Yale University Library 39002026643784 YALE UNIVERSITY ART LIBRARY Copyright, 1915 The American Architect New York THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS American Churches VOLUME I A Series of Authoritative Articles on Designing, Planning, Heating, Ventilating, Lighting and General Equipment of Churches as Demonstrated by the Best Practice in the United States WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY Ralph Adams Cram, litt.d., f.a.la., f.r.g.s. Senior Professor of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology • Honorary Corresponding Member, Royal Institute of British Architects To Which Is Added More Than 200 Full Page and Text Illustrations of Recently Constructed American Churches NEW YORK THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT ARCHITECTURAL BOOK PUBLISHING C? 31 ERST TWELFTH STREET HEW YORK. Among Architects Whose Work in Church Design is Illustrated in this Volume are the Following Henry Vaughan Charles C Haight Cram, Goodhue & Ferguson (Boston Office) Allen & Collens Cram & Ferguson, Boston Edward Pearce Casey John William Donohue Eckel & Boschen Elmer Grey William C. Hays Howells & Stokes Myron Hunt Edgar A. Matthews Maginnis, Walsh & Sullivan Nelson & Van Wagenen Julius A. Schweinfurth A. Durant Sneden James E. Ware & Son Watson & Huckel OCT 2 2 1920 1 6 "-- 8 Among Contributors to Text in this Volume are the Following Ralph Adams Cram, Litt.D., F.A.LA., F.R.G.S., Senior Professor of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Tech nology. Honorary Corresponding Member Royal Institute of British Architects William H. Goodyear, M.A. Curator of the Department of Fine Arts, Brooklyn Institute Museum Corresponding Member American Institute of Architects, etc., etc. The Rev. Robert Ellis Jones, S.T.D. Canon, Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York Professor Wallace C. Sabine, Harvard University D. D. Kimball, President American Society Heating and Ventilating Engineers. Member New York State Committee on Ventilation F. A. Pattison, A.S.M.E., A.I.E.E. Illuminating Engineer THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS PREFACE IF, in the year 1885 or thereabouts, one had ventured to predict that in twenty-five years the architectural magazines would be printing special issues devoted wholly to contemporary ecclesiastical architecture, he would have been considered a fit subject de lunatico inquirendo. At that time the parlous state of architecture was nowhere more acutely manifest than in church building : the Colonial and Jeffersonian traditions were both gone and it was the fashion then to embellish the interiors of the examples of the latter mode with "aesthetic" stenciling in tertiary colours and sunflower patterns, and to paint those of the former, three shades of olive green without, while filling their windows with preposterous stained glass. The fine Upjohn impulse was still operative through such sincere and able practi tioners as Renwick, Haight and Congdon, but it had just received its death blow at the hands of Richardson who, in Trinity and the "Brattle Square" churches in Boston had promulgated a new style as vigorous and compelling as it was alien and evanescent. Generally speaking, the Episcopal Church still adhered to the Victorian Gothic propaganda, though her sudden advance in numbers, wealth and power had only just begun and her activi ties were therefore not widespread. The Protestant denominations also were hardly more than holding their own, but whatever they did was pretty gener ally along the inadequate lines of Rich ardson's immediate successors, while the Roman Church, hardly as yet touched by the flood of immigration that was to raise her numerically to the first place, was just at the start of her career of building multitudes of the very worst religious structures ever conceived by man. In the same year, 1885, evolutionary philosophy and the "religion of science" were at their climax: everywhere one heard reports that historic Christianity and dogmatic religion were doomed and that they could hardly last out the cen tury. Altogether the future of ecclesi astical architecture seemed black indeed, here in America, and this dubious pros pect was only intensified as soon as men began coming back from Paris where the Ecole des Beaux Arts knew nothing of it save as an archasological exercise, and the new architectural foundations at various technical schools and colleges fol lowed suit. It was impossible to study church build ing or acquire any knowledge of the prin ciples of religious expression through art, in any of the schools, and in few of the architects' offices. In England, alone, was there any vitality in the art, but there, thanks to the Catholic revival, it was in tense: Scott, Pierson, Bodley, Garner, with scores of others, and with Bentley, Sedding, Paley, Stokes, Wilson soon to follow, gave a new life to the art, and for a generation it followed a course of vigor ous development that almost rivalled the unique record of the English Middle Ages. The question was: would it come over-seas? had it as a foundation a spiritual vitality in the Church itself that would perpetuate it there and, crossing the ocean, do battle with the dominant secularism, the stolid Protestantism, the crescent agnosticism and, victorious, bring into being a new era and a regen erated art? There does not seem to be much ques tion as to the answer. Twenty-five years have seen a sea-change that staggers the understanding. In the same period America has developed a domestic archi tecture that, whatever its forms of ex pression (and they are legion) is strik ing in its beauty and distinction: a com mercial architecture that is logical and distinguished, a public architecture of splendid culture, refinement and nobility, but not one of these really quite equals what has been done in church building. Wherever you go, whatever "household of faith" you consider, you find an aston ishingly high level of excellence, while the ever increasing number of new churches casts an humourous light on the smug predictions of an imminent end of formal Christianity. Naturally enough, the Episcopal Church has taken the lead, for dog matically, spiritually and historically she was bound to the tradition of noble art: close on her heels follows now Presby terianism, demanding and getting an art as rich and Catholic as that of Anglican ism: now at last Rome follows suit and here and there is actually breaking away from the appalling precedent of the last decade of the last century. Amongst the other denominations there are not a few sporadic cases of a recovery of true art, but Congregationalism, whether Trini tarian or Unitarian, is not very active to day and so builds comparatively little, while Methodists and Baptists are as a whole content with the lower standards of a past generation. The Swedenborgi- ans almost invariably build well, in spite of their small numbers; the Christian Scientists almost invariably ill in spite of their wealth : on the whole, however, one can say that the major part of the out put, particularly in the North from Maine to Minnesota, and on the Pacific coast as well, is of a degree of excellence, significance and distinction that is inex plicable except on the assumption that formal, dogmatic Christianity has taken on a new lease of life that is so spiritually efficient and so crescent in its nature that it has forced for itself a new natural ex- pression that almost equals that of the great Middle Ages. Stylistically there appear to be three parallel lines of development, English Gothic, Lombard and Colonial : all are be ing treated with great suppleness, in dividuality and adaptability, without archaeological affectation, but also with out that crass individualism that destroys style and hampers expression. The first is followed almost exclusively both by the Episcopal Church and the Presbyterians, the second by the Roman Church, the third by Congregationalists. Notable in stances occur frequently of Roman Cath olic Gothic and Presbyterian Lombard, but Colonial meeting houses, other than Congregational or Unitarian, are rare, while modern classic seems practically confined to the Christian Scientists, with occasional cases in the Roman Church. The recovery of sound Colonial princi ples during the last decade is very not able : when first it came again into fashion it was shockingly mishandled, but it has been subjected to the most careful and de voted study; almost every existing ex ample has been noted, measured and re corded, and now it is being treated with a refinement and penetration that have most notable results. A generation ago, Gothic was already established on sound lines in America, while in England it had actually been re-created and made as liv ing and organic as in the Middle Ages. Since then the development, which is no less than marvelous, has been in degree rather than in kind, and as the fire seems to be dying away in the English "Estab lishment" it is being taken over by the Roman Church in Great Britain and the Episcopalians and Presbyterians in America. Lombard is an entirely new affair. In England it appeared closely associated with Byzantine, though natur ally enough it never achieved any popu larity as it was recognized as alien to British blood, temper and tradition. In America the case is different since the nation is no longer even predominantly Anglo-Saxon, and handled as it has been, with striking perception and delicacy, it has already produced many works of rather unusual beauty. Whoever is working, and whatever the style, we find now a degree of apprecia tion of fundamentals, a distrust of mere ornamental details as sufficient in them selves, a devotion to honest construction, a general grasp of the problem as an organic whole, that argue well for an im mediate future of distinguished accom plishment. The schools still very largely disregard the whole subject, but the re markable work of the last twenty-five years has been produced without their aid and in the meantime a great number of able young men have been trained in the offices of the producing architects, so there need be no fear that the work so well begun will languish, or that there will be any falling off in the next genera tion from the high standards established by the last. Ralph Adams Ceam. iV 3fM ¦j:Mm i -: £&'* '"' ' m y y W i4i ^i m Hrri jg flwv -> L fJ ! r REREDOS, ST. MARKS CHURCH, FRANKFORD, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Modern Church Architecture and Medieval Refinements By WILLIAM H. GOODYEAR, M.A. Hon. Member Society of Architects, Rome; Hon. Member of Edinburgh Architectural Association; Hon. Member Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Milan; Hon. Member Royal Academy of Venice; Corresponding Member American Institute of Architects. THE elementary conditions of the ordinary mason's art naturally in volve the use of rectangular forms and, consequently, of strictly rec tilinear and strictly perpendicular con struction. According to the orthodox modern practice and according to the orthodox modern theory of what ought to have been good practice in other periods, any departure from the rect angle, the straight line, or the true per pendicular, in building, is, therefore, presumably due to accident, to careless ness, to inefficiency, or to natural and inevitable human fallibility where minute measurements are concerned. From the same point of view equal dimensions, equidistant measurements and corre sponding measurements, for correspond ing and repeated features of any indi vidual part of any individual building, are presumed to be the normal rule. In fact any other practice would create very serious difficulties for the draughtsmen of a modern architect's office, as they are trained at present. Wherever the profession of building is distinct from the profession of architec ture, and wherever the former profession simply carries out what the latter pro fession has drawn out for it on paper, the sciences of geometry and of mathematics, as applied to architecture, appear to be entrenched in a fortress from which it is very difficult to expel them. The para dox of the theory of architectural refine ments is that nothing should be exactly where it is presumed to be and that the cultivated eye is charmed by the mystifi cation resulting from unforeseen and unrealized displacements which set at defiance those formulas of geometry and mathematics which are, notwithstanding, apparently followed and employed. This paradox appears to be so close to non sense or to involve such great difficul ties for the modern architect, if it is not nonsense, that the best preface to our sub ject is a series of quotations from several of the most renowned authorities on the architecture of the Middle Ages. In Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionary, we find, under the title of "Trait" the following passage apropos of certain distortions and asymmetric arrangements in the plan of the Cathedral of St. Denis: "These refinements (delicatesses) appear strange to us nowadays, and instead of search ing out their meaning or verifying their effects we prefer to attribute these 'defects of plan ning' to the ignorance of these ancient artists, in spite of the fact that we are ready to marvel the next day, at no less important irregulari ties as noticed in the monuments of Greek An tiquity, irregularities which are the result of optical considerations (besoin de I'ozil) and of a very delicate appreciation of perspective ef fect. . . . Such a method required, it is true, a very complete knowledge of geometry, not only on the part of the master mason, but also on the part of the workmen . . . but it will probably not be suggested that a knowl edge which was pushed so far by the master, and which was so easily understood by his as sistants, has ever been an indication of igno rance or of barbarism." The above quotation gains additional significance when we add to it another from the pen of Auguste Choisy who is known to have contributed much mate rial, in his earlier years, to Viollet-le- Duc's Dictionary. The passage which fol- AMERICAN CHURCHES lows here is connected with a description of certain arrangements, designed for perspective illusion which are mentioned as occurring in specified churches: "These irregularities are visibly intentional. There are others which must be charged to the account of builders' errors, but if we consider the original and almost subtle spirit of the Gothic architects we shall be persuaded that there was design more frequently than negli- side the arrangements made on the right—this rather narrow rule— plays a very secondary role in the Middle Ages. On this head, as on so many others, the point of view of the Gothic builders was that of the Greeks. Asymmetry appears acceptable as soon as an evident reason justifies it. If an edifice is placed in an en closure, the plan follows that of the enclosure. Two spires are erected successively, architec ture has progressed meantime and all its im provements are accepted in the new construc- FIG. 1. The Temple Church, London, looking toward the choir. This view shows the widening refinement, by six plumb lines. All the piers lean out uniformly, to the same amount, with inclinations in straight lines which start from the tops of the pedestals. These are perpendicular. The inclinations are 4 inches to a side, in a height of 15 feet to the capitals, including the perpendicular pedestals. On the extreme right and left of the picture are seen portions of the pilasters which flank the opening into the adjacent circular church, of earlier period. These are perpendicular. Photographed by the writer, for the Brooklyn Museum, in 1914. gence."* "Asymmetries — Architects who analyzed with this refinement the play of perspective! must have had a poor opinion of those symmetric arrangements which are upset by perspective and which the play of light and shade is always complicating. The law of symmetry, as we now understand it, and which consists in reproducing on the left *Several paragraphs about the mediaeval use of the entasis in spires and the consideration of optical ef fects in the profile of mouldings are omitted here. fAs shown by the instances of perspective illusion previously cited. tion, in spite of the resulting contrast. Gener ally speaking the architects of the Middle Ages avoid formal regularity. If they admit a sym metrical effect in the total result, they know how to avoid monotony by details which are in finitely diversified. Notre-Dame has on its facade three portals erected at one time; from left to right only the effects of mass are bal anced, while each one has a character of its own. These differences give a charming variety to the composition; a feeling of sympathy at taches us to these works in which the designer has disdained the effect of a set pattern, in 2 AMERICAN CHURCHES which each part has cost a separate study and has had an individual treatment; in place of symmetry we have balance and the unity of impression does not suffer."* I shall supplement these quotations by another from a more erratic and fre quently misleading critic, viz., John Rus- kin, who has, however, redeemed many other mistakes, by a marvellously apt and intelligent discussion of the subject of mediaeval architectural asymmetry. Mr. Ruskin speaks of "Accidental carelessness of measurement or of execution being mingled indistinguishably with the purposed departures from symmetrical regularity and the luxuriousness of perpetually variable fancy. . . . How great, how fre quent they are, and how brightly the severity of architectural law is relieved by their grace and suddenness, has not, I think, been enough observed; still less the unequal measurements of even important features professing to be ab solutely symmetrical." After some pages of instances he goes on: "I imagine I have given instances enough, though I could multiply them indefinitely, to prove that these variations are not mere blun ders or carelessness, but the result of a fixed scorn, if not dislike, of accuracy in measure ments ; and, in most cases, I believe, of a deter mined resolution to work out an effective sym metry of variations as subtle as those of Nature."f These various quotations point to a general opinion on the part of distinguished au thorities, and possibly on the part of a certain portion of the cultivated public, that there is a difference between modern copies of mediaeval work and the ancient originals which is not wholly to the ad vantage of the modern church. The existence of such differ ences has been materially ac cented by a series of measure ments and of photographically verified observations which I have carried out on behalf of the Brooklyn Museum.J In modern church architecture there is a certain smugness of mechanical perfection and of formal regularity which contrasts unfavorably with the free-hand design of the old work. The object of this chap ter is, therefore, to enquire whether there is a possibility of the practical appli cation to modern churches of any or some of the refinements which have been recently found in those of the mediaeval period. It is evident that any satisfactory dis cussion of such a subject must treat the topic of refinements as part of a general and larger theme in which other virtues of the best mediaeval churches are in cluded, and in which the sympathetic rela tion of special individual refinements to these general virtues is considered. This again calls for an exposition of the condi tions under which these virtues were de veloped and for a consideration of the question as to how far these virtues may be revived under wholly different condi tions. Thus, in considering how the monoto nous effects of formalism may be avoided in modern churches we have to insist, first, on the absence in modern times of JSee the American Architect, Aug. 4th, Sept. 8th, Oct. 27th, Dec. 1st, 1909; Jan. 26th, March 26th, 1910. *These quotations are translations from the Histoire de V Architecture, Vol. II, pp. 410, 411, 412. fSeven Lamps of Architecture. The Lamp of Life. PIG. 2. CATHEDRAL OF PRATO. SOUTH WALL. Asymmetry in arcades. From left to right the arcade widths are 9 33 9.40, 10.22, 9.68 (door), 12.17, 12.11, 12.34, 8.85 (door), 9.46. The arcades rise in height 0.40 and the capitals lower in height 0.35. Measures in foot decimals. Brooklyn Institute Museum Survey Photograph. AMERICAN CHURCHES many of the conditions which formerly counteracted such formalism. For in stance, throughout the Early Chris tian and Romanesque periods in Italy, churches were frequently built with many heterogeneous materials from ancient ruins. This element of picturesque variety, which counts for a good deal in the Pisa Cathedral, for instance, disap peared in Italy about the 13th Century. It certainly could not be invoked now. Neither could many other unpremeditated irregularities of a different character, which give much charm to mediaeval building, be repro duced by a less ingenuous and more self-con scious period like our own. Again, throughout the Romanesque and Gothic periods it was the rule that the individual stone carver cre ated his own de signs in the matter of capitals and other sculptured details. Thus the capitals of Rheims Cathedral or of the Doge's Palace at Venice were produced under conditions which cannot be revived in days when the original designs for detail are prepared in an architect's office. Even if these de signs be individually varied and the repe tition of one formula be avoided, the fact that the carver is working from a design which he did not originate, deprives his work of the swing of independent initia tive and of the impromptu effectiveness of the old work. The conditions which Choisy so aptly describes and which illustrate the medi aeval willing toleration and grateful acceptance of departures from formal symmetry are all obviously lacking in modern work. To dwell on this phase of Fig. 3. STA. MARIA NOVELLA, FLORENCE. The bays, from entrance to transept, measure as follows • 37.60, 38.70, 40.80, 35.35, 27.60, 27.80. Quoted as an instance of perspective illusion by Choisy, Histoire de V Architecture Vol. II., p. 410. Measures in foot decimals. Brooklyn Institute Museum Survey Photograph. the matter for a moment longer we might develop it by remembering how many in teresting variations of detail are due to the length of time during which a given cathedral was in process of construction and to the fact that the evolution of each successive mediaeval style involved changes of detail according to the se quence of time. In both Romanesque and Gothic there was a gradual movement from the simple to the ornate and from the ornate to the complex. Thus the fashions of window tracery, for instance, were changing within periods of ten or fifteen years and from this cause alone there might be endless variety in the window tracery of a single building. Reducing these various facts to a single statement, they all converge to the free initia tive which was ex ercised by the me diaeval artisans. Various refine ments were fre quently practiced and were undoubt edly of great bene fit to the total re sult, but this re sult starts with the natural variations of mediaeval detail and with the picturesque effects which naturally followed the absence of any prejudice in favor of formal symmetry. These variations were, therefore, the re sult of the social and economic conditions which distinguish the Middle Age from the modern time. It was also these condi tions which produced the refinements or which especially favored their develop ment. The training of the individual mason certainly predisposed him to understand and adopt the instructions as to purposed deviations from normal regu larity which might be given him by the master mason. This is not the case AMERICAN CHURCHES now. On the contrary, the training of the modern mason is of a character to preju dice him against any departure from rigid geometrical and mathematical precision. All these reflections point to the con clusion that any modern effort to revive such architectural refinements as were practiced in the Middle Ages must invert the state of things as they then existed. We must begin with the ultimate result, without going through the in termediate stages of evolution ary process and we must begin with the architect instead of beginning with the mason. The simple fact that many old churches and cathedrals have no refinements and that, gen erally speaking, the churches which have them in the most varied combination were the more costly, the more impor tant and the more distin guished (which is certainly true of Italy) shows that the refinements were the culmina tion of a general condition of excellence of which the main condition was simply the ab sence of methods which pro duced formal symmetry and the absence of any theory that such symmetry was desirable. With this conservative pref ace we may point out an ele mentary practical advantage . to be obtained in modern work by a modern study of this sub ject on the part of practicing architects. In so far as such architects desire to make their work more interesting and so far as they desire to be free from the set formulas which are sometimes wrongly sup posed to be the distinguishing feature of historic styles, it is evident that the knowledge of what was consciously done in mediaeval work to avoid the appearance of monotonous formalism may be of great service to them. Without even striving to copy any mediaeval form of refinement they may still work for results in the same direc tion. It follows that the first practical value of the new point of view to modern archi tects must be the opportunity to study the matter for themselves and to develop from that study such independent initia tive as their own temperament may prompt, inspired by the confidence that they are not violating tradition in depart- FIG. 4. The south side of the nave at Chichester, looking toward the choir. This view shows the S-shaped curve in plan and also the widening refinement. The maximum deflection of the concave part of the attenuated S is about 8 inches. The optical effect, as seen at the triforium string-course, is that of a rising curve in elevation near the entrance (on the right), where the curve is convex in plan, and this reverses to the effect of a descending curve in eleva tion about half way down the nave where the curve reverses to concave in plan. These optical effects are exactly reversed below the level of the camera, as seen in the bases of the piers. The widening refinement is shown by three plumb-lines. The vaulting- shafts appear to be inclined in straight lines, from the pavement up. The maximum outward inclination is from 4 to 6 inches to a side in about 44 feet (to the vaulting-shaft capitals), but the inclination disappears at the crossing and diminishes near the west entrance. The piers engaged in the west entrance wall are also inclined 2 inches to a side ; a remarkable and rather unusual proof of constructive purpose. Photographed by the writer, for the Brooklyn Museum, in 1914. AMERICAN CHURCHES ing from mathematical and geometrical symmetry but that they are really faith ful to it. For if any one thing strikes the observer in this subject more than an- FIG. 5. PLAN OF S. PIETRO, TOSCANELLA. A predetermined asymmetric plan. The two sides of the projected central facade tally in measure to 0.20. The meas ures for recession of the facade wings tally within 0.10. The recession of the wings is 0.80 (left) and 0.70 (right). The nave widens in plan 5 feet and the choir narrows in plan 4 70 The widths of the aisles on opposite sides of the church tallv within 0.30 at the entrance and they tally within 0.40 at the choir. The aisles narrow to the choir 1.70 (left) and 1 60 (right) with error of only 0.10. The third bays are 2 feet wider than the first or second. The fourth, fifth and sixth pairs of bavs are uniformly narrower than the third. The allow-ance o'f 0.30 for error in corresponding spaces is only exceeded in one instance (at the entrance), and this excess may not be due to error. The choir is deflected in plan, as regards the nave, without exterior deflection, and this deflec tion therefore cannot be ascribed to irregularity of site nor can it be ascribed to symbolism, as the church has no cross form This deflection cannot be ascribed to errors due to screening off the choir before building the nave, because the outer walls are straight. Moreover, the apse is decentered 2 feet to the right when the choir alone is considered and with out reference to the nave. Measures in foot decimals. Brooklyn Institute Museum Survey. other it is the infinite variety of modifi cation which appears in the individual application of any given category of medi aeval refinement. We may next enquire what these cate gories are. In the Italian Romanesque, predetermined variations in the spacing of exterior arcading are quite frequent, especially where Pisan influence is found. Such variations are also common in the Venetian palaces which show Byzantine influence, as Mr. Ruskin long since demon strated. The cold and tedious formalism of modern Romanesque exterior arcading is very obvious and may be instanced by St. Bartholomew's in New York or the Yale College Chapel in New Haven. In interior constructive arcading the same predetermined variations are much more frequently found, both in elevation and in plan. They are occasionally con nected with schemes of arrangement which indicate that an effect of perspec tive illusion in the direction of the choir was considered. They are not at all con fined to Pisan Romanesque but they also occur generally in the Italian Roman esque and to some extent in the Italian Gothic. They are undoubtedly found to a considerable extent in the Romanesque of Northern Europe. They are very uncommon in Northern Gothic, to my observation. As regards plan, the twist at the choir is a well-known feature of Northern Gothic and Romanesque. It has been widely ex plained, generally by sacristans, as hav ing had a symbolic meaning, but this explanation has been finally, and conclu sively, shown to be untenable by De Lasteyrie.* The effect of the twist is to increase perspective effect, to give a more picturesque vista, and, generally speak ing, to so decenter the church optically as to destroy the unpleasantly formal effects of parallel perspective when the spectator is in the middle of the church. The twisted choir plan is almost unknown in *La Deviation de I'axe des eglises, est elle sym- bolique? Paris, Librairie C Klincksieck, 1905. De Lasteyrie's conclusion is that the deflected choirs are due to the lack of modern surveying instruments. That this conclusion is also erroneous may be easily shown. I considered this subject in the R. I. B. A. Journal, Vol. XV, No. 1, pp. 26-30, 1907, "A Reply to Mr. Bil- son." Much evidence has also been obtained since the date of that publication, to the same effect. AMERICAN CHURCHES Italy, as regards the exterior walls, and is only found in churches under direct French influence. Italian churches occa sionally show an interior bend in plan, of the arcades at the choir, which does not include the exterior walls. The S-shaped plan is found in notable instances like Chichester, Notre-Dame, Fiesole, and St. Ouen at Rouen. It is also found in the Cathedral of Lyons. This reversing curve is probably the most beautiful and effec tive of all asymmetric plans. It should be remembered that all curves or bends in plan are seen by the eye as curves or bends in elevation* and that the amount of curve changes with the angle of vision. Thus in any given church any curve in plan produces an infinite variety of curves in elevation from any one *See my Greek Refinements, note 4, p. 75 (Yale Uni versity Press), with illustration of this fact by a photo graph of the interior of the dome of Columbia Uni versity Chapel. Fig. 46, p. 73. I FIG. 6. S. NICOLA, BAR! Showing the church as having an oblique axis which is 8.60 feet off the normal line at the apse. The nave widens 1.05. The fourth bays are the widest and the others diminish in either direction (diminution toward the choir of about 7 feet). The arches lower in height toward the choir, start ing from those at the entrance, 2.97 (left) and 2.36 (right). Measures in foot decimals. Brooklyn Institute Museum Survey. given and definite standpoint, according to the height to which the eye is directed. Moreover, the optical effect of any given curve in plan, when seen below the level of the eye, is opposed to the effect above the level of the eye.f Thus, the convex FIG. -7. S. NICOLA, BARI. The nave, photographed by the Brooklyn Museum Survey on the normal central axis, the camera being at right angles to the facade wall ; showing the optical effects of obliquities in plan to be effects of obliquity in elevation. These varying effects are complicated by the variation in the obliquity of plan in the transverse arches, which are shown by Fig. 6, but these transverse arcades are absolutely level. Fig. 8 shows that a directly contrary effect is produced when the obliquity of plan is below the level of the eye. curve in plan is seen by the eye, when looking down, as a concave curve in eleva tion ; but above the eye it appears to be a convex curve in elevation. Therefore any curve in plan produces an infinitely varied effect.^ The same philosophy holds of obliqui ties in plan which are constructed in straight lines. They are always trans lated by the eye into obliquities in eleva tion.! There are many churches in Italy fSee Greek Refinements as just quoted. JMr. Wm. L. Wollett, an architect of San Fran cisco, believes that the undulation and increased variety of lights and shadows were the main purpose of curva ture in plan and this explanation ought not to be over looked. There is much in its favor. || See "The Architectural Exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum" in the American Architect, Aug. 4, 1909. Note especially the captions of the illustrations and notes on the illustrations at the close of the article. AMERICAN CHURCHES FIG. S. NICOLA, BARI. Commercial photograph, showing the nave from the fagade gallery, and above the transverse arcades. This view proves that obliquites in plan below the level of the eye produce an exactly opposite effect to the one obtained when the obliquity in plan is above the level of the eye. Here the transverse arcades appear to rise in elevation toward the right ; whereas, in the preceding view of the same obliquity (Fig. 7), they appear to descend in elevation toward the right. This contrast proves that the spectator on the floor of a church nave sees two opposite effects in one and the same obliquity of plan — one effect in elevation below the level of the eye and an opposite effect in elevation above the level of the eye, both effects being produced at the same time and from the same standpoint. This view also shows that the effect of obliquity in elevatipn increases with the amount of pitch in the angle of vision, and that the effect therefore decreases (on the same plane) with the increase of distance from the observer. Thus the top of the second transverse arcade has less inclination in optical effect than the first, although reference to the plan will show that the obliquity in plan is really greater. with oblique ground plans, which appear very bizarre when laid out on paper. In actual vision these obliquities are wholly unnoticed, because they are translated by the eye into obliquities of elevation which would be normal in some other position of the spectator, as the result of perspec tive. The effect is simply to decentre the church, optically speaking, and to deceive the eye as to the standpoint of vision, thus producing an effect of vibration or of optical confusion. An obliquity in plan which deviates thirteen feet from the nor mal line is wholly invisible in the Cathe dral of Cremona.* The lines of interior arcading are very frequently out of parallel in mediaeval Italian churches, when the arcades are laid out in straight lines, and this is espe cially common in the oblique plans (in which the axis of the choir is not normal to the main central entrance). In these oblique plans the arcades generally diverge toward the choir. Arrange ments of arcading in which the arcades converge toward the choir are not com- *Plan in American Architect for Aug. 4, 1909, p. 42. 8 mon, but they occur, and in these latter cases the same arrangement generally holds for the outer walls. A dis taste for parallel lines ap pears in all these instances and it is remarkable what large variations in measure ment of the width between arcades or between walls, at the two ends of a church, are invisible, even after the facts have been measured and real ized. Constructive curves and bends in elevation appear to be rather uncommon in medi aeval work, probably because similar but much more varied results were more easily ob tained by deflections in plan. Gallery bends in elevation are found in Notre-Dame and in the Pisa Cathedral, but curves and bends in plan are much more frequent in the same Cathedrals. Curves in elevation are found in the Pisa Cathe dral and in St. Mark's at Venice. As regards vertical lines in interiors the Middle Age was addicted to lines of curva ture or to bends which have the effect of curvature. Wherever vertical curvature is constructed it must either occur as a bulge or else it must be obtained by a slight outward slope. This latter method was the one adopted, and for obvious reasons, as a bulging vertical curve is clumsy and has an effect of weakness. The same considerations which led the Greeks to avoid a bulging entasis are at stake. The vista in a church nave which employs vertical curvature is therefore very aptly to be compared to the vista between a pair of Greek Doric columns. The slight outward spread of the verticals is also frequently found to occur in slop ing lines which are straight from the pavement up. This is doubtless to be ex plained by a preference for a widening effect toward the springing of the vault ing arches, which gives an effect of spa ciousness to the upper part of the nave. Although this arrangement counteracts the converging lines of vertical perspect- AMERICAN CHURCHES ive, it also throws the vanishing point to an infinite distance and thus contributes to_ an effect of vertical height. The slight widening of the nave in the upward direc tion is occasionally found in timber-roofed churches in England, but to my knowl edge it does not so occur elsewhere. Such occasional practice in England must be due to a tradition borrowed from the Continent and there only applied to vaulted churches. The outward widen- FIG. 9. The nave at Lichfield, looking toward the choir. This view shows the bend in plan of the choir toward the north, as seen in the central rib of the vaulting ; and the widening refinement. The vaulting-shafts incline from the pavement up, with a bend near the arcade caps, which gives an effect of vertical curvature. The maximum inclination at the center of the nave is about 12 inches to a side, up to the top of the clerestory windows (about 46 feet), or about 10 inches up to the springing of the vaulting (about 38 feet). The inclinations diminish from the center and disappear in the crossing piers and in the piers next the west entrance. Thus, at the height of the clerestory there are resulting curves in plan, concave to the nave, which are practically invisible from the floor of the nave, but which are shown by Fig. 10. There appears to be no widening in the choir, which is of a later period (late 14th century). Photographed by the writer, for the Brooklyn Museum, in 1914. ing effect certainly originated in vaulted churches and is most easily understood by reference to them. The study of this ef fect will fail if it considers the verticals without reference to the arch which they support. The transition from the vertical to the arch which it supports is much more beautiful when this attenuated horseshoe form is employed. At all events, it is evident that this was the opinion of the mediaeval builder. The Italian mediaeval churches very generally con struct the pavement with an upward slope toward the choir and this practice also occurs in Northern Europe, for instance, at Chartres, where the pavement rises three feet seven inches be tween the west wall and the choir. The great difficulty of verifying the existence of such slopes by the eye, with out levelling, when one is looking for them or querying their existence, proves that they must have a consid erable illusive effect in in creasing effects of distance in the direction of the choir and this may, very prob ably, have been the motive of this practice. It is diffi cult to conceive how this method can be of much serv ice in churches which em ploy pews. Generally speak ing, pews are very fatal to the effect of a church. Perhaps the most daring and remarkable development of mediaeval refinement was the construction of facades with a forward inclination. The known instances are not numerous and they occur only in churches of the first rank. The Cathedrals of Peterborough, Paris, Fer rara, and Pisa, the churches of St. Mark's at Venice, of San Michele at Pavia and of San Ambrogio at Genoa (Renaissance period) are the 9 AMERICAN CHURCHES FIG. 10. LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. Curve in plan of the roof parapet, north side; about 15 inches deflection in a length of about 112 feet. This obvi ously constructive curve, which also appears on the south side, is connected with the construction of the interior widen ing refinement. See Fig. 9. Brooklyn Museum photograph, 1914. instances best known to me. There are some doubtful points about the facade of San Ambrogio at Milan, but I believe it to be a constructive case. A recent examina tion of Peterborough has convinced me that it is a good constructive case. The facades of Ferrara and San Am brogio at Genoa are the only ones among those quoted which lean forward in a straight line. The second story of St. Mark's facade is perpendicular and the lower story bends toward the perpen dicular. The facades of San Michele at Pavia and San Ambrogio at Milan both bend toward the perpendicular. The upper stories of the cathedral facades of Paris and of Pisa are perpendicular and the intervening stories diminish the in clination, as compared with the lower stories. The upper story of the Peter borough facade is nearly perpendicular. These facts are quoted to suggest that much care was taken in such cases to avoid accidental increase of inclination and consequent downfall. A close study, for instance, of the fagades at Paris and Pisa shows that they are absolutely stable from an engineering point of view. This also appears from the absence of move ment during so many centuries. It is probable that a wider knowledge as to the- use of refinements in mediaeval building will promote experiments in the same direction in modern churches. They will undoubtedly increase the ex pense of construction very considerably and it therefore appears that some edu cation of the cultivated public as to the advantage of such refinements must pre cede their use to any great extent by modern architects. 10 AMERICAN CHURCHES i* •* -„ *» <*k FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, OLD LYME, CONN. MR. ERNEST GREEN, ARCHITECT. 13 AMERICAN CHURCHES examples can naturally be found in the more important towns, where culture and intelligence made people appreciative. The style was perfected about 1830 in the large towns, and after that began to de cay, so that the later examples, except certain cases of the Greek revival, are often not worth notice. Many of the finest of the recorded examples have been burned or destroyed in the last genera tion, and this is particularly called to mind by the sad loss of the beautiful church at Lyme, Conn., last year; but many remain and many New England towns far from railroad stations to-day will richly repay a carriage or automobile pilgrimage to see its delicate steeple ris ing amid its equally delicate and charac teristic elms. And this brings us to the subject of our illustrations — the meeting-house of the First Church of Danbury, Conn. (See plates 21 to 31.) This church is new in itself, but old in its antecedents, both in the dignified his tory of the Church Society which it rep resents and the architectural style which it embodies. New and original as a whole, and built to correspond exactly to the needs of the congregation which it is to house, this church, nevertheless, is purely archeological in that only motifs and parts have been used in its make-up for which a prototype could be found in the best Colonial architecture. Not an exact prototype, perhaps, but a sentimental prototype at least in the manner of treat ing column and cornice and proportion. The steeple has been spoken of as of the Bulfinch type, perhaps because Bulfinch's best-known church that is still standing at Lancaster, Mass., has a tower which ends in a domical form. In his church, however, the tower is very short and thick and the dome large. In the Dan bury Church we have the spire of the ******* Oc^hr n#8 FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, OLD LYME, CONN. MR. ERNEST GREEN, ARCHITECT. 14 AMERICAN CHURCHES FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, OLD LYME, CONN. MR. ERNEST GREEN, ARCHITECT, most developed type. It refers itself most closely, perhaps, to the spire of the United Church of New Haven, designed by Ithiel Town, except that the Danbury spire is, upon comparison, more lofty and elon gated than his. The portico shows free-standing col umns, as in the church at Guilford, Conn., although at Guilford there are only four columns, while at Danbury there are eight grouped in pairs. The grouping of columns in this way is, perhaps, not quite archeological, but its effect in this case, combined with the grouping of the urns on the balustrade, gives a stateliness which the more naif arrangement of the early churches possibly missed. Upon entering the vestibule, through one of the three main doors, one finds that the interior is marked by the same distinguishing simplicity and faithful adherence' to tradition. The doors to the body of the church are mahogany, and these, with the star rail at either end of the vestibule, contrast charmingly with the dead white of the woodwork and plas ter walls. An accompanying illustration from this portion of the church shows how well the lighting fixtures harmonize with the old-time flavor of dignity and restraint. The first glance into the main body of the meeting-house reveals a striking com bination of white plaster and woodwork, relieved again by the mahogany pulpit and rail, and by the backs and ends of the pews. Throughout the large auditorium, which with the gallery seats nearly nine hundred people, there is a wealth of deli cate plaster modeling and wood carving. This is particularly marked in the organ and in the panels in the sides of the front, designed in a delicate open-work pattern to permit transmission of sound from the end pipes. It is in the organ particularly that the architects have had the fullest 15 AMERICAN CHURCHES OLD MEETING HOUSE, WEST ROXBUSRY, MASS. opportunity for carrying forward into new fields the spirit of the Colonist church builders. There were, of course, no precedents, since our Puritan fore fathers would have looked upon such a luxuriously appointed instrument as a manifestation of rank papistry. The cen tral portion of the tracery panels is re peated in the upper part of the rear wall, back of which is located the echo organ. Windows below and above the gallery serve to illuminate with great brilliancy this white interior. These windows are purely archeological, even to the extent of having imperfect, wavy glass for the small panes. Instead of filling the gallery entirely with pews, a single line of these extends around the three sides of the church, just below the outside aisle, and in front of this line the gallery is divided into boxes furnished with Windsor chairs, harmon izing in color with the mahogany trim mings. 16 AMERICAN CHURCHES One touch of modernity is the use of cast-iron colonettes to support the gallery of the interior, thereby getting more slen der supports, which interrupt the eye less than would be possible in wood. Other wise, the interior is as carefully studied archeologically as the outside. In fact, the gallery is inspired from the gallery of the old West Church in Boston, Mass., designed by Ascher Benjamin. Another modern touch and one which we trust will tend to longevity of this church, is that it has a modern heating apparatus, instead of depending, as our forefathers did, upon large stoves set on a wooden floor. There are no radiators in sight, of course, to mar the simplicity of the interior, for these have been placed in the space under the broad window sills. The latter are flat, with a white-painted iron grating let into them flush with the surface. There is the inevitable red carpet run ner for the aisles and the equally inevita ble red cushions and carpet-covered foot stools for the pews. Other concessions to the spirit of the age are the electric lights, and the accousticon, or system of pew telephones, for those members of the congregation who otherwise would be unable fully to hear and enjoy the service. OLD MEETING HOUSE, WEST ROXBURY, MASS. 17 AMERICAN CHURCHES OUT OF DOORS PULPIT, GRACE CHURCH, NEW YORK MR. W. W. RENWICK, ARCHITECT 18 AMERICAN CHURCHES CHURCH VENTILATION By D. D. KIMBALL PRESIDENT AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS. MEMBER NEW YORK STATE COMMISSION ON VENTILATION. "The Art of Ventilation was born too soon." Thus does Prof. C. E. A. Winslow begin his admirable paper on "The New Art of Ventilation."* DURING recent years there has been a vast amount of discus sion on the subject of ventila tion and voluminous papers have been written attacking the subject from all sides. Unfortunately the phase of the agitation which has received the greatest publicity has been that making sensa tional, ill-founded and unscientific attacks tending to destroy faith in ventilation generally. To the interested and careful observer or student the results of the best work and experimentation point to the confirmation of our faith in ventilation, and most assuredly so in connection with all auditoria. During this process, how ever, Prof. Winslow's remark, quoted above, has been amply justified, but the formerly accepted quantitative and quali tative standards of ventilation, far from being abandoned because of recent re search, are rather reinforced and re established. Peculiar as it may seem, the standards remain the same but the bases thereof have been changed absolutely. The old standards were based on the chemical quality of the air only. The new stand ards, while recognizing the desirability, and even the essentiality, of pure air, lay the greater stress on the physical prop erties of the air. Old standards were based on the carbonic acid and oxygen content of the air ; the new standards are based upon the requirements of tempera ture, humidity and air movement. And so it happened that the art of ven tilation, born too soon, was vulnerable, *See transactions of the Fifteenth International Con gress on Hygiene and Demography, held at Washing ton, D. C, September 23rd to 28th, 1912. and therefore subject to failure because its standards were ill-founded and incom plete. Nevertheless, ventilation in the past has accomplished much good. The art of ventilation is now given a proper basis, and, being complete, will be found to meet all requirements and be capable of proving its worth. The old standards of air quantities for ventilation were based upon a certain per missible proportion of carbon dioxide in the air of occupied spaces during the period of occupancy, on the dilution theory, the essence of which being that it was the province of ventilation to so dilute the air of the occupied space that the carbon dioxide could not exceed a cer tain proportion in the composition of the air of the room. Breathed air suffers certain chemical changes, the carbon dioxide being in creased and the oxygen being decreased, but the accumulation of carbon dioxide or the decrease of oxygen to a harmful ex tent in a church auditorium is an impossi bility. Leakage about doors and windows, and even through the walls and roof, will provide such a dilution of the air that the carbon dioxide cannot increase to an ex tent which even approaches the danger point. In outdoor air the carbon dioxide aver ages four parts in ten thousand and the oxygen about twenty-one per cent. In badly ventilated auditoria the carbon dioxide will rarely reach twenty parts in ten thousand and the oxygen will not fall below twenty per cent. In experimental work, subjects have been exposed to an atmosphere containing over two hundred parts of carbon dioxide in ten thousand and seventeen to eighteen per cent, of oxygen without ill effect so long as the temperature, humidity and air movement were properly regulated. However, no one contends that long-continued subjec- 19 AMERICAN CHURCHES tion to such conditions may not be harm ful. But it has been clearly demonstrated that proper temperature, humidity and air movement are the first essentials to proper ventilation. Eight parts carbonic acid per ten thou sand parts air have been generally V=10,000 N_G S— P in which PLAN NUMBER ONE SHOWING ARRANGE MENT OF MULTIPLE FRESH AIR AND VENT OPENINGS FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, BUFFALO, N. Y. (SEE PAGE 30) accepted by Engineers as .the proper standard of air quality for air in audi toria. With this standard as a basis the following simple formula has been used for determining the air volume per capita per minute which must be sup plied by the ventilating system. V = the cubic feet of fresh air required per hour, N = the number of persons in the room, G = the cubic feet of CO, given off per hour per person (usually taken as .6)^ s = the standard of purity of air to be maintained in the room, and P = the standard of purity of outside air, usually taken as 4) . With the desired standard of purity taken as 8 the formula would read N.6 V=10,000 g^ This, figured on the basis of a single individual, would give a resulting stand ard of air supply of 1500 cubic feet per hour. In practice eighteen hundred cubic feet has generally been regarded as the correct standard. It may be claimed by some that the spaciousness of a church auditorium makes such a rule inapplicable, but of what value is the air in the upper portion of a room from a ventilating standpoint? If it could be brought down into the occu pied space, or if the audience could be lifted into this upper strata of air, such a claim might be justified, but only then. The fact remains that this upper air does not become available for the purposes of ventilation. The following authorities are quoted on the volume of air required for ventilation in auditoria for systems operating on the dilution principle : Carpenter 1000 to 2000 cubic feet per hour Allen 2000 " " " " Fletcher 1200 to 1500 " " " " Harrington ....2000 " " " " Rietschel 2148 " " " " The average of the above is well above 2000 cubic feet per hour, which is approxi mately that which has been generally used, and it has been amply demonstrated that this volume of air makes possible satisfactory results in auditorium ventila tion. The first of the new standards of ven tilation, above mentioned, is temperature. While the standard for temperature rec ommended for auditoria has not been changed the seriousness of overheating is 20 AMERICAN CHURCHES now realized. Formerly this was re garded as a matter of discomfort only; now it is realized that in causing discom fort it disturbs certain physiological functions, often exceeding the capacity of adjustment of the vaso-motor system, promoting depression, lassitude, head ache, dizziness, and, in some cases, a rise in body temperature, which, if carried to extreme may develop symptoms of sun- PLAN NUMBER TWO, FIRST FLOOR- HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEM SECOND UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, WILKINSBURG, PA. MESSRS. INGHAM & BOYD, ARCHITECTS. stroke. Much less harm results from un- derheating than from overheating, and yet it is the former which is most notice able and which will arouse the most re sentment. More cold and serious illnesses result from an overheated, stuffy, humid atmosphere in an ill-ventilated room than from a cold room. The desirable temperature for audi toria, as stated by various authorities, is as follows : A. Morin ... .65 to 68 degrees W. N. Shaw .58 to 63 degrees J. W. Thomas. 65 degrees It is the opinion of the writer that 62 degrees to 66 degrees is the most de sirable standard; 62 de grees to prevail upon the entrance of the audi ence and 66 degrees to be the maximum tem perature attained dur ing the period of occu pancy. Assuming a tempera ture of 62 degrees upon the entrance of the audi ence it can be shown that only by the use of an efficient ventilation sys tem may the temperature of the room, when occu pied, be controlled or be kept within or near the maximum prescribed. One of the most serious elements in the heating and ventilating problem as applied to auditoria is the heat given off by the occupants. The heat given off by human beings at rest is variously stated as follows: Pettenkofer 400 Heat Units per hour Benedict & Milner 375 " Rubner 380 " Landois & Roseman .... 368 " Atwater & Benedict. ... 366 " Fliigge 495 " Wolpert 400 " Discrepancies arise from the variable ness of this factor of heat production. The heat produced in the body varies with DETAIL OF FRESH AIR INLETS UNDER PEWS. 21 AMERICAN CHURCHES the size of the body, the activity, the food consumed and the dress. 400 B.T.U. per hour (which is approximately the average of the above) is the generally accepted figure representing the hourly heat elimi nation from the human body at rest. Four hundred heat units will heat ap proximately 2000 cubic feet of air through a range of ten degrees. It is generally agreed that the temperature of the air entering a room by means of a ventilating PLAN NUMBER TWO, BASEMENT — HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEM SECOND UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH WILKINSBURG, PA. MESSRS. INGHAM & BOYD, ARCHITECTS 22 system may not be more than ten degrees less than the room temperature without causing discomfort or endangering the health of the occupants of the room. Thus is fixed, on a new basis, the standard of 2000 cubic feet per hour per occupant, or as frequently used, 30 cubic feet of air per minute per occupant. Based upon a temperature rise of five degrees in the ventilating air Shaw de termines that the air to be supplied should be 3000 cubic feet per occupant per minute. Evidently this calculation involved is based upon some other figure than 400 B.T.U. for the heat elimi nation from the human body. It may be urged that the cooling effect of the walls, windows and roof will offset a portion of this heat increment. Mani festly in mild weather, when ventilation is most needed, this is not the case. In cold weather the church must be warmed to not less than 62 degrees upon the en trance of the audience. The cooling effect of the walls and windows must be constantly counteracted by the heating system, else those sitting near the walls, windows and doors will become chilled be cause of air leakage and heat absorption, while those in the central por tion of the auditorium will in no case be relieved by the cooling effect of the walls, windows and doors. Or it may be said that , . the church is seldom used to its maximum capacity and thus the standard requirements for ventilation may be lowered. An offset to this exists in the fact that the ten degrees differen tial between the entering air and room temperatures were much better five de grees, as recommended by Shaw, Thomas DETAIL OF FRESH AIR SUP PLY APPARATUS AMERICAN CHURCHES and others, but this would require not less than fifty cubic feet of air per person per minute. Thirty cubic feet of air per person per minute has made possible entirely satisfactory results, with condi tions as they have been found to exist, and at reasonable installation and operating costs, both of which would be largely increased with fifty cubic feet of air per person per minute as the standard. As a matter of fact the heating effect of lights and occupants on the air supplied by the ventilating system, with thirty cubic feet of air per person per minute as the standard, will be found to equal fourteen to fif teen degrees in a well-filled auditorium. This involves a serious problem in the diffusion of the air to take up this heat increment and to prevent drafts or overheated and stagnant areas. This is equivalent to a fifty per cent, increase over the ten degree differential in temperatures above mentioned, and only skillful designing of the ventilat ing system will give satisfactory re sults. The adoption of the fifty cubic feet per person per minute standard will lessen this difficulty, but in view of the oft demonstrated fact that satisfac tory results can be obtained by proper designing and operation with thirty cubic feet of air per person per minute, the writer does not believe that this standard need be changed from thirty to fifty cubic feet of air per person per minute, or that the additional installation and operating costs are justified. Experience has demonstrated that a reduction in the air supply of the ventilating system and lessened satisfaction go hand in hand. Even though the maximum demand is made upon the ventilat ing system but rarely, if it fails to give satisfaction when the demand comes the system is put down once and for all as a complete failure. A properly designed system of church ventilation supplying and exhausting thirty cubic feet of air per occupant per minute should give satisfactory results, but a system handling a less volume of air, say twenty cubic feet of air per occu pant per minute, will surely involve diffi culties from overheating, cold drafts or stagnant areas. The second requirement of the new standard of ventilation relates to humidity. Admittedly there is little of agreement as to the exact l'A?yas efCB/nprKSJtd mrf % 'Jbfr P/m jearqto 'VSt--fcSS£tgf> 51C710H AA Scale %,; s:o- ¥la.h ot- Exhaust Tah Rooa\ DETAILS OF EXHAUST APPARATUS— NOTE, ESPECI ALLY, FAN FOUNDATIONS (SEE PAGE 31) SECOND UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, WILKINSBURG, PA. AMERICAN CHURCHES desirable standard of humidity, but there is a very general agreement that in ordi nary temperatures the relative humidity should not be less than thirty per cent. nor greater than sixty per cent. Witness the following authorities: Wolpert 40-60% Rubner 30-60% Oesperlen ...40-60% Riepzchel 30-40% Scherer 30-60% Richardson . . .40-60% Paul ..... 40-60% Shepherd 30-55% Rietschel 40-60% Brefflar 40-50% Smith 50-60% Only in cold weather will the relative humidity in a church, when warmed, be less than thirty per cent, before occu pancy. Moisture given off by the occu pants of the room will, except in ex tremely cold weather, shortly raise the humidity of the room above the minimum standard named. For this reason, and the further reason that subjection to properly warmed air of slightly less than thirty per cent, relative humidity for short periods can cause neither uncom fortable feelings nor harmful effect, arti ficial humidification of auditoria is not necessary. The effect of dry air is to produce a rapid evaporation of moisture from the surface of the skin, causing a feeling of coldness which can only be overcome by a higher room temperature. Excessively moist air, if of a low temperature, causes a feeling of coldness because of the rapid absorption of heat from the body by the moist air, while this moist air, if of a high temperature causes a feeling of heat and discomfort because it fails to take up, by the process of evaporation, the moisture from the pores of the skin, and in so do ing it fails to cool the body in failing to take up the latent heat of evaporation. Temperature and humidity are closely interlinked. A high temperature com bined with a high humidity is vastly more uncomfortable than a low temperature with high humidity. Unfortunately high temperature and high humidity are fre quently coincident in auditoria, both be ing principally due to the effect of the audience. The moisture given off by the human being at rest is stated by Thomas to be one-twelfth of a pound per hour and by 24 Milner and Benedict to be one-fourteenth to one-twelfth of a pound per hour and by others at approximately this same amount. In a properly ventilated audi torium this moisture cannot cause ex cessive humidity in the air of the room. Even in an unventilated church this mois ture will not, save in very mild weather, cause excessive humidity in the general air of the room, but, and herein lies the crux of the whole matter, without the in fluence of the ventilating system the heat and moisture given off from the bodies of the persons in the room remain within the immediate vicinity of the person, in the form of a blanket of hot moist air immediately surrounding the body, caus ing all of the discomfort which would ac company a general high room tempera ture with high humidity. In confirmation of these views refer ence may be made to Dr. Leonard Hill's experiments in which he placed subjects in a small closed chamber having no venti lation, keeping them therein until the in crease of carbon dioxide and the decrease of oxygen greatly exceeded that ever found in the air of an auditorium. The air became so bad that attempts of the subjects to light cigarettes were fruit less. The temperature and humidity with in the chamber became very high and movement of the air was lacking. The discomfort of the subjects became marked. Breathing of outside air through a tube produced no relief. The agitation of the air by means of electric fans produced instant relief which con tinued until the temperature and humid ity further increased. The result of this experiment has been confirmed by other investigators. Unless an ample movement of air of a proper temperature and humidity is assured the temperature and humidity of the air surrounding the body become ex cessive and a severe tax is imposed upon the delicate machinery by means of which the bodily temperature is regulated. This system governs the flow of the blood to the skin for the purpose of giving off such heat as becomes necessary to maintain an equable bodily temperature. If the brain or vital organs are robbed of their blood supply in this process, dullness, inatten- AMERICAN CHURCHES tion and discomfort inevitably result. Further, the overheated auditor, in pass ing from the hot room to the cold air out side, is rendered susceptible to chills and the danger of colds, bronchitis and other diseases of the respiratory system. It is most important to realize that the entire surface of the body demands proper atmospheric conditions for the main tenance of comfort and health. It may be said that, in effect, the entire surface of the body breathes and that it is far from sufficient to consider the respiratory system alone in the consideration of the ventilation problem. Thus we progress from the old views which merely required a dilution of the breathed air to the new standard which demands that we provide for all of those conditions which make for comfort and health, in doing which we evolve a process of body bathing with fresh air of proper temperature and humidity. The so-called "chimney effect" of bodily heat and vapor is altogether insufficient to prevent the formation of a hot, moist body aerial envelope. In fact, this "chim ney effect" of bodily heat and moisture, stated by Thomas to be equal to approxi mately one inch to two inches per second in air movement, is so slight as to be of no moment in the matter of a relief from op pressive atmospheric conditions or in de termining the type of the ventilating sys tem to be used. So slight, in fact, is this effect that the cooling effect of walls, win dows, doors and roof much more than off sets the alleged "chimney effect." For the removal of this envelope of hot moist air a definite air movement in the immediate vicinity of every occupant of the room becomes essential. This does not mean currents of air here and there in isolated sections of the room but a thor oughly diffused and reasonably constant movement of air in every portion of the occupied space of the room, not in the forms of drafts but in the form of a gentle motion of air throughout the occupied portion of the room, which, while accom plishing the purpose intended, is not sensible as moving air to the occupants of the room. The permissible velocity of air sur rounding the body is given as one and one-half feet to two feet per second by Boyd, two feet to three feet per second by Fletcher, and two feet to three feet per second by Parke. The author regards one and one-half feet per second as the desirable limit of this air movement, but if the ventilating air is properly diffused no such velocity of air movement is nec essary to give perfectly satisfactory re sults. In an upward or downward current ventilating system (as commonly used in theatres) the velocity of air movement based upon gross floor area rarely exceeds ten feet per minute. Although this air movement may seem slight it is sufficient to accomplish its purpose, but it must be positive, constant and cover the entire occupied area of the room. Such results can only be secured by means of an efficient ventilating system. Thirty cubic feet of air per occupant per minute, as specified above, as the standard of air supply for church venti lation is found in practice to be the mini mum which will maintain satisfactory air movement and then only when properly diffused or distributed. Brief reference only need be made to the subject of natural, or window, venti lation, for few of even its strongest advo cates would consider its application to auditoria. The windows cannot be opened without serious inconvenience to those sitting nearby, this being especially true in severe weather. It is impossible to maintain the temperature in an audi torium uniformly with open windows, and a proper diffusion of the entering air is impossible. Even clear story windows are subject to the same objections, for the cold air most frequently falls in very ob jectionable drafts on those sitting in the pews. In warm weather, when drafts and breezes are welcome, the windows should be freely used. The ideal church heating and ventilat ing system should be so designed as to entirely separate the heating and venti lating functions of the system. While this is generally advocated by ventilation authorities it seems especially desirable in church ventilation. The church presents very large areas of walls and windows, and large entrance 25 AMERICAN CHURCHES doors, the cooling effect of which is great. The high walls and large expanse of roof usually found in church buildings are suf ficient to cool large volumes of air which frequently will, unless proper care is exer cised in the design of the heating system, fall upon the audience as cold drafts. This should be prevented by means of a heating system so designed, and with units so spaced and located as to balance the cooling effect of walls, win dows, roofs and doors. Peferably this should be ac complished by means of ing the auditorium. Otherwise most annoying drafts will be experienced by those sitting near the doors. It has already been shown that the heat ing effect of the occupants of the audi torium is very large. To overcome this a ventilating system must very often be come a cooling system. This can only be realized if the heating and ventilating system is so designed that the heating and ventilating elements thereof may act separately, the heating system to balance the heat losses through walls, windows, roof and doors, while the ventilating sys tem provides fresh air for ventilation which shall be cool enough to overcome the heating effect of the audience. In making the above statement the author would not have it inferred that the design of a successful all indirect heating and ventilating system is not possible, but rather that such a system, properly de signed, involves additional complications DIAGRAM SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF FRESH AIR AND FOR CHURCH VENTILATION VENT OPENINGS direct radiators, exposed, if possible, or they may be concealed in pockets if the same are properly designed. These radi ators should be placed along the exterior walls, under the windows and near the doors. A large amount of radiation should be placed in the entrance vestibules so that the air coming in through the doors will be properly warmed before reach- in installation and operation and also additional expense in both, while giving less satisfactory results in operation. The use of direct radiation also is de sirable for preheating purposes and for warming the building when a small amount of heat only is required for a few people. Direct radiation is espe cially desirable in vestibules and small rooms. 26 AMERICAN CHURCHES In small churches, seating, say, not over two hundred or even three hundred people, a gravity system of heating and ventilating, properly designed, will give very efficient results, but for larger build ings a fan system will operate much more effectively and at less expense. In a gravity system a considerable amount of heat is necessary to maintain the effi ciency of the exhaust system, this heat being applied through the medium of ac celerating radiators in the vent flues. The heat so applied to this exhausted air goes directly out of the building. A simple mathematical calculation will dem onstrate that the amount of energy so applied will cost approximately ten times as much as the electric current necessary to move the same amount of air by means of an electric motor-driven fan, this cal culation being based on the usual rate of five cents per kilowatt hour for electric current used for power. In designing a gravity system of venti lation it is customary to base all calcula tions on an assumed difference in temper ature of forty degrees between the room temperature and the outside temperature, that is, assuming sixty-six degrees as the room temperature, calculations are based on an assumed outside temperature of twenty-six degrees. Under this condition only will exactly the amount of air deter mined upon be supplied by the gravity supply system or be exhausted by the gravity exhaust system. And even this is largely affected by wind velocity and direction. When the outside tempera ture is lower a greater amount of air will be supplied and exhausted and when the outside temperature is higher a less amount of air will be supplied and ex hausted. Inasmuch as the average out side temperature is higher than twenty- six degrees a less amount of air than de termined upon will be exhausted for the major portion of the heating season. This is especially serious in view of the fact that ventilation is most needed in mild weather or when the outside temperature is from forty to sixty degrees. At such times the gravity ventilating system fails signally to give the results desired. For auditoria of medium size a gravity system of fresh air supply combined with a fan system of air exhaust will give fairly satisfactory results. For large auditoria both the fresh air supply and the vitiated air exhaust should be assured by the use of fans operated by electric motors. The engineer is constantly asked if a system which supplies fresh air without regard to its exhaust, or which exhausts the vitiated air without regard to a fresh air supply, will not be a satisfactory sys tem of ventilation. While it may not be disputed that either a fresh air supply system or an exhaust system will benefit the atmospheric conditions of an audi torium it may be positively stated that neither will give good ventilation to the room or will eliminate complaints. Only a proper combination of a fresh air sup ply system and vitiated air exhaust sys tem will assure good ventilation in an auditorium. The distribution or diffusion of the air used for ventilation has already been em phasized. To bring this about the thor ough distribution of both the fresh air and vent openings is most essential. There should be multiple air inlets and ex haust openings in every auditorium. The mechanical conditions incident to the air entering from a fresh air register and the air leaving through the vent register are essentially different. In the case of the former the air comes in with a velocity which propels it straight on into the room, for which reason the fresh air openings must be so placed that the air emerging therefrom will not strike any of the occu pants of the room, or the number, size and location of such fresh air openings must be so arranged that the velocity of the air or the volume of the air currents will not be such as to cause any inconvenience to those occupying the room. In case of the vent openings the drawing effect of the exhaust system is such that it can be felt a very short distance only from the reg ister opening. Thus if these openings are not made too large and are sufficiently distributed they may be placed in closer proximity to the occupants of the room than is possible in the case of the fresh air openings. The author believes that the following is a safe rule : No occupant of the room 27 AMERICAN CHURCHES should be farther than twenty-five feet from a fresh air register or nearer than six feet to a vent register, and that there should be not less than one fresh air and one vent opening to each thirty occupants of the room. Insofar as the number of fresh air and vent openings are increased and generally distributed the satisfaction obtained from the operation of the ven tilating system will be increased. In many cases some members of the audience must be more than twenty-five feet from the fresh air openings but a proper distribu tion of the fresh air openings (if in the walls) and an increased number of vent openings generally distributed over the floor of the auditorium will overcome this difficulty. The greater number of complaints in church ventilation occur at points under galleries. Therefore special attention should be given to the proper ventilation of that portion of the auditorium under the galleries. Also the gallery space should be given proper consideration in the design of the ventilating system, and the pulpit platform and choir gallery should not be neglected. Registers for either fresh air or vent, especially the former, directly in the floor should be avoided wherever possible. Church auditoria, because of their con struction, are not as well adapted to the usual downward or upward current venti lating system as are theatres where there are available large plenum and exhaust chambers below and above the audi torium. However, such systems may be approximated in churches by introducing the fresh air at a considerable number of well distributed fresh air openings in the walls or window sills and exhausting the air through a large number of openings under the pews. It is believed that this method is better than the reverse method because of the fact that the entering air must frequently be admitted at ten to fif teen degrees less than room temperature. This means that if sixty-six degrees is desired in the auditorium the entering air will possess a temperature of from fifty- one to fifty-six degrees. Air at this low temperature cannot be admitted directly in the vicinity of the occupants of the room without causing serious chilling and 28 discomfort. It can, however, be admitted in the manner described without causing any such discomfort, for the air will enter well above the heads of the audience and gradually take up the heat increment, thus being warmed to a proper tempera ture before striking the occupants of the room. Such systems have been installed in a great many cases and have given most satisfactory results. In case an auditorium must be used in warm weather when heating is not re quired and only ventilation and cooling is essential, there then being no danger of chilling the occupants of the room with the entering air, splendid results in the ventilating and cooling of the auditorium have been accomplished by so designing the ventilating plant that both fans can be made to blow air into the auditorium, this being accomplished by the simple shifting of one damper in the exhaust system. In this case the air is allowed to make its exit through doors and windows. This applies to warm weather ventilation only. As an auxiliary to the above plan a simple installation in the roof space, where such exists, of an electrically driven exhaust fan of the disc type of sufficient capacity to exhaust an amount of air equal to that supplied by both fans, when both are blowing in air, will assure the quickest possible removal of the hot air and the best possible ventilation of the room. The use of both fans for blowing air into the room is possible only when the ex haust air openings are so distributed and placed that the air, when entering the room, will not directly strike any of the audience. Simplicity of design is especially to be commended. While it is desired that this should be extended to all of the details of the system it applies with less force to the duct system, inasmuch as there is nothing about this which at any time re quires the attention of the operator. Sim plicity should be especially evidenced in the arrangement of the heating plant and that portion of the ventilating plant which includes the air filters, indirect heating elements, fans, motors and the operating devices therefor. The charac ter of the janitorial service usually ap- AMERICAN CHURCHES plied to such plants is far from that which would be economical to the owners, and therefore the element of simplicity has all the greater importance. Such matters as organic content, or crowd poison, in the air, aerial infection, odors, ozone and dust need be referred to but briefly. The consensus of opinion is that there is no organic matter or crowd poison in the air of occupied spaces which has any serious bearing on health, and that aerial infection is probably impos sible, or in any case it is not materially affected by ventilation. The use of ozone as a substitute for, or even an aid to ventilation, in other than industrial work, is no longer urged by the strongest advocate of the use of ozone. Dust is no. longer regarded as consti tuting a physiological menace but should be eliminated because of its annoyance and because of its disastrous effect on the decorations, finish and furnishings of the church. It certainly does not exist in the air of the church in harmful quantities. It is claimed by some, however, that dust coming in contact with the steam heating surface distills ammonia and ab sorbs some oxygen, and although this is far from being proven there certainly can be no dispute that every possible ef fort should be made to eliminate the dust. Odors, such as are always given off from the mouths, bodies and clothing, will always occur in a densely occupied apartment lacking proper ventilation. They are certainly objectionable and, even though it may be agreed that they have no physiological significance, our sense of decency should impel us to provide that degree of ventilation which will dilute the air to such an extent that disagreeable odors cannot exist. It is not proposed in this article to dis cuss in detail the apparatus used in church heating and ventilating systems but a few general statements anent governing prin ciples will be offered. It is unfortunate that in a majority of cases the boiler room must be placed directly under the auditorium. It is de sirable that the boiler room be placed in an isolated position so that the noise and dirt connected therewith may be kept from the principal rooms of the building. Whenever possible the coal room should be made large enough to hold a season's supply of fuel as this enables the purchas ing of fuel at the season when coal is at its lowest price. This room should be so arranged that all of this coal may be put in without basketing, trimming or re- handling. One of the most prolific sources of diffi culty in church heating and ventilating systems is the chimney. Frequently it is insufficient in cross-sectional area and more frequently it is insufficient in height. Instances are frequently found where the top of the chimney is below portions of the roof with the result that the draft is insufficient and down-drafts are common. The logical and usual result of this is that the boilers operate inefficiently and fail to give the capacity required, while gas in large quantities is frequently blown from the furnaces into the building. The top of the chimney should invariably exceed, by not less than two feet, the highest por tion of the roof of the building. A steam heating system will be found most satisfactory for church purposes. Hot water is rarely used and is objection able because of the danger of freezing when the building is not kept warm in cold weather. It is also slow in warming up and equally slow in cooling off in case the building becomes overheated. Fur naces are adaptable to small churches only. They are impractical from a venti lating standpoint in large buildings. As has already been urged, direct radi ators should be used to an extent which will balance the heat losses through walls, windows, doors and roof, but in determin ing the amount of direct radiation it is not desirable to take into account the air within the room. This should be taken into account in the design of the ventilat ing system. The direct radiators may be concealed in pockets if desired, but as a rule inconspicuous locations can be found for exposed radiators. When concealed the amount of radiation must be increased by twenty to forty per cent., depending upon the method adopted in constructing the pockets, and the register area over the radiators. The registers may cover the entire face of the radiators or they may be arranged with one register face at or 29 AMERICAN CHURCHES below the bottom of the radiator and an other register face with the bottom thereof at the top or above the top of the radiator. The minimum height of the pocket should be such that there would be a space below and above the radiator equal to the depth of the pocket. Suffi cient space should be allowed at the ends of the radiator for connections and valves with easy access to the valves provided. Special care should be given to the plac ing of radiators in the vestibule, these radiators being from two to three times as large as is required for the actual warming of the vestibule when the doors are closed. By reference to the plans of the small church illustrated herein, it will be noted that access from the front door into the auditorium is gained only by passing from the outer to an inner vestibule and thence into the church. Such an arrange ment provides for the heating of such air as may blow in and prevents a direct draft on those sitting in the rear of the audi torium. Uses are frequently made of registers in the ceiling connecting with ventilators on the roof as a means of heat relief. As a means of ventilation they are of no value whatever inasmuch as they have no effect on the air of the occupied portion of the auditorium. Worse still, they are very objectionable because cold air will often blow down through these ceiling registers into the auditorium, forming most annoying drafts on those sitting be low. If installed, means must be provided for shutting off when necessary, and with out fans in connection therewith, they re quire extreme good judgment on the part of the janitor in their use. The use of an automatic tempera ture controlling system for church heat ing is strongly advocated. Manual con^ trol of temperature in an auditorium is practically impossible. The tempera ture of the room increases very rapidly after it becomes occupied and but lit tle opportunity is offered the janitor to get at the radiators and shut them off. Automatic means of temperature control should be separately applied to the direct radiators that the direct heat may be maintained only in so far as the cooling 30 effect of walls, windows, doors and roof require, and it should also be applied separately to the ventilating system so that the temperature of the ventilating air may be maintained at just the proper point to maintain a proper room tempera ture while removing the heat accumula tion. Some method of air filtration should be provided in large buildings where large volumes of air are handled, to eliminate the dust from the entering air. This may be well done by the use of cloth filtering screens of either the "bag" type or the "zig-zag" type, or it may be more effi ciently done by the use of air washers. These air washers need not have the humidifying attachments inasmuch as artificial humidification is not necessary. The air washers are more efficient in air cleaning and are less troublesome to keep clean and efficient. An air washer, de signed for the purpose, may also prove a desirable adjunct in the cooling work of the ventilating system in warm weather. The piping system should be as simple as. possible, but extreme care must be taken to secure ample size and pitch of pipes and place them at proper levels so that there will be no occurrence of "snapping" or other noise. These steam pipes should be thoroughly covered with asbestos or magnesia insulating cover ings of the best make to economize in the operation of the plant and to prevent heating where and when not desired in basement rooms. The two pipe system is preferable for church buildings. Air valves, where used, should be of the drip line pattern with drip piping carried to a sink or other convenient point in the basement, or better still to an air remov ing pump. The float type valve without the drip pipe should never be used as alto gether too frequently these valves will give trouble during church service bv causing a sputtering of water or a hiss ing of steam. Plans of two church buildings are illus trated herewith. Plan number one is that of the First Presbyterian Church at Buffalo, N. Y. (see page 20), the main floor plan only being presented. The building was built many years ago and this ventilating system was installed two AMERICAN CHURCHES years ago. This plan is shown to illus trate the point made above relating to the distribution of the fresh air and vent registers. As will be noted the air is sup plied to the main auditorium through twenty-six inlet sources and it is ex hausted, at ninety-three points. If this system were designed for a new building the fresh air registers would not have been placed in the floor and the number of vent registers would have been increased so as to give a greater distribution of the air. The fresh air is furnished by means of a fan system incorporated into which are air filters, heating coils, distributing ducts, etc. Plan number two is given to illustrate the possibilities of installing an inex pensive but efficient ventilating system in a small church. Inasmuch as funds were not available for an ideal system certain existing conditions within the building have been utilized and resort has been had to the bringing in of the fresh air through inlets under the pews, the three-foot space under the auditorium floor being used as a plenum chamber. As will be observed (see plans, pages 21 and 22, and sec tions, page 23), the air is exhausted at the front and rear of the auditorium. A thorough diffusion of the air throughout all of the occupied portion of the room is assured. In this case it has been arranged to use the same system interchangeably for the Sunday School building. As will be noted, this is very simply done in this case, a single chain pull being used to accomplish this change. As a rule such a double use of an appa ratus should be avoided. It can seldom be done with as little complication as is involved in this case. The amount of com plication usually involved seriously limits the efficiency of the system for one or another portion of the building, and care lessness on the part of the janitor is all that is additionally needed to render the plant inefficient for one room or the other, and sometimes for both. An illustration is given of a method of bringing the air in through the window sill of a church so that it will become dis tributed over the heads of the audience and drawing it out through the multiple openings in the floor, as shown. As will be noted the vent openings are above the floor level so that the floor sweepings can not fall down into the openings, and overcoats or hats may not be laid over the openings. This arrangement also prevents the moving air from coming into direct contact with the feet of the occupants of the room. Where the room below the auditorium is not used and the space is without openings the collecting ducts shown in the detail sketch may be omitted and the space under the floor can then be used as an exhaust chamber. The engineer is frequently asked how much a ventilating system for a certain church building will cost before a de sign of the system is attempted. The author has collected data on twelve churches to determine whether a unit method of estimating the cost of a ventilating system can be found. The method of apportioning a certain per centage of the total cost of the structure is of little value in any building but espe cially so in the case of a church inasmuch as the heating and ventilating sys tem would cost substantially the same whether the building were a frame struc ture or a monumental stone structure, so long as its size and shape were approxi mately the same. In the churches referred to this per centage of cost varies from 3.3% to 9.4 %. On the basis of the cubic feet of occupied space, this calculation including only the interior space and neglecting the space within the towers, lanterns, unused attic spaces, etc., the heating and ventilat ing system is found to cost from one cent to two and one-half cents per cubic foot. Manifestly a church having a very high auditorium has a lower cost per cubic foot. For a simple system of ventilation in the average church one and one-half cents per cubic foot should provide for a good ventilating system. Where the system is complicated or the construction or arrangement of the building involves com plication this figure should be raised to two and one-half cents per cubic foot. The experience and judgment of the consult ing engineer should enable him to set this figure with reasonable accuracy. 31 AMERICAN CHURCHES On the basis of the number of occu pants provided for in the main audi torium and in the main room of the Sun day School building, a heating and ven tilating system will be found to cost from $2.70 per occupant to $5.50 per occupant. A fair average will be found to be from $3.25 to $3.50 per occupant, this figure be ing raised or lowered in proportion to the nature and arrangement of the building and the resulting complication of the heating and ventilating system. The table also gives data on the operat ing costs of heating and ventilating plants actually installed and operated. It is not possible to separate the cost of electric current used for lighting and power, both being measured on the same meters in most cases. The design of a heating and ventilating system for a church building has been re garded as a very simple matter. The diffi culties of this work have not been appre ciated and the result has been that this work has been left to inexperienced par ties. It is not surprising, therefore, that a great many failures have resulted and that a great deal of criticism has been directed against the ventilation of church buildings. Such work should be left to ex perienced engineers who will undertake the problem without preconceived ideas or prejudices, or without the influence of an interest in any materials, apparatus or "system." Many failures have resulted from the advocacy of certain "systems," which the manufacturer has endeavored to apply to all types of buildings, regard less of conditions or actual needs of the building. Another cause for many failures in ven tilating systems is the desire of too many committees, and of too many architects also, to build a beautiful building, using all of the appropriation for space or orna mental features, forgetting that the ex tent of the enjoyment to be had in the use of the building is very largely in propor tion to the comfort and pleasure found in its occupancy. There is nothing which contributes more to this pleasure and comfort than a proper heating and ventil ating system. The logical results of a cheaply installed ventilating system are dissatisfaction and the ultimate removal of the system. Mention may be made of an instance in which a church seating six hundred per sons installed a ventilating system costing $400.00. The only possible result of such an installation was dissatisfaction and abandonment. This system is now being removed and a ventilating system costing $3,000.00 is being added to the existing heating system, the need of an efficient ventilating system being realized. In another case the church first in stalled a furnace system. This was re moved and a cheap steam heating and ventilating system was installed, the ven tilating features of which were later re moved. After two years' experience with the resulting system it has been decided to install an efficient ventilating system at a cost of $8,800.00, or approximately the cost of the two systems previously installed and abandoned. The experiences above referred to, and others, have demonstrated beyond dis pute that an auditorium without a ven tilating system will give discomfort to the audience and produce headaches, depres sion, lassitude, somnolence, and even diz ziness and nausea. Conversely, the opera tion of the efficient ventilating system re places the uninterested, dull and inatten tive audience with a comfortable, alert and attentive audience, having receptive, responsive and retentive minds, thus ex periencing increased profit and enjoy ment of the building and of the services therein. The investigations of the New York State Ventilation Commission have dem onstrated positively that uncomfortable atmospheric conditions noticeably and materially lessen the interest and alert ness of the individual. Assuredly churches are built not alone as monuments of architecture but for the enjoyment and profit of the people. Therefore should not the ventilating sys tem, which has so much to do with the health, comfort, pleasure and profit of the church attendants, receive at least equal consideration with the stained glass win dows, organ and architectural features of the building? 32 CHURCH VENTILATION — BY D. D. KIMBALL COST DATA Year Built Exterior Con struc tion Cubic Feet in Building TOTAL COST OF CONTRACTS PERCENTAGE CONTRACTS BEAR TO TOTAL COST COST PER CUBIC FOOT ANNUAL COST ANNUAL COST PER CUBIC FOOT Name and Location of Church Building Heating and Venti lating Plant Elec tric Sys tem Build ing Heating and Venti lating Plant Elec tric Sys tem Build ing Heating and Venti lating Plant Elec tric Sys tem Fuel Elec tricity Boiler Room and Janitor Service Fuel Elec tricity BoilerRoom and Janitor Service Newton Highlands Congregational Church, Newton Highlands, Mass. 1905 Stone 306,160 $62,924 $2,630 $590 % 94.8 % 4.2 % 1 $ 205 $.0086 $.0019 $424.35 $100.4 $500 $.0014 $ . 0003 $.0016 First Baptist Church, Chelsea, Mass. 1908 Stone 310,000 58,128 4,000 875 91.6 6.9 1.5 .19 .013 .0026 303.50 176.39 600 .0009 .0006 .0019 Central Congregational Church, 1909 Stone 208,470 53,413 3,589 848 91.7 6.7 1.6 .256 .017 .004 323 . 00 98.00 520 .0015 .0004 002 First Parish Universalist Church, Maiden, Mass 1907 Stone 341,168 66,360 4,085 1000 92.3 6.2 1.5 .194 .012 .003 508.00 135.60 600 .0015 .0004 .0018 First Congregational Church, Stam- 1911 Stone 300,840 57,897 3,284 94.3 5.7 .192 .011 350.00 75.00 600 .0012 .0002 .002 First Parish Church, Braintree, Mass. 1912 Stone 205,709 41 , 220 3,300 500 90.7 8.1 1.2 .20 .016 .003 300.00 46.00 400 .0014 .0002 .0019 Melrose First Baptist Church, Mel- 1906 Stone 315,000 65 , 607 4,249 1027 92 6.5 1.5 .208 .0135 .003 265.00 150.00 600 .0008 .0005 .0019 Church of the Ascension, New York 1913 Brick 170,260 44,503.50 4,200 90.6 9.4 .261 .025 First Baptist Church, Montclair, 1911 Stone 475,240 79,066 5,662 '775 91.9 7.1 1. .17 .012 .0016 332.00 100 . 00 900 .0008 .0002 .002 St. Joseph's Cathedral, Buffalo, N. Y. 1912-14 Marble 3,120,000 1,200,000 39,075 96.7 3.3 .383 .012 Unitarian Church, Leominster, Mass. 1903 Stone 301,200 51,713 2,795 660 93.3 5.4 1.3 .171 .01 .0022 North Presbyterian Church, Buffalo, 1904 Stone 524,000 139,700 9.451 1200 92.2 6.8 1 .266 .018 .0023 > Wh- 1 o > oaw o K x/i CO CO SEE PRECEDING PAGES FOR REFERENCE. CO Wi— i O > o aa wo KHGO BETHLEHEM CHAPEI CATHEDRAL OF SS. PETER AND PAUL, WASHINGTON, D. C. MR.. HENKY VAUGHAN. A.&C*! IT-ECT HOMELY REMARKS ON CHURCH FITMENTS By Robert Ellis Jones, S. T. D., Canon of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine THE legislative rule that the contents of a bill must not go beyond the implications of its title cannot be extended to an article like this. Questions of structure will intrude them selves upon it. It is enough to disclaim any intention to dogmatize upon purely architectural matters, or to do anything more than to give the results of the writ er's observation of church utilities. The article also confines itself to eccle siastical fitments, to those things that per tain distinctively to churches, the obvious utilities necessary to any public building will be taken for granted, and the com plex arrangements of a parish house will not be touched upon at all, the domestic needs of parishes differ widely, and pro vision for them is germane to secular work. It may save many qualifications to say that a good sized town church, one hold ing from six to eight hundred, is chiefly held in mind. Cathedrals will always be few, churches holding twelve hundred people not common, and the village church, interesting as it is, full of pic turesque possibilities, ought not to be built unless special circumstances make it certain that the luxury can be afforded — and maintained. No church should be built that cannot under normal circum stances maintain its fixed charges. Most "lovely little churches" must starve their parson. A church should be large enough to make the per capita fixed charge for maintenance moderate and easily car ried. The fixed charges for clerical sal aries, music, sexton, in two churches hold ing four hundred and seven hundred re spectively are substantially the same. The only appreciable difference is in the cost of heating and lighting. The size of church dictated by a rational economy is large enough to allow of considerable architectural dignity, and this article will refrain from darting from minister to chapel and confine itself to the average town church holding from six to eight hundred. Approaches — Churches should be placed as low as possible in order to re duce the number of the entrance steps. An unbroken run of ten or a dozen front steps is unfortunate and dangerous. Such a run is inconvenient for old or infirm persons, almost impossible at funerals when heavy caskets have to be carried in, and in winter liable to be icy, men acing old and young, living and dead, with entire impartiality. When a long run is unavoidable, it should be broken by broad platforms. The usual reason for raising the floor level is the desire to pro vide well lighted Sunday School rooms and vestries in the basement. Nothing is more fatal to a Sunday School. I have seen basements upon which money had been lavished without stint in the effort to prove that a Sunday School can thrive below ground, but all alike were failures, and are today replaced by parish houses. Choir vestries are more at home in base ments, but they are usually connected with the church above by narrow pas sages and winding stairs, almost always too steep. It is ample proof that the aver age choir-boy has not "a one-track mind," that he can manage the unaccustomed skirt of his cassock, sing "Onward, Chris tian Soldiers!" and negotiate narrow "winders" all at the same time. It is un wise to purchase the doubtful advantages of high basements at the cost of incon venience and danger to a multitude of worshippers. Vestibules — Western vestibules, either structural or obtained by the use of screens at the end of the nave, are abso lutely necessary. A western gallery, roof ing a screened narthex, is useful for many purposes. It may be said in passing that this is the only position where a gallery is either useful or tolerable. Funeral and wedding parties need a place where they may form and wait in privacy. This se- 35 AMERICAN CHURCHES elusion should be possible without stop ping the entrance of the congregation. Such a narthex can be entered directly by the central door of the nave, leaving the aisle doors for the ingress of the people. A signal from the west door should be provided to forestall the excited rush of the verger between the vestibule and the clergy room when all is ready. The Font — The font is many times placed near the west door or in one of the aisles near its western end. This is sym bolically correct. The entrances to the church below and the church above are kept together. But practically it is wrong. A western position is seldom a good one. At the majority of the services the people turn their backs upon the font and it is forgotten. A special chamber, alcove, or other position indicated by structure or decoration, near the chancel is preferable. The font if raised should have at the level of the highest step a platform two feet by three upon which the priest can stand securely while performing the baptism. This standing place should be upon the right side of the font so as to bring the child near the bowl on the priest's left as he stands facing west. The effort to stand upon a narrow step is as distract ing to the officiant as it is dangerous to the child. A small book rest should be provided near by upon which to place the prayer book during the act of baptism. Often there is no place to rest the book except the margin of the font, where it as well as the child is affused. A font may easily be too monumental, making it difficult to reach over into its capacious depths to obtain the little water needed. Low prayer desks for the par ents and sponsors are of great conve nience. When not in use they may serve to give the font a reverent protection. A drain must of course be provided. The bowl should be waterproofed in some suitable way. Otherwise dust and grime adhere to the damp stone. Seating — Practice as to the seating of churches is drifting from pews to chairs, with favorable results. One of the best is that a chair defeats selfish efforts to occupy three sittings at once, and another advantage is that upon occasion read- 36 justments to suit the circumstances can easily be made. It is sometimes desirable to make the middle aisle wider than usual, as at funerals or at func tions employing a numerous procession. A useful average width for a middle aisle is five feet, though this is some times scanty, when a casket with bearers on each side must be pro vided for. The tendency of chairs to fall into irregularity and disorder can be overcome by connecting groups of three or four by means of a strip of wood under the seat. In this way sufficient elbow room for each person can be assured. Twenty-two inches per person is the least comfortable allowance. The eighteen-inch allotment used by architects trying to show a grasping committee how much they are getting at a low cost is mislead ing. In this detail both parties seem to be "given over to strong delusion that they should believe a lie." The spacing of the rows is important. They must be sufficiently distant to allow of comfortable kneeling, for which fully thirty-six inches is required. Where kneeling is not practiced thirty inches may suffice. In the liturgical churches a spacing of thirty-three inches is very common, but it is not enough, since kneel ing becomes a process of wedging oneself into too snug a space. A kneeler hinged to a chair in front of the worshipper sel dom projects backward sufficiently to permit an ordinarily stout adult to use it. A loose pad of felt that can be placed in any position is by far the best kneeler. Two inches is the least thickness, but four inches is much better. Kneeling is ap parently a disused exercise— impossible unless all the accessories favor and assist it. It must be possible for each person to put his feet under his own chair. Church chairs are often provided with slats or racks underneath the seats to receive hats or kneeling pads when not in use. If these racks have the full depth of the seat the chairs must be spaced three feet six inches apart or kneeling is penalized. A rack half the depth of the seat serves all purposes. Pockets for prayer books, etc., should be attached to the backs of the chairs. The chair back should be capped with a fiat rail to serve the worshipper's AMERICAN CHURCHES convenience. The chair should be of good size, strong and comfortably propor tioned. The rush bottomed church chair of the European pattern is frail and un comfortable — quite inadequate for a stout person. It is difficult but not impossible to find a well-designed ready-made church chair, but any good architect can design one. The Pulpit — Conditions vary so widely that little can be said dogmatically about pulpits. Often they are made inconve niently deep and narrow, so that the preacher seems immersed in their tub-like depths, confirming Daniel Webster's opin ion that its survival after centuries of proclamation from tub pulpits is ample proof of the truth of the Gospel. In a mon umental pulpit the enclosing front must be high relatively to the speaker's stature. but the average parish church is not large enough to call for a monumental struc ture. The indication is for a pulpit of such moderate scale that its front may be quite low, so that the preacher cannot reach or grasp it with his hands to pound upon it, or to swing his body backward and for ward from its anchorage, from sheer nervousness apropos of nothing. An emi nent authority recommends a high pulpit as preventing a nervous "dangling" of the hands. There is no arrangement cer tain to defeat the eccentric motions of the clergy. It is perhaps a choice between "dangling" and "see-sawing." The manu script desk should be adjustable as to height and slope and should carry a con cealed light. Sounding boards are a sore subject. No sounding board has ever been made which is at once architectur ally beautiful and acoustically successful. The only counsel is to get along without one if possible. The Lectern — The lectern should com ply not only with the scale of the church, but with its acoustical requirements and should have regard to the limitations of human stature. A distinguished archi tect whose beautiful lectern was impos sibly high refused to allow the use of a reader's platform behind it. The reader must be lifted above the book desk to a height that shall allow his face to be seen, for two reasons. First, we depend upon play of feature as well as upon hearing for a full understanding of the spoken word. We would not tolerate an invisible preacher, much less should we endure an invisible reader of the Word of God. Next, the reader's voice must not be blocked or deflected. It must have free diffusion if it is to "carry" any distance. It is significant that in the churches of the Protestant denominations which are not under the influence of tradition, the mon umental, all-concealing lectern is un known, while the reading of the Scrip tures reaches a high degree of excellence. The most efficient obstacle to reach of tone is the tall double lectern of the monastic music-desk type, yielding two sides pitched at an angle of forty-five de grees, carrying the Old Testament on one side and the New Testament on the other. These desks were intended to serve a num ber of singers standing around them look ing upward to the steep-sloped pages of the illuminated Psalter. Obviously the practicable lectern will have but a mod erate slope. Otherwise the top and bot tom of the page cannot be read with the same eye focus. Choir Stalls — Choir stalls should con form to utilitarian requirements as to the height of the book desks, the depth of the seats, slope of the backs and the kneel- ers. Ornamentation should not be allowed to interfere with these primary require ments. The convenience of the singers contributes immensely to the reposeful- ness and reverence of the service. To over-emphasize the stalls detracts from the dignity of the altar. Elaborate carv ing may well be confined to the canopies of the back row of stalls. It is a matter of congratulation that the best current work shows a disuse of the fussy poppy- heads that a little while ago were thought to be essential. Modern Gothic is now less spiky than it used to be. The proper height for the book desks is that which brings the books to a convenient height when the choir is kneeling. It is very difficult to strike a successful average be tween a kneeling and a standing height. The requirements of kneeling should rule ; in standing the book may be held in the hand. It is a very awkward mistake to give the book desk an acute pitch. It should be rather flat, rising about three 37 AMERICAN CHURCHES inches in its twelve inches of width. One of the main purposes of the book desk is to hold in readiness and in plain sight the music next to be used, quite impossible with a high-pitched desk. Ample pockets should be provided below the desks. The number of books used by a choir in the course of a service is not imagined by most people. A place for everything is the price of order and reverence. In the interests of scale, choir stalls are often made too low and small— mere pews, overlooking one of the main pur poses of choir stalls — partially to conceal the choristers, (the very reverse of the principle obtaining as to the pulpit) mak ing their necessary movements unobtru sive. Rows of heads and shoulders should be seen — not the figure from the hips up. The rule holds for choir and clergy that when the desks at which they kneel are low enough to support their elbows they are too low. Such desks put a premium on undignified "hunching." The Organ and Console — Little need be said about the organ except that it should not be smothered in a scanty chamber from which it cannot speak out. With a given number of stops the best result ob tains when the pipes have ample space above and around them for the diffusion of sound. To lose a third of the effect iveness of an expensive instrument by smothering it is not intelligent proced ure. Usually the organ builder is not con sulted until the organ coop is finished. The console should not be placed in the choir proper. It is a part of the machin ery. It is a principle that the mechanism of worship should be concealed. The con sole is often incorporated in the stall- work or placed on the presbytery (i. e. the space between the choir stalls and the chancel rail), where it sometimes vies with the altar in size and prominence. These positions are assigned in the in terests of the contiguity of choir and or ganist, and to allow the latter to "con duct," that is, to wave one hand above his head while playing with his other mem bers, and swaying all over, to the utter destruction of devotional repose. Any musical advantage that defeats religious impressiveness must be sacrificed. Many 38 chancels are so circumscribed that it is difficult to comply with ideal require ments, but if the latter are held in mind during the planning of a church they can usually be met. The console can be lo cated in a chamber behind the singers, or in a gallery above their heads. The use of mirrors solves many problems. In the new St. Thomas Church both contigu ity and concealment have been secured. Unaccompanied singing does require "conducting." In such cases the organist should take place as a member of the choir and guide it as quietly as may be. The Presbytery — By "presbytery" is meant the space, usually elevated above the choir floor, between the choir stalls and the chancel rail. In English cathe drals the presbytery sometimes extends two or three bays, but in our churches it is contracted and disappears as a sep arate division. It was anciently occupied by the clergy not actively engaged in the service. Now it is important as the space wherein the laity approach the the chancel rails during celebrations, where wedding parties stand and where confirmation and ordination are admin istered. Space and convenience are ob viously demanded. Yet there is no part of the church so completely unconsidered. It frequently happens that barely three feet intervene between the choir stalls and the chancel rail. Communicants ap proach, divide and fill the rail to its ends, then return to the centre and plow through the waiting crowd while another set files into the pockets. The level space of the presbytery should be wide enough for one row of people to kneel and for another row to stand behind them, or, to put it otherwise, wide enough for kneel ing and for passage. Six feet of clear space is sufficient. An architect exclaims, "That means six feet of foundations, walls, floor and roofing." It does, but the miserable confusion seen in most large churches on the first Sunday of the month should be decisive as to the wisdom of the expenditure. The presbytery should al ways be provided at the north and south ends with exits, either into the choir aisles or into passages otherwise ar ranged for, sometimes through the choir or clergy vestries. Central approach and AMERICAN CHURCHES terminal discharge are obvious requisites of order. The Sanctuary — The sanctuary should be raised above the presbytery by not more than one step, upon which, with the intervention of a cushion, the people may kneel. There should not be a series of steps leading up to the level of the sanc tuary. Kneeling upon the topmost of a flight of steps is an impossible perform ance for most people. The kneeler for the laity should always be at the same level as that in which the priest stands. To cause the people to kneel upon a step six inches lower than the sanctuary floor necessitates a wearying and awkward bending over during the administration of the sacrament. Chancel rails are an utilitarian neces sity and should not be emphasized. Some architects say they are needless, but cleri cal experience dissents. The laity, the old, stout and feeble, protest against their absence. The chancel rail should have that height which allows the chalice to be passed without danger to a short person kneeling on the other side of the rail. Twenty or twenty-two inches is a convenient height, though twenty-four inches is practicable if the people kneel on the priest's level. If they kneel six inches lower the twenty-four inches of the rail's height become thirty, and the passage of the chalice becomes impossible. For con venience in the administration of the ele ments chancel rails should also be narrow. The twelve-inch wide caps of the marble walls (quite too high) which some archi tects build across the sanctuary are im mensely awkward. The communicants' kneeling desks, which are now displacing rails, are welcome innovations, provided they also be not made too high and broad. The Altar — Since there is abundant guidance as to this central, all-important fitment, a few remarks about the altar will suffice. An extreme elevation of the altar is to be avoided, since many steps mean danger and inconvenience for feeble or dim-sighted clergymen. An altar not less than three feet three inches high is more convenient for the celebrant than a lower one. The foot pace upon which the priest stands should not be less than three feet wide. The altar, unless it be a small one in a chapel, should be set out from the east wall or reredos at least twenty inches to allow of reaching the ornaments on the retable without making the altar a mounting block. The gratifying improvement in church architecture during the last twenty-five years can best be measured by an inspec tion of the volume containing the fifty or more competitive designs for the Cathe dral of St. John the Divine. A few plans combined originality and scholarship, but most of them exhibited either wild eccen tricity or lifeless correctness, while many were conceived in complete unconscious ness of the most elementary architec tural canons; there were mosques and meeting-houses (with Anglican trim mings) but in nearly all alike the pro cedure of design must have been that of taking the architect's ideal of a parish church and inflating it to a cathedral size, with the usual disastrous results of awkwardness and poverty of detail; a more triumphant demonstration of "how not to do it" cannot be imagined. The collection, as a whole, was the work of untrained men, some of them obviously "unrepentant carpenters," their notions of cathedral scale and function would have been laughable had they not been tragic. The most prominent advocate of the cathedral movement confessed that he rose from his first inspec tion of the designs appalled, humiliated and convinced that the project had been launched too soon; neither the architects nor the public were prepared for it. The public's approval was enthusiastically bestowed upon a fantastic design as lack ing in repose as in sound engineering. Profession, parsons and public were ob viously wandering in a vain shadow. Today no competition would be neces sary; the project could be safely com mitted to any one of a number of archi tects, whose spirited and noble work adorns our land. It is not too much to say that we have some churches which would have been considered great in the thirteenth century. Nearly every lay man holds some practitioner, usually the designer of his parish church, to be "the greatest church architect in America," 39 AMERICAN CHURCHES and behind these masters there is an army of competent young men who are filling the land with excellent work. The Chicago man's prophecy, uttered a quar ter of a century ago regarding his be loved city, could at that time have been applied to America at large and to its architectural capacity. The prophetic soul aforesaid, with proud humility, de clared "Chicago hasn't reached culture yet, but when she does, she'll make it hum." We are now safe in the hands of our architects, and are beginning not to direct them as jauntily as we did some years ago. The "cultivated amateur" is no longer the final arbiter and the parson's pride of practicality gives him authority only on such matters as the subjects of these "Remarks." He can only hope to contribute well defined utilitarian prin ciples. Noble church building is the re sult of the fusion of artistry, engineering and utility; neither can be safely sacri ficed; a successful church is one which is an outgrowth of the needs of worship. Nothing was more admirably and rig orously suited to its purposes than the mediaeval cathedral to the requirements of Roman Catholic ritual. Gothic theory has to do with much more than pointed arches. One of the fundamental canons was conformance to present needs. The Gothic spirit demands that we discard tradition and precedent where they con flict with the needs of the present. It is only by endeavoring to meet those de mands that our architecture will achieve that differentiation which results in vitality. We are all weary of assertions that this or that "is the only religious style," and are ill at ease in churches whose architecture is incongruous with the worship conducted therein and dis cordant with the traditions of the wor shipping body. There is a true sense in which the Colonial meeting-house, occu pied by non-liturgical congregations, is far more "Gothic" than the thirteenth cen tury near-cathedral which sometimes re places the meeting-house ; any vital archi tecture is an outgrowth of the needs and personality of its builders; this corre spondence of the inner and outer is per haps the deepest Gothic principle of all. The American practitioner now combines ample knowledge of the past with a recog nition of present needs, as artist, engineer and ecclesiologist he is a rapidly growing man. The future of our church archi tecture is full of hope and promise. STALL ENDS, CALVARY CHURCH, PITTSBURGH, PA. MESSRS. CRAM. GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS 40 AMERICAN CHURCHES MODERN METHODS OF CHURCH ILLUMINATION By F. A. PATTISON, A.I.E.E., A.S.M.E., I.E.S. THE artificial illumination of a church is a problem for which it is often very difficult to find a satis factory solution. There are two elements which must be most carefully considered in connection with the lighting of any building, viz., the use for which the structure is erected and the Architect's motive in his design. These two consider ations combine to create the atmosphere which at all hazard must be maintained. Any equipment which lacks the proper preservation and perpetuation of this atmosphere spells failure no matter how elaborate or exquisite in detail the vari ous elements of the illumination may be. The lighting of a church must be sufficient to properly illuminate and if fixtures are used they must carry out the symbolism and never be obtrusive in the sense of introducing a jarring note either to the architecture or the comfort and mental attitude of the worshippers. The earliest examples of the artificial illumination being introduced in harmony with the building are seen in the chan deliers often called crowns. In the Gothic churches these were made very elaborate and capable of providing for a great many candles. Perhaps the crowns of Aix-la-Chapelle, Hildesheim and Rheims are as typical of this early practice as any which could be cited. These were made in various metals and also in wood. All metals are still used and even at the present time, wood is sometimes used, as may be seen in the fixtures of the Broad way Tabernacle in New York City. The use of the candles in the earliest times had the advantage of a unit whose intrinsic brilliancy was very low and, therefore, could be used with much better effect than modern illuminants utilized in the same way. The largest crown was cus tomarily hung from the arches of the nave and its size, decoration, and sym bolism was the subject of much study. As a result it became an integral part of the edifice and fulfilled perfectly the function for which it was installed. Hence the satisfaction both visual and spiritual as there was harmony and the atmosphere to produce the proper effect. As time went on, the worshippers took more of a part in the services until at the present time it is necessary for them to be able to read. Therefore it is imperative to pro vide proper illumination to enable them to do this. In the early days the candle was the only illuminant. This was followed by oil lamps and now we have gas and several types of electric lamps. The cleanliness, ease of locating at any desired point, capability of subdivision and shaping, and simplicity of control have led to the almost universal adoption of the electric light for modern church buildings. Even the candle tip in the altar candles is be ing replaced by the filament of the electric globe. The variation in size, design, and char acter of buildings classified as churches, is such that it is not possible to describe details so as to apply to all. But in the illumination of the small country church, the pretentious city church, and the cathe dral, regardless of the architecture, there are certain requirements common to all which can be complied with no matter how simply or elaborately the details are carried out. They all have an approach, exterior, entrances, space for congrega tion, chancel, choir, windows and rooms not in the church space proper. These are the parts which have to be lighted. The first consideration is the amount of light necessary to obtain proper illumi nation. If the public lights in the street do not give proper light, the approach should be illuminated with gas or incan descent lamps. It should not be brilliantly illuminated. One tenth foot candles is ample. There is no excuse for any lights on the exterior of the building except at the entrances, a carefully screened re- 41 AMERICAN CHURCHES ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, DETROIT, MICH. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS (For additional illustrations of this subject see index) 42 AMERICAN CHURCHES Sector for the bulletin board and possibly an illuminated cross on the steeple. Any bare lamps strung on the outside or over the doors not only detracts from the architecture but produces a disagreeable glare and therefore offends everyone en tering the edifice. Illumination is measured by the candle foot. This is the illumination produced on a surface one foot distant by a source of one candle power, the rays falling nor mally on the surface. The proper illumi nation, in the portion of the church enu merated above, is as follows in foot candles : Entrances 5 Congregation space 2-3 Choir 1-2 Chancel 2-3 Windows 5 General Rooms 1-2 In arriving at this result the light re flected by the various surfaces, such as ceiling, walls, etc., and the light which will be absorbed by the various shades must be given very careful consideration. The percentage of light reflected from various surfaces with the authorities is as follows : Black velvet (Sumptner) 0.4 Deep Chocolate (Sumptner) ... 4.0 Black paper (Rood & Tufts) ... 4.5 Dark Blue (Tufts) 6.5 Dark Green (Tufts) 10.1 Dark Brown (Sumptner) 13.0 Bright Red (Tufts) 16.2 Dirty Yellow (Sumptner) 20.0 White Sandstone (O'Connor) . . 24.0 Gray paper (Tufts) 50.0 Light colored wood (Sumptner) 50.0 Whitewashed ceiling (Harrison) 80.0 Dead White (Hallock) 80.0 White cardboard (Tufts) 92.3 The percentage of light absorbed by various shades with the authorities is as follows : Clear glass (O'Connor) 6.0 Clear glass engraved (O'Connor) 40.0 Frosted glass (Lewes) 11.2 Ground glass (O'Connor) 29.5 Alabaster glass (Palaz) 15.0 Opal glass (Palaz) 20.0 Milky Opal (Palaz) 30.-60. Opal glass colored (O'Connor) . . 64.0 The use of reflectors has become quite general but the data on coefficients of re flection varies as may be seen in the fol lowing table by Bell: Highly polished silver 92 Mirrors silvered on surface 70-85 Highly polished brass 70-.75 Highly polished copper 60-.70 Highly polished steel -60 Speculum metal 60-.80 Polished gold 50-.55 Burnished copper 40-.50 Great care should be exercised in re gard to the brilliancy of the source of light. The eye should never be forced to look at a source whose intrinsic brilliancy exceeds 5 candle power per square inch. The intrinsic brilliancy of the various sources of light is shown in the following table : Candle-Power Per Square Inch Moore tube 0.3- 1.75 Frosted Incandescent 2- 5 Candle 3- 4 Gas flame 3- 8 Oil lamp 3- 8 Cooper Hewitt lamp 17 Welsbach gas mantle 20- 50 Acetylene 75- 100 Enclosed A.C. arc 75- 200 Enclosed D.C. arc 100- 500 Incandescent lamps : Carbon 3.5 watts per candle . 375 Carbon 3-1 watts per candle 480 Metallized carbon 2.5 watts per candle 625 Tantalum 2.0 watts per candle 750 "Mazda" 1.25 watts per candle 875 "Mazda" 1.15 watts per candle 1,000 Nernst 1.5 watts per candle 2,200 Flaming arc 5,000 Open arc lamp 10,000-50,000 Open arc crater 200,000 The modern methods of church illumi nation are as varied as the buildings themselves. There are, however, certain facts that have been established by ex periment and the natural evolution of lighting such edifices. There should always be general illumination in addi tion to the light applied to the surfaces when required for special objects so that 43 fc W i — i O > ow o GO FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST SCIENTIST, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. MR. EDGAR A. MATHEWS, ARCHITECT (For additional illustrations of this subject see index) AMERICAN CHURCHES the eye will be rested and not constantly be trying to focus on account of variation in light conditions. There should be no naked lights of high candle power but shades, ground glass bulbs, and other devices should be employed to prevent glare. The quality of the light on the interior should be mellow. No direct rays of light should be directed into the eyes of any person. It is a mistake to attempt to eliminate all shadows as they have their value in producing the desired result. But great care should be exer cised to have no shadow on any surface where the light is used for a specific pur pose such as reading. Lamps should be renewed when they reach the point in their life that they give 80% of their rated candle power. The most modern and satisfactory method of lighting the chancel is by placing a continuous reflector back of the piers on either side and the arch at the ceiling. This has been done in many cases, probably the most modern is the Cathe dral of St. John the Divine in New York. The pews can be lighted properly by means of electrolier, or lights at the capi tals. If there is a gallery, lights must be placed under it to kill the shadow. This can be done by brackets on side walls or lights sunk into the under side of the gal lery. Great care should be exercised to have the correct balance of light under the gallery. The lighting of the pews is governed entirely by the type of architec ture and scheme of decoration. The color scheme should be adopted in con junction with the lighting possibilities as either can render the other incongruous. The changing of colors can be seen by the schedule of Ritchie on the second follow ing page : As a rule the ceiling should not be lighted except by what naturally filters there from the illumination of the spaces below. Special light tight reflectors should be provided for the clergy, organist, and choristers, to throw light only on the pages to be read. The general illumina tion should not be sufficiently high to en able them to read easily as it will then be too high for proper effect and eye ease in the body of the church. Windows have been successfully lighted in two ways. One method is to place lights between the inner and outer win dow in reflectors with glass screens of different density so as to flood the stained glass with lights modified at proper points for the design. The second method can only be used when conditions on the exterior permit. This is to place lights outside the win dows and above same with reflectors to throw the light through the stained glass. It will be seen, therefore, that the illumination of a church is not a problem to be solved in a general way but eaeh building must be worked out by itself, and by one familiar with all the sources of light, the method of installation, the natural laws, the physiological laws, and the architectural design. In short, it is a problem which can be properly solved only with the co-operation of the Archi tect and Consulting Engineer. 45 AMERICAN CHURCHES ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, DETROIT, MICH. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS (For additional illustrations of this subject see index) 46 AMERICAN CHURCHES RITCHIE'S SCHEDULE OF COLOR (Referred to on second preceding page) Description Appearance COLOUR of Light Used Brown Red Green Mauve Blue Orange and Yellow Bright diffused daylight Bluish white or pure white Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Inverted 0. I. arc lamp Bluish white or pure white Normal Slightly brighter than normal Normal Slightly darker than normal Normal Normal Enclosed arc lamp Bluish white Darkened Lightened several shades Darkened consider ably Darkened slightly Darkened slightly Darkened slightly Metallicfilament incandescent lamps Yellow white Lightened and changed to reddish tint Lightened many shades Darkened and changed to a yellower tint Changed to reddertint Darkened and changed to purplish colour Brightened and changed to a more orange shade Inverted incandescent gas Greenish yellow Darkened Lightened many shades Darkened and changed to a yellower tint Darkened and changed to a redder tint Darkened and changed to a more navy blue Brightened many shades Carbon filament incandescent lamps Orange yellow Reddened in tint Lightened many shades Darkened and changed to a yellower tint Darkened and changed to a pinker tint Darkened and changed to a much more purple colour Brightened and changed to a deep orange Ordinary gas light Yellow Reddened in tint Lightened consider ably Changed to a yellower green Changed to a pink rose coloured tint Darkened and changed to a more navy blue Brightened and changed to orange White flame arc lamp Bluish . white Slightly reddened in tint Lightened many shades Changed to a yellower tint and lightened slightly Changed to a bluer and darker shade Brightened and changed to a more intense blue Changed to a deeper and more orange colour Yellow flame arc lamp Deep yellow Darkened slightly Changed to a brick red Deadened and changed to a yellower colour Darkened consider ably and changed to a purple Darkened and changed to a more navy blue Changed to a deeper and more orange colour Mercury vapour lamp Pale blue-green Changed to a greenish colour Changed to almost black Lightened consider ably Changed to a slate- blue grey Deadened Changed to a greenish yellow 47 AMERICAN CHURCHES ALTAR AND REREDOS ALL SAINTS CHURCH, GREAT NECK, L. I., N. Y. MESSRS. CRAM. GOODHUE & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS 48 THE ORGAN FROM THE ARCHITECT'S STANDPOINT By ARTHUR WHEATON CONGDON, A.A.I.A. THE bulk of the church organ causes it to be the most conspicu ous article of furniture in any room where it is placed, and the fact that its size makes it a fixed part of the interior at once suggests its use as a part of the design. The organ builder is gen erally a resourceful man, and more than once has made up for the architect's lack of foresight by his ingenuity. It is the purpose of this article to consider the organ in relation to the design of the building, leaving details of construction to some of the well-known textbooks on the subject. An organ placed in a large church would naturally be designed by its builder mainly for the support of chorus singing, while that in a concert room or residence would be mostly used as a solo instrument in which great power would seldom be required. All details of construction, determining the manner of placing the organ in the building, are the same, dif fering only with the bulk of the instru ment. The instrument that we know as "an organ" is really a combination of several instruments which may be played sepa rately or in various combinations. In the first place, every organ has the main subdivisions that show as separate banks of keys. One of these is intended to be played by the feet, and is therefore called the "pedal" organ; the others, played by the hands, and hence called "manuals," are known as the choir, swell, great, solo and echo organs, each having its own manual. A very small organ may have but one manual, while a large one may have three or four manuals, or banks of keys. The pedal and manual keyboards are grouped together with the stop- knobs and other mechanical devices, as will be explained later, the whole being known as the "console." This may be attached to the organ and form a part of the case, or it may be detached and even in a remote part of the building, con nected to the organ by electricity or otherwise. Each manual has its own set of stops, as has the pedal organ. Each set of stops represents a complete musical in strument, the scale generally correspond ing to the keys, and being as complete in itself as is a pianoforte, with the excep tion that the number of notes on an organ keyboard is less, the pedal keyboard in cluding only thirty-two notes, and the manuals generally sixty-one. Each stop that is drawn on a particular keyboard will sound on that keyboard, and if sev eral stops are drawn several notes will sound for each key that is depressed; moreover, by means of the "couplers," the different keyboards may be con nected, and not only at unison pitch, but also at an octave above or below, so that the pressure of one finger may be made to sound a great many different pipes. The different departments of the organ may be placed together or, in the case of a large building, may be divided, so that the echo organ may be in the roof or other remote position ; and the rest of the instrument may be further divided and placed on opposite sides of the stage or chancel, or a part may be at each end of the auditorium. This makes a variety of effects possible to the skilled performer, and also makes the instrument more flexi ble as a decorative feature ; but such divi sions should be made with considerable discretion owing to the number of pitfalls for the unwary. It is obvious that for unity of musical effect the parts of the instrument should not be too widely scat tered, and if it is to be used to accompany singing, great care should be taken that the placing of these divisions of the in strument does not affect their value ad versely for purposes of accompaniment. There is a certain church in which a very fine and costly organ has been spoiled for practical use by its unwise division; part of it is placed very low down, close to the choir and directly back 49 AMERICAN CHURCHES of the organist; and part of it has been placed in a gallery in the other end of the church. The result is that the portion close to the organist screams in his ears so that he cannot hear his choir, while the part placed in the gallery is so distant that the choir cannot hear it above the. uproar of their own singing; and the organist can never hear both parts _ of his instrument at once when playing them together. The division of the organ and the placing of the console are dependent in large measure on the kind of action used, whether electric, pneumatic, or the old tracker action. The architect must have some idea of which is to be used, and should be in a position to advise intelli gently between them. The "action" of the organ is the device which transmits the pressure of the finger on the key to the pipe and causes it to speak; it has no reference to the motive power for the bellows or blower, as is supposed by some persons. Thus an electric organ may be blown by hand, or a tracker action instrument blown by electric power. Tracker action, the old est and simplest of all, takes its name from the trackers, which are strips of wood connecting the levers of the key board at one end, and the organ-pipe valve at the other. Its merit is that it is positive and dependable, and seldom gets out of order even when neglected, and when broken is easily repaired by any mechanic. Its fault is that in large organs it makes the touch extremely heavy, so that the organist labors, rather than plays; this is particularly true when the manuals are coupled together. Another fault is that the console must always be close to the organ, and is gen erally attached thereto. This makes it awkward if the organ is to be placed in a music hall where on occasions an orches tra or a chorus is to be accommodated. Tracker action is in common use, how ever, for small organs, particularly if they are to be placed in remote villages where a proper mechanic can be obtained only once a year. The next development in organ action was the tubular pneumatic. In this the impulse is taken from key to pipe by 50 means of compressed air, through leaden tubes filled with air under a slight pres sure which is increased by the pressure of the key on a little bellows. This form of action is better than the old tracker, as it is so much lighter in touch even when the whole organ is coupled together; and it is also free from the defect of a possi ble partial opening of the valve by a touch lacking in positiveness, which is apt to give a false note. It permits the console to be detached and at some dis tance from the organ, but in a fixed posi tion. This distance should not be over about thirty feet, as the compressibility of air will make the action slow at a greater distance. The action is a durable one, as the only things to wear out are the rubber connections of the valves with the metal tubes, and when in need of repair is not difficult to mend. The electric action is the most recent development. In it the impulse is taken from key to pipe by means of an electric current of low voltage, the pressure of the key making a contact, and the current energizing an electro-magnet in the organ, which in turn operates the pneu matic valve at the pipe. It is, therefore, sometimes called "electro-pneumatic" action. Owing to the vagaries of elec tricity it is less dependable than either of the foregoing actions, because if anything does go wrong a skilled mechanic is re quired to locate the trouble. Each day sees improvements in it, however, and as the knowledge of electricity becomes more widespread this form of action will prob ably become universal, even for small in struments. It is, of course, instantane ously quick, so that the console may be placed at any distance from the organ permitted by the slow rate of travel of sound; and as the necessary connection need only be by a slender flexible cable the console may be freely movable. Owing to the great ease with which the electricity can be controlled, much more variety of mechanical device may be de signed; and an electric console may have a bewildering array of more or less help ful devices which, if intelligently used, make musical effects possible that cannot be attained with any other form of action. In all three forms of action composition AMERICAN CHURCHES AISLE CASE OF ORGAN, ST. THOMAS'S CHURCH, NEW YORK CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON AND NEW YORK), ARCHITECTS 51 AMERICAN CHURCHES pedals or pistons are provided by which a number of stops may be drawn by one motion on any manual ; but in the electric action this may be further amplified by making the same piston draw a combina tion of stops on the manual, alone, or add to it the proper pedal stops by pressing the piston or key harder ; and a "suitable bass" key may be provided, after pressing which any change in stops made by hand will automatically make the suitable changes in the pedal registration. An other arrangement makes it possible to draw a stop on a manual other than its own. If the action may be likened to the nervous system, the blowing apparatus is obviously the lungs of the organ. The early organs were blown by a bellows like that used by the smith in his forge. As this does not give a steady wind pressure, a wind reservoir was made, fed by one or more bellows or "feeders." The modern organ, with its varied resources, calls for more wind, and in response to this de mand blowing apparatus of a special type has been developed, in which the requisite air pressure is maintained by a rotary fan usually direct-connected to an electric motor. This motor takes its current from the street mains, and is therefore generally of an alternating-current type. Such motors are apt to make a humming or buzzing sound while running, and as the fan or blower may do likewise, the whole apparatus should be enclosed in a sound-proof room and placed at as great a distance from the audience as possible. The wind-trunk, which conveys the air to the organ, should also be provided with a suitable check-valve and flexible sleeve so as to prevent transmission of the sound along the air-current or through the metal of the pipe. The architect should take care with the placing of these blower sets that they should be able to take in and deliver air to the organ that is free from dirt or dust, and is at about the same temperature as the air of the auditorium. This is necessary in order to keep the organ pipes in tune as well as to avoid chilling the auditorium or filling it with foul or musty air; and as the amount of air passing through the pipes of a large organ in the course of an hour's recital 52 is very considerable, it is obviously a mat ter for serious attention. The rotary fan or blower is only pos sible where electric power is available; in more remote places and with smaller organs the blowing apparatus used is a bellows, or reservoir with feeders, worked in the familiar manner of pumping up and down, or if there are three feeders, they may be operated by a wheel and crank shaft. Both methods are largely used, the former being necessary only when a reciprocal-action water-motor is the source of power. Water power applied in this manner is generally reliable, but the architect should make sure that ample supply and waste pipes are provided; a 3-manual organ will require a 2-inch sup ply pipe at the usual city pressure. Care should also be taken that the motor-room is made sufficiently accessible so that the motor valves may be packed and other wise attended to at regular intervals; otherwise, the grit may cut the metal parts and make costly repairs necessary. The motor room should also be protected against freezing. It is better always to have some form of power to operate the bellows. If a man or boy has to be depended on he is seldom available at the time when the organist wants to practise, and is particularly liable to the failings of the flesh when he is most needed. The designing of the organ chamber and its relation to the rest of the plan is peculiarly the architect's province, as no amount of ingenuity can get the best results out of a badly placed instrument, although the organ-builder shows a re markable ability in overcoming difficul ties. It is a lamentable fact that the architect may be to blame for the weak ness of tone and lack of brilliancy of many a costly instrument owing to a poorly planned organ chamber. Few of us seem to realize how large and bulky even a small organ is; and a costly instru ment takes up a surprising amount of room both in height and floor space, so that its location in the plan is a matter calling for serious thought. The organ need not be placed in a cham ber; it is not always a necessity, and where by a little forethought it may be AMERICAN CHURCHES SOUTH CHURCH, NEW YORK CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (NEW YORK OFFICE), ARCHITECTS 53 AMERICAN CHURCHES avoided and the organ placed in a gallery or otherwise in a portion of the hall or room it is almost sure to gain in beauty of tone. Where it is necessary to place it in a chamber, as is usually the case in churches having chancel choirs, the first requisite of such a chamber is ample floor space. If the pipes have to be crowded together they will tend to muffle one an other's sound at best, and at worst the laboratory experiment of "interference of sound waves" may be repeated on a ccili/iq or- ccwc/J^ ON MCfAL LAVH ioLt WALLJ PUJVEPCD WITH POUfLAflD ,0 (PRGAN JWf- MCAL OKjAN CtlMTOL dECTIQ/H large scale, and certain pipes when sound ing at the same time may actually neu tralize one another's tone in whole or in part so that little or no sound is produced. Moreover, if pipes are so packed that they cannot be reached readily for purposes of tuning they may be slighted altogether or not tuned as often as the rest of the instrument; and some may be so inac cessible as to render the journey to them dangerous to the tuner as well as to the delicate mechanism of the instrument. Quite as important a requisite is ample height, for an open pipe speaks out of its mouth or top, and if this is too close to 54 the ceiling the tone may be impaired or even altered in pitch; also, as heated air arises these longer tubes being at a higher temperature than the rest of the organ they will go out of tune during the concert or service when the additional people and lights and lack of ventilation combine to raise the temperature of the room above its normal. It is very important that the chamber should open into the main room with as little obstruction to the sound as possible; the ceiling should follow the line of the arches in order to avoid pockets, and the arches should not be choked up with too dense a mass of front pipes or organ case. It is possible to overcome the ex istence of pockets in some. measure by the use of re flectors of concrete or wood, but these are only makeshifts after all. Unquestionably the free standing organ is the most effective musically; nothing could be better for sound than the position of the organs in the Continental cathedrals in their galleries or the English ones on top of the choir screens. In a recently finished church the old organ was moved from its badly planned chamber to a proper gallery with regret that so inefficient an instru ment should have to be used in the new church even tem porarily, and great was the surprise of the congregation when they heard the full, sweet tone of their old organ in its new position. It leads one to ponder how much better many a good organ might sound if placed to better advan tage. It is unfortunate that there is no standard of size for organs as there is for pianos, for example; when one is asked how large an organ chamber ought to be there is no very definite answer that can be given. Only a few makers list stock sizes and these are seldom used except tor the smallest and cheapest instru- AMERICAN CHURCHES FIRST BAPTIST CHURCH, PITTSBURGH, PA. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (NEW YORK OFFICE), ARCHITECTS 55 AMERICAN CHURCHES ments; generally the instrument is planned for the building according to its needs. In our own practice we have found that for a small church, say one seating about four hundred persons, a chamber about fourteen feet deep and eighteen wide will accommodate an organ costing about $5,000; and we try to get it at least twenty feet high at the sides and higher in the middle, following the line of the arch. In a large church or in a concert room where four or five times this sum may be spent very much more room must be provided. A large organ may have a 32-foot open stop in the pedal depart ment, the longest pipe of which would be about 40 feet long ; and even if it had only a stop of 32 feet tone, using a 16-foot stopped pipe, there would be such an array of other pipes, swell boxes, etc., that the organ would have to be built in two or more stories, requir ing a total height of over thirty feet, not counting free space above the pipes. Mention has been made of the necessity of providing pure air at a proper temper ature for the blowing appa ratus; it is quite as im portant that the organ chamber should be well ven tilated and kept at about the same temperature as the rest of the room. Ventila tion is necessary to preserve the deli cate and perishable wire, leather or rubber parts of the mechanism which would be damaged by gas fumes, and the necessity for equable temperature is apparent when one considers that a change of a dozen degrees of tempera ture will alter the pitch of metal pipes about a semi-tone; as the wooden pipes remain constant or nearly so, the effect is awful to contemplate. For this reason it is best not to have any windows in the organ chamber; in winter they may chill a part of the organ, or if sunlight enters through them a part may be heated by the sun's rays more than the rest and the result will of course be disastrous to the effect of the whole. It follows that no radiator or heater ought to be placed in the organ chamber, nor should the boiler room be located in the cellar beneath the organ, for even if it did not heat it unevenly it would dry out the woodwork to an injurious extent, causing costly leaks and rendering the delicate action unreliable. PLAN OF ORGAN CHAMBER AND CHANCEL In placing an organ in a gallery or on a wooden floor the framing should be amply strong to support the great weight of all the metal pipes ; if there is the least settlement there will be a corresponding change in relationship of the mechanism and trouble will ensue. We may assume the weight of the organ at from 150 to 200 pounds per square foot, according to its size, and to endeavor to frame so that there will be as little settlement as pos sible from timber shrinkage. The walls of the organ chamber, or the space back of the organ, ought to be con- 56 AMERICAN CHURCHES CHAPEL OF THE INTERCESSION, NEW YORK CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (NEW YORK OFFICE), ARCHITECTS 57 AMERICAN CHURCHES creted directly on the masonry without furring, and on metal lath in the case of ceilings; this adds greatly to the reso nance and hence to the power and rich ness of tone of the instrument; raising the organ in a gallery also seems to have a good effect, as the little defects of sound, the hissing of leaking wind, the clatter of pneumatics, and so on, are lost in the distance. The thoughtful architect will also pro vide wall plugs for portable electric lights for the use of the tuners ; many a fire has been started by the tuner's candle, and the interior of an organ, with its great mass of dry wood, is a risk that should be considered. The possibilities of division of the or gan have been referred to ; care should be taken in planning for this that the dis tances are not made too great. Sound travels only 1,120 feet per second, and the human ear can readily detect intervals finer than the one-twenty-fifth of a sec ond; therefore no two parts of an organ that are to be played at the same time should be separated by more than sixty feet; but this need not prevent the loca tion of the echo or solo organs in all sorts of odd and out-of-the-way places. In Gar den City Cathedral, for example, the echo organ is in the roof above the vault ing, and another division of the organ is in the basement robing room. In Cleve land Cathedral a stop of the solo organ is in the basement and the sound is re flected up through ventilator faces at the back of the nave, the effect of a swell be ing produced by varying the positions of the concrete reflectors. The architect's next care will be for the location of the console or key-desk, if, it is not to be attached to the organ. In the case of concert halls it is important to be able to place the console anywhere; but if the detached console is to be a fixture it should be arranged so that end or other panels may be removed in order to get at the action without disturbing other fixed furniture. Space behind the organ bench should also be provided, so that a tall man may shove it back; it is as hard for him to play close up to the console as to ride a boy's-size bicycle. If there are any architectural reasons why these matters cannot readily be arranged the organ builder should be consulted before the plans are entirely fixed. The size of the console varies greatly. Naturally, the console of a small organ is smaller in all its dimensions than that for a large one; and that for an electric action is smaller than a tubular-pneu matic console, sometimes by a foot or more. It is safe to assume a space about five feet square on the floor for the con sole and more in width if possible; the depth increases only when there are more manuals and the height is almost a con stant unless there are a great many stops. mo MKUAL r-jxcp elcctpjc comoLt yr TONJTY CHUgCH. /As TOP LIFf,5 Off A -$> dJDE o I BACK UPTJ Off 7 PA .-f-e". ¦> V PSDM 58 AMERICAN CHURCHES In the purchase of an organ of any size the services of an expert adviser are almost imperative, in which case the architect may safely leave the considera tion of the organ specification to him, re taining control only over the provisions for organ case. Organ specifications are very differ ent from those which we prepare in our offices for the mason and carpenter ; they are little more than lists of names of the stops that are to be included in the in strument. The choice of these is a specialty with which the architect had better not interfere without special train ing ; but as the adviser to his client there are certain points in an organ specifica tion that he should be familiar with. The costly stops in an organ are the "foundation stops," and an organ needs a foundation of tone quite as firm as that for a building. The diapasons, particu larly the open, both in pedal and manuals ; the bourdon in the pedal and sometimes in the manuals, and the tibias are founda tion stops. These must be of ample scale or diameter in proportion to height and must be of good materials of heavy weights in order to give the necessary solidity and richness of tone. In wooden pipes white pine is used almost alto gether; in metal pipes a mixture of tin and lead is used, 25 per cent, of the former being good practice ; if it is richer, say 50 per cent., the result is called "spotted metal," and makes a very beau tiful front pipe without any painting or gilding; its tone is very brilliant, and it is generally used in this country only for the slender pipes of the string-tones. Zinc is often used, especially in cheap organs ; it does not give as rich a tone, but it stands rough handling better. The thickness of the metal is of more importance than the species ; this and the scale of the pipes is never specified by a maker, and one must judge him by his former works. The scale, or diameter of the pipe, fixes the body or largeness of the tone, as the length does its pitch ; it is dependent on the size of the room to be filled, and also on the wind pressure to be used. A cheaper, small-scale pipe may be used by an unscrupulous builder with a high wind-pressure to give the same amount of tone as the large-scale pipe of higher cost, but it is notably lacking in that mellowness and "golden" quality be loved of the poets, that one hears in the famous foreign organs. In considering the organ specifications submitted with the competitive bids the committee will naturally count the num ber of stops that are specified, and as it is a usual device to number and include in the list such useful but inexpensive items as "Bellows Signal" and "Tremulant," knowledge on the part of the architect will make his advice much more helpful to the committee. These things are easily allowed for; but it is less noticeable to the casual observer when a stop is split in two, as "Bourdon Bass" and "Bourdon Treble," where the two stop-knobs merely control the lower and upper parts of one stop. The addition of the so-called "fancy stops" is of value to a concert organ, but in a church organ these com paratively inexpensive stops add little or nothing to the power of the instrument, and are chiefly useful for greater variety in soft solo playing; nevertheless, they swell the list of stops just as much as do the more valuable but also more costly stops of foundation character. It is diffi cult to draw the line between these and the fancy stops, but among the latter are found stops with such names as Unda Maris, Vox Celestis, and the like; the foundation stops seem to have simple names like Diapason, Flute, Tibia, and so on. Generally a diagram or series of notes in the specification is provided to make clear just how many really speaking stops there are, and how often these are bor rowed. The value of this borrowing is a vexed question from a musical standpoint, and many cogent arguments are ad vanced both for and against it; but it undoubtedly adds to the variety of tone combinations at a small expense, while it does not pretend to increase the power or body of the tone in any way. The compass of the keyboards, both manual and pedal, is always specified by the number of notes in each; modern organs have more than the old-fashioned ones, as they are required by modern music, and one should note with care 59 AMERICAN CHURCHES whether the specification calls for the modern range of 32 notes on the pedal organ and 61 on the manuals. Note also whether all the stops run throughout this range; in a cheap organ the more costly stops may lack their lower and even their upper parts, pipes being provided only for the middle register. This makes an in ferior instrument for every purpose, but it permits a large number of stops for a small outlay, as the lower or bass notes always require the most costly pipes. If the specification does not distinctly call for all stops to run through the complete keyboard a schedule should be called for showing the range of each. The pedal keyboard on old organs is flat, and all the keys are parallel, like a magnified piano keyboard. In a board of this sort the lower and upper notes are so far away from the performer as to make playing on them difficult. To obviate this a keyboard has been devised which is con cave and in which the keys radiate from a centre behind the player; in this the middle and the two end keys are theoreti cally equally easy for the performer to reach with his foot. This board has been adopted as a standard by the representa tive body of organists, the American Guild of Organists, and should be pro vided in all organ specifications. The Royal College of Organists of Great Britain has adopted a similar pedal- board. The couplers that are provided are not always numbered in the list of stops, but if this is done allowance should be made for them by the committee; they have their legitimate uses, and a certain num ber of them are necessary ; but they are so easy to multiply under modern mechani cal methods and cost so little that they should not figure as a competitive feature in the specification. The specification should also state whether the combination pistons or tab lets move the stop-knobs or not. Most organists prefer that this should be done, but it complicates the console and adds to its size as well as its cost and is not a ne cessity in a small organ. In large organs, particularly those that are to be played on by a number of different performers, the registers or stop-knobs certainly 60 should be moved by the combination pis tons; in cases where this is not done an indicator is provided, but this is of little use to a stranger and is apt to get out of order. A feature of the specification that re quires attention is the motive power for the blowing apparatus. Sometimes this is not provided under the organ contract, and sometimes a motor may be specified that is not permitted by the local laws, as many towns will not permit the use of a water-motor, and the more expensive electric apparatus will have to be used. In any event, the matter of power ought to be clearly understood, and if a rotary blower is to be used, it should be definitely specified as to make; and the electric motor, if specified, should be one that will suit the local variety of electric current. The specification ought also to make provision for the case and console. It seems hardly necessary to advise that these should be designed by the architect of the building. Organ cases may be roughly classified in three types: the first, in which the organ stands free, either in a gallery or on a screen; the second, in which the organ is placed in a chamber or niche, and is merely provided with a front; and the third type, which is seldom found out side of Italy, in which the front is pro vided with doors like a triptych. The second is the type generally found in Epis copal and other churches, where the in strument shows on the chancel side only, or occasionally has an additional front on the transept side. The triptych is a type that gives the greatest opportunity for richness of ef fect, and seems particularly applicable for organs in residences. In penitential seasons these Italian organs have their doors closed, and, as these are much plainer on the outside, the effect on the interior of the building is most marked and adds not a little to the dramatic effect of the penitential devotions. Where organ cases have been provided with these shutters, it has been said that a marked improvement is observable in the mechan ical department of the organ; the action wears better, and the instrument stands m tune longer, owing to the protection AMERICAN CHURCHES given by the closed doors. This, of course, presupposes the closing of the doors during the very considerable periods during which an organ is not in use. A variation of this type of considerable interest is the organ in the church of Sta. Maria della Scala, Siena; here the organ pipes form a very small part of the dec oration and the case-work is magnified to the limit. It has been taken as the motive for the organ case in the New England Conservatory of Music, where the result is so successful that it should commend itself as an inspiration to any one seeking to design a fitting focus for the music-room of a dwelling or the stage of a concert hall. Sometimes an organ is placed without any case at all, the stark, bare pipes standing naked and unashamed. The painting or gilding of the front pipes is so common now as to be tiresome ; the old organs generally left the front pipes in their natural color, a much more refined method than the garishness of the gilded and polychromed pipes of the late '70's. Great variety of arrangement of the pipes in the case is possible, but the archi tect should consult with the organ builder before his design has taken too definite form and obtain from him a careful lay out of the front pipes along the lines of the sketch for the proposed work; this will serve to fix the scale of the parts and will obviate the expensive and unsatis factory device of dumb pipes. The diameter of the pipes is fixed according to the scale of the organ and their posi tion musically; but the height may be made a variable quantity by the use of dumb tops extending beyond the real top of the pipe. This is not a satisfactory de vice, however, and should be avoided if possible. The pipes should always be arranged with reference to ease of tun ing; in some of the examples shown here with certain pipes must be dumb, or they could never be reached by the tuner. It must be remembered that a pipe is always tuned at the top and not at the lip ; reeds are tuned in a position corresponding to the lip of a pipe, but as they are not of decorative value they are not used for dis play pipes, nor are the wooden pipes, as a rule. Much has been done already to lift the organ to its proper place in the scheme of decoration, but much more can be done, and it is to be hoped that architects will not only consider the placing of the organ in the plan from the practical stand point, but will also pay more attention to its very great possibilities as a feature in the interior composition, and that they will use their influence with their clients to promote this end. Musically, the organ has a dignity and nobility that is unique, and architecturally it has latent possibili ties for the development of these same qualities. AMERICAN CHURCHES Oi to ROOD SCREEN, ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, GREAT NECK, L. I., N. Y. CRAM, GOODHUE .& FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE). A&CHZT&CTS ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN CHURCH ARCHITECTURE By WALLACE C. SABINE NO other problem presents to the architect acoustical difficulties in such varied form as that of church design. Other audi toriums are relatively standardized, and while the departures within this stand ardization may be such as to produce good or bad acoustical results, these departures are generally along few lines. The theatre, the lecture room, and the concert hall are, compared with the church, almost conventional, and the variations are in a few planes, in dimen sions, and in decoration. In the church, on the other hand, the gamut, in size from chapel to cathedral, in form from the American church architecture of the middle nineteenth century to the ecclesi astical architecture of Europe, is beyond parallel in any other type of auditorium. In plan, a church may be circular or square; it may be rectangular, and broader than deep, or, longer, and very much longer, than it is broad. In eleva tion, its ceiling may be spherical, or barrel shaped, or plane, it may be groined, or timbered ; it may be a lantern, approached by plane sloping surfaces, or flanked and supported by a cross of shal low arches; it may be a nave, with or without transept, or apse, or aisles. Almost none of these, or of the many other types that occur, are to be unquali fiedly condemned, and all may be adapted, though with varying readiness, to give at least moderately good results. Finally, to cap the complexity, the problem must concern itself both with speech and with music, aspects not necessarily inconsist ent, but certainly not identical. When the problem is so infinitely varied its discussion, in order to be so complete as to be a guide in design, must not merely explain the general principles but must follow them in all their rami fications. To this end it would be neces sary to discuss in detail such subjects as reverberation, interference, echo, and resonance; it would be necessary to re define them, to explain the methods of their determination and their computa tion, and their significance in arriving at the ultimate solution. It is out of the question to undertake all this within the space of the present paper ; it is possible, however, to explain broadly the essential considerations relating to church acous tics. It is necessary to emphasize that no single feature in design is necessarily in corrigibly bad from the standpoint of acoustics, or, alone, a guarantee of good results — neither a detail, such as a ceiling which is flat, or barrel shaped, plane or coffered, walls which are broken by columns, by pilasters, or plane, not large aspects of the problem such as the style of architecture, be it Romanesque, Gothic, or Colonial, nor indeed even the size, al though this is more difficult to control by other counterbalancing features. The problem is one whose ultimate result depends in every case on several factors, on size, on form, in large and in detail, and on the materials employed through out in the construction. For example, a dome intolerable in one position may in another, with a different radius of curvature, and above all of a different material become not merely tolerable but positively good. The Gothic and Roman esque cathedrals of Europe show acous tical difficulties which are more depen dent on the materials of which they were composed than on their form, difficulties which are not unavoidable with materials which are known today. On the other hand, early Colonial churches were on the whole acoustically good, better indeed than much of the corresponding English 63 AMERICAN CHURCHES Georgian, because, in part at least, of the kind of plaster employed and the method of its application — a kind no longer com mon, and a method no longer possible. It is equally necessary to emphasize the- fact that a considerable acoustical ef fect can be accomplished only by a con siderable change in design or in construc tion. Very insignificant changes are often advanced for the remedying of large and often fundamental acoustical difficulties, such, for example, as the stretching of wires, the rough trowelling of walls, the painting or the sanding of walls, or the placing about the room of hollow plaster busts, the one as worth less as the other. It has even been pro posed to use the flow of air for the venti lating of the room to carry the sound from the speaker to different parts of the audience. Indeed, one may find in some otherwise very creditable discussions of the subject, the roughness of a wall sur face spoken of as a factor in its reflecting power. As a matter of fact it is utterly inconceivable that any finished surface should have a texture such that its mere roughness would be a factor in its acous tical quality. To look for such an effect is to ignore on the one hand the relatively great length of the waves of audible sound, and on the other the extremely small, indeed microscopic, amplitude of vibration of the air. By the same reason ing it is possible to show that the stretch ing of wires is valueless. Nor is it diffi cult to show that, while in certain audi toriums and in certain positions statuary is valuable, it is so not because it is hol low, and not in the auditoriums nor in the places for which it often has been pro posed. A notable change in the acousti cal quality of an auditorium can be ac complished only by a notable change in the shape, the size, or in the materials employed in its construction. But the important thing to bear in mind is that the value of the latter, as a factor for better or worse, should be determined not by guesswork, analogy, or even loose qualitative reasoning, but by an accurate quantitative measurement of its reflect ing power. With this data in hand, it is possible to determine in advance of con struction the exact acoustical quality which will result from any fully deter mined design. Thus it is possible to calculate all the physical factors that go to determine the quality of an auditorium and to express these physical magnitudes numerically. It is possible for one who has so analyzed many auditoriums and has had experi ence of them to know the quality which such figures define and to say in advance of construction whether a hall built ac cording to a certain design will be good, bad or indifferent, and indeed to qualify these grades. But this is not sufficient. It expresses merely his opinion. It is true that his judgment may be excep tionally well trained ; it probably is. But, nevertheless, rather should it be possible to say whether a particular design would result in a church which by common con sent would be classified as having a cer tain quality. Common consent is obvi ously a laborious standard to establish in any field of inquiry. It is especially diffi cult here in view of the not inconsiderable labor involved in figuring a single church, the number of churches which should be examined, and the great variety of standards. For a hall designed for orchestral music or chamber concerts the task is by no means so formidable, for the number of competent critics whose opinion is worth while securing and the number of halls worthy of analysis is relatively few. Not merely does the church vary more in type and in the serv ice which it is to render, but the com petent critics of its acoustical quality are much more numerous. No inconsiderable headway has been made in this task. Already over fifty churches have been measured and analyzed, preliminary to their correction, and most valuable data has been thus secured. But such material relates to the lower part of the scale- to churches whose normal construction has called for more or less drastic correc tion. To complete the scale of critical opinion it is necessary to similarly meas ure and analyze churches which have met with approval as well as many from that large number which are indifferent in quality. It should be possible in this way 64 AMERICAN CHURCHES to establish a scale of five grades of very good, good, indifferent, bad, and very bad. It is easily possible to lay altogether too great stress on the fact that the church problem is one which concerns both speech and music and that the best conditions for each of these are some what different. While it is possible to lay too great stress on this fact, it is an even greater error to ignore it alto gether. For speech two qualities alone are essential, loudness and clearness ; the one cannot be obtained except somewhat at the expense of the other. The reflections of the sound from even the nearer walls and ceiling surfaces, which very greatly re-enforce the loudness, in some measure at least detract from its clearness. The determination of what constitutes good acoustical quality is the determination of the best balance between these two con flicting conditions. The extreme condi tion in either respect is bad. Thus, speak ing out of doors on an open and level plane without encircling walls or trees is a condition in which the distinctness is wholly unimpaired, but the volume of sound is insufficient except for certain types of address. On the other hand, numerous cases are within the experience of every one in which loudness is secured at the excessive expense of clearness. It is not necessary to cite examples; it is a too familiar phenomenon. In brief, loudness and clearness are inter-depend ent; one is desirable, one is undesirable; and good design consists in making the loudness of the distributed sounds as great as possible consistent with not ex cessive echoes or reverberation. For music the case is different ; for here reverberation has a positive value of its own. Probably under no condition does music sound to less advantage than in an unrestricted space. One may quote so excellent an authority as Mr. Geriske, the former conductor of the Boston Sym phony Orchestra, that even the partial confinement of a city street greatly en hances the music of a band. Reverbera tion has not merely a slightly sostenuto effect, introducing a delicate harmony into even single part melodic composi tion, but also enriches the harmony of full part music, and above all serves to take from music a thin staccato quality which is perhaps best realized by com paring, even if only in imagination, a piano played indoors and out of doors far from any limiting walls. In moderation, reverberation enriches the harmony, renders the tones more full, and rounds out the attack. In excess, it so prolongs the tones that harmony becomes discord and the rounding of the attack becomes its complete obliteration. Thus in music reverberation is present not by suffer ance, but by intention ; by good design it is present to an accurately determined degree. Churches illustrative of the ex tremes, of too little and too great rever beration, are Saint John in Cambridge, and Saint John the Divine in New York. While loudness on the one hand and echo and reverberation on the other are determining considerations in the ma jority of cases there are two other phases of the acoustical problem which occasion ally become important factors, — interfer ence, not infrequently, and, though far more rarely, resonance. Indeed all five, loudness, echo, reverberation, interfer ence, and resonance are factors in every acoustical problem. In any particular case their importance in the order named is inversely as the size of the audi torium. It is obvious, without argument, that the difficulty of securing adequate loudness and of avoiding excessive echoes is greatest in a very large auditorium; and, other things being equal, reverbera tion is proportional to the linear dimen sions. On the other hand, interference exists only when some of the sounds re flected from the walls or ceiling surfaces are coincident, at least in part, with the sound which has come direct. Only when the difference in paths travelled is slight do the sounds overlap; and only when they overlap do they interfere. Obvi ously thus, interference is a pronounced factor just in proportion as the distances to some of the wall or ceiling surfaces are small measured from either the speaker or the audience, and, therefore, that the smaller the auditorium the greater the phenomenon of interference 65 AMERICAN CHURCHES as a factor in that aggregate which is called its acoustics. Finally resonance, using this word in its true sense, is the reaction of the reflected sounds on the speaker himself. It is obvious in this case that the distance of the wall surfaces from the audience is immaterial, and that only the distance from the speaker is a factor. Only in a very small room or where there is a convergence of surfaces near the speaker is resonance an im portant consideration. Reverberation and resonance affect equally the audition in all parts of a church. Local difficulties and the so- called deaf spots are due to the other two adverse factors, echo and interference. In by far the greater number of cases where such singularities are pronounced the difficulty is due to a combination of echoes. These echoes are generally not distinguishable from the direct speech, but nevertheless come at so long an inter val as not to serve to re-enforce the voice which has come directly from the speaker. This aspect of the localized problem calls for little discussion of a general nature; it is an obvious factor. The other factor, interference, calls per haps for some explanation. If a key on the organ is held depressed while coupled by the drawn stop to a relatively pure toned pipe such as a wooden diapason or metal gemshorn the phenomenon of inter ference is easily observed. At any one point the sound is constant, but varies when the observer moves there being regions of silence not far from regions of relatively great loudness. This phe nomenon is due to the fact that two sounds of the same pitch arriving at a fixed point may re-enforce each other or may neutralize each other according to the manner in which the waves coalesce. This system of distributed intensities varies with the pitch, the distances from maximum to minimum being generally the greater the lower the note. In articu late speech the characteristic notes, which are by no means the ground notes of the voice, change with great rapidity, and the resulting interference systems have time to form coincident with the direct speech only when the room is small or the distance of the reflecting surfaces short. It is for this reason that the phe nomenon of interference is not a more troublesome factor in architectural acoustics and that it is only under special circumstances that it contributes to the formation of the so-called deaf spots. The whole development in building ma terials and in methods of construction during the past thirty years has been in such a direction as to make the chance of satisfactory acoustical results in a church, if the acoustics be left to chance, scarcely a third of what they were thirty or forty years ago, even leaving out of account, although this is fairly within the reckoning, an increased dignity in ecclesi astical architecture in America and a development of its forms on a more generous scale. One may cite the in creased use of stone and cement, or that plaster is more often applied directly to the tile and brick where formerly it was held from the wall on 'studding. More over it is now applied in thickness two or three times as great as formerly; and for the sake of quick setting and drying, patent hard plaster is used instead of the old mortar plaster. Each of these im provements is admirable and has its entire justification in other considerations. But while these mechanical difficulties in the way of good acoustics have increased there has on the other hand been an in creased demand for good acoustical qual ity, partly because of a greater emphasis on the sermon and the spoken service, partly because of an increased impatience on the part of the congregation with the necessity for excessive effort in giving sustained attention. It is an exceedingly interesting observation that this insist ence on the importance of the spoken service is quite as great in the ritualistic churches as in others. These two conflict ing tendencies have between them greatly increased the severity of the architect's problem. 66 STAINED AND PAINTED GLASS By GEORGE HERBERTSON CHARLES #r\ WINDOWS in colored glass, leaded, have long been known, popularly and technically as "stained glass windows," but the term is not comprehensive, as all colors, with the exception of a true yellow stain obtained by silver salts, are colored in the pot when the glass is made, or white glasses are flashed with thin coatings of colored glass. Most reds are obtained by the latter method. Both colored and white glasses are painted andleaded, and the distinctive features of stained glass windows are, in fact, more ac curately described by the terms "painted and leaded." This noble craft has inspired lovers of growing color since primitive col ored glass was made, and the happy expedient of enlisting the blessed light-o'- the-sun to vitalize an artist's expres sion was first em ployed. To those who re spond to its distinctive appeal, all other mediums seem at times tame and inef fectual by comparison. It alone, among the materials with which we are familiar, offers the singing splendor of pure trans parent color transfused with light. Its very limitations, in the hands of those who love it, but add to its power and charm. The intense blacks of leads and stay-bars are ideal settings for the jewel-like color and lustrous whites of a well-composed window. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the masterpieces of the twelfth and thir- ENGLISH XIV CENTURY GLASS FROM SALISBURY teenth centuries, when the difficulties which faced the artist and craftsman were so largely in evidence. Glass was made only in small pieces, the palette was limited, and it was well-nigh impossi ble to match colors accurately in different pots. Naturally, too, many mistakes were made in attempting various colors, so that instead of being lured into mechani cal repetition, or staid and scholarly formula?, the maker of windows was kept vivid and fresh, and "being bound in the flesh was set free in the spirit." Consider any one of the rich treasures of Chartres, of Bour- ges or of Reims. Is it not true* that many of its rare virtues are to be traced to these very limitations? Of course their value was in a sense negative, and without the pro pelling force of a genius for rela tively perfect ex pression in color, no worthy result would have been achieved. The important point to con sider is, that with later improved facili ties, when the artist was no longer "hampered" by such limitations, he was led far afield, and left the glories of that day for the polished and inept trivialities, the mechanical and tiresome accuracies, with which we are all too familiar. It is useless to attempt to discount the achievements made in the production of any material for which there is a legiti mate use. The enlarged palette and other increased facilities, offered to the artist who works in glass, should be encourag- &yy^jS 67 AMERICAN CHURCHES ing and enlightening, rather than con fusing. Results are disastrous only when, tempted by an almost unlimited range of color, and by an alluring array of devices to disguise the rugged verities of his craft, he forgets the fundamental princi ples on which it is founded. These principles could not be stated more clearly or more accurately than in in which one seeks to render the effects of linear and aerial perspective, of light and shade with all their transitions, on,* a panel of transparent colors, is an undei^l taking as daring as to attempt to render the effect of the human voice with stringed instruments. Different proc esses, different conditions, different branches of art. In an opaque painting, in a picture, the radiation of the colors is SECTION OF A MODERN WINDOW BY CHRISTOPHER WHALL, IN GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL the following words from the "Vitrail" of Viollet le Due. "What have been lost or forgotten dur ing many centuries are the true manners which alone are suitable to painting of glass; manners dictated by study of the effect of light and optics; manners per fectly understood and employed by the glass painters of the twelfth and thir teenth centuries, neglected from the fif teenth century on, and afterwards dis dained, in spite, as we have said, of the immutable laws imposed by light and optics. To try and reproduce what is called a picture, that is to say, a painting 68 absolutely under the control of the painters, who, by halftones, shadows of diverse intensity and values, according to the different planes, can diminish or aug ment it at will. The radiation of trans parent colors in glass cannot be thus modified by the artist; whose whole talent consists in profiting by it to work out a harmonic scheme on a single plane, like a rug, not in working out effects of aerial perspective. "In spite of all that one can do, a glass window never does and never could rep resent more than a single plane, it loses its true qualities except under that condi- AMERICAN CHURCHES ''¦m^r'i$3r'm>l^ r: far wm r iNOMMUlM . - - GREAT WEST WINDOW, PROCTOR HALL, GRADUATE COLLEGE, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS DESIGNED AND EXECUTED BY WM. WILLETT AND ANNIE LEE WILLETT 69 AMERICAN CHURCHES tion, every attempt made to present to the eye a series of planes destroys the har mony of the colors without producing any illusion for the spectator. _ . . . Transparent painting can never aim to be anything but a drawing or design second- tion of custom or blind affection for an art which we might try to maintain in its archaism, as is sometimes asserted ; it is an absolute question, since (we cannot re peat it too often) it is one decided by physical laws whereof we can change no h' -yj 9 %jff ^ M s ^ m w w *y ag it * l# €1 ^ f*3 y^iif^r.- ?*7& <*?y i«»r..j'Vil\l't|i'lB.: i < S»>ifPM: mi i w.i rH r.ffc 3i it I .' «T t"» 1.1 II I ie ' l ¦ i . J •' A 1 "rt * v- 1 -JC'iWi * lfer>&i MEMORIAL WINDOW, "SERMON ON THE MOUNT", MEMORIAL CHURCH OF ST. PAUL, OVERBROOK, PA. ing as energetically as possible a harmony in colors, and, when it is so treated the result is successful. To try and intro duce the peculiar characteristics of opaque painting into transparent paint ing, is to lose the precious qualities of the transparent painting without possible compensation. This is not at all a ques- whit. You will never be able to make a guitar sing like Rubini, and although some people take pleasure in listening to the overture of William Tell played on the flageolet, that can scarcely be the taste of true music lovers." The sincerity and good taste of many present day architects have done much to 70 AMERICAN CHURCHES restore respect for this decorative art so In no other decorative medium are sue- closely related to architecture. Their cesses more gratifying in their power to influences are to be felt in a renewed, in- enhance the distinctive character and telligent interest in great achievements beauty of an interior, nor are any other of the past, and in a growing demand for failures so fatal to the efforts of the archi- work by inspired artists and craftsmen tect, and of all who may have striven with him, to glorify and enrich the inner fabric of a church edifice. So obvious a fact should scarcely need to be mentioned; but when we recall the vast num ber of unsuccessful windows in the churches of our cities and towns, naturally the architects' knowledge and judgment in re spect to them are sure to be questioned. A comparatively recent report by the Committee of Education of the American Institute of Architects has ably suggested the dilemma which faces the American Architect in his effort to secure the efficient co-opera tion of American Craftsmen. "In the good old days when an architectural monument was a plexus of all the arts, the archi tect was pretty much at the mercy of the craftsman, and he still is, with a difference, for then every bit of sculpture or painting or carving or metal work and joinery, and glass and needle work, when these latter came into play, enhanced the architecture, glorified it, and sometimes redeemed it as well; now either our carving is butch ered, our sculpture and painting conceived on lines that deny their architectural setting, our metal work turned out by the commer cial ton, our stained-glass work defiant of every law of God, man or architect, or it is all reduced to a dead level of technical plausibility, without an atom of feel ing or artistry — and we are glad to take it this way for the sake of escaping worse." These words should have the thought ful consideration of all who are interested in window-making, for they present, per haps rather too darkly, a situation that ENGLISH— GLOUCESTERSHIRE, EARLY XV CENTURY today. This is, of course, as it should be, for the first consideration of the maker of windows should have to do with the building which is to contain them. The problem of church lighting, while it re veals fascinating possibilities, offers sobering responsibilities which architect and "glassman" must share. 71 AMERICAN CHURCHES AT LEFT:— CROCKER MEMORIAL WINDOW, ST. GABRIEL'S CHURCH, MARION, MASS. MESSRS. SHEPLEY, RUTAN & COOLIDGE, ARCHITECTS AT RIGHT:— FRAGMENT OF A WINDOW AT NEWTON CENTER, MASS. DESIGNED AND EXECUTED BY MR. C. J. CONNICK 72 AMERICAN CHURCHES has long been particularly evident in re views of the work of our shops and studios. Another aspect is equally worthy of presentation. There are men in prac tically every large city, who are striving earnestly to express, sincerely and frankly, the high ideals which this medium might well be expected to evoke. Some of them are working under pro nounced difficulties, many are struggling against unequal and unfair competitive conditions ; all sorely need recognition, direc tion, and encouragement. Thoughtful architects have recently, with praiseworthy far-sightedness, searched out just such artist-craftsmen, and results have not only justified their efforts, but have led to marked changes of most splendid promise. It is also their manifest in tention, when confronted with the problem of church light ing, to study glass and lead and paint in varying stages as they are wrought into windows, at first hand, in the studio and workshop. One of the first things they discover is that the making of glass in rich, pure color such as was used by the masters of old, is no lost art, as many writers on the sub ject may have led them to be lieve. What is lost is the widely diffused love for it, and the consequent small de mand for such, colors from the glass makers themselves. When the windows de signed by Burne-Jones for St. Philip's Church in Birming ham were made some twenty years ago, but little difficulty was found in securing pris- maitc colors which rivaled the glories of the famous glass in Chartres. The glass used was "antique," in sheets, fur nished by a well known Lon don glass firm. The windows are now universally recognized as ex amples of noble thought and work, car ried to the pitch of perfection in design, and comparable to the best work of the masters of old in full, true color. Later when Christopher Whall, Louis Davis and other ardent lovers of the craft demanded glass more nearly resem bling that of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, glassmakers in England were remarkably successful in producing raa- CLERESTORY WINDOW, TRINITY CHURCH, ASBURY PARK, N. J. EXECUTED BY HEINIGKE & BOWEN 73 AMERICAN CHURCHES "THE LAST JUDGMENT" WINDOW BY SIR EDWARD BURNE-JONES IN ST. PHILIP'S CHURCH, BIRMINGHAM, ENGLAND 74 AMERICAN CHURCHES THE GREAT CHANCEL WINDOW. FOURTH PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, CHICAGO, ILL. DESIGNED AND EXECUTED BY CHARLES J. CONNICK CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON & HOWARD VAN DOREN SHAW, ASSOCIATED ARCHITECTS terial which left but little to be desired. This glass is known variously as "Bottle Glass," "Norman Glass" and "Norman Slabs," and is made of compara tively small masses of glass, blown and whirled into bull's-eye glass, or blown into shapes which are broken when cooled, into oblongs or slabs of varying thickness. To those familiar with the thorough and painstaking treatise of Theophilus, and with the exhaustive "Vitrail" of Viollet le Due, this will be seen to re semble closely the essential methods of the early glassmakers. The latter authority wrote in this connection, as follows: "From the decorative standpoint, the bull's- eye glasses, or those roughly spread out, pre sent an advantage. Since these glasses were col ored in the mass, at least during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries (with the exception of the red) ; the difference in thickness of the plates of glass caused gradua tions in tone, which the glazers employed with great skill by cutting the glass so that the thinner pieces came at the lighter parts of the design. Even in solid backgrounds these vari ations in thickness gave an appearance of chang ing lustre to the colors which, at a distance, augments singularly the intensity of the tones. All colorists know that to give a color its full value, it must be pre sented to the eye only in little pieces, in bursts, so to speak." So widespread has the soft attraction of dull and safe neutral colors become, that these won derful glasses are comparatively un known in this country. The 'reason for timidity on the part of American de signers and makers of windows is perfectly obvious. The light to which windows are here subjected is intense to the point of harshness, and an unhappy juxtaposition of pure color results in a lusty discord of terrific power. The tendency has been, therefore, to nullify and obscure the light, and this in clination is doubtless responsible for the introduction of the so-called opalescent glass, which, notwithstanding its long 75 AMERICAN CHURCHES I nil #5Tfi j--'-.'-? r' .-ijk >•' 'fasBJ, vl tr *> # ", ,¦¦ •-SSI.''*.?""".. X. Ai i " >'Jf'",^- l^v 1 V~"~ ^ 4J §&•) »'\7« • ¦¦>*£¦?-'"¦%. ./> -,*¦ ;''5' /.»/•;¦ 1,'WS ' •»* ' "**'t- 1 )*C! m. **'¦¦¦' * 1<^ v: ¦ ' ,/¦ 7-y ¦ ^.^- J yd : ¦y ~: • - ''%,%r ¦ 7<.'**' »•. 1 *„i! •¦.'**¦;.- - '¦- ¦* , P^sjQs^Sa^B^^ THE LOWER HALF OF THE PRODIGAL SON WINDOW IN THE CATHEDRAL AT BRUGES. A FAMOUS EXAMPLE OF THE MEDALLION WINDOWS OF THE XIII CENTURY DRAWN BY CHARLES J. CONNICK period of favor among us, was never ac cepted seriously by European craftsmen. One reason why opalescent glass con tinued its American vogue for so long was that English windows designed for a softer light, in whites and colors more or less neutral in tone, were fairly shot to pieces by our powerful light. It came to be quite generally accepted that "Antique" glass was too thin and transparent for use in American win dows, and opalescent glass, opaque and rather undefined in color, was for a time looked upon as our own distinctive and adequate material. In many instances English painted windows were plated on the outside with huge sheets of opalescent glass, and the heterogeneous mass resulting, was suc cessful at least in obscuring the light. This problem is not a new one. In parts of France, and in some few in Eng land, an intense light has demanded the thoughtful consideration of the window artist. Therefore, the solutions he of fered are extremely interesting to us. The representative twelfth and thirteenth century windows would seem to have answered gloriously in their color alone all requirements for subdued light; but if they could at once be divested of the dust of centuries, and of the curious erosions which atmospheric conditions have wrought, the skill of the painter- designer in utilizing intense light to ad- '/ l'l iimm V '*'V.I-'Jl ¦ m - 4" m:^m^i\^'* mmakt J! 1 m E W^r ill ^bh1^^m!^^Bf fi ii P Ii* lit!1 *¥ 1 tflRm ill !B iu.t ' 7. . ii m . jk»i. fa. 11 ilif.lll^ .- 1.U.I »«»- y ill 1 1 IB 1 to. $ ^ " ¦»'' It PffU l A Tt "tli , ih ' . im . i 11 ¦ y\Y- ^^fra _^H ^L.JT vH i iy5wBfljl liH ¦» i4l?iMK[ifi J plfflBiKfll^ TRANSEPT WINDOW, HOUSE OF HOPE CHURCH, CHICAGO CRAM, GOODHUE & PERGUSON, ARCHITECTS EXECUTED BY YOUNG & BONAWITS 76 AMERICAN CHURCHES vantage would be more clearly revealed. Viollet le Due was unquestionably right in his contention that the twelfth century glass painter had a perfect understand ing of the laws governing radiation of color, and these words, inspired by an artists' joy in full color and tempered with scientific knowledge, are indispen sable in this connection. "These artists knew first, that tones WINDOW, ST. MARK'S CHURCH, FRANKFORD, PHILADELPHIA, PA. THE D'ASCENZO STUDIOS have only a relative value; second, that the radiation of certain transparent colors is such that it alters or modifies the qual ity of these colors themselves ; third, that painting applied on glass should, even in the most heavily shaded parts, allow the neutral tone to be seen, not through a film but by bits of pure color; because a shadow which completely covers a col ored glass gives, at a distance, an opaque tone that does not partake of the real color of the glass but rather of that of the neighboring colors, in accordance with their radiating properties." It seems curiously significant that, al though the successful treatment of win dows in strong light by the Old Masters in glass has long been appreciated by our traveled architects, students and inter ested laymen, no such simple statement of obvious facts as that quoted above seems to have been well circulated among the American artists in glass up to a comparatively recent time- The realization that strong light is a glory they may util ize nobly, rather than a force they must painfully neutral ize and curtain, is dawning upon our "glass men," and this is the most promising of all the hopeful signs within the craft today. It is now more generally felt that windows are de signed to admit light and that whether they face the splendor of our mid-day sun, or have a less intense north light, the principle remains the same. The consideration of pictorial possibilities is no longer allowed entirely to dis place the artist's allegiance to this principle. There remains little question but that trans parent colored or white glass (painted, as we have noted, so that the light is "stopped down" but not obscured in heavy masses), is the logical medium to use in the making of stained and painted glass windows. This glass in sheets is known as "antique," and the better grades of it are made in England, as are also the lustrous "bottle glass" and "Norman glass," to which we have referred. Happily, owing to the tendency toward radiation, these glasses, when painted in spots or lines, rather than in tones or masses, gain in vitality and in depth and richness of color as the light is intensified. So marked is this tendency that a win- 77 AMERICAN CHURCHES DETAIL OF CHANCEL WINDOW, ALL SOULS' CHURCH, BANGOR, ME. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & PERGUSON, ARCHITECTS DESIGNED AND EXECUTED BY MR. C. J. CONNICK 78 AMERICAN CHURCHES ST. THOMAS A BECKET. FROM THE WINDOW IN BEAUCHAMP CHAPEL, WARWICK, XV CENTURY DRAWN BY CHARLES J. CONNICK dow in full color, heavily painted, when seen in a strong light, gives little sugges tion of dull black in the heavy lines of dark neutral paint which have been fused into its surface. They, with the substan tial leads and sturdy stay-bars are so in fluenced by the color radiation that their very blackness, greatly reduced in area, assumes the quiet lustre of intense dark color. In relation to this fact, Viollet le Due observes: "Transparent light devours so easily the opaque parts, such as the irons, leads and the heavy lineaments, that the painter must pay most careful heed to this phenomenon. On the other hand this influence of light cannot be counteracted by simply enlarging the shadows beyond measure, for then he only succeeds in making dark spots which destroy the form instead of accenting it. However, in spite of this devouring fac ulty of light, the least line out of place, at SKETCH FOR LEADED GLASS WINDOW- CHRIST HEALING THE SICK, ST. JOHN'S CHURCH, CYNWYD, PA. 79 AMERICAN CHURCHES variance with the form, shocks the eye more than it could do in an opaque paint ing; all of which demonstrates that in Color-photography has brought forth this fact in a most convincing manner and a successful transparency is most en lightening in its accurate record of color radiations in stained glass windows. One of the most interesting chapters in the history of painted glass has to do with the reaction, evident late in the thirteenth century, to mark the protest against dark interiors which were inevitable when windows in full color were used through out a church edifice. The manner in which the response was «W v> mmm FRAGMENT— SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS OF CHRIS TIAN LEARNING, POST GRADUATE COLLEGE, PRINCETON DESIGNED AND EXECUTED BY WILLIAM WILLET AND ANNIE LEE WILLET painting on glass all lines, no matter how delicate, have their value. If they are correctly placed they can hardly be per ceived, if they are placed contrary to the form they torment the eye." 80 mWMi "^m i AISLE WINDOW IN OLD ST. MARK'S CHURCH, NEW YORK EXECUTED BY HEINIGKE & BOWEN AMERICAN CHURCHES made to the demand for more light again awakens our admiration for the crafts men pf that period. Although, a type of CENTRAL WINDOW OF APSE, LADY CHAPEL, LIVERPOOL CATHEDRAL grisaille, entirely in white glasses, leaded in small pieces with little or no paint, was known early in the twelfth century, it remained for the artist of a later period to add bands and spots of pure color, so that it took its place logically in edifices containing important windows in full color, and was often used effectively as a coherent part of windows containing colored medallions and figures. WINDOW, DESIGNED AND EXECUTED BY YOUNG & BONAWILS One great secret of the beauty and ef fectiveness of grisaille is, of course, the strict adherence of its designers to the same principles of light and optics that marked their wonderful successes in the use of color. On the field of varying tones of whites, 81 AMERICAN CHURCHES the light is broken by flowing lines and The tendency to copy faithfully the by delicate lattices or hatchings, and the work of the early masters does not lead flashes of color, especially the reds and necessarily either to sure success or to yellows, are left practically clear of paint. certain failure. Many windows of gen- It is a curious fact that this truly beautiful type of painted glass was, until re cently, represented in America by crude examples done mechanically, and en tirely lacking in the silvery lustre and charming bursts of color which distinguish the old-world grisaille. To- day many American churches are enriched by grisaille, wrought sympa thetically in the exquisite textures consistent with its highest possibilities, and painted with due regard for varying intensities of light. Its cost is so moderate that, in many instances, a type of it is used for tem porary glass, and thus the violent glare, so distasteful to architect and layman, is most pleasantly avoided. It is not within the range of this article, if indeed it be possible in any form of ex pression, to define the endur ing beauty and charm of a worthy achievement in stained and painted glass. As well attempt to "Write in a book the morning's prime Or match with words a tender sky." Its great, if not its greatest distinction lies in color; and certainly no rules thus far formulated have furnished the subtle guiding influences which would produce, through cool intellectual processes, the glow and thrill of a true color composition. WINDOW, CHURCH OF THE HOLY FAITH, LOS ANGELES, CAL. EXECUTED BY JAMES FREDERICK RUDY uine charm have so closely followed mediaeval types as to be frankly archeological in their most direct appeal. There is much to be said for such windows, especially at this time when the true dig nity of composition in lead and glass is only beginning to be broadly appreciated. It is essential to revert to early schools of window- making, not primarily to copy drawing or composition (although a knowledge of both is necessary), but rather we are inspired by the discovery that, in their acceptance of the broad principles on which the craft is founded, they were un swervingly right, and that they were creative artists of wonderful distinction and power. It is the lofty spirit that inspired the artists of old, vivid and vital in its inspira tion, that we would reveal to all who are interested in the craft. Architects who are sin cerely striving to build and enrich enduring structures will find this spirit strug gling for expression, and at times bursting forth most radiantly even through the many discouraging condi- tionsso evident today. It is sure to prevail even tually among us as it has always prevailed among lov ers of beauty and its ex pression in inspired handi craft, throughout the cen turies. 82 AMERICAN CHURCHES HOUSE OF HOPE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, ST. PAUL, MINN. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS LANCETS OF TRANSEPT WINDOW IN GRISAILLE. WITH FIGURES OF SAINTS IN FULL COLOR. l^AJNOJiifc v* ii"" DlJ (BIGELOW MEMORIAL WINDOW.) DESIGNED AND MADE BY CHARLES J. CONNICK Thic window is remarkable for the lustrous silvery tones of the Grisaille, which are interspersed with binds Ind spStt of ewel-like color. These color mot ves are taken up in larger masses qancis a£°tj£"flBguresJarid the whole affords an illumination in warm and silvery lights. 83 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GOTHIC APSE By LEWIS W. SIMPSON, F.R.I.B.A. HOW often one finds that a modern gothic church has been spoilt by an apsidal chancel, yet this may have been the express wish of the client, and in direct opposition to the architect, who has probably condemned it as out-of-date, undignified, etc., in com parison with a rectangular treatment ! Of course in the case of a cathedral, condi tions are different as the apse has an ambulatory arcade, triforium and clerestory. In this article I do not advocate the apse for a small church, I merely call atten tion to the possibility of its better treat ment, and mention some interesting ex amples in England. Truly it is old-fashioned, and in the present day usually very tamely treated, — a feeble remind er of ancient work. The old apse has a charm which the modern one does not possess. How ever, having an ancient form, it has at least some claim on our atten tion. The apse was used in England in pre- conquest days, and afterwards still more so, under the influence of those who had known it so well on the con tinent ; while the rectangular chan cel was also used at the same early date, but not to so great an extent. Its more early and Romanesque history we will not now consider, nor the numerous an- ALTAR SCREEN IN AISLE OF HENRY CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER cient gothic examples which exist in coun tries other than England. Those who have seen the little church of Newhaven, Sussex (Fig. 1), with its semicircular apse, small windows, flat buttresses, and short sturdy tower, must be impressed with its compactness and quiet dignity. In plan (Fig. 2), the apse forms the sanctuary, and the tower the choir. Old Shoreham Church has a rectangular chancel and this too — in a different way — has its own charm. Both churches are of the early Norman period and in the same country. Up to the middle of the twelfth century, all the choirs of the greater churches ended in a semicircular apse, with the exception of Dover, Southwell, Sher borne, and Romsey. At Norwich Cathe dral (Fig. 3) and St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield, Lon don, we find good examples in the Norman period. After this the ten dency was to build rectangular east ends to choirs and chapels, in fact, very soon the apsi dal plan fell into disuse, both in cathedral and in church, though we find a few exam ples of it in each period. At Canterbury Cathedral the choir and apse are in the Early Eng lish style, but it is a poor reminder of the magnificent French apse of that time. At Lin coln Cathedral in the same period, vii 84 AMERICAN CHURCHES we find that the four apsidal chapels in the choir transepts are semicircular in plan. Again, at Westminster Abbey, we have the four Early English apsidal mms t — > .^ ... FIG. 1 NEWHAVEN CHURCH chapels surrounding that of Edward the Confessor (Fig. 4) ; it is interesting to note the strong French influence here. FIG. 2. NEWHAVEN CHURCH For an example in the Decorated Period we can take the apse to the Lady Chapel in Wells Cathedral which is peculiar in plan (Fig. 5) but not particularly inter esting. At Gloucester Cathedral a wonderful transformation took place about the mid dle of the fourteenth century, when the Norman choir and presbytery were cased with Perpendicular work; at the same time the Norman apse was removed sufficiently to allow a fifteen-light east window to be built, which extended across the entire width of the choir. This win dow being raised on the walls of the am bulatory naturally followed the polygonal plan though somewhat flattened, and is of more than usual interest and beauty. We have another example in all the glory of the Perpendicular style at Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster Abbey. Here we no longer find the acutely pointed roof which is a feature in the earlier work, but the prevailing flat one which is not VIEW SHOWING DEFECT IN ORDINARY APSE. THE CENTRAL WINDOW LOOKS LOWER THAN THOSE ON EITHER SIDE visible above the parapet. The plan is of great interest, for in earlier times the chapels radiated from the apse — as in Fig. 4 — and were built outside the ambula tory; here, however, the five radiating chapels are built inside what would otherwise have been the ambulatory. The aisles and chapels are lighted by large bay windows which have two distinct forms in plan, and it may be that the apsidal form generally — and also the plan of these windows — suggested the bay windows so often found at this date in the great coun try halls and manors, — such as South Petherton Manor House, the Deanery at 85 AMERICAN CHURCHES Wells (Fig. 7), Crosby Hall, London (Fig. 8), and others; whilst the influence of Henry VII's Chapel is even more strongly marked in the bay windows at Hengrave Hall, and Thornby Castle. Figs. 9 and 10 show the plans of windows in this last building which should be com pared with the bays at Henry VII's Chapel shown by Figs. 11 and 12. The treatment of the walls in this famous chapel is very effective, especially the stone altar screens at the ends of the two aisles which are suggestive for mod ern work. In St. George's Chapel, Windsor (Fig. 13), the interior of which is a fine example of Perpendicular work, we find apsidal transepts as well as chapels, and this is in itself an uncommon feature. How is it that the great example at Westminster, the baptistry at Canterbury higher than the parapet and so become part of the apsidal composition, breaking the long continuous sky-line, which is usually so uninteresting. Then again the buttresses have been most carefully de signed, the architect evidently realizing how — in this high building — the sky would show up their outline. ' 1 Having spoken of the lofty apse, with its triforium and clerestory, let us now consider the low apse with i — ~i*ri » m i — -r ~£ — ^Ht ^ FIG. 4 CHAPELS OF EDWARD THE CONFESSOR AND HENRY VII, WESTMINSTER only one tier of windows, — the ordi nary church apse, semi-octagonal in plan. Its proportions are naturally lacking in the dignity possessed by the taller ex amples. Turning our attention first to the inside effect, we find that — by an FIG. 3. NORWICH CATHEDRAL Cathedral of the same period, and the wonderful bay of the Palais de Justice, Rouen, have not inspired modern archi tects to design more apses in the Perpen dicular style which are really worth look ing at? As to the modern apse, one of the most successful examples I know of is at the College Chapel of St. Nicholas, Lancing, Sussex, designed by Mr. B. Ingelow, of London, who spent some time studying the French cathedrals beforehand. It is in the late Early English style, with a strong French influence, and the whole structure forms a really fine and impos ing piece of work. The apse (Fig. 14) is flanked on each side by a tower, and these towers form the chief part of a wonderful whole. They do not rise 86 — i FIG. 5. WELLS CATHE DRAL optical illusion — the cornice over the central window looks lower than that of the sides. The window under it wi— i o >a K a w o co LECTERN AND PULPIT, THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS AMERICAN CHURCHES is, of course, affected in the same way. The central east window being the most important should be the high est. The proportions of the apse are FIG. 7. THE DEANERY, WELLS generally made worse by the roof being stained dark, thus cutting the height into two parts — as it were, instead of utilizing the roof — by keeping the color scheme one with the walls — to give apparent height. FIG. 8. CROSBY HALL Of course this last effect is obtained when the roof is in stone as well as the walls. The arrangement also of the rafters — all radiating from the axis of the apse — is unpleasant, and reminds one of the inside FIG. 9. THORNBY CASTLE of a tent. Again, the window sills being low, the reredos must be low also, or it will block out a great deal of the central window, and in these days the tall reredos is in favor. But it is interesting to note an ancient example of the low reredos 88 which is to be found at Exeter Cathedral in the Speke and Oldham Chantries. Here there is not much height, the east win dows are low down, but underneath them are very fine specimens of ancient stone reredoses, with Perpendicular tracery and sculpture. The walls of these chan tries are also richly traceried so that the reredos, walls, and screen form one har monious design. But this is quite an ex ceptional piece of work. The outside effect of the low apse is as undignified as the interior; at the eaves level there is a want of crispness in the line espe cially if there be no para- FIG. 10. THORNBY CASTLE pet ; one also feels the want of a gable at the east end to give greater height,— though with the Norman apse one is quite content, as this often has no long chancel attached, while the modern apse is spoilt by the necessary and longer chancel. Now I will show a way in which these defects can be avoided and leave it to FIG. 11. CHAPEL OF HENRY THE VII others to make such improvements as may occur to them. Some years ago I was asked to arrange the construction of the roof timbers for a little concrete church in one of the Fiji Islands; some FIG. 12. CHAPEL OF HENRY THE VII AMERICAN CHURCHES ALTAR SCREEN AND BAY WINDOW IN AISLE OF HENRY VII CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER planters had started building it from their own designs, and when about eight feet up began to think how they should roof in the apse. They could not gather the rafters together in the usual way, as the angles of the semi-octagonal apse were tiiii II i f r i n i I .-.-?;r: ?—:•::— »rn : ? _-_- r»-.-.-. «; - >r r :?- : ' I I 1 I I :--«::«::«--. *:—*:: : 1 I I I 1 I I u FIG. 13. ST. GEORGE'S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER not at forty-five degrees. After due con sideration I solved this problem in — what I believe to be — a unique manner, and afterwards enlarged upon it when build ing a small church in Wiltshire, the photo of which will show how an apsidal plan can form the foundation for an effective and dignified structure. The ridge of the chancel is run straight through to a gable FIG. 14. LANCING CHAPEL on the eastern face of the apse; the roof over the northeast and southeast faces is hipped back, and these two faces have LANCING COLLEGE 89 AMERICAN CHURCHES A CHURCH IN WILTSHIRE windows the same height as those in the sides of the chancel, but the eastern face — having a gable — is able to have three higher windows, without sacrificing the reredos to obtain them. Lofty buttresses run up the gable which is surmounted by a stone cross. This latter is far more effective than the metal one usually found on the ordinary apse. It may be noticed in Fig. 15 that the plan is not part of a true octagon ; the eastern face being the widest, gives more room in the sanctuary. FIG. 15. CHURCH IN WILTSHIRE I had to design this church in the Early English style as the funds were extremely limited ; it would have been interesting to have built it in the Perpendicular style, with a large east window in place of the three lancets. 90 Plates Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 1 Copyright by Kimball Studio. CHAPEL OF GROTON SCHOOL, GROTON, MASS. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 2 LOOKING EAST Copyright by Kimball Studio CHAPEL OF GROTON SCHOOL, GROTON, MASS. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 3 CHAPEL OF ST. PAUL'S SCHOOL, CONCORD, N. H. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT Copyright by Kimball Siiulin Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 4 Copyright by Kimball Studio. CHAPEL OF ST. PAUL'S SCHOOL, CONCORD, N. H. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 5 VIEW FROM THE ANTE CHAPEL CHAPEL OF ST. PAUL'S SCHOOL, CONCORD, N. H. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT Copyright by Kimball Studio PART I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 6 "•VVtf-W V - V3 - (, .- - ". •'•:":- ¦-"¦ ¦•¦" .-•¦'¦ y -b' ?; y h<:Mg$ ' wsm>z, * -* ^ -Ji 7y7&y^i^ ~1W*'»^ ST. PAUL'S SCHOOL CHAPEL, CONCORD, N. H. GROTON SCHOOL CHAPEL, GROTON, MASS. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN ARCHITECT Photographs copyright by Kimball Studio. GROTON SCHOOL AND CHAPEL, GROTON, MASS. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 7 f^fr! CHAPEL OF WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, 0. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 8 CHAPEL OF WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, 0. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 9 fe'jft^:-.: CHRIST CHURCH, NEW HAVEN, CONN. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 10 Q CHRIST CHURCH, NEW HAVEN, CONN. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 11 SCALE OK rttT AT TOP — CHAPEL OF ST. PAUL'S SCHOOL, CONCORD, N. H. IN CENTRE — CHRIST CHURCH, NEW HAVEN, CONN. AT FOOT— CHAPEL OF WESTERN RESERVE UNIVER SITY, CLEVELAND, O. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT (For Illustration of These Churches See Preceding Pages.) Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 12 CHAPEL, GROTON SCHOOL, GROTON, MASS. 3CAL*. BETHLEHEM CHAPEL, CATHEDRAL OF SS. PETER AND PAUL, WASHINGTON, D. C. MR. HENRY VAUGHAN, ARCHITECT (For Illustration of These Churches See Preceding Pages.) Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES <;¦' EXTENSION OP THE NAVE PLANNED FOR THE FUTURE) — CHOIR OCCUPIES AN UPPER GAL LERY SOUTH OF CHANCEL PROP ER AND IS THEREFORE INCON SPICUOUS. LADY CHAPEL NORTH OF THE CHANCEL EXTERIOR IS OF GREY' LIMESTONE. 4 A5^v^ febbc^otu ¦ J ST. IGNATIUS CHURCH, NEW YORK MR. CHARLES C. HAIGHT, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 14 ST. IGNATIUS CHURCH, NEW YORK MR. CHARLES C. HAIGHT, ARCHITECT BUFF PRESSED BRICK AND LIMESTONE, DARK PEWS AND ROOF-TIMBERS ; ROOD-BEAM INSTEAD OF ROOD- SCREEN ; UPPER CHOIR-GALLERY TO THE LEFT OF CHANCEL Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 15 ST. CORNELIUS CHAPEL, GOVERNOR'S ISLAND, NEW YORK HARBOR MR. CHARLES C. HAIGHT, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES PLATE 16 ST. CORNELIUS CHAPEL, GOVERNOR'S ISLAND, NEW YORK HARBOR - THE CHAPEL OF AN IMPORTANT UNITED STATES ARMY POST— SMALL CHAPEL NORTH OF THE CHOIR, VESTRIES ON THE RIGHT. MR. CHARLES C. HAIGHT, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 17 &r-«b « ;,' r 1 - ¦ .'. ; gwm hy n P™^**"HWS Mr"" ! re \"r< PROPOSED PARISH HOUSE, CHURCH OF THE HOLY COMMUNION, NEW YORK MESSRS. CHARLES C. HAIGHT AND GITHENS, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 18 ////////////////////;/»? qy JTORt Building 1 ^ Out A JtOKT 12 Jtor.y Building y/////////////////////////////////////////y//. one. Jtok-y 20™ JTK.CIT Plan of Gkound Floor. •//////////////////////»//, ¦ Plan or \\J*wi*Y\.ms ' 7ZZZZZZZZZZ2. | ¦2/6. PROPOSED PARISH HOUSE, CHURCH OF THE HOLY COMMUNION, NEW YORK MESSRS. CHARLES C. HAIGHT AND GITHENS, ARCHITECTS BUILDING TO HOUSE THE ENTIRE ORGANIZATION OF THE PARISH ; PLANNED TO MAKE THE MOST OP UNOBSTRUCTED SOUTH AND WEST LIGHT, AS IT WILL BE HEMMED IN BY HIGH BUILDINGS TO NORTH AND EAST. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES • Plate 19 CHAPEL, ST. JOHN'S SEMINARY, BRIGHTON, MASS. MESSRS. MAGINNIS, WALSH & SULLIVAN, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 20 CHURCH OF OUR LADY OF THE PRESENTATION, BRIGHTON, MASS. MESSRS^MAGINNIS & WALSH. ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 21 FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS (See Article: The Development of the Meeting House) Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 22 FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 23 DETAIL OF ENTRANCE FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 24 FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 25 DETAIL OF SCREEN AT END OF BALCONY FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 26 THE PULPIT FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 27 »gg g^Mg« FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 28 FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 30 FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 31 \ac.,.,— ~® FIRST CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, DANBURY, CONN. MESSRS. HOWELLS & STOKES, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 32 \ i ¦l-£ — x. I ^^rW ff- 9. Wf ; £ ymi ST. MARK'S CHURCH, FRANKFORD, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 33 ROOD SCREEN ST. MARK'S CHURCH, FRANKFORD, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 34 ROOD SCREEN SANCTUARY ST. MARK'S CHURCH, FRANKFORD, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 35 DETAIL OF PULPIT BISHOP'S THRONE ST. MARK'S CHURCH, FRANKFORD, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 35 DETAIL OF PULPIT BISHOP'S THRONE ST. MARK'S CHURCH, FRANKFORD, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 36 Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 37 FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. MR. WILLIAM C. HAYS, ARCHITECT. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 38 FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. MR. WILLIAM C. HAYS, ARCHITECT. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 39 FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. MR. WILLIAM C. HAYS, ARCHITECT. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 40 FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. MR. WILLIAM C. HAYS, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 41 UNIVERSALIST CHURCH, WATERTOWN, N. Y. MR. HORACE F. UPJOHN, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 42 UNIVERSALIST CHURCH, WATERTOWN, N. Y. MR. HORACE F. UPJOHN, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 43 CHURCH OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, WEST SPRINGFIELD, MASS. MR. JOHN WILLIAM DONOHOE, ARCHITECT Part I. ir* AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 44 ; — — *" V^\li*'*~~1»~;* ¦=L-z CHURCH OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, WEST SPRINGFIELD, MASS. MR. JOHN WILLIAM DONOHOE, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 45 CHURCH OF THE IMMACULATE HEART OF MARY, WINCHENDON, MASS. MR. JOHN WILLIAM DONOHOE, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 46 CHURCH OF IMMACULATE HEART OF MARY, WINCHENDON, MASS. MR. JOHN WILLIAM DONOHOE, ARCHITECT CHURCH OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, WEST SPRINGFIELD, MASS. Part I, AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 47 ? pi CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, FLATBUSH, NEW YORK MESSRS. ALLEN & COLLENS, ARCHITECTS; MR. LOUIS E. JALLADE, ASSOCIATE Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 48 CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, FLATBUSH, NEW YORK MESSRS. ALLEN & COLLENS, ARCHITECTS; MR. LOUIS E. JALLADE, ASSOCIATE Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 49 FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST SCIENTIST, LOS ANGELES, CAL. MR. ELMER GREY, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 50 ENTRANCE PORCH FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST SCIENTIST, LOS ANGELES, CAL. MR. ELMER GREY, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 51 DETAIL OF LOGGIA FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST SCIENTIST, LOS ANGELES, CAL. MR. ELMER GREY, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 52 CHURCH OF THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE SOCIETY, MILWAUKEE, WIS. MR. ELMER GREY, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 53 CHURCH OF THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE SOCIETY, MILWAUKEE, WIS. MR. ELMER GREY, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 54 FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST SCIENTIST, LONG BEACH, CAL. MR. ELMER GREY, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 55 AoD/roe/UM ft ooe Pi an Gaou/yp floae pia/y FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST SCIENTIST, LONG BEACH, CAL. MR. ELMER GREY, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 56 BETHANY MEMORIAL CHURCH, SIXTY-SEVENTH STREET AND FIRST AVENUE, NEW YORK MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES r Plate 57 BETHANY MEMORIAL CHURCH, SIXTY-SEVENTH STREET AND FIRST AVENUE, NEW YORK MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 58 BETHANY MEMORIAL CHURCH, SIXTY-SEVENTH ST. AND FIRST AVE., NEW YORK MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 59 "Basement-- ILan * --Soalzj^Tijualo 1 Toot- Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 60 ¦Tnnaj -Hood -Plan- BETHANY MEMORIAL CHURCH, SIXTY-SEVENTH STREET AND FIRST AVENUE, NEW YORK MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN, ARCHITECTS • 3ECDTSB'TLO©n-BlIi\N • Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 61 BETHANY MEMORIAL CHURCH SIXTY-SEVENTH STREET AND FIRST AVENUE NEW YORK MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN, ARCHITECTS •TEATiSvTnaic-^crlonTtiROUGrt-CnuKcn-nousc- • LOOKING ¦¦¦¦¦¦/¦:-:¦• \:%:'.i::-i LOOKING TOWARDS ENTRANCE ¦KM FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST SCIENTIST, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. MR. EDGAR A. MATHEWS, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 118 FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST SCIENTIST, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. MR. EDGAR A. MATHEWS, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 119 CHURCH OF OUR LADY OF MT. CARMEL, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. MR. JOHN WILLIAM DONOHOE, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 120 RESTORATION OF THE ASYLUM HILL CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, HARTFORD, CONN. MESSRS. ALLEN & COLLENS, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 121 CHANCEL, CHAPEL OF UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, NEW YORK MESSRS. ALLEN & COLLENS, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 122 '"^»— •W-3fcX--*«V- THE SKINNER MEMORIAL CHAPEL, HOLYOKE, MASS. MESSRS. ALLEN & COLLENS, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 123 THE CHANCEL THE SKINNER MEMORIAL CHAPEL, HOLYOKE, MASS. MESSRS. ALLEN & COLLENS, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 124 UNITARIAN CHURCH, WEST NEWTON, MASS. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 125 UNITARIAN CHURCH, WEST NEWTON, MASS. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 126 UNITARIAN CHURCH, WEST NEWTON, MASS. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 127 ALTAR AND REREDOS FOR ST. VINCENT'S CHURCH, SOUTH BOSTON, MASS. MESSRS. MAGINNIS, WALSH & SULLIVAN, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 128 ¦t-B L £. i v. s -.%, 11ATVAM JtLttTtJJ/ th »ia» SIDE ALTAIC op MAILdlfc- 5A,NT VINCENT'S 1 J° &OSTQN a % MESSRS. MAGINNIS, WALSH & SULLIVAN, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 129 CALVARY CHURCH, PITTSBURGH, PA. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 131 HIGH ALTAR AND REREDOS, CALVARY CHURCH, PITTSBURGH, PA. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 132 ROOD SCREEN, CALVARY CHURCH, PITTSBURGH, PA. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES DETAILS OF ROOD SCREEN AND PULPIT CALVARY CHURCH, PITTSBURGH, PA. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 134 ST. JOHN'S CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 135 DETAIL OF PRINCIPAL ENTRANCE ST. JOHN'S CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 136 CHURCH OF THE EPIPHANY, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 137 PARISH HOUSE FOR TRINITY PARISH, WATERTOWN, N. Y. MESSRS. WATSON & HUCKEL, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 138 ?AuElSi»E|v°e-IH^EE-'<^UAR.TEB- INCH SCALE DETAIL OF JCHEEN BETWEEN " , u-u*»HiBFmH*HT).BBAPTISTR.Yr-VESTIBULEfrSHR.INE AND CHUR.CH* STMARY'J CATHEDRAL^- J~325- p l ' *" YElY ttVJAMES E- CASJIBY Va. MAGINNIS AND WALSH ARCHITECTS BOSTON MASS- USHOF Ltao fu ONE HALF ELEVATION ONE HALF PLAN THR.OUGH A~A 5 ECTION &-& SPECIFICATION — STOCK WIH ftE ntll QUAtiTr STUICHT WHITE OAK PEtE FEOH IMrE-E-tECTIONS • AH FINISHED WOE.K. WILl EEcEIVE QHt COATT FlUtr WITH JTAIM THEH OHItOAT O* WHITE JHCLLAC ftUBEEP »OWH !"»,K!!<»MO' F^ATIME FO«- FIHl SH COW LEADED Q (.AS I .n IM COHTEACT-BEUVEE. AH. I ET I H EO„„<,| Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 139 ST. JOHN'S CHURCH, NORTH CAMBRIDGE, MASS. MESSRS. MAGINNIS, WALSH & SULLIVAN, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 140 ST. JOHN'S CHURCH, NORTH CAMBRIDGE, MASS. MESSRS. MAGINNIS, WALSH & SULLIVAN, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES ST. AIDAN'S CHURCH, BROOKLINE, MASS. MESSRS. MAGINNIS & WALSH, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 142 CHANCEL ST. AIDAN'S CHURCH, BROOKLINE, MASS. MESSRS. MAGINNIS & WALSH, ARCHITECTS Part I. / AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 143 EMMANUEL PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. C. W. BOLTON & SON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 144 FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, LEWISTON, PA. MESSRS. C. W. BOLTON & SON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 145 Plans of FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, LEWISTON, PA. AND EMMANUEL PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. C. W. BOLTON & SON, ARCHITECTS For views of these two churches see preceding pages HESrrLOORPIAN TT1L LTIMARJlL Pi2t»Yl£J3A^ Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 146 i__ EUCLID AVENUE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, CLEVELAND, OHIO MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 147 I^mB" _. JB«. ¦-— 4 . . ¦ . 1 "'¦ - -- ,y, ' mi Ti II' Ji; ; -"!«'-.-**' EUCLID AVENUE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, CLEVELAND, OHIO MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 148 EUCLID AVENUE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, CLEVELAND, OHIO MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS PART I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 149 EUCLID AVENUE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, CLEVELAND, OHIO MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 150 '; V 5* ¦ SYNOD HOUSE, CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE, NEW YORK MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 151 SYNOD HOUSE, CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE, NEW YORK MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 152 SYNOD HOUSE, CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE, NEW YORK MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 153 SYNOD HOUSE, CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE, NEW YORK MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 154 SYNOD HOUSE, CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE, NEW YORK MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 155 SYNOD HOUSE, CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE* DIVINE, NEW YORK MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FER^""":: {BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 156 RICHARDSON MEMORIAL PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. CHARLES W. BOLTON & SON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 157 tfiomnyioow boom * bur QAlitErrLOCBHAN FLOOR PLANS RICHARDSON MEMORIAL PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. CHARLES W. BOLTON & SON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 158 RICHARDSON MEMORIAL PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. CHARLES W. BOLTON & SON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 159 CHANCEL TOWER ENTRANCE RICHARDSON MEMORIAL PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. MESSRS. CHARLES W. BOLTON & SON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 160 FLAGLER MEMORIAL CHURCH, ST. AUGUSTINE, FLA. MESSRS. CARRERE & HASTINGS, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 161 VIEW FROM SOUTHWEST PROPOSED DESIGN FOR THE COMPLETION OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE, NEW YORK RALPH ADAMS CRAM, CONSULTING ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 162 VIEW FROM NORTHWEST PROPOSED DESIGN FOR COMPLETION OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE, NEW YORK RALPH ADAMS CRAM, CONSULTING ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 163 VIEW FROM NORTHEAST PROPOSED DESIGN FOR COMPLETION OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE, NEW YORK RALPH ADAMS CRAM, CONSULTING ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES THIRD CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. MESSRS. NEWHALL & BLEVINS, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 165 fnbird longreffaTiortal Ctburcl Ci'a nbrldgc mass. Olefin. ^rchtrccr Rinr flloor Plan THIRD CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. MESSRS. NEWHALL & BLEVINS, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 166 FIRST CHURCH, CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. MR. J. LOVELL LITTLE, JR., ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 167 FIRST CHURCH, CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. MR. J. LOVELL LITTLE, JR., ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 168 SECOND CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, LYNN, MASS. MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN AND MR. GEORGE H. BREED, ASSOCIATE ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 169 SECOND CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, LYNN, MASS. MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN AND MR. GEORGE H. BREED, ASSOCIATE ARCHITECTS Part I, AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 169 SECOND CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, LYNN, MASS. MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN AND MR. GEORGE H. BREED, ASSOCIATE ARCHITECTS PART I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 170 1 L_- t ? Ir •* - ^ 1 ^..i..A.iJLr.J*' Ttr- -*@i ¦ c \^ » KS « i i " '-.- « i y t "9 i % 4 *—- • SECOND CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, LYNN, MASS. MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN AND MR. GEORGE H. BREED, ASSOCIATE ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 171 SECOND CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH, LYNN, MASS. MESSRS. NELSON & VAN WAGENEN AND MR. GEORGE H. BREED, ASSOCIATE ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 1T2 REAR VIEW TRINITY CHURCH, ASBURY PARK, N. J. MR. CLARENCE W. BRAZER, ARCHITECT This church is constructed of Chestnut Hill, Pa., rubble stone with buffed Indiana limestone trimmings. The window tracery and the entire interior is of a manufactured limestone. The vestibules, main aisle, chancel and chapel have reenforced concrete floors, laid over with tile. Steps and borders are all green purple slate. The furniture is of temporary installation and will be replaced later with specially designed furniture. The central tower is unfinished, and will probably not be built for several years. The pews are of oak and the lighting fixtures of solid brass. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 173 FRONT VIEW TRANSEPT TRINITY CHURCH, ASBURY PARK, N. J. MR. CLARENCE W. BRAZER, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 174 TRINITY CHURCH, ASBURY PARK, N. J. MR. CLARENCE W. BRAZER, ARCHITECT Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 175 ST. JAMES CHURCH, LONG BRANCH, N. J. MESSRS. BRAZER & ROBB, ARCHITECTS The floor is also of concrete and is laid This church is constructed of Chestnut Hill, Pa., stone, with concrete trimming tracery columns and arches. This church is construciea 01 v,i es , trenches under reenforced concrete floors in the aisles. The ceiling is of North Carolina pine, stained a nut brown Y and the chancel celling fs stenciKd painted in three colors. All the chancel furniture is temporary. The lighting fixtures are of cast brass, silver-plated. The cost to date of this church is $.189 per cubic foot. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 176 ST. JAMES CHURCH, LONG BRANCH, N. J. MESSRS. BRAZER & ROBB, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 177 THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 178 THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 179 MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN BOSTON. MASS. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 180 THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 181 THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 182. THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 183 THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 184 THE SECOND CHURCH IN BOSTON, UNITARIAN MESSRS. CRAM & FERGUSON, ARCHITECTS Part I AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 185 CHURCH AND PARISH HOUSE FROM SOUTHWEST THE HOUSE OF HOPE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, ST. PAUL, MINN. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON (BOSTON OFFICE), ARCHITECTS Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 186 THE CHANCEL FROM THE NAVE THE HOUSE OF HOPE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, ST. PAUL, MINN. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON, (BOSTON OFFICE) ARCHITECTS. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 187 CHURCH AND PARISH HOUSE, FROM NORTHEAST. THE HOUSE OF HOPE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, ST. PAUL, MINN. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON, (BOSTON OFFICE) ARCHITECTS. Part I. AMERICAN CHURCHES Plate 188 EAST SIDE OF NAVE THE HOUSE OF HOPE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, ST. PAUL, MINN. MESSRS. CRAM, GOODHUE & FERGUSON, (BOSTON OFFICE) ARCHITECTS. INDEX TEXT ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN CHURCH CHURCH ILLUMINATION, MODERN METHODS ARCHITECTURE. OF. By Wallace C. Sabine 68 By F. A. Pattison, A.I.E.E 41 Apse, Gothic, Development of the. Church Ventilation. By Lewis W. Simpson, F.R.I.B.A 84 By D. D. Kimball 19 _ ~ Meeting House, Development of 11 Church Architecture, and Medieval Re finements. Organ, from Architect's Standpoint. By William H. Goodyear, M.A 1 By Arthur Wheaton Congdon, A.A.I.A. 49 Church Fitments, Homely Remarks on. Stained and Painted Glass. By Robert Ellis Jones, S.T.D., Etc. . . 35 By George Herbertson Charles 67 PLATES The figures refer to plate numbers except where TEXT is stated Allen & Collens. Casey, Edw. Pearce & Sneden, A. Durant. Asylum Hill Congregational Church, Second Reformed, Hackensack, N. J. . . 93 Hartford, Conn 720 Union Theological Seminary, N. Y. . . . 121 Cram, Ralph Adams. Skinner Memorial, Holyoke, Mass . 122-123 Cathedral St. John the Divine, N. Y Congregational, Flatbush, L. I., N. Y. . 47-48 161-163 Bolton, C. W., & Son. Cram & Ferguson. Emanuel Presbyterian, Philadelphia .. 143 Second Church in Boston, Unitarian First Presbyterian, Lewiston, Pa. . 144-145 175-184 Richardson Memorial, Philadelphia.156-159 ^^ GooDHUE & Ferguson. Brazer, CLARENCE W. Unitarian Church, W. Newton, Mass.. . . . Trinity, Asbury Park, N. J 172-174 ^^ pittsburgh 129.133 r,„.„™ p «„„„ Euclid Ave., Cleveland, 0 146-149 Brazer & Robb. 0 . tt ' t , ' 1rrv ir_ ci, T T -d „„i, xt t 175 i7fi Synod House, New York 150-155 St. James, Long Branch, N. J 175-1 /b * ' 1(},1QQ House of Hope, St. Paul, Minn .... 185-188 Carrere & Hastings. St. Paul's Cathedral, Detroit, Mich. . . 65-75 Flagler Memorial, St. Augustine, Fla. .160 St. Stephen's, Cohasset, Mass 76-77 AMERICAN All Saints, Ashmont, Dorchester, Mass. 97-100 St. Thomas's, New York Text 51 South Church, New York Text 53 First Baptist, Pittsburgh Text 55 Chapel of Intercession, New York . Text 57 Donohoe, John William. Our Lady of Mt. Carmel, Springfield, Mass 119 Immaculate Conception, Springfield, Mass 43-44-46 Immaculate Heart of Mary, Winchen- don, Mass 45-46 St. John Cantius, Northampton, Mass. 62-65 Dow, Joy Wheeler. Unitarian, Summit, N. J Text 11-12 Eckel & Boschen. First Presbyterian, St. Joseph, Mo. . . 90-92 Green, Ernest. Congregational, Old Lyme, Conn Text 13-16 Grey, Elmer. First Church of. Christ Scientist, Los Angeles 49 to 51 Christian Science, Milwaukee, Wis. . . 52-53 First Church of Christ Scientist, Long Beach, Cal 54-55 Haight, Charles C. St. Ignatius, New York 13-14 St. Cornelius, New York 15-16 Parish House, Holy Communion, New York 17-18 Hays, Wm. C. First Presbyterian, Oakland, Cal Plates 104 to 112 First Presbyterian, San Francisco, Cal. . . . 37 to 40 Howells & Stokes. First Congregational, Danbury, Conn. . . . 21 to 31 Hunt, Myron. First Congregational, Riverside, Cal 84-88 Little, J. Lovell, Jr. First Church, Chestnut Hill, Mass . 166-167 Mathews, Edgar A. First Church of Christ Scientist, San Francisco, Cal 113 to 118 CHURCHES Maginnis & Walsh. St. Mary's Cathedral, Boston, Mass ... 138 St. Aidan's, Brookline, Mass 141-142 St. Catherine's, Norwood, Mass 78-79 St. Joseph's, Dayton, 0 103 Maginnis, Walsh & Sullivan. St. Vincent's, So. Boston, Mass 127-128 St. John's, No. Cambridge, Mass.. 139-140 Chapel, St. John's, Brighton, Mass 19 Our Lady of Presentation, Brighton, Mass 20 Sacred Heart, Manchester, Mass 80 St. Catherine's, Somerville, Mass 102 Nelson & Van Wagenen. Bethany Memorial, New York 56-61 Collegiate Church, New York 89 Nelson & Van Wagenen and George H. Breed. Second Congregational, Lynn, Mass 168-171 Newhall & Blevins. Third Congregational, Cambridge, Mass 164-165 Schweinfurth, A. J. Baptist Church, Brookline, Mass. . . . 94-95 Memorial Chapel, Freeville, N. Y 96 Renwick, W. W. Pulpit, Grace Church, New York. .Text 18 Upjohn, Horace F. Universalist, Watertown, N. Y 41-42 Vaughan, Henry. Chapel, Groton School, Groton, Mass. 1-2, 6 Chapel, St. Paul's School, Concord, N. H 3-5,6-11 Chapel, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, 0 7-8-11 Christ Church, New Haven, Conn. 9-10-11 Ware & Sons, James E. Van Nest Chapel, New York 101 Watson & Huckel. St. John's, Philadelphia 134-135 Church of the Epiphany, Philadelphia . 136 Trinity Parish House, Watertown, N. Y 137 St. Mark's, Frankford, Philadelphia, Pa 32 to 36 Christ Church, Norfolk, Va 81-83