioned among their subjects.
With the intention of putting an end to these" ani
mosities, king Leovigild, in the year 579, convoked
at Toledo a council of Spanish bishops of both
parties, in which the Catholics conceded to their
opponents the right of rebaptizing converts to
Arianism from the Catholic church, and also
agreed to modify the doxology, from Glory to the
b 2 Father,

4 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, to
Glery to the Fat her, for the Son, through the Holy Ghost.
The consequences of this conference were, how
ever, by no means such as had been anticipated.
The Catholic theologians, supported by a large
majority of the members of their communion,
boldly disclaimed the authority of such of their
bishops as had signed the above degrading conces
sions ; while the king, devoted to the Arian party,
endeavoured to reduce the refractory Catholics by
the infliction of imprisonment, exile, and confis
cation. A civil war, with all its numberless evils,
was the natural consequence.
The Arians at length opened their eyes to the
faith. Ricaredo their king, in the year 587, ab
jured Arianism in the presence of a national as
sembly, composed of bishops and palatines: he in
vited the Goths to follow his example, and the
assembly anathematized Arius. The change
thus begun, was completed two years afterwards :
the solemn abjuration of heresy was performed by
a new national assembly held at Toledp, and the
whole of Spain was re-united to the Catholic
church. A vigilant activity secured the advan
tages that had been gained ; the errors of Felix,
bishop of Urgel, in the 8th century, were suppress
ed in their commencement ; and to the period of
the Moorish invasion, the church of Spain was re
markable for the purity of its doctrines and the
efficacy of its discipline. Each

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 5
Each church had its own council or synod,
which assembled annually ; and the acts of those of
Barcelona, Gerona, Lerida, and Merida, are still
preserved. Each metropolitan church had also its particu
lar councils, composed of its suffragan bishops ;
and the acts of those of Toledo, Tarragona, Se
ville, and Saragossa, still remain.
There was also occasionally a general assembly
of all the Spanish churches, or a national councils
in which not only ecclesiastical but also civil affairs
were discussed. The members of this assembly
partook also of the mixed nature of its jurisdic
tion, being composed of bishops and palatines,
with the king at their head. During the first days
of their meeting laymen were excluded, and the
affairs of the church were regulated and discussed
by the bishops only ; after which the palatines
were admitted, and the whole formed a national
assembly, which enacted, repealed, and modified r,
laws, regulated the form and proportion of the
imposts, and not unfrequently proceeded to the
election of kings. These assemblies were gene
rally held at Toledo, and have been confounded
by many historians with the provincial councils of
that metropolis.
Even under the dominion of the Arabs the Spa
niards retained for some time their religion, their
bishops, and their pastors, and held several ec
clesiastical councils, at Seville in 782, at Urgel in
b 3 798,

6 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
798, at Cordova in 850. But the religion, of the
sovereign became insensibly that of his subjects,
who at length adopted the manners, usages,' and
customs of their conquerors, but modified by "the
principles of their hereditary religion ; hence their
faith became a monstrous mixture of Christianity
and Mahometariism, in which the leading tenets of
each were indistinguishably confounded.
The bishops themselves, from the beginning of
the ninth century, were deeply tinged with the
dogmas of Mahomet : they retained no longer any
remembrance of the catholic councils even of their
own country, and were so far estranged both from
the language and religion of Rome, that the ec
clesiastical records of their own predecessors were
accessible to them only through the medium of an
Arabic version. In 860 a council of half-Mussul
man bishops assembled at Toledo, deposed the
priest Samson, the only orthodox ecclesiastic in
Spain, for resisting the promulgation of doctrines
directly hostile to the fai^h of the Catholic church.
So completely at length was every vestige of the
Christian religion eradicated from that part of
Spain which had come under the dominion of the
Arabs, that when the two kings of the name of
Ferdinand completed the conquest, the one of
Seville in 1248, .and the other of Granada in
1492, the slaves were the only Christians that
could be found.
The Christian religion was re-established in the
different.

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 7
different provinces of Spain, in proportion as they
Were recovered from the domination of the Arabs.
Ecclesiastical councils were assembled in 1020 at
Leon, in 1056 at Santiago, and in 1068 at Gerona,
in which were enacted various canons for the pur
pose of reforming the discipline of the church, and
correcting the irregularities and scandalous lives
of the clergy. The Spanish Christians, during
their subjection first to the Goths and afterwards
to the Mussulmans, had insensibly added to, di
minished, and altered the ceremonies of the Catho
lic church in various particulars, whence resulted
a peculiar ritual called the Musarabic, which was
adopted in all Spain, after its restoration to Christi
anity on the expulsion of the Arabs.
The failure of the Gothic line of kings was
succeeded by the introduction of the French
princes, under whom the iYlusarabic ritual began
to decline in the public estimation, and was, final
ly, by the influence of two French princesses,
superseded by that of the Romish church.
Catalonia set the example of this change. The
states of the province assembled at Barcelona in
the year 1064, suppressed the Musarabic ritual
and adopted that of the church of Rome, in defe
rence, as it is said, to the countess of Barcelona
their sovereign, who, born in France and educated
in the ceremonies of the Romish church, found
her devotional feelings strongly revolt from assist
ing at what she termed a Gothic mass.
b 4 Soon

8 ECCLESIASTICAL- GOVERNMENT.
Soon after, the queen of Alphonso VI. king of
Castile and Leon, also a French lady, solicited
and obtained a similar complaisance from her hus
band. The proposed change, however, excited so
much dissatisfaction on the part of the clergy, that
it was at length submitted to the decision of a
duel: two canons, in complete armour, appeared
as the champions of their respective rituals, and
victory declared in favour of the Musarabic
knight*. The catholic party appealed from this
decision of Heaven to a second ; in consequence.
of which the two Liturgies were thrown into a
blazing fire, the Romish book was destroyed, the
Musarabic remained uninjured and rose above the
flame. The queen being thus a second time dis
appointed had recourse to more efficacious means,
and in the year 1077 a decree was passed at
Burgos establishing the ritual of the Romish
church. The Musarabic ritual still subsists, however, at
Salamanca and Toledo, where are two chapels
served by a numerous clergy, in which public
worship is performed according to this ancient
form. Ecclesiastical division of Spain into Bishoprics
and Metropolitan Provinces.
Spain is divided into ecclesiastical provinces,
over each of which presides an archbishop, with
* His name was Juan Ruis de Maranca,. the

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 9
the rank of metropolitan ; these provinces are
again subdivided into dioceses, each of which is
governed by a bishop. The archbishoprics are
eight in number, and the suffragan bishoprics
forty-four. The metropolitan provinces are the following ;
that of Toledo in New Castile ; of Seville in An
dalusia ; of Santiago, or Compostella, in Galicia ;
of Granada in Andalusia; of Burgos in Old Cas
tile ; of Tarragona in Catalonia ; of Saragossa in
Aragon ; and of Valencia in the kingdom of the
same name.
The archiepiscopal seat of Toledo is the first
in rank and the wealthiest in Spain. It confers on
its possessor the title of primate, and a revenue of
about 12,000,000 reals (125,0001.) The primate
has commonly two assistant bishops in partibus
mfidelium, the one residing at Toledo, and the
other at Madrid. His suffragan bishops are those
of Cuenca in New Castile; of Siguenza, Se
govia, Osma, and Valladolid, in Old Castile ;
and of Cordova, Jaen, and Murcia, in the king
doms of the same name. The bishopric of Jaen
has two cathedrals, the one at Jaen, the other at
Baeza, which was formerly an episcopal seat.
That of Murcia was formerly at Carthagena,
which is said to have been anciently the metro
politan seat itself, before it was removed to To
ledo. The

10 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
The archbishop of Seville possessed formerly
the title of primate of Spain, but he was deprived
of this dignity in the year 646 by the council of
Toledo, who conferred it on the archbishop of the
last-named place. He enjoys a revenue bf about
300,000 ducats (34,3751.) His suffragans are
the bishops of Malaga in the kingdom of Granada,
of Cadiz in the kingdom of Seville, and of Ceuta
and the Canary Isles out of the continental boun
daries of Spain. The episcopal seat of Cadiz was
formerly at Asidonia.
The archidpiscopal seat of Santiago was for a
long time established at Merida in Estremadura.
The city of Padron, formerly Iria, was the seat
of a bishopric that was destroyed by the Moors.
After the expulsion of these invaders, King Al-
phonso the Chaste re-established it in the year
829; but in the year 10Q8, it was transferred to
Compostella, under the name of Santiago, in vir
tue of a brief of pope Urban It. In the year
1124 this see was raised to the metropolitan dig
nity by pope Calixtus II. who transferred thither
the archbishop of Merida. Its revenue is estimat
ed at about 250,000 ducats (28,6211.) The suf
fragan bishops attached to this province are those
qf Avila in Old Castile ; of Salamanca, Astorga,
Zamora, and Ciudad-Rodrigo, in the kingdom of
Leon ; of Tuy, Orense, Mondonedo, and Lugo,
in Galicia; of Coria, Placencia, ^and Badajos, in
Estremadura. The

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 11
The archbishop of Granada has for suffragans
the bishops of Guadix and of Almeria : the arch
bishop of Burgos has for suffragans the bishops of
Pampeluna and of Tudela in Navarre, of Cala-
horra in Old Castile, of Palencia in the kingdom
of Leon, and of Santander in Biscay. The dio
cese of Calahowa has two cathedrals, one at Cala-
horra, and the other at Santo Domingo de la Cal-
zada, in la Rioxa, where there was formerly an
episcopal seat.
The archbishopric of Tarragona, the ancient
metropolis of almost half of Spain, possesses a re
venue of about 160,000 ducats (18,3331.) It
long contested with Toledo the dignity of the
primacy, till a council, held at Tarragona in the
year 1270, menaced the metropolitan of this
place with excommunication, unless he desisted
from his claims. The suffragan bishops of this
province are all the bishops pf Catalonia, those of
Barcelona, Gerona, Lerida, Vicq, Tortosa, Urgel,
and Solsona, and the bishop of the island Iviza
in the Mediterranean sea. The diocese of Lerida
has two cathedrals, one in the city of the same
name, and the other at Roda in Aragon, where
there was formerly an episcopal seat.
The archbishopric of Saragossa possesses a reve
nue of about 220,000 ducats (25,2081.), and has for
its suffragan sees the bishoprics of Huesca, Bal-
bastro, Jaca, Taracona, Albarrazin, and Teruel,
all in the kingdom of Aragon. The city of Sara
gossa

12 ECCLES1SATICAL GOVERNMENT.
gossa has two cathedrals ; one called la Seu, the seat,
is the real cathedral; the other is the church of
N. D. del Pilar, which enjoys the honours and
privileges of a cathedral. The archbishopric of
Valencia possesses a revenue of about 280,000 du
cats (£.32,083), and has for suffragan sees the bi
shoprics of Segorbia and Orihuela, in the king
dom of Valencia, and those of the islands of Ma
jorca and Minorca in the Mediterranean sea.
The city of Oviedo in Asturia, and of Leon iri
the kingdom of that name, have each an episcopal
seat, and independent of any metropolitan au
thority, being under the immediate jurisdiction of
the supreme pontiff. . n

Chapters, Abbeys, and Religious Orders.
There are in all Spain fifty-eight cathedral chap
ters ; one in each archiepiscopal or episcopal city,
and the four following ; namely, in the city of
Baeza in the kingdom of Jaen ; of Santo Domirigo
de la Calzada, in La Rioxa; of Roda in Aragon,
and attached to the church of fr. D. del Pilar in
Saragossa. There are also eighty-two collegiate
chapters and abbeys of different orders ; of the
latter however there are but few except in Cata
lonia. There is only one abbey of women ; it is situ
ated in Old Castile, near Burgos, and is remark-
' able

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVENRMENT. 13
able for the distinguished privileges enjoyed by its
abbess. The titular patroness of this institution is
Santa Maria de las Huelgas : it belongs to the
order of St. Bernard and the congregation of Cis-
tertians. The abbess exercises temporal jurisdic
tion over the vassals of her territory, and possesses
an almost episcopal spiritual authority. She grants
testimonials for holy orders, licences preachers,
pronounces censures by means of her ecclesiastical
judges, and promulgates mandements ; in the intro
duction to which, she styles herself Prelatess with
quasi episcopal jurisdiction. The abbess was former
ly chosen for life, but by a brief of pope Sixtus V.
in 1539, the period was altered to triennial. The
right of election is vested in the community, and
formerly required the confirmation of the general
of the Cistertian order.
The religious orders established in Spain are all
immediately dependent on their generals residing
in Rome, or in some other part of Christendom;
Of late years, however, the king of Spain has re
quired that each order should have a vicar general
resident at Madrid, or in some other city of his ter
ritory; to whom alone is entrusted the jurisdiction
of the order. The Antonines used to depend on
the abbot general of the order who resided in the
province of Dauphine in France ; but as soon as
the suppression of the order took place in that
kingdom, there was established in Spain a general
and commander for the kingdoms of Castile, An
dalusia,

14 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
dalusia, the Indies, and Portugal. The order of
Carthusians used, in like manner,'to be dependent
on the Chartreuse of Grenoble in France ; but in
the year 1 784 pope Pius VII. by a brief dated
] lth of March erected it into an independent con
gregation; the immediate superior of which is
bound to reside in Spain.
Almost every religious order is to be found in
this country; and the multitude of priests and
monks cannot fail of appearing prodigious to every
stranger who visits Spain. The number is, how
ever, not so great as at first appears, and is even
less in proportion to the population of the coun
try than existed in France before the revolution.
The priests and monks are, in general, concentrated
in the great towns, there being very few in the
country villages. The following tables, drawn up
from the enumeration of the Spanish clergy in 1788,
while that of France was still existing, will afford
a comparative view of the number and situation of
the secular and regular clergy of both countries.
State of the Spanish Clergy.
Archbishops — -r- — 8"
Bishops — — — 44
Auxiliary bishops, in partibus infidelium — 5
Dignitaries of cathedrals — 573 "> fi 7
Canons of cathedrals — 11 24 J 10"' v, Q0238
Dignitaries of collegiate churches 135 7
Canons of ditto — — 576$ '
Parish priests — — " — 16268
Other priests with, or without benefices 4 1 505 J Monks.

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.

15

Monks. sodeties

Benedictines, Bernardines, Hierony-

-]

mites, Carthusians, Basilians
194
5293
Premonstratensians, and regular ca
nons of St. Augustine —
22
366
Theatines, Minorites, Vincentians
47
983
Priests of the military orders —
19
203
Oratorians, Missionaries, Hospitalers.
t
Hermits — —
42
529
Franciscans — —
610
19444 1
4130 f 4923S
Dominicans — —
203
Capuchins — —
115
3433
Greater Augustins — —
146
3210
Greater and lesser Carmelites —
188
4565
Trinitarians — —
91
2168
Mercenaries — —
105
2785
Minims — -^-
75
1208
Servites — —
10
303
Of St. John, or Charity —
53
618.
Nuns.
Benedictines, Bernardines, Hierony
* -
mites — —
105
1750
Franciscans, Clarists, Becolettes
418
9810
Capuchins, Augustins, Trinitarians,
Mercenaries — —
181
4014
Bridgetins — —
6
135
Minims, Servites — —
12
257
Of S t. Francis of Sales —
1
37
> 22347
Of TEnseignance — —
11
377
Of the Holy Sepulchre —
1
24
Of St. Laurence Justinian - —
3
85
Nazarites, Premonstratensians
2
47
Beguines — —
53
458
Of the Military Orders —
41
525
Carmelites — —
103
2024
1
Dominicans — —
144
2904 J
Recapitulation.
'
Monks, of 1925 convents —
_
49238}
Nuns, of 1081 convents —
—
SSf"**
Secular clergy —
—
Ministers of churches —
—
J5834>
State
16

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.

State of the Clergy of France before the Revolution.

Archbishops and bishops — —
Dignitaries and canons of chapters and col
Teges — _ —
Inferior servants'of the, choir — —
Priors and chaplains —
Parish priests — —
Vicars — —
Ecclesiastics in orders, with or without be
nefices — —

Monks.

Chiefs of the orders —
Abbeys of men —
Other established societies
Mendicants ¦ — ¦

Nuns.

Abbeys of women —
Priories of women —
Canoriesses —
Other established societies
Societies without foundation

j 361
11853 j
13000 j '
27000 >24198Q
40000

— ,50000

— 100000.

1 1 20 ..
6l40i 78015
23655 C '
46500 '

10120, 2560 |
600 y 7Q972
64000 '
2692-

Recapitulation.

Secular clergy —
Monks — —
Nuns — —
Inferior ministers of the churches

— 241989^
79972} ^7987V 460078
— 60302 )

The clergy of France, as appears from the above
summary, amounted to one fifty-second, of the
whole population, estimating this latter at about
twenty-five millions ; whereas the clergy of Spain,
if the population of this country be reckoned at
eleven millions, forms no more than one sixty-ninth
of the whole.
The Spanish church is very richly endowed ;
the archbishops and bishops in particular have
princely

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 17
princely revenues. The annual income of the
archbishop of Toledo amounts to twelve millions
of reals (125,000/.). That of the archbishop of
Valencia amounts to 280,000 ducats, and those
of the archiepiscopal provinces of Seville and San-
Jago are still more considerable. The bishop of
Murcia receives annually about two millions 6f
reals (20,833/.). The bishop of Lerida about
93,000 Catalan livres (10,000/.) ; and to the other
bishoprics are attached revenues more or less
considerable. The canonries are not less opulent
in proportion ; those of the see of Toledo amount
•to 100,000 reals, and few have an income of less
than 40,000 reals. The dignitaries of the chapters
are still more richly beneficed than the canons.
Some of the monastic orders also possess, immense
wealth : the Carthusians and Hieroriymites in par
ticular are proprietors of the greatest part of the
districts that they inhabit, and the latter have a
monastery at the Escurial, the revenue of which
amounts ,to 2,800,0000 reals (29,166/.).
The clergy of Spain have not unfrequently been
subjected to reproach for the accumulation of such
great wealth ; nevertheless, the whole of the pro
perty of the Spanish church is inferior to that
which formerly belonged to the French church.
The individuals belonging to the former establish
ment1 were indeed richer than those belonging to
the latter ; but the French clergy being by much
the more numerous, possessed as a body a larger
vol. v. c property

18 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT,
property than the Spanish church. From aa
estimate made in the year 1787, the revenues of
the secular and regular clergy of France amounted
at that time to about 178 millions of livres ; a sum
certainly far beyond that possessed by the church
of Spain. ' Ecclesiastical Tribunals.
The clergy of Spain, both secular and regular*
is not amenable to the secular tribunals either in
civil or criminal cases. It has its own tribunals,
the jurisdiction of which is very ample, extending
in\ certain circumstances even over the laity.
These tribunals take cognizance of many case*
which, in France* have long since been remitted
to the secular tribunals, such as promises of mar
riage, obstacles to the celebration or dissolution of
marriage; accusations of heresy, sacrilege, and
profanation; obstacles to religious vows, testa
mentary legacies for pious purposes, and crimes
committed by ecclesiastical persons.
Each bishop has two jurisdictions, the gracious
and contentious. The first he exercises in person
or by his vicars general ; the latter is exercised only
by his vicars, who,_on such occasions, assume the
office and form of secular judges of the ordinary
tribunals. In each diocese, according to its ex
tent, are several of these tribunals established in
different places. The officers of each tribunal are aa

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 19
an official or vicar * who acts as judge* a fiscal, a
notary, and a principal alguazil, who is charged
with rhe duty of executing the decrees of the court.
The archbishops have, besides their diocesan courts,
a metropolitan tribunal, composed in the same
manner as the others, the busines., of which is to
receive and decide upon all appeals from the courts
of their diocesan bishops.
The papal nuncio resident in Spain has also a
tribunal called the court of the nunciature : this
court is at Madrid ; in it the nuncio, as delegate of
the sovereign pontiff, takes cognizance of all ap
peals from the metropolitan tribunals : he also
watches over the execution of the briefs and bulls
of the pope, provided they have received the
exequatur of the council of Castile. This court
consists of an assessor, six judges, a fiscal, and an
abbreviator, aU of whom are appointed by the king.
Thus the causes that come before the eccles
siastical tribunals may be submitted at the pleasure
of the parties concerned to three degrees of juris
diction ; first to the bishop's cpurt, whence they
jnay be removed by appeal to the metropolitan
court, and, lastly, to that of the nunciature. The
police of each diocese is entrusted entirely to the
-bishop, who has a prison generally within the-<
boundaries of his palace. Over these prisons no
secular authority had ever exercised either juris
diction or inspection till the year 1790, when on
account of certain abuses_that had excited the
c 21 attention

20 ECCLESIASf ICAIi GOVERNMENT.
attention of government, the king ordained that a
minister of the royal audience of Valencia should
pay a visit, every week to the prison of the arch
bishop in that, city. This is the first infringement
on the jurisdiction of the Spariish church that has
hitherto been carried into effect. There are also
certain other tribunals established at Madrid,
which on particular occasions take cognizance of
affairs in which the clergy is concerned.
1. The Royal Council of Orders, which will be
meritioned hereafter in treating of the military
orders. 2. The Real Junta Apostolica, which takes cog
nizance of disputes between the bishops and the
military orders .
3. The Colectoria general de ekpolios y' vacant?}*
which takes cognizance of the revenues of vacant
bishoprics. 4. The Tribunal apostolica y real de la gratia del
excusado. 5. The Colectoria y administration general del
fundo pio beneficial.
6. The Comisdria general de la Santa Cruzadd;
which will be noticed when we come to treat of the'
administration of justice.
7. Another tribunal established for the especial
purpose of watching over the purity of the Christian
faith, is the* Inquisition, a court the name alone of
which excites in most minds the involuntary senti
ment of profound dread. But this tribunal "is no
longer

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 21
longer what it was formerly ; its sentences are at
present dictated, by sentiments of mildness and
peace; the spirit of toleration influences its de
crees ; and those crimes which elsewhere would be
punished by death, are seldom visited by the in
quisition with heavier chastisement than imprison
ment, whipping, or the galleys. This tribunal is
at. present rather an engine of police Jhan subser
vient to ecclesiastical purposes ; it is in the hands
of government, by which its operations are called
forth, directed, and controlled, and by which they
may afterwards be modified or annulled. No
change has taken place in the form and manner of
its proceedings, which are always covered by im
penetrable secrecy, but the objects of its notice are
at present rather political principles .than religious
opinions ; moreover, it seldom acts except in cases
of open and public scandal, and never till after
private notice and advice have been had recourse to
ineffectually.
. ,. It is now more than a century since the people
of Spain have beheld an auto da fe, the last having
taken place in the year 1680, under the reign of
Charles II.
The inquisition was established' in 1480 by
Ferdinand and Isabella. It was received without
difficulty into the provinces composing the king
dom of Castile. The first tribunal was established
at Seville, and others were in 1483 appointed in
Castile and Leon. Granada received one in 15 26,
c 3 but

22 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
but the people of Aragon long refused to be sub
ject to this new authority ; popular tumults broke
forth, and Pedro d'Arhuez, the first inquisitor in
Aragon, was slaughtered at the foot of the high
altar in Saragossa. By dint of perseverance and
authority, it was at length established in this pro
vince in 1 485.
There are at present fifteen tribunals of the in
quisition in the European territory of Spain. Of
these the chief, and that on which all the others
depend, is at Madrid. This supreme tribunal
consists of a president, eight members, a superior
alguazil, and a secretary. The president is no
minated by the king, and is called the grand in
quisitor or inquisitor-general, lhe other courts
of the inquisition are at Granada, Seville, Murcia,
Cordova, San-Jago, Cuenca, Lleren-i, Valencia,
Saragossa, Barcelona, Logrono, Valladolid, Toledo,
and Madrid. Each of these courts is composed of
two or three inquisitors, a fiscal, .a superior
alguazil, and a secretary. All the offices of the
inquisition were formerly filled up by monks, espe
cially of the Dominican order ; but, at present,
they are entirely held by the secular priests, the
superior alguazil excepted, who is generally se
lected from among the inhabitants of the town
where the tribunal is established. To eaeh tri
bunal is appointed a department or district, within
which alone it is allowed to exercise its functions,
and of the various transactions within which it
collect

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 23
¦collects information by means of commissaries
distributed through the different towns under the
name of califcaters of the holy office.
The suppression of the inquisition in its present
reduced state, though upon the whole desirable,
would be a sacrifice rather to the glory than to the
tranquillity of Spain. Its name will always con
tinue to be odious, however its influence may be
diminished, or its constitution modified ; and when
it is once abolished, posterity will place its cruelties
in the number of those pernicious errors which
originate with ignorance, are rendered null by
civilization, and are finally abolished by all wise
governments.. Rights and Jurisdiction of the Pope in Spain.
In Spain, the popes formerly nominated to all
benefices and all ecclesiastical dignities if they be
came vacant in the months of January, February,
April, May, July, August, October, and Novem
ber ; they also nominated at all times, and to all
benefices, the possessors of which happened to die
at Rome ; they had also claims on every benefice
for expectatives, reserves, and indults ; they also
enjoyed the revenues of all consistorial benefices
during their vacancy ; they levied annates and half-
annates on all benefices ; they received fifteenths
cn all benefices attached to universities, colleges,
c 4 seminaries,

24 ECCLESIASTICAL.' GOVERNMENT.
seminaries, ,and hospitals, and all other corpora-**
tions in mortmain •, finally, they gave bulls for all
benefices,' within ecclesiastical patronage, which be
came vacant during any of the eight reserved
months. All these rights were ceded by pope Benedict VI;
for himself and his successors, to Ferdinand VI.
and his successors, in virtue of a concordat dated*
Ilth of January, 1753, and confirmed by a bull
published: in the month of June following.
By other royal decrees and papal briefs issued
posterior to the above concordat, the sovereign
pontiff grants no more bulls for benefices, except for
the consistorial ones, and for those,the nomination
to which he has reserved for himself: it is even for
bidden to any subject of the king of Spain to solicit
either bulls or briefs from the pope relative to ob
jects of ecclesiastical discipline-; -the* only ¦ purpose
for which they are allowed to demand briefs be
ing to dispense with canonical impediments in
order either to engage in marriage, to hold cer
tain benefices, or to enter into holy orders ; and
even this demand must pass through the chamber
of C astile, that the brief may be solicited at Rome
by the agent of the king and of the Spanish nation.
It has sometimes happened, that persons attached
' to ancient usages have thought themselves in need
of a licence from the court of Rome in order to
obtain canonical possession of benefices, to which they

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 25
they have been appointed; but the council has al
ways refused permission for any such application
to the court of Rome;
The Spanish nation recognizes no authority or
jurisdiction of the pope in the temporal concerns
of ecclesiastical benefices. No briefs nor bulls are
received, published, or executed in Spain, unless
they have been examined by the chamber of Cas
tile, and have received its exequatur, or licence.
In consequence of the same concordat, and of
various, briefs and royal edicts founded upon it, the
kingat present nominates not only to those bene
fices, -the patronage of which belongs to the crown,
but also to all the benefices in the patronage of
the church, which become vacant during any of
the eight months formerly reserved by the pope,
as weil as to all those that become vacant in conse
quence of the former incumbents having been pro
moted by the king : the crown also issues licences
to enable those who are nominated to take posses
sion of their preferments. The revenues of con
sistorial benefices during their vacancy go to the
crown, on condition of their being applied to cha
ritable uses* The annates, demi-annates, and quin-
dennes belong to the king, who also has the right
of granting pensions on the archbishoprics and
bishoprics, to the amount of one-third of their
entire revenue. ,
The pope, however, still preserves in Spain two
very important privileges, namely, the supreme ad
ministration

26 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
ministration of the Contentious jurisdiction over all
cases that are brought before the ecclesiastical tri
bunals, and the free and independent nomination
to fifty-two of the best benefices. He exercises
the former by means of his nuncio and the court
of the nunciature, of which we have already
spoken j but this power is greatly moderated and
influenced by the right possessed and exercised by
the king, of nominating all the^ members compos
ing this court. The latter privilege, however, is of
more direct utility to the holy see: the pope, in
the forced renunciation of his rights in favour of
the kings of Spain, has had the address to reserve
in perpetuity the nomination at all times in the
year to fifty-two cathedral dignities, canonries, and
other benefices, distributed one in each diocese,
and perfectly independent of the royal authority.

Nomination to Benefices.
The kings of Spain have long regarded them
selves as the immediate patrons of all the benefices,
dignities, and bishoprics ui their dominions. The
chapters of the cathedrals were indeed in the cus
tom of electing their own bishops, but the crown
had always a preponderating influence over these
elections. In the year 1482 the catholic king ob
tained for himself and his heirs a papal bull,
granting him the power of nomination to all the
bishoprics

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 27
bishoprics in his dominions. The king in conse
quence presented to the pope all the persons no
minated to sees and other consistorial benefices;
while the sovereign pontiff himself nominated
to all the other benefices under ecclesiastical pa
tronage which became vacant during the reserved
months. By the concordat the king continues to
nominate to all the archbishoprics, bishoprics,
and other consistorial benefices, on condition that
the persons so nominated shall procure bulls of
licence from the court of Rome. He nominates
(as has always been the case) to those benefices
which are in the immediate patronage of the
crown. He nominates also to the dignities, ca-
nonicates, prebends, and semi-prebends, both ca
thedral and collegiate, that are in the patronage
of the church, when they become vacant in any of
the eight months formerly reserved by the pope;
but when the vacancy happens in any of the other
four months the right of nomination belongs to
the particular ecclesiastical patrons. The lay pa
trons fill up vacancies under their nomi ation, at
whatever time of the year they happen; for nei
ther the king nor the popes h, ve ever been able
successfully to infringe on their privileges.
The concordat, together with the bulls and
royal decrees that were issued, explanatory, ?nd
in confirmation of it, has established the following
form of nomination to benefices, and has deter
mined the conditions and qualifications of investi ture,

28 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
ture, which latter, however, are inot unfrequently
dispensed jwith in favour of those .candidates, who
are in possession of court influence.
, The ecclesiastical patrons nominate to their bie-
nefices in the four months not reserved by the
pope, as the lay-patrons do to the livings that are
in their gift at any time of the year; neither the
one nor the other being under any obligation to
observe the conditions and formalities about to be
mentioned : they are only required to present their
candidates to the ordinaries, who grant *hem col
lation to the benefices to which they have been
nominated. •The chamber of Castile proposes to the king
the candidates for archbishoprics, bishoprics, and
other consistorial benefices-: it also proposes the
candidates for the benefices under ecclesiastical
patronage when they fall vacant in any of the
eight reserved months. Out of; those who are
proposed the king selects whom he pleases, and
presents all those appointed to consistorial benefices
to the pope, from whom they receive their bulls
of licence: but those appointed to non-consistorial
benefices are empowered to hold them by the
royal authority alone, without the concurrence of
the pope being required.
The king fills up of himself, without the inter
ference of the chamber of Castile, those benefices
that become vacant by the preferment of their in
cumbents to other benefices. All

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 29
All the candidates for vacant benefices are re
quired to transmit a memorial, containing the rea
sons of their claims for preferment, together with
letters of recommendation from their bishops, and
certificates of their birth, their legitimacy, their
age, the place of their residence, the length of time
that they have studied, the examinations that they
have undergone, the degrees that they have attain
ed in the Spanish universities, £heir employments,
and their services; all these documents must be
presented to the secretary of the chamber of Cas
tile in the course of three months, if the, benefice
solicited has been vacated by death; or to the se
cretary of justice in the course of one month, if
the vacancy has happened by promotion.
The only persons eligible to the dignities of the
church are collegial canons, and parish priests of
the first class.
Those eligible to cathedral canonries are arrang
ed in three classes; from each of which the can
didates are chosen in regular succession.
The first class includes the cathedral prebenda
ries and collegial canons of the same diocese, and
the chaplains of the royal palaces ; the second in
cludes such of the parish priests of the same dio
cese and of the ecclesiastical judges as have been
twelve years in the public service; the third in
cludes those professors of universities and directors
of colleges' arid seminaries who have been twelve
years in service. The

$0 ECCLESIASTICAL OOVERNMBNf.
The collegial canonries and the cathedral ane!
collegial prebends and semi-prebends are distributed
to the priests and others occupied in the service of
the cathedrals.
The vacancies in benefices with cute of souls
are filled up in a different manner. A competitory
examination is held, after which the ordinaries or
ecclesiastical patrons propose the candidates to the
king, who nominates and gives the appointment
accordingly. All those possessed of benefices, or of pensions
on the revenue of benefices, pay an impost which
is hereafter described.
Impost on the Clergy of Spain*
If the number of individuals composing the
Spanish clergy, and the amount of the revenue en
joyed by them be compared with those of the cler
gy of France before the revolution, it will be
found that the subsidies granted by this latter body
were much less considerable than the contributions
of the Spanish clergy. That the impost appeared
more considerable was the fault of the French
clergy ; for whenever a voluntary gift was required
of them, the sum demanded was raised by a loan;
thus a considerable debt was accumulated, the in
terest of which continually increasing, became a
heavy tax, especially on the lower orders of the
ecclesiastical body. The

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 31
The imposts levied on the Spanish clergy are:
1. The Mezada, or one months income on all
benefices, to which the king nominates, and the
income of which is less than 300 ducats per an
num. This tax is paid by the incumbent at the
time of his presentation to the living, and produces
on an average an annual revenue of 215,400 reals,
(2,28o7. *Ss.)
2. A similar tax on those appointed to ec
clesiastical pensions of less than 300 ducats; by
which is raised annually about 50,000 reals
(520/. 16s. Sd.y
3. The Media annata, or six months income
payable by the new incumbent on receiving his ap
pointment to any living of a greater annual value
than 300 ducats in the patronage of the king. It
produces on an average about 1,360,000 reals
(14,166/. \3s. Ad.) per annum.
4. A similar tax on those appointed to ecclesi
astical pensions exceeding 300 ducats, producing
about 960,000 reals (10,000/,).
5. The Quindennes, or six pionths income, pay.
able once every fifteen years on all benefices at
tached to corporations in mortmain.
6. The Espolibs y vacantes, or the revenue of qll
ecclesiastical offices, from the highest to the low
est, in the patronage of the king, or the church,
during their vacancy.
7. The Tempor alidades, or the revenues of sup
pressed religious orders, such as the Jesuits, the
Antonines,

32 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
Antonines, &c. I have not been able to learn the
amount of this or of the two preceding impost^
8. Every cathedral and collegial benefice, toge
ther with all others (except benefices with cure of
souls), the income of which amounts to 600 du.
cats, pays to the king annually one-third of the
clear revenue, amounting in the whole to about
16,800,000 reals (175,000/.).
9. A similar tax to the preceding (and with like
i exceptions) is levied on benefices, the income of
which is between 300 and 600 ducats, amounting
in the whole to about 248,000 reals (2,583/. 6s. 84.).
10. The Benevolence, or voluntary gift.
1 ] . The Escusado.
12. The Subsidio or Casa demera. , A tythe on
every parish, granted by the popes to the king of
Spain. This, however, is regulated by a modus,
and, in consequence, produces much less than its
real amount.
These three imposts produce, on an average,
about 15,000,000 reals (156,250/.).
13. The tercias reales; a tax of two-ninthsof all
ecclesiastical tythes. It is collected in kind, but\
from mal-administration scarcely produces more
than 6,000,000 reals (62,500/. \
14. The king may legally dispose of one-third
of the income of all archbishoprics and bishop
rics, but this right is exercised with great moder
ation. Its amount is not drawn out in one gross
sum, but pensions and sums destined for objects of

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 3i
of public utility are assigned on the revenues of
the various sees, but hardly ever amounting to one-
fourth of their income.
15. The pensions assigned to the members of the
order of Charles III. are paid by the clergy both of
Old Spain and the colonies : the sum levied on the
former amounts to 1,400,000 reals (14,583/. 6s.8d.)
raised according to the following proportions :
By the order of San Jago — — 428,01 1
 Calatrava — — 303,845
 Alcantara — — 200,173
 ¦  Montesa — — 6,7971
By the archbishoprics and bishoprics 200,000
By the dignities, canonries, and abbacies 200,000
1,400,000
Thus the imposts peculiarly payable by the clergy
of Spain amount annually to about 42,033,400
reals'( 437,840/. 18 j. 2</.), exclusive of the quin-
dennes, the espolios y vacantes, the temporalidades,
and the thirds of the revenue of the archbishoprics
and bishoprics.
The clergy are also liable, but in a small pro
portion, to the millones ; a tax levied on the inha
bitants of Spain in general.
These imposts are collected in virtue of, differ
ent concessions made by the sovereign pontiffs to
the kings of Spain; among the rest by the Con
cordat, which has been already mentioned, and
subsequently by a brief of Clement XIV., dated
vol.v. n 21 Feb.

34 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
21 Feb. 1772. The payment of the pensions of
the order of Charles III. was ordered by a brief of
Pius VI., dated 14 March, 1780; and the sub-
sidio was granted by a brief of Pius V. in 1561.

General Observations on the Spanish Clergy.
We have already stated that the Spanish clergy,
in proportion to the population of the country, is
less numerous than was the clergy of France prior
to the revolution; that even their wealth is less
considerable, but better administered; and that
their contribution to the public 'revenue is much
greater : it only remains to say a few words on the
general conduct of the Spanish church, and its in
fluence on the state. After all the perverted and
malicious induftry that has been exerted in the ex
amination of this question, the result has turned
out highly favourable to the superior orders of the
Spanish clergy, who are, for the most part, exempt
from those irregularities which are charged (not
altogether without reason) on the clergy of other
countries. The conspicuous situations in the Spa
nish church are by no means considered as the
patrimouy of the rich and noble, but as the well
merited reward of irreproachable conduct. What
ever may be the rank of an ecclesiastic in the sa
cerdotal hierarchy, he never habitually absents
Ijjimself from his proper place of residence, where he

ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT. 35
be expends the revenue of his benefice in alms or
public works. From the period of the reconquest
of Spain from the Moors, most of the public esta
blishments owe their foundation to the clergy, by
whom also whole towns have been rebuilt and rais
ed from their ruins. The most beautiful aque
ducts, fountains, and public walks in the cities
have been constructed at the expence of their bi
shops ; from them also the poor have received the
most effectual relief in times of scarcity, epidemic
disease^ and war. The bishop of Orense convert
ed his episcopal palace into an alms-house,' where
were lodged and supported 300 French ecclesias
tics, condemned to transportation during the furies
of the revolution : the prelate himself took his
place at their table, and refused to partake of any
indulgence that he could not also procure for his
guests. _ Cardinal Orenzana, archbishop of Toledo,
converted the alcazar of that city (formerly a pa
lace of the Gothic kings) into an establishment
wherein are received two hundred children, and
seven hundred poor persons of all ages. The bi
shop of Cordova, during the scarcity of 1804, and
for a long time afterwards, made a daily distribu
tion of tw.elve hundred rations of bread to the
poor inhabitants of his diocese. The aqueduct
which conveys water to the city of Tarragona is
the work of their archbishop, who has thus con
ferred upon the place the inappreciable benefits of
cleanliness and health; to both of which it was long
»2 a stranger.

36 ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNMENT.
a stranger. Similar instances of public spirit may
be found in almost every diocese.
With regard to the religious orders, their con
duct is certainly less exemplary, though by no
means meriting the reproaches that have been so
liberally cast upon them: the reforms that have
taken place, at various periods have stopped the
progress of the abuses introduced by length of
time; and as the numbers of the monks have di
minished, their pernicious influence on public opi
nion has proportionably declined. Some progress
has been made in the desirable policy of unjting
the different orders of the same rule into a single
order; and from the present prohibition to receive
novices it is probable that several orders are about
to be totally suppressed.

CHAP.

( 37 )

CHAP. II.
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
Inferior Tribunals.
Every city, town, and village, has either a
corregidor, a superior alcalde, or a simple alcalde,
nominated by the king in those places which are
immediately dependent on him as their feudal
lord, and in other places by the particular eccle
siastical or secular lord of the territory. These
Officers are charged with the superintendance of
the police in the places where they reside, and are
the official presidents of the municipal body.
The corregidor s and superior alcaldes have a
district of greater or less extent, in which they
exercise their jurisdiction, and from which appeals
lie only to the audiences, the chancery, and the
council of Castile.
The simple alcaldes watch over the police of the
subdivisions of the preceding districts, and are
subordinate to the jurisdiction of the corregidor or
superior alcalde. i
There are two kinds of corregidors; the first are
gentlemen of good family, styled de capa y espada
of the robe and sword, the second are lawyers.
D3 The

38 ADMINISTRATION OE JUSTICE.
, The former reside in the principal cities of the
monarchy, and are entrusted with the government
of the cities, with the superior branches of the
police^ and not unfrequently with the command of
the military force ; also with the immediate execu
tion of the orders of ..the court, tlie regulation of
the markets, and the price of commodities, and
with all that relates to the billeting and expediting
the march of troops. They determine, without
expence, and in a summary manner, causes of
little importance, and occasionally pronounce sen
tence in suits of law, but, in the latter case, their
judgments are not definitive, unless they have
received the sanction of the superior alcalde of the
district ; to this latter officer, indeed, it belongs to
pronounce sentence on all suits of law, whether
civil or criminal, that occur in the district where
he presides. In all those* cities which are, at the
same time, the centre of a corregidorate, and the
residence of a military governor, the two offices
are blended into one, and the administration of
justice is committed to the superior alcalde. The
second class of corregidors, as has been already
mentioned, is composed of lawyers. . To them is
committed the jurisdiction of those towns of in
ferior consequence where there is no superior
alcalde ; in consequence, these magistrates in their
small districts exercise the office both of corregidor
and alcalde. In some places, on the other hand,
there is no corregidor, but only a superior alcalde, in

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 39
in whom, as in the former case, the offices of cor
regidor and alcalde are united.
The business of the simple alcaldes is to'regulat6
the police of the villages and small towns in which
they are established, and to pronounce summary
and gratuitous judgment in such cases of trivial
moment as occur. In some places in Catalonia
these officers are called bailies. The simple
alcaldes are further charged with the pursuit and
arrestation of robbers, vagabonds, and malefactors
in general : sometimes they perform this duty in
person, but most commonly commit it to the
superior alguazil, to whom this department of
police is especially entrusted. The superior
alguazils carry a cane in their hands and a sword
by their sides ; a mark of office and dignity that in
Spain is allowed to no others except alcaldes,-
physicians, staff officers in the army, and judges of
the supreme courts. When the alcaldes appear in
public they are preceded by one or two subaltern
officers called ministers, carrying a long wand in
their hands and a sword by their sides.
The corregidors and superior alcaldes are di
vided into three classes ; the lowest comprehends
those whose annual appointments do not exceed
1000 ducats, the next includes those who have
2000 ducats, and the highest includes those whose
pay exceeds the hst mentioned sum. It is neces
sary to have served six years in each of the lower
classes before a man can ' be appointed to the
D 4 highest,

4,0 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
highest, the members of which are successively
promoted to the audiences, or chancery. The
conditions requisite "for entering the lowest class
are, having been born in lawful wedlock, having,
studied for six years in a university, and having
practised at the bar for four years. The advocates
of the college of Madrid, and of those audiences
and chancery courts where there are colleges, may
be promoted to the second class without passing
through the 'first, but they are required to prove
a six years service in these courts, exclusive of six
years study at the university, and four years
practice at the bar.
The corregidors and superior alcaldes cannot be
appointed to those districts in which they have
been born or have resided. They are all nomi
nated by the king, on the presentation of the
chamber of Castile, and this council is obliged by
law to present for promotion from the lower to
the higher, ranks those who stand by seniority at
the head of their respective classes, unless an
adequate reason can be assigned for departing from
the rule : here, however, as in other cases, court
interest supersedes the strict execution of the law.
The corregidors and superior alcaldes take cog
nizance of all civil and criminal causes of whatso
ever nature they may be, and without distinction
of persons, except where the public finances are
concerned, or the clergy, the military, and other
privileged orders. The appeals from their deci
sions

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 4l
sions are carried to that court of audience or of
chancery within the immediate district of which
they are situated. Superior Tribunals.
The audiences, or royal audiences, are superior
tribunals distributed through the provinces, and
composed of a greater or smaller number of judges.
In the continent of Spain are seven audiences ;
namely, that of Galicia in the city of Corunna ;
that of Seville in the city of the same name ; that
of Asturias at Oviedo; that of Aragon at Sara
gossa ; that of Valencia in the city of the same
name ; that of Catalonia at Barcelona ; and that of
Estremadura at Cacerez. Each audience has a
particular circuit within which it exercises its juris
diction, and these, together with the provinces of
the two chanceries of Valladolid and Granada,
and of the royal council of Navarre, include the
whole European territory of Spain.
Each audience has a regent, who is the regular
president of such as are established in cities where
there is no captain-general ; but where there is
this military officer, the regent is president only
during his occasional absence.
The audiences of Seville, Corunna, Saragossar
Valencia, and Barcelona, are each subdivided into
three chambers, two of which are for the deter-'
mination of civil, and the other of criminal causes. Each

42 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
Each chamber is composed of four judges (except:
in the audience of Barcelona, each chamber of
which is composed of five judges). In the first
chamber the regent presides, in the third, or cri
minal court, one of the judges is. president with
the. title of governor. Each of these audiences
has two fiscals or secretaries, and a superior
alguazil. The audience of Seville has also three
chambers of four judges each, but the third cham
ber has only a single fiscal. That of Oviedo has
Only one chamber, composed of a regent, four
judges, a fiscal, and superior alguazil. •
These; tribunals take cognizance of all matters
of police and of appeals from the sentences or
judgments of the corregidors, superior alcaldes,
and all the other unprivileged lower tribunals. In
civil causes their determination is absolute when
the object of litigation does not exceed 10,000
maravedies(3/. 0s. ?id.), but in causes that involve a
larger sum an appeal lies to one of the chanceries
or to the council of Castile. A second applica
tion may also be made to the audience court
which pronounced the first decree, on a plea of
error. In criminal cases their sentence is without'
appeal. The audience of Seville receives appeals
not only from the courts of its own province, but
even from the audience of the Canary Islands,
when the matter iri question is capital punishment,
or a property of greater value than 30,000 mara.
vedies. The audiences of Saragossa, Barcelona; and

ADMINISTRATION Ol' JUSTICE. 43
and Valencia, communicate in certain cases imme
diately with the council of Castile.
The chanceries are courts of a higher order than
the audiences ; and of these there are only two,
namely, at Valladolid in Old Castile, and at
Granada in the kingdom of the same name. The
first is the most ancient : it was formerly esta
blished at Medina del Campo in the kingdom of
Leon ; the latter, formerly established at Ciudad
Real, was transferred, in the year 1494, to Gra
nada. That of Valladolid comprehends within its
jurisdiction all Spain lying beyond the right bank
of the Tagus ; that of Granada includes the coun
try beyond the left bank of the same river.
Each of these chanceries has a president with
the title of illustrissime, and is divided into six salas
or chambers, four for civil, and two for criminal
affairs ; these last have also the decision of all cases
relative to the acknowledgment, support, and de
claration of nobility, and the maintenance of the
privileges of this illustrious body. The members
of the four first chambers are called auditors, and
those of the two last are named alcaldes del frimen.
There are four members- in each chamber, besides
a president of the whole body with the title of
governor. Each of the two chanceries has two fiscals, a su
perior alguazil, two advocates, and a solicitor for
poor clients, two receivers, and a great number of
secretaries. The chancery of Valladolid has also
a grand

44 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
a grand judge of Biscay for the special conserva
tion of the privileges of that lordship.
These two tribunals take cognizance in the first
place of all civil and criminal causes that occur
within five leagues of the cities wherein they are
established ; also of all causes in which the royal
household is concerned, or in which the corre
gidors, superior alcaldes, and other officers of
justice are personally interested as plaintiffs or de
fendants; also of all questions relative to the pri
vileges of the nobles, and the recognition and
maintenance of nobility : they also receive appeals
from decisions made by the courts of audience.
An appeal lies from the sentence of these two
courts, first by a demand of revision, on the plea
of error, to the court itself which pronounced the
sentence ; and afterwards by a petition presented
within twenty days to the king, provided the ob
ject of appeal is a civil suit involving property to
the amount of 3000 gold doubloons (10,000/.)
and upwards. The king refers the final decision
to the council of Castile, upon which the plaintiff
deposits the sum of 1500 pistoles (223/. Qs. 2rf.)
which, if he loses the cause, is forfeited and distri
buted in the following proportions, viz. one-third
to the crown, one-third to the superior judges of
the court, and the remainder to the defendant.
The kingdom of Navarre having retained a con
siderable portion of its ancient privileges possesses-
a royal council, which judges, definitively without;
allowing

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 45
allowing further appeal to any of the audiences or
to either of the chanceries, lt holds its sittings at
Pampeluna, and has for president the viceroy, and
in his absence a regent. It is divided into two
chambers . the first consisting of six auditors, and
the second of four alcaldes : there are also at
tached to it a fiscal, and several secretaries and
alguazils. It takes cognizance by appeal of all
civil and criminal causes in the subordinate courts,
and, in concurrence with the viceroy, watches over
the internal police and peculiar, privileges of the
kingdom of Navarre.
Navarre is also the only province of Spain that
possesses a chamber of account. This chamber
takes cognizance of the royal domains and public
finances within the limits of the province. It is
composed of a president who must be a lawyer,
of three counsellors, of a steward of the royal
domains, and of a treasurer.

Council of Castile.
The royal and supreme council of Castile,
commonly called the council of Castile, holds its
sittings at Madrid. It is regarded both as the
supreme judicial tribunal of the state, and the
privy > council of the sovereign. At present we
shall consider it only under the first of these cha
racters : it was instituted in the year 1245 by the
king

46 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
king; Saint Ferdinand. Its president has the title
of president of the council, or president of Cas
tile : his power is very extensive, and has often/
served as a counterpoise to the royal authority.
This high office, when occupied, is usually pos
sessed by a grandee of Spain, but of late years it
has generally remained vacant ; in which case one
of the members of the council itself performs the
functions of president, with the title of governor.
The council, when complete, consists of a pre
sident, a governor, twenty-nine counsellors, and
three iiscals, besides reporters, secretaries, keepers'
of the seal, porters, alguazils, and receivers. In
all petitions presented to it it is addressed by the
title of highness, and in all memorials by that of
majesty. It meets every Friday in the chamber of
the king, to communicate to him the state of the
nation, and during this interview the members are
seated and covered. All sentences pronounced
by the superior tribunals may be brought for re
vision to the council of Castile, on which account
it is divided into five chambers or committees.
Of these chambers two are called, de gobierno,
or of government ; one de mil y quimentos, or of
fifteen hundred ; one of justice; and one of the pro- *
vinces. The two chambers of government are com
posed, one of twelve and the other of four coun- -
sellers, and take cognizance of disputes arising ;
out of the exercise of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 47
and of those courts to which are entrusted the
care of the forests, plantations, roads, bridges, and
embankments : they also decide upon all questions
relative to the management of the public, revenue,
on all appeals from the audiences of Seville and
Valencia, and of those occurring in Madrid itself,
or within a circuit of five leagues beyond the city,
which it is not thought proper to refer to the
courts of chancery. From this chamber also
issue all permissions to break up uncultivated,
common, or emparked land. It also receives the
oaths of the judges of the other jurisdictions.
The cliamber of fifteen hundred, established in
the year 1390, is composed of five counsellors. It
takes cognizance of the municipal imposts of Ma
drid, of the decrees and sentences of the mayorazgos
and 'feudal lords ; of the privileges of the Mesta,
and of appeals from the court of that name ; also
of appeals from the judge of the receivers of the
taxes, and from the judge to whom is committed
the protection of the hospitals. This chamber
besides, in conjunction with those of justice and
of the provinces, decides finally on 'all cases of
reversion to the crdwn, and on those suits which
require the deposit of fifteen hundred pistoles ;
from which latter circumstance, indeed, it has
acquired Us name.
The chamber of justice is composed of four coun
sellors, and takes cognizance of appeals from the
provinces under the crown of Aragon, and from the

48 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
the judges of commission ; that is, those members
of the council who act in virtue of a special com
mission from the king. It also takes cognizance
of licences and approbations granted by the synods
and the licencers of literary works, of disputes
relative to the examinations and retention of the
bulls and briefs of the court of Rome ; of differ
ences between the ordinary courts and those of
the rights of pasturage possessed by certain towns.
In certain cases, as already mentioned, it acts in
conjunction with the chamber of fifteen hundred.
The ehamber of the provinces, composed of four
counsellors, takes cognizance by appeal of the
sentences of the provincial alcaldes, and of cases in
which the judges of the other courts differ among
themselves ; it grants auxiliaries or licences for
the execution of sentences by the alcaldes of the
royal household, and by the corregidor of Madrid
and his lieutenants when they are to be carried
into effect in the provinces. On certain occasions
also, as already mentioned, it acts in conjunction
with the two preceding chambers.

Tribunals of Exception.
The tribunals of exception, that is, such as with
draw persons and property from the jurisdiction
of the ordinary tribunals, are so very numerous in
Spain, that nearly half the kingdom, at least half the

AXfltflNISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 49
the business of the kingdom, is independent of
the ordinary judges.
The various ecclesiastical tribunals, of which we
have already spoken in the preceding chapter,
take cognizance of all causes in which either the
secular or regular clergy are concerned, and of
many lay transactions which in other countries are
submitted to the civil tribunals.
The fifteen courts of the inquisition judge not only
those causes in which the interests of religion are
concerned, but also all those suits in which any
individual in the employ of these courts is en
gaged. The Comisaria general de la Cruzada, established
in the year 1525, takes cognizance of appeals
from the six sub-delegates, of disputes relative to
the Crusada and the Escuzado ; also of all property
without owners, and of successions in cases of in
testacy. This court is composed of a commissary
general, two assessors, a treasurer-general, a
fiscal, and a secretary.
The Court of general superintendence of rural af
fairs and of successions in cases of intestacy takes
cognizance of those cases indicated by its name.
It is composed of a superintendant-general, a sub-
delegate judge, a fiscal, and a treasurer-general.
The Court of Prato Medica takes cognizance of
affairs relative to medical, surgical, and pharma
ceutical police, and will be more particularly de-
vol, v. e scribed

50 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE."
scribed when we come to treat of the state of
medical science in Spain.
The military courts take cognizance of cases
in which the armed force of the country is con
cerned, and are several in number, namely, the
particular tribunal of each of the four companies
of body guards of the king, that of the regiment
of Spanish guards, and of the regiment of Wal
loon guards; also the courts of the secretaries at
war of the army and of the navy, and of the su
preme council of war. All these will be treated
of more at large in the chapter relating to the
administration ©f the army.
The Court of the Mesta superintends the police
of the flocks of sheep, and has been already no
ticed in the chapter on the rural economy of Spain.
The Court of the military orders determines all
cases relating to these public bodies, and will be
more particularly mentioned hereafter.
The Real Junta de faculdades de viudedades is
composed of three, members of the council of Cas
tile, and takes cognizance of the settlements made
by the possessors of mayorazgos on their husbands
or wives on or after marriage.
The Court of general direction and superintendence
of couriers, posts, inns, roads, and canals, takes
cognizance of all cases in which the establishments
mentioned in its title are concerned. It consists
of a superintendant-general, four directors-general, two

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 51
two treasurers-general, an assessor, and a fiscal, of
which the two latter alone are lawyers.
The royal and supreme court of appeal of couriers,
posts, inns, roads, and canals, receives appeals
from the decisions of the preceding court; it is
composed of a president, nine members, a secre
tary, an accountant-general, and two fiscals.
The Real Junta de Caballeria, established by
Philip IV. in the year 1659, watches over-the pre
servation and multiplication of the celebrated races
of Spanish horses, particularly those of Andalusia
and Estremadura.
Hie Real Junta de Obras y basques, established
by Charles I. in the year 1545, superintends the
keeping up and increase of the forests, fisheries,
chases, parks, and palaces of the king. It also
u recommends to his majesty fit persons to fill up
the situations and employs in the above depart
ments, and regulates the royal donations of wood,
barley, and wheat. It is composed of the chief
mayor domo, grand equerry, grand huntsman,
and grand falconer, of the presidents of the council
jof Castile and of finances, of two counsellors of
the chamber of Castile, of an alcalde, a fiscal, a
secretary, an accountant, and an alguazil.
The court of Alcaldes de Corte, or of the royal
household, is one of the most ancient judicial esta
blishments in Spain ; mention is made of it in
the reign of Alphonso the Wise in the 1 3th cen-
jnry, at which time it took cognizance of all civil
e 2 and.

52 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
and criminal causes relating to the court and the
city in which the king resided. It consists at pre
sent of twelve judges or alcaldes presided over by
a governor, and divided into two chambers. The
inferior officers attached to it are a fiscal* two re?
porters, four criminal secretaries, and twelve civil
ones, called also provincial. To it is intrusted the
police of the capital, which is divided into as many
wards as there are alcaldes, so that each judge has
his peculiar district. It takes cognizance of all
the civil and criminal causes df Madrid and rhe
environs to the distance of five leagues : its sen
tence in criminal causes is final, but in civil pises
an appeal lies to a committee of the same court
assisted by the president of the council of Castile;
the jurisdiction of this court also extends over
every place in which the king and his household
are actually residing. There is attached to it a
considerable number of alguazils, to whom are
committed the execution of its orders and the su
perintendence of the police. The dress of these
alguazils is remarkable, consisting of an enormous
white peruke, a black cloak, a long sword by the
side, a great staff in the hand, and a small three-
cornered hat on the head : they are feared and
hated by the people, who are always ready to dp
them an ill turn when they can with safety.
There are also four courts of exception relative to
particular branches of the royal revenue. The
Real Junta de Tabaco enquires into frauds com
mitted

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 53
mitted in this particular branch of the excise.
The Real Junta de la unica contribucion takes charge
of the distribution of new taxes and imposts in
proportion to the property and means , of the peo
ple. The Tribunal de la contaduria mayor examines
the accounts of the treasurers, receivers, admini
strators, and farmers of the royal revenue. Most
affairs of trade and commerce are also submitted
to tribunals of exception, the number of which is
considerable. The Real Junta de comercio, moneda y~
minas was established in the year 1679, and was
united in 1730 with the tribunal, to which was
committed the care of the circulating specie of the
kingdom. It is composed of members of the
councils of Castile and of finances, and takes cog
nizance of all objects of commerce and suits re
lating to them ; also of appeals from the sentences
of the lieutenants of the corregidor of Madrid in all
suits that concern the gremios or incorporated mer
cantile companies of that city ; also of appeals from
sentences pronounced by the superintendant'of the
mint or his subdelegates in civil and criminal causes,
wherein are concerned the workers in gold and
silver, or those employed in the royal mint.
Besides the above tribunal, there are the Con-
sulates established in the principal commercial towns
of Spain, and composed of a few judges with a pre
sident, who bears the title of prior. These courts
take cognizance of disputes between the buyer and
seller of mercantile produce, and decide summarily
e 3 without

54 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
without the intervention of either attorney or ad
vocate: an appeal, however, lies from their deci
sions to the judge of the Alzades. This latter
court is composed of three judges, all of them
merchants, and takes cognizance of appeals from
the consular courts ; its decisions are final except
in a few cases, which are referred to the Council of
the Indies.
The royal and supreme council of the Indies, be
sides the jurisdiction from which it specially takes
its name, takes cognizance of cases connected with
the rights and privileges of the Exchange of Se
ville, and receives petitions of appeal from the sen
tences of the consuls and the judges of the Al
zades. Another tribunal called the royal audience of
contracts of the Indies, was established at Seville in
1503, and afterwards was transferred to Cadiz in
1717. It was composed of a president, three
judges, a fiscal, a contador, and two depositaries :
it took cognizance of commercial disputes between
tradesmen, and its decisions were final in cases
where the sum litigated did not exceed 6000 ma-
ravedies; where larger sums were concerned an
appeal lay to the Supreme Council of the Indies.
But this court has for some time past been sup
pressed.

Situation

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 55

Situation of the Magistracy in Spain.
In Spain, all those who are connected with the ad
ministration of justice are regarded with much de
ference and respect. The iowest corregidors enjoy
the highest rank in the places where they exercise
their authority. If the town is not of sufficient
importance to have a governor or court of audi
ence, the corregidor unites in his own person al
most the whole civil authority; being at the same
time president of the municipal police and the ju
dicial court : hence it is a situation eagerly accepted
by persons of rank.
The members of the audiences and the chance
ries enjoy a higher degree of respect, which is still
more marked towards the members of the council
of Castile, and especially towards those few indi
viduals that constitute the Chamber of Castile. This
line of promotion rarely indeed leads to great
wealth, but is the regular introduction to the titles
of count and marquis, and sometimes even to that
of grandee and minister of state.
Laws of Spain.
The common law of Spain has, in the course
of ages, undergone various modifications. The
e 4 Roman

56 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
Romans, when they had conquered the country,
introduced into it their system of laws, which after
wards was abrogated by the Goths; who, how
ever, allowed the natives of the country that they
had subdued to retain their ancient ordinances, a
permission which preserved some relics of the
Roman law.
The Gothic laws consisted of a few occasional
decrees published at various times by the sovereign;
but, being for the most part traditional, they were
but little known and less regarded. Euric, who
commenced his reign in 467, and died in 483,
made a compilation of them, to which he added
some new ones, and for the first time formed them
into a system. But this first code of Spanish law
related almost wholly to the Gothic conquerors of
the country. Alaric, successor of Euric, pub
lished a system of laws for the use of the native
inhabitants on the 3d Feb. 506. This new system,
which was, in the main, an abridgement of the
Theodosian code, and has been successively aug
mented by new laws, at present constitutes what is
called el Fuero juzgo, and is still in force in parti
cular provinces.
On the conquest of Spain by the Saracens the
laws of the country were entirely abolished ; and,
as the reconquest was effected at various times and
by different princes, the various and small kingdoms
into which the country was subdivided when it
was

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 5J
was first recovered to Christendom were governed
by very different systems of laws.
Navarre, governed by its own kings, formed a
code of laws, the authority of which is still recog
nised in that province.
Biscay had retained the Gothic laws, but, in the
year 1 3 94, the states of that country superseded
them by a new code, which was approved and con
firmed in 1493 by queen Isabella : another change
took place in the year 1526, when anew code was
framed by the joint labours of several eminent
lawyers. Catalonia, on its conquest by the French, adopted
the Gothic laws, to which were added a few intro
duced by its conquerors. These laws being, in a
course of years, altered or forgotten, had fallen
into desuetude, when Raymond Berenger III. count
of Barcelona, made a collection in 1068 of the
usages and customs of the province : to these he
gave the force of laws, and there were added, at
various times, such edicts proposed by the sovereign
as had been adopted by the states. The entire
collection forms a code which is at present in force,
and is called the Constitutions of Catalonia, being a
mixture of Roman and Gothic law, and of the
ancient institutions of the southern provinces of
France. In Aragon the states of Sobrarbia had already,
by the middle of the ninth century, compiled a
code under the title of Fueros for the use of the
small

58 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
jSmall kingdom in which they originated. After*
wards, as the boundaries of this state were gra
dually increased by conquests over the neighbour
ing Moors, each district and almost each town had
^ts own laws, usages, and customs, which not only
differed from, but were often contradictory to
those of other districts in the same kingdom,
whence resulted great confusion. In order to
remedy this disorder, the states of Aragon assem
bled in 1248 at Huesca, compiled from the existing
laws a code for the common use of the kingdom,
which is still in force, and consists of a mixture of
Gothic and Roman law, with some peculiar and
local statutes.
The kingdom of Leon followed the Gothic law,
which was first established there by king Bermudo
in 982; in order, however, to supply the deficiences
of this code, he gave the authority of law, even in
civil affairs, to the canons of the ecclesiastical
councils. This system was altered by king Al-
phonso V. who, in the beginning of the eleventh
century, undertook the task of legislating for this
kingdom, at the same time that count Sanchez was
similarly employed for Castile. The labours of
both these illustrious princes were confirmed by
the states assembled at Coyanza in 1050, after the
union of the two crowns. Both these codes were
founded upon the ancient Gothic law to the ex
clusion of every other ; and so great was the gene
ral anxiety to prevent the intrusion of the Roman law,

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. $$
law, that it was ordained if any pleader cited this
latter as an authority, he should be fined and com
pelled to make an apology. The observance,
however, of these laws fell gradually into neglect,
so that king Saint Ferdinand undertook to form a
new code: for this purpose he assembled the ablest
lawyers of his state, and charged them to collect
and examine the ancient laws, and make such
changes in them as the times, circumstances, and
equity might require. This important labour was
not completed till towards the end of the reign of
Alphonso the Wise, his son and successor: it was
published in the year 1279, and confirmed to the
sovereign the title of Legislator, which he had al
ready merited by establishing the municipal go
vernment of his states under the same form as it
exists at present. This code, known by the name
of Ley de las siete partidas,is still in vigour, and is
a compound of Gothic, Roman, and canonical law.
: The catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella,
established some new laws under the title of Orde-
namiento real. They moreover ordered the con
struction of a new code, which, after engaging for
twenty-five years the attention of those employed
about it, was published in 1505 (after the death of
Isabella), by the states of Castile assembled at
Toro, and became the established code of Castile. '
The laws, which for a long time varied greatly in
the different states of the Spanish monarchy, are at
present reduced to a considerable degree of uni
formity.

60 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICli. (
formity. Navarre and Biscay have retained their
ancient laws and constitution; but the revolution,
which took place in Spain at the beginning of the
eighteenth century, enabled Philip V. to introduce
into Catalonia and the kingdoms of Aragon and
Valencia the laws of Castile, which, excepting a
few alterations, rendered necessary by local pecu
liarities, still continue in full effect.
The laws of Castile, which are thus become
those of almost all Spain, are contained in the
codes known by the titles of Fuerojuzgo, Ley de las
siete partidas, Ordenamiento real, Fuero real, and Re-
copilacion: of these the latter is a collection of oc
casional edicts of the kings of Spain, and enjoys
the highest authority.
The Roman law has no validity in Spain, and
though it may be studied by a few lawyers, as con
taining first principles universally applicable, yet
it is never quoted in the courts, and is expressly
excepted against by some of the old laws of Cas
tile, as we have already mentioned.
The conducting a lawsuit 1n Spain is subject to ,
very complicated forms; whence necessarily results
a slowness of progress extremely prejudicial to the
interest of the suitors, and the establishment of
truth : the whole business is carried on by writers,
a branch of the legal profession, which will be de-
scibed more at large hereafter.
In the superior tribunals the management of
causes is, in like manner, committed to a kind of
subaltern

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 61
Subaltern magistrates, called reporters, relatores,
who contrive to render their own department a
situation of much greater emolument than that of
the judge.

Remarks on the Organization of the Spanish Tribu
nals, and the Forms of legal Process.
In all the branches of civil, military, ecclesiasti
cal, and judicial administration in Spain is evident
a spirit of mildness and paternal indulgence, which
often degenerates into great abuse. By multiply
ing courts for the administration of justice, and by
establishing the long series of appeals from juris
diction to jurisdiction, in order that each case may
be heard and reheard, and receive an equitable
sentence, the still more important advantages of
prompt decision are sacrificed, and a wide door is
opened for chicane. So obvious and pressing is
indeed this grievance, that many of the most judi
cious and best informed among the Spaniards
themselves have not hesitated to publish very freely
their sentiments on this occasion.
It is universally acknowledged that the courts
of exception are far too numerous : they enfeeble
the authority of the established judges, and with
draw a number of individuals from the superin-
jtendance of magistrates who reside amongst them, and

62 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
and are readily accessible, to consign them to the
care of distant and dilatory tribunals. The govern
ment itself has at length become so sensible of these
inconveniences as to have taken measures# for the
suppression of some of these courts; but all re
form of this kind must necessarily takfe place with
extreme tardiness, and the active opposition of in
terested individuals or- corporations has too. often
been able to oppose invincible obstacles to a go
vernment of so little energy as that of Spain.
A considerable degree of jealousy and opposition
also subsists between many of the tribunals ; hence
they mutually weaken each other's authority, and
hence also the clients are consigned over from
court to court, so that lawsuits become intolerably
protracted, and a family is held in suspense for
two or three generations. The consequence of
this is, that the rich wear out and fatigue those of
inferior fortune.
Even the ordinary and regular forms of civil
process are slow and complicated, and destructive
of the time of those concerned to a very serious
degree; the husbandman is called off from his til
lage, the merchant from his commerce, the handi-?
craft from his labour, and all of them from their
domestic concerns. Nearly an equal tardiness
takes place in criminal processes; so that witnesses
die, and means of proof are lost, while the really
guilty escape unpunished, and those who have been
formally

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE, 63
formally acquitted are still subject to a long deten
tion in prison, whence they are at length dismissed
without indemnity, and irretrievably ruined.
In consequence of the great number of courts,
the facility of appeal from one to the other, and
the wearisome tediousness of lawsuits, the multi
tude of judges, advocates, writers, and other sub
ordinate officers employed in the administration of
justice is prodigious. Many of the Spanish writers
have published spirited representations against this
vast and still growing evil. Osorio raised his voice
against it in 1687; and in our days Fayjoo has de
monstrated its mischiefs : this latter writer esti
mates the number of persons employed in the dif
ferent law establishments at 100,000, which is
nearly one hundredth of the entire population of
the country ; a considerable part of whom might,
with infinite advantage, be transferred to the pro
ductive industry of the state.- The privy council,
impressed with the truth and extreme importance
of these remarks, has exerted itself in the reduc
tion of some of the most superfluous parts of this
burthensome establishment, though to little pur
pose; as the very last general enumeration of the
inhabitants of Spa)n makes the number of advo
cates amount to 5,675, and of writers to 9,35 1 , be
sides the judges and their secretaries, the attorneys
and their clerks, and .the innumerable host of al
guazils and inferior officers.
Another serious inconvenience in the administra tion.

64 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
tion of Spanish law, is the necessity of reposing
entire and blind confidence in a class of subaltern
officers of the courts called Writers. This appears
to be a branch of the profession wholly peculiar to
Spain ; the writer exercising at the same time the
functions of secretary, solicitor, notifier, registrar,
and being the sole medium of communication be
tween the client and the judge.
It is not customary in Spain to allow either of
the parties concerned any copy of the documents
requisite^ for carrying on a suit, except by the ex
press order of the judge. All the writings on
both sides are collected together, and bound up
into a volume, which remains statedly in the
possession of the writer, who entrusts it for a cer
tain time to the attorneys'of the parties for the in
struction of advocates. The writer to whose care
the documents of any suit are committed also re
gisters the decrees and sentences of the judges on
the case, and notifies to the parties concerned each
step of the process, by reading to them the proper
instrument, without, however, allowing them to
have a copy of it.
The union of so many important functions in the
same person necessarily affords various opportu
nities for dishonesty; and the chance of being im
posed upon is still further increased by an unwise
regulation, which obliges the defendant in any ac
tion to choose the same writer as is employed by
{he plaintiff. Throughout

ADMINISTRATION. OF JUSTICE. 6'5
Throughout the whole of Spain the complaints
against this class of law-officers are loud and gene
ral; to them is principally attributed the grievous
length and multiplication of legal proceedings; and
the respect, or rather terror, that they inspire, is
in exact proportion to their ability of doing mis
chief. Popular accusations, though true in general,
admit, however, of many exceptions; and no
doubt there are among the writers, as among
every other class of men, individuals whose pro
bity and virtue render them an honour to their
profession. It may be remarked also, that scarce
ly any other persons are under equal temptations
to dishonesty, on account of the almost total im
punity that they enjoy in consequence of the fol
lowing regulation. In all those districts where
there are either a corregidor and superior alcalde,
or two superior alcaldes, each of these officers has
an independent tribunal for the decision of law
suits; and the right of pronouncing sentence in
any particular case belongs to him, of the two, at
.whose tribunal the first application was made.
Now the established salaries of these officers are so
small, that the largest part of their emoluments
arises from their fees : this portion of their income
wholly depends on the writers, who have the power
of instituting suits in which of the two courts they
please. The natural consequence is, that the judges
are induced to overlook and pass by in silence
vol. v. f those

66 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.'
those malpractices of the writers which they can-1'
not prevent without incurring a serious personal
loss. Finally, the authority of the writers is irre-
fragably established by the entire controul that
they exercise over all, civil causes. "Jhey alone re-*
ceive the declarations and personal answers of the
parties 'concerned; they alone receive the deposi
tions of the witnesses on each side, put what ques
tions to them they please, and record the answers,
without the interposition and even in the absence
of the judges.
Another serious defect in the administration of
justice in Spain is, that the party condemned, how
ever clearly unjust may have been his demand, or
however weak may have ^been his defence, is
scarcely ever obliged to pay his adversary's costs
of suit: whence it perpetually happens that the
expences of gaining a just cause are much greater
than the loss of submitting to an unjust demand:
hence also it is in the power of a rich villain to
oppress and ruin all those who are unable to sup
port the expences of a law-suit, which in Spain
are enormous, and perhaps the more so because
the established legal charges are very light.

CHAP.

( *7 )

CHAP. III.

NOBILITY OF SPAIN.

The origin of nobility in Spain is no less ob
scure than in other countries. There appear to
be no traces of this order of men in Spain while
the country continued under the dominion first of
the Carthaginians, and afterwards of the Romans.
It was under the Gothic kings that first appeared
those rudiments of distinction and pre-eminence of
-tank which at length grew into a distinct order of
nobility: but the regular growth, progress, and
organization of this body received a rude shock
and interruption by the Saracenic invasion, which
in an instant swept away all the political and reli
gious institutions of Spain. A few of the nobility
escaped from the desolating sword of the conqueror
to the mountains of Asturias, where they main
tained a "rude independence, harassing the foe by
perpetual incursions; and from this school of mar
tial activity issued thore heroes, who after a long
series of bloody struggles, restored to the people
of Spain their ancient sovereigns, independence
and religion.
A\regular order of nobility now began to grow
f 2 up

6*8 NOBILITY OF SPAIN.
up in the new established kingdoms of Spain, but
modified by the peculiar circumstances and events
of each individual state.
Catalonia, one of the earliest provinces that was
delivered from the yoke of the Moors, acknow
ledged at first the supremacy of the kings of
France; but in the course of time its counts found
means to secure their independence, and rendered
themselves the sovereigns of a country of which
they had been originally only the governors. The
counts of Aragon also claimed for themselves royal
authority. The country of Valencia, which had
formed a separate kingdom under its Moorish so
vereigns, was conquered by the kings of Aragon,
and reduced to the state of a province. The king
dom of Leon, which was the first occupied by the
descendants of the Goths, was in the course of
time united with the two Castiles, Estramadura,
and Galicia, forming one kingdom; to which
were afterwards added the kingdoms of Murcia
and Andalusia. Navarre retained the rank of an
independent kingdom, till the greater part of its
territory was united to the crown of Castile, by
the arms of Ferdinand the Catholic; and the re
mainder merged in the French monarchy, in con
sequence of the elevation of its king to the throne
of France by the name of Henry IV.
Each of these countries being governed by its
particular laws, had also different classes of nobi
lity. Catalonia recognized six classes of nobility :
first,

NOBILITY OF SPAIN. QQ
first, the Nobles proper, who alone had the right of
prefixing the title Don to their names. Secondly,
the Caballeros, composed of the descendants of the
first class, and of those knights by creation whose
ancestors had also received the honours of knight
hood. Thirdly, the Ennobled citizens of Barcelona
and Gerona. A patent granted in 1510, by Ferdi
nand the catholic, to the cities of Barcelona and
Gerona, and confirmed in 1519 by Charles I. al
lowed the municipal government of that place to
ennoble, every year, a certain number of its citi
zens. The citizens thus ennobled enjoyed and
transmitted to their descendants the same privi
leges as those possessed by the two first classes,
except that they had no seats as nobility in the as
sembly of the states. Fourthly, the Ennobled citi
zens ofPerpignan, who derive their privileges (which
are similar to those of the preceding class) from a
patent granted by Philip II. on the 1 5th July, 1599.
Fifthly and fixthly, the Generosos and Hombres de
paratge. The individuals composing these two
classes belonged chiefly to the diocese of Gerona,
and retained their rank and privileges only on the
condition of being created knights with military
service within a year*
The Revolution that took place in Catalonia, at
the beginning of the 1 8th century, effected an al
teration in the order and classes of the nobility of
this province : the cities of Barcelona and Gerona
lost their privileges, and among them the right of
f 3 appointing

70 NOBILITY OF SPAIN.
appointing their ennobled citizens : this dignity' is
indeed still preserved, but the power of nomination
to it is vested in the crown. The two classes of
Generosos and Hombres de paratge are entirely abo
lished. There are at present only three. classes of nobi-
' lity in Catalonia. The first consists of those no
bles who bear the title of Don : the second consists
of Caballeres, and the third of Ennobled citizens; the
whole in the nomination of the. crown. In order
to arrive at the highest class it is usual, though not
absolutely necessary, to pass through the two in
ferior ones, and a new royal patent is requisite for
each degree.
The doctors in law and medicine have long en
joyed, in Catalonia, all the privileges of nobility,
except that of possessing a seat in the assembly of
the states ; their nobility is still recognized, but it
is merely personal, not being transmissible to their
descendants. In the kingdom of Valencia there used to be re
cognized four classes of nobiljfy. First, the ATo-
bles proper, who derived their rank either from
birth, or immediately from the sovereign, after
having served as knights military. Secondly, the
Generosos, who were noble de Sangre y holar cono-
cido (by blood and family antiquity ). These were
for the most part the descendants of those old war
riors who were concerned in recovering the king
dom of Valencia from the Moors : of these, many took

NOBILITY OF SPAIN. 71
took pride in continuing in the same class as their
ancestors, and constantly refused to be aggregated
to the higher nobility. Thirdly, the Caballeros, who
owed their nobility to royal letters patent. Fourth
ly, the Ciudadanos, or citizens, consisting of those
who had been jurats, or consuls, in the cities of Va
lencia, San Felippe, and Alicant,- or who for them
selves and their descendants had been acknowledg
ed by the king to be eligible to these offices, They
were subdivided into two classes, the immemorial
and privileged; the former were the descendants
of those ancient jurats who governed the city of
Valencia in the times immediately following its re
covery from the Moors; the latter were descended
either from those who had filled the same offices in
later timei or had been associated to them by royal
patent. The first were considered as nobles de
Sangre y felar conoeido, and were received into the
order of knights at^ Malta, and into the military
orders of Spain ; the latter were only regarded as
ennobled. Neither one nor the other had seats in
the affembly of the states.
The assembly of the grandees and barons of the
kingdom of Valencia, known by the name of Sta-
mentum militare, wa-. composed of the nobles, the
generosos, and. caballeros. In this assembly no
distinction of rank or title was allowed, nor any
precedence of one over the other, only that the ap
pellation Don was confined to the first class. The
ciudadanos, though forming a part of the body of
7 4 nobility.

72 NOBILITY OF SPAIN,
nobility, and admitted to all their other privileges,
had no seats in this assembly.
The revolution which established Philip V. on
the throne of Spain deprived the^ity of Valencia ,
of all its privileges, on account of the share which
it had taken in the revolt against its sovereign; it
consequently lost the right of nominating its own
jurats and ciudadanos.
At the same time disputes arose relative to the
distinctions, pre-eminence, and hereditary succes
sion of these four classes of nobility. The decision
of the matter was referred to the privy council ; and
in consequence of the advice of the chamber of
Castile given on the 21st of June, 1723, the king
published a decree on the 24th of August in the
following year, ordaining that for the future there
should be included in the order of nobility the
nobles, the generosos, the caballeros, and the ciu
dadanos immemorial; that such of the ciudadanos
as had borne or should hereafter bear municipal
offices in the cities of Valencia, Alicant, and San
Felippe, or should be recognized as eligible by the -
king, should enjoy personal, but not transmissible,
nobility, and that all the other ciudadanos should
no longer be regarded as noble. Such is the pre
sent state of the nobility in the kingdom of Va
lencia. The doctors of law and medicine, and those ille
gitimate sons of the noble classes that have not
been legitimated by the king, have long possessed, and

NOBILITY OF SPAIN. 73
and still enjoy, the rights and prerogatives of per
sonal nobility.
In Aragon also there have existed different
classes of nobility. The first was denominated
that of the Ricos Hombres and Mesnadores or Mes-
naderos, which included the superior nobility and
the principal officers of the royal household. The
other two classes were called, the one Hidalgos,
and the other Infanzones. But since the incorpora
tion of the kingdom of Aragon with that of Cas
tile, the Ricos Hombres have ranked as grandees
of Spain, and the two latter classes have been con
solidated into one, by the name of Hidalgos.
The crown of Castile, which includes the two
kingdoms of that name, Galicia, Leon, Estrama-
dura, Andalusia, and Murcia, has also had its dif
ferent classes of nobility.- They were four in num
ber : first, the Ricos Hombres de pendon y Caldera
(nobility of the banner and boiler). They were so
calle^ because they had the right of bearing a ban
ner, and of carrying among their military baggage
a large boiler, in which was cooked food for the
numerous vassals, at the head of whom they took
the field: on this account it is, that many ancient
noble houses ftill bear a boiler in their coats of
arms. The second rank of, nobility was that of
the Rices Hombres de banjar quinientos sueldos, be
ing thus called, because they received from the
king an annual pay of 500 sueldos, on condition of
performing military service. The third rank was
that

74 NOBILITY OF SPAIN,
that of the Caballeros in infanzones, who served on
horseback in the field, but were not expected to
bring with them any. followers. The fourth rank
was that of the Escuderos, or esquires, attendant on
the knights.
This division of Castilian nobility into four
classes gradually wore away of itself, without any
decree of the sovereign for that purpose; and at-pre*
sent there is only one class of nobility, or Hidalgia,
Under this generic appellation is comprehended the
entire nobility of Spain, whatever may be their re
spective degrees of antiquity, and in whatever
manner their rank may have been acquired., The
Ricos Hombres of Castile and Aragon ; the Infan
zones and Escuderos of Castile; the Nobles, Cabal
leros, Generosos, and Ciudadanos immemorial of
Valencia ; the Ciudadanos of Barcelona and Per-
pignan, all enjoy, throughout the whole of Spain,
the same rank, distinctions, and prerogatives, with
this only difference, that the title Don is restricted
in Catalonia and Valencia to the highest class of
nobility, whereas in Castile it is applied to all
ranks of persons, noble and ignoble.
A distinction, however, is made in the public
opinion between nobility by descent and by crea
tion; the latter being the least respected, as com
prehending those who have themselves acquired
their rank: the immediate descendants of these
however are considered as belonging to the former
class. In

NOBILITY OF SPAIN. 7J
In Biscay and the Asturias all the native families
consider themselves as noble, and their claim is
allowed in the other parts of the Spanish domi
nions. The Asturians claim descent from the ancient
Goths, who took refuge in the mountains of that
provihce, at the period of the Moorish invasion,
and on this account assert the ancient and trans
missible honours of their blood. Hence it hap
pens that these two provinces contain a greater
number of noble families than all the rest of Spain
combined, amounting to nearly three-fourths of
the whole. According to the enumeration of 1 78 7
and 1788,- the individuals belonging to noble fa
milies in the Asturias amount to 1 14,^/4 out of a
population of 347,7/6" ; and those of Biscay, the
entire population of which does not exceed
308,! 57, amount to 116,913. Nothing is more
common than to see Biscayans and Asturians re
duced by necessity to exercise the meanest occu
pations, yet they are never forgetful of the nobi
lity of their birth, and resume their rank and titles
as soon as they have earned enough to maintain a
decent competence.
The inhabitants of the valley of Bastan, in Na
varre, also claim the right of transmissible nobility,
and are governed by a constitution which asures
to the whole population of this little district the
jnost perfect equality.
The inhabitants of Espinosa de los Monteros, in
m Old

7$ NOBILITY OF SPAIN.
Old Castile, enjoy in like manner all the privi
leges of nobility. They found this claim on a
concession made in the beginning of the eleventh
century by Sanchez, count of Castile (long before
the erection of this state into a kingdom), by way
of recompence for the valour and fidelity of one
of his esquires, who was a native of this district.
A contrary usage has been established by length
of time in several villages and districts of Old Cas
tile, and in the diftricts of Daroca and Caylatayud
in Aragon. In these places (which are called
Behetrias) there reigns the most perfect equality
among the inhabitants. Nobility, with its privi
leges, is wholly unknown, and all titles and distinc
tions are suspended as long as the possessor of
them continues to reside here.
The little town of Casar de Cacerez, in Estra-
madura, is in the same condition with respect to
the absence of all external distinctions, and so zea
lously is their privilege supported, that even mo
numental inscriptions are forbidden.
Some sovereigns have made attempts, but al
ways in vain, to assimilate these peculiar jurisdic
tions to the general laws and customs of the coun
try : Peter the Cruel, in particular, employed the
most violent and arbitrary measures to effect this
purpose, in the year 1351.
In Spain, the only method of acquiring nobility
is by a royal grant, as it is not attached to the ex
ercise of any office, civil or military. The price of

NOBILITY OF SPAIN. 77
of a patent of nobility in Castile and Valencia is
fixed at 40,000 reals (413/. 13*.), exclusive of
a few fees of office. In Catalonia a patent of
ciudadano costs 20,000 reals, from which rank a
person may be raised to that of caballero on pay
ment of 5,000 reals, and afterwards to that of
grandee by a further payment of 1 5,000 reals, the
whole together amounting, as in Castile, to 40,000
reals. In order to enable the person to whom a patent
of nobility is granted to exercise the full privileges
of his rank, there must further be paid 2,704 reals
(28/. 3 s. Ad.) for the media annata; 752 reals
(Jl. 16s. 8d.) as alms to some hospital; and 926
reals (9/. 15s.) as fees.
Of late years a distinction has been taking place
in Spain between the titled and untitled nobility.
Those are called titled who have obtained from the
king the title of grandee, of duke, of count, of
marquis, or of viscount. A royal grant of this
kind does not, however (as used to be the case in
France) convert any particular estate of the person
thus honoured into a duchy, county, or marquisate ;
for though most of the old titles are attached to
landed property, yet the generality of the modern
ones are settled on individuals and families. Some
of these titles have no particular meaning, but
often they are either family names, or the names
of estates, or of the place where the particular ac
tion was performed, of which the title is the re
ward.

78 NOBILITY OF SPAIN.
ward. Hence the greater number of the title'd
nobility might sell their lands and yet retain their
titles, and in fact there are a few among this class
who possess no landed property whatever*
Titles of nobility are hereditary in the families
of fchose to. whom they have been granted ; they
descend first to males beginning with the eldest,
and in failure of these to the females, who not
only themselves bear them, but confer them on
their husbands, and transmit them to their chil
dren. All the direct heirs succeed before the col
lateral male heirs, and the title continues to be
worn till both the male and female branches of
the family are extinct. Those who acquire a
title by marriage with an heiress, retain it not only
during the life of the wife, whether there are chil
dren or not, but even after her death, so long as
they contract no subsequent marriage.
Many titles are often combined in the same indi
vidual, in consequence of their descent to the eldest
in succession, whether male or female, which pro
hibits a father from dividing them among his chil
dren ; on this account it not unfrequently happens ,
that the younger sons of a nobleman are untitled,-
while the eldest is at the same time marquis, count,
and viscount.
Those among the titled nobility who are not
raised to the dignity of grandee, enjoy few privi
leges above those that are untitled ; the most im
portant are that of having in their houses a saloon of

Nobility of spaijt; 79
cf state containing the portrait of the king ; of
being admitted on gala days to kiss the hands of
their majesties ; of taking an oath to the presump
tive heir of the crown, recognising his right of
succession to the throne ; of being invited to some
of the court festivals ; and being called senor
(your lordship) ; this latter distinction, however,
they share with the members of the council of
Castile, the intendants of the provinces, the mare-
chaux-de-camp, the brigadiers and colonels in the
army : besides, this ceremonious mode of address
is falling into disuse, and in consequence they sel
dom receive it except from their vassals, their do
mestics, the common people, and the grandees,
the latter of whom give it only -with the view of
receiving in their turn the title of your Excellence.
v All the titled nobility used formerly to be co
vered in the presence of the king ; but this privi
lege they lost in the reign of Charles I. : they
agreed to remain uncovered during his coronation
at Aix-la-Chapelle, after his election to the empire,
in order that the electors of Germany, who were
obliged to assist at the ceremony uncovered, might
not be dissatisfied. But though they agreed to
this purely in complaisance to their sovereign, and
after receiving his positive promise that this acqui
escence should not be drawn into a precedent,
they were never after able to enforce this their
ancient prerogative. Charles was determined to
reduce the nobility to a state of absolute depend- ance,

80 NOBlLlTY OF SPAIN.
ance, and, among other means that he employed
to gain his end, he forbade any persons to remain
covered in the royal presence, unless they had
received an express royal concession to this effect.
There is much controversy concerning the
period when the dignity of grandee originated.
Some antiquaries pretend to discover it during the
reign of the early Gothic kings ; but according to
others, it dates only from the reign of Charles I.
This sovereign, as we have just mentioned, having
cheated the nobility out of the right to remain
uncovered in his presence, afterwards conceded
this privilege as a special favour to a few of the
greatest and most ancient families in the country.
The same privilege was granted in 1520 to a few
of the principal families of Flanders, which at that
time composed an important portion of the Spa
nish dominions. From that period to the present,
the kings of Spain have elevated to the rank and
privileges of grandee such individuals as they
thought deserving of the honour. ,
The grandees of Spain are generally divided into
three classes, which, however, differ from each
other only in the form of the ceremonial to be,
observed by them when introduced at court. A
grandee of the highest rank, when presented to
the king, covers himself before he replies to the
, salutation of his majesty; one of the second rank
remains uncovered till he has paid his compli
ments ; but one of the third rank is not allowed to

NOBILITY OF SPAIN. STl
to cover himself till he has paid his compliments*
made his bow, and. mingled with the crowd of
courtiers. These several degrees of dignity are
hereditary. A fourth and fifth class of grandees have been
established of late years. They enjoy the same
prerogatives as the three former, except that of
remaining uncovered in the royal presence. Of
these classes one is hereditary and transmissible,
the other is restricted to the individual on whom
it has been conferred: the latter is called in Spain
a grant of the honours of grandeeship.
The rank of grandee, both hereditary and per
sonal, is also granted on particular occasions to
foreigners; several of the French nobility especi
ally have solicited and obtained this honour in
order to place themselves as nearly as possible
on a level with the peers of the realm in their own
country. There is no reciprocity, however, in
this concession, there not being a single instance
of any Spanish nobleman being raised to the ho
nours of the peerage in France. The reason of
this depends, however, in a considerable degree,
on the circumstance that in France no one can be
a peer without possessing a large territorial do
main; whereas in Spain the title of grandee is
wholly unconnected with landed property.
The grandees are at the head of the Spanish no
bility, and at court take precedence of all secular
dignities except those of constable and admiral of
vol. v. g Castile.

82 NOBILITY OF SPAIN.
Castile. They take the oath of allegiance to the
king immediately after the bishops ; they, are al
lowed to approach very near the royal person, and
in all public ceremonies occupy the places nearest to
the royal family; they perform -the funeral ho
nours to the princes of the blood. In criminal
cases they are almost independent of the ordinary
-tribunals, and can be arrested only by the express
permission of the king ; they wear the ducal coro
net, have a king at arms, and are preceded by
mace-bearers ; in the roy?l chapel they are seated
on a bench by the side of the king. They have
the title of Excellence, and in all letters are address
ed by the appellation of Excellent issirno senor ; this
prerogative, however, they share with the ministers
of state, the captains general of the provinces and
of the army, and the lieutenant-generals. When
they arrive in a garrison town, a guard of honour is
appointed them, consisting of a company with its
officers and a standard. The kuig addresses them
as his cousins, and their wives are received by the
queen in her apartment standing, and are after*
wards seated on cushions,
The grandees of Spain pretend to an equality
of rank with the electors of the German empire
and the princes of Italy; but this claim has never
been decided ; the electors and princes have con
stantly refused to admit it, and in order to escape
unpleasant disputes they avoid, as much as possible,
meeting with each,other, The

NOBILITY OF SPAIN. 83
The privilege most valued, however, by the
grandees, is that of being covered in the royal
presence; a privilege which they share with the
cardinals, the papal legates, the archbishops, the
grand prior of Castile, of the order of Malta, the
generals of the orders of Saint Domingo and of
Saint Francis, the ambassadors of crowned heads,
the knights of the order of the golden fleece, the
knights of the military orders when the king as
sists at their chapters, the grandees of Portugal,
and the members of the chamber of Castile when
they assemble in council in the king's apartment.
All the grandees and titled nobility, except the
most ancient families and those who have ob
tained a special dispensation, pay two imposts
to the king, the mediu annata and lanzas. The
first is paid by every new grandee on his creation,
and at every future succession to the title ; the
latter is an annual tax. The former amounts to
about 100,000 reals (1000/.) for a grandeeship,
and to 50,000 reals (312/. 10f.) for a patent of
titled nobility. The fine paid for the succession
of a son to his father's honours is very moderate,
but increases considerably when the title passes to
a collateral heir, amounting in this latter case
sometimes to 24,000 reals for a grandeeship. This
impost is to be paid for every separate title to which
a person may succeed, whatever may be their num
ber. In like manner the lanzas is levied annually
on every individual title. A grandee pays 800
g 2 ducats

34 NOBILITY OF SPAIN.
ducats (95/. 16s. 8d.)', a count, or marquis, pays
300 ducats (34/. 7s. 6 J.), and a viscount pays 1800
reals (18/. 15 j.) The united produce of these
two taxes amounted in the year 1787 to 5,400,000
reals (5o,250/.).
The nobility of Spain was formerly wholly de
voted to the profession of arms, and obtained sig
nal honour from the perseverance and final suc
cess of its exploits against the Moors, This ar
dour for military exploits was so totally extin
guished during the last century, that the repugr
nance by which it was succeeded appeared to be
insurmountable; of late years, however, it has
been very sensibly giving way, and at present there
are few of the higher nobility who either have not
been or are not now actively engaged in the ser
vice. The constitution of Spain admitting of
mayorazgos has no doubt done much towards oc- 1
casioning this reluctance tp a military life." Al
most the whole property devolving on the eldest
son, the younger ones have so small a pittance as
for the most part to be incapable of maintaining
themselves, in the style of living expected from
an officer in the army. Even those who follow
this profession generally quit it the moment that
their elder brother renders them at all easy in theh;
Circumstances by the grant of a mayor azgo.
Another principal cause of the indisposition
of the Spanish nobility for a military life, is the
disagreeable prospect of spending their whole lives
immured

NOBILITY OF SPAIN; 85
immured in garrisons, and indulged with leave of
absence only for short periods and at distant inter
vals, and with the loss of half their pay while they
are absent. Of these garrisons, some are ruinous
on account of the excessive expences in which it
is almost necessary to indulge ; others are solitary
posts in villages and small towns destitute of means
and opportunities of instruction, of social inter
course, and of the most reasonable pleasures*
where the soldier passes a melancholy, monotonous,
insipid life, where his faculties become torpid, and
where he loses by degrees all the energy and
activity of his mind and body.
The nobility of Spain enjoy even at present se
veral very important privileges. They are alone
admissible into the four military orders ; they are
exempt from certain imposts, from service in the
militia, and from the billeting of troops. They
are not liable to imprisonment for debt, except
for arrears of taxes payable to the king ; they can
not be confined in the common prisons, nor can
their house, their horse, their mule, or their arms
be taken in execution ; at Barcelona they can
only be put under arrest by the chief alguazil of
the Royal Audience, who is always a noble.
Formerly, however, the privileges of the nobles,
especially the grandees, were much more nume
rous and important. They were possessed of
castles and fortresses, which enabled them often to
set at defiance both the sovereign and the laws.
a 3 They

86 NOBILITY OF SPAIN.
They nominated the justices of all the yillagesand
towns under their vassalage, and these justices were
dependent only on themselves. They alone, to
gether with the bishops, represented the nation in
the states-general of Castile, for the commons did
not obtain a place in this assembly till the thir
teenth century. They levied on their own lands
a tythe of all ecclesiastical revenue, on the plea of
holding themselves in constant readiness to march
against the Moors. Tliey established imposts on
their vassals and tolls on their lands, and had
guards for their personal safety.
In the kingdom of Aragon, to the above privi
leges were added the following : no vassal could
bring any action at law against his lord, the states-
assembled in 1381 having declared publicly, that
the punishment of lords guilty of injustice belonged
to God alone. It was also rendered illegal to
pass sentence of capifal punishment on any noble,
whatever his crime might have been, perpetual im
prisonment being the severest punishment to which
they were liable. These immunities were sup
ported by the vast riches of the nobles. The
greater part of the Spanish territory was in their
possession. In the reign of Charles I. according
to L. Marianus Lientus, the revenues of the gran
dees and titled nobility alone amounted to one
million four hundred and eighty-two thousand
ducats ; a prodigious sum, when the difference in
the value of money between that time and the
present

NOBILITY OF SPAIV. §7
present is taken into consideration. The com*
mbns of the kingdom of Castile affirmed in their
manifestos during the same reigrt, that in the
whole country between Valladolid and San Jago
in Galicia, an extent of about a hundred leagues,
the king possessed only three villages, and the
nobles the rest.
The nobility being thus become so powerful as
to be formidable to the sovereign, rendered it a
"main object of the royal policy for several genera
tions, to reduce an order equally hos ale to the
king and the people. The execution of this plan
was commenced in the fourteenth century by
Alphonso XI. who, in the year 1333, obliged the
ttobility to surrender or destroy the greater part of
their castles and fortresses : in the year 1390 king
John succeeded in rendering the justices of the
ttobility amenable to those appointed by the
crown: in the year 1473 Henry IV. caused the
states assembled at Santa Maria de Nieve to sup
press the tolls and imposts levied by the nobility
in their own domains : Ferdinand V. by means of
the states of Toledo assembled in 1488, rendered
it unlawful for any nobleman to have a body
guard: lastly* Charles I. deprived them of the
right of remaining covered in the roya! presence,
and in the year 1538 excluded them entirely from
•the general assemblies of the states.
Among the Spanish noble houses, there are
^kny whose names are evidently French ; and
.{.-¦¦' o4 accordingly

88 NOBILITY OF SPAIN.
accordingly we learn from history, that several
of the first families have either emigrated from
France, or are descended from French ancestors
long established in Spain. The dukes of Al
buquerque descended from one Hugues Rertrand,
a Frenchman, who married Maria de la Cueva,
whose family name he also took. The dukes of
Medina-Cceli originate from Bernard de Foix, who,
in 1368, married Isabella de la Cerda. The mar-
quisses of Aytone, of the house of Moncada, are
generally acknowledged to have a French origin.
The dukes of Areos, of the house of Ponce de
t.eon, boast their descent from Pons a younger
son of Aimeric count of Thoulouse, whose son
Ponce de-Minerva settled in Spain in the twelfth
century, accompanied by his cousin Raymond of
Burgundy, who married the daughter and heiress
of the king of Castile and Leon. The counts of
Aranda are a branch of the French house of
-Roeque-feuille. Bastards of nobles are divided into two classes,
bastards and illegitimate. The former are " the
offspring of unmarried parents, and as soon as
they are acknowleged and legitimated they be
come noble, even though no subsequent marriage
may have taken place between their parents. They
bear the name, the arms, and livery of their
father. The second class, or illegitimate, are
children born in adultery ; and these, though le
gitimated, are considered as belonging to the
common

NOBILITY OF SPAIN. 89
common people, unless they obtain from the king
an extraordinary act of legitimation.
The two chanceries of Valladolid and Granada
are specially authorized to take cognizance of the
affairs of the nobility. Each of these jurisdictions
has a court called de Hijos-yalgo, to which are re
ferred all cases of recognition of nobility, and an
acknowledgment by either of these is considered
as unquestionable. Another way of obtaining a recognition of no
bility is to present the proper documents to the
municipal officers, who, after having submitted
them to the examination of commissioners, and
having received the advice of the procurator-
general of the district, admit the individual who
has presented the documents to the rank of noble,
or refuse his demand as they see proper. An ap
peal, however, lies from their sentence to the
chanceries. The disadvantage of this mode of
proceeding is, that the same form must be re
peated whenever the individual transfers his abode
to another district, not to mention other difficul
ties which occasionally occur ; whereas a decree
of the chancery settles the matter once for all.
The nobility of Spain is not so numerous as
might be supposed, and as indeed it appears at
first sight on observing the prodigious number of
coats of arms that are set up almost over every
door. According to the enumeration made in
the years 1787 and 1788, the number of- indi
viduals

$0 v NOBILITY Ot SPAIN*
viduals at that time belonging to noble families ih
Spain amounted to 478,716, about T*T of the whole
population ; but of this number it must be' Ob-
Served, that the two provinces of Biscay and As
turias, the total population of which did not ex
ceed 655j933, contained no less than 231,187,
whereas the other provinces united contained
only 247,529 nobles, out of a population of
9,478,042. If the enumerations are to be relied on, it would
appear that in the course of a very few years there"
has been an extraordinary diminution of the numJ
ber of noble individuals in Spain ; for, according
to the enumeration in 1768 and 1769, they
amounted to 722,794. There must, therefore,
have been a loss in nineteen years of 244,078, or
more than a third of the whole : it is, however,
probable, that the former enumeration was very
inexact, ranking as noble many who had no right
to be so regarded, but who were inserted in the
district lists, in order to obtain thereby an Unfair
dispensation from their just proportion of the
public taxes.
The 'number of titled nobility" in the year 1789
was as follows : one hundred and twenty-nine
grandees, of whom some possessed several titles^
and five hundred and thirty-five ; marquisse^
counts, and viscounts ; of these latter one hundred
and forty-two habitually resided at court, and the
rest in the provinces. ' * In

NOBILITY OF SPAIN* 9l
In most countries the exercise of the mechanic
arts is considered as derogatory from the dignity
of nobility, and no where was this feeling stronger
than in Spain ; but by a law passed under the mi
nistry of Count Florida Blanca this incompatibility
was formally annulled, so that at present a man
may exercise in Spain the profession of medicine
or any trade or handicraft business, without for
feiting his rank and the prerogatives thereto an
nexed. One domestic custom seems peculiar to the
Spanish nobility, and a few distinguished families
in Germany ; it is that of receiving into their
houses a certain number of young ladies, under
the name of Criadas or Camareras, whose parents
(often noble) cannot well afford to educate them
at home. These' young women are under the care
of the lady of the house, and perform- various do
mestic offices, constituting however a part of the
family establishment wholly distinct from the hired
servants. A similar but more honourable asylum for the
daughters of decayed gentlemen is offered in the
household of the queen. These young ladies, who
are called Camar.stas or maids of honour, are
employed about the person of her majesty : they
quit the palace only on their marriage, and from
their situation and the liberality of their royal mis
tress, they seldom fail to obtain an advantageous
establishment.
CHAP.

( 92 )
CHAP. IV.
ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS OF SPAIN.
Spain was formerly in possession of eleven mili
tary orders, which have all long since become ex
tinct. The knights belonging to them were
specially engaged to combat the infidels, particu
larly the Moors, and to protect the oppressed. Of
these orders two were established in Aragon, three
in Catalonia, two in Navarre, and four in Castile.
1. The order del Salvador was founded in 1118
by Alphonso I. king of Aragon. ' The knights
wore an image of the Saviour on a white habit.
Their principal seat was at Montreal del Campo
on the borders of the kingdom of Valencia.
2. The order de la Jarra de Nuestra Senorax
called also de las Azucenas, was founded in 1413
by Ferdinand I. king of Aragon, who restricted it
to the principal nobles of his states. The collar
was of gold, ornamented in front with a two-
handled jar and lilies, from which was suspended
a figure of the Virgin holding the infant Jesus in
her arms, and surrounded with stars.'
3. The .order of Mongoja, or Mountjoy, was
founded in 1 143 by Raymond V. last count bf
Barcelona, and confirmed by the pope in 1180.
It followed the rule of St. Basil. The cross was
gules of eight points on a white habit: it was
united in 1221 to the order of Calatrava. 4. The

ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS. 93
4. The order de la Acha, or of the hatchet, was
founded for ladies in the year 1 150 by the same
prince as the preceding, and assimilated to the
military orders, Its chief seat was at Tortosa in
Catalonia. Its ensign was a hatchet gules.
5. The order of Saint George d Alsama was
founded in 1201 by Peter II. king of Aragon.
It was under the rule of Saint Augustine. Its
chief seat was the castle of Alsonna in Catalonia.
The knights belonging to it bore a full cross
gules. It was united with the order of Montesa
in the year 1400.
6. The order de la Encina, or of the green oak,
was founded in Navarre by Garcia Ximenes : the
knights belonging to it bore a cross anchored
gules, on an oak sinople.
7. The order de los Lirios, or of the lilies, was
founded in 1028 by Sanchez king of Navarre. It
was only conferred on the higher nobility. The
knights belonging to it bore an annunciation on
two lilies crossed.
8. The order de Santa Maria d'Espana was
founded in 1270 by Alphonso the Wise, IV. of
Castile, and IX. of Leon. Its principal seats
were at Medina Sidonia, and Alcala de Guadayra.
It was united ten years afterwards with the order
of San Jago.
9. The order de la Vanda, or of the band, was
founded in 1332 by Alphonso V. of Castile, and
X of Leon. Only the first nobility of his states
could be admitted into it, and that after ten years of

gi ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS.
of active military service. Bravery, politeness;
and gallantry were the indispensable duties of these
knights. They were distinguished by a broad
blue riband passing over' the right shoulder and
under the left arm.
10. The order de la Paloma, of the dove, or the
Holy Ghost, was founded in 1383 by John I. king
of Castile and Leon. The collar was of gold, and
supported a silver dove surrounded .with rays.
1 1 . The order de la Escama, or of the scale,
was founded according to some in 1318 by Al
phonso V. of Castile and X of Leon, and, accord
ing to others in 1420 by John II. king of Castile
and Leon. Only the highest nobility were re
ceived into it. This order was abolished at the
death of its founder.
At present there are in Spain seven different
orders, namelyj of tne Golden Fleece, of San Jagfy
of Calatrava, of Alcantara, of Mvntesa, of Charles
III. and of Maria Louisa. Of these, the first has
passed by succession to the Spanish crown, the
four next are the military orders properly so
called, and the two last are of modern institution*
The order of the Golden Fleece was founded by
Philip the Goo:!, duke of Burgundy, of the royal
family of France. The house of Austria suc
ceeding to his rights by the marriage of the Arch'
duke Maximilian with the heiress of Burgundy,
succeeded also to the rights of the founder and
grand master of this order. Being afterwards
raised to the throne of Spain, he communicated those

ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS. 95
those claims and privileges to the Spanish sovereigns,
his successors, O! this order the king is the sove
reign chief, and alone presents the collars which are
limited to fifty, and this number is seldom complete.
About a chird of these are at present possessed by
foreigners, among whom are several of the French
nobility; almost all the princes of the house of Bour
bon, of the lines of France, Naples, and Parma, and
most of the members composing thepresent reigning
family in France. This order has two grand offi-
cers, a chancellor, a secretary, and a king at arms.
The order of ( alatr/'va is the most ancient of
the four military orders ; its origin ascends to the
period of the siege of the city of that name by the
Moors in the year 1 158. Sanchez VI. king of Cas
tile, apprehensive of his inability to defend it with
success, presented it to the Cistertian order, on con
dition of their providing for its defence. In further
aid, he instituted a society of knights, or military
jnonks, whose principal occupation was to make
war against the enemies of the faith. These
knights were at first placed under the government
of the Cistertian order, but their particular insti
tution having been confirmed in the year 1 164
by pope A lexander III. they became independent
under the jurisdiction of a grand master, chosen
by themselves from among their own body, who
became their chief and immediate superior. At
that time they wore on their habits a scapulary
with a cawl, which they exchanged in 1397 for
the cross that they still retain. The

96 ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS.
The order of San Jago is the second of the"
military orders with regard to the date of its foun
dation, having been established, according to the
most authentic testimonies, in the year J 1 75,
though a few antiquaries, more zealous for the
honour of the order than their own judgment,
pretend to trace it as high as the year 1030. It
originated from the popular devotion paid to the
shrine of the apostle James, which drew crowds of
pilgrims to Compostella. The dangers of travel
ling reduced the prior and canons of the convent
of Layo (belonging to the order of Saint Augus-
tin, and situated in Galicia near San Jago) to
watch over the safety of the shrine, and protect
the numerous travellers and pilgrims who resorted
thither. Hence arose a particular military body
formed upon a rule received from the sovereign
pontiff, which was at first charged with the care
of patrolling the roads, and afterwards devoted
itself to bear arms against the infidels.
The order of Alcantara is the third in antiquity,
and in fact is only a secession from that of Cala-
trava. Some knights belonging to this latter hav
ing established themselves at Alcantara in 1218,
in consequence of the donation made of this city
by Alphonso IX, king of Leon to their ordef>
contrived in the following year to accompjish their
secession under a grand master of their own elec
tion, They bore at first a kind of narrow red
semi-scapulary, with a cap of the same colour, which

ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS. 97
which they exchanged for the cross in 1411, which
they still continue to bear.
The order of Montesa, or our Lady of Montesa*
was founded in the kingdom of Valencia), at the
beginning of the 14th century, by James II. king
of Aragon, after the suppression of the Templars.
It was confirmed in 1361 by pope John XXII.
who placed it under the rule of Calatrava and of the
Cistercians. The principle of the order was mili
tary service in defence of the faith. It was en
dowed with all the property in the kingdom of
Valencia that had formerly belonged to the Tem
plars. The first establishment was formed by
some religious of the order of Calatrava, and its
principal seat was the town and castle of Montesa,
which were presented to it by the king in the year
1319. From this period the order began to be
governed by a grand master of its own. The
knights first assumed the religious habit, which
they exchanged in 1410 for a red cross, which
they still bear on the left breast.
These fouT military orders were originally in
tended for active service against the enemies of the
faith, particularly the Moors, who at that time
.possessed a considerable portion of the Spanish
¦territory; but, after the complete expulsion of
these invaders on the conquest of Granada at the
end of the fifteenth century by Ferdinand V. the
necessity for adhering to their original institution
ceased to be so obligatory. They no longer con
stituted a peculiar description of the public force,
, Vol.. v. h especially

98 ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDE'RS.
especially after the sovereign above mentioned had
united their grand masterships to the crown. On
these accounts the custom was gradually intro
duced; of admitting into them any nobleman with
out exception, though married and not engaged in
any military trust. A partial reform, however,
of these corruptions; took place in the reign of
Charles III. in consequence of which those alone
are admitted who have been engaged in actual
service. The qualifications therefore at present neces
sary are eight years of active service in the Spa
nish army, and proofs of nobility of four de*
grees, on the side of both father and mother. After
the king has granted his licence of admission into
any one of the military orders, the commissaries
named by the council of the orders demand of the
candidate his proofs of . nobility ; furnished , with
these, they repair to the places of his birth and
residence, to compare the copies with the original
documents, and collect the necessary information.
Sometimes, though -rarely, a dispensation is issued
authorizing to proceed to the examination of
proofs and witnesses at Madrid, by which there is
a great saving, both of time and expence ; the
former method costing the candidate sometimes as
much as 24,000 reals (250/.)
'Hie only advantage that of necessity accrues
on admission to any of the four orders, is the ho
nour of wearing the cross, and a few unimportant
privileges ; the commanderies indeed are places of
pecuniary

ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDEfcS.

99

pecuniary profit, but no one is allowed to accept
of any of these, except he has taken the vow of
combating the infidels, of fidelity towards the so
vereign, and of conjugal chastity.
, Each of the four orders possesses commande
ries, the number and total value of which are ex
pressed in the following table.

Nnmberof Value in Spanish 1 Value in English
Command- reals.

Order of Calatrava
The errioluments of the
smallest • commandery
are 1260 reals, and of
the largest 840,000
¦ - reals..
Order of San Jago
The emoluments of the
smallest commandery
are 4320 reals, and of
the largest li6,880
reals.
Order of Alcantara
Almost all the comman
deries belonging to this
order are situated in Es
tremadura : the emolu
ments of the smallest
are 5820 reals, and of
the largest 504,000
reals.
Order. ot Montesa
AH the commanderies be
longing to this order
< are situated in the king
dom of Valencia: the
emoluments of the
smallest are 36,000
reals, and of the largest
183,000 reals.

56

87

3?

13

193
H2

6,860,000

money.-
71,250/.

7,800,000

3,744,000

81,250/,

39,GQOf.

1,248,000

12,588/,

10,656iOOO 204,088/. The

100 feoYAL and Military orders.
The commanders and knights of these fotir
orders wear a cross hung by a ribibahd to the but-
t6n-hole of the habit : those who have taken the
vows wear the same cross embroidered in silk on
'the left side of the habit. The crosses of the
orders of Calatrava and Alcantara differ only ftl
colour, that of the former being red, and of the
latter -green: the cross itself is pattee, with eight
obtuse angles, accosted in its four internal angles
by as many simple and equal crosses, with four
fleurdelized points. The cross of the order of
San Jago is long and swofd-shaped; that of the
order of Montesa is h$ng, simple, and even. The
cross, ribband, and border of the order of Alcan
tara are green; those of the other orders are red.
To each of the military orders are annexed
monks, besides the knights ; they reside in houses
appropriated to each order, and are bound by par
ticular vows. The orders of 5kn Jago, Calatrava,
and Alcantara, have also several convents of nuns,
who, previously to their admission, are required to
give the same proofs of nobility as the knights.
tabiJe
Of the Monks and Nuns attached to the Military
Orders, according to the enumeration of 1788.

Orber of San Jago
Order or Calatrava
Order of Alcantara
Order of Montesa

Monks.

10,

House*-

individuals.

5

83 '

3 1

5P 8

1

19

169

Nuns.

Houses. Individuals.

11

tfu;

6

81

3

45

2

10

O

0

136 Each

ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS. 1QI
Ea.ch of tjhese four orders was governed by its
own grand master, who was the chief and sove
reign. Jn the course of time these grand masters
had acquired so great a degree, of wealth and
power as had nearly rendered them independent
of the crown : their luxury, their opulence, their
haughtiness, often eclipsed the splendour of the
throne; and their claims ?ind power had struck
with awe the boldest of the sovereigns, and violat
ed the public peace. From this perilous condition
the crown was rescued by the firm policy of Fer
dinand V., the ablest sovereign that ever ascended
the throne of Spain, who at one stroke dispelled
the danger by annexing all the four grand mas
terships to the crown.
After this important event, which took place in
1489, the affairs of the four orders were adminis
tered by a tribunal called, the. Council ofthe^ orders.
This tribunal holds its sittings at Madrid; it is
composed of a president, a governor with the title.
of dean, a fiscal general, a secretary, an account
ant-general, a superior alguazil and his lieutenant,
a treasurer, four procurators general, and four fis-
cals (one for each of the four orders), and a few
counsellors; all of whom must be knights belong
ing to one or other of the four orders. This
council takes cognizance, by appeal, of all the tem
poral and ecclesiastical affairs of the orders, of
$ieir internal government, of the administration of
justice in their territories, of visitations of the con-
h 3 ? vents,

102 ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS.
vents, commanderies, prisons, and colleges: it re
ceives the proofs of candidates, and pronounces on
their validity : it proposes to the king fit persons
to fill up vacancies in che commanderies, priories,
dignities, benefices, and offices of judicature.
The affairs of the orders are also cognizable by
another tribunal, called the Real junta apostolica,
(the Royal Apostolic Council); it holds its sittings
at Madrid, and is composed of five counsellors,, a,
fiscal, and secretary, T he cases to which it par
ticularly directs'its attention are the disputes which
not unfrequently arise between the military orders
and the bishops.
The order of Charles III, was founded by the
king of that name, on the l^th of September, 1 771,
and placed under the immediate protection of the
holy Virgin, under the title of the Conception. Of
this order the sovereign is chief; he alone nomi
nates the grand crosses and knights, 1 he order
is composed of sixty grand crosses, two hundred
pensioned knights, and an indefinite nurnber of
others; of a grand chancellor and minister, who is
always the patriarch of the iftdies ; of a secretary,
a master of the ceremonies, and a treasurer.
The cross of this order is of eight points, sur
mounted by a royal crown, with a figure of the,
conception in the middle ; it is worn hung to a
ribband of three equal stripes, the two outer of
which are blue, and the inner white. The grand
Crosses wear this ribband much broader than the
knights,

ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS. 103
knights, saltierwise from the right shoulder to be
neath the left arm, with a conception of silver em
broidery on the left side of the habit and cloak.
On days of ceremony they wear a long cloak, and
a collar, the links of which are formed alternately
of the king's cypher and the arms of Castile. The
knights wear the cross hung from the button-hole
by a narrow ribband.
The grand crosses and officers of the order have
the privilege of ordering two daily masses to be
said in their private domestic chapels, of taking
with them, when travelling, a portable altar for the
purpose of celebrating a- daily mass for themseVes
and their attendants, even in places that are under
interdict. Their wives and daughters have the
right of entering twice a year into those convents
in which reside any of their female relations of the
first or second degree, and of remaining there
from sunrise to sunset. These privileges, which
in the estimation of a Spaniard are of no small im
portance, were confirmed to the order by a papal
brief of the !i2d February, 1772. '
The pensions of the knights (of which there are
two hundred) are each fixed at the sum of 4,000
reals 1 41/, 13 jO; they are given to military men,
$0 men of letters, to lawyers, to gentlemen, and to
those employed in the' ministerial departments.
This order has a supreme council, composed of
the sovereign, of the grand chancellor of the order,
^ho is ajso vice-president, of a secretary, a fiscal,
h 4 an

104 ROYAL AND MILITARY ORDERS.
an accountant, and ten counsellors. To this ha.$
also been added an ancient assembly, or council,
composed of tlie king, the governor of the coun
cil of Castile, the patriarch of the Indies, the arch
bishop of Toledo, the king's confessor, the com
missary general of the crusade, another member
appointed by the king, a fiscal, a secretary, and
nine theological counsellors.
The order of Maria Louisa is very modern, hav
ing been established in 1792, by Charles VI., who
named it after the queen his wife. Only ladies
are admitted into this order. The grand master
ship is vested in the queen, and the number of la^
dies is thirty. The cross of the order is a medal
lion with a portrait of the. queen, hung jto a violet
ribband, divided in the middle by a white stripe,
and worn saltierwise.

CHAP.

( 105 )

CHAP. V.
MAYORAZGOS.
It is impossible to remain in Spain a single day
without hearing mention made of Mayorazgos. This
term, derived from the word Mayor, or first-born,
implies, strictly speaking, the right possessed by
the eldest born of a family to inherit certain pro
perty, on the condition of transmitting it entire
and undiminished to those who may be possessed
of the same right on his decease.
The import of this term has, however, been
much extended by use; for, though it properly
means only the right of succession to a perpetually
entailed estate in virtue of primogeniture, yet it
now signifies, in addition, the cause which pro
duces the right, the property which is the object
of it, the actual possessor of the property, and the
person who stands next in succession.
There are five classes or kinds of mayorazgos.
The first is the Agnation rigorosa; which strictly re
strains the succession to male descendants in the di
rect line, to the entire exclusion of females. The
second is the Agnation artificiosa, according to which
the male heirs iri the direct line first succeed; and,
afterwards, failing these, the males the nearest in
degree

W6 MAYORAZGOS.
degree in the female line. The third is the Agna-.
cion de masculinidad ; restricting the succession to
the males and females of the male line. The fourth
is la regulare ; according to which males and fe-;
males may succeed, the latter after the former, in
each degree: for example, the • sons first come to
the succession in order of birth^ then the daughters,
then the collateral males in the nearest degree, af
terwards the females in the same degree, and so on,
This latter mode of succession is the most used.
Most of the mayorazgos are in favour of the
first-born ; a few, however, are settled on the'
second children.
There are, moreover, in many families both
principal and secondary mayorazgos. The former
always belong to the first-born; the latter are so
settled as not to be tenable together with the
former : they therefore descend to the second sons,
and when these, by the death of their elder bro
thers, come into possession of the principal mayor-
azgo, the secondary pass to the third sons.
Property held by mayor'azgo cannot be alienat,
ed, or divided by the possessor, either in favour of
a wife or younger children: a vindedad, iiowever,
rnay be granted upon it, which is an annuity grant-
ed by the husband or wife in possession of a maY-
orazgo, in favour of the survivor, during life, pro
vided no subsequent marriage takes place. The
amount of the vindedad is usually fixed at one-
sixth of the income, and is often the cause of long and.

MAYORAZGOS. 107
and expensive lawsuits, which often remain unde
termined during the life of the claimant. All
cause of dispute, however, may be avoided, if the
possessor of the mayorazgo chooses before his
death to make a declaration to that purpose before
the proper court, in which case the council of Cas
tile grants a decree empowering and sanctioning
the proposed cession.
It sometimes happens that a mayorazgo is sad-
died with two or three vindedades : for example,
a wife possessed of a mayorazgo dies, and her hus
band becomes entitled to a vindedad ; the may
orazgo passes to the next heir, who also dies, leav-
ing a widow or widower entitled to a second vin
dedad. In this case the first vindedad receives a
sjxth of the entire revenue, and the second vinde
dad a sixth of the remainder, so that three vinde
dades take five twelfths of the whole income. If
the possessor of the first vindedad dies, or marries
again, the whole of his annuity goes to the second,
in addition to his own.
In the kingdom of Aragon the successor tp a
mayorazgp enjoys no part of it during the life of
the widow or widower pf the former possessor, as
the whole pf the income devolves to the surviver,
unless in cage of subsequent marriage.
So many settlements in mayorazgo have taken
place in Spain, that hardly any family is without
them, and hardly any landed estate is free from
entail. They originated from the desire of some
grandees

108 MAYORAZGOS. ¦f.
grandees to transmit, together with their name and
honours, an estate adequate to their dignity. The
example was soon followed by all the noble houses,
and extended its mischievous contagion among:
those who, having no hereditary dignities to sus
tain or transmit, indulged an absurd and ridicu^
lous pride at the expence of their younger chil
dren. The government has long been sensible of the
injuries occasioned by this prodigious increase of
these perpetual and indissoluble shackles on the
free transfer of property; but, instead of taking
any measures to break the bonds already imposed",
has contented itself with passing a law, during the
present reign, to prohibit for the future the form
ation of any mayorazgos, the income of which
shall not amount to 3,000 Jucats, (343/. 15s.);
which, as the rate of interest in Spain is only
three per cent, implies a capital of 100,000 ducats
(110,041/. 13 s.)
Numerous are the disadvantages attending this
excessive multiplication of mayorazgos ; especially
when the succession descends to females. In the
/ first place, instead pf perpetuating families, which
was the intention of the institution, it powerfully
contributes to their extinction. If male heirs hap
pen to fail for one degree or generation, the pro
perty of the family passes away, by means of the
females, to entire strangers, while the collateral
branches remain in a state of indigence and ob-
scurity,

MAYORAZGOS. 109
scurity, and at length die away and are forgotten.
In the second place, the keeping up of houses and
estates, and the general progress of agriculture, is
greatly injured. The possessors of mayorazgos
who have no children feel but little attachment to
a property in which they have only a life interest ;
they are unwilling to put themselves to inconveni
ences for the sake of distant collateral relations,
with whom also they are often on bad terms ; and
hence it is that in most estates under this tenure
the buildings are dilapidated, and the land remains
in a state of most abject neglect. In the third
place, the mayorazgos encourage idleness, the na
tional sin of Spain. A son who knows that he
must succeed to his father's estate, a brother or a
nephew who is waiting for the succession of a
"Brother or uncle, is but little disposed to procure
an independence by his personal exertions; He
passes his days by the fire:side, or in the sunshine,
waiting with supine patience for that wealth which
in other countries is the appropriate stimulus to
and reward of prudent activity.

CHAP.

£ no )

Chap. Vi.
STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN.
The state of science in Spain, before the time or
the Romans and Carthaginians, is wholly un
known ; but it may $afely be presumed that the
native inhabitants, plunged in barbarism, and oc-
cupied by the cares of a state of perpetual warfare^
' possessed neither the opportunities, the desire, not
lhe means of cultivating the sciences. When the
Romans had, by degrees, introduced along with
their arms the arts of civilization, the Spaniards
began to cultivate literature and the sciences, and!
produced several writers who attracted distin
guished regard, even at Rome. Such were the
philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca, a native of
Cordova ; the geographer M. Pomponius Mela, of
Andalusia ; and Junius Moderatus Columella, of
Cadiz, whose excellent works on' agriculture and
rural economy may be consulted with advantage,
even at the present day.
Under the dominion of the Goths the native
Spaniards were long excluded from all public em
ployments and places of trust, and their new mas
ters, careless themselves of science, could not be
expected to procure for vassals whom they despised

STATE OP SCIENCE JN si>AlN. Ill
the means of instruction. Even under these un
favourable circumstances, however, a few bifhops
arose, no less distinguished for their virtues than
their theological, writings ; Hosius, bishop of Cor
dova; Gregorius Boeticus, bishop of Elvira; Saint
Idelfonso, archbishop of his native place, Toledo;
Saint Isidore, a native, and afterwards archbishop,
of Seville ; Priscillianus, of Galicia, of distinguished
genius, but betrayed into errors which rendered
him one of the most famous and dangerous of the
Heresiarchs. At this period also Spain r*ight
boast of Petrus, of Saragossa, a distinguilhed
orator; Aurelius Prudentius, of Calahorra, an es
teemed poet; and Aquilius Severus, who wrote an
account of his travels in Africa.
The invasion of the Moors tore up by the roots
the tender germs of taste and science. The peo
ple, either fugitive or bowed under the yoke of
their conquerors, remained in a state of powerless
apathy; and when at length they resumed- their
arms to recover their country and their liberties,
to re-establish their religious worship, and to re
store the sovereignty of their ancient lords, they
had to endure several ages of incessant warfare,
during which even the very name of science was
forgotten. The most profound. ignorance spread
over the land ; the priests themselves could hardly
.read, and were for the most part unacquainted
even with the rudiments of the Latin language. '
During this period of barbarism, a few theolo gians

112 STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN.
gians kept just alive the feeble spark of learning;
but their writings, loaded with ill-digested erudi
tion, are now scarcely known, even" by name.
Two great lawyers more successfully distinguished
themselves; Vital de Canellas, about the middle of
the 14th century, and Peter Belluga, in the follow
ing century. The former, a native of Catalonia,
and bishop of Huesca, showed himself worthy of
the confidence reposed in him by the king and
states of Aragon, when they committed to his
care and fidelity the compilation of a new code of
law from the ancient statutes and ordinances of
Aragon and Sabrarbia. Emanuel Diez also de
serves mention as a writer on veterinary medicine.
It was also in these times of ignorance that
Spain produced a man of truly distinguished emi
nence for his rank, for the extent and variety of
his knowledge, and the importance of his labours.
This grea't personage was king Alphonso IV. of
Castile, X. of Leon : he was celebrated for his ac.
quirements in various departments, both of science
and literature; a legislator, orator, historian, poetj
mathematician, and astronomer ; he well merited
the surname of el Sabio, the sage, which was con-
, ferred upon him by general consent. But the abi
lities of this prince, and the high reputation that
he had acquired, were insufficient to protect him
from a signal reverse of fortune. A brave but
ambitious and unnatural son raised the standard of
revolt,, Seduced his subjects from their allegiance, and

STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN. 113
and after causing him to be dethroned by a
mock assembly of the States general at Valladolid
in 1280, himself ascended the vacant throne, by
the title of Sanchez the Warlike. The dethron
ed monarch survived his misfortunes only four
years. But while the native Spaniards were thus plung
ed in ignorance, that part of the country under the
dominion of the Moors was the chosen seat of
science. The Spaniards, ignorant of every thing
but the art of war, presumed to stigmatize the
Moors as barbarians; those Moors who, to the
most romantic bravery, united a passionate love of
science and the arts. While the former were
spending the joyless intervals of peace in the rude
solitude of their inaccessible castles, the latter were
tasting all the delights, both sensual and intellec
tual, of a high degree of civilization. They had
theatres, public shows, and tournaments; but
these amusements, however fascinating, by no
means distracted their attention from objects of
higher interest and importance. As the basis of
national greatness, they established public schools
in every town under their dominion, of which those
of Seville, Cordova, and Granada, obtained a high
degree of reputation.
They were, if not the inventors, at least the
great promoters of those public establishments to
which we at present give the name of colleges, in
which young men complete their education under
vol, v, J the

114 STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN.
the care and superintendance of several masters.
Many of these were established in the principal
cities of Moorish Spain, at a time when the rest of
Europe was unacquainted with them. Those of
Cordova and Seville enjoyed great celebrity. The
city of Granada contained several of these semin^
ries, pf which the mod famous was for a long
time principally conducted by the Spanish Arab
Schamseddin, a native of Murcia, and highly es,
teemed by his contemporaries.
None of the means for facilitating the cultivation
of science and accelerating its progress were over
looked by them. They instituted academies, in
which the learned in various departments assem
bled, for the purpose of mutually communicating
their views, their observations, and discoveries^
and in which they laboured in concert to extend
the boundaries of knowledge. Seville, Granada,
and Cordova, were the principal seats of these vo
luntary associations.- At the latter city was an
academy established by Eben-el-Rabi, commonly
called Alkassem, for the peculiar purpose of illus
trating and explaining the koran. An academy of
history existed at Xativa: it was founded in the
eleventh century by a learned native of the place,
Mohammed-abu-Amer, better known by the appel
lation Almoncarral.
Nor was the establishment of numerous apd
well selected libraries neglected by this ingenious
people: of these repositories of learning there were no

STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN. 115
no less than seventy in the different cities of Moor
ish Spain. Those of Seville and Cordova were
the most celebrared: to the latter, no less than
6000 volumes were contributed, by a munificent
individual, Alhaken, who also laid the foundation
of the celebrated academy of the same place. The
library of Granada almost equalled that of Cor
dova, and Metuakel-al-Alhac, who reigned in the
12th century, formed in his palace a magnificent
collection of books, part of which is at present at
the Escurial. It is said that the contents of these
libraries amounted to 600,000 volumes.
This ardent people did not however trust entire
ly to its own genius, learning, and activity: but
eager to accelerate the progress of science, it invoked
the assistance of foreign nations, by sending out in
every direction intelligent travellers, who pushed
their researches into the most distant countries,
and on their return, freely offered to the inquisitive
curiosity of their countrymen all the fruits of their
labours and observation. At the same time they
employed themselves in collecting and translating
all that was still extant of the learning and litera
ture of ancient Greece and Rome. Thus they
preserved the sacred deposit of science, when it,
was lost to the rest of Europe, and which, in hap
pier times, they diffused again over the civilized
world. The sciences cultivated by them with eminent
success were geography, experimental philosophy,
1 2 ' optics,

1 16 STATE OP SCIENCE IN SPAIN.
optics, botany, natural history, and geometry.
They acquired the practice of medicine from the
writings of the ancient Greeks, and enriched the
art with many important discoveries of their own.
They were the inventors, or at least the first great
improvers of chemistry. They excelled in astro-
nomy, and were the first people who established
observatories. To them are due both the science
of arithmetic and the invention of those numeral
characters which have been adopted and naturalized
in the whole of Europe and its dependencies, as
the universal language of this important science.
Their celebrity in the art of computation was so
great, that the famous Gerbert, afterwards pope,
by the name of Sylvester II , went into Spam to
study this science under Mahometan masters, and
communicated his knowledge to the rest of Eu
rope about the year 360. They excelled equally
in the mathematics : they were the inventors or
promoters of the invention of the compass. They
manufactured paper from linen rags at Valencia
and Xativa, from the very beginning of the 1:2th
century. They studied agriculture on scientific
principles, by means of a society of naturalists,
chemists, and practical cultivators, and the results
of their enquiries were collected, methodized, and
formed into a complete system of husbandry.
The reputation which the Spanish Arabs had
thus meritoriously acquired extended itself through
all Europe; from the various states of which
learned.

STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN* 117
learned men resorted in crowds to the universities
of Spain, in order to study those sciences which
were no where else taught so successfully ; of these
illustrious visitants the mod distinguished, perhaps,
were Gerbert, Daniel Morley, Campano de Novare,
and Gerard de Carmana.
The principal Arabian authors of this period
were Ali-Ebn-Rayel, Abraham-Ei-Zarukeel, and
Mohammed Geber, of Seville, on the science of
astronomy; Abu-Relti, and Ali-Albucarem, of
Toledo, on astrology ; Abu-Nazar-Phatihus, on
natural philosophy ; Abzeiat of Seville, on geogra
phy; Jolens Joli, of Toledo, Ebn-al-Beitar, of
Malaga, on botany and other branches of natural
history; Abuhazen, Geber, and Mugaribus, on
chemistry and alchemy.
The same period witnessed the rise of a multi
tude of physicians, celebrated for the extent of
their knowledge, their sagacity and success. The
names of Avicenna, Ebn-Zoar, .Almanzor, £bn-
Zacharia, Ebn-al-Beitar, Ebn-Saigh, and Ebn-
Becras-Mohammed, will ever occupy a high rank
in the annals of the healing art.
At this period also were written several scien
tific treatises en music, which display the progress
made in this pleasing art by the Spanish Arabs.
About the end of the 12th century appeared
their celebrated code of agriculture, the fruit of
the united labours of the ablest experimentalists
and practical cultivators of Spain, though pub-
i 3 fished

118 STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN.
fished only under the name of Ebn-al-Awam, of
Seville. This curious work, which has already
been described at large in the preliminary dis
course, has recently been translated by Antonio
Banquire, one of the members of the academy of,
Madrid, and published at the expence of the king.
It is one of the most complete collections that has
ever been made on this important subject, and is
peculiarly adapted to the climate and soil of Spain.
If the Spanish Arabs proved themselves worthy
of being entrusted with the sacred deposit of
science, if they communicated its treasures liberally
to the rest of the world, and exercised an import-
' ant and beneficial influence over its revival in
Christendom, they were no less distinguished by
-the progress that they made in the elegant pro-
vince of literary research, as will be further detailed
in a future article.
To sum up all in a few words, they were the
bravest and most enlightened people of their age;
their learning, their industry, their generosity, were
the admiration of all Europe ; and yet to this
splendid nation the native Spanish Christians per
tinaciously applied the appellation of barbarians.
After many years of bloodshed and confusion
the Moors were expelled, and the native Spaniards
were restored to the quiet possession of their coun
try under princes who knew the value of learning,
and conferred upon it suitable encouragement.
The fortunate and brilliant reign of the catholic
sovereigns

STATE OF SCIENCE I?T SPAIN. 119
sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella was the era in
which the first sparks of reviving knowledge began
to make their appearance ; they increased in num
ber and .intensity during the reign of Charles V.
and burst forth with a blaze of glory under the
administration of Philip II. his successor. This
sovereign loved and protected the sciences, and fa
voured and encouraged their professors ; in con
sequence, a crowd of able lawyers, of profound
theologians, of enlightened physicians, and excel
lent mathematicians, illustrated his reign ; and the
period between the end of the fifteenth century
and the commencement of the seventeenth, is the
golden age of Spanish science. At this time
"flourished the naturalists Joseph and Christopher
Acosta, and Juan Bustamante de la Camora, of
Alcala ; the celebrated grammarian Luis Nives, of
Valencia ; Gabriel Alphonso de Herrera, of Ta-
lavera de la Reyna, known by his excellent trea
tises on agriculture ; also Ferdinand, of Cordova ;
Antonio, of Lebrixa; Pedro Chacon; Benedict
Arias Montano ; Francis Sanchez, of las Brozas, in
Eflremadura ; Juan Genis de Sepulveda, of Cor
dova ; Frederic Furius Seriolanus, of Valencia ; all
of them men of multifarious erudition. At this
period also, it was, that father Ponce, a benedic-
tine, and Juan Paul Bonnet, of Aragon, first dis
covered the important art of teaching the deaf and
dumb to speak, an art which though at that time
unduly neglected, was unfolded afresh by Em-
1 4 manuel

120 STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN.
manuel Ramirez, of Carrion, at the beginning of
the 1 7th century, and has been carried almost to
perfection in our own days. Theology, especially
of the scholastic kind, also made great progress,
sustained as it was by the great abilities of Francis,
of Toledo, born at Cordova in 1532 ; of Francis
Suarez, born at Granada in 1548 ; and df Gar-
cias Luis Giron, archbishop of Toledo, author of
the collection of Spanish councils. Still more nu
merous were the eminent lawyers Antonio AguS-
tino, of Saragossa, archbishop of Tarragona, dis
tinguished not only in the law, but in general his
tory, and whom de Thou denominated the light of
Spain ; Ferdinand Gomez Arias, of Talavera de la
Reyna ; Gregoria Lopez, of Guadalupe, in Estre
madura ; Jago Cancer, of Balbastro, in Aragon ;
Didax de Cavarrubias, of Toledo, called theBartho-
lus of Spain ; and Juan Pedro Fontanella, of Vicq,
in Catalonia. To these illustrious names may be
added, Francis Salgado de Samaza, of Corunna ;
Bartholomeo Frias de Albernos; Antonio Me-
nesez y Padilha ; Antonio Gomez ; and Diego
Sarmiento y Valladares. Nor must we pass over
two great masters of canon law, Ignacio Lopez de
Salzedo, and Francis de Torres^ better known
by the name of Turrianus.
The same fostering influence brought to light
many other distinguised writers and inventors, a
few of whom we shall briefly mention : Juan Hu-
arte de San Juan, of Pampeluna, published, in
1575,

STATE OF SCIE^E IN SPAIN. \Q j
1575, his Examen de Ingenkiy% work not only ex
tremely popular in Spain, but which has been
translated into most of the languages of Europe.
Pedro Navarro, in the reign of Ferdinand V., first
introduced the use of mines into moigrk. warfare;
Christopher Roxas, of Toledo, and Christopher
Sechuga, of Baeza, published, at the eXlW the
16th cehtury, and at the commencement d.
following, good treatises on artillery, fortificatie\\
and military tactics.
Even the very women in these brilliant ages pe
netrated into the sanctuary of science, and illus
trated their country by their learned acquirements.
Isabella de Joya attracted universal admiration at
Rome, during the pontificate of Paul III., by the
easy and ingenious solutions which she gave in the
presence of the cardinals, of some of the most sub
tle questions in the works of Scotus. At the same
period Louisa Sige, born at Toledo, but of French
extraction, was able to converse in Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac ; she also wrote a
letter in the above five languages, to the pope,
Paul III. Juanna Morella, a native of Barcelona,
but educated in France, sustained at Lyons, in
1607 (being then twelve years old), public theses
in philosophy: at the age of seventeen, she repeat
ed this public exhibition in the college of the Je-
suits : she was equally learned in philosophy, the
ology, law, and music, and conversed in fourteen
languages. Oliva Sabneo de Nantes, bom at Al-
carez,

122 STATE OF SC>? /mcz IN SPAIN.
earez, in La Manch/ A , 11,.
u a' • A v'aS 'earnec^ m natural pni-
P1^' /jnorals, and politics; she pub
lished a new sv" . . .
>sVm or physiology and medicine,
jfe? an assembly of the most skilful
f ' /1 Spain, offering to demonstrate that
Jres which they then taught in the schools
wer^, c
ill or error.
.he successors of Philip II. did not follow his
example in the protection and encouragement af
forded to science by that prince. The fortunate
impulse that had been received, continued, indeed,
to manifest its energy during several years, but at
length its progress became impeded; the learned,
deprived of the warm influence of royal bounty,
grew torpid, and suspended their labours. Public
adversity also contributed to withdraw the atten
tion of the nation from science. Tedious wars in
distant countries, a slothful and unpopular admi
nistration, and defeats and losses in accumulated
succession under the last sovereigns of the house of
Austria, exhausted the country. The monarchy,
once so flourishing and potent, became feeble and
inert, and fell into a state of decay, which shed a
baleful influence on all the public institutions : the
sciences partook in full proportion of this retro
gression, and their decay soon equalled that of the
state. Yet, even during this inauspicious period, there
arose a few happy and sublime native geniuses,
who made great exertions to disengage themselves from

STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN. 123
from the apathy by which they were encompassed,
and to take a flight worthy of the happier era that
had gone by; but like those momentary meteors
that disappear even at the moment when they are
attracting notice, they just showed themselves, and
then were extinguished -by the characteristic indif
ference of their age and country. Such were Al
phonso de Andrado, of Toledo, an excellent asce
tic theologian; Alphonso de Castro, of Zamora,
who wrote against heresies and penal laws ; Juan
Baptista Larrea, of Vittoria, in Alava, a celebrated
lawyer; the botanist Gregorio Lopez; and the
physician and naturalist Francisco Cernandes, who
published, in 1 641, from his own observations,
an account of the animals, plants, and minerals of
Mexico. ,
About the same period, also, a nobleman of one
of the first houses in Spain distinguished himself
by his successful cultivation of the sciences: this
illustrious person, the duke of Escalona, was prp-
foundly acquainted with most of the modern Eu
ropean languages, with the poetical writers of an
cient Greece and Rome, and with history both
ancient and modern; he was an acute philoso
pher, an able mathematician, an excellent geogra
pher ; he was well versed in theology and civil and
canonical law; he was possessed of a well-selected
library, open at all times to men of science and
literature. At the same time a lady of the court,
the duchess of Albuquerque, distinguished herself by

124 STATE Ot SCIENCE IN SPAIN.
by the patronage that she afforded to literature and
science ; she held weekly assemblies in Jier palace
in Madrid, for the purpose of allowing frequent
opportunities to the literati of that city of becom
ing acquainted with each other, and mutually
^communicating on all subjects of general know*
ledge. These examples and these encouragements by
degrees revived in Spain a love and respect for
study; the government lent its powerful aid to
bring about this desirable change; and the people
thus supported at home, and animated by the ex
ample of neighbouring countries, devoted them
selves with ardour to the cultivation of their
minds. Their progress at first was slow, on ac
count of the slender assistance that could be fur
nished by a few imperfect establishments ; but in
proportion as the means of instruction became
more accessible and efficacious, their progress was
more rapid; there soon arose men distinguished
in every department of science, and Spain had
no longer to blush for her mental inaction.
Thoma Vincent Tosca, and father de la Cerda,
gained the admiration of their countrymen for the
extent of their knowledge of mathematical science.
Ulloa and George Juan, excellent astronomers
and geographers, successfully reduced their know
ledge to practice under the equator.
Andrea Piquer, of Valencia, made himself advan.
tageously known to all Europe by his medical
/ writings j

STATE OP SCIENCE IN SPAIN. 125
writings; and Solana de Luque, of Antequerra,
made important discoveries on the pulse.
The marquis of Santa Cruz and Jerome Ustariz
taught excellent maxims of commerce.
The same nobleman and the marquis de la
Mina shewed their sagacity in treating of military
tactics. Bartholomeo Marti, better known by the name
of dean of Alicant, published a judicious and well-
reasoned treatise on the art of criticism.
Louis Velasquez wrote on coin, and Burriel
published an able and interesting work on the
weights, measures, writing, and ancient laws of
California. Another illustrious man did honour to his coun
try, and has acquired an European fame. Bene
dict Feyjoo, a benedictine monk, who died at
Oviedo in 1762, arose from the midst of ignor
ance at a time when literature, science, and the
arts were absolutely neglected and unknown in his
native country. His versatile genius embraced all
subjects ; theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, and
medicine ; with all of which he acquired an inti
mate acquaintance. His style was pure, simple,
perspicuous, and methodical, though at times pro
lix -, his genius was fertile, bold, and sincerely at
tached to truth ; in consequence he freed boil
himself and his nation from the dominion of many
mischievous and disgraceful prejudices. To him
• |Spain is deeply indebted for the restoration of lite-
rature?

125 STATE OF SCIENCE IN , SPAIN.
rature, good taste, and the love of study. He-
overthrew judicial astrology, and combated with
success the superstitious and popular dread of co
mets, eclipses, ghosts and goblins : he declared-
war against the practice of indiscriminate alms
giving ; against the cheats and absurdities of th«
divining rod, hydroscopy, and the healing of mad
ness by the touch, joined to the repetition of cer
tain secret and mysterious prayers.
From among those learned Spaniards who have,
during the present age, sustained the honour of
their country, it will be sufficient to select the
names of Mayans, Perez de Bayer, Malatz, Gar-
riga, Monpalan, and Cavanilles. To these may
be added, the duke dAlmadavas, well known as
the author of an excellent history of the European
settlements in foreign countries, which was pub
lished in the year 1790, under the assumed name
of Malo de Lugue.
It may be a matter of surprise that I have not
here mentioned the name of Joseph Nuer, that
able botanist whose treatises on the cicuta and the
arbutus uva ursi were the precursors of an excel
lent Flora Hispanica ; of which, however, only the
firs| four volumes in quarto have been published ;
the completion of the plan having been interrupted
by his death, which took place March 19, 1764,
in the sixty ninth year of his age : but the truth is,
that Joseph Nuer was by birth a Frenchman, being
a native of Perpignan, of Roussillon. He was, how ever,

STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN. 127
ever,, educated in Spain, and there his talents were
formed and unfolded ; so that without much im
propriety he may take his place among the Spanish
naturalists. The number of universities in Spain was for
merly twenty-four. Those of Barcelona, Gerona,
Lerida, Vicq, and Tarragona, all in Catalonia ;
that of Gandia, in the kingdom of Valencia ; and
that of Baeza, in the kingdom of Jaen, have all
been suppressed during the 1 8th century.
The following seventeen are all that now remain:
that of Pampeluna, in Navarre ; of Oviedo, in the
Asturias ; of San Jago, in Galicia ; of Seville, and
of Granada, in the provinces * of the same name ;
of Huesca and Saragossa, in Aragon ; qf Avila,
Osma, and Valladolid, in Old Castile; of Toledo,
Siguenza, and Alcala de Hamarez, in New Castile ;
of Cervera, in Catalonia ; of Orihuela and Valen
cia, in Valencia ; and of Salamanca, in the province
of Leon.
The universities of Huesca, Valladolid, Osma,
Avila, Siguenza, Granada, Seville, San Jago, Ovie
do, and Pampeluna, scarcely deserve notice, on ac
count of the small number of professors and stu
dents attached to them, and the very imperfect in
struction that they communicate. The university
of Orihuela is nearly in the same condition ; the
professorship of medicine having been suppressed
about thirty years ago.
The university of Saragossa has twenty-two pro
fessors,

128 STATfe OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN.
fessors,> and that of Toledo has twenty-four : about
900 students attend the classes of the former, and
nearly 3000 those of the latter ; yet neither of
these establishments is known in Europe, or re
garded as of high reputation even in Spain.
The university of Alcala, established at a pro
digious expence by cardinal Ximenes, answered
for nearly a century the views of its illustrious
founder. This splendid institution consists of
thirty-one general professors, and thirteen colleges,
each of which has its particular establishment of
masters and professors, and of students, who re
ceive gratuitous support and instruction. At pre
sent, however, this university is gone so' entirely
to decay, that scarcely a vestige of its ancient
splendour remains, and the whole number of stu
dents scarcely amounts to five hundred.
The university of Cervera, founded at the com
mencement of the eighteenth century, with a mag
nificence truly royal, possesses forty-three pro
fessors, five colleges, and about nine hundred
students ; but it partakes of the radical faults of
all the Spanish universities ; the course of study is
incomplete and antiquated, and the very name of
the institution is scarcely known beyond the
boundaries of Catalonia.
The university of Salamanca, the most ancient
of any in Spain, has enjoyed a degree of celebrity
which entitles it to a particular description.
It was founded by Alphonso IX., between the
years

STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN. 129
years 1230 and ll2U, and was cons'derahly en
larged by Ferdinand HI., his grandson. But its
most munificent patron was .\lphonso X. surnam
ed the Sage, son and successor of the last men
tioned sovereign. This prince richly endowed t,
and drew up a set of statutes for its government.
He established a professorship of civil hw with a
salary of five hundred maravedies ; a professorship
of canon-law with a salary. of three hundred mara-
Vadies : two professorships of decretals with sala
ries of five hundred maravedies ; two professors of
natural philos >pby, and as many of logic, with
salaries of two hundred maravedies each ; and two
masters of grammar with salaries of three hundred
maravedies. Ir experienced also the liberality of
many succeeding sovereigns, and received from the
popes a vast extent of privileges.
For many years this university enjoyed a high
reputation : i s fame extended over all Europe : it
was consulted by kings and by popes, and its de
puties were received info the general councils,
where they well sustained the character of the
body which they represented. Students flocked
to it not only from all the provinces of Spain and
Portugal, and from the islands of Majorca and the
Canaries, hut also from the West Indies and New '
Spain, and even from France, Flanders, and tng-
land. The number of students who attended the
classes amounted nearly to 15,000. The whole
of this vast establishment consisted of twenty-five;
vol. v. K, colleges,

130 SI-AM OP SCIENCE IN SPAIN.,
colleges, a library, and a hospital called del Estudi*v
intended for the amelioration of poor scholars.
The celebrity of Salamanca continued in full
vigour during many ages; but, at length, as rival
institutions- sprung up, declined by slow degrees,
so that by the year 15Q5 the number of students-
did1 not exceed 7,000.
The- establishment itself still continues unim
paired; and the, ancient library has, been aug.
mented by that of the Jesuits : it contains at pre
sent about 20,000 volumes,. of which, however^ a
very small proportion are modern.
Of the colleges, one called Of the three languages,
(Collegium trilingue), is appropriated to teaching
the Latin; Greek,, and Hebrew tongues: Four
other colleges called Noble receive only young
men of rank, out of whom were chosen the per
sons who filled all the important offices in the uni
versity. This partiality produced its natural effect
of destroying, all emulation : the students of thp
-favoured colleges being almost certain of obtaining
appointments, neglected the studies requisite to en
able them^ to perform with credit the duties of their
stations ; while those who were precluded from all
hope of advancement fell into a state of sloth- and
apathy, and the most deplorable ignorance. The
evil at length became, too glaring to be longer en>>
dured, and the proper remedy was applied during
the reign of his present majesty's* predecessor, by
abolishing the exclusive privileges of the nobl^
. cqlleges,

s'Jate of science hi SPAIN. isi
colleges, and laying" open' every office" in the uni
versity to free corhpetitiori.
Another cause ot the decay of this once cele
brated university is to be attributed to the unac
commodating obstinacy with which, till very lately,
it adhered to false" and antiquated systems, which
in almost every other seminary had given place to
the superior knowledge arid pnilosophy of moderri
times ; so that a young man, after going throifgli
the regular course of study, fcurid, on entering
into the world, that he htfd been acquiring; at a
great expence of time and labour, only those sys
tems and opinions, the falsehood arid futility of
which had been long ago universally acknowledg
ed, except within the walls of Salamanca.
The present establishment of this university con
sists of sixty-one professors, who teach theology,
the canon, Roman, and Spanish laws", medicine',
mathematics, philosophy, political economy, rhe
toric, and the Oriental languages. There is also
a school of music ;- a theatre of anatomy, iri which
also are given courses of surgery, arid of expefi-
ihental philosophy. 1 he philosophy of Aristotle is
proscribed, and the rriodern phil6s6phy is taught
according to the principles of Jacquier : a course
of doctrinal theology also is instituted, which had
hitherto beeri neglected.
But all these atterripts at reform have riot beeii
able W overcome the* spirit of sloth and idleness
K 2 that

132 STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN.
that had reigned so long triumphant in this insti
tution. The* professors, imbued with their old,
doctrines, and unacquaintedjwith the modern ones,
have not been able to accommodate themselves to,
the orders of government : although, therefore,
they seem/to have discarded Aristotelianism, their-.
ill concealed predilection breaks forth on every op
portunity, and the old syllogistic forms of. teach-,
ing still subsist in full force. There are no lec
tures given on pharmacy or botany, and the course
of experimental philosophy is entrusted to persons
wholly unacquainted with the use even of the sim
plest article of apparatus.
The examination for degrees is much too slight
arid insufficient to exhibit the knowledge, or ex
pose the ignorance, of the applicants. It is re
stricted to a prelection of an hour and a half, on a
subject given the evening before, and to a disputa
tion arising out of the prelection. But though the
proper object of the examination is not obtained,
the ceremony itself is striking, from the great
number of persons who assist at it ; from tlje'
.profusion of lights by which the hall is illuminat
ed ; and the repeated bursts of syllogistical ergos
echoing from the vaulted roof, and mingled with
the loud applauses of the auditors. The ceremony
commences at eight in the evening, and terminates
at seven in the following morning : towards mid
night the examination is interrupted by a splendid
abundant

3

STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN. , 133
abundant supper, given at the expence of the can
didates to the professors, and on this occasion
there seldom fails to be a very full attendance.
If the examinations for degrees are superficial,
those for professorships are still more trifling. A
prelection of half an hour, and a disputation of tlie
same length, are deemed sufficient, though they
scarcely afford ground fpr estimating even the me
mory of the candidate, and his acquaintance with
a few scholastic subtilties.
This representation is by no means a satire : on
the contrary, its truth is so fully acknowledged
throughout all Spain', that the schools of Salaman
ca are almost deserted; the whole number of stu
dents not amounting to a thousand.
The most popular university at present is that of
Valencia. It has received distinguished marks of
royal favour ; its statutes have been reformed ; its
means of instruction have been augmented ; the
number of professors has been increased ; and
their fitness for the various departments that they
occupy is ascertained by a sufficiently accurate e3"-
airiination ; yet the result of all this seeming care
and attention is but little satisfactory, as I have al
ready shown at large in the former part of this
work. Lectures are delivered at all the Spanish univer
sities on theology, canon and civil law, medicine,
and philosophy. In those of Valencia and Sala
manca" are also given lectures on mathematics and
A kS experi-

If4 STATE OF S^ENCE IN SPAIN.
experimental philosophy ; and in those of Alcala,
Valencia, and Salamanca, lectures on anatomy and
surgery. The instructions on medicine in all its branches
- aje extremely imperfect, as will be proved in the
next chapter. The lectures on theology are al
most entirely confined to that part of the science
called the scholastic ; a somewhat more liberal
course is taught at Valencia, and a few lectures on
doctrinal theology are delivered at Salamanca, but
in a style pf empty pedantic syllogizing, rather (cal
culate^ to conceajl error than to discover truth.
I have sajd that experimental philosophy is
taught at Valencia and Salamanca ; but in the
former of these universities, as [ate as the year
17°-?. there was not apparatus for the exhityitjoii
of a single experiment ; and in the latter, this de
partment was confided to a professor who had .him
self never attended a §ingle course on the subject,
and was so totally unacquainted with the matter
as nqt tP be able tp put together the apparatus
which was sent for his use ffom Paris, without the
assistance of a French artist from Barcelona. At
Valencia there is a professor pf astronomy \ but
he is finished neither with instruments nor an
observatory : and the state of the mathematical
school a| Salamanca may be judged 'of from the
fact, that the pqly treatise on the sphere, which is
rj?ad thej;e? I, that of Johannes de Sacro Bpsco.
;:i0rj->,?Bf^J |f}d philqsqghy are alsq^au|ht in ^
great

State op science in- spa*-n. Its.
great number of colleges : some dependent on*
and others independent of, the universities, as well
as in many seminaries attached to the episcopal
sees, and under the direction of the bishops* Afc
cala de Hamares, Toledo, Cever, Orihuela, Sala
manca, Gerona, Barcelona, Cuenca, Seville, &c.
possess establishments of this kind ; but the sys
tem of instruction in these is still more iqjperfect
and faulty than even in the universities.
The conventual schools are ajsp very numerous*
to. all monasteries of any importance are lecturers
for the purpose of instructing the junior members
of the society in theology and philosophy ; but as
ihese schools are open to the public, the mischiev
ous consequences of the absurd systems there
taught extend beyond the bounds of the monaste
ries themselves. Within these cloisters it is that
scholastic theology and peripatetic philosophy have
taken refuge ; here, without disturbance, they
spin their subtleties, cherish their prejudices, and
transmit, by uninterrupted succession, the bar
barism of the ancient schools purged of their acti
vity. There are in Spain four military schools : name
ly, at Barcelona, Zamora, Cadiz, and Segoviai
The three first are intended for cadets of the army
and engineers, who are instructed in drawing, ma
thematics, engineering, and fordficatipn. The last
is appropriated to cadets in the artillery,. and is
k 4 well

ISS state Of sc iejJce in* Spain.
well Suppliedwith able masters in all the branches
of-study that belong to their profession.
»*> 'Each of- the three great naval stations, Xeral,
Carthagena, andi Cadiz, has : two professional
schools, the orie'Lfor cadets in the marines, the
other fbr LgiinnersV-' The former are taught ma
thematics,- experimental philosophy, gunnery, and
naval- evbludons. The latter are instructed in
drawing, mathematics^ gunnery, pyrotechny, for-
tifioaifeB, "&&¦•' To the school of Carthagena is
also' attached a:botanica' garden and a lecturer on
that branch of natural history.
" Schools of pilotage and navigation are established
in various places; at Ferrol,' and Corunna, m
Galicis ; at Gijon, in' Atturia : at Santander, in
Biscay; at; San Sebastian, and Placencia, in Gui-
puscoa; at Loredo, Cadiz, and Seville, in Anda
lusia; at R acheravinrp, and Carthagen-, in Mur
cia; at Areris del-Mar, Mataro, and Barcelona, in
Catalonia.- •
in all Spain there are only three: botanical gar
dens in which public lectures are given ; these are
at Cirthagena, Cadiz, and Madrid; the first is
very small, is attached to the department of mili
tary marine, and receives only cadets in that
brdn h of servire. , 'I hat at Cadiz is a branch of
the school of surgery, established in that city, and
is accessible only to medical students. That of
Madrid is by far the most complete, and kept in the
best

state of science iv sp.mn. 137
best order; to it are attached two professors, who
lecture gratuitously, every year, to all persons who
chuse to attend on the science of botany; while
two physicians are constantly employed in re
searches on the medical and sensible properties of
various planes. These three establishments, how
ever, are not of all the utility that might be ex
pected, as not one of them is situated in a place
where there is a school of medicine.
Lectures on chemistry are delivered in the uni
versity of Valencia ; but they are merely verbal,
and unaccompanied by experiments, as the uni
versity has neither laboratory nor apparatus. The
two annual courses of chemistry delivered at the
botanic garden of Madrid are the only lectures
on this science open to the public in general. The
establishment consists of two professors, one of
whom confines his particular attention to that
branch of the science which relates to the theory
of dying, and the preparation of pigments, which,
in a city containing no manufactories, is not likely
to be productive of much beriefit.
Of lr.te years there have been established three
schools of surgery; one at Barcelona, another at
Cadiz and the third at Madrid. Each of these
has one anatomical thea:re, a public library, and a
competent number of professors, who teach ana
tomy and the whole theory and practice of sur
gery. These institutions have not produced all
the good that was naturally expected from them, and

138 state of science IN SPAINo
aftd hw of their pupils have been distinguished;
ai$ong the rest of the profession.
Two otiher ^similar institutions were established
in 1§00, at Val.ladofid, and San Jago; but, from
the injudicious selection that has been made of
masters, it would he unreasonable to expect any
very high degree of success. At Cadiz a hundred*
young men are supported by the king during their-
attendance on the surgical school at that place,
previous to their being appointed surgepns on
board ihe fleet,
,_The two colleges that unite with most success a
liberal and comprehensive plan pf education are of
very recent establishment : one of these, called the
College of San Isidro, has succeeded to that of the
Jesuits ; the other is called the Seminary of the
Nobi/ity, and is destined to the gratuitous education
of 118 sons of poor gentlemen. The establish
ment of each of them consists of masters in the
Latin, Greek, and Oriental languages, poetry,
lpgic, moral philosophy, mathematics, and national
law. Besides these, there is in the former a pro
fessor of ecclesiastical discipline ; and hi the latter
are masters in the French and English languages,'
geography, the military art, and fortification.
Two economical societies have established similar
seminaries. The economical society of Saragossa
has instituted in that city a public school, in which
are taught rural economy, the. elements of com
merce, mathematics, moral philosophy, and na
tional

state op SCJENCE TN SPAJ1,'. 139
tional law. The ecpnomical society pf Guipusco^
has established, at Vergara, a patriotic school that
cpipbiaes many branches pf instruction with a
strict and wise system pf discipline; in consequence
pf which ic 19 daily risi g jn the public estimation.
Sixteen masters are here employed in teaching the
elements pf the Christian reijgion, reading, wrjjv
ing, arithmetic, Lpiin and Spanish grammar, th?
classics, rhe.oric, geography, foreign inpdern lan
guages, mathematics, experimental philosophy, na?
tural history, docimastic chemistry, drawing, dancr
ing, and music. yfhis institution is under the
consta t superin,tendance of the society which first
fpunded i:, a committee of which, renewed every
foiy mon-hs, resides in the college, and presides
at the examinations whicfr take place every four
months, and on which occasion honorary prizes
are distributed, to the most meritpr}pys gtudents.
Tfhe session lasts ejght months, the vacation pecu.-
pying the four repricluding months of the year.
An establishment on nearly a similar plas h^s
heen formed at Gijon, in Asturia, under the title
pf Real Inst'ttuto. Asturjanp (the RoyaJ Institute pf
Asturia), in which are taught the jnathtmaticg,
natural philosophy, mineralogy, pawjgatjpn, draw-
ipg? jmd the French and English langpag§«.
Natural history is one of the branches of general
Jcnowjedgg the least attended, tp in Spain, notwith
standing tlie native riches pf the ecjuntry in every
department q£ na{uraj h$\8U> aAd. ihe facility of
!> procuring

140 SfA'FE OP SCIENCE IN SPAIN. t
procuring specimens of all kinds from the Ameri-
can colonies. There are no lectures on this sub
ject accessible to the public, for to those given in
the college" of Vergara, only the students of that
institution are admitted. A few individuals are
possessed of cabinets of natural history; but, for
the most part, of little extent.' That belonging to
the apothecary, Salvador, of Barcelona, deserves
to be particularly mentioned, both oi> account of
its intrinsic merit, and the facility with which its
•liberal minded proprietor allows all those who
apply to have free access to his treasures.
Public libraries are much more numerous thari
cabinets. That belonging to the king, at Madrid,
is in fine condition, rich, and well selected : it con
tains nearly 200,000 volumes. In the same city are
three" others, one belonging to the school of sur
gery, another to the academy of history, and the
third to the duke of Medina- Coeli. Of these the
former is not very extensive, being confined to
¦those subjects that are strictly connected with the
establishment to which it belongs : but the latter
is extremely rich in manuscripts, medals, maps,,
arid plans, &c : it is not, strictly speaking, open to
the public, but the munificent liberality of its noble'
proprietor renders it very easily accessible by all
men of letters. . *¦
The other public libraries of Spain are, that of
Saint Catherine's, or of the Dominicans, at Bar
celona, a numerous collection of old books : that of

STATE OF. SCIENCE IN SPAIN. 141
of the schopl of surgery of the same place, small,
but well selected; that of the college of Gerona,
formerly belonging to the Jesuits ; that of the
monastery of Saint Idelfonso, containing about
Uj,000 volumes of old books; that of the semi
nary of Saragossa, a numerous, valuable, and well
chosen collection ; that of the ancient house of the
Jesuits at Alcala de Henares, a numerous collection
of old ' books, particularly in scholastic theology :
that belonging to the metropolitan chapter of To
ledo, enriched by above seven hundred manu
scripts: that of the university of Salamanca, con
taining about 20,000 volumes : that of the school
of surgery at Cadiz : those of the Dominican mo
nastery, and the episcopal palace of Murcia, and of
the metropolitan chapter and archiepiscopal palace
of Seville, which are all numerous collections of
old books.
In the year 1796 the king established a corps pf
cosmographical engineers, the members of which
have the appointments and rank of captains, lieu
tenants, and cadets in the army. At the same time
was founded a school at Madrid for the younger
officers of this corps, where they are taught geome
try, mathematics, geography, meteorology, and
astronomy. This establishment is too recent to
allow. a just estimate to be formed of its probable
utility. , There are very few academies in Spain, for the
purpose

142 sTAfS 61 Sfci^NC^: iN spaIn.
purpose of scientific discovery. There etfist^, At
VallSdoKdj-an acadeifty of geography',- atid a'ribther
of maffih eristic's1, at Granada, but, iri fact, tney affr
both of thiem schools decoi'ate'd with the' ti'tFe1 of
academy. At ikrcSfetfa' is ari academy Of science's'
(the ©riiy one of the" kind in Spain), which is en
tirely' supported by the zeal a'rid- contrrbuti6n£ of
its members, without the '•srtMle'sft aid or* encou
ragement fr6m' the government. There are M
Spain three academies of medicine1, at Madrid,
Seville, and Barcelona: the latter of the^e was
associated in the year 1790 with the royal society
of medicine at Paris, and has since published a1
sirigle volume of its labours, which is a collection,
for the most part of trivial and insignificant
memoirs. The two former institutions are -less
active, and not more respectable. It is a singular
circumstance, and one not very honourable to the:
nation, that Madrid should be the only capital
city of Europe destitute of a scientific academy.
Such are the establishments in Spain for the ad
vancement Of science: in number fully adequate
to the wants of the natiori, but in spirit, activity,.
and1 acquaintance with modern discoveries, miser-'
ably deficient. Their schools of astfonoiriy. are'
destitute1 of instruments and observatories; their
courses of natural philosophy are without experi
ments ; their teachers of natural history are utifdN
flished with cabinets; their professors of anatomy give

STATE OF SCIENCE IN SPAIN. 143
give no demonstrations, their schools of chemistry
are without laboratories and apparatus, and their
libraries are destitute of modern books.
Hence it follows that, though there are many
learned and profoundly erudite men in Spain,
they are unable to bririg their talents to any ac
count : the subjects to which they devote their
attention have long since been abandoned by the
i*est of, Europe ; or, if retained, have been so ad
vanced and modified by the superior knowledge of
the present age, as to render a recurrence to the
rude outlines of the early masters on these subjects
a mere waste of time and solemn trifling.

CTJAP.

( H4 )

CHAP. VII.
fry
STATE OF MEDICINE IN SPAIN.
There are at present, in Spain, sixteen medical.
schools, one in each of the universities of the king
dom. Attached to each is a greater or smaller
number of professors, who dictate and explain • to
their pupils the elements of the theory and prac
tice of medicine. Their lectures are confined to
verbal explanations, without any mixture of real
cases, and such other demonstrations as the sub
ject would very properly admit of. The univer
sities of Valencia and Salamanca are the only ones
in which are publicly exhibited any anatomical de
monstrations, or in which is any professional
library accessible by the students.
All who choose to apply are admitted as stu1
dens of medicine, without any previous examina
tion of their proficiency in those studies that form
the basis of every plan of liberal education, and
the consequence is, that a large proportion of
those who attend the medical lectures are ex-,
tremely illiterate.
The medical course lasts four years ; during
which time the students attend the public halls,
writing

STATE OP MEDICINE IN SPAIN. 145
writing down the lectures from the dictation of the
professors ; but in consequence of their previous
ignorance; even of the language of science; these
transcripts present a formless mass of confusion, in
which those terms that ate difficult or new to the
writer are either entirely omitted, or so strangely
transformed, as to be wholly unintelligible. These
manuscripts, however,- form the only resource of
the students in these universities, where there is
no professional library; for the purchase of books,
which in most of the Spanish towns are both scarce
and dear, is much beyond the pecuniary means of
a poor scholar.
The students are not subject to any examination
during their course ; nor is any notice taken of the
regularity or irregularity of their attendance on the
" professors : indeed a large proportion of them are
so miserably indigent as to be obliged to spend
much. of their time in attending the public gratuitous
distribution of bread, soup, &c. at the hospitals
and monasteries, or in earning a slender livelihood
by various menial services.
After the expiration of the four years of study,
the pupils are obliged to learn the actual practice
of medicine for two years longer; For this pur
pose they enter into the service of some physician
(usually of little business, for those who are much
employed do not choose to be encumbered with un
profitable pupils), arid in return for these humili
ating offices, which a man of spirit would neither
vol. v. l require

146 STATE OF MEDICINE IN SPAIN.
require nor submit to, are allowed to accompany
him in his daily rounds, from which they pick up
the usual forms of interrogating a patient, and the
common routine of medical practice.
Their education being thus completed, they
apply for a degree, which, after a short examina
tion, in the course of which the candidate and ex
aminers and audience are often completely puz
zled, is granted by the university in due form ;
and the new-made doctor is turned loose on so
ciety, to starve or succeed, in proportion to his ta
lents for intrigue, and his dexterity in seeming to
do much for his patients, while he wisely trusts
more to the efforts of nature than to his own skill.

Medical Police.
The government and superintendance of the me
dical profession is entrusted to a tribunal named
the Protomedicate. This court is divided into three
branches; one consisting of physicians, and pre
siding over the department of medicine; another
of surgeons, presiding over the department of sur
gery ; and a third of apothecaries, presiding over
the department of pharmacy. The former consists
of three physicians appointed by the king, and
called examining alcaldes, assisted by the three phy
sicians of his majesty, 'the senior of whom is the
president. In the second, the first surgeon of the
king

STATE OF MEDICINE IN SPAIN. i47
king presides, assisted by three examining surgeon
alcaldes. The third consists of the first apothecary
of the king, assisted by three examining apothecary
alcaldes. There are, besides, attached to this
court, the following law-officers, namely, an as
sessor, a fiscal, a secretary, and several writers.
The business of this court is principally to grant
licences for practising; for, however singular it -
may appear, and however derogatory it may seem
from the dignity of the universities and colleges,
no individual, even if he should have taken his
university degree with the greatest credit, is allow
ed to practise any of the three branches of medi
cine in any part of the continent of Spain, without
undergoing a second examination at the Protome
dicate, and receiving a licence from that body.
These examinations, however, are not very for
midable : in the first, the candidate is questioned
for about half an hour on the theory of medicine ;
and in the second examination for about the same
time as before, on the practice of medicine ; he is
then required to take charge for three days of a
patient in some public hospital, whom, if attentive
to his interest, he will treat according to the theory
and method of the examining physician, whether
right or wrong. This expected compliment being
paid, the candidate is put to no further trou
ble, but receives his licence on payment of the
fees, which amount to little more than nine
guineas. l 2 Catalonia,

148 STATE OF MEDICINE, IN SPAIN.
Catalonia, Aragon, Navarre, and the kingdom
of Valencia, are the only provinces in Spain that
ate exempted from the judicature of the Protome-
dicate ; and in consequence, the medical men who
have received degrees from any university in these
provinces may exercise their profession without
any further licence.
The number of physicians in Spain is very great;
they are found not only in the towns, but in al
most every village and hamlet. In Madrid alone
(the population of which does not exceed 160,000
persons) there were 135 physicians in the year
1 792. The profession being so overstocked, and
the fees being very small, the physicians are almost
universally in such narrow circumstances as to be
wholly incapable of making any adequate provision
for their Widows and children. The same nig
gardliness which characterizes the emoluments of
their private practice, is visible in the slender sala
ries attached to those public places and offices that
are held by members of the profession. The pay
of the physicians of the hospitals is very trifling ;
and that of the professors of medicine at the uni
versities is not much better. The university of
Valencia, which is the most liberal, allows 100
doubloons (62/. 10j.) to each medical professor
ship; but in some universities the salary hardly
amounts to one-fifth of the above sum.
Besides these, there are three places somewhat
more lucrative, held by members of the profession j
namely?

STATE OF MEDICINE IN SPAIN. 149
namely, that of first physician of the marine, who
resides at Cadiz, and those of inspector of epidemic
diseases, and superintendant of the royal garden at
Madrid : the two latter offices are of late institu
tion, and are held by two of the king's physicians.
Eighteen physicians are attached to the court ;
of whom fifteen are styled physicians of the royal
family; whose duty it is to watch over the health
of the domestics and subaltern officers belonging
to the househould establishment : the annual sa
lary of each of these is 4000 reals (41/. \3s. 3d.)
The three other physicians are styled de Camera
(of the chamber), and are in duty about the per
son of the king and royal family. The office of
these three physicians of the chamber is by no
means a sinecure. They are expected to be pre
sent every morning at the levee of the king ; after
which they visit the queen and the prince of Astu
rias ; they then separate, in order to visit the other
branches of the royal family. They must also be
in waiting while the king is at dinner, and be ready
to receive him on his return from hunting ; some
times, even, one of their body is ordered to ac
company his majesty on this exercise. They also
form part of the royal train when the court moves
from Madrid to Aranjuez, the Pardo, Saint Ilde-
fonso, or the Escurial.
. Each of these three physicians has an appoint
ment of 60,000 reals (625/.) annually, besides
apartments near the palace at Madrid, and in
l 3 each

150 STATE OF MEDICINE IN SPAIN.
each of the other houses frequented by the king, a
carriage kept at the king's expence, and about
9,000 reals (93/. 15s.) as members of the Proto-
medicate. The senior physician is, ex' officio, presi
dent of the Protomedicate and honorary counsellor
of the royal council of finance ; in virtue of which
offices fie enjoys a greater salary than the others
by about 24,000 reals (250/.).
I shall conclude this chapter by relating, in a
few words, an extraordinary attempt that was made
a few years ago to overturn the authority and pri
vileges of the Spanish physicians, in order to fa*
vour, at their expence, another branch of the pro
fession. The surgeons of the court, taking advantage of
the carelessness of the king's physjpians, had for
some time enjoyed credit with the king, or with
his advisers : this credit they possessed sagacity and
activity enough to turn tp the advantage ojf them
selves, and of the colleges of surgery. The first
public proof of their interest at court was mani
fested by the privilege which they acquired, of
wearing the national cockade, and an uniform
trimmed with silver lace. This was soon followed
by a royal decree, uniting the physicians and sur*
geons into one corporation, under the title of the
Two re-united faculties, The general administra
tion of the new system was confined to a commis*
sion established at Madrid, under the name of
Junta suprema Governqtiva., find, cpmposed of the
physicians

STATE OF MEDICINE IN SPAIN. 151
physicians and surgeons of the court ; over which
the first physician and first surgeon of the king
presided, in regular alternation. , The secretary-
general, however, to whom the predominant in
fluence belonged, was a surgeon, so that these last
had a complete and effective majority in the junta.
The superintendance of the medical men in the
provinces was also conferred on juntas or com
mittees of the colleges of surgery ; and in order to
render this provincial branch adequate to the per
formance of the new duties delegated to it, there
were created three new colleges of surgery, at Sa
lamanca, San Jago, and Valladolid. These new
establishments were composed principally of sur
geons, to whom wj^re aggregated, to save appear
ances, a few of tfie junior physicians ; but the old
surgical colleges of Cadiz, Barcelona, and Madrid,
remained, as before, exclusively filled by surgeons.
The titles of physician and surgeon to the>king
were suppressed, and one common appellation was
invented for both. The surgeons of the court and
the professors of the colleges of surgery were cre
ated Medecinos (bachelors of medicine), which
entitled them to take out a licence for the practice
pf medicine.
All the schools of medicine throughout Spain
were suppressed at the same instant, and their
rights were transferred to the colleges of sur
gery. The Protomedicate was abolished, and all
its privileges and archives conferred upon the
i, 4 same

152 STATE OF MEDICINE IN SPAIN.
same bodies. Even the universities were deprived
of the power of granting either degrees or licences
in medicine.
In consequence of this amalgamation of the two
professions, Spain was absolutely overrun with
Medecinos; for not only the fellows of the surgical
colleges were admitted to practise medicine, but
even all those who had obtained the lowest degrees
of surgery, who were pnly sufficiently skilled to
gain a licence for shaving, bleeding, and drawing
teeth, in short, all the barber-surgeons were also
entitled to apply for a licence for medical practice,
and obtained it accordingly.
So total a cfiange, it may well be imagined,
could not be made without great complaints, and
the active opposition of those who were thus dis
honoured in the estimation of themselves and the
public. The contest was further exasperated by.
the real and serious misery to which the numerous
medical professors of the universities and other
colleges found themselves reduced; for though
they were allowed to retain, during their lives, the
public salaries of their offices, yet as their principal
emolument was derived from the fees, this permis
sion did not prevent them from falling into a state
of absolute want. The old physicians made vigor
ous protests against the authority, both of the pro
vincial colleges and that of the Junta Suprema of
Madrid, and refused to appear at their summons,
or to submit to their decisions. Jt is probable, however,

STATE OF MEDICINE IN SPAIN. 153
however, that by time and the due exercise of in
fluence and moderation, this opposition, formidable
as it appeared, would have been subdued ; but the
surgeons, elated with their victory, and the easy in
dulgence which they had obtained from the king,
pushed their arrogance and pretensions beyond all
endurance. They had also the folly, in the height
of their exultation, to rouse the jealousy of the
military, by demanding nominal rank in the army.
This step precipitated their ruin.
The nation, which had hitherto been rather dis
posed to amuse itself with the quarrels between the
members of the two professions,'now began to look
upon it in a serious light ; petitions to the king
were sent in from all quarters, requiring his inter
ference, and with such effect, that by a single
edict, the new system was abolished ; the Proto-
medicate was restored, the universities were re
instated in their ancient rights, and the whole sur
gical branch of the profession was reduced to its
ancient subservience and inferiority to the physi
cians.

CHAP.

( 154 )

CHAP. VIII.

SPANISH LITERATURE.
Literature, as well as science, has been
marked in Spain by differerit eras. It is not
known what was its state before the arrival of the
Romans. It is only known that there were then
poets in Galicia v ho sung the verses they composed,
and were the troubadours of those early times. ,
We are not better informed of its state under
the Romans ; but their annals have consecrated
the memory of some poets and orators to whom,
Spain may boast of having given birth. Marcus -
Porcius Latro the orator, and Marcus Annaeus
Seneca, father of Seneca the philosopher, were of
Cordova. One of the sons of the latter, M. An
imus Novatus, called after his adoption Junius
Annasus Gallio, became celebrated at the bar.
Quintilian the rhetorician was of Calahorra in Old
Castile. The orators Cornelius Victor Statorius,
and Turrinus-Clodius, were both Spaniards, and
among the Latin poets Spain has a right to claim
Seneca the tragedian, Columella, Latromanus, and
SiliUs Italicus ; Lucan and Sextius Hena, both of
Cordova,Canius of Cadiz, Decianus of Merida, and
Martial

SPANISH LITERATURE. 15-5
Martial of Bilbilis, now Calatayud ; and also an
esteemed historian who flourished under Au
gustus, L. Cornelius Balbus of Cadiz.
The taste for letters disappeared under the
Goths ; it revived under the Arabians, but its pro
gress was very slow, and it was chiefly directed to
history, in which branch Spain then produced
some very commendable writers. Sampirus, bishop
of Astorga, wrote in the eleventh century a very
interesting chronicle of Spain from the year 896 ;
Roderic Simonls, usually called Ximenes, arch
bishop of Toledo, descended from the illustrious
house of Rada, or Tison, of Navarre, wrote in the
thirteenth century a chronicle of the Roman
pontiffs and emperors, and " Rerum in Hispania
gestarum Chronicon," which comprehends the
times of the Ostrogoths, Huns, Vandals, Suevi,
Alani, Romans, &c. The next age produced a
history of Catalonia by Robert de Sclot, a Catalan.
These writers already united the vehemence, the
metaphor, and the hyperbole of the Arabs, with
the elevation and dignity which were natural tp
them. It is generally thought that it was from
the Moors they adopted this style ; but it will be
seen that even in the time of the Romans, the
works of many Spanish writers were replete with_
energy and pathos.
Letters were held in honour under the Moors,
who possessed a great number of poets and dra
matic

156 SPANISH LITERATURE.
matie writers, hereafter to be mentioned. They
had two celebrated grammarians, Jonas Ben Ganach
of Cordova, and Abu Mohamad Abdalla of Ba-
dajoz; the latter, who lived about the end of the
ninth century, gave a " Method of Writing," in
which he united general principles of grammar
with excellent ones of rhetoric and poetry. They
had Abi Zetti, Ali ben Alhassani, Ben Mohamad,
and Alfarabi, who all wrote on music, and Abu
Nazurus Phalius, who has left us a good work on
the studies of the Spaniards. They had many
good historians, amongst whom should be men
tioned with commendation, Mahomad Aber Amer,
commonly called Almoncarral,who, in the eleventh
century, founded an academy of history at Zativa,
his native place; Mohamad ben Abdellames of
Alicant, who died at Tremen in 1213, and who
wrote " Annals of Spain," a much esteemed work;
Rhasis of Cordova ; Abu Bacar Mohamad ; Altus
Bacar ; Abul Caim Tarif, who wrote a history of
Spain ; Cacim Aben Ugi, to whom we owe a de
scription of Spain, and a chronology of the kings
pf Cordova ; Iben Cachum, who wrote a history
of Asia and Africa ; and^Abul-Faragius, known by
a history of the dynasties, and particularly by ex
cellent researches relative to the different Arabic
tribes and their manners.
Literature did not, however, begin to appear
with splendor in Spain till near the end of the reign of

SPANISH LITERATURE. 157
of Ferdinand the Catholic, and the succeeding one
of Charles ; and the taste became still purer under
PhilipIL The best writers before this period had degraded
their most beautiful and sublime ideas by the ex
treme diffuseness of their style ; and buried them
under a mass of erudition which rendered the
perusal disgusting. They delighted to present the
same idea in many different ways ; to take all the
views of a subject ; and did not see that, by multi
plying repetitions, and dwelling too long upon
every thing, they rendered their writings languid
and tiresome. Their style was very unequal ;
sometimes masculine and animated ; sometimes
dragging, sometimes sweet and agreeable; some
times harsh, abrupt, and forbidding. Allusions,
metaphors, hyperboles, similies, moral reflections,
and explanations, were multiplied without end, and
contributed still more to enervate their style.
Under the reign of Philip II. they began to throw
aside these incumbrances ; style became more clear,
more simple, natural, and dignified ; the writings
of the ancients were taken for models, which were
imitated with assiduity and success ; and force and
dignity were diffused over the writings of this
period. It was, in fact, a brilliant era for Spain:
good poets, excellent historians, were multiplied ;
some orators were distinguished above the crowd,
and writers of merit arose on all sides. Antonio
de Nebrija, at once a historian, grammarian, philo
sopher,

I5S SPANISH LITERATURE.
sopher, jurisconsult, theologian, and poet, acquired
a just celebrity. Francis Sanchez, a poet, orator,
and grammarian ; Peter Chacon, Ferdinand Nunez
de Gusman, Ferdinand de Cordova, and Benedict
Arrias Mohtano, also obtained deserved reputation.
Lewis de la Zerda and Andrew Strany, of Valen
cia, gave excellent commentaries; the first on Vir
gil and Tertullian, the second on Pliny, Seneca,
and Valerius Maximus; Alphonso Garcias de
MatamorOs, of Seville, Wrote " De Academiis et
doctis viris Hispanise ;" and Alphonso de Zamora
distinguished himself by his knowledge of the
Oriental languages. In the same century appear
ed Frederic Furius Seriolanus, of Valencia, on
whom de Thou bestowed such high eulogiums :
many others also arose, who will be mentioned
hereafter. Philip II. was succeeded by Philip III., the end
of whose reign was fatal to letters ; from the same
causes which brought the decline of the sciences
in Spain.
The Spaniards abused the abundance of their
ideas, the vivacity of their imagination, and the
facility of their genius : they abandoned that noble
simplicity, which strikes the mind and elevates the
soul : they affected a false brilliancy, misplaced
ornaments, exaggerated ideas, swelling expressions,
and violent metaphors : their style became diffuse
and obscure, and their works were filled with
puerilities. This

SPANISH LITERATURE. 159
This was still the state of Spanish literature at
the beginning of the eighteenth century ; and the
following is the judgment given of the works x>f
his contemporaries by Feyjoo, himself a Spaniard,
who wrote in 1737- " Those," says he, " who
most pique themselves on cultivation, have for
some time past given into a puerile affectation of
rhetorical figures, most of them trite ones ; a mul
tiplication of synonymous epithets, and a forced ar
rangement of pompous words, which render the
style not so much gloriously majestic, as harshly
tumid." In fact, whoever examines the works of
that time, will find them filled with high-sounding
expressions, rather than with abundance of ideas,
and sprinkled with enigmatical expressions, the
chief merit of which is to be unintelligible.
These last periods were marked, however, by
some happy geniuses, who, notwithstanding the
depravation of taste amongst their countrymen,
knev< how to raise themselves above prevailing pre
judices, and to build their reputation on neat, po
lished, and agreeable writings. Spain then pos
sessed some distinguished poets and elegant and
accurate historians, who will be noticed in the
sequel. She could then boast of Quevedo, Cer
vantes, Saavedra, Guevara, Mariana, Granada,
Solis ; and at the beginning of the Jast century she
had Benedict Feyjoo, who has been already men
tioned, a pure and methodical writer and judicious critic,

160 SPANISH LITERATURE*
critic, who embraced several kinds of writing, and
waged war with the bad authors and bad taste of
his time.
Throughout all these periods the taste for vehe
ment hyperbole, the oriental taste, in short, per*
petually appears ; it is discovered in every species
of Spanish literature — in poetry, in history, in the
pulpit, on the theatre, even in the most simple and
trivial pieces. Some works, however, written in a
pure, light, and elegant style, form an agreeable
exception to this remark. We read with pleasure
the " Moral and civil rules" of John Manuel ;
Pulgar's " Judgment of the courtiers," of his time;
the works of Guevara, disclosing the vices of the
great and the intrigues of the court; those of Lewis
de Granada, exhorting his countrymen to virtue;
those of John Mariana, recording the history of his
country and defending the honour of the nation ;
those of Cervantes, in throwing ridicule upon the
taste for chivalry ; those of Quevedo, who endea
voured to correct the faults of his countrymen by a
refined and judicious criticism ; those of Saavedra,
in his political and literary republic; those of Solis,
describing the great deeds and conquests of the
Spaniards in Mexico; and those of Feyjoo, com
bating the prejudices of his country.
During this golden age of Spanish literature
some very singular works appeared : Sige of To-
. ledo and Cabezon of Madrid wrote on music j
Balthasar

SPANISH LITERATURE. 161
Balthasar de Segovia, a Catalan, on the tailors' art,
and John de Esquivel Navarre, on the origin, ex
cellence, and perfection of dancing.
The Spaniards applied themselves very much to
history; their writers in this walk are very numer
ous; most of them are diffuse and obscure, their
style is unequal, sometimes pompous and emphatic,
sometimes trivial, always prolix, tumid, and dis
agreeable ; their writings are filled with fables, with
hazarded assertions, ridiculous suppositions, incon
clusive reasonings, digressions, irrelevancies, alle
gories, metaphors, ^nd hypoboles: it is scarcely
possible to read them.
Spain possessed, however, several excellent his
torians, who are the more distinguished as they,
arose from the bosom of.ignorance and prejudice,
and were able, by the force of their genius, to
shake off the bad taste of their age. She had, the
archbishop Don Rodrigo, Luke de Tuy, the bene
dictine Yepes, the dominican Ferdinand del Cas
tillo, of Granada, Gaspar Escalano, of Valencia,
and Frahcis Diago, of Vivel, in Valencia. Estevan
de Corbera, a Catalan, wrote the history of his
own province; Mendoza gave an interesting ac
count of the war of Granada; Ambros Morales,
of Cordova, a good chronicle of Spain ; and Ber-
nardine de Menezes, a history of the "war in Flan
ders. Four historians, who lived nearly at the same
vol. v. m time,

162 SPANISH LITERATURE.
time, principally distinguished themselves, and
greatly excelled those already mentioned.
Jerome Zurita, an Aragonese, wrote the annals
of his country with equal veracity and discern
ment: his characters were well drawn, his reflec
tions judicious, his narrations accurate. He added
to these excellerices some of those ornaments that
render the study of history -agreeable; but he
was sometimes prolix and diffuse, and sometimes
credulous. Bartholemew-Leonard-Argensola, his
continuator, was very good, but inferior to his
model. Ahthony Augustine of Saragossa, archbishop of
Tarragona, embraced several branches of history,
and deserved from de Thou the appellation of the
lamp of Spain.
Anthony Herrera described the deeds of his
countrymen in the new world : he is a diffuse
writer, owing to his scrupulous attachment to chro
nological order ; but he is exact, impartial, and
one of the best historians of Spain. John Mariana,
of Talavera de la Reyna, became the torch of
Spain, and his light was diffused all over Europe.
He cleared up the chaos in which bad writers had
involved the history of his country, and made it
appear with splendor: pure, concise, exact, vera
cious, and 'mpartial; he was then read, and is
read still, all over Europe. His history of Spain is,
perhaps, the best work of the kind in existence; it is

SPANISH LITERATURE. 163
Is a model for historians ; but if it was the glory,
it also caused the misfortunes of its author. His
accuracy, his impartiality, and love of truth,
brought a series of persecution upon him, which
for the honour of his country ought to be buried in
silence. The Spaniards boast very much of their Anthony
Solis, of Alcala de Henarez, who gave the history
of the- conquest of Mexico: his style is pure and
flowing; but he is superficial, sometimes inexact,
and often confused in his diction.
After these historians we may name Martin de
Vieiana, of Buriana, in Valencia; Jerome Romano
de la Figuera, of Toledo; Jerome Pryadas, of
Barcelona, and Gonzalvo de Cepedes y Meneses,
of Madrid: though inferior to the preceding, they
possess a certain degree of merit.
Spain may claim some honour from several tra
vellers of the last century, whose narratives were
interesting. Bartholemew Garcias de Nodal, of
Pontevedra, in Galicia, gave an account of his
voyages to the straits of Saint Vincent and Magellan.
Christopher Acuna made known the river of
Amazons : his work was judged worthy of trans
lation into French and English. Francis Coreal,
of Carthagena, published an account of his voyages
to the West Indies, from 1666 to 1697: his work,
written in a simple, ingenious, and unprejudiced
manner, was translated into French, and printed at
Amsterdam in 1 722.
m2 The

164 SPANISH LITERATURE.
The art of oratory is that in which the Spaniards
appear least to have succeeded. The eloquence
of, the bar is unknown, amongst them ; perhaps
from the want of opportunities to disclose it, which
is a consequence of their forms of jurisprudence..
The sermons of the 13th and 1 4th centuries were
strange compositions, without order, method, pu
rity, elegance, or correctness: they were only a
confused assemblage of texts, authorities, and
scholastic subtilities. In the 15th century the
pulpit produced nothing but cold declamations,
mixed with insipid allegories, violent metaphors,
trivial pleasantries, misplaced sallies, and ridiculous
allusions. The sermons of succeeding ages were
only frigid and insipid discourses or dissertations,
in scholastic theology; fortified with texts, quota
tions, and authorities picked up from all quarters.
The 16th century, however, saw three eloquent
preachers arise: Francis de Toledo, of Cordova,
was diffuse, but he presented pathetic and striking
pictures. , John de Avila was equally eloquent,
able, and virtuous. Lewis de Granada presented
a model of christian eloquence, strong and per
suasive in its kind, but remote from that of our
days, and what would now produce little emotion,
We may here also mention, Andrew' Sampero, of
Alcoy, in Valencia, who was.a famous rhetorician,
and Alphonso Garcias de Matamoros, of Seville,
who wrote on the art of composing and delivering
sermons. Poetry

SPANISH LITERATURE. 165
Poetry was very congenial to the fecundity of
Spanish genius, to the vivacity of their spirit, and
the pompous energy of their language : they gave
themselves up to this pursuit, and few nations have
furnished so many poets.
It has already been stated that the Galicians
were the first Spanish poets, and that before the
arrival of the Romans they sung verses of their
own composing. They continued, under the Ro
mans, to exercise this art, but being now more in
subjection to rules, which they had learned of
their new masters, they practised it with more suc
cess. We have already mentioned some natives of
Spain who excelled at this time in Latin poetry, as
Lucan, Martial, Silius Italicus, &c. ; and Cordova
had already produced some verse writers whose
•¦ peculiar style was remarked by Cicero ; he thought
their poetry evinced more quickness than depth ;
it appeared to him animated, flowing, and grand,
but tumid, confused, and unequal.
The irruption of Barbarians in the fifth century
destroyed the taste for good poetry, which was be
ginning to spring up in Spain : scarcely any, even
tolerable, writers in this walk are to be found under
-the Goths.
' The Moors carried their poetry as well as their
arms into Spain. The natives soon began to- imi
tate, to equal, and to excel their masters'; they
composed Arabic verses, to which they gave more
expression and grace than the Moors themselves :
m 3 many

166 SPANISH literature;
many specimens of these verses are preserved in
the library of the Escurial. Several women dis
tinguished themselves in this way. Maria Alphai-
suli, of Seville, holds the first rank amongst these,
and was the Sappho of Spain. Safia and Aiesha,
of Cordova, were of equal celebrity : the latter was
several times crowned by the academy of her na
tive town.
Spain had soon four different kinds of poetry,
and in different languages. The Galicians preserved
their own ; the Biscayans had one peculiar .to
themselves ; the Arabs, masters of a great part of
Spain, followed that to which their genius led;
and the French, penetrating into Catalonia, car
ried thither the language and poetry of their south
ern provinces.
The Basque poetry had some ballads, but more
hymns and canticles : it was languid, drawling,
monotonous, and void of grace. The Arabic
poetry was fertile in plays upon words, in allusions,
and metaphors ; the structure of its verses was in
genious ; its measure harmonious ; but whenever
it aims at a sublime and majestic flight, it falls into.
an excess of emphasis and enthusiasm. The Moors
had some success, however, in the composition of
odes: their poet Ashmenben Abdrabbal, of Cor
dova, was one of the first who cultivated this spe
cies of composition, before unknown, or neglected
by the poets of his nation. After he had intro
duced it amongst the Spanish Arabs, they trans
mitted

SPANISH LITERATURE. 167
mitted it to the Arabs of the East; and one
Moamad ben Assaker wrote upon the art of com
posing odes.
The Moors applied poetry to all kinds of pur
poses and subjects ; there was scarcely any that
they did not treat in verse. Ben Malek and Abu
Lalu wrote upon grammar in verse ; the same Ben
Malek on the conjugation of verbs in particular ;
Abu Baker, on inheritance ; Algiadena, on the
theory of the weather ; Abi Macra, on the solar
and lunar year ; Alzad, on jurisprudence and al
gebra. The Provencale poetry soon spread into Catalo
nia; it even found an honourable asylum there
when it* began to decline in France: it extended
into the kingdom of Valencia, after the conquest
of that country by the king of Aragon, and flou
rished in these two provinces long after it was lost,
extinguished, and forgotten in France : it support
ed itself there till the beginning of the seventeenth
century. The love for poetry caused an academy to be
established in Catalonia, for its cultivation and
advancement. Don John I. king of Aragon,
founded, at Barcelona, about the end of the four
teenth century, an academy of gay science, like that
which existed at Thoulouse, and has been perpe
tuated to our times under the name of the Floral
games; verses were sung and recited at it, and a
prize awarded to the victors. A division in this
m 4 academy

168 ^SPANISH LITERATURE.
academy caused a similar establishment at Tortosa,
under king don Martin, but which did not long
support Itself. The academy of Barcelona was
beginning to decline when Ferdinand ascended the
throne, and gave the direction of it to Don Henry
marquis de Villena, a well-informed noblemari,
and skilled in poetry, who revived it. He then
composed his book oa the gay science, £>f which only
some fragments remain, which have been published
in our own times, by Don Gregory de Mayans,
but in spite of his efforts the academy declined
more and more, and did not survive its new pro
tector. The first cultivators of Provencale poetry in
Catalonia and Valencia recal to our recollection
those happy poets who sung of heroes and of love,
and were in a manner the creators of French
poetry, whose cradle was in the southern provinces
of France. The troubadours reckoned o-f their
number as many Catalans and Aragonese as- na
tives of Provence, Languedoc, and Roussillon; they
were confounded together ; they wrote in the same
language, possessed the same genius and the same
¦ kind of talents, and met with equal success and
approbation. Raymond Vidal, bora at Besaluin, in
Catalonia, was one of the most celebrated of these:
he lived in the beginning of the thirteenth century,
and wrote, an Art de Trover ; that is, an art of
poetry: he made elegies, madrigals, eclogues,
verses of almost every kind, and also stories and
\:> ¦ novels.

V'

SPANISH LITERATURE. 1 69
novels. Godfrey de Foxa,a Catalonian benedictine,
wrote in the same century, on the poetical art.
James March, of Valencia, in 1371, gave a collec
tion of Provencale rhymes, accompanied, by rules
for that kind of poetry, with examples. The fif
teenth century produced James Roig, of Valencia;
the marquis de Villena and Osias March, also of
Valencia; the first rendered himself famous by the
variety and beauty of his poems : Villena wrote
on the gay science, that is, on poetry, and became
equally celebrated for his verses : March was high
ly regarded as the Petrarch of Provencale poetry
in Spain. James Beltran, of Valencia, and Vin
cent Garzias, minister of Balfogona, were the last
poets of this kind that Spain produced : they died
in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
Amongst the poets of Catalonia, Valencia, and
Aragon, who rhymed in the Provencale tongue,
we may also mention with commendation, James
the Conqueror, king of Aragon, who lived towards
the middle of the thirteenth century ; Mataplana,
Arnaud, Mola, Paul Ben Liune, of the same cen
tury ; two other poets of the name of March ;
Jordi ; Febrer ; Montaner ; and John de Martorell.
To these may be added, R. Moseh-Azan de Za-
raqua, a Spanish Jew, who about the middle of the
fourteenth century wrote a poem on the game- of
chess in this language, of which a Castilian trans
lation may be found at the Escurial. We might
also here commemorate those of the troubadours of

170 SPANISH LITERATURE.
of Roussillon, who lived after the year 1 1 72, which
was the period at which that province came under
the dominion of the kings of Aragon, by the death
of Gerard^ its last count. From this moment
Roussillon became a part of Spain as well as Ca
talonia and Aragorf, which were the dominions of
these princesj and the kingdom of Valencia, which
was soon after united to them. We might men
tion William de Cabestany, better known by his
tragical death than his poems; Pons Barba, who
was attached to Alphonso II., towards Nthe end of
the twelfth century ; Berenger de Palasol, a knight
of Roussillon, contemporary with the preceding,
and Peter de Corbiac, born near Corbiac, in Con-
flans, posterior to them. There remain to us seven
songs of Cabestany, of which the poetry is sweet
and harmonious, and which contain an expressive
picture of his love, as well as of the beauty and
estimable qualities of the Lady of Chateau- Rous
sillon, who was its object. We have several poems
of Barba, amongst others a sirvanie, in which,
with too much poetic licence, he reproaches Al
phonso If. with giving the lie to his, wisdom and
generosity, by giving himself up to flatterers. Pa
lasol made a number of songs, which are tender,
natural, and hai monious. Corbiac held one of the
first places amongst the troubadours, by the num
ber of his poems ; the variety of the subjects that
he treated ; by his knowledge ; and the decided,
and, in that age, rare taste that he displayed for
science

SPANISH LITERATURE. 171
science and" literature : he treated on many sub
jects of sacred -and profane history ; on the libe
ral arts ; on music ; dialectics ; arithmetic ; geogra
phy ; jurisprudence ; astronomy ; medicine ; phar
macy; chirurgy; geomancy; necromancy; magic;
divination ; and mythology : he also wrote songs,
amatory poems, pastorals, and devotional pieces ;
but he disgraced his talents by an excess of pride
and presumption. Formit, of Perpignan, and Bis
torts, of Roussillon, though inferior to the preced
ing, may yet be named after, them : the first left
some poems of a very happy versification ; the se
cond made many songs, among which two are the
most remarkable ; in one he thanks his friends for
having reproved him for his faults ; in the other
he inveighs against the deceitfulness and luxury of
the clergy.
.Provencale poetry sometimes embraced histori
cal subjects, and sung of battles and heroes ; but
it confined itself to ballads and songs, and rhymed
narrations in loose measure, never attaining to the
sublime or majestic. It sometimes applied itself to
satire, when it was sometimes light and ludicrous,
sometimes keen and caustic, sometimes delicate
and sly. But its chief character was gallantry; its
principal themes were those of an amorous nature;
and in its ballads, elegies, eclogues, pastorals, and
songs, it was tender, ingenious, and agreeable.
The Castilians long neglected poetry : the first
verses to be found in their language are of the end of

172 SPANISH LITERATURE.
of the twelfth or beginning of the thirteenth cen
tury : these are by one Gonzalez de Berceo; who,
besides a poem entitled " Votos delPavon, " also con
secrated his muse to the celebration of the lives
and miracles of several saints : some attribute to
him the poem of Alexander. His verses were suf
ficiently exact, and sometimes regular in their
form. He was followed by John Laurence Segura,
whom some regard as the author of the same poem
of Alexander, which the greater number attribute
to king Alphonso X. Some verses are quoted, and
a poem on the Cid of Gonzales, by Herminquez,
which are referred to the tenth and eleventh cen
turies, and are considered as the first known spe
cimens of Castilian verse ; but these pieces are only
known by quotations, and the age in which they
were written is uncertain. King' Alphonso X.
came after Berceo : he' composed canticles, and
aimed at a more elevated style ; he enriched poetry
with noble images and sublime thoughts. John
Ruiz, archpriest of Nita, most known under the
latter designation, flourished at the end of the thir
teenth and beginning of the fourteenth centuries :
he wrote some singular poems of a wild kind of
fancy, but which contain some fine irony and
agreeable pleasantry. One of these is The War
between Don Carnival and Don Lent ; the inter
locutors are Don Fast, Don Love, Don Meat, Don
Carnival, Don Lent, &c. This was a piece of hu
mour in the taste of the age, but the subject- is
sometimes

SPANISH LITERATURE. 173
sometimes treated seriously ; the fable is well sup
ported ; the episodes are ingenious ; it possesses
grace, imagination, and copiousness of expression ;
but the language is negligent and the verse little
harmonious. Some small poets succeeded, but
were not superior to their predecessors.
Castijian poetry remained much longer in a state
below mediocrity, and as it were in infancy. It
suddenly took a new aspect under its favourer,
king John II. Villena sung the labours of Her
cules, and wrote on the art of poetry. Perez de
Guzman described a good life, in verse ; Rodo-
riguez de Cota published a satire against the court,
which abounded in salt and delicate wit ; he also
wrote a tragedy, called Calixtus and Melibaeus.
The marquis de Santillana wrote some sonnets,
which have something pleasing in them : amongst
his various poems, his " Quarrel of Love" is full
of grace and sweetness. These different produc
tions evince more order, conduct, and taste : in
them poetry appears stripped of a part of its an
cient rudeness. Castilian verse now began to
make a rapid progress : it grew polished, and be
came harmonious and pure. Several good poets
succeeded each other, to whose efforts this swift
advancement was owing.
Lopez de Mendoza gave to his poetry, which
was at once gallant and moral, the measure of
Italian and Provencale verse ; this happy example was

174 SPANISH LITERATURE.
was followed; and this was the first step towards
poetical improvement. Another poet took a dif
ferent, but not less fortunate course. John de
Mona gave the first idea of the noble and elevated.
I shall only mention two of his poems, " The Co-
donation,," and " The Labyrinth:" the first Is the
coronation of Santillana on Parnassus, by the
muses and graces : the invention is happy, but the
style is sometimes deficient in dignity, and the verse
in sweetness and harmony. The second is full of
grand and noble images and energetic expressions.
This poet had succeeded in giving heroic dignity
to his verse ; he was relished and imitated, and
this imitation gave a beginning to the most bril
liant successes of Castilian poetry, which made a
further advance under the hand of George Man-
riquez : this author softened and polished his style,
and successfully endeavoured to give more regu
larity to the rhyme ; his verses present an exam
ple of taste and delicacy ; they are chaste, arid ap
pear to be composed with ease. Thus did these
three men, by the union of the different manners
that they adopted, become the fathers and creators
of good Castilian poetry : they were admirably se
conded by another poet of that age, Encina, who
applied himself to the task of imitation, and ren
dered Virgil's eclogiies into Castilian verse He
possessed a happy fancy, and it furnished him with
ingenious allusions ; which he applied with equal
discernment

SPANISH LITERATURE. 175
discernment and dignity to the glorious actions of
the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic, and his wife
Isabella. This was the brightest era of Castilian poetry :
a good taste now disclosed itself; productions
were multiplied, and a crowd of excellent authors
illustrated the 1 6th century.
John Bascano was one of the first who adopted
the new style. Garcilaso de la Vega gave to the
poetry of his country an elevation before unknown
to it : his sonnets, songs, eclogues, epistles, and
elegies, are full of grace and harmony ; he was
regarded as the prince of Spanish poetry, and
every thing might have been hoped from him had
he not been carried off by a premature death.
Diego de Mendoza evinced talent, judgment,
boldness and erudition : it were to be wished that
he had been more correct. Guttiriez de Cetina
sung of love : his poetry was correct, sweet, and
tender. Lewis de Haro gave a rhetorical tone to
poetry : both he and Francis de Miranda displayed
a happy, facile, and fruitful genius. Peter de
Padilla, Fernandez de Velasco, Jerome Bermudez,
Lopez de Rueda, Francis de Mediano, and Ferdi
nand de Herrera, discovered a bold and lively ima
gination, yet subjected to rules: their style was
elevated, their imagery strong. Virues may be
read with pleasure, and Jerome Ramirez, Alphonso
Ledesma, Francis Lopez de Zarata, and Alphonso
de Vatres, were all elegant and pleasing poets. The

176 SPANISH LITERATURE.'
The same period "gave birth to some Spanish
translations of Greek and Latin poets. ^Encina
had begun with Virgil's Eclogues ; Ferdinand
Perez de Oliva translated two tragedies from So
phocles and Euripides; Gonzalez Perez the Odys
sey, and versions were multiplied of Pindar, Ana-
creon, Plautus, Terence, Horace, and Virgil.
Under the hands of these poets Castilian poetry
attained to delicacy, dignity, sublimity; but their
works, notwithstanding the beauties they contain,
still retain spme harshness: they are sometimes
deficient in exactness and regularity of measure,
and often in harmony. All these writers lived in
the 1 6th century, as did likewise some female poets
whose talents conferred honour to their country.
Among the latter were particularly distinguished
Feliciana Henriquez de Guzman, of Seville, and
Angela frige, of Toledo ; the latter of whom united
to her poetical talents one for music, on which she
wrote. This splendid period scarcely exceeded the dura
tion of a century. The false brilliancy of the
Italian concetti seduced the Spaniards to imitate
them. Lewis de Gongora, of Cordova, was the
creator, or rather the imitator and propagator of a
poetical sect of bad taste. The Spaniards naturally
inclined to the great, the wonderful, the romantic,
eagerly adopted an innovation which flattered their
propensity, but which suddenly brought on, in the
1 7th century, the decline of Spanish poetry. From this

SPANISH LITERATURE. I7J
this period their style ceased to be noble, and was
only forced; just and truly sublime expressions
disappeared, and Were replaced by such as were
only tumid and sonorous ; unnatural Constructions
took p' ice of a luminous order, and a confusion of
ideas succeeded their pleasing simplicity.
From this time the Spaniards, abandoned to the
subtilty of their intellect and the vehemence of
their genius, suffered themselves to be carried away
by the impetuous torrent of their imagination, and
their verse was overrun with points, sallies, meta
phors, antitheses, allusions, and equivoques. This
era was, however, fruitful of great poets. It could
boast of a Lopez de Vega ; that favoured and fer
tile genius who displayed in his poetry a richness
and variety unknown before. He was ingenious,
sweet, and harmonious, various and striking in
his imagery, brilliant in his descriptions, just in
his applications, seducing in his style. The two
Argensolas, Bartholomew and Lupercio, made
harmonious verses ; they had noble thoughts,
choice expressions, and a chastened style. Vil-
legas managed the language better ; his thoughts
were delicate, his images pleasing, his versification
smooth, his expressions tender and agreeable.
Calderone was ingenious, animated, and fertile.
Quevedo had a softer and more brilliant imagina
tion, an easier flow of verse, and a correct style.
Gongora displayed a sublime and lofty genius.
Ulloa, Espinosa and Espinal, versified with taste,
• vol. v. n graceful-

178 SPANISH LITERATURE.
gracefulness, and elegance ; but all these poets
filled their works with plays upon words, concetti ;
tumid expressions, and unusual terms. Gongora,
the father of the new style, often loses himself in
extravagant bombast. Lopez de Vega abused the
facility of his imagination by giving into those sub-
tildes and quibbles which often degenerate into
puerility. Villegas did not escape the infection ;
his style is not' free from affectation and bombast.
Ouevedo, with his great beauties, had great faults ;
he too was led astray by the taste of his age ; and
the example of these great poets diffused the con
tagion still more widely, and perpetuated it till the
middle of the last century, when Spanish poetry
began to assume a new face.
Some favoured geniuses had been able to pre
serve themselves pure from the general corruption:
the count de Rebolledo was simple, equable, free
from exaggeration, but perhaps too cfry; the sub
ject that he treated did not indeed much favour
grace and elegance; he reduced into verse the mili
tary and political arts, and though a poetical genius
may be discovered in his works, his verse is minute,
unadorned, and sometimes dragging ; it partakes
of the seriousness, austerity, and dryness belonging
to the subject, and the details are often tiresome.
The Spaniards talk of an epic poem — the Aran-
cana of Herzilla ; this poet appears to have taken
Ariosto for his model in the tissue, the mode, and
conduct of his poem: he is animated in the de
scription

SPANISH LITERATURE. 179
scription of battles ; his ideas are new, his paint
ings expressive, his descriptions . energetic and
rapid. He every where shows a fertility of imagi
nation, but he is deficient in invention, character
and interest, and his style is too simple, too uni
form, too little poetical. They mention another
epic, the Bernardo of Balbu'ena, which is still
rnore faulty ; the thoughts, styles, and expressions
are quite in the taste of the author's age.
Spain possesses likewise some little poems on
peculiar subjects. That . of Rebolledo we have
mentioned, and there are " Los Amantes de Ternel,"
and " the Golden Age," and " Apollo's Laurel," by
Lopez de Vega: the former displays the fertile
and inventive, but ill-regulated, genius of its au
thor; but it has the advantage of having preceded
by more than a century those similar poems which
have since appeared : the latter contains a criticism
of Spanish poets ; it unites precept and example,
and is useful and instructive.
' To these may be added some pieces of the face
tious kind, which abound in salt; in refined and
delicate pleasantry : several of the poets have ex
celled in this walk. There are quoted and read
with pleasure a little poem on " The Flea," by
Diego de Mendofea; " The War of the Cats" pub
lished by Lopez de Vega, under the assumed name
of Thomas Burguillos ; and " The War . of the
Flies," by Villaviciosa: the versification of the first
N 2 ig

ISO SPANISH LITERATURE.
is harmonious and flowing ; its invention is agrees
able, and it diverts by ridiculous but pleasing nar
ratives, and by jovial and burlesque expressions
adapted to the subject ; but it goes too far. The
latter is better disposed, more artfully managed,
and laboured with greater care; it has more dignity,
and approaches nearer to the epic class ; it is full
of agreeable episodes, but its details are too minute,
and it is too long: twelve cantos are more than
enough for a war of flies. The style, however, is
correct and polished. These poems have both,
perhaps, too much learning in them : in one, a cat
is acquainted with ancient and modern history, in
the other, a fly quotes the digest.
During these different periods, several writers
laid down rules for the poetic art. The Catalan
and Valencian poets, already mentioned, gave the
example, and those of Castile followed their steps.
Lopez de Vega published in the 1 7th century an
art of poetry^ the style of which is elegant and
flowing, but of which the precepts have seldom
the justness and truth of those transmitted to us
by Horace and Boileau. John de la Cueva, his
contemporary, published another, the conduct of
which is ingenious and judicious, but which is
little poetical. Cascales gave " Tables," a kind of
poetic art which is well conducted, full of useful
precepts, better versified, and more instructive.
All these elementary works were very good in the
age

SPANISH LITERATURE. 181
age in which they were written, but they do not
come up to a pitch of perfection corresponding to the
present degree of taste and advancement of poetry.
The taste of the nation had long been turned
towards Castilian poetry, and under its influence
the Galician poetry first disappeared; it also en
feebled the Provencale, but this maintained itself,
notwithstanding, in Catalonia and Valencia, till the
beginning of the 17th century.
Such has been the taste of Spanish literature:
sympathising in the vicissitudes of the monarchy, it
rose under the reigns of Ferdinand V. and Charles
I., attained its greatest brilliancy under Philip II.,
a protector of science, letters, and the arts ; de
clined with the decline of all the branches of ad
ministration, civil, political, and military, under
the last kings of the house of Austria, and has
been rising again with rapidity ever since the be
ginning of the 18th century.
Every thing at present contributes to favour the
progress of Spanish literature. Government has
formed establishments in which masters in differ
ent branches form the minds of their pupils, and
dispose them to acquire a most extended cultiva
tion ; it has multiplied the schools of rhetoric ;
established lectures in Greek and the oriental lan
guages in the universities of Valencia and Sala
manca; in the college of St. Isidore at Madrid;
and in the seminary of nobles in the same city ;
and founded lectures on foreign languages in the
n 3 same

182 SPANISH LITERATURE.
same college and seminary, and poetical lectures
in them and at the university of Valencia. The
patriotic society of Biscay, desirous of assisting to
accomplish the beneficent views of government,
supports masters of rhetoric, foreign languages,
literature, and poetry, at the school which it has
established at Vergara,
Twp academies, devoted to historical researches,
have been formed, at Madrid, and at Barcelona,
and their labours begin to grow4 interesting. That
called the Spanish academy employs itself about
the means of purifying and improving the lan
guage, and Seville has an academy of belles lettres.
The numerous restrictions laid upon the publi
cation of national works, and the introduction of
foreign books, formed an additional obstacle to
the progress of literature. A better directed vigi
lance, whilst it checks what might be really dan,
gerous, now allows greater facilities to both : men
are now permitted to think, to write, -to unfold
their own ideas, and to combat prejudices, provid
ed they do not trouble the established order of
things civil and religious. The Spaniards may at
the same time draw from the rich sources of for
reign literature models of style, of taste, and of
elegance, by which they have the discernment tp
projrit. By these means Spanish literature has been en
tirely changed jvithin the last thirty years : style
Jias been greatly purified, and daily becomes more
simple,

SPANISH LITERATURE. ' 183
simple. A manly kind of eloquence has succeeded
the enthusiastical vehemence which formerly dis
graced the pulpit. Bossuet, Flechier, and Massil-
lon are the models of the present Spanish preach
ers, who are beginning to become as easy and as
brilliant as they were formerly difficult, fastidious,
and ridiculous. Criticism, by stripping off the
incumbrance of dull and heavy erudition, with
which it was overloaded, has become more simple,
agreeable, and conclusive. The writings of father
' Isla are an excellent pattern of this kind, though his
particular criticisms partake a little of the causticity
of his temper.
An anonymous " Journey to the Land of Apes,"
is also a charming model of pleasing and judicious
criticism ; it is an ingenious satire on the genius,
manners, and customs, of the different provinces
of Spain, and is a work which would do honour to
any country.
History is, perhaps, the department that has gained
most by modern improvement: good historians are
becoming numerous, and their works are excellent
examples of clearness, method, discernment, accu
racy, taste, and style. One reads with real plea
sure the " Spanish Paleography" and the " Account
of California," by the Jesuit Burielo; the " Memoirs
of the Succession War," by the marquis de San
Felippo ; the works of J. B. Perez, on ecclesiastical
history; the " Espana Sagrada" and " Spanish
Antiquities," of Flores, the augustine; Peter de
n 4 Sarmiento's

184 SPANISH LITERATURE.
Sarmiento's "Voyage to the Straits of Magellan;"
and 'the " History of the New World," published at
Madrid, in 1793, by J. B. Mahoz. Don Francis
Masdeu, a Catalan, published, at the same time, a
" Critical History of Spain," which appeared first
in Italian, and was then translated into Spanish:
the author goes back to the earliest recorded ages;
and the work contains curious and learned re
searches, and very judicious criticisms. Two bro
thers of the name of Mohedano, very learned and
intelligent monks, began to publish, in 1779, a
" Literary History of Spain:" a work, which would
have been interesting had not its authors suffered
themselves to be carried away by an excess of pa
triotic enthusiasm. Nine volumes quarto had
already appeared, when, in 1786, the work was
interrupted by superior orders. John Andrea of
Valencia should also be mentioned, an ex-jesuit,
who had published,in Italian, four volumes, quarto,
of researches in every branch of literature ; a very
interesting work, replete with sound criticism.
There has also appeared from an anonymous hand
an " Account of the last Voyage to the Straits of Ma
gellan, in ihe years 1785 and 6," which was that
made by don Antonio de Cordova, in the Santa
Maria de la Cabeza. This work is the more inte
resting, as besides the acquaintance with nautical
science it evinces, it contains a very good account
of all former voyages, and extracts from several
valuable manuscript^ not before known, The

SPANISH LITERATURE. 185
The poets appear to have gained the least by the
changes of the present century. Carried away by
the heat of their enthusiasm, they disdain to submit
themselves to the rules of poetry : their epic, and
especially their dramatic works, bear the most evi
dent marks of confused ideas and an ill-regulated
imagination, which pours itself out Into a prolix and
pompous jargon, though sometimes exhibiting an
ingenious and happy invention, with occasional
flights of sublimity. They have, however, one
excellent model: Don Ignatius de Luzano pub
lished, in 1737, an art of poetry; the fruit of im
mense reading and deep study, which might have
purified the taste of the nation. The author was
aware of the faults of his countrymen, and sought
out their causes. It will be further noticed hereafter.
Spain may, however, boast of some of the poets
she has produced, since the middle of the 10th
century, who have avoided the prevailing errors,
and endeavoured to correct the taste of their coun
trymen. In this number may be mentioned Blaise-
Antonio-Nassarra, Augustine Montiano, Monten-
gone, John Yriarte, and Garcias de la Huerta.
This latter has a flowing yersification and a pure
and agreeable style ; but we wish him to approach
a little nearer to nature, and to support with more
care the dignity of his verse. Montengone has
written some sublime and elegant odes, and has
jt'hus opened a new career to Spanish lyric poetry.
Yriarte

186 SPANISH LITERATURE.
Yriarte has published several works honourable to
his taste and erudition.
We are indebted to Cepedes for a good poem
on painting; its style is animated, its images are
lively, its versification is beautiful and harmonious,
its digressions are interesting, its pictures expres
sive. Yriarte has given a poem on music, not in
ferior to the former in beauty ; it may be praised
for facility, neatness, clearness; a moderate use of
fable, apt similies, well-managed digressions, inge
nious fictions, and purity and elegance of language.
lt has been generally applauded, and would have
been more so had it been less burdened with tech-
-nical terms and minute details; had the style been
more adorned and elevated, and had it less nearly
approached to a prosaic facility.
Don John Melandez Valdes is a happy and ele
gant poet of the present day, to whom some have
been willing to give the title of the Spanish Ana-
creon. Don Joseph Viera has lately treated in verse of
fixed air ; but his poem is dry and devoid of grace ;
which is rather the fault of the subject than of the
poet, who discovers invention and facility.
Spain has lately produced two good fabulists.
Samaniego has turned the fables of Esop, Phedrus,
and la Fontaine into fine Castilian verse, and given
them much grace and elegance. Yriarte has been
.original in this way; his fables were translated into
French

SPANISH LITERATURE. 187
French as soon as they appeared ; they have some
faults, but are worthy to occupy the next place to
la Fontaine's.
The Spaniards have two kinds of rhymed verse ;
the consonant and the assonant. In the former the
rhyme is always exact and uniform in spelling, in
pronunciation, and in the manner in which it cor
responds. In the latter, on the contrary, it is suf
ficient if the two last vowels of each line are the
same : the lines thus rhymed seldom immediately
succeed each other ; but are placed at intervals of
two or three lines ; the intermediate ones being
only slightly cadenced, and subjected to a certain
measure. This kind of rhyme does not strike a
foreigner, who often does not even perceive it, but
the Spaniards themselves catch it very well.
Novels and romances make a part of Spanish
literature ; some of these are models of taste, dis
cernment, and good morality.
" Diana," a pastoral romance, by George de
Montemayor, written in the sixteenth century,
was the first of this kind deserving of being trans
mitted to posterity ; it is, however, cold and in
sipid. " Diana enamoured," another pastoral romance,
by Gilpolo, is in a simple, elegant, and unaffected
style : its conduct is happy, and its incidents ap
proach very nearly to nature: it is of the same
age. There was an inferior one of the same title
and period, by Alonzo Perez, of Salamanca. In

188 SPANISH LITERATURE.
In the middle of the same century appeared
" The Life of Guzman d'Alfarache," by Mark Ale-
mano : it is conducted with method, and the style
is pure, sweet, and elegant.
In the seventeenth century Cervantes gave to
the world his Galatea, which is better than the
" Diana" of Montemayor, but formed almost upon
the same plan.
The immortal works of Quevedo here deserve
a distinguished place : his romances, especially
" The Life of Tascano," possess vivacity, invention,
point, and well-drawn morals : we only wish for
less exaggeration, juster ideas, and fewer equi
voques. We may mention with commendation the ro
mances of Quintana and Cortes, and the well-
known work of D. H. de Mendoza, " Lazarillo de
Tonnes ;" nor must we forget the famous history
of " Tirante the White," written in the sixteenth
Century, in the Provencale or Valencian tongue,
by j. de Martorell, of Valencia, with a grace and
purity which caused him to be named the Ana-
creon of his country.
Don Quixote, the immortal work of Cervantes,
far excels all that we have mentioned: translated
into all the languages, adopted by all the nations
of Europe, it is too well known to require descrip
tion. The other works of its author, with which
we are less familiar, contain, however, greater
beauties. Father

SPANISH LtTtRATURE. 189
Father Isla has lately published a novel intitled
ct The History of the famous Brother Gervois de Com-
pazas ;" two volumes only of which have appear
ed : jt is an ingenious satire on bad preachers, and
every where discovers fertility of genius, vivacity
of fancy, an adroit arrangerrfent of incidents, lively
and striking pictures, natural dialogue, and an ap
propriate choice of energetic terms ; it has become
a classical novel, but the author has thrown.in too
much of erudition and criticism : he might have
made a better selection of the former, and a juster
application of the latter.
We owe to Montengone three novels, " Antenor;
or, the Education of a Prince;" " Eudocia ; or, The
Education of a Woman ;" and " Eusebius .-" the lat-
ler is the best, and is modelled, in some respects,
on Rousseau's " Emile."
The Spaniards have a kind of little romances,
which they call novelas; it is in these that they pe
culiarly display their refinement of style, truth of
imagery, and delicacy of touch ; they usually' ex
hibit an air of probability, a well conceived plan,
and well supported execution ; an equable style,
and a simple and concise narration; in short
these little works are charming in their kind. Cer
vantes wrote several, which are so well composed*
so artfully conducted, and so agreeable, that at the
end of two centuries they are still read with plea
sure, translated, and frequently reprinted. J. P.
de Montalvan, of Madrid, was an excellent model for

\gO < SPANISH LITERATURE. ,
for this kind of writing : his " Novelas," published
in 1624, have gone through many editions, and
been several times translated into French.
The drama also makes a part of Spanish litera
ture, but will be separately treated of.
Several other writers of the present age have
done honour tp Spain. Besides Isla and Bayer,
who have been already mentioned, they have the
count de Campomanes, and Eugenio Laruga ; the
first a learned jurisconsult and erudite historian,
one of the first amongst his countrymen, who by
his writings awakened the attention of Spain to the
means of reviving industry. The second, the au
thor of Political and Economical Memorials on the
Industry, the Mines, &c. of Spain, already amount
ing to twenty volumes. These contain many par
ticulars relative to the products of the earth, and
all the manufactured articles of the different pro
vinces of the kingdom. Though a diffuse, it is a
very useful work.
Translations of foreign works are multiplying in
Spain; which are singularly serviceable in enlight
ening the nation, purifying its taste, and causing
the best literary principles to be known and adopt
ed. Several Italian and English books have al
ready been translated, as well as the best French
books in medicine and surgery ; the best French
preachers; Moreri's dictionary; the Encyclopedia ;
Buffon ; Le Sage's works ; Marmontei's Tales ;
the works of Mably ; and some good tragedies. Spanish

SPANISH LITERATURE. 191
Spanish literature, though already purified, and
making great strides towards excellence, still re
tains some traces of its former state : it preserves
its too measured phrases ; its too frequent employ
ment of pompous and sonorous words ; and an
oriental taste for the marvellous, for metaphor,
and hyperbole, which will be with difficulty ex
tinguished. — With the judgment of a Spaniard on
his countrymen, we shall conclude this article. Don
Ignacius de Luzan, author of the Art of Poetry,
already mentioned, attributes the scarcity of good
authors in Spain to " a certain haughtiness, which
accounts it a degradation to submit to prescribed
rules, and which mistakes for enthusiasm and in
spiration, what is only the fruit of a bewildered
imagination."

CHAP.

{ 192 }
CHAP. IX.
SPANISH THEATRE.
Puplic spectacles had their beginning in Spairf
in the tirtie of the Romans. In several places
there are vestiges of theatres erected by them, and
considerable remains exist at Merida, at Clunia,
and at Acinipo. The theatre of Saguntum, now
Murviedro, presents a majestic image of its former
grandeur ; but these spectacles were not peculiar
to Spain ; the Romans introduced them in every
part of their immense empire.
Under the Goths public spectacles disappeared.
The Spaniards, however, still retained a taste for
this kind of amusement ; they sometimes, though
rarely, had a kind of bad dramas, and it was for
permitting the representation of these in his church
that the bishop of Barcelona was deposed by order
of king Sisebut in 621. These were probably the
first national dramas, but they have not come
down to our times.
The Arabs restored theatrical representations in
Spain : the Spaniards adopted by imitation, and
became passionately fond of them ; a taste which
they still preserve.
They had at first neither theatres nor a stage ;
their dramas were acted in a court, a garden, or
the

SPANISH THEATRE. 193
the open fields; the actors and spectators were
mingled, and were equally exposed to the injuries
of the weather.
At a subsequent period the stage was marked
out by a kind of boarded platform, and was sur
rounded by old clothes drawn back on occasion
by means of cords, which formed the only decora
tions, and behind which the actors dressed. —
Their properties consisted only of crooks, some
wigs and false beards, and a few white skins trim-;
med with gold fringe. ,
Theatrical decorations became more regular and ¦
decent towards the end of the sixteenth century,
when a new form was given to them by the ex
ertions of Bartholomew Naharro, a middling dra
matic poet. Theatres were then erected ; but the
greater part were upon tressels, and two parallel
pieces of canvas formed their scenes, which were
sometimes chequered with various colours, some
times covered with miserable paintings, or adorned
with foliage, trees, or flowers.
During all these periods, the prompter, with a
candle in his hand, stationed himself on the stage,
by the side of the performer who was speaking,
and jumped from side to side whenever the actors
changed their places This custom prevailed at
the end of the seventeeth century, and even still
prevails among the strolling companies of small
towns. Theatres have at length, however, assumed a
vol. v. © handsomer

194 SPANISH THEATRE.
handsomer appearance in this country, and cug«
toms more conformable to those of the rest of
Europe. Handsome theatres have been multiplied,
and their stages are now well arranged and deco
rated, all the great cities are well provided with
them, and many even of the smaller towns may
boast of elegant and not ill furnished playhouses.
The prompter no longer runs from one side of
the stage to the other, he is placed in the middle
before the scenes, in a kind of well, where he no
longer offends the sight and taste of the spectator ;
but an old custom which is still observed greatly
injures the interest and effect of the representation.
The prompter who has the piece before him, does
not wait till the actor is at a loss to prompt him,
but recites the whole drama aloud, so that the
actor appears to follow him in his declamation.
By this means two voices are heard in the theatre
pronouncing the same words, which are con
founded and often produce a discord ; and the
spectator, who has first heard the piece recited,
no longer takes an equal interest in the same verses,
phrases, and words, which the actor afterwards
declaims. The Spanish theatres are divided into a patio or
area, and boxes called balco and aposentos. The
orchestra,where the musicians are stationed, adjoins
the stage ; an enclosure between it and the pit,
is set round with arm chairs and destined for the re
ception of the higher class ; the patio or pit is placed
behind

SPANISH THEATRE. 195
behind and filled with benches ; and the gradas
consist of rows of benches disposed amphi-
theatrically on each side, underneath the boxes,
and sometimes also across the lower end of the
theatre. This last division is found only in a few
theatres, in the others the space beneath the boxes
is empty, and persons stand in it. The patio and
the gradas contain the common people ; the most
numerous, most noisy, and most imperious part
of the public.
There are commonly only two tiers of boxes,
sometimes three ; they extend on each side from
the stage to the end of the theatre. The form is
the usual one, but they are divided from each
other by partitions which completely shut them
up on each side; a circumstance which greatly in
jures the beauty of the general effect,
In the theatres of Barcelona and Valencia alone
have I observed partitions only breast high, which,
leaving the boxes quite free, permit the eye of the
spectator to command the whole scene at a glance.
There is commonly at the end of the theatre,
fronting the stage, a large box with seats placed
semicircularly one behind another, which is called
the cazuela. No man is allowed to enter it ; and
only women muffled up in their mantelas are ad
mitted. There are several things very singular and
amusing in this cazuela. Women of every age and
.condition are there united— the married are con-
o 2 founded

196 SPANISH THEATRE,
founded with the single — the wives of the conn
mon people with those of tradesmen, and the ladies
of the court—the ppor woman, with the rich one
who would not be at the trouble of dressing to
appear in her box. , Their appearance is most
curious ; they are all covered with their mantelas%
a kind of white or black veil, and give the idea of
a choir of nuns. It is the place for chattering,
and between the acts there proceeds from the
cazuela a confused noise like the hum of bees,
which astonishes and diverts all who hear it for
the first time. , Scarcely is the performance ended,
when the door of this box, its galleries, passages,
and the staircase leading to it, are all besieged by
a great crowd of men of every condition, some
attracted by curiosity, others coming to wait upon
the women who are in it.
In the early period of the Spanish stage its
pieces were either pastorals or mysteries, founded
on the acts of our religion, and were played on
the eve or the night of the chief festivals. These
led the way insensibly to more regular dramas. —
The oldest known in Spain are written in the
language, the rhymes and the poetry of Valencia,
which are a remnant of the Provencale language
and poetry, of which mention has been made in a
former chapter.
These dramas in the Valencian tongue were
prior to the fourteenth century. They were
soon succeeded by others in the Castilian lan
guage,

Spanish Theatre. 1$7
giiage, which iri their multiplication soon caused
the others to be neglected and almostforgotten. — ;
Both kinds were destitute of order and method,
confused in their progress; and ridiculous as wholes*
Their authors neither knew nor followed any
dramatic rule, but abandoned themselves without
a curb to the vivacity, the fecundity, the caprices,
and the confusion of their imagination : their pro
ductions were truly monstrous.
The Spanish theatre did not begin to refine till
the commencement of the fifteenth century* Rod
riguez de Cota then gave his Calixtus and Meli-
beus ; it was one of the first pieces in Which the
rules of the dramatic art appear to be at all under
stood, and abounds with very lively but often
licentious descriptions. Celestina appeared a short
time after ; it consists of twenty-one acts by dif
ferent authors ; the earlier ones are attributed by
some to Rodriguez de Cota, by others to Juan de
Mena ; the latter ones are by Fernando Roxas de
Montalvano, known also by another dramatic
piece, Progne and Philomela. Celestina was be*
gun before the middle of the fifteenth century, but
was not finished till fifty or sixty years after. —
Though it may be regarded as a monster,' the
piece has its beauties. The plot is clearly un
folded, the action well sustained, the incidents are
well introduced 5 Its episodes are probable j its de
lineations of manners and characters j ust. It made
a great noise in the literary world* It went through
0 3 fifteen

igS SPANISH THEATRE.
fifteen Spanish editions *, a Latin translation and
edition f, and two French translations and edi
tions J. It pleased very much in Italy, where
translations were multiplied, and went through ten
editions in that language §.
The same period produced several other dra
matic pieces, some by Henry marquis de Villena,
others by Juan de la Enzina ; the first were re
presented at Saragossa at the court of king Don
Juan II. towards the middle of the fifteenth cen
tury ; one of the latter was acted at the nuptials
of king Ferdinand and queen Isabella in 1 474. —
The reputation and success of Celestina brought
forth other works of a similar kind ; in 'the be
ginning of the sixteenth century, the same subject
was again brought upon the stage ; two new Ce-
lestinas succeeded each other at a short interval :
one was by Felician de Silva, the other by Gaspar
Gomez. An anonymous author produced Ly-
sander and Rosalia, a tragi-comedy ; and at the
same time appeared the Female Savage by Alfonso
Villegas, and the Florinca of Juan Rodriguez,
both in imitation of Celestina.,
About the same time Fernand Perez de Oliva
* Among others those of Seville, 1534, 1539; of Sala
manca, 1558, 1570; of Alcala, 1563, 156g, 1501 j of Madrid,
1601 ; of Barcelona, 1566; of Valencia, 1575.
f By Barthius. J At Paris, 1598 ; at Lyons, 1629.
§ Of these were those of Milan, 1514; of Venice, 1515,
1525, 1535; of Genoa, 1538. gave

SPANISH THEATRE. IQO.
gave the two first Spanish tragedies which have
become well known, Hecuba mourning, and the
Vengeance of Agamemnon ; they possess elevation
and elegance, and their style is sweet and pure,
but the action languishes : Oliva was a too servile
follower of the Greeks. His tragedies are in prose ;
they are not divided into acts : one has thirteen
scenes, the other ten. They are imitations, and
almost free translations of the Hecuba of Euripides
and the Electra of Sophocles. Bermudez, Cueva,
Masara, and some others, wrote for the stage
nearly at the same time, but did not equal Oliva.
Afterwards came Lopez de Rueda, who refined
the stage still more. He had a talent for pastoral
poetry, and employed it with success to fill up the
interludes of his comedies. His pastorals were in
Verse, his comedies in prose. He produced Eu-
frosina, Armedina, Los Desenganos, Medora,
Eufemia* There was a sweetness in his compo
sitions, and his style was simple and natural.
Juan Timonedo and Bartholomew Naharro, con
temporaries of Rueda, endeavoured to follow in
his footsteps. Timonedo wrote three comedies in
prose, which he caused to be printed at Valencia ;
Naharro composed seven in verse ; three of them
are Dona Seraphina, La Soldatesca, and Jacinta*
The first succeeded very well ; the last was easy
and flowing in its versification, but negligent and
incorrect ; this writer remains , far below his
model j his comedies are ill planned, ill conducted,
o 4 cold,

'200 SPANISH THEATRE.
cold, and void of invention. Alphonso de la
Vega, who appeared nearly at the same time, was
more fortunate ; he equalled, he surpassed Rueda.
The Spanish dramatists had hitherto been servile
imitators of the Greeks and Latins ; they followed
the first in tragedy, the second in comedy. Man
ners were no longer the same ; dress, customs,
modes of living, were different ; the national cha
racter was directly opposite to that exhibited on
the stage j accordingly the scenes were frigid, the
action languid ; description! was without energy,
the drama without interest, the actor without ex
pression. Several authors had perceived it, but
none had yet dared to desert the established custom,
to brave the clamours of his contemporaries and
become original.
Cervantes, Calderon, Lopez de Vega, appeared :
the Spanish theatre suddenly assumed a new form ;
the course hitherto taken was deserted, and a
new road pursued ; dramatic authors now followed
the impulse of their own genius, they gave them
selves up to the ardour of their imagination, they
created. De Castror Solis Arellano, Quevedo,
proceeded with success in the track of the happy
geniuses who had worked so great a change. —
Garcilaso de la Vega, Zamora, Canizares, worthily
supported the honour of their national theatre.—
*The beginning of the seventeenth century was the
era of this important refbrmatiom
From this time the Spanish theatre fixed the
eyes

SPANISH THEATRE. QOi
eyes of foreign nations ; it soon acquired a marked
superiority over those of other countries, and be
came the first in Europe. Spanish plays were
translated into all languages ; acted in all countries,
generally admired and applauded, and were pro
ductive of an honourable enthusiasm for the na
tion that had produced them.
This theatre now became the model of all others.
It restored a taste for true comedy. The French,
the Italians, the English, all endeavoured to imi
tate; and hence the French derived those happy
subjects which worked the reformation and per
fection of their stage. If the modern theatre of
all nations has now attained a success unknown to
former ages, it is to the Spaniards that this success
is to be ascribed.
By what fatality, after being the first in Europe
and the model of all the rest, has the Spanish stage
sunk into an object of universal disdain and con
tempt, whilst that of other nations has been daily
attaining to new degrees of excellence ? We shall
discuss this point after enumerating the different
kinds of pieces adopted by this theatre. These
are seven in number. The heroic drama — the
drama of character — sacred dramas, or autos sacra-
mentdles — the comedies of the figurones, the torna-
dillas, the saynettes, and the zarzuelas, or after
pieces. The heroic dramas comprehend those of an
elevated class. Many of them are genuine tra
gedies

202 SPANISH THEATRE;
gedies without bearing the name, but more fre
quently they are only a monstrous assemblage of
accumulated intrigues, ill conceived, and ill com
bined ; and of singular, romantic, and incredible
adventures. Princes and princesses there fall as
from the clouds ; they collect together nobody
knows why, from all parts of Europe ; the in
trigues often produce no result, the action is per
petually interrupted, and the spectator transported
in a moment to distances of six or eight hun
dred miles ; the most critical and interesting situa
tions are destroyed by the trite jests of a graciosa,
and the dignity of tragedy is debased by dull buf
fooneries. The greater part of these dramas are
written in assonant with a very small mixture of
consonant verses. (See the chapter on Literature.)
The dramas of character, especially those called
de capay de espada, contain a true picture of Spanish
manners, character, and customs. We there re
cognize that generosity and elevation of soul which
always marked the disposition of the people, and
that dignity of sentiment which results from it —
we, meet with those bursts of patriotic and religious
zeal, which have so often been the cause and
spring of the greatest actions. We also find in
them that national pride so natural to the Spaniard,
and that often extravagant sensibility with regard
to love and honour, which has been equally the
motive of duels and murders, and the, principle of
heroic deeds ; with those plots, intrigues, and dis
orders,

SPANISH THEATRE. 205
orders, the fruit of an ardent imagination, or the
effect of an unbridled, enthusiastic, fanatical kind
of love which the Spaniards preserved till their
manners, more nearly assimilated to those of their
neighbours, had taken the stamp of tranquillity and
indifference. These pieces are the best of the Spanish theatre.
They possess a rare fertility of fancy ; they have
more regularity, they are better combined as
wholes, their intrigues are more natural and better
conducted ; their characters are drawn with equal
art and truth, and are almost all attaching. If
one were to retrench the trivial and misplaced
pleasantries of the gracioso, and to suppress the
frigid and monotonous loquacity of the lovers,
many of them might appear on the first theatres
of Europe ; where they wOuld offer admirable ex
amples of genius, taste and energy, of truth and
judgment carried to a point which it wo lid be dif
ficult to rival. These are the pieces that the
Spaniards propose to the admiration of strangers,
and they are right — they are the glory of then-
stage. The sacred dramas, or autos sacramentales, are
of a singular kind. They unite the sacred and
profane, virtues and vices, examples of good works,
and those the most worldly and criminal ; God,
angels, saints, devils, virtues and vices personified,
are confounded in them to the great scandal of
religion and decorum. The whole celestial
hierarchy

204 SPANISH THEATfeE.
hierarchy is here sometimes brought down from
heaven to earth, collected as by the waving of a
wand, and presented before the eager eyes of the
astonished spectator. They present a striking
contrast pf the good works of pious personages,
and the enterprizes of Satan. The devil is per
sonified speaking to men, to saints, to God. He
is usually represented in a black dress with stock
ings, cuffs, a neck, a tail, and ribands all of red.
Martyrs are introduced resisting tyrants ; they pro
voke their anger, they shed their blood for the
faith, and miracles in abundance are wrought be
fore the eyes of the spectators. Every thing ex
travagant which an ardent and fertile imagination
can devise is here united.
Machinery, changes of decoration, and tricks of
stage effect, often form the chief merit of these
pieces ; the common people then call them tra'
moy as: heaven and hell are displayed ; the garden
of Eden, the terrestrial paradise, souls burning in
the flames of purgatory, the conclave, the election
of the pope, and the holy sacrament ; and these
sudden and surprising changes are produced by
miracle. In one of these dramas called the Rico
Avariente, or rich miser, heaven and hell are dis
played at the same time one above the other 5 but
the former is obscured by the dazzling flames of
the latter. In another, called " The Devil a
Preacher," Satan, muffled up in the dress of a cor
delier, a habit consecrated by the church, is placed in

SPANISH THEATRE. 205
>n the pulpit of truth, preaches up the purest mo
rality, charity, and good works, and performs all
that could fall to the share of the most sanctified
man, even miracles.
These pieces please the multitude, but they of
fend common sense, religion, and decorum, and
the government for some years has forbidden
them. Its prohibitions are sometimes, however,
eluded, and they are occasionally acted, as if by
stealth. I saw four or five performed during my
residence at Barcelona, and the profits devoted to
the relief of the poor during a severe winter.
The comedies of the figurones are farces in the
style of some of the caricature pieces of the French
stage, such as the " Tricks of Scapin," " M. Pour-
ceagnac," &c. These have no charms except for
the yulgar, who are highly amused with the
pleasantries they contain, and sometimes the gro
tesque, often disgusting pictures that they afford.
They are now very little acted in the principal
cities, but are almost entirely abandoned to the
strolling companies who endeavour to promote
laughter among the inhabitants of country towns
and villages.
The tornadillas are a kind of comic operas, in
the manner of interludes, a medley of music, sing
ing, and recitation ; they are always of one act,
sometimes performed by one actor, but most com
monly by two or three, seldom more. The sing
ing part consists of trivia} maxims of gallantry ;
the

£06 SPANISH THEATRE.
the plot fs simple, sometimes there is none ; the
incidents are by no means striking ; they are built
upon the trifling embarrassments, the little in
trigues, the slight adventures of the lower classes
of society. A vivacity of action, but oftener of
expression, and sdmetimes the number of points
which season them, form the chief merit of this
species. The music is nothing extraordinary ; it
, is of the Spanish kind, which is always alike, always
in the same time and tone : a little Italian music
has lately been mixed with it.
The actress is usually the sole support of a torna-
dilla. She alone attracts the attention of the
spectators, and awakens their murmurs, or excites
their applause. A confident air, a bold carriage,
free gestures, and an impudent tone, are attended
with a success which she does her best to deserve.
Those who would wish to call in the theatre as
an auxiliary to virtue, might find sufficient cause
of scandal in her deportment,
Saynettes are little prose comedies in one act,
which very naturally representee manners, habits,
and customs of the common people, with their
modes of life, and the grotesque and comic scenes
to which these may be supposed to give rise. —
Every thing in these pieces is natural ; every thing
is imitated with so much fidelity and truth that
the spectator imagines himself a witness of real
transactions. The plot is usually simple butjively,
^nd the dialogue abounds with point and repartee,
The

SPANISH THEATRE. 207
The acting greatly assists the effect. The Spanish
performers have an inimitable talent for this kind
of low comedy ; they appear to have been born
and bred in the different conditions that they repre
sent, and the illusion produced is complete. The
Spaniards are very fond of these saynettes, but they
are still more amusing to strangers as soon as they
become acquainted with the delicacies of the
Spanish language. They do not instruct, but
they are gay and animated, and relax the mind
often fatigued by the dreadful length and cruelly
complicated plot "of the play that precedes them.
Some of them are very pretty, and I found among
them the models of many of those comedies which
for several years have caused the people of Paris to
flock to the little theatres of that capital. These
light and playful pieces are very similar to those
little dramas of ours which have a proverb for their
title and subject.
Zarzuelas, or after-pieces, are very short things,
often only detached scenes, and always mixed
with songs and mUsic. They are for the most part
pastoral*or village scenes ; seldom any thing more
elevated. The music is usually Spanish, but some
times imitates the Italian. This is a new kind of
entertainment, which was not invented fill the mid
dle of the last century, but has furnished a great
number of agreeable pieces; those of Don Raymond
de la Cruz are hitherto the best. The Spanish stage
admits no ballets or dances ; these after-pieces
pometimes supply their place. The bolero however is

208 SPANISH THEATRE.
is often danced between the acts, or at the end,
especially in the provincial theatres.
The heroic dramas, the dramas of character,
and the autos sacramentales, are always divided into
three acts, called jornadas or days; but they are
seldom played through without interruption. A
tornadiUa and a saynette are generally placed be
tween the acts : the tornadilla between the first and
second, the saynette between the second and third ;
sometimes both pieces between the two last acts.
These interruptions and mixtures destroy the in
terest and illusion. The spectator turns his at
tention to the lighter piece, and forgets all the
events of the principal performance. It often
happens top that an actor who has just appeared
in the play in the character of a prince or a gene
ral, comes on in the saynette as an alcade, a cobler,
a vinedresser, or a beggar ; he sometimes still re
tains a part of his former dress, which he has not
had time to take off, and the symbols of grandeur
peep from beneath the rags of poverty. A stranger
who is ignorant of this custom is often deceived,
and thinks that the saynette is a continuation of
the principal, like the man who took " The
Pleaders" for the conclusion of t( Andromache."
The heroic dramas, and dramas of character,
have always a buffoon character called a gracioso,
whose employment, or aim at least, is to make
people laugh : he appears in almost every scene,
perpetually interrupting the interlocutors, and
thrusting

SPANISH THEATRi 209
thrusting in his flat unmeaning pleasantries in the
most serious and interesting parts of the piece, in
terfering with the action, and retarding the progress
of the play, whilst hd diverts the attention of the
audience. The narration of the most noble action,
the interest of a recognition, or the expression of
grief, all yield at the voice of the graxieso ; ap
plauses and laughter ensue, and the principal end
of the play is forgotten. Judicious and well-in
formed Spaniards, and those who have travelled,
lament over so monstrous a mixture — but the taste
of the multitude must be consulted-^-and this mul
titude will have its gracioso, and is more amused by
one of his miserable witticisms, than interested by
all the pathos of the finest tragedy, or the skilful
developement of the best planned comedy.
The smaller pieces often represent two kinds of
personages familiar to Spain, and nowhere else to
be met with, whose names, maxims, manners, and
deportment have all something original ; these are
the majos and the gitanos, of whom we shall speak
more at large under their own articles.
The Spaniards scarcely subject themselves to
any dramatic rules in the plans of their plays ; they
seldom observe the three unities : the action often
occupies a great many years, and the scene is trans
ported to great distances in the twinkling of an
eye : I have seen one piece where the first act
passes in Poland, the second in England, and the
third in Spain. Their most celebrated writers
vol. v. p have

210 SPANISH THEATRE.
have indulged in this license, and examples, of it
occur in their most favourite pieces; of which I
shall give some instances. In " Bernardo del
Carpio," the hero of the piece is at first a child,
but he quickly grows up, and in the fifth act has1
already performed prodigies of valour against the
Moors. In the " Locura por la Honra" of Lopez
de Vega, there are three plots quite unconnected
with each other, and the least of which might fur
nish sufficient matter for a drama. It was perhaps
of the first that Boileau said, " The hero of a bar
barous stage is a child in the first act, a bearded
man in the last."
In " Los sietejnfantes de Lara," the action takes
up two hundred years ; it occupies above twenty
in " El Genizaro de Ungria;" in " San Amuro"
the saint sets out in the first act for Paradise ; he
returns after ari expedition of two hundred years ;
and fresh generations succeed each other in the
different acts. In " El Amiga hasta la muerte" of
Lopez de Vega, the scene is laid successively at
Tetuan, at Cadiz, at Seville, and at Gibraltar ; , in
" El Principe perfecto," the scene is in Spain during
the first act, in Italy in the second, and in Africa
in the third. In " Le Para veneer Amor, querer
Vencerle" of Calderon, it is sometimes at Ferara,
sometimes in Switzerland.
The best dramatic authors, however, havelearned.
these rules and their utility, but they are fearful
lest in subjecting themselves to them they should offend

SPANISH THEATRE. 211
offend the taste of their nation, naturally inclined
to the marvellous ; they have sometimes even dis
dained the trammels of any regular plan ; but they
, can submit to them when they please, and the
Spaniards have many pieces in which the dramatic
unities are exactly observed.
The taste of the Spaniards for hyperbole chiefly
discovers itself in their theatres, where every thing
is usually inflated and exaggerated ; the saynettes
being the only pieces in which nature and sim
plicity prevail. Their love of the grand and the
marvellous causes them to multiply in their heroic
qramas all kinds of surprising, strange, and unex
pected events, sometimes woven together in a
tissue which it is impossible to understand or
unravel. The style of Spanish plays is usually very un
equal., Those authors who best understand the
taste of their nation only endeavour to sprinkle
their dialogue here and there with sonorous,
pompous, and inflated expressions. By. attempting
to mount too high, they degenerate into bombast ;
and they often fall on a sudden into a groveling
simplicity which presents a most striking contrast
with the loftiness of what went before. Few of
their comedies are free from this rise and fall ; this
sudden change from grandeur to meanness— -from
elevation to triteness and itisipidity. The dull jests
of the gracioso degrade them still more ; arid add
to the medley of grave and farcical, grand and vulgar.
p 2 ¦ The

&12 SPANISH THEATRE.
The Spaniards may boast however of some ex
cellent pieces, replete with invention and inge
nuity; of others which afford tokens of a happy and
fertile genius; of many which possess great beauties,
noble ideas, delicate thoughts, energetic expres
sions, interesting situations^ an ingenious compli
cation of events — purity of language, elegance of
style, and easy, natural, and graceful versification.
Their authors succeed remarkably well when they
have been willing to submit to the rules of the
drama. A few defects only prevent some of their pieces
from being models of excellence. They abound
too much in plays upon words, and still more in
long narrations, Which are apt to run out into
formal and wearisome dissertations. The dialogue
is but ill adapted to characters and situations ; but
one of their greatest prevailing faults is a want of
delicacy and truth in depicting the passions, which
prevents their pieces from often making a deep im
pression on the audience.
The Spanish theatre owes all its beauties to the
authors of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries j
these opened the dramatic career to other nations,
and were not indeed their masters but their guides.
Moliere and the two Corneilles skilfully availed
themselves of their productions, which they hap-
pily adapted to the taste of their age, and em
ployed in effecting the reformation of the French
theatre. All

SPANISH THEATRE. 2 IS
All the tragedies of Thomas Corneille may be
regarded as translations, or at least imitations from
the Spanish. Peter Corneille himself took the
" Cid" from William de Castro, and «' Heraclius"
from Calderon. Amongst the comedies of Cor
neille, « The Liar" is partly a translation, partly
an imitation from " La Verdad-Sospechosa" of John
de Alarcon. Moliere equally drew his subjects
from the Spanish theatre ; his " Festin de Pierre" is
entirely taken from it ; his " Princess d'Elide" is
a copy from the " Desden con el Desderi' of Augus
tine Moreno. Tristan had previously taken his
" Mariamne" from Calderon's " Tetrarch of Je
rusalem," and Voltaire has since taken the same
subject with Tristan.
For about a century past all European nations
have been labouring with success to reform and
perfect their theatres ; the Spaniards almost alone
have made no progress in this respect : they are in
the same state that they were from the middle to
the end of the 17th century; their old authors are
almost the only ones whose .works merit the at
tention of judges.
The general decline of every thing in Spain un
der the last kings of the house of Austria may have
contributed to this, but two other causes have had
great influence ; the preponderance of the vulgar
towards national spectacles, and the disinclination
of men of letters to dramatic composition. The
common people always preponderate in the Spanish
p 3 theatres j

214

SPANISH THEATRE.

theatres ; their suffrage is noisy, their will impera
tive, their taste inclined to bombast, to -buffoonery,
to the marvellous, to the ridiculous. The voice
of the well-informed and enlightened cannot make
itself heard — their suffrage is of no weight; thpy
are neither the most numerous nor the strongest
party; and hence it has certainly happened that
enlightened men of letters who might have been
the glory of their country, have not chosen to
write for the stage, and thus to expose their works
to the noisy and vehement criticism of an ignorant
populace. By a little courage however this obstacle might
have been surmounted. The populace themselves,
that populace so greedy of bombast and farce,
received with eagerness the Spanish translations of
several good French comedies and tragedies — Vol
taire's " Zaire and Merope," Racine's " Phedra,"
*' Prejudice in Fashion," *'c The Chatterer," " The
Battle oflvry," and " The Gardener and his Master,"
which was made into a saynette, were received with
the highest pleasure and with redoubled' applause.
These pieces, hbwever, have nothing adapted to
please the bad taste of the vulgar ; why then should
not national pieces formed upon equally good'
models be equally well received ?
The Spaniards name several dramatic writers
whom they regard as the glory of their theatre.
- Moreto shone by the fire of his imagination; he
composed several piece? which are not without merit,

SPANISH THEATRE.' 215
merit, but his plans are ill combined, his style is
incorrect, and the gaiety of his graciosos too
farcical. Soils, Roxas, Arellano, all evinced talent, but
knew not how to avoid faults which were unfor
tunately the taste of their age. Cervantes, whose
refined and judicious criticism would lead one to
hope every thing from him, laid down with equal
sagacity and accuracy the strictest rules of the
drama, but knew not how himself to submit to
them ; he forgot them to conform to the taste of
his countrymen.
Lopez de Vega, the favourite and most celebrated
dramatist of the Spaniards, whose fertility of ge
nius was supported by much facility, by nature,
energy, and beauty, composed near two thousand
plays,, which he made on occasion from morning
to night. He was perfectly acquainted with dra
matic rules, explained them with intelligence, and
endeavoured to diffuse a taste for them in his
country. Perhaps he might have succeeded, had
he confirmed by example the j ustness" and beauty
of his precepts ; but he suffered himself to be -led
away by the desire of pleasing his contemporaries,
and flattering their foibles. He abandoned himself
to a confusion of imagination and idea which ren
ders his pieces a model of the most complete."'ab-
surdity ; we look in vain amongst them for the
game man whose sublimity of genius, whose refined
3-nd judicious criticism we had elsewhere admired.
? ,4 His

2l8 SPANISH THEATRE.
His countrymen themselves have judged him with
a just severity ; a very small number of his pieces
have survived, and scarcely any retain a place on
>. the stage.
Calderon de la Barca is one of their most emi
nent dramatic writers, and the one whose works
best deserve to be transmitted to posterity. He
has some faults like the others ; but his invention
is original, his diction pure, his description strong,
his plots are ingenious, his situations happy, and
Often extraordinary without ceasing to be probable.
Zamora appeared and flourished towards the
end of the 17th century; he possessed the genius
and the faults of Moreto.
Canizares succeeded Zamora; but was happy
fcnly in farces zndfigurone comedies.
Among the old Spanish dramatists deserve to
be mentioned, John delaCueva of Seville; Anthony
Guello of Madrid j Jerome de Castro of Valencia ;
John Perez de Montalvan of Madrid; Francis Sine-
vedo de Villtgas, of the same city; and Garcias
Laso lie Iff Vega, better known under the name of
Garcilaso de la Veg&, all of the beginning and mid
dle of the 17th century. Since Canizares it may
be said that no one has appeared who has strongly
excited the public attention.
The authors of the 18th century have imitated
almost all the faults of their predecessors, without
possessing their beauties ; they have however ob
tained a kind of success, but it has only been by
multiplying

SPANISH THEATRE. 21?
multiplying romantic and improbable adventures
and low jests, and employing machinery, a variety
of decoration, and every kind of stage trick, to
divert the attention of the audience, and gratify
their love of the marvellous.
A few writers in the middle of the last century
raised themselves above the indolence of their
countrymen, and endeavoured to inspire a better
taste. The Jesuits were among the first to under
take this enterprize. In their public college ex
ercises they caused several little dramas to be per
formed, composed in a happy and pleasing style.
Their Joseph, their Jonathan, their Philoctetes,
their Don Sanchez de Abarca, were carefully
adapted to the rules of art, and to a just theatrical
taste. They had already been preceded in this course
by Don Augustin Montinno, and Moratin. The
former had, in 1750, produced his Virginia, and
his Ataulfe in 1 753 : these tragedies are written
conformably to the rules of art, but with a de
gree of precision which tenders them cold and spi
ritless. Virginia has been translated into French.
The latter composed Lucretia, Hermesinde, and
Gonzale the Good, which is written with a degree
of regularity before unknown in Spain. About
the same time Don Ignacio de Lttzan translated
from the French " Prejuge de la Mode," and com
municated to his country the true style of comedy.
Don Thomas Sebastian y Labre pursued another plan;

2!S i SPANISH THEATRE.
plan' ; he composed no new pieces, but selected
some old ones, which he retouched, apd rendered
more correct ami regular. The Progne and Phi
lomela of Roxas, and the Parceido en. la Corte of
Moreto, are those in which he has best succeeded.
Since these, and in our own times, their theatre
has been enriched by several excellent pieces.
There have been Don Sanchez Garcias by Don
Joseph Cadahaho ; Numantia Destroyed, by Don J.
L. de Ayala Rachel, and a free translation of the
Agamemnon of Sophocles, both from the Italian ; Don
Garcias de Castile and Anne Boleyn, by the Marqum
de Palazios and several others. There have also-
been some good comedies formed upon the French
model. But notwithstanding all that has been
done, the Spanish stage is still far from its former
celebrity, and the people do not second the efforts
of their best writers. The acting is in a still lower
state. The performers possess neither that dignity
which characterizes great personages, and ennobles
a subject, without injuring its interest, nor that
sweet expression of voice and gesture which goes
to the heart, and awakens . the sentiments it ex
presses. In their acting every thing is violent or
inanimate— ^every thing departs from nature. Their
recitation, is a feat of strength, and is performed at
the .sole expence of the lungs. Cries and shrieks
are its most impressive part, and that most ap
plauded by the majority of the, audience. They
put nothing in its proper place — all their action is
exaggerated ^

SPANISH THEATRE. 2 19
exaggerated ; when they threaten they roar ; when
they command they thunder ; when they sigh it is
with an effort which completely exhausts the
breath. They substitute anger for dignity, violence
for spirit, insipidity for gallantry. Their gestures
rarely correspond with the sentiments they ought
to express, but resemble their recitation, and are
usually monotonous, capricious, ignoble, and al
most always violent. The women in their bursts
of passion become furies ; warriors become vil
lains ; generals, robbers ; and heroes, bravos. No
thing, as they manage it, is pathetic ; nothing
makes any impression on the audience. The spec
tators, equally unmoved at the end of the piece as
at the beginning, see it end without having expe
rienced a single moment of interest or emotion,

CHAP.

( 220 J

CHAP. X.
SPANISH LANGUAGE.
The Spaniards possessed a tongue of their own,
which was utterly lost during the domination of the
Romans ; whose language in the corrupt form of
the middle ages became^ that of Spain. The
Goths brought into the country their own Teutonic
dialect : the natives continued to speak Latin, but
by insensibly adopting a number of expressions
from their conquerors, their language became at
length a mixture of Latin and Teutonic. The
Arabs, in their turn, introduced the speech of their
country, of which striking vestiges remained even
after their expulsion. The Spanish language was
then compounded from three different sources :
the Latin prevailed in it over the other two, and
the Gothic still preponderates over the Moorish ;
from which, however, a great number of words
were adopted, and especially all those beginning
with al. Many words are still preserved in a
purely Latin form; and small pieces have been
composed in verse and prose, which are both Spa
nish and Latin : a greater number of words are
obviously of Latin origin, but altered or corrupted.
From their common Latin origin proceeded the
great

SPANISH LANGUAGE. 221
great similarity of the Spanish and French tongues.
In the time of Alphonso the Wise, and his pre
decessors, half the words were exactly alike in
both. Within the last two or three centuries the
Spanish language has undergone considerable alter
ations ; it still, however, preserves the same roots,
the same turn of phrase, and the greater number
of its words, but altered in their inflections or ter
minations. The Spaniards, who are as much prejudiced in
favour of their language as of every thing else be
longing to their nation, mention among its excel
lencies the facility with which it is pronounced :
it is sounded, they say, exactly as it is written ; but
this assertion is too general. They have some let
ters which they drop in speaking ; some that are
pronounced differently in different words, and
others which, when they come together, are sound
ed as if they were joined to a third which does not
exist. The letter g before e and /, the letter j and x, are
pronounced nearly in the same manner, with a
strong guttural sound, to which there is nothing
similar in the other European languages, and which
they learned from the Moors.
They suppress the d in words terminating with
ado; as, recado, mixturado, &c. : which make recao,
mixturae. The d is also suppressed at the end of
words ; as, in sociedad,facilidad, &c. The n with
a mark over it is sounded like gn, and the z like s.
ch

222 SPANISH LANGUAGE;
Cb- is profiounced very strongly, as if it were Writ-*
ten tch, except in some words, as machina, chari-
dad, where it has only the sound of c. In examen,
e'xaminar, and other instances, the x has not its gut
tural sound, but that of the double s. Their
gue, gut, qua, que, and qui, are sometimes sounded
in one way, sometimes in another ; the u is very
strongly given in some words, as eloquencia, aguelo,
antiquedad, quando, quarto ; and quite dropped: in
others, as in consequir,que, quitar, &c.
The Spanish language is, in some respects, very
rich ; it abounds in compound words, in superla
tives, derivatives, augmentatives, diminutives, and
frequentative verbs; 'it has many quite synony
mous words, and others which well express the
different shades of meaning. In the technical
terms of arts and sciences it is, however, extremely
-poor; a few of these it has borrowed from the
Latin, and alomst all the. rest from the French.
On the whole, the Spanish is one of the finest
of the European languages. It is dignified, har
monious, energetic, and expressive ; and abounds
in grand and sonorous expressions, which unite
into measured periods, whose cadence is very agree
able to the ear. It is a" language well adapted to
poetry, but it also inclines to exaggeration, and
its vehemence easily degenerates into bombast.
Though naturally grave, it easily admits , of plea
santry. In the mouth of well, educated men it is
noble and expressive ; lively and pointed in that of
the

SPANISH LANGUAGE. 220
the common people; sweet, seductive, and per
suasive when uttered by a female. Amongst the
orators it is touching and imposing, though rather
diffuse ; at the bar and in the schools it is bar
barous ; and is spoken by those about the court in
a concise and agreeable manner.
The Spaniards articulate strongly, and some
times with a kind of guttural sound, which greatly
impairs the grace and dignity of their speech, but
the pronunciation differs materially in different pro
vinces. In Catalonia it is harsh and constrained ;
harsh also and dry in Aragon ; quick and lively
in Biscay ; agreeably modified in the kingdom of
Valencia ; boastful and mouthing in Andalusia ;
softer, sweeter, and more natural in Castile.
The Spanish language is not spoken with the
same purity in all parts of the kingdom. Besides
the old provincial dialects, which still prevail in
many parts, the Basque is still spoken in Biscay;
and the language is mixed with French in Na
varre, with Portuguese in Galicia, and with Arabic
in Murcia and Andalusia, It is in New Castile,
and especially in the ancient kingdom of Toledo,
that it is best spoken ; and there that a stranger
ought to learn it who desires to become acquaint
ed with all its delicacies and beauties. What is
there spoken is not so properly the Spanish as the
Castilian language. Whilst the country was di
vided into several kingdoms it had no general
tongue ; each kingdom possessed its own dialect;
¦ - but

224 SPANISH LANGUAGE.
but since the union of all theie crowns under one,
that of Castile has become the general language of
the whole monarchy; the Spaniards, however, still
call it the Castilian, and we have mentioned that
several provinces still retain their old peculiarities.
The ancient Limousine or Provencale forms the
basis of the dialects of Catalonia and Valencia. It
was formerly the language of the south of France,
and is still indeed spoken there, though with a
mixture of modern French, as in these two pro
vinces with a mixture of Castilian. Both the ter
minations and the pronunciation of words differ
however considerably; in Catalonia they are harsh,
rude, and disagreeable ; in Valencia, sweet, flex
ible, and flowing ; so that the same dialect which
is coarse and repulsive in the mouth of a Ca-
talonian, appears soft and elegant in that of a
Valencian. The Catalans pretend that this language was
original in their country, peculiar to themselves,
and carried by them into France, when their
counts went to take possession of some territories
in that country.
This could only have taken place at one of two
periods; either when the descendants of these
counts went to govern Roussillon and Carcassonne,
or when Raymond Berenger, son of Raymond V.,
count of Barcelona, succeeded to the county of
Provence, in right of Douce, of Provence, his
mother. The

SPANISH LANGUAGE. 225
The first period is too near that in which the
French conquered Catalonia from the Moors, and
especially in which the governors of that province
usurped the supreme power ; it cannot be believed
that the conquered imposed their language on the
conquerors ; nor yet that usurpers, from the moment
of. their usurpation, should have transmitted the
language of the people they governed to the neigh
bouring peoples. It can still less be supposed, if it
is considered, that these new sovereigns were not
Catalans, but natives of France, attached, as may
be imagined, to the language of their own country.
Even admitting such a supposition, the spread of
this tongue must have been limited to the coun
tries under the dominion of the counts of Barce
lona, and their children ; we find, however, that
the same language was spoken in many of the pro
vinces of France which were not subject to the
house of Barcelona, but on tlie contrary were pos
sessed by different sovereigns, and were some of
them very distant from the dominions of these
princes. Of this number were the greatest part of
Languedoc, Provence, the county of Foix, Aqui-
tain, Auvergne, Rouergue, Querci, &c.
The second period, that of the accession of Ray
mond II., is still less favourable to such an hypo
thesis ; this event took place in the twelfth cen
tury, long before which time the Provencale had
been the language of the south of France ; of the
vol. v. q_ Trouba-

226 SPANISH LANGUAGE.
Troubadours of Languedoc, Provence, Gascony,
&c. and the tongue in which William, count of
Poitiers, had composed his rhymed verse.
It is much more natural to believe that the
French having become masters of Catalonia, car
ried their own language into that conquered coun
try, and caused it to be adopted by the vanquished
people. This supposition is the more probable,
as, after the expulsion of the Moors, the country
remained almost without inhabitants, and was then
peopled by the French, who would preserve their
own language, and impart it to the natives, which
under a prince of their own nation might easily
be done.
However this might be, the language of the
Troubadours was widely diffused by these poets,
and adopted by all who chose to rhyme. It
became familiar to all the learned, was spoken in
France, and even became fashionable in Germany,
England, and Italy. Basque is spoken in the lord
ship of Biscay, in Guipuscoa, and in the greatest
part of Alava. This language is very ancient ; it
differs entirely from the Spanish, either ancient or
modern : it existed before the arrival of the Ro
mans, and was then unlike what was spoken in the
other parts of Spain ; it is mentioned by Strabo,
.Seneca, and Pomponius Mela. It has been pre
served to our days almost without alteration or
corruption, particularly in the more mountainous parts.

SPANISH LANGUAGE. 227
parts. It is very difficult to strangers, and appears
to those who do not understand it a coarse and
barbarous tongue, destitute of elegance and ex
pression ; but such as are versed in it account it
very sweet and expressive. We have given an ac
count of it under the article of Biscay.

q„2 CHAP.

( 228 )

CHAP. XL

STATE OF IHE ARTS IN SPAIN.
The Spaniards, long devoted to the trade of war,
neglected the arts, which the Moors exercised al
most alone, to the moment of their expulsion.
The Spaniards abhorring this people, disdained to
apply themselves to the arts which they exercised,
and hence proceeded a general contempt for arti
sans, which has been perpetuated to the present
time, and has greatly retarded their progress in
Spain. Some mechanic arts were, however, held in ho
nour in several cities, towards the middle and end
of the sixteenth century. The city of Toledo,
alone, then reckoned ninety-eight families of
makers of woollen caps, a great number -of needle-
makers and sword manufacturers; and it possessed
manufactories of silk and of woollens, which em
ployed 76,734 persons.
The city of Segovia had also some very fine ma
nufactures, and various arts were there cultivated.
In the public festivals, given by this city to queen
Anne, of Austria, in 1570, there were observed
among the companies formed by the inhabitants,
those of goldsmiths, jewellers, embroiderers, sculp tors.

- STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 229
tors, furbishers, weavers of thick and thin woollen
cloths, linen weavers, carders, dyers, and cloth
dressers. That prejudice which regards the mechanic arts
as base, is not extinguished in Spain, but only
abated; hence it happens that they are neglected,
or abandoned to such unskilful hands that they are
wonderfully behindhand in these matters. The
influence of this cause is striking; in Catalonia,
laws, customs, and opinions are favourable to arti
sans, and it is in this province that these arts have
made the greatest progress, whilst the good work
men who are to be found in other parts of Spain
aTe strangers to the Catalans.
Foreign artificers and artists experience great-
difficulties in this country. They are not allowed
to practise without gaining admission into some
corporation or company, and this was almost
always refused them. Philip V. smoothed these
difficulties ; he facilitated their reception, com
municated to them the privileges of natives, and
exempted them from all dues for six years. This
prince, however, only permitted them to settle in
the interior of the country. Charles III., in 1771,
took off this rastraint which impeded the progress
ef the arts, and permitted them to establish them
selves in the ports, and along the coasts ; he even
exempted their children from military service.
The good will and protection of the govern
ment were, however, of no avail. Orders of this^
TQJ3 kind

230 ST^TE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
kind were eluded ; and the government, deceived
by false reports, often raised difficulties which dis
gusted the artists. Many examples of this might
be mentioned, which have occurred in our own
times. One Rulliere, after having established a
fine silk manufactory at Talavera de la Reyna, was
rewarded for his labour by four years imprison
ment, and was released at last without any com
pensation, though his innocence was acknowledged.
M. Mauritz, who was invited from France, in
troduced great alterations in the cannon founderies,
where he taught the method of casting the cannon
solid, and boring it afterwards : they profited by
his instructions, intrigued against, him, persecuted
.him, and obliged him to quit the kingdom. One
Gautier, also sent for from France, brought with
him a new method of building ships ; he caused a
great number to be built, and formed many pupils,
after which he was subjected to multiplied difficul
ties, which he could never have got through, but
for the constant protection of the marquis d'( )ssuna,
the Spanish embassador in France. Saint Laurent,
a Frenchman, was of essential service in Trinidad:
he gave new life to that island and its commerce;
he was then disdained, abandoned, reduced to
beggary, and would have died of poverty, had not
his own court come to his assistance and provided
for his support. Messrs. Patras, Scherer, and
Vidal, who had established valuable manufactures,
the first of silk, the second of cottpn, the third of
hats,

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 231
hats, were all three persecuted, seized, and inter
rupted in their works, notwithstanding the privi
leges granted by the king for their establish
ments. Some arts have made an evident progress in
Spain ; others are extremely backward : the fol
lowing account will give an idea of their state.
The fibres of the aloe are advantageously em
ployed ; and those of the broom are also spun and
made into cloth. The art of making watered
silks has been brought to a degree of perfection
at Valencia, which is as yet unrivalled : the wa
tered goods of this city are preferred to those of
France and England. The azellejos, or painted
.and varnished tiles, made also at Valencia, are the
best executed and most elegant in Europe. Porce
lain is also made there, which, without equalling
the finish and delicacy of that of Sevres, is however
very beautiful, but it is costly, and the manufactory
is not extensive.
Spain lays claim to the invention of the art of
gilding leather ; it is asserted that, after being dis
covered there, the secret was carried to Naples, by
Peter Paul Majorano, whence it spread over the
rest of Italy, France, and the other countries of
Europe. It is certain that in the fourteenth and
fifteenth, centuries leather was gilt in Spain, and
the city of Ciudad Rodrigo, in Leon, was fa
mous for this art.
Printing was-early introduced into Spain, whither
q_4 it

232 STATE" OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
it was carried by Germans, who at first travelled
from city to city with their types, presses, and
other apparatus. There was printing at Valencia
as early as the year 1474. A Sallust is mentioned
as having proceeded from the press of this city, in
147-5, and a comprehensorium still exists which ends
thus "presens hujuscomprehensoriiprseclarumopus
valentiae impressum anno M.CCCC.LXXV. die
Veneris XXIII febuarii fin.it feliciter." After these
two works none are known to have been printed
in Spain before the sixteenth century. John
Pegniezer, of Nuremberg, and Magnus Herbst, of
Wils, came into this country, in 1501, and esta
blished their printing office at Seville. Other Ger
mans soon formed similar establishments ; George
Corci, at Saragossa ; Andrew de Portonariis and
Mathias Gast, at Salamanca.
In a short time the art of printing was diffused
all over Spain. As early as the middle of the six
teenth century there were presses established at
Toledo, Madrid, Cuenza, Valladolid, Baeza, Se
ville, Granada, Saragossa, and Valencia. The most
famous were those of Salamanca, Alcala, Henarez,
and Medina del Campo. The polyglot bible pro
ceeded from that of Alcala, and the names of some
of the printers pf Medina became famous; among
these were Pedro de Castro, Francisco del Con to,
Guillermo de Miilis, and Nicolas de Piamonte.
At thte period there issued from the Spanish
presses a number of works, native and foreign, not
less

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 233
less admirable for their intrinsic merit, than for the
beauty and clearness of the typography. Editions
still remain to us which do not yield in elegance
and magnificence to those of Switzerland, France,
or Germany.
The middle of the seventeenth century, an era
fatal in Spain to the sciences, to literature, and to
the monarchy itself, brought with it the decline of
printing. The number of presses greatly diminished ; the
character was no longer either so beautiful, or
so clear, the editions were neither so numerous, so
correct, nor so well executed : in fact, none of the
later ones are tolerable ; errors abound in them,
the orthography is faulty, the punctuation bad, the
ink unequal, the paper detestable.
About the middle of the eighteenth century, a
taste for fine printing began to revive in Spain.
¦The presses of Sanchez and Ibarra, at Madrid,
and that of Montfort, at Valencia, have for many
years furnished editions as neat and accurate as
the best in Europe. The superb edition of Don
Quixote, given by the Spanish academy, in 17S0,
is well known *, and that of the Spanish transla
tion of Sallust, by the Infant Don Gabriel, even
exceeds it in the magnificence of its execution.
* In four volumes 4to. The ink was the composition of
Ibarra himself; the types were cast by a Catalan ; the paper
came frpm .the ftijlls of Catalonia ; the engravings are execut
ed by Spaniards. The whole Work is stristly and entirely n%-
£opal. ' ^
The

234 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
The fabrication of articles of gold and silver
might become an important object in a country
where these metals abound; but it is neglected,
and the demand is almost entirely supplied, from
foreign markets. What little they do in this
branch at home is usually very ill executed, and
exorbitantly dear. Madrid, however, begins to pos
sess some good workmen ; encouragement would
increase their number and facilitate the means pf
improvement ; but manual labour is there exces
sively dear. Hence the Spaniards prefer foreign
articles of this kind ; whicl;, notwithstanding the
expence of carriage, the enormous duties that they
pay, and the profits of the merchants, are still
cheaper than those made at home. The same is
the case with all hardware and small iron articles.
The mountains of Catalonia and Aragon, those of
the Asturias, of Biscay, of Guipuscoa, and of the
country of La Montana, are very rich in iron mines,
which furnish metal of superior quality. Of this,
all kinds of hardware goods might be manufac
tured ; of which the consumption is immense, and
which are now almost all impprted. This import
ant branch is very much neglected ; only a very
few miserable manufactories of the kind are to be
found in Spain. The most considerable of these
are at Solsona, in Catalonia, and at Vergara, in
Guipuscoa ; even these are of small importance ;
the work is ill executed, and the price exceeds that
of the imported article. The

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 235
- The arts which are employed in manufactures
are very much advanced in Spain ; they have been
mentioned under the head of Manufactures.
The liberal arrs are cultivated in this country
with more assiduity and success.
The sixteenth century was the most brilliant pe
riod of the arts in Spain, as well as of the sciences,
of literature, and of the power and grandeur of
the monarchy. A crowd of able architects ap
peared at once under Charles V. and Philip II.
They erected numerous edifices, which will im
mortalize the reigns of these princes and the names
of the arrises. John de Herrera and Cepedes dis
played the highest talents; Pedro de Uria con
structed the magnificent bridge of Almaraz, in
Estramadura ; John-Baptist- Monegro, of Toledo,
assisted in the building of the Escurial, and of the
, church of Saint Peter, at Rome.
The structures of this age are the finest in Spain,
and perhaps the only ones in the country which
deserve to fix the attention of the skilful spectator;
there are some among them which, in regularity,
solidity, and magnificence, deserve to be compared
to the fine buildings of the Romans. The fine
bridges of Badajoz, over the Guadiana, and of To
ledo, over the Manzanares, are of this period; as
are also the grand house or palace, now the coun
cil-house, at Madrid, and the beautiful edifices
which adorn Toledo ; the- palace of los Vargas ;
the hospital of St. John the Baptist, and that of the
Holy

l236 STATE OF THE ARTS IK SPAIW.
Holy Cross, During the same time, the alcazar
of this city, built under king Alphonso X., was
restored wife the grandeur and magnificence that
it still displays ; and the noble palace was erected,
known under the name of the House of Pilate, at
Madrid. That magnificent building was also of Philip the
Second's reign, which the Spaniards call the eighth
wonder of the world : which lodges at once the
king and his court, and two hundred monks : that
famous Escurial which astonishes by its mass and
extent, by the solidity of its construction, by the
regularity of its proportions, and the magnificence
of its execution, as much as by the repulsive ap
pearance of its site and neighbourhood.
The decline of architecture became as complete
in the seventeenth century as its state had been
flourishing in the preceding age. From this period
no architect occurs worthy of remembrance ; and
the buildings are monstrous masses, destitute of
order, taste, and regularity : one only deserves to
be mentioned ; this is the prison of Madrid, called
Carcel de Conte ; the work of a happy genius,
who seemed to have been born in the brilliant era
of Philip IL, or at least who knew how to profit
by the bright examples of that reign.
About fifty years ago, however, architecture also
began again to be cultivated with success. The
academy of San-Fernando, at Madrid; has already
produced several able men in this branch, who
pursue

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 237
pursue their art with credit. The handsome bridge
built over the Xarama, between Aranjuez and
Madrid, in the reign of Charles III. displays the
talents of Mark de Vierna, his architect ; the cus
tom-house of Valencia, and the temple church of
the same city, constructed on the plan of Michael
Fernandez; the exchange of Barcelona; the tri
umphal arch which forms the gate of Alcala, at
Madrid, and the snuff manufactory at Seville, do
honour to the Spanish architecture of the present
day. Spain justly boasts of a number of sculptors of
distinguished merit. The church of Toledo, that
of Saint Benedict, at Madrid, and the college of
Saint Gregory, in the same city, contain some ce
lebrated works of Berruguette. Gregory Hernan
dez executed the beautiful statue of Saint James,
which is admired upon the. high altar of that Saint
at Truxilla ; and that of the Holy Virgin of the
bare-footed Carmelites, of, Valladolid. The con
vent of the great Carmelites of Valencia is filled
with excellent pieces by Gaspar de San-Marti, and
by Lucena, a monk of that house, who died in
, 1644. The sculpture of the Conception, which is
over the gate of the Capuchine nuns, at Toledo,
we owe to Pereyra.
Paul Cepedes, of Cordova, and Alonzo Cano,
of Granada, ought to be mentioned above all as
the first 'sculptors of their nation. To their own
peculiar

238 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
peculiar art they also added thejpractice of paint
ing and architecture. The first is known' by that
beautiful head added to an ancient and valuable
statue of Seneca, which is so well proportioned
and adapted, and so expressive, that it appears to
have, come from the same chisel with the statue
itself. The latter is celebrated for two pieces, one
of the Conception, in the cathedral church of Gra
nada, the other, of the Virgin with the infant Jesus
in her arms, at Nebrija.
The eighteenth century has also produced Spa
nish sculptors who deserve to be reckoned among
distinguished artists : of these were, Rioja Con-
treras, who made the bronze statues at the king's
palace at Madrid ; and two excellent sculptors of
our own days, Julius Capuz and Lambert Marti
nez : we owe to the first a fine Christ, with two
weeping children, in the church of Saint John's
hospital at Valencia. The second executed the
mausoleum of the Duke de Montemar, in the cha
pel of Saint Joachim in the church of our Lady
of the Pillar, at Saragossa. Another contemporary
sculptor does equal honour to his country; his
works unite correctness of design to beauty and
delicacy of execution: I allude to Ignacius Ver-
gara, whose works are scattered through the
cfiurches of Valencia, and particularly adorn that of
the congregation of the chapel of our Lady of
Grace, in the Augustine convent, and the- gate of
the

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 239
the cathedral ; as also the Chartreuse of Portaceli;
and even the basilica of the Vatican, and several
churches in Rome.
Of all the liberal arts, painting is that which has
been most cultivated in Spain, and in which its na
tives have best succeeded. The Spanish school is
little known, and deserves to be more so : it holds
a middle place between the Italian and Flemish
schools: it is more natural than the first, more
noble than the second, and participates in the beau
ties of both. It has particularly excelled in sacred
subjects, and we recognize in the Spanish pictures
the feelings usually entertained by the people of
the mysteries of religion. By none have devout
ecstasy, fervour, and genuine piety been so well
expressed, or the mystic passion given with so
much truth. It is not in correctness of design, or
nobleness of form, that the Spanish artists usually
excel, but in the pure imitation of nature, in grace,
truth, effect,' and the expression of feelings.
Most of their painters are of the seventeenth, or
the end of the sixteenth century. In this number
are distinguished John Carreno, several of whose
pictures are to be seen at Madrid and Toledo ;
Francis Ruis, who was born at Madrid in 1603,
and died at the Escurial in 1680, and was both a
painter and an architect ; and Pereda, who treated
several subjects of Spanish history. Amongst the
pupils of the school of Carreno, Matthew Cerezo,
of Burgos, distinguished himself by his colouring. Philip

240 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
Philip Gil de Mena, his contemporary, painted por
traits with success, and formed an academy of
painting in his house. He was born at Valladolid,
and died in 1664; he was a pupil of Van der
Hamen. Francis Zurburan united correctness of
design to beauty of colouring. John Fernandez
Ziminez Novaretti, of Logrono, better known under
the name of Ei Mudo, was one of the principal
ornaments of the Spanish school. He died in
1576, at the Escurial, which is enriched with his
works. He deserved the title of the Spanish Titian.
Bias del Prado, of Toledo, his contemporary, who
died at Madrid in 1577, is not known out of his
own country, but he deserves to be ; his colouring
is good, and his figures are expressive. Francis
Solis, of Madrid, where he died in 1684, suffered
himself to be carried a#ay by an ardent imagina
tion, but left, however, some good works. Names
here crowd upon us : we have J. Lewis Zembrano,
of Cordova, who died in 1639. John Penolosa,
of Baena,* who died in 1616. Francis Herrera
the younger, of Seville, contemporary with the
preceding ; Paul de las Roelas, of the same city,
who died in 1 620. Alphonso Vasquez, of Ronda,
who died in 1650. Antonio Mohedino, of Ante-
quera, who died in 1 625. Each of these painters
had a peculiar department. Herrera excelled in
chiaro-scuro, and the proportions of light and
shade ; Las Roelas, a pupil of Titian, often called
to mind the talents of his master ; Vasquez chiefly
succeeded

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 241
succeeded in fresco painting} in fruit, and other
objects of inanimate nature. Mohedano, of the
school of Paul Cepedes, distinguished himself most
in landscape and in fresco.
To these names many others might be added of
equal merit, and of the same period. La Corte,
Vincent Carducho, and Leonorda, are known by
some pieces on subjects in Spanish history
The city and kingdom of Valencia, which con
tains so large a proportion of the works of the
masters we have mentioned, have also produced a
number of very good artists ; as Vincent Victoria,
a canon of San Felippo ; Francis Ribalta, of Va
lencia, whose excellent works embellish several
churches of that city, the Chartreuse of Portaceli,
and that of the nuns of Segorba and Andilla ; and
Pedro Orente, born in the fame city, whose wo;ks
are superior in beauty and execution to those of
the preceding.
The name of Spagnolet is famous. This emi
nent painter, whose true name was Joseph de Ri-
bera, was born at Xativa, now San Felippo, in
1580, and died in 1656. He studied the manner
of Michael-Angelo, and though his touch was less
mellow, he almost equalled h.'s great model in cor
rectness of drawing. His touch was grave : he
might be called the penitential painter : terrible
and horrible subjects were those which he execut
ed with the greatest truth, and perhaps with too
much force. His style was neither dignified nor
vol. v. R pleasing ;

242 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN*
pleasing ; but all his heads are remarkably express
sive. His works are very numerous : a hermit in
Saint Isidore's chapel, in the church of the Domi
nicans, at Valencia, is particularly admired. A
Saint Peter; a dead Christ; and a martyrdom of
St. Lawrence, in the church of our Lady of the
Pillar, at Saragossa, are of almost equal merit.
John Joannes, also born at Valencia, occupies
one of the first places among the painters of the se
cond order : the finish of some of his works might
gain him admittance into the first class, had his
other productions been of equal excellence. Ra
phael was his model ; he could neither attain to
the grace, the dignity, nor the correctness of this
great master; but he sometimes approaches him
in truth. His works are scattered, in the greatest
number, about Valencia : if collected, they would
form a numerous and very interesting collection.
They every where display the touch of a master,
and would have been still superior if Joannes had
ever been out of his own country.
Amongst the works of this painter are particu
larly distinguished a death of Saint Joseph, a pre
cious piece ; a Saviour, of which several copies,
by Joannes himself, are found in different churches
of Valencia ; a Last Supper, in the style of Van
Dyke ; and a Carrying of the Cross, resembling
Raphael's Pasmo de Sicilia; a Saint Francis, strik
ing for its truth and the illusion it produces ; two
other Last Suppers, equally beautiful j and a Bap tism

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAINi 248
tism of Jesus Christy which is not inferior to the
rest. The kingdom of Cordova boasts also of having
produced several painters who did equal honour to
the Spanish school. Amongst these were Zem-
brano, of Cordova; Paul Gepedes, of the same
city, who died in 1608 ; Antohio del Castillo y
Saavedra* also of Cordova, who died in 1667;
Antonio Palomino, who was born at Bujalance,
in 16.5.3, and died in 1725. Castillo succeeded
equally in history, landscape, and portrait: his
designs are excellent, but his colouring is destitute
of taste and beauty; Some of the pictures at the
Buen Retire are his, as well as some of the good
ones in the cathedral of Cordova, and at our Lady
de la Fuen-Santa. Cepedes endeavoured to imi
tate Gorregio, and sometimes with good success.
The Dominicans of Cordova possess a beautiful
Last Supper of his, in which every figure presents a
different character. That of Jesus is a union of
greatness and goodness : Judas appears restless,
morose, and deceitful ; each of the other apostles
affords a varied shade of love, reverence, and sanc-
tity- The seventeenth century produced Eugenius
Caxes; who died in 1642; and who treated pious
subjects with great success.
We now approach the moment when the glory
of Spanish painting was suddenly eclipsed. This
art followed the fate of all- the rest. It survived
r 2 them

244 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
them indeed for some time ; but at length this to&
disappeared, and left scarcely a single pupil worthy
to be named. Nature appeared to make an effort
in this moment of weakness and decay : she pro.
" dueed at once three happy geniuses, who left be
hind them such marks of talents as make us se
verely regret that they have been without successors.
Bartholomew Murillo, Claudius Coello, and Velas
quez, were the last of whom the Spanish school has
cause to boast. The first borri at Pilas, near Se
ville,; in l603,~died in 1685 i the second, born at
Madrid, and a pupil of Ricei, died in 1693; the last,
bora at Bujalance, in the kingdom of Cordova, in
1653, died in 1725.
The master-pieces of Murillo are chiefly to be
found at Seville, in the Capuchin convent, in the
Hospital of Charity and the" cathedral ; atsBuen-
Vista, at Cadiz, and at Cordova. One might wish
for more correctness in his drawing ; more selec
tion and dignity in his figures : but these defici
encies are compensated by great beauties ; the
painter diffuses an ingenuous sweetness over his
faces ; his touch is light and pleasing ; his carna
tion admirable for its freshness ; his colouring
sweet, soft, and brilliant ; hehad great knowledge
of chiaroscuro, and a chaste and striking manner.
Coello was a jdiligent observer and imitator of
nature. He particularly surpassed himself in a
picture of a procession, in the sacristy qf the church
©f the Escurial. Velasquez

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 245
"Velasquez was a most extraordinary genius,
though, he is not known beyond the limits of
Spain ; his portraits and other pictures are admir
able for their truth and colouring.
Palomino was the last hope of the Spanish school.
He produced some good pieces, and particularly
excelled in fresco; he also formed one pupil of
merit — Videl : but that of Palomino chiefly con
sists in having written a very good book on the
rules of his art ; to which he added the lives of
Spanish painters.
Painting was at length neglected, despised, and
forgotten in Spain; no artists arose above medio*
crity ; those works which h,ad done honour to their
country in a former age had ceased to appear.
The beginning of the eighteenth century was the
era of the total annihilation of painting in Spain.
Antonio Raphael Mengs arose about the middle
of the same century; his appearance gave a new
face to the art, and soon revived the Spanish school;
a taste^for painting again prevailed, and pupils ar
rived from all.parts, eager to follow the lessons of
so good a master. Their progress was rapid, and
the new Spanish school soon reckoned several
praiseworthy artists, who laboured with success at
its reestablishment. -
In our own times it has produced Joseph Vergara,
of Alcudia, in Valencia, Francis Bayeu, of Sara
gossa ; and Mariano Maella, whose colouring, and
style of drawing, resemble that of Mengs, whose
s 3 most

246 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
most distinguished pupil he was. Francis Goya,
born at Saragossa, whose light and ready pencil has
depicted, with elegance and truth, the costume and
the games of the different provinces of Spain, and
who likewise succeeded in portrait, as did also
Estevan and Acunna.
The Spaniards have at length opened their eyes
to the utility of the arts ; they acknowledge them
to be advantageous and deserving of respect, and
have begun to give them such encouragement as is
likely to encourage a taste for them, and to insure
their advancement. Government has done some
thing by affording protection and countenance to
the new establishments; but the strongest impulse
has been given by individuals, or private associa
tions, Spain now possesses an academy of painting, at
Seville, and two academies of the fine arts, one at
Madrid, and the other at Valencia. The first
owes its origin to an association of the painters of
Seville formed by themselves, about the year 1660;
Charles III. revived it, and established there a
school of the fine arts. That of Madrid was
founded by Philip V. The last was established by
the exertions of some private persons, assisted by
the benefactions of Andrew Majoral, archbishop of
Valencia, and the protection, not a very active one
indeed, of the municipal body. Charles III. came
to its assistance six and twenty years after its esta
blishment, with an annual gift of near 700 /. These
academies

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN." 247
academies have for their object the study and im
provement of painting, sculpture, and architec
ture ; they give public lessons on these three arts,
and distribute annual prizes to their pupils. That
of Madrid, or San Fernando, sends its pupils to
Rome at the expence of government, to complete
their studies.
Public and gratuitous schools for drawing have
been established within the last twenty years in
various places ; at Madrid, Ciudad-Rodrigo, Cor
dova, Seville, Valencia, Vergara, Saragossa, Gijon,
Santander, Alicant, Corun a, Olot, and Barcelona.
The two latter are supported by the merchants of
those cities ; that of Vergara was founded by the
patriotic society of Biscay ; and those of Saragossa
and Cordova owe their birth to the zeal and gene
rosity of two individuals ; the first to Don Martin
Noy Cochear, the last to Don Antonio Cavallero,
the present bishop of Cordova. Those of Madrid,
Seville, and Valencia, depend on the academies of
these cities, Spanish Music.
The Spaniards have a taste for music, and culti
vate it with success. They do not likeFrench music,
which they account too languid and monotonous,
but give the preference to the Italian. They had
long had companies who acted Italian operas at
Madrid, Cadiz, and Barcelona ; but, the king hav-
r 4 ing

248 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN,
ing prohibited all foreign spectacles in 1801, Bar
celona is now the only place which by virtue of a
special permission preserves its Italian operas and
ballets. The Moors were the first in Spain who made a
regular study of music, and cultivated it scientifi
cally ; who established schools to teach k, wrote
upon the elements, the advantages, and the varie
ties of this art, and on the means of advancing it.
They had a musical school at Cordova, which
became celebrated, and the pupils of which were
the delight of Musulman Spain, and of Asia. Their
Abi Zelti, who lived in the fourteenth century,
wrote upon music; their Alfarabi gave " Elements
of Music," in which he treats of the principles of
the art, the unison of voices and instruments, and
of different kinds of musical composition ; he adds
the Arabic notes, and gives drawings of more than
thirty kinds of instruments: this work is in the
Escurial. Their Ali Ben Alhassani published a
great collection of tunes, of which only the first
volume remains, which is also at the^ Escurial ; it
contains 150 airs, the lives of fourteen celebrated
Arabian musicians, and those of four eminent fe
male singers, who were favourites of the califfs.
The Spaniards, having the same taste with the
Moors, were led to imitate them. They esta
blished musical schools, and established a chair of
music, at Salamanca, which still subsists. They
have two other schools of music ; one at the col.
lege

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 240
lege of Saint Leandro, in Murcia, the other in the
king's Gollege, at Madrid, which is destined to form
pupils for the royal chapel. Both are unimportant
and litde known.
The fifteenth century gave birth to Bartholomew
Ramus, an Andalusian, who after having been
professor of music at Salamanca, was sent for to
fill a similar chair established by Pope Nicholas V.
at Bologna: he published a treatise on music,
which was twice- printed at that city, in 1484.
Antonio Calderone, of Madrid, and a female, An
gela Siga, of Toledo, wrote on the same subject,
in the next century. Francis Salinas, though blind
from the age of ten, became a great musician ; and
in our own times Yriarte, a Spanish poet, has pub
lished a poem on music.
The Moorish music chiefly consisted of soft and
tender airs, sung by one or more voices, and ac
companied by the lute. Many of these airs may
be found in Ali Ben Alhassani's collection. It also
appears from Alfarabi's work, that they-were ac
quainted with the fourth, fifth, and eighth concord,
and ignorant of the third. Neither is any vestige
of semitones to be found in them.
The modern Spaniards have also their national
music ; but like that of the Moors, of which it ap
pears to be an imitation, it is almost entirely con
fined to detached airs, to seguidillas, tiranas and
tornadillas, which are sung by one or more voices,
and accompanied by the guitar. The tunes much
resemble

250 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
resemble those of French vaudevilles. Some are
lively, but in general they have little variety in
their modulations, but are distinguished by a
striking monotony, a sameness, a gravity which
answers to the national character. They adapt
this music to the stage in their tormdillas and
afterpieces : but their national music is only to be
found in such of these pieces as are old ; in the
modern ones it is Italianized, and disguised in
such a manner that it seems to belong tp neither
nation. Spain has adopted the musical instruments which
are in general used amongst other nations, and has
also some peculiar and national ones. Of these
are the guitar, which is in the hands of every body,
man or woman, and is played as in Italy, that is
with the back of the hand, and the castanetts, which
are handled with great address and agility: the
dancers use them in their national dances, and fol
low the different modulations of the music with
great accuracy.
Different provinces of Spain have their peculiar
instruments, Galicia has a kind of bagpipe, the
effect of which is dull and heavy, and from which
pnly plaintive and monotonous sounds are drawn.
Catalonia has also the bagpipe; but it is there
usually accompanied by a large flageolet and a
little drum.
The Biscayans use a short flute with four holes,
three above and one below, and a small drum, The

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 251
The same man plays them both at once ; he -holds
the flute with his left hand, and beats the drum
with his right, which he holds suspended from his
left arm ; the sounds produced are sharp, lively,
and rapid.
Valencia has the dulzayna : a kind of flute with
a mouthpiece, which gives a sharp and dissonant
sound ; no air is played upon it, it is only made
to utter plaintive tones, not unlike long, shrill,
and piercing groans. The Valencians doat upon
this inconvenient and ridiculous instrument ; it
accompanies all their festivals and processions ;
the viaticum never leaves the church unaccompani
ed by a greater or smaller number of flutes. They
appear melodious to the ears of the Valencians,
which are surely not formed like those of other
men; but foreigners, and even pther Spaniards,
find them intolerable.
Castile has two instruments peculiar to itself,
the zambomba and the pandero. The zambomba is
made with an earthen pot, the wide opening of
which is covered by a tightly strained parchment,
into the middle of which is firmly fitted a stick
which reaches to the bottom of the pot, and rises
five or six inches above the parchment. The fin
gers are moistened, and strongly rubbed up and
down the stick, which produces a harsh, obscure,
and monotonous sound. The common people
run about the streets at night playing on this in
strument, which they accompany with singing. They

252i.||r STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN,
They only use it from All Saints to Christmas j
during the rest of the year it is never heard. I
have seen it in some country places in Holland,
particularly in the neighbourhood of Rotterdam,
but it is there used only on one day in the year,
and is known by the name of Rummelspot, rumble
pot : there is reason to believe that it was im
ported into that country by the Castilians during
the time that it was possessed by their kings. The
pandero is an oblong frame of wood over which
two parchments are stretched, one on each side ;
it is often adorned With ribands and bells: the
if- parchment is played upon with the fingers like the
tambour de basque. Its tones are more sonorous
than those of the zambomba, but are still obscure
and monotonous. It is used to accompany the
singing in dancing seguidillas.

Spanish Dances.
The Spaniards were always fond of dancing,
having long been distinguished in this kind of
exercise by their lightness, their gestures, and the
gtaces by which they accompany their motions,
of which Martial often makes mention.
The Andalusian dancers were celebrated under
the Romans, and in the various provinces of the
empire the Spanish ' girls were often seen, by their
¦ dances, to attract the crowd, excite applause, and
captivate

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN* 253
captivate the hearts of consuls, proconsuls, and the
gravest senators. Betica, now Andalusia, fur
nished the best dancers, and is still that part of the
country where the people excel most in this art.
It must not be supposed, however, that the
Spaniards shine in all kinds of dancing ; foreign
dances they do not execute with the same precision
or elegance ; it is only in their national ones that
they excel. In their balls they dance French and
English country dances, and the minuets : of this
last they are very fond ; it even makes a part of
the education of young ladies ; they dance it with
more than all due gravity, and with little grace or
dignity, they also mix with it figures, gestures, and
motions, that have nothing to do with the genuine
dance, and which they learn of the bad masters
who teach them.
Their balls are almost always^opened by minuets,
after which CQme country dances ; the fandanga
was formerly danced at them, but is now almost
entirely banished from genteel assemblies. The
bolero has been substituted, which is sometimes
danced, as it were, by stealth, and during the in
tervals of the country dances ; but eyen for this
they select only very young people.
The Spanish balls are directed by two persons
chosen among the visitors, who are called bas-
toneras, and with the hat under the arm and the
cane in the hand, perform the office of masters of
the ceremonies. One is for the gentlemen, the
other

254 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
other for the ladies. It is their business to appoint!
who is to dance, whether minuets ori country
dances : they are in general very attentive to the
observance of precedence and etiquette, and have
usually the complaisance to contrive that those
shall dance together to whom it is peculiarly agree-'
able to meet.
A singular custom is observed at these balls,
which appears new and strange to a foreigner.
The lady chosen to dance rises, crosses the room
alone, and places herself where she is to begin
dancing, without waiting for her partner to lead
her out ; and after the dance is over, her partner
makes his bow to her again in the middle of the
room without taking any farther concern about
her, or handing her back to her place. But this
custom only prevails in the provinces.
The Spaniards formerly had public dances in
the markets and squares, where the common peo
ple abandoned themselves to all the delight of the
diversion, and in which persons of condition some
times mixed with the vulgar.
Biscay, Catalonia, Valencia, Andalusia, and Na
varre, were the parts where they were most fre
quent ; but they have now almost entirely ceased ;
some vestiges of them alone remain in Biscay, in
some districts of Navarre, and some of Catalonia.
The Biscayans have several dances, particularly
the carricadanza, which is performed to the sound'
of the drum. The

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 255
The dances of Navarre are nearly similar to
those of Biscay.
The Castilians have the guaracha, which is
danced by one woman, to the sound of the guitar :
it is a dance of character serious, monotonous,
with a grave measured step, where the feet do all:
the body is stiff, and the arms motionless. Some
times the dancer accompanies herself on the guitar.
Ampurdan, and Cerdagne, particular districts
of Catalonia, haye two peculiar dances which are
only performed in the public squares. One is a
slow and serious dance, in which a greater or
smaller number of women move on with a mea
sured step, one behind another, with one man at
the beginning ; the other at the end of the file :
the first leads the dance, the second does nothing
but follow, but at every turn they change places,
and he who was last goes first. The file some
times stops and forms into a circle. This dance is
Very slow, very grave, and very monotonous.
After some time the file is broken ; other men
mingle with it, and each woman has a partner.
The whole dance forms a kind of circle, which
the men move through backwards, each dancing
before his partner, who accompanies him by jump
ing. From time to time they all join in a circle j
the men sometimes have castanets, with which they
mark the time and the different motions of the
body : those who have none, snap their fingers in
stead. This second dance is much more lively and

256 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN,
and animated than the first ; but this too is tedious
from its too great uniformity. Both are danced
to the sound of the bagpipe, a drum, a flageolet,
and two flutes made like a hautboy. The dances
of Cerdagne are very nearly similar to these, only
the women there follow their partners, marking
the time with their hands. The districts of Am
purdan and Cerdagne border upon France, and
the province of Roussillon, where the same dances
are in use with the same< instruments; but where
they are more lively, more animated, more grace
ful, and executed with more agility and some pe- ,
culiar modifications which add to their vivacity. I
have also seen in Ampurdan the dance with sticks,
which I shall describe amongst those of Valencia. '
The Valencians have some peculiar dances.
There are two which they execute in the manner
of ballets, in which they chiefly display their pre-1
cision, address, and lightness. In the first they
place pn the ground a great number of eggs, at
small intervals from each other; they dance round
the eggs in these intervals ; it seems as if they
must crush them every moment, but notwithstand
ing the celerity and variety of the steps they
display, they never touch one of them. In the
last, each dancer is furnished with a little stick,
about two feet and a half long ; they strike their
sticks one against the other, and in this manner
beat time ; in all their motions, advancing, retir
ing, crossing, jumping, turning round, on all sides in

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 25?
in all possible positions, they continue to strike
their sticks all at the same moment ; they some
times accelerate and redouble their strokes, but
they always suit the time and fall in perfect ac
cordance. These are provincial dances, but the Spaniards
have three which are national; these are, the fan
dango, the bolero, and the sequidilla.
The fandango is very ancient, the bolero is quite
modern: the sequidilla is an imitation of the steps
of the two others formed into a ballet.
There is reason to believe that it is of the fan
dango that Martial speaks, when he aims the whole
force of his invective against the wanton dances of
Betica ; especially of the district of Gadi£, and the
voluptuous manner in which they are performed
by the women. It is indeed a very extraordinary
dance ; a late traveller, Baretti, has. justly defined
it, a regular and harmonious convulsion of all parts
df the body.
The bolero is an imitation of it, but shortened,
modified, and stripped of all those accessaries
which give to the fandango so very free a character.
The passion of the Spaniards for these dances
is carried to a height which can scarcely be iriiagih*
ed. No sooner are the guitar and the singing; to
which they are danced, heard in a ball room or
theatre, than a murmur of delight arise¥ on aU
sides ; all faces become animated, the feet, hands,
and eyes of aU present are put in motion ; it is
vol. v. s" impossible.

258 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
impossible to describe the effect produced. Mr.
Townsend, an English traveller, rightly says, that
if a person were to come suddenly into a church,
or a court of justice, playing the fandango, or the
bolero, priests, judges, lawyers, criminals, audience,
one and all, grave or gay, young or old, would
quit their functions, forget all distinctions, and all
set themselves a dancing.
This observation 'must have been suggested to
rhim by a little Spanish piece, in which it is pro
posed to suppress the fandango; the decision is re
ferred to the conclave, at Rome; when a man
and woman appear, who perform it so well, that
instead of sending them away, the pope, the car
dinals, and all th^sacred college, begin to imitate
their motions and to dance with them.
The fandango and bolero are dahced in couples,
to the sound of the guitar, and the noise of cas
tanets, which the men employ with equal precision
and sportiveness to mark the time and animate
their motions.
In the bolero the man and woman go through the
same motions, but those of the woman are more
<r lively, more animated, and more expressive. The
feet are not a moment still; their rapid and continu-
. ally varied steps require the greatest correctness.
The woman executes with lightness and rapidity a
; wonderful variety of steps and movements. Her
arms, unequally extended, sometimes half held
¦ out, sometimes a little bent, alternately raised and
depressed,

STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN. 259
depressed, assume a variety of positions never seen
elsewhere, but full of grace and attraction. The
head, sometimes upright, sometimes hung negli
gently on one side, accompanies the motion of the
arms; inflections of the body, equally varied,-
succeed each other with rapidity. This variety of
motions, actions, and positions, forms a whole
which cannot be described, but which excites a
most lively emotion in the breast, and renders the
least beautiful woman seductive.
The fandango is graver than the bolero, but more
expressive ; the steps are neither so lively, nor is
their time so strongly marked ; they more re
semble different modes of balancing ; but the in
flections of the body are more varied, and add to
its gracefulness. Motions of the eyes and features
mark all the postures of this dance: the rriost
lively expression of all the passions that agitate the
heart are there exhibited ; fear, desire, and plea
sure are exhibited alternately; and in quick succes
sion. Looks, gesture, attitudes and inflections of
the body, give them a more lively and more
marked expression. In both these dances the
spectator involuntarily imitates the action of the
performers ; but nothing of this sort is so extraor
dinary as certain dances of the common people,
at once more voluptuous and more savage, called
the olla and the cachirulo; wanton kind of dances,
which remind one of the accounts given by tra-
s 2 vellers

260 STATE OF THE ARTS IN SPAIN.
vellers of those of the negroes, and other African
tribes. The fandango and bolero are also executed in the
form of a ballet or figure dance : they are then
danced by eight ; four men and four women, and
at intervals each couple in its own corner goes
through all the motions of these dances : these
are what aire called sequidillas. The impression is
similar, but more confused; the multiplicity of
objects divides the attention and diminishes the
effect. All the above-mentioned dances are usually per
formed to the sound of the guitar, accompanied
by the voice of the player. The women mark the
time very correctly with the heel : a motion which
appears indifferent, yet adds a new grace.
These dances are not in general practised in
genteel society ; and it must be confessed that the
Spanish ladies do not stand in need of this mode
of pleasing : they leave it to women of an inferior
class, who turn it to great advantage. The deli*
cacy of their shape, the suppleness of their limbs,
the lightness of their figure, the elegance of their
costume, the variety of their motions, and the ex
pression of their looks, then render them equally
agreeable and dangerous.

CHAP.

( 261 ),

CHAP. XII.

PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF SPAIN, AND ITS
INHABITANTS.
The difference of climate has a remarkable in
fluence on the physical constitution of individuals,
and the climate of the different provinces of Spain
is very various. We have already said something
on this subject in our particular examination of
each province : we shall now present a fuller pic
ture Of the whole.
The climate of Spain in general is very dry, and
the country intersected by chains of mountains
which render irrigation very difficult. These cir
cumstances have at all times rendered the harvests
uncertain, and frequently occasioned famines and
epidemic diseases. We continually read in history
of armies obliged to raise sieges for want of provi
sions, or on account of sickness occasioned by
drought. Mariana mentions two facts of this kind
in the short space of two years. " in 1210," says
he, lib. ii. cap. 25, " a great scarcity was felt in
the kingdom of Toledo ; there was not a drop of
rain for nine successive months; insomuch that
the husbandmen were forced to quit their lands,
s 3 and

262 PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF SPAIN,
and their dwellings, to seek an asylum in other
provinces." The same was the case in, 1213 ; this
drought however appeared to have been confined
entirely to the two kingdoms of Castile, which are
equally dry, arid, and windy.
The climate of New Castile is more mild than
that of the old; in the former, the winters are tem-
perate, and the summers very hot ; in the latter >
the plains are very temperate, and the mountains
as well as the parts bordering on them, very cold ;
there are even some parts of the low country
where the cqld is severely felt in winter. The
skies of both are very fine ; almost always clear,
serene, and of a beautiful blue; but those of New
Castile are the most constantly so, in some, parts
pf the old it is often cloudy.
The climate of the kingdom of Valencia is very
temperate in winter, hot in summer, but refreshed
by breezes from the sea; dry in the interior, some
what moist in the plain of Valencia, generally in
constant, and subject to winds. The sky is usually
clear and blue, except in the plain of Valencia,
where the atmosphere is slightly thickened by the
vapours rising from the great quantity of water
collected there for the purpose of irrigation.
Catalonia, considered with regard to its numerous
plains, is the most temperate province of Spain ;
the winters, with some exceptions, are mild, and
the heat of summer is not often extremely violent ;
but

• AND ITS INHABITANTS. 263-
butithe hills and valleys bordering upon the Pyre
nees are very hot in summer, and cold in winter,
at which time the summits of the mountains are
covered with ice and snow.. The higher parts are
here less subject to variations of the atmosphere
than the lower ; these latter, especially on the side
of Barcelona, experience continual changes : it
varies rapidly, sometimes in the same day, from
hot to cold, from dry to wet, from calm to stormy,
and from a clear sky to rain or cloud. The air is
dry in the interior, and moist on the sea coast,
especially in the bason in which Barcelona is situ
ated. The east and southeast winds are those
which blow with most frequency and violence in
the parts near the sea. They bring with them a
constant moisture, and often rain.
Aragon is much drier and cooler than Cata
lonia ; its temperature is even rather cold than hot ;
yet its plains and valleys are sometimes scorching,
and a keen cold is felt upon its mountains. Winds
are frequent and violent. The sky is clear, and
more constantly so than in th# maritime parts of
Catalonia. The vicinity of the Pyrenees renders
storms frequent in this province during the sum
mer- Navarre, being situated among the Pyrenees, is
a cold tract : its winters are usually very severe.
- Biscay, comprehending the three districts of
Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, is cold ; the win-
> s 4 tera

264 PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF SPAIN,
ters are sharp, and the summers temperate j it is
dry in the interior, and moist on the coasts, where
the cold is less felt. The sky is often cloudy, and
the air loaded with fogs.
The Asturias are mild near the sea, but cold
further up the country and upon the mountains :-
there are frequent and violent winds ; the sky is
seldom very clear, but rather cloudy ; the air is
moist, and it rains frequently,
The climate of Galicia is very similar in all re-
spects ; its sky is the most cloudy of any in Spain,
and more rain falls here than in any other part.
1 he climate of the kingdom of Leon varies in
different tracts In the eastern part it is very simi
lar to that of Old Castile ; in the north and west,
it resembles thatTjf Galicia ; and in the south, is
similar to that of Estramadura.
Estramadura is a very hot and dry country,
where the heats of summer are very violent, and
the winters extremely mild. Its air is usually very
dry, and its skies are perhaps the finest and bright
est of Spain.
Andalusia is very hot on the coast, temperate in
the interior, very cool at the foot of the mountains,
and cold on their summits. It is a dry country,
though watered by several rivers, and is exposed to
several winds, especially near the sea. The east is
the most prevalent near the Mediterranean ; and a
wind sometimes blows there from the south south. east,

AND ITS INHABITANTS. 265
east, called the Solano, which has a very dangerous
effect upon the human frame, and occasionally
-produces a state very similar to phrensy.
The climate of Murcia is cool upon the moun
tains, temperate towards the sea and at the foot of
the mountains in the south, but very hot in the
valley which is watered by the river Segura, and
in which the city of Murcia stands, as well as in
the Campo de Lorca, and burning in that of Car
thagena. It is very dry, except in the valley of
Segura, where it is almost always moist. The
skies of this kingdom are most beautiful, almost
always clear, bright, calm; and of a brilliant blue ;
on which account this country has been named,
the most serene kingdom of Murcia.
The Spaniards are generally rather below than
above the middle stature. They are taller in the
provinces near the ocean and the Pyrenees, espe
cially in Catalonia, Aragon, and Galicia; provinces
which furnish a well made, large, and well propor
tioned race of men, and smaller in the two Castiles
and Leon.
The Spaniards are usually represented as lean,
dry, meagre, and of a yellow and swarthy complex
ion. They are not indeed of the gross habit usu
ally observed in the inhabitants of the north ; but
their thinness is neither excessive nor disagreeable;
it is suitable to their stature. Their complexion
.is swarthy in some provinces ; those, for instance,
of the south ; it is so also, but in a less degree, in

266 PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF ~S PAIN,
in the Castiles,' though a shade brighter in New
than in Old Castile. It inclines to yellow or
olive in the kingdom of Murcia, but white skins.
are still very common in Spain, especially amongst
women and children.
The general appearance of the Spaniards is
usually very good ; the shape delicate, the head
beautiful, the countenance intelligent; their eyes
are quick and animated, their features regular,
their teeth even.
The Castilians appear delicate, but they are
strong. The Galicians are large, nervous, robust,
and able to endure fatigue; The inhabitants of
Estramadura are strong, stout, and well made,
but more swarthy than any other Spaniards. The
Andalusians are light, slender, and perfectly well
proportioned. The Murcians are gloomy, in
dolent, and heavy ; their complexion is pale,
and often almost lead-coloured. The Valencians
are delicate, slight, and effeminate ; but intelligent,
and active in labour. The Catalans are nervous;
strong, active, intelligent, indefatigable, and above
the middling stature. The Aragonese are tall and
well made; as robust, but less active than the
Catalans, The Biscayans are strong, vigorous,
agile, and gay; their complexion is fine, their ex
pression quick, animated, laughing and open; the
.Roman historians describe them as brave, robust,
endowed with constancy and a firmness not to be
shaken; fierce in. their disposition^ singular in
their

AND ITS INHABITANTS. 267
their customs; always armed with daggers, and
ready to give themselves death rather than suffer
themselves to be subjugated or governed by force ;
roused to opposition by obstacles, and patient of
labours and fatigue. In fact, the Calabrians were
the Spanish people who longest resisted the arms
of the Roman republic.
The Spanish women here deserve a separate ar
ticle ; compared with the men, they seem to form
a different nation.
The females of Spain are naturally beautiful,
and owe nothing to art. The greater part are
brown ; the few that are fair are chiefly to be
found in Biscay. They are in general well pro
portioned, with a slender and delicate shape, small
feet, well shaped legs, a face of a fine oval, black
or rich brown hair, a mouth neither large nor
srriall, but agreeable, red lips ; white and well set
teeth, which they do not long preserve, however,
owing to the little care they take of them. They
have large and open eyes, usually black, or dark
hazel, delicate and regular features, a peculiar
suppleness, and a charming natural grace in their
motions, with a pleasing and expressive gesture.
Their countenances are open, and full of truth and
intelligence; their look is gentle, animated, ex
pressive; their smile agreeable; they are naturally
pale, But this paleness seems to vanish under the
brilliancy and expressive lustre of their eyes. They
are full of graces, which appear in their discourse, in

268 PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF SPAIN,
in their looks, their gestures, in all their motions,
and every thing that they do. They have usually
a kind of embarrassed and heedless manner, which
does not fail, however, to seduce, even more per
haps than wit and talents. Their countenance is
modest, but expressive. There is a certain sim
plicity in all they do, which sometimes gives them
a rustic, and sometimes a bold air, but the charm
of which is inexpressible. As soon as they get- a
little acquainted with you, and have overcome
their first embarrassment, they express themselves
with ease ; their discourse is full of choice expres
sions, at once delicate and noble; their conversa
tion is lively, easy, arid possesses a natural gaiety
peculiar to themselves. They seldom read and
write, but the little that they read they profit by,
and the little that they write is correct and concise.
They are of a warm disposition ; their passions
are violent, and their imagination ardent, but they
are generous, kind, and true, and capable of sin
cere attachment.
With them, as with the women of other coun
tries, love is the chief business of life ; but with
them it is a deep feeling, a passion, and not, as in
some other parts, an effect of self-love, of vanity,
of coquetry, or of the rivalries of society. When
the Spanish women love, they love deeply and
long ; but they also require a constant assiduity,
and a complete dependence. Naturally reserved
and modest, they are then jealous and impetuous. They

AND ITS INHABITANTS. 269
They are capable of making any sacrifices; but
they also exact them. On these occasions they
discover all the energy of their character ; and the
women of no other nation can compare with them -
in this point. The Castilian women excel all the
rest in love. There are many shades of difference
in the manner in which this passion is displayed by
the females of different provinces. Those of Cas
tile have most tenderness and sensibility ; the Bis-
cayans are more ardent ; the Valencians and Ca
talans more impetuous ; the Aragonese most ex
acting and imperious ; the Andalusian women most
adroit and seducing ; but the general disposition is
nearly the same in all.
There is a freedom in the manners and conver
sation of the Spanish women, which causes them
to be judged unfavourably bf by strangers ; but on
further acquaintance, a man perceives that they
appear to promise more than they grant, and that
they do not even permit those freedoms which
most women of other countries think there is no
harm in allowing. A modern traveller, who is
sometimes severe, often hasty in his judgments, has
anticipated me in this remark; but he deduces
from it an inference unfavourable to the Spanish
women. " Feeling," says he, " their own weak
ness, and knowing how inflammable they are,
they are distrustful of themselves, and fear they
should yield too easily." This is supposing them
very abandoned, and very calculating, and they are

270 PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF SPAIN, &C
are neither one nor the other. This reserve be
longs to their notions and manners ; it some
times proceeds from the embarrassment, of which
we have spoken, and oftener from their ideas of
love, which forbid them to grant'their favours by
halves, or to employ that coquetry so common
among the women of other countries.
If the Spanish ladies are agreeable, if they are
sometimes well-informed, they owe it only to
themselves, and in no degree to their education,
which is almost totally neglected. If their native
qualities were polished and unfolded by a careful
instruction, they would become but too seductive.

CHAP.

( 271 )

CHAP. XIII.

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
Many different people have occupied Spain in suc
cession : the Carthaginians, the Romans, the Suevi,
the Alani, the Vandals, the Arabs, and the French ;
and with all these the natives have been con
founded. Towards the end of the eighth and beginning
of the ninth century, four principal nations inha
bited the country : the natives, then known by the
name of Romans ; the Goths, comprehending the
remains of the Suevi, Alani, and Vandals, a por
tion of whom were also confounded with the na
tives and with the Moors, whilst a considerable
part had taken refuge in the Asturias and in Na
varre ; the Moors, with whom the natives of
Africa were mingled; and the French, who occu
pied a great part of Catalonia, Navarre, and the
Pyrenees. Each of these nations brought with it
its own genius, manners, laws, and customs.
When the Moors were driven out of Spain, seve
ral independent sovereignties were formed; each of
which had its own laws, customs, constitution,
and particular form of government. Galicia, Leon, the

272 SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
the Castiles, Biscay, Navarre, Aragon, and Cata
lonia, had each its own sovereign. Andalusia,
Murcia, and Valencia, were peopled by a mixture
of different nations. Hence resulted a diversity in
genius, temper, manners, and customs ; and this
diversity, though modified by the present uniform
ity of government, by the more intimate commu
nication between different provinces and their in
habitants, and by the assimilation of general cus
toms, left to each country a peculiar tinge, of
which vestiges, more or less distinct, may still be
traced. The national characters are not yet de
stroyed ; they pass through the uniformity which
government endeavours to introduce, and which imi
tation and example cause to be insensibly adopted.
There are no two provinces of which the man
ners and character are exactly alike. In travelling
through France, one is surprised to find there the
ruling character of some parts of Spain : the Bis
cay an may be compared to the Basque ; the Ca
talan to the Provencal ; the Valencian to the na
tive of Lower Languedoc; the Galician to the Au-
vergnese ; the Andalusian to the Gascon.
Some customs, however, and some traits of cha
racter, run through all the provinces. The na
tional pride is every where the same. The Spa
niard has -the highest opinion of his nation and
himself, which he energetically expresses by his
gestures, words, and actions. This opinion is dis
covered in all ranks of life, and classes of society ;
in.

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. 273
in crimes and in virtues ; amongst the great and
the small ; under the rags of poverty as much as
in the royal palace. Its result is a kind of haugh
tiness, repulsive sometimes to him who is its ob
ject, but useful in giving to the mind a sentiment
of nobleness and self-esteem, which fortifies it
against all meanness. This pride may be consi
dered as one cause of the great number of persons
who quit the world, and embrace the ecclesiastical
profession : the slightest contempt, the least con
straint, often produce on these haughty dispositions
the effect of real misfortunes.
The Spaniards possess, almost universally, a na
tural dignity of sentiment, which is certainly supe
rior to the pride of birth. It is often stigmatised
as pride, because we are pleased so to call spirit in
those classes in which we are accustomed to find a
base humility. We cannot bear that a muleteer
should answer us ; that a peasant should refuse to
sell us what we wish to buy, because he keeps it
for his family : we are astonished that, immoveably
attached to his own habits, he should be regardless
of our expostulations and our anger j-1— that he
should think himself as good as we, and show that
he does so : but, if we see in this man, instead of
any thing base, a native greatness of mind ; — in
stead of intemperance, a sobriety, of which we
should be incapable ; — instead of that luxury and
vanity which amongst us is not incompatible with
poverty, and indifference to the indulgences of life
vol. v. t carried

274 SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
carried to as high a pitch as the austerity of the
ancient "republics ; — if we observe iri him, instead
of bad faith, of the instinct of theft and avidity,
disinterestedness, honour, and fidelity; — instead of
impudence, reserve and respect ; — and instead of
impiety, a fervent faith ; we, shall no longer be
surprised to see men of the lowest class understand
the pleasures of solitude^ seek them at the price of
the severest trials, and form to themselves a mode
of life at once simple and sublime, made up of
labour and prayer, nature and heaven.
The national pride of the Spaniards is commonly
attributed to their success in the fifteenth and six
teenth centuries. " The Spaniard of the sixteenth
century has disappeared," says M. Bourgoing,
" but his mask remains ; under which, notwith
standing the reverses that the nation has sustained,
the modern Spaniard continues to act the part of
his ancestors." This is a mistake, the Spaniard
has always been the same : historians depict him
as haughty, boastful, filled with self-esteem, and
disdainful of other nations. His native disposition
was kept down under the yoke of the people who
subdued him; but it broke forth with full force
the moment he recovered his liberty. The Spa
niard of the twelfth century was the same with the
Spaniard of the eighteenth. The Spaniards are
brave : they have always been so : from the most re
mote ages they have evinced the most steady and
intrepid valour. Thucidides, Diodorus Siculus, Livy,

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. 275
Livy, Strabo, and Lucius Florus, represent them as
the most warlike of the barbarians ; as brave in
battle ; patient of the fatigues of war ; bold and
as valiant as the Romans. They were vanquished
by Hannibal, on the banks of the Tagus, only be
cause they wanted a head : under the conduct of
Hannibal, they vanquished the Romans, on the
banks of the Rhone : they often beat them when
they fought under -the command of Veriatus and
Sertorius : they long resisted them in the Canta-
brian war. The famous defence of Saguntum, and
that of Numantia, would suffice to immortalise
Spanish valour : the first resisted, during eight
months, an army of 150,000 Carthaginians, and
chose rather to bury itself under its own ruins,
than surrender ; the last sustained, during four
teen years, the utmost efforts of the Roman power;
triumphed several times over the armies of the re
public ; twice compelled her generals to sue for
peace ; and only yielded, at length, through fa
mine, and the small number of her defenders,
leaving nothing to her conquerors but heaps of
ruins, ashes, and dead bodies. Even the women
have sometimes displayed a manly courage. In
the Cantabrian war, under the Romans, mothers
were seen to put their own children to death, that
they might not see them fall into the hands of their
enemies. In later times the Spaniards had not degenerated
from the valour of their ancestors. They evinced
t 2 the

276 SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
the same energy against the Moors : a handful of
Spaniards was often seen to encounter innumerable
hosts of Arabs ; to defeat them, put the^m to the
rout, and reconquer from them a wide extent of
country. The valour and reputation of the Spanish
infantry, under Ferdinand V. and his successors,
are known to all Europe. The names of Almansa,
of Villaviciosa, Bitonto, Codogno, Veletri, Campo-
santo, Parma, Buenos-Ayres,~the Havannah, Port-
Mahon, and Oran, are famous in the history of the
eighteenth century : the plains of Catalonia and
Biscay have become no less so in the present war.
These places have been the theatre in which the
Spaniards have shown to all Europe that they were
worthy the reputation of their fathers.
The Spanish soldier is still one of the best in
Europe, when placed under an experienced gene
ral, and brave and intelligent officers : he is pos
sessed of a cool and steady valour ; he long resists
fatigue, and easily inures himself to labour ; lives
on a little, endures hunger without complaining ;
executes the orders of his superiors without hesi
tation, and never suffers a murmur to escape him.
Shades of difference are observed, however, in the
different provinces. The Galicians are accounted
the best soldiers in Spain : Strabo has said of them,
that they were warlike, and difficult to be subjugated.
The valour of the Catalonian is the most intrepid ;
that of the Aragonese the most considerate ; that
of the Andalusian the most presumptuous; of the
Castilian,

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. 277
Castilian, the coolest ; that of the Biscayan more
active amongst rocks than on the plain.
The Spaniards are very reserved; they have
little of those exterior demonstrations, of that de
ceitful show which is called politeness. They do
not make advances to a stranger ; they wait for
him to do it ; they study him, and do not give
themselves up to him till they think they know
him ; even then it is with reserve. Their address
is serious, cold, sometimes even repulsive ; but
under this unpromising exterior they conceal a
worthy heart and a great disposition to oblige; they
scatter around their benefits, without endeavouring
to make a merit of them, and grant without hav
ing promised. This character belongs especially
to the Castilians.
In spite of this apparent gravity, the Spaniard
has an inward gaiety, which easily discovers itself,
and on some occasions bursts out. It is usually
noisy, but genuine, constant, frank, and natural.
It discovers itself in the most ordinary conversa
tion, by a succession of sallies, pleasantries, and
plays upon words, full of point and vivacity. The
people of the south of Spain succeed particularly
in this line. Their repartees are prompt, ingenious,
expressive ; their descriptions original ; their irony
keen ; their comparisons just and well applied ; it.
is not the genteelest persons who excel most in
wit, which is found among the lowest classes.
When one can enter into the beauties and delica-
t 3 cies

278 SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS?.
cies of the language, one is surprised to hear plea
santries full of grace and spirit proceed from the
mouths of the common people.
The Spaniard is very slow in all his operations ;
in business, in policies, in the sciences, in the arts,
in his loves, in his pleasures. He often deliberates
when he ought to act, and spoils affairs as much
by his temporising as other nations by their preci
pitation, They have a proverb contrary to one of
ours : — -they say that one shquld never do to-day
what may be put off till to-morrow. This slow
ness of the Spaniards appears incompatible with the
vivacity of their imagination ; it is the conse
quence of the distrust and circumspection that are
natural to them ; but when their pride is irritated,
their anger provoked, or their generosity stimu
lated, they wake in a moment from their apathy,
and are capable of the most violent or the most
noble actions.
Their tardiness would be but a slight defect, did ,
it not proceed from a radical defect of a much
more serious nature, and the consequences of
which have always been dreadful to their country;
I mean the invincible indolence and hatred of la
bour which prevails in their national character,
and has at all times paralysed the government of
their best princes, and impeded the success of their
most brilliant enterprizes. All their <s>wn histo
rians deplore the effects of this apathy, this fatal
recklessness which has almost always kept them
dependent

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. 279
dependent on the industry of their neighbours, or
at least behind them in improvement. The hap
piest ages of their monarchy have not been ex
empted from this evi}, which seems to be as much
the product of the climate as of the administration.
In 15.37, Alexo Venegas wrote a work com
plaining of the idleness prevalent in Spain. " In
this country alone," he says, " are the mechanic
arts held in dishonour ; whence that multitude of
idle people and women of bad life, and all the
vices which accompany the want of employment.
The result is, that our lands lie fallow, and that
our countrv is a slave to the industry of strangers."
Father Sequenza, in his " History of the Order
of Saint Jerome," written about the end of the
reign of Philip II. , speaking of the trouble caused
to :he monastery of Guadelope, by the beggars and
idle people of some neighbouring districts, thus
expresses himself: " Every district i rilled with
such vagabonds ; an evil which seems general in
Spain, and to which no remedy is applied."
Father St. Juan de Medina sent to Philip II.,/
1545, a discourse entitled, "Discrete Chailt] ,' ¦
which he speaks of the means of succouring
employing the beggars and idlers wh; overm
kingdom, by obliging them, as he &:ys, to
or to work ; because most of them are b.-
only because they find means to live withe
bour. He afterwards draws a shocking pic
t A -

280 -SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
the misfortunes that this fatal indolence of all
classes was bringing upon Spain.
The vice increased under the succeeding reigns,
in proportion to the distress experienced by the
country from the decline, of all branches of indus
try and of the administration.
Of four requests made to Philip III. in 1610,
by Dr. Christopher Perez de Herrera, the first was,
that an order should be given to employ all the
vagabonds and beggars in the kingdom, and to en
courage labour and industry in others. " Sloth
and idleness," said Sancho de Moncada, in 1619,
'•' are the prevailing vices of the Spaniards, and fo
reigners are so 'well aware of it, that they come
running from all sides to bring us the products of
their industry ; they have reduced this poor king
dom of Spain to the condition in which the chil
dren of Israel were, when they were obliged to
go and seek even the smallest instruments of la
bour amongst the Philistines." Still more bitter
-complaints appear in later works ; as in that " On
he Preservation of Monarchies," by Peter Fernan- '
5 de Navaretto, in 1625; in the "Empresas
-iticas," of Saavedra, &c. It must, however, be
, in justice to the -Spaniards, that idleness is
so general a vice amongst them, but that
le provinces are among the exceptions; and
ips it would even cease to exist in the rest, if
overnment were to take pains to destroy it by
wise

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. 281
wise and salutary institutions. A singular contrast
is found in Spain itself, of indolence and activity,
idleness and the love of occupation.
If the two Castiles, Leon, and Estremadura and
Murcia vegetate in torpid indolence on a fruitful
soil, Catalonia, Valencia, and Biscay, are vivified
by the industry of their inhabitants. If we see
some useless members of society proudly wrapped
up in their laziness and a long cloak, we also see
a number of carmen, muleteers, and drivers of car
riages continually traversing the kingdom from
end to end, and leading a most painful and labo
rious kind of life : we also see the husbandmen of
La Mancha, Andalusia, and Valencia, devote them
selves to severe and constant labour under a sultry
and relaxing climate. If in some provinces of
Spain we see the, inhabitants always remain at
home, never quitting their own dwellings, but pass
ing their lives in the narrow sphere of their coun
try and their poverty, we also see the Catalans
carry their industry and activity into all parts of
Spain, of Europe, and of America : we see the
Biscayans traverse the seas with equal skill, cou
rage, and activity , and the Galicians and Astu
rians travel many hundred miles from their homes
in search of the means of subsistence.
These reflections may lead us to treat the Spa
niards with more indulgence. Their indolence is
often produced by circumstances not dependent on
themselves. They are poor : the common people
possess

282 SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
possess nothing ; they live by the labour of their
hands ; work is often not to be had, they thenfall
into an apathy which influences all the actions of
life. In fact, this listlessness only prevails in parts
where industry is without a spur, activity without
an object, and commodities without a vent. The
provinces near the sea are all industrious ; the in
land provinces, destitute of canals, of navigable
rivers, and, till lately, of roads, possessed of no cheap
or easy mode of communication, have no means of
supporting industry. The kingdom of Murcia,
which has one important outlet to the sea, yet re- -
mains in a state of savage apathy.
The Spaniards were formerly very jealous of
their wives and mistresses ; the women were shut
up in their own houses as in a kind of prison,
where thick lattices concealed them from tfie ob
servation of impertinent curiosity. They received
few visits in the apartments to which they were
confined, and which no man could enter without
great difficulty and many precautions. They were
placed under the guardianship of one or more
duerias, and could not take a single step either
in their own houses or abroad, which was not
subject to their inspection. Whenever they went
out, a veil concealed the face from every passen
ger. Times are greatly altered ; husbands are now
much less suspicious — mpre reaspnable or » more
easy—

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. '283
easy — and women much more accessible. Lattices
and jealousy have disappeared ; duenas only exist
in romances ; veils, under the name of mantelas,
have become an ornament which gives effect to
beauty; all houses are thrown open; the men, gal
lant and amorous as ever, are become less cap
tious ; the women have recovered a liberty by
which they are, perhaps, less tempted to go astray
than formerly, when their virtue was entrusted to
locks and grates, and to a superintendance often
faithless, and easy to be corrupted.
Both the men and women have gained by the
change ; the former have become less morose,
more frank, and agreeable ; the women more at
tractively disclose the many easy graces with
which they were endowed by nature.
We have laid open the faults of the Spaniards ;
most of them spring from their self-love, their na
tional pride, their prejudice against strangers, the
influence of climate and education, and the nar
rowness of the resources presented to them by
their geographical situation, or the attention of
government ; but the sum of their virtues much
exceeds that of their faults.
They are sober, discreet, adroit, frank, patient
in adversity, slow in decision, but wise in deliber
ation ; ardent in enterprize, and constant in pur
suit.
* They are attached to their religion ; faithful to
their king ; hospitable, charitable ; noble in their
dealings;

284 SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
dealings ; generous, liberal, magnificent ; good
friends, and full of honour. They are grave in
carriage, serious in discourse, but gentle and agree
able in conversation, and enemies to falsehood and
evil speaking.
They are of quick and lively parts ; intelligent,
ingenious, fit for the sciences, literature, and the
arts. In different parts of Spain this general cha
racter is variously modified.
The Old Castilians- are silent, gloomy, and in
dolent ; they are the most severely grave of all the
Spaniards ; but they possess a steady prudence, an
admirable constancy under adversity, an elevation
of soul, and an unalterable probity and upright
ness ; they are faithful, friendly, confiding, unaf
fectedly kind ; in short, completely worthy peo
ple. Some districts have peculiar shades of cha
racter. The Pariegos are active and clever in trade,
and are the pedlars of a great part of Spain. The
inhabitants of the valley of Mena, in the province
of Burgos, are robust, courageous, and employed
in agriculture ; they believe themselves descended
from the ancient Cantabri. The Maragaios are
lean, dry, frank, but the most serious and taciturn
of the Old Castilians ; there are some among them
who were never seen to laugh ; they particularly
addict themselves to the business of carriers.
The character of the natives of New Castile is
nearly the same, but more open, and less grave
jind taciturn ; it is also somewhat modified in the
districts

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. 285
districts bordering on Other provinces. These
people are in general quicker, better informed,
more independent, and more disposed to command
than those of Old Castile. The qualities usually
acquired by residing in or near a capital may be
observed in"them. The inhabitants of Alcarria
ought to be distinguished from the rest, as simple,
amiable, and industrious.
The inhabitants of La Mancha greatly resemble
those of New Castile, but are more serious, more
gloomy, and more laborious : they are good kind
of people.
Indocility and conceit make part of the charac
ter of the people of Navarre ; they are distinguish
ed by lightness and adroitness.
The Biscayans are proud, conceited, impetuous,
and irritable ; they have something abrupt in dis
course and in action, and an air of haughtiness and
independence; they are less sober than most other
Spaniards ; but are industrious, diligent, faithful,
hospitable, and sociable. They have an open
countenance, and a quick, animated, and laughing
expression. This is the character of Biscay pro
per; two other districts, Guipuzcoa and Allava,
are united to it ; the first has the same language,
character, and customs, and the other only differs
in some slight particulars. The Biscayan is a
good sailor ; the native of Allava chiefly devotes
himself to ,agriculture.
The women of the three districts are equally
haughty

286 SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
haughty and courageous. They labour in the
fields, and at other works where strength is re
quired, like the men. The idea of something
noble attached to being a riative of Biscay, influ
ences the character of the inhabitants of this pro
vince in a singular manner ; it keeps up among
them a feeling of dignity which gives a haughti
ness to their carriage and an elevation to their sen
timents, even in the lowest stations of life.
The Asturians participate in the character both
of the Galicians and Biscayans ; but they are less
industrious than the former, less civilized, less so
ciable, less amiable,- and more haughty than the
latter. Their haughtiness derived from the same
source, an opinion of innate nobility, is also more
marked, more repulsive, and less softened by their
temper and manners.
The Galicians are gloomy, and live very little
in society : but they are bold, courageous, labouri-
ous, very sober, and distinguished for their fidelity.
The people of Estremadura are proud, haughty,
vain, serious, indolent, and still more sober than
the Galicians. They seldom go out of their own
province, are afraid of strangers and shun their
company; but they are true, honourable, and cou
rageous. The Murcians are lazy, listless, plotting, and
suspicious ; they scarcely ever go out of their own
country, and neither addict themselves to science,
to the arts, to commerce, navigation, nor a military life j

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. 287
life ; they only cultivate their land from necessity,
and make but little advantage of a rich and fertile
soil, a facility of irrigation, and a most happy cli.
mate. The common people are sometimes dan
gerous ; they too frequently make use of the knife
and the dagger ; people of a superior condition
lead a melancholy and monotonous life.
The Valencians are light, inconstant, and with
out decision of character ; gay, fond of pleasure,
little attached to one another, and still less so to
strangers ; but they are affable, gentle, and agree
able in the intercourses of society, and able by their
diligence to ally the love of pleasure with indus
trious occupation. They are accused of being
vindictive, and hiding under a calm and mild ex
terior their wishes and schemes of vengeance till
an opportunity offers of executing them in a safe
and secret manner ; but the hired assassins, for
merly common in Valencia, have disappeared, and
the people are daily becoming more civilized by
the operation of wealth and prosperity.
The Catalans are proud, haughty, violent in
their passions, rude in discourse and in action,
turbulent, untractable, and passionately fond of
independence; they are not particularly liberal,
but active, industrious, and indefatigable ; they
are sailors, husbandmen, and builders, and run to
all corners of the world to seek their fortunes.
They are brave, intrepid, sometimes rash, obsti
nate in adhering to their schemes, and often suc
cessful

288 SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
cessful in vanquishing', by their steady persever
ance, obstacles which would appear insurmount
able to others.
The Aragonese are haughty, intrepid, ambiti
ous, tenacious of their opinions, and completely
prejudiced in favour of their country, their cus
toms, and themselves, but prudent, judicious, able
to appreciate foreign merit, good politicians, good
soldiers, and zealous for their laws and privileges.
The Andalusians are boastful and arrogant ;
their discourse is always full of hyperbole ; their
expressions, their gestures, their manners, their
tone of voice, their carriage all bear the stamp of
this prevailing disposition ; in short they are the
Gascons of Spain. Of this country are the Ma-
jos, of whom we have already spoken ; the dagger
is their favourite weapon, and they handle it with
skill. Andalusia is a dangerous country in sum
mer when the solano blows ; a S.S.W wind which
blows from Africa, and the effects of which much
resemble those of the sirocco in Italy, but are more
obvious and violent. It inflames the blood, causes
vertigo, and produce excesses of every kind.
Manners have changed very much and very ra
pidly in Spain.
Duels were very frequent : they are now very
rare ; indeed scarcely ever, heard of; the Spaniards
appear even to feel a repugnance now for a kind
of combat, of which they formerly sought the oc
casions with so much eagerness. Gallantry

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. 239
Gallantry has been carried to a degree of refine
ment amongst them which no other nation has
equalled ; it is now only found in romances.
Every thing was then referred to the beloved
object, with whom a kind of religious commerce
of respect and adoration was kept up; and the
complete denial of self produced generous and dis
interested sentiments. A more superficial senti
ment now prevails, but it still preserves a tincture
of its ancient solemnity. The Spaniards are in
general passionate and faithful ; love with them is
the first, arid almost sole occupation of life ; they
treat it seriously, and do not mix with it that levity
which is found amongst their neighbours.
Love, and consequently the condition of women,
has had three distinct eras in Spain.. In the first
it partook of that chivalrous spirit which preceded
and for some time survived the wars against the
Moors and the foundation of the Spanish mo
narchy. Love, honour and religion, seemed at
that time to maintain a generous rivalry, and to
surpass themselves in giving birth to noble actions,
The Spaniards, more delicate and disinterested than
any other people, look upon courage as the only
merit, and success with the ladies as its only worthy
recompence It was at this time that a pair of
lovers expired with the joy of meeting after a three
years absence* and the grief irf parting again:
another pair threw themsdlves irom lhe\sanknmit
of a rock rather than suvwv&emh. other ; and the
vol. v. v history

290 SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
history of Spain furnished a thousand similar in
stances which might be quoted. The repose of
peace annihilated these warlike virtues, these- bril
liant illusions. The commerce and wealth of
India changed these heroes into daring piratesj
and corrupt, adventurers.
The Spanish conquests in America depraved
their manners ; their conquests ori the European
continent altered their customs and enfeebled' the
national character. To their former passions sue*
ceeded a train of intrigues and stratagems, in
which Italian address was manifested rather than
Castilian love and honour. This period is depict
ed to perfection in the comedies of Lopez de Vega;
Moreto, and Calderone, and in the novels of Cer
vantes. Hence proceeded1 serenades, elopements;
duerias, and jealous loVefs ; things of which only
the memory now survives in Spain. Love appeared
to degenerate as civilization advanced ; it had
formerly been a madness, it then became an iri^
trigue; it is now, for the most part, a 'genuine sen
timent. Illicit connections in Spain last very long,
and immediately assume an authentic and respect
ed character. Whert lovers quarrel, relations and
friends are eager to reconcile'' them ; all their ac
quaintance even take an interest in ihe matter.
It seems as if they regarded this new union of
which they had seen the fotrrtation, as a contract
to which they had been witnesses, and which they
feelmuch. more desirous ¦> of supporting than that of

SPANISH CHARACTER AND MANNERS. 291
of marriage, in which they were not consulted.
Accordingly a man who behaves ill to a woman,
who is too soon unfaithful to her, or makes her
unhappy, finds it difficult to place himself on the
same footing with another. It is the same with
the women, who are esteemed according to their
conduct in love affairs. Nothing is so rare as a
coquet; she might deceive one man, but she
would never deceive another, and would excite a
general spirit against her. On this account fo
reigners, " and especially the French, who meet
with so much success of this kind in the northern
countries, and in some parts of Germany, meet
with none in Spain, unless they are well versed in
the language, and conform themselves to the cus
toms of the country. But it is neither at Madrid,
nor in some of the seaports, where foreign man
ners have been introduced, that these customs can
be judged of, but in the cities of the interior, as
Valencia, Granada, Seville, and Toledo.

U$ CHAP.

( 292 )

CHAP. XIV.
USAGES AND CUSTOMS OF THE SPANIARDS,
The usages of a nation paint its manners ; those
of Spain will add another shade to the picture we
have been tracing.
It is impossible to read the history of Arabian
manners, without recognizing a number of customs
which the Spaniards have received from this peo
ple ; several of their games, diversions, and public
spectacles, are derived from the Moors ; their •
farejas or tournament, their inclination to gal
lantry, their taste for pompous titles and for me
taphors, and the oriental turn of their style, all
acknowledge the same origin. The use of the
cloak for men, and the mantela for women, that
of mats or esteras pf rushes, palm leaves, or broom,
and the old custom among the women of sitting
on the ground, were brought into Spain by the
Moors ; the indolence of females, the retired life
that they led, and the restraint imposed upon
them, were derived from the Africans who were
mixed with the Arabs.
The Spaniard loves public walks, but not walk
ing. The public walks are to him only a place of
assembly, where he goes to sit down and take a
view

USAGES AND CUSTOMS, &C 293
view of the surrounding objects. He seldom quits'
his seat to walk ; if he does, it is in the prome
nade, or alarheda, which is to be found in the
neighbourhood of every small town, and consists
of a short avenue. He paces up and down it per
haps once or twice, and then goes to sit down.
In the small towns and villages of the kingdom-
of Castile, women of a condition at all genteel
never go out alone ; if they have no gentleman or
female friend with them, they are accompanied by
a female servant, wbo walks by their side and
serves them as a companion. This is perhaps a
remnant of the ancient custom of Having duenas;
but the servants who have taken their place are
neither sO watchful nor the husband so jealous.
The Spaniards, both men and women, had for
merly a great taste for pilgrimages ; they wore the
dress of pilgrims, and walked along the high roads'
and thrdugh1 inhabited places begging alms ; in
this manner they went to visit the churches cele
brated by- the peculiar devotiori of the faithful ; as
that of Saint James of Compostella, in Galicia; of
our lady of Guadeloupe, in Estreriiadura ;; of our
lady of Montseriat, in Catalonia; and that of our
lady of the pillar in Aragon. The custom has
fallen into disuse ; only a very few pilgrims re
main1; and most even of these are' strangers in
Spain. Orie still; however, sometimes sees persons
of rank and opulence who have made a vOWtb
beg-' alms ; they travel with every convenience,
u 3 "dismount

294 USAGES AND CUSTOMS
dismount from their carriage at the entrance of
every town and village, beg through the streets,
give away all that they receive to the poor, and
then get into their carriage again, and continue
their pilgrimage.
Romerias have also been . long the fashion in
Spain. These are little journies made to celebrat
ed chapels or hermitages on the eve or the festival
of the patron saint. Persons most commonly
arrive on the eve, and pass- the night either in the
porch of the church or chapel, or in the neighbour
hood, in the open fields, or sometimes under tents.
Men are here pell-mell with cattle;.and women
with men ; they eat, they dnnk, they crowd, toge
ther, they laugh, they sing, they lie down and
sleep*' Darkness favours licence, and : covers with
her veil deeds which certainly, do not suit with the
holiness of the day they.scome to celebrate. Fa
ther Feyjoo has described these scenes with his
usual energy ; he has zealpusly and warmly re
monstrated against the impieties which take place ; •
he has been so fortunate as to communicate his
own indignation to his countrymen, and has great
ly contributed to the almost general abolition of
this practice.
The number of servants of both sexes in Spain
is excessive : this is in some degree an object of
luxury, but the custom partly proceeds from their
want of activity and cleverness. Four women
here scarcely do so much as a single chamber maid

OF THE SPANIARDS. 295
maid in .France. One understands nothing but
cleaning and dustiiig, another nothing but sewing,
and one will not do the work of the other — it is
the same with the men. A tradesman's wife in
narrow circumstances will have four maid ser
vants,' though she cannot employ two. The houses
of gentlemen, and especially of grandees, swarm
with them ; often all the servants, or at least all
the principal ones, will have their wives and chil
dren lodged with them, and fed by their master.
One custom particularly contributes to the multi
plication of servants. Masters seldom leave them
annuities at their death, but it is usual, especially
among the grandees and nobles attached to the
court, for the heir, or nearest relation of the de
ceased, to take all his servants. There are houses
in which you may find those of three or four ge
nerations, none of whom their new master dis
misses. All these people are lodged and boarded,
or receive a daily portion of provisions, and yet
are scarcely ever employed in the .service of the
master who keeps them. I have heard it affirmed, -
that the duke of Medina Celi is at the expence
of L2,000 reals, or about 120/. daily, for the
maintenance of servants, whether employed in his
house, scattered about Madrid, or distributed over
his different estates. The enumeration of 1788
states the number of servants in Spain at 269,500-
This custom also subsists in Italy, and is one cause
v 4 of

296 US^GfcS AN# CUSTOMS
bf the ruifi of the gfelat families, and the idleness
of the coriimon people of the cities.
Twerity of thirty years ago, they had a peculiar
kind of servant in Spain known nowhere else.
They were called criadoi mayores, or chief domes
tics ; and sometimes improperly received the name
Of pages. They only belonged to the ladies, each;
of whom had one, and sometimes two. It was
their business to wait in the afttichamber, to intro
duce all cortiefcs, to execute the commissions of
their mistress, to attend her when she went out,
v
to walk some steps before her when she was on
foot, and to ride With her on the back seatj wheft
she was in her carriage; They wore no livery,
but dressed as tfhey pleased ; they had always a
sword by their side, and their hat in their hand.
Most of them had been footmen'; they were usu
ally very 'did. A very few were clothed by their
¦mistresses, but in geriera'l they dtfessed at the&
own expence, and IheHcethere often arose a whirh1
sical inconsistency between the different parts of
<the$f habiliments. They walked with a grave step-,
the body erected with an a!ffedted stiffness, one
Srtn hanging down and the other holding the hat';
Slid they turned round every fn&ment to see Whe
ther their mistress was following them; ^stofrpirig
if she stopped, and remaining immoveable at their
post; all which, joined to their dress, and often
TsifigQlaT faces, formed adftiirrible caricatures. The

OF THK SPANIARDS. 297
The women of inferior rank wish to imitate
those of quality, and neither daring nor being able
to keep criados mayores, substituted another and
still more singular kind of servant. These were
the students of some university, school, or con
vent; they walked in the same manner before
their mistresses in the streets, dressed in a black
vest, covered with a cloak of the same colour, and
with the hat in the hand. In the house they per
formed some domestic services, and executed the
commissions of their mistress abroad ; they re
ceived no wage-, but had the run of the kitchen
with the other servants. Both these customs have
fallen into disuse for some years past ; most of the
ladies are followed by a footman in livery, and the
tradesmen's wives would be ashamed to have none
but students to wait upon them.
Several of the great ladies, in imitation of the
queen, have besides their maid servants and wait
ing women, another kind of females attached to
their persons : these are young women of good fa
milies, but destitute of fortune ; they are called
camaristas, whilst the chamber-maids bear the name
of camareras. These are the humble companions
of their mistresses ; they perform some offices
about them, which in other countries are part of
the business of waiting-maids ; but they are treated
with more respect, and have separate apartments
and a separate table ; they seldom go out but in
the carriages of the lady to whom they belong, and

298 USAGES AND CUSTOMS
and are usually under the superintendence of
some old lady long attached to the family. Their
ladies almost always take care to marry them well.
The Spaniards are fond of meeting in the even
ing in parties, which are often very numerous.
On these occasions, the ladies as they arrive place
themselves in one room, and the gentlemen in
another, or else the ladies range themselves
in a line along one side of the room, the lady of
the house always taking the lowest place, next to
the door, whilst the men remain standing, or seat
themselves on the opposite side. They remain se
parated in this manner till the card tables are
made up. lhey play at loo, loto, and other
games of the like kind. Those who do not play,
either look on, or embrace the opportunity of
chatting with the person most interesting to them.
Others form little circles where the conversation is
usually very animated. These parties very much
resemble the French evening, and the English rout.
A refrescq sometimes make part of these enter
tainments, but only on particular occasions, when
"the company is more than ordinarily numerous.
But orgeat, lemonade, orangeade, ices, of different
kinds, sweetmeats, and biscuits, are distributed
with uncommon profusion, and chocolate ends
the funcion, as all these entertainments are called. .
On common days the Spaniards always take
their refresco at seven or eight in the evening. This
usually consists of a large glass of iced water, in
which

OF THE SPANIARDS. • 2Q9
which they dip a kind of spongy preparation of
sugar, shaped like a long biscuit, which melts in
stantly in the water, if ii be not eaten. It is called ,
a bolado, and a cup of chocolate is usually taken
after it. In rich houses, lemonade, orgeat, and
sweetmeats are often added to the repast, which is
distributed to a certain number of persons who are.
upon an intimate footing, and as it were dorhesti-
cated. The Spaniards usually take a nap of two or
three hours after dinner, which is called the siesta;
the custom however prevails less in winter than in
summer, when overcome by the extreme heat of
the day they find great refreshment from undress
ing, lying down, and repairing by a calm sleep
their exhausted strength. In summer one might
walk through the streets of most of the cities from
two in the afternoon to five almost without meet
ing a person ; the shops are often shut, and it
would be useless to endeavour to gain admittance
at the houses ; every one is buried in sleep, and
not a servant would be found who could be spoken
to. This custom is attributed to the indolence of
the Spaniards, but without reason ; it depends on
the climate, the extreme heat of which enervates
the frame, and renders necessary the refreshment
of a day sleep. Even strangers experience this.
After dinner their limbs grow heavy, their eyes
close involuntarily, and sleep takes possession of
them, to which they commonly yield as readily as
those

300 USAGES AND CUSTOMS
those to whom it has become habitual. Hence it
is that in Spain dinners are seldom points of union,
which collect the company who are to form the
entertainment of the evening. Scarcely is the din
ner ended when the company separates ; every
one goes home, or repairs to his chamber, and a
guest who should stay behind would be found very
troublesome. Several precautions are taken in Spain against
the heat. The rooms are Watered several times a
day, the windows are carefully closed as soon as
the sun appears, and are not opened again till it is
quite off; the windows are shaded on the outside
with awnings of cloth or ticking, or on the inside
with large and full curtains which are thrown over
the balcony on the outside, and whilst they pre
vent the introduction or reverberation of the sun
beams, leave on each side a free passage for the
air.' The uniformity of these shades has a very
pretty effect in the streets.
In some places, as at Valencia, the glass is
taken out of the windows at the approach of sum
mer, the doors of the apartments are all set opert
to make a current of air, and the ladies have al
ways their fans in their hands.
At table the servants are continually working a
kind of large square fans, made of palm leaves, '
and fastened to the end of a long stick ; which
answer the double purpose of giving air and driv
ing away the insects. If

OF THE SPANIARDS. 301
If the Spaniards take many precautions against
heat, they take scarcely any against cold ; it is
very uncommon to find doors or windows that
shut close, and the rooms are very little and very
ill warmed. The use of chimneys even is very
uncommon, and only prevails in the houses of
such Spaniards as have travelled. Brasiers of cop
per or silver are generally employed, which are
set in the middle of the apartment, filled with
burning charcoal, and round which the family
place themselves. This is a very unwholesome
practice, from which many and sometimes fatal
disorders result; of these, faintings, head-ach, and
vertigo are the most frequent ; but apoplexy, ner
vous complaints, spitting of blood, and difficulty
of breathing, are often remotely occasioned by the
same cause, and prove so much the more dan
gerous as their origin is not suspected. Persons
who have irritable lungs or weak nerves seldom
escape some of these affections.* In several of the
provinces many people fill their brasiers with
powdered charcoal, which they heap up high, and
stir very often with a little poller to raise up what
is burning, and remove what is gone out. In Ca
talonia this dust is called taregada, and carbonilla in
some other parts* Its use is still more, pernicious
than that of whole charcoal ; the dust can never
be thoroughly kindled, the vapour that it gives
out must be still stronger and more penetrating,
and its activity must be renewed every time it is
stirred :

302 USAGES AND CUSTOMS
stirred : its smell is perceived the moment you
enter the apartment, but notwithstanding this, a
general prejudice causes it to be considered as less
dangerous than whole charcoal, which lights more
readily and more perfectly. In the kingdom of
Valencia olives bruised almost to powder are often
used instead of charcoal ; they warm the room as
well, and have not the inconvenience of emitting
deleterious effluvia. The use of chimneys is begin
ning to gain ground at Madrid, Barcelona, and Va
lencia ; but the scarcity of fuel will always, probably,
present an obstacle to their general introduction.
The beds in Spain are hard. They are only
made of matrasses, more or fewer, laid on paillasses
which rest upon a boarded bottom ; for neither
sacking nor feather beds are known. No bolsters
are used, but in their place little, short, flat pillows
are heaped up, sometimes to the number of six or
eight. The sheets are in general short and nar
rowband napkins scarcely as big as a small pocket
handkerchief. The furniture of the houses is usually very sim
ple. ' The floor is covered with a matting of esparto
in winter, and of rushes or palm leaves in summer.
A matting of the same kind, a painted cloth, or
painting in pannels, covers the walls from the floor
to the height of four or five feet ; above the wall
is bare, jpainted white, and adorried with pictures
of saints and a kind of ornamented metal chande
liers; these are covered with a glass, .surrounded with

OF THE SPANIARDS. 303
with a border or gilt ornaments ; and a little
branch of gilt copper proceeds from them forming
zig-zags or festoons, on which the candles are
placed ; they are called cornucopias ; they are
from one to three feet in height, and give the
apartment the air of a coffee room, or billiard room.
Mirrors are placed between the windows, and a
lustre of clear glass in imitation of crystal is sus
pended from the middle of the handsomest saloons.
The chairs have straw bottoms ; in some pro
vinces, as Murcia, Andalusia, and Valencia, they
are of different heights ; those on one side xof th
room being of the common height, and the others
one third lower. *The latter are intended for the
ladies. In some of the principal cities one also
sees chairs and sofas of walnut wood, the backs of
which are bare, and the seats covered with damask;
usually crimson or yellow.
Luxury begins, however, to show itself in these
objects. In the chief cities many hangings are of
painted paper, or linen; even hangings of brocades,
of one and of three colours, and of various other
kinds of silk ; large and beautiful mirrors, and a
* number of sofas may be seen. The houses of the
grandees in Madrid are magnificently furnished ;
but usually with more cost than taste. Hangings
of silk, velvet, and damask, adorned with rich
fringes, and gold embroidery, are very common,
and the seats are of corresponding magnificence.
Many houses in Barcelona, Cadiz, Valencia, and
Madrid,

304 USAGES AND CUSTOMS
Madrid, are decorated with equal study and ele
gance. The custom of painting the walls is of late in
troducing itself into Spain. They are covered
with representations of men and animals, with
trees, flowers, landscapes, houses, urns, vases, or
history pieces, divided into compartments, adorned
with pillars, pilasters, friezes, cornices, and ara
besques; the effect of the whole is often very
agreeable. This kind of decoration was imported
from Italy. '
The Spanish women usually lead an easy and
quiet kind of life, excepting those of Biscay, where
, they are devoted to the hardest kinds of labour,
and those of the Valley de Paz, in the country of
La Montana, in Old Castile, who are actively en
gaged in smuggling, and in hawking about their
wares over great part of Spain, In the other pro
vinces they confine their attention to their house
hold affairs, and even these they often turn over to
some confidential servant. In general they work
little and read less ; most of them pass their live$
in perfect idleness. They enjoy the utmost free
dom; go where they please; receive at their
houses what company they like ; they easily ob
tain the confidence of their husbands, and usually
govern them,
The custom of smoking is very general in Spain.
Most of the men, of every age and condition,
smoke at all hours of[ the day, and many of the
women.

OF THE SPANIARDS, 305
women, especially in Andalusia, have caught the
habit. Dining one day with the duchess of Alba,
at Cadiz, I was astonished by her presenting me,
aftei: the' dessert, with a paper full of cigars ; she
herself took one, which she smoked, and all at
table followed her example. It is only within a
few years that the custom has become thus ge^
neral. Even in 1799, one scarcely ever saw a
smoker in the great cities, where genteel persons
either had not the practice at all, or only followed
it in private.
They now smoke every where ; in the streets
and public walks, in coffee-houses, at cards, at
balls, in the interior of families, and sometimes
before the ladies in parties. Physicians smoke at
their consultations, and statesmen at their councils.
The practice prevails most in Andalusia, and least
in Valencia and Catalonia. They do not smoke
with the pipe in Spain, but make use of the to-i
bacco leaves dried and rolled up in a cylindrical
form, one end being put into the mouth after the
other is lighted. These they call cigarras ; they
are imitated by rolling up bruised or pounded to
bacco in paper cylinders ; and this is the purpose
for which the shepherds and poor people in re
mote parts always beg paper of you'. Sometimes
the smoker presents his cigar to his neighbour,
who passes it on to the rest, and thus>all use it in
turn. Government finds its account is favouring
vol.- v. x this

S06 USAGES AND CUSTOMS, &C
this practice, which brings in a yearly revenue of
several hundred thousand pounds.
The Spaniards are very much attached to their"
own customs, yet in the great cities they adopt
French manners as far as they are able, but with
out intending, without choosing to confess it,
without wishing it to be perceived. They ridicule
France/ yet adopt its cookery, its dances, its fa
shions, its costume, its baubles ; they wish to imi
tate its elegance ; they learn its language, act its
plays, translate its books, and set an additional
value on every thing which comes thence.
Some provinces, districts, and towns, have pe
culiar and local customs which are not those of
the rest of the nation : some of these have been
mentioned in the provincial descriptions, such as>
that relating to marriages at Valencia, and thewhim-
sical Asturian practice of flattening the back part
of the head of new-born infants.

CHAP,

( 307 )

CHAP. XV.

SPANISH COSTUME.
Costume has often varied in Spain, as in all other
countries. The Spaniards assumed the dress of the Romans
during their domination, and preserved it under
that of the Goths, who, in the mean time, were
clad in skins or furs, and wore long and thick
hair. After the expulsion of the Moors, the Goths
and native Spaniards, confounded together, arid
forming but one nation, adopted also one costume.
Their dress was at this time very short, but it va
ried several times. At the beginning of the six
teenth century it consisted of breeches of serge,
tammy, or cloth, bound with garters, and fastened
up with points ; a doublet, or vest, with large flaps ;
a cape and a hood ; a leathern purse at the girdle ;
a flat cap of wool or velvet ; and a round cloth
hat or bonnet. The ruff was added in 1522. This
was the true Spanish dress, which was continued
till the accession of Philip Vi, at the beginning of
the eighteenth century; but in later times its form
was rendered more elegant.
Hitherto" the Spaniards had known little of lux-
x 2 ury

308

SPANISH COSTUME.

ury in dress : wool was the material they employ
ed, unadorned with gold, silver, or silk. Philip II.,
who began to reign in 1556, was the first who
wore silk stockings, a pair of which were pre
sented to him by the wife of Don Guttierez Lopez
de Paradilla, who had knitted them.
In the seventeenth century, the Spanish habir,
without changing its form, became more rich and
elegant. It was still short, with large flaps, and
hanging sleeves, and covered with a friefce cloak.
The breeches were very tight ; taffety sleeves were
attached to the shirt, and all these parts of the
dress were black ; a golilla, or white ruff, was worn
round the neck; a dagger at the girdle, and a
very long sword. By degrees the dress came to
be made of various kinds of silk fabrics,, as taffety,
satin, moreen, damask, and velvet, but it was still
black. At the same time a hat took place of the
cap, which was round, usually turned up in front*
and often adorned with a plume of feathers.
The Spaniards had then two kinds of swords j
one called swords d'Arqon, the second de Go
lilla. The first were shorter, and had a broader
blade ; they were only used on horseback. The
second kind were long, narrow, and had a basket
hilt. The accession of Philip V. brought with it a.
total change of costume: the Spanish habit was
soon neglected and disused, and the French adopt*
ed in its place ; this lattier still prevails. The old.
swords. ¦

SPANISH COSTUME. 309 •
swords shared the fate of the national dress, arid
¦disappeared with it.
The Spaniards are now as luxurious in their
dress as they were formerly simple ; they make use
of the richest stuffs and silks, as well as of embroi
dery in silk, gold, and silver. The most varied
and conspicuous colours have succeeded to black,
which was for several centuries the national cos
tume. The manner of dressing the head has'undergone
similar variations. The Spaniards received from
*he Romans the custom of shaving the head ; un
der the Goths they wore their hair, but cut very
short. Afterwards they wore their hair of the
same length all round, parting it in front, and
tucking it behind the ears ; and this fashion pre
vailed till the end of the sixteenth centriry. Till
this period they had worn no powder ; but with
the French dress they also adopted that fashion ;
they now frieze and powder their hair, and wear
bags and queues.
The common people, especially in the villages
and retired parts -Of Castile, have not yet adopted
the French dress. The artisans, and in some
places the tradesmen, still wear a short doublet
over a waistcoat, usually black, and a cloak over
' all ; they cover the ^head with a silk net of the
same colour, which hangs- down behind, and con
tains the hair ; this is called a recezilla. They
commonly wear also a large round hat. In Ca-
- ' x 3 talonia

310 .SPANISH COSTUME.
talonia few specimens of this old habit can be seen ;
even the artisans wear the French dress, especially*
?t Barcelona, as they also do at Valencia.
The peasants still preserve a diversity of cos-
turne in different provinces.
The peasants of Aragon wear a waistcoat, and
over it a round frock fastened with a leathern belt,
and a iarge round hat ; often two, one above the
other, when they are working in the sun, during
summer. Those of Catalonia wear a frock, or a
wrapping waistcoat without sleeves ; a little, short
doublet, with round wide buttons, set very thick,
with long tight sleeves, buttoned in the same man
ner, down to the wrist ; a long girdle of blue or
red woollen, which goes several times round the
waist; close breeches, with neither buttons nor
garters, and often of skin; their legs are either
bare, or covered sometimes with gaiters of skin
fastened with straps ; sometimes with woollen
stockings, which only come down to the instep ;
and shoes made of packthread, called espargatas in
Castilian — espardenyas in Catalonia, the elegance
of which consists in their only covering the ends
of the toes. They often wear nothing but the
frock, or waistcoat, and throw the doublet care
lessly over the left shoulder. Their head-dress is
a silk or thread net, of different colours, adorned
with a tassel hanging at the end of a long cord, in
which the hair is inclosed, and over it a large wool
len cap, usually red, sometimes of several colours, witlj,

SPANISH COSTUME. SU
with a point which hangs down at the ear. The
mountaineers of this province, especially those who
inhabit the Pyrenees, wear a kind of wide, short,
great coat, with broad facings on the sleeves, which
they call a gambeto ; but this only belongs to the
richer of them.
In Murcia and Valencia the husbandman wears,
in summer, a white frock shaped like a wide dou
blet; a girdle of red woollen; Breeches often
white and very wide, short, round, and having nei
ther strings nor garters; shoes made either of
hempen cord, or the fibres of a kind of broom,
called espargatas ; and sometimes a round hat, but
more commonly a leathern cap slightly rounded,
which is called a montera. He has no cloak, but
supplies its place with a piece of thick woollen
cloth, striped with various colours, about seven
feet in length, and two in width ; this he usually
throws over one shoulder, but he sometimes suffers
it to hang unequally behind and before, sometimes
winds it in various manners round his neck and arms.
The dress of the common people in Old Cas
tile "consists of a dark- coloured frock strapped
round the waist, and a dark montera, or cap, of
Vwoollen, or leather, which is sometimes round,
sometimes pointed at the top.
The peasantry of La Mancha wear a round
frock of cloth, or skin, with a girdle, and a square
montera pointed at the top, which has a rim to be
let down at pleasure. In the towns and villages of
x 4 Biscay

$12 SPANISH COSTUME, i
Biscay and Guipuzcoa, the men are dressed as in
Castile ; but in remote parts they preserve their
ancient costume — wide, and rather long, breeches ;
a red doublet, which wraps over a kind of long,
wide great coat ; a pointed cap in winter and ofte^
a hat in summer.' They wear, particularly in win
ter, buskins of untanned leather, laced with
thorigs. The cloak is in almost general use throughout
Spain. This , garment, which was at first short
and scanty, afterwards became wide and long ; it
is made of some kind of woollen stuff; most com
monly of cloth. The cloaks worn by the com
mon people are dark brown : persons of a rathes
higher class wear them of various colours : the
rich have taffeta ones for summer. At the begin
ning of the last century they were still worn on all
occasions; and by. all conditions of people; since
that period their use has become much more limit*
fid: very few are seen in Valencia, still fewer in
.Catalonia, and in most pf the great cities they are
little worn, but in winter, as a protection from the
cold. The cloak is crossed over the breast, by
drawing it up in such a manner as to throw the
end of the right side over the left shoulder, and to
raise the middle above the chin, so that the head
is quite embedded in it, and the face half concealed
The use of this garment is dangerous on several
accounts. No one can be known beneath its am
ple folds j and a man may conceal arms under it,
wait;

SPANISH COSTUME. 313
wait in suspected places, rob, assassinate, and all
without being recognised, especially when the head
is covered with a large round hat with a broad
slouched rim. On this account the government
has several times attempted to abolish the use of
both cloak and hat, but could never succeed ; so
strong is the power of custom.
The dress of the women has not varied less than
that of the men. During the time of the Romans
they assumed that of their females. Their dress
was afterwards a mixture of Roman and Gothic
costume. In succeeding ages it varied again: for
a long time it consisted of a black, round gown,
corning up to the head behind, with a kind of
cape, and ending in a train. In the sixteenth cen
tury it was a robe, with a short mantle, and a
little hat adorned with cords and tassels : the robe
and mantle were usually of woollen cloth, and the
hat was of felt or velvet ; women of high rank had
sometimes the robe and mantle of velvet, of which
material there were usually some kept in all houses,
even those of people not opulent, which were worn
chiefly at marriages, and went down from genera
tion to generation. In many places velvet dresses
were kept at the town-hall, and lent out to the
commonalty for the celebration of their weddings.
Towards the middle and end of the sixteenth
century, women of distinction wore the old court
dress ; that is, a kind of hoop petticoat, the cir
cumference of which went on increasing from the
waist

314 SPANISH COSTUME.
waist to the feet. Some were of prodigious di-.
mensions, and few doors were wide enough to give
them passage ; those which were worn on days of
ceremony, were called guar da-inf ant es ; there were
smaller ones for common occasions, called sacris-
tanes. Hoops of various forms and constructions
afterwards succeeded, which received the name of
tontillos; literally meaning, a little fool. At the
same period they wore their gowns cut down in
such a manner behind as to leave the shoulders
bare. Their petticoats were very long, just touch*
ing the ground behind, and lying upon it in front
and at the sides. It was then accounted a crime
for a woman to show her feet. Their shoes were
without heels, fitted Very nicely to the foot, and
made of black morocco, under which was some
times placed a piece of coloured taffeta, which ap
peared through the figures cut out in the leather.
The court ladies walked upon a very high kind of
clogs put on over the shoes, which were called
chafuries; these added much to the height, but
were so unsteady that, in walking, it was neces
sary to lean upon a person on each side for sup
port—yet no lady could appear at court without
them. In winter they had large muffs. They
painted both white and red ; of the latter colour
in particular they made great use ; spreading it in
thick patches on the face, the arms, and even the
ghoulders. "Under all these changes of fashion they wore a
veil

SPANISH COSTUME." 315
veil on the head, which was drawn over the face,
and concealed them from the eyes of the pas
sengers. The costume of the Spanish women is now
much altered. Most of those of the higher class
have adopted the French dress, which they wear
in their houses — in their carriages — at visits, balls,
and public spectacles ; only assuming the Spanish
habit when they walk out or go to church. This
habit at present consists of a kind of bodice, or
corset ; a very short petticoat, scarcely reaching
below the instep ; a mantela on the head, which
has taken place of the ancient veil, and which
conceals or discovers the figure at will ; a chaplet
in one hand, and a fan in the other. The stays,
called cotilla, were formerly stiff, with steel or
whalebone, tight round the lower part of the waist,
wide at the top, and laced behind. Their appear
ance is very stiff and ungraceful; notwithstanding
which, they are still retained by the lower class, by
country ladies, and by such as are strongly attach
ed to ancient usages ; but even these have sup
pressed the steel, leaving only the bones, and lace-
jng them before. The most genteel and elegant
women, and those who wish to display an elegant
shape, have entirely laid them aside, and substi
tuted a simple corset .without bones, made vari
ously, of silk or muslin, which is called a cogon,
/Ihe cotilla is usually covered with black ; the cogon
js indifferently of any colour, except in full dress, when

316 SPANISH COSTUME.
when it too is black. Both have often tight sleeves
coming down to the wrist, where thtey are fastened
with five or six little buttons; but of late the
sleeves- have frequently been shortened to the el
bow, especially in summer. The petticoat, or
basquiria, is always black, but of various materials,
sometimes very much ornamented with gold and
embroidery, and trimmed with coloured ribbands.
The Spanish women never wear the basquiria in
the house ; they take it off as soon as they come
home, and even in other houses where they are go
ing to stay for a few hours ; they have another pet
ticoat underneath, which is short, and variously
adorned ; some are in the French fashion all but
the basquiria, so that they have only to take it off
to appear completely dressed.
The redezilla is a kind of bag, made of silk or
thread netting, usually black, but sometimes of
other colours, which is fastened upon the middle
of the head, and suffered to hang down behind.
The hair is inclosed in this, and the bag is then
drawn up with a ribband. To this head-dress,
which is now little used, another, and more elegant
one, has been substituted, called a cofia. This is a
kind of taffeta bag, about eight or nine inches
wide, covered with several rows of puffings of
gauze, taffeta, or various coloured ribbands, and
sometimes edged with lace, fringe, or gold and
silver trimming ; it hangs down from the crown
of the head, where it is fastened, with great bows of

SPANISH costume* 317
of ribband, to the middle of the back, where it is
finished with 'a tassel made to correspond. The
hind hair being drawn into this, women of fashion
wear the front and side hair curled and powdered ;
those of inferior condition wear it straight, without
powder, and parted on the forehead. But this
head-dress too is becoming obsolete, and caps,
flowers, ribbands, gold combs, and other orna
ments in the French taste, are taking its place.
Women of the lower class, especially in the coun
try, go with the head quite bare, merely turning
the hair back, and tying it up in a great bunch be
hind. The mantela is a kind of veil, which being placed
upon the head, reaches1' down at the sides the
length of the arms, and below the girdle behind,
where it is rounded off. Thus it is worn by wo
men of middling rank; those of a higher class
make it of a straight piece, three yards long, arid an
ell wide, and after placing it upon the head, and suf
fering it to fall over the back and arms, they wind
the long ends gracefully round the waist, cross
them in front, and bring them back to one side, or
behind, where they are tied, and whence they
fall down to the heels. These mantelas are always
either black or white. The first are of taffeta,
gauze, or a light woollen stuff, sometimes trimmed
with lace, sometimes entirely made of lace; the
white, which are more elegant, though no longer
fashionable, are of muslin, plain or sprigged; of
/ gauze,

318 SPANISH COSTUME.
gauze, lawn, trapes or taffeta ; and often trimmed
also with black or white lace. The mantelas of the
poor are much shorter and narrower, and quite
round ; they are usually of white stuff.
In the two Castiles, all women, of whatever con
dition, rhay wear the mantela, black or white in
differently ; but in Catalonia the black mantela is
a mark of distinction which the lower classes dare
not assume. In a great part of Andalusia, parti
cularly at Cadiz, scarcely any but black ones are
seen; in other parts, both are worn, in some white
are most common.
The shoes of the Spanish women are a very ele
gant article of their luxury. They are almost al
ways of silk, and often adorned with embroidery
of silk, gold, silver, or tinsel. They are generally
well-made, and are set off by the pretty turn of
their small feet. The fashion of flat-heeled shoes
is now generally adopted in the cities. No paint
is now used by the Spanish ladies ; muffs too are
quite out of fashion ; they carry a fan at all sea
sons, and have them of all shapes, sizes, and
prices ; such is the extravagance in this new arti
cle of expence, that a collection of twenty or thirty
is little for one lady. This instrument is singular
ly useful to them ; they have it always in their
hand, and always in motion ; and they employ it
with ease and grace, to cool themselves, to prevent
being put out of countenance, to salute, to make
signs with, and to lift up the mantela on occasions when

SPANISH COSTUME. 319
when it suits them to discover, as if by accident,
their face and the beauty of their eyes.
The Spanish woman is charming in this cos
tume. The cogon, laced to her shape, discloses the
delicacy of her form ; the basquiha gives her a
grace, and allows a view of a slender leg and a
small and well dressed foot. The mantela favours
her still more ; it is difficult to conceive how many
seductive graces it lends her. In walking it floats
above her head, and flutters about her person ; it
gives prominence and brilliancy to her eyes, and
casts upon her face, to which it gives roundness, a
slight shade which animates and embellishes its
features. Sometimes falling carelessly over the
forehead, and concealing a part of the figure, it
discovers the lower part of a face, the agreeable-
ness of which gives a charming idea of the eyes
which are hidden ; sometimes raised all at once,
without affectation, or entirely, or in part by the
wind, or by means of the fan applied with singular
dexterity, it gives to view new beauties, to which
it adds new charms. . But all this applies to the
mantela of the old form : there is a short and
scanty one, of modern invention, now gaining
ground, which wraps tight round the shoulders,
and neither has the same grace nor bestows the
same advantages. One is grieved to observe that
the influence of France is gradually destroying all
that was national and striking in this habit ; the
imitation of French fashions is spoiling the Spanish
costume

520 SPANISH COSTUME.
costume in the same manner as the imitation of
Italian music has already destroyed, all that was,'
original and singular in the Spanish airs.
In the village of Old Castile, on the side of
Biscay, the women still preserve a costume nearly
approaching to the ancient one. They wear a
gown made to fit close to the neck and wrists,
with' sleeves slashed from the shoulder to the el
bow, and a thin girdle buckled round the waist.
- They form their hair into tresses, which they suffer
to flow down the back ; and cover their head with
a montera or black felt hat.
The females of the mountainous part of Na
varre have tight sleeves fastened at the wrist,
a silk handkerchief round the' neck, and the
hair falling in double tresses down the back,
and interwoven with broad ribbands of different
colours. The Biscayans dress almost like the women11 of
Castile. They who are married wear a linen or
muslin handkerchief on the head, tied in a knot
on the top, whilst the corners hang down behind.
The girls wear their hair in tresses, and are very
proud of it, regarding long thick tresses as their
greatest ornament. They long retained a kind
of turban-shaped ' head-dress, which was in use
amongst them in the time of the Romans, and
was not yet disused in the sixteenth century. The
young peasant girls of Bida2oa, near Fontarabia,
in Guipuzcoa, plait their hair, tie the plaits with
ribband

SPANISH COSTUME. 321
ribband, and suffer them to fall over their should
ers ; they cover the head with a kind of small veil
of very thin muslin which flutters round the neck ;
they wear gold and pearl earrings, and coral neck
laces. The dress of the lower classes in Catalonia dif
fers in- different parts. They almost all wear co-
tillas; that is very high and wide stays, well stif
fened with whalebone, and with circles and plates
.of iron ; and a very short petticoat of blue wool
len, or of chintz for best : their shoes are usually of
packthread ; their legs bare, or covered with blue
worsted stockings, but some of the richer wear black
leather shoes and blue silk stockings on holidays.
Near Barcelona many have slippers of different
colours; they who wear shoes sometimes have
them slashed, and wear little round buckles. In
some places they tress their hair and fasten it
upon the top of the head ; in others at the back of
the neck ; in others again they make it into plaits
which they twist together at the back of the head,
and keep in their place by means of a long pin of
silver or brass, with two large flat heads. A very
few use the redezilla. They wear a short and
narrow mantela of white stuff, except in some dis
tricts bordering on Roussillon, where they have a
long close hood of the same material, which forms
a sharp angle behind the head, and falls down be
hind. Some wear an apron of woollen or cotton,
which is commonly blue^
vol. v. y The

322 SPANISH COSTUME.
The costume is a little different"* at Barcelona*
and some other towns ; the lowest of the women
are there dressed as has been described, but those
who are a little higher, wear a corset or cotilla
made to fit closer to the shape, a chintz petticoat,
a coloured apron, blue stockings of silk or wor
sted; black shoes with large square buckles ; a re-
dezilla either black, or of the colour of the hair,
and a mantela of a fine, glazed, white stuff.
There are some, a degree above these, who wear
a mantela of plain muslin, a basquiria, a blue cotton
apron, with blue stockings, black shoes and square
buckles ; very few wear white stockings with the
buckled shoes and the apron. None of these
women ever assume the black mantela.
Different professions have also their peculiar
costume in Spain.
Uniforms are very numerous, and are not con
fined to -the military. All the officers employed
in the king's household, from the grand master
to the lowest of the scullions, have uniforms, with
gold embroidery, more or less rich. *
The grand and the private officers of the crown;
subaltern officers, gentlemen of the bedchamber,
yalets, physicians, surgeons, apothecaries, painters,
barbers, hairdressers, maitres d'hotel, cooks, under
cooks, confectioners, kitchen boys, &c. all appear
in uniform on gala, days, and all other days when
they think proper. There are likewise uniforms
for all those employed in the treasury, the post-
office,

SPANISH COSTUME. 323
office, the artillery ; for the professors of surgery,
&c. The secular priests have no cassoc ; they wear
over a black vest, a long habit with neither sleeves
nor buttons, which crosses on the breast, and is
braced with a flat and narrow b'.-lt ; besides this
they have an ample cloak of black cloth, and a
hat with two round points, or corners, one before,
the other behind. Their hair is worn short,
straight, and without powder.
Magistrates and professors of universities wear
a black vest, with a little piece of blue cambric
like weepers at the end of the sleeves, over this a
kind of wide cassoc of the same colour, which
comes down to the middle of the leg, is open be
fore, and very much plaited at the neck, with a
collar turned down behind, and facings of satin or
velvet. Above this is thrown a large cloak, also
black, with a collar about a foot broad, and turned
back, and silk facings ; the material of this dress
is woollen in winter, silk in summer. They wear
a round wig, or the hair dressed in a similar form.
The judges of the superior courtstilso wear, round
the neck, a white stock with very small plaits
called a golilla, whence has arisen the custom of
applying that name to the magistrates themselves.
The Spanish nobility have an uniform for the
holy week ; they wear it at, court and in town,
and the king and royal family wear the same.
The coat is of black velvet lined with crimson
y 2 satin,

324 SPANISH COSTUME,
satin, with gold, or gold embroidered buttons,
and facings of gold brocade on a crimson ground,
or of satin of the same colour embroidered with
gold. The waistcoat is the same as the facings,
and the breeches are black, The dress is hand
some and dignified.

CHAP.

( 325 )

CHAP. XVI.

CEREMONIES AND PUBLIC FESTIVALS OF SPAIN
We shall not here take notice of the festivals and
ceremonies which are peculiar to the different towns
or districts ; they have already been mentioned in
particular descriptions ; it is only the general and
national festivals to which we shall now call the
attention of the reader.
The Spaniards, in general, are attached to the
festivals of the church ; but they are much more
so in the provinces of the crown of Aragon, com
prehending Valencia and Catalonia, besides the
kingdorn of that name, than in those of the king
dom of Castile, which includes almost all the rest
of Spain.
These festivals are differently celebrated in dif
ferent parts ; they are simple in the Castilian
provinces; brilliant and magnificent in those of
Aragon. In the latter, decorations are varied
without end, riches are displayed with the greatest
pomp, illuminations are multiplied ; and a bound
less profusion of candles, tapers, and torches,
lights up the naves, the chapels, and altars of the
churches. The dresses of the priests correspond
with the rest : in the kingdom of Castile they are
y 3 decent,

326 CEREMONIES AND PUBLIC FESTIVALS
decent, but simple ; in that of Aragon, they are
very fine and very rich. In the former, proces
sions are rare ; in the latter, they are very fre
quent, performed with great pomp and prepara
tion, and often with accessories truly profane. In
the Castilian dioceses, and particularly in that of
Toledo, the viaticum is carried to the sick with
little ostentation ; in those of Aragon, with great
pomp and solemnity.
Fuegos de polvera, or fire-works, were very
common in Spain ; the Spaniards had a great
taste for this kind of amusement, and it made a
part of all festivals, public and private; on the
smallest occasions squibs and crackers were in
the hands of every one, but some accidents" hav
ing occurred in consequence, the government has
for some years forbidden them. Notwithstanding
this prohibition, persons sometimes venture to use
them, and the police winks if they keep within cer
tain bounds.
Masquerades were much in fashion in Spain dur
ing the carnival, particularly in Aragon. Crowds
of masks filled the streets and collected in balls,
and persons of both sexes, and all ranks, were
mixed and confounded, by favour of their different
disguises. It was an object of emulation to dis
play the most elegant and studied dresses ; and the
masks often collected in groups, forming repre
sentations of various subjects, and often presenting
a striking and picturesque assemblage. The city of

©F SPAIN. 327
of Barcelona was one of those most distinguished
for these exhibitions ; the public walk called the
rambla was covered with masks of all descriptions,
and there were balls called de peceta (because a
peceta, worth about ten-pence, was the price of ad
mission), which were crowded with masks ; all
ranks frequented them without distinction, and
the appearance was brilliant.
In the reign of Philip V. a royal edict forbad
this amusement ; the masks disappeared, and the
public balls were laid aside. The count d' Aranda,
when president of the council of Castile, obtained
from Charles III. permission for their re-establish
ment. The assemblies immediately recommenced with
greater ardour than ever. Barcelona renewed her
balls de peceta; Madrid had also public assemblies,
which were brilliant and often magnificent ; but
the fall of these followed quickly upon the dis
grace of the minister who had promoted them ;
after the retreat of the count d'Aranda, public
balls were forbidden, masks were proscribed, and
Spain became, next to Portugal and Holland, the
dullest of countries in carnival time.
The sufferings of the. people of Barcelona,
during a war so injurious to trade, caused them
to be re-established for the benefit of the poor,
as we have already mentioned in the account of
that city.
An imitation of the tournaments of the days of
y 4 chivalry

328 CEREMONIES AND PUBLIC FESTIVALS
chivalry still subsists in Spain : these make a part
of the annual festivals given by the maestranzas of
Valencia, Granada, Seville, and Ronda, and of
the Mondas of Talavera de la Reyna; and, they
often terminate the amusements of the court before
it leaves Aranjuez ; the noblemen of the court
tilt at them in presence of the royal family ; they
are now called parijas, and have been already de
scribed. The bull-fights are the true national spectacle.
The taste of the Spaniards for this amusement
amounts to a most unbridled passion ; they quit
every thing, sacrifice every thing, to procure a
share of it ; it excites in them the most lively joy,
and most vehement eagerness ; every where, even
in the smallest towns, there are places set apart
for the purpose. This entertainment makes a
part of every festival, and as soon as it is announc
ed, all kinds of people prepare to flock to it. The
housewife quits her family, the tradesman his
shop, the artist his work-room, the labourer his
plough, the peasant his fields ; persons of a higher
condition are equally eager for the show, and joy
and expectation are painted upon every counte
nance. Nothing is thought of but the bull-fight ;
the names of the combatants are carefully enquired,
their talents are exalted or depreciated; a greater or
less degree of pleasure is expected according to their
more or less distinguished reputation; wagers are
laid on those whom each man favours ; their names are

OF SPAIN. 329
are known all over Spain, and they sometimes obtain
more celebrity than would fall to the share of an
able and successful general. The same rage for
the thing remains after it is over, it is the subject
/of every conversation ; the agility, the success
and the faults of all who appeared in the arena are
discussed ; the address and exploits of the bulls,
the toreadores, and picadores are cried up : parties
are different ; each supports his own, each be
comes animated, then warm, and the conversation
often degenerates into a dispute.
The toreadores, or combatants, themselves, are
deeply penetrated with a persuasion of the excel
lence of their art, and are as proud and vain as a
general many times crowned with the laurels of
victory. Attempts have even been made to re
duce their art to a science, and one of their num
ber, named Popehillo, some years since, published
a work ort this subject.
This amusement was suppressed several years
ago, on which account it is useless to describe it j
besides that I could add nothing to the picture
given of it by M. Bourgoing in his work on Spain,
to which I refer the reader, confining myself to a
few reflections.
The bull-fight is a spectacle not only cruel, but
tedious : it presents a succession of scenes, the
uniformity of which destroys the interest. It
amuses a stranger at first, but the pleasure soon
yields to compassion, particularly for the horses,
v who

330 CEREMONIES AND PUBLIC FESTIVALS
who have no defence ; weariness succeeds to this,
and at length weariness is succeeded by disgust.
The general effect of the spectacle is grand, but its
details are disgusting, and a great evil results from
it. It tends to destroy the two species of animals
most useful to man, the horse and the ox, in a
country where the latter is not plentiful, and where
the better kinds of the former begin, to grow very
scarce. If we were to calculate the prodigious
number of bull-runnings which took place some
years ago in Spain, we should be frightened at the
vast multitude of animals that must have perished
in them. The Spanish government was aware of
this evil, and took means for its prevention ; it was
at first forbidden to give a show of this kind with
out special permission from the king, and in the
end the practice was entirely abolished.
Was this sport peculiar to the Spanish nation,
or did they derive it from the Moors? There is
reason to believe that they did not get it from the
Romans, for it does not appear to have been in use
amongst them. We learn from the records of
antiquity that it was known to the Greeks ; it was
practised by the Thessalians in particular, as much
as three or four centuries before the Christian era,
as appears from the medals of that country. The
city of Larissa was amongst those most celebrat
ed for these fights, in which its inhabitants were
reckoned the most skilful combatants, as we learn
from Pliny, Suetonius, and Heliodorus ; but ac
cording

OF SPAIN. 331
cording to their descriptions, the Greek bull-fights
must have been different from the Spanish ones.
Amongst the Greeks, several bulls were turned
out at once ; an equal number of horsemen pur
sued and goaded them with a kind of lance. Each
horseman attached himself to one bull, and riding
by his side pressed and avoided him by turns.
After exhausting the strength of the animal, he
seized him by the horns, and threw him to the
ground without himself dismounting. Sometimes
even he threw himself upon the bull, who foamed
with rage ; and notwithstanding the violent shocks
he received, brought him down before the eyes
of a vast crowd of spectators, who celebrated his
triumph.

CHAP.

( 332 )

CHAP. XVIL

OBSERVATIONS ON CERTAIN DETACHED POR
TIONS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SPAIN.
The natural history of Spain offers a vast field for
original observation, which has hitherto been but
little cultivated, except in detached and uncon
nected parts. The materials, therefore, for this
part of my subject are so scanty and vague, as to
preclude the possibility of treating it in a very re
gular and scientific manner. In the statistical
account of each province have already been in
serted various particulars on this head, of which a
general sketch is all that is intended at present.

VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
The botany of Spain constitutes a very important
and essential portion of its natural history. The
plains of this extensive country are covered with
various species of curious and useful vegetables,
but the mountains exhibit the greatest variety and
the most important. The mountains most worthy
of the visits and researches of the enterprizing
botanist are those of Guadalupe, in Estremadura; of

OBSERVATIONS ON DETACHED PORTIONS, &C 333
< of Moncayo, in Aragon ; of Pineda, Guadarrama,
'and Cuenca, in New Castile ; of Carascoy, in the
kingdom of Murcia; of Pena-Colosa, Mongi,
Aytona, and Mariola, in the kingdom of Valencia;
and of the Pyrenees.
To give a long and dry list of the plants which
have hitherto been discovered in Spain would not
comport with, the nature of this work, and would
only fatigue and disgust the general reader : the
scientific botanist may find an account of all that is
hitherto known on the subject in the Flora His-
panica of Joseph Qiier, of which, however, only
four volumes in quarto have been published ; and
in the work of Cavenilles, a distinguished experi
mental philosopher and natural historian, who
wholly devoted himself from the year 1792, to
-the time of his death, in an examination, province
by province, of the vegetable riches of his native
country. ANIMAL KINGDOM.
The animal kingdom in Spain does not offer
any species that are particularly worthy of attract
ing the notice of the naturalist. The birds, qua
drupeds, reptiles, and insects,, are the same as are
found in the southern provinces of France : even
the lofty mountains, which either form the bound
ary of Spain, or stretch into the interior of the
country,

334 OBSERVATIONS ON DETACHED PORTIONS'
country, are inhabited by the same animals as take
op their abode in the other mountainous and
woody tracts of the warmer countries of Europe.
The bear occurs in several parts of the great Py-
renean chain, and especially on certain mountains
of Aragon, as well as those of Occo and Reynosa,
in Old Castile. Wolves are met with in all the
higher and mountainous parts of the country ; and
wild boars on the mountains of Navarre, and on
the Pinar and the Sierra de Carascoy, in the king
dom of Valencia. Roebucks are found on some
of the -mountains of Navarre ; and lynxes and
ibexes on the. mountains of Cuenca, in New Cas
tile, in the valleys of Aure and Gistau, and on the
Pyrenees. The insect used in dying, and called kermes, or
coccus ilicis, feeds on the leaves of the ilex, or ever
green oak, and is collected as an article of com
merce and of domestic manufacture in the terri
tory of Bujalance and of Fernan-Nunez in the king
dom 'of Cordova, also in the vicinity of the town
de las Aguas, four leagues from Alicant, and near
the river Henarez, in New Castile.
Fresh water fishes are very plentiful in the
Spanish rivers; those, upon the whole, in the
highest estimation are from the river Tormes,
in which are taken trout of the weight sometimes
of twenty pounds, The tench of the lakes of the
xnountains near Tobar, in New Castile, are remark ably

OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SPAIN. 335
ably fine and delicate : they are taken in abund
ance every year during the months of May and
June. MINERAL KINGDOM.
The Spanish gold and silver mines must for
merly have been both numerous and very produc
tive. The Phenicians first, and afterwards the
Carthaginians, drew from their colonies in this
country prodigious quantities of the precious me
tals. The Romans, as they obtained a more com
plete possession of Spain, and for a longer period,
than the two former nations, so they explored its
treasures of gold and silver to a greater extern,
and with extraordinary success. Cato, after his pro
consular government of this province, brought into
the treasury of the republic no less than 25,000lbs
of silver in bars, 12,Q00lbs of coined silver, and
400lbs of gold. Helvius, from his province of An
dalusia alone, brought into the treasury S7,000lbs
of coined silver, and 4()00lbs of silver in bars.
Minutius exhibited on his triumph 8000lbs of
silver in bars, and 300,000lbs of silver coin : and
Flaccus returned from Spain with a treasure of
124 crowns of gold, 3 libs of epld in bars, and
70,0Q0lbs of coined silver.
Since the discovery, however, of the mines of
gold and silver in Spanish America, the mines of
;he mother country have been greatly neglected, and

336 OBSERVATIONS ON DETACHED PORTIONS
and are at present very little productive, as will
appear from the following list.

Mines of Gold.
A gold mine was formerly worked on the Sierra de Leyta,
ne4r Moron, in the kingdom of Seville, of which only the ves
tiges remain at the present day.
Grains of gold are disseminated in a ferruginous quartz that
forms a vein which entirely cuts through a mountain, opposite
the village of San Ildefonso, in Old Castile j but this mine has
not hitherto been worked.
There are two mines of emery $ the one near Alocer, in
Estremadura, and the other in the territory of Molina, in
Aragon ; in both of which spangles of gold have been discover
ed, though not in sufficient abundance to recompence the cost
of working them.
Gold is also found in the sand of two rivers ; the Agneda, in
the kingdom of Leon, which rises from the mountains of Xa-
lamo ; and the Tagus, in New Castile, especially in the vici
nity of Toledo.

Mines of Silver.
Silver mines have been opened in various parts of Spain.
At Calzena, Benasco, and Bielza, in Aragon, are the remains
of ancient silver mines, now abandoned. At Almodovar del
Campo, is a silver mine which was wrought till lately, but
which is at present abandoned, in consequence of the influx of
water. Another, in the same circumstances as that last men
tioned, is atfthe village of Zalamea, on the road to Alocer, in
Estremadura. It forms a vein in a granite rock, and is ac
companied by spar, quartz, and pyrites.
A silver mine, now in work, is situated in micaceous schis- tus

OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SPAIN. 337
ius, in the Sierra of Guadalupe, near the vilage of Logrosen,
in Estremadura. A very ancient one, now abandoned, is situ
ated near Almazarron, in a mountainous ridge that runs into
the sea, near Carthagena. There is also one in the Sierra
Morena, at the distance of a league from Guadalcanal, in the
kingdom of Seville : this was still wrought in the seventeenth
century j and the openings of three shafts yet remain, known
by the names of Campanilla, Pozo rico, and Pozo de San An
tonio. It was abandoned in the year 1655, in consequence of
the influx of water. In the vicinity of the same village of
Guadalcanal, are two other silver mines, which appear to have
been wrought at various times ever since the days of the Ro
mans, but at present they are but little productive. At Puerto
Blanco, in the kingdom of Seville, is a mine of native silver .
mixed with copper pyrites and ferruginous quartz, which has
hitherto been wrought only to the depth of a few feet. On
the mountain of Fuente de la Mina, near the village of Con-
stantina, in the kingdom of Seville, is a mine, of native silver
mixed with spar and lead ore, which was first explored by the
ancients, as is evident from the remains of their works : it
was opened afresh about the middle of the eighteenth century,
but is at present abandoned. Another mine of silver is situ
ated about two leagues from Linarez, in the kingdom of Jaen.
It was well known both -to the Carthaginians and the Romans;
while Spain was under the dominion of the former it be
longed to Himilca, the wife of Asdrubal. After having been
long abandoned, it was again wrought in the seventeenth cen
tury, when a vein of ore five feet in diameter was discovered j
at present, however, it is.no longer in a state of activity.

Mines of Copper.
The mines of copper are numerous, and considerably abun
dant. They occur near Pampeluna, in Navarre ; near Sal-
vatierra, in Alavaj nearEscaray, and at the foot of the moun-
yoL. Y. z tail*

338 OBSERVATIONS ON DETACHED PORTIONS
tain Guadarrama,'in Old Castile; near Lorca, in the king
dom bf Murcia,; near the Chartreuse of the Val de Christo, in
Valencia ; in the mountain of Guadalupe, and in other parts
of Estramadura; in the mountains ' near the city of Cordova,
where, particularly, are found the blue and green copper
ores ; near Riotinto, and at la Canada de los Conejos, in Se
ville ; in the district of Albuladui, in Granada ; in the moun
tain Platilla, and at Plan, in its immediate vicinity, in the
kingdbm of Aragon ; and near Linirez, in the kingdom of
Jien. Of these mines some are very ancient, having been
Wrought first by the Romans, and, after a long interval, hav
ing been again explored Within the last half century.

Mines of Lead.
Of this metal also the mines are numerous. The principal
of them are situated near Tortosa, in Catalonia ; at Zoma, Be-
nasques, Plan, and in the mountain of Saluh, in Aragon; in
the vicinity of Logrosen, and near the village of Alcocer, in
Estramadura ; in the mountain Guadarrama, in Old Castile ;
near the v'.llage of los Alumbres, and near Lorca, in the king
dom of Murcia; at Alcaniz and Constantina, ih Seville; and
in the district of Linares, in the kingdom of Jaen. The ore
at the two last-mentioned places is galena, rich in silver, and
accordingly these mines have already been enumerated among
those qf silver : their produce, at present, though considerable,
is by no means so abundant as it was about thirty years ago.

Mines of Iron.
There is no province of Spain destitute of mines bf this me
tal ; the principal, however, are the following. At Alius and
Taull, in Catalonia; at Lugarchuelo, in Naval-re ; at Ojos Ne-
gros and Bielsa, in Aragon, and in Biscay. The province of
Biscay

OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SPAIN. 339
Biscay is in a manner filled with iron ore, in beds,* blocks, or
veins : the ore that most frequently occurs is hematite in mam-
milated and stalactitical masses, or in kidney form and globu
lar concretions : the vicinity of Bilbao is peculiarly rich in
this metal ; but the most celebrated iron mine in the whoje
province, indeed in the whole kingdom of Spain, is that of
Samosostro : the ore is situated in a hill of limestone, and
forms an irregular bed ; the thickness of which varies frpm
three to ten feet ; it is of the species called by mineralogists
spathose iron, and yields about thirty per cent, of soft, ductile,
and very malleable metal. This mine appears to have been
wrought first by the Romans : at present it affords a large
quantity of ore, any person who pleases being allowed to take
it away without payment of any dues or duties whatever.

Mines of Antimony.
There are only two mines of this metal in Spain ; both, of
which are situated in the province of La Mancha. The one is
at Alendia, near Almodovar ; the other is at the foot of the
Sierra Morena, near Santa Cruz de Mudela : this latter is al
most on the surface of the ground, and the ore which it yields
is abundant and remarkably free from iron.

Mines of Cobalt.
The province of Aragon is the only one which furnishes
cobalt. The ore of this metal is found in considerable abun
dance in the valley of Gistan, near the summit of the Pyre
nees ; but the mine is wrought by foreigners.

% 2 Mines

340 OBSERVATIONS ON DETACHED PORTIONS

Mines of Mercury.
In the province of Valencia are two mines of cinnabar ; one
of these is situated in the limestone mountains of Alcoray, at
the distance of two leagues from Alicant : ' the other is in the
mountains between Valencia and San Felipe : neither of these,
however, is worked. The same province contains two mines
of native mercury, in the same state of neglect as the former.
Of these, one is in a stratum of hard limestone, at the foot of
a steep mountain near San Felipe. The other is in a bed of
ash-coloured clay, two feet in thickness, over which the city
Itself of Valencia is built: this bed traverses the city from east
to west, passing under the house of the marquis de dos Aguas,
in the place of Vilarosa, where a shaft was sunk about the
middle of the eighteenth century, from which a quantity of
metallic mercury was actually procured.
But the most abundant mine of mercury and cinnabar united
is in the province of La Mancha, near Almaden, on the bor
ders of Cordova. It is situated in a hill of sandstone which
rests on slate. The whole length of the hill is traversed by
two principal veins, called la mina del Pozo and la mina del
Castile; both of which were worked by the Romans. A third
vein, called le, mina de Almadenejos, runs at the distance of
about two leagues from the preceding. The whole of this
mine is wrought by the agents of the king, and its prdduce
is very abundant : , the cinnabar is generally mixed with
a large proportion of pyrites ; but it occasionally occurs in
masses of great purity, affording ten ounces of mercury for
each pound weight of ore.

Inflammable Minerals.
A mine oi plumbago (called by the inhabitants of the coun
try lapis plomo) has lately .been, opened at the distance of half
a league

OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SPAIN. 341
a league from the village of Real Monasterio, in the kingdom of
Seville. It forms a thick vein in felspar, and is very abun
dant, and of good quality*
Mines of sulphur are found near Villel and Plan in Aragon,
and in the territory of Hellin, in the kingdom of Murcia.
No mine of coo/has hitherto been opened in Spain; but
satisfactory indications of this . valuable mineral have occurred
at Aviles, in Asturia ; Betela, in New Castile ; Grustan in
Aragon ; Isona, San-Saturni, Terrasa, Subiras, Sellent, Monta-
nola, and elsewhere, in Catalonia.
Aspkaltuni and petroleum have been found only in the neigh
bourhood of Pereyra de San Antonio, in Aragom
Jet has been found in the district of Old Colmenar, in Old
Castile, near the source of the Manzanarez, in New Castile,
and at Utrillas, in the territory of Alcaniz, in Aragon : this
latter is of a fine quality, but the mine is worked by foreign
ers, and its produce is exported in its rough state out of tlie
kingdom. Mineral Salts.
Alum-earth is found near Castel-Favi, in Valencia; near Al-
mazarron, in Murcia; and in the vicinity of Alcanez, inAragon.
Rock-salt or sal-gum is very abundant in certain parts of
Spain. A mine of this substance is worked on the bank of
the Ebro, above Saragossa : another very productive mine oc
curs in the province of Valencia, between the sources of two
small rivers near the Sierra de la Vellida and the Sierra de la
Cabillo. In the same province, adjacent to a salt marsh near
Villena, is a rock of sal-gem, covered by a bed of gypsum. ^
In Navarre also, near Valtierra, is a very productive mine in
full work; the salt is imbedded in gypsum, and forms strata of
a clear white, separated by bands of an obscure blue colour,
two or three inches thick. The province of New Castile also
possesses a very abundant mine of rock salt : it is situated in
the mountain de las Contreras, about three leagues from the
z 3 village

342 OBSERVATIONS ON DETACHED PORTIONS
village of la Mbtilla ; it is known in the cbuhtty by the name
of Salina de Minglanilla. This mine was first opened by the
Romans, and is now in full activity, being worked by the
agents of the king ; it consists of a Series of deep excavations,
from which are procured salt more or less mixed With gyp
seous clay.
But the most remarkable mass of this mineral is the moun<-
laiti of salt near the town of Cardona, in the province of Ca
talonia. Its circuit is about three miles, and its height about
five hundred feet ; it presents no appearances of rifts or stra
tification, and is probably one solid block. The salt of which
it consists is for the most part white ; but in particular places
tinged with brown or blue : its height is not visibly dimi
nished by the heaviest rains, nor its mass by the river Car-
done'ro, which flows by the perpendicular side of this rock,
and dissolves so much as to preserve a very perceptible salt-
ness at the distance of three leagues. Some of the most beau
tiful specimens are manufactured at Cordova into various.
ornamental articles.

Earthy Minerals.
Crystalized quartt, in the form of small pyramids, remark
ably brilliant, and colourless, or tinged with red or yellow, is
found in a mountain not far from Alicant, in the province b'f
Valencia. Amethysts, agate, chalcedony, and garnets, are found near
Vich, in Catalonia, and at Cape de Gata, in Granada.
Gypsum is abundant in many provinces of Spain ; that of
Albarrazin, in Aragon, is much esteemed for ornamental ar
chitecture, being spotted with red, yellow, and white. The
mountain of Alcoray, two leagues from Alicant, furnishes a
gypsum of a bright vermilion colour, and also another beau
tiful variety with red and white stripes.
The marbles of Spain are very numerous and valuable. A
black

OF TH£ NATURAL HISTORY OF SPAIN. 343
black marble veined with white is procured near Barcelona :
various dendritic marbles occur near Tortosa. Near the town
of Molina, in Aragon, is found a granular marble spotted with
red, yellow, and white. At the village of Salinos, in the pro
vince of Guipuzcoa, is a beautiful blue pyritic^l marble, con
taining marine shells. From Monte Sagarra, near Segorbia,
in the -province of Valencia, are procured several fine marhles,
which, even by the Romans, were held in great estimation.
The province of Granada, however, contains more valuable
varieties of this beautiful mineral than the rest of Spain : of
these some of the principal are the following. A pure white
statuary marble^ of which the entire mountain of Filabra, near
Almeria, is composed. A flesh-coloured marble, from a
mountain near Antequera. An exquisitely. beautiful wax co
loured alabaster, from the vicinity of the city of Granada. A
finely veined marble, from the Sierra Nevada.

Salt Springs and Marshes.
The river Cardonero, in Catalonia, is impregnated with salt
for some miles of its course after it lias passed the salt moun
tain of Cardona, as I have already mentioned. A small lake
of muddy water containing about seven percent, ofsalt.oc-
curs in the Sierra d'Occa, near the source of the Ebro, in Old
Castile. At the village of Salinas, in Guipuzcoa, i9 a spring
from which a considerable quantity of salt is procured by boil
ing and evaporation. In the province of Aragon are salt-
springs, near the- village of Arcos and the town of Fuente
Garcia* and a salt lake near the village of Used, which supply
the neighbourhood with this necessary commodity. Near
Vittena, in Murcia, is a shallow lake that furnishes much salt
and of a good quality, by spontaneous evaporation. The same
is tlie case with a marsh near Elcho, and another near Alicant,
both in the kingdom of Valencia. On the bay of Cadiz, be
tween Pontal and :PuertO SaJtita Maria, are numerous saltpans,
' z 4 which

344 OBSERVATIONS ON DETACHED PORTIONS
which are worked for the benefit of the king, and yield a very
large produce.

Mineral Waters.
Of cold springs the following are some of the principal.
An hepatic spring in the town of Buron, in Valencia. A car
bonated water at Gerona, in Catalonia. A saline purgative
water at Vacia-Madrid, three leagues from the capital, and
another of a similar nature near Toledo.
The principal hot springs are, the baths of Abu Zulena, at
Javal-Cohol, near Baeza j a hepatic spring used for bathing
near Alhama de Granada ; another near Almeria, in the pro
vince of Granada; to which are attached both bathing and
vapour baths : all these three were discovered, or at least
brought into general use, by the Moors. A very copious hot
spring near Merida, in Estremadura, made use of by the Ro
mans. The Calda de Bonar, in the neighbourhood of Leon, a
spring of tepid water frequented by the Romans, and still ex
hibiting the ruins of baths and ancient inscriptions. A very
hot spring near Orense, in Galicia. A spring at Alhama, near
Calatayud, in Aragon, formerly much frequented, but now
in a state of neglect. The Fuente de Buzot, near Alicant, a
saline spring of the temperature of 104° Fahr. A very copi
ous and ho); spring at Archena, near Murcia, where still re
main the ruins of Roman and Moorish baths. A hepatic
spring near Arnedillo, in Old Castile.

Composition of some of the Mountains of Spain.
The following mountains are of limestone. The hills sur
rounding Alicant ; the mountains over which the road passes
from Villa-Franca to Llobregat, in Catalonia; the mountain
of Orihuela, in Valencia ; the hills between Daroca and Sa
ragossa j

OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SPAIN. 345
ragossa ; the mountain of Arandillo, in Old Castile j and the
mountain of Monte. Agudo, in Murcia.
The mountains surrounding Toledo, and those between
Piera and Igualada, in Catalonia^ are of granite.
Many of the mountains of Estremadura are composed of
phosphat of lime.
The mountain of Montserrat, in Catalonia, Is an aggregate of
calcareous gravel.

INDEX.

The Roman Numerals denote the Volumes, and the common Figure?
the Page.

AfiADIA, a village, ii. 4Q0.
Abavides, a village, ii. 450.
Abdelazis, a Moorish prince, invades a part of the kingdom of
Murcia, ii. 15Q.
Abila, or Abyla, a mountain and cape, iii. 378.
Abion, the river, iii. 5.
Abrilongo, a river, i. 33S.
Abufera, lake, or morass, iii. 428.
Academies, of the Spanish language, iii, 10i.
history, ib.
the fine arts, ib..
Aceja, the palace of, iii. 280.
Achani, the people so named, ii. 230.
Adaja, a river, iii. 30.
Adaya, port, iii. 464.
— ¦  isle, iii. ib.
Administration, of justice, v. 37. Inferior tribunals, ib. Su
perior tribunals, 41.- Council of Castile, 45. Tribunal of
exception, 48. Situation of the magistracy, 55. Laws
-of Spain,, ib. Remarks, -6*1.
 ; — , ecclesiastical, v. 1, Archbishops and bishops,
@. Chapters, abbeys, and religious orders, 12. State of
the

348 INDEX.
the Spanish clergy, 14. Ecclesiastical trt^hals, 18. Rights
and jurisdiction of the pope, 23. Nomination to benefices,
26. Imposts on the clergy, 30. Remarks, 34.
Administration, military, iv. 454. King's household, 457.
Cavalry, 464. Dragoons, 465. Light ditto, 466. In
fantry of the line, 46/. Light ditto, 468. Appointments,
469. Invalids, 473. Engineer corps (see Marine). Mi
litary division, 491. Tribunals, 495. Institutions, 498.
Observations, 501.
Adrobicum, ii. 434.
Africa, Spanish possessions in, iii. 397.
Agates, v. 342.
Agreda, town, ii. 325. iii. 8.
— — — , Maria de, Hi. 8.
Agriculture, general, iv. 32. Sheep and wool, 45. The
Mesta, 51. Cattle, 6l. Horses, 63. Plantations, 68.
Irrigation, 80. Productions, 83. Interesting Memoir on, 1 1 1 .
 , local, see each province under its proper head.
¦ ¦  of Spain, learned and interesting Memoir on, ir.
Aguada, river. See Agueda.
Aguadors, water carriers at Madrid, mostly Galicians, ii. 456.
Agueda, river, ii. 466.
Aguila, the island of, near Minorca, iii. 464.
Aguilarejo, village, iii, 68. '
Alabaster, v. 343.
Alagon, river, ii. 466.
Alamo, the village of, iii. 206.
Alameda, village, ii. 85.
Alamonte, river, i. 342.
Alani, the, in Spain, ii. 311. iii. 5Q.
Alarcon, a town, iii. 198. See also Bonache.
Alaro, a town of Majorca, iii. 434.
Alava, the territory of, description of, ii. 346. Its administra
tion, ib.
Alayor, a borough of the island of Minorca, the chief place of
the territories of the same name, iii, 458, Albacete,

INDEX. 349
Albacete, the town of,'ii. 159.
Albalat, a village, i. 2/3.
Albarragena, a river, i. 338.
Albarrazin, the city of, its wool the finest in Spain, iv. 49.
Albatana, a village, ii. 165.
Albayzin, one of the quarters of Granada. See Granada.
Alberche, the river, iii. 58. 210.
Alberica, a small town. i. 172.
Alberrocal of Salvatierra, ii. 4&g.
Albuera, the remains of, i. 352.
Albufera, the reservoir of, i. 352.
, the lake of, 1. 255.
Alcala de Chivert, i. 2S9.
Alcala de Guadayra, a borough, ii. 62.
Alcala de Heharez, the city of, iii. 67, 80. Its University,
81.
Alcala la Real, the town of, ii. 1T0.
Alcaldias, their office, ii. 343.
Alcantara, the town of, in Estremadura, i. 371. Its remark
able bridge, 372.
—  , the order of, i. 371-
Alcaraz, a village, supposed to be the Orcia of Ptolemy, i. 85.
Alcarria^ the country of, iii. 57.
Alcaudete, the town of, ii. 110.
Alcazar el Saguer, the town of, ii. 401.
.. of Segovia, iii. 37.
 , — of Seville, ii. 48.
Alcolea del Pinar, the most elevated residence in Spain,
iii. 70.
Alcolen, the bridge of, ii. 23.
Alcorcon, the ancient town of, now a wretched village, iii. 205.
Alcudia de Carlet, i. 173.
Alcudia, a town of Majorca, iii. 430.
Alcala del Pinar, the village of, iii. 68.
Aldea-del-rio, the eolony of, ii. 23.
Aldea-nueva, the village of, ii. 490, Aldaa-

350 INDEX.
Aldea-del-Abad, the village of, ii. 502.
Aldea-del-Rey, the village of, ii. 502.
Alegria, the town of, ii. 363.
Alfresnp, the village of, ii. 503.
Algar, a new town, ii. 84.
Algora, the village of, iii, 71.
Algueda, the ancient Casteligt, iii. 425.
Alhama, the town of, ii. 194.
 de los Banos, the village of, ii. 283.
* • ¦ ', tlie river of, iii. 5.

Alhambra, a quarter of the city of Granada, ii. 100, Its royal
palace, ib.
Alhaurin, the village of, iii. 365.
Alicant, the town of, i. 153.
Aljezira, or Alzezira, the town of. See Alzira.
Aljuferia, a castle at Saragossa, ii. 270.
AHagrette, the river, i. 338.
Alloriz, ii. 450.
Almadra, the town of, iii. 434.
Almanza, the town of, ii. 210.
— —  , the plain of, ii. 211.
Almanzora, i. 282.
Almaraz, the town of, with a remarkable bridge, i, 341,
Almarza, the river of, iii. 31.
, Almazan, the town of, iii; 7.
Almenara, the town of, i. 279.
, plain of, i. 283.
—  , the village of, iii. 31,
Almeriz, iii. 9.
Almonds, iv. 92.
Almunada, our lady of, at Madrid. See-Madrid.
Almunia, the town of, ii. 278.
Almurradiel, the town of, iii. 343.
Alphonso the First, the warrior, i. 94. ii. 247.
 -— the Sixth, iii. 192, 247.
ui ,».-.— the Ninth, ii. 338. iii. J92. Alphonso

INDEX. 351
Alphonso the Chaste, ii. 408.
Altars of the Gentiles in Minorca, iii. 472.
Altobiscar, the mountain of, ii. 323.
Altea, the town of, iii. 4g4.
Altura, the village of, i. 265.
Alva de Tormes, the town of, ii. 500.
Alvillar, the borough of, ii. 489.
Alzira, or Alcira, i. 267-
Amanes, an ancient port of Biscay, ii. 356.
Amavida, ii. 502.
Ambracia, i. 363, 368.
Ambroz, the river, ii. 491.
Amirante, or high admiral of Castile, ii. 481.
Amcenum Stagnum, a lake near Valencia. See Albufera.
Amotia, ii. 484.
Amposta, see Emposta.
Ampudia, ii. 480.
Ampurdam, a territory in Catalonia, i. 11.
Amusco, the village of, ii. 470.
Anca, Anza, or Ansa, the river, ii. 332.
Andalusia, ii. 1. Population, 118. Agriculture, 120. Ma
nufactures, 129. Commerce, 131. State of the arts, &c.
in, 134. Natural History, 138. Manners, &c. 148.
Andero, St. the Mountains of, ii. 388. Description of the
Country, ib.
 , the port of, ii. 390.
 , the city of, ii. 390. Character of the inhabitants,
391. Commerce, ib.
Andilla, the town of, i. 261.
Andracio, iiu 437.
Anduxar, the city of, ii. 7, 111.
Angle-Sola, the town of, i. 78.
A no ver, the village of, iii. 281.
Ansena, a celebrated cavern in which Pelagius took refuge,
il. 403. Ansuela,

S52 I N D E X.
Ansuela, a village in Biscay, ii. 363.
Antiquera, the town of, ii. 94.
Antiquerula, .a quarter of the city of Granada. See Granada.
Appointments of the king's military household, iv. 457- Ca
valry, 464. Dragoons, 465. Infantry, 467- Swiss, 470.
Aquafortis, iv. 356.
Aquae Calidas, an ancient town, ii. 449.
Aqueduct, of Segovia, iii. 38.
Arajo, the river, ii. 466.
Aragon, the river, ii. 315.
— — , the kingdom of, ii. 237. Population, 285. Agricul
ture, 286. Manufactures, 294. Commerce, 298. Na
tural History, 301 .
Araja, the river/ iii. 5.
Aranjuez, the city of, iii. 171, 285.
Araxes, the river, ii. 362.
Arbacula. See Villena.
Arbos, the town of, i. 99.
Archbishops of Spain, v. 9.
Architecture, Spanish, v. 235.
Arcos, a town of Andalusia, ii. 84.
Arcuellos, a beautiful valley in the kingdom of Leon, ii. 465.
Arenz de Mar, or Santa Maria, i. 22.
Arevadillo, or Arebadillo, the river, iii. 5.
Areva, the ancient name of the river of Eresma, iii, 34.
Arevaci, the people so called, iii. 34.
Arga, the.river, ii. 315.
Arganda, the town of, iii. 187.
Arianism desolates Spain, ii. 311.
Arians, ii. 311.
Ariaza, the river, ii. 36l.
Arlanza, the river, iii. 5.
Arlanzon, the river, jj\ 466. iii. 5.
Arminon, a village of Biscay, ii. 367.
Armezende, ii*. 451.

INDEX. 3SS
Army. See military administration.
Arcenza, the river, ii. 366.
Arroyo Betleem, the river, 193.
 Molinos, iii. 206.
Arta, the town of, in Majorca, iii. 426.
Artabrum, cape, ii. 454.
Artemisium, the town of, iii, 4/4. A promontory also called
Artemus, ib.
Arts, state of the, v. 228.
Arvas, the town of, ii. 167.
Ascorca, the town of, iii. 453.
Asia, the river, ii. 167.
Assonantes, a kind of poetry, v.
Astorga, the city of, ii. 473.
Asturians, ii. 403.
Asturias, the, ii. 400. Gives title to the eldest son of the
sovereign, 404. Agriculture, &c. 414, et seq.
Atrenza, mount, iii. 9.
Atlantic ocean, ii. 454.
Aulot, the town of, i. 3.
Aura, an ancient town, iii. 14.
Auria. See Orense.
Avarillo, the village of, ii. 501.
Avezo, the village of, ii, 428.
Avia, the river, ii. 426.
Avila, in Old Castile, ii. 547.
¦  , the city of, ii. 410.
Axpe, the village of, i. 159.

B.

Badajoz, the city of, i. 356.
Bacza, or Bacca, the city of, ii. 113.
-, the river, ii. 466.
Bajoli, cape, iii. 465.
Balaguer, the passage of, in Catalonia, i. 8.
vol, v. a a Balearic

954 INDEX.
Balearic islands, iii. 40p.
Ballecas, iii. 185. '
Bamba, ii. 485.
Bambola, or Banbola, the mountain of, ii. 27$.
Bamonte, ii. 434.
Banalbufar, the town of, iii. 437*
Banos, its baths, ii. 4gi.
Barcarna, the village of, iii. Q.
Barcelona, the city of, i. 27. Heroism df its inhabitants, 2Q.
Its environs, 67.
Barcelonctta, i. 65.
Barrio, the village of, ii. 470.
Eatestance,W the ancient Beatia. See BaeM.
Bastar, an important valley in Navarre, il. 317.
Battuecas, a beautiful valley, ii. 465.
Batnecas, the people so called, iii. 353.
Baylen, the village of, ir. 7.
Bayona, a town of Galicia, ii. 446.
Becerriel, the village of, ii. 470.
Becerrilejos, St. Antonio de, the priory of, ii. 470,
Bedija, a river, iii. 58, 326.
Bees, iii. 192.
Bega, faubourg of Burgos. See Burgos.
Beledaix, or the Land of Holiness, i. 356.
Belloch, a village, \> 79.
Bellpuch, the town of, i. 78.
Belvas, the ancient name of Bilbao, ii. SS6.
Belvey, a village, i. 99.
Belvis, a village, i. 360.
— —- las Cassande, i. 360.
Bemposta, a frontier town of Portugal, ii. 467.
Benamor, a river, if.' 152. -"•
Benavente, a town of Lebn, ii. 485.
Bendia, die village of, ii. 451.
Benedict, St., the royal abbey of, ii. 474,
Eenevivere, a convent, ii. 473, Benecarlo,

INDEX. 355
Benicarlo, the town of, i. 290.
Benifarach, the village of, i. 258.
Benisalem, iii. 430.
Bernesga, the river; ii. 466.
Besaya, a river, ii. 401.
Betanzos, the town of, ii. 434.
Betula, an ancient Roman town. See Ubeda.
Beturia, ii. 386,
Bexis, the town of, i. 262.
Bezos, the river, i. 25.
Bezugos, a fish found on the coast of Galicia, ii. 45g.
Bibilis, the ancient town of, ii. 279.
Bible, the Polyglotte, iii. 28, 85. v. 232.
Bidazoa, the river which forms the boundaries between France
and Spain, ii. 3 16, 347.
Bilbao, the town of, ii, 356.
Bilbaum, ii. 356.
Biscay, the province of, ii. 331. Divided into three cantons (the
lordship of Biscay, 332 ; of Alava, 333, and Guipuzcoa, ib.).
Description of the province, 344. Military service of the
inhabitants, 345. Population, 367. Agriculture, 360.
Manufactures, 3"4. Commerce, 375. Roads and inns,
377. Natural history, 378. Sciences and arts, 380.
Character, manners, dress and language, 381.
Biva-Rembella. See Granada.
Bivero. See Vivero. '
Bleda, the island of, iii. 464.
Bletisa (Ledesma), ii. 510.
Boadilla, the village of, ii. 504.
Boberas, ii. 448.
Bolado, a sugar cake, v. 2QQ.
Bolo, the town of, i. 1.
Bonacho de Alarcon, iii. 197.
Bonaco, iii. 179.
Bovida de Castro, or Sobeda, ii. 54.
Bourguette, a village, ii. 322, A a 2 Bragar.aa,

356 / INDEX.
Braganza, ii. 451.
Brandies, the distilleries of, iv, 355.
Bravery, or courage of the Spaniards, v. 275.
Bravo, the beautiful village of, iii.
Bridge, remarkable, at Alava, ii. 500.
¦  of Badajos, ii. 358.
— —  Saragossa, ii. 254.
¦ Salamanca, ii. 4g3.
-  Tudella, ii. 325.
Bridges and causeways, iv. 424.
Breweriesj iv. 356.
Brigantium, the town of, ii. 431.
Briviesca, the town of, iii. 13.
Buen Retire, the royal palace of, iii. 122.
Bnjalance, the town of, ii. 23.
Bull-fights, iii. v. 328.
Bunola, a village, iii. 434.
Burdalo, the river, i. 347.
Burejo, a river, iii. 5.
Burina, the canton of, iii. 12.
Burgos, the city of, iii. 14. Its environs, 20.
Buroia, a river, ii. 424, 466.
Burriel, the village of, iii. 22.
Burrwira, i. 282.

Cabanar, a village, ii. 470.
Cabe, the river, ii. 426.
Cabecon, or Cabezon, the town of, iii. 24.
Cabezavellosa, a village, ii. 4Q0.
Cabinet of Natural History, iii. 105.
Cabo-Finis- Terras, ii, 454.
Cabo-Martin, iii. 474.
Cabo-Ortegal, ii. 454.
Cabrajosa, a village, ii. 500. Cabrera,

INDEX. 357
Cabrera, the island pf, iii. 438.
Cabriel, the river, iii. 58, 180.
Cabrilla, the river, iii. 58.
Cacabelos, the town of, ii. 429.
Caceres, the town of, i. 374.
Cadiz, the city of, ii. 69. Clergy, 70. Hospitals, 71. Ad
ministration, ib. Buildings, 72- Manufactures and com
merce, 74. Manners, &c. of the inhabitants, 77. Ions, 78.
Environs, ib. -
Caesar, Augusta, ii. 252.
Cahul, the river, i. 138.
Calafiguera, iii. 425.
Calatayud, the town of, ii, 279- j
Caldelas, the river, ii. 424.
Calella, the town of, i. 21.
Callaici. See Galicians.
Callaicians, ii. 421.
Calpe, the mountain and cape, iii. 378.
Calpe, an ancient town, iii. 338.
Calpurniana, ii 233.
Calvarrasa, the village of, ii. 500.
Calvia, a village of Majorca, iii. 437.
Calzada, the village of, ii. 4g2.
Calzadilla, a village, ii. 504.
Camareras, their functions, v. 297.
Camaristas, the daughters of nobles, their employments, v.
297. v
Cambrils, the village of, i. 91.
Campanet, a town of Majorca, iii. 429,
Campo, the town of, iii. 187.
Campo del, Narraia, ii. 428.
———de Tarragona, i. 92.
Campos, the celebrated canal of, ii.. 469* 1
 a town in Majorca, iii. 424.
Campus Juncarius, i. 9, ii. 153.
Cauadez, the river, i. 138. a A-3 , Canda

358 INDEX.
Canda de-la Liguira, the town of, iii, 342,
Canals, iv. 435.
Canal of Aragon, ii. 271.
 Leon, or Campos, ii. 469.
Canales, a small river, i. 262.
Candal, the river, ii. 405.
Ganet de Mar, a villa, i 22.
— — , a village of Majorca, iii. 43*7.
Cangas de Onis, the town of, ii. 412.
¦ . de Tineo, tlie town of, ii. 4 1 1 .
Cangas, the peninsula of, ii. 446.
Canizo, the village of, ii. 45Q.
Canos de Carmona, an aqueduct constructed by the Bomams,
ii. 57.
Cantabria, ii. 335.
Cantabrians, ii. 336.
Cantillana, the town of, ii. 3.
Capara, the ancient town of, its site, ii. 400,
Cape Finisterre, ii. 454,
— — Fromentor, iii. 430.
 Ortegal, ii. 454,
 Prior, ii. 438.
 Pera, iii. 426,
 Salinas, iii. 425, '
— — Tenez, on the African coast, iii. 47*.
Caparra, the borough of, i. 368.
Caparroso, the village of, ii. 324.
Caraca, the royal arsenal at Cadiz* ii. 7g>
Carcagente, the town of, i. 267:
Car ion, the river, iii. 5. „ v
Carlota, or Carolina, ii. 7. 39,
Carmona, the city of, ii, 41. ^
Carmona, the town of, iii. 244, ,» , -*" )
Carnoca, the river, iii. 5.
Carob trees, iv, 93,, C'arpetania,

INDEX. 8*9
Carpetania, iii. 5J.
Carraca, or Arriaca, the town of, iii. 74-
€arral„ii. 438.
Carrieher, the village of, iii. 244.
Carrion-de-los-Condes, the town of, ii. 427, *71-
Carrion, the river, ii. 466. iii. 5.
Carthage (New), called bj the Romans Carthago Spartaria, ii.
153.
Carthaginians, in Spain, ii. 153.
Carthago Vetus, i. 100.
Cartheya, an ancient town, iii. 380. ^
Cartuxa, the wine of, i. 25g.
Carvajal, the two brothers, their unhappy death, ii. 109.
 Donna Luisa de, i. 342. *
€asa del Campo, the Royal Palace of, iii. 139.
- Rey, the town of, iii. 343.
Casarabonella, the village of, ii. 87.
Casarrubios, the town of, iii. 206.
Casas, del Monte, ii. 4Q0.
Cascas, the river, ii. 426.
Castello de la Plana, the town of, i. 284.
Castile, the river, iii. 5.
Castile, New, iii. 56. Erected into a kingdom, 6l. Its popu
lation, 294. Agriculture, 296. Manufactures, 301. Com
merce, 304. Roads, inns, &c. 305. Natural history, 307.
Sciences and arts, 312. Character, manners, language,
&c; &c. 320.
-.  , Old, iii. 1. Population, 42, Agriculture, 43. Manu
factures, 47. Commerce, ib. Roads, inns, canals, 49,
Natural history, ib. Sciences and arts, 52. Character,
manners, language, &c. 53.
Castro, the river, ii. 12.
-, a mountain, ih 481 ,
Castro-oro, a castle, ii. 453.
Castro Pol, the town of, ii. 411.
— -- Vite, ii. 448. a A 4 Castro

360 INDEX.
Castro Urdcales, the town of, ii. 389.
Catalonia, the province of, i. 1. Population, 104. Agricul
ture, 106. Manufactures, ill. Commerce, II 6. Roads
and inns, 122. Natural history, 123. Sciences and arts,
126. Character, manners, language, 129.
Catarocha, the village of, i. 174.
Cattle, iv. 61.
Cauca, or Caprison, the town of, the birth-place of Theodosius.
See Galicia.
Cauda, the river, iii. 58.
Caudette, the town of, i. 165.
Cavalry, Spanish, iv. 464.
Cavalleros, noble soldiers, attendant on the king, ii. 462.
Cavanas, ii. 439.
Cava Perella, a grotto, in the island of Minorca, iii. 468.
Cayar, the river, iii. 5.
Cazalle, the town of, ii. 2.
Cazlonar, ii. 113.
Cea, the town of, iv. 448.
Cea, the river, ii. 466.
Cebolla, the town of, iii. 210,243.
Cebrero, a village, ii. 429.
Cebret, a mountain in Galicia, ii. 46 1,
Ceclavin, the ancient town of, i. 368.
Celada, the village, iii. 22.
Celanon, a town in Galicia, ii. 426.
Cellars, common, without the villages, ii. 451.
Celtiberia, ii. 239. iii. 56.
Celtiberians, or Celtiberes, ii. 239, 1
CelticumrPromontorium, ii. 454,
Celts, the, ii. 400.
Cenia, the river, i. 87.
Cerdete, ii. 448.
Ceremonies and festivals (Public) v, 325.
Cerindote, the village of, iii. 245.
Cervera, the village of, its silk manufactures,, iii. 233. Cervera,

INDEX. 361
Cervera, the town of, i. 74.
Ceuta, iii. 403.
Chalba the river, i. 138.
Chamber of the Indies, iv. 44.9.
Chapel of Muzaraba, at Toledo, iii. 2&5.
' Character, general, of the Spaniards, v. 271.
Character, peculiar, of the Andalusians, ii. 148. The Ara-
gonese, ii 308. The Asturians, ii. 419 Biscayans, ii. 381.
Of the inhabitants of Cadiz, ii. 77- Of the Castilians (New),
iii. 320. Castilians (Old), iii. 53. Catalonians, i. i 29. Es-
tremadurians, i. 3S4. Galicians, ii. 402. Of the natives
of Leon, ii. 511. Of La Mancha, iii. 351. Of the Ma-
jorcans, iii. 44g. Minorcans, iii. 470. Murcians, ii. 230.
Valencians, i. 332.
Charlemagne, ii. 312.
Charles III. of Spain, iii. £3, 302.
 IV. iii. 73, 302.
 V. removes his court to Madrid, iii. 7-
Chiclana, ii. 79-
Chinchilla, a castle, ii. 162.
Chiva, the village of, i. 142.
Christianos Viegos, the meaning of the appellation, ii. 462.
Christobal, a convent, iii. 475.
Cid, Rodrigo Dias, (surnamed the) i. 176. His daughters, ii.
472.
Cidaco, the river, ii. 315, 324.
Cigarros, how made, iv. 863.
Cinca, the river, ii. 247.
Ciudad-Real, the town of, iii. 340.
Ciudad-Rodrigo, the city of, ii. 505.
Ciudadella, the town of, iii. 46 1 .
Clergy, Spanish. See Administration, Ecclesiastical.
Climate of Spain, v. 26I.
Cloth, Spanish, iv. 310.
Codesas, ii. 447.
Codrill, a small island, iii. 465. Collado,

36% INDEX.
Collado, the village of, ii. 501.
Colleges, the principal. See Salamanca.
Colonia, the island of, iii. 464.
" Colonia, an ancient town, iii. 432.
Colonies, Spanish", iv. 400. Exportation, 404. Importation,
405. Finances, 528.
 in Spain. See Sierra Morena.
Colubria, the island of, iii. 440.
Colubraria, the island of, iii. 479»
Columbrez, tbe town of, ii. 401.
Columbria, the island of, iii. 43.
•«-i  , the port of, iii. 433.
Comarca de Lemps,.a small province, ii. 458.
Comedies, Spanish. See Theatre.
Commerce, Spanish, iv. 372. Its decline, 374. Revival, 377.
 , internal, 381. External, 391.
¦  with Europe, iv. 3g.I. With America. See
each province, under its proper head.
Complutan, an ancient town, iii. 80.
Compostella, the city of, ii. 431.
Concejo, a municipal council, ii. 410.
Concha, the village of, remarkable for the petrifactions found
in its neighbourhood, iii. 68.
Concordat of 1753, v. 24,
Ccnjera, the island of, iii. 43g, 4"Q.
Conjosta, the village of, ii. 470,:
Conia, a small river, i. 292.
Constitution, physical, of Spain, v. 26l.
 ¦  = — the Spaniards, v. 265.
Consuegra, the town of, iii. 339.
Contadores, account of the, iv. 456.
Contestant an ancient people of Murcia, ii. 153.
Contractation, a remarkable building at Palma, Si. 421.
Copper, manufacture of, iv. 357- Mines, See Mines.
Coral, iii. 468.
Corbuto, ii. 23, Cordova,

INDEX. 363

Cordova, tlie kingdom of, ii. 22.
Cordova, the town of, ii. 24. Its environs, 38.
Corella, a town in Navarre, ii. 328.
Coria, the city of, i. 36g.
Corn, police relating to, iv. 87-
Corral de Almaguer, the town of, iii. 331,
Cortes of Castile, iii. 63.
 held at Toledo, iii. 251.
Corunna, the town of, ii. 43 i.
Costumes of the Spaniards, v. 307,
Cotton manufactures, iv. 350.
Council of Castile, iv. 448,
 of State, iv. 453.
<  of Finance, iv. 452,
 of War, iv. 452.
*  of the Indies, iv. 44g. v. 54.
Countries of Spain, (little known) iii. 352.
Criados Mayores, described, v. 296.
Crystal Rock, iii. 469.
Cudillero, a port in the Asturias, ii. 402.
Cuellar, the town and palace of, iii. 40.
Cuenca, the city of, iii. 1 92.
Cuerpo de Hombre, the river, ii. 492.
Cultivation, peculiar methods of, iv. 100.
Curado, the river, ii. 413.
Custom-houses, ii. 360. iv.
Cnyar, the riverj i. 338, ii. 12, D.
Dances, Spanish, v. 252.
Daroca, the town of, ii. 274,
Date, fruit, iv. 90.
Debt, national, iv. 527-
Delpico, ii. 501.
Del Sotillo, the village of, ii. 501.
Denia, the city of, iii. 474,

P«va,

/
354, INDEX.
Deva, the river, ii. 413.
Deya, the colony of, iii. 438.
Division, political, of Biscay, ii. 342.
Dragonera, the island of, iii. 440.
Dragoons, Spanish, iv. 465.
Duero, the river, ii. 468. iii. 5.
Duenas, the village, iii. 23.
Duenas, a village, ii. 471.
Dueraton, the river, iii. 5.
Dnlcenia del Toboso, iii. 333.
Durango, the town of, ii. 355.
Duraton, the river, iii. 5. E.
Ebro, the river, i. 89. iii. 5.
Ebura, the town of, iii. 212.
Ebusas, the isle of, iii. 474.
Eche-jaunes, account of them, ii. 342. -\
Ecija, the town of, ii. 60.
Ecluse, the village of, i. 2.
Edera, an ancient town, i. 260.
Education in Guipuzcoa, ii. 380,
Ega, the river, ii. 315.332.
Eirga, or Iregua, the river, iii. 5.
El-carpio, a village, ii. 23.
Elche, the town of, i. 1 50.
Elda, the town of, i. 161.
, a river, i. 162.
Eldana, an ancient town, its supposed site, iii. 22.
Embroidered stuff in gold and silver, iv. 346.
Emerita Augusta. See Merida.
Emerita, the town of, ii. 406.
Emeritenses, the colony of, where placed, i. 348.
Emposta, the town of, i. 87.
Encarnaciones, in Biscay, ii. 394, Entire-

INDEX. 365
Entre-Duoro-y-Mino, the name of a Portuguese province ad
joining Galicia, ii. 421.
Entrigadores, judges of the privileges of the Mesta, iv. 140.
Eo, the river, commonly called Rio de Miranda, ii. 424.
Erese, an ancient town, iii. 475.
Eresma, the river, ii. 466. iii. 34.
Erustes, the village of, iii. 244.
Escrivanos (writers), their office, v. 64.
Escurial, the village of, iii. 1 40.
 , the royal residence, iii. 144. The church, 146.
The monastery, ib. The library, 147. Treasures cf the
church, 153.
Espardenyas, a kind of shoes made of cord, v., 3 10.
Esperias, the village of, iii. 32.
Espinardo, the village of, ii. 176.
Esporlas, a town of Majorca, iii. 437.
Estallens, in Majorca, iii, 437.
Estela, the city of, ii. 327.
Estessa, a village, ii. 85.
Estepar, the village of, iii. 22.
Estepona, the town of, iii. 373.
Establishments, military, iv. 457.
 , charitable, multiplied in Spain, iii. 100.
Estremadura, the province of, i. 337. Statistical account of,
375. Population, ib. Agriculture, 377. Manufactures
and commerce, 379- Roads, &c. 380. Natural history,
381. Arts and sciences, 383. Character, manners, lan
guage, &c. 384.
Eu-me, the river, ii. 425.
Evaric, the Gothic king, i. 4.
Euric, the Gothic king, i. 4.
Euric, or Evaric, ii. 93.
Exla, the river, ii. 466.
Exportations, iy. 404.

Fandango,

366 I N D E X.

Fandango, the dance, so named, v. 257-
Felanexi, orFalonichi, the town of, iii. 425.
Ferarias, the village of, in Minorca, iii. 45§. ,
Ferdinand, St. king of Spain, iii. 26l.
i  , the Second, king of Leon, iii. "63.
 , the fifth, king of Aragon, dismembers the kingdom
of Navarre, ia. 313. His treaty with Louis the Twelfth, of
France, 317.
 =  , VI. king of Spain, the founder of the church qf

the Visitation at Madrid, iii. 1 10.
Fernan Cavellero, the town of, iii. 33J).
Ferrol, the town of, ii. 439>
Festivals, public, v. 325.
Fidelity of the Spaniards, v. 274.
Figs, iv. 92.
Figueras, or Figuieras, the town of, i. II.
Finances, iv, 503. Land revenues, 504. Righ'tsof the chan
cery, 508. Imposts on the clergy, 511. Direct taxes, 514.
General rents, 518. Separate taxes, 522. In the colonies,
528. Mexico, 533. Account of receipts and disburse
ments, in 1791, 377.
Finisterre, Cape, ii. 423, 454.
¦  '  , the town of, ii. 426.
Flaviobrjea, an ancient town, ii. 356.
Flavium, Brigantinum, the town of, ii. 434.
Flax, iv.67.
Floque, part of the female dress, so called, iii. 471.
Flores, the village of, iii. 66. '
Fluvia, the river, i. 13.
Fonfrias, a village, ii. 429.
Fons Rapidus, ii. 348.
Fontarabia, ii. 348. Dress of the young women of this can
ton, 349.
Fortiduena, iii. 188.
Forests. See Plantations. Eornella,

INDEX. S67
Fornella, the cape and port of, iii. 464.
Fort St. Philip, iii. 457-
Forum Julium. See Anduxar.
Fraga, the town of, ii. 246.
Franqueyra, ii. 447.
Fresneria, a country house, iii. 155.
Fretum Herculeum, or Gaditanum, iii. 3/8.
Friuli. See Oviedo.
Fromentera, the island of, iii. 478.
Fromista, ii. 4/0.
Fruits, iv. 91.
Fuencaral, the town of, iii. 156.
Fuen-Saldana, the village of, iii. 29.
Fuente Duenas, the village of, iii. 1/8.
Fuente Nanza, the town of, ii. 401.
Fuente dela Higuera, the town of, i. 166.
Fuente Palmera, ii. 4.
Fuente de la Piedra, ii. 96.
Fueros, the term explained, ii. 243-
G.
Galego, the river, ii. 250.
Galira, the isle of, iii. 465.'
Galicia, the kingdom of, ii. 421. A statistical account of,
4.'.'6. Population, ib. Agriculture, ib. Manufactures and
commerce, 458. Natural history, 460. Character, man
ners, language, &c. 462.
Galicians, the first poets of Spain, ii. 463.
Gall, insect, iv. 91.
Gallegos, Spanish water-carriers, mostly Galicians, iv. 23.
Gallejos, a village of Galicia, ii. 42Q,
Gallicia Flaria, ii. 246. <
Galocanta, a salt lake, ii. 2 J 6.
Gambeto, v. 311.
Garganta de Pancorvo, iii. 12.
Gargantilia, the village of, ii. 430.
Gata, the mountain of, ii. 496. Gaya,

30* INDEX.
Gaya, the river, iii. 58. /
Gebel, signifies in the Arabic, mountain, iii. 378.
Gemano, the colony of, ii. 502.
Gesta, ii. 448.
Getafe, or Getane, iii. 173.
Gibraltar, its etymology, iii. 378. The Straits of, 379. The
town of, 38J. Its commerce, 389. Population, 391.
Police, 392.
Gijon, port town of, ii. 409.
Gijuela, a small river, iii. 326, 343.
Gineta, the village of, i. 173. ii.' 159.
Gironna, the city of, i. 13. Its history, 14. Councils held
there, 16.
Gitanos, the rock of, ii. 504.
Gitanos, or Gypsies, iii. 3_57»
Glass manufactories, iii. 167. 304.
Gold mines, v. 336.
Golilla, a kind of sword, v. 308.
Gondomar, a town of Galicia, ii. 446.
Gorveya, a mountain in Biscay, ii. 332.
Goths, in Spain. See the general Introduction.
Government, iv. 443.
Graccuris, an ancient town. See Agreda.
Grain, grown in Spain, iv. 8'3.
Granada, the kingdom of, ii. 86.
— — — , the city of, ii. 97. Its situation, 98. Description
of, ICO. Population, 98. Commerce and manufactures,
107.
Granja, the village of, ii. 490.
 , the palace of, iii. 157-
Gras, the port of, i. 256.
Grazalema, ii. 86.
Greeks, in Spain, ii. 463.
Gremios, described, v. 53.
Grijota, a village, ii. 470.
Grotto, at Daroca, ii. 275. Guadlaviar,

INDEX. 369
Guadalaviar, the river, i. 138. ii. 238.
Guadalaxera, the town of, iii. 74.
Guadalianal, the town of, ii. 2.
Guadalette, the river, ii. 66.
Guadalimar, the river, ii. 113.
Guadal Medina, the river, iii. 364.
Guadalentin, the river, ii. 196.
Guadalquivir, the river, ii. 3.
Guadarrama, the mountains of, iii. 32.
¦—, the river, iii. 58, 206.
, village of, iii. 65.
Guadiana, the river, iii. 58. Remarkable for its disappear
ance in its course, iii. 339.
Guadiar, the river, iii. 375.
Guadiato, the river, ii. 12.
Guadeira, the river, iii. 58, 375.
Guadella, the village of, ii. 504.
Guardavar, the river, ii. 152,
Guarena, the village of, ii. 502.
Guayaro, iii. 375.
Guazaon, the river, iii. 58.
Guecaro, the river, iii. 58. |
Guipuzcoa, the canton of, ii. 333. Its privileges, 340. Its
division into partidos, unions, and alcaldias, 342. Its his
tory, 343.
Gypsies. See Gitanos. H.
Hemp, iv. 88.
Henarez, the river, iii. 5, 58, 79.
Hercules, the town of, ii. 438.
•  , the pillars of, iii. 378.
Hermani, a small town, ii. 348.
Heroism of the women pf Taragonna, ' i. 8.
Herrira-Pisuegra, the town of, ii. 470.
toi. v. is Herrerias,

370 INDEX.
Herrerias, a borough, ii. 42g.
Hesperia, a name given by the ancients to Spain. See the
Introduction.
Hidalgos, the nobles, v. 67.
Hinojoso, the village of, iii. 9,
Honey, iv. 90.
Horses, Spanish, iv. 63,
Huelves, iii. 90.
Huerta, or plain of Valencia, i. 141.
Huesca, the city of, ii. 307,
Hueta, the town of, iii, 190.

Iberia, a name given to Spain. See Introduction.
Ibora. See Ebura.
Idella, the Moorish name of Elda, i. 161.
Idubeda, a mountain, now known by the name of Occa, ii.
423. and iii. 3.
Iqualada, the town and plain olf, i. 73.
Ildefonso, St. the royal palace of, iii. 167,
Ilerda, an ancient town, i. 80.
Bergetes, a people so called, ii. 246.
Ilia, a river of Galicia, ii, 424.
Illescas, the town of, iii. 1 74.
Illiberi, or Irriberi, an ancient town, ii. 386.
Illicitani, an ancient district of Spain, i. 153.
Illipula, ii. 386.
Illergis, or Illiturges, an ancient town. See Forum Juliun*
Illurco, an ancient town, ii. 386.
Imposts charged on the clergy, iv. 511. v. 30.
Inca, a town of Majorca, iii. 429.
Infantry of the line, iv. 467.
—  , light, iv. 468.
Infanzonado, meaning of the term, ii. 346.
Iniesta, a small town, iii. 201. Inquisition,

INDEX. 371
Inquisition, account of, v. 1, 20. not detrimental to the pro
gress of science, 23.'
Irati, the river, ii. 315.
Irrigation, iv. 30.
Iran, or Iron, the town of, ii. 348.
Isanza, the river, ii. 332.
Isidore, St. the patron of Madrid. See Madrid.
Islas de Seyas-de-Bayone, and Estelas, ii. 446.
Ituressa. See Tolosa.
Ivica, the isle of, iii. 474. Its port, 476. Government,
478.

Jaco, the river, iii. 58.
Jaen, the kingdom bf, ii. 108.
— — , the city of, ii. 115.
Jago, St. de Compostella, in Galicia, ii. 431.
Jalon. See Xalpn, ii. 283.
Jamna, the ancient town of, iii. 461.
Jarama, the river, iii. 186.
Jaraycejo, an ancient town, i. 342.
Javalon, a small river, iii. 326.
Jaya, the river, i. 98.
Jixera, tlie river, iii. 332.
Joanna, queen of Spain, the place of her death, ii. 482.
Jucar, the river, i. 171-
Jumilla, an ancient castle, ii. 167.
—— — , a small town, ii. 167.
Junquera, i. 9.
Junta de Guerra, iv. 451.
Justicia Mayor, or the grand justice of Aragon, ii. 242.
Juvia, the river, ii. 425.

Kermes, or gall insect, iii. 67. iv. 91.
b b 2 Lacitani,

373 INDEX.

Lacitani, the, ii. 23g. ~r
Lake, a subterranean, iii. 468.
Lagtera, the river, iii. 5.
La Granja, the royal mansion. See Granja.
La Guardia, the town of, iii. 338.
Lagunas. See Guadiana.
Laiglesetta, the village of, iii. 437.
La Landrove, the river, ii. 426.
La Mancha. See Mancha.
La Mina, the marquis of, the founder of Barcelonetta, i. 66.
La Mota del Cuervo, an ancient town, iii. 333.
Lancia, an ancient Roman town, i. 37 1 -
Lanenjo, a town of Alava, ii. 333.
Language, Spanish, v. 220.
— — — , of Biscay, ii. 385,
Lantadilla, the village of, ii. 470.
Langas, v. 83.
Laredo, the town of, ii. 377.
La Rioja, the territory of, iii. 2.
La Roda, the town of, iii. 336.
- Las Batuecas, the country of, iii. 353.
Las Cazas del Puerto, remarkable for its fruits, ii. 401.
Las Figas, the river, ii. 1 1 .
Las Navas, the castle of, ii. 6.
Lavilla, the river, ii. 12.
Lawrence, St. the Martyr, the Escurial dedicated to him, iii.
. 144.
Laws of Spain, v. 55.
- Leon, v. 58.
 Navarre, v. 57.
. . code of Ferdinand, v. 59,
Layre de Mahon, the isle of, iii. 465.
Lead mines, v. 338.
Lebrilla, the town of, ii. 193. Ledesma,

INDEX. i7%
Ledesma, the town of, ii. 510.
Ledigos, a village, ii. 47*.
Legartos, a colony, ii. 474.
Jiegio Septima Germanica, ii. 473.
Lemos, the county of, ii. 463.
Leon, the isle of, ii. 67 .
¦ , the kingdom of, ii. 4w4. Its population, 509. Agri
culture, ib. Manufactures and .commerce, ib. Mineral
waters, 510. Character, manners, &c. of the inhabitants,
ib.
— — , the town of, ii. 474.
Le Prat, an unwholesome pool, iii, 424.
Lerida, the city of, i. 80. Remarkable councils held at, 81.
Lescan, a valley in Navarre, ii. 315.
Lezara, the river, ii. i>5.
Libraries, public, v. 140.
¦ of the Escurial, iii. 147.
Liebana, or the Five Vallies, ii. 414.
" , the territory of, iii. 2.
Limia, the river, ii. 425.
Linarez, the town of, ii. 108, 112.
Liria, the town of, i. 260.
Literature, Spanish, v. 154.
Llanes, the town of, ii. 412.
Llobregat, the river, i. 11, 70.
Lluch-Mayor, iii. 424.
Lluch, a collegiate church of Majorca, iii. 430.
Loeches, the village of, iii. 142.
Lor, the river, ii. 42.5.
Lorca, the town of, ii. 197,
Lorenzana, Cardinal, his liberality, iii. 341.
Lorez, the river, ii. 424.
Lorqui, a valley, ii. 171.
Los Reynos, iii. 124.
Louis le Debonnaire, ii. 312.
Louis, the river, ii, 461. B B 3 Leuzana,

37* INDEX.
Louzana, the fountain of, ii. 46l.
Loxa, the town of, ii. 97.
Lozoya, the river, iii: 58.
Luarca, the town of, ii. 412,
Lucus Asturum, ii. 406.
Lucus Augusti, ii. 429.
Luganes, ii. 409.
Lugo, the city of, ii. 42g. Its tepid waters, 430.
Luisiana, the colony of, ii. 41.
Luvean, the village of, ii. 450,

M.

Madder, iv. 89.
Madrid, iii. 87. Its origin, 88. Description of, 01. Popu
lation, 92. Clergy, 98. Hospitals, 100. Administration
and police, 102. Academtes, 104. Libraries, 105. Cu
rious edifices, 106. Royal palace, 11 7, Buen Retiro, 122,
Promenades, 125. Theatres, 131. Climate, 133. En«
¦ virons, 138. ,
Madrigal, the colony of, ii. 503.
Madrilejos, the town of, iii. 342.
Maestranza, a body of nobility, i. 234,
Majou, the ancient town of, it present state, iii. 453.
Mahon. See Port Mahon.
'Maize, where cultivated, iv. 85.
Majorca, the island of, description of iii. 416, Population,
440. Agriculture, 442. Commerce, 444. Carriages, 447,
Natural History, 448. Character and language of the in*
habitants, 449.
Majos, or Majas, character of the people so called, iii. 363,
Malaga, the town of, ii. 88.
Malagon, the village of, iii. 33g. "
Malgrat, the village of, ii. 21 .
Malgrat del Toro, the isle pf, iii. 438. Malpartida,

INDEX. j;S
Malpartida, the town of, i. 362.
¦ ¦¦, the village of, ii. 501.
Manacor, in Majorca, iii. 425.
Mancha, la, the province of, iii. 325. Population, 344. Agri
culture, ib. Manufactures, 346. Commerce, 3-*7. Roads,
&c, ib. Natural History, 348. Mineral waters, 34g. State
of the arts and sciences in, 350. Character, &c. of the in
habitants, 35 1 .
Mandro, a river in Galicia, ii. 425, 434.
Mangonegro, the town of, ii. 39.
Manilva, its excellent wines, iii. 375.
Manisez, a village, i. 256.
Manseret, the town of, ii. 401.
Mansilba, the town of, ii. 474.
Mantela, a kind of veil, v. 317.
Mantua Carpetanorum, iii, 88.
t Manufactures of Spain, iv. 320. Cloths, 340. Silks, 344.
Embroidered stuffs, 346. Hemp and linen cloth, 347.
Cotton, 350. Leather, 352. Paper, 353. Porcelain, 354.
Brandy, 355. Beer, 356. Aquafortis, ib. Salt of lead, ib.
Copper and iron, 357- Glass, 359. Soap, ib. Hats, 360.
Naval stores, ib. Arms, ib. Tobacco, 301. Wax, 365.
Potash, ib. Inlaid work, ib. Tapestry, ib. Playing cards,
366. Spart, ib. Sugar, ib.
¦  , local, see each place under its proper head,
Manzanarez, the river, iii. 58.
— —  — , the town of, iii. 343.
Maqueda, the town of, iii. 208.
Maragatos, the people so called, iii. 354.
Marbella, the river, ii. 11.
Margueritas, the isle of, iii. 480.
Marriages, Spanish. See characters, manners, &c.
. of the Jews at Gibraltar, iii. 394.
¦  Valencians, i. 237.
JMarine, the royal, iv. 480. Its forces, ib. Administration, 483.
B B 4 port

376 INDEX.
port service, 485. Arsenals, 487- Hospitals, 4go. State
of the shipping, in 1793» &•
Martin, cape, iii. 474.
Martin del Rio, the village of, ii. 504.
Martin Munoz, iii, 31.
Martorell, i. 71.
Martos, the town of, ii. 109. Its rock and castle, ib.
Marvelle, the town of, iii. 367. Cultivation of the sugar cane
in the neighbourhood of, 368.
Marzalquivir, the town of, iii.' 406.
Masdue, i. 1.
Maside, the town of, ii. 448.
Masmorras, caverns, see Granada.
Masman, a village, i. 25. *
Mass of Aglnaldo, iii. 238.
Mataro, the town of, i. 22.
Maurcgates, account of the, ii. 428.
Mausella, ii. 427.
Mayago, a village, iii. 1 2.
Mayoral, the chief of the shepherds, iv. 53.
Mayorazgos, the principles of, v. 105.
Medcana, a beautiful valley in Leon, ii. 465.
Medicine, state of, in Spain, v. 144. Establishment relating,
to, ib. Mode of studying, ib. Police relating to, 146,
Late revolution respecting, 150.
Medina del Campo, the city of, ii. 483.
Medina del Rio Seco, the city of, ii. 480.
Mejorada, the village of, iii. 141, 187-
Melila, iii. 406.
Mellid, a town of Galicia, ii. 426,
Mena, the valley of, iii. 4.
Menascum, ii. 352.
Mercadal, the town of, iii. 45g. «
Mercury, mines of, v. 340.
Merida, the city of, i. 347, Merindades,

INDEX. 37,7
Merindades, what, ii. 314.
Merinos, the term explained, iv. 47,
Mesanara, a village, i. .' 74.
Mesones, the term explained, iii. 136.
Messana, the colony of, ii. 334.
Mesta, the account of, iv. lp, 51. Its privileges, 140.
Methymna-Campestris, ii. 483.
Mierez, the town of, ii. 401 .
Mijarez, the river, i. 282.
Militia, provincial. Urbanas, iv. 472.
Military administration. See Administration, military.
Millas, the river, i. 138.
Millones, a kind of tax, iv. 521.
Minarez, the river, ii. 238.
Minarja, the town of, iii. 335.
Minglanella, remarkable for its salt pits, iii. 181, SOL
Ministers of state, Spanish, iv. 451.
Minium, vermillion, ii. 425.
Mino, the river, ii. 425.
Minorca, the island of, description of, iii. 452. Agriculture
and commerce, 465. Natural history, 468. Antiquities,
472.
Minorcans, the character, &c. iii. 470.
Miraflores, the monastery of, iii. 20.
Miranda de Ebro, ii. 367- iii. 11,
Mirobriga, an ancient town, ii. 505.
Molar, the village of,.iii. 156.
Molina, the town of, ii. 172,
— — — , the river, iii. 58,
Molins de Rey, the town of, i. 11. -
Monasterio, the village of, iii. 14.
Moncada, an ancient town in Valencia, i. 253,
Mondonedo, the Sierra, ii. 423.
— —  , the city of, ii. 452. '
Mondragon, the town of, ii. 35 j. Mongai*

378 INDEX.
Mongal, a village and castle, i. 25.
Mons Idubea, iii. 4.
Mont Cayo, ii. 238.
Monterrey, the town of, ii. 426.
Montforte, the town of, i. 15 9.
 ¦  de Lemos, the town of, ii. 420.
Montjouy, a fort, i. 65.
Mont-Seni, i, 4.
Mont Serrat, i. 71.'
Mont Toro, the highest ground in Minorca, iii, 46ft.
Mont Sant Agatha, and chapel, iii. 460.
Montealegre, the borough of, ii. 480.
Montecanugo. See Pyrenees,
Montejo, iii. 3 1 .
Montera, an article of dress, v. 311.
Montesa, the order of, i. 169.
Montes Mariani, iii. 326.
Montes Orospodani, iii. 56.
Montona, its excellent wine, iii. 434.
Montuenga, the village of, iii. 31.
Montuyri, a town of Majorca, iii. 425, 428.
Monubles, the river, iii. 5.
Moors the, conquer Spain, ii, 67. Erect the kingdom ©f
Murcia, 154.
Moriscos, a town in the territory of Salamanca, ii. 502.
Moscas, the river, iii. 58, 1 96.
Mostoles, the village, iii. 206.
Motilla, the village of, iii. 17§,
Mulcts, iv. 62.
Munda, the town of, ii, 86. iii. 381. *
Munoechas, the village of, ii. 502.
Munopepe, the colony of, ii. 502.
Marana, the village of, ii. 502.
Marcia, the kingdom of, ii. 151. Population, 212. Agri
culture, 213. Manufactures, 210. Roads, inns, &e. 224.
NaturaJ

INDEX* 379
Natural history, 225. Climate, 228. State of the arts and
sciences in, ib. Character, language, &c. of the inhabitants,
S30.
Murcia, the city of, ii. 173.
Muro, a town of Majorca, ii. 42g.
Muros, a town of Galicia, ii. 424, 555.
Murviedro, the town of, i. 275.
—  , the river, i. 138.
Musa, the Arab chief, i. 34g. ii. J 55.
Music, of the Spaniards, v. 247.
Mutachel, the river, i. 338.
Muzarabic Christians, v. 7.

N.

Nalon, the river, ii. 405.
Narros, the village of, ii. 502.
Natural history of Spain, v. 322.
 local. See the different provinces, under their
proper heads.
¦  , observation on the vegetable, "animal, and

mineral kingdoms, v. 332. Gold mines, 336. Ditto of
silver, ib. Copper, 337. Lead, 338. Iron, ib. Ditto of
antimony, 33g. Cobalt, ib. Of mercury, 341. Inflam
mable minerals, 340. Mineral salts, 341. Earthy minerals,
342. Salt springs and marshes, 343. Mineral waters, 344.
Composition of some mountains of Spain, 344.
Naval administration, iv. 483.
Navallo, the colony of, ii. 450.
Nayamiel, the colony of, ii. 4g0.
Navarre, the kingdom of, ii. 311. Its money, 314. Popu
lation, 326. Agriculture, ib. Manufactures, 327, Com-
merce, 328. Natural history, ib. State of the arts and
sconces in, 32;?. Character, &c. of the inhabitants, 330.
Navasfrias, the village of, ii. 490.
Navazoj the riyer, i. 338. Naveros,

580 INDEX,
Naveros, the village of, ii. 470. ,
Navias, the river, ii, 411.
Navia, the town and port of, 411. Origin of its name, 412.
Navigation, internal, iv. 435.
Na-zerilla, tLe river, iii. 5.
Nerium, an ancient name given to Cape Finisterre, ii. 455.
— — — , the town of, ii. 455*.
Neveda, the Sierra, ii. 15. iii. 381.
Nobility, the Spanish, their origin, v. 67-
Nomination to benefices, v. 26.
Nora, the river, ii. 406. ,
Novelda, the town of, i. 159. v
Novez, the town of, iii. 208.
Noya, the river, i. 72.
Nulez, the town of, i. 280.
Numantia-, the town of, ii. 421.
Nunes, the village of, ii. 502.
Nuts, where found, iv. 92.

O.

Obrega, the river, ii. 466.
Ocana, the town of, iii. 328. , .
Ocaso, an ancient town, ii. 349. , '
Occa, the mountains of, iii. 12.
— — , the river of, iii. 13. ?!
Ognate, a borough and county, ii. 344.
Oja, the river, iii. 5.
Oil, iv. 93.
Oliana, the river, iii. 58.
Olias, the town of, iii. 175.
Oliena, the river, i. 138.
Oliva, the town of, ii. 4p0.
Olivarez, the village of, iii. 179-
Olives, iv, 93.
Olmedilla, the village of, iii, 198, Olmede,

INDEX. 381
Olmedo, the town and territory of, iii. 30.
Omos de Pisuegra, ii. 470.
Onda, the village of, i. 282.
Onis, the town of, ii. 413.
Ophiuse, the isle, where supposed to have been situated, iii.
440.
Oquenda, the colony of, ii. 334.
Ora, the river, iii. 5.
Oran, in Africa, iii. 406.
Orders, royal and military, v. 92. In Castile, iii. 64.
 , religious and military in 1788, v. 100.
Ordogno II. takes the title of king of Leon, ii. 468.
Orduna, tlie town of, ii. 36'Q.
Orense, the city of, ii. 449.
Oritani, an ancient people, ii. 56.
Oria, the river, m. 362.
Orihuela, the city of, i. 144. Delivered from pillage by
Belluga, bishop of Murcia, 169.
Ortegal, cape and town, ii. 437, 454.
Orvigo, the river, ii. 485.
Osornillio, the village, ii. 470.
Osorno, the village, ii. 470.
Our Lady of the Pillar, the church of, ii. 262.
 of del Puerto, ii. 489-
1  of Sonanes, i. 101.
 di Val-de Xemina, ii. 501 .
 of Victory, ii. 472.
Ove, the river, ii. 406.
Oviedo, the kingdom of, its foundation, ii. 406. iii. 6l.
 , the city of, ii. 405. P.
Padiernos, the colony of, ii. 502.
Padron, a town of Galicia, ii. 42.
Painting, the art of, in Spain, v. 239- Palacios,

352 INDEX.
Palacios, the town of, ii. 480.
Palencia, the city of, ii. 468.
— i  , the river, i. 263.
Palma, a hamlet, i. 103.
— — — -, a town of Majorca, iii. 41 7«
Palm-trees, iv. 90.
Palomera, or Palumberia, the town of, iii. 433.
Pampeluna, the. capital of Navarre, ii, 318.
Pancorvo, the mountain, iii. 12. ¦
Pandero, a musical instrument, a kind of tambourin, ii. 54 1,
iii. 237.
Pantheon, the sepulchres of the kings, iii. 153.
Paper manufacture, iv. 353.
Parades, the town of, ii. 470.
Paradella, ii. 480.
Pardo, the, a royal palace near-Madrid, iii. 140. ,
Paredes, the village of, iii. 9.
Pariegos, v. 284.
Parientes Mayores, the appellation explained, ii. 342-
Partidos, the term explained, ii. 342.
Passa, a village, i. 1.
Pastones, the kingdom of, in Spain, iii. 335.
Pastures, iv. 67.
Paz, the river, iii. 5.
Paziegos, the inhabitants of the valley of Paz, iii. 4.
Pedernuso, the village of, iii. 334.
Pedronera, an ancient town, iii. 334.
Pedroso, the town of, ii. 503.
Pelagius, prince, escapes from the Moors, ii. 403. Restores
the reign of the Christian monarchs in Spain, 467>
Penafort, the town of, ii. 401. , (
Penalve, the village, ii. 208.
Penon de Alhuzemas, iii. 405.
— — - de Velez, iii. 405,
Teople of Spain little known, iii, 352.
Persies, the village, iii, 137., Petra,

INDEX. 383
Petra, a town of Majorca, iii. 42S.
Pescaria, or Pexaria, ii. 435.
Pheasants, the isle of, ii. 317.
Phenicians in Spain, ii. 435.
Philip JI. king of Spain, his throne, iii. 122. His equestrian
statue, 123.
•  III. his equestrian statue, 139.
— — - IV. built Bueno Retiro, iii. 123.
Piedrafita, the mountain, ii. 478.
Piedrahita, the town of, ii. 501.
Piera, a village, i. 72.
Pigna, ii. 470.
Pilgrims of St. James of Compostella, ii. 432, 485.
Pilona, the river, ii, 401, 418.
Pineda, the mountain, iii. 59.
 , the village of, i. 21.
Pinella, the village, ii. 500.
Pinto, the town of, iii. 169.
Pisuerga, the river, ii. 466. iii. 5.
Pitiegua, the' village of, ii. 503.
Pityuse islands, iii. 409, 474.
Placencia, a town of Guipuscoa, ii. 334.
Plantations, iv. 68.
Plasencia, the town of, i. 363.
Playa de Andres Zarr, a noted plain, ii. 322.
Poetry, Spanish, v. 165. Two kinds of yerse, I87. Ro
mances, ib.
Poets, Spanish, the Galicians the first, ii. 165.
Ponenza, a town of Majorca, iii. 432.
Pollestras, the village of, i. 1 .
Pompecopolis, an ancient town, ii. 318.
Ponferrada, the town of, ii. 428. Its ruined castle, ib.
Pontevedra, the town of, ii. 442.
Popia, the mountain, iii. 440.
Population, general, of Spain, iv. 3. 1 Population,

384 INDEX.
Population, local. See the.different placet under their proper
heads.
Porcelain manufactures, iv. 354.
Porma, the river, ii. 474.
Porrino, ii. 447. ' .. ¦.
Pbrreras, a town of Majorca, iii. 425, 428«
Porta Celi, the monastery of, i. 259. .. ',;
Port Miahon, ii. 453. . .. .;• -; ,.
Port Passage, ii. 350i !•,
Porte Novo, ii. 426. ,; , ,•.';
Porte Zuelo, the town of, ii. 412. - i
Porto Marin, ii. 426.
Ports, the commercial, of Spain, iv. 412. • : \ ;
Port Velezar, ii. 426. \- :v,t\\ ' i
Portugulette Grass, ii. 358.
PbrtttS Magnus, ii. 434.
Posadas, the appellation explained, iii. 135. .
Positbs, depots of corn, iv. 87.
Potes, ii. 414. ;,
Poveda, the village of, ii. 502.
Prado, the celebrated parade at Madrid, iii, 126,
Prado Segura, the village of, ii. 502.
Pravia, ii. 401. . ~
Presides of Africa, iii. 401.
Printing, introduced at an early period into Spain, V2-231.
Prison, the state, iii. 114. t '
Processes, remarks on the forms of, v. 6l.
Provencio, the village of, iii. 335.
Peubla, the borough of, In Biscay, U. 367<
 , le, in Majorca, iii. 427.
Pugh, an ancient castle, i. 274.
Puerto la Pice, the village of, iii. 342.
1 de Guadarrama, iii. 32.
 , Real, in the bay of Cadiz, ii. 80.
 — Santa Maria, the town of, ii. 81. Puigpugnent,

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PL. 29

INDEX. 385
Puigpugnent, the village of, iii. 437.
Ptijaroz, or Alcarrazas, meaning of the terms, ii. 1 12.
Punta del Imperador, iii. 474.
Puzol, the town of, i. 274.
Pyrenees, i. 2.

a.

Quarte, the village of, i. 142.
©uartum, i. 143.
Queilas, the river, iii. 5.
Quercus Coccifera, iii. 297.
¦ Ilex, iii. 66.
Quintana de la Puente, the town of, iii. 22.
Quintanillas, the village of, iii. 22.
Quintenar de la Orden, the town of, iii. 332.
Quixotte, don, iii. 333.

R.

Raisins, iv. Q5.
Ramba, a promenade, in Majorca, iii. 418.
Randa, the mountain, iii. 424.
Rapariegos, the village of, iii. 31. ,
Raymond Berenger, count of Barcelona, i. 4.
 Lully, his country, iii. 424.
.  St. of Penafoit, miracle attributed to him, iii. 435.
Rebosilla, a head-dress, iii. 471.
Recopilacion, the term explained, ir. 137.
Redezilla, v. 3 16.
Redonda, the isle of, iii. 439, 45^-
Redondillo, the town of, ii. 446.
Refrescos, account' of, v. 29S.
Regoa, the river, ii. 425.
Reliegc^, the colony of, ii. 474.
Religion of Spain, v. 2.
yol. v. c c Reguegna,

386 INDEX.
Requegna, the town of, iii. 203.
Renteria, the town of, H.-35 1.
Rents, general, iv. 515.
— — - provincial, iv. 518.
Requejo, the village of, ii. 451.
Requena, the plain of, iii. 182.
 -, the town of, iii. 182.
Requescens, the mountain of, i. 4.
Respulde, the colony of, ii. 334.
Reus/ a new colony in Catalonia, i. 106.
Reygosa, the colony of, ii. 45 1 . '
Reansarez, the river, iii. 326.
Ribadavia, the town of, ii. 447.
Ribadeo, the town of, ii. 41 1, 453.
Ribas, the village of, ii. 470. '
Rice, the cultivation of, in Spain', iv. 85.
Rierra, the river, in Majorca, iii. 437- ' ' '
Riva de Sella, ii. 401.
Rivillio, a river in Estremadura, i. 338.
Roads, iv. 424.
— — - o^ Estremadura, i. 380.
— ¦  La Mancha, iii. 347-
. Majorca, iii. 447.
 Murcia, ii. 224.
 Valencia, i. 3 1 7.
Roda, the town of, iii. 336.
Rodericopolis, ah. ancient town, ii. 505.
Roderie, the last Gothic king, ii. 467. iii. 60. Loses his life
near Xeres de la Frontera, ii. 67.
Romans in Spain. In the Introduction.
Romerias, account of, v. 294.
Roncal, the valley of, in Navarre, ii. 315.
Roncevaux, the abbey of, ii. 322.
—  , a valley in the Pyrenees, ii. 315.
Ronda, a town of Granada, ii. 86.
Rouno, the river, ii. 401, 413.
- ' Roza»»

INDEX. 387
Rozas, the village of, iii. 65.
Rozos, or Ruzos, the river, ii. 426.
Rueda, the town of, ii. 483.
Rumblar, the river, ii. 7.

Sabor, the river, i. 338. ii. 466.
Sacro, i. 226. \
Saelices, the town of, iii. 1 79.
Saffron, where found, iv. 90. Its cultivation, iii. 301.
Saguntum, a ruined town, i. 274.
Sahagun, the town of, ii. 427, 474.
Salamanca, the city of, ii. 494. Its universities, 496. Its
environs, 499.
Saldagna, the town of, ii. 473.
Salduba, or Saldivivia, the town of, ii. 252.
Salinas d'Agnana, ii. 379.
Salinas, a borough of Biscay, ii. 36 1.
—  , cape, iii. 42."). 1
Sallinetas, the mountains of, i. 160.
Salona, the port, i. 92.
Salt of lead, iv. 356.
Salt us Abracensis, ii. 489.
Salvatierra, the mountains of, ii. 332.
— —  , the town of, in Alava, ii. 333.

-, the town of, in Galicia, ii. 426.

Sanabria, the lake, ii. 479-
Sancho I. of Navarre, proclaimed the first king of Castile, iii. 6,
San Carlos, a town of Andalusia, ii. 68.
 , Catalonia, i. 87. f^g
San Felipe, the town of, i. 266, 268.
San Fernando, the castle of, i. 12.
San Isidore, a royal palace, ii. 475.
San Lorente, the village of, ii. 470.
San Lorenzo. See the Escurial. e c 2 San Marcos,

388 INDEX.
San Marcos, a royal palace, ii. 475.
San.Pelaio, ii. 481.
San Philippe, the historian, i. 178. Vlj
Servera, in Majorca, iii, 426.
San Spiritu, the village of, ii. 504.
San Vincente, ii. 401. (
San Zoil, the monastery of, ii. 472.
Sant Andero, the mountains of, ii. 388.
Santa; Julianas Fanum, ii. 414.
Sant Justo, the river, ii. 424.
Sant Justo, ii. 478.
Santa Maria de l'Arroya, ii. 502.
¦  the town of, in Majorca, iii. 428.
San Christobal, nuns of St. Augustin, iii. 475.
Sant Christobal, the castle of, i. 163.
Sant Clair, the convent of, ii. 472.
— — Domingo de la Cazalda, the town of, ii, 5.
¦  Eulalia, in Minorca, iii. 476,
— — Ildephonso, the town of, iii. 1 66.
i James of Compostella, ii. 431.
— — Juan de Luz, ii. 347.
— — Pied de Port, ii. 323.
— — Juan, in Majorca, iii. 425, 429.
 Marguerita de Muro, in Majorca, 42p.
— Martial, in Majorca, iiii 434.
— — Martin de la Arena, ii. 389.
— Nario, ii. 478.
 Roche, iii. 375.
Santani, in Majorca, iii. 425.
Sanitge, the port of, iii. 464.
Sant Philip, fort and castle, iii. 465.
— — Sebastian, the town of, ii. 351.
— — Vincent de la Barquera, ii. 38p.
Santa Cruz de Mudela, iii. 343.
Santa Cruz de la Zarra> iii, 330.
Santa Helena, ii. 6.
Saatillana the town of, ii. 414. Santa Maria

INDEX. 38j>
Santa Maria del Mar, a village, i. 22.
Sant Marta, the town of ii. 426.
Sant-Ogna, the port of, ii. 390.
Santa-Olalla, the town of, iii. 208.
Santa-Oliba, the village of, i. 99.
Saragossa, or Zaragoza, the city of, its foundation attributed
to the Phenicians, ii. 252. Its extent and situation, 253.
Population, 254. Clergy, 265. Administration, 267. Ce
lebrated men, 263. Manners, 8cc. ©fits inhabitants, ib. Its
environs, -76.
Saria, a village of Catalonia, i. 68.
Sarria, the river, ii. 425.
Scalabis, an ancient town, i. 343.
Sciences and arts, state of, v. 110.
*  , in the provinces. See each under
its proper head.
Schools, small, greatly multiplied, ii. 38.
•  , excellent at Vergara, ii. 363.
¦  , military, iv. 498. v 135.
 , naval, iv. 498. v. 136.
Seca, the town of, ii. 483.
Sedentani, the people so called, ii. 239
Segobrija, the town of, ii. 386.
Segorbe, the town of, i. 264.
Segovia, the city of, iii. 34.
— — — , the bridge of, iii. 66.
Segrez, the river, i. 138.
Seguidillas, the song and dance, iii. 237.
Segura, the river, ii. 192.
Silk manufactures, iv. 344.
Sella, the river, ii. 413.
Selva, the town of, in Majorca, iii. 427.
Senzellas, iii. 430.
Sequillo, the river, ii. 480.
Serrada, the colony of, ii«_502.
Serval, the river, i. 138.
Servol, the river, i. 292. c c 3 Seville,

390 INDEX.
Seville, the kingdom of, ii. 38.
Seville, the city of, ii 42. Its situation, 44. Population, ip.
Administration, 46. Public establishments, ib. Beauty
and wealth of its churches, 4g. Collection of pictures of
the count de la Aquila, &c 53.
Sheep, Spanish, iv. 45,
¦ Shearing, iv. 56. '
Sichas, the village of,;i 255.
Sierra, of Mondonedo, ii. 423.
¦ Albarazin, iii. 58.
¦ Alcarraz, iii. 58.
 Almanza, i. 138.
—  Avila, ii. 466.
— —  Chinchilla, ii. 1 52,
— — — 9- Cuenca, iii. 57.
 Guadalupe, i. 339-
 Guadarrama, iii. 59.
 Gogollos, iii. 3.
—  ¦ the Asturias, ii. 405.
.  Losillas, ii. 152.
.  Molina, iii. 58.
1  — Montes Agudo, ii. 152.
—  Morena, ii 1, 16.
,  Nevada, ii. 15. iii. 381.
.  d'Occa, iii. 3, 12.
 Orihuela, i. 138. ii. 208.
Sierras de Pico, ii. 466.
 Tablada, ii. 466.
Siesta, the custom i f the, v.^99.
Siete Aguas, the river, i. 141,
Sil, the river, ii. 425, 466.
Silk manufactories, iv. 344.
Silver mines, v. 336.
Simancar, the town of, ii. 483.
Sisto, the river, ii. 426.
Soap, the manufactory of, ii. 366. iv. 359'
Spbrarbe, the kings of, ii. 239. Soda,

INDEX. ,391
Soda, where found, iv. 89.
Sottabicula, i. 266.
Solano, a hot wind, v. 238.
Soler, the port of, iii. 433,
 the town of, iii. 435.
Spart, or Broom, iv. 90.
Steel, manufactory of, iv, 358.
Suevi, the, in Spain, ii. 311.
Sugar-canes grown in Spain, i. 302. Whence brought into th«
country, iii. 368. iv. 88.
— mills, iii. 369. iv. 89.
Synagogue at Gibraltar, iii. 393. T.
Tabernes, a village, i. 272.
Tacuna, the river, iii. 58.
Tafalla, the town of, ii. 324.
Tagus, the river, iii. 58, l/.l.
Talabrica, the town of, iii. 213.
Talavera de la Reyna, the town of, iii. 212. Singular festivals
held at, 337-
Talavera la Vieja, the town, of, i. 36b.
Tal verucla, the village of, i. 355.
Tamaga, the town and river of, ii. 425.
Tamaricians, the people so called, ii. 425.
Tambra, the river, ii. 425.
Taraffa, the river, i. 150.
Tarancon, the town of, iii. 178, I89.
Taracone, the province of, i. 92. ii. 400.
Tarragona, the city of, i. .92. Councils held there, 95.
Tarressona, the town of, ii.386.
Tarrega, the town of, i. 77-
Taxes, iv. 514.
Tec, the river, i. 1.
Tecla, the village of, ii. 282.
JTemblaque, the town of, iii. 338.
,'..;' e c 4 TFemplurs,

392 INDEX.
Templars, i. 1.
Tenebrium, iii. 474.
Telobis, i. 71.
Ter, the river, i. 13.
Terradillos, the village of, ii. 474.
Terminos, explanation of the appellation, iii. 453.
Theatre, Spanish account of, v. iy2.
 , at Madrid, iii. 131.
Thibaut, count of Champagne and king of Navarre, surnamed
the Song-maker, ii. 329.
Tierra de Campos, ii. 46g.
Tietar, the river, iii. 58.
Tiron, the river, iii. 5.
Toboso, the village of, iii. 333.
Toledo, the city of, iii. 246.
Tolosa, the town of, ii. 362.
Toras, a village, i. 262.
Torbeo, a town of Galicia, ii. 426.
Toreadores, v. 3 29.
Tordehamos, ii. 481.
Tordera, the riv'er, i. 20,
Tordesillas, the town of, ii, 482,.
Tores, the town of, ii. 401.
Torio, the river, ii 4-75.
Tormes, the river, ii. 466. iii. 5.
Toro, the town of, ii. 486.
Torosos, the mountain, ii. 481.
Torralva, iii. 24 1.
Torre-de-la- Parada, iii. 141.
Torrelaguna, the town of, iii. 156.
Tcrre Lobaton, ii. 4H2.
Torrente, the village of, i. 142.
Torrequemada, the town of, iii. 22.
Torres, the name of country houses near Barcelona, j. 6/.
Torrija, the town of, iii. 71,72.
Torto, orTuerto, the river, ii. 479. Tortolfflfc

INDEX. 393
Tortoles, the river, iii. 58.
Tortulia, iii. 131.
Tras los Montes, a Portuguese province, ii. 404.
Treaty of the Pyrenees, ii. 31/.
Tresera, i 1.
Trevejo, the village of, ii. 49O.
Triana, a faubourg of Seville, ii. 58.
Tribunals, v. 37, 55.
 , niilitary, v. 50.
— ;  , ecclesiastical, v. 18.
Trivino, a town of Alava, ii. 333.
Trobajo, the village of. ii. 478.
Truxillo, or Tur-Gellunt, the town of, i. 543.
Tua, the river, ii. 425,
Tudela, the city of, in Navarre, ii. 325^
Tudela, the town of, in Castile, iii. 42.
Tudela de Duero, the town of, ii. 33.
Tuelo, the river, ii. 425.
Tuertp, the river, ii. 466.
Tueva, the river, iii. 5.
Turia, the river, i. 179.
Turiaco. an ancient town, ii. 386.
Turquois, the town of, ii. 486.
-, mines, ii.

Turris Julia, i 343.
 Sillse, ii. 482.
Tutana, the town of, 195.
Tuy, the city of, ii. 444.
 province of, ii. 444.
Twins, the last born regarded as the elder,Jv. See Mayorazgos.

U.

Ubeda, the city of, ii. 1 14.
Ucles, the castle of, iii. 178.
Ulla, the river. See Ilia. Uniforms

394 INDEX.
Uniforms of the Spanish troops, iv.474.
Unions, their nature described, ii. 342.
Universities, ancient, their number, v. 127-
University of Alcala de Henarez, iii. 81,315.
.  Avila, v: 127.
¦  Cervera, i. 75. v. 127.
¦  Compostella, ii. 432.
¦  Gandia, suppressed, v. 127-
 Geronna, suppressed, v. 127-
 Huesca, ii. 307., v. 127-
¦  Lerida, suppressed, v. 127^
¦  Majorca. See Myona.
— —  Orihuela, v. 127.
 Osma, v. 127-

-- Oviedo, ii.407.v. 127.
-- Pampeluna, v. 127.
— Salamanpa, ii. 496. v. 127.
— Saragossa, ii. 268. v. 127.
— Seville, v. 127.
— Seguenza, iii. 3 15. v. 127-
— Tarragona, suppressed by Philip V. i. 95. v. 12?.
— Toledo, iii. 315. v. 127.
— Valencia, i. 220. v. 127.
- Valladolid, iii. 25. v. .127.

Urgel, the plain of, i. 77.
Urola, the liver, ii. 97.
Urumia, the river, ii. 352.
Urumede, the river, ii. 97.
Usages and customs of the Spaniards, v, 292.
Ussillos, the village of, ii. 470.
Utrera, the town of, li. 62.
Uzero, the river, iii. 5.

Vacla- Madrid, the village of, iii. 186.
Vagabonds who live on alms, iv. 21.

Valcaiae,

INDEX. 395
Valcarse, ii . 429.
Tal de Carros, ii. 501.
 Christo, the monastery, i. 265.
 Moro, iii. 169.
- Mudo, abridge, ii. 471.
 Penas, remarkable for its wine, iii. 343.
¦ ¦ Musa, 'iii. 436.
Val-de-ra-Niego, ii. 473.
Valencia, the k ingdom of, i. 136. Population, 293. Agri
culture, 2y4. Manufactures, 307. Commerce, 310. —
Roads, inns, &c. 317. Natural history, 3 19. State of
the sciences and arts, iv. 324. Character, &c. of the in
habitants, 332. Dances, 333.
— — , the city of, i. 175.
— —  , town of, ii. 444.
Valera, the Lower, iii, 196,
 , the Upper, iii - 197.
Valladolid, the city of, iii. 24.
Valley of Soler, iii. 435.
Valmaseda, a custom-house, ii. 340.
Valtaia, the river, iii. 5.
Valtiera, the village of, ii. 325.
Vandals, the, in Spain, destroy Carthagena, ii. 154. The
countries that submitted to them, ii. 311.
Vaqueros, the people so called, iii. 354.
Vascones, the people so called, ii. 312.
Vedra, the river, ii. 4-24.
Vega de Granada, the plain of, ii. 99.
Vega de Tordesillas, ii. 483.
Vega de Plasencia, ii. 489.
Veda, the river, ii. 424.
Velanchon, the village of, iii. 1S8.
Velez Gomera, iii. 405.
Vendrell, the town of, i. 98.
Verco, the town of, ii. 401. Vergana,

Sg6 rNDEX.
Vergana, the town of, ii. 363.
Verin, the village of, ii. 451. ..,,;
Vertue, the town of, i. 78.
Vetonia, the province of, i. 348. ii. 464. r ¦;
Vetons, the people so called, ii. 464
Viricente, Sau, the river, ii. 46l.
Vicus Cecilius, ii. 492.
VicUs Cuminarius, iii. 330. ""?
Vigo, the town of, ii. 443.
Vii al Cazar de Serja, ii. 469.
Vilemulaca, i. 1. >..,..
Villa Bragina, ii. 481.
Villa eassir, the village of, in. 31. /
Villa Franca, i. 100.
¦¦ — de Ebro, ii. 250.
 , a village of Majorca, iii. 425.
—  , a town of Leon, ii. 427» ^67.
Villa Garcia, ii. 481.
Villa- Nueva-d'Oyarzo, in Biscay, ii. 351.
Villa- Nueva-de-Xar, the town of, iii.- aoo,
Villa de Pinadez, the town of, i. 100. >
— — Mejor, iii. 2SO.
— — Martin, the town of, ii. 427-
— — Pando, the town of, ii. 467.
 Real, the town of, i. 281.
— — Real, a village of Biscay, ii. 361.
— — Rijo de Sal vanes, the town of, iii. 188.
 Nueva de la Xara, iii. 200.
— — Seca, in Catalonia, i. 92.
 Suzo, the town of, ii. 401.
, Villalgardo, the village pf, iii. 181, 202»
Villar de Aguila, iii. 1 79.
Villarenta, the colony of, ii. 468.
Villarta, the village of, iii. 343.
Villatero, the village of, ii. 500.
Villatobas, the village of, iii. 330. Villa-

INDEX. ag?
Villa-Toro, ii. 501.
Villa-Viciosa, ii. 401.
Villena, the city of, i. 163.
Vinarez, the town of, i. 2gi«
Vines, iv. 95.
Vittoria, the town of, ii. 364.
Vivadro, a town of Galicia, ii. 416.
Vivel, the town of, i. 262.
Vivero, the town of, ii. 454.
Volo (Bolo), the ancient town of, i. 1.
Vyana, a town of Galicia, ii. 426.

Xadraco, the village of, iii. 66.
Xalama, ii. 400.
Xalon, or Jalon, the river, ii. 282. iii. 5.
Xarama, the river, iii. 58, 170.
Xativa, the town of, i. 268.
Xeneralife, a pleasure-house of the M°°rs> *n Granada, ii.
105.
Xenil, the river, ii. 40.
Xeres de la Fronlera, ii. 63.
Xercia, the town of, i. 263.
Xero, the river, ii. 466.
Xiloca, the river, ii. 273.
Ximena, the widow of the Cid, defend* Valencia, i. 177*
Xiqueta, iii. 58.
Xucar, the river, i. 138. Y.
^orba, a valley, i. 73. Z.
Zadorra, the river, ii. 364.
Zambomba, a musical instrument, iii. 237. Zamort,

898 INDEX.
Zamora, the city of, ii. 486.
Zapardiel, a torrent, ii. 484.
Zareita, the village of, ii. 4g0.
Zarzuela, a royal palace, iii. 141.
Zehra, singular account of this Arab town, ii. 26.
Zidacos, the river, iii. 5.
Zubiar, the village of, ii. 322.
Zuia, the river, iii. 58.

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1. LETTERS FROM PORTUGAL AND SPAIN, written during the
March of the British Troops under Sir John Moore. By an OFFICER.
illustrated with a Map of the Route, and six other appropriate Engravings,
Octavo, price 12i. Boards.
Jf-J These Letters contain an account of the march and actions of the Bri-
tisn Army under Sir John Moore, from the day of their departure from Lis
bon, to that in which they embarked at Corunna. They were written on the
spot, and immediately as the events aiose to which they relate. They are
offered to the public, as a simple and authentic account of the disasters and
blasted hopes of one of the finest armies that ever left the British shore.
9. THE GEOGRAPHICAL, NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY
OF CHILI. Translated from the original Italian of the Abbe Don J.
IGNATIUS MOLINA. In two Volumes, 8vo. with a Map of the Country,
price ISs. Boards.
To which are added, Notes from the Spanish and French Versions, and two
Appendixes, by the English Editor; the first an Accent of the Archipelago
of Chiloe,from the description historical of P. F*. Pedro Gonzalez de Agueros;
the second, an Atxouiu of ihe Naxive 1 ribes who inhabit the Southern ex
tremity of South America, extracted cluefly from Falkner's Description of
Patagonia. 3. LETTERS FROM CANADA ; written during a Residence there, in
the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808; shewing the present State of Canada, itj
Productions, Trades, Commercial Importance, and Po itical Relations. Illus
trative of the Laws, the Manners of the People, and the Peculiarities of the
Country and Climate. Exhibiting also, the Commercial Importance of Nov.i-
Scotia, New Brunswick, and Cape Breton; and their increasing Ability, in
Conjunction with Canada, to furnish the necessary Supplies of Lumber and
Provisions to our West-India Islands. By HUGH GRAY. Iu bvo. with a
Map, price 12s. Boards.
4. THE SCENERY, ANTIQUITIES, and BIOGRAPHY of SOUTH
WALES, from Materials cohected d-jring Two Excursions in the Year 1803.
By BENJAMIN HEATH MALKIN, Esq. M.A. F.S.A. In One Vol. 4to.
illustrated with Views, xirawn and engraved by Laporte, and a Map of the.
Country, 21. l'2s. 6d. Boards.
Also a Second Edition, in Two Vols. 8vo. with considerable Additions, and
Two Engravings, by Landseer and Middiman. Price 11. Is. in Boards.
" Mr. Malkin displays a mastery of style, and is an instructive companion;
-we have no hesitation in assigning him a place in the first class of Tourists,"
M.Rru. "This is one of the most elaborate, and indeed, satisfactory ac
counts of a tour through South Wales, that has yet appeared." Brit. Crit.
" Mr, Malkin possesses the eye and the feelings of a correct and animated ob
server of nature; and describes, in appropriate terms, the scenery which passes
in review before him. His style is elegant smi corrsct." Crit. Rtv.

New Works published by Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme.
5. TRAVELS in ASIA and AFRICA, including a Journey from Scande-
roon to Aleppo, and over the Desert to Bagdad and Bassora; a Voyage from
Bassora to Bombay, and along the Western Coast of India ; a Voyage from
Bombay tp Mocha and Suez, in the Red Sea, and a Journey from Suez t»
Cairo and Rosetta, in Egypt. By the late ABRAHAM PARSONS, Esq.
Consul and Factor Marine at Scanderoon. In One Vol. 4to. embellished
with Two Engravings. Price ll. 5s. in Boards
" We have throughout found Mr. Parsons an instructive and agreeable com*
psnion. His travels are not, as usually happens, made up out of books, but
appear to be a faithful delineation of what he himself saw and heard; his de
scriptions are always conspicuous, and sometimes exhibit specimens of elegance
«nd taste; his remarks are sensible, and never trifling; he exhibits the present
state of the countries through which he travelled, without encumbering hi9
narrative with a representation of the past; and his work exhibits the marks of
x mind which sought after knowledge, without being impelled by vanity, which
was communicative but not ostentatious, which was studious of novelty, but
naver negligent of truth." Ann. Rev.
6. THE TOPOGRAPHY OF TROY, AND ITS VICINITY, illustrated
amd explained by Drawings and Descriptions. Dedicated, by Permission, to
her Grace the Duchess of Devonshire. By WILLIAM GELL, Esq. of
Jesus College, M.A. F.R.S. F.A.S. and late Fellow of Emmanuel College^'
Cambridge. In Folio? Price 101. 10s. in Boards.
In the Work are given Forty-three coloured Plates, taken from accurate
Drawings, made on the Spot, by the Author, and chiefly engraved by Mr.
Medland. The Work is designed to afford an Opportunity to such as have
not visited the Country of forming their own opinions of the Topegraphy of
Homer. T. THE GEOGRAPHY AND-ANTIQUITIES OF ITHACA, de
dicated, by Permission, to the King. By WILLIAM 6ELL, Esq. M.A.
F.R.S. F.'S.A. and Member of the Society of Diletanti. In one Vol. 4to.
illustrated by Engravings. Price 2l. 12s. 6d. in Boards.
" We are now obliged, by the limits of our Review, to close Mr. Gell's
volume, which (we take this opportunity of observing) is a specimen of very
elegant topography. That ure_ have perused it with uncommon satisfaction, the
reader will already have perceived. HLa*a, aa.in_.the account of Troy, lie ge
nerally renders Homer his own commentator ; yet discovers such a knowledge;
of ancient and modern writers, as clearly evinces that he qualified himself, by
previous study, for his geographical and antiquarian researches." Brit. Crit.
8. ILLUSTRATIONS of tjie SCENERY of KILLARNEY, the sur
rounding Country, and a considerable Part of the Southern Coast of Ireland.
By ISAAC WELD, Esq. M.R.I. A. In One Volume4to. with numerous
Plates elegantly engraved. Price 21. 2s. and on Rayal Paper, with first Im
pressions of the Plates, Price 31. 3s. in extra Boards.
" In Mr. Weld this illustrious and beautiful scenery has found an accurate
and able delineator. His pen and his pencil have both been employed with
effect, and we have seldom seen a work that combines more classical illustration
with a high degree of graphic excellence.
9. NORTH WALES; including its Scenery, Antiquities, Customs, and
some Sketches of its Natural History ; delineated from TwoExcursions through
all the interesting Parts of that Country, during the Summer of 1798 and 1801.
By the Reverend W. BINGLEY, A.M. in Two Vols. 8vo. illustrated with a
new and accurate Map, Frontispieces, and several favourite Welsh Airs, IL Is,
Boards. " We have no hesitation in declaring that these volumes deserve to be rank
ed among the best performances of the kind ; nor will any one hereafter act
wisely, who should visit North Wales, without making them his companio»."
Brit. Crit.

T. Davison, Whitefriars, London.