YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF BENGAL. XI. TURNBULL AND SPEARS, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH. A. Statistical Account of Bengal. By W. W. HUNTER, B.A., LL.D., DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF STATISTICS TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ; ONE OF THE COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY; HONORARY OR FOREIGN MEMBER OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF NETHERLANDS INDIA AT THE HAGUE, OF THE INSTITUTO VASCO DA GAMA OF PORTUGUESE INDIA, OF THE DUTCH SOCIETY IN JAVA, AND OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, LONDON ; HONORARY FELLOW OF THE CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY ; ORDINARY FELLOW OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ETC. VOLUME XL DISTRICTS OF PATNA AND SARAN. The Account of Patnd has been compiled by D. B. Allen, Esq., C.S., and that of Sdran by A. W. Mackie, Esq., C.S., Assistants to the Director- General of Statistics. TRUBNER & CO., LONDON 1877. PREFACE TO VOLUME XI. STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF BENGAL. This Volume treats of the Districts of Patnd and Saran, the two commercial centres of the Patna Division. Patnd District stretches along the southern bank of the Ganges, and is penetrated from east to west by the East Indian Railway. Saran occupies a triangular strip formed by the confluence of the Gogra and Gandak with the great River. Both these Dis tricts have a naturally fertile soil ; while the facilities of com munication enable the cultivators to dispose of their surplus crops, and suffice to ward off the extremity of famine in an unfavourable year. Patna city, including the Civil Station of Bdnkipur and the Military Cantonments at Dindpur, is, after Calcutta, the largest river-mart in Bengal. It forms a busy changing-station ; where the piece-goods, salt, and miscel laneous manufactures of Europe, which come up from Calcutta by rail, are transferred into country boats to be distributed throughout the neighbouring tracts ; and where the agricultural produce of a wide area is collected for despatch to the seaboard. Revelganj, the chief mart in 6 PREFACE. Sdran, conducts a similar business. It has monopolised the trade in oil-seeds, not only of Sdran itself, but also of the Districts of the North-Western Provinces and of Oudh, which lie higher up the Gogrd Valley. The south-eastern portion of Patnd District, where the land rises towards the hills of Chutid Ndgpur, possesses a special interest as containing some of the earliest memorials of Indian Buddhism. In the same neighbourhood lies the town of Behar, an early Muhammadan capital, which has given its name to the Province. The two Districts of Pdtna and Sdran contain a total area °f 4755 square miles ; and a population, according to the Census of 1872, of 3,623,498 souls. W. W. H. 1877. TABLE OF CONTENTS DISTRICTS OF PATNA AND SARAN. — o- DISTRICT OF PATNA. Topography and General Aspects of the District, Area and Boundaries, Jurisdiction, General Aspect, Hills, . River System, . Canals, River Traffic, Irrigation, Fisheries, Lines of Drainage, Ferae Naturae, . The People, Population, including the Census of 1 872, Ethnical Division of the People, Immigration and Emigration, . List of Castes, . Religious Divisions of the People, List of Towns and Villages, 17-32 17-18 1818 18-1919-24 24-25 25-2828-2929-3131-32 32-107 32-3636-3839-40 40-54 54-64 65-90 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS. District of P 'atnA— continued. Village Institutions, Material Condition of the People; Dress, Dwellings, Food, etc., PAGE 91-98 98-107 Agriculture, . . 107-130 Staple Harvests, . 107-109 Rice and other Cereal Crops, . . 109-112 Green and other Crops, 112-115 Cultivated Area, Out-turn of Crops, etc., 115-117 Condition of the Cultivators, . 117 Domestic Animals, 118 Agricultural Implements, . 118-119 Wages and Prices, . 1 19-122 Weights and Measures, 122-123 Landless Day-Labourers, 123-124 Spare Land, .... 124-125 Land Tenures, 125-127 Rates of Rent, .... 127-128 Manure, .... 128-129 Irrigation, .... 129 Rotation of Crops, . 129-130 Natural Calamities, etc., 130-135 Floods, .... 130 Droughts, .... 130-131 Famine of 1866, 131-132 Famine of 1869, 132-133 Famine of 1873-74, 133-134 Famine Warnings, . 134-135 Foreign and Absentee Landholders, 135 TABLE OF CONTENTS. District of Patna — continued. Means of Communication, Manufactures, Commerce, Institutions, etc., , • I35-I8I Roads, ..... • 135-137 East-Indian Railway, . 137 Manufactures, .... 137-146 Opium Cultivation and Manufacture, . 146-154 Commerce and Trade, . 154-180 Capital and Interest, 180 Newspapers, .... 180-181 Income of the District, 181 Administrative, 181-209 Administrative History, 181-183 Revenue and Expenditure at different Periods , 183-185 Land Revenue, . 185-188 Civil and Criminal Courts, 188 Police and Jail Statistics, 189-195 Educational Statistics, . 195-201 The Patnd College, 201-204 Postal Statistics, 204 Administrative Divisions, 204-206 Fiscal Divisions, 206-209 Meteorological and Medical, 209-222 Climate, Temperature, and Rainfall, . 209-211 Endemics and Epidemics, 211-212 Vital Statistics, 212-213 Indigenous Drugs, . . . . 213-215 Native Doctors, 215-216 Charitable Dispensaries, 216-219 The Temple School of Medicine, 220 Lunatic Asylum, . 220-221 Conservancy, . 221-222 TABLE OF CONTENTS. DISTRICT OF SARAN. Topography and General Aspect, Area and Boundaries, . Jurisdiction, General Aspect, River System, . Alluvion and Diluvion, Lakes and Marshes, River Traffic, Irrigation, Fisheries, Minerals, Ferae Naturae, The People, Population, including the Census of 1872, Partial Census of 1 874, . Ethnical Division of the People, List of Castes, . Religious Division of the People, List of Towns and Villages, Village Institutions, Emigration,Material Condition of the People, Dress, Dwel lings, Food, &c, Agriculture, Rice Cultivation, Other Cereals and Green Crops, Fibres and Miscellaneous Crops, Indigo and Opium Cultivation, Cultivated Area, Out-turn of Crops, &c Condition of the Cultivators, Domestic Animals, PAGE 225-238 225-226 226 226-227 227-233 233 233-234 234-235 235 235-236 237 237-238 238-274 238-243 243 244-246246-255 255-257 257-265 265-268268-269 269-274 274-305 274-276 276-277277-282 282-292 292-294 294-295295-296 TABLE OF CONTENTS. District of Saran — continued. Agriculture — continued. Agricultural Implements, 296 Wages and Prices, . 296-298 Weights and Measures, , . 298-299 Spare Land, .... . 299-300 Land Tenures, .... ¦ 300-301 Rates of Rent, .... • 301-304 Manure and Irrigation, . 305 Natural Calamities, &c, • 305-315 Blights, ..... • 305-306 Floods and Embankments . 306-310 Droughts, .... 310 The Famine of 1866, • 310-312 The Famine of 1874, • 312-315 Famine Warnings, 3i5 Means of Communication, Manufacti J res, Institutions, Trade, &c, . • 316-337 Roads and Means of Communication, . • 316-317 Manufactures, .... • 317-323 Trade, ..... ¦ 323-334 Capital and Interest, . 335 Local Institutions, • 335-337 Incomes and Income Tax, 337 Administrative, ¦ 337-36i Administrative History, • 337-338 Revenue and Expenditure at different pei iods, 338-342 Land Revenue, .... ¦ 342-343 Civil and Criminal Courts, 343 Police and Jail Statistics, • 344-349 Educational Statistics, . • 349-353 12 TABLE OF CONTENTS. District of Saran— continued. PAGE Administrative — continued. Postal Statistics, . ¦ 353-354 Administrative Divisions, ¦ 354-355 Fiscal Divisions, • 355-36i Medical, Meteorological, &c, . 361-368 Climate, Temperature, and Rainfall, . 361-362 Diseases, . • 362-363 Indigenous Drugs, . . 363-366 Charitable Dispensaries, . 366-368 Mortuary Statistics, • 368 The Hatwa Family, fDEX, • 368-371 . 373-382 ERRATA. I shall be grateful for any corrections or suggestions which occur to the reader. They may be addressed to me at the India Office, Westminster. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The local weights and measures are given in detail at pp. 122, 123, and 298, 299. In some instances in the following volume, these weights and measures have been converted into their English equivalents, and their native names have not been added. In such cases the reconversion from the English equivalents may be effected with sufficient accuracy in accordance with the following tables : — MONEY. 1 pie (TV of an £nna) = ^ farthing. 1 pice (|ofanannd) = 1 J farthings. 1 anni (TV of a rupee) = i£ pence. The rupee is worth, according to the rate of exchange, from is. 8d. to 2s.; but for conventional purposes it is taken at 2s. WEIGHTS. The unit of weight is the ser (seer), which varies in different Dis tricts from about i£ lb. to 2-205 lbs. This latter is the standard ser as fixed by Government, and corresponds to the metrical kilo gramme. For local calculations in Lower Bengal, the recognised ser may be taken at 2 lbs. The conversion of Indian into English weights would then be as follows : — 1 chatak (TV of a ser) = 2 oz. 1 ser (^V of a maund) = 2 lbs. 1 man or maund (say) = 82 lbs. LAND MEASURE. The unit of land measure is the bighd, which varies from \ of an acre to almost one acre. The Government standard bighd. is 1,400 square feet, or say J of an acre; and this bigha has been uniformly adopted throughout the following volume. STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE DISTRICT OF PATNA.' The District of PatnA lies in the south centre of the Patnd Division or Commissionership, between 24° 58' and 25° 42' north latitude, and 84° 44' and 86° 05'' east longitude. It contains an area, according to the Boundary Commissioner in 1875, of 2101 square miles; and a population, as returned in the Census Report of 1872, of 1,559,638 souls. The chief town is Patnd, or as it is com- 1 This Account of Patna District is chiefly derived from the following sources : — (1) The answers to the six series of questions, furnished by Mr. A. C. Mangles, C. S. , the Collector. (2) Dr. Martin's edition of the Statistics of Behar and Shahabad, collected by Dr. Buchanan Hamilton, under the orders of the Supreme Government of India (1812). (3) General Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India (London, 1871). (4) Report on the Bengal Census of 1872, by Mr H. Beverley, C. S., with subsequent District Compilation, by MrC. F. Magrath, C.S. (5) Papers and Reports, furnished by the Board of Revenue. (6) Area, Longi tudes and Latitudes, furnished by the Surveyor General. (7) Annual Admini stration Reports of the Government of Bengal, of the Commissioner of Patna Division, of the Collector of the District, and of the Deputy Collector of Behar. (8) Trade Statistics for Patna City, compiled by Mr M. Rattray, Salt Superin tendent at Patna, specially furnished through the Bengal Secretariat. (9) The Statistical Reporter from November 1875 to June 1876. (10) Annual Reports on the Police of the Lower Provinces. (11) Annual Report on the Jails of the Lower Provinces for 1872, with statistics for earlier years specially prepared in the office of the Inspector-General. (12) Annual Reports of the Educational Depart ment for 1856-57, 1860-61, and the four years 1870-74. (13) Postal Statistics specially furnished by the Director-General of Post-Offices. ( 14) Annual Reports on the Charitable Dispensaries of Bengal. (15) Annual Reports of the Meteorological Department. (16) Medical Report specially furnished by Dr B. Simpson. I have also to thank Dr Durant and Mr C. Graham, of the Opium Department, the Deputy Collector, Sayyid Amir Husain, and other native gentlemen, for assistance in the work. VOL. XI. B 18 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. monly called by the inhabitants, Azimabad, which adjoins on the east the Civil Station and administrative Headquarters at Bankipur, and is situated on the south or right bank of the Ganges, in latitude 25° 3^", and longitude 85" 15'. Boundaries. The District of Patna is bounded on the north by the river Ganges, which separates it from the Districts of Tirhut and Saran; on the west by the river S6n, which separates it from the District of Shahabad ; on the east by Monghyr ; and on the south by Gaya. Jurisdictions. The Civil, Revenue, and Criminal Jurisdictions are now conterminous with each other. Formerly, Patna City con stituted an independent District by itself, and the greater part of the present District of Patna formed a portion of the old District of Behar, afterwards Gaya. The two Districts of Patna and Gayd. were not separated till 1825. Even after that separation, the latter District was found to be too large; and in 1866, the Sub-division of Behar, containing 796 estates, was transferred to Patna. In 1869, 19 estates in the north of the District were transferred to Tirhut ; and the present boundaries of Patna District were then established. The different changes in the jurisdictions .will be again noticed, in connexion with the Administrative History of the District. The General Aspect of the District is for the most part a dead level, except towards the south, where the ground is hilly. The soil is chiefly alluvial ; and the country along the bank of the Ganges is peculiarly fertile, producing the finest crops of all descrip tions. The general line of drainage in the District is from west to east, and high ground along the south of the Ganges forces back the rivers coming from the District of Gaya. The result is that during the rains nearly the whole interior of the District, south of a line drawn parallel to the Ganges and four or five miles from its bank, is inundated. There are no forests nor jungles of any extent, but fine groups of trees are found throughout the District. In the south-east, the District is for some thirty miles divided from Gaya by the Raja- griha hills, which run in a south-westerly direction from Giriyak towards Gayd. Hills. The Rajagrfha hills consist, for the most part, of two parallel ridges with a narrow valley between, intersected by various ravines and passes. Adjacent to the two ridges are many detached peaks, spurs and hummocks. They seldom exceed a thousand feet in height ; their general appearance is rocky, clothed in most RIVERS: THE GANGES. 19 parts with thick low jungle. In character they are igneous, being composed almost entirely of quartz, siliceous hornstone or jasper. Hot springs, which will be noticed on a subsequent page, are very common in these hills. Beyond Giriyak there is a break in the ridge; but further on, in Monghyr District about Shaikhpura, the rock crops up again to the surface. To the north of this ridge at Behar, there is an isolated hill, which being composed of the same materials with the Rdjdgrihd hills, may be considered as an outlying spur of that ridge. This hill is formed of parallel layers, rising from the east to the west, at an angle of about 20°. The layers are composed of granular siliceous hornstone, in most places grey, but in parts stained red. They vary in thickness from about six inches to two feet, and are intersected by numerous vertical fissures crossing each other at right angles. The eastern base of the hill is occupied with huts, and the summit is crowned by the ruins of an old mosque and graveyard. Towards the west, the hill is precipitous, rising abruptly from the surrounding plain. Rivers. The Ganges, or as it should be called, the Gangd, forms the northern boundary of Patnd District, from the confluence of its waters with those of the Son to the west, up to the village of Murdnchi on the east. Its total length in Patna is, according to the Board of Revenue's Statistics, 93 miles. The channel of this great river is continually shifting, and islands appear and disappear year after year. Any account, therefore, of its course is liable to correction shortly after it has been written. For the sake of comparison, I have brought together some of the more important descriptions. The earliest notice that we have is that of Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, whose account has been preserved by Arrian. He describes Palibothra, the Greek form of the name Patali-putra, as situated near the confluence of the two great rivers, Erannoboas and Ganges. Now Patali-putra has been identified with Patnd, and Erannoboas is the Greek form of Hiranyabdha, which has been identified with the Sdn, so that at that time the confluence of the Son and the Ganges was several miles east of its present position. Dr Buchanan Hamilton gave [181 2] a very full account of the course of the Ganges, pointing out the divergencies from Major Rennel's description, embodied in the 'Bengal Atlas,' 1772. He says, " The Ganges comes to the boundary of this District (Behar) just where it is joined by the Son, a little way above the town of Sherpur. From thence it passes east with an undivided channel, until it reaches 20 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. about two miles beyond the cantonments of Dindpur, forming in general the boundary between the Districts of Patnd city and Sdran ; but immediately above the cantonments, a small corner of the latter District is placed on the south side of the river. In this part of the Ganges, Dindpur and Dfgha are the only places in the two Districts which carry on an export and import trade by water. The island, which Major Rennel represents in his survey as opposite to the cantonment of Dindpur, seems to have been carried away ; and the other island, which was then situated east from it in the middle of the river, now in a great measure adheres to the southern bank. In the rainy season a passage still continues open ; but in the fair season its upper end becomes perfectly dry, and boats can no longer reach the Company's cloth factory, situated on the original bank of the river. This island is now about six miles long, and, where largest, about one broad. The upper end belongs to this District (Behar), and the lower to Tirhut. In the rainy season, some goods are exported and imported by water at the Company's factory, and at Bdkarganj. Many boats, however, especially those intended for the accommodation of travellers, are kept in the lower end of this channel at Bdkarganj. The main channel, passing round the north side of the above-men tioned island, does not now receive the Gandak at Hajipur ; a long, wide, and cultivated tongue of land projects from the west side of the Gandak, and passing east about six miles from Hdjipur, separates the stream of the Gandak from the Ganges. In the rainy season, a small channel separates this tongue from the northern shore ; and, consequently, the union of the two rivers is still supposed to take place where it did formerly, and on the full moon of Kdrtik (early in November), the holy spot is frequented by immense multitudes ; and at Harihar-chhatra on the west bank of the Gandak, opposite to Hajfpur, there is then held a very great fair, especially for horses. In the great channel of the sacred river, between this tongue of land and the custom house at Patnd, is a small island ; but both this and the tongue belong to Tirhut. Below this island, the main channel washes the walls of the old city of Patnd, where many goods are imported at Khwajah Kaldnghdt. Immediately below the old city is Mdrdfganj, the principal seat of trade in Patnd ; and a little lower down, at Rikdbganj, there is some business. About the extremity of the suburbs, at Jafar Khdn's garden, the Ganges divides into two branches, which surround a large island, divided into two very un equal portions, and about nine miles in length. Part of both por- RIVERS: THE GANGES. 21 tions belong to the District of the city of Patn^, and part to Tirhut. The river here taking a bend to the south, the branch which goes to the east of this island is by far the largest ; but boats of any size can at all seasons pass through the western channel between the island and Fatwd. This is a place where there is much trade. From the lower part of this island to Bdrh the Ganges runs easterly for about 2 1 miles, with an uninterrupted channel. For some way, part of the channel is claimed by the people of this District (Behar) ; but opposite to the whole division of Bdrh, all the channel is considered as belonging to Tirhut. For about eight miles, however, above Bdrh, there runs parallel to the Ganges an old channel of the river, navigable only in the rainy season, and separating from the mainland a narrow island called Rdmnagar didrd, which belongs entirely to this District (Behar). Bdrh is a place of very considerable trade ; but the only place between it and Fatwd where exports or imports are made, is Kasbd-Nawdbdda, a mart of very small importance. Below Bdrh, the Ganges takes a considerable sweep to the north, and a narrow old channel separates from the mainland an island belonging to this District (Behar) called Malai didrd; but this channel is navigable only in the rains, nor is there any mart on this part of the river. From about five miles below Bdrh, the Ganges runs south-east for about 28 miles to the boundary of the District of Behar with Bhdgalpur. Opposite to Dariydpur, about sixteen miles in a direct line from Bdrh, are two islands, one belonging to Tirhut and the other to Behar. Except at this last place, the whole of the great channel of the Ganges is alleged to belong to Tirhut, but the entire south bank is within Behar. On this are Mukdmd and Dariydpur, two small marts. About two miles below Dariydpur, the Ganges sends off a small channel called Margang, or the dead river, which soon separates into two branches, each retaining the same name. After a course of eight or nine miles they reunite, and immediately afterwards, joining the Haluhangar, communicate with the Keul by means of the Rohiyd. In the dry season, the water of the Haluhangar, Margang and other adjoining creeks seems perfectly stagnant, and in _ the floods sometimes runs one way and sometimes another, according as partial rains swell one channel more than another. On the banks of the western or southern branch of the Margang is situated Barhfyd, a small mart. The eastern and northern branch of the Margang, which when Major Rennel made his survey, seems to have been the great channel of the river, is in parts of its course called Sarld. It soon divides into 22 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. two branches, the south-western of which, or the Sarld, rejoins the first described and most westerly Margang ; while the other, called also Margang, runs parallel to, and near, the great Ganges, until it approaches Siirajgarha, where it joins the Keul. These three old channels of the Ganges, together with its present grand stream and the Keul, include three very large and fertile islands, which have given rise to numerous disputes and bickerings ; nor are the limits between the adjacent Districts of Bhdgalpur, Tirhut, and Behar at all clearly defined." So runs Buchanan's description. It will be noticed that, though the river formed in general the line of division between the Districts of Sdran and Tirhut on the north, and what is now Patnd on the south, yet in some places portions of the south bank of the river were considered as belonging to the northern Districts. This arrangement was caused by shiftings in the course of the river. At the present time, all the country lying south of the Ganges is considered as to be included within Patnd District. The following description of the river represents, so far as pos sible, the course of the main channel at the present day. It is not easy to fix the point where the Ganges enters Patna District. The whole country between Dindpur on the east, and the junction of the main channel of the Sdn with the Ganges on the west, is a low-lying tract, intersected with river channels, that coalesce during the rains and form one wide expanse of water. The course of the Sdn has been shifting for centuries. The junction of the two rivers, which is known to have been once at Patnd, and is described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton as a little way above the town of Sherpur, is now still further to the west. In this low-lying ground, flooded as it is every year, there is no sign of any town or considerable village ; consequently, we find it stated in the Statement of the Navigable Rivers of Bengal (published by the Bengal Office in 1866), that the point where the Ganges enters this District is the town of Dindpur. Thence the main channel of the river flows due east, leaving a narrow strip of exceedingly fertile country between the river and the road con necting Dindpur and Patnd. Between these two places, at Dighd, the river is joined by the Patnd Canal. Just beyond Bdnkipur, the Ganges receives the Gandak from the north. During the rains the whole country between Hdjfpur on the Gandak and Bdnkipur, a distance of about seven miles, forms one wide river ¦ but as the floods recede, the real junction of the Gandak and the Ganges is seen to be, not at the old place opposite Hdjfpur, where the threat RIVERS: SON, PUNPUN, &*c. 23 Sdnpur fair is held, but at a point lower down the stream. The com bined streams of these two great rivers flow past Patnd. Opposite the city, there is a large sandy island. Lower down, the stream again divides into two channels ; the lower one flows past Fatwd, and is navigable, though it is not so considerable as the other channel, which goes round the north side of the island formed by these two branches. The river now flows in a united stream as far as Bdrh. The country to the north is very low, and is flooded every year, but there is only one main channel during the cold weather. Beyond Bdrh, the Ganges takes a sweep to the north. During the rains, part of the water flows along in the direction of the railway, but it is use less for navigation. Some way below Bdrh the river flows south-east past Mukdmd, until it reaches Monghyr District. S6n.- — Next in importance to the Ganges is the Sdn, which sepa rates Patnd from Shdhdbdd District. It enters the District near the village of Mahibalfpur, and flows generally in a northerly direction for forty-one miles, till it joins the Ganges. The point of junction was, according to the ' Bengal Atlas ' of 1772, at Maner. In Dr Buchanan Hamilton's time, Maner was three miles at least above the confluence of the two rivers ; and now the main stream is still further to the west The river flows with an undivided channel nearly as wide as the Ganges (though the volume of water is much less) till it is crossed by the East India Railway at the Koilwdr Station, about six miles from Arrah. Below this point the country is intersected with old channels, down which the Sdn water finds its way into the Ganges. The Sdn receives no tributaries while it forms the boundary of this District. The Punpun, though described as one of the navigable rivers of Bengal, is, at least in this District, chiefly remarkable for the number of the petty irrigation canals that it supplies with water. So much of the water is thus diverted, that the course of the Piinpiin is con tinually changing, and only a small portion of this river ever reaches the Ganges. The course of the stream, till it approaches the canal at Naubatpar, is north-easterly ; but from this point it takes a bend to the east, crosses the Patnd and Gayd road about ten miles from Bdnkipur, and joins the Ganges at Fatwd. The total length of the river, while in this District, is stated to be fifty-four miles. About nine miles from its junction with the Ganges, the Piinpiin is joined by the Miirhar. Where the Piinpiin enters the Ganges, the width of the river, which is enclosed with high steep banks, is about a hundred yards. 24 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. Minor Rivers. — The Murhar, which also comes from the south, divides into two channels before it enters Patnd. Both channels flow generally in a north-easterly direction, and join the Punpiin near the same spot. The length of the Murhar in this District is twenty-nine miles. Both the Piinpiin and the Murhar contain little or no water dur ing the cold weather. The cultivators build dams across the stream, and the water is dispersed over the fields, or stored in the country re servoirs (dhar). None of the other streams in this District, with the exception of the Panchdna, contain water all the year round. The Phdlgii, on which Gayd is situated, a river remarkable for its sanctity, loses its very identity as soon as it enters Patnd District. It divides into several branches, which dry up soon after the rains. The five rivers which irrigate the Nawddd Subdivision of Gayd District, all unite at Giriyak, and thence under the name of Panchdna flow northwards to Behar town. Beyond Behar, the river loses itself in a number of little channels which are dispersed over the fields. The whole of the country to the south of Bdrh is very low. Some of the waters of the Piinpiin find their way down a channel, called the Dohd and after wards the Mithwain, into this low land — where, Hke the Panchdna, they are used for irrigation. The strip of high land south of the Ganges effectually stops any of these streams from entering the great river, so they meander about in a purposeless way, known by different local names, till the necessities of irrigation, and the dryness of the season leave nothing but the tortuous sandy beds to mark the direc tion of their courses. The only other river worth mention is the Sakri, which after leaving Gayd bends to the east, and irrigates the extreme south and east of Patnd District. The constant changes in the river courses have been already re ferred to. The Ganges does not appear to have made any permanent sweep either to the north or to the south ; but the Sdn has certainly moved its channel from ten to fifteen miles further to the west. The beds of the rivers are all sandy ; and the banks, in general, are low and sloping, so that the adjacent country is regularly flooded. Lakes and Marshes. — There are, properly speaking, no marshes or lakes in the District of Patnd ; but, as mentioned above, most of the interior of the District is inundated during the rains. Canals. — One of the most important branches of the Sdn Canal passes through the west of the District. This Canal System is fully described in the Statistical Account of Shdhdbdd District (Vol. xii). It will probably be in working order in 1876 or 1877. The Patnd CANALS: RIVER TRAFFIC. 25 Canal branches off from the Eastern Main Canal in Gayd District, about four miles from the village of Bdrun, where the Sdn is crossed by an anicut or weir, which diverts the water into the Eastern and Western Main Canals. The Patnd Canal is designed to irrigate the country lying to the east of the Sdn. It is 79 miles in length, of which 36 miles lie within Patna District ; and it commands an area of 780 square miles, or 449,200 acres. For irrigating this area, the water will be conveyed by means of distributaries. The course of the canal from its commencement is, in general, parallel with that of the Sdn ; but shortly after entering this District it bends to the east, following an old channel of the Sdn, and joins the Ganges at Di'gha, a village situated between Bdnkipur and Dindpur. By the close of the administrative year, 31st March 1875, the earthwork of the Patnd Canal was nearly completed ; of the sixteen bridges, six had been opened for traffic, and the remainder were in a forward state ; and the waste- weirs were mostly finished. During the famine of 1873-74, the Sdn Canal Works not only gave employment to numbers of labourers, mostly local, amounting at the fullest time to over 40,000 persons ; but the water which was passed through the unfinished channels irrigated nearly 160,000 acres, increasing the flood supply, according to the estimate of Department of Public Works, by 70,000 tons. The Annual Loss of Life by Drowning is returned by the Col lector, who calculates the average from the number of deaths reported by the Police for three years, at 309. River Traffic. — There are four towns besides Patnd, viz., Dind pur, Mdrrifganj, Fatwd, and Bdrh, situated on the south bank of the Ganges, which the Collector states are in a great measure supported by river traffic. He gives as the principal imports — salt, rice, cotton, timber, and sugar ; and as the chief exports— wheat, barley, oil seeds, ghi, and iron. In 1872, a system of registration was established by Sir G. Camp bell, at Sdhibganj on the Ganges, with the object of ascertaining the river traffic between Eastern and Northern Bengal on the one hand, and the Districts of Behar and of the North-Western Provinces on the other. A considerable proportion of the Patnd trade is carried on with Calcutta, and the extent of that part of this trade, and also of that with Eastern Bengal, which is carried by boat down the Ganges, may be estimated from the returns obtained at Sdhib ganj. The following paragraphs are taken from the Statistical Reporter, November 1875 :— "The two great articles of produce, 26 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. rice and oil seeds, which together make up more than one half of the whole Ganges traffic, determine the condition of the river trade. Rice comes into the Bengal markets in December and January, and is despatched up country for consumption in Behar and Bendres during the dry season." The boats are tracked up against the stream by means of ropes fastened to the top of the mast, though wind and sails occasionally help them. Oil seeds come into the Behar market in April and May, and are despatched to Calcutta for export during July and the rainy season, when the streams are strong and the downstream traffic is largest. " Placing Calcutta on one side, the largest mart on the Ganges is Patnd, where the annual number of registered transactions exceeds 1,300,000 maunds, or 46,500 tons. In 1873, the total imports amounted to 853,313 maunds, or 30,475 tons ; and the total exports to 483,611 maunds, or 17,271 tons." It must be remembered that the city of Patnd is the great centre for the collection and distribution of all the trade of South Behar. The following figures only show that portion of this trade which is Ganges borne, and not the total imports and exports of the District. Downstream traffic for the years 1873-1874. — Oil seeds form the chief article of export from the District of Patnd. In 1873, the amount despatched by boat down the Ganges was 352,060 maunds, or 12,573 tons, n cwt. In 1874, the amount was 398,181 maunds, or 14,220 tons, 15 cwt. Sugar is largely exported from Patnd, chiefly to Calcutta, Maldah and Murshiddbdd. In 1873, 61,664 maunds, or 2202 tons, 5 cwt., were despatched by boat downstream; and in 1874, 26,566 maunds, or 948 tons, 16 cwt. Tobacco, which is scarcely grown at all in the Districts of South Behar, is imported from Tirhut, and shipped at Patnd. In 1873, 33,362 maunds, or 1191 tons, were despatched downstream, chiefly to Calcutta; and in 1874, 29,568 maunds, or 1056 tons. Wheat is exported from Patnd, but not to any great extent. I give the figures for 1872, as in 1873 and 1874 the trade was probably affected by the scarcity. The amount shipped downstream in 1872 was 25,684 maunds, or 917 tons, 6 cwt. Pulses and gram are largely exported, chiefly to Calcutta. The amount sent by boat in 1873 was 213,309 maunds, or 7618 tons. In 1874, a still larger amount was shipped, viz., 250,459 maunds, or 8945 tons. RIVER TRAFFIC. 27 Saltpetre. — From Patnd the exports by boat are small, but by rail they are very considerable ; and it appears that the trade by rail has been lately increasing at the expense of the river traffic. In 1872 and 1873, the amount of saltpetre shipped each year was about 52,000 maunds, or 1857 tons; but in 1874, the river traffic had fallen to 29,951 maunds, or 1069 tons, 13 cwt. Hides. — The Ganges-borne trade in hides is very small, for it is supposed that they spoil in a long river journey, during the rains. The trade in hides sets in towards Patnd from all the surrounding Districts, and also from the North-Western Provinces, being based on advances given in Patnd ; and from that city the hides are exported . by rail to Calcutta in large quantities. Vegetable produce is largely exported, chiefly to Calcutta, from all the Behar Districts. In 1874, Patnd alone supplied more than 80,000 maunds, or 2857 tons ; of which a large proportion consisted of potatoes, cauliflowers, and onions. The Upstream traffic consists chiefly of rice, salt, and pulses. Rice, including paddy, forms by far the largest item in the upstream traffic, about three million maunds, or about 110,000 tons, being sent every season up the Ganges from the Districts of Northern and Eastern Bengal. Of this amount, nearly one million maunds, or about one- third, are consigned to Patnd, for consumption and distribution to other Districts. Salt. — After rice, the next most important item of upstream traffic is salt, which is entirely despatched from Calcutta, and Bhadresar in Hiigli District, where it is stored by dealers who have imported it from Calcutta. In 1873, 75,891 maunds, or 2710 tons, 8 cwt., were consigned to Patnd; and in 1874, 63,035 maunds, or 2251 tons. Patnd, however, gets most of its salt by rail, and the importation by rail is probably increasing. Pulses are sent chiefly from Murshiddbdd, and are consigned to Ruserd in Tirhut, and other places in the Patnd Division. The preceding paragraphs refer only to that portion of the Patna river trade which passes Sdhibganj on the Ganges. Since September 1875, a new system of registration has been adopted, by which the river traffic is registered on all the great water ways of Bengal and Behar. A registry-station has been established in Patnd city, opposite the railway ghdt, and just below the confluences of the Sdn and Gandak with the Ganges. The returns thus obtained are published monthly in the Statistical Reporter. The details of the Patnd trade will be 28 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. given at length on a subsequent page, under the heading Commerce and Trade. The Boats used for the transport of this enormous traffic are all country made. They are in general broad in the beam, and can therefore be used in comparatively shallow water. The larger ones have a roof-like deck to protect the goods inside from the weather. There is one mast, on which a cloth sail full of rents and patches is hoisted when the wind is favourable. When going down stream, they are propelled from the stern by means of long bamboo punt- poles, and steered by a huge rudder of the rudest construction. On the return journey, which is generally made when the river is at its lowest, the boats are tracked up against the stream by means of ropes fastened to the top of the mast. Each boatman has a separate rope, so that none can shirk work without detection. One or two men remain in the boat for the purpose of steering, but the rest walk along the tow path. Should there be any wind, the tow ropes are coiled up and the sail is hoisted. For crossing the Ganges or the Sdn, smaller boats are used. Some are decked with bamboos or boards, on which a little straw is sometimes put, for conveying horses or bullock-carts ; but passengers are generally taken across in un decked boats. These boats are propelled by bamboo punt-poles, and sometimes also with a pair of oars. The rowers sit near the prow, all on the same seat ; and the oars, which are formed of a bit of board tied with rope to a short bamboo handle, work against pegs to which they are loosely fastened with rope. Little or no attention is paid to keeping time ; and the rowers, when working hard, rise from their seats at every stroke. The punt-poles are used in the ordinary way. A long narrow " dug-out " (dingi), cut from the trunk of a tree is often used for crossing rivers. Sometimes two of these "dug-outs" are lashed together to support a bamboo raft. The Panchdna is crossed by this means a few miles south of Bakhtidrpur. During the rains, when the country is inundated for miles, the villagers travel about on small rafts, supported on inverted earthen ware pots (ghard). These rafts, called gharndi, are also used in Gayd District. Old men and children are sometimes to be seen seated astride on one of these earthenware pots, which helps them across gullies of water that are too deep to ford. Irrigation. — It has been already stated that the river water in Patnd District is so much used for irrigation, that the streams are not only diverted from their courses, but are in many cases finally IRRIGA TION : FISHERIES. 2 9 absorbed before they ever reach the Ganges. The rivers are dammed with weirs made of earth, called bandhs ; and the water is carried off by means of water courses (pdin), which are often many miles in length, to large reservoirs {dhar), where it is stored until it is required for use. These reservoirs have curved banks, which are sometimes upwards of a mile in length ; but in general, they are much smaller. The expense both of making and repairing these canals and reservoirs is entirely defrayed by the landowners, who appoint proper persons to divide the water among the tenantry. The method of using the water is thus described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton. " During the height of the floods, these canals and reservoirs afford a supply by merely allowing the water to flow on the fields through sluices, which usually consist of a hollow tdr or palm tree, the end of which is filled with clay when it is intended that the water should be confined. In the canals, the water is raised to the level of each man's sluice by a small temporary dam of earth. Towards the end of the season, the water must be raised from both reservoirs and canals by machinery. The basket suspended by ropes, called chdnr, is sometimes used, when the quantity of water remaining is small. But when the quantity of water is considerable, the machine like a canoe is used, if the height to which it is to be raised is small ; while the pot raised by a lever is preferred when the height is considerable. The trouble attending this is not so great as might be imagined ; because, after the fields next the reservoir have been filled, the same water is allowed to flow on to others, without any additional labour. The greater portion of the winter crops, vegetables and sugar cane are watered from wells. The method of raising the water is by means of a pot suspended from a lever, called a Idtha. This machine consists of an upright post as a fulcrum, on which a beam works. At one end the bucket is attached, and at the other a weight." These lathas are in common use all over Behar, and have been described in the Statistical Account of Gayd District (Vol. xii., p. 106). A well usually contains more than one Idtha; and where practicable, should contain four or five, which is the maximum number that can be worked by a single man. According to the common estimate, three men, working with two lathas, can water from one-third to two-thirds of an acre in a day. Fisheries. — Except on the banks of the Ganges, fish is scarce during the greater part of the year, and mostly of very poor quality. In the Sdn, indeed, the fish is better than in the Ganges ; but the quantity is not large. The other rivers of the District are mere 30 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. torrents ; and though fish ascend in the rainy season, and are caught when the water subsides, the supply is trifling. The reservoirs made for watering the fields yield a considerable quantity of fish during four or five months in the year ; but all the kinds are small, seldom ex ceeding three or four inches in length. In August, every rice field swarms with such fishes ; many of which have, no doubt, made their way up from the rivers, and thence through the canals used in irriga tion, and through the rills that fall from the fields. The greater number, however, are bred from eggs that remain dry in the soil, until hatched by the heat and moisture of the rainy season. In the Ganges, the supply of fish is copious from the middle of October until the rainy season has swollen the river, about the end of June. The fisheries in the pools and reaches of the rivers in the interior, and in reservoirs and ponds, are annexed to the lands by which they are surrounded, and are let for very trifling sums. The main stream of the Ganges was formerly free for all ; but fishermen had to pay a high rent for the land where their huts were built, on the river bank. The Sdn fisheries, from Far! dpur to Rdmpur-Ghogar, are now leased annually in one lot. In 1875, this block was let for^io. The Ganges fisheries are now leased in two lots. The higher one, from Sherpur to Jathuli, was let in 1875 for £2 7 5, and the lower half, from Jathuli to Rdmpur- Dumri, for ^165, 10s. The total Government revenue, therefore, from fisheries in 1875 was ^450, 10s. There are no fishing towns, and very few men live throughout the whole year by fishing. During the rainy season those near the Ganges act chiefly as boatmen, and fish for about eight months. Dr Buchanan Hamilton estimated the number of able-bodied men engaged in fishing on the Ganges at 1200 ; and the profits of each man at from 6s to 10s a month. According to the Census of 1872, the Hindu fishing and boating castes in Patnd Dis trict numbered 23,752 persons, or 1-5 percent, of the total population. The nets used for catching fish are the mahdnjdl, a large net with 1 \ inch meshes, which requires twenty men; the casting net (jdl), which is used by one man ; the sondi, a net for two men, worked with a bamboo pole at each end ; and the sarkd, a small meshed string net, which is used by a single person. Fish are also caught by means of traps (drsi), made of split bamboos, which are placed across a stream, and are so constructed that while the water passes through the slits, the fish when once in cannot escape. Porpoises abound in the Ganges, especially near the junction of the Sdn, and of the Gandak ; but they are seldom caught. Both kinds of croco- FISHERIES : LINES OF DRAINAGE, &-c. 31 diles are found in the Ganges, but the long-nosed species (gharidl) is the more common. Tortoises {kachhdd) are very numerous, and are caught by the fishermen, who eat them. Crustaceous fishes are of three sizes : one, as large as a small lobster, is rare, but the prawn (j'hingd) and the shrimp (ichnd) are very common. A list of the Sdn fishes will be found in the Statistical Account of Gayd District (Vol. xii. 24, 25). Most of them are found also in the Ganges, but the flavour is inferior. Those most generally sold in the market are rohu, which sometimes weighs 40 lbs., hilsd, bodri, bairn, tengrd, bachwd, papdd, buld, and chilhud. Lines of Drainage. — The land from the south of the District slopes slightly towards the Ganges ; but the drainage is arrested by a strip of high land along the south bank of the river, so that the general run of the drainage is from west to east. All the rivers, which flow nearly due northwards from Gayd District, take a sharp turn to the east soon after crossing the Patnd boundary; and with the exception of the Piinpiin river, do not join the Ganges at all, as long as it bounds this District Forests, Jungles, Marshes, and Pasturage Grounds do not exist in Patnd District, which is cultivated over its entire area. The Mineral Products consist of building stone, which may be dug from the hill at Behar; sildjit, a medicinal substance which exudes from the rock near the hot springs at Tapoban and Rdjgir ; calcareous nodules (kankar) ; and saline efflorescence. Fer^e Naturae. — Leopards are hardly ever found in Patnd District, but one was killed near Behar town in 1876. Bears are found in the Rdjdgrfha hills. Wolves and jackals are common; and hyenas are sometimes seen. The small Indian fox is not uncommon. There are a very few porcupines. In the drier parts of the District hares are numerous, and are sometimes netted by the lower classes. The small striped squirrel (rukhi) is exceedingly common, both in houses and plantations. Birds of prey are numerous, and hawking used to be a favourite amusement among rich natives. Duck and quail abound in the cold season. Partridges and wild geese are not so common ; but orto lans (bageri) are abundant, and are very destructive to the crops that remain in the spring. In 1870, the number of deaths from wolf-bite was returned at 229. Though a reward oL£2 is offered for each full-grown wolf, very few are killed. In the threeyears from 1873 toi875,onlysdeathswere reported. 32 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. In 1873, deaths from snake-bite were reported at 248; m 1874, the number was 275. By 1875 the number had further increased to 314; though a reward of 4 dnnds or 6d was offered for each cobra, and 755 venomous snakes were killed during the year. Early Estimates of the Population.— The survey of the Dis tricts of Behar and Patnd city in 181 2 by Dr Buchanan Hamilton, under the directions issued by Government, nth September 1807, has been alluded to in the Statistical Account of Gayd District. The method employed by Dr B. Hamilton for estimating the population is thus described in the Census Report of 1872. He first ascertained the extent of cultivation ; and then, allowing five or six acres, accord ing to the physical character of the District, as the quantity of land cultivated by a single plough, and assuming that each plough repre sented five persons old and young, he arrived at the aggregate agricultural population. He then made enquiries to ascertain the proportion that persons employed in agriculture bore to the other classes of society, and afterwards formed the total amount as it appears below. These estimates were sometimes checked by cal culations based on other data. The method appears to be a very ¦ unlikely one to result in a near approximation to the facts ; but the remarkable agreement between Dr Buchanan Hamilton's figures and those obtained in 1872, compels us to pay more weight to his esti mates than to the other early enumerations, which have been proved to be very far from accurate. The total population of the nine police circles (which nearly correspond with the present District of Patna) was estimated by him at 1,308,270 souls. The several numbers were as follow: — Patnd city — houses, 52,000; population, 312,000; Fatwa — houses, 27,420; population, 100,700; Naubatpur — houses, J3>839 \ population, 83,200 ; Bdnkipur Jaiwar — houses, 20,601 ; population, 83,170; Sherpur — houses, 9234; population, 30,200; Bdrh — houses, 27,126 ; population, 96,950; Behar — houses, 102,745 ; population, 203,900; Hilsd — houses, 121,920; population, 262,200; Bikram — houses, 41,456; population, 135,950; total houses, 416,341 ; total population, 1,308, 270. Lieutenant Maxwell, in his Survey Report of Patnd District (1 841— 1843), says:— "The Census taken in 1837 gives a population of 561,658 souls for the mufassal, or interior, and 284,132, for the city, making a total of 845,790 souls for the whole District." The area of the District was then 1,836 square miles. In the Parliamentary returns of 1857, the population is stated at 1,200,000 for an area of 1,828 square miles; but this PRELIMINARY CENSUS OF 1871. 33 figure was subsequently reduced to 900,000. This number was obtained by multiplying the number of houses on the chaukiddri register by four and a half; but as the Collector pointed out in 1870, this proportion of inmates to each house is very far below the truth. According to the Board of Revenue's Statistics, published in 1868-69, the area of the District was 210,122 square miles ; the number of vil lages, 3,500; the number of houses, 135,472, of which 1,740 were made of masonry ; and the total population, 900,000. In 1869, there was an experimental Census taken in Patnd city, and some other towns in the District ; but the figures are known to be utterly untrustworthy, and, therefore, need not be given here. The Census of 1872 gave the population of Patnd city at 158,900 souls, or rather more than half Buchanan-Hamilton's estimate of 3 1 2,000 ; but he included an area of twenty square miles, while the present municipal boundaries com prise an area of only about nine square miles. Still, it is believed that the return of 158,900 is below the mark; for the Census of the towns generally in Behar was not well managed, and Patnd city formed no exception to the rule. Preliminary Census of 1871. — Previous to the Census of 1872, there was a second experimental Census taken throughout the whole District in 1871. The advantages of this preliminary Census are suffi ciently obvious. It rendered the enumerators and the people familiar with the novelty of the Government order, and thus facilitated the taking of the regular Census. The preliminary returns also were scrutinized; errors and omissions were pointed out to the individual enumerators, and then rectified by them. If this course had not been adopted, it would have been found almost impossible to take an approximately correct Census in one day. The machinery employed in taking the double Census of 187 1 and 1872 was well adapted for the purpose, the village accountants or patwdris being employed as the enumerators. This office of patwdri, which has almost disappeared in Bengal, still existed in the Behar Districts. As soon as the patwdri registers had been written up to date, and corrected lists of the villages had been prepared, thepatwdris were summoned to head-quarters, and furnished with forms, and their duties were explained to them. Though the pro ject of a general Census was at this juncture postponed by the Govern ment of India, the Commissioner of Patnd was unwilling to inter rupt the work, and thus the preliminary Census of 187 1 was completed. vol. xi. c 34 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT Census of 1872. — When fresh orders were received from Govern ment in June 1871, thepatwdris were recalled, and a second enumera tion of the population was recommenced, and carried through. The general results of this Census disclosed a total population of 1,559,638 souls, inhabiting 269,814 houses ; the average density of the popula tion being 742 to the square mile. This pressure of the population on the soil is greater than that in any District of Bengal proper, except the metropolitan Districts of the Twenty-four Pargands and Hiiglf, and is but slightly less than in the adjacent District of Sdran. The table on the opposite page illustrates the area and population of each police circle and Subdivision in the District, as returned in the Census Report, from which it is quoted verbatim. CENSUS OF 1872. 35 ¦ssnojj j sd O VO in hi vo to r-*. invo vO O invo ON in in on t^ M. 00 SUOSJSj in m mvO m l>» in in in »n in in in in in vo in in VO m IS O -i 3d sosnu] j u^Nifl ONmvO ON N ON co ONCO CO ON vO 3 H- ON in o> 0 *>• O U-j Ml HI M in m SV 0 CO ii J3 •dtqsuAvoj, g mvo cm 0 in 0 ¦^•ui co ^- u-i OO in hi ON 00 O ONOO O Ht HI CO ON 1^ ¦a u -2 jo s^ipa OvfOM « W tO CO vo to tJ- ^- CO 'St-in Th i>- co in in ¦* J3d SUOSJOJ 00 in "3nM *bS J3d "-" OOONh O ,_ VO N « VO 00 00 00 vO ON Ml M _ 0 sdiqsuA\ox m 00 O OO N _¦* « t-. CO CO CvrON N CM O NN CO vO 8 jo sa£ten!A hi CO « N 1-1 *w HI N W w w H M HI Ml HI '-' 1-1 >fl N n\D N N PO ON M _ O m rl- tJ- CO N H. O ^ w •3nw "bs m n ONvO co ON rj- HI - O 00 invo ¦<$• «n 00 VO VO r>- t^ > J3d SU0SJ3 J !>. ¦ t^- ON ^J- >- M O ro CO vo in co cn 00 ON « 1>- 00 ro •uopEindo,£ ONOO t->. N I-. O 00 **¦ . •* coco O oO'.tJ-i^. co vO CO in r-. co T^-in O O -^-r-. N vo ^j- co mmin HI N Td" covo in co ON O H. HI CO 00 jo jsqum^ h? rf co coco 0 N nT -«- m in O ' on co 00 hi f^.in CO o\ co m 1-1 m m o> M HI M |-| Ml M HI in ¦^ N evi ON VO ¦sdrqsuMOj^ _ ¦t-^00 in O vo Th 0 « t-»oo m co « *-. coin ON on in co co 0 in O 00 «* jo saS^A M fO'j-N « t^ co rt- N 0 ¦*• jo jsqum^j ON O . ui -esay "«" *-T "tf -^T •^ ?J *<3 13 £ 6 £ fi HO - « «3 « ^ u '0 £'oA, 0 "3 "2 js! -O rt tuO P fig fl W ;£j •S.a1 3 i-T .3 3 OS 1 "*8 3 03E- Q v , * *- v^^ ? P . m-i en 0 Ki b; m eT 'P O H •a 3 1/1 H> < 638 persons, viz., 761,877 males, and 797,761 females; the proportion of males in the total population being 48-8 per cent. Classified according to age, the Census gives the following results :— Hindus, under 12 years of age, males, 237,394; females, 211,005; above 12 years, males, 433>756; females, 481,136: Muhammadans, under 12 years, males, 32,585; females, 28,988; above 12 years, males, 56,132; females, 75,283 : Christians, under 12 years, males, 361 ; females, 323 ; above 12 years, males, 1383; females, 633: other denominations not classified separately, under 12 years, male, 143; females, 87; above 12 years, males, 123; females, 306. Total of all classes: — under 12 years, males, 270,483; females, 240,403; above 12 years, males, 491,394; females, 557,358. Infirmities. — The number of insane is returned at 284, or -oi8 per cent, of the total population ; idiots at 68, or "0044 per cent, of the population; deaf and dumb at 1082, or "069 per cent, of the population; blind 2343, or '15 per cent, of the population; and lepers, 653, or -042 per cent, of the population. The details given in the District Census Compilation, showing the occupations of the people, are omitted, as they do not stand the test of statistical criticism. Ethnical Division of the People. — The following table is taken from the District Census Compilation, drawn up by Mr Magrath, C.S. Name of Nationality, Tribe, or Caste. I.— NON-ASIATICS Europeans. English . IrishScotch . Welsh . French . German . GreekItalianUnspecified Total Name of Nationality, Tribe, or Caste. Americans. West Indian Unspecified Total Australasian. Australian Total of Non-Asiatics . II.— MIXED RACES. Eurasian Number. 1,630 590 ETHNICAL DIVISION OF THE PEOPLE. 37 Name of Nationality, Tride, or Caste. III.— ASIATICS. A . — Other than Natives of India and British Burmah. Jew Malaccan Nepdlis . Total B. Natives of India and British Burmah. i. Aboriginal Tribes BharDhdngar KanjharKolNatSantdlOthers Total 2. Semi-Hinduised Aboriginals. Arakh and Bahelid Bdgdi Bari Bhuiyd Bind Chdin ChamdrDom DosddhHdn MihtarMusdhar Pdsi Rajwdr Others Total 3. Hindus. (1) Superior Castes. Brdhman Rdjput . Total Number. 25 2 170 197 28 6 37 158170 4 26 429 186 3 928 70 3,4°o 6,780 47,067 6,116 84,900 1,920 27,208 33,299 3,244 14 215,149 39,878 60,079 99,957 Name of Nationality, Tribe, or Caste. Number. (2) Intermediate Castes. Bdbhan . 116,714 Baidya 17 Bhdt 1,938 Kathak . 98 Kdyasth . 28,191 Krishnapachhf 98 Total 147,056 (3) Trading Castes. Agarwdld , i,i39 Agrahrf . 833 Baniyd 5,737 Barnawdr 3P32 Kasarwdnf 3,737 Khatri . i,938 Mdhuri . 8,946 Nauniydr .2,416 Rauniydr 2,849 Sinduriyar i,595 Others . 3,189 Total 35,4" (4) Pastoral Castes. Garerf 10,144 Godld . 179,848 Gujdr and Jdt 5n Total i9°,503 (5) Castes engaged in- preparing Cooked Food. Halwdf . 9,716 Kdndu . 30,43° Total 40,146 (6) Agricultural Castes. Barui and Tdmbuli 8,675 Koerf 81,561 Kurmf 165,463 Mdli 4,995 Total 260,694 38 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. Name of Nationality, Tribe, or Caste. (7) Castes engaged chiefly in Personal Service. Amanth . Dhdnuk . Dhobf . Hajjdm or Ndpit Kdhdr . Total (8) Artisan Castes. Barhai . Chhipi Kdnsdri and Thatherd Kumdr . LaheriLohdrSondrSunrf Teh' Total (9) Weaver Castes. BenaudiydDhuniyd . Jogi and Patud . Tdntf Tatawd Total (10) Labouring Castes. Belddr . KoraNuniyd . Total (11) Castes engaged in Sell ing Fish and Vegetables. Khatik, &c. (12) Boating and Fishing Castes. Gonrhf . Keut Mdld Tior Others . Total Number. 51 25,038 12,459 25,570 74,721 137,839 23,660 67 4,344 20,581 1,424 7,304 2I,!OI 16,666 47,509 142,656 937 90 5,016 12,958 4,557 23,558 18,461 1 10,316 28,778 1,746 170 427 17,559 1,185 4,4n 23,752 Name of Nationality, Tribe, or Caste. (1 3) Dancer, Musician, Beggar, and Vagabond Castes. Bhdnr . Dharhf . Others . Total (14) Persons enumerated by Nationality only. Madrdsfs, &c. . (15") Persons of Unknown or Unspecified Castes . Grand Total of Hindus . 4. — Persons of Hindu Origin not Recognis ing Caste. Atith Vaishnav NdnakshdhiSanydsf . Native Christians Others . Total 5.— Muhammadans. Mughul . Pathdn . Sayyid Shaikh Unspecified Total Total of Natives of India Total of Asiatics . Grand Total . Number. 23 I,l88 146 i,357 io,954 1,144,415 106 2,082 282 937 480 353 4,240 286 6,432 9,827 40,965 135,478 192,988 1,557,221 i,557,4i8 1,559-638 IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION. 39 The Aboriginal Tribes in Patnd District are very inconsiderable in numbers. The Census Report returns a total of only 429. Of these, the Nats, who are a vagabond race closely resembling the European gipsies, are found in all parts of the District. The Kols, who chiefly come from the neighbouring District of Monghyr, are found in the police circle of Mukdmd. Dr Buchanan- Hamilton says that the majority of these Kols are workers in iron. Immigration and Emigration. — The Collector states that there is now no general or extensive immigration into Patnd District, and that the number of emigrants, also, is not large. A certain number of men go to take service in other parts of India, but they generally leave their families behind, and finally return to their homes with their earnings. Of late years, the comparatively high prices paid for labour by the Department of Public Works, on the Sdn Canal Works, have certainly attracted some immigrants ; but this is a special case, and there is no fear of the pressure of the popula tion on the soil, which is already heavy enough, being increased from this cause. On the other hand, emigration appears to be making but little progress. There are recruiting centres at Patnd, Dindpur, Bdrh, and Behar ; but the average number of emigrants every year continues to be very low. The taste for emigration may come in time ; but at present there is not the faintest symptom of it, and it will be very many years before it can have any perceptible effect on the population. For the three years, 1868 to 1870, the average num ber of emigrants registered at Patnd and Dindpur (there were none from Bdrh and Behar) was 879, of whom the majority belonged to the labouring classes, and were bound for the West Indies. In 1872-73 there were 850 emigrants; and in the famine year, 1873-74, in spite of the increased activity of the recruiting officers, there were only 2800 emigrants registered, and of these less than 1000 were residents of the District. The endeavour to obtain recruits for Burmah was by no means a success. The suspicion with which natives regard any suggestion to emigrate at all, was intensified by the circumstance that Burmah was in their eyes an absolutely new country. The Commissioner, Mr Bayley, thinks that a higher paid and more numerous staff of recruiting agents is necessary to command success. He points out, also, that recruiting by Government officials is heavily handicapped, when it comes into competition with recruiting by private agency. A recruiter who has returned from the tea districts, or from the West India colonies, or who can point to 40 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. successful emigrants who have so returned, is much more likely to persuade his countrymen than one who is the paid servant of Govern ment, and can only say " The Government wishes you to go for your own benefit." A native is sure to view such a statement with sus picion, and to attribute to Government some deep and recondite motive, probably a bad one, for the advice. Considering the miser able hand-to-mouth existence of a large portion of the people of Behar, their industrious habits and willingness to take service in other parts of India, and also the number of men who come back with really large sums of money from the West India colonies, it is very strange that recruiting depots, during all the years they have been at work, should have got so little hold of the surplus popu lation. Hindu Castes. — As stated in the Statistical Accounts of Gayd and Shdhdbdd Districts (Vol. xii.), the same caste distinctions obtain throughout all the Districts of South Behar. The following account, therefore, will apply generally to the three Districts of Patnd, Gayd, and Shdhdbdd. The description of each caste is taken from Mr Magrath's memorandum on the castes of Behar, supplemented, in a few instances, by such information as I could obtain from other sources. The numbers of each caste from the Census Report of 1872. (1) Brahman : number in Patnd, 39,878. They are divided into several tribes and subdivisions, of which the following are enumerated in the lists. Acharjyd is a title, signifying one who instructs, given to Brdhmans who perform certain offices. In Gayd, the Brdhmans employed by the Gaydwdls to lead the pilgrims in their devotions are called by this name. Brahmachari is a name assumed by any low Brahman, who professes to be absorbed in study, while he uses the name as a cloak for mendicancy. Dakantiyd are a tribe of vagrants from the North-Western Provinces of Brdhman origin. They are classed by Sir H. Elliot with the Joist Brdhmans, but Mr Magrath thinks that this is a mistake. Dhdmin, or Pretiyd Brdhmans, are to be found as vagrants in many parts of south Behar, but their head-quarters are at Pretsfld, a hill about four miles from Gayd, which is one of the sacred places visited by the pilgrims. The Dhdmins collect all fees given at this place, and after giving a percentage to the Gaydwdls, retain the remainder. Mr Magrath says that this class, under the direction of the Gaydwdls, performs the ceremonies for the pilgrims at Gayd ; but as I have said above, the Brdhman who accompanies the pilgrim to all the sacred places in turn, is called Acharjyd. The HINDU CASTES : BRAHMANS. 41 Dhamins do not follow the pilgrims, but remain at some particular spot, such as Pretsfld, Rdmsfld, Sitaldsthdn (a temple near the tank Utarmdnus, sacred to the Goddess of small-pox), or Bramhajufn, and there collect fees, of which the greater part goes to the Gaydwdls. Diibeh is properly the title given to any Brdhman who is learned in two of the Vedas. Ganaks are hereditary astrologers. Gaydwdls are the -proprietors of the sacred places visited by pilgrims to Gayd. They have been fully described in the Statistical Account of Gayd. District. Joisi is the name given to Brdhmans employed as priests by different classes. Kantdhd or Mahdpdtra is the Brdhman engaged to conduct the funeral ceremony. Nagar, who are the only class of Dravidd Brdhmans enumerated, are not numerous in Behar. Panda is the name ordinarily given to a temple priest. Kanaujid is the first of the tribes of the Panch-Gaur subdivision of Brdhmans, which is divided into Kanaujid proper, Sarwarid, Jijhotid, Sanadhid and Bengdli Kanaujid. Of these the first two are most commonly found in Patnd and Shdhdbdd Districts. Sdrosat is the second of the tribes of the Panch-Gaur Brdhmans. They are not very numerous ; but some are found in every District. Maithili, the fourth tribe of the Panch-Gaur, are not so numerous in South Behar as north of the Ganges and in Bhdgalpur. Besides those tribes enumerated in the Census, Mr Magrath mentions a large colony of Sdkdldwipis from Ceylon, a few Kashmi'rf Brdhmans, and also representatives of other tribes. The Sdkdldwipis are described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton. They were formerly called Magas, and gave their name to the great kingdom of Magadha ; but the reason for their leaving Ceylon and settling in these parts is variously given. The date of their arrival is also disputed. According to the Rudra- yamal, they were brought to this country in the Iron Age after the total corruption of manners; and all modern Brahmans are their descendants. In the Ayodhyd Tehanda of the Skandha Purdn it is stated that the Magas were invited over by Dasarath, the father of Rdmd, in the Silver age, and were afterwards induced to settle at Sambakhydgrdm, a place near Giriyak. Mr Magrath says that they will all eat together, — regardless of the particular line of occupation they may follow, except the priests of the low castes, who are not allowed communion with the others. They will also drink water from a vessel from which another person has already drunk. Many of them are landowners, and some have disgraced themselves by following the profession of arms and agriculture. Dr Buchanan 42 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. Hamilton includes Bdbhans (who will be described later) among this class ; but this opinion is not generally followed. To the above mentioned tribes of Brdhmans the Collector adds the following, as found in the District of Patnd: — A few families of Benares Brdhmans; and the Sarotri Brdhmans, who are stated by Dr Buchanan Hamilton to have come from Kanauj. (2) Rajputs; number in Patnd, 60,079. They claim to be 'des cended from the ancient military class, and call themselves Chhatris, or Kshattriyas. They seem to have first established themselves in Shdhdbdd and Sardn, under the Bhojpur Rajd, after exterminating the Siviras, the conquerors of the Cherus. Subsequently they were all but expelled by the Bhars, Cheros, Khdrwars and others, again to be re-established under the shelter of the Musalmdn invader. They are divided into a great number of tribes, of which the following are enumerated in the Census : — Bagsarid and Bhojpund, local names derived from the towns of Bagsar (Buxdr) and Bhojpur in Shdhdbdd District, are used by the Rajputs of the Ponwdr tribe, whose chiefs, the Rajds of Dumrdon, were formerly masters of that part of the country. A kinsman of the Dumrdon Raja, Kunwar Sinh, led the rebel Rdjputs against the British in 1857. The Pramur Rdjputs are closely allied to the Ponwdr tribe, even if they are not, as Mr Magrath says, the same tribe under a different name. Banddwat, who wear the thread and claim to be Rdjputs, are found in Gayd. Bandela, said to be spurious by Elliot, are not very numerous. Chauhdn, one of the four Agnikdl, or fire races of the Rdjputs, who are said to have come from Ajmfr, rank high among the tribes of this caste ; the Bhadaunas are one of their chief subdivisions. Gaharwdr is one of Tod's thirty-six royal races of Rdjputs. They were rulers in Kanauj, till the Muhammadans took it, and are now to be found in Shdhdbdd District. Gautam are a tribe of the lunar race of Rdjputs, who prob ably came over from the adjoining Districts of the North- Western Pro vinces about the time of the fall of Sher Shdh, to avoid the vengeance taken by Humdyun on them, as on other Rdjputs who supported the adventurer. Sadubans, said by some to be a lunar race, claim direct descent from Krishna. Mr Magrath thinks that those enumerated in the Census are immigrant servants or police, and not residents of South Behar. Kardwal are mentioned by Mr Magrath as persons claiming to be Rdjputs, from Tikdrf in Gayd. I am informed that all sorts of Rdjputs employed by rich natives as hunters are known by this name. Siirajbansi is the general name for the Solar race of Rdjputs. HINDU CASTES : BABHANS. 43 Besides the above tribes enumerated in the Census, Mr Magrath mentions the following clans : — Bisen, Sirnet, Bdghel, Chandel, Rdthor, Gahlot, Heyheybans or Hariho (alleged by some to have been the conquerors of the Cheros), Solanki, and Desi or Deswdli. There are also several other clans, but no complete collection of their names has ever been made for South Behar. The most distinguished are the Ujdin, Parmur, Ponwdr, and Chauhdn clans. A Rdjput of one clan will generally intermarry with a member of another clan, but not of his own. Ghdtwdls are not strictly Rajputs, though they wear the thread, and claim the title. They have been mentioned in the Account of Gayd District, and are not found either in Patnd or Shdhdbdd. To the above-mentioned clans of Rdjputs the Collector adds the following, as found in the District of Patnd : — Kdnsikh, Bdis, Mahror, Amathid, and Sonwdr. He states that a Bdis will marry a Mahror woman, but will not allow his own daughter to intermarry with that tribe. (3) Babhans; called also Bhuinhdr and Zaminddri or military Brdhmans, though not ranking with Brdhmans and Rdjputs, still enjoy a position second only to those two castes. They are very numerous throughout the Patnd Division. Their number in Patnd District is 116,714; and in the three Districts of South Behar they form altogether nearly nine per cent, of the total Hindu population. Their origin is much disputed. Here they claim to be Sarwarid Brdhmans. Buchanan-Hamilton makes them Sdkdldwipis. Mr Forbes, in his chapter on the castes of Paldmau, says that there they claim to be Rdjputs ; and they certainly resemble Rdjputs much more than Brdhmans. They do not intermarry with Rdjputs ; but, according to Mr Beames, Rdjputs will eat plain boiled rice with them off a leaf, and drink with them from an earthen vessel, but will not eat a set dinner or one off brass vessels. Mr Magrath thinks that they were a low Aryan race, who were brought into close contact with the Rdjputs, probably in some of their struggles for supremacy, and not being allowed to intermarry or form one people with them, have acquired a pseudo-respectability by pretending that they are Brdh mans. The following is the legendary account of their origin. On one occasion, Jardsindh, the famous King of Magadha, wishing to perform some religious ceremony, ordered his diwdn to collect 100,000 Brahmans. This the diwdn was unable to accomplish, so he introduced among the number persons of other castes, who were 44 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. invested with the sacred thread, and placed before the King for genuine Brdhmans. From these spurious Brdhmans, the Bdbhans are said to be descended. A plausible theory is that this class was formed of those Brdhmans and Rdjputs who were perverted by the preachings of the Buddhists, and who, being degraded from their former position, formed themselves into a separate caste. They are subdivided into a great number of tribes, which intermarry with each other, but no man may marry a woman of his own clan. The former Rdjds of Tikdrf were Domkatdr Babhdns ; but the late Rdjd, who was the son of the Rdnfs brother, must have been of a different clan, and it is rather surprising that the relatives of Rdjd Mftrajft Sinh should have acquiesced in the transfer of the inheritance to a member of a different clan. There are five of these clans enumerated in the Census, namely, Danwdr, Aksariyd, Chhatariyd, Kinwdr, and Sakarwdr. There are many other tribes, several of which are enumerated by Mr Sherring in the account of the Benares Castes. The Collector gives the following ten tribes of Bdbhans, as existing in the District of Patnd : — Sobarniyd, Athrab, Shdmbediyd, Manerid, Pdnch-bhaiya, Hartakiyd, Sonpwdr, Pichwdr, Mdrwdr, and Chaiydr. Some of these, however, seem to be mere local appellations. (4) Baidya ; the physician caste, called also Ambastha in Manu, is not represented in Gayd or Shdhdbdd, and numbers only 17 in the District of Patnd. At one time no orthodox Hindu would receive medicine, except from a Baidyd. But now, Brdhmans, Kdyasths, and others adopt the profession of medicine ; and the name of baid has come to signify a profession rather than a separate caste. (5) Bhat; the bard caste ; number in Patnd 1938, and consider ably more numerous both in Gayd and Shdhdbdd. Some keep to their former profession of reciting family poems, but most are now cultivators. They wear the sacred thread, and claim to be of Brdhmanical origin. (6) Kathak; the musician caste; probably an offshoot of the Bhdt. They also wear the thread, and pretend to be Brdhmans. Many of them are cultivators, but do not plough with their own hands. They number in Patna 98. (7) Kayasths; the writer caste; number in Patnd 28,191, and still more numerous in the other two Districts of South Behar. Formerly they had a practical monopoly of Government offices; but now that all classes are employed under Government, many. HINDU CASTES : TRADERS, frc. 45 Kdyasths, who are unwilling to go into trade, and are too proud to work or beg, are reduced to great poverty. The inordinate expenses incurred by them in their marriage ceremonies, and the attempt made by Munshf Pidrf Ldl to curtail the exorbitant demands of men with marriageable sons, have been referred to in the Statistical Account of Gayd District (Vol. xii., p. 77). They are divided into twelve clans, who claim to be descended from the twelve sons of Chitragdpta, who was formed from Brdhma's body or kdyd, after the creation of the four original tribes. Of these twelve tribes, the following six are stated by the Collector to be found in Patnd District : — Mdthur, Bhdtnagar, Sribdstab, Saksend, Aomast, Karan. None of the clans intermarry, or eat with each other. Many of the women write and can manage their own properties, but they are kept in much greater seclusion than Rdjput women. The Kdyasths have a special festival of their own, called the Dawdt pdjd; on which day they will not touch pen and ink, but worship the implements of their profession. It is reasonable to suppose that the Kdyasths were formed out of the Siidra class, when the development of society created the necessity for writing and keeping accounts. (8) Krishna PachhI or Dogld is the name applied to the mixed offspring of two different castes. They number in Patnd 98. The Trading Classes or baniyds are divided into a great number of Subdivisions. Of these, the Agarwdld and Mdrwdrf are considered most respectable ; but none of them can be considered as pure Vaisyas. Their numbers in Patnd District are given in the Census as follow: — (9) Agarwdld; generally cloth sellers; 1139. (10) Agrahri ; 833. (11) Baniyd ; 5737; comprising the Mdrwdrf caste, " which," says Mr Magrath, " is evidently the .name of a nationality rather than of a caste." (12) Barnawdr ; 3032. (13) Kasarwdnf ; 3737. (14) Khatrf; 1938. These men claim to be Rdjputs, but genuine Rdjputs will not eat with them. They probably came originally from thePanjdb. (ls)Mdhiirf ; 8946. (16) Nauniydr; 2416. (17) Rauniydr; 2849. (18) Sinduriydr; or sellers of red lead; 1595. 'Others,' among whom are included several sub-divisions, 3189. The total numbers of the castes engaged in trade in the three Districts of South Behar are thus returned in the Census : — in Patnd, 35,41 1 ; in Gayd, 44,554 ; and in Shdhdbdd, 39,088. Pastoral Castes. — (19) Gareri; the shepherd class ; number in Patnd, 10,144. They are probably an offshoot of the Godlds. (20) Godld or Ahir; the great herdsman class, is the most numerous 46 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. caste in South Behar, forming nearly 18 per cent, of the total Hindu population; number in Patnd, 179,848. They are a turbulent and dishonest race, and celebrated throughout Bengal for their readiness and skill in using the lathi, or native quarter-staff. They have three principal divisions — Godlbans, Nandbans, and Jaddbans. Of these, the first is most numerous. There are other minor divisions, of which the following are enumerated— Bechotd, Bhoj, Dahiydra, Ghost, Guriyd, Majraut, and Krishnaut. (21) Gujar and (22) Jdt; both pastoral tribes, have a few representatives in South Behar. They number in Patnd 511. Food Preparing Castes. — (23) Halwdi ; corresponding to the Bengdli Madak, are sellers of sweetmeats ; number in Patnd, 9,716. They form a very important element in Hindu society ; as, together with the following caste, they provide the only food that the ortho dox Hindu can eat with unwashen hands. The Collector states that the Halwdis in Patnd are divided into the four following classes : — Madhesid, Kanaujid, Kurdneh, and Gaur. (24) Kandii ; also known as Bhdrbhdnjd, and called in the older books Bhujdri, quaintly trans lated " fry men," are the class who prepare parched rice known variously as bhunjd or chard; number in Patnd 30,430. Pan-Growing Castes. — (25) Baruf and (26) Tdmbuli ; number in Patnd, 8675. These should be growers of the pan plant, whose leaves mixed with the nut of the supdri palm, lime, &c, make the odorous compound so freely chewed by natives of India ; but many of them have taken to other kinds of agriculture. Agricultural Castes. — (2 7) Koerf; called also Murao,are the best cultivators in Behar. They number in Patnd 81,561, and more than 130,000 in each of the two remaining Districts of South Behar. They are identical with the Kachis of the North-Westem Provinces. Dr Buchanan-Hamilton, writing in the beginning of this century, said that they were properly the cultivators of kitchen gardens, and that almost the whole of them then followed that occupation. Now they are the chief poppy cultivators in this part of the country. They are a hard working and quiet set of people, hardly ever seen in Court, and prob ably the best spade-diggers in all Bengal. The Collector states that the Koerfs in Patnd are divided into the two following classes : Bariddngin and Chotiddngin. (28) Kurmf; another agricultural caste; number, in Patnd, 165,463, and less than two-thirds of that number in the two other Districts of South Behar. Dr Buchanan Hamilton says that they appear to be one of the aboriginal nations HINDU CASTES: PERSONAL SERVANTS, Sr-c. 47 that were not of sufficient consequence to be admitted into the order of Chhatrfs, but too powerful to be thrust into the dregs of impurity. Mr Magrath, also, suspects that they are not of Aryan descent, and mentions the fact that Kurmfs are found in Madras, Chutid Ndgpur, Orissa, and among the Marhattds. Sivaji was a Kurmf, and the Rdjds of Gwaliar and Satara are said to be of the same race. They are in general a well-to-do people ; but a Brdhman will not take water from them. The Collector mentions the two following tribes of Kurmfs, as existing in the District of Patnd : — Ghamaild and Kasarid. (29) Mdlf; the gardener caste, number in Patna, 4995. Besides their regular trade of gardening and making garlands, many of them are employed as innoculators, and some even as vaccinators. They also work in the pith of the marsh plant called sold, of which the sun hats worn by Europeans are made. Castes in Personal Service. — (30) Dhobi; washermen, num ber, 12,459. (31) Hajjdm or Ndpit ; barbers, number, 25,570. They form an important element in Hindu society, being employed in cer tain ceremonies at births, marriages, and funerals ; they not unfre- quently acquire considerable influence, through being so familiarly known in the families who are their jajmdn or clients. They are also called nao or nai. According to Dr Buchanan- Hamilton, the barbers of Behar do not rank as high as in Bengal. (32) Kahdr; the great bearer class, numbering 74,721 in Patnd, and double that number in the two remaining Districts of South Behar. They are chiefly employed as servants to Europeans and all high caste natives. They are also employed in carrying palanquins and in agriculture. Almost all of them belong to the Rawdni Kahdrs, who claim descent from Jard- sindh, King of India, in the nth or 12th century before Christ. Dr Buchanan-Hamilton considered that Magadha was the original seat of this tribe, because the number to be found beyond the former limits of that kingdom is very trifling. (33) Amdnths; number, 51. They are called by Mr Magrath a singular class, almost always em ployed in personal service, and not at all high in rank. (34) Dhdnuk; number, 25,038 in Patnd, and not one-third of that num ber in the two other Districts of South Behar. They are a low caste, connected with the Kiirmfs. Dr Buchanan-Hamilton thought that formerly they were all slaves, employed, as their name implies, as archers. Kurmfs, who have sold themselves as slaves, generally join their ranks. Dr B. Hamilton's theory that Dhamins (ante p. 40) or as they are sometimes called, Dhdnushkas, were probably the original 48 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. priests of this tribe, is contradicted by the fact that, while there are nearly 320,000 Dhdnuks in North Behar, not a single Dhdmin is to be found north of the Ganges. Artisan Castes. — (35) Barhi; carpenters; number, 23,660. (36) Kdnsdrf and (37) Thatherd ; workers in brass ; number of both, 4,344. (38) Kumdr; potters; number, 20,581. (39) Laherf ; makers of lac ornaments; number, 1,424. (40) Lohdr; blacksmiths; number, 7,304 in Patnd, and more than 45,000 in the two other Districts of South Behar. This caste is not considered pure here, as it is in Lower Bengal, which is probably owing to their admixture with the Kols, who were formerly famous as workers in iron. (41) Sondr; goldsmiths; num ber, 21,101. The Sondrs of Behar, unlike their brethren in Lower Bengal, are considered a pure caste. They are divided into seven clans : — Mair, or maker of pewter ornaments ; Darab-sokh, or gold beater ; Sarab sokh; Khatri; Ajodhiyd bdsi ; Kanaujid and Thatheri. (42) Sunrf, the spirit-selling caste, number, 16,666. Many of them are now employed in agriculture and trade; some are very well off, and attempt to hide their origin. The Collector mentions another caste of spirit-sellers, called Kalwdr, who are allied to the Sunn's, and prob ably included with them in the Census Report. The Sunrfs are subdivided into two classes — Sagaid and Bidhut ; the former of whom allow their widows to marry again, but the latter do not. (43) Teh' ; oil makers and oil sellers ; number, 47,509. The remain ing artisan classes, of which there are throughout all South Behar only 258 members, include (44) Sangtardsh, or stone-cutters; (45) Chhipf, or cotton-printers; C46) Chitrakar, or painters; (47) Churihdra, or makers of bangles; (48) Darzf, or tailors; (49) Kalafgar or polishers ; (50) Rangrez, or dyers; and (51) Sdnkhdrf, or shell carvers. Of these, Patnd is only represented by 67 Chhfpfs. Weaving Castes.— (52) Banaudiyd; number 937. They came from the Upper Provinces, and are looked upon as very vile. (53) Patud, or Jogi; number, 5016 ; makers of silk cord. Many of this caste have become Muhammadans, as also have the Joldhds. The latter name is now generally confined to Musalmdns ; while Hindu weavers are called Tdntf, or Tatawd, that is, persons who use the loom. In the Census Report, only 144 Joldhds are mentioned as living in Gayd District, and none in Patnd or Shdhdbdd. These figures refer, of course, only to the few Hindu weavers who still call themselves by the old name of Joldhd, and do not include the numerous Musalmdn Joldhds, who are found everywhere. (54) HINDUS NOT RECOGNISING CASTE. 49 Tdntf; the most prominent Hindu weaver caste, number, 12,958. (55) Tatawd ; a similar caste, number, 4557. Other miscellaneous weaving castes number collectively 107, in all the three Districts of South Behar. Labouring Classes. — (56) Belddr; diggers, number, 18,461. Though frequently associated with the following caste, they do not marry with them. (57) Nuniyd; makers of saltpetre, number, 10,316. Many of them are employed as labourers, but a fair proportion still cling to their proper trade. Soda effloresces in many parts of South Behar ; it is scraped from the surface by this caste, who make over the saline earth to the manufacturers. The other labouring classes, who number only 64 in all the three Dis tricts of South Behar, require no special notice. Castes Selling Fish and Vegetables. — (58) Khatfk; sellers of onions and chillis, are the most numerous ; together with Turaha, and other similar castes, they number in Patnd 1746. Boating and Fishing Castes. — (59) Mala; number in Patnd, 17,559. The following— (60) Tior, (61) Keut, (62) Gonrhf, (63) Banpar, (64) Murfydri, and (65) Surahfyd, number, in the aggregate, 6193 persons. Vagabond Caste. — (66) Bhdnr ; professional actors and mimics, number, 23. Dhdrhf ; musicians and dancers, number, 1188. Dr Buchanan Hamilton says that their women are called Miridsin ; and that many of this caste have become Musalmdns. Of similar classes, who number T46 in Patnd, Mr Magrath specifies the Pawarfd, who are also dancers ; Gandharb, the ordinary Hindu prostitute caste, who recruit their ranks by buying children, whom they adopt ; Rdmjanf, a higher class of women ; Kheltd, professional pimps and prostitutes ; Kan, Baitf, and Badidkdr, all three musicians ; and Jagwd, a kind of beggars, ivho receive alms from a mourning family within the prohibited period. Hindus not recognising Caste. — These are comparatively few in number ; and, generally speaking, form the dregs of Hindu society. They call themselves the disciples of some one of the many prophets, who have arisen in India to preach against the inconsistency and immorality of the Brdhmanical faith, and to in culcate some more or less pure form of Theism. The followers of these prophets may be generally divided into two divisions; of which the one is composed of earnest thinkers, who, while receiving much of the doctrine taught by their accepted teacher, refuse (except per- vol. xi. d 50 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. haps in theory) to believe that all creatures are equal in the sight of their deity, and consequently retain former caste distinctions and privileges. The other division, recruited from the refuse of all classes, uses the name of a prophet as an excuse for the indulgence of filthy habits, and for outraging the feelings of every decent Hindu. The numbers, given in the Census, must be taken as referring chiefly to the degraded followers of Kabfr, Rdmdnand, and Ndnak, etc., who openly reject all caste distinctions, and not as including many of the respectable disciples of these great moral teachers. The total num ber of Hindus not recognising caste, amounts in Patnd to 4240, inclusive of native Christians. The several sects will be noticed later (pp. 55-57), when I come to treat of the religious distinctions ob taining in the District. Semi-Hinduised Aborigines. — The difficulty of drawing a hard and fast line between Hindus and aborigines, led to the introduction in the Census Report of an intermediate class of semi-Hinduised aborigines, to comprehend those tribes which, though probably of aboriginal descent, have partially adopted the habits and customs of the low caste Hindus. (1) Baheliyd; number 186 ; a semi-civilized class of bird-catchers and hunters. They are a low caste tribe, probably a branch of the Pdsf, and are given to flesh eating, keeping pigs, etc. (2) Barf; torchmakers, number 928. Their materials are supplied by Dom?, who strip the clothes of a dead body before it is placed on the funeral pile. But the chief trade of this class consists in stitching together the leaf platters {patal), which are used as plates by all classes of Hindus at their feasts and ceremonies. (3) Bauri ; a numerous class in Lower Bengal, but in South Behar only found in Shdhdbdd, where they number 334. They are said to be thieves. (4) Bhuiya ; believed, by Mr Magrath, to be the veritable autoch thones of the country. They are found chiefly among the southern jungles of Gayd, in which District they number 90,666 ; while in Patnd there are only 70, and in Shdhdbdd 234. Dr Buchanan Hamilton identifies them with Musdhars, and believes them to be descended from the armies of Jarasindhu. (5) Bin or Bind; number, 3400 in Patnd. They are generally fishermen ; but also labourers, and sometimes thieves. (6) Chdin; who resemble Bind in their occupations, number 6780 in Patnd. (7) Chamdr and Much! are the men who prepare hides and work in leather. They number 47,067 in Patnd, and are found in every village in South Behar. SEMI-HINDUISED ABORIGINES. 51 They hold a recognised position, and like the village watchmen, hold rent free a small portion of the village land. In Gayd, the Chamdr gets a share of the grain at harvest ' time, in return for which he supplies the cultivator with his whip thong and leather fastenings for the yoke. He also posts up official notices, and goes round with the drum to make public announcements. His wife, as the village midwife, is as great an institution as her husband. Closely allied to this class are the Shirdz mochf, who make saddles, and the Dhdlkdr, who make leather vessels for holding ghi, and targets of buffalo hide. The Chamdr is generally looked upon as a disagreeable necessity ; and his criminal practice of poisoning cattle, for the sake of the hide, is sometimes condoned for fear lest his wife should discontinue her ser vices as midwife. (8) Dom; number 61 16. They are a very vile tribe, cordially detested by all classes, but still endured, because they are the only persons among Hindus who will remove any dead animal. They have the right of making the pile on which the Hindu is burned, and receive the clothes in which the dead body was wrapped. Some of their families act as public executioners, and are called Jaldd in consequence. Their priests are called Dom-Brdhmans. As a rule, they are found in small numbers in the outskirts of Hindu villages ; but the Maghi'd Doms lead a wandering life, and are pro fessional thieves. They move about in gangs, with reed huts like the Nats, and are the curse of any neighbourhood to which they come. Dharkar are a kind of superior Dom, who do not touch dead bodies, but confine themselves to basketmaking, the ostensible trade of all this tribe. (9) Dosddh ; the ordinary labouring class of Behar, num ber in Patnd 84,900. They have nearly monopolised the office of village watchman, and in many parts the name dosddh is used as a synonym for chaukiddr. They act as cooks and servants to Europeans, and also as labourers. The bulk of them are said to be thieves, or to connive at thieving. Cattle stealing and burglary are their peculiar weaknesses. Though not equal in strength and audacity to the Godlds, they are only too willing to wink at the de predations of that class, so long as they are allowed to share in the plunder. Dr Buchanan Hamilton suspects that they are the same tribe with the Chanddls of Lower Bengal, for the two castes follow nearly the same professions, bear the same rank, and worship similar deities. (10) Hdri ; a scavenger caste, number 14. Dr Buchanan Hamilton mentions a branch called Kdri-hdri, who are hunters. Many of the women servants employed by Europeans are of 52 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. this caste. Under the name of (i i) Mihtar are included all sweeper- castes, such as Haldlkhor, Khdkrob, Bhangi, Held, etc., which col lectively number 1920. (12) Musdhars and (13) Rdjwdrs are numerous castes, who are fully described in the Statistical Account of Gayd Dis trict (Vol. XII., pp. 37, 38). The former number 27,208 in Patnd. Mr Magrath believes them to be Thdrus, but Dr Buchanan Hamilton and others connect them with the Bhufyds. The Rajwdrs, who are allied to the Musdhars, number 3244 in Patnd District. Mr Magrath thinks it likely that they are really Rdjbhdrs. (14) Pasi number 33,299. Formerly a great and powerful nation, famous for their skill in archery, they are now chiefly employed in the sale and manufacture of the fermented juice of the date and tdri palms. Many of them are called Tfrsulfya, because (according to Dr Buchanan Hamilton) they have planted the sacred Ocimum, called tirsuli in the vulgar tongue, and have thus become a kind of Hindus. Of the tribes included under the head of " others," which number 147, none are of any importance except the Banijdrd, a tribe well known in history as carriers throughout India. Muhammadan Classes. — The Musalmdn population of South Behar is divided, in the Census Report, into five classes — Mughuls, Pathdns, Sayyids, Shaikhs, and " Unspecified," of whom the last are by far the most numerous. The Sayyids, or descendants of the Pro phet occupy, of course, the highest rank ; and they will not give their daughters in marriage even to Mughuls. The class called Shaikhs, who are especially numerous in the District of Shdhdbdd, is com posed of two distinct divisions. The first division comprehends a few persons of noble family, the descendants of Umar, Abu-bakar, Usmdn, Farfdi, and of the tribe of Karaish ; while the second division is merelya collection of Musalmdn shopkeepers and commonlabourers. Apart . from these distinctions, which are somewhat arbitrary, all low caste Muhammadans adhere more or less to the doctrine of caste. Mr Magrath, in the Census Report, mentions a few Musal mdn castes ; but a fuller list is given by Dr Buchanan Hamilton, who also estimated the number of families in each caste. I repro duce it here, together with the numbers of the families, as the nearest approximation to the facts that can be obtained. It must be re membered that the figures are only conjectural, and refer back to the beginning of the present century, when the District of Behar included the present District of Patnd, as well as most of Gayd and a small portion of Monghyr. MUHAMMADAN CLASSES. 53 (1) Jolaha, weavers; in Behar, 17,700 families; in Shdhdbdd, 7253 ; but the latter number is probably much below the real amount. (2) Patud, or tape-weavers, and knitters of string; in Behar, 270 families ; in Shdhdbdd, only 22, confined to the town of Arrah. (3) Darzf, or tailors; in Behar, 1200 families; in Shdhdbdd, 350. (4) Churisdz, or glass-workers ; in Behar, 320 families; in Shdhdbdd, 249. (5) Daphalf, or mendicant musicians ; in Behar, 360 families ; in Shdhdbdd,, 105. These often eat and intermarry with tailors, tape- makers, and glass-blowers, being in fact, persons of those three tribes that follow this profession. (6) Dhdri, or Miridsi, musicians who perform at marriages; in Behar, 120 families; in Shdhdbdd, 5. In the west of India these people are called Domnd Domni. (7) Pawariyd, musicians who perform at births ; in Behar, 80 families ; in Shdhdbdd, 63. To these may be added n families of eunuchs that attend at births. (8) Rdmjanf, or prostitutes ; in Behar, 800 families ; in Shdhdbdd, 125. (9) Bhdt, or poets; in Behar, 56 families; in Shdhdbdd, 120. (10) Bhdnr, or jesters; in Behar, 4 families; in Shdhdbdd none are mentioned, (n) Kaldwat, or ballad-singers; in Behar, 70 families; in Shdhdbdd, 10. (12) Kunjra, or retailers offish and vegetables; in Behar, 2000 families; in Shahdbad, 285. (13) Bhathiydrd, or innkeepers ; in Behar, 350 families ; in Shdhdbdd, 200. (14) Kalal, or distillers of spirituous liquors; in Behar, 2,300 families ; in Shdhabad none are mentioned, but retailers of provi sion are given at 400 families. (15) Bhdngerd, or sellers of intoxi cating drugs; in Behar, 3 families; in Shahdbdd none are mentioned, but 3 families of betel sellers are put down. (16) Halwdi, or con^ fectioners; in Behar, 2 families; in Shdhdbdd, none. (17) Fakirs, or beggars ; in Behar, none ; in Shdhdbdd, 240 families. (18) Nanbdi, or bakers; in Behar, 80 families; in Shdhdbdd, 3. (19) Chik, or mutton butchers; in Behar, 400 families; in Shdhdbdd, 57. (20) Kasdb, or beef butchers; in Behar, 450 families; in Shdhdbdd, 39. (21) Hajjdm, or barbers; in Behar, 450 families; in Shdhdbdd, 220. (22) Dhobf, or washermen; in Behar, 250 families; in Shdhdbdd, 32. (23) Mfr-shikdrf, or bird catchers ; in Behar, 130 families ; in Shdhd bdd, 5. (24) Telf, or oil makers ; in Behar, 8 families ; in Shdhdbdd, 30. (25) Kumar, or potters; in Behar, 2 families; in Shahdbdd, none. (26) Kaldigar, or polishers; in Behar, n families; in Shdhd bdd, none. (27) Naichhdband, or tobacco-pipe makers; in Behar, 20 families; in Shdhdbdd, none. (28) Muchf, or shoemakers; in Behar, 60 families ; in Shdhdbdd, where they are chiefly employed 54 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. in saddle-making, 27 families. (29) Ndlband, or farriers ; in Behar, 12 families; in Shdhdbdd, 21. (30) Bow and arrow makers, who are of different trades, but of the same caste ; in Behar, 40 families ; in Shdhdbdd, 7. (31) Paper makers; in Behar, no families; in Shdhdbdd, 130. (32) Sfkalgar, or cutlers; in Behar, 200 families; in Shdhdbdd, 10. (33) Dhuniyd, or cotton cleaners ; in Behar, 2,100 families; in Shdhdbdd, 720. (34) Rangrez, or dyers; in Behar, 700 families; in Shdhdbdd, 147. The same people also make soap. (35) Kdlinbdf, or carpet-weavers ; in Behar, 70 families ; in Shdhd bdd, 30. (36) Mdlf, or gardeners ; in Behar, 3 families ; in Shdhd bdd, 9. (37) Sakd, or water-carriers; in Behar, 70 families; in Shdhdbdd, none. Many weavers follow this trade, but do not inter marry with the Sakd caste. (38) Powder makers; in Behar, none; in Shdhdbdd, 22 families. (39) Khakrob, or sweepers and scavengers; in Behar, 200 families ; in Shdhdbdd, 34. (40) Mdlzaddh, or slaves; in Behar, 2,850 families; in Shdhdbdd, 510. These are mostly employed in agriculture. Mr Magrath mentions also (41) Gaudhi, or cow-keepers. (42) Tawaif, or prostitutes ; and (43) Ldl begf, or sweepers ; but he gives no estimate of their numbers. Dr Buchanan Hamilton has estimated the probable number of families in forty trades. The total number thus accounted for amounts to 4S,234 ; and supposing each family to consist of five persons, we arrive at the occupations of 226,670 persons. The total number of " unspecified " Muhammadans in the three Districts of Patnd, Gayd, and Shdhdbdd, according to the Census of 1872, amounts to 398,394 persons. Religious Divisions of the People.— Of the total population of Patnd District, 671,150 males, and 692,141 females— total, I,363,29I, are Hindus, who thus form 87-4 per cent, of the whole. The Muhammadan population consists of 88,717 males, and 104,271 females; making a total of 192,988, or 12-4 per cent, of the whole inhabitants. The Christians, European, and Native, consist of 1,744 males, and 956 females— total, 2,700, or -2 percent, of the population. The remainder of the population is not separately classified, but is returned together under the head of " others." These consist of 266 males, and 393 females— total, 659, or less than -i per cent, of the population. The Hindus, as shown above, form by far the most numerous sec tion of the community, forming 87-4 per cent, of the total District population. They muster strongest in the Bdrh Subdivision, where RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS: HINDUS. 55 they form 91-4 per cent, of the inhabitants. In Patnd municipality, with its large Muhammadan population, the Hindus do not exceed 75 -i per cent.; but outside the municipality in the Patnd police circle, their numbers amount to 95 -i per cent, of the total population. I have noticed in the Statistical Account of Gayd District, that Dr Buchanan-Hamilton, who is in general remarkably accurate in his figures, gave in 181 2 a very different estimate of the comparative num bers of Hindus and Muhammadans. According to him, the Hindus then formed only about sixty-five per cent, of the population. Now there is no record of any remarkable diminution in the number of Musalmdns during the last sixty years ; and, therefore, I presume that Dr Buchanan Hamilton must have included among the Muhamma dans some of the very low caste Hindus who keep few class distinc tions, and thereby disturbed the actual ratio between Hindus and Musalmdns, which, in all probability was much the same then as it is now. Dr Buchanan Hamilton gives many particulars of the varieties of Hindu worship which distinguish the residents of Behar, or the old kingdom of Magadha, from the Hindus of Eastern Bengal. Here is no doubt the original place of settlement of the Brdhmans from Cey lon, or Magas, who gave the name to the country. Though they generally resemble other Brdhmans; yet they allow themselves to eat grain which has been parched by the Kdndus, or anything that has been fried in ghi even by the hands of a Sudra — indulgences which would be considered disgraceful in Bengal. On the other hand, they eat no flesh, not even venison, except what has been offered in sacrifice. Other pure tribes, such as Rdjputs and Bdbhans, do not scruple to eat the flesh of goats, sheep, deer, and game ; but they reject the porcupine, tortoise, and other animals reckoned pure in Bengal. The Godlds, on one occasion, the festival of Gdiddrh, sacrifice and eat swine's flesh ; but this is done by no other pure tribe. The impure tribes eat almost anything ; and most of them avowedly drink spirituous liquors. No Brdhmans, except the Gayd wdls, smoke tobacco, but they chew and snuff; Bdbhans and all lower castes smoke without shame. No woman of rank smokes ; but low caste women do not deny themselves this luxury. Of the four Hindu sects established as such by Sankar Achdrjya, three only prevail in South Behar. These three, together with the Ndnaks, are found, roughly, in the following proportions :— Sivas, three-sixteenths ; Saktas, five-sixteenths ; Vaishnavs, two-sixteenths, 56 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. and Ndnaks, six-sixteenths. Where a Hindu is said to belong to such or such a sect, it does not absolutely imply that he worships only such or such a god, but that such or such is his favourite god {isht deotd). The Ndnaks have no particular god, but apply indifferently to all that are in credit. An orthodox Hindu should pray once a day to his god {isht deotd), and three times for the remission of his sins. The morning prayer, pujd, is the most important, and is seldom ne glected. The mid-day prayer is called madhidn, and the evening one sandhyd. These prayers are in prescribed forms, which are taken from the Vedas and Shdstras. There is no remarkable peculiarity in the customs and religious observances of the Sivas and Saktas. The Vaishnavs worship most commonly the two first incarnations of the god, Rdma and Krishna ; but there are some temples to Vdrdhd and Narasinha. The Sikhs have no peculiar deities, but they are considered as orthodox. Those only who have withdrawn from the world are referred to in the Census under the name Nanakshdhf. Their number in this District is 282. They wear the yellow shirt, and do not cut their hair. Mr Magrath mentions a small colony of Sikhs at Patnd, owners of the Harmandir or temple of Har. They are divided into Chhatri or warriors, and Khatri or writers. The mahant or superior must be a Chhatri. The Sanydsfs or followers of Siva, according to the Census, number 937. The term Sanydsf can hardly be restricted to any particular class ; and in general (as Professor Wilson points out), expresses all the Siva classes of mendicants, except per haps the Jdgis. The Vaishnavs, amounting to 2082 in the Census Report, include a number of Vishnuvite sects, the common tenet of which is that they discard the use of meat, fish, spirits, and tobacco, or pretend to do so. The Atiths, numbering 106, are a portion of the sect of Sivas called Dasndmf Dandis, who have not resigned the world. "Others," including a variety of petty sects, number 353. No reliance can be placed on the numbers of the " Hindus not recog nising caste," as returned by the Census. They can at best only show the avowed disciples of any prophet ; while in almost every case the majority of any sect of Hindus, who have in reality thrown off the trammels of caste, still pretend to be bound by restrictions which have long lost their real force. The Collector gives the following account of a new sect of Hindus, known by the name of Bam Marg or Kaulik, which is fast gaining strength in Patnd City. Like.Brdhmaism, it is not unconnected with the Shdstras; and its followers cite as their special authority the HINDU FESTIVALS. 57 Shdstras of Kfl Kawach and Argald. Though orthodox Hindus are aware of the existence of this sect both here and also in Bendres, and some other places, yet there prevails great ignorance concerning its rapid increase, for converts keep both their own names and their new faith carefully concealed. It is believed that its numbers now ex ceed one thousand ; and they are daily increasing. They are com posed of all castes, Brdhmans, Kdyasths, Kurmfs, &c. All their proceed ings are kept secret, but it is known that they hold meetings between the 15th and 25th Aswin (September), and on the same days in Chait (March). They do not recognize caste, and worship nothing but the Creator, through his incarnation Kali. They observe no restric tions with regard to eating and drinking. The sect is recruited chiefly from the lower classes ; for it is difficult for a high caste native to procure meat-food without exciting suspicion, and secresy is considered essential to their existence. Though this religion is sup posed to have existed from time immemorial, yet it is not more than twenty years since the sect was first established in Patnd District. Hindu Festivals. — The following is a list of the chief Hindu holidays which are observed in the Districts of South Behar. Most of them are moveable feasts ; and the dates given are those on which the holidays occurred in the year 1875. 1. Basant Panchumi, falling on the fifth lunar day of Magh, or the 10th of February, is a holiday to mark the commencement of spring. In Bengal, the Kdyasths worship the implements of their trade (pens and ink) on this day ; but here no special religious ceremonies are performed, and the day is devoted to feasting and enjoyment. Pro fessor Wilson notices that this day corresponds, curiously enough, with the specific date fixed for the beginning of spring in the Roman calendar, the fifth of the ides of February — vide Ovid, Fasti. II. 149, 150. (2) Sivdrdtri, falling on the 13th of the lunar month Phdlgun, or the 6th of March, is said to have been instituted by Siva himself ; and the observance of the ceremonies on this day absolves the followers of the god from all sins, and secures their future salvation. The chief part of the ceremonies, which are limited to worshipping the linga, are performed at night, after a day of fasting. The following morning is spent in bathing, and repeating prayers ordained for the occasion. (3) Holi or Doljatrd falls on the 30th solar day of Phdlgun and on the first of Chaitra (2 2d to 24th March). The origin of this 58 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. festival is variously given ; but the following version, which is taken from the Bhavishyottara Purdnd, is the one commonly accepted in Behar. It is related that the country was once afflicted by a female hobgoblin, called Holika, who was in the habit of devouring children. At last, the people by the advice of a sage (muni), prepared a huge bonfire, and surrounding the witch, proceeded to revile her in very exceptionable language. The witch died of shame ; and ever since it has been the custom for people to collect on this night, and after lighting a fire, to abuse each other, and to throw about a sort of red powder called abir. The feast is similar in character, and perhaps in origin, to the Carnival at Rome. It is observed by all classes of Hindus in every part of the District. The fires are lighted on the evening of the first day; and the next day is devoted to merriment, and the throwing about of this powder. Scarcely any one escapes a shower, and every passer-by has his clothes stained with red. The Doljatrd was formerly a distinct festival, and in some parts of India it is observed on a different day ; but in Behar the real origin of the two festivals has long been forgotten, and they are considered as one and the same. (4) Ram Nami, falling on the 24th Chait (24th April), is a festival commemorating the birth day of Rdm Chandra, an incarnation of Vishnu, who is the especial object of worship among the Vaishnavs or followers of Rdmdnand. (5.) Rakshdbandhan, falling on the 30th Sanwan (17th August), is a festival in honour of Brahma, which is said to have originated in in the following manner : — Once upon a time, the god Brahma, wishing to test the piety of a certain Rdjd Bal, who was famed for his charity, appeared before the king, in the form of a diminutive Brdhman. Then having tied a thread round the royal wrist, the Brdhman begged for a piece of land measuring two and a half deg or strides in length and breadth, on which to build himself a cot tage. The king agreed, and told him to measure out the land with his own stride. The Brdhman proceeded to do so, but the whole of the royal dominions measured only two strides. The king, however, determined to keep his word, offered his back to make up the deficiency ; and it was found that its size was exactly half a stride. The god was convinced of the king's piety, and established this festival. Ever since, the Brdhmans have marked the day by tying threads round the wrists of rich people, who are bound to give alms in return. HINDU FESTIVALS. 59 (6.) Janam Ashtami, falling on the 8th Bhadra (23d, 24th August), commemorates the birth of Krishna. (7) Anant Chaudas, falling on the 14th lunar day of Bhadra (14th September), commemorates the great battle by which the five sons of Pdndd, king of Hastindpur, regained their father's kingdom. (8.) Pitar Bisarjan, falling on the 15th Aswin (29th September), is the day on which libations are offered by all Hindus on behalf of their ancestors. (9.) Dasahard is the great festival of the Hindu year. Ten days in October are set apart for the adoration of Kdlf or Durgd, the wife of Siva. The civil courts are closed for a month, from the 2d October to the ist November, and the criminal courts for ten days. The chief day, the tenth lunar day of Asin, commemorates the victory of Rdm Chan dra over Rdvana, the demon-king of Lankd or Ceylon. The worship of the goddess consists in making offerings of sweetmeats, etc., in the temples and also at private shrines. The sacred book (durgd-pdt) is read for some hours every morning and evening. Idols, sometimes of gigantic dimensions, are made of mud; and before these the offerings are made. On the tenth day, these mud idols are carried in procession, accompanied by bands of music, and are finally thrown into the Ganges. This custom is not very general, and has probably been lately introduced into the Province ; for Dr Buchanan Hamilton says that nothing of the sort went on in his time [181 2] in Behar. (10.) Diwdli takes place on the 15th Kartik. The whole month is considered sacred, and for some days before the feast great atten tion is paid to keeping the houses neat and clean. On the night of the 15th every house is illuminated. The trading classes worship Lakshmf, the goddess of Fortune, on this day, and pray for a blessing on their dealings. The next day is specially observed by the Godld caste, who have a festival called Gdidarh or Sohrai, at which they tie together the feet of a pig, and drive their cattle over the wretched animal until it is killed. The cattle are also given linseed oil and salt to drink, and their horns are painted. This ceremony is very generally observed in Behar ; and at an indigo factory in Tirhut, I saw hundreds of bullocks dosed with linseed oil and salt, which was poured down their throats out of bottles. Besides these ten, there are other Hindu festivals, which are very generally observed throughout Behar, but they are not marked by Government holidays. 60 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. The Muhammadans, according to the Census of 1872, number 192,988 or 12-4 per cent, of the total population. Besides the four ordinary classes which are mentioned in the Census Report, and have been alluded to on a previous page, there are some families known as malik, who claim descent from the ancient nobility or amrd, who obtained this title from the Afghdn sovereigns of the country. The majority of the Muhammadans in Patnd are uneducated and indigent. Muhammadan Festivals. — The following account of the Muham madan festivals, which are observed as holidays, is condensed from a description furnished to me by Maulvi Sayyid Amir Husdin, Deputy Magistrate of Patnd. The dates given are those on which the festi vals fell in 1875. — (1.) The 'Td-uz-zuhd, or as it is commonly called, the Bakr-id, is held on the 10th of the last Muhammadan month in the year (19th and 20th January). It commemorates Abraham's sacrifice of his son. The account of the intended sacrifice is similar to the one given in the Bible, with the exception that Ishmael is substituted for Isaac. The head of every family who can save £6, 3%. is enjoined to offer a goat for every member of his family, or else a cow or a camel for every seven persons. The person on whose behalf the sacrifice is made must be present ; but previously, all attend public prayers at the mosques between 8 and 10 a.m. At the time of killing the goat, the following text {niyat) must be repeated in Arabic : — " O God, this is my offering, its flesh is my flesh, its blood is my blood, its skin is my skin ; accept it as thou didst accept the offering of Abraham." After the sacrifices have been duly per formed, the remainder of the day is spent in visiting or feasting, or in getting up singing and dancing parties. (2.) The Muharram is the grandest religious ceremony among the Shih sect. It commences on the second day of the new moon, and is completed on the tenth, the last four days comprising the most important part of the ceremony. In 1875, the 13th, 16th, and 17th February were observed as holidays. As the festival commemorates the martyrdom of Hassan and Husdin, the grandsons of the prophet, demonstrations of grief form its chief characteristic. In Patnd, its observance is by no means confined to the Shih sect. Not only do other Muhammadans take part in the ceremonies, but the majority of the Hindu population take a considerable interest in the feast, and join in the processions and spectacular displays which form an important part of the ceremony. MUHAMMADAN FESTIVALS. 61 The grandsons of the prophets, whose deaths are commemorated, were the sons of All. When Ali had been assassinated, the elder son, Hassan, retired to Medina, where he was poisoned ; but the younger son, Husdin, headed a revolt against the ruling viceregent, Yazid. In this attempt he was unsuccessful ; and after three days' fasting in a dry well, he was discovered by his enemies, and was slain on the banks of the Euphrates with all his family. The only one who escaped was Sayyid, who afterwards succeeded to the throne. The first ten days of the Muharram are observed as a season of mourning. Religious gatherings {Majlis) are held at about fifty of the chief houses in Patna city, where the story of the martyrdom of the brothers is recited or sung to plaintive music. Large sums of money are spent during this period by the leading Muhammadans in charity, and in hiring noted reciters from Lucknow to recite these songs {marsia). Many of the Sunni sect join these gatherings ; but some consider that the poetry reflects on the three first Caliphs, Abu Bdkar Umar, and Usmdn, and therefore refuse to take part in the general mourn ing. On the last day the burial of Husdin is celebrated. Thousands of paper or cloth models of the tomb, ornamented with tinsel, are carried in procession from the different platforms {fmdmbdrd) where they had been set up, to the Karbald, a large domed building with a pit in the centre. Some of these processions are very gorgeous, — horses, elephants, and armed men, with banners and torches, accom panied by bands of music, swell the crowd ; and hundreds of Hindus volunteer as pdiks or armed retainers of the two martyrs. Each pageant {tdzia) contains some flowers, which are thrown into the centre pit of the Karbald. The Deputy Magistrate estimates the number of these pageants in the city at 3000, of which the two best worth seeing are managed by Mahmud Nawab and Nawab Mirza. The number of Hindus who join in these processions, chiefly through their love for display, has been variously estimated ; but it is believed that they actually exceed the Musulmans. Formerly, the Muharram was invariably marked with disputes among the rival sects of Muhammadans, which ended in rioting and bloodshed, and generally in murder. Matters at last reached such a pitch that special orders were issued to the Magistrate of Patnd to prevent all fighting during the festival. Dr Buchanan Hamilton men tions that, in his time, the occasion was celebrated with intolerable tumult, but without violence. He estimated the number of pageants {tdzias) annually exhibited at 14,000, of which 600 were made 62 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. by Hindus. Till within the last few years, it was the custom for the Magistrate to spend the last day of the Muharram in the city, so as to check by his presence any inclination to riot; but this practice has now been discontinued. In 1873 there was every prospect of a dangerous tumult, which was with difficulty averted by the prompt action taken by the authorities. A Muham madan of the Shih sect had given a semi-religious party, to which some of his Sunni friends had been invited. At this party the fakir or priest, who recites the praises of Ali, happened to make some remark derogatory of Umar, the second Caliph, which the Sunnis, who were present, took as a direct insult. As the master of the house refused to apologise, they left the house in a body. The story spread like wildfire ; and both factions began to circulate lists, which their adherents signed, thereby engaging themselves to have no dealings with any member of the opposite faction. The result would probably have been a free fight, in which the Shihs, who are numerically inferior, would have gone to the wall. The Magistrate, however, called a meeting of the principal members of both sects, and with some trouble induced them to make friends. The obnoxi ous lists were collected and forwarded to the Magistrate ; and owing to the good sense shown by the chief Muhammadan gentlemen in the city, the ceremonies were accomplished without any disturbance whatever. There is little doubt that, if this quarrel had not been nipped in the bud, there would have been a dangerous outbreak in the city, and probably over the whole District. (3) Fdtaha-DawdzDahum or Bdra-ofdt, falling on the 12th Rabi-ul awal or the third Muhammadan month (19th April), is the great festival of the Sunni sect. It commemorates the birth and death of the Prophet. For twelve days before this date, meetings are held daily at the mosques and several private houses, where the Mauhid Sharif, or recitations connected with the birth, life and death of the Prophet, are made in prose and verse. Some of these recitations contain allusions to the eminence of the two Caliphs, and therefore the Shihs do not take. part in the ceremony. On the last day the relics of the prophet, hairs from his beard, pieces from his blanket, &c, are ex hibited ; and the passages from the Kurdn, and a special prayer, the Datt'td, are repeated. Relics, however, of Muhammad are extremely rare in any part of India. (4) Shdb-i-brdt, falling on the 14th Shdbdn, the eighth Muhamma dan month (15th September), is a festival observed by Musalmdns in MUHAMMADAN WAHABIS. 63 honour of their ancestors. During the day, they perform fdtaha by reading prescribed passages of the Kurdn over hand-made cakes {chapdtis) and halua (a sweetmeat made of flour, sugar, melted butter and milk). Afterwards, these cakes and sweetmeats are dis tributed among the poor. At night the family burial grounds are illuminated, and often there are displays of fireworks. (5) 'Id-ul-Fitr, which signifies the "ceremony of breaking," imme diately succeeds the month Ramzdn, throughout which all orthodox Muhammadans have been fasting. The fast of the Ramzdn was ordained by the prophet shortly before his death, and has to be observed by every Musalmdn — the very old, the sick, and children being alone excepted. During the whole month, from shortly before sunrise to sunset, not a morsel of food nor a drop of water may pass the lips. On the first day of the succeeding month, the fast is broken. Between 8 and 11 a.m. the mosques are crowded with Musalmdns, returning thanks to God that they have been able to keep the fast. Afterwards, the alms called^ra^ must be distributed. According to the ordinance of the Kurdn, every Musalmdn must give away half a sad (or 5 lbs.) of wheat or barley in charity. Rich men, however, often give more, in proportion to their means. The rest of the day is spent in feasting and rejoicing. The WahabI s are described by the Collector as a numerous body, among whom are included a few wealthy traders, though the majority belong to the lower classes. Many of them are fanatical in their opposition to both Sunnis and Shiahs, though Wahdbiism is really but a branch of the Sunni faith. They call themselves " Non-imitators" {gair mukallid) because, like other Sunnis, they will not acknowledge the four Imdms. They profess a very strict form of morality, repudi ating the more extravagant forms and ceremonies of the Muhamma dan faith ; and, above all, devote themselves to the jihdd, or sacred war. Firmly convinced that Sayyid Ahmad will re-appear, destroy all infidels, and subvert the British rule in India, they believe that the first duty of every true Musalmdn is to further the good cause to the utmost of his power. He should at once join the " leader of the fighters for the faith" (amir-ul-mujdhid-ud-din), who was formerly Maulvi Ahmad-Ulla, a resident of Patnd. All who die fighting for the faith are martyrs (shahid) ; all who kill infidels are heroes {chazi) ; and those who shrink from the fight and give not their wealth in support of the crescentade are accursed (ndri). The following are the chief sources oi jihdd funds : — (1) Zakdt; a percentage given by 64 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. the wealthy on their annual incomes. (2) Two and a half per cent. of each harvest, paid by the cultivators. (3) Fitra; z\ lbs. of wheat, or its price, given by all Musalmdns at the festival of the 'Td-ul-Fitr. (4) Kurbdni ka chamra ; the hide of every animal slaughtered at the Bakr"td festival. (5) Khairdt and sadkd; which include all miscel laneous alms. (6) A handful of corn cooked for food, which must be paid by all who are too poor to subscribe anything else. Patnd was first visited by Sayyid Ahmad, the leader of the Wahlbi movement in India, about the year 1820 ; and ever since that date the city has been a great centre for the collection of money and recruits, which were forwarded to the frontier. The leader of the sect at the time of the mutiny was Ahmad-Ulld. He was arrested at the time by the Commissioner, but appears to have regained the confidence of Government, and was eventually made a Deputy-Collector. The first raid made on the Patnd Wahdbfs was in 1864, when eleven persons, among whom were the brother and nephew of Ahmad-Ulld, were arrested, and subsequently sentenced to transportation. Ahmad- Ulld himself was suspected at the time ; but there was not sufficient proof of his guilt, and he was not arrested till the close of the year. He was then tried by the Judge of Patnd ; and on the 27th February 1865, sentence of death was passed on him, which was afterwards commuted by the High Court to transportation for life. The Christians, according to the Census of 1872, number 2700, or •2 per cent. Of the total population. Of these, over 2000 are Europeans, including the troops at Dindpur. There is a chaplain at Dindpur ; and in 1872 there was also a chaplain at Bdnkipur, who was removed in 1875, and no successor has been appointed. There is a Roman Catholic church in Patnd city, and a convent, where a number of girls are educated. There is also a Lutheran mission in the city. The native Christians, according to the Census Report, number 480, and are confined to Patnd City. The Brahma Samaj is restricted to the Bengali residents of Patnd. It is said that many Beharfs are secret sympathisers with this move ment, but there are no open converts. Jains.— Other denominations are returned in the Census at 659. Among these are included the Jains, here called Sarawak. In Dr Buchanan Hamilton's time, there were fifteen priests at Patna and two at Behar. He estimated the total of the Jains in Patnd and Behar Districts at 350 families. I am unable to give any information regarding their present numbers. TOWNS, &>c: PATNA CITY. 65 Towns. — According to the Census Report of 1872, there are in the District of Patnd 1,454 villages containing less than two hundred inhabitants; 1,225 from two to five hundred; 502 small towns con taining from five hundred to a thousand ; 173 from one to two thou sand ; 36 from two to three thousand ; 10 from three to five thousand ; 5 from five to ¦ ten thousand ; 4 from ten to fifteen thousand ; 2 from twenty to fifty thousand ; and 1 with more than fifty thousand inhabitants. The table on the next page, condensed from the District Census compilation of Mr Magrath, presents an abstract of the statistics for the eleven towns, which contain a popula tion of more than five thousand inhabitants. Some further details will be given in the separate account of each town. In the following description of the towns and villages in the Dis trict, they have been grouped under the Subdivisions. SADR OR HEADQUARTERS SUBDIVISION. Patna City, also called Azimabad, situated in latitude 25° 27 ' 30" and longitude 850 34 ' o", is far the largest and most important town in the District. According to the Census of 1872, the population amounts to a total of 158,900, of whom 78,028 are males, and 80,872 females. The Hindus number 59,573 males, and 59,885 females — total, 119,392 ; the Muhammadans, 18,194 males, and 20,535 females —total, 38,729; the Christians, 188 males, and 314 females — total, 502 ; "others," 109 males, and 168 females — total, 277. In 1871, the gross municipal income was ;£ 9,738, • and the gross expenditure, .£9,334, 10s; the rate of taxation being 9 dnnas and 9 pies or is 2|d per head of the population. The following section on the early history of Patna city is based upon General Cunningham's Ancient Geography of fndia, Vol. I., pp. 4S2-4S4 (London, 1871). Patna has vol. xi. K Statistics of Towns in Patna District containing more than 5000 Inhabitants. Names of Towns. Hindus. Muham madans. Christians. Others. Total. Gross Municipal Income. Gross Municipal Expenditure. Rate of Taxation per Head. Patnd BeharDindpur Nizdmat Dindpur Cantonment Fatwd Bdrh Mukdmd . Muhammadpur Baikathpur ManerKhagaul . Total 119,392 31,006 2I,36l 8,955 9,9688,130 8,698 5,1035,7973,9°5 3,972 38,729 13,282 6,418 3,585 1,326 2,915 2,017 950 291 1,421 1,069 502 108 1,630 5 214 277 7 27 I 36 2 158,900 44,295 27,9M 14,17011,29511,050 10,715 6,089 6,088 5,3265,257 £ s. d. 9,738 0 0 1,100 0 0 702 0 0 440 16 0 333 4 0 505 14 0 275 18 0 124 0 0 123 6 0 127 0 0 185 0 0 £ s. d. 9,334 10 0 1,120 8 0 648 8 0 959 18 0 277 16 0 726 6 0 207 4 0 128 8 0 91 18 0 127 40 184 8 0 Rs. a. p. 0 9 9 040 0400 9 5 048073 032 033032 0390 5 3 £ s. d. 0 1 2% 006006 0 1 2y&- 0070 0 1076 0 0 4# 0 0 4Ji 0 0 4% 0 0 $% 0 0 7Ji 226,287 72,003 2,459 350 301,099 13,654 18 0 1 3,806 8 0 Av.o 7 3 Av.o 0 loji PATNA CITY. 67 Patnd has been identified with Pdtaliputra, which, in spite of Dr Buchanan Hamilton's opinion to the contrary, is undoubtedly the same town as Palibothra, first mentioned by the Greek historian Megasthenes, who came as ambassador from Seleucus Nicator to the Court of Sandracottus or Chandraguptd, in Pdtaliputra, about the year 300 b.c. The foundation of the city is attributed by Diodorus to Herakles, by whom he may perhaps mean Balardm, the brother of Krishna ; but this early origin is not claimed by the native authori ties. According to the Vdya Parana, the city of Pataliputra, or Kusumapurd, was founded by Rdjd Uddydswa, the grandson of Ajdta Satru, who was the well-known contemporary of Gautdma, the founder of the Buddhist religion, who died about 550 b.c Accord ing to the Buddhist accounts, when Buddha crossed the Ganges on his last journey from Rajdgriha to Vaisdli, the two ministers of Ajdta Satru, King of Magadha, were engaged in building a fort at the vil lage of Pdtali, as a check upon the ravages of the Wajjians, or the people of Vriji. At that time Buddha predicted that this fort would become a great city. Upon this evidence, General Cunningham concludes that the building of Patnd was begun then, but finished later, in the time of Uddya, about 450 b.c According to the Hindu chronologies, Uddya was the thirty-seventh king of Magadha, dating from Sahadeva, who was contemporary with the great war of the Maha- bharata. The thirteenth in succession from Uddya was Chandra- gupta, who was reigning at Pdtaliputra when Megasthenes, whose account of the city has been preserved by Arrian, visited the city. He says that the distance of Palibothra from the Indus is ten thousand stadia, that is 1149 miles, or only six miles in excess of the actual distance. He proceeds to describe Palibothra as the capital city of India, on the confines of the Prasii, near the confluence of the two great rivers Erannoboas and Ganges. The Erannoboas, he says, is reckoned the third river throughout all India, and is inferior to none but the Indus and the Ganges, into the last of which it discharges its waters. Now it has been already mentioned that Erannoboas is the Greek form of Hiranya-bdha, which has been identified with the Sdn; and that the mouth of this river was formerly much nearer Patnd than now. Megasthenes adds that the length of the city of Palibothra is eighty stadia, the breadth fifteen ; that it is surrounded by a ditch thirty cubits deep ; and that the walls are adorned with 570 towers • and 64 gates. According to this account, the circumference of the city would be 220 stadia, or 25* miles. Strabo, Pliny, and Arrian 68 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. call the people Prasii, the Greek corruption of PaldsiyiC or Pardsfyd, the men of Paldsa or Pardsa, which is an actual and well-known name for Magadha, derived from the shrub palds (Butea frondosa). The next description that we have of Patnd is supplied by Hiouen Thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, who entered the city after his return from Nepdl, about 20th February 637 a.d. At that time the kingdom of Magadha was subject to Harsha Varddhana, the great king of Kanauj. It was bounded on the north by the Ganges, on the west by Benares, on the east by Hiranya Parvata or Monghyr, and on the south by Kirana Savarna or Singbhiim. Hiouen Thsang informs us that the old city, called originally Kusumapura, had been deserted for a long time and was in ruins. He gives the circumference at seventy "li," or nf miles, exclusive of the new town of Pdtali- putrapura. Little is known of the history of this city. It seems to have slowly fallen into a state of decay; and in 1266 Pdtali was little better than a nest of robbers, who had to be punished by the Mughul Government. At that time, the Governor of the Behar Pro vince resided at the city of Behar. During Sher Shdh's revolt, Patnd was the capital of an independent State, which was afterwards re duced to subjection by Akbar. Aurangzeb made his grandson Azim Governor, and the city thus acquired the name of Azimdbad. Dr Buchanan Hamilton, in his description of Patna city, includes the whole of that part of Patnd pargand, which was under the juris diction of a kotwdl and fifteen darogahs, who were appointed to superintend the police of the sixteen wards (mahdllas), into which this area was divided. Each of these wards lay partly within the town; but some of them also included part of the adjacent country, consist ing chiefly, however, of garden land, with some low marshy ground that intervenes. The city of Patnd, taken in this sense, includes the suburb of Bdnkipur on the west, and Jafar Khdn's garden on the east, an extent of nearly nine miles along the bank of the Ganges. The width, from the bank of the Ganges, is on an average about two miles ; so that the whole circumference covers an extent of about eighteen square miles. The city proper within the walls is rather more than a mile and a half from east to west, and three-quarters of a mile from north to south. It is very closely built, many of the houses being of brick; more, however, are composed of mud with tiled roofs, and very few are thatched. There is one fairly wide street, that runs from the eastern to the western gate, but it is by no means straight or regularly built. Every other passage is narrow, crooked and irre- PATNA CITY. 69 gular; and it would be difficult to imagine a more unattractive place. Still, every native who can afford it has a house in this quarter. In the dry weather the dust is beyond belief, and in the rains every place is covered with mud, while in one quarter there is a large pond which becomes very offensive as it dries up. The fortifications which surround the city have long been neglected, and are wretched to the last degree. The natives believe that they were built by Azfm, the grandson of Aurangzeb ; but an inscription on the gate, dated 1042 A.H., attributes the erection of the fort to a Firoz Jang Khdn. There are hardly any striking buildings ; and a view of the town, except from the river side, where some European houses are scat tered along the bank, is decidedly mean. Dr Buchanan Hamilton states that the only public works, except those dedicated to religion, were the Company's opium stores, a granary, and a few miserable brick bridges. The Roman Catholic Church, in the middle of the city, was the best-looking building in the place. None of the Muhammadan mosques or Hindu temples was worthy of notice ; some of the former were let to be used as warehouses. The number of houses in the whole city, as estimated by Dr Buchanan Hamilton, amounted to 52,000; of which 7,187 were of brick, 11,639 °f tw0 stories, with mud walls and tiled roofs ; 53 with thatched roofs; 22,188 were mud huts, covered with tiles, and the remainder were mud huts covered with thatch. — The population he estimated at 312,000 souls. Dr B. Hamilton was clearly so disgusted with the dirt and disorder of the place that he was unable to see any good in it whatever. He has even omitted to describe the Gold, a high dome-like store-house, which is certainly the most striking building in the whole extent in cluded by him in his account of the city. This structure, consisting of a brick building in the shape of a bee-hive, with two winding stair cases on the outside, which have been ascended on horseback, was re-erected in 1786 as a storehouse for grain. It was intended that the grain should be poured in at the top, there being small doors at the bottom to take it out. The walls are of great thickness, being 21 feet in width. The following inscription is on the outside. " No. 1. — In part of a general plan ordered by the Governor-General and Council, 20th of January 1784, for the perpetual prevention of Famine in these Provinces, this Granary was erected by Captain John Garstin, engineer. Compleated {sic) the 20th of July 1786. First filled and publickly closed by ." The storehouse never has been filled, and so the blank in the inscription still remains. 70 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. During the scarcity of 1874 a good deal of grain, which if left at the railway stations might have been spoilt by the rain, was temporarily stored here. The Gold is usually inspected by visitors on account of the echo, which is remarkably perfect. The Patnd College is a fine brick building, at the west end of the city. Originally built by a native for a private residence, it was pur chased by Government and converted into Courts for the administra tion of justice. In 1857 the Courts were removed to the present buildings at Bdnkipur; and in 1862 the College was established in its present place. Proceeding further eastwards for about three miles, we arrive at the quarter called Gulzdrbdgh, where the Government manufacture of opium is carried on. The opium buildings are all on the old river bank, and are separated from the city by a high brick wall. In the neighbourhood are two small temples, which appear to be of great antiquity. One is used by Muhammadans as a mosque, and the other by Hindus. Beyond Gulzdrbdgh lies the city proper. The western gate is, according to its inscription, five miles from the Gold, and twelve from Dindpur. Dr Buchanan Hamilton's remarks on the state of the city, with some modifications due to improved conservancy arrangements, are applicable to its present condition. South of the city, in the quarter called Sadikpur, a market has been made on the ground formerly occupied by the Wahdbf rebels ; but it is not much used by the inhabitants. The public gardens near the railway station, which are to succeed the unhealthy marsh that Dr B. Hamil ton complained of, will be described later. The workmen, who were employed in digging the tank, came upon the remains of an old wooden palisade, which may have been part of the old Patnd walls. Opposite to the Roman Catholic Church is the grave where the bodies of Mfr Kasfm's victims were ultimately deposited. It is covered by a pillar of uncouth form, built partly of stone and partly of brick. The present European graveyard lies to the west of the city, just without the confines of Bdnkipur. • The chief Muhammadan place of worship is the monument of Shah Arzdnf, about the middle of the western suburb. He died here in the year of the Hijra 1032, and his shrine is frequented both by Muhammadans and Hindus. In the month of Zikad there is an annual fair held on the spot which lasts three days, and attracts about 5000 votaries. Adjacen to the tomb is the Karbald, where 100,000 people attend during the Muhar- THE MASSACRE OF PATNA. 71 ram festival. Close by is a tank dug by the saint, where once a year sonje 10,000 people assemble, and many of them bathe. The only other place of Muhammadan worship at all remarkable is the monu ment of Pfr Bahor, which was built about 250 years ago. The fol lowers of Nanak have a place of worship of great repute, called the Har-mandir, which owes its celebrity to its having been the birth place of Govind Sinh, the last great teacher of the sect. In spite of the antiquity of Patnd, the total absence of all ancient buildings is not to be wondered at, for quite modern buildings fall into decay as soon as they are at all neglected. Chahalsatun, the palace of the Behar Viceroys, which in 1760 was in perfect preservation, and occupied by a king's son, could in 181 2 be scarcely traced in a few detached portions retaining no marks of grandeur. In the same year, the only vestige to be found of a court of justice, which had been erected in 1728, was a stone commemorating the erection, dug up in 1807, when a police office was about to be erected on the spot. Many gardens in and about Patnd are cultivated with roses ; and some of them cover a third of an acre in extent. The method of distilling essences from these roses will be noticed on a subsequent page. The principal business quarters of the city, proceeding from east to west, are the following : — Mdrdfganj, Mansurganj, Kild, the Chauk, with Mirchdiganj, Mahdrajganj, Sddikpur, Alabakshpur, Gulzdrbdgh and Colonelganj. The trade of Patnd city and its manufactures will be described at length in the body of this Statistical Account, for the whole interest and importance of the District, and indeed of the whole Patnd Division, centres in this city. The Massacre of Patna. — The following account of this. occur rence, which may be said to have sealed the fate of the Muhamma dan government of Bengal, is mainly taken from the Histories of India by Mill and Thornton, and from Selections from Unpublished Records, edited by the Rev. J. Long (Calcutta, 1869). In 1760, Mir Kdsim was created Nawdb by the English, in super- cession of his own father-in-law, the incapable Mfr Jafar. He at once set himself to reform the administration, and appears to have contemplated from the first a quarrel with the English. At this time, the chief of the Company's Factory at Patnd was a Mr Ellis, who is described as a " headstrong man," who took the lead in the practice of trampling upon the authority of the native officials, a practice which directly led to the war. A description of the general 72 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. state of affairs in Bengal at this time has already been given in the Statistical Account of Murshidabdd District (vol. ix., pp. 189, 190). In April 1763, two English gentlemen, Mr Amyatt and Mr Hay, were despatched to Monghyr, where the Nawab had fixed his resi dence, with the final demands of the Council at Fort William. While they were staying at Monghyr, Mfr Kasim seized and de tained some boat-loads of arms that were passing up the Ganges to Patnd, on the ground that the arms were destined to be used by Mr Ellis against himself. This occurrence hastened the rupture. Mr Amyatt was allowed to return to Calcutta, but Mr Hay was detained as a hostage. Intelligence of these events reached Mr Ellis at Patnd on June 24. He had previously obtained permission from the Council to act on his own responsibility ; and he immediately ordered his sipdhis to occupy the city of Patnd, which was done on the following morning. The Nawab, in revenge, gave orders that Mr Amyatt should be pursued, and the unfortunate envoy was over taken and murdered, while sailing down the Bhagirathf near Kasfm- bazar. In the meantime, the Muhammadans at Patna had recovered their courage. They turned upon the English sipdhis, who were en gaged in plundering the city, and drove them back to the Factory. In a letter written at the time by a Dutch merchant of Patna, it is stated that only 300 men, out of an English force of 2000, escaped with their lives. The remainder, after being besieged for two days and nights, fled in their boats to the frontiers of Oudh, where they ultimately laid down their arms. They were then brought back to Patna, whither had been conveyed Mr Hay from Monghyr, the entire staff of the Kasfmbazar Factory, who had also been arrested at the first outbreak of hostilities, and some other prisoners. But as soon as regular warfare commenced, Mfr Kasim met with no more successes. He was defeated in two pitched battles by Major Adams, at Gherid on 2d August, and at Udha-nala (Oodeynullah) on 5 th September. These defeats roused him to exasperation. He forth with ordered for destruction several influential natives, whom he had carried about with him as hostages for their own fidelity. Among those killed on this occasion were Rdm Ndrdyan, a former governor of Patnd, and the two Seths, the great bankers of Murshidabdd. He also wrote to Major Adams on 9th September, threatening— " if you are resolved to proceed in this business, know for a cer tainty that I will cut off the heads of Mr Ellis and the rest of your chiefs and send them to you." It would seem that their lives were BANKIPUR. 73 prolonged by the interference of "Coja Gregory," the Armenian commander of the Mughul artillery. But their protector was killed by his own soldiers ; and the fate of the English was placed in the hands of Samra, a German, or rather Swiss, renegade, whose original name was Walter Reinhard. The following details of the massacre are taken from a letter to the Calcutta Council by Major Adams, written only twelve days after the event. In the morning of October 6, Mfr Kasfm had received letters from the Council, acknowledging his threatening letter, and the same evening he sent Samru with some sipdhis to carry out his threat. Mr Ellis and a few others were attracted one by one out of the room where all were drinking tea at seven p.m., and instantly cut down. The remainder took the alarm, and defended themselves with bottles and plates, for their knives and forks had been already removed. The sipdhis were at first compelled to retire ; but they loaded their pieces and fired from a distance. In this manner, it would appear that about sixty Englishmen in all were massacred, of whom twenty-five were in irons, and ten were in a place of separate confinement at Chahal-satun, the palace of the governor. With this last party was Dr Fullarton, the only " gentleman " who escaped the common fate. What became of the English soldiers is not clear. It is only stated by Major Adams, that they were said to be yet alive when he wrote. He adds — "the bodies of our gentlemen were most of them thrown into a well in the compound of the house they were confined in." It is said that 200 Englishmen were killed at this time throughout Bengal. On the news reaching Calcutta, a general deep mourning was ordered for the space of fourteen days, the first of which was set apart as a day of public fast and humiliation ; and minute guns were fired from the forts and from the fleet. A lakh of rupees was offered for the person of Mfr Kasfm, and Rs. 40,000 for Samru. The sub sequent war with the Wazfr of Oudh, which was prolonged till May 1765, was to some extent occasioned by the refusal of the Wazfr to surrender these persons, who had placed themselves under his pro tection. Mfr Kasim is said to have died, in great indigence, at Dehli. Samru took refuge with a succession of new masters, and was ultimately presented with the jdgir of Sardhdnd in Meerut District, where he died in 1778, leaving as his widow and heir the notorious Begam Samru. This lady endeavoured in her old age to make amends for a long life of violence by charities. In 1834 she devoted 74 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. .£15,000 to the foundation of a Clergy Fund and Poor Fund; and her name now stands first in Archdeacon Pratt's " Endowments of the Diocese of Calcutta." The litigation connected with her property was not finally settled till more than a third of a century after her death. Bankipur, the civil station of Patnd, and the administrative head quarters of the District, immediately adjoins the city of Patnd on the west. The police lines, judicial courts, and the chief buildings occupied by Europeans, extend along the old river bank. The railway station is in the quarter called Mithdpur, about a mile from the Gold. Close to the station is the jail, and between the jail and the river there are several houses occupied by European residents. The only remark able building is the Gold, described above (p. 69). There is a spacious park or maidan, a church, a racket-court, and billiard- room. Very few natives reside in Bdnkipur ; and there is httle trade, except in butchers' meat, grocery, and other articles required by the European inhabitants. In the dry weather, the Ganges is about a mile distant ; but during the floods, it flows past the Station, inun dating and fertilising the low didrd lands. With the exception of Patnd, there are no towns in the Sadr or headquarters Subdivision with more than 5000 inhabitants. The three following towns have police stations : — Naubatpur, a closely built town, about 1 o miles to the south-west of Dindpur, with several shops; Masaurhf, which lies 19 miles to the south of Bdnkipur, on the road to Gaya ; and Pdlfganj, a small town in the south-west of the District near the Sdn, and about 25 miles from Bdnkipur. BEHAR SUBDIVISION. Behar, the headquarters of the Subdivision of the same name, is situated on the Panchdna river, in N. latitude 250 n' 58", and E. longitude 850 34' 10". Population as ascertained by the Census of 1872— Hindus, males, 15,421; females, 15,585— total, 31,006. Muhammadans, males, 6246; females, 7036 — total, 13,282. Total of all denominations, males, 21,672; females, 22,623 ; grand total, 44,295. Municipal income in 1871,^1100; expenditure, £1120, 8s. ; rate of municipal taxation, 6d. per head of the population. The municipal police force, for the protection of the town, consists of 4 head constables and 93 men. The town is described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton as a very large scattered place, surrounding the ditch of an ancient city, now in a great measure deserted. It is divided into 24 mahdllas, or wards ; BEHAR TOWN. 75 but these are now separated by fields and gardens. The most com pact part is a long narrow bazar or street, extending south from the old fort towards the monument of Sharff-ud-dfn. This street, which was paved with brick and stones, was the most wretched that Dr B. Hamilton had ever beheld. It is now a good, though rather narrow road. Back from this street, on both sides, are some respectable-looking houses, surrounded by brick walls, but inter mixed with hovels. There are also several mosques, that have been tolerable buildings, but are now quite ruinous. During the scarcity of 1873-1874, some of them were utilised as store houses for Government grain. It is said that, until the decline of the Mughul government, the town surrounded the old ditch on every side for at least a mile, and was as compact as Indian cities usually are ; but it was reduced to its present condition first by the Mahrattas, who sacked it in the time of Alf Vardf Khdn ; and secondly, by the great famine of 1770. From this desolation it never recovered, as there was no inducement to bring people to a place which was no longer the seat of any considerable establishment. Dr Buchanan Hamilton, at the beginning of the present century, stated that Behar contained 5000 houses, most of which were built of brick or roofed with tiles; he estimated the inhabitants at 30,000. Considering that Behar is not on the line of any railroad or on the bank of any navigable river, and that the roads during the rains and a part of the winter are almost impassable, the trade of the town, carried on carts or pack bullocks, is by no means inconsiderable. All the traffic between Patnd, Gayd, Hazdribdgh and Monghyr passes through Behar ; and, in general, the travelling traders offer their goods for sale here, as they pass through the town. The Deputy Collector estimates the number of houses at 8346, of which about one-fourth are owned by cloth merchants and dealers in grain. Of the former, who reside in the town, 28 families have a very good business. In 187 3- 1874, they imported European cloth to the value of £6240, and country goods from Benares, Murshidabdd, Dacca, etc., to the value of £2 740. In 18 74-1 87 5, European cloth to the value of £5862, and country-made goods to the value of £4580 were bought by these 28 families. Goods to the value of £1062 were sold by them in 1873-1874, and to the value 0^7286 in the following year. The grain • dealers stored produce, chiefly rice, to the value of £8647 in 1873-1874, and to the value of £8657 in 1874-1875. In the former year they sold £8815 worth of grain, and 76 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. in the latter year grain to the value of £8249. This is exclusive of 6591 maunds of Government grain, worth£i5i9, which was sold to the public during the scarcity. There are 40 shops for the manufac ture of sweetmeats, in which the sales amount to over £1000 every year. The following figures will show the average trade in the other articles of commerce, calculated for the two years, 1873-1875 : — Spices: 18 shops; value of goods sold, £1960. Cotton: 11 shops; goods sold, £5060. Tobacco: 6 shops; goods sold, £1500. Shoes : 16 shops; goods sold, £2800. Porcelain goods: goods sold, £4200. Gold and silver : 3 shops ; goods sold, £ 1380. Brass and iron : 5 shops; goods sold, £90. Sugar: 8 shops; goods sold, £320. Hides: 6 shops ; goods sold, £995. Petty shops for sale of ddl, etc. : 70 shops; goods sold, £2515. Baskets : 14 shops; goods sold, £300. Coster- mongers (paikdri): 33 shops; goods sold, £350. Travelling cloth dealers : 7 shops; goods sold, £336. The total value of goods sold in 1873-1874 amounted to £32,894; and in 1874-1875 to £39,407. The local manufactures consist chiefly of silk and cotton cloths and muslins. The latter rival those of Dacca, and are sold as such even in Dacca itself. Some twenty years ago, the up-country Muham madan dealers used to export about £60,000 worth of Behar muslins at a time, but these men do not come now. There is still a con siderable trade in Behar caps and waist strings (izdrband), without which no Beharf gentleman would consider his toilet to be complete. The chief place of resort for the Muhammadan pilgrims is the tomb of Shdh Makhdilm, on the south bank of the river. Every year, on the fifth day of the month Id, some 20,000 persons visit this place, and a large fair is held on the occasion. The most remarkable building in Behar is a huge inn (sardi) which has lately been erected from private subscriptions by the Deputy Magistrate, Bdbu Bimala Charan. This sardi consists of two large blocks of buildings, which enclose a spacious courtyard. The large block facing the street is strongly built of bricks, which have been brilli antly coloured in every conceivable hue, and presents a most gorgeous appearance. In front of this block is an elaborately designed clock tower. The block itself is divided into two equal parts, one being reserved for Hindus and the other for Muhammadans. Each part is divided into a number of rooms, which are used by the better class of pilgrims, who can afford to pay for a night's lodging. The second block is similarly divided, but the rooms are intended for the poorer sort of pilgrims, who are accommodated free of charge. The court- BEHAR TOWN. 77 yard, which divides these blocks, contains a magnificent collection of Buddhist and other idols and inscriptions, which were collected by Mr Broadley, while he was in charge of the Subdivision. These are well arranged in one portion of the yard. The rest is used for picketing the ponies brought by the pilgrims. The yard is enclosed at each end by latrines, rooms for women, etc. The whole of this sardi was planned by the subdivisional officer, and with the exception of clock tower, the whole work was executed by artizans and labourers living on the spot. The history of Behar is but little known. It seems probable, however, that it was the capital city of Magadha soon after the commencement of the Christian era. Dr Buchanan Hamilton thinks that it was the chief city of the Province, to which it undoubtedly gave its name, from 1225 a.d., when Aiyas-ud-din was appointed Governor, to 1574, when Monim was appointed Governor of Patnd. To this period must be assigned the foundation of the old mosques and tombs of the saints, which are to be found in the city. The fort of the Magas is thus described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton. " It is of a very irregular shape, and has been defended by a strong rampart of stone, cut in rude large masses from the adjacent rock. The foundations remain almost everywhere entire, and it is evident that all the salient angles have been strengthened by round bastions. The ditch has been enormous. It is now entirely cultivated, and small canals wind through it ; but where most entire, on the east face of the fort, it would seem to have been about 600 feet wide, and on the west side, where narrowest, its width does not appear to have been less than 400 feet. The extent of the heaps of brick within the fort shows that it has contained many large buildings of that material, but no traces of their particular form remain. It is, however, pro bable that they all belonged to the palace of the Rdja, and that the town always surrounded the ditch ; for the fort is said to have been measured by Mr Law, and, including the ditch, was found to contain 500 bighds of the country standard or 312 acres, which agrees very well with its appearance. The gates would seem to have been entirely ruined before the Muhammadan conquest ; but the family of saint has taken possession of the strong outworks which defended the gate on the south, and has repaired the breaches with various fragments of pillars and door's, among which one contains an image of Buddha with several other figures." Inside the confines of the fort are built two modern buildings : a school and a house used 78 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. for municipal meetings. There are also several Hindu shrines, in some of which may be seen old Buddhist images. The ruins of the old Muhammadan office or kachchari, said to have been built by one Mfr Mahmud, still existed in the beginning of the century ; but the fragments of the old stone pillars have been lately sold, and not a trace of the building now remains. The bdoli or square brick building surrounding a well, which is also described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton, has likewise nearly disappeared, two pillars rising from the midst of a poppy-field being the only vestige of the place now to be seen. Near the bdoli is a solid square building of one storey, which is now used as the city hospital. It was formerly a Muhammadan nobleman's summer-house, and is called nauratan ' from its containing nine chambers, one in the middle, one at each corner, and one at each side. These chambers are arched with brick, and the inner walls are painted ; but the lowness of the roof and the smallness of the doors takes away from the general effect. The house was formerly surrounded by a garden, in which there were small fountains in cisterns of brick and plaster. The solitary hill which rises from the plain at Behar, has been already referred to (ante, p. 19). This hill is identified by General Cunningham with Kapotika, the Pigeon monastery mentioned by Hiouen Thsang. Mr Broadley, however, doubts this identification ; and argues that it is the "small rocky hill standing by itself," which Cunningham has identified with Giriyak. Fa Hian's description of the place is as follows (Beal's translation, p. no, chap. 28). "From this city (Patnd) proceeding in a south-easterly direction nine ybjans, (actual distance about fifty-four miles) we arrive at a small rocky hill standing by itself, on the top of which is a stone cell facing the south. On one occasion when Buddha was sitting in the middle of this cell, the divine Sekrd took with him his attendant musicians, each one provided with a fine-stringed lute, and caused them to sound a strain in the place where Buddha was seated. Then the divine Sekrd proposed forty-two questions to Buddha, writing each one of them singly with his finger upon a stone. The traces of these questions yet exist. There is also a Sanghdrdma built upon this spot. Going south-west from this one ybjana. we arrive at the village of Na-lo." Now Nd-lo or Ndlanda has been identified with the village of Baragdon, which lies six miles to the south-west of Behar. But Baragdon is six miles to the north-west of Giriyak ; and, therefore, if Baragdon is the site of Ndlanda, of which there can be no doubt, RUINS OF RAJAGRIHA. 79 Fa Hian's " solitary hill " cannot be at Giriyak. Besides, there is no solitary hill at Giriyak. The double range of hills which commences near Gayd tenninates in two peaks, one of which rises above the village of Giriyak ; but this hill, says Mr Broadley, so far from being solitary, is a mere off-shoot of Vipula at Rdjgir, and is not less than six miles in length. The hill at Behar is now crowned with a number of Musalmdn graves and buildings ; but General Cunningham found here some fragments of Buddhist statues and votive stupas. Rajagriha, or Rdjgir, is identified by Dr Buchanan Hamilton as the site of the old Rdjdgriha, the former capital of Magadha. The place was visited by both the Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hian and Hiouen Thsang. The ruins have been examined by General Cunningham, Mr Broadley, and other archaeologists ; and though their accounts differ in some respects, they are all agreed on the main fact that the present town of Rdjgir is at or near the site of the old capital of Magadha. General Cunningham identifies the site of Rdjdgriha with ¦ Kusd-gdra pura, the town of the kusd grass visited by Hiouen Thsang, and called by him Kiu-she-kie-lo-pu-lo. Rdjdgriha, which means " the Royal residence," the ancient capital of Magadha, was also called Giribrdjd, the " hill surrounded." Under this name the capital of Jardsindha, King of Magadha, 1426 b.c, is mentioned both in the Ramdyana and the Mahabhdrata. It is also described by Fa Hian (Beal's translation, cxxviii. 112); and Hiouen Thsang gives an account of the hot springs which will be mentioned presently. The five hills which surround the city, mentioned in the Mahabhdrata and in the Pdlf annals, are thus described by General Cunningham. The first, Baibhdr, is called Baibhdra and Vyavahdra in certain Jain inscrip tions, which have been found on the hill. This is undoubtedly the Webharo' mountain of the Pali annals, on whose side was the famous Sattapanni cave, where the first Buddhist Synod was held in 543 b.c. In the Thibetan account, it is called the cave of Nyagrodha or Banian tree. The second hill, one mile to the east, Ratnagiri, is the one called by Fa Hian the Fig-tree cave, where Buddha meditated after his meals. This is the Rishfgiri of the Mahabhdrata, and the Pandao mountain of the Pdlf annals. There is now a paved zigzag road, which leads to a small Jain temple on the summit that is still used by Jains. The third hill, Bipula, is clearly the Wepullo of the Pdlf annals, and the Chaityaka of the Mahdbharata. The latter name was derived from a lofty stupa or chaitiyd, which formerly crowned its summit, as we read in Hiouen Thsang's account. On the other two 80 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. hills are Jain temples, which are not particularly described by Cunningham. These hills surrounded the old city of Rdjgir. Traces of the outer wall, which was about 8 miles in circumference, and 13 feet in thickness, may still be seen. The inner wall, which is in a better state of preservation, is about 4| miles in circumference. The new Rdjgir is about two-thirds of a mile north of the old town. According to Buddhist annals, it was built by King Srenika or Bimbisdra, the father of Ajdta Satru, the contemporary of Buddha ; and therefore not later than 560 b.c When Hiouen Thsang visited the place, the outer walls were ruinous ; but the inner wall, with a circumference of 3 \ miles, still stood. Dr Buchanan Hamilton gives a full description of the old fortifications as they now stand. The larger fort is of an irregular pentagonal form, and is apparently very ancient, as the traces which remain are a mere rampart of earth want ing an outwork but strengthened by a ditch, which seems to have been about 100 feet wide. The present town stands upon the north-west corner of this fortress. At the south-west extremity there are traces of a more modern fort, with stone walls, which might have been built as a sort of citadel. It occupies a space of about 600 yards. The west and south faces are the same with those of the old rampart, but have been much strengthened with a facing of brick, and in some places with stone. The eastern and northern faces have had no ditch, but there was a strong stone wall about 18 feet thick, with circular projections at short distances. The hot-springs are on both banks of the Sarsuti rivulet, seven at the east foot of Baibhar hill, and six at the western foot of Bipula hill. The names of these springs have been given variously by Cun ningham, Broadley, and Buchanan Hamilton. The names given to the former group by General Cunningham are (1) Ganga Jamuna. (2) Anant Rikhi. (3) Sapt Rikhi. (4) Brahma Kiind. (5) Kasydpa Rikhi. (6) Byds Kiind, and (7) Markand Kiind. When Dr Buchanan Hamilton visited these springs on the 19th January, the thermometer in the air being 620, the heat of the water in the springs varied from 940 to no0. They are. surrounded by sacred buildings, and filled with bathers ; on some days from eight to ten thousand persons will collect to bathe here. At the bottom of Vipula, or as Buchanan calls it, Bipuldchal, there are six sacred springs. Of these five are called (1) Sitd-kiind. (2) Suraj-kiind (or Nanak-kiind, according to Broad ley). (3) Rdm-kiind. (4) Ganesh-kiind. (5) Chandrama-kund (or Somd-kund, according to Broadley and Dr Buchanan Hamilton.) The HOT SPRINGS NEAR RAJGIR. 81 heat in Surdj-kund is 103°, and it swarms with frogs ; but none are to be found in the others, which are hotter. The sixth spring, Sringgf Rikhi-kund, is about a quarter-of-a-mile east from the others, and its heat is only 970. It has been appropriated by Muhammadans, and is called Makhddm-kiind, after Makhdum Shah Shaikh Sharif ud-dm Ahmad, a saint revered by alike Hindus and Musalmdns, who lived at Rdjdgriha, 715, a.h. There is a stone cell in this place, where the saint fasted for forty days. The word for fast is chilah ; and, as Mr Broadley points out, this has led General Cunningham into a curious mistake, for he calls the saint Chilah Shdh, and sug gests that Chilah, that is Chalwd, was a converted Ahfr. Saila-giri mountain, the Vulture peak of Fa Hian and Hiouen Thsang, lies two and a half miles to the south-east of Rdjgir. Fa Hian mentions that on this hill there were several hundreds of caves, in which the Arhans sat and meditated. There is now no trace of these caves ; and therefore General Cunningham thinks that the caves must really have been small artificial rooms built against the cliff. On the southern ridge of the Rdjdgriha Hills, at Tapoban, are some more hot springs which were also visited by Hiouen Thsang. The word Tapoban probably signifies the " jungle of devotion," and is not, as Gen. Cunningham supposed, a contraction of tapta-pdni or the " hot water." The sacred springs here are five in number, at the bottom of small artificial pools 10 or 12 feet deep. They are all in one line extending about 150 yards, and the ground near them is spongy and wet. The temperature in these pools, on January 14th, 1812, was ascertained by Dr Buchanan Hamil ton to vary from ioo° to n 6°. There is a great fair held here once in every three years ; and the pools are crowded with bathers. Some six miles north-east from these springs is a peculiar cave, about 60 feet in diameter and 10 or 12 feet high, which Dr Buchanan Hamilton also visited. About this cave he observed the peculiar substance, sildjit, besmearing the face of the rock. It was said to exude from a crevice in the hornstone; but the place was almost inaccessible, and there was only one man, an old Musdhar, who would venture to climb up and scrape some of the sildjit from the rock. Dr Buchanan Hamilton describes it as of a dirty earth colour, with the consistency of new honey, and a strong and rather disagreeable smell. When placed on burning charcoal it swelled a little and smoked, and eventually was reduced to white VOL. XI. F 82 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. ashes without emitting flame. He supposed, therefore, that it could not be a bituminous substance, though it resembled that class of minerals. It is much valued by the natives for its real or supposed medicinal qualities. Close by Tapoban are several places of interest, described by General Cunningham. On one hill is a stone embankment, said to have been built by King Bimbisdra. Half a mile to the north of this is an isolated hill, on which existed the ruins of a house where the sage Vyasa formerly dwelt. Three-quarters of a mile to the north east is a small hill, with a chamber hewn out of the rock ; and beside it a stone on which Indra and Brahma pounded the sandal-wood for anointing Buddha's body. Seven miles due north of Rdjgir is the village of Baragdon, which has been identified by General Cunningham with the old monastery of Ndlanda, where Hiouen Thsang resided for two years. According to Fa Hian, this was the birthplace of Sdriputra, the right hand dis ciple of Buddha. The chief ruins are a row of conical mounds running north and south. These are the remains of the temples which were attached to the monastery, of which the site itself is now marked by a mass of brick ruins, 1600 feet long by 400 feet wide. To the south is the tank where the dragon Ndga or Ndlanda dwelt; and all around the place are traces of splendid tanks, two of which must have been a mile in length. These ruins have lately been examined by a Russian archaeologist, who disagrees with many of the explana tions of the different chambers given by General Cunningham ; but there appears to be no doubt but this was the site of the old monas tery, and not of a palace, as Dr Buchanan Hamilton thought. Every year, on the chhat festival, about ten thousand women as semble here, for the purpose of bathing in the Suraj talao, the tank sanctified by the sun. Giriyak, a village on the Panchdna river, on the confines of Gayd District, is a place full of archaeological interest. General Cunningham identifies it with Fa Hian's solitary hill, and suggests that the name is derived from ek-giri or " one hill ;" but reasons for doubting this state ment have been already given (ante, pp. 78, 79). The ruins on the hill are described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton. The original ascent to these ruins was from the north-east ; and from the bottom to the summit may be traced the remains of a road about 12 feet wide, which has been paved with large masses of stone cut from the hill, and winds in various directions to procure a moderate gradient. In many places TOWNS: BARH,&*c. 83 it has now been entirely swept away, and at no time could a carriage have been driven up the hill. Some way up the ascent, on the north side of the hill, is a ridge opposite to a small tank excavated on two sides from the rock, and built on the other two with the fragments that have been cut. At the west-end of this ridge there is a steep slope of brick, which leads up to a platform surrounded by a ledge. In the west of this platform there are some granite pillars, which probably formed part of an old temple. To the east of the ridge is an area 45 feet square, the centre of which is occupied by a low square pedestal,- on which is built a solid column of brick, 68 feet in circumference, and now about 55 feet in height. This place is called the chabutara of Jardsindha ; but the general impression that the ruins on this hill are the remains of Jardsindha's country-house is, in Dr Buchanan Hamilton's opinion, erroneous, for the ascent must always have been too difficult to render it a place of luxurious retirement. After Behar, the three chief centres of trade in this Subdivision are Sildo, with a population of 3,487 ; Hilsd, with a population of 3,026; and Atasardi, with a population of 4,621 persons. To these three places, all the surplus produce of food and oil grains from the whole Subdivision is brought for sale ; and a brisk trade is carried on with Patnd, Gayd, and Hazdribdgh. Atasardi, or Isldmpur, is the great centre of the tobacco trade. Thousands of maunds are brought annually from Tirhut, and collected in large store rooms (golds), whence they are distributed among the three Districts mentioned above, and'also sold to retail vendors in the Subdivision. Sildo is mentioned by Dr Buchanan Hamilton [18 12] as a place containing six hundred houses. At Mdgra, which contained four hundred houses, there was a Com pany's cloth factory dependent on Patnd. At Hilsd there were three hundred houses. BARH SUBDIVISION. Barh, the headquarters of the Subdivision of the same name, is situated on the Ganges, in N. latitude 25° 90' o", and E. longitude 85° 45' 12". Population, as ascertained by the Census of 1872, — Hindus, males, 3997 ; females, 4133 ; total, 8130. Muhammadans, males, 1329; females, 1586; total, 2915. Total of all denomin ations, males, 5329; females, 5721 ; grand total, 11,050. Municipal income in 1871, £505, 14s. ; expenditure, £726, 6s. ; rate of muni- 84 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. cipal taxation, nd. per head of the population. The municipal police force for the protection of the town consists of 2 head con stables and 31 men. Bdrh was described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton in 181 2 as a poor, scattered place, but of great extent, having considerable trade. Accord ing to the native judge (kdzi), Bdrh, including Mdsumganj, then con tained 5000 houses, and many very respectable Muhammadan families resided there. Its position on the railway has naturally increased its size and importance ; and when the Tirhut State Railway, whose terminus is to be at Bajftpur, on the opposite side of the Ganges to Bdrh, is completed, the prosperity of the town will naturally be still further augmented. The river trade consists chiefly of country pro duce ; and, though far inferior to that of Patna, is by no means in considerable. Muhammadpur, which is in fact a suburb of Bdrh, has, according to the Census of 1872, a total population of 6089 persons, thus classi fied : — Hindus, males, 2514 ; females, 2589 ; total, 5103. Muham madans, males, 439; females, 511 ; total, 950. Total of all deno minations, males, 2976; females, 3 113; grand total, 6089. The municipal income in 187 1, was £124 ; the expenditure, £128, 8s. ; and the rate of municipal taxation, 4! d. per head of the population. The municipal police force, for the protection of the town, consists of 1 head constable and 20 men. Fatwa is situated at the junction of the Punpiin with the Ganges. Country Population, as ascertained by the Census of 1872 — Hindus, 4765 ; females, 5203 ; total, 9968. Muhammadans, males, 552 ; females, 774; total, 1326. Total of all denominations, males, 5318; females, 5977; grand total, 11,295. Municipal income in 1871, £333, 4S- ; expenditure, £277, 16s. ; rate of municipal taxation, 7d. per head of the population. The municipal police force, for the protection of the town, consists of 2 head constables and 32 men. Fatwd was described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton in 1812, as a large country town, which might contain 2000 houses and 12,000 people, with a considerable trade and manufacture of cloth. Its position on the railway, and at the junction of the Ganges with the Punpiin, would naturally render it a place of commercial importance. But its mag nitude is also due to its sanctity. Almost every person going to Gayd from the east used to stop here, to perform the ceremonies in commemoration of his ancestors ; and many priests obtained a sup port by repeating the ceremonies. There are also five festivals in TOWNS: MUKAMA, &*c. 85 the year, on which large numbers of people bathe here in the waters of the Ganges. On one of these festivals, called the Bdrni Dawddasi, which commemorates an incarnation of Vishnu in the form of a dwarf, from ten to twelve thousand persons bathe at the junction of the Piinpdn with the Ganges. Baikathpur is situated on the Ganges, about 5 miles to the east of Fatwa. Population, as ascertained by the Census of 1872 — Hindus, males, 2710 ; females, 3087 ; total, 5797. Muhammadans, males, 144; females, 147; total, 291. Total of all denominations, males, 2854; females, 3234; grand total, 6088. Municipal income in I87i, £I23, 6s ; expenditure, £91, 18s. ; rate of taxation, 4|d. per head of the population. The municipal police force consists of 1 head constable and 10 men. Baikathpur also is a place of remarkable sanctity. The mother of Akbar's General, Raja Mdn Sinh, died here; and where she was burned, a bdrddari, or hall with twelve doors, was built by her son, and several temples were at the same time endowed. " On this occasion," writes Dr Buchanan Hamilton, " the Governor was favoured with a dream, in which he was informed of the place in the river where Jarasindha had one day thrown an amulet that he usually wore on his arm ; and such dreams being always true, the amulet was found accordingly. It is a stone representing a linga, adorned with four human heads. At the festival of the Sivardtri, 200,000 people are said to assemble here." A great deal of bathing goes on here also on the appointed days, as at Fatwd. At the beginning of the century, the town contained an inn, and was at least as large as Fatwd ; but the houses were not so good, and it was rather in a state of decay. A great number of weavers then resided here. Bakhtiarpur, situated in N. latitude 250 27' 30", and E. longi tude 85" 34', is a small place on the railway between Bdrh and Fatwd. It is the nearest station for travellers by rail, who wish to visit Behar, or Nawddd in Gayd District. Mukama is situated on the Ganges, in the east of the District. Population, as ascertained by the Census of 1872 — Hindus : males, 4426; females, 4272; total, 8698. Muhammadans: males, 959; females, 1058 ; total, 2017. Total of all denominations, males, 5385 ; females, 5330; grand total, 10,715. Municipal income in 187 1, £275, 18s. ; expenditure, £207, 4s. ; rate of taxation, 4|d. per head of the population. The municipal police force consists of 2 head constables and 29 men. Its rise in importance is of quite 86 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. recent date, for the place is not even mentioned by Dr Buchanan Hamilton. There is now a considerable trade in country produce. Much of the Tirhut trade, which is borne down the river Baya, finds its way to this place ; and it is also a railway station. DINAPUR SUBDIVISION. Dinapur, situated on the Ganges in N. latitude 25° 38' 19", and E. longitude 850 5' 8", is the military station attached to Patnd city. The town is divided into two parts, the Cantonments and the Nizd mat. Dindpur nizdmat has, according to the Census of 1872, the following population — Hindus: males, 10,099; females, 11,262; total, 21,361. Muhammadans: males, 3023 ; females, 3395 ; total, 6418. Christians: males, 47 ; females, 61 ; total 108. Other deno minations : males, 15 ; females, 12 ; total 27. Total of all denomi nations, males, 13,184; females, 14,730; grand total, 27,914. Municipal income in 187 1, £702 ; expenditure, £648, 8s. ; rate of taxation, 6d. per head of the population. The municipal police force consists of 3 head constables and 55 men. Dindpur Cantonments contain the following population, according to the Census of 1872 — Hindus : males, 4638 ; females, 4317 ; total, 8955. Muhammadans : males, 1 702 ; females, 1883 ; total, 3585. Chris tians: males, 1195; females, 435 ; total, 1630. Total of all denomina tions : males, 7535; females, 6635; grand total, 14,170. Municipal income in i87i,£44o, 16s.; expenditure, £959, 18s. ; rate of taxa tion, is. 2d. per head of the population. The municipal police force consists of 2 head constables and 5 men. The comparatively large number of Christians is to be explained by the presence of the European troops stationed here ; and the preponderance of Hindu males over females is due to the Native Infantry. The total popu lation of Dindpur, including the Cantonments, is 42,084, which is little less than that of Behar, the second largest town in the District. Dr Buchanan Hamilton, in the beginning of the century, writes that "Dindpur, independent of the military, and the followers attached to corps and those that accompany them, contains a great many people. In the different market-places scattered within the cantonment, and under military authority, there are said to be 3,236 houses. These markets are rather better built than is usual in country towns ; and afford many more comforts for the Europeans DINAPUR: MUTINY OF 1857. 87 than Patna, which in that respect is a very wretched place. The gentlemen residing in Patnd are supplied with almost every neces sary from Dindpur. The military buildings are very grand, especially the barrack for European soldiers, which is a magnificent and elegant structure. The officers' barracks, although inferior to the others, are still very fine buildings, and of great extent. Many officers of the staff and others have built neat and commodious habitations, and the grounds round them are well laid out, while the roads in the vicinity and through the cantonments are tolerable, so that the whole appear ance is superior to that of Patnd. Of the native houses in Dindpur, forty are built of brick ; one quarter of the whole have two storeys, with mud walls and tiled roofs ; one half of the whole have mud walls and a tiled roof, but are of one storey ; and the remaining quarter consists of mud walled huts with thatched roofs." The military quartered at Dindpur consisted in 1876 of one Euro pean and one native infantry regiment, and a battery of artillery. The Cantonment Magistrate has the charge of the whole Subdivision. Though Dindpur is some six miles from Bdnkipur, yet the whole road is lined with houses and cottages. In fact, Dindpur, Bdnkipur and Patnd may be considered as forming one continuous narrow city, hemmed in between the Ganges and the railway. For about fifteen miles the river bank is occupied with houses, and the principal street follows the course of the river. There is a European shop at Dind pur, where miscellaneous goods are kept. A certain number of European families who are no longer employed under Government have settled at this place. Mutiny of 1857. — I here insert an account, condensed from the third volume of Sir John Kaye's History of the Sepoy War, of the Mutiny of 1857, which in this District originated in Dindpur. Early in 1857 there were alarming reports circulated through the Patna Division, of which Mr Tayler was then Commissioner ; and he and all the local offices throughout Behar addressed themselves to Government, expressing their fears that a revolt was impending. The Lieutenant-Governor also represented that danger was to be appre hended from the following causes : — (1) The return of the mutinous Sepoys to their homes in Behar ; (2) the well-known turbulence of the Wahdbfs in Patnd city, which for years had been a source of suspicion and mistrust to the ruling authorities ; and (3) the three Sepoy regiments at Dindpur, who, though they were watched by Her Majesty's 10th Foot, might at any time break into mutiny, and 88 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. escape, as others had escaped before them. On the other hand, General Lloyd, who was in command at Dindpur, wrote expressing his confidence in the tranquillity of the Sepoys, which consisted of the 7 th, 8th, and 40th Regiments of the Native Infantry. Under these circumstances, they were not disarmed ; though as the days went on, the Sepoys were filled with fears for their own safety, and consequently became all the more ready to break out into open mutiny. At the same time there was an increasing excitement throughout Behar, which, in the Commissioner's opinion, had to be kept down with a strong hand. Repressive measures were adopted, frequent arrests took place, and every effort was made to overawe the disaffected inhabitants of Patna city. An attempt was even made to disarm the citizens ; but it was only partially successful, and on the 3d of July occasioned a rising of the Muhammadans, which required to be crushed by the aid of Rattray's Sikhs, who were then in the neighbourhood. Soon after this, about the middle of the month, an opportunity occurred for dis arming the Dindpur Sepoys. Two companies of the 37th Foot had arrived, on the 24th ; and General Lloyd, though still reluctant to disarm the Sepoys, and at the same time unwilling to disregard the remonstrances of the European residents, bethought himself of a compromise. He paraded the European troops with the artillery, and then sent off two bullock carts to the magazines to bring the percussion caps to the English quarters. The carts had to pass the Sepoy lines, and their mission caused a great excitement among the native troops, who were with difficulty pacified by their officers. The General then attempted to secure the caps which had been already served out, but this the Sepoys refused to endure. The 7th and 8th Regiments openly revolted, and were shortly joined by the 40th. The three regiments then went off en masse, taking their arms and accoutrements, but not their uniforms, with them. The General, who was old and gouty, had retired to a steamer on the river, and did not know what to do. An attempt was made to pursue the retreating Sepoys, but the ground was marshy, and the lightly-clad mutineers easily made good their escape. Some, indeed, made the mistake of taking to the Ganges, where their boats were fired into and run down by the steamer, and their inmates shot or drowned. But the majority of the Sepoys hastened to the river Sdn, and were safe across in Shd hdbdd, a friendly country, with nothing to oppose them but the pluck of a few English civilians, indigo planters, railway engineers, and a handful of Sikh mercenaries, who might or might not be faithful to their employers. MUTINY OF 1857. 89 The story of what took place in Shdhdbdd need not be told here. The news that the rebels, headed by Kunwdr (or Kowdr) Sinh, the natural leader of the Rdjputs of Behar, had surrounded the Europeans at Arrah, reached Bdnkipur about the same time that the Commissioner was informed of the assassination of Major Holmes and his wife at Sagaulf, in Champaran, by his regiment of Irregular Horse, in whom he had rashly placed implicit trust. Mr Tayler was determined to rescue the English at Arrah, but ill-luck attended all his efforts. A steamer, which was sent on the 27 th up the river from Dindpur, stuck on a sandbank. Another steamer was started on the 29th ; but the expedition was grossly mis managed. Though there was abundance of food on board, the men were left fasting. They were landed at the nearest point to Arrah at about 7 p.m. ; and though the men were tired and hungry, they were pushed on till they fell into an ambuscade about midnight. The commander of the expedition, Captain Dunbar, was at once shot down. The enemy were concealed in a mango grove, while the European troops, marching on a raised causeway, were terribly exposed. All was soon in confusion. When morning dawned, a disastrous retreat had to be commenced by the survivors of this ill- fated expedition. The enemy were all round them, the retreat became a rout, an'd had not the ammunition of the insurgents run short, hardly a man would have escaped. As it was, out of the four hundred men who had left Dindpur, fully half were left behind ; and of the survivors, only about fifty returned unwounded. But disas trous as was the retreat, it was not all disgraceful. Individual acts of heroism saved the honour of the British character. Two volunteers, Mr M'Donell and Mr Ross Mangles, of the Civil Service, besides doing excellent service on the march, made themselves remarkable by acts of conspicuous daring. The former, though wounded, was one of the last men to enter the boats. The insurgents had taken the oars of his boat and had lashed the rudder, so that though the wind was favourable for retreat, the current carried the boat back to the river bank. Thirty-five soldiers were in the boat, sheltered from fire by the usual thatch covering ; but while the rudder was fixed, the inmates remained at the mercy of the enemy. At this crisis, Mr M'Donell stepped out from the shelter, climbed on to the roof of the boat, perched himself on the rudder and cut the lashings, amidst a storm of bullets from the contiguous bank. Strangely enough, not a ball struck him ; the rudder was loosened, the boat answered to 90 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. the helm, and by Mr M'DonelPs brilliant act, the crew were save* from certain destruction. Mr Ross Mangles' conduct was equall heroic. While he was retreating, a soldier was struck down nea him. He stopped, lifted the man on to his back, and though he hai frequently to rest on the way, he managed to carry the woundei man for six miles till he reached the stream. He then swam wit! his helpless burden to a boat, in which he deposited him in safety Both these civilians afterwards received the Victoria Cross as ; reward for their services. The subsequent history of the Mutiny in Behar, the defence o Arrah, its relief by Major Eyre, and the abandonment of Beha: (Gayd) District, though connected with the mutiny at Dindpur, neec not be written here. They have been described in the Statistica Accounts of Gayd and Shdhdbad Districts (Vol. xii.) Khagaul is situated to the south of Dindpur, forming the Dindpuj Railway Station. Population as ascertained by the Census of 1872— Hindus : males, 1986 ; females, 1986 ; total, 3972. Muhammadans males, 560; females, 509; total, 1069. Total of all denominations, males, 2665 ; females, 2592 ; grand total, 5257. Municipal income in i87i,£i85; expenditure, £184, 8s; rate of taxation, 7fd. pei head of the population. The municipal police force consists oi 1 head constable and 18 men. Khagaul is another instance of a modern town which may be said to have been created by the railway. There is no mention of the place in Dr Buchanan Hamilton's account. Maner is situated a few miles below the junction of the Sdn with the Ganges. Population as ascertained by the Census of 1872 — Hindus : males, 1841 ; females, 2064 ; total, 3905. Muhammadans : males, 522 ; females, 899 ; total, 142 1. Total of all denominations : males, 2363 ; females, 2963 ; grand total, 5326. Municipal income in 1871, £127 ; expenditure, ^127, 4s. ; rate of taxation, 5|d. pei head of the population. The municipal police force consists of 1 head constable and 1 2 men. Maner is mentioned by Dr Buchanan Hamilton as containing 1500 houses. Bihta is a small village with a railway station, ten miles to the west of Dindpur. A fair is held here in the month of Phdlgun (February). Sherpur, situated near the junction of the Sdn with the Ganges, is the scene where a large fair is held in May (Jeth). In Dr Buchanan Hamilton's time, there were 1000 houses here; but the place is now in no way remarkable. VILLAGE INSTITUTIONS : PANCHAYATS. 91 Village Institutions. The Panchayat system, which has become more or less obsolete in Bengal, still prevails among the lower orders in Behar ; and even Brdhmans and Kdyasths hold occasional meetings for the decision of disputed points. The panchayat is an indigenous tribunal, composed of about five men of a caste, who exercise the power of trying all violations of social and religious rules by any of its members, and of punishing the offenders. This method of jurisdiction is of unknown antiquity, and has still a strong hold on the feelings of the people. An injured person prefers bringing his complaint before the collected members of his own class; and he only resorts to a public tribunal, if he should be dissatisfied with the remedy afforded by his village panchayat. The existence of this collateral jurisdiction in full vigour is probably the reason why the number of non-cognisable cases, petty assaults, trespasses, &c, are far fewer in Behar than in the Districts of Eastern Bengal. Each different caste has its own rules of procedure and manner of punishing offenders, but there is a general similarity in all cases. The court of first instance, or the gdwan panchayat, consists of members chosen either from contiguous villages or from one village alone. The offences which are regarded as under the jurisdiction of this court are : — (1) Civil claims gener ally. (2) Abduction and kidnapping. (3) Offences relating to marriage. (4) Defamation. (5) Criminal force. (6) Theft (not house-breaking). (7) Rape. (8) Using abusive language. (9) Abortion. (10) Extortion, (n) False evidence. (12) Maintenance. The punishments are : — fine and social ostracism. The court is presided over by the sarddr, whose office is heredi tary. When a complaint has to be made, the plaintiff makes a verbal statement before the sarddr, who orders the other members of the panchayat to attend, and fixes a day for the trial. The sum mons is served on the defendant by the complainant, accompanied by some member of the court. Should the defendant be absent, the members of his family are informed of the orders of the court ; and if he evade the service of the summons, the case will be heard ex parte. Both parties bring their own witnesses, and the court does not as a rule enforce their attendance ; but every member composing the court is bound to attend, unless he can produce some reasonable ground of excuse. Any member absent without excuse is fined ten dnnds (is 3d.), and on default of payment, will be excommunicated. When the court is seated, the parties and the witnesses take the 92 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. following oath : " I am standing with my face towards the Ganges, with the panch below, and God overhead; I will state what I know, and never tell anything but the truth." In some cases the deponent touches his son's head while taking the oath. He is then warned that in case his statement be proved to be false, and either party injured through his testimony, he will be prosecuted for perjury. After the oath has been taken, the statements of the witnesses are heard, but not taken down in writing ; the parties being at liberty to examine or cross-examine any witness. At the option of the court, the parties themselves may be examined ; and if the court thinks a local investigation or examination of account books to be necessary, the case will be adjourned, and one or more members of the court will be authorized to collect the necessary information. After the conclusion of the case, sentence is passed according to law. There is no published code ; but the highest court of appeal frames the law from time to time, and manuscript copies of this code are sent to the lower appellate jurisdictions, and are used as books of reference. If the defendant wishes to appeal, he must deposit a fixed sum with the sarddr, and an appeal will then lie to the jawdr panchayat, whose jurisdiction extends over several villages. From this court an appeal lies to the bdisi panchayat, which should be composed of 22 gdwan panchdyats, but the number of villages varies. The next court is the pdnch-mahdl, whose jurisdiction extends (as the name implies) over five pargands. The final court of appeal is composed of eighty-four village councils, and is called the chaurdsi. This is the court which frames the laws and rules of procedure. These latter are in some cases rather quaint. For instance, " if a person knowingly accepts as his wife a woman to whom another person is legally married, the former is not to be considered a brother for 1 2 years." The costs of a suit are incurred in supplying the members of the court with tobacco and lights during the trial ; and in the case of appellate courts, the expenses of travel, &c, have also to be included. The court is, however, very loath to grant costs ; and as a rule, prefers spending the money realised from the defendants by fines, in the purchase of sweetmeats or fried rice, to be distributed among the members of the court, or in buying lanterns, matting for seats, or other furniture required for the use of the panchayat. In some cases, part of the fines is expended on the marriage ceremonies of orphan children. In the case of gdwan panchdyats, the court usually sits in front VILLAGE INSTITUTIONS: BHAIARI. 93 of the complainant's house door ; but the appellate courts collect in the village in which the president resides. There is usually no trouble in collecting the fines imposed upon culprits, for the defaulter can be excommunicated until the fine is paid. For grave offences the defendant is excommunicated without the option of a fine, either temporarily or for ever. In the latter case, the sentence is tantamount to banishment. But even a short term of excommunication is a very heavy punishment ; for while the offender remains under the ban of the panchayat, he is debarred from all social intercourse. Not a soul would condescend to attend any religious ceremony at his house, or to invite him to join their feasts. His nearest kinsmen dare not feed with him, or even give him a light for his pipe. He is, in fact, condemned to solitude, until the term of his sentence has expired, or been shortened by the court. In some cases, a prisoner is sentenced to a beating with shoes or the stems of palm leaves, but such a punishment is, I believe, very rare. In disputes between a landowner and his tenant, the panchayat is able to exercise con siderable influence. Though they cannot summon the zaminddr before them, yet they can forbid any member of the village from taking a lease of the lands out of which the tenant has been ousted ; and the landowner is thus forced to come to some compromise with the panchdyat, or else do without a tenant. BhaiArL— Intimately connected with the system oi panchdyat, is the institution of bhaidri or brotherhood. It signifies the gathering together of the members of any caste for some special object, either to perform some religious ceremony, or to consider the restoration of some individual punished by the panchdyat to the privileges and intercourse of his. caste. In the case of a social gathering on the occasion of a family ceremony, such as a marriage or funeral, the following customs are observed by all classes. The guests are invited by the barber who calls on them in turn, to meet at the host's house on the specified date. They first assemble in the outside verandah, where they sit and smoke till the party is complete. The host, or one of his near relatives, invites them inside, where they are seated in rows. The host then craves permission to begin gordhoi (washing of the feet). When this is accorded, a basin (hdndi) of water and a lotd are brought in, and the host himself, or one of his relatives, proceeds to wash the feet of the guests. After this, a large leaf platter {patal) is put before each man ; and a portion of every course, consisting of rice, parched grain, various kinds of curries, &c, 94 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. is put on the plates. This takes some time, and none of the guests begin to eat till all the food provided by the host has been arranged on their respective dishes. Drink is not invariably supplied, except among the lower classes, when it generally precedes the dinner. Great attention is paid to drinking fair ; and the distributor of the liquor is heavily fined, if any guest gets a glass more or less than the rest of the company. When dinner is over, the guests wash their hands, and then tobacco and betel are brought in, after which the party breaks up. On great occasions, this ceremony is extended over two or three days. The guests remain in the house all the time, and are regaled at intervals with different kinds of food. At one meal, for instance, there will be curries and rice ; and at the next, sweetmeats, and preparations of sugar and rice, &c. Among the higher classes such meetings are called neotd, but the same procedure is observed as at the bhaidri of the lower classes. Muhammadans have a similar custom called nawdid, when a marriage or circumcision is to take place. The guests are invited by letter, and afterwards entertained in much the same manner, but the ceremonies of washing are generally omitted. Among the lower classes, the term bhaidri is also used for a dif ferent ceremony, which takes place before any person, who for some fault has been debarred from intercourse with his fellows, can be re stored to the rights and privileges enjoyed by other members of the caste. When any person is accused of violating the usages of his caste, he is summoned by the headman, who, if the case is clear and the fault of a trifling nature, decides the matter summarily ; but if the evidence is involved, or if the matter appear to be of a grave nature, a committee is called, the evidence is gone into, and the case then decided. Should the accusation be proved, the culprit is gene rally fined and excommunicated. After the fine has been paid, and the money divided among the members of the court, the sinner demands re-admission into the fold. The following ceremony then takes place : — The repentant offender lights a pipe (ndrikel), and after smoking a few whiffs, passes it to the headman, who demands a fee of one rupee, and then receives it. When he has inhaled the smoke, the pipe is circulated to all the members present. After this is over, all the guests have their feet washed, and are invited to eat. Here again the host takes the first mouthful, then the headman re ceives another rupee, and also takes a mouthful, and afterwards the other guests join in the feast ; but until the headman has tasted the LANDLORDS' AGENTS : GUMASHTA. 95 meat, none of the others will touch the food that is placed before them. The liquor (tdri, or country spirit) is drunk in a similar manner. The host puts his lips to the first glass, which is then emptied by the headman. It is then refilled, and drained by each guest in turn. When this loving cup has completed the round, the offence has been condoned, and the late offender is no longer an out-caste. The guests may now drink from separate glasses, but, as was mentioned above, great care is taken that all share equally in the consumption of the liquor. Landlords' Agents. — The panchdyat system and the customs of bhaidri are not the only traces in the Behar Districts of a state of society anterior to the rule of the Mughul Government. The petty landlords of these Districts, who generally belong to the Bdbhan or military Brdhman caste, are probably the descendants of those who, before the Muhammadan conquest, held their lands by military tenure from the Hindu kings. Unlike the zaminddrs of Bengal, these mdliks, as they are called, were never mere Government officials. They gene rally managed their own estates ; and after deducting one-tenth of the net produce for their own support, made over the remainder to the Imperial Collector or dmil. Besides this, they were in the habit of receiving from the villagers certain presents as an acknowledgment of their feudal superiority. In some cases, however, the Mughul officer contrived to establish himself in the position of a great landed proprietor, by driving out the more refractory mdliks, and by retaining the remainder as military vassals. Such large estates are, however, rare in Behar, and when the Permanent Settlement was made by Lord Cornwallis, most of the mdliks were placed exactly on the footing of the zaminddrs ; while those mdliks who refused to accept the Settlement were granted the same allowances that they had for merly received from the Mughul Government. These mdliks still retain the old establishment for collecting their dues from the vil lagers ; and in almost every village in Patnd District may be seen the office kachchari, where the rents are collected and the local business transacted. Gumashta. — The usual village establishment consists of an agent {gumdshtd), who is generally employed to manage from one to five townships (mauzd), whether these belong to one person or to many. His duty is to collect the rents, and generally look after the interests of the mdlik. His position naturally makes him one of the most im portant functionaries in every village community ; and though he re- 96 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. ceives only a nominal payof from£7 to £12 a year, with perhaps a small percentage on the landlords' receipts, his perquisites enable him to live in considerable comfort. PatwarI — Next in rank comes the village accountant (patwdri). Whatever may have been his former position, he was until very lately but little better than the landowner's private servant. Dr Buchanan Hamilton, writing at the beginning of the century, calls him the gumdshtd' s clerk; and says he was paid at the rate of from £1, 16s. to £3, 10s. a year, but that his illicit gains enabled him to spend not less that 12 or 14 shillings a month. At that time, indeed, the patwdri used to submit his registers, containing the village accounts, to Government ; but gradually this duty came to be neglected, and no registers were submitted after 1830, till the time came for taking the Census of 1871-72. It was then determined to revive this insti tution, for the purpose of using the accountants as enumerators. The old registers were wri^hen up and corrected ; and the patwdri was, as far as possible, re-instated in his former position. To render him partially independent of the landowner, it was enacted that no accountant should be dismissed from his office without the consent of the Collector of the District. All their names were entered in the Collector's office ; and in case of death, the would-be successor must first obtain the Collector's consent before he can be appointed. The patwdris of Patnd are now [1876] being employed in collecting and submitting complete and full registers of the land held by every cul tivator in the District. Remarkable facilities are enjoyed by both the gumdshtd and the patwdri for filling their own pockets at the expense both of the mdlik, whom they cheat with cooked accounts, and of the cultivator, who must pay for a fair assessment of his crops. The various forms of illegal cesses (dbwdb) described in the Statistical Account of Gayd District (Vol. xii., pp. 70-72), prevail also in Patnd. Other officials, who are all more or less under the influence of the landowners, come in for their share of these cesses. The gumdshtd has one or two paid assistants {bardhil), at each village under his charge. These men act as his lieutenants, watch the crops, collect money, and distribute the water from the reservoirs and canals. In each village there is also the gordit, a messenger who, though acting under the orders of the gumdshtd, is paid no salary like the bardhil, but receives instead a small portion of land, usually less than half an acre, which he is allowed to cultivate rent-free. VILLAGE INSTITUTIONS : THE CHAUKlDAR. 97 Where the rent of land is settled by estimating the out-turn of the crop, the landowner's establishment contains also an amin, or chief surveyor, a clerk (nawisindah), an arbitrator, (sdlis), and a chain-man {jaribkash) who measures the fields with a rod. These servants are all fed at the villagers' expense. The other officials, who are independent of the malik, are the jeth- rdyat or the village headman, who holds his office by a hereditary ten ure; the Brahman priest, who gets a percentage Of the produce at every harvest ; the sondr, or goldsmith, who is generally employed as dandi- ddr, or weigher ; the hajjdm or barber ; the carpenter, the blacksmith, the washerman, the tanner, and the tanner's wife who holds the office of village midwife. These officials are all paid annually at rates which vary with the state of the season, and the wealth of the culti vator. In returns, they perform their respective duties without making any extra charge for each particular piece of work. The Chaukidar, or village watchman, appears to have been con sidered in Dr Buchanan Hamilton's time as part of the village establishment kept up by every landowner. His first duty was to watch the agent's house ; and he received from three-fifths of a bigha to one bighd of land free of rent, and as much land liable to rent as could be cultivated with one plough. In some places, the allow ance of rent-free land was larger, but there was no farm. The vil lagers also gave him presents, as he visited all the houses at night and prevented stealing. The chaukiddr, or dosddh, as he is frequently called, because he is almost invariably a member of the Dosddh caste, is now expected to perform the impossible task of pleasing the landowner from whom he receives his pay, and at the same time serving Govern ment as an efficient policeman. The difficulty of his position has been freely commented upon by every local officer, and various reme dies have been proposed for its amendment. Sir George Campbell, when Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, partially introduced the system of chaukiddra panchdyits ; and there are now 26 of these village-unions for police purposes in different parts of Patnd District. They were nearly all inspected by the Collector in 1874; and he found almost invariably that things were not working smoothly, the law being equally distasteful to those who collect the tax, and those who pay it. In some cases the panchdyat was quite satisfied with the chaukiddr, and yet crime had increased. In other cases the reverse was the case. In other cases, again, the cultivators complained of the in crease in the number of burglaries ; but the landowners contended VOL. XI. G 98 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. that the villagers had forged the evidence in order to get the watch men into trouble. " In fact," as the Collector reports, " the chauki ddr, removed somewhat from his old position, has a difficult part to play. If he asserts his independence, the mdlik is down on him ; and if he is the slave of the landlord, the rayats become his enemies." The whole matter is now being investigated, with a view to deciding whether this new system should be extended throughout the District. The Material condition of the people in Patna compares favourably with the miserable hand-to-mouth state of existence in the adjoining District of Gaya, though the pressure of the population as compared with the food-producing area is equally great. Compared, however, with the people of Eastern Bengal, the agricultural classes, even in this District, are very badly off. The remarks of Mr S. C. Bayley (Commissioner of the Patnd Division) on the material condition of the people in Behar have been quoted in the Statistical Account of Gayd (Vol. xii., pp. 73-75.) Though his words apply generally to the whole Division, yet they describe with special force the wretched condition of the labouring classes of that District. There are several causes which tend to improve the state of things in Patnd. In the first place, the Railway which passes through the whole length of the District, and the Ganges which forms its northern boundary, facilitate trade, and thereby increase the material wealth of the whole popula tion. Though most of this wealth is absorbed by the trading classes, yet some filters down into the pockets of the cultivators. Secondly, the price of labour, though low, is higher than it is in Gayd ; while the primary wants of food, clothing, and shelter, can be supplied at an equally low rate. Thirdly, the extreme fertility of the soil gives in ordinary years a large return to the cultivator ; while in bad seasons, such as the year 1873-1874, the distress which might arise from the failure of the crops, is readily obviated by the facility with which grain can be procured and distributed over every corner of the District. The Census of 1872 has ascertained that the pressure of the population as compared with the area is 742 to the square mile, which is no doubt very great, and is one of the chief causes of the general poverty of the inhabitants ; but the mass of the people need not here, as in Gayd, look to agriculture as the only means of supporting life. The number of petty traders and manufacturers, congregated in Patnd and the other large towns of the District, is by no means inconsiderable, and is probably increasing. The pressure, therefore, of the rural population on the cultivable area is proportionately MATERIAL CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 99 diminished, and their material condition is so far improved. In the east and west of the District, away from the great towns situated on the banks of the Ganges, the average density of the population is between 500 and 600 to the square mile. To the south, however, in the Behar Subdivision, the density is greater, rising to more than 700 to the square mile. The condition of the cultivating classes and the low rate of wages paid for all kinds of labour will be referred to later (pp. 117, 119) The condition of the wealthier classes, and their manner of spending money, is thus described by Babu Bimold Charn,the Deputy Collector of the Behar Subdivision. "The Bdbhans, Rajputs, Teh's, Mdhiirfs and Kdyasths are the Hindu castes who generally possess wealth. Bdbhans and Rdjputs display their wealth by the number of elephants they keep, and the lawsuits they carry on in the Civil and Criminal Courts. Their houses are not improved, and they are quite content with one meal of mania bread or barley porridge in the day, and another of coarse rice in the evening. Their waist-cloths do not reach below the knee, and one turban serves them for years; yet they pour their wealth into the laps of law-agents and pleaders, till in nine cases out of ten that I have made enquiries into, they have been ruined by the lawsuits into which they rashly plunged. The Kdyasths display their wealth in spending large sums of money in drinking, and in offering dowries {tilak) on the occasion of the marriages of their children. It is rather a peculiar sight to see a rich Kdyasth at an evening party. On fine carpets, or soft mats, pillows of different sizes and dazzling colours' are arranged in rows ; pipes are placed near every guest, with garlands of beld or chameli flowers encircled round the long snake-like tubes ; the most odoriferous tobacco is kept burning in fashionable china bowls (chilam) with silver tops and pen dants ; and the most fragrant betel leaves filled with rich spices are chewed by every one. To crown all, the sweet-scented mahud wine is poured in coloured glasses of different sizes, and handed to the guests by boys or girls. Afterwards, goats' meat is offered in a separate apartment, and the feast is thus brought to an end. The marriages of this caste are celebrated with great pomp and ceremony. A man's wealth is measured by the amount of money he gives to the bridegroom as dowry {tilak), the number of elephants he brings with him in the marriage procession, and the quantity of fire-works he displays at that time. Whole fortunes are spent in these ioo STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. ceremonies ; and hundreds of families can trace their ruin to this source."* The efforts of Munshf Pidrf Ldl to check this evil are noticed in the Statistical Account of Gayd (Vol. xii., p. 77), but his success has as yet been very small. " The close-fisted MdMrfs and Telfs are the only persons by whom their wealth is not dissi pated. There are no ceremonies in which they are bound to spend large sums of money; they do not drink ; there is no disgrace in their living like beggars, though they may be masters of thousands; they are not fond of litigation. " Spendthrift Muhammadans combine all the frailties of the Hindu, enumerated above, with others peculiar to themselves. As soon as a follower of Islam comes into any property, his first anxiety is to adorn his person. This done, he looks to the embellishment of his house ; and then he attempts to outshine his friends in the number and grandeur of his retinue. Parasites crowd round him, and money is lavished in hiring concubines, buying equipages, and in giving enter tainments, &c." The Dress of the people in Patn4 District varies with their religion and occupation, and does not differ in any important respect from the costumes worn in the adjoining Districts of Gayd and Shahdbad. A single description, therefore, will suffice for all three Districts. The better class of Hindus ordinarily wear a piece of cloth (dhuti) fastened round the loins and falling to the knee ; and over this a long robe (chapkari) fastened on the right shoulder. On the head is placed a light skull-cap {topi); and the feet are encased in loose country-made shoes, with the toes curled upwards. Sometimes, also, a white scarf (chddar) is thrown over the shoulders. The material of the dress differs with the weather. In the hot weather, the robe and cap will be of muslin or some light cloth ; but in the cold season, English and American cloth is used for the robe, and the cap is made of velvet or some other warm material. A Muhammadan wears drawers (pdijdtnd) extending to the ankle, which are often loose, but sometimes very tight, instead of a dhuti, and his robe is buttoned on the left shoulder ; but in other respects, his dress resembles that of the Hindu. On state occasions, such as when their attendance is required at court, Hindus and Muhammadans dress alike. The head-dress now con sists of a flat turban (pagri), or occasionally of one twisted round the head {murethd). Loose drawers take the place of the dhuti ; and outside, a little above the waist, is twisted a long piece of cloth {kamar- band). Over the chapkan will be worn a looser robe {kabd), which DRESS. 101 is fastened so as to allow the chapkan to appear above the chest ; and on the feet, shoes of English shape often take the place of the country slipper. The kamarband is frequently dispensed with ; and in that case a loose open robe {chogd), reaching nearly to the feet, succeeds the kabd, or sometimes a shorter but tighter coat, called an ebd. A Hindu shopkeeper will wear a short jacket {mirzdi) instead of a chap kan, but in other respects his dress, though of cheaper materials, will resemble the one just described. A cultivator wears only a dhuti and a sort of plaid (gamchhd) which is thrown sometimes round the body, sometimes over the shoulders, and often on the head with one end hanging down the back. A corner of this cloth is often knotted, and used as a sort of purse for keeping spare cash, receipts, &c. The better class of cultivators wear the cap and shoes, but the majority do without. Inside the house, the poorer classes never wear shoes, but shopkeepers often use wooden sandals. The richer classes some times put on a loose coat {kurtd) instead of the chapkan, when they are at home. As a protection against the cold, the richer classes wear shawls (shdl) both when at home and abroad ; but the middle classes who cannot afford shawls, envelope themselves in a sort of padded cloak {duldi), or a coarse kind of shawl (dhusd). " The wrapper and veil in one piece {sdri)," says Dr Buchanan Hamilton, " seems to be the proper female dress of Magadha, as the women of the Maghaid Brdhmans use it whenever they cook ; but the petticoat (lahangd) and bodice {kurtd) from the West of India, has made great progress, and more than a fourth of the whole women would seem to have adopted this dress." This sdri is a long piece of cotton or silk which is wrapped round the middle, and contrived so as to fall in graceful folds below the ankle of one leg, while it shows a part of the other. The upper end crosses the breast, and is thrown forward again over the shoulder or over the head like a veil. The bodice (kurtd), which fits tight to the shape, and covers but does not conceal the bust, is in Behar as indispensable a part of the dress as the outer garment. In some cases, where a shorter sdri is worn, an under garment {tahband) is used to cover the lower part of the figure ; or sometimes, particularly among women of the Bdbhan caste, a skirt or petticoat {lahangd) is worn instead. Musalmdn women wear drawers {pdijdmd), which may be either loose or tight, the bodice (kurtd) and a sheet (chddar), which is put on in the same way as the Hindu sdri. They also frequently wear shoes, a custom which is looked upon as indecent by most Hindu women, though 102 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. low caste women, when on a journey, sometimes wear a leather sandal {kharpd) fastened over the foot by a buckle. Almost all women wear ornaments on their arms, neck, and ankles. Rings on the fingers and toes are very common, and so also are ear-rings ; and a ring or perhaps a jewel, attached to the nose, is frequently seen. Female ornaments vary, of course, with the wealth of the wearer, and consist of gold, silver, jewels, coral, brass, lac, bell- metal, lead, or glass. In Patna city the women do not paint much, with the exception of a red mark on the parting of the hair to show that they are married ; but in the country, most of the Hindu women, whenever they wish to be fine, plaster their foreheads with red lead. The custom of blackening the eyelids with a line of surma (a black powder made of lead) is common to all classes, but only low caste women, as a rule, tattoo their arms. The teeth are often blackened with a powder called misi, usually made of martial vitriol, gall nuts, and the nut of the Terminalia citrina. Both men and women use oil for anointing the head, and occasionally the whole body. Children under three years of age are daily anointed, if it can be possibly afforded. Certain classes are distinguished by peculiarities in costume. For instance, Sanydsfs or Sivaite monks, wear orange- coloured garments ; the followers of Ndnak, who never shave, wear an iron ring on the wrist, and sometimes on the head also. Some religious mendicants wear only a blanket, with a hole in the centre through which the head is thrust; while others go about nearly naked, with painted bodies and thick matted hair besmeared with dust and ashes. Dwellings. — As in the case of dress, so with regard to dwellings, the same style of architecture is found to obtain in the three Districts of Patnd, Gayd, and Shdhdbdd. Dr Buchanan Hamilton gives a good description of the houses in Behar. " The brick or stone houses are in general built in a very bad style, with stairs, doors, windows, and chambers miserably small and awkward. The greater part are built with clay for mortar, but have flat roofs covered with plaster. The small number of houses that are built of rough stones with clay mortar, despite the abundance of such materials, is a clear proof of extreme poverty. In most countries so situated, the meanest hut would be built in this manner. Houses with mud walls, and two stories, are called kothds. In Behar, generally, as in Bhdgalpur, they consist of only two apartments, one above the other. In Phulwdrf especially, I observed some large houses of DWELLINGS. 103 this kind. With care in smoothing and painting the clay, such may be made very neat and comfortable ; but externally, at least, little or no pains are in general bestowed on these operations, and the walls are more rough and unseemly than could be well conceived. Many of these kothds are tiled, and for people of easy condition such houses seem the best fitted in the present state of the country ; but others are thatched. In some parts, the terraces of earth, which serve for floors or ceilings, are strengthened by the addition of the calcareous concretion called kankar; and where it is abundant, this seems to be an improvement, as it renders the floor harder and not so easily pene trable by rats, snakes, and other vermin. Most of these kothds have wooden doors and window-shutters, but these are to the last degree rude, and are seldom if ever painted. Glass or even mica, although the latter is plentiful in the District, is quite out of the question. In the cities of Gayd and Patnd, the chief ornament of the houses con sists of carved wooden work in the front of the galleries, and in some few houses, both of brick and mud, this has a tolerable effect ; but it exposes the whole to the danger of fire, and should be discour aged. Some of the galleries are painted ; and amidst the dismal hue of naked mud, or slovenly brick walls, the gaudiness of the colours and tinsel, were they kept tolerably clean, would have a good effect, although the painters caricature the gods, horses, and beasts in the most barbarous manner. The huts here, although dark and close, and far from neat, with seldom any aperture but a small door, are so far comfortable, that having mud walls, they exclude both rain and cold, and are not so hot as those made of bamboos, mats, or reeds. Some of them are tiled, and have a clay terrace under the roof. The farmers and decent artizans have similar huts, but covered with thatch, and in the construction of their roofs they are exceedingly rude. Although of the shape usual in Bengal, they are too flat ; and the thatch which in that country is very neat, is here quite the con trary. The roof is commonly supported by the walls, and a ridge pole running from one gable-end to the other, and unless there is a gallery, has neither posts nor beams. Each hut usually consists of one apartment, 1 1 cubits long by 7 wide, to the front of which, if the occupant is a trader or artizan, is added a narrow gallery to serve for a shop. If the family is numerous or wealthy, additional huts are built. But an ordinary family, with all its effects, is usually squeezed into such a hovel, and a wretched shed for cooking, and a hut for the cattle, complete a small farmer's dwelling ; while the addition of a 104 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. second hut, and of a granary like a large bee-hive, forms what is considered a comfortable abode. Huts built with walls of hurdles are confined to a few of the wilder parts of the District. Even the huts shaped like bee-hives, and called maroki, have usually clay walls, and are chiefly occupied by Rdjwdrs, Musdhars, and Bhuiyds, all probably aboriginal tribes. The fence round the yard, contiguous to which are built the various huts of which a native habitation consists, is usually a mud wall ; and in most villages there is no space inter vening between these enclosures, nor is the area planted, while the thatch is not even defended by gourd leaves from the sparks of any fire that may be kindled. Fires are, therefore, exceedingly destructive. On the southern boundary of the District, the houses are usually sepa rated by small plots, which are sheltered by arbours of leguminous creepers, a good custom which ought everywhere to be encouraged. In ordinary houses there is scarcely any furniture except bedsteads, earthen pots, a spinning wheel, a rude knife-cleaner, and such like implements. Persons in easy circumstances add some brass vessels ; but carpets, chairs, tables, or anything like decent furniture, are confined to very few families indeed. Bedsteads are of the same description as in Bhdgalpur, and fully as common." Writing of Shdhdbdd, Dr Buchanan Hamilton says that, except in the greater rudeness of roof, there is no difference in the huts or furniture of that District to distinguish them from those in Behar. It may be noticed that very little is said of the interior arrange ments of these houses. They are divided, in almost all cases, into two principal divisions ; one for males, and the other for females. A rich native has generally two courtyards (dngan), each surrounded by verandahs, from which doors lead into the various rooms. The front door leads into the outer courtyard. On the left of this is a hall for the reception of guests ; and on the right are two or three rooms, of which one is generally used as a schoolroom for the boys, and the rest as bedrooms for males. Beyond this courtyard is another, surrounded by the female apartments. On one side are bedrooms ; and on the other the kitchen, store-house, and a latrine for females. There is also a sitting-room for the ladies of the house hold. The houses of the middle classes are smaller ; but are con structed on much the same plan. The female division will only contain three or four rooms, besides the kitchen and store-room; one for the owner and his wife ; another for the eldest son, if married ; and the rest for unmarried girls and maid servants. The younger FURNITURE. 105 boys generally sleep in the verandahs, outside the female apartments. Little or no attention is paid to ventilation, even in the better class of houses. All the rooms are jealously closed ; and the windows, if there are any, are raised much above the height of a man, and are so small that scarcely any light can penetrate into the room. Among the poorer classes there will be only one room for all the females, and an outer verandah or shed for the reception of visitors. The kitchen is always attached to the female room; and when the family is very poor, the same room has to serve for both cooking and sleeping in. Among Hindus, there is generally built a low wall as a sort of nominal dis tinction, but poor Musalmans make no division whatever. Where houses are built with two or more stories, the ground floor is used for kitchen, store-rooms, etc. ; while the other stories are divided into bedrooms and sitting-rooms. In large towns the lowest verandah facing the street is often let out to shopkeepers, while the family occupies the other stories. Furniture. — As regards furniture, a cultivator has none but the barest necessaries — a few earthen cooking utensils, and receptacles for water ; some pots and jars for keeping his oil, salt, grain, etc. ; an iron frying-pan (kardhi) ; a small oven (tawd) for baking bread ; and an iron spoon (kalchhi) ; a few brass utensils for eating and washing purposes ; a light stone mill (chakri) for splitting grain, and a heavy one (jdntd) for grinding flour ; two stones, one flat {sit) and the other like a roller {lorhd), for grinding spices ; a stone pot (pathli) ; a wooden mortar (okhdli) and pestle (miisal) ; one or two small bamboo receptacles (petdrd) ; mats made of palm leaves (chatdi) ; and a rough bed (khatid or chdrpdi) constructed of coarse string woven from straw, with a bamboo framework ; and one or two cocoa- nut shell pipes (ndrikel) for smoking. He has no chests or other receptacles for keeping ornaments or cash, which are commonly kept concealed under ground in the floor of his house, or in a jar or other utensil containing grain or the like. Grain is, however, generally stored in a sort of circular room {kothi), with mud walls and a mud cover. There is always a recess made in one of the walls, which is kept sacred for the household god ; but the god himself is often unrepresented, except by a mark of red paint. A shopkeeper has, in addition to these articles, some wooden chests (sanduk), one or two stools {chauki), a big brass jar {gagrd), a better style of bed with a wooden framework strung with jute string, a pair of scales with stone weights, and sometimes a brass pipe (huka). 106 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. Food. — Judging from the low material condition of the people, the food of the poorer classes must be expected to be scanty and of the coarsest description. " The cultivator's morning meal," reports the Collector, " consists of nothing but parched or boiled grains of various sorts, such as millet, peas, barley, and the like. He has no substantial food in the morning, and in the evening he takes boiled rice (bhdt), with ddl or pulse, and occasionally vege table curries also." The Collector is here evidently speaking of the better class of cultivators, for he goes on to say that the shop keeper's food is the same as that just described. Musalmdn shop keepers generally take two full meals in the day, and prefer rice to parched grains. They also eat meat, as well as vegetable curries. The Collector, in 1870, made two estimates of the current expenses of a Hindu and of a Musalmdn family, from which I have deduced the following results. The annual expenses of a well-to-do Hindu cultivator, whose family consists of six persons — himself, his parents, his wife, and two young children, are as follows : — Food, at Rs. 2, or 4s. a head per month for each adult — Rs. 96, or £9, 12s. ; food for the children, at R. i\, or 2s. 6d. a head per month — Rs. 30, or £3 ; for each man, four waist-cloths (dhuti), Rs. 6, or 12s. ; four cloths (gamchd), Rs. 3, or 6s. ; four caps (topi), 4 dnnds, or 6d. : two jackets (mirzdi), Rs. 2, or 4s. ; one turban (pagri), R. 1, or 2s. ; a pair of shoes, 4 dnnds, or 6d. For each woman, two upper garments {sdri), Rs. 6, or 12s., and two bodices (kurtd), R. 1, or 2s. ; for each adult, one wrapper (dohar) for the cold weather, Rs. 7, or 14s. ; total, Rs. 152, 8 an., or £15, 5s. The Collector has not included in his estimate the cost of the oil used in lighting and for anointing the body, or the annual sums paid for religious ceremonies, and to the barber, washerman, etc. These expenses would increase the total to Rs. 162, or£i6, 4s., equal to an average monthly expenditure of Rs. 13, 8 an., or £1, 7s. In the collector's estimate for a Musal mdn family, he gives Rs. 120, or £12, as the annual cost of the food for four adults, but the other items are much the same. The total annual expenses, therefore, of a Musalmdn household, consisting of six persons, would amount to Rs. 186, or £18, 12s., equal to an average monthly expenditure of Rs. 15, 8 an., or £1, ns. The Collector gives no estimate of the expenses of a poor peasant with a similar family. In the Statistical Account of Gayd District, (Vol. xii., p. 76), the monthly expenditure of a day labourer and his family is estimated at Rs. 3, 8 an., or 7s. In Patnd and Shdhdbdd this class is not so GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS : AGRICULTURE. 107 badly[off as in Gayd ; and we may take the annual expenses of such a family at Rs. 60, or £6, equal to an average charge of Rs. 5, or 1 os. per month, or about 4d. a day. Games and Amusements. — It has been already stated that the manners and customs of the people in Patnd District cannot be distin guished from those of Gayd and Shdhdbdd. The same games which are described in the Statistical Account of GaydT(Vol. xii., pp. 78-81) are played here. Chess {satranj) and draughts (chausar or pachisi) are played by the better classes. Vingt-et-un {naksh mar), rang mar, ganjtfa, and other card games, are played by all. Sorhi, played with 16 cowries, is the great gambling game, but other games of chance, played with dice or cowries, are very common. Boys delight in trap-bat- and-ball (gulidantd), or prisoners' base (kabadi); and, in the schools, they have taken very kindly to cricket. Musical Instruments have also been described at length in the Statistical Account of Gayd (Vol. xii., p. 81). They consist of drums such as tabid, dhol, mirdang, pakhdwaj, g&rdm-bdjd, mdndar, and mor- bdjd; stringed instruments such as sitdr, rabdb, sdrangi, isrdr, bin, and ektdrd; wind instruments such as bdnsuli, singd, munh-chang ; and miscellaneous instruments such as kartdl (castanets), manjird, two pieces of brass which are struck together, and jaltarang, a curious instrument consisting of brass pots filled with water, which are struck with a stick. Conveyances also have been described in the Statistical Account of Gayd (Vol. xii., pp. 81, 82). They consist of krdnchi, pdlki, bdrah- dari, dolt, ndlki, ekah, patanidgdri, rath, and sagar, for land travel ling. The river-boats used have been already described (ante, p. 28). Agriculture. — Before enumerating the different crops that are grown in Patna District, it will be convenient to give a general view of the staple harvests in each Sub-division. A special report on this subject was demanded from the Collector in 1873, at a time when there was some fear that the District would be afflicted with great scarcity, and possibly even with famine. A return was prepared, showing approximately the areas in each Sub-division that were usually under cultivation, and the kinds of crops that were grown on those areas. The following paragraphs are condensed from that return, which is dated 5th November 1873. In Bdrh Sub-division, which has an area of 557 square miles, and a population of 324,786 persons, giving a density of 583 to the square mile, the greater part of the area under cultivation is devoted to food 108 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. crops ; staples other than food, such as oil seeds, cotton, tobacco, &c, being grown to a small extent only. There is only one rice crop known as the aghani dhdn, which is sown in August and reaped in December. The other food-crops grown in the Sub-division are janird, gram, barley, khesdri, peas, maize, marud, kauni, sdnwdn, china, and kodo. In Behar Sub-division, which has an area of 792 square miles, and a population of 570,888 persons, giving a density of 721 to the square mile, three-fourths of the area under cultivation is sown with paddy ; one-eighth with peas, wheat, barley, &c. ; one-sixteenth with poppy ; and one-sixteenth with mustard, linseed, and cotton. There are three rice crops, the sdthi which is sown in June, and reaped after sixty days or so (whence its name) in August ; the black rice (silhati) which is sown in June, and reaped in October and Novem ber ; and the white or common rice, which does not ripen till November or December. The proportion of the sdthi and black rice taken together is about equal to that of common rice. In Dindpur Sub-division, which has an area of 132 square miles, and a population of 141,337 persons, giving a density of 107 1 to the square mile, about three-fourths of the area under cultivation is devoted to food crops, and the rest to staples other than food. Of the cultivated area nearly one-half is sown with rice, which is of three descriptions : the commonest or aghani dhdn is reaped in November and December ; and the kartikd or early rice is reaped in October. The third kind called boro is very little grown ; it is sown broadcast in November and December, and reaped in April and May. Of the remaining area, about three-eighths is sown with wheat or barley ; one-quarter with pulses ; and about one-sixteenth with maize. In the Sadr or headquarters Sub-division, which has an area of 620 square miles, and a population of 522,627 persons, giving a density of 843 to the square mile, about three-fourths of the lands under culti vation are devoted to food-growing crops ; the southern pargands being chiefly rice producing tracts, and those to the west and east being cultivated with rabi crops. About ten per cent, of the paddy lands grow the above-mentioned sdthi rice ; but the main rice crop is the aghani. The other food staples are bdjrd, jodr, gram, barley, khesdri, and ddl or pulse. In the whole District therefore, at least three-fourths, and perhaps seven-eighths, of the cultivated area (and there is not much waste land) is devoted to food crops ; while many of the other crops, such CEREALS: RICE. 109 as poppy, sugar cane, radish, sdg, and vegetables, which are. largely grown in the vicinity of towns, serve to provide a sort of food. The principal crops may conveniently be considered under the four heads of Cereals, Green Crops, Fibres, and Miscellaneous. Cereals. — Rice, which forms the staple crop of the District, consists of two great divisions : the kartikd or early rice, and the aghani or winter rice, each of which is again sub-divided into many varieties. A small part of the District is cultivated with boro, or spring rice, which may be regarded as a third division. The aghani or winter rice forms the chief part of the rice grown in Patnd. It is sown broadcast after the commencement of the rains in June and July, on lands that have previously been ploughed three or sometimes four times. After a month, or a month and a half, when the young plants are about a foot high, they are generally transplanted. Each plant is pulled out from the land, which is soft with standing water, and planted again, generally by women, in another field, which has been first ploughed and smoothed. The young plants are placed in rows from two to three inches apart. Rice that has not been transplanted gives a comparatively poor crop, and all the finer sorts of rice are therefore treated in this manner. Should no rain fall in September or October, and if the water gener ally procured from the artificial water-courses is exhausted, the plants will wither, and become Only fit for fodder. But if seasonable showers fall, the rice comes to maturity in November or December, and is then reaped. A second crop of khesdri, sometimes mixed with linseed, is often sown in October among the rice, when it is in flower (gdbh). At that time there is generally a little water on the fields. The seed is sown broadcast, and if it is seen to germinate, the water is run off so as not to injure the young crop. When a second crop has been sown, the paddy is reaped below the ears, and the stalks are left standing, to be afterwards used as fodder. The following different varieties of aghani or winter rice are men tioned by the Collector: — (1) Bdnsmati, (2) dorangi, (3) selhd, (4) rdngd, (5) khirdant, (6) dhusrd, (7) gajpati, (8) kajri, (9) siibd pankhi, (10) sabddyd, (ti) kapursdr, (12) dachhni, (13) shdmzird, (14) thd- kurbhog,,(i$) kdribdnk, which are all transplanted, and cut from November to January. (15A) Bdghd is sown broadcast and not transplanted. (16) kamod, (17) bdnsphul, (18) karanphul, (19) andr- kali, (20) ajnds, (21) lal-dayi, (22) dudh-bilds, (23) rdjaulid, (24) kishnzird, (25) kalkatid, (26) shdh pasand, (27) sukh dds, (28) amir no STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. pasand.. All these are of fine quality. The following are coarse or selah :— (29) baitarni, (30) pardsi, (31) dulgt, (32) senghrd, (33) sah dahi, (34) mdardahi, (35) bakol, (36) sib-ladd, (37) mansdrd, (38) anandi, (39) mandawd, (40) dulhari, (41) badherd, (42) kalongi, (43) w, (44) dtidhrdj, (45) gajmoda, and (46) 105,329 „ 6,264 J J 2,225 „ 5- Other saline substances (khdri, sdjji, reh), 204, 762 '! 48,080 ,, 6. Sugar, refined (misri, chini), 56,680 JJ 8,965 „ 7. Ditto, unrefined (gur, rab, shira), 38,463 3 J 375 „ 8: Wheat, 150,884 )) 73,9oo „ 9. Pulses and gram, .... 202, 126 3> 67,848 „ 10. Rice, 326,272 }J 10,526 „ 11. Paddy, 138,601 fj 5,250 „ 12. Other cereals, 134,167 >» 9,615 „ 13- Hides, I Md. 35 „ 38,271 Mds. 47i „ 16. Country thread (twist), 179 Bdis. 60 Bdis. 17. English thread (twist), 353 ))' 18. Dyes (safflower, dl, indigo), 7,o93 Mds. 844 Mds. 19. Iron, and its manufactures, 17,084 3,835 „ 20. Copper and brass, and their manufactures, 2,129 J} 336 „ 21. Other metals, and their manufactures, 1,422 a 658 „ 22. Ghi, 9,332 j» 7,5°5 ,, 23. Curry-stuffs and vegetables, 28,695 j? 6,838 „ 24. Spices and condiments, 43,685 ji 12,803 „ 25. Cotton (European) manufactures, 2,855,374 Rs. 443,95° Rs. 26. Ditto (Native) ditto, 30,653 »J 9,100 „ 27. Miscellaneous Native goods, 35o Mds. 28. Ditto European ditto, . 4,335 ) J 250 Mds. 29. Silk, and its manufactures, 130,401 Rs. 23,600 Rs. 30. Leather, and its manufactures, . 74,840 Pairs. 16,000 Pairs. 31. Timber, ...... 163,517 Logs. 4,076 Logs. 32. Bamboos, large, in number, 157,225 No. 33. Ditto, small, ditto, 1,525,3°° ,, 34. Cocoanuts ditto, 504,415 ,, 32,425 No. 35. Betelnuts, 8,629 Mds. 1,680 Mds. 36. Dried fruits, 5,575 632 „ 37. Fresh ditto, 38. Gums and Resins, .... 1,803 1,282 „ 39. Jute and other raw fibres, . 4,765 226 „ 40. Fibres, manufactures of, . 673,419 No. 411,820 No. 41. Stone, 16,665 Pairs. 2,300 Pairs. 42. Tobacco, ...... 9,398 Mds. 450 Mds. 43. Intoxicating drugs (gdnjd, bhang, &c), 265 44. Chemicals and medicines, . 6,509 2,119 Mds. 45. Lac, 1,026 138 „ 46. Betel-leaves, in dholes of 200 each, 14,200 Dholes. 47. Paper, in reams, .... 3,821 Reams. 48. Sulphur, 918 Mds. 49. Rattans, in number, .... 2,062,000 No. 384,000 No. 50. Mats, ditto, .... 241,575 ,, 72,000 ,, 51. Firewood, 229,850 Mds. 52. Hay and straw, in hundds, 240,550 Bdis. 53. Golpattd, in bundles, 191,412 Hundas. 54. Oilman's stores and liquor, 36,000 Rs. 55. Lime, "3,475 Mds. 56. Bamboos, manufacture of, 20,450 No. 57. Coals, ...... 1,600 Mds. 58. Mahud, 29,421 59. Kath or caoutchouc 1,901 2,718 Mds. 60. Miscellaneous, Grand total of weight of goods shown in maunds 10,504 • ' 3,675 ,, ! 5,166,856 ',525,827 COMMERCE OF PATNA CITY: IMPORTS. 159 " Imports. — The principal imports into Patnd are oil-seeds (I,I95,7°9 maunds); salt (232,605 maunds); saline substances, i.e., khdri, sdjji,&.c. (204,762 maunds); sugar, refined (56,680 maunds); sugar, unrefined, i.e., gur, &c. (38,463 maunds) ; wheat, pulses, and gram (202,126 maunds); rice (326,272 maunds); and paddy and other cereals (138,601 maunds and 134,167 respectively). Of metals and their manufactures, the total is — iron, 17,084 maunds; copper and brass, 2129 maunds; and other metals, 1422 maunds. Curry- stuffs and spices show a total of 28,695 maunds and 43,685 maunds respectively. Under the head of cotton manufacture, the values of which are given, the import of European cotton manufactures amounts to the large total in money value ofRs. 2,855,374, and the import of native manufactures to Rs. 30,653. Of silk cloths, con sidering the size and wealth of the city, the value appears to be comparatively small — viz., Rs. 130,401. There is a large import of gunny bags (673,419); and it is said that about two-thirds of these are re-exported with grain. With regard to articles of less value, imported mainly for local wants, the total of fuel and firewood is 229,850 maunds; of hay and straw, 240,550 bundles; of mats made of narkat reed, 241,573 in number; of golpdttd (known here as patah), 191,412 in number; of bamboos, large and small, 157,225 and 1,525,300 respectively; and of rattans, 2,062,000. There is a considerable manufacture at Gulzdrbdgh of pitdrds, or cane-boxes, which are made from rattans. The import of cocoanuts is large — viz., 504,415 in number; these are principally of the dry kind, and im ported as such for the shell, which is manufactured into hukds. " Irrespective of the imports detailed above, large quantities of salt, indigo-seed, and various other kinds of merchandise are im ported by rail, by merchants who have no agents or business connec tion in the city, and are residents of some other District. These articles are loaded into boats direct from the goods-sheds, and cannot be considered as forming a part of the regular import trade of the city. In a similar manner, there are considerable exports of goods which have no connection with any of the business houses in the city, but are landed into waggons direct from boats. These im ports and exports have been excluded from the statements that accompany this Report. " By far the largest importing mart is Marufganj, the merchants of which place may be said to possess a monopoly of the oil-seed trade of the city, for the imports amount to no less than 728,237 160 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. maunds, or nearly two-thirds of the entire quantity imported into Patnd. In respect to other staples also, this mart shows a large importation. Refined sugar amounts to 36,501 maunds. Mr Rattray was informed by a respectable merchant of the city that, since the opening of the Jabalpur railway line, a large portion of the produce of the North-Western Provinces, which used to be consigned to Patna, is now dispatched by that line to Bombay. Salt shows 66,420 maunds, and other saline substances 198,499 maunds. In cereals— there are, wheat, 100,643 maunds; pulses and gram, 47,295 ; rice, 104,052; paddy, 26,256; and other grains, 72,204. Curry stuffs and spices amount to 21,759 an(i 28,398 maunds respectively. A large supply of gunnies (519,180) is imported by the exporting merchants, chiefly for packing grain. " The next mart of importance is Mdnsurganj, lying immediately south of Mdrufganj. Being more of an inland mart, the supplies of Mdnsurganj are drawn for the most part from Patna District and other Districts to the south. The trade is chiefly in food-grains ; but the returns show also an import of 104,968 maunds oi oil-seeds, 56,873 of salt, and over 8000 maunds of refined sugar. The im ports of food-grain are as follow :- — Wheat, 29,868 maunds; pulses and gram, 78,046 ; rice, 137,824 ; paddy, 31,143 ; and other grains, 21,041 maunds. " Colonelganj, a river-side mart, stands next in order, with an import of 137,370 maunds of oil-seeds, 24,752 maunds of rice, 50,901 maunds of paddy, 21,029 maunds of other cereals, and 130,000 mats. These staples are brought almost wholly by boat from the Districts of north Behar and from Bengal. Other smaller marts for oil-seeds and cereals are Sddikpur and Mahdrdjganj. Taken together they show a total of 25,091 maunds of oil-seeds, 20,000 maunds of salt, 21,161 maunds of pulses and gram, 27,336 maunds of rice, and 6,146 maunds of ghi. Sugar, refined and unrefined, wheat, paddy, and other cereals, are imported in smaller quantities. Alabakhshpur, a neighbouring inland mart, shows a large import of oil-seeds, 62,206 maunds; and Arfdbad, which adjoins, 13,581 maunds; Gulzdrbdgh also gives 81,427 maunds of oil-seeds, and 11,976 maunds of unrefined sugar, 15,720 pairs of native shoes, and 1,800,000 rattans ; which, as mentioned above, are manufac tured into pitdrds, or cane boxes. "Omitting the imports into the numerous petty bdzdrs, there remains the central business quarters of the Chauk, connected with COMMERCE OF PATNA CITY: IMPORTS. 161 which is Mirchdiganj ; and further east the Kild, known as the cotton mart, for it imports 35,871 maunds of cotton out of a total of 38,271 maunds for the whole city. The import of salt is 40,810 maunds, and of oil-seeds 12,269 maunds. With the exception of 70 maunds of pulse, there is no trade in food-grains. All these marts have a distinct trade of their own. Of cereals there is a small import into Mirchdiganj, but none into the Chauk; in oil-seeds the latter shows an import of 5,600 maunds, and the former 11,860 maunds. The Chauk imports 15,740 maunds of salt and 4,500 maunds of saltpetre. This small quantity consists of the crude substance manufactured by the Nuniyd caste in the southern villages of Patna District, which is imported and manufactured into refined saltpetre for exportation by the one refinery in the city. There is also an import into the Chauk of 10,604 maunds of refined sugar. " The importance of the Chauk as a mart consists in the variety and value of its imports. The principal import is cloth, of which a considerable trade is carried on by the Mdrwaris. European cotton goods, chiefly longcloth, to the value of Rs. 1,804,250, for the Chauk, and of Rs. 932,000 for Mirchdiganj, is said to have been imported during the year 1875-76. The whole of this came by rail. Of the remaining imports, iron amounted to 7,363 maunds, copper and brass to 1,998 maunds, and other metals to 394 maunds. Of spices there were 10,448 maunds; and there was a small importation of native cotton manufactures to the value of Rs. 19,178. Of silk cotton, the Chauk shows an import in money value of Rs. 46,895, and Mirchdiganj Rs. 54,000. This fabric is chiefly used by rich natives on occasions of marriages and festivals. Under the head of " Miscellaneous English Goods,'' the value of which could not be given by the merchants owing to the immense variety comprised under that head, viz., umbrellas, knives, scissors, walking sticks, crockery, glassware, hardware, &c, the weight is shown as 2,705 maunds. At the Chauk there were imported 32,760 pairs of shoes of Dehli manufacture, and at Mirchdiganj 11,560 pairs. The last important article is cocoa-nuts, of which the Chauk shows the large number of 388,500. To this mart also there were imported 918 maunds of sulphur by two firms. " Before entering into an explanation of the figures it is necessary to explain the particular character of the import trade of the city, which alone can account for the heavy imports by river. There are scarcely twenty persons in the city to whom the term ' merchant ' VOL. xi t. 162 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. can be strictly applied— that is, wholesale dealers with head-quarters in the city and agencies at out-stations, who carry on an import and export business entirely on their own account. On the other hand, the bulk of the so-called merchants are properly speaking merely commission agents ; and the general practice is for bepdris to bring merchandise to these agents, at a storehouse, termed an arat, where the grain is sold, the agent, or aratddr, merely receiving a certain percentage. In this manner, a considerable import trade passes through the hands of the aratddrs into those of the wholesale exporting merchants. It is said that nine-tenths of the oil-seeds and food grains, when brought into the city, are deposited in some arat, where they are taken over by the aratddr on his own account at the then prevailing rates. Taking the trade as a whole, it may be laid down that most articles are passed on through the city from one mart to another. Thus, to take the important staple of oil-seeds, large quantities are landed at Colonelganj, where they are purchased by Mahdrdjganj merchants, who in their turn sell to merchants of some other mart, and so on till the goods finally reach the hands of the exporting merchants for despatch to Calcutta. " The following totals, which represent the aggregates of the mer chandise returned by weight only in the several columns of Table B, show the proportion of the entire trade of Patna city which is carried by the several routes : — Imports : by rail, 444,422 maunds (14 per cent.) ; by river, 2,078,090 (66 per cent.) ; by road, 644,344 (20 per cent.) ; total imports, 3,166,856 maunds, or 115,929 tons. Exports : by rail, 1,105,659 maunds (73 per cent.); by river, 395,315 (26 per cent); by road, 24,853 (1 per cent.); total exports, 1,525,827 maunds or 55,856 tons. " Possessing, as the city does, such advantages in the way of water communication, it is not surprising to find the imports by river so much in excess of those by rail and by road. Importers of goods, to whom time is of little consequence, very naturally select water carriage as being cheapest and most convenient; and there are of course certain classes of goods, such as bamboos, large and small, timber, firewood, hay and straw, rattans, mats and gblpattd, which, from their bulky nature and comparatively small value, will not admit of any other mode of conveyance. " The following articles show a larger importation by rail :— Salt, 217,831 maunds; iron, 9,527 maunds; copper and brass, 2,054 maunds; cotton piecegoods (English), in value, Rs. 2,855,374 (this COMMERCE OF PATNA CITY: IMPORTS. 163 is the total imported into the city) ; native piecegoods, Rs. 17,825 ; miscellaneous English goods, 4,335 maunds; silk cloth, Rs. 130,401; shoes, 74,840 pairs; gunnies, 561,047 in number; paper, 3,621 reams; mahud, 18,106 maunds. " The large total (2,078,090 maunds) of imports by river is made up of the following items : —Oil-seeds, 775,267 maunds; ' other' saline substances, 203,967 maunds ; sugar, refined, 55,695 maunds; wheat, 127,380 maunds; pulses and gram, 76,626 maunds; rice, 211,105 maunds ; paddy, 119,137 maunds; ' other ' cereals, 108,316 maunds; cotton, 23,544 maunds; curry-stuffs, 21,045 maunds; spices and con diments, 26,674 maunds; firewood, 229,850 maunds; and lime, 13,475 maunds. "By road, the largest imports are — Oil-seeds, 318,663 maunds ; sugar, unrefined, 14,563 maunds ; wheat, 23,043 maunds ; pulses and gram, 2 1 ,4 1 7 maunds; rice, 1 00,3 3 5 maunds; and ' other ' cereals, 22,191 maunds. These represent the imports from Patnd District and the Districts to the south of Patna, whence land carriage only is available." Marts from which the Imports are Derived. — The following paragraphs are an abstract of an elaborate tabular statement compiled by Mr M. Rattray, which enumerates no less than 86 places from which the Patna imports are derived, together with the quantities consigned from each. I regret that the exigencies of space prevent me from printing this tabular statement as it stands. "Oil-seeds, 1,195,709 maunds. The marts which contribute are numerous. Gaya sends 96,733 maunds; Ddiidnagar, 53,455 ; Arwal, 9,600; Revelganj, 183,975; Chhapra, 48,697; Darauli and Patiar together, 8,392 maunds. The town of Muzaffarpur sends 31,830 maunds; Lalganj, an important mart on the Gandak, 30,226; and Garsar, 5,400 maunds. Darbhangah District gives — for the town of Darbhangah, 11,785 maunds. From Shdhdbdd, Arrah sends 26,372 maunds ; and Sdsserdm, 2,000 maunds. Champaran District, which has good water communication with the city via the Gandak, exports from Bettia 94,502 maunds; and from Mutihari 3000 maunds. In Patnd District itself, the chief places of export are — Masaurhi, 1,081 maunds; Monair, 10,719; Behar, 61,141 ; Musta- phapur, 7,988; Pdlfganj, to the extreme south-west of the Sadr Sub-division, 11,400; Fatwd, a large river-side mart in the Bdrh Sub-division, and also a railway station, 11,569; Nawdda, five miles to the east and a few hundred yards from the river, 7,388 ; Hilsd and Atasardi, which collect the produce of the south-western 1 64 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. tracts of the Behar Sub-division, 35,451 maunds. From the North- Western Provinces, Cawnpur sends 6010 maunds; Bendres, 5,000; Zaumaniah, a railway station in Ghdzfpur District, 33,480 ; Jaunpur, 7000 maunds. The heaviest consignments are from the Gorakhpur District, viz., Gorakhpur town, 12,273 maunds; Goldgopalpur, 56,660; Barhej, 19,384; and Tewarfpattf, 15,360 maunds. Azfm- garh town supplies 21,300 maunds; Tilh'ara, in Azfmgarh District, 9184 maunds. Nawabganj, an important mart in Gonda District in Oudh, sends 178,612 maunds. From unspecified marts of the North-Western Provinces and of the Patnd Division, there is a total of 10,975 maunds and 32,525 maunds respectively. "Salt (alimentary), 232,605 maunds. — Almost the entire supply of salt, amounting to 220,616 maunds, comes from Calcutta by rail. Mir zdpur sends 9074 maunds; and Multdn in the Panjdb, 2880 maunds. " Saline substances, i.e., khdri, sdji, &c, 204,762 maunds. — The bulk of these saline substances is derived from marts in the Patnd Division, chiefly from the Districts of Sdran and Muzaffarpur. Chhaprd supplies 10,488 maunds; Patiar, 15,000 maunds. In Muzaffarpur District, Durid is credited with 65,565 maunds; Muzaffarpur, 10,432 ; Garsdr, 15,000; and Ldlganj with 70,435 maunds. The North-West con signments are from Jaunpur, 2300 maunds; Sayyidpur, 7207 ; Dindpur, 2000 maunds. The last two marts are in Ghdzipur District. Azfmgarh sends 3000 maunds. " Sugar (refined), 56,680 maunds. — The heaviest consignments of sugar come from marts in the North-Western Provinces, the chief of which are Barhej with 26,536 maunds ; Gorakhpur town, 4083 ; Say yidpur, 6793 ; and Azfmgarh, 4840 maunds. Of the marts in the Patnd Division, Chhaprd despatches 7725 maunds; and Patiar 3700 maunds. " Sugar (unrefined), 38,463 maunds. — Under this heading are. en tered gur, chud, and rab, of which Gorakhpur again exports the greatest quantity, viz., 14,876 maunds. Next come the following marts in the Patnd Division, viz., Muzaffarpur, 5000; Arrah, 4126; Gayd, 2590. " Wheat, 150,884 maunds. — Gorakhpur District again takes the foremost place, with an export of 26,000 maunds from Goldgopdlpur ; 8502 from Gorakhpur town ; and 7094 from Barhej. Another im portant mart in the North-Western Provinces is Azfmgarh with 13,000 maunds. In the Patnd Division the chief marts are Revelganj with 11,950 maunds; Chhaprd, 7710; Arrah, 17,042; Dindpur, 5431; Fatwd, 6220; and Hilsd, 6824 maunds. "Pulses and gram, 202,126 maunds. — The marts in Patnd District together contribute more than half the total. Of these, the COMMERCE OF PATNA CITY : TMPORTS. 165 chief are Masaurhf, with 11,140 maunds; Behar, 13,675; Musta- phapur, 12,360; Pdlfganj, 8300; Fatwd, 15,020; Nawddd, 6708; unspecified villages in the Bdrh Sub-division, 11,649 ; and Hilsd and Atasaraf, 30,822 maunds. From the North-Western Provinces, Goldgopdlpur sends 15,708 maunds, and Barhej 13,274. Surajgarha, in Monghyr District, sends 10,050, and Nodkhdlf, 7000 maunds. "Rice, 326,272 maunds. — Of all the food-grains, rice shows the largest imports. It has generally been believed that Patnd imports large quantities of this staple from the eastern rice-producing Districts of Bengal. A list of the names of the exporting marts, however, shows that a comparatively insignificant amount of Bengal rice finds its way into Patnd, and that nearly two-thirds of the entire quantity is supplied from the marts of the Patnd Division, while large ship ments are also received from the North-Western Provinces. The greater part of the Bengal rice that comes to Patnd, is unhusked and registered as paddy. The principal rice -supplying marts in the Patnd division are Gayd, 1 1,722 maunds ; Revelganj, 4889 ; Chhaprd, 7485 ; Muzaffarpur, 25,000 ; Murddf, 6000 ; Ldlganj, 6200 ; Darb hangah, 37,500 ; and Bettia, 5939 maunds. In Patnd District large quantities are brought in from the southern tracts, viz., Masaurhf, 6559 maunds. From the river-side marts in Patnd Dis trict, Behar sent 11,829 maunds ; Fatwd, 15,142 : Nawddd, 13,434; Hilsd, 29,514 ; Phulwdrf, 4756 ; and Mustaphapur, Pdlfganj, and Nagamosa, small quantities of less than 3000 maunds each. From the North-Western Provinces Goldgopdlpur sends 14,650 maunds ; Barhej, 37,525; Gorakhpur, 6504; Azfmgarh, 5761; unspecified marts, 27,000 maunds. Monghyr sends 11,640; Maldah, 3498; and Mochia, also in Maldah District, 5362 maunds. "Paddy, 138,601 maunds. — More than half this staple is supplied by Bengal Districts, viz., Mochia, in Maldah, sends 32,940 maunds ; Maldah town, 21,787 ; Dacca, 6861 ; Rdmpur Beauleah, 4200; and Rdmpur Hdt, 5000 maunds. The only mart in the Patnd Division which despatches any quantity, is Bettia, with 18,692 maunds. From the North-Western Provinces Gorakhpur sends 5757 maunds ; Barhej, 4075 ; and Goldgopdlpur, Nawdbganj, Benaul, and Azfmgarh, each less than 2500 maunds. " Other cereals, 134,167 maunds.— Under this head are included maize, oats, barley, and other miscellaneous grain; of which the two sorts of maize make up more than half the total imports. Revelganj sends 21,577 maunds; Bettid, 19,090; Hilsd, 11,917; 1 66 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. Goldgopdlpur, 8700; Barhej, 7,450 > Azfmgarh, 8206; and un specified marts in the North-Western Provinces, 9500 maunds.^ The contributions from eastwards are small, the only mart sending in any quantity being Bhdgalpur, with 2902 maunds. "Cotton, 38,271 maunds.— Almost the whole supply of cotton comes from three marts in the west, viz., Cawnpur, 5737 maunds ; Agrd, 2047 ; and Mirzdpur, 9826 maunds. A small consignment of 1302 maunds is received from Etdwah. "Iron, 17,084 maunds; Copper, &>c, 2129 maunds; other metals, 1422 maunds. — Metals in a crude state, i.e., not manufactured into articles, are shipped entirely from Calcutta; iron, 15,831 maunds; copper, 1854 maunds, and other metals, 1412 maunds. Gayd exports 992 maunds of iron, the produce of the hilly tract to the south of that District. The imports of 150 maunds of iron, 195 maunds of copper and brass, and 223 maunds of other metals from Mirzdpur, are of manufactured goods. " Ghi, 9332 maunds. — Nearly half the supply of ghi comes from Gorakhpur, 4302 maunds; next come Rdnchi with 2088; Gayd, 1533 ; Hilsd, 600 maunds. " Curry-stuffs, 28,695 maunds; Spices, ore, 43,685 maunds. — There are no particularly heavy consignments of curry-stuffs and vegetables from any one mart that need be noticed ; but the marts of the Patnd Division, and those in Bengal and the North-Westem Provinces, despatch about equal quantities. The greater proportion of spices and condiments is received from Calcutta, 10,302 maunds; Muzaffarpur, 12,063; Nepal, 7013 maunds. Of this, 7000 maunds consist of large cardamoms, imported by a Nepdlf firm in Mdrufganj. There are several small despatches from up-country stations, and one from Dehli of 2750 maunds. " Cotton piecegoods, English, Rs. 2,855,374 ; Native, Rs. 30,653. — European cotton manufactures are almost entirely despatched from Calcutta by rail to the value of Rs. 2,816,374, the balance being credited to two small consignments of Rs. 10,000 and Rs. 29,000 from Benares and Bombay. Native cotton manufactures amount to a much smaller total, the imports being from Behar, Rs. 9950 ; Cal cutta, Rs. 7000 ; and Cawnpur, Rs. 6500. " Silk, Rs. 130,401. — The two principal places that send supplies are Bombay, to the value ofRs. 85,300 ; and Bendres, Rs. 21,000. " Leather, manufacture of; Shoes, 74,840 pairs. — The whole of this quantity comes from Dehli, 69,420 pairs ; and Benares, 5420 pairs. " Timber, 163,517 logs.— Ldlganj, on the Gandak, supplies nearly COMMERCE OF PATNA CITY: IMPORTS. 167 four-fifths of the timber imported — viz., 130,000 logs. This is a re export from that place, having in the first instance been imported from the Nepdl tardi bordering on Champaran, from which District a further consignment of 21,439 logs was imported from Raxaul and Bdghd by Messrs Dear & Co., who have an important timber depot to the east of Patna city. "Bamboos, large, 157,225 in number; small, 1,525,300. — These bamboos come from the hilly tracts of the Patnd Division, and are floated down the Sdn and Gandak as rafts. The chief sources of supply are Mahadeva, 52,100 large 657,000 small; and Rohtdsgarh, 381,000 large and 378,800 small; and Gorakhpur, in the North- Western Provinces, 24,000 large and 30,000 small. " Cocoanuts, 504,415 in number ; betelnuts, 8629 maunds. — Cal cutta and Dacca send large quantities of these staples, the former 396,510 cocoanuts and 2585 maunds betel-nuts; the latter 74,119 cocoanuts and 5606 maunds betelnuts. " Gunny bags, 673,419 in number. — Calcutta supplies a very large number of these, imported by some half-a-dozen firms for their own requirements — viz., 489,787 in number. Smaller consignments are despatched from Muzaffarpur, 55,000; Darbhangah, 57,372 (said to be famine stock purchased from Government); and Raiganj, in Purniah, 62,560. " Stone, 16, 665 pairs. — These consist of hand-rollers and flat stones for grinding grain and curry-stuffs, and are imported from Benares — 10,000 pairs ; Mirzdpur, 4515 pairs ; and from Sdsserdm, 2150 pairs. " Tobacco, 9398 maunds. — Tobacco is entirely supplied from marts in Muzaffarpur District, Saraisa contributing the largest quantity, 4332 maunds. "Betel leaves, 14,200 dholis. — The whole of this supply is from a single mart in Muzaffarpur (Jarud). A dholi of betel leaves repre sents 200 leaves. " Sulphur, 918 maunds. — Sulphur to the extent of 918 maunds is imported by two licensed vendors in the city from Calcutta. "Paper, 3821 reams. — The bulk of the paper (325 1 reams) also comes from Calcutta, and is of English manufacture. Hand-made paper of native manufacture is consigned from Purniah to the extent of 370 reams; Darbhangah, 100 reams; and Arwdl, in Gaya District, 100 reams. "Rattans, 2,062,000 in number. — Rdmpur Beauleah in Rajshdhf District exports a very large number of rattans — viz., 1,800,000 — all consigned to the mart of Gulzdrbdgh for the manufacture oipitdrds. Next comes Bettia with 250,000; and Lalganj, with 12,000. 168 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. "Mats, 241,575 in number. — Mats of narkat reeds are consigned from Bettid to the number of 237,000 ; Colonelganj, 130,000 ; and Mdrufganj, 95,000. " Firewood, 229,%$omaunds. — Fuel and firewood are derived chiefly from the northern Districts of the Patnd Division — viz., from Ldlganj, 125,600 maunds; Muzaffarpur, 37,300; and Chhaprd, 40,900 maunds. " Hay and straw, 240,550 bundles. — The northern Districts also supply thatching straw in immense quantities. Ldlganj sends I33,°3° bundles; Hdjfpur, 37,220 ; Chhaprd, 29,000 bundles. Go rakhpur, in the North-Western Provinces, sends 23,000 bundles. " Golpattd, 191,412 bundles. — Golpattd, known locally as pattd, is imported from Districts that are covered to some extent with jungle or large forest trees. Bhdgalpur and Gayd send 111,480 and 76,584 hundas respectively, A hunda consists of 100 leaves. "Mahud, 29,421 maunds. — Bhdgalpur sends 5383 maunds; and Rdhorf, in the same District, 16,106 maunds. Gayd despatches 4335 maunds. There is no doubt that the District of Gayd, with its immense forests of mahud trees to the south, could supply a much larger quantity, if not the whole amount required ; but the expensive and tedious mode of conveyance along sixty miles of road will not admit of competition with Bhdgalpur, which has direct communica tion with Patnd by railway. " It remains to note the aggregate weight of goods imported into Patnd from the principal marts enumerated : — (1) Calcutta, with 364,395 maunds, a large proportion of which is salt (220,616 maunds). (2) Ldlganj, with a total of 241,786 maunds, more than half of which consists of firewood (125,600 maunds). (3) Revel ganj, with 231,671 maunds, of which 183,975 maunds are oil-seeds. (4) Nawabganj, with 184,489 maunds, almost all oil-seeds (178,612 maunds). (5) Muzaffarpur, with 143,920 maunds, made up of fire wood, rice, and oil-seeds. (6) Bettiah, with 139,236 maunds, chiefly oil-seeds (94,5°2 maunds). (7) Chhaprd, 131,814 maunds, of which 40,900 maunds are firewood. (8) Gayd, 1 30,292 maunds, of which 96,7 33 are oil-seeds. (9) Goldgopdlpur, with a total of 125,093 maunds, made up of the following items :— Oil-seeds, 56,660 maunds; wheat, 26,000; pulses and gram, 15,708; and rice, 14,650 maunds. (10) Hilsd and Atdsarai, with 122,937 maunds, comprising 35,451 maunds oil-seeds; 30,822 pulses and gram; and 29,514 maunds rice. (11) Barhej, 115,838 maunds; the principal items being sugar, 26,536 maunds; rice, 37,525; and oil-seeds, 19,384 maunds. This mart supplies nearly half the quantity of sugar imported into the city. COMMERCE OF PATNA CITY: EXPORTS. 169 (12) The twelfth and last mart, showing an export of over one Idkh of maunds, is Behar town, with 100,057 maunds, more than half of which is made up of oil-seeds (61,141 maunds). " Out of the twelve marts above-mentioned, as many as eight are in the Patna Division, three in the North-Western Provinces, the remaining mart being Calcutta. It is found that the marts of the Patnd Division show an aggregate total of merchandise exported of 1,241,713 maunds ; or, if the exports of the smaller marts be added to this, a grand total of 1,605,670 maunds, or more than half the total imports into Patnd City. The total consignment of oil-seeds from all the marts of the Division into Patnd, is 768,798 maunds; of saline substances, 186,920 maunds ; of pulses and gram, 131,385 maunds ; and of rice, 192,908 maunds. These staples form the most important imports into the city from this Division. The im ports from the three North-Western Provinces marts give a total of 425,420 maunds, of which 254,656 maunds consist of oil-seeds. The total of this staple from all the marts of the North-Western Pro ¦ vinces is 391,246 maunds. Exports of Patna City. — The export trade need not be con sidered at such length as the import trade, for, with the exception of oil-seeds and salt, the traffic of the city shows a comparatively small export. The most important article of export is oil-seeds, of which no less than 1,146,852 maunds was exported in 1875-76. The trade in this staple is in the hands of about a dozen mer chants. Two European agencies in the city — viz., Messrs Ralli Brothers and Messrs N. J. Valetta & Co. — export between them more than half the above quantity. Salt to the extent of 105,329 maunds, not quite half the imports, is the next most important item. Then follow ' other ' saline substances, 48,080 maunds, or about one-fifth of the imports ; sugar, refined, 8965 maunds, or about one-seventh of the imports ; wheat, 73,900 maunds, or nearly half the imports ; pulses and gram, 67,848 maunds, or over one-third of the imports ; cotton manufactures (European) to the value of Rs. 443,950 ; and silks to the value of Rs. 23,600. Gunny bags, 411,820 in number, are re-exports packed with grain. Rattan and mats show a respec tive total of 384,000 and 72,000 in number; kath or catechu, 2718 maunds, which exceeds the imports, the excess quantity being made up of the balance of previous years. " The railway has been very successful in attracting to itself the bulk of the export traffic. The total despatched by this route amounted to 1,105,659 maunds, the larger proportion of which con- 170 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. sisted of oil-seeds, 979,047 maunds; and next, but after a wide in terval, wheat, 60,209 maunds. Ghi, which is an article of some value, was exported to the extent of 7053 maunds. Of saltpetre the exportation was small, only 2225 maunds, and of hides nil. But these staples, as well as khdri, saji, &c, sugar and tobacco, are brought in considerable quantities by boat from the northern and western Districts of Behar, direct to the Patnd ghdt station, and thence despatched by rail. These exports are quite distinct from, and have no connection with, the city business. "The despatches by river show a total of 395,315 maunds; in which are included the following principal items : — Oil seeds, 167,805 maunds; salt, 80,028; saline substances, khdri, &c, 38,088 ; pulses and gram, 47,308 ; and kath (catechu), 2718 maunds, the entire quantity exported from the city. The other articles despatched were 16,000 pairs of shoes, 175,000 rattans, and 72,000 mats. By road, a small total appears of 24,853 maunds, salt being the only staple of which there is any quantity, viz., 9293 maunds. Cotton manufactures (English) and silk, to the value of Rs. 403,700 and Rs. 11,200 respectively, were similarly exported. "The total exports of such articles as are shown in maunds, amounted to 1,525,827 maunds for the city, or nearly half as much as the imports ; of which oil-seeds alone account for 1,146,852 maunds, and salt 105,329 maunds. Apart from these exports, there is a sort of indirect export trade by no means inconsiderable, chiefly in cotton, spices, English piecegoods, cocoanuts, and tobacco, regarding which the merchants were unable to supply information or statistics. By ' indirect ' exports are meant goods purchased daily in small and large quantities by the mahdjans and banids of the interior of Patnd District and of other Districts of the Division, which unquestionably do form a part of the export trade of the City. It is impossible to state even approximately the quantity thus exported, but it is known to be considerable. While staying at Jhauganj, to the north of which is a stand for carts, Mr Rattray noticed, during the two months he was there, that there were, on an average, about a dozen laden carts standing on the spot daily with a miscellaneous load of goods, which on inquiry from the cartmen he found were for the marts of Gayd, Ddiidnagar, and other places in the interior. In the same manner supplies for the northern Districts are taken away by boats. In neither case have the merchants been able to supply the information required ; they merely enter the quantity and value of the goods sold, and the destinations do not appear in their books. RIVER TRAFFIC STATISTICS. 171 Marts to which the Exports are Consigned. — The following paragraphs give only a summary of Mr Rattray's elaborate tables. " Oil seeds, 1,146,852 maunds. — The exports of oil seeds formed nearly four-fifths of the entire exports from the city, and were almost wholly consigned to Calcutta, viz., 1,140,460 maunds out of a total of 1,146,852 maunds, the balance being despatched to Bardwdn, 3370 maunds, and to Jangipur in Murshiddbdd, 2864 maunds. " Salt, 105,329 maunds. — The next important item is salt, of which 105,329 maunds were exported. The following marts received the largest supplies: — Barhej, 48,500 maunds; Bettid, 17,764; and Gayd, 9,017 maunds. Large consignments of salt, cotton piece- goods, and other staples, are booked direct vid the Bdnkipur station to the address of the merchants of Gaya, which do not appear in these statements. "' Other' saline substances, 48,080 maunds. — The marts of Dacca (14,792 maunds) and Bhdgalpur (11,030 maunds) show the largest imports of saline substances, such as khdri, sdgji, reh, &c, and then comes Calcutta (7450 maunds) ; but immense quantities are de spatched by rail from Patna ghdt station by merchants residing in the northern Districts, which do not appear as exports from Patna. " Wheat, 73,900 maunds; pulses and gram, 67,848 maunds. — A large proportion of the export of wheat "is to Calcutta (64,241 maunds), after which comes Dacca, with 4158 maunds. Of pulses and gram, the largest consignments were to Dacca, 21,747 maunds; to Calcutta, 20,566 maunds, and to Khagarid, in Monghyr, 9237 maunds. "English cotton piecegoods Rs. 443,950. — The export of cotton piecegoods is trifling, compared to the imports ; but, as remarked before, the indirect exports are very much larger, while large supplies for Gaya are carted away direct from the Bankfpur railway station, being imports from Calcutta for the merchants of Gayd city. The two marts of Muzaffarpur (Rs. 205,000) and Gaya (Rs. 181,700) show the largest imports from Patnd. " Amongst other articles of export may be mentioned 200 maunds of tobacco despatched to Bombay, and 250 maunds to Calcutta. This is prepared tobacco for smoking, for which Patna is noted. The remaining exports from Patnd are unimportant. "River Traffic Statistics. — Since September 1875, an accurate system of boat registration has been established throughout Bengal. The following table [pp. 172, 173,] which has been specially prepared in the Bengal Secretariat, shows the imports and exports of Patnd District, month by month, for the half-year ending 31st March 1876. Detailed statement showing the total River-borne Traffic of the District of Patna for the Six Months ending 3 1 st March 1876. Description of EXPORTS. IMPORTS. 1875. 1876. 1875. 1876. Goods. Total. Total value. Total. Total value. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb, March. Class I. Mds. Mds. Mds. Mds. Mds. Mds. Mds. Rs. a. Mds. Mds. Mds. Mds, Mds. Mds. Mds. Rs. a. Registered by Weight. Coal and Coke 108 2,002 1,825 264 430 198 4,827 2,413 8 650 2,415 625 1,175 650 1,775 7,290 3,645 0 184,410 0 Cotton . 1,039 1,308 1,928 3,88o 2,309 2,093 12,566 188,490 0 503 39 4,908 1,710 1,837 3,297 12,294 36 Do. twist (Native) 13 10 12 35 1,400 0 11 1 8 11 5 1,440 0 Do. (European) 30 33 4 67 3.35o 0 6,542 65,420 0 Chemicals and medicine s 2,164 897 1,489 1,010 1,060 624 7,244 72,440 0 286 491 1,272 748 1,950 1,795 Intoxicating drugs othe than opium Dyes other than indigo 100 18 21 42 181 14,480 0 ... 58,360 0 10,132,600 0 276 779 474 '989 533 709 3,760 18,800 0 2,027 690 1,424 2,114 2,362 2,655 46 11,272 Indigo . 200 291 500 1,100 2,001 418,200 0 19,175 26,752 4,483 207 50,663 Ditto seed . 700 45,223 30,473 '^578 8i,974 409,870 0 4,112 4,982 9,094 45,47o 0 Betel-nuts '"128 261 825 1,624 1,058 I,768 5,664 33.984 0 i,55° 325 1,011 2,071 2,941 i,i59 9,057 54,342 0 78,3io 4 Fuel and firewood 1,050 963 10,965 3, '56 2,210 5,600 23,944 5,986 0 26,216 27,631 99,987 62,111 55,927 41,369 3J3,24i Fruits, dried . 306 732 353 189 433 2,013 6,039 ° 988 472 330 45 1,835 5,505 0 Do., fresh, and veget ables 9,889 1,930 i,977 8,410 18,155 17,736 58,097 174,291 0 8,845 7,633 62,730 32,063 6,415 5,704 123,39° 370,170 0 342,088 0 48,868 12 Wheat . n,795 10,247 8,932 4,210 10,309 1,748 47,241 94,482 0 22,960 39,587 33.219 29,213 35.546 10,519 171,044 Pulses and gram . 4o,547 41,002 33,363 35,084 29,647 14,757 194,400 340,200 0 1,997 3,679 1,807 7,162 8,533 4,747 27,16946,982 27.925 256,976 157.649 Rice 10,596 13,209 15,065 26,830 21,532 30,795 118,027 236,054 0 23,702 39.433 42,744 51,671 72,257 513,952 0 157,649 0 561,137 8 380 0 6,681 0 43,616 0 6,000 0 Paddy . 376 220 357 710 891 444 2,998 2,998 0 7,232 11,952 17,342 30,923 43,218 Other cereals 19,079 16,193 18,950 26,160 42,014 !4.779 I37,I75 240,056 4 16,814 64,000 75,532 67.763 64,851 31,690 320,650 Gums and resins . 6 2 338 311 89 746 7,460 0 23 15 38 Jute and other raw fibre s 77 75 15 34 306 507 1,521 0 336 963 114 141 192 481 2,227 Fibres, manufactures of 40 1,515 2,154 1,409 5,"8 40,944 0 812 1,194 527 1,596 1,098 180 5,452 Silk, raw . . 4 3 3 6 8 24 14,400 0 ... 1 9 10 Horns . 205 9 5 219 2,190 0 Iron, and its manufac tures . 3,014 2,890 2,135 7,569 7,196 3,4i5 26,219 262,190 0 2,049 740 402 54 l.7°3 664 5,612 56,120 0 Copper and brass, and their manufactures 181 537 91 374 458 442 2,083 83,320 0 29 361 H5 122 go 5 722 28,880 0 Other metals, and their manufactures 4'3 282 415 949 607 288 2,954 44,310 0 2 1 65c 10 100 33 796 11,940 0 Lime and limestone 220 700 814 455 250 2,439 1,829 4 2,057 1,942 3,842 943 2,047 10,831 8,123 4 Stone 2,037 9°3 1,381 3,109 6,174 13,604 27,208 0 3,505 3,545 23,936 12,101 3,978 47,065 94,130 0 Shell-lac ' "116 8 131 31 47 16 349 10,470 0 61 57 28 22 34 202 6,060 0 Stick-lac 12 =97 15 58 113 495 7,425 0 8 160 168 2,520 0 Ght . 321 252 114 90 139 103 1,019 20,380 0 792 717 346 1,245 908 1,781 5,789 115,780 0 Oil Oil seeds Linseed "35 131 61 142 65 232 766 9,192 0 15 1 88 540 644 7,728 0 23,843 31,902 22,687 19,623 7,533 i,433 107,021 428,084 0 33,395 49,751 85,762 83,426 22,062 7,694 282,09c 1,128,360 0 Til . 10 22 220 252 756 0 150 806 646 100 1,702 5,106 0 Mustard 10,231 2,804 1,950 1,768 1,117 4,537 22,407 89,628 0 5,606 15,378 7I813 5,973 5,121 108,935 148,826 595,304 0 Castor 2,808 1,310 1,421 2,908 40 8,487 19,095 12 537 1,394 44c 294 205 2,870 6,457 8 Poppy 998 1,102 326 457 237 ... 3,120 7, 020 0 6,364 M.431 8,745 5,216 2,047 186 36,989 83,225 4 Salt .... Saltpetre 40,140 49,600 44,95= 44,885 80,966 44,966 305,509 1,527,545 0 3,660 17,455 4,i5o 14,294 4,897 3,150 47,6o( 238,030 O 250 1,050 80 993 237 2,610 15,660 0 24,302 25,615 30,765 15,435 28,175 150,425 902,574 O Other saline substances 9,028 8,806 14,368 10,217 13,233 9,006 64,658 161,645 0 22,606 3,757 15.884 14,99° 20,581 24,875 107,69; 269,232 8 Spices and condiments . Sugar, refined Sugar, unrefined . Tea .... Tobacco Liquor .... 4,014 i,599 1,943 1,960 3,830 3,445 16,791 83.955 0 4,131 3,697 5,660 5,200 6,75' 10,98? 36,427 182,135 0 1,603 1,035 1,272 532 662 368 5,472 65,664 0 10,497 '5,774 12,556 2,628 2,326 !3,430 57,2iJ 686,532 0 1,977 733 997 135 911 599 5,352 21,408 0 12,411 13,400 16,979 4,l63 10,401 10,132 67,486 269,944 ° 2,610 2,620 1 2,349 2 1,842 2,601 1J618 3 13,640 2400 68,200 0 3,107 3,231 1,278 632 7 2,076 51388 7 15,712 560 0 555 100 107 2 227 991 49,55o 0 16 16 32 28,353 Miscellaneous Total Class II. 6,805 4,479 1,968 5,666 4,566 48 23,532 23,532 0 5,522 4,961 3,822 4,347 3,893 5,808 405,867 28,353 0 205,904 205,686 199,438 262,303 289,895 175,246 1,338,472 5,356,165 12 249,255 401,597 57r,446 486,044 427,957 2,542,166 No. No. No. No. No. No. Total. Rs. a. No. No. No. No. No. No. Total. Rs. a. Registered by Tate. Horses, mares,ponies,&c. 2 2 14 19 2,177 Cows and bullocks , Goats and sheep . Other kinds of living 4 27 4 " 18 4 7 1036 300 0 72 0 1,124 1 632 417 4 45o 45 595 69 5,395 2,070 0 10,790 0 animals 15 6 10,002 10,023 20,046 0 2 14 2 18 36 0 Timber .... 454 5,714 38 2,328 483 857 9.874 463,952 0 1,978 2,447 617 4,000 8,304 BamboosCocoanutsGunny bags . Hay and straw in bundles Hides . Miscellaneous Total Class III. 600 2,600 76,634 39,i4i 53.5o8 67,864 240,347 24,034 12 3,405 231,705 495,562 94,5io 312,489 535,879 57,485 112,110 57.077 42,700 49,600 359.595 7,192 0 13,800 210,275 63,020 9,379 27,900 14,000 3,7^7 8 20,749 4 1,605 ° 54,214 1,648 57,654 1,050 2,150 34.775 375 133,578 23,900 222,547 27,475 48,960 5 129 0 36,665 9,73o 6^655 15,450 4,225 42,200 321,863 94,315 1,549 320 10,120 i6,757 43,i5o 320 150 2,288 129,380 4,576 0 2,215 IO 49,552 82,555 28,99233,569 86,8323r,4i8 193,160 110,394 121,544 35,682 45,888 2,672 525,968296,290 I,05^'936 0 21,592 13 571,677 11 Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. a. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. a. Registered by Value. Leather, and its manu factures Woollen manufactures . Silk do. Cotton (European) 400 3,370 3i,45o 4,9003,500 7,9072,548 300 5,892 900 4,604 8,960 59.213 0 11,718 0 3,800 0 35.75o 2,350 88 1,000 1,3631,500 37,201 0 3.850 0 1,000 0 manufactures Cotton (Native) manu 174,928 182,092 66,430 253,208 326,602 339,492 1,342,752 0 48,900 9,94o 2,250 62 61,152 0 factures Miscellaneous Native 6,573 34,992 19,730 1,200 875 3,615 66,985 0 5,5o8 12,060 15 380 1,350 ... 19.313 0 goods .... Miscellaneous European 530 35,475 16,702 16,440 26,558 23,421 119,126 0 2,300 92,363 16,715 i4,37i 4,822 24,141 i54f713 0 goods .... Miscellaneous Total Grand Total 1,021 340 15,095 5,022 7,43o 1,700 300 30,568 0 340 0 527 7 900 200 ... 1,634 0 187,162 307,504 118,639 2815,070 360,339 375,788 1,634,502 0 8,335 I9I>423 17,826 27,174 8,352 25,753 278,863 0 7,562,345 7 20,026,391 9 174 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. In Class I. (articles registered by weight), the exports for the six months show a total of 1,338,472 maunds, or 48,998 tons, valued approximately at Rs. 5,356,165 or ,£535,616. Of this total, esti mated according to weight, salt forms 22 per cent.; pulses and gram, 15 per cent. ; " other cereals," 10 per cent. ; rice and linseed, 8 per cent. each. Estimated according to value, salt again comes first with 28 per cent. ; then follow linseed, indigo, and indigo seed, each with 7 per cent. ; pulses and gram, 6 per cent. ; iron, rice, and " other cereals," 4 per cent, each ; cotton, 3 per cent. The imports in Class I. show a total of 2,542,166 maunds or 93,061 tons, valued approximately at Rs. 17,419,349 or ;£ 1,741,934, being nearly double the exports in weight and morejthan treble in value. According to weight, the order of the items is as follows : — "Other cereals," fuel and firewood, linseed, rice, wheat, paddy, saltpetre, mustard seed, "other saline substances." In value, indigo alone forms 58 per cent; linseed, 7 per cent. ; saltpetre, 5 per cent. ; refined sugar, mustard seed, " other cereals," and rice, 3 per cent. each. Class II. (registered by tale) shows a total export valued at Rs. 571,677, n or ,£57,167, 15s., of which timber constitutes 81 per cent. The value of the imports in the same class amounts to Rs. 2,328,179, 9 or^232,8i7, 19s., of which timber and hides each form 45 per cent. The value, therefore, of the imports in Class II. exceeds that of the exports by just five-fold. In Class III. (articles registered by value) the exports are returned at Rs. 1,634,502 0^163,450, 4s., of which European cotton manu factures form 82 per cent. ; the imports were only Rs. 278,863 or ^27,886, 6s. (about one-sixth of the exports) of which miscellaneous native goods form 56 per cent. The aggregate value of the exports during the six months in all three classes of registration was Rs. 7,562,345 or .£756,234, 10s. ; and of the imports, Rs. 20,026,391 or ,£2,002,639, 2S- showing an excess of imports amounting to nearly three-fold. The River Traffic of the Mart of PatnA for the first quarter of 1876 is shown in detail in the following table [pp. 176, 177], which has also been specially prepared in the Bengal Secretariat. The total value of this trade during these three months, including both exports and imports, reached the large total of Rs. 10,809,224, 5 or ^1,080,922, 8s., of which a little more than three-fifths belongs to the import side. It must be remembered that these figures are included in those shown in the preceding for the river traffic of the RIVER TRAFFIC OF PATNA CITY. 175 entire District during the six months ending March 1876. It is impossible, for many reasons, to bring them into comparison with the results of the enquiries conducted by Mr Rattray, which have been given on a previous page. The experience of one quarter can not be extended to the whole year. It has been stated also that Mr Rattray's figures apply only to the trade actually conducted in the regular Patnd bdzdrs ; whereas the registration system of Govern ment includes all traffic that is sent direct from the boats to the railway station and vice versa. [Detailed Statement. Detailed Statement showing the total River-Borne Traffic of the Mart of Patna during the Quarter of the Year ending 3 ist March 1876. EXPPRTS. Imports. Description of Goods. Jan. Feb. March. Total. Value. Jan. Feb. March. Total. Value. Class I. Registered by Weight. Mds. Mds. Mds. Mds. Rs. A. Mds. Mds. Mds. Mds. Rs. A. Coal and coke .... 264 460 198 922 461 O 60O 400 1,775 2,775 1,387 8 Cotton .... 3,889 2,3°9 2,093 8,291 124,365 O I,7lO 1,837 3,297 6,844 I02,66o O Ditto twist (native) IO 12 22 880 O II 5 16 640 O Ditto (European) . 33 4 37 1,850 O 5 5 250 O Chemicals and medicines 1,010 1,060 624 2,694 26,940 0 697 1,045 1,750 3,492 34,920 O Intoxicating drags other than opium 21 42 63 5,040 0 2,239 2,315 2,555 7,109 568, 720 O Dyes other than indigo 1,130 533 709 2,372 II,86o O 24 24 120 O Indigo ..... 500 1,100 1,600 320,000 O 4,620 200 "46 4,866 973,200 O Ditto seed .... 12,715 3°,473 5,578 48,766 243,830 O 3,870 4,982 8,852 44,260 O Betel-nuts .... 1,624 1,058 1,768 4,450 26, 70O O 2,071 2,3H 658 5,°43 30,258 O Fuel and firewood 3,15° 2,281 5,600 11,037 2,759 4 6l,l6l 53,002 4J,369 155,532 38,883 O Fruits, dried .... 353 189 433 975 2,925 0 295 30 325 975 0 Ditto, fresh, and vegetables 8,128 i8,755 17,196 44,o79 132,237 0 32,063 6,415 5,704 44,182 132,546 0 Wheat ..... 959 8,119 1,182 10,260 20,520 0 27,067 34,206 10,519 71,792 143,584 0 Pulses and gram 21,511 22,126 13,645 57,282 100,243 S 6,792 7,823 4,209 18,824 32,942 0 Rice ..... 26,830 17,315 3°>795 74,940 149,880 0 47,86o 72,119 27,169 147,148 294,296 0 Paddy ..... 710 444 i,i54 i,i54 0 15,982 31,676 46,982 94,640 94,640 0 Other cereals .... 26,160 37,985 13,679 77,824 136,192 0 47,942 55,646 31,690 135,278 236,736 8 Gums and resins 338 3n 89 738 7,38o 0 15 15 150 0 Jute and other raw fibres 306 306 918 0 481 481 1,443 0 Fibres, manufactures of i,37i i,37i 10,968 0 "683 120 803 6,424 0 Silk, raw .... '" 6 '" 8 14 8,400 0 Iron and its manufactures 7,569 7,196 3,4i5 18,180 181,800 0 54 1,703 564 2,321 23,210 0 Copper and brass, and their manufactures 374 458 442 1,274 50,960 0 122 90 5 217 8,680 0 Other metals, and their manufactures . 949 607 287 1,843 27,645 0 10 IOO 33 143 2,145 ° Lime and limestone 455 250 705 528 12 3,842 943 2,047 6,832 5,124 0 Stone 1,381 3,109 6,174 10,664 21,328 0 23,686 I2,IOI 3,978 39,765 79,53o 0 Shell-lac 3« 87 16 134 4,020 0 28 34 62 1,860 0 Stick-lac 60 58 "3 231 3,465 0 8 160 168 2,520 0 Ghi 34 25 103 162 3,240 0 1,069 758 1,781 3,608 72,160 0 OU 128 5,612 232 5,972 71,664 0 1 88 540 629 7,548 0 Oil-seeds : Linseed 19,623 i,433 21,056 84,224 0 83,741 21,982 7,694 "3,417 453,668 0 Til . 558 220 778 3,334 0 886 646 100 1,632 4,896 0 RIVER TRAFFIC OF PATNA CITY. 177 ONttOOOOOOOO O TTNOOiONiOOOOOOin CO nhtpij-i^wi-ii-ioolow :>h 0" hTvo" t?oo" i-T i^ inoo" OS ' Tp 00 hO\hioO NOO CO m Tt Tj- M IH M 0 Os CO in < in OOOOvOmOOOco HI HI 0 Tt oi tJ- r*. in covo 0 os . !>. 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M M CO CO0" vO CO Tt O vo incocoo « ion « invo Os m N co OsOO vo CO CO OsCO vO Os 0] O OS Tt Os m hi in v© in os h? hT in Tt CO OS0 co" 0 N d M 00VO00 w N O Tp hi 01 TpCO 10 .VO ; co 11 os : m : £v- N*\o"vO* ' of ' vo" coin m w 0 CO 0 O O OsO O O Tt CO ^00 OS 01 M Tt CO Ph in co h? vo* tC in hi 01 0OS Tt CO 01 O 1-3 w £ o in +-> 3 S a 8 - a S 2 • o ^3 C a a u 1. w C . O t« cl x O. 3 'X ,v .° ^3S 1—1 ^ ponies cks ing am to < ?J S? 1 0 •a res, ullo hee fliv ^ 1 s,ma and b ands nds0 5! a 2.* n fe & M t. s H < OH 0 H changes had been made in the administration of justice. In 1831, the Judge-Magistrate was given increased powers as a Sessions judge, while his magisterial powers were made over to the Collector, and the present unit of administration was thus created. This union was, however, only temporary; in 1845, the offices of Magistrate and Collector were separated, to be again reunited by the order of the Secretary of State, dated 14th April 1859. Revenue and Expenditure. — The gross revenue and expendi ture for the years 1850-51, 1860-61, and 1870-71 has been supplied to me by the Collector in the District balance sheets ; but they con tain so many mere items of accounts and transfer (such as deposits and remittances) that their totals entirely conceal the real facts. To reproduce such lists without eliminating the items of account would be simply misleading. I give, therefore, tables for the years 1850, i860, and 1870, which have been corrected to the best of my ability. From these tables it appears that the net revenue has risen from £159,748 in 1850 to £164,393 in i860, and subsequently to £230,998 in 1870. The civil expenditure also rose from £47,459 in 1850 to £81,054 in i860, but fell to £72,228 in 1870. It should, however, be remembered that Patnd District, in i860, did not include the Sub division of Behar ; so that any comparison between the years i860 and 1870 does not accurately show the real change in the revenue and expenditure during those ten years. [Corrected Balance-Sheet. 1 84 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. Corrected Balance-Sheet of PatnA District for the Year 1850-51. Revenue. Expenditure. £ S. D. £ s. D. 1. Land Revenue, 121,596 8 0 1. Post-office, . 457 H ° 2. Excise, . . 23,483 19 0 2. Judicial charges, 30,380 12 0 3. Post-office, . 2,178 10 0 3. Interest Government 4. Superintendent of Loan Promissory Stamps, . . 8,696 8 0 Note, . . 1,886 6 0 5. Judicial charges, 24 5 ° 4. Revenue charges, 1,336 8 0 6. Revenue charges, 1 5 8 0 5. Pension drawn, 9,H3 6 0 7. Opium office, . 96 2 0 6. Superintendent of 8. Section of the Coun stamps, . . 533 1 0 cil of Education, 65 1 0 7. Charges of the Gene 9. Court of Wards, 1 3 0 ral Department, 3,009 12 0 10. Profit and loss, . 3,591 12 0 8. Law charges general, 90 12 0 9. Section of the Coun cil of Education, 602 10 0 10. Profit and loss, . 18 19 0 Total, . £ 159,748 16 0 Total, . .£47,459 ° ° Corrected Balance-Sheet of Patna District for the Year 1860-61 Revenue. D. Expenditure. £ s. £ S. D. 1. Land Revenue, 118,926 6 O 1. Superintendent of 2. Excise, . . 26,880 15 O stamps, . . 911 19 0 3. Fisheries, . . 29 0 O 2. Charges general of 4. Superintendent of the General De stamps, . . 13)559 10 0 partment, . . 36,721 4 0 5. Charges general of 3. Judicial charges, 23,295 4 0 the General De 4. Revenue charges, 8,549 7 0 partment, . m 5 O 5. Profit and loss 6. Judicial charges, 2415 0 O (mutiny), . 270 19 0 7. Revenue charges, 9 16 O 6. Profit and loss, . 246 2 0 8. Mdlikdnd, . . 2,460 2 O 7. Charges of the Re 9. Sheriff fees, . 2 0 O venue Department, 122 15 0 8. Pension drawn, 7,701 19 0 9. Mutiny, . . 321 9 0 10. Charges of attached estates, . . 76 10 0 11. Mdlikdnd, . . 2,527 2 0 12. Lieutenant-Gover nor's tour, . 309 10 0 Total, . ,£164,393 H O Total, . £81,054 0 0 Corrected Balance-Sheet of PatnA District for the Year 1870-1871. Revenue. 1. Land revenue, .... 2. Excise revenue, .... 3. Income-tax,*. . . . • 4. Income-tax realised from establishment of Examining Engineer, Dindpur, 5. Law and justice, .... 6. Stamp revenue, .... 7. Sale proceeds of Stamp Act, 8. Sale of intestate property of Judge's Court, 9. Fees realised for granting licence for stage carriages, .... 10. Sale of empty boxes, . 1 1. Sale of confiscated opium and liquor 12. Rent of houses and land adjoining the Patnd City Burial-ground, from April 1869 to November 1870, 13. Post Office,* 14. Jail manufactures (net profits),* . Total, £150,798 15 36,019 15 15,653 6 20 o 4,973 17 19,604 o 1 12 39 ° 3 o 2 11 o 14 1 13 3,786 13 90 6 £230,998 8 5 Expenditure. Land revenue, a'28° Law and justice, 16,785 Post Office, 1.814 Territorial and political pension, . . 4,98° Superannuation pension, . . . 1,652 Police pension, J93 Interest, 2,848 General fund (mdlikdnd), . . ¦ 1,262 Commissioner's Office, . . • 4,947 Excise Department, .... 2,005 Income-tax Department, . . - 77& Telegraph Department, . . • 1,675 Ecclesiastical Department, . . . i,522 Medical and Meteorological Department, 1,264 Reward to informers, .... 14 Land revenue (mdlikdnd), ... 5 Reward for killing wolves, ... 7 Police,* 13.506 Jails (Mithdpur and Dehri),* ¦ • 5,419 Post Office ,* i,7°7 Education* 3,6i9 ooooooo . o o o ooooooo o o 5 8 Total, £72,228 12 1 These items are taken from the departmental reports. 1 86 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. Land Revenue. — The land tax is by far the most important item of revenue in Patnd, as in the rest of Bengal. In 1870-187 1, it formed 43 per cent, of the total revenue of the District. The peculi arities of the land tenure in Behar generally formed the subject of a special report by Mr D. J. M'Neile, C.S., to the Government of Bengal, dated 17th October 1871. He found that the land system of Behar materially differs from that of Bengal, in virtue of the small average size of estates in most of the Districts ; in the large num ber of ousted proprietors, who subsist on the mdlikdnd allowance made to them by the State from the revenues of their former proper ties ; and in the prevalence of the short-term farming system among the land-holders. The average area of the estates in Patnd District is only 223 acres; and this comparative smallness of the estates is due partly, though not wholly, to the batwdrd (partition) law, Regu lation XIX. of 1814. But before the passing of that law, so long ago as 1789, Mr Shore remarked on the insignificant size of the Behar estates, and the poverty of their owners. Though the estates are now even smaller than they were, it is a remarkable fact that they have increased in value. The total Government revenue of 18 par gands nearly conterminous with the present District of Patnd, as assessed in 1790, was £101,376. In 1850 it had risen to £121,352; and in 1870-1871 it amounted to £150,798, or 50 per cent more than assessment of 1790-91. In addition to this, it is to be observed that the disproportion between the rental and the Government revenue is at the present day notoriously much greater in Behar than in Bengal — a fact of which abundant confirmation is supplied by the prices at which estates sold for arrears of revenue are commonly purchased, and (though this is a less certain test) by the sums awarded as compensation for lands taken for public purposes. This large increase of rental is probably due, partly to original under assessment, and partly to the extension of cultivation. The en hancement of revenue is largely attributable to the resumption and assessment of invalid Idkhirdj, or rent-free tenures. To give some idea of the disproportion between the rental and the Government revenue, I may refer to a note taken in 1875 by Mr S. C. Bayley, the Commissioner of the Patnd Division. In going through some undisputed batwdrd cases, he put down in each case the proportion of the landowners' assets to the Government revenue. The land owners' assets as entered in the accountant's books (jamdbandi) are never likely to exceed 50 per cent, of the gross assets. The results SUB-DIVISION OF ESTATES. 187 were that, out of six cases in Patnd District, the assets in three were more than treble the Government revenue; in two they were between five and ten times ; and in one they were eleven times the total amount payable to Government. The Sub-Division of Estates is as remarkable as the increase in their value. In 1790, there were 1232 separate estates on the rent-roll of Patnd District, as then constituted, held by 1280 registered proprie tors or coparceners paying revenue direct to Government ; the total land revenue amounted to 400,092 sikkd rupees, or £43,343, 6s. In 1800, the number of estates had already increased to 1813, the pro prietors to 1976, and the land revenue to 464,726 sikkd rupees, or £50,280, 6s. In 1850, when the area of the District had been con siderably increased, there were 4795 estates, and 25,600 registered proprietors; the land revenue amounted to £121,352, 14s.; or an average payment of £25, 6s. 2d. from each estate, and of £4, 14s. 9d. from each individual proprietor or coparcener. In 1866, the Sub division of Behar, containing 796 estates, was attached to Patnd ; and in 1869, 19 estates were transferred from Patnd to Tirhut. Including a net total of 777 new estates, obtained by these changes, the number of estates on the rent-roll of the District amounted in 1870-7 1 to 6075. The number of registered proprietors had increased to 37,500, and the land revenue to £150,798, 15s.; or an average payment of £24, 16s. 4d. from each estate,'and of £4, os. 5d. from each individual proprietor or coparcener. Allowing for the increase in the size of the District by the addition of the Behar Subdivision, the number of estates under the Patna Collectorate has quadrupled since the original assessment in 1790 ; the Government land revenue has more than trebled; and where there was formerly one proprietor, there are now probably twenty. I have no figures to show the increase in the value of each estate during the same period, but there is reason to believe that the increase has been large in all cases, and may amount in some instances to more than fifty times the estimated rental of 1790. The MAlikana System dates from a period long anterior to the Permanent Settlement. Mr Shore, in his minute of 1789, already quoted, stated that he had in vain endeavoured to trace its origin ; but he supposed it " to have arisen from the custom established in that Province (Behar) of dividing the produce between the cultivator and Government, in order to afford the proprietor of the soil a pro portion of the produce, which, under such an usage strictly enforced, he could never receive without some authorized allowance in his 1 88 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. favour." In other words, those " proprietors," who were in receipt of mdlikdna, in Mr Shore's time, had been already shelved with hereditary pensions, amounting to a certain per centage of the rental of their estates, rental and revenue being then synonymous. For we farther learn from the same author that " the lands of Behar have from time immemorial been let to farm, and no general Settlement, as far as we can trace, since the acquisition of the Diwdni, has been concluded between the Government and the real proprietors of the soil." The Permanent Settlement, having been made with the actual proprietors, put an end to this system throughout the estates which were brought under assessment, except in those cases where the pro prietors declined the terms offered them, and preferred to remain out of possession. Such proprietors continued, as in other parts of Bengal, to receive mdlikdna allowances. But there were, besides, extensive lands in Behar, in which the Government share of the rental had been alienated by royal and other grants. The proprietors of these rent-free (Idkhirdj) tenures were in receipt of mdlikdna from the Idkhirdj ddrs ; and when sub sequent resumption-operations were carried out, and a large number of these Idkhirdj estates were assessed to the public revenue, the lakhirdjddrs remaining in possession, the mdlikdna previously due from them was added to the Government revenue, with which they were assessed, and has since been paid to the mdliks from the treasury by the Collector. Protection to Person and Property has been steadily rendered more complete. In 1850, there were seven Magisterial, and fourteen Civil and Revenue Courts in Patnd District. For 1862, the same numbers are given; but in 1870 the number of Magisterial Courts had increased to ten. The number of Covenanted officers at work in the District throughout the year was five in 1850 ; four in 1862; and five again in 1870. Rent Suits. — The number of rent cases instituted under the pro visions of Act X. of 1859, the Rent Law of Bengal, or Acts based upon it, are returned by the Collector as follows : — In 1861-1862, 599 original suits, with 587 miscellaneous applications; in 1862-63, 859 original suits, and 641 miscellaneous applications; in 1866-1867, 1532 original suits, and 1880 miscellaneous applications; and in 1868- 1869, 998 original suits, and 1041 miscellaneous applications. It appears therefore, that rent-suits have somewhat increased of late years; but their number is still remarkably small as compared with the POLICE STATISTICS. 189 Districts of Eastern Bengal. For instance, in 1868-69, the number of original suits instituted in Jessor District was 8400, or more than eight times the number given for Patnd; and the miscellaneous applications amounted to 35,352, or more than thirty times the num ber in Patnd. Police Statistics. — The earliest year for which the Collector furnishes any Statistics is 1832. In that year there were in Patnd District 473 footmen, and 57 native officers ; and the cost of the District Police, from the rank oijamdddr and upwards, was £951, 12s. In 1840, there were 521 footmen, 4 horsemen, and 67 officers; and the annual cost was £1291, 18s. In i860, there were 525 footmen, 4 horsemen, and 71 officers ; and the cost was £2986, 16s. There are no trustworthy records showing the number of the village watch in Patnd before the year 1865-66, when the number was 7184. The District of Patnd is now divided into fifteen police circles or thdnds. The machinery for protecting person and property consists of the Regular or District Police, the Municipal Police, and the Village Watch, or rural constabulary. The Regular Police consisted of the following strength at the end of 1872 : — 3 superior European officers, consisting of a Dis trict Superintendent, and 2 Assistant Superintendents, with a total salary of Rs. 1300 a month, or £1560 a-year; 8 subordinate officers on upwards of Rs. 100 a-month, or £120 a-year, and 112 officers on less than Rs. 100 a-month, or £120 a-year, maintained at a total cost of Rs. 3915 a-month, or £4698 a-year, equal to an average ofRs. 32, 10 a-month, or £39, 3 s. a-year for each subordi nate officer ; and 986 foot police constables, maintained at a total cost of Rs. 6286 a-month, or £7543, 4s. a-year, equal to an average pay of Rs. 6, 6 a-month, or £7, 13s. a-year for each man. The other expenses- connected with the Regular Police, are an average of Rs. 150 a-month, or £180 a-year, as travelling expenses for the Dis trict Superintendent ; Rs. 170, 8 a-month, or £204, 12s. a-year, as pay and travelling allowances for his office establishment ; and an average of Rs. 1492, 14, 8 a-month, or £1791, 10s. a-year for con tingencies and all other expenses ; bringing up the total cost of the Regular Police of Patnd in 1872, to Rs. 13,314, 6, 8 a-month, or a total for the year of £15,977, 6s. ; total strength of the force, 1 1 09 officers and men. The present area of Patnd District is 2101 square miles ; and the population, as ascertained by the Census of 1872, is 1,559,638. According to these figures, there is 1 policeman 190 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. to every 1-89 square miles of the District area, and 1 to every 1407 of the population. The annual cost of maintenance of the force is equal to Rs. 76, o, 8, or £7, 12s. id. per square mile of the Dis trict area, and Rs. o, 1, 7, or nearly 2|d. per head of the population. The Municipal Police consisted at the end of 1872 of 19 native officers and 358 men, maintained at a total cost of Rs. 4,428, 1, 4 a-month, or £5,313, 14s- a-year. This force is for the protection of the municipal towns ; and its cost is defrayed by means of a house-rate levied upon the householders and shopkeepers carrying on business within municipal limits. According to the Census Report of 1872, there are eleven municipalities in the Dis trict of Patnd, each with more than 5000 inhabitants, containing a total population of 301,099. The cost of the municipal police, as compared with this population, amounts to 2 dnnds 9 pies or 4jd. per head. Since 1872 this force has been largely increased. The Village Watch or rural police numbered 3723 in 1872, maintained either by the zaminddrs or by service lands held rent-free, at an estimated cost of Rs. 74,460, or £7446 per annum. Compared with the area and population, there is one village-watchman or chauki ddr to every -56 of a square mile of the District area, or one to every 419 of the population, maintained at an estimated cost ofRs. 35, 7 or £3> IOS- IO|d. per square mile of area, and 9 pies, or i-^d per head of the population. Each village-watchman has charge on an average of 36 houses, and receives an average pay in money or lands of Rs. 1, 10, 8 a-month, or £2 a-year. Including, therefore, the Regular Police, the Village-Watch, and the Municipal Police, the machinery for protecting person and pro perty in Patnd District consisted in 1872 of a force of 5209 officers and men ; equal to an average of 1 man to every '40 of a square mile as compared with the District area, or 1 man to every 299 souls as compared with the population. The estimated aggregate cost of maintaining this force both Government and local, and including the value of the rent-free lands held by the chaukiddrs in 1872, amounted to Rs. 23,947, 8 a-month, or a total for the year of £28,737; equal to a charge ofRs. 136, 12, or £13, 13s. 6d. per square mile of area, or Rs. o, 2, 11, or 4§d per head of the District population. In 1876, the regular police consisted of 94 officers and 476 men; and the municipal police of 51 officers and 862 men. Of the regular police, 3 inspectors, 6 sub-inspectors, 31 head constables, and 266 men were apportioned or the line, guard, court, and other special CRIMINAL STATISTICS. 191 duties in Bdnkipur. The remainder were distributed over the Dis trict at the different stations and outposts ; but it is noticeable that none of the regular police are stationed in Patnd city, which is guarded entirely by the municipal force mentioned above. The municipal police force was distributed in the following manner : — (1.) In Patnd city there are 17 police stations, including outposts, guarded by 30 officers and 499 men. (2.) In Dindpur, there were 5 officers and 106 men. (3.) In Khagaul, 1 officer and 18 men. (4.) In Maner, 1 officer and 12 men. (5.) In Bdrh, 2 officers and 31 men. (6.) In Muhammadpur, 1 officer and 20 men. (7.) In Muk dmd, 2 officers and 29 men. (8.) In Fatwd, 2 officers and 32 men. (9.) In Baikantpur, 1 officer and 10 men. (10.) In Nawada, 1 officer and n men. (11.) In Behar, 4 officers and 93 men. (12.) At Bdnkipur, 1 officer and 1 man. Criminal Statistics. — During the year 1872, 4267 " cognisable" cases were reported to the police, of which 299 were ascertained to be false. Convictions were obtained in 1643 cases, or 41 -40 per cent. of the " true" cases. The number of persons actually brought to trial was 2891, of whom 2232, or 77-20 per cent, were finally convicted. In the same year, the number of " non-cognisable" cases was 1322 ; the number of persons who actually appeared before the Court was 1861, of whom 941, or 50^56 per cent, were convicted. The total number, therefore, of both " cognisable" and " non-cognisable" cases in 1872 was 5290; the total number of persons convicted of an offence under either of these heads was 3173, or '20 per cent, of the District population. As regards convictions, the District of Patnd shows, for the year 1 87 1, a higher percentage than any other District in Bengal. This, however, appears to have been an exceptional year, for in 1870 and in 1872, several Districts rank above Patnd in this respect. Serious crime is not very prevalent ; 1 2 cases of murder occurred in 1870, and there were 1 1 convictions. Of the 9 cases which occurred in 1872, none resulted in a conviction; but the local officers contend that this result was not owing to any want of care or skill on the part of the police. The offence of gang robbery (dakditi) seems to be steadily decreasing; In 1869, there were 10 cases ; in 1870, 3 ; and in 1871 only one case occurred. In 1872, 4 cases were reported; but of these so-called dakditis, one was a private attack on a marriage procession by a rival zaminddr, and two were attacks upon the high road. The absence of serious dakditis in this District contrasts favourably with the adjoining Districts of Gayd and Shdhdbdd. 192 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. The following are the particulars with regard to other crimes : — The offence of " grievous hurt" is very prevalent in Patnd as in the neighbouring Districts. " The Districts of Patnd, Shdhdbdd, and Sdran," says the Inspector Generalof Police, in 1870, "furnish to a great extent the men who enlist in the Native Army, — a class always ready to turn out for a riot on very small provocation." In that year, out of 597 cases of " grievous hurt " which occurred throughout Lower Bengal, 125 cases, or more than 20 per cent, of the whole number, happened in these three Districts. In 187 1, the proportion was still higher ; out of a total of 750 cases, 2 16 or 28 per cent, occurred in the District of Patnd alone. In 1872, however, this offence decreased ; and the Inspector General reported that it appears to have been success fully dealt with. Sixteen cases of hurt by dangerous weapons were re ported in 187 1, and 18 in 1872. In the latter year, 47 persons were arrested, and of these 33 were convicted. Thirty-four cases of robbery occurred in 1870, of which 18 were detected. In 187 1, the number of cases fell to 22, of which 10 were detected, but convictions were obtained in only 3. Burglary, which is so common throughout the whole Patnd Division, prevails unduly in this District. The average number of cases reported during the years 1870 and 1871 was 522. In 1872, however, only 46 cases were reported, of which 19 resulted in convictions. " The increase in this class of cases throughout the Division," writes the Commissioner, " seems to be due to increased pains taken by local officers to have all cases reported, and increased strictness in enforcing the law on this point against landowners (mdliks) and the rural police (chaukiddrs). All the Magistrates lament the inability of the police to deal with this crime. It appears to be most frequent in the rainy months, when people stay at home at night, when high crops of maize give shelter close up to the houses, and when rain makes the mud walls soft and manageable. No special suggestions for dealing with it are forthcoming, beyond the general desire to bring the chaukiddrs into closer connection with the regular police, and by a liberal system of rewards to make it worth their while to give information. Though the number of burglaries reported is high, there is no doubt that the actual numbers are still larger. The village watchmen are only too ready to shirk their duty in this matter, for, in the first place, they will probably receive a portion of the plunder as a reward for keeping quiet; and, secondly, they are saved the trouble of the journey, and the subsequent police investigation." Cattle-lifting, which is common in Gayd and Shdhdbdd, does not JAIL STATISTICS. 193 prevail to the same extent in Patnd District. The average number of cases reported during the years 1870 and 1871 was 37 ; but in 1872, there were 71 cases, and 75 persons arrested, of whom 56 were convicted. Ordinary thefts were reported at 7 10 in 1872, an unusually high number. There were tried for this offence 497 persons, of whom 357 were convicted. The amount of property stolen in robberies, burglaries, and thefts of every description, during the year 1872, was £3568, 12s., of which £708, 6s., or about 20 per cent, was recovered. Criminal Classes. — From a return submitted of the castes of the criminals confined in the Mi'thapur jail during the year 1871, it appears that the most criminal classes are Doms, Musdhars, and Godlds. Doms and Musdhars are notorious for thefts, and Godlds for cattle-lifting, grain thefts, and rioting. The proportion of Dom criminals to the total Dom population is '93 per cent. ; of Musdhars to the total Musahar population, -2 per cent. ; and of Godlds to the total Godld population, ¦11 per cent. The proportion of Musalmdn prisoners to the total jail population was 19 per cent. This is in excess of the proportion of Musalmdns to the total population of the District, which is only 12*4 per cent. Jail Statistics. — There are four jails in Patnd District, namely, the District Jail, near the Bdnkipur Railway Station, commonly called the Mfthapur Jail, and the subdivisional lock-ups at Bdrh, Dindpur, and Behar. There is also a large jail at Dighd, a village between Bdnkipur and Dindpur ; but this was abandoned in March 1870, when the prisoners were removed to Dehri, where a convict camp was established. Dehrf is a village in Shahdbdd District, on the west bank of the Sdn. The prisoners were removed there for employment on the Sdn Canal works. The statistics relating to this camp will be found in the Account of Shdhdbdd District. The Inspector General of Jails has furnished thq following statistics of the criminal population for the years 185 7-1 85 8, 1860- 1861, and 1870-1871. The figures for the first two years must be received with caution, and as only approximately correct. In seve ral cases, prisoners were counted two or three times over, and no means now exist by which this element of error can be eliminated. A new form of return, however, was introduced in 1870, and the figures given for that year may be accepted as accurate. In 1857-1858, the first year for which records are available, the average daily number of prisoners confined in the District jail was 1 VOL. XI. n 194 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. 929, the total number admitted during the year being 5050. The numbers discharged were as follow: — Transferred, 2536; released, 1955 ; escaped, 7; executed, 35 ; and died, 140; total, 4673. In 1860-1861 the jail returns show a daily average of 606 prisoners of all classes in the District jail, the total number of admissions during the year being 2530. The numbers discharged were as follow : — Trans ferred, 1021 ; released, 1451 ; escaped, 3; died, 57; executed, 4; total, 2536. In 1870, the average daily jail population was 507 ; the total number of prisoners of all classes admitted during the year being 2177. The discharges consisted of — 202 transferred; 1824 re leased ; 5 escaped; 29 died; and 2 executed; total, 2062. The foregoing figures do not indicate a high standard of crime, and the returns for 1870 only show a result of one criminal always in jail to every 3076 of the population. Excluding females, who form a very slight percentage of the criminals, there is one prisoner always in jail to every 1502 of the total male population of the District. The mortality of the Mithapur Jail has fluctuated considerably, but for some years past has generally been below 5 per cent. " The general health in 1872," writes the Inspector General, "was un doubtedly good, and the jail was quite free from cholera for the first time for sixteen years. It is very remarkable that the epidemic of dengue, which raged with such violence in the town among both the European and native population, that Dr Simpson calculated that fully 90 per cent, suffered from it, never obtained any footing in either the jail or the lunatic asylum." In the year 1857-1858, 140 deaths occurred, amounting to 15-07 per cent, of the average daily prison population. In 18 60-1 861 the deaths were 57 in number, or 9-8 per cent, of the mean population ; while in 1870 the 29 deaths represented a proportion of 5-72 percent, of the mean prison population. The rate of admissions into the jail hospital in 1857- 1858 amounted to 88-05 per cent ; in 1 860-1 861, to 92-90 percent, and in 1870, to 108-48 per cent., of the mean daily population. The average cost of maintenance per prisoner, excluding cost of the police guard, amounted to £3, is. per head in 1857-1858 ; £4, 3s. 2d. in 1860-1861, and £4, 4s. iod. in 1870. The cost of the jail police guard in 1870 amounted to 18s 4d. per head, making a gross charge to Government in that year of £5, 3s. 2d. per prisoner. No materials exist showing the separate cost of police jail guards for previous years. The total amount expended in guarding and maintaining the prisoners in the jail and lock-ups of Patnd District EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS. 195 in 1870 was £2357, i6s."7^d., including police guards, but exclud ing charges on account of additions, alterations, and repairs to jail buildings. Jail Manufactures, and other work performed by the hard-labour prisoners, contribute to reduce the cost of the jail. In 1857-58, the receipts arising from the sale of jail manufactures, together with the value of the stock remaining in hand at the end of the year, but de ducting that in store at the end of 1856-5 7, amounted to £806, os. sfd. and the expenses to £672, 5s. ijd., leaving a profit of £133, 15s. 4\d. The average earning from each prisoner engaged in jail manufactures amounted to 9s. iod. In 1860-61, the total net receipts amounted to ;£833> 17s. ofd., and the charges to £542, us. iofd., leaving a profit of £291, 5s. 2d. The average earning of each prisoner em ployed in jail manufactures amounted to £i, 7s. 10 \d. The ac counts for the year 1870 are as follow: — Credits: value of articles sold during the year, £506, 12s. 8d.; value of manufactured articles remaining in store at the end of 1870, £266, 16s. 2d,; value of raw materials in store at the close of 1870, £8, 3s. 4|d.; value of plant and machinery in store at the end of 1870, £10, 2s.; total credits, £791, 14s. 2|-d. Debits : value of manufactured articles in store at the end of 1869, £254, 4s. 4|d.; value of raw material in store at the end of 1869, £37, 15s. 4|d.; value of plant and machinery in stock at the end of 1869, £27, 18s. 4|d.; raw material purchased, and all other charges incurred during 1870, £381, 9s. io|d.; total debits, £701, 8s. Excess of credits over debits, £90, 6s. 2d. The average earning of each prisoner amounted to us. Of the 164 prisoners employed in manufactures at the Mfthapur jail in 1870, 3 were employed in manufacturing gunny, 24 in gardening, 36 in cloth-making, 2 in bamboo basket-work, 10 in brick-making, 6 in oil-pressing, n in thread-spinning, 12 in flour-grinding, 16 in blanket- making, 19 in making carpets, 2 in spinning jute, 2 in tailoring, 2 in grinding ddl or pulses, and 19 in other manufactures. Educational Statistics.— The state of education in the Districts of Patnd and Behar was thus described by Dr Buchanan Hamilton, in the beginning of the present century. For teaching Hindi, the language of these Districts, there were no public schools; every teacher {gdrti) was the servant of some wealthy man. In general, however, these teachers were allowed to instruct the children of the neighbours, and a hut was? built for a school-house without the village. These school-houses were called pindd, a name applicable to several 196 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. things considered sacred. The number of these teachers was esti mated at 850. Hindustdni was only a colloquial tongue, Persian being the language used for revenue accounts. Many Hindus were taught to read and write the Persian character before they began Hindi. Few people could do little more than write and understand a revenue account. If a man could write a letter, he was called a munshi. The total number of persons in Patnd District who were fit to act as writers was estimated at nearly 20,000, or about 1-2 per cent, of the District population. There were some half-dozen maulvis, who instructed young men in the higher branches of Persian literature and Arabic science. The Nawdbs of Bengal had established a Per sian school (madrasd) at Patnd, but the maulvi had little or no work. The other maulvis, at Phulwdri and Bdrh, had also but few pupils. With regard to the three higher sciences of the Hindus, grammar, law, and metaphysics, there were some thirty-eight teachers called pandits, all with small endowments. Grammar was the chief study followed, law and metaphysics being generally much neglected. Medicine was taught and practised by many of these pandits. The title oi pandit was not confined to these endowed professors, but was generally assumed by all who were employed as teachers by the higher castes ; a little knowledge of grammar, with perhaps a smattering of law and astrology, being quite sufficient to establish a claim to this title. From the accompanying tables, which are compiled from the annual reports of the Director of Public Instruction, it will be seen that the number of Government and Aided Schools was 12 in 1856- 57, 10 in 1860-61, and 23 in 1870-71. The number of pupils has increased from 583 in 1856-57; and 515 in 1860-61, to 1530 in 1870-71. In 1856-57, the amount of private contributions and fees towards Government and Aided Schools was £259, 19s. 6d.; in 1860-61, it had fallen to £87, 7s. nd.; but in 1870-71, it was £1907, 12s. sd. The Government grant for education was £1663, 13s. nd. in 1856-57; in 1860-61, it was £442, 17s. 2d.; and in 1870-71, £5516, 18s. id. It will be seen, therefore, that in 1870-71, Government paid for education in this District nearly three times as much as the local population. There has been a marked improvement of late years in the state of education. Return of Government and Aided Schools in PatnA District, in the Years 1856-57, 1860-61, and 1870-71 (Exclusive of the Patnd College.) Description of Schools. Number of Pupils. Hindus. Muhammadans. Others. Total. 1856-57 i860 61 1870-71 1856-57 1860-61 187O-7T 1856-57 40 12 1860-61 23 I48 I87O-7I 1856-57 1860-61 1870-71 1856-57 1860-61 187O-71 1. Government English Schools, 2. Government Vernacular Schools, . 3. Government Institutions for Special Education, 4. Government Aided English Schools, 2 10 1 9 10 2 13 35 23 140 374 81 251 386 586 122107 109 9830 52 17 12 6 34 197 386 Il6 399 501 684 152193 Total, 12 5H 332 1201 52 171 289 17 12 40 583 5i5 1530 12 b 2 Return of Government and Aided Schools in PatnA District in the Years 1856-57, i86o-6t, and 1870-71 — continued (Exclusive of the Patnd College). Description of Schools. Cost to Government. Amount of Private Contributions and Fees. Total cost. 1856-57. 1860-61. 1870-71. .1856-57- 1860-61. 1870-71. 1856-57- 1860-61. 1870-71. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 1. Government English Schools,1 1361 16 7 295 1 5 1739 6 2 239 1 0 62 15 11 821 15 0 1600 17 7 357 17 4 2561 1 2 2. Government Vernacu lar Schools, . 41 17 10 60 7 10 519 8 2 20 18 624 12 0 157 8 8 62 16 4 84 19 10 676 16 10 3. Government Institu tions for Special Edu- tion, 1 106 2 8 323 0 0 1429 2 8 4. Government Aided English Schools, . Total, ... ... 244 8 8 ... ... 605 8 9 ... ... 849 17 5 1403 14 5 355 9 3 3609 5 8 259 19 6 87 7 11 1907 12 5 1663 13 11 442 17 2 5516 18 1 Co 2Cog8 Co EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS. 199 The following table, which is taken from the Education Report of 1872-73, shows the improved condition of primary instruction in that year, when the reforms of Sir George Campbell were beginning to come into operation ': — 0 R K ^^ t> 0 O w bo."^ •asoo p;oi uivo jj-ej H ^ ¦Ufa 01 < ^ 0 « 0 M « 2" 1 1USUIUI3A0Q ri**- ro h vo vo : ^ 01 ;so3 H H . OO S^o 0 0 0 0 0 M , d«OM- O 00>H 00 0 oi Cl ro A< p*. CO vo ¦sinjrpnsdxg H H H H H S!ff VO >^g.S* > ro IO « H On M- « VO O O O^g* w H a o\ 'l*l°X H H H H t-^Th'* VO S^S,* *s a N 0\ LO 0 d S t. H 5 a •saojnos 03 : : 0\ '*"*¦. a Ovco t^ 0 ov (A Jdipo uiojj; O s? 3 roro 0 n o^ LO 0 flS40^ CO CO O 0 vo N Q ° A •S3UTJ • ro ei w en Cv •>* ro O H OV pUB S33 jj UIOJ^ . .mvo ¦*- 0 ^ H S3 ¦auatuuasAo^) h m r-% 0 m VO r>. t>. O 0 UIOJj[ co CO CO s?£8 5H en ro ¦* H H 0 H •lUBisnpuijj ¦* CT VO CO « N VO \ft 1ft • O. ft . 0 roN : 0 : vo 0 vo * VO 0\ — creisjajj vo 0 vo H « OJ vo ; : VO m : LO ro0 5U & g 9 ¦oiq^JY" 00 lo ' ro *• : : ro s ?J 'IPU!H CO CO w wo : 10 0 0. [D 61 ri 'p. •KBSuag !? • tt- !? •lix^suEg co 0 : O CO S ¦HSiiSug; •* ro n ¦+\0 ro enro m O 0 in 01 CO CO •£Zgi ipxej\[ 3S1E uo f)H t H IN « CO w sjidnj jo sSy sS^jsav H H H H H H M •aoirepuaHV a^ii:iuoj\[ ro « O. « t** t^ : •*¦ LO aS-ejSAV ut sfidnj jo *o^j -d- N_ON . io vo •£Zoi tlOJBJM -trow - 'i o"0 4 •n *rf H T0 10 E --a s s «» a 5 ."2 a rtn 0 &3 n. 0 0 200 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. The improvement which is indicated in that table has steadily continued. In 1874-75 the total number of Government and aided schools in Patnd District was 309, attended by 9003 pupils. Com pared with the area and population of the District, these figures show an average of 6-8 square miles to each school ; and 5-8 pupils to every thousand of the population. The following paragraph gives, in greater detail, the general con dition of education in the District for the year 1874-75. There is only one aided higher English school, which is at Behar town. In 1874-75, the number of pupils on the rolls was 125 against 120 in the previous year. The annual Government grant is ^108, and the municipality contributes ^120. The school possesses a good library and surveying instruments. There was one girls' school in Patnd, which was attended by 20 girls, but most of these were Bengah's. In the middle vernacular schools, which are 10 in number, the average daily attendance throughout the year was 396. There were 7 middle English schools, of which 6 were aided. The total amount of grant in aid and allowance for Patnd District was ^800 ; and the expenditure for the year 1874-75 was only ^382, 8s. The most remarkable im provement has been in primary schools. In 1873-74 there were 255 primary schools, of which 233 were Hindu pdthsdlds, and 22 were Muhammadan maktabs. The pupils numbered at the close of the year 6,414 ; and the total Government expenditure was ^948, 13s. By the close of 1875, the number of primary schools had increased to 282. Educational Census. — In the year 1873-74, an educational census was taken, by the Commissioner's orders, in two selected areas, one urban and one rural. The urban area, with a population of 3,677, contained 6 schools. The number of persons educated or receiving education was 814, of whom 666 were educated in schools, and 148 were self-taught. Of the total number of educated persons, 645 were Hindus and 169 Muhammadans. The proportion of schools to the population was 1 to every 613 persons, and the per centage of persons educated or receiving education was 22. The percentage of Muhammadans to the total number educated was 20-7 which is in excess of the percentage of Muhammadans to the total population. In the rural area, there were 4,702 persons and 4 schools. The number of persons educated or receiving education was 611 • of whom 475awere educated in schools and 136 were self-taught. Of the total number of educated persons, only 4 were Muhammadans. THE PA TNA COLLEGE. 201 There was thus one school to every 1,175 persons; the percentage of persons educated or receiving education was 12-9, and the per centage of Muhammadans to the total number of persons educated or receiving education was only -65. The PatnA College was founded in 1862, and is the only insti tution for superior instruction in the whole of Behar. The following paragraphs are taken from the Report of the Director of Public In struction for the year 1873-74. " General Department. — The number of pupils on the rolls on 31st March 1874, was 92, including three ex-students, against 97 on the same date of the previous year. The average number on the rolls monthly was 83, and the average daily attendance 66. The students are classed as follows : — First year, 31 ; second year, 41 ; third year, 11 ; fourth year, 9. Classified according to race, they consisted of 48 Beharis, 42 Bengali's, and two others. Classified according to religion and social position, there were 78 Hindus, 10 Muhammadans, and four Christian and ' others,' of whom 14 be longed to the upper classes, 77 to the middle, and one to the lower. Of the total number of students, more than half held scholarships, 5 1 being junior scholars, and six senior scholars. The number of students sent up to the first examination in Arts was 33, of whom 18 passed, one being placed in the first division, 9 in the second, and 8 in the third. Upon this result six senior scholarships were awarded. The failures were- — nine in English, six in the second language, three in history, eight in mathematics, and five in philosophy. Seven candidates went up for the B.A. examination, and three passed in the second division. One candidate went up for the honour examination in Philosophy, and passed in the third division. The first and third year classes were examined by the College staff, and all the students of the latter showed satisfactory progress. Some of the first year students were found deficient in more than one subject; and on the result, two of them were deprived of their scholarships, while the stipend of a third was suspended for two months. " On the course of study followed in the College, the Principal says : — ' None of the first year students have taken up psychology, but they elected the alternative, which is chemistry. This was, I think, the better course, considering that in this College they must of necessity take up chemistry in their third year, when they would be placed at a great disadvantage, having to learn the subject along 202 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. with others previously acquainted with it. As I am convinced, how ever, that it would be a serious defect in a system of education aim ing to be liberal, if it did not embrace some knowledge of, at least, the leading principles and facts of psychology, I have thought it advisable to give a course of lectures on elementary psychology to the first year's students, as a preparation to their entering upon the study of logic, which is a compulsory subject at the first examina tion in Arts. In the same class 14 students readSanskrit, 5 Arabic, and 3 Persian. In the second year class, 19 are studying chemistry, 22 psychology, 25 Sanskrit, 8 Arabic, 6 Persian, and 1 Latin. The students of the third year (now 13 in number) have taken up the natural science course. They had no choice in the matter, as the College is not yet supplied with the apparatus requisite to illustrate lectures in physical science. Government has, however, sanctioned a grant ofRs. 10,000 (^1,000) for the purchase of scientific instru ments. An indent for them is being prepared, and it is to be hoped that they may be received before the beginning of next session. In this connection, I may state that the late Lieutenant-Governor gave his sanction to a proposal first made by the late local Committee, that the balance standing at credit of the College Building Fund, Rs. 23,783 {£2,37?>, 6s. od.), should be applied towards the erection of a lecture hall, with suitable rooms attached to it for chemical and other scientific experiments. Mr Ewbank was good enough to pre pare the necessary plans, which, after some little modifications, were approved of. The Executive Engineer has been instructed already to prepare detailed estimates, and to commence preparations for building as soon as possible.' " Civil Service Classes. — Admission to this department being restricted, under the rules now in force, to candidates who have passed the entrance examination, there were only seven students on the rolls on the ist April 1873. On the course of study laid down for these students the Principal remarks : — ' The course of study prescribed for them embraces, in addition to such special subjects as surveying, law, &c, all the branches required for the First Examina tion in Arts, except logic and a second language. It would, therefore appear that, by taking up these two subjects, Civil Service students may qualify themselves for the First Arts Examination, as well as for the Civil Service Examination ; and this double course has accord ingly been followed by the present Civil Service Class.' The result of the Civil Service Examination of 1873 was very favourable to the THE PATNA COLLEGE. 203 students who went up from the College, and soon after it was made known, numerous admissions to the Survey Class took place. On the 31st March 1874, the number on the rolls of this class was 130 ; and throughout the year the monthly average number was no, with an average daily attendance of 46. The great irregularity in the attendance is due to the fact that the members of the class were nearly all engaged in Government or private employment. The class was broken up after the Native Civil Service examination began, when 43 members went up to the examination, of whom only six belonged to the College. As a very large proportion of the Survey Class consisted of members who had to be taught in Urdu, the Survey teacher undertook the translation of the ' Notes on Engineering ' into that language, and the book was ready by the end of January. About the same time an Urdu translation of Mr Scott's ' Notes on Surveying ' appeared; and these translations greatly helped the candidates to prepare for the examination. The English-learning portion of the class fell off very considerably as the time for examination approached, being unable to secure certificates of qualification in horsemanship. Indeed, a panic was caused in the class by the death of one of their fellow students from an accidental fall from his horse. Some of the students who were thus prevented from going up to the examination were the best in the class. The Urdu students were irregular in their attendance, and most of them (especially the Muhammadans) were deficient in mathematics, and the result of their examination cannot be but bad. Lectures were given in chemistry and in botany to the members of this Department without any cost to Government. " The Law Lecturer opened his class with only four students, and there was no increase till the month of June, 'when owing, as it appears, to the success which the class achieved at the preceding ex amination, and the encouragement that was given to the passed students in providing them one and all with good appointments, there was a rush of students into the Civil Service Classes till the number in the Law Class came up at one time to 88,' made up of 42 out- students, 28 in-students, and 18 Urdu students. This number con tinued, with slight variation, till the time arrived for passing the preliminary examination in horsemanship. This test proved fatal ; and many students, including some of the best, left the class. None of the students of the late Civil Service Class attended the gymnastic class ; attendance is now compulsory. " The fees collected from the Surveying and Law Classes amounted 204 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. to Rs. 2202 or ^220, 4s., and the expenditure was Rs. 4870 or ^487." For the year 1873-74 the total expenditure on the Patnd College amounted to ,£3809, of which ,£3286 was paid by Government, and the remainder, viz. ^5 23,. was contributed by fees, &c. The total cost per annum of each student was £$7, 14s.; of which the cost to Government was £49, 16s. The Temple School of Medicine at Bdnkipur will be described subsequently (p. 220), under the heading ' Medical Statistics.' Postal Statistics of PatnA District, 1860-61, 1865-66, and 1870-71. Letters received . Newspapers received . Parcels received . Books received . 1860-61. 1865-66. 1870-71. 254,56o 17,909 4,805 1,687 296,614 17,95° 3,7642,157 235,244 16,268 2,328 2,462 Letters despatched Newspapers despatched Parcels despatched Books despatched 250,280 1,3281,803 348 388,592 2,73° 1,251 432 . *. Postal receipts Postal expenditure , £ s. d. 1401 6 6 . 1639 9 2 £ s. d. 2720 8 10 1841 19 7 £ s. d. 3786 13 3 1707 11 5 * These figures for the year 1870-71 have not been received. Besides the imperial post, there is another system of carrying letters under the charge of the District Collector, called the zamin ddri ddk. The total cost of this post in Patnd District during the year 1874-75 was ^676, and the rate of assessment was 9d. The Government Post-Office Department has often objected to the existence of a system over which it has no control ; and arrangements have recently (1876) been made for transferring the management of this ddk to the Imperial authorities. Administrative Divisions. — Patnd District is divided into four administrative tracts or Subdivisions, as follow. The population statistics are compiled from statements 1 A. and 1 B., Appendix to the Census Report of 1872 ; the administrative figures are derived from a special report furnished by the Collector, and refer to the year 1870-1871. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS. 205 (1.) The Sadr or Principal Sub-division, with the head-quarters of the District at Bdnkipur, contains an area of 620 square miles, with 137 1 villages or townships, 92,132 houses, and a total population of 522,627 souls, of whom 448,270, or 85-8 per cent, are Hindus; 73,149, or 14- per cent., Muhammadans; 689, or -i per cent, Chris tians ; and 519, or -i per cent, of other religions, not separately classified. The proportion of males to the total population is 48-6 per cent. ; the average number of persons per square mile, 843 ; number of villages or townships per square mile, 2-21 ; number of persons per village or township, 381 ; number of houses per square mile, 149 ; number of persons per house, 5-7. The Sub-division consists of the police circles of (1) Patnd Municipality ; (2) Patnd; (3) Bdnkipur ; (4) Naubatpur ; (5) Masaurhf ; and (6) Pdlfganj. In 1870-71, it contained six Magisterial Courts, a general police force of 1064 men, and a village watch or rural police of 11 83 men. The total separate cost of administration amounted to ,£26,582, 18s. No records exist to give the date of the establishment of this Sub division. (2.) BArh Sub-division was formed in December 1846. It contains an area of 557 square .miles, with 706 villages or townships, 58,903 houses, and a total population of 324,786 souls; of whom 296,871, or 91-4 per cent, are Hindus; 27,786, or 8-6 per cent., Muhammadans ; 47 Christians; and 82 of other religions. The proportion of males to the total population, is 48-9 per cent. ; average number of persons per square mile, 583 ; number of villages per square mile, 1-26 ; number of persons per village, 460 ; number of houses per square mile, 106 ; number of-persons per house, 5-5. The Sub-division consists of the police circles of (1) Fatwd; (2) Bakhtfarpur; (3) Bdrh; and (4) Mukdmd. In 1870-187 1, it contained one Magisterial Court, a general police force of 231 men; and a village watch of 784 men. The total separate cost of administration amounted to £822, 8s. (3.) DinApur Sub-division was formed in July 1850. It contains an area of 132 square miles, with 295 villages, 25,452 houses, and a total population of 141,337 persons, of whom 117,716, or 83-3 per cent, are Hindus; 21,631, or 15-3 per cent, Muhammadans; 1963, or 1 -4 per cent, Christians,; and 27 otother religions. The propor tion of males to the total population is 47-9 per cent. ; average num ber of persons per square mile, 107 1 ; number of villages per square mile, 2-23; number of persons per village, 479 ; number of houses 206 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. per square mile, 193 ; number of inmates per house, 5-6. The Sub division consists of the police circles of (1) Dindpur ; and (2) Maner. In 1870-187 1, it contained one Magisterial Court, a general police force of 216, and a village watch of 144 men. The total separate cost of administration amounted to ,£1850, 6s. (4.) Behar Sub-division was formed in July 1865. It contains an area of 792 square miles, with 1040 villages, 93,327 houses, and a total population of 570,888 ; of whom 500,434, or 87-7 per cent, are Hindus ; 70,422, or 12-3 percent, Muhammadans; 1 Christian; and 3 1 of other religions. The proportion of males to the total popula tion is 49-3 per cent. ; average number of persons per square mile, 721 ; number of villages per square mile, 1-31 ; number of persons per village, 549 ; number of houses per square mile, 118 ; number of persons per house, 6-i. The Sub-division consists of the police circles of (1) Behar; (2) Hilsd; and (3) Ata Sardi. In 1870- 187 1, it contained one Magisterial Court, a general police force of 180 men; and a village watch of 17 14 men. The total separate cost of administration amounted to ;£ 103 6, 18s. Fiscal Divisions. — The following list of Fiscal Divisions or par gands in Patnd District is compiled from the Board of Revenue's Pargand Statistics, tested in some particulars by later information. There are several inaccuracies, especially with regard to the areas of each pargand, but unfortunately I am unable to correct them. I have, for the sake of comparison, given the number of estates, num ber of proprietors, and the amount of the land revenue for the year 1790. These figures are compiled from the original register, now in the Magistrate's office. (1) AzimAbAd contains an area of 89,413 acres, or 139-7 square miles. It comprises 408 estates, pays a Government land revenue of £11,172, and is situated within the jurisdiction of the subordinate Judge's Court at Patnd, and the Munsifs Courts at Patnd and Behar. In 1790, there were 62 estates, 82 proprietors, 15 mustdjirs or lease holders ; and the land revenue was .£5957. (2) Behar. — Area, 133,751 acres or 209 square miles; 731 estates; land revenue, £'14,611, 18s. Munsifs Court at Behar. In 1790, there were 207 estates, 303 proprietors, 201 mustdjirs; and the land revenue was ,£8612, us. (3) Baikathpur — Area, 1754 acres or 2 74 square miles ; 8 estates; land revenue, .£328, 16s. Court at Patnd. In 1790, there was one estate with one proprietor; and the land revenue was £325, 10s. In the old register the name is given as Baikunthpur. PARGANAS OR FISCAL DIVISIONS. 207 (4) Biswak — Area, 99,871 acres or 156 square miles; 274 estates; land revenue, ,£15,554, 10s. Court at Patnd. In 1790, there were 58 estates, 154 proprietors, 31 mustdjirs; and the land revenue was .£7395, 10s. (5) BalivA — Area, 65,562 acres, or 102-44 square miles; 360 estates; land revenue, £5540. Court at Patnd. In 1790, there were 40 estates, 57 proprietors, 14 mustdjirs; and the land revenue was £'1410, 3s. (6) GhayAspur. — Area, 276,110 acres, or 431-4 square miles; 996 estates; land revenue, .£16,734, 10s. Court at Patnd. In 1790, there were 162 estates, 174 proprietors, 32 mustdjirs; and the land revenue was ,£8614, 10s. (7) Masaudah. — Area, 110,930 acres, or 173*32 square miles; 231 estates ; land revenue, .£5806, 12s. Court at Patnd. In 1790, there were 53 estates, 56 proprietors, 3 mustajirs; and the land re venue was £4212, 1 6s. (8) Maner. — Area, 127,801 acres, or 199-7 square miles; 723 estates ; land revenue, ,£115,66, 16s. Court at Patnd. In 1790,'there were 2i8-estates, 272 proprietors, 36 mustdjirs ; and the land revenue was £6974, us. (9) Narhat. — Area, 6817 acres, or 10-65 square miles ; 36 estates; land revenue, .£227, 8s ; Court at Behar. The greater part of this pargand is in Gayd District, and the figures given refer only to that portion which lies within the confines of Patnd. For the sake of comparison with the figures for 1790, I give the total number' of estates, etc., for the whole pargand, including that portion which lies within the District of Gayd. According to the Board's Statistics, the area of the whole pargand is 181,404 acres, or 281-88 square miles ; there are 300 estates ; and the Government land revenue is £'8265, 10s. In 1790, there were 47 estates, 49 pro prietors, 91 mustdjirs; and the land revenue was .£6434, 13s. (10) Okri. — Area, 969 acres, or 1-51 square mile; 1 estate; land revenue, .£304, 2s. Court at Behar. The greater part of this par gand, also, is within Gayd District. According to the Board's Sta tistics, the area of the entire pargand is 67,405 acres, or 105-3 square miles ; there are 218 estates; the Government land revenue is £'8216, 10s. In 1790, there were 57 estates, 88 proprietors; and the land revenue was .£5587, 10s. (ii^Pilich. — Area, 89,722 acres, or 140-2 square miles; 232 estates; land revenue, .£11,548, 12s. Court at Patna. In 1760, 208 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. there were 60 estates, 63 proprietors, 32 mustdjirs; and the land re venue was .£8933, 6s. (12) PhulwAri— Area, 46,323 acres, or 72-38 square miles; 312 estates; land revenue, ,£6625, 12s. Court at Patnd. In 1790, there were 72 estates, 105 proprietors, 10 mustdjirs; and the land revenue was £4217, 8s. (13) RAjgir.— Area, 23,716 acres, or 37 square miles; 10 estates; land revenue, ,£2535, 10s. Court at Behar. In the old register, from which I have compiled my figures for the year i7 90, pargand Rdjgir is not mentioned, but there is one called Rdjgir Amarthu, which had 17 estates, 19 proprietors, 48 mustdjirs; and paid a re venue of .£2865. This included the modern pargands of Rdjgir and Amarthu. (14) Sanaut. — Area, 62 acres, or -09 square miles, 1 estate, land revenue, ,£8, 6s. Court at Behar. The greater part of this pargand lies within Gayd District. According to the Board's Statistics, the total area is 21,185 acres, or 33-1 square miles; there are 125 estates, and the Government land revenue is £"13,844. 4s. In 1790, there were 6 estates, 12 proprietors, 6 mustdjirs; and the land revenue was ^£12,009. (15) SamAi. — Area, 8912 acres, or 13-9 square miles ; 14 estates; land revenue, £47 7, 6s. Court at Behar. The greater part of this pargand, also, lies within . Gayd District. According to the Board's Statistics, the total area is 161,306 acres, or 252 square miles; there are 383 estates; and the land revenue is £"8242, 12s. In 1790, there were 22 estates, 23 proprietors, and 69 mustdjirs ; and the land revenue was £4633, 7s. (16) TilArha. — Area, 101,908 acres, or 159-23 square miles; 493 estates; land revenue, .£17,905. Court at Patnd. In 1790, there was one estate, consisting of 83 villages, with apparently 83 proprietors, and 1 mustdjir; the land revenue was ,£8125. (17) SAnda: area, 82,183 acres, or 12-41 square miles ; 627 estates ; land revenue, ,£7491, 8s. Court at Behar. In the register, from which I have compiled the figures for 1790, there are mentioned two pargands, Sdnda-Hajrir-tahsil, and Sdnda-Baliyd-zapti. Taking these two together, there were in 1790, 199 estates, 455 proprietors, 66 mustdjirs; and the land revenue was £4781, 16s. (18) ShAhjahAnpur : area, 39,323 acres, or 61-4 square miles; 268 estates; land revenue, .£6593; Court at Patnd. (19) BhImpur: area, 44,37° acres, or 69-3 square miles; 271 MEDICAL ASPECTS. 209 estates; land revenue, £"6708, 4s. In the register for 1790, this pargand and the one immediately preceding (18) are not mentioned, but in a pargand called Shdhjahdnpur-Bhimpur, there were n estates, 14 proprietors, 4 mustdjirs ; and the land revenue was .£252, 14s. This concludes the list of pargands, as supplied by the Collector, but in the Board's Statistics the two small pargands of Maldah and Baragdnwan are also mentioned. Both these pargands are said to be under the jurisdiction of the Patnd Munsif and subordinate judge. Neither of them are mentioned in the register for 1790. As a matter of fact, they are both situated in the District of Monghyr, and should be subject to the jurisdiction of the Monghyr revenue courts ; but suitors from these pargands still attend the Court at Behar. (20) MAldah has an area of 889 acres or 1-39 square miles, 3 estates, and a land revenue of £56, 14s. (21) BaragAnwan has an area of 17,207 acres or 26-88 square miles, 10 estates, and a land revenue of ,£2150, 2s. Medical Aspects. — The Climate of Patnd District is considered to be remarkably healthy. By far the most prevalent winds are from the east and west, in most parts of the District nearly in an equal proportion. According to Dr Buchanan Hamilton, who col lected this information from the natives who lived near the junction of the Son with the Ganges, the west winds most usually prevail from the 13th of January to the 26th of March. From thence to the 12th of June, the east and west winds are nearly equal. From thence to the end of July, the east winds prevail ; and during the month of August there are west winds. From thence to the end of October the east winds return; and, finally, from October until the 10th of January the east and west winds are nearly balanced. In the rainy season, near the Ganges, there are occasionally north and south winds. The latter are considered as highly injurious to vegetation ; and so are the west winds, which dry up the juice of the palms, and if they are strong early in the season, injure the crops of wheat, bar ley, and opium. The hot weather commences about the middle of March, and ends about the middle of June, when the rainy season sets in, and continues till the end of September or beginning of Octo ber. If the rainfall in Aswin (15th September to 15th October) has not been very copious, the crops of rice suffer, unless there is a good deal of rain in the following month (Kdrtik). The cold weather com mences in November, and lasts till the beginning of March. Fogs vol. xi. o 210 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. usually prevail in the coldest months of the year. The heats of spring are very severe, and are aggravated by the dust. Both east and west winds are hot and parching. By means of hurdles of khaskhas grass, placed against the windows, and kept constantly wet, rooms may be kept very cool and pleasant; but when the wind subsides, these hurdles give little or no relief. Towards the end of the rainy season the nights are very oppressive. On the whole, the heat of the Dis trict, though not so great as in Gayd or Shdhdbdd, is much higher than that of Tirhut. The difference in this respect between Bdnki pur and Hdjipur, on the two opposite banks of the Ganges, is very observable. Meteorology.— The Meteorological Department has an observatory at Bdnkipur, near the Telegraph Office. In 1 8 7 o, the following were the day maximum, lowest minimum, and mean monthly temperature at this station, which is 170 feet above the level of the sea. January, highest maximum 82-3°, lowest minimum 3 9 -9°, monthly mean 62-7°. Febru ary, max. 87-3, min. 44-9, mean 68-6. March, max. 102-3, min. 53-9, mean 77-7. April, max. 106-3, mm- 60-9, mean 84-7. May, max. 111-3, min. 68-9, mean 92-4. June, max. 111-3, min. 74-9, mean 89-1. July, max. 96-3, min. 75-9, mean 85-3. August, max. 102-3, mm- 74-9, mean 84-6. September, max. 95-0, min. 72-9, mean 84-1. October, max. 94^3, min. 62-9, mean 80-5. November, max. 87-3, min. 46-9, mean 70-7. December, max. 79-3, min. 41-9, mean 61 -8. The following were the maximum, minimum, and mean readings of the nocturnal grass radiation thermometer in the same year. Janu ary, maximum 6o°, minimum 380, mean 45-1°, February, max. 59, min. 42, mean 49-5. March, max. 68, min. 49, mean 55-6. April, max. 67, min. 53, mean 60-9. May, max. 76, min. 60, mean 67.4, June, max. 78, min. 68, mean 75-3. July, max. 81, min. 74, mean 77-6. August, max. 79, min. 74, mean 76-8. September, max. 78, min. 72, mean 75-6. October, max. 78, min. 60, mean 69-9. No vember, max. 70, min. 42, mean 53-8. December, max. 48, min. 35, mean 39.8. The monthly rainfall at Bdnkipur in 1870 was returned as follows : — January, o-oi inches; February, 0-03; March, 0-37; April, 0-41; May, 0-23 ; June, 4-49 ; July, 8-33 ; August, 8'oi ; September, 6-21 ; October, 7-61 ; November, nil ; December, nil ; total rainfall during the year, 35-70. The rainfall for the year 1869 is stated by the Civil Surgeon to have been 44-98; and for the year 1871, 59-46 inches. The average rainfall of the District is 35 '66 inches. In the year of ENDEMICS: CHOLERA. 211 scarcity 1873-74, the rainfall did not exceed 30-94, distributed in the following manner: — April, o'io inches; May, 0*13; June, 3-41; July, 13-04; August, 11-78; September, 0-94; October, nil; November, nil; December, 0-13; January, 0-46; February, 0-58; March, 0-37. It will be noticed that 24-82 inches, nearly five-sixths of the total rainfall of the year, were confined to the two months of July and August. In the following year there was a heavier rainfall, and it was well distributed : — April, 0-37 inches ; May, nil ; June, io-66 ; July, 15; August, 5-29; September, 11-98; October, 4-97; Novem ber, nil; December, nil; January, 1-27; February, o-n; March, nil; total, 49-65. Endemics and Epidemics. — The prevailing endemic diseases of Patnd District are reported to be cholera in and about the city of Patnd ; and stone in the bladder, chiefly among the Godld caste. The Civil Surgeon is not aware of any cattle epidemic, nor does he consider that fairs or religious gatherings give rise to epidemic attacks. Cholera — The number of deaths from cholera reported in 1872 was 1792, equal to a per centage of -091 on the District population. In 1873, the deaths were 25i5,or-i6iper cent, of the population. In that year, epidemic cholera of a severe type appeared in several parts of the District; except in the city of Patnd, where it lingered longer than elsewhere, the season of prevalence was during the hot months, from March to September inclusive. The following account of the epi demic is taken from the report of the Sanitary Commissioner for 1873. "-^-t Behar the disease broke out with great violence, imme diately after the subsidence of the inundation of the town, which had been caused by a heavy fall of rain ; the severity of the attack was most marked in those parts of the city which lie at the lowest level, and were therefore most affected by the floods. Cholera medicines were freely distributed to the police, and an extra native doctor was de puted from Bdnkipur to assist the hospital attendant in charge of the Subdivision. The outbreak was most fatal in August. There were in all 167 deaths reported; the rate of mortality being r66 per cent, of the population. At Khagaul near Dindpur, the disease broke out in the bdzdr on the 30th April, and continued its ravages until June. Up to the nth May, 36 persons were attacked. It was believed that a carpenter from Dindpur introduced the disease into this village. The locality in which the disease broke out was ascer tained to be in an exceptionally filthy condition, containing pools of stagnant putrid water, the well of the place being surrounded with 212 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. mephitic mud, and its neighbourhood used for latrine purposes. The measures adopted to provide relief were the following : — A native doctor was deputed to afford medical aid ; the offensive pools, &c. were filled up with dry earth ; the mud around the well was covered with powerful disinfectants ; the bdzdr was thoroughly cleaned ; Macdougal's powder was freely used at the infected places ; all the houses in which cholera occurred were disinfected with sulphurous acid ; sulphur fires were freely burned throughout the bdzdr, and the fumes diffused through the streets ; and a separate hospital was estab lished for the reception of patients. These hygienic measures resulted in a gradual abatement of the disease. Cholera of a severe type was also present in the jail at Mithapur. A large proportion of those who recovered from the first stage of the disease, died of the secondary fever. Camping out the prisoners had the effect, as in former years, of causing the disease to disappear both from jail and camp.'' Smallpox. — The number of deaths from smallpox reported in Patnd District in 1872 was 209, or -13 per thousand of the population. In the following year, smallpox severely attacked the District, and was present during every month. The total number of deaths was 430, or -2 7 per thousand of the population. The disease prevailed with greater intensity during the hot months, the towns of Bdrh and Behar suffering most from the visitation. Unfortunately, at that time vac cination is of little value. The staff of vaccinators at the disposal of the Civil Surgeon, although sufficient for the localities immediately adjoining the Dispensaries, is not adequate for the requirements of the District at large ; but the Civil Surgeon is of opinion that it is useless to increase their number, without entertaining a special staff to superintend their operations. Fever. — The malarious season is earlier in Behar than in Lower Bengal, beginning in August and ceasing with October. The regis tration of deaths from fever is so inaccurate, that it is not worth while giving the details. The greatest number were reported at Bdrh ; and next to Bdrh, Behar and Patnd suffered most severely. No special report on this subject has been submitted by the Civil Surgeon. Vital Statistics. — The total number of deaths reported in 1873 amounted to 11,792. This gives a ratio of 7-56 per thousand as com pared with the total population, and is of course far short of the real number. An attempt has been made to obtain more accurate mortu ary statistics in certain specified areas, and the results are compara tively trustworthy. In the year 1874-75, twelve areas, nine urban and INDIGENOUS DRUGS. 213 three rural, were selected. The former comprise seven circles in Patnd City, with an area of 2-157 square miles, and a population of 70,200 persons ; a circle in Bdrh, with an area of 0-537 square miles, and a population of 11,050 persons ; and a circle in Behar, with an area of 1-015 square miles, and a population of 10,049 persons. The total number of deaths in the seven selected areas in Patnd City during the year 1874-75 amounted to 2332, or 33-7 per thousand of the population. In Bdrh there were 485 deaths, or 43-9 per thousand; and in Behar 314 deaths, or 31-2 per thousand. The total area of the nine urban circles is 3-609 square miles, and the total popula tion 91,299; the number of deaths was 3131, and the ratio to the population 34-2 per thousand. The three rural circles selected are at Magrah, Phulwdrf, and Fatwd. Their combined areas amount to 30-366 square miles, and the population to 123,717; the deaths in 1874-75 were 4016, and the ratio to the population was 32-4 per thousand. The largest proportion of deaths, 43-5 per cent., was due to fever, 18-5 per cent, to bowel complaints, 3-5 per cent, to cholera, i-6 per cent, to smallpox, and 30-9 per cent, to other causes. The most unhealthy months in the year appear to be August, September, and October ; 38-5 per cent, of the deaths occurred during that quarter of the year. The mortality among males appears slightly greater than among females. This is as it should be ; for according to the Census, the percentage of males to the total population is 48-3. In the town area the information was collected by the town police ; and in the rural areas by the village watch, under the supervision of the police. The total cost of mortuary registration in the selected areas throughout the year amounted to £7 1, 6s. Indigenous Drugs. — The following is a list of 126 principal drugs found in the District. I give the scientific names as reported to me by the Civil Surgeon : — (1) Ginger, ddi (Zingiber officinale), (2) opium, Afiiin or (Papaver somniferum), (3) Ajwdin (ptychotis ajowan), (4) Asgand (Calotropis gigantea), (5) Aldbakhdrd (Prunus bokhari- ensis), (6) Am-ki-guthli (Mangifera Indica), (7) Amaltdsh (Cassia fistula), (8) Andr (Punica granatum), (9) Anisiin (Pimpinella ani- sum), (10) Anwald (Emblica officinalis), (n) Aptarlatd, (12) Arrow root (Maranta arundinacea), (13) Bdbuitulshi (Ocimum basilicum), (14) Babtil (Acacia Arabica), (15) Baherd (Terminalia belerica), (16) Banafshah (Viola odorata), (17) Bdkas (Adhatoda vasica), (18) Bel (iEgle marmelos), (19) Babund (Anthemis nobilis), (20) Bhdng (Cannabis Indica), (21) Bhent (Clerodendron viscosum), (22) Bheld 214 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. (Semecarpus anacardium), (23) Reri (Ricinus communis), (24) Bhidi (Abelmoschus esculentus), (25) Bach (Acorus calamus), (26) Banj-^ wain (Ligusticum), (27) Burigopdn (Ruellia latebrosa), (28) Baghrerd (Jatropha curcas), (29) Banada (Curcuma zedoaria), (30) Brahm- dandi or Bahman hati, (31) Bhunrli, (32) Bhangariyd, (33) Banail (Lussa echinata), (34), Bhatkawen, (35) Champa (Michelia champaca), (36) Chirchiri (Achyranthes aspera), (37) Chak- undah (Cassia tora), (38) Chita (Plumbago zeylanica), (39) Dad mardan (Cassia alata), (40) Dhanidn (Coriandrum sativum), (41) Dhak (Butea frondosa), (42) Dddhid, (43) Dathurd (Datura stram onium), (44) Digrothd or sdlpdni, (45) Gambhir, (46) Gdbh (Dios- pyros embryopteris), (47) Dhikwdrkd pathd (Aloe Indica), (48) Gokhru (Asteracantha longifolia), (49) Gurich (Cocculus cordifolius), (50) Gumd, (51) Carrot, gdjar, (52) Gulkhairi, (53) Gundah barozah (Pinus longifolia), (54) Hakuch (Psoralea corylifolia), (55) Hati sunrd (Tiaridium indicum), (56) Hur-hur (Polanisia icosandra), (57) Haldi (Curcuma longa), (58) Hurd (Terminalia chebula), (59) Hinguwd, (60) Harchikdr, (61) Itidrajab (Wrightia antidysenterica), (62) Ishar mul (Aristolochia indica), (63) Zird (Carum gracile), (64) faint (CEschyno- mene sesban), (65) fanglipidj (Urginea. indica), (66) Kdld ddnd (Phar- bitis nil), (67) Kawd thunthi (Clitorea ternatea), (68) Kiwdnch (Mucuna pruritd), (69) Kokraundah, (70) Kulfd, (71) Kamdch (72) Kakri-kd-bij (Cucumis utilissimus), (73) Kaint (Feronia elephantum), (74) Khird-kd-bij (Cucumis sativus), (75) Kanghdyd, (76) Kanail (Nerium odorum alba), (77) Ldl chitrd (Plumbago rosea), (78) Litiyd dm (Mangifera indica), (79) Makhdl (Cucumis pseudo-colocynthis), (80) Muthd (Cyperus hexastachyus). (81) Munsdsij (Euphorbia ligul- aria), (82) Musind (Linum usitatissimum), (83) Mulli or mahud (Bassia latifolia), (84) Nagar muthd (Cyperus pertenuis), (85) Ndgesar (Mesua ferrea), (86) Ndrikel (Cocos nucifera), (87) Katkarej (£l&%al\)inia bon- duc), (88) Nilophar, another name for bhent (No. 21), mentioned above, (89) Indigo nil (Indigofera tinctoria), (90) Nim (Azadirachta indica), (91) Nuxini, (92) Papitd (Carica papaya), (93) Nebu ki pati (Citrus limonum), (94) Pudina (Mentha sativa), (95) Post ddnd (Papaver somniferum), (96) Pasds (Butea frondosa), (97) Palwal (Tricho- santhes dioica), (98) Patal hurhdr, (99) Fatal nim, (100) Rithd (Sapindis emarginatus), (101) Rengni (Solanum jacquini), (102) Soap Sdbun, (103) Safaid Zird (Carum alba), (104) Sij (Euphorbia nivulia), (105) Singhard (Trapa bispinosa), (106) Somrdj (Vernonia anthel- mintica), (107) Sanpdt, (108) Sattnul (Asparagus sarmentosus), (109) NATIVE DOCTORS. 215 Sahajand (Moringa pterygosperma), (no) Sarsun (Sinapis), (in) Shahatard (Oldenlandia biflora), (112) Saharphonkd, (113) Aniseed w«/"(Pimpinella anisum), (114) Samandra stikh, (115) Samdhi (Vitex trifolia), (116) Sudarsan (Crinum toxicarium), (117) South or dried ginger (Zingiber officinale), (118) Tamdku (Nicotana tabacum), (119) Zy/(Sesamum orientale), (120) Tarbiii (Ipomcea turpethum), (121) TAtiyd or vitriol (122) Tisi (Linum usitatissimum), (123) Tahakar, (124) Imli or tamarind (Tamarindus indica), (125) Piydj or onions (Allium cepa), (126) Lahsun (Allium sativum.) Native Doctors.— The following account of the system of treat ment used by the native doctors, kabirdjs, or baids, as they are more commonly called in Behar, is given by Dr Simpson, the Civil Sur geon of Patnd. I quote it in full, as it also describes the method obtaining in Gaya and Shdhdbdd. " The pharmacopeia of the baids contains all the medicines comprised in the preceding list, but it chiefly uses compounded preparations, of great traditional antiquity, com posed principally of the salts of gold, silver, white pearl, coral, iron, copper, mica, mercury, antimony, sulphur, and musk. A number of the above ingredients, differently combined, form their well-known pills and powders. Their principal preparations are : — (1) Mahdjardn- kus, containing sulphur, aconite, dhatura, and mercury ; (2) Brihat makardhuj, containing pearl, coral, gold, silver, iron, pewter, mica, mercury, bell metal, musk, cloves, and camphor; (3) Bishn jardntuk ras containing mercury, sarno mukhi, iron, mica, gold, and anti mony ; (4) Jai mangal ras, containing ras gandak, a preparation of mercury, borax, copper, pewter, sarno mukhi, common salt, pepper, gold, iron, and silver; (5) Sarno pathati, containing gold and ras gandak ; (6) Chandra ode makardhuj, containing sarno sindti, a compound of gold and mercury, camphor, nutmeg, pepper, cloves, and musk; (7) Basant tilak, containing gold, mica, iron, ras gandak, coral, pearl, and pewter ; (8) Basant kusmdkar ras, containing gold, silver, pewter, iron, mica, coral, pearl, and lead ; (9) Kanchan dbro, containing gold, ras sindu, a compound of mercury and sulphur, pearl, coral, iron, mica, silver, mensil, and musk ; (10) Saral dng sundar, No. 1, containing ras gandak, borax, aconite, and nutmeg ; (11) Saral dng sundar, No. 2, containing ras gandak, arsenic, gold borax, pearl, and coral; (12) Suchika bharn, containing cobra poison, lime juice, musk, and gold. Other medicines are principally used as aniipan or adjuvants of the above, or they may be used alone. The baids are more or less Humoralists, and believe in the existence 216 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. of three humors : bat, the air ; pit, the bile ; and kaf the phlegm. Any change in the quantity or quality of these humors produces disease, according to the humor altered and the nature of the altera tion. In every disease one or more of the humors is in fault, accord ing to the temperament of the patient. The baids say that a correct diagnosis as to what humor is in fault can be made from the pulse of the patient, which is felt by the tips of the index, middle, and ring fingers of the right hand, arranged in a row and placed longitudinally upon the radial artery of the right hand when the patient is a male, and of the left hand when female. The pulsation given by the artery is said to be differently felt by the different fingers, that is the beatmg under one finger is more or less distinct than under another, accord ing as one or other of the humours is affected. The Musalmdn hakims pretend to make the same diagnosis from the colour and consistence of the urine of the patient. Most of the drugs in use amongst the baids and hakims are, according to their notions, either anti-bilious, alterative, or cooling, expectorant, and febrifuge. Pur gatives are very rarely used by the hakims ; but when they do administer them, they carry them to an extreme. The baids for merly never used purgatives ; in the present day some of them, see ing their real benefit in the hands of European physicians, have taken to their use in some cases, but the more orthodox of their number never do so, as it is forbidden in the Shdstras. In treating an acute case, both the baids and hakims prescribe low diet and per fect abstinence from food for a certain period, as a lowering measure ; and pdchan or kdrah, which is a decoction of several vege table drugs. After a certain period, a preparation of metals or a poison is used. In treating a chronic case, a strict regimen and the use of one of the metallic preparations or a poison are at once resorted to: Charitable Dispensaries. — There are 5 Dispensaries in Patna District, 2 in the Sadr Subdivision, and the remaining three at the headquarters of the other Subdivisions. Of the two in the Sadr Sub division, one is situated in Bdnkipur and the other in Patnd City within a distance of six miles. (1.) PatnA City Dispensary, rin charge of a Native Assistant Surgeon, is situated in the heart of the city The total number of patients treated in 187 1 was 326; relieved or recovered 218: ceased to attend, 6; died, 88 or 27 per cent, of the total num ber treated ; daily average number of sick during the year CHARITABLE DISPENSARIES. 217 13-5. The total number of out-door patients treated during the same year was 10,089, and the average daily attendance was 97. Considering the position of this Dispensary these figures are not satisfactory; but there has been an improvement of late years. In 1874 the accommodation was increased by the addition of a building which belonged to the Education Department. There is now room for sixty in-door patients, but the average number in the hospital is only twenty. In 1874, 483 indoor patients were treated ; of whom 322 were cured, and 115, or nearly 25 per cent., died. The number of outdoor patients has also increased. In 1874, 12,454 persons attended; of whom 12,284, or 98 per cent, were cured. With the exception of £58, the interest of £"1,450 saved from the subscrip tions of former years and invested, this dispensary was in 187 1 entirely supported by Government. The total income during the year was £475, os. 7d., and the expenditure, exclusive of the cost of European medicines which are supplied by Government, amounted to £374, 7s., leaving a balance in hand at the close of the year of £"ioo, 12s. 7d. (2.) BAnkipur Dispensary was established in November 1867, and is in charge of a Native Assistant Surgeon. The total number of indoor patients treated in 1 8 7 1 was 1 6, of whom 1 5 were relieved or recovered, and one ceased to attend. The total number of outdoor patients who were treated during the year was 6,062; and the average daily attendance was 71-54. The total income of this dispensary for the year 187 1 was ,£253, os. 7d., and the expenditure, exclusive of the cost of European medicines, which are supplied free of charge by Government, ,£191, 8s. 4d. ; the Government contribution for salaries, special allowances, and European medicines being £"93, 15s. nd. This dispensary has improved considerably of late years. A new building has been erected, chiefly by private subscriptions ; and the finances, which now consist of a yearly contribution of £"180 from the Municipality, and about ,£60 from private subscriptions, are in a flourishing condition. The number of indoor patients treated in 1874 was 371, of whom 223 were cured. (3.) BArh Branch Dispensary was established in March 1867, and is in charge of an Assistant Surgeon. There is no accom modation for indoor patients. In 187 1, 2294 out-patients were treated during the year, the average daily attendance being 24-96, In that year the building was damaged by the floods : and in 1875, tne Magistrate described it as being in a dilapidated state, and 218 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. hardly fit for use. The Deputy-Magistrate was doing his best to have a new one constructed on abetter site. In the year 1874, 3768 out patients were treated, and the attendance was improving, owing to the substitution of a new surgeon. The income in 187 1 amounted to £"68, 17s. 4d. ; and the expenditure, exclusive of the cost of the medicine supplied free of charge by Government, to £33, 3s. 8d., leaving a balance in hand at the close of the year of ,£35, 13s. 8d. (4.) The Behar Dispensary was opened in June 1869, and is in charge of an Assistant Surgeon. The building was formerly a summer palace, and is suitably fitted up, but the position is not very central. It would, however, be difficult to choose a site, in a big straggling town like Behar, that would be readily accessible to all the inhabi tants. The building itself is all that could be desired, and was characterised by the Civil Surgeon in 1871 as the best, cleanest, and most suitable building of the kind that he had ever seen in Bengal. The total number of in-door patients treated in 187 1 was 33; of whom 30 were relieved or recovered, 2 ceased to attend, and 1 died. There were 2294 out-patients, and the daily average attendance was only 34-25 — a small number, considering the size of the town. The attendance has, however, now (1875) doubled. The total income in 1871 was £222, 5s. 8d., and the expenditure amounted to ,£192, 2s. 8d. ; leaving a balance in hand of £30, 2s. The financial con dition of this dispensary is very promising. The expenses are en tirely defrayed from local sources, Government providing nothing but the European medicines. (5.) DinApur Dispensary, established June i860, is in charge of a Hospital Assistant. In 187 1, the Inspector General of Hospitals reported that a new and more commodious building had been erected, containing an out-patient ward with separate office and dispensary rooms, two wards for 14 in-patients, and separate wards for the accommodation of females and Europeans. The Superintendent reported that a dead-house and a detached ward for infectious cases are still wanted, and the attention of the Committee had been drawn to this subject. The total number of in-door patients was 137, of whom 113 were relieved or recovered: 3 ceased to attend; and 17 died. The number of out-door patients was 4298 ; and the daily average attendance, 57-84. The total income in 187 1 was £294, 15s. 5d., and the expenditure, £"138, is. iod.; leaving a balance in hand of £156, 13s. 7d. In 1874, thenumberofin-patientshadincreasedto 282, of whom 208 were cured; and the number of out-door patients to 4342. Statistics of the Dispensaries and Medical Charities of PatnA District in 1871. Indoor Patients. Out-Door Patients. Operations Expenditure -a V en s DISPENSARIES. ¦§ nd* V 4)>O 0 J3 •S . B T3 j* Total inc includii Balance hand. ome Cost to Cost to Government Subscriptions and Income exclusive of the European Medicines supplied by Government free of charge. w 0 0 H A a V> 0 c ¦Si s''' US e 13 s .s u .5 0 "3 « c s uI. jJ-S 3° 0 H "c3 '3. O Oa in Government. on account oi European Medicines. from other Sources. A a A. O £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Dindpur, . i860 137 113 3 17 4 12-40 4-89 4298 51.84 7 43 294 is 5 66 0 0 7 0 11 89 12 0 138 1 10 Patna, l838 326 218 6 88 H 27 I3"50 10089 97-0 39 1053 475 0 7 33° 8 64 7 5 11 58 0 0 374 6 n Bankipur, . 1867 16 15 1 ¦68 6062 71-54 9 240 253 0 7} 93 6 7 0 9 34 136 8 9f 191 8 4 Barh, I867 2294 24-96 4 no 68 17 4 12 0 0 4 5 54 32 14 64 33 3 8 Behar, I869 33 30 2 1 I'02 2024 34-25 5 13 222 5 8] 0 19 104 196 0 0 192 3 81 Total, 512 376 12 105 19 20 -5 2Q-09 24767 279-59 64 1459 [313 19 7^ 501 15 ii 20 1 54 512 IS Ai ?29 4 Si 220 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT. The Temple School of Medicine was thus described by the Com missioner, Mr S. C. Bayley, in 1875. " It was opened on the 23d June 1874 with 20 pupils. The number gradually rose to 47; but some of the students having left before the close of the session (April), and others having been struck off for inability to show any progress, there was at the commencement of the present session only 21 local or civil students. In the beginning of June 1875, the military class of the Calcutta Medical College, consisting of 75 students, was transferred to the Bankipur school ; and 67 other students from the different dis pensaries and regiments were admitted to this class, making its total strength amount to 142. The admissions to the civil class since June numbered 8, so that the strength of this class is at present 29, and the total number of students attending the school is 171. The stu dents of the military class receive stipends of from Rs. 6 to Rs. 10 a-month, those of the civil class Rs. 3 a-month. The staff of teachers attached to the school consists of four Assistant-Surgeons and three Hospital-Assistants, besides the Civil Surgeon of the District, who is Superintendent of the school. Two of the Assistant-Surgeons are also in charge of the charitable Dispensaries of Patna city and Bankipur, and another has medical charge of the Patna' College. The school was first started in the Bankipur Dispensary Building, whence it was removed in June 1875 to the mission-house and compound, where temporary accommodation was fitted up for the residence of the military students." The Lunatic Asylum is situated in the south-east of the Civil Station of Bdnkipur, and is under the charge of the Civil Surgeon. The statistics for 1870 are as follow : — Remaining in the Asylum on ist January 1870, 122 males, 39 females, total 161; admitted during the year, 70 males, 16 females, total 86; re-admitted, 8 males, 5 females, total 13 ; total treated, 200 males, 60 females ; — grand total 260 ; cured 32 males, 8 females, total 40; improved and transferred, 1 male, 1 female, total 2; died, 17 males, 1 female, total 18; remaining under treatment, 150 males, 50 females, total 200 ; ratio of cures and transfers to total number treated, 16-15 Per cent- ; ratio of mortality to total number treated, 6-92 per cent.; daily average number of inmates 183. The numbers in the Asylum have steadily increased for the last twelve years from 95, the daily average number of inmates in 1862, to 280 in 1874. The total expenditure for the year 1872 was £'1756, 17s., or an average yearly cost per inmate of £"7, 10s. Much of this expenditure is met from the sale of the produce of the CONSERVANCY. 221 labour of the lunatics. The total value of this labour, in 1872, is reported to have been £'1006, 6s. In 1874, the Lieutenant-Governor remarked on the crowded state of this asylum. Some relief has since obtained by the occupation of the verandahs of the building, and by transfers to the new asylum at Barhampur. Conservancy. — In a passage that has already been quoted, Dr Buchanan Hamilton wrote in no measured terms of the filthy state of Patn£ City. The chief points on which he animadverted were : The badness of the roads ; the incredible amount of dust in spring, and of mud during the rains ; and, above all, the discomfort caused by the considerable pond or lake in the middle of the town, which, as it dried up every year, became exceedingly offensive. In 1873 the Sanitary Commissioner wrote as follows : — " In sanitation and con servancy arrangements the city of Patnd is in a very unsatisfactory state, but improvement under this head is difficult, owing to the peculiarities of the place. The crying evil is that the night-soil and refuse is thrown in one or two places in the centre of the city — one of them being a large ditch, which is flooded during the rains, but is dry during the other seasons. The deposit of night-soil in this ditch was prohibited during the year ; but on the inhabitants complaining that filth was accumulating to a dangerous extent in their houses, as they knew no other way of disposing of it, the prohibition was removed, and the practice allowed to be resumed under certain modifications. The Civil Surgeon feels sure that the success which attended the establishment of a public latrine in the subdivisional town of Behar would also be attained in the city of Patna, if like conveniences were opened out there ; and that the night-soil would form a considerable source of profit to the municipality. He advocates the experimental trial of the scheme on a small and economical scale, which, in con junction with pure water, which is expected from the canal in connec tion with the irrigation, would materially improve the health of this large city." An effort is now being made to turn the depression known as Shaikh Mathd ki garhi, which hitherto has been a receptacle for all kinds of filth, into a public garden. The centre is being dug to a depth of 27 feet, the earth taken out being used to raise the sides, and the ground thus gained will be ultimately converted into a garden with a lake in the middle. The primary cost of this work is being met from the Wahabi fund, from which a sum of £4982, 16s. has been sanctioned for the purpose. The deficiency will, it is hoped, 222 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF PATNA DISTRICT be met by private subscriptions. ' The Civil Surgeon, writing in 1875, mentions that a large latrine is also being constructed near this place, and that others will be made afterwards. He considers that, if there were more good pakd, or masonry wells, sickness would decrease, for the poor who cannot afford to get river water in the dry weather resort to the shallow kachchd wells, and suffer from cholera in consequence. STATISTICAL ACCOUNT THE DISTRICT OF SARAN. STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE DISTRICT OF SARAN.1 HpHE District of Saran, or strictly speaking Sarkdr Saran, forms one of the north-western Districts of the Patnd Division, in the Province of Behar. It is situated between 25° 40' and 2 6° 38' north latitude, and 83° 58' and 85° 14' east longitude. It contains a popu lation of 2,063,860 souls, as ascertained by the Census of 1872, and a total area of 2,654 square miles. The principal Civil Station, which is also the most populous town in the District, is Chhaprd, situated on the Ganges in 25° 47' north latitude, and 840 47' east longitude. Boundaries. — The District of Sdran is composed of the dodb, or alluvial strip of country, which lies between the three rivers, the Gan dak, the Ghagra (Gogra), and the Ganges. More specifically, it is bounded on the north and west by the District of Gorakhpur in the North-Western Provinces ; on the south-west by the river Ghagrd, which separates it from the District of Azimgarh, also in the North- Western Provinces ; on the south by the Ganges, which separates it from the Districts of Shdhdbdd and Patnd ; and on the east by the 1 The following are the principal materials from which this Statistical Account has been compiled: — (1) The five series of Special Returns drawn up by the Officiating Collector, Mr Garrett, C.S. (1870-71) ; (2) A Medical Return, prepared by the Civil Surgeon ; (3) Census Report of 1872, together with subsequent District Compilation by Mr Magrath, C. S. ; (4) The Collector's (Mr Drummond) Annual Administration Report for 1872-73; (5) MrWyatt's Survey Report on Sarkar Saran (1843-47) ; (6) Annual Reports of the Inspector-General of Police ; (7) SpeciaJ Statistics furnished by the Inspector-General of Jails for 1857-58, 1860-61, and 1870, together with his Reports for 1870, 1871, and 1872 ; (8) Special Statis tics furnished by the Director-General of Post Offices ; (9) Statistics compiled from the Reports of the Director-General of Public Instruction for 1855-57, lg6o- 61, and 1870-71 ; (10) Report on the Charitable Dispensaries of Bengal for 1871 and 1872 ; (11) Geographical Statistics furnished by the Surveyor-General ; (12) The Statistical Reporter (Calcutta) November 1875 to May 1876. VOL. XI. P 226 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Districts of Tirhut and Champaran, the boundary being again naturally formed by the river Gandak. Jurisdiction. — Sdran formerly constituted one District with Cham- pdran, and traces of this union are still apparent in the present state of the jurisdictions. The revenue areas of the two Districts were not finally separated until 1866; but the magisterial jurisdic tions were first divided in 1837, when a Magistrate was stationed at Motihdrf. Sdran still retains marks of its original pre-eminence. The Judge of Sdran holds regular Sessions at Motihdrf in Cham- pdran, and civil appeals from that District are also heard by him. The Sub-division of Sewan was first opened in 1848, and a second Subdivision at Gopalganj was sanctioned by Government in 1875. General Aspect of the District. — Sdran forms a vast alluvial plain, bounded on three sides by great rivers and intersected by numerous nadis or water- channels, which flow in a south-easterly direction and carry off the drainage of the District. They run along levels higher than the adjacent country, which is therefore liable to inundation whenever the streams overtop their banks. Beneath these high banks lie the basins in which the surface drainage primarily collects, to be discharged into the running channels at a lower stage in their course. The District takes the shape of an isosceles triangle. The base, which is very irregular, lies towards the north-west ; the equal sides are formed by the Gandak, and by the Ghagra and the Ganges; and the apex is at the south-east corner formed by the junction of the Gandak and the Ganges, at Sonpur. From this spot the levels slope very gently up towards the western parts of the District. The height of Kochai Kot, in the north-western corner, is 2 2 2 -5 1 feet above mean sea level; while Sonpur is only 168-32 feet, giving a difference of 54-19 feet. The whole District is beautifully wooded. Mango-topes abound, and the people have a passion for planting them. It is said, indeed, that the rainfall at Chhaprd is gradually increasing, owing to the number of groves with which the town is being sur rounded. The lower levels are but sparingly used for rice cultivation. High rice lands predominate ; and on these, indigo, opium, wheat, barley, and pulses are also grown. As in Tirhut, the soil in many places is saliferous, and the extraction of saltpetre affords employment to the Nuniyds, a poor and hardy race. There is little or no waste land, and the District has long been noted for the high state of its cultivation. The wide expanses of low lands along the banks of the RIVER SYSTEM: THE GANGES. 227 rivers produce magnificent rabi, or cold weather crops. The autumn or bhadai crop is rendered precarious, by the rivers often overflowing their banks at the harvest season. The north of the District is now, however, completely protected by the Gandak embankment ; and a scheme for the erection of similar works on the Ganges and Ghagra has been proposed. Until this scheme is carried into execution, large tracts of country will continue liable to be submerged, either by the rivers directly overflowing their banks, or by their flood waters forcing their way up the ndlds, which discharge themselves into the large rivers. At the same time, it is open to question whether the complete exclusion of the river water is an unmitigated benefit. Elevated Tracts. — There are no hills in Sdran ; but here and there small elevated tracts may be seen, a few feet higher than the surrounding country. These are often the sites of deserted villages. River System. • — The rivers which are navigable all the year round for large boats are the Gandak, Ganges, and Ghagrd. The smaller nadis, many of which dry up in the hot weather, comprise the Sundi or Ddhd, Jhardhi, Gandakf, Gangrf, Dhandi, and Khatsd, which all ultimately fall into the Ghagra or the Ganges. The Ganges forms the southern boundary of the District from about a mile below Revelganj, where it is joined by the Ghagrd, to the confluence of the Gandak at Sonpur. In the cold weather, its width is about one mile on an average ; but in the rains it extends . far beyond this limit, and is often nine or ten miles broad. Great changes seem to have taken place in its course since 1849, when it was surveyed from Patnd upwards to its junction with the Ghagrd. The maps of that date mark this junction at a spot half-way between Manjhi and Revelganj, or several miles above the present conflu ence, which takes place one mile below Revelganj. The sails of boats in the Ganges can be seen from that place, across a broad strip of what is now a cultivated didrd. Another channel, however, leaves the main stream before the junction, and re-joins it nearly opposite Ddridganj. Between this sold or small spill-channel and the main river, there is a large tract of sand, which is under water in flood time, but nearly, if not entirely, dries up in the cold and hot weather. During floods, it is possible to sail from Chhaprd to Arrah. At present the Ganges is about a mile to the south of Chhaprd, but formerly it flowed much nearer to the town, whose trade has suffered in consequence of the change. Besides the didrd already mentioned opposite Revelganj, there are numerous other sand banks and islands 228 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. of considerable size in the bed and along the banks of the river ; but it is not necessary to describe their position, as they are liable to extraordinary changes in each successive year. A large boat traffic is conducted on the Ganges, of which details will be given in the section upon "Trade." The principal trade marts are Chhaprd, Gultanganj, and Daridganj. There are ferries at Telpd ghdt, Sher pur, Pdndpur, and Mohendrd ghdts. As a rule, the banks from Sonpur to Chhaprd are high and above the flood level ; but the lowlands which lie behind these banks are regularly inundated every year. The floods force their way through the openings in the banks made by the small ndlds, and so find their way over the fields. The Ghagra (Gogra) or DehwA forms the south-western bound ary of the District from near Ghidspur factory to its junction with the Ganges, a mile below Revelganj. The principal places on its banks are Revelganj, the largest bdzdr and trade centre in the District; the police station of Mdnjhi; and Domaigarh, where boats are built and large quantities of sal wood are sold. The course of the Ghagrd is liable to great alterations. In 1872, a change in the main channel necessitated the transfer of 7 didrds to Azfmgarh District. The set of the current is supposed to be now gradually receding from Revel ganj towards the south, in which case that mart will lose its present important position. In many places the banks are high ; but the Ghagra, like the Ganges, inundates the country, by forcing its way up the small nadis. Its total length in Sdran District is about 55 miles. The navigation is easy, and a large river-borne trade is carried on between Lower Bengal and Gorakhpur and Oudh. A detailed de scription of the banks of this river will be given subsequently, in the section that treats of Embankments. The Gandak forms the north-eastern boundary of the District from the village of Khargaulf to Sonpur, where it falls into the Ganges — a distance in a straight line of nearly 95 miles. It is a snow-fed stream, issuing from the hills at Tribenf ghdt, in the north west of Champdran; but very soon afterwards it acquires the character of a deltaic river. Its banks are generally on a higher level than the adjacent country, a fact which has had considerable influence on the prosperity of Sdran District, as the floods often overtop the banks and inundate large tracts of land. It has no tributaries in its course through the plains ; and the drainage of the country generally sets not to it but from it, being conveyed away by several nadis, which RIVER SYSTEM: THE GANDAK. 229 cross the District, and ultimately make their way into the Ganges. Where any drainage does fall into the Gandak, it may be presumed to be due to the shifting nature of its channel, which had changed before the silting up process was completed. Of all snow-fed streams west of the San Kusi', the Gandak pours the largest volume into the Ganges. According to Captain Jeffrey's report on the proposed irrigation scheme from the Lower Gandak (from which most of this description has been taken), it reaches its lowest level towards the end of March, when the discharge down one deep and narrow channel was found to be 10,391 cubic feet per second. Earlier observations gave a minimum of 14,000 feet per second. During floods, the highest volume recorded is 266,000 cubic feet per second. That its flood level is affected by the Ganges' floods, is proved by the circumstance that the Gandak never rises more than 13 feet above summer level at a point 35 miles from the confluence ; whereas at Sonpur the rise is 22 feet, decreasing gradually up to the 35th mile. The course of the Gandak is wrell adapted for down-stream naviga tion. There are no important river marts on its banks in Sdran, and most of the traffic is carried on below %attax ghdt. The current is very rapid, and navigation up-stream very tedious and dangerous. In the rains, boats of 1000 maunds can get up as far as Ldlganj in Tirhut, but half loads can only be carried when going against stream. The boats vary from 400 to 800 maunds burthen. Their dimensions, as ascertained by the average of several measurements, are as follow : — For boats of 400 maunds: draught when loaded, 4 feet; mean length, 37 feet; width of beam, 12 feet; width of thatch, 15 feet. Boats of 500 maunds: draught when loaded, 4 feet 2 inches ; length, 42 feet ; width of beam, 13 feet; width of thatch, 16 feet. Boats of 600 maunds: draught when loaded, 4 feet 4 inches ; length, 42 feet ; width of beam, 14 feet; width of thatch, 17 feet. Similarly, a boat of 700 maunds draws 4 feet 6 inches ; has a mean length of 47 feet ; a width of beam of 15 feet; and width of thatch of 18 feet. A boat of 800 maunds draws 4 feet 7 inches ; has a mean length of 56 feet ; a width of beam of 16 feet; and a width between thatch of 91 feet. The rates charged by country boats going up stream are 8 pies (id.) per ton per mile, and down stream 5 pies (f d.). Snags are said to be common in places; and opposite Hamuli, in Tirhut, a large bed oi kankar extends directly across the bed of the river, contracting the stream into a nar row and deep channel. While the irrigation-navigation scheme was under consideration, a register of boats passing up and down the 230 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Gandak was kept for four months in 1868, from March to June in clusive, with the following results. Up traffic : 834 empties, 447 salt cargoes, 6\ betel nut, 46J pulses, 19 indigo seed, 26| iron, 96J sun dries, 5 piece goods; total, 1481 up-cargoes. Down traffic: turmeric 48 cargoes, opium 89, fuel 51, maize 62, hides 58, rice 54-J, oilseeds 124^, saltpetre 189, bamboos 118, jhawd 51J, straw 79J, timber 278, sugar 42, tobacco 4, china 3, ginger 2, potatoes 4, sundries 362 ; total, 1620 down cargoes, giving 26,300 tons as the total exports for those four months. The principal ghats or landing places are Sdlimpur, Sattar, Sarangpur, Sohdnsf, Sohdgpur, Rewd, Barwd, Saryd,and Sonpur. On the Sdran side of the Gandak an embankment extends continu ously from Sonpur to the extreme northern corner of the District. In some parts it is protected by a second outer band, which renders cultivation between the two secure, and utilises land which would otherwise be annually submerged. Up to Sadawd factory, the main embankment varies in distance from a quarter to half a mile from the deep stream ; but above that place the Gandak has wandered much more, and according to the Survey maps it is in some places seven miles distant from the artificial line. The river has several times broken through this embankment. The last inundation, in 1872, was due to a subsidiary bandh having been demolished by order of the superintending engineer, who feared that its retention endangered the safety of the main embankment. The result was the inundation of a tract which had remained free for more than thirty years. The jHARAHf nadi rises at Manpurd, in Gorakhpur District, and first touches Sardn near Koesa band. After passing through pargand Kodri, it falls into the Ghagrd near Darauli, after a total course of 52 miles, of which 40 are in this District. Among the places it passes are Husepur and Myrnd, but it conveys little or no traffic. The Khanwa nadi is entirely fed from large chaurs in Gorakhpur. It sends off a branch at Rewd, on the boundary between Sdran and Gorakhpur, near the village of Kdtwd, 6 miles from its source. This branch forms the boundary of the District for 6 miles to Kodiswd, where it rejoins the parent stream. From Kodiswd the Khanwa nadi continues to form the boundary for 4 miles to Mohanpur, from which place it flows for 10 miles in Sdran. It then re-enters Gorakh pur and flows through that District to Mahyd, where it again forms the Sdran boundary up to Dumrid. The total length is 56 miles, and it finally falls into the Ddhd nadi. At Rdnf ghdt, the actual running water is about 13 yards wide, while the width from bank to bank is 78 RIVER SYSTEM. 231 yards. At Qahyarrtwr ghdt the breadth of the water is 37 yards, and the depth about 3 feet, while the banks are 150 yards apart. For 12 miles above Kodf-Siddhf the stream is never dry, and boats of 300 maunds can always reach that village, to which there is a good towing path. The banks are very high, and except in one or two places are not topped by floods. The water is but little used for irrigation, owing to the great lift which is necessary. An embankment is required at Sydmnagar. The principal cargoes carried on the nadi are Salt, tobacco and grain of all kinds. The Daha nadi, also known as the Sundf, rises near the large village of Kochai Kot, a little to the south of the Gandak embank ment ; and after passing Mfrganj, Sewan, and Andar, flows into the Ghagrd at Domaigarh, about 5 miles to the north-west of Mdnjhf thdnd. At present, its source is about 6 miles distant from the Gan dak, but prior to the construction of the Gandak embankment it was fed from that river. Its channel, even in the dry season, can be distinctly traced up to the embankment near Parmanand Patti ; and it has been proposed to restore the connection by inserting a sluice, and allowing the Gandak waters to enter the old bed. Though fed by numerous small streams, this nadi runs dry in the hot weather above Pipraulf, but never below that place. It overflows its banks at several places, and causes much damage at Jegna and Dardi. Embank ments, however, have been constructed with some success to protect the first mentioned village. These inundations are due to the flood water of the Ghagrd finding its way up and forcing back the stream of the nadi as far as Champai, 16 miles from the junction of the rivers. From 2 miles above Saramusd to Sirsid, the banks are from 15 to 30 feet wide, but below Sirsid to Trimohinf ghdt they are much further apart. They are for the most part from 4 to 6 feet high, and the bed of the stream is cultivated. At Badmdjamf it is 100 yards wide. Navigation is carried on as far as Sewan, 31 miles above the junction of the nadi with the Ghagrd, but it is a good deal impeded by some low bridges. The total length of the stream is 60 miles, but its pourse is very tortuous. Its slope is o-8 feet per mile, and its velocity 352 yards per hour or -29 feet per second. There is no towing path. During the rains it rises and falls very rapidly. The water is utilised for irrigation nearly the whole way down to Sewdn, dal lifts being met with at about every 200 yards in the upper reaches; but as the stream grows broader they become fewer in number, and cease altogether after Sewan. 232 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. The Gandaki ndld is one of the most important drainage channels in the District. It formerly had its origin in a sotd or spill channel of the Gandak, before the embankment was made ; and this channel is still visible up to Kararfd, on the ninety-sixth mile of the embank ment. It flows in a south-easterly direction through the District, taking the name of the Mdhi nadi at Sitalpur, and finally falls into the Ganges near Sonpur. The principal places it passes are Gopdl- ganj, the site of the new Subdivisional station, Chauki Hassan, Rdm pur, Khordm, Gurkha, and Sftalpur. When the Ganges is in flood, its backwaters force their way up to Gurkha, where the Rewa ghdt road crosses the nadi by a large bridge; and nearly the whole country on its south bank up to Dfghwara is laid under water. In the hot weather it runs nearly dry ; but there are springs in its bed, which the cultivators utilise by throwing up bandhs or embankments, to retain the water. The channel is generally well defined and straight, though it winds a good deal at Mdnjhi, Jojdpur and Saryd. The natives say that, before the Gandak embankment was thrown up, this channel was navigable all the way up to the Gandak ; but now boats of iooo maunds can get no higher than the Gurkha bridge in the rains. Its total length is 90 miles, in which distance it falls 80 feet, equal to a fall of -834 feet per mile. The banks are not on the same level ; where one is high, the other is low ; and despite embankments in several places, the ndld occasionally overflows. Its discharge at Dodyla near Sonpur on the 6th October 1874, was found to be 121,976 cubic feet per second; and at Gurkhd on the same date, 57,825 cubic feet per second. It has several feeders, which are used for irrigating rice ; the principal of these is the Dhandf. The Dhanai nadi has its source at the 77 th mile of the Gandak embankment at Rupanchap, and was formerly fed from the Rupan- chap sotd or spill channel of the Gandak, before the construction of the embankment. Old villagers say that it was then navigable for boats of 300 or 400 maunds throughout its entire course. It runs in a south-westerly direction, and joins the Gandaki ndld at the village of Paraulf, a distance of about 50 miles from its source. In the hot weather it is entirely dry, and the villagers dig wells in its bed from 3 to 9 feet below the surface. Bandhs are also thrown across in some places, where the bed is cultivated for spring-crops. The banks are low, and embankments few, and the floods do much harm. There are several bridges which impede navigation. The average fall is ALLUVIUM AND DILUVIUM, &*c. 233 1 foot per mile, and the course is very tortuous. The principal places on this stream are Baraulf, Barhogd and Basantpur. The Gangri is also a tributary of the Gandaki. This stream rises near Bandhaulf, on the Gandak embankment; and was doubtless fed by that river before that work was constructed. After flowing some distance to the west, it turns southwards, and passing Rdjpati factory, flows on past Mashrak, where it crosses the Chhaprd Bandhaulf road. It finally joins the Gandaki ndld at Sftalpur, after a total length of fifty miles. The Khatsa nadi is a tributary of the Gangri. It also rises on the embankment near Rdmkola factory, and joins the Gandak at Bidwantharpur. In some places it is embanked, but not so strongly as could be wished. Its total length is twenty-four miles. Both this stream and the Gandaki are very similar in character to the Dhandf. Alluvium and Diluvium are constantly taking place along the banks of the large rivers — the Ganges, Ghagra, and Gandak. One bank of the river, on which the current strikes, is generally high and abrupt, while the other is shelving ; but these characteristics are generally reversed in a short space of time. The high bank is gradually eaten away, and the current then turns to the opposite side, where a similar process is repeated. Further down, large sandbanks form one year, and are swept away the next, sometimes making changes in jurisdiction necessary. Thus, in 1872, it was found that the deep stream of the Ghagrd had transferred seven didrds from Saran to Azfmgarh ; these were Harnatan, Daraulf, Mdhdjf, Misrauli, Kentolid, Amarpurand Karmohd, which paid a total annual revenue ofRs. 1,320. It is said that the river Ghagrd is now gradually receding from the town of Revelganj, as the Ganges has already done from Chhaprd. The Beds of the rivers are generally sandy, while the banks are cultivated as near to the water's edge as possible. Along the channels of the large rivers, there are often wide expanses of low lands, which are flooded in the rains, but lie uncovered during the cold weather. At that time they are sown with rabi crops, which always turn out well, owing to the rich deposit of silt annually brought down. In some places during the dry season, there is often a belt of scrub jungle and sand between the river and the cultivated fields. Lakes and Marshes. — Lakes, properly so called, do not exist in Saran District. But in the Board of Revenue Statistics for 1869, the following "lakes" are mentioned : — (1) Bahiara, 9 miles long, water 234 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. good ; (2) Bandaild, 4 miles long by 2 broad ; (3) Chatra, \ mile long by \ mile broad, water good; (4) Dantf, 1 mile long by 1 broad, water good ; (5) Dhargat, 2 miles long by 1 broad, water good ; (6) Jhore, 2 miles long by 1 broad, water good ; (7) Surekd, 1 mile long and 200 yards broad, water good. These may be more properly termed jhils than lakes. The largest chaur is known as the Harded chaur, which extends from Sonpur 20 miles along the Gan dak embankment, with a breadth varying from 2 to 5 miles, and a depth of from four to thirteen feet in the highest freshes. When the Ganges is in flood, the backwaters are forced into this chaur, through the Mdhf nadi. Its drainage is urgently required, as the Gandak embankment is rendered practically useless for the 20 miles along which the chaur extends. There are no canals or artificial water courses. The Loss of Life by Drowning during the Ten Years 1860-69, is thus returned by the Police Men. Women. Boys. Girls. Total. i860, 37 19 31 iS 102 1861, 32 41 36 26 135 1862, 31 69 41 23 164 1863, 85 105 25 10 225 1864, 64 78 18 13 173 1865, 41 us 64 49 269 1866, 68 185 25 25 3°3 1867, 121 139 75 47 382 1868, 48 122 44 53 267 1869, 38 in 66 58 273 Total, 565 984 425 319 2293 At least 90 per cent, of these deaths were caused by falling into pits and wells. It seems strange that there should be so large an excess of women drowned over men, while the number of boys drowned is greater than that of girls. The above figures, however, represent but a small number of the deaths which really are due to this cause. In 1867 the numbers were exceptionally large, on account of the heavy floods which took place in that year. River Traffic— On this head the Collector reports, " All the towns along the banks of the rivers Ghagrd and Ganges may be said to depend greatly on the river traffic;— that is to say, they all contain IRRIGATION, &>c. 235 a population which is principally employed in exporting goods to various places by boats. Daridganj, Gultanganj, Revelganj, Mdnjhi, Siswdn, Darauli, and Guthnf, all contain a larger . or smaller popula tion engaged in this export trade." These places do not support a large population of resident boatmen ; on the contrary, the bulk of the carrying trade is in the hands of Bengalis, who bring up rice, salt, and cloth, and take back return cargoes of oil-seeds and salt petre. On the Gandak, the only marts of any importance are Sdlim- pur and Sattar ghats, where a good deal of grain traffic is carried on. Boats. — The boats used on the Sdran rivers are principally of the following descriptions — (1) The ulakh has a sharp bow and a rounded side ; (2) the melni is a boat similar to the ulakh, and must be care fully distinguished from the Tirhut melahni, which is a flat-bottomed boat, of a rectangular shape, used for ferries, and where the water is shallow, and of a low velocity ; (3) the patild comes from the west ; it is a very broad boat, and does not draw much water ; (4) the ahaind and (5) gurid also come from the west; (6) the dinghi and (7) pdnsi are small ferry boats. Irrigation is resorted to wherever the means are present, either from wells or ndlds. The depth of subsoil water varies in different localities, and also according to the season. Out of three returns which were obtained on this subject, one gave the average depth at from 10 to 20 feet, another at from 20 to 24 feet, and a third at from 24 to 28 feet below the surface. The contrivances for raising water are simple. One is a well, with a leathern bucket hung on a rope, which passes over a pulley, and is attached to two bullocks, which run down an incline and pull up the bucket when filled. A second method is the erect pole, with a bamboo balanced on it, supporting a bucket at one end and a lump of mud at the other. According to a third method, the hollowed-out trunk of a tree is lowered into a stream, and the water being raised, is guided to where it is wanted. By another contrivance the water is raised by a reed basket scoop, which two men work by ropes attached to each end. If the water is near to the field the cost of irrigation is about 12 dnnds per bighd; if distant, R. 1. Sometimes the water has to be raised by two suc cessive stages before the cultivator can irrigate his land. The quantity used is generally about 250 maunds per bighd. Water is also let through sluices in the Gandak embankment. River water is nowhere utilised for turning machinery. Fisheries— The fisheries on rivers and the deeper swamps are 236 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. very valuable, especially those on the river Ghagrd. The most common kinds of fish are the ruhi, mahsir, arwdri or mullet, piyds, bardri, bachwd, ghoghti, garai, chalwd, hilsd, punthi, and bdim. There are no regular fishing villages in Saran District; a few fishermen generally reside in each village, who supply the wants of all. In the larger villages where many Mdllds live, they generally have their houses in a distinct told, but nowhere occupy a distinct village. In 187 1 the Collector estimated the number of fishermen in the District at 10,000. The Census Report of 1872 classifies the num bers belonging to Hindu boating and fishing castes as follow: — Banpar, 32; Gonhri, 14,456; Keut, 46 ; Malla, 21, 849; Mariari, 118 ; Surdhujd, 239 ; Temar, 99; Tior, 15 13 ; total, 38,352, or about 1 -3 per cent, of the District population. In the Occupation Returns, under the heading of " persons employed in fishing and boating," the following figures are shown — boat-men, 4828 ; boat-owners, 92 ; fishermen, 602 ; total, 5522. In i860, the Government fisheries on the Ghagra and Ganges were settled in two blocks : — 1. In the Ganges, from opposite Sherpur ghdt to the mouth of the Ghagrd. 2. In the Gandak, from the point where the river leaves Gorakhpur District, to the point where it forms the boundary between Champaran and Tirhut. The first of these was settled for one year for Rs. 500, the second for Rs. 1600. The Board of Revenue, however, subsequently ordered that no settlement of the fisheries on the Gandak, Ghagra, and Karamnasa, which in some parts of their courses are the boundaries between the Lower and the North-Western Provinces, should be made by the local officials of the Patna Division. A fresh Settlement was ordered to be made for that part of the Ganges which lay within Sdran District, and since then the rents have been as follow: — 1861-62, Rs. 100; 1862-63 t0 1864-65, Rs. 425; 1865-66 to 1867-68, Rs. 300; 1868-69 to 1870-71, Rs. 130. Land Reclamation. — Many of the small rivers are embanked, with a view to the cultivation of boro rice. Besides the large marshes, there are several small jhils in the District, which might no doubt be easily reclaimed ; but no attempt has been made to do so. It is questionable whether any advantage would accrue from their being brought under cultivation, as they form valuable reservoirs for water, which is used for irrigating the spring crops. The desirability of the reclamation of the Harded chaur, has been already alluded to. Marsh Products. — Long-stemmed rice is grown in several deep- FERAE NA TUR^E. 237 water chaurs; the most common varieties being kalaunji, jasarid, and umath. The first variety, it is said, can keep pace in its growth with the ordinary rate of rising flood water. In the west of the District, the narkat reed is frequently seen ; it is made into coarse matting of the same name, which is similar, though inferior, to the dharma matting made in Calcutta. The sirkd reed is used for thatching and for covering carts. It is generally met with in dry situations. The Drainage of the District is from north-west to south-east, and is entirely discharged into the small nadis, of which a description has already been given. When an unusually heavy rainfall has occurred, these nadis are unable to carry off all the water, and large tracts of cultivated ground are inundated. The consequences are especially disastrous, when the mouths of the nadis themselves are stopped by high floods in the great rivers into which they flow. Minerals. — The minerals found in Sdran are Glaubers salt {gulbar sord), and nodular limestone of excellent quality, which is found throughout the District, except in the north-west corner. It is used for metalling roads and is largely exported to Patnd. Forest and Jungle Products. — There are hardly any forest products in Sdran, owing to the small area of jungle. The lac insect is found on the pipal tree, and it is estimated that about 200 maunds of this dye are annually exported. Shells are largely gathered for burning lime. FeRjE Nature. — Formerly, both leopards and tigers were very common in the District, but they have now completely disappeared. Wolves and wild pigs are still found, the latter abounding in the low scrub jungle which is met with on didrds. Wolves carry off a good many children, and sometimes attack sheep. There are many snakes, the principal being the dhdmin (cobra), and the kardit, both very deadly. No rewards are offered for snake killing. Crocodiles are common in the large rivers. Among game birds are the quail, wild duck, snipe, and plover, as well as partridges, ortolans, and green pigeons. The natives eat all sorts of game, besides doves, paddy birds {bakuld) Brdhmanf ducks, common ducks, and coots. A list of the principal fish has already been given. The mahsir is the most esteemed. It grows to a large size, and its flesh has a good flavour, something like the cod. The ruhi and piyds are also good when caught in the rivers. The arwdri is a small and delicate kind of mullet, which always moves on the top of the water. 238 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. The following statement shows the sums that have been paid in rewards for the destruction of wild beasts for the ten years from i860 to 1869: — 1860 none; 1861, one wolf, Rs. 10; 1862, none; 1863, one wolf, Rs. 5; 1864, none; 1865, four wolves, Rs. 14; 1866, seven wolves, Rs. 12 ; 1867, three wolves, Rs. 3 ; 1868, five wolves, two leopards, Rs. 21, 12. ; 1869, three wolves, one leopard, Rs. 20, 8. The following shows the alleged number of deaths from wolves and snake bites during the same period of ten years : — No. of Deaths by Year. Wolves. Snakes. i860 9 3 1861 3 2 1862 9 2 1863 55 3 1864 7 4 1865 10 7 1866 8 9 1867 3° 25 1868 7i 67 1869 29 89 231 211 Total deaths, 442. Early Estimates of the Population. — Several attempts have been made in Sdran at an enumeration of the people. In 1800, the Collector, Mr N. Sturt, estimated the number of towns and villages at 7232 ; the number of houses at 154,000; and thus, calculating 6 to a family, the total population at 1,104,000. This estimate included the present District of Champdran, which was not separated from Sdran until 1837. In 1843, Mr Wilkins, the Magistrate, ordered a rough census to be taken through the police. The number of people in each house was assumed to be 5-5. The number of houses was returned at 250,221, and the population at 1,376,215, showing 527 persons per square mile. Similar enumerations, produc ing almost the same results, were undertaken in 1847, 1854, and 1855. In i860, the number of people, calculated from the number of houses, was returned at 1,271,729. In December 1869 and January 1870, a Census preparatory to the general one of 1872 was taken by the Police, based as usual on the number of houses, and the number of persons in each. The houses CENSUS OF I872. 239 were returned at 223,054, and the population at 1,223,713, being at the rate of about 6 J persons to each house. The Census of 1872 shows that 7 is the average number per house. A misconception as to the proper meaning of the word "house," may have caused the inclusion of what were really two houses under one entry. A partial Census^of some of the more important towns and villages was taken on the morning of the 26th of May 1869. The results, as compared with those obtained in 1872, were as follow: — Chhaprd and Gultanganj, 1869, 45,742 ; 1872, 46,274. Revelganj, 1869, 11,968; 1872,13,415. Mdnjhf, 1869, 4,660; 1872,5,747. Mahd rdjganj, 1867, 2843; 1872, 2119. Sewdn, 1869, 10,084; 1872, 11,099. Guthnf, 1869, 3643; 1872, 4379. Hatwd, 1869, 2,483; 1872, 2,546. Mashrak, 1869, 3,490; 1872, 3,906. Hasanpurd, 1869, 3269; 1872, 2,829. Amnaur, 1869, 2,618; 1872, 2,257. Dighwdrd, 1869, 4,613 ; 1872, 3,878. Census of 1872. — A much more accurate Census was taken in 1872, when all previous estimates were found to be far below the truth. This enumeration was almost wholly effected by the agency of the village accountants or patwdris, whose services have since been utilised in the collection of agricultural statistics. The following account of the agencies employed has been slightly condensed from the Collector's report " The patwdris were summoned three times. The first time, each man had to write out a copy of the enumerator's form, and to fill this up properly ; and he received instructions. With these forms they returned to their villages, and filled in first only the name of the head of the house, leaving space for the other members. The second time they came to head-quarters, they were examined as to how they had done this, and their answers seemed to show that they understood their duty. The third time, they received the printed enumerator's form, and were again shown what was necessary. The police under took the enumeration of the floating population and of the travellers. An educated policeman was deputed from each thdnd within whose jurisdiction any river-bank lay ; and he proceeded along the bank, stopped any boats, and counted the people who were inside. Con stables were stationed on roads to intercept all travellers. To prevent persons being counted twice, tickets were supplied. The houses in municipalities were divided into compact blocks, sufficiently small to admit of an accurate enumeration of the inhabitants. " The Census was taken throughout the District on the evening 240 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. of the 25th January 1872. There is every reason to believe that the results are correct. As far as can be ascertained, the system of enumeration adopted was correctly understood and properly carried out. No sort of opposition was offered, but there was a general belief that the undertaking was connected with a new tax. The cost of taking the Census was only Rs. 670." Distribution of Population. — The District of Sdran has an area of 2654 square miles, and contains a population of 2,063,860 persons, inhabiting 293,524 houses. If we except the metropolitan Districts of Hugh' and the Twenty-four Pargands, Sdran is the most densely populated District in Lower Bengal, having a population of 778 per square mile. The Sadr Sub-Division contains 859 persons to the square mile, while the pressure in Sewdn is 692. In the three thdnds of Dighwdrd, Manjhf, and Mashrak, all in the Sadr Sub-division, the average density exceeds 900 ; while in Mashrak alone, there are actually 984 persons to the square mile. The thdnds where population is least dense are Bardgdon and Baraulf, where the rate per square mile is 605 and 620 respectively. The females exceed the males by 70,494, or 3-4 per cent. The Collector explains this excess by the fact that a large number of men in Saran District go out in service, and are employed as soldiers. Previous to the Mutiny, it is said that as many as 10,000 sepoys were natives of this District. The excess of females is principally confined to the Sadr Sub-division, where it reaches the proportion of 5 -4 per cent. ; while in the Sewdn Sub-division it is only -6 per cent. In the Sadr Sub-division again, the excess is most marked in the Dighwdrd and Parsd thdnds, where the females are more numerous than the males in the proportion of 9-2 per cent, and 7 per cent.; while in Basantpur the excess is only 4 per cent. The small proportion of males in the first mentioned thdnd may be accounted for, according to the Collector, by the nearness of Patnd and the Shdhdbdd Canal works ; while, again, many of the males are boatmen and Kahars, whose duties take them away from their houses. The Collector can assign no reason why Parsd should be inhabited by more females than males, unless that which is afforded by the circumstance that it is largely populated by Ahfrs of the worst class, who are known to be constantly absent on thieving expeditions in Tirhut and Champaran. Of the whole population only 11-7 per cent, are Muhammadans, who are most numerous in the Sewdn thdnd of the Sewdn Sub-division. The Table on the opposite page illustrates the distribution of the population, &c, in each Sub-division and police circle. Abstract of the Area, Population, &c, of each Sub-Division and Police Circle of Saran District, 1872. SUB-DlVIRION. Police Circle or thdnd. 0u3 . cr1 o? •si Number ofvil lages, mauzds, or townships persquaremile. V* 0 u in U V _a m §° 55 -3 0 H Averages according to the Census Officers. Persons per square mile. Villages, mauzds, or townships per square mile. Persons per village, niauzd, or township. Houses per square mile. Persons per house. Chhaprd . . - f Sewan . . -j | i Chhapra .... Dighwara Prasa Manjhi ..... Mashrak .... Basantpur .... Sub-Divisional Total Sewan ..... Darauli .... Baragaon .... Barauli .... Sub-Divisional Total District Total . 309 116 205 i5« 274246 370212508225501 412 35.917 18,663 29,908 17,208 35,526 26,039 236,986 107,338 222,360 136,063 269,593 197,111 767 925839 901984 801 I'20 183 1-921 49 1-83 1-67 64I 506 438 605538 478 116l6l"3 114130106 6-6 ! 5-8 7'4 7 -9 •7-6 76 1361 2228 163,261 1,169,451 859 1-64 525 120 72 34° 281422250 588 471 768 295 4°. 190 26,39240,44123,240 282,185 201,836 255,457 154,931 830 718 605620 173168 1-82 1-18 480429 333525 118 9496 93 7-0 7-6 6-3 67 1293 2122 130,263 894,409 692 1-64 421 IOI 6-9 i 2654 4350 293,524 2,063.860 778 1-64 474 m 7-0 • 242 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Population classified according to Sex, Age, &c — The total population of Sdran consists of 2,063,860 souls, viz., 996,683 males, and 1,067,177 females. The proportion of males in the total Dis trict population is 48-3 per cent.; and the average pressure of the people upon the soil, 778 per square mile. Classified according to religion and age, the Census yields the following results :— Hindus ; under twelve years of age, males, 343,597, and females, 312,331 ; above twelve years, males, 536,889, and females, 629,23 1. Muhammadans ; under twelve years, males, 46,164, and females, 4i,I7° '> above twelve, males, 69,888, and females, 84,368. Christians; under twelve years, males, 23, females, 20; above twelve years, males, 116, females, 48. Other religious denominations not separately classi fied ; under twelve years, males, 2, females, 3 ; above twelve years, males, 4, females, 6. Population of all religions ; under twelve years, males, 389,786, and females, 353,524; above twelve, males, 606,897, and females, 713,653. The per centage of children not exceeding twelve years of age in the population of different religions is as follows : — Hindus ; proportion of male children, 18.9 per cent., and of female children, 17-1 per cent. ; total proportion of children of both sexes, 36-0 per cent of the total Hindu population. Muha- madans ; proportion of male children, 19-1 per cent, and of female children, 17-1 per cent. ; total proportion of children of both sexes, 36-2 per cent, of the total Muhammadan population. Christians ; proportion of male children, ii-i per cent., and of female children, 9-7 per cent. ; total proportion of children of both sexes, 20-8 per cent, of the total Christian population. Other religious denomina tions ; proportion of male children, 14-3 per cent, and of female children, 28-6 per cent. ; total proportion of the children of both sexes, 42-9 per cent, of the total " other population." Population of all religions ; proportion of male children, 18-9 per cent ; and of female children, 17-1 per cent. ; proportion of children of both sexes, 36-0 per cent, of the total District population. Infirmities. — The number of persons afflicted with infirmities in Sdran District is thus returned in the Census Report — Insane ; males, 89, females, 7 ; total, 96, or -0047 of the total population. Idiots; males, 224, and females, 28; total, 252, or -0122 of the total population. Deaf and dumb; males, 660, females, 100; total, 760, or -0368 of the total population. Blind; males, 737, and females, 166; total, 903, or -0438 of the total population. Lepers; males, 656, and females, 33 ; total, 689, or "0334 of the total population, PARTIAL CENSUS IN 1874. 243 It is a curious circumstance that, although the females number more than one-half of the total population of the District, out. of the total number of persons afflicted with the above-mentioned infirmities, only about one-eighth are women. The total number of male infirms amounted to 2366, or -n per cent, of the total male population; while the number of female infirms is only 334, or -oi of the total female population. The total number of infirms of both sexes is 2700, or -1308 per cent, of the total District population. The paragraphs showing the occupations of the people, given in the District Census Compilation, are here omitted, as they do not stand the test of statistical criticism. Partial Census in 1874. — In the beginning of 1874, when the famine advances in Manjhf thdnd were being carried on, a Census was taken in that thdnd with the aid of the relief organisation. The results were the following, as compared with the general Census of 1872:— 1872. 1874. Men, . • 39,9°4 44,218 Boys, . . 25,2.16 25,378 65,180 ' 69,596 Women, . 49,019 49,°99 Girls, . 21,864 21,979 70,883 71,078 Total, . 136,063 140,674 The excess of men found in ri 874 is explained by the fact that, in the enumeration of that year, both the resident and non-resident members of the family were included, while the latter were omitted in the general Census. [Ethnical Division of the Peoplu. 244 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Ethnical Division of the People. — The following table is taken from the District Census Compilation of Mr Magrath, C.S.: — Name of Nationality, Tribe, or Caste. I.— NON-ASIATICS. Europeans. English Irish ScotchWelsh French German Total, II.— MIXED RACES. Eurasian Total III.— ASIATICS. A. — Other than Natives of India and British Burmah. Nepali's Total B. — Natives of India and British Burmah. i. — Aboriginal Tribes. Bhar DhdngarKdnjar . KharwdrNat Number. Total 2. — Semi-Hinduised Aboriginals. Arak or Baheliyd Barf Baurf BhuiydBind Chain 46 9 25 8 4 3 95 29 29 16 16 Name of Nationality, Tribe, or Caste. Chamdr . Dom Dosddh . GangauntdHdri Mihtar, &c. Musdhar PdsiRajwdr . Total 7,647 37 36255i 7796 52 5,044 9 63 18,429 905 3.— Hindus. (1) Superior Castes. BrdhmanRdjput .... Total (2) Intermediate Castes. Bdbhan .... Bhdt .... Kathak . Kdyasth . Kishanpachhf Total (3) Trading Castes. Agarwdld Agrahrf . Banyd . Barnawdr Jdmanpuri Kasarwdnf Kasandhdn Khatri . Mahuri . Mdrwdrf Nauniydr Rdstogi . RauniydrSarawdkSinduriyd Total, Number. 94,844 7,466 73,046 74 42 3,2935,317 4,767 117 213,468 158,109 225,873383,982 88,046 3,659 327 47,640 4 139,676 617 1,080 8,509 5,5851,352 1,008 78 450 72 13 1,2891,308 5,411 1,141 27,915 ETHNICAL DIVISION OF THE PEOPLE. 245 Name of Nationality, Tribe, or Caste. (4) Pastoral Castes. GarerfGodld Total (5) Castes engaged in pre paring Cooked Food. Halwdf .... Kandu .... Total (6) Agricultural Castes. Bdrui and Tdmbulf BalindarKaibartta Kdmkar . Koerf Kurmf . Mali Total (7) Castes engaged chiefly in Personal Set vice. Amdnth DhdnukDhobf . Hajjdm or Ndpit Kahdr . Total (8) Artisan Castes. Barhai (carpenters) Kdnsdrf and Thatherd (brazier) Kumdr . Ldherf . . , Lohdr (blacksmith) Rangsaz (painter) Sondr (goldsmith) Sunrf (distiller) Telf (oilman) Total Number. 7,070 238,749 245,819 1,105 IU,92I 113,026 IO,963 88 6 5,121 141,209 100,790 4,691 262,8 102 15,516 15,122 29,022 26,445 3,225 16,724 817 21,911 617 38,449 7 20,157 24,835 55,138 178,655 Name of Nationality, Tribe, or Caste. (9) Weaving Castes. Dhuniyd J°gi Khatbe Patud Tdntf Tattamd Total (10) Labouring Castes. Batdr . Belddr . Nuniyd . Total (11) Castes engaged in Selling Fish or Vege tables. Khatik .... Turdhd .... Total (12) Boating and Fish ing Castes. Bdnpdr . Gonhrf . KeutMdld . Muriydrf Surdhiya Temar . Tior Total (13) Dancer, Musician, Beggar, and Vagabond Castes. Ramjanf (14) Persons of Unknown or Unspecified Castes Grand Total of Hindus 150 1,039 1 1,104 4,806 3,36o 10,460 620 799 65,85467,273 2,078 ¦5,o34 17,112 32 14,456 46 21,849 118 239 99 ',513 38,352 47 6,504 J,577,9'4 246 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Kami; of Nationality, Tribe, ok Caste. i Tribe, ok Caste. 4. Persons of Hindu 5. Muhammadans. origin not recognis Mughul ing Caste. Pathdn Sayyid Aghorf . 98 Shaikh Atith . 18,612 Unspecified . Vaishnav 3,777 Kabfrpanthf . 1 x3 Total .... Ndnakshdhf . 167 Sanydsf 179 Total of Natives of India Shaiva . 23 Native Christians 83 Total of Asiatics . Total ! 22,952 Grand Total . 369 11,420 3,710 43,030 183,061 241,590 2,063,720 2,063,736 ;2,o63,86o Hindu Castes. — The following brief description of each of the Hindu castes found in Sdran District has been principally condensed from Mr Magrath's account of the castes of Behar, given in the Census Report of 1872 ; the quotations come from this source, except where otherwise stated. The castes have been arranged in order, accord ing to the rank they hold in local esteem. The numbers of each are taken from the Census Report. (1) Brdhman; the caste highest in the social scale. Its mem bers form the priesthood, and are also largely employed as minis terial officers and in respectable posts, such as gumdshtds, etc. Many also are zaminddrs. Number in 1872, 158,109. The following tribes of Brdhmans are found in Sdran District: — Gaur, Sdndil, Kanaujiyd, Jadurbedi, Gautama, Sakaldipi. These are divided into Bdjpai, Pdthak, Ojhd, Dobe, Chobe, Misr, Tewdri, Upddhydya, Pdnde, Sukul. Among these, the Gaur, Gautama,and Sdndil Brdhmans rank highest. (2) Rdjput; number in 1872, 225,873. This, the warrior caste, seems to have its central home, so far as Bengal is concerned, in Saran, extending from the plateau of the Kharwdrs in Shahdbad to the tardi in the north of Champaran. Whole villages of Rajputs are found in this District ; they work fairly, and when the men are absent, the women superintend the cultivation. .Numbers of them leave the District to obtain employment as soldiers, darwdns. policemen, and peons. Their leader is the Damrdon Raja, whose home is in Shahdbdd. The Kathariyd clan is found only in Sdran. They are supposed to be Kathariyd Rdjputs of the Gaur tribe, some of whom settled in Gorakhpur. There are a few Kausik Rajputs of HINDU CASTES. 247 the Lunar race, whose headquarters are in the neighbouring Districts of Azfmgarh, Gorakhpur, and Ghdzfpur. The Akbarpur Rajputs are supposed to belong to this tribe. There are also a few of the Kakdn Rdjputs, who are now chiefly found in Azfmgarh and Gorakhpur. The tribes of Rajputs in Saran are Chauvdn, Chandel, Kdhar, Ldkal, Nikum, Rekwdr, Kundwdr, Pais, Pdthdnpiiri Bais, Kus Bhaurind, Jddu, Salanki, Ndgbansi, Sonbansi, Lothnid, Gautama, Sengar, Mar- war, Hariharbans, Jurwdr, Lathaurd. These all eat and intermarry with one another, but the Lothnid sept is considered to be slightly degraded. (3) Bdbhan; number in 1872, 88,046. These, though not ranking so high as the Brahmans and Rdjputs, still enjoy a better position than the remaining castes. They are called also Bhuinhdr and zaminddri Brdhmans. The caste is not considered to be of any great antiquity. The Collector says that the most probable account of their origin is that they were the children of Brahman girls and Rdjput fathers. Mr Magrath comes to the conclusion that they were a low Aryan race, who came into contact with the Rdjputs in their early struggles; and not being able to form one race with them, pretended to be Brdhmans. Some of their names, such as Rai and Sinh, are Rajput; while others, as Tewarf, Misr, are those of Brah mans. Another account, adopted by themselves, is that certain Brahmans deserted their legitimate duties of prayer and praise for husbandry, and became the ancestors of the Babhan or zaminddri Brahmans. The legendary account, again, is as follows : — A pious king, Jardsindha, wished to feed four lakhs of Brahmans (400,000 men), but found, after he had collected all, that they were quite unable to consume the food he had cooked. He therefore sent out and gathered persons of all castes, and decorated them with the sacred thread. These he compelled to eat his supper as Brdhmans, and the Babhan caste is said to be descended from these manufac tured Brdhmans. The Bdbhans are generally well-to-do and often wealthy, and include many influential zaminddrs. Neither Brdhmans nor Rajputs will eat with them, and only certain sections of the Kdyasths. They are classified into the following tribes, of which none intermarry : — Donwdr, Dighurt, Kodaria, Domkatar, Eksariya. They are especially numerous in the thdnds of Parsd (15,437), Basantpur (16,618), and Mashrak (19,510). (4) Kdyasth; number in 1872, 47,640; the writer caste, most numerous in the thdnds of Mashrak and Sewdn. They are of an ob- 248 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. scure origin, but nevertheless have strongly marked characteristics. Many of the women are fairly educated, and some even manage their own zaminddris. The Amasth and Srfbastab branches of the twelve clans, who are the most numerous in Saran District, have recently effected some good by endeavouring to curtail marriage expenses. Formerly, they were the only educated persons except Muhammadans and Brahmans, and consequently held a monopoly of Government offices ; but now as all are eligible provided they are fit, and as the Kdyasth does not care to go into trade, they find themselves severely pinched for the necessaries of life. All patwdris are Kdyasths, but it has recently been proposed to appoint some of the Koerf caste. The septs found in this District, of which none inter marry, are : — Amasth, Karan, Srfbastab, Lonariyd, Donoriyd, Khare. Some of these wear the jando or sacred thread. The Amasth and Karan septs rank equally high. (5) Agarwdld; number 617, princi pally found in the town of Chhaprd, being members of the trading class, are included under the generic term banid. They are generally engaged in banking, and are very well off; a circumstance to which they owe their high position, rather than to their inherent respect ability as a caste. (6) Sarawak, 1 ; and (7) Khatri, 450 ; rank next. The Sarawak are mostly adherents of the Jain religion. The Khatris are said to have originally come from the Panjab. The latter claim to be of Rajput origin ; and because the Saraswat Brdhmans take cooked food from their hands, they assert themselves to be the repre sentatives of the pure Rajputs, with whom the Brdhmans formerly ate. The Rajputs of Saran, however, refuse to eat with them. None of the following twelve sub-divisions of the banid or trading class are worthy of special notice : — (8) Agrahri, 1080; (9) Banfa, 8509; (10) Barnawar, 5585, most numerous in the Sewan Sub-division; (11) Jamanpuri, 1352, nearly all in the Sadr Sub-division; (12) Kasarwdnf, 1008, of whom 839 are in the Sewdn Sub-division ; (13) Kasandhan, 78, of whom 73 are in the Sewdn Sub-division; (14) Mdhurf, 72, a sub-division of the Agrdhri; (15) Marwdrf, 13; (16) Nauniyar, 1289, nearly all in the thdnds of Dighwdrd and Parsd, in the Sadr Sub division; (17) Rastogf, 1308, of whom 1284 are in the Sadr Sub division ; (18) Rauniyar, 5412; and (19) Sfnduriyd, 1141. (20) Kdnsdrf and Thathera, number 817. They make lotas, thdiis, and other household utensils of brass, and also work in copper and bell metal. The Thatherds form the inferior body of artificers. (21) Telf, number 55,138, the caste which makes and sells oil. HINDU CASTES. 249 Many of them are rich, and try to conceal their connexion with their poorer-caste fellows by styling themselves Tili and Shaha. (22) Kdndu ; number 111,921, generally prepare the parched rice (mun) which Hindus eat when travelling, and unable to procure a cooked meal. They also build mud walls, sow gunny cloth into bags, dig and thatch. (23) Halwaf, number 1105 ; are the makers and sellers of sweetmeats. They and the Kandris provide the only food that a strict Hindu can eat with unwashed hands. They cor respond to the Mairds of Bengal, and are divided into Madhesiyd and Kanaujiyd. (24) Garerf, number 7070; one of the two divisions of the pastoral caste. They are generally shepherds, but also make the wool of their sheep into blankets. In common with other pastoral castes, they adopt the rule that when an elder brother dies, the next in age marries the widow. They are gene rally very ignorant, and not unfrequently dishonest. (25) Goald or Ahirs, number 238,749 ; the most numerous caste in the District. They are the herdsmen of the country, and " are well known as a turbulent and dishonest people . . . They are fearless, and are celebrated as clubmen or lathidls, especially the Godlds of certain villages, who are regularly retained for riots, even at a great dis tance from their homes." They are most numerous in the thdnds of Parsd and Mashrak, where they form 15-9 and 11-9 respectively of the population. The Jail statistics for 1872 show that they form the most criminal caste in the District. Many of them who are traders and zaminddrs, drop their caste title in order to be mistaken for Kdyasths. The Gwdlbans division alone exists in Saran. The gots found are Kishnant, Majraut, Guriyd, Kanaujiyd, Darhor. (26) Barui, and (27) Tdmbulf, number 10,963. These two castes both grow the pan plant, the leaves of which, mixed with the nut of the supari palm, chunar or lime, &c, are chewed by all natives. They possess the monopoly of the cultivation of this plant; and as it pays well, in spite of the great initial expense necessary to set up a pan garden, they are generally well off. (28) Balindar, number 88; and (29) Kamkar, number 5121, are said to be little else than cultivating Kahdrs. (30) Kaibarttas, num ber 6 ; belong rather to Bengal Proper than to Behar. (31) Koerf, number 141,209 ; are the best cultivators in the District. They are identical with the Kdchfs of the North-Western Provinces. They hold most of the opium lands in Sardn, from which they raise first-rate crops. They usually pay for lands far below the average quality, 50 250 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. per cent, more than Brahmans and other persons of high caste pay for the best lands in the village. The late manager of the Hatwa Raj proposed to appoint a few of them as patwdris instead of the Kdy asths, who have hitherto monopolised that office. Koeris are divided into two divisions, Dangf and Maghyd, which do not intermarry. (32) Kurmf, number 100,790 ; most numerous in the thdnds of Parsd and Sewdn. They are almost entirely husbandmen like the Koeris, but some are menial servants. The Collector says that a man of high caste would drink water brought by a Kurmf, provided it were conveyed in any vessel belonging to the latter. They make good soldiers, and before the Mutiny many of them were so em ployed. Kurmfs are divided into three septs, Bidhut, Awddhiyd, and Jeswdr. (33) Mdlis, number 4691 ; gardeners. (34) Amanth, number 120; and (35) Dhanuk, number 15,516; are both servile classes, who, from the derivation of their names, are supposed to have been originally archers. They are in some way connected with the Kurmfs. (36) Dhobf, number 15,122 ; most numerous in the Sewdn Subdivision. They are washermen, and are found in every village, where they are paid in different ways, either in kind or in money, or by service-lands held rent-free. They are sometimes Musalmdns. The Dhobfs are divided into three classes, Belwdr, Maghyd, and Hindud, which do not intermarry. (37) Kahar, num ber 26,445 > are largely employed as servants by Europeans, and their social rank is high. They are most numerous in Sewdn thdnd. Kahars are divided into two tribes, Rawdnf and Kharwara, of which the for mer is most largely represented in Sdran; and among its gots the Kanaujiyd got is the most numerous. (38) Hajjdm or Napit, num ber 29,022, the barber caste; a village institution like the patwdris and Dhobfs. They perform certain ceremonies at births, marriages, and deaths, and sometimes acquire much influence in families. In Sdran they are divided into three septs, Awadhiyd, Bidhut, and Ka naujiyd. (39) Barhi, number 16,724; carpenters, whose work manship and tools are both of the roughest character. (40) Kathak, number 327 ; probably an offshoot of the Bhats, who have be taken themselves to music and singing. Unlike, however, the de graded classes who adopt this occupation, they do not allow their women to appear in public. They wear the jando, and pretend to be Brahmans. Many of them are cultivators, but they will not plough with their own hands, (41) Kumar, number 21,911; potters. They manufacture a superior class of pottery, especially in the Sewdn Sub- SEMI-HINDUISED ABORIGINES. 25! division. (42) Laherf, number 617; workers in lac. They are also called nuri. (43) Lohdr, number 38,449 ; blacksmiths, whose prin cipal work is applying the iron tip to the village ploughs. (43A) Kangsaz, number 7 ; painters. (44) Sonar, number 20,157 , a pure caste in Behar, including a number of sub-divisions. (45) Sunrf, number 24,835 ; spirit distillers. They are also called Kal- wars, and pretend to be a superior class of Rajputs. They are rather lowly esteemed, but are generally well-to-do, if not opulent. Some of them are shopkeepers. (46) Turaha, number 15,034; sell fish and vegetables, carry pdlkis, and are often servants to Europeans. (47) Khatik, number 2,078; also sell fish, vegetables, onions, and chilies. By some they are said to be identical with the Pdsfs. (48) Dhuniyd, number 150; cotton-carders, who prepare the cotton for the thread-makers. (49) Tdntf, number 4806 ; principally found in Mashrak thdnd. Tdntf is the generic term for all weavers. (50) Tatta- ma, number 3360 ; also weavers, and most numerous in the thdnds oi Dighwdrd and Baraulf. (51) Nuniya, number 65,854 ; the makers of saltpetre, but also much sought after as labourers during the months when they are unable to work their chdlhds. They are first- class excavators, and can usually command a halidnnd more per day than the common cooly. They are generally well-built and sturdy men. (52) Beldar, number 799; though frequently confused with Nuniyds, do not intermarry with them. (53) Batdr, number 620 ; almost entirely found in the Sadr Sub-division. Both these two last castes are ordinary labourers. (54) Bdnpar, number 32, are boatmen ; as are (55) Gonrhf, 14,456, who are also fishermen; (56) Keut, 46 ; (57) Maid, 21,849; (58) Muriydrf, 118; (59) Surdhiyd, 239; (60) Tior, 1513; and (6i)Temar, 99. (62) Jogf, 1039; and (63) Patud, 1 104, make silk strings on which they thread pearls and beads. (64) Khatbe, 1 ; come from Tirhut. (65) Rdmjdnf, number 47 ; are a higher class of dancing women. In the body of the Census Report they are designated Darhf. They sometimes call themselves Rha- tranf, and pretend to be of the Khatri caste. (66) Bhdt, number 3659 ; the bard or genealogist caste. They are now principally cul tivators, and according to the Census Report, far from respectable. (67) Kishanpachhi, Dogla or Suratwald, number 4 ; all in the Parsd thdnd ; the sons of a low caste woman by a high caste father. Their relations of purer caste do not eat or intermarry with them. Semi-Hinduised Aborigines and Aboriginal Tribes.— (68) Arakh and (69) Baheliyd, number 52 ; are a semi-civilised 252 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. class of bird-catchers and shikdris. They keep large herds of swine. (70) Kharwdrs ; number 26 ; all in Mashrak thdnd. (71) Bind; number 18,429 ; most numerous in the thdnds of Chhaprd and Bar- aulf. They are usually fishermen and boatmen, but also labourers. Mr Magrath states that he found them generally poor but inof fensive. This account, however, is not borne out by the Com missioner of the Patna Division, who says that a large number of boat-robberies, both in Behar and Bengal, are their work. The Binds undoubtedly show a great proportion of professional crimi nals; and, if caught in any of their thieving expeditions, they attempt to conceal their caste. They usually thieve beyond the limits of their own District. Proceedings have been taken against them under chapter 19 of the Criminal Procedure Code. (72) Bari, number 5044 ; apparently immigrants from Oudh. Their caste-pro fession is that of torchbearers, but they also make the leaf-plates from which Hindus eat. They are known in Oudh as good soldiers, and have had Rajas of their number. They are reputed to be excellent woodmen, and according to Mr Reade, are famous for their fidelity. (73) Baurf ; number 9, all in Baragdon thdnd. (74) Bhuiya; number 63, of whom 62 are found in Darauli thdnd. They are supposed by Mr Magrath to be "the verit able autochthones of the country." (75) Hari, number 42 ; most numerous in Mdnjhf thdnd. They belong to the scaven ger caste of Lower Bengal, but are vere rarely found in Behar. (76) Dosddh; number 73,046. This is the ordinary labouring class of Behar. They are almost invariably chaukiddrs or village watchmen, although notorious for their own criminal propensities. They are a very useful caste, as they do any kind of work. Many are table-servants, cooks, bearers, and grass cutters to Europeans. (77) Gangaunta, number 74 ; a class of cultivators who live on didrd lands, which they bring into cultivation. (78) Nat, number 51 ; a wandering race, having many points in common with European gipsies. Their peculiar reed houses are recognisable at a glance. Many of them are drunkards, and their women have an especial pro pensity for stealing fowls. They will dance, catch and exhibit wild animals, perform feats of tumbling — in fact, do anything rather than hard work. As soon as they are tired of one place, they go off to another, where they amuse themselves for a few more days. They are said to have a secret language like most gipsies, besides the ordinary vernacular. (79) Chdin, number 905 ; fishermen and boat- SEMI-HINDUISED ABORIGINES. 253 men like the Binds. Mr Magrath denies that they deserve the bad name which they have certainly got. They are much more numerous to the south of the Ganges, in this differing from the Binds, who are principally found in North Behar. (80) Chamdr, number 94,844 ; tan hides and work in leather. There is usually one in every village, who is a sort of recognised personage like the chaukiddr, barber, and patwdri. The hide of every cow that dies within the village, is the perquisite of the village Chamdr ; and it is not improbable that he is responsible for a good deal of cattle- poisoning, especially when money has been advanced to him by hide-dealers. " He holds his small portion of village land, and is invariably called on to post up official notices. He also goes round with the drum to make public announcements." The Chamdin (the wife of the Chamdr) is the village midwife. On a certain occasion, when the zaminddrs tried to put some pressure on the Chamars, on account of the large amount of cattle-poisoning which had taken place, the villagers petitioned that they might be left alone, as the Chamains refused to attend the birth of any children. The Chamdr is not at all particular in his food or in his drink. As a rule, he is fairly well off; he holds his piece of land, and is paid a part of the produce of each field, in addition to which he sells irrigating buckets and similar articles. (81) Dom; number 7466. Though one of the lowest of men, the Dom has attained the right of making the pyre on which the highest caste Hindu is burnt, and of providing the torch used on the occasion, which is generally a bundle of reeds. They are the only people who will remove dead animals, and are the public exe cutioners. Their principal occupation is that of making baskets from reeds, called bashkhar. Of the numbers of Maghyd Doms, there is unfortunately no accu rate record, as they were not separately enumerated in the Census of 1872. They are supposed to have had their origin in the ancient kingdom of Magadha. Their principal home is now in Champaran, but they have thrown out offshoots into Tirhut and Sdran. They are a gipsy race, ostensibly living by basket-weaving — really by thieving and robbery; and they are the only class of persons in Sdran who can strictly be called a predatory caste. Mr Bayley, the Commis sioner of the Patnd Division, in a special Report on this tribe says, " They are less removed from the lower animals ,than any caste in India, and appear to be devoid of the first germs of decency. They do not live in villages, not even in huts, seldom using for shelter any- 254 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARA A DISTRICT. thing more substantial than blankets or bushes. They never abide in one place, but move about within their own circles of protecting zaminddrs or villagers. They never cultivate — they never labour — the women only make occasional basket-work as a pretence. Their one occupation is stealing. They commit frequent burglaries, occa sional highway robberies with violence, and innumerable petty' thefts. When any attempt to arrest them is made, they are very dangerous, as they use their knives readily. The police are much afraid of en countering them, both on this account, and because of the offensive way in which the attack is met by the women. I have in the last two years known two cases of severe wounding inflicted by Maghyd Doms in the attempt to arrest them, and two more in which the en deavour to arrest ended in a Dom being killed. They rarely rob the villages near which they are encamped ; and they are, it is certain, regu larly supported in the intervals of their business by petty mdliks, who afterwards receive the proceeds of their robberies. The Doms when once imprisoned, are not at all reticent on this point, and the police are pretty well acquainted with their protectors. They appear as a rule better fed and better clothed than their agricultural neighbours.'' Being shunned and hated by all, it is difficult to take any effectual steps towards their reclamation. Imprisonment has seemingly no effect ; as soon as they are released, they return to their friends, for it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, for them to get work elsewhere. It would be very difficult to impose any system of surveillance, such as is pro vided for the tribes of Northern India by the Criminal Tribes Act. At present, whenever they arrive in a village, the landholders and village officials are bound to give immediate notice thereof to the police authorities. Mr Drummond, the Collector of Sdran, thinks that the plan of collecting them together in one place, and forming them into an industrial colony, is superior to that of establishing a costly system of surveillance over different families in isolated villages, It is a significant remark of Mr Bayley's that " they rarely venture into Nepdl, where short shrift awaits them." (82) Mihtdr, number 3293; the sweeper caste, which includes Hdlalkhor, Khdkrah, Bhangf, Hela, &c, who differ a good deal in their habits. (83) Musahar, number 5317. They dwell in round huts similar to those which the Bhtiiyas use, but are supposed to be connected in their origin with the Tharus. They are very quiet, steady, and hard-working, and are largely employed by indigo planters. Though they burn their dead, they do not pre- RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS OF THE PEOPLE. 255 tend to be Hindus. (84) Rajwars, number 117 ; all in the thdnds of Sewan and Barauli. (85) Bhar; number 7647, of whom 6872 are found in the Sewdn Sub-Division. They keep swine, and stand at the very bottom of the social scale. (86) Dhdngar, number 37 ; all found in Darauli thdnd. A hard-working race, probably immigrants from the hills of Chutid Ndgpur. (87) Kdnjhdr, number 35 ; a vagrant tribe, only found in the thdnds of Daraulf and Bardgdon. The men make grass ropes, while their wives tattoo the Hindu women of the lower castes. (89) Pasi, number 4767. They are sometimes called Tirsdliyd. " Originally a great and powerful nation, they were famous for their skill in archery. They are much employed as watchmen in the North-Western Provinces, but their chief occupation in Behar is the manufacture and sale of the fermented juice (tdri) of the date palm." Persons of Hindu Origin not Recognising Caste. — (1) Aghori, number 98. They are described as " a disgusting set of mendicants, who by smearing their bodies with filth and eating car rion, extort alms from people as the price of getting rid of them." (2) Atiths, number 18,612 ; are a portion of the sect of Sivaites, who are in theory celibates. (3) Vaishnav or Baishtab, number 3,777 ; the followers of Vishnu. They do not use meat, tobacco, or spirits. (4) Sanyasf, number 179. (5) Kabfrpanthf, number 13; "the followers of Kabfr, the opponent of idolatry and superstition, and the founder of a universal religion. He preached a belief in one eternal and universal God, and the practice of humanity and truth. He also recommended seclusion from the world and celibacy. His present followers have retained little of the good of his teaching." (6) Nanakshdhf; number, 167; " the followers of Nanak and believers in the Granth. They are celibates, and wear the yellow shirt. They are undoubtedly of the same origin as the Sikhs, and like them, do not cut their hair." (7) Shaiva ; number 23. Muhammadan Classes. — Among the Musalmdns are found (1) the Juldha or weaver, (2) Dhuniyd or cotton-carder, (3) Dhobf or washerman, (4) Darzf or tailor, (5) Kasai or butcher, (6) Nalband or farriers, (7) Ldlbegf or sweeper, and (8) Mfr Shikari or hunter. These classes were not separately enumerated at the time of the Census of 1872, and even approximate numbers for each cannot be given. The Religious Divisions of the People. — The Census Report classifies the population into Hindus, Muhammadans, Christians, and a variety of minor sects collected under the one heading of " Others," 256 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. As already stated, the total population of Sdran is 2,063,860 souls. Of these, 880,486 males and 941,562 females are Hindus, who thus form 88-3 per cent, of the whole population. The Muhammadans number 241,590 — 116,052 males and 125,538 females, or nl-3 per cent, of the population. There is one Buddhist. The Christian community numbers 139 males and 68 females — total, 207, or o-i per cent, of the population. The remainder of the population, consisting of 6 males and 9 females, are not separately classified. The Native Christians are returned at 207 in Statement II. of the Census Report of 1872, thus classified: — Men, 116; boys, 23 ; total males, 139. Women, 48 ; girls, 20 ; total females, 68. According to Statement III. there are only 83 native Christians ; of whom 25 live in the Chhaprd Municipality, where the head quarters of the German Mission is situated. The majority of them are very poor, being cultivators, servants, and labourers. There are no out-stations of the German Mission or any other Mission in Sdran District, and the Collector does not think that Christianity is making any progress among the masses. The Brahma Samaj counts but a few followers, entirely confined to the town population. The Muhammadans, according to the Census Report, number 241,590, thus classified :— Boys, 46,164; men, 69,888; total males, 116,052. Girls, 41,170; women, 84,368; total females, 125,538. The proportion of males is 46-8 per cent. The general per centage of Musalmdns in the total population of the District is only 1 1 7 ; but they are very unequally distributed. The number of Muhammadans in the town of Chhaprd is 10,295, equal to a percentage of 22-2 in the municipal population. Their number in Revelganj is 2,290, or 17-0 per cent. ; while in Sewdn town they num ber 4,192, equal to a percentage of 37-7. These figures show that the Muhammadans of Behar gravitate rather towards the towns than to wards the country, the reverse of which is the case in Bengal. In Digh wdrd thdnd there are 6,394 Muhammadans, equal to a percentage of 5-9 of the population ; while in the Sewdn thdnd the percentage reaches as high as 10 -8. As regards social position, they occupy a middle place. They are generally raised above the lowest classes, but the number of Muhammadan zaminddrs is small. Their houses are better fur nished and their furniture neater, as a rule, than with the Hindus. The history of the Muhammadans in Sdran District cannot be accurately traced. It is improbable that they are largely the de- TOWNS. 257 cendants of foreign invaders, though there is some evidence that at the beginning of the last century there was an immigration of Musal mdns from the North- West. The religion of Isldm does not appear to be making any progress at the present time in Saran. No new sects are springing up; and the few Wahabfs that exist are far from evincing either turbulence or disloyalty. Towns. — With the exception of the three municipalities of Chhaprd, Sewan, and Revelganj, the population of Sdran is entirely agricul tural ; the so-called towns are merely large villages or collections of tolas, in the midst of which are conducted all the operations of rural life. The Census Report of 1872 thus classifies the villages and towns : — There are 13 16 vilages, containing less than 200 inhabitants ; 1693 with more than 200, but less than 500 ; 919 with from 500 to 1000 ; 347 with from 1000 to 2000 ; 52 with from 2000 to 3000; 12 with from 3000 to 4000 ; 6 with from 4000 to 5000 ; 2 with from 5000 to 6000; 2 with from 10,000 to 15,000, and 1 with from 20,000 to 50,000. The following five towns contain a population of more than five thousand souls — (1) Alfganj Sewdn, pop. 11,099; (2) Pdndpur, pop. 5871 ; (3) Manjhf, pop. 5747 ; (4) Chhaprd, pop. 46,287; (5) Revelganj, pop. 13,415- The following 71 towns, or rather villages, contain a popu lation of more than 2000 souls, but less than 5000 — (1) Aran- datandild, pop. 2208; (2) Barharam, pop. 2260; (3) Haribdns, pop. 2450; (4) Hasanpura, pop. 2829; (5) Hatwd, pop. 2546; (6) Kapfrpur, pop. 2001 ; (7) Kailrohra, pop. 2306 ; (8) Karsaut, pop. 2036 ; (9) Lahejf, pop. 2143 ; (10) Lahrhf, pop. 2768 ; 1 1 Sahulf, pop. 2623; (i2)Adampur, pop. 2282 ; (13) Asawan, pop. 2464; (14) Darauli', pop. 3338; (15) Gangdpur, pop. 2666; (16) Guthnf, pop. 4379; (r7) Kachndr, pop. 2170; (18) Narhankhds, pop. 2090; (19) Niktf-kaldn, pop. 2364; (20) Putar, pop. 3792; (21) Kutid, pop. 2118 ; (22) Mfrganj Harkhaulf, pop. 4087 ; (23) Bishnupurd, pop. 2792; (24) Kaini, pop. 2188; (25) Mdnjhd, pop. 2135: (26) Rdjwdhf, pop. 2667 ; (27) Salimpur, pop. 4509 ; (28) Seroghaird, pop. 2611; (29) Tengrdhi Rdmpur, pop. 4026; (30) Daulatganj, pop. 3173; (31) Ratanpura, pop. 2363; (32) Saldbatganj, pop. 2974J (33) Aphaur, pop. 3380; (34) Dumrf, pop. 2394; (35) Godhnd, pop. 4918; (36) Indai, pop. 2867 ; (37) Kopa, pop. 2922 ; (38) Kothid, pop. 2239 ; (39) Sumdhutd, pop. 2632 ; (40) Semdria, vol. xi. R 258 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. pop. 3306 ; (41) Shams-uddfn-pur, pop. 2084 ; (42) Pahleyd, pop. 2704; (43) Sftalpur, pop. 2474; (44) Sonpur Kheso, pop. 2634; (45) Amnaur Harnardyan, pop. 2257 ; (46) Bela Bardgdon, pop. 2665; (47) Maker, pop. 2727 ; (48) Dhulwaria, pop. 2358; (49) Rdmpur, pop. 2619; (50) Shdhpur Sutfhar, pop. 2684; (51) Asehnf, pop. 2211 ; (52) Barhapur, pop. 2277; (53) Chdinpur, pop. 3044; (54) Dumrf, pop. 2550; (55) Jditpur, pop. 2117 ; (56) Muhammadpur, pop. 4140; (57) Parsd, pop. 4932 ; (58) Bagaura, pop. 3858 ; (59) Baragdon, pop. 2261 ; (60) Basaur, pop. 2671 ; (61) Bhikha Bandh, pop. 2001 ; (62) Jaldlpur, pop. 2201 ; (63) Pasnaulf or Mahdrdjganj, pop. 2119; (64) Sonrarhf, pop. 2273; (65) Sisdi, pop. 2771; (66) Dhangurhd Dhandpur, pop. 2304; (67) Dighwdrd, pop. 3878; (68) Mashrak, pop. 3906; (69) Rasaulf, pop. 2558; (70) Reotith, pop. 3°7S; (7i) Usri, pop. 2456. Chhapra, situated in latitude 250, 46', 42", and longitude 84°, 46', 49", is the Administrative Headquarters, and also the largest town in the District. According to the Census Report of 1872, the total population is 46,287, thus classified : — Hindus, . males 17,872; females 18,036 ; total, 35,908. Muhammadans, males 4,938 ; females 5,357; total, 10,295. Christians, males 41; females 42; total, 83. " Others," males 1 ; females o ; total, 1. The Census Report also returns the gross municipal income at ^2,626, 14s., and the gross expenditure at ,£2,400, 8s. : the average municipal taxation per head being 9 dnnds or is. \\d. The area of the Municipality is returned at seven square miles. Chhaprd is situated on the north or left bank of the river Ganges. It is said that the river formerly flowed close by the town ; but at present its main channel is about one mile to the south, in the cold weather. The greatest length of the town is about three miles along the principal thoroughfare, which runs from east to west ; while the average breadth does not exceed a quarter of a mile. The site is very low, being only protected from annual inundation by the Tram way Road. In 187 1 this road was broken through, and much damage within the Station was caused by the floods. The same disaster would certainly have recurred in 1874, if the road had not in the mean time been strengthened and raised. The highest flood on record is that which took place on 29th August of that year, when the highest point reached by the waters was 5-29 feet above the level of the cut- cherry compound. The water which would flood the Station, if protec tive works had not been constructed, comes up from the Ganges by the TOWNS: REVELGANJ. 259 Azaibganj ndld, and branching off in two directions, terminates in a jhil or chaur, about eight miles to the north of the town. The jail, with accommodation for 266 prisoners, is situated on low ground ; and the wards are damp and unhealthy. The residences of the Euro peans are situated between the collectorate cutcherries and the jail. The English School is lodged in a large building in the same neighbourhood. At the west end of the town is the sardi, or public rest house, a large square building with blank walls, which would be much improved by the insertion of windows. The entrance from the east leads through two handsome iron gates, the whole being sur mounted by an English clock. There is also a Dispensary, erected in 1856 by Bdbu Banwarf Lai, to commemorate the visit of the Lieu tenant Governor. It is a good building, and is largely taken advan tage of. Chhaprd is the headquarters of the German mission. The roads in the town are metalled, principally with kankar, which is found in large quantities in different parts of the District. They radiate to Sonpur, Rewa, Mashrak, Sewan, and Guthni. Though Chhaprd has suffered much commercially, since it has been deserted by the Ganges, it is still a place of some importance. There are many large and wealthy bankers. The bdzdr runs from east to west, and is somewhat narrow. Most of the houses in it are double storied, with projecting verandahs. Goods of all kinds can be procured, pottery and brass utensils forming a speciality. There is a race- course between the Sonpur and Rewd ghdt roads, but no race-meetings have been held for some years past. At the end of the last century the French, Dutch, Portuguese, and English, had factories at Chhaprd. Saran was then famous for its saltpetre, and the Chhaprd mark was especially esteemed ; but this trade has now for many years been on the decline. Revelganj or Godna, situated in latitude 25°, 46', 56", and longi tude 84°, 41', 7", a little above the junction of the Ganges and the Ghagrd, is the largest mart in the District. According to the Census of 1872, the total population is 13,415, thus classified :— Hindus, males, 5,666 ; females, 5,459 ; total 11,125. Muhammadans, males, 1,075; females, 1,215 ; total 2,290. Grand total, 13,415- The municipal income in 1872 was £496, 4S-; expenditure, £386, 16s.; incidence of taxation, 5 dnnds 10 pies, or 8|d per head. The area of the Municipality is four square miles. The town has a favourable situation a mile above the junction of the Ghagra with the Ganges, and carries on a great trade on both sides. 260 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Its commerce may be considered under two heads ; istly, its imports and exports, as the port of" Sdran, representing also Champdran and Nepdl ; and 2dly, its through trade between Bengal and the North west, which is far the more important of the two. (i) Local trade. — The principal articles of export are : — maize (chind), barley (jdo), peas (matar), oilseeds (tilhan), saltpetre (shord), and sugar (chini); while rice (chaul), salt (nimak), and piece goods are largely imported. (2) Through trade. — Revelganj is the great changing station, where the boats from Lower Bengal trans-ship their cargoes of rice and salt to the Faizdbdd and Gorakhpur boats, which give in exchange wheat, barley, oilseeds, and pulses of various sorts. Oilseeds appear as one of the largest exports from Revelganj ; but from the small area culti vated with oilseeds in Sdran, it is more than probable that most of these are simply trans-shipped cargoes from the Upper Provinces. The Godnd or Revelganj saltpetre was formerly much esteemed. Some Calcutta firms have representatives in Revelganj. The great bulk of the down country trade is with Calcutta and Patnd, which places can be reached in the rains in fifteen and two days re spectively. Comparatively little goes to Calcutta by rail from Patnd, as the cost of trans-shipment to the railway, and the subse quent charges for carriage, would considerably exceed the extremely low rate at which country boats carry down-stream cargoes. The charge from Revelganj to Calcutta per maund is only 2\ to 2f dnnds, or from about 8s. 6d. to 9s. 4d. a ton ; while the charge to Patnd is one dnnd per maund, or about 3s. 4d. a ton. The practice of insuring the cargo (bem), which is commonly practised in the North-West, is considered impious by the Revelganj mahdjans. An attempt has been made to start a steamer from- Revelganj to Patna, but the enterprise failed. Revelganj has suffered to some extent from the river setting towards the opposite bank, as has also been the case at Chhaprd ; but boats of the largest size can still discharge cargoes close to the ghdt, near which are the large golds or granaries. The town runs from east to west, closely built along the banks of the Ghagrd; and in the rains the river is a mile in breadth. The present bdzdr was founded by a Mr Revell, Collector of Customs in 1788. On the 9th July of that year, he informed the Collector that he had selected a place on the bank of the river, where he intended to establish a chauki to collect the dues. His house and tomb, close to the river banks are still pointed out ; and his name is held in such repute that his TOWNS: SEWAN, S-c. 261 tomb is considered a shrine, and his name invoked on all occasions of calamity or adversity. His house is now occupied in part by the new Dispensary, which was established in December 1874. A fair is held twice a year in the months of Kartik and Chaitra. The native name of the town is Godna. It is famous as the re sidence or asram of Gautama — the founder of the school of Nydyd philosophy or Indian logic. Here, it is said, he lived with his wife Ahalya in the days of Ram Chandra, who visited him when on his way to Janakpur in Mithila. No trace now remains of his dwelling- place ; but a wretched hut and a pair of shoes are still pointed out to unwary pilgrims. Aliganj Sewan, situated in latitude 26? 13' 23" and longitude 84? 23' 43", is the headquarters of the Sewdn Sub-division, and also a municipality. Its population was thus classified in 1872 : — Hindus — males, 3,539 ; females, 3,358 ; total, 6,897. Muhamma dans — males, 2,009 ; females, 2,183 > total, 4192. Christians — males, 8; females, 2; total, 10. Grand total, 11,099. The municipal income is returned at £260, 14s., and the expenditure at^245, 4s. ; the incidence of taxation being 3 dnnds 8 pies (s|-d.) per head. Sewan is situated on the east bank of the river Dahd. In the rains boats can come up, but navigation is much hindered by a number of small bridges. It is about 40 miles north-west of Chhapra, with which it is connected by a good road. Sewan is celebrated for the manufacture of very superior pottery and brass work. The for mer has attained more than a local reputation ; and the different articles manufactured, including those of English design, bear a much higher finish and stamp than the ordinary productions of the native Kumbhdr. This pottery is red or black-glazed, as well as unglazed and porous. Sewdn metal is composed of copper and spelter, with a small admixture of zinc. There are only four or five master manufacturers in the town. Maharajganj, also called Basnaulf Gangar, is situated almost in the centre of the District, about 25 miles to the north-west of Chhaprd, and ten miles south-east of Sewdn. Next to Revelganj, it is the largest bdzdr in the District, especially for grain and spices. Grain is brought principally from the north of Sdran, from Champdran, and even from the tardi, by bepdris,who return with salt, piece goods, and iron. Both English iron from Patna, and the native product from Chutid Ndgpur, are to be obtained. None of the grain merchants do business beyond Revelganj and Patnd. Mahdrdjganj was formerly a 262 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. large saltpetre depot, but that branch of industry has very much de cayed. During the rains the grain traffic is almost entirely suspended, owing to the want of river carriage and the absence of suitable roads. Sonpur, situated at the confluence of the Gandak and the Ganges, is perhaps the most widely known place in the whole Dis trict. It is famous for the great fair which is held for ten days during the full moon of Kdrtik. This is probably one of the very oldest melds in India, its origin being said to be contemporaneous with Ramd and Sita. It was at Sonpur that Vishnu rescued the ele phant, who had gone to drink, from the clutches of the alligator. A temple was subsequently raised on the spot by Ramd, when on his way to Janakpur to fight for Sfta. It was dedicated to Harihar Nath Ma hadeo, and being largely frequented by pilgrims, a fair was established. When Hdjfpur became the head-quarters of sarkdr Hdjfpur, and the Muhammadan influence was predominant, the fair was held at that town ; but it was subsequently removed to the Saran side of the Gandak, owing to the river cutting away the Tirhut banks. Sdnpur is considered a place of exceptional holiness, and the gang asndn unusually efficacious. The great attraction, however, is the fair and race meeting, which are largely attended both by Euro peans and natives. During the full moon of Kdrtik, immense numbers assemble ; and goods and animals, especially elephants and horses, are exposed for sale. The fair lasts for a fortnight, but is at its height for two days before, and two days after, the bathing in the Ganges. Formerly, owing to the convenient time of the year, many Kabul and up-country traders stopped at Sonpur; but now that direct and easy communication is provided by the railway to Calcutta, they prefer going straight to the metropolis. Special sanitary precautions, to prevent the outbreak of endemic diseases, are always taken on this occasion. The Annual Sdnpur races are the occasion of one of the most agreeable social gatherings for Europeans to be found throughout India. A large camp is held under a magnificent grove, which is espe cially reserved for this entertainment. There is also a fine race course and stand, and the races last for five or six days. Guthni, an outpost of Darauli thdnd, is situated 54 miles to the north-west of Chhaprd, on the east bank of the Little Gandakf nadi, which here forms the boundary with the North-Western Provinces. The river Dehwd is only four miles to the south. This village is only noteworthy as being a principal seat of the sugar manufacture, the TOWN AND RURAL POPULATION. 263 gur being purchased by the refiners from the beparis, who have pre viously bought it up from the rayats. The sugar is not exported by the refiners themselves, but by the- beparis, who despatch it to Patna and Revelganj. There are altogether four refineries at Guthnf. DaraulI is situated forty-four miles to the north-west of Chhaprd, on the Chhapra-Guthnf road on the north bank of the Dehwa. There is a thdnd situated a little to the west of the bdzdr, which runs partly from east to west, partly from north to south. There is also a ferry to the District of Azimgarh. The maps, dated 1849, show about a mile of didrd land between Darauli and the river ; but the deep stream of the Dehwd now passes close under the village. According to the Collector, in 187 1 there was a merchant in Darauli, who exported sugar habitually to Patna, and sometimes to Calcutta. Darauli is one of the registering stations under the new traffic regis tration scheme, the results of which, for the six months ending Febru ary 1876, will be found under the heading " Commerce and Trade." Cherand is situated on the Ganges, seven miles to the east of Chhaprd. The remains of an old fort are pointed out, but I was unable to learn anything about it. A mosque, built by Abul Muzaffar Shah, A.H., 909, is fast falling into ruin. A little to the north of this there is a large tank now empty, which is also said to have been dug by him. A ndld, which conveys water inland, passes through it, and has now drained it dry. The main stream of the Ganges at present passes under the high bank on which Cherdnd is situated. Comparative Importance of the Town and Rural Popula tion. — The Collector says that though Chhaprd, for its size, gives more work and trouble than rural areas, the town population is not relatively more important than that of the country. No marked inclination is perceptible on the part of the people to gather into towns ; nor, according to the Collector, is there any inducement for them to do so. It is probable, however, that towns are sought after by those classes who depend entirely on their labour, and who find there more steady employment. to O Statistics of Towns in Saran District with more than Five Thousand Inhabitants. Towns. 3 .5M & e 3 3 1(J Total. £00 c rrt a '0'2 3 0 W u 3 3-aa 01- 0 Rate of Municipal Taxation per head of population. Males. Females. Total. £ s. rf. £ '• d. £ s. d. Chhaprd 35,908 10,295 1 83 22,852 23,435 46,287 2,626 14 0 2,480 8 0 0 1 ij Revelganj 11,125 2,290 ... 6,741 6,674 13,415 4,961 4 0 386 16 0 009 Sewdn . 6,897 4,192 10 5,556 5,543 11,099 260 14 0 245 4 0 005^ Total 53,930 16,777 1 93 35,H9 35,652 70,801 3,383 12 0 3,112 8 0 024 Co2Co o | fa 3 VILLAGE INDIGENOUS OFFICIALS. 265 There are but three towns in Saran District, Chhaprd, Revel ganj, and Aliganj Sewan. These contain an aggregate population of 70,801. Deducting this number from 2,063,860, the total population of the District, there is left a rural population of 1,993,059. The proportion, therefore, of the urban in the total population of the District is 3 -4 per cent. The table on the preceding page, which is taken from the District Census Compilation, shows the comparative statistics of these three towns, the only ones which contain more than 5000 inhabitants. Village Indigenous Officials. — The following account has been condensed from a special report by the Collector, Mr Drummond : — (1) Village Headmen or jeth rayats, who are generally cultivators of some substance and position in their villages, are intermediate agents between the zaminddr and his tenants. There is generally one in each village, and his influence is still considerable. Their pro bable origin is that the head cultivator was originally instrumental in settling the village, or derived his right by inheritance or purchase from that transaction. The office is hereditary ; but if the family has decayed, or if there is no member fit to hold the rank, another is appointed by the zaminddr, never by the tenants. A jeth rayat is sometimes presented by the zaminddr with a pagri in public on the day of his assuming office, and on every subsequent Dasahdrd festival; but for this he has to pay salami. In many cases he has become merely the gumdshtd or rent collector of the zaminddr, owing to his being frequently employed in that capacity. Under the influence of this custom it may be, that when a village is divided, each mdlik or pattiddr -has his own jeth rayat. Although they are elected by the landlord, they do not usually support his interests against those of the tenants ; on the contrary, they often help the cultivators, and are biassed, if anything, in their favour. The term mahtd is used when the headman is a Koerf or Kurmf ; jeth rayat, when he is a Brahman or Rajput. Panchayats.— There are no established village councils in the District, invested with any authority ; but assemblies of caste-men are convened, whenever necessary, to decide questions chiefly of a religious and social character. The Collector quotes some remarks of Dr Buchanan Hamilton on this subject as still applicable ; and from them the following paragraph is taken : — The caste purity of high tribes is prescribed by assemblies, in which all the members are equal. Among the lower tribes, there are chiefs called sarddrs, 266 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. chaudharis, mahtds, or mdnjans. The post is usually hereditary, but the holder may be removed. Formerly, on the complaint of caste- men, the Magistrate confirmed changes, but this practice has long died out. The people under each chief are said to be in chitai, or " sitting on the same mat." His authority is not confined to purely caste matters. No man will work without the order of his chief. When a man misbehaves, a panchdyat is held, and the question of guilt or innocence is decided by the votes of the majority. Under the chief is the bank, who receives fines for transgressions, out of which he purchases the feast, and is allowed to keep the surplus. The panchdyat chiefs are usually called mdnjans or pradhans. The former is the title of the headmen among the Chamdrs, Dosddhs, and Dhobfs ; the latter among the Kurmfs, Kahars, and Kandus. These panchdyats decide all matters of dispute impartially, and they are generally resorted to, especially by the lower classes ; but they are falling into disuse among the higher orders. The payment of fines is ensured by the threat of excommunication in case of non-payment. The following paragraphs on the same subject have been condensed from an article in the Behar Herald of the 27th July 1875, on " The Panchdyat System." Although the higher castes, such as Brdhmans, Bdbhans, and Rdjputs, occasionally hold these village councils, it is among the lower orders, — Koeris, Kahars, Teh's, Hajams, &c, that the insti tution has attained its fullest development. There are five grades of village councils, gawdn, jawdr, baisi, pdnchmahdl, and chaurdsi ; of which the first is the lowest court, and the last, the highest court of appeal. An appeal cannot go direct to the chaurdsi, but must pass through the intermediate courts. The gawdn council consists of members chosen from two or more conterminous villages. The word jawdr literally means " neighbour," but in this case signifies a tract of country composed of villages surrounding the family resi dence of some recognised person. Its extent is fixed ; but, of course, there can be no rule regulating the number of villages which make up a jawdr. The term baisi signifies a court consisting of 22 pan chdyats, but this number is not strictly adhered to. The pdnchmahdl has a still larger jurisdiction ; and the chaurdsi is supreme over all its jurisdiction extending over several Districts. Every panchdyat has a sarddr or headman, called mdnjan, whose office is hereditary. But should the son be incompetent, the mem bers of the caste proceed to elect another headman : and the office " VILLAGE INDIGENOUS OFFICIALS. 267 remains in tlie new family except in the case above alluded to, or on failure of male issue. Offences triable by panchdyats may be broadly classified thus — (1) Civil claims; (2) social offences, in which the women of the family are concerned, and where exposure would be disgraceful ; (3) assault, abusive language, &c. ; (4) theft ; (5) extor tion; (6) "maintenance." The punishments are — fine and social ostracism. An aggrieved party first goes to the sarddr and makes his complaint. If he has aprim&facie case, the chhari sarddr (chap- rdsi) of the panchdyat is sent to summon the other members of the council; and word is sent to -the defendant that he is accused of a certain offence, and that the case will be heard on a certain day. Each party brings his witnesses. These are sworn, examined, and cross-examined, and so also are the parties themselves. The decision of the panchdyat is then given, and the party aggrieved thereat may appeal to the next court. There are no published codes of law; but the rulings of the chaurdsi are preserved in MS., and a copy is given to the baisi sarddr. If the plaintiff wins his suit, he generally recovers all his expenses, together with some small sum to make up for the injury done to him. In cases of appeal, the appel lant has to deposit travelling expenses. If the defendant refuses to pay the fine imposed, the course adopted is very simple but very severe. The hukd (pipe) of the defaulter is stopped, no one will dine with him or entertain him, his family cannot be married, and not even his kinsmen dare help him. Patwaris, or village accountants, are general throughout the Dis trict ; but the register of recorded patwdris has not been properly kept up, and it is therefore often difficult, if not impossible, to ascer tain who is the recognised official. In many villages there is more than one patwari. The zaminddrs appoint and dismiss them without any reference to the Magistrate ; and, in fact, they have become, or are considered to be, the private servants of the landlords. The Regulation requiring patwdris to file half-yearly papers was never enforced, and the Board of Revenue moved Government to cancel it. By law, the patwdris are available for any public purpose ; and of late years they have been extensively used in taking the Census and in obtaining agricultural statistics. When called on to furnish the latter, many refused until they had obtained the consent of their zaminddr. Their pay varies from Rs. 2 to Rs. 4 per village, accord ing to its size and importance, besides perquisites. Thepatwdris are nearly always Kdyasths by caste, and the office is hereditary. They are 268 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. merely accountants, and rarely collect rents for the zaminddrs, as he cannot sue them either for money or for accounts. They do not keep shops, but well-to-do patwdris do a little money-lending on their own private account. Emigration may be considered under the heading of registered and unregistered. (i) Registered Emigration.— The Collector, in his Annual Adminis tration Report for 1872, gives the following return of emigrants from Saran to the Colonies during the five years 1868-1872 : — 1868, 215 ; 1869, 344; 1870, 92 ; 1871, 116 ; 1872, 300. As regards the places to which emigration is most common, he remarks — " The country chiefly favoured is Demerara, though probably not so much from intelligent choice of the emigrants, as from the accident of contact with particular recruiters." The Protector of Emigrants also has favoured me with a statement, showing to what countries people have emigrated, their castes, and whether they have returned or not. Mauritius, 1869-70, Hindus, high caste 34, low caste 17 ; Musal mdns, 38 : total 89. Two of these have returned. 1870-71, Hindus, high caste 29, low caste 26; Musalmdns, 20: total 75. 1871-72, Hindus, high caste 80, low caste 73 ; Musalmdns, 40 : total 193. 187273, Hindus, high caste 150, low caste 95; Musalmdns, 86: total 331. 1873-74, Hindus, high caste 58, low caste 36; Musal mdns, 40 : total 134. Total Hindus, high caste 351, low caste 247 ; Musalmdns, 224. Grand total to Mauritius, 812. Demerara, 1869-70, Hindus, high caste 98, low caste 92 ; Musal mdns, 67 : total 257. 1870-71, Hindus, high caste 48, low caste 61 ; Musalmdns, 27: total 136. 1871-72, Hindus, high caste 30, low caste 24; Musalmdns, 8 : total 62. 1872-73, Hindus, high caste 134, low caste 67 ; Musalmans, 56 : total 257. 1873-74, Hindus, high caste 64, low caste 48; Musalmdns, 23: total 135. Total Hindus, high caste 374, low caste 292 ; Musalmdns, 181. Grand total to Deme rara, 847. Trinidad, 1869-70, Hindus, high caste 31, low caste 53; Musal mdns, 30: total 114. 1870-71, Hindus, high caste 17, low caste 12; Musalmdns, 9: total 38. 1871-72, Hindus, high caste 24, low caste 15 ; Musalmdns, 9 : total 48. 1872-73, Hindus, high caste 1, low caste o; Musalmdns, 2 : total 3. 1873-74, Hindus, high caste 11, low caste 3 ; Musalmdns, 2 : total 16. Total Hindus, high caste 84, low caste 83 ; Musalmdns, 52. Grand total to Trinidad, 219. Surinam, 1872-73, Hindus, high caste 3; low caste, 1 ; total, 4. CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 269 l873"74, Hindus, high caste 42 ; low r9 ; Musalmdns, 16 : total, 77. Total Hindus, high caste 45 ; low caste 20 ; Musalmdns, 16. Grand total to Surinam, 81. St Vincent — 1870-71, Hindus, high caste 6 ; low caste 1 ; Musal mdns, 1 ; total, 8. French West India Colony — 1873-74, Hindus, high caste 19; low caste 13 ; Musalmdns, 11 ; total, 43. Jamaica — 1869-70, Hindus, high caste 5 ; low caste 9 ; Musal mdns, 2: total, 16. 1870-71, Hindus, high caste 13; low caste, 24; Musalmdns, 25: total, 62. 1871-72, Hindus, high caste 38; low caste 38; Musalmdns, 12; total, 88. 1872-73, Hindus, high caste 24; low caste 14; Musalmdns, 9: total, 47. 1873-74, Hin dus, high caste 10 ; low caste 9 ; Musalmdns, 9 : total, 28. Total Hindus, high caste 90; low caste 94; Musalmdns, 57. Grand total to Jamaica, 241. The non-return of most of these is accounted for by the fact, that they proceeded to the Colonies under a five years' engagement, to extend to eight or ten years before becoming entitled to a free return passage. Unregistered Emigration. — It is well known that all over Bengal syces and coolies are commonly met with, who are natives of Sdran. Every year, also, there is a periodic emigration of labourers from the District, chiefly from the thdnds of Mashrak and Parsd, who proceed eastwards to Purniah, Jalpaigurf, and Kuch Behar. They begin to leave about the end of the Durgd Piijd, and continue mov ing till the end of December. The Commissioner says that they cross the Gandak at Ldlganj, and go via Muzaffarpur and Darbhan gah to Purniah and the other labour-absorbing Districts, such as Rangpur and Ddrjfling ; and that they return towards the end of the hot weather. They are never accompanied by their women. Now that the communications to Purniah have been so much improved, it is to be hoped that this migration will largely increase. The Material Condition of the People cannot be said to be good. The Collector, Mr Drummond, in his Administration Report for 1872-73, writes : — " It is manifest that so large a population, which is mainly agricultural, could not be supported unless the land of the District was unusually fertile and highly cultivated ; and it is not sur prising, therefore, to find that nearly the whole of its area is at pre sent under the plough, or to learn that Sdran has always, from the earliest times of which record exists, been remarkable for its high 270 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. state of agriculture. With favourable conditions, therefore, of soil and climate, the more well-to-do cultivators, and such as belong to the privileged classes, are in ordinary seasons in a thriving state. But though all classes of cultivators may have benefited to some extent by the general rise in prices of grain, it may be doubted whether, considering the way in which rents have increased of late years, and are still everywhere rising, and considering also the enhanced cost of everything, the rayats, as a body, can be held to be better off than they were formerly. In many parts of the District, too, the increas ing number of indigo factories, and the demand for land on this account, have further affected unfavourably their condition. And though in average seasons they contrive to get on contentedly enough, and, at least for the most part bear their ills without com plaint; it is to be feared that after the succession of indifferent seasons recently experienced, and damage done in parts by recurring floods, many of them must now be hardly pressed and much in need of good harvests in the present year." Wages are not high, and though they have increased, they have not done so in anything like the same proportion as have prices. Thus, in 1790, the commonest sort of rice sold at 74^ sers, wheat at 85J, and janird at 135 sers, per Company's rupee. In 1868, the average price of rice was 22^ sers; in 1869, 15 sers 5 chhatdks; in 1870, 20 sers 1 chhatdk; in 1871-72, 19 sers 8 chhatdks ; and in 1872-73, 16 sers 6 chhatdks, per rupee. Similarly, wheat, in 1867, was at i9T6T ; in 1869, at 19A ; in 1871, at 20 sers 5 chhatdks ; and in 1872, at 15 sers 5 chhatdks, per rupee. Barley was sold at 27 sers 5 chhatdks per rupee, in 1871 ; and at 27 sers 7 chhatdks, in 1872. The average rate of rent for broadcast rice lands, according to pargand averages, is as high as 6s. 6d. per acre. The large extension of indigo cultivation has had, and will continue to have, the effect of increasing this rate ; for^whenever the village lease runs out, the mdlik will do his utmost to keep the rent up to what he used to get from the fac tory, while the village was under indigo cultivation. As a rule, culti vators' holdings are small, and the holders are more or less indebted to their mahdjans. The rates of interest are also very high — 37f. per annum, the rate of interest on loans in 1788, is still com mon. If the transaction is in grain, as much as 50 per cent, is taken. In 1872, the Magistrate selected 10 men in the jail from the fol lowing six castes— Rajputs, Ahirs, Dosddhs, Chamars, Kurmis, Juldhas ; he found that their average weight on admission was 106 DRESS: DWELLINGS. 271 lb. ; their average cultivation was less than 4\ acres, and their current rent was as high as Rs. 5, 7 (10s. io£d.) per acre. Dress. — The ordinary dress of a shopkeeper seldom consists of more than a dhuti or loin cloth, worth about 14 dnnds (is. 9d.) ; and a mirzdi or thick jacket, worth about 13 dnnds (is. 7|d.) The thin and almost transparent coverings worn in Lower Bengal are rarely seen in Sdran. A topi or skull cap is worn by some, while others use the common pagri, worth about R. 1 (2s.) Some again use a chddar, a piece of long cloth which hangs over the shoulders, or is twisted round the head and serves as a. pagri. Muhammadans wear loose drawers (pdijdmds) and the chapkan, a long linen coat. The shoes are generally of native manufacture, and are often prettily embroidered with gold and coloured threads. Some young men wear English shoes. The dhuti, as ordinarily worn, is rather a slovenly dress ; but when tied in what is known as the kachchd fashion, it is not unbecom ing, and shows off a lithe figure to advantage. In the cold weather the muslin mirzdi is changed for a quilted one, or for a long cloth coat, to which is added a piece of broad cloth or a quilt (razdi), the last serving as a covering both by day and by night. If a person is very well off, he wears a shawl. There is but little difference in the dress of a cultivator. His dhuti may be thicker and of coarser quality, being usually country made ; the mirzdi is rarely worn, except on high occasions ; and instead of the fancy cap, worn by the shopkeeper, a roll of coarse cloth is twisted round his head. He rarely wears shoes. His dhuti and pagn may be each worth about 9 dnnds (is. ijd.); his shoes about 8 dnnds (is.) In the cold weather he wears a quilted rezdi. Women wear a sdri, a piece of cloth which is thrown over the head and wound round the body, and is often coloured. The follow ing are the ornaments generally worn : — Anklets — pairi, pdejeb, kard ; bracelets — churi, kard, bdju bank, kdngrd, bijdyath. Nose-rings — nath, buldkh. Ear-rings — tarkd, pattabdli. Necklaces, hdnsali and haikal. Dwellings. — The wealthier classes live in brick houses; the shopkeepers and husbandmen in mud huts. The better class of houses, such as are found in the town of Chhaprd, have a verandah, which is often ornamented with carving in wood. The beams which support such houses are also carved. Double storeyed houses are common in towns. The mud walls of the husbandman's house are mixed with broken pottery to impart solidity. The roof is thatched 272 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. and is supported by a few bamboos. Tiled roofs are obligatory in municipalities, but are only used by the better-to-do people in the country, where fires frequently destroy a whole village through neglect of this precaution. The labourer's hut is very primitive ; the walls being only common thatching grass, and the roof a thin covering of the same material, supported by a bamboo or two. There is but little ventilation. The floor is of mud, and is washed with a mixture of cow-dung and mud, which when dry, is not very dirty. The fuel is generally cow-dung, which is dried and stacked. The house of an ordinary cultivator would have three or four rooms, with an outside and an inner verandah. These would be divided thus : (i) a cook house (rasan-ghar), (2) a store room, (3) a place for husking rice, (4) a cow house, (5) a room where the head of the house sleeps. Some times there is a covered place in the centre, where the family sit and receive the visitors. Golds or granaries for keeping rice are very common. The Furniture would consist of some chdrpdis or beds composed of wooden frame-work, interlaced with bamboo fibres ; some blankets (kambal) stuffed with cotton ; pillows (takid) ; a piece of gunny cloth ; dan's or striped cloths ; a couple of stools ; a chest for storing clothes and money ; and a katid or mud receptacle for holding rice. The cook ing implements in the case of a Hindu would be two or three tlidlis or round brass plates for eating from ; some lotas or brass vessels for holding water ; a katord for holding pickles or curry ; a batlohi or large brass cooking pot ; two hukds (pipes), one for the males and another for the females of the family ; and some brass gagrds or large vessels for holding water. The furniture of a Muhammadan does not vary much from that of a Hindu. Instead of a thdli there would be a rakdbi, a copper plate differing a little in shape from the thdli. Each member would have a badhnd, a lota shaped vessel with a spout, and two or three copper dekchis or pots for cooking. Food. — Generally speaking, the food of the masses in Sdran is maize and barley. The amount stated in the returns below would be enough to provide two meals of cooked rice and pulse (ddl) daily, or a meal of rice and a meal of wheat flour (roti.) The extra expense in the shopkeeper's list is due to his eating daily a vegetable curry (tar- kdri), fish, meat, sweatmeats, and milk ; where an ordinary cultivator would think himself well off if he gets parched grain (satu), rice, and ddl, together with an occasional curry as a luxury. All eat fish, which they can get cheaply in the rains, when they are caught in small FRUITS: GAMES. 273 traps set in the rice fields. Satu is the flour of parched barley, maize, or gram. When a little water has been added, it is ready for eating. Inferior classes of food are — kodo, a small round grain which is made into a sort of flour; masuri and china, which are ground down and eaten as cakes. Bajrd, which is so favourite a food in the North-West, is hardly grown in Saran at all. Meat is a good deal eaten by Muhammadans, and is the principal item of expense in their diet. Hindus may eat goat's flesh, provided the animal has previously been sacrificed to some deity. Low castes, such as Cha- mars, eat rats, mice, &c. The following shows the expenditure, &c, of a well-to-do shop keeper, the household consisting of six persons : — Rice (184 J lbs.), Rs. 4, 12 or 9s. 6d. ; ddl or pulses, Rs. 1, 4"or 2s. 6d. ; fuel, Rs, 1. 4 or 2 s. 6d. ; salt, 7 dnnds or io^d. ; oil, R. 1 or 2 s. ; cardamoms, 7 dnnds or iojd. ; chdjd (parched rice, &c), R. 1 or 2s. ; fish, 2 dnnds or 3d.; curds, 14 dnnds or is. 9d. ; tobacco, 7 dnnds or 10^-d. ; vegetables, 10 dnnds 6 pies or is. 3|d.; clothes, 13 dnnds 2 pies or is. 7fd.; religious donations, 6 dnnds % pies or iod.; total, Rs. 13, 7, 4 or £1, 6s. nd. The average monthly expenses of a husbandman's family, consisting of the same number of persons, are as follow : — Rice, R. 1, 3 or 2s. 4^d. ; pulses, 5 dnnds or 7|d. ; flour, 14 dnnds or is. 9d. ; satu, Rs. 5, 2 or 10s. 3d. ; salt, 1 dnnd or i|d. ; oil, 4 dnnds or 6d. ; chujd, R. 1 or 2 s. ; fish, milk, curds, tobacco, veget ables, 2 dnnds or 3d. each ; clothes, 5 dnnds 2 pies or 7f d. ; religious donations, 2 dnnds 8 pies or 4d. ; total, Rs. 9, 14, 10 or 19s. io^d. Most of the articles are his own production, and he very seldom requires to purchase anything beyond salt and cloth in the bdzdr. Fruits. — The principal fruits are— dm or mango, of which there are large groves everywhere, the lichi, sarifd, custard apple, kathdl or jack fruit, nebu or lemon, keld or plantain, andr or pomegranate, and amrud or guava. The mango, lichi, and bel fruits ripen in the hot weather, the jack fruit in the rains, the keld and amrud all the year round. Peaches and pine-apples are only found in good gardens. Games and Amusements. — Many of the native games are very similar to our English games. Kabaddi is prisoner's base, amodaul blindman's buff. Gulddrd is a sort of trap and ball ; but instead of the bat there is a piece of wood shaped like a spindle, and instead of the ball, a stick. Kite flying is a favourite amusement The game of satranj or chess originally came from India ; it is vol. xi. s 274 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. played in the same way as the English game, except that the king, when making the first move, may move as a knight. The pieces are the following— king, badshdh; queen, wazir; knight, ghord ; bishop, hdti or gaj ; castle, rok, and pawn, piyada. The cards used are substantially the same as in England. Spades are called sd, clubs chiretan, diamonds intd, and hearts pan. The two of a suit is called dugi; three, tagi ; four, chauhd; five, panjd ; six, chhakkd ; seven, sattd; eight, attd ; nine, nahld ; ten, dahld. Rangmdr is a game at cards similar to the European game of piquette. The cards are fifty-two in number, and the names of the honour cards are the following, — ace, ekd; king, sdhib ; queen, bibi ; knave, ghuldm. Naksmdr is the counterpart of the European game of vingt-un, except that seventeen instead of twenty-one is the successful number. Other games are pdsd and jud. Conveyances. — The wealthier classes possess European carriages. The poorer classes use the ekkd for moving about in themselves, and the hackery or bullock cart for transporting goods. The ekkd is drawn by a pony, and is a light vehicle on two wheels. The body consists of a slight framework covered over with coarse cloth, with a bedding woven across. The duli is slung to a bamboo, and is simply a piece of bedding, two or three feet square, suspended from the pole. Two or four men carry it. The ndlki is the conveyance generally used at weddings, and is very gaudily decked out. It is similar to the duli, only much larger, and possibly more comfortable. The bridegroom, when well off, comes in the dalu ; the girl in the midnd or duli. Agriculture: Rice Cultivation. — Rice is perhaps sown over a larger area in Saran than any other crop ; but it is not so important a staple as in the neighbouring District of Tirhut, from which large quantities are imported via Sohdnsf and Rewa ghdts. According to the pargand returns, rice is sown on 366,000 acres. It consists of two great crops — the bhadai rice or autumn rice, and the aghani or winter rice, the latter being by far the larger crop. The bhadai is generally sown on high ground. The field is ploughed over several times when the early rains set in, and the seed is sown broadcast in June. As soon as the young plants are a few inches high, the ground is weeded. The crop is reaped in September. The following are among the chief varieties — (1) sathi, 60 days rice ; (2) sarhd ; (3) katki or mungd ; (4) kdrhdni. Aghani rice is sown on low ground. In June, after rain has RICE CULTIVATION. 275 fallen, a nursery is selected, ploughed three or four times, and the seed sown in it. When the young plant has come up, another field is prepared for transplantation. The rainy season has now thoroughly set in, and the whole soil is reduced to the consistency of batter. In this the young rice plants. are put, in bunches, at a distance of about nine inches from one another. This variety is much more extensively cultivated than the autumn rice ; but it is liable to be destroyed, if rain fails at the time of transplanting, or in September. It is some times drowned by a too sudden rise of water; but the kalunji variety is said to be able to keep pace with the inundation, if it does not rise too fast. It is harvested either in December or January. The following kinds of this rice are sown broadcast — (1) bhoinsloti, (2) kanugd (3) khdhd, (4) jdgar, (5) senegrd, (6) jasarid, (7) thanomi, (8) sdro, (9) sera, (10) salld, (n) shakhjird, (12) kalunji (13) sdtul, (14) seld, (15) lanji, (16) batardni, (17) kdjri, (18) laldand, (19) umath, (20) ruthgoli, (21) dachni, (22) bellaur, (23) baharni, (24) bdnsmati, (25) sdmjird. (26) jdgar, (27) khetd, (28) ras, (29) pd- hdrid, (30) singhdr, (31) sydmsundar, (32) karangd, (33) gajpattd. No improvements are known to have taken place of late years in the cultivation of rice. In 1874, some Carolina seed was dis tributed to various persons in the District, but the results were not encouraging; in only two out of fifteen cases was any pro duce harvested. In the first case, \\ sers of seed were sown, and 20 sers of paddy came up; in the second, 13 sers were sown with a yield of 1 maund, \7\ sers. The severe drought of that year, doubtless, had much to do with these unfavourable results. The Collector (Mr Garret), says that the cultivation of rice has only extended where lands previously waste, which were suitable for its growth, have been brought under tillage ; but that it has nowhere been substituted for other cereals. The seed of rice when sown is called dibhi; before husking, dhdn; after husking, chdul ; when cooked, bhdt or tarn. Preparations made from Rice. — Khai or lawd is obtained from paddy, by roasting.it on heated sand. The sudden heat bursts the husk, which is then removed by rubbing. Its price is 2 dnnds per ser, or r\d a lb. ; when mixed with molasses it becomes murki, but neither of these are much used in Sdran. Muri, or parched paddy, is a light preparation of rice. The paddy from which mun is made, is boiled twice, until the husk is half burst, when it is dried in the sun. The next step is to husk it, after which it is roasted in an 276 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. earthen vessel, some salt and water being occasionally thrown in. In another vessel a quantity of sand is heated; and as soon as this is properly warmed, the rice is thrown in by handfuls, and quickly stirred with a bundle of twigs, till the grains burst. It is then cleaned on a sieve. For making chird, some paddy is first steeped in water, then half roasted, and beaten and husked in a dhenki. Natives, when unable to obtain a warm meal, use chird, as steeping is the only operation required to prepare it for immediate use. Other Cereals. — Wheat (gaham) is sown in the month of Nov ember, and reaped in March or April. It is planted on high lands, which have been cropped with bhadai products. It is usually irri gated three times. Barley (jao) is sown and reaped at the same time as wheat. It is largely used in the shape of satu or coarse flour, prepared by parching and grinding the grain. It is either eaten with some kind of pulse (ddl), baked into chapdtis or cakes ; or it is sometimes boiled like rice. Oats (jai) sown in October-November, and reaped in March-April. Maize (makai) or Indian corn, is largely grown in Sdran. It is sown in July, and harvested in about two months after it has been sown. Much of it is eaten as a veget able when unripe. When in season, it can be purchased as cheaply as barley; but not so all the year round. Its average price in 187 1- 72 was 24 sers per rupee (4s. 8d. a cwt). It is prepared and eaten like barley, being beaten with a bamboo, till the edible part drops off. Kodo, is a millet, about the size of a canary seed. The ear of the plant is longish, and contains about an egg-cupful of grain. It is the most largely sown of all the coarse grains. The sowing time is just at the beginning of the rains, and it is reaped when the rains are over. It is eaten like rice, or sometimes baked into chapdtis. The use of this grain is said to be frequently attended with cramps, intoxication, and madness. A permanent contraction of the 'knee-joint has also been ascribed to its influence. Other coarse grains are shdmd, musuri, and tnaswdn, all sown and reaped at the same time as kodo. Green Crops. — Matar or peas, are sown in October, and reaped in February. Khesdri and gram are also sown and reaped at the same time. Arhar is sown in May, and reaped in the following March; it is much esteemed as ddl. Mug and urid are both sown in June, and harvested in October. Mustard (sarisha) ; linseed (tisi) and telham are sown in October, and reaped in February. The castor oil plant is sown in June, and reaped in February. Beans are FIBRES: COTTON. 277 only used as vegetables. Sweet potatoes, potatoes and carrots are cultivated as cold weather crops. Fibres : Cotton. — The following account of cotton cultivation is condensed from a special Report by the Collector. The approxi mate area under cotton in Sdran is 18,256 acres. It is not grown by any particular set of persons, nor is it ever cultivated as a sole crop, being generally sown with urid, arhar, makai, and china, and reaped after all these have been cut. There are four varieties, bhogla, bhuchri, jathai, and kokti. The first, second and third of these are sown in June or July, and gathered in the following April. The fourth, which is very rarely grown, is gathered in September. Its flowers are of a reddish tinge, and it has a larger leaf than the bhogld variety; but the cotton is discoloured and of an inferior quality. It is generally sown in garden land or on village high lands. Only one or two plants are planted together, so that it is difficult, if not impossible, to state the average out-turn. Another name for this variety is bhadai, from the fact of its being sown at the same time as the bhadai crops. The other three varieties are called baisdkhi for an analogous reason. They are sown with other crops such as makai, maneid, &c, and are gathered after these have been reaped. The seeds are sown broadcast, having been previously rubbed with cow dung, in order that their germination may be quickened. The capsules of the jathai variety are very short and globose; those of bhogld are longer and more cylindrical ; while those of bhuchri are both shorter and less cylindrical. The seeds of the last two are blackish, while those oi jathai are white. The jathai and bhuchri varieties are by far the most commonly grown, and bhogld is comparatively rare. The proportion of seed to fibre in the yield varies in all three. The jathai variety gives six parts of seed to one of fibre ; the bhuchri, five to one; and the bhogld, four to one. The average yield of the first of these three is from 1 maund 10 sers to 1 maund 30 sers per acre ; of the second, from 1 maund 20 sers to 4 maunds ; and of the third, from 2 maunds to 2 maunds 20 sers. The value of the yield would be about Rs. 6, 4 per maund, if cleaned ; if uncleaned, from Rs. 4 to Rs. 4, 8. The cost of cultivation is Rs. 6 per acre ; the average amount of seed sown per acre, 3\ sers. The seed is used either as food for cattle, or pressed for its oil. The fibre is plucked by the hand, cleaned by a rough wheel, and then woven into cloth. None is exported from Sdran ; on the contrary, large quantities are imported from the North-Western Districts of Ghdzfpur and Mfrzapur, 278 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. English cloth is said to be gradually supplanting the country article, which, though coarse, is far more durable. The soils best suited for cotton are those known as kdnch and bhdngdr. West winds and a moderate rainfall are most favourable to its growth ; while east winds, if they continue for any time, produce worms in the boll. The experiments made with the Hinganghat cotton failed. Patud is very slightly grown in Saran. It is never sown in a field by itself, but is grown in small quantities, either on the borders of sugar-cane fields, or with Indian corn, marwd, or similar crops. When grown in sugar-cane fields, it is sown early in spring, and grows to a great height. San is sown in June and July, and rarely grows more than 5 feet high. It is cut in August and September. The principal castes who cultivate it are Koerfs, Dhdnuks, and Mdllds ; the last use it for making their nets. The soils on which it is produced are kdnch, moist bhdt, and high lands, where water does not accumulate ; but the best crops are produced on goendd lands, i.e., village lands which are manured. The field is dug in Jaistha (May) and then allowed to lie fallow till the rains begin. The seed is sown in Asar (June) ; the field is then again ploughed and harrowed. The plants are cut in September and October. The cost of cultivation is said to be Rs. 20, 12 per bighd, made up thus: — Seed, Rs. 4; digging, 8 dnnds; six ploughings, 12 dnnds ; rent, Rs. 3 ; rotting, Rs. 10 ; cut ting, Rs. 2 ; tying up, 8 dnnds. The out-turn per bighd is returned at 5| maunds, valued at Rs. 27, leaving a net profit of Rs, 7 per bighd. San is never sown in the same field more than once in every three years, makai and marwd being alternated with it. After it is cut, it is dried in the sun, the leaves are knocked off, and the plant tied up in bundles and steeped in water for 10 or 12 days till it rots, after which the fibre is separated, washed, and dried. It is made into string, from which the common tat is woven ; and the tat is used for making bedding, saddle-cloths for bullocks, pardahs, ropes, strings for thatching, &c. Jute is not grown at all in Saran. The subdivisional officer of Sewdn states that some gunny is sold at Mahdrdjganj by the Ghdzfpur and Dindpur traders, who take it up to Sdnpur. According to the Ganges trade statistics for 1872, 1,400 maunds were despatched in that year from Revelganj and Salfmpur ; while 270 maunds were imported. Tisi (flax) is grown entirely for seed. It is sown in October and reaped in March. It is cultivated in the most careless way, MISCELLANEOUS CROPS. 279 being sprinkled through the rabi lands in the proportion of one of tisi to five of the rabi crops. Bhdngdr lands are most suitable for its growth ; the yield is 5 maunds per bighd, the price 24 sers per rupee. The cost of cultivation is practically nil, and the produce is entirely exported. There is a very strong kind of grass called munkh, which is much used for making ropes. It grows in waste lands, hedges, &c. Miscellaneous Crops. Pan. — This plant is generally cultivated on high land, situated near a well or tank, so that it can be irri gated when necessary. The general size of a pdn garden or boroj in Sdran is 8| lagis long, by 5 J lagis broad. Assuming 5 J hdths to equal 1 lagi (the usual measure in Sdran) the area is thus 72 feet by 44, equal to 3,168 square feet, about TV of ah acre, or 2 kdthds 6\ dhurs. The village lagi, which is Used for measuring lands, is also used for measuring pdn land. The size of the lagi varies almost village by village. Thus, in different parts of the District the lagi is 5, 5l> 5l, and 6 hdths long. The soil best adapted for pdn is that known as kharail, a black loam ; but balsundar, or soil mixed with sand, is also much sought after. The boroj or garden is enclosed by a wall of bamboo and reed work, about five or six feet high, and covered over to protect the young plants from the sun. The roof is supported by uprights; and the ground inside is divided into parallel ridges a few inches apart, in which the young cuttings are inserted, thin slips of bamboos being provided for them to climb up. Irriga tion is required during the hot weather. In addition to the land which is wholly set aside for the pan cultivation, nearly as much' land again is required for raising grass and reeds. The rent paid for this varies from R. r to Rs. 5 per bighd. Some cultivators do not rent such land, but buy the grass, &c, from others. The rents charged ior pdn lands vary extremely. From a return submitted in 1861, it seems that in pargands Cherdnd and Maker the rents ior pdn land range from Rs. 6 to Rs. 15 per bighd; in pargand Kasmar, from Rs. 10 to Rs. 17; and in pargand Bal from Rs. 2, 8. to Rs. 5 per bigha. One cultivator usually holds from two to three gardens. There is a good deal of expense incurred in first setting up a pan garden, as the plants yield very little during the first year. I have been unable to obtain trustworthy figures of the profits which are ultimately returned to the cultivator; but they are, undoubtedly, very large. Potato. — This esculent is grown on about 4500 acres, most of 280 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. which are situated within pargands Bal, God, Cherand, and Mdnjhf, in the Sadr Sub-division; and pargands Kowarf and Pachlak in the Sewdn Sub-division. There are two varieties, the red and the white ; of which the former is principally grown. It is sown on a rich soil in October, and after constant irrigation, is pulled up in February. The crop is said to be even more remunerative than opium, the average out-turn in one acre being ioo maunds, the value of which is Rs. ioo (;£io). The cost of cultivation is returned at Rs. 80 (^8) per acre, which leaves a net profit of Rs. 20 (£2). There is an estimated export of 60,000 maunds to Patnd and Dindpur. The quality of potatoes grown in Sdran has greatly deteriorated of late years, owing, it is said, to the cultivators trying to force too large an out-turn, and overcrowding the tubers. Fresh seed is regularly imported from Bettid in Champdran, but the deteriora tion continues. The crop would doubtless be much more exten sively grown if it did not require so much care, and was not so liable to total destruction from blight. Tobacco. — The following account of this plant has been taken from the Collector's report. Tobacco is not extensively grown in Sdran, the returns only showing an average cultivation of 500 acres during the last five years. Most of the tobacco consumed in the District is imported from pargands Saressa and Bissara, in the neigh bouring District of Tirhut. Detailed figures of this trade will be subsequently given. Tobacco is usually grown on the sites of old houses, in small detached patches of village ground. During the rains the ground is broken up, ploughed, and cleaned, and the seed is sown in October. After the seedlings have come up, they are transplanted into a prepared bed, and irrigated until the roots have fairly struck. If the soil is bhdngdr or dry, two daily irrigations are necessary for six days; if kdnch or moist, for three days only. Besides this primary irrigation, the dry nature of bhdngdr soil demands a fortnightly irrigation, until the plant is cut For plants grown on the kdnch soil, subsequent watering is not necessary; but the earth around the bottom of the stem has to be occasionally broken up, to keep it from becoming hard. No manure is used as in Tirhut, the soil being invariably very rich. The top of the plant is nipped off, to prevent useless leaves and shoots being thrown out, and to concentrate all the strength on a few leaves. There are two kinds of tobacco plant grown. One species has short and broad leaves, with a comparatively strong flavour ; while the TOBACCO CULTIVATION. 281 other has leaves 18 inches long and from 4 to 5 broad. The plant takes six months to grow ; the leaves are cut in the latter end of March, and the stem is often used as fuel. In some cases, how ever, it is allowed to stand and to bear a second crop, called dhunji, which is cut in the end of April or the beginning of May ; but this second crop always gives a very poor out-turn. It is difficult to give any trustworthy statistics of the cultivation. One return gives 125 maunds oi fresh green leaf from each acre. Another classifies the results as follow — Bhangdr land, 80 maunds fresh green leaves, equal to 20 maunds dry leaves per acre ; kdnch land, one half the above. The quality of the Sdran tobacco is very inferior ; the average price being only 55 to 60 sers per rupee, or about is. iod. per cwt. The returns of the cost of cultivation vary still more than those of the out-turn, partly because much of the cultivation is done at odd times by members of the family. I give the following three, in the first of which rent is omitted. (1.) Ploughing ground nine times, Rs. 3, 12; transplanting, Rs. 2; manure, Rs. 4; irrigation, Rs. 19, 8 ; weeding, Rs. 2; trimming, Rs. 9; cutting, R. 1, 8; total, Rs. 38. (2.) Bhdngdr land. Preparing land, Rs. 4 ; transplanting, R. 1 ; watering till struck, Rs. 6 ; subse quent irrigation, Rs. 18 ; nipping, Rs. 2 ; cutting leaves, Rs. 2; rent, Rs. 10 ; total, Rs. 43. (3.) Kdnch land. Preparing, Rs. 3; trans planting, R. 1 ; watering till struck, Rs. 3 ; nipping, Rs. 2 ; cutting leaves, Rs. 2 ; rent, Rs. 6; total, Rs. 17. The tobacco is used either in the shape of malud or dried tobacco, or kdld tobacco. The first is produced thus : — h: maund of tobacco leaves is pounded down ; 25 sers of molasses, and 2 \ sers of fermented plum juice are added, and the whole mixed. After this the following spices and liquids should be mixed : tambal, chharidd, puchupat, jata- ' tndsi, cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, camphor, sandal powder, sugandh bhdld, sugandh kokeld, sugandh tudnkd, all in equal proportions. Then add three mdshds of amber and musk, one told of attar and saffron, 2 sers of keord, and 2 tolas of ganjeat and cardamom. The value of 1 maund 10 sers of this compound would be Rs. 17, 6 ; and the selling price 2 sers per rupee. Kdld tobacco is made in the following way : — The leaves are cut small; 2 maunds of molasses are added, and the whole is then boiled. After it has fermented, half a maund of potash, half a maund of saji, and 1 maund of soda are added. It is then left for two days, after which it is ready for use. Some Havana and Virginia seeds were sown in 1871-72 ; the re- 282 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. suits were satisfactory at one place, not so at another. The tobacco produced had a much stronger flavour than the ordinary kind. No tobacco is exported from Sdran ; the following estimate of imports was returned by the Collector in 1870 :— Quantity imported into Sdhibganj, 2000 maunds of dried tobacco; Gultanganj, 1000; Gurkha, 500; Revelganj, 600; Sewdn, 500; Mahdrdjganj, 2000; Darauli', 1000; Guthnf, 2,500; total, 10,100 maunds. Sugar Cane.— This crop is grown on rich and high land, from cuttings which are planted about the month of March. The ground is first thoroughly manured ; and the cuttings are then inserted about eighteen inches apart. When they have struck, the field is irrigated about seven or eight times ; the number of irrigations depending principally on the season, but also on the soil. In some places, the cultivators tie the canes together at the top, to prevent them being blown down ; but this is not generally the case. The plants are ready for cutting in the following February. Sugarcane is considered to be a highly remunerative crop. The produce of a bighd of sugar cane land is seldom worth less than Rs. 30, or more than Rs. 80. An account of the manufacture of sugar will be found on a sub- quent page under the heading " Manufactures.'' Indigo in Saran is generally sown in February and reaped early in July. A second cutting, known as the khunii crop, sometimes takes place in September, after which the land is prepared for next year's sowings. The first process in cultivation is to plough the soil ; it is next dug up by koddlis, and again ploughed three or four times, har rowed, and reduced to a fine dust. All clods are pulverised, in order that the autumn moisture may be retained for the ensuing spring sow ings. According to Mr Bayley, the Commissioner of the Patnd Di vision, "the soil best fitted for indigo is a rich loam with a good subsoil, neither too sandy nor too stiff. Old river deposits not liable to in undation give the best yield, but fine crops are also grown on inland villages, and uplands or bhit." Sowings commence about the middle of February. The seed is usually purchased from Cawnpur; the price varying in different years from £1, 5s. to £$, 10s. per cwt. From 15 to 17 sers of seed are sown to the bighd. If rain falls before the seed has properly struck, the whole field has to be re-sown. After the young crop has come up, the ground is re-ploughed and weeded several times. The plant is apt to wither and die during the excessive heat of April or May. An alternation of sunny weather and moderate showers is considered most favourable. After INDIGO CULTIVATION. 283 the plant has been cut, it is taken into the factory vats, where it is packed and braced down by transverse bars. Water is let on, and the plant allowed to steep for a period varying according to the tem perature. A high temperature hastens fermentation, a low temper ature retards it. Steeping is generally done at night. After fermen tation is completed, the water is run off into a lower vat, where the beating process begins. This is done either by machinery or by the hand labour of coolies ; in Sdran District there are only three or four factories which employ machinery. When the beating commences, the liquid is of a dark green colour ; but as it proceeds, the colour becomes dark blue, and the froth, which formed rapidly at first, entirely disappears. The liquid is then gradually run off; and the sediment which contains the indigo is pumped up and strained, after which it is boiled for some hours, strained once more through two strong sheets, pressed in frames, cut into small cakes and dried. After a month or two, it is packed into chests and sent off to the Calcutta market. A full and detailed account of the manufacture, quoted from Dr. Ure's " Dictionary of Science and Art," has been givenjntfie Statistical Account of Nadiya District (Vol. II. pp. 98-101). " The systems under" which indigo is "grown are three — assdmiwdr, zerat, and khuski. The first is rare in Sdran, and the last still rarer ; but there are no figures to show accurately how much land is cultivated under each system. As a rule, the villages in which indigo is grown are let to the planter for a certain ..term of years by the zaminddrs, who obtain a high rent for good indigo-growing land. Under the assdmi system, the cultivators receive an advance from the factory, and execute agreements to cultivate a certain amount of their high lands with indigo, the factory supplying the seed. The proportion now usually appropriated to indigo is from two to three kdthds in each bighd of upland ; though a few factories still take five or six, as was the custom before the difficulties of 1867. The agreements with the cultivators are for the same term as the lease from the zaminddr. The amount advanced per bighd of 4,225 square yards is from Rs. 7 to Rs. 9, inclusive of rent, which is assessed much below the average rate paid for lands of the same quality which do not grow indigo. There is no doubt that the crop is not in itself remunerative to the cul tivators, who are supposed to be compensated by various indirect advantages which they would not otherwise obtain. Thus, the rents of all classes of land in villages held by planters, are usually low ; the extra cesses and saldmis, taken by native zaminddrs, are not levied. 284 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. The cultivator obtains the advance of hard cash at a time when his rent is due, which enables him to hold his rice till he can get a better price, and he generally gets his advance whether there is an indigo crop or not — an important consideration in a season like that of 1874, when he would have obtained very little from his rabi harvest. Again, his lands become useless for growing indigo after three or five years; but indigo has a long tap root, which draws all its nourishment from the subsoil, and not from the upper layers on which cereals and green crops grow. The crop which follows indigo has, therefore, the ad vantage of being heavily manured and of having had a long fallow. On the other hand, it should be remembered that the cultivator is subjected to annoyance from the constant visits of the factory amid, and to that which arises from the consciousness that his best land is taken up for what seems to him an unprofitable crop. It is notorious that planters give fancy prices for village leases, because they expect to make up by their indigo for what they are well aware will be a certain loss in collections of rent. The pressure falls ultimately on the cultivators ; for as soon as the lease falls in and is not renewed to the factory, the zaminddr enhances rents all round, until he has obtained what he considers an equivalent to what he formerly received from the planter. In a report on the rates of rent prevalent in Sdran District, the Collector states his opin ion, that the large increase of indigo cultivation has been one of the principal causes of the rapid rise in rents during the last twelve years. The above is a brief description of the assdmi system, as carried on in Saran. But it is the exception, and not the rule, for indigo to be grown on this method. It is the zerdt or nij system which principally obtains in this District. Under this system, again, the planter takes a lease from the zaminddr; but he enters into no agree ment with the cultivators, and no advances are given. By immemorial custom, certain lands are set aside for the use of the landowner or his representative in every village. Such lands, or at least that part of them which is " upland," are cultivated by the planter with hired labour and carts, for which he pays the ordinary market rates. Addi tions can always be made from lands abandoned by absconding cul tivators, and from those which fall in owing to failure of heirs. Under the khuski system, the planter has no position either as zaminddr or leaseholder. The area sown under this system is very small, and is not likely to be extended. It is bitterly opposed by the zaminddrs, who lose the profits which they obtain when they lease INDIGO CULTIVATION. 285 villages to planters. The profits also, to the planter, are not so large as under the other two systems. As regards the future of indigo, I take the following from the Administrative Report for 1873 of the Commissioner of the Patna Division, Mr Bayley, C.S. : " I should be very unwilling to hazard any prophecies as to the future of indigo in these Districts. It de pends primarily upon India being able to keep the practical mono poly which it now has of the European market, and on the chemists finding no cheaper substitute for the dye ; but I am quite sure that prices must continue to rise, and that they must rise considerably, before the system is on a satisfactory footing. It will then depend on the European market, whether this rise can be borne, or whether it will tend to the destruction of the trade. Such a destruc tion would, even under the present system, be an unmitigated calamity to the people. But for the present, at all events, I think we need apprehend nothing so serious; as^the .margin of .pxQfitis large enojiglL^eyen after a considerable rise on rates, to allow of prudent men working on their own capital getting ample returns from indigo. As a proof of this, I may adduce the experience gained during the past years in the Hatwd Estate, where there are two factories with a large cultivation, under the Court of Wards. The prices given to the rayats during the past year were raised to Rs. 8 per bighd, exclusive of rent, which was paid by the factory ; and though the year was not a particularly favourable one, owing to the low price of indigo, yet the projLts-^werc 29 or 30 pet" c^at_jan_the_,.outJaj^ The profits of the previous year were a good deal larger. But without a more extended experience, it is impossible to calculate accurately the profits on the total capital employed, for in addition to value of stock and fixed capital, there must be added a certain available capital to supplement losses in bad seasons, when the profits do not equal the outlay. What proportion this should bear, only a long experience can tell ; but as indigo is a very uncertain crop, it is probable that prudence would necessitate the retention of a considerable reserve. However, with all drawbacks, I think the average profit may be fairly calculated at 20 per cent. ; and if it approach that figure, the return must surely be sufficient to attract a large amount of capital into the trade for many years to come, while the price will give a good profit to the rayat. The Hatwd rates have now been adopted by several of the neighbouring factories, and it is to be hoped that they will soon become general." 286 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. The following brief account of the system adopted at the two fac tories alluded to in the above quotation, has been slightly condensed from Mr Hodgkinson's final report on the Hatwd estate. There are two factories in the estate — at Ambikapur and at Srfpur, with an aggregate indigo cultivation of 3550 bighds, of which 1600 are on the zerdt system, and 1950 on the assdmiwdr. Originally, the rayat only received Rs. 8-8 in advance per bighd, inclusive of his rent. It soon became evident that such low rates did not leave him any margin for profit, and that he received no remuneration for his labour. Each cultivator is now paid Rs. 8 per bighd, exclusive of his rent ; the addi tion of this latter item would raise the payment to Rs. 12-8 per bighd in Srfpur, and 13-8 in Ambikapur. The-i *2 *¦! 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"o O "o OOOOOQ 8888888888 N Ln JO JH Oo ^ OvM ^i Oo 8"o "o o "o o "o o g g oogooogog OOOOOOOOOO wJO.N.^'JOOOOO^-'. o o o va o g g o OOOOOOOO a. / a. $ a >Wts M o s > ISo >H Mr >-d HiW r^ > n V M w O >5 n i-1 w 0 Ml o b> 1=3 en wn !> 7, 0 w I" H K H w W < O > o c! Cfi n » o TJ H a > a, O £6z •WOW SaOIdVA QNV VddV 294 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. The area under the different crops in pargdnd Sipah is thus re turned by the Manager of the Hatwd estate, under the Court of Wards. The figures were carefully collected, village by village :— High lands, 31,099 acres; Low lands, 14,469; makai, 11,428; marmd, 3,002 ; kodo, 10,592; sarhar, 3,642; wheat, 11,792; oil seeds, 1,926, 7 ; peas, 4,312; cotton, 1,320; indigo, 1,964; opium, 40; sugar, 604; fibres, 1343; cultivated, 46,694, 2 ; orchard, 1,194; waste, 3,905 ; grazing, 708; total, 52,726. Out-turn of Crops, &c. — Great uncertainty attaches to all esti mates of out-turn. Not only do the bighds vary in size, but the weights also differ in many parts of the District. The Collector says it is impossible to estimate the yields on lands renting at R. 1, 8, and Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, as the rates of rent afford no criterion of the quality of [the land or the amount of the produce. An out-turn of 15 pakkd or bdzdr maunds of paddy or unhusked rice is con sidered a very good yield for a bighd of rice land, while from 9 to 11 is considered an average yield. Land which yields less than four maunds is hardly worth cultivating. Paddy sells at an average rate of 30 sers per rupee. It is not usual to take two crops from rice lands ; sometimes, however, khesdri and gram are sown before any rice has been cut, but only on inferior lands. The produce from such a second crop is small, being on the average from 3 to 4 maunds per bighd. Its value would be about Rs. 5 or Rs. 6. Condition of the Cultivators. — A holding of 25 local bighds or about 21 acres is considered a very comfortable maintenance for a cultivator, provided it contains lands of all sorts. To cultivate this, he would require a plough and three pair of oxen. A hold ing of more than 25 bighds would be reckoned large ; and very few cultivators plough more than 50 bighds, and that, of course, partly by hired labour. A farm of 15 bighds, or about 13 acres, is a fair hold ing for an ordinary cultivator. He would require a plough and two pairs of oxen ; but unless some members of his family were in service and earning a money income, so as to give him the means of paying the landlord's rent without having to sell the produce, the family could not be considered well-off. The Collector considers that a family of ten persons, including females and children, some of whom earn money wages, cultivating 10 bighds of land, would be removed above want. It is doubtful whether a cultivator with 15 bighds of land is not on the whole better off than a shopkeeper with a clear profit of Rs. 8 per month. The latter has greater DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 295 expenses, having to buy in the bdzdr what he requires ; while the cultivator produces, nearly everything. The principal element, how ever, in weighing the comparative conditions is, whether the cultivator is compelled to sell his grain at an unfavourable season, to meet his rent or pay his mahdjan; or whether he can afford to keep it until the market rate rises. Of course, there are some articles which he does not produce and cannot procure without money, but most things he can buy with his grain. It is a common sight at hats or village fairs, to see the cultivators exchanging their grain against tobacco, fish, thread, clothes, &c. Allowing the cultivator the rent of his land in hand, and 1 bighd for each member of his family, he is very well off. If he had less than 10 bighds and no other resource, it would be difficult for him to keep out of want, unless he had no family or a very small one. As a general rule, the substantial cultivator does not get deeply into debt ; he probably requires some money at the beginning of the year, but this he can repay at harvest-time. The poorer cultivators are much more deeply involved, being, according to the Collector, hardly ever free from debt. As a general rule, the cultivators in Sdran claim to hold under a right of occupancy, which, however, is far from well established, ac cording to the Collector. Such tenures are rarely transferable, except with the permission of the landlord. Tenures not liable to enhance ment under Act X. of 1859 are few, not numbering more than five per cent, of the whole. There are a few small proprietors who own and occupy their own hereditary lands, but none who cultivate them without any assistance. About 400 cultivators, in 345 cases, have established their occupancy rights; and in 69 cases, about 100 per sons have been acknowledged to have rights in perpetuity of holding at a fixed rate, under Act X. of 1859. The Domestic Animals of Sdran include horses, horned cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, swine, ponies, donkeys, rabbits. A few horses are bred in the District ; but most (excluding those bred in the Govern ment Studs, or imported from Australia) came from the North-Western Provinces. Oxen are highly esteemed, both as plough and draught cattle. A common pair of plough oxen can be bought for Rs. 30 or Rs. 40 (,£3 or £4). They are generally smaller animals and quicker movers than draught oxen. The price of a good pair of the latter is from Rs. 60 to Rs. 80 (£6 to .£8); while a first rate pair has been known to fetch as much as Rs. 150 (^"15). To keep a pair of oxen in good condition, about Rs. 13 to Rs. 14 (£1, 6s. to £1, 8s.) a- 296 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. month is necessary. The bullocks, however, of an ordinary cultivator are compelled to pick up a hard living as best as they can. Buffaloes are cheaper than oxen. They are generally kept for their milk, but are sometimes used for draught and ploughing. A bull-buffalo fetches Rs. 15 (£1, 10s.); a cow-buffalo, Rs. 40 (£4). Cows are generally sold according to the quantity of milk they yield. From Rs. 9 to Rs. 10 per ser is the average price for milk ; so that a cow yielding four sers of milk would be worth from Rs. 36 to Rs. 40 (£3 to £4). Pigs are rare in Sdran, and are only kept by the very lowest castes. A good pony is worth Rs. 50 (£5); but ponies suitable for the popular game of hockey command a much higher price. The " tat " or native pony is a very hardy useful beast, who does a great deal of work on very little food. The price of a good donkey is from Rs. 2 to Rs. 3 (4s. to 6s.) A score of sheep not fattened are worth from Rs. 35 to Rs. 40 {£3, 10s. to £4) ; a score of kids from Rs. 9 to Rs. 10 (18s. to^i). The Common Agricultural Implements used in Saran are (1) the hdl or plough, made of wood and shod with iron. It is very light and just scratches the ground ; (2) the phdl or harrow ; (3) the khurpi or drill for sowing the seed ; (4) hatha, the spottle for irrigat ing with ; (5) the mot, for irrigating from wells, value Rs. 4 (8s.), and the rope which is made of hide, value Rs. 6 (12s). One plough and a pair of oxen could cultivate 10 local bighds of land, equal to 6\ acres ; the oxen would probably be worth Rs. 40 (^4), and the rest of the stock about Rs. 5 (10s.). Wages and Prices. — In the interior of the District, coolies work ing in the fields are generally paid in grain, at an average rate of from 3 to 4 sers a day, and \ ser of peas or gram for the mid-day meal. Except among the agricultural classes, wages in the District are generally paid in cash. The Collector returns the following as the daily wages of unskilled labourers, when paid in money. Nuniyds: in the town, from 2 to 2\ dnnds, or from 10 to 12 Gorakh pur pice (3d. to 3|d.) ; in the country, from \\ to 2 dnnds, or from 7 to 10 Gorakhpur pice (2^d. to 3d.) Ordinary coolies: in the town, 2 dnnds, or 10 Gorakhpur pice (3d.) ; in the country, \\ dnnds, or 7 Gorakpur pice (2^.) Women : in the town, 1 dnnd 9 pies, or 6 Gorakhpur pice (about 2-2,-d.); in the country 1 dnnd, or 5 Gorakhpur pice (i|d.). Boys : the same as women. Children : in the town, 9 \ pies, or 4 Gorakhpur pice (r\d.); in the country, Z\ pies, or 3 Gorakhpur pice (about id.) Nuniyds are the best labourers, and are WAGES AND PRICES. 297 especially sought after for digging. Bricklayers get from 3 to 4 dnnds (4^d. to 6d.)per day; blacksmiths the same ; sawyers, 3 dnnds (4^d.) a day ; carpenters, from 2J to 4 dnnds (3! d. to 6d.) a day. It is thought that, as a general rule, all wages have increased 30 per cent, during late years. In 1811, I find wages of domestic servants were as follow : — Cook, Rs. 2 per month ; a body-servant, R. 1,8; a cart-driver, R. 1, 8 ; a syce, R. 1, 2 ; a watchman, R. 1 ; a mihtar, R. 1 ; a barber, R. o, 8 ; a musdlch, R. o, 8 ; a dhobi, R. 1. Prices of food have also risen. The Collector, in his Administra tion Report for 1873, selects two marts, Chhaprd and Sewdn, and gives the average prices of the principal grains for the years 1871-72 and 1872-73, as follow : — Common rice: in 1871-72, at Chhaprd, 20-3 sers per rupee; at Sewdn, 19-4 In 1872-73: Chhaprd, 17-5 Sewdn, 15-8. Pulses: 1871-72, Chhaprd, 19-3; Sewan, 18-3. In 1872-73, Chhaprd, 15 ; Sewan, 14. Wheat : in 1871-72, Chhaprd, 20-1 ; Sewan, 20-9. In 1872-73, Chhaprd, 14-7; Sewdn, 16-3. Atta : in 1871-72, Chhaprd, 14-7; Sewdn, 15-3; in 1872-73, Chhaprd, 11-3; Sewan, 12-1. Barley: in 1871-72, Chhaprd, 28-5; Sewan, 26-5. In 1872-73, Chhaprd, 28-1 ; Sewan, 23-3. Indian corn: in 1871-72, Chhaprd, 24-8; Sewdn, 23-5. In 1872-73, Chhaprd, 28-6; Sewdn, 26-2. These figures show an enormous increase when compared with the prices at the end of the last century. The following list of prices was returned by the Collector in 1790; the calculations have been reduced to standard sers and hundredweights. Raw rice : first sort, 66 sers per rupee, or is. 8d. per cwt. ; do., second sort, 69 sers per rupee, or is. 7d. per cwt. ; do., third sort, 72 sers per rupee, or is. 6d. per cwt. Usnd rice : first sort, 75 sers, or is. 5^d. per cwt. ; do., second sort, 78 sers per rupee, or is. 4fd. per cwt. Satu: 81 pro per rupee, or is. 4d. per cwt. Wheat : first sort, 78 sers per rupee, or is. 4|d. per cwt. ; do., second sort, 84 sers per rupee, or is. 3|d. per cwt. Arhar, 114 sers per rupee, or njd. per cwt. Gram, 72 sers per rupee, or is. 6d. per cwt. Peas, 114 sers per rupee, or n|d. per cwt. Mustard seed, 72 sers per rupee, or is. 6d. per cwt. Tisi, 78 sers per rupee, or is 4f d. per cwt. Janird, 108 sers per rupee, or is. per cwt. Mug, 60 sers per rupee, or is. 9d. per cwt. Barley, 117 sers per rupee, or nd. per cwt. Masuri, 96 sers per rupee, or is x\d. per cwt. Paddy, 126 sers per rupee, or io|d. per cwt. Khesdti 126 sers per rupee, or io^d. per cwt. The following price-list of food-grains for December 1791, was re- 298 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. turned by the Collector in the following month. The season was evidently one of scarcity. Rice, first sort, 2 1 sers 15 chhatdks per rupee, or 4s. n|d.'per cwt. ; do., second sort, 285^0-12 chhatdks per rupee, or 3s. 9|d. per cwt. ; do., third sort, 33J sers per rupee, or 3s. 3d. per cwt. Rice in the husk, first sort, 37 sers per rupee, or 2s. nd. per cwt. Kodo, 1 maund 2 sers 3 chhatdks per rupee, or 2s. 7d. per cwt. Satu, 1 maund 17 sers 6 chhataks per rupee, or is. lofd. per cwt. Paddy, 1 maund 14 sers per rupee, or 2s. per cwt. Wheat: 39I sers per rupee, or 2s. 8d. per cwt. Wheat flour: 2 if sers per rupee, or 5s. per cwt. Barley: 1 maund 17 sers 6 chhatdks per rupee, or is. io|d. per cwt. Peas : 1 maund 10 sers 11 chhatdks per rupee, or 2s. 2d. per cwt. Arhar-gram : 1 maund 3f sers per rupee, or 2s. 6d. per cwt. Arhar-ddl: 30 sers 6 chhatdks per rupee, or 3s. 7d. per cwt. Mustard seed : i8| sers per rupee, or 5s. nd. per cwt. Tisi (linseed) : 28 sers 10 chhatdks per rupee, or 3s. 9d. per cwt. Janird: 1 maund 2o| sers per rupee, or is. 9d. per cwt. Musuri: 1 maund 8 chhatdks per rupee, or 2s. 3d. per cwt. Musuri-ddl : 30 sers 6 chhatdks per rupee, or 3s. 7d. per cwt. Marwd; 1 maund 17 sers 6 chhatdks per rupee, or is. lofd. per cwt. Shdmd; 1 maund 15! pro per rupee, or is. nd. per cwt. But or gram : 1 maund 5 sers per rupee, or 2s. 5d. per cwt. Mug: 8 sers per rupee, or 13s. 7d. per cwt. Poppy seed: 19 sers per rupee, or 5s. 9d. per cwt. China: 1 maund x^er rupee, or 2s. 8d. per cwt. Khesdri: 36 sers per rupee. or 3s. 3d. per cwt. Maskaldi : 37l\ sers per rupee, or 2s. 1 id. per cwt. Khassid, the liquor distilled from the flowers of the mahud tree, sells at 4 Gorakpur pice — 3-i standard //<; or bighd side. Area of a bighd in square yards. Feet. yards. 1% 165 ... 55 3,025 6 180 ... 60 3,600 7% 225 ... 75 5,625 8 240 ... 80 6,400 6% 195 ... 65 4,225 A kos is supposed to equal two English miles, but the word is very indefinite. The land measures are : 20 krant = 1 furki ; 20 furki= 1 dhurki; 20 dhiirki = 1 dhur; 20 dhdr=\ kdthd; 20 kdthd = 1 bighd ; 4 lagi long by 2 broad = 1 kdthd. Landless Day Labourers. — The Collector is not aware of any tendency towards the growth of a distinct labouring class, who neither possess nor rent lands. There is no class resembling the krishdns of Lower Bengal. Some cultivators hold their land on what is called a batdi-tenure, in which the cultivator supplies the seed and labour, and keeps one half of the crop, the landlord taking the other. This tenure, however, is fast dying out, as the landlords find it disadvantageous, Theoretically it ought to be profitable to them, as the money rent of land is certainly not equal to half the gross produce; but in practice, partly from being cheated in the division of the crop, and partly from the expense and trouble of getting his rent in kind, the landlord finds it less profitable than a, fair money rent. It is rarely found, except on lands on which the crop is uncertain, and in gardens. Women and children are largely employed in light work in the fields— such as weeding, cleaning, and breaking up the clods. Spare Land. — There is no spare land in the District, and Saran has always been noted for its high state of cultivation. The tenures are as a rule unfavourable to the cultivators. There are three classes of tenants in the eye of the law; viz., (1) tenants with, and (2) tenants 300 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. without, rights of occupancy, and (3) mukarrariddrs or tenants who have a right to hold their land at a fixed rate in perpetuity. The principal kinds of soil are — doras (two-soils, i.e., both sand and clay), dihi or village lands, mattidr balwd or alluvium, hdnch and bhdngdr. Land Tenures. — According to the most recent returns, the average size of an estate in the District of Sdran is only 150 acres, i.e., less than half the average size of the Tirhut estates, and less almost by a half than those in Patnd. This is partly due to the influence of the constant partitions, under the batwdrd Act of 18 14, which alone has added 1934 estates to the rent roll of the District. There are now 80 estates on the roll, each having an area of less than 10 acres. Few zaminddrs have taken advantage of the beneficial provisions of the sale law, by which separate accounts- can be opened. The total number of such accounts was only 1301 in March 1873, the total number of zaminddrs being 15,000. The number of estates at the time of the Permanent Settlement (1793) was 1056, and the revenue assessed on them Rs. 1,000,848, 2, 7. At present (1875) there are 3687 estates; and the assessed revenue is Rs. 1,221,381. In addition to the number added under the provisions of the batwdrd Regulation, 52 were settled under the provisions of Regulation II. of 181 6, 602 under Regulation II. of 1819, and 42 under Act IX. of 1847. The number of estates has thus been nearly trebled by partition alone. Deducting the large estates, and assuming that 1000 estates occupied the reduced area of 2000 square miles, the average size of an estate at the time of the Permanent Settlement may be set down at 1280 acres. At the present time there are 2,951 estates with a less area than 500 acres in paying an average re venue oi £14, 14s.; 570 estates with an area of more than 500 acres but less than 20,000, wrhich pay an average revenue of £rr\, 18s. ; and three estates exceeding 20,000 acres, with a revenue of^i4,8o4, 8s, of which ^13,556 is paid by the estate of the Hatwd Raja alone. As an example of the high market value of land, the Collector instances the case of two plots of ground in the town of Chhaprd and its vicinity, the one measuring 26 bighds, 16 kdthds, and the other 1 bighd, 10 kdthds, \7\ dhiirs. These two estates were acquired under Act X. of 1871, and the total amount of compen sation paid for the former was Rs. 890, for the latter Rs. 195. The classes of sub-tenures at present known to exist are thikd, mukarrari, zar-peshgi, and patud. A thikd tenure is created by a zaminddr letting a village in farm for a certain number of years ; RATES OF RENT. 301 the thikaddr or farmer collects what he can from the cultivators, and pays the zaminddr what has been agreed on. Mukarrari tenures are held at a fixed rate, being either granted in perpetuity, or for the life of the tenant. Zar-pesghi tenures are leases granted in consideration of an advance made by the lessee, the lessor's right of re-entry being dependent on the repayment of such advance. Patud or gadhaud is a usufructuary lease, which provides for pay ment of the principal and interest, but sometimes of the interest alone, from the usufruct of the land. Rates of Rent. — The Collector reports that Sdran has always been noted for its high rates of rent ; and that there has been a great enhancement during the past ten years. As far back as 1788, ordinary grain lands paid Rs. 2 per bighd (of what size is not stated, but the bighd of 4225 square yards is probably meant); and poppy lands from Rs. 5 to Rs. 10. In 1841 the following rates were paid : — pargand God : doras land fit for cotton, Rs. 3 per bighd ; pargand Chaubdra : sugar cane land, doras soil, Rs. 4 per bighd ; pargand Cherdnd : tobacco soil and kharail soil, Rs. 7 per bighd; pargand Bal : rice land, kharail soil, Rs. 4 per bighd. The holdings of the cultivators are for the most part small, and indebtedness is very general. The rates of rent practically depend on the following circumstances : — (1) The character of the proprietor. (2) Whether the village is, or has been, let in farm to an indigo factory. (3) The caste of the tenant. (4) The duration of his tenancy. The first of these requires no remarks. As regards the second, so long as the factory farms the village the rates are low ; but when the lease falls in, the proprietor enhances rents so as to obtain from the village a sum equal to what he got from the factory. It is very common to find Brahmans, Bdbhans, Rajputs, and other high castes, holding the best lands in a village at rates varying from 50 to 75 per cent, below what a low caste man, such as a Koerf, or Kurmi, or Chamdr, would pay for inferior lands. Koeris' rents are generally high ; but this is owing to their holding most of the opium lands. Rents are now almost invariably paid in money, and not in kind, as was formerly com mon. Where the tenant paid rents in kind, the zaminddrs at the time of the Permanent Settlement bound themselves not to take more than 1 maund 22 \ sers from a maximum estimated produce of 2 maunds per bighd. The present custom, where payment in kind exists, is for the produce to be divided equally. On estates under 302 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. the Court of Wards, it may be noticed that the average rent paid by Ahirs, Kiirmis, and Kdhars is Rs. 4 per bighd, while Brdhmans and other high castes only pay Rs. 3. These latter castes employ hired labour to cultivate their lands. Rents have generally risen during the last fifteen years. The following list of rates of rent, arranged pargand by pargand, is taken from a special Report by the Collector, dated 15th August 1872 : — The length of lagi or pole in local use is 6 hdths or 9 feet ; the size of the local bighd being 3600 square yards or 32,400 square feet. Pargand Bal. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 3 per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 2 per bighd, or 5 s. 4f d. per acre ; (3) Makai, marwd, cotton, arhar and wheat, Rs. 7, 4 per bighd, or 19s. 7d. per acre; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 5, 8 per bighd, or 14s. iod. per acre; (5) Indigo, Rs. 5, o per bighd, or 13s. 6d. per acre; (6) Sugar cane, Rs. 5, o per bighd, or 13s. 6d. per acre. Pargand Bard. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 4, 8 per bighd, or 12 s. ifd. per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 3, 8 per bighd, or 9s. 6d. per acre; (3) makai, manvd, arhar, cotton, and wheat, Rs. 1, 15 per bighd, or 5s. 2d. per acre; (4) kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 2, 2 per bighd, or 5s. 8Jd. per acre ; (5) poppy, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9-|d. per acre ; (6) sugar cane, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9! d. per acre. Pargand Barai. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 4 per bighd, 10s. 9^d. per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 2 per bighd, or 5s. 4|d. per acre ; (3) Makai, marwd, arliar, cotton and wheat, Rs. 2, 11 per bighd, or 7s. 3d per acre ; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre; (5) poppy, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9|d. per acre; (6) Indigo, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9^d. per acre; (7) sugar cane, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre. Pargand Chaubarah. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 3-8 per bighd, or 9s. 5^d. per acre; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 2, 1 per bighd, or 5s. 7d. per acre; (3) Makai, marwd, arhar, cotton and wheat, Rs. 2-8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre ; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 2-5 per bighd, or 6s. 3d. per acre; (5) poppy, Rs. 6, 8 per bighd, or 17s. 6hd. per acre ; (6) Indigo, Rs. 3, o per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre ; (7) sugar cane, Rs. 3, 8 per bighd, or 9s. 5-|d. per acre. Pargand Cherdnd. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9id per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 3 per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre ; (3) Makai, marwd, arhar, cotton and wheat, Rs. 8, 8 per bi°-hd or^i, 2s. n£d. per acre; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 8, 4 RATES OF RENT. 303 per bighd, or £\, 2s. 3|d. per acre ; (5) poppy, Rs. 12 per bighd, or £1, 12s. 4fd. per acre. Pargand Dangsf. (1.) Transplanted rice, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 2 per bighd, or 5s. 4|d. per acre ; (3) Makai, marwd ,arhar, cotton and wheat, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre ; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 1, 12 per bighd, or 4s. 8id. per acre; (5) poppy, Rs. 3, 4 per bighd, or 8s. 9^d. per acre; (6) Indigo, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9^d. per acre; (7) sugar cane, Rs. 3, 8 per bighd, or 9s. 8|d. per acre. Pargand God. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 3 per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 2 per bighd, or 5s. 4|d. per acre ; (3) Makai, marwd, arhar, cotton and wheat, Rs. 4, 8 per bighd, or 12s. ifd. per acre; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 4, 4 per bighd, or us. sjd. per acre; (5) poppy, Rs. 6 per bighd, or 16s. 2^d. per acre; (6) Indigo, Rs. 4, 8 per bighd, or 12s. ifd. per acre; (7); sugar cane, Rs. 3 per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre. Pargand Kodri. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 3, 4 per bighd, or 8s. 9^d. per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre; (3) makai, cotton, arliar, marwd, and wheat, Rs. 3, 4 per bighd, or 8s. 9^d. per acre ; (4) kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 2, 4 per bighd, or 6s. id. per acre ; (5) poppy, Rs. 4, 8 per bighd, or 12s. ifd. per acre. Pargand Kasmar. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 3, 8 per bighd, or 9s. sjd. per acre; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre ; (3) Makai, marwd, arhar, cotton and wheat, Rs. 5,8 per bighd, or 14s. iod. per acre; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 4, 14 per bighd, or 13s. ifd. per acre ; (5) poppy, Rs. 7 per bighd, or 18s. iofd per acre; (6.) Indigo, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9§d. per acre; (7) sugar cane, Rs. 5 per bighd, or 13s. 6d. per acre. Pargand Makair. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9^d. per acre; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 3 per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre; (3) Makai, marwd, arhar, cotton and wheat, Rs. 3, ir per bighd, or 9s. ijd. per acre; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 3, 8 per bighd, or 9s. $\d. per acre ; (5) poppy, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. |-9d. per acre; (6) Indigo, Rs. 3 per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre; (7) sugar cane land, Rs. 3, 8 per bighd, or 9s. 5^d. per acre. Pargand Manjhf. ( 1 ) Transplanted rice, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 2 per bighd, or 5s. 4|d. per acre; (3) Makai, marwd, cotton, arhar and wheat, Rs. 5, 6 per Ughd, or 14s. 6d. per acre ; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 5, 6 per 304 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. bighd, or 14s. 6d. per acre; (5) poppy, Rs. 6 per bighd, or 16s. 2|d. per acre; (6) Indigo, Rs. 6, 8 per bighd, or 17s. 6Jd. per acre. Pargand Marhal. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 2 per bighd, or 5s. 4f d. per acre ; (3) Makai, marwd, arhar, cotton and wheat, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, R. 1, 12 per bighd, or 4s. 8|d. per acre ; (5) poppy, Rs. 3, 4 per bighd, or 8s. 9^d. per acre ; (6) Indigo, Rs. 3 per bighd or 8s. id. per acre. Pargand Narhan. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 3 per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre : (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 1, 4 per bigha, or 3s. 4^d. per acre ; ( 3 ) Makai, cotton, marwd, arhar and wheat, Rs. 2, 8, per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre ; (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 1, 8 per bighd, or 4s. o\d. per acre ; (5 )poppy, Rs. 8 per bighd, or £1, is. 7d. per acre; (6) Indigo, Rs. 2, 8 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre ; (7) sugar cane, Rs. 3, 8 per bighd, or 9s. 5 Jd. per acre. Pargand Pachlak. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9^d. per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 3 per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre ; (3) makai, marwd, arhar, cotton, and wheat, Rs. 4, 8 per bighd, or 12s. ifd. per acre; (4) kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 3 per bighd, or 8s. id. per acre ; (5) poppy, Rs. 5, 8 per bighd, or 14s. iod. per acre ; (6) Indigo, Rs. 3, 8 per bighd, or 9s. 5d. per acre ; (7) sugar cane, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9§d. per acre. Pargand Sipah. (1) Transplanted rice, Rs. 5, 8 per bighd, or 14s. iod. per acre ; (2) broadcast rice, Rs. 3, 8 per bighd, or 9s. 5 Jd. per acre ; (3) makai, marwd, cotton, arhar, and wheat, Rs. 5, 8 per bighd, or 14s. iod. per acre ; (4) kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 4 per bighd, or 10s. 9^-d. per acre; (5) poppy, Rs. 6, 8 per bighd, or 17 s. 6£d. per acre. The following are the average rates of rent for the whole District, compiled from the foregoing pargand averages for each kind of land. It should be remembered that the rates are calculated, as in the preceding paragraphs, on the local bighd of 3600 square yards, and converted thence into the standard English acre. — (1) Trans planted rice, Rs. 3, 8, 9 per bighd, or 9s. 6fd per acre. (2) Broad cast rice, Rs. 2, 6, 6 per bighd, or 6s. 9d. per acre. (3) Makai, marwd, arhar, wheat and cotton, Rs. 4, 2, 8 per bighd, or us. 3d. per acre. (4) Kodo, shdmd, barley and pulse, Rs. 3,8, 11 per bighd, or 9s. sjd. per acre. (5) Poppy, Rs. 5, 12, 9 per bighd, or 15s. 7fd. per acre. (6) Indigo, Rs. 3, 13, 6 per bighd, or 10s. 4^d. per acre. (7) Sugar-cane, Rs. 3,10,10 per bighd, or 9s. njd. per acre. NATURAL CALAMITIES. 305 Manure is used wherever it can be procured. Five or six cart loads are considered a fair quantity for one acre ; though they supply little more than a top-dressing. The manure consists of cow or sheep's dung, or well-rotted sweepings and ashes. Sugar-cane, opium, and tobacco are highly manured, but rice lands never. The Collector says that it is difficult to estimate the value, as manure is very rarely sold ; but he returns six dnnds (9d.) as a fair price for a cart load of cow's dung, and eight dnnds (is.) for one of sheep's dung. The lands near a village, which receive a good deal of household refuse, are much sought after ; and few cultivators will take out-lying fields (ardzi bdhirsi), unless they can also get some village lands with them. Another manure, much used by indigo planters, is siti, or the re fuse of the indigo plant, after it has been steeped. This is worked in, when the ground is being prepared for the next season. Irrigation is largely practised for the cold weather crops — more especially for barley, sugar-cane, tobacco, potatoes, and vegetables ; but when rain fails, the rice crop is also irrigated, The chief methods have been already mentioned. Wells are common; but tanks, compared with the number in Tirhut, are scarce. Rice is irrigated from the surplus rain-water, which has collected in the ndlds and natural water-courses during the rains. The cost of irrigating a rice field is Rs. o, 8 per bighd ; of watering from a well, R. 1 to R. 1, 4. Wells are of three kinds (1) kachchd wells, which are simple excavations in the earth, and cost R. 1, 4 (2s. 6d.) per parsd or man's height. They only last one season. (2) Wells lined with rings of earthenware, which cost about Rs. 40 (£4). (3) Pakkd wells, lined with masonry, which cost from Rs. 400 to Rs. 500 G£4o to ^50). Where both a spring and an autumn crop are taken from the same field, no crop is grown during the rains. Peas are usually watered twice ; wheat and barley three times ; opium five times ; sugar-cane seven or eight times, and tobacco four or five times. The quantity of water used varies from 200 to 250 maunds per bighd. Lands are occasionally left fallow for six months at a time. Natural Calamities. — The District of Saran is subject to blights, floods, and droughts. Blights. — The most common kind of blight is called hindd, which attacks wheat and barley. The stalk becomes incrusted with a yellow mildew, and the ears are found to be become empty. This blight is met with when east winds have been prevalent, if accom- vol. xi. u 3o6 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. panied by heavy fogs during the preceding cold weather. There is no. remedy known. In 1867-68, therabior spring crops suffered much damage from this cause. The grain crop is also often attacked by the larkud insect, which makes one tiny hole in each pod, enters, and eats up the contents. Many fields which show a most luxuriant crop, are found on closer examination to have produced nothing at all. During a damp season, indigo is liable to be attacked by caterpillars, which strip off the leaves, and leave nothing behind but the bare stalks. East winds are supposed to be favourable to their ravages. Another insect attacks the indigo root, cutting it through just below the surface of the ground. During the cold weather, the crops are sometimes greatly injured by hail storms. In February 1866, a great storm swept the District from the north-western parts towards Sonpur, devastating a tract of country thirty-five miles long, with an average breadth of from five to eight miles. Within this area, nearly every green blade was destroyed. According to Mr Cockerell, C.S., in his Report on the Famine of 1866 in Behar, the effect of this storm was absolute ruin to the opium cultivators, who had also suffered from a similar calamity in the previous year. Floods. — Sdran District, being bounded on two sides by large rivers, which flow on ridges and carry enormous volumes of water, is peculiarly exposed to inundations. The northern side of the District is now, however, completely protected by the Gandak embankment. Towards the south, along the banks of the Ganges and Ghagrd, pro tective works are required, as large tracts are inundated nearly every year. Where the banks of these two rivers are low, there is nothing to hinder them from inundating the immediately adjacent country. Where, on the other hand, the banks are high, the immense volume of water brought down forces itself up the small river streams, which flow into the large rivers through deep cuts in their banks. In this latter case, it is the low lands under the smaller streams, that suffer most severely. The old records are full of com plaints about these inundations, which in many cases rendered a remission of revenue necessary. As examples of special inunda tions, those of 187 1 and 1874 may be taken, as accurate returns are available for each year. In 1871, the town of Chhaprd, the average level of which may be taken as 173 feet above the sea-level, was inundated by the combined floods of the Ganges and Ghagra, which poured up the Azaibganj NATURAL CALAMITIES : EMBANKMENTS. 307 ndld, and overflowed the Tramway Road at a low point near Nairn', on the fifth mile from Chhaprd. This ndld has its mouth at Azaib ganj, and shortly after branches off into two channels, each of which terminates in a jhil, eight miles to the north. The height of this flood above mean sea level was 177-33 feet outside the Tramway Road; and in the town itself, 175-57 feet. In 1874, the flood level overtopped that of 1871 by 11 inches. When at its greatest height, it was more than five feet above the general level of the town ; and Chhaprd was solely saved by the strength of one embankment, which had fortunately been raised and strengthened as a relief work in 1874. This work prevented the water of the Azaibganj ndld passing northwards through the Barham- pura ndld. In the rural parts of the District, according to the Famine Narrative, it was possible to sail from Thawa bridge to Sonpur, and from Nayagaon to Dindpur and Bdnkipur. The Harded chaur and Mahi nadi rose simultaneously with the Ganges, and the zaminddri bandhs gave way at one place after another. The waters spread as far north as Parshadi, Pari, and Manki Mantal, and south to Ndyagaon, Kharikd, Chausia, and Baranpurd, covering the Sdnpur road to the depth of three or four feet. When the embankments burst on the Mdhf nadi, at Kakrehat and Beld, the waters rushed into the Harded chaur and flooded the adjacent lands. The Parsa road was under water in several places ; so that from the Gandak to Hariharpur, and from Sftalpur to Parya, the whole country was more or less covered with water. The highest flood level yet recorded was on the 29th August 1874, when the reading was 178-29 feet above the sea. The general level of the Station, as has already been stated, is 173 feet above mean sea level. Embankments. — There is only one embankment, or rather series of embankments, deserving of notice — the line which extends from Sonpur, at the confluence of the Ganges and Gandak, to Sepaya, being more or less continuous for one hundred miles. The earliest notice of this great work is to be found in the records of 1796, when it was first placed under European management; Rs. 17,429 were expended on its repairs; Rs. 2,100 on the Super intendent's salary, and Rs. 846 on his establishment, making a total of Rs. 19,375. The Collector proposed that this sum should be paid in- equal proportions by Government and by the zaminddrs. In 179S the pulbandhi, or embankment charges, were Rs. 128,124; which 308 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. amount was recovered by levying £ dnnd per bighd upon the Nizdmat mahdls and from the jdgirddrs. In 1801-2 the embankment was partially repaired ; in 1806-7, and again in l8l4> further sums were ' spent on it. In 1815 the following lengths were ordered to be re paired :— (1) Parsandf to Fathipur, 18 miles; (2) Sonpur to Parsandf, 20 miles ; (3) Bandaulf to Salapur, 14 miles ; (4) Salapur to Gausid, 16 miles ; (5) Gausid to Jandupur, 12 miles; (6) Bhatgare to Chol- kam, 5 miles ; (7) Balaha to Gausid, 3J miles ; (8) Jandupur to Mat- tfhama, 6 miles ; making a total length of 94J miles. The cost of repairs was Rs. 62,207, 3. In spite of the large sums occasionally spent on these works, they had fallen into so ruinous a state between 1820 and 1825, that the zaminddrs petitioned either that Government should repair them, or that they should be allowed to do so themselves. Repairs of some kind or another were made ; but in 1829 it was found that further re pairs, if not a reconstruction, had become necessary. Accordingly, Captain Sage constructed a new line at a cost of Rs. 60,000 ; which in the same year was so extensively damaged that its repairs cost Rs. 20,785. Since then the embankments have been fairly attended to, though it has been a subject of discussion whether they should not be altogether abandoned. Colonel Rundall considers it very doubtful whether the line of 1830 was constructed on any definite principle, with regard to the discharge of the river. But, on the whole, it has answered its pur pose well. The Government officers superintend it ; and the land holders are under agreements to pay for the cost of repairs, in pro portion to their land-revenue. In the lower part of its course the main embankment is at some distance from the river ; and with a view to protect the intervening strip of country, a subsidiary or charkhi bandh was erected close to the river bank. Some years ago it was feared that this tended to endanger the stability of the main em bankment, and orders were, therefore, issued to breach it. This was done ; but it was not demolished, and (while it thus remained) the large embankment, which had not given way for many years, was broken in several places. In 1872, property to the value of 2 lakhs of rupees (^20,000) was destroyed, and some thirty villages between the two embankments were ruined. A proposal to relieve the more urgent cases, by the disbursement of Rs. 7,000, was made by the Collector. It cannot be maintained that the shutting out of the Gandak water has been attended with unmixed benefits ; and the evils EMBANKMENTS. 309 that now exist will probably increase, unless something is done to remedy them. Before the embankment was erected, the various ndlds and nadis which intersect the District, received each year a large volume of pure, fresh water, which they ultimately conveyed to the ¦ Ganges. Now, however, this no longer happens, and the little water that they contain during the cold and hot weather is stagnant and malarious. In years of drought, irrigation is no longer feasible from these sources, as it once was ; and the banks of some of these streams have become so unhealthy that no one will live near them. The course of many of them is distinctly visible up to the embankment. Thus, the bed of the Daha nadi is clear up to Parmanand Pattf. So, too, the Gandaki nadi takes its rise near Hdjfpur from a sotd or old branch of the Gandak, which in the hot weather is now almost dry. The Dhandi nadi rises at the 77 th mile of the embankment, and was formerly fed from the Riipanchap sotd of the Gandak. The vil lagers say that it was never dry, even in the hottest seasons, previ ous to the thorough repair of the Gandak embankment. The Khatsa nadi rises at Ramkollah, also near the embankment. A new irri gation scheme contemplates the opening of sluices in the Gandak embankment, and the admission of water into these old channels, which will be used partly for irrigation and partly for drainage. The necessity for erecting another embankment in the south of the District, along the banks of the Ganges and Ghagra, has been strongly urged. The following is the present state of the case : — From Sdn pur up to Chhaprd the banks of the Ganges are, as a rule, high ; and the inundations are not caused by the river overflowing its banks, but by its flood water forcing its way up the deep ndlds, which are imperfectly embanked, into the low lands behind. From Chhaprd for three miles to the west, the country is protected from inundation by the high banks of the river, although the country behind is low ; but at Azaibganj, a ndld opens into the Ghagrd, and allows the flood water to pour over the low-lying land inside. The water then passes on towards Revelganj on the west and Chhaprd on the east ; though but little can get past the Tramway Road, which protects the town of Chhaprd from inundation. From the 3d to the 15th mile, the banks are high, and no nadi joins. At the 15th mile a small zaminddri bandh commences, and joins the high pieces of ground up to Phulwaria, where the Sundi or Daha nadi falls into the Ghagrd. This nadi is embanked for many miles into the interior ; and it is sup posed that the floods, which did so much injury to Chhaprd in 1874, 3 1 o STATIS TIC A L A CCO UNT OF SA RAN DIS TRIC T. were caused by its waters. Up to the 20th mile the Ghagra spills over the road ; but from the 20th to the 22d mile, the low ground is em banked. From the 2 2d to the 42d mile, the banks are high; but between them and the cold weather bed there is a large area, annually inundated during the rains. A low tract of land at the junction of the Jhardhi with the Ghagra is often inundated, but the floods do not spread over the surrounding country. From the 45th to the 48th mile, the river overflows its banks, and forces its way up the Ghosf nadi at Darauli. It also inundates a large tract of land to the north-west of that place. Above the 48th mile it does not seem to do further harm. The proposed scheme is to align a proper em bankment, which, while allowing drainage to escape by sluice-gates inserted in it, would keep out the flood waters. In this way, very large tracts could be preserved from inundation nearly every year. Droughts have occurred several times, the worst known having taken place in 1866 and in 1874. Both of these were entirely caused by the failure of the local rains, and intensified by the exclu sion of the Gandak water by the embankment. No means have as yet been adopted as a safeguard against droughts ; but a scheme is at present under consideration for utilising the ndlds as irrigation canals. In partial floods, a compensating influence exists in the shape of the rich mud brought down by the rivers. The Famine of 1866. — The following account has been con densed from Mr Cockerell's Report on the famine of 1866 in Behar : — The distress in Sdran was general ; it was caused by two or three bad harvests in successive years, and by a. general rise in the price of food, unaccompanied by any rise in wages. It was locally intensi fied by a severe hail-storm, which passed over a portion of the District from west to east in February 1866. The autumn crops of 1864 had partially failed, and the rabi or spring crops of 1865 had been damaged by a previous hail-storm, which passed over the same tract of country. Thus, local supplies had not been maintained, and distress began to be felt very early. The staple food of the District is Indian corn or maize ; rice is largely imported from Tirhut and Nepdl, to supplement what is grown on the low lands in the District. But these sources also failed. Dis tress supervened ; and in October 1865 a public meeting to discuss relief matters was held by the Collector. A Committee of native gentlemen was formed to purchase rice at wholesale prices in the neighbouring Districts, and to retail this to the poorer classes at rates THE FAMINE OF 1866. 311 below those prevailing in the bdzdr. But these cheap sales were discontinued by order of the Board of Revenue, as the grain was simply withdrawn from an equally distressed area; the largest grain mart in north Behar being Revelganj, from which the Chhaprd dealers drew their supplies. In November 1865, the Collector reported that the local rice crop had failed to the extent of two-thirds. Much, however, depended on the rabi crops, the sowing of which had been retarded by want of rain and want of seed. Further hopes were frustrated by the hail-storms which traversed the District, from its extreme north-western corner to its eastern limit, where it is bounded by the Gandak. This tract is about 35 miles long by 8 broad; and so complete was the destruction, that it was said that almost every blade of corn and green leaf had been destroyed. In many parts of this tract opium is grown ; and the cultivators look to that crop to pay for the rent of their entire holdings. The effect of this storm was ruin to all within its limits. The Collector's recommendation, that the opium ad vances should be remitted, was supported by the Commissioner, but was not finally acceded to. The immediate consequence of this wholesale destruction of crops was the absence of employment for the labouring classes, who had thus no means of support till the next sowing season, three or four months distant. In the meantime, Rs. 3000 were sent to some indigo planters, in localities where the distress was keenest, to afford some relief by road-making. Work was also started at Sewan ; and some hundreds were thus supported till April, when funds ran short, and the works were stopped. No other relief measures were adopted till June, when funds to the amount of Rs. 16,147 including a contribution of Rs. 2000 from the Hatwd estate, were raised by subscription. An allowance of 8 chhatdks of rice and one of ddl was to be daily given to those who were physically incapable of work. Relief centres were established at Chhaprd, Rdm- kolla, Rajapati, Barhoga, Sadowd, Sewdn, Pratappur, Husainganj, Kuchaikot, Narhan, and Dighwdrd. These were principally supplied with grain purchased at Revelganj, at the rate of nine sers a rupee ; at a time when it was only procurable in the local bdzdrs at the rate of five or six sers a rupee. The distribution of cooked food proved a failure, and was only given under medical orders. The daily average number receiving gratuitous relief was, in July, 5062 ; in August, 4221. Imperial road works were commenced at Sewdn in July, from an 312 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. assignment of Rs. 20,000. Eighteen hundred persons were thus em ployed in July, August, and September ; but the relief came too late. Cholera appeared in many places, although nowhere in an epidemic form. Medical establishments were opened at Chhaprd and Sewan. At the latter place, out of 146 cases, 65 died within 8 days after admission. Altogether, 8175 persons are said to have died from starvation and disease; but this estimate must be accepted as only approximate. In no month did the daily average num ber of persons receiving relief of one kind or another exceed 7000. Relief should have commenced much sooner. The Collector had reported, towards the end of 1865, that everything depended on the rabi crops ; and that if these failed, there would be frightful dis tress. And these did fail. ' In the words of Mr Cockerell — " A clear case for extensive relief measures had arisen ; yet no provision for affording relief on a scale at all commensurate with the need of the people was attempted, till late in the month of June ; and conse quently, a vast number of those who came to the relief centres to obtain food, were already in a moribund state, to whom the first meal gave the death blow." The total amount assigned for relief works was Rs. 51,147, made up thus : Private subscriptions, Rs. 16,147; assignments from local funds, 5000 ; from general relief funds, Rs. 10,000 ; and from imperial funds, Rs. 20,000. The amount expended on gratuitous relief was Rs. 21,707 ; on relief works, Rs. 22,600 ; total, Rs. 44,307. The Famine of 1874 was due to the deficient and abnormally distributed rainfall of 1873, which only amounted to a total of 33-8 inches, against an average of 37-88. The following table exhibits the rainfall at the Sadr station, month by month : January, 24 inches ; February, nil ; March, 1-7 inches; April, i-oo; May, nil; June, 3-42 inches; July, 15-57 inches; August, 10-75 inches; September, 1-15 inches; October, nil; November, nil; December, nil; total rainfall, 33-83 inches. Throughout all parts of the District, excepting in the thdnds of Dighwdrd, Chhaprd, Mdnjhf, and Darauli, with a population of 680,000, the crops were more or less deficient. The Indian corn (makai) yielded hardly three-eighths of an ordinary crop; and the rice crop, which occupies one-fourth of the cultivated area, failed almost entirely. The rabi crops were expected to yield about three-eighths of an average, having been much improved by rain in February 1874. In the thdnds of Barauli and Basantpur, bordering the Gandak the deficiency was greatest ; and in places to the west of Hatwd, where THE FAMINE OF 1874. 313 the main crop is rice, and the harvests had been deficient for three successive years, severe distress was anticipated. The District is densely inhabited (778 souls per square mile), and the surrounding Districts were equally distressed. Saran, however, contains many large grain marts, with enterprising dealers ; and in this respect, it contrasts very favourably with Champdran and Tirhut. The principal places where grain was imported were Revelganj, Chhaprd, Mirganj, Gutd, Siswan, Maharajganj, and Riipanchdp ; Revelganj, from its favourable situation, receiving by far the largest quantity. Sir R. Temple thus determined the quantity of grain which it was necessary to import. On the Hatwa estate, 80,000 persons, out of 400,000, would require assistance of some kind or another, for three-and-a-half months. To provide for these, 18,000 maunds of grain were thought necessary. For the rest of the District, or for a distressed population of 200,000 souls, 500,000 maunds were ordered to be stored. The ultimate amount stored, however, was 1,034,906 maunds. It was despatched to Arrah in Shahdbad, and thence ferried across to Dariaganj, in this District. By the middle of January rice was selling at 10 and 1 1 sers a rupee, but maize could still be obtained at 14 sers. Work was said to be much wanted in several places, and a few isolated cases of distress were reported in Darauli thdnd. The want of water was especially felt. Dakdiii, robbery, theft, and house-breaking increased from 224 cases in December 1871 and 231 in December 1872, to 289 in December 1873. On the 17th January, rice was selling in Hatwd at \o\ sers per rupee. Mr Hodgkinson, then manager of the Hatwd estate, gave the following comparison, in kachchd sers of 1 2 gandahs (a little more than half the standard ser), with prices in the same month of 1866. January 1874, rice 18 to 19 sers per rupee, equiva lent to 9 or 9\ standard sers; makai 23 to 24 sers per rupee, equivalent to ir.\ to 12 standard sers. January 1866, makai 42 sers a rupee, equivalent to 2 1 standard sers; rice 22^ sers, equivalent to 1 1| standard sers. Work in the shape of tank making, and of construct ing new or repairing old roads, was, however, amply provided. On the 10th February, there were 70,000 persons employed on relief works. Many were women, and persons who do not ordinarily resort to this kind of labour. Although there were 900 miles of roads in course of construction or repair, it was thought that these would not afford suffi cient work ; and the clearing out of old inundation channels was there- 314 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. fore included in the relief operations. Towards the end of February, the average daily number on relief works was 82,000, but during the next month it fell to 76,794, soon to rise again to 93,574- The quantity of work done by persons on relief works was stated to be one-fourth of what a cooly ordinarily did. The average daily number receiving gra tuitous relief was only 577. In the beginning of April the bdzdrs, with one exception, were said to be everywhere sufficiently supplied with grain'; and though importations had fallen off, private trade was still active. Owing to the large amount of work provided, distress of an extreme nature was not general. For the fortnight ending the 8th April, the average daily number on relief works was 120, 129 ; on charitable relief, 956. The next fortnight showed that these numbers had increased to 147,708 and 3498. In May, orders were issued that all payments on relief works should be in grain. Of people on relief works, a few only were on piece work, the rest being on daily wages. The higher castes, such as Brdhmans and Rajputs, would not accept piece work. In all, 62 relief circles had been opened, the agency of indigo planters being resorted to whenever possible. Ad vances of cash and of food grain were actively pushed on. In the fortnight ending June 1, the average number on relief works rose to 226,127. But of nearly 520,000 maunds of Govern ment grain, which had been stored in the District, only 30,000 had been consumed ; and of the rice imported by the Hatwd Raj, whose estates lay in the most distressed parts, only 11,000 maunds out of 124,000 had been consumed. During the fortnight ending June 17, the average daily number employed on roads was 229,885 ; but the numbers began to fall as soon as the rains began. Al though the rivers rose, importations on private account did not increase so largely as had been anticipated. In the following fort night, June 17th to 31st, while the numbers on works decreased from 154,346, those on gratuitous relief rose to 32,000; and during the fortnight ending 25th July, the average number on works was about 90,000, and on gratuitous relief 60,000. Paddy or unhusked rice was selling at from n to i3f sers per rupee; Indian corn, though not procurable everywhere, at from 14 to 18 sers; and barley at from 16 to 25 sers a rupee. Advances of grain had been made to the amount of 324,831 maunds. The bhadai crop, which was a good one on the whole, though damaged by inundations and excessive rainfall in some parts, greatly relieved the distress then prevailing. About the beginning of September, the Ganges rose n inches above FAMINE WARNINGS. 315 the level of the 187 1 flood, which inundated Chhaprd town. Nearly one-sixth of the whole District was submerged, more or less, especially the thdnds of Dighwdrd, Chhaprd, and Parsd. During the fortnight end ing the nth September, the average daily number on relief works was 121,719, the number on charitable relief 60,873. From the nth to the 24th September there was a serious want of rain, which give rise to- gloomy anticipations regarding the out-turn of the winter crops. But the fall of rain, varying from 4 to 1 8 inches, during the following fortnight saved the rice ; and relief operations were soon afterwards brought to an end. Famine Warnings. — The maximum prices of paddy during the famine of 1866 was Rs. 5, 10 per standard maund, or 15s. 4d. per cwt., and of rice, Rs. 8 per maund, or £1, is. iod. per cwt; the highest price that rice reached in 1874 was 9 sers per rupee, or 12s. i-£d. per cwt. The Collector considers a rise of 50 per cent, above the average price of grain, provided the market had a strong- upward tendency, and the high price arose from a failure of the crops, to be the point when relief works should be commenced ; but that charit able relief would not yet be necessary. If food does not rise more than 50 per cent, in price, and steady work is available, the able- bodied are quite able to support themselves. It would not be necessary to distribute gratuitous relief until prices had risen 100 per cent., i.e., when staples which ordinarily sell at from 20 to 22 sers a rupee, were selling at from 10 to n sers. On the other hand, the Collector thinks that relief works should be opened when rice is selling at 12 sers per rupee, instead of at the ordinary rate of 24, and Indian corn at 1 5, instead of the usual rate of 30. The crops in Sdran are divided into bhadai or autumn crops, kharif or winter crops, and rabi or spring crops. The first warning of famine would be the loss of any two out of these three crops, especially of the winter and spring crops, the autumn crop being comparatively insignificant. Given a total failure of the winter crops, and a probable loss of the spring crops, great distress may be certainly expected from April to September, after which the pressure would be slightly eased by the harvesting of the autumn crops. The means of distribution in Sdran are good water-communications on the Ghagrd, Ganges, and Gan dak ; together with 890 miles of fair unmetalled roads, by which grain could be thrown into all parts of the District. Muhammadan Landholders. — The total number of Musalmdn landholders in Sdran is returned by the Collector at about 2000, 316 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. or 15 per cent of the whole number. There are no statistics to show the proportion of the land revenue paid by them. Roads and Means of Communications.— With the exception of some short detached lengths in the vicinity of towns, all the roads in Sdran are unmetalled. In the case of metalled roads the material used is kankar, which is found in several places in the District. The following list of roads has been arranged, so far as is possible, according to centres — (1) Chhaprd to Sewdn, 37 miles long, annual cost, ,£144; (2) Chhaprd to Guthnf, 48 miles, annual cost, ,£72, 16s. ; (3) Chhaprd to Sattar ghdt, 34J miles, annual cost, ^111, 10s. : (4) Chhaprd to Rewa ghdt, 23^- miles, annual cost, £$>, 14s. ; (5) Chhaprd to Sonpur ghdt, 30J miles, annual cost, ,£91, 4s. ; (6) Chhaprd to Telpa ghdt, 2 miles, annual cost, £3 ; (7) Garaipur to Panapur, 1 o miles, annual cost, £8; (8) Digh wdrd to Panapur, 7 miles, annual cost, £10, 10s. ; (9) Dighwdrd to Jaldlpur, 12 miles, annual cost, £\%; (10) Domdighar to Sohagpur, 47 miles, annual cost, £70, 10s. ; (n) Daridganj to Gurkha, 8 miles, annual cost, £8 ; (12) Rasulpur to Chainpur, 6 miles, annual cost, £r8; (13) Kaird to Ramkolla, 18 miles, annual cost, £$0; (14) Sitalpur to Makair, 15 miles, annual cost, ,£15; (15) Rdjdpatf to Sohansi ghdt, 6 miles, annual cost, £r$ ; (16) Baraulf to the Tramway Road, 5 miles, annual cost, £r^ ; (17) Tramway Road, 49 miles, annual cost, ,£245 ; (18) Dighwdrd to Paigambarpur, 28 miles, annual cost, ^28; (i9)Chhaprato Fibijaghat, 4 miles, annual cost, ,£4, 16s.; (20) Telpa to Seurd, 2 miles, annual cost, £3 ; (21) Sewdn to Da rauli, 20 miles, annual cost, ^30; (22) Sewdn to Siswan, 22 miles, annual cost, ^66 ; (23) Sewdn to Kateya, 35 miles, annual cost, ,£52, 10s. ; (24) Sewan to Salfmpur, 26 miles, annual cost, ^91 ; (25) Sewdn to Guthni, 26 miles, annual cost, ^"12 ; (26) Sewan to Paigambarpur, 30 miles, annual cost, ^90; (27) Sewdn to Lakhri, 8 miles, annual cost, £12 ; (28) Mirganj to Sattar ghdt, 37 miles, annual c°st, .£55, 10s.; (29) Titra to Simrd, 8 miles, annual cost, £12 ; (30) Mirganj to Salfmpur, 35 miles, annual cost, £52, 10s. ; (31) Mirganj to Madhupur, 9 miles, annual cost, ^13, 10s. ; (32) Mdnjhf to Betardah, 44 miles, annual cost, £67, 10s. ; (33) Mahdrdjganj to Kachai Kotf, 42 miles, anuual cost, ^84 ; (34) Gopalganj to Betar dah, 12 miles, annual cost, ,£18; (35) Gopalganj to Mahdrdjganj, 28 miles, annual cost, ,£42 : (36) Darauli to Kochai Kotf, 31 miles, annual cost, ^62 ; (37) Parsd thdnd to Muhammadpur, 37 miles, annual cost, ^80 ; (38) Sitalpur to Sarya ghdt, 7 miles, annual cost, RO. I DS : MA NUFA CTURES. 3 1 7 ,£21 ; (39) Narhan to Andar, 10 miles, annual cost, ,£12 ; (40) Guthni to Sewdn, 30 miles, annual cost, ,£45. Total mileage, 890^ miles; total annual cost, .£1974, 10s. The defect of the Sdran roads is a want of bridges, many of them having been swept away in the floods of 187 1. The cart traffic is very heavy, though carts for a great part of the year travel in the tracks below the road. The Road Cess Act is being introduced; and this, it is hoped, will provide funds to rebuild the old bridges, and also provide new ones. The probable amount available at the maximum rate is ,£17,000, calculated on the basis of an agricultural income equivalent to five times the Government revenue. Communications were formerly very defective. In 1794, there were only three roads in the District, and all in very bad condition. These were (1) Chhaprd to Champdran, which was hardly passable in rains. In many places people were obliged to wade up to the waist. (2) Chhaprd to Mazaffurpur; (3) Cherand to Mdnjhi via Godna ; this was impassable in many places, and bridges were much wanted. In 1830, the following roads were in existence: — (1) Chhaprd to Darauli; (2) Chhaprd to Salfmpur ghdt and Gobind- ganj ; (3) Chhaprd to Sattar ghdt; (4) Chhaprd to Rewd ghdt ; (5) Chhaprd to Sonpur; (6) Chhaprd to Sherpur ghdt ; (7) Chhaprd to Gorakhpur via Sewan. There are no railways and no canals in Saran. The Report of the Sdran District Road Fund, for the year ending September 1875, published in the Calcutta Gazette of 12th July 1876, shows that the total income during that year, excluding balances, amounted to ,£5,003, 9s., of which .£4,567, 3s. was derived from Ferry Tolls. The expenditure of the year, also excluding balances, was .£75,305, 10s., of which £15,126, 10s. was spent on original works, and .£53,920, 2s. on repairs. This expenditure, which was altogether exceptional, represents the concluding outlay on famine relief, caused by the scarcity of the previous year. Out of the total, no less than £70,847, 10s., or 94 per cent, was expended during the first six months of the year, between October 1874 and March 1875. It is stated by the Collector, in his report accompanying the Road Fund Account, that the road work and tanks constructed during the famine promised to be of permanent utility. Manufactures. — According to the Collector's Administration Re- portfor 1872-73, the principal manufactures in the District are indigo, sugar, brass, and brass work, potteryTsaTtpetre, and cloth. A deicnp-" tion of indigo manufacture has already been given {ante, pp.282-287). 318 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Sugar is principally made at Sarya, Semeria, Guthni, and Patar, in the west of the District, where sugar cane is largely grown. After the cane has been cut, it is taken home to be pressed in the mill. This is a very primitive contrivance, exactly the same descrip tion as the oil-mill (kollut), an account of which has already been given. The raw juice (ras) escapes through a hole in the foot of the trunk into an earthenware pot, the refuse cane being subsequently cut up, dried in the sun, and used for fuel. The raw juice would soon ferment and spoil ; but when boiled into gur it will then keep for a long time. The boiling is done by the cultivators themselves, but the sugar now leaves their hands. The bepdri, or broker travels from village to village, buying up the gur. In many cases he has given an advance to the cultivator, and he now recovers it. The refiners do not find it convenient to buy directly from the culti vators ; as they could not, without much difficulty, obtain the gur in sufficient quantities to keep their refineries steadily at work. They, therefore, employ beparis to buy for them, and these re-sell at a small profit. When the raw gur is brought into the refinery, it is thrown into an iron boiler called a kard, in quantities of 6 or 8 maunds at a time. After it has been smashed up with an iron bar, water is poured on and a fire lighted beneath. As the boiling proceeds, some milk is thrown in and all impurities are carefully skimmed off as far as possible. The liquor is then allowed to cool ; and when suffi ciently cold to allow of the hand being inserted, it is strained through a cloth and poured into a second vessel, where it is allowed to consolidate for twelve days. On a third vessel, in the foot of which is a small hole, twigs and grass are spread, and on the top of these is poured the hardened mass of sugar which has been first broken up. Every other day for a fortnight or so, a kind of grass called sewdr gilds is placed on the top of the sugar. This contains a good deal of moisture, and facilitates the escape of the molasses which otherwise would remain and deteriorate the colour. The sugar remains for one month on the top of these twigs tand grass. When taken off, it is wrapped up in a cloth, pressed and dried in the sun, after which it is ready for sale. From 6 maunds oi gur or crude sugar, i|- maunds of sugar and i .V maunds of molasses will be obtained. The sugar, which goes prin cipally to Ghdzfpur, sells at Rs. n per maund ; the shird or molasses at Rs. 2 per maund. The latter is used for mixing with tobacco, MANUFACTURES: SALTPETRE. 319 The manufacturers do not export the sugar on their own account, but again sell it to the beparis. Saltpetre Manufacture. — The soil of Sdran is . highly sali- ferous ; and the extraction of saltpetre and salt has for long afforded employment to a caste of labourers known as Niiniyas (min, salt). Earth containing salt is easily known by its white silky efflorescence, which appears more especially after a shower of rain. The Niini yas rent a small piece of ground on which they have their phar. The saliferous earth is collected and exposed to the sun and air, until thoroughly dried, after which it is beaten and pulverised. It is then placed in quantities of about 3 maunds at a time in a kothi or filter, on which water is poured at different times, till it is slightly above the earth. In the bottom of the filter are placed sticks and straw. The filling of the filter is generally done towards night ; and the earth is left to steep till the morning, when the water, now largely charged with salt, runs out into earthenware pots. It is then boiled for six hours and strained, while all impurities are skimmed off. When the liquor is supposed to have been sufficiently boiled, a little is taken out and tried upon a leaf. If the liquor proves to be sufficiently evaporated, it is poured into a hdri, where it is left for two days to cool. The saltpetre then consolidates, and the process is complete. This is the way in which dbi sord is made. The amount produced from 3 maunds of earth varies according to the quality of the soil, from 7 to 15 sers being a common out-turn. In addition to this saltpetre, common salt is also obtained as a by product thus : — When the saltpetre is taken out of the hdri, a little liquor or ras remains. This after being boiled for nine hours, yields a residue of edible salt {pakwd). Another method is to mix the ras with the ashes of the leaves which have been used to boil the salt petre. They are placed in the filter, water poured on, arid the liquor which exudes, after being again boiled, leaves a residuum of salt. Khdri nimak is made thus. From October to June the Niiniyas collect earth- from waste lands on the edge of chaurs. The ras is obtained in the same way as in the case oi pakwd salt. It is then boiled and strained, and the sediment allowed to dry on the ground, when it assumes a reddish colour. But the saltpetre, which is the wellknown article of commerce, has to undergo another process before it is sent to the market. It now leaves the hands of the Niiniyas, and passes into those of the refiner, generally a man of some capital, who has advanced money to the 32o STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Niiniyas, and is repaid by the saltpetre which he obtains from them. He begins by mixing a quantity of crude saltpetre with water, the proportion generally being two maunds of saltpetre to twenty jars of water. This is boiled for some hours, and is then poured into parchas or earthen vessels to cool. The impurities are first removed in the form of sediment ; the saltpetre subsequently deposits and is strained through a basket and dried. The product is kalmi sona. Kathi sord is thus made. The earth, which has become saturated with bhddi and siti, is dried, pulverised, and put through the same process as that already adopted by the Niiniyas. The ras is then boiled, and poured into a vessel to settle, the refuse being removed as in the case of kalmi sord. The saltpetre which congeals in the vessel is called kathid salt. The ras which remains in this last vessel is very thin, and requires a second boiling ; and on cooling a very superior salt is educed. The introduction of Act XXXI of 1 86 1 will doubtless have a prejudicial effect on the trade, as the profits, which are already scanty, will be much diminished by the prohibition of the sale of untaxed salt, educed during the manu facture of the saltpetre. Some remarks on this point will be found in the Statistical Account of Tirhut (Vol. XIII., p. 129). Brass Manufacture. — The braziers first prepare a clay mould ; and after mixing the different metals until the required alloy has been obtained, pour the mixture into the mould. The article, when cool, is finally beaten and polished. Pottery. — The Sewan pottery is made from a peculiar mud found near that town. The ware is glazed, as well as unglazed and por ous, and has a much higher finish than is usually seen in native pottery. Most articles are produced by the hand, and the wheel is rarely used. Dyes. — The following account of the dyes used in Saran has been taken from the Collector's report on the subject : — The two principal dyes grown in this District are indigo and safflower ; and from a com bination of these two in varying proportions are produced many beautiful tints, most of which, however, are not permanent. A full account of indigo has already been given {ante, pp. 282-287). Safflower or kusum khul (Carthamus tinctorius), is generally sown along with some winter crop in October, and harvested in February. It is, therefore, almost impossible to state, with even approximate accuracy, the area sown, cost of cultivation, profit, etc. The plant is principally grown in Basantpur, Manjhi, MANUFACTURES : DYES. 321 Dighwdrd, Mashrak, and Sewdn thdnds. The greater part of the produce is used by the cultivators themselves ; the rest is purchased by professional dyers in various parts of the District. Some of the produce also finds its way to Nepal, .Gorakhpur, Ghazi'pur, and places on the [other side of the Ganges. The average out-turn of safflower in Sdran is estimated at 2000 maunds per annum ; and the average price per maund, Rs. 36, 10. No European capital or agency is engaged in this industry. The following is the mode of extracting the dye. When the flowers have been collected, they are first dried in the shade ; and if this part of the process is not carefully performed, the colour will be deteriorated. There are two kinds of colours contained in the leaves — the yellow, which is soluble in water; and the red, which is "fast," but which can be dissolved in alkaline carbonates. If the yellow dye is required, the safflower is well dried and pounded, then put into a rude bag, made by suspending a piece of cloth from four sticks or from a frame {akhti). Water is then poured on, and filters into a pan beneath. This is continued, until it is considered that all the colouring matter has been extracted. If not wanted for immediate use, the liquor is evaporated, and the product collected in a solid state. If the red dye is required, the safflower after having undergone the process just described, is thrown into an infusion of alkali {saji), and left to dis solve. The colour is subsequently extracted by the addition of some vegetable acid and the admixture of water, as in the first process. The other substances, which are used for dyeing purposes are : — Tdn kd phul (the flowers of Cedrela toona) ; Nat. Order, Jasminaceas ; palds kdphul, flowers of the bastard teak (Butea frondosa) ; andr kd chilkd, bark of the pomegranate (Punica granatum). The average price at which these dyes are sold is as follows : — Tun kd phul, 1 2 sers per rupee ; singhdrhar kd phul, \\ ser per rupee ; palds kd phul, 1 2 sers per rupee ; andr kd chilkd, 5 sers per rupee. The tun tree and bastard teak are not cultivated ; but the singhdrhar and pomegranate are grown in gardens as ornamental shrubs. Very little dye is ex ported, nearly all being used for local consumption. There is another species of dye produced by the lac insect, found on pipal trees. The lac is macerated and washed, before the dye can be extracted. It is said that above 200 maunds of this dye are annually exported to Calcutta. The following is a list of all the dyes produced in Sdran, together with particulars as to how each is prepared. VOL. XI. x 322 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. (i) Surkh kusumi (red), prepared from safflower, macerated with alkali {saji), and then mixed with certain proportions of acid and turmeric. (2) Ghuldbi (rose colour), prepared from safflower, with which saji and some acid are mixed. (3) Narangi (orange colour) prepared from safflower and singhdrhar ka phul, with which an acid and saji are mixed. (4) Ghulndr (bright red, colour of the pome granate flower), prepared like number r. So too is (5) sonald (golden yellow.) (6) Piydzi (flesh colour like the skin of an onion), prepared from safflower, with which acid and saji are mixed. (7) Bdddmi (dull yellow), prepared like number 3. (8) Champai (bright yellow like the flower of the champd), prepared like the last. (9) Kasini (dark lilac like the flower of the flax plant), prepared from safflower and a little indigo. (10) Baingani (purple), prepared from indigo with which safflower is mixed, and then purified with an acid, (n) Falsai, prepared from safflower, with which a little indigo and tur meric are mixed. (12) Kakchi (a dark shade of lilac), prepared from safflower, with which a little indigo is mixed, the whole is then puri fied with lemon juice and water. (13) Siydhi (blue black), prepared from indigo, lime juice, safflower, and gur, which are put into an earthen pot, filled with water and kept for a fortnight, till they have fermented. (14) Surmai (blue black), prepared in the same way as number 13; both are said to be "fast." (15) Asmdni (dark blue like the sky), prepared like number 13. (16) Abi (light blue like water), also prepared like number 13. (17) Mdsi (invisible green, the colour of mdskaldi, a species of pulse), prepared from indigo, singhdrhar kd phul, and kard (Terminalia chebula), mixed with sul phate of iron, and then washed in a yellow colour extracted from safflower. (18) Kdkrejd (maroon), prepared from bukkum, the bark of the Ceesalpinia sappan, and lodh, the bark of the Symplocos racemosa, mixed with the galls of the Terminalia chebula, which are cut into small pieces and boiled in water. (19) Sabzi (bright green), prepared from indigo, turmeric, and safflower. (20) Agari (brown, the colour of the wood of aloes), prepared from the galls of Termin alia chebula, with which sulphate of iron, kath (Catechu), and lime are mixed. (21) Kdhi (a grass green), prepared from indigo, with which turmeric, the galls of Terminalia chebula, and sulphate of iron are mixed, the whole being washed with the yellow colour extracted from safflower. (22) Dhdni (light green, like the young rice plant), prepared from turmeric, with which indigo and acid are mixed. (23) Khdki (grey, the colour of dust or earth), prepared from teori, the COMMERCE ANDITRADE. 323 tarpetk root (Ipomoea turpethum), and sulphate of iron, boiled in water. (24) Sandali (light brown, the colour of sandalwood), pre pared from the flower of the singhdrhar, with which kath produced from the Acacia catechu, lime, and spices are mixed. (25) Jangali (bright blue, colour of verdigris), prepared from sulphate of copper, with which lime is mixed. (26) Kaposi (light green, colour of cotton pods), prepared from the palds flower, with which indigo and lemon juice are mixed. (27) Peroza (blue colour), prepared from sul phate of copper, with which lime is mixed. (28) Phul palds, (light brown) prepared from the palds phul flower, with which saji is mixed. (29) Andr ka chilkd (dull yellow colour of the inside of the pome granate peel.) The peel is boiled with water, with which tun kd phul is mixed, the whole being washed with alum. Commerce and Trade. — The following paragraphs on the trade cf Sdran are partly taken from the Collector's Annual Report for 1 87 2-7 3 . — The principal exports from the District are oilseeds, saltpetre, sugar, grain of all sorts, except rice ; and' the principal imports are rice, salt, and cloth. By far the largest export is that of oil seeds ; and this export is almost entirely from the mart of Revelganj, where oil seeds in large quantities, grown mainly in the North-Western Pro vinces, but to some extent also in Sdran District, are brought for despatch to Calcutta. The recently published Ganges. Traffic Returns show that in 1872 there were exported from Sdran 539,040 maunds of oil-seeds, which amount is probably less than the usual quantity. From information received from the agent of one of the Calcutta firms employed in this trade, the Collector is of opinion that from eight to nine lakhs oi maunds are annually sold at Revelganj." The same returns show that the saltpetre exported from Sdran. amounted in 1872 to 77,942 maunds. The number of licensed saltpetre manufactories in the District exceeds 408, from which the estimated out-turn for the year is 82,569 maunds ; but it has been found that many of the goldddrs have understated the expected out-turn, so it is probable that this figure is somewhat below the truth. On the whole, however, there seems no reason to doubt the approx imate correctness of the traffic returns with regard to the export of this article. The export of sugar in 1872, as indicated by the traffic returns amounted to 43,019 maunds. Food grains show an export of 3031 maunds of wheat, 15,537 maunds of other cereals, and 8324 maunds of pulses and gram. 324 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. The principal imports are cloth and cotton. A considerable trade in these articles is carried on by the Mdrwarfs, who have established themselves at Chhaprd during the last thirty years. European cotton cloth, chiefly longcloth, muslin, chintz, cambric, &c, to the value of about 40 Idkhs of rupees (£400,000), is annually im ported from Calcutta, and sold in the District; these goods are chiefly brought by rail to Patnd, only a small portion, say about one- sixteenth, being conveyed by steamer on the Ganges. Mahdjans, from the interior of the District, as well as from Motfharf, Bettid, Nepal, &c, draw their supply from Chhaprd. The cloth most in de mand is longcloth, as being the stoutest and most durable. The sale of this fabric forms about 90 per cent, of the total given above. Benares cloth to the value of about two lakhs of rupees (£20,000), is annually brought from Benares. This article is chiefly used by the rich in marriages and festivals. Raw cotton, to the extent of about four lakhs of rupees (£40,000), is annually imported,' chiefly from Mirzdpur, Agra, and Cawnpur; the cultivation of cotton in Sdran itself being only carried on to a small extent. The cotton is spun into thread by the women, and manu factured into coarse cloth by the Juldhas and Tantfs. The annual transactions in both cloth and cotton may be roughly estimated at from 46. to 50 lakhs of rupees (£460,000 to £500,000) ; the trade is chiefly in the hands of Jain merchants from the North- West. Rice stands next in the list of imports. It appears from the traffic statistics before referred to, that in 1872, 361,520 maunds of this staple were received in the District. It is probable that this is below the annual import, as from other information, it seems that from four to five Idkhs of maunds of rice from Eastern Bengal are annually sold at Revelganj alone ; and if to this be added the amount received at other places, it appears likely that the ordinary imports from Lower Bengal must equal nearly six Idkhs of maunds per annum. The total consumption appears small, seeing that the produce of the District probably does not exceed thirty lakhs of maunds, but it must be borne in mind that maize and barley compose the principal food of the masses. Salt is the next largest article of import appearing in the traffic returns. The import of this article in one year is there shown to be 258,°37 maunds, which gives an average consumption of about five sers per head of population per annum. The following table shows the receipts and despatches of all articles REVELGANJ TRADE. 325 registered by weight from the principal depots in Sdran for 1872, as registered at Sdhibganj. Of the despatches oil-seeds constitute about 80 per cent., saltpetre, 7 per cent., and sugar 4 per cent. Name of Places. Despatched. Received. jUauuds. Mauiuis. Revelganj, . . 552,808 451,038 Salfmpur, . . . 57,l6l 36,271 Chhaprd, . . . 83,863 47,339 Guthni, .... 10,940 Darfdganj, . . . 25,375 Muhammadpur, . 52,895 Chmar Chhaprd, 37,o33 Small places, . . 50,000 40,000 Total, 754,772 689,951 Revelganj Trade. — The following figures of the Revelganj trade are taken from Mr Bernard's Report, dated 18th November 1872. Estimated quantity of goods sent from Revelganj to Patna and Calcutta down the Ganges in country boats, oilseeds, 502,168 maunds; saltpetre, 12,559; sugar, 7464; wheat, 1556 ; other cereals, 9919 ; pulses and gram, 6416 ; jute, 150; tobacco, 273 ; spices and pepper, 315; miscellaneous vegetable productions, 7229; metals, 6; salt, 2665; ghi, 985 ; cotton goods, 84; miscellaneous, 988 — total, 552,777 maunds. Estimated quantity sent up the Ganges, and re ceived at Revelganj; salt, 194,457 maunds; rice, 233,367; jute, 260; miscellaneous, 87; cereals, 225; pulses, 20, 703; spices and pepper, 74 ; miscellaneous vegetable productions, 72 ; shell-lac, 218 ; metals, 553 ; gunnies, 473 ; betel nut, 549 — total, 451,038 maunds. The following figures were obtained at Revelganj by local en quiry. Estimated quantity of goods sent in country boats down to Patnd and Calcutta: linseed, 500,000 maunds; mustard seed, 300,000 ; poppy seed, 100,000 ; castor oil seed, 50,000 ; wheat, 100,000; other cereals, 50,000; saltpetre, 100,000; sugar refined, 10,000; total, 1,210,000 maunds. Quantity sent up the Ganges to Revelganj: Salt, 300,000 maunds ,- rice, 600,000; iron, 10,000; jute, 25,000; miscellaneous, 100,000; total, 1,035,000 maunds. A country boat takes one or two days to go from Revelganj to Patnd in the rains, two or three days in other seasons ; 15 days to Calcutta in the rains, 40 in the dry weather. The freighting charge by boat to Patna is from Rs. 2, 8 to Rs. 3 per 100 maunds; to Calcutta, 326 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Rs. 20 to Rs. 25. The native traders at Revelganj are nearly all agents, not principals, who obtain a commission on their deal ings. The principal European traders at that mart are Messrs Ralli and Messrs Valletta. It seems that the Bengali traders buy the oilseed when prices are low, store it and despatch it to Calcutta direct, uncleaned. They can do this for about 2J dnnds per maund uninsured. The European traders pay one dnnd a bag for boat-hire to Patnd, and get the seed cleaned there. Uncleaned seed cannot be sent by rail on account of the large amount of husk and dirt. If the seeds were to be cleaned at Revelganj, clean ing sheds, special supervision, and the importation of skilled labour, would be necessary. The women, who clean at Patna, are a trained class. The Bengali's do not insure ; they draw bills on their bankers, who accept them, and thus become practically insurers; for if a heavy loss is sustained, the merchants fail and the bankers have to pay. The charge from Revelganj to Calcutta is not more than 2 J- to 2-f dnnds per maund. Trade Routes. — According to Captain J. Jeffreys, the principal routes of land traffic in Sdran are the following : — (1) Chhaprd to Sattar ghdt via Mashrak, for Champdran and north-west Tirhut ; (2) Chhaprd to Rewa ghdt, via Makair Khas, for Muzaffarpur and Mad- hubanf. A large amount of rice is exported from this last place ; (3) Chhaprd to Gultanganj via Sadawd, for Champdran and Motihdrf ; (4) Chhaprd to Sewdn ; (5) Chhaprd to Revelganj and Darauli, for the North-Western Provinces ; (6) Chhaprd to Dariaganj for Dindpur. Ancient Trade of the District. — The figures in the following brief notice of the ancient trade of Sdran include those of the present District of Champdran. In 1792, according to the Collector, the principal exports were oilseeds, wheat, barley, rice, sugar, and mo lasses. Of mustard seed, there were exported 39,000 maunds ; lin seed, 190,000; wheat, 35,000; barley, 42,000; rice, 53,000; sugar, 22,000; and molasses, 29,000 maunds. The whole of these exports were consigned to Patnd and Lower Bengal. In addition, salt and cloth, which had come up from Lower Bengal, were sent on to Nepdl. The principal imports were : cotton, 5,000 maunds from Mirzdpur; tobacco, 3,000 maunds from Tirhut; 10,000 packages of silk and cloth from Maldah and Murshiddbad ; salt, 2,500 maunds from Bengal ; and 6,000 maunds of betel-nuts. The principal im ports from Nepal were wax, musk, borax, drugs, kuchan, a sort of RIVER TRADE STATISTICS. 327 woollen cloth, tezpdt, laurel-leaf, and gold dust from the Sumesar hills. River Trade Statistics. — The results of the registration station established on the Ganges at Sdhibganj are summed up in a Resolu tion of Government, dated 18th October 1875, from which the 'following paragraphs are condensed. Revelganj, in the District of Saran, appears as the second largest river mart with a Ganges-borne trade in Bengal. In exports it stands first of all, but in imports it is headed by Patnd ; and the average of both exports and imports added together exceeds ten lakhs of maunds per annum. The fol lowing are the figures of the Revelganj trade for the three years 1872-74. Exports, in 1872: 552,808 maunds, or 20,236 tons; in 1873, 556,944 maunds, or 20,388 tons ; in 1874 (the year of scarcity), 466,765 maunds, or 17,087 tons. Imports, in 1872 : 451,038 maunds, or 16,511 tons; in 1873, 492,610 maunds, or 18,033 tons; in 1874 (the year of scarcity), 246,385 maunds, or 9019 tons. It must carefully be remembered that these figures only apply to that portion of the trade of Revelganj which passed by the registration station at Sdhibganj, for' during those years there was no system in force to catch the large commerce of Revelganj with Patna and the North- West. With regard to particular items of trade, the Resolution referred to above gives the following information : — Nearly one-half of the total down-stream traffic registered at Sahibganj consists of oilseeds ; and of this half, nearly one-fifth is contributed by the one mart of Revel ganj, which is far at the head of this branch of trade. " The oil seeds exported from Revelganj are mainly the produce of the North- Western Provinces, and are sold to agents of down-country mer chants." In 1872, no less than 539,040 maunds, or 19,732 tons of oilseeds, were exported from this mart; in 1873, 473,716 maunds, or 17,341 tons; and in 1874, 356,686 maunds or 13,057 tons. These figures are practically identical with those showing the exports of oil seeds from the District of Sdran ; and when compared with those quoted above as the entire export trade of the District, demonstrate conclusively that, apart from the oilseeds of Revelganj, the remain ing export trade of Saran is of an unimportant character. " These large totals, however, do not represent the whole of the Revelganj trade in oilseeds, which is estimated to amount to even ten Idkhs of maunds annually. Large quantities are sent down the river to Patnd, whence they are consigned to Calcutta by rail." Of other articles of export, the following quantities were sent down the 328 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Ganges from Sdran District :— Sugar : in 1872, 43>OI9 maunds, or 1,574 tons; in 1873, 26,863 maunds, or 983 tons; in 1874, 11,222 maunds, or 410 tons. Tobacco : in 1872, 658 maunds, or 24 tons; in 1873, 299 maunds, or 11 tons; in 1874, 1631 maunds, or 59 tons. Wheat: in 1872, 3,031 maunds, or 11 1 tons; in 1873, 340 maunds, or 12 tons; in 1874, 20,929 maunds, or 766 tons. Pulses and gram: in 1872, 8,324 maunds, or 305 tons; in 1873, 12,207 maunds, or 447 tons ; in 1874, 18,956 maunds, or 694 tons. Saltpetre : in 1872, 77,962 maunds, or 2,854 tons; in 1873, 68,243 maunds, or 2,498 tons; in 1874, 46,476 maunds, or 1,701 tons. It is remarked that the exports of saltpetre are, apparently, decreasing. The Ganges-borne imports into Sdran, registered at Sdhibganj, are almost entirely confined to rice and salt. Of rice, the following quantities were carried : In 1872, 361,520 maunds, or 13,234 tons; in 1873, 423,311 maunds, or 15,496 tons; in 1874 (the year of famine), 101,569 maunds, or 3,718 tons. Of salt : in 1872, 258,137 maunds, or 9,449 tons ; in 1873, 164,739 maunds, or 6,030 tons ; in 1874, 148,324 maunds, or 5,429 tons. In another page of the Reso lution from which these figures are taken, it is stated that, in the year 1874, 104,296 maunds, or 3,818 tons, of salt, were despatched from Calcutta to Sdran along the Bhagirathf ; 8280 maunds or 303 tons along the Jalangf; and 10,000 maunds, or 366 tons, by the Calcutta Canals and Sundarbans route. Since September 1875 a more comprehensive system of regis tration has been adopted, by which the entire traffic of Bengal along all its great water-ways is ascertained. A registration station has been established at Patnd, where all the traffic of Sdran is registered which passes either up or down the Ganges ; and a second station has been placed at Darauli on the Ghagrd, which serves to catch all the trade of Sdran with Oudh and the North-western Provinces. The results are published monthly in the Statistical Reporter, from which have been compiled the tables on the two following pages. These show (table I.) the exports by river from'] Sdran District, dur ing the six months ending February 1876 ; and (table II.) the im ports into Sdran during the same period. RIVER TRADE STATISTICS. 329 STATISTICS of the River Traffic of SAran District, for the Six Months ending February 1876 — (Table I., Exports). Description of Goods. V£ Oh £ Xi 0 V xt e> 0 aV 0 3 cd 3 XJ ii Total. CO O & Q »-i fc Class I. maunds mamids maunds maunds maunds mauttds maunds Coal and coke, 50 200 250 Cotton, . . I32 80 5 28 150 395 Do., twist (native), . 6 6 8 20 Chemicals and medicines, 18 29 51 232 363 693 Red wood, '"46 46 Indigo, . 6,950 6,171 136 20 13,277 Indigo seeds, IOO 200 300 Betel-nuts, .... 5 5 Fuel and firewood, 390 5,551 3,885 12,625 ".93i 9,580 43,962 Fruits, dried, 127 127 Do. fresh, and vegetables, 30 183 240 434 3,480 3,987 8,354 Wheat, . 31.421 14,384 18,761 11,277 18,267 23,202 117,312 Pulses and gram, 2,666 4.348 7,105 4,910 7,998 5,623 32,650 Rice, 3,661 13.3^7 11,917 6,940 8,695 1,484 46,064 Paddy, 500 1,084 800 1,204 1.265 Jl5 4,988 Other cereals. 9.T7i 14,062 16,170 27,364 22,702 23,861 "3. 33o Jute and other raw fibres, IjOOO 1. 000 Fibres, manufactures of, 10 178 2 600 790 Hides, . 628 392 154 2,340 800 4,314 Iron, ... 44 176 10,68 50 80 5*4 1,942 Copper and brass, 95 1 601 4 701 Lime and limestone, 5 180 775 280 275 I-5I5 Stone, 25 7,"3 375 ^3,954 9,100 30,567 Shell-lac, 45 55 28 ... 128 Slick-lac, 12 12 Ghi, - 449 28 540 29 148 114 1,308 Oil, 15 2 >7 Linseed, 91.437 46.35S 57,948 86,143 68,322 17,301 367,506 7zV-seed, 893 893 Mustard -seed, , 7.58? 4.165 12,798 3.092 969 1,536 30,147 Castor-oil seed, 3.712 i.39o 3,099 733 55 8,989 Poppy-seed, 4,410 7,102 11,598 8,960 2,797 1,090 35,957 Salt, .... 11,746 6,162 4.931 3,454 5,I23 4,861 36,277 Saltpetre, . . , 7,663 21,483 14.693 12,649 3,856 5,188 65,532 Other saline substances, 4-506 1.943 1.372 773 5,417 14,011 Spices and condiments, 276 724 123 774 302 659 2,858 Sugar refined, 3,852 2,125 1,789 2,680 64 18 10,528 Sugar unrefined. . - 1 1.972 3,°98 2,113 629 780 567 9,!59 485 Tobacco, 63 '5 175 103 129 Liquor, Miscellaneous, Total, Class II. 33° 731 6,872 "653 217 627 41 9,430 183,671 151.837 194.199 193,694 175.456 117,023 1,015,880 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. Horses, 9 9 Cows, 5 5 Goats, , 205 205 Timber, 159 '538 813 S3i 1,271 782 4,094 Bamboos, .- 2,350 l6o 45 2,244 300 5,099 Cocoanuts, 2,350 2,000 200 400 4,95o Gunny-bags, 600 "061 IOO 1,361 Hay and straw (bundles), . i,4So 700 3,500 5,650 Bricks and tiles, . 10,400 3,000 13,400 Hides, . . 2,984 2,984 Miscellaneous, Class III. 473 5.504 900 8,700 5,200 329 21,106 Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Leather, 14,600 232 200 15,032 "Woollen manufactures, 500 500 Cotton (European) do., 48,700 48,700 Cotton (Native), . 200 15,600 — 15.800 Miscellaneous (Native) goods, 5.277 95»S87 3,080 844 1,555 106,343 Do. (European), do. Total, 200 5.277 174.987 3.312 844 1755 186,375 33° STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Statistics of the River Traffic Of Saran District for the Six Months ending February 1876. (Table II. — Imports). Description of Goods. Sept. [October Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Total. Class I. maunds maunds maunds maunds maunds maunds viaunds Coal and Coke 1,825 83 2,042 825 450 305 5,530 go 105 130 34° 665 Do. Twist (Native), 7 7 Do. t (European) . 1 i5 16 Chemicals and medicines, . "64 9 106 no 77 9 375 Intoxicating drugs, 75 75 Red wood, "76 14 30 120 Red earth, 2 T 2 57 62 Kir&mchi, 2 39 3 44 White lead, 4 10 14 Indigo, . 10 10 Indigo-seeds, 700 6,426 650 7,776 Betel-nuts, 5o 160 117 256 233 816 Fuel and firewood, 1,684 1,790 613 160 665 1,050 5,962 Fruits (dried), 16 i4i 98 91 24 370 Do. (fresh and vegetables), 568 107 694 1,369 Wheat, ... 24,852 15,043 16,785 23,316 11,580 6,990 98,566 Pulses and gram, 786 3,4*9 3,599 1,465 5,689 3,504 18,462 Rice, 8,627 3M78 49,J75 56,252 75,948 84,286 3°5,766 Paddy, .... i,34° 2,835 3.989 12,570 9,676 22,123 52,533 Other cereals, 52,816 33,8n 63,997 82,368 102,825 80,124 415,941 Jute and other raw fibres, 74 6 80 Fibres, manufacturers of, 902 1,199 561 280 2,942 Silk (raw), 2 12 489 Hides, 540 195 475 1,125 125 1.985 Horns, 5 5 Iron and its manufactures, Jt336 1,502 797 751 3.14° 2,55' 10,077 Copper and brass, 80 64 363 4 8 58 577 Other metals, 90 45 195 246 59° 1,166 Lime and limestone, 6 IOO 60 180 346 Stone, .... 204 262 204 474 320 1,464 Shell-lac, .... i 1 Stick-lac, 2 151 153 Ghi, .... 4 99 "5 1 219 Oil, .... 1 209 2 IOO 3 315 Linseed, 39t89r 58,297 17,801 19,196 12,088 7,585 154,858 TYZ-seed, .... 250 40 2,142 Mustard-seed, 629 247 430 1,852 2,505 3,8n Castor-oil-seed, 300 241 541 Poppy-seed, . 1,865 1,680 2,045 325 510 330 6,755 48,729 21.237 27,408 29,311 28,224 36,566 '91,475 Saltpetre, 152 240 60 80 547 Other saline substances, 15 So 32 76 251 190 911 Spices and condiments, 276 987 489 538 354 345 2,973 Sugar, refined, 260 = 79 406 454 250 324 3,224 Do. unrefined, . i.5n 1 715 701 1,272 180 2 56s 3,433 3 Tobacco, .... 72 578 205 4 859 Liquor, 410 410 Miscellaneous, 59 830 2,689 559 879 i,nS 6,134 Gums and resins, . Total, Class II. 1 1 187,608 176,188 196,932 235.396 263,631 252,620 I,3I2,375 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. Horses, . 2 2 Goats and sheep, . 7 7 Timber, 9 20 5,778 1,889 3.435 6,633 17,764 Bamboos, .... 120 4 3i 600 755 Cocoa-nuts, .... 22,500 6,125 n,ooo 2,320 202 7,840 49,987 Gunny-bags, . 16.175 14,584 *7A*5 48,184 Planks, ... ... 2,480 150 2,630 Bricks and tiles, . 2,500 ... " 10,400 3,000 15,900 Miscellaneous, . . Class III. 974 468 I 517 1,980 4,272 4Q4 8,705 Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Leather, .... 18,800 20 18,820 Woollen manufacturers. 2,350 2,350 41,93820,466 Cotton(European)rna;iLifacLurcs 9,850 26,405 3,485 1,248 95o Cotton (native) manufactures ... 20,166 300 Miscellaneous (native) goods, 249 4,000 39,155 4,536 n 765 48,716 Do. (European) do. 400 14,695 2,000 17,095 500 149,885 Miscellaneous goods, . Total, 500 'V 749 i4,25o 121,571 10,041 1,559 1,715 RIVER TRADE STATISTICS. 331 From these tables it appears that the total of the exports, during the six months referred to, in Class I. (articles registered by weight only) amounted to 1,015,880 maunds, or 37,188 tons; while the total of the imports was 1,312,375 maunds, or 48,042 tons. In Class II. (articles registered by number only) there are no particular items of importance. Under Class III. (articles registered by value only) the total of the exports reaches ^18,637, 10s., and the total of the imports, ^14,988, 10s. In bulky goods, therefore, the imports exceeded the exports, while the reverse was the case with articles of value. In the case of other Districts, it has been expressly mentioned that it would be rash to draw from such figures any general conclusion with regard to the balance of trade in the District. But in Saran it fortunately happens that there is no appre ciable confusion arising from double registration. The stations of Patna and Darauli are both situated on the confines of the District ; all the eternal trade of Saran must pass either the one or the other, and none of it can, in the ordinary course, pass either station twice. It may, therefore, be broadly assumed that the figures in the following tables represent the exports and imports of the District, in the strict sense of the terms, including the transhipment of oilseeds, &c, con ducted at Revelganj ; but it would, of course, be fallacious to argue, from the experience of six months, to the balance of trade for the whole year. With reference to the destination of the exports, and the origin of the imports, some information can be obtained from analysing the returns at the registration stations. In Class I., of the total exports only 64,243 maunds or 6 per cent, were registered at Darauli, and all the rest passed Patna on its way down the Ganges ; but of the total imports, no less than 969,582 maunds, or 73 per cent, were received, via Darauli, from Oudh and the North-western Provinces. As regards particular items, the Statistical Reporter supplies details of the trade in food grains, oilseeds, and cotton manufactures. The traffic of Saran in rice may be thus analysed for the four months, November 1875 to February 1876. The total imports were 265,661 maunds, Saran being the chief rice-importing District in the whole of Behar. The one mart of Revelganj received no less than 185,696 maunds, or 70 per cent, of the whole; of which nearly two-thirds came from Oudh and the North-western Provinces, and the remainder from Lower Bengal. But these proportions were not constant during the four months referred to. In November, the imports from Bengal were 332 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. nil; in December, they were still insignificant ; but in January, they approached the imports from the North-west, and in February, more than doubled them. The following are the next largest rice-import ing marts in Saran: — Siswan, with 15,124 maunds; Sassaram, 12,475 ; Muhammadpur, 10,770 ; Mubarakpur, 9,025 ; Dariaganj, 5,479 ; Pattar, 5,200; Sewan, 1740; Paltia, 1,585; Baghahan, 940; Chhapra, 637. To make up the total of the rice imports, which has just been given, there must be added the importations from other Districts of the Province of Behar. As to the origin of the imports generally, it has already been stated that nearly two-thirds come from the North west ; but for the two last of the four months, for January and Feb ruary 1876, more accurate information is available. During those two months, Saran received a total of 75,052 maunds of rice from the North-West, and 78,758 from Bengal. The Districts which sent the largest portions were : — In the North-Western Provinces and Oudh : Gorakhpur, with 49,272 maunds ; Bastf, 8,335 > Gonda, 4,160 ; Faiz- abad, 3,325 ; Bharaich, 935. In Bengal : Murshidabad, 54,382 ; Din- ajpur, 14,435 > Maldah, 4,403 ; Rajshahi, 552. The local rice trade of Saran with other Behar Districts during the same two months may be thus summarised — the imports were 6,415 maunds; and the exports, 10,179; the principal importing mart was Dariaganj, with 3,160 maunds, whilst Revelganj exported as much as 9,044 maunds. The entire trade of Sdran in food grains of all sorts during the whole six months was as follows : — Imports : wheat, 98,566 maunds; pulses and gram, 18,462 ; rice, 305,766; paddy or unhusked rice, 52.533 j other cereals, such as maize, millets, barley, &c, 415,941 ; total, 891,268 maunds. Exports: wheat, 117,312 maunds; pulses and gram, 32,650 ; rice, 46,064 ; paddy, 4,988 ; other cereals, II3>33° ; total, 314,344 maunds, showing a balance of imports of no less than 576,924 maunds, which was apparently required for the food supply of the District population. It is noticeable that in the case of wheat alone do the exports exceed the imports. In the trade in linseed, Saran stands first of all the Behar Districts ; during the six months the exports amounted to 367,506 maunds, while the imports were not quite one-half, or 154,858 maunds. It is to be noticed that this trade fell off very much in February through out the whole of Behar. Revelganj, of course, stands at the head of the linseed exporting marts of the District, but detailed figures are only available for November and December. In those two months Re velganj despatched a total of 132,567 maunds, in almost equal portions TRAPFIC STATISTICS ON THE GHAGRA. 333 to _ Patna and to Calcutta ; while the exports from the entire Dis trict were no more than 144,091. During the same time Revelganj imported 35,812 maunds, out of a total import into Saran of 36,997. This mart, in fact, monopolises the oilseed traffic of the District. The river trade of Sdran in piece goods is comparatively insignifi cant. Excluding the month of November, when the occurrence of the annual fair at Sonpur exceptionally augmented the returns, the total import of European cotton goods, during the five remaining months was valued at only .£1,553 ; while the exports were nil. During the one month of November, however, for the reason just given, the imports were ,£2,640, 10s. ; and the exports ,£4,870. In that month Sonpur imported ,£2,430, and exported as much as £4,670, of which ,£1,900 went, apparently, to Nepdl. In the same month Sonpur imported ,£1,986, 12s. of native cotton manu factures, and exported ,£1,321, 16s. ; while Revelganj also exported £200. The importance of the Sonpur fair mayfurther be estimated from the fact that the total of the exports and imports under Class III. in the month of November, amounted to 88 per cent, of the entire exports and imports during the whole period of six months. Traffic Statistics on the Ghagra. — The following figures were obtained at the Darauli registering station in the month of Sep tember 1875. They were ascertained by local enquiry, and supply details which are not given in the columns of the Statistical Re porter. Down Stream Traffic. The cargoes were : in Class I., 2000 maunds of coke, 15 charcoal, 1784 firewood, 180 mahud fruit, 61,971 wheat, 1548 pulses, 21,065 r'ce' 27°S Paddy, 82,815 other cereals, 330 hides, 425 stone, 452 ghi, 81,708 linseed, 10,217 mustard seed, 442 castor oil seed, 5501 poppy seed, 250 til seed, 72 salt, 50 other saline substances, 50 spices, 16,391 sugar refined, 36,551 sugar un refined ; total of Class I., 326,522 maunds. In Class II. 69 boat loads of coolies, 132 loads pilgrims, 39 loads timber, 120 loads bamboos. In Class III., 7000 mats, value Rs. 140. The principal exporting Districts in order, are Gorakhpur (maunds 215,488, loads 188 and 7000 mats), Faizabad (maunds 39,293, loads 69), Bharaich {maunds 23,541), Azfmgarh {maunds 19,076) and Bastf (maunds 11,996, loads 101.) It appears, then, that Gorakhpur exports nearly | of the whole down-stream traffic, f of the wheat, nearly all the rice, f of " other cereals," about | of the oil seeds, more than | of the refined sugar, and f- of the unrefined sugar. Faizabad 334 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. exports 19,000 maunds of oil seeds, or about half of the Gorakhpur exports. The principal importing Districts are Saran {maunds 133,927, loads 129, mats 7000); Patna (89,856 maunds, 28 loads); Calcutta (40,326 maunds, 69 loads) ; Ghazi'pur (20,916 maunds, 2 loads), and Murshidabdd (7195 maunds.) The details show that there are im ported by Sdran 24,705 maunds of wheat against 19,302 by Patna ; 52,442 of "other cereals" against 12,528; and 39,891 of linseed against 24,000. On the other hand, 17 13 maunds of refined and 16,507 of unrefined sugar go to Patna, against 260 and 1498 to Saran. It has been already stated that Revelganj is a great traffic changing station ; and much of the traffic registered as imported by Saran, is merely consigned to Revelganj for transhipment to Patnd and Calcutta. Calcutta takes a of the wheat, about i of the linseed, \ of the refined sugar, and a of the unrefined sugar. Up-Stream Traffic. The following cargoes were sent up stream. Class I., cotton 115 maunds, wine 29, betelnuts 4, potatoes 125, rice 40, "other cereals'' 58, jute 27, iron 1662, brass 80, shells for burning lime 129, stone 3395, oil 2, castor oil 18, salt 27,537, other saline substances 733, spices 394, tobacco 410 ; total of Class I. 34,758 maunds. In Class II., timber 3 loads, cocoanuts 2850. The principal exporting Districts were, Calcutta (18,722 maunds), Saran (10,712), Benares (2770), Ghazi'pur (1048), Patna (825.) Of the • Calcutta exports, 16,900 maunds are salt, and 1518 iron. Similarly, 10,437 maunds exported from Saran are salt. The Benares exports are entirely stone. Of tobacco 238 maunds come from Patnd, and 349 from Tirhut. Of the importing Districts, Gorakhpur stands first (28,250 maunds), Faizabad next (4524), and Saran third (1201.) The Gorakhpur exports consist mainly of salt, 22,349 maunds, and stone 2945. The former substance constitutes 4050 maunds of the Faizabad imports. Iron goes principally to Gorakhpur. Mines, Quarries, &c— There are no mines in Saran, but kankar or nodular limestone is dug up in all parts of the District, and used for metalling the roads. The process of road making is as follows : ¦ — The small lumps of kankar are carefully packed so as to form a level surface ; water is then poured on and the surface beaten down with rammers. When properly consolidated, it is probably unsur passed by any kind of metalling. Large quantities are annually ex ported to Patnd, in which neighbourhood kankar is not found. In 1870, no less than 100,000 maunds were exported to that city. CAPITAL : INSTITUTIONS. 335 Capital — If any capital is being accumulated in Sdran, it is by the trading classes, who either hoard it or employ it in usury or trade ; none is invested in the improvement of land. The rate of interest in petty loans, where the borrower pawns some small article, such as ornaments, is returned at 18 per cent, per annum. For large transactions, the rate is returned at Rs. 1 2 per cent, per annum ; where a mortgage is given on houses and lands, the rate of interest is the same. For petty advances to cultivators, the mahdjan exacts Rs. 3, 2 per cent, per mensem or 37^ per cent, per annum where personal security is given ; and when a lien on the crops is taken, the rate is not reduced. In 1788, the usual rate for loans to culti vators was also 37J per cent, and 50 per cent, per annum when the transaction was in grain. The Collector in his Administration Report for 1873, mentions a case in which, on an original cash advance of Rs. 16, the capital had amounted up to Rs. 56 at the end of three years, after payment of Rs. 24 by the debtor in the form of interest. When a loan is made in kind, the mahdjan values the article, when first lent, at the market price ; but when returned, the value is generally estimated about 50 per cent, below the former rate. On the purchase of landed property, 5 per cent, would be thought a good return. In the town of Chhaprd there are a few rich and well-to-do bankers, who confine their business to large advances on good security. Small shopkeepers and thrifty tenure-holders carry on the village money- lending. The Collector says that it is not uncommon for a cultivator to be in possession of his tenure as a zarpeshgiddr, enjoying his land lord's share of the produce, in consideration of money he has advanced. With the exception of indigo, there is no industry carried on with European capital. And even in the case of this industry, it is very difficult to say what amount of this is really bona fide European ; as a large proportion of the capital is borrowed from the Calcutta banks, and native capitalists have lately taken to indigo cultivation very eagerly. In 1873, 21 factories with 19 out-works were owned by natives, of which 1 7 have sprung up within the last 7 or 8 years. Institutions and Societies. — The only society in this District is one founded in 1870 by Munshi Pidrf Lai, which has for its object the lessening of the inordinate expenditure incurred by the Kdyasths in celebrating their marriages. In that year, the Sribdstab branch of the Kdyasths joined the movement, which originated in 1864; and 336 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. a committee of the leading members met twice a month to frame rules on the subject. It is stated that many marriages have been celebrated according to the new rules, and that this branch of the Kdyasths is especially anxious to carry out the reform. The follow ing is an abstract of the rules as adopted in Sdran. The tilak or first ceremony shall not cost more than Rs. 51 i£S> 2S-) J tne jahez or marriage portion shall not exceed Rs 74 (£7, 8s.) Nothing besides shall be given. No travelling expenses shall be demanded from the bride's parents. In the tilak, or first ceremony, only from two to five persons shall attend ; when leav ing, they shall be presented with a sum not greater than Rs. 5 (10s.) as rukhsatndtnd (dismissal offering). The Brdhmans shall be allowed shagun or commission at the rate of 10 per cent, on the amount of the tilak, and Rs. 5 (10s.) for the ceremony. Only necessary clothes shall be taken with the marriage procession ; and these should not consist of more than seven sets: — (1) kanhdi for the bride; (2) parsotwd for the bride's mother ; (3) matjhulld for the last ceremony observed in marriage, the clothes being worn by the bride ; (4) sard jord for the bride's brother ; (5) one for the Brdhman ; (6) one for the barber ; (7) one for the potter. Only one ornament of silver or gold for the bride shall be taken with the clothes. The number of the marriage procession shall correspond with that in the brides', but the total number shall never exceed 500 ; in the gond procession, when the bride is brought home, the number shall not exceed 125. The number of elephants, &c, should be regulated according to the tilak and the jahez. There shall never be more than five elephants, 25 horses, and one camel. There shall be no fireworks or dancing after the marriage. No liquor shall be allowed in the procession, from the day of departure till the return of the procession. The procession shall reach the bride's house in the day time, and not in the night. There is no necessity for any display at the bride's house on the arrival of the procession ; the bride's relations shall receive the bridegroom at the entrance to the house. If the bride's parents are poor, they should, after entertaining the bridegroom, give leave of departure early next day ; if they are not poor, then the procession may stay one day, and proper rations may be pro vided. In no case shall the procession stay more than three days. Friends shall go as simply as possible, attended by not more than 15 persons. The agidn or invitation shall specify the names of the persons to be invited, the time and place of the feast. There shall ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY. 337 only be one bajki or musical performance. When the food is ready, and the persons invited are sent for, all should attend at one time. The mokhpar chakarn and rukhsati or dismissal ceremonies shall be performed at the time of the marriage, unless it be against the family custom. Persons attending shall give a list of servants, &c, who require tp be fed. No abusive language should be allowed at the kumhar kashan, nardchan, and mutajhakd. If any one is very poor, the villagers shall contribute towards his expenses. Neither party shall demand, or give, goats. Any one disobeying these rules shall be considered an outcaste. Income of the Inhabitants. — The Collector, in 1871, returned the total of incomes exceeding ^50 at ,£400,960. In that year, in accordance with Act XVI. of 1870, the Income Tax was levied at an average rate of 3A per cent., on all incomes from £^0 to .£200, such incomes being grouped into four classes ; and a fixed rate of 3-|- per cent, on all incomes above ,£200. All incomes were divided into seven classes. In the highest class, only one was returned from Sdran ; in the next, there were 43, and in the third class 315. The total amount realised in 1870-71 was .£13,257, 4s. The amount realized under this tax in 1860-61, was ,£11,640, 4s.; in 1861-62, £11,196, 16s. ;.in 1862-63, ^£9748, 8s.; in 1863-64, ^6717, 8s. ; and in 1864-65, .£6357, 12s. In 1871-72 the incidence of the tax was considerably lightened, the rate being reduced to iJ, per cent. per annum, and the maximum of exemption raised to ,£75. Incomes were divided into five classes — in the highest of which Sdran had one; in the second 45, and in the third 297. The total amount re alized was .£4,483. In 1872-73 the sum realized, including penal ties, was ,£3882 ; the cost of collection was only -12 per cent. In Class I. 535 persons were assessed; 335 in Class II.; 50 in Class III; and 1 in Class IV. Out of 921 persons assessed, 587 were proprietors and subproprietors of land, 328 were merchants, while 6 followed professions. Administrative History. — The following paragraph has been slightly condensed from Mr J. Grant's report on the Revenues of Behar, quoted in the " Fifth Report of the Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company." The first Settlement of the revenue of Sdran was made in 1582 by Todar Mall, in the reign of the Emperor Akbar. Sdran then contained 17 pargands ; and paid a total revenue of sikkd Rs. 404,300. In 1685, the 27th year of Alamgir's reign, the number of pargands was 18, while the revenue VOL. xi. y 338 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. had increased to sikkd Rs. 801,461. In 175°, in the reiSn of Ahmad Shdh, under the Subahddri of Ali Vardi Khan, the revenue had still further increased to sikkd Rs. 929,856. From this, however, 20 per cent, must be deducted for charges of collection. A more detailed account is given of the Settlement of 1795- Sdran then contained 2,560 square miles, or 94 less than the present area. Of the 18 par gands, n were let to Gopdl Ndrdyan ; 2 to Rdjd Fathi Sinh ; 1 (Che- rdnd) to Mdnik Chand ; and one to an Afghan. These fifteen pro duced a total revenue of sikkd Rs. 830,282. The sixteenth pargand was let to Bachu Sinh, and produced sikkd Rs. 49,950 ; the two re maining pargands, Shahjahdnpur and Chosah, rated at sikkd Rs. 1 23,041, were annexed to Gorakhpur, and are returned as contributing nothing to the revenue of Sdran. The total land revenue, therefore, of the District in 1795 amounted to sikkd Rs. 880,233, oraboutj£95,ooo. In Mr Shore's Minute of the 18th September 1789, the advantages and disadvantages of the proposed Permanent Settlement are fully discussed, and particular attention is paid to the views of the Collec tor of Sdran. In 12 out of 17 pargands, there were at that time 353 different zaminddrs, none of whom possessed a complete pargand, the principal estates being dispersed over several pargands. The zamin ddrs had combined not to farm one another's lands. It was also diffi cult to find men of sufficient standing, who were not zaminddrs, but who were nevertheless fit to be put in charge of a pargand. Besides, any farmer would find it a very difficult thing to fulfil his engagements, on account of the zaminddrs' opposition, and the delay which would occur in ascertaining the true state of his pargand. The Settlement of 1788 was, accordingly, made with 74 zaminddrs, 4 sazdwals, and 6 farmers ; but the plan of settling with farmers was again adopted in 1793. Revenue and Expenditure, 1794, 1850, and 1870. — The fol lowing statements, taken from the balance sheet of the District, will illustrate the growth of the gross revenue and the gross expenditure. Unfortunately, the figures for the present District of Sdran cannot be given for the earlier years, as the whole of Champdran was then included within the Sdran area, and was not finally separated till 1 866. From these statements it appears that the gross revenue rose from .£195,254 in 1794 to .£294,721 in 1850-51; but sank to £231,022 in 1870-71. The gross civil expenditure has risen from ,£200,453 in 1794 to £'363,666 in 1850-51, and to ;£354>295 in 1870-71. It should be remembered that the area has decreased from 6185 square miles to 2654 by the separation of Champdran in 1866. ^vpj, ... * -«, ^-p - Balance Sheet of the District of SAran (including ChampAran) for the Year 1794-95. Gross Revenue. £¦ s d. Gross Expenditure. £. s. d. (1) Custom fees 37.500 0 0 (1) Remitted to the Government agent at (2) Land Revenue, abkdri, t&ri, &c, hai (current) Benares 74.759 6 0 ^144,232, 18s. 3|^d., baki& (arrear) (2) Remitted to the Military Paymaster at Dina £5,012, is. 3#d. 149,244 19 7% pur ... 90,229 0 0 (3) Census of houses with fines 56 5 5 , (3) Do. on account of deficiency of sikkd Rupees 5,58i 17 i>£ (4) Seignorage Allowance ... 4.754 11 7K (4) Remitted to the Post Master for Establish (5) Profit and Loss... 116 5 nX ment 88 3 7% (6) Allowance of Chhattardhari Sa.hu, &c. 994 19 i°& (5) Profit and Loss 492 15 9Yz (7) Received for gazetting advertisement of the sale (6) Establishment of Criminal and Civil Court (7) Pension and Charitable Allowance 10, 169 19 4*£ of the property of Raja. Sri Krishna Sinh .. . 31 7 3 1,815 18 3 (8) Police Tax 2,056 6 6^ (8) Salary of the Collector ... 6,590 10 4)4 (9) Takdvi Collections 500 0 0 (9) Remitted to the Salt Agent, Patna 4,3io 6 \oyz (10) Repayment of Deposit ... 1,158 I 0 (ii) Salary of the Mint Master, Patna... 2,694 3 6 (12) Paid for printing sale advertisements of the property of the Raja of Sheohar 25 8 9 (13) Paid for manufacturing Saltpetre at PatnA... 2,500 0 0 Total (14) General Department Total 37 15 3 195,254 16 1>% 200,453 5 11 I I I To obtain the Net Expenditure, Items, Nos. I, 2, 9, 10 and 13 must be deducted, as deposits and mere matters of account. Expenditure was, therefore, only £27,496, 12s. o^d, The Net Balance Sheet of the District of SAran (Including Champaran) for the Year 1850-51. Gross Revenue. £ 5-. d. Gross Expenditure £ s. d. (1) Land Revenue i85,533 14 0% (1) By Revenue Remittances 30,918 7 0 (2) Sayer Revenue 20,852 11 9U (2) Bills payable of the Revenue Department 258,475 15 8)4 (3) Profit and Loss 6,275 2 2% (3) Bills payable of the Military Department . . . 4,867 11 1% (4) Record Committee Fees 18 12 3 (4) Commercial Department 6 5 4'A (5) Bills payable to the Revenue Department ... 24,628 13 lY* (5) Judicial Remittances 13,641 9 0% (6) Revenue Deposit 8,426 '3 10X (6) Post-office Remittances 310 6 0 (7) Post-office Remittances 560 2 2% (7) Judicial Charges general 12,849 3 7^ (8) Judicial Remittances 7,827 10 4 (8) Revenue Deposit 22,533 i° SY (9) Revenue Remitances i3,679 12 0 (9) Bills payable to the darbdr Department 691 u 5 (10) Various Funds 710 9 2 (10) Panjab and Indian Territories 905 0 0 (11) Loans 6,290 0 0 (11) Bombay Presidency 31 11 0 (12) Superintendent of Stamps 10,255 19 S/z (12) Bills payable of the Bombay Presidency ... 10 0 0 ¦ (13) Advances for Civil Suits 27 8 4 (13) Interest 2,640 13 $y (14) Law Charges ... 0 19 7 (14) Revenue charges general 4.907 13 1 (15) Advances on account of diet to Revenue and (15) Charges general of the General Department (16) Pensions 9 12 0 Abkdri defaulters 2 7 i# 226 18 8 (16) Gandak Cess Collection 7,589 15 &Yz (17) Various Funds 4,498 19 sY (17) Medical charges general 6 4 0 (18) Superintendent of Stamps 454 8 10^ ( 1 8) Revenue charges general 21 6 5X (19) Profit and Loss 1,370 13 8 (19) Section of the Council of Education 0 3 10X (20) Law Charges ... 28 9 SY (20) Council of Wards 13 4 0 (21) Gandak Cess Collections 4,266 1 1 (21) Deposits on account of vernacular Schools... 0 12 2-Ya (22) Purchase of lands (23) Advances on account of abkdri ... (24) Section of Council of Education ... 0 16 0 1 17 i# 18 0 0 Total (25) Deposits on account of vernacular Schools... Total 1 9 3# 294,721 2 2% 363,666 2 11 -p- o To obtain the Net Revenue, Items Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15 and 21 should be deducted, leaving the Net Revenue ^230, 567. To obtain the Net Expenditure, Items Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 1 7, 23 & 25 should be deducted, leaving the Net Expenditure;^, 131. Balance Sheet of the District of Saran for the Year 1870-71. Gross Revenue. £. s. d Gross Expenditure. £. s. d. >5PI 1 s pi§ I (1) Land Revenue... (2) Excise Department (3) Income Tax ... (4) Law and Justice (5) Deposits (6; Local Funds ... (7) Bills issued (8) Zaminddri Embankment Collection (9) Postal Department (10) Education Department (11) Stamps (12) Miscellaneous Items Total 119,660 17.439».333 4,104 42,144 7,0413,805 3,44° 1,468 5i7 17,897 2,168 13 5 12 iY. 10 0Y1 6 6Y 17 7Yz II 2 10 10 16 s3X 8 11X 11 zY 3 2K 17 I°x 231,022 19 9X (1) Land Revenue.., (2) Excise Department (3) Income Tax (4) Law and Justice (5) Deposits (6) Local Funds .. (7) Bills cashed ... (8) Postal Department (9) Education (10) Refund and Drawback .. (11) Police (12) Superannuation (13) Opium Advance (14) Public Works Department (15) Medical Department (16) Miscellaneous ... Total 6,923 1,051 308 8,832 43,728 5,3l6 I0.5I3 763 1,640 4,367 7,3911,142 250,909 3,7lo 775 6,920 13 6ji 17 W 4 3 2 H'/7 11 9% 17 9 2 *Y 5 4 16 ix 13 5 10 ?,% 7K oo0% 9 354,295 10 1U To obtain the Net Revenue, Items Nos. 5 and 7 should be deducted, leaving the Net Revenue .£185,072, lis. 3#d. To obtain the Net Expenditure, Items Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 13 should be deducted, leaving the Net Expenditure £43,826, 18s. 4%- 342 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. These balance sheets, however, contain many items of account and transfer, such as deposits and remittances, which cannot properly be considered as income or expenditure. Such items have, therefore, been deducted, with the following results:— In 1794 the net income was ,£195,254; in 1850 it had risen to £230,567; while in 1870-71, after the loss of Champaran, it had decreased to ^185,072. The net expenditure in 1794 was ,£27,496 ; in 1850-51, ,£24,131 ; and in 1870-71, £43,826. Land Revenue. — As elsewhere in Bengal, the land revenue forms by far the most important item of the District revenue. In its total amount, it is now less by ,£14,000 than it was in the first year of which any records remain ; but it must be remembered that Saran was then more than double its present size, as Sarkar Champaran was included in it. In 1790, the first year of which any records remain, there were 1799 estates, paying a gross revenue of £'136,430, 10s., equal to an average revenue of .£75, 16s. per estate. The comparative numbers of registered proprietors or copar ceners are not given, as the information could not but fail to convey an erroneous impression. The mutation register has been very carelessly kept up ; and there are many persons, to be found in it, who [have long ceased to have any connection with the estates registered in their names. It seems to be a common practice for purchasers of an estate, or of a share in an estate, to apply to have their names registered along with those of the other registered and original proprietors. It thus happens that, in many cases, an estate is registered in the names of ten or twelve persons, of whom only the last two or three represent all who have any interest in the estate. The Collector, however, in his Report for 1872-73, determines the number of proprietors to have been 1405 at the time of the Perma nent Settlement. According to the Census Returns of 1872, the number is now 15,152. On this the Collector remarks as follows : — " By taking the ddkhil khdri register, and reducing the number of each caste on account of deaths, transfers, &c, in the same propor tion as the total number of proprietors whose names are entered in the register exceeds the total number of proprietors shown by the Census, and comparing the figures with the number of each caste at the Permanent Settlement, it is possible to arrive at an approximate idea of the changes in the ownership of land which have occurred among the different classes since that date. It appears that, while about 57 per cent, of the total number of proprietors at the time of PROTECTION TO PERSON AND PROPERTY. 343 the Permanent Settlement belonged to the higher castes, viz., those of Brdhmans, Rajputs, and Bdbhans, their number now is still nearljj 54 per cent. ; and that the Baniyd class have only increased from 4 per cent, then to 6 per cent. now. On the other hand, Kdyasths have diminished in number from 23 to 19 per cent. Muhammadans formerly formed 15 per cent, of the proprietary number; they now form 17 per cent. Agricultural castes have increased from 0-5 to 17 per cent. ; while low castes and persons not recognising caste have increased from 07 per cent, to i"6 per cent. On the whole, with slight modifications, the different classes may be said to have main tained, in relation to the proprietary right in land, the footing which they originally occupied — a result which, I confess, I had not expected, seeing the manner in which all over India the old proprie tors are being displaced by the Baniyd class." In 1800, the number of estates was 1799, while the land revenue amounted to ,£140,732, equal to an average payment of .£78, 4s. per estate. In 1850, the number of estates was 3611, paying an annual revenue of £'179,871, 6s., or an average sum of ,£49, 16s. 6d per estate. The figures for Champaran are included in the above, but they are omitted in the following budget estimate for 187 1. In that year the number of estates was 3400 ; the revenue .£12 2,344, 4s., showing an average sum of £35, 2s. per estate. At present, exclud ing petty resumed Idkhirdj estates, there are 2951 estates of a less area than 500 acres, paying an average revenue of Rs. 147; 570 between 500 and 20,000 acres, with an average revenue of Rs. 11 19 ; while there are three estates with a larger area than 20,000 acres, pay ing a revenue of Rs. 148,044, of which Rs. 135,560 is paid by the Hatwd Raj alone. Protection to Person and Property has been steadily rendered more complete. In 1 790, the first year for which any records remain, there were one Magisterial and three Revenue and Civil Courts in Sdran District; in 1800 the number was the same; in 1850 there were four Magisterial and nine Revenue and Civil Courts ; and in 1862, eight Magisterial and fifteen Revenue and Civil Courts. In 1869' owing to the erection of Champdran into a separate District, the number of Magisterial Courts fell to seven ; and the number of Civil and Revenue Courts to thirteen. The number of Covenanted Officers stationed in the District throughout the year was three in 1790, three in 1800, two in 1850, three in 1862, and four in 1869. Rent Law— The number of rent cases instituted under the pro- 344 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. visions of Act X. of 1859— the Rent Law of Bengal— are returned by the Collector as follows .—In 1861-62, 1501 original suits, with 393 miscellaneous applications; in 1862-63, 2125 original cases, with 1402 miscellaneous applications; in 1866-67, n 24 original suits, and 1 141 miscellaneous applications; and in 1868-69, 11 86 original suits, and 1180 miscellaneous applications. It is thus evident that the original suits, most of which are for the enhancement of rent, have positively decreased since the introduction of the new law. Police Statistics. — For police purposes the District of Sdran is divided into ten Police Circles (thdnds), six of which (1) Chhaprd, (2) Digwdra, (3) Parsd, (4) Manjhi, (5) Basantpur, and (6) Mash rak, are in the Sadr Sub-division ; while the remaining four, (7) Sewdn, (8) Darauli, (9) Baragdon, and (10) Baraulf, are in the Sewdn Sub-division. It is under contemplation to re-arrange some of these thdnds. At present the size of the thdnd jurisdictions varies from 116 to 422 square miles; the number of villages within them from 212 to 768, and the population from 107,338 to 282,185. The largest thdnd is Baragdon ; the most populous, Sewan. The machinery for protecting person and property in Sdran District consists of a regular or District Police, the village watch or rural force, and a municipal force employed in municipalities. The Regular Police consisted of the following strength at the end of 1872 : — One European officer or District Superintendent, who receives a salary of Rs. 600 a month or £720 a year; five subordinate officers on a salary of upwards of Rs. 100 a month, or .£120 a year, and sixty-nine officers on a salary of less than Rs. 100 a month or £120 a year, maintained at a total cost of Rs. 2310 a month, or £2772 a year, equal to an average pay of Rs. 31, 3, 5, a month, or £37, 9s. 3d. a year for each subordinate officer ; and 333 foot police constables, maintained at a total cost of Rs. 2196 a month, or £2635, 4s. a year, equal to an average pay of Rs. 6, 9, 6 a month, or £7, 18s. 3d. a year for each man. The other expenses connected with the regular police, are a sum of Rs. 125 a month, or £150 a year as travelling allowances for the District Superintendent; Rs. 166, 10, 8 a month, or .£200 a year, as pay and travelling allowances for his office establishment ; and an average of Rs. 427, 1 o, 8 a month, or £"513, 4s. a year for contingencies and all other expenses — bringing up the total cost of the regular police of Saran District for the year 1872, toJRs. 5825, 5, 4 a month, or a total for the year of £6,990, 8s. The total strength of the force was 408 men of all ranks. The present area of Saran District is 2654 square POLICE STATISTICS. 345 miles, and the population, as returned by the Census of 1872, is 2,063,860 souls. According to these figures, there is one policeman to every 6-5 of a square mile of the District area, or one to every 5058 of the population. The annual cost of maintaining this force is equal to £2, 3s. 8d. per square mile of area, and about f d. per head of the population. The Municipal Police is a force established for the protection of the large towns. It consisted, at the end of 1872, of 11 officers and 162 men, maintained at a total cost ofRs. 1,102 a-month, or £1322, 8s. a-year, defrayed by means of rates levied upon householders within municipal limits. The three municipalities of Chhaprd, Revelganj, and Sewdn contain a total population of 70,801 ; and have, therefore, 1 policeman to every 409 persons, at a cost of 4jd. per head of the municipal population. In 187 1, the municipal police numbered 11 officers and 165 men, thus distributed : — (1) at Chhaprd, 8 head constables and 100 men; (2) at Revelganj, 2 head constables aftid 37 men; (3) at Sewdn, 1 head constable and 28 men. The Village Watch, or rural police, numbered 6067 in 1872, maintained either by the zaminddrs or by service lands held rent-free, at an estimated total cost ofRs. 46oi-4amonth, or£'552i, 10s. per year. Compared with the area and population, there is 1 village watchman or chaukiddr to every -44 square miles of the District area, and 1 to every 340 of the population. Each village watchman has charge of 41 houses on an average, and receives an average pay in money or lands of 12 dnnds a-month, or 18s. a-year. The majority of the village watchmen belong to two of the most criminal castes in the District, Ahirs and Dosddhs. They may there fore be presumed to know who commit crimes ; but they are not regularly paid, and therefore have no inducement to disclose their knowledge. The Magistrate remarks on them as follows : — " The members of this body feel greatly the contrast between their own position, and that of the chaukiddrs in the neighbouring Districts of the North-Western Provinces, where men of this class are paid Rs. 3 per month regularly. Complaint on this score is very general, and there is much need of reform." The introduction of a short and simple Act, like that in force in the North-Western Provinces, has been recom mended ; and it would seem that Behar is not unsuited for such a measure. What is required is that the chaukiddr should receive his pay regularly from Government, and not from the 'mdlik or landed proprietor. 346 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Including, therefore, the regular police, the municipal police, and the village watch, or chaukiddrs, the machinery for protecting person and property in Sdran District, consisted at the end of 1872 of 6648 men of all ranks, equal to 1 man to every -39 square miles of the District area, or 1 man to every 310 of the population. The esti mated aggregate cost of maintaining this force, both Government and local, including the value of the rent-free lands held by the chau kiddrs, amounted in 1872 to Rs. 11,528, 9, 4 a-month, or .£13,834, 6s. a-year ; equal to a charge of .£5, 4s. 3d. per square mile of the District area, and about ijd. per head of the District population. Criminal Statistics. — During the year 1872, 3976 'cognisable' cases were reported to the Police, of which 178 were discovered to be false. Convictions were obtained in 737 cases, or 19*40 per cent. of the ' true ' cases ; the number of persons actually brought to trial was 1,830, of whom 1,017 or 55'57 Per cent, were convicted. In the same year, the number of ' non-cognisable ' cases was 1,484 ; the number of persons who actually appeared before the court being 2,029, of whom 1,283 or 63"23 per cent, were convicted. The total number, therefore, of both ' cognisable ' and non-cognisable ' cases in 1872 was 5,460; and the total number of persons convicted of an offence, under either of these heads, was 2,300 or -n per cent of the total District population. Serious crime is not very prevalent in Sdran. In 1870, n cases of murder took place, and 1 1 persons were arrested ; the per cent- age of persons convicted to persons brought to trial was 70 per cent. In 1 87 1, the number of murders was 4, in all of which convictions were obtained. In 1872, however, out of 7 murders known to have been committed, in two only were convictions obtained. In 1870, there were 9 cases of dakditi or gang robbery, in 187 1 only 6; 5 cases of rape were reported in 1870, against 3 in 1871. Out of the 6 cases oi dakditi in 1871, convictions were only obtained in 3 ; but in 1872, out of 5 dakditis only 1 resulted in conviction. The cases of housebreaking increased from 1,192 in 1870, to 1,223 in I87i, and to 2,505 in 1872. The cause of the increase in 1871 is said to be the distress which was the result of the large destruction of crops by floods, combined with the miserably insecure state of the houses. The principal crime in Sdran is criminal house-trespass, usually committed by Maghyd Doms, the most criminal caste in the District, whose motions it is difficult to watch, as they have neither houses nor lands. In 1870, 119 cases of riot were investigated, against 109 in 1871 ; and convictions obtained in 62^5 per cent. The offence of "grievous hurt" JAIL STATISTICS. 347 showed a decrease of 50 per cent, in 1871, as compared with 1870. Convictions were obtained in 80 per cent, of the cases decided in 1 8 7 1 , the percentage of persons convicted to persons brought to trial being 65-38. Cases of hurt by dangerous weapons increased from 8 in 1870 to 12 in 1 87 1, convictions being obtained against 66-6 per cent, of the number of persons tried. In 1870, all who were tried were convicted. Cases of abduction or kidnapping fell from 4 in 1870 to 3 in 1871 ; and the percentage of convictions to persons brought to trial also fell from 100 per cent, to 80. Highway robberies numbered 7 in 1870 and 8 in 1871 ; "other" robberies 17 and 8 respectively. In 1870 the percentage of persons convicted in cases of highway robbery to persons brought to trial was 100 ; while in 1871 it fell to 33-3. In other robberies, the percentage of convictions to persons brought to trial also fell from 100 in 1870 to 42-18 in 1871. Cattle-theft cases numbered 32 in 1870, and 17 in 1871 ; in this latter year the propor tion of persons convicted to persons brought to trial was 88-23 Per cent- Criminal Classes.— The principal criminal classes are the Dosddhs, Ahirs, and Maghyd Doms. As already mentioned, the first two monopolise the post of chaukiddr. . A description of the Maghyd Doms has been given under the heading of Castes. The following figures, taken from the Collector's Administrative Report for 1872, show the jail population of that year, arranged according to caste, together with the ratio which the adult male population of each of the caste bears to the total adult male population of the District. Proportion of each Name of caste. caste in District population. Number in jail. Proportion in jail population, Ahirs, n-8 201 24-5 Rajputs, 10-9 123 i'5 Doms, 0-3 69 8- Muhammadans, ... 117 62 7"5 Kurmfs, 4-8 47 5'5 Brdhmans, 7-6 44 •5 Dosddhs, 3'5 42 •5 Chamds, 4'3 34 •4 Koers, 7-0 29 3"5 Babhans, 4-2 25 3" Nuniyds, 0-3 21 2-5 The females form six per cent, of the prison population, being 8-5 per cent, among the Muhammadans, and 5-5 among the Hindus. Jail Statistics. — There are two jails in Sdran — at Chhaprd and at Sewdn. The following figures are compiled from the Administra tion Report of the Inspector-General of Jails for 1870; and from a 348 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. return specially prepared in his office, showing the jail population of the District, cost of maintenance, value of jail labour, &c, for the years 1857-58, and 1860-61. In 1857-58, the daily average number of prisoners in Chhaprd Jail amounted to 442 ; the total number discharged from all causes being as follows— transferred, 207; released, 659; escaped, 20; died, 66 ; executed, 14; total, 966. In 1860-61, the daily average was 397 ; the total discharges being as follows— transferred, 364; released, 773; escaped, 3; died, 71; executed, none ; total, 1211. In 1870, the daily average was 311, the total number discharged from all causes being as follows — transferred, 127; released, 1 186 ; escaped, 3 ; died, 9 ; executed 3 ; total, 1328. The total admissions into the jail were in 1857-58, 902; in 1860-61, 1250; and in 1870, 1422. In this last year there were admitted direct 132 1, and by transfer 101. The sanitary condition of the jail was better in 1857-58 than in 1860-61. In 1857-58, 66 deaths occurred, or 14-93 Per cent- of the jail population ; whereas in 1860-61, the number rose to 71, or 17-88 per cent. In 1870 the mortality fell greatly; there were only nine deaths, or 2-89 per cent of the average daily population. The mor tality in 1872 was 19, giving a percentage of 5 -74, against 5-34, the average rate for all the jails of Bengal. Out of these nineteen deaths, eight were caused by cholera, which broke out in a severe but not epidemic form ; and the same number by dysentery, leaving only three deaths to be assigned to all other diseases. The special committee, appointed in 1875 to inquire into the causes of the excessive mortality in the Behar Jails, reported that Chhaprd jail was subject to inundation, and that the drainage was defective. The health of the prisoners generally seemed below par, and many of them were anaemic. Out of 30 who had been in jail one month, only 13 appeared to be in good health; 16 were in indiffer ent health, and one in bad health. Of 66 over 45 years of age, 26 seemed in good, 38 in indifferent, and one in bad health. Of 189 under 45 years of age, 102 seemed in good, 86 in indifferent, and one in bad health. The average mortality during the 3 r past years was 76 per 1000. In 1863, it was as high as 180 per 1000 ; and in 1853, 195 per 1000. The jail buildings are only calculated to contain 266 prisoners ; but in every year, except 1870, the daily average has exceeded this number, and has sometimes exceeded it very largely. In 1872, the Chhaprd jail was described by the Inspector-General as one of the worst that he had ever seen ; but since then it has been •jAil Manufactures. 349 considerably improved. Besides being liable to inundation, the wards are always damp ; partly because they are constructed'merely of mud, but also because the soil is strongly impregnated with saltpetre. Jail Maintenance. — The average cost of maintenance per prisoner, including all charges except those of guarding, is returned as follows: — In 1857-58, £4, 12s. 9d. ; in 1860-61, £3, ns. 3d.; and in 1870-71, £5, 6s. 7\d. The cost of the Police Guard in 1870 was ,£1, os. id. per man — making a total average cost in that year of £6, 6s. 8|d. Jail Manufactures help somewhat to reduce the expenditure. In 1857-58, the value of articles of prison manufacture sold amounted to £97, 2s. iod., which, — together with £213, 13s. 2^d., the value of articles remaining in store at the end of the year, and £72, 7s. od., the value of articles consumed for public purposes — gave a total of £383, 3s. ojd. as the value of prison labour for that year. Deduct ing £205, 3s. 5d. as the value of articles in store at the end of the previous year, and £121, 4s. nd. for charges, the results showed a net profit of £56, 14s. 8|d. The average earnings of each prisoner engaged in manufacture was 10s. 6d. In 1860-61. the gross credits amounted to £"722, 7s. i\d., and the debits to £475, 18s. 3d. ; The net profits were £246, 8s. iojd., and the average earnings per prisoner £1, 3s. o^d. In 1870 the figures are as follow : — Credits : value of articles sold during the year, £634, us. 9 Jd. ; value of manufactured articles remaining in store at the close of 1870, £43, 8s. io^d. ; value of raw materials in store, .£20, 13s. ofd ; value of plant and machinery in store, £"19, 5s. 3d; total credits, £717, 18s, n^d. Debits : value of manufactured goods in store at the close of 1869, £49, us. 7d. ; value of plant and machinery in stock, £21, 5s. 3d.; raw material, plant, and machinery purchases, and all other charges incurred during 1870, £448, us. io|d. ; total debits, £519, 8s. 8^-d. Excess of credits over debits or net profit, £198, 10s. 2|d. ; average earnings of each prisoner, £1, 13s. nd. Educational Statistics. — Education had not made very much progress in Sardn up to 187 1 ; in fact, some of the figures for that year are even more unfavourable than those of ten years before. The Annual Reports of the Director of Public Instruction show that the number of Government and aided schools increased from 8 in 1856-57 to 14 in 1860-61, but decreased to 9 in 1870-71. Similarly the number of pupils increased from 295 in 1856-57 to 873 in 1860-61, but decreased to 585 in 1870-71. Return of Government and Aided Schools in Saran for the Years 1856-57, 1860-61, and 1870-71 Classification of Schools. Number of Schools. Number of Pupils. Hindus. Musalmans. Others. Total. 1856-57. 1860-61. 1870-71. 1856-57. 1860-61. 1870-71. 1856-57. 1860-61. 1870-71. 1856-57. 1860-61. 1870-61. 1856-57. 1860-61. 1870-71. Government Higher Class En glish School Government Lower Class Schools Government Vernacular Schools Government Institution for Spe cial Education I 7 00 1 13 00 1 0 7 1 97 107 0 0 166 578 0 0 177 0 278 2960 0 O 38 89 O0 66 0 39 6 2 00 0 2 OO O 5 00 0 128167 O0 206667 00 248 0 317 20 Total 8 14 9 204 744 469 89 127 111 2 2 5 295 873 585 Return of Government and Aided Schools in SAran for the Years 1856-57, 1860-61, and i, 570-7 1 — {continued). Classification of Schools. Cost to Government. Amount realised from Fees, Con tributions, &c. Total Cost. i8sS-S7- 1860-61, 1870-71. 1856-57. 1860-61. 187O-7I. 1856-57. 1860-61. 1870-71. Government Higher Class School Government Lower Class Schools Government Vernacular Schools Government Institution for Special Education £. ;. d. 287 O 4 3i i9 7 £. s. d. 184 16 <)% 126 18 %% £. s. d. 195 4 oX 167 19 1 287 5 4 £. s. d. 71 0 6 7 19 9 £. s. d. 312 13 4Yz 40 2 3 £. s. d. 793 H 9X 56 13 2Y2 £¦ s. d. 358 0 10 39 19 4 £. s. d. 497 10 2Y2 167 0 11X £. s. d. 998 18 10 224 12 3Y 287 5 4 Total 318 19 11 311 15 6X 650 8 5X 79 0 3 352 15 7Y2 850 8 oX 398 0 2 664 11 iX 1,500 16 sY o E3 z O CO ¦i-s n. rt 6 h jz; m 196 369 134 47°5 17 Da 0 4) C > rt rf-aC E3 .3 tu p- - O H , O 156 277 93 17 .i2 m" P-oo"0 a g^ 4) ul bjD H S3 B > O < 14 IO12 20 Pupils Learning. Receipts. ai3E!0, Xi c W 196 "28 a en 17 •3 B s 147103IOO 4392 17 0 e 4 .2 a) Ph 28 62 ' 60 12 '5 Bd u i 1 E ¦ 0 tag s 0 >- V . tu 15 0 H Higher School. Government, Middle Schools. Government, Unaided, Primary Schools. Unaided, Pdthsdlds, Normal School. Government, I 8 4 *4°214 1 21 354 73 317 12 £ S. D. 241 10 0 197 8 6 96 0 10 208 0 11 £ S. D. 401 0 0 74 H 11 " 17 3 31 17 1 2 19 4 £ S. D. 172 8 0 224 16 0 59 16 6 £ S. D. 814 18 0 272 3 5 236 13 3 187 14 5 211 0 3 £ S. D. 749 18 3 272 3 5 231 2 3 184 18 11 211 0 3 Total, ... 268 5421 224 17 4759 4 l62 777 743 0 3 522 8 7 457 0 61722 9 4 1649 3 1 Co 2Co I <-> ri o Q b No particulars can be given for these schools. EDUCATIONAL CENSUS 353 Educational Census. — Under orders from the Commissioner of the Patnd Division, an educational census of the male population was taken in certain selected town and rural areas of Saran on the 3d February 1875. The town areas selected were Sewdn and Revelganj ; the rural areas were the following nine villages, Sitdlpur, Sadhpur, Manrdth, Barya, Pherora, in the Chhaprd Sub-division, and Satank, Rafipur, Aranda, and Tellatf in the Sewan Sub-division. The enumeration was taken by the pathsdld gurus or village schoolmasters, under the superintendence of the Sub-Inspector, and the general directions of the Deputy Inspector of Schools. The Collector considers that the result may be considered as tolerably accurate, as the totals reported by the gurus correspond pretty closely with the results of the Census of 1872. In the town areas the following figures were obtained : — Revelganj, number educated at school 248, or 5 per cent, of the total male population enumerated; self-taught 1227, or 26 percent. ; altogether illiterate, 3218, or 69 per cent. Sewan, educated at school 311, or 6 per cent. ; self-taught 1062, or 20 per cent. ; illiterate 3982, or 74 per cent. In the rural areas, the results were as follow : — In the five villages in the Chhaprd Sub-division : — Educated at school 167, or 6 per cent. ; self-taught 381, or 13 per cent. ; illiterate 2274, or 81 per cent. In the four villages in the Sewan Sub-division : — Educated at school 192, or 5 per cent. ; self-taught 521, or 15 per cent. ; illiterate 2662, or 80 per cent. These figures show that the proportion of the male population educated in schools is about the same both in urban and rural areas ; while the number of self-taught is smaller, and the number of illiterate greater, in the country than in the town. Postal Statistics.— In the ten years between 1861-62 and 1870- 71, the number of letters received at the District Post Office has nearly trebled ; and the number of newspapers and parcels has nearly doubled. The postal receipts during the same period have increased by 52 per cent, while the expenditure has increased by only 1 1 per cent. The table at the top of the following page illus trates the working of the post-office of Sdran for the three years 1861-62, 1865-66, and 1870-71. VOL. XI. 354 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. Postal Statistics of Saran Districi 1860-61. 1865-66. 1870-71. Received. Despatched. Received. Despatched Received. Despatched Total letters, . . Newspapers, . . Parcels, .... Books, .... 84,854 7,3H I,°59 442 ¦ 92,866 763 551 140 124,324 9,112 1,623 719 115,452 315622 82 232,676 13,532 2,IOO Materials not received for this column. Total, . . 93,699 94,320 135,778 116,471 248,308 * Total Receipts, . Total Expenditure, £582 19 °X 661 9 4X ^712 IO 2Y2 5°5 13 8 .£884 15 (>Y 735 1 6^ * Exclusive of receipts from sale of postage stamps. Administrative Divisions. — Saran District is divided into the two following Sub-divisions. The population statistics are taken from the Census Report of 1872 ; the administrative figures are derived from a special report by the Collector, and refer to the year 1869. (1.) The Sadr or Principal Sub-division, comprising Chhaprd, the Civil Station and administrative headquarters of the District, contains an area of 1361 square miles, with 2228 villages or town ships, 163,261 houses, and a total population of 1,169,451 souls; of these, 1,054,652 are Hindus, 114,637 are Muhammadans, 1 is a Buddhist, 154 are Christians and 7 belong to other denominations not classified. Average number of inhabitants per square mile, 859 ; number of villages per square mile, 1 -64 ; number of houses per square mile, 120; number of inmates per house, 7-2; proportion of males to total population, 47-3 per cent. In 1869 this Sub-division contained 1 7 magisterial and civil courts, and 6 police stations ; a general police force of 463 men, besides 3188 chaukiddrs or village watchmen. The total cost of administration amounted to ,£18,086. (2.) Sewdn Sub-Division was erected in 1848. It contains an area of 1293 square miles, with 2122 villages, 130,263 houses, and a total population of 894,409 souls. Of these 767,396 are Hindus, 126,953 Musalmans, 48 Christians, and 7 " others." Average number of inhabitants per square mile, 672 ; number of villages per square mile, 1-64; number of houses per square mile, 101 ; number of inmates per house, 7-0; proportion of males to total population, PARGANAS OR FISCAL DIVISIONS. 355 49-7 per cent. In 1869 this Sub-division contained seven magis terial and Revenue courts, and four police circles, a regular police force of 160 men, and 2836 village watchmen. The separate cost of admirtistration in the same year amounted to £7,193, 6s. A new Sub-division, the head-quarters of which are at Gopdlganj in the north-west of the District, was opened in November 1875. Fiscal Divisions. — The following account of the Fiscal Divisions or pargands in Saran has been compiled partly from the Board of Revenue pargand Statistics, and partly from Mr Wyatt's Survey Report on Sarkdr Saran. The area, number of estates, and munsifs' Court have been taken from the former, and all other particulars from the latter authority. (1.) Andar: area, 74,538 acres, 246 estates; Government land revenue, £6,435, 4s- i ntunsifs' Courts at Chhaprd and Sewdn. It is bounded on the north by pargands Pachlak and Barah ; on the east by Bdl and Barah ; on the south by Bdl, Narhan, and Kharid in the District of Ghazi'pur, with which the Ghagra river forms a natural boundary. A detached part oi pargand Pachlak is situated within this pargand, while three portions of Andar lie within pargands Bdl, Barah, and Pachlak. The Dahd or Sundf nadi, which skirts this pargand along its eastern boundary, is navigable during the rains for boats of 300 maunds. The Jhardhi nadi skirts the western boundary ; the Chhapra-Ghdzi'pur road passes through it. The principal villages are Andar-khas, Pateji, and Khajwd, all of which have tolerable bdzdrs. At Pateji is the shrine of Hari Ram Barhm, where a fair is held twice annually, in the months of Kdrtik and Chaitra. (2) Bal: area, 249,201" acres; 584 estates; Government land revenue, £24,286, 8s.; munsifs' Courts at Chhaprd and Parsd. This Fiscal Division is bounded on the north by parands Ban', Bara, and God; on the east by Kasmar and God; on the south by Narhan, Mdnjhf, Cherdnd, and Kasmar, the river Ghagra just touching a part of Dis trict Ghdzfpur ; and on the west by Andar and Bdrah. There is a detached portion of this pargand in pargand Narhan, while parts of God and of Andar are situated within Bal. The principal villages are Parsd and Chdinpur Bagaurd, inhabited by the Bhuinhar Bdbus, who once exercised great influence over the people of this pargand. There is a thdnd at Tajpur, and a police outpost at Mahdrdjganj. The Gandaki nadi skirts the north-east boundary with pargand God ; and the Daha nadi, the south-west boundary with pargand Narhan. The latter channel is navigable during the rains for boats of 500 356 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. maunds. The high roads from Chhaprd to Muzaffarpur, Motihdrf, Bettia, Gorakhpur, and Ghdzfpur pass through this pargand. (3.) Barah: area, 133,482 acres, 430 estates; Government land revenue, £9,380 ; munsifs Court at Sewdn. This pargand is bounded on the north by pargand Sipd; on the east by Bari; on the south by Andar and Bdl ; and on the west by Andar and Pachlak. The Gandaki nadi skirts the eastern boundary along pargand Bari ; the Ddhd nadi, the western boundary along pargand Pachlak. The latter stream is navigable during the rains only for boats of 200 maunds. The roads from Chhaprd and Revelganj to Aliganj Sewdn and Gopdlganj pass through the pargand. The town of Ah'ganj Sewdn is the headquarters of the Sewdn Sub-division, and also con tains a munsifi and a thdnd. It is noted for its large bdzdrs, and for the manufacture of pottery, brass vessels, and chintzes. There are also considerable bdzdrs in the villages of Mahdrdjganj and Chau- mukhd. (4) BARf: area, 105,507 acres; 184 estates; Government land revenue, £7,686, 18s.; munsifs Court at Sewan and Chhaprd. This Fiscal Division is bounded on the north by pargands Dangsf and Marhal ; on the east by God and Marhal ; on the south by Bal and God ; and on the west by Barah. It is intersected by the Dhanaf nadi ; while the Gandaki nadi forms a natural boundary, for the most part, with pargand Barah. The high road from Chhaprd to Bettid passes through it. (5.) Chanbarah : area, 83,352 acres, 204 estates; annual Government land revenue, £4,099, 8s. ; munsifs Court at Sewan. This pargand is divided into two distinct parts. The larger part is bounded on the north and west by the District of Gorakhpur; on the south by the Ghagrd river, which forms a natural boundary with the district of Azimgarh ; and on the east by pargands Andar and Pachlak. The smaller part is bounded on the north by pargand Kalidnpur Koarf; on the south and east by Pachlak ; and on the west by the Dis trict of Gorakhpur. The Jhardhi nadi skirts the east boundary along pargand Andar; and the Gandaki, on the west, forms a natural bound ary with Gorakhpur District. Both streams are navigable during the rains for small boats of 200 to 300 maunds. The Chhaprd-Ghazfpur road passes through this pargand. The principal villages are Darauli, Guthnf, and Mirwd. In the first there is a thdnd and an indigo factory, and also a good bdzdr. There is a celebrated shrine of Hari Rdm Barhm in the village of Mfrwa, where fairs are held PARGANAS OR FISCAL DIVISIONS. 357 twice a-year, in the months of Kartik and Chaitra. Guthni has a large bdzdr. * (6.) Cherand : Area, 27,052 acres; 29 estates ; Government land revenue, £3244, 16s. ; munsifs' Courts at Chhaprd and Parsd. There are three detached portions of pargand Kasmar situated within Cherdnd ; while, on the other hand, a detached portion, of Cherand is situated in pargand Kasmar. The principal places are Cherand, Gulltnganj, Kalpiird, Tilpa, and Ddmri. There is a ferry for Dind pur at Singdhf ghdt on the Ganges. The principal road is from Chhaprd to Sonpur. It is bounded on the north hy pargand Bal ; on the east by pargand Kasmar ; on the south by the Ganges, which forms a natural boundary with Shdhdbdd District ; and on the west by pargand Mdnjhf. (7.) Dangsi : area, 59,003 acres; 112 estates; Government land revenue, £3,423, 16s.; munsifs Court at Sewan. The Chhaprd- Bettid road intersects this pargand. The villages of note are Mdnjhd and Batardah, where markets are held twice a week ; and at the latter there is a thdnd. There are two ferries on the Gandak at Baghwar or Gobindganj, and at Salfmpur. This pargand is bounded on the north by the Gandak for some distance ; on the east by pargand Marhal ; on the south by Bari ; and on the west by Sipd. The Dhanai and Gandaki nadis intersect and skirt it ; but neither of them are navigable. The Chhaprd-Bettia road also runs through it. (8) Goa: area, 241,676 acres; 552 estates; Government land revenue,. £18,479, %s ¦ niunsifs' Courts at Chhaprd and Parsd. This pargand is bounded on the north by pargands Bari and Marhal; on the east by Makir and the Gandak river, which forms a natural boun dary with the District of Tirhut ; on the south by Bdl and Kasmar ; on the west by Bdl and Barf. The Gangri and Kathar nadis join near the east of this Fiscal Division to form the Mahi nadi, which flows in a south-easterly direction till it reaches the triple junction point of pargands God, Bal and Kasmar. Other streams are the Dhanai and Gandaki nadis to the west and south, which form a natural boundary with pargand Bal. There are three detached portions of this pargand; one is situated between the Gandak and pargand Makfr ; another in pargand Bdl, and the third between Bdl and Barf. The main roads are from Chhaprd to Motihdrf, and to Muz affarpur. The two principal ghats are the Sohansi ghdt on the road to Mihsi and Karnaul, and the Molnapur ghdt. The most import- 358 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. ant villages are Mashrak, Mirzdpur, and Bhindi, where there are large bdzdrs and markets are held twice a-week. The thdnd of Fathipur is located in Mashrak, and an outpost or chauki in Raipurd. (9.) Kalianpur Koari: area, 270,004 acres; in estates; Govern ment land revenue, £11,805, 12s.; munsifs Court at Sewdn. This Fiscal Division is bounded on the north by the Districts of Gorakh pur and Champdran ; on the east by pargand Sipd ; on the south by Gorakhpur District, a detached portion of Chanbdrah, and by Pachlak ; and on the west by Gorakhpur District. A detached portion of Pachlak is also situated within these limits. The places of note are Hiisepur (where there are the ruins of an old fort), Bard gdon, Bathua, and Bhagipatf, where there are bdzdrs and markets. Another large village is that of Mirganj, where there is an opium store-house and a large bazdr. A thdnd is located in Bardgdon, and a chauki in Hiisepur. The pargand is intersected by the Jhardhi nadi, and skirted by the Khanud nadi. There is a road from Aliganj Sewdn to Gorakhpur, vid Mirganj passing also Bardgdon and Bathua. This pargand, together with Sipa, forms the chief part of the zaminddri of the Maharaja of Hatwd. At Bardgdon can be traced the remains of a cantonment, where a regiment of British infantry was formerly stationed ; but the post was abandoned soon after Gorakhpur District was ceded to the British by the Nawab Wazfr of Oudh. (10.) Kasmar: area, 74,219 acres; 240 estates; Government land revenue, ,£10,094, 12s.; munsifs Court at Parsd. The principal villages are Digwdra, Ami, and Sdnpur. At the first of these there is a thdnd, and a market is held twice a-week ; in the second is the shrine of Amkd Bhawanf. The third is well known for the annual fair and races held in November. The Mahf nadi intersects this pargand, and is navigable for boats of 600 maunds all the year round. During the rains boats of any size can come up. The principal road is from Chhaprd to Sdnpur. This Fiscal Division is bounded on the north by pargands Bal, God, and Makfr ; on the east by the river Gandak, which forms a natural boundary with the District of Tirhut ; on the south by the river Ganges, which forms a natural boundary with the Districts of Patnd and Shahdbad, the small par gand of Shahpur Manfr intervening to the south-west. (11.) MakIr: area, 75,761 acres; 82 estates; Government land revenue, £4,993 ; munsifs Court at Parsd. This Fiscal Division is bounded on the north and east by the Gandak, which forms a natural boundary with the District of Tirhut ; on the south by pargands Goa PARGANAS OR FISCAL DIVISIONS. 359 and Kasmar ; and on the west by God. Between the Gandak and this pargand there is a detached portion oi pargand God. The principal villages are Parsd and Makfr Khds. In the former a munsifs Court is stationed as well as a thdnd; in both there are large bdzdrs. The Budinadi, which intersects this pargand, is not navigable. The prin cipal roads are from Chhaprd to Rewd via Makfr, and from Sftalpur to Makfr via Parsd. (12.) ManjhI contains an area of 30,907 acres. It comprises ninety-one estates, pays a Government land revenue of £3297, 10s., and is situated within the jurisdiction of the munsifs court at Chhaprd. The places of importance are Chhaprd, Godnd or Revelganj, situated at the junction of the Ghagra with the Ganges, the police station of Manjhi khas, Gularbaga and Dumaigarh. At this last place there is a large timber mart and boat-building establishment. ' Saltpetre and grain are the principal articles of trade, but the former industry has greatly declined owing to the introduction of Act xxxi. of 1861. The principal roads are to Arrah, Ghdzfpur, Gorakhpur, Bettid, Muzaffarpur, Hdjfpur, and Dindpur. This pargand is bounded on the north by pargand Bdl; on the south by the rivers Ganges and Ghagrd, forming a natural boundary with the Districts of Shahabad and Ghazi'pur; on the east by pargand Cherand, and on the west by pargand Narhan. The Sundi or Daha nadi, which skirts the western boundary, is navigable during the rains for boats of not more than 400 maunds burthen. (13) Marhal: area, 65,110 acres; 81 estates; Government land revenue, £3,692, 2s.; munsifs' Courts at Parsd and Sewdn. It is bounded on the north by the Gandak, which forms a natural boundary with the District of Champdran ; on the east by the same river, which here separates Sdran from the District of Tirhut ; on the south by pargands God and Barf ; and on the west by Dangsf. The principal villages are Salahpur and Shaikhpurd, where there are large bdzdrs. The Government Gandak embankment passes along the north of this pargand ; roads lead through it from Chhaprd to Motihdrf, and to Sangrdmpur in Champdran. There are ferries at Sdlahpur, Dumrid, Pakri, and Sattar. (14) Narhan: area, 29,909 acres; 55 estates; Government revenue, £2,841, 12s.; munsifs Court at Chhaprd and Sewdn. This Fiscal Division is divided into distinct parts, lying east and west of each other, with a neck oi pargand Bdl between. It is bounded on the north by pargands Andar and Bdl; on the east by Manjhi' and the 360 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. District of Ghdzfpur; on the south by the river Ghagrd, which forms a natural boundary with Ghdzfpur District ; and on the west by par gand Andar. A portion oi pargand Bdl is situated within this pargand towards the west. The high road from Chhaprd to Ghdzfpur and Gorakhpur, via Darauli', passes through it. The principal villages are Raghundthpur and Gabrhar, where there are small bdzdrs, and bi weekly markets are held. There are ferries at Narhan, Gabhrar and Siswdn ghdts on the river Ghagrd. The Daha nadi, which skirts the north-eastern boundary, is navigable during the rains for boats of 500 maunds. The low lands to the south are subject to inundations during the rains. (15.) Pachlak : area, 76,637 acres ; 196 estates; pays Government land revenue, £4,575, 16s.; munsifs Court at Sewdn. Two detached parts of this pargand are situated within pargands Kalian- pur Kodri and Andar ; while a village of this last pargand is situated within Pachlak. The Jhardhf and Daha nadis skirt this pargand, very nearly along the whole length of the western and eastern bound aries respectively. The latter is navigable during the rains for boats of about 200 maunds. The Alfganj-Gorakhpur road intersects the pargand, passing Mirganj and Bardgdon in its way ; and there is another road leading from Hatwd to Bardgdon. At Bissambharpur is a police chauki. The principal villages are Hatwd and Dhanautf, where there are large bdzdrs. The former is the residence of the Maharaja of Hatwd. This Fiscal Division is bounded on the north by pargand Kalidnpiir Kodri ; on the east by Barf ; on the south by Chanbarah and Andar ; and on the west by a detached portion of Chandbarah and by Gorahkpur District. • (16.) Shahpur MANfn: area, 1284 acres; 3 estates; Government land revenue, £373, 6s.; munsifs Court at Parsd. This pargand consists of only one village, which formerly belonged to the District of Patnd. In 1846, the Ganges was gradually encroaching and cutting it away. It is surrounded on three sides by pargand Kasmar ; while the Ganges forms a natural boundary with Shahdbdd on the south-west. There is a police chauki and a ghdt at Lalbegwd, on the road to Dindpur. (17) Sipa: area, 74,472 acres; 42 estates; Government land revenue, £4,613, 6s.; munsifs Court at Sewdn. This Fiscal Divi sion is bounded on the north by the District of Champdran ; on the east by pargand Dangsf ; on the south by Bdrah ; and on the west by Kalianpur Kodri. The Gandaki nadi intersects it, and a road passes MEDICAL ASPECTS: CLIMATE. 361 from Batardah thdnd to Baragdon, arid to Husepur. The principal villages are Gopalganj and Thdwah. The former is the site of the proposed (1875) new Sub-Division, and contains a large bdzdr, where markets are held twice a week. The latter was the hunting seat of the Maharaja of Hatwd, and has a Hindu temple, where a fair is held twice annually, in the months of Kdrtik and Chaitra. Medical Aspects of the District — Climate. — The seasons in Sdran are very similar to those of Tirhut, being, perhaps, a little hotter. The hot weather begins about the end of March ; and in a fortnight afterwards the hot westerly winds, accompanied by dust storms, begin to blow during the day. At night, the wind comes gene rally from the east, and the temperature is comparatively cool, being lowered by occasional thunderstorms. The rains set in about the middle of June, and continue, with intermissions, till about the end of September or the middle of October. The average annual rainfall is 45-27 inches. The month of September is by far the most trying season of the year ; the air is damp and steamy, while the sun's rays are extremely strong. The cold weather may be said to begin in the middle of October, and to continue till the beginning of March, up to which time the days are still comparatively cool. This season is really bracing and agreeable ; the temperature is low, and the air is dry. The following monthly temperatures of the District, in 1 871, are taken from the Register kept by the Civil Surgeon : — January, highest maximum 84°, lowest minimum 43°, range 41° ; February, highest max. 90°, lowest min. 52°, range 38°; March, highest max. 99°, lowest min. 52", range 47°; April, highest max. 105°, lowest min. 66°, range 39°; May, highest max. 107°, lowest min. 65°, range 42°; June, highest max. 105°, lowest min. 73°, range 32°; July, highest max. 96°, lowest min. 73°, range 23°; August, highest max. 95°, lowest min. 74°, range 21°; September, highest max. 97°, lowest min. 70°, range 27"; October, highest max. 98°; lowest min. 68°, range 30°; November, highest max. 95°, lowest min. 530, range 42°; December, highest max. 84°, lowest min. 47°, range 37°. Mean of all the highest maxima for year, 96-25 ; mean of all the lowest minima for year, 61-33. Mean range 34-92. The rainfall in 187 1 was as follows : — January, nil; ''Febru ary, nil; March, nil; April, 1-20 inches; May, 2-70 inches; June, io-oo inches; July, 17-87 inches; August, 20-91 inches; Sep tember 23-99 inches; October, -85 inches ; November,;?//; Decem ber, nil. Total rainfall for the year, 77.52. The year 1872, how- 362 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. ever, was an exceptionally wet year, and much damage was done by floods. The following table shows the rainfall for the ten years, 1863-72, as registered at Chhaprd: — 1863, 56-26 inches; 1864, 29-54 inches; 1865, 34-54 inches; 1866, 26-29 inches ; 1867,77-17 inches; 1868, 25-07 inches; 1869, 43-00 inches; 1870, 43-32 inches; 1871, 77-00 inches; 1872, 40-60 inches; average for ten years, 45-27. The Collector, in his Administrative Report for 1872, remarks that these figures indicate periods of abnormal heavy rainfall, recurring every fourth year ; and that the rainfall in Chhaprd has shown a tendency to increase gradually during recent years. This may be due to the increasing number of groves which are being planted round the Station. But it is remarkable how various are the results shown by rain-gauges in different parts of the District. Thus, the rainfall registered in 1867 at Pratdp-pur factory, in pargand Pach lak, in Sewdn Sub-division, was only 45-7 inches, against 77-17 inches in Chhaprd. In 1868, it was 24-2 inches against 25-07 inches; in 1869, 52-1 inches against 43- ; and in 1870, 54-7 inches against 43-32. The following is the rainfall for each month in 1872, as registered at Chhaprd. January, 1-85 inches; February, -20 inches; March, nil; April, nil; May, 1-31 inches; June, 3-21 inches; July, 14-38 inches; August, 7-00 inches; September, 12-17 inches; October, •48 inches ; November, nil; December, nil. Total rainfall for the year 40-60 inches. Diseases. — The prevailing diseases in the District are cholera, smallpox, and dysentery. The first of these may be assumed to be endemic. The Civil Surgeon states that it is doubtful if cholera is ever really absent from the District; and it commits great ravages towards the end of the hot and beginning of the rainy season. Smallpox comes next in intensity, but the people are beginning to avail themselves of vaccination. Both diseases are said to be now on the decrease, owing to the improved habits of the people and to the high state of cultivation. There is little or no jungle, and not much low land. The people who live in the neighbourhood of low rice lands suffer a good deal from fever. Dysentery, the result of bad water and insufficient clothing, is some times very severe, especially in the jail. The Civil Surgeon remarked in his Report for 1874 as follows : — " The town and District are con sidered healthy, except during the rains, when cholera breaks out and bowel diseases are frequent and obstinate. Children especially are liable to severe attacks of diarrhoea and dysentery in the rainy CATTLE DISEASES: DRUGS. 363 season." It is not improbable that the cutting off the annual streams of water, which used to flow down several nadis previous to the con struction of the Gandak embankment, has prejudicially affected the health of certain tracts. Drainage is much needed in several places. Cattle Diseases. — The principal diseases prevalent in Sdran are guti or rinderpest, and kurhd or foot-and-mouth disease. Guti is also known by the names of mdthd, and chechak. It is a contagious disease of a typhoid type, according to the author of a " Manual of the more deadly forms of Cattle Disease in India," from which work these paragraphs have been condensed. The principal symptoms are — great constipation and thirst, loss of appetite, a fast pulse, a short husky cough, and an increased temperature. The second set of symptoms seem to be those of fever, accompanied with great weakness and constipation. Then follow purging, and profuse discharges from the mouth, eyes, and nostrils. Prostration increases so rapidly that the animal cannot rise, and death usually follows in from two to six days after this stage is reached. Treatment is often successful, owing to the mild type of the disease in many cases ; but rinder pest belongs to a class of diseases which must run their course. The word mdtd refers to the not improbable idea entertained by natives, that this disease is a kind of smallpox. The most characteristic symptoms are the viscid discharges, the ulceration of the gums and inside of the mouth, the dysenteric faeces, and the skin eruption. The disease generally lasts from three to nine days. Kurhd is a contagious fever, accompanied with eruptions in the mouth and feet, and on the udder. It may be spontaneous, in which case dirt is probably the cause. The symptoms are fever, followed by vesicular eruptions on the parts mentioned above. The legs swell, and abscesses often form. If an animal is properly cared for, it should recover in ten or fifteen days ; and the loss by deaths ought never to exceed two or three per cent, of the number attacked. Indigenous Drugs. — The following list of indigenous drugs is supplied by the Civil Surgeon : — (1) Abhul (Juniperus communis), emenagogue and diuretic. (2) Adrak (Zingiber officinale), aromatic, stimulant, and carminative. (3) Aphim (Papaver somniferum), hypnotic, narcotic, anodyne, and stimulant. (4) Ajawan (Ptychotis ajowan), carminative used in flatulent colic. (5) Akh (Saccharum officinarum), demulcent. (6) Akand (Calotropis gigantea), emetic, diaphoretic, alterative and purgative. (7) Akorkord (Anthemis pyrethrum), a powerful irritant. (8) Alkusi (Mucuna prurita), pur- 364 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. gative. (9) Am (Mangifera indica), anthelmintic. (10) Amluki (Emblica officinalis), astringent, (n) Amli (Tamarindus indica), laxative, refrigerant, and stomachic. (12) Gandhak or sulphur, a specific in cutaneous affections, and a laxative for children. (13) Amntl (Oxalis corniculata), a cooling medicine in fevers and dysentery. (14) Atnaltds (Cassia fistula), laxative and purgative. (15) Andr (Punica granatum), astringent. (16) Anison (Ptychotis involucrata), stomachic and carminative. (17) Arendd (Ricinus com munis), purgative. (18) Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) light food administered as sick diet. (19) Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum), astringent. (20) Babchi (Psoralea corylifolia), stomachic and deobstruent. (21) Bdbui tulsi bij (Ocimum basilicum), demulcent. (22) Babul (Acacia arabica), astringent. (23) Bahird (Terminalia belerica) astringent and tonic. (24) Banafsha (Viola odorata) diaphoretic. (25) Bdkash (Adhatoda vasica), antispasmodic. (26) Beg banafsha (Iris florentina), purgative and emetic. (27) Behiddnd (Cydonia vulgaris), demulcent, tonic and restorative. (28) Bel (^Egle marmelos), antibilious and febrifuge. (29) Bhabund phul (Anthemis nobilis), stomachic. (30) Bhdldtak (Semecarpus anacardium), counter-irritant in rheumatic pain and sprains. (31) Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus), a nutritious fruit. (32) Birungd (Embelia ribes), anthelmintic and stimulant. (33) Bislumbi (Cucu mis pseudo-colocynthis), cathartic and anthelmintic. (34) Bach (Acorus calamus), stimulant in flatulency. (35) Mahdbari-bach (Zingiber zerumbet), aromatic and stimulant in cough. (36) Bdgh-bhe- rendd (Jatropha curcas), used as a poultice. (37) Bakam (Caesalpmia sappan), astringent. (38) Balkar or shambal (Nardostachys jata- mansi), stimulant and anti-spasmodic. (39) Bandaul (Luffa. echinata), alterative. (40) Banslochan, or Silicate of Potash ; a powerful tonic and astringent. (41) Ban-haldi (Curcuma longa), carminative and aromatic, and a stimulant in flatulency and dyspepsia. (42) Kalap- ndth (Andrographis paniculata), tonic. (43) Aprdjit (Clitorea ter- natea), purgative. (44) Chdlmugrd (Gynocardia odorata), emollient. (45) Chir, turpentine, from the trunk of Pinus longifolia. (46) Chir- chird (Achyranthes aspera), diuretic. (47) Chiretd (Agathotes chirayta), a tonic and febrifuge. (48) Chita or Chitrd (Plumbago zeylanica), counter-irritant. (49) Chini (Smilax china). (50) Chori ajawdn (Polanisia Icosandra), anthelmintic, carminative, and stimul ant. (51) Chhotd eldchi (Elettaria cardamomum), stimulant. (52) Guncha (Abrus precatorius), demulcent. (53) Charas or Bhang INDIGENOUS DRUGS. 365 (Cannabis indica), narcotic. (54) Dalchini (Cinnamomum zeylani- cum), an aromatic stimulant. (55) Dhdk paldspdprd (Butea frondosa), astringent. (56) Dhanattar aprdjit (Clitorea ternatea), purgative. (57) Dheri pasto (Papaver somniferum), hypnotic, narcotic, anodyne, and stimulant. (58) Dhaniya (Coriandrum sativum), carminative and aromatic stimulant. (59I Daund (Artemisia indica) ; the leaves are astringent. (60) Darmuj sdnko, arsenic and its salts ; used in leprosy, snake bite, and obstinate intermittent fevers. (61) Isapgul (Plantago ispaghula), demulcent and emollient. (62) Photkiti, sulphate of alumina and potash, astringent. (63) Firinghi Dhatura or sidlkdntd (Argemone mexicana), laxative and stomachic. (64) Lankd marich (Capsicum annuum), stimulant. (65) Gamhdr kdth (Uncaria gambir), astringent. (66) Gamboge (Carcinia pictoria), pur gative. (67) Gandhdli (Pcederia faetida), astringent. (68) Gdb Sindikd (Diospyros embryopteris), a valuable astringent and styptic ; the bark is given in intermittent fevers. (69) Gilaund mahud (Bassia latifolia), emollient. (70) Ghrita-kumdri (Aloe indica), pur gative. (71) Gugul (Balsamodendron mukul), alterative and pectoral. (72) Garjan til (Dipterocarpus laevis), diuretic and stimulant. (73) Gdnjd or Chang (Cannabis indica), narcotic. (74) Hdjar moni (Phyllanthus urinaria), diuretic. (75) Hdlim (Lepidium sativum), stimulant. (76) Kdnir (Nerium odorum alba), anti dote for snake bite ; but is also used to procure abortion. (77) Kdnkur or kdkti (Cucumis utilissimus), diuretic. (78) Kesur or zafrdn (Crocus sativus), anti-spasmodic emenagogue and narcotic. (79) Khayer (Acacia catechu) astringent and tonic. (80) Khdri nun (Sodae sulphas), a saline purgative. (81) Khetpaprd (Oldenlandia biflora), tonic and febrifuge. (82) Khorasdni ajawdn (Hyoscyamus niger), narcotic. (83) Kha- rimdti (or chalk), anti-acid and astringent. (84) Khaskhas (Andro- pogon muricatum), stimulant. (85) Kismis or raisins, demul cent. (86) Kiwdch or alkusi (Macun apmrita), purgative. (87) Kuchild (Strychnos nux-vomica), tonic, laxative stimulant. (88) Kulinjam (Alpinia galanga), aromatic and purgative. (89) Pitsul (Pterocarpus marsupium), astringent. (90) Kotilla (Astragalus virus), demulcent. (91) Kamli nebu (citrus limonum), anti-scorbutic. (92) Kapur (Laurus camphora), anti-spasmodic. (93) Dhaniyd (Corian drum sativum), carminative, and aromatic stimulant. (94) Katkaranjd (Caesalpinia bonducella), anthelmintic and emenagogue. (95) Kwd (Cufea Arabica), tonic, stimulant. (96) Ldl chitrd (Plumbago rosea), 366 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. stimulant. (97) Laban (Styrax benzoin), expectorant and stimulant. (98) Mdjuphul (Quercus infectoria), tonic and stringent. (99) Sindur (Plumbi oxidum rubrum), tonic. (100) Mdthd or mithi (Trigonella fcenum-graecum), used in dysentery. (101) Mithd zahar (Aconitum napellus), anti-febrifuge. (102) Madhu or honey, demulcent, and laxative. (103) Murdar-sankar, or oxide of lead — a tonic, (104) Muthd nagar (Cyperus pertenuis), tonic, diuretic and diaphoretic (105) Madur or akand (Calotropis gigantea), emetic, diaphoretic. alterative and purgative. (106) Mansa sij (Euphorbia nivulia), diuretic and purgative. (107) Ndgeswar (Mesua ferrea), oil used in itch. (108) Ndrikel (Cocos nucifera), emollient (109) Nissadal (Ammoniae hydrochloras), alterative, and used externally as a lotion. (no) Pitsal rumarkas (Pterocarpus marsupium), astringent, (in) Ritd (Sapindus emarginatus), expectorant. (112) Rasat (Berberis lycium), tonic. (113) Rakta-chandan (Pterocarpus santalinus), astringent. (114) Raskapur, mercury, corrosive sublimate; altera tive. (115) Sddd dhatura (Datura alba). (116) Sdjimdti (Sodae carbonas) anti-acid. (117) Salip misri (Orchis mascula), demulcent. (118) Sdjird (Carum nigrum), carminative. (119) Kaladdnd (Pharbitis nil), a gentle aperient and tonic, (no) Shirkhist (Manna officinalis), mild, laxative. (1 2 1) Hingul (YLydrargyri persulphuretum), alterative. (122) Sord (Potassae nitras), refrigerant, diuretic, and diaphoretic. (123) Surinjan (Hermodactyls), diuretic and sedative. (124) Sapheda (Plumbi carbon), used in ointments. (125) Teori (Ipomoea turpethum), a purgative powder. (126) Sohdgd (Sodae biboras), is used as a uterine contraction and emenagogue. (127) Tuthd (Cupri sulphas). (128) Tagar (Valeriana Hardwickii), stimulant and anti-spasmodic. (129) Tamaku (Nicotiana tabacum), narcotic. (130) Ambedhar or Haritaki (Terminalia chebula), purgative. Charitable Dispensaries. — There are at present (1875) six dis pensaries in Sdran District ; and it is proposed to open two more, at Ekmd and at Guldanganj. The following section has been con densed from the annual Charitable Dispensary Reports for 1871, 1872, and 1873 : (1) Chhapra. — This institution was founded in 1856 by Babu Bunwari Lai, a rich native of the town. The building is good and in excellent repair, and can accommodate twenty indoor patients. The income is principally derived from the interest of funded money (^1620), and the annual subscription of the Rdjds of Hatwd and Bettid. In 1871, the daily average number of out-patients was 46-21 ; CHARITABLE DISPENSARIES. 367 the total number treated 4417, of which 4165 were out-patients, and 252 in-patients. The prevailing diseases were dysentery and fever. Of the indoor patients 155 were relieved or recovered, 67 were not im proved or ceased to attend, 22 died, and 8 remained; the ratio per cent, of deaths to patients treated was 8-73. The total expenditure during 1871 amounted to £310, os. sd. The total income was £414, 9s. 2jd., including a Government grant of £211, 10s. 4jd., for salaries, special allowances, and European medicines, supplied free of charge, and £81 derived from the interest of invested funds. The balance on ist January 1872 was £104, 8s.- 6d. (2) Sewan Dispensary was opened in July 1872. A new build ing was then erected, of which the site was presented by Munshf Jawdd Husdin. It contains six rooms with verandahs, of which two receive eight males and four females, as in-patients ; the doctor occu pies two, and the others are used for compounding medicines and seeing the patients. Up to the close of 1872, 10 indoor, and 1552 outdoor patients were treated ; £40, 10s. was subscribed by Euro peans, £172, 17s. 1 \d by natives, and £26, 13s. 4d. by the town committee. At the end of the year there was a balance of £134, is. \\d. In 1873 there were 98 indoor patients, and 4617 outdoor. Of the indoor patients 78 were cured or relieved, 4 were not improved or ceased to attend, 8 died, and 8 remained ; percen tage of deaths to patients treated, 8-i6 ; daily average number of sick during the year, 2 -86. The total income in 1873 was £367, 14s., and the total expenditure £435, 10s., including £149, 12s, from Government, on account of medicines, &c. (3) Hatwa Dispensary was opened on 2d December 1872, and is entirely supported by the Hatwd estate. In 1873, there were 62 indoor and 5,420 outdoor patients. Of the indoor patients, 41 were cured, 5 died, 9 remained ; percentage of deaths to total treated, 8-o6 ; average number of sick during the year, 2-75. Total income in 1873, £313, 12s. ; total expenditure the same, none of which is defrayed by Government. (4) Bhori Dispensary was opened on 17th June 1873, and is also entirely supported by the Hatwd estate. There is no accommo dation for indoor patients, but 915 outdoor patients attended in 1873. Total income for that year, £27, 16s. ; total expenditure the same, entirely defrayed from local sources. (5) Gopalganj Dispensary was opened on the ist August 1873, and is also entirely supported by the Hatwd Raj. There is no 368 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. accommodation for indoor patients, but iooo outdoor patients attended in that year. The total income was £23 ; the total ex penditure the same, entirely defrayed from local sources. Revelganj Dispensary was opened in December 1874. The building occupies half of the original house of Mr Revell. I am unable to give any figures for the few months during which this dis pensary has been at work. Mortuary Statistics. — By Government orders, certain limited areas of an average character have been selected, in which births and deaths are registered ; so 'that, by especial supervision, some thing like an approximate idea of the average mortality may be ar rived at. In Sdran the urban areas are Chhaprd and Sewdn ; the rural areas, Manjhi and Bardgdon. In the urban areas, both of which are municipalities, the statistics are corrected and tested by the municipal police. A paid establishment, workmg independently of the police, also obtains returns, and the one set of reports is used to check the other. The following are the results for 1873, which are pronounced by the Sanitary Commissioner to indicate improvement in registration. In the urban areas, out of a total population of 57,386 persons, 1738 deaths were registered, equal to 30-28 per 1000 ; the prin cipal causes of death were cholera (330), smallpox (214), fever (536), and bowel complaints (210). The figures for the rural areas are col lected by the chaukiddrs, who report the deaths at the police stations. Independently of this agency, the patwdris furnish reports to paid muharrirs, who test them by local enquiry and prepare the returns. The patwdris' figures again are checked by comparison with the chaukiddrs' reports. The results were poor at first, but have latterly improved very much, though infant mortality is said to be still but partially registered. Epidemic disease has swelled the death rate enormously. The rural areas contain a total population of 40,167 persons, among whom 2545 deaths were registered in 1873, giving a mortality of 63-36 per 1000. The principal diseases are fever and smallpox, which caused 11 96 and 341 deaths respectively. Bowel complaints caused 283 deaths, and cholera 114. The Hatwa Family. — The following paragraphs have been con densed from a pamphlet on the subject, published at Calcutta in 1870. The Rdj has been held by the present family from a date previous to the Muhammadan conquest ; and the succession has been unin terrupted during the reign of ior Rdjds. The list begins with one Bir Sinh, whose date is not mentioned. On the 16th Rdjd, Jagat, the THE HATWA FAMILY. 369 Emperor of Dehli conferred the title of Sinh ; on the 83d Rdjd, Jai, the title of Mai ; and on the 87th, Khem Karn Sinh Bahddur, the title of Sahdi. When the East India Company obtained the financial administra tion of Behar in 1765, Fathi Sahdi, then Rdjd of Hatwd, refused to pay revenue to the Company. On being pressed by the English troops, he retired to a large tract of forest between Gorakhpur and Sdran, whence he frequently invaded the British territories. His in roads constantly interrupted the collections of revenue in 1772 ; and he is supposed to have killed one Gobind Rdm, who then rented the property of Husepur. The Collector, finding that the revenue of the Hatwd estate could not be collected, recommended that the Rdjd should be pardoned on the promise of his receiving an allowance from Government. This proposal was sanctioned ; the Rdjd came to Patnd, and promised that he would remain quietly with his family at Husepur. This promise, however, he soon broke; and up to 1775 committed constant depredations on the Company's territories. The Provincial Council of Patnd proposed that the co-operation of the Nawdb Wazir of Oudh should be invited to seize the rebel. This was agreed to, and the Nawab Wazfr gave the necessary orders ; but he probably had as much control over his officers in these parts, as the English had over Fathi Sahdi. While the Rdjd thus waged war on the Company, his cousin, Bassan Sahdi, remained in steadfast at tachment to the English. He assisted our troops in every way and did what he could to seize Fathi Sahf, by whom he was himself cap tured, and put to death in 1775. For some years the Hatwd zamin ddri remained under the direct management of Government. The Company then took Mahes Dat Sahf, the son of Bassan Sahdi, under their protection, and were about to confer on him the confiscated Rdj of Fathi Sahdi, when the former died, leaving an infant son, Chhattardharf Sahf. In 1790, when the Decennial Settlement was under consideration, Lord Cornwallis granted the estate to this child, who thus became the real and acknowledged representative of the family. In 1837, the title of Mahdrdjd Bahddiir was conferred on him. He gave much assistance at the time of the Santdl troubles, and also during the Mutiny, for which he was thanked by Govern ment. He died in 1858, leaving as his successor Mahdrdjd Indra Pratdp Sahdi, his great-grandson, who, as a reward for his father's loyalty, obtained a perpetual rent-free jdgir in Shdhdbdd District, yielding an annual revenue of £20,000. vol. xi, 2 A 370 STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF SARAN DISTRICT. The kuldchra, or rule of inheritance, is the same as with the Darbhangah Rdj. The eldest son succeeds to the property in its entirety ; and the younger sons are provided with sufficient land for their maintenance. The property is distributed over the six follow ing Districts :— Sdran, Champdran, Tirhut, Gorakhpur, Patnd, and Shdhdbdd ; but the main portion forms a compact block in North- West Sdran. The following table shows the area and income, together with other particulars : — TABLE — Showing the Distribution, &c, of the Hatwa Estates. Names of Districts in which Pro perty lies. No. of Villages. Area. Government Revenue. Gross Rental. Net income. 1,319 23 5 15 3 Bighds.36o,5i5 16,000 4,500 8,500 500 £ s. 17,266 10 837 4 135 12 1,024 2 89 14 £ s- 81,763 12 3,478 0 750 0 i,97o 8 159 4 145 6 £ s. 64,498 2 2,640 16 614 8 , 946 6 69 10 H5 6 Patnd, Total 1,365 390,015 19,353 2 88,266 10 68,914 8 * Thejdgtr in Shahabad. above referred to, is not included. The total number of 1 365 villages may be classified in five groups. — (1) Those let under a perpetual lease, sixty in number, all leased to Bdbu Pratdp Sdhai, a cousin of the late Maharaja; they pay a net rent of £782, 8s. 6d. (2) Those held rent free, twenty- seven in number. (3) Those temporarily leased to thikdddrs or farmers, 958 in number, paying a total rent of £60,208, is. These thikdddrs are merely rent collectors, who have no power to enhance rents, or even to sue for arrears, though formerly they used both to enhance rents and eject tenants. The following checks or means of control over the thikdddrs are now in the hands of the Mahdrdjd, — correct rent-rolls which have been compiled for 1280 separate villages ; abstracts in the vernacular, showing the amount of land held, and rent payable by each cultivator; a survey of 275 vil lages obtained by actual measurement, and recorded in maps. The rents are received through lahsilddrs, who are allowed to retain ij per cent, as commission. (4) Villages let to indigo planters, 116 in number, paying a rent of £n,o6r, ns. sd. In this case the rents THE HA TWA FAMILY. 371 are collected by the village patwdris, who pay them into the factories. (5) Villages held sir, or in the direct management of the Raja. These number 204, and pay a rental of £16,214, gs. id. The total gross rental is thus £88,266, 10s. The net income during the last three years has been — 1872-73, £682, 16s. ; 1873-74, £68,630, 6s. ; 1874-75, £68,792, 2s. Previous to the famine of 1874, savings to the amount of £43,400 had been invested in Government securities; but to meet the heavy demands of that calamity, £29,000 were taken from these accumulations. Large sums also have been spent by the Maha raja on permanent improvements. Out of 733 pakkd or masonry wells taken in hand, 703 have been completed, at a total cost of £4207, 8s. ; 3783 kachchd wells have been dug, £609, 6s. ; 18 new tanks have been made, and 243 repaired, £11,769, 16s. ; 29 bdolis or drinking fountains, £49; 116 embankments repaired, ,£1719, 2s. ; four sluices, £319, 18s. ; four roads, £410, 10s. ; thirty-five bridges, £238, 18s. — Total expended on improvements, £19,323, 18s. In addition to the above, a new palace has been built, surrounded by ornamental gardens. Forty-four schools have been opened, four middle class and forty primary, at a net cost of £1105, 8s. The Raj also supports three dispensaries at Hatwd, Bhorf, and Gopalganj, at a total cost in 1873 of £364, 8s. INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. Abkdri opium. See Opium. Aboriginal Population, Patna, 39, 50- 52 ; Saran, 251-255. Absentee landlords, Patna, 135. Abwdbs, or illegal cesses, Patna, 96, 127. Achirjyi Brahmans in Patna, 40. Adampur village in Saran, 257. Administrative Divisions, Patna, 35, 204- 206 ; Saran, 226, 354, 355. Administrative Headquarters, Patna, 18, 74 ; Saran, 258, 259, 354. Administrative History of Patna, 181- 183 ; of Saran, 337, 338. Advances to Cultivators, Saran, 290, 335- Agarwdlds in Patna, 45 ; in Saran, 248. Age, Population according to, Patna, 36 ; Saran, 242. Agricultural castes in Patna, 46, 47. Agricultural implements, Patna, 118, 119 ; Saran, 296. Agriculture, Patna, 107-117; Saran, 274-294. Ahirs in Saran, 240, 249, 345, 347. Ahmad-UIla, leader of the Wahabis at the time of the Mutiny, 64. Alabakhshpur, mart in Patna, 155, 160. Aliganj Sewan, town in Saran, 257, 261, 264, 356. Alluvium and Diluvium, Saran, 233. Ambikapur, Indigo factory at, 286. Ami, village in Saran, 358. Amnaur Harnarayan, village in Saran, 258. Amusements of the people, Patna, 107 ; Saran, 273, 274. Andar-khas, village in Saran, 355. Andar, pargand in Saran, 355. Animals, Domestic. See Domestic. Animals, Wild. — See Ferae Nature; Loss of life by. See Deaths. Aphaur, village in Saran, 257. Aranda, village in Saran, 353. Arandatandila, village in Saran, 257. Area of Patna, 17; of Saran, 225, 241. Area, Cultivated, of Patna, 115, 116; of Saran, 292-294. Arfabad, mart in Patnd, 160. Artisan castes in Patna, 48. Asawan, village in Saran, 257. Asehni, village in Saran, 258. Aspects, General, of Patna, 18 ; of Saran, 226, 227. Aspects, Medical. See Medical. Atasarai, or Islampur, mart in Patna, 83. Atasarai thdnd in Patna, 35, 206. Azimabad pargand in Patna, 206. Azimabad, native name of Patna town, 68. See also Patna city. B Bal, pargand in Saran, 302, 355, 356. Babhans in Patna, 42, 43, 44, 55, 99 ; in Saran, 247. Bagaura, village in Saran, 258. Baghahan, mart in Saran, 332. Baikathpur, pargand in Patna, 206. Baikathpur, town in Patna, 66, 85, 191. Bakhtiarpur, thdnd in Patna, 35, 205. Bakhtiarpur, village in Patna, 85. Bakr1 id, festival in Patna, 60. Balance Sheets, Patna, 184, 185 ; Saran, 339-342. Baliya, pargand in Patna, 207. 374 INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. Bam Marg or Kaulik sect of Hindus in Patna, 56, 57. Baniyds, trading caste in Patna, 45 ; in Saran, 248. Banking establishments at Chhapra, 335. Bankipur, civil station and administrative headquarters of Patna, 74, 191 ; thdnd, 35, 205 ; Dispensary, 217, 219. Banks of rivers, Patna, 24 ; Saran, 228, 232, 233, 306, 309. Bara, pargand in Saran, 302, 356. Baraganwan, pargand in Patna, 209. Baragaon, village in Patna, 82. Baragaon, village and thdnd in Saran, 240, 241, 258, 293, 344, 358. Bari, pargand in Saran, 302, 356. Barauli, thdnd in Saran, 233, 240, 241, 293, 344- Barh Subdivision, Patna, 35, 83-86, 107, 108, 205. Barh, town and thdnd in Patna, 25, 35, 66, 83, 84, 191, 205 ; Branch Dispen sary at, 217, 218, 219. Barhapur, village in Saran, 258. Barharam, village in Saran, 257. Barhoga, in Saran, 233. Barya, village in Saran, 353. Basantpur, thdnd in Saran, 233, 240, 241, 247, 293, 344. Basaur, village in Saran, 258. Basnauli Gangar. See Maharajganj. Batardah, village in Saran, 357. Bathua, village in Saran, 358. Behar, pargand in Patna, 206. Behar Subdivision, Patna, 35, 74-83, 108, 206. Behar, town and thdnd in Patna, 35, 66, 74-77, 191, 206 ; Dispensary, 218, 219. Behar Opium Agency. See Opium. Bela Baragaon, village in Saran, 258. Benares Opium Agency. See Opium. Bhagipati, village in Saran, 358. Bhaidri, or brotherhood, a village institu tion in Patna, 93-95. Bhats, caste of bards in Patna, 44. Bhikha Bandh, village in Saran, 258. Bhimpur, pargand in Patna, 208, 209. Bhindi, village in Saran, 358. Bhuinhar, or zaminddri Brahmans. See Babhans. Bihta, village in Patna, 90. Bishnupura, village in Saran, 257. Biswak, pargand in Patna, 207. Blights in Saran, 305, 306. Blind, Number of, Patna, 36 ; Saran, 242. Boats in Patna, 28 ; in Saran, 235. Boundaries of Patna, 18 ; of Saran, 225, 226. Brahma Samaj, The, in Patna, 64 ; in Saran, 256. Brahmans in Patna, 40-42, 55 ; in Saran, 246. Campbell's, SirG., Educational Reforms, Saran, 351. Canals, Patna, 24, 25. Capital and Interest, Patna, 180 ; Saran, 335- Castes, Patna, 40-50 ; Saran, 246-255. Cattle disease in Saran, 363. Census of 1872, Patna, 34, 35 ; Saran, 239-241. Census, Educational, Patna, 200, 201. Cereal Crops, Patna, 109-112; Saran, 274-276. Ceremonies, Hindu, PatnA, 56. Cesses, Illegal. See Abwdbs. Chainpur, village in Saran, 258. Chainpur Bagaura, village in Saran, 35S- Chamars, workers in leather, in Patna, 50 ; in Saran, 253. Chaubarah, pargand in Saran, 302, 356, 357- Changes in river-courses, Patna, 22, 23, 24 ; Saran, 227, 233. Chauki Hassan, in Saran, 232. Chaukiddrs, or village watchmen, Patna, 97, 98, 190 ; Saran, 345, 346. Chaukiddri panchdyats in Patna, 97, 98 Chaumukha, village in Saran, 356. Cherand, pargand in Saran, 302, 3°3> 357- Cherand, village in Saran, 263, 357- Chhapra Subdivision, Saran, 241. Chhapra, chief town of Saran, 225, 228, 257, 258, 259, 264, 293, 306, 307, 315, 325, 332, 345. 354, 359; thdnd, 344. Children under Twelve. See Age. Cholera in Patna, 211, 212; in Saran, 362. Christian Population in Patna, 36, 54, 64, 65 ; in Saran, 242, 256, 264, 354. Classification of Opium. See Opium. Climate of Patna, 209, 210 ; of Saran, 361. Cloth, European cotton, trade in, in Saran, 323, 324. College, The Patna, 201-204. Colonelganj, mart in Patna, 155, 160, 162. Commerce and Trade, Patna, 154-180 ; Saran, 323-334. Communication, Means of, in Patna, 135- 137 ; in Saran, 316, 317. INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. 375 Condition of the people, Material, Patna, 98-100 ; Saran, 269, 270. Conservancy in Patna, 221, 222. Conveyances in Patna, 107 ; in Saran, 274. Cotton, Patna, cultivation of, 1 14 ; trade in, 156-159, 166, 171 : Saran, cultiva tion of, 277 ; trade in, 277, 278, 324, 33i- Courts in Patna, 188 ; in Saran, 343. Criminal statistics,Patna,i9i-i93 ; Saran, 346, 347- Criminal classes, Patna, 193 ; Saran, 347- Crops. See Tillage. Cultivation. See Tillage. Cultivators, Condition of the, Patna, 117; Saran, 294, 295. D Daha nadi in Saran. See Sundi. Dakditi, or gang-robbery in Patna, 191, 313 ; in Saran, 346. Dakantiyd Brahmans in Patna, 40. Dangsi, pargand in Saran, 303, 357. Darai in Saran, 231. Darauli village and thdnd in Saran, 235, 241, 257, 263, 293, 328, 331, 344, 356. Dariaganj, mart in Saran, 332. Dasahard festival in Patna, 59- Daulatganj village in Saran, 257. Day-labourers, Patna, 119. Deaf and dumb, Number of, Patna, 36 ; Saran, 242, 243. Deaths by wild beasts and snake-bite, Patna, 31, 32 ; Saran, 238. Deaths from drowning, Patna, 25 ; Saran, 234- Density of population, Patna, 34, 98, 99; Saran, 240. Dhdmin or Pretiyi Brahmans in Patna, 40. Dhanai nadi in Saran, 227, 232, 233 Dhanauti, village in Saran, 360. Dhangurha Dhanapur, village in Saran, 258. Dhulwara, village in Saran, 258. Dighwara, village and thdnd in Saran, 240, 241, 258, 293, 315, 344, 358- Diluvium. See Alluvium. Dinapur Sub-division, Patna, 35, 86- 90, 108, 116, 205, 206. Dinapur Cantonment in Patna, 25, 66, 86, 87, 191 ; thdnd, 35, 206. Dinapur Nizamat, Patna, 66, 86, 191. Dinapur dispensary in Patna, 218, 219. Diseases, Patna, 211, 212; Saran, 362, 363- Dispensaries in Patna, 216-219 > m Saran, 366-368. Diwali festival in Patna, 59. Doljatrd festival. See Holi. Domaigarh, in Saran, 228. Domestic Animals of Patna, 118; of Saran, 295, 296. Doms, Saran, 253, 254, 346, 347. Dosadhs, labouring caste in Patna, 51, 97 ; in Saran, 252, 345, 347. Drainage, Lines of, Patna, 18, 31 ; Saran, 228, 229, 237. Dress of the people, Patna, 100-102, 106; Saran, 271. Drought in Patna, 130, 131; in Saran, 310. Drowning, Deaths by. See Deaths. Drugs, Indigenous, Patna, 213 - 215 ; Saran, 363, 366 Dumaigarh, village in Saran, 359. Dumb, Number of. See Deaf. Dumri, village in Saran, 257, 258, 357- Dariaganj, mart in Saran, 228, 235, 325. Dwellings of the people, Patna, 102-105; Saran, 271, 272. Dyes in Saran, 320-323. .to also Indigo. Educational census, Patna, 200, 201. Educational statistics, Patna, 195-204 ; Saran, 349-353. Embankments, Saran, 227, 230, 231, 233, 236, 306-310. Emigration and Immigration, Patna, 39, 40; Saran, 268, 269. Endemics. See Diseases. Enhancement of rent, Patna, 117; Saran, 295- Epidemics. See Diseases. Estates, Number of, Patna, 187 ; Saran, 343- Ethnical division of the people, Patna, 36- 38; Saran, 244-246. Expenditure, Patna, 183-185. Exports, Patna, 25, 26, 156-158, 169- 177; Saran, 260, 323, 327, 328, 329, 331-334- Factories, Indigo, in Saran, 285, 286. Fairs, &c, Saran, 261, 262. 376 INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. Fallow land, Saran, 305. Famine of 1866 in Patna, 131, 132; in Saran, 310-312. Famine of 1874, Patna, 133, 134; Saran, 3J2-3i5- Famine warnings, Patna, 134, 135 ; Saran, 315. Fdtaha Dawdz Dahum festival, Patna, 62. Fathipur thdnd in Saran, 358. Fatwa thdnd in Patna, 35, 205. Fatwa town in Patna, 25, 66, 84, 85, 191. Females, Proportion of, in population. See Sex. Ferae Naturae, Patna, 31; Saran, 237, 238. Ferries in Saran, 228, 263, 357, 359, 360. Festivals, Hindu, in Patna, 57"59- Festivals, Muhammadan, Patna, 60-63. Fever in Patna, 212. Fibres in Patna, 113, 114; Saran, 277- 279- Fiscal Divisions, Patna, 206-209 > Saran, 355-361. Fishes, Patna, 29-31; Saran, 236, 237. Fisheries, Patna, 29-31; Saran, 235, 236. Fishing castes and communities, Patna, 30, 49, 50 ; Saran, 236. Fishing, Modes of, in Patna, 30. Floods in Patna, 130; in Saran, 226, 227, 230, 231, 232, 234, 237. Food of the people, Patna, 106, 107; Saran, 272, 273. Foreign landlords. See Absentee. Fruit trees of Patna, 115. Fruits of Saran, 273. Furniture, Patna, 104, 105; Saran, 272. Gabrhdr, village in Saran, 360. Games of the people, Patna, 107; Saran, 273, 274. Gandak embankment, The, 227, 232, 306. Gandak river, 228. Gandaki nadi in Saran, 227, 232. Ganga. See Ganges. Gangdpur, village in Saran, 257. Ganges or Ganga river, 19-23, 227. Gangri nadl'va Sdran, 227, 233. Gardens, Experimental opium seed, in Patna, 154. Gaydwdls, Patnd, 40, 41. German mission in Saran, 256, 259. Ghagra (Gogra) river in Saran, 228 ; Traffic on, 333, 334. Ghaydspur pargand in Patnd, 207. Giriyak, village in Patnd, 82, 83. Goa, pargand in Sdran, 303, 357. Godlas in Sdran, 249. Godhud, village in Saran, 257. Godnd, native name of Revelganj, 259. Gogra river. See Ghagra. Gold, The, in Patnd city, 69, 70. Gopalganj Sub-division, Saran, 226, 355. Gopalganj, town in Sdran, 232, 361. Green crops, Patna, 112, 113; Sdran, 276. 277. Gularbaga, village in Saran, 359. Gultanganj, mart in Sdran, 228, 235. Gulzdrbdgh, mart in Patna, 155, 160. Gumdshtds in Patna, 95, 96. Gurkha, in Saran, 232. Guthni, village and police outpost in Sdran, 235, 257, 262, 263, 325, 356, 357- H Hakims, Muhammadan doctors, Patnd, 216. Harded chaur in Saran, 234, 236. Haribans, village in Sdran, 257. Hasanpura, village in Saran, 257. Hatwd estate and family in Saran, The, 285, 286, 351, 368-371. Hatwd, village in Saran, 257, 360. Headquarters. See Administrative. Hills in Patnd, 18, 19. Hilsa mart in Patna, 83. Hilsd, thand in Patnd, 35, 206. Hindu population, Patnd, 36, 54-59, 65 ; Sdran, 242, 256, 264, 354. History, Administrative, of Patnd, 181- 183 ; of Sdran, 337, 338. History, Early, of Patnd city, 67-71 ; of Behar town, 77, 78. Holdings. See Cultivators, Condition of. Holi, or Doljatrd, festival in Patnd, 57, 58. Houses of the people. See Dwellings. Houses, Number of, Sdran, 241. Husbandmen. See Cultivators. Husepur, village in Saran, 230, 358. Hot springs near Rajgir in Patnd, 80, 81. Idiots, Number of, Patna, 36; Saran, 242. Ijdrds, temporary leases, in Patnd, 125. INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. 377 Illegal cesses. See Awdbs. Immigration. See Emigration. Implements of agriculture. See Agricul tural. Imports, Patnd, 25, 26, 156-169, 172- 177, 334 ; Saran, 260, 323, 324, 330, 331-334- Incomes and income-tax, Patnd, 181 ; Saran, 337. Indai, village in Saran, 257. Indigenous drugs. See Drugs. Indigo cultivation, Saran, 270, 282-287, 306. Infirms, Number of, Patnd, 36 ; Saran, 242, 243. Insanes, Number of, Patna, 36 ; Sdran, 242. Institutions, local, in Saran, 335-337. Interest. See Capital. Inundations. See Floods. Irrigation, Patna, 28, 29, 118, 119, 129; Sdran, 231, 235, 305. Islampur. See Atasarai. J Jdgirs, Patna, 127. I Jahdd, or sacred war. See Wahdbis. Jail manufactures, Patnd, 195 ; Saran, T 349- Jail statistics, Patna, 193-195 ; Sdran, 347-349- Jains in Patna, 64. Jditpur, village' in Sdran, 258. Jdldlpur, village in Sdran, 258- Jegna, village in Saran, 231. Jeth rayats, or village headmen, Saran, 265. Jharahi nadi in Saran, 227, 230. Joist Brdhmans in Patnd, 41. Jurisdiction, Patnd, 18; Sdran, 226. K Kabirdjs, or native doctors, in Patna, 215, 216. Kachndr, village in Sdran, 257. Kailrohra, village in Sdran, 257. Kaini, village in Saran, 257. Kalpura, village in Saran, 357- Kalidnpur Koari, pargand in Sdran, 358. Kapirpur, village in Saran, 257. Karsaut, village in Saran, 257. Kasmar, pargand in Saran, 358. Kaulik. See Bam Marg. Kdyasths, caste of writers, in Patna, 44, 45> 99 5 !n Sdran, 247, 248. Khagaul, town in Patnd, 66, 90, 191. Khajwd, village in Saran, 355. Khanwa nadi in Sdran, 230, 231. Khatri caste in Sdran, 248. Khatsd nadi in Sdran, 227. Khordm in Sdran, 232. Kild, the, in Patnd, 155, 161. Kodri, pargand in Sdran, 303. Koeris, an agricultural caste, in Patnd, 46. Kols in Patnd, 39. Kopd, village in Sdran, 257. Kothia, village in Sdran, 257. KurmiSj an agricultural caste, in Patna, 46,_ 47- Kutia, village in Saran, 257. Labourers. See Cultivators. Labouring Castes in Patnd, 49. Laheji, village in Sdran, 257. Lahrhi, village in Saran, 257- Lakes in Sdran, 233, 234. Ldkhirdj, rent-free land tenures, Patna, 127, 186, 188. Ldlbegwd, police station in Sdran, 360. Land Measures, Patnd, 122, 123; Sdran, 279, 299. Land Revenue, Patnd, 186-188 ; Saran, 342, 343- Land, Spare, Patna, 124, 125 ; Saran, 299, 300. Land Tenures, Patna, 125-127, 186-188; Sdran, 300, 301. Landless labouring classes, Patnd, 123, 124 ; Saran, 299. Landlords' agents in Patna, 95. Ldthas, irrigating machines, in Patna, 29. Lepers, Number of, Patnd, 36 ; Sdran, 242. Litigation in Patna, 99. Long-stemmed rice, Saran, 236, 237. Loss of life by drowning and wild beasts, &c. See Deaths. Lunatic asylum at Bdnkipur, 220, 221. M Maghya Doms. See Doms. Mahdrdjganj, mart in Patnd, 155, 160, 162. Mahdrdjganj, village and police outpost in Sdran, 261, 262, 355, 356. Makair, pargand in Saran, 303, 358, 359- Maker, village in Saran, 258 378 INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. Makir Khas, village in Sdran, 359. Maldah, pargand in Patna, 209. Males, Proportion of, in population. See Sex. Mdlikdna allowances, Patnd, 186-188. Maner, pargand in Patnd, 207. Mailer, town and thdnd in Patnd, 35, 66, 90, 191, 206. Mdnghi Khas, police station in Sdran, 359- Mdnjhd, village in Sdran, 257, 357. Manjhi pargand in Sdran, 303, 304, 359- Manjhi, thdnd and town in Sdran, 228, 235, 240, 241, 257, 293, 344. Manrath, village in Sdran, 353. Mdnsurganj, mart in Patnd, 155, 160. Manufactures in Patnd, 137-154 ; in Sdran, 317-320. Manure, Patnd, 128, 129 ; Saran, 305. Marriage ceremonies and customs, Patna, 45, 99, 100 ; Sdran, 335-337. Marshes, Sdran, 233, 234. Marsh products, Sdran, 236, 237. Mdrufganj, mart in Patnd, 25, 155, 159- Mdrwaris in Patnd, 45, 161 ; in Sdran, 248, 324. Masaudah, pargand in Patnd, 207. Masaurhi, town and thdnd in Patnd, 35, 74, 205. Massacre of Patnd in 1763, A.D., 7I"74- Marhal, pargand in Sdran, 304, 359. Mashrak, village and thdnd in Saran, 233, 240, 241, 247, 258, 293, 344, 358. Material condition of the people. See Condition. Measures. See Weights and Measures. Medical Aspects and Statistics, Patnd, 209-213; Sdran, 361-363. Medical Charities. See Dispensaries. Medicine, Temple School of, in Patnd, 220. Melas. See Fairs. Meteorological statistics, Patna, 210, 211 ; Sdran, 361, 362. Military force at Dindpur, 87. . Minerals in Patnd, 31 ; in Saran, 237, 334-, Mirchdiganj, mart in Patnd, 155, 161. Mirganj, village in Sdran, 358. Mirganj Harkhauli, village in Sdran, 257. Mirwa, village in Sdran, 356. Mirzdpur, village in Sdran, 358. Missionary efforts, Saran, 256. Mortality. See Vital Statistics, Mountains. See Hills. Mubdrakpur, mart in Sdran, 332. Muhammadans in Patnd, 36, 52-54, 60, 65 ; in Sdran, 240, 242, 255, 256, 257, 264, 3i5>3i6, 354- Muhammadpur, town in Patnd, 66, 84, 191. , _ Muhammadpur, village in Saran, 258, 325, 332. Muharram festival in Patnd, 60-62. Mukdmd, town in Patnd, 66, 85, 86. Mukdmd, thdnd in Patna, 35, 39, 191, 205. Mukarrari land tenures, Patna, 125 ; Sdran, 300, 301. t Municipalities in Patnd, 190; in Saran, 257, 345- „ , Municipal Police, Patna, 190; Saran, 345- Murhar River, 24. Musalmdns. See Muhammadans. Musical Instruments, Patnd, 107. Muslins manufactured at Behar, 76. Mutiny of 1857, Patna, 87-90. Myrna, in Sdran, 230. N Ndnaks, sect of Hindus, Patnd, 56. Narhan, pargand in Sdran, 304, 359, 360. Narhankhds, village in Saran, 257. Narhat, pargand in Patnd, 207. Native Christians in Patnd, 54, 64; in Saran, 256. Native Physicians. See Kabirdjs. Nats in Patna, 39 ; in Sdran, 252. Natural Calamities, Patnd, 130, 131 ; Sdran, 305-307. Naubatpur, town and thdnd in Patna, 35,, 74, 205. Nawdda in Patnd, 191. Nepal, Trade carried on by Patna with, 179, 180. Newspapers published in Patnd, 180, 181. Nikti-kaldn, village in Sdran, 257- Nuniyds in Sdran, 226, 296, 297, 319. o Occupancy rights, Patna, 117; Saran, 295. Oil-makers in Patnd, 142. Oil-seeds, Patnd, trade in, 26, 156, 158, I59> 163, 169, 171 : Sdran, trade in, 260, 323, 325, 327, 329. Okri, pargand in Patnd, 207. Operation of Rent Law. See Rent Law. Opium Manufacture and cultivation of, in Patna, 114, 115, 129, 146-154; in Saran, 287-292, 306. Ornaments worn in Patnd, 102 ; in Sdran. 271. INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. 379 Out-turn of Crops, Patnd, 115-1 17 ; Sdran, 294. Pachlak, pargand, in Sdran, 304, 360. Pahleya, village in Sdran, 258. Paliganj, thdnd and town in Patnd, 74, 205. Paltid, mart in Sdran, 332. Pdn, cultivation of, in Patna, 114; in Sdran, 279. Pdn-groweii in Patna, 46. Panapur, town in Saran, 257. Panchdna river, Patnd, 24. Panchaydt system in Patnd, 91-93 ; in Sdran, 265-267. Pargands. — See Fiscal Divisions. Parsd, village and thdnd in Sdran, 240, 241, 247, 258, 293, 315, 344, 355, 359- , Pasnauli, village in Saran, 258. Pastoral Castes in Patnd, 45, 46 ; in Sdran, 249. Pateji, village in Sdran, 355. Pathsdlds or village schools in Sdran, 351, 352- Patna Canal, The, 22, 24, 25, 129. Patnd city, or Azimabad, 17, 18, 25, 35, 55, 65-71, 154-163, 191, 205; College, 70, 201-204; Dispensary, 216, 217, 219 ; Registration Station at, 328, 331- Patna District — Geographical Situation, Area and Headquarters, 17, 18; Boundaries, 18; Jurisdictions, 18 ; General Aspect and Hill Systems, 18, 19 ; Rivers, 19-24 ; Canals, 24, 25 ; Loss of Life by Drowning, 25 ; River Traffic, 25-28 ; Irrigation, 28, 29 ; Fisheries, &c. ,29- 31 ; Lines of Drainage, 31 ; Minerals, 31 ; Ferte Nature, 31, 32 ; Early Esti mates of Population, 32, 33 ; Prelimin ary Census of 1871, 33 ; Census of 1872, 34, 35 ; Classification of Popula tion according to Sex and Age, 36 ; Infirms, 36 ; Ethnical Division of the People, 36-38 ; Aboriginal Tribes, 39 ; Immigration and Emigration, 39, 40 ; Hindu Castes, 40-49 ; Hindus not re cognising Caste, 49, 50 ; Semi-Hindu- ized Aboriginals, 50-52 ; Muhammadan Classes, 52-54; Religious Divisions and Festivals of the People, 54-64 ; Towns, 65 ; Sadr Subdivision, 65-74 ; Patnd City, 65-71 ; Massacre of Patna, 71- 74 ; Bankipur, 74 ; Behar Subdivision, Patna District — Continued. 74-83 ; Behar Town, 74-79; Rdjdgriha, 79-82 ; Giriyak Village 82, 83 ; Barh Subdivision (Towns in), 83-86 ; Dinapur Station and the Mutiny of 1857, 86-90; Village Institutions, 91- 98 ; Material Condition of the People, 98-100; Dress, Dwellings, Food, &c, 100-107; Agriculture- Staples, 107-109; Cereal Crops, 109- 112; Green Crops, 112, 113; Fibres or Miscellaneous Crops, 113-115; Cultivated Area and Out-turn of Crops, 115-117; Condition of the Peasantry, 117 ; Domestic Ani mals and Agricultural Implements, 118, 119; Wages and Prices, 119-122; Weights and Measures, 122, 123 ; Landless Day-labourers, 123, 124 ; Land Tenures, 125-127 ; Rates of Rent, 127-129; Irrigation and Rota tion of Crops, 129, 130 ; Natural Ca lamities, 130, 131 ; Famine of 1866, 131, 132 ; Scarcity of 1869 and of 1873- 1874, 132-134; Famine Warnings, 134,- 135 ; Foreign and Absentee Land holders, 135; Roads, 135-137; E. I. Railway, 137 ; Manufactures, 137-146; Opium Manufacture, 146-154; Trade of Patna City, Imports and Exports, 154-171 ; River Traffic, 171-177 ; Rail and Road Traffic, 178, 179; Trade with Nepdl, 179; Capital and Inte rest, 180; Newspapers, 180, 181 ; In come and Income Tax, 181 ; Adminis trative History, 181- 183 ; Revenue and Expenditure (with Balance Sheets for 1850-51, 1860-61, and 1870 71), 183- 185 ; Land Revenue, 186-188 ; Civil and Criminal Courts, 188 ; Operation of Rent Law, 188, 189 ; Police Statis tics, 189-193 ; Jail Statistics, 193-195 ; Educational Statistics, 195-201 ; Patnd College, 201-204 ; Administrative Di visions, 204-206 ; Fiscal Divisions, 206-209 ; Medical and Meteorological Aspects, 209-212 ; Vital Statistics, 212, 213; Indigenous Drugs, 213-215; Native Doctors, 215, 216; Charitable Dispensaries, 216-219 ; Temple School of Medicine, 220; Lunatic Asylum, 220, 221 ; Conservancy, 221, 222. Pdttdr, mart in Sdran, 332. Patwdris, village accountants in Patnd, 96 ; in Sdran, 267, 268. Peasantry. — See Cultivators. Phdlgu river, 24. Pherora, village in Sdran, 353. Phulwdri, pargand in Patna, 208. Pilich, pargand in Patnd, 207, 208. 38o INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. Police Circles, Patnd, 35, 189; Saran, 344. Police, Municipal. — See Municipal. Police Statistics, Patnd, 189-193 ; Sdran, 344-346. Police, Village.— See Chaukiddrs. Poppy Cultivation. — See Opium. Population; Patnd, Early estimates of, 32, 33; preliminary Census of 1871, 33 ; Census of 1872 and its results, 34, 35 ; average density of, 34; according to sex and age, 36 ; ethnical division of, 36-38 ; religious division of, 54"64 : Sdran, Early estimates, 238 ; prepara tory Census of 1869-70, 238, 239 ; Census of 1872 and its results, 239-241 ; distribution and density, 240 ; accord ing to sex and age, 242, 243 ; partial Census, 1874, 243 ; ethnical division, 244-246 ; religious divisions, 255-257. Porpoises in Patnd, 30. Postal Statistics, Patnd, 204 ; Sdran, 353, 354- Potato Cultivation in Sdran, 279, 280. Pottery, Manufacture of, in Sdran, 320. Pradhans or panchdyat, chiefs in Sdran, 266. Prices, Patnd, 1 19-122 ; Sdran, 270, 297, 298. Primary Education. — See Educational Statistics. Protection to person and property. See Courts. Piinpiin river, 23. Putar, village in Sdran, 257. R Race Meeting and Fair at Sonpur, 262, 333- Rdfipur, village in Sdran, 353. Raghundthpur, village in Sdran, 360. Railway traffic, Patnd, 178. Railways in Patnd, 137. Rainfall in Patnd, 210, 211; in Saran, 226, 237, 312, 361, 362. Rdipura, police outpost in Sdran, 358. Rdjagriha, "the Royal residence, " or Rdjgir ruins in Patna, 79, 80. Rdjdgriha hills in Patnd, 18, 19, 31. Rdjgir. — See Rdjdgriha. Rdjgir, pargand in Patnd, 208. Rdjpati factory, Sdran, 233. Rdjputs, in Patnd, 42, 43, 55, 99 ; in Sd ran, 246, 247. Rdjwdhi, village in Sdran, 257. Rdmpur, village in Sdran, 232, 258. Ratanpura, village in Sdran, 257. Rayats. — See Cultivators. Registry station for river-traffic at Patna town, 27, 28. r Religious divisions of the people, Patna,, 54-64; Sdran, 255-257. f Rent-free land tenures, Patna, 127, ISO, 188. , Rent-Law, Operation of, in Patna, 188, 189; in Sdran, 343, 344. Rent of land, Patnd, 127, 128; Saran, 301-304. Reotith, village in Saran, 258. Reptiles in Saran, 237. Revelganj, town in Sdran, 228, 235, 257, 259-261, 264, 323, 325, 326, 327, 331, 332, 333, 345, 353, 359- , Revenue and Expenditure, Patna, 183- 185 ; Sdran, 338-342. Rice, Patnd, import of, 27, 156, 158, 159, 165; cultivation of, 109-111 : Saran, cultivation of, 274, 275 ; import of, 323, 324, 328, 330, 331, 332. Rice, long-stemmed. — See Long-stemmed. Rice plant, Names of at different stages, Patna, no; Sdran, 275. Rice, Preparations of, Patnd, III ; Sd ran, 275, 276. Rice, Varieties of in Patnd, 109, 1 10 ; in Sdran, 275. Rights of Occupancy. — See Occupancy. Rites. — See Ceremonies. River Traffic, Patnd, 25-28, 171-177; Sdran, 230, 234, 235, 327-334- Rivers, Patna, 19-24 ; Sdran, 227-233. Road traffic, Patnd, 178, 179. Roads in Patnd, 135-137; in Sdran, 316, 317- Rotation of Crops, Patna, 129, 130. Rural Police. — See Chaukiddrs. Sadhpur, village in Sdran, 353. Sddikpur, martin Patna, 155, 160. Sadr, or Headquarters, Subdivision, Patna, 35, 65-74, i°8, "6, 205; Saran, 240, 354- Safflower cultivation in Sdran, 320, 321. Sdhibganj on the Ganges, Registration station at, 25, 327. Sahuli, village in Sdran, 257. Sakri river, 24. Saktas, sect of Hindus, Patnd, 55, 56. Saldbatganj, village in Sdran, 257. Salahpur, village in Sdran, 359. Salimpur, village in Saran, 257. Salimpur ghdt, mart in Sdran, 235. INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. 38i Salt, Patnd, import of, 27, 156, 158, 159, 164, 169, 171 ; Sdran, import of, 323, 324, 325, 328, 330, 331, 334. Saltpetre, Manufacture, &c, of, in Sdran, 226, 260, 319, 320; trade in, 323, 325, 328, 329- Samdi pargand in Patnd, 208. Sanaut, pargand in Patna, 208. Sanda, pargand in Patnd, 208. Sardi, or inn, at Behar, 76, 77. Saran District — Geographical Situation and Area. 225 ; Boundaries, 225, 226 ; Jurisdic tion, 226 ; General Aspect, 226, 227 ; River System, 227-233 ; Alluvium and Diluvium, 233 ; Lakes and Marshes, 233, 234 ; River Traffic, 234, 235 ; Boats, 235 ; Irrigation, 235 ; Fisheries, 235, 236; Land Reclamation and Marsh Products, 236, 237 ; Drainage and Minerals, 237 ; Ferce Naturm, 237, 238; Population — Early Estimates, 238, 239 ; Census of 1872, 239-241 ; Class ification according to Sex, Age, &c, 242, 243; Partial Census of 1874, 243; Ethnical Division, 244-246 ; Castes, 246-255 ; Hindus not recognising Caste, 255 ; Muhammadan Classes, 255 ; Religious Divisions of the People, 255-257; Towns and Villages, 257-265 ; Chhaprd, 258, 259 ; Revel ganj, 259-261 ; other Towns, 261-265 > Village Indigenous Agency, 265-268 ; Emigration, 268, 269 ; Material Con dition of the People — Dress, Dwellings, Food, &c, 269-274 ; Agriculture — Rice and other Cereals, 274-276 ; Green Crops and Fibres, 276-279 ; Miscellaneous Crops, 279-282 ; Indigo Cultivation, 282-287; Opium, 287-292; Cultivated Area — Out-turn of Crops,&c, 292-294 ; Condition of the Peasantry, 294, 295 ; Domestic Animals, 295, 296; Agricultural Implements, 296 ; Wages and Prices, 296-298 ; Weights and Measures, 298, 299 ; Landless Day- Labourers and Spare Land, 299, 300 ; Tenures of Land, 300, 301 ; Rates of Rent, 301-304; Manure and Irrigation, 305 ; Natural Calamities — Blights and Floods, 305-307; Embankments, 307- 310; Droughts, 310; The Famine of 1866, 310-312 ; The Famine of 1874, 312-315 ; Famine Warnings, 315 ; Muhammadan Landholders, 315, 316 ; Roads and Means of Communication, 316, 317; Manufactures, 317-320; Dyes, 320-323 ; Trade, 323-325 ; Re velganj Trade, 325, 326; Trade Routes Saran District— Continued. and Ancient Trade of the District, 326, 327 ; River Trade, 327-334 ; Mines and Quarries, 334 ; Capital and Interest, 335 ; Institutions and Socie ties, 335-337 ; Incomes and Income- Tax, 337 ; Administrative History, 337, 338 ; Revenue and Expenditure, with Balance Sheets for 179495, 1850-51, and 1870-71, 338-342; Land Revenue, 342, 343 ; Civil and Criminal Courts, 343 ; Rent Law, 343, 344 ; Police Statistics, 344-346 ; Criminal Statistics, 346, 347 ; Jail Statistics, 347-349 ; Educational Statistics, 349- 353 ; Postal Statistics, 353, 354 ; Ad ministrative Divisions, 354, 355 ; Fiscal Divisions, 355-361 ; Climate, Temper ature, and Rainfall, 361,362; Diseases, 362, 363 ; Cattle Diseases, 363 ; Indi genous Drugs, 363-366 ; Charitable Dispensaries, 366-368 ; Mortuary Sta tistics, 368; the Hatwd Family,368-37i. Sarawak caste in Sdran, 248. Sdssaram, mart in Sdran, 332. Sdtank, village in Sdran, 353. Sattar ghat, mart in Sdran, 235. Sayyid Ahmad, leader of the Wahdbi sect in India, 64. Sayyids, a class of Muhammadans, in Patnd, 52. Schools. See Educational Statistics. Semdria, village in Sdran, 257, 258. Seroghaird, village in Sdran, 257. Sewan sub-division, Sdran, 226, 240, 241, 354, 355- Sewan municipality, thdnd, and mart, Sdran, 240, 241, 293, 332, 344, 345, 353. Sex, Population according to, Patnd, 36 ; Sdran, 240, 242, 243. Shdh Jahdnpur, pargand in Patnd, 208. Shdh Makhdum's tomb at Behar, 76. Shahpur Manir, pargand in Sdran, 360. Shahpur Sutihar, village in Sdran, 258. Shaikhpurd, village in Sdran, 359. Shaikhs, a class of Muhammadans, in Patnd, 52. Shams-ud-din-pur, village in Sdran, 258. Sherpur, village in Patnd, 90. Shiah sect of Muhammadans, Patnd, 60- 62. Sildo, mart in Patnd, 83. Sipdh, pargand in Sdran, 304, 360, 361. Sisai, village in Sdran, 258. Siswan, mart in Saran, 235, 332. Sitaldsthdn, a temple sacred to the god dess of small-pox, 41. Sitalpur, village in Sdran, 232, 233, 353. Sitalpur, village in Sdran, 258. 382 INDEX TO PATNA AND SARAN. Sivas, sect of Hindus, Patnd, 55, 56. Size of holdings. See Condition of Cul tivators. Slavery in Patnd, 123, 124. Small-pox in Patnd, 212. Snake -bite, Deaths from. See Deaths. Snakes. See Reptiles. Soil, Patnd, 18, 98 ; Sdran, 319. Son canal, 24. Son river, 23. Sonpur in Sdran, 262 ; Fair and Race Meeting at, 262, 333. Sonpur kheso, village in Sdran, 258. Sonrarhi, village in Sdran, 258. Spare Land. See Land. Sripur, Indigo factory at, 286. Sub-divisional administration. See Ad ministrative. Sugar, Patna, Trade in, 26, 158, 159, 164; Sdran, manufacture of, 263, 318, 319 ; trade in, 323, 325, 328, 334. ( Sugar-cane, Cultivation of, in Sdran, 282, Sumahutd, village in Saran, 257. Sundi nadi in Saran, 227, 231. Sunni, sect of Muhammadans, Patna, 62, 63. Swamps. See Marshes. Tdjpur, thdnd in Saran, 355. Tdntis, or weavers, in Patnd, 48, 49. Tax, Income. See Incomes, &c. Telldti, village in Saran, 353. Temperature, Patnd, 210 ; Sdran, 361. Temple, School of Medicine, The, in Patna, 220. Tengrdhi Rdmpur, village in Sdran, 257. Tenures of Land. See Land Tenures. Thdnds. See Police Circles. Thdwah, village in Sdran, 361. Tildrha, pargand in Patnd, 208. Tillage, Patnd — Staple Harvests, 107-109; Rice Crops, 109-111 ; other Cereals, III, 112; Green Crops and Vegetables, 112, 113; Fibres, 113, 114; Miscel laneous Crops, 114, 115; Area, Out turn of Crops, &c, 115-117; Agricul tural Implements, 118, 119; Manures, 128, 129 ; Irrigation and Rotation of Crops, 129, 130: Sdran, Rice Cultiva tion, 274-276 ; other Cereals and Green Crops, 276, 277 ; Fibres, 277-279 ; Miscellaneous Crops, Pan, Potato, To bacco, Sugar-cane, 279-282 ; Indigo, 282-287 ; Opium, 287-292 ; Cultivated Area, Out-turn of Crops, &c, 292-294; Implements of Tillage, 296 ; Manure and Irrigation, 305. Tilpa, village in Sdran, 357. Tobacco, Patnd, import of, 26 : Sdran, cultivation of, 280-282 ; trade in, 328. Towns, Patnd, 65-90 ; Sdran, 257-265. Trade. See Commerce. Trade, Ancient, of Sdran, 326, 327. Trade Routes, Sdran, 326. U Usri, village in Saran, 258. V Vaccination in Sdran, 362. Vagabond castes in Patnd, 49. Vaishnavs, sect of Hindus, Patnd, 55, 56; Sdran, 255. Varieties of Rice. See Rice. Vegetables of Patnd, 112, 113. Villages, Number of, Patna, 35 ; Sdran, 241, 257. Village Officials and Institutions, Patnd, 91-98, 117; Saran, 265-268. Vital Statistics, Patnd, 212, 213 ; Sdran, 368. Village Watch, or Rural Police. See Chaukiddrs. W Wages and Prices, Patnd, 1 19 122; Sdran, 270. Wahdbis in Patna, 63, 64 ; in Sdran, 257. Waste Land. See Land (Spare). Weaving castes in Patna, 48, 49. Weights and Measures, Patna, 122, 123; Saran, 298, 299. Wild Animals. See Fera? Natures. Wild Beasts, loss of Life by. See Deaths. Zaminddri, or Military Brdhmans in Patna. See Bdbhans. Zavitnddrs in Sdran, 267, 268.