YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY standard Text-Books. 13. Finally, theBo ArithmetlcBtGach the ehcrteet, simplest, and most easy to bo remembered modes of performing the different operations of which they treat, I. PBIMAET AEITHMETIC. 18mo, 160 pages. Price 21 cents, — ^This worlc presupposes no knowledge of Arithmetic. It commences with Elementary principles, and lays a sure founda tion for what is to follow. II. ELEJIENTAKT AEITHMETIC. 16mo. 817 pages. Price 42 cents, — From the Primary the pupil proceeds to the Elementary, in which it is aimed to discipline the mind, to develop the reason ing powers, and to prepare the pupil for the advanced departments of Mathematics. In the author's treatment of "Vulgar Fractions, Percentage, and Interest, his new method of finding the cash balance in Equation of Payments, and his improved method of Extracting the Cube Koot, he has certainly made a great advance on the other Elementary Arithmetics now befor» the public. m. PHACTICAL ASITHMETIC. 12mo, 356 pages. Price, Cloth, 62 cents. — This work covers nearly the same ground as the Elementary, differing from it principally iu presenting a greater number of examples. It may, therefore, either follow the Ele- mentsuy, or be substituted for it. IV. HIGHER ABITHMEHC. 12mo. 324 pages. Cloth. Price 75 cents. — ^Tliis is intended as a finishing book for those who would complete a thorough arithmetical course. Perkins' Algebraic Series. I. ELEfflEJfTS OF ALGEBSA. 12mo. 244 pages. Price 76 cents.— ^Adapted to the use of Common SohoiBs and Academies. [Sue Esd of Tnia ToLtraiE. COURSE ?. •-N OP \ f -:: / ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. ARRANGED WITH SPECIAL REPEEENCK TO CONVENIENCE OF KEOITATION. ET H.L SCHiAnDT, D.D., PROPEBBOR Z17 OOLITMBIA COLLEGE, AUTHOE OP " HISTOBT OP EDtlOATIOK : PLAK OP OtTLTUEE AHD mStBITOTIOH : " "A TBEATISE ON THE BFOHABIST," ETC, NEW YOEK : D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 443 & 445 BEOAD"WAT. LONDON": 16 LITTLE BRITAIN. 1861. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, by D. APPLETON & CO., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New Tork, PEEFACE. A FE"W" "words "will suffice to account for the appearance of the present "work. The "writer has not by any means imagined that he had any thing new to offer to the con sideration of classical scholars, or that he "was more com petent than those who had preceded him, to do justice to the important subject here presented : he has been in duced solely by his o"wn "wants to prepare the volume for publication. Required to teach Ancient Geography in the institution "with "which he is connected, he has been unable to obtain any text-book that seemed to be well adapted to facili tate recitation. The large and elaborate work of his learned colleague. Dr. Anthon, the only complete system of Ancient Geography, and the best work in this department of study ever published in this country, is too extensive, and goes so much into detaUs, both geographical and historical, as to make selection imperatively necessary, and to require the matter contained in its pages to be broken up into ques tions to be dictated to the classes, in order to enable them to learn the prescribed lessons. This process involves some inconvenience, and much waste of time. The much smaller work of Dr, Schmitz, entitled: "A Manual of An- • iv PEEFACE. cient Geography," excellent as it is in other respects, seems to be entirely unsuited to the purposes ofthe recita tion room. It is hence solely with the design of furnish ing a text-book arranged with special reference to con venience of recitation, that the present work has been prepared : it has cost the writer a great deal of time and labor, and he would fain hope that he has measurably suc ceeded in supplying a want, of the existence of which his own conviction has been confirmed by repeated assur ances from eminent teachers. In order to attain the object thus had in view, the matter presented in this volume has been broken up into short paragraphs, which are all numbered ; and questions referring to these, and marked by corresponding numbers, are given in the lower margin. This arrangement will greatly facilitate the acquisition of the lessons by the pupils, as well as contribute to the convenience of recita tion. Another object kept constantly in view has been, to in troduce nothing in this book, which, where sufficient time is devoted to classical studies, should not be required to be learned and recited by every student. As regards this point, there -will, doubtless, be difference of opinion ; but as the writer has, in respect of the selection and quantity of matter introduced, enjoyed the advice of a distinguished professor of classical learning, he indulges the hope that he has, on the whole, accomplished his object. The profound interest which attaches to the geography of the ancient world arises not only from the historical, but perhaps still ^ more from the mythological, legendary, and literary asso ciations connected with different regions and localities. These, therefore, fill up a large space in this volume. In a few instances, where the prescribed limits have been ex ceeded, interesting information has been thrown into mar ginal notes. The general arrangement of tho work, which is un- PREFACE. deniably peculiar, will require a word of explanation. The volume opens with a short chapter presenting a succmct account of the knowledge of geography possessed by the ancients at different periods, and of the gradual extension of their acquaintance "with the inhabited world. Then, taking up Europe, it first describes Greece in pretty ample detail, and afterwards Italy in the same manner. Pro ceeding next to Asia, it gives a full account of Asia Minor. This constitutes what may be properly termed Classical Geography — that portion of ancient geography which the student most and most constantly needs in his classical reading. And to present all that is essentia] and im portant iu this, is the main design of the present work. This part of his task accomplished, the writer retraces his steps, returns to Europe, then to Asia, and lastly proceeds to Africa, and gives a far less copious account of what the ancients knew of the remaining parts of the former two continents, and of the northern portion of Africa : an ac count, however, which contains, as he believes, details amply sufficient for the recitation room, and for the student of ancient history. In adopting this arrangement, which really seems the most natural in a work of this kind, and is based upon the relative importance of the countries de scribed, the advice of a number of distinguished instruc tors has been taken : all who were consulted agreed unan imously in its appropriateness, not only in a general point of view, but especially as respects the wants and con venience ofthe recitation room. In preparing this work, no inconveniently large number of authorities, but the very best that were accessible, have been consulted, carefully compared, and freely used throughout. Where authorities differed as regards the sites of places noted in ancient times, the valuable maps of Eepert have, in several doubtful instances, been regarded as decisive. No pains have been spared to render the work as correct as our knowledge of the ancient world YI PEEFACE. will permit, and particular care has been taken accurately to indicate the quantity of all names requiring to be thus marked. The works most relied and most largely drawn upon, are the foUowing : Cramer's Ancient Greece : Cra mer's Ancient Italy : Cramer's Asia Minor : Dr. Smith's " New Classical Dictionary of Biography, Mythology, and Geography," (London, 1850.) Sickler's "Handbuch der alten Geographie : " " Travels in Northern Greece," by Wm. Martin Leake, F. R. S., &c., in 4 vols., London, 1835 : " Travels in the Morea. With a Map and Plans," by the same, in 3 vols., London, 1830. Besides these, the follo"wing have furnished sundry items of important in formation : " Peloponnesos : Eine Historisch Geographische Beschreibung der Halbinsel," Yon Ernst Curtius. Gotha, 1851: Ukert's "Geographie der Griechen und Romer : " LiddeU's Eome : Murray's " Hand-Book for TraveUers in the Ionian Islands, Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, and Con stantinople : " WiUson's " Outlines of History : " " Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana," by Wm. Ken nett Loftus, F. G. S. : Pauly's " Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen Alterthumswisenschaft," Stuttgart, 1839-1852 : the Conversations-Lexicon of Brockhaus; and Home's " Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Scriptures." For the more brief description of the coun tries not properly classical, the matter has, with constant and careful reference to other authorities, been chiefly taken from the Eev. W. L. Sevan's " Manual of Ancient Geography," London, 1852. It is proper to state, that whenever to distances in stadia the measure in mUes is subjoined, and these miles can again be reduced to stadia by multiplying by eight, the measure is given in Roman miles. This will, upon the whole, be found sufficiently exact. But, as the Roman mile was 142 yards less than the EngUsh statute mUe it is ob"vious that the precise distance will be obtained in all PEEFACE. vii such cases, by adding that number of yards for each mile. The English statute mile measures 1760 yards. A good ancient atlas was long a desideratum in this country. This want has been satisfactorUy supplied by the publication of Findlay's " Classical Atlas," and of Long's " Atlas of Classical Geography," either of which will bo found sufficient for the most thorough course of ancient Geography ever pursued in colleges or academies. RULES FOR THE PRONUNCIATION OF AN CIENT NAMES. The penults of the most common terminations of an cient names have the following quantities : — — acus, as Corinthiacus. — ana, Sogdiana. — ea, as Apamea, Caesarea. — ene, as Adiabene, Cyrene. — icus, a, um, as Baetica, Adriaticum. — inus, a, um, as Luciinus, Clusinus. Fucinus is an excep tion. — itis, as Trachonitis. — Otis, as Phthiotis, — poUs, as Amphipolis, Decap6Iis. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE Orbis Terrarum Veteribus Notes 1 CHAPTER II. EURO? A i, 256 Section I, — Graecia 7 Mountains of Greece 8 Promontories 9 Seas 9 Gulfs 10 Strait , 12 Lakes 12 Rivers 12 1. Epirus 17 2, Thessalia 19 3, Acamania 26 4, Aetolla 31 5. Doris 33 6, Locris 33 7. Phoois 35 8, Boeotia iO 9, Megaris 51 10, Attica 53 11. Euboea 60 12. Peloponnesus 64 A, Achaia 67 B, Sicyonia 69 c. Elis 70 D, Messenia 74 X CONl-ENTS. FACIE E. Laconia '5 F. Argolis '" G. Arcadia °° 18. The Grecian Islands 85 Section II. — Italia 90 Mountains 92 Promontories 93 Rivers 94 Lakes 98 1. Upper Italy 102 A. Liguria 102 B. Gallia Cisalpina 103 c. "Venetia and Histria 108 i. Venetia .^ 108 II. Istria or Histria 109 2, Central Italy Ill A, Etruria Ill B, Umbria 117 c. Piceuum 120 D, Territory of the Sabini 122 E, Marsi 124 r. Peligni 124 Q. "V"estiui 125 H, Marrucini 125 JL. Roma 126 K. Latium 128 L. Hemic! 133 M. Volsci 134 N. Campania 138 o, Samnium 148 3. Lower Italy 151 A. Apulia 151 B. Lucania 158 c. Brattium Ig2 4. The Islands of Italy Igg CHAPTER III. ASIA , 189 Asia MmoK -.gi 1. Mysia -^^^ ^¦^^^^ Z~ 199 CONTENTS. XI rAQB 3. Ionia 202 4. Caria 210 6. Bithynia 214 6, Paphlagonia 217 7, Pontus 220 8. Lycia 224 9, Pisidia 227 10. Pamphylia , 229 11. Cilioia 231 12. Phrygia 237 13. Galatia 242 14. Lycaonia 244 15. Cappadocia 246 16. Isauria 248 17. Rhodus 249 18. Cyprus 251 CHAPTER IV. EDEOPA (continued) 256 1. Thracia 256 2. Mysia 257 3. Dacia 258 4. niyricum orHlyria 259 5. Macedonia 260 6, Hispania 262 7, GalUa 265 8. Britannia vel Britannicae Insulae 269 9. Germania 273 10. Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia 276 11. Sarmatia Europaea 277 CHAPTER V. ASIA. MAJOR 279 1. Colchis, Iberia, and Albania 279 2. Armenia 280 3. Mesopotamia 282 4. Babylonia 283 5. Assyria • 284 6. Persia 285 7. India, Sinae, Serioa 292 8, Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica .' 294 Xll CONTENTS. PACE 9. Syria 296 10. Phoenicia 297 11, Palaestina 299 12. Arabia 304 CHAPTER VI. AFRICA 307 1. Africa as known to the Ancients 307 2. Aegyptus and Aetliiopia S09 S. Marmarica, Cyrenaica, and Syrtica 312 4. Africa Propria 314 5. Numidia 315 6. Maaretania 316 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTEK I. OEBIS TEEEAEUM "VETEEIBUS NOTUS. 1. Our kno"svledge of the ancient world is derived almost "whoUy from the "works of Greek and Latin writers, and is, therefore, limited to the countries and places which are mentioned in their writings, or of which their geographers have left us descriptions. Hence it will be ad vantageous quite briefly to state, in the first place, what portion of the earth's surface was known to them, before we proceed to a description of the different countries into which it was divided. 2. The geographical knowledge of the ancients, limited, at first, among different peoples, to a more or less perfect acquaintance with their own territories and their immedi ate surroundings, gradually advanced, as conquest or com merce brought them into contact with fresh nations. To the mind of Homer (about 900 b. c), the earth appeared to be a circular plane, in the middle of which lay Hellas, "with its surrounding islands, having for its central point the lofty, cloud-capped Olympus, which was hence also the centre of the whole terrestrial circle, of the entire Orbis terrarum. Besides HeUas, Homer's world inclosed Asia Minor, Syria, the Eastern half of the African coast, Sicily, Macedonia, and the Euxine sea. But even of these parts of our world, the knowledge of the great poet was evident ly very imperfect and inaccurate: his accounts, rather 1. Whence Is our knowledge of Ancient Geography, or of the ancient world, derived' 2. What was Homer's notion of the -worla ? 3. How far didthekno¦wl- l 2 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. chorographical than geographical, are obscure and fabulous, and embrace, as appears from the specifications above, chiefly the countries lying around the Aegaean or Archi pelago, and the S. coast of the Euxine.— Homer regarded his circular plane as bounded by an all-surroundmg stream or Ocean, 'OKeavos, from Hhok, the boundary Km kioyr^, and within these Umits he knew ^ of only two principal re gions, the side of day, -n-po? ^St yjiXiov re, morning and noon, i. e., the East and under the meridian, and the side of night or darkness, irpos ^o^ov, evening and the darkness of night, i. e.^ the West. 3. In the next five centuries this circle was consider ably extended. Herodotus (about 450 b. c.) was acquamt- ed with all the shores of the Mediterranean, the interior of Northern Africa, Asia as far as the Indus and the Caspian, and Europe northwards to the Danube, with the districts adjoining the Euxine. 4. The conquests of Alexander (about 330 b. c.) extend ing northwards to the laxartes and beyond the Indus east wards, added much to the knowledge of Persia and West ern India ; and his successors foUowed up the same Une of discovery, by establishing commercial relations with the states of Central India, and even beyond the Ganges. 6. The countries of Western Africa (Numidia and Mauretania), and also of Western Europe (Spain, Gaul, Germany and the British Isles), of which only the coasts and general position had been known to the Greeks, were fully opened by the arms of the Romans, in the centuries preceding and follo'wing the Christian era : their system of government by military occupation, involving the formation of roads and the establishment of numerous towns, con tributed to an intimate acquaintance with the interior of those countries. 6. Taking ancient geography at its greatest extent, it deals with but a smaU portion of the habitable world. America was of course utterly unknown. We may say the same of Central and Southern Africa, and of the JSIorthern districts of Europe and Asia : in short, the ancients knew very little of the latter beyond the Ganges and the Himalaya range, and of the former beyond the Vistula and the Danube. Sffl T,?-''V°?°*"°, ^'=*'""'' *¦ '^'"'' contributed greatly to the cxtprsinn of geographical knowledge? 6. What led, subsequently, to i still mn?fp?S»d and more mtlmato knowlodgo of geography ? 6, How 'may the kSwlodgs of ge OEBIS TEEEAEUM VETEEIBUS NOTUS. 3 1. The world within these limits was usuaUy divided into three continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa. The boun daries of the two more important continents wUl be given more particularly hereafter; we give them here, of all three, in the most general terms. Europe was bounded by the Oceanus Atlanticus in the W., the Mare Internum in the S., and the Tanais in the E. — Asia by the Oceanus Ecus in the E,, the Oceanus Indicus in the S., and the Arabicus Sinus, Mare Internum, and Tanais in the W. : both these continents were supposed to be bounded in the N". also by an ocean which was called SeptentrionaUs, or GlaciaUs, but of which there was no actual knowledge. Lastly, Africa was bounded by the Mare Internum on the N., the Ocean us Atlanticus on the W,, the Arabicus Sinus on the E., and an unknown sea called Oceanus Aethiopicus in the S. 8. The most conspicuous feature in the map of the ancient world is the great internal sea, which belongs equaUy to the three continents. 9. Later geographers named this sea Mare Medi- terraneum, which has been adopted by moderns; but in classical writers this name does not occur.. We find it called by the Greeks 17 la-oy ^dXarra, or r/ ei/ros S^dXarra, or, more fiiUy, 7/ Ivto^ "H-paKXelav otjjA.cov ^aAarTa, and by Herod otus ^8e 17 ^ciAttTTa ; and from its washing the coasts both of Greece and Italy, it was also caUed, both by Greeks and Romans, Our Sea, 17 rifierepa SaXaTra, 7j Kad^ rj/jLoii 3a.XaTTa, Mare Nostrum; and by Roman geographers Mare Internum; a name corresponding to the Greek terms given above, and denoting the inward as opposed to the outward ocean. 10. The northern coast of the Mediterranean is varied by numerous peninsulas, and Uned "with groups of islands. It was on this account highly favorable to the coasting navigation of early days ; and by thus encouraging the growth of commercial enterprise, it became the central abode of the most flourishing nations of antiquity, and the high-road of commerce and civUization. We shall now consider the three continents separately, in the order suggested by their relative importance. ography possessed by the ancients be briefiy smnined up ? 7. Within these limits how was the world usually divided, and what were the general boundaries of each division ? 8. What is the most conspicuous feature in the map of the ancient world? 9, By what names was this sea designated? 10. What is the character of the northera coast of the Mediterranean, afibrding what advantages ? ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. CHAPTER II. EUROPA. 1. Although the name Europe (Evpumj) first occurs in the so-caUed Homeric hymn to ApoUo, it is there used in a very limited appUcation, denoting only Greece exclu sive of the Peloponnesus, and perhaps also embracing Mace donia, lUyricum, and Italy. At a later period we find this name employed by Herodotus (IV, 45, 36, 41, 42) to desig nate the northern portion of the then known and inhab ited earth, extending from the pUlars of Hercules to the farthest E. of Asia. 2. The derivation ofthe name is merely conjectural. In Grecian mythology it is derived from Europa, the daughter of Agenor. As respects the etymological derivation, -it is the opinion of Hermann that, because Europe appeared to the Greeks of Asia Minor as the far-extended coast-land, they gave it the name Eilpuiin;, from EipoiTros, ^, 6v, as op posed to o-Tcj/oin-o's, ." wawow," "strait," "confined." Its most probable derivation, however, is from the Phoenician Aereb, stiU preserved in the Hebrew, a-;?, '¦'evening,'^ " darkening," " sun-set," so that in its Hellenized form, 'EvpioTTT] denoted " the evening land," '¦'¦the land of sun-set," in opposition to Asia, " the land of Ught, of splendor, of sunrise," the land whence the Asen (Asi), '¦'¦the men oflighV or " of the East " proceeded. This derivation is preferable to that proposed by Bochart, viz., from the Phoenician Ur- appa, " quasi terram XevKcnrpocrmTrov, quia Europaei Afriea- nos candore faciei longe superant." "Europe" would then denote "the land ofthe West." 3. As early as the time of Herodotus either the Phasis, or the Tanais, was regarded as the eastern boundary of 1, "Where does the name Europe first occur ? what was its earliest applica tion? How does Herodotus use it? 2. What ia the derivation of the name? S. In tho time of Herodotus, of Plato, aud of Eratosthenes, what was regarded as eueopA. 5 Europe. Plato says it was the Phasis, Eratosthenes the Tanais.^ With the latter, Pomponius Mela, and Ptolemy agree. 4. Ptolemy (about a. d. 160) gives the following as the boundaries of Europe : from the Mare Atlanticum in the W., to the Tanais (Bon), the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azof), the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), the Propontis (Sea of Marmara), the Hellespont (Dardanelles) and the Aegaean in the E. : fi-om the Mare Internum in the S. to the North ern Ocean in the N. 5\ A striking feature in the European Continent is found in its many large inland seas, and in the great num ber of large gulfs which, running far inland, wash its broken coasts and open highways to commercial enterprise. Beginning at the N. we have first the Arctia Ocean or Icy Sea, 6 Kpovios 'Oxeavos, the Mare Cronium orPigrum of the Romans : below this is the Mare Germanicum, the North Sea or German'''t)cean : from this several small straits lead into the Sinus Codanus, or Eattegat, aud the Mare Snevicum., or Baltic Sea; returning thence into the German Ocean, a S. W. course leads us through the Fretum Gallicum, or Straits of Dover, into the Oceanus Britannicus, or -BnYisACAawwe^, and then into the Mare Atlanticum, or Atlantic Ocean. Crossing now the Oceanus Cantabricus, or -Bay of Biscay, and passmg through the Fretum Herculeum or Straits of Gibraltar, we enter that great inland sea, which the Romans, as we have seen above, called Mare Nostrum, but geogra phers Mare Internum. That part of the Mare Internum which Ues between Hispania and Italia is divided into two very unequal portions by the islands of Sardo, Sardinia, and Cyrnos, Corsica. E. of SicUy a large inlet, the Sinus Hadriaticus, the Adriatic Sea, runs in a N. W. direc tion far into the mainland ; and farther E. another, caUed the Mare Aegaeum, Archipelago, divides Greece from Asia Minor. From this the Hellespontus, Dardanelles, the Propontis, Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus Thracius, Strait of Oonstantinople,lead into the Pontus Euxinus, the Black Sea ; and from this, lastly, the Bos porus Cimmerius, Strait of Caffa, or Feodosia or Jen- «cafe,leads into the Palus Maeotis, Sea of Azof oy Assow. the E, boundary of Europe? 4. "Wliat were the boundaries of Europe according to Ptolemy? 5, What striking feature does the European continent present? Name and point out the seas and gulfs, beginning at the North. 6. "What is said 6 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 6. It is said that the Greeks first called the Euxine "A^tvos (inhospitable), from the savage character of the peoples on its coast, and from the supposed terrors of its navigation, and that afterwards, when colonies brought civilization to its shores, they changed its name, on their favorite prin ciple of euphemism (i. e. abstaining from words of evil omen) to Eu^evos, Ion. Eufcivos, hospitable. 1. Bosporus, BdcrTTopos, corrupted by modern ortho graphy to Bosphorus, composed of BoOs and iropds, signifies a ford for oxen, or a strait so narrow that it may be crossed by an ox swimming. The legend connects the name with lo, the daughter of lasus, or Inachus. We have mentioned above the two straits to which geographers have applied the term. The more important of these, the Bosporus Thracius, or Strait of Constantinople, is -a channel about IV miles in length, with a width varying from half a mile to two miles. 8. The two largest rivers of Europe, as regards the length of their course, are the Volga, called by the an cients Rha, and the Don, Tanais. Of the other more important rivers, the Ebro, Iberus, the Rhone, Rhoda- nus, and the Fo, Padus, empty into the Mediterranean : the Danube, DanHbius or Ister, and the Dnieper, Da- napris or Borysthenes, into the Black Sea: the2>Mi«a, Carambacis, into the White or Icy Sea; the Vistula and the Oder, Viadus, orViadrus, into the Baltic: the Elbe, Albis, the Weser, Visurgis, and the Fhine, Rhe- nus, into the German Ocean : the Seine, Sequana, into the British Channel ; theio«Ve, Liger, the Garonne, Ga,vnm- na, the Tagus, and the Guadalquivir, Baetis, into the Atlantic. The first two named empty, the Don into the Sea of Azof, the Volga into the Caspian. 9. The principal mountain chains in Europe are, the Alps, Alpes, in Switzerland and Italy; the Pyrenees, PyrenaeiMontes, between France and Spain ; the Apen nines, Apenniiius 'Mons, in Italy; the Ural Mountains, Rhipaei or Hyperborei Montes, on the N. E. boun dary: the Carpathian Mountains, Carpates, between Dacia and Sarmatia, and the Haemus range, Balkan, between Thrace and Moesia. to have been the earlier name of the Euxine, !md how camo it to be changed? 7. What is meant by Bosporus, and what does it denote in Geography ? 8 Name and point out the largest and most important rivers of Europe, 9, What are the principal mountain chains of Europe f i • vv iiai aro luo GKAECIA. 7 SECTION I. GB, AE C I A. 1. By the name Graecia, Greece, we mean the penin sula which separates the Aegaean and Ionian Seas. It lies between the 36th and 41st degrees of N. latitude, and be tween the 21st and 26th degrees of E. longitude. 2. The Greeks called their country Hellas. Among them, however, this name did not signify any particular country, bounded by certain geographical Umits, but was used in general to signify the abode of the HeUenes, as they called themselves, wherever they might happen to be settled. Thus, according to this ethnographic designation, the Greek colonies of Cyrene in Africa, of Syracuse in Sicily, of Tarentum in Italy, and of Smyrna in Asia, are said to be in HeUas. 3. The Romans caUed the land ofthe Hellenes Graecia, whence we have derived the name of Greece. They probably gave this name to the country from their first becoming acquainted "with the tribe of the VpaiKol, Graeci, who appear at an early period to have dwelt on the W. coast of Epirus, and hence were not Greeks in the Grecian sense of the term. 4. The greatest length of Greece proper (including Pelo ponnesus), from Mt. Olympus to CapeTaenarus is about 250 EngUsh miles : its greatest breadth from the W. coast of Acamania to Marathon in Attica is about 180 miles. 5. Graecia was bounded on the N, by Macedonia and lUyria, from which it was separated by the Cambunian and Ceraunian mountains, on the W. by the Ionian sea, and on the E. and S. by the Aegaean sea. 6. It is one of the most mountainous countries of Europe, and possesses few extensive plains and few continuous val leys. The inhabitants were thus separated from one an other by barriers which it was not easy to surmount, and were naturally led to form separate poUtical communities. 1, What do you mean by Graecia or Greece ? Where is it situated ? 2. How did the Greeks call their country, and what sort of designation is it ? 3. What was the origin of the name of Graecia? 4. What are the dimensions of Greece proper ( S, How was Greece bounded ? 6, What sort of country is Greece, and 8 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY.. 1. The two great divisions of Greece were, I. Graecia Propria, Greece Proper, comprising aU that lies E. ofthe Isthmus of Corinth, and N. and N. W. ofthe Corinthiacus Sinus, and is bounded N. and W. by Epirus and Mace donia: this part is also caUed Middle Greece, because Macedonia and Epirus are sometimes reckoned as compo nent parts of Graecia : excluding these two countries, we may distinguish between Thessaly as Northern, and .the re mainder of Graecia Propria as Central Greece; II. Pelo ponnesus, or the peninsula connected with HeUas proper by the isthmus of Corinth, and lying S. ofthe Corinthiacus Sinus. MOUNTAINS OE GREECE. 8. The N. boundary of Greece is a chain of mountains commencing with the lofty Olympus, now ,£%/m5o, the reputed abode of the gods, on the E. near the shore of the Aegaean, and terminating in the high promontory of A cro- ceraunium. Cape Linguetta, which projects into the Ionian sea: the Cambunii'Montes, Daemon, and the Ceraunii Montes, Ehimara, form the intervening Unks. From the centre of this chain proceeds the southerly ridge of Pindus, which may be called the back-bone of the peninsula : the name indeed applies only to the mountain between Thessaly and Epirus ; but we may trace the line of elevatifan uninterruptedly through Tymphrestus, Ye- lukhi, and Oeta, -Satouo^Arow, to Parnassus in Phocis, and thence to Helicon in Boeotia. Immediately S. of Olympus, and separated from it only by the narrow pass of Tempe, is Mt. Ossa, Eissovo: proceeding S. E. from here along the shore of the Aegaean, we come to Mt. Pelion, Ples- sidhi ; and near the S. border is the lofty range of Othrys, Jerako. 9. In Central Greece we flnd continuations and more or less detached off-shoots of Pindus, such as Oeta in the N., a rugged pile of mountains, having the famous pass of Thermopylae between it and the MaUacus Siaus: Par nassus, Liokura, with many rough and rocky peaks: 'i^eMa on, Palaeovouni: G'lthaex on, Elatea: Hymet tus, Trellavouno, and Yente\ic-G,%, i'e/i^efo, the last two bemg not far from each other in Attica. vi°ston8 of Gre\M%°*l'"Nf™„\*!;r"''''?"^l'i?.' \ "^^* ^«" ^^e general or main di- saly, 9" What and wh^nwLt« ^°'" °?' *?" °''''=^ mountains of k Greece or Thes- y . w nat and whei e wore the principal mountains of Central Greece ? 10, Name . GEAECIA. 9 10. The most noted mountains in the Peloponnesus were Cyllene, Mt. Zyria, the highest, from which, as from the root of an immense claw, the several branches of the colossal mountain-frame of the Peloponnesus spread out: Lycaeus: Maenalus, iiowow.' Parthenius, now Fartheni, running S. E. through Laconia : in the W. the Erymanthus, Eallifoni: although Cyllene is the high est summit, the loftiest ridge in the peninsula isTaygetus, separating Laconica and Messenia, and extending from the frontiers of Arcadia down to the Promontorium Taenarum. PEOMONFOEIES OP GEEECE. 11. The most noted promontories of Greece were Ac- tium. La Punta, on the Sinus Ambracius, noted for the victory over Antony and Cleopatra, Sept. 2d, b. c. 31 : — Rhion or Rhium, Eastro Morea, and Antirrhion or Antirrhium, Eastro Eoumeli, ov Castello di Fonielia, lying opposite each other and forming the narrow entrance to the Corinthian gulf, which straits are now called the Little Dardanelles: — ^Taenarum, Cape Matapan, and Male a, also Male a, Cape St. Angelo, the southernmost points of Laconia: Sunium, Cape CWowwa, the southern most point of Attica: Artemisium, Amoui, the extreme northern point of the island of Euboea, off which the Greeks defeated the fleet of Xerxes, b. c, 480. SEAS OP GEEECE. 12. The seas belonging to Greece are the Aegaean, the Myrtoan and the Ionian. 13. The Mare Aegaeum, now the Archipelago, was bounded on the N. by Thrace and Macedonia, on the W. by Greece, and on the E. by Asia Minor. The origin of its name is uncertain : some derive it from Aegeus, the king of Athens and father of Theseus, who threw himself into it : others from Aegaea, the queen of the Amazons, who perished there ; and others, lastly, from atyt's, a squall, on account of its sudden and violent storms. 14. The Aegaean sea contains in its southern part two groups of islands, the Cyclades, which were separated and point out the principal mountains of Peloponnesus. 11. Name and point out llhe most noted promontories of Greece, beginning at the north-westernmost point and passing thence round the peninsula. 12. Wliat seas belong to Greece ? 13, "Where IS the Aegaean, and what is said of tho origin of its name ? 14. What does the 1* 10 ANCIENT GE0GEA?HY. from the coasts of Attica and Peloponnesus by the Mare Myrtoum, and the Sporades, lying offthe coasts of Cana and Ionia. The part ofthe Aegaean which washed the Spo rades was caUed the Icarian Sea, Icarium Mare, from the island Icaria, one of the Sporades. A number of islands were scattered about the northern part of the Aegaean, the largest of which are Euboea, Negropont: Samos, now Samo: Chios, EMo : Lesbos, Mytilene; and Lemnos, Stalimene. 15. The Ionium Mare, apart of the Mediterranean between Italy and Greece, was S. of the Adriatic, and be gan on the W. at Hydruntum in Calabria, and on the E, at Oricus in Epirus, or at the Ceraunian mountains. Its name was usually derived by the ancients from the wanderings of lo, but it was more probably so called from the Ionian col onies, which settled in Cephallenia and the other islands off the W. coast of Greece. 16. Mare Creticum, now Cretan Sea, was the name given to that part of the Mediterraneaij which is between Greece and the Cyclades on the N. and the island of Greta, Candia, on the S. 17. The Myrtoum Mare, Myrtoan Sea, is that part of the Aegaean which is S. of Euboea, Attica, and Argolis, and extends as far S. as the Malea Promontorium. It de rived its name from the smaU island M y r t o s , though others suppose it to come from MyrtUus, whom Pelops threw iuto this sea, or from the maiden Myrto. GULFS OP GEEECE. 1 8. The principal gulfs on the coast of Greece are a., the Sinus Ambracius, GulfofArta: 5., Sinus Corinth iacus, now G. of Corinth or Lepanto : c. Sinus Mes- seniacus, or Asinaeus, or Coronaeus, now G, of Ebron, or, more recently, G. of Ealamata : ^., Sinus Lar conicus, G. of Eolokythia: e., Sinus Argolicus, G. of Napoli : f.. Sinus Saronicus, G. of Egina : g., S'mus Maliacus, G. of Zeitouni: A., Sinus Pagasaeus, G. of Volo: and i.. Sinus Thermaicus, G.of Saloniki. 19. The Ambracius Sinus, G. ofArta, between Epi- tefvld ? ° i« °^?n"l' ' '^hJ^^,"'" "^"^ "1" 1°""™ Mare, and whence is its name and whence haaiifnY.^'Lj;" Maro Creticum? 17. Wherowasthe MarcMyrtoum, gulfs on ?hocol,sin?oT„^'"^ ''"¦""'¦?'" "¦ ^^""^ "¦"» point o°t the principal passing round the °lSy,';'^f,°' ^T"-S}5« ""'"^ the north-westernmost, an^ thence srounatne peninsula. 19. Where was the Sinus Ambracius, how large, GEAECIA. 11 rus and Acarnania, is 25 miles long and 10 wide : the nar- rowestpart ofthe entrance is only 700 yards, but its general width is about half a mUe. 20. The Sinus Corinthiacus, G. of Lepanto, is be tween the coasts of Aetolia, Phocis, and Boeotia on the N. and the N. coast of the Peloponnesus on the S. In early times it was caUed the Crissaean gulf (a name afterwards confined to that part between the Locri-Ozolae and Phocis), and its eastern part the Alcyonian Sea. 21. The Sinus Cyparissius was an open bay on the coasts of Elis and Messenia, extending from Ichthys Promontorium, C. Eatakolo, in the N. to Cyj^aris- sium Prom., C. Arkadhia, in the S. : its modern name is Gulf of Arkadhia. 22, The Sinus Messeniacus, G. of Ealamata, '\s on the S. coast of Messenia, extending from Acritas Prom. on the W. to Thyrides Prom., Cape Grosso, on the S. E. It was also called Asinaeus Sin., from the town of Asine, a Uttle N. of Acritas Prom. Strabo also calls it Coronaeus Sin., whence its modern name, G. of Koron, but more recently G. of Ealamata. 23. The Sinus Laconicus, now Gulf of Colokythia, was in the S. of Peloponnesus, between Taenarum Prom, on the W. and the island and promontory of Onugnathus on the E., and received the waters of the Eurotas. 24. The Sinus Argolicus washed the E. coast of Laconia and the S. coast of Argolis. It is now the Gulf of NaupUa or Napoli, so named from a city near its head. 25. The Sinus Saronicus, Gulf of Egina, lay be tween Attica and ArgoUs, commencing between the Sunium Prom, in Attica, and that of Scyllaeum in Argolis. It con tains "within it the islands of Aegina and Salamis. Its name was usuaUy derived from Saron, king of Troezene, who was supposed to have been drowned in this part of the sea, while s-(vimming in pursuit of a stag. A different derivation is given by PUny. 26. The Sinus Opuntius, Gulf of Talanta, was on the coast ofthe Locri Opuntii, between Cynus Prom, on the N. and Cynosura Prom, on the S. 27. The Maliacus Sinus, Gulf of Zeitouni, 3\&o v?rit- and what the width of its entrance? 20. Where is the Sinus Corinthiacus? "What names had it in early times ? 21. "Where was the Sinus Cyparissius? 22. "Where was the Sinus Messeniacus, and what other names had it ? 23. Where was the Sinus l/oconicus? 24. Where was the Sinus Argolicus V 25. Where was tho Sinus Saronicus, and why was it so called 8 26. Where was the Sinus Opuntius ? 12 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. ten Zeitun, was S. of Thessaly, running W. from the N. W. point ofthe island of Euboea, On the S. side of it was the pass of Thermopylae. It derived its name from. the Ma- Uenses, who dwelt on its shores. It is sometimes caUed the Lamiacus Sinus, from the town of Lamia in its neigh borhood. 28. The Pagasaeus or Pagasicus Sinus, Gulf of Volo, was on the S. coast of Thessaly, being .closely em braced by the peninsula of Magnesia on the E. and S, It derived its name from Pagasae, a town on "the coast of Magnesia, where Jason is said to have buUt the ship Argo, 29. The Thermaicus or Thermaeus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki, lay between Thessaly and Macedonia on the W. and the peninsula Chalcidice on the E. It obtained its name from the town Ther ma at its head: it was also caUed Macedonicus Sinus. STEAIT. 30, Euripus is the name that was given to the nar row strait, now caUed Strait of Egripo, which separates Euboea from Boeotia, and which is noted for its extraordi nary tides. LAKES OF GEEECE. 31. There were no lakes of much importance in Greece, most of them being Uttle more than marshes. The most noted are: Acherusia, stUl so caUed, in the district of Thesprotia in Epirus : Copais or Cephissus Lacus, now L. Topolias, in Boeotia, the largest lake in Greece; Boe- beis, in the district of Pelasgiotis, in Thessaly: Stym- phalis, Zardka, in the N. E. of Arcadia: Lerna or Lerne inArgohs: each of the last two rendered famous by the labors of Hercules. EIVEES OP- GEEECE. 32. There are very few large rivers in Greece. Most of them are mere coast-streams, and, flowing into the sea from mountains near the coast, insignificant, often entirely dry during the hot season. The most important were, a., ^»"mY5°!? -T?* i5° F',""^ Maliacus ? Whence is its name derived, and what other 29 WW. ' ?v ^1?^'"^ """= the Sinus Pagasaeus, and named after what? whatotwT™ ,® ??'^5?^"="^ ^™"=| whence deriving its name, also having Lakes can vouTam„fr," rT*"" f "¦?" belonging to Greece is to be noted ? 31, What i^aKes can you name m Greece ? 32, What is the general chai-aoter of the rivers GEAECL4.. 13 The Peneus, Salambria, emptying into the Sinus Thermai cus: b., the Achelous, Aspro-potamo, between Acar nania and Aetolia, emptying mto the Mare Ionium ; c, the Cephissus, Mauro-potamo, which flows into lake Copais: (?., the AlphOus, Rufia, which empties into the Mare Ionium: e., the Eurotas, Iri ov Basilo^potamo, empties into the Sums Laconicus : the Sperchius, Ellada, in Thessaly, empties into the MaUacus Sinus. We shall now proceed to describe these, as well as some others, more particularly. 33. The Achelous, ^spro^otomo, one of the largest, by some considered the largest, of the rivers of Greece, rises in Mt. Pindus, flows through Dolopia, through the territory of the Agraei and the AmphUochi and the Acar- nanian plain, and then empties, an impetuous torrent, into the sea, where the cluster of small islands caUed Eohi- nades, now Isole Curzolari, is said to have been formed by the great quantity of alluvium brought down by its current. It often causes serious inundations in the whole region through which it flows. 34. The god of this river is described, in the mythologi cal legend, as the son of Oceanus and Tethys, and as the eldest of 3,000 brothers. He fought "with Hercules for Deianira, but was conquered in the contest. He then took the form of a buU, but was again overcome by Hercules, who deprived him of one of his horns, which, however, he recovered by giving up the horn of Amalthea. According to Ovid the Naiads changed the horn which Hercules took from Achelous into the horn of plenty. 35. Evenus, now Fidhari, formerly called Lycormas, the chief river of Aetolia, rises in Mt. Oeta, and flows with a rapid stream through Aetolia into the sea, 10 mUes W. of Antirrhium. 36. According to the legend the Centaur Nessus, who carried Deianira across this river, was, when he attempted to run away with her, shot by Hercules vrith a poisoned arrow, which afterwards became the cause of the death of Hercules himself. 37. The Plistus, JCero-potamo, a small river in Phocis, rises in Mt. Parnassus, not half a mile from Delphi, where of Greece? Name and point out the most important. 33. "What and where was the Achelous? What is it said to have formed? 34. What legend is connected with this river ? 35, "Where and what was the Evenus ? 36. What legend is connected with this river ? 37. "Where does the Plistus rise, and into what 14 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. it receives the small stream C astalia, and falls into the Crissaean gulf near Cirrha. 38. The Sinus Crissaeus, now Gulf of Salona, is on the N. side of the Sin. Corinthiacus, between Phocis and the territory of the Locri Ozolae. 39. The Larissus or Jjavisns, now Mana, ov Risso, a smaU river forming the boundary between Achaia and Elis, rises in Mt. ScoUis, and flows into the Ionian Sea. 40. The Peneus, now Gastuni, a river in EUs, rises on the frontiers of Arcadia, flows by the town of Elis, and falls into the sea between the promontories Chelonites or Che- lonatas and Ichthys. There is a much larger and more celebrated river of the same name in Thessaly. 41. The most celebrated river of EUs, and at the same time, the largest river of Peloponnesus, was the Alphcus, now Alfeo, Rofeo, Ryfo, or Rufia, but chiefly known by this last form of the name, Rufia. 42. This river rises a little S. W. of Tegea in Arcadia, shortly afterwards sinks under ground, appears again near Asea, and then traverses the remainder of Arcadia, and flows through EUs. Other authorities, however, thus de scribe its course. It rises at Phylace, on the S. frontier of Arcadia, shortly afterwards loses itself under ground, appears again near Asea, and then mingles its waters "witli those of the Eurotas. After flowing 2 J miles, the two rivers disappear under ground ; the Alpheus again rises at Pegae or Pagae in Arcadia, and, increased by many affluents, flows N. W. through Arcadia and EUs, not far from Olym- pia, and falls into the Ionian Sea. 43. The subterranean descent of the river, which is confirmed by modern traveUers, gave rise to the story of the river-god Alpheus and the nymph Arethusa. The lat ter, pursued by Alpheus, was changed by Artemis into the fountain of Arethusa in the island of Ortygia at Syracuse ; but the god continued to pursue her under the sea, and at tempted to mingle his stream with the fountain in Ortygia. Plence it was said that a cup thrown into the Alpheus would appear again in the fountain of Arethusa in Ortygia. 44. The Ladon, Rufia, accounted the most beautiful stream in Peloponnesus, rose near Clitor and feU into the suf li'fi ^?'^ '. ^1 ^mxera is the Crissaean gulf? 39. Where is the Laria- brated ri™ri«t^°^°"/Sl''y' *"• "«^'='"« *« the Peneus, and what more oele- of EUs and it th« =° H ^^1 name ? 41. What was the most celebrated river it ri^o knrtJt' ,";'= ^^.™« time the chief river of Peloponnesus ? 42 Where did rise, and what was its course ? 43. What legend is comected with thrcourse of GEAECIA. 15 Alpheus, between Heraea and Phrixa. Its modern name ^^ gi^en as Rufia, the same as that of the Alpheus; but Col. Leake asserts that this name belongs only to the stream formed by the combined waters of the Alpheus and the Ladon, and that above their jmiction the latter is usuaUy caUed the River of Earltena. _ 45. TheNoda,now Buzi, rises in Arcadia in Mt. Cerau- sion, a branch of Mt. Lycaeus, and faUs into the Ionian Sea, after forming the boundary between Arcadia and Messenia, and between Messenia and EUs. 46. The Pamisus, now Firnatza, was the chief river of Messenia : it rises in the E. part of the country, 5 mUes E. of Ithome, flows first S. W., and then through the Mes- senian plain, and falls into the Messenian gulf, the Pamisus runs through the cultivated land with a clear stream, and is navigable to ships more than a mUe from the sea : sea- Gsh ascend into it, chiefly in the spring. 47.^ The Eurotas, now Vasili Potamo, also written Basili-potamo, the chief river in Laconia, but not navi gable, rises in Mt. Boreum in Arcadia, then disappears un der the earth, rises again near Sciritis, and flows south wards, passing Sparta on the E., through a narrow and fruitful valley, into the Laconian gulf. 48._The Inachus, nowBanitza, the chief river in Ar golis, rises in Mt. Lyrceus on the border of Arcadia, flows in a south-easterly direction, receives near Argos the Chara- drus, now Xerias, and falls into the Sinus Argolicus, S. of Argos. 49. The name Cephisus or Cephissus was borne by six dif ferent rivers in Greece. Of these, the two most important were, the one in Phocis and Boeotia, the other in Attica. 50. The Cephissus, which was the chief river in Pho cis and Boeotia, rises near Lilaea at the foot of Mt. Par nassus, in Phocis, flows through a fertUe valley in Phocis and Boeotia, and falls into the lake Copais, whioh is hence caUed Cephisis in the Iliad. 61. The Cephissus Atticus (so called to distinguish it from another small stream of the same name in Eleusis this river ? 44, "Where was the Ladon, what was it accounted, and what is said of its modern name ? 45. Where was the Neda, and what did it form ? 46. What and where is the Pamisus, and falls into what ? What is the character of its water, how far navigable ? 47. What and where is tho Eurotas, what is its course and where does it empty ? 48. What was the Inachus, rises where, lakes what course, and empties where ? 49. How many rivers in Greece were called Cephissus, and where were they ? 60. Describe the former of these two rivers more particularly. 51. Describe the second of these two rivers : how distinguish- 16 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. and near the city of Eleusis), the largest river in Attica, rises in the W. slope of Mt. Pentelicus, and flows past Athens on the W. into the Sinus Saronicus, near Phalerum. 52. The Ilissus, now Disse, a small river in Attica, rises on the N. slope of Mt. Hymettus, receives the brook Eridanus near the Lyceum outside the walls of Athens,' then flows through the E. side of Athens, and loses itself in the marshes in the Athenian plain. In Plato's time it appears to have been a perennial stream, but it is now usually dry, as its waters are drawn off to supply the city. 63. The Asopiis, now Asopo, in Boeotia, forming the boundary between the territories of Plataeae and Thebae, takes its rise in Mt. Cithaeron, and after traversing the "whole of southern Boeotia, crosses the N. W. comer of At tica, and falls into the Euboean sea near Oropus, and not far from Delphinum, in Attica. Though generally a smaU and sluggish stream, after heavy rains it could not easily be forded. 54. It was on the banks of the Asopus that the'battle of Plataeae was fought, b. c. 479. 55. The Ismenus, a small liver in Boeotia, rises in Mt. Cithaeron, flows through Thebae, and faUs into the lake Hylika, Senzina or lAvadhi. The lirook Dirce, so cele brated in Theban story, flowed into the Ismenus. From this river ApoUo was called Ismenius. His temple, the Ismenium, at which the festival of the Daphnephoria was celebrated, was situated outside the city of Thebae. 56. The Sperchius or Spercheus, Elladha, a river in the S. of Thessaly, which rises in Mt, Tymphrestus, runs in an easterly direction through the territory of the Aenianes, and through the district MaUs, andfaUs into the innermost comer of the Sinus MaUacus. _ 67. The Peneus, now Salambria or Salympria, the chief river of Thessaly, and one of the most important in all Greece, rises near AlalcSmenae in Mt. Lacmon, a branch of Mt. Pindus, flows first S. E. and then N. E., and after receiving many affluents, of which the most important were the Enipeus or the Apidanus, the Lethaeus, and the n^J.n.t^;*^."' '° the Ilissus, rises where, receives what, flows where, and whither, tSri^i^wW Pi'S'sent character ? 63. "Where does the Asopus rise, Arming what, in hisfoX 8 s?wi '*"'"« ""° '^'"'t and where ? 64. Por wlat is tliis stream noted was the Sner^hi^ ?" '""^ *v " I™™u8, and for what is it noted? §6. Where what ? 57 Wharwas Jhf Z^T' ,^?'^H ''""""gh what district, emptied into flows in what dii-ecHn„r»,? celebrated river in Thessaly, where does it rise, wnat auection, receives what afauente, and after flowing through what GEAECIA. 17 Titaresins, forces its way through the vale of Tempe, between Mt. Ossa and Mt. Olympus, into the Sinus Ther maicus. Another of its tributaries was the Phoenix, Sal- meniko, in the S. W. 58. The Enipeus, Fersaliti, rises in the S, W. in Mt. Othrys, and, according to some, flows into the Peneus, after receiving the Apidanus near Pharsalus. We deem it moro correct to regard this river as the affluent ofthe Apidanus, and the latter the tributary of the Peneus. 59. The Apidanus, Vlacho lani, rises in the S. E. in Mt. Othrys, and flowing in a N. W. course through the ThessaUan plain, in the S. part of which, near Pharsa lus, it receives the Enipeus. It empties into the Peneus. 60. The Lethaeus, -Z>e^•es^ or Trikkalino, vises in M.t. Pindus, flows S. E. almost parallel "with the Peneus, which it gradually approaches, and enters near the centre of Thessaly. 61. The Titaresius, now Elassonitiko or Xeraghi, also caUed Eur opus, rises in Mt. Titarus, flows through the country of the Perrhaebi, and falls into the Peneus S. E. of Phalanna. Its waters were impregnated with an oily sub stance, whence it was said to be a branch of the irifernal Styx. Ere we proceed to describe the divisions of Greece strictly so caUed, we shaU here introduce a brief account of Epirus, because of its important connection with Greece, since from it proceeded the Thessalians, and because from one of its tribes we have the name Graecia, Greece, and for the reason also, that, in later times, it was reckoned as one of the ten districts into which the north of Greece was divided. 1. — Epirus. 1. Epirus was bounded on the N. by Illyria and Mace donia, on the E. by Thessaly, on the S. by Aetolia and the Sinus Ambracius, and on the W. by the Mare Ionium. The name means " mainland," and originated with the inhabitants of the neighboring islands. It is now called Albania. empties into what Sinus ? 58. Where does the Enipeus rise? 59. Where did the Apidanus rise, and in what direction was its course ? 60. Where does the Le thaeus rise and in what direction does it flow? 61. .The Titaresius, having what other name, rises where, flows through what, and enters the Peneus where? What was the character of its waters, giving rise to what? 1, How was Epirus bounded, and what is the meaning of its name ? 2. "What 18 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 2. The chief rivers were a., the Achelous, Aspropo- tamo, which traverses the valley immediately below Pin dus : b., the Arachthus or Aretho, Arta, which, after a parallel course with that of the foregoing, discharges itself into the Sinus Ambracius: c, the Thyamis, Ealama, forming the boundary between Thesprotia and the district of Cestryna, and flowing into the sea opposite Corcyra : d., the Acheron, a smaU river in Thesprotia, flowing through the lake Acherusia into the Mare Ionium : it is noteworthy only because it was reputed to communicate with the infernal regions. It is now caUed Suli. 3. The original population appears to have been Pelas- gic; and the ancient -oracle of Do dona in the country was always regarded as of Pelasgie origin. These Pelas- gians were subsequently mingled with lUyrians, who at various times invaded Epirus and settled in the country. Epirus contained 14 different tribes. Of these the most important were theChaonesintheN.W., the Thesproti in the S. W., and the Molossi in the interior, who gave their names to the three principal divisions ofthe country: Chaonia, Thespeotia and Molossis. The district about the Ambracian Gulf formed an independent State under the Corinthian town of Ambracia. 4. The chief towns were, a.. Do dona, in Molossis, at the S. extremity of Lake Pambotis, now lake oilanina, the seat ofthe ancient oracle of Jupiter: 5., Pandosia, in Thesprotia, on the Acheron: c, Ambracia, novf Arta, a flourishing town on the Arachthus, about 10 mUes from the gulf, founded by Corinth ; and Nicopolis, the ruins of which are caUed Faleoprevyza, buUt by Augustus, in mem ory of the battle of Actium, near the neck of the gulf. 6. The important island of Corcyra, universally re garded by the ancients as the Homeric Scheria, the abode of the enterprising and sea-lo"ving Phaeacians, lay opposite the coast of Epirus, and is now called Corfu. Its two chief towns were Corcyra, the modern town of Corfu, in the middle of the E. coast ; and Cassiope, N. ofthe former. The island is historically fe,mous from its having been one of the proximate causes of the Peloponnesian war. hol^^^'''' Y'^l" ^^'^ "'^'^^^ ""'^'"^ ' 3, What were the inhabitants of the country, ^^^t?*°y tribes were there, whioh were the most important, giving name to " Wand lav ^^^¦7'^S' ""^ ehief towns, and where situated? 5. "What important iBiana lay opposite the coast of Epirus ? GEAECIA. 19 2. — Thessalia. 1. Thessalia is said to have been originaUy known by the names of Pyrrha, Aemonia, and Aeolis. The former two appeUations belong to mythology : the latter refers to the period when the country was mhabited by Aeolians, who were afterwards expeUed by the ThessaUans, about 60 years after the Trojan war. 2. This largest division of Greece was bounded on the N. by the Cambunian Mountains, which separated it from Macedonia : on the W. by Mt. Pindus, which separated it from Epirus : on the E. by the Aegaean Sea ; and on the S. by the MaUacus Sinus and Mt. Oeta, which separated it from Locris, Phocis and Aetolia. 3. Thessaly was early divided into the four districts of Hestiaeotis, Pelasgiotis, Thessaliotis, andPhthio- tis. They comprised, however, only the great ThessaUan plain lying between the Cambunian Mts. in the N., Mt. Othrys on the S., Mt. Pindus on the W., and Mts. Ossa and PeUon on the E. Besides them we find mention of 4 other districts, viz. Magnesia, D616pia, Oetaea, and Malis. Thus Thessaly was divided into eight districts. Perrhaebia in the N. was not properly a district, since Perrhaebi was the name of a Pelasgie people settled in Hestiaeotis and Pelasgiotis. 4. The Thessalians were a Thesprotian tribe. Under the guidance of leaders who were said to have been descendants of Hercules, they invaded the W. part of the country, and drove out or reduced to subjection the ancient Aeolian "inhabitants. Spreading afterwards over the other parts of the country, they compelled the Perrhaebi, Mag netos, Achaean Phthiotae, etc., to submit to their authority, and pay them tribute. 5. The mountains which form, in part the boundaries of Thessalia, having been already named, we have now only the following few to mention: a., Homole Mons, still bearing the same name, the extreme point of Magnesia to the N., probably a portion of the chain of Ossa, and celebrated by the poets as the abode of the ancient Cen- 1. By what names was Thessaly originally known ? 2. How was Thessaly bounded? 3. Into what districts was Thessaly divided ? 4. Where did the Thes salians come from, invading Thessaly under what leaders, and subjugating whom? 5, Name and point out the chief mountains in Thessaly, and give the legends 20 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. taurs and Lapithae, and a favorite haunt of Pan, who had asanotuary here : 6. Ossa Mons, now ^mouo, extending from the right bank of the Peneus along the Magnesian coast to the chain of Pelion. It was supposed that Ossa and Olympus were once united and rent asunder by an earthquake: c. Olympus Mons, now Elymbo, Turk. Semavat Evi, i. e. Abode of the Celestials, the S. E. part of the great chain of mountains "which extends W. and E. from the Acroceraunian promontory on the Adriatic, to the Thermaio Gulf, and which formed the N. boundary of Greece Proper : in the more specific and ordinary use of the name, Olympus denotes the extreme E. part of the chain, which, striking off from the Cambunian Mts. to the S. E., skirts the sUp of coast called Pieria, and forms at its termination the N. waU of the vale of Tempe. Its shape is that of a blunt cone, with its outline picturesquely broken by minor summits : its height is about 9,700 feet, and its chief summit is covered with perpetual snow. In the Greek mythology, Olympus was the chief seat of the third dynasty of gods, of which Zeus was the head. In the legend the giants are represented as piling PeUon upon Ossa, and both upon Olympus, (i. e., on the lower slopes,) in order to scale the ovpavds, heaven, i. e. the summit of Olympus itself, the abode of the gods; d., Pelion, more rarely Pelios Mons, in the district of Magnesia, a lofty range between lake Boebeis and the Pagasaeus Sinus, formed the promontories of Sepias and Aeantium. The connection of this mountain "with the war of the giants with the gods has been already referred to. Near its sum mit was the cave of the Centaur Chiron, whose residence was probably placed here on account of the number of the medicinal plants which grew upon the mountain, since he was celebrated for his skiU in medicine. 6. In addition to the rivers of Thessaly already de scribed, we only yet mention the Amphrysus, now Ar- myro, a smaU stream flo"wing into the Pagasaean Gulf, noted chiefly because of the legend, that on its banks Apollo fed the herds of Admetus, whence '¦'¦pastor ab Am- phryso," Virg. Georg. in. 2. PLACES IN THESSALY. 7. Gomphi, a town in Hestiaeotis, near the left bank ^°o? w*f*''r.^"'^ *''^?' fVi?e„an account>, a., of Mt, Homfile : b. of Mt, Ossa : c, of Mt. Olympus : d. of Mt. Pehon. 6, What and where was the Amphrysus, GEAECLA. 21 of the Pamisus, S. E. of Phaloria, was a strong fortress commanding, the chief pass between TJiessaly and Epirus: It was taken and destroyed by Caesar, b. c. 48, but was afterwards rebuilt. It is now Episkopi. 8. Tricca, subsequently Tricala, now Trikkala, an ancient town in Hestiaeotis, was situated on the Lethaeus, N. of the Peneus, S. E. of Phaloria, N. E. of Gomphi. Homer represents it as governed by the sons of Aescu lapius ; and it contained in later times a celebrated temple of this god. _ 9. Pythium, in the E. part of Hestiaeotis, forming with Azorus and Doliche the Perrhaebian Tripolis, commanded an important defile leading from Thessaly into Macedonia through Perrhaebia. It was near the W. base of Mt. Olympus, and possessed a temple of Apollo (who was hence called Pythius), which seems to have been held in great veneration, as games were celebrated there in honor of the deity. 10. Gonnus or Gonni, now LyJcostomo, an ancient and strongly fortified town of the Perrhaebi, on the river Peneus and at the entrance of the gorge of Tempe, 20 mUes N. of Larissa. PhUip retired thither immediately after his defeat at Cynoscephalae. It was strongly fortified by Perseus (son of PhiUp V. of Macedon) in his first cam paign against the Romans, who made no attempt to render themselves masters of this key of Macedonia. 11. Tempe is a beautiful and romantic valley between Mts. Olympus and Ossa, through which the Peneus escapes into the sea. The lovely scenery of this glen is frequently described by the ancient poets and declaimers ; and it was also celebrated as one of the favorite haunts of Apollo, who had transplanted his laurel from this spot to Delphi. The whole vaUey is rather less than 5 mUes in length, and opens graduaUy to the E. into a spacious plain. Tempe is also of great importance in histor/, as it is the only pass through which an army can invade Thessaly from the N. In some parts the rocks on each side of the Peneus approach so close to each other as only to leave room between them for the stream ; and the road is obliged to be cut out of the rock in the narrowest point. Tempe is the only channel and noted for what ? 7. "What and where was Gomphi ? 8. Where was Tricca situated, and for what was it noted ? 9, Where was Pythium, and how is it noted in mythology? 10 Where was Gonnus, and how distinguished in history ? 11. Describe the vale of Tempe, and state for what it was celebrated, 12. Where was 22 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. through which the waters of the ThessaUan plain descend into the sea ; and it was the common opinion in antiquity that these waters had once covered the country with a vast lake, till an outlet was formed for them by some great con vulsion in nature, whioh rent the rooks of Tempe asunder. 12. Larissa, now the same, or Larza, an important town in Pelasgiotis, situated on the Peneus,_m_an exten sive plain, was once the capital of the Pelasgi : it retained its importance under the Romans, and after the time of Constantine the Great, became the capital of the province of Thessaly. The name is pecuUar to the Pelasgi, denoting, wherever it is found, a Pelasgie settlement, whence Larissa is caUed in mythology the daughter of Pelasgus. 13. C ran on or Crannon, one of the most ancient and considerable towns in Pelasgiotis, was near Larissa, to the S. W. Thophrastus speaks of a spring near this place -re markable for the property of warming wine when mixed "with it, and which retained the heat thus communicated for two or three days. This town is now Hddjilar. 14. Scotussa, now Supli, a very ancient town in Pelas giotis, near the source of the Onchestus, S. E. of Larissa, was not far from the hUl Cynoscephalae, rendered memorable by the victory gained there by the Roman consul T. Quintius Flamininus over PhUip V. of Macedon, B. c. 197. 16. Pherae, now Valestino, one of the most ancient and important cities of Thessaly, in Pelasgiotis, in the S. E. of the Pelasgian plain, W. of Mt. PeUon, S. W. of lake Boebeis, and about 11 mUes from its port-town Pagasae, is celebrated in mythology as the residence of Admetus, and in history on account of its tyrants who extended their power over nearly the whole of Thessaly. 16. The fountains of Hyperea and Messeis, celebrated by Homer and other poets, are generaUy supposed to have belonged to this ancient city. 17. Pharsalus, now Pharsa or Fersala, in the district Thessaliotis, not far from the frontiers of Phthiotis, W. of the river Enipeus, and on the N. slope of Narthacius Mons, was divided into an old and a new city, and contained a Larissa, and what was its rank? To whom was the name peculiar! 13. "What and where was Cranon ? In its neighborhood was what spring, possessing what property? 14. "Where was Scotussa.; what famous site was in its neig hborhood, noted for what ? 15. What and where was Pherae, and for what was it celebrated Dots in mythology and history? 16. What celebrated fountains are supposed to have belonged to this city ? 17. Where was Pharsalus, and for what is it famous ! GEAECIA. 23 strongly fortified acropoUs. Near Pharsalus was fought, June 6th, b. c. 48, the decisive battle between Caesar and Pompey, which made Caesar master of the Roman world. It is frequently caUed the battle of Pharsalia, this being the name ofthe territory ofthe to"wn. 18. Aphetae, now the seaport town Fetio, according to Cramer, others giving Trikeri as its modern name, at the S. W. extremity of Magnesia, on the neck of the Sin. Pagasaeus, is said to have derived its name from the depar ture (6.(f>L7]p.L) of the Argonauts from this place on their voyage to Colchis. 19. Thaumaci, now Thomoko, in the N. W. of Phthiotis, to the S. W. of Pharsalus, is said to have de rived its name from the singularity of its situation, and the astonishment produced on the minds of travellers upon first reaching it. " You arrive," says Livy, " after a very diffi cult and rugged route over hill and dale, when you sud denly open on an immense plain like a vast sea, which stretches below as far as the eye can reach." A recent traveUer, Mr. DodweU, says : " The position is strong ; and it must at aU times have been a place of importance. The view from this place is one of the most wonderful and ex tensive I ever beheld." 20. Magnesia, the most easterly district of Thessaly, was a long narrow slip of country, extending from the Peneus on the N. to and nearly round the Pagasaeus Sin. on the S. and bounded on the W. by the great ThessaUan plain. It was a mountainous country, as it comprehended the mountains PeUon, Ossa, and Homole. Its inhabitants, the Magnetes, are said to have founded two cities in Asia Minor, viz. Magnesia ad Sipylum, in the N. W. of Lydia, and Magnesia ad Maeandrum in the S. W. of Lydia. 21. lolcos, Lat. form lolcus, was an ancient town in Magnesia, at the head of the Pagasaeus Sin., not quite a mile from the sea. It was celebrated in mythology ae the birthplace and residence of PeUas and Jason. 22. Pagasae, called by the Romans Pagasa-ae, now Volo^ was on the coast of Magnesia, and on the bay called after it Sinus Pagasaeus or Pagasicus, Gulf of Volo. It was the port of lolcos, and afterwards of Pherae, and is 18, "What and where was Aphetae, and why was it so called ? 19, Where was Thaumaci, and for what reason was it so oaUed ? 20. What and where is Mag nesia ? Its inhabitants are said to have founded what colonies ! 21. Where was lolcos, and with what legend is it connected? 22. Where was Pagasae, giving name to what, noted in mythology for what, and from what was its own name de- 24 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. celebrated in mythology as the place where Jason built the ship Argo. Hence some of the ancients derived its name from ir^ywp.t; but others connected the hame with the fountains (irrjyaC) in the neighborhood, 23. Demetrlas, now Goritza, in Magnesia, on the innermost recess of the Pagasaen gulf, a short distance S. E. of Pagasae, was founded, and named after himself, by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and peopled by the inhabitants of lolcos and the surrounding towns ; it soon became one of the most important towns in the N. of Greece, and in a military point of "view was aUowed to rank among the prin cipal fortresses of the coimtry. It was, in fact, most ad vantageously placed for defending the approaches to the defile of Tempe, as weU on the side of the plains as on that of the mountains. Its maritime situation also, both from its proximity to the island of Euboea, Attica, the Pelopon nesus, the Cyclades, and the opposite shores of Asia, ren dered it a most important acquisition to the sovereigns of Macedonia. Hence PhiUp, the son of Demetrius, is said to have termed it one ofthe chains of Greece. 24. Anticyra, more anciently Anticirrha, was situ ated on the Sperchius, not far from its mouth. This town, as was also another of the same name in Phoois, was cele brated for producing the genuine heUebore, the chief remedy in antiquity for madness : hence the proverb 'AvTLKippa's a-e Set, when a person acted senselessly, and Naviget Anticyram (Hor. Sat. H. 3. 166). 25. Lamia, Zeitun or Zeituni, in Phthiotis, N. (or a little E. of N.) of Anticyra, was situated, on the smaU river Achelous, and a little over 6 miles inland from the Maliae gulf, on which it possessed a harbor caUed Phalara. It has given its name to the war (the Lamiac War) which was carried on by the confederate Greeks against Antipater after the death of Alexander, b. c. 323. The confederates, under the command of Leosthenes the Athenian, defeated Antipater, who took refuge in Lamia, where he was be sieged for some months. 26. Trachis or Trachin, also called Heraclea Trachiniae, or Heraclea Phthiotidis, or simply Heraclea, S. of Anticyra, in the district MaUs, was the place to which Hercules retired, after having committed an whatLo?»ti5I'^°i'®^?°-''^™°''"'''^i by whom was it founded and named; and whatwiritnoted^%?^w^^ "^ situation? 24. Where was Anticyra, and for 26. "Where waaTrLbi« Z?°''S f?^ L^la, and for what is it notedin histotyj vvneie was Irachis, and what legend is connected with it? 27. Pointoutond GEAECIA. 25 involuntary murder, as we learn from Sophocles, who has made it the scene of one of his deepest tragedies, the Trachiniae, i. e. " Hie T)-achinian "Women." 27. ThermSpylae, often called simply Pylae i@ipp.o- TniXa.1, nu'Xac), i. e. the Hot Gates or the Gates, a celebrated pass leading from Thessaly into Locris, lay between Mt. Oeta and an inaccessible morass, forming the edge of the Maliae gulf. At one end of the pass the mountain ap proached so close to the morass as to leave room for only a single carriage between : this narrow entrance formed the W. gate of Thermopylae. About a mUe to the E., the mountain again approached close to the sea, near the Locrian town of Alpeni, thus forming the^E. gate of Ther mopylae. The space between these two gates was wider and more open, and was distinguished by its abundant flow of hot springs, which were sacred to Hercules : hence the name of the place. Thermopylae was the only pass by which an enemy could penetrate from northern into south- er# Greece, whence its great importance in Grecian history. 28. Thermopylae is especiaUy celebrated on account of the heroic defence of Leonidas and his 300 Spartans against the mighty host of Xerxes, b. c. 480. — This moun tain-pass commenced from the neighborhood of Trachis, ascended the gorge of the river Asopus and the hiU called Anopaea, then crossed the crest of Oeta, and descended in the rear of Thermopylae near the town of Alponi. 29. The Une of coast has so much advanced by the allu vial deposits of the Sperchius, that the pass no longer ex ists. But the Thermae, or hot springs, are stiU there, issu ing from two mouths at the foot of the limestone precipices of Mt. Oeta, half way between Bodonitza and Thermopylae. The temperature of the water is 111° of Fahrenheit at the mouth of the spring. It is impregnated with carbonic acid, lime, salt, and sulphur, and is very transparent. The ground round the springs yields a hollow sound like the soltaterra at Naples. 30. The highest summit of Oeta was, according to Livy, named Callidromus; it was occupied by Cato with a body of troops in the battle fought at the pass of Thermo pylae, between the Romans under AcUius Glabrio, and the army of Antiochus, b. c. 191, and owing to this manoeuvre the latter was entirely routed. describe Thermopylae. 28. Por what is Thermopylae especially celebrated? 29. "What is the present condition of the pass? 30. How is Thermopylae famous in Eoman history ? 2 26 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 3. — JMcarnania, 1, Acarnania, the most westerly province of Greece, was bounded on the N. by the Sinus Ambracius, on the W. and S. W. by the Ionian Sea, on the N. E._ by AmphUochia, which is sometimes included in Acarnania, and on the E. by Aetolia, from which, at a later time it was separated by the Achelous : it had pre"viously encroached on the Aeto- lian territory. The name does not occur in Homer. 2. In the most ancient times the land was inhabited hy theTaphii, Teleboae and Leleges, and subsequently by the Curetes, emigrants fromAetoUa. At a later time a colony from Argos, said to have been led by Acaenan, the son of Alcmaeon, settled in the country. In the seventh century b. c. the Corinthians founded several towns on the coast. 3. The Acarnanians first emerge from obscurity atlhe beginning of the Peloponnesian war, b. c. 431, in whioh, as the aUies of the Athenians, they rendered the latter essen tial services. They were, at that early period, a rude peo ple, living by piracy and robbery, and they always remained behind the rest of the Greeks in civiUzation and refinement. They were good slingers, and are praised for their fidelity and courage. 4. There were two famous promontories on the coast, Actium and Leucate. Actium Pr. was at the en trance of the Ambracian Gulf; off this point Augustus gained the celebrated victory over Antony and Cleopatra, on September 2, b. c. 31.'' At the S. extremity of Leucadia, (now an island), was the promontory variously caUed, pro bably from the white color ofthe rock, Leucas, Leu* catas, Leucates, or Leucate, now Cape Ducato, on which was a temple of ApoUo, who hence had the surname Leucadius. A singular expiatory rite annually performed here gave rise to the well-known story, that lovers leaped from this rock, in order to seek relief from the pangs of love. Thus Sappho is said to have leapt down from this rock, when in love with Phaon ; but this well-known story vanishes at the first approach of criticism. 1. How was Acarnania bounded ? 2. Who were its first inhabitants, and what colonies came in later ? 3. When do tlie Acarnanians appear in history, and "wnat sort of people were they ? 4, What noted Promontories were on the cqaat, and GEAECIA. 27 ISLANDS OPP THE COAST OP ACAENANIA. 5. Leucas or Leucadia, now Santa Maura, oW the W. coast, about 20 mUes in length, and from 5 to 8 miles m breadth, derived its name from the numerous calcareous hUls which cover its surface. It was originally united to the mamland at its N. E. extremity by a narrow isthmus. Homer speaks of it as a Penmsula, and mentions its weU- fortified town Nericus. 6. The Echinades Insulae, now the islands of Curzolari, were a group of smaU islands opposite the mouth of the Achelous. Cramer calls them " rocks, which in process of time have for the most part become connected with the land by the alluvial deposits of the muddy waters of the river. " Dr. Smith says that " they are a group of smaU islands * * * , said to have been formed by the aUuvial deposits of the Achelous. " They appear to have derived their name from their resemblance to the Echinus or sea- urchin. 7. The largest of these islands was Dulichium. It is mentioned more than once in the Odyssey as being well peopled and extensive, and fi-om it Meges, son of Phyleus, went to the Trojan war. At the present day it is unitdQ to the mainland. 8. The Echinades being of little importance, we name the foUowing as the principal islands off Acarnania: 1, Ithaca, now Thiaki ; 2, Cephallenia, now Cephalo- nia ; 3, Zacynthus, now Zante ov Zacyntho ; 4, Te leboae or Taphiae Insvlae, now TeV)oides. These four, together with three others, viz., 1, Leucas, now Santa Maura; 2, Paxos, now Paxo ; and 3, Cythera, now Cerigo ; in aU, seven islands, now form what is called the Ionian Republic, dependent on Great Britain. Although some of these islands do not lie off the coast of Acarnania, we deem it most convenient to connect them together, and to introduce in this place aU the noteworthy islands off the W. coast of Greece. 9. Ithaca, now Thiaki, celebrated as the birth-place of Ulysses, lies directly S. of Leucadia, from which it is dis tant about six miles, and is separated from Cephallenia by for what are they celebrated ? 5. "What and where was the island of Leucadia ? 6. Where and what were the Echinades Insulae ? 7. Which was the principal one of these islands, and for what is it noted ? 8. Name the principal islands off the coast of Acarnania, and state what they now form. 9, Where was Ithaca, noted 28 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. a channel about 3 mUes wide. The island is 14 miles long, and 4 in its greatest breadth. The general aspect of the island is that of extreme barrenness, ruggedness and asper ity, and there are not 100 yards of continuous level" ground on it, warranting the expression of Cicero that Ulysses loved his country "non quia larga, sed quia sua." The scenery, however, is rendered striking by the bold and broken outUne of mountains, promontories and bays, whUe the openings of the narrow vaUeys to the sea are wooded -with olives, orange or almond trees, or covered with vineyards. 10. The climate of Ithaca is the healthiest of the Seven Islands, and the inhabitants are famous for their longevity. 11. The island is divided into two parts by a deep bay which enters it on the E. side, so that the two parts are connected only by a narrow isthmus not more than half a mUe across. This gulf presents a magnificent spectacle, for it branches out into arms and bays, which are sheltered by lofty hUls and promontories of rock. 1 2. In each of the two parts into which the island is thus divided there is a mountain ridge of considerable height, the one in the N. caUed Neritum, now ,4woi, and the dhe in the S., Neium, now Stefano,. 13. The city of Ithaca, the residence of Ulysses, was situated on a precipitous, conical hUl, now caUed Aeto, or " eagle's cliff, " occupying the whole breadth of the isthmus mentioned above. The acropoUs, or castle of Ulysses, crowned the extreme summit of the mountain, and is de scribed by a modern traveller as " about as black and dreary a spot as can weU be imagined for a princely resi dence. " It is at the foot of Mt. Neium, and is hence de scribed by Telemachus as "Under Neium," 'WaKTjs 'Yirovijim. The walls of the ancient city are in many places weU pre served. 14. The port which Homer calls Phorcys, and de scribes so accurately, is now Afrikis Bay : another haven, called Rheithron, situated apparently under Mt. Neion, is now the Chtlf of Molo. 15. Cephallenia, calledby Homer Same or Samos, the largest island in the Ionian sea, was separated from fts ^^nh^hH^JSj " ]'^ eeneral aspect ? 10. What is the cUmate of Ithaca, making 12 mit iSl WW °"' for wiat? 11. How and by what is Ithaca divided? therrand wherr^nUif " ""^ "'i^^ mountains of Ithaca? 13. What city was mere and where, and where was the acropolis of Ulysses ? 14. "What ports had GEAECIA. 29 Ithaca on the E. by a narrow channel. It is now Cepha- Ionia. 16. The island is very mountainous, and the highest mountain, caUed Aenos, now Monte Nero, ov M. Elato, on which stood a temple of Zeus, rises more than 4,000 feet above the sea. 17. Cephallenia was a tetrapolis, containing the four to"wns. Same, Pale or Palle, Cranii, and Pr6ni or Pronesus. It never attained political importance. In the Persian wars the inhabitants of Pale are alone mentioned. In the Peloponnesian war Cephallenia surrendered to the Athenians. Same, the only town in the island mentioned by Homer, and hence probably the most ancient and im portant, ventured to oppose the Romans, but was taken by M. Fulvius, B. c. 189. 18. Zacynthus, now Zante, to the S. of Cephallenia, "with a large and flourishing" to"wn upon the E. coast, the citadel of which was caUed Psophis, was celebrated in antiquity for its pitch wells, which were visited by Herod otus, and which stUl supply a large quantity of bitumen. About 100 tons of bitumen are at the present day annually extracted from these wells. 19. Zacynthus, inhabited by a Greek population at an early period, is said to have derived its name from Zacyn thus, a son of Dardanus, who colonized the island from Psophis in Arcadia ; and according to an ancient tradition, the Zacynthians founded the town of Saguntum in Spain. 20. The Taphiae Insulae were a number of smaU islands between the coasts of Acarnania and Leucadia. They were also called theTelebbaelnsulae, and their in habitants were in like manner named Taphu (Ta^tot) or Teleboae (TrjXi^oaL). 21. The largest of these islands is called T§,phos by Homer, but Taphius or Taphiusa by later writers. These islands are mentioned in Homer as the haunts of no torious pirates, and are celebrated in mythology on account of the war carried on between them and Electryon, king of Mycenae. Ithaca ? 15. Cephallenia, how called by Homer, was what and where ? 16. "What is the nature of the surface, and what the highest mountain! 19. What was Cephallenia; what were its four towns, and what is said of them ? 18. Where was Zacynthus, having what town ? for what was the island celebrated? 19. What legends are there respecting Zachinthus ? 20. Where were the Taphiae Insulae, OiSled also by what other name ? 21. Name the OTincipal islands of this group, and state for what the islands were noted, 22. "Wliat are the present names of 30 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 22. This group is now called the Telboides islands, and the present name of Taphos is Meganisi. PLACES IN ACAENANIA. 23. The chief city of Acarnania was Stratus, a Uttle more than a mile W. of the Achelous. It was a strongly fortified town, and commanded the ford of the Achelous on the high road from Aetolia to Acarnania. Hence it was a place of military importance, and was, at an early period, taken possession of by the Aetolians. 24. Argos Amphilochicum, the chief town of the Amphilochi, was situated on the Ambracian gulf, and founded by the Argive Amphilochus. 25. Another town of the Amphilochi was Ol'p ae,.Arapi, on a height close to the shore of the Ambracian gulf, about 3 mUes fi-om Argos. It would have remained unknown but for the decisive victory gained here by the Acarnanians and Amphilochians, under the command of Demosthenes, the Athenian general, b. c. 426, over the Ambraciots and Peloponnesians. 26. Alyzia or Alyzea, the ruins of which are in the valley of Eaudili, was a town of some note, near the sea, opposite Leucas, with a harbor and a temple both sacred to Hercules. The temple contained one of the works of Ly sippus, a group representing" the labors of Hercules, whioh the Romans carried off. 27. Oeniadae (the site, perhaps at Gardako,hssnot yet been ascertained), situated on the Achelous, near its mouth, was surrounded by marshes caused by the over flowing of the river, which thus protected it from hostile attacks. It was called in earlier times Erysiohe, audits inhabitants Erysichaei; and it probably derived its later name from the mythical Oeneus, the grandfather of Dio- medes. UnUke the other cities of Acarnania, Oeniadae espoused the cause of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. 28. This may be the most suitable place to mention the Strophades Insulae, formerly called Plotae, now called the group, and of Taphos? 23. What was the chief town of Acarnania, and for wnat was it noted ? 24. What and where was Argos Amphilochicum, founded oy Whom ? 26. VVhat other town of the Amphilochi can you mention, and what wfn \ ^?*''.SS''*''y ' 2^- '""'»" ™d "Where was Alyzia, and for what was it cele- Ita l.tov tJ' "^'"¦^ "«'''? Oeniadae, how situated, formerly how called, deriving 28 What?w^™ li"? ,"^''J""' espousing what side in the Peloponnesian- war ? able ? ™^' '°'™^^ ^^ ^- of Zacynthus, and for what are they remark- GEAECIA. 31 Strofadia and StrivaU, two islands in the Ionian Sea, due S. from the eastern extremity of Zacynthus. They are re markable only in connection with the mythological legend, that the Harpies were pursued to these islands by the sons of Boreas ; and it was from the circumstance of the latter returning (o-rpe'^o)) from these islands after the pursuit, that they are supposed to have obtained the name of Strophades. 4. — tSletolia. 1. Aetolia was bounded on the W. by Acarnania, from which it was separated by the Achelous, on the N. by Epirus and Thessaly, on the S. E. by the Locri Ozolae, and on the S. by the entrance to the Corinthian gulf. It was divided into two parts : Old AetoUa, from the Achelous to the Evenus and Calydon, and New Aetolia, or the Acquired, (hriKTTjTo?,) from the Evenus and Calydon to the OzoUan Locrians. 2. The country was originaUy inhabited by Curetes and Leleges : their country was subsequently invaded by the Aeolians, a ThessaUan tribe, when these were expeUed from their original settlements, and it was then called Aeolis ; but a more complete change was efiected by Aetolus, the son of Endymion, who arrived from EUs, in Peloponnesus, at the head of an army, and, having defeated the Curetes in several actions, forced them to abandon their country, to which the conqueror gave the name of Aetolia. 3. On the coast the country is level and fruitful, but in the interior mountainous and unproductive. The moun tains contained many wild beasts, and were celebrated in mythology for the hunt of the Calydonian boar, and the exploits of Meleager and Tydeus, "with those of other Ae- toUan warriors of the heroic age. PLACES IN AETOLIA. 4. Conope or Conopa, on the left bank of the Achel ous, was advantageously situated for crossing that river. Strabo insinuates that it was, at first, an inconsiderable place, untU Arsinoe, the sister and wife of Ptolemy Phila- delphus, erected there a large city, which bore her name. Authorities differ as regards the site of this city ; but it 1, How was Aetolia bounded, and how divided? 2, By what people was Aetolia first inhabited, and how did it obtain its name? 3, What is the face of the country, and for what were the mountains celebrated ? 4, Where was Conope, 82 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. seems to answer to that oi Angelo Castro, where consider able ruins are pointed out in modern maps. Near it flowed the small stream C yat hus, Neschio. 5. E. of the Achelous, and thence extending two-thirds across the S. half of the country, was Lake Conope, which Ovid (Metam. VIL 371 and 380) caUs Hyrie. It is also caUed Lysimachia Lacus, now Lake Zygos or Arv- gelocastro. Here also various discrepancies remain to be reconcUed. 6. Calydon on the Evenus, situated on a rocky height, was said to have b.een founded by Aetolus or his son Caly don. The surrounding country produced wine, oil, and corn; It is famed in Grecian story, and the theme of poe try from Homer to Statins. It was in the mountains in its neighborhood that the celebrated hunt of the Calydonian boar took place. 7. Therma or Thermum was some distance E. of Stratus, (in Acarnania,) and situated in one of the wildest and roughest regions in Aetolia, which could be reached only by an exceedingly steep and craggy road, rendered in some places most perUbus by the formidable precipices which Uned it on either side. So remote, indeed, was its situation, and so difiicult the approach to it, that it was con sidered inaccessible, and therefore deemed the citadel of aU AetoUa. It was here that the assemblies for deciding the elections of magistrates were held, as weU as the most splen did festivals and commercial meetings. Hence the place was stored, not only with abundance of pro"risions and neces saries of life, but "with the most costly furniture and uten- sUs of every kind adapted for entertainments. Philip III. of Macedon, (b. c. 357) in his famous expedition into Aeto lia, during the Social War, took the city and gave it up to pillage. The invaders did not spare even the temples, but, in revenge for the excesses committed by the AetoUans at Diurn and Dodona, defaced more than 2,000 statues, set fire to the porches, and finally razed the buildings them selves to the ground. Out of a great quantity of arms they selected the most costly to carry away, but burnt the greater jaart, to the number of 15,000 complete suits of ar mor. " All these facts attest the size and opulence of the how situated, and by whom enlarged? 5. "Where was Lake Conope, and what other name had it ? 6. Where was Calydon, by whom founded, and what did the surrounding country produce: how is it famed in mythology? 7, Point out and give an account of Therma, or Thermum, 8. Point out and describe Antirrhium: mention Its other names, and state what rendered it important. GEAECLi. 33 town. Some years after, Philip again made a similar expe dition against this town, and destroyed it completely, 8, Antirrhium, Castello di Romelia, a promontory on the borders of Aetolia and Locris, was so called from its being opposite to Rhium, another point in Achaia. It was sometimes called Molyoricum, from its vicinity to the town called Molycria or Molycrium, and was also called Khium Aetohcum. The narrowness of the strait between these two promontories rendered this pomt of great im portance for the passage of troops to and from Aetolia and the Peloponnesus. On Antirrhium was a temple sacred to Neptune. ¦; 5. — Horis. 1. The smaU provmce of Doris, the cradle ofthe Dorian race, lay in the highest valley of the Cephissus, or rather of its tributary, the Pindus, between the diverging ranges of Oeta and Parnassus : it was bounded on the N. by Thessaly, on the W. by AetoUa, on the S. by Locris, and on the E. by Phocis. 2. In this confined and rugged spot there existed a TetrapoUs, or confederacy of four towns, named Pindus Erineus, Cytinium, and Boeum, the first two on the left, the others on the right bank of the river. These towns never attained any consequence, and in the time of the Romans were in ruins. 3. The country is of importance, as the home of the Dorians, one of the great HeUenic races, who claimed descent from the Mythical Dorus. The Dorians first in habited Phthiotis in the time of DeucaUon : next, under Dorus, they dwelt in Hestiaeotis at the foot of Ossa and Olympus ; expeUed thence by the Cadmeans, they settled in Mt. Pindus, and subsequently took up their abode in Dryopis, afterwards caUed Doris. Their fifth and last mi gration was to Peloponnesus, which they conquered, accord ing to tradition, 80 years after the Trojan war. 6. — IJocris. 1. Locris derived its name from the Locri, its inhab itants. 1. "Where and what was Doris, and how was it bounded? 2. "What towns did Doris contain ? 3. What gives this small country importance ? "What were the migrations of the Dorians ? 1. Point out Locris. The name whence derived? 2, How many and what 34: ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 2. There were three distinct tribes : the Locri Ozolae, Locri Epicnemidu, and Locri Opuntii. 3. The Locri Ozolae occupied a narrow tract of country, situated on the northern shore of the Corinthian gulf, commencing at the Aetolian Rhium, and terminating near Crissa, the first town of Phocis, on the bay to which it gave its name. Their name, according to fabulous ac counts, was derived from some fetid springs near the hiU of Taphius, or Taphiassus, situated on their coast, and be neath which it was reported that the centaur Nessus had been entombed. 4. Naupactus was at the western extremity ofthe Locrian Territory, and close to Rhium of AetoUa. It was said to have derived its name from the circumstance ofthe Heraclidae having there constructed the fleet (vaCs and ¦n-iqywp.1) in which they crossed over into Peloponnesus. 5. The acquisitionofNaupactus was of great importance to the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, as it was an excellent station for their fleet in the Corinthian gulf, and not only afforded them the means of keeping up a commu nication with Corcyra and Acarnania, but enabled them also to watch the motions of the enemy on the opposite coast, and to guard against any designs they might form against their alUes. 6. Amphissa stood at the head of the Crissaean gulf, according to Aeschines sixty stadia, but according to Pausa- nias, one hundred and twenty stadia fi-om Delphi It was the most celebrated city of the Locri Ozolae. Several years after the Peloponnesian war Amphissa was destroyed by order of the Amphictyons, for having dared to restore the walls of Crissa, and cultivate the ground which was held to be sacred ; and lastly on account ofthe manner in which they molested traveUers who had occasion to pass through then- territory. At a later period, however, it seems to have somewhat recovered from this ruined state, when under the dominion of the Aetolians. The modern town of Salona represents the ancient Amphissa, and the Sinus Crissaeus now bears the name of the Chtlf of Salona. 7. The Locri Epicnemidii occupied a smaU district immediately adjoining Thermopylae, and confined between divisions of the Locri were there ? 3. The Locri Ozolae occupied what district, and why so called ? 4. Where was Naupactne, and why so called ? 5. When and how did it prove of great importance to the Athenians ? 6. Where and what was Amphissa, and what became of it ? 7. Why were the Locri Epicnemldii so called, GHAEOLA.. 35 Mount Cnemis, a branch of Oeta, and the sea of Euboea, and they obtained their name from Mount Cnemis, near which they dwelt. 8. South of Thermopylae, and quite near it, was Al peni or Alpcnus. Herodotus informs us that Leonidas and his Uttle band drew their suppUes from this town. 9. Thronium was on the river Boagrius, and at some distance from the coast. During the Peloponnesian war Thronium was taken by the Athenians : several years later it feU into the hands of Onomarchus, the Phocian general, who enslaved the inhabitants. 10. The Lichades were small islands along the coast of the Locri Epicnemidii, deriving their name from Lichas, who was here, according to the legend, hurled into the sea by Hercules, when maddened by the torture which he suf fered fi"om the poisoned tunic. There was a monument of Lichas on one of these islands. 11. The Locri Opuntii derived their name from the city of Opus, their metropoUs, and occupied a line of coast of about 15 mUes, beginning a little south of Cnemides, [a fortress ofthe Locri Epicn.,] and extending to the town of Halae, on the frontier of Boeotia. 12. Opus was near the coast of the Opuntian territory, fifteen stadia (Livy says only 1 mile) from the sea. It was one of the most ancient cities of Greece, and celebrated by Pindar as the domain of DeucaUon and Pyrrha. This city gave name to the Opuntius Sinus, now the Gulf of Talanti. 13. Atalanta was an island opposite to Opus; it was fortified by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, with a view of checking the depredations committed by the Locrian pirates on the coast of Euboea. It is stUl caUed Talanta. 7.— Phocis. 1. Phocis derived its name from Phocus, the son of Aeacus and Psamathe. 2. It was bounded on the N. by the Locri Epicnemidu ; N. W. by the Locri 'OpuntU, E. by Boeotia, S. by the Corinthian gulf, and W. by the Locri Ozolae and by Doris. and where did they dwell? 8. Where was Alpeni or Alpenus, and noted for what ? 9 Where was Thronium, and how noted ? 10. Where were the Lichades, and why so called? 11. Why were the Locri Opuntii so ^lled, and where did they dwell? 12, Where was Opus, and how famed? 13, Where and what was 1. Phocis derives its name from whom ? 2. How was it bounded? 3. "What 36 -ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 3. It extended originaUy to the Euboean channel, occu pying an extent of coast of nearly one day's saU, from the border ofthe Locri Ozolae to the confines of Boeotia ; but it was subsequently cut off entirely from the sea by Locris. It was unequally divided by the range by Parnassus into two portions, the northern consisting of the broad vaUey ofthe Cephissus, the southern ofa hilly country, broken up by the irregular offsets from that range, which terminates in Mt. HeUcon on the confines of Boeotia. Parnassus at tains its greatest elevation, 7,500 feet, in the centre of this pro"vince, terminating in three peaks, the most important of which was named Lycoreia : its summit was generally covered with snow. 4. Cirrha was at the head of the Crissaean bay. Sinus Crissaeus^ now the gulf of Salona, and close to the mouth of th(3 river Plistus or Pleistus, (IXXEtcrrds.) It was the har bor of Delphi, from which, according to Strabo and Dicaear- chus, it was distant eighty stadia. 5. We are told by Athenaeus that war was once waged by the Cirrhaeans against the Phocians. It arose from the circumstance of the former having carried off a Phocian maiden, together with some Argive "women, on their return from Delphi. The contest lasted for ten years, when Cirrha was taken. " The Cirrhaean plain and port," says Aeschines, " which are now accursed, were formerly inhab ited by the Cirrhaei and Acragallidae, a nefarious race, who violated the sanctity of the temple of Delphi, and ransacked its treasures. The oracle, on being consulted by the Amphictyons, declared that a war of extermination was to be carried on against these offenders, and that their land was never hereafter to be placed in a state of cultivar tion. This decree was executed in the time of Solon, "^ho took an active part in the expedition. The port of Cirrha was then demolished, and its territory declared accursed, according to the form prescribed by the oracle ; but this edict was afterwards violated by the Amphissians, who tiUed the land and repaired the port." 6. Crissa, which gave its name to the gulf and plain on which it stood, was situated higher up than Cirrha, towards the foot of Mount Parnassus. It was more especiaUjr fa mous for the celebration of the Pythian games solemnized in its plain. was its original extent, and how was it divided ? 4. Where and what was Cirrha 1 6, Por what was it noted, and why destroyed? 6. Where and what was Crissa.) GEAECLi.. 37 7, The ill treatment and vexations to which, according to Strabo, strangers who visited the temple of Delphi were subjected by the Crissaeans, together with the heavy con tributions and duties which they laid on all imports from SicUy aud Italy, at length induced the Amphictyons to take forcible measures for repressing these malpractices. Eurylochus, a ThessaUan, was intrusted with the command of the troops on this service, and in the contest that en sued, which is commonly termed the Sacred or Crissaean war, best known as the First Sacred War, b. c. 595-585 — that people were finaUy conquered, and their to"wn com pletely destroyed. 8. On the coast, S. E. ofthe port of Cirrha, was Anti cyra celebrated for its manufacture of hellebore, which grew abundantly on the mountains in the vicinity, and was esteemed by the ancient physicians as a cure for insanity. There was another Anticyra at the mouth of the Sperchius, (in the territory of the MaUenses,) also noted for its pro duction of heUebore. 9. Delphi was situated in the vaUey of the Pleistus, at the foot of the S. side of Parnassus. It was the largest city in Phocis. 10. It was the seat of the most reno"wned oracle of an tiquity, the oracle of ApoUo, on account of which it was deemed the centre of the world. 11. Its original name was Py tho. The later name ap pears to have been derived from the cavern whence issued the prophetic vapor; but this is a mere conjecture. 12. It was considered and caUed the navel of the earth. To this relates the legend that Jupiter himself proved the fact, by despatching two eagles from different quarters of the heavens, which encountered each other in that spot. There was, moreover, in the temple a stone, caUed the navel-stone, which was adorned with two eagles, and divers other devices. 13. The oracles were deUvered by a priestess, caUed the Pythia, Strabo reports that the sacred tripod was placed over the mouth of the cave whence proceeded the exha lation, and which was of great depth. On this sat the Pythia, who, ha"ving caught the inspirMion, pronounced 7. Give some account of it, 8, "Where was Anticj-ra, and for what was it noted ? "What other town was there of the same name ? 9. "Where and what was Delphi ? 10. For what was it celebrated? 11. "What was the original name, and whence is its later name supposed to have been derived? 12. What was it considered, and what legend relates to this ? 13. How were the oracles delivered, and what 38 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY, her oracles in extempore verse or prose ; if the latter, it was immediately versified by the poets always in the em ploy of the oracle for that purpose. The oracle itself is said to have been discovered by accident. Some goats, having strayed to the mouth of the cavern, were suddenly seized with convulsions : those Ukewise by whom they were found in this situation having been affected in a similar manner, the circumstance was deemed to be supernatural, and the cave pronounced the seat of prophecy. 14. It became the richest shrine in Greece, or in the world: the cause of this was that, in consequence of its great and wide-spread reputation, it was consulted not only by Greeks, but by foreign princes and nations, who loaded the altars of the god with rich presents and costly offer ings. Delphi derived further celebrity from its being the place where the Amphictyonic council held one of their assemblies. 15. Xerxes, after having forced the pass of Thermopy lae, detached a portion of his army into Phocis, with or ders to secure Delphi and its treasures. The enterprise failed, owing, as it was reported by the Delphians, to the manifest interposition of the Deity, who terrified the barba rians, and hurled destruction on their scattered bands. Many years subsequent to this event the temple feU into the hands ofthe Phocians, headed by Philomelus, who scru pled not to appropriate its riches to the payment of his mer cenaries in the war (the Second Sacred War) which he was then (b. c. 352) waging against Thebes. At a stUl later period (b. c. 279) Delphi became exposed to a formidable attack from a large body of Gauls, (or Celts,) headed by their king Brennus. According to Strabo these barbarians, having forced the defiles of Oeta, possessed themselves of the temple, and ransacked its treasures. The booty which they obtained on this occasion is stated to have been im mense ; and this they must have succeeded in removing to their own country, since we are told that, on the capture of Tolosa, a city of Gaul, by the Roman general Caepio, a great part of the Delphic spoUs were found there. Pausa- nias, on the contrary, relates that the Gauls met with great disasters in their attempt on Delphi, and were totally dis comfited through the miraculous intervention of the god. Historians consider it at all events certain, that the Gauls what°oSa°'^A*''S°T'?' "¦ ^^* ^^^ theDelphio oraole become, and from wnat cause? And what gave Delphi additional celebrity? 15. "Whal attempts GEAECLA. 39 were repulsed with great loss, including that of their leader Brennus, who fell by his own hand, Sylla is also said to have robbed this temple. Another plunderer was the em peror Nero, who carried off five hundred statues of bronze at one time. But according to Gibbon, Constantine the Great inflicted upon Delphi greater injuries than any ofthe spoilers who had preceded him. He carried away the sacred tripods to adorn the hippodrome of his new city, and among them the one which the Greeks, after the battle of Plataea, found in the camp of Mardonius. (Decl. and FaU, chap. 17.) 16. The priestess could be consulted only on certain days, and never oftener than once in the course of a month. 17. Mount Parnassus rises above Delphi, and ex tends fi-om the territory of the Locri Ozolae to the ex tremity of Phocis, in a N. E. direction, where it joins the chain of Oeta. Towards the S. E. it is connected with those of Helicon and the other Boeotian ridges. Usually, however, the name denotes only the lofty mountain at the foot of which stood the city of Delphi. 18. Mount Parnassus was sacred to Apollo and the Muses. 19. The two lofty rocks which rise perpendicularly from Delphi, and obtained for the mountain the epithet of 8iko- ptios or the two-headed, were anciently known by the names of Hyampeia and Naupleia; but sometimes that of Phaedriades was applied to them in common. 20, The celebrated Castalian fount, sacred to the Muses, pours down the cleft or chasm between those two summits, being fed by the perpetual snows of Parnassus. " The Castalian Spring, " says DodweU, " is clear and forms an excellent beverage. The water which oozes from the rock, was in ancient times introduced into a hollow square, where it was retained for the Pythia and the oracular priests. The fountain is ornamented with pendant ivy, and overshadowed by a large flg-tree." 21. Higher up the mountain, nearly 7 miles from Delphi was the celebrated Corycian Cave, sacred to the Cory- cian nymphs and the god Pan. Pausanias describes it as surpassing in extent every other known cavern. were made to plunder Delphi, and with what success ? 16. When and how often could the priestess be consulted ? 17. Point out and describe Mount Parnassus, 18, Mt. Parnassus was sacred to whom ? 19. The two summits were how called? 20. State where the Castalian fount was, and describe it. 21, "Where and what was the Corycian cave? 22. To what use was it put on 40 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 22. Herodotus relates that, on the approach of the Per sians, the greater part ofthe population of Delphi ascended the mountain, and sought refuge in this capacious recess. Mr. Raikes, the first modern traveller who discovered its site, describes the narrow and low entrance as spreading at once into a chamber 330 feet long, by nearly 200 wide. The - stalactites from the top hung in the most graceful forms the whole length of the roof, and feU like drapery down the sides. 23. Elatea, next to Delphi the most considerable and important of the cities of Phoois, was situated on the decli vities of Mount Cnemis, 180 stadia (22 J miles) from Am phissa. Its site was a gently rising slope above the plain watered by the Cephissus. It was captured and burnt by the army of Xerxes ; but, being afterwards restored, it was occupied by PhiUp son of Amyntas (i.e.- PhUip of Macedon, father of Alexander) on his advance into Phocis to over awe the Athenians. The alarm and consternation produced at Athens by his approach is described by Demosthenes in his oration de Corona. Strabo remarks on its advanta geous situation, which commanded the entrance into Phocis and Boeotia. 24. Abae, S. E. and not far from Elatea, is said to have been founded by a colony from Argos, and was early cele brated for an oracle of Apollo, held in great esteem and veneration. The temple of Apollo, being richly adorned "with treasures and various offerings, was sacked and burned by the Persians, Having been restored, it was again burned by the Boeotians, in the Sacred War, Hadrian caused another to be built, but much inferior in size to the former. Sir W, GeU points out its ruins near the viUage of Exarcho, S.SSoeotia. 1, Boeotia extends from sea to sea, but is separated from the Euripus or Euboean channel by a continuation of the Locrian mountains, and from the Corinthian gulf by the lofty range of Helicon. On its northern frontier the offshoots of Parnassus and the Locrian mountains leave only a narrow opening through which the Cephissus flows ; and on the S. the country is shut in by the lofty barrier of one occasion, and what is its size? 23. Where was Elatea, and how famed in Grecian history? 24. Where was Abae, and for what famed? Give some account of this city and its temple, v 1. How was Boeotia bounded? 2. "What is the character of its surface? GEAECIA. 41 Cithaeron. In other words, it had Phocis on the W., the Locri Ozolae on the N. W., the Opuntius Sinus and the Euripus on the N. and N. E., and the Corinthian gulf on theS. W. 2. Boeotia, according to the foregoing description, is a large hollow basin in two unequal sections. It was perhaps the richest and most fertUe country of Greece, producing in abundance every article of food. A distinguished fea ture is the Lake Copais, especiaUy famed for its eels, which grew to a large size and were esteemed by the epi cures of antiquity. 3. That portion ofthe Corinthiacus Sinus lying between the promontory of Antirrhium and the Megarean coast was sometimes named Mare Alcyonium, because its waters were strikingly calm and placid at certain seasons. 4. A few mUes inland, and somewhat to the N. W., near Mt. Helicon, was Thisbe, famous for the wild pigeons which, according to Homer, abounded there. 5. Mount Helicon, now Palaeovouni or Zagora, rises above Thisbe. It was famed ia antiquity as the seat of Apollo and the Muses, and has been sung by poets of every age, from the days of Orpheus to the present time. Strabo afi^-ms that HeUcon nearly equals Mount Parnassus in height, and retains its snows during a great part of the year. 6. On the summit was the grove of the Muses, adorned with several statues, and a Uttle below was the fountain of Aganippe, whence the Muses, to whom it was sacred, were called Aganippides. The fountain Hipp ocr ene was about twenty feet above the grove: it is said to have burst forth, when Pegasus struck his hoof into the ground. 'iTnroKpiqvq or 'l-inrovKpT^vr] signifies " The horse's fountain." These two springs supplied the small rivers named Olmius and Permessus, which, after uniting their waters, flowed into Lake Copais near Haliartus. 7. As cra, celebrated as the residence of Hesiod, was situated on a rocky summit belonging to Helicon. It could boast of considerable antiquity, having been founded, as the poet Hegesinous, quoted by Pausanias, asserts, by Otus and Ephialtes, sons of Aloeus. . Col. Leake finds the ruins of Ascra at the modern Pyrgaki, and says, " It is re- 3. Wliat was the Mare Alcyonium, and why was it so called? 4. "Where was Thisbe and for what was it famed ?^ 5. Point out and describe Mount Helicon, 6, Name the two fountains of Mt. Helicon, and describe them. 7. "Where was 42 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. markable that a single tower is the only portion of the ruins conspicuously preserved, just as Pausanias describes Ascra in his time. " (After a. d. 118.) "The place is now caUed Pyrgaki from the tower, which is formed of equal and regular layers of masonry, and is imcommonly large." — ^Leake, vol. U. 491. 8. Thespiae, as Strabo informs us, was forty stadia (about 4f miles) from Ascra, and near the foot of Helicon, looking toward the south and the Crissaean gulf. Its an tiquity is attested by Homer (II. ii. 498.) The Thespians are worthy of a place in history for their brave and gene rous conduct during the Persian war. When the rest of Boeotia basely submitted to Xerxes, they alone refused to tender the symbols of submission, earth and water, to his deputies. The troops, also, whom they sent to Leonidas, to aid the Spartans at Thermopylae, chose rather to die at their post than to desert their commander and his heroic - followers. Their city was in consequence burned by the Per sians, after it had been evacuated by the inhabitants, who retired to the Peloponnesus. A smaU body of these fought however at Plataeae under Pausanias. The Thespians dis tinguished themselves also in the battle of DeUum, against the Athenians, being nearly aU slain at their post. The Thebans afterwards basely took advantage of this heavy loss, to puU down the waUs of their city, and bring it under subjection, under the pretext of their ha"ving favored the Athenians. They subsequently made an attempt to recover their independence ; but failing in this enterprise, many of them sought refuge in Athens. Leake says the ruins of Thespiae are immediately below Rimoskastro. Cramer writes Eretno Castro. Derived fi-om '^pr]p.6Kaxrrpov, "De serted Castle. " 9. Leuctra was on the road from Thespiae to Plataeae, and according to Xenophon, in the territory of the former. It is celebrated in history for the signal victory which the great Theban general Epaminondas gained here over the Spartans, and of which Pausanias says that it was the most brilUant ever obtained by Greeks over Greeks. From that moment the power and fame of Sparta began to decline, and after the battle of Mantinea it ceased for ever to be the arbiter of Greece. This spot stUl retains its ancient name, though pronounced Lefka. a'"^r^ ^i?) which connected Athens with its several ports, were first planned and commenced by Themistocles after the termination of the Persian war. His object was evi dently to prevent any invading army fi-om intercepting the communication between the city and the Piraeus ; but he did not live to terminate this great undertaking, which was continued after his death by Cimon, and at length completed by Pericles. One of these long waUs was designated by the name of Piraic, and sometimes by that of the northern wall, jSopeTov Tfixos; its length was forty stadia, (about 5 miles.) The other was called the Phaleric or southern waU, and measured 35 stadia, (about 4 mUes.) Between these two, at a short distance fi-om the former and paraUel to it, another waU was erected, thus making two walls lead ing to the Piraeus (sometimes called to. a-KiXrf) with a narrow passage between them. 9. There were, therefore, three long walls in aU ; but the name of Long Walls seems to have been confined to the two leading to the Piraeus, while the one leading to Phale rum was distinguished by the name of the Phalerian Wall, (to ^aXr]piKov Tetxos.) In the Peloponnesian war, we learn from Thucydides that the exterior or Piraic wall alone was guarded, as that was the only direction in which the enemy could advance, there being no passage to the south and east of Athens, except through a difficult pass between the city and Mount Hymettus, or by making the circuit of that 8. How or by what were the principal harbors connected with the city ? 9. How many long walls were there, and what is said of the application or the name? 66 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY, mountain, which would have been a very hazardous under taking. The Long WaUs remained entire about fifty-four years after their completion, till the capture of Athens in the Peloponnesian war, eleven years after which Conon re- buUt them with the assistance of Pharnabazus. In the siege of Athens by Sylla, they were again broken down, and almost entirely destroyed. Col. Leake informs us that some vestiges of this great work are still to be seen. 10. The entire circuit of the walls was 174^ stadia, (nearly 22 miles,) of which 43, stadia (nearly 5^ mUes) belonged to the city proper, 75 stadia (9i miles) to the long walls, and 56^ stadia (7 mUes) to Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum. Toward the end of the Peloponnesian war Athens contained ten thousand houses, which, at the rate of twelve inhabitants to a house, would give a population of 120,000, though some writers make the inhabitants as many as 180,000. 11. Aegaleos (Aegaleus) is a mountain in Attica, op posite Salamis, noted as the spot from which Xerxes wit nessed the defeat of his fleet b. c. 480. Modern name Skar- manga. 12. The Thriasian Plain (to Optao-iov ireStov, Thria- sius Campus) derived its name from the demus or vUlage of Thria : it was a part of the Eleusinian plain, extendmg between the range of Aegaleus and Eleusis, along the bor ders of the bay, and to the N, of it, and was famed for its fertUity, 13. Eleusis was situated N. W. of Athens, on the coast, near the frontiers of Megara and the mouth of the Eleusinian Cephissus. Its origin is of the highest antiquity, as it appears to have existed as early as the time of Cecrops. It possessed a magnificent temple of Demeter, (Ceres,) and it gave its name to the greait festival and mysteries of the Eleusinia, which were celebrated in honor of Demeter and her daughter Persephone, (Proserpina.) It was death to di vulge these mysteries, a festival peculiar to Eleusis while this was an independent state ; but after the Eleusinians had been conquered by the Athenians in the reign of Ereoh- theus, the Eleusinia became a festival common to both cities, though the superintendence of the festival remained with the descendants of Eumolpus, the king of Eleusis. 10. "What was tho extent and the population of Athens ? 11. "Where was Mount Aegaleos, and for what noted? 12. Whence did the Thriasian plain derive its name, and for what was it noted)' 18, Point out and give an account of Eleusis, 14. GEAECIA. 57 14. Opposite the Eleusinian coast was the island of Sa lamis, now Eoluri, caUed in earUer times Sciras and Cychrea, from the heroes Scirus and Cychreus; also Pity- ussa, from its abounding in firs. It had been already cele brated in the earliest period of Grecian history fi-om the colony of the Aeacidae, who settled there before the siege of Troy. The possession of Salamis was once obstinately contested by the Athenians and Megareans, and Strabo affirms that both parties interpolated Homer, in order to prove from his poems that it belonged to them. Conquered by Solon, according to some by Pisistratus, it ever after remained subject to the Athenians. When Xerxes invaded Greece, the Athenians retired to this island "with their famiUes. 15. It is chiefly memorable on account of the great bat tle fought off its coast, in which the Persian fleet of Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks b. c. 480. The battle took place in the strait between the eastern part of the island and the coast of Attica, and the Grecian fleet was drawn up in the smaU bay in front of the town of Salamis. A tro phy was erected to commemorate this splendid victory on the isle of Salamis, near the temple of Diana, and opposite to Cynosura, where the strait is naiTowest. Here it was seen by Pausanias, and some of its vestiges were observed , by Sir W. GeU, who reports that it consisted of a column on a circular base. 16. Laurium, celebrated for its sUver mines, was a range of hUls in the southern part of Attica, a Uttle N. of the promontory of Sunium. In early times these mines were so productive that every Athenian citizen received annuaUy 10 drachmae. On the advice of Themistocles the Athe nians appUed this money to equip 200 triremes shortly be fore the invasion of Xerxes. In the time of Xenophon the produce of the mines was 100 talents, (|105,660.) They graduaUy became less and less productive, and in the time of Strabo, (b. c. 54 to a. d. 24,) they yielded nothing. 17. Sunium, oneof the most celebrated sites in Attica, forms the extreme point of that province towards the S, Near the promontory stood the town of the same name "with a harbor. Regattas were held here in the minor Panathenaic festivals. Off Sunium is an insular rock, kno"wn Where was Salamis, and for what is it famed ? 15, For what is the island chiefly memorable, and what was erected in commemoraUon of the event ? 16, Point out and give an account of Laorium. 17. "Where and what was Sunium? 18. "Wliere 3* 58 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. to the ancients by the name of Patroclus, but caUed by the modern Greeks Gaidaro-Nesi, the Ass's Island. The modern name of Sunium is Capo Colonna, from the ruins of the temple of Minerva which are stiU to be seen on its summit. 18. On doubling cape Sunium, saUing eastward, the first harbor which presented itself was Panormus, i. e. ",4?^ Port, " or a place always fit for landing, (IXavop/Aos.) It is now Porto Raphti, and lies opposite the southern extrem ity of Euboea. " - 19. Brauron was a demus in Attica, on the eastern coast, on the river Erasinus. It was celebrated in my thology as the spot where Iphigenia first landed after her escape fi-om Tauris with the statue of Diana. From this circumstance the goddess was here held in pecuUar vene ration under the title of Brauronea or Brauronia. The modern site is called Vraona or Vrana. 20. Marathon was a demus of Attica, situated on a bay on the eastern coast, 22 miles from Athens by one road, and 26 miles by another. Leake thinks the site of the ancient to"wn of Marathon was probably not at the modern village of Marathona, but a place caUed Vrana, a little to the south of Marathon, where some place . Brauron. Marathon was situated in a plain, which extends along the sea-shore, about 6 miles in length, and from 3 miles to 1| in breadth. It is surrounded on the other three sides by rocky hiUs and rugged mountains. Two marshes bound the extremity of the plain. 21. Through the centre ofthe plain runs a small brook. called Asopus.. In this plain "was fought the celebrated battle between the Persians and Athenians, b. c. 490. The Persians were drawn up on the plain, and the Athenians on some portion of the high ground above the plain ; but the exact ground occupied by the two armies cannot be identi fied, notwithstanding the investigations of modern travel lers. The tumulus raised over the Athenians who fell in the battle, is stUl to be seen. 22. Rhamn"as was situated on a smaU rocky peninsula on the eastern coast of Attica 60 stadia fi-om Marathon, It derived its name from the rhamnus, a kind of prickly shrub in which it abounded. It possessed a celebrated md what was Panormus? 19, Where was Brauron, and noted for what? 20. Where was Marathon, and noted for what? 21. What flowed through this plaiD, and what great event occm-red here ? 22. Point out and give an account of GEAECIA. 59 temple of Nemesis, who is hence called by tho Latin poets Ehamnusia dea or virgo. In this temple there was a colos sal statue ofthe goddess, made, in the highest style of the art, by Agoraoritus, the disciple of Phidias. There aro still remains of this temple, as weU as of a smaUcr one to the same goddess. 23. The celebrated Hymettus Mons, or Mount Hy mettus, forms the southern * portion of the considerable chain which, under the several names of Parnes, Penteli - cus, and Brilessus, traverses nearly the whole of Attica fi-om N. E. to S. W. It was divided into two summits, one of which was Hymettus, properly so called ; the other, Any- dros, or the dry Hymettus. The former is now Trelovouni, the latter Lamprovouni. Hymettus was especially famous for its fragrant flowers and exceUent honey. It produced also marbles much esteemed by the Romans, and, accord ing to some accounts, contained sUver mines. 24. Acharnae ('Axapvat') was the principal demus of Attica, 60 stadia N. of Athens. It possessed a rough and warlike population, who were able to furnish 3,000 hoplitae at the commencement of the Peloponnesian war. Their land was fertUe, and they carried on considerable traffic in charcoal. 25. Decelea, now Biala-Castro, lay N. W. of Athens, on the borders of Boeotia, near the sources of the Cephisus. This town was always considered of great importance, fi-om its situation on the road to Euboea, whence the Athenians derived most of their supplies ; when, therefore, by the advice of Alcibiades, it was occupied and garrisoned by a Lacedaemonian force, they suffered great loss and in convenience. Thucydides reports that Decelea was visible from Athens : and Xenophon observes that the sea and Piraeus could be seen from thence. Sir W. Gell describes this place as situated on a round detached hUl, connected by a sort of isthmus with Mount Parnes. 26. Phyle, a strongly-fortified place, was situated on the confines of Boeotia and on the southwestern slope of Mount Parnes. It is memorable as the place which Thrasybulus and the Athenian patriots seized soon after the Pelopon nesian war, B. c. 404, and whence they directed their ope rations against the thirty tyrants at Athens. Sir W. Gell Ehamnus. 23. Point out and give an account of Hymettus. 24. Point out and give an account of Acharnae. 25. Where was Decelea or Deceleia, and how noted ? 26. Where and what was Phyle ? Give an account of it. , 27. "Where was 60 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. says that the fortress of Phyle is now called Bigla Castro', and gives the foUowing description : " It is situated on a lofty precipice, and, though small, must have been almost impregnable, as it can only be approached by an isthmus on the east. Hence is a most magnificent view ofthe plain of Athens, with the Acropolis and Hymettus, and the sea in the distance." 27. Mount Parnes, now Nozea, the highest moun- tain of Attica, in some parts as high as 4,000 feet, rises on the N, E. frontier of that province, and is, in fact, a con tinuation of Mount Cithaeron, from which it extended eastward, as far as the coast at Rhamnus. It was well wooded, abounded in game, and on its lower slopes pro duced excellent wine. 2&. On the frontiers of Boeotia, and on the road from Eleusis to Plataeae, was the town ofEleutheraCj which appears to have once belonged to Boeotia, but finally be came included within the limits of Attica. Pausanias re ports that the Eleutherians were not conquered by the Athenians, but voluntarUy united themselves to that people from their constant enmity to the Thebans. According to the legend, Bacchus was born in this to"wn. Leake differs from Gell and others as regards the site of ancient Eleu- therae, and fixes it at the modei-a MyupoU. 11.— Euboea. 1. Euboea, the largest island of the Aegaean sea, ex tends along the coasts of Attica, Boeotia, and the southern part of Thessaly. From these countries it is separated by the Euboean sea, which is caUed the Euripus in its nar rowest part. 2. This island is about 90 miles in length, and its_ ex treme breadth is 30 miles, but in the narrowest part it is only 4 miles across. Throughout its entire length runs a lofty range of mountains, which rise in one part as high as 7,266 feet above the sea. It contains, nevertheless, many fertUe plains, and was celebrated in antiquity for the excel lence of its pasturage and cornfields. 3. The most ancient name of Euboea, accordmg to Mount Parnes, and for what was it famed? 28, Point out and give an account of Eleutherae, 1, Where was Euhoea, and how separated from the main-land ? 2. "What are its dimensions, and what the nature of the surface ? 3. What were the earliest GEAECIA. 61 Strabo, was Maoris, which it obtained, as he affirms, fi-om its great length in comparison with its breadth. Besides this, it was known at different times by the various appeUa, tions of Oche,E116pia, Asopis and Abantia. Homer, who calls the island Euboea, always employs the appellation of Abantes to denote its inhabitants. 4. The modern name of Euboea is Negropont, formed by a series of corruptions from the name Euripus, now Egripo, which designated the narrow channel that sepa rates the island from the Boeotian coast, from which it is said to have been severed byan earthquake. 5. Hestiaea, one of the most considerable of the Eu boean cities, was situated in the north-eastern extremity of the island. It is said to have been founded by an Athenian colony in the district of EUopia, which once gave its 'name to the whole country. After the retreat of the Grecian fleet from Artemisium, the to"wn fell into the hands of the Persians ; but on the termination of the Persian war, it be came, with the rest of Euboea, subject to Athens. Hestiaea probably took an active part in the attempt subsequently made by the Euboeans to shake off the galling yoke of the Athenians, for Pericles treated the inhabitants "with great severity, expeUed them from their possessions, and sent Athenian colonists to occupy the lands which they had oc cupied. The unfortunate exUes probably withdrew to Macedonia. The name of their town was now changed to Oreus, which at first was that of a small place dependent on Hestiaea at the foot of Mount Telethrius. 6. In the territory of Hestiaea was the celebrated pro montory of Artemisium, at the point where the strait between Euboea and Thessaly beguis to narrow. The name was derived from a temple dedicated to Diana, which stood on the headland, and was appUed to the whole of the coast in that immediate vicinity. It was off this coast that the Greeks defeated the fleet of Xerxes, b. c, 480. The modern name of the promontory is Amoui, according to recent maps. 7. On the western coast, S. of Telethrius Mons, was Aegae, celebrated for the worship of Neptune, who had here a splendid temple, and was hence caUed Aegaeus. Strabo asserts that Aegae gave its name to the Aegaean sea. Its present site is Akio. names of Euboea? 4. "What is its modern name, and how did it originate? 5, Point out Hestiaea, and give some account of it, 6. Point out and give an ac- 62 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 8. Ch-alcis, now Egripo or Negroponte, the most cele brated and important city of Euboea, was situated on the narrowest part of the Euripus, and united with the mainland by a bridge. It was a very ancient town, originally inhabited by Abantes or Curetes, and colonized after the siege of Troy by Attic lonians under the Cothus. Its flourishing condition at an early period is attested by the numerous colonies which it planted in various parts of the Mediterranean. It founded so many cities in the penin sula in Macedonia between the Strymonic and Thermaic gulfs, that the whole peninsula was caUed Chalcidice. In Italy it founded Cumae, and in SicUy, Naxos.* 9. The Euripus was supposed to have been formed by an earthquake or some other convulsion of nature, which tore Euboea from the Boeotian coast. Several of the an cients have reported that the tide in this strait ebbed and flowed seven times in the day, and as many times during the night, and that the current was so strong as to arrest the progress of ships in full sail, Livy, however, contradicts this popular notion, and attributes the variableness of the current to the effect of winds, which are so violent as to * From Herodotus we learn that the Chalcidiang, having joined the Boeotians in their depredations on the coast of Attica soon after the expul sion of the Pisistratiaae, afforded the Athenians just grounds for reprisals. They accordingly crossed over into Euboea with a large force, and alter de feating the Chalcidians, occupied the lands ofthe wealthiest inhabitants, and distributed them among four thousand of their own citizens. These, how ever, were obliged to evacuate the island on the arrival of the Persian fleet under Datis ana Artaphernes, The Chalcidians, after the termination of the Persian war, became again dependent on Athens with the rest of Euboea, and did not regain their liberty till tbe close of the Peloponnesian war, when they asserted their freedom, and, aided by the Boeotians, fortified the Euripus and established a communication with the continent by throwing a wooden bridge across the channel. Towers were placed at each extremity, and room was left in the' middle for one ship only to pass. This work was undertaken in the third year of the ninety-second Olympiad, or 410 years b. c, Chalcis was a place of great military importance, as it commanded the navigation between the N, and S, of Greece, and hence it was often taken and retaken by tbe different parties contending for the supremacy in Greece. The consul JTummius, the destroyer of Corinth, treated the Chalcidians with great severity for having favored the Acbaeans in their conquest with Rome; and the epitomist of Livy asserts that their towu was actually destroyed. Procopius names it among the towns restored by Justinian, In the middle ages it assumed the name of Euripus, which was corrupted into Egripo, and in process of time to Negroponte, tne modern appellation of the whole island, as well as that of its capital, count of Artemisium, 7. Where was Aegae, celebrated for what, and giving namo to what ? 8. Point out and give an account of Chalcis, 9. Point out and describe tho Euripus. 10, Where and what was Eretria ; by whom was it founded, GEAECIA. 63 cause the sea to rush through the channel like a mountain- torrent, * 10. To the S. E. of Chalcis was Eretria, now Pa- laeo-Castro, an ancient and important town on the Eu ripus, with a celebrated harbor Pofthmos, now Porto Bufalo ; it was founded by the Athenians, but had a mixed population, among which was a considerable number of Dorians. 11. Its commerce and navy raised it in early times to importance : it contended with Chalcis for the supremacy of Euboea : it ruled over several ofthe neighboring islands, and planted colonies in Macedonia and Italy. It was de stroyed by the Persians, 490 b. c, and most of the inhabit ants were led away captive ; these were, however, treated with clemency by Darius, and allowed to settle in the Cis- sian territory. Those who were left behind buUt, at a little distance fi-om the old city, the town of New Eretria, Avhich, ho"wever, never became a place of importance. 12 Carystus, now Eary sto or Castel Rosso, Avas a town on the southern coast of Euboea, at the foot of Mount Oche. It was founded, in remote antiquity, by Dryopes, a Pelasgie people, and caUed, according to tradition, after Carystus, son of Chiron. 13. In the neighborhood was exceUent marble, which was exported in large quantities, and the mineral called as bestos was also found here. We learn from Strabo, that the spot which furnished the marble was named Marma- rium, and that a temple had been erected here to Apollo Marmarius. Marmarium was exactly opposite to Halae Araphenides in Attica. * The Jesuit Babin, who had a favorable opportunity of observing the flux and reflux of the strait, agrees with Livy so far as to show the error of the common opinion entertained by the ancients, that the change of current occurred seven times a day, but he does not confirm the ancient historian as to its total irregularity and its entire dependence on the winds, which doubt less, however, have some effect, Babin seems to have ascertained that the tide was sometimes regular as in the ocean, and other times irregular, and that both the regular and irregular tides followed the phases of the moon, though not to such degree that the tides could be predicted to within a day or two before or after the changes ; the regular days were generally nineteen in the month, the irregular eleven, and the former were in the first aud third quarters, the latter in the second and fourth. According' to some modern writers, the water sometimes runs as much as 8 miles in an hour. and what sort of population had it? 11. "What is said of its commerce ; by whom was the city destroyed, and what was done with its inhabitants ? 12. Point out and give an account of Carystus. IS. What was found in the neighborhood? 14. "what promontories were in this vicinity 1 64 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 14. In this "vicinity was the promontory of Geraestus, which terminates the island to the S. W. : now Cape Man- telo: also the promontory of Caphareus, now Capo d\Oro, so famed for the destruction of the Grecian fleet on its return from Troy.' 1 3.— iPc?o|»ot|MesMS. 1, Peloponne^sus, in Greek ^ ncXoTrowijo-os, prior to the migration of the Phrygian Pelops, from whom it derived its name, is said to have borne that of Apia, which, according to Aeschylus, it obtained- from Apis, son of Apollo, In shape it resembles the leaf of a plane tree, being indented by numerous bays on aU sides. It is from this circumstance that the modern name oi Morea is doubt less derived, that word signifying a mulberry leaf. 2. The principal mountains of Peloponnesus are those of Cyllene, now Zyria, and Erymanthus now Oh- nos, in Arcadia, and Taygetus now St. Elias in La-, conia, 3, Its rivers are the Alpheus, now i?M/ia!, traversing » Arcadia and Elis: the Eurotas, now Iri ov Basilipotor mo, which takes its source in the mountains that separate Arcadia from Laconia, and, confining its course within tJie latter pro"vince, faUs into the Sinus Laconicus: and the Pamisus, now Firnatza, a river of Messenia. 4. The Peloponnesus contains but one small lake, that of Stymphalus, now Zaraka, in Arcadia. 5. Corinthia (KopivOio.) embraced the greater part of the Isthmus of Corinth, with the adjacent part ofthe Pelo ponnesus : it was bounded N, by Megaris and the Corin thian gulf, S, by Argolis, W. by Sicyonia and Phliasia, and E. by the Saronic gulf. 6. Ancient "writers do not. agree in their estimate ofthe breadth of the Isthmus ; the real distance, however, in the narrowest part cannot be less than 6 mUes, as the modern name of Eexamilion sufficiently denotes. 7. Corinth was a mountain city. Not that, as in the case of other Grecian cities, the AcropoUs occupied a 1. "What is the derivation of the name Peloponnesus, and what is the form of the country ? 2. Name the principal mountains of Peloponnesus. 3. Name the chief rivers and point them out. 4, What lake in Peloponnesus ? 5. What and whore was Corinthia, and how was it bounded? . 6, What was the width ofthe Isthmus, and hence it was how called ? T. Point out and describe Corinth. GEAECIA. 65 height, whilst the city was spread over the surrounding or adjacent plain; but a colossal mountain, 1770 feet in height, and rising above the plam of the Isthmus, bore upon its hel met-shaped summit the Acropolis, the lower city being spread over its broad foot, which somewhat resembled a table, and having an elevation of 170 feet, decUned ab ruptly toward the bay of Lechaion (Lechaeum). The walls, which included the Acrocorinthus, were 86 stadia (10 miles) in circumference. 8. Its favorable position between two seas, the difficulty of carrying goods round the Peloponnesus, and the facility with which they could be transported across the isthmus, raised Corinth in very early times to great commercial prosperity, and made it the emporium of the trade be tween Europe and Asia. 9. Corinth had two harbors, Cenchreae and Schoe- nus on the E., or Saronic gulf^ and one, Lechaeum, on the W. or Corinthian gulf. Some writers, regarding Cen chreae and Schoenus as entirely distinct, give Corinth three harbors. Schoenus lay a little to the N. of Cen chreae, which is now called Cechriaes. 10. In Homer Corinth is called Ephyra ('Ei^upTj). 11. Strabo says that at the narrowest part of the isth mus (at Schoenus) the Diolcos, or land-carriage for trans porting vessels across the isthmus, was established. This process could be accomplished only with the vessels usually employed in commerce, or with lembi, which were light ships of war, chiefly used by the lUyrians and Macedonians. 12. The tediousness and expense attending this process, and still more, probably, the danger and difficulty of the circumnavigation of Peloponnesus, led to frequent attempts at different periods, for effecting a junction between the two seas ; but aU proved equally unsuccessful, owing, as Pausanias insinuates, to divine interposition. 13. According to Strabo, Demetrius PoUorcetes aban doned the enterprise, because it was found that the two gulfs were not on the same level. The project was sub sequently renewed by Julius Caesar, Caligula and Nero : the latter is even said to have encouraged the workmen by digging himself. Travellers inform us that some re- 8. "What were the advantages of its situation ? 9. Point out and name its harbors. 10. What was the earlier name of Corinth ? 11. Where and what was the Diolcus ? 12. Por the purpose of getting rid of this process, what was frequently attempted? 13. "Why did Poliorcetes abandon the enterprise; by whom was it 66 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. mains of the canal undertaken by this emperor are still visible, reaching from the sea, N. E. of Lechaeum, about half a mile across the isthmus. 14. We hear also of various attempts made to raise fortifications across the Isthmus for the security of the Pelo ponnesus when threatened with invasion. This was first undertaken before the battle of Salamis, when, as Herodotus relates, the Peloponnesian confederates, having first blocked up the Scironian way, collected together a vast multitude, who worked night and day, without intermission, on these fortifications. Every kind of material, such as stones, bricks and timber, were employed, and the interstices fflled up with earth and sand. 15. Many years after, the Macedonians and their aUies again endeavored to fortify the Isthmus from Cenchreae to Lechaeum against Epaminondas ; but this measure was rendered fruitless by the skUl and conduct of that general, who forced a passage across the Oneian mountains. Cleo- menes also threw up trenches and lines from Acrocorinthus to the Oneian mountains, in order to prevent the Mace donians, under Antigonus Doson, from penetrating into the peninsula. 16. The isthmus, derived great celebrity from the games which were held there every five years in honor of Palae- mon, or Melicerte and Neptune. 17. When the Acbaeans became involved in a destruc tive war with the Romans, Corinth was the last hold of their tottering republic, and had its citizens wisely submit ted to the offers proposed by the victorious MeteUus, it might have been preserved: but the deputation of that general being treated with-scorn and even insult, the senate decreed the destruction of the city, and entrusted the execution of this sentence to the consul L. Mummius. Accordingly, in 146 b. c. this general took and destroyed Corinth, and treated it in the most barbarous manner. Its inhabitants were sold as slaves : its works of art, which were not destroyed by the Roman soldiery, were conveyed to Rome : its buildings were razed to the ground :_ and thus was destroyed the " lumen totius Graeciae," as Cicero calls the city. Por a century it lay in ruins : only the renewed, and what do modern travellers say of this locality? 14. What, otheir structures were raised on the Isthmus ; for what purpose ? 15. "Who made the second attempt of this kind, and who engaged in this work after them ? 16. What contributed greatly to tho celebrity of tjje Isthmus? 17. When, why,, and by GEAECIA, 67 buUdings on the Acropolis and a few temples remained standing. In 46 b. c. it was rebuUt by Caesar, who peopled it with a colony of veterans and descendants of freedmen. The site of Corinth is indicated by seven Doric columns, which are the only remains of the ancient city. 18. The greatness of Corinth at an early period is at tested by numerous colonies, Ambracia, Corcyra, Sy- racusae, Apollonia, Potidaea, &6. The most cele brated of these colonies were Corcyra and Syracuse. A. — Achaia. 1. Achaia was first called Aegialus, either from a hero of that name, or, more probably from the maritime situation of the country ; for AiyiaXds denotes the sea-shore, or a coast-land. The earUest inhabitants of the country were a Pelasgie race ; but as these were afterwards blended • with a large Ionian colony from Attica, the name of Aegia lus was lost in that of Ionia. 2. On the conquest of the greater part of Peloponnesus by the HeracUdae and the Dorians 80 years after the Trojan war, and b. c. 1,104, many of the Achaei under Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, having been driven from their dwelling-places in Laconia and Argolis, took possession of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, and then the name Aegialus or Aegialea, was changed into Achaia. 3. When the Romans had become masters of Greece, the Roman province of Achaia included Peloponnesus, and northern Greece S. of Thessaly. It was formed on the dis solution of the Achaean League, in b. c. 146, and hence derived its name. 4. Achaia was bounded on the N. by the Sinus Co rinthiacus, on the S. by EUs and Arcadia, on the W, by the Ionian sea, and on the E. by Sicyonia. PLACES IN ACHAIA. 5. Pellene, the most easterly ofthe 12 Achaean cities, and bordering on Sicyonia, was situated on a lofty and pre cipitous hUl about 60 stadia from the sea, and strongly for tified. In the Peloponnesian war, Pellene sided with Sparta. whoni was Corinth destroyed, and by whom restored? 18. "Whore were the colonies of Corinth established, and which were the most celebrated? 1. What was the earliest name of Achaia, and why was it so called ? 2. When and how was the name changed into Achaia ? 3. Under Boman rule, what was meant by Achaia, and why was it so called? 4. How was Achaia bounded f 68 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. Between Pellene and Aegae there was a smaUer town of the same name, where the celebrated PeUenian cloaks (TreXXrjVLaKal x^-aTvat) were made, which were given as prizes to the victors in the games celebrated at this place in honor of Mercury. 6. Aristonautae, the harbor or port-town of Pellene, was 60 stadia from that town : it was so called from the Argonauts having touched there in the course of their voyage. 7. The river Crathis rises in a mountain of the same name in Arcadia, receiving the Styx, and, flowing down from Nonacris, falls into the sea near Aegae. It was from this stream that the Italian Crathis, which flowed between Crotona and Sybaris, derived its appellation. 8. He lice was near the sea, N. W. of Aegae, and was the ancient capital of Achaia. It was here that the gen eral meeting of the lonians was convened, whilst yet they were in possession of Aegialus. A prodigious influx of the i sea, caused by a violent earthquake, overwhelmed and completely destroyed Helice, together with Bruma, two years before the battle of Leuctra, Olymp. ci. 4., or 373 B. c. It was said that some vestiges of the submerged city were to be seen long after the terrible event had taken place. As the event took place in the night, it is not Ukely that any of the inhabitants escaped. The earth sunk into thff ground, and the place on which the cities stood was ever afterwards covered by the sea. 9. Aegium, after the destruction of HeUce the capital of Achaia, was also on the coast, to the N. W. of Helice. For a long time the general states of .Achaia held their as semblies in this town, untU a law was made by Philopoe- men, by which each of the confederated towns became in ijs turn the place of rendezvous. 10. The promontory of Drepanum {Apetravov, a sickle), derived it's name from the fable of Saturn's scythe. It is , StUl called Drepano. A little to the W. of Drepanum was the more celebrated point of Rhium, surnamed Achaicum, to distinguish it from the Molycrian or Aetolian Rhium on the opposite coast, from which it was separated by a narrow strait of only 7 stadia, considerably 6. Point out and describe Pellene, 6. What and where was its harbor, and what is tho derivation of its name ? 7, Where was the Crathis, and to what did it give name ? 8. Where and what was Helice, and what was Its fate ? 9. Where was Aegium, and famed for what ? 10. Point out Drepanum Promontorium. U. GE4.ECIA, 69 less than an English mUe, This strait is now caUed the lAttle Dardanelles. 11, Pat rae, now Patr as, was situated W, of Rhium near the opening ofthe Corinthian gulf, and is said to have been built on the site of three towns, caUed Aroe, Anthea and Messatis, which had been founded by the lonians when they were in possession ofthe country. On their expulsion by the Acbaeans, these three small towns fell into the hands of Patreus, an Ulustrious chief of that people ; and he, uniting them into one city, called it by his name, 12. Its maritime situation, opposite the coast of Aetolia and Acarnania, rendered it a very advantageous port for communicating -with these countries ; and, in the Social War, PhiUp of Macedon frequently landed his troops there in his expeditions into Peloponnesus. In consequence of assisting the Aetolians against the Gauls in b. c. 279, Patrae became so weakened that most of the inhabitants deserted the town, and took up their abodes in the neighboring vil lages. Under the Romans it continued to be an insignifi cant place tUl the time of Augustus, who rebuUt the town after the battle of Actium, again collected its inhabitants, added to them those of Rhypae, and bestowed upon the town the privUeges of a Roman colony. Strabo describes Patrae in his time as a flourishing and populous town with a good harbor. The modern Patras is still an important place, but contains few remains of antiquity. 13. Dyme or Dymae (Au'/atj or AC/Aai: fi-om SJoi, SS/ii, to set), was situated in Western Achaia about 40 stadia beyond the mouth of the Pirus. Strabo is of opinion that the appeUation of Dyme, which was previously called Palea, had reference to its western situation with regard to the other cities_ of the province, and adds that it was origmaUy caUed Stratos. B. — Sicyonia. 1. Sicyonia was a small district in the N. E. of Pelo ponnesus, bounded on the E. by the territory of Corinth, on the W. by Achaia, on the S. by the territory of Phlius and Cleonae, and on the N. by the Corinthian gulf. 2. The chief town of Sicyonia was Sicyon (Zikowv), Where was Ebium, and styled what? 12. The strait how wide in this place and how called? 13. Where was Patrae, and how famed? 14, "What were the ad vantages of its situation, and what was its fate in the Social War ? 15, "Where was I^ine, aud why was it so called ? 1. "What and where was Sicyonia, and how bounded ? 2. "What was its chief Yo ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. which was situated a little to the W. of the river Asopus, and at the distance of 20, or, according to others, 12 stadia from the sea. 3. The ancient city, which was situated in the plain, was destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and a new city, which bore, for a short time, the name of Demetrias, was built by him on the high ground close to the AcropoUs. Sicyon was one ofthe most ancient cities of Greece. 4. It is said to have been originally called Aegialea or Aegiali (AiytaXeta, AtytaXot), after an ancient king, Aegialeus; to have been subsequently named Mecone, and to have been finally called Sicyon from an Athenian of this name. 5. Sicyon is represented by Homer as forming part of the empire of Agamemnon; but on the return ofthe Hera cUdae it became subject to the Dorians. It was the native town of Aratus, who united it to the Achaean league in 251 B. c. 6. Sicyon was for a long time the chief seat of Grecian art. The town was Ukewise celebrated for the taste and skill displayed in the various articles of dress made by its inhabitants, among which we find mention of a particular kind of shoe, that was much prized in aU parts of Greece. C— 3Slis. 1. Elis, a country on the western coast of Pelopon nesus, was bounded by Achaia on the N., by Arcadia on the E., by Messenia on the S., and by the Mare Ionium on the W. It thus occupied that portion of the Peninsula which is situated between the rivers Larissus, Risso, and Neda, Buzi, which served to separate it, the former from Achaia, the latter from Messenia. 2. In earlier times this tract of country was divided into several districts or principalities, each occupied by a separate clan or people. Of these the Caucones were probably the most ancient and also the most widely dissem inated, since we find them occupying both extremities of the province, and extending even into Achaia. Next to these were the Epei, who are placed by Homer in the northern part of the province, and next to Achaia. Paiisa- town and where ? 3. Give some account of Sicyon. 4. What is said of its naniel 6. How does Homer represent this city, and what did it become after the return of the Heraclidae ? 6. What was Sicyon for a long time, and for what else was it celebrated ? 1. How was Elis bounded? 2. "What were the divisions of EUs? 3. Into GEAECLSl. 71 nias derives their name fi-om Epeus, son of Endymion, one of the earUest sovereigns of the counti-y. 3. Elis was generaUy divided into three parts : — 1. Elis Proper or Hollow Elis (^ Koi'Aij 'HXis), the northern part, watered by the Peneus, of which the capi tal was also called Elis. 2. Pisatis, the middle portion, of which the capital was Pisa. 3. Triphylia, the south ern portion, of which Pylos was the capital, lay between the Alpheus and the Neda. 4. The country was fertUe, watered by the Alpheus and its tributaries, and is said to have been the only country in Greece which produced flax, PLACES IN ELIS, 5, The first to"wn on the Elean side of the Larissus was Buprasium, often mentioned by Homer as one of the chief cities of the Epeans. 6. Cyllene, the haven of EUs, was situated 120 stadia from that town, and to the W. of Cape Araxus. It seems to have been the usual place of embarkation for those who saUed fi-om Peloponnesus to SicUy and Italy. Its remains are near Lechena. 7. Beyond Cyllene was the promontory Chelonatas, which forms the extreme point of Peloponnesus towards the N. W. It is now caUed Cape Tomese. 8, The City of Elis was situated on the Peneus, 120 stadia from the sea. It was, like many other towns of Greece, at first composed of several (eight) detached vU lages, which, bemg united after the Persian war, formed one considerable city. 9. At the foot of Mount ScolUs, about 70 or 80 stadia to the S. E. of Elis on the road to Olympia, near the con fluence of the Ladon and the Peneus, was the ancient city of Pylos, which disputed with two other towns of the same name the honor of being the capital of Nestor's dominions. These were Pylps of TriphyUa, and the Messenian Pylos. The Elean city is, for distinction's sake, called Pylos EUdis. There has been much controversy, which of these three places was the Pylos founded by Neleus and governed by Nestor and his descendants. The town in EUs has Uttle or what three parts was Elis divided 1 4. "What was the character of the country ? e. Where and what was Buprasium ? 6. Where and what was Cyllene ? 7. What promontory was near Cyllene ? 8, Point out the city of Elis ; when and how was Itlormed? 9, Where was Pylos ? How many other towns of the name 1 How aro Y2 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. no claim to the honor, and the choice lies between the towns in TriphyUa and Messenia. The ancients usually decided in favor of the Messenian Pylos ; but most modern critics support the claims ofthe Triphylian city. 10. To the S. E. of Elean Pylos, between the Eryman thus and the Ladon, and near the former river was Mount Pholoe, now called 3fauroboum. 11. Pisatis was the middle portion of Elis, or that part of the Elean territory, through which flowed the Al pheus after its junction with the Erymanthus. Its chief city, Pisa, was situated N. of the Alphous, at a very short distance E. of Olympia, and, in consequence of its proximity to the latter place, was frequently identified by the poets with it. Pisa was the city of Oenomaus and Pelops, and formerly disputed with EUs the presidency of the Olympic games. In the war waged by the two cities for this honor. Pisa was so completely destroyed, that not a trace of it was left in later times. 12. Olympia was the name of a small plain in Elis, in which the Olympic games were celebrated. It was sur rounded on the N. and N. E. by the mountains Cronion and Olympus, on the S. by the river Alpheus, and on the W. by the river Cladeus. In this plain was the sacred grove of Zeus, caUed "AXtw, (an old Elean form of 0X0-05, a grove,) situated at the angle formed by the confluence ofthe rivers Alpheus and Cladeus, and 300 stadia distant from the towu of Pisa. The Altis and its immediate neighborhood were adorned "with numerous temples, statues, and pubUc buUd ings, to which collectively the general appellation of Olym pia was given ; but there was no town of this name. 13. The Altis was surrounded by a wall. It contained the following temples : 1. The Olympieum, or temple of Zeus Olympius, which was the most celebrated of aU the buildings at Olympia, and which contained the master piece of Grecian art, the colossal statue of Zeus by Phidias. The statue was made of ivory and gold, and the god was represented as seated on a throne of cedar-wood, adorned with gold, ivory, ebony and precious stones. 2. The He- raeum, or temple of Hera, which contained the celebrated chest of Cypselus, and was situated N. of the Olympieum. 3. The Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the they distinguished from each other, and for what famed? 10. Point ont Mount Pholoe, 11. Where was Pisatis ; where its chief city, and for what was it famed ? 12. Point out and describe Olympia, 13, By what was the Al'tis surrounded, and GEAECIA. 73 There was a large number of other buUdings in the Altis. The two chief buUdings outside the Altis were the Stadium to the E. of Mt. Cronion, in which the gymnastic games were celebrated, and the Hippodromus, a little S. E. of tho Stadium, in which the chariot-races took place. At the place which formed the connection between the Stadium and Hoppodromus, the Hellanodicae, or judges of the Olympic games had their seats. 14. The Olympic games were celebrated from the ear liest times in Greece, and their establishment was assigned to various mythical personages, particularly Hercules. There was an interval of four years between each celebra tion of the festival, which interval was called an Olym piad ; but the Olympiads were not employed as a chrono logical era till the victory of Coroebus in the foot-race, B. c. 776. 15. Triphylia was the southern portion of EUs, lying be tween the Alpheus and the Neda : it is said, by some authors, to have derived its name from Triphylus, an Arcadian prince ; by others, fi-om the three different tribes by which it was peopled. 16. Scillus (SKiXXoCg), a town in TriphyUa, was situated on the river Selinus, 20 stadia S. of Olympia. This place is rendered interesting from Xenophon having fixed his abode there during his exile. The town itself had been de- 'stroyed by the Eleans, in consequence of its uniting against them in the war with Pisa. But the territory being after wards wrested from Elis by the Lacedaemonians, they made it over to Xenophon, when that celebrated Athenian was banished by his fellow-citizens, for having served in the army of the younger Cyrus. Pie erected here a sanctuary to Artenus, which he had vowed during the retreat of the Ten Thousand. 17. Pylos of Triphylia, or Pylus Triphyliacus, regarded by Strabo with great probability as the city of Nestor, is placed by that geographer at a distance of 30 stadia from the coast, and near a small river once caUed Amathus and Pamisus, but subsequently Mamaus and Ar- cadicus. Notwithstanding its ancient celebrity, this city is scarcely mentioned in later times, and Pausanias does not appear even to have been aware of its existence. what did it contain ? 14. What is said of the Olympic Games ? 15. Where was Triphylia, and what was the origin ot the namo ? 16. Where was Soillus, and for what was it noted ? 17. Point out and describe Triphylian Pylos, 4 74 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. S. — Messenia. 1. We learn from Pausanias that Messe nia derived its appeUation from Messene, "wife of Polycaon, one of the earliest sovereigns ofthe country. 2. Messenia was bounded E. by Laconia, N, by Elis and Arcadia, S, and W, by the Ionian sea. It was sepa rated from Laconia by Mt. Taygetus. The river Neda formed the northern frontier between Messenia and EUs. The area of Messenia is about 1,162 square mUes. 3. Messenia was, for the most part, a mountainous country, and contained only two plains of any extent : in the N. the plain of Stenyclerus, and in the S. a stUl largeir plain, through which the Pamisus flowed, and which was caUed Macaria, or the Blessed, on account of its great fertiUty. Hence Messenia is described by Pausanias as the most fertile country in Peloponnesus ; and it is praised by Euripides on account of its cUmate, which was neither too cold in "winter, nor too hot in summer. CITIES AND OTHEE PLACES IN MESSENIA. 4. Cyparissia was a town on the W. coast of Mes senia, S. of the river Cyparissus, and on a promontory and bay of the same name, near the Cyparissium Promonto rium and on the Sinus Cyparissius. 5. Pylos Messeniacus was in the S. W. ofthe prov ince, at the foot of Mt. Aegaleus on a promontory at the N. entrance of the basin, now called the bay of Navarino, the largest and safest harbor in aU Greece. 6. Coryphasium was a promontory which enclosed the harbor of Pylos on the N., and had a tO"wn of the same name upon it. It is doubtless identical with the point of land on which Old Navarino is situated. 7. The harbor of Pylos was fronted and protected by the small island of Sphacteria, also called Sphagia even to this day, which stretched along the coast about If mUes, leaving only two narrow entrances at each end. 8. This island is celebrated in Grecian history from the defeat and capture of a Lacedaemonian detachment in the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war, and the harbor pro- 1. What is the derivation of the name Messenia! 2. How was Messenia bounded? Its area how many square miles? 3. What was the character of the country? 4. Point out Cyparissia. 6. Point out and describe Messenian Pylos, 6. Where and what was Coryphasium ? 7. Where and what wasthe island Sphac teria? 8, Por what is this island celebrated, and what has given the harbor pro- GEAECIA. 75 tected by it has been rendered famous in modern times by the victory of the English, French and Russian fleets over those ofthe Turks and Egyptians, 20th October, 1827, 9. The southernmost promontqry of Messenia was Acri tas, CAKpeu-as,) which is now called Cape GaUo, 10. Stenyclerus was an ancient town in the N. of Messenia, and was situated in the Stenyclericus Cam pus or Stenyclerian Plain: both city and plain received their name from the hero Stenyclerus. Pausanias relates that the Stenyclerian plain was even in his day celebrated in the songs of the natives as the scene of Aristomenes' achievements. 11. Messene, situated at the foot of Mt. Ithome, now Vourkano, was founded by Epaminondas, b. c. 369, and completed and fortified within the space of 85 days. It was one of the most strongly fortified cities of Greece : Pausanias states, that its waUs were the strongest he had ever seen, being entirely of stone, and well suppUed with towers and buttresses. The citadel was situated on Mt. Ithome, celebrated in' history for the long and obsti nate defence which, in their first and in their last revolt, the Messenians there made against the Spartans, b. c. 723 and B. c. 455. Strabo compares the Messenian Acropolis to Acrocorinthus, being situated like that citadel on a lofty and steep mountain, enclosed by fortified Unes, which con nected it with the to"wn. Hence these two were justly esteemed the strongest places in the Peloponnesus. 12. Anion was that district of Messenia which bordered on Triphylia and part of Arcadia, being separated from these two provinces by the Neda. Its city of the same name is placed by Pausanias near the mouth ofthe Neda. 13. Higher up the Neda stood Ira, a mountain-for tress, celebrated in the history of the Messenian wars as the last hold whither Aristomenes retreated, and which he so long defended against the enemies of his country. It was taken by the Spartans b, c. 668. E. — Laconia. 1. Laconia, as the Spartan Territory was called by tected by it celebrity in modem times ? 9. What was Acritas Promontorium ? 10. Where was Stenycleraa ; it gave name to what and was how famed ? 11, Point out and give an account of Messene j for what was Mt, Ithome celebrated ? 12. Where and what was Anion ? 13. "Where was Ira, and famed for what ? 1. What was the Greek name of this province ? 2, How was Laconia bound- T6 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY, the Romans, would be more correctly termed Laconica, as the Greeks caU it AaKusvLK-q, scU. ¦yrj. 2. Laconia was bounded on the N. by ArgoUs and Arca dia, on the W. by Messenia, and on the E. and S. by the Aegaean Sea. 3. Laconia was a long vaUey, running southwards to the sea, and was inclosed on three sides by mountains. On the N. it was separated by Mt. Parnon from ArgoUs, and by Mt. Sciritis from Arcadia. It was bounded by Mt. Tay getus on the W. and by Mt. Parnon on the E., which are two masses of mountains extending from Arcadia to the southern extremities of the Peloponnesus. Mt. Taygetus terminating at the promontory Taenarum, now Gape Mata pan, and Mt. Parnon, continued under the names of Thor- nax and Zarex, terminating at the promontory Malea, now Cape St. Angelo. 4. The river Eurotas flows through and drains the valley lying between these mountain-masses and falls into the Sinus Laconicus. In the upper part of its course the valley is narrow, and near Sparta the mountains approach so close to each other as to leave little more than room for the channel of the river. It is for this reason that we find the vale of Sparta called the hoUow Lacedaemon, ¦q koiAi; AaKeSa.lp.(jov. Below Sparta the mountains recede, and the valley opens out into a plain of considerable extent. 5. The soU of this plain is poor, but on the slopes ofthe mountains there is land of considerable fertility. 6. Off the coast shell-fish were caught, which produced a purple dye inferior only to the Tyrian. 7. Laconica or Laconia is weU described by Euripides as difficult of access to an enemy. On the N. the country could be invaded only by the vaUeys ofthe Eurotas and the Oenus: the range of Taygetus formed an almost insupera ble barrier on the W. ; and the want of good harbors on the E. coast-protected it against invasion by sea on that side. PLACES IN LACONIA. — ISLANDS OPP THE COAST. — PEOMON- TOEIES. 8. Gythiumor Gythenm,now Palaeopoli,nearMarar thonisi, an ancient town on the coast of Laconia, founded by the Acbaeans, lay near the head of the Sinus Laconicus, ed ? 3. "What was the character of tho country ? 4. What was the character of the valley of the Eurotas? 5. "Wliat was the nature ofthe soil? 6. What was ob tained on tho sea-coast? 7, What were the natural defences of Laconia? 8. GEAECIA, 77 S. W. of the mouth of the Eurotas. It served as the har bor of Sparta, from which it was distant 240 stadia, and was important in a military point of view. 9. Cranae, the island to which Paris first carried Helen from Peloponnesus, is said by some to be an island off Gythium, by others to be the island Helena off Attica, and by others again to be Cythera. 10. He los was a town on the coast of Laconia, in a marshy situation, whence its name (eXos = marsh). The town was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. It was com monly said that the Spartan slaves, called Helots (EiXwres), were originally the Achaean inhabitants of this town, who were reduced by the Dorian conquerors to slavery ; but this account of the origin of the Helotes seems to have been merely an invention, in consequence of the simUarity of their name to that of the town of Helos. 11. Cythera, now Cerigo,was a mountainous island off the S. E. point of Laconia, with a town of the same name in the interior, the harbor of which was called Scan- dea. It was colonised at an early time by the Phoenicians, who introduced the worship of Aphrodite into the island, for which it was celebrated. The goddess was hence called Cytheraea, Cythereis ; and according to some traditions it was in the neighborhood of this island that she first rose from the foam of the sea. " 12. The possession of Cythera was accounted of great importance, as its harbors sheltered the Spartan fleets, and afforded protection to aU merchant vessels against the attacks of pirates. 13. Boeae was situated at the southern extremity of the Boeaticus Sinus near Cape Malea. The town gave name to the gulf. 14. The two most celebrated promontories on the coast of Laconia were Taenarum, G. Matapan, and Malea, C. St. Angelo. 15. Taenarum promontorium formed the south erly point of the Peloponnesus : on this promontory stood a celebrated temple of Poseidon, possessing an inviolable asylum. Here was also a cave, through which Where and what was Gythium? 9. "Where was the island Cranae, and how famed? 10. Where was Helos ; why was it so called, and what is said of it? 11. Point out Cythera, and give the legend connected with it. 12. Of what use was Cythera to Sparta ? 13. Where was Boeae, and to what did it give namo ? 14, Name the two chief promontories of Laconia, and point them out on the map, 15, What did Taenarum promontory form, and for what was it noted? 16. How 78 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. Hercules is said to have dragged Cerberus to the upper world ; also a statue of Arion seated on a dolphin, since he is said to have landed at this spot after his miraculous pres ervation by a dolphin. In the time of the Romans there were celebrated marble quarries on the promontory, which is now Cape Matapan. Strabo reckons 670 stadia from Taenarum to the promontory of Malea, now Cape St. Angelo, including the sinuosities ofthe coast. 16. Cape Malea was by the ancients accounted the most dangerous point in the circumnavigation of the penin sula : hence the proverbial expression : " After doubUng Cape Malea, forget your country." 17. Sparta (Sirdprij, Dor. "Sarapro), also called Lace daemon (AttKeSat/ioiv), the capital of Laconia and the chief city of Peloponnesus, was situated on the right bank ofthe Eurotas, now Iri or Vasili potamo, about 20 mUes from the sea. It stood in a plain which contained in it several rising grounds and hills. This plain was shut in on the E. by Mt. Menelaium, and on the W. by Mt. Taygetus; whence Homer calls the city " the hollow Lacedaemon." It was of a circular form, about 6 mUes in circumference, and consisted of several distinct quarters, which were originally separate villages, and which were never united into one regular town. 18. The site of Sparta is occupied by the modern vil lages of Magula and Psykhiko ; and the principal modern town in the neighborhood is Mistra, which lies about 2 miles to the W. on the slopes of Mt. Taygetus. 19. During the flourishing times of Greek independ ence, Sparta was never surrounded by walls, since the brar very of its citizens and the difficulty of access to it were sup posed to render such defences needless. It was first forti fied by the tyrant Nabis ; but it did not possess regular walls till the time ofthe Romans. 20. Therapnae orTherapne (©epairvai or ©cpaimj), was a town on the left bank of the Eurotas, and about 2 miles, S. E. of Sparta. It received its name from Therapne, daughter of Lelex, and is celebrated in mythology as the birthplace of Castor and Pollux, and contained temples of these divinities, as well as temples of Menelaus and Helen, both of whom were said to be buried here. was Cape Malea regarded by the ancients ? 17. Point out and give some account of Sparta. 18. By what is the site of Sparta now occupied, and what modern town Is in the neighborhood? 19. "When was Sparta completely suiToiindod with GEAECIA. 79 21. Amy clae was a very ancient town on the Eurotas, in a beautiful country, 40 stadia (according to DodweU. Dr. Smith says 20 miles, whioh, if Dodwell's statement is cor- recti, must be wrong. Polybius makes it only 20 stadia) S. E. of Sparta, It is said to have been founded by the an cient Lacedaemonian King Amyclas, father of Hyacinthus, and to have been the abode of Tyndareus, and of Castor and PoUux, who are hence called Amyclaei Fratres. Its most celebrated structure was the temple of the Amy- claean Apollo. 22. N. of Sparta was Sellasia, situated on the river Oenus, and commanding one of the principal passes leading to Sparta. Here the celebrated battle was fought between Cleomenes III. and Antigonus Doson b. c. 221, in which the former was defeated. F. — Argolis. 1. According to Strabo, Argos (To"Apyos, -eos) signified a plain in the language of the Macedonians and Thessalians. The district Argos in Peloponnesus was called Argolis by Herodotus, but more frequently by other Greek writers either Argos, Argia, or Argolice. Thus Argos is the name that was originally appUed to the country or province ; but under the Romans ArgoUs became the usual name of the couHtry, whUe the word Argos or Argi was confined to the town. 2. Argolis under the Romans signified the country bounded on the N. by Sicyonia and Corinthia, on the W, by Arcadia, on the S, by Laconia, and included towards the E, the whole Acte or peninsula between the Saronic and ArgoUc gulfs ; but during the time ofthe Grecian ui- depende'nce, .Argolis or Argos was only the country lying round the ArgoUc gulf, bounded on the W. by the Arca dian mountains, and separated on the N. by a range of mountains from Cormthia, Cleonae, and PhUus. 3. Argolis, as understood by the Romans, was for the most part a mountainous and unproductive country : the only extensive plain adapted for agriculture was in the neighborhood of the city of Argos. Its rivers were in significant, and mostly dry in summer : the most important was the Inachus. walls? 20. Where was Therapne, and how famed? 21. Where was Amyolae and how famed ? 22. Where was Sellasia, and how famed ? ' 1. Prom what was the name Argolis derived ! 2. How was Argolis bounded f 80 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. PLACES IN AEGOLIS. — ISLANDS OPP THE COAST. 4. Lerna or Lerne (AepvTj), was a distriet in Argolis, not far from Argos. In this district, near the N. W. angle of the Sinus Argolicus, was a marsh and small river of the same name. This marsh or lake was celebrated as the place where Hercules kUled the Lernean hydra. 5. Argos, now Argo, the capital of ArgoUs, and, next to Sparta, the most important town in Peloponnesus, was sit uated in a level plain a little to the W. of the Inachus. It had an ancient Pelasgie citadel, called Larissa, and another built subsequently on another height. It possessed nu merous temples, and was particularly celebrated for the worship of Hera, whose great temple, Heraeum, lay be tween Argos and Mycenae. The remains of the Cyclopian walls of Argos are still to be seen. The city is said to have been founded by Inachus, or his son, Phoroneus, or grand son, Argus. 6. Nauplia, situated on the Saronic gulf, was the port of Argos. Although the only good harbor that Argolis possessed, it was never a place of importance in antiquity, and was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. It is now caUed Nauplia, or Napoli di Romania, and is one of the most im portant cities in Greece. 7. Mycenae (Mvk^toi), about 6 mUes N. E. of A^^gos, is situated on a hiU at the head of a narrow vaUey. It is said to have been founded by Perseus, and was subse quently the favorite residence of the Pelopidae. During the reign of Agamemnon it was regarded as the first city in all Greece ; but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, it ceased to be a place of importance. It stUl, however, continued an independent town untU b. c. 468, when it was attacked by the people of Argos. 8. The massive walls of Mycenae resisted all the attacks of the Argives ; but the inhabitants were at length com pelled by famine to abandon their town. They effected their escape without a surrender, and took refuge, some at Cleonae, some in Achaia, others in Macedonia. Mycenae was now destroyed by the Argives and was never rebuUt. 9. There are stUl, however, numerous remains ofthe an- 3. What Avas the character of the country ? 4. Where was Lerna, and how famed? 5. Point out and give some account of Argos, 6. What and where. was tho port of Argos ? 7. Point out and give some account of Mycenae : by whom is it said to have been founded ? S, What was the fate of the city and its inhabit- GEAECIA. 81 cient city, which, on account of their antiquity and grandeur, are some of the most interesting in all Greece. Of these the most remarkable are the subterranean vault, commonly caUed the "Treasury of Athens," but which was more probably a sepulchre, and the Gate of Lions, so called from two lions sculptured over the gate. The ruins are close to the vUlage of Erabata. 10. Tiryns, S. E. of Argos and one ofthe most ancient towns in all Greece, is said to have been founded by Proe- tus, the brother of Acrisius, who buUt the massive waUs of the city with the help of the Cyclopes. Proetus was suc ceeded by Perseus; and it was here that Hercules was brought up. Hence we find his mother Alcmena caUed Tirynthia, and the hero himself Tirynthius. 11. The town was destroyed by the Argives, and most of the inhabitants were removed to Argos. Tiryns was buUt upon a hiU of small extent, rising abruptly from the dead level ofthe surrounding country. The remains ofthe city are some of the most interesting in all Greece, and are, with those of Mycenae, the most ancient specimen of what is caUed Cyclopian architecture. They consist of masses of enormous stones, rudely piled in tiers above one an other. 12. Troezen, more rarely Troezene, was the capital of Troezenia, a district ui the S. E. of Argolis on the Saronic gult^ and opposite the island of Aegina. The town was situated at some little distance from the coast, on which it possessed a harbor caUed Pogon (Ilaiycoi/, the beard), oppo site the island of Calauria. Troezen was a very ancient city, and is said to have been originaUy called Poseidonia, on account of its worship of Poseidon. 13. It received its later name from Troezen, one of the sons of Pelops, and it is celebrated in mythology as the place where Pittheus, the maternal grandfather of Theseus, Uved, and where Theseus himself was born. It was a city of some importance, as it sent five ships of war to Salamis, and 1,000 heavy-armed men to Plataeae. When the Per sians entered Attica, the Troezenians distinguished them selves by the kindness with which they received the Athe nians, who were obUged to abandon their city. ants ? 9. What remains of the ancient city still exist ? 10. Wliere, what and by whom founded was Tiryns ; what legend is connected with it ? 11. By whom was the town destroyed, and what interesting remains of it are still to be seen ? 12. Point out and give some account of Troezene. 13. From whom did it receive its later name : how is it noted in mythology, and for what ts it distinguished in 4* 82 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 14. The island of Calauria possessed a celebrated tem ple of Poseidon, which was regarded as an inviolable asylum. Hither Demosthenes fled to escape Antipater, and here he took poison, b. c. 322. 15. Aegina, now called Eghina or Enghia, is a rocky island in the middle ofthe Sinus Saronicus, about 200 stadia in circumference. It was originally called Oenone or Oenopia, and is said to have obtained the name of Aegina from Aegina, the daughter of the river god Asopus, who was carried to the island by Zeus, and there bore him a son Aeacus. As the island had then no inhabitants, Zens changed the ants into men (Myrmidones), over whom Aeacus ruled. . 16. It was first colonized by Acbaeans, and afterwards by Dorians from Epidaurus. It early became a place of great commercial importance, and its silver coinage was the standard in most of the Dorian states. In the 6th century b. c, Aegina became independent, and, for a cen tury before the Persian war, was a prosperous and power ful state. The Aeginetans fought with 30 ships against the fleet of Xerxes, at Salamis, b. c. 480, and, are aUowed to have distinguished themselves above all the other Greeks by their bravery. After this time its power declined. In B. c. 429 the Athenians took possession of the island and expelled its inhabitants ; and though a portion of them was restored by Lysander in b. c. 404, the island never recovered its former prosperity. 17. In the N. W. of the island there was a city of the same name, which contained the Aeaceum or temple of Aeacus. 18. On a hUl in the N. E. of the island was the cele brated temple of Zeus PanheUenius, said to have been built by Aeacus, the ruins of which are stUl extant. The sculptures which occupied the tympana of the pediment of this temple were discovered in 1811, and are now preserved at Munich. In the half century preceding the Persian war, and for a few years afterwards, Aegina was the chief seat of Greek art : the most eminent artists of the Aeginetan school were Gallon, Anaxagoras, Glaucias, Simon, and Onatas. history? 14. Por what is the island of Calauria remarliable ? 16. Where is Aegina, and for what is it famed in mythology ? 16. How was i1? famed in the his torical period of Greece ? 17. What and where was its capital city, and for what remarkable 1 18. What was in the N. E. of the island, and what remains of Aeginetan art are extant ? GEAECIA, 83 G, — Arcadia, 1. Arcadia, lying in the middle of Peloponnesus, was bounded E. by ArgoUs, N. by Achaia, W. by Elis, and S. by Messenia and Laconica or Laconia. 2. Next to Laconia it was the largest country in the Peloponnesus : its greatest length was about 50 mUes, its breadth from 35 to 41 mUies. It was surrounded on aU sides by mountains, which likewise traversed it in every direction, and it may be regarded as the Switzerland of Greece. MOUNTAINS, CnTES, ETC., IN AECADIA. 3. Its principal mountains were Cyllene and Ery manthus in the N., Artemisius in the E., and Par thenius, Maenalus and Lycaeus in the S. and S. W. 4. Mount Cyllene, the loftiest and most celebrated mountain of Arcadia, rises between Stymphalus and Pheneus on the borders of Achaia. According to the poets it was the birthplace of Mercury, who was hence called Cyllenius, and to whom a temple was dedicated on the summit. It is now caUed Zyria. 5. The N. and E. parts of the country were barren and unproductive : the W. and S. were more fertile, with nu merous valleys where corn was grown. The Arcadians, said to be descended from the eponymous hero Areas, re garded themselves as the most ancient people in Greece : the Greek writers caU them indigenous (avrox^ovts), and Pe- lasgians. 6. In consequence of the physical pecuUarity of the country, they were chiefly employed in hunting and the tending of cattle, whence their worship of Pan, who was especially the god of Arcadia, and of Artemis. They were a people simple in their habits and moderate in their desires : they were passionately fond of music, and culti vated it with great success (Yirg. Eel. x. 32), which circum stance was supposed to soften the natural roughness of their character. Like the Swiss, the Arcadians frequently served as mercenaries, and in the Peloponnesian war, they 1. How was Arcadia bounded ? 2. What was its extent, and what its general features ? 3. What and where were its principal mountains ? 4. WTiere was Mount Cyllene, and how famed? Whatis its modern name ? 5. What was the character of the country, as what did its inhabitants regard themselves, and how were they called by Greek writers ? 6. -What was the chief employment of the inhabitants ; 84: ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. were found in the armies of both the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. 7. Mantinea, the ruins of which are now called Palae- opoli, was one of the most ancient and important towns in Arcadia, situated on the small river Ophis, near the centre of the E. frontier of the country. It is celebrated in his tory for the great battle fought under its walls between the, Spartans and Thebans, in which Epaminondas fell, b. c. 362. 8. In the N. E. of Arcadia was the town of Stympha lus, the district of which was one of military importance, since it commanded one of the chief roads from Arcadia to Argolis. The town was situated on a mountain of the same name, and on the N. side of the lake Stymphalis, now Zaraka, on which dwelt, according to tradition, the cele brated birds called Stymphalides, destroyed by Hercules. 9. In the N. W., on the frontiers of Achaia and Elis, was Erymanthus, now Eallifoni, a lofty mountain cele brated in mythology as the haunt of the savage Erymanthian boar destroyed by Hercules. 10. Megalojjolis, now Simano or Simanu, the most recent, but the most important ofthe cities of Arcadia, was founded by the advice of Epaminondas after the battle of Leuctra, b. c. 371, as a barrier against the Spartans, and was formed out of the inhabitants of 38 vUlages. It was situated in the district Maenalia, near the frontier of Mes senia, on the river Helisson, which flowed through the city, dividing it into two nearly equal parts. It was the birth place of Philopoemen and of the historian Polybius. 11. TotheN.W.ofMegalopoUswasLycaeusorLyceus, a lofty mountain from the summit of which a great part of the country could be seen. It was one ofthe chief seats of the worship of Zeus, who was hence surnamed Lycaeus, and had a temple here. Here also was celebrated the festi val or games ofthe Lycaea. Pan was also called Lycaeus, because he was born and had a sanctuary in this mountain. 12. Phigalia, at a later time caUed Phialia, now Paolitza, was a town in the extreme S. W., on the fi-ontiers of Messenia and Elis, and upon the river Lymax. It owes its celebrity in modern times to- the remains of a splendid what their character and habits, and what their practice in war ? 7. Where was Mantinea, and for what is it celebrated in history ? 8. Where was Stymphalus, and for what famed? 9. Where was Mount Erymanthus, and how famed in mythol ogy ? 10. Where was Megalopolis ; why founded, aud celebrated as the birth place of whom? 11. Where was Mons Lycaeus, and how famed? 12. Where was GEAECU, 85 temple of Apollo Epiourius in its territory, and to the beautiful PhigaUan Marbles, representing the combat of the Centaurs and the Lapithae. They are now in the Brit ish Museum. 13. N. E, of MegalopoUs was Tegea, one, of tbe most ancient and important cities of Arcadia, The Tegeatae sent 3,000 men to the battie of Plataeae, ui which they were distinguished for their bravery. 14. Mount Maenalus extended from Megalopolis to Tegea, and was celebrated as the favorite haunt of the god Pan. The mountain was so celebrated, that the Roman poets frequently use the adjectives Maenalius and Maenalis as equivalent to Arcadian. 13.— The Grecian Islands. 1. The Cyclades are agroupof islands in the Aegaean sea, and were so caUed because they lay in a circle (iv kvkXw) around Delos, the most important of them. The most important of them were D eio s, Ceos, Seriphos, Rhenia, Siphnos, Cimolos, Naxos, Pares, Sy- ros, Myconos, Tenos, Andros. 2. According to a legend, founded perhaps upon some tradition of its late volcanic origin, Delos was called out of the deep by the trident of Poseidon, but was a floating island until Zeus fastened it by adamantine chains to the bottom of the sea, that it might be a secure resting-place to Leto, for the birth of Apollo and Artemis. 3. The city of Delos stood on the W. side ofthe • island, at the foot of Mount Cynthus, from which Apollo received the surname of Cynthius, Artemis that of Cynthia. 4. The modern names of Delos are Delo, Deli, Dili, or Sdili. 5. Ceos, between the Attic promontory Sunium and the island Cythnus, is chiefly known as the birthplace of Simo- nides. 6. Cythnos, now Thermia, was celebrated for its Phigalia, chiefly famed for what 1 13. Where was Tegea, and how famed in his tory? l4. Where was Mount Maenalus, and for what noted ? 1. Where were the Cyclades \ why so called, and which the most important ? 2. What is the legend about Delos? 3, What mountain. in Delos, and what epithets were derived from this 1 4. What are the modern names of Delos ? 5, Where was Ceos, and how famed? 6. Por what was Cythnos celebrated? 7, 86 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. cheese and also for its warm springs, whence its modern name. 7. Seriphus, now Serpho, was a small rocky island about 12 miles in circumference. It is celebrated in my thology as the island where Danae and Perseus landed after they had been exposed by Acrisius, where Perseus was brought up, and where he afterwards turned the inhab itants into stone with the Gorgon's head. 8. Melos, now Milo, is the most westerly of the group, whence it was called Zephyria by Aristotle. It is of vol canic origin : it contains mines of sulphur and alam. Its soil is very fertile, and it produced in antiquity, as it does at present, abundance of corn, oU, wiae, &o. 9. Siphnos, now Siphno, about 40 miles in circum ference, lies S. E. of Seriphus. In consequence of their gold and silver mines, of Which the remains are still visible, the Siphnians attained great prosperity, and were regarded in the time of Herodotus as the wealthiest of the islanders. 10. Cimolus, or Cimolis, now Cimoli or Argef¥ tiere, is between Siphnos and Melos, and was celebrated for its fine white earth, used by fullers for cleaning cloths. 11. Olearus or Oliarus, now Antiparos, is W. of Paros, and celebrated in modern times for its stalactite grotto. 12. Paros, now Faro, was S. of Delos and N. E. of Siphnos. The most celebrated production of this island was its marble, which was extensively used by the ancient sculptors. It was chiefly obtained from a mountain caUed Marpessa. Paros was the birthplace of the poet Archi- locus. 13. Naxos, now iVaa;«ffl, the largest ofthe group, is situated nearly halfway between the coasts of Greece and Asia Minor. It was especially celebrated for its wine, and hence plays a prominent part in the legends about Diony sus, who was worshipped here. Here the god is said to have found Ariadne after she had been deserted by The seus. The marble of the island was considered equal to the Parian. 14. Syros, or Syrus, now Syra, is between Rhenea Por what is Seriphus celebrated ? 8. Where was Melos, and what was its char acter ? 9. Where is Siphnos, and for what were its inhabitants noted! 10. Where was Cimolos or Cimolis, (now Cimoli or Argentiere,) and noted for what! 11. Where is Olearos, and for what celebrated ? 12. Where is Paros, and for what celebrated ? It was the birthplace of whom ? 13. Where is Naxos, and for what celebrated? 14. Where was Syros, and noted as the birthplace of whom? GEAECIA. 87 and Cythnos, and is noted as the birthplace of the philoso pher Pherecydes. 15, Myconos, now Mycono, is S. E. of Tenos and E. of Delos. It is celebrated in mythology as one of the places where the giants were defeated by Hercules. The island was poor and unproductive, and its inhabitants were rapacious. It became proverbial for the large number of bald persons among its inhabitants. 16. Tenos, now Tino, S. E. of Andros and N. of De los, was originally caUed Hydrussa, because it was weU watered, and Ophiussa, because it abounded in snakes.- 17, Andros, now Andro, the most northerly, and one of the largest ofthe Cyclades, lies S. E. of Euboea. It was celebrated for its wine, and contained a famous temple of Dionysos, to whom the whole island was regarded as sacred. 18. Gyarus, now Ghiura, or Jura, is S. W. of An dros : it was poor and unproductive, and inhabited only by fishermen. Under the Roman emperors it was a place of banishment. 19. The Sporades (SiropdSes, soil, v^crot, from a-n-upta, to scatter) were a group of scattered islands in the Aegaean sea off the island of Crete and the W. coast of Asia Minor, so called in opposition to the Cyclades, which lay, as we have seen, in a circle around Delos. The division, how ever, between these two groups of islands was not well de fined : and we find some of the islands at one time described as belonging to the Sporades, and at another as belonging to the Cyclades. 20. Thera, now Santoria,the chief island of the group, is distant from Crete 700 stadia, and 25 miles S. of the island of los. It is 36 miles in circumference, and in figure exactly like a horse-shoe. It is clearly of volcanic origin. Therasia, a small island to the W., and stiU bearing the same name, was torn away from Thera by some volcanic convulsion, Thera is said to have been originally inhabited by Phoenicians, but was afterwards colonized by Lacedae monians and Minyans of Lemnos under the guidance ofthe Spartan Theras, who gave his name to the island. In b. c. 15. Where was Myconos, and for what is it celebrated in mythology, and what was the character of the island and of its inhabitants ? 16. Where was Tenos, aud what other names had it? 17. Where was Andros, and for what was it noted ? 18. Where was Gyarus, what was its character, and for what did the Eo mans use it 1 19. Where were the Sporades, and why so called ? 20. Where was 88 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 631 Battus conducted a colony from Thera to Africa, where he founded the celebrated city of Cyrene. 21. Anaphe, now Anaphi or Nanflo, is a small island E. of Thera, with a temple of Apollo Aegletes, who was hence called Anapheus. 22. North of Thera is los, now caUed Nio, where, ac cording to some accounts. Homer was interred. It was also said that the poet's mother was a native of this island. 23. Carpathus, now Scarpanto, is between Crete and Rhodes, in the sea named after it. 24. Creta, ordinarily called Crete, now Candia, one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean sea, is nearly equi distant from Europe, Asia, and Africa, but always reckoned as part of Europe. Its name is variously accounted for by different authors, of whom the generality, however, derive it from Cres, a son of Jupiter and the nymph Idaea. 25. The length ofthe island from E. to W. is about 160 miles : its breadth is very unequal, being in the widest part about 35 mUes, and in the narrowest only 6. 26. The principal capes or promontories of Creta were : 1. In the extreme E., Salmonium promontorium, or Salmona, now Cape Salmon or Salmone; and 2, In the W. Criu-metopon, (Kptov p.ermrov, the ram's head or front,) the extreme point of which is caUed Corycum propion- torium, (KolpvKos aKpa.) 27. A range of mountains runs through the whole length of the island from E. to W., sending forth spurs N. and S. : in the centre of the island rises Mt. Ida far above aU others : its summit is said to be 7,674 feet above the level of the sea. Its modern name is Fsilorati. 28. It has been remarked by several ancient writers, that Homer in one passage (II. B. 649) ascribes to Crete one hundred cities, and in another only ninety, (Odyss. T. 174 ;) a variation that has been accounted for on the supposition that ten of the Cretan cities were founded posterior to the siege of Troy. As there are serious objections to this expla nation, we prefer that suggested by other authors, viz., that during the siege of Troy the ten deficient cities had been destroyed by the enemies of Idomeneus. (Strab. X., p. 479 sq.) Thera, and what is its character? 21. Where was Anaphe, and for what was it noted ? 22. Where was los, and how famed ? 23. Where was Carpathus, and to what did it give name ? 24. Where is Creta, and whence is its name derived? 26. What is the size ot theisland? 26. Namo and point out the two principal capes or promontories. 27. What famous mountain-range In Crete ? 28. What GEAECIA. 89 29. Cydoni a, more rarely Cydonis, now Ehania or Canea, one of the chief cities of Crete, the rival and oppo nent of Cnossus and Gortyna, was situated on the N. W. coast, and derived its name from the Cydones, a Cretan race, placed by Homer on the W. part of the island. At a later time a colony of Zacynthians settied in Cydonia : they were driven out by the Samians about b. c. 524. Cy donia was the place from which quinces (Cydonia mala) were first brought to Italy. 30. CnSsus or Gnosus, subsequently Cnossus or Gnossus, a very ancient city and the capital of King Mmos, was situated in a fertUe country on the river Cae- ratus (which was originaUy the name of the town) at a short distance from the N. coast. Cnossusis frequently mentioned by the poets, in consequence of its connection with Minos, Ariadne, the Minotaur, and the Labyrinth. 31. In the E. of the island was Mount Dicte, on which, according to some accounts, Zeus was born and brought up. 32. Gortyn or Gortyna, 6 mUes from the foot of Mt. Ida, one of the most ancient cities, and the second city in Crete, was inferior only to Cnossus ; and on the decline of the latter place under the Romans, it became the metropo lis of the island. 33. Phoenix, a harbor on the S. of the island, was visited by St. Paul during his voyage to Rome, (Acts xxvU. 12.) 34. The Cretans were celebrated as archers, and fre quently served as mercenaries in the armies of other nations. 35. The Cretans bore a very bad character^ among the ancients: the historian Polybius accuses them of numerous vices, and the apostle Paul, quoting the Cretan poet Epi menides, describes them as " alway liars, evil beasts, slow beUies." (Titus L 12.) does Homer ascribe to Crete, and how is the discrepancy accounted for ? 29. Where was Cydonia, and howfamed? 30. Where was Cnoesus, and how famed ? 31., Where was Mount Dlcte, and celebrated for what? 32, Where was Gortyna, and how noted? 33. "Where was Phoenix, and for what noted? 34. Por what were the Cretans celebrated ? 36. What was the character of the Cretans ? 90 ANCIENTl' GEOGEAPHY. SECTIOI II. ITALIA. 1. Most of the ancients, according to their usual cus tom, derived the name Italia from an ancient King Italus ¦ but others, stUl more absurdly, connected it with the old ItaUan -word Italus, (in Oscan, vitlu or vitelu,) an ox, be cause the country was rich in oxen. But there can be no doubt that Italia, or VitaUa, as it was also caUed, was the land of the Itali, Vitali, Vitelli, or Vituli, an ancient race, who are better known under the name of Siculi. 2. Besides Italia, the country was caUed by various names, especially by the poets. These were Hesperia, a name which the Greeks gave to it, because it lay to the W. of Greece, or Hesperia Magna, to distinguish it from Spain: and Saturnia, because Saturn was said to have once reigned in Latium. The names of separate parts of Italy were also appUed by the poets to the whole country. Thus it was called Oenotria, originally the land of the Oenotri, in the country afterwards caUed Brut- tium and Lucania: Ausonia, or Opica, or Opicia, originally the land of the Ausones or AusonU, Opici, or Osci, on the W. coast, in the country afterwards caUed Campa nia. Tyrrhenia, properly the land of the Tyrrheni, also, on the W. coast, N. of Ausonia or Opica, and more espe ciaUy in the country afterwards called Etruria: lapygia, properly the land of the lapyges on the E. coast, hi the country afterwards called Calabria : andOmbrica,theland, of the Umbri on the E. coast, alongside of Etruria. 3. The name Italia was originally used to indicate a very limited extent of country. According to the Greeks it was originally only the southernmost part of what was afterwards called Bruttium, and was bounded on the N. by a line drawn from the Sinus Terinaeus or Lameticus to the Sinus Soylacius or Scylleticus. They afterwards extended the name to signify the whole country S. of Posidonia or Paestum on the W. and Tarentum on the E. After the 1, What is the origin of the name Italia? 2. Whatothernameshadltaly ; what was thoir origin and their particular application? 3. What was the earliest applioa- ITALIA. 91 Romans had conquered Tarentum and the S. part of the peninsula, about b. c. 272, the name Italia had a stUl further extension given to it. It then signified the whole country subject to the Romans, from the SiciUan straits as far N. as the Arnus and the Rubico. The country N. of these rivers continued to be caUed Gallia Cisalpina and Li guria down to the end of the repubUc. Augustus was the first who extended the name of Italia so as to compre hend the whole of the basin of the Po and the S. part of the Alps, from the maritime Alps to Pola in Istria, both inclusive. 4. Italia was bounded on the W. by the Mare Ligusti- cum and Tyrrhenum, Tusoum or Inferum : on the S. by the Mare Siculum or Ausonium : on the E. by the Mare Adri aticum or Superum : and on the N. by the Alps, which sweep round it in a semicircle, the river Varus ( Var, Varo) separating it on the N. W. from Ti-ansalpine Gaul, and the river .irsia (Arsa) on the N. E. from lUyricum. 5. At the time of Augustus the following were the chief divisions of Italy : — I. Hppee Italy, which extended from the Alps to the rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E. It comprehended : 1. Liguria. 2. Gallia Cisalpina. 3. Venetia, including Carnia. 4. Istria. H, Centeal Itaiy, sometimes called Italia Peopeia (a term not used by the ancients) to distinguish it from GaUia Cisalpina or Upper Italy, and Magna Graecia or Lower Italy, extended from the rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E. to the rivers SUarus on the W. and Frento on the E. It com prehended: 1. Etruria. 2. Umbria. 3. Picenum. 4. Samnium, including the country of the Sabini, Vestini, Marrucini, Marsi, Peligni, &c. 5. Latium. 6. Cam pania. III. LowEE Italy, or Magna Geaecia, included the remaining part of the peninsula, S. of the rivers Silarus andFrento. It comprehended: I.Apulia, including Ca labria. 2. Lucania. 3. Bruttium. 6. The most ancient inhabitants of Italy were Pelas- gians or Oenotrians, a branch of the same great race who originally inhabited Greece and the coasts of Asia Minor : they were also called Aborigines and Siculi, who were the same as the Vitali or ItaU. At the time when Roman history begins, Italy was inhabited by the following races: — 1. The Etruscans. 2. TheUmbrians. 3. The tion of the name Italia, and to what was it gradually extended ? 4, How was Italia bounded ? 5. Into what divisions was Italia formed in the time of Augustus ? 6. 92 ancient GEOGEAPHY. Sacrani, Casoi, or Prisci, Oscan tribes, who had been driven out of the mountains by the Sabines, had overcome the Pelasgian tribes of the SicuU, Aborigines, or Latins, and, uniting with these conquered people, had formed the people called Prisci Latini. 4. The Opici or Oscans who were also caUed Ausones or Aurunci, and to whom the Volsci, Sidicini, Saticuli, and Aequi also belonged. 6. The various Sabellian or Sabine tribes, from whom sprung the warlike race of the Samnites. 6. In the S. E. the Daunians or Apulians, &c. 7. The Oscan language was closely connected with the other ancient ItaUan dialects, out of which the Latin language was formed, and it contmued to be spoken by the people of Campania long after the Oscans had dis appeared as a separate people. A knowledge of it was preserved till a late period at Rome by the Fabulae Atellanae, which were a species of farce or comedy written in Oscan. 8. To the districts in the S. of Italy, which were in habited by the Greeks was given the name of Magna Graecia or G. Major. MOUNTAINS. 9. Alpes, the Alps, which name is probably derived from the Celtic Alb or Alp, " a height," form the boundary of Northern Italy from the Ligusticum Mare to the Mare Hadriaticum. In the time of the emperors the different parts of the Alps were distinguished by the foUowiug names, most of which are stUl retained: — 1. Alpes Mariti- MAE, the Maritime or Ligurian Alps, from Genua {Genoa) where the Apennines begin, run W. as far as the river Varus ( Var) and M. Cema, (la CaiUole,) and then N. to M. Vesillus, (Monte Viso,) one of the highest points of the Alps. 2. Alpes Cottiae or Cottianae, the Gottonian Alps, (so called from a King Cottius in the time of Augus- , tus,) from Monte Viso to Mont Cenis. 3. Alpes Geaiae, (probably a Celtic name,) the Graian Alps, from Mont Cenis to the Little Saint Bernard, inclusive. The Little St. Bernard is probably the pass by which Hannibal crossed the Alps. 4. Alpes Penninae, the Pennine Alps, from the Great St. Bernard to the Simplon inclusive, the highest Name the })rincipal tribes by which Italy was inhabited in the earlier times. 7. Whatis said of the Oscan language ? 8. Magna Graecia w^y so called? 9. The Alps why so called ? mention the several divisions, aud the modern names of the ITALIA. 93 portion of the chain, including Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, and Mont Cervm. The name Penninae is probably derived from the Celtic Pen, "a height." 5. Alpes Lepontioeum or Lepontiae, the Lepontian or Helvetian Alps, from the Simplon to the St. Gothard. 6. Alpes Rhaeticae, the Bhaetian Alps, from the St, Gothard to the Orteler by the pass of the Stelvio. 7. .Alpes TEioENTmAE, the mountains of Southern Tyi-ol. 8. Alpes Noeicae, the Noric Alps, N. E. of the Tridentine Alps, comprismg the mountams in the neighborhood of Salzburg. 9. Alpes Caenicae, the Oamic Alps, E. of the Tridentine, and S. of the Noric, to Mount Terglu. 10. .Alpes Juliae, the Julian Alps, from Mount Terglu to the commencement ofthe lUyrian or Dal matian Mountains, which are known by the name of the Alpes Dalmaticae, further north by the name of the Alpes Pannonicae. The Alpes Juliae were so called because Julius Caesar and Augustus constructed a road across them : they are also called Alpes Venetae. 10, Apenninus Mons, now caUed the .4?'^'*'^*'***» ^^ ^ chain of mountains which runs through Italy from N. to S., and forms the backbone of the peninsula. It is a con tinuation of the Alpes Maritimae, begins near Genua, and ends at the SicUian Sea, and throughout its whole course sends out numerous branches in aU directions. It rises to its greatest height in the country of the Sabmes, where one of its points (now Monte Como) is 9,521 feet above the sea. peomontoeies. 11. Eighteen promontories on the coast of ItaUa are to be particularly noted: — I. Three on the Upper or N. E. coast:, 1. Polaticum Prom., now C. Promontoire, being the most southerly point of Istria. 2. Cumerium Pr., Monte Comero. 3. Garganum Pr., Monte Gar.- gano, in Apulia, famous for its oak forests. II. Seven on the S. E. coast: 1. lapygium Pr. or Salentinum Pr., now Capo di Leuca. 2. Crimisa Pr., now Capo deW Alice. 3. Lacinium Pr.,now Capo delle Colonne, ov C. Nao. 4. lapygum tria Pr., very near each other: now Oapo Castella, C. Rizzuto, C. della Nave. 5. Cocin- thumPr., C. Stilo. 6. Zephyrium Pr., now Capo di Bruzzano. 7. Hercfilis Pr., now Capo Spartivento, the principal summits. 10. What was the principal range of mountains in Italy, and what Its direction? 11. Point out and name the principal promontories of Italia, 94 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. most southerly point of Italy in Bruttium. HI. Eight on the lower orS.W. coast: 1. Leucopetra, or Petra Pr. now Capo deW Armi. 2. Caenys Pr., now Punta del Pezzo, also Coda di Volpe, according to some. Capo di Cavallo, in Bruttium, opposite Sicily. 3. Palinurum Pr., now C. Palinuro, on the W. coast of Lucania. It is said to have derived its name from Palinurus, the son of lasus, and pilot ofthe ship of Aeneas, who feU into the sea, and was murdered on the coast by the natives. 4. Posi- dium Pr., now Punta della Licosa, in Lucania, opposite the island Leucosia, the S. point of the gulf of Paestum. 5. Minervae Promontorium, now Punta della Gam- panella or della Minerva, a rocky promontory in Campa nia, running out a long way into the sea, 6 miles S. E. of Surrentum, on whose summit was a temple of Minerva, which was said to have been built by Ulysses, and which was still standing in the time of Seneca. Here the Sirens are reported to have dwelt. 6. Misenum Pr., now Punta di Miseno, in Campania, S. of Cumae, said to have derived its name from Misenus, the companion and trumpeter of Aeneas, who was drowned and buried here. The bay formed by this promontory was converted by Augustus into an exceUent harbor, and was made the prin cipal station of the Roman fieet on the Tyrrhene sea. A ' town sprung up around the harbor, and here the admiral of the fleet usually resided. The Roman nobles had pre viously built villas on the coast. Here was the viUa of C. Marius, which was purchased by LucuUus, and which after wards passed into the hands of the emperor Tiberius, who died in this place. •'1. Circeium Pr., also written Cir- caeum, now Monte Circello, on the coast of Latium. The oysters caught off this point were celebrated. Some writers suppose Circe to have resided on this promontory, and that hence it derived its name. 8. Populonium Pr., now Capo di Campana, a lofty hill in Etruria, sink ing abruptly to the sea. On it was the ancient town of Populonia, of the walls of which there stUl are remains, showing that the city was only about IJ mile in circum ference, EIVEES. 12. The Padus, nowthePo, was the chief river of Italy, It rises from two springs on the E. side of Mount Vesulus giving tho modern names, 12, Trace the Padus ; what its principal mouth, and ITALIA. 95 (Monte Viso) in the Alps, and flows with a general east erly direction through the great plain of Cisalpine Gaul, which it divides mto two parts, Gallia Cispadana and Gal lia Transpadana. About 20 mUes from the sea the river divides itself into two main branches, of which the N. one was caUed Padoa (Maestro, Po Grande, or Po delle Fomaci) and the S. one Olana, (Po d'Ariano ;) and each of these now falls mto the Adriatic by several mouths. The ancient writers enumerate seven of these mouths, some of which were canals. The southernmost is the principal mouth, and is called Padusa, now Primaro. It was also caUed Ostium Spineticum, from the town of Spma at its mouth. 13. The Greek poets described the Padus, under the name Eridanus, as the stream which received the falling Phaeton and coUected the amber tears of his sorrowing sisters ; but they added no local marks by which the iden tity of the Eridanus with the great river of Italy could be certified. It is certain, however, that the names of Padus and Eridanus in process of time became synonymous. 14. The principal tributaries of the Padus on the N. were: — 1. The Duria, now the Dora Baltea, which rises in the S. of the Alps. 2. The Ticinus, now the Tessino, which rises in Mons Adula, (St. Gothard,) and after flowing through Lacus Verbanus, (Lago Maggiore,) flows into the Padus near Ticinum. Upon the bank of this river Hanni bal gained his first victory over the Romans by the defeat of P. Scipio, B. c. 218. 3. The Addtia, now Adda, which rises in the Rhaetian Alps and flows through the Lacus Larius, (Lago di Como.) 4. The Mincius, now Mincio, flows through the Lacus Benacus, (Lago di Garda;) falls into the Po a little below Mantua. 15. The two most important tributaries of the Padus from the S, are the Tanarus, now Tanaro, and more to the E. the Trebia, now :Z^e5&»a, memorable for the victory whioh Hannibal gained over the Romans b. c. 218. 16. The Rhen us, now Reno, was a small tributary of the Padus, near Bono*iia, on a smaU island of which Octa- vian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the celebrated second triumvirate. what the number of its mouths? 13, Por what was this river famed in mythology ? 14. Name andpoint out the principal tributaries of the Padus on the North, beginning at the West. 15. Two principal tributaries of Padus on S. and the easternmost of the two famed for what? 16. Where was the Ehenus, and how noted in Eoman liis- 96 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 17. The Arnus, now Arno, was the chief river of Etruria. It rises in the Apennines, flows by Pisae, and falls into the Tyrrhenian Sea. 18. The chief riverin central Italy is the Tiberis, also called Tibris, Thybris, Amnis Tiberinus, or simply Tiberinus, now Tiber or Tevere, on which stood the city of Rome. It is said to have been originally caUed Albtila, and to have received the name of Tiberis in consequence of Tiberinus, Kiog of Alba, having been drowned in it. It has been supposed that Albula was the Latin and Tiberis the Etruscan name ofthe river. The Tiber rises from two springs of Umpid water in the Apennines, near Tifernum, and flows in a S. W. direction, separating Etruria from Umbria, the land of the Sabines, and Latium. 19. The tributaries of the Tiberis from the E. were : — 1. the Tinia, now Timia; 2, the Nar; 3, the Allia; 4, theAnio; and 5, the Almo. 20. The Nar, now A/era, rising in Mons Piscellus, on the frontiers of Umbria and Picenum, flows in a S. W. direction and falls into the Tiber not far from Ocriculum. It was celebrated for its sulphureous waters and white color. It formed the boundary between Umbria and the land of the Sabini. 21. The Allia, or more correctly Alia, now Aia, rises about 11 mUes from Rome, near Crustumerium, and flows into the Tiber about 6 mUes from Rome. It is memorable by the shameful defeat of the Romans by the Gauls on its banks, July 16, b. c. 390, which day, caUed " dies AlUensis, " was hence marked as an unlucky day in the Roman calendar. 22. The Anio, now Teverbne (a corruption of Tiberi nus) or I'Aniene, anciently Anion, (hence the Gen. Ani- enis,) the most celebrated of the tributaries of the Tiber, rises in the mountains of the Hernici near Treba, (Trevi,) flows first N. W., then S. ~W. through narrow mountain- valleys, forms at Tibur beautiful water falls, (hence " prae- oeps Aiiio,") and flows, forming the boundary between Lar tium and the land of the Sabines^^to the Tiber 3 miles above Rome. 23. The Clitumnus, now Clitumno, a small riverin k . . tory ? 17. Where was the Arnus ? 18. Where was the Tiberis : what other names had it, and what did it separate?' 19. What tributaries had the Tiber from the East? 20. For what wasthe Nar noted, and what did it separate? 21. Where was the AlUa ; for what memorable, giving rise to what phrase? 22. Where and what was tho Anio, and what was formed by it ? 23. Where was the ITALIA. 97 .Umbria, springs from a beautiful rock in a grove of cypress trees, where was a sanctuary of the god Clitumnus, and faUs into the Tinia. 24. The Velinus, now Velino, in the territory of the Sabines, rises in the central Apennines, and faUs into the Nar. The river in the neighborhood of Reate overflowed its banks and formed several small lakes, the largest of which was called Lacus Velinus, (Piedi Lago, also Lago delle Marmore.) In order to carry off these waters, a channel was eut through the rocks by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the Sabines, by means of which the wa ters of the Velinus were carried through a narrow gorge to a spot where they fell from a height of several hundred feet into the Nar. This fall, which is one of the most celebrated in Europe, is known at the present day by the name of the fall of Terni, or the Cascade deUe Marmore. The region through which this river flows is one of the most beautiful in all Italy, 25. The tributaries ofthe Tiber from the W. were: — A. The CremSra, a small river in Etruria, which faUs into the Tiber a little above Rome : it is memorable for the death ofthe 300 FabU. Its modern name is Valca. B. The Clanis, now Chiana, also in Etruria, rises S. of Arretium, forms two small lakes near Clusium, W. of Lacus Trasimenus, and flows into the Tiber E. of VulsinU. 26. The Liris, more anciently called Clanis or Glanis, now Garigliano, rises in the Apennines W. ofthe Lacus Fucinus, and flows into the Sinus Caietanus near Minturnae. Its stream was sluggish. 27. The Vulturnus, now Volturno, the chief river m Campania, rises in the Apennines in Samnium, and falls into the Tyrrhene Sea. 28. The Aufidus, now Ofanto, was the principal river of Apulia, and rising in the Apennines in the territory of the Hirpini in Samnium, flows at flrst with a rapid current, and then more slowly, into the Adriatic. The celebrated viUage of Cannae, where Hannibal so signally defeated the Romans, was situated about 5 miles from Canusium towards the sea, and at no great distance from the Aufidus. 29. The Metaurus, now Metaro, a small river in Um- Clitumnus, and for what noted ? 24. Where was the Velinus ¦{ What change was made in its course, and what was thus formed ? 25. What tributaries had the Tiber on the West? 26. Where was the Liris, and what its character? 27. Where was the Vulturnus ? 28, Wliere was the Aufidus, what its character, what famous battle-field near it ? 29. Where was the Metaurus, aud for what mem- 5 98 ANCIENT GEOGEAl^Y. bria, flowing into the Adriatic, is rendered memorable by^ the defeat and death of Hasdrubal, the brother of Hanni bal, on its banks, b. c. 207. 30. The Rubico, (Rubicon,) now PisateUo, a small rivet, falling into the Adriatic a little N. of Ariminum, formed the boundary in the Republican period between the province of GaUia Cisalpina and Italia proper. It is . cele brated in history on account of Caesar's crossing it at the head of his army, by whioh act he declared war against the republic. 31. The Athesis, now the Adige or Ftsch, next to the Padus the largest river in Italia, rises in the Ehaetian Alps, flows through Upper Italy past Verona, and falls into the Adriatic by many mouths. 32. The Timavus, now Timao, was a small river in the N. of Italy, forming the boundary between Istria and Venetia, and faUing into the Sinus Tergestinus in the Adriatic, between Tergeste and Aquileia. This river is' frequently celebrated by the poets and other ancient writers, who speak of its numerous sources, its lake, and its subterraneous passage ; but these accounts seem, to a great extent, fabulous. LAEJSS. 33. The lakes in Latium are: — A. The Eegillus Lacus, now Lago Regillo, or, according to Long, Comufelle, to the E. of Eome, in the territory of Tusoulum, between Labicum and GabU. It is memorable for the victory gained on its banks by the Eomans over the Latins b. c. 498. It cannot be identified with certainty with any modern lake. B. Lacus Albanus, now Lago di Albano, was a smaU lake, about 5 mUes in circumference, W. of the Mons Albanus, between Bovillae and Alba Longa: it is the crater of an extinct volcano, and is many hundred feet deep. The emissarium which the Eomans bored through the solid rock during the siege of VeU, in order to carry off the superfluous water of the lake, is extant at the present day. 34. The lakes in Campania are : — A. The Lacul Aver- nus, no wia^o Averno, close to the promontory which runs out into the sea between Cumae and Puteoli. This lake fiUs the crater of an extinct volcano : it is circular, orablo? 30. Where was the Rubico, and what gave it importance? 81. Where was the Athesis, aud how did it rank? 32. Where was the Timavus, and how was it celebrated ? S3. What lakes aro to bo noted in Latium ? 34. Give an ao- ITALIA. 99 about 1^ mUe in cii-cumference, is very deep, and is sur rounded by high banks, which in antiquity were covered by a gloomy forest sacred to Hecate. From its waters mephitic vapors arose, which are said to have kUled the birds that attempted to fly over it, from which circum stance its Greek name 'Aopvcs Xi'/xvij, was supposed to be derived, from u., priv., and opns. The lake was celebrated in mythology on account of its connection with the lower world. B. The Lacus Lucrinus was properly the inner part of the Sinus Cumanus or Puteolanus, a bay on the coast of Campania, between the promontory Misenum and Puteoli, running a considerable way inland. But at a very early period the Lucrine lake was sej)arated from the re mainder of the bay by a dike 8 stadia in length, which was probably formed originaUy by some volcanic change, and was subsequently rendered more complete by the hand of man. Being thus separated from the sea, it assumed the character of an inland lake, and is therefore called Lacus by the Eomans. Its waters still remained salt, and were celebrated for their oyster beds. Immediately behind the Lucrine was the Lacus Avernus. In the time of Au gustus, Agrippa made a communication between these two lakes, and also between the Lucrine and the Sinus Cumanus, thus forming out of the three the celebrated JuUan Harbor. The Lacus Lucrinus was filled up by a volcanic eruption in 1538, when a conical mountain rose in its place, called Monte Nuovo. The Avernus has thus become again a separate lake, and no trace of the dike is to be seen in the Gulf of PozzuoU. 35. The Lacus Ampsanctus or Amsanctus, now Lago d'Ansanti or Mufti or Mofete, was a small lake in Sam nium near Aeculanum, from which mephitic vapors arose. Near it was a chapel of the god Mephitis, with a cavern from which mephitic vapors also came, and which was therefore regarded as an entrance to the lower world, (Virg. .Mn. VII. 363 sqq.) 36. In Etruria the following four lakes are to be noted : — the Lacus Trasimenus, the L. Volsiniensis, the L. Vadimonis, the L. Sabatinus. A. The Lacus Trasimenus, now Lago di Perugia, count of the lakes in Campania : A. of the Avernus. JB. of the Lucrinus. 35. Wliat lake in Samnium, and what its character ? 36. What lakes to be noted in Etruria ? A. Where was the Lacus Trasimenus, and for what noted in history ? 100 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. between Clusium and Perusia, is memorable for the vic tory gained by Hannibal over the Romans under Flaminius, b. c. 217. B. The Lacus Volsiniensis or Vulsiniensis, now Lago di Bolsena, derived its name from the ancient city Vulsinii at its N. E, extremity. This lake contains two beautiful islands. C. The Lacus Vadimonis, now Lago di Bassano, was a small circular lake, with sulphureous waters. It is celebrated in history for the defeat ofthe Etruscans in two great battles, first by the dictator Papirius Cursor, in b. o. 309, from the effects of which they never recovered ; and again in 283, when the aUied forces of the Etruscaus and Gauls were routed by the consul CorneUus Dolabella. The lake has so shrunk in dimensions that it is now only a smaU stagnant pond, almost lost in the taU reeds and bulrushes which grow in it. D. The Lacus Sabatinus derived its name from Sabate, a city situated not far, probably, from the site of the present Braccidno, which now gives its name to the ¦ lake. It was said that a town had formerly been swallowed up by the L. Sabatinus ; and it was even asserted that in calm weather its ruins might stUl be seen below the surface ofthe water. 37. In the centre of Italy and in the country ofthe Marsi was the Fucinus Lacus, a large lake, about 30 miles in circumference, into which all the mountain streams of the Apennines flow. As the water of this lake had no visible outlet, and frequently inundated the surrounding country, the emperor Claudius constructed an emissarium or artificial channel for carrying off the waters of the lake into the river Liris. This emissarium is still nearly perfect : it is almost 3 miles in length. It appears that the actual drainage was relinquished soon after the death of Claudius, for it was reopened by Hadrian. This lake is now called Lago di Celano, or Fucino, or Capistrano. 38. The following four lakes are in GaUia Cisalpina: — 1. Lacus Verbanus. 2. Lacus Larius. 3. Lacus Sebinus. 4. Lacus Benacus. 39. Of the lakes in Gallia Cisalpina, the Lacus Ver- B. Whence the name of the L. Volsiniensis, and for what is it noted? G. De scribe tho L. Vadimonis, and state for what it is celebrated. D. Prom what did tho Lacus Sabatinus derive its name, and what is reported respecting it? 87. What lake in the country of the Marsi, and what is particularly noteworthy re specting It? 38. What four lakes in Gallia Cisalpina? 39, Where was the Laoui CTALIA. 101 ban ITS is both the farthest N. and the farthest W. It is the largest lake in all Italy, being about 40 mUes in length fi-om N. to S. ; its greatest breadth is 8 miles. It is formed by the river Ticinus (Tessino) and other streams descending from the Alps ; and the river Ticinus issues from its south ern extremity. Its modern name is Lago Maggiore. 40. To the E. of the preceding was the Lacus Larius, now Lake of Como, a beautiful lake running from N. to S., through Avhich the river Adda flows. After extending about 15 miles, it is divided into two branches, of which the one to the S. W. is about 18 miles in length, and the one to the S. E. about 12 miles. At the extremity ofthe S. W. branch was the town of Comum, now Como, giving the lake its modern name. At the extremity of the S. E. branch, the river Adda issues out of the lake. The beauty of the scenery of this lake is praised by Pliny, who had several villas on its banks. 41. To the E. of the foregoing, between the lakes Larius and Benacus, was the Lacus Sebinus, formed by the river OUius. It is now called Lago Seo, or dPlseo. 42. StiU further to the E. was the Lacus Benacus, now Lago di Garda, out of which the Mincius flows. It was next in size to the Larius. 43. There are many gulfs and bays on the ItaUan coast. The most important gulfs are : — 1. Ligusticus Sinus, now Gulf of Genoa. 2. The Sin. Cumanus or Sin. Crater, now the Bay of Naples, bounded by the promontories of Misenum (Punta di Miseno) and Minervae, (Punta della Campanella.) 3. Sinus Paestanus, now Gulf of Salerno. 4. Sinus Lameticus, or Terinaeus, or Hipponiates, or Vibonensis, now Gulf of St. Eufemia. 5. Directly opposite the preceding, on the southern coast, is the Sinus Scyllaoius or Scylleticus, now Gulf of Squillace. And higher up, 6. The spacious Sinus Tarentinus, now the Gulf of Taranto, deriving its name from the ancient city of Tarentum, now called Taranto, and separating lapygia and Lucania. 7. In the extreme N. E. of the Mare Hadriat icum, the Sinus Tergestinus, named from the city of Tergeste, now Trieste. 44. Adria, or Mare Adriaticum, also Mare Verbanus, what its size, and how formed? 40. Where was the Lacus Larius, what its dimensions, and the nature of its scenery ? 41. Where was the Lacus Se binus, and how formed ? 42. Where was the Lacus Benacus ? 43. Name and point out the most important Gulfs on the Italian Coast. 44, What seas wash the coasts of Italy ? 102 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. SupSrum, so called from the to-wn Adria between the mouths ofthe Po and the Athesis, was, in its widest sig nification, the Sea between Italy on the W. and lUyricum, Epirus, and Greece on the E., while theMareTyrrhenum or Etruscum, otherwise called the Mare Inferum, bounded the peninsula on the West. 1. — Ifpper Italy. 1. Upper Italy, extending from the Alps to the rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E., comprehended : — A. Liguria; ^.Gallia Cisalpina; C. Venetia, includ ing Carnia — ^Istria or Histria. A. — Idguria. 2. In the time of Augustus Liguria was bounded on the W. by the river Varus and the Maritime Alps, which separated it from Transalpine &aul, on the S. E. by the river Macra, which separated it from Etruria, on the N. by the river Padus, and on the S. by the Mare Ligusticum. 3. The inhabitants of Liguria were called by the Greeks Ligyes and Ligystini, and by the Romans Ligiires, (sing. Ligus, more rarely Ligur.) They were in early times a powerfiil and widely extended people; but their origin is uncertain, some writers supposing them to be Celts, others Iberians, and others again of the same race as the Sieulians, or most ancient inhabitants of Italy. 4. On the coast, a little E. ofthe river Var, was Nicaea, now Nizza or Nice, a colony of Massilia, and subject to that city ; hence it was considered as belonging to Gaul, though it was just beyond the frontier. It first became important as a stronghold of the Christian reUgion. 5. Genua, now Genoa, an important commercial town, situated at the extremity of the. Ligurian Gulf, (Gulf of Genoa,) was in the possession of the Romans at the begin ning of the second Punic war, but towards the end of the war was held for some time by the Carthaginian Mago. It was a Roman municipium, but it did not become of polit ical importance tUl the middle ages, when it was com monly called Janua. 1. What are the divisions of Upper Italy? 2. How was Liguria bounded in the time of Augustus ? 3. What different opinions have been entertained respect ing the Ligurians? 4. Where was Nicaea? In what respect important? 6. Where and what was Genua ? 6. Where was Clastidium, and for what was it ITALIA. 103 6. Clastidium, now Casteggio, was a fortified tovra not far from the Padus, on the road from Dertona to Pla- centia. It was celebrated as the place where Claudius Marcellus gained the spoUa opima, by vanquishing and slay ing Viridomarus, king- of the Gaesatae in Transpadane Gaul. Clastidium was betrayed to Hannibal after the bat tle of the Ticinus, with considerable magazines which the Romans had laid up there, and ifformed the chief depot of the Carthaginian army AvhUe encamped on the Trebia. 7. On the upper course of the Padus, at the foot of the Alps, dwelt the Taurini. Their chief town was Taura- sia, afterwards colonized by Augustus, and called Augusta Taurinorum, now Turin. 8. The Alpes Cottiae or Co-ttian Alps, derived their name from Cottius, Idng of several Ligurian tribes in this mountain-range. He submitted to Augustus, who granted him the sovereignty over twelve of these tribes, with the title of Praefectus. Cottius thereupon made roads over the Alps, and erected b. c, 8, at Segusio, now Suza, a tri umphal arch in honor of Augustus, extant at the present day. B. — Gallia Cisalpina. 1. The name Gallia Cisalpina or Gallia Citerior, as employed by the Romans, signifies Gaul this side of the Alps, and was applied to the northern portion of Italy, par tially enclosed by the Alps. The name is derived from GaUic tribes, of whom five distinct immigrations into the N. of Italy are mentioned. After a long struggle and re peated defeats, the whole country settled by them was con quered by the Romans, and reduced, 222 b. c, to the state of a Roman province. The inhabitants, however, did not bear the yoke patiently, and it was not till after the final defeat of the Bou in 191 b. c, that the country became submissive to the Romans, and as the inhabitants thus acquired the right to wear the Roman toga, their country was now called Gallia Togata. Strictly speaking, how ever, this epithet was applied only to the southern portion of the pro-raiee. celebrated ? 7, Where was the country of the Taurini, and what Its chief town ? 8, Prom whom did the Alpes Cottiae or Cottianae, derive their name, and for what is he remarkable ? 1. What does the name Gallia Cisalpina or G. Citerior denote, to what part of Italy was it applied, and why, and what other name had it subseijuently, and 104 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 2. GalUa Cisalpina was bounded on the W. by GaUia Narbonensis, from which it was separated by the Alps, on the N. by Rhaetia and Noricum, on the E. by the Adriatic and Venetia, from which it was separated by the Athesis, and on the S. by Liguria, Etruria, and Umbria, from which last it was separated by the river Rubico. 3. The greater part of the country is a vast plain, drained by the Padus and its affluents, and has always been one of the most fertUe countries of Europe. 4. This province was divided by the Padus into Gallia Transpadana or Gaul beyond the Po, also called Italia Transpadana, in the N., and Gallia Cispadana, or Gaul this side of the Po, in the S. 5. The most important tribes in G. Transpadana were, the Salassi in the extreme N.W., the Libici and Laevi, the Insiibres, the Cenomani, and the Euganei, to which may be added the Taurini in the W. 6. The most important tribes of G. Cispadana were, fi-om W. to E. the Ananes, the Boii, and the Lingones. The name of the Ananes is sometimes written Anamanes, or Anamani, and evenAndres. 7. The principal town of the Salassi was Augusta Praetoria, now Aosta, at the foot of the Graian and Pennine Alps, colonized by Augustus with soldiers of the praetorian cohorts, whence its name. The modern town stUl contains many Roman remains, the most important of which are the town gates and a triumphal arch. 8. On the river Sessites, now the Sessia, was Vercel lae, now VerceUi, the chief town of the Libici. It was subsequently a Roman municipium, and a place of consid erable importance. 9. Novaria, now Novara, was situated on a river of the same name, now the Gogna, and on the road from Mediolanum to VerceUae. It was subsequently a Roman municipium. 10. Ticinum, now Pavia, was a to-wn of the Laevi, according to others, of the Insubres, on the left bank of the Ticinus, (Tessino.) It was subsequently a Roman municipium; but it owed its greatness to the Lombard for what reason? 2. What were tho boundaries of Gallia Cisalpina? 3. What was the character of the country ? 4. What were tho great divisions of this prov ince, and by what made ? 5. Name and point out the principal tribes in G. Transpadana, beginning at the W. 6. Name and point out the principal tribes m G. Cispadana. 7. What was the principal town of the Salassi, Dy whom settled, and whence its name ? 8. Where was Vercellae, and tho capital of whom ? 9. Whore was Novaria ? 10. Where was Ticinum, and what was the origin of its ITALIA. 105 kings, who made it the capital of their dominions. The Lombards gave it the name of Papia, which it stUl retains under the slightly changed form of Pavia. 11. The capital of the Insubres was Mediolanum, now Milan, situated in an extensive plain between the rivers Ticinus and Addua. It was taken by the Romans b. c. 222, and afterwards became both a municipium and a colony. On the new division ofthe empire by Diocletian, it became the residence of his colleague Maximianus, and continued to be the usual residence of the emperors of the West, till the irruption of AttUa, who took and plundered the town, induced them to transfer the seat of government to the more strongly fortified to-wn of Ravenna. Mediolanum was at this time one of the first cities of the empire : it possessed an imperial mint, and was the seat of an archbishopric. It is celebrated in ecclesiastical history as the seat of St. Ambrose. On the fall of the Western Empire, it became the residence of Theodoric the Great and the capital of the Ostrogothio kingdom, and surpassed even Rome itself in populousness and prosperity. It received a fearful blow in A. D. 539, when, in consequence of having sided with Belisarius, it was taken by the Goths under Vitiges, a great part destroyed, and its inhabitants, to the number of 300,- 000, according to Procopius, put to the sword. It how ever gradually recovered, in a good degree, from the effects of this blow, and was a place of importance under the Lombards, whose capital however, as we have just seen, was Pavia. The modern MUan contains no remains of antiquity, with the exception of 16 handsome fluted piUars near the church of S. Lorenzo. 12. Laus Pompeia or Pompeii, now iocK Vecchio, was situated N. W. of Placentia and S. E. of Mediolanum. It was founded by the Bou, and was afterwards made a municipium by Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompeius Magnus, whence it was caUed by his name. 13. Comum', now Como, was situated at the S. extrem ity of the W. branch of the Lacus Larius, (Lago di Como) Originally a town of the Insubrian Gauls, it was colonized by Pompeius Strabo, by Cornelius Scipio, and by JuUus Caesar. Csesar settled there 6,000 colonists, among whom were 500 distinguished Greek families, and this new popu lation so greatly exceeded the number of the old inhabi- modem name ? 11. Name, point out, and give some account of the capital of the Insubres. 12. -Where was Laus Pompeia, (Pompeii,) and why so called? 13, 5* 106 ancient GEOGEAPHY. tants, that the town was called Novum Comum, a name, however, which it did not retain. Comum, celebrated for its iron manufactories, carried on considerable com merce with the North. It was the birthplace of the younger Pliny. 14. Brixia, now Brescia, on the road from Comum to Aquileia, was probably founded by the Etruscans, after wards a town of the Libui, then the capital of the Ceno mani, and finaUy became a Roman municipium with the rights of a colony. The river Mella flowed through it : (flavus quam molli percurrit flumine MeUa. CatuU.) 15. Cremona, probably first foundad by Gauls, was a Roman colony, N. of the Padus, and not far from the con fluence of that river and the Addua. As a Roman colony it was founded, together with Placentia, b. c. 219, as a protection against the Gauls and Hannibal's invading army. It soon became a place of great importance, and one ofthe most flourishing cities in the N. of Italy ; but having, in the civil wars during the reigns of Otho and Vitellius, espoused the cause of the latter, it was totaUy destroyed by the troops of Vespasian a. d. 69. It was rebuilt by Vespa sian, but never recovered its former greatness. 16. Bedriacum was a small town between Cremona and Verona celebrated for the defeat both of Otho and of the Vitellian troops, a. d. 69. 17. Mantua was situated on an island in the river Mincius, now the Mincio, and stUl retains its ancient name. It was not a place of importance, but is celebrated because Virgil, who was born at the neighboring viUage of Andes, regarded Mantua as his birthplace, whence it is generally so reputed. It was originally an Etruscan city, and is fabulously reported to have derived its name from Manto, a prophetess and daughter of Tiresias the Theban. 18. Verona was on the river Athesis, (Adige:) it was originally the capital of the Euganei, but subsequently be longed to the Cenomani. At a still later time it was made a Roman colony, with the surname Augusta; and under the empire it was one of the largest and most flourishing towns in the N. of Italy. It was the birthplace of CatuUus, Where w.as Comum, and noted as the birthplace of whom ? 14. What and where was the capital of the Cenomani ? 15, Where was Cremona, and why was it settled ? What misfortune befell the city, and from what cause ? 16. Where was Bedriacum, and what two battles were fought in its vicinity? 17. Where was Mantua, usually, and from what circumstance, reported the birthplace of whom? Prom whom is it said to have derived its namo ? 18. Where was Verona, and ITALIA. 107 and according to some accounts, ofthe elder Pliny, though others make him a native of Comum. 19. Placentia, now Piacenza, was founded, as a Roman colony, at the same time and for the same purpose as Cremona, (which see,) b. c. 219. It was situated in the territory of the Ananes or Anamani, on the right bank of the Padus, not far fi-om the mouth of the Trebia, and on the road from Mediolanum to Parma. It was taken and destroyed by the Gauls in 200, but was soon rebuilt by the Romans, and became an important place. It continued to be a flourishing town down to the time ofthe Goths. . 20. The principal towns ofthe BoU were situated along the Aurelian Way, and were the following: — 1. Parma, stiU retaining the same name. 2. Forum Lepidi, or Regium Lepidi, or Regium Lepidum, or simply Regium, now Reggio. 3. Mutina, now Modena. 4. Forum Gallorum, now Castel Franco. 5. Bononia, now Botogna. 6. Caesena, stUl retaining its name, Cesena. 21. The principal town ofthe Lingones was Ravenn a, stUl bearing the same name, on the river Bedesis, now the Ronco, and about a mUe from the sea, though it is now about 5 miles in the interior in consequence of the sea having receded aU along this coast. Ravenna was situated in the midst of marshes, and was accessible in only one direction by land, probably by the road leading from Ariminum. In consequence of the marshy nature of the soil most ofthe houses were built of wood and on piles, and since an arm of the principal canal was carried through some of the principal streets, the communication was car ried on to a great extent by gondolas, as in modern Venice. The town was very deficient in a supply of good drinking-water ; but it was not considered unhealthy, since the canals drained the marshes to a great extent, and the ebb and flow of the tide prevented the waters from stag nating. 22. Ravenna was long an insignificant place, and its greatness does not begin till the time ofthe empire, when Augustus made it one ofthe two chief stations ofthe Roman fleet. This emperor not only enlarged the town, but caus ed a large harbor to be constructed on the coast, capable whose birthplace was it ? 19. Where was Placentia, and how is it noted in Eoman history ? 20. Name and point ont the principal towns of the Boii along tho Aure- han -Way. 21. WTiat was the principal city of tbe Lingones, where and how sit- 108 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. of containing 240 triremes, and he connected this harbor with the Padus by means of a canal called Padusa or Augusta Fossa. This harbor was caUed Classes, and between it and Ravenna a new town sprung up, to which the name of Caesarea was given. .AU three were subse quently formed into one town, and were surrounded with strong fortifications. Ravenna thus suddenly became one of the most important places in the N. of Italy. 23. Spina, now Spinazzino, also in the territory ofthe Lingones, was situate on the most southerly of the mouths of the Padus, which was called after it Ostium Spineticum. It was a very ancient town, said to have been founded by the Greeks, but in the time of Strabo had ceased to be a place of any importance. C. — Venetia and Histria. I. — ^Venetia. 1. Venetia derived its name from its inhabitants, the Vencti, frequently caUed Heneti ('Ei/tTot) by the Greeks. 2. There is much uncertainty respecting the origin ofthe Veneti or Heneti. Several fabulous accounts regarding them were current among the ancients. Herodotus, who was well acquainted with them, regards them as an Illyrian race ; and aU writers are agreed that they did not belong to the original population of Italy, and it may be considered certain that they were the last people who penetrated into Italy around the northern extremity of the Adriatic. 3. In consequence of their hostiUty to the Celtic tribes in their neighborhood, the Veneti formed, at an early period, an alUance with Rome ; and their country was de fended by the Romans against their dangerous enemies. On the conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls, the Veneti likewise became included under the Roman dominions ; and they ware almost the only people in Italy who became the sub jects of Rome without offering any resistance. 4. In the fifth century many of the inhabitants _ of Venetia, to escape the ravages of the Huns under Attila, uated? 22. Per what purpose did Augustus use Eavenna, making what im provements? 23. Where was Spina, and how noted? 1. What is the origin of the namo Venetia ? 2. What is known of the origin of the Veneti ? 3. How did the Veneti become connected with Eome ? 4. What ITALIA. 109 took refuge on the islands of their coast. Here they were joined, from time to time, by fresh arrivals of their countrymen, flying before the invading hordes of barba rians. Amd this was the origin of the great city of Venice, which ere long became a powerful and opulent commercial state. 5. The boundaries of Venetia are variously given. Ac cording to some authorities they were, on the W. the river Athesis, which separated it from Gallia Cisalpina ; on the N. the Carnic Alps; on the E. the river Timavus, which separated it from Istria ; and on the S. the Sinus Adriaticus. 6. In historical times the Carni occupied a considerable portion of the E. half of Venetia. Cramer calls them an Alpine nation, andsays that though of Celtic origin, it is prob able that they were descended from the Taurisci, rather than the Gauls, as the Fasti Capitolini assert. Their exist ence is stUl to be traced in the modern appeUation of Carniola. n. — ^ISTEIA or HiSTEIA. 7. Histria or Istria was a peninsula at the N. ex tremity of the Adriatic, between the Sinus Tergestinus on the W. and the Sinus Planaticus on the E. It was separated from Venetia on the N. W. by the river Timavus, and from lUyricum on the E. by the river Arsia, now the Arsa. Its inhabitants, the Istri or Histri, were a warlike lUyrian race, who carried on several wars with the Romans, tUl their final subjugation by the consul C. Claudius Pulcher, B. c. 177. 8. Hadria or Adria, also called Atrica, was a town between the mouths of the Padus and the Athesis, on the Tartarus, now Tartaro, or Hadrianus. It was in ancient times a great and powerful city, and is said to have given the Adriatic sea its name. In consequence of changes in the coast it became and is now an insignificant inland town, stUl called Adria. 9. Another ancient to-wn of the Veneti was Patavium, now Padova or Padua, situate on the Medoacus Minor, (Bacchiglione) and on the road from Mutina to Altinum. It was said to have been founded by the Trojan Antenor. was the origin of the city of Venice ? 5. How was Venetia bounded? 6. Where did the Carni dwell? 7. What and where was Histria, how bounded, and what is said of its inhabitants ? 8. Where was Hadria, and to what was it said to have given name ? 9. "What and where was Patavium ? 10. What does Strabo say of 110 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 10. According to Strabo, Patavium was one of the wealthiest and most prosperous cities of Northern Italy, and possessed 500 citizens whose fortune entitled them to the equestrian rank. 11. Patavium is celebrated as the birthplace ofthe historian Livy. 12. Altinum, now Altino, was a wealthy municipium at the mouth of the river Silis, now the Site, and on the road from Patavium to AquUeia. It was a prosperous manufacturing town, and the chief emporium for all the goods which were sent from Southern Italy to the countries of the North. There were many beautiful vUlas around the town, on the shores of the Adriatic. 13. The river Tilavemptus, now the Tagliamento, divided Venetia from the territory of the Carni, some of whose cities we shall now proceed to notice. 14. Aquileia, now the same, or Aglar, was a city of the Carni, at the very top of the Adriatic, between the rivers Sontius, now Isonzo, and Natiso, now Natisone, about 60 stad;a, i. e. somewhat more than 1 mUes, from the sea. It was founded by the Romans ki b. c. 1 82 as a bulwark against the Northern barbarians, and is said to have de rived its name from the favorable omen of an eagle appear ing to the colonists. 15. As it was the key of Italy on the N. E,, Aquileia was made one ofthe strongest fortresses ofthe Romans. From its position it became also a most flourishing place of com merce : the Via Aemilia was continued to this town, and from it aU the roadS to Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Istria and Dalmatia branched ofi". It was taken and completely destroyed by AttUa in a. d. 452 : its inhabitants escaped to the lagoons where Venice was afterwards buUt. 16. Tergeste, now Trieste, was situate on a bay in the N. E. of the Adriatic gulf, called after it Tergestinus Sinus, now caUed the gulf of Trieste. For a long time an insignificant place, it became, under the Roman dominion, a town of considerable commercial importance. It was made a Roman colony by Vespasian. 17. Forum Julii, now Friuli, so called because founded by Julius Caesar, was a Roman colony to the N. Pat.avium? 11. Whoso birthplace was it ? 12. Whore and what was Altinum, and for what were its shores used ? 13. What river divided Venetia from the terri tory of tho Garni » 14. Where was Aquileia, and from what was its name derived ? 15. Aquileia was important as what, and what was its fate? 16. Where was Tergeste, and to what did it give name? 17. Where was Forum ITALIA. Ill E. of AquUeia. In the middle ages it became a place of importance. 18. The most important city of Histria or Istria was Pola, still bearing the same name, situated on the W. coast, and near the promontory Polaticum, which was the most southerly point in the country. According to tradi tion Pola was founded by the Colchians, who had been sent in pursuit of Medea. It was subsequently a Roman colony, when it was caUed Pietas Julia, and became an im portant commercial town, being united by good roads with AquUeia and the principal towns of Illyria. 19. Its importance in antiquity is attested by its magnifi cent ruins, of which the principal are those of an amphi theatre, of a triumphal arch (porta aurea) erected to L. Sergius by his wife Salvia Postuma, and of several tem ples. S. — Central Italy A. — Etruria. 1. The country of the Etrusci or Tusci was by the Romans called Etruria or Tuscia,bythe Greeks Tyr rhenia (Tt)pp-ijvta) or Tyrsenia, (Tupa-ijna.) 2. In the day of their power the Etruscans possessed a territory considerably more extensive than after their sub jugation by the Romans. As a Roman province, Etruria was bounded on the N. and N. W. by the Apennines, separating it from Gallia Cisalpina, and by the river Macra dividing it from Liguria : on the W. by the Mare Tyrrhe num or Inferum ; on the E. and S. by the river Tiber, which separated it from Umbria and Latium, thus- compre hending nearly the whole of modern Tuscany, the Duchy of Lucca, and the Transtiberine portion of the Roman States. 3. Various accounts have been given of the origin of the Etrurians or Tuscans, of which the most probable is this. The most ancient inhabitants appear to have been Ligurians in the N. and Sieulians in the S., both of whom were subsequently expelled from the country by the Um- brians. It is at this point that opinions diverge. Most Julii, and why so called ? 18. What and where was the chief city of Histria ? 9. By what is its ancient importance attested ? 1. What were the Eoman, and what the Greek names of the country of the Etrusci? 2. As a Eoman province how was Etruria bounded? 3. "What is the 112 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. modern critics believe that a Pelasgie race, called Tyrrheni, subdued the Umbrians, and settled in the country, and that these Tyrrhene-Pel asgians were in their turn conquered by a powerful Rhaetian race, called Rasena, who descended from the Alps and the valley of the Padus. Hence it was from the union of the Tyrrhene-Pelasgians and the Rasena that the Etruscan nation was formed. But our utter igno rance of the language which the Etruscans spoke renders it impossible to come to a definite conclusion respecting their real origin. CITIES OP EIEUEIA. 4. Luna, situated on the left bank of the Macra, about 4 mUes from the coast, originally formed part of Liguria, but became the most northerly city of Etruria, when Augustus extended the boundaries of the latter country as far as the Macra. It was made a Roman colony in B. c. 177, and 2,000 Roman citizens were settled there. Luna was celebrated for its white marble, which now takes its name from the neighboring to-wn of Carrara. The wine and the cheeses of Luna also enjoyed a high reputation : some of these cheeses are said to have weighed 1,000 pounds. The ruins, now caUed Luni, are few and unim portant. 5. Luca, now Lucca, originally a Ligurian city, was included in Etruria, and became a Roman colony at the same time and under the same circumstances as Luna. The amphitheatre of Luca may stUl be seen at the modern town in a state of tolerable preservation, and its great size proves the importance and populousness of the ancient city, which was situated at the foot of the Apennines, and on the river Auser, N. E. of Pisae. 6. Pisae, more rarely Pisa, now Pisa, one of the most ancient and important of the cities of Etruria, was situated at the confluence of the Arnus and Auser, Serchio, about 6 miles from the sea ; but the latter river altered its course in the 12th century, and now flows into the sea by a separate channel. According to some traditions, Pisae was founded by some companions of Nestor, the inhabitants of Pisa in Elis, who were driven upon the coast of Italy on their return from Troy. Its harbor, called Portus Pisanus, at the mouth of the Arnus, was much used by the Bo- most probable origin of the Etrurians ? 4, Where was Luna, and for whatoelebrat od ? 6. Where was Luca, and what proves its ancient importance ? 6, Where Tvai ITALIA. 113 mans; and in the time of Strabo, (between 54 b. c. and A. D. 24,) the town of Pisa was stUl a place of considerable importance on account of the marble quarries in its neigh borhood, and the quantity of timber whioh it furnished lor ship-building. 7. Pistoria was a small place on the road from Luca to Florentia, rendered memorable by the defeat and death of Catiline in its neighborhood, now Pistoia. 8. Faesulae, now Fiesole, situated on a hiU three mUes N. E. of Florentia, was the headquarters of Catiline's army. 9. Florentia, now generally caUed Florence, but in Italian, Firenze, situated on the right bank of the Arnus, W. of Faesulae, was a Roman colony, and probably founded by the Romans during their wars with the Ligurians. In the time of SuUa it was a flourishing municipium, but its greatness as a city dates from the middle ages. 10. Volaterrae, now Volterra, called by the -Etrus cans Velathri, one of the 12 cities of the Etruscan Con federation, was built on a lofty hUl, about 1,800 EngUsh feet above the level ofthe sea, rising from a deep valley, and precipitous on every side. It was the most northerly city of the Confederation, being situated a little N., some say on the right bank, of the river Caecina, and had an exten sive territory. In consequence of possessing the two great ports of Luna and Populonia, Volaterrae, though so far (20 miles) inland, was reckoned as one? of the powerful maritime cities of Etruria. 11. Vetulonii, Vetulonia, or Vetulonium, was one ofthe 12 cities of the Etruscan Confederation. Its site was near the small village Magliano, between the rivers Osa and Albegna, aud about 8 mUes inland. From this city the Romans are said to have borrowed the insignia of their magistrates — ^the fasces, seUa curuUs, and toga prae- texta, as well as the use ofthe brazen trumpet in war. 12, To the S. W. of Vetulonii was Populonium or Populonia, situated on a lofty hill, sinking abruptly to the sea, and forming a peninsula. It was not one of the 12 Etruscan cities, and was never a place of political, im portance ; but it carried on an extensive commerce, and Pisae, and supposed to have been founded by whom ? 7. "Where was Pistoria, and how noted ? 8, Where was Paesulae, and how noted in Catiline's conspiracy ? 9. Where was Florentia, and what is said of it ? 10. Where was Volaterrae, and what its Etruscan name ? 11, Where and what was Vetulonii, and noted for wnat ? 12. Where was Populonium, and what gave it importance 3 13, Where was Eu- 114 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. was the principal seaport of Etruria. It was destroyed by Sulla in the civU wars, and was in ruins in the time of Strabo. 13. Rusellae,now Roselle, a very ancient city, was situated on an eminence E. of the lake Prelius or Prilis, and on the Via Aurelia. What is now called Roselle is nothing more than the waUs ofthe ancient city, which stiU remain, and are some of the most ancient in Italy. 14. Telamo, orTelamon, or Portus Telamo, now Telamone, was a town and harbor a few mUes S. of the river Umbro, said to have been founded by the Grecian hero Telamon, on his return from the Argonautio expedi tion. In its neighborhood a great victory was gained in B. c. 225 over the Gauls by the consuls C. AtUius and Paulus Aemilius. 15. Cosa or Cossa, near the sea, had a good harbor, called Herculis Portus, also caUed Portus Cossanus, after the city. It was a very ancient place, and after the fall of Falerii one of the 12 Etruscan cities. There are still ex tensive ruins of its waUs and the towers buUt of polygonal masonry. 16. Tarquinii now Turchina, near Corneto, was sit uated on a hill and on the river Marta, S. B. of Cosa. It was one ofthe 12 Etruscan cities, and was probably regard-_ ed as the metropolis of the confederation. It is said to have been founded by Tarchon, the son or. brother of Tyrrhenus, who was the leader of the Lydian colony from Asia to^ Italy. It was at TarquinU that Demaratus, the father of Tarquinius Priscus, settled ; and it was from this city that the Tarquinian family came to Rome. After the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus from Rome, the Tarqui- nienses, in conjunction with the Veientes, espoused his cause; but they were defeated by the Romans, and re duced to subjection about b. c. 310. TarquinU was subse quently made a Roman colony and a municipium. 17. Centum Cellae, also written Centumcellae, now Civita Vecchia, a sea-port town, is better known under the name of Trajani Portus, that emperor having caused a magnificent harbor to be constructed here. Two immense piers formed the port, which was semicircular, sellae? 14. Where was Telamo, and said to have been founded -by whom ? 15. Where was Cosa^ giving name to what ? 16. Where was Tarquinii, and how did it rank ? It is said to have been founded by whom ? "What family came from T., and whose cause did this city eapouse ? 17. What was Centum Cellae, better known by what name, from what cause, by whom destroyed, and whenee its mod- ITALIA. 115 whUe an island, constructed artificially of immense masses of rock, brought there by vessels and sunk in tho sea, served as a breakwater in fi'ont and supported a pharos. The coast being very destitute of shelter for vessels of burden, this work of Trajan was of great national benefit. Centum Cellae having been destroyed by the Saracens, the inhabitants buUt another town some distance inland, but they afterwards reoccupied the site of the old city, Avhich obtained its present name, Civita Vecchia, from that circumstance. 18. Pyrgi or Pyrgos, an ancient Pelasgie town on the coast, was used as the port of Caere or Agylla, and was a place of considerable importance as a commercial em porium. It was at an early period the headquarters of the Tyrrhenian pirates. It possessed a very wealthy temple of Ilithyia, (Lucina,) which Dionysius of Syracuse plundered in B. 0. 384. There are still ruins at Santa Severa ofthe ancient polygonal walls of Pyrgi. 19. Caere, caUed by the Greeks "AyuAXa, and the site of which is now caUed Cervetri, was situated on a small river (Caeritis Amnis) W. of Veil and about 6 miles from the coast. It was an ancient Pelasgie city, and afterwards one of the 12 Etruscan cities, with a territory extending apparently as far as the Tiber. In early times Caere was closely alUed with Rome ; and when the latter city was taken by the Gauls, b. c. 390, Caere gave refuge to her priests and vestals, and to the women and children. It was fi-om this event that the Romans traced the origin of their word caerimonia. The Romans out of gratitude are said to have conferred upon the Caerites the Roman fran chise without the sufii-agium, though it is not improbable that the Caerites enjoyed this honor previously. In its neighborhood were warm baths which were much fre quented. 20. Lorium or Loriiwas a small place with an im perial -viUa, 12 miles N. W. of Rome, on the Via AureUa, where Antoninus Pius was brought up, and where he died. 21. Arretium or Arctium, now Arezzo, one ofthe most important of the 12 cities of Etruria, was situated in the N. E. of the country at the foot of the Apennines, and possessed a fertile territory near the sources of the Arnus ern name? 18. -Wliere and what was Pyrgi, possessing what?. 19. Where and what was Caere, and how noted in the history of Eome ? 20. Lorium was where, and for what noted ? 21. -Where was Arretium, and celebrated for what ? 22, Where 116 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. and the Tiberis, producing good -Wine and corn. It was thrice colonized by the Romans, whence we read of Arretini Veteres, Fidenates, JuUenses. It was particularly celebrat ed, for its pottery, which was of red ware. 22. Cortona, one ofthe 12 cities, lay N. W. ofthe Lacus Trasimenus, and was one ofthe most ancient cities in Italy. It is said to have been originaUy called Corythus, from its reputed founder Corythus, who is represented as the father of Dardanus. It wafe colonized by the Romans, but under their dominion sunk into insignificance. It still bears its ancient name. The remains ofthe Pelasgie waUs of this city are some of the most remarkable in all Italy : there is one fragment 120 feet in length, composed of blocks of enormous magnitude. 23. Perusia, now Perugia, in the E., between the lake Trasimenus and the Tiber, one ofthe 12 confederated cities, was situated on a hiU, and was strongly fortified by nature and by art. As a Roman colony it is memorable in tho civU wars as the place in which L. Antonius, the brother of the triumvir, took refuge, when he was no longer able to oppose Octavianus in the field, and where he was kept closely blockaded by Octav. from the end of b. c. 41 to the spring of 40. Famine compeUed it to surrender ; but one of its citizens having set fire to his own house, the flames spread, and the whole city was burnt to the ground. It was rebuilt and colonized anew by Augustus, from whom it received the surname of Augusta. In the later time of the empire it was the most important city in aU Etruria, and long resisted the Goths. 24. Clusium now Chiusi, one ofthe most powerful of the confederate cities, was situated on an eminence above the river Clanis, and S. W. of the Lacus Clusinus, now the Lago di Chiusi. It was more anciently called Camers or Camars, whence we may conclude that it was founded by the Umbrian race of the Camertes. It was the royal resi dence of Porsena, and in its neighborhood was the celebrated sepulchre of this king in the form of a labyrinth, of which such marveUous accounts have come down to us. Its siege by the Gauls, b. c. 391, led to the capture of Rome itself by those invaders. 25. Volsinii, or Vulsinii, now Bolsena,'bnt called was Cortona, and what is the nature of its ruins? 23. Wliere was Perusia, and how noted ? 24. Where was Clusium, and noted as the capital of whom ? How noted in connection with the capture of Eome by the Gauls ? 25, Where waa ITALIA. 117 Velsina or Velsuna by the Etruscans, one of the most ancient and most powerful ofthe 12 confederated cities, was situated on a lofty hill on the N. E. extremity of the lake called after it Lacus Volsiniensis, now Lago di Bolsena. It was the birthplace of Sejanus, the favorite of Tiberius. 26. Falerii or Falerium, the chief town of the Falisci, was situated on a steep and lofty height near Mount Soracte. It became one of the 12 Etruscan cities. After a long struggle with Rome the FaUscans yielded to CamUlus, b. c. 394. They revolted several times, but were finaUy subdued. At the close, however, of the 1st Punic war they once more revolted, and the Romans now de stroyed Faleru and compelled the FaUscans to buUd a new city in the plain. 27. Veil, one of the most ancient and powerful cities of Etruria, was situated on the river Cremera, about 12 mUes from Rome. It was one of the 12 confederated cities, and apparently the largest of aU, and the most formidable and dangerous neighbor of Rome. It was taken by the dictator CamUlus, after a siege of 10 years. So well built and spacious was Veil, that the Remans were anxious, after the destruction of their own city by the Gauls, in b, c, 390, to remove to Veil, and are said to have been prevented from carrying their purpose into effect, only by the elo quence of CamUlus. Prom this time Veil was abandoned ; but it was subsequently colonized afresh by Augustus, and made a Roman municipium. In the reign of Hadrian it had again sunk into decay, and from this time Veil disap pears entirely from history : even its site was long in dispute; but it is now settled beyond a doubt, that it stood in the neigh borhood of the hamlet of Isola Farnese, where several remains of the ancient city have been discovered. Several islands lying off the coast of Etruria might be noticed here, but as we prefer to consider the Italian islands aU together, we proceed to the division of Italy next in order, which is B.^Ujnbria. 1. Umbria derived its name from its inhabitants, whom the Greeks caUed 'Op^piKol, (Umbrici,) but who were known in Italy as the Umbri, (sing. Umber,) and who Volsinii, and noted as the birthplace of whom ? 26. Where was Falerii — whose chief town— taken by whom ? 27. Where was Veii, and how far from Borne ? 1. -What is the origin of the namo of Umbria ? 2. What was the position of 118 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. were one of the most ancient peoples of Italy, connected ¦with the Opicans, Sabines, and those other tribes whose languages were akin to the Greek. 2. The Umbri were at a very early period the most powerful people in Central Italy, and extended across the peninsula from the Adriatic to the" Mare Tyrrhenum. Thus they inhabited not only the territory afterwards named after them, but also the southern portion of what was subsequently Etruria, as well as other parts of Central Italy. We are expressly told that Crotona, Perusia, Clu sium and other Etruscan cities were built by the Umbrians. 3. At a later period they were deprived of a great part of their possessions by the Etruscans, and after that of an other portion by the Senories, a GalUc tribe : they were subdued by the Romans 307 b. c. 4. Under Augustus Umbria formed the sixth Regio of Italy, and as such was bounded N. by GaUia Cisalpina, from which it was separated by the river Rubico : E. by the Adriatic : S. by Picenum, from which it was separated by the river Aesis, and by the land of the Sabines, from which it was separated by the river Nar ; and W. by Etruria, from which it was separated by the Tiber. 5. The Apennines ran through the W. part of the coun try, but it contained many fertile plains on the coast. CITIES IN UMBEIA. 6. Ariminum, now Rimini, the first town which, after leaving Cisalpine Gaul, a person arrived at in the N. E. of Italia proper, was situated on the coast, at the mouth of the little river Ariminus, now the Marecchia. It was originally inhabited by Umbrians and Pelasgians, was after wards in the possession of the Senones, and was colonized by the Romans in b. c. 268, from which time it appears as a flourishing place. 7. Sena Gallica, now Senigaglia, sometimes called Senogallia, was surnamed GaUica to distinguish it from Sena, now Sieua, in Etruria, and was situated at the mouth ofthe small river Misus. It was founded by Senones, and was made a colony by the Romans after the conquest ofthe Senones, b. c. 283. In the civil war it espoused the Marian party, and was taken and sacked by Pompey. the U. among the Italian peoples ? 3. By whom were they deprived of a great part of their possessions, and when subdued by the Eomans ? 4. How was Umbria bounded under the empire ? 5. What was the nature of the country ? 6. Where was Ariminum, originally inhabited by whom? T. Where was Sena Gallica? ITALIA. 119 8. Sarsina, stUl bearing its ancient name, was on the river Sapis, now Savio, S. W. of Ariminum, and subse quently a Roman municipium. It is celebrated as the bu-thplace of the comic poet Plautus. 9. Urbinum Metaurense, so named from its being seated on the Metaurus, answers to Urbania on the right bank of that river, and not far from its source. Another Urbinum is better known as Urbino, capital of a duchy of the same name. It was distinguished from the former by the epithet of Hortense. Here Valens, general of Vitel lius, was put to death. 10. Forum Sempronii, a municipium, answering to Fossombrone, was near the sea, and on the left bank of the Metaurus. Near this place, and on the same bank of the river, the battle between Asdrubal and the Roman generals must have taken place. 11. Sentinum, now Sentina, near the shore ofthe Aesis and not far from the Apennines, is celebrated for the battle fought in its vicinity between the Romans and the allied Gauls and Samnites, b. c. 296, in which the consul P. Decius Mus so nobly devoted himself for his country. 12. Iguvium, now Gubbio, was an important town, on the S. slope of the Apennines. On a mountain in the neighborhood of this town was a celebrated temple of Ju piter, in the ruins of which were discovered, somewhat more than four centuries ago, seven brazen tables, covered with Umbrian inscriptions, and which are still preserved at Gubbio. These tables, frequently called the Eugubian Tables, contain more than 1,000 Umbrian words, and are of great importance for a knowledge of the ancient lan guages of Italy. 13. Mevania, now Bevagna, in the interior, on the river Tinea, in a very fertile country, was celebrated for its breed of beautiful white oxen. According to some ac counts Propertius was a native of this place. 14. Spoletium or Spoletum, now Spoleto, on the Via Flaminia, was colonized by the Romans b. c. 242. It suffered severely in the civil wars between SyUa and Marius. 15. Tiider, now Todi, was situated on a hUl near 8. Where was Sarsina, and the birthplace of whom ? 9. Where were Urbinum Metaurense, and Urbinum Hortense, the latter noted for what? 10. Where was Forum Sempronii ? 11. Where was Sentinum, and noted for what ? 12. What and where was Iguvium, and for what celebrated ? 13. Mevania was where, noted for what— whose birthplace ? 14. Spoletium was where, when colonized ? 120 ancient GEOGEAPHY. the Tiber, and was made a Roman colony. There are still remains of the polygonal walls of the ancient town, 16. Ameria, now Amelia, a very ancient town, and a municipium, the birthplace of Sex. Roscius defended by Cicero, was situate, near the Tiber, in a district rich in vines. 17. Interamna, now Terni, an ancient municipium, was situated on the Nar, and surrounded by a canal flow ing into this river, whence its name, and whence also its inhabitants were caUed Interamnates Nartes., It was the birthplace of the historian Tacitus, as weU as of the empe ror of the same name. 18. Narnia, now Narni, situated on a lofty hill, on the S. bank ofthe river Nar, originally called Nequinum, was made a Roman colony b. c. 299, when its name was changed into Narnia, after the river. This town was strongly fortified by nature, being accessible only on the E. and W. sides. On the W. side it could be approached only by a very lofty bridge which Augustus buUt over the river. O. — ^Picenum. 1. Picenum, in Central Italy, was a narrow strip of land along the W. coast of the Adriatic, and was bounded on the N. by Umbria, from which it was separated by the river Aesis, on the W. by Umbria and the territory of the Sabines, and on the S. by the territory of the Sabini and Vestini. It formed the fifth region in the division of Italy made by Augustus, 2. The name of the country was doubtless derived from that of the Sabine immigrants, caUed Picentes, ¦\vho settled it, and of whose own name a variety of fanciful etymologies are given, which it is not necessary to mention. The Picentes were, as just stated, Sabine immigrants ; but the population of the country appears tp have been of a mixed nature. In 269 b. c. the consul Semprouius So- phus compeUed the Picentes to submit to the Roman su premacy. 3. The country was traversed by a number of hiUs of moderate height, eastern off-shoots of the Apennines, and 15. Where was Tuder? 16. Where was Ameria, and whose birthplace? 17. What and where was Interamna, and whose birthplace ? 18. Where was Narnia, what remarkable about its name, how situated ? 1. What was Picenum, where, how bounded, forming what ? 2. "What is the origin of its namo ! 8. -what was the character of the country, and what its pro- ITALIA. 121 was drained by several small rivers flowing into the Adri atic through the valleys between these hUls. The country was upon the whole fertile, and was especially celebrated for its apples ; but the chief employment of the inhabitants was the feeding of cattle and swine. Among its cities the most important was Ancona. CITIES IN PICENUM. 4. Ancona, still retaining its name, was on the Adri atic ; and because it lay in a bend of the coast between two promontories, it was called 'AyKwv, " an elbow." It was built by the Syracusans, who settled there about e. c. 392, discontented with the rule of the elder Dionysius ; and un der the Romans, who made it a colony, it became one of the most important seaports of the Adriatic. It possessed an excellent harbor, completed by Trajan, and it carried on an active trade with the opposite coast of lUyricum. The town was celebrated for its temple of Venus and its purple dye : the surrounding country produced good wine and wheat. 5. Cupra, called Maritima, to distinguish it from Cupra Montana not far from it, in the mountains, was situated on the Adriatic, at the mouth of a small river now called the Monecchia. It had an ancient temple of Juno, founded by the Pelasgians and restored by Hadrian. 6. Auximum, S. or S. W. of Ancona, was an impor tant town, and a Roman colony. 7. Asciilum Picenum, so named to distinguish it from Asculum Apulum, was in the interior, and is now Ascoli. It was a Roman colony, and considered the chief city of the province. It is described by Strabo, who calls it "AcricXov TO HLKrjvov, as a place of great strength, sur rounded by walls and inaccessible heights. It was the first city to declare war against the Romans when the Social War broke out, and its example was foUowed by the whole of Picenum. Asculum sustained, in the course of that war, a long and memorable siege against Pompey, who finally, however, compelled the place to surrender, and caused several of the chiefs of the rebels to be beheaded. It might be owing to this latter circumstance that this town ductions? 4. -Where was Ancona, and why so called? By whom was it built? What did it become under the Eomans ? It possessed what, and was celebrated for what? 5. Where was CupraMaritima, why so called, possessing what, founded by whom, and restored by whom? 6. Whore was Auximum ? 7. Where was As- 6 122 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. offered no resistance to Caesar in his irruption into Italy. 8. We deem it sufficient merely to name the remaining towns of the Picentes : — 1. "N nm an a, now Eumana. 2. Potentia. 3. Fivmnm, now Fermo. 4. Truentum, or Castellum Truentinum, now Civitella di Tronto. 5.,Cingiilum, now Cingulo. 6. Trea or Treja. 7. Septempeda, now St. Severino. 8. Ricina. 9. Urbs Salvia, now Jlrbisaglia. 10. Pausulae, now Grotto Azzolino, or perhaps Monte Elpare. 11. Badis. 12. Tiora. D. — Territory of the Sabini. 1. The Sabini were one of the most ancient and powerful of the indigenous peoples of Central Italy, and one of the few who preserved their race unmixed. Their name, according to Cato, was derived from the god Sabus, an aboriginal deity, supposed to be- the sanie as the Medius Fidius of the Latins. His son Sancus was the Sabine Her cules. 2. The Sabines may be divided into three great classes called by the names of Sabini, SabeUi, and Samnites, respec tively. The Sabini proper inhabited the country between the Nar, the Anio, and the Tiber, between Latium, Etruria, Umbria, and Picenum. This district was mountainous, and better adapted for pasturage than corn. 3. The SabeUi were the smaUer tribes who issued from the Sabines, including the Vestini, Marsi, Marrucini, Pe ligni, Frentani, and Hirpini. The Samnites wUl be sepa rately considered. The Romans called the whole race Sa beUi, comprehending the Sabines, SabeUi, and Samnites. 4. The Sabini formed one of the elements of which the Roman people was composed. In the time of Romulus, a portion of the Sabines, after the rape of their wives and daughters, became incorporated with the Romans, and the two peoples were united into one under the general name of Quirites. The remainder of the Sabini proper, who were less warUke than the Samnites and SabelUans, were finaUy subdued by M.' Curius Dentatus, b. c. 290, and re ceived the Roman franchise, sine suffragio. culum Picenum, why so named, represented as what by Strabo, pursued what course, and fared how in tho Social War ? 8. Name the remaining cities of Picenum. 1. What were the Sabini, deriving their name from whom ? 2. How were the Sabines divided, the Sabini proper inhabiting what district ; what was the nature of their country ! 3. Who were tho SabeUi ? 4, The Sabines formed what, and ITALIA. 123 CITIES OP THE SABINI. 5. Fidenae, the site of which is now occupied by Castel Giubileo, was an ancient Sabine town, 40 stadia, or 5 mUes, N. E. of Rome, situated on a steep hUl, between the Tiber and the Anio. It is said to have been founded by Alba Longa, and also to have been conquered and col- oniaed by Romulus ; but the population appears to have been partly Etruscan, and it was probably colonized by the Etruscan VeU, with which city it was in close aUiance. It frequently revolted and was fi-equently taken by the Romans. Its last revolt was in b. c. 438, aud in the fol lowing year it was destroyed by the Romans. Subse quently the town was rebuUt ; but it is not mentioned again tUl the reign of Tiberius, when, in consequence of the fall of a temporary wooden theatre in the town, 20,000, or, accord ing to some accounts, 50,000 persons lost their Uves. 6. Crustumerium, also founded by Alba, was a very ancient town, situated in the mountains near the sources of the AUia ; it was conquered both by Romulus and Tar quinius Priscus, and is not mentioned in later times. 7. Corniciilum, in the mountains N. of Tibur, was celebrated as the residence of the parents of Servius TuUius. 8. Cures, in the W. near the Tiber, a very .incient town, was celebrated as the birthplace of T. Tatius and Numa Pompilius, and from it the Romans are said to have derived the name of Quirites. 9. Reate, now Rieti, a very ancient town, said to have been founded by the Aborigines or Pelasgians, was situated on the Lacus Velinus and the Via Salaria. It was the chief place of assembly for the Sabines, and was subsequently a praefectura or a municipium. The valley in which Reate was situated was so beautiful, that it received the name of Tempe ; and in its neighborhood is the celebrated waterfall which is now known under the name of the faU of Temi or the Cascade delle Marmore. This waterfall owed its origin to a canal constructed by M.' Curius Dentatus, in order to carry off the superfluous waters from the lake Ve linus into the river Nar. It falls into this river from a height of 140 feet. By this undertaking the Reatini gain- were finally subdued by whom, and when ? 5. -Where was Fidenae, founded by whom, what its population, and what was its history in connection with the Eo mans? 6. Where and what was Crustumerium? 7. "Where was Corniculum, and noted as what? 8. -Where was Cures, and celebrated for what? 9, -SVhere 124 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. ed a large quantity of land,' which was caUed Rosea Rura. Reate was celebrated for its mules and asses. 10. Other notable cities of the Sabini were Cutiliae, Testrina, Amiternum, and Nursia. Amiternum was the birthplace of the historian Sallust. E. — ^Marsi. 1. The Marsi were a brave and warUke people of the Sabellian race, and dwelt in the high land surrounded by the mountains of the Apennines, in which the Lacus Fu cinus is situated. 2. In 308 B. c. they came into collision with Rome, but, having been defeated, they, along with their neighbors, the Peligni, Marrucini, &o., concluded a peace with Eome B. c. 304. Their bravery was proverbial; and, provoked by the insolent oppression of Rome, they subsequently be came the prime movers of the celebrated war waged against Rome by the Soon, or Italian aUies, in order to ob; tain the Roman franchise, and which is known by the name of the Marsic or Social war. 3. Marrtivium or Marttvium, on the site of the present San Benedetto, was the chief town of the Marsi, who are therefore called gens Maruvia ; it was situated on the E. bank of the lake Fucinus, and on the road between Corfinium and Alba Fucentia. 4. Alba Fucentia or Fucentis, in later times a Roman colony, was situated on a lofty rock near the lake Fucinus. It was a strong fortress, and was used by the Romans as a state prison. F, — Peligni. 1. The Peligni, a brave and warUke people of Sabine origin, occupied a territory bounded S. E. by the Marsi, N. by the Marrucini, S. by Samnium and the Frentani, and E. also by the Frentani. 2. The chief city of the Peligni was Corfinium, not far from the Aternus, now the Pescara, It was strongly fortified, and memorable as the place which the ItaUans in and what was Eeate ? Give some account of it and its environs. 10. "What other notable cities had tho Sabini ? 1. Where did the Marsi dwell ? 2. When did they come into collision, and when conclude a peace with Eome? 3. What and where was their chief town? 4. Where and what was Alba Fucentia, and used for what ? 1. Where was the territory of the Peligni ? 2. Wliat and where was their rrALiA. 125 the Social war destined to be the new capital of Italy m place of Rome, on which account it was called Italica. 3. Sulmo, now Sulmona, was seven miles S. of Corfi nium on the road to Capua, and situated on two small mountain streams, the water of which was exceedingly cold : hence we find the town caUed by the poets " geUdus Sulmo." It is celebrated as the birthplace of Ovid. It was destroyed by Sulla, but was afterwards restored, and is mentioned as a Roman colony. G.— -Vestini. 1. Tho territory of the Vestini lay between the Apennines and the Adriatic sea, and was separated from the Marrucini by the river Aternus, (Pescara) and from Picenum by the river Matrinus, now the Piomha. The Vestini are mentioned in connection with the Marsi, Marru cini and Peligni ; but they subsequently separated from these peoples, and joined the Samnites in their war against Rome. Conquered by the Romans in b. c. 328, they ap pear from this time as the allies of Rome. They joined the other allies in the Marsic war, and were conquered by Pompeius Strabo in b. c. 89. They made a particular kind of cheese, which was a great favorite with the Romans. 2. The cities ofthe Vestini were Pinna, Angiilus, Aternum, and a few others, none of much note. H, — Marrucini. 1. The Marrucini, a brave and warlike people of the Sabellian race, occupied a narrow sUp of country along the right bank ofthe river Aternus, and bounded on the N. by the Vestini, on the W. by the Peligni and Marsi, on the S. by the Frentani, and on the E. by the Adriatic sea. Along with the other SabelUan tribes they fought against Rome, and together with them they submitted to the Romans in B. c. 304. 2, Their capital city wasTeate, now Ghieti, situated on a steep hill on the river Aternus, and on the road from Aternum to Corfinium. All accounts agree in describing it as a large and populous town, and worthy of being rank- chief city, and for what destined ? 3. Where was Sulmo, and noted as the birth place of whom ? 1. Where was the territory of the Vestini, and what is to be said of them ? 2. Name the cities ofthe Vestini. 1. Where was the territory of the Man-uoini ? 2. What was their principal city, and where situated? What family came from this place ? 126 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. ed amongst the distinguished cities of Italy. The famUy of C. Asinius PoUio, a distinguished orator, poet and historian of the Augustan age, came originally from this place. I. — Roma, 1. Roma, now Rome, the capital of Italy and of the world, was situated on the left bank of the river Tiber, on the N. W. confines of Latium, about 15 miles from the sea. 2. Rome is said to have been a colony from Alba Longa, and to have been founded by Romulus, about b. c. 753. The story of its foundation must besought in histories of Eome. 3. All traditions agree that the original city comprised only the Mons Palatinus or Palatium and some portion of the ground immediately below it. It was surrounded by walls, and was built in a square form, whence it was called Roma Quadrata. 4. There can be no.doubt that where Rome now stands there was a city, or rather there were several cities, long before the time when Romulus is said to have lived and founded tho capital of the world. The very name is foreign, i. e. Greek : ^ Fap-rj, " the mighty one — the power," Latinized in later times, says Sickler, by the name of Valentia. According to the most ancient legend, Rome consisted, in the earhest times, of three cities. 1. The city of the Arcadian Evander, on the Mons Palatinus. 2. The city of Saturn, on the M. Capitolinus. 3. The city of Janus, on the Janiculum. It is certain that at the time when Rome is said to have been founded by Romulus, while the Palatine was inhabited only by Latins, there also existed on the neighboring hiUs settlements of Sabines and Etruscans. The Sabine town, probably caUed Quirium, and inhabited by Quirites, was situated on the hiUs to the N of the Palatine, that is, the Quirinalis and Capitolinus, or Capitolium, on the latter of which hills was the Sabine Arx gr citadel. The commonly received tradi tion represents these Latin and Sabine towns as afterwards united in the reign of Romulus, and the two peoples as forming one collective body, known under the name of " Populus Romanus (et) Quirites." The Etruscans were set tled on Mons Caelius, and extended over Mons Cispius and 1. Where was Eome situated ? 2. Whence colonized, by whom, and when founded? 3. What is the tradition concerning the originallocalitv of the city? i. ITALIA. 127 Mons Oppius, which are part of the EsquUine. These Etruscans were at an early period mcorporated in the Roman state, but were compeUed to abandon their seats on the hills, and to take up their abode in the plains between the CaeUus and the EsquUine, whence the Vious Tuscus derived its name. 5. Under the kings the city rapidly grew in population and in size. Ancus Martins added the Mons Aventinus to the city : he also buUt a fortress on the Janiculum, a hill on the other side of the Tiber, as a protection against the Etruscans, and connected it with the city by means of the Pons SubUcius. Tarquinius Priscus constructed the vast sewers, (cloacae,) by which the lower part of the city be tween the Palatine and Capitol was drained, and which stUl remain without a stone displaced. He also laid out the Circus Maximus and the Forum, and, according to some traditions, commenced the erection ofthe Capitoline temple, which was finished by Tarquinius Superbus. The comple tion of the city, however, was ascribed to Servius TulUus, who added the Mons Viminalis and Mons Esquilinus, and surrounded the whole city with a Une of fortifications, which comprised all the seven hUls of Rome. Hence Rome was called Urbs SepticolUs. These fortifications were about 7 miles in circumference. Rome having been entirely destroy ed by the Gauls in b. c. 390, it was rebuilt in great haste and confusion, -without any attention to regularity, and with narrow and crooked streets. After the great fire which occurred in the reign of Nero, (a. d. 64,) and destroyed two- thirds of Rome, the city assumed a more regular and stately appearance. The new streets ivere made both wide and straight ; the height of the houses was restricted ; and a certain part of each was required to be built of Gabian or Alban stone, which was proof against fire. Rome having long outgrown the waUs of Servius TulUus, which were thus rendered useless, the emperor Aurelian surrounded the city with new waUs, (commenced a. d. 271,) which embraced the city of Servius TuUius and all the suburbs which had sub sequently gro-wn up around it, such as the Mons Janicu- lensis on the right bank of the Tiber, and the CoUis Hortu- lorum or Mons Pincius on the left bank of the river to the N. of the QuirinaUs. These waUs were about 11 mUes in circumference. "What is probably the real truth as regards the origin of Eome ? 5, "What was the progress of Eome under the kings ? 128 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. For aU the other notabiUties of Rome, its regiones, vici, gates, aqueducts, bridges, camjDi, &c., &c.; and for an account of its size and population, the student will consult some good work on Roman Antiquities, or Smith's Classi cal Dictionary, as the complete exhibition of a subject so exceedingly comprehensive would occupy entirely too much space in a manual Uke the present. K. — Latium. 1. The origin of the name of Latium is uncertain. Most of- the ancients derived it fi-om a king Latinus, who was supposed -Jo Jiave baen a cotemporary of Aeneas ; but there can be no doubt that the name of the people was transferred to this fictitious king. Other ancient critics connected the name with the verb latere, either because Saturn had been hidden in the country, or because Italy is hidden between the Alps and the Apennines. Neither of these explanations has any value. A modern writer derives Latium from lotus, (like Campania from campus) and supposes it to mean the " flat land ; " but the quantity of a in latus is opposed to this etymology. 2. The boundaries of Latium varied at different pe riods : — 1 . In the most ancient times it reached only from the river Tiber on the N. to the river Niimicus and the town of Ardea on the S., and from the sea-coast on the, W. to the Alban mount on the E. 2. The territory of L. was subsequently extended southwards ; and long before the conquest ofthe Latins by the Romans, it stretched from the Tiber on the N. to the Circeium Prom, and Anxur or Tar- racina on the S. The name of Latium antiquum or vetus was subsequently given to the country from the Tiber to the Circeium Promontorium. 3. The Romans still further extended the territories of Latium, by the conquest of the Hernici, Aequi, Volsci, and Aurunci, as far as the Liris on the S., and even beyond this river to the town Sinuessaand to Mt. Massicus. This new accession of territory was called Latium novum or adjectum. Latium, therefore, in its widest signification was bounded by Etruria on the N., froni which it was separated by the Tiber : by Campania, on the S., from which it was separated by the Liris : by the Mare Tyrrhenum on the W., and by the Sabine and the Samnite tribes on the E. 1. -What is the origin of the name of Latium? 2, "What were the boundaries ITALIA. 129 3. The greater part of this country is an extensive plain of volcanic origin, out of which rises an isolated range of mountains known by the name of Mons Albanus, of which the Algidus and the Tusculan hills are branches. Part of this plain, on the coast between Antium and Tarriiclna, which was at one time well cultivated, became a marsh in consequence of the rivers Nymphaeus, Ufens, and Amase- nus finding no outlet for their waters : but the remainder ofthe country was celebrated for its fertility in antiquity. 4. After a struggle frequently suspended and apparently terminated by treaties, as often renewed through a long series of years, the Latins were defeated by the Romans at the battle of Mt. Vesuvius, b. c. 340, and now became the subjects of Rome. 5. Latium formed a kind of focus, m which all the dif ferent races that in past centuries had been thronging into Italy converged. We should then expect beforehand to meet -with a people formed by a commixture of divers tribes ; and this expectation is confirmed both by ancient tradition and by the investigations of modern scholars into the construction of the Latin language. 6. Tradition tells us that the Aborignes of Latium min gled in early times -tvith a people caUing themselves Sieu lians ; that these Sieulians being conquered and partly expelled from Italy, took reftige in the island, which was afterwards caUed SicUy from them, but was at that time peopled by a tribe named Sicanians ; that the conquering people were named Sacranians, and had themselves been forced down fi-om the Sabine valleys in the neighborhood of Reat6 by SabeUian invaders ; and that from this mixture of Aborigines, Sieulians, and Sacranians arose the people kno'wn afterwards by the name of Latins. 7. The Latin language contains a very large number of words closely resembling the Greek ; and what is particu larly to be observed, the grammatical inflection of the nouns and verbs, -with aU that may be called the framework of the language, closely resembles that ancient dialect of the Hellenic called AeoUc. It must be inferred, then, that these languages aU branched off from one stock, i. e. the Sanscrit, to which the Latin, in many of its forms, has a of Latium, and what is meant by L. Vetus and L. Novum ? 3. -What was tho nature of the country? 4. "When were the Latins reduced to subjection by Eome ? 5. Of what description was the population of Latium ? 6. "What is the evidence of tradition on this subject ? 7, ^What do the sources of the Latin Ian- 6* 130 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. closer resemblance than the Greek. And it may be af firmed, that form under which this original language first appeared in Latium was Pelasgian or half-HeUenic, 8. Though the framework and a large portion of the vocabulary resembles the Greek, there is also a large portion which is totally foreign to the Greek. This foreign ele ment was certainly not Etruscan; for if so, we should find many words in the Etruscan inscriptions agreeing with words in Latin ; whereas, in fact, we find hardly any. But in the Oscan inscriptions we find words much resembling the Greek; and it maybe inferred that the Oscan races had so largely blended with the Pelasgian, that the original Latin tongue was a mixture of the two. Moreover, it is certain that the nation we call Roman was more than half Sabellian. Traditional history attributes the conquest of Rome to a Sabine tribe. Some of her kings were Sabine : the name borne by her citizens was Sabine : her religion was Sabine : most of her institutions in war and peace were Sabine : and therefore it may be concluded that the lan guage of the Roman people differed from that of Latium Proper by its Sabine elements, though this difference died out again as the Latin communities were graduaUy absorbed into the territory of Rome. 9, Thus, then, to sum up, it may be assumed that in La tium the original inhabitants, a mixture of Pelasgians and Oscans, spoke a tongue which was the parent of the later La tin ; that the Sabine conquerors of Rome gradually adopted this Latin language, infusing into it a large vocabulary of their own. Other probable infusions, either earlier or later, left the organic structure the same, which is identified with the structure of the Greek and its kindred tongues. 10. The tradition that Rome owed its origin to Aeneas and the Trojans must therefore be discarded as utterly un founded. CITIES OP LATIUM. 11. Ostia was situated at the mouth of the river Ti ber, on the left bank of the left arm of the river, and was the harbor of Rome, from which it was distant 16 mUes by land. It was founded by Ancus Martius, was a Roman col ony, and eventually became an important and flourishing town. It still retains its ancient name. guage teach us in this connection ? 8. "What other element entered into the com position of the Latin language ? 9. How may the philological evidence be summed up? 10. What becomes thus of the Trojan origin of Eome? 11. Where and ITALIA. 131 12. In the civU wars it was destroyed by Marius, but it was soon rebuilt with greater splendor than before. 13. The emperor Claudius constructed a new and better harbor on the right arm of the Tiber, which was enlarged and improved by Trajan. This new harbor was caUed sim ply Portus Romanus or Portus Augusti, and around it there sprang up a flourishing town, also caUed Portus ; its inhabitants were called Portuenses. 14. The old town of Ostia, whose harbor had been al ready partly fiUed up by sand, now sank into insignificance, and continued to exist only through its salt-works, (salinae,) which had been estabUshed by Ancus Martius. The ruins of Ostia are between 2 and 3 miles from the coast, as the sea has graduaUy receded in consequence of the accumula tion of sand deposited by the Tiber. 15. Laurentum, now Casale di Gopocotta, and not Paterno, one of the most ancient towns of Latium, was situ ated on a height between Ostia and Ardea, not far from the sea, and was surrounded by a grove of laurels, from which the place was supposed to have derived its name. 16. According to Virgil it was the residence of king Latinus, and the capital of Latium. 17. Lavinium was 3 mUes from the sea and 6 miles E. of Laurentum, on the Via Appia, and near the river Numi- cus, which divided its territory from that of Ardea. It is said to have been founded by Aeneas, and to have been call ed Lavinium, in honor of his wife Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. 18. It was at Lavinium that king Titus Tatius was said to have been murdered. 19. Ardea, stiUso called, the chief town ofthe Rutuli, a Uttle to the left ofthe river Numicus, 3,mUes from the sea, was situated on a rock surrounded by marshes, in an un healthy district. It was one of the most ancient places in Italy, and was said to have been the capital of Turnus. 20. Lanuvium, now Lavigna, was situated on a hill of the Alban mount, not far from the Appia Via, and sub sequently a Roman municipium. Under the empire it what was Ostia, and founded by whom? 12. How did it fare in the civil wars, and how was it rebuilt? 13. Whither was the harbor subsequently transferred, by whom, and the new harbor how called? 14. What became now ofthe old townof Ostia, and where are its ruins? 15. Where was Laurentum, and from what did it derive its name ? 16. It was the reputed capital of whom ? 17. -Where was Lavi nium, said to have been founded by whom, and named after whom? 18. What historical event connected with Lavinium? 19. Where was Ardea, said to have been whose capital ? 20, Where was Lanuvium, and whose birthplace ? 21, 132 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. obtained some importance, as the birthplace of Antoninus Pius. 21. A.ricia, now Ariccia or Riccia, was at the foot of the Albanus Mons, on the Appian Way, 16 miles from Rome. In its neighborhood was the celebrated grove and temple of Diana Aricina, on the borders of the Lacus Ne- morensis, now Nemi. Diana was worshipped here with bar barous customs : her priest, called rex nemorensis, was al ways a run-away slave, who obtained his office by killing his predecessor in single combat. The priest was obUged to fight with any slave who succeeded in breaking off a branch of a certain tree in the sacred grove, 22. Alba L onga, now ^?5am, the most ancient town in Latium, on the Mons Albanus, is said to have been buUt by Ascanius, and to have founded Rome. 23. It was called Longa, from its stretching in a long Une down the Alban Mount towards the Alban Lake. It was destroyed by TuUus Hostilius, and was never rebuUt : its inhabitants were removed to Rome. 24. Tus culum, neav the mod. M-ascati, was situated about 10 miles S. E. of Rome, on a lofty summit of the mountains which are caUed after the town Tusculani Mon tes, and which are a continuation of Mons Albanus. It was one of the most strongly fortified places in all Italy, both by nature and by art. It is said to have been founded by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses ; and it was always one of the most important of the Latin towns. 25. Its proximity to Rome, its salubrity, and the beauty of its situation made it the favorite residence of the Roman nobles during the summer. Cicero, among others, had a favorite vUla at this place, and here, probably, he wrote that charming work, "Tusculanae Disputationes," or "Tusculan Disputations." 26. Mons Algidus was a range of mountains extend ing S. from Praeneste to Mons Albanus, cold, but covered with wood, and containing good pasturage. 27. Gabii, (near CasJip'^ioneRu.,) on the Lacus Gabinus, (Lago di Gavi,) between Rome and Praeneste, was in early times one ofthe most powerful Latin cities. Tradition says that Romulus was brought up here. Sextus Tarquinius Where was Aricia, and what custom prevailed hore in tho worship of Diana ? 22. Where was Alba Longa, and said to have been built by whom ? 23. What is the derivation of its name, and what became of it ? 24. Where was Tusoulum, and founded by whom ? 25. How is it noted in connection with Cicero ? 26. Where was Mons Algidus ? 27. -Where was Gabii, what peculiarity of dress derived ITALIA. 133 treacherously delivered this city into the hands of his father, Tarquinius Sup. The Cinctus Gabinus, a peculiar mode of wearing the toga at Rome, appears to have been'derived from this town. In its neighborhood are the immense stone quarries from which a part of Rome was bmlt. 28. Collatia, now Casfetoccio, near the right bank of the Anio, is famous as the scene of the tragic fate of Lucretia, the wife of L. Tarquinius CoUatinus. 29. Tibur, now Tivoli, 16 mUes N. E. of Rome, -was situated on the slope of a hUl, on the left bank ofthe Anio, which here forms a magnificent waterfaU. It is said to have been originaUy buUt by the SicuU. Under the Romans Tibur continued to be a large and fiourishmg town, smce the salubrity and beautiful scenery of the place led many ofthe most distinguished Roman nobles to build here mag nificent villas. Of these the most splendid was the vUla of the emperor Hadrian, in the extensive remains of which many valuable specimens of ancient art have been discover ed. Here also the celebrated Zenobia Uved, after adorning the triumph of her conqueror Aurelian. Horace also had a country house in the neighborhood of Tibur, which he preferred to all his other residences. The deity chiefly worshipped at Tibur was Hercules ; and in the neighbor hood was the grove and temple ofthe Sibyl Albune^, whose oracles were consulted from the most ancient times. 30. Praeneste, now Palestrina, was situated on a steep and lofty hill, about 20 miles S. E. of Rome, -with which it was connected by the Via Praenestina. It was probably a Pelasgie city, but it claimed Greek origin, and was said to have been founded by TelGgonus, the son of Ulysses. It was here that the younger Marius took refuge, and was for a considerable time besieged by Sulla's troops. Praeneste possessed a very celebrated and ancient temple of Fortuna, with an oracle, which is often mentioned under the name of " Praenestinae Sortes," It also had a temple of Juno. It was a favorite summer resort of the wealthy Romans, because of the loftiness and salubrity of its situation. L, — Hernici. 1. The Hernici belonged to the Sabine race, and are from it its name, what historical connection with Eome, and what was in its neighborhood ? 28, Where was Collatia, and for what noted ? 29. Where was Tibur, by whom founded, and for what noted ? 30. Where was Praeneste, and for what noted ? 134 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. said to have derived their name from the Marsic (Sabine) word herna " rock." According to this etymology their name -would signify " mountaineers." They inhabited the mountains ofthe Apennines between the Lacus Fucinus* and the river Trerus, now Sacco, and were bounded on the N. by the Marsi and Aequi, and on the S. by the Volsci. They Avere a brave and warlike people, but were, after a pro tracted struggle, finaUy subdued, like all the neighboring tribes, by the Romans, b. c. 306. 2. The chief town of the Hernici was Anagnia, now Anagni, situated in a very beautiful and fertUe country on a hUl, at the foot of which the Via Lavicana and Via Prae nestina united. In the neighborhood Cicero had a beauti ful estate. M. — Volsci. 1. The Volsci dwelt on both sides of the Liris, and extended down the Mare Tyrrhenum. They were from an early period engaged in almost unceasing hostUities with the Romans, and were not completely subdued by the latter till B. c. 338, from which time they disappear from history. The territory occupied by them was a part of Latium. 2, Velitrae, one of the principal cities of the Volsci, was conquered by the Romans, and colonized at an early period, but frequently revolted from Rome. It is chiefly celebrated as the birthplace of the emperor Augustus. 3. Corioli, the capital of the Volsci. From the capture of this town in b. c. 493, C. Marcius obtained the surname of Coriolanus. 4. Antium was a very ancient town of Latium on a rocky promontory running out some distance into the Mare Tyrrhenum. It was founded by Tyrrhenians and Pelasgians, and in early and even later times was noted for piracy. Although united by Tarquinius Superbus to the Latin league, it generally sided with the Volscians against Rome, whence we here reckon it among the Volscian cities. 5. It was taken by the Romans in b. c. 468, and a colony was sent thither ; but it revolted, was taken a second time by the Romans in b. c. 338, was deprived of aU its 1. What is the derivation and meaning of the name of the Hernici, and where did they dwell? 2. What was their chief town, how situated? 1. Where did the Volsci dwell? What were their relations to Eome ? 2. What was Velitrae, how connected with Eome, chiefly celebrated for what? 3. Corioli noted for what? 4. What and where was' Antium, founded by whom, noted for what, sided with whom ? 5. When was it taken by Eome, and what followed its ITALIA. 135 ships, the beaks (rostra) of which served to ornament tho platforms of the speakers in tho Roman forum, was forbid den to have any ships in future, and received anotherRoman colony. 6. But Antium graduaUy recovered its former impor tance, was aUowed in course of time again to be used as a seaport, and in the latter times of the republic and under the empire became a favorite residence of many of the Roman nobles and emperors. 7. The emperor Nero was born here, and in the remains of his palace the famous ApoUo Belvidere was found. It was evidently a magnificent city, possessing many other works of art. It possessed a celebrated temple of Fortune, of Aesculapius, and at the port of Ceno, a little to the E. of Antium, a temple of Neptune, on which account the place is now called Nettuno. 8. Circeii, (on the site of the present San Felice, on Monte Circello,) on the Circeium promontorium, founded by Tarquinius Superbus, never became a place of importance, in consequence of its proximity to the unhealthy Pontine marshes. The oysters caught off Circeii were celebrated. Some "wi-iters suppose Circe to have resided on this prom ontory, and that hence it derived its name. 9. Tres Tabernae was a station on the Via Appia, between Aricia and ¦ Forum Appii. It is mentioned in the account of St. Paul's journey to Rome. 10. Forum Appii, near San Donate, was on the Via Appia, in the midst of the Pomptine marshes, 43 mUes S. E. of Rome, founded by the censor Appius Claudius, when he made the great road that bears his name. Here the Christians from Rome met the apostle Paul when he was approaching the' city, (Acts xxviu. 15.) ll. Tarracina, moreanciently called Anxur, now Ter- racina,was situated 58 mUes S. E. of Rome, on the Via Ap pia and upon the coast, with a strongly-fortified citadel upon a high hiU, on which stood the temple of Jupiter Anxurus. 12. It was probably a Pelasgian to-wn originally ; but it afterwards belonged to the Volsci, by whom it was called Anxur. It was conquered by the Romans who gave it the capture? 6. What did it afterwards become? 7. Whose birthplace was it, and whatworiisof art did it possess? 8. Where was Circeii, famous for what, sup posed to be named after whom ? 9. What and where was Tres Tabernae, and now noted ? 10. Where was Porum Appii, how noted in Scripture ? 11. -Whero was Tarracina, having what other name ? 12. What is it supposed to have been 136 Ancient geogeaphy. name of Tarracina, and it was made a Roman colony b. c. 329 13. Three miles W. of the town stood the Grove_ of Feroiiia, with a temple of this goddess. The ancient waUs of the citadel of Tarracina are stUl visible on the slope of Montecchio. 14. Signia, now Segni, was on the E. side ofthe Vol scian mountains. It was celebrated for its temple of Jupiter Urius, for its astringent wine, for its pears, and for a par ticular kind of pavement for the floors of houses, caUed Opus Signinum, consistmg of plaster made of tUes beaten to powder and tempered with mortar. 15. Norba, now Norma, was a strongly-fortified town on the slope of the Volscian mountains. It espoused the cause of Marius in tbe civil war, and was destroyed by fire by its own inhabitants, when it was taken by one of Sulla's generals. 16. Setia, in the E. of the Pomptine marshes, was taken from the Volsci by the Romans and colonized. It was here that the Romans kept the Carthaginian hostages. It was celebrated for the exceUent wine grown in the neighborhood, which was reckoned in the time of Augustus the finest wine in Italy. 17. Arpinum, now Arpino, was situated on the smaU river Fibronus, at its junction with the Liris. It belonged originaUy to the Volsci, and afterwards to the Samnites, from whom the Romans wrested it. It was the birthplace of Marius and of Cicero, the latter of whom was born in his father's vUla, situated on a smaU island formed by the river Fibrenus. Cicero's brother Quintus had an estate S. of Arpinum, called Arcanum. 18. Aquinum, now Aquino, E. ofthe river Melpis, was the birthplace of Juvenal. It was celebrated for its purple dye. 19. Amyclae, E. of Tarracina, on the Sinus Amy- clanus, to which it gave name, was, according to tradition, an Achaean colony from Laconia. 20. In the time of Augustus the town had disappeared : the inhabitants were said to have deserted it on account of originally, and how did it fare in after times? 13. What was near it, and what re mains of it? 14. Where was Signia, and celebrated for what? 15. Where was Norba, and what became of it? 16. Where was Setia, and noted for what ? 17. Where was Arpinum, and whose birthplace was it? 18. Where 'tvas Aquinum, and noted as whose birthplace, and famous for what ? 19. Where and what was Amyclae ? 20. -What was its condition in the time of Augustus, and what was re- ITALIA. 137 its being infested by serpents, whence VirgU (Aen. x. 664) speaks of tacitae Amyclae, though some commentators sup pose that he transfers to this town the epithet belonging to Amyclae of Laconia, which "perished through silence." Near Amyclae was the Spelunca, (Sperlonga) or natural grotto, a favorite retreat of the emperor Tiberius. 21. Caicta, now Gaeta, on the borders of Campania, 40 stadia or 5 miles S. of Formiae, was situated on a prom ontory of the same name, and on a bay called aiter it Sinus Caietanus. It possessed an excellent harbor, and was said to have derived its name from Caieta, the nurse of Aeneas, who, according to some traditions, was buried at this place. 22. Formiae, the ruins of which are near the present 3Iola di Gaeta, was on the Via Appia, in the innermost corner of the beautiful Sinus Caietanus, now the Gulf of Gaeta. It was a very ancient town, founded by the Pelas gie Tyrrhenians; and it appears to have been one of the headquarters of the Tyi-rhenian pirates, whence later poets supposed the city of Lamus, inhabited by the LaestrygSnes, of which Homer speaks, (Od. x. 81,) to be the same as Formiae. 23. The beauty of the surrounding country induced many of the Roman nobles to build vUlas at this place : of these the best known is the Formianum of Cicero, in the neighborhood of which he was kUled. The remains of Cicero's viUa are still to be seen at the Villa Marsana near CastigUone. The hills of Formiae produced good wine. 24. Minturnae, now Trajetta, was an important town, situated on the Via Appia, and on both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth of this river. 25. In its neighborhood was a grove sacred to the nymph Marica, and also extensive marshes, (Paludes Min- turnenses,) formed by the overflowing of the river Liris, in which Marius was taken prisoner. paludes pomptinae, 26. This is the proper place to give some account ofthe famous marshes, which covered a large space of the Volscian territory. Pomptinae or Pometinae Paludes, in Eng- markable in its fate ? 21. Where was Caicta, possessing what, and deriving its name from what? 22. Where was Porraiae, founded by whom, headquarters of whom ? 23. Por what was it noted in later times ? 24. Where was Minturnae ? 138 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. lish, Pontine Marshes, is the name applied to a low marshy plain on the coast of Latium between Circeii and Tarracina, said to have been so called after an ancient town, Pontia, which disappeared at an early period. The plain is about 24 mUes long, and from 8 to 10 miles in breadth. The marshes are formed chiefly by the rivers Nymphaeus, Ufens and Amasenus, and some other small streams, which, instead of finding their way into the sea, spread over this plain. Hence the plain is turned into a vast number of marshes, the miasmas arising from which are exceedingly unhealtby in the summer. At an early period, however, they appear not to have existed at all, or at any rate to have been confined to a narrow district. We are told that originally there were twenty-three towns situated in this plain ; and in b. c. 432 the Pomptinus Ager is mentioned as yielding a large quantity of corn. Even as late as 312 B. c. the plain must stiU have been free from the marshes, since the censor Appius Claudius conducted the celebrated Via Appia in that year through the plain, which must then have been sufficiently strong to bear the weight of this road. In the course of a century and a haU after this, the marshes had spread to a great extent ; and accordingly attempts were made to drain them by the consul CethSgus in 160, by Julius Caesar and by Augustus. It is usually said that Augustus caused a navigable canal to be dug alongside of the Via Appia from Forum Appii to the grove of Feronia, in order to carry off a portion of the waters of the marshes ; but this canal must have been dug before the time of Augustus, since Horace embarked upon it, on his celebrated journey from Rome to Brundisium in 37 b. c, at which time Octavianus, as he was then called, could not have undertaken any of his public works. Subsequently the marshes again spread over the whole plain, and the Via Appia entirely disappeared ; and it was not until the pontifi cate of Pius VI. that any serious attempt was made to drain them. The works were commenced in 1778, and the greater part of the marshes was drained ; but the plain is still unhealthy in the great heats of summer. N. — Campania. 1. The name of Campania is probably derived from 26. "What was in its neighborhood, and how is it noted in history? 26. Give an account of tho Pontine Marshes. 1. The name of Campania derived from what, and the country how bounded! ITALIA. 139 Campus " a plain." This division of Italy was bounded on the N. W. by Latium ; N. and E. by Samnium ; S. E. by Lucania ; and S. and S. W. by the Mare Tyrrhenum. Its present name is Teri-a di Lavoro. 2. Before Latium had been extended beyond the Liris, that river formed the natural boundary of Campania to the N. ; but after this change in the Umits of the two pro vinces, the Massic hills, 10 mUes in length and 3 in breadth, were considered as the boundary by which they were sepa rated. To the E. Campania was divided from Samnium by a branch ofthe Apennines, called Mons Tifata, and from Lu cania at a later time by the river SUarus, now Sele. 3. The country along the coast from the Liris to the promontory of Minerva is a plain inclosed by the Apennines which sweep around it in the form of a semicircle. Cam pania is a volcanic country, to which circumstance it was mainly indebted for its extraordinary fertility, for which it was celebrated in antiquity above aU other lands. It pro duced corn, wine, oU, and every kind of fruit in the greatest abundance, and in many parts crops could be gathered three times in the year. The fertUity of the soil, the beauty of the scenery, and the softness of the cUmate, the heat of which was tempered by the delicious breezes of the sea, procured for Campania the epithet Felix, a name which it justly deserved. It was the favorite retreat in summer of the Roman nobles, whose villas studded a considerable part of its coast, especially in the neighborhood of Baiae. 4. The earUest inhabitants of the country were the Ausones and Osci or Opici. They were subsequently con quered by tho Etruscans, who became the masters of almost all the country. In the time ofthe Romans it was inhabit ed by three distinct peoples, besides the Greek popula tion of Cumae : — 1. the Campani properly so caUed, along the coast froni Sinuessa to Paestum : they were the ruling race ; 2. the Sidicini, an Ausonian people, in the N. W. ; 3. the Picentini in the S. E. 5. The name of Campania is derived by some from the Greek word 77 KapTt-q, " a bending or winding," the name having reference to the many inequalities of the coast, and the bendiog of the country around the territory of 2. By what was it separated from Latium, and by what from Lucania, and from Saninium? 3. What was the general character of this country, and what iu productions? 4. Who wcro the original inhabitants of the couutrv and wl-n ooonpied it in the time of tho Eomans? 6. What other derivation is given of tho 140 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. the Samnites : thus the name would denote " the land of bays," or " the winding land." 6. The chief river of Campania is the Vulturnus, now the Volturno, rising in the Apennines in Samnium, and fall ing into the Mare Tyrrhenum. Its principal affluents are the Calor, Colore, Tamarus, Tamaro, and Sabatus, 8a- bato. Minor rivers were the Liris, now Garigliano, the Savo, Saone, the Clanius or Liternus, now the Lagno, which flows through a marsh N. of Liternum, caUed Literna Palus: the Sebethus, Maddalena, flowmg round Vesu vius, and falling into the Sinus Puteolanus at the E. side of Neapolis: the Sarnus, Sarna, and the Silarus, the water of which is said to have petrified plants. 7. Besides the Apennines on the eastern border of the country, the principal mountains of Campania were Vesu vius Mons, Massicus Mons, and a range of hUls caUed Pausi- lypus, and Tifata. 8. Vesttvius, also called Ves-evus, Vesbius, or V e s vi u s , the celebrated volcanic mountain, rises out of the plain S. E. of NeapoUs. There are no records of any eruption of Vesuvius before the Christian era, but the an cient writers were aware of its volcanic nature from the igneous appearance of the rocks. The slopes of the moun tain were extremely fertile, but the top was a rough and sterile plain, on which Spartacus and his gladiators were be sieged by a Roman army. In a. d. 63, the volcano gave the first symptoms of agitation in an earthquake, whioh occasioned considerable damage to several towns in its vicin ity ; and on the 24th of August, a. d. 79, occurred the first great eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Stabiae, Herculaneum, and Pompeii. It was in this erup tion that the elder Pliny lost his life. There have been nu merous eruptions since that time, which have greatly al tered the shape ofthe mountain. Its present height is 3,200 feet. s 9. Massicus Mons was in the N. W. near the fron tiers of Latium, celebrated for its excellent wine, the pro duce of the vineyards on the southern slope of the moun tain. The celebrated Falernian wine came from the eastern side of this mountain, or, more jiarticularly, from the Fa- lernus Ager, a district extending from the Massic hills to name of Campania ? 6. What is the chief river, and what the minor rivers of tho country? 7. What w^ero the principal mountains of Campania? 8. Where is Vesuvius ? Give a succinct account of this mountain ? 0. "Where was the Mas^ ITALIA. 141 the river Vulturnus. This district produced some of the finest wine in Italy, which was reckoned only second to the ¦vrine of Setia. Its choicest variety was called Faustianum. 10. The Greek term Pausilypus or Pausilypum, i. q. UavcrlXmrov, (fabulously derived from iravco and X-virr},) " ending pain," was applied to the ridge of hUls which separates the bay of Naples from that of PozzuoU, prob ably on account of its dehghtful situation and aspect, which rendered it the favorite residence of several noble and wealthy Romans. This hiU, at a period unknown to us, was perforated by art to admit of a communication between Neapolis and Puteoli, not only for men and beasts of burden, but also for carriages. The name Pausilypum was transferred to the celebrated grotto, now Posilifpo, between Naples and Puzzeoli, which was formed by this perforation or tunnel, which the architect Cocceius is said to have cut through the rock by command of Agrippa. At its entrance the tomb of VirgU is still shown. 11. Mons Tifata wasE. of Capua. The Samnites en camped upon it in their war with the Campanians. In later times SuUa gained a victory here over the proconsul Norbanus. On this mountain was a temple of Diana and also one of Jupiter of some celebrity. CITIES IN CAMPANIA. 12. Vulturnum, now Castel di Volturno, at the mouth of the river Vulturnus, was originally a fortress erected by the Romans in the 2d Punic war, in later times a colony. 13. Liternum or Linternum, now Patria, was at the mouth of the river Clanius or Glanis, which in the lower part of its course takes the name of Liternus, Patria or Clanio, and which, to the N. of the town, flows through a marsh caUed Literna Palus. It was to this place that the elder Scipio Africanus retired, when the tribunes attempted to bring him to trial, and here he is said to have died. 14. Cumae, the most ancient of the Greek colonies in Italy, was founded by Cyme in AeoUs, in conjunction with Chalcis and Eretria in Euboea. Its foundation is placed in b. c. 1050, but this date is evidently too early. sicns Mons, and celebrated for what ? 10. "Where was the Pausilypus Mons, and hownoted? 11. Where was Mount Tifata ? 12. Whero and what was Vultnrnum 13. Whero was Liternum, and noted for what ? 14. Where was Cumae, and by 142 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. It was situated on a steep hUl of Mt. Gaurus, (Monti\ Gauro) a little N. ofthe promontory Misenum. _ "^ 15. It became in early times a great and flourishing city : its commerce was extensive : its territory included a great part of tbe rich Campanian plain : its population was at least 60,000, and its power is attested by its colonies in Italy and Sicily, — PuteoU, PalaepoUs, afterwards NeapoU^, Zancle, afterwards Messana. 16. It maintained its independence till 417 b. c, when it was taken by the Campanians and most of its inhabitants sold as slaves. From this time Capua became the chief city of Campania. 17. Cumae was celebrated as the residence of the earliest Sibyl, and as the place where Tarquinius Super- bus died. Its ruins are stUl to be seen between the Lago di Patria and Fusaro. 18. For Misenum, see under Promontories, page 94. 19. Baiae, on a small bay W. of Naples, and opposite Puteoli, was situated in a beautiful country, which abound ed in warm mineral springs. 20. The baths of Baiae were the most celebrated in Italy, and the town itself was the favorite watering place of the Romans, who flocked thither in crowds for health and pleasure : it -was distinguished by licentiousness and immorality. 21. The whole country was studded with the palaces of the Roman nobles and emperors, which covered the coast from Baiae to Puteoli : many of these palaces were built into the sea, (Hor. Carm. II. 18.20.) The site of ancient Baiae is now for the most part covered by the sea. 22. P"iite61i, now Pozzuoli, originaUy named Di- ca.earohia, a celebrated seaport town, situated on aprom- ontory on the E. side of the Sinus Puteolanus, and a little to the E. of Cumae, was founded by the Greeks of Cumae, b. c. 521, under the name of Dicaearchia. In the second Punic war it was fortified by the Romans, who changed its name into that of PuteoU, either from its nu merous wells, iputeus) or from the stench (puteo, to stink) arising from the mineral springs in its neighborhood. whom founded, and probably when ? 15. It became v,'hat in early times, and by what IS Its power attested ? 13. Until when did it maintain its independence, and what was Us subsequent fate ? 17. Cumae was celebrated for what ? 18 Where was Misenum? 19. Whero was Baiae? 20. For what was Baiae noted? 21. What IB the appearance of tho surrounding country? 22. Where was Puteoli orig inaUy how named, founded by whom ? When and why named PuteoU ? 23 Puteoli ITALIA. 143 ,^ 23 Puteoli was mdebted for its importance to its ex cellent harbor, which was protected by an extensive mole formed from the celebrated reddish earth of the neigh bor- inff hUls. This earth, caUed Pozzolana, when mixed with chalk forms an exceUent cement, which in course of time becomes as hard as stone, even in water. The mole was bnUt on arches Uke a bridge, and 17 of the piers are still visible projectmg above the water. To this mole Caligula attached a floating bridge, which extended as far as Baiae, a distance of two mUes. PuteoU was destroyed by Alaric, A. D. 410, by Genseric in 455, and by TotUas in 545, but -svas on each occasion speedUy rebuilt. Besides the remains of the mole, many ruins of the ancient town are stiU at PozzuoU. 24. Neapolis, now Napoli or Naples, on the W. slope of Mt. Vesuvius and on the river Sebethus, was founded by the Chalcidians of Cumae, on the site of an ancient place caUed Parthenope, after the siren of that name. It was caUed Neapolis, the " New City," because it was regarded simply as a new quarter of the neighbor ing city of Cumae. 25. When the town is first mentioned in Roman his tory, it consisted of two parts, divided from each other by a waU, and called respectively PalaepoUs aud NeapoUs. This division probably arose after the capture of Cumae by the Samnites, when a large number of Cumaeans took refuge in the city they had founded ; whereupon the old quarter was called PalaepoUs, and the new quarter, buUt to accommodate the new inhabitants, was named Neapolis. Under the Eomans, who took the town from the Samnites in B. c. 290, permitting it to retain its Greek constitution, it became subsequently a municipium, finaUy a colony, and the two quarters of the city were united, and the name Pa laepoUs disappeared. It continued to be a prosperous and flourishing place tUl the time of the empire, and its beautiful scenery, and the luxurious Ufe of its Greek population, made it a favorite residence with many of the Romans. In the reign of Titus the city was destroyed by an earthquake, but was rebuilt by this emperor in the Eoman style. 26. Herculaneum, Herculanium, Herculanum, Herculense Oppidum, Herculea Urbs, an ancient was indebted to what for its importance ? 24 Where was Neapolis, founded by whom, on the site of what, and why so called? 25. "When first mentioned in his tory, it consisted of what, division arising from what ? 26. Where was Hercu- "144 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. city near the coast, between Neapolis and Po-mpeu, was orig inally founded by the Oscans, was next in the possession of the Tyrrhenians, and subsequently was inhabited chiefly by Greeks, who appear to have settled in the place from other cities of Magna Graecia, and to have given it its name. It was destroyed with Pompeii in a. d. 79. On its site stands the modern Portici, and part of the village oi Resi na. The ancient city was accidentaUy discovered by the sinking of a well in 1720,* since whioh time, the excava tions have been carried on at different periods ; and' many works of art have been discovered, which are deposited in the royal Museum at Portici. It has been found necessary to fill up again the excavations which were made, in order to render Portici and Resina secure, and therefore very jit tle ofthe ancient city is to be seen. For an account ofthe manner of its destruction, vide infra, under Pompeii. 27. Pompeii (IIo/ATnjiot, IIo/iTrata, Tiop.Trrj'Ca) was situated on the coast, at the mouth ofthe river Sarnus, now the Samo; but in consequence of the physical changes which the sur rounding country has undergone, the ruins of the city are found at present about 2 mUes from the sea. Pompeii was first in the hands of the Oscans, afterwards of the Tyrrhe nians, and finally became a Roman municipium. Together with Herculaneum it was partly destroyed by an earthquake in A. D. 63, but was overwhelmed in 79, at the same time with Herculaneum and Stabiae, by the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 28. It is the common belief that these cities were, on this occasion, buried by a shower of volcanic sand, vulgarly term ed ashes, and stones. This theory has been effectuaUy ex ploded by a French savant, M. Dufrenoy, who has devoted much time to the study of the causes of the destruction of PompeU and Herculaneum, and the seven other towns which shared their fate. He thinks that, if the shower of ashes and stones was so dense as to change night into day, and to suffocate to death a great many persons, it stUl had little effect in burying these cities. For, says he, if these cities were buried by clouds of air-suspended banks of ashes, the ashes would have filled nothing but open cavities, and would have been deposited only on the surfaces of the houses, &c. ¦* According to some, in 1713, according to others, in 1711. lanenm, and by whom founded ? 27. Whore was Pompeii, successively in whose possession, and when destroyed? 28. Givean account of its dostructiiin, 29. "What 145 rrALiA ^*'' Whereas in aU the excavations made at Hd-of'"^^;^'^ '^j^ Pompeii, deep ceUars wliich were P^-fpotly. closed_ on all Bides: and whose arched ceiling is "»™R"-«^'/ ,\ 7, ?; pletely filled with tufa-so completely fiUed that the tuta Lms a compact mass, and is moulded on the different ob jects which it envelops. A shower of ashes could nevci have produced this result, as is proved by the effect pro duced by sand on dunes, whero no sand enters houses swallowed up, unless the roof or waUs give way under the accumulated mass of sand. Therefore it must be admitted that water must have been the chief cause of the burial ot Herculaneum and PompeU, and nothing but turbid water could have penetrated everywhere, even into the ceUars, and filled them up. The layers which at the present day cover these cities, are formed almost exclusively of sub stances which could not have been ejected by the mouth of the volcano ; and by the way in which they are deposited, it seems they were deposited there by a current of water. M. Dufrenoy therefore concludes that the shower of ashes began the destruction of the cities, and kUIed or put to flight their inhabitants ; but that the earthquakes caused by the incalculable violence of the eruption, overthrew the spurs around Vesimus, and that the materials which formed these spurs, dissolved in great masses of water, buried un der a huge ocean of mud these cities of antiquity. There is not the least trace of lava in the mass which covered Herculaneum and PompeU. 29. In consequence of this catastrophe a great part of the city has been preserved with its market-places, theatres, baths, temples, and private houses; and the excavation of it in modern times has thrown great light upon many points of antiquity, such as the construction of Eoman houses, and in general all subjects connected "with the private life of the ancients. The first traces of this ancient city were discov ered in 1689, rising above the ground ; but it was not till 1721 that the excavations were commenced. These have been continued "with va,riDus interruptions down to the pre sent day ; and now about half the city is exposed to view. It was surrounded with walls which were about 2 miles in circumference, surmounted at intervals by towers, and con taining six gates. 30. Stabiae, now Castellamare di Stabia was an an- ini'iiortant rosiilts arise from this catastrophe, and what discoveries have been 7 146 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. cient town between Pompeu and Surrentum. It was de stroyed by Sulla in the social war, but continued to exist as a small place down to the great eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79, when it was overwhelmed along with Hercular neum and Pompeii. It was at Stabiae that the elder Pliny perished. 31. Surrentum, now Sorrento, a very ancient town opposite Capreae, was situated on the promontory (Prom, Minervae) separating the Sinus Paestanus from the Sinus Puteolanus. It became a Roman Colony : on the hills (Sur- rentini Colles) in its neighborhood was grown one of the best wines in Italy, which was strongly recommended, to convalescents, on account of its thinness and wholesomenesa. 32. Suessa Aurunca, or S. Auruncorum, now Sessa, was a town of the Aurunci, E. of the Via Appia, be tween Minturnae and Teanum, on the W. slope of Mons Massicus. It was situated in a beautiful district caUed Ves- cinus Ager. It was made a Roman colony in the Samnite wars, but must have been afterwards colonized afresh, since we find it called in inscriptions. Col. Julia Felix. It was the birthplace of the poet LucUius. 33. Teanum Sidicinum, now Teano, an important town, and capital of the Sidicini, -was situated on the N. slope of Mons Massicus, and on the Via Praenestina, 6 mUes W. of Cales, It was made a Roman colony by Augustus. In its neighborhood were some celebrated medicinal springs. 34. Cales, now Calvi, was the chief town ofthe Caleni, an Ausonian people, on the Via Latina, said to have been founded by Calais, son of Boreas, and therefore called Threicia by the poets. It was celebrated for its exceUent wine. 35. Venafrum, now Venafri, in the territory of the Sidicini, near the river Vulturnus, and on the confines of Latium, belonged originally to Samnium, according to Strabo : Pliny places it in Latium adjectum, and therefore iu the first Regio. Hence later geographers regard it as belonging to Campania. It was celebrated for the excel lence of its olives, and its fine oUve oU. 36. Casilinum, on the Vulturnus and on the same made ? 30. -Where was Stabiae, and what was its fate ? 31. "Where was Surren tum, and for what noted? 32. -Where was Suessa Aurunca, how situated, whoss birthplace ? 33. Where was Teanum Sidicinum ? 34. Whore was Cales, and for what noted ? 35. Whero was Venafrum, originally belonging where, celebrated for what? 86. Where was Casilinum, and for what celebrated? 37 Capua, ITALU. 147 site as the modem Capua, celebrated for its heroic defence against Hannibal, b. c. 216, 37. Captla, originally called Vulturnum, was the chief city of Campania, after the fall of Cumae, is said to have derived its name fi-om Capys, the leader ofthe Etrus cans by whom it was taken and colonized, some say 50 years before the foundation of Rome. Situated on the left bank of the Vulturnus, it soon became the most prosperous, wealthy, and luxurious city in the south of Italy. 38. In B. c. 420 it was conquered by the warlike Sam nites, and the population, which had always been of a mixed nature, now consisted of Ausonians, Oscans, Etrus cans and Samnites. At a later time Capua, again attacked by the Samnites, placed itself under the protection of Rome, 843. It revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, 216, but was taken by the Romans in 211, was fearfuUy punished, and never recovered its former prosperity. 39. Capua was now governed by a Praefectus, who was sent annuaUyto the city from Rome. It received a Roman colony by the lex agraria of Julius Caesar, in 59, and under Nero a colony of veterans was settled there. It was subse quently destroyed by the barbarians who invaded Italy. The modern town of Capua is built about 3 miles from the ancient one, the site of which is indicated by the ruins of an amphitheatre. 40. Atella, between Capua and NeapoUs, near the site of the modern Aversa, owes its celebrity to the Atel lanae Fabulae or Oscan farces, which took their name from this town. 41. Nola, StiU so called, was one of the most ancient towns m Campania, 21 Roman mUes S. E. of Capua : it was founded by the Ausones, but afterwards fell into the hands ofthe Tyrrheni, (Etruscans,) whence some writers caU it an Ltruscan city. In b. c. 327 Nola was sufficiently powerful to send 2,000 soldiers to the assistance of NeapoUs. In 313 the town was taken by the Romans. 42. It remained faithful to the Romans even after the battle of Cannae, when the Campanian towns revolted to Hanmbal; and it was aUowed in consequence to retain its own constitution as an ally of the Romans. In the Social war It feU mto the hands of the confederates, and when originally how called, was where, what its rank, named after whom? mi "Wb«t Us°fatef 4o'^'^'/''P"'T,'i, ^^- :What was now its conmUoTand whai fl^y il2^ *0. Where was Atella, and celebrated for what? 41. -\Here was Noi7 by whom founded; what evidences of its power ? 42. What was its conduct and 148 ancient GEOGEAPHY. taken by Sulla it was burnt to the ground by the Samnite garrison. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was made a Roman colony by Vespasian. The emperor Augustus died at Nola. 43. In the neighborhood of the town some of the most beautiful Campanian vases have been found in modern times. According to an ecclesiastical tradition, church bells were invented at Nola, and were hence caUed Campanae. 44. Abella, now Avella vecchia, not far from Nola, was celebrated for its apples, whence VirgU (Aen. VII. 740) calls it malifera, and for its great hazel-nuts, nuces Avellanae. 45. Nuceria, surnamed Alfaterna, now -Z\7c>cera, on the Sarnus and on the Via Appia, S. E. of Nola and 9 Roman mUes from the coast, was taken by the Romans in the Samnite wars, and was again taken by Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, when it was burnt to the ground. It was subsequently rebuUt, and both Augustus and Nero . planted colonies of veterans here. Pompeii was used as the harbor of Nuceria. 46. Picentia, now Vicenza, was in the S., at the head ofthe Sinus Paestanus, and between Salermim and the fron tiers of Lucania. The inhabitants were compelled by the Romans, in consequence of their revolt to Hannibal, to abandon their town and Uve in the neighboring villages. 47. The name of Picentini was not confined to the in habitants of Picentia, but was given to the inhabitants of the whole coast of the Sinus Paestanus, from the Promon torium Minervae to the river Silarus. They were a portion ofthe Sabuie Picentes, who were transplanted by the Ro mans to this part of Campania after the conquest of Pice num, B. c. 268, at which time they founded Picentia. 48. The Sirenusae, soil, insulae, calledby Virgil (Aen. V. 864) Sirenura Scopuli, were three small uninhabited and rocky islands off the coast, near the S. side of the Prom. Misenum, and were, according to tradition, the abode ofthe Sirens. O. — Samnium. 1. Samnium, in the centre of Italy, was bounded on its fate under the Eomans ? 43. Por what is Nola noted in more recent times? 44. Where was Abella, and celebrated for what ? 45. Where was Nuceria, and how noted in history ? 46. Whero was Picentia, and what happened to its inhab itants? 47. To whom was the name of Picentini extended? 48. Where and what were the Sirenusae ? ITALIA. 149 the N. by the Marsi, Peligni, and Marrucini, on the W. by Latium and Campania, on the S. by Lucania, and on the E. hy the Frentani and Apulia. 2. The Samnites, Samnites, more rarely Samnitae, caUed by the Greeks SaDnrat, were an offshoot of the Sabini, who emigrated from their country between the Nar, Tiber, and the Anio, before the foundation of Rome, and settled in the country afterwards called Samnium. The Samnites were distinguished for their bravery and love of freedom, and when they came into coUision with Rome, the Romans found them the most warlike and formidable enemies whom they had yet encountered in Italy ; and the war, which commenced in 343, was continued, with few in terruptions, for the space of 63 years. It was not tUl 290 B. c, when aU their bravest troops had fallen, and their country had been repeatedly ravaged in every direction by the Roman legions, that the Samnites sued for peace and submitted to the supremacy of Rome. They never, how ever, lost their love of Uberty ; and accordingly they not only joined the other Italian allies in the war against Rome (90), but, even after the other aUies had submitted, they BtiU continued in arms. The civU war between Marius and SuUa gave them hopes of recovering their independence ; but they were defeated by SuUa before the gates of Rome (82), the greater part of their troops fell in battle, and the remainder were put to death. Their towns were laid waste, the inhabitants sold as slaves, and their place suppUed by Roman colonists. 3. The greater part of Samnium is occupied by a huge mass of mountains, called at the present day the Matese, which stands out from the central Une of the Apennines. The circumference of the Matese is between 70 and 80 miles, and its greatest height is 6,000 feet. 4. The two most important tribes of the Samnites were the Caudini and the Pentri. Besides these two chief tribes, we find mention of the Caraceni, who dwelt N. of the Pentri, and ofthe Hu-pini, who dwelt S. E. ofthe Caudini. CITIES OP SAMNIUM. 6. The chief cities of the Caudini were Caudium, Beneventum, Allifae, and Telesia. 1. How was Samnium bounded? 2. "What were the Samnites, and what were their relations to Eome? 3. What was tho nature of the country? 4. "Which ¦were the most important Samnite tribes, and what other tribes were there? 6. 150 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 6, Caudium was on the road from Capua to Beneven tum. In the neighborhood were the celebrated F u r c u 1 a e Caudinae, or Caudine Forks, narrow passes in the mountains, where the Roman army surrendered to the Samnites, and was sent under the yoke, b. c. 321 : it is now called the valley of Arpaia. 7. Beneventum, now Benevento, on the Via Appia, at the junction of the two vaUeys through which the Sa batus and Calor flow, was formerly called Maleventum, on account, it is said, of its bad air. It was one ofthe most an cient towns in Italy, having been founded, according to tradi tion, by Diomede. It was taken by the Romans, who sent a colony thither in b. c. 268, and changed its name of Male ventum into Beneventum. It was colonized a second time by Augustus, and was hence caUed Colonia Julia Concordia Augusta Felix. The modern town has several Roman remains, among others a triumphal arch of Trajan. 8. Allifae or Alifae, now Allife, on the Vulturnus, in a fertUe country, was celebrated for the manufacture of its large drinking cups. 9. Telesia, now Telese, on the road from Allifae to Beneventum, was taken by Hannibal in the 2d Punic war, and afterwards retaken by the Romans. It was the birth place of C. Pontius, hence caUed Telesinus, who fought against SuUa. 10. The principal towns of the Pentri were Aesernia, Bovianum, and Sepinum, of which the first, now Isernia, was made a Roman colony in the 1st Punic war. 11. Their chief town was Bovianum, now -So/areo,- it was taken by the Romans in the Samnite wars, and was colonized by Augustus with veterans. 12. The Hirpini, whose name is said to come from the Sabine word hirpus, " a wolf," dwelt in the S. of Sam^ nium, between Apulia, Lucania, and Campania. Their chief town was Aeculanum. THE PEENTANI. 13. The Frentani, also a Samnite people, inhabited a fertile and well-watered country on the coast of the "Which were the cities of the Caudini? 6. Where was Caudium, and what noted place in the neighborhood ? 7. Where was Beneventum, and what was the origin of its namo? 8. "Where was Allifae, and for what celebrated ? 9. "Where was Telesia, and for what noted? 10. Name the principal to^yns of the Pentri. 11. Which was their capital city ? 12. The Hirpini dwelt where, whence is their name derived, and what was their chief town? 13. Where did tho Frentani ITALIA. 151 Adriatic, from the river Sagrus on the N., subsequently as far N. as the Aternus, to the river Frento on the S., from the latter of which rivers they derived their name. They were bounded by the Marrucini on the N., by the Peligni and by Samnium on the W., and by Apulia on the S. They submitted to the Romans in b. c. 304, and con cluded a peace with the repubUc. 14. Larinum, now Larino, was a town of the Fren tani, (whence the inhabitants are sometimes called Fren tani Larinates,) on the river Tifernus, Biferno, aud near the borders of Apulia, subsequently a Roman municipium : it possessed a considerable territory extending down to the Adriatic Sea. The town of Cliternia on the coast was sub ject to Larinum. Some writers reckon Larinum among the cities of ApuUa. S.—Ijower Italy. A. — Apulia. Daunia, Peuceha and Iapygia, oe Messapia. 1. Apulia included, in its widest signification, the whole of the S. E. of Italy from the river Frento to the promon tory lapygium, and was bounded on the N. by the Frentani, on the E. by the Adriatic, on the S. by the Sinus Tarenti nus, and on the W. by Samnium and Lucania, thus includ ing the modern provinces of Bari, Otranto, and Capitanata in the kingdom of Naples. 2. ApuUa in its narrower sense was the country E. of Samnium on both sides of the Aufidus, (now the Ofanto,) the Daunia and Peucetia of the Greeks : the whole of the S. E. was called Calabria by the Romans. 3. The Greeks gave the name of Daunia to the N. part of the country from the Frento, Fortore, to the Aufidus, of Peucetia to the country from the Aufidus to Tarentum and Brundusium, and of lapygia or Messapia to the whole ofthe remaining S. part : though they sometimes included under lapygia all ApuUa in its widest meaning. 4. The N. W. of Apulia is a plain, but the S. part is dwell? Their name whence derived? 14. "What city of importance had the Fren tani, and where ? 1. Apulia, in its wider sense, included what, and was how bounded ? 2. "What ¦was Apulia in its narrower sense 1 3. To what parts did the Greeks apply the names of Daunia, Peucetia, and lapygia or Messapia? 4. What is tho face of the 152 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. traversed by the E. branch of the Apennines, and has only a small tract of land on the coast on each side of the moun tains. The country was very fertile, especially in the neighborhood of Tarentum, and the mountains afforded excellent pasturage. 5. The population, which was of a mixed nature, were for the most part of Illyrian origin, and are said to have settled in the country under the guidance of lapyx, Dau- nius, and Peucetius, three sons of an Illyrian king, Lycaon. Subsequently many towns were founded by Greek colonists. The Apulians joined the Samnites against the Romans, and became subject to the latter on the conquest of the Sam nites. CITIES OP APULIA. 6. Teanum Apulum, near Ponte Rotto, so called to distinguish it from T. Sidicinum, was on the river Frento, and on the confines ofthe Frentani, 18 mUes fi-om Larinum. 7. The lake which Strabo speaks of as being near Teanum, but without mentioning its name, is called by Pliny Lacus Pontanus, now Lago di Lesina. 8. The Diomedeae Insulae were five small islands in the Adriatic sea, N. of the promontory Garganum, named after Diomedes. The largest of these, called Dio- medea Insula or Trimetus, now 2Ve»^^7^, was the place where the infamous Julia, the granddaughter of Augustus, died. CITIES IN DAUNIA. 9. Sipontum or Sipuntum, called by the Greeks Si pus, now Siponto, was an ancient town in the district of Daunia, on the slope of Mt. Garganus, and on the coast. It is said to have been founded by Diomedes, and was of Greek origin. 10. The inhabitants were removed from this town by King Manfred in the 13th century, in consequence of the unhealthy nature of the locality, and were settled in the neighboring town of Manfredonia, founded by this monarch. 11. Lticeria, sometimes called Niiceria, now Lucera, on the borders of Samnium, S. W. of Arpi, was situated on a steep hill, and possessed an ancient temple of Minerva. countiy and the nature of the soil? 5. -What was the origin of tho population ? 0. Where was Teanum Apulum, and why eo called ? 7. What lake was near Teanum ? 8. What islands were off the coast, to tho N. and N. E. of this lake ? 9. "Where was Sipontum, and founded by whom? 10. What befell this town in later times ? 11, Where was Luceria, how situated, possessing what ? 12. What ITALIA. 153 12. In the war between Rome aud Samnium, it was first taken by the Samnites, (b. c. 321,) and next by the Romans, (319;) but having revolted to the Samnites in 314, all the inhabitants were massacred by the Romans, and their place suppUed by 2,500 Roman colonists In the time of Augustus it had greatly declined in prosperity; but it was still of sufficient importance in the 3d century to be the residence ofthe praetor of Apulia. 13. Arpi, the ruins of which still retain the ancient name, was an inland to"wn in Daunia, founded, according to tradition, by Diomedes, who caUed it 'Apyos hnnov, from ¦ffhich its later names of Argy7-ippa or Argyripa and Arpi are said to have arisen, (lUe \Diomedes'\ urbem Argyripam, patriae cognomine gentis, Virg. Aen. XL 246.) 14. Salapia, an ancient town in the district of Daunia, was situated S. of Sipontum and on a lake named after it. According to the common tradition it was founded by Dio medes, though others ascribe its foundation to the Rhodian Elpias. 15. The original site of Salapia was at some distance from the coast ; but in consequence of the unhealthy exha lations aiising from the lake above mentioned, the inhabit ants removed to a new town on the sea-coast, which was bmlt by the praetor, M. Hostilius, Avith the approbation of the Roman senate, about b. c. 200. This new town served as the harbor of Arpi. The ruins of the ancient town still exist at some distance from the coast at the village of Salpi. 16. Herdonia, to the S. E. of Luceria, and now Or- dona, was destroyed by Hannibal, who removed its in habitants to Thuru and Metapontum ; it was rebuilt by the Eomans, but remained a place of no importance. 17. Asciilum Apulum, so called to distinguish it from Asculum Picenum, and now Ascoli di Satriano, was on the confines of Samnium, S. W. of Herdonia. Near it the Romans were defeated by Pyrrhus, b. c. 279. 18. Veniisia, now Venosa, an ancient town S. of the river Aufidus, and near Mt. Vultur, was situated in a ro mantic country, and memorable as the birthplace of the poet Horace. It was originally a town of the Hirpini in befell it in the Samnite war ? 13. Where was Arpi, founded by whom, and what the origin of its name? 14. "Where was Salapia, and by whom founded? 15. AVhat change was made in its location ? 16. Where was Herdonia, and what be came cf it? 17. WTiere was Asculum Apulum, why so called, and for what noted ? 18. Whore was -Venusia— the birth-place of whom— how noted in history ! 154 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. Samnium, and after its original Sabellian inhabitants had been driven out by the Romans, it was colonized by the latter, b. c. 291, and formed an important military station. Here the remnants of the Roman army took refuge after the fatal battle of Cannae, 216. 19. At no great distance from it were : — 1. Forentum, now Forenza. 2. Bantia, now Banzi or Vanzi. 3. Acherontia, now Acerenza, all which are mentioned by Horace, who speaks of the latter as celsae nidum Acheron,- tiae. 20. Cantisium, ruins of which are stiU seen at Canosa, on the Aufidus, and on the high road from Rome to Brun dusium, founded, according to tradition, by Diomedes, whence the surrounding country was caUed Campus Dio- medis. It was at aU events a Greek colony, and both Greek and Oscan were spoken there in the time of Horace, ( Canusini more bilinguis. Sat. L 10, 30.) 21. Canusium was a town of considerable importance, but suffered greatly, like most of the other towns in the S. of Italy, during the 2d Punic war. Here, as well as at Venusia, the remains of the Roman army took refuge after their defeat at Cannae, 216 b. c. It was celebrated for its mules and its woollen manufactures, but it had a deficient supply of water, (Hor. Sat. I. 5, 91.) 22. Cannae, the site of which is now called Canne, was N. E. of Canusium, situated in an extensive plain E. of the Aufidus and N. of the small river Vergellus, and is memorable for the defeat of the Romans by Hannibal, B. c. 216. TO-WNS IN PEUCETIA. 23. Barium, now Bari, in Peucetia, was on the Adri atic : it was celebrated for its fisheries, whence Horace calls it Barium piscosum, (Sat. I. 5, 97.) 24. Egnatia, now Torre d'Anazzo, also on the coast, S. E. of Barium, is called Gnatia by Horace, (Sat. I. 6, 97,) who speaks of it as Lymphis iratis exstructa, probably on account of its bad, or deficient supply of water. 25. It was celebrated for its miraculous stone or altar, which of itself set on fire frankincense and wood ; a prodigy 19. What throe towns near it ? 20. Where was Canusium, said to have been founded by whom ? Hence surrounding country how called ? How referred to bv Horace ? 21. How is it noted in history, and for what was it celebrated ? 22. "Where was Cannae, memorable for what ? 23. Where was Barium, celebrated for what ? 24. Whero was Egnatia, how called and described by Horace ? 26. Por ITALIA. 165 which afforded amusement to Horace and his friends, who looked upon it as a mere trick, (Sat. I. 5, 97-99.) 26. Egnatia owed its chief importance to being situated on the great high road from Rome to Brundusium. This road reached the sea at Egnatia, and from this town to Brundusium it bore the name of the Via Egnatia. The continuation of this road on the other side of the Adriatic from Dyrrhachium to Byzantium also bore the name of the Via Egnatia. It was the great mUitary road between Italy and the E. Commencing at Dyrrhachium, it passed by Lychnidus, Heraclea, Lyncestis, Edessa, Thessalonica, Am- phipoUs, PhiUppi, and traversing the whole of Thrace, finally reached Byzantium. 27. Rubi, now Ruvo, on the road just described, be tween Canusium and Brundusium, is to be noted only be cause it occurs in Horace's account of his journey to Brun dusium. 28. Rudiae, now Rotigliano or Ruge, on the road from Brundusium to Venusia, was originaUy a Greek colony, and afterwards a Roman municipium. It is celebrated as the birthplace of Ennius. This city was in the territory of the Poediculi. TOWNS IN MESSAPIA OE IAPYGIA. 29. Although the Greeks gave to the heel or whole southern peninsula of Italy the name of Messapia or lapygia, this was again subdivided into Calabria on the eastern, and Messapia on the western coast ; the eastern coast being in habited by the Calabri, whUe the Sallentini or Salentini dwelt around the promontory lapygium, which is hence called Salentinum or Salentina. It is difiScult to distinguish, and to assign exact Umits to these two people. 30. Brundusium or Brundisium, called by the Greeks Bpen-^o-iov or Bpei/reo-ioi', now Brindisi, a town of the Calabri, was on a smaU bay on the Adriatic, forming an exceUent harbor, to which the place owed its importance. The Via Appia terminated at Brundusium, and it was the usual place of embarkation for Greece and the East. 31. It was an ancient town, and probably not of Greek origin, although its foundation is ascribed by some writers to the Cretans, and by others to Diomedes. It was at first ¦what was it celebrated ? 26. To what did Egnatia chiefly one its importance ? 27. -Where was Rubi, and why noted ? 28. Where was Eudiae, and for what noted? 29. How was Messapia or lapygia divided, and by whom inhabited? 30. Where was Brundusium, and what made it important? 31. "What is said of 166 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. governed by kings of its own, but was conquered and col onized by the Romans b. c. 245. 32. The poet Paouvius was born in this town, and VirgU died here on his return from Greece, b. c. 19. At this place also terminated the journey of which Horace gives a very humorous account in the Fifth Satire of the First Book of his Satires. 33. Hydriis or Hydruntum, now Otranto, one of the most ancient towns of Calabria, was situated on the S. E. coast, and near a mountain Hydrus. It had a good harbor, and was in later times a municipiun). It was directly opposite, and only 50 mUes from the Acrocerau- nium promontorium, and persons fi-equently crossed over to Epirus from this port. 34. Uria, now Oria, called Hyria by Herodotus, on the_ road from Brundisium to Tarentum, was the ancient capital of lapygia, and is said to have been founded by the Cretans under Minos. 35. Leuca, (to Aev/ca,) was at the extremity ofthe lapygian promontory, which is stUl caUed Capo di Leuca. It is noted for a stinking fountain, under which the giants who were vanquished by Hercules are said to have been buried, thus giving rise to the stench which fiUed the whole neighborhood. 36. Manduria, now Casal Nuovo, was on the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, and near a small lake, which is said to have been always fuU to the edge, what ever water was added to or taken from it. Here Archidamus IIL, king of Sparta, was defeated and slain in battle by the Messapians and Lucanians, b. c. 338. 37. Tarentum, called by the Greeks Tapas, (-avTos,) now Taranto, an important Greek city, was situated on the W. coast of the peninsula of Calabria, and on a bay of the sea, about 12 miles in circuit, forming an exceUent harbor, and being a portion of the Sinus Tarentinus. The city stood ui the midst of a beautiful and fertile country, S. of Mt. Anion and W. ofthe mouth of the Galaesus, or Galesus, now Galeso. It was originally buUt by the laj^ygians, who are said to have been joined by some Cretan colonists from its origin and its government ? 32. "Who was bom, and who died here, and what poem renders this place famous? 33. Whero was Hydrus or Hydruntum? 34. Where was Uria, what was it, and said to have been founded by whom ? 35. "Where was Leuca, and for what legend is it noted ? 36. "Where was Man duria, what remarkable lake in its vicinity, the city how noted in history ? 37. Where was Tarentum, originally built by whom, deriving its name from whom ? ITALIA. 157 the neighboring town of Uria, and it derived its name from the mythical Taras, a son of Poseidon. 38. The greatness of Tarentum, however, dates from B. c, 70S, when the original inhabitants were expelled, and the town was taken possession of by a strong body of Lacedaemonian Partheniae under the guidance of Phalan- thus. It soon became the most powerful and flourishing city in the whole of Magna Graecia, and exercised a kind of supremacy over the other Greek cities in Italy. It car ried on an extensive commerce, possessed a considerable fleet of ships of war, and was able to bring into the field, with the assistance of its allies, an army of 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse. The city itself, in its most flourishing period, contamed 22,000 men capable of bearing arms. 39. The government of Tarentum was different at various periods. In the time of Darius Hystaspes, Herod otus speaks of a king (rupawos) of Tai-entum : but at a later period the government was a democracy. Archytas, who was born at Tarentum, and who lived about b. c. 400, drew up a code of laws for his native city. 40. With the iocrease of wealth the citizens became luxurious and effeminate, and being hard pressed by the Lu canians and other barbarians in the neighborhood, they -VTere obUged to apply for aid to the mother country. Archi damus, son of AgesUaus, was the first who came to their assistance, in b. c. 338, and he feU in battle fighting on their behalf. The next prince whom they invited to succor them was Alexander, king of Epirus, and uncle to -Alexander the Great. At first he met -\vith considerable success, but was eventuaUy defeated and slain by tho Bruttii in 326, near Pandosia on the banks of the Acheron. 41. Shortly afterwards the Tarentines had to encounter a BtUl more formidable enemy. Having attacked some Ro man ships, and then grossly insulted the Roman ambassa dors who had been sent to demand reparation, war was declared against the city by the powerful republic. The Tarentines were saved for a time by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who came to their help in 281 ; but two years after the defeat of this monarch and his withdrawal from Italy, the city was taken by the Romans, (272.) 38. From what year and event does the greatness of Tarentum date, the city be coming what? 39. What was tho govei-nment of Tarentum? 40. What change did tho character of the Tarentines undergo, and what results grew ont of it ? 41. "What more formidable enemy did the Tarentines next encounter, who saved 168 ancient GEOGEAPHY. 42. In the second Punic war Tarentum revolted from Rome to Hannibal, (212;) but it was retaken by the Ro mans in 207, and was treated by them with great severity. From this time Tarentum declined in wealth and prosperity. It was subsequently made a Roman colony, and it stUl con tinued to be a place of considerable importance in the time of Augustus. Its inhabitants retained their love of luxury and ease ; and it is described by Horace as Molle Tarentum, and imbelle Tarentum. 43. The town of Tarentum consisted of two parts, viz., of a peninsula or island at the entrance of the harbor, and pf a town on the main land, which was connected with the island by means of a bridge. On the N. W. corner of the island, close to the entrance of the harbor, was the citadel ; the principal part of the town was situated S. W. of the isthmus. The modern town is confined to the island or peninsula on which the citadal stood. Even after the down fall of the Western Empire the Greek language was stUl spoken at Tarentum. 44.^ The neighborhood of Tarentum produced the best wool in all Italy, and was also celebrated for its excellent wine, figs, pears, and other fruits. Its purple dye was also much valued in antiquity. 45. Near Tarentum-Tvas a fertUe vaUey, called Anion, now Melone, celebrated for its -vvine, (amicus Aulonfertili Baccho: Hor. Carm. H. 6, 18.) Near this city was also 46. Sattirium or Satureium, now Saturio, a town celebrated for its horses. (Hor. Sat. I. 6, 59.) B. — Iiucama. 1. Lucania was bounded on the N. W. by Campania, or more particularly, by the territory of the Picentini : on the N. by Samnium : on the N. E. by Apulia : on the S. E. by the Sinus Tarentinus : on the S. by Bruttium : on the W. and S. W. by the Mare Tyrrhenum or Inferum ; thus cor responding for the most part to the modern pro"vinces of Principato, Citeriore, and Basilicata in the kingdom of Naples. It was separated from Campania by the river SUa rus, and from Bruttium by the river Laus, now the Lao, and them, and what was the final event ? 42. What was the conduct of Tarentum in the 2d Punic war, and what its subsequent fate ? 43. Of what parts did the town of T. consist — whero was the citadel, where the principal part ofthe town : the modern town confined to what? 44. The neighborhood of Tarentum produced what, and was also celebrated for what ? 45. W"hat valley ^for what noted, was near Tarentum ? 46. "What to^wn, noted for what, was near Tarentum ? ITALIA. 159 it extended along the gulf of Tarentum from Thurii to Metapontum. 2. The country is mountainous, as the Apennines run through the greater part of it ; but towards the gulf of Ta rentum there is an extensive and fertile plain. Lucania was celebrated for its exceUent pastures, (Hor.Epod. I. 28 ;) and its oxen were the finest and largest in Italy. Hence the ele phant was at first caUed by the Eomans a Lucanian ox, (Lu cas hos) The swine also were very good ; and a pecuUar kind of sausages were celebrated at Rome under the name of Lucanica. 3. The coastof Lucania was inhabited chiefly by Greeks, whose cities were numerous and flourishing. The interior of the country was originally inhabited by the Chones and Oenotrians. The.Lucanians proper were Samnites or Sabel- lians, a brave and warlike race, who left their mother-coun try and settled both in Lucania and Bruttium. They not only expeUed or subdued the Oenotrians, but they gradu ally acquired possession of most of the Greek cities on the coast. They were subdued by the Romans after Pyrrhus had left Italy. Before the 2d Punic war their forces con sisted of 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse, but in the course of this war their country was repeatedly laid waste, and never recovered its former prosperity. CITIES OP LUCANIA. 4. Metapontium, called Metapontum by the Eo mans, M.era'KovTiov by the Greeks, and of which consider able remains are still to be seen near Torre di Mare, was a celebrated Greek city on the Sinus Tarent., and on the E. coast of Lucania : it is said to have been originally called Metabum. There were various traditions respecting its foundation, aU of which point to its high antiquity, but from "which we cannot gather any certain information on the subject. 5. It is said to have been destroyed by the Samnites, aaid to have been repeopled by a colony of Acbaeans, who had been invited for that purpose by the inhabitants of Sy baris. Hence it is called by Livy an Achaean town, and is regarded by some writers as a colony from Sybaris. 1. How was' Lucania bounded? 2. What is the face of the country, and for what was Lucania celebrated? 3. By what people was Lucaniainhabited, and what were the Lucanians proper? 4. Where was Metapontum, originally how called, what account have we of its origin? 6. Who destroyed, and who repeopled it, 160 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 6. It fell into the hands of the Romans in the war against Pyrrhus ; but it revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae. From the time of the second Punic war it disap pears from history, and was in ruins in the time of Pausar nias. 7. Pythagoras was held in particular estimation among the Metapontini, in whose city he is said to have resided for many years. After his death the house which he had inhab ited was converted into a temple of Ceres. 8. Heraclea, on the river Siris, is noted chiefly for the first defeat sustained by the Romans in the war with Pyr rhus, the adjoining plain affording the level ground which that monarch required for his hea-ry phalanxes and ele phants, (b. c. 200.) 9. Sybaris was situated between the rivers Sybaris ( Coscile) and Crathis, ( Crati) at a short distance from the Tarentine gulf, and near the confines of Bruttium. It was founded b. c. 720, by Acbaeans and Troezenians, and soon attained an extraordinary degree of prosperity and wealth. It carried on an extensive commerce with Asia Minor and other countries on the Mediterranean, and its inhabitants became so notorious for luxury and pleasure, that their name was employed to indicate any voluptuary. 10. At the time of their highest prosperity their city was 50 stadia, upwards of 6 miles, in circumference, and they exercised dominion over twenty-five towns, so that we are told they were able to bring into the field 300,000 men, a number, however, quite incredible. 11. But their prosperity was of short duration. The Acbaeans having expelled the Troezenian part of the popu lation, the latter took refuge at the neighboring city of Cro- ton, the inhabitants of which espoused their cause. In the war which ensued between the two states, the Sybarites were completely conquered by the Crotoniates, who fol lowed up their victory by the capture of Sybaris, which they destroyed by turning the waters of the river Crathis against the to"wn, b. c. 510. The greater number of the surviving Sybarites took refuge in other Greek cities in Italy; but a few remained near their ancient town, and whence how called, by whom ? 6. "When did it fall into the hands of the Romans, and what was its subsequent fate? 7. "What celebrated philosopher resided here ? 8. Where was Heraclea, noted chiefly for what ? 9. Where was Sybaris, founded when and by whom, — what were the pursuits, and the character of tho inhabitants? 10. What was tho extent of the city, and of the dominion un der it ? 11. What brought this prosperity to a termination, and what became rrALiA. 161 their descendants formed part of the population of Thuru, ¦ffhich was founded in 443, near Sybaris. 12. Eighty-seven years after the destruction of Sybaris, and near its ancient site, Thurii was built by the remains of the population of Sybaris assisted by colonists from all parts of Greece, but especially from Athens. Among these colonists were the historian Herodotus and the orator Ly- sias, the latter of whom, however, was only a youth at the time and subsequently returned to Athens. 13. Tho new city, (on the site of which is Terra Nuova) from which the remains of the Sybarites were soon expel led, rapidly attained great power and prosperity, and be came one of the most important Greek towns in the S. of , Italy. In the Samnite wars Thurii received a Roman gar rison; but it revolted to Hannibal in the second Punic "war. The Romans subsequently planted a colony here, and changed the name of the city into Copiae ; but it con tinued to retain its original name, under which it is men tioned by Caesar in the civU war as a municipium. 14. Paestum, originaUy caUed Posidonia, (lloa-eiSmi/ta,) was situated between 4 and 5 miles S. E. of the mouth of the Silarus, and near the bay which derived its name, Sinus Paestanus, from the town. Its origin is uncertain, hut it was probably in existence before it was colonized by the Sybarites, about 524 b. c. 15. It soon became a powerful and flourishing city; but after its capture by the Lucanians, (between 438 and 424,) it graduaUy lost the characteristics of a Greek city, and its inhabitants at length ceased to speak the Greek language. Its ancient name of Posidonia was probably changed into that of Paestum at this time. 16_. Under the supremacy of the Romans, who founded a Latin colony at Paestum about b. c. 273, the to"wn grad ually sank in importance ; andin the time of Augustus it is mentioned only on account of the beautiful roses grown in its neighborhood. 17. The ruins of Paestum are striking and magnificent. They consist of remains of waUs, of an amphitheatre, of two fine temples, and of another building. The two ofthe city and its inhabitants? 12. By whom was Thurii built and where? 13. "Sat did the new city become, and what was its subsequent fate ? 14. Paestum, onginally how called, was where situated, and what is known of its origin ? 15. It Boon became what, subsequently undergoing what change ? 16. What became 01. it under the supremacy of the Eomans ? 17. What evidences of its former 162 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. temples are in the Doric style, and are some of the most remarkable ruins of antiquity. 18. Velia or Elea, also called Hyele, ('YeXi?;) the different forms are owing to the word having originaUy the Aeolic digamma, which the Romans changed into V: the ruins are quite near CctsteW a Mare della Brucca ; a Greek town on the W. coast between Paestum and Buxen- tum, was founded by the Phocaeans Avho had abandoned their native city Phocaea, in Asia Minor, to escape from the Persian sovereignty, about b. c. 543. It was situated about three mUes E. of the river Hales, and possessed a good harbor. 19. Elea is celebrated as the birthplace of the philoso phers Parmenides and Zeno, who founded a school of phUosophy usually known under the name of the Eleatic. It possessed a celebrated temple of Demeter or Ceres. Cicero, who resided at Velia at one time, frequently men tions it in his correspondence, and it appears to have been accounted a healthy place, (Hor. Ep. L 15, 1.) In the time of Strabo it had ceased to be a place of importance. 20. Laus, a Greek city near the mouth of the river Laus, now Lao, which formed the boundary between Lu cania and Bruttium. It was founded by the Sybarites after their own city had been taken by the inhaMants of Croton, B. c. 610, but it had disappeared in the time of PUny. The gulf into which the river Laus flowed was called the Laus Sinus, now the Gulf of Policastro. 21. Grumentum, now II Palazzo,neav Saponara, in the interior, on the road from Beneventum to Heraclea, is frequently mentioned in connection with the 2d Punic war. 22. The river Silarus, now the Silaro, forming the boundary between Lucania and Campania, rises in the Apennines, and after receiving the Tanager, (Negri) and Calor, ( Galore) falls into the Sinus Paestanus a little to the N. of Paestum. Its water is said to have petrified plants. C. — Bruttium. 1. Bruttium, Bruttius, and Bruttiorum Ager, (Bperna,) more usually called Bruttii after the inhabit- magniflcence are still extant ? 18. -Where was "Veha, and founded by whom ? 19. Por what is Elea celebrated ? 20. Where -H-as Laus, and founded by whom ? 21. Whero was Grumentum, and how noted ? 22. Where was the river SUarus, formin g what, possessing wh at property ? 1. Where was Bruttium, how bounded, in ancient times how called ? 2. What ITALIA. 163 ants, the S. extremity of Italy, separated from Lucania by a Une di'awn from the mouth of the Laus to Thurii, and surrounded on the other three sides by tho sea. It was the country called in ancient times Oenotria and Italia. 2. The country is mountainous, as the Apennines run through it down to the Fretum Siculum : it afforded ex cellent pasturage for cattle, and the vaUeys produced good corn, olives, and fruit. 3. The earliest inhabitants of the country were Oeno trians. Subsequently some Lucanians, who had revolted from their countrymen in Lucania, (some say they were slaves,) took possession of the country, and were hence called Bruttii or Brettii, which word is said to mean " reb els" in the language ofthe Lucanians. This people, how ever, mhabited, at first, only the interior of the land; the eoast was almost entirely in the possession of the Greek colonies. But even these, "with the exception of Rhegium, Croton, and Locri, were all afterwards reduced to sub jection by those hardy savages. 4. At the close of the 2d Punic war, in which the Bruttii had been the alUes of Hannibal, they lost their in dependence and were treated by the Romans with great severity. They were declared to be public slaves, and were employed as Uctors, couriers, and letter-carriers. EIVEES IN BEUTTIUM. 5. The rivers of Bruttium are all smaU coast-streams. The most important are, 1, the Aesarus, Esaro, and the Sagras, now Alaro. On the coast of Bruttium, between that country and Sicily, opposite and very near each other, were the two celebrated rocks, Scylla and tharybdis In the one on the coast of Italy there was a cave, in which dwelt Scylla a daughter of Crataeis, a fearful monster, barking like a dog, with 12 feet aud 6 long necks and heads, each of which contained 3 rows of sharp teeth. The opposite rock, which was much lower, con tained an immense fig-tree, under which dwelt Charybdis, who thrice every day swallowed down the waters of the sea, and thrice threw them lip again : both were formidable to the ships which had to pass between them. This is the Homeric account. A variety of different accounts is given by later tradition.'i. For Virgil's description, see Aen. III. 420 sqq bee also Ovid, Met. XIII. 730. The perils to navigators, arising from tnese contiguous rocks, have passed into a proverb. These perils were greatly exaggerated by the poets. Of the whirlpool, which was supposed ie the iiatnre of the country, and what were its productions? 3. -Who were the ewiiest mhabitants ; why called Bruttii, dwelling where? 4. What became of laem after the 2.1 Punic war ? 5. What rivers in BrutUum, bearing what modern 164 ANCIEN r GEOGEAPHY. to have given rise to the fable of Charybdis, there is now not the slight est trace, although on and around this rock, or perhaps rocks, the waters are greatly agitated ; and the only danger to sailors in passing Scylla arises from vessels being sometimes impelled towards the rock, in conse-. quence of the current and wind being in opposition. CITIES OP BEUinUM. 6. Crimisa or Crimissa, on the E. coast, on a prom ontory of the same name, and a little S. of the river Cri- misus, on the banks of Avhich Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians b. c. 339, is said to have been founded by PhUoctetes on his return from the siege of Troy, and here his tomb is said to have stood on the shore. 1. Petiilia or Petilia, the site of which is now occupied by Strongoli, on the E. coast, was also founded accordmg to tradition, by PhUoctetes. It was situated N. of Croton, to whose territory it originaUy belonged ; but it was afterwards conquered by the Lucanians. _ 8. It remained faithful to the Romans, when the other cities of Bruttium revolted to Hannibal, and it was not tiU after a long and desperate resistance that it was taken by one of Hannibal's generals. It was repeopled by Hannibal with Bruttians, but the Romans subsequently collected the remains of the former population, and put them again in possession ofthe to"wn. 9. Croton or Crotona, a Greek city on the E. coast, on the river Aesarus, (Esaro) and in a very healthy local ity, was founded by the Acbaeans under Myscellus of Aegae, assisted by the Spartans, b. c. 710. Its extensive commerce, the virtue of its inhabitants, and the excellence pf its institutions, made it the most powerful and flourish ing town in the S. of Italy. 10. It owed much of its greatness to Pythagoras, who established his school here. Gymnastics were cultivated here in greater perfection than in any other Greek city, and one of its citizens, Milo, was the most celebrated Ath lete in Greece. 11. It attained its greatest power by the destruction of Sybaris in 610 ; but it subsequently declined in conse quence of the severe defeat it sustained from the Locrians on the river , Sagras, (Alaro) It suffered greatly in the wars with Dionysius, Agathocles, and Pyrrhus ; and in the names ? 6. Whero was Crimisa, founded by whom ? 7."Where waa Petilia, by whom founded, belonging to whose territory ? 8. What was its conduct and fate in the 2d Punic war and afterwards ? 9. Where and what was Croton, how situated, by whom founded ? 10. To what cause did it owe much of its greatness ? 11. How did it ITALIA. 165 second Punic war a considerable part of it had ceased to be inhabited. It received a colony from the Romans in 195. 12. Scylacium, also Scylaceum or Scylletium, now Squillace, on the E. coast, was situated on two ad joining hiUs at a short distance from the coast, between the rivers Caecinus and Carcines. It is said to have been founded by the Athenians. It belonged to the territory of Croton, bnt was subsequently given by the elder Diony sius to the Locrians, and came eventuaUy into the posses sion of the Romans. 13. It had no harbor, whence Vu-gU (Aen. III. 553) speaks of it as navifragum Scylaceum. From this town the Scyllacius or Scylleticus Sinus (G. of Squillace) de rived its name. The isthmus which separates this bay from the Sinus Hipponiates on the W. coast was only 20 miles broad, and formed the ancient boundary of Oeno tria. 14. Caulon or Caulonia, N. E. of Locri, originaUy caUed Anion or Aulonia, was founded by the inhabitants of Croton or by the Acbaeans : it was destroyed by the elder Dionysius, who removed its inhabitants to Syracuse and gave its territory to Locri: afterwards rebuilt, but again destroyed in the war with Pyrrhus : rebuilt a third time and destroyed a third time in the second Punic war. It was celebrated for the worship of the Delphian Apollo. Its name is preserved in the hiU Caulone in the neighbor hood of Castel Vetere. 15. Locri, surnamed Epizephyrii, (on the site of the present Motta di Burzano,) one of the most ancient Greek cities in Lower Italy, was situnted in the S. E. of Bruttium, N. of the promontory of Zephyrium, from which it was said to have derived its surname Epizephyrii, though others suppose this name given to the place, simply because it lay to the W. of Greece. 16. It was founded by the Locrians from Greece, b. c. 683. Strabo expressly says that it was founded by the Ozolae, and not by the Opuntii, as most writers related ; hut this statement is not so probable as the common one. attain its greatest power, and what became of it afterwards ? 12. Where was Scylacium, founded by whom, possessed, successively, by whom ? 13. As a mari time city, what was its position, what derived its namo from it, what isthmus here? 14. VVherc was Caulon, founded by whom, dcstrwed how often, celebrated for what, its namo whero preserved? 16. Where was Locri, and whence was its Burnamo derived? 16. By whom was it founded? Tho inhabitants regarded 166 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. The inhabitants regarded themselves as descendants of Ajax Oileus ; and as he resided at the town of Naryx among the OpuntU, the poets gave the name oi Narycia to Locris, and called the founders of the town the Narycii Locri, (Virg. Aen. III. 399.) For the same reason the pitch of Bruttium is frequently called Narycia, (Virg. Georg. IL 438.) 17. Locri was celebrated for the excellence of its laws, "which, were drawn up by Zaleucus soon after the founda tion ofthe city. The town enjoyed great prosperity down to the time ofthe younger Dionysius, who resided here for some years after his expulsion from Syracuse, and commit ted the greatest atrocities against the inhabitants. It suf fered much in the wars against Pyrrhus and in the 2d Punic war. The Romans aUowed it to retain its freedom and its own constitution, which was democratical ; but it gradually lost its importance, and is rarely mentioned in later times. Near it was an ancient and wealthy temple of Proserpina. 18. Terina, now St. Eufemia, on the W. coast, gave name to the Sinus Terinaeus. It was a Greek city founded by Croton, and was originaUy a place of some importance. Hannibal destroyed it in the 2d Punic war. 19. Vibo, now Monteleone, the Roman form ofthe Greek name Hipponium, a Greek town situated on the S. W. coast, and on a gulf caUed after it Sinus Vibonen sis or Hipponiates. It is said to have been founded by the Locri Epizephyrii; but it was destroyed by the elder Dionysius, who transplanted its inhabitants to Syra cuse. 20. It was aftoHfvards restored ; and at a later time it fell into the hands of the Bruttii, together with the other Greek cities on this coast. It was taken by the Romans, who colonized it b. c. 194, and caUed it Vibo Valentia. Cicero speaks of it as a municipium ; and in the time of Augustus it was one of the most flourishing cities in the S. of Italy. 21. Rhogium, now iJe^'^'w, a celebrated Greek town on the coast, was situated on the Fretum Siculum, or the Straits which separate Italy and Sicily. The ancients de- tliemselves as whoso descendants ? 17. For what was Locri celebrated, what was its condition, its sutfering, and its final fate? 18. Where was Terina, giving name to what, founded by whom, and destroyed by whom ? 19. Where was Vibo, what called after it, founded by whom, and destroyed hy whom ? 20. What be came of it afterwards, and what name was given it ? 21. What and where was n-ALiA. 167 rived its name from pi^yvupi " to break," because it WcUS supposed that SicUy was at this place torn asunder from Italy- . . 22. Rhegium was founded about the beginning of the first Messenian war, b. c. 743, by Aeolian Chalcidians from Euboea and by Doric Messenians, who had quitted their native country on the commencement of hostilities between Sparta and Messenia. At the end of the 2d Messenian war, 668, a large body of Messenians, under the conduct of the Sons of Aristomenes, settled at Rhegium, which now be came a flourishing and important city, and extended its authority over several ofthe neighboring to-wns. 23. The government was an aristocracy, but in the beginning of the 5th century b. c, AnaxUiius, who was of a Messenian famUy, made himself tyrant of tbe place. In 494 this AnaxUaus conquered Zancle in SicUy, the name of which he changed into Messana. He ruled over the two cities, and ou his death in 476 he bequeathed his power to his sons. About ten years afterwards (466) his sons were driven out of Rhegium and Messana, and republican governments were established in both cities, which now became independent of one another. 24. At a later period Rhegium incurred the deadly enmity of Dionysius the elder in consequence of a personal insult which the inhabitants had offered him. It is said that when he asked the Rhegians to give him one of their maidens for his wife, they replied that they could only grant him the daughter of their pubUc executioner. Dionysius carried on war for a long time against the city, and after two or three unsuccessful attempts he at length took the place, which he treated with the greatest severity. Rhegium never recovered its former greatness, though it still continued to be a place of considerable iniportance. The younger Dionysius gave it the name of Phoebia ; but this name never came into general use, and was speedily forgotten. 25. The Rhegians having applied to Rome for assistance when Pyrrhus was in the S. of Italy, the Romans placed in the town a garrison of 4,000 soldiers who had been levied among the Latin colonies in Campania. These troops, seized the town in 279, killed or expeUed the male inhabit- Elegimn, its name derived from what ? 22. When and by whom was it founded jnd settled ? 23. "What was its government, and what changes did this undergo ? 24. How did it incur the enmity of Dionysius, with what consequences ? 25, 168 ancient GEOGEAPHY. ants, and took possession of their -wives and children. The Romans were too much engaged at the time with their war against Pyrrhus to take notice of this outrage ; but when Pyrrhus was driven out of Italy, they took signal vengeance upon these Campanians, and restored the sur viving Rhegians to their city. 26. Rhegium suffered greatly from an earthquake shortly before the breaking out of the Social war, 90 b. c. ; but its population was augmented by Augustus, who set tled here a number of veterans from his fleet, whence the town bears in Ptolemy the surname Julium. Rhegium was the place from which persons usually crossed over to Sicily, but the spot at which they embarked was caUed Column a Rhegina, (Torre di Caraflo) and was 100 stadia (about 12 miles) N. of the town. The Greek lan guage continued to be spoken at Rhegium till a very late time, and the town was subject to the Byzantine court long after the downfall of the Western empire. 27. Consentia, now Cosenza, chief town of the Bruttu, was on the river Crathis. Here Alaric died. South of this, to the Sicilian straits, a distance of 700 stadia, i. e. 87 mUes, extended the Si la Silva, a large forest princi pally of fir, celebrated for the excellent pitch which it yielded. 28. Mamertiiim, of uncertain site, was founded by a band of Samnites, who had left their mother country under the protection of Mamers or Mars, to seek a new home. The remaining towns of Bruttium it isnotnecessaryto notice. 29. Magna Graecia, or G. Major, was the name given to the districts in the S. of Italy, inhabited by the Greeks. This name was never used simply to indicate the S. of Italy : it was always confined to the Greek cities and their territories, and did not include the surrounding dis tricts, inhabited by the Italian tribes. It appears to have been applied chiefly to the cities on the Tarentine gulf, Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, Caulonia, Siris, (Heraclea,) Metapontum, Locri, and Rhegium ; but it also, included the Greek cities on the W. coast, such as Cumae and NeapoUs. Strabo extends the appellation even to the Greek cities of SicUy. The origin of the name is doubtful ; whether it was How did tho city fare in the wars of Pyrrhus ? 26. From what other calamity did Rhegium sufl'er, and who restored, in a measure, its importance? 27. What and where was Consentia, and who died here ? "what forest extends South of this? 28. Por what is llamortium noted ? 29. What is meant by Magna Graecia! ITALIA. 169 given to the Greek cities by the Italian tribes from their admu-ing the magnificence of these cities, or whether^ it was assumed by the inhabitants themselves out of vanity and ostentation, to show their superiority to the mother country. ; 4:.— The Islands of Italy. A. — Islands o£f the Coast of Etruiia. 1. The foUowing islands lay off the coast of Etruria : — 1. IJrgo or Gorgon, now Gorgona, N. of Eva. 2. Mae- naria, now Meloria. 3. Ilva or Aethalia, now Elba. 4. Planasia or Planaria, now Pianosa, to which Au gustus banished his grandson Agrippa Postumus. 5, Og\ksa,now Monte Cristo. 6. Capraria or Caprasia, now Capraja, between Populonia and the N. extremity of Corsica, inhabited only by wUd goats, whence its name. 7. Columbaria, now Palmarola. 8. Opposite the har bor of Cossa, the two smaU islands, Igilium, now Giglio, and Dianium or Artemisium, now Gianuti. 2. The only one of these islands which demands a more extended notice, is Ilva or Aethalia, in the Tuscan sea, opposite Populonia. Rva was early celebrated for its rich iron mines ; but by whom they were first discovered and worked is uncertain, as they are said to exhibit the marks of labors carried on for an incalculable time. It even seems to have been a popular beUef among the an cients, that the metaUic substance was constantly renewed. It is probable that the Phoenicians were the first to make known the mineral riches of this island, and that it was from them the Tyrrheni learnt to estimate its value. It is to the latter people that Cramer traces the name of Aetha lia ; smce it appears that Lemnos, which they once inhabit ed, bore, according to Polybius, the same appeUation in ancient times. E. — ^Islands off the Coast of Iiatium. 1. The islands offthe coast of Latium are : — 1. Palma- ria, now Paknaruola, Pontia, Sinonia, now Zannone, and Pandataria. 2. Pontia, now Powga,arocky island 1. "What islands lay off the coast of Etruria? 2. Por what is Ilva celebrated? 8 lYO ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. opposite Formiae, taken by the Romans from the Vol scians, and colonized b. c. 313, was used by the Romans as a place of banishment for state criminals. 3. To Panda taria, JuUa, the daughter of Augustus, was banished. It is now Vandotena or Vendutene. C — ^Islands off the Coast of Campania. - 1. The islands offthe coast of Campania were : Aena- ria, Prochyta, Nesis, and Capreae. 2. Aenaria, also caUed Pithecusa and Inarime, was a volcanic island at the entrance of the Bay of Naples ; under it the Roman poets represented Tiphoeus as lying. It is now called Ischia. 3. Prochyta, now Procida, near the promontory Misenum, is said to have been torn away by an earthquake either from this promontory or from the neighboring island of Aenaria. 4. Nesis, now Nisita, between Puteoli and NeapoUs, and opposite Mt. Pausilypus, was a favorite residence of some of the Roman nobles. 5. Capreae, now Capri, 9 mUes in circumference, at the S. entrance of the gulf of Puteoli, and 2j miles from the promontory of Minerva, from which the island had been separated by an earthquake. It is composed of cal careous rocks, which rise to two summits, the highest of which is between 1,600 and 1,700 feet above the sea. The scenery is beautiful, and the cUmate soft and genial. 6. According to tradition, it was originaUy inhabited by the Teleboae, but afterwards belonged to the inhabit ants of Neapolis, fi-om whom Augustus either purchased it or obtained it in exchange for the island of Pithecusa. 7. Here Tiberius lived the last ten years of his reign, in dulging in secret debauchery, and accessible only to his creatures. He erected many magnificent buildings on the island, the chief of which was the VUla Jovis, and the ruins of which are stiU to be seen. 1. What islands oS the coast of Latium ? 2. Por what was Pontia used by the Eomans ? 3. Por what is Pandataria noted ? 1. "What islands were off the coast of Campania ? 2. Aenaria, having what other names, was where— what legend connected with it ? 3. "Where was Pro chyta, and how remarkable ? 4. "Where and what was Nesis ? 5. Capreae, how large, where, composed of what, distinguished for what ? 6. To whom did it suc cessively belong ? 7. "What emperor lived here ? ITALIA. 171 D. — SiciHa. 1. Sicilia, Sicily, one of the largest islands in the Med iterranean Sea, was supposed by the ancients to be the same as the Homeric island Thrinacia, (®pivaKia) and it was, therefore, frequently caUed Thrinacia, Trinacia, or Trinacris, aname which' was believed to be derived from the triangular figure of the island. For the same reason the Roman poets caUed it Triquetra. Its more usual name came fi-om its later inhabitants, the SiceU, whence it was caUed Sicelia, (StKcXaQ which the Romans changed into Sicilia. As the Siceli also bore the name of Sicani, the island was also caUed Sicania. 2. Sicily is separated from Italy, or the W. coast of Bruttium, by a narrow channel called Fretum Siculum, sometimes simply Fretum, (nop5/x,ds,) and also Scyl laeum Fretum, of which the modern name is Faro di Messina. The sea on the E. and S. of the island was also caUedMare Siculum. The island itself is in the shape of a triangle. The N. and S. sides are about 175 mUes each in length, and the length of the E. side is about 115 mUes. 3. The N. W. point, the Prom. Lilybaeum, is about 90 miles from C. Bon on the coast of .Africa : the N. E. pomt. Prom. Pelorus, is about 3 mUes from the coast of Calabria in Italy ; and theS. E. point. Prom. Pachynus, is 60 mUes from the island of Malta. Prom. LUybaeum is now Cape Boeo or di Marsala : Pelorus, C. Faro : Pachy nus, €. Passaro. 4. SicUy formed origmaUy part of Italy, and was tom aM'ay from it by some volcanic eruption, as the ancients generally beUeved. 5. A range of mountains, which are a continuation of the Apennines, extends throughout the island from E. to W. The general name of this mountain-range was Ne- hrodes Montes, (Madonia,) of which there were several ofishoots known by different names. Of these the most important were the celebrated volcano, Aetna: Mons Eryx, now Santo Giuliano, in the extreme W., near 1. Sicilia was supposed to bo what, hence how called, its more usual name aerived from what ? 2. Sicily separated by what from Italy, surrounding sea how °j!™°i what tho shape and external dimensions of the island ? 3. What were the ¦ 'll vomontories, respectively how far from what other points ? 4. Sicily orig. mally formed what, and was separated by what ? 6. "What was the face of the country, name of the principal mountain-range, names of the most important 172 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. Drepanum; and the Her aei Montes in the S,, running down to the promontory Pachynus. 6. Aetna Mons, now Jlfo>ii5e G*i6eZZo, a volcanic moun tain in the N. E. of the island between Tauromehium and Catana, is said to have derived its name from Aetna, a SicUian nymph, a daughter of Uranus and Gaea, or of Briareus. Zeus buried under it Typhon or Enceladus; and in its interior Hephaestos, and the Cyclopes forged the thunderbolts for Zeus. 7. There were several eruptions of Mt. Aetna in anti quity. One occurred in b. c. 475, to which Aeschylus and Pindar probably aUude, and another in b. c. 425, which Thucydides says, (IH. 116,) was the third on record since the Greeks had settled in SicUy. The form of the mountain seems to have been much the same in antiquity as it is at present. Its base covers an area of nearly 90 mUes in cir cumference, and its highest point is 10,874 feet above the level of the sea. The circumference of the crater is va riously estimated from 2^ to 4 miles, and the depth from 600 to 300 feet. EIVEES. 8. A large number of rivers flow do"wn from the moun tains, but most of them are dry, or nearly so, in the sum mer. We can specify only the more important. Among these we name first the Acis, now Fiume di Jaci. Acis, son of Faunus and Symaethis, was beloved by the nymph Galatea : Polyphemus, the Cyclops, jealous of him, crushed him under a huge rock. His blood gushing forth from under the rock was changed by the nymph into the river Acis or Acinius, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, (Ovid, Met, XIH. 750, sqq,) 9. The Simaethus, now the Giaretta, on the E. coast, and at the foot of Mt. Aetna, formed the boundary between Leontini and Catana. 10. Near Leontini was the Terias, now the Guaror lunga. 11. The Anapus, now ^e Anapo, ov Flume di Sor- tino, flowed into the sea S. of Syracuse through the marshes of Lysimelia. mountains? 6. WhereisAetna, name derived from what, what legends connected with it ? 7. "What eruptions are mentioned by the ancients, and what is the form and height of the mountain, and tho circumference and depth of its crater! 8. What sort of rivers in Sicily ? What legend connected with fee Acis? 9. "Where was the Symaethus ? 10. "Where was the Terias ? 11. Where was the Anapus ? ITALIA. 173 12. The Cacyparis, now the Cassibili, also S. of Sy racuse. 13. The Helorus, now the Abisso, was on the Ji. coast, S. of Syracuse : at its mouth was the city of Hel 6- rum. 14. The Himera, now Fiume Salso, was one oi the principal rivers in the S. of the island : it was at one time the boundary between the territories of the Carthaginians and the Syracusans : it receives near Enna the water of a salt spring, and hence has salt water as far as its mouth : hence also its modem name. 15. The Halycus, now the Platani, in tbe S., flowed into the sea near Heraclea Minoa. 16. The Crimisus, or Crimissus, now the BeUici destro, in the W. faUs into the Hypsas : on its banks Timo leon defeated the Carthaginians, b. c. 339. 17. Hypsas was the name of two rivers in the S. : one between SeUnus and Thermae SeUnuntiae, and now the BeClid, and the other near Agrigentum, now the Fiume drago. SOIL AND PEODUCnONS. 18. The soil of Sicily was very fertUe, and produced in antiquity an immense quantity of wheat, on which the popiUation of Rome relied to a great extent for their sub sistence. So celebrated was it even in early times on account of its corn, that it was represented as sacred to Demeter, (Ceres,) and as the favorite abode of this goddess. Hence it was in this island that her daughter Persephone was carried away by Pluto. Besides corn, the island pro duced excellent wine, saffron, honey, almonds, and the other southern fruits. INHABITANTS, 19. The first inhabitants of SicUy are said to have been the savage Cyclopes and Laestryg6nes ; but these are fab ulous beings, and the first inhabitants mentioned in history are the Sicani or Sictili, who crossed over into the island from Italy. Some writers regard the Sicani and Si culi as two distinct peoples, but without good reason. They 12. "Where was the Cacyparis ? 13. -Where was the Helorus ? 14. "Where was VaQ Himera, what at one time, what its nature below Enna? 15. "WTiere was tho Halycus? l6, "Whero was the Crimisus, and how noted in history? 17. "Where Were the rivers Hypsas ? 18. "What was the nature of the soil, and what tho produo- Bons of Sicily? 19. Who were the first inhabitants of Sicily? 20. By whom were 174: ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. appear to have been a Celtic people, who, driven across the Alps by the Ligyes, or Ligures, settled in Latium, whence being again driven by the Aborigines assisted by Pelas gians, they migrated to the S. of Italy, where they lived for a considerable time along with the Oenotrians, but at last crossed over to Sicily, to which they gave their name. 20. They were subsequently followed, first by Cre tans, under Minos, then by the Elymaei, a small band of fugitive Trojans, both these bodies of fugitive immigrants founding several important cities, but becoming speedUy incorporated with the SicuU. The Phoenicians early formed settlements for the purposes of commerce, especially on the N. and N. W. parts, but were soon compeUed, by the encroaching Greeks, to confine themselves to Motya^ Solus, and Panormus. 21. The most important of all the immigrants into Sicily were the Greeks, who founded a number of important cities, which will be duly noticed. At a later time the Car thaginians obtained a firm footing in Sicily, and, having made themselves masters ofthe W. part ofthe island, they were engaged in frequent wars "with Syracuse and the other Greek cities. The struggle between the Carthaginians and Greeks continued, with a few interruptions, down to the 1st Punic war; at the close of which (241) the Carthagi nians were obliged to evacuate the island, the W. part of which now passed into the hands of the Romans, and was made a Roman province. The conquest of Syracuse by MarceUus (212) threw the whole island into the power of the Romans, who made it a province, administered by a praetor. Augustus founded colonies at several important cities. On the downfall of the Roman empire, Sicily formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths ; but it "ivas taken from them by Belisarius in A. D. 536, and annexed to the Byzantine empire.. It continued a pro"vince of this empire untU 826, when it was conquered by the Saracens. CITIES OP SICIL"r. In enumerating the cities of SicUy, we follow the order of Sickler, and begin at the E. side, where we first find — 22. Messana, now Messina, ontheN.E.on the straits (of Messina) separating Italy from this island, which are the Siculi followed ? 21. Who wero the most important immigrants, and by whom were they followed ? 22. "Whore was Messana, what its original name, by whom ITALIA. 175 here about 4 miles broad. The Romans caUed the to-wn Messana, according to its Doric pronunciation, but Messene (Meo-o-ijvi;) was its more usual name among the Greeks. It was originaUy a town of the Siceli, and was caUed Zancle, (Zay/cXij,) or a sickle, on account of the shape of its har bor, which is formed by a singular curve of sand and shells. The first Greek colonists were, according to Thucydides, pirates from the Chalcidian town of Cumae in Italy, who were joined by Chalcidians from Euboea, and later by Chal cidian colonists from Naxos in Sicily. 23. Zancle soon became so powerful that it founded the town of Himera about b. c. 648. A short time before the 1st Punic war, it was taken by the Mamertini, for which reason it was afterwards captured by the Romans, and thereupon caUed Mamertina Civitas ; but its name of Messene it derived from Messenians who came from the Peloponnesus and settled here. 24. Tauromenium, now Taormina, on. the E. coast, situated on Mt. Taurus, fi-om which it derived its name, was founded b. c. 358 by Andromachus with the remains ofthe inhabitants of Naxos, whose town had been destroyed by Dionysius nearly fifty years before. 25. Naxos, S. of Mt. Taurus, founded b. c. 735 by the Chalcidians of Euboea, was the first Greek colony estab lished in the island. In 480 the town was taken by Diony sius of Syracuse and destroyed. 26. Catana, now Catania, between the rivers Acis and Amenanus, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, was founded b. c. 730 by Chalcidians from Naxos. In b. c. 476 it was taken by Hiero I., who removed its inhabitants to Leontini, but soon after his death (467) they again obtained possession of their town. .After experiencing sundry other reverses, it was colonized by Augustus with some veterans. It is now one of the most fiourishing cities in Sicily. 27. Leontini, now Lentini, about 5 miles from the sea, N. W. of Syracuse, was situated upon the smaU river Lissus. It was founded by Chalcidians from Naxos, b. c. 730, only 6 years after the foundation of Naxos itself. 28. The rich plains N. of the city, called Campi Laes- founded? 23. "What evidence of its early power, and what was its later fate? 24. Where was Tauromeniurn, whence its name, founded when and by whom? 25. "Where was Naxos, by whom founded, when and by whom destroyed ? 26. Where was Oatana, when and by whom founded, experienced what changes, is what now? 27. Where was Leontini, where situated, founded by whom and when? 176 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. trygonii or Leontini, were some of the most fertUe in SicUy, and produced abundant crops of most excellent wheat. 29. In consequence of its joining the Carthaginians it was taken and plundered by the Romans, under whose rule it sunk into insignificance. Gorgias was a native of Leon tini. 30. Syrac-iisae, (%vpdKovcTai^ Siracusa in Italian, Syra cuse in English, the wealthiest and most populous town in SicUy, was situated on the S. part of the E. coast, 50 mUes N. of the promontory of Plemmyrium, and a little over a mUe N. E. of the mouth of the river Anapus, near the lake or marsh called Syraco, from which it derived its name. It was founded b. c. 734, one year after the founda tion of Naxos, by a colony of Corinthians and other Dorians, led by Arcbias, the Corinthian, after whose two daughters, Syra and Cossa, the city is said by isome to have been named. 31. Syracuse consisted of five distinct to"wns, each sur rounded by separate waUs. These were A., Nasos, (N'^o-os, NSo-os,) the Island, also caUed Ortygia, an island of an oblong shape, about 2 mUes in circumference, lying between the great harbor on the W. and the little harbor on the E. It was the portion of the city first buUt, and it contained the citadel or Acropolis, surrounded by double waUs, which Timoleon caused to be destroyed. In this island were many temples, and also the celebrated fountain of Arethusa. It was originally separated from the mainland by a narrow channel, which was subsequently filled up by a causeway ; but this causeway must at a still later time have been swept away, since we find in the Roman period that the island was connected "with the mainland by means of a bridge. B.,Achradina, occupying originally the high ground ofthe peninsula N. of Ortygia, and surrounded on the N. and E. by the sea. This was the most strongly fortified and most beautiful part of the city, and contained the temple of Zeus Olympius. C, Tyche, named after the temple of Tu^^, or Fortune, was situated N. W. of Achradina, and was the most populous part of the city, containing, besides the ^em- pie of Fortune, the Gymnasium. D., Neapolis, nearly S. W. of Achradina, was, asweU as Tyche, at the time of the Athenian siege of Syracuse, only an unfortified suburb, and 28. "What plains near it, producing what ? 29. Under Eoman rule, what be came of It, whose birthplace was it ? 30. "Where is Syracusac, when and by whom founded, whence deriving its namo i 31. Of what did Syracuse con- ITALU, 177 caUed Temenites, from having within it the statue and con secrated ground of Apollo Temenites. NeapoUs contained the chief theatre of Syracuse, which was the largest in aU Sicily, and many temples. E., Epip61ae, a space of ground rising above the three quarters of Achradina, Tyche, and Neapolis, which gradually diminished in breadth as it rose higher, untU it ended in a small conical mound. This rising ground was surrounded "with strong waUs by the elder Dionysius, and was thus included in Syracuse, which now became one of the most strongly fortified cities of the ancient world, having a circumference of 180 stadia or upwards of 22 Roman nules ; and the entire population of the city is supposed to have amounted to 600,000 souls, at the time of its greatest prosperity. 32. Syracuse had two harbors. The Great Harbor, stiU caUed Porto Maggiore,is a, splendid bay about 5 miles in circumference formed by the island Ortygia and the Prom. Plemmyrium. The SmaU Harbor, also caUed Laccius, lying between Ortygia and Achradina, was capacious enough to receive a large fleet of ships of war. 33. There were several stone quarries, Lautumiae, Latumitm, Latomiae, in Syracuse, in which the unfortunate Athenian prisoners were confined. From them was taken the stone of which the city was buUt. On one side of these quarries is the remarkable excavation, caUed the Ear of Dionysius, in which it is said that this tyrant confined the persons whom he suspected, and that he was able from a little apartment above to overhear the conversation of his captives. This tale, however, is clearly an invention. 34. A history of Syracuse must be sought for else where ; we have only space to state that, when Hieronymus, tyrant of the city, espoused the side of the Carthaginians, a Eoman army under Marcellus was sent against Syracuse ; and after a siege of two years, during which Archimedes, who was a native of Syracuse, assisted his fellow-citizens by the construction of various engines of war, the city was taken by MarceUus in 212. From this time Syracuse be came a town of the Roman province of Sicily. The modern city is confined to the island, the remaining quarters being now uninhabited, marked by only a few ruins, among which sist? 32. How many harbors, how situated, had Syracuse? 33. "What quarries in Syracuse, used for what, what story connected with theni? 34. When was Syracuse taken by the Eomans, by what commander? VVhat did it now become, and to what is the modem city confined ? Whose birthplace was Syra- 178 ancient GEOGEAPHT. the most important are the remains of the great theatre, and of an amphitheatre ofthe Roman period. 35. Helorus or Helorum, the ruins of which are called Muri Ucci, was a very ancient city, S. of Syracuse, at the mouth of the river Helorus. Diod. Siculus describes the surrounding country as exceedingly beautiful. 36. Camarina, the ruins of which are at Camarana, on the S. coast, at the mouth of the Hipparis, was founded by Syracuse, b. c. 599. It was several times destroyed by Syracuse; and in the first Punic war it was taken by the Romans, and most of the inhabitants sold as slaves. Scarcely any vestiges of the ancient to-wn remain. In the neighborhood "was a marsh, which the inhabitants drained contrary to the command of an oracle, and thus opened the way to their enemies to take the town ; hence arose the proverb, p-r] idvu 'K.ap.aplvav, ne moveas Camarinam. 37. Gela, the ruins of which are near Terra Nuova, also on the S. coast and on a river of the same name, (Fiume di Terra Nuova) was founded by Rhodians from Lindos, and by Cretans, n. c. 690. It soon obtained great power and wealth, and in 582 it founded Agrigentum; which, however, became more powerful than the mother city. 38. Like the other cities of SicUy, it was subject to tyrants, of whom the most important were Hippocrates, Gelon, and Hieron. Gelon transported half of its inhabit ants to Syracuse : the place gradually feU into decay, and in the time of Augustus was no longer inhabited. The poet Aeschylus died here. N. of Gela were the celebrated Campi Gelo), which produced rich crops of wheat. 39. Agrigentum, by the Greeks called 'AKpdya?, in the S. a colony of Gela, about 2^ miles from the sea, was situated between the rivers Acvagas(Piume di SanBiagio) and Hypsas, (F. Drago) 40. It was celebrated for its wealth and populousness, and till its destruction by the Carthaginians, (b. c. 405,) was one of the most splendid cities of the ancient world. It was the birthplace of Empedocles. 41. It was founded by a Doric colony from Gela, about 582 or 679 b. c, was under the government of the cruel tyrant Phalaris, (about 660,) and subsequently under that cuse f 35. -Where was Helorus, its ruins how called ? 36. Where was Camarina, and what wero its vicissitudes ? 37. Where was Gela, by whom founded, and when ? It soon became, and did what ? 38. What were its rulers, whicii of these the most imporant, what became of the place, who died here ? 39 "Where was :igngentum f 40. Por what was it celebrated, it was whose birthplace ? 41 It was ITALIA. 179 of Theron, (488-472,) whose praises are celebrated by Pindar. • 42. -Ailer its destruction by the Carthaginians, it was rebuUt by Timoleon, but it never regained its former great ness. After undergoing many vicissitudes it at length came into the power of the Romans, (210,) in whose hands it re mained. There are stUl gigantic remains of the ancient city, especiaUy of the Olympieum, or temple of the Olym pian Zeus. 43. Heraclea Minoa, of which the ruins are near Torre di Capo Bianco, in the S., at the mouth of the Halycus, between Agrigentum and Selinus. According to tradition it was founded by Minos, when he pursued Daeda lus to SicUy, and it may have been an ancient colony of Cretans. We know, however, that it was afterwards col onized by the inhabitants of SeUnus, and that its original name was Minoa, which it continued to bear till about B. c. 500, when the town was taken by the Lacedaemonians under Euryleon, who changed its name into that of Heraclea ; but it continued to bear its ancient appellation as a surname to distinguish it from other places ofthe same name. It was colonized by the Romans, when they con quered SicUy. 44. Selinus, the ruins of which are near Castel vetrano, one ofthe most important towns in the island, was situated upon a hUl on the S. W. coast, and upon a river ofthe same name, now the Madiani. It was founded by the Dorians fi-om Megara Hyblaea on the E. coast of the island, b. c. 628. 45. It soon attained great prosperity ; but it was taken by the Carthaginians in 409, when most of its inhabitants were slain or sold as slaves, and the greater part of the city destroyed. The Carthaginians, however, allowed the in habitants to return to SeUnus in the course of the same year, and it continued to be a place of secondary impor tance till 249, when it was again destroyed by the Cartha ginians, and its inhabitants transferred to LUybaeum. Pass ing on to the W. and N. coasts, we note, 46. Lilybaeum, the site of which is now partly occu pied by Marsala, with an excellent harbor, was situated on a promontory of the same name, opposite to the Prom. foundedhy whom and when, and by whom governed? 42. After its destruction by the Carthaginians, by whom was it rebuilt, and what became of it afterwards, ¦what are its remains ? 43. "Where was Heraclea Minoa, said to have been founded by whom, by whom colonized, what is said of its name? 44. What and where was Selinus, and fotmded by whom and when f 15. What vicissitudes did it pass 180 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. Hermaeum or Mercurii, (C Bon) in Africa, the space between the two being the shortest distance between Sicily and Africa. * 47. The town of Lilybaeum was founded by the Carthar ginians about b. c. 397, and was made the principal fortress ofthe Carthaginians in Sicily. It was surrounded by massive waUs and by a trench 60 feet wide and 40 feet deep. 48. LUybaeum was besieged by the Romans in the 1st Punic war, but they were unable to take it, and they ob tained possession of it only by the treaty of peace. Under the Romans it continued to be a place of importance. 49. Motya, an ancient town in the N. W., situated on a smaU island (Isola di Mezzo) f of a mUe from the coast, "with which it was connected by a mole, was founded by the Phoenicians. It possessed a good harbor, and was in early times one ofthe most flourishing cities of Sicily. 50. It afterwards passed into the hands of the Cartha ginians, was taken from them by Dionysius of Syracuse, and was finaUy captured by the Carthaginian general Himilco, who transplanted aU its inhabitants to the town of LUybaeum, which he had founded in its neighborhood, b. c. 897. It now disappears from history. 51. Drepanum, now Trapani, also Drepana, more rarely Drepane, in the N. W. corner ofthe island, so named from Apiiravov, " a sickle," because the land on which it was buUt was in the form of a sickle. It was founded by the Carthaginian Hamilcar, at the commence ment of the 1st Punic war, and was one of the chief naval stations of the Carthaginians. Under the Romans it was an unimportant commercial tO"wn, It was here that Anchi- ses died, according to VirgU, 62, Near Drepanum was Eryx, on the W. slope ofthe mountain of the same name. It was destroyed by the Carthaginians in the time of Pyrrhus; was subsequently re built ; but was again destroyed by the Carthaginians in the 1st Punic war, and its inhabitants removed to Drepanum. 63. On the summit of the mountain stood an ancient and celebrated temple of Aphrodite, said to have been built by Eryx, king ofthe Elymi, or, according to VirgU, through f 46. "Where was Lilybaeum, opposite what f 47. It was founded by whom, was what, how fortiiied ? 48. How did it come into the possession ofthe Eomans? 49. Where was Motya, founded by whom, and possessing what ? 60. Through what changes did it pass ? 61. Where was Drepanum, why so called, founded by whom, and when, who died here? 62. "WTiere was Eryx, and what vicissitudes did it pass through ? 63. "What stood pn the summit of Mt. Eryx, built by whom, rrALiA. 181 by Aeneas, but more probably by the Phoenicians, who introduced the worship of Aphrodite in SicUy. From this temple the goddess bore the surname Erycina, under which name her worship was introduced at Rome about the beginnmg of the 2d Punic war. At present there is standing on the summit of the mountain the remains of a castle, originaUy buUt by the Saracens, 54. Segesta, the later Roman form of the to-wn called by the Greeks Egesta or Aegesta, (in Virg, Acesta) the ruias of which are near Alcamo, was situated near the coast, between Panormus and Drepanum, It is said to have been founded by the Trojans on two small rivers, to which they gave the names of Simois and Scamander ; hence the Romans made it a colony of Aeneas, One tradi tion, indeed, ascribed to it a Greek origin ; but in later times it was never regarded as a Greek city, 55, Its inhabitants were constantly engaged in hostili ties with Selinus ; and it was at their soUcitation that the Athenians embarked in their unfortunate expedition against SicUy, The town was taken by Agathocles, who destroyed or sold as slaves aU its inhabitants, peopled the city with a body of deserters, and changed its name into that of Di- caeopolis ; but after the death of this tyrant, the remains ofthe ancient inhabitants returned to the city and resumed theu: former name, 56. Panormus, that is ".AU-Port," (Ilavop/ios,) or a place always fit for landing, now Palermo, was an impor tant town at the mouth of the river Orethus, was founded by the Phoenicians, and at a later time received its Greek name from its exceUent harbor. 57. From the Phoenicians it passed into the hands of the Carthaginians, in whose power it remained for a long time, and who made it one of the chief stations for their fleet. It was taken by the Romans in the 1st Punic war B. c. 254, and was subsequently made a Roman colony. 58. Him'Sra, a celebrated Greek city on the N. coast, W. ofthe mouth of the river Himera, was founded by the Chalcidians of Zancle, b. c. 648, and afterwards received Dorian settlers, so that the inhabitants spoke a mixed dialect, partly Ionic, (Chalcidian,) partly Doric. the goddess how called, what is there now ? 64 Where was Segesta, said to have been founded by whom ?- 55. Its inhabitants engaged in what, and experienced what reverses, &C. ? 56. Where waa Panormus, why so called, founded by whom f 57. Panormus passed successively into the possession of whom ? 58. 182 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 59. AAev many -vicissitudes of peace and war, it was taken, b. c. 409, by Hannibal, the son of Gisgo, who, to revenge the great defeat which the Carthaginians had suf fered before this to"wn from Theron and Gelon of Syracuse, (480,) leveUed it to the ground, and destroyed almost aU the inhabitants. 60. Himera was never rebuilt ; but on the opposite bank of the river Himera, the Carthaginians founded a new tovm, which, from a warm medicinal spring in its neigh borhood, was caUed Thermae, now Zermini, (ruins.) Here the remains ofthe unfortunate inhabitants of Himera •¦were allowed to settle. The Romans, who highly prized the warm springs of Thermae, permitted the to"wn to retain its own constitution, and Augustus made it a col ony. The poet Stesichorus was born at the ancient Hi mera and the tyrant Agathocles at Thermae. 61. Tyndaris or Tyndarium, now Tindaro, -with a good harbor, a Uttle W. of Messana, near the promontory of the same name, was founded by the elder Dionysius, b. c. 396, and soon became an important place. It was the headquarters of Agrippa, the general of Octa-vian, in the war against Sex. Pompey. The greater part of the town was subsequently destroyed by an inundation of the sea. 62. Mylae, now Milazzo, on a promontory running- out far into the sea, "with a harbor and citadel, on the E. part of the N. coast of the island, was founded by Zancle, and continued subject to the latter city. It was off Mylae that Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sex. Pompeius, b. c. 36. 63. Aetna, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, on a site now called Castro, on the road to Catana, and formerly called Inessa or Innessa, was founded b. c. 461, by the inhabitants of Catana, who had been expeUed from their own town by the SicuU. They gave the name of Aetna to Inessa, be cause their own to"wn Catana had been caUed Aetna by Hiero I. 64. Hybla Major, on ahill abounding in flowers and bees, just S. of Mt. Aetna, and on the river Simaethus, was originally a town ofthe SicuU. On its site is now Pa- "Where was Himera, founded by whom, received settlers whence, with what results ? 69. What became of Himera ? 60. VVhat town was now built in its neighborhood, howtreated bytheEomans; who was born at Himera, and who at Thermae ? 61. Where was Tyndaris, founded by whom, headquarters of whom? 62. "Where was Mylae, by whom founded, how notedin history? 63. "Where was" Aetna, founded when and by whom, name changed into what, and for what reason ? 64. Whore was Hybla Major? What other places ofthe samo name? 65 "Whero ITALIA. 183 temo. Two other towns of the same name were : — 1. H. Minor, afterwards called Megara. 2. H. Heraea, in the S. on the road from Syracuse to Agrigentum. It is doubtful from which of the three places the Hyblaean honey came, so frequently mentioned by the poets. 65. Agyrium, on the Cymosorus, N. W. of Centu ripae and N. E. of Enna., was the birthplace of the his torian Diodorus, (Siculus.) 66. Centiiripae,now Centorbi,an ancient town ofthe SicuU, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, on the road from Catana to Panormus, and not far from the Symaethus: in its neighborhood a great quantity of corn was gro"wn, and it became under the Romans one of the most flourishing cities in the island. 67. Enna or Henna, now Castro Giovanni, an an cient and fortified town of the SicuU, on the road from Catana to Agrigentum, said to be the centre of the island, was sun-ounded by fertile plains, which bore large crops of wheat : it was one of the chief seats of the worship of Demeter, (Ceres,) and possessed a celebrated temple of this goddess. According to a later tradition, it was in a flowery meadow in the neighborhood of Enna that Pluto carried off Proserpine, and the cave was shown through which the god passed, as he carried off his prize. 68. Palica, near Mt. Aetna, and noted chiefly for the two sulphureous fountains in its neighborhood, called DeU- loi, or brothers of the PaUci, at which solemn oaths were taken. The last 6 towns (63-68) were in the interior. A great number more were in the island, of greater or less importance : we have given all that are deserving of par ticular notice, X!. — Sardinia. NAMES, ETC. 1. On account of their proximity to the ItaUan coast, we here reckon Sardinia and Corsica among the islands of Italy. The former of these, called Ichnusa, San- daliotis, Sardo, and finally Sardinia, is in shape in the form of a parallelogram, upwards of 140 nautical miles in was Agyrium, noted as the birthplace of whom ? 66. "Where was Centuripae, how noted? 67. "Where was Enna, surrounded by what, noted for whoso worship, what legend connected with it ? 68. Where was Palica, and for what poted? 1. "What were the names of Sardinia, what its shape, dimensions, comparative 184: ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. length from N. to S. with an average breadth of 60. The ancients regarded it as the largest of the Mediterranean islands, and the correctness of this opinion has been con firmed by actual admeasurement, from which it appears that Sardinia is a little larger than Sicily. Sardinia lies in almost a central position between Spain, Gaul, Italy, and Afi-ica. The ancients derived its name from Sardus, a son of Hercules, who was worshipped in the island under the name of Sardus pater. The Greeks caUed it Ichnusa, ('Ixvovo-a,) from its resemblance to the print of a foot, and Sandaliotis, (SavSoXiSTts,) from its likeness to a sandal. MOUNTAINS, ETC. 2. A chain of mountains runs along the whole E. side ofthe island, from N. to S. occupying about one-third of its surface. These mountains were called by the ancients In- sani Montes, (Monti di Limbara,) a name which they probably derived from their wUd and savage appearance, and from their being the haunt of numerous robbers. In the W. and S. parts of Sardinia, there are numerous plains intersected by ranges of smaller hiUs ; but this part of the island was in antiquity^ as in the present day, exceedingly unhealthy. PEOMONTOEIES. 3. The promontories were: A. In the N. — 1, Ereban- tiumP.,now Capo della Testa; 2, UrsiP.,now Capo del Orso ; 3, Columbarium P ,now Capo Figari. B. In the E. — 1, CuniculariumP., now Capo di Pula, with the Portus Herculis; 2, Caralitanum P., now C. Car- bonara. C. In the W. — 1, Gorditanum P., now Capo Falcone; 2, Hermaeum P., now Capo delta Caccia; 3, Crassum P., now Capo di Pecora ; 4, Sulcense or SulcenaeP., now Punta Sperone. EPVEES AND TO"WNS. 4. The principal rivers were the Ter mus, now T^nwo, in the N. ; the Thyrsus, (Oristano,) on the W. ; the Flumen Sacrum, (Uras,) andthe^ae^v\xs,(Flumendoso,) on the E. 5. The chief towns in the island were ; on the N. coast, Tibula (Porte Polio) and Turris Libyssonis, (Por- size, what the derivation of its names? 2. What mountains in Sardinia, and what the general face of the country? 3. What were the promontories of S ? 4. What were the principal rivers? 6. What were the chief towns of Sardinia? ITALIA. 185 to Torres;) on the S, coast, Sulci (Bari) and Car alls, (Gagliari) the capital and residence ofthe Roman Praetor, foxmded by the Carthaginians, and termed by Florus " Urbs urhium;" on the E. coast, Olbia, (Terranova ;) and in the interior, Cornus, now Corneto, or Sindia, according to Long, and Nora, Nurri. SOIL AND PEODUCTTONS, 6. Sardinia was very fertile, but was not extensively cul tivated, in consequence of the uncivUized character of its inhabitants. StiU the plains in the W. and S. parts of the island produced a great quantity of corn, of which the greater part was exported to Rome every year. Among the products of the island one of the most celebrated was the Sardonica herba, a poisonous plant, from the reputed effects of which the phrase risxis Sardonicus is said to have arisen. It is quite Ukely that this whole tale arose from a piece of bad etymology. Another of the principal products was wool, Sardinia also contained a large quantity of the precious metals, especially sUver, the mines of which were worked in antiquity to a great extent. There were like"wise numerous mineral springs ; and large quantities of salt were manufactured on the W, and S, coasts, INHABITANTS. 7. The population of Sardinia was of a very mixed kind: Phoenicians, Tyrrhenians, and Carthaginians settled in the island at different periods. It is said that Greek colonies were a,lso established here, but the accounts are doubtful. AU prior names prevailing here were subsequently merged under the general appeUation of Sardi. These Sardi are described as a rude and savage people addicted to thievery and lying. Rome took possession of the island, b. c, 238, but the inhabitants of the mountains in the E. side of the island were never completely subdued, and gave trouble to the Romans in the time of Tiberius, In the 5th century the Vandals took possession of the island, 8, Sardinia was di"vided from Corsica by a strait called Fossa or Taphros, about 7i mUes wide, and now called Strada di San Bonifacio- 6 ."What was the nature of the soil, and what the productions of S. ? 7. How was the population of S. composed? 8. What divided S. from Corsica? 186 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT F. — Corsica. NAMES, ETC. 1 . According to Strabo the Romans gave the name of Corsica to the island which the Greeks caUed Kvpvos or Kopo-15. It is supposed to be indebted for its name to its general resemblance to a horn, Kepas. Cornu. 2. The ancients exaggerated, for the most part, the size ofthe island : its greatest length is 116 mUes, and its great est breadth about 51. It is mountainous, and was not much cultivated in antiquity. 3. A range of mountains, caUed Aureus Mons, run ning from S. to N., separates it into two parts, of which the E. half was more cultivated, whUe the W. half was covered almost entirely with wood. In the W. was MonsRhoetius, TO 'PotTtOJ' "Opos. 4. The promontories were : A. In the N. ; Sacrum Pr ., ( C. Corso) B. In the W. ; 1, Attium Pr ., (G. Addiazzo;) 2, Viriballum, (C. Calvi;) 3,'Rhinm,(C. di Feno ;) 4, Marianum, ( Capo di Casa Barbarica) C. In the E. ; Va- gum, (G. di Brigalino) 5. The rivers of Corsica were: l,The Tavola, (Golo,) the largest on the E. side ; 2, Rhotanus, (Tavignano,) in theE.; 3, Sacer, (Orbo) in theE.; 4, Ticarius, (Fa^L inco;) 5, Locras, (Talavo) both on the W. side. 6. Honey and wax were the principal productions ofthe ' island ; but the honey had a bitter taste, from the yew trees with which the island abounded. 7. The cities of Corsica were : A. On the E. side; 1, Clu- nium, now S. Catharina ; 2, Mantinorum Oppidum, near the site of which is the modern Bastia ; 3, Mariana Colonia: this was a colony of C. Marius, of which the earlier name was Nicaea; 4, Aleria Colonia, (Aleria;) 5, Favoni Portus, (Porto Favone ;) 6, Syracusanus Portus, (PortoVecchio) B. On the W. side ; 1, Centu- rinum, (Centuri ;) 2, Canelata, (Conari ;) 3, Titianus Portus, (Porto Tiziano ;) 4, Ficaria Portus, (Figari) C. In the interior ; 1, TAanta, (Bolagna ;) 2, Tarabeno- rum Vicus, (Vico) 8. The inhabitants were a rude mountain race, addicted 1. Corsica was how called by the Greeks, probable origin of the name? 2. What are the dimensions of the island? What is the face of the country? 3. "What mountains were here? 4. What promontories on Corsica? 6. What rivers in C. ? 6. "What were the productions of C. 7. "What cities in C. ? 8. ITALIA. 187 to robbery, and paying little attention to agi-iculture. Even ia the time of the Roman empire their character had not much improved, as we see from the description of Seneca, who was banished to this island by Claudius, a. d. 41. The most ancient inhabitants appear to have been Iberians ; but in early times Ligurians, Tyrrhenians, Carthaginians, and even Greeks settled in the island. It was subject to the Carthaginians at the commencement of the 1st Punic war, but soon afterwards passed into the hands of the Romans, and subsequently formed a part of the Roman province of Sardinia. G. — Aeoliae Insulae. 1. The AeSliae Insiilae, now the Lipari Islands, are a group N. E. of Sicily, where, according to the poets, Aeolus, the god of the winds, reigned. Homer (Od. X. 1) mentions only one AeoUan island, and Virgil (Aen. I. 52) accordingly speaks of only one Aeolia, (sc. insula,) where Aeolus reigned, supposed to be Strongyle or Lipara. These islands were also caUed Hephaestiddes or Vulcaniae,heca\i.se Hephaestus or Vulcan was supposed to have his workshop in one of them caUed Hiera, (Virg. Aen. VIII. 416 sqq.) They were also named Liparenses, from Lipara, the largest of them. 2. The names of these islands were, Lipara, (Lipari;) Hiera, (Volcano ;) Strongyle, (Stromboli,) called the light-house ofthe Mediterranean, because it is a constantly active volcano ; Phoenicusa, (Felicudi;) Ericiisa, (Ali- CMC?«7) Euonymus, (Panaria ;) Didyme, (Salina ;) Hi- aasiia, (Lisca Bianca ;) Hasilidia, (Basiliszo ;) Osteo- des, (Ifstica) H. — Aegates Insulae, 1. The Aegates Insulae, (from At|, aiyos, "a goat,") the goat islands, were three islands off the W. coast of Sici ly, between Drepanum and Lilybaeum, near which the Romans gained a naval -victory over the Carthaginians, and thus brought the 1st Punic war to an end, b. c. 241. The islands were, Aegusa (Al-ymxraa) or Q!a^vav\a,(Favig- nana ;) Phorbantia, (Levanzo) and 'SLieva,(Maretimo) "What was the character of the Inhabitants of C. ? Who were tho most ancient inhabitants ? 1. Where wero the Aeoliae Insulae, having what other names, and bearing these names from what ? 2. "What were the names of these islands ? 1. What and where were the Aegates Insulae, how noted in history, and what were their names ? 188 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. I, — Xdelita. 1, MSlita or Melite, now Malta, is situated 58 miles from the nearest point of Sicily, and 179 mUes from the nearest point of Africa. Its greatest length is 17 mUes, and its greatest breadth 9 miles. The island was first colo nized by the Phoenicians, who used it as a place of refuge for their ships, on account of its excellent harbors, 2. It afterwards passed into the hands ofthe Carthagin ians, but was taken possession of by the Romans in the 2d Punic war, and annexed to the province of SicUy. The Romans, however, appear to have neglected the island, and it is mentioned by Cicero as a frequent resort of pirates. 3. MeUta contained a to"wn of the same name founded by the Carthaginians, and two celebrated temples, one of Juno, on a promontory near the town, and another of Her cules in the S. E. of the island. It is celebrated in sacred history as the island on which the apostle Paul was ship wrecked, though some writers erroneously suppose that the apostle was shipwrecked on the island of the same name off the lUyrian coast. 4. The inhabitants manufactured fine cloth, which was in much request at Rome. They also exported a con siderable quantity of honey ; and from this island, accord ing to some authorities, came the CatuU Melitaei, the favorite lapdogs of the Roman ladies. 5. Near Melita was Gaulos now Gozzo, another island of some note. 1. -Where is Melita, what aro its dimensions, and by whom first colonized ? 2. Into what other hands did it subsequently pass? 3. What town and temples in Melita? The island noted for what in sacred history ? 4. "What manufactures and exports of Melita are to be noted ? 5. What other island near Melita ? CHAPTER III. ASIA. NAME AND EXTENT, 1. The name of Asia, m Greek 'Ao-ia, occurs first in Homer's Riad, II, 461 : *Ao-«j) ey Xeip^vi," where, however, it denotes only a large swamp or meadow situate on the river Cayster in Lydia. 2. Herodotus states, IV. 45, that this division of the world, as known to the ancients, received its name from 'Ao-t'a, the -wife of Prometheus. 3. It is probable, however, that the Greek name "Ao-ta had its origm in the Phoenician verb Assass, " to shine, to be splendid, or mighty "—StUl found in the Hebrew (tjs) and in the Arabic, from which comes I's, "brightness, splendor," and that thus, in the Geography of the Phoeni cians, Asia originaUy denoted the bright or shining land, the land of the rising sun, or of the East, which Homer already describes as the land in the region of day, Trpos Hfi T 'HeXidv T£, " towards the morning-red and rising sun," as opposed to the land towards the West and North, the land of darkness, :i':s_,= Europe, the landirpos ^o'^oi/. — ^Asia, the shining land, or land of light in the E., stood opposed to Europa, the land of gloom or darkness, in the W. Thus in consequence of the relative position of the two continents the earliest Phoenician geography appears to have given each its name. 4. We find that as early as the time of Herodotus the Greeks regarded the name, Asia, as comprehending a great extent of country, in fact, a distinct division of what they looked upon as the world. In the later geography of the 1. "Where does the name of Asia first occur, denoting what? 2. What derivation of the name is given by Herodotus ? 3. What is probably the true derivation of the name ? 4. "What, according to the ancients, were the extent and boundaries 190 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. Romans this name denoted at first only a province, Asia, in Asia Minor, and its application to the interior of the conti nent proceeded gradually, in proportion as the geographical knowledge of the Romans extended farther eastward. In the time of Pomponius Mela, (Roman geographer — ^flour ished probably from a. d. 41 to 54,) of Strabo and Ptolemy, the boundaries of Asia were given as the Mare Scythicum, IIovTos 'SiKvBiKos, i. e. the Euxine, on the, N. ; the Oceanus Eons, or Eastern Ocean, on the E. ; the Oceanus Indicus, or Indian Ocean, on the S. ; and the Palus Maeotis, the Pontus Euxinus, the Propontis, and the HeUespont on the W. or European side, and the Nile, as separating it from Africa. In view ofthe inaccuracy ofthe northern boundary as here given, it is necessary to observe, that both Europe and Asia were supposed to be bounded in the N. by an ocean which was called SeptentrionaUs, or GlaciaUs, but of which there was no actual knowledge. 5. The most general division of Asia was into two parts, which were different at different times, and known by different names. To the earliest Greek colonists, the river Halys, the E. boundary of the Lydian kingdom, formed a natural division between Tipper and Lower Asia; and afterwards the Euphrates was adopted as a more natural boundary. Another division was made by the Taurus into Asia intra Taurum, ('A. evTos rov 'Ya-opov) i, e. the part of A, N, and N, W. of the Taurus, and A. extra Taurum, ('A, £kto9 tov Tavpov,) all the rest ofthe continent. The division ultimately adopted, but apparently not tiU the fourth century of our era, Avas that of A. Major and A. Minor, oi which the former is most conveniently divided into 1, Asia SeptentrionaUs or Northern Asia; 2, into Asia Orientalis, or Eastern Asia ; and 3, into Asia Meri- dionalis or Southern Asia. We proceed now at once to the consideration of that division which is by far the most interesting and important, of Asia? 6. How was Asia divided by the ancients, and what is the most con. venient division ? ASIA MOTOE. 191 SECTION I. ASIA MINOR, 1. Asia Minor, ('Ao-ia 17 p.iKpd.,) now called Anatolia, was the peninsula on the extreme W, of Asia, bounded on the N. by the Propontis and the Pontus Euxinus; on the N. W. by the Hellespont ; on the E. by the mountains on the W. of the upper course ofthe Euphrates ; on the S. E. by Syria, or Amanus Mons ; on the S. by the Mediter ranean, and on the W. by the Aegaean : in other words, it consisted of that coUection of provinces situated in the western peninsula of Asia, between the Euxine and the Mediterranean, which, though contiguous in point of posi tion, remained politicaUy distinct, and did not therefore receive any collective name in classical literature. 2. It has already been said that the name, Asia Minor, did not come into use until the fourth century. It occurs first in Lib. I. c. 2 of the work of Paulus Orosius, entitled "Historiarum adversus Paganos Libri VH.," in the follow ing passage : " Asia Regio, vel ut proprie dicam, Asia MnfOE, absque orientali parte, quae ad Cappadociam Syriamque progreditur, undique cireumdata est mari ; a Septentrione Ponio Euxino, ab occasu Propontide atque EeUesponto, a meridie mari nostro." 3. The principal divisions of Asia Minor have been variously given : we prefer that into fourteen provinces, as foUows: on the W. coast, Mysia, Lydia, and Caria: on the N. coast, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Fontus : on the S. Lycia, Pisidia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia : in the interior, Phrygia, Galatia, Lycaonia, and Cappadocia. 4. Asia Minor was for the most part a fertile country, intersected with mountains and rivers, abounding in mine rals, possessing exceUent harbors, and peopled, from the earliest known period, by a variety of tribes from Asia and fi-om Europe. 5. The range of Taurus divides it into two unequal parts, traversing its whole length from W. to E., and eftect- 1. What is meant by Asia Minor, and what were its boundaries ! 2. Where does the name of Asia Minor first occur ? 3. What were the chief divisions or prov- incesot Asia Minor ? 4. -What was the general character of the country ? 6. -What 192 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. ually shutting off the southern provinces of Lycia, Pam phylia, and CiUcia from their northern neighbors ; the most important pass across it was situated in the latter province, north of Tarsus ; it led through a narrow gorge at which defences were erected, and hence caUed Portae CUiciae, the Cilician Gates. 6. The interior of Asia Minor consists of a highly elevat ed plateau, sloping down gradually from Mt. Taurus to the Euxine sea : the climate is there less genial and the soU less productive than in the maritime districts ; but the plains yield extensive and rich pasture grounds for sheep. This plateau is bounded eastward by the lofty range of Antitaurus. Numerous chains run parallel to the coast of the Euxine, and give the northern region a mountainous character. The most important were — Paryadres and Scoedlsus in the province of Pontus: Olympus, on the borders of Bithynia and Galatia ; and another range of the same name between Bithynia and Mysia, Towards the Aegaean the plain breaks up into ridges of inferior height opening to the sea, such as Temnus in Mysia, Tmolus in Lydia, and Messogis, between Lydia and Caria, For the principal rivers of Asia Minor the student is re ferred to the several provinces to which they respectively belong, 1,—JfIysia. 1. Mysia, (^ Muo-ta), caUed also the Asiatic Mysia, in contradistinction to Moesia on the banks of the Danube, meant originally the land of the Mysi, one of the Thraciau peoples who seem to have crossed over from Europe into Asia Minor, before recorded history begins; but in the usual division of Asia Minor, as settled under Augustus, it occupied the whole of the N, W. corner of the peninsula, between the Hellespont on the N. W. ; the Propontis on the N. ; the river Rhyndacus and Mt. Olympus on the E., which divided it from Bithynia ; Phrygia on the S. E. ; Mt. Temnus and an imaginary Une drawn from Temnus to the S. side ofthe Elaitic gulf on the S. where it bordered upon Lydia ; and the Aegaean sea on the W, 2, Mysia was subdi-vided into five parts : 1, Mysia Minor, along the N, coast; 2, Mysia Major, the S. E. mountain chain divides it? 6. "What is the face of the country in the inte rior, and what important mountain-chains are found there ? 1. How was "Mysia bounded? 2. "What were the subdivisiona of Mysia? ASIA MINOE. 193 inland region, with a small portion of the coast between the Troad and the Aeolic settlements about the Elaitic gidf ; 3, Troas, the N. W. angle, between the Aegean and HeUespont and the S. coast along the foot of Ida; 4, Aeolis or Aeolia, the S. part ofthe W. coast, around the Elaitic gulf, where the chief cities of the Aeolian con federacy were planted ; but applied in a wider sense to tho W. coast in general ; and 5, Teuthrania, the S. W. angle, between Temnus and the borders of Lydia : this part was also called Pergamene, from the celebrated city of Pergamus, which stood in it. 3. The country was for the most part mountainous, its chief chains being those of Ida, Olympus, and Temnus, which are terminal branches of the N. W. part of the Taurus chain, and the union of which forms the elevated landofS. E. Mysia._ 4. The prolongations of these mountains into the sea form several important bays and capes; namely, among the former, the great gulf of Adramyttium, Adr amy Ui, whioh cuts off Lesbos from the continent ; and the Sinus Elaiticus, G. of Ghandeli ; and, among the later, Sigeum, C. Yeni- cheri, and Lectum, C. Baba, at the N. W. and S. W. ex tremities ofthe Troad, and Cane, C. Cofom, and Hydria, FoMa, the N. and S. headlands of the Elaitic gulf. 5. The rivers of Mysia are numerous ; some of them considerable, in proportion to the size of the country, and some of first rate importance in history and poetry. The ehief of them, beginning on the E., were Rhyndacus, Mualitsch, and Macestus, Suserlu Tchai, T a r s i u s , Ear a Dere Su, Aesepus, Granicus, Eodscha Tchai, Rho- dius, Simois, Mendere Tchai, and Scamander, Bu- narhashi Tchai Satnois, Evenus, and Caicus, Bakhir Tchai. On the banks of the Granicus, which flows into the Propontis, Alexander gained his first victory over Darius, B. 0. 334. CHIEP TOWNS. 6. Cyzicus, now Bal Eiz ov Chizico, (ruins,) one of the most ancient and powerful of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, stood upon an island of the same name in the Pro pontis, (Sea of Marmara) This island, the earlier name of which was Arcton-nesus, ("ApxToiv vijo-os,) lay close to the 3. "What was the face of the country, and what were the chief mountain chains ? 4. What bays and capes on the coast of Mysia ? 5. What rivers in Mysia ? 6. "What 9 194: ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. shore of Mysia, to which it was united by two bridges, and afterwards, under Alexander the Great, by a mole, which has accumulated to a considerable isthmus. The city of Cyzicus stood on the S. side of the island, at the N. end of the isthmus, on each side of which it had a port, the one caUed Chytus, the other Panormus. 7. Cyzicus was one of the finest cities of the ancient world, for the beauty of its situation and the magnificence of its buUdings : it possessed an extensive commerce, and was celebrated for the exceUence of its laws and govern ment. Its staters were among the most esteemed gold coins current in Greece, Its celebrated resistance against Mithridates, when he besieged it by sea and land, (b. c. 75,) was of great service to the Romans, and obtained for it the rank of a "Ubera civitas," which it lost again under Tiberius. Under Constantine it became the chief city of the new province of HeUespontus. 8. Ilium or Troja was in the territory called Troas, which, as said before, formed the N. W. part of Mysia. If the Rium of Homer had any real existence, it was most probably situated in the plain traversed by the united stream formed by the junction of the Scamander and the Simois, kno-wn as the plain of Troy. It was probably in the upper part of this plain, on a moderate elevation at the foot of Mt. Ida, whilst its citadel, caUed Pergama, occupied a loftier height, almost separated from the city by a ravine, and nearly surrounded by the Scamander. This city seems never to have been restored after its destruction by the Greeks. 9. The AeoUan colonists subsequently buUt a new city, on the site, as they doubtless believed, of the old one, but reaUy much lower down the plain ; and this city is the Troja, or Ilium Vetus, of most ofthe ancient writers. 10. After the time of Alexander, Rium Vetus decUned, and a new city was built, stUl further down the plain, be low the confluence of the Simois and the Scamander, and near the Hellespont, and this was called Ilium Novum. Under the Romans, this city was honored with various immunities, as the only existing representative of the an cient Ilium. Its substantial importance, however, was entirely eclipsed by that of Alexandria Troas. and where was Cyzicus ? 7. Por what was Cyzicus noted ? 8. Whero was Ilium or Troja 1 B. What and where was Ilium Vetus ? 10. What was tho fate of this olty, and what and where was Ilium Novum ? 11. Where was Alexandria Troas, ASIA MINOE. 196 11. Alexandria Troas, also, as in the Acts of the Apostles, simply caUed Troas, now Eskistamboul, i. e., the Old City, on the sea-coast, S. W. of Troy, was en larged by Antigonus, hence called Antigonia, but after wards it "resumed its first name. It fiourished greatly, both under the Greeks and the Romans ; it was made a colonia ; and both Julius Caesar and Constantine thought of establishing the seat of empire in it. 12. Pergamon or Pergamum, Pergamos or Per gamus, the ruins of which stiU bear the name of Bergama or Pergamo, the capital of the kingdom of Pergamus, and afiierwards of the Roman province of Asia, was situated in tbe district of S. Mysia, caUed Teuthrania, in one of the most beautiful and fertUe vaUeys in the world. It stood on the N. bank ofthe river Caicus, at a spot where that river receives the united waters of two smaU tributaries, the SeU nus, which fiowed through the city, and the Cetius, which washed its walls. The navigable river Caicus connected it with the sea, at the Elaitic gulf, from which its distance was somewhat less than 20 mUes. It was buUt at the foot, and at the lowest slopes, of two steep hiUs, on one of which the ruins of the Acropolis are stUl visible, and in the plain below are the remains of the Asclepieum and other tem ples of the stadium, the theatre, and the amphitheatre, and of other buUdings. 13. The kingdom of Pergamus, which began upon the death of Seleucus, b. c. 280, by Philetaerus establishing himself as an independent ruler, reached its greatest ex tent after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the Ro mans, in b. c. 190, when the Romans bestowed upon Eu- menes IT. the whole of Mysia, Lydia, both Phrygias, Ly caonia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. It was under the same Mng that Pergamus reached the height of its splendor, and that the celebrated Ubrary was founded, which for a long time rivaUed that of Alexandria, and the formation of which occasioned the invention of parchment, Ghartae Pergamenae. This library was afterwards united to that of Alexandria, having been presented by Antony to Cleo patra. During its existence at Pergamus it formed the centre of a great school of literature, whioh rivaUed that of Alexandria. and how noted? 12 "Where was Pergamum or Pergamus, and how situated? 13. When did Pergamus reach the height of its splendor, and for what is it 196 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 14. The city was an early seat of Christianity, and is one of the Seven Churches of Asia, to whom the apocalyp tic epistles are addressed. 15. Abydos,intheTroad,onthe narrowest part ofthe Hellespont, was a MUesian colony. It was nearly opposite to Sestos, but a little lower down the stream. The bridge of boats which Xerxes constructed over the Hellespontj B. c. 480, commenced a Uttle higher up than Abydos, and touched the European shore between Sestos and Madjrtus. The site of Abydos is a little N. of Sultania or the old castle of Asia, which is opposite to the old castle of Europe. 16. Scepsis, now Eski- TTpshi or Eski-Shupshe, (ruins,) was in the interior ofthe Troad, S. E. of Alexandria, in the mountains of Ida. It is celebrated in Uterary history as the place where certain MSS. of Aristotle and Theophras- tus were buried, to prevent their transference to Pergamus, When dug up again, they were found nearly destroyed by mould and worms, and in this condition they were removed by Sulla to Athens, The philosopher Metrodorus and the grammarian Demetrius were natives of Scepsis. 17. Lampsaous, a colony of the Phocaeans, and an important city on the coast of the Hellespont, possessed a good harbor. It was celebrated for its wine ; and hence it was one of the cities assigned by Xerxes to Themistocles for his maintenance. It was the chief seat of the worship of Priapus, and the birthplace of the historian Charon, the philosopher Adimantus, and the rhetorician Anaximenes. 18. Other places, of more or less note, in Mysia, were : — 1, On the shore of the Propontis : Priapus, Harpagium, Zelia, Memnonis Tumulus, Placia ; 2, In Troas : Dardanus, Gergis, Palaescepsis, Sigaeum, Chrysa, Halesium, Assus, Gargara, Antandrus, Cilia, Adramyttium, Thebe ; 3, On the shore of the Hellespont : Linum, Pityea, Parium, Per cote, Arisbe. 19. The northwestern boundary of Mysia is the Helles pontus, now Straits of the Dardanelles or of Gallipoli, the long narrow strait connecting the Pro;^ontis with the Aegaean sea, and through which the waters of the Pontus Euxinus discharge themselves into the Mediterranean in a constant current. The length of the strait is about 50 famous ? 14. How is Pergamus noted in ecclesiastical history ? 15. "Where was Abydos, and how noted in history ? 16. Where was Scepsis, how famed in literary history, and noted as the birthplace of whom ? 17. Where and what was Lamp saous, and for what celebrated? Birthplace of whom? 18. What other note worthy places in Mysia ? 19. "Wliere and what was the Hellespont, how nbied, ASIA MINOE. 197 miles, and the width varies from 6 mUes at the upper end to two at the lower, and at some places it is only one mile wide, or even less. The narrowest part is between the an cient cities of Sestos and Abydos, where Xerxes made his bridge of boats, and where the legend related that Leander, swam across to visit Hero. The name of the Hellespont, (i, e., the sea of Helle,) was derived from the story of HeUe's being drowned in it. The HeUespont was the boundary of Europe and Asia, di"vidmg the Thracian Cher sonese in the former from the Ti-oad and the territories of Abydos and Lampsacus in the latter. The district just mentioned, on the S. side ofthe Hellespont, was also caUed 'EU^oTToiT-os, its inhabitants 'EXXijo-Trdn-tot, and the cities on its coast 'EAA.r;(7jrdiTtai TrdActs. ISLANDS OPP THE COAST OP MTSIA. 20. Off the coast of Mysia lay the islands of Lesbos. Tenedos, Lemnos, and Imbros. 21. Lesbos, also caUed Mytilene after its capital city, now Metelin, the largest and by far the most impor tant of the islands of the Aegaean along the coast of Asia Minor, lay opposite the gulf of Adramyttium, the direction of its length being N. W. and S. E. It is intersected by lofty mountains and indented by large bays. Its vaUeys were very fertUe, especially in the N. part near Methymna ; and it produced corn, oil, and wine renowned for its excel lence. 22. In early times this island was caUed by various names, the chief of which were, Issa, Pelasgia, Mytanis, and Macaria: the late Greek writers called it MytUene, fi-om its chief city, and this name has been preserved to modern times. The earliest reputed inhabitants were Palasgians, the next, an Ionian colony, who were said to have settled in it two generations before the Trojan War ; lastly, at the time ofthe great AeoUc migration, (130 years after the Trojan war, according to the mythical chron ology,) the island was colonized by Aeolians, who founded in it an HexapoUs, consisting of the six cities, MytUene, Methymna, Eresus, Pyrrha, Antissa, and Arisbe. 23. Mytilene was the scene of the struggles between the nobles and the commons, in which Alcaeus and Pittacus its name whence derived? 20. "What islands oft' tho coast of Mysia? 21. What and whero was Lesbos, what was the nature of its surface, and what were its pro ducts? 22. "What other names had it, by whom was it colonized, and what were 198 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. took part, and which resulted in the expulsion of the nobles, MeanwhUe the city had grown to great importance as a naval power, and had founded colonies on the coasts of Mysia and Thrace. After experiencing various fortunes, it feU under the power of the Romans after the Mithridatic war. It was the birthplace of the lyric poets Alcaeus, and Sappho. 24. Methymna, the second city of the island, stood at its north extremity, and had a good harbor. It was the birthplace of the musician and dithyrambic poet Arion, and of the historian Hellanicus. The celebrated Lesbian wine grew in its neighborhood. 25. Antissa, on the W. coast, -with a harbor, was originally on a smaU island opposite Lesbos, which was afterwards united with Lesbos. Terpander, the father of Greek music, was born here. 26. Eresus or Eressus, on the W. coast ofthe island, was the birthplace of Theophrastus and Phanias, and, ac cording to some, of Sappho. 27. Tenedos, still bearing the same name, was 12 miles distant from the mouth of the Hellespont, 5 mUes from the coast of the Troad, and 7 miles from Lesbos : its circuit was 10 miles. It appears in the legend of the Trojan war as the station to which the Greeks withdrew their fleet, in order to induce the Trojans to think that they had de parted, and to receive the wooden horse. In the Persian war it was used by Xerxes as a naval station. 28. Lemnos, now Stalimene, one ofthe largest islands in the Aegaean sea, was situated nearly midway between Mt. Athos and the HeUespont, and about 22 miles S. W. of Imbros. Its area is about 147 square mUes. 29. Lemnos was sacred to Hephaestus, (Vulcan,) who is said to have feUen here when Zeus hurled him down from Olympus. Hence the workshop of the god is some times placed in this island. The legend appears to have arisen from the volcanic nature of Lemnos, which possessed in antiquity a volcano called Mosychlus. The island stiU bears traces of having been subject to the action of volcanic fire, though the volcano has long since disappeared. 30. Several interesting historical legends, which cannot itscities? 23. Por what is Mytilene noted ? Of whom was it the birthplace? 24. "What and where was Methymna, and the birthplace of whom? 25. "Where was Antissa, and whose birthplace was it? 26, -Where was Eresus, and whose birth place? 27. Where was Tenedos, and noted for what? 28. Where was Lemnos, and what Its size? 29. How is Lemnos noted in my thology ? 30. History records ASIA MUSrOE. 199 be recorded here, are connected with this island. It was conquered by one ofthe generals of Darius ; but Miltiadea delivered it from the Persians and made it subject to Athens, in whose power it remained for a long time. 31. In the earUest times Lemnos appears to have con tained only one town, which bore the same name as tho island ; but at a later period we read of two towns. My r in a (Palaeo Castro) on the W. ofthe island, and Hephaestia or Hephaestias on the N. W. -with a harbor. 32. Imbros, now Imbro or Imbrus, near the Thracian Chersonesus, was about 18 miles S. E. of Samothrace, and about 22 N. E. of Lemnos. It is about 25 mUes in circum ference, and is hiUy, but contains many fertile valleys. There was a town ofthe same name on the E. ofthe island, of which there are stiU some ruins. 2. — Iiydia. 1. Lydia was in the middle ofthe W. side of Asia Minor, between Mysia on the N. and Caria on the S., and between Phrygia on the E. and the Aegean sea on the W. Its boundaries varied so much at different times, that they cannot be described with any approach to exactness tUl we come to the time of the Roman rule over W. Asia. At that time the N. boundary, towards Mysia, was the moun tain-range which forms the N. margin of the valley of the Hermus, caUed Sardene, a S. W. branch of the Phrygian Olympus : the E. boundary towards Phrygia was an imagi nary line : and the S. boundary towards Caria was the river Maeander. These boundaries include Ionia. 2. In early times the country was caUed Maeonia, by which name alone it is kno"wn to Homer ; who caUs the in habitants Maeones. In the mythical legends the common name ofthe people and country, Lydi and Lydia, is derived fi-om Lydus, the son of Atys, the first king. The Lydians appear to have been a race closely connected with the Car nans and the Mysians, -with whom they observed a common worship in the temple of Zeus Carius at Mylasa : they also practised the worship of Cybele, (Rhea,) and other Phrygian customs. 3. Amidst the uncertainties of the ancient legends it is ^^^tchanges in the government of this island? 31. "What to-wns in Lemnos? 32. Where was Imbros — how large — what its soil — what town had it ? 1. "WTiere was Lydia, and how bounded ? 2. "What was the reputed origin of the 200 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. clear that Lydia was a very early seat of Asiatic civUization, and that it exerted a very important influence on the Greeks. 4. Tradition mentioned three dynasties of kings : the Atyddae, which ended about b. c. 1221 ; the Heraclidae, which reigned 505 years, down to 716 ; and the Merm- nddae, 160 years, down to 656. Only the last dynasty can be safely regarded as historical, and the fabulous element has a large place in the details of their history. Of this dynasty Croesus "was the last king : during his reign the Lydian monarchy was overthrown by Cyrus, b. c. 556. 5. Under the flve kings of the last dynasty the Lydians appear to have been a highly civilized, industrious, and wealthy people, practising agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, and acquainted with various arts, and exer cising, through their intercourse with the Greeks of Ionia, an important influence on the progress of Greek civUization. Among the inventions, or improvements, which the Greeks are said to have derived from them, were the weaving and dyeing of fine fabrics ; various processes of metaUurgy ; the use of gold and silver money, which the Lydians are said to have been the first to coin, the former from the gold found on Tmolus and from the golden sands of the Pactolus ; and various metrical and musical improvements, especially the scale or mode of music caUed the Lydian, and the form of the lyre called the magadis. 6. The high civilization of the Lydians was, however, combined with a lax moraUty, and, after the Persian con quest, when they were forbidden by Cyrus to carry arms, they sank gradually into a by-word for effeminate luxurious- ness, and their very name and language had almost entirely disappeared by the commencement of our era. 7. Under the Persians Lydia and Mysia formed the sec ond satrapy : after the Macedonian conquest Lydia be longed first to the kings of Syria, the Seleucidae, and next, (after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the Romans,) to those of Pergamus, and so passed by the bequest of Attains ni. to the Romans, under whom it formed part of the province of Asia. 8. The principal mountain-ranges of Lydia were : — 1, name and of the inhabitants ofthe country ? "What other name had the country ? 3. "What may be regarded as certain as respects the civilization of Lydia ? 4. How many, and what dynasties of Lydian kings does tradition mention ? 5. "Un der these kings, what was the character and condition of the Lydians? 6. "What was tho later character of the Lydians ? 7. What was the fate of Lydia after the Persian conquest and later? 8. "What were the principal mountain-ranges of ASIA MINOE. 201 Tmolus, o T/xu)\os, a continuation of the Taurus chain, which, coming in from Phrygia under the name of Mes- sfigis, assumes in Lydia the shape of a yoke, turning first northward, and then again, at Sardis, southward, in the di rection ofthe Sipylus, of considerable height, but exceed ingly fruitful and abounding in vineyards; 2, Sipylus, a continuation or branch of Tmolus. 9. The chief rivers of Lydia were: — 1, The Her mus, now Gediz Tchai, forming, in its course, a perfect sickle; 2, The Cayster, now Euchouk Mendere or the Little Maeander; 3, The Maeander, now Mendere, forming the Southern boundary. CrriES IN LTDIA EXCLUSIVE OP IONIA. 10. Among the cities of Lydia Proper Oi- Lydia exclusive of Ionia, Sardes or Sardis was the mosi important, and the capital of the country. Its ruins are now called Sart. It stood on the S. edge of the rich valley of the Hermus, at the N. foot of Mt. Tmolus, on the Uttle river Pactolus, about 4 J mUes S. of the junction of that river with the Hermus. 11. Sardis was one of the earUest seats of the Christian religion, and one of the 7 churches of the province of Asia, which are named in the Apocalypse ; but the Apostle's language impUes that the church at Sardis had already sunk into almost hopeless decay. Under the Persian and Greco-Syrian empire, it was the residence of the satrap of Lydia. 12. To the S. E. of the foregoing was Philadelphia, noted as one of the seven churches. 13. Near the river Hermus and close by Mount Sipylus was Magnesia ad Sipylum, Ma-yv>;o-ta mo'%nriXw,now Magnisa or Manissa, celebrated for the signal -rictory gained by the Romans under L. Scipio over Antiochus, B. c. 190. There was another Magnesia near the Maeander, caUed Magnesia ad Maeandrum. 14. Larissa, surnamed Ephesia, to distinguish it from other cities of this name, was situated in the plain of the Cayster, on the N. side of the Messogis, N. E. of Ephesus, noted for a celebrated temple of ApoUo Larissa^us. Lydia? 9. Name and point out the principal rivers of Lydia? 10. "Where and what was Sardis ? 11. How is Sardis noted in ecclesiastical history. "VSTiat was it after the overthrow ot the Lydian monarchy ? 12. Where was Philadelphia, and how noted ? 13. Where was Magnesia ad Sipylum, and for what noted? 14. 9* 202 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 15, Other places of some note in Lydia Proper were Hypaepa, Hierocaesarea, Metropolis, Thyatira, famous for its purple fabrics and the refinement of its in habitants: it was one of the seven churches : Apollonia, with a celebrated temple of Apollo, andnearit ApoUonis, S.— Ionia. 1. Ionia lay along the coast of Lydia and Caria. The length of coast occupied by the Ionian settlements is esti mated by Strabo at 3,430 stadia, about 427 miles, including aU the sinuosities ofthe different bays by which it is indented. The distance by land in a straight line is much smaller, only about 100 miles. It extended from the Cumaeus Sinus, Bay of Foggia Nova, on the N. to Posidium Promontorium and the Sinus Bargylietes, G. of Mendelyah, on the S. The ex tent of territory possessed by the Ionian States on the land side was narrowly circumscribed by a chain of mountains extending from the Hermus to the Caystrus. This ridge, known to the ancients under the celebrated names of Sipylus and Tmolus, formed the natural separation between them and the plains of Lydia. Beyond the Caystrus M. Messogis ranged along the remainder of the Ionian coast tUl it terminated in the promontory of Mycale : then fol lows the mouth ofthe Maeander and the territory of Mi letus, circumscribed by that river, and the bay and moun tain of Latmos. 2. The mythical account of" the great Ionic migration " relates that, in consequence of the disputes between the sons of Codrus, king of Athens, about the succession to his government, his younger sons, Neleus and Androclus, resolved to seek a new home beyond the Aegean Sea. At tica was at the time over-peopled by numerous exUes, whom the great revolution, known as " the return of the HeracUdae," had driven out of their own states, the chief of whom were the lonians who had been expelled from Peloponnesus by the Dorian invaders. A large portion of this superfluous population went forth as Athenian colonists under the leadership of Androclus and Neleus, and of other chieftains of other races, and settled on that part of the W. shores of Asia Minor which formed the coast of Lydia and "Where was Larissa, and for what noted ? 15. "What other places of note in Lydia Proper ? 1. Where was Ionia, aud what was its extent ? 2. "What is the tradition re. ASLA MINOE, 203 part of Caria, and also in tho adjacent islands of Chios and Samos, and in the Cyclades. The mythical chronology places this great movement 140 years after tho Trojan war, or 60 years after the return of the HeracUdae, i. e. in B. c. 1060 or 1044, according to the two chief dates im.agin- ed for the Trojan war. Passing from mythology to his tory, the earliest authentic records show us the existence of twelve great cities on the above-named coast, claim ing to be, though some of them only partially, of Ionic origin, and aU united in one confederacy, simUar to that of the twelve ancient Ionian cities on the N, coast of the Peloponnesus, 3. The name of the twelve cities, going from S. to N., were Miletus, MyHs, Priene, Samos, (city and island,) Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, Erythrae, Chios, (city and island,) Clazomenae, and Phocaea; the first three on the coast of Caria, the rest on that of Lydia. The city of Smyrna, which lay within this dis trict, but was of AeoUc origin, was afterwards (about b. c, 700) added to the Ionian confederacy, 4. The common sanctuary of the league was Panionium, a sanctuary of Poseidon HeUconius, on the N, side of the promontory of Mycale, opposite to Samos ; and here was held the great national assembly of the confederacy, called Panionia, CITIES IN IONIA, 5. Miletus, one of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, belonging territoriaUy to Caria and poUticaUy to Ionia, stood upon the S. headland of the Sinus Latmicus, opposite to the mouth of the Maeander, and possessed four distinct harbors, protected by a group of islets, called Lade, Dro- misous, and Perne. It became, in consequence, a great commercial city, and sent out many colonies. 6. The first Greek colonists of Miletus were said to have been Cretans who were expelled by Minos : the next were led to it by Neleus at the time of the so-caUed Ionic migration. Miletus is celebrated as the birthplace of the phUosophers Thales and Anaximander, and of the historians Hecataeus and Cadmus, the latter being the reputed inventor of prose writing. specting the settlement of Ionia, and what is the account found in the first au thentic records ? 3. "What were the names of the 12, or rather 13, confederated Ionian cities ? 4. "What was common to this league, and what was held there ? 6. "Where was Miletus, how situated for commerce ? 6. By whom was Miletus 204 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 7. My"iis, the least city of the Ionian confederacy, stood on the S. side of the Maeander, about 4 mUes from its mouth, and very near Miletus. Its original site was proba bly at the mouth of the river ; but as this was, in the course of time, choked up with mud, the site gradually be came an unhealthy marsh, infested by immense numbers of mosquitoes. The consequence was, that by the time of Augustus it was so deserted by its inhabitants, that the few who remained were reckoned as citizens of MUetus. 8. Priene stood in the N. W. corner of Caria, at the S. foot of M. Mycale, and on the N. side of the Sums Latmi cus. It stood originaUy on the sea-shore, and had two har bors and a small fleet, but the change in the coast by the alluvial deposits of the Maeander left it 40 stadia (5 miles) inland. 9. Priene was of much reUgious importance in connec tion with the Panioniau festival on M. Mycale, at which the people of Priene took precedence in virtue of their being the supposed descendants of those of Helice in Greece Proper. The city was also celebrated as the birthplace of Bias. For Samos and Chios, see islands offthe coast. 10. Ephesus, of which the ruins are near Ayasaluk, the chief of the twelve Ionian cities, was said to have been founded by Carians and Leleges, and to have been taken possession of by Androclus, the son of Codrus, at the time of the great Ionian migration. It stood a little S. ofthe river Cayster, near its mouth, where a marshy plain, extending S. from the river, is bounded by two hUls, Prion or Lepre on the E., and Coressus on the S. 11. In the plain to the N. E; of the city, beyond its waUs, stood the celebrated temple of Artemis, which was built in the sixth century b. c, by an architect named Chersiphron, and after being burned down by Herostratus in the night on which Alexander the Great was born, (Oct. 13-14, B. c. 356,) was restored by the joint efforts of all the Ionian States, and was regarded as one of the wonders of the world : nothing now remains of the temple, except some traces of its foundations. 12. Ephesus was greatly favored by its Greek rulers, colonized ? It was celebrated as the birthplace of whom ? 7. "Where was MyUs, how situated, and what became of it ? 8. "Where was Priene, and "what change did it experience ? 9. Prom what did its importance chiefly arise, and whgse birthplace was it ? - 10. Ephesus said to have been founded by whom, stood where ? 11. To what structure in its immediate vicinity was Ephesus chiefly indebted for its fame ? 12. "What was the condition of Ephesus under its Greek riilera and ASIA MTNOE. 205 especiaUy by Lysimachus, who greatly advanced its pros perity. Attains n. PhUadelphus constructed docks for it and improved its harbors. Under the Romans it was the capital of the province of Asia, and by far the greatest city of Asia Minor. 13. Ephesus is conspicuous in the early history of the Christian church, both St. Paul and St. John having labored in it, and addressed epistles to the church of Ephesus ; and at one time its bishop possessed the rank and power of a patriarch over the chm-ches in the province of Asia. The philosopher HeracUtus and the painter Parrhasius were born at Ephesus. 14. Colophon, said to have been founded by Mopsus, a grandson of Tiresias, stood about 2 mUes from the coast, on the river Hales, which was famous for the coldness of its water, between Lebedus and Ephesus, about 15 mUes from the former, and not quite 8 miles from the latter : its har bor was called Notium. 15. It was one of the most powerful members of the Ionian confederacy, possessing a considerable fleet and ex cellent cavalry ; but it suffered greatly in war, being taken at different times by the Lydians, the Persians, Lysimachus, and the CUician pirates. Lysimachus may be said to have destroyed the place, by depriving it of its inhabitants, with a view to the aggrandizement of Ephesus. 16. Besides claiming to be the birthplace of Homer, Colophon was the native city of the poet Hermesianax : the poets Mimnermus and Nicander, usuaUy caUed Colopho- nians, were in reaUty bom, the former at Smyrna, being descended from those Colophonians who reconquered Smyrna from the AeoUans : the latter at Claros near Colophon. _ 17. LSbedus, between Colophon and Teos, flourished chiefly by commerce, untU Lysimachus transplanted most of its inhabitants to Ephesus. 18. Teos stood on the S. side ofthe isthmus which con nects the peninsula of M. Mimas with the mainland of Lydia, at the bottom of the bay between the promontories of Corycium and Myonnesus. It was a flourishing seaport, under the Romans? 13. -What gives it importance in ecclesiastical history? Whbsebirthplace was it? 14. "Where was Colophon, said to have been founded 'By whom! 15. What was its position and its subsequent fate? 16. Whoso Mrthplaoe was Colophon ? 17. "where was Lebedus, and how distinguished ? 18. "Where and what was Teos, possessing what commercial advantages, and what 206 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT, untU, to free themselves from the Persian yoke, most ofthe inhabitants retired to Abdera in Thrace, 19. Teos was the birthplace ofthe poet Anacreon. 20. Erythrae, which stood at the bottom of a large bay, on the W. side of the peninsula which lies opposite Chios, contained a temple of Hercules and Athene PoUas, remarkable fOr its antiquity. 21. Clazomenae, one of the weaker members of the Ionian league, lay on the N. coast of the Ionian peninsula, upon the gulf of Smyrna, It had a considerable commerce, and was celebrated for its temples of Apollo, Artemis and Cybele, and still more as the birthplace of Anaxagoras, 22, Phocaea, the ruins of which are caUed Earaja- Fohia, i. e. Old Fokia, S. W. of Fouges or New Fokia, the northernmost of the Ionian cities, stood at the W. ex tremity of the tongue of land which divides the Sinus Elai ticus (Gulf of Fouges) on the N. from the Sinus Hermaeus ( G. of Smyrna) on the S. It was said to have been found ed by Phocian colonists under PhUogenes and Damon. 23. Admirably situated, and possessing two excellent harbors, Naustathmus and Lampter, Phocaea became cele brated as a great maritime state, and especially as the founder of the most distant Greek colonies towards the W., namely Massilia in Gaul, and the stiU more distant, though far less celebrated, city of Maenaca in Hispania Baetica. 24. After the Persian conquest of Ionia, Phocaea had so decUned, that she could furnish only three ships to support the great Ionian revolt; but the spirit of her people could not be extinguished : when the common cause was hopeless, and their city was besieged by Harpalus, they embarked, to seek new abodes in the distant W., and bent their course to their colony of Aetalia in Corsica. During the voyage, however, a portion of the emigrants, having become home sick, resolved to return to their native city, which they re stored, and which recovered much of its prosperity, as is. proved by the rich booty gained by the Romans, when they brutaUy plundered it under the praetor AemiUus, after -\phich it does not appear as a place of any consequence in history. 25. Smyrna, stUl retaining its ancient name, and called temple ? 19. "Whose native place was Teos ? 20. Where was Erythrae, and re markable for what ? 21. Where was Clazomenae, celebrated for what ? 22. Whore was Phocaea, and said to have been founded by whom ? 23. How was it situated, thus becoming celebrated for what ? 24. "What became of the city after ASIA MINOE. 207 in Turkish Izmir, one of the most ancient and flourishing cities of Asia Minor, and the only one ofthe great cities on its W. coast which has survived to this day, stood in a posi tion alike remarkable for its beauty and for other natural advantages. Lying just about the centre of the W. coast of Asia Minor ; on the banks of the little river Meles, at the bottom of a deep bay, the Sinus Hermaeus or Smyrnaeus, (G. of Smyrna,) which formed a safe and immense harbor for the largest ships up to the very waUs of the city ; at the foot of the rich slopes of Tmolus and at the entrance to the great and fertUe vaUey ofthe Hermus, in which lay the great and wealthy city of Sardis ; and in the midst of the Greek colonies on the E". shore of the Aegean, it was mark ed out by nature as one of the greatest emporiums for the trade between Europe and Asia, and has preserved that character to the present day. 26. Smyrna was probably an Aeolian colony from Cyme. At an early period it feU, by a stratagem, into the hands of the lonians of Colophon, and remained an Ionian city from that time forth. 27. This city occupies a distinguished place in the early history of Christianity, as one of the only two among the seven churches (the other being that of PhUadelphia) of Asia which St. John addresses without any admixture of rebuke, and as the scene of the labors and martyrdom of Polycarp. 28. In addition to all its other sources of renown, Smyrna stood at the head ot the cities which claimed the birth of Homer. The poet was worshipped as a hero in a magnifi cent building caUed the Homereum, ('Op.i^paov.) 29. As already remarked, the islands of Samos and Chios lay off the coast of Lydia, and near the former that of Icaria. ISLANDS OPP THE COAST OP L"TDIA. 30. Samos, now Samo, one of the principal islands of the Aegaean sea, lay in that portion of it called the Icarian sea, and was separated from the coast of Ionia only by a narrow strait formed by the overlapping of its E. promon tory Posidium ( C. Colonna) "with the westernmost spur of the Persian conquest? 25. "What and where was Smyrna, and what were the na tural advantages of its situation? 26. What was its probable origin, and how did. it become an Ionian city? 27. How is Smyrna noted in ecclesiastical history? 28. How is it distinguished in connection with the classical literature of the Greeks? 29. What islands off the coast of Lydia? 30. What and where was 208 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. M. Mycale, Pr. TrogiUum, (C. S. Maria.) This strait, which is little more than three-quarters of a mUe wide, was the scene ofthe battle of Mycale, 31, The island is formed by a range of mountains ex tending from E. to W., whence it derived its name ; for %dpovXot, of all races (the genuine old form, the other in -tot is later.) Besides the aboriginal inhabitants, of the Semitic (Syro-Arabian) family, and CiUcianS, there were very early Greek settlers and later Greek colonies in the land. Tradition ascribed the first Greek settlements to Mopsus, after the Trojan war, from whom the country was, in early times, called Mopsopia. 5. Pamphylia was successively a part of the Persian, Macedonian, Graeco-Syrian, and Pergamene kingdomSj and passed by the -wUl of Attains HI. to the Romans, b. c. 130, under whom it was made a province ; but this prov ince of Pamphylia included also Pisidia and Isauria, and afterwards a part of Lycia. Under Constantine Pisidia was again separated from Pamphylia. CITIES IN PAMPHYLIA. 6. Olbia was a fortress on the W. frontier ofthe coun try, on the coast, W. of the river Catarrhactes ; probably on the same site as the later Attalia. 7. Attalia, probably occupying, as has just been said, the site, now Laara, of the more ancient Olbia, was founded by Attains IL, PhUadelphus, and subdued by the Romans under P. ServUius Isauricus. 8. Sida or Side, the ruins of which are caUed by the Turks Eski Adalia, on the coast, a Uttle W. of the river Melas, was an AeoUan colony from Cyme in AeoUs, and was the chief seat of the worship of Athena, who is repre sented in its coins holding a pomegranate (ow, the Borysthenes, Dnieper, the Ily Tpan'is, Boug, and the Tyras, Dniester. The coast of the Euxine was colonized by the Greeks; but ofthe interior, the names of the Scythian or Sarmatian tribes alone are recorded. 3. The chief of the Sarmatian tribes were: 1, the Tauri, in Chersonesus Taurica, Crimea; 2 and 3, the Roxolani and lazyges, N. ofthe Palus Maeotis, or Sea of Azof; 4, the Bastarnae, between the Tyras and Borysthenes ; 5, the Neuri, N. of them, between the Vis tula and Borysthenes; 6, the Budeni, still' farther N. ; 7, the Venedae, on the shores of the Baltic; 8, the Agathyrsi to the N. E. ; 9, the Alauni, between the upper courses of the. Tanais and Borysthenes; and 10, the Hamaxobii, to the S. of them. 4. The chief towns were : 1. On the Pontus Euxinus ; a, Tyras, at the mouth ofthe river ofthe same name, proba bly on the site of the modern Ackjermann ; b, Olbia, Olbiopolis, or Miletopolis, now Eudak, near the mouth of the Borysthenes and at its junction with the Hy- panis, a Milesian colony ; c, Tanais, of which the ruins are at Eassatchei, at the head of the Palus Maeotis. 2. The following three in the Chersonesus; a, Panticapaeum., now Eertsch, on the Cimmerian Bosporus, a MUesian colony, the capital of an independent state in these parts ; b, Theodosia on the eastern; and c, Chersonesus, founded by the inhabitants of the Pontic Heraclea, on the western coast. This completes our brief survey of the geography of Europe, as known to the ancients ; and it wUl be proper for us now to present a similar sketch of that part of Asia called Asia Major, from which that part which we have already considered in ample detaU is distinguished by the name of Asia Minor. Proceeding eastward from the Euxine toward the Caspian, we begin with Colchis, Iberia, and -Albania. rivers, by whom were the coasts ofthe Euxine colonized? 3. Name the chief tribes of Sarmatia, and point out their places of abode. 4. What were the chief to"wns, and where? ASIA MAJOE. 279 CHAPTER V. ASIA MAJOR. i.— Colchis, Iberia, and *llbania. 1. These three countries occupied the high ground be tween the Pontus Euxinus and the Mare Caspium, Colchis, now Mingrelia, being adjacent to the former, Albania, now Baghestan, and Shirvan, to the latter, and Iberia, now Georgia, between the two. 2. Colchis was bounded on the W. by the Euxine, on the N. by M. Caucasus, on the E. by Iberia, and on the S. by the Acampsis, (loruk-Su) On the S. and S. W. the boundaries were somewhat indefinite, and were often con sidered to extend as far as Trapezus, (Trebizond) With the exception of the maritime plain, it is mountainous ; the valleys yielded fiax, the manufacture of which was the chief employment of the people. . 3. The chief river is the Phasis, Rion or Faz, which flows with a westerly course into the Euxine. Colchis is best known to us from its connection with the Argonautio expedition; the town of Aea was supposed to have been there ; it is, however, very unUkely that the Argonauts really saUed so far. The chief towns in historical times were the Grecian colonies of Dioscurias and Phasis, also caUed Sebastopolis, although this is denied by some writers. 4. Iberia, S.part ofthe modern Georgia, in the centre of the isthmus between the Euxine and the Caspian, was bound ed ou the N. by the Caucasus, on the W.by Colchis, on the E. by Albania, and on the S. by Armenia. It was surrounded on every side by mountains, through which there were only four passes. Sheltered by these mountains, and watered by the Cyrus (Eour) and its upper tributaries, it was famed for a fertUity of which its modern name (from Viwpyo%) remains a witness. It was fertUe in grain, oil, and wine. 1. "What region did Colchis, Iberia, and Albania occupy? 2. How was Colchis hounded, ha-ving what sort of surface, and noted for what product? 3. "What was the chief river, from what ia Colchis best kno'wn to ua, what were the chief towns in historical times ? 4. How waa Iberia bounded, for what famed, fertile in what ? 280 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 5. The chief town was Harmozica, now Armassi, on the right bank of the Cyrus. The Iberes or Iberi were, and are stiU, among the most perfect specimens of the Cau casian race. They were divided into castes, and were more civUized than the Colchians and Albanians. A fortified pass crossed M. Caucasus out of this province towards the N, which was called Caucasiae, Sarmaticae, and some times Caspiae Pylae. 6. Albania, Schirwan, Daghestan, in the S. E. part of Georgia, was bounded E. by the M. Caspium, W. by Iberia, by the rivers Cyrus and Araxes on the S., and by M. Ce- raunius on the N. The range of Caucasus penetrates through the central region to the very shores of the Cas pian, leaving broad and fertile plains on either side. 7. The Cyrus, Eour, is the chief river : it rises in the Moschici Montes, receives numerous important tributaries, particularly the Cambyses, lora or 'Yori, with the Ala- zonius, Alazan, on its left, and the Araxes, Eraskh or Aras on its right bank, and discharges itself into the Cas pian Sea. The pass across Caucasus, named Albaniae Pylae, was near Derbend. The Albanians, a Scythian tribe, were a numerous, fierce, and warlike people, particu larly strong in cavalry. 8. These countries, at least Colchis and Iberia, were nominaUy subject, at first to Persia, and afterwards to Rome ; in reality they were aU independent. 2.— Armenia, 1. Armenia was divided iato Armenia Major, and Armenia Minor. The former, called Armenia Pro pria, comprising Erzeroum, Ears, Van, and Erivan, was bounded on the N. E. and N. by the Cyrus, which divided it from Albania and Iberia ; on the N. W. and N. by the Moschici Mountains and the Euphrates, Phrat, which divid ed it from Colchis and Armenia Minor ; on the S. and S. E. by the mountains caUed Masius, Niphates, and Gordiaei, (the prolongation of the Taurus,) and the lower course of the 5. "What was the chief town, what ia said ofthe Iberians, what pass in the N. ! 6. How was Albania bounded 1 It is penetrated by what mountains ? 7 Wbat was the chief river, and what its course, what pass acroas Caucasus, what the character of the Albanians? 8. What is aaid of the political position of these countries? 1. How waa Armenia divided, and how^ -was each part reapectlvely bounded ? ASIA MAJOE. 281 Araxes, which divided it from Mesopotamia, Assyi-ia, and Media. It stiU retains its ancient name. 2. ArmSnia Minor, was bounded on the E. by the Euphrates ; on the N. and N. W. by the mountains Scoe- dices, Paryadres, and Anti-Taurus, dividing it from Pontus and Cappadocia, and on the S. by the Taurus, dividing it from Commagene in N. Syria, so that it contained the coun try E. and S. of the city of Siwas, as far as the Euphrates and the Taurus. 3. Armenia Major or Propria consists of a highly elevated plateau, surrounded on aU sides by mountains, and containing the sources of some of the largest rivers of Asia. The northern range was named Abus, Ak Dagh, the highest point of which is the Ararat of Scripture, on which the Ark rested after the deluge. The southern range, named Niphates, Balan, runs in nearly a straight line from M. Taurus to'the Caspian Sea, and in its eastern extremity was known asCaspiusMons. 4. The riversare, a, the Euphrates, O. T. Phrat, now El Phrat, which is formed by two confiuent streams, rising, the one in M. Abus, the other in M. Scoedises ; b, the Tigris, the Hiddekel of Scripture, which rises in the western parts ofthe province, not far from the valley ofthe Euphrates, and runs towards the E. in its upper course ; and c, the Araxes, also caUed Phasis in its upper course, and in Scripture Pison, now Aras, which rises to the N. of M. Abus, and joins the Cyrus not far from its mouth. There is a large lake in the S., named Arsissa,^. Van. 5. The cUmate is generally severe, the high ranges being covered with snow for the greater part of the year ; the vaUeys, however, enjoy a warm, and some an exces- Bively hot temperature. The soU in the latter was very productive ; the mountains were rich in minerals, iron, copper, and gold. 6. The territorial divisions of Armenia, though nu merous, are unimportant. The chief towns were Ar- taxata on the Araxes, built by Artaxias, the founder of the Armenian kingdom, and burnt down by the Romans, under Corbulo ; and Tigranocerta onJ;he Tigris, (already mentioned elsewhere,) buUt by Tigranes as his capital. 2. How was Armenia Minor bounded ? 3. Of what doea Armenia Major consiat, and by what mountains is it surrounded? 4. What are the rivera of Armenia, how called in Scripture ? What lake in the B. ? 5. What is said of the climate, the soil, and" of the" productions of the mountains ? 6. What is said of the territo- 282 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 7. Armenia underwent various poUtical changes : it was at one time under the Assyrians : it formed part of the Persian, Median, and Macedonian empires : it separated from the Syrian dynasty of the Seleucidae, b. c. 189, and remained independent until 5 b. c, when the Romans and Parthians contended for it, the former ultimately pre vailing. ^.-Jflesopotamia. 1. Mesopotamia, in the O. T. Aram Naharaim, i. e. Syria between the rivers, in the Septuaginta, Meo-oirora/tta %vpia'i, now El lesira, i. e. The Island, named from its posi tion between the two great rivers of this region, was bounded by the Tigris on the E., the Euphrates on the W., the Median wall on the S., and Mons Masius on the N. It consists of an extensive plain, arid and unfruitful towards the S., but in other parts fertile and adapted for pastoral purposes : the sides of M. Masius yielded timber ; in the S., or desert part, there were numerous wild animals, such as wUd asses, gazelles, ostriches, and lions. 2. There are two considerable tributaries to the Eu phrates, the Bellas and theChaboras, Chabur, with its affluent, the Mygdonius, lakjakjah. 3. Mesopotamia is interesting to us from its connection with Scripture history: it formed that part of Aram which was distinguished, as above, by the addition of Na haraim: " Ur of the Chaldees," the native place of Abraham, was here, though its position is somewhat doubt ful: Har an is identified with CarrAae on the Belias : the river Chebar is probably the Chaboras : Carchemish, where Pharaoh Necho engaged with Nebuchadnezzar, is the same as Circesium at the mouth of the Chaboras; Sarug is probably Batnae; and Zoba is by some con sidered to have been the town of Nisibis, in the N. E. of the province. . 4. The chief towns were, a, Nisibis, (the ruins near Nisibin,) the capital of a district named Mygdonia, (about the sources ofthe Mygdonius;) 5, Edessaor Callirhoe rial divisions of Armenia, and what of the chief towns ? 7. Through what political changes did Armenia pass ? 1. How was Mesopotamia bounded, what sort of country is it ? 2. "What con siderable tributaries has the Euphrates? 3. What renders Mesopotamia particu larly interesting? What is saidof the places found in it? 4. "Wlat were the chief towns? ASIA MAJOE. 283 or Antiochia CallirhSo, tho capital of Osrhoene, and the seat of an independent kingdom from 137 b. c. to 216 A. D., of which Abgarus was king, about the BeUas ; it is now Urfah; c, Nicephdrium, orCallinicum, now Rakkah, on the Euphrates; andc?, Atra, Atrae,or Hatra,near the Tigris, now Hadr, S. W. oi Mosul. 4. — Babylonia. 1. Babylonia, now Arak Arabi, extended along the right (W.) bank of the Tigris from the Median wall, which separated it from Mesopotamia, to the Persian gulf: south wards it was bounded by the great Arabian desert, the Une of demarcation running parallel to the course of the Euphrates : it is an unbroken, alluvial plain, intersected by canals, with no wood or stone of any kind. As a provi sion for buUding it possesses, however, abundance of clay for bricks, and numerous springs of naphtha, which serve for cement. The soU is very rich. 2. The Euphrates and Tigris unite in this province, and are thenceforth called Pasitigris, Shat-el-Arab ; (some geographers, denying this, apply the name Pasitigris to quite a difierent river, probably the Earoon :) the quantity of aUuvial deposit brought down by them has considerably altered the point of junction and the coast of the Persian gulf. In order to regulate the fiow of these rivers, which were liable to periodical floods, and also to produce the irrigation necessary for the soil, numerous canals were formed, four of which crossed from the Tigris, near Se leucia, to the Euphrates : the chief of these was called Naarmalcha, i. e. the Royal River or the Eing^s Canal. A portion ofthe waters ofthe Euphrates was drawn ofi" by one named Naarsares into a large lake, and thence by another named Pallacopas, and by a series of lagoons, to the Persian gulf. 3. Babylonia had certain districts designated by par ticular names, such as Chaldaea, about the course of the Euphrates from Babylon to the sea: Messene in the upper part of the province ; and a second Messene about the mouth of the Pasitigris. In the Scripture the whole land is called Shinar. 1. How was Babylonia bounded? "What sort of country is it ? 2. WTiat rivers unite in thia province, producing what effect, and requiring what artificial means for regulating their nowl 3. How was Babylonia divided, the whole land how 284 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 4. The chief city was Baby"! on, the Babel of the Old Testament, (the ruins at and around Hillah) on the Euphrates, the most magnificent city of ancient Asia ; it extended on both banks of the river in the form of a square, each side of which was 15 miles in length ; the western quarter contained the temple of Belus, the ruins of which are now caUed Birs Nimroud, and the palace of Se miramis ; the eastern, the^alace of Nebuchadnezzar and the hanging gardens. Babylon was taken by Cyrus, b. c. 538. 5. The other important cities of Babylonia were, a, Seleucia ad Tigrin, also caUed S. Babylonia, S. As- syriae, and S. Parthorum, on the Tigris, was founded by Seleucus I. Nicator, and rose into importance after the fall of Babylon : it was weU situated for commercial pur poses : 6, Cunaxa, on the Euphrates, not far from the Median wall, famous for the battle fought here between the younger Cyrus and his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, in which the former was kUled 401. b. c. 6. The Babylonian empire extended, from 625 to 538 B. c, over the surrounding countries of Mesopotamia, Phoe nicia and Syria, to the border of Egypt. 5.—»Mssyria. 1. Assyria, now Eurdistan, in the proper and nar rowest sense, extended along the left (E.) bank of the Tigris, which divided it on the W. and N. W. from Meso potamia and Babylonia, and was bounded on the N. and E. by M. Niphates and M. Zagrus, which separated it from Armenia and Media, and on the S. E. by Susiana. 2. The northern districts are mountainous; the Gordi aei Montes run paraUel to the course of the Tigris for some distance, and in places hem it in between rocky bar riers. Zagrus sends out numerous lateral ridges towards the W., which graduaUy open as the range advances south wards, and finally decline into the broad plain which skirts ' the lower course of the Tigris. These ranges are now named the Mountains of Eurdistan and Louristan. 3. The rivers of -Assyria have a uniform course towards the S. W., and are aU tributary to the Tigris : the most important were, a, the Lycus, or Z aba tus. Great Zab : called in Scrijiture? 4. "SVhat and where wasthe chief city of Babylonia? 5. What other cities were in Babylonia, and how noted? 6. Over what countries did the Babylonian empire extend, during what period ? 1. How was Assyria bounded ? 2. "What is the face of the country? 3. "What ASIA MAJOE. 285 b,the Ga'pvns, Little Zab: c, tho Physcus, orTornod- otus, Odomeh; and d, the Gyndes, which it is very difficult to identify : perhaps it is tbe Eerah, perhaps the same as the Delas, or Silla, now the Diala, which falls into the Tigris just above Ctesiphon and Seleucia. 4. Assyria contains fertile valleys and plains, but is de ficient in wood, -with the exception of palms and cypresses. 5. The territorial di-visions worthy of notice are, a, Aturia, along the course of the Tigris immediately about Nineveh ; b, Adiabene, a more extensive district including the former, which reached from the Caprus to the sources of the Lycus ; and c, Gor dyene, on the border of Arme nia, where the Carduchi chiefly Uved. In Scripture this country is designated as Ashur. 6. The chief towns of Assyria were, a, Ninus, or Nineveh, the capital: it stood on the E. side ofthe Tigris, at the upper part of its course, opposite to where Mosul now is, in the district of Aturia. The walls formed a cir cumference of 60 miles and were 100 feet high. It was so thoroughly destroyed by Cyaxares 606 b. c, that its posi tion is rarely noticed by ancient writers: b, Larissa, or Resen, just above the junction of the Lycus : c, Ctesi phon, opposite Seleucia, one of the royal residences of the Parthian kings; and d, Arbela, a considerable place between the Caprus and the Lycus, the headquarters of Darius at the time of his final defeat by -Alexander : the battle itself took place at Gaugamela, on the banks of the Bumadus. 7. Assyria is the name of an empire as weU as a country : as such, it extended over Babylonia, Media, and Persia, and, under Shalmaneser, b. c. 730, over Israel and Phoenicia. It was subverted, by the Medes and Babylo nians 606 B. c. 6. — Persis. § 1. Under the title of Persis we include that portion ofthe old Persian monarchy, which, calledFars ov Farsistan in modern Persian and Arabic, and Persia in English, was bounded on the W. by M. Zagrus and the Tigris, on the S. by the Persian Gulf, on the N. by the Caspian Sea and were the rivers of Assyria ? 4. "What was the face of the country, and what is said of some of its productions ? 6. What territorial divisions worthy of notice ? 6. "What and where were the chief towns? 7. Of what else, extending over what countries, is Assyria the name ? .,„, , , 1. What is included under the title of Persis ? What distinctions were there ? 286 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. M. Paropamisus, and on the E. by the Indus. The east ern pro"vinces were sometimes distinguished by the collec-.- tive name Ariana : the western, on tbe other hand, received no general name. A brief notice of each of the provinces wUl suffice, as they are not often mentioned by classic writers. 1. Susiana. § 2. Susiana, now Efvuzistan, was bounded by the Tigris on the W., the Persicus Sinus and river Arosis on the S., the ranges of Parachoathras on the E., and Media on the N. § 3. The interior is mountainous : the maritime district an extensive sandy plain ; and the intermediate valleys fer tUe and beautiful. § 4. The chief rivers were the Choaspes, now the Eerah, Earoon, or Eara Su, and its tributary, the Eu- laeus, now Abzal, (some say this is the Earoon,) which unite below Susa and fiow into the Pasitigris. § 5. The capital was Susa or Shushan, on the Choas pes, the site of which is occupied, as recent travellers cer tify, by the town of Shuster, i. e. " Little Shush." 2. Media. § Q.'^ediia,now Irak- Ajemi, and Azerbi- jan, was bounded by the Cyrus, Araxes, and Caspius Mons on the N., M. Zagrus on the W., Susiana on the S., and Parthia and the great salt desert on the E., and Parthia, Hyrcania, and the Caspian on the N. E. § 7. This extensive province contains regions widely distinct in climate and character : the northern district of AtvoT^atene, Azerbijan, is mountainous and cold, with some fertUe spots, such as the shores of the large Lake of Spauta, ZPrumiy ah, whose waters were singularly bitter and acrid: the chief river in this part is the Amardus, Eizil- Ozien, which flo ws into the Caspian . MediaMagna is also mountainous, being intersected by the lateral ranges ofthe two great chains of M. Zagrus, Eurdistan, and M. Caspius, Elburz Mts., between which it lies. There are, however, some spacious plains, (particularly the Nisaei Campi, celebrated for a superior breed of horses,) and rich open valleys. Towards the S., the province enters upon the great sandy desert of central Persia. § 8. The chief towns were, a, Ecbatana, the Achmetha 2. How was Susiana bounded ? 3. What is the face of tho country ? ^- -What were the chief rivers? 6. What was the capital city? 6. How was' Media bounded ? 7. "What is the nature of thia province, what is tlie chief river and what mountain ranges and plain are there ? 8. What were tho chief towns ?' 9 "What ASIA MAJOE. 287 ofthe 0. T., Hamadan, in the southern district : b, Ragae, on the border of Hyrcania: c, Phraaspa or Vera, per haps more frequenty written Phraata, the winter resi dence of the Parthian kings, in the upper valley of the Amardus: and d, Gazaca, now Tabreez, in theN. of Atro- patene, the summer residence of the kings of Media. § 9. Media was an independent monarchy from the time of Dejoces, b. c. 708, to the conquest of Cyrus, b. c. 558, (150 years.) It extends westward into Asia Minor. 3. Persis Proper. § 10. Persis in the narrower sense, Farsistan, was bounded on the S. by the Persian Gulf, on the W. by the Parachoathras, dividing it from Susiana, on the E. by Carmania, and on the N. by Parthia. The upper part of the province, called Paraetaccne, isa sandy waste : the sea-coast is hot and swampy : the centre is broken up "with numerous ranges, running for the most part paraUel to the Persian Gulf, and enclosing beautiful vaUeys : the waters, not finding an outlet to the sea, coUect in lakes. § 11. The chief river was the Araxes, now Bend-Emir, which feeds the lake of Bakhtegan : not far from its left bank stood the capital, Persepolis, which was partly de stroyed by Alexander. Large ruins of this place are now to be seen at Takhti-Iemschid : Pasargadae, the burial- place of Cyrus and other Persian kings, is supposed to have been near the eastern boundary. The exact site is doubt- fid. 4. Carmania. § 12. Carmania, now Eerman, ad joined Persis along the shores of the Persian Gulf: it was bounded on the W. by Persis, on the N. by Parthia, on the E. by Gedrosia, and on the S. by the Persicus Sinus. § 13. The northern half, caUed C. Deserta, is a sandy, saline desert: the southern, caUed C. Propria, contains many rich oases and valleys between the ridges which fringe the central plateau of Persia, occupying the inter vening space between the desert and the sea. A portion of the coast is so fertUe in fruit, that it is now caUed the Paradise of Persia. § 14. Carmana, the capital, the ruins of which are was the political position of Media, during what period, extending how far? 10. How was Persis Proper bounded, and what sort of country is it ? 11. What waa the chief river, what and where the capital, destroyed by whom, what other noted city was where ? 12. Where was Carmania, how bounded ? 13. "What was and is the character of the country? 14. "What and where was the capital? 15. "Where 288 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. called Eerman, was situated in the centre of the province, in a fertUe oasis to the W. of the rich vaUey of Nurman- sheer. 5. Parthia. § 15. Parthia, Parthyaea, Par- t hi ene, part of what is now Ehorassan, lay to the N. of Persis and Carmania, between Media on the W. and Aria on the,E. and N. E. M. Labutas, a continuation of M. Cas pius, separated it on the N. from Hyrcania. It comprises the N. W. portion of the table-land of Persia, with which the ancients had Uttle acquaintance, and the moderns very little more. Only the N. part seems to have formed the proper country of the Parthi, a very warUke people of Scythian origin, especiaUy celebrated as horse-archers. § 16. The usual point of access from Media was by the CaspiaePortae, across a southern limb of the Elburz chain, somewhere in the neighborhood of Ragae. With the exception of the N. frontier, it is a flat, dry, barren steppe. The capital, named Hecatompylos, was situated near the base of M. Labutas, about 157 EngUsh mUes from the Caspiae Pylae or Portae. 6. Hyrcania. § 17. Hyrcania, now Mazanderan and Astrabad, occupied the S. and S. E. shores of the Mare Caspium, from the river Charindas to the Ochus. which formerly discharged itself into that sea. § 18. It is a mere maritime strip, hedged in on the S. by M. Labutas, very fertUe but unhealthy, and in ancient times much infested by -wUd beasts. 7. Aria. §19. .Aria, tbe eastern part of Ehorassan, was bounded on the N. by the Sariphi Montes separating it from Morgiana and Hyrcania, on the E. by the country of the Paropamisadae, on the S. and W. by sandy deserts. It consists of an extensive plain bounded on the N. and E. by high mountains. The latter contain some fertile valleys, and the plain occasional oases, but with these exceptions it is a mere desert. § 20. The chief river is the Arius or Arias, now Herirood, which probably in earlier ages flowed into the Caspian, but now loses itself in the sands : the capital was situated on its banks, and named Alexandria Ariana, was Parthia situated, comprising what ? "What is said of the Parthi ? 16. -What was the usual point of access from Media, what ia the character of the country, what and where the capital ? 17. "What regions did Hyrcania occupy ? 18. What sort of country is it, what people, famous for what, lived in the E. part, what and where was the capital ? 19. How was Aria bounded, consists of what, what is the character of the country ? 20. What was the chief river, which has undergone ASIA MAJOE. 289 now Herat, having been visited by Alexander on his march through this country, and probably enlarged by him. 8. Drangiana. § 21. Drangiana, now Sedjest&n or Seistan, was a portion of the table-land adjacent to Parthia and Carmania on the W., Gedrosia on the S., Aria on the N. and Arachosia on the E. It Ues in a depression of the plateau, the lowest point of which is marked by the large lake Aria, Zareh, which receives the waters of the Ery- mandrus, Hirmend, and the Pharnacotis, Ferrah-rood. The soU is dry and sandy, but fertUe when irrigated : the shores of Aria Lacus and the valleys of the Erymandrus, (also called Erymanthus,) and Pharnacotis, on the former of -which the Euergetae, who befiiended tbe army of Cyrus, Uved, are the most habitable regions. The capital of Dran giana, Prophthasia, was situated near the N. shore of Aria Lacus. 9. Gedrosia. § 22. Gedrosia, now the S. E. part of Beloochistan, was bounded by the Mare Erythraeum or Arabicus Sinus on the S., the Indus, separating it from India, on the E., Drangiana ¦ and Arachosia on the N., and Carmania on the W. § 23. The sea-coast of this province is swampy, sandy, and perfectly barren : inland the ground rises by a succession of terraces of greater or less extent towards the sandy desert, producing little besides aromatic shrubs: they (these terraces) admit of cultivation about the bases of the mountains which separate them ; but the greater part of Gedrosia has ever been a sandy waste, the chief cause of its sterility being the want of a regular supply of water : the inhabitants are dependent upon artificial reservoirs for the greater part of the year. The armies of Cyrus and Semi ramis are said to have perished in crossing this province, and Alexander's sufiered severely. § 24. The chief towns were, a. Pur a, the capital, in the interior; b. Or aea (Ora?) on the eastern, and Omana on the western part of the coast, 10. Arachosia. § 25. Arachosia, now S. E. part of Afghanistan and N, E. part of Beloochistan, was bounded on the W. by Drangiana, on the E. by the Indus, on the N. by the district of the Paropamisadae, and on the S. by Tvhat change, where and what was the capital ? 21. What and where was Dran- giasa, how situated, what the nature of tho soil, tho character of the country, what and where the capital ? ?2. How was Gedrosia bounded ? 23. "What are the physical features of thia country ? 24. What and where were the chief towns ? 25. Eow was Arachosia bounded, derived its name from what, what sort of country 13 290 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. Gedrosia. This province derives its name from its principal river, the Arachotus, probably the Waihend, a tributary to the Erymandrus : it is mountainous, but fertile. The chief to"wns were Arachotus and Alexandria, both of un certain position. 11. The Paropamisadae. § 26. The Paropamisa dae derived their name evidently from the great range of 'P avoi^avnisus, Hindoo EoQsh, on the S. declivities of which they lived in the neighborhood of Cabool and Ghuznee. The mountains attain a very great elevation northward, and are covered with snow for the greater part of the year : -Alexander crossed them during his Indian expedition. § 27. The chief river, the Cophen or Cophes Cabool, flows into the Indus : it receives an important tributary fi-om the N., the Oboes, Choaspes, or Evaspla, (for the same river is described under these three names,) now the Eerrah, which rises in the highest ridges of the Hindoo Koosh. The chief towns of this district were Gauzaca, Ghuznee or Ghizni, and Ortospana or Car"ura, Cabool, the capital of the tribe of the Cabolitae. 13. Bactria. § 28. Bactria, corresponding "with the S. of Bokhara, was bounded on the S. by M. Paropami sus, E. by the N. branch of the same range, on the N. E. by the Oxus, and on the W. by Margiana. The greater part of this province is mountainous, but as we approach the Oxus, broad plains and steppes occur : the Oxus itself flows along an immense plain, extending from the central ranges of Asia to the Caspian Sea. This plain is generally barren ; but abundance of water rendered the soil of Bac tria highly fertile. § 29. The Oxus, Jihoun or Amou, was a channel of communication between Eastern Asia and Europe, and prob ably a considerable trafiic was prosecuted through Bac tria in ancient times, the Oxus conducting to the Caspian Sea, whence the Cyrus afforded a passage westward. The capital of Bactria was Bactra or Zariaspa, Balkh, on the river Bactrus or Dargidus, Dehas : the fortress of Aornus stood a Uttle to the eastward of it. 13. Sogdiana. § 3,0. Sogdiana, now parts oi Turk estan and Bokhara, including the district stUl caUed Sogd, was it, what were the chief towns ? 26. Whence did the Paropamisadae derive their name, and what is said of their mountains! 27. What were the chief rivers and the chief towns? 28. How was Bactria bounded? What was the character of the province ? 29. What advantages did the Oxua afford ? What was the capital of Bac- ASIA MAJOE. 291 was separated on the S. from Bactriana and Margiana by tho upper course ofthe Oxus, (Jihoun ;) on the E. and N. from Scythia by the Sogdii Comedarum and Oxii Montes, (Eara- Bagh, Alatan and Ak-Dagh) and by the upper course of the Jaxartes, (Sihoun ;) and bounded on the N. W. by the great deserts E. of the Sea of Aral. § 31. Two chains of mountains occur in this province ; the Sogdii Montes, Eara-Dagh, and the Oxii, Ah- Dagh, more to the W. : the latter divides the valleys ofthe Oxus and the Jaxartes. § 32. The western half of the province consists of bar ren, sandy steppes : the eastern contains some rich valleys : the S. part of the country, especially, was fertUe and popu lous. The chief towns were Alexandria Oxiana, Kurshee, some distance N. of the Oxus: Mar acanda, Samarcand, the capital, in the fertUe vaUey of the Polyti- valtas, Eohik ; and Alexandria Ultima or. Alexan dre scata, on the Jaxartes, neav Ehoj end, the most north erly town which Alexander founded. 14. Margiana. §33. Margiana, forming the S. part of Khiva, S. W. part of Bokhara, and N. E. part of Ehoras san, lay W. of Bactria, bounded by the Oxus, on the N., the Sariphi Montes on the S., and Hyrcania on the W. The ancients were very slightly acquainted with it : mention is made of a river Margus, probably the Moorghab, and of a town, -Alexandria or Antiochia Margiana on that river, possibly on the site of Meru. § 34. Several of the provinces just described gave names to kingdoms far exceeding their o'wn limits. Media has already been noticed in this respect ; and it only re mains to give a brief account of four others. — A, Persis was the native land of Cyrus, and the powerful empire (rarely written Persia by the ancients) which he founded received its usual title from it : it extended, at its greatest extent, to the Indus eastward, the Oxus and the Caspian Sea northward, beyond the boundary of Europe westward, and on the -African continent as far as the Lybian desert and Cyrene : it existed from the time of Cyrus b. c, 559, to Alexander, b. c. 331, a period of 228 years. Susa and Ecbatana were the residences of the kings of Persia. tria, and what fortreas near it ! 30. HowwaaSogdianabounded? 31. "What moun tains occur in this province ? 32. What waa the character of thia province, and what and where werethochieftowns? 33.Wherewaa Margiana, formingwhat? What river is mentioned, and what to"wn ? 34. "What la said of the Persis, and of the 292 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. § 35. B, Parthia gave name to an empire which existed from 250 b. c. to 226 A. d., and which extended from the Euphrates to the Indus and the Oxus : the residence ofthe Parthian monarchs was fixed at Ctesiphon on the Tigris in the winter, and at Ecbatana in the summer months. § 36. C, Bactria was the seat of an independent empire from 250 to 126 b. c. : we know Uttle of its ex tent, but it appears to have comprehended, at one time, a great part oi India and Thibet: it was merged into the Parthian empire. § 37. The Persian empire was restored, a. d. 226, by Artaxerxes, and was co-extensive with the ancient Umits of the Persian monarchies, "viz., the Indus, the Oxus, and the Tigris : it existed under the dynasty of the Sassanidae until the middle ages. In reading the Roman poets it must be remembered that they constantly use Persae as well as Medi, as a gen eral term for the peoples E. of the Euphrates and Tigris, and especially for the Parthians. 7. — India., Sims, Serica. 1, § 1. India was a name used by the Greeks and Romans, much as the modern term East Indies, to de scribe the whole of the S. E._ part of Asia, to the E., S., and S. E. of the great ranges of mountains now called the Soliman and Himalaya Mountains, including the two peninsulas of Hindustan, and of Burmah, Cochin- China, Siam, and Malacca, and also the islands of the Indian Archipelago. § 2. India was divided into two parts by the river Ganges, into India intra Gangem, and India extra Gang em, the former including the peninsula oi Hindus tan, the latter the Burmese peninsula, and the Malay peninsula, which last was more particularly designated by the name of Aurea Chersonesus. § 3. The ancients were acquainted with these regions chiefly through the -visits of merchants, and hence their knowledge of the topography was very much confined Persian empire ? 35. What is said of the Parthian empire ? 36. -What ia aaid of tho Bactrian empire ? 37. By whom and when was the Persian empire restored having what extent ? ' 1. How did the ancients use the namo India, comprehending under it what region ? 2. How was India divided ? 3. How did the ancients become acquainted ASIA MAJOE. 293 to the maritime districts. As little historical interest attaches to the towns, we shall confine ourselves to a brief survey of the prominent natural features. § 4. The Indus on the W. border receives the waters of five considerable tributaries on its left bank, in the coun try now caUed the Punjaub, in the following manner. The Hydaspes, Behat, the northernmost of these five rivers, falls into the Acesines, CAewaft, which receives from the S., first the Hydraotes, Ravee, and then the Hyphasis, Gharra, which has previously received, on the S. side, the Hesudrus or Zaradrus, Sutlej or Hesudru; and the Acesines itself falls into the Indus. § 5. Alexander penetrated to the most easterly of these m his Indian expedition : mention is made in connection with this of Taxila, the capital of TaxUes, (his real name "was Mophis or Omphis ;) the city stood in a large and fer^ tUe plain between the Indus and the Hydaspes, near the modern Attock: also ofMallorum Urbs, Moultan, and ofPattala orPatala, probably Hyderabad. § 6. Descending southwards, we come to Canthi Sinus, Gulf of Eutch, and Bavygazenns Sinus, Gulf of Cambay : the peninsula ends in' Comaria Promon torium, Cape Comorin, near which, off' the eastern coast, lies the important island of Ceylon, known to the ancients under various names, Taprobane, Salice or Simundu. § 7. Besides the Ganges, the whole course of which was well known, mention is made of other large rivers of E. India, as the Dyardanes orOedanes, Brahmaputra, the Do anas, Irawaddy, the Dorias, Mel-con, and the Ser us, Sang-koi: the first of these discharges itself into the Gangeticus Sinus, Bay of Bengal, the two next into the Sabaricus Sinus, G. of Martcd>an, and the last into the Magnus Sinus, China Sea. § 8. The region between the Doanas and Dorias was known as Aurea Regio, and the southeastern coast ofthe Gangeticus Sinus as Argentea Regio. Opposite the ex tremity of the Aurea Chersonesus, the large island Bonae Fortunae, Sumatra, and beyond that Jabadii or Sabadii Insula, Java, are situated.- 2. The Sinae. § 9. The Sinae occupied the course with these regions ? 4. What five great tributaries doea the Indus receive ? 6. How far did Alexander penetrate, what town being mentioned in thia connection f 8. "What gulfs, promontory, and island do we find farther southwards ? 7. "What rivers in E. India are mentioned by the ancients? 8. "What names wero given to different parts of this region, and what ialanda lay off the coast ? 9. What region 294 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. of the eastern ocean from the border of India extra Gan gem to Serica in the N., in what is now the S. E. part of China. Very Uttle was known of this region. The river Ambastus is identified with the Gamboja, and the Cot- tiaris "with the Pe-Eiang, with the town Cattigara, Canton, near its mouth: Sinarum Sinus is the GuLf of Tongquin ; and the town Thinae, a place of extensive trade in the interior, was possibly near Nanking. 3. Serica. § 10. Serica lay N. of the Sinae, stretch ing upwards to an undefined extent, and bounded by Scythia on the W. It corresponds with MongoUa and the N. parts of China. § 11. The mountain chain of the Altai are described under the names Auxacii and Ann ibi Montes : the river Oechardes, which rises among them, is the Amoor ; and the river Bautisus, much farther S., is the Hoang-ho. § 12. The capital. Sera, was situated in the western part of the country : it was the mart for the valuable silks and stuffs which were manutactured in this distant region, and which were carried by] an overland route across the great sandy desert of Eobi, and the high chain of the Thianchan, to the valley of the Oxus, and thus through Bactria and the Caspian .Sea, to the civilized nations of Europe. S.— Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica. 1 . Scythia. § 1. Scythia,. in its widest sense, com- prehended the whole of northern Asia, Serica excepted : it was bounded by the Rha, Volga, on the W., and by Cau casus, the Caspian, the Jaxartes, and Emodi Montes on the S. It was divided by Imaus Mons (the Altai and Sayansko Mts.?) into Scythia intra Imaum and Scythia extra Imaum Some authorities say that by Imaus M. we are to Understand the chain of Beloor, which strikes towards the N. from the Hindoo Eoosh: aU this is very uncertain. Little was known of this wide region beyond the names and habits of the nomad tribes who roamed over the immense steppes that lie on either side of the central moimtain was occupied by the Sinae, and what is said of their rivera and towns ? 10. "Where •was Soricii, corresponding with what? 11. What mountain chain is described under what names ? 12. "What is said of the capital, its manufactures and com merce? 1. "What did Scythia, in its widest sonse, comprehend ? How was it bounded ? ASIA MAJOE. 295 chains, dependent for their subsistence upon their flocks and herds. Of these tribes the most important were : § 2. The Massage tae, who lived N. of the Jaxartes, in what is now the N. oi Independent Tartary ; theSacae, N. E. of the Massagetae, as far as Serica, in the steppes of Central km,, which are now peopled by the Eirghiz Eha- saks: the IssedSnes, to the eastward, in Great Tartary : they were the easternmost people with whom the Greeks of the time of Herodotus had any intercourse : the Ari- maspi, in the ranges of the Altai, where they occupied themselves in working gold-mines, in connection with which occupation the fabulous account given of them by Herodo tus, who caUs them one-eyed people, is perhaps susceptible of a satisfactory explanation; and the Argippaei, N. of the Caspian Sea, whose habits of sha-raig the head, and of riding on white horses, as related by Herodotus, mark them as the progenitors of the Calmucks and Bashkirs. 3. Sarmatia. § 3. The district between the Rha and the Tanais formed part of the undefined country named Sarmatia, which extended far beyond the confines oi Asia ovev European Russia. Sauromatae or Sarma- tae, was the generic name for the numerous tribes who occupied this vast district, the most important of whom in Asiatic Sarmatia were : the Thyssa getae, in the N., on the E. shores of the Palus Maeotis : tbe AorsiorAdorsi, a powerful people who had their original settlements on the N. E. of the Caspian, but are chiefly found between the Palus Maeotis and the Caspian, S. E. of the Tanais, and the Siraceni, Siraci, or Siraces, also a powerful people, dweUing in the district of Siracene, E. of the Palus Maeotis as far as the river Rha. § 4. The only to-wns known to the ancients were the colonies planted by the Asiatic Greeks along the shores of the Euxine, "viz. : Tanais, at the mouth ofthe river Tanais : Phanagoria, on the peninsula formed on the eastern side of the Cimmerian Bosporus, (Straits ofEaffa or Feodo sia:) Sinda, farther do"wn the N. E. coast of the Euxine ; andPityus, stiU farther down, near the Colohian border. A considerable trade was carried on from these towns, in skins, slaves, wood, and horses. 2 "Which were the most important of the Scythian tribes, and where wero their respective places of abode ? 3. VVhere was Sarmatia, what was the generic name ofthe tribes of this district, and which were the most important? 4. What towns in Sarmatia were known to the ancients, and where were they ? What trade was there? 296 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 9.— Syria, 1. Syria, still bearing the same name, but called in Ara bic Esh-Sham, was bounded on the N. W. and N. by Ama nus Mons, separating it from Cilicia and Cappadocia ; on the N. E. by the Euphrates, separating it from Mesopotamia ; on the S. E. and S. by Arabia and Palaestina, and on the W. by the Mare Internum and Phoenicia. 2. Within these limits there are contained two "widely different districts, the mountainous region which skirts the shore of the Mediterranean and the northern frontier, and the great desert which stretches eastward to the Euphrates and southward to the border of Arabia. The former re ceives its character from the ranges of Amanus in the N. and Lib an us in the S., which are connected by a series of inferior heights : both of them attain a great elevation, Libanus being capped with snow almost throughout the year. At its southern extremity it sends out a lateral ridge, which, diverging graduaUy towards the N., and iu conjunction with a lofty ridge to the E. of Libanus, and nearly parallel with it, incloses a fertUe valley : this eastern ridge was called Anti Libanus, and the valley between the two ridges, with its surrounding district, Coelesyria, i. e. Hollow Syria. 3. The mountains secure to the W. an abundant sup ply of water: the chief river is the Orontes, Nahr El- Ahsy, which rises in Coelesyria, and flows behind (E.) of the mountain chains towards the N. until within a short distance of its mouth, when it curves round towards the S. W., and empties into the Mediterranean. The only other noticeable river is the Chains, Nahr Eoweik, in the interior, which flows southwards, and discharges itself into a marsh on the borders of the desert. 4. The desert itself was deficient in water, and con sequently in vegetation : there are, however, numerous oases, which supported a larger population in ancient than in modern times. 5. Syria was divided by the Romans into ten provinces, named for the most part after the mountains or towns in 1. How was Syria bounded ? 2. "What aro the physical aspects and the moun tains of this province ? 3. What advantage do the mountains afford the surround ing country, what is the chief river, and what other noticeable river is there and what is the course of each ? 4. What ia said of the Syrian desert ? 5. How did ASIA MAJOE. 297 each. The most important towns were, a, Siim6sS,ta, Samosat or Someisat, the capital of tbe province, and afterwards kingdom, of Commagene, in the N., N. W. of Edessa, where the Euphrates was crossed by the route from Asia Minor to Mesopotamia, celebrated in literary history as the birthplace of Lucian, and in church history, as that ofthe heretic Paul, bishop of Antioch, in the 3d century : b, AntiochiaEpidaphnes,oradDaphnem, or adOron- tem, now Antakia in ruins, in Seleucis, on the Orontes, founded by Seleucus Nicator, and made the capital of the whole country: c, Apamea ad Orontem, the capital ofthe province Apamene, in the valley of the Orontes, built by Seleucus on the site of PeUa, and named after his wife Apilma:. t?, Emesa or Emissa, now Hums or Homs, higher up the vaUey, celebrated for the temple of the Sun, at which Heliogabalus ministered before he became em peror : e, Damascus, Dameshk, Damascus, Esh-Sham, in the S., the ancient capital of Syria, one of the most an cient cities ofthe world, mentioned as existing in the time of Abraham, (Gen. xiv. 15,) situated in a fruitful oasis, formed by the divided waters of the Chrysorrhoas, Barada, which passed through the town in five channels ; and lastly,/. Palmyra, ^c^wo/', famed for its magnificent ruins, in an oasis in the desert province of Palmyrene, the capital of Zenobia. A small to"wn Abila, to the N. W. of Damascus, gave name to the surrounding district of Abi lene, mentioned in the New Testament, Luke ui. 1. 6. Syria was the governing pro"vince of a powerful empire from 312 to 64 b. c, which extended under its founder, Seleucus Nicator, to the Indus, the Oxus and the Halys ; the capital of the Seleucidae was first fixed at Se leucia, on the Tigris, and transferred thence to Antioch. Under the Romans the province of Syria included Phoe nicia, and after 7 a. d., Judaea also. 10.— Phoenicia. 1. The proper name of the country which we know as Phoenicia is Phoenice; the form Phoenicia is found only in a doubtful passage of Cicero. Phoenice extended the Eomana divide Syria, and what were the moat important towns? 6. "What is Baid of Syria in connection -with the Seleucidae ? 1. What and where was Phoenicia, how bounded, what the nature of the 298 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. from the river Eleutherus, Nahr-el-Eebir, on the N. to be low Mt. Carmel on the S., .and bounded on the E. by Coele syria and Palestine. It was a mountainous strip of coast land, not more than 10 or 12 miles broad, hemmed in be tween the Mediterranean and the chain of Libanus, whose lateral branches, running out into the sea in bold promon tories, divided the country into vaUeys, which are weU watered by rivers flowing down from Libanus, M. Leba non, and are extremely fertUe in fruits and aU vegetable productions, whUe the higher mountains were clothed with forests of cedar, which formed one of the most valuable exports ofthe country. 2. The most important rivers passing from N. to S. were, a, the Eleutherus, Nahr-el-Eebir : b, the Sabba- ticus, Arka: c, the river of Tripolis, Eadisha ; d, the Adonis, Nahr-Ibrahim : e, the Lycus, Nahr-el-Eelb : f the Magoras, Nahr-Beirut, by Berytus : g, the Ta rn yr as, Nahr-el-Damur, between Berytus and Sidon ; h, the Leo or Bostrenus, Nahr-el-Auly : i, the great river, now called Litany and Eassimiyeh, which flows from HeliopoUs S. S. W. through Coelesyria, and then, turning westwards, falls into the sea N. of Tyre, and which some call, but without sufficient authority, the Leontes: k, the Belus or Pagida, Numan or Rahwin ; and J, the Kishon, Eishon, N. ofMt. Carmeh 3. The more important promontories on the coast were, 1, Theu-prosopon, Bas-esh Shukah : 2, Album Prom., Ras-el-Abiad : besides those 3, occupied by the cities of Tripolis, Byblus, Berytus, Sidon, Tyrus, andPtolemais. 4. The position of Phoenice, -with reference to Baby lonia, the Persian gulf, and the various trading countries of central .Asia, as the most accessible part ofthe Mediterranean coast for the transmission of merchandise, rendered it an important commercial country for the ancient world. The neighboring heights of Lebanon supplied timber for ship building, and the open sea, which spreads westwards, ne cessitated greater boldness and nautical skUl than other nations possessed. 5. In consequence of these advantages Phoenice became a flourishing and thickly populated country, and is espe- country, and what wero its products ? 2. Name the most important rivers. 3. Name the promontories on the coaat. 4. What ia aaid of the commercial poaition of Phoenice ! 6. What reaulted fi'om theae commercial advantages of Phoenice ? ASIA MAJOE. 299 cially kno-mi as the seat of two most famous commercial cities, viz., Tyrus, of which the ruins are called Sur, but whioh is generaUy spoken of as Tyro, and Sidon, or in the EngUsh form, Zidon, the ruins of which are called Saida. 6. Of these two cities Sidon was the more ancient : it possessed a double harbor and strong fortifications, and carried on manufactures in glass and in purple dye : it was taken by Artaxerxes HI. Ochus, and never regained its former prosperity. Tyre, situated somewhat to the S., was a colony from Sidon : it was first buUt on the main land, but, havmg been besieged by Nebuchadnezzar, it was re buUt on a smaU island nearly half a mUe distant : Alexan der took this island-to"wn, after a siege of seven months, by means of a moat which he formed, and which rendered Tyre, in after times, a peninsula. The town existed with various fortunes until the Crusades : it also had manufac tories of glass and of purple dye. Small as it now is, it stiU retains some commercial importance. The other note worthy towns have been mentioned in connection with the • promontories. 1 1 .—Palaestina. 1. We come now to a land which, though smaU in ex tent, abounds "with objects of the highest and most lasting interest to the whole human race. In the Old Testament it is called first, the Land of Canaan, afterwards the Land of Promise, and ,in a later age, when the Hebrews were settled there, the Land of Israel : the Romans called it Judaea, and ancient geographers, Palaestina, a name derived from the coast district of Philistia, and extended thence to the whole country : it is stiU caUed Palestine, and sometimes, in reference to the great events which have • taken place on its soU, the Holy Land. 2. It was bounded on the W. by the Great Sea (as Scripture calls the Mediterranean) and by Phoenicia : on the N. by Syria : on the E. by the Arabian Desert : and on the S. and S. W. by the deserts which stretch N. of the head of the Red Sea as far as the Dead Sea and the Medi terranean : here it was separated from Egypt by the small 6. "Which of these cities was the more ancient, and what historical and other facta are stated respecting each ? 1. How is Palaestina called in the Old Testament, how by the Eomans. by ancient geographers, how at present 3 2. How was Palaestina bounded ? 3. VVhat 300 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. Stream called Torrens Aegypti, in Scripture the River of Egypt, (probably the brook El-Arish) which feU into the Mediterranean at Rhinacolura, (El-Arish) the frontier town of Egypt. It attains its greatest breadth in the northern half, where it extends eastward as far as Mons -Alsadamus, Eelb-Hauran. 3. The most remarkable feature in Palaestina is the Valley of the Jordan, and the series of lakes connected with it. This vaUey lies considerably below the level of the Mediterranean, the depression at the Dead Sea amount ing to 1312 feet. 4. The Jordan is formed and fed by several great foun tains, rising in the N. around the base of Mount Hermon : the largest at TeU-el-Kadi, is called El Leddan, which, with another, somewhat smaller, forms what Josephus desig nates as the Greater and Lesser Jordan. After a short southerly course, the second, caUed Baniasy, receives the third, the Hasbany, and these three united streams form the Jordan, which now flows southward, first through an ex tensive marsh, at times overflowed with water, and called the lake H'ldeh, caUed in the O. T. Waters of Merom, by geographers Semechonitis or Samachonitis La cus: then through the Lake of Gennessaret, and afiEer- wards along a broad, flat valley, now caUed El-Ghor, to the Mare Mortuum ©r Dead Sea. The Arabs caU the Jor- danes, Esh-Sheriah el Eebir, or el TJrdun. 5. The Lake of Gennesaret, or Tiberias, other- "wise called the Sea of Galilee, in the O. T. Chin- nereth, by the Arabs Bahr Tabariyeh, is almost sur-' rounded by hUls, which render it liable to sudden and very violent gusts of wind. It is a beautiful sheet of water, with a luxuriant vegetation on its banks : it is about 14 miles in length and 8 in breadth, and its surface is 755 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. Its sweet waters. abound with excellent fish. 6. The Dead Sea, called in Scripture the Salt Sea, by ancient geographers the Lacus Asphaltites, from the quantity of bitumen in it, also Mare Mortuum, is about 60 miles in length, and of varying width : it is in the S. E. of the country. Its shores are steep and barren : its 18 the moat remarkable feature of the country? 4. Where doea the Jordan rise, and what is its course ? 5. The lake of Gennesareth, having what other names, is of what character and dimensions ? 6. By what other names is the Dead Sea known, what are its dimensiona, what its general character, and what the nature ASIA MAJOE. 301 Tvaters heavy, bitter, and strongly impregnated with salt and bitumen, their specific gravity averaging about 1,200, that of distilled water being 1,000 : and though it is not strictly true that no living creature is found in it or about it, yet, the general absence of birds and plants, combined with the awivl stiUness of the lake, has justly obtained for it tiie name of the 2)ea(? Sea. Its southern extremity Ues m the once fertUe vale of Siddim, the site of Sodom and Gomorrah and of the other cities of the plain. It has no visible outlet. 7. Between the Jordan and the Mediterranean the coun try is intersected by mountains. From the valley of the Jordan the hiUs rise on either side to a considerable eleva tion, and form a couple of corresponding plateaus, which decline on the one side to the shores ofthe Mediterranean, and on the other to the Great Desert. The highest moun tains are in the N., where Libanus and Anti-Libanus enter it: the latter rises to a peak in the lofty Hermon, and sends forth a ridge southwards to the Sea of GalUee. On the W. side of Jordan the remarkable hiUs are Tabor, ywr, S.W. ofthe Sea of Galilee: Carmelus Mons, Mt. Carmel, a long wooded ridge running out to the N. W., and terminating in a bold promontory: Ebal and Ger- izim in the centre of Samaria: Mount Ephraim, weU covered with trees and shrubs ; and the hill country of Ju dea, westward of the Dead Sea. On tbe E. side of Jordan "we have to notice Alsadamus, Hauran, a cluster of hiUs rising on the extreme range of the desert E. of the Seaof GaUlee: Mt.Gilead, opposite Ebal and Gerizim : Peor, a short distance from the head of the Dead Sea; and Nebo a little S. of it. 8. The table-land, out of which these hiUsrise, is broken up by numerous vaUeys and ra"vines, directed mostly towards the Jordan: these vaUeys were exceedingly fertUe, and even the table-land, -with the exception of the highest por tions, such as the desert of Judaea, admitted of cultivation. The soU, however, is generaUy thin, and hence great labor was bestowed upon the formation of terraces for the growth of the "rine and other fruits. The maritime plain was re markable for fertility : the upper portion of it, from Caesarea to Joppa, was named Saronas Planities, Sharon,and the lower, Sephela Planities. The valley of Esdraelon, of its waters ? 7. What is the face of the country, and what hills aro to be noted, ist on the W. side, 2d on the E. side of Jordan ? 8. "What is the character of the 302 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. on the banks of the Kishon, was also very rich ; and the greater part of GalUee was highly cultivated. On the other side of Jordan the table-land afforded good pasture- grounds, especaUy around the Basan M.ons, the hill of Bashan, the N. part of the Mountains of Gilead. 9. In the time of our Saviour, Palaestina, W, of the Jordan, Avas di"vided into three parts, viz. : Galilaea, Gali lee, in the N., Samaria in the centre, and Judaea in the S. Neither of the first two touched the sea, Judaea pos sessing the line of coast, to the border of Phoenicia. The eastern district, which had been occupied by the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh, was called Per aea, the name expressing the land beyond the river Jordan : it was sub- di"vided into the follo"wing districts : a. Per aea in the nar rower sense, from the Arnon to the Jabbok, or even somewhat beyond that river: 5, Decapolis, the district round about ten confederate towns, in the neighborhood of the river Hieromiax: c, Auranitis, eastward to AlsadSr mus Mons: d, Trachonitis to the N. W. of that ridge :, e, Ituraeain the extreme N., not far from Damascus ; and/, Gaulonitis, the mountainous region which descends from Hermon to the Sea of GaUlee. 10. The capital of Palestine was Jerusalem, situated westward of the head of the Dead Sea : it was advanta geously posted on an elevated platform, which terminated precipitously towards the S. and W., but declined gradually to the N. This platform was itself divided by slight de pressions into three parts : Zion the most southerly, proba^- bly the site of the old town of Jebus : Moriah to the S. E. and E., on which the temple of Solomon was erected ; and Acra to the N. Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus, A. D. 70, and restored by Hadrian, a. d. 135, with the name of Aelia Capitolina, however as a Roman colony, and with a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the site ofthe tem ple of Jehovah. 11. Of the other noteworthy towns of Judea, we wUI mention, a,Bethlehem, Beitel-Lahm, the birthplace of our Saviour, 6 mUes S. of Jerusalem, which the Mohammedans call EIrEuds: b, Hebron, El-EJmleel, in the hill country farther S.: c, Jericho, Er-Riha, in the --valley of the Jor- table-land out of which these hills rise? 9. "What were the divisions of Palestine in tbo time of our Saviour, where were they, and what subdivisions were there ? 10. What aud where was the capital of Palestine, how situated, the platform on wliich it stood was how divided, when and by whom destroyed, and by whom and when restored ? 11. What other noteworthy towns in Judaea, and where situated ! ASIA MAJOE. 303 dan: t?, Gaza, Ghuzzeh, near the southern frontier: e, Azotus or Ashdod, Esdood, in tho plain of Sephela: /; Joppa, Jaffa, the sea-port of Jerusalem, to the N. W. of it: and gr, Caesarea, formerly Stratonis Turris, now Kaisariyeh, the later capital under the Romans, Herod the Great having raised it from a smaU viUage to be a sea-port town of consequence. 12. The capital of Samaria was a to"wn of the samo name, in the centre of the district, originaUy erected by Omri, but very much enlarged by Herod, who changed its nameto Sfibaste: the ruins are called Sebustieh. Nea polis, the Sichem or Sychar of Scripture, now Nablous, lay somewhat .to the S., between Ebal and Gerizim, on the latter of which the temple ofthe Samaritans stood. 13. The chief to"wns of GalUaea were, a, Tiberias, Tuhariyeh, the capital, on "the western shore of the lake, erected by Herod Antipas, and named after Tiberias : b, Sepphoris, or Diocaesarea, Sefurieh, to the westward, also enlarged by Antipas: c, Capernaum, on the site of the present Tell Hum, on the western shore of the lake, "with Beth saida, ruins in Jaulan, a Uttle to the S. of it; and d, Nazareth, EnNasirah, to the S. of Sepphoris. 14. In Peraea were, a, Caesarea Philippi, or Pa- neas , Banias, at the S. foot of Mt. Hermon, on the Jordan, the residence of Philip the Tetrarch, its founder : &, Ga- dara, Um-Eeis, one of the ten that formed the Decapo- lis, a Uttle S. of the Hieromiax, Yarmuk : c, Pella, El- Bujeh, the southernmost of the ten cities of the Decapolis, in the vaUey of the Jordan, whither the disciples took re fuge on the destruction of Jerusalem : d, Ramoth Gilea d; Jehad, at the foot ofMt. GUead: e, Rabbath-Ammon, or Philadelphia, Ammun, the ancient capital of the Ammonites; and/, Rabbath-Moab, or Ar of Moab, now Rabba, the capital of the Moabites, on the Arnon. 15. Besides the Jordan, the streams of Palaestina were smaU: they were, 1. Eastof the Jordan, a, the Hie rom ax or Hieromiax, Yarmouk: b, the Jaboch or Jabbok, Nahr Zurka: c, the Avnon, Wady -Mb/* J, which empties into the Dead Sea. 2. Emptying into the Mediterranean, the Kison, according to the Septuagint Kischon, into the 12. "What was the capital of Samaria, and what other town was there, noted for "What? 13. What and where were the chief towns of Galilaea? 14. "VVhat towns were in Peraea, and where ? 15. What streams besides the Jordan may be men tioned? 304: ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. bay of Ptolemais or Acre. 3. Emptying into the Sea of Tiberias, N. of Capernaum, Kison Minor ; and 4. Empty ing into the Dead Sea from the W., the Torrens Kidron, rising near Bethphage, at the Mount of OUves, close by Jerusalem. 12.— Arabia. 1. Arabia is the large peninsula which stretches south wards from the Euphrates and the borders of Palaestina to the Erythraeum Mare (Gulf of Bab-el-Mandeb and In dian Ocean) on the S. E., bounded on the W. by the Sinus Arabicus or Mare Rubrum, Red Sea, and on the E. by the Sinus Persicus, Persian Gulf. The name is oc casionally extended beyond the limits here assigned, so as to include the sandy plain of Mesopotamia, and the part of Egypt between the Red Sea and the eastern margin of the Nile Valley. 2. Arabia consists of an immense table-land, surrounded on all sides by a strip of plain parallel to the sea. The mountain-belt which bounds the plain varies considerably in height and breadth : it seems to widen gradually towards the S. ; and as it receives a more abundant supply of water than either the plain or the interior, it has ever been the most fertUe and habitable part ofthe country. The Sinus Arabicus forks off at its northern extremity into two long arms, caUed Sinus Aelanitis (the more eastern) and Sinus Heroopolites : between them lies the rocky peninsula, which contains the celebrated heights of Sinai and Horeb. A barren waste succeeds to the N. of it, along the shores of the Mediterranean, separated on the E. from the main peninsula by a peculiar rocky valley, which runs northward from the Aelanitic arm of the Red Sea to the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. 3. Arabia was di"vided uito three districts, viz. : Pe- traea, the rocky region about the arms of the Red Sea; Felix, the fruitful, the southern part of the peninsula from \he heads of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea ; and Deserta, the barren, the remaining portion, to the N., which gradually contracts with the convergence of the Euphrates towards the Mediterranean. It would be a 1. What and whero and how bounded is Arabia? 2. Of what does Arabia consist, and what was the general aspect of its surface, what gulfs on its N. VV, part, with what famous mountains between them ? 3. "What were the divisions of ASIA MAJOE. 305 mistake to suppose that the whole of Arabia Felix cor responds with its name : the interior is a parched, burning desert : the hiU country towards the S., comprising the province of Yemen, and the sea-coasts, with which the an cients were naturaUy best acquainted, gave origin to the name, These yielded frankincense and myrrh, together with other spices and fruits, which were held in great esteem by all the civiUzed nations of antiquity : gold and precious stones are also mentioned among the productions of Ara bia, but these were probably imported from India, and merely exchanged at the Arabian ports for European merchandise. 4. Petraea is chiefly interesting to us from the nu merous notices of it in Holy Scripture, particularly in ref erence to the forty years' wandering of the Israelites. At that erathe Amalekites occupied the plain between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea: the Midianites, the peninsula of Sinai: the Edomites, the rugged country from the Aelanitic Gulf, (gulf of Akaba,) to the border of Palestine; and the Moabites, the eastern shores of the Dead Sea. These names disappear from history, and in a later age we find all the tribes described under the generic name of Nabataei. 5. The capital of Petraea, (N. W. part of El-Hejaz) was Petra, the Selah of Scripture, now Wady-Mousa, situated in the rocky vaUey already referred to. The houses and temples were hewn out of the solid rock. It was probably a place of considerable traffic for the caravans fi-om Persia. There were two ports on the Aelanitic Gulf, Elath or Aelana, on the eastern, and Berenice or Eziongeber, on the western shore. The former was the station of Solomon's fleet. 6. Arabia Felix was occupied by a variety of tribes, of which the Sabaei, in Yemen, (which corresponds with the Sheba of Scripture,) were the best known. The extreme southern angle was occupied by the Homeritae, whose town of Adana, Aden, is most probably the Ophir whither Solomon's fleet traded, that being an emporium for Indian merchandise. The Gerrhaei, on the Persian Gulf, carried on an extensive traffic from the port of Arabia, where were they, and what was their character ? 4. "What makes Pe- '™*?PEcially interesting, by what nations inhabited? 6. What was tho capital ''I Petraea, where, how constructed, what two ports, and where? 6. By wliom was Felix occupied, with what town, and what commercial tribe was on the Per- 306 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. Ger rha, Katiff, across the desert to Petra and Baby lon. "7. Arabia Deserta has at all times been occupied by nomad tribes. In the Old Testament these are called Ke- dar: by ancient geographers, Scenitae, i. e. livers in tents; and by moderns. Bedouins orBedawins. They led a pastoral Ufe under a patriarchal form of government, secured by the nature of their country from foreign do minion, and occasionally avaUing themselves of this immu nity for purposes of plunder and rapine. sian Gulf? 7. How was Deserta occupied, how called in the O. T., how by geog raphers ! What life did these occupants lead 1 CHAPTER VI. AFRICA. 1.— Africa as known to the Ancients. 1. The name Africa Avas brought into use by the Ro mans, and was used by the ancients in two senses: it appUed originaUy to the first Roman province in that con tinent, about the shores of the Syrtis Minor, (Gulf of Kabes ;) it was that portion of N. Africa which constituted the territory of Carthage, and which the Romans erected into, a province, under the name of .Africa Propria : from this they gradually extended the name to all their terri tory and to the whole continent. By the Greeks it was caUed Libya, though this also had a double sense, being sometimes confined to the coast district W. of Egypt, 2. The general boundaries of Africa have been already noticed. The greatest geographers who Uved before Ptol emy, namely, Eratosthenes, (bom 276 b. c.,) and Strabo, (born about 64 b. c.,) had accepted the tradition that Africa was circumnavigable. The shape of the continent they conceived to be that of a right-angled triangle, ha"ving for its hypothenuse a line drawn from the PiUars of Hercules to the S. ofthe Red Sea ; and as to its extent, they did not suppose it to reach nearly so far as the Equator. Ptolemy, (date of birth unknown : known to have been living 139 A, D. and 161 a. d.,) supposed the W. coast to stretch N. and S. from the Pillars of Hercules, and he gave the con tinent an indefinite extent towards the S. We shall here mark the general features ofthe continent as known to the ancients. 3, The S. coast of the Mediterranean is far more reg ular than the northern : there are no peninsulas, and but 1. "Who brought tho name Africa into use, and how was it applied ? How did the Grcelis call tho continent! 2. What notion had Eratosthenes, Strabo, and Ptolemy ot Africa ? 3. What were tho general features of the continent as toio-syn 308 AUCIENT GEOGEAPHT. few promontories or islands. There is, however, one great deviation from its direction, caused by tbe southward ad vance of the great bay, the inmost angles of which were named Syrtis Major, G. of Sidra, and Syrtis Minor, G. of EJiabs or Eabes. The character of this coast dif fers very much : generaUy speaking the eastern half, as far as the angle of the Syrtis Minor, resembles the desert of the interior, being flat, dry, and sandy : the western half, on the contrary, is broken up by hills and well watered, and presents a broad belt of habitable and remarkably fertile country. 4. The great chain ofAtlas Mons, still called Mount Atlas, commences on the western shore, and runs towards the N. E. gradually converging towards the Mediterra nean, and meeting it in the neighborhood of the lesser Syr tis ; it formed a mighty barrier between the Roman prov inces and the great Desert of Sahara, and prevented all communication in that direction, 5, The western coast had been explored as far as the Magnus Sinus, Gulf of Guinea, but no regular traffic was kept up beyond the limits of Mauretania, or Mau ritania ; the eastern coast, to a somewhat more southerly point, Promontorium Prasum, probably CapeDelgado, in 10i° S. lat. ; but this also was far beyond the limits of ordUiary navigation. The interior was known by report only ; no doubt the traffic was carried on as regularly in ancient as in modern times by caravans, and the Greek and Phoenician merchants on the coast had many opportunities of obtaining information from the native traders. The Oases which skirt the edge ofthe Desert at a short distance from the Mediterranean were well known to He rodotus: these were, a. Oasis Major, the Greater Oasis, Wah-el-Ehargeh, W. of Thebes, described by Strabo as seven days' journey W. of Abydos : b. Oasis Minor, the Lesser Oasis, Wah-el-Bahryeh or Wah-el-Beh- nesa, a good day's journey from the S. W. end of Lake Moeris : c. Oasis Ammon, Hammon, Ammonium, Hammonis Oraculum, caUed by the Arabs in the mid dle ages Santariah, and now Siwah ; here stood the tem ple of Jupiter Ammon, which was visited by Alexander : d, O. Angela, Aujilah, S. E. ofthe Syrtis Major: e, to tho ancients ? 4. "What great chain of mountains runs from tho W. shores tow ards the N. E. ? 5. "What was known of the western, what of the eastern coast" and what of tho interior ? 6. "What oases were Imown to Herodotus f 7 How was AEEIOA. 309 Phazania, Mzzan, inhabited by the Garamantes; and others more to the W. not easily identified. 7. Gaetulia w.as the name given to the interior of N, Africa, S. of Mauritania, Numidia, and the region border ing on the Syrtes, reaching to the Atlantic Ocean on the W. and of very indefinite extent towards the E. and S. The people included under the name Gaetuli, in its widest sense, were the inhabitants of the region between the countries just mentioned and the Great Desert, and also in the Oases of the latter, and nearly as far S. as the river Niger. They were a great nomad race, including several tribes, the chief of whom were the Autololes and Pharusii, on the W. coast, the Darae or Gaetuli-Darae, in the steppes of the Great Atlas, and the Melanogaetuli, a black race resulting from the intermixture of the GaetuU with their southern neighbors, the Nigritae, 8. We have some indefinite accounts of a great inland river, the Gir, (which may very possibly be the Niger, but different authorities identify it with other rivers of modern geography,) "with some towns upon it : also of some lakes in the same region, named Nigritis and Nuba, perhaps L. Debo, and i. Tchad. 9. The only portion of the continent "with which the ancients had any fuU acquaintance was the northern coast, which may be divided into the following districts : Aegyp tus, Marmarica, Cyrenaica, Syrtica, Africa Propria, Numi dia, and Mauritania. 2.—Aigyptus and AltMopia. 1.— SIgyptus. Egypt is most correctly defined to be that part ofthe basin ofthe Nile, which lies below the first Cataract. According to the extent usually assigned to the country, it was bounded on tbe N. by the Mare InterriSm, on the E. by Palaestina, Arabia Petraea, and the Sinus Arabicus, on the S. by Aethiopia, and on the W. by the great Liljyan Desert. It consists of a long single valley about 500 mUes long, and of an average width of 9 miles, bounded by low ranges of hiUs, the eastern named Mons Arabicus, the western Mons Libycus. the interior of N. Africa called, and by what tribes was it inhabited ? 8. We flnd indefinite accounts of what river and lakes in the interior ? 9. Into what districts may the portion of Africa thoroughly Imown to the ancients bo divided? 1. How was Egypt bounded, and of what does it oonslst? 2. "What lay and lies 310 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 2. Between these is the bed of the river Nilus, Nile, the most remarkable feature in the map of Egypt :_ it flows in an unbroken stream from the border of Aethiopia to the head of the Delta : higher up it receives a tributary on its right bank, the Astaboras, Atbarah or Tacazza, aitev which the main stream was called Astapus, Abai : it again divides into two branches, the eastern of which, the Blue, NUe, Bahr-eUAzrek, has its rise in the mountains of Abyssinia, the western, the 'White NUe, Bahr-el-Abiad, in a more southern range named Lunae Montes : [so, at least, the ancients believed : the existence of these moun tains is neither proved nor disproved.] In its lower course it has formed a considerable delta, and, as is usual in such cases, the divided streams have varied at different times : there were anciently seven channels, the most important of which were the outside arms, the Pelusiac in the E., and the Canopic in the W. To the valley and Delta must be added4he country round the great natural lake Moeris, Birket-el-Eermxn, connected with the valley by a break in the western range of hills. 3. The whole district thus described is periodically laid under water by the overflowing of the NUe, from April to October. The immense quantities of alluvial deposit brought down by the Nile had a double effect : they con stantly increased the Delta, and served as a fertilizing mar nure for the upper country, over which they were spread by those annual overflowings ; and thus Egypt was in a twofold sense the " gift of the Nile." 4. There are several remarkable lakes in Egypt, con nected either with the Nile or the western arm of the Red Sea. Of the former we may mention the one already named above, Moeris Lacus, Birket-d-Eeroun, which was used for the reception and subsequent distribution of a part of the overflow of the Nile ; and the Nitriae or Nitrariae, Birket-el-Duarah, the celebrated Natron Lakes, in a valley on the S. W. niargin of the Delta, which valley appears to have been an ancient bed of the Nile : of the latter, the Amarus Lacus or Bitter Lake, which formed a connecting link between the Nile and the Red Sea, at its northernmost extremities ; a canal was constructed by which the line of communication was completed : this canal between these ranges of hills, and what rivers are connected with the main stream ? 3. What etl'eots had the alluvial deposits of the Nile ! 4. "What lakes AFEIOA. 311 was finished by Ptolemy PhUadelphus, and subsequently cleared by Trajan of the sand which had choked it up._ 5. Egypt was divided by the Greeks into two portions, the Delta or Lower Egypt, now El Bahari or El Eebit, andThebais, or Upper Egypt, Said: to these a central division was afterwards added, named Heptan6mis, or Middie Egypt, Meer Vostatii. The land was further sub divided in 36 nomes or governments : the number, how ever, is variously stated: Heptanomis derived its name from its containing seven such subdivisions. 6. The chief cities were : a, Alexandria, Arabic Js/i;an- deria, founded by -Alexander the Great, b. c. 332, at the Ca nopic mouth of the NUe, the chief port and the royal resi dence ofthe Ptolemies, and stUl a very important commer cial town: 5, Nan era tis, the ruins at Sorel-Hajar, the port conceded to the Greeks by .Amasis, on the Canopic channel: c, Arsinoe, at the head of the Sinus Heroopo- Utes; and d, another tO"wn of the same name, otherwise called Cr6c6dilop61is, in the Heptanomis, on Lake Moeris, near which was the celebrated Labyrinth : e, He liopolis, in the Old Testament On or Bethschemesh, on the E. side of the Pelusiac branch of the NUe, a little below the apex of the Delta, the seat of a famous temple ofthe Sun : /, Pelusium, the Sin of Scripture, on the E. side ofthe easternmost mouth ofthe NUe, a strongly forti fied town: 5^, Memphis, in the O. T. Noph, above the head of the Delta, the capital of Egypt after the faU of Thebes, near which stand the far-famed pyramids: h, Thebae, afterwards Diospolis Magna, in Scripture No or No Ammon, the ancient capital, of immense size and magnificence, and i, Syene, now Assouan, in ruins, on the southern border, just below the first Cataract, well known as the spot through which, as it lay just under the tropic of Cancer, ancient geographers drew their chief parallel of latitude. The Land of Goshen lay eastward ofthe Delta, between Lacus Amarus and the Mediterranean. 7. Egypt possessed two ports on the Sinus Arabicus or Red Sea, Myos Hormos, and Berenice, on the Sinus Immundus, now Foul Bay, from each of which there was a route to Copt OS, on the Nile, below Thebae. 2. 2!tMopia. 8. Aethiopia, the C ush of Scripture, Were in Egypt? 5. -What were the divisions of Egypt? 6. "What were the chief towns, severally noted for what ? 7. "What ports had Egypt on the Eed Sea ? 8. How waa Aethiopia bounded, what did it include, Its namo whence derived ? 312 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. was bounded on the N. by Egypt, on the E. by the Sinus Arabicus, on the W. by the Desert, on the S. the boundary, in about 10° N. lat., was undefined. It includes Nubia, Abyssinia, Sennaar, and Eordofan. The name of the peo ple inhabiting it is said to have been derived from their sun-burnt complexion, and compounded of aWw and wj/. The subdivisions of the Nile have been already noticed : the Cataracts or rapids in the course of the river occur in this country, near the border of Egypt. The southern district is very mountainous. 9. Aethiopia includes the following districts : a, D o d e - caschoenus, or Aethiopia Aegypti, on the border of Egypt, to which it was attached by the Romans : it re ceived the first name from its being twelve schoeni (a measure of land in Egypt, consisting of 60 stadia according to some, of 80 according to Hero Geometra) in length along the course of the Nile : S, Meroe, the country sur rounding the Nile at its junction "with the Astaboras ; the insulated district, inclosed by these two rivers, and almost an island, was caUed the Island ; and c, Regnum Axomi- tarum, the mountainous region in whioh the sources of the Blue Nile are found. Both the two last were at dif ferent eras powerful independent states : Meroe was gov erned by a hierarchy or college ofthe priests who served at the temples of Ammon and Osiris ; there was, indeed, a sov ereign, but wholly under their power : Candace, mentioned in the New Testament, was one ofthe queens of this country. 10. The capital, Meroe, stood on the Nile: it was the centre of an extensive commerce between the interior of Africa and Egypt. Auxume or Axume rose to importance after the decay of Meroe in the 2d century a. d., and became the capital of a powerful kingdom of the same name : it was situated near the sources of the Astaboras, and was a great market for ivory. The chief port of Aethiopia was Adule or Adulis, on an inlet or bay ofthe Arabicus Sinus, called Adulitanus Sinus, now Annesley Bay. S.—Jf lar marica, Cyrenaica, and Syrtica. 1. Marmarica was a portion ofthe northern coast ad jacent to Egypt on the E., and Cyrenaica on the W. : it is 9. Give a succinct account of the districts into which Aethiopia was divided. 10. -SVhere was the capital, and what other towns were there ? 1, -What was Marmarica, what was the character of the country, what town AFEIOA. 313 • now divided between Egypt and Tripoli. It is a dry and uncultivated district : the coast is skirted by a range of low hUls, which in two spots open towards the interior in steep valleys, which were designated Catabathmus-Major and Minor. The only town of interest was Par actinium or Ammonia. The tribes who inhabited it in the days of Herodotus were the Adyrmachidaeand the Giligam- mae on the coast; and theNasamones andAugilaein the interior. 2. Cj'renaica was contiguous to Marmarica on the E. and to Syrtica on the W. : it lay in the projecting curva ture ofthe coast which bounds the Syrtis Major : it is now caUed Demah or Jebel-Akhdar. Its position was favor able, being the nearest point to Greece, and equidistant from Egypt and Carthage ; and from its position, forma tion, cUmate, and soil, this region is perhaps one of the most deUghtful on the surface ofthe globe, 3. The chief city was the Greek colony of Cyrene, of which very large ruins are to be seen at Ghrennah, the present name of the site, founded 631 b. c, by settlers from Thera : it was situated on a rising ground, 1,800 feet above the sea, 10 mUes from the coast, in one of the finest situa tions in the world, and was large and highly ornamented. It was the head of a flourishing state at first monarchical, afterwards republican, consisting of five towns, which lasted untUthe time of Ptolemy Soter, b. c. 321, 4, The other to"wns were : a, Apollonia, now Marza Susa, the port of Cyrene : it was the birthplace of Era tosthenes : h, Ptolemais, the ruins of which are called Tolmeita or Tolometa, at first only the port of Barca, which was, however, so entirely ecUpsed by Ptolemais that, under the Romans, even the name of Barca was transferred to the latter city : c, Arsinoe, or Tauchira, more to the S. ; and d, Berenice, formerly Hesperis, the ruins now caUed'jBew Ghazi, the fabled site of the Gardens of the Hesperides. These formed the Cyrenaie Pentapolis, In- the interior, 12^- miles from the sea, was Barca or Barce, the ruins called Merjeh, a colony from, and a rival of, Cyrene. In 510 b. c. it was taken by the Persians, who removed most of its inhabitants to Bactria, and under the Ptolemies its ruin was completed by the erection of its port of note was there, and what tribes inhabitedit ? 2. "Where was Cyrenaica, and what made its position favorable? 3. What was the chief city of Cyrenaica, how situated, and the head of what? 4. -What were the other four towns, and what 14 314 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. « into a new city, which was named Ptolemais, (see above,) and which took the place of Barca as one of the cities of the Pentapolis. Herodotus mentions the native tribes as the Asbystae in the E., and Auchisae in the W. 5. Syrtica Regio, now the W. part of Tripoli, was a poor, barren district, sand interspersed -with salt marshes, along the shores of the sea between the Syrtis Major and the Syrtis Minor, which belonged at different times to the Cyrenians and to the Carthaginians, and was incorporated in the province of Africa by the Romans, along with the other possessions of Carthage, The native tribes men tioned by Herodotus were the Lotophagi, Macae, Psylli, and Nasamones. The only river to be noticed is the small Cinyps, the banks of which were remarkably fertUe. There were three confederate towns, (whence the name Tripolis,) viz.: Leptis Magna or Neapolis, founded by Sidonians, and under the Romans a place of great trade: Oea, probably on the site of Tripoli ; and Abrotonum, also caUedSabrata, more to the W. These three cities formed the African TripoUs. ^.—Africa Propria. 1. Africa Propria or Provincia, or simply Africa, was the name under which the Romans, after the 3d Punic war, b. c. 146, erected into a pro-vince the whole of the former territory of Carthage. It was bounded on the E. by the Mare Internum, the Syrtis Minor, and the river Triton which separated it from Syrtica : on the W. by the river Tusca which separated it from Numidia : on the S. by the Desert and Tritonis or Tritonitis Palus ; and on the N. by the Mediterranean. 2. It differs much in character from the eastern coun tries of North Africa, being hUly, well watered, and emi nently fertile. The hiUs are offsets from the great Atlas range. The chief river is the BagrS,das, Mejerdah, which flows towards the N. E., reaching the sea near Utica. There are also several lakes, particularly the large salt Palus or Lacus Tritonis or Tritonitis or Palla- dis, now M-Sibkah, which bounds the Desert, and which important place was in the interior ? 6. What and where was Syrtica, what na tive tribes are mentioned, and what river and what town are to be noticed ? 1. "What and how bounded was Afriea Propria? 2. "What is tho natura AFEIOA. 315' was formerly connected with the sea by a river named Triton. 3. The sea-coast is irregular : on the N. coast we meet with the Hermaeum Promontorium, or in Latin Mer curii Prom., now Cape .Bow, the nearest point to Europe, and Promontorium Pulchrum or Apollinis Prom., now G. Farina, between which Ues the Sinus Cartha- giniensis. Gulf of Tunis. 4. Africa Propria was in early times under the domin ion of Carthago. This city, long the capital of Africa, was founded 853 b. c, (some say 876,) by Phoenicians, and existed until its overthrow by Scipio, b. c. 146. It stood on a bay of the N.' coast, the Sinus Carthaginiensis, near the present Tunis, its sides being flanked by lagoons, one of which served as its port. 5. When the Romans had, after the destruction of Car thage, constituted its territoryinto a province, they divided it into two parts, Byzacena or Byzacium in the S., and Zeugisor Zeugitana in theN. The chief cities were : a, Thapsus, on the E. coast, where Caesar finaUy defeated the Pompeian army under Scipio and Juba, b. c. 46 : &, A dr -u- metum or Hadrtimetum, founded by the Phoenicians, and rendered a place of commercial importance by the Romans: c, Tysdrus, in the interior, S. of Hadrumetum : d, Utica, on the N. coast, at the commencement of the Bay of Carthage, raised by the Romans to be the capital ofthe whole province, and historically famous for the death of Cato, and as the resort of the republican faction : and lastly. Hippo Diarrhytus or Zarytus, a port a Uttle to the westward. 5.—J\umidia. 1. Numidia was bounded on the E. by Africa Propria and the Tusca River, on the W. by Mauretania and the river Ampsaga, on the N. by the Mediterranean, and on the S. by Gaetulia, and corresponds with the E. part of Algeria. It derived its name from the nomad (No/AaSes) tribes who frequented it. » ,, . „, wi,oi i.iT7<.ra and lakes are there? 3. "What was the ohar- °^**/??°*''y''T„r^ what Momontorios were on it? 4. Africa Propria was acter of the °o^^*l™?„,^J*LP"'!Xt, fonnded by whom, and when aniwhero ? l"°^°enftlEo±Thaarfhjfe^^^^^ a province, how did they divide it, '"i^H^w wirNum^rbomdedfoomspon with what? Whence its name? 316 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT, 2. The chief tribe was the Massylii, a brave and active race, Uving under a monarchical form of government : they were conquered by the Romans, b. c. 46, and their terri tory formed into the province of Numidia. 3. The interior of the country is mountainous, the highest range being known by the name of Mons Thambes. The chief rivers are the Rubricatus or Ubus, now Seibous, and the Ampsaga, fFad-el-Eabir ; the former drains the central district, the latter is on the bordfcr of. Mauretania, 4. The chief to"wns on the coast were the foUovring two sea-ports: Hippo Regius, the ruins of which are near Bonah, W. of the mouth of the Rubricatus, once a royal residence, and afterwards celebrated as the bishopric of St. Augustine, and Rusicada; andin the interior, Zama Regia, a strongly fortified city on the border of Africa Propria, and sometimes included in it, the residence of Juba, and the scene of an important battle between Han nibal and Scipio, b. c. 202, when the 2d Punic war ended : SiccaVeneria, probably Al Eeff, on a hill near the Bagradus; and Cirta, afterwards Constantina, the ruins called Constantineh, in the W. part of the province, the capital of the Numidian kings, and from its central position, the most important town under the Romans also. G.—Jflauretania, 1. Mauritania was bounded on the E. by Numidia, on the S. by Gaetulia, on the N. by the Mediterranean, and on the W. by the Atlantic : it corresponds with western Alge ria and a great portion of Morocco. 2. The Romans first became acquainted with it in the Jugurthine war, but it was not incorporated in the em pire untU the time of Claudius : it was then divided into two provinces, Caesariensis in the E., aud Tingitana in the W., separated by the river Muliicha. 3. There are two ranges named Atlas in this prov ince: Atlas Major, also caUed Dyrin, in the S., and a lesser range, A. Minor, along the coast in the N. ; the 2. What was tbe chief tribe, what their character and government, they were con quered by whom, and what was done with their territory ? 3. "What was the character of the country, and what are the chief rivers? 4. "What were the cUef towns^and where ? Severally how noted ? .1. How was Mauretania bounded, and with what does It correspond ? 2. "When did the Eomans become acquainted with it, when incorporate it iu the empire, and AFEIOA. 317 termination of the latter was the lofty rock of Abyla cr Abila Mons or Columna, Jebel Zatout, already noticed as one of the Columnae Herculis. 4. The chief rivers were, the Chinalaph, Shelliff, in Caesariensis; the Muliioha, Malva, or Malochath, Mulwia, which formed the boundary between the prov inces ; and the Subur, Sebou, Subu, or Cubu, flowing into the Atlantic. The general name of the inhabitants was Mauri, Moors, and the most important tribe was the Massaesylii, between the Muluchaand the Chinalaph. 5. The chief towns were: a, Caesarea, on the coast, formerly a Phoenician station with the name Jo I, after wards the residence of Bocchus and of Juba II., and finally made the capital of the province by Claudius: h, Car- tenna, a considerable port, W. of the Chinalaph: c, Sitifi, Setif, in the interior and on the border of Numi dia: d, Tingis, Tangier, the capital of Tingitana, just outside the Fretum Gaditanum, and on the Atlantic Ocean : e, the Phoenician colonies of Lix, Lixa, or Lixus, and Thymiaterium, founded by Hanno. how divide it? 3. "What mountains were in Mauretania ? 4. "What were the chief rivers, what the name of the inhabitants and of the most important tribe? 6. "What and where were the chief towns ? THE KND. INDEX Abae, 40. Abdera, 256. Abella, 148. Abila, 297. Abila, mons, 817. Abilene, 297. Abnoba, mons, 274, Aboniticbos, 220. Abrotonum, 814. Abus, mons, 281. Abydos, 196. Abyla, mons, 817. Acamas, prom., 258. Acampsis, fl., 221. Acarnania, 26. Acesines, fl,, 298. Acesta, 181. Achaia, 67. AcbarnaB, 59. Achelous, fl., 18, 17. Acheron, fl-, 18. Acherontia, 154. Acherusia, lac, 12. Acra, mons, 802. Acritas, prom., 75. Acroceraunium, prom.^ 8. Acte, 260. Actium, 9, Adana, 805. Addua, fl., 95. Adonis, fl., 298. Adramyttium, 196. Adramyttenus sinus, 193. Adrana, fl., 275. Adria, 109. Adrianopolis, 257. Adriaticum mare, 5, 101. Adrumetum, 815. Adule Tel Adulis portus, 312. Adulitanus sinus, 812. Adyrmachidae, 813. Aea, 279. Aegae, 61. Aegaeum mare, 5, 9. Aegaleus, mons, 66. Aegates, ins,, 187. Aogesta, 181. Aegina, ins., 82. Aegium, 68. Aegos-Potamos, 257. Aegusa, 187, Aegyptus, 309. Aelana, 305. Aelanitis sinus, 804. Aelia Capitolina, 802. Aenaria, ins., 170. Aenianes, 16. Aenos, mons, 256. Aeoliae, ins., 187. Aeolis, 198. Aequi, 92, 128, 134. Aesarus, fl., 163. Aesepus, fl., 198. Aesernia, 150. Aethalia, ins., 169. Aethiopes, 809, Aethiopia, 809, Sll. Aegypti, 812. Aetna, mons, 171, 172. op., 182. Aetolia, 31. Africa, 307. Propria, 814, Aganippe, fons, 41. Agathyrsi, 278. Agrigentum, 178, Agyrium, 183. Alabanda, 213. Alauni, 278. Alazonius, fl., 280. Alba Fucentia, 124 Longa, 182. Albania, 279, 280. Albanus laous, 98. mons, 259. * Albis, 6, 275. Album, prom., 298. Albus, 271. Alcyonium mare, 41. Aleria, colonia, 186. Alesia, 268. Alex, fl., 163. Alexandria, 311. ¦ • Ariana, 288. Margiana, 291. Oxiana, 291, Troas, 195. Ultima, 291. Algidus, mons, 132. Allia, fl., 96. Allifae, 150. Alpenus vel Alpeni, 85. Alpes, montes, 6, 92. maritimae, 92. Cottiae, 92. 103. Graiae, 92. • Penninae, 92, Lepontiorum, 93, Rhaeticae, 93. Tridentinae, 93. Noricae, 93. Carnicae, 93. Juliae, 93. Alpheus, 13, 14, 64. Alsadamus, mons, 801. Altinum, 110. Alysia vel Alyzea, SO. Amalekites or Amalecitae, 805. Amanus, mons, 296. Amardus, fl., 286. Amarus lacus, 310. Amasia, 223. Amastris, fl. et op., 220. Amathus, 254 Ambastus, 294 Ambracia, 67. Ambracius sinus 10. Ameria, 120. Amisia, fl., 275, Amisus, 222. Amiternum, 124 Ammonia, 313. Ammonium vel Ammon, Oasis, 308. Amnias, fl., 218. Amphipolis, 261, Amphissa, 84 Amphrysus, fl., 20. Ampsanctus, lacus, 99. Amyclae, 79, 136. Anagnia, 134. Ananes, 104. Anaphe, Ins., 88. Anapus, fl., 172. Anas, fl., 263. Anazarbus, 235. Anchiale, 283. Ancona, 121. Ancyra, 244 Andros, ins., 87. Angitula, fl., 163. Angrivarii, 276, INDEX. 319 Angulus, 125. Anio, fl., 96. . Annibi montes, 294. Antandrus, 196. Anthedon, 50. Anticyra, 24, ST. Antilibanus, mons, 296. Antiochia Epidaphnes, 297. ad Maeandrum, 213. Pisidiao, 229. Antirrhium, prom., 9, S3. Antissa, 198. Antitnuras, mons, 221. Antium, 134. Anxur, 185. Aornus, 290. Aursi, 295. Aous, a., 259. Apamea ad Orontem, 297. Cibotus, 289. Apenuini montes, 6, 93. Aphetae, 23. Aphrodisias, 213. Apidanus, fl., 17. Apollonia, 67, 202, 818. supra Ehyndacum, 217. in Thracia, 256. Apollints, prom., 815. Apulia, 91, 151. Messapia, 151. Peucetia, 151. Aquae Solis, 272. Sextiae, 267, 263. Aquileia, 110. Aquinum, 136. Aquitania, 267. Aquitani, 267. Arabia, 304 Deserta, 804. Felix, 304, 305. Petraea, 304, 305. Arabicus sinus, 804. Arachosia, 289, Arachotus, fl., 290. Arachthus, fl., 18. Aram, 282. Ararat, mons, 281. Ar.aru8, fl., 258. Araxes, fl., 280, 281, 287. Arbela, 285. Arcadia, 83. Ardea, 181. Arduenna silva, 266, Arelate, 268. Arethusa fons, 176. Argentea Eegio, 293. Argentoratum, 269. Argippaei, 295. Argolicus sinus, 10, 11, Argolis, 79. Argos, 79, 80. Amphilochicum, 80, Aria, 288. Lacus, 289. Ariana, 286. Aricia, 182. Arimaspi, 295. Ariminum, 113, Arisbe, 196. Aristonautae, portus, 68. Arius, fl., 288, Armenia, 280. Minor, 281. Arnon, fl., 802, 303. Arnus, fl., 90, 112, Arocha, fl., 163. Arosis, fl., 286. Arpi, 153. Arpinum, 186, Arretium, 115. ArsinoS, 268, 811, 813, Arsissa, lacus, 281. Artanos, fl., 258. Artaxata, 281. Artemisius, mons, 88. Artemisium, prom., 9, 61. op., 268. ArtiscuB, fl., 256. Arymagdus, fl., 282. Ascania, lacus, 228. Ascra, 41. Asculum Apulum, 158. Picenum, 121, Ashdod, 803. Asia, 189, Msflor, 190, Minor, 190, 191. Asinaeus sinus, 10, Asine, 11. Asopus, fl., 16. Aspendus, 231. Asphaltites lacus, 300. Assus, 196. Assyria, 284, Astacus, 217. Astaboras, fl., 810. Astacenus sinus, 215, Atella, 147, Aternum, 125, Athenae, 53, Athesis, fl., 93. Athos, mons, 260, 261, Athrys, fl., 258. Atlanticus Oceanus, 5, Athis, mons, 308, 816. Atra, 283, Atrebatii, 271. Atropatene, 286, Attalia, 230. Attica, 52, Attium, prom., 186. Attyda, 241, Aturia, 286, Aufldus, fl., 97. Augilae, 313, Augusta Praetoria, 104. - Kauraca, 269. - Taurinorum, 103, - Trevirorum, 269. - Yindelicorum, 276. Augustoritum, 268, Aulis, 50, Aulon, 75. Auranitis, 302. Aurea Chersonesus, 292, 293. — Eegio, 293. Aureus Mons, 186. Autololes, 809. Auxncli montes, 294. Auximum, 121, Avaricum, 267, Avernus laous, 98, i^xius, fl. 261, ^xumo, 812. Azani, 242, Azorus, 21, Azotus, 803. Babylon, 283, Babylonia, 288, Bactra, 290. Bactria, 290, 292, Baetica, 263, Baetis, fl. 6, 263, Bagradas, fl. 214. Baiae, 142. Baleares, ins., 265. Bantia, 154. Barathus vel Barata, 245. Barco, 813. Barcino, 263. Bargylia, 218. Barium, 154. Barygazenus sinus, 298, Basan, mons, 802, Bastarnae, 278, Batnae, 282, Bautisus, fl, 294, Bebii montes, 259, Bebryces, 214, Bednacum, 106, Belgae, 267, Belgica, 268. Bellas, fl., 282, Belisama, aest., 271. Belus, fl. 298. Benacus lacus, 101, Beneventum, 150. Berenice, 305, 311, 813, Bermius, mons, 261, Berrhoea, 261, Berytus, op. et prom., 293. Bessi, 256. Bethlehem, 802. Bethsaida, 303. Billaeus, fl., 214. Bithyni, 214, Bithynia, 214, Bithynium, 217. Boderia, aest, 271, Boeae, 77, Boebeis, lacus, 12. Boeotia, 40. Boeum, 83, Boii, 104. Bonae Fortunae, ins., 293, Bononia, 104. Borysthenes, fl., 6, 278, Bosporus Tbreicius, 5, 6, Cimmerius, 5. Bostrenus, fl., 298. Bovianum, 150, Brauron, B8, Brigantes, 271, Britannia, 269. 320 INDEX. Britannia Prima, 270, Secunda, 270, Barbara, 210, Britannicae insulae, 269, Britannicus oceanus, 5. ^ Brixia, 106. Bructeri, 275. Brundusium, 155. Bruttium, 91, 162. Budeni, 278. Bumadus, fl., 285. Buprasium, 71, Burdigala, !367, Burgundiones, 275. Busmasdis, 249. Butrotus, 164, Byblus, prom, et op., 2! Byzacium, 315. Byzantium, 2p6. Cabalia, 223. Cabira, 224. Cabolitae, 290. Cacyparis, fl., 178, Cadi, 241. Cadmeia, 44, Cadmus, mons, 288 Cadyna, 245. Caecinus, fl., 164. Caenys, prom., 94. Caere, 115. Caesarea, ins., 269. Palaestinae, 303. Philippi, 808. Mauretaniae, 317. Caesena, 107. Caicus, fl., 193. Caieta, 187. Calabria, 91. Calauria, Ins., 82. Calbis, fl., 211, Cales, 146, Callatis, 258, Callidromus, mons, 25. CalHnicum, 283, Callinusa, prom,, 253, Callirrhoe, 282, Calor, fl., 140. Calpe, prom., 262. op., 268. Calycadnus, fl., 231, Calydna, ins,, 214, Calydon, op., 82, Calymna, 213, Camalodunum, 272, Camarina, 178. Camboricum, 273. Cambunii montes, 8. Cambyses, fl., 280. Camirns, 211, 251, Campania, 91, 138. Campi Laestrygonii, 175, 176. Canae, 245. Cane, prom., 198. Canelata, 186, Cangsuorom, prom., 271. I Cannae, 154. Cantabri, 264. Cantabricum mare, vel Cantabricus Oceanus, 5, 262. Canthi, sinus, 293, Cantii, 271. Cantium, prom., 271. Canusium, 154. Capernaum, 803. Caphareus, prom., 64. Cappadocia, 246. Capraria, ins., 169, 187. Capria, 231. Capreae, ins , 170, Caprus, fl., 284, Capua, 147, Caralis, 185. Caralitanum prom., 184. Caralitis, vel Caialins lacus, 223. Carallia, 249. Carambacis, fl., 6. Carchemish, 282, Carcines, fl., 163. Carduchi, 285. . Caria, 210. Carmana, 287. Carmania, 287. Carmelus, mons, 301. Carni, 109. Carnuntum, 277. Carpates, mons, 6, 258. Carpathus, ins., 88. Carrhae, 282, Carteia, 263. Cartenna, 817, Carthago, 315. Nova, 263, 264. Carthaginensis sinus, 815. Carura, 241, 290, Caryanda, 213. Carystus, 63. Casilinum, 146. Caspii montes, 281. Caspium mare, 279, Caspius, mons, 286. Cassiope, 18. Cassiterides, ins., 270. Castabala, 247, 248. Castalia, fons, 89. Oatana, 175. Cataonia, 247. Catarrhactes, fl., 228, 229. Cattigara, 294. Oatuvellauni, 271. Caucasiae, Pylae, 280. Caucasus, mons, 279, 280. Caucones, 214 Caudini, 149. Caudium, 150. Caulon, 165. Caunus, 218. Cayster, fl., 201. Cebenna, mons, 266, Celaenae, 239, Celtae, 267; Celtiberi, 264. Celtici, 264. Cenchreae, 65. Cenimagni, 271. Cenomntiui, .. Centumcellae, 114. Centurinum, 186, Centuripae, 183, Ceos, Ins., 85. Cephallenia, ins., 27, 23, Cephissus, fl., 13, 15. Cephissus Atticus, fl., 15, Ceramicus sinus, 210. Ceraunii montes, 8. Cercine, mons, 261. Coretapa, 241. Oestrus, fl., 228, 229. Cevenna, mons, 266. Chaboras, fl., 282. Chaeronea, 47. Chalcedon, 216. Chalcidice, 260. Chalcis, 62. Chaldaea, 283. Chains, fl., 296, Chalybes, 221, 223, Chaones, 18, Chaonia, 13. Charchemish, 232, Charrae, 282. Chatoras, fl., 282, Chatti, 275, Chauci, 275, Chebar, fl., 282. Chelonatas, or Chelonites, prom., 71. Chersonesus, 278. Taurica, 278. Thraciae, 25T Cherusci, 276. Chimaera Lyciae, 225. Chinalaph, fl., 317, Chios, Ins., 10, 209. Chaser, fl., 279. Choaspes, fl., 286, 290. Choes, fl., 290. Chrysopolis, 217. Chrysorrhoas, fl., 297. Chusa, 243. Ciambrus, fl., 257, Cianus, sinus, 215. Cibalis, 277, Cibyratis, 228. Cilicia, 281. Cimbri, 275, Cimolus, 86. Cinyps, fl., 814 Circeii, 135 Circeium, prom., 94 Circesium, 282, Cirrha, 36. Cirta, 816. Cithaeron, mons, 8, 43, Citium, prom., 253. op., 264 Cius, 217, Clanis, fl., 97, Clanius, fl., 140. Clastidium, 103. Clazomenae, 206. Cleonae, 69, 79, 80. Clibanus, 249. Climax, mons, 224 Clitumnus, fl., 96. INDEX. 321 Clota, aest, 271. Cluninm, 186, Clusina palus, vel clusinus laous, 116. Clusium, 116, Clydao, 218. Cnidus, 212. Cnossus, 89. Cocinthuni, prom,, 93, Cocusos, 247. Codanus sinus, 6, 276. Coelo-Syria, 296. Coenonchorion, 224 Colchis, 279. Collatia, 183. Colonia Agrippina, 269. Colophon, 206. Colossae, 239. Columbarium, prom,, 184 Columbaria, Ins., 169, Columnae Herculis, 262. Comana Pontica, 224 Cappad., 247. Comaria, prom., 293. Comum, 105. Congussus, 245. Conope vel Conopa, op. et lacus, 31,32, Consentia, 163. Constantinopolis, 256, Copae, 48, Copais, lacns, 12, 41, 43, 49, Cophes, fl., 290, Corbeus, 244 Corcyra, ins,, 18, 67, Coracesium, 286. Corduba, 264. Corflnlum, 124 Corycium Antrum, 39. Cormthia, 64 Corinthiacus sinus, 10, 11. Corinthus, 64 Corioli, 134 Coritani, 271, Corna-rii, 271. Corniculum, 123. Cornus, 185. Coronaeus sinus, 10, Coronea, 45, Corsica, ins,, 186. Cortona, 116. Corycus, 236, Corydalla,249, Coryphasium, prom., 74 Cos, ins., 212, Cosa vel Cossa, 114 Cottiaris, fl., 294. Cotvaeum, 241. Cotyora, 228. Cranae, ins., 77, Cranii, 29, Cranon vel Crannon, 22, Crassum, prom., 184 Cratais, 168. Crathis, mons et fl,, 68, Cremera, fl., 97, Cremna, 228, Cremona, 106, Creta, ins., 88. Creticum mare, 10. 14* Crimisa, prom., 98, op., 364. Crimisus, fl., 163, 178. Crissa, 36. Crissaeus sinus, 14. Criu-metopon, prom., 88. Crocodilopolis, 311. Crommyon, prom., 253, Cronium mare, 5. Crotalus, fl., 163, Crotona, 164, Crustumerium, 123, Ctesiphon, 285. Cumae, 141, Cumanus sinus, 101, Cumerium, prom., 93, Cunaxa, 284. Cunicularium, prom., 184. Cupra, 121. Cures, 123. Curetes, 26, Curias, prom., 253, Curium, 264 Cush, 811, Cutiliae, 124. Cyathns, fl., 82. Cybistra, 248, Cyclades, ins., 9, 85. Cydnus, fl., 281, Cydonia, 89. Cyllene, mons, 9, 64, S3. portus, 71. Cynoscephalae, 21, Cynossema, prom., 210. Cynthus, moos, 86, Cyparissia, 74. Cyparissius sinus, 11, Cyprus, ins,, 251. Cyrenaica, 812, 818, Cyrene, 291, 818, Cyrnos, ins., 5, Cyrus, fl., 280. Cythera, ins., 77. Cythnos, ins., 85. Cytinium, 83. Cytorus, 220, Cyzicus, 193, Dacia, 258, Aureliani, 257. Dadastana, 244, Dades, prom., 258, Daedala, 213, Dalmatae, 260, Dalmatia, 260. Damascus, 297. Damnonici, 271. Damnonium, prom,, 271. Danapris, fl., 6, Danubius, fl., 6, Darae, 809. Dascylium, 217. Dastarcon, 247. Decapolis, 302, Decelea, 59, Decumates agrl, 7, Delas, fl., 285. Delemna, 244 Delium, 60. Delos, Ins., 85. Delphi, 87. Delta, 811. Domotao, 271. Demetrlas, 24. Derbe, 246. Deva, 272. Dianium, Ins., 169. Dlcte, mons, 89. Didymus, mons, 288. Dinaretum, prom., 253. Diocaesarea, 303. Diolcos, 66. Diomedeae Insulae, 152. Dioscurias, 279. Diospohs Magna, Sll. Dirce, fons, 45. Doanas, fl., 293, Dobuni, 271. Docimia, 241, Dodccaschoenus, 811. Dodona, 18. Doliche, 210, Dolopia, 19, Dorias, fl., 293, Doris, Graeciae, 88, Dorylaeum, 241, Drangiana, 289, Dravus, fl., 276. Drepanum, prom., 68, 258, op., 180, Drilo, fl., 269. Drinnus, fl., 258, Dulichium, ins., 27, Durius, fl., 263. Durocortorum, 269. Durotriges, 271. Dyardanes, fl., 298. Dyme vel Dymae, 69. Dyrrhachium, 260, Dyrin, 316, x: Ebal, mons, 801. Eblana, 273, Eboracum, 272. Ebudae, ins., 272, Ebusus, ins, 265, Ecbatana, 286, 291, Echinades, insulae, 27. Edessa, 261, 282, Edomites, 305. Egesta, 181. Egnatia, 154, Elaiticus sinus, 193. Elasa, prom,, 263, Elatea, 40, Elath, 805. Elea vel Telia, 162. Eleusis, 56. Eleutherae, 60. Eleutherus, fl., 293. Elgovae, 271. Elicyci, 266. Elis, 70. op., 71. Emesa, 297. 322 INDEX. Emporiae, 263. Enipeus, fl., 17, Enna, 183. Eons oceanus, 2, ' Epei, 70, Ephesus, 204 Ephraim, mons, 801. Ephyra, 65, Epidamnus, 260. Epiphania, 238, Epirus, 17, Erebantium, prom., 134 Eresus, 198. Eretria, 63. Eridanus, fl., 95. Erigon, fl., 261, Erineus, 33, Erymanthus. mons., 9, 6 83, 34 , fl., 289. Erysiohe, 80. Erysichaei, 80. Eryx, 130. Erythrae, 206. Eythraeum mare, 304 Esdraelon, 30t. Etruria, 91, 111. Erymandrus, fl., 239. Buarchus, fl., 218. Euboea, 10, 60. Euboicum mare, 60. Eudocia, 231. Euergetae, 289, Euganei, 104 Eulaeus, fl., 286. Eumenia, 242, Eupatoria, 224, Euphrates, 281, Euripus, 12, 62. Euromus, 213, Europa, 4, 256, Europus, fl., 17. Eurotas, fl., 13, 15, 64, 76, Eurymedon, fl., 230, Euxinus Pontus, 5, 6, Evaspla, fl., 290, Evenus, fl., 13, 193, Eziongeber, 305, Faesulae, 113, Falerii, 117, Faustinopolis, 247. Favoni Portus, 186, Ficaria, Portus, 186, Fidenae, 123. Flanaticus sinus, 109. Flavia Cajsariensis, 270. Flevum, 266. Florentia, 113, Forentum, 154, Formiae, 137. Forum Appii, 135. Julii, 110, Gallorum, 107. Lepidi, 107. Sempronii, 119. Fossa, 185. Frentani, 150. Frento, fl,, 151. Frisii, 275. Fucinus lacus, 100. Furculae Caudinae, 150, Gabii, 132. Gabreta silva, 274, Gadara, 803. Gadeira vel Gades, ins,, 270. Gades, 263, 264 Gaditanum fretum, 262, Gaetulia, 809, Gaetuli, 309, Gagae, 249, Galatia, 242, Galilaea, 302. Gallaeci, 264, Gallia, 265. Belgica, 267, Cisalpina, 91, 108. Cispadana, 104 Lugdunensis, 267. Narbonensis, 267. Transpadana, 104 Gallicum fretum, 5, Ganges, 292, 293, Gangeticus sinus, 293, Gangra, 220, Garamantes, 809. Garganus, mons, 93. Garganum, prom., 93, 152. Garumna, fl., 6, 265, Gaugamela, 285, Gaulonitis, 302. Gaulos, ins., 188, Gauzaca, 290, Gedrosia, 289. Gela, 178, 249, Genabum, 268, Gennesareth, lacus, 800, Genua, 102, Geraestus, prom., 64. Gerizim, mons, 301. Germania, 278. Germanicum mare, 5. Gerrha, 306, Gerrhaei, 805, Gesoriacum, 269, Getae, 257, Gilead, mons, 301. Giligam'uae, 313, Gir, fl., 809. Glevum, 272, Gomphi, 20, Gonnus, 20. . Gordiaei montes, 234, Gorditanum, prom., 184 Gordium, 244. Gordyene, 285. Gortyna, 89, Goshen, 311. Graecia, 7. Magna, 92, 168. Propria, 8. Graeci, TT Granicus, fl., 193, Grumentum, 162. Gyarus, ins., 87. Gymnesiae, ins., 265. Gyndes, fl., 285, Gythium, 76. Hadrianopolis, 217. Hadrumetum, 815. Hadria, 109, Hadriaticus sinus, 5. Haemus, mons, 6, 256. Haliacmon, fl,, 261. HaUartus, 49, lacus, 49, Halicarnassus, 212. Halycus, fl., 173. Halys, fl., 218,221,243. Hamaxobii, 278. Haran, 282. Harmozica, 230. Harpasus, fl., 211. Hatra, 28.3. Hebron, 802. Hebrus, fl., 256. Hecatompylos, 288. HeUce, 68. Helicon, mons, 8, 41. HeliopoUs, 811, Helisson, fl., 84, Helium Ostium, 266. Hellas, 7. Hellenopolis, 217, Hellespontus, 5, 196, Helorus, op., 178. Helorus, fl., 178, Helos, 77, Hephaestia, 199. Heptanomis, 811. Heraclea, 266, Minoa, 179, Phthiotidis, 24. Pontica, 216, Trachiniae, 24. ad Sirim, 160. Heracleum, 224 Heraei montes, 172. Herculaneum, 143. Herculeum fretum, 6. Herculis, prom., 93, Hercynia silva, 274, Herdonia, 158. Hermaeum, prom., 184, 815. Hermiones, 275. Hermon, mens, 301. Hermunduri, 275. Hermus, fl., 201, 289. Hernici, 183. Heroopolites, sinus, 304 Hesperia, 90, Hesperis, 313, Hestiaea, 61, Hestiaeotis, 19, Hesudrus, fl., 293. Hexapolis, Dorian, 211. Hibernia, 272, Hiddekel, fl., 281. INDEX. 323 Hiera, ins., 187, Hierapolis, 240. Hierocaesarea, 202. Hieromia.^, fl., 8U8. Himera, fl., 173. op., 181. Hippo Kegi us, 816. Zar)tus,815. Hippocrene, fons., 41. Hippo Diarrhytus, portus, 315. Hirpini, 150. Hispalis, 264. Hispania, 262. Histiaea, 61. Histrlaj 109. Homeritae, 805. Homole, mons, 19. Horeb, mons., 304 Hybla, 182. Hydaspes, fl., 293. Hydraotes, fl., 293. Hydria, prom., 193. Hydrus vel Hydruntum, 156. Hylas, fl., 163. Hyle, 49. Hylika, lacus, 45, 49. Hymettus, mons, 8, 59. Hypaepa, 202. Hypanis, fl., 278. Hyperborei montes, 6, 278. Hyphasis, fl., 293. Hypsas, fl., 173. Hyrie, lacus, 82. Hyrcania, 288. lalysus, 211, 251. lapydes, 260. lapygia, 155. lapygum, prom,, 93. tria, prom., 93. lasius sinus, 210. lassns, 213. laxartes, fl., 291. lazyges, 259, 278. Metanastae, 259. Iberes, 280. Iberia, 263, 279. Iberus, fl., 6, 262. Icarus, 210. Icarium mare, 10. Iceni, 271. Iconium, 245. Ida, mons, 193. Idalium, 258. 'Idubeda, mons, 262. Igilium, ins., 169. Iguvium, 119. Ilipula, mons, 262. Ilissus, fl., 16. Hium, 194 NoTum, 194 Vetus, 194 niyricum or Ulyria, 259. Ilva, ins., 169. Imaus, mons, 294 Imbros, ins., 199. Inachus, fl., 15. Inarimo, ins., 170. India, 292l Indus, 289. Inferum mare, 102. Ingaevones, 276. Insani montes, 184 Insubres, 104 Interamna, 120. Internum mare, 8, lobia, 231. lolcos, 2a Ionia, 202. Ionium mare, 10. Ipsus, 241. Ira, 75. Iris, fl., 221. Isaura, 248. Isauria, 228, 248. Isca, 272. Ischopolis, 224 Isis, fl., 221. Ismenus, fl., 16. Issedones, 295. Issus, 233. Istaevones, 275. Ister, fl., 6, 2T5. Istria, 91, 109. Istrus, 258. Italia, 90, Ithaca, ins., 27. op. 23. Ithome, mons, 75. Itius Portus, 269. Ituna, aest., 271. Ituraea, 302. luverni, 278. Jabadii, ins., 293. Jabbok, fl., 302, 31 Jebus, 302. Jericho, 802, Jerusalem, 302. Jol, 317. Joppa, 303. Jordan, fl., 800. Judaea, 302. Jura, mons, 266. Juvavum, 277. Katakekaumene, 246. Kedar, 806. Kidron, toi-rens., 304 Kishon, fl., 298. Kison Minor, fl., 804. Labranda, 213. Labutas, mons, 288. Lacedaemon, 78. Lacinium, prom., 93. Laomon, mons, 8. Laconica or Laconia, 76. Laconicus sinus, 10, 11. Ludon, fl., 14 Laevi, 104. Lalassis, 249. Lameticus sinus, 101, Lametus, fl., 163. Lamia, 24. Lampsacus, 196. Lamus, fl., 281. Langobardi, 275. Lanuvium, 131. Laodicea Combusta, 246. Laodicea ad Lycum, 239. Laranda, 245. Larinum, 151, Larissa, 22. Larissa Ephesia, 201. Larissus, fl., 14. Larius lacus, 101. Latium, 91, 128. Laureacum, 277. Laurentum,, 131. Laurium, 67. Laus, 162. Laus Pompeia, 105. Lavinium, 131. Lebadea, 46. Lebedus, 205. Lechaeum, port, 65. Lectum, prom., 198. Leleges, 26. Lemannus, lacus, 265. Lemnos, ins., 10, 198. Leo, fl., 298. Leontes, fl., 298. Leontini, 175. Lbptis Magna, 314. Lerna, lacus, 13, 80. Leros, ins., 214. Lesbos, ins., 10, 197. Lethaeus, fl., 17. Leuca, 156, 213. Leucadia vel Lencas, ins., 27. Leucas vel Leucate, prom., 26. Leucolla, 253. Leucopetra, prom., 94 Leucosyri, 222. Leuctra, 42. Libanus, mons, 296. Libethrius, mons, 46. Libici, 104 Liburni, 260. Libya, 307 Libyssa, 217. Lichades, insulae, 35. Liger, fl., 265. Liguria, 91, 102. Ligusticus sinus, 101. Ligyes, 266. Lilybaeum, prom, et op,, 171, 179. Lindum, 272. Lindus, 211, 251. Lingones, 104. Lipara, Ins., 167. 324 .INDEX. Liris, fl., 97, 140. Liternum, 141. Lixus vel Lixa, 817. Locri, 33. Epicnemidii, 84. Epizephyrii, 165. Opuntii, 85. Ozolae, 84 Locras, fl., 186. Locris, 33. Londinium, 272. Longi Muri, 55. Lorium, 115. Loryma, 213. Lotophagi, 814. Luca, 112. Lucania, 91, 158. Luceria, 152. Lucrinus lacus, 99. Lugdunum, 268. Luna, 112. Lunae montes, 310. Luppia, fl., 275. Lusitani, 264. Lutetia Parisiorum, 268. Lycaeus, mons, 9, 83, 84 Lycaonia, 244 Lycia, 224. Lycus, fl., 239, 284 fl., Phoenic, 298. Lydia, 199. Lyrna, 231. Lyrnessus, 281. Lysimachia, lacus, 82. Lystra, 246. M Macae, 314 Macaria, 74 Macedonia, 260, Macestus, fl., 193. Maeander, fl., 201, 210, 239. Maenalus, njbns, 9, 83, 85. Maenaria, ins., 169. Maeonia, 199. Maeotis Palus, 5. Magnesia, 19, 23. ad Sipylum, 201. Magoras, fl., 298. Magnus sinus, 298, 308, Malea, prom., 9, 77. Maliacus sinus, 10, 11. Malis, 19. Mallorum Urbs, 293. Mallus, 233. Mamertium, 168. Manduria, 156. Mantinea, 84 Mantinorum Oppidam, 186. Mantua, 106. Maracanda, 291. Marathon, 53. Marcomanni, 276. Margiana, 291. Margus, fl., 258, 291. Mariana Colonia, 186. Marianum, prom., 186. Marianus, mons, 262. Maris, fl.,. 258. Marmarica, 812. Marmarium, 63. Marruvium, 124. Marrucini, 125. Marsi, 124. Marsyas, fl., 211, 239. Maryandini, 214. Masius, mons, 282. Massaesylii, 817. Massagetae, 295. Massicus, mons, 140, Massilia, 266, 268. Massylii, 316. Matrona, fl., 266, Mattiaci, 275. Mauretania, 308,316. Mauri, 317. Maxima Caesariensis, 270. Mazaca, 247, Medama, fl., 163. Media, 286. Mediolanum, 105. Mediterraneum mare, 8. Megalopolis, 84 'Megara, 51. Megaris, 51. Melano-Gaetuli, 809. Melas, fl., 48, 280, 232, Melisse, 241. Melita, ins. et op., 188. Melitene, 247. Melos, ins., 86. Memphis, 311. Mercurii, prom., 315. Meroe, 812. Mesogaea vel Mesogys, mons, 289. Mesopotamia, 282. Messana, 174. Messapia, 155. Messenia, 74. Messene, 75. Messeniacus sinus, 10, 11. Messogis, 201. Metapontum, 159. Metaris Aestuarium, 271. Metaurus, fl., 97, 168. Methymna, 198. Metropolis, 202, 241. Mevania, 119. Midaeum, 241. Midea, 46. Midianites, 805. Miletus, 203. Milyas, 228. Mincius, 95. Minervae, prom., 94 Minius, fl., 263. Minoa, ins. vel prom., 52. Minturnae, 137. Minyae, 47. Minyan, 47. Misenum, prom., 94 Misthia, 245. Moabites, 305. Moenus, fl., 275. Moeris, lacus, 310. Moesi vel Mysi, 258. Moesia, 257. Mogantiacum, 269. Moeros, fl., 221. Molossi, 18. Molossis, 18. Molycria, 83. Molycricum, 38, Mona, ins., 272, Monapia, ins., 272. Mopsnestia, 235. Moriah, mons, 802. Moricambe Aest., 271. Mortuum mare, 300. Mosa, fl., 266. Mosella, fl., 266. Mosyna, 241. Motya, 180. Mulucba, fl., 317, Munda, 264. Munychia, portus, 54, Mursa, 277. Mutina, 107. Mycale, prom., 210. Mycenae, 80. Myconus, ins., 87. Mygdones, 214 Mygdonius, fl., 282. Mylae, 182. Mylasa, 212. Myndus, 213. Myos Hormos, 311. Myra vel Myron, 226. Myrina, 199. Myrtoum, mare, 10. Mysia, 192. Mytilene, 197. Myus, 204. N Naarmalcha, 283. Naarsares, 283. Nabataei, 805. Nacolia, 241. Naparis, fl., 258. Nar, fl., 96. Narbo, 267, 268. Narnia, 120. Naro, fl., 259. Narona, 260. Nasamones, 813, 814 Naucratis, 311. Naupactus, 84 Nauplia, 80. Nava, fl., 266. Naxos, ins., 86. Naxos, op., 175. Nazareth, 80S. Nazianzus, 248. NeaethuB, fl., 168. Neapolis, 143. Palaestinae, 803. Nebo, mons, 801. Nebrodes, mons, 171. Neda, fl., 15. Neium, mons, 28. Nemausus, 268. Neocaesarea, 224 Nerigos, 276. Neritum, mons, 28. INDEX. 325 Nesis, ins., 170. Nestus, fl., 256, Neuri, 278, Nicaea, 102i 215, Nicer, fl., 274 Nicomedia, 216, Nicopolis, 13, Nigritis, lacus, 309, Nilus, fl., 310, Nineveh, 235, Niphates, mons, 281. Nisaea, portus, 62, Nisaei campi, 286. Nisibis, 282, Nitriae vel Nitrariae, 810. Noes, fl., 258. Nola, 147. Nora, 185. Norba, lS6w Noreia, 277, Noricum, 276, Nostrum mare, S. Novaria, 104 Nuba, lacus, 309. Nuceria, 14i Numan tia, 264 Numidia, 315. Nursia, 124 O Oasis, Major, 803. Minor, 308, Ammon, 808, Angela, 80a Phazania, 809. Ocellum, prom., 271. Ochus, fl., 288. Ocinarus, fl., 163, Ocrlnuro, prom., 271. Octopitarum, prom., 271. Odessus, 258, Odrysae, 256. Oea, 814 Oechardes, fl., 294 Oedanes, fl., 293. Oeniadae, 30. Oenoe, 224. Oenus, fl., 76. Oeta, mons, 3. Oetaea, 19. Oglasa, ins., 169. Olba vel Olbe, 236, Olbia, 217, 230. Sarmat., 278. Olearus, ins., 86, Olgassys, mons, 218, Olpae, 30. Olympia, 72, Olympus, mons, 8, 20, 192, 193, 213, 233, 252, Olynthus, 261, Omana, 289. On, 811, Ophir, 305, Ophiussa, ins., 266, 87, Opuntius, sinus, 11. Opus, 85. Oraea, 289. Orbelufl, mons, 260, Orbis terrarum, 1. Orcades, Ins., 272, Orchomenus, 47, Ordessus, fl., 258. OrdovicGS, 276. Orontes, fl., 296. Oropus, 51. Ortospana, 290. Ortygia, Ins., 176. Ossa, mona, 8, 20, Ostia, 130, Othrys, mons, 8, Otodeni, 271, Oxii montes, 291, Oxus, fl., 290. Pachynus, prom., 171. Padus, fl., 6, 94 Padyandus, 247, Paeonia, 261. Paestanus, sinus, 161. Paestnm, 161. Pagasaeus, sinus, 10, 12. Pagida, fl., 298. Palaestina, 299. Palanta, 186. Palica, 183. Palinurum, prom., 94 Pallacopas, 283. Pale vel Palle, 29. PaUene, penina, 260, Palmaria, Ins., 169, Palmyra, 297, Palus Maeotis, 5. Pambotis, 18. Pamisus, fl., 15, 64 Pamphylia, 239, Pandataria, Ins., 169 Pandosia, 18. Pangaeus, mons, 260. Pannonia, 276, 277. Panormus, 181, Panticapaeum, 278, Paphlagonia, 217, Paphos, 264. Paraetaccne, 287. Paraetonlum, 313. Paralais, 245. Paralia, 53. Parisi, 271. Parma, 107. Parnassus, mons, 8, 39. Parnes, mons, 60. Parnon, mons, 76. Paropamisadae, 283, 290, Paropamisus, mons, 290. Paros, Ins., 36. Parthenope, 143, 249. Parthenius, mons, 9, fl., 214,218. Parthia, 288, 292. Paryadres, mons, 192, 221. Pasargadae, 287, Pasitigris, 283. Patara, 226. Patavium, 109, Pathissus, fl., 258, Patmos, ins,, 214 Patrae, 69. Pattala, 293. Pausilypus, 141. Pedalium, prom., 210, 258. Pelasgiotis, 19, Peligni, 124. Pelion, mons, 8, 20. Pella, 240, 261, 303, Pelleno, 67, Peloponnesus, 8, 64, Pelorus, prom., 171. Pelso, laous, 277. Peltae, 240. Pelusium, 811. Ponens, fl., 13, 16. Pentelicus, mons, 8 Peor, mons, 801. Pepuza, 242, Peraea, 802. Pergamum vel Pergamus, 195. Perga vel Perge, 230, Perrhaebi, 19. Perinthus, 256. Persepolis, 287. Persicus sinus, 804, Persis, 285, 287. Perusia, 116. Pessinus, 243. Petelia, 164. Petra, 245, 305. Pence, Ins., 258, Peucetia, 151, 156. Peucini, 258, Phalerum, portus, 55, Phanagoria, 295, Pharium, prom,, 258, Pharnacia, 223. Pharnacotis, 289. Pharsalia, 23. Pharsalus, 22. Pharusii, 309. Phaselis, 227. Phasis, fl., 4, 221, 279. Phazania, Oasis, 809. Pheneus, 83. Pherae, 22. Phigalia, 84 Philadelphia, 201. Palaestinae, 303. Philippi, 262. Philippopolis, 257. Philomelium, 241, Phlegyae, 47, Phlius, 69. Phocaea, 206. Phocis, 35. Phoenicia, 297, Phoenix, portus, 89. Phoenix, 213. Pholoe, mons, 72. Phorbantia, ins., 187, Phorcys, portus, 28. Phraaspa, 287, Phrygia, 237. Epictetus, 233, 241, Hellespontica, 238, 326 INDEX. Phrygia Pacatiana, 238. Parorios, 238, Propria, 238, Salutaris, 238, Phthiotis, 19, Phyle, 59. Physcns, fl., 284. Picenum, 91, 120. Picentes, 120. Picentia, 148. Picentini, 148. Figrum mare, 5. -Pindus, op., 33. Pindus, mons, 3. Pinna, 125, Piraeus, portus, 54. Pisa, 71, 72. Pisae, 112. Pisatis, 71, 72. Pisidia, 279. Pison, fl., 281. Pistoria, 113. Pithecusa, Ins., 170. Pityns, 296. Pityusae, ins., 265, Placentia, 107, Planasia, ins., 169, Plataeae, 43. Plistus, fl., 18. Plotae, insulae, 30, Pogon, 81. Pola, 110. Polaticum, prom., 93, Polemonium, 222, Polybotus, 240, Pompeii, 144 Pompeiopolis, 234. Pomptinae paludes, 137. Pontanus lacus, 152. Pontia, ins., 169, Fontus Euxinus, 5. Pontus, 220. Populonium, 113. Populonium, prom., 94 Portae Caspiae, 288. CUiciae, 234. Porthmos, 63. Portus Eomanus vel J Augusti, 131. Posidium, prom., 210. Posidonium, prom., 94 Potidaea, 67, 261. Praeneste, 133. Prasum, prom., 308. PregeUa, 245. Priene, 204 Prochyta, Ins., 170. Proni vel Pronesus, 29, Prophthasia, 289, Propontis, 5. Prusa, 217. Psophis, 29. Psylli, 314 Ptolemais, 298, 313. Pulchrum prom., 315. Pura, 289. Puteoli, 142. Pylae Albaniae, 280, Caucasiae, 280, CUiciae, 234. Pylos, 71, Triphyliacus, 73. Messeniacus, 74 Pyramus, fl., 231. Pyrenaei montes, 6. Pyretus, fl., 258. Pyrgi vel Pyrgos, 115. Pythium, 21. Quadi, 276. B Babbath Ammon, 808. Moab, 308, Eagae, 287. Eamoth Gilead, 308, Eavenna, 107, Eeate, 128. Eegillus lacus, 98, Eegni, 271, Eegnum Axomitamm, 812. Eesen, 285. Eha, fl., 6. Ehaetia, 276. Ehamnus, 58. Ehoginm, 166. Eheithron, portus, 28. Ehenus, fl., 6, 266, 274 Ehipaei montes, 6, 278, Khium, prom., 9, 186. Ehoda, 249. Ehodanos, fl., 6, 265, Ehodius, fl., 198, Bhodope, mons, 256, Ehodus, ins., 249. op., 250. Ehoetius, mons, 186, Ehotanus, fl., 186. Ehyndacns, ft, 193, 214, 289. Eiduna, Ins., 269, Eoma, 126, Eoxolani, 278. Eubi, 155. Eubico, fl., 98. Eubricatus, fl., 816. Eubrum mare, 304. Eudiae, 155. Eugii, 275. Euscicada, 316. Eusellae, 114. Eutupiae, 272. Sabaei, 805. Sabaricus sinus, 298. Sabatinus lacus, 99, 100. Sabatus, fl., 140, 163. Sabbaticus fl., 298. Sabini, 122. Babrata, 314 Sabriana Aest., 271. Sabrina, fl,, 271, Bacae, 295. Sacrnm prom., 186. fl., 184, Sagras, fl,, 164. Saguntum, 264. Sahara, 808. Salaeia, 249. Salamis, Ins., 57. op. Cypr., 258. Salapia, 153. Salas, fl., 275, Salassi, 104, Salemum, 143. Salice, Ins., 293, Salmona, prom., 88. Salona, 260. Samaria, 802, 803. Same, Ins., 28. Samnites, ins., 149. Samnium, 91, 148. Samos, ins., 10, 207. Samosata, 297. Samothracia, 257, Sangarius, fl., 214, 243. Sardis, 201. Sardo vel Sardinia, Ins., 5, 188. Sariphi, montes, 288. Sarmatae, 295. Sarmatia, 277, 296, Sarnia, ins., 269, Sarnus, fl., 140. Saronas Planities, 801. Saronicus sinus, 10, 11. Sarsina, 119, Sarug, 282, Sams, fl,, 231, Sasima, 243, Satnois, fl., 198. Saturium, 158. Savo, fl., 140. Savus, fl., 276. Saxones, 275. Scamander, fl., 193. Scandiae insulae, 276. Scardona, 260. Scenitae, 806. Scepsis, 196. Scheria, 13. Schoenus portus, 65. SclUus, 73. Scironides petrae, vel Sci- ronia Saxa, 51. Scius,fl., 258. Scoedisus, mons, 192, Scotussa, 22. Scylacium, 165. Scyllace, 217. Scyllaceus sinus, 101. Scythia, 294 Sebaste, 235, 244 Palaestinae, 803, SebastopoUs, 279, Sebethus, fl., 140. Sebinus lacus, 101, Segesta, 181. Seleucia, 231. Trachea, 235. ad Tigrin, 284 Selge, 223. Selinus, 179, 286, INDEX. 327 Sellasia, 79. Scmechonites, laous, 300. Semirus, fl., 168. Semnones, 275. Sena Gallica, 113. Sentinum, 119. Sephela planities, 301. Sepinum, 150. Sepphoris, 303. Sequana, il., 6, 266. Sera, 294 Serica, 292, 294 Seriphus, ins., 86. Serus,fl., 29a Sesamus, fl., 218, op., 220. Sessites, fl., 104. Sestos, 257. Seteia Aest, 271, Setia, 186. Sharon, 301. Sheba, 805. Shinar, 283. Shushan, 286, Sicca Yeneria, 316. Siceli, vel Siculi, vel Si cani, 173. Sichem, 303. Sicilia, ins., 171. Siculum fretum 171, Sicyonia, 69. Side, 230, Sidon, 298, 299, Sigaeum, prom., 193, Signia, 136. Sitarus, fl., 140, 162. Silh^ fl., 235. SUures, 271, Simaethus, fl„ 172, Simois, fl, 193. Sinarum sinus, 294 Sinae, 292, 293. Sinai, mons, 304 Sinda, 295. Sinonia, Ins., 169, Sinope, 219. Singiticus, sinus, 261. Sipontum, 152, Sipylus, mons, 201, Siraceni, 295. Sirenusae, Ins., 148, Siris, 249. Sirmium, 277, Siscia, 277, Sithonia, peninsula, 260. Sitttt, 317, Smyrna, 206. Sogdiana, 291. Sogdii montes, 291. Soli vel Soloe, 233, 249, in Cyprus, 253, Sparta, 73, Spauta, lacus, 286. Sperchius, fl., 18, 16, Sphacteria, Ins., 74 Sphagia, ins., 74, Spina, 108, Spoletium, 119, Sporades insulae, 10, 37. Stabiae, 145. Stentoris sinus, 256. Stenyclerus, campus et op., Stertorium, 242. Stratonicea, 213, Stratonis Turris, 303, Stratus, 80, Sti-ongylo, Ins., 187. Strophades, ins., SO, Strymon, fl., 261, Strymonicus sinus, 261. Stymphalus, 84. Stymphalis, lacus, 12, 64, 84, Subur, fl., 817. Sudeti montes, 274. Suossa Aurunca, 146, Suevi, 275, Suevicum mare, 6, Suiones, 275. Sulcense prom., 184 Sulci, 185. Sulmo, 125. Sunium, prom., 9, 57. Superum mare, 102. Surrentum, 146, Susa, 286, 291, Susiana, 286, Sybaris, 160,249, SycambrI, 275, Syene, 811. Syllium, 230. Synnada vel Synnas, 240, Syphnos, ins., 86. Syracusae, 67, 176. Syracusanus Portus, 186. Syria, 296. Syros, ios., 86. Syrtica, 312. Syrtica Eegio, 314 Syrtis Major, 808, Minor, 808. Tabae, 241. Tabernae, Tres, 135. Tabor, mons, 301. Tabuzion, 241. Tacina, fl., 163. Taenarum, prom., 9, 77, Tagus, fl., 6, 268. Tamarus, fl., 140. Tamesis, fl., 271. Tamyras, 298, Tanagi'a, 50. Tanais, fl., 6, 278. Tanais, op., 278, 295. Taphiae vel Teleboae insu lae, 27, 29. Taphos, ins., 29. Taprobane, ins., 293. Tarabenorum Vicus, 186. Tarentinus sinus, 101, Tarentum, 156, Tarquinii, 114 Tarracina, 135, Tarraco, 268, 264 Tarsius, fl,, 193, Tarsus, 234 Tartessus, 263, Tatta, lacns, 245, op., 246. Tauchira, 818. Taulantii, 260. Taunus, mons, 274, Tauracia, 103 Tauri, 278. Taurica Chersonesus, 273. Taurini, 103, 104 Tauromenium, 175. Taurus, mons, 191. Tavium, 244, Tavola, fl,, 186, Taygetus, mons, 9, 64, TaxUa, 298. Teanum Apulum, 152, Teanum Sidicinum, 146. Teato, 125. Tegea, 85. Telamo, 114 . Teleboae, insulae, 27, 29, Telesia, 150. Telmessus, 227. Temnus, mons, 193, Tempe, vaUis, 21, Tencteri, 275, Tenedos, Ins., 198. Tenos, ins., 87, Teos, 205. Tergeste, 100. Tergestinus sinus, 101. Terias, fl., 172. Terina, 166. Termessus, 223. Termus, fl. 184 Testrina, 124 Teuthrania, 193. Teutoburgiensis silva, 274, Thambes, mons, 816. Thapsus, 815, Thasos, Ins., 257, Thaumaci, 23, Thebae, 44, 311, Thebais,^ll.Themiscyfa, 223. Theodosia, 273. Thera, Ins., 87. Therapne, 78. Therma, 82. Thermaicus sinus, 10, 12, 261, Thermopylae, 25, Thermum, 32, Thespiae, 42. Thesprotia, 18, Thesproti, 18. Thessalia, 19. Thessaliotis, 19. Thessalonica, 261, Theu-prosopon, prom., 298. Thinae, 294 Thisbe, 41. Thracia, 266. Thriasius Campus, 56, Throni, prom., 263, Thronium, 35. Thule, ins. 273. Thurii, 161. Thyamis, fl., 17. Thyatira, 202. 328 INDEX. Thymiaterium, 817. Thyni, 214, Thyrsus, fl. 184. Thyssagetae, 295. Tirantus, fl., 258. Tiber vel Tiberis, Ul. Tiberias, lacus, 300. op., 803. Tibiscus, fl., 258, Tibiscum, 259, Tibula, 134, Tibur, 138. Ticarius, fl., 186. Ticinum, 104 Ticinus, fl., 95, Tifata, mons, 141, Tifernus, fl., 151. Tigranocerta, 231. Tigris, fl., 281. Tilavemptus, JLIO. Timavus, fl., 98. Tingis, 317. Tinia, fl., 96. Tiryns, 81. Titaresius, fl., 17. Titianus Portus, 186. Tmolus, mons, 201, Tolosa, 263, Tomis, 263. Tornadotus, fl., 234 Toronaicus Sinus, 261. Trachis vel Trachin, 24 Trachonitis, 302. Trais, fl., 163. Trapezopolis, 241. Trapezus, 222. Trasimenus lacus, 99, Trebia, 95, Trerus, fl., 134. Tres Tabernae, 185. Triballi, 268. Tricca, 21, Tridentum, 276, Trimetus vel Tremitus, Ins., 152, Trinobantes, 271, Triopium, prom,, 210. Triphylia, 71, 73, Tripolis, 241. Tripolis, river of, 298, Tripolis, Phoenic, 298, Triton, fl., 815, Tritonis vel Tritonitis lacus, 314 Troas, 193. Troezen, 31. Trogitis lacus, 228, Trogilium, prom,, 210. Troja, 194 Tuder, 119. Turdetani, 264. Turduli, 264 Turris Libyssonis, 134. Tusculum, 182, Tyana, 243. Tyanitis, 243. Tymphrestus, mons, 8, Tyndaris, 132, Tyras, fl., 268, 278, op., 278. Tyriaeum, 246, - Tyrrhenum mare, 102. Tyrus, 298, 299, Tysdrus, 315, U Umbria, 91, 117. Umbro, 14, Ur, 282, Urgo, Ins., 169. Uria, 156. Ursi, prom., 184. Usipetes, 275. Utica, 316. Vadimonis lacns, 99, 100. Vagum, prom., 186, V alentla,. 270. Vandalici montes, 274 Vectis, ins., 272. Veil, 117. VeUa vel Elea, 162. Velinus. fl. 97, Velitrae, 184, Venafrum, 146, Venedae, 278, Veneti, 103, Venetia, 91, 103, Venetus lacus, 266. Venusia, 158. Vera, 287. Verbanus lacns, 100, 101, VerceUae, 104 Verona, 106, Verulamium, 272. Vestini, 125, Vesontio, 269, Vesulus, mons, 92. Vesuvius, mons, 140, Vetulonii, 118. Viadus vel Viadnis, fl., 6, 275. Vibo, 166. Vienna, 268. VindeUcia, 276, Vindius, niona, 262, Vindobona, 277. Viriballum, prom., 186. Vistula,' fl., 6, 275. Visurgis, fl., 0, 275, Vogesus, mons, 266. Volaterrae, 113. Volsci, 184 Volsinii, 116, Volsiniensis lacus, 99, 100. Vosgesus, mons, 266. Vulturnum, 141, Vulturnus, fl., 97, 140. Xanthus, fl., 225. ¦ op., 226. XyUene, 231. Zabatns,fl.,284 Zacynthus, ins., 27, 29. op., 263. Zagrus, mons, 234, 286. Zalecus, fl., 218. Zama, 316. Zaradrus, fl., 293. Zarmlzegetbusa, 269, Zariaspa, 290, Zea, portus, 54. Zela, 228, . Zephyrium, prom., 98, 210, 258. r , , ", Zeugitana, 315, Zion, mons, 802. Zipoetes, 217. Zoba, 282. jD. 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