YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

Gift of
Walter Von Derlieth

CLASSICAL DICTIONARY
OF GREEK AND EOMAN
BIOGEAPHY, MYTHOLOGY, AND GEOGEAPHY

BASED ON THE LARGER DICTIONARIES
**

BY THE LATE
SIR WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.
Editor of the Latin-English and English-Latin Dictionaries

REVISED TBROUQHOVT AND IN PART REWRITTEN BY
G. E. MAPJNDIN, M.A.
FOBHEHLY FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBBIflUE

WITH NUMEROUS MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW YOKE
D. APPLETON AND CO.
1, 3 and 5 BOND STREET
1894

PEE FACE

THE Classical Dictionary, published more than thirty years ago, of
which this book is a revision, was designed by the late Sir William
Smith to include in a single volume as much of the informatsH
contained in his larger Dictionaries of Biography and Mythology, afli.
of Ancient Geography, as would be serviceable for the upper forms of
schools, and might make it useful also as a compendious book of
reference for somewhat more advanced students.
It was intended chiefly to elucidate the Greek and Roman writers
usually read in schools, and to the characters and subjects dealt with
in their works the greatest space was accordingly allotted ; but a large
number of shorter articles not included within those limits were added,
as it was not considered expedient to omit any names connected with
antiquity of which it is expected that some knowledge should be
possessed by every person who aspires to a liberal education.
The book has for many years been found useful for the object for
which it was written, and it is hoped that a revision with the ad
vantages of the new light thrown by the writings of more recent
scholars and explorers will be no less serviceable at the present time.
The design of this revised edition, projected by Sir William Smith
more than two years ago, is much the same as that of the older work.
It is intended for the use of the same class of students, as an aid in
reading those Greek and Latin authors which will usually be studied
by them. Hence the old limits are for the most part observed, and,
as was then said, ' the historical articles include all the names of any
importance which occur in Greek and Roman writers from the earliest
times down to the extinction of the Western Empire in the year 476.
Very few names are inserted which are not included in 'this period ;
but still there are some persons who lived after the fall of the Western
Empire who could not with propriety be omitted in a Classical
Dictionary. Such is the case with Justinian, whose legislation has
exercised such an important influence upon the nations of Western
Europe ; with Theodorie, at whose court lived Cassiodorus and
Boethius ; and with a few others.' Among the literary articles has
been included some notice, necessarily brief in many cases, of all
Greek and Latin authors whose works are extant, and others who
exercised an important influence upon literature, but whose writings
have not come down to us. Por those, however, who wrote only on

vi PREFACE
ecclesiastical subjects, the student is referred to the Dictionary of
Christian Biography. It has been thought that it would be service
able, and likely to encourage wider reading, to insert the more
important ancient authorities (in literature) for each article : fuller
references are generally to be found in the larger Dictionaries named
above. '
Since the publication of the older edition so much additional
knowledge has been acquired in most branches of classical study that it
has been found necessary, not merely to alter, but practically to rewrite
many- of the articles : this applies particularly to the articles on
Mythology, and to many of those on Topography. Several new plans
and maps have been inserted to illustrate the articles on those places
which are jpost important in Greek and Roman literature. Among
these are the map of the Troad and that of Syracuse, which is based
upon one in Freeman's Sicily. Por the alterations in the map of
Athens, and for the description of the city, much help has been derived
from Miss Habbison's Mythology and Monuments of Athens, from Dr.
Lolling's treatise, and from Professor Gabdnee's New Chapters in
Greek History, from which book also the plans of Tiryns, Eleusis,
and Olympia, with much valuable information, have been taken. In
altering the maps and plans of Rome, as well as in describing the
topography, the Editor has been guided chiefly by Professor Middle-
ton's Remains of Ancient Borne : for the alterations in the map of the
Roman Wall in Britain, and for other kind help, he is indebted to
Mr. Haveefield. Several new cuts also have been substituted for
those which were intended to illustrate the articles on mythology or
on art. Considerations of space have made it impossible to give any refer
ences to the modern authorities for each article, but it is thought that
those who wish to make a fuller study of any matter which is here
concisely treated will sometimes find useful a short Appendix which
has been added to give a few of the more important and more accessible
works in different branches of classical study. It must also serve to
express obligations to the writers which the Editor could not acknow
ledge under the separate articles.
Throughout the progress of the work Sir William Smith con
stantly directed and supervised it with all his knowledge and patient
carefulness up to the time of his death : the last part of the book has
been deprived of the great advantage of his guidance.
G. E. Maeindin.
January 1894.

A CLASSICAL DICTIONAEY

BIOGRAPHICAL, MYTHOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL

o»lo

ABA
Aba. [Abus.]
Abaeaenum ('A0djcaivov or ra. 'AfSaKtuva:
'AfSaKatvims: nr. Tripi, Eu.), a town of the
Siculi in Sicily,
about 4 miles
from the N.
coast, between
Tyndaris and
Mylae. The
Coin of Abaeaenum in Sicily. boar and acorn
Obv., head of Zens; rev.,boax and acorn. on t,h.e coins of
Abaeaenum refer to the forest of oaks covering
the neighbouring mountains and affording pas
ture to herds of swine (Diod. six. 65, 110).
Abae ("AjSai : 'AjSaToj : nr. ExwrcM, Ru.), a
town in the N.W. of Phocis, said to have been
founded by the Argive Abas. [Abas, Abantes.]
It possessed a temple and oracle of Apollo
(Soph. Oed. T. 899), hence surnamed Abaeus.
The temple was destroyed in the invasion of
Xerxes, and a second time in the sacred war :
it was rebuilt by Hadrian (Hdt. i. 46, viii. 27,
33, 134 ; Paus. x. 35).
Abalus, said by Pytheas to be an island in
the northern ocean, where amber was found,
probably a portion of the Prussian coast upon
the Baltic (Plin. xxxvii. § 35 ; Diod. v. 23).
Abantes ("A0apres), the ancient inhabitants
of Euboea (Horn. II. ii. 536), hence called Aban-
tis and Abantias (Eur. Here. Fur. 185 ; Plin.
iv. § 64). Hence Abantius, Euboean (Stat. S.
iv. 8, 46). The Abantes are said to have first
settled in Phocis, where they built Abae, and
afterwards to have crossed over to Euboea. The
Abantes of Euboea assisted in colonising several
Ionic cities of Asia Minor (Hdt. i. 146).
Abantiades, Abantias. [Abas.]
Abantldas ('ASavriSas), murdered Clinias,
the father of Aratus, and became tyrant of
Sicyon,_B.c. 264 (Plut. Arat. 2; Paus. ii. 8, 2).
Abaris, idis, ace. Abarim CA&apts, iSos).
1. A Hyperborean priest of Apollo who came
to Greece, while his own country was visited
by a plague, about B.C. 570. His history is
mythical : he is said to have taken uo earthly
food, and to have ridden on his arrow, the gift
of Apollo, through the air. He cured diseases
by incantations, and delivered the world from
a plague. Oracles and charms under his name

ABDERA
passed current in later times (Hdt. iv. 36;
Plat. Charm, p. 158 ; Paus. iii. 13, 2). — 2. Or
Avaris, the fortified camp of the Hyksos during
their occupation of Egypt, on the E. of the Pe-
lusiac branch of the Nile (Joseph, c. Apion. i.
14). Hence Abaritanus (Plin. xvi. 172).
Abarnis {"A$apvis or "Afrapvos : 'Aflapveis), a
town near Lampsacus on the Asiatic side of
the Hellespont (Xen. Hell. ii. 1, 29).
Abas, antis ("A/Sbs, ai/ros), twelfth king of
Argos, son of Lyneeus, grandson of Danaus,
and father of Acrisius. When he informed his
father of the death of Danaus, he was rewarded
with the shield of his grandfather, which was
sacred to Hera. This shield performed various
mairals. It was gained by Aeneas .('magni
g^^ien Abantis,' Verg. Aen. iii. 286). Abas
is described as a successful conqueror and the
founder of Abae in Phocis. [Abae.] Hence (i.)
Abanteus, adj. (Ov. M. xv. 164). (ii.) Aban
tiades (AySiwTKxSijs), a descendant of Abas ; his
son Acrisius (0 v. M. iv. 607), his great-grandson
Perseus, by Danae, daughter of Acrisius (Ov.
M. iv. 673, Am. iii. 12, 24). (iii.) Abantias,
adis ('AftavTids, dSos), a female descendant of
Abas, i.e. Danae. [Danae.]
Abatos, i, /. ("AfSttros, i.e. inaccessible), a
rocky island in the Nile, near Philae (Sen.
Q. N. iv. 2, 7 ; Luc. x. 323).
Abbassus, a town of Phrygia (Liv. xxxviii. 15).
Abdera (t» "A@8i]pa, Abdera, ae, /., and
Abdera, orum, re. : 'A^Sriplrris, Abderltes and

Coin of Abdera in Thrace.
Obv., a griffln, as symbol of Apollo's worship ; ' Callida-
nas,' as the magistrate of the year ; rev., APSrtptreuiv sur-
rounding a square.
Abderlta, ae, m.). 1. A town of Thrace, near
the mouth of the Nestus. According to mytho- B

2 ABDERUS
logy, it was founded by Heracles in honour of
Aedebus; but according to history, it was
colonised first by Timesius of Clazomenae about
B.C. 656, and a second time by the inhabitants
of Teos in Ionia, who settled the/e after their
own town had been taken by the Persians 544
* (Hdt. i. 168). Abdera was a flourishing town
when Xerxes invaded Greece (Hdt. vii. 120),
and continued a place of importance under the
Romans, who made it a free city. It was the
birthplace of Democritus, Protagoras, and An-
axarchus ; but in spite of this its inhabitants
passed into a proverb for stupidity (Juv. x. 50 ;
Mart. x. 25, 4; Cic. AH. iv. 16 (17), vii. 7).
Hence Abderitanus, stupid (Mart. I. c). —
2. (Adra), a town of Hispania Baetica on the
coast, founded by the Phoenicians (Strab. p. 157 ;
Plin. iii. §8).
Abderus ("A/iSripos), a favourite of Heracles,
torn to pieces by the mares of Diomedes
(Apollod. ii. 5). [Abdeba.]
Abdolonymus or Abdalonimus, also called
Ballonymus (Diod. xvii. 46), a gardener, but of
royal descent, made king of Sidon by Alexan
der the Great (Curt. iv. 1, 19 ; Just. xi. 10, 8).
Abella or Avella (Abellanus : Avella vec-
chia), a town of Campania, not far from Nola,
founded by the Chalcidians in Euboea (Just.
xx. 1), afterwards an Oscan town, was celebrated
for its apples, whence Virgil (Aen. vii. 740) calls
it nialifera, and for its great filberts (cf. Sil.
viii. 545), nuces Avellanae (Plin. xv. § 88).
Abellmum (Abelllnas : Avellino), a town of
the Hirpini in Samnium (Plin. iii. § 63). Pliny
(iii. § 105) speaks of two towns of this name :
' Abellinates cognomine Protropi ' and ' Abelli-
nates .cognominati Marsi.'
Abelox, Abelux, or Abilyx {'Afiikvg), a Spa
niard of noble birth, who betrayed the Spanish
hostages at Saguntum to the Roman generals
(Liv. xxii. 22 ; Pol. iii. 98, &c).
Abeona (from abeo) and Adeona, Roman
goddesses who protected children in their first
attempts to walk (Aug. Civ. Dei, iv. 21, vii. 3).
Abgarus, Acbarus, or AugarUs {"A0yapos,
''AK$apos, Aiyapos), a name common to many
rulers of Edessa, the capital of Osroene in
Mesopotamia (Tac. A. xii. 12). Of these rulers
one is supposed by Eusebius {H. _E. i. 33) to
have been the author of a letter written to
ChrisJ;, which is believed to be spurious.
Abia (^ 'A0ia : nr. Zarnata), a town of Mes-
senia, on the Messenian gulf, said to have been
the same as the Ire of the Iliad (ix. 292), and
to have been called Abia after Abia, the nurse
of Hyllus, a son of Heracles. Subsequently it
belonged to the Achaean League, and existed
in the time of Hadrian (Paus. iv. 80; Pol.
^xxv. I).
Abii Ca/3ioi), a Thracian tribe mentioned by
Homer (II. xiii. 6) as the justest of men (Strab.
p. 296). At a later time they are described
as a Scythian people in Asia (Curt. vii. 6, 11 ;
Arr. An. iv. 1 ; Amm. xxiii. 6, 53).
Abila (to"A/3iAci: AjSiXrpos). 1, A town of
Coele- Syria, on the eastern slope of Anti-
Libanus, afterwards called Claudiopolis, the
capital of the tetrarchy of Abilene. — 2. A town
in the Decapolis.
Abisares fAjSWprjs), also called Embisarus
(Diod. xvii. 90), an Indian king beyond the
river Hydaspes, sent embassies to Alexander
the Great (Curt. viii. 43, 13, ix. 1, 7, x. 3, 20 ;
Arr. An. v. 8, 3, 20, 5).
Abnoba Mons, the range of hills covered by
the Black Forest in Germany, in which the
Danube rises (Tac. G. 1 ; Plin. iv. § 79). Hence

ABUS
Abnoba Diana, or simply Abnoba, the goddess
of this mountain (Orelli, Inser. 1986, 4974).
Abonitiehos ('A&ibvov re^xos), a town of Pa-
phlagonia on the Black Sea, with a harbour,
afterwards called Ionopolis flaWiroAis), whence
its modern name Ineboli, the birthplace of the
pretended prophet Alexander, of whom Lucian
has left us an account (Strab. p. 545).
Aborigines, the original inhabitants of a
country, equivalent to the Greek avr6x0oves.
But the Aborigines in Italy are in the Latin
writers an ancient people who originally dwelt
in the mountain districts round Reate, and
drove the Siculi out of Latium, where they
took the name of Latini from their king Latinus
(Dionys. i. 9, 60; Liv. i. 1,2; Sail. Cat. 6;
Varr. L. L. v. § 53; Cic. Hep. ii. 3). We find,
in the neighbourhood of Reate, a district called
the Cicolano, vestiges of ancient cities which,
from the polygonal style of their construction,
have been referred to a very early period.
Aborrhas. [Chabokas,]
Abradatas {'A/SpaSdras), a king of Susa and
an ally of the Assyrians against Cyrus, whose
history and that of his wife Panthea are told in
Xenophon's Cyropaedia (v. 1, 3, vi. 1, 31, &c.)
Abrincattu, a Gallic tribe (Plin. iv. § 107),
whence the modern Avranckes.
Abrocomas ('Appotcdpms), a satrap of Arta-
xerxes Mnemon, sent with an army to oppose
Cyrus on his march into Upper Asia, B.C. 401.
He retreated before Cyrus (Xen. An. i. 3, 20, &c).
Abrocomcs, son of Darius, slain at Thermo
pylae (Hdt. vii. 224).
Abronichus ('AfSpiivixos), an Athenian served
in the Persian war, B.C. 480, subsequently sent
as ambassador to Sparta with Themistocles and
Aristides (Hdt. viii. 21 ; Thuc. i. 91).
Abrotonum, mother of Themistocles (Plut.
Them.l). Abrotonum {'AfSpdrovov), a Phoenician city
on the coast of N. Africa, between the Syrtes,
identified with Sabrata, though Pliny makes
them different places (Strab. p. 835 ; Plin. v. § 27).
It formed, with Oea and Leptis Magna, the
African Tripolis.
Absyrtides or Apsyrtides, sc. insulae (Ai/wp-
Ti'Ses : Cherso and Osero), two islands off the
coast of Illyricum (Strab. p. 315 ; Plin. iii.
§ 151). [Absybtus.]
Absyrtus or Apsyrtus fAipvpros), son of
Aeetes, king of Colchis, and brother of Medea.
There aretwoaccountsofhisdeath. 1. According
to one, Absyrtus was taken, when a small child,
by Jason and Medea on their flight from Colchis,
and was murdered by Medea, and his body cut
m pieces, that her father might thus be detained
by gathering them. Tomi, the place where this
horror was committed, was believed to have de
rived its name from t4/j.vo>, 'cut' (Ov. Tr iii
9 5, Her. vi. 129, xii. 113; Cic. Leg. Man. 9,
22). 2. Accordingto another tradition, Absyrtus,
when a young man, was sent out by his father in
pursuit of Medea. He overtook her in certain
islands off the Illyrian coast, where he was slain
by Jason (Hygin. F. 23, 26). Absyrtus is
called by some writers Aegialeus (Pacuv. ap.
Cl» ££ iii-,19' 48 : Diod- iv- 45 ; J"st. xlii. 3).
Abulltes ( APovMrrts), satrap of Susiana, sur
rendered Susa to Alexander, who restored to
him the satrapy; but he and his son Oxyathres
were afterwards executed by Alexander (Arr.
Anm. 16, vii. 4 ; Curt. v. 2 ; Diod. xyii. 65).
Aburnus Valens. [Valens.]
Abus (<5 "AjSos) or Aba (Plin. v. § 83), a
mountain in Armenia, identified with the
Ararat of Scripture (Strab. pp. 527, 581)

ABUS
Abus (Humber), a river in Britain.
Abydenus (' A$vSr)v6s), a Greek historian of
uncertain date, wrote a history of Assyria in the
Ionic dialect, valuable for chronology. The
fragments are given by Miiller, Fragm. Hist.
Graec. iv. 278.
Abydos (ri "A&vBos, Abydum, Plin. v. § 141 :
'A0vSvv6s, Abydenus). 1. A town of the Troad
on the Hellespont, and a Milesian colony (Thuc.
•viii. 61) nearly opposite to Sestos, but a little
lower down the stream. It is mentioned as an
ally of the Trojans {II. ii. 836). The bridge of
boats which Xerxes constructed over the Helles
pont, B.C. 480, commenced a little higher up
than Abydos, and touched the European shore
between Sestos and Madytus (Herod, vii. 33).
In 411 Abydus revolted from Athens (Thuc.

Coin of Abydos.
^ Obv., Artemis ; rev., eagle.
Tiii. 62). On the conclusion of the war with
Philip (B.C. 196), the Romans declared Abydus,
with other Asiatic cities, to be free (Liv. xxxiii.
30). The names of Abydus and Sestos are
coupled together in the story of Hero and
Leander, who is said to have swum across the
channel to visit his mistress at Sestos. Hence
Leander is called Abydenus (Ov. H. xviii. 1 ;
Stat. S. 1, 2, 87). Abydus was celebrated for its
oysters (ostrifer, Yerg. G. i. 207). — 2. (Nr. Arabat
el Matfoon and FI JBirbeh, Ru.), a city of Upper
Egypt, near the W. bank of the Nile ; once
second only to Thebes, but in Strabo's time (a.d.
14) a small village. It had a temple of Osiris
and a Memnonium, both still standing, and an
oracle. Here was found the inscription known
as the Table of Abydos, which contains a list of
the Egyptian kings (Strab. p. 813 sq.; Plut.
Is. et Osir. 18 ; Plin. v. § 60).
Abyla or Abila Mons or Columna CA0v\ti or
'A0i\7i a-T^Ar) or opus : Jebel Zatout, i.e. Apes'
Hill, above Ceuta), a mountain in Mauretania
Tingitana, forming the E. extremity of the S. or
African coast of the Fretum Gaditanum. This
and M. Calpe {Gibraltar), opposite to it on the
Spanish coast, were called the Columns of
Hercules, from the fable that they were origi
nally one mountain, which was torn asunder by
Heracles (Strab. p. 829 ; Mel. ii. 6).
Acacallis f AkokoAAM, daughter of Minos,
hy whom Hermes begot a son Cydon, and
Apollo a son Miletus, as well as other children.
Acacallis was in Crete a common name for a
narcissus (Paus. viii. 52, 2 ; Athen. xv. p. 681).
Acacesinm f ' AKaK^aiov : Akok^o-ios), a town
of Arcadia, at the foot of a hill of the same
name (Paus. viii. 3, 2; 27, 4; 36, 10).
Acacesius (AraK^o-ios), a surname of Hermes
<Callim. Hym. in Dian. 143), for which Homer
{II. xvi. 185; Od. xxiv. 10) uses the form
BKOKrjra (ciKaicfiTris). Some derive it from the
town of Acacesium, others from kuk6s, the god
who cannot be hurt, or who does not hurt. It
is also given to Prometheus (Hes. Theog. 614),
whence it may be inferred that its meaning is
deliverer from evil.

ACANTHUS 3
Acacetes, [Acacesius.]
Academia or ia {'AKatifoeia or 'AKoS^ia:
also Academia in the older Latin writers), a
piece of land on the Cephissus, 6 stadia from
Athens, originally belonging to the hero Aca-
demus (Plut. Thes. 82), and subsequently a
gymnasium, adorned by Cimon with plane and
olive plantations, statues, and other works of
art (Diog. La'e'rt. iii. 7; Plut. Cim. 18; Paus. i.
29, 8). Here taught Plato, and after him his
followers, who were hence called the Academici,
or Academic philosophers (Cic. de Or. i. 21, 98,
Fin. i. 1, 1). When Sulla besieged Athens in
B.C. 87, he cut down the plane trees in order to
construct his military machines (Plut. Still. 12 ;
App. Mithr. 30); but the place was restored
soon afterwards. Cicero gave the name of Aca
demia to his villa near Puteoli, where he wrote
his ' Academica.' He had another Academia in
his Tusculan villa (Cic. Tusc. ii. 8, 9, iii. 3, 7 ;
ad AU. i. 4, 3).
Academici. [Academia.]
Academus ('AKoBrjjiios), an Attic hero, who
betrayed to Castor and Pollux, when they in
vaded Attica to liberate their sister Helen, that
she was kept concealed at Aphidnae. For this
the Lacedaemonians, whenever they invaded
Attica, spared the Academy (Plut. Thes. 32 ;
Theogn. 975 ; Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 45).
Acalandrus ('AndAavSpos : Calandro), a river
in Lucania, flowing into the gulf of Tarentum
(Plim iii. 97; Strab. p. 280).
Acamas ('Afcdtias). 1. Son of Theseus and
Phaedra, accompanied Diomedes to Troy to
demand the surrender of Helen (Diod. iv. 62).
He was one of the Greeks concealed in the
wooden horse at the taking of Troy (Verg. Aen,
ii. 262). The promontory of Acamas in Cyprus
(Plin. v. § 129), the town of Acamantium in
Phrygia, and the Attic tribe Acamantis, derived
their names from him (Paus. i. 5, § 2). He was
the tribe hero of the Ceramicus according to an
inscription (.Mitt. iv. 8). — 2. Son of Antenor
and Theano, slain by Meriones (II. ii. 828, xii.
100, xiv. 476, xvi. 342).— 3. Son of Eussorus, a
leader of the Thracians in the Trojan war (II.
ii. 844, v. 462), slain by the Telamonian Ajax (II.
vi. 8). «
Acanthus ("AkuvBos), a Lacedaemonian, victor
in the Olympic games in Ol. 15 (b.c. 720), the
first who ran quite naked (Paus. v. 8, 3 ; Dio-
nys. vii. 72 ; cf. Thuc. i. 6).
Acanthus. 1. CAicavtios : 'AKaydtos, Acan-
thius : Erisso), a town on the isthmus connect
ing the peninsula of Acte with Chalcidiee, and
about li mile above the canal of Xerxes.
[Athos.J It was founded by a colony from
Andros. Xerxes stopped here on his march into
Greece (b.c. 480). It surrendered to Brasidas
424 and its independence was guaranteed in

Coin of Acanthus.
Obv., lion tilling a bull ; ruv., 'AtaveCw, -with a square.
the treaty of peace made between Athens and
Sparta. It afterwards became subject to Mace
donia. In the war between the Romans and
Philip (200) Acanthus was taken and plundered B 2

4 ACARNAN'
by the fleet of the republic. On the coin of
Acanthus figured above is a lion killing a bull,
which justifies the account of Herodotus (vii.
125), that on the march of Xerxes from Acan
thus to Therme, lions seized the camels which
carried the provisions -(Hdt. vii. 115 seq., 121
seq. ; Thuc. iv. 84 seq., v. 18 ; Xen. Hell. v. 2 ;
Liv. xxxi. 45 ; Strab. p. 330). — 2. (Dashour), a
city of Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, 120
stadia S. of Memphis, with a temple of Osiris,
so called from a sacred enclosure composed of
the Acanthus (Strab. p. 809 ; Diod. i. 97).
Acarnan ('Aicapvdv, -avos), one of the Epi-
goni, son of Alcmaeon and Callirrhoe, and
brother of Amphoterus. Their father was mur
dered by Phegeus when they were young, and
Callirrhoe prayed to Zeus to make her sons grow
quickly, that they might avenge their father's
death. When they grew up, they slew Phegeus,
and went to Epirus, where Acarnan founded
the state called after him Acarnania (Thuc. ii.
102 ; Apollod. iii. 3, 5 ; Ov. M. ix. 413).
Acarnania (^AKapvavia : 'AKapvdv, -avos,
Acarnan, anis, ace. ana, pi. anas, Liv. xxxvi.
11,6; Epit. 53 : adj. 'AKapvaviicds, Acarnanicus),
the most westerly province of Greece, was
bounded on the N. by the Ambracian gulf, on
the W. and SW. by the Ionian Sea, on the NE.
by Amphilochia, which is sometimes included
in Acarnania, and on the E. by Aetolia. It con
tained about 1,571 square miles. Its chief
river is the Achelous, hence called ' amnis
Acarnan ' (Sil. It. iii. 42) and ' amnis Acarnanum '
(Ov. M. viii. 569) : the river god is represented
on the coins of Acarnania as a bull with the

Coin of Acarnania.
Obv., head of river-god Achelous ;

.. Apollo.

head of a man. [Achelous.] The name of Acar
nania does not occur in Homer. In the most
ancient times the land was inhabited by the
Taphii, Teleboae, and Leleges, and subsequently
by the Curetes, who emigrated from Aetolia and
settled there (Strab. p. 465). At a later time a
colony from Argos, said to have been led by
Acabnan, the son of Alcmaeon, settled in the
country. In the seventh century B.C. the Co
rinthians founded several towns on the coast.
The Acarnanians first emerge from obscurity
at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war
B.C. 431, when they sided with the Athenians
(Thuc. m. 105 seq.). They were then a rude
people, living by piracy and robbery, and they
always remained behind the rest of the Greeks
in civilisation and refinement. They were good
slingers, and are praised for their fidelity and
courage. They espoused the side of Philip in
his war with the RomanB (Liv. xxxiii. 16, 17).
The different towns formed a League with a
Strategus at their head in the time of war : the
members of the League met at Stratos, and
subsequently at Thyrium or Leucas. Under
the Romans Acarnania formed part of the pro
vince of Epirus.
Acastus ('AKoffros), son of Pelias, king of
Iolcus, one of the Argonauts (Apoll. Rhod.
l. 224), also took part in the Calydonian hunt

L. ACCIUS
(Ov. M. viii. 306). His sisters were induced
by Medea to cut up their father and boil him,
in order to make him young again, whereupon
Acastus drove Jason and Medea from Iolcus,
and instituted funeral games in honour of his
father (Paus. iii. 18, 9 ; Apollod. i. 9, 27 ; Ov. M.
vii. 297, seq. xi. 409). During these games
Astydamia,* the wife of Acastus, also called
Hippolyte (called by Horace, Od. iii. 7, 17, Mag-
nessa, from Magnesia in Thessaly, to distinguish
her from the Amazon), fell in love with Peleus,
who refused to listen to her addresses ; where
upon she accused him to her husband of having
attempted her dishonour (Pind. Nem. iv. 56, v.
25). Afterwards, when Acastus and Peleus were
hunting on mount Pelion, Acastus took his
sword from him when he had fallen asleep. He
was in consequence nearly destroyed by the
Centaurs ; but he was saved by Chiron or
Hermes, returned to Acastus, and killed him.
together with his wife.
Acbarus. [Abgabus.]
Acca Larentia (not Laurentia), a mythical
woman in early Roman story, connected with the
legends of Romulus and Hercules, (i.) According
to one account she was the wife of the shepherd
Faustulus, and the nurse of Romulus and Remus
after they had been taken from the she-wolf. She
was the mother of twelve sons, and when one of
them died Romulus stepped into his place, and
took in conjunction with the remaining eleven
the name of Fratres Arvales. From the play
upon the words lupus and luva, she was also
represented as a prostitute (lupa), who left
the property she gained in that way to the
Roman people. A festival, Larentalia [or
Larentinalia] was celebrated in her honour on
the 23rd of December by the Flamen Quirinalis
as the representative of Romulus in the Vela-
brum, where she died (Gell. vii. 7, 7 ; Plin. xviii.
§ 6 ; Ov. F. iii. 57 ; Macrob. i. 10, 11 ; Varr.
L.L. vi. 23 ; Liv. i. 4). (ii.) According to an
other account, in the reign of Romulus or Ancus
Martius a servant (aedituus) of the temple of
Hercules invited the god to a game of dice,
promising that if he should lose the game he
would treat the god with a repast and a beauti
ful woman. When the god had conquered the
servant, the latter shut up Acca Larentia, with
the surname Fabula or Faula, a beautiful
prostitute, together with a well-stored table,
in the temple of Hercules. On the following
morning the god advised her to gain the affec
tions of the first wealthy man she should meet.
She succeeded in making Tarrutius or Carutius,
an Etruscan, love and marry her. After his
death she inherited his large property, which
sne left to the Roman people (Gell. vii. 7, 6 •
Macrob. i. 10, 12, 16; Plut. Bom. 4, 5, Qu. B.
35 ; Lactant. i. 20, 5 ; August. CD. vi. 7). The
name Acca probably signifies mother (cf. Skr.
a/cka), and the epithet Larentia probably refers
to the 12 Lares or Arvales.
I. Accius or Attius, an early Roman tragic
poet, son of a freedman, born B.C. 170, lived to
a great age. Cicero, when grown up, conversed
with him (Brut. 28). His tragedies were chiefly
imitated from the Greeks, but he also wrote
S<Tfi °nTR°man subjects (Praetextata) ; one,
entitled Brutus, was probably in honour of his
?? 7?J?--BrUtus (Cic-^<*. H, 27; Leg. ii. 21,
54 ; PUl. i 15, 36, ii. 3, 31 ; ad Att. xvi. 5). We
possess only fragments of his tragedies, but they
are highly spoken of by ancient writers (Cic.
Plane. 24, E9, Sest. 56, 120; Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 56)
He also wrote Annates in verse, containing the
history of Rome ; and three prose works, ' Libri

ACCO
Didascalicon,' apparently a history of poetry.
The fragments of his tragedies are given by
Ribbeck, Tragic. Lat. Beliq.; and those of
the Didasealica by Madvig, Hafn. 1831.
Acco, a chief of the Senones in Gaul, induced
his countrymen to revolt against Caesar, B.C. 58,
by whom he was put to death (B. G. vi. 4, 44).
Accua, a town of Apulia (Liv. xxiv. 20).
Ace. [Ptolemais.]
Acerbas, a Tyrian priest of Heracles, who
married Elissa, the sister of king Pygmalion
(Justin, xviii. 4). In the narrative of Justin,
Acerbas is the same person as Sichaeus, and
Elissa the same as Dido in Virgil (Aen. i. 848
seq.), of whom the same tale is told. [Dido.]
Acerrae (Acerranus). 1. (Acerra), a town
in Campania on the Clanius, received the
Roman franchise in B.C. 332. It was destroyed
by Hannibal, but was rebuilt (Liv. xxiii. 17,
xx vii. 3). It suffered from the frequent inunda
tions of the Clanius (Verg. G. ii. 225 ; Sil. It.
viii. 357). — 2. (Gerra), a town of the Insubresin
Gallia Transpadana on the Adda, a fortified
place (Pol. ii. 34 ; Plut. Marc. 6 ; Strabo, p.
247). — 3. A town of Umbria with the epithet
Vatriae (Plin. iii. § 114).
Acerronla. drowned in B.C. 59, when an at
tempt was made to drown Agrippina, the mother
of Nero (Tac. Ann. xiv. 4 ; Dion Cass. lxi. 13).
Cn. Acerronius Proculus, consul a.d. 37, in
which year Tiberius died (Tac. Ann. vi. 45 ;
Suet. Tib. 73).
Aces CAktjs), a river in central Asia, E. of
the Caspian (Hdt. iii. 117).
Acesas (A/ceo-Ss), born at Salamis in Cyprus,
famed for weaving cloth with variegated
patterns. He and his son Helicon were the first
who made a peplus for Athena Polias (Ath.
p. 18), which is mentioned by Euripides (Hec.
468) and Plato (Euthyphr. § 6).
Acesmes fAKe<nV7js). 1. (Chenaub), a river
in India, into which the Hydaspes flows, and
which itself flows into the Indus (Arr. An. v.
20, 13 ; Strab. p. 692 ; 'Atcea-lvos, Diod. ii. 37 ;
Plin. vi. § 71, xvi. § 162). — 2. (Cantara), a river
in Sicily, near Tauromenium (Thuc. iv. 25),
called by Pliny (iii. § 88) Asines.
Acesta. [Segesta.]
Acestes (Ak€<tt77s, AXyearos), son of a Trojan
woman, Egesta or Segesta, sent by her father
to Sicily, that she might not be devoured by
the monsters which infested the territory of
Troy. In Sicily the river-god Crimisus' begot
by her a son Acestes, who founded the town
of Acesta or Segesta. Aeneas, on his arrival in
Sicily, was hospitably received by Acestes (Verg.
Aen. i. 550, v. 35 ; Ov. M. xiv. 83). Dionysius
(i. 52) has a different legend.
Acestor (A/cec-rap). 1. Surnamed Sacas, on
account of his foreign origin, a tragic poet at
Athens, and a contemporary of Aristophanes
(Av. 31 ; Vesp. 1216). — 2. A sculptor of Cnossus,
about B.C. 452 (Paus. vi. 17, 2, x. 15, 4).
Achaei (Axaioi) are represented as descen
dants of Achaeus, the son of Xuthus and
Creusa, and consequently the brother of Ion
and grandson of Hellen (Apollod. i. 7, 3 ; Strab.
383 ; Paus. vii. 1, 2). There was no broad dis
tinction of race between them and the Hellenes,
whose name afterwards prevailed. Like the
Hellenes, they were confined to the western
side of the Aegean, except that Od. xix. 175
mentions them in Crete. [For the supposed
Achaeans on Egyptian monuments of the 14th
cent. b.c. see Aegyptus.] In the heroic age they
are found in the southern part of Thessaly
[Achaia, 1], and also in the eastern part of Pelo-

ACHAIA 5
ponnesus, more especially in Argos and Sparta.
Homer describes them as a brave and war
like people, and calls the Greeks in general
Achaeans or Panachaeans (Ilavaxctiot, II. ii.
404, vii. 78, &c). In the same manner Pelo
ponnesus, and sometimes the whole of Greece,
is called by the poet the Achaean land
('Axarfs ydiu, II. i. 254, Od. xiii. 249). So
also the Roman poets use Achaia and the
derivative adjectives as equivalent to Greece
and Grecian (Ov. M. viii. 268, v. 306; Verg.
Aen. ii. 462; Juv. iii. 61). On the conquest
of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, after the
Trojan war, the Achaeans were driven out of
Argos and Laconia, and those who remained
behind were reduced to the condition of a con
quered people. Most of the expelled Achaeans,
led by Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, pro
ceeded to the northern coast of Pelopon
nesus, which was called simply Aegialus
(AlytaAds) or the 'Coast,' and was inhabited
by Ionians. The latter were defeated by the
Achaeans and crossed over to Attica and Asia
Minor, leaving their country to their conquerors,
from whom it was henceforth called Achaia
(Strab. p. 383 ; Paus. vii. 1 ; Pol. ii. 41 ; Hdt. i.
145). [Achaia.]
Achaemenes ('Axaifihris. 1. Ancestor of
the Persian kings, who founded the family of
the Achaemenidae ('AxaifaeASai), which was
the noblest family of the Pasargadae (Hdt.
i. 125 ; iii. 75, vii. 11 ; Hor. Od. ii. 12, 21).
The Roman poets use Achaemenius in the
sense of Persian (Ov. M. iv. 212 ; Hor. Carm.
iii. 1, 44). — 2. Son of Darius I., governor of
Egypt, commanded the Egyptian fleet in the
expedition of Xerxes against Greece, B.C. 480.
He was killed in battle by Inarus the Libyan,
460 (Hdt. iii. 12, vii. 7, 97 ; Diod. xi. 74).
Achaemenides, or Acnemenides, a com
panion of Ulysses, who left him behind in Sicily
when he fled from the Cyclops. Here he was
found by Aeneas (Verg. Aen. iii. 614 ; Ov. M.
xiv. 161, Pont. ii. 2, 25 and 167).
Achaeus (Axaios). 1. Son of Xuthus, the
mythical ancestor of the Achaei. — 2. Of Eretria
in Euboea, a tragic poet, born B.C. 484. In 447,
he contended with Sophocles and Euripides,
and though he brought out many dramas, he
only gained the prize once. In the satirical
drama he possessed considerable merit (Diog.
Lae'rt. ii. 133 ; Athen. p. 451 ; Ov. Ib. 543). The
fragments have been published by Urlichs
(1834) and Rauch, Trag. Graec. Fragm.
(1856). — 3. A later tragic poet, a native of
Syracuse, wrote ten tragedies. — 4. Governor
under Antiochus III. of all Asia W. of mount
Taurus, revolted against Antiochus, and was
put to death, B.C. 214 (Pol. iv. 51, 68, viii. 17,
seq. ; Ov. Ib. 301).
Achaia ('Axaia, Ion. 'Axoi'oj : 'Axa'os,
Achaeus, Achlvus,/em. and adj. 'Axaids, Acha-
ias, Achais : Adj. 'Axa'iKds Achaicus, Achaius).
A district in the S. of Thessaly, in which
Phthia and Hellas were situated, the original
abode of the Achaeans, who were hence called
Phthiotan Achaeans ( 'Axaioi ol fydiuTm) to dis
tinguish them from the Achaeans in the Pelo
ponnesus. It was from this part of Thessaly
that Achilles came (II. ii. 684). This district
retained the name of Achaia in the time of
Herodotus (vii. 173, 197), and the inhabitants of
Phthia were called Phthiotan Achaeans till, a
still later period (Thuc. viii. 3). — 2. A province
in the N. of Peloponnesus, extended along the
Corinthian gulf from the river Larissus, a little
S. of the promontory Araxus, which separated

6

ACHAIA

it from Elis, to the river Sythas, which sepa
rated it from Sicyonia. On the S. it was
bordered by Arcadia, and on the SW. by Elis.
Its greatest length along the coast is about
65 English miles : its breadth from about 12 to
20 miles. Its area was about 650 square miles.
Achaia is thus only a narrow slip of country,
lying upon the slope of the northern range of
Arcadia, through which are deep and narrow
gorges, by which alone Achaia can be invaded
from the south. From this mountain range
descend numerous ridges running down into
the sea, or separated from it by narrow levels.
The original inhabitants were Pelasgians, called
Aegialeis (AlyiaAtTs), or the ' Coast-Men,' from
Aegialus or Aegialeia (Aiyia\6s, AlyiaAeia,
II. ii. 575, Paus. vii. 1, 1 ; Strab. p. 383), the
ancient name of the country, though some
writers sought a mythical origin for the name,
and derived it from Aegialeus, king of Sicyonia
(Hdt. vii. 94 ; Paus. vii. 1). The Ionians sub
sequently settled in the country, from which
they were expelled by the Achaeans, whence the
country was called Achaia. [Achaei.] The Achaei
settled in 12 cities : Pellene, Aegira, Aegae,
Bura, Helice, Aegium, Rhypae, Patrae, Pharae,
Olenus, Dyme, and Tritaea (Hdt. i. 145).
Leontium and Ceryneia were afterwards substi
tuted for Rhypae and Aegae. These cities are
said to have been governed by Tisamenus and
his descendants till Ogyges, upon whose death
a democratical form of government was esta
blished in each state ; but the twelve states
formed a league for mutual defence and protec
tion. In the Persian war the Achaei took no
part; and they had little influence in the
affairs of Greece till the time of the successors
of Alexander. In B.C. 281 the Achaei, subject to
the Macedonians, renewed their ancient league
to combine the states of the Peloponnesus for
the purpose of shaking off the Macedonian
yoke. This was the origin of the celebrated
Achaean League. It at first consisted of only
four towns, Dyme, Patrae, Tritaea, and Pharae,
but was subsequently joined by the other towns
of Achaia with
the exception
of Olenus and
Helice. It did
not, however,
obtain much
Coin of Achaia. importance till
Obv., head of Zens; rev., monogram 251, when Ara-
of AX. in laurel crown: Au and fish +,la 71T,;fa^ In
standing tor Dyme. . s, umtea I0
it his native
town, Sicyon. The example of Sicyon was
followed by Corinth and many other towns in
^Greece, and the League soon became the chief
political power in Greece. It was undoubtedly
a misfortune that Aratus rejected a union with
Sparta and sought the aid of Macedon (see
further under Abatus, Cleomenes, Philo-
poemen.] In the following century the Achaei
declared war against the Romans, who de
stroyed the League, and thus put an end to
the independence of Greece. Corinth, then the
chief town of the League, was taken by the
Roman general Mummius, in B.C. 146. The
different states composing the Achaean League
had equal rights. The assemblies of the League
were held twice a year, in the spring and
autumn, in a grove of Zeus Homagyrius near
Aegium. At these assemblies all the business
of the League was conducted, and at the
spring meeting the public functionaries were
chosen. These were : — 1. a Strategus (o-Tparri-
y6s) or General, and an Hipparchus l^iirimpxas)

ACHELOUS
or commander of the cavalry ; 2. a Secretary-
(ypaufiaTeis) ; and 3. ten Demiurgi (Srifuovpyoi,
also called &pxovr*s), who appear to have had
the right of convening the assembly. — 3. The
Roman province, including the whole of Pelo
ponnesus and the greater part of Hellas proper
with the adjacent islands. It is usually stated
by modern writers that the province was.
formed on the conquest of the Achaeans in B.C..
146; but it is more probable that the south
of Greece was first made a separate province
by Julius Caesar ; since the first governor of
the province of whom any mention is made was.
Serv. Sulpieius, and he was appointed to this;
office by Caesar (Cic. ad Fam. vi. 6, § 10). In
the division of the provinces made by Augus
tus, the whole of Greece was divided into the,
provinces of Achaia, Macedonia, and Epirus.
Achaia was one of the provinces assigned to-
the senate, and was governed by a proconsul.
(Strab. p. 840 ; Dio Cass. liii. 12). Tiberius in
the second year of his reign (a.d. 16) took it.
away from the senate and made it an imperial
province (Tac. Ann. i. 76), but Claudius gave it
back again to the senate (Suet. Claud. 25). In
the reign of this emperor Corinth was the
residence of the proconsul, and it was here that
the Apostle Paul was brought before Junius
Gallio as proconsul of Achaia (Acta Apost-
xviii. 12).
Achaicus, a surname of L. Mummius, who,
conquered Corinth. [Mummius.]
Acharnae ('Axapvai : 'Axapvevs, 'Pl.'Axapvrjsy
Acharnanus, Nep. Them. 1 ; Adj. 'Axapyavm6s)r
the principal demus of Attica, belonging to the
tribe Oeneis, 60 stadia N. of Athens, near the
foot of Mount Pames, possessed a rough and
warlike population, who were able to furnish
3,000 hoplitae at the commencement of the
Peloponnesian war. Their land was fertile, and
they carried on a considerable traffic in char
coal. One of the plays of Aristophanes bears
the name of the inhabitants of this demus'
(Thuc. ii. 13, 19-21 ; Pind. Nem. ii. 25 ; Paus.
i. 31, 6 ; Athen. p. 284 ; Stat. Th. xii. 623).
Acharrae, a town in Thessaliotis in Thessaly,
on the river Pamisus (Liv. xxxii. 13), apparently
the same place as the Acharne of Pliny (iv. § 32).
Achates, ae. 1. A Trojan, the faithful
friend of Aeneas (Verg. Aen. i. 120; Ov. Fast.
iii. 60S).— 2. Ariverin the SW. of Sieily,remark-
able for the clearness of its waters, in which the
first agate is said to have been found (Sil. It.
xiv. 208 ; Plin. iii. § 90 ; Theophr. Lap. § 81).
Acheloides. [Achelous.]
Achelous. 1. ('AxeKyos, 'AXeA<&ios in
Horn.: Aspro Potamo), the largest river in
Greece, rises in Mount Pindus, and flows-
southward, forming the boundary between
Acarnania and Aetolia, and falls into the
Ionian sea opposite the islands called Echi-
nades, formed by the alluvial deposits of the
river (Thuc. ii. 102). It is about 180 miles.
in length. The god of this river is described
as the son of Oceanus and Tethys, and as the
eldest of his 3,000 brothers (Hes. Theoq
340). He fought with Heracles for Deiamra,
but was conquered in the contest. He then
took the form of a bull, but was again over
come by Heracles, who deprived him of one of
his horns, which however he recovered by giv
ing up the horn of Amalthea, which became
the horn of plenty (Soph.. Trach. 9, 510 ; Ov
™l- 880 ix. 1). This legend alludes appa
rently to efforts made to check the ravages
ot the river inundations, whence large tracts
ol land were gained for cultivation, which are.

ACHEMENIDES
expressed by the horn of plenty (Strab. p. 458).
When Theseus returned from the Calydonian
chase, he was hospitably received by Achelous,
who related to him in what manner he had
changed certain nymphs into the islands called
Echinades(Ov. Met. viii. 577-611). The Achelous
was regarded as the ruler and representative
of all fresh water in Hellas. Hence he is
called by Homer (II. xx. 194) Kpeiaiv 'AxeAtiXos,
and was worshipped as a mighty god through
out Greece. He was regarded as the represen
tative of all flowing water, so that the name is
often used by the poets as equivalent to water
(Ephor. ap. Macrob. v. 18 ; Aesch. Pers. 869 ;
Eurip.Baccfe.625; Aristoph. Lys. 381). Theroot
ax- probably means water, and appears in aqua.
The river god is represented on the coins of
Acarnania and Oeniadae as a bull with the
head of a man. [See coins under Acabnanlv
and Oeniadae.] — Hence Achelouides, contr.
Acheloides, i.e. the Sirenes, the daughters of
Achelous (Ov. Met. v. 552, xiv. 87) : Acheloia
Callirhoe, because Callirhoe was the daughter
of Achelous (Ov. Met. ix. 413) : pocula Ache
loia, i.e. water in general (Verg. Georg. i. 9) :
Acheloius heros, that is, Tydeus, son of Oeneus,
king of Calydon, Acheloius = Aetolian (Stat.
Theb. ii. 142).— 2. A river of Thessaly, in the
district of Malis, flowing near Lamia (Strab.
pp. 434, 450). — 3. A mountain torrent in Arca
dia, flowing into the Alpheus, from the north of
Mount Lycaeus (Paus. viii. 38, 9). — 4. Also
called Peikus, a river in Achaia, flowing near
Dyme (Strab. pp. 342, 450).
Achemenides. [Achaemenides.]
Acherdus ('Ax^pSovs, ovvtos: 'AxtpSovo-ios),
from &xepS°s> a wild pear-tree, a demus of At
tica of uncertain site, belonging to the tribe
Hippothoontis. Aristophanes (Eccl. 362), in
joke, uses the form 'Axpafiovcrios instead of
'Axeph'ovo'ios (Aeschin. in Tim. § 110).
Acherini, the inhabitants of a small town in
Sicily, mentioned only by Cicero (Verr. iii. 43).
Acheron (Axe'pwc, also Acheruns, untis,
Plaut. Capt. v. 4, 2 ; Acheros, Liv. viii. 24), the
name of several rivers, all of which were, at
least at one time, believed to be connected with
the lower world. It has the same root ox- as
Achelous = aqua, but was derived by the an
cients from &xos, 6 &XV Ha". — !¦ A river in
Thesprotia in Epirus, which flows through the
lake Acherusia, and, after receiving the river
Cocytus, flows into the Ionian sea, now Gurla,
or river of Suli (Thuc. i. 46 ; Strab. p. 324). On
its banks was an oracle called veKvofiavTelov
(Hdt. v. 92), which was consulted by evok
ing the spirits of the dead. — 2. A river in Elis
which flows into the Alpheus (Strab. p. 344).
— 3. A river in Southern Italy in Bruttii, on
which Alexander of Epirus perished (Liv.
viii. 24 ; Strab. p. 256 ; Justin, xii. 2).— 4. The
river of the lower world, usually identified with
the Acheron in Thesprotia. [No. 1.] In the
Iliad the Styx is the only river of the lower
world, but in the Odyssey (x. 513) the Acheron
appears as the river of the lower world, into
which the Pyriphlegethon (Tlvpi<p\ey48av, Fire-
blazing) and Cocytus (KdicvTO s, Wailing), a tri
butary of the Styx, flow. Across the river the
shades had to be carried to reach the lower
world (Eurip. Ale. 440 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 295).
Acheron is frequently used in a general sense
to signify the whole of the lower world (Soph.
Ant. 805 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 312 ; Hor. Od. i.
8, 36 ; Nep. Dion. 10). The Etruscans too
were acquainted with the worship of Acheron
(Acheruns). Their Acheruntici libri treated

ACHILLES 7
of the deification of the souls, and of the sacri
fices (Acheruntia sacra) by which this was to
be effected. — Hence Adj. 'Ax*povo-ios, Ache-
riisius; AxepoWeios, Acheronteus, Acheronti-
cus, Acherunticus.
Acherontia (Acerenza), a town in Apulia on
Mount Vultur, whence Horace (Od. iii. 4, 14)
speaks of celsae nidum Acherontiae.
Acherusia ('Ax*povtria Kl/ivri or 'Axepowr/s),
the name of several lakes believed to be con
nected with the lower world. 1. In Thesprotia.
[Achekon.] — 2. (Lago di Fusaro) in Campa
nia, so called in consequence of its proximity
to Avernus. [Avebnus.] (Strab. pp. 248, 245 ;
Plin. iii. § 6.) — 3. Near Hermione in Argolis
(Paus. ii. 85, 10). — 4. Near Heraclea in
Bithynia (Xen. An. vi. 2, 6). — 5. In Egypt
near Memphis (Diod. i. 96).
Achilla or Acholla ("AxoXXa. : 'AxoaWos :
Achillitanus : El Aliah, Ru.), a town on the
coast of Africa, in the Carthaginian territory,
above the N. point of the Syrtis Minor (Strab.
p. 881 j Liv. xxxiii. 48 ; B. Afric. 88-43).
Achillas ('AxiAAas), commander of the
Egyptian troops, when Pompey fled to Egypt
B.C. 48. He and L. Septimius killed Pompey.
He resisted Caesar, and was put to death by
Arsinoe, the sister of Ptolemy, B.C. 47 (Caes. B.
C. iii. 104 seq., B. Al. 4 ; Luc. viii. 538).
Achilles ('AxiAAevs, 'Axi^eis, ems, Ep.
fjos : Lat. is, &c, also gen. Achillei, Hor. Od.
i. 15, 4 ; Achilli, Verg. Aen. iii. 87 ; ace. Achil
lea, Luc. x. 523 ; abl. Achilli, Ov. Pont. iii. 8,
43 : adj. 'Ax'AAetos, Ion. 'Ax'M^i'os, Achil-
leus), the great hero of the Iliad. — Homeric
story. Achilles was the son of Peleus, king
of the Myrmidones in Phthiotis, in Thessaly,
and of the Nereid Thetis (II. xx. 206 &c).
From his father's name he is often called
Pelxdes, Peleiades, and Pelion (UnAefS^s , 117)-
A-ni'dBjjs, IlTjAetoj/, II. xviii. 816; i. 1; i. 197;
Verg. Aen. ii. 263), and from his grandfather
Aeacides (AiWStjs, II. ii. 860; Verg. Aen. i. 99).
He was educated, along with Patroclus, his
life-long friend (II. xxiii. 84), by Phoenix, who
taught him eloquence and the arts of war (II.
ix. 485, xi. 832), and by Chiron, the centaur,
who taught him the healing art (xi. 282).
His mother Thetis foretold him that his fate
was either to gain glory and die early or to
live a long but inglorious life (ix. 410). The
hero chose the former, and therefore when
Ulysses and Nestor came to Phthia to per
suade him to take part in the Trojan war
he followed them willingly, though he knew
he was not to return (xi. 765). Accompanied
by Phoenix and Patroclus, he led his hosts
of Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achaeans, in
fifty ships, against Troy (ii. 681). Here the
swift-footed Achilles was the great bulwark of
the Greeks, and the worthy favourite of Athene
and Hera. When, in the tenth year of the war,
Agamemnon was obliged to give up Chryseis
to her father, he threatened to take away
Brisei's from Achilles, who surrendered her on
the persuasion of Athene, but at the same time
refused to take any further part in the war,
and shut himself up in his tent. Zeus, on the
entreaty of Thetis, promised that victory should
be on the side of the Trojans until the Achaeans
should have honoured her son. The Greeks
were defeated, and were at last pressed so hard
that an embassy was sent to Achilles, offering
him rich presents and the restoration of Brisei's ;
but in vain. At last, however, he was per
suaded by Patroclus to allow the latter to
make use of his men, his horses, and his ar-

ACHILLES

mour. Patroclus was slain, and when this news
reached Achilles he was seized with unspeak
able grief. Thetis consoled him, and promised
new arms, to be made by Hephaestus, and Iris
exhorted him to rescue the body of Patroclus.
Achillas now T6se, and his thundering voice
alone put the Trojans to flight. When his new
armour was brought to him, with the cele
brated shield described at length by Homer,
he hurried to the field of battle. He slew num
bers of Trojans, and at length met Hector,
whom he chased thrice around the walls of the
city. He then slew him, tied his body to his
chariot, and dragged him to the ships of the
Greeks. After this, he burnt the body of Pa
troclus, together with twelve young captive
Trojans, who were sacrificed to appease the
spirit of his friend ; but he gave up the body of
Hector to Priam, who came in person to beg
for it. Achilles was slain at the Scaean
gate, by Paris and Apollo, before Troy was
taken. His death itself does not occur in the
Iliad, but it is alluded to in a few passages
(xxii. 358, xix. 417, xxi. 278). It is expressly
mentioned in the Odyssey (xxiv. 36), where it
is said that his fall — his conqueror is not men
tioned — was lamented by gods and men, that

his original mSrhe, Ligyron, i.e. the ' whining,
into Achilles (Pind. Nem. iii. 51 ; Stat. Achill.
i. 269 &c; Hor. Epad. 13, 11). Chiron fed
his pupil wjtji the hearts of lions and the
marrow of bears. According to other ac
counts, Thetis endeavoured to make Achilles
immortal by dipping him in thaffiver Styx, and
succeeded with the" exception of the heel, by
which she held him (Stat. Achill. i. 269). When
he had reachedjihe age of nine, Calchas de
clared that Troy could not be taken without
his aid; and Thetis, knowing that the war
would be fatal to him, disguised him as a
maiden, and introduced him among the
daughters of Lycomedes of Scyros, where he
was called by the name of Pyrrha on account
of his golden ' locks. Here he remained con
cealed -till Ulysses visited the place in the dis
guise of a merchant, and offered for sale some
female dresses, amidst which he had mixed
some arms. Achilles discovered his sex by
eagerly seizing the arms, and then accompanied
Ulysses to the Greek army. During his resi
dence at Scyros, one of his companions, Dei-
damia, became by him the mother of Pyrrhus
or Neoptolemus. [For the events at Aulis and
the pretext of marrying Iphigenia to him, see

AchiUes at Scyros. (From the Louvre.)

his remains, together with those of Patroclus,
were buried in a golden urn which Dionysus
had given as a present to Thetis, and were de
posited on the coast of the Hellespont, where a
mound was raised over them. Achilles is the
principal hero of the Iliad; he is the hand
somest and bravest of all the Greeks; affec
tionate towards his mother and his friends;
formidable in battles, which are his delight;
open-hearted and without fear, and at the same
time susceptible to the gentle and quiet joys
of home. His greatest passion is ambition,
and when his sense of honour is hurt he is un
relenting in his revenge and anger, but withal
submits obediently to the will of the gods. —
Later traditions. These chiefly consist of
accounts which fill up the history of his youth
and death. His mother, wishing to make him
immortal, concealed him by night in fire, in order
to destroy the mortal parts he had inherited
from his father, and by day anointed him with
ambrosia. But Peleus one night discovered
his child in the fire, and cried out in terror.
Thetis left her son and fled, and Peleus en
trusted him to Chiron, who educated and in
structed him in the arts of riding, hunting,
and playing the phorminx, and also changed

Iphigenia; for the healing of Telephus by
Achilles, see Telephus.] In the war against
Troy, Achilles slew Penthesilea, an Amazon'
but was deeply moved upon discovering her
beauty ; and when Thersites ridiculed him for
his tenderness of heart, he killed the scoffer
by a blow with the fist. He fought with Mem-
non and slew the young Troilus (Q. Smyrn. ii.
480; Verg. Aen. i. 474). Both incidents are
favourite subjects with vase-painters. In the
former the mothers of the combatants watch
the fight, or Zeus is represented weighing the
life of Achilles against that of Memnon. The
accounts of his death differ much, though all
agree m stating that he did not fall by human
hands, or at least not without the interference
of the god Apollo. According to some tradi
tions, he was killed by Apollo himself (Soph.
Philoct 334; Hor. Od. iv. 6, 8), as had been
foretold (II. xxi. 278). According to others
Apono merely directed the weapon of Paris
against Achilles, and thus caused his death, as
had been suggested by the dying Hector (Verg
Aen. vi. 57 Ov. M. xii. 601 ; II. xxii. 358).
Others again relate that Achilles loved Poly-'
xena, a daughter of Priam, and tempted by the
promise that he should receive her as his wife

ACHILLES
if he would join the Trojans, ha- went without
arms into the temple of Apollo at Thymbra, and
was assassinated there hv Paris. His body was
rescued by Ulysses and Ajax the Telamonian ; his
armour was promised by Thetis to the bravest
among the Greeks, which gave rise, to a contest
between the tiijo heroes who had rescued his
body. [Ajax.] After his death, Achilles became
one of the judges in the lower world, and dwelled
in the islands of the blessed, whex,e he was united
with Medea or Iphigenia. The*fabulous island

Death of Achilles. (Raoul Rochctie, Mon. Ined., pi. 53.)

of Leuce in the Euxine was especially sacred to
him. [Achtlleus Dbomos.] Achilles was wor
shipped in several places as one of the national
heroes of Greece ; as at Pharsalus, Tanagra,
and Sparta : in Epirus even as a god. The re
markable worship on the coasts of the Euxine
may have been spread by the Milesian settle
ment at Byzantium, perhaps combined with
the worship of some local heroes. Various ex
planations of his name are given. Most of the
ancients connect it with axes, because Achilles
gave pain to the Trojans. Some writers re
gard him as originally a river god, arguing that
ax-, like the root in Achelous, may signify
-water, as in aqua. Others make him a sun-
god, as they have attempted to make the whole
Hiad a representation of the sun taking posses
sion of the east. There is certainly more con
nexion in the story of Achilles with water di
vinities than with the sun : it is even possible
that some part of his story may be borrowed
from local rituals of river or sea^deities ; but
there is no valid reason why the reader of
Greek poets should not see in the main story
of Achilles the glorification in ballads of a tra
ditional hero of war, in no degree suggested
originally by any phenomena of nature ; still
less are we obliged to base his story on any of
the supposed etymologies of his name.
Achilles Tatius, of Alexandria, lived in the
middle of the fifth century of our era, and is
the author of a Greek romance in eight books,
containing the adventures of two lovers,
Clitophon and Leucippe, published by Fr.
Jacobs, Lips. 1821. He must be distinguished
from Achilles Statius, or Tatius, who probably
lived in the second century of our era, and wrote
a work on the sphere (irepl o-<paipas), a frag
ment of which, professing to be an introduction
to the Phaenomena of Aratus, is printed in
Petavius, Uranologia, Paris, 1630.

ACMONIDES ,,9
Achilleum ('AxiAAeioi/), a town n£ur the
promontory SigSum in the Troad, where
Achilles was supposed to have been' buried
(Hdt. y. 94 ; Strab. p. 594; Arr. An.%112).
Achilleus, assumed the title of emperor
under Diocletian, reigned over'Sgjrpt, and was
put to death by Diocletian a.d. 296 '(i&ufrop. ix.
14, 15 ; Aur. Vict. Caes. 89).
Achilleus Dromos ("AxiAAeios Spi/^s : Ten-
dera or Tendra), a tongue of land in the Euxine
Sea, near the mouth of the Borysthenes, where
Achilles is said to have
made a race-course. Be
fore it lay the Island of
Achilles (Insula Achil
las) or Leuce (Aewc^),
where was a temple of
Achilles (Hdt. iv. 55, 76;
Eur. Iph. in T. 438;
Pind. Ol. ii. 85; Strab.
p. 306).
_ Achilleus Portus
(AxiAAeios Aijrerjj/ ; Va-
thy), a harbour in Laco-
nia, near the promontory
Taenarum (Paus. iii. 25,
*)¦ Achillides, a patro
nymic of Pyrrhus, son of
Achilles (Ov. Her. viii.
3), also of Pyrrhus, king
of Epirus, who traced
his descent from Achilles
(Ov. Ib. 303).
Aehillis Insula. [Ach
illeus Dbomos.]
Achivom, Verg. Aen

Achivi (gen. pi. Acmvom, verg. Aen. xi.
226), another form of the Achaei, and used, like
Achaei, to signify the whole Greek nation
(Hor. Ep. i. 2, 14; Ov.Pont.i. 4, 33, Her. i. 21).
Acholla, [Achilla.]
Acholoe. [Habpyiae.]
Achradina or Acradina. [Sybacusae.]
Acichorlus (' Anix&pios), one of the leaders
of the Gauls, who with Brennus invaded
Thrace and Macedonia in B.C. 280, and Greece
in 279 (Paus. x. 19, 4 ; x. 22, 5 ; x. 23, 1).
Acidalia, a surname of Venus (Verg. Aen. i.
720), from the well Acidalius near Orchomenos.
Acidinus, L. Manlius. 1. A Roman general
in the second Punic war, served against Has-
drubal in 207, and was sent into Spain in 206,
where he remained till 199 (Liv. xxix. 1-3, xxxii.
7). — 2. Surnamed Fulvianus, praetor B.C. 188
in Nearer Spain, and consul in 179 with his own
brother Q. Fulvius Flaccus, which is the only
instance of two brothers being consuls at the
same time (Liv. xxxviii. 35, xl. 34 ; Veil. Pat. ii.
8 ; Cic^ de Or. ii. 64).
Acilia Gens, plebeian. See under the family
names Aviola, Balbus, Glabeio.
Acis ("Akis), son of Faunus and Symaethis,
beloved by the nymph Galatea, and crushed by
Polyphemus the Cyclops through jealousy under
a huge rock. His blood gushing forth from under
the rock was changed by the nymph into the river
Acis, at the foot of Mount Aetna (now Fiume de
Jaci). This story is perhaps only a fiction sug
gested by the manner in which the stream
springB forth from under a rock (Ov. M. xiii. 750
seq., F. iv. 468 ; Sil. It. xiv. 221 seq.). Theocri
tus ( Id. i. 69) speaks of the sacred waters of Acis.
Acmonia ('Aic/iovta: 'Akp-ovittis, Acmonen-
sis), a city of the Greater Phrygia (Cic. Flacc.
15, 34 ; Plin. v. § 106).
Acmonides, one of the three Cyclopes in Ovid
(F. iv. 288), is the same as Pyracmon in Virgil

10

ACOETES

ACROPOLIS

(Aen. viii. 425), and as Arges in other accounts) the Eurotas (Paus. iii. 21 ; Pol.

of the Cyclopes.
Acoetes ('AkoIttis), a poor Maeonian (Ly-
dian), or Tyrrhenian, who served as pilot in
a ship. The sailors, landing at the island of
Ceos, bsought \^ith them on board a beautiful
boy asleep, whom they wished to take with
them ; but Acoetes, who recognised in the boy
the god Bacchus, dissuaded them from it, but in
vain. ' When the ship had reached the open sea
the boy awoke, and desired to be carried to
Naxos, his native island. The sailors promised
to do so, but did not keep their word ; where
upon the god disclosed himself in his majesty;
vines began to twine round the vessel, tigers
appeared ; and the sailors, seized with madness,
jumped into the sea, and were changed into
dolphins. Acoetesalonewassavedand conveyed
to Naxos, where he was initiated in the Bacchic
mysteries. This is the tale related by Bacchus
himself, in the form of Acoetes, to Pentheus
(Met. iii. 582 seq.). The story is founded on the
Homeric Hymn to Dionysus.
Acontius (AkoWios), a beautiful youth of
Ceos. Having come to Delos to celebrate the
festival of Diana, he fell in love with Cydippe, and
in order to gain her he had recourse to a strata
gem. While she was sitting in the temple of Diana,
he threw before her an apple upon which he had
written the words ' I swear by the sanctuary of
Diana to marry Acontius.' The nurse took up
the apple and handed it to Cydippe, who read
aloud what was written upon it, and then threw
the apple away. But the goddess had heard
her vow, and the repeated illness of the maiden,
when she was about to marry another man,
compelled her father to give her in marriage to
Acontius. This story is related by Ovid (Her.
20, 21), who borrowed it from a lost poem of
Callimachus, entitled ' Cydippe.'
Acoris ("AKopis), king of Egypt, assisted
Evagoras, king of Cyprus, against Artaxerxes,
king of Persia, about B.C. 385. He died about
374, before the Persians entered Egypt in the
following year (Diod. xv. 2-4, 8, 9, 29, 41, 42).
Acra, [Acbae.]
Acra leuce ( A«pa Aevx-f,), acity of Hispania
Tarraconensis, founded by Hamilcar Barcas
(Diod. xxv. 2), probably identical with the
Castrum Album of Livy (xxiv. 41).
Acrae ("Axpai). — 1. (Acrenses, Plin.; Palaz-
zolo), a city of Sicily, on a lofty hill 24 miles W.
of Syracuse, was founded by the Syracusans
70 years after its parent city, i.e. B.C. 663 (Thuc.
vi. 5 ; Liv. xxiv. 36 ; Plin. iii. § 91). — 2. A town
in Aetolia (Pol. v. 13). — 3. (or'Aicpa). A town
in the Cimmerian Bosporus (Strab. p. 494 ;
Plin. iv. § 86).
»Acraea ('AKpaia), and Acraeus, surnames
given to various goddesses and gods whose
temples were situated upon hills, such as Zeus,
Hera, and others (Liv. xxxii. 23, xxxviii. 2).
Acraepheus. [Acbaephia.]
Acraephia, Aeraephiae, or Acraephion
('AKpaiipia, 'AKptutplai, 'Axpaitpiov : 'Axpa'upios,
'AKpcuipiaios- Kardhitza), a town in Boeotia,
on the lake Copais, founded by Acraepheus, the
son of Apollo. It contained an oracle of Apollo
Ptous (Hdt. viii. 185 ; Strab. p. 410 ; Liv. xxxiii.
29 ; Paus. ix. 23, 5 ; Plin. iv. § 26).
Acragas. 1. [Agbigentum.] — 2. Acelebrated
engraver (Plin. xxxiii. § 154).
Acra tus, a freedman of Nero, sent into Asia
and Achaia (a.d. 64) to plunder the temples
(Tac. Ann. xv. 45, xvi. 28).
Acriae ('Aitpiat, or 'Aicpdlai : 'AKpidrris),
a town in Laconia, not far from the mouth of

19 ; Liv.
.. ..27; Strab. ip. 843,303).
, Acrillae ("Aicpi\\a), a town in Sicily between
Agrigentum and Acrae (Liv. xxiv. 35).
Acrisione, Acrisioniades. [Acrisius.]
Acrisius ('AKpicrios), son of Abas, king of
Argos. He expelled his twin-brother, Proe-
tus, from his inheritance; but supported by
his father-in-law, Iobates the Lyeian, Proe-
tus returned, and Acrisius was compelled to
share his kingdom with him. Acrisius held
Argos, and Proetus Tiryns. An oracle had
declared that Danae, the daughter of Acrisius,
would give birth to a son who would kill his
grandfather. For this reason he kept Danae
shut up in a subterraneous apartment, or in a
brazen tower. But here she became mother
of Perseus by Zeus, who visited her in a shower
of gold. Acrisius ordered mother and child to
be exposed on the sea in a chest ; but the chest
floated towards the island of Seriphus, where
both were rescued by Dictys. As to the manner
in which the oracle was subsequently fulfilled,
see Pekseus (Hdt. vi. 53 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 372 ;
Ov. M. iv. 607 seq. ; Hor. Od. iii. 16, 5). —
Hence Acrisione ('AKpio-i&vr)), Danae, daughter
of Acrisius (J'.xiv. 319). Acrisioniades, Perseus,
son of Danae, grandson of Acrisius (Ov. M. v.
70). Acrisioneus, adj. : arces, i.e. Argos (Ov.
M. v. 239); coloni, muri, referring to Ardea,
supposed to have been founded by Danae
(Verg. Aen. vii. 410 ; Sil. i. 661).
Acrltas ('Axpiiras, 'Axpiras : C. Gallo), the
most southerly promontory in M Dssenia (Strab.
p. 359; Paus. iv. 34, 12; Plin. iv. §15).
Aero. [Acbon.]
Acroceraunia ira ' ' AnpoKepavvia, sc. upri :
sing. Acroceraunium prom. Plin. iii. § 97 : C.
Linguetta), a promontory in Epirus, jutting
out into the Ionian sea, the mostW. part of the
Cebaunii Montes. It was dangerous to ships,
whence Horace (Od. i. 3, 20) speaks of in-
fames scopnlos Acroceraunia (comp. Luc. v.
652 ; Sil. viii. 632). Hence any dangerous place
(Ov. B. Am. 739).
Aerocorinthus. [Coeinthus.]
Acrolissus. [Lissus.]
Acron. 1. King of the Caeninenses, whom
Romulus slew in battle, and whose arms he
dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius as Spolia Opima,
(Prop. v. 10, 7). Livy (i. 10) mentions the cir
cumstance, without giving the name of the king.
—2. An eminent physician of Agrigentum in
Sicily, said to have been in Athens during the
great plague (b.c. 430) in the Peloponnesian
war, and to have ordered large fires to be
kindled in the streets for the purpose of puri
fying the air. This fact is not mentioned by
Thucydides (Diog. Laert. viii. 65 ; Plut. Is. et
Os. 80).
Acron Helenius, a Roman grammarian of
uncertain date, perhaps of the second century
a.d., wrote a commentary on Horace, on some
comedies of Terence, and perhaps on Persius.
His commentary on Horace does not exist ; that
which bears his name is the work of another'
writer, perhaps Porphyrion. It is published
with the other scholia on Horace by Paully (2nd
ed. 1861), and Hauthal (1864, 1866).
Acropolis (f, 'Anp6ivo\is). The Acropolis of
Athens, also called by the Athenians Polis
(IMAis), from the city being originally con
fined to the Acropolis (Thuc. ii. 15, v. 23, 5 ;
cf. Aesch. Eum. 687), was a rock about 150
feet high, 1,150 long, and 500 broad. Upon
it, as a defensible site rising out of the river
valley, the original settlement was made,

whose name Cecropia (Strab. 397 ; Eur. Suppl.
658, El. 1289) expresses the belief, doubtless
correct, that it existed before the union of
Attica attributed to Theseus. — Traces of
Buildings earlier than 500 b.c. Our know
ledge of the earlier buildings has been greatly
increased by recent excavations. On some
parts of the rock foundations of the rude dwel
lings of early inhabitants have been discovered,
and graves of the same age, with primitive pot
tery of the type known as ' Mycenaean.' To a
very early period must be ascribed also the
remains of what was called the Pelasgian
Wall, i.e. a wall which was prehistoric to the
Greek writers who mention it (Hdt. ii. 187, v.
64), but still available in the age of Peisistratus.
This wall did not surround the whole rock,
since the natural precipice on the N. and NE.
needed no fortification. In other parts portions
of this wall have been discovered [see plan].
It followed the edge of the rock and sometimes
falls within the lines of the straighter wall of
Cimon, which in other places absorbed it. It is
necessary to distinguish the PelasgianWall from
to TItXao-yiKbv or TleKapyiKoii (Thuc. ii. 117;
Aristoph. Av. 851), which was a space of ground
beneath the Acropolis at the SW., perhaps

ACROPOLIS

11
of the pediments and Btatues of more than three
temples have been found under the floor, so to-
speak, of the Acropolis. It has been held by
some that this older temple whose foundations
we see was rebuilt and preserved after the
Persian repulse ; but to this it is with justice
objected that since it would have presented a.
blank wall within six feet of the porch of the
newer Erechtheum it is impossible to admit
that it was standing after that porch was built.
— The Acropolis after the Persian War. The
present form of the surface is due to Cimon.
The natural rock surface sloped somewhat
from the centre to the sides, and has been
compared to a low-pitched gable roof. To level
this sufficiently for the projected works, Cimon
built up solid walls all round the edge of the
platform and filled up the space between these
walls and the highest ridge with earth and
rubble, composed in great part of the d&nis
left after the Persians burnt the earlier build
ings. _ In this substratum many pieces of
archaic sculpture and architecture, and many
inscriptions, have been found. To the same
Cimonian period belongs the great bronze
statue of Athene Promachos, armed with spear
and helmet, which dominated the city and was

The Acropolis restored.

extending from Pan's cave to the Asclepiacum,
a space which was to be left vacant, since, as
was said, a curse was laid upon its occupation.
Probably the origin of its being considered
unlucky was that for military reasons it had
been held advisable from ' Pelasgian ' times to
keep this ground clear from buildings which
might shelter an approaching foe ; the cause in
all probability of the similar prohibition against
building on the Roman pomerium [Diet. Ant.
s,v.] On the Acropolis the early chiefs and
kings of Athens had their palace, the founda
tions of which have been recently found near
the Erechtheum, as well as traces of stairs in
the rock leading thence into the plain at the
NE. corner. It is known from inscriptions
that a temple of Athene called the Hecatom-
pedon stood on the Acropolis before the Persian
invasion, and of this the foundations have been
found just S. of the Erechtheum. It had two
treasuries behind the cella, one probably for
Athene and the other for the other deities there
worshipped. It is probable that there was also
in the time of Peisistrates an earlier Parthenon
and an earlier Erechtheum occupying part of
the sites of the later temples ; indeed fragments

seen far out to sea. — Acropolis in the Time of
Pericles. The greatest works were carried out
under Pericles. For the approach to the
Acropolis the plan of Cimon was set aside,
which gave only a narrow and defensible gate
way (defence being less necessary since the
fortification of the whole city was completed),
and the magnificent Propylaea were designed
by Mnesicles in B.C. 437. In the marble wall
there were five gateways, the central being the
largest, and admitting a sloping carriage-way;
the two gates on each side were reached by five
steps ; beyond was a portico, and rising above
this another portico. On each side of the
entrance were wings, each intended to have a
small outer and a large inner hall (in the
smaller northern hall were paintings by Poly-
gnotus, whence it was sometimes called the
Pinakotheke) ; but the plan of making the wing
on the right or south side symmetrical in size
and form with the left wing was not carried
out, probably because it would have encroached
on sacred ground ; for in this part of the Acro
polis were the temple of Nike Apteros (Athene-
Nike) and the sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia
beyond it. To the right of the entrance to the

12

ACROPOLIS

Propylaea is still visible the base of Agrippa's
statue [see Plan]. This was set up. by the
Athenians after Agrippa's third consulship, B.C.

thenon ; to tne left or N. of the Parthenon
the Ebechtheum [see the separate articles].
Next in importance on the Acropolis to the wor-

27. As each one passed through the upper
portico of the Propylaea he saw the great
statue of Athene Promachos towering above
his head ; to the right-front of this the Pab-

ship of Athene was that of Artemis Brauronia
whose sanctuary was noted above as standing
next to the temple of Nike Apteros just to the
south-east of the Propylaea, and whose rites

ACKOPOLIS
were probably the survival of an older religion
in this place than that of Athene. [Artemis.]
No remains of any temple of Artemis are dis
coverable, nor have we any warrant for assum
ing its existence : the steps leading up to the
sacred precinct are still visible. Between this
precinct and the Parthenon are the foundations

ACTAEON

13

walled in by the Greek commander Odysseus
in 1822 to secure his water supply. This ' Bas
tion of Odysseus ' is now removed. A little to
the east of this, in the side of the northern
rocks, are the two caves of Apollo and Pan (Eur.
Ion, 492; Paus. i. 2b, 4). The sculptures of
the Gigantomachia, which Attalus sent, and
from which a figure of Dionysus fell
during a storm into the Theatre
(Paus. i. 25, 2 ; Plut. Ant. 60), must
have been on the south wall near
the site of the modern museums.
Acrorea (tj 'Aicp&peia : J Aicpoopeioi)
a mountainous tract of country in
the north of Elis. (Diod. xiv. 17
Xen. Hell iii. 2, 30, vii. 4, 14).
AcrotsituB {'AKpSraros). 1. Son
of Cleomenes II. king of Sparta,
went to Sicily in 314 to assist the
Agrigentines against Agathocles of
Syracuse. But at Agrigentum he
acted with such cruelty that the in
habitants rose against him. He re
turned to Sparta, and died in 309
before his father, leaving a son,
Areus, who succeeded Cleomenes
(Diod. xv. 70 ; Paus. iii. 6, 1 ; Plut.
Agis^S). — 2. Grandson of the pre
ceding, and son of Areus I. king of
Sparta, bravely defended Sparta
Te^eoiKifceApterosaheWin^Victo^o^

of a building, not a temple, and a portico ; this
was probably the Chalcotheke, a building in
which was stored all that was required for the
service of Athene (C.I.A. ii. 61) ; some have
imagined the remains to belong to a temple of
Athene Ergane; but we have no reason to
suppose that there was any such temple. E. of
the Parthenon, a little NW. of the modern
museums, are the foundations of the small
temple of Rome and Augustus, of which the
fragment of the epistyle has been found with
the dedication to the emperor under the title
'Se$ao-T6s, which he assumed in B.C. 27 (G.I.A.
iii. 63). NE. of this, about 150 yards E. of the
great statue and visible from it (if we assume
that the old temple between the Erechtheum
and the Parthenon was not rebuilt), stood in
the open air the great altar of Athene, of
which the base is visible cut in the rock. To
the N. of the Parthenon, midway between it
and the foundations of the old temple is visible
cut in the rock the inscription for the base on
which stood the statue of ' Earth praying Zeus
to send rain' (Paus. i. 24); another base
remains to give us a fixed point — the base of
the statue of Athene Hygieia, which is found
by the southernmost column of the eastern
portico of the Propylaea. This statue was
dedicated by Pericles to commemorate the reco
very of a mason who fell from the Propylaea ;
near it once stood the bronze lioness in honour
of the mistress of Aristogeiton, the statue of
Aphrodite by Calamis, of Diitrephes (of which
the base has been found not in situ), and of
Perseus by Myron. About 200 feet west of the
N. porch of the Erechtheum are the remains in
the rock of the steps leading down from the
Acropolis to the cave of Ageaulos, in the
temenos of which the oaths of the Ephebi were
taken [Diet. Ant. s. v. Ephebi.] It lay near
the base of the northern rocks of the Acropolis
known as ' the long rocks ' (MaKpaCj. The well
called the Clepsydra (Aristoph. Lys. 911) has
been identified at the NW. angle of the Acro
polis outside the Cimonian walls. It was

the same year in battle against Aristodemus,
tyrant of Megalopolis (Plut. Pyrrh. 26-28;
Agis, 3 ; Paus. iii. 6, 3).__
Acrothoum or Acrothoi ('Aicp66wov, 'Anp6-
Baoi : 'AupdBaos, 'AxpoSarrfh : Lavra), a town
near the extremity of the peninsula of Athos
(Hdt. vii. 22; Thuc. iv. 109; Strab. p. 331)..
Actaea ('Aicraia), daughter of Nereus and
Doris (II. xviii. 41 ; Hes. Theog. 249).
Actaeon ('AktkiW). 1. Son of Aristaeus
and Autonoe, a daughter of Cadmus, a celebrated

Actaeon. (British Museum.)

huntsman, trained by the centaur Chiron. He
was changed into a stag by Artemis (Diana), and
torn to pieces by his fifty dogs on Mount Cithse-
ron because he had seen the goddess bathing

¦Ii

ACTAEUS

with her nymphs, or because he had boasted that
"he excelled her in hunting. After the dogs had
devoured him, they went whining in search of
their master, till they came to the cave of
Chiron, who appeased them by making an image
of Actaeon (Ov. M. i. 131 seq. ; Callim. H. in
Pallad. 107 seq.; Eurip. Bacch. 830; Apollod.
iii. 4, 4). According to several modern writers
the fifty hounds of Actaeon are the fifty dog-
days, and the myth represents the plant-life
destroyed by the heat of the dog-days; for
Actaeon was the son of the protector of plants
(see Abistaeus). It is difficult, however, to ex
plain upon this theory why they were his own
hounds. — 2. An Argive, son of Melissus, and
grandson of Abron. He was a beautiful youth,
whom Archias endeavoured to carry off ; but in
the struggle which ensued Actaeon was killed
(Plut. Narr. Am. 2). [Aechias.]
Actaeus (Aktoios), son of Erisichthon, the
earliest king of Attica, derived his name from
Acte, the ancient name of Attica (Paus. i. 2, 6).
He had three daughters, Agraulos, Herse, and
Pandrosus, and was succeeded by Cecrops,
who married Agraulos.
Acte fAK-rij), properly a piece of land running
into the sea, and attached to another larger piece
of land, but not necessarily by a narrow neck.
1. An ancient name of Attica, used especially by
the poets (Eur. Hel. 1674 ; Strab. p. 891). Hence
'Aktoios, Actaeus, adj., Attic, Athenian (Ov.
M. ii. 720, ex Pont. iv. 1, 31, Her. xviii. 42).
Also Actias, adis, a female Athenian, i.e. Ori-
thyia, daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens
(Verg. G. iv. 463) : also called Actaea (Ov. M. vi.
711). — 2. The eastern coast of Peloponnesus near
Troezen and Epidaurus (Pol. v. 91, 8 ; Diod. xv.
81). — 3. The peninsula between the Strymonic
and Singitic gulfs, on which Mount Athos is
(Thuc. iv. 109). — 4. The concubine of Nero,
originally a slave from Asia Minor (Tac. Ann.
xiii. 12t46).
Actiacus. [Actium.]
Actium ("Aktiov. Eth. "Aktios, Actius;
Adj. 'Aktiokos, Actiacus, also ''Aktios, Actius:
La Punta, not Azio), a promontory in Acarnania
at the entrance of the Ambraciot Gulf (Gulf of
Arta) off which Augustus gained his celebrated
-victory over Antony and Cleopatra, September

Plan of Actium.
1. Buins of Prevem ; 2. C. La Seara ; 8. Prom. Actium. La
Punta ; i. C. Madonna. ; 5. Temple of Apollo. Fori La
Punta ; 6. Azio ; P. Bay 0/ Prevem.
2nd B.C. 31. There was a temple of Apollo on
this promontory (Thuc. i. 29 ; Strab. p. 325),
whence Apollo was called Actius and Actiacus
(Ov. M. xiii. 715; Verg. Aen. viii. 704; Prop.
iv. 6, 67). There was an ancient festival named
Actia celebrated here in honour of the god.
Augustus after his victory enlarged the temple,
and revived the ancient festival, which was
henceforth celebrated once in four years (ludi

ADHERBAL
quinquennales), at Nicopolis on the opposite
coast, which Augustus founded in commemora
tion of his victory (Dio Cass. Ii. 1 ; Suet. Aug.
18, Tib. 6 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 280 ; Hor. Ep. 1. 18,
61 Ov. Her. xv. 166). Statius (S. m. 2, 120)
gives the epithet of Actias to Cleopatra, because
she was conquered at Actium. The annexed
map shows the site of Actium, which has been
the subject of dispute. The promontory of
Actium was at La Punta (3), opposite Prevesa
(1), near the site of the ancient Nicopolis.
Others erroneously place it at G. Madonna (4),
misled by the modern name Azio. The fleet of
Antony was stationed in the Bay of Prevesa (P),
and sailed out through the strait between 1
and 3 into the open sea, where the battle was
fought, not in the Bay of Prevesa, as some
suppose. Actias. [Acte ; Actium.]
Actisanes ('AKTto-dvris), king of Ethiopia, -
conquered Egypt (Diod. i. 60 ; Strab. p. 759).
Actius. [Attius.]
Actor ("A/cTaip). 1. Father of Menoetius, and
grandfather of Patroclus (II. xi. 785; Pind.
Ol. ix. 104). — 2. Father of Eurytus and
Cteatus (Apollod. ii. 7, 2 ; Paus. v. 1, 11).—
3. An Orchomenian, father of Astyoche (II. ii.
513; Paus. ix. 37, 6). — 4. A companion of
Aeneas (Verg. Aen. ix. 500). — 5. An Auruncan,
of whose conquered lance Turnus made a boast
(Verg. Aen. xii. 94, Juv. ii. 100). — Hence
Actorides ('AKTopiSTjs), a descendant of Actor :
Patroclus (Ov. M. xiii. 273, Tr. i. 9, 29 ; F. ii.
39) : Erithos (Ov. M. v. 79) : Echecles (II. xvi.
189) : Eurytus and Cteatus (Ov. M. viii. 308).
Also, Actorion ('AKTopiwv), a descendant of
Actor: Eurytus and Cteatus (II. ii. 621, xi. 750).
Aculeo. 1. C. Furius, quaestor b.c. 187 (Liv.
xxxviii. 55). — 2. C, an eminent Roman lawyer,
who married the sister of Helvia, the mother of
Cicero, was a friend of the orator L. Licinius
Crassus (Cic. de Or. i. 43, 191 ; ii. 1, 2 ; Brut.
76, 264).
Acusilaus 'Axovo-tAaos), of Argos, an early
Greek logographer, about B.C. 525, wrote in the
Ionic dialect three books of Genealogies, chiefly
a translation of Hesiod into prose. The frag
ments are published by Sturtz, Lips. 1824, and
in Muller, Fragm. Hist. Graec. i. p. 100.
Ada ("ASa), sister of Maussolus, king of
Caria, married her brother Idrieus, on whoBe
death (B.C. 344) she succeeded to the throne of
Caria, but was expelled by her brother Pixoda-
rus in 840. When Alexander entered Caria in
334, Ada, who was in possession of the fortress
of Alinda, surrendered this place to him. After
taking Halicarnassus, Alexander committed the
government of Caria to her (Arr. An. i. 23;
Diod. xvi. 42, 74 ; Plut. Alex. 10, 22).
Adamantea. [Amalthea].
Adamantius ('ASafmvTios), a Greek physi
cian, about a.d. 415, the author of a treatise on
Physiognomy, borrowed from Polemo. Edited
by Franzius, in Script. Phys. Vet. 1780, 8vo.
Addua (Adda), a river of Gallia Cisalpina,
rising in the Rhaetian Alps near Bormio, and
flowing through the Lacus Larius (L. di Como)
into the Po, about 8 miles above Cremona
(Pol. ii. 32; Strab. pp. 192, 204; Tac. Hist. ii. 40).
Adherbal ('Ardpfras). 1. A Carthaginian
commander in the 1st Punic war defeated the
Roman consul P. Claudius in a sea-fight off
Drepana, B.C. 249 (Pol. i. 49-52).— 2. A Car
thaginian commander in the 2nd Punic war •
was defeated in a sea-fight off Carteia by c'
Laelius m 206 (Liv. xxviii. 80).— 3. Son of
Micipsa, and grandson of Masinissa, had the

ADIABENE
kingdom of Numidia left to him by his father
in conjunction with his brother Hiempsal and
Jugurtha, 118. After the murder of his brother
by Jugurtha, Adherbal fled to Rome, and was
restored to his share of the kingdom by the
Romans in 117. But he was again stripped of
his dominions by Jugurtha and besieged in
Cirta, where he was treacherously killed by
Jugurtha in 112 (Sail. Jug. 5, 13, 14, 24, 25, 26).
Adiabene ('ASiajSw^, 'ASia0-nv6s) a district
of Assyria, E. of the Tigris, between the river
Lycus, called Zabatus by Xenophon, and the
Caprus, both being branches of the Tigris. In
the Christian era it was a separate kingdom,
tributary to the Parthians (Strab. pp. 505, 745).
Adlmantus ('AScI/ico'tos). 1. Commander of
the Corinthian fleet, when Xerxes invaded
Greece (b.c. 480), opposed the advice of The
mistocles to give battle to the Persians (Hdt.
-viii. 5, 56, &c). — 2. An Athenian, one of the
commanders at the battle of Aegospotami, b.c.
405; was accused of treachery in this battle,
and is ridiculed by Aristophanes in the ' Frogs '
(Xen. Hell. i. 7, 1, ii. 1, 30; Arist. Ban. 1513).—
3. Brother of Plato (Apol. p. 84 ; Bep. ii. p. 367).
Admete (AS/t^-nj). 1. Daughter of Oceanus
and Thetys (Hes. Th. 849).— 2. Daughter of
Eurystheus, for whom Heracles fetched the
girdle of Axes, which was worn by Hippolyte,
queen of the Amazons (Apollod. ii. 5, 9).
Admetus ('Ao>jjtos). 1. Son of Pheres,
king of Pherae in Thessaly, took part in the
Calydonian hunt and in the expedition of the
Argonauts. Pelias promised him his daughter
Alcestis (II. ii. 715), if he came to her in a
chariot drawn by lions and boars. This Ad-
metus performed by the assistance of Apollo.
The god tended the flocks of Admetus when he
was obliged to serve a mortal for a year for
having slain the Cyclops. On the day of his
marriage with Alcestis, Admetus neglected to
offer a sacrifice to Artemis, but Apollo recon
ciled the goddess to him, and at the same time

ADONIS

15

Adorns, -is, -idis, also Adon, -onis). 1. A
beautiful youth, beloved by Aphrodite (Venus),
a son of Cinyras, king of Paphos in Cyprus,
and Myrrha (Smyrna). The gods changed
Myrrha into a myrtle-tree, to save her from the
wrath of her father, for whom she had an
unholy passion ; and from this tree Adonis was
born, the offspring of Myrrha and her father.
Aphrodite, charmed with the beauty of the in.
fant, concealed him in a chest, which she en
trusted to Persephone ; but the latter refused to
give it up. Zeus decided the dispute by declar
ing that Adonis should have a third of the year to

Heracles and Alcestis.
(From a Bas-relief at Florence.)
induced the Moirae to grant him deliverance
from death if his father, mother, or wife would
die for him. Alcestis died in his Btead, but was
brought back by Heracles from the lower world
(Apollod. i. 9, 15 ; Eurip. Ale.).— 2. King of the
Molossians, to whom Themistocles fled for
protection when pursued as a party to the trea
son of Pausanias (Thuc. i. 136 ; Plut. Them.
24; Nep. Them. 8).
Adonis ("Adapts, -iSos, "ASav, -avos : Lat.

Death of Adonis.
(A Painting found at Pompeii.)
himself, should belong to Persephone for another
third, and to Aphrodite for the remaining third.
Adonis, however, preferring to live with Aphro
dite, also spent with her the four months over
which he had control. Having offended Ar
temis, he was killed during the chase. The
spot on which his blood fell was sprinkled with
nectar by Aphrodite, and from this sprang
the anemone, as well as other flowers. So
great was the grief of the goddess, that the
gods of the lower world allowed him to spend
six months of every year with her upon the
earth (Apollod. iii. 14, 8 ; Ov. M. x. 298 seq. ;
A. A. i. 75, 512 ; Verg. E. x. 18). The worship
of Adonis, which in later times was spread over
nearly all the countries round the Mediterranean
was of Phoenician or Syrian origin, in which
language Adon signifies lord. In the Homeric
poems no trace of the worship occurs, and the
later Greek poets changed the original symbolic
account of Adonis into a poetical story. In the
Asiatic religions Aphrodite was the fructifying
principle of nature, and Adonis appears to
have reference to the death of nature in winter
and its revival in spring — hence he spends six
months in the lower and six in the upper world.
His death and his return to life were celebrated
in annual festivals (Adonia) at Byblos, Alex
andria in Egypt, Athens, and other places. A
special feature in this worship was the ' Adonis
garden ' ('A5<ii>i5os k5J7toi), or bowers of plants
in flower surrounding his image to show the
revival of plant life, soon to die again. The
Idyll of Theocritus called Adoniazusae de.
scribes the celebration of this festival at Alex
andria. — 2. (Nahr el Ibrahim.) A small river
of Syria, rising in Mount Libanus, which, after
a sudden fall of rain, is tinged of a deep red by
the soil of the hills. Hence some have sought
to explain the myth of Adonis (Strab. p. 755;
Lucian, Dea Syr'. 6 ; Plin. v. § 78).

16

ADRAMYTTIUM

Adramyttium ('ASpauvrTeiov or 'ASpa/xiir-
tiov : 'AfipafivTTTivtis, Adramyttenus : Adramyti,
or Edremit), a town of Mysia on the gulf of
Adramyttium, opposite to the island of Lesbos,
was a colony of the Athenians, and a seaport
of some note (Hdt. vii. 42 ; Thuc. v. 1, viii. 108 ;
Strab. p. 606 ; Liv. xxxvii. 19 ; Act. Ap. xxvii. 2).
Adrana (Eder), a river of Germany, flowing
into the Fulda near Cassel (Tac. Ann. i. 56).
Adranum or Hadranum ("ASpavov, "Atipavov ;
'ASpavirris, Hadranifranus, Plin. iii. § 91 :
Aderno), a town in Sicily, on the river Adranus,
at the foot of M. Aetna, built by Dionysius,
the seat of the worship of the god Adranus
(Diod. xiv. 37, xvi. 68 ; Plut. Tim. 12 ; Sil. xiv.
250). Adranus ('ASpav6s). [Adeanum.]
Adrastia (ASpaVTeia : Lat. Adrastla, -ea). 1.
^Daughter of Zeus (Eur. Bhes. 342), identified
.with Ne'/uecnj, also used as an epithet of Ne
mesis. She derived her name, according to
some, from .Adrastus, the ruler of Adrastia in
Mysia, who built her first sanctuary on the
river Aesepus, near Cyzicus. Others derive her
name from a-Spavai (fr. SiSpdo-Ka>), the goddess
whom none can escape (Strab. p. 588 ; II. ii.
,828, seq.; Aesch. Prom. 936; Verg. Gir. 239;
Amm. xiv. 11, 25). She was probably originally
a Phrygian goddess and the same as Rhea
Cybele. — 2. A nymph, daughter of Melisseus,
king of Crete, to whom and her sister Ida,
Rhea gave the infant Zeus to be reared
(Apollod. i. 1, 6; Callim. Hym. in -Tov. 47).
Originally the same as No. 1.
Adrastus ("ASpao-ros). 1. Son of Talaiis,
king of Argos, was expelled from Argos by
Amphiaraus, and fled to his grandfather Poly-
bus, king of Sicyon, on whose death he became
king of that city (II. ii. 578 ; Hdt. v. 67 ; Pind.
Nem. ix. 9 seq.). Afterwards he was reconciled
to Amphiaraus, gave him his sister Eriphyle in
marriage, and returned to his kingdom of Argos.
While reigning there Tydeus of Calydon and
Polynlces of Thebes, both fugitives from their
native countries, met at Argos before the palace
of Adrastus. A quarrel arose between them,

Adrastus and other heroes who fought against Thebes
(Gem found at Perugia.),,
and Adrastus, on hearing the noise, came forth
and separated the combatants, in whom he
recognised the two men who had been promised
to him by an oracle as the future husbands of
two of his daughters; for one bore on his
shield the figure of a boar, and the other that
of a lion, and the oracle had declared that one
of his daughters was to marry a boar and the
other a lion. Adrastus therefore gave his
daughter Deipyle to Tydeus, and Argeia to
Polynices, promising to restore each to his own

ADHIA
country. Adrastus first prepared for war
against Thebes, although Amphiaraus, who
was a soothsayer, foretold that all who engaged
in it should perish, with the exception of
Adrastus. Thus arose the celebrated war of
the ' Seven against Thebes.' The seven heroes,
according to Sophocles (Oed. Col. 1313 seq.) and
Aeschylus (Theb. 377 seq.), were Amphiaraus,
Tydeus, Eteoclus, Hippomedon, Capaneus, Par-
thenopaeus, Polynices. (Adrastus, who escaped,
is not counted one of the Seven.) Euripides
(Phoen. 1104 seq.) has the same list, except
that Eteoclus is omitted and Adrastus substi
tuted. The preceding drawing from an early
Etruscan gem represents, with the true feeling
of archaic art, a council of five of the heroes
who fought against Thebes. The names are
added : Phylnice (Polynices), Tute (Tydeus),
Amphtiare (Amphiaraus), Atresthe (Adras
tus), and Parthanapaes (Parthenopaeus). On
arriving at Nemea, they founded the Nemean
games in honour of Archemorus [Aechemo-
bus]. On approaching Thebes, they sent
Tydeus to the city to demand from Eteocles
the sovereignty for Polynices. In the palace of
Eteocles he challenged several Thebans to com
bat and conquered them. In revenge they laid
an ambush of fifty men on his return, but
Tydeus slew them all, with one exception (II.
iv. 384 seq., v. 802 seq.). The war ended as
Amphiaraus had predicted ; six of the Argive
chiefs were slain, Polynices by his brother
Eteocles ; and Adrastus alone was saved by the
swiftness of his horse Arlon, the gift of Heracles
(Horn. II. xxiii. 346). Creon of Thebes re
fusing to allow the bodies of the six heroes
to be buried, Adrastus fled to Athens, where
he implored the assistance of Theseus, who
undertook an expedition against Thebes, took
the city, and delivered the bodies of the fallen
heroes to their friends for burial (Aesch. Sept.
c. Theb.; Eur. Phoen. and Suppl.; Stat.
Theb.). Ten years afterwards Adrastus, with
the sons of the slain heroes, made a new expe
dition against Thebes. This is known as the war
of the 'Epigoni' ('Eiriyovoi) or descendants.
Thebes was taken and razed to the ground.
The only Argive hero that fell in this war was
Aegialeus, the son of Adrastus : the latter died
of grief at Megara on his return to Argos, and
was buried in the former city. He was wor
shipped in several parts of Greece, as at
Megara, at Sicyon, where his memory was cele
brated in tragic choruses, and in Attica
(Apollod. iii. 7, 8-4; Hdt. v. 61; Strab. p.
325; Paus. i. 43, 1). The legends about
Adrastus and the two wars against Thebes
furnished ample materials for the epic as well
as tragic poets of Greece.— 2. Ruler of Adrastia
in Mysia (Strab. p. 588). [Adkasteia.] — 3. Son
of Merope of Adrasteia, an ally of the Trojans,
slam by Diomedes (II. ii. 828, xi. 328). — 4. A
Trojan, slain by Patroclus (II. xvi. 694).— 5.
A Trojan, taken by Menelaus, and killed by
Agamemnon (II. vi. 87, 64).— 6. Son of the
Phrygian king Gordius, having unintentionally
killed his brother, fled to Croesus, who received
him kindly. While hunting he accidentally
killed Atys, the son of Croesus, and in despair
put an end to his own life (Hdt. i. 34-45)
r, Av"£. °^ ?adria- 1- (Adria), a town in
Gallia Cisalpma, between the mouths of the Po
and the Athesis (Adige), now 14 miles from the
sea, but originally a sea-port of great celebrity,
founded by the Etruscans '(Liv. v. 83 : Strab
p. 214).— 2. (Atri), a town of Picenum in Italy'
probably an Etruscan town originally, after-

ADRIA
wards a Roman colony, at which place the family
of the emperor Hadrian lived (Vit. Hadr. i.).
Adria (6 'ASplas, Ion. 6 ASpfys, Hdt. iv. 38),
or Mare Adriaticum, also Mare Superum, so
called from the town Adria [No. I], was in its
widest signification the sea between Italy on
the W., and Illyricum, Epirus, and Greece on
the E. By the Greeks the name Adrias was
only applied to the northern part of this sea,
the southern part being called the Ionian Sea.
The navigation of the Adriatic was much dreaded
on account of the frequent and sudden storms
to which it was subject : its evil character on
this account is repeatedly alluded to by Horaqe
(Od. i. 8, 15; 83, 15; ii. 14, 14 ; iii. 9, 23).
Adrianus. [Hadkeanus.]
Adrianus ('A5ptav6s), a Greek rhetorician,
born at Tyre in Phoenicia, was the pupil of He-
rodes Atticus, and was invited by M. Antonius
to Rome, where he died about A.D. 192. Three
of his declamations are published by Walz in
Bhet : Gr. vol. i. 1832.
Adrumetum. [Hadrumetum.]
Aduatuca, a castle of the Eburones in Gaul
(Caes. B. G. vi. 32), probably the same as the
later Aduaca Tongrorum (Tongern).
Aduatuci or Aduatici. a powerful people of
Gallia Belgica (Caes. B. G. ii. 29, 33), were the
descendants of the Cimbri and Teutones. Their
chief town, perhaps the modern Falaise, must
not be confounded with Aduatuca.
Adula Mons (d 'ASov\as), a group of the Alps
about the passes of the Splugen and S. Ber-
-nardino, and at the head of the valley of the
Hinter Bhein (Strab. pp. 192, 204, 213).
Adule or Adulis ('ASouAtj, "ASouXis : 'Atiov-
Ait7)S, Adulitanus : Thulla or Zulia, Ru.), a
maritime city of Aethiopia, on a bay of the
Red Sea, called Adulitanus Sinus ('A5ov\itikos
k6Kttos, Annesley Bay). It was founded by
slaves who fled from Egypt, andafterwards was
the seaport of the Auxumitae (Plin. vi. 172
seq.). Cosmas Indicopleustes (a. d. 535) found
here the Monumentum Adulitanwm, a Greek
inscription recounting the conquests of Ptolemy
H. Euergetes in Asia and Thrace.
Adyrmachidae ('ASvpfrnx'Sai), a Libyan
people, W. of Egypt, extending to the Cata-
bathmus Major, but were afterwards pressed
further inland. In their manners and customs
they resembled the Egyptians (Hdt. iv. 168;
SQ. iii. 278, ix. 223).
Aea (Aia, Alairf), the name of two mythical
islands in the east and the west : in the eastern
dwelt Aeetes, in the western Circe. The eastern
land was afterwards identified with Colchis (cf.
Hdt. i. 2) ; the western with the Italian pro
montory Circeii. The connection of Aeetes and
Circe with the sun explains the double land of
Aia in east and west. Aeaea is naturally the
epithet of Circe and of Medea : in Propert. iii.
12. 31 it denotes Calypso. This is explained by
the fact that Ogygia, the island of Calypso, was
sometimes confused with Aea (Mela, ii. 120).
Aeaces (AiaKiis). 1. Father of Polycrates. —
2. Son of Syloson and nephew of Polycrates.
He was tyrant of Samos, but was deprived of
his tyranny by Aristagoras, when the Ionians
revolted from the Persians, B. c. 500. He then
fled to the Persians, who restored him to the
tyranny of Samos, b. c. 494 (Hdt. vi. 13).
Aeaceum (AldK€iov). [Aegina.]
Aeacides (AiWSi/s), a patronymic of the
descendants of Aeacus, as Peleus, Telamon, and
Phocus, sons of Aeacus ; Achilles, son of Peleus
and grandson of Aeacus; Pyrrhus, son of
Achilles and great-grandson of Aeacus; and

AEDON

17

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who claimed to be a
descendant of Achilles.
Aeacides, son of Arybas, or Arybbas, king of
Epirus, succeeded to the throne on the death
of his couBin Alexander, slain in Italy, b.c. 326.
Aeacides married Phthia, by whom he had the
celebrated Pybkhus. He took part in favour of
Olympias against Cassander ; but his subjects
disliked the war, and drove him from the king
dom. He was recalled in B.C. 813 ; but Cassan
der sent an army against him under Philip, who
slew him in battle (Paus. i. 11 ; Diod. xix. 11 ;
Liv. viii. 24; Plut. Pyrrh. 1, 2).
Aeacus (AIukos), son of Zeus and Aegina, a
daughter of the river-god Asopus. He was born
in the island of Oenone or Oenopia, whither
Aegina had been carried by Zeus [compare
Sisyphus], and from whom this island was after- ¦
wards called Aegina. Some traditions related
that at the birth of Aeacus, Aegina was not yet
inhabited, and that Zeus changed the ants
(ixipuriKes) of the island into men (Myrmidones)
over whom Aeacus ruled. [For other versions
of the myth see Myrmidones.] His wife was
Endeis, daughter of Sciron of Megara. Aeacus
was renowned in all Greece for his justice and
piety (Plut. Thes. 10), and was frequently
called upon to settle disputes, not only among
men, but even among the gods themselves,
(Pind. Isthm. viii. 23 ; Paus, i. 39). Pindar alone
relates that he helped Apollo and Poseidon to
build the walls of Troy (Nem. viii. 9). He was
such a favourite with the gods that, when
Greece was visited by a drought, rain was at
length sent upon the earth in consequence of
his prayers. (The earliest mention of this is in
Isocr. Evag. § 14. It is noticeable as a pos
sible origin of the story that, according to Theo-
phrastus irepl o-r)p.eta>v, i. 24, a cloud appearing
on the hill of Zeus Hellenios in Aegina was
the recognised sign of coming rain.) Respect
ing the temple which Aeacus erected to Zeus
Panhellenius, and the Aeaceum, see Aegina.
After his death Aeacus became one of the
three judges in Hades [cf . Minos, Rhadaman-
thus]. This office is only ascribed to him by
writers later than Pindar (see esp. Plat. Gorg.
p. 523 e). He held the keys of Hades, and
hence is called K\ei$ovxos in an inscription (cf.
Aristoph. Ban. 465). The Aeginetans regarded
him as the tutelary deity of their island. They
lent statues of Aeacus and the Aeacidae to their
allies as a protection in dangerous wars (Hdt.
v. 81, viii. 64).
Aeaea (Aiaia). [See Aea, ad fin.']
Aebiira (Cuervo), a town of the Carpetani
in Hispania Tarraconensis.
Aebiitia Gens, patrician, was distinguished
in the early ages of the Roman republic, when
many of its members were consuls, viz. in B.C.
499, 463, and 442.
Aeca or Aecae (Aecanus), a town of Apulia
on the road from Aquilonia in Samnium to
Venusia. Aeculanum or Aeclanum, a town of the Hir-
pini in Samnium, a few miles S. of Beneventum.
Aedepsus (AtSri^os : Ai'8Vji|<ios : Dipso), a town
on the W. coast of Euboea, N. of Chalcis, with
warm baths sacred to Heracles, a watering-
place well known to the Romans (Plut. Sull.
og\ Aedon ('ArtSdv), daughter of Pandareus of
Miletus, wife of Zethus king of Thebes, and
mother of Itylus. Envious of Niobe, the wife of
her brother Amphion, who had six sons and six
daughters, she resolved to kill Amaleus, the
eldest of Niobe's sons, but by mistake slew her
c

18

AEDUI

own son Itylus. Zeus relieved her grief by
changing her into a nightingale, whose melan
choly notes are represented by the poets as
Aedon's lamentations for her child. Such is
the Homeric version (Od. xix. 518, and Schol. :
cf. Aesch. Ag. 1143; Soph. El. 107; Paus. ix.
5, 9). A later version, though existing before
the time of Pausanias, makes Aedon the wife of
Polytechnus, an artist of Colophon. They
quarrelled from rivalry in work, and Polytech
nus outraged Chelidon the sister of Aedon.
The two sisters revenged themselves by murder
ing Itys and serving his flesh as food to his
father. Zeus, to stay the succession of horrors,
turned all the family into birds — Polytechnus
into a woodpecker, Chelidon into a swallow,
Aedon into a nightingale, her mother Harmo-
thoe into a halcyon, her father Pandareus into
an osprey, her brother into a hoopoe. For
further illustration of these bird-myths see
Tebeus. Aedui or Hediii, one of the most powerful
people in Gaul, lived between the Liger (Loire)
and the Arar (Sadne). They were the first
Gallic people who made an alliance with the
Romans, by whom they were called 'brothers
and relations ' (Caes. B.G. i. 10, 16, 31 ; Cic. ad
Fam. vii. 10). On Caesar's arrival in Gaul, B.C.
58, they were subject to Ariovistus, but were
restored by Caesar to their former power. In
B.C. 52 they joined in the insurrection of Ver-
cingetorix against the Romans, but were at the
close of it treated leniently by Caesar. Their
principal town was Bibbacte. Their chief
magistrate, elected annually by the priests, was
called Vergobretus, i.e. Judge.
Aeetes or Aeeta (Atynp), son of Helios (the
Sun) and Perseis, and brother of Circe, Pasi-
phae, and Perses. His wife was Idyia, a
daughter of Oceafius, by whom he had two
daughters, Medea and Chalciope, and one son,
Absyrtus. He was king of Colchis at the time
when Phrixus brought thither the golden fleece.
For the remainder of his history, see Absyrtus,
Abgonautae, Jason, Medea.— Hence Aeetis,
Aeetias, and Aeetlne, patronymics of Medea,
daughter of Aeetes.
Aega (AXyn). [Amalthea.]
Aegae (Alyai : Alycuos). 1. A town in Achaia
on the Crathis, with a celebrated temple of
Poseidon, was originally one of the twelve
Achaean towns, but its inhabitants subse
quently removed to Aegira. — 2. A town in
Emathia in Macedonia, the burial-place of the
Macedonian kings. — 3. A town in Euboea with
a celebrated temple of Poseidon, who was hence
called Aegaeus. — 4. Also Aegaeae (Aiyaicu:
Alyedrqs), one of the twelve cities of Aeolis in
Asia Minor, N. of Smyrna, on the river Hyllus :
it suffered greatly from an earthquake in the
time of Tiberius (Tac. Ann. ii. 47). — 5, (Ayas),
a seaport town of Cilicia.
Aegaeon (Aiyaiav), son of Uranus by Gaea.
Aegaeon and his brothers Gyges, or Gyes, and
Cottus are known under the name of the Ura-
nids, and are described as huge monsters with
a hundred arms (eKardyxetpts) and fifty heads.
Most writers mention the third Uranid under
the name of Briareus instead of Aegaeon, which
is explained by Homer (II. i. 408), who says
that men called him Aegaeon, but the gods
Briareus. According to the most ancient tradi
tion Aegaeon and his brothers conquered the
Titans when they made war upon the gods, and
secured the victory to Zeus, who thrust the
Titans into Tartarus, and placed Aegaeon and
his brothers to guard them. Similarly in Homer

AEGEUS
(II. i. 396 ff.), when the Olympian deities rebel
against Zeus, Thetis calls Aegaeon to oppose
them. Other legends represent Aegaeon as
one of the giants who attacked Olympus ; and
many writers represent him as a marine god
living in the Aegaean sea. Another, and
probably later, story, followed by Virgil (Aen.
x. 565), makes him the opponent of Zeus. Other-
stories again make him a deity or a monster
of the sea. He is called by some the son of
Gaea and Pontus ; by others of Poseidon.
His name connects him alike with the Aegean.
sea and with IloirefoW Alyaios. In Hesiod (Th.
811) he is married to the daughter of Poseidon.
Aegaeon and his brothers must be regarded as
personifications of the extraordinary powers of
nature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,.
and the like. Roscher suggests that his shape
with a hundred arms may have been imagined
from the polypus of the sea (cf. Ov. Met. ii. 10).
[For further portions of the myth see Titanes,
Uranus.] Aegaenm Mare (to Alyaiov ir£>.ayos, 8-
Aiyaios ic6vtos), the part of the Mediterranean
now called the Archipelago. It was bounded
on the N. by Thrace and Macedonia, on the W.
by Greece, and on the E. by Asia Minor. It
contains in its southern part two groups of
islands, the Cyclades, which were separated
from the coasts of Attica and Peloponnesus by
the Myrtoan sea, and the Sporades, lying off the
coasts of Caria and Ionia. The part of the
Aegaean which washed the Sporades was called
the Icarian sea, from the island Icaria, one of
the Sporades. The origin of the name of
Aegaean is uncertain; some derive it from
Aegeus, the king of Athens, who threw himself
into it ; others from Aegaea, the queen of the
Amazons, who perished there ; others from
Aegae in Euboea ; others connect it with aio-o-a,
alyls, a squall, on account of its storms : others
take it to be a Phoenician word.
Aegaeus (AlyaTos). [Aegae, No. 3.]
Aegaleos. 1. (Alyd\eas, to Alydkewv opos :
Skarmanga), a mountain in Attica opposite-
Salamis, from which Xerxes saw the defeat of
his fleet B.C. 480 (Hdt. viii. 90 ; Thuc. ii..
19). — 2. High ground in the west of Messenia,
above Pylus.
Aegates, the goat islands, were three islands
off the W. coast of Sicily, between Drepanum
and Lilybaeum, near which the Romans gained'
a naval victory over the Carthaginians, and
thus brought the first Punic war to an end, B.C.
241. The islands were Aegflsa (AJyoCo-cro) or
Capraria (Favignana), Phorbantia (Levanzo)
and Hiera (Maretimo).
Aegeria. [Egeria.]
Aegestus. [Segesta.]
Aegestus. [Acestes.]
Aegeus (Alyeis). 1. Son of Pandion and
king of Athens. He had no children by his
first two wives, but he afterwards begot The seus
by Aethra at Troezen. When Theseus had
grown up to manhood, he went to Athens and
defeated the 50 sons of his uncle Pallas, who-
had made war upon Aegeus and had deposed
him. Aegeus was now restored. When Theseus
went to Crete to deliver Athens from the
tribute it had to pay to Minos, he promised his
father that on his return he would hoist white
sails as a signal of his safety. On approaching
the coast of Attica he forgot his promise, and
his father, perceiving the black sail, thought
that his son had perished and threw himself
into the sea, which according to some traditions
received from this event the name of the

AEG-IAE
Aegeus was one of the eponymous
heroes of Attica; and one of the Attic tribes
(Aegeis) derived its name from him. [For
further details see Theseus.] — 2. The epony
mous hero of the phyle called the Aegidae at
Sparta, son of Oeolycus, and grandson of
Theras, the founder of the colony in Thera.
All the Aegeids were believed to be Cadmeans,
who formed a settlement at Sparta previous to
the Dorian conquest. — Hence Aegldes (Alyei-
Srjs), a patronymic from Aegeus, especially his
son Theseus.
Aeglae (Ai-yeiaf, Alyaiat), a small town in
Laconia, not tar from Gythium, the Augiae of
Homer (II. ii. 583).
Aegiale or Aegialea (AlyidXr), AlyidXzia),
daughter of Adrastus and AJnphitheia, or of
Aegialeus, the son of Adrastus, whence she is
called Adrastine. She was married to Diomedes
(II. v. 412), who, on his return from Troy,
found her living in adultery with Cometes. The
hero attributed this misfortune to the anger of
Aphrodite, whom he had wounded in the war
against Troy (Verg. Aen. xi. 277) : when Aegiale
threatened his life, he fled to Italy. [Diomedes.]
Aegialea, Aegialos. [Achaia ; Sicyon.]
Aegialeus (Alyia\evs). 1. Son of Adrastus,
the only one among the Epigoni that fell in the
war against Thebes : a heroon, the AlyidXtiov,
was consecrated to him at Pagae in Megaris
(Paus. i. 44, 7). [Adeastus.] — 2. Son of
Inachus and the Oceanid Melia, from whom
the part of Peloponnesus afterwards called
Achaia derived its name Aegialea : he is said to
have been the first king of Sicyon. — 3. Son of
Aeetes, and brother of Medea, commonly called
Absyrtus. [Absybtus.]
Aegicoreus (Alym6ptvs), son of Ion, and
eponym of the Attic tribe AlyiKopus (but see
Tbtbus, Diet, of Antiq.).
Aegides. [Aegeus.]
Aegila (ra AiyiXa), a town of Laconia with a
temple of Demeter.
Aegilia (AlyiXia : AlyiKievs). 1. A demus of
Attica belonging to the tribe Antiochis, cele
brated for its figs. — 2. (Cerigotto), an island
between Crete and
Cythera. — 3. An
island W. of Euboea
and opposite Attica.
Aegimius (Alyi-
fjuos), the mythical
ancestor of the Do
rians, whose king he
was when they were
yet inhabiting the
northern parts of
Thessaly. Involved
in a war with the
Lapithae, he called
Heracles to his as
sistance, and pro
mised him the third
part of his terri
tory, if he delivered
him from his ene
mies. The Lapithae
were conquered.
Heracles did not
take the territory
for himself, but left
it to the king, who
was to preserve it for the sons of Heracles.
Aegimius had two sons, Dymas, and Pamphy-
lus, who migrated to Peloponnesus, and were
regarded as the ancestors of two branches of the
Doric race (Dymanes and Pamphylians), while

AEGINA

19

the third branch derived its name from Hyllus
(Hylleans), the son of Heracles, who had been
adopted by Aegimius. Pindar (fr. 4) makes a
Dorian army under Aegimius and Hyllus occupy
Aegina. There existed in antiquity an epic
poem oalled Aegimius, which described the war
of Aegimius and Heracles against the Lapithae
(see Epic. Gr. Fr. ed. Kinkel, i. 82 ; cf. Athen.
p. 503 ^C.I.G. 5984 c).
Aegimurus (Alylpovpos, Aegimuri Arae, Plin.,
and probably the Arae of Verg. Aen. i. 108;
Zowamour or Zembra), a lofty island, surroun
ded by cliffs, off the African coast, at the mouth
of the Gulf of Carthage.
Aegina (Aiyiva : Aiyiv4tTt\s : E'ghina), a
rocky island in the middle of the Saronic gulf,
about 200 stadia in circumference. It was
originally called Oenone or Oenopia, and is said
to have obtained the name of Aegina from

Jll

¥\

Coin of Aegina.
Rev., the Aeginetan symbol of a tortoise ; obv., a Bquare,
-with a dolphin in one quarter and part of the name
Aegina, the daughter of the river god Asopus,
who was carried to the island by Zeus in the
form of an eagle, or, according to Ov. (Met. vi
113), of fire, and there bore him a son Aeacus.
As the island had then no inhabitants, Zeus
changed the ants into men [Myrmidones], over
whom Aeacus ruled. [Aeacus.] It was first
colonised by Achaeans, and afterwards by
Dorians from Epidaurus, whence the Doric
dialect and customs prevailed in the island. It
was at first closely connected with Epidaurus,
and was subject to the Argive Pliidon, who is
said to have established a silver-mint in the
island. [Phtdon.] It early became a place of

Temple of Athene at Aegina, restored.
great commercial importance, and its silver
coinage was the standard in most of the Dorian
states. [Diet. Antiq. Pondera.] In the sixth
century B.C. Aegina became independent, and
for a century before the Persian war was a pro-
c 2

20

AEGINETA

sperous and powerful state. After a period of
war with Athens the two states were reconciled
by the stress of the' Persian war : the Aegine-
tans fought with 30 ships against the fleet of
Xerxes at the battle of Salamis, b.c. 480, and
are allowed to have distinguished themselves
above all the other Greeks by their bravery.
After this time its power declined. In B.C. 451
the island was reduced by the Athenians, who
in b.c. 429 expelled its inhabitants. The Aegine-
tans settled at Thyrea, and though a portion of
them was restored by Lysander in B.C. 404, the
island never recovered its former prosperity. It
belonged successively to the Achaean League,
the Aetolian League, and finally to the Romans,
who allowed the inhabitants a nominal self-
government. In the NW. of the island there
was a city of the same name, which contained
the Aeaceum or temple of Aeacus, and on a hill
in the NE. of the island was the celebrated
temple of Zeus Panhellenius, said to have been
built by Aeacus, the ruins of which are still
extant. The sculptures which occupied the
tympana of the pediment of this temple were
discovered in 1811, and are now preserved at
Munich. In the half century preceding the
Persian war, and for a few years afterwards,
Aegina was the chief seat of Greek art; the
most eminent artists of the Aeginetan school
were Smtlis, Callon, Anaxagobas, Glaucias,
Onatas, and Calliteles.
Aegineta Paulus. [Paulus Aegineta.]
Aeginium (Alyiviov : Aiyivievs : Stagus), a
town of the Tymphaei in Thessaly on the con
fines ofAthamania.
Aegiochus (Alyioxos), a surname of Zeus, be
cause he bore the Aegis.
Aegipan (Alyiirav). [Pan.]
Aegiplanctus Mons (t!> Alylir\ayKTOv opos),
a mountain in Megaris.
Aegira (Atyetpa: AtyeipdTTis), probably the
Homeric Hyperesia (II. ii. 578), a town in
Achaia on a steep hill, with a sea-port about 12
stadia from the town. [Aegae, No. 1.]
Aegirussa (Alyip6eo-<ra, Atyipovo-aa), one of
the 12 cities of Aeolis (only in Hdt. i. 149).
Aegisteas (Atynrreas), son of Midas, perhaps
identical with Aeschurus, of whom a story like
that of M. Curtius is told, that, when a chasm
opened in Celaenae and the oracle told his father
Midas that the most precious possession must
be thrown in, he leapt in and the chasm closed.
This may explain the proverbial use of Aiyurr4o u
trfiSrifia — 3, bold action.
Aegisthus (Alyio-Bos), son of Thyestes, who
unwittingly begot him by his own daughter Pe-
lopia. Immediately after his birth he was
exposed, but was saved by shepherds and
suckled by a goat (a!f|), whence his name. His
uncle Atreus brought him up as his son. When
Pelopia lay with her father, she took from him
his sword, which she afterwards gave to Aegis
thus. This sword was the means of revealing
the crime of Thyestes, and Pelopia thereupon
put an end to her own life. Aegisthus murdered
Atreus, because he had ordered him to slay his
father Thyestes, and he placed Thyestes upon
the throne, of which he had been deprived by
Atreus. Homer appears to know nothing of
these tragic events ; and we learn from him
only that Aegisthus succeeded his father Thy
estes in a part of his possessions. We may
suppose that the story was developed by the
later Epic poets and the Tragedians. Hyginus
(Fab. 87), who relates it as above, seems to
draw from the two dramas called Thyestes by
Sophocles and Euripides, of which we have few

AEGYPTUS
fragments remaining ; Aeschylus (Ag. 1583)
speaks of Atreus as banishing his brother Thy
estes with his youthful son Aegisthus, but does
not give details. According to Homer Aegisthus
took no part in the Trojan war, and during the
absence of Agamemnon, the son of Atreus,
Aegisthus seduced his wife Clytemnestra (Od.
i. 35, iii. 263, iv. 517, xi. 409). Aegisthus mur
dered Agamemnon on his return home, and
reigned 7 years over Mycenae. In the 8th Ores
tes, the son of Agamemnon, avenged the death
of his father by putting the adulterer to death.
[Agamemnon, Atreus, Clytemnestra, Ores
tes.] Aegithallus (AtyiBaWos ; C. di S. Teodoro),
a promontory in Sicily, between Lilybaeum and
Drepanum, near which waB the town Aegi-
thallum. Aegitium (Alyiriop), a town in Aetolia, on
the borders of Locris.
Aegium (Alyiov : Alyieis : Vostitza), a town
of Achaia, and the capital after the destruction
of Helice. The meetings of the Achaean League
were held at Aegium in a grove of Zeus called
Homarium. Aegle (Afy\ij), that is " Brightness " or
' Splendour,' is the name of several mytho
logical females, such as, 1. The daughter of
Zeus and Neaera, the most beautiful of the
Naiads ; she married Helios and became mother
of the Charites ; — 2. a sister of Phaeton ; — 3.
one of the Hesperides ; — 4. a nymph beloved
by Theseus, for whom he forsook Ariadne ; — 5.
one of the daughters of Asclepius.
Aegldtes (AfyA.^rij j), that is, the radiant god,
a surname of Apollo.
Aegocerus (Aly6Kepcos), a surname of Pan,
descriptive of his figure with the horns of a goat,
but more commonly the name of one of the
signs of the Zodiac, Capricornus.
Aegos-Potami (Alybs irora/wl), in Latin
writers Aegos flumen, the "goat's-river," a
small river, with a town of the same name on
it, in the Thracian Chersonesus, flows into the

Coin of Aegospotami.
Obv., Demeter ; rev., goat.
Hellespont. Here the Athenians were defeated
by Lysander, B.C. .405.
Aegosthena (Aiy6o-8eva : Aiyoo-0Evevs, Alyo-
o-deviTris), a town in Megaris on the borders of
Boeotia, with a sanctuary of Melampus.
Aegus and Roscillus, two chiefs of the Allo-
broges, who had served Caesar with fidelity in
the Gallic war, deserted to Pompey in Greece
(b.c 48).
Aegusa. [Aegates.]
Aegypsus or Aegysus, a town of Moesia on
the Danube.
Aegyptus (AlyvnTos), son of Belus and An-
chinoe or Anchiroe, and twin-brother of Danaus.
Belus assigned Libya to Danaus, and Arabia to
Aegyptus, but the latter subdued the country of
the Melampodes, which he called Aegypt after
his own name. Aegyptus by his several wives
had 50 sons, and his brother Danaus 50 daugh
ters (the Danaides). Danaus had reason to fear
the sons of his brother, and, having by advice of
Athene built the first fifty-oared ship, fled with

AEGYPTUS

21

his daughters to Argos in Peloponnesus. Thi
ther he was followed by the sons of Aegyptus,
who demanded his daughters for their wives,
and promised faithful alliance. Danaus pre
tended to forgive his wrongs, and distributed his
daughters among them, but to each of them he
gave a dagger, with which they were to kill their
husbands in the bridal night. All the sons of
Aegyptus were thus murdered, with the excep
tion of Lynceus, who was saved by Hyper-
mnestra. [Lynceus.] The Danaids threw the
heads of their murdered husbands into the
marsh of Lema, and buried their bodies outside
the town. (Pausanias, ii. 24, reverses this order.)
They were afterwards purified of their crime by
Athene and Hermes at the command of Zeus.
Plutarch (de Fluv. 10) tells that Aegyptus, by
order of an oracle, in time of drought sacrificed
his daughter Aganippe, and in grief threw him
self into the river Mel as (the Nile), which
thence took the name Aegyptus. In later wri
ters Aegyptus is identified with a historical
king : in Manetho with Sethos, in Eusebius
with Rameses or Ramses.
Aegyptus (f) Alyvirros : AlyvirTios, Aegyptius :
Egypt), a country in the NE. corner of Africa,
bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean, on
the E. by Palestine, Arabia Petraea, and the Red
Sea, on the S. by Ethiopia, the division between
the two countries being at the First or Little
Cataract of the Nile, close to Syene (Assouan ;
Lat. 24° 8'), and on the W. by the Great Libyan
Desert. This is the extent usually assigned to
the country ; but it would be more strictly cor
rect to define it as that part of the basin of the
Nile which lies below the First Cataract. The
native name for the country was Chemi or
Kamit, ' the black land,' from the dark alluvial
soil, by which it was distinguished from the
neighbouring desert and from the ' red land ' of
Arabia. The name AXyvirTOS was given first by
the Greeks to the Nile — such, at any rate, is its
Homeric use (Od. iv. 477, &c.)— and afterwards to
the country. The Semitic name was Mizir or
Mizraim. — 1. Physical Description of Egypt.
The river Nile, flowing from S. to N. through a
narrow valley, encounters, in Lat. 24° 8', a
natural barrier, composed of two islands (Philae
and Elephantine) and between them a bed of
sunken rocks, by which it is made to fall in a
series of cataracts, or rather rapids (tu Kard-
Souiro, o fUKpbs KaTappdKT7)S, Catarrhactes
Minor, comp. Catarrhactes), which have
always been regarded as the southern limit
assigned by nature to Egypt. The river flows
due N. between two ranges of hills, so near each
other as to leave scarcely any cultivable land,
as far as Silsilis (Jebel Selseleh), about 40 miles
below Syene, where the valley is enlarged by
the W. range of hills retiring from the river.
Thus the Nile flows for about 500 miles, through
a valley whose average breadth is about 7 miles,
between hills which in one place (W. of Thebes)
attain the height of 1000 or 1200 feet above the
sea, to a point some few miles below Memphis,
where the W. range of hills runs to the NW.,
and the E. range strikes off to the E., and the
river divides into branches (seven in ancient
time, but now only two), which flow through a
low alluvial land, called, from its shape, the
Delta, into the Mediterranean. To this valley
and Delta must be added the country round
lake Moeeis, called Nomos Arsinoites, lying
NW. of Heracleopolis, and connected with the
valley of the Nile by a break in the W. range
of hills. The whole district thus described is
periodically laid under water by the overflowing

of the Nile from April to October. The river
in subsiding, leaves behind a rich deposit of fine
mud, which forms the soil of Egypt. All beyond
the reach of the inundation is rock or sand.
Hence Egypt was called the ' Gift of the Nile.
The extent of the cultivable land of Egypt is in
the Delta about 4500 square miles, in the valley
about 2255, in Faytim about 840, and in all
about 7095 square miles. The outlying portions,
included in the Egyptian nomes after the begin
ning of the Greek period under the Ptolemies,
consisted of the Greater and Lesser Oases (cul
tivable valleys so called from the Egyptian TJah,
1 settlement '), in the midst of the Western or
Libyan Desert, a valley in the W. range of hills
on the W. of the Delta, called Nomos Nitriotes
from the Natron Lakes which it contains, some
settlements on the coast of the Red Sea and in
the mountain passes between it and the Nile,,
and a strip of coast on the Mediterranean, ex
tending E. as far as Rhinocolura (El-Arish), and
W. as far as the Catabathmus Minor, Long.
about 25° 10' E. (Strab. 798). The only river of
Egypt is the Nile [Nilus]. A great artificial
canal (Bahr-Yussouf, i.e. Joseph's Canal) runs
parallel to the river, at the distance of about 6
miles, from Diospolis Parva in the Thebais to a
point on the W. mouth of the river about half
way between Memphis and the sea [see under
Moeris]. Many smaller canals were cut to
regulate the irrigation of the country. A canal
from the E. mouth of the Nile to the head of the
Red Sea was commenced by kings of the 19th
dynasty (about 1400 B.C.), resumed by Necho II.
about 600 B.C., and was opened by Darius, son
of Hystaspes. This canal communicated with
the present head of the Red Sea through the
' bitter Lakes.' It had so far sunk in the time
of Aelius Gallus that it could only be used for
floating wood down ; but it was deepened in
Trajan's time, and was called Amnis Augustus.
There were several lakes in the country, re
specting which see Moeeis, Mabeotis, Butos,
Tanis, Siebonis, and Lacus Amaei. — 2. Ancient
History. At the earliest period to which our
records reach back, Egypt was inhabited by a
highly civilised agricultural people, under a
settled monarchical government. The first
dynasty begins with Mena, probably between
5000 and 4000 b.c. ; but he sprang from a
settled city, the ancient Thinis, which he
inhabited before he founded Memphis. Some
have imagined that the primitive seat of the
Egyptian people was Ethiopia, and that their
civilisation was imparted by priests from Meroe.
Such was the Greek tradition : but the evidence
from the relative antiquity of Egyptian archi
tectural monuments tends to show that, on the
contrary, the earliest signs of a civilised race of
builders is in lower Egypt, and that these arts
were carried later southwards into Ethiopia.
The kings, whose power was absolute, bore the
title Per-ao, ' the Great House,' whence came
the equivalent Pharaoh. The country was
administered by a governor and a deputy, under
whom worked a vast number of scribes, some
of whom were, by the king's favour or their own
merit, promoted into the ranks of the nobles.
Ordinarily the caste of the nobles was derived
from royal descent. They held , by hereditary
right large provincial estates, as well as court
offices. By merit they obtained from the king
further titles of honour. It cannot be doubted
that, in spite of the high regard for justice
evinced in Egyptian writings, the peasants suf
fered under heavy burdens and enforced labour.
The priests, who were in possession of all the

22

AEGYPTUS

literature and science of the country and all
the employments based upon such knowledge,
formed a powerful caste. At their head, at any
rate in the post-Memphite dynasties .(after 1700
B.C.), was the high priest of Amen-Ra, or Amun.
One of the priests seized the sovereignty about
1150 B.C. and founded a dynasty. It must be
observed that the supremacy of temples and of
the various orders or dynasties of gods was
changed by the accession of some of the
dynasties of kings and with the shifting of the
capital. The religion of Egypt, which was mainly
derived from sun-worship, but was also con
nected with a totemistic animal worship, cannot
be discussed in this work. Those deities, how
ever, who are mentioned in Greek and Latin lite
rature will be noticed under their several names.
Nor can Egyptian art or its relation to Greek art
be treated here : reference may be made to the
Diet, of Antiquities s.w. Pictura, Statuaria
Ars, Templum and Vos. The Egyptian
alphabet is probably the oldest known. It
originated with the priests, and was first taught
with other learning in their schools, of which
the great university or seminary at On (Helio-
polis) was the development. This writing was
first purely pictorial. Then an alphabet sprang
from the conventional figures, but the picture was
added to the word. From this ' hieroglyphic '
writing a ' hieratic ' running hand was formed
in very early times (written from right to left),
and by the 9th century a still farther abridg
ment in the ' demotic ' writing common to the
people. The Egyptians were mainly agricultu
rists, with little commercial enterprise, but they
obtained foreign productions chiefly through
the Phoenicians, and at a later period they
engaged in maritime expeditions. The ancient
history of Egypt may be divided for our pur
pose into 4 periods :— (1) From the earliest times
to its conquest by Cambyses ; during which it
was ruled by a succession of native princes,
into the difficulties of whose history this is not
the place to inquire. Those named by Greek
writers are treated separately. The last of
them, Psammenitus, was conquered and de
throned by Cambyses in B.C. 525, when Egypt
became a province of the Persian empire.
Until shortly before this date Egypt was but
little known to the Greeks. It is a disputed
point whether the inscriptions at Karnak of the
time of Meneptah II. and Ramses III. (prob.
about B.C. 1800) bear upon the question when
Greeks first set foot in Egypt. Among the
allies of the Libyan invaders appear the
Aqauasha, Shardana, Shakalisha, Turisha,
Liku, and, in the Hittite wars of Ramses II.,
• the Masu, the Dardani and Danau. Some have
read in these names the Achaeans, Sardinians,
Sicilians, Etruscans, Lycians, Mysians, Dar-
danians and Danaans. Brugsch has pointed
out that these are represented as circumcised
tribes ; it is certainly unsafe to assume from a
somewhat similar name that we are reading of
Greeks or Sicilians. Still less is it as yet safe
to accept the arguments of Mr. Petrie from the
pottery which he has found, that Greek settle
ments in Egypt existed certainly in B.C. 1400,
and possibly in 2000. From our present know
ledge, therefore, it can only be asserted that the
Greeks knew something of Egypt in the
Homeric age, and that their mariners at least
touched upon its shores (Od. iv. 351, &c. ; cf.
the Cyclic story of Helen), and that before the
6th century b.c. Greeks were settled at Nau-
cratis (see further under Naucbatis and
Daphnae). In the latter part of the period

learned men among the Greeks began to travel
to Egypt for the sake of studying its institu
tions : among others it was visited by Pytha
goras, Thales, and Solon. (2) From the Persian
conquest in B.C. 525, to the transference of their
dominion to the Macedonians in B.C. 332. This
period was one of almost constant struggles
between the Egyptians and their conquerors,
until B.C. 340, when Nectanebo II. (Nekt-neb-ef ),
the last native ruler of Egypt, was defeated by
Darius Ochus. It was during this period that
the Greeks acquired a considerable knowledge
of Egypt. In the wars between Egypt and
Persia, the two leading states of Athens and
Sparta at different times assisted the Egyptians,
according to the state of their relations to each
other and to Persia ; and, during the intervals
of those wars, Egypt was visited by Greek his
torians and philosophers, such as Hellanicus,
Herodotus, Anaxagoras, Plato, and others, who
brought back to Greece the knowledge of the
country which they acquired from the priests
and through personal observation. (3) The
dynasty of Macedonian kings, from the acces
sion of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, in B.C. 323,
when Egypt became a Greek kingdom, down to
b.c. 30, when she became a province of the
Roman empire. When Alexander invaded
Egypt in B.C. 332, the country submitted to
him without a struggle ; and, while he left it
behind him to return to the conquest of Persia,
he conferred upon it the greatest benefit that
was in his power, by giving orders for the
building of Alexandria. In the partition of the
empire of Alexander after his death in B.C. 323,
Egypt fell to the share of Ptolemy, the son of
Lagus, who assumed the title of king in B.C.
306, and founded the dynasty of the Ptolemies,
under whom the country greatly flourished, and
became the chief seat of Greek learning. - But
soon came the period of decline. Wars with
the adjacent kingdom of Syria, and the vices,
weaknesses, and dissensions of the royal family,
wore out the state, till in B.C. 81 the Romans
were called upon to interfere in the disputes for
the crown, and in b.c. 55 the dynasty of the
Ptolemies came to be entirely dependent on
Roman protection, and, at last, after the battle
of Actium and the death of Cleopatra, who was
the last of the Ptolemies, Egypt was made a
Roman province, B.C. SO. (4) Egypt under the
Romans, down to its conquest by the Arabs in
A.D. 638. As a Roman province, Egypt was one
of the most flourishing portions of the empire.
The fertility of its soil, and its position between
Europe and Arabia and India, together with the
possession of such a port as Alexandria, gave
it the full benefit of the two great sources of
wealth, agriculture and commerce. Learning
continued to flourish at Alexandria, and the
patriarchs of the Christian Church in that city
became so powerful as to contend for supremacy
with those of Antioch, Constantinople, and
Rome, while a succession of teachers, such as
Origen and Clement of Alexandria, conferred
real lustre on the ecclesiastical annals of the
country. When the Arabs made their great
inroad upon the Eastern empire, the geogra
phical position of Egypt naturally caused it to
fall an immediate victim to that attack, which
its wealth and the peaceful character of its in
habitants invited. It was conquered by Amrou,
the lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, in A.D. 688.
— 3. Political Geography. — In the earliest
times the country was divided into the ' land of
the South ' and ' the land of the North ' : the
former extended as far as Memphis, but did

AEGYS
not include it, and was subdivided for adminis
tration into 22 nomes ; the latter contained 20
nomes. But in Greek and Roman times the
-division was threefold : (1) the Delta or Lower
Egypt (t& AeA.TCt, i) kc.t-o x&Pa) > (--) the Hepta-
nomis or Middle Egypt; (8) the Thebais or
Upper Egypt (fi b\va> x^Pa)> 0I which the ohief
town was Ptolemais. In Roman times the
whole land was governed by a procurator, styled
the Praefectus Aegypti [see Diet. Ant. s.v.], in
Greek yyeuav : each of the three great divisions
was administered by a,nepistrategus (iirio-TpdT-
riyos), who in Thebais was also called apa/3-
dpxt)s from the greater Arab admixture in
the population; the subdivision into nomes
(voimL) was retained; but the total number was
47 ; over each was a voudpxris, in the Roman
period usually called o-Tparriy6s. Each nome
was further subdivided into Toimpx'ai, and these
regain into Kauai and tuttoi, who had their own
officials Ka/jtoypaufiaTeis and ToircypauuaTeis,
being administered by villages, not by cantons.
For the special government of Alexandria, see
that article. The Dodecarchy of 12 kings, of
Herodotus, iv. 147, refers to the partition of
Egypt, as an Assyrian province, into twenty
satrapies by Esarhaddon after he defeated Tir-
hahal, b.c. 672. It is probable that the mis
taken number was derived from the 12 courts
in the Labyrinth.
Aegys (Atyvs, Aiyirris: nr. Ghiorgitza), a
town of Laconia on the borders of Arcadia.
Aelana (At\ava : Al\aviT7}s), a town on the
northern arm of the Red Sea, near the Bahr-eh
Akaba, called by the Greeks Aelanites from
the name of the town. It is the Elath of the
Hebrews, and one of the seaports of which
Solomon possessed himself. (Strab. p. 768;
Joseph. Ant. viii. 5, 4.)
Aelia Gens, plebeian, the members of which
are given under their surnames, Gallus, Lamia,
Paetus, Sejanus, Stllo, Tubeeo.
Aelia, a name given to Jerusalem after its
restoration by the Roman emperor Aelius
Hadrianus. Aelianus, Claudius (" Sophista "), was born
at Praeneste in Italy, and lived at Rome about
the middle of the 3rd century of the Christian
-era. Though an Italian, he wrote in Greek.
Two of his works have come down to us : one
it collection of miscellaneous history (JloiKlr\r)
'lo-Topta) in 14 books, commonly called Varia
Historia ; and the other a work on the pecu
liarities of animals (Ilepl Zdav ididTTjTos) in 17
books, commonly called De Animalium Na-
tura. The former work contains short narra
tions and anecdotes, historical, biographical,
antiquarian, &c, selected from various authors,
.generally without their names being given, and
on a great variety of subjects. The latter work
is partly collected from older writers, and partly
the result of his own observations both in Italy
and abroad. There are also attributed to him
20 letters on husbandry (A7poi/£i/cal 'Emo-roW),
written in a rhetorical style and of no value. —
Editions. Hercher, Paris, 1858; Teubner,
Leips. 1866.
Aelianus, Plautius, mentioned by Tac. Hist.
iv. 53 as Pontifex in a.d. 71, when the Capitol
was restored. His full name appears in an
inscription as Ti. Plautius Silvanus Aelianus :
he was consul in a.d. 47.
Aelianus Tacticus, a Greek writer, who lived
in Rome and wrote a work on the Military Tac
tics of the Greeks (ITepl STpaTnyiKwv Tdgeav
'EWr}viKav), dedicated to the emperor Hadrian.
He also gives a brief account of the constitution

AENEAS

23

of a Roman army at that time. — Editions. By
Franciscus Robortellus, Venice, 1552 ; Elzevir,
Leyden, 1618 ; Kb'chly and Riistow, 1855.
Aello, one of the Harpies. [Harpyiae.]
Aemilia. 1. The 3rd daughter of L. Aemilius
Paulus, who fell in the battle of Cannae, was
the wife of Soipio Africanus I. and the mother
of the celebrated Cornelia, the mother of the
Gracchi. — 2. Aemilia Lepida. [Lepida.] — 3. A
Vestal virgin, put to death B.C. 114. (Plut. Q.
B.to. 284; Liv. Ep. 63.)
Aemilia Gens, one of the most ancient patri
cian gentes at Rome, said to have been descended
from Mamercus, who received the name of
Aemilius traditionally on account of the per
suasiveness of his language (Si' aluuKlav kdyov)
(Plut. Aemil. 2). This Mamercus is represented
by some as the son of Pythagoras, and by others
as the son of Numa. The most distinguished
members of the gens are given under their sur
names Babbula, Lepidus, Mamebcus or Ma-
mebcinus, Papus, Paulus, Regillus, Scaurus.
Aemilia Via, made by M. Aemilius Lepidus,
cos. B.C. 187, continued the Via Flaminia from
Ariminum, and traversed the heart of Cisalpine
Gaul through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, Pla-
centia (where it crossed the Po) to Mediolanum.
It was subsequently continued as far as Aquileia.
Aemilianus. 1. The son of L. Aemilius
Paulus Macedonicus, was adopted by P. Corne
lius Scipio, the son of P. Cornelius Scipio Afri
canus, and was thus called P. Cornelius Scipio
Aemilianus Africanus. [Scipio.] — 2. The go
vernor of Pannonia and Moesia in the reign of
Gallus, was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers

Coin of Aemilianus, Roman Emperor, A.D. 253.
Rev., laurel-crowned bust, with legend ' Imperator Aemilia*
nus Pius Felix Augustus ' ', obv.. Peace with Olive-branch.
in A.D. 253, but was slain by them after reign
ing a few months. — 3. One of the 30 tyrants
(a.d. 259 — 268), assumed the purple in Egypt,
but was taken prisoner and strangled by order
of Gallienus.
Aemilius Probus. [Nepos, Cornelius.]
Aemodae or Haemodae, probably the Shet
land islands. (Plin. H. N. iv. § 103 ; Mel. iii. 6.)
Aemona or Emona (Laibach), a fortified town
in Pannonia, and an important Roman colony,
said to have been built by the Argonauts.
Aenaria, also called Pithecusa and Inarime
(Verg. Aen. ix. 716), (Ischia) a volcanic island
off the coast of Campania, at the entrance of
the bay of Naples, under which the Roman poet
represented Typhoeus as lying. The form of
the name ' in Virgil is probably due' to a mis
conception of Horn. II. ii. 783.
Aenea (Afr/em: AiVeteiiy, AiyeiaTTjs), a town
in Chalcidice, on the Thermaic gulf, said to have
been founded by Aeneas (Hdt. vii. 123 ; Liv.
xl. 4, xliv. 10). See coin under Aeneas, p. 25.
Aeneades (AiVeiaSijs), a patronymic from
Aeneas, given to his son Ascanius or lulus,
and to those who were believed to be descended
from him, such as Augustus, and the Romans
in general.
Aeneas (Alvzias), the son of Anchises and

24

AENEAS

Aphrodite, born on Mount Ida. On his father's
sid4 he was a great-great-grandson of Tros, and
thus a cousin of Priam, who was great-grandson
of Tros (Horn. II. xx. 230 f .) The story with which
we are most familiar, adopted by Virgil from
various sources, represents that Aeneas, after
the fall of Troy, escaped with his father, his wife,
and his son lulus, and, having gathered some
followers, migrated westward, reaching Epirus,
Sicily and Africa, and eventually settling in
Latium, where he became the heroic founder of
the Romans. [Dido; Latinus; Turnus.] But
this is the outcome of many different accounts.
and it is necessary in treating of a character so
important in legend to trace the development
of the story. — 1. Homeric Story. He was
brought up in the house of Alcathous, the
husband of his sister [Xenophon, De Venat.
1, 2, strangely makes him a pupil of Chiron].
He took no part in the Trojan war until Achilles
attacked him on Mount Ida, drove away his
cattle and captured Lyrnessus. Then he led the
Dardanians to battle, and ranked thenceforth
next to Hector as the bulwark of the Trojans.

Aegean, Crete, the west coast of Greece an6T
Epirus, Sicily [Acestes], Carthage [Dido].
From Carthage he returned to Sicily, and after
celebrating there the funeral games in honour
of Anchises, sailed to Cumae in Italy, where he
consulted the Sibyl. Thence he went to Latium
and was received into alliance by King Latinus,
whose daughter, Lavinia, he married. The
Aeneid closes with the defeat and death of
Turnus, king of the Rutulians, which leaves
Aeneas free to reign over the native races of La
tium and the Trojans united as one people. —
Account in other post-Homeric writers. From
the Cyclic poets we gather a different tradition
of Aeneas in Asia Minor. Arctinus, in telling
the story of Laocoon says, that Aeneas then
(before the capture of Troy) withdrew with his
family to Mount Ida [according to Dionys. i. 48
the same story appeared in the Laocoon of
Sophocles]. Quintus Smyrnaeus gives us from
the Cyclic poets many details of the battles
after Hector's death, including the narrative
which is apparently the source of Verg. Aen. iL
440-476. He names the wife of Aeneas as.

lyalker Cr Boiitatl sc
Map oi the Wanderings of Aeneas. (From Sir C. Bowen's Translation ol the Aeneid.)

It is noticeable that Philostratus (Her. 13) calls
Hector the Hand, Aeneas the Mind of the
Trojans; and in the Homeric battles we never
find Aeneas escaping dangers by his own
strength of arm, but by the intervention of the
gods. Thus Aphrodite carried him off when
he was wounded by Diomede (II. v. 320), and
Poseidon saved him in his combat with Achilles
(II. xx. 75-352). It should be observed that
this latter-- passage is one of the so-called
" greater interpolations," which are now gener
ally assigned to some date between 750 and
600 B.C. It follows, therefore, that not only does
Homer make no allusion to the westward migra
tion, but that even the story of Aeneas reign
ing over the Trojans after the capture of Troy
by the Greeks, as stated prophetically in II. xx.
807 (cf. line 189 and Hymn. v. 196), is (accord
ing to the majority of Homeric scholars) of a
comparatively late origin. We learn nothing of
Aeneas from the Odyssey. — Vi/rgilian Account.
Virgil (for whose agreement with and diver
gence from other writers see below), ' makes
Aeneas with his companions wander for seven
years after the capture of Troy, by Thrace, the

' Eurydice ' (cf . Paus. x. 26 ; Enn. ap. Cic. Div*
i. 20, 40). Creusa first appears in Dionys. i..
69. There is a curious statement in Dionys.
i. 48, that he betrayed Troy and was therefore-
left as a ruler by the Greeks, which looks like-
an attempt to explain the Homeric tradition
that he was to reign there in later times. The,
oldest source for his migration westwards is ra
the Iliu Persis of Stesichorus (b.c. 630-550)..
The Tabula Iliaca shows Aeneas embarking at;
Sigeum, leading Ascanius and carrying Anchises.
with the images of the gods ; Misenus the.
trumpeter is behind. Dionysius and Virgil
agree mainly in the story of his visit to Thrace :
by these and other writers he is brought to-
Aenea on the Thermaic gulf (Liv. xl. 4), to-
Samothrace and the Cabiri, to Delos, Crete,,
Cythera (Paus. viii. 12, 8; iii. 22, 11), Zacyn-
thus, Leucas, Actium, Ambracia (Virgil omits.
Leucas and Ambracia), Epirus, Sicily (cf. Cic.
Verr. ii. 4, 7). Dionysius, however, says nothing
of Africa or Dido ; and, according to Macrob. v..
2, 4, Virgil is here following Naevius. As to-
the landing in Italy, Virgil agrees with Diony
sius, except in the consultation of the Sibyl„

AENEAS
which seems to come from Naevius. The
journey to Etruria is not in Dionysius or
Naevius, but appears in Lycophron of Alex
andria (b.c. 285-247). Pausanias (x. 17) takes
him to Sardinia. It should be noted that the
Trojan settlement in
Latium is unknown
to Stesichorus and
first appears in Ce-
phalon (4th cent.
-B.C.), who makes Ro-
¦ mus, a son of Aeneas,
the founder of Rome
(Dionys. i. 72). The
death or disappear
ance of Aeneas takes
place in the fourth
year after the death
Coin ot Aenea, with the legend 0f Turnus and Lati-
A1NSAS Ia.j ,-u.-i. .
nus, during a war be
tween his subjects and the Rutulians, aided by
Mezentius : in one story he is taken up to the
gods ; in another he is drowned in the river Nu-
micius. (See Liv. i. 2.) He becomes according
to Livy the Jupiter Indiges ; according to Dio
nysius debs x^iyios. — A coin of Aenea [Aenea],
which belongs to the middle of the sixth cen
tury B.C., represents Aeneas flying from Troy,
carrying his father Anchises on his shoulders,
and accompanied by his wife, who holds
Ascanius by the hand. This subject is also
frequently represented on Greek vases.
Aeneas Gazaeus, so called from Gaza, his
birthplace, lived in the latter half of the 5th
century ajj. He was at first a Platonist and a
Sophist, but afterwards became a Christian,
when he composed a dialogue, on the Im
mortality of the Soul, called Theophrastus. —
Editions. By Barthius, Lips. 1655 ; by Bois-
sonade, Par. 1836.
Aeneas Tacticus, a Greek writer of the
middle of the 4th century B.C. Casaubon
supposes him to be the same as Aeneas of
Stymphalus, the general of the Arcadians, B.C.
362 (Xen. Hell. vii. 3 § 1). He wrote a work on
the art of war, of which a portion only is pre
served, commonly called Commentarius Polior-
ceticus, showing how a siege should beresisted.
An epitome of the whole book was made by
Cineas. (Cic. ad Fain. ix. 25.) — Editions. By
Ernesti, Lips. 1763; by Orelli, Lips. 1818; by
Hug, 1874.
Aenesidemus (Alvria-iSrifws), 1. a celebrated
sceptic, born at Cnossus in Crete, probably
lived a little later than Cicero. He differed on
many points from the ordinary sceptics. The
grand peculiarity of his system was the attempt
to unite scepticism with the earlier philosophy,
to raise a positive foundation for it by account
ing from the nature of things for the never-
ceasing changes both in the material and
spiritual world. None of the works of Aenesi
demus have come down to us. To them Sextus
Empiricus was indebted for a considerable part
of his work. From him we learn the eight
methods by which Aenesidemus shows fallacy
in all a priori reasoning, as all arguments what
ever were confuted by the SeKa rpi-noi [Pyreho],
viz. (1) Either the cause given is unseen and
not proven by things seen. (2) Or if the cause
is seen it cannot be shown to exclude other
hypotheses. (3) A regular and constant effect
attributed to an irregular and fitful cause : e.g.
the motions of planets to a sudden impulse. (4)
In arguing from the seen to the unseen it is
assumed that the laws are the same. (5)
'Causes' only mean opinion of causes, in

AEOLIS

25

conflict with other opinions. (6) Equally prob
able causes are accepted or rejected as the
theory requires. (7) The causes given are at.
variance with phenomena. (8) Principles are
uncertain because the facts from which they
proceed are uncertain. — 2. [Theeon.]
Aeneus, son of Apollo and Stilbe, husband
of Aenete and father of Cyzicus.
Aenianes (AivtaVes, Ion. 'Evif/i/es), anancient
Greek race, originally near Ossa, afterwards in
southern Thessaly (Horn. II. ii. 749 ; Hdt. vii.
198), between Oeta and Othrys, on the banks of
the Spercheus. Chief town Hypata.
Aenus. 1. (Alms : AXvios, AiVidVijj : Eno)r
an ancient town in Thrace, near the mouth of
the Hebrus, mentioned in Horn. II. iv. 520. It
was colonised by the Aeolians of Asia Minor.
Virgil (Aen. iii. 18) supposes Aenos to have been
built by Aeneas, but he confounds it with
Aenea in Chalcidice. Under the Romans.
Aenos was a free town, and a place of import
ance. — 2. A town in Aetolia. — 3. Mountain in
Cephallenia. Aenus (Inn), a river in Rhaetia, the boundary
between Rhaetia and Noricum. (Tac. Hist. iii. 5.)
Aeoles or Aeolii (AioAeis). One of the three
great divisions of the Greeks at one time dwell
ing in the Thessalian country south of the
Peneus. [For their mythical origin see Aeolus.]
In the colonisation of Asia Minor from Greece
the Aeolians as a mixed body, uniting Locrians,.
Magnetes, Boeotians and Achaeans, started
from Aulis. They were, however, mainly de
scendants of the Achaeans. Traditionally they
were led first by Orestes, and after his death by
his son Penthilus as far as Thrace, and thence
by Archelaus son of Penthilus to Dascyleum
in the country of Cyzicus, whence Gras son of
Archelaus first advanced to the Granicus and
then retired and occupied Lesbos. A second
detachment under Cleuas and Melaus, de
scendants also of Agamemnon, founded Cyme
(Strab. p. 582). It seems probable that the Aeo
lians first occupied Lesbos, that thence a second
migration colonised Cyme and that from Cyme
and Lesbos the Aeolian cities of the northern
part of Asia Minor were founded [Aeolis.]
Cyzicus was first colonised by the Milesians in
756 b.c. [For Aeolian poets, see Alcaeus,.
Sappho.] Aeoliae Insfilae (of At6\ov vrjo-oi : Lipari
Islands), a group of islands NE. of Sicily,.
where Aeolus, the god of the winds, reigned.
Homer (Od. x. 1) mentions only one Aeolian
island, and Virgil (Aen. i. 52) accordingly speaks
of only one Aeolia (sc. insula), where Aeolus-
reigned, supposed to be Strongyle (Strab. p.
276) or Lipara (Diod. v. 9). These islands.
were also called Hephaestiddes or Vulcaniae,
because Hephaestus or Vulcan was supposed
to have had his workshop in one of them called
Hiera (Verg. Aen. viii. 415 seq.). They were
also named Liparenses, from Lipara, the
largest of them. The names of these islands-
were, Lipara (Lipari); Hiera (Volcano) i
Strongyle (Stromboli) ; Phoenicusa (Felicudi) ;
Ericusa (Alicudi) ; Euonymus (Panaria) ;
Didyme (Salina) ; Hicesia (Lisca Bianca) ;
Basilidia (Basilizzo); Osteodes (UsUca).
Aeolides (AiWBtjs), apatronymic given to the
sons of Aeolus, as Athamas, Cretheus, Sisy
phus, Salmoneus, &c, and to his grandsons, as-
Cephalus, Ulysses and Phrixus. Aeolis is the
patronymic of the female descendants of Aeolus,.
given to his daughters Canace and Alcyone.
Aeolis (AloMs) or Aeolia, a district of Mysia.
in Asia Minor, was peopled by Aeolian Greeks,,

¦26

AEOLUS

whose cities extended from the Troad along the
shores of the Aegaean to the river Hermus.
'The northern group comprised the islands of
Tenedos and Lesbos with its six cities, the
southern, group was formed into a league of
twelve cities with a common religious festival
(Panaeolium), viz. Cyme, Larissae, Neon-
tlchos, Temnus, Cilia, Notium, Aegirfisa,
Pitane, Aegaeae, Myrina, Grynea, and Smyrna ;
but Smyrna subsequently became a member'
of the Ionian confederacy. (Hdt. i. 149 seq.)
These cities were subdued by Croesus, and
were incorporated in the Persian empire on the
¦conquest of Croesus by Cyrus. Magnesia (q.
v.) on the Maeander is said to have also been
founded by the Aeolians.
Aeolus (AfoAos). 1. Son of Hellen and the
nymph Orsei's, and brother of Dorus and
Xuthus. He was the ruler of Thessaly, and the
founder of the Aeolic branch of the Greek nation.
His children are said to have been very
numerous ; but the most ancient story men
tioned only four sons, viz., Sisyphus, Athamas,
Cretheus, and Salmoneus : others represent him
as the father also of Mimas and Macareus and
of five daughters, one of whom, Canace, was
seduced by her brother Macareus and slain for
that reason by her father (Ov. Her. 11).
Another daughter was Arne. The great extent
of country which this race occupied probably
gave rise to the varying accounts about the
number of his children. — 2, Son of Poseidon
and Arne, and grandson of the previous Aeolus.
His story probably refers to the emigration of a
branch of the Aeolians to the west. His mother
was carried to Metapontum in Italy, where she
gave birth to Aeolus and his brother Boeotus.
It is this Aeolus who figures in the story which
supplies the plots for the two plays of Euripides
called Melanippe. — 3. Aeolus, son of Hippotes,
represented in the Odyssey as friend of the
gods, dwelling in the floating western island
Aeolia. Here he reigned as a just and pious
king-, taught the natives the use of sails for
ships, and foretold them the nature of the
winds that were to rise. In Homer (Od. x. 1
seq.) Aeolus, the son of Hippotes, is neither the
god nor the father of the winds, but merely the
happy ruler of the Aeolian island, to whom
Zeus had given dominion over the winds, which
he might soothe or excite according to his
pleasure ; wherefore he gives Odysseus a bag
¦confining the unfavourable winds — a myth
which is identical in the folk-lore of other
nations, e.g. the Laplanders. This statement
of Homer led to Aeolus being regarded in later
times as the god and king of the winds, which
ho kept enclosed in a mountain (Ov. Met.
xiv. 223; Verg. Aen. i. 52). It is therefore to
him that Juno applies when she wishes to
¦destroy the fleet of the Trojans. The Aeolian
island of Homer was in later times believed to
be Lipara or Strongyle, and was accordingly
regarded as the place in which the god of the
winds dwelt. [Aeoliae Insulae.] The above
•distinction is by no means invariable, and we
find the 2nd and the 3rd Aeolus in some authors
¦confused. Diodorus (iv. 67, v. 7) connects the
three by a regular genealogy : Mimas son of
Aeolus I., Hippotes son of Mimas, Aeolus II.
son of Hippotes, Arne daughter of Aeolus II.
and mother of Aeolus IV.
Aepea (Aforeio : AiVeoVtjj). 1. A town in
Messenia on the sea-coast, afterwards Thuria.
— 2. A town in Cyprus, afterwards Soli.
Aepy (Aiivv), a town in Elis, situated on a
ieightj as its name indicates.

AESAR
Aepytus (AtirvTOs). 1. A mythical king of
Arcadia, from whom a part of the country was
called Aepytis. He died from the bite of a
snake and was buried near Cyllene. His grave
is mentioned in Horn. II. ii. 603. His father
was Elatos (Pind. Ol. vi. 33) and his daughter
was Evadne. — 2. Youngest son of the Heraclid
Cresphontes, king of Messenia, and of Merope,
daughter of the Arcadian king Cypselus. When
his father and brothers were murdered during
an insurrection, Aepytus alone, who was with
his grandfather Cypselus, escaped the danger.
The throne of Cresphontes was in the mean
time occupied by the Heraclid Polyphontes,
who also forced Merope to become his wife.
When Aepytus had grown to manhood, he
returned to his kingdom, and put Polyphontes
to death. From him the kings of Messenia were
called Aepytids instead of the more general
name Heraclids. — 3. Son of Hippothous, king
of Arcadia, and great-grandson of the Aepytus
mentioned first. He was father of Cypselus
(Paus. viii. 5, 5).
Aequi, Aequicoli, Aequicolae, Aequiciilani,
an ancient warlike people of Italy, dwelling in
the upper valley of the Anio in the mountains
forming the eastern boundary of Latium, and
between the Latini, Sabini, Hernici, and Marsi.
In conjunction with the Volsci, who were of the
same Oscan race, they carried on constant
hostilities with Rome, but their resistance
became feebler at the end of the 6th century
B.C., and though they joined the Samnite coali
tion they were completely brought under the
Roman power in 304 B.C. Their chief towns
were Alba Fucens and Caeseoli.
Aequi Falisci. [Faleeii.]
Aequimaelium. [Maelius.]
Aerope ('Aep<J7rr|). 1. Daughter of Catreus, king
of Crete, and granddaughter of Minos. Her
father, who had received an oracle that he should
lose his life by one of his children, gave Tier and
her sister Clymene to Nauplius, who was to sell
them in a foreign land. Aerope married Pli-
sthenes, the son of Atreus, and became by him
the mother of Agamemnon and Menelaus. After
the death of Plisthenes Aerope married Atreus ;
and her two sons, who were educated by Atreus,
were generally believed to be his sons. Aerope
was faithless to Atreus, being seduced by Thy
estes, and according to some was thereupon
thrown into the sea. Soph. Aj. 1297 may either
refer to this or to the story followed by Euri
pides in the Kprjo-crai, that she was seduced by a
slave of her father's. In the latter play, how
ever, she is not drowned but is delivered by
Catreus to Nauplius to be drowned and is spared
by him, marrying Atreus afterwards. [Ateeus ;
Agamemnon.]— 2. Daughter of Cepheus and
mother of Aeroposby Ares (Paus. viii. 44. 7).
Aesacus (AtaaKos), son of Priam and Arisbe
(Apoll. iii. 12. 5), or Alexirrhoe (Ov. Met. xi. 763).
He lived far from his. father's court in the soli
tude of mountain forests. Hesperia, however,
the daughter of Cebren, kindled love in his
heart, and on one occasion while he was pur
suing her, she was bitten by a viper and died.
Aesacus in his grief threw himself into the sea
and was changed by Thetis into an aquatic
bird. Apollodorus tells that Aesacus, having
learnt the interpretation of dreams from his
grandfather Merops, prophesied to Priam the
evils which Paris would cause.
Aesar, the name of a deity among the
Etruscans. Aesar or Aesarus (Esaro), a river near Croton
in Bruttii, in southern Italy.

AESCHINES
Aeschines (AiVxkjjj). 1. The Athenian ora
tor, born B.C. 889, was the son of Atrometus and
Glaucothea. According to Demosthenes, his
political antagonist, his parents were of dis
reputable character and not even citizens of
Athens; but Aeschines himself says that his
father was descended from an honourable
family, and lost his property during the Pelo-
ponnesian war. In his youth Aeschines appears
to have assisted his father in his school ; he next
acted as secretary to Aristophon, and afterwards
to Eubulus ; he subsequently tried his fortune
as an actor, but was unsuccessful; and at
length, after serving with distinction in the
army at the battle of Tamynae (Aesch. F. L.
§ 169), came forward as a public speaker and
soon acquired great reputation. In 847 he was
sent along with Demosthenes as one of the 10
ambassadors to negotiate a peace with Philip :
from this time he appears as the friend of the
Macedonian party and as the opponent of
Demosthenes. Shortly afterwards Aeschines
formed one of the second embassy sent to Philip
to receive the oath of Philip to the treaty which
had been concluded with the Athenians ; but
as the delay of the ambassadors in obtaining
the ratification had been favourable to the in
terests of Philip, Aeschines on his return to
Athens was accused by Timarchus. He evaded
the danger by bringing forward a counter-accu
sation against Timarchus (345), and by showing
that the moral conduct of his accuser was such
that he had no right to speak before the people.
The speech in which Aeschines attacked Tim
archus is still extant : Timarchus was condemned
and Aeschines gained a brilhant triumph. It can
"hardly be doubted, however, that Aeschines had
corruptly played into the hands of Philip, and had
purposely misled his own countrymen. In 343
Demosthenes renewed the charge against Aes
chines of treachery during his second embassy
to Philip. This charge of Demosthenes (7repl
TrapaTrpeo-f3e'ias) was not spoken, but published
as a memorial, and Aeschines answered it in a
similar memorial on the embassy (irepl irapa-
¦n-peo-fielas), which was likewise published.
Shortly after the battle of Chaeronea in 338,
which gave Philip the supremacy in Greece,
-Ctesiphon proposed that Demosthenes should
"be rewarded for his services with a golden
crown in the theatre at the great Dionysia.
Aeschines in consequence accused Ctesiphon ;
but he did not prosecute the charge till 8 years
later, 330. The speech which he delivered on
the occasion is extant, and was answered by
Demosthenes in his celebrated oration on the
crown (irep\ GTetpdvov). Aeschines was defeated,
and, being condemned to pay the fine of 1000
drachmae, withdrew from Athens. He went to
Asia Minor, and at length established a school
of eloquence at Rhodes. On one occasion he
read to his audience in Rhodes his speech
against Ctesiphon, and also the reply of Demo
sthenes : when his hearers expressed their ad
miration he said : ' Your admiration would be
greater if you heard Demosthenes deliver his
-own speech ' (Cic. de Orat. iii. 56, 213 ; Plin.
H.N. vii. § 110). Aeschines was undoubtedly
not only a fluent, but a brilliant orator (he
prided himself as needing less study than De
mosthenes) : but among the points in which his
speeches rank far below those of Demosthenes
may be noticed a want of that nobility in mind
and purpose which add force and inspiration to
the oratory of his rival. From Rhodes he went
to Samos, where he died in 314. Besides the
3 orations extant, we also possess 12 letters

AESCHYLUS

27

which are ascribed to Aeschines, but are the
work of late sophists. — Editions. In the edi
tions of the Attic orators [Demosthenes] and
by Bremi, Zurich, 1828 ; Franke, 1873 ; Schultz,-
1865. — 2. An Athenian philosopher and rhe
torician, and a disciple of Socrates. After the
death of his master he seems (Hermod. ap. Diog.
Laert. ii. 106, iii. 6) to have stayed with Euclid
in Megara in company with Plato and others :
thence he went to Syracuse, but returned to '
Athens after the expulsion of Dionysius, and
supported himself, receiving money for his in
structions. He wrote several dialogues, but the
three which have come down to us under his
name are not genuine (irep! Ape-rijs, Axiochus
and Eryxias : see Hermann, de Aeschinis
reliq. 1850).— Editions. By Fischer, Lips. 1786 ;
by Bb'ckh, Heidel. 1810 ; and in many editions
of Plato.— 3. Of Neapolis, a Peripatetic philo
sopher, who was at the head of the Academy at
Athens, together with Charmades and Clito-
machus about B.C. 109 (Cic. de Orat. i. 11). — i. Of
Miletus, a contemporary of Cicero, and a. dis
tinguished orator in the Asiatic style of elo
quence (Cic. Brut. 95 ; Diog. ii. 64).
Aeschrion (Alo-xpiav). 1. Of Syracuse, whose
wife Pippa was one of the mistresses of Verres,
and who was himself one of the scandalous
instruments of Verres.— 2. An iambic poet, a
native of Samos. There was an epic poet of
the same name, who was a native of Mytilene
and a pupil of Aristotle, and who accompanied
Alexander on some of his expeditions. He may ¦
perhaps be the same person as the Samian.-
(What remains of his poems is printed in
Bergk's Poetae Lyriei, 1866.)— 3. A native of
Pergamum, and a physician in the second
century after Christ, was one of Galen's tutors.
Aeschylus (Alo-xvAos). 1. The great tragic
poet, was born at Eleusis in Attica, B.C. 525,
so that he was thirty-five years of age at the
time of the battle of Marathon, aad contempo
rary with Simonides and Pindar. His father
Euphorion was
probably connec
ted with the wor
ship of Demeter,
and Aeschylus
himself was, ac
cording to some
authorities, initia
ted in the mys
teries of this god
dess. At the age
of twenty-five (b.c
499), he made his
first appearance as
a competitor for
the prize of tra
gedy against Pra-
tinas, without be
ing successful. His chief rival at this period
was Phrynichus. He fought, with his brothers
Cynaegirus and Aminias, at the battle of Ma
rathon (490), and also at those of Salamis (480)
and Plataea (479). In 485 he first gained the
prize ; and in 472 he gained the prize with the
trilogy of which the Persae, the earliest of his ex-
tantdramas,wasone piece. About this time, as is
generally supposed, he went to the court of Hiero,
and produced his play Aetneae to inaugurate the
city Aetna [Catana], which Hiero had founded.
It is said that the Persae was reproduced there.
He remained in Sicily about three years and
returned to Athens before the death of Hiero :
for in B.C. 468 his play was defeated by the
Triptolemus of Sophocles. At the same time

Bust of Aeschylus.

28

AESCHYLUS

there are reasons which may incline us to think
that the first visit to Sicily was earlier. The
city of Aetna, in honour of which he wrote his
play, was actually founded in B.C. 476. Again,
the subject of the play Glaucus Pontius, which
formed part of the trilogy, is such as would
more naturally be suggested after a visit to
Sicily. Lastly, the tradition, though improbable
in itself, that he went to Sicily because he was
jealous of Simonides, is not likely to have
arisen unless it was known that he quitted
Athens before Simonides, i.e. before 477. On
the whole we are met with fewer difficulties if
we place the first visit between 479 and 472, and
suppose that he returned to Athens in or
shortly before the year in which he produced
the Persae, which we shall then date after the
Aetneae. In the year 477 he was victorious
with the Septem c. Thebas. At some time
later, probably after his victory with the Ore-
steia in B.C. 458, he returned to Sicily, and died
at Gela in 456, at the age of sixty-nine. Various
traditions are preserved as to the cause of his
quitting Athens for Sicily. Some said it was
from mortification at a defeat by Sophocles. It
may be remarked that the most probable dates
for his two journeys to Sicily do not follow a
defeat. Others said it was because he had been
defeated by Simonides in an elegy on those
who died at Marathon. If this was so, it is
strange that he should have gone to the court
of Hiero only to meet
Simonides there after
all. Others said that
it was because he
had divulged the mys
teries ; others (and
this, at any rate, must
refer to his second
visit to Sicily) because
the alarm caused to
women and children
by the chorus of Fu
ries had raised bad
feeling against him.
Whatever may have
been the cause of his
earlier visit to Hiero,
the most likely account of his final departure
from Athens is that he was disheartened by
the failure of his attempt to support the power of
the Areopagus by his Eumenides, and uneasy
at the growing power of the democracy, whose
leaders, moreover, must have regarded him
with ill will. The well-known story of his
death, that an eagle, mistaking the poet's
bald head for a stone, dropped a tortoise on
it to break the shell, is represented on a gem,
whfch Baumeister thinks was copied from a
relief, and suggests that the story came from
the relief and was fitted on to Aeschylus.
It was held to fulfil an oracle by which Aes
chylus was to die by a blow from heaven.
— Aeschylus so changed the system of the
tragic stage that he has more claim than
anyone else to be regarded as the founder
of Tragedy. His great change consisted in
introducing a second actor, which was done
certainly before the Persae. Before this there
can have been little real dramatic action and
a dialogue merely between the single actor
and the chorus was of far less importance
than the classic odes. Aeschylus first made
the dialogue more important than the chorus.
He improved the masks and the costumes
generally (see Diet. Antiq. s.v. Tragoedia) :
it was said (Athen. p. 21, e.) that he in some

Aeschylus. (From a gem.)

AESIS
degree imitated the splendid dress of the-
hierophant in the Eleusinian mysteries. It is
stated by Vitruvius that Aeschylus first em
ployed Agatharchus to paint scenes : it is not
quite easy to reconcile this with Aristotle, Poet.
4, 16, where ffKT\voypojp[a is mentioned as in
troduced by Sophocles. It is possible that
Aeschylus first used it in a still ruder form, and
that Sophocles so far developed it as to make it.
his own. The characteristics of the plays of
Aeschylus are a sublimity and grandeur of
feeling and expression, with less of the pathos
which we find in Sophocles and Euripides.
Prometheus is his most pathetic play, but
we are made to feel that Prometheus is a.
deity and removed above mere human pity.
The poet brings before us more forcibly, and
more terribly, than the other tragedians the
unseen powers working out the doctrine of re
tributive justice, and the mysteries of laws.
which control even the gods themselves. Not-
only are his hearers no men of common life,.
but behind all their actions and sufferings we
are made to feel the supernatural power work
ing out the punishment of presumption. And
the diction has been suited to the subject, so
that Aeschylus is above all poets magniloquent,
sometimes to a degree which in a lesser man
would be called turgid, abounding in sonorous
words and daring metaphors. It has been sug
gested, not without reason, that the apparent
influence of the philosophy of Pythagoras^ as
well as some remarkable Doric forms, may
have been due to the poet's prolonged stay in
Sicily on his first visit. We are told that-.
Aeschylus wrote 70 tragedies besides satyric
dramas. The 'fable trilogy,' i.e. a succession
of three plays working out the successive chap
ters of some legend, belongs especially to
Aeschylus. The trilogies of Sophocles more
frequently, though not always, were discon
nected in story. Of the plays of Aeschylus.
seven only remain : 1. The Persae, produced in
472, of the trilogy Phineus, Persae, Glaucus
Pontius ; 2. the Septem c. Thebas (b.c. 468) of
the series Laius, Oedipus, Septem, forming
with the satyric drama Sphinx a tetralogy ; 3.
the Supplices (b.c. 462), the middle play be
tween the Egyptians and the Danaids ; 4. the
Prometheus Vinctus (of uncertain date), the
middle play between Tlpoutjdebs wvpipdpos and
Up. Aud/ieras, and lastly (b.c. 458), the three plays
Agamemnon, Choephoroe, and Eumenides,
which form the trilogy of the Oresteia. — Edi
tions. Dindorf ; Paley ; Weil; Hartung : of sepa
rate plays, especially Miiller's Eumenides, and
Sidgwick's Oresteia, Prickard's Prometheus.
Aesculapius. [Asclepius.]
Aesepus (Alo-rpiros), a river which rises in
Ida, and flows by a NE. course into the Pro-
pontis, which it enters W. of Cyzicus and E. of
the Granicus. The river god was the son of
Oceanus and Tethys (Hes. Theog. 342).
Aesernia (Isernia), a town ' in Samnium,
made a Roman colony in the first Punic war
(Liv. xxvii. 10 ; Cic. ad Att. -viii. 11).
Aesernjnus. 1. A surname of Marcellus,
who was taken prisoner at Aesernia (Liv. Ep..
lxxiii.) . — 2. A Samnite gladiator of great strength,
whence the proverb " Pacideianus cum Aeser-
nino," for skill against brute force (Cic. ad Q.
F. iii. 4), Pacideianus being the most skilful
gladiator of his day.
Aesis (Esino or Fiumesino), a river which
formed the boundary between Picenum and
Umbria, was anciently the S. boundary of the
Senones, and the NE. boundary of Italy proper-

AESIS
Aesis or Aesium (Aeslnas : Jesi), a town and
a Roman colony in Umbria on the river Aobis,
celebrated for its cheese, Aesvnas caseus.
Aeson (Ato-av), son of Cretheus, the founder
of Iolcus, and of Tyro, the daughter of Salmo-
neus, and father of Jason and Promachus. He
was excluded from the throne by his half-brother
Pelias, who endeavoured to keep the kingdom
to himself by sending Jason away with the
Argonauts. Pelias subsequently attempted to
get rid of Aeson by force, but the latter put an
end to his own life. According to Ovid (Met.
vii. 162 seq.), Aeson survived the return of the
Argonauts, and was made young again by
Medea. His mother's name in Ov. Her. vi. 105
is Alcimede.
Aesopus (AXo-wtros). 1. The traditionary au
thor of Greek Fables. According to Herodotus
ii. 134, he lived about B.C. 570. He was origin
ally a slave, and received his freedom from his
master, ladmon the Samian. Upon this he
visited Croesus, w-ho sent him to Delphi, to
distribute among the citizens 4 minae apiece ;
but in consequence of some dispute on the sub
ject, he refused to give any money at all, upon
which the enraged Delphians threw him from
a precipice (cf. Aristoph. Vesp. 1446). Plagues
were sent upon them from the gods for the
offence, and they proclaimed their willingness
to give a compensation for his death to anyone
who could claim it. At length ladmon, the
grandson of his old master, received the com
pensation, since no nearer connexion could be
found. A life of Aesop is prefixed to a book of
fables purporting to be his, and collected by
Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century,
who represents Aesop as a monster of ugliness.
It is clear that the Greeks even of the time of
Herodotus knew little about Aesop's history;
but it is probable that he was a real personage,
and later traditions of his date agree with that
given by Herodotus (cf. Plut. Sept. Sap. Conv.
p. 152, c). The tendency to ascribe all fables
to him appears from many passages (Aristoph.
Pax, 127, Av. 471, 651 ; Plat. Phaed. p. 60, &c.).
It was shown by Bentley that the fables which
bear his name are spurious. They were, in fact,
later prose versions of metrical fables. (See
further under Babeius, Phaedeus.) — 2. See
Julius Valeeius.
Aesopus, Claudius, or Clodius, was the
greatest tragic actor at Rome, and a contempo
rary of Roscius, the greatest comic actor ; and
both of them lived on intimate terms with
Cicero (Cic. de Div. i. 37, 80 ; pro Sest. 58, 123 ;
ad Q. F. i. 2). Aesopus appeared for the last
time on the stage at an advanced age at the
dedication of the theatre of Pompey (b.c. 55),
when his voice failed him, and he could not
go through the speech (Cic. ad Fam. vii. 1).
Aesopus realised an immense fortune by his
profession, which was squandered by his son,
a foolish spendthrift. It is said, for instance,
that he dissolved in vinegar and drank a pearl
worth about 8000Z., which he took from the ear
ring of Caecilia Metella (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 239 ;
VaL Max. ix. 1. 2 ; Plin. ix. § 122).
Aestii, Aestyi, or Aestui, a people dwelling
on the sea-coast, in the NE. of Germany, prob
ably in the modern Kurland, who collected
amber, which they called glesswm. Their cus
toms, says Tacitus (Germ. 45), resembled the
Suevic, and their language the British. They
were probably a Sarmatian or Slavonic race,
and not a Germanic.
Aesula (Aesiilanus), a town of the Aequi on a
mountain between Praeneste and Tibur. ' ' Ae-

AETHIOPIA

29

sulae declive arvum," Hor. Od. iii. 29 ; Liv.
xxvi. 9.)
Aesymnetes. [Eueypylus.]
Aethalia (AlBaKla, AlBdkri), called Ilva (Elba)
by the Romans, a small island in the Tuscan
sea, opposite the town of Populonia, celebrated
for its iron mines. It had on the NE. a good
harbour, "Argous Portus" (Porto Ferraio), in
which the Argonaut Jason is said to have landed.
Aethalides (AifloAi'Sijs), son of Hermes and
Eupolemla, the herald of the Argonauts. He
had received from his father the faculty of
remembering every thing, even in Hades, and
was allowed to reside alternately in the upper
and in the lower world. His soul, after many
migrations, at length took possession of the
body of Pythagoras, in which it still recollected
its former migrations. (Apoll. Rh. i. 640 ;
Hygin. Fab. 14.)
Aether (AlBijp), a personified idea of the
mythical cosmogonies, in which Aether was con
sidered as one of the elementary substances out
of which the Universe was formed. Aether was
regarded by the poets as the pure upper air,
the residence of the gods, and ZeuB as the Lord
of the Aether, or Aether itself personified.
(Cic. N. D. iii. 44, 53 ; Lucret. v. 498.) Hesiod,
Th. 124, makes Aether son of Erebus and Nyx,
and brother of Hemera. Verg. Georg. ii. 325,
Lucr. i. 251, seem to identify him with Zeus and
make him wedded to the Earth.
Aethlces (AIBikzs), a Thessalian or Epirot
people, near M. Pindus.
Aethicus, Hister or Ister, a Roman writer
of the 7th century after Christ, a native of Istria,
the author of a geographical work, called Aethici
Gosmographiu. Edited by Gronovius, in his
edition of Pomponius Mela, Leyden, 1722;
Wuttke, Leips. 1854.
Aethilla (AtBiXXa or AtBvhKa), daughter of
Laomedon and sister of Priam, is said to have
become after the fall of Troy the prisoner of
Protesilaus, with whose history, however, this
does not agree.
Aethiopes (AiOiWes, said to be from aXBa and
fity, but perhaps really a foreign name corrupted),
was a name applied (1) most generally to all
black or dark races of men ; (2) to the inhabit
ants of all the regions S. of those with which
the early Greeks were well acquainted, extend
ing even as far N. as Cyprus and Phoenicia;
(3) to all the inhabitants of Inner Africa, S. of
Mauretania, the Great Desert, and Egypt, from
the Atlantic to the Red Sea and Indian Ocean,
and to some of the dark races of Asia ; and (4)
most specifically to the inhabitants of the land
S. of Egypt, which was called Aethiopia. The
Aethiopes in Homer are the most distant of
people (II. i. 423, Od. i. 22); in Hesiod, Th.
985, their king bears the apparently Egyptian
name of Memnon.
Aethiopia (AiBioiria, AlS. virep AlyivTov : Ai-
8lo\j/, AiBiomis, Horn., fem. AtBioirls, Aethiops :
Nubia, Kordofan, Sennaar, Abyssinia), a
country of Africa, S. of Egypt, the boundary of
the countries being at Syene (Assouan) and the
Smaller Cataract of the Nile, and extending on
the E. to the Red Sea, and to the S. and SW.
indefinitely, as far apparently as the knowledge
of the ancients extended. The Egyptians knew
it as the land of Cush. In its most exact politi
cal sense the word Aethiopia seems to have
denoted the kingdom of Meroe; but in its
wider sense it included alBO the kingdom of the
Axomitae, besides several other peoples, such
as the Troglodytes and the Ichthyophagi on the
Red Sea, the Blemmyes and Megabari and

30 AETHLIUS
Nubae in the interior. The country was wa
tered by the Nile and its tributaries, the Asta-
pus (Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue Nile) and the Asta-
boras (Atbara or Tacazze). Monuments are
found in the country closely resembling those
of Egypt, but of an inferior style, and the
evidence from them is against the view that the
Egyptians derived their civilisation from Meroe.
[Aegyptus.] The kings of the 12th dynasty
made successful expeditions against them and
checked their encroachments by fortresses, but
without permanent occupation, beyond Semneh
at the 2nd Cataract, within which the ' Viceroys
of Cush ' administered. But about 750 B.C.
the Ethiopians not only recovered complete in
dependence, but gained possession of Thebes
and established the 25th dynasty, which lasted
till the defeat of Tirhakah by the Assyrians in
672. Under the Ptolemies Graeco-Egyptian
colonies established themselves in Ethiopia, and
Greek manners and philosophy had a consider
able influence on the upper classes; but the
country was never subdued. The Romans
failed to extend their empire over Ethiopia,
though they made expeditions into the country,
in one of which C. Petronius, prefect of Egypt
under Augustus, advanced as far as Napata,
and defeated the warrior queen Candace (b.c.
22). The submission of the country was, how
ever, nominal, at any rate south of Premis, where,
as at Pselchis, there were Roman garrisons
under Diocletian.
Aethlius ('AeBXios), first king of Elis, father
of Endymion, was son of Zeus and Protogenla,
daughter of Deucalion, or son of Aeolus.
Aethra (AXBpa). 1. Daughter of Pittheus of
Troezen, was mother of Theseus by Aegeus.
[Theseus.] She afterwards lived in Attica,
from whence she was carried off to Lacedaemon
by Castor and Pollux, and became a slave of
Helen, with whom she was taken to Troy
(II. iii. 144). At the capture of Troy she was
restored to liberty by her grandson Acamas or
Demophon. — 2. Daughter of Oceanus, by whom
Atlas begot the 12 Hyades and a son Hyas.
Aetion ('Aerlav). 1. A sculptor of Amphipolis
about the middle of the 3rd century B.C. — -2. A
celebrated painter, whose best picture repre
sented the marriage of Alexander and Roxana.
It is probable that he lived in the time of Alex
ander the Great; though some argue from
Lucian, Herod. 4, that he lived about the time
of Hadrian and the Antonines.
Aetius. 1. A celebrated Roman general and
patrician, defended the Western empire against
the barbarians during the reign of Valentinian
III. In A.D. 451 he gained, in conjunction with
Theodoric, a great victory over Attila, near
Chalons in Gaul, by which he saved the empire ;
but he was treacherously murdered by Valen
tinian in 454. [See also Bonieacius.] — 2. A
Greek medical writer, born at Amida in Meso
potamia, lived at the end of the 5th or the be
ginning of the 6th century after Christ. His
work Bi/3Aia larpiKa eKKalSeKa, ' Sixteen Books
on Medicine,' is one of the most valuable medi
cal remains of antiquity, as being a judicious
compilation from many authors whose works are
lost. The whole of it has never appeared in
the original Greek, butparts are edited in Anecd.
Gr. Venice, 1816 ; Hebenstreit, Lips. 1757 ; and
a Latin translation in Stephens, Medicae Artis
Principes, Paris, 1567.
Aetna (AXtvt)). 1. (Now Mongino=MorAe
Gibino, the original name being displaced by a
mixture of two Latin and Arabic words, both
meaning " the mountain ") a volcanic mountain

AETOLIA
in the NE. of Sicily between Tauromenium and
Catana. It is said to have derived its name
from Aetna, a- Sicilian nymph, a daughter of
Uranus and Gaea, or of Briareus. Zeus buried
under it Typhon or Enceladus ; and in its in
terior Hephaestus and the Cyclopes forged the
thunderbolts for Zeus. There were several
eruptions of M. Aetna in antiquity. One oc
curred in b.c. 475, to which Aeschylus (Prom.
363 ff.) and Pindar (OL iv. 10) probably allude,
and another in B.C. 425, which Thucydides says
(iii. 116) was the third on record since the
Greeks had settled in Sicily. The form of the
mountain seems to have been much the same in
antiquity as it is at present. Its base covers
an area of nearly 90 miles in circumference, and
its highest point is 10,874 feet above the level
of the sea. The circumference of the crater is
variously estimated from 2£ to 4 miles, and the
depth from 600 to 800 feet. — 2. (Aetnenses:
S. Maria di Licodia), a town at the foot of M.
Aetna, on the road to Catana, formerly called
Inessa or Innesa. It was founded in B.C. 461,
by the inhabitants of Catana, who had been ex
pelled from their own town by the Siculi. They
gave the name of Aetna to Inessa, because
Catana had been called Aetna by Hiero I.
Aetnaeus (Aitvoios), an epithet of gods and
mythical beings connected with Aetna — of
Zeus, to whom a festival was celebrated there,
called Aetnea ; of Hephaestus ; and of the Cy
clopes. Aetolia (AtraXla : AItw\6s), a division of
Greece, was bounded on the W. by Acarnania,
from which it was separated by the river Ache
lous, on the N. by Epirus and Thessaly, on the
E. by the Ozolian Locrians, and on the S. by the
entrance to the Corinthian gulf. It was divided
into two parts, Old Aetolia from the Achelous
to the Evenus and Calydon, and New Aetolia,
or the Acquired (eVfrcTTjToj), from the Evenus
and Calydon to the Ozolian Locrians. On the
coast the country is level and fruitful, but in the
interior mountainous and unproductive. The
mountains contained many wild beasts, and
were celebrated in mythology for the hunt of
the Calydonian boar. The country was origi
nally inhabited by Curetes and Leleges, but was
at an early period colonised by Greeks from
Elis, led by the mythical Aetolus. The Aeto-
lians took part in the Trojan war, under their
king Thoas. They continued for a long time a
rude and uncivilised people, living in villages
without a settled town, and to a great extent by
robbery; and even in the time of Thucydides
(B.C. 410) many of their tribes spoke a language
which was not Greek, and were in the habit of
eating raw flesh (Thuc. iii. 94-98). Like the
other Greeks, they abolished at an early time
the monarchical form of government, and lived
under a democracy. They were, perhaps, loosely
united by a religious tie centring in the temple at
Thermon (II. ii. 638, xiii. 217) ; but the first po
litical league was formed against Macedon after
the battle of Chaeronea. It did not acquire
much importance till after the death of Alexan
der, and somewhat later became a formidable
rival to the Macedonian monarchs and to the
Achaean League, from which it differed in being
a league of tribes, not of towns : it had much
less stability and coherence. The Aetolian
League at one time included, not only Aetolia
Proper, but Acarnania, part of Thessaly, Locris,
and the island of Cephallenia ; and it also had
close alliances with Elis and several towns in
the Peloponnesus, and likewise with Cius on the
Propontis. Its annual meetings, called Pan-

AETOLUS
aetolica, were held in the autumn at Thermon,
and at them were chosen a General (o-TpaTrjyds),
who was at the head of the League, an Hipp-
arohus, or Master of the Horse, a Secretary, and
a select committee called Apocleti (airottATj-roi).
The Aetolians took the side of Antiochus HI.
against the Romans, and on the defeat of
that monarch B.C. 189, they became virtually
the subjects of Rome. On the conquest of
the Achaeans, B.C. 146, Aetolia was included
in the Roman province of Achaia. After the
battle of Actium, b.c. 31, a considerable part
of the population of Aetolia was transplanted to
the city of Nicopolis, which Augustus built in
commemoration of his victory.
Aetolus (Ai-rcoAus) son of Endymion and
Neis, or Iphianassa, married Pronoe, by whom
he had two sons, Pleuron and Calydon. His
father made him run a race at Olympia with
his brother Epeius for the succession to the
throne ; he was defeated, but, after the death
of Epeius, became king of Elis. Afterwards
he was obliged to leave Peloponnesus, because
he had slain Apis, the son of Jason or Sal-
moneus. He went to the country near the
Achelous, which was called Aetolia after him
(Paus. v. 1, 2; Strab. p. 857).— 2. Son of
Oxylus and Pieria, and brother of Laius. He
died young, and was buried at the gate of Elis
(Paus. v. 4, 4).
Aexone (Al^arf and Ai^ai/wis : At^avevs), an
Attic demus of the tribe Cecropis or Pandionis.
Afer, Domitius, of Nemausus (Nismes) in
Gaul, was the teacher of Quintilian, and one of
the most distinguished orators in the reigns of
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, but he
sacrificed his character by conducting accusa
tions for the government (Tac. Ann. iv. 52,
66, xiv. 19 ; Dio Cass. lix. 19). He was consul
suffectus in A. D. 39, and died in 60. Quintilian
mentions several works of his on oratory, which
are all lost (viii. 5, 16, ix. 2, 20, x. 1, 118.)
Afranius. 1. L. A Roman comic poet,
flourished about B. c. 100. He was the prin
cipal poet of the national comedy (Comoedia
togata), which did not borrow from the Greek
but dealt with Italian scenes and manners.
His subjects were greatly taken from the life of
the middle and lower classes (Com. taber-
nariae), and from the skill with which he
described Roman life he was regarded as the
Roman Menander (Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 57). He is
praised by Cicero (Brut. 45, 105), and by Quin
tilian (x. 1, 10), but with a reservation on
account of the immorality of his plots. The
titles of more than forty plays are preserved.
Fragments are edited by Ribbeck, Com. 1873.
— 2. L. an adherent of Pompey, under whom
he served against Sertorius and Mithridates,
and was, through his influence, made consul
B. c. 60. When Pompey obtained the pro
vinces of the two Spains in his second con
sulship (b. c. 55), he sent Afranius and Petreius
to govern Hither Spain, while he himself re
mained in Rome. In B. c. 49, Afranius and
Petreius were defeated by Caesar in Spain.
Afranius therefore passed over to Pompey in
Greece ; was present at the battle of Pharsalia,
b. c. 48; and subsequently at the battle of
Thapsus in Africa, b. c. 46. He then attempted
to fly into Mauretania, but was taken prisoner
by P. Sittius, and killed._
Africa ('AcppiKr) : Africanus), or Libya (Ai0vrf),
was used by the ancients in two senses, (1) for
the whole continent of Africa, and (2) for the
portion of N. Africa which constituted the
territory of Carthage, and which the Romans

AFRICA

81

erected into a province, under the name of
Africa Propria. — 1. In the more general senBe
the name was not used by the Greek writers ;
and its use by the Romans arose from the
extension to the whole continent of the name of"
a part of it. The proper Greek name for the
continent is Libya (AijSiii;). (Strab. 824-839.)
Considerably before the historical period of
Greece begins, the Phoenicians extended their
commerce over the Mediterranean, and f ounded
several colonies on the N. coast of Africa, of
which Carthage was the chief. [Carthago.}
The Greeks knew very little of the country
until the foundation of the Dorian colony of
Cyrene (b. c. 620) [as regards the intercourse
of Greeks with Egypt see Aegyptus], and even
then their knowledge of all but the part near
Cyrene was derived from the Egyptians and.
Phoenicians, who sent out some remarkable ex
peditions to explore the country. A Phoeni
cian fleet sent by the Egyptian king Pharaoh
Necho (about b. c. 600) sailed from the Red Sea,.
round Africa, and so into the Mediterranean
(Hdt. iv. 42) : : the authenticity of this story has.
been doubted without reason, not only by Strabo-
(p. 98), but by some modem writers. We still
possess an authentic account of another expedi
tion, which the Carthaginians despatched under-
Hanno (about B. c. 510), and which reached a
point on the W. coast nearly, if not quite as far-
as lat. 10° N. On the opposite side of the
continent, the coast appears to have been
very little known beyond the S. boundary of
Egypt, till the time of the Ptolemies. In the
interior, the Great Desert (Sahara) interposed a
formidable obstacle to discovery; but even
before the time of Herodotus the people on the-
northern coast told of individuals who had
crossed the Desert and had reached a great
river flowing towards the E., with crocodiles in
it, and black men living on its banks ; which, if
the story be true, was probably the Niger in its.
upper course, near Timbuetoo. That the
Carthaginians had considerable intercourse
with the regions S. of the Sahara, has been
inferred from the abundance of elephants they
kept. Later expeditions and inquiries extended -
the knowledge which the ancients possessed of
the E. coast to about 10° S. lat., and gave them,
as it seems, some further acquaintance with the
interior, about Lake Tchad, but the southern
part of the continent was so totally unknown,,
that Ptolemy, who finally fixed the limits of
ancient geographical science, recurred to the
old notion, which seems to have prevailed before
the time of Herodotus, that the S. parts of
Africa met the SE. part of Asia, and that the
Indian Ocean was a vast lake. The greatest.
geographers who lived before Ptolemy — namely,.
Eratosthenes and Strabo — had accepted the
tradition that Africa was circumnavigable.
The shape of the continent they conceived to
be that of a right-angled triangle, having for
its hypotenuse a line drawn from the Pillars
of Hercules to the S. of the Red Sea : and, as
to its extent, they did not suppose it to reach
nearly so far as the Equator. Ptolemy supposed
the W. coast to stretch N. and S. from the
Pillars of Hercules, and he gave the continent-
an indefinite extent towards the S. There were
also great differences of opinion as _ to the
boundaries of the continent. Some divided the
whole world into only two parts, Europe and
Asia, and they were not agreed to which of
these two Libya (i.e. Africa) belonged; and
those who recognised three divisions differed
again in placing the boundary between Libya

32

AFRICA

.and Asia either on the W. of Egypt, or along
the Nile, or at the isthmus of Suez and the Red
Sea : the last opinion gradually prevailed. As
to the subdivision of the country itself, Hero
dotus distributes it into Aegyptus, Aethiopia
(i.e. all the regions S. of Egypt and the
Sahara), and Libya, properly so-called; and
he subdivides Libya into three parts, according
to their physical distinctions — namely, (1) the
Inhabited Country along the Mediterranean,
in which dwelt the Nomad Libyans (oi
TrapaBaXdo-Q-ioi tS>v vopAb'av Aifivuiv : the Bar-
bary States) ; (2) the County of Wild Beasts
(i] BrjpiaSrjs), S. of the former : that is, the
region between the Little and Great Atlas,
which still abounds in wild beasts, but takes its
name from its prevailing vegetation (Beled-el-
Jerid, i. e. the Country of Palms) ; and (3) the
Sandy Desert (fi \f/d/j.uos : the Sahara), that is,
the table land bounded by the Atlas on the N.
and the margin of the Nile-valley on the E.,
which is a vast tract of sand broken only by a
few habitable islands, called Oases. As to the
people, Herodotus distinguishes four races — two
native, namely, the Libyans and Ethiopians,
and two foreign, namely, the Phoenicians and
the Greeks. The Libyans, however, were a
Caucasian race : the Ethiopians of Herodotus
¦correspond to our Negro races. The Phoeni
cian colonies were planted chiefly along, and to
the W. of, the great recess in the middle of the
N. coast, which formed the two Syrtes, by far
the most important of them being Carthage ;
-and the Greek colonies were fixed on the coast
along and beyond the E. side of the Syrtes ;
the chief of them was Cyrene, and the region
was called Cyrenaica. Between this and Egypt
"were Libyan tribes, and the whole region
between the Carthaginian dominions and
Egypt, including Cyrenaica, was called by the
same name as the whole continent, Libya.
The chief native tribes of this region were the
Adyemachidae, Maemaridae, Psylli, and
Nasamones. The last extended into the Car
thaginian territory. To the W. of the Carthagi
nian possessions, the country was called by the
general names of Numidia and Maueetania,
.and was possessed partly by Carthaginian
colonies on the coast, and partly by Libyan
tribes under various names, the chief of which
were the Numidae, Massylii, Massaesylh,
and Mauei, and to the S. of them the Gaetuli.
The whole of this northern region fell succes-
.sively under the power of Rome, and was finally
divided into provinces as follows : 1. Aegyptus ;
(2) Cyrenaica (for the changes in this province,
see that article) ; (3) Africa Propria, the former
empire of Carthage (see below, No. 2) ; (4)
Numidia; (5) Maueetania, divided into (a)
Sitifensis, (b) Caesariensis, (c) Tingitana:
these, with (6) Aethiopia, make up the whole
of Africa, according to the divisions recognised
by the latest of the ancient geographers. The
northern district was better known to the
Romans than it is to us, and was extremely
populous and flourishing ; and, if we may judge
l>y the list of tribes in Ptolemy, the interior of
the country, especially between the Little and
Great Atlas, must have supported many more
inhabitants than it does at present. Further
information respecting the several portions of
the country will be found in the separate
articles. — 2, Africa Propria or Provincia, or
simply Africa, was the name under which the
Romans, after the Third Punic War (b. c. 146),
greeted into a province the whole of the former
territory of Carthage. It extended from the

AGAMEDES
river Tusca, on the W., which divided it from
Numidia, to the bottom of the Syrtis Minor, on
the SE. It was divided under Diocletian into
three districts (regiones) : namely, (1) Zeugis or
Zeugitana, the district round Carthage and
Hippo, called also Africa proeonsularis; (2)
Byzacium or Byzacena, S. of Zeugitana, as far
as the bottom of the Syrtis Minor — the former
dioecesis of Hadrumetum ; (3) Tripolitana, the
district of Tacapae, under a praeses. The
province was full of flourishing towns, and was
extremely fertile, especially Byzacena: it fur
nished Rome with its chief supplies of corn.
With Africa Numidia was joined under a pro
consul from the time of Augustus until that of
Septimius Severus, when Numidia was placed
under the separate government of au imperial
procurator. Africanus. 1. Sex. Caecilius, a Roman juris
consult, lived under Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-
161), and wrote Libri IX. Questionum, from
which many extracts are made in the Digest
(Gell. xx. 1). He was noted for the difficulty of
his definitions, whence the proverb ( Africani
lex ' for anything hard to understand. The
fragments are collected by Hommel, Paling.
pp. 3-26. — 2. Julius, a celebrated orator in the
reign of Nero, is much praised by Quintilian,
who speaks of him and Domitius Afer as the
best orators of their time (x. 1. 118). He was
probably son of Julius Africanus of Santoni in
Gaul, whom Tacitus mentions as condemned
to death a.d. 32 (Ann. vi. 7). — 3. An orator,
grandson of No. 2 (Plin. Ep. vii. 6. 11). — 4. Sex.
Julius, a learned Christian writer at the be
ginning of the third century, passed the greater
part of his life at Emmaus in Palestine, and
afterwards lived at Alexandria. His principal
work was a Chronicon in five books, from the
creation of the world, which he placed in 5499
B.C., to a.d. 221. This work is lost, but part of
it is extracted by Eusebius in his Chronicon,
and many fragments of it are preserved by
Georgius Syncellus, Cedrenus, and in the Pas-
chale Chronicon. There was another work
attributed to Africanus, entitled Cesti (Keo*Tof),
that is, embroidered girdles, so called from the
celebrated Cestus of Aphrodite (Venus). It
treated of a vast variety of subjects — medicine,
agriculture, natural history, the military art,
&c. The work itself is lost, but some extracts
from it are published in the Mathematici Ve-
teres, Paris, 1693, and also in the Geoponica.
Africus (\i4i by the Greeks), the SW. or
WSW. wind (between Auster and Favonius),
so called because it blew from Africa, fre
quently brought storms with it (creberque pro-
eellis Africus, Verg. Aen. i. 85 ; Hor. Od. i. 15;
Sen. g. N.j. 16.6).
Agamede ('AyafiJiSri), daughter of Augeias
and wife of Mulius. According to Homer (II.
xi. 789), she was acquainted with the healing
powers of all the plants that grow upon the
earth. She is probably the same as Perimede
(Theocr. ii. 16 ; Schol. ad Propert. ii. 48).
Agamedes ('AyauiiSns), commonly called son
of Erginus, king of Orchomenus, and brother of
Trophonius (Schol. ad Aristoph. Nub. 500).
According to Pausanias, however, he was son of
Stymphalus (viii. 4. 3). Agamedes and Tro
phonius distinguished themselves as architects :
they built a temple of Apollo at Delphi, and a
treasury of Hyrieus, king of Hyria in Boeotia
(Paus. ix. 37, 3; Strab. p. 421). The story
about this treasury resembles the one which
Herodotus (ii. 121) relates of the treasury of the
Egyptian king Rhampsinitus. In the con-

AGAMEMNON

struction of the treasury of Hyrieus, Agamedes
and Trophonius contrived to place one stone in
Buch a manner that it could be taken away out
side, and thus formed an entrance to the trea
sury, without anybody perceiving it. Agamedes
and Trophonius now constantly robbed the
treasury ; and the king, seeing that locks and
seals were uninjured while his treasures were
constantly decreasing, set traps to catch the
thief. Agamedes was thus ensnared, and Tro
phonius cut off his head to avert the discovery.
After this Trophonius was immediately swal
lowed up by the earth. On this spot there was
afterwards, in the grove of Lebadea, the cave of
Agamedes with a column by the side of it.
Here also was the oracle of Trophonius, and
those who consulted it first offered a ram to
Agamedes and invoked him. A tradition men
tioned by Plato (Axioch. p. 367 c.) and Cicero
(Tusc. i. 47, 114) states that Agamedes and
Trophonius, after building the temple of Apollo
at Delphi, prayed to the god to grant them in
reward for their labour what was best for men.
The god promised to do so on a certain day,
and when the day came the two brothers died.
Agamemnon (^Ayauinvaiv), son of Plisthenes
and Aerope or Eriphyle, and grandson of Atreus,
king of Mycenae : but Homer
and others call him a son of
Atreus and grandson of Pelops.
Agamemnon and his brother
Menelaus were brought up to
gether with Aegisthus and Thy
estes, in the house of Atreus.
After the murder of Atreus by
Aegisthus and Thyestes, who
succeeded Atreus in the king
dom of Mycenae [Aegisthus],
Agamemnon and Menelaus
went to Sparta, where Aga
memnon married Clytemnestra,
the daughter of Tyndareus, by
whom he became the father of
Iphianassa (Iphigenia), Chryso-
themis, Laodice (Electra), and
Orestes. The manner in which
Agamemnon obtained the king
dom of Mycenae is differently-
related. From Homer (17. ii.
107) it appears that he had
peaceably succeeded Thyestes,
while, according to others, he
expelled Thyestes, and usurped
his throne. He now became
the most powerful prince in
Greece. In the above passage
of Homer he is said to reign
over ' all Argos,' but in the
catalogue of ships (II. ii. 569 ff.)
he rules Mycenae, Corinth,
Sicyon, Cleonae, and cities of

and in the second gathering at Aulis Agamemnon
killed a stag which was sacred to Artemis, who
in return visited the Greek army with a pesti
lence, and produced a calm which prevented
the Greeks from leaving the port. In order to
appease her wrath, Agamemnon consented to
sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia; but at the
moment she was to be sacrificed, she was car
ried off by Artemis herself to Tauria and
another victim was substituted in her place.
The Tragedians follow this account, and so do
the Roman Tragedians (Ribbeck, Bom. Trag.
94, 104, 344). The calm now ceased, and the
army sailed to the coast of Troy. Agamemnon
alone had 100 ships, independent of 60 which
he had lent to the Arcadians. In the tenth
year of the siege of Troy we find Agamemnon
involved in a quarrel with Achilles respecting
the possession of Briseis, whom Achilles was
obliged to give up to Agamemnon. Achilles with
drew from the field of battle, and the Greeks were
visited by successive disasters. The danger of
the Greeks at last induced Patroclus, the friend
of Achilles, to take part in the battle, and his
fall led to the reconciliation of Achilles and
Agamemnon. [Achilles.] Agamemnon, al
though the chief commander of the Greeks, is

Agamemnon. (From a bas-relief.)

Achaia while Diomede reigns at Argos, Tiryns, not the hero of the Iliad and in ^jvalrous
and Aeeina. Thucydides (i. 9) reconciles the spirit, bravery, and character is altogether in-
dScrepa^y by supposing that Agamemnon ' ferior to Achilles. But he nevertheless rises
conquered ^Argos and the islands (cf . Strab. ' above all the Greeks by his dignity, power, and
p m) Therf is a similar uncertainty in the I majesty : his eyes and head are likened to

Tragedians, who make him reign sometimes at
Mycenae, sometimes at Argos. Stesichorus, Si
monides, and Pindar (Nem. viii. 12), place him
at Sparta. When Helen, the wife of Menelaus,
was carried off by Paris, and the Greek chiefs
resolved to recover her by force of arms, Aga
memnon was chosen their commander-in-chief.
After two years of preparation, the Greek army
and fleet assembled in the port of Aulis in
Boeotia. According to the Cypria there was
first an unsuccessful expedition [see Telephus],

those of Zeus, his girdle to that of Ares, and
his breast to that of Poseidon. The emblem of
his power is a sceptre, the work of Hephaestus,
which Zeus had once given to Hermes, and
Hermes to Pelops, from whom it descended to
Agamemnon. At the capture of Troy he re
ceived Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, as
his prize. On his return home he was murdered
by Aegisthus, who had seduced Clytemnestra
during the absence of her husband. Pindar
and the tragic poets make Clytemnestra murder

84

AMEMNONIDES

Agamemnon with her own hand, and instead of
the murder being at the banquet, as in the epic
poets and in Livius Andronicus (Ribbeck, B.
Tr. 28), the Greek Tragedians describe the
murder in the bath. Her motive is in Aeschy
lus her jealousy of Cassandra, in Sophocles and
Euripides her wrath at the death of Iphigenia.
His tomb is said to be at Mycenae in Paus. ii.
16. 6 ; but at Amyclae (Paus. iii. 19, 6) there
was also a uvijfia in a temple of Alexandra, who
is said to be the same as Cassandra. He seems
to have been worshipped not merely as a hero
but in some places to have been a representa-.
tive of ZeiJs. In Sparta a Zeuy 'Ayapeuvav was
worshipped (Lycophr. 335, 1123, 1369, Tsetz).
In art he appears as a bearded man as in the
above drawing from a very ancient bas-relief
from Samothrace, which represents Agamem
non seated, with his two heralds Talthybius and
Epeus standing behind him.
Agamemnonides (' Ayauefivovitiris), the son of
Agamemnon, i.e. Orestes.
Aganippe ('A-yaei7r7n7), daughter of the river
god Permessos (Paus. ix. 29 ; Verg. Eel. x. 12).
A nymph of the well of the same name at the
foot of Mount Helicon, in Boeotia, which was
considered sacred to the Muses (who were hence
called Aganippides), and which was believed to
have the power of inspiring those who drank of
it. The fountain of Hippocrene has the epithet
Aganippis (0 v. Fast. v. 7), from its being sacred
to the Muses, like that of Aganippe.
Agapenor ('Ayairfivap), son of Ancaeus king
of the Arcadians, received 60 ships from Aga
memnon, in which he led his Arcadians to Troy
(II. ii. 609). On his return from Troy he was
oast by a storm on the coast of Cyprus, where
he founded the town of Paphos, and in it the
famous temple of Aphrodite (Paus. viii. 5, 2).
Agarista ('Ayapfo-Ti)). 1. Daughter of Cll-
sthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, wife of Megacles, and
mother of Cllsthenes, the Athenian statesman,
and Hippocrates. — 2. Daughter of the above-
mentioned Hippocrates, grand-daughter of No.
1, wife of Xanthippus, and mother of Pericles.
Agasias ('Ayao-las), son of Dositheus, a sculp
tor of Ephesus (about B.C. 100), sculptured the

The so-called ' Borghese Gladiator,' by Agasias.

statue known by the name of the 'Borghese
Gladiator,' which is still preserved in the gallery

AGATHINUS
of the Louvre, and is a marvel of anatomical
study. This statue, as well as the Apollo Bel-
videre, was discovered among the ruins of a
palace of the Roman emperors on the site of the
ancient Antium (Capo d'Anzo). From the
attitude of the figure it is clear that the statue
represents, not a gladiator, but a warrior con
tending with a mounted combatant. In style
this sculptor, like Menephilus and Dositheus,
seems to follow the Greek traditions handed
down fromLysippus to the so-called Hellenistic
school, though in date he is contemporary with
the Graeco- Roman schools (see Diet. Ant. s.v.
Sculptura). Agasicles, Agesicles, orHegesicles ('Ayao-i-
KXrjs, 'Ayrio-tK\rjs, 'Hyyo-iKKTJs), king of Sparta,
succeeded his father Archidamus I., about b.c.
600 or 590.
Agasthenes ('Ayao-B^pris), son of Augeias and
father of Polyxenus, king of Elis (Paus. v. 3,
4 ; Horn. II. ii. 624).
Agatharchldes (' Ay aBapxiSris) or Agathar
chus ('AydBapxos), a Greek grammarian, born
at Cnidos, lived at Alexandria, probably about
B.C. 130. He wrote a considerable number of
geographical and historical works ; but we have
only an epitome of a portion of his work on the
Erythraean sea, which was made by Photius
(printed in Hudson's Geogr. Script. Gr. Mi-
nores), and some fragments (edited by C. Miiller).
Agatharchus ('AydBapxos), an artist, native
of Samos, said to have invented scene-painting,
in the time of Aeschylus. It was probably not
till towards the end of Aeschylus's career that
scene-painting was introduced, and not till the
time of Sophocles that it was generally made
use of ; which may account for Aristotle's as
sertion (Poet. iv. 16) that scene-painting was
introduced by Sophocles (see Diet. Ant. s.v.
Theatrum). Some have asserted that it must
be a different Agatharchus whom Alcibiades
kept by force to work in his house, and who is
mentioned as alive in the time of Zeuxis (Plut.
Ale. 16; Andoc. in Ale. § 17) : but there is no
difficulty in supposing the same man to have
painted as early as B.C. 460 and as late as B.C.
415. Agathemerus ('AyaB-fifiepos). 1. The author
of ' A Sketch of Geography in Epitome ' (ttjs
yeaypaipias iiroTuirao-eis iv iiriTOfi.fi), probably
lived about the beginning of the 3rd century
after Christ. The work consists chiefly of
extracts from Ptolemy and other earlier writers.
It is printed in Hudson's Geogr. Script. Gr.
Minores. — 2. A physician in the 1st cent, after
Christ, born at Lacedaemon and a pupil of Cor-
nutus, in whose house he became acquainted with
Persius about a.d. 50.
Agathias ('AyaBias), a Byzantine writer, born
about a.d. 536 at Myrina in Aeolia, practised as
an advocate at Constantinople, whence he ob
tained his surname Scholasticus (which word
signified an advocate in his time), and died about
a.d. 582. He wrote many epigrams (see Antho-
logia Graeea), but his principal work was his
History in five books, which is also extant, and
is of considerable value. It contains the his
tory from a.d. 553-558, a period remarkable for
important events, such as the conquest of Italy
by Narses and the exploits of Belisarius over
the Goths and Bulgarians. — Editions. By Nie-
buhr, Bonn, 1828 ; Dindorf, 1871.
Agathinus, a Greek physician in the 1st
cent. A.D., born at Sparta. He was tutor of
Archigenes. He founded a medical school
called the Bclectici: What remains of his
writings is printed in Kuhn's Additamenta.

AGATHOCLEA
Agathoclea ('Aya86K\sta), mistress of Pto
lemy IV., king of Egypt, and sister of his min
ister Agathocles. She and her brother were put
to death on the death of Ptolemy (b.c. 205).
Agathocles ('Aya9oK\TJs). 1. A Sicilian, raised
himself from a humble station to be tyrant of
Syracuse and ruler of Sicily, by his ability in
handling mercenary troops and making them
serve his purpose. Born at Thermae, a town of
•Sicily subject to Carthage, he is said to have
been exposed when an infant, by his father,
Carcinus of Rhegium, in consequence of a suc
cession of troublesome dreams, portending that
he would be a source of much evil to Sicily.
His mother, however, secretly preserved his
life, and at 7 years old he was restored to his
father, who had long repented of his conduct to
the child. By him he was taken to Syracuse
and brought up as a potter. His strength and
personal beauty, and his prowess in military
service, recommended him to Damas, a noble
Syracusan, who drew him from obscurity, and
on whose death he married his rich widow, and
so became one of the wealthiest citizens in
Syracuse. His ambitious schemes then deve
loped themselves, and he was driven into exile.
After several changes of fortune, he collected
an army which overawed the Syracusans,
favoured as he was by Hamilcar and the Car
thaginians, and was restored under an oath that
he would not interfere with the democracy,
which oath he kept by murdering 4000 and
banishing 6000 citizens. He was immediately
declared sovereign of Syracuse, under the title
of Autocrator, B.C. 317. In the course of a few
years the whole of Sicily which was not under
the dominion of Caa-thage submitted to him.
In B.C. 310 he was defeated at Himera by the
Carthaginians, under Hamilcar, who straight
way laid siege to Syracuse ; whereupon he
formed the bold design of averting the ruin
which threatened him, by carrying the war into
Africa. He landed and burnt his ships. His
successes were most brilliant and rapid. He
constantly defeated the troops of Carthage, but
was at length summoned from Africa by the
affairs of Sicily, where many cities had revolted
from him, b.c. 307. These he reduced, after
making a treaty with the Carthaginians. He
had previously assumed the title of king of
Sicily. He afterwards plundered the Lipari
isles, and also carried his arms into Italy, in
order to attack the Bruttii. But his last days
were embittered by family misfortunes. His
grandson Archagathus murdered his son Aga
thocles, for the sake of succeeding to the crown,
and the old king feared that the rest of his
family would share his fate. He accordingly sent
his wife Texena and her two children to Egypt,
her native country ; and his own death followed
almost immediately, B.C. 289, after a reign of 28
years, and in the 72nd year of his age. [For his
mercenaries, the Mamertini, see Mes SANA.]
Other authors speak of his being poisoned by
Maeno, an associate of Archagathus. The
poison, we are told, was concealed in a quill
-which he used as a toothpick. (Diod. xix.-xxi. ;
Justin, xxii. 1 ff.) — 2. Of Pella, father of Lysi
machus. — 3. Son of Lysimachus, was defeated
and taken prisoner by Dromichaetis, king of
the Getae, about B.C. 292, but was sent back to
his father with presents. In 287 he defeated
Demetrius Poliorcetes. At the instigation of
his stepmother, Arsinoe, Lysimachus cast him
into prison, where he was murdered (284) by
Ptolemaeus Ceraunus. (Plut. Demetr. 39 ff.) — 4.
Brother of Agathoclea. — 5, A Greek historian,

AGAVE

S5

of uncertain date, wrote the Cyzicus, which was
extensively read in antiquity, and is referred to
in Cic. de Div. i. 24, 50; Athen. pp. 875, 515.
Agathodaemon ('AyaBoia.ip.av or 'AyaBhs
8e6s). 1. The ' Good Deity ' or Genius, the im
personation of prosperity ; especially of natural
fruitfulness, called by the Romans ' Bonus
Eventus ' (Plin. H. N. xxxvi. § 28), and in Greece
sometimes identified with Dionysus, as particu
larly giving increase of vineyards. Hence pro
bably the honour paid to him at banquets,
where at the end of the banquet a libation of
pure wine was poured for him, followed by the
paean (Aristoph. Eq. 106 ; Athen. pp. 675, 692).
Hence, too, he was represented as holding a
patera in one hand and (as connected with
Demeter) corn and poppies in the other (Plin.
H N. xxxiv. § 77) : or with the horn of Amal-
thea (Paus. vi. 25, 4). It is noteworthy that his
oldest symbol was a snake (Serv. ad Georg. iii.
417 ; Lamprid. Elagab. 28).— 2. Of Alexandria,
the designer of some maps to accompany
Ptolemy's Geography. Copies of these maps
are found appended to several MSS. of Ptolemy.
Agathon ('AydBuv), an Athenian tragic poet,
bom about B.C. 447, of a rich and respectable
family, was a friend of Euripides and Plato, and
a follower of Gorgias, by whom he was probably
influenced in the rhetoric of his dramas. He
gained his first victory in 417 : in honour of
which Plato represents the Symposium to have
been given, which he has made the occasion of
his dialogue so called. In 407, he visited the
court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where
his friend Euripides was also a guest at the
same time.- He died about 400, at the age of
47. The poetic merits of Agathon were con
siderable, and in reputation he came next to the
three great Tragedians, but his poetry was cha
racterised by prettiness rather than force or
sublimity. Aristophanes represents him as
effeminate (Eccles. 100 ff.). His innovations in
Tragedy were (1) that he composed choric odes
unconnected with the subject which could be
sung as orchestral interludes in any play
(i/A@6\iua) ; (2) that he departed from the ex
hausted mythical subjects, and invented plots
of his own, as in his play called "AvBos (Arist.
Poet. 9, § 7 ; 18, §§ 17, 22). In the Thesmo-
phoriazusae of Aristophanes he is ridiculed for
his effeminacy, being brought on the stage in
female dress.
Agathyrna, Agathyrnum ('AydBvpva, -ov.
' AyaBvpvaios : Agatha), a Sikel town on the N.
coast of Sicily.
Agathyrsi ('AydBvpo-oi), apeople in European
Sarmatia, with a mythical founder Agathyrsus,
son of Heracles (Hdt. iv. 10), on the river
Maris (Marosch) in Transylvania. From their
practice of staining their
skin with a blue dye they
are called by Virgil (Aen.
iv. 146) picti Agathyrsi.
(Cf. Plin. H. N. iv. § 88 ;
Geloni.) Agave (' Ay avi]), daugh
ter of Cadmus, wife of
Echion, and mother of
Pentheus. She is said to
have accused her sister
Semele of falsely repre
senting Zeus as the father
of her child ; whence the
subsequent revenge of Dio
nysus. When Pentheus
attempted to prevent the women from celebrat
ing the Dionysiac festivals on mount Cithaeron, d 2

Agave -with head of
Pentheus. (Gem irom
British Museum.)

S6

AGBATANA

he was torn to pieces there by Agave, who in
her frenzy believed him to be a wild beast.
(Ov. M. iii. 725.) [Pentheus.] — One of the
Nereids, one of the Danaids, and one of the
Amazons, were also called Agavae.
Agbatana. [Ecbatana.]
Agdistis ('A7S10-TIS), an androgynous deity,
the offspring of Zeus and Earth, connected with
a Phrygian worship of Attes or Attis. [See
further under Attis and Cybele.]
Agedincum or Agedicum (Sens), the chief
town of the Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis.
Ageladas ('AyeKdSas), an eminent statuary of
Argos, the instructor of the three great masters,
Phidias, Myron, and Polycletus. He seems to
have worked from the end of the 6th century
b.c. to the middle of the 5th. (See Diet. Antiq.
s.v. Sculptural)
Agelaus ('AyiAaos). 1. Son of Heracles and
Omphale, and founder of the house of Croesus.
— 2. Son of Damastor and one of the suitors
of Penelope, slain by Ulysses. — 3. A slave of
Priam, who exposed the infant Paris on mount
Ida, in consequence of a dream of his mother.
— 4. Brother of Meleager.
Agenor ('Ayiivap). 1. Son of Poseidon and
Libya, founder of the Phoenician race, twin-
brother of Belus, and father of Cadmus, Phoenix,
Cilix, Thasus, Phineus, and according to some
of Europa also. The settlement of various
nations is figured in the myth that these sons
being sent in pursuit of their sister, when Zeus
carried her off, settled down in the various
lands which they reached. (II. xii. 93, xxi. 590.)
Virgil (Aen. i. 338) i calls Carthage the city of
Agenor. — 2. Son of'lasus, and father of Argus
Panoptes, king of Argos. — 3. Son and successor
of Triopas, in the kingdom of Argos. — 4. Son of
Pleuron and Xanthippe, and grandson of Aeto-
lus. — 5. Son of Phegeus, king of Psophis, in
Arcadia. He and his brother Pronous slew
Alcmaeon, when he wanted to give the cele
brated necklace and peplus of Harmonia to his
second wife Callirrhoe. [Phegeus ] The two
brothers were afterwards killed by Amphoterus
and Acarnan, the sons of Alcmaeon and Callir
rhoe. — 6. Son of the Trojan Antenor and The-
ano, one of the bravest among the Trojans, was
wounded by Achilles, but rescued by Apollo.
Agenorides ('AyvvopiSris), a descendant of an
Agenor, such as Cadmus, Phineus, and Perseus.
Agesander, a sculptor of Rhodes in the 2nd
century B.C., who, in conjunction with Poly-
dorus and Athenodorus, sculptured the group of
Laocoon. This celebrated group was discovered
in the year 1506, near the baths of Titus on the
, Esquiline hill : it is now preserved in the mu
seum of the Vatican. [Laocoon.]
Agesilaus ('AY»j(riAaoj), king of Sparta. 1.
Son of Doryssus, reigned 44 years, and died
about B.C. 886. He was contemporary with the
legislation of Lycurgus (Paus. iii. 2, 3). — 2. Son
of Archidamus II., succeeded his half-brother
Agis II., B.C. 398, excluding, on the ground of
spurious birth, and by the interest of Lysander,
his nephew Leotychides. From 396 to 394 he
carried on the war in Asia Minor with success,
and was preparing to advance into the heart of
the Persian empire, when he was summoned
home to defend his country against Thebes,
Corinth, and Argos, which had been induced by
Artaxerxes to take up arms against Sparta.
Though full of disappointment, he promptly
obeyed ; and in the course of the same year
(394), he met and defeated at Coronea in Boeotia
the allied forces (Xen. Hell. iv. 8). During the
next four yearB he regained for his country

AGIS
much of its former supremacy, till at length the
fatal battle of Leuctra, 371, overthrew for ever
the power of Sparta, and gave the supremacy
for a time to Thebes. For the next few years
Sparta had almost to struggle for its existence
amid dangers without and within, and it was
chiefly owing to the skill, courage, and presence
of mind of Agesilaus that she weathered the
storm. In 361 he crossed with a body of Lace
daemonian mercenaries into Egypt to assist
Tachos against Persia. When Nectanebis rose
against Tachos, he gained the throne chiefly by
the help of Agesilaus, whom he rewarded by a
gift of 230 talents. But Agesilaus died, while
preparing for his voyage home, in the winter of
361-360, after a life of above 80 years and a
reign of 38. His body was embalmed in wax,
and buried at Sparta. In person Agesilaus was
small, mean-looking, and lame, on which last
ground objection had been made to his acces
sion, an oracle, curiously fulfilled, having warned
Sparta of evils awaiting her under a 'lame
sovereignty.' In his reign, indeed, her fall took
place, but not through him, for he was one of
the best citizens and generals that Sparta ever
had. His life is written by Plutarch and Cor
nelius Nepos.
» ™2»ipolis ('Ayr\o-'nro\is), king of Sparta. 1.

Succeeded his father Pausanias, while yet a
minor, in B.C. 394, and reigned 14 years. As
soon as his minority ceased, he took an active
part in the wars in which Sparta was then
engaged with the other states of Greece. In
390 he invaded Argolis with success ; in 385 he
took the city of Mantinea ; in 381 he went to the
assistance of Acanthus and Apollonia against
the Olynthians, and died in 380 during this war
in the peninsula of Pallene. — 2. Son of Cleom-
brotus, reigned one year, B.C. 371. — 3. Succeeded
Cleomenes in B.C. 220, but was soon deposed by
his colleague Lycurgus : he afterwards took
refuge with the Romans.
Aggenus TJrbicus, a writer on the science of
the Agrimensores, may perhaps have lived at the
latter part of the 4th century of our era. His
works are printed in Goesius, Bei Agrariae
Auctores; Scriptores Gromatici, ed.Lachmann.
Aggrammes or Xandrames (ZavSpduris), the
ruler of the Gangaridae and Prasii in India,
when Alexander invaded India, B.C. 327.
Agias ('Ayias), one of the so-called Cyclic
poets, who wrote probably before B.C. 700. He
was a native of Troezen, and wrote the N(Ja"T0i,
or return of the Greeks. Proclus gives a sum
mary of the poem, which described the ad
ventures of Agamemnon and Menelaus after
the fall of Troy, and the wanderings of other
heroes. Aginnum (Agen), the chief town of the Nitio-
briges in Gallia Aquitanica.
Agis ("A7is), kings of Sparta. 1. Son of
Eurysthenes, the founder of the family of the
Agidae. — 2. Son of Archidamus II., reigned B.C.
427-398. He took an active part in the Pelo-
ponnesian war, and invaded Attica several
times. (Thuc. iv. 2 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 2.) While
Aloibiades was at Sparta he was the guest of
Agis, and is said to have seduced his wife
Timaea ; in consequence of which Leotychides,
the son of Agis, was excluded from the throne
as illegitimate.— 3. Son of Archidamus III.,
reigned B.C. 338-330, attempted to overthrow
the Macedonian power in Europe, while Alex
ander the Great was in Asia, but was defeated
and killed in battle by Antipater in 330.— 4.
Son of Eudamidas II., reigned B.C. 244-240.
He attempted to re-establish the institutions of

AGIS
Lycurgus, and to effect a thorough reform in
the Spartan state ; but he was resisted by his
colleague Leonidas II. and the wealthy, was
thrown into prison, and was there put to death
by command of the ephors, along with his
mother Agesistrata, and his grandmother Archi-
damia. Agis, a poet of Argos, a flatterer of Alexan
der the Great (Curt. viii. 5; Arrian, Anab. v. 9).
Aglaia ('AyXata). 1. One of the Chakites
or Geaces.— 2. Wife of Charopus and mother
of Nireus, who came from the island of Sime
against Troy (H. ii. 671).
Aglaopheme. [Sirenes.]
Aglaophon ('AyXao<p&v). 1. Painter of
Thasos, father and instructor of Polygnotus
and Aristophon, lived about B. c. 500 (Plat.
Gorg. p. 448 b). — 2. Painter, lived about b. c.
420, probably grandson of No. 1.
Aglauros CAyXavpos) — less correctly Agrau
los. — 1. Daughter of Actaeus 1st king of Athens,
wife of Cecrops and mother of Erysichthon,
Aglauros 2, Herse and Pandrosos. — 2, Daughter
of Cecrops and Aglauros 1. The legends con
cerning her must be carefully distinguished.
a. Athene gave a chest in which was the child
Erichthontus to the three daughters of
Cecrops — Aglauros, Pandrosos and Herse — to
preserve unopened. Pandrosos obeyed, but her
two sisters opened the chest and saw the child
with a snake twined round it. As a punish
ment, according to some they were killed by
the serpent, according to others, they were
driven mad and threw themselves from the
rocks of the Acropolis. (Paus. i. 18; Eur.
Ion, 267; Apollod. iii. 14.) 6. According to
Ovid, Met. ii. 710, no immediate punishment
fell upon the sisters, but Athene filled Aglauros,
as the more guilty, with jealousy, so that she
prevented Hermes from visiting her sister
Herse, and was by him turned into stone, c.
Aglauros is wedded to Ares and is mother of
Alcippe [see Halirrhothios]. d. Aglauros
was an Attic maiden who offered herself up as
a sacrifice for the state in time of war : there
fore there was a temple to her on the Acropolis
where the Ephebi on first assuming arms took
an oath of loyal devotion to their country
(Dem. F.L. p. 438, § 303 and Schol. ; Poll. viii.
105 ; Diet. Ant. s. v. Ephebus). The origin of
the legend in a and b cannot be traced with any
certainty ; it is suggested that it arose from the
chest carried by the appi]<p6poi or ipo-7]tp6poi.[ As
regards the legend in d, it must be observed
that the three maidens represent the deities of
dew fertilising the fields, and that they must
have been at one time identified with Athene
in her relations to the land of Attica. Hence
we find both Aglauros and Pandrosos used as
actual surnames for Athene. The temple of
the oath must have replaced a shrine of Athene
Aglauros, the protectress of Athens in war ; and
when the name Aglauros alone remained it
was necessary to suppose that she was no un
faithful maiden, but one who had saved the
country. The story of the sacrifice and also
that of the fall from the rocks in all probability
point to an old human sacrifice, such as was in
fact made to Athene Aglauros in the Cyprian
Salamis. The connexion of Athene and
Aglauros appears also in the festival of Plyn-
teria. From the fact that Aglauros is joined
with Ares as one of the Xo-ropes (Poll, viii. 106,
cf. Dem. p. 303) in whose names oaths were
taken, it has been recently surmised that
Aglauros was a transference from the Theban
cult of Erinys Tilphossa, wife of Ares.

AGRICOLA

87

Aglaus ('AyXa6s), a poor citizen of Psophis
in Arcadia, whom the Delphic oracle declared
happier than Gyges king of Lydia, on account
of his contented disposition. Pausanias places
him in the time of Croesus. (Plin. H N. vii.
§ 151 ; Paus. viii. 88, 7.)
Agnaptus, an architect who built the porch
called by his name in the Altis at Olympia
(Paus. 16, 4, vi. 20, 7).
Agnodice ('AyvoSiKif), an Athenian maiden,
was the first of her sex to learn midwifery,
which a law of Athens forbade any woman to
learn. Dressed as a man, she obtained instruc
tion from a physician named Hierophilus, and
afterwards practised her art with success.
Summoned before the Areiopagus by the envy
of the other practitioners, she was obliged to
disclose her sex, and was not only acquitted,,
but obtained the repeal of the obnoxious law.
This tale, though often repeated, does not
deserve much credit, as it reBts on the authority
of Hyginus alone (Fab. 274).
Agnonides ('AyvaviSris), an Athenian dem
agogue, induced the Athenians to sentence
Phocion to death (b. c. 818), but was shortly
afterwards put to death himself by the Athe
nians. (Plut. Phoc.) Corn. Nepos calls him
Agnon (Nep. Phoc).
Agoracritus ('AyopdKpiros), a statuary of
Paros, flourished B. c. 440-428, and was the
favourite pupil of Phidias (Paus. ix. 34).
From a similarity of style and perhaps from
direct help or partnership in work, it resulted
that some statues were variously attributed to
Phidias and to Agoracritus. Thus the Nemesis
at Rhamnus is said by Pausanias (i. 83) to be
the work of Phidias ; but by Pliny (H. N. xxxvi.
§ 17) to be by Agoracritus. Pliny tells the im
probable tale that this statue was first an Aphro
dite for Athens, and was turned into a Nemesis
by its author and sent to Rhamnus because
the Athenians favoured Alcamenes, his rival.
Agoraea and Agoraeus ('A-yopoia and 'A70-
paios), epithets of several divinities who were
considered as the protectors of the assemblies
of the people in the agora, such as Zeus,
Athene, Artemis, and Hermes.
Agraei (A-ypatoi), a people of Aetolia on the
Achelous (Thuc. iii. 106 ; Strab. p. 449).
Agraule ('AypavXii and 'AypiXri : 'AypvXeis),
an Attic demus of the tribe Erechtheis, named
after Aglauros, No. 2.
Agraulos. [Aglauros.]
Agreus ('Aypevs), a hunter, a surname of
Pan and Aristaeus.
Agri Decumates, tithe lands, the name given
by the Romans to a part of Germany, E. of the
Rhine and N. of the Danube, which they took
possession of when the Germans retired east
ward, and which they gave to Gauls and subse
quently to their own veterans on the payment
of a tenth of the produce (decuma). About a.d.
100 these lands were incorporated in the Roman
empire. (Tac. Germ. 29.)
Agricola, Cn. Julius, born June 13th, a. d.
37, at Forum Julii (Frijus in Provence), was
the son of Julius Graecinus, who was executed
by Caligula, and Julia Procilla. He received a
careful education; he first served in Britain,
a. d. 60, under Suetonius Paulinus ; was quaes
tor in Asia in 63 ; was governor of Aquitania
from 74 to 76 ; and was consul in 77, when he
betrothed his daughter to the historian Tacitus,
and in the following year gave her to him in
marriage. In 78 he received the government
of Britain, which he held for 7 years, during
which time he subdued the whole of the country

38

AGRIGENTUM

with the exception of the highlands of Caledonia,
and. by his wise administration introduced
among the inhabitants the language and civili
sation of Rome. He was recalled in 85 through
the jealousy of Domitian, and on his return
lived in retirement till his death in 93, which
according to some was occasioned by poison,
administered by order of Domitian. His
character is drawn in the brightest colours by
his son-in-law Tacitus, whose Life of Agricola
has come down to us.
Agrigentum ('Axpdyas : 'AKpayavrtvos, Agri-
gentinus : Girgenti), a town on the S. coast of

IValker 6- BoiUall sc

Map of Agrigentum.
Sicily, about 2 J miles from the sea, between the
Acragas (Fiume di S. Biagio), and Hypsas
(Fiume Drago). It was celebrated for its
wealth and populousness, and till its destruc
tion by the Carthaginians (b. c. 405) was one of
the most splendid cities of the ancient world.
It was the birthplace of Empedocles. It was
founded by a Doric colony from Gela, about
B.C. 579, was under the government
of the cruel tyrant Phalaris (about
560), and subsequently under that
of Theron (488-472), whose praises
are celebrated by Pindar. After its
destruction by the Carthaginians,
B.C. 406, it was rebuilt by Timoleon,
»but it never regained its former
greatness. After undergoing many
vicissitudes it at length came into
the power of the Romans (210), in
whose hands it remained. There are
still gigantic remains of the ancient
city, especially of the Olympieum, 0ov.:
or temple of the Olympian Zeus.
Agrinium ('Ayplviov), a town in Aetolia, per
haps near the sources of the Thermissus.
Agrippa, Herodes. 1. Called ' Agrippa the
Great,' son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and
grandson of Herod the Great. He was educated
at Rome with the future emperor Claudius, and
Drusus the son of Tiberius. The cognomen
Agrippa was given to him in compliment to
M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Having given offence to
Tiberius he was thrown into prison ; but Cali
gula, on his accession (a. d. 87), set him at
liberty, and gave him the tetrarchies of Abilene,

AGRIPPA
Batanea, Trachonitis, and Auranitis. On the-
death of Caligula (41), Agrippa, who was at the
time in Rome, assisted Claudius in gaming
possession of the empire. As a reward for his.
services, Judaea and Samaria were annexed to
his dominions. By his wife Cypros he had a
son Agrippa, and three daughters, Berenice,.
Mariamne, and Drusilla.— 2. Son of Agrippa I.,
was educated at the court of Claudius, and
at the time of his father's death was 17 years
old. Claudius kept him at Rome, and sent
Cuspius Fadus as procurator of the kingdom,
which thus again became a Roman province.
On the death of Herodes, king of Chalcis (48), his
little principality was given to Agrippa, who
subsequently received an accession of territory.
Before the outbreak of the war with the
Romans, Agrippa attempted in vain to dissuade
the Jews from rebelling. He sided with the
Romans in the war ; and after the capture of
Jerusalem, he went with his sister Berenice to-
Rome, and died in the 70th year of his age,
a. d. 100. [For both of the above see further in
Dictionary of the Bible.]
Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, born in B.C. 63, of an.
obscure family, studied with young Octavius
(afterwards the emperor Augustus) at Apollonia
in Illyria ; and upon the murder of Caesar in
44, was one of the friends of Octavius, who ad
vised him to proceed immediately to Rome.
In the civil wars which followed, and which
terminated in giving Augustus the sovereignty
of the Roman world, Agrippa took an active
part ; and his military abilities, combined with
his promptitude and energy, contributed greatly
to that result. In 41 Agrippa, who was then
praetor, commanded part of the forces of Augus
tus in the Perusinian war. In 38 he obtained
great success in Gaul and Germany ; in 37 he
was consul. For his naval campaign against
Sex. Pompeius he provided a harbour for his
ships in the course of the years 38 and 87 by
cutting through the strips of land which separ
ated the lake Lucrinus from the sea and the
lake Avernus from the Lucrinus, thus forming
the Portus Julius (Verg. Georg. ii. 161 ; Hor.
A.P. 63 ; Veil. ii. 81 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 14 ; Plin.
HN. xvi. § 7.) In B.C. 36 he defeated Sex. Pom
peius at Mylae and finally at Naulochus. In
reward he received the naval crown. In 31 he

Coin ol Agrippa's third Consulship.
Agrippa wearing the naval crown ; rev., Neptune.
commanded the fleet of Augustus at the battle
of Actium ; was consul a second time in 28, and
a third time in 27. His greatness appears no
less in his public works from his aedileship in 33
through a succession of years. Especially to be
noticed are his restoration of aqueducts and
sewers, the building of the Julian Aqueduct,
the Porticus Neptuni in the Campus, his Ther
mae and the Pantheon, and in Gaul the mag
nificent aqueduct to supply Nemausus (Nlmes)
now called the Pont du Gard. He also comple
ted the survey of the Roman world begun by

AGRIPPA
Julius Caesar, from which he formed the map
engraved on marble and afterwards placed in
the Porticus Pollae. In 21 he married Julia,
daughter of Augustus. He had been married
twice before, first to Pomponia, daughter of
T. Pomponius Atticus, and next to Marcella,
niece of Augustus. He continued to be em
ployed in various military commands in Gaul,
Spain (where he subdued the CantabriansB.c. 18),
Syria (where he founded the colony of Berytus,
Beyrout), and Pannonia, till his death in b.c 12.
By his first wife Pomponia, Agrippa had Vip-
sania, married to Tiberius, the successor of
Augustus ; and by his third wife, Julia, he had
2 daughters, Julia, married to L. Aemilius Pau
lus, and Agrippina, married to Germanicus, and
3 sons, Caius Caesar, Lucius Caesar [Caesar],
and Agrippa Postumus, who was banished by
Augustus to the island of Planasia, and was
put to death by Tiberius at his accession, a.d. 14
(Tac. Ann. i. 3, ii. 39,40). In manner he is de
scribed as blunt, " vir rusticitati propior quam
deliciis " (Plin. H.N. xxxv. § 26), though of his
good taste his works are sufficient proof. The
" torvitas " is shown in the stern expression of
his face as preserved to us in coins and busts.
Agrippa, Postumus. [See above.]
Agrippina. 1. Daughter of M. Vipsanius
Agrippa and of Julia, the daughter of Augustus,
married Germanicus, by whom she had nine
children, among whom were the emperor Cali
gula, and Agrippina, the mother of Nero. She
was distinguished for her virtues and heroism,
and shared all the dangers of her husband's
campaigns. On his death in A.D. 17 she returned
to Italy ; but the favour with which she was re
ceived by the people increased the hatred and
jealousy which Tiberius and his mother Livia
had long entertained towards her. For some
years Tiberius disguised his hatred, but at length
under the pretext that she was forming am
bitious plans, he banished her to the island of
Fandataria (a.d. 30), where she died 3 years
afterwards, a.d. 33, probably by voluntary star
vation (Tac. Ann. i.-vi. ; Suet. Aug. 64, Tib. 53 ;
Dio Cass, lviii. 22). — 2. Daughter of Germanicus
and Agrippina [No. 1.], and mother of the em
peror Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubiorum,
afterwards called in honour of her Colonia
Agrippina, now Cologne. She was beautiful
and intelligent, but licentious, cruel, and am
bitious. She was first married to Cn. Domitius
Ahenobarbus (a.d. 28), by whom she had a son,
afterwards the emperor Nero ; next to Crispus
Passienus ; and thirdly to the emperor Clau
dius (49), although she was his niece. In 50,
she prevailed upon Claudius to adopt her son,
to the prejudice of his own son Britannicus ;
and in order to secure the succession for her
son, she poisoned the emperor in 54. Upon
the accession of Nero, who was then only 17
years of age, she governed the Roman empire
for a few years in his name. The young em
peror soon became tired of the ascendency of
his mother, and after making several attempts
to shake off her authority, he caused her to be
assassinated in 59. (Tac. Ann. xii. xiii. xiv. ; Dio
Cass, lix.-lxi. ; Suet. Claud. 48, 44 ; Ner. 5, 6.)
Agrippinenses, [Colonia Agrippina.]
Agrius ("Aypios). 1. Son of Porthaon and
Euryte, and brother of Oeneus, king of Calydon
in Aetolia : his six sons, of whom one was
Thersites, deprived Oeneus of his kingdom, and
gave it to their father ; but Agrius and four of
his sons were afterwards slain by Diomedes,
the grandson of Oeneus (II. xiv. 117 ; Paus. ii.
25 ; Ov. Her. ix. 153 ; Hyg. Fab. 175).— 2. Son

AHENOBARBUS

39

of Odysseus and Circe, according to a doubtful
line in Hes. Th. 1013.
Agroecius or Agroetius, a Roman gramma
rian, probably lived in the 5th century after
Christ, and wrote an extant work De Ortho-
graphia et Differentia Sermonis, which is
printed in Putschius, Grammaticae Latinae
Auctores Antiqui, pp. 2266-2275.
Agron ("Aypav). 1. Son of Ninus, the first of
the Lydian dynasty of the Heraclidae. — 2. Son
of Pleuratus, king of Illyria, died B.C. 281, and
was succeeded by his wife Teuta, though he
left a son Pinnes or Pinneus by his first wife,
Triteuta, whom he had divorced. (Dio Cass.
xxxiv. 46, 151 ; Polyb. ii. 2.)
Agrotera. [Artemis.]
Agryle. [Agraule.]
Agyieus ('Ayvieis), a surname of Apollo, as
the protector of the streets and public places.
Agylla ("AyvXXa), the ancient Greek name of
the Etruscan town of Caeee.
Agyrium ('Ayipiov : 'Ayvptvalos, Agyrinensis :
S. Filippo d'Argiro), a town in Sicily on the
Cyamosorus, NW. of Centuripae and NE. of
Enna, the birth-place of the historian Diodorus.
The town was originally Sikel, but had adopted
the special worship of Heracles, perhaps re
placing some native deity.
Agyrrhius ('Ayvppios), an Athenian, after
being in prison many years for embezzlement
of public money, obtained about B.C. 395 the
restoration of the Theoricon, and also raised to
three obols the pay for attending the assembly.
He was appointed to command the fleet in B.C.
389. (Xen. Hell. iv. 8, 81 ; Dem. c. Timoc. p.
742, § 134 ; Arist. 'Afl. IIoA. 41.)
. Ahala, Servilius, the name of several distin
guished Romans, who held various high offices
in the state from b.c. 478 to 342. Of these the
best known is C. Servilius Ahala, magister
equitum in 439 to the dictator L. Cincinnatus,
when he slew Sp. Maelius in the forum, because
he refused to appear before the dictator (Liv.
v. 9). Ahala was afterwards brought to trial,
and only escaped condemnation by a voluntary
exile. M. Brutus claimed descent on the
mother's side from this Ahala (cf. Cic. Att.
xiii. 40).
Aharna, a town in Etruria, NE. of Volsinii
(Liv. x. 25).
Ahenobarbus, Domitius, the name of a dis
tinguished Roman family. They are said to
have obtained the surname of Ahenobarbus, i.e.
' Brazen-Beard ' or ' Red-Beard,' because the
Dioscuri announced to one of their ancestors
the victory of the Romans over the Latins at
lake Regillus (b.c. 496), and, to confirm the
truth of what they said, stroked his black hair
and beard, which immediately became red
(Suet. Ner. 1 ; Plut. Aemil. 25).— 1. Cn., ple
beian aedile B.C. 196, praetor 194, and consul
192, when he fought against the Boii. — 2. Cn.,
son of No. 1, consul suffectus in 162. — 3. Cn.,
son of No. 2, consul 122, conquered the Allo-
broges in Gaul, in 121, at the confluence of the
Sulga and Rhodanus. He was censor in 115
with Caecilius Metellus. The Via Domitia in
Gaul was made by him (Cic. Font. 4, 18 ; 12,
36; Clu. 42, 119; Strab. iv. p. 191).— 4. Cn,,
son of No. 3, tribune of the plebs 104, brought
forward the law (Lex Domitia), by which the
election of the priests was transferred from the
collegia to the people. The people afterwards
elected him Pontifex Maximus out of gratitude.
He was consul in 96, and censor in 92, with
Licinius Crassus, the orator. In his censorship
he and his colleague shut up the schools of the

40

AJAX

Latin rhetoricians : but otherwise their censor
ship was marked by their violent disputes (Liv.
Ep. lvii. ; Cicero Deiot. 11, 81). — 5. L., brother
of No. 4, praetor in Sicily, probably in 96, and
consul in 94, belonged to the party of Sulla, and
was murdered at Rome in 82, by order of the
younger Marius, His cruelty is noticed in Cic,
Verr. v. 8. — 6. Cn., son of No. 4, married Cor
nelia, daughter of L. Cinna, consul in 87, and
joined the Marian party. He waB proscribed
by Sulla in 82, and fled to Africa, where he was
defeated and killed by Cn. Pompey in 81. —
7. L. (the friend of Cicero), son of No. 4, married
Porcia, the sister of M. Cato, and was a staunch
and courageous supporter of the aristocratical
party. He was aedile in 61, praetor in 58, and
consul in 54. On the breaking out of the civil
war in 49 he threw himself into Corfinium, but
was compelled by his own troops to surrender
to Caesar. He next went to Massilia, and, after
the surrender of that town, repaired to Pompey
in Greece: he fell in the battle of Pharsalia
(48), where he commanded the left wing, and,
according to Cicero's assertion in the second
Philippic (11, 27), by the hand of Antony (Caes.
B. C. i. 6, 16; iii. 99; cf. index to Cicero's
letters). — 8. Cn., son of No. 7, was taken with
his father at Corfinium (49), was present at the
battle of Pharsalia (48), and returned to Italy
in 45, when he was pardoned by Caesar. After
Caesar's death in 44, he commanded the repub
lican fleet in the Ionian sea. He afterwards
became reconciled to Antony whom he accom
panied in his campaign against the Parthians
in 36. He was consul in 82, and deserted to
Augustus shortly before the battle of Actium.
-h-9. L., son of No. 8, married Antonia, the
daughter of Antony by Octavia ; was aedile in
22, and consul in 16 ; and, after his consulship,
commanded the Roman army in Germany and
crossed the Elbe (Tac. Ann. iv. 44). He died
a.d. 25. — 10. Cn., son of No. 9, consul a.d. 32,
married Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, and
was father of the emperor Nero. [Ageippina.]
Ajax (AXas). 1. Son of Telamon, king of
Salamis, by Periboea or Eriboea, and grandson
of Aeacus.' In the Homeric legend, however,
he is merely known as son of Telamon. There
is no hint of the descent from Aeacus, and
therefore from Zeus, nor of his being a cousin
of Achilles. The assignment to him of the left
wing in the fleet with his 12 Salaminian ships
(while Achilles held the right) belongs to the
later catalogue (II. ii. 557), and probably ori
ginated when Salamis was united to Athens.
Homer calls him Ajax the Telamonian, Ajax
the Great, or simply Ajax, whereas the other
Ajax, son of O'ileus, is always distinguished from
him by some epithet. He is represented in
the Iliad as second only to Achilles in bravery,
and as the hero most worthy, in the absence of
Achilles, to contend with Hector, as iripyos
'Axaiav, especially sturdy and enduring in fight
(II. ii. 768, vi. 5, vii. 182, xi. 545, xvii. 233) : but
also wise in council (vii. 288), though a clumsy
speaker (xiii. 824). There is no trace of the
ilfipis which later traditions attribute ; on the
contrary, he appears as reverent in spirit and
obedient to the gods (see especially II. vii. 194,
xvi. 120, and his prayer, xvii. 64*5). Later than
the Iliad came the story that in the contest for
the arms of Achilles, which were to be given to
the worthiest of the surviving Greeks, he was
defeated by Odysseus. This is mentioned in
the Odyssey (xi. 545). Further particulars are
derived from later poets : that his defeat (upon
the testimony of Trojan captives, who said that

AIUS
Odysseus had done them most harm) resulted
in madness sent upon him by Athene, and that
having slaughtered a flock of sheep, as though
they were his enemies among the Greeks, he
slew himself with the sword which Hector had
given him. This story is given in the Aethiopia
of Arctinus and the Ilias Minor of Lesches (of
which fragments are preserved), as well as in
the Tragedians. From his blood sprang the
purple flower (Iris?) marked with the letters
AI (Paus. i. 85; Theoc. x. 28; Ov. Met. xiii.
394 ; Verg. Eel. iv. 107 ; Euphorion, fr. 36).
Among other versions of his story preserved in
post-Homeric poets and in works of art may
be noticed, that his mother Periboea was an
Athenian ; that his wife Tecmessa was taken by
him in the siege of a Phrygian town of which
her father Teleutas was king (Soph. Aj. 20,
487); that at his birth Heracles sought an
omen for him to show that he would be as
strong as the lion-skin which he himself wore,
whereupon Zeus sent an eagle (Pind. Isthm. v.
37) : hence he was vulnerable only in the side
uncovered by the lion-skin. Ajax was wor
shipped at Salamis, where he had a temple and
a festival (Diet. Antiq. s.v. Aianteia). After
the union of Salamis with Athens, the Athenians
adopted the Salaminian hero as iiriivv/ws for
their own country. The tribe Aiantis was
called after him ; he was summoned to the help
of Athens before the battle of Salamis (Herod.
viii. 64) ; his statue stood near the f3ovXevT-l)piov
(Paus. i. 5) : he was regarded as ancestor of
Peisistratus, of Harmodius, of Miltiades, and of
Alcibiades.— vJ. Son of Oi'leus, king of the Lo
crians, also called the lesser Ajax, sailed against
Troy with 40 ships. He is described as small of
stature, and wears a linen cuirass (XivoBaprj^),
but is brave and intrepid, skilled in throwing
the spear, and, next to Achilles, the most swift-
footed among the Greeks. On his return from
Troy his vessel was wrecked on the Whirling
Rocks (Tvpal n-eVpat) ; he himself got safe upon
a rock through the assistance of Poseidon ; but
as he boasted that he would escape in defiance
of the immortals, Poseidon split the rock with
his trident, and Ajax was swallowed up by the
sea. This is the account of Homer, but his
death is related somewhat differently by Virgil
and other writers, who tell us that the anger
of Athene was excited against him, because, on
the night of the capture of Troy, he violated
Cassandra in the temple of the goddess, where
she had taken refuge, and that, his vessel being
wrecked on the Capharean rocks, he was killed
by lightning (Aen. i. 40). He was worshipped
as a national hero both by the Opuntian and
the Italian Locrians.
Aides ('AiSris). [Hades.]
Aidoneus ('AXSaveis). 1. A lengthened form
of Aides. [Hades]. — 2. A mythical king of the
Molossians in Epirus, husband of Persephone,
and father of Core. When Theseus and Piri-
thous attempted to carry off Core, Aidoneus had
Pirithous killed by Cerberus, and kept Theseus
in captivity till he was released by Heracles.
Aius Lociitius or Loquens, a Roman divinity.
A short time before the Gauls took Rome (b.c.
890) a voice was heard at Rome in the Via Nova,
during the silence of night, announcing that the
Gauls were approaching. No attention was at
the time paid to the warning, but the Romans
afterwards erected on the spot where the voice
had been heard, an altar with a sacred enclosure
around it, to Aius Locutius, or the ' Announ
cing Speaker.' (Liv. v. 32; CicDw. i. 45, 101,
ii. 82, 69 : Gell. xvi. 17.)

ALABANDA
Alabanda (^ 'AXdpavSa or to 'AAiijSovSa:
AXa&avSevs or 'AAaj8ai>5os : Arabissar), an in
land town of Caria, near the Marsyas, to the S. of
the Maeander, was situated between two hills.
Under the Romans it was the seat of a con-
ventus juridieus. Pliny speaks of a lapis Ala-
bandicus found here, fusible and used for glass-
making (H. N. xxxvi. 62).
Alabon ('AAajStSi') or Alabis, a river on the E.
coast of Sicily, perhaps La Cantara (Diod. iv.
78). It is probably the same as the Abolus of
Plutarch (Tim. 84).
Alagonia ('AXayovia), a town of the Eleu-
thero-Laconians on the frontiers of Messenia.
Alalcomenae ('AXaXKoiievat : 'AXaXKOfievaTos,
3AXoXko/j.cvi*vs : Sulinari), an ancient town
of Boeotia, E. of Coronea, with a temple of
Athena, who is said to have been brought up by
its autochthonous founder Alalcomeneus (Paus.
ix. 33, 5; Horn. U. iv. 8; Strab. pp. 411,
413), and who was hence called Alalcomeneis
('AXaXKouevrt'is, iSos).
Alalia. [Aleria.]
Alander. [Lalandus.]
Alani ('AXavot, 'AXavvoi, i.e. mountaineers,
from the Sarmatian word ala), a great Asiatic
people, included under the general name of Scy
thians, but probably a branch of the Massagetae
(Amm. Marc. xxii. 8, SO, xxxi. 2). They were a
nation of warlike horsemen. They are first
found about the E. part of the Caucasus, in the
country called Albania, which appears to be
only another form of the same name. In the
reign of Vespasian they made incursions into
Media and Armenia ; and at a later time they
pressed into Europe, as far as the banks of the
Lower Danube, where, towards the end of the
5th century, they were routed by the Huns,
who then compelled them to become their allies.
In A.D. 406, some of the Alani took part with
the Vandals in their irruption into Gaul and
Spain, where they became incorporated in the
"kingdom of the Visigoths.
Alaricus, in German AUric, i.e. 'All-rich,'
elected king of the Visigoths in a.d. 3S8, had
previously commanded the Gothic auxiliaries of
Theodosius. He twice invaded Italy, first in
a.d. 402-403, when he was defeated by Stilicho
at the battle of Pollentia, and a second time in
408-410; in his second invasion he took and
plundered Rome, 24th of August, 410. He died
shortly afterwards at Consentia in Bruttium,
while preparing to invade Sicily, and was buried
in the bed of the river Basentinus, a small tri
butary of the Crathis. (Jornand. de Beb. Get.
30 ; Oros. vii. 29 ; Zosim. v. vi. ; Aug. Civ.
Dei, i. 1 ; Procop. Bell. Vand. i. 2.)
Alastor ('AXdo~Tap). 1. ' The scarer ' or
' driver ' : the avenging deity who follows up
the sinner, and drives him to fresh crime, and
so becomes an evil genius in his family after
him (Aesch. Ag. 1465 ; Soph. 0. C. 788 ; Eur.
Or. 1556) : hence sometimes the man who is
thus driven (Aesch. Eitm. 237). — 2. A surname
of Zeus and of the Furies as Avengers. — 3. A
Lycian, companion of Sarpedon, slain by Odys
seus (H. v. 677). — 4. A Trojan name (II. iv. 295,
xx. 463).
Alba Silvius. [Silvius.]
Alba. 1. (Abia), a town of the Bastitani in
Spain. — 2. (Alvanna), a town of the Barduli in
Spain. — 3. Augusta (Aulps), a town of the
Elicoci in Gallia Narbonensis. — 4. Fucentia
or Fucentis (Albenses : Alba or Albi), a town
of the Marsi, and subsequently a Roman colony,
was situated on a lofty rock near the lake
I^jcinus. It was a strong fortress, and was

ALBINOVANUS

41

used by the Romans as a state prison (Strab.
p. 240; Liv. xiv. 42).— 5. Longa (adj. Albani),
the most ancient town in Latium, is said to
have been built by Ascanius, and to have
founded Rome. It was called Longa, from its
stretohing in a long line down the Alban Mount
towards the Alban Lake. Alba was regarded as
the primitive Latin town. It was the religious
head of the Latin confederate SO cantons.
Here the Latins assembled for their festival
and offered sacrifice to Jupiter Latiaris. At
some time (traditionally in the reign of Tullus
Hostilius) Alba was destroyed, and its inhabi
tants became part of the Roman people ; but
the Alban clans retained their family shrines,
and the Alban Mount continued to be the place
for the Latiar, or Feriae Latinae (see Diet:
Antiq. s.v.). The surrounding country was
studded with the villas of the Roman ari
stocracy and emperors (Pompey's, Domitian's,
&c), each of which was called Albanum, and
out of these a new town at length grew, also
called Albanum (Albano), on the Appian road.
— 6. Pompeia (Albenses Pompeiani : Alba), a
town in Liguria, founded by Scipio Africanus I.,
and colonised by Pompeius Magnus, the birth
place of the emperor Pertinax.
Albania ('AXf3avia : 'AX0avol, Albani; Schir-
wan and part of Daghestan, in the SE. part of
Georgia), a country of Asia on the W. side of
the Caspian, extending from the rivers Cyrus
and Araxes on the S. to M. Ceraunius (the E.
part of the Caucasus) on the N., and bounded
on the W. by Iberia. It was a fertile plain,
abounding in pasture and vineyards; but the
inhabitants were fierce and warlike. They were
a Scythian tribe, probably a branch of the
Massagetae, and identical with the Alani. The
Romans first became acquainted with them at
the time of the Mithridatic war, when they
encountered Pompey. (Strab. p. 501.)
Albanum. [Alba, No. 5.]
Albanus Lacus (Lago di Albano), a small
lake about 5 miles in circumference, W. of the
Mons Albanus between Bovillae and Alba
Longa, is the crater of an extinct volcano, and
is many hundred feet deep. The emissarium
which the Romans bored through the solid rock
(traditionally during the siege of Veii) in order
to carry off the superfluous water of the lake, is
extant at the present day (see Diet. Antiq.
s.v. Emissarium).
Albanus Mons (Monte Cava or Albano), was,
in its narrower signification, the mountain in
Latium on whose declivity the town of Alba
Longa was situated. It was the sacred moun
tain of the Latins, on which the religious
festivals of the Latin League were celebrated
(Latiar, or Feriae Latinae), and on its highest
summit was the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, to
which the Roman generals ascended in triumph,
when this honour was denied them in Rome.
The Mons Albanus in its wider signification
included the Mons Algidus and the mountains
about Tusculum.
Albi Montes, a lofty range of mountains in
the W. of Crete, 300 stadia in length, covered
with snow the greater part of the year.
Albici ('AXPLoikoi, 'AAjSieis), a warlike Gallic
people, inhabiting the mountains north of Mas-
silia (Strab. p. 203 ; Caes. B. C. i. 84).
Albingaunum. [Albium Ingaunum.]
Albino vanus, Celsus, ismentioned by Horace
(Ep. i. 8), as scriba of Tiberius Nero, and
warned to avoid plagiarism. We have no record
of his writings. It is surmised that he is the
Celsus mentioned in Ov. Pont. i. 9.

42

ALBINOVANUS

Albinovanus, C. Pedo, a friend of Ovid,
who addresses to him one of his Epistles from
Pontus (iv. 10). We have no warrant for attri
buting to Albinovanus the three elegies, Epi-
cedium Drusi, de Maecenatis Obitu, and de
Moribundo Maecenate, printed by Wernsdorf,
in his PoStae Latini Minores, vol. iii. iv., and
by Meinecke, Quedlinburg, 1819. Their author
ship remains unknown. Only one genuine frag
ment of Albinovanus survives : the 23 lines
de Navigations Germanici, which are quoted
by Seneca (Suas. i. 14) with approval. They
seem to have formed part of an epic poem on
contemporary history. He wrote also an epic,
Theseis (Ov. I.e.), and epigrams. He is called
by Quintilian (x. 1, 90) a poet ' non indignus
cognitione.' Albinovanus, P. Tullius, belonged to the
Marian party, was proscribed in B.C. 87, but was
pardoned by Sulla in 81, in consequence of his
putting to death many of the officers of Nor-
banus, whom he had invited to a banquet at
Ariminum. Albinus or Albus, Postumius, the name of a
patrician family at Rome, many of the members
of which held the highest offices of the state
from the commencement of the republic to its
downfall. — 1. A., Burniane&Begillensis, dictator
B.C. 498, when he conquered the Latins in the
great battle near lake Regillus, and consul 496,
in which year some of the annals placed the
battle (Liv. ii. 19 ; Dionys. vi. 2 ; Cic. N. D. ii.
2, 6). — 2. Sp., consul 466, and a member of the
first decemvirate 451 (Liv. iii. 2, 31, 70). — 3. A.,
consul B.C. 464 (Liv. iii. 4). — 4, Sp. (son of No. 2),
cons. trib. in B.C. 432 (Liv. iv. 25). — 5. P., cons.
trib. b.c. 411 (Liv. iv. 49). — 6. M,, censor B.C. 403
(Liv. v. 1 ; Fast. Cap.) — 7. A., cons. trib. b.c.
397 (Liv. v. 16).— 8. Sp., cons. trib. b.c. 894 (Liv.
v. 26). — 9. Sp,, consul 344, and again 821. In the
latter year he marched against the Samnites,but
was defeated near Caudium, and obliged to
surrender with his whole army, who were sent
under the yoke. The senate, on the advice of
Albinus, refused to ratify the peace which he
had made with the Samnites, and resolved that
all persons who had sworn to the peace should
be given up to the Samnites, but they refused
to accept them (Liv. viii. 16, ix. 1-10 ; Appian,
de Beb. Samn. 2 ; Cic. de Off. iii. 30.— 10. L.,
consul 234, and again 229. In 216 he was
praetor, and was killed in battle at Litana by
the Boii. His head was cut off, lined with
gold, and used as a cup by the Boii (Liv. xxiii.
24; Polyb. iii. 106, 118 ; Cic. Tusc. i. 37, 89.—
11. Sp., consul in 186, when the senatuscon-
sultum was passed, which is extant, for sup
pressing the worship of Bacchus in Rome. He
died in 179. — 12. A., consul 180, when he
fought against the Ligurians, and censor 174.
He was subsequently engaged in many public
missions. Livy calls him Luseus, from which it
would seem that he was blind of one eye (Liv.
xl. 41, xiii. 10, xiv. 17).— 13. Sp., brother of Nos.
12 and 14, surnamed Paullulus, consul 174 (Liv.
xxxix. 45, xii. 26, xliii. 2). — 14, 1., praetor 180, in
Further Spain, where he remained two years,
and conquered the Vaccaei and Lusitani. He
was consul in 173, and afterwards served under
Aemilius Paulus in Macedonia in 168 (Liv. xl. 44,
xliv. 41). — 15. Sp., lieutenant of PaullusB.c. 168,
consul 110, carried on war against Jugurtha in
Numidia, but effected nothing. When Albinus
departed from Africa, he left his brother Aulus
in command, who was defeated by Jugurtha.
Spurius was condemned by the Mamilia Lex,
as guilty of treasonable praotices with Jugurtha.

ALBUNEA
— 16. A., consul 151, imprisoned by tribunes for
conducting the levies with too much severity
(Liv. Ep. 48 ; Pol. xxxv. 3) ; accompanied
Mummius to Greece as legate in 146 (Cic. Att.
xiii. 30, 32). He wrote a Roman history In
Greek, of which Polybius did not think highly
(Pol. xl. 6). Cicero speaks of him as a learned
man (Acad. ii. 45, 137, Brut. 21, 81).— 17. A.,
consul B.C. 99, with M. Antonius, is said by
Cicero to have been a good speaker (Brut. 25,
94). Albinus ('AX$ivos), a Platonic philosopher,
lived at Smyrna in the 2nd century after
Christ, and wrote an Introduction to the Dia
logues of Plato. — Editions. In the first edi
tion of Fabricius's Bibl. Graec. vol. ii., and pre
fixed to Etwall's edition of three dialogues of
Plato, Oxon. 1771; Schneider, 1852; C. Her
mann, 1873.
Albinus, Clodius, whose full name was
Decimus Clodius Ceionius Septimius Albinus,
was born at Adrumetum in Africa. The em
peror Commodus made him governor of Gaul
and afterwards of Britain, where he was on the
death of Commodus in a.d. 192. In order to
secure the neutrality of Albinus, Septimius
Severus made him Caesar ; but after Severus
had defeated his rivals, he turned his arms
against Albinus. A great battle was fought at
Lugdunum (Lyons), in Gaul, the 19th of Feb
ruary, 197, in which Albinus was defeated and
killed. (Dio Cass. lxx. 4 ; Vita Alb.)
Albion or Alebion ('AXfilav, 'AXtfiiojv), son of
Poseidon and brother of Dercynus or Bergion,
with whom he attacked Heracles, when he
passed through their country (Liguria) with
the oxen of Geryon. They were slain by Hera
cles. Albion, another name of Bbitannia, by
which it was originally distinguished from Ierne
(Plin. H. N. iv. § 102).
Albis (Elbe), one of the great rivers in Ger
many, the most easterly which the Romans
became acquainted with, rises according to
Tacitus in the country of the Hermunduri.
The Romans reached the Elbe for the first
time in B.C. 9 under Drusus, and crossed it for the
first time in B.C. 8 under Domitius Ahenobarbus.
Tiberius reached the Elbe a.d. 5 ; but after
that the legions were withdrawn from this part
of Germany, whence the expression in Tac.
Germ. 41, ' nunc tantum auditur.'
Albium Ingaunum or Albingaunum (.1/-
benga), a town of the Ingauni on the coast of
Liguria, and a municipium (Plin. iii. § 48;
Strabo, p. 202, writes it 'AXfiiyyavvov).
Albium Intemelium or Albintemelium
(Vintimiglia) a town of the Intemelii on the
coast of Liguria, and a municipium. (Strabo
connects both this name and the preceding with
the word Alp.)
T. Albiicius or Albutius, studied at Athens,
and belonged to the Epicurean sect ; he was
well acquainted with Greek literature, but was
satirised by Lucilius on account of his affecting
on every occasion the Greek language and
philosophy. He was praetor in Sardinia in B.C.
105 ; and in 108 was accused of extortion
by C. Julius Caesar, and condemned. He
retired to Athens and pursued the study of
philosophy. (Cic. Brut. 85, 131 ; de Fin. i. 38 ;
Orat. 44, 149 ; Tusc. v. 37, 108.)
Albula, an ancient name of the river Tiber.
Albulae Aquae. [Albunea.]
Albunea (Albula, Stat. Silv. i. 3. 75 ; accord
ing to some, Albuna in Tib. ii. 5. 69), a prophetic
nymph or Sibyl, to whom a grove was con-

ALBURNUS
secrated in the neighbourhood of Tibur
(Tivoli), with a fountain and a temple (Verg.
Aen. vii. 81 ; Hor. Od. i. 7, 12). This fountain
was the largest of the Albulae aquae, still called
Acque Albule, sulphurous springs at Tibur,
which flow into the Anio. Hence the story of
the Anio bearing the oracular books unwetted
in its stream to Tibur (Tib. ii. 5, 69). The name
perhaps belonged to other sulphurous springs,
for Probus (ad, Georg. i. 10) mentions one so
called in the Laurentine district. Near it was
the oracle of Faunus Fatidicus. The temple is
still extant at Tivoli.
Alburnus Mons, a mountain in Lucania
(Verg. Georg. iii. 146).
Alcaeus ('AXkoaos), 1. — Son of Perseus and
Andromeda, and father of Amphitryon and
Anaxo. — 2. A name of Heracles. — 3. Son of
Heracles, ancestor of Candaules (Herod, i. 7).
Alcaeus. 1. Of Mytilene in Lesbos, the
earliest of the Aeolian lyric poets. He belonged
to the nobles of Mytilene and fought both with
sword and pen in the struggles of the oligarchs
against those who usurped the sovereignty.
About the year 612 B.C. Melanchrus, the despot
of Mytilene, was slain by a faction in which the
brothers of Alcaeus, EjIus and Antemenidas,
were joined with Pittacus. Their party, how
ever, was overcome by Myrsilus, who made
himself despot, and the brothers went into exile,
Alcaeus to Egypt and Antemenidas to Assyria,
where he seems to have taken service with Nebu-
cadnezzar. One of the odes of Alcaeus tells of an
ivory -hilted sword
which his brother had
worn in this service.
Myrsilus was slain
by the popular party,
led by Pittacus ; and
we find Alcaeus mak
ing war upon Pitta
cus in the interest of
the oligarchic fac
tion. He was defeated
and imprisoned, but
soon pardoned by Pit
tacus. The only other
event of which we
have distinct notice, is that when the Athenians
tried to colonise Sigeum, Alcaeus fought in the
Mytilenaean army against them, and incurred
the disgrace (as he himself tells) of leaving his
shield in his flight from the battle (Hdt. v. 95 ;
Strab. p. 600). His poetry, in ten books, in
cluded hymns to the gods and odes, the latter
being divided into political (o-TafftaTiKa), scolia
and erotica; all, however, practically of the class
of scolia or drinking songs, and greatly inferior
poetry to that of his younger contemporary
Sappho. Among the few fragments remaining
are the originals of Horace's odes 'Vides ut
alta,' ' O navis referent,' and ' Nunc est biben-
dum,' which last is a rejoicing over the death
of Myrsilus. He has given his name to the
Alcaic metre, and seems also to have been the
earliest writer of Sapphics. — Editions. Bergk,
in Poetae Lyrici, 1867 ; Hartung, 1855. — 2. A
comic poet at Athens belonging to the transi
tion between Old and New Comedy, about B.C.
888. — 3. Of Messene, author of epigrams in
Anth. Pat, about b.c. 200.
Alcamenes ('AXKa/j.4vris). 1. Son of Tele-
clus, king of Sparta, from b.c. 779 to 742. — 2.
A sculptor of Athens, flourished from b.c.
444 to 400 and was the most famous of the
pupils of Phidias. His greatest works were a
statue of Aphrodite (Plin. xxxvi. 16 ; Lucian,

ALCIBIADES

43

Alcaeus.
(From a coin of Mytilene.)

Imag. 4), and a Dionysus. We are told 'also by
Pausanias that the west pediment in the temple
of Zeus at Olympia was his work. It is thought
that this belongs to an early period of his art,
before he came under the influence of Phidias.
[Cf. Agoeacritus.]
Alcander ("AXKavSpos), a young Spartan, who
thrust out one of the eyes of Lycurgus, when
his fellow-oitizens were discontented with the
laws he proposed. Lycurgus pardoned the out
rage, and thus converted Alcander into one of
his warmest friends. (Plut. Lye. 11 ; Ael. V.H.
xiii. 23.)
Alcathoe or Alcithoe ('AXKaB6rt or 'AXkiB6ti),
daughter of Minyas, refused with her sisters
Leucippe and Arsippe to join in the worship of
Dionysus when it was introduced into Boeotia,
and were accordingly changed by the god into-
bats, and their weaving-loom into vines (Ov.
Met. iv. 1-40, 390-415). A somewhat different
legend existed, apparently an attempt to explain
a human sacrifice. The daughters of Minyas
for the above reason being driven mad by Diony
sus, Leucippe gave up her son Hippasos to be
torn in pieces. Hence, it was said, came the
custom that the priest of Dionysus slew any
maiden of the race of Minyas whom he found
at the festival of Agrionia (Ant. Lib. 10 ; Plut.
Q.G.38; Ael. V.H. iii. 42; Diet, of Ant. s.v.
Agrionia.) Alcathous ('AXKdBoos). 1. Son of Pelops and
Hippodamia, brother of Atreus and Thyestes,
obtained as his wife Euaechme, the daughter of
Megareus, by slaying the Cithaeronian lion, and
succeeded his father-in-law as king of Megara.
He restored the walls of Megara, in which work
he was assisted by Apollo. The stone upon
which the god used to place his lyre while he
was at work was believed, even in late times, to
give forth a sound, when struck, similar to that
of a lyre (Ov. Met. viii. 15). — 2. Son of Aesyetes
and husband of Hippodamia, the daughter of
Anchises and sister of Aeneas, was one of the
bravest of the Trojan leaders in the war of Troy,
and was slain by Idomeneus (II. xiii. 427, 466).
Alcestis or Alcestis (^AXktjo-tis or 'AAfceo-T??),
daughter of Pelias and Anaxibia, wife of Adme
tus, died in place of her husband. [Admetus.]
Alcetas ('AA.KeVas), two kings of Epirus. 1.
Son of Tharypus, was expelled from his king
dom, and was restored by the elder Dionysius
of Syracuse. He was the ally of the Athenians
in B.C. 373 (Demosth. Tvmoth. pp. 1187, 1190,
§§10, 22 ; Paus. i. 11 ; Diod. xv. 13).— 2. Son of
Arymbas, and grandson of Alcetas I., reigned
B.C. 313-303, and was put to death by his sub
jects (Diod. xix. 88 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 3).
Alcetas. 1. King of Macedonia, reigned 29
years, and was father of Amyntas I. — 2. Brother
of Perdiccas and son of Orontes, was one of
Alexander's generals. On the death of Alex
ander, he espoused his brother's party, and
upon the murder of the latter in Egypt in 321,
he joined Eumenes. He killed himself at Ter-
messus in Pisidia in 320, to avoid falling into
the hands of Antigonus.
Alcibiades ('AAkijSioSijs), son of Clinias and
Dinomache, was born at Athens about B.C. 450,
and on the death of his father in 447 , was brought
up by his relation Pericles. He possessed
a beautiful person, transcendent abilities, and
great wealth, which received a large accession
through his marriage with Hipparete,the daugh
ter of Hipponicus. His youth was disgraced by
his amours and debaucheries, and Socrates,
who saw his vast capabilities, attempted to win
him to the paths of virtue, but in vain. Their

44

ALCIBIADES

intimacy was strengthened by mutua. services.
At the battle of Potidaea (b.c. 432) his life was
saved by Socrates, and at that of Delium (424)
he saved the life of Socrates. He did not take
much part in public affairs till after the death
of Cleon (422), but he then became one of the
leading politicians, and the head of the war
party in opposition to Nicias. Enraged at the
affront put upon him by the Lacedaemonians,
who had not chosen to employ his intervention
in the negotiations which ended in the peace of
421, and had preferred Nicias to him, he induced
the Athenians to form an alliance with Argos,
Mantinea and Elis, and to attack the allies of
Sparta. In 415 he was foremost among the
advocates of the Sicilian expedition, which he
believed would be a step towards the conquest
of Italy, Carthage, and Peloponnesus. While
the preparations for the expedition were going
on, there occurred the mysterious mutilation of
the Hermes-busts, which the popular fears con
nected in some unaccountable manner with an
attempt to overthrow the Athenian constitution.
Alcibiades was charged with being the ring
leader in this attempt. He had been already
appointed along with Nicias and Lamachus as
commander of the expe
dition to Sicily, and he
now demanded an inves
tigation before he set sail.
This, however, his ene
mies would not grant ; as
they hoped to increase the
popular odium against
him in his absence. He
was therefore obliged to
depart for Sicily ; but he
had not been there long,
before he was recalled to
stand his trial. On his
return homewards, he
managed to escape at
Thurii, and thence pro
ceeded to Sparta, where
he acted as the avowed
enemy of his country.
At Athens sentence of
death was passed upon
him, and his property
Alcibiades. was confiscated. At
Sparta he rendered him
self popular by the facility with which he adop
ted the Spartan manners; but the machina
tions of his enemy Agis II. induced him to
abandon the Spartans and take refuge with Tis-
saphernes (412), whose favour he soon gained.
Through his influence Tissaphernes deserted
tfys Spartans and professed his willingness to
assist the Athenians, who accordingly recalled
Alcibiades from banishment in 411. He did
not immediately return to Athens, but remained
abroad for the next 4 years, during which the
Athenians under his command gained the vic
tories of Cynossema, Abydos, and Cyzicus, and
got possession of Chalcedon and Byzantium.
In 407 he returned to Athens, where he was
received with great enthusiasm, and was
appointed commander-in-chief of all the land
and sea forces. But the defeat at Notium, occa
sioned during his absence by the imprudence of
liis lieutenant, Antiochus, furnished his enemies
with a handle against him, and he was super
seded in his command (b.c. 406). He now
went into voluntary exile to his fortified
domain at Bisanthe in the Thracian Cherso-
nesus, where he made war on the neighbouring
Thracians. Before the fatal battle of Aegos-

ALCINOUS
Potami (405), he gave an ineffectual warning
to the Athenian generals. After the fall of
Athens (404), he was condemned to banishment,
and took refuge with Pharnabazus ; he wasabout
to proceed to the court of Artaxerxes, when one
night his house was surrounded by a band of
armed men, and set on fire. He rushed out
sword in hand, but feU, pierced with arrows
(404). The assassins were probably either em
ployed by the Spartans, or (according to Plu
tarch) by the brothers of a lady whom Alcibiades
had seduced. He left a son by his wife Hip-
parete, named Alcibiades, who never distin
guished himself. It was for him that Isocrates
wrote the speech nep! tov Zevyovs. (Plut. Alcib.;
Nepos, Alcib. ; Thuc. v.-viii. ; Xen. Hell. i. 11 ;
Diod. xiii.; Andoc. in Ale. de Myst.; Isocr. de
Bigis.) Alcidamas ('AXKi8d/j.as), a Greek rhetorician,
of Elaea in Aeolis, in Asia Minor, was a pupil of
Gorgias, and resided at Athens between B.C. 432
and 411. His works were characterised by
pompous diction and the extravagant use of
poetical epithets and phrases (Quintil. iii. 1,
10 ; Arist. Bhet. i. 13, 5, iii. 3, 8 ; Cic. Tusc. i.
48, 116). There are two declamations extant
which bear his name, entitled Odysseus (in
which Odysseus accuses Palamedes) and de
Sqphistis. These are generally thought by mod
ern critics to be the work of different authors,
and it is possible that neither is by Alcidamas.
In a fragment of a speech about Messene, Alci
damas seems to condemn slavery as contrary to
natural law. — Editions of the two declamations
ascribed to him, in Reiske's Orat. Gr. ; Bekker's
Orat. Att. ; Blass, 1871.
Alcidas ('AXKlSas Dor. = 'AXKeiSr/s), a Spartan
commander of the fleet B.C. 428-427. In the
former year he was sent to Mytilene, and in the
latter to Corcyra. (Thuc. iii. 16, 26, 69.)
Alcides ('AXKeiSiis), a name of Amphitryon,
the son of Alcaeus, and more especially of
Heracles, the grandson of Alcaeus. Alcaeus
also seems to have been an early name of
Heracles himself.
Alcimede ('AXKifieSn), daughter of Phylacus
and Clymene, wife of Aeson, and mother of
Jason (Ov. Her. vi. 105 ; Ap. Rh. i. 45).
Alcimus (Avitus) Alethius, the writer of
7 short poems, a rhetorician in Aquitania, is
spoken of in terms of praise by Sidonius Apol-
linaris and Ausonius. — Editions. In Meier's
Anthologia Latina, 254-260, and in Werns-
ioti'sPoetae Latmi Minores, vol. vi.
Alcimedon (' AXKiy.io'av), an Arcadian hero,
father of Phialo, whom he cast forth upon the
mountains with the child which she had borne
to Heracles. Heracles, guided by a jay (Kicrira)
discovered and saved them (Paus. viii. 12, 2).
Alcinous ('AXkIvoos). 1. Son of Nausithous,
and grandson of Poseidon, is celebrated in the
story of the Argonauts, and still more in the
Odyssey. Homer represents him as the happy
ruler of the Phaeacians in the island of Scheria,
friend of the Immortals, who appear in visible
form to him and his people. He has by Arete
five sons and one daughter, Nausicaa. The
way in which he received Ulysses, and the
stories which the latter related to the king about
his wanderings, occupy a considerable portion
of the Odyssey (books vi. to xiii.). Pliny
(iv. § 52) identifies Scheria with Corfu, the in
habitants of which are said still to point out
the rocky island of Pontikonisi, noticed by
Pliny, in shape like a ship, as the rock into
which the Phaeacian ship (Od. xiii. 160) was
changed. The doom of the city of Alcinous,

ALCIPHRON
that it should be overwhelmed by a mountain
is foretold as though to enhance the nobility of
the character of Alcinous, but is not further
related. [For the Argonaut story, which places
Alcinous in the island of Drepane, see Argo-
nautae ; Ap. Rh. iv. 990.] — 2. A Platonic philo
sopher, who probably lived under the Caesars,
wrote a work entitled Epitome of the Doctrines
of Plato, but he ascribes to Plato much that
belongs to Aristotle, and some theories about
transmigration, which are probably derived
from Pythagoras. His Sai/j.oves are not unlike
the Gnostic Eons. — Editions. By Fell, Oxon.
1667, and by J. F. Fischer, Lips. 1878, 8vo.
Alciphron ('AXKtippav), the most distin
guished of the Greek epistolary writers, was
probably a contemporary of Lucian, about a.d.
180. The letters (118 hi number, in 8 books)
are written by fictitious personages, and the
language is distinguished by its purity and ele
gance. The new Attic comedy was the prin
cipal source from which the author derived his
information respecting the characters and man
ners which he describes, and for this reason
they contain much valuable information about
the private life of the Athenians of that time. —
Editions. By Bergler, Lips. 1715 ; Hercher,
1873 ; Meineke, 1853.
Alcippe. [Hatjrrhqtrtus.]
Alcithoe. [Alcathoe.]
Alcmaeon ('AXKfiaiav). 1. Son of Amphia
raus and Eriphyle, and brother of Amphilochus
(Paus. x. 10, 2). His mother was induced by
the necklace of Harmonia, which she received
from Polynices, to persuade her husband
Amphiaraus to take part in the expedition
against Thebes ; and as he knew he would
perish there, he enjoined his sons to kill their
mother as soon as they should be grown up,
before they went against Thebes. Alcmaeon
took part in the expedition of the Epigoni
against Thebes. The oracle made his leader
ship in the expedition a condition of its suc
cess, and his mother, bribed by Thersander with
the dress of Harmonia, overcame his scruples
about starting without having avenged his
father, wishing that her son also might die;
and on his return home after the capture of the
city, he slew his mother according to the injunc
tion of his father, and urged also by the oracle
of Apollo. For this deed he became mad, and
was haunted by the Erinnyes. He went to
Psophis, and was there purified by Phegeus,
whose daughter Arsinoe or Alphesiboea he
married, giving her the necklace and peplus
of Harmonia. But as the land of this
country ceased to bear on account of its har
bouring a matricide, his madness returned ; he
left Psophis and repaired to the country at the
mouth of the river Achelous. Here in the allu
vial deposit of the river was ground which had
not existed when his mother cursed him, and
so he was healed from his madness. The god
Achelous gave him his daughter Callirrhoe in
marriage ; and as the latter wished to possess
the necklace and peplus of Harmonia, Alcmaeon
went to Psophis and obtained them from Phe
geus, under the pretext of dedicating them at
Delphi ; but when Phegeus heard that the trea
sures were fetched for Callirrhoe, he caused his
sons to murder Alcmaeon. Alcmaeon was wor
shipped as a hero at Thebes, and at Psophis his
tomb was shown, surrounded with cypresses.
His sons by Callirrhoe avenged his death.
(Paus. viii. 24; Thuc. ii. 102; Plut. de Exit.
p. 602 ; Apollod. iii. 7 ; Ov. Met. ix. 407.)— 2. Son
of Megacles, was greatly enriched by Croesus,

ALCMENE

45

as related in Hdt. vi. 125. — 3. Of Crotona in
Italy. He is said to have been the first person
who dissected animals, and he made important
discoveries in anatomy and natural philosophy.
There are traces of Pythagorean influence in
his opinions. He wrote several medical and
philosophical works, which are lost. (Diog.
Laert. viii. 88 ; Clem. Alex. Strom, i. 808.)
Alcmaeonidae ('AXK/iaiavlSai),a-noble family
at Athens, members of which fill a space in
Grecian history from B.C. 750 to 400. They were
a branch of the family of the Nelldae, who were
driven out of Pylus in Messenia by the Dorians,
and settled at Athens. In consequence of the
way in which Megacles, one of the family,
treated the insurgents under Cylon (b.c. 612),
they brought upon themselves the guilt of sacri
lege, and were in consequence banished from
Athens, about 595. About 560 they returned
from exile, but were again expelled by Pisistra-
tus. In 548 they contracted with the Amphictyo-
nic council to rebuild the temple of Delphi, and
obtained great popularity throughout Greece by
executing the work in a style of magnificence
which much exceeded their engagement. On
the expulsion of Hippias in 510, they were again
restored to Athens. They now joined the
popular party, and Clisthenes, who was at that
time the head of the family, gave a new consti
tution to Athens. [See also Clisthenes, Mega
cles, Pericles.]
Alcman ('AXKfidv, also called 'AXKfiaiuv), the
chief lyric poet of Sparta, by birth a Lydian of
Sardis, was brought to Laconia as a slave, when
very young, and was emancipated by his master,
who discovered his genius. He lived in the 7th
century b.c, and most of his poems were com
posed after the conclusion of the second Messe-
nian war. Lyric poetry was chiefly used at
Sparta for religious worship, and accordingly
Alcman wrote paeans, wedding hymns and pro
cessional hymns (prosodia), but he wrote also
parthenia (for girls to sing in chorus), and is
said by some ancient writers to have been the
inventor of erotic poetry. His metres were very
various. The Cretic hexameter was named
from him Alcmanic. His dialect was the Spartan
Doric, with an intermixture of epic and Aeolic.
The Alexandrian grammarians placed Alcman
at the head of their canon of the 9 lyric poets.
The fragments of his poems are edited by
Welcker, Giessen, 1815 ; Bergk, in Poetae Lyrici
Graeci, 1867 ; Dramard-Baudry, Paris, 1870.
Alcmene ('AXK/vfivri), daughter of Electryon,
king of Mycenae, by Anaxo or Lysidice. The
brothers of Alcmene were slain by the sons of
Pterelaus ; and their father set out to avenge
their death, leaving to Amphitryon his kingdom
and his daughter Alcmene, whom Amphitryon
was to marry. But Amphitryon having unin
tentionally killed Electryon before the marriage,
Sthenelus expelled both Amphitryon and Alc
mene, who went to Thebes. But here, instead
of marrying Amphitryon, Alcmene declared
that she would only marry the man who should
avenge the death of her brothers. Amphitryon
undertook the task, and invited Creon of Thebes
to assist him. During his absence, Zeus, in the
disguise of Amphitryon, visited Alcmene, and,
pretending to be her husband, related in what
way he had avenged the death of her brothers
(Pind. Nem. x. 15, Isthm. vii. 5). Amphitryon
himself returned the next day ; Alcmene became
the mother of Heracles by Zeus, and of Iphicles
by Amphitryon. [Heeacles.] When Heracles
was raised to the rank of a god, Alcmene, fear
ing Eurystheus, fled with the sons of Heracles

46

ALCYONE

to Athens ; but when Hyllus died she returned
to Thebes and, according to some, died there
"(Anton. Lib. 83); Pausanias (i. 41) says that
she died near Megara, and was buried there.
JPherecydes (ap. Ant. Lib.) relates that Zeus
sent Hermes to conduct her to the Islands of
the Blest, where she married Rhadamanthys.
From this comes a variant, that she married
Rhadamanthys while he was king of Ocalia.
(Apollod. ii. 4, 11; Plut. Lys. 28.)
Alcyone or Halcyone ('AAjcuoVij) 1. A Pleiad,
¦daughter of Atlas and Pleione, and beloved by
Poseidon. — 2. Daughter of the Thessalian
Aeolus and Enarete, wife of the Malian king
Ceyx. — 3. Daughter of the wind-god Aeolus and
Aegiale, wife of Ceyx, the son of Hesperus.
They lived so happily that they were presump
tuous enough to call each other Zeus and
Hera, for which Zeus metamorphosed them
into birds, alcyon and ceyx (Ap. Rh. i. 1087).
Others relate that Ceyx perished in a ship
wreck, that Alcyone for grief threw herself into
the sea, and that the gods, out of compassion,
changed the two into birds (Hyg. Fab. 65 ; Ov.
Met. xi. 410-750). It was fabled that during
the seven days before, and as many after, the
shortest day of the year, while the bird alcyon
was breeding, there always prevailed calms at
sea. Hence the term aXKvoviSts i}fj.epai (Arist.
H. A. v. 9; cf. Theocr. vii. 57).
Alcyoneus ('AXkvovcvs), a giant killed by
Heracles at the Isthmus of Corinth (Apollod. i.
6, 1 ; Pind. Nem. iv. 27). He is called $ov^6ras
(Nem. vi. 36), because he was said to have
driven off the cattle of the Sun from Erytheia.
Later poets represent him as lying under Aetna.
Alcyonium Mare (r\ 'AXkuovIs BdXao-o-a), the
E. part of the Corinthian Gulf.
Alea (AAea), a surname of Athene, under
which she was worshipped at Alea, Mantinea,
and Tegea. Her temple at the latter place was
one of the most celebrated in Greece. It is

ALESIUM
Alebion. [Albion.]
AleCtO. FEUMENIDES.]
Alemanm or Alamanni or Alamani (from
the German alle Manner, all men), a con
federacy of German tribes, chiefly of Snevic
extraction, between the Danube, the Rhine,
and the Main, though we subsequently find
them extending their territories as far as the
Alps and the Jura. The different tribes of the
confederacy were governed by their own kings,
but in time of war they obeyed a common
leader. They were brave and warlike, and
proved formidable enemies to the Romans.
They first came into contact with the Romans
in the reign of Caracalla, who assumed the sur
name of Alemanicus on account of a pretended
victory over them (a.d. 214). They were attacked
by Alexander Severus (234), and by Maximin
(237). They invaded Italy in 270, but were
driven back by Aurelian, and were again de
feated by Probus in 282. After this time they
continually invaded the Roman dominions in
Germany, and, though defeated by Constantius
I., Julian (357), Valentinian, and Gratian, they
gradually became more and more powerful, and
in the fifth century were in possession of Alsace
and of German Switzerland.
Aleria ('AXepla : 'AXaXta in Herod.), one of
the chief cities of Corsica, on the E. of the
island, on the S. bank of the river Rhotanus
(Tarignano) near its mouth. It was founded
by the Phocaeans B.B. 564, was plundered by L.
Scipio in the first Punic war, and was made a
Roman colony by Sulla. (Hdt. i. 165; Zonar.
viii. 11 ; Diod. v. 18.)
Alesa. [Halesa.]
Alesia ('AXto-la), an ancient town of the
Mandubii in Gallia Lugdunensis, said to have
been founded by Hercules, and situated on a
high hill (now Auxois), which was washed by
the two rivers Lutosa (Oze) and Osera (Oze-
rain). It was taken and destroyed by Caesar,

Plan of the Environs of Alesia.

A, the east end of the hill of Alesia, where Vercingetorix built his stone wall ; B. hill partly ooouuled bv Caesar • 0
ditto; D, ditto; E, ditto ; F, hospital of Alise ; a a, road from Montbard and 2ra-r™ S °, roadtoZ&OTh ' '

said to have been built by Aleus, Bon of Aphi-
¦ das, king of Tegea, from whom the goddess
derived this surname (Paus. viii. 4, 4).
Alea ('AXia : 'AXeis), a town in Arcadia, E.
of the Stymphalian lake, with a celebrated
temple of Athene, the ruins of which are near
PiaU (Paus. viii. 23).

in b.c. 52, after a memorable siege, but was
afterwards rebuilt. (Caes. B. G. vii. 68-90;
Strab. p. 191 ; Diod. iv. 19.)
Alesiae '('AXeo-'tai), a town in Laconia, W.
of Sparta, on the road to Pherae (Paus. iii.
20). Alesium ('AXeio-iov), a town in Elis, not far

ALESILS
from Olympia, afterwards called Alesiaeum
(Strab.p. 341 ; Horn. II. ii. 617).
Alesius Mons (Th 'AXiio-iov opos), a mountain
in Arcadia, with a temple of Poseidon Hippius
and a grove of Demeter. [Mantinea.]
Aletes ('A\i)T7)s), son of Hippotes and a de
scendant of Heracles, is said to have taken pos
session of Corinth, and to have expelled the
Sisyphids, thirty years after the first invasion
of Peloponnesus by the Heraclids. His family,
called the Aletidae, maintained themselves at
Corinth down to the time of Bacchis. (Strab.
p. 389 ; Paus. ii. 4 ; Veil. Pat. i. 8). According
to tradition he got his name, ' Wanderer,' be
cause his father had been banished for the
murder of Carnus. It is not improbable that
he may be under this name merely the repre
sentative of the migrating Dorians, who were
spoken of as aXrjrai. Regarding the manner in
which Aletes took Corinth, there are various
stories. The historical account is that the
conquerors entrenched themselves on the Soly-
gian hill, and from that basis got possession of
the town (Thuc. iv. 42). Pausanias (ii. 4, 3) says
that the two kings Doris and Hyanthidas made
terms for themselves to remain in the land
while their Aeolian subjects were driven out.
From their names it might rather be imagined
that they were eponyms of Dorian tribes. A
more popular legend is that Aletes consulted
the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and was told that
he might take the city on a festal day if he
could first induce a native of the place to give
him a clod of earth. Aletes disguised himself
and asked a Corinthian for bread ; the man
churlishly gave him a clod, upon which he,
recognising the omen, said, Sex^rai Kal fiaXov
'AXt]ttis. As a festival of the Dead was going
on, he contrived to accost the daughter of
Creon the king, and promised to marry her if
she would open the city gates for him, which
she did. He called the place Aibs KdpivBos,
because he had gained it by the aid of Zeus :
hence the proverb for an ' old story,' because
this story was so often told. (Schol. ad Pind.
Nem. vii. 155.) The legend seems to have
grown up somehow as an explanation of the
proverb itself, and of the custom of asking for
earth in token of submission. [For another
story of the taking of Corinth see Hellotis.]
Aletes also fought against Atreus when Codrus
devoted himself [see Codrus]. He divided his
people into eight tribes, with eight districts.
From him the Corinthians are called irdiSes
'AXdra (Pind. 01. xiii. 17).
Alethea (AA.^fleia), Truth personified, the
daughter of Zeus (Pind. 01. xi. 6; Schol. ad
loc.). The Romans regarded her as daughter
of Saturnus=KpdVos (Plut. O. B. 11). Gellius
apparently confuses Kp6vos and XP&V0S when
he says (xii. 11) that she was the daughter of
Tempus. Aletis. [Eeigone.]
Aletlum (Aletlnus), atown of Calabria (Strab.
p. 282 ; Plin. iii. § 105).
Aletrlum or Alatrium (Aletrinas, atis : Ala-
tri), an ancient town of the Hernici, subse
quently a municipium and a Roman colony, W.
of Sora and E. of Anagnia (Liv. ix. 42; Cic.
Clu. 16, 42 ; Strab. p. 237 ; C.I. L. i. 1166). It is
especially remarkable for its remains of ancient
walls in polygonal masonry.
Aleuadae. [Aleuas.]
Aleuas fAAeiios), a descendant of Heracles,
was the ruler of Larissa in Thessaly, and the
reputed founder of the celebrated family of
the Aleuadae (Pind. Pyth. x. 5; Theocr. xvi.

ALEXANDER

47

34). In Ael. H. A. viii. 11 we have a story of a
serpent falling in love with him while he tended
cattle on Ossa. [For the history of the Aleu
adae see Thessalia.]
Aleus. [Alea.]
Alex or Halex (Alece), a small river in S.
Italy, was the boundary between the territory
of Rhegium and of the Locri Epizephyrii (Strab.
p. 260 ; Thuc. iii. 99).
Alexander ('AAe'focSpos), the usual name of
Paris in the Iliad.
Alexander Severus. [Severus.]
Alexander. I. Minor Historical Persons.
1. Son of Aeropus, and son-in-law of Anti-
pater, a native of the Macedonian district
called Lyncestis, whence he is usually called
Alexander Lyncestes. He was an accomplice in
the murder of Philip, b.c. 836, but was pardoned
by Alexander the Great. He accompanied
Alexander to Asia ; but in 334 he was detected
in carrying on a treasonable correspondence
with Darius, was kept in confinement and put
to death in 830 (Arr. i. 25 ; Curt. viii. 8 ; Plut.
Al. 10; Just. xii. 14). — 2. Son of Antonius,
the triumvir, and Cleopatra, surnamed Helios,
born with his twin-sister Cleopatra Selene, B.C.
40. After the battle of Actium they were taken
to Rome by Augustus, and were generously
educated by Octavia, the wife of Antonius, with
her own children (Plut. Ant. 54, 87 ; Dio Cass.
xlix. 40, li. 21). — 3. Eldest son of Aristobulus
II., king of Judaea, rose in arms in B.C. 57
against Hyrcanus, who was supported by the
Romans. Alexander was defeated by the
Romans in 56 and 55, and was put to death by
Pompey at Antioch in 49 (Jos. Ant. xiv. 5 ;
B. J. i. 8). — 4. Third son of Cassander, king of
Macedonia, by Thessalonica, sister of Alexander
the Great. In his quarrel with his elder brother
Antipater for the government [Antipatee], he
called in the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus and De
metrius Poliorcetes, by the latter of whom he
was murdered B.C. 294 (Plut. Pyrrh. ; Dem. ;
Just. xvi. 1). — 5. Jannaeus, the son of Joannes
Hyrcanus, and brother of Aristobulus I., king
of the Jews B.C. 104-77. At the commencement
of his reign he was engaged in war with Ptolemy
Lathyrus, king of Cyprus ; and subsequently he
had to carry on for six years a dangerouE
struggle with his own subjects, to whom he had
rendered himself obnoxious by his cruelties and
by opposing the Pharisees. He signalised his
victory by the most frightful butchery of his
subjects (Jos. Ant. xiii. 12). — 6. Sumamed Isius,
the chief commander of the Aetolians, took an
active part in opposing Philip of Macedonia
(b.c. 198, 197), and in the various negotiations
with the Romans, including the embassy to
Rome, B.C. 189, to obtain peace for the Aetolians
on terms of submission after the victories of
Fulvius Nobilior (Liv. xxxii. 32 ; Pol. xvii. xviii.
xxii. 9). — 7. Tyrant of Pherae, nephew of Jason,
and also of Polyphron, whom he murdered,
thus becoming Tagus of Thessaly, B.C. 369 (Plut.
Pel. 29 &c. ; Xen. Hell. vi. 4 ; Cic. de Off. ii. 7,
25). In consequence of his tyrannical govern
ment the Thessalians applied for aid first to
Alexander II., king of Macedonia, and next to
Thebes. The Thebans sent Pelopidas into
Thessaly to succour the malcontents ; but
having ventured incautiously within the power
of the tyrant, he was seized by Alexander and
thrown into prison, b.c. 368. The Thebans sent
a large army into Thessaly to rescue Pelopidas,
but they were defeated in the first campaign,
and did not obtain their object till the next
year, 367. In 364 Pelopidas again entered

48

ALEXANDER

Thessaly with a small force, but was slain in
battle by Alexander. The Thebans now sent a
large army against the tyrant, and compelled
him to become a dependent ally of Thebes.
We afterwards hear of Alexander making pira
tical descents on many of the Athenian de
pendencies, and even on Attica itself. He was
murdered in 867, by his wife Thebe, with the
assistance of her three brothers, when, as it
is said, he was planning to murder her and
marry the widow of his uncle Jason. Reference
to the anecdote in Plut. Pel. 29 will show that
Shakespeare in all probability took some sug
gestions for the plot of Hamlet from what is
related of Alexander of Pherae, especially as re
gards the 'play-scene.' — 8. Son of Polysperchon,
the Macedonian, was chiefly employed by his
father in the command of the armies which
he sent against Cassander. Thus he was sent
against Athens in B.C. 318, and was engaged in
military operations during the next year in
various parts of Greece. But in 315 he became
reconciled to Cassander, and we find him in
314 commanding on behalf of the latter. He
was murdered at Sicyon in 314 (Diod. xviii. 65
&c, xix. 11, 53, 60, 66). — 9. Ptolemaeus.
[Ptolemaeus.] — 10. Tiberius, born at Alex
andria, of Jewish parents, and nephew of the
writer Philo. He deserted the faith of his
ancestors, and was rewarded for his apostasy
by various public appointments. In the reign
of Claudius he succeeded Fadius as procurator
of Judaea (a.d. 46), and was appointed by Nero
procurator of Egypt. He was the first Roman
governor who declared in favour of Vespasian ;
and he accompanied Titus in the war against
Judaea, and was present at the taking of
Jerusalem. (Jos. Ant. xx. 4, B. J. ii. 11 &c. ;
Tac. Ann. xv. 28, Hist. i. 11, ii. 74, 79.)
II. Kings of Epirus.
1. Son of Neoptolemus and brother of
Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great.
Philip made him king of Epirus in place of his
cousin Aeacides, and gave him his daughter
Cleopatra in marriage (b. c. 336). In 332,
Alexander, at the request of the Tarentines,
crossed over into Italy, to aid them against the
Lucanians and Bruttii. After meeting with
considerable success, he was defeated and slain
in battle in 326, near Pandosia, on the banks of
the Acheron in Southern Italy. (Just. viii. 6,
xii. 2 ; Liv. viii. 17, ix. 17). — 2. Son of Pyrrhus
and Ianassa, daughter of the Sicilian tyrant
Agathocles, succeeded his father in B. c. 272,
and drove Antigonus Gonatas out of Mace
donia. He was shortly afterwards deprived of
both Macedonia and Epirus by Demetrius, the
son of Antigonus : but he recovered Epirus by
the aid of the Acarnanians. (Plut. Pyrrh. 9 ;
Just. xxvi. 2, xxviii. 1.)
III. Kings of Macedonia.
1. Son of Amyntas I., distinguished himself
in the life-time of his father by killing the
Persian ambassadors who had come to demand
the submission of Amyntas, because they
attempted to offer indignities to the ladies of
the court, about B. c. 507. He succeeded his
father shortly afterwards, was obliged to submit
to the Persians, and accompanied Xerxes in his
invasion of Greece (b. c. 480). He gained the
confidence of Mardonius, who sent him to
Athens to propose peace to the Athenians,
which was rejected. He was secretly inclined
to the cause of the Greeks, and informed them
the night before the battle of Plataeae of the

intention of Mardonius to fight on the following
day. He died b. c. 454, and was succeeded by
Perdiccas II. (Hdt. vii. 173, viii. 136, ix. 44 ;
Just. vii. 3.) — 2. Son of Amyntas II., whom he
succeeded, reigned b. c. 369-367 (Plut. Pel.
26 ; Diod. xv. 60 ; Dem. F.L. p. 402, § 195). A
usurper, of the name of Ptolemy Alorites,
having risen against him, Pelopidas, who was
called in to mediate between them, left Alex
ander in possession of the kingdom, but took
with him to Thebes several hostages; among
whom was Philip, afterwards king of Mace
donia, and father of Alexander the Great.
Alexander was shortly afterwards murdered by
Ptolemy Alorites.
3. Alexander ' The Great,' Son of Philip II.
and Olympias, was born at Pella, B. c. 356.
His early education was committed to Leonidas
and Lysimachus, who taught him to compare
himself with Achilles ; at the age of 13, he was
also placed under the care of Aristotle, who ac
quired an influence over his mind and character
which was manifest to the latest period of his
life. At the age of 16 Alexander was entrusted
with the government of Macedonia by his
father, while he was obliged to leave his king
dom to march against Byzantium. He first
distinguished himself, however, at the battle of
Chaeronea (338), where the victory was mainly
owing to his impetuosity and courage. On the
murder of Philip (336), to which he was con
sidered by some, though probably with injus
tice, to have been privy, Alexander ascended
the throne, at the age of 20, and found himself
surrounded by enemies on every side. He first
put down rebellion in his own kingdom, and
then rapidly marched into Greece. His un
expected activity overawed all opposition;
Thebes, which had been most active against
him, submitted when he appeared at its gates ;
and the assembled Greeks at the Isthmus of
Corinth, with the sole exception of the Lacedae
monians, elected him to the command against
Persia, which had previously been bestowed
upon his father. He now directed his arms
against the barbarians of the north, marched
(early in 335) accross mount Haemus, defeated
the Triballi, and advanced as far as the
Danube, which he crossed ; and on his return
subdued the Ulyrians and Taulantii. A report
of his death having reached Greece, the
Thebans once more took up arms. But a
terrible punishment awaited them. He ad
vanced into Boeotia by rapid marches, took
Thebes by assault, destroyed all the buildings,
with the exception of the house of Pindar,
killed most of the inhabitants, and sold the rest
as slaves. (Arr. i. 7 ; Just. xi. 2 ; Plut. Al. 11.)
Alexander now prepared for his great expedi
tion against Persia. Philip having been nomi
nated leader of the war against Persia by the
Greek States, whose best policy in the interests
of their own freedom would have been to pre
serve the balance of Persia against Macedon,
Alexander now succeeded to the enterprise.
In the spring of 334, he crossed the Hellespont,
with about 35,000 men. Of these 30,000 were
foot and 5000 horse; and of the former only
12,000 were Macedonians. At Hium he offered
sacrifice to Athene, placed garlands on the
tomb of Achilles and himself ran round it.
Alexander's first engagement with the Persians
was on the river Granicus in Mysia (May 334),
where they were entirely defeated by him.
This battle was followed by the capture or
submission of the chief towns on the W. coast
of Asia Minor. Halicarnassus was not taken

ALEXANDER

till late in the autumn, after a vigorous defence
by Memnon, the ablest general in the Persian
service, whose death in the following year (888)
relieved Alexander from a formidable opponent.
He now marched along the coast of Lycia and
Pamphylia, and then N. into Phrygia and to
Gordium, where he cut or untied the celebrated
Gordian knot, attaching the yoke to the pole of
the waggon (traditionally that of Gordius),
which, it was said, was to be loosened only by
the conqueror of Asia. In 333, he marched
from Gordium though the centre of Asia Minor
into Cilicia, where he nearly lost his life at
Tarsus by a fever, brought on by his great
exertions, or through bathing, when fatigued,
in the cold waters of the Cydnus. Darius
meantime had collected an army of 500,000 or
600,000 men, with 30,000 Greek mercenaries,
whom Alexander defeated in the narrow plain
of Issus. Darius escaped across the Euphrates
by the ford of Thapsacus ; but his mother, wife,
and children fell into the hands of Alexander,
who treated them with the utmost delicacy and
respect. It was a fortunate capture for Alex
ander, since Darius for a long time abstained
from opposition in hopes of ransoming the
captives, and so lost valuable time. Alexander
now directed his armies against the cities of
Phoenicia, most of which submitted ; but Tyre
was not taken till the middle of 332, after an
obstinate defence of seven months. Next
followed the siege of Gaza, which again delayed
Alexander two months. His cruelty towards
Batis its defender, whom he fastened to the
chariot and dragged round the walls, in imita
tion of Achilles, is unlike his previous
character. Afterwards, according to Josephus,
he marched to Jerusalem, intending to punish
the people for refusing to assist him, but he was
diverted from his purpose by the appearance of
the high priest, and pardoned the people.
There is no doubt that this story, which rests
on the authority of Josephus alone, should be
rejected. Alexander next marched into Egypt,
which willingly submitted to him, for the Egyp
tians had ever hated the Persians, who treated
their national religion and customs with con
tempt, while Alexander's policy was exactly the
opposite. At the beginning of 331, Alexander
founded at the mouth of the W. branch of the
Nile, the city of Alexandria, and about the
same time visited the temple of Jupiter
Ammon, in the desert of Libya, and was saluted
by the priests as the son of Jupiter Ammon. — In
the spring of the same year (331), Alexander set
out to meet Darius, who had collected an
other army. He marched through Phoenicia
and Syria to the Euphrates, which he crossed at
the ford of Thapsacus; thence he proceeded
through Mesopotamia, crossed the Tigris, and at
length met with the immense hosts of Darius,
said to have amounted to more than a million
of men, in the plains of Gaugamela. The
battle was fought in the month of October, 331,
and ended in the complete defeat of the
Persians. Alexander pursued the fugitives to
Arbela (ErbiV), which place has given its name
to the battle, though distant about 25 miles
from the spot where it was fought. Darius,
who had left the field of battle early in the day,
fled to Ecbatana (Hamadan), in Media. Alex
ander was now the conqueror of Asia, and began
to adopt Persian habits and customs, by which
he conciliated the affections of his new subjects.
From Arbela, he marched to Babylon, Susa, and
Persepolis, all of which surrendered to him. At
Susa he found a treasure of 40,000 talents, and,

49

among other spoils carried off by Xerxes, the
statues of HarmodiusandAristogeiton, which he
sent back to Athens. Here he received a rein
forcement of 15,000 men from Greece. He is said
to have set fire to the palace of Persepolis, and,
according to some accounts, in the revelry of a
banquet, at the instigation of Thais, an Athenian
courtesan (Curt. v. 6 ; Arr. iii. 19 ; Diod. xvii.
70 ; Plut. Al. 42). The treasure found at Per
sepolis is said to have amounted to 120,000
talents. — At the beginning of 330 Alexander
marched from Persepolis into Media, to Ecba
tana, in pursuit of Darius, whom he followed
through Rhagae and the passes of the Elburz
mountains, called by the ancients the Caspian
Gates, into Parthia, where the unfortunate king
was murdered by Bessus, satrap of Bactria, and
his associates. Alexander sent his body to
Persepolis, to be buried in the tombs of the
Persian kings. Bessus escaped to Bactria, and
assumed the title of king of Persia. Alexander
was engaged during the remainder of the year
in subduing the N. provinces of Asia between
the Caspian and the Indus — namely, Hyrcania,
Parthia, Aria, the Drangae and Sarangae. It
was during this campaign that Philotas, his
father Parmenion, and other Macedonians,
were executed on the charge of treason. The
proceedings in this matter were both cruel and
unjust, and have left a stain upon Alexander's
memory. In 329 Alexander crossed the moun
tains of the Paropamisus (the Hindoo Koosh),
and marched into Bactria against Bessus, whom
he pursued across the Oxus (which he crossed
upon pontoons formed of inflated skins) into
Sogdiana. In this country Bessus was betrayed
to him, and was put to death. From the Oxus,
after occupying Maracanda (Samarcand), he
advanced as far as the Jaxartes (the Sir), which
he crossed, and defeated several Scythian tribes
N. of that river. After founding a city Alex
andria on the Jaxartes, called also Alexandria
Eskate, as the northern limit of his march — it
is probably either Khojend or Kokan— he re
traced his steps, and returned to Zariaspa or
Bactra, where he spent the winter of 329. It
was here that he killed his friend Clitus in a
drunken revel. — In 828, Alexander again crossed
the Oxus to complete the subjugation of Sog
diana, but was not able to effect it in the year,
and accordingly went into winter quarters at
Nautaca, a place in the middle of the province.
At the beginning of 327, he took a mountain
fortress, in which Oxyartes,. a Bactrian prince,
had deposited his wife and daughters. The
beauty of Roxana, one of the latter, captivated
the conqueror, and he accordingly made her his
wife. This marriage with one of his Eastern
subjects was in accordance with the whole of
his policy. Having completed the conquest of
Sogdiana, he marched S. into Bactria, and made
preparations for the invasion of India. While
the army was in Bactria another conspiracy was
discovered for the murder of the king. The plot
was formed by Hermolaus with a number of the
royal pages, who were all put to death. Alex
ander found, or pretended to find, that the
philosopher Callisthenes, whose freedom of
speech he resented, was an accomplice and put
him also to death, at the same time uttering a
threat against the absent Greeks (i.e. Aristotle)
who had sent Callisthenes to him (for the com
ment of Theophrastus, see Cic. Tusc. iii. 10, 21).
Alexander did not leave Bactria till late in the
spring of 327 : he recrossed the Paropamisus
mountains (Hindoo Koosh), and, marching by
Cabul and the Cophen (Cabul river), crossed

50

ALEXANDER

the Indus, probably near the modern Attack.
He met with no resistance till he reached the
Hydaspes (Jelum), where he was opposed by
Porus, an Indian king, whom he defeated after
a gallant resistance, and took prisoner. Alex
ander restored to him his kingdom, and treated
him with distinguished honour. He founded
two towns, one on each bank of the Hydaspes :
one called Bucephala, in honour of his horse
Bucephalus, who died here, after carrying him
through so many victories ; and the other Ni-
caea, to commemorate his victory. From thence
he marched across the Acesines (the Chinab)
and the Hydraotes (the Bavi), and penetrated
as far as the Hyphasis (Gharra). This was the
furthest point which he reached, for the Mace
donians, worn out by long service, and tired of
the war, refused to advance further ; and Alex
ander, notwithstanding his entreaties and
prayers, was obliged to lead them back. He
returned to the Hydaspes, where he had pre
viously given orders for the building of a fleet,
and then sailed down the river with about 8000
men, while the remainder marched along the
banks in two divisions. This was late in the
autumn of 327. The people on each side of
the river submitted without resistance, except
the Malli, in the conquest of one of whose towns
(probably Mooltan), where he was the first to
scale the wall, Alexander was severely wounded.
At the confluence of the Acesines and the
Indus, Alexander founded a city, and left Philip
as satrap, with a considerable body of Greeks.
Here he built some fresh ships, and continued
his voyage down the Indus, founded a city at
Pattala, the apex of the delta of the Indus, and
sailed into the Indian ocean, which he reached
about the middle of 326. Nearchus was sent
with the fleet to sail along the coast to the Per
sian gulf [Nearchus] ; and Alexander marched
with the rest of his forces through Gedrosia, in
which country his army suffered greatly from
want of water and provisions. He reached
Susa at the beginning of 325. Here he allowed
himself and his troops some rest from their
labours ; and anxious to form his European and
Asiatic subjects into one people, he assigned to
about 80 of his generals Asiatic wives, and gave
with them rich dowries. He himself took a
second wife, Barsine, the eldest daughter of
Darius, and according to some accounts, a third,
Parysatis, the daughter of Ochus. About 10,000
Macedonians followed the example of their
king and generals, and married Asiatic women.
Alexander also enrolled large numbers of
Asiatics among his troopB, and taught them the
Macedonian tactics. He moreover directed his
attention to the increase of commerce, and for
this purpose determined to make the Euphrates
and Tigris navigable, by removing the artificial
obstructions which had been made in the river
for the purpose of irrigation. The Mace
donians, who were discontented with several
of the new arrangements of the king, rose in
a mutiny, which he quelled with some diffi
culty. Towards the close of the same year
(325) he went to Ecbatana, where he lost his
great favourite Hephaestion. From Ecbatana
he marched to Babylon, subduing in his way
the Cossaei, a mountain tribe; and before he
reached Babylon he was met by ambassadors
from almost every part of the known world.
Alexander entered Babylon in the spring of 324,
about a year before his death, notwithstanding
the warnings of the Chaldaeans, who predicted
evil to him if he entered the city at that time.
He intended to make Babylon the capital of

his empire, as the best point of communication
between his eastern and western dominions.
His schemes were numerous and gigantic. His
first object was the conquest of Arabia, which
was to be followed, it was said, by the subjuga
tion of Italy, Carthage, and the West. But his
views were not confined merely to conquest. He
ordered a fleet to be built on the Caspian, in
order to explore that sea. He also intended to
improve the distribution of waters in the Baby
lonian plain, and for that purpose sailed down
the Euphrates to inspect the canal called
Pallacopas. On his return to Babylon he was
attacked by a fever, probably brought on by his
recent exertions in tne marshy districts around
Babylon, and aggravated by the quantity of wine
he had drunk at
a banquet given
to his princi
pal officers. He
died after an ill
ness of 11 days,
in the month
of May or June
B.C. 323, at the
age of 32, after a
reign of 12 years
and 8 months.
He appointed
no one as his
successor, but
just before his
death he gave
his ring to Per-
diccas. Roxana
was with child
at the time of
his death, and
afterwards bore
a son who is
known by the
name of Alexan
der Aegus  Por
traits of Alexan
der were made
by Lysippus the
sculptor, Apelles the painter, and Pyrgoteles
the gem-engraver. His successors introduced
his portrait upon their coins}' as in the accom
panying one of Lysimachus, where he is re
presented as Zeus Ammon. — The history of

AAEHANAPDZ tiAinnaY
MAKEADNOS

Alexander, by Lysippus.

Alexander as Zeus Ammon, on a coin of Lysimachus.

Alexander forms an important epoch in the
history of mankind. Alexander himself must
rank as one of the most remarkable men of
all ages and countries. It would be difficult
to name any one whose career was more re
markable, especially when we remember that
all his achievements were crowded into twelve

ALEXANDER

51

:years, and that he died before he reached middle
life, younger in fact at the time of his death
than Julius Caesar was when he began his
career. As a general he has no proved superior
in history. . It is true that, as the Romans were
glad to remark, his Asiatic opponents were, like
other Asiatics, bad and untrustworthy troops
such as have in other ages been defeated by
forces small in number; but he had had to
defeat Greek troops before he started for Asia,
and in Asia itself Greeks were opposed to him ;
at Granicus 20,000 Greeks fought in the Persian
army, and at Issus 80,000. When we consider
his uniform success under these circumstances,
we cannot set it down to the fact that his foes
were a mob of unwarlike Asiatics. But a
stronger evidence of his rank as a pre-eminent
military commander is afforded by his strate
gical greatness and the absence of all failure
in his provision for long and difficult marches
arranged long beforehand, and for drawing
reinforcements from Greece into the heart of
Asia. His marches through such country as the
defiles of the " Susian Gates " and the Hindoo
Koosh, alone are evidence of marvellous skill.
Of his power to organise and control the vast
empire which he had conquered, it is more
-difficult to speak positively. The proof was to
come in the following 20 or SO years which he
never saw. But his dealings with Greece, with
Egypt, and so far with Persia give reason to
believe that he had political capacity also, such
as rarely has been surpassed. His character,
-which seems to have been naturally chivalrous
and generous, however hable to fits of passion,
lad, it must be admitted, suffered by his Eastern
conquests. His treatment of Batis, of Philotas
and Parmenio, and of Callisthenes, and his
affectation of Asiatic dress and manners, seem
to show that, except as regards mere personal
"bravery, little of the early chivalry remained.
His importance in history is due not merely to
his traversing and opening up countries un-
inown to the Western nations. In spite of the
break up of his plans and the general confusion
which ensued from his premature death, it is
not easy to overestimate the importance of the
Tesults to history from his policy of founding
cities to mark his conquests, and planting in
them Hellenising populations which spread so
widely the Greek language and, in some cases,
the Greek learning. And, as he initiated this
policy, which his successors followed, it is not
unfair to ascribe to him cities such as Antioch,
hardly less than Alexandria. — 4. AegUS, son
of Alexander the Great and Roxana, was born
shortly after the death of his father, in B.C. 323,
and was acknowledged as the partner of Philip
Arrhidaeus in the empire, under the guardian
ship of Perdiccas, Antipater, and Polysperchon
in succession. Alexander and his mother Roxana
were imprisoned by Cassander, when he obtained
possession of Macedonia in 316, and remained
in prison till 311, when they were put to death by
Cassander. (Diod. xix. 51, 52, 61, 105 ; Just. xv. 2.)
IV. Kings of Syria.
1. Surnamed Salas, a person of low origin,
pretended to be the son of Antiochus IV.
Epiphanes, and reigned in Syria B.C. 150-146.
He defeated and slew in battle Demetrius I.
Soter, but was afterwards defeated and de
throned by Demetrius II. Nicator (Polyb. xxxiii.
14 ; Just. xxv. ; Joseph. Ant. xiii. 2). — 2. Sur
named Zebina or Zabinas (i.e. the slave), son of
a merchant, was set up by Ptolemy Physcon as
a pretender to the throne of Syria, shortly after

the return of Demetrius II. Nicator from his
captivity among the Parthians, B.C. 128. He
defeated Demetrius in 125, but was afterwards
defeated by Antiochus Grypus, by whom he

Alexander Balas, King of Syria, B.C. 150-146.
Obv., head of king ; rev., eagle standing on beak of galley ;
date, 163 = B.C. 160.
was put to death, 122. (Just, xxxix. 1 ; Joseph.
Ant. xiii. 9.) V. Literary.
1. Of Aegae, a peripatetic philosopher at
Rome in the first century after Christ, was tutor
to the emperor Nero (Suet. Tib. 57). — 2. The
Aetolian, of Pleuron in Aetolia, a Greek poet,
lived in the reign of Ptolemaeus Philadelphus
(b.c. 285-247), at Alexandria, where he was
reckoned one of the seven tragic poets who
constituted the tragic pleiad. He also wrote
other poems besides tragedies. His fragments
are collected by Capellmann, Alexandri Aetoli
Fragmenta, Bonn, 1829. — 3. Of Aphrodisias, in
Caria, the most celebrated of the commentators
on Aristotle, and hence called Exegetes, lived
about A.D. 200. About half his voluminous
works were edited and translated into Latin at
the revival of literature ; there are a few more
extant in the original Greek, which have never
been printed, and an Arabic version is preserved
of several others. His most important treatise
is entitled De Fato, an inquiry into the opinions
of Aristotle on the subject of Fate and Free
will : edited by Orelli, Zurich, 1824 ; Usener,
Berlin, 1859.— 4. Cornelius, surnamed Poly-
histor, a Greek writer, was made prisoner
during the war of Sulla in Greece (b.c. 87-84),
and sold as a slave to Cornelius Lentulus, who
took him to Rome, made him the teacher of
his children, and subsequently restored him to
freedom. The surname of Polyhistor was given
to him on account of his prodigious learning.
He is said to have written a vast number of
works, all of which have perished : the most
important of them was one in 42 books, con
taining historical and geographical accounts of
nearly all countries of the ancient world. Some
fragments are collected by C. Miiller, Frag.
Hist. Graec. 1849. — 5. Surnamed Lychnus, of
Ephesus, a Greek rhetorician and poet, lived
about b.c. 30. A few fragments of his geo
graphical and astronomical poems are extant.
(Strab. p. 642; Cic. Att. ii. 20, 22.) See C.
Miiller, Frag. Hist. Graec— -6. Of Myndus, in
Caria, a Greek writer on zoology, of uncertain
date. — 7. Numenius, a Greek rhetorician, who
lived in the second century of the Christian
aera. Two works are ascribed to him, one De
Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis, from
which Aquila Romanus took his materials for
his work on the same subject ; and the other
On Show-speeches; which was written by a
later grammarian of the name of Alexander.
Edited in Walz's Bhetores Graeei, vol. viii.;
Spengel, 1856. — 8. The Paphlagonian, a cele
brated impostor, who flourished about the begin
ning of the second century after Christ, of whom
Lucian has given an amusing account, chiefly of
E 2

52

ALEXANDRIA

the various contrivances by which he established
and maintained the credit of an oracle, which
he pretended to be the reappearance of Ascle-
pius in the form of a serpent. The influence
he attained over the populace seems incredible ;
indeed, the narrative of Lucian would appear to
be a mere romance, were it not confirmed by
some medals of Antoninus and M. Aurelius
(Lucian, Alex.). — 9. Surnamed Peloplaton, a
Greek rhetorician of Seleucia in Cilicia, was
appointed Greek secretary to M. Antoninus,
about a.d. 175. At Athens he conquered the
celebrated rhetorician Herodes Atticus, in a
rhetorical contest. All persons, however, did
not admit his abilities ; for a Corinthian said
that he had found in Alexander ' the clay
[IrnAds], but not Plato.' This saying gave rise
to the surname of Peloplaton (Philostr. Vit.
Soph. ii. 5). — 10. Philalethes, an ancient Greek
physician, lived probably towards the end of
the first century B.C., and succeeded Zeuxis as
head of a celebrated Herophilean school of
medicine, established in Phrygia between Lao-
dicea and Carura (Strab. p. 580 ; Galen, de Diff.
Puis. iv. 4, vol. viii. p. 727, 746).— 11. Of Tralles
in Lydia, one of the most eminent of the ancient
physicians, lived in the 6th century after Christ
(Agathias, Hist. v. p. 149), and is the author of
two extant Greek works : — 1. Libri Duodecim
de Be Medica ; 2. De Lumbricis /Puschmann,
Vienna, 1878).

which was joined to the city by an artificial
dyke, called Heptastadium, which formed, with
the island, the two harbours of the city, that on
the NE. of the dyke being named the Great
Harbour (now the New Port), that on the SW.
Eunostus (eiivoo-Tos, the Old Port). These
harbours communicated with each other by two
channels cut through the Heptastadium, one at
each end of it ; and there was a canal from the
Eunostus to the Lake Mareotis. The city was
built on a regular plan ; and was intersected by
two principal streets, above 100 feet wide, thes
one extending 30 stadia from E. to W., the other-
across this, from the sea towards the lake, to thea:
length of 10 stadia. The city was divided into*
three regions : the Brucheium, which was the*
Royal, or Greek, region at the eastern end, the
Jews' quarter at the NE. angle, and the
Rhacotis or Egyptian quarter on the west,
beyond which, and outside of the city, was the
Necropolis or cemetery. A great lighthouse
was built on the I. of Pharos in the reign of
Ptolemy Philadelphus (B.C. 283). Under the
care of the Ptolemies, as the capital of a great
kingdom and of the most fertile country on the
earth, and commanding by its position all the
commerce of Europe with the East, Alexandria
soon became the most wealthy and splendid
city of the known world. Greeks, Jews, and
other foreigners flocked to it ; and its popula
tion probably amounted to three quarters of a

Plan of Alexandria.

t'/atker &¦ BoittaU sc.

Alexandria, oftener -la, rarely -ea ('AAe£aV-
Speia : 'AXs^avSpevs, Alexandrmus), the name of
several cities founded by, or in memory of Alex
ander the Great. — 1. (Alexandria, Arab. Iskan-
deria), the capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies,
ordered by Alexander (who himself traced the
ground plan) to be founded in B.C. 382. (Strab.
p. 791 ; Arrian, iii. 1 ; Curt. iv. 8 ; Amm. Marc.
xxii.- 40 ; Plin. v. 10 ; Polyb. xxxix. 14 ; Caes.
B.C. iii. 112.) It was built on. the narrow
neck of land between the Lake Mareotis and
the Mediterranean, opposite to the I. of Pharos,

million (in Diod. Sic. xvii. 52 the free citizens
alone are reckoned at 300,000, B.C. 58). Under
the empire the food of the populations of Rome
and Constantinople depended largely on the
despatch of the corn-ships from Alexandria.
Its fame was greatly increased through the
foundation, by the first two Ptolemies, of the
Museum, an establishment in which men de
voted to literature were maintained at the
public cost, and of the Library, which contained
90,000 distinct works, and 400,000 volumes, and
the increase of which made it .necessary to-

ALEXANDRIA
establish another library in the Serapeium
<Temple of Serapis), which reached to 42,800
volumes, but which was destroyed by the bishop
Theophilus, at the time of the general overthrow
of the heathen temples under Theodosius (a.d.
389). The Great Library suffered severely by
fire when Julius Caesar was besieged in Alex
andria, and was finally destroyed by Amrou, the
lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, in a.d. 651.
These institutions made Alexandria the chief
centre of literary activity. When Egypt be
came a Roman province [Aegyptus], Alex
andria was made the residence of the Praef ectus
»Aegypti. Its government was peculiar and re-
* tained specially in the hands of the emperor,
perhaps owing to the importance of the sending
or delaying the corn supply. The emperor
appointed the chief official, called Juridicus
Alexandria^, who acted as procurator, exerci
sing, without any municipal senate, jurisdiction
over the city as apart from the Egyptian country
districts. The Jewish population had a council
and an iBvdpxvs of their own, competent to deal
with purely Jewish disputes; but in causes
affecting other nationalities the sole authority
was the juridicus. Other subordinate officers
belonging to the city were the itflynTiis, who
managed the markets and commerce, the town-
clerk called virofj.vrtfiaToypdtpos, and the vvktg-
pivbs o-Tpariyyis, or praef ectus vigilum for the
police. In matters beyond municipal concern
the Praefectus Aegypti was supreme. It re
tained its commercial and literary importance,
and became also a chief seat of Christianity and
theological learning. Among the ruins of the
ancient site are the remains of the cisterns by
which the whole city was supplied with water,
house by house ; the two obelisks (vulg. Cleo
patra's Needles), which adorned the gateway of
the royal palace, and, outside the walls, to the
S., the column of Diocletian (vulg. Pompey's
Pillar). The modern city stands on the dyke
uniting the island of Pharos to the mainland. —
2. A. Troas, also Troas simply ('A. t) Tpads:
Eskistamboul, i.e. the Old City), on the sea-
coast SW. of Troy, was enlarged by Antigonus,
hence called Antigonla, but afterwards it re
sumed its first name. It flourished greatly,
both under the Greeks and the Romans ; it
was jnade a colonia (Plin. v. § 124 ; Strab.
p. 593). It is even said that both Julius
Caesar and Constantine thought of establishing
the seat of empire in it (cf . Suet. Caes. 79 ; Hor.
Od. iii. 3. 37 ; Zosim. ii. 30). — 3. A. ad Issum
('A. Kara \aaiv : Iskenderoon, Scanderoun,
Alexandrette), a seaport at the entrance of
Syria, a little S. of Issus, on the coast road
between that place and Rhossus. It possibly
occupied the site of Myriandus (Xen. An. i. 4),
and received its name in Alexander's honour.
— 4. In Susiana, aft. Antiochia, aft. Charax
Spasini (Xdprtf Tlaaivov or Stoo-.), at the mouth
of the Tigris, built by Alexander ; destroyed by
a flood ; restored by Antiochus Epiphanes :
birthplace of Dionysius Periegetes and Isi
dores Characenus. — 5. A. Ariae ('A. r\ iv 'Apiois :
Herat), founded by Alexander on the river
Arius, 'in the Persian province of Aria, a very
flourishing city, on the great caravan road to
India. — 6. A. Arachosiae or Alexandropolis
(Kandahar ?), on the river Arachotus, was pro
bably not founded till after the time of Alex
ander. — 7. A. Bactriana ('A. koto BaKTpo : prob.
Khooloom, Ru.), E. of Bactra (Balkh). — 8. A,
. ad Caucasum, or apud Paropamisidas ('A. iv
JlapoTrauiciSais), at the foot of M. ParopamiBus
(Hindoo Koosh), probably near Cabul. — 9. A.

ALLECTUS

58

Ultima or Alexandrescata ('A. y io-xdrn : Ko
kand ?), in Sogdiana, on the Jaxartes, a little
E. of Cyropolis, marked the furthest point
reached by Alexander in his Scythian expedition
(Arrian^M. iv. 1, 3 ; Curt. vii. 6).
Alexanor (perhaps an old surname of Ascle-
pius), son of Machaon and grandson of Ascle-
pius, to whom he is said to have built the
temple of Titane, near Sicyon (Paus. ii. 11, 6).
Alexiares, brother of Anicetus, son of Hera
cles and Hebe. Both these sons were probably
imagined out of surnames of Heracles similar
in meaning to aA.e|fo:aKos.
Alexinus ('AXtpvos), of Elis, a philosopher of
the Dialectic or Megarian school, and a disciple
of Eubulides, lived about the beginning of the
3rd century B.C. From Cic. Acad. ii. 24, 75,
he seems to have dealt in sophistical puzzles.
He died from being wounded by a reed while
swimming in the Alpheus (Diog. Laert. ii.
109). Alexis ("AA.efis), a comic poet, born at Thurii
in Italy, and an Athenian citizen. He was the
uncle and instructor of Menander, was born
about b.c. 894, and lived to the age of 106. He
was the chief poet of the Middle Comedy, and
wrote 245 plays, of which we have fragments
from 140, but not of sufficient length to criticise.
He lived on into the period of the New Comedy ;
but the fragments of his works show the politi
cal allusions, and alBO mythological subjects,
which do not belong to the New Comedy (Poet.
Comic. Frag. ed. Meineke, 1847).
Alfenus Varus. [Varus.]
Algidus Mons, a range of mountains in La
tium, extending S. from Praeneste to M. Alba
nus, cold, but covered with wood, and containing
good pasturage. The two kinds of oak, decidu
ous and evergreen (quercus et ilices, Hor. Od.
iii. 23, 10, iv. 4, 50), may still be seen on its
slopes. It was an ancient seat of the worship
of Diana. From it the Aequi usually made
their incursions into the Roman territory. A
small town, Algidus, on its slopes is men
tioned in Strabo, p. 237.
Alienus Caecina. [Caecina.]
Alimentus, L. Cincius, a celebrated Roman
annalist, was praetor in Sicily, B.C. 209, and
wrote his Annates, which contained an account
of Rome to the second Punic war. He was for
some time a prisoner in Hannibal's army.
Hence when Livy appeals to his writings for
matters connected with the second Punic war
(as regards the route of Hannibal, Liv. xxi. 38),
the statements are entitled to more respect than
they sometimes receive.
Alinda (ro "AXivZa : 'AXivSevs), a fortress
and small town, SE. of Stratonlce, where Ada,
Queen of Caria, fixed her residence, when
she was driven out of Halicarnassus (B.C.
340). _
Aliphera ('AXiipetpa, 'AXt(p7)pa, 'AXitpeipouos,
'AXitpripzfc '. nr. Nerovitza, Ru.), a fortified town
in Arcadia, situated on a mountain on the
borders of Elis, S. of the Alpheus, said to have
been founded by the hero Ahpherus, son of Ly-
caon (Paus. viii. 26).
Alipherus. [Aliphera.]
Aliso (Elsen), a strong fortress built by
Drusus B.C. 11, at the confluence of the Luppia
(Lippe) and the Eliso (AVme) (Dio Cass. liv. 33 ;
Tac Ann. ii. 7).
Alisontia (Alsitz), a river flowing into the
Mosella (Mosel).
Allectus, the chief officer of Carausius in
Britain, whom he murdered in a.d. 293. He
then assumed the imperial title himself, but

54

ALLIA

was defeated and slain in 296 by the general of
Constantius.

Allectus, Roman Emperor, A.D. 293-296.
Obv., head of Emperor ; rev., Pax (struck in London}.
Allia, or more correctly Alia, a small river,
which rises in the neighbourhood of Crustume-
rium, and flows into the Tiber, crossing the Via
Salaria about 11 miles from Rome. It is
memorable for the defeat of the Romans by the
Gauls on its banks, July 16th, B.C. 390 ; which
day, dies Alliensis, was hence marked as an
unlucky day in the Roman calendar. (Liv. vi.
1, 28; Tac. Hist. ii. 91; Verg. Aen. vii. 717.)
There is some dispute about its identification,
but it seems probable that it is the stream now
known as Scolo del Casale, which crosses the
road at Fonte di Papa. It is a very small
brook, but runs in a deep hollow.
A. Allienus. 1. A friend of Cicero, was the
legate of Q. Cicero in Asia, B.C. 60, praetor in
49, and governor of Sicily on behalf of Caesar
in 48 and 47 (Cic. Q. F. i. 1 ; Att. x. 15 ; Fam.
xiii. 78). — 2. A legate of Dolabella, by whom he
Was sent into Egypt in 43 (Cic. Phil. xi. 12).
Allifae, or more correctly Alifae (Alifanus :
Allife), a town of Samnium, on the Vulturnus,
in a fertile country. It was celebrated for the
manufacture of its large drinking-cups (AUfana
sc. pocula, Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 39).
Allobroges (Nom. Sing. Allobrox: 'AXX6-
jBpo-yes, 'AAA<i/3pu7ej, 'AXX6/3piyes), a powerful
people of Gaul dwelling between the Rhodanus
(Bhone) and the Isara (Isere). In the time of
Julius Caesar their territory extended as far as
that corner of L. Lemannus where Geneva
stands. At that point they were bounded on
the east by the Nantuates, south of whom came
the Centrones, and next, forming the southern
border of the Allobroges (i.e. immediately
across the Isere), the Graioceli and the Vocontii.
To the west they were bounded by the Rhone,
as far as Lyons, and the same river formed
their northern boundary up to the Lake of
Geneva. Hence their territory at that time
comprised the NW. corner of Savoy and part
of the department of Isere, with the southern
corner of Drome. Their chief city was Vienna
(Vienne) on the Rhone (Caes. B. G. i. 6 and
,-10 ; Strab. p. 185). But there is good reason
to suppose that their territory was not the same
two centuries earlier (as modern writers seem
generally to assume). There can be no doubt
that the country which both Polybius and Livy
call 'the Island,' was precisely the country
of the Allobroges in Caesar's time : but in Poly
bius, iii. 49, 50, the 'AXX6$piyss are obviously
not the people of the ' Island,' but dwelt in the
country through which Hannibal was next to
pass ; they furnished guides at first and after
wards attacked him on his march. It is pro
bable that they then dwelt south of the Isere,
perhaps near Gap, and at a late time (before
B.C. 121) moved northwards and occupied the
'Island.' Livy (xxi. 81) though he says cor
rectly, speaking of the Island, ' incolunt prope
Allobroges,' yet seems to confuse them with the
then dwellers in the Island as described by
Polybius. If the Celtic etymology of their

ALOPE
name (ail, ' other,' and brog, ' dwelling ') is cor
rect, they would seem to have been at one time,
a roving tribe. They were conquered, in B.C.
121, by Q. Fabius Maxhnus Allobrogicus, and
made subjects of Rome, but they bore the yoke
unwillingly, and were always disposed to rebel
lion. In B.C. 63 their ambassadors first intrigued
with Catiline, and then divulged the conspiracy
(Sail. Cat. 41; Cic. Cat. iii. 5).
Alnio (Al/mone), a small river, rises near
Bovillae, and flows into the Tiber S. of Rome,
half a mile from the walls on the Ostian road,
in which the statues of Cybele were washed.
annually. (Diet. Ant. s. v. Megalesia.)
Almopes ('AXp.£>ires), a people in Macedonia,
inhabiting the district Ahnopia between Eor-
uaea and Pelagonia.
Aloeus ('AXatis) 1. Son of Helior, and
brother of Aretes. He was King of Asopia
(Paus. ii. 41). — 2. Son of Poseidon and Canace,
married Iphimedia, the daughter of Triops.
His wife was beloved by Poseidon, by whomshe,
had two sons, Otus and Ephialtes, who are
usually called the Aloldae, from their reputed
father Aloeus. In Horn. XI. v. 385 they are
genuine sons of Aloeus — in Od. xi. 305; Ap.
Rh. i. 481 ; Ov. Met. vi. 116, of Poseidon. They
were renowned for their extraordinary strength
and daring spirit. When they were 9 years
old, each of their bodies measured 9 cubits in
breadth and 27 in height. At this early age,
they threatened the Olympian gods with war
and attempted to pile Ossa upon Olympus, and
Pelion upon Ossa. They would have accom
plished their object, says Homer, had they been
allowed to grow up to the age of manhood;
but Apollo destroyed them before their beards
began to appear (Od. xi. 305 seq.). They also-
put the god Ares in chains, and kept him im- -
prisoned for 13 months. Ephialtes is said to
have sought the love of Hera and Otus of
Artemis (or both of Artemis) : therefore Artemis
passed between them in the form of a hind, at
which they hurled spears and slew one another
(Pind. Pyth. iv. 88 ; Apollod. i. 482). In Hades
they were bound to a pillar by serpents, and
plagued by the cries of an owl [aros, however,
means ' shriek-owl '] (Hyg. Fab. 28 ; cf. Verg.
Aen. vi. 582). The Thracian legend is totally
different. They are heroes who founded.Ascra
on Helicon, and instituted the worship of the
Muses. Their graves were honoured at Anth-
edon (Paus. ix. 22 ; Diod. v. 51). They were
worshipped also in Naxos (C. I. G. ii. 2420).
The conclusion should be that they were origi
nally for the Thracians deities representing the
increase and produce of the earth, and presid
ing over agricultural work : under this view
the names are connected with b.Xar\, and with
aBia, iipdXXofiou, as describing the work of the
wine-press. These earth-deities were then
imagined by the Greeks as in conflict with the
gods of Olympus.
Aloldae. [Aloeus.)
Alonta ('AX6vra : Terek), a river of Sarmatia
Asiatica, flowing into the Caspian (Ptol. v. 9, 12.)
Alope fAA(Sir7j), daughter of Cercyon, became
by Poseidon the mother of Hippothous. She
was put to death by her father, but her body
was changed by Poseidon into a well, which
bore the same name (Hyg. Fab. 187; Paus. i.
5 ; Aristoph. Av. 659).
Alope ('AaoVtj : 'AKoveis, 'AXot[tVs). 1. A
town in the Opuntian Locris, opposite Euboea
(Thuc. ii. 26 ; Strab. p. 426).— 2. A town in
Phthiotis in Thessaly (II. ii. 682; Strab. p. 427.
432). * '

ALOPECE
Alopece ('AXaweieli and 'AXaireKat : 'AXaire-
Keis), a demus of Attica, of the tribe Antiochis,
11 stadia E. of Athens, on the hill Anehesmus.
Alopeconnesus ('AXaireK6vvitio-os : 'AXairtKov-
i/^o-ioi : Alexi ?), a town in the Thracian Cher-
sonesus, founded by the Aeolians (Dem. de
Cor. p. 256, § 92 ; Liv. xxxi. 16).
Alorus, a town of Macedonia, west of
Methone, in the Thermaic Gulf, birthplace of
Ptolemaeus Alorites (Strab. p. 330).
Alpenus ('AXm)v6s, 'AXirqvoC), a town of the
Epicnemidii Locri at the entrance of the pass
of Thermopylae (Hdt. vii. 176, 216).
Alpes (ai "AXirtis, r] "AXtis, to 'AXireiva
opri,Ta"AXireia opij; probably from the Celtic
A lb or Alp, ' a height ^, the mountains forming
the boundary of northern Italy, are a part of
the great mountain-chain which extends from
the Gulf of Genoa to the Adriatic near Trieste,
but on the west the line of demarcation between
the Alps and the Apennines, running southwards,
is not very distinct, while on the east the spurs
from the Cornice Alps, separating the valleys
of the Save and Drave from the Adriatic,
pass into the Hlyrian mountains, and so east
ward to the Balkans. Of the Alps proper the
Greeks had very little knowledge, and included
them under the general name of the Rhipaean
mountains. The appear in Lycophron (Alex.
1861) as SdXiria. The Romans first obtained
some knowledge of them by their conquest of
Cisalpine Gaul and by Hannibal's passage
across them : this knowledge was gradually
extended by their various wars with the inhabi
tants of the mountains, who were not finally
subdued till the reign of Augustus. In the
time of the emperors the different parts of the
Alps were distinguished by the following names,
most of which are still retained. We enume
rate them in order from W. to E. 1. Alpes
Maritemae, the Maritime or Ligurian Alps,
from Genua (Genoa), where the Apennines
begin, run W. as far as the river Varus ( Var) and
M. Cema (la Caillole), and then N. to M. Vesulus
(Monte Viso). (Plin. H. N. iii. § 117 ; Strab.
p. 201 ; Mel. ii. 4.) — 2. Alpes Cottiae or Cot-
tianae, the Cottian Alps (so called from a king
Cottius in the time of Augustus), from Monte
Viso to Mont Cenis, contained M. Matrona,
afterwards called M. Janus or Janua (Mont
Genevre), across which Cottius constructed a
road, which became the chief means of commu
nication between Italy and Gaul. — 3. Alpes
Graiae, also Saltus Graius (the Romans fanci
fully connected the name with the legendary
passage of Hercules, but it is probably Celtic,
and has nothing to do with Greece) and Mons
Graius (Tac. Hist. iv. 68), the Graian Alps,
from Mont Cenis to the Little St. Bernard
inclusive, contained the Jugum Cremonis (Liv.
xxi. 38) (le Cramont) and the Centronicae
Alpes, apparently the little St. Bernard and the
surrounding mountains. — 4. Alpes Penninae,
the Pennine Alps, from the Great St. Bernard
to the Simplon inclusive, the highest portion of
the chain, including Mont Blanc, and Monte
Rosa. The Great St. Bernard was called M.
Pennmus, and on its summit the inhabitants
worshipped a deity, whom the Romans called
Jupiter Penninus. The name is probably de
rived from the Celtic pen, ' a height.' Livy
(xxi. 38) expressly rejects the absurd derivation
from Poeni, which was based on the idea that
Hannibal had gone round to Martigny in the
upper Rhone valley. — 5. Alpes Lepontioeum
or Lepontiae, the Lepontian or Helvetian
Alps, occupied by the Celtic Lepontii, from the

ALPES

55

Simplon to the St. Gothard.— 6. Alpes Rhae-
ticae, the Bhaetian Alps, from the St.
Gothard to the Orteler and the pass of the
Stelvio. [Cf. AdulaMons.] — 7. Alpes Tbiden-
tinae, the mountains of southern Tyrol, in
which the Athesis (Adige) rises, with the pass
of the Brenner. — 8. Alpes Noeicae, whence
the Drave rises (Plin. iii. § 189), the Noric
Alps, NE. of the Tridentine Alps, comprising
the mountains in the neighbourhood of Salz
burg, with mines worked by the Romans for
iron. — 9. Alpes Carnicae, the Carnic Alps,
E. of the Tridentine, and S. of the Noric, to
Mount Terglu. From these mountains flows
the Save (Plin. ib.). — 10. Alpes Juliae, the
Julian Alps, from Mount Terglu to the com
mencement of the Hlyrian or Dalmatian moun
tains (Tac. Hist. iii. 8), which are known by the
name of the Alpes Dalmaticae, further north
by the name of the Alpes Pannonicae. The
Alpes Juliae were so called because Julius
Caesar or Augustus constructed roads across
them : they are also called Alpes Venetae.
(Amm. Marc. xxxi. 16). We have some men
tion of the industries and produce of the Alps,
which then, as now, consisted of pine wood,
resin, honey, wax and cheese, with but little
corn (Strab. p. 206) ; and of alpine animals,
the chamois (rupicapra), the ibex, the marmot,
white hares and ptarmigan (Plin. viii. § 214,
x. § 186, Varr. B.B. iii. 12).
Principal Passes of the Alps.
It will be useful to enumerate the passes
used by the Romans, and, no doubt, communi
cated to them by the natives of the various
districts as the easiest routes; for we can
hardly doubt that there were other mountain
paths traversed, though less frequently, by the
natives themselves. The Roman roads, or bridle
tracks, over the Alps were as follows, reckoning
from the western sea coast : — 1. Per Alpes Mari
timas, corresponding to the Cornice Road, from
the Var to Genoa, which was opened in the
time of Augustus as a regular road, the Ligu-
rians being entirely subdued. Turbia was re
garded as the summit of the pass : thence it
passed rather north of Nice. — 2. It is probable
that the modern Col de V Argentiere, from
Cuneo by the valley of the Stura to Barcelo-
nette, by the valley of the Ubaye and so to Gap,
was used by the Romans (see Freshfield, Alp.
Journ. xi. 282 ; Desjardins, Glogr. de la Gaule
Born. i. 96). If so, this pass led from Pollentia
to Vapincum, and was, no doubt, like the fol
lowing, described as per Alpes Cottias. — 3. Per
Alpes Cottias, i.e. the pass of Mont Genivre
from Augusta Taurinorum (Turin) to Brigantio
(Briangon). It thence at first followed tne
Durance to Charges in the Caturiges : whence
those who were bound for the Southern Pro
vincia (Nimes, Orange, &c.) continued by the
Durance ; those who went northwards to Va
lence, Vienne, &c, crossed the Col Bayard by
Gap, down the valley of the Drac, into the
valley of the Isere. This in all probability was
the route of Hannibal (see Freshfield, I.e., who,
however, makes Hannibal reach Italy by the
Col de l'Argentiere mentioned above). Pompey
probably shortened the route by taking the Col
de Lauteret from Briancon after he had crossed
the Genevre. This Col is higher than the
Genevre itself but a much more direct route to
Grenoble, and after the time of Pompey it be
came a recognised Roman road. — 4. North of
the Genevre is the pass of Mont Cenis, which
also belongs to the Alpes Cottiae. There is

56

ALPHENUS

little doubt that over this, or rather over the
Petit Mont Cenis, from Susa (Segusio) was a
route used by the Romans : here probably
Caesar passed to Gallia Ulterior (B. G. i. 10) . The
pass descends by the valley of the Arc, through
the territory of the Centrones into the valley of
¦the Isere. — 5. Per Alpes Graias: this is the
pass of the Little St. Bernard, from the plain
of the Po at Ivrea, through the defiles of the
valley of Aosta, then from Aosta (Augusta Prae-
toria), S. Didier (Arebrigium) over the pass to
B.^St. Maurice (Bergintrum), and by the valley
of the Isere, directly to Vienna or northwards to
Geneva. It will be found impossible to make
the route by the valley of Aosta agree with
Polybius's account of Hannibal's route. 6. Per
Alpes Pennina»: the Great St. Bernard, from
Martigny (Octodurus) to Aosta (Tac. Hist. i.
61, iv. 68; cf. Liv. xxi. 38). 7. Per Alpes
Bhaeticas, from Brigantia. on L. Constance to
Mediolanum (Milan). This passage had two al
ternative routes : a, most direct, by Curia (Coire)
over the Julier pass as far as Bivium (Bivio),
thence over the Septimer to Casaccia and
Clavenna (Chiavenna) ; b, branching off at
Bivio by the remainder of the Julier pass to
Silvaplana, and then by the Maloja to Chia
venna, rejoining the Septimer route at Casaccia.
Both routes pass by Tinnetio (Tinzen) on the
Swiss side. Either will suit the description in
Claud. Bell. Get. 320-360.— 8. Also per Alp.
Bhaet., from Brigantia to Tridentum, striking
off from the preceding at Glunia (Feldkirch),
and passing by the upper Lm and Meran to
Bauzianum (Botzen). — 9. A divergence from the
preceding by the Puster Thai and Lienz, to
reach Aquileia. [Possibly also a direct road from
Sebatum (Brunnecken) to Belluno.] — 10. Per
Alpes Tridentinas, from Verona to Tridentum,
thence up the valley of the Athesis, and over
the Brenner, and so to Augusta Vindelicorum
(Augsburg). — 11. _ Per Alpes Garnicas, from
Aquileia through julium Carnicum (Zuglio),by
the pass of Sta Croce and the valley of the Gail
into the valley of the Drave, near Aguontum
(Lienz). — 12. Slightly east of the preceding
(from which it diverged near Gemona), more
directly to Villa ad Aquas (Villach), by the low
pass of Tarvis (the lowest in the chain of the
Alps). — 13. Per Alpes Julias, through the valley
of the Sontius (Isonzo), by the Predil pass to
Villa ad Aquas. — 14. Also per Alp. Julias, from
Aquileia by the valley of the Wippach over the
pass of Loitsch to Emona (Laibach), and the
valley of the Save. The last five were intended
as lines of communication from Aquileia to
Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia.
Of these passes Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7 were known to
Tolybius (cited by Strabo, p. 209), and Nos.
1, 3, 4, 5 are mentioned by Varro (Serv. ad
Aen. x. 13), who reckons five passes, probably
because he considers the Col de Lauteret passed
by Pompey as a separate one. He brings Has-
drubal over the Cenis. The communication
with the Central Alps waB by No. 6 to the
Rhone valley, and thence byViviscus (Vevey)
and Minnodunum (Moudon) to Aventicum ; or
by No. 7 to Brigantia, thence by the western
road through Vindonissa (Windisch) to Salo-
durum (Solothurn) and Aventicum.
Alphenus Varus. [Varus.]
Alphesiboea ('AXQeo-iPo'ia). 1. Mother of
Adonis. [Adonis.] — 2. Daughter of Phegeus,who
married Alcmaeon. [Alcmaeon.] — 3. Daughter
of Bias and wife of Pelias (Theocr. iii. 45).
Alpheus Mytilenaeus ('AXqieios MvTiXr/vaios),
the author of about 12 epigrams in the Greek

ALTHEMENES
Anthology, was probably a contemporary of the
emperor Augustus (Anth. Pal.).
Alpheus ('AX(p€i6s : Dor. 'AXcpeSs; Alfeo,
Bofeo, Byfo, Bufea), the chief river of
Peloponnesus, rises at Phylace in Arcadia,
shortly afterwards sinks under ground, appears
again near Asea, and then mingles its waters
with those of the Eurotas. After flowing 20
stadia, the two rivers disappear under ground :
the Alpheus again rises at Pegae in Arcadia, and
increased by many affluents, among them the
Ladon and the Erymanthus, flows NW.
through Arcadia and Elis, not far from
Olympia, and falls into the Ionian sea. (Paus.
viii. 54; Strab. pp. 275, 343). The subterra
nean descent of the river, which is confirmed
by modern travellers, gave rise to the stories
about the river-god -Alpheus and Artemis
Alpheiaea, or the nymph Arethusa : a. that
the river-god Alpheus loved Artemis and she
escaped him by the strange disguise of smear
ing her face and the faces of her nymphs with
mud (Paus. vi. 227 : 6. that Artemis fled from
him to Ortygia (Pind. Nem. i. and Schol.) : c.
the later poeticised legends, where instead of
Artemis we have a nymph Arethusa pursued by
Alpheus, both changed to streams passing under
the sea and at last united in Ortygia (Paus. v.
7, 2 ; Ov. Met. v. 752, with the intervention of
Artemis ; Verg. Aen. iii. 694 ; Stat. Silv. i. 2,
203 ; Theb. i. 27i, iv. 239). The actual sequence
appearB to be, that the Artemis of Elis and
Arcadia was a deity of fountains and streams
who was o-vp.t3aij.o5, or united in worship, with
Alpheus, and was called Artemis Alpheiaea or
TroTa/zfo. This worship was transferred to
Ortygia by some of the family of the Iamidae
at Olympia who joined in the Corinthian settle
ment and established a temple of Artemis
iroTap.la and also named a spring in Ortygia
after the spring Arethusa in Elis. It is easy
to understand how later orthodoxy found it neces
sary to substitute Arethusa for Artemis in the
legend of the passage under the sea. (Pind.
Ol. v., Nem. i. ; Diod. v. 3 ; Strab. p. 270.) Strabo
mentions the story of the saucer thrown into the
fountain at Olympia and coming up in Ortygia
with the sacrificial stains upon it : for, when
the nymph, pursued by Alpheus, was changed
by Artemis into the fountain of Arethusa in the
island of Ortygia at Syracuse, the god continued
to pursue her under the sea, and attempted to
mingle his stream with the fountain at Ortygia.
Alphius Avitus. [Avitus.]
Alpinus. [See under Bibaculus.]
Alsa, a small river of Venetia, which flows
into the Adriatic a little west of Aquileia. The
younger Constantine fell here, A. D. 840.
Alsium (Alsiensis : Palo), one of the most
ancient Etruscan towns on the coast near
Caere, and a Roman colony after the 1st Punic
war. In its neighbourhood Pompey had a
country-seat (villa Alsiensis).
Althaea ('AXBaia), daughter of the Aetolian
king Thestius andEurythemis, married Oeneus,
king of Calydon, by whom she became the
mother of several children. [See Meleager.]
Althaea, the chief town of the Olcades in the
country of the Oretani in Hispania Tarraco-
nensis. Althemenes ('AXBnp.4vns or 'AXBaiuivqs), son
of Catreus, king of Crete. In ' consequence of
an oracle, that Catreus would lose his life by
one of his children, Althemenes quitted Crete
and went to Rhodes. There he unwittingly
killed his father, who had come in search of his
son. (Diod. v. 59 ; Apollod. iii. 2.)

ALTINUM
Altinum (Altinas : Altino), a municipium
in the land of the Veneti in the N. of Italy,
at the mouth of the river Silis and on the
road from Patavium to Aquileia, was a wealthy
manufacturing town, and the chief emporium
for all the goods which were sent from southern
Italy to the countries of the north. Goods
could be brought from Ravenna to Altinum
through the Lagoons and the numerous canals
of the Po, safe from storms and pirates. There
were many beautiful villas around the town.
(Mart. iv. 25 ; Strab. p. 214 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 6.)
Altis ("AXtis), the sacred grove of Zeus at
OLYHPL4. Aluntium or Haluntium ('AAoiWioe), a town
on the N. coast of Sicily, on a steep hill, cele
brated for its wine. It lay between Tyndaris
and Calacta : the town of S. Marco probably
occupies its site. (Dionys. i. 51 ; Cic. Verr. iv.
23 .1.)
Aius orHalus ("AXos, "AXos : 'AXeis : nr. Ke-
falosi, Ru.), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, at
the extremity of M. Othrys, built by Atharnas.
(II. ii. 682 ; Hdt. vii. 173 ; Strab. p. 432.)
Alyattes (AAuott7js), king of Lydia, b.c. 617-
560, succeeded his father Sadyattes, and was
himself succeeded by his son Croesus. He car
ried on war with Miletus from 617 to 612, and
with Cyaxares, king of Media, from 590 to 585 ;
an eclipse of the sun, which happened in 585
during a battle between Alyattes and Cyaxares,
led to a peace between them. Alyattes drove
the Cimmerians out of Asia and took Smyrna.
The tomb of Alyattes, N. of Sardis, near the
lake Gygaea, which consisted of a large mound
of earth, with a circumference of nearly a mile,
.raised upon a foundation of great stones, still
exists. (Hdt. i'. 25, 73, 93 ; Strab. p. 627.)
Alyba ('AXvt3i)), a town on the S. coast of the
Euxine. (II. ii. 857.)
Alypius fAAriirios), of Alexandria, probably
lived in the 4th century of the Christian aera,
and is the author of a Greek musical treatise
entitled ' Introduction to Music ' (elaayay))
fiovo-tK-ii), printed by Meibomius in Antiquae
Musicae Auctores Septem, Amstel. 1652 ; Script.
Metrici, ed. Westphal, 1866.
Alyzia or Alyzea ('AAufio, 'AXv£eia : AXv-
(aios ; Ru. in the valley of Kandili), a town in
Acarnania near the sea opposite Leucas, with a
harbour and a temple both sacred to Heracles.
The temple contained one of the works of Lysip
pus representing the labours of Heracles, which
the Romans carried off. (Thuc. vii. 31 ; Xen.
Hell. v. 4; Strab. p. 450; Cic. Fam. xvi. 2;
Plin. iv. 2.)
Amadocus ('AfidSoKos) or Medocus (M-fiSoKos).
1. King of the Odrysae in Thrace, when Xeno-
phon visited the country in B.C. 400. He and
Seuthes, who were the most powerful Thracian
kings, were frequently at variance, but were
.reconciled to each other by Thrasybulus, the
Athenian commander, in 390, and induced by him
to become the allies of Athens (Diod. xiii. 105 ;
Xen. An. vii. 2, Hell. iv. 8). — 2. A ruler in
Thrace, who, in conjunction with Berisades and
Cersobleptes, succeeded Cotys in 358. (Dem.
in Arist. p. 623.)
Amafinius, one of the three writers on Epi
curean philosophy who preceded Cicero (the
other two being Rabirius and Catius Insuber).
They wrote simply and in a popular manner,
especially on the physical theories of Epicurus,
merely drawing from the Greek sources without
any original reasoning. (Cic. Acad. i. 2, 5 ;
Tusc. i. 3, 6, ii. 3, 7, iv. 3, 6.)
Amagetobria. [Magetobria.]

AMARYNTHUS 57
Amalthea ('Afj,dX6eia). 1, The nurse of the
infant Zeus in Crete. According to some tra
ditions Amalthea is the goat who Buckled Zeus,
and who was rewarded by being placed among
the stars. [Aega.] According to others, Amal
thea was a nymph, daughter of Oceanus, Helios,
Haemonius, or of the Cretan king Melisseus,
who fed Zeus with the milk of a goat. When
this goat broke off one of her horns, Amalthea
filled it with fresh herbs and gave it to Zeus,
who placed it among the stars. According to
other, accounts Zeus himself broke off one of
the horns of the goat Amalthea, and gave it to
the daughters of Melisseus, and endowed it with
the wonderful power of becoming filled with
whatever the possessor might wish. This
story is explanatory of the celebrated horn of
Amalthea, commonly called the horn of plenty
or cornucopia, which was used in later times as
the symbol of plenty in general. (Athen. p. 503 ;
Strab. p. 458; Ov. Fast. v. 115, Met. ix. 87.)
[For the story of Amalthea giving the horn of
plenty to Achelous, and his exchange, see
Achelous.] Li Diod. iii. 68, there is a story
that Amalthea was beloved by the Libyan Am
mon, who gave her a horn-shaped portion of
land of great fertility. — 2. One of the Sibyls,
identified with the Cumaean Sibyl, who sold to
king Tarquinius the celebrated Sibylline books
(Lactant. Inst. i. 6, 10), but distinguished from
her in Tibull. ii. 5, 67.
Amaltheum or Amalthea, a villa of Atti-
cus on the river Thyamis in Epirus, was per
haps a shrine of the nymph Amalthea, which
Atticus adorned with statues and bas-reliefs,
and converted into a beautiful summer retreat.
Cicero, in imitation, constructed a similar re
treat on his estate at Arpinum. (Cic. de Legg.
ii. 3, 7; Att.i. 13.)
Amantia ('AfjjxvTia : Amantlnus, Amantianus,
or Amantes, pi. : Nivitza), a Greek town and
district in Illyricum ; the town, said to have
been founded by the Abantes of Euboea, lay at
some distance from the coast, E. of Oricum.
(Caes._B.O. iii. 12, 40 ; Cic. Phil. xi. 11.)
Amanus (6 'Aimvds, rb 'Aixav6v : 'Apuvirits,
Amaniensis : Almadagh), a branch of Mt.
Taurus, which runs from the head of the Gulf
of Issus NE. to the principal chain, dividing
Syria from Cilicia and Cappadocia (Strab. pp.
521, 535). There were two passes in it : the one,
called the Syrian Gates (ai ~2vpica irvXai, Syriae
Portae : Bylan) near the sea ; the other, called
the Amanian Gates ('Ap-aviSiS or 'Ap.aviKal
irvXai : Amanicao Pylae, Portae Amani Montis :
Demir Kapu, i.e. the Iron Gate), further to the
N. The former pass was on the road from
Cilicia to Antioch, the latter on that to the dis
trict Commagene ; but, on account of its great
difficulty, the latter pass was rarely used, until
the Romans made a road through it. (Arrian.
An. ii. 7; Polyb. xii. 17, 19; Strab. p. 676; Cic.
Fam. xv. 4.)
Amardi orMardi ("Ap-apSoi, MdpSot), apower-
ful, warlike, and predatory tribe who dwelt on
the S. shore of the Caspian Sea. (Strab. p. 514.)
Amardus or Mardus ("Ap.apSos, MdpSos :
Kizil Ozien), a river flowing through the coun
try of the Mardi into the Caspian Sea.
Amarynceus {'Ap.apvyK€vs), a chief of the
Eleans (II. xxiii. 630), is said by some writers to
have fought against Troy ; but Homer only men
tions his son Diores (Amaryncides) as taking
part in the Trojan war (12. ii. 622, iv. 517).
Amarynthus ('ApApwBos: 'AimpivBtos), a
town in Euboea 7 stadia from Eretria, to which
it belonged, with a celebrated templeof Artemis
2nd of E

58

AMASENUS

(Strab. p. 448 ; Paus. i. 31 ; Liv. xxxv. 38), who
was hence called Amarynthia or Amarysia, and
in whose honour there was a festival of this
name both in Euboea and Attica. (See Diet, of
Antiq. art. Amarynthia.)
Amasenus (Amaseno), a river in Latium, rises
in the Volscian mountains, flows by Privernum,
and after being joined by the Uf ens ( Ufente),
which flows from Setia, falls into the sea be
tween Circeii and Terracina, though the greater
part of its waters are lost in the Pontine
marshes. (Verg. Aen. vii. 684, xi. 547.)
Amasia or -ea ('ApAo-eia : 'Apao-eis : Ama-
siah), the capital of the kings of Pontus, was a
strongly fortified city on both banks of the river
Iris. It was the birthplace of Mithridates the
Great and of the geographer Strabo. It is
described by Strabo (p. 561).
Amasis, 1, King of Egypt, B.C. 572-528 [the
Egyptian Aahmes II]. When the expedition of
Apries against Cyrene had failed [Apries],
Amasis, whom he had trusted to quell the mu
tinous troops, became their leader and defeated
his master. For six years he reigned j ointly with
Apries, and then put him to death. Although the
Egyptian party who had given him the throne
expected him to withdraw all favour from the
Greeks and cease to employ them or merce
naries, he did just the contrary. He formed a
body-guard of Ionians at Memphis, married La-
dice, a native of Cyrene, of the family of the
Battiadae, and restored Naucratis as a settle
ment for Greek traders in the Delta. [Naucra
tis.] His reign was one of great prosperity.
(Hdt. ii. 161-182, iii. 1-16; Diod. i. 68, 95.)—
2. A Persian, sent in the reign of Cambyses (B.C.
525) against Cyrene, took Barca, but did not
succeed in taking Cyrene. (Hdt. iv. 167, 201.)
Amastris ("A/jao-rpis, Ion. "Au-no-Tpu). 1.
Wife of Xerxes, and mother of Artaxerxes I.,
was of a cruel and vindictive character (Hdt.
vii. 61, ix. 108-113). — 2. Also called Amastrine,
niece of Darius, the last king of Persia. She
married, 1. Craterus; 2. Dionysius, tyrant of
Heraclea in Bithynia, B.C. 322 ; and 8. Lysi
machus, B.C. 302. Having been abandoned by
Lysimachus upon his marriage with Arsinoe,
she retired to Heraclea, where she reigned. She
was drowned by her two sons about 288. (Arrian.
An. vii. 4 ; Diod. xx. 109 ; Memn. 4, 5.)
Amastris ("Auao-rpis : ' ApaaTpiav6s : Ama-
sera), a large and beautiful city, with two har
bours, on the coast of Paphlagonia, built by
Amastris after her separation from Lysimachus
(about B.C. 800), on the site of the old town of
Sesamus, which name the citadel retained. The
new city was built and peopled by the inha
bitants of Cytorus and Cromna. (II. ii. 853 ;
Strab.j?. 544; Plin. Ep. x. 99; Catull. 4, 11.)
Amata, wife of king Latinus and mother of
Lavinia, opposed Lavinia being given in mar
riage to Aeneas, because she had already pro
mised her to Turnus. When she heard that
Turnus had fallen in battle, she hung herself.
(Verg^Aen. xii. 600 ; Dionys. i. 64.)
Amathus, untis ('ApiaBovs, ovvtos : 'AiuzBoi-
ctos : Limasol), an ancient town on the S. coast
of Cyprus, with a celebrated temple of Aphro
dite, who was hence called Amathusia. But it
preserved its Phoenician character and retained
the worship of Melcart. It long remained
faithful to Persia (Hdt. v. 104). There were
copper-mines in the neighbourhood of the town
(fecundam Amathunta metalU, Ov. Met. x.
220). [Cyprus.]
Amatius, svimameiPseudomarius, originally
an oculist. It is said that his real name was

AMAZONES
Herophilus, which he romanised into Amatius.
Pretended to be either the son or grandson of
the great Marius, and was put to death by
Antony in B.C. 44. (Val. Max. ix. 15, 2 ; Appian.
B. C. iii. 2 ; Cic. AU. xii. 49, xiv. 6-8, Phil. i. 2, 5.)
Amazones ('A/ja(6ves), a mythical race of
warrior women who engaged in battle with dif
ferent Greek heroes according to various local
traditions. Their especial country in legend
was in Pontus, near the river Thermodon, where,
by some accounts, the Naiad Harmonia had
born them to Ares, and where they founded the
city Themiscyra, in the neighbourhood of the
modern Trebizond (Paus. i. 2; Diod. iv. 16;
Ap. Rh. ii. 996; Pherecyd. fr. 25). Their
eountry was inhabited only by the Amazons,
who were governed by a queen : but in order to
propagate their race, they met once a year the
Gargareans in Mount Caucasus. The children of
the female sex were brought up by the Amazons,
and each had her right breast cut off, the better
to manage spear and bow (whence the name,
a-fja£6s, according to most: Diod. ii. 45;
Apollod. ii. 5 ; Arrian. An. vii. 13 ; cf. JJni/mam-
mia, Plaut. Cure. iii. 75), but it should be
observed that this does not appear in any art
representation of an Amazon. The male chil
dren were sent to the Gargareans or put to
death. The foundation of several towns in Asia
Minor and in the islands of the Aegean is
ascribed to them, e.g. of Ephesus, Smyrna,
Cyme, and Myrina, and it is particularly to be
noticed that very prevalent traditions connect
them, not merely with the north of Asia Minor,
Colchis, the Caucasus,. &c., but also with Thrace
and Scythia (Aesch. Pr. 723 ; Verg. Aen. xi.
659 ; Strab. p. 504 ; Hdt. iv. 110). The Greeks
believed in their existence as a real historical
race down to a late period ; and hence it is said
that Thalestris, the queen of the Amazons,
hastened to Alexander, in order to become a
mother by the conqueror of Asia (Plut. Alex.
46). The following are the chief mythical ad
ventures with which the Amazons are con
nected. In Homer they appear in Phrygian and
Lycian story (II. iii. 188, vi. 186) — they are said
to have invaded Lycia in the reign of Iobates,
but were destroyed by Bellerophontes, who
happened to be staying at the king's court.
[Bellerophontes; Laomedon.] They also
invaded Phrygia, and fought with the Phrygians
and Trojans when Priam was a young man.
Their story was developed by Arctinus, who,
unlike Homer, makes their queen Penthesilea
the ally of Priam, but in the period of the war
after the close of the Iliad, when she was slain
by Achilles. This is a favourite subject in
art (Q. Smyrn. i. 669). A later story tells of
their being repelled from the island of Leuce at
the mouth of the Danube by the ghost of
Achilles. The ninth among the labours imposed
upon Heracles by Eurystheus, was to take from
Hippolyte, the queen of the Amazons, her
girdle, the ensign of her kingly power, which
she had received as a present from Ares.
[Heracles.] The Athenian story makes them
invade Attica, penetrating into the town itself,
in revenge for the attack which Theseus had
made upon them. They are repelled and driven
back to Asia by Theseus. This was the subject
of Micon's picture of the Amazons on the Stoa
Poikile (Paus. i. 15, 2 ; Aristoph. Lys. 678 ; cf.
Aesch. Eum. 655 ; Plut. Thes. 27). As to the
origin of these stories different theories have
been put forward. That of O. Miiller and later
writers following him, is that the story arose
from armed maiden attendants (jep<J8ouA.o() of

the'

AMBARRI
' Magna Mater ' under one or more of her
names, the Goddess of Comana, Artemis of
Ephesus, Cybele, the Goddess Ma or Amma.
This may derive some probability from the
accounts of their connexion with Artemis in
some stories, their attendance on her as huntress
maidens, their offerings to Artemis Tauropolos,
their recognition of her power in Laconia
(Paus. iii. 25, 2). But, on the other hand,
nothing can be further removed than the
Amazons, as represented to us, from the sen
suality of the temple-slaves. A more likely
origin is suggested by the legends which make
them come from Thracian and Scythian lands,
connected with the Thracian Ares, whose chil
dren they are by some accounts, and to whom
they sacrifice horses (Ap. Rh. ii. 387). Coupling
this with the accounts which reached the Greeks
regarding the life and character of women
among these northern races, their free and
hardy life, hunting and bathing like men (Hdt.
iv. 116), it is easy to understand how these
stories of warrior women may have grown up,
and how they reached Greece in connexion

• AMBRACIUS 69
Ambiatinus Vicus, a place in the country of
the Treviri near Coblenz, where the emperor
Caligula was born (Suet. Cal. 8).
Ambibari, an Armoric people in Gaul, near
the modern AmbUres in Normandy (Caes. B. G.
vii. 75).
Ambiliati, a Gallic people, perhaps in Brit
tany (Caes. B. G. iii. 9).
Ambiorix, a chief of the Eburones in Gaul,
cut to pieces, in conjunction with Cativolcus,
the Roman troops under Sabinus and Cotta,
who were stationed for the winter in the terri
tories of the Eburones, b.c. 54. He failed in
taking the camp of Q. Cicero, and was defeated
on the arrival of Caesar, who was unable to
obtain possession of the person of Ambiorix,
notwithstanding his aciive pursuit of the latter.
(Caes. B. G. v. 26-51, vi. 29-48, viii. 24 ; Dio-
Cass. xl. 5, 31.)
Ambivareti, the clientes or vassals of the
Aedui, probably dwelt N. of the latter (B. G.
vii. 75).
Ambivariti, a Gallic people, W. of the Maas,
in the neighbourhood of Namur (B. G. iv. 9).

Wounded Amazons. (Phigalean Marbles.)

with stories of Ares ; the connexion with Ar
temis probably arose merely from the huntress
character which belonged to her. In art the
Amazons are a favourite subject alike in great
sculptures such as those from the temple frieze
at Bassae, from the Mausoleum and from Xan-
thus, and on vases. It is noticeable that in the
more archaic art they are dressed and armed
exactly like male warriors (aj'-rioVeipai); but after
the Persian wars in vase pictures they assume
an Oriental type of dress and appearance, while
in sculptures they become idealised warrior
maidens, resembling some types of the huntress
Artemis, and perhaps modelled after Spartan
maidens. In the Greek form they wear the
chiton with the right breast bare whether on
foot or on horseback ; on the vases their garb is
Oriental with the Phrygian cap and with the
Asiatic or the Scythian trousers. The charac
teristic Amazonian arms besides the bow are
the double battle-axe and the crescent shield
(cf. Hor. Od. iv. 4, 17 ; Diet. Ant. s.vv. Pelta,
Securis). [Penthesilea.]
Ambarri, a people of Gaul, on the Arar
(SaSne) E. of the Aedui, and of the same stock
as the latter (Caes. B. G. vii. 75 ; Liv. v. 34).
Ambiani, a Belgic people, between the Bello-
vaci and Atrebates, conquered by Caesar in
b.c. 57. Their chief town was Samarobrlva,
afterwards called Ambiani, now Amiens (Caes.
-B. G. ii. 4, 15, vii. 75).

Ambivius Turpio. [Turpio.]
Amblada ( to "A^/3A.a5a : 'Ap.f3XaSeiis), a town
in Pisidia, on the borders of Caria ; famous for
its wine (Strab. p. 570).
Ambracia ('AiiirpaKia, afterwards 'Ap.0paKia :
'Ap.i3pciKtaTris,'Ap.0paKievs,AmbYibciensis:Arta),
a town on the left bank of the Arachthus, 86
stadia from the coast, N. of the Ambracian Gulf,
was originally included in Acarnania, but after
wards in Epirus. It was colonised by the
Corinthians about B.C. 660, and at an early
period acquired wealth and importance. It be
came subject to the kings of Epirus about the
time of Alexander the Great. Pyrrhus made it
the capital of his kingdom, and adorned it with
public buildings and statues. At a later time
it joined the Aetolian League, was taken by the
Romans in B.C. 189, and stripped of its works
of art. Its inhabitants were transplanted to
the new city of Nicopolis, founded by Augustus
after the battle of Actium, B.C. 81. South of
Ambracia on the E. of the Arachthus, and close
to the sea, was the fort Ambracus. (Strab. pp.
325, 452 ; Hdt. viii. 45 ; Thuc. i. 46, ii. 80, iii.
105 ; Polyb. xxii. 9-13 ; Liv. xxxviii. 3-9.)
Ambraclus Sinus ('AiJ.irpaKiKbs or ' Ap.f}paKiKbs
kSXitos: G. of Arta), a gulf of the Ionian Sea
between Epirus and Acarnania, said by Poly
bius to be 300 stadia long and 100 wide, and
with an entrance only 5 stadia in width. Its
real length is 25 miles and its breadth 10 ; the

450

AMBRONES

entrance is about half a mile wide, narrowing
in one part to 700 yards.
Ambrones ("Au/ipaves), a Celtic people, who
joined the Cimbri and Teutones in their invasion
of the Roman dominions, and were defeated by
Marius near Aquae Sextiae (Aix) in b.c. 102.
Ambrosius, bishop of Milan a.d. 374. [See
Diet, of Christian Biography.]
Ambrysus or Amphrysus ("Afj.fipvo-os: 'A/i-
fipvo-eis : nr. Dhistomo), a town in Phocis
strongly fortified, S. of M. Parnassus : in the
neighbourhood were numerous vineyards. It was
fortified with a double wall by the Thebans as
a stronghold against Philip. (Strab. p. 423;
Paus. x. 36, 1.)
Ambustus, Fabius. The notable persons of
this name are 1. M., pontifex maximus in the
vear when Rome was taken by the Gauls, B.C.
390. His three sons, Kaeso, Numerius, and
Quintus, were sent as ambassadors to the Gauls
when the latter were besieging Clusium, and
took part in a sally of the besieged against the
¦Gauls (B.C. 391). The Gauls demanded that
the Fabii should be surrendered to them for
violating the law of nations; and upon the
senate refuting to give up the guilty parties,
they marched against Rome. The three sons
were in the same year elected consular tribunes
{Liv. v. 35, 41). — 2. M., consular tribune in B.C.
331 and 369, and censor in 363, had two daugh
ters, of whom the elder was married to Ser.
Sulpicius, and the younger to C. Licinius Stolo,
the author of the Licinian Rogations. Accord
ing to the story recorded by Livy, the younger
Fabia induced her father to assist her husband
in obtaining the consulship for the plebeian
order, into which she had married (Liv. vi. 22,
34, 36). — 3. M., thrice consul, in B.C. 360, when
he conquered the Hernici, a second time in 356,
when he conquered the Falisci and Tarquinien-
ses, and a third time in 354, when he conquered
the Tiburtes. He was dictator in 351. He was
the father of the celebrated Q. Fabius Maximus
Rullianus. [Maximus.] (Liv. vii. 11, 17, 22,
viii. 83.)
Amenanus ('Ap.evav6s, Dor. 'A/xevos), a river
in Sicily near Catana, sometimes dried up for
years together (nuncfluit, inter dum suppressis
Jontibus aret, Ov. Met. xv. 280 ; Strab. p. 240),
possibly owing to volcanic changes in Etna, at
whose foot it rises.
Ameria (Amerlnus : Amelia), an ancient town
in Umbria, and a municipium, the birthplace of
Sex. Roscius defended by Cicero, was situate in
a, district rich in vines (Verg. Georg. i. 265), on
a hill 56 miles from Rome, between the valleys
of the Tiber and the Nar (Strab. p. 227 ; Plin.
.iii. § 114J.
Ameriola, a town in the land of the Sabines,
-destroyed by the Romans at a very early period
{Liv. i. 38^ Plin. iii. § 68).
Amestratus (Amestratlnus : Mistretta), a
town in the N. of Sicily, not far from the coast,
the same as the Myttistratum of Polybius and
the Amastra of Silius Italicus, taken by the
Romans from the Carthaginians in the first
Punic war (Cic. Verr. iii. 39, 43, 74).
Amestris. [Amasteis.]
Amida (ti "ApuSa : Diarbekr), a town in So-
phene (Armenia Major) on the Upper Tigris.
It was taken by the Persian king Sapor a.d.
859, when Ammianus Marcellinus was among
the defenders (Am. Marc. xix. 1). The Romans
afterwards recovered it.
Amilcar. [Hamilcar.]
Aminlas ('Ap.eivias), brother of Aeschylus,
-distinguished himself at the battle of Salamis

AMMIANUS
(b.c. 480) ; he and Eumenes were judged to
have been the bravest on this occasion among
all the Athenians (Hdt. viii. 84, 93; Plut.
Them. 14; Diod. xi. 27).
Amipsias ('Atieffiias), a comic poet of Athens,
contemporary with Aristophanes, whom he twice
conquered in the dramatic contests, gaming the
second prize with his Connus when Aristo
phanes was third with the Clouds (b.c. 423),
and the first with his Comastae when Aristo
phanes gained the second with the Birds (b.c.
414). (Diog. Laert. ii. 28.)
Amisla or Amisius (Ems), a river in northern
Germany well known to the Romans, on which
Drusus had a naval engagement with the Bruc-
teri, b.c. 12 (Strab. p. 290 ; Mela, iii. 3 ; Tac.
Ann. i. 60, 63, 70, ii. 23).
Amisla (Emden 1), a fortress on the left bank
of the river of the same name (Tac. Awn. ii. 8).
Amisodarus ('Auio-<&$apos), a king of Lycia,
who brought up the monster Chimaera ; his sons
Atymnius and Maris were slain at Troy by the
sons of Nestor (II. xvi. 817-328 ; Apollod. ii. 3).
Amisus ('Apia 6s : 'Auio-nvis, Amisenus :
Samsun), a large city on the coast of Pontus,
on a bay of the Euxine Sea, called after it
(Amisenus Sinus). Mithridates enlarged it,
and made it one of his residences. It was taken
by Lucullus B.C. 71, by Pharnaces B.C. 47, freed
by Julius Caesar, and again held by tyrants,
liberated from the tyrant Strato by Augustus
immediately after Actium (see Ramsay's Asia
Minor, p. 194). It became one of the civitates
foederatae, and before Trajan's time was at
tached to the province of Bithynia-Pontus as a
free city (Strab. p. 547 ; Dio Cass. xiii. 46 ; App.
B. C. ii. 91 ; Plut. Luc. 15 ; Plin. Ep. x. 93).
Amiternum (Torre d' Amiterno), an ancient
Sabine town, according to Cato and Varro the
cradle of the Sabine race (Dionys. i. 14, ii 49).
It stood on the Aternus, under the highest of
the Apennines (Gran Sasso d' Italia). It fell
into decay in the civil wars, but was re-colonised
and became a place of importance under the
Empire, and was the birthplace of Sallust.
According to Liv. x. 39 it was in the power or
the alliance of Samnium at the beginning of
the third Samnite war, and was taken B.C. 293
(Verg. Aen. vii. 710 ; Strab. p. 228).
Ammianus ('A)j.ij.iav6s), a Greek epigramma
tist, but probably a Roman by birth, the author
of nearly thirty epigrams in the Greek An
thology, lived under Trajan and Hadrian.
Ammianus Marcellinus, by birth a Greek,
and a native of Syrian Antioch, was admitted
at an early age among the imperial bodyguards.
He served many years under Ursicinus, one of
the generals of Constantius, both in the West
and East, and he subsequently attended the
emperor Julian in his campaign against the
Persians (a.d. 863). Eventually he established
himself at Rome, where he composed his his
tory, and was alive at least as late as 390. His
history, written in Latin, extended from the
accession of Nerva, a.d. 96, the point at
which the histories of Tacitus terminated, to
the death of Valens, a.d. 378, comprising a
period of 282 years. It was divided into 31
books, of which the first 13 are lost. The re
maining 18 embrace the acts of Constantius
from A.D. 853, the seventeenth year of his reign,
together with the whole career of Gallus, Ju-
lianus, Jovianus, Valentinianus, and Valens.
The portion preserved was the more important
part of the work, as he was a contemporary of
the events described in these books. The style
of Ammianus is too often affected and bom-

AMMON
bastic, but his accuracy, fidelity, and impartiality
deserve praise.— Editions. By Eyssenhardt,
Berl. 1871 ; Gardthausen, Gb'tt. 1875.
Ammon, more correctly Amon or Amun, the
supreme god of the Egyptians according to the
Theban theology. He may possibly, as some
think, have been originally the god of animal
and vegetable fruitfulness ; but there is no
doubt that as Amen-Ra at Thebes he was the
Sun-God, who ruled over all the upper and the
under world, and whose representative on the
earth was the reigning king of Egypt. His
worship in the original form was set aside by
Amenhotep IV., who from his mother, appa
rently a Mesopotamia^, had adopted views in
favour of a purer monotheism, and substituted
the worship of ' the sun's disk ' for the orthodox
worship of Amun, and though the original faith
was restored by the following dynasty, and
especially by Ramses II. (=Sesostris), some
traces of the change remained. A further
variation from other lands was caused by the
Ethiopian conquest of Egypt in the 8th century
B.C., whence some Ethiopian characteristics
were introduced into his worship, and the erro
neous idea arose that the Egyptians had de
rived the religion of Amrm from Meroe (Hdt.
ii. 29, 42). When Psammetichus established his
rule in Lower Egypt at Sais, in the 7th century
B.C., the exclusive worship of Amun, except in
his special temples, diminished; but soon after
this he was brought into relation with Greek
mythology, through the settlers at Naucratis,
&c, and still more through the Greek colonists
of Cyrene, who became acquainted with the
famous oracle of Ammon in the western Oasis
of the Ammonium (Siwah), founded by a colony
of Egyptians and Ethiopians in the 8th century.
His worship spread in Greece, being identified
with that of Zeus ; so that he became Zei»s yAjii-
p.av, and to the Ro
mans Jupiter Am
mon. (Pind. Pyth.
iv. 16 ; Plat. Polit.
257 B, where ' our '
God means Cyre-
naic.) It appears in
Laconia (Paus. iii.
18, 2). The oracle
from the Am
monium, to which
tradition gave the
same origin as that
of Dodona (Hdt. ii.
54), gained much
influence with the
Greeks after Alex
ander's visit, and
sacred embassies
were sent to it
[see Diet. Ant.
s.v. Theoris], In
Egyptian art Am
mon is represented
sometimes with a
head-dress of two lofty feathers, symbolising his
rule over the upper and under world ; sometimes
as a ram-headed deity with an orb over the
horns, symbolising the sun. Some take the
ram merely to signify animal fruitfulness. It
looks more like the remnant of a totemistic
religion, especially where the custom of cloth
ing the statue in the skin of a slaughtered ram
is mentioned (Hdt. ii. 42). In Greek art this
symbol of the ram is preserved, but brought
into agreement with Greek taste by merely
showing the horns added to the ideal human

AMPELUS

61

Ammon.
(From Wilkinson's Egyptians.)

head, as in figures of Zeus Ammon and Alex
ander the Great (seen in coins of Lysimachus).
See coin, p. 50.
Ammonium. [Oasis.]
Ammonius ('Ap.p.dvios). 1. Grammaticus,
of Alexandria, left this city on the overthrow of
the heathen temples in a.d. 389, and settled at
Constantinople. He wrote, in Greek, a valu
able work, On the Differences of Words of like
Signification (irepl dpoiav Kai Siatpdpav X4£eav).
—Editions. By Valckenaer, Lugd. Bat. 1739 ;,
by Schafer, Lips. 1822.— 2. Son of Hermeas,
studied at Athens under Proclus (who died a.d.
484), and was the master of Simplicius, Damas-
cius, and others. He wrote numerous com
mentaries in Greek on the works of the earlier
philosophers. His extant works are Commen
taries on the Isagoge of Porphyry, or the Five
Predicables, first published at Venice in 1500;
and On the Categories of Aristotle, and De
Interpretations, published by Brandis in his.
edition of the Scholia of Aristotle. — 3. Of
Lamprae m Attica, a Peripatetic philosopher,.
lived in the first century of the Christian aera,.
and was the instructor of Plutarch (Plut.
Symp. iii. 1). — i. Surnamed Saccas, or sack-
carrier, because his employment was carrying
the corn landed at Alexandria, as a public
porter, was born of Christian parents. Some.
writers assert, and others deny, that he aposta
tised from the faith. At any rate he combined
the study of philosophy with Christianity, and
is regarded by those who maintain his apostasy
as the founder of the later Platonic School.
Among his disciples were Longinus, Heren-
nius, Plotinus, and Origen. He died a.d. 243,
at the age of more than 80 years.
Amnias, a river of Pontus, E. of the Halys
(Strab. p. 562; Appian, Mithr. 18).
Amnisus ('Ap.vio-6s), a town in the N. of
Crete and the harbour of Cnossus, situated on.
a river of the same name, the nymphs of which,
called Amnisiddes, were in the service of Arte
mis (Strab. p. 470 ; Od. xix. 188 ; Ap. Rh. iii.
881 ; Callim. Hymn. Dian. 15).
Amon. [Ammon.]
Amor. [Eeos.]
Amorgus ("Afwpyos : 'Ap.opyivos : Amorgo)^
an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of
the Sporades, the birthplace of Simonides, and
under the Roman emperors a place of banish
ment, more favourable than Gyarus as being
productive of corn, oil, and wine. It had three
towns on its western coast, Aigiale, Arcesine,.
and Minon. (Strab. p. 487 ; Scyl. p. 22 ; Tac.
Ann. iv. 30.)
Amorium ('Apidpiov), a city of Galatia, 30
miles SW. of Pessianus.
Ampe ("Ap.irri, Hdt.) or Ampelone (Plin.),
a town at the mouth of the Tigris, where Darius
I. planted the Milesians whom he removed
from their own city after the Ionian revolt
(B.C. 494). JHdt. vi. 20; Plin. vi. § 159.)
L. Ampelius, the author of a small work,
entitled Liber Memorialis, lived in the 2nd
century of the Christian era. His work is a,
sort of commonplace-book, containing a meagre
summary of the most striking natural objects
and of the most remarkable events, divided
into 50 chapters. He is praised by Sidonius
ApolUnaris (ix. 299). It is generally printed
with Florus, and is published separately by
Beck, Lips. 1826 ; Wolfflin, Lips. 1854.
Ampelus, the personification of the vine.
He was a beautiful youth, son of a satyr and a
nymph, and beloved by Dionysus. According
to Ovid (Fast. iii. 407), he was killed by falling

«2

AMPELUS

from a vine branch, and was placed, as Vinde-
mitor, in the stars ; according to Nonn. Dionys.
x. 175, he was changed into a vine. A marble
group now in the British Museum represents
Dionysus with Ampelus half changed into a
vine. Ampelus ("Ap.ire\os), a promontory at the
extremity of the peninsula Sithonia in Chal-
cidice in Macedonia, near Torone.
Ampelusia ('AtirnXovo-ia : C. Espartel), the
promontory at the W. end of the S. or African
coast of the Fretum Gaditanum (Straits of
Gibraltar). The natives of the country called
it Cotes (at Kdreis). (Strab. p. 825 ; Plin. v. 1.)
Amphaxitis ('ApupagiTis), a district of Myg-
donia in Macedonia, at the mouths of the Axius
and Echedorus (Polyb. v. 97 ; Strab. p. 330).
Amphea ("Ap-cpeia : 'Ap.(pevs), a small town of
Messenia on the borders of Laconia and Mes
senia, conquered by the Spartans in the first
Messenian war (Paus. iv. 5, 9).
Amphiaraus ('Ap.(pidpaos), son of Oicles and
Hypermnestra, daughter of Thestius, was de
scended on his father's side from the famous
seer Melampus, and was himself a great pro
phet and a great hero at Argos, having first
gained his prophetic powers by sleeping in the
tiavTiKbs oIkos at Phlius (Paus. ii. 13, 6). By
his wife Eriphyle, the sister of Adrastus, he
was the father of Alcmaeon, Amphilochus,
Eurydice, and Demonassa. He took part in
the hunt of the Calydonian boar, and the Argo-
nautic voyage. He also joined Adrastus in the
expedition against Thebes, although he foresaw
its fatal termination, through the persuasions
of his wife Eriphyle, who had been induced to
persuade her husband by the necklace of Har
monia which Polynices had given her. On
leaving Argos, however, he enjoined his sons to
punish their mother for his death. [Alcmaeon.]
During the war against Thebes, Amphiaraus
fought bravely, but could not escape his fate.
Pursued by Periclymenus, he fled towards the
river Ismenius, and the earth swallowed him
up together with his chariot, before he was
overtaken by his enemy. (Od. xv. 240-247;
Pind. Nem. ix. 57, Ol. vi. 21; Aesch. Sept.
587; Soph. El. 837; Stat. Theb. vii. 816.) In
Paus. i. 34 there is a story that he was swal
lowed up by the earth at Harma, near Myca-
lessus. Zeus made him immortal, and hence
forth he was worshipped as a hero between
Potniae and Thebes (Hdt. i. 46, viii. 134), but
afterwards with greater fame near Oropus,
where also his temple for dream-oracles was
situated (Paus. i. 84). (See Diet, of Ant. art.
Oraculum.)
. Amphicaea or Amphiclea ('AfixpUaia, 'Apjpi-
KXeia : 'A/upiKaisvs : Dhadhi or Oglunitza ?), a
town in the N. of Phocis, with an adytum of
Dionysus, was called for a long time Ophitea
('OQneia) (Hdt. viii. 38 ; Paus. x. 3, 83).
Amphictyon ('AtupiKTvdv). 1. A king of
Attica who drove out his father-in-law Cranaus,
and reigned for 12 years, when he was displaced
by Erichthonius (Paus. i. 2, 5 ; Apollod. i. 7). —
2. The mythical founder of the Amphictyonic
council, son of Deucalion (Pans. x. 8). He had
a temple at Anthela, near Thermopylae (Hdt.
vii. 200).
Amphidamas ('Apupib'diias). 1. Son of Aleus
and brother of Lycurgus, the Arcadian king
(Paus. viii. 4, 6 ; Ap. Rh. i. 161) : others make
him the father, others the son, of Lycurgus (II.
ii. 60S). He was one of the Argonauts. (Other
mythical persons of the same name, II. x. 266 ;
Hes. Op. 652.) — 2. General of the Eleans b.c.

AMPHION
218, taken prisoner by Philip, king of Macedon
(Polyb. iv. 75, 84, 861.
Amphidoli ('ApupiSoXoi), a town in Pisatis in
Elis (Xen. Hell. iii. 2, 30 ; Strab. pp. 841, 349).
Amphllochla ('Autpi/ioxta), the country of the
Amphilochi (' ApupiXoxoi), an Epirot race, at the
E. end of the Ambracian gulf, usually included
in Acarnania. Their chief town was Aeoos
Amphilochicum. (Strab. p. 326.)
Amphilochus ('AaqjiXoxos), son of Amphia
raus and Eriphyle, and brother of Alcmaeon.
He took an active part in the expedition of the
Epigoni against Thebes, assisted his brother in
the murder of their mother [Alcmaeon], and
afterwards fought against Troy, and was in the
wooden horse (Quint. Sm. xii. 323). On his re
turn from Troy, together with Mopsus, who was
like himself a seer, he founded the town of
Mallos in Cilicia. Hence he proceeded to his
native place, Argos, but returned to Mallos,
where he was killed in single combat by Mopsus
(Strab. p. 675; Lycophr. 439), or by Apollo
(Strab. p. 676). Others relate (Thuc. ii. 68) that,
after leaving Argos, Amphilochus founded Argos
Ampliilocriic.nTri on the Ambracian gulf. He
was worshipped at Mallos in Cilicia, at Oropus,
and at Athens. (Paus. i. 34, 2, iii. 15, 6; cp.
Mopsus.) Amphily tus ('A/KpiXvTos), a celebrated seer in
the time of Peisistratus (b.c. 559), is called both
an Acarnanian and an Athenian : he may have
been an Acarnanian who received the franchise
at Athens (Hdt. i. 62; Plat. Tkeag. p. 124).
Amphimachus ('Apuplpaxos). 1. Son of Ctea
tus, grandson of Poseidon, one of the four leaders
of the Epeans against Troy, was slain by Hector
(II. xiii. 185). — 2. Son of Nomion, with his
brother Nastes, led the Carians to the assistance
of the Trojans, and was slain by Achilles (II.
ii. 870).— 3. Son of Polyxenus (II. ii. 623).
Amphiinalla (to. 'ApupipjxXXa), a town on the
N. coast of Crete, on a bay called after it (G. of
Armiro). Amphimedon ('A/j.<pip.45av), of Ithaca, a guest-
friend of Agamemnon, and a suitor of Penelope,
slain by Telemachus (Od. xxii. 284, xxiv. 103).
Amphlnomus ('Ap.<pivop.os) and his brother
Anapius were dutiful citizens of Catane, who
in an eruption of Aetna carried off, the one his
father, the other his mother, on their shoulders.
The lava turned aside and spared them. They
appear in later coins of the city. (Paus. x. 28, 4 ;
Claudian, vii. 41 ; Auson. Ord. TJrb. Nob. 92.)
Amphion ('Auipiav). 1. Son of Zeus and An-
tiope, the daughter of Nycteus of Thebes, and
twin-brother of Zethus, Amphion and Zethus
were born either at Eleutherae in Boeotia or on
Mount Cithaeron, whither their mother had fled,
and grew up among the shepherds, not knowing
their descent. Hermes (according to others,
Apollo, or the Muses) gave Amphion a lyre, who
henceforth practised song and music, while his
brother spent his time in hunting and tending
the flocks. (Od. xi. 260 ; Eur. Antiop. Fr. ; Paus.
ii. 6. 2 ; Ov. Met. vi. 110 ; Hor. Ep. i. 18.) Having
become acquainted with their origin, they
marched against Thebes, where Lycus reigned,
the husband of their mother Antiope, whom he
had repudiated, and had then married Dirce in
her stead. They took the city, and as Lycus
and Dirce had treated their mother with great
cruelty, the two brothers killed them both.
They put Dirce to death by tying her to a bull,
who dragged her about till she perished ; and
they then threw her body into a well, which was
from this time called the well of Dirce (Stat.
Theb. ix. 678). After they had obtained posses-

AMPHIPOLIS
sion of Thebes, they fortified it by a wall.

It

is said that when Amphion played his lyre, the
stones moved of their own accord and formed
the wall (Schol. Ap. Rh. i. 740, 763 ; Apollod.
iii. 5, 5; Hor. Od. iii. 11; Prop. i. 9, 10; Stat.
Theb. iv. 857). Amphion afterwards married
Niobe, who bore him many sons and daughters,
all of whom were killed by Apollo. His death

Zethus and Amphion. (From a Bas-relief at Rome.)
is differently related : some say that he killed
himself from grief at the loss of his children
(Ov. Met. vi. 270), and others tell us that he was
killed by Apollo because he made an assault on
the Pythian temple of the god. Amphion and
his brother were buried at Thebes. A connexion
may be traced between the Theban legend of
these twin sons of Zeus and the Lacedaemonian
legend of the Dioscuri; and, again, between
Amphion and Apollo. The punishment inflicted
upon Dirce is represented in the celebrated
Farnese bull, the work of Apollonius and Tau-
riscus, which was discovered in 1546, and placed
in the Farnese palace at Rome. (Plin. xxxvi.
§ 34.) [Dirce.] — 2. Son of Jasus and father of
Chloris (Od. xi. 281). In Homer, this Amphion,
king of Orchomenos, is distinct from Amphion
the husband of Niobe ; but in some traditions
they were regarded as the same person.
Amphipolis ('Ap.<piiroXis ; 'ApupiiroX'iTris :
Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keui), a town in
Macedonia on the left or eastern bank of the
Strymon, just below its egress from the lake
Cercinitis, and about 3 miles from the sea.
The Strymon flowed almost round the town,
nearly forming a circle, whence its name Amphi
polis. It was originally called "Eweo SSoi, ' the
Nine Ways,' and belonged to the Edonians, a
Thracian people. Aristagoras of Miletus first
attempted to colonise it, but was cut off with
his followers by the Edonians in B.C. 497. The
Athenians made a next attempt with 10,000
colonists, but they were all destroyed by the
Edonians in 465. In 437 the Athenians were

AMPHISTRATUS 68
more successful, and drove the Edonians out of
the ' Nine Ways,' which waB henceforth called
Amphipolis. (Hdt. v. 126, ix. 75 ; Thuc. i. 100,

Coin of Amphipolis.
OOP., Apollo, laurel-crowned ; rev., torch and crown.
iv. 102, v. 6.) It was one of the most important
of the Athenian possessions, being advan
tageously situated for trade on a navigable river
in the midst of a fertile country, and near the
gold mines of M. Pangaeus. Hence the indig
nation of the Athenians when it fell into the
hands of Brasidas (b.c. 424) and of Philip (858).
Under the Romans it was a free city, and the
capital of Macedonia prima : the Via Egnatia

Plan of the neighbourhood of Amphipolis.
1, site of Amphipolis ; 2, site of Eion ; S, ridge connecting
Amphipolis with Mt. Pangaeus ; 4, Long Wall of Amphi
polis: the three marks across indicate the gates: 6,
Palisade (oTatipta/ta) connecting the Long WaU with the
bridge over the Strymon ; 6, Lake Cercinitis ; 7, Mt.
Cerdylium ; 8, Mt. Pangaeus.
ran through it. The port of Amphipolis was
Eion. Amphis ("A/Mpis), an Athenian comic poet, of
the middle comedy, contemporary with the
philosopher Plato. We have the titles of 26 of
his plays, and a few fragments of them (Meineke,
Frag. Com. Graec).
Amphissa ("Auipio-o-a: 'Apupio-osis, 'Ap<pio--
o-aios : Salona), one of the chief towns of the
Locri Ozolae on the borders of Phocis, 7 miles
from Delphi, said to have been named after
Amphissa, daughter of Macareus, and beloved
by Apollo. In consequence of the Sacred War
declared against Amphissa by the Amphictyons,
the town was destroyed by Philip, b.c. 388
(Aesch. Ctes. p. 71 ; Strab. p. 419), but it was
soon afterwards rebuilt, supplying 400 hoplites
against Brennus b.c. 279 (Paus. x. 23, 1) ; was
taken by the Romans B.C. 190 (Liv. xxxvii. 5).
Under the empire it had freedom from tribute
(Plin. iv. § 7).
Amphistratus ('Auqjio-TpaTos) and his brother
Crecas, the charioteers of the Dioscuri, were
said to have taken part in the expedition of

64 AMPHITRITE
Jason to Colchis, and to have occupied a part
of that country which was called after them
Heniochia, .as heniochus (rjvloxos) signifies a
charioteer (Strab. p. 496; Arist. Pol. viii. 4, 3).
Amphitrite ('ApupiTpirri), a Nereid or an
Oceanid, wife of Poseidon and goddess of the
sea^ especially of the Mediterranean. In the
Odyssey Amphitrite is merely the name of the sea

Amphitrite holding a rudder.
OTrom a Bas-relief published by Winckelmann.)
(in the Iliad the word does not occur), and she
first occurs as a goddess in Hesiod. She was
carried off from Naxos by Poseidon, or, accord
ing to others, having fled to Atlas was tracked
out by a dolphin, which Poseidon therefore
placed in the stars. Later poets again use the
word as equivalent to the sea in general. She
became by Poseidon the mother of Triton,
Rhode or Rhodos, and Benthesicyme.
Amphitrope ('ApcpiTpdirri : ' ApxpiTpoiraieis),
an Attic demus belonging to the tribe Antio-
chis, in the neighbourhood of the silver mines
of Laurium.
Amphitryon or Amphitruo ('ApupiTpiav), son
of Alcaeus, king of Tiryns, and Astydameia, or
Laonome, or Lysidice. Alcaeus had a brother
Electryon, who reigned at Mycenae. Between
Electryon and Pterelaus, king of the Taphians,
a furious war raged, in which Electryon lost all
bis children except Licymnius, and was robbed
of his oxen. Amphitryon recovered the oxen,
but on his return to Mycenae accidentally killed
his uncle Electryon. He was now expelled
from Mycenae, together with Alcmene the
daughter of Electryon, by Sthenelus the brother
of Electryon, and went to Thebes, where he was
purified by Creon. In order to win the hand of
Alcmene, Amphitryon prepared to avenge the
death of Alcmene's brothers on the Taphians,
and conquered them, after Comaetho, the
daughter of Pterelaus, through her love for
Amphitryon, cut off the one golden hair on her
•father's head which rendered him immortal.
During the absence of Amphitryon from Thebes,
Jupiter visited Alcmene, who became by the
god the mother of Heracles ; the latter is called
Amphitryoniades in allusion to his reputed
father. Amphitryon fell in a war against Er-
ginus, king of the Minyans (Paus. viii. 14, 15,
17, ix. 10; Apollod. ii. 4; Hes. Sc 11; Pind.
Nem. x. 13, Pyth. ix.. 81). Euripides (H. F.)
represents his death as caused by Heracles after
the war with the Minyans. The comedy of
Plautus, called Amphitruo, is a ludicrous re
presentation of the visit of Zeus to Alcmene '.i
the disguise of her lover Amphitryon.
Amphoterus ('A/KpoVepos). [Acarnan.]
Amphrysus ('Aficppvo-ds). 1. A small river in
Thessaly which flowed into the Pagasaean gulf,
on the banks of which Apollo fed the herds of
Admetus (pastor ab Amphryso, Verg. Georg.

AMYCUS
iii. 2; cf. Strab. p. 433 ; Ap. Rh. i. 54; Ov. Met.
i. 580). — 2. See Ambetsus.
Ampsaga (Wad-el-Kabir, or Sufjimar), a
river of N. Africa, which divided Numidia from
Mauretania Sitifensis. It flows past the town
of Cirta (Constantino).
Ampsanctus or Amsanctus Lacus (Lago
d'Ansanti or Mufiti), a small lake in Samnium
near Aeculanum, four miles from the modern
Frigento. Sulphurous vapours arose from it.
Near it was a chapel of the god Mephitis with
a cavern from which mephitic vapours also
came, and which was therefore regarded as an
entrance to the lower world. (Verg. Aen. vii."
563; Plin. ii. § 208; Cic. Div. i. 36.)
Ampsivarn. [Ansibaeh.]
Ampycus ("ApvirvKos). 1. Son of Pelias, hus
band of Chloris, and father of the famous seer
Mopsus, who is hence called Ampycides. Pau
sanias (v. 17) calls him Ampyx. — 2. Son of
Iapetus, a bard and priest of Ceres, killed by
Phineus at the marriage of Perseus (Ov. Met.
v. 111).
Ampyx. [Ampycus.]
Amulius. [Romulus.]
Amyclae. 1. ('Ap-vKXai : 'Ap.vKXaievs, 'Auv-
KXaios : Sklavokhori or Aia Kyriaki ?), an
ancient town of Laconia on the Eurotas, in a
beautiful country, 20 stadia SE. of Sparta
(Polyb. v. 19; Liv. xxxiv. 28). It is mentioned'
in the Iliad (ii. 584), and is said to have been
founded by the ancient Lacedaemonian king
Amyclas, father of Hyacinthus, and to have
been the abode of Tyndarus, and of Castor and
Pollux, who are hence called Amyclaei Fratres
(Paus. iii. 1 ; Stat. Theb. vii. 413). After the
conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, the
Achaeans maintained themselves in Amyclae
for a long time ; and it was only shortly before
the first Messenian war that the town was taken
and destroyed by the Lacedaemonians under
Teleclus. The tale ran that the inhabitants
had been so often alarmed by false reports of
the approach of the enemy, that they passed a
law that no one should speak of the enemy ; and
accordingly when the Lacedaemonians at last
came, and no one dared to announce their ap
proach, ' Amyclae perished through silence : '
hence arose the proverb, Amy elis ipsis tacitur-
nior (Paus. iii. 2 ; Strab. p. 364 ; Serv. ad Aen.
x. 564). After its destruction by the Lacedae
monians Amyclae became a village, and was
only memorable by the festival of the Hyacinthia
(see Diet, of Ant. s.v.) celebrated at the place
annually, and by the temple and colossal statue
of Apollo, who was hence called Amyclaeus. —
2. (Amyclanus), an ancient town of Latium, E.
of Terracina, on the Sinus Amyclanus, was,
according to tradition, an Achaean colony from
Laconia. In the time of Augustus the town
had disappeared ; the inhabitants were said to
have deserted it on account of its being infested
by serpents (Plin. iii. 9) ; but when Virgil (Aen.
x. 564) speaks of tacntae Amyclae, he probably
transfers to this town the epithet belonging to
the Amyclae in Laconia [No. 1] (cf. Sil. viii.
528; Pervigil. Ven. 92). Near Amyclae was
the Spelunca (Sperlonga), or natural grotto, a
favourite retreat of the emperor Tiberius.
Amyclas. [Amyclae.]
Amyclides, a name of Hyacinthus, as the
son of Amyclas.
Amycus ("A/ivkos), son of Poseidon and Bi-
thynis, king of the Bebryces, was celebrated
for his skill in boxing, and used to challenge
strangers to box with him. When the Argon auts
came to his dominions, Pollux accepted the

AMYDON
challenge and killed him (Apollod. i. 9; Ap. Rh.
ii.). On the Ficoroni Cista he is represented
as bound to a tree by Polydeuces. On his
grave grew the 'laurus insana,' a branch of
which _caused strife (Plin. xvi. § 239).
Amydon ('ApvSdvj, a town in Macedonia on
the river Axius (II. ii. 849 ; Juv. iii. 69).
Amymone ('Ap-v/iavr/), one of the daughters
of Danaus and Elephantis. When Danaus ar
rived in Argos, the country was suffering from
a drought, and Danaus sent out Amymone to
fetch water. She was attacked by a satyr, but
waB rescued from his violence by Poseidon, who
appropriated her to himself, and then showed
her the wells at Lema. According to another
account he bade her draw his trident from the
rock, from which a threefold spring gushed
forth, which was called after her the well and
river of Amymone. Her son by Poseidon was
called Nauplius (Apollod. ii. 1 ; Hyg. Fab. 169 ;
Paus. ii. 87 ; Strab. p. 368; Eur. Phoen. 188).
Amynander ('ApvvavSpos), king of the Atha-
manes in Epirus, an ally of the Romans in their
war with Philip of Macedonia, about B.C. 198,
but an ally of Antiochus B.C. 189 (Pol. xvi. 27,
xxii. 8; Liv. xxvii. 80, xxxii. 14, xxxv. 47,
xxxviii. 1).
Amyntas ('ApvvTas). 1. I. King of Mace
donia, reigned from about B.C. 540 to 500, and
was succeeded by his son Alexander I. He
acknowledged himself to Megabyzus a vassal
of Persia. He was in alliance with the Peisis-
tratids, and offered Hippias a refuge (Hdt. viii.
189; Thuc. ii. 100; Paus. ix. 40).— 2. II. King
of Macedonia, son of Philip, the brother of

ANACHARSIS

65

Amyntas II., King of Macedonia, B.C. 393-369.
Obv., head of king; rev., horse.
Perdiccas II., at first, like his father, prince of
upper Macedonia (Thuc. ii. 95), obtained the
throne of Macedonia B.C. 393 by the murder of
the usurper Pausanias. Soon after his acces
sion he was driven from Macedonia by the Illy-
rians, but was restored to his kingdom by the
Thessalians. On his return he was engaged
in war with the Olynthians, in which he was
assisted by the Spartans, and by their aid
Olynthus was reduced in 379. Amyntas united
himself also with Jason of Pherae, and carefully
cultivated the friendship of Athens. Amyntas
died b.c. 370, and left by his wife Eurydice three
sons, Alexander, Perdiccas, and the famous
Philip (Diod. xiv. 89 f ., xv. 19, 60 ; Xen. Hell. v.
2). — 3. Grandson of Amyntas H., was excluded
by Philip from the succession on the death of
his father Perdiccas HI. in B.C. 360. He was
put to death in the first year of the reign of
Alexander the Great, 336, for a plot against
the king's life (Just. xii. 6 ; Curt. vi. 9, 17). —
4. A Macedonian officer in Alexander's army,
son of Andromenes. He and his brothers were
accused of being privy to the conspiracy of
Philotas in 330, but were acquitted. Some little
time after he was killed at the siege of a village
(Arr. iii. p. 72 f.). — 5. A Macedonian traitor, son
of Antiochus, took refuge at the court of Darius,
and became one of the commanders of the
Greek mercenaries. He was present at the

battle of Issus (b.c. 333), and afterwards fled
to Phoenicia, and having gathered ships went
to Egypt, got possession of Pelusium, and was
killed in battle against Mazaces, the Persian
governor of Memphis (Arr. i. 24 f. ; Curt. iii. 11,
iv. 7 ; Plut. Alex. ; Diod. xvii. 48).— 6. A king
of Galatia, supported Antony, and fought on
his side against Augustus at the battle of
Actium (b.c. 81). He fell in an expedition
against the town of Homonada or Homona
(Strab. p. 567). — 7. A Greek writer of a work
entitled Stathmi (XraBpioi), probably an ac-
oount of the different halting-places of Alex
ander the Great in his Asiatio expedition
(Athen. ii. p. 67 &c).
Amyntor ('ApvvTap), son of Ormenus of
Eleon in Thessaly, where Autolycus broke into
his house, and father of Phoenix, whom he
cursed on account of unlawful intercourse with
his mistress. According to Apollodorus he
was a king of Ormenium, and was slain by
Heracles, to whom he refused a passage
through his dominions, and the hand of his
daughter Astydamia. (17. ix. 434, x. 226;
Apollod. ii. 7, iii. 13). According to Ovid (Met.
xii. 364) he was king of the Dolopes.
Anryrtaeus ('ApvpTaios), an Egyptian,
assumed the title of king, and joined Inarus
the Libyan in the revolt against the Persians in
B.C. 460. They at first defeated the Persians
[Achaemenes], but were subsequently totally
defeated, 455. Amyrtaeus escaped, and main
tained himself as king in the marshy districts
of Lower Egypt, till about 414, when the
Egytians expelled the Persians, and Amyrtaeus
reigned 6 years. (Hdt. ii. 140, iii. 15 ; Thuc. i.
110 ; Diod. xi. 74.)
Amyrus ("Auvpos), a river in Thessaly, with
a town of the same name upon it, flowing into
the lake Boebeis : the country around was
called the 'Apvpxbv iretiiov (Strab. 442;
Polyb._v. 99).
Amythaon ('ApivBdav), son of Cretheus and
Tyro, father of Bias and of the seer Melampus,
who is hence called Amythddnius (Verg. Georg.
iii. 550). He dwelt at Pylus in Messenia, and
is mentioned among those to whom the restora
tion of the Olympian games was ascribed.
(Paus. v. 8 ; Od. xi. 258.)
Anabon ('Avd/3av), a district of the Persian
province of Aria, S. of Aria Proper, containing
4 towns, which still exist, Phra (Ferrah), Bis
(Beest or Bost), Gari (Ghore), Nii (Neh).
Anabura ('Avdfiovpa) a town of Pisidia. It
stood NW. of Antiocheia and SW. of the river
Lalandus. Its name seems to have been
changed to Neapolis between the times of
Strabo and Pliny, or, rather, it was deserted
when Neapolis was built near it. (Strab. p.
570 ; Liv. xxxviii. 15 ; Ramsay).
Anaces ("AvaKts). [Anax, No. 2.]
Anacharsis ('Avdxapo-is), a Scythian of
princely rank, left his native country to travel
in pursuit of knowledge, and came to Athens,
about B.c. 594. He became acquainted with
Solon, and by his talents and acute observa
tions, and his simplicity of life, he excited
general admiration. The fame of his wisdom
was such, that he was even reckoned by some
among the seven sages. He was killed by his
brother Saulius on his return to his native
country : according to Herodotus, because he was
introducing the Greek worship of Cybele ;
according to Diogenes Laertius, by accident.
(Hdt. iv. 76; Diog. Laert. i. 101; Plut. Sol. 5,
Convim. Sept. Sap. ; Lucian, Scytha, Ana
charsis ; Athen. pp. 159, 428, 437, 613.) Cicero F

66

ANACREON

(Tusc. Disp. v. 32) quotes from one of his
letters. Those which are ascribed to him are
spurious (ed. Hercher, 1873, Epistologr.
Graec) Anacreon ('AvaKpeav), a celebrated lyric
poet, born at Teos, an Ionian city in Asia
Minor. He removed from his native city, with
the great body of its inhabitants, to Abdera, in
Thrace, when Teos was taken by the Persians
(about b.c. 540), but lived chiefly at Samos,
under the patronage of Polycrates, in whose
praise he wrote many songs. After the death
of Polycrates (522), he went to Athens at the
invitation of the tyrant Hipparchus, where he
became acquainted with Simonides and other
poets. He died at the age of 85, choked, as
was said, by a grape-stone (Plin. vii. 5 ; Val.
Max. ix. 12, 8), probably about 478 : the
place of his death is uncertain. The Athenians
set up his statue in the Acropolis, as the type
of age still constant to the pleasures of youth
(Paus. i. 25). The universal tradition of anti
quity represents Anacreon as a consummate
voluptuary ; and his poems prove the truth of
the tradition. He sings of love and wine with
hearty good will ; and we see in him the luxury
of the Ionian inflamed by the fervour of the
poet. The tale that he loved Sappho is very
improbable. (Hdt. iii. 121 ; Plat. Charm, p.
157 ; Hipparch. p. 228 ; Athen. p. 429, 599, 600 ;
Strab. p. 638.) Of his poems only a few genuine
fragments have come down to us ; and these
seem to show him as a poet light and graceful,
but without force and passion. He probably
followed the Lesbian poets as regards metre
and style, but wrote in the Ionic dialect. The
collection of love songs and drinking songs
which bear his name are of various authorship
and dates. — Editions : by Fischer, Lips. 1793 ;
Bergk, Lips. 1878; Rose, 1876; Weise, Lips.
1878. Anactorlum ('AvaKTdpiov: 'AvaKrdpios), a
town in Acarnania, built by the Corinthians,

Coin of Anactorium in Acarnania
Obv., head of Athene, with legend AvaKropic

upon a promontory of the same name (near La
Madonna) at the entrance of the Ambracian
gulf. Its inhabitants were removed by Augustus
after the battle of Actium (b.c. 81) to Nicopolis.
Anadyomene. [Apheodite.]
Anagnia (Anagnmus : Anagni), an ancient
town of Latium, the chief town of the Hernici,
and subsequently both a municipium (having
first received the civitas sine suffragio as a
punishment for disaffection) and a Roman
colony. (Liv. ix. 43 ; Diod. xx. 80 ; Plin. iii.
63.) It. lay in a very beautiful and fertile
country on a hill, at the foot of which the Via
Lavicana and Via Praenestina united
(Compitum Anagnimum). In the neighbour
hood Cicero had an estate, Anagninum (Cic.
pro'Dom. 30).
Anagyrus ('Avayvpovs, ovvros : 'Avayvpdcrios,
'AvayvpovvrdBev: nr. Vari. Ru.), a demus of
Attica, belonging to the tribe Erectheis,v S. of
Athens, near the promontory Zoster (Strab. p.
398 ; PauB. i. 81).

ANAURUS
Anaitica ('AvaiTMti), a district of Armenia,
in which the goddess Anaitis was worshipped;
also called Acilisene.
Anaitis ( Avatris), an Asiatic divinity, whose
name is also written Anaea, Aneitis, Tanaii,
or N anaea. Her worship prevailed in Armenia,
Cappadocia, Assyria, Persis, &c, and seems to
have been a part of the worship, so common
among the Asiatics, of the creative powers of
nature, both male and female. The Greek
writers sometimes identify Anaitis with
Artemis, and sometimes with Aphrodite. (Strab.
pp. 512, 559, 733, 738 ; Plut. Artax. 27, Lucull.
24 ; Paus. iii. 16 ; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 3 ; Clem.
Alex. p. 43.)
Anamari or -res, a Gallic people in the plain
of the Po, in whose land the Romans founded
Placentia (Polyb. ii. 32). Possibly, however,
we should here read the name as Ananes
instead of making this people distinct from the
following. Ananes, a Gallic people, W. of the Trebia,
between the Po and the Apennines (Polyb.
ii. 17).
Ananius ('Avdvios), a Greek iambic poet,
contemporary with Hipponax, about B.C. 540.
(Fragments in Bergk, Poetae Lyrici, ii. 1878.)
Anaphe ('Avdrpi) : 'Avafyaios : Anaphi,
Nanfio), a small island in the S. of the Aegean
sea, E. of Thera, with a temple of Apollo
Aegletes, who was hence called Anapheus
(Strab. p. 484 ; Ov. Met. vii. 461).
Anapnlystus ('AvdqjXvo-TOs : 'AvaipXiffTios :
Anavyso), an Attic demus of the tribe Antiochis
on the SW. coast of Attica, opposite the island
Eleussa, called after Anaphlystus, son of
Poseidon (Hdt. iv. 29 ; Strab. p. 398).
Anapius. [Amphtnomus.]
Anapus ("Avairos). 1. A river in Acarna
nia, flowing into the Achelous (Thuc. ii. 82). —
2. (Anapo), a river in Sicily, flowing into the
sea S. of Syracuse through the marshes of Lysi-
mella (Thuc. vi. 96; Theocr. i. 68; Ov. Met.
v. 416).
Anartes or -ti, a people of Dacia, N. of the
Theiss (Caes. B. G. vi. 25).
Anas ("Avas : Guadiana), one of the chief
rivers of Spain, rises in Celtiberia in the
mountains near Laminium, forms the boundary
between Lusitania and Baetica, and flows into
the ocean by two mouths (now only one)
(Strab. p. 139; Plin. iii. 1).
Anatolius. 1. Bishop of Laodicea, a.d. 270,
an Alexandrian by birth, was the author of
several mathematical and arithmetical works,
of which some fragments have been preserved.
— 2. An eminent jurist, was a native of Berytus;
and afterwards P. P. (praefeetus praetorio) of
Illyricum. He died a.d. 361. A work on
agriculture, often cited in the Geoponica, and a
treatise concerning Sympathies and Anti
pathies, are assigned by many to this Anatolius.
The latter work, however, was probably written
by Anatolius the philosopher, who was the
master of Iamblichus, and to whom Porphyry
addressed Homeric Questions.— -3. Professor of
law at Berytus, is mentioned by Justinian
among those who were employed in compiling
the Digest. He wrote notes on the Digest, and
a very concise commentary on Justinian's Code.
Both of these works are cited in the Basilica.
He perished a.d. 557, in an earthquake at
Constantinople, whither he had removed from
Berytus. Anaurus ('Avavpds), a river of Thessaly flow
ing into the Pagasaean gulf, in which Jason lost
a sandal (Ap. Rh. i. 8 ; Athen. p. 72).

ANAVA
Anava (*Araua), an ancient, but early de
cayed, city of Great Phrygia, on the salt lake of
the same name, between Celaenae and Colossae
(Hagee Ghioul) (Hdt. vii. SO). In Frederic
Barbarossa's march (a.d. 1190) the country is
described as near the sources of the Maeander
' per loca desertissima ubi lacus salinarum.' It
is a mistake to identify it with Ascania.
Anax ("Ava^). 1. A giant, son of Uranus and
Gaea, and father of Asterius (Paus. i. 35, vii.
2.) — 2. An epithet of protecting deities in the
plural "Avcuces, or "Avoktes, or "AvaKes irouSes,
used to designate the Dioscuri especially, but
also the Curetes or the Cabiri, and the Trito-
patres (Paus. ii. 22, 6, x. 88, 3 ; Cic. N. D. iii. 21,
53). Anaxagoras ('Aval-ay6pas), a Greek philoso
pher of the Ionian school, was born at Clazo-
menae in Ionia, b.c. 500. He gave up his
property to his relations, as he intended to
devote his life to higher ends, and went to
Athens at the age of 20 ; here he remained 30
years, and became the intimate friend and
teacher of the most eminent men of the time,
such as Pericles and Euripides. His doctrine
gave offence to the religious feelings of the
Athenians ; and the enemies of Pericles availed
themselves of this circumstance to accuse him
of impiety, B.C. 450. It was only through the
eloquence of Pericles that he was not put to
death ; but he was sentenced to pay a fine of 5
talents and to quit Athens. He retired to
Lampsacus, where he died in 428 at the age of
72. Anaxagoras was dissatisfied with the
systems of his predecessors, the Ionic philo
sophers, and struck into a new path. The Ionic
philosophers had endeavoured to explain nature
and its various phenomena by regarding matter
in its different forms and modifications as the
cause of all things. Anaxagoras, on the other
hand, conceived the necessity of seeking a
higher cause, independent of matter, and this
cause he considered to be vovs — that is, mind,
thought, or intelligence.
Anaxander ('Avd£avdpos), king of Sparta, son
of Eurycrates, fought in the second Messenian
war, about B.C. 668 (Paus. iii. 14, 4, iv. 16, 2).
Anaxandrldes ('Ava^avSpiSvs). 1. Son of
Theopompus, king of Sparta (Hdt. viii. 131).
— 2. King of Sparta, son of Leon, reigned from
about B.C. 560 to 520. Having a barren wife
whom he would not divorce, the ephors made
him take with her a second. By her he had
Cleomenes; and after this by his first wife
Dorieus, Leonidas, and Cleombrotus (Hdt. i.
65, v. 39 ; Paus. iii. 3). — 3, An Athenian comic
poet of the middle comedy, a native of Camirus
in Rhodes, began to exhibit comedies in B.C.
376. Aristotle held him in high esteem (Bhet.
iii. 10 ; Eth. Eud. vi. 10 ; Nicom. vii. 10) ; one
of the best known fragments of his plays con
trasts the religious observances of Greeks and
Egyptians (Athen. p. 374). He wrote also
dithyrambs, which have not survived (Meineke,
Frag.). Anaxarchus ('Ava£dpxos), a philosopher of
Abdera, of the school of Democritus (a pupil of
Metrodorus), accompanied Alexander into Asia
(B.C. 334), and gained his favour by flattery and
wit. He was named b evSaipoviKds, as being an
optimist in temper. After the death of Alex
ander (323), Anaxarchus was thrown by ship
wreck into the power of Nicocreon, king of
Salamis in Cyprus, to whom he had given mortal
offence, and who had him pounded to death in
a stone mortar. (Cic. Tusc. ii. 22, 52, N. D. iii.
33, 82 ; Arr. iv. 10 ; Plut. Alex. 52.)

ANAXIMENES

67

Anaxarete ('AraJopeVij), a maiden of Cyprus,
remained unmoved by the love of Iphis, who
at last, in despair, hanged himself at her door.
She looked with indifference at the funeral of
the youth, but Venus changed her into a stone
statue, which was preserved in the temple of
Venus Prospiciens ('A<ppoS. irapaKvirTOvoa) at
Salamis in Cyprus. Ant. Liberalis tells us the
same story of a Greek Arsinoe beloved by a
Phoenician youth. It may be connected with
the approach of the Greek colonists to the wor
ship of Astarte (Ov. Met. xiv. 698 ; Ant. Lib.
39). Anaxibia fAra|ij3(a), daughter of Pleisthenes,
sister of Agamemnon, wife of Strophius, and
mother of Pylades.
Anaxiblus ('Ava^i$ios), the Spartan admiral
stationed at Byzantium on the return of the
Cyrean Greeks from Asia, B.C. 400. In 389 he
succeeded Dercyllidas in the command in the
Aegean, but fell in a battle against Iphicrates,
near Antandrus, in 388 (Xen. An. v. 1, vi. 1 ;
Hell. iv. 8)_.
Anaxidamus ('Ava^iSapos), king of Sparta,
son of Zeuxidamus, lived to the end of the
second Messenian war, B.C. 668 (Paus. iii. 7).
Anaxilaus ('Ava£lXaos) or Anaxilas ('Ava£l-
Xas). 1. Tyrant of Rhegium, of Messenian
origin, took possession of Zancle in Sicily about
B.C. 494, peopled it with fresh inhabitants, and
changed its name into Messene. He died in
476 (Hdt. vi. 22, vii. 165 ; Thuc. vi. 4).— 2. Of
Byzantium, surrendered Byzantium to the
Athenians in B.C. 408. — 3. An Athenian comic
poet of the middle comedy, contemporary with
Plato and Demosthenes. We have a few frag
ments, and the titles of 19 of his comedies.
(Meineke). — 4. A physician and Pythagorean
philosopher, born at Larissa, was banished by
Augustus from Italy, B.C. 28, on the charge of
magic (Euseb. Chron. ad Olymp. 138).
Anaximander ('Ava^ipavSpos), of Miletus,
was born B.C. 610, and died 547 in his 64th
year. He was one of the earliest philosophers
of the Ionian school, and the immediate suc
cessor of Thales, its first founder. He first
used the word hpx^i to denote the origin of
things, or rather the material out of which they
were formed : he held that this apxh was the
infinite (to airetpov), everlasting, and divine,
though not attributing to it a spiritual or
intelligent nature; and that it was the sub
stance into which all things were resolved on
their dissolution. He was a careful observer of
nature, and was distinguished by his astro
nomical, mathematical, and geographical know
ledge : he is said to have introduced the use of
the gnomon into Greece.
Anaximenes ('Aval-ip4vr)s). 1. Of Miletus,
the third in the series of Ionian philosophers,
flourished about B.C. 544 ; but aB he was the
teacher of Anaxagoras, B.C. 480, he must have
lived to a great age. He considered air to be
the first cause of all things, the primary form,
as it were, of matter, into which the other ele
ments of the universe were resolvable. — 2. Of
Lampsacus, accompanied Alexander the Great
to Asia (b.c. 334), and wrote a history of Philip
of Macedonia; a history of Alexander the
Great; and a history of Greece in 12 books,
from the earliest mythical ages down to the
death of Epaminondas. Of these a few frag
ments remain. He also enjoyed great reputa
tion as a rhetorician, and is the author of a
scientific treatise on rhetoric, the 'P^ropiK^
irpbs 'AX4£av8pov, usually printed in the works
of Aristotle. He was an enemy of Theophrastus, p 2

68

ANAZARBUS

and published under his name a work calumniat
ing Sparta, Athens, and Thebes, which produced
great exasperation against Theophrastus. (Paus.
vi. 18, 3; Diod. xv. 76,89.)
Anazarbus or -a ('Avafrpfids or -d : 'Ava(ap-
fieis, Anazarbenus : Anasarba or Naversa, Ru.),
a considerable city of Cilicia Campestris, on the
left bank of the river Pyramus, at the foot of a
mountain of the same name. Augustus con
ferred upon it the name of Caesarea (ad Ana-
zarbum) ; and, on the division of Cilicia into
the two provinces of Prima and Secunda, it
was made the capital of the latter. It was
almost destroyed by earthquakes in the reigns
of Justinian and Justin.
Ancaeus ('AyKa7os). 1. Son of the Arcadian
Lycurgus and Creophile or Eurynome, and
father of Agapenor. He was one of the Argo
nauts, and took part in the Calydonian hunt,
in which he was killed by the boar (Ap. Rh. i.
164 ; Paus. viii. 4 ; Ov. Met. viii. 391).— 2. Son
of Poseidon and Astypalaea or Alta, king of the
Leleges in Samos, husband of Samia, and father
of Perilaus, Enodos, Samos, Alitherses, and
Parthenope. His story shows points of resem
blance to that of the son of Lycurgus, for he
also is represented as one of the Argonauts :
but they differ in that the Bon of Lycurgus is
celebrated for strength ; the son of Poseidon
is noted for skilful seamanship : he became
the helmsman of the ship Argo after the death
of Tiphys (Ap. Rh. i. 188, ii. 867-900). A well-
known proverb is said to have originated with
this Ancaeus. He had been told by a seer
that he would not live to taste the wine of his
vineyard ; and when he was afterwards on the
Eoint of drinking a cup of wine, the growth of
is own vineyard, he laughed at the seer, who,
however, answered, iroXXa. peTa£v ir4Xei kvXikos
koI xe^os &Kpov, ' There is a many a slip be
tween the cup and the lip.' At the same instant
Ancaeus was informed that a wild boar was
near. He put down his cup, went out against
the animal, and was killed by it (Ap. Rh. I.e. ;
Tzetzes and Lycophr. 488).
Ancalit es , a people of Britain (Caes. B. G. v.
21). They are placed by some writers at Hen
ley-on-Thames, on the Oxfordshire bank.
Q. Ancharius, tribune of the plebs, b.c. 59,
took an active part in opposing the agrarian
law of Caesar. He was praetor in 56, and suc
ceeded L. Piso in the province of Macedonia.
(Cic. pro Sest. 53, 113 ; im Pis. 36, 89 ; ad Fam.
xiii. 40).
Ancnesmus ('Ayx*o-p6s), a lull not far from
Athens, with a temple of Zeus, who was hence
called Anchesmius.
Anchlale and -lus ('AyxidX-q). 1. (Akiali),
a town in Thrace on the Black Sea, on the
borders of Moesia (Strab. p. 329 ; Ov. Trist. i.
9, 36). — 2. Also Anchialos, an ancient city of
Cilicia, W. of the Cydnus near the coast, said
to have been built by Sardanapalus (Strab. p.
672 ; Athen. p. 529 ; Arrian, ii. 5).
Anchises ('ATx'crjjs), son of Capys and
Themis, the daughter of Ilus, king of Dardanus
on Mount Ida. As descended by the royal line
from Zeus, he is called &vo.£ avSpav (see II. v.
268 ; xx. 215-240). In beauty he equalled the
immortal gods, and was beloved by Aphrodite,
by whom he became the father of Aeneas, who
is hence called Anchisiades (Hymn, ad Ven.
45 seq. ; Hes. Theog. 1008). The goddess warned
him never to betray the real mother of the
child ; but as on one occasion he boasted of his
intercourse with the goddess, he was struck
by a flash of lightning, which according to

ANCUS
some traditions killed, but according to others
only blinded or lamed him. Virgil in his
Aeneid makes Anchises survive the capture of
Troy, and Aeneas carries his father on his
shoulders from the burning city. He further
relates that Anchises died soon after the first
arrival of Aeneas in Sicily, and was buried on
mount Eryx. This tradition seems to have
been believed in Sicily, for Anchises had a
sanctuary at Egesta, and the funeral games
celebrated in Sicily in his honour continued
down to a late period. There is, however, the
greatest difference of traditions as to his burial-
place : it was in Ida, and honoured by herds
men (Eustath. ad II. xii. 98); in Pallene
(Schol. ad II. xiv. 459); in Arcadia, where
Aeneas was supposed to have settled for a while
on his way to Sicily, having landed on the
Laconian coast (Paus. viii. 12, 8) ; in Epirus
(Procop. Goth. iv. 22) ; in Sicily (Verg. Aen. v.
760 ; Hyg. Fab. 260) ; in Latium (see Serv.
ad Aen. i. 570, iii. 711). This variation is
accounted for by the variety of legends about
the wanderings of Aeneas [see that article].
Anchlsia ('Ayxio-ia), a mountain in Arcadia,
NW., of Mantinea, where Anchises is said to
have been buried [see above].
Anoon (AevKoavpav 'AyKi&v), a harbour and
town at the mouth of the river Iris in Pontus.
Anoona or Ancon (,A-yx<<»': Ancon itanus;
Ancona), a town in Picenum on the Adriatic
sea, lying in a bend of the coast between two
promontories, and hence called Ancon or an
' elbow.' It was built by the Syracusans, who

Coin of Ancona in Italy.
Obv., head of Aphrodite ; rev., bent arm holding a paint
branch.
settled there about B.C. 892, discontented with
the rule of the elder Dionysius ; and under the
Romans, who made it a colony, it became one
of the most important seaports of the Adriatic.
It possessed an excellent harbour, completed
by Trajan, and it carried on an active trade
with the opposite coast of Hlyricum. The town
was celebrated for its temple of Venus and its
purple dye : the surrounding country produced
good wine and wheat (Strab. p. 241 ; Plin. iii.
§ 111 ; Caes. B. C. i. 11 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 9 ; Juv.
iv. 40 ; Catull. 36, IS). The coin shows Aphro
dite as tutelary deity.
Ancorarius Mons, a mountain in Mauretania
Caesariensis, S. of Caesarea, abounding in citron
trees, the wood of which was used by the Romans
for furniture (Plin. xiii. § 95).
Ancore. [Nicaea.]
Ancus Marcius, fourth legendary king of
Rome, reigned 24 years, B.C. 640-616, and is
said to have been the son of Numa's daughter.
Like Numa he embodies the priestly or ponti
fical institutions of the regal period, but espe
cially has assigned to him those religious cere
monies which belonged to war. He conquered
the Latins, took many Latin towns, transported
the inhabitants to Rome, and gave them the
Aventine to dwell on : these conquered Latins
formed the original Plebs. He also founded a
colony at Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber;
built a fortress on the Janiculum as a protection

ANCYRA
against Etruria, and united it with the city by
a bridge across the Tiber ; dug the ditch of the
Quirites, which was a defence for the open
ground between the Caelian and the Palatine ;
and built a prison. He was succeeded by Tar-
quinius Priscus. (Liv. i. 32 ; Dionys. iii. 86 ;
Cic. de Bep. ii. 18.)
Ancyra ('AyKvpa : 'AyKvpav6s, Anoyranus).
(Angora or Enguri), a city of Galatia in Asia
Minor, in 89° 56' N. lat. It was an important
junction of roads both pre-Roman and Roman,
especially the roads from Byzantium and Chal-
cedon to Tavium and Armenia beyond the
Halys, and the roads southwards to Cilicia and
westwards to Sardis. In the time of Augustus,
when Galatia became a Roman province, Ancyra
was the capital : it was originally the chief city
of a Gallic tribe named the Tectosages, who
came from the S. of France. Under the Roman
empire it had the name of Sebaste, which in
Greek is equivalent to Augusta in Latin.
Hence the inhabitants of the district of which
it was metropolis were called SejSaoTTjj'ol TcktiS-
<rayes, and Ancyra was called 2e£a<r-ri) TeK-ro-
cdyav, to distinguish it from two other Sebastes
of Galatia, Tavium and Pessinus. When Au
gustus recorded the chief events of his life on

ANDOCIDES

69

Coin of Ancyra in Phrygia.
Obv., head of the Senate ; rep., within wreath ANKYPANQ.N.
bronze tablets at Rome, the citizens of Ancyra
had a copy made, which was cut on marble
blocks and placed at Ancyra in a temple dedi
cated to Augustus and Rome. This inscription
is called the Monumentum (or Marmor) Ancy-
ranum (Mommsen, 1865; C. 1 1, i.). It has
erroneously been supposed that there was
another Ancyra in Phrygia, for which Strab.
pp. 567, 576, and Ptol. v. 2, 22 have been cited,
but the fact is that both these writers some
times (though not consistently) extend Phrygia
so as to include part of Galatia.
Andania ('AvSavia : 'AvSavievs, 'AvSdvios), a
town in Messenia, between Megalopolis and
Messene, the capital of the kings of the race of
the Leleges, abandoned by its inhabitants
in the second Messenian war, and from that
time a mere village. Pausanias found only
ruins. Oechalia is identified by Strabo with
Andania, but by Pausanias with Carnasium, one
mile distant, where mysteries were celebrated.
(See Oechalia ; Paus. iv. 33, 6 ; Strab. pp. 339,
350 ; Liv. xxxvi. 31.)
Andecavi, Andegavi, Andes, a Gallic people
N. of the Loire, with a town of the same name,
also called J uliomagus, now Angers (Caes. B. G.
ii. 35 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 40).
Andeira (to "AvSeipa : 'AvS€ipr)v6s), a city of
Mysia, celebrated for its temple of Cybele sur
named 'AvSeipnvii (Plin. v. § 126).
Andematunnum, [Lingones.]
Anderida, a Roman station in South Britain
on the site of Pevensey in Sussex. The district
Anderida (which is said to be named from a
Celtic word and/red, meaning uninhabited or
¦* forest ' land) formed a wide tract of the
Weald of Kent and Sussex, extending into
Hampshire.

Anderitum (Anterieux), a town of the Gabali
in Aquitania (Caes. B. G. vii. 75).
Andes. 1. See Andecavi. — 2. A pagus or
township near Mantua, the birthplace of Virgil.
Whether it was the name of a single vicus, or
village, is not certain ; but an old tradition
(Dante, Purg, xviii. 83) identifies it with Pistola
on the Mincio, about 8 miles below Mantua.
Whether this is correct or not, it cannot have
been many miles from Mantua, and it is hard
to account for the ' xxx milia ' in Probus, unless
he meant to say 30 miles from Cremona.
Andocides ('AcSo/cfSijs). 1. Son of Leogoras,
who fought against the Peisistratidae (Andoc.
de Myst. § 106). He was one of the envoys for
the truce with Sparta, B.C. 445, and held com
mand with Glaucon at Corcyra B.C. 435 (Andoc.
de Pace, § 6 ; Thuc. i. 51).— 2. Grandson of the
preceding, son of another Leogoras, was the
second in date of the Ten Attic Orators. He was
born about B.C. 440 (cf. Andoc. deBed.% 7 ; [Lys.]
in A ndoc. § 46). In 415 he was implicated in
the charge of mutilating the Hermae (he does
not seem to have been connected with the other
charge of profaning the mysteries), and being
denounced by Diocleides along with his father
and other relations and supposed accomplices
[42 in all) was imprisoned. To save these per
sons he revealed what he knew : viz. that cer
tain persons previously named by Teucros, and
four others, were guilty. He and his relations
thus escaped ; but as he was regarded as impli
cated in the impiety the promise of indemnity
did not save him from artpia, which involved
his banishment. The truth seems to have been
that he admitted belonging to the club at which
the mutilation had been proposed, and by the
members of which it was carried out, but he
himself was ill at the time (so he stated in the
speech 15 years afterwards), and took no part
in the act. In his exile he traded in timber
and supplied the fleet at Samos with oars.
Hence when he attempted to live at Athens in
411 he was denounced for supplying the de
mocracy at Samos and driven from Athens.
He then despatched corn from Cyprus to
Athens, which facilitated his return to Athens
in the following year, and it was at this time
that he delivered the speech still extant, On his
Beturn, in which he petitioned for permission
to reside at Athens, but in vain. He was thus
driven into exile a third time, and went to reside
at Elis. In 403 he again returned to Athens
upon the overthrow of the tyranny of the Thirty
by Thrasybulus, and the proclamation of the
general amnesty. He was now allowed to
remain quietly at Athens for the next 4 years,
but in 399 his enemies accused him of having
profaned the mysteries : he defended himself
in the oration still extant, On the Mysteries,
and was acquitted. In 391 he was sent as
ambassador to Sparta to conclude a peace,
which on his return in 390 he defended unsuc
cessfully in the extant speech On the Peace
with Lacedaemon. He seems to have died
soon afterwards, perhaps in exile. Besides the
three orations already mentioned there is a
fourth against Alcibiades, said to have been
delivered in 415, which is spurious. Andocides
was not a trained rhetorician, and his speeches
have not art or grace of style, and are lacking
in skill of arrangement ; on the other hand, he
is unaffected and natural, and has passages of
forcible and telling narrative (e.g. de Myst.
§ 43 f ., 48 f .). It is to his credit that his advice
to accept the peace with Lacedaemon was sound
statesmanship, though rejected by his country-

70

ANDRAEMON

men. — Editions. Oratores Attici, Bekker 1828,
Baiter 1850 C. Miiller 1868 ; text by Teubner,
1871. Andraemon ('AvSpaipav). 1. Husband of
Gorge, daughter of Oeneus king of Calydon, in
Aetolia, whom he succeeded, and father of
Thoas, who is hence called Andraemonides (II.
ii. 638; Od. xiv. 499; Paus. x. 38, 5).— 2. Son of
Oxylus, and husband of Dryope, who was
mother of Amphissus by Apollo (Ov. Met. ix.
863 ; Ant. Lib. 32).
Andriscus ('AvSplo-Kos), a man of low origin,
who pretended to be a natural son of Perseus,
king of Macedonia, was seized by Demetrius,
king of Syria, and sent to Rome. He escaped
from Rome, assumed the name of Philip, and
obtained possession of Macedonia, B.C. 149.
He defeated the praetor Juventius, but was con
quered by Caecilius Metellus, and taken to
Rome to adorn the triumph of the latter, 148.
(Veil. Pat. i. 11 ; Flor. ii. 14 ; Amm. Marc. xiv.
11, 31 ; Liv. Ep. 49, 50, 52.)
Androcles ('AvfipoKXrjs), an Athenian dema
gogue. He was an enemy of Alcibiades ; and
it was chiefly owing to his exertions that Alci
biades was banished. After this event, An
drocles was for a time at the head of the
democratical party ; but in B.C. 411 he was put
to death by the oligarchical government of the
Four Hundred (Thuc. viii. 65 ; Aristoph. Vesp.
1187 ; Plut. Ale. 19; Andoc. de Myst. 27).
Androclus, the slave of a Roman consular,
was sentenced to be exposed to the wild beasts
in the circus ; but a lion which was let loose
upon him, instead of springing upon his victim,
exhibited signs of recognition, and began licking
him. Upon inquiry it appeared that Androclus
had been compelled by the severity of his
master, while in Africa, to run away from him.
Having one day taken refuge in a cave from the
heat of the sun, a lion entered, apparently in
great pain, and seeing him, went up to him and
held out his paw. Androclus found that a large
thorn had pierced it, which he drew out, and
the lion was soon able to use his paw again.
They lived together for some time in the cave,
the lion catering for his benefactor. But at
last, tired of this savage life, Androclus left the
cave, was apprehended by some soldiers, brought
to Rome, and condemned to the wild beasts.
He was pardoned, and presented with the lion,
which he used to lead about the city. (Gell. v.
14 ; Sen. de Benef. ii. 19 ; Aelian. V. H. vii. 48.)
Androgeos ('AvSp6yeas), son of Minos and
Pasiphae, or Crete, conquered all his opponents
in the games of the Panathenaea at Athens.
This extraordinary good luck, however, became
the cause of his destruction, though the mode
of his death is related differently. According
to some accounts Aegeus, fearing his strength,
sent him to fight against the Marathonian bull,
who killed him ; according to others, he was
assassinated by his defeated rivals on his road
to Thebes, whither he was going to take part in
a solemn contest (Apollod. iii. 1. 2, 15. 7 ; Paus.
i. 27, 9). Propertius (ii. 1. 61) speaks of his
being recalled to life by Aesculapius. A third
account related that he was assassinated by
Aegeus' himself (Diod. iv. 60). Minos made
war on the Athenians in consequence of the
death of his son, and imposed upon them the
tribute of seven youths and seven maidens
from which they were delivered by Theseus.
At Phalerum there was an altar called ' the
Altar of the Hero,' which Pausanias (i. 1) states
to be really the altar of Androgeos. In the
games of the Ceramicus for the son of Minos,

ANDROMEDA
he is known as Eurygyes (Hesych. s.v. iir'
ilvpvyim ay&v : cf. Hes. fr. 106).
Andromache ('AvSpopdxri), a daughter of
Eetion, king of the Cilician Thebes, and one of
the noblest female characters in the Iliad.
Her father and her 7 brothers were slain by
Achilles at the taking of Thebes, and her
mother, who had purchased her freedom by a
large ransom, was killed by Artemis (II. vi.
414 ff.). She was married to Hector, by whom
she had a son Scamandrius (Astyanax), and for
whom she entertained the most tender love
(cf. II. xxii. 460, xxiv. 725). On the taking of
Troy her son was hurled from the wall of the
city, and she herself fell to the share of Neo-
ptolemus (Pyrrhus) , the son of Achilles, who took
her to Epirus, and to whom she bore 3 sons,
Molossus, Pielus, and Pergamus. She after
wards married Helenus, a brother of Hector.
who ruled over Chaonia, a part of Epirus, and
to whom she bore Cestrinus. (Verg. Aen. iii. 295 ;
Paus. i. 11; Pind. Nem. iv. 82, vii. 50.) In
Euripides, Androm., she lives until the death
of Neoptolemus in Phthia. After the death of
Helenus, she followed her son Pergamus to
Asia, where an heroum was erected to her.
Andromachus ('Avdpdpaxos). 1. Ruler of
Tauromenium in Sicily about B.C. 344, and
father of the historian Timaeus (Plut. Tim. 10 ;
Diod. xvi. 7, 68). — 2. Of Crete, physician to the
emperor Nero, a.d. 54—68 ; was the first person
on whom the title of Archiater was conferred,
and was celebrated as the inventor of a famous
compound medicine and antidote called Theri-
aea Andromachi, which retains its place in
some foreign Pharmacopoeias to the present
day. Andromachus has left the directions for
making this mixture in a Greek elegiac poem,
consisting of 174 lines, edited by Tidicaeus,
Tiguri, 1607, and Leinker, Norimb. 1754 ; Kiihn,
1826. Andromeda ('AvSpop4Sn), daughter of the
Aethiopian king Cepheus and Cassiopea. [The
story belongs also to Phoenicia and is localised
at Joppa : see Strab. pp. 43, 759 ; Paus. iv. 35,
9; Plin. v. § 59.] Her mother boasted that
the beauty of her daughter surpassed that
of the Nereids, who prevailed on Poseidon to
visit the country by an inundation and a
sea-monster. The oracle of Ammon promised
deliverance if Andromeda was given up to
the monster ; and Cepheus, obliged to yield to,

Andromeda and Perseus. (Prom a Terracotta.,

the wishes of his people, chained Andromeda.
to a rook. Here she was found and saved by
Perseus, who slew the monster and obtained
her as his wife. Andromeda had previously
been promised to Phineus, and this gave rise tc-
the famous fight of Phineus and Perseus at the
wedding, m which the former and all his asso
ciates were slain (Ov. Met. v. 1 seq.). After

ANDRONICUS
her death, she was placed among the stars.
(Apollod. ii. 4 ; Hyg. Fab. 64 ; Poet. Ast. ii. 10 ;
Arat. Phaen. 198 ; Ov. Met. iv. 662.)
Andronicus ('AvSp6vmos). 1. Cyrrhestes,
so called from his native place, Cyrrha, probably
lived about b.c. 100, and built the octagonal
tower at Athens, called ' the tower of the
winds' (Vitr. i. 6, 4; cf. Diet, of Ant. s.v. Horo-
logium). — 2. Livius Andronicus, the earliest
Roman poet, was a Greek, probably a native of
Tarentum. He was brought to Rome B.C. 275
and became the slave of M. Livius Salinator,
by whom he was manumitted, and from whom
he received the Roman name Livius. He
obtained at Rome a perfect knowledge of the
Latin language. He was employed by M.
Livius to teach his sons (and perhaps other
children), and for the benefit of his pupils trans
lated the Odyssey into Saturnian verse (Cic.
Brut. 18, 71 ; Gell. xviii. 9), of which some
fragments remain (Wordsworth, Fr.). He also
translated tragedies and a few comedies from
the Greek, using in them some of the Greek
metres, especially the trochaic. His first play
was acted B.C. 240, and he himself was one of
the actors (Liv. vii. 2). In b.c. 207 he was
appointed by the Pontifex to write a poem on
the victory at Sena (Liv. xxvii. 37). He cannot
be called an original poet, but he gave the first
impulse to Latin literature. From Horace (Ep.
ii. 1. 69) we learn that his poems, probably the
translation of the Odyssey in particular, long
remained a school-book. (Fragments in Duntzer,
1835 ; Ribbeck, Seen. Bom. 1871 ; Wordsworth.)
— 3. Of Rhodes, a Peripatetic philosopher at
Rome, about B.C. 58. He published a new
edition of the works of Aristotle and Theo-
phrastus, which formerly belonged to the
library of Apellicon, and which were brought to
Rome by Sulla with the rest of Apelhcon's
library in B.C. 84. Tyrannio commenced this
task, but apparently did not do much towards
it (Strab. 665 ; Gell. xx. 5 ; Aeistoteles). The
arrangement which Andronicus made of Ari
stotle's writings seems to be the one which
forms the basis of our present editions. He
wrote many commentaries upon the works of
Aristotle ; but none is extant, for the para
phrase of the Nicomachean Ethics ascribed to
him was not his work.
Andropolis ('AvSpav irdXts : Chabur), a city
of Lower Egypt, on the W. bank of the Canopic
branch of the Nile, was the capital of the Nomos
Andropolites, and, under the Romans, the sta
tion of a legion.
Andros ("AySpos : "AvSpios : Andro), the most
northerly and one of the largest islands of the
Cyclades, SE. of Euboea, 21 miles long and 8
broad, early attained importance, and colonised
Acanthus and Stagira about B.C. 654 (Thuc. iv.
84, 88). It was taken by the Persians in their
invasion of Greece, was afterwards subject to
the Athenians, at a later time to the Mace
donians, and at length to Attalus III., king of
Pergamus, on whose death (b.c. 133) it passed
with the rest of his dominions to the Romans
(Hdt. viii. Ill, 121; Liv. xxxi. 45). It was
celebrated for its wine, whence the whole island
was regarded as sacred to Dionysus (Diet. Ant.
s.v. Theoxenia). Its chief town, also called
Andros, contained a celebrated temple of Dio
nysus, and a harbour of the name of Gaureleon,
and a fort Gaurion.
Androtion ('AvSporiav). 1. An Athenian
orator, and a contemporary of Demosthenes,
against whom the latter delivered an oration, J
which is still extant. — 2. The author of an I

ANIO 71
Atthis, or a work on the history of Attica (Paus.
vi. 7, 2, x. 8, 1).
Anemorea, afterwards Anemolea ('Avepapeia,
'AvepdXeia), a town on a hill on the borders of
Phocis and Delphi (II. ii. 521 ; Strab. p. 423).
Anemurium ('Avepoipiov : Anamur), a town
and promontory at the S. point of Cilicia, oppo
site to Cyprus.
Angerona or Angeronia, a Roman goddess
respecting whom we have different statements,
some representing her as the goddess of silence,
others as the goddess of anguish and fear — that
is, the goddess who not only produces this state
of mind, but also relieves men from it. Her
statue stood in the temple of Volupia, with her
mouth bound and sealed up. Hence an ancient
surmise that she was a protectress of Rome,
keeping in silence a secret name of the city
(Plin. iii. § 65). A modern theory is that she
was a goddess of the new year, her festival
falling at the winter solstice (C. I. L. i. p. 409),
and in this view her name is derived ab an-
gerendo, i.e. from the turning back of the sun.
If so we can only suppose the attitude of silence
to denote that none can reveal what the new
year will bring. Her festival, called Angero-
nalia, Divalia, or feriae divae Angeronae,
was on Dec. 21. (Macrob. i. 10, 7 ; Varr. L. L.
vi. 23 ; Plin. I. c. ; Kal. Praenest.)
Angites ('Ayy'iTi)s : Anghista), a river in
Macedonia, flowing into the Strymon (Hdt. vii.
113). Angitia or Angultla, a goddess worshipped
by the Marsians and Marrubians, who lived
about the shores of the lake Fucinus. Origi
nally an Italian deity, she was later made a sister
of Medeia, or identified with Medeia herself
(Verg. Aen. vii. 759 ; Serv. ad loc ; Sil. Ital.
viii. 500_; Plin. vii. _15, xxv. 10; Gell. xvi. 11.)
Angli or Anglii, a German people of the
race of the Suevi, on the left bank of the Elbe,
afterwards passed over with the Saxons into
Britain, which was called after them England.
[Saxones.] JTac. Germ. 40 ; Ptol. ii. 11.)
Angrivarii, a German people dwelling on
both sides of the Visurgis (Weser), separated
from the Cherusci by an agger or mound of
earth (Tac. Ann. ii. 19). They were generally
on friendly terms with the Romans, but rebelled
in a.d. 16, and were subdued. Towards the end
of the first century they extended their terri
tories southwards, and, in conjunction with the
Chamavi, took possession of part of the territory
of the Bructeri, S. and E. of the Lippe, the
Angaria or Engern of the middle ages. (Tac.
Germ. 34.)
Anicetus, a freedman of Nero, and formerly
his tutor, was employed by the emperor in the
execution of many of his crimes ; he was after
wards banished to Sardinia, where he died.
Anicius Gallus. [Gallus.]
Anigrus ("Avtypos : Mavro-Potamo), a small
river in the Triphylian Elis, the Minyeius (Mi-
vxAjios) of Homer (II. xi. 721), rises in M. Lapi-
thas, and flows into the Ionian sea near Sami-
cum ; its waters are sulphurous, and have a
disagreeable smell, and its fish are not eatable.
This, according to the legend, was caused by
the wounded Centaurs bathing in it to wash
out the poison from the arrows of Heracles
(Strab. pp. 344-347 ; Paus. v. 5 ; Ov. Met. xv. 281).
Near Samieum was a cave sacred to the Nymphs
Anigrides ('Aviyp'i$€s or 'AviypidSes), where
persons with cutaneous diseases were cured by
the waters of the river.
Anio, anciently Anien (hence Gen. Anienis-:
Teverone or I'Aniene), in Greek 'Aviav and

72

NIUS

'Avir\s, a river, the most celebrated of the tri
butaries of the Tiber, rises in the mountains of
the Hernici near Treba (Trevi), flows first NW.
and then SW. through narrow mountain- valleys,
receives the brook Digentia (Licenza) above
Tibur, forms at Tibur beautiful waterfalls (hence
praeceps Anio, Hor. Od. i. 7, 13 ; cf . Strab.
p. 238 ; Stat. Silv. i. 3. 73), and flows, form
ing the boundary between Latium and the land
of the Sabines, into the Tiber, 3 miles above
Rome, where the town of Antemnae stood. The
water of the Anio was conveyed to Rome by
two aqueducts, the Anio vetus and Anio novus.
(See Diet, of Ant. s.v. Aquaeductus.)
Anius ("Avios), son of Apollo (according to
others, of Zarex, who afterwards married his
mother), and priest of Apollo at Delos. His
mother was Rhoio (= pomegranate), daughter
of Staphylus (= grapes), and granddaughter of
Dionysus. Staphylus, seeing his daughter with
child, placed her in a chest and Set her adrift.
She came to land, as variously stated, in Delos
or Euboea, and bore her son Anius. By Dryope
he had three daughters, Oeno, Spermo, and
Elais, to whom Dionysus gave the power of
producing at will any quantity of wine, corn,
and oil — whence they were called Oenotrbpae.
With these necessaries, being taken to Troy by
Palamedes (or by Menelaus), they are said to
have supplied the Greeks during the first 9
years of the Trojan war. According to Ovid
they were changed into doveB to escape from
Agamemnon. Roman legends make them and
their father entertain Aeneas at Delos. Anius
represents the connexion which was imagined
between Apollo and Dionysus, and the names
of his kindred point the same way (Tzetz. ad
Lye. 580 ; Diod. v. 62 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 80 ; Ov.
Met. xiii. 632 ; Dionys. i. 59).
Anna, Anna Perenna. Anna was daughter
of Belus and sister of Dido. After the death
of the latter, she fled from Carthage to Italy,
where she was kindly received by Aeneas.
Here she excited the jealousy of Lavinia, and
being warned in a dream by Dido, she fled and
threw herself into the river Numicius. Hence
forth she was worshipped as the nymph of that
river under the name of Anna Peeenna. [In
a mime of Laberius the names are Anna Per-
anna, and in a satire of M. Varro Anna ac
Peranna : Gell. xiii. 28.] There are various
other stories respecting the origin of her wor
ship. Ovid relates that she was considered by
some as Luna, by others as Themis, by others
as Io, daughter of Inachus, by others as the
Anna of Bovillae, who supplied the plebs with
food when they seceded to the Mons Sacer.
Her festival was celebrated on the 15th of
March, when plebeian men and women met in
couples and feasted and drank, either under
extemporised booths or in the open. According
to Martial, there had once been a maiden sacri
fice. A special place was at the first milestone
on the Via Flaminia. The identification of this
goddess with Anna, the sister of Dido, is un
doubtedly of late origin. Some have regarded
her merely as the goddess of flowing waters ;
others, in view of her legendary reference to
Luna, and Io, and Themis, the mother of the
Hours, treat her, with greater probability, as the
goddess of the year, worshipped in the spring.
But the opinion of Usener deserves considera
tion — that she represents the union of two
goddesses (Anna ac Peranna), one the goddess
of the year in its course, the other of the com
pleted year; and the story of the wooing of
Minerva through Anna by Mars is regarded as

ANTAEUS
a corruption of the myth of Mars and Nerio
(Ov. Fast. iii. 523-693; Mart. iv. 64, 16; Ma
crob. Sat. i. 12, 6 ; C.I. L. i. p. 322).
Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexis I. Com-
nenus (reigned A.D. 1081-1118), wrote the life
of her father Alexis in 15 books, which is one
of the most valuable histories of the Byzantine
literature. — Editions. By Possinus, Paris,
1651 ; Schopen, Bonn, 1839 ; ReifferBcheid, 1878.
Annalis, a cognomen of the Villia Gens, first
acquired by L. Villius, tribune of the plebs, in
B.C. 179, because he introduced a law fixing the
year (annus) at which it was lawful for a per
son to be a candidate for the public offices.
M. Anneius, legate of M. Cicero during his
government of Cilicia, B.C. 51 (Cic. Fam. xiii.
55, 57 ; xv. 4).
T. Annianus, a Roman poet, lived in the time
of Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote Fescennine
verses, and also a poem (FaUscum) about
country life at Falerii (Gell. vi. 7 ; Auson.
Id. 13).
Anniceris ('Avv'iKepis). There were two Cy-
renaic philosophers of this name : 1. A. the
elder, ransomed Plato for 20 minae when he
was sold as a slave by Dionysius about B.C. 388
(Diog. Laert. ii. 86). — 2. A. the younger, pupil
of Antipater, and contemporary of Hegesias,
about B.C. 320-280. He limited the doctrine of
pleasure as the only principle bo far that he
allowed the wise to make sacrifices for friend
ship, gratitude, and patriotism.
Annius Cimber. [Cimbee.]
Annius Milo. [Milo.]
Anser, a poet of the Augustan age, a friend
of the triumvir M. Antonius (Cic. Phil. xiii. 5, 11).
As a writer of light and wanton verse he is
called procax by Ovid (Trist. ii. 485). There
does not seem much ground for the theory of
Servius, Donatus, &c, that he is alluded to as
anser in Verg. Eel. ix. 36, and that he was a
detractor of Virgil's fame ; or for supposing that
the line of Propert. iii. 32, 83, refers to him.
Ansibarii or Ampsivarii, a German people,
originally dwelt S. of the Bructeri, between the
sources of the Ems and the Weser ; driven out
of their country by the Chauci in the reign of
Nero (a.d. 59), they asked the Romans for per
mission to settle in the Roman territory be
tween the Rhine and the Yssel, but when their
request was refused they wandered into the
interior of the country to the Cherusci, and
were at length extirpated, according to Tacitus.
We find their name, however, among the Franks
in the time of Julian. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 55, 56 ;
Amm. Marc. xx. 10.)
Antaeopolis ('AvratdiroXis : nr. Gau-el-Ke-
bir), a city of Upper Egypt (the Thebais), on
the E. side of the Nile, but at some distance
from the river, was one of the chief seats of the
worship of Osiris (Ptol. iv. 5, 71; Plin. v. 49).
Antaeus ('Avraios), son of Poseidon and Ge,
a mighty giant and wrestler in Libya. The
strangers who came to his country were com
pelled to wrestle with him ; the conquered were
slain, and out of their skulls he built a house
to Poseidon. He was vanquished by Heracles.
According to some accounts he was invincible
as long as he remained in contact with his
mother earth; therefore Heracles lifted him
and strangled him in the air. This seems to be
a later addition, for in works of art the older
examples show the ordinary wrestling (Antaeus
vanquished by being thrown) ; the lifting, only
in later monuments. The tomb of Antaeus
(Antaei collis), which formed a moderate hill in
the shape of a man stretched out at full length,

ANTAGORAS
¦was shown near the town of Tingis in Maure
tania. (Pind. Isthm. iii. 70 ; Plat. Theaet. 169 ;
Apollod. ii. 5, 11 ; Hyg. Fab. 81 ; Ov. Ibis, 393 ;
Luc Phars. iv. 590 ; Juv. iii. 89 ; Strab. p. 829.)
Antagoras (A>"ra7($pas), of Rhodes, flourished
about B.C. 270, a friend of Antigonus Gonatas,
and a contemporary of Aratus. He wrote an
epic poem entitled Thebais, and also epigrams,
of which specimens are still extant (Anth. Pal.).
Antalcidas ('AvraXKiSas), a Spartan, son of
Leon, is chiefly known by the treaty concluded
with Persia in B.C. 387, usually called the peace
of Antalcidas, since it was the fruit of his
diplomacy. According to this treaty all the
Greek cities in Asia Minor, together with Clazo-
menae and Cyprus, were to belong to the Per
sian king ; the Athenians were allowed to retain
only Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, and all the
other Greek cities were to be independent.
Antander ("AvravSpos), brother of Agathocles,
"king of Syracuse, wrote the life of his brother.
Antandrus ("AvravSpos : 'AvrdvSpios : An-
tandro), a city of Great Mysia, on the Adramyt-
tian Gulf, at the foot of Mount Ida ; an Aeolian
colony. Virgil represents Aeneas as touching
here after leaving Troy. (Aen. iii. 106 ; Strab.
p. 606 ; Thuc. viii. 108; Hdt. v. 26, vii. 42.)
Antaradus ('AvrdpaSos : Tortosa), a town on
the N. border of Phoenicia, opposite the island
of Aradus.
Antea or Antia ("Avreia), daughter of the
Lycian king Iobates, wife of Proetus of Argos.
She is also called Stheneboea. Respecting her
iove for Bellerophontes, see Bellerophontes.
Antemnae (Antemnas, atis), an ancient Sa
bine town at the junction of the Anio and the
Tiber, destroyed by the Romans in the earliest
times (Varr. L. L. v. 28 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 631 ;
Liv. i. 10; Dionys. ii. 32 ; Strab. p. 230).
Antenor ('Avrijvap). 1. A Trojan, husband
of Theano, was one of the wisest among the
elders at Troy, and a companion of Priam ; he
received Menelaus and Ulysses into his house
when they came to Troy as ambassadors, and
advised his fellow-citizens to restore Helen to
Menelaus (H. iii. 148, 262, vii. 347 ; cf . Plat. Symp.
221 c). In post-Homeric story he is a traitor
to his country who concerted a plan of deliver
ing the city, and even the palladium, into the
hands of the Greeks. Hence on the capture of
Troy he was spared by the Greeks (Dar. Phryg.
5; Diet. Cret. v. 1, 4, 8; Serv. ad Aen. i. 246,
,651, ii. 15 ; Tzetz. Lye. 339 ; Paus. x. 27). His
history after this event is related differently.
Some writers relate that he founded a new
kingdom at Troy ; according to others, he em
barked with Menelaus and Helen, was carried
to Libya, and settled at Cyrene ; while a third
account states that he went with the Heneti to
Thrace, and thence to the western coast of the
Adriatic, where the foundation of Patavium and
several towns is ascribed to him. (Pind. Pyth.
v. 83 ; Strab. pp. 212, 548, 552 ; Liv. i. 1 ; Serv.
ad. Aen. i. 1, ix. 264.) — 2. Son of Euphranor, an
Athenian sculptor, made the first bronze statues
of Harmodius and Aristoglton, which the Athe
nians set up in the Ceramieus, B.C. 509. These
statues were carried off to Susa by Xerxes, and
their place was supplied by others made either
"by Callias or by Praxiteles. After the conquest
of Persia, Alexander the Great sent the statues
'back to Athens, where they were again set up
in the Ceramieus.
Anteros. [Ebos.]
Antevorta, also called Porrima or Prorsa,
-and Postvorta, are described either as the two
sisters or as companions of the Roman g_oddess

ANTICYRA

73

Carmenta ; but originally they were only two
attributes of the one goddess Carmenta, the
former describing her knowledge of the future,
and the latter that of the past, analogous to
the two-headed Janus (Ov. Fast. i. 633; Gell.
xvi. 16 ; Macrob. Sat. i. 7 ; Indigitamenta).
Anthedon ('AvBrjSav : 'AvBrjSdvios: Lukisil),
a town of Boeotia with a harbour, on the coast
of the Euboean sea, at the foot of M. Messa-
pius, said to have derived its name from a
nymph Anthedon, or from Anthedon, son of
Glaucus, who was here changed into a god
(Ov. Met. vii. 232, xiii. 905). The inhabitants
lived chiefly by fishing. (Strab. pp. 460, 404,
445 ; Paus. ix. 22 ; II. ii. 508.)
Anthemlus, emperor of the West, a.d. 467-
472, was killed on the capture of Rome by Rici-
mer, who made Olybrius emperor.
Anthemus ('AvBepovs, oiivros : 'AvBepovo-ios),
a Macedonian town in Chalcidice (Hdt v. 94 ;
Thuc. ii. 99).
Anthemusia or Anthemus ('AvBtpovcria), a
city of Mesopotamia, SW. of Edessa, and a
little E. of '-the Euphrates. The surrounding
district was called by the same name, but was
generally included under that of Osehoene. '
Anthene ('AvB^vti), a place in Cynuria, in the
Peloponnesus (Thuc. v. 41 ; Paus. iii. 38).
Anthylla ^AvBvXXa), a considerable city' of
Lower Egypt, near the mouth of the Canopic
branch of the Nile, below Naucratis, the reve
nues of which, under the Persians, were assigned
to the wife of the satrap of Egypt, to provide
her with shoes (Hdt. ii. 97 ; Athen. p. 33).
Antlas, Q. Valerius, a Roman annalist, wrote,
about B.C. 90, a history of Rome from the earliest
times in more than 70 books (Gell. vi. 9, 17).
'He is mentioned by Dionysius among the well-
known annalists (i. 7, ii. 13), but not by Cicero.
Livy mentions him more than any other (35
times), and apparently without misgiving in the
first decade (e.g. vii. 36, ix. 27, 37, 43); but
having later the means of comparing him with
more trustworthy authorities, such as Polybius,
he stigmatises him as the most mendacious of
the annalists (xxvi. 49, xxx. 19, xxxiii. 10, xxxviii.
23, xxxix. 43; cf. Gell. I.e. ; Oros. v. 16). He
seems to have been reckless in his invention of
precise numbers, obviously exaggerated, and of
circumstantial details. — Fragments by Krause
1833, Roth 1852, Wordsworth 1874.
Anticlea ('AvriKXeia) daughter of Autolycus,
wife of Laertes, and mother of Odysseus, died of
grief at the long absence of her son (Od. xi. 85,
152, xv. 356), or, according to Hyginus (Fab. 243),
put an end to herself. A story is mentioned
by Plutarch (Q. Gr. 43) and Hyginus (Fab. 201)
that before marrying Laertes she lived on inti
mate terms with Sisyphus ; whence Ulysses is
called a son of Sisyphus (Soph. Aj. 190; Eur.
Iph. Aul. 524, Cycl. 104 ; Ov. Met. xiii. 31).
'Anticlldes ('AvriKXeiSris), of Athens, lived
after the time of Alexander the Great, and
was the author of several works, the most im
portant of which was entitled Nosti (Ndo-TOt),
containing an account of the return of the
Greeks from their mythical expeditions (Plut.
Alex. 46 ; Athen. pp. 157, 384, 446).
Anticyra, more anciently Anticirrha I^Avri-
Kippa, or 'AvriKvpa : 'AvriKvpeis, 'AvjiKvpaios).
1. (Aspra Spitia), a town in Phocis, with a
harbour, on a peninsula on the W. side of the
Sinus Anticyranus, a bay of the Crissaean Gulf,
called in ancient times Cyparissus. It con
tinued to be a place of importance under the
Romans (Strab. p. 418; Paus. x. 3, 36; Gell.
xvii. 13; Liv. xxii. 18). — 2. A town in Thessaly,

74

ANTIGENES

on the Spercheus, not far from its mouth (Hdt.
vii. 198; Strab. pp. 418, 428, 434).— Both towns
were celebrated for their hellebore, the chief
remedy in antiquity for madness (and, accord
ing to Pliny, for epilepsy). It is not to be sup
posed from Horace A. P. 300 that there was a
third place of the name : he means that even
three, if they existed, would be too few (Hor.
Sat. ii. 3, 83, 166 ; Ov. Pont. iv. 3, 53 ; Pers.
iv. 16 ; Juv. xiii. 97 ; Plut. de Coh. Ira, 13 ;
Plin. xxv. § 47).
Antlgenes ('Avnyevns), a general of Alex
ander the Great, on whose death he obtained
the satrapy of Susiana, and espoused the side of
Eumenes. On the defeat of the latter in B.C.
316, Antigenes fell into the hands of his enemy
Antigonus, and was burnt alive by him (Plut.
Alex. 80, Eum. 13; Diod. xix. 44).
Antigenidas ('AvriyeviSas), a Theban, a cele
brated flute-player, and a poet, lived in the
time of Alexander the Great.
Antigone ('AvTty6vri), daughter of Oedipus
by his mother Jocaste, and sister of Ismene,
and of Eteocles and Polynices. In the tragic
story of Oedipus Antigone appears as a noble
maiden, with a truly heroic attachment to her
father and brothers. When Oedipus had blinded
himself, and was obliged to quit Thebes, he was
accompanied by Antigone, who remained with
him till he died in Colonus, and then returned
to Thebes. After her two brothers had killed
each other in battle, and Creon, the king of
Thebes, would not allow Polynices to be buried,
Antigone alone defied the tyrant, and buried the
body of her brother. Creon thereupon ordered
her to be shut up in a subterranean cave, where
she killed herself. Haemon, the son of Creon,
who was in love with her, killed himself by her
side. This is the story of Sophocles. In a lost
Antigone of Euripides Creon is induced (by the
intercession of Dionysus) to give her in mar
riage to Haemon, and she bears a son named
Maeon. In Hyginus (Fab. 72) Antigone is de
livered by Creon to Haemon to be put to death,
but he marries her and lives with her in con
cealment in a shepherd's hut, where she bears
a son. When this son is grown up he is recog
nised in Thebes by Creon as having the mark
borne by all the dragon race. Hence he dis
covers that Antigone still lives, and rejects the
intercession of Heracles. Haemon kills Anti
gone and then himself. The intercession of
Heracles seems to be the subject of a vase-
painting belonging to the fourth century B.C. (see
Baumeister). Some have thought that Hyginus
is giving the story of Euripides' play; but it
does not seem to agree with the slight notices
which we possess of that play, and probably
reproduces the plot of a later drama. It should
be observed that the stories followed by the
tragedians seem to be of late, probably Attic,
origin. Homer does not mention Antigone
(though he names ' Maeon son of Haemon ' in II.
iv. 394). Pindar speaks of burial given to all
seven Argive armies (Ol. vi. 15; Nem. ix. 24;
cf. Paus. ix. 18, 3) without exception. The first
notice of burial refused is in Aesch. Th. 1017.
Antigonea and -la ('Avriydveia, 'Avriyovla).
1. (Tepeleni), a town in Epirus (Illyricum), at
the junction of a tributary with the Aous, and
near a narrow pass of the Acroceraunian moun
tains (Liv. xxxii. 5, xliii. 23). — 2. A Macedonian
town in Chalcidice. — 3. See Mantinea. — 4. A
town on the Orontes in Syria, founded by Anti
gonus as the capital of his empire B.C. 806, but
most of its inhabitants were transferred by
Seleucus to Antiochia, which was built in its

ANTIGONUS
neighbourhood (Strab. p. 750; Diod. xx. 47;
Dio Cass. xl. 29 ; Liban. Antioch. p. 349). — 5. A
town in Bithynia, afterwards Nicaea. — 6, A
town in the Troas. [Alexandria, No. 2.]
Antigonus ('Avriyovos). 1. King of Asia,
surnamed the One-eyed (Lucian, Macrob. 11 ;
Pol. v. 67), son of Philip of Elymiotis, and
father of Demetrius Poliorcetes by Stratonlce.
He was one of the generals of Alexander the
Great, and in the division of the empire after
the death of the latter (b.c. 323), he received
the provinces of the Greater Phrygia, Lycia,
and Pamphylia (Curt. x. 25, 2). On the death
of the regent Antipater in 819, he aspired to the
sovereignty of Asia. In316he defeated Eumenes
and put him to death, after a struggle of nearly
3 years (Nep. Eum. ; Plut. Eum. ; Diod. xix.
43 ; Eumenes). From 315 to 311 he carried on
war, with varying success, against Seleucus,
Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus. By the
peace made in 311, Antigonus was allowed to
have the government of all Asia ; but peace
did not last more than a year. After the defeat
of Ptolemy's fleet in 306, Antigonus assumed the
title of king, and his example was followed by
Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Seleucus. In the
same year Antigonus, hoping to crush Ptolemy,
invaded Egypt, but was compelled to retreat.
His son Demetrius Poliorcetes carried on the
war with success against Cassander in Greece,
but he was compelled to return to Asia to the
assistance of his father, against whom Cas
sander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus
had formed a fresh confederacy. Antigonus .
and Demetrius were defeated by Lysimachus at
the decisive battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in 301.
Antigonus fell in the battle in. the 81st year of
his age (Diod. xx. 46-86 ; Plut. Demetr. 15-30;
Just. xv. 2-4). — 2, Gonatas, son of Demetrius
Poliorcetes, and grandson of the preceding. He

Coin of Antigonus Gonatas, Ob. B.C. 239.
Obv., head of Poseidon ; rev., Apollo with bow, seated on a
prow. Probably refers to a naval success at Cos. [Some-
have called it a coin of the 1st Antigonue, referring to
his victory at Cyprus, B.C. S06.]
assumed the title of king of Macedonia after
his father's death in Asia, in B.C. 283, but he
did not obtain possession of the throne till 277.
He defeated an army of the Gauls (part of the
reserves left by Brennus) B.C. 276 (Just. xxv. 2 ;
cf. Diog. Laert. ii. 140). He was driven out of
his kingdom by Pyrrhus of Epirus in 273, but
recovered it in the following year : he was again
expelled by Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus,
and again recovered his dominions. After a
long war with Athens he besieged and took the
city, and placed a Macedonian garrison in it,
B.C. 263. He died in 239. He was succeeded
by Demetrius H. His surname Gonatas is
usually derived from Gonnos or Gonni in Thes
saly ; but some think that the name means
having an iron plate protecting the knee. (Plut.
Demetr. 51, Pyrrh. 26 ; Just. xxiv. 1, xxv.
1-3 ; Polyb. xxii. 43 f., Lucian, Macrob. 11.) —
3. Doson (so called because he was always about
to give but never did), nephew of the preceding,

ANTILIBANUS
son of Demetrius of Cyrene, and grandson of
Demetrius Poliorcetes. On the death of Deme
trius II. in B.c. 229, he was left guardian of his
son Philip, but he married the widow of Deme
trius, and became king of Macedonia himself.
Aratus, by an unfortunate policy, called in the
assistance of Antigonus against Sparta, and put
him in possession of the Acrocorinthus. Anti
gonus defeated Cleomenes at Sellasia in 221, and
took Sparta. On his return to Macedonia, he
defeated the Illyrians, and died a few days
afterwards, 220. (Polyb. ii. 45 f. ; Just, xxviii. 8 ;
Plut. Arat., Cleom.)—i. King of Judaea, son
. of Aristobulus II., was placed on the throne by
the Parthians in b.c. 40, but was taken prisoner
by Sosius, the lieutenant of .Antony, and was
put to death by the latter in 87 (Dio Cass. xlix.
22 ; ,Tos. B. J. i. 13). — 5. Of Carystus, lived at
Alexandria about B.C. 250, and wrote a work
still extant, entitled Historiae Mirabiles, which
is only of value from its preserving extracts
from other and better works. — Editions. By
J, Beckmann, Lips. 1791 ; by Westermann in his
Paradoxoc/raphi, Brans. 1839 ; Keller, 1377.
Antilibanus (Ai/-riA.(J8ai'oy : Jebel-es- Sheikh
or Anti-Lebanon), a mountain on the confines
of Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria, parallel to
Libanus (Lebanon), which it exceeds in height.
Its highest summit is M. Hermon (also Jebel-
es-Sheikh). (Strab. p. 754 ; Ptol. v. 15.)
Antilochus ('AvriXoxos), son of Nestor and
Anaxibia or Eurydice (Od. iii. 452), accompanied
his father to Troy, and distinguished himself by
his bravery. He was a favourite of Zeus and
of Achilles (II. xviii. 16, xxiii. 506, 607). He
was slain before Troy by Menmon the Ethio
pian ; according to Pindar he had come to help
his father, who was hard pressed by Memnon,
and saved him at the cost of his own life (Od.
iii. Ill, iv. 188; Pind. Pyth. vi. 28; cf. Xen,
Venat. i. 14), and was buried by the side of his
friends Achilles and Patroclus (Od. xxiv. 72),
and with them received honours of sacrifice in
after times (Strab. p. 596). The grief of his
father and of the whole army at his death is
mentioned in Soph. Phil. 424 ; Hor. Od. ii. 9,
13 ; Q. Smyrn. iii. 516.
Antimachus ('Avripaxos). 1. A Trojan, per
suaded his countrymen not to surrender Helen
to the Greeks. He had three sons, two of whom
were put to death by Menelaus (II. xi. 123, 128).
— 2. Of Claros or Colophon, a Greek epic and
elegiac poet, was probably a native of Claros,
but was called a Colophonian, because Claros
belonged to Colophon (Clarius poeta, Ov.
Trist. i. 6. 1). He flourished towards the end
of the Peloponnesian war ; his chief work was
an epic poem of great length called Thebais
(&Tjf3dis). Antimachus was one of the fore
runners of the poets of the Alexandrine school,
who wrote more for the learned than for the
public at large. Though he seems to have been
little regarded by writers nearer to his time, the
Alexandrine grammarians assigned to him the
second place among the epic poets, and the
emperor Hadrian preferred his works even to
those of Homer. (Dio Cass. lix. 4.) He also
wrote a celebrated elegiac poem called Lyde —
which was the name of his wife or mistress — as
well as other works. There was likewise a tra
dition that he made a recension of the text of
the Homeric poems, from which also he seems
to have borrowed. — Fragments by Schellenberg,
1786; Bergk, 1866.
Antinoopolis ('Avtiv6ov tt6Xis or 'Avrivdtia :
Enseneh, Ru.), a splendid city, built by Hadrian,
in memory of his favourite Antinous, on the E.

ANTIOCHIA

75

bank of the Nile, upon the site of the ancient
Besa, in Middle Egypt (Heptanomis). It was
the capital of the Nomos Antinoi'tes, and had
an oracle of the goddess Besa. (Ptol. iv. 5, 61 ;
Paus. viii. 9 ; Dio Cass. lix. 11.)
AntinSus ('Avrlvoos). 1. Son of Euplthes of
Ithaca, and one of the suitors of Penelope, was
slain by Ulysses. — 2. A youth of extraordinary
beauty, born at Claudiopolis in Bithynia, was
the favourite of the emperor Hadrian, and his
companion in his journeys. He was drowned
in the Nile, a.d. 122. This, as seems probable,
was an act of suicide from melancholy ; though
some regarded it as caused by a superstition
that the sacrifice of his life would avert evil
from the emperor. The grief of the emperor
knew no bounds. He enrolled Antinous amongst-
the gods, caused a temple to be erected to him
at Mantinea, and founded the city of Antinoo
polis in honour of him. Festivals in his honour
were celebrated in Bithynia and at Athens,
Argos, and Mantinea. A large number of works

Antinous. (From a bas-relief in Villa Albani.)

of art of all kinds were executed in his honour,
and many of them are still extant. (Dio Cass.
lix. 11 j_ Spartian. Hadr. 14 ; Paus. viii. 9. 4.)
AntlocHla and -ea ('AvTt6xeia : 'Avtiox*vs-
and -dxeios, fern. 'Avriox'is and -6xio-(ra, Antio-
chenus), the name of several cities of Asia, 16 of
which are said to have been built by Seleucus I.
Nicator, and named in honour of his father An
tiochus. 1. A. Epidaphnes, or ad Daphnem,
or ad Orontem (A. iirl Ad(pvr/ : so called from a
neighbouring grove : A. iirl 'Op6vrn : Antakia,
Ru.), the capital of the Greek kingdom of Syria,
and long the chief city of Asia and perhaps of
the world, stood on the left bank of the Orontes,
about 20 miles (geog.) from the sea, in a beau
tiful valley, about 10 miles long and 5 or 6
broad, enclosed by the ranges of Amanus on the
NW. and Casius on the SE. It was built by
Seleucus Nicator, about b.c. 300, and peopled
chiefly from the neighbouring city of Anti-
gonia. It flourished so rapidly as soon to need
enlargement ; and other additions were again
made to it by Seleucus II. Callinicus (about b.c.
240), and Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (about B.C.
170). Hence it obtained the name of Tetrapolis
(T€rpair6Xis, i.e. 4 cities). It had a considerable
commerce, the Orontes being navigable up to
the city, and the high road between Asia and
Europe passing through it. Under the Romans

76

ANTIOCHIA

it was metropolis of the province and the resi
dence of the proconsuls of Syria; it was fa
voured and visited by emperors; and was made
a colonia with the
Jus Italicum by
Antoninus Pius.
Though far in
ferior to Alexan
dria as a seat of
learning, yet it
derived some dis
tinction in this
respect from the
teaching of Li-
banius and other
sophists ; and its
eminence in art
is attested by the
beautiful gems
and medals still
found among its
ruins. The an
nexed figure, re
presenting the
Genius of An-
tioch, was the
work of Euty-
¦chides of Sicyon, a pupil of Lysippus. It repre
sents Antioch as a female figure, seated on the
rock Silpius and crowned with towers, with ears
of corn in her hand, and with the river Orontes
at her feet. This figure appears constantly on
the later coins of Antioch. — Antioch was de-

Genius of Antioch.

ANTIOCHUS
stroyed by the barbarians, rebuilt by Antiochus
I. Soter, and called Antiochia. It was beauti
fully situated, and was surrounded by a wall 70
stadia (about 8 miles) in circuit. Among the
less important cities of the name were : (o.) A.
ad Taurum in Commagene : this according to
some is the modern Marash, which others with
greater probability make the site of Geb-
manicia; (6.) A. ad Cragum, and (7.) A. ad
Pyramum, in Cilicia. The following Antiochs
are better known by other names : A. ad Sarnm
[Adana;] A. Characenes [Chaeax]; A. Callir
rhoe [Edessa]; A. ad Hippum [Gadaba]; A.
Mygdoniae [Nisibis] ; in Cilicia [Taesus] ; in
Caria or Lydia [Tballes]. .
Antiochus ('Avrloxos). I. Kings of Syria.
1, Soter (reigned B.C. 280-261), was the son
of Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Syrian

Coin of Antioch.
Obv., head of city; rev., ram running to right; above
crescent and star and magistrate's name ; date 105 =
B.C. 60.
-stroyed by the Persian king Chosroes (a.d.
540), but rebuilt by Justinian, who gave it the
name of Theupolis (&€0vir6Xis). The ancient
walls, which still surround the insignificant
modern town, are probably those built by
Justinian. The name of Antiochia was also
¦given to the surrounding district, i.e. the NW.
part of Syria, which bordered upon Cilicia.
{Strab. pp. 749-751 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 80 ; Procop.
B. P. ii. 8 ; Liban. p. 321.) — 2. A. ad Maeandrum
'('A. irpbs MaidvSpa) : nr. Tenishehr, Ru.), a city
-of Caria, on the Maeander, built by Antiochus I.
Soter on the site of the old city of Pythopolis
{Strab. p. 630). — 3. A, Pisidiaeor ad Pisidiam
{'A. Tiio-iSias or 7rpos Ylio-tSia), a considerable
city on the borders of Phrygia Paroreios and
Pisidia ; built by colonists from Magnesia ;
¦declared a free city by the Romans after their
victory over Antiochus the Great (b.c 189) ;
made a colony under Augustus, and called
Caesarea. It was celebrated for the worship
and the great temple of Men Ascaenus (the
Phrygian Moon-god), which the Romans sup
pressed. Its remains are still considerable,
denoting a strong fortress of the Hellenistic
type. It is thought that a semicircular rock-
¦cutting marks the Phrygian temple. (Strab. p.
577.) — 4. A. Margiana ('A. Mapyiavh: Meru
Shah-Jehan 1), a city in the Persian province
of Margiana, on the river Margus, founded by
Alexander^ and at first called Alexandria ; de-

Coin of Antiochus I. Soter, King of Syria, B.C. -280-261.
Ilev., Apollo seated on the Omphalos, a bow in his left
hand, an arrow in his right.
kingdom of the Seleueidae. He married his
stepmother Stratonlce, whom his father sur
rendered to him on the representation of the
physician that it would restore him to health.
He succeeded his father B.C. 280. He gained
his surname from successful contest against the
Gauls, but eventually fell in battle against them
B.C. 261. (Just. xvii. 2 ; Plut. Demetr. 38, 39 ;
Appian, Syr. 59-65.)— 2. Theos (b.c. 261-246),
son and successor of No. 1. The Milesians
gave him the surname of Theos, because he
delivered them from their tyrant, Timarchus.
He carried on war with Ptolemy Philadelphus,
king of Egypt, which was brought to a
close by his putting away his wife Laodice,
and marrying Berenice, the daughter of
Ptolemy. After the death of Ptolemy, he
recalled Laodice, but, in revenge for the insult
she had received, she caused Antiochus and
Berenice to be murdered. During the reign of
Antiochus, Arsaces founded the Parthian em
pire (250) and Theodotus established an inde
pendent kingdom at Bactria. He was succeeded
by his son Seleucus Callinicus. His younger
son Antiochus Hierax also assumed the crown,
and carried on war some years with his brother.
[Seleucus II.] (Just, xxvii. 1 ; Val. Max. ix.
14 ; Athen. p. 45.)— 3. The Great (b.c. 223-187),
second son of Seleucus Callinicus, succeeded to
the throne on the death of his brother Seleucus
Ceraunus, when he was only in his 15th year.
After defeating (220) Molon, satrap of Media,
and his brother Alexander, satrap of Persis, who
had attempted to make themselves independent,
he carried on war against Ptolemy Philopator,
king of Egypt, in order to obtain Coele-Syria,
Phoenicia, and Palestine, but was obliged to
cede these provinces to Ptolemy, in conse
quence of his defeat at the battle of Raphia
near Gaza, in 217. (Polyb. v. 82 ; Just. xxxi. 1.)
He next marched against Achaeus, who had
revolted in Asia Minor, and whom he put to
death, when he fell into his hands in 214.
[Achaeus.] Shortly after this he was engaged
for 7 years (212-205) in an attempt to regain

ANTIOCHUS

the E. provinces 'of Asia, which had revolted
during the reign of Antiochus II. ; but though
he met with great success, he found it hopeless
to effect the subjugation of the Parthian and
Bactrian kingdoms, and accordingly concluded
a peace with them. (Polyb. x. 27.) In 205 he
renewed his war against Egypt with more
success, and in 198 conquered Palestine and
Coele- Syria, which he afterwards gave as a
dowry with his daughter Cleopatra upon her
marriage with Ptolemy Epiphanes. In 196 he
crossed over into Europe, and took possession
of the Thracian Chersonese. This brought him
into contact with the Romans, who commanded
him to restore the Chersonese to the Macedo
nian king ; but he refused to comply with their
demand ; in which resolution he was strength
ened by Hannibal, who arrived at his court in
195. Hannibal urged him to invade Italy
without loss of time ; but Antiochus did not
follow his advice, and it was not till 192 that
he crossed over into Greece, at the request of
the Aetolian League, of which he was named
general. (Polyb. xviii. 32, xx. i. ; Liv. xxxiv. 60,
xxxv. 45.) In 191 he was defeated by the
Romans at Thermopylae, and compelled to re
turn to Asia : his fleet was also vanquished in
two engagements. In 190 he was again defeated

77

Coin of Antiochus III. the Great, King of Syria, B.C. 223-187.
(Rev. as above.)
by the Romans under L. Scipio, at Mount
Sipylus, near Magnesia, and compelled to sue
for peace, which was granted in 188, on condi
tion of his ceding all his dominions E. of
Mount Taurus, paying 15,000 Euboic talents
within 12 years, giving up his elephants and
ships of war, and surrendering the Roman
enemies ; but he allowed Hannibal to escape.
Li order to raise the money to pay the Romans,
he attacked a wealthy temple in Elymais, but
was killed by the people of the place (187). He
was succeeded by his son Seleucus Philopator.
(Liv. xxxvii. 25-44; Polyb. xxi. 9-20; Just.
xxxii. 2 ; Diod. xxix. 18.) — 4. Epiphanes (b. c.
175-164), son of Antiochus HI., was given as a
hostage to the Romans in 188, and was released
from captivity in 175 through his brother
Seleucus Philopator, whom he succeeded in the
same year. He carried on war against Egypt
from 171 to 168 with great success, in order to
obtain Coele-Syria and Palestine, which had
been given as a dowry with his sister, and he
was preparing to lay siege to Alexandria in
168, when the Romans compelled him to retire.
He endeavoured to root out the Jewish religion
and to introduce the worship of the Greek
divinities; but this attempt led to a rising of
the Jewish people, under Mattathias and his
heroic sons the Maccabees, which Antiochus
was unable to put down. He died, B.C. 163, in
the course of an unsuccessful campaign, at
Tabae in Persia in a state of raving madness,
which the Jews and Greeks equally attributed
to his sacrilegious crimes. (Liv. xli.-xlv. ;
Polyb. xxvi.-xxxi. ; Just. xxiv. 3 ; Joseph. Ant.
xii. 5.) Hia subjects gave him the name of

Epim anes ('the madman') in parody of Epi
phanes (Polyb. xxvi. 10).— 5. Eupator (b.c. 164-
162), son and successor of Epiphanes, was nine
years old at his father's death, and reigned
under the guardianship of Lysias. He was de
throned and put to death by Demetrius Soter„

Coin of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, King of Syria, B.C. 175-164.
Ilev., Zeus holding Victory.
the son of Seleucus Philopator, who had
hitherto lived at Rome as a hostage. (Polyb..
xxxi. 12 ; Just, xxxiv. 3.) — 6. Theos or Dionysus
Epiphanes, son of Alexander Balas. He was
brought forward as a claimant to the crown in
144, against Demetrius Nicator by Tryphon,.
but he was murdered by the latter, who-
ascended the throne himself in 142 (Just

Coin of Antiochus VI. Theos, or Dionysus, King of Syria,.
B.C. 114-142.
Obv., Antiochus with diadem and the rayed crown which
passed from Ptolemy Euergetes to the Seleucidae ; rev.,
the Dioscuri, whom some interpret as symbolising the
divided power of Antiochus and Tryphon, part of whose
name appears as tpy.
xxxvi. 1). — 7. Sidetes (b.c. 137-128), so called
from Side in Pamphylia, where he was brought
up, younger son of Demetrius Soter, dethroned
Tryphon. He married Cleopatra, wife of his
elder brother Demetrius Nicator, who was
a prisoner with the Parthians. He carried on
war against the Parthians, at first with suc
cess, but was afterwards defeated and slain in
battle in 128. (Just, xxxviii. 10 ; Athen. 449, 540).
—8. Grypus, or Hook-nosed (b.c. 125-96),
second son of Demetrius Nicator and Cleopatra.
He was placed upon the throne in 125 by his
mother Cleopatra, who put to death his eldest
brother Seleucus, because she wished to have
the power in her own hands. He poisoned his
mother in 120, and subsequently carried on
war for some years with his half-brother A. IX.
Cyzicenus. At length, in 112, the two brothers
agreed to share the kingdom between them, A.
Cyzicenus having Coele-Syria and Phoenicia,
and A. Grypus the remainder of the provinces.
Grypus was assassinated in 96. (Just, xxxix.
1-3 ; Liv. Ep. 60 ; Athen. p. 540.)— 9. Cyzicenus,
from Cyzicus, where he was brought up, son of
A. VII. Sidetes and Cleopatra, reigned over
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia from 112 to 96, but
fell in battle in 95 against Seleucus Epiphanes,
son of A. VIII. Grypus (Appian, Syr. 69). —
10. Eusebes, son of A. IX. Cyzicenus, defeated
Seleucus Epiphanes, who had slain his father in
battle, and maintained the throne against the
brothers of Seleucus. He succeeded his father

78

ANTIOCHUS

Antiochus IX. in 95. (Appian, Syr. 69 ; Diod.
xxxiv. 38.) — 11. Epiphanes, son of A. VIII.
Grypus and brother of Seleucus Epiphanes,
carried on war against A. X. Eusebes, but was
defeated by the latter, and drowned in the
river Orontes (Appian, I.e., Diod. I.e.). —
12. Dionysus, brother of No. 11, held the
crown for a short time, but fell in battle
against Aretas, king of the Arabians. The
Syrians, worn out with the civil broils of the
Seleucidae, offered the kingdom to Tigranes,
Jring of Armenia, who united Syria to his own
dominions in 83, and held it till his defeat by
the Romans in 69 (Joseph. Ant. xiii. 15). —
13. Asiaticus, son of A. X. Eusebes and Selene
(or Cleopatra) daughter of Ptolemy Physcon,
"became king of Syria on the defeat of Tigranes
by Lucullus in 69 ; but he was deprived of it in
65 by Pompey, who reduced Syria to a Roman
province. In this year the Seleucidae ceased to
reign. (Appian, Syr. 49, 70 ; Cic. Verr. iv. 27,
61 ff.) II. Kings of Coinmagene.
1. Son of Mithridates I. Callinicus, the step
son of Antiochus Epiphanes (above, No. 11).
Made an alliance with the Romans, about B.C.
64. He assisted Pompey with troops in 49,
had friendly communications with Cicero, then
proconsul of Cilicia ; was attacked by Antony
in 38. He was succeeded by Mithridates II.
about 31. (Dio Cass. xxxv. 2, xlix. 20 ; Appian,
Mithr. 106 ; Cic. Fam. xv. 1, 2 ; Cass. B. C. iii.
5.) — 2. Succeeded Mithridates II., and was
put to death at Rome by Augustus in 29 (Dio
Cass. Iii. 43). — 3. Succeeded No. 2, and died
in a.d. 17. Upon his death, Commagene
became a Roman province, and remained so till
a.d. 38 (Tac. Ann. ii. 42, 56). — 4. Surnamed
Epiphanes Magnus son of Antiochus III.
received his paternal dominion from Caligula in
a.d. 38. He was subsequently deposed by
Caligula, but regained his kingdom on the
accession of Claudius in 41. He was a faithful
ally of the Romans, and assisted them in their
wars against the Parthians under Nero, and
against the Jews under Vespasian. At length
in 72, he was accused of conspiring with the
Parthians against the Romans, was deprived of
his kingdom, and retired to Lacedaemon, where
he passed the remainder of his life. His sons
Epiphanes and Callinicus lived at Rome. (Dio
Cass. lix. 8, lx. 8 ; Joseph. Ant. xix. 9, B. J. v.
11, vii. 7 ; Tac. Ann. xiii. 7.)
III. Literary.
1, Of Aegae in Cilicia, a sophist, or, as he
himself pretended to be, a Cynic philosopher.
He flourished about A.D. 200, during the reign
of Severus and Caracalla. During the war of
Caracalla against the Parthians, he deserted to
the Parthians together with Tiridates. He was
one of the most distinguished rhetoricians of
his time, and also acquired some reputation as
a writer. — 2. Of Ascalon, the founder of the
fifth Academy, was a friend of Lucullus and
the teacher of Cicero during his studies at
Athens (b.c. 79) ; but he had a school at Alex
andria also, as well as in Syria, where he seems
to have ended his life (B.C. 68). His principal
teacher was Philo, who succeeded Plato, Arce-
silas, and Carneades, as the founder of the
fourth Academy. He is, however, better known
as the adversary than the disciple of Philo ; and
Cicero mentions a treatise called Sosus, written
by him against his master, in which he re
futes the scepticism of the Academics (Acad.
iv. 4, 11). He was in his own philosophy an

ANTIPATER
Eclectic, seeking a middle course between Zeno,
Aristotle, and Plato. He made truth rest upon
authority whenever he could find points agreed
upon by these philosophers, and laboured to
show that they differed in expression rather
than in essentials. (Cic. Acad. ii. 18, 43, &c. ;
deFin. v. 25; Tusc. v. 8.)— 3. Of Syracuse, a
Greek historian, lived about B.C. 423, and wrote
a history of Sicily in 9 books from the mythical
Sicanian king Cocalus to his own date, to which
it is not improbable that Thucydides was to
some extent indebted in the beginning of book
vi. He wrote also a history of the Greek colo
nies in Italy. (Diod. xii. 71 ; Dionys. i. 12 ; a
few fragments in C. MiiUer's Frag. Hist.
Graec) Antiope (' Avr i6iri\). 1. Daughter of Nycteus
andPolyxo, or of the river god Asopus inBoeotia,
became by Zeus the mother of Amphion and
Zethus. Dionysus threw her into a state _ of
madness on account of the vengeance which
her sons had taken on Dirce. [Amphion.] In
this condition she wandered through Greece,
until Phocus, the grandson of Sisyphus, cured
and married her. — 2. An Amazon, sister of
Hippolyte, wife of Theseus, and mother of Hip-
polytus. [Theseus.]
Antipater ('Aj/tiVotpos). 1. The Macedo
nian, an officer greatly trusted by Philip and
Alexander the Great, was left by the latter
regent in Macedonia when he crossed over
into Asia in B.C. 334. In this office he quelled
the Thracians on one hand, and on the other
suppressed the Spartan rising by a victory at
Megalopolis (b.c. 330). Inconsequence of dissen
sions between Olympias and Antipater, the
latter was summoned to Asia in 324, and Cra-
terus appointed to the regency of Macedonia,
but the death of Alexander in the following
year prevented these arrangements from taking
effect. Antipater now obtained Macedonia
again, and in conjunction with Craterus, who
was associated with him in the government,
carried on war against the Greeks, who endea
voured to establish their independence. This
war, usually called the Lamian war, from Lamia,
where Antipater was besieged in 823, was ter
minated by Antipater's victory over the con
federates at Crannonin 322. This was followed
by the submission of Athens and the death of
Demosthenes. In 821 Antipater crossed over
into Asia in order to oppose Perdiccas ; but the
murder of Peediccas in Egypt put an end to
this war, and left Antipater supreme regent.
Antipater died in 319, after appointing Poly-
sperchon regent, and his own son Cassandeb
to a subordinate position. (Diod. xvii., xviii. ;
Just. xiii. 4-6.) — 2. Grandson of the preceding,
and second son of Cassander and Thessalonlca.
After the death of his elder brother Philip TV.
(b.c. 295), great dissensions ensued between
Antipater and his younger brother Alexander,
for the kingdom of Macedonia. Antipater,
believing that Alexander was favoured by his
mother, put her to death. The younger
brother upon this applied for aid at once to
Pyrrhus of Epirus and Demetrius Poliorcetes.
The remaining history is related differently:
but so much is certain, that both Antipater
and Alexander were subsequently put to death
— Alexander by Demetrius and Antipater by
Lysimachus (Just. xvi. 1, 2 ; Plut. Demetr.),
and that Demetrius became king of Macedonia.
— 3. Father of Herod the Great, son of a noble
Idumaean of the same name, espoused the cause
of Hyrcanus against his brother Aristobulus.
He ingratiated himself with the Romans, and

ANTIPATER
in B.C. 47 was appointed by Caesar procurator
of Judaea, which appointment he held till his
death in 43, when he was carried off by poison
which Malichus, whose life he had twice saved,
bribed the cup-bearer of Hyrcanus to adminis
ter to him. (Jos. Ant. xiv. 9 ; B. J. i. 10.) —
4. Eldest son of Herod the Great by his first
wife, Doris, brought about the death of his two
half-brothers, Alexander and Aristobulus, in
B.C. 6, but was himself condemned as guilty of
a conspiracy against his father's life, and was
executed five days before Herod's death. (Jos.
Ant. xvii. 1 ; B.J. i. 28.)— 5. Of Tarsus, a Stoic
philosopher, the successor of Diogenes in the
chair at Athens, and the teacher of Panaetius,
about B.C. 144 (Cic. Off. iii. 12, 50 ; Div. i. 3, 6).
— 6. Of Tyre, a Stoic philosopher, died shortly
before B.C. 45, and wrote a work on Duties
(de Officiis) (Cic. Off. ii. 24).— 7. Of Cyrene,
a pupil and follower of Aristippus (Diog.
Laert. ii. 96 ; Cic. Tusc. v. 88, 112).— 8. Of
Sidon, the author of several epigrams in the
Greek Anthology, flourished about b.c. 108-100,
and lived to a great age. — 9. Of Thessalonica,
the author of several epigrams in the Greek
Anthology, lived in the latter part of the reign
of Augustus.
Antipater, L. Caelius, a Roman jurist and
historian, and a contemporary of C. Gracchus
(b.c. 123), and L. Crassus, the orator, wrote
Annates, which were epitomised by Brutus,
and which contained a valuable account of the
second Punic war. He seems to have been
honest and trustworthy, but too prone to rheto
rical ornament. (Cic. Div. i. 24, 49, ad Att. xiii.
8 ; Liv. xxi. 46, xxvii. 27).
Antipatria ('Avmrdrpia : Berat ?), a town in
Illyricum on the borders of Macedonia, on the
left bank of the Apsus (Liv. xxxi. 27).
Antiphanes ('AvTiipdvris). 1. A comic poet,
next to Alexis the most important, of the
middle Attic comedy, born about B.C. 404, and
died 330. He wrote 365, or at the least 260
plays (titles of 150 remain), which were distin
guished by elegance of language. Probably
many were recited, but not produced on the
stage. (Fragments in Meineke.) — 2. Of Berga in
Thrace, a Greek writer on marvellous and
incredible things (Strab. pp. 47, 102, 104 ; Polyb.
xxxiii. 12). — 3. An epigrammatic poet, several of
whose epigrams are still extant in the Greek
Anthology, lived about the reign of Augustus.
Antiphates ('AvTupdrns), king of the mythical
Laestrygones in Sicily, represented as giants
and cannibals. They destroyed 11 of the ships
of Ulysses, who escaped with only one vessel
(Od. x. 80; Ov. Met. x. 233; Juv. xiv. 20).
Antiphelius ('AvTi<p€XXos : Antiphilo), a
town on the coast of Lycia, between Patara and
Aperlae, originally the port of Phellus (Strab.
p. 666)_.
Antiphemns ('Avriipripos), the Rhodian,
founder of Gela, in Sicily, B.C. 690.
Antiphilus ('Avr'upiXos). 1. Of Byzantium,
an epigrammatic poet, author of several excel
lent epigrams in the Greek Anthology, was a
contemporary of the emperor Nero. — 2. Of
Egypt, a distinguished painter, the rival of
Apelles, painted for Philip and Alexander the
Great jQuint. xii. 10 ; Plin. xxxv. § 114, 138).
Antiphon ('Avrifav). 1. The most ancient
of the 10 orators in the Alexandrine canon,
was a son of Sophilus the Sophist, and born at
Rhamnus in Attica, in B.C. 480. He belonged
to the oligarchical party at Athens, and took an
active part in the establishment of the govern
ment of the Four Hundred (b.c. 411), after the

ANTISTHENES

79

overthrow of which he was brought to trial,
condemned, and put to death. The oratorical
powers of Antiphon are highly praised by the
ancients. He introduced great improvements
in public speaking, and was the first who laid
down theoretical laws for practical eloquence ;
he opened a school in which he taught rhetoric,
and the historian Thucydides is said to have
been one of his pupils. The orations which he
composed were written for others ; and the only
time that he spoke in public himself was when
he was accused and condemned to death. This
speech, which was considered in antiquity a
masterpiece of eloquence, is now lost. (Thuc.
viii. 68; Cic. Brut. 12.) We still possess 15
orations of Antiphon, 3 of which were written
by him for others, and the remaining 12 as
specimens for his school, or exercises on
fictitious cases of trials for homicide. They are
printed in the collections of the Attic orators,
and separately, edited by Baiter and Sauppe,
Zurich, 1838; C. Muller, 1868.— 2. A tragic
poet, whom many writers confound with the
Attic orator, lived at Syracuse, at the court of
the elder Dionysius, by whom he was put to
death (Arist. Bhet. ii. 6). — 3. Of Athens, a
sophist and an epic poet, wrote a work on the
interpretation of dreams, referred to by Cicero
and others. He is the same person as Antiphon
an opponent of Socrates. (Xen. Mem. i. 6.)
Antiphus ("Avnipos). 1. Son of Priam and
Hecuba, slain by Agamemnon (II. iv. 489, xi.
101). — 2. Son of Thessalus, and one of the
Greek heroes at Troy (II. ii. 676).
Antipolis ('AvriiroXts : Antibes, pronounced
by the inhabitants Antiboul), a town in Gallia
Narbonensis on the coast, in the territory of
the Deciates, a few miles W. of Nicaea, was
founded by Massilia, and received Jus Latinum
after B.C. 46 ; the muria, or salt pickle made of
fish, prepared at this town, was very celebrated
(Strab. pp. 180, 184; Tac. Hist. ii. 15; Mart.
xiii. 103).
Antirrhlum ('Avrippiov: Castello di Bome-
lia), a promontory on the borders of Aetolia
and Locris, opposite Rhium (Castello di Morea)
in Achaia, with which it formed the narrow
entrance of the Corinthian gulf : the straits are
sometimes called the Little Dardanelles.
Antissa ("Avrio-cra: 'Avrio-aaios: Kolas Lim-
neonas), a town in Lesbos with a harbour, on
the W. coast between Methymna and the pro
montory Sigrium, was originally on a small
island opposite Lesbos, which was afterwards
united with Lesbos (Plin. ii. § 204 ; Ov. Met.
xv. 287). It joined Mitylene in the revolt
(Thuc. iii. 18, 28). It was destroyed by the
Romans, B.C. 168, and its inhabitants removed
to Methymna, because they had assisted Antio
chus (Strab. p. 618 ; Liv. xiv. 31).
Antisthenes ^AvriaBivns). 1. An Athenian,
founder of the sect of the Cynic philosophers.
His mother was a Thracian. In his youth he
fought at Tanagra (B.C. 426), and was a disciple
first of Gorgias, and then of Socrates, whom
he never quitted, and at whose death he was
present. He died at Athens, at the age of 70.
Among his pupils were Crates of Thebes and
Diogenes of Sinope. He taught in the Cynos-
arges, a gymnasium for the use of Athenians
born of foreign mothers ; whence probably his
followers were called Cynics (kvvmoI), though
others derive their name from their dog-like
neglect of all forms and usages of society. His
writings have perished, except two declama
tions, named Ajax and Ulysses, about the
arms of Achilles, the genuineness of which is

80

ANTISTIUS

disputed. He was an enemy to all speculation,
and thus was opposed to Plato, whom he
attacked furiously in one of his dialogues : in
especial he denied ideas, and asserted that the
individual alone existed. He paid little regard
to art, learning, and scientific research. His
philosophical system was confined almost en
tirely to ethics, and he taught that virtue is the
sole thing necessary: and virtue consisted in
complete independence of surroundings, in
avoiding evil and having no needs. Hence it
amounted to apathy. The later Cynics, such
as Diogenes, sank to a lower depth both of igno
rance and disregard of conventional morality.
He showed his contempt of all the luxuries and
outward comforts of life by his mean clothing
and hard fare. From his school the Stoics
subsequently sprang. In one of his works
entitled -Physicus, he contended for the Unity
of the Deity (Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 13, 32).
Fragments edited by Winckelmann, 1842. —
2. A Greek historian of Rhodes about B.C. 200
(Polyb. xvi. 14). Ed. by C. Miiller in Frag.
Hist. Graec. — 3. A Spartan admiral mentioned
in B.C. 412 and 399 (Thuc. viii. 39 ; Xen. Hell.
iii. 2, 6).
Antistius, P., tribune of the plebs, b.c. 88,
a distinguished orator, supported the party of
Sulla, and was put to death by order of young
Marius in 82. His daughter Antistia was mar
ried to Pompeius Magnus (Cic. Brut. 63, 226,
pro Bosc. Am. 32, 90 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 26 ; Appian,
B. C. i. 88). Others of this name are mentioned
by Livy at various dates, of whose history no
thing important is preserved.
Antistius Labeo. [Labeo.]
Antistius Vetus. [Vetus.] ,
Antitaurus ('AvriTavpos : Ali-Dagh), a chain
of mountains, which strikes off NE. from the
main chain of the Taurus on the S. border of
Cappadocia, in the centre of which district it
turns to the E. and runs parallel to the Taurus
as far as the Euphrates. Its average height
exceeds that of the Taurus; and one of its
summits, Mount Argaeus, near Mazaca, is the
loftiest mountain of Asia Minor.
Antium (Antias : Torre or Porto d' Anzo), a
very ancient town of Latium on a rocky pro
montory running out some distance into the
Tyrrhenian sea. It was founded by Tyrrhenians
and Pelasgians, and in earlier and even later
times was noted for its piracy. Although united
by Tarquinius Superbus to the Latin League,
it generally sided with the Volscians against
Rome (Liv. ii. 33, 63, 65 ; Dionys. iv. 49, vi. 92,
ix. 58). It was taken by the Romans in B.C.
467, and was made a Latin colony (Liv. iii. 1 ;
Dionys. ix. 59), but it revolted, was taken a
second time by the Romans in B.C. 338, was
deprived of all its ships — the beaks of which
(rostra) served to ornament the platform of the
speakers in the Roman forum — was forbidden
to have any ships in future, and was made a
Roman colony (Liv. vii. 27, viii. 12-14). But it
gradually recovered its former importance, was
, allowed in course of time again to be used as a
seaport,- andrin the latter times of the republic
! and under the empire, became a favourite
residence of many of the Roman nobles and
emperors.' Thet emperor Nero was born here,
and in the remains of his palace the celebrated
Apollo Belvedere was found (Strab. p. 232 ; Cic.
AU. ii. 1, 7, 11; Suet. Aug. 58, Ner. 6; Tac.
Ann. xiv. 27, xv. 23). Antium possessed a
celebrated temple of Fortune (0 Diva, gratum
quae regis Antium, Hor. Od. i. 35), of Aescu
lapius, and at the port of Ceno, a little to the

ANTONINUS
E. of Antium, a temple of Neptune, on which
account the place is now called Nettuno.
Antius Kestio. [Restio.]
Antonia. 1. Manor, elder daughter of M.
Antonius and Octavia, wife of L. Domitius
Ahenobarbus, and mother of Cn. Domitius, the
father of the emperor Nero. Tacitus calls this
Antonia the younger daughter. (Tac. Ann. iv. 44,
xii. 64; Suet. Ner. 5; Plut. Ant. 87; cf. Dio
Cass. Ii. 15.)— 2. Minor, younger sister of the
preceding, wife of Drusus, the brother of the
emperor Tiberius, and mother of Germanicus,
the father of the emperor Caligula, of Livia or
Livilla, and of the emperor Claudius. She died
A.D. 38, soon after the accession of her grandson
Caligula. She was celebrated for her beauty
and virtue (Plut. Ant. 87; Tac. Ann. xi. 3; VaL
Max. iv. 3, 3). — 3. Daughter of the emperor
Claudius, married first to Pompeius Magnus,
and afterwards to Faustus Sulla. Nero wished
to marry her after the death of his wife Poppaea,
A.D. 66; and on her refusal he caused her to-
be put to death on a charge of treason (Suet.
Claud. 27, Ner. 35 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 2, xiii. 23,
xv. 53 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 5).
Antonia Turris, a castle on a rock at the
NW. corner of the Temple at Jerusalem, which
commanded both the temple and the city. It
was at first called Baris : Herod the Great
changed its name in honour of M. Antonius.
It contained the residence of the Procurator
Judaeae. Antonini Itineraria. There are two lists of
stations on Roman roads and their distances
bearing this name. The most probable account
of them is that they are based on work done in
the time of Antoninus Caracalla (a.d. 211-217)
and that additions were made at various times
to this groundwork. The recension which we
now have belongs to the early part of the 4th
century, for on the one hand it contains the town
Diocletianopolis ; on the other, distances are
not reckoned from Constantinople. — Editions
by Tobler, St. Gall, 1863; Parthey, 1848.
Antoninopolis (A»'™i'ii'07r<i\is : -ittjs, anus),
a city of Mesopotamia, between Edessa and
Dara, aft. Maximianopolis, and aft. Constantia.
Antoninus, M. Aurelius. [M. Aueelius.]
Antoninus Pins, Roman emperor, a.d. 138-,
161. His name in the early part of his life, at full
length, was Titus Aurelius Fulvius Boionius
Arrius Antoninus. These names probably
imply inheritance from various relations. His
father and grandfather, both of consular rank,
both bore the names Aurelius Fulvius; his
mother was an Arria, and he reckoned a
Boionius also among his maternal ancestors.
His paternal ancestors came from Nemausus
(Nismes) in Gaul; but Antoninus himself was
born near Lanuvium, September 19th, a.d. 86.
From an early age he gave promise of his future
worth. In 120 he was consul, and subsequently
proconsul of the province of Asia : on his return
to Rome he lived on terms of the greatest
intimacy with Hadrian, who adopted him on
February 25th, 138. Henceforward he bore
the name of T. Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus
Caesar, and on the death of Hadrian, July 2nd,
138, he ascended the throne. The senate con
ferred upon him the title of Pius, or the duti
fully 'affectionate, because he persuaded them
to grant to his father Hadrian the apotheosis
and the other honours usually paid to deceased
emperors, which they had at first refused to
bestow upon Hadrian. The reign of Antoninus
is almost a blank in history — a blank caused
by the suspension for a time of war, violence,

ANTONINUS
and crime. He was one of the best princes that
ever mounted a throne, and all his thoughts
and energies were dedicated to the happiness
of his people. No attempt was made to achieve
new conquests, and various insurrections among
the Germans, Dacians, Jews, Moors, Egyptians,
and Britons, were easily quelled by his legates.
The ' wall of Antonine ' between the Clyde and
the Forth was raised by the praefect Lollius
Urbicus at this time. In all the relations of
private life the character of Antoninus was
without reproach. He was faithful to his wife
Faustina, notwithstanding her profligate life,
and after her death loaded her memory with
honours. He died at Lorium, March 7th, 161,
in his 75th year. He was succeeded by M.

ANTONIUS

81

Antoninus Pius. Eoman Emperor, A.D. 138-161.
(The legend on the obverse, in fulT is Antoninus Augustus
Pius, Pater Patriae, Tribunitia Potestas, Consul III.)
Aurelius, whom he had adopted, when he him
self was adopted by Hadrian, and to whom he
gave his daughter Faustina in marriage (Life
in Scriptores Hist. August., usually attributed
to Capitolinus, but by some assigned to Spar-
tianus). Antoninus Liberalis, a Greek grammarian,
probably lived in the reign of the Antonines,
about A.D. 147, and wrote a work on Meta
morphoses (Wlerapopipdo-euv ffuvayayf)), in 41
chapters, which is extant, derived from ancient
sources, and valuable for tracing variations
of mythology. — Editions: by Verheyk, Lugd.
Bat. 1774 ; by Koch, Lips. 1832 ; by Wester-
mann, in his Paradoxographi, Brunsv. 1839.
Antonius. 1, M., the orator, born B.C. 143;
quaestor in 113 ; praetor in 104, when he fought
against the pirates in Cilicia ; consul in 99 ; and
censor in 97. He belonged to Sulla's party, and
was put to death by Marius and Cinna when
they entered Rome in 87 : his head was cut off
and placed on the Rostra. Cicero mentions
him and L. Crassus as the most distinguished
orators of their age ; and he is introduced as
one of the speakers in Cicero's De Oratore. —
2. M., surnamed Ceeticus, elder son of the
orator, and father of the triumvir, was praetor
in 75, and received the command of the fleet
and all the coasts of the Mediterranean, in
order to clear the sea of pirates ; but he did not
succeed in his object, and used his power to
plunder the provinces. He died shortly after
wards in Crete, and was called Creticus in de
rision (Plut. Ant, 1; Diod. xl. 1). — 3. C, younger
son of the orator, and uncle of the triumvir,
was expelled the senate in 70 for extortion ; but
afterwards was the colleague of Cicero in the
praetorship (65) and consulship (63). He was
one of Catiline's conspirators, but deserted the
latter on Cicero's promising him the province
of Macedonia. He had to lead an army against
Catiline, but unwilling to fight against his for
mer friend, he gave the command on the day of
battle to his legate, M. Petreius. At the con
clusion of the war Antony went into his
province, which he plundered shamefully ; and

on his return to Rome in 59 was accused both
of taking port in Catiline's conspiracy and of
extortion in his province. He was defended by
Cicero, but was condemned, and retired to the
island of Cephallenia. He was subsequently
recalled, probably by Caesar, and was in Rome
at the beginning of 44 (Cic. Clu. 42, Gat. iii. 6,
Cael. SI, Flacc 88; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 40,
xxxviii. 10). He was surnamed Hybrida, possi
bly as being semiferus (Plin. viii. 218).— 4. M,,
the Triumvir, was son of No. 2 and Julia, the
sister of L. Julius Caesar, consul in 64, and
was born about 83. His father died while he
was still young, and he was brought up by
Cornelius Lentulus, who married his mother
Julia, and who was put to death by Cicero in 63
as one of Catiline's conspirators : whence he be
came a personal enemy of Cicero. Antony in
dulged in his earliest youth in every kind of
dissipation, and his affairs soon became deeply
involved. In 58 he went to Syria, where he
served with distinction under A. Gabinius.
He took part in the campaigns against Aristo
bulus in Palestine (57, 56), and in the restora
tion of Ptolemy Auletes to Egypt in 55. In 54
he went to Caesar in Gaul, and by the influence
of the latter was elected quaestor. As quaestor
(52) he returned to Gaul, and served under
Caesar for the next two years (52, 51). He re
turned to Rome in 50, and became one of the
most active partisans of Caesar. He was tri
bune of the plebs in 49, and in January fled to
Caesar's camp in Cisalpine Gaul (with another
tribune, Q. Cassius Longinus), after putting a
veto upon the decree of the senate which de
prived Caesar of his command. He accom
panied Caesar in his victorious march into
Italy, and was left by Caesar in the command of
Italy, while the latter carried on the war in
Spain. In 48 Antony brought the troops left in
Italy to join Caesar in Epirus, after several
delays, for which he was rebuked, and was
present at the battle of Pharsalia, where he
commanded the left wing ; and in 47 he was
again left in the command of Italy during
Caesar's absence in Africa. In 44 he was con
sul with Caesar, when he offered him the kingly
diadem at the festival of the Lupercalia. After
Caesar's murder on the 15th of March, Antony
endeavoured to succeed to his power. He
therefore used every means to appear as his
representative; as surviving consul he pro
nounced the speech over Caesar's body and read
his will to the people ; and he also obtained the
papers and private property of Caesar. But he
found a new and unexpected rival in young Oc-
tavianus, the adopted son and great-nephew of
the dictator, who came from Apollonia to Rome,
assumed the name of Caesar, and at first joined
the senate in order to crush Antony. Towards
the end of the year Antony proceeded to Cisal
pine Gaul, which had been previously granted
him by the senate ; but Dec. Brutus refused to
surrender the province to Antony and threw
himself into Mutina, where he was besieged by
Antony. The senate approved of the conduct
of Brutus, declared Antony a public enemy, and
entrusted the conduct of the war against him to
Octavianus. Antony was defeated at the battle
of Mutina, in April 48, and was obliged to cross
the Alps. Both the consuls, however, had
fallen, and the senate now began to show their
jealousy of Octavianus. Meantime Antony was
joined by Lepidus with a powerful army :
Octavianus became reconciled to Antony ; and
it was agreed that the government of the state
should be vested in Antony, Octavianus, and
G

82 ANTONIUS ANUBIS
gaged in war against Octavianus at the instiga
tion of Fulvia, his brother's wife. He was
unable to resist Octavianus, and threw himself
into the town of Perusia, which he was obliged
to surrender in the following year : hence the
war is usually called that of Perusia. His life
was spared, and he was afterwards appointed
by Octavianus to the command of Iberia. His
character is painted by Cicero in dark colours,
perhaps with some exaggeration (Cic. Phil. iii.
12, v. 7, 11, xii. 8 ; Appian, B. C. v. 19-49).—
7. M., called by the Greek writers Antyllus —
which is probably only a corrupt form of An
toninus (young Antonius) — elder son of the
triumvir by Fulvia, was executed by order of
Octavianus, after the death of his father 'in 30
(Suet. Aug. 63; Plut. Ant. 81).— 8. Julus,
younger son of the triumvir by Fulvia, was
brought up by his stepmother Octavia at Rome,
and received great marks of favour from Augus
tus. Horace notices him as a poet (Od. iv. 2).
He was consul in B.C. 10, but was put to death
in 2, in consequence of his adulterous inter
course with Julia, the daughter of
Augustus (Dio Cass. liv. 36, lv. 10 ;
Tac. Ann. iv. 44 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 100).
Antonius Felix. [Felix.]
Antonius Musa. [Musa.]
Antonius Primus. [Peimus.]
Antron ('Avrpdv : Fano), a town
in Phthiotis in Thessaly, at the en
trance of the Sinus Maliacus (II.
ii. 697 ; Strab. p. 435).
Antunnacum (Andernach), a
town of the Ubii on the Rhine
(Amm. Mare, xviii. 2).
...... , ,, Anubis ("Avovfas), an Egyptian
M. Antonius and Cleopatra. -,. . ., ,,^ -^ +•„„ J*,*,.,! flio
Obv., head of Antonius— legend 'Avrcivtoc Airo/tpiroip .pbov rptSv ivSp£v uivmity ^tne Hjgyptian JLnpuj, ine
(=third time triumvir) ; rev., head of Cleopatra— legend Ba„.x.Wa KXco- ruler of the dead. He watched over
war pa 6el vetarepa.

Lepidus, under the title of Triumviri Beipub-
licae Constituendae,ior the next 5 years. The
mutual enemies of each were proscribed, and in
the numerous executions that followed, Cicero,
who had attacked Antony in the most un
measured manner in his Philippic Orations,
fell a victim to Antony. In 42 Antony and
Octavianus crushed the republican party by the
battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius
fell. Antony then went to Asia, which he had
received as his share of the Roman world. In
Cilicia he met with Cleopatra, and followed her
to Egypt, a captive to her charms. In 41 Fulvia,
the wife of Antony, and his brother L. Antonius,
made war upon Octavianus in Italy. Antony
prepared to support his relatives, but the war
was brought to a close at the beginning of 40,
before Antony could reach Italy. The oppor
tune death of Fulvia facilitated the reconcili
ation of Antony and Octavianus, which was
cemented by Antony marrying Octavia, the
sister of Octavianus. Antony remained in Italy
till 39, when the triumvirs concluded a peace

with Sext. Pompey, and he afterwards went to
his provinces in the East. In this year and the
following Ventidius, the lieutenant of Antony,
defeated the Parthians. In 37 Antony crossed
over to Italy, when the triumvirate was renewed
for 5 years. He then returned to the East, and
shortly afterwards sent Octavia back to her
brother, and surrendered himself entirely to
the charms of Cleopatra. In 36 he invaded
Parthia, but he lost a great number of his
troops, and was obliged to retreat. He was
more successful in his invasion of Armenia. in
34, for he obtained possession of Artavasdes, the
Armenian king, and carried him to Alexandria.
Antony now laid aside entirely the character of
a Roman citizen, and assumed the pomp and
ceremony of an Eastorn despot. His conduct,
and the unbounded influence which Cleopatra
had acquired over him, alienated many of his
friends and supporters ; and Octavianus thought
that the time had now come for crushing his
rival. The contest was decided by the memor
able sea-fight off Actium, September 2nd, 31, in
which Antony's fleet was completely defeated.
Antony, accompanied by Cleopatra, fled to
Alexandria, where he put an end to his own life
in the following year (80), when Octavianus
appeared before the city. (See Plut. Ant. ; index
to Cicero ; Appian. B. G. iii., iv. ; Dio Cass.
xliv. ff.). — -5 C, brother of the triumvir, was
praetor in Macedonia in 44, fell into the hands
of M. Brutus in 43, by whom he was put to
death in 42, to revenge the murder of Cicero
(Plut. Brut. 28; Dio Cass, xlvii. 23).— 6. L„

the rites of embalming, and con
ducted the dead in their course to the western
realm of shades. In the Osiris myths he is
subordinate to Osiris, and is represented as his
son by Nephthys,
and he is sup
posed, together
with Horus, or
Thoth, to weigh
the actions of
the dead in their
judgment before
Osiris, besides
acting as their
guide. Hence of
course followed
his identifica
tion with Her
mes (Hermanu-
bis). He was
figured with the
head of a jackal,
because that ani
mal, as haunt
ing the graves,
seemed the in
carnation of the
dead. The Ro
mans ' imagined
him with a dog's
head (Plut. de Is.;
Verg. Aen. viii.
698 ; Ov. Met. ix.
690; Prop. iii. 9.
41 ; Juv. xv. 8 ;

Anubis. (Wilkinson's Egyptians.)

youngest brother of the triumvir, was consul in ; Dionys. i. 18, 87 ; Strab. p. 805). His worship,
41, when he triumphed for success over some , with that of Isis and Serapis, was introduced
Alpine tribes, and in the following winter en- both at Rome and in Greece, under the emperors.

ANXUR
Anxur. [Taekacina.]
Anxurus, an Italian divinity, who wob wor
shipped in a grove near Anxur (Tarracina) to
gether with Feronia. He was regarded as a
youthful Jupiter, and Feronia as Juno. On
coins his name appears as Axur or Anxur.
Anysis ("Avvo-is), according to Herodotus ii.
137, an ancient blind king of Egypt, in whose
reign Egypt was invaded by the Ethiopians
under their king Sabaco. He is supposed to
come from a city Anysis, and to take refuge
from the invaders in the marshes for 60 years,
during which he increased his island by making
malefactors add earth to it by way of penalty.
It is clear that Herodotus has misinterpreted
his information, whether it was about the city
or the man. He makes Anysis succeed Asykis
(=Aseskaf or Shepseskaf), who reigned in the
fourth dynasty, about B.C. 3600, nearly 8000
years before Sabaco.
Anyte ('Avvrri), of Tegea, the authoress of
several epigrams in the Greek Anthology,
flourished about b.c. 700. — Edition. Kinkel,
1877. Anytus ("Avvtos), a wealthy Athenian, son of
Anthemion, the most influential and formidable
of the accusers of Socrates, b.c. 399 (hence
Socrates is called Anyti reus, Hor. Sat. ii. 4. 8).
He was a leading man of the democratical
party, and had taken an active part, along with
Thrasybulus, in the overthrow of the 30 Tyrants.
The Athenians, having repented of their con
demnation of Socrates, sent Anytus into banish
ment to Heraclea in Pontus (Xen. Hell. ii. 3, 42).
Aon ("Aav), son of Poseidon), and an ancient
Boeotian hero, from whom the Aones, an ancient
race in Boeotia, were believed to have derived
their name (Strab. pp. 401, 412 ; Paus. ix. 5).
Aonia was the name of the part of Boeotia, near
Phocis, in which were Mount Helicon and the
fountain Aganippe (Aoniae aquae, Ov. Fast.
iii. 456). The Muses are also called Aonides,
since they frequented Helicon and the fountain
of Aganippe (Ov. Met. v. 333).
Aonides, [Aon.]
Aornus. 1. A rocky stronghold in the country
between Cabul and the Indus, captured with
difficulty by Alexander. It was said to rise to
a height of more than 7,000 feet (Arrian, An. iv.
28; Curt. viii. 11 ; Strab. p. 688).— 2. A lake in
Thesprotian Epirus, where there was a vckvo-
pavTtiov, or oracle of the dead, visited by
Orpheus (Paus. ix. 30, 6). It is not clear
whether this is another name for Lake Ache
rusia, or, rather, for the spot on its banks where
the oracle stood, or whether it is a neighbouring
lake (cf. Hdt. v. 92, 7 ; Diod. iv. 22 ; Achebusia).
Aorsi ("Aopcroi) or Adorsi, a powerful people
oi Asiatic Sarmatia, who appear to have had
their original settlements on the NE. of the
Caspian, but are chiefly found between the
Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azof) and the Caspian,
to the SE. of the river Tanai's (Don), whence
they spread far into European Sarmatia. They
carried on a considerable traffic in Babylonian
merchandise, which they fetched on camels out
of Media and Armenia (Strab. pp. 492, 506;
Tac. Ann. xii. 15).
Aous or Aeas ('Afos or Aios : Viosa, Viussa,
or Vovussa), the principal river of the Greek
part of Blyricum, rises in M. Lacmon, the N.
¦part of Pindus, and flows into the Ionian sea
near Apollonia.
Apamea or -ia ('Airdpeia : 'Airapt€vs, Apa-
meus, -enus, -ensis), the name of several Asiatic
cities, some of which were founded by Seleucus
J. Nicator, and named in honour of his wife

APELLES

83

Apama. 1, A. ad Orontem (Famieh), the capi
tal of the Syrian province Apamene, and, under
the Romans, of Syria Secunda, was built by
Seleucus Nicator on the site of the older city of
Pella, in a very strong position on the river
Orontes or Axius, the citadel being on the left
(W.) bank of the river, and the city on the right.
It was surrounded by rich pastures, in which
Seleucus kept a splendid stud of horses and 500
elephants (Strab. p. 752). As Famieh it was
occupied by Tancred in the Crusades. — 2. In
Osroene in Mesopotamia (Balasir), a town built
by Seleucus Nicator on the E. bank of the
Euphrates, opposite to Zeugma, with which it
was connected by a bridge, commanded by a
castle, called Seleucia.— -3. A. Cibotus or ad
Maeandrum (A. ti KijSwtos, or irpbs MaiavSpov),
a great city of Phrygia, on the Maeander, close
above its confluence with the Marsyas, It was
built on a site easy of access, yet defensible, by
Antiochus I. Soter, who named it in honour of
his mother Apama, and peopled it with the
inhabitants of the neighbouring Celaenae. It
became one of the greatest cities of Asia west of
the Euphrates, and under the Romans it was
the seat of a Conventus Juridicus. Standing
at a junction of several Roman roads, it had a
great commerce, until the change of roads under
the Byzantine system, after the end of the 4th
century a.d., caused it to decline in prosperity.
The great routes from Constantinople and Ni-
comedia did not pass through Apamea, and the
older Roman routes had lost their importance.
The surrounding country, watered by the Mae
ander and its tributaries, was called Apamena
Regio. — 4. A. Myrleon, in Bithynia. [Myelea.]
— 5. A town built by Antiochus Soter, in the
district of Assyria called Sittacene, at the junc
tion of the Tigris with the Royal Canal which
connected the Tigris with the Euphrates, and
at the N. extremity of the island called Mesene,
which was formed by this canal and the two
rivers. — 6. A, Mesenes (Korna), in Babylonia,
at the S. point of the same island of Mesene,
and at the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates.
— 7. A. Rhagiana (A. ti irpbs 'Payals), a Greek
city in the district of Choarene in Parthia (for
merly in Media), S. of the Caspian Gates.
Apelles ('AmXXrjs), one of the most cele
brated of Grecian painters, son of Pythras, was
born, most probably, at Colophon in Ionia. He
studied first at Ephesus under Ephorus ; then
at Sicyon under Pamphilus. Thence he went
to Pella and became the court painter to Philip
and Alexander from B.C. 336 onwards. When
Alexander set out for Asia Apelles returned to
Ephesus, and lived both there and at Rhodes,
the home of Protogenes, his greatest contempo
rary. Being driven by a storm to Alexandria,
after the assumption of the regal title by
Ptolemy (b.c. 306), whose favour he had not
gained while he was with Alexander, his rivals
laid a plot to ruin him, which he defeated by an
ingenious use of his skill in drawing. We are
not told when or where he died. Throughout
his life Apelles laboured to improve himself,
especially in drawing, which he never spent a
day without practising. Hence the proverb
Nulla dies sine linea. This and other sayings
attributed to him, whether genuine or not, indi
cate his fame as an authority. A list of his
works is given by Pliny. They are for the most
part single figures, or groups of a very few
figures. Of his portraits the most celebrated
was that of Alexander wielding a thunderbolt,
painted for the temple of Artemis at Ephesus;
tut the most admired of all his pictures was the
o2

84 APELLICON
' Venus Anadyomene ' (ri kvaSvop4vrt 'AcppoSiTr;),
or Aphrodite rising out of the sea, painted for a
temple at Cos, and placed in the temple of
Caesar at Rome by Augustus, who' remitted a
tribute of 100 talents to the Coans as equivalent
value. There can be no doubt that Apelles
stands at the head of painters of the Hellenistic
period. His work was chiefly portraiture — it
was said that Alexander would sit to no other
painter — and therefore it is possible that earlier
painters such as Polygnotus or Zeuxis may have
surpassed him in composition ; but Apelles
was probably the greatest Greek painter in
technique, and brought colouring to a perfec
tion unequalled in Greek art. (Plin. xxxv.
79-100 ; Diet. Ant. s.v. Pictura.)
Apellicon ('AireXXiKwv), of Teos, a Peripatetic
philosopher and great collector of books. His
valuable library at Athens, containing the auto
graphs of Aristotle's works (which Apellicon is
said to have discovered hidden in a cellar:
Strab. p. 609; Plut. Suit 26), was carried to
Rome by Sulla (B.C. 83) : Apellicon had died
jusj before. /
Apenninus Mons (6 'Aw4vvivos and rb 'Airtv-
vivov ipos, probably from the Celtic Pen ' a
height '), the Apennines, a chain of mountains
which runs throughout Italy from N. to S., and
forms the backbone of the peninsula. It is a
continuation of the Maritime Alps [Alpes],
begins near Genua and ends at the Sicilian sea,
and throughout its whole course sends off nume
rous branches in all directions. It rises to its
greatest height in the country of the Sabines,
where one of its points (now Monte Corno, or
Gran Sasso d' Italia) is 9521 feet above the sea;
and further S., at the boundaries of Samnium,
Apulia, and Lucania, it divides into two main
branches, one of which runs E. through Apulia
and Calabria, and terminates at the Salentine
promontory, and the other W. through Brut-
tium, terminating apparently at Rhegium and
the straits of Messina, but in reality continued
throughout Sicily. The greater part of the
Apennines is composed of limestone, abound
ing in numerous caverns and recesses, which in
ancient as well as in more recent times were the
resort of numerous robbers : the highest points
of the mountains are covered with snow, even
during most of the summer (nivali vertice se
attollens Apenninus, Verg. Aen. xii. 703). For
a general description see Polyb. ii. 16, iii. 110 ;
Strab. pp. 128, 211 ; for the storms of the Apen
nines, Liv. xxi. 58.
M. Aper, a Roman orator and a native of
Gaul, rose by his eloquence to the rank of
quaestor, tribune, and praetor, successively. He
is one of the speakers in the Dialogue de Ora-
toribus attributed to Tacitus.
Aper, Arrlus, praetorian prefect, and son-in-
law of the emperor Numerian, whom he was
said to have murdered : he was himself put to
death by Diocletian on his accession in a.d. 284.
Aperantia, a town and district of Aetolia near
the Achelous, inhabited by the Aperantii (Polyb.
xxii. 8 ; Liv. xxxviii. 3).
Aperlae ("AirepXai : on a coin the inscr. is
' AmpXaivrav), a town in Lycia a few miles west
of Simena. It formed with three others, Simena,
Apollonia and Isinda, a single firjpos or district
with a common jSouAt) (Waddington, 1292, 1296).
In later times it was the seat of a bishopric
including the above towns. The inscriptions
show the true spelling in Plin. v. 100.
Aperopia, a small island off the prom. Bu-
porthmus in Argolis (Paus. ii. 84, 9 ; Plin. iv. 56).
Apesas ('Aif4<ras : Fuka ?|ta mountain on the

APHRODITE
borders of Phliasia and Argolis, with a temple
of Zeus, who was hence called Apesantius, and
to whom Perseus here first sacrificed.
Aphaca (to "A<po«o : Afta ?), a town of Coele-
Syria, between Heliopolis and Byblus, cele
brated for the worship of Aphrodite Aphacitis.
Aphareus ('A<papevs). 1. Son of the Messenian
king Perieres, and founder of the town of Arene
in Messenia, which he called after his wife.
Lycus, son of Pandion, took refuge there and
initiated Aphareus in the mysteries (Paus. iii.
1, iv. 2, 4.) He was buried at Sparta (Paus. iii.
11, 11 ; Theocr. xxii 141). His two sons Idas and
Lynceus, the Apharetidae (Aphareia proles,
Ov. Met. viii. 304), are celebrated for their fight
with the Dioscuri, which is described by Pindar
(Nem. x. 111). — 2. An Athenian orator and
tragic poet, flourished B.C. 369-342. After the
death of his father, his mother married the
orator Isocrates, who adopted Aphareus as his
son. He wrote 35 or 37 tragedies, and gained
4 prizes. (Plut. Vit. X. Or. 839.)
Aphetae ('A<peTai and 'Acperai : 'Aiperaios), a
seaport and promontory of Thessaly, at the en
trance of the Sinus Maliacus, from which the
ship Argo is said to have sailed (Hdt. vii. 193,
196, viii. 4 ; Strab. p. 436 ; Ap. Rh. i. 591).
Aphidas ('AtpeiSas), son of Areas, obtained
from his father Tegea and the surrounding
territory. He had a son, Aleus.
Aphidna ("A<pi8va and "Acpidvai : 'AiptBvouos),
an Attic demus not far from Decelea, originally
belonged to the tribe Aeantis, afterwards to
Leontis, and last to Hadrianis. It was one of the
12 towns and districts into which Cecrops is
said to have divided Attica ; in it Theseus con
cealed Helen, but her brothers Castor and
Pollux took the place and rescued their sister.
(Hdt. ix. 73 ; Plut. Thes. 82 ; Paus. i. 17, 6.);
Aphrodislas ('AippoSio-ias : °A<ppo8io-ieur :
Aphrodisiensis), the name of several places
famous for the worship of Aphrodite. 1 A,
Cariae (Gheira, Ru.), on the site of an old town
of the Leleges, named Ninoe : under the Ro
mans a civitas foederata et libera, with immu
nity from taxation, and independence of local
government secured by ancient treaty. It was
the chief town of Caria under Diocletian. (Strab.
p. 576 ; Plin. v. 109 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 62 ; C. I. G.
2787 ; C. I. L. iii. 449.) — 2. Veneris Oppidum, a
town on the coast of Cilicia, opposite to Cyprus
(Liv. xxxiii. 20). — 3. A town, harbour, and island,
on the coast of Cyrenaica in N. Africa. — 4. See
Gades. Aphrodite (A<ppo5£ttj), the Greek goddess
of beauty and love, and of fruitful increase,
whether of animal or vegetable life, worshipped
by the Romans as Venus. In the Iliad (though
apparently in the later portions only) she is
called the daughter of Zeus and Dione : another
myth represented her as sprung from the foam
of the sea [see Ubanus]. She was wedded to
Hephaestus. For the myths of her relations to
others, and of her children, see Abes, Dionysus,
Heemes, Poseidon, Ebos, Anchises, Adonis,
Oinyeas, Butes. In the Homeric poems she
took the side of the Trojans, interfering to pro
tect Paris and Aeneas, and to save from defile
ment the body of Hector (77. iii. 380, v. 811,
xxiii. 185). [See also under Paris and Venus.]
Eastern Origin. — The myths of Aphrodite
as presented in Greek literature result from a
mixture of Greek and Oriental (chiefly Semitic)
mythology. Many Eastern nations worshipped
a deity who was at once the goddess of fruit
fulness and generation and also of the moon or
of the star Venus. Such was the Babylonish

APHRODITE

85

Belit (the feminine of Baal), who appears in
Herodotus i. 196, 199 as Mylitta ; the Assyrian
Ishtar (who was also to the Chaldeans the star
Venus), the Phoenician Astarte or Ashtoreth, ',
and the Syrian Atargates. This goddess, under :
her various names, was in each case the su
preme deity of the female sex, whence probably |
it arose that she was regarded as the giver of
all fruitful increase. But a leading idea in her
worship was that (perhaps as being, so to speak,
Queen of Heaven) she was the goddess of the

Ashtoreth, or the Moon Goddess.
Layard.)

(Assyrian Cylinder :

moon (see Hdt. i. 105 ; Strab. p. 807 ; Lucian, de
Deo Syr. 4, 32 ; Herodian, v. 6, 10), for which
reason some prefer to derive her worship as
the goddess of fruitfulness from the idea that
-the moon was connected with menstruation, and,
moreover, was supposed to control the dew
winch gave fertility to plants. The latter
idea is traced in the story of the dew sent by
Aphrodite to her altar at Eryx (Ael. N. A. x. 50 ;
cf. Tac. Hist. ii. 3 ; Pervig. Ven. ii. 15). This
worship of natural increase was degraded in
the East to rites such as those of Mylitta
described by Herodotus, a degradation which
pervaded generally the worship of Astarte, and
was transferred to some Greek temples, such as
those at Corinth and Eryx. The animals and
plants sacred in the worship of the Oriental, as
of the Greek, deity were symbolical of fertility
— the ram, the goat, the deer, the partridge, the
purple mussel and various fish, the myrtle and
Cyprus. Again, perhaps alike from the in
fluence of the moon upon the sea, and also from
fhe dependence of mariners upon the stars,
arose the connexion of the Eastern deity with
the sea ; and the fact that the goddess Derceto
(Atargates), worshipped at Hieropolis (Bam-
byce), at Ascalon, and at other places in Syria,
was represented as a goddess of fish, may be
explained as due either to this connexion with
the sea or to the idea that fish represented
abundance and fruitfulness. Another very
noticeable characteristic is the descent of this
deity into the underworld of the dead, an idea
which may be connected with the waning of
the moon, but more probably with the death
of vegetation in winter. In the celebrated
myth of Ishtar there are many points of resem
blance to the story of Persephone. Lastly, it
should be observed that Astarte was an
armed goddess, in Phoenicia, at Babylon, and at
Carthage sometimes represented with a spear
and a bow. Whether we are to regard this
idea as suggested by the moonbeams, or, more
simply, as Bhowing the power of the nature-
goddess to punish those who neglect her, the
same is traceable in the Greek Aphrodite.
Origin in Greece. — The above are the cha
racteristics which the Greeks seem to have
borrowed from Eastern religions and engrafted

on their own. In the Homeric age Apln-odite
was accepted as a genuine Greek deity, yet
traces of Eastern origin remained in the names
Kiirpis, Tlaipla, Kv84peia in the Iliad, and
Kvirpoyeviis in Hesiod. It is clear that under
these names lies the truth that the Phoenicians
established this worship, or a part of it, in the
islands of Cyprus and Cythera, where they
planted trading stations, especially for the
trade in the purple mussel, and that it spread
thence to Greece, as it also passed from Car
thage to Eryx in Sicily. [It has, however, been
observed that all the passages in the Iliad
and Odyssey, where Aphrodite is represented
either as a daughter of Zeus and Dione, or as
named from Cyprus and Cythera, belong to the
latest portions of those poems, and hence it is
deduced that the oldest Homeric poemB know
nothing of the origin of the deity.] In Greek
myths the connexion of the goddess with the
moon, as a recognised attribute, disappears,
because the Greeks already connected with the
moon the names Hecate, Selene, and Artemis,
and also because it was not her main charac
teristic ; yet it survives in the terms Ovpavia
(see below), ' regina siderum,' and in the star
Venus ; it has, moreover, been pointed out that
the Greek name Artemis has, possibly from this
confusion, been given to the goddess of gene
ration whom the old, non-Semitic, Babylonians
worshipped as Nanai. If, however, the con
nexion with the moon has almost vanished, the
main attribute of power over all fruitfulness
and offspring, whether of the animal or of the
vegetable world, belongs to Aphrodite through
all Greek literature, and to Venus in Roman
writers. It is only necessary to cite, among
many passages, Horn. II. v. 430, Hymn, ad,
Aphr. 3, 69 ; Hes. Th. 200 ; Eur. Hipp. 477 ;
Lucret. i. 1; Hor. Od. i. 4; Pervigil. Ven.

Aphrodite and Eros.
(Causei, Museum Romanum vol. 1, tav. 40.
Hence Aphrodite was attended by the Horae
(Paus. v. 15, 3) ; hence she was the goddess of
gardens (cf. Strab. p. 343), called iepoK7)iros, wor
shipped in the ' gardens ' at Athens, where
stood the noted statue by Alcamenes (Paus. i.
19, 2 ; Plin. xxxvi. 16), and in the marsh or iv

APHRODITE

KaXdpois, as suggesting rich growth of vegetation
(Athen. p. 572) ; hence also the animals sacred
to Aphrodite were usually, as in the East above
noticed, those which were regarded as specially
prolific — the ram, the goat, the rabbit, the hare,
the deer, the partridge, the sparrow : similarly
the myrtle, the Cyprus, and the pomegranate
are stated by Pliny to produce fertility (xxii.
107, 160, xxiv. 14, xxviii. 102). [For the degrada
tion — increased, no doubt, if not originated, by
Eastern influence — of this form of worship to
a patronage of Hetaerae and the services of the
Up6SovXoi (Venerei) in certain temples, see Strab.
pp. 272, 378, 745 ; Cic. Div. in Caec. 17, 55.]
Her connexion
with the sea is
traced in Hes.
Th. 188 in the
story of her
birth from the
mutilation of
Uranus (He
siod making
her drift to Cy
prus eastward
from Cythera
instead of west
ward from Sy
ria) ; so also in
Aphrodite issuing from the sea, and Plat. Grot. 406
received by Eros. (From a silver c Tt is also
relief. Gazette Arch. liilS.) C' " f .
preserved m
the epithets avadvop4v7], cuppoywfjs, BaXatro-ia,
irovTia, ireXayia, evirXoia, yaXrtvaia: in the
special regard paid by mariners, and in the
choice of the dolphin as sacred to her.
Aphrodite, like her Eastern counterpart, is
in some degree connected with the under
world : the traces of this appear in the statue
at Delphi to an 'AtppoS. iirirvpfria (Plut. Q. B.
23) ; in the grave of Aphrodite-Ariadne at
Naxos and at Amathus [Abiadne], and in the
myth of Adonis. It is preferable to see in this
the death of vegetation in winter rather than
the phases of the moon. Lastly, for the armed
Aphrodite who can revenge breaches of the
laws of natural production (cf . Horn. II. iii. 413)
we have the epithet eyx^tos (Hesych.), iv6irXios
(C. I. G. 1444), and the armed statues at
Cythera, Corinth, Epidaurus, and Sparta (Paus.
ii. 5, 1, ii. 27, 4, iii. 15, 8, iii. 23, 1).
All the above characteristics seem to be
borrowed from the East, though the theory
cannot be positively rejected that many of
them at least may have grown up in Greece
itself as the genuine attributes of a goddess of
natural powers, therefore called yevervXXis and
KovpoTpOipos. At any rate it must be recognised
that we can trace an earlier Greek goddess to
whom such characteristics as were Oriental
were transferred because she was through some
likeness identified with the deity of Oriental
religions. In the Aphrodite daughter of Zeus
and Dione, as she appears to us in Homer and
Sappho, we see a deity who was mainly a
Greek conception. There was assuredly always
a deity of love and birth for the Greeks, a power
ruling over mortals and immortals alike, and
therefore ' the oldest of the Fates ' (Paus. i. 19,
2). The original of the daughter of Zeus and
Dione ( = Juno) may, as some think, have been
Hebe, who remains as the goddess of Youth,
while her chief powers have passed to Aphro
dite. ' Again, in the stories of the marriage of
Hephaestus with Aphrodite, and also with
Charis — a legend probably starting from Lem-
nos— may lurk the truth that Aphrodite, as

goddess of love and beauty, has taken the place
of a Greek deity Charis.
It remains to notice the distinction in Greek
literature and art between A(ppoSiVj) Oipavia
and 'A(ppoSlTri TldvSripos. There can be little
doubt that the familiar distinction in philo
sophers was a later conception. Originally
'A(ppoS'iTri Ovpavia was the Queen of the Hea
vens, equivalent to that Eastern goddess who
ruled the moon and stars,
who guided the mariners,
and who ruled the sea. She
is represented in Greek art
seated on a flying swan
(also on a globe, or stand
ing on a tortoise), some
times with a star-spangled
sky as background. A stele
found at Kertsch is dedi
cated to 'Aphrodite Oura-
nia, who rules the Bospo
rus.' On the other hand,
'AtppoSirri TldvSripos (who is
represented riding on a
goat) was no less recog
nised as an honoured deity
in the state cult, nor was
her worship committed to
priestesses of low repute;
she is called o-epvi], and her
priestess in one inscription
is specially stated to be a
married woman and not a
courtesan. The probability
is that she represents the Aphrodite of Meios.
original goddess of love l^nusM smo^Louvre.
worshipped in Greece, and
that the statement of Pausanias that she
was so called when the demes of Attica were
united, should be accepted. It was a later idea
of philosophers and moralists to give to oipavia.
the sense of ennobling, and to irdvSnpos of de
basing, love, and again to make the former the

Aphrodite of Cnldus
(Munich).

Aphrodite
(Venus de' Medici : Florence.)

patroness of the lawfully married, the latter of
courtesans (see Plat. Symp. 180, 181 ; Paus. vi.
25, 2, ix. 16, 2 ; Theocr. Epig. 18). In art the
nude statues are the later development, the
weaker types of ordinary feminine beauty being
later than the stronger; the more archaic
statues were fully clothed, the earliest of all

APHRODITOPOLIS
probably ending in a quadrangular base, such
as that at Delos, which Pausanias (ix. 40) calls
the work of Daedalus. Of the numerous nude
statues of Aphrodite, three of the most famous
are here given. The first is an original statue
found at Melos (Milo), and now in the Louvre
at Paris, called the Venus of Milo. The second
is a copy of the Aphrodite of Cnidus by Praxi
teles, now at Munich. The third (Venus de'
Medici) is evidently an imitation of the Cnidian
Aphrodite : it was ascribed to Cleomenes until
Michaelis showed that the inscription with that
name is a very late addition. For the Roman
go'ddess of love see Venus.
Aphroditopolis ('A<ppoSiTris irdXis), the name
of several cities in Egypt. 1. In Lower Egypt :
(1) In the Nomos Leontopolites, in the Delta, be
tween Arthribis and Leontopolis (Strab. p. 802) ;
(2) (Chybin-el-Koum) in the Nomos Prosopites,
in the Delta, on a navigable branch of the Nile,
between Naucratis and Sais ; probably the
same as Atarbechis, which is an Egyptian name
of the same meaning as the Greek Aphrodito
polis (Strab. p. 802).— 2. In Middle Egypt, or
Heptanomis, (Atfyh) a considerable city on the
E. bank of the Nile; the chief city of the
Nomos Aphroditopolites (Strab. p. 809). — 3. In
Upper Egypt, or the Thebais : (1) Veneris
Oppidum (Tachta), a little way from the W.
bank of the Nile ; the chief city of the Nomos
Aphroditopolis (Strab. p. 813; Plin. v. 61). (2)
In the Nomos Hermonthites (Deir, NW. of
Esneh), on the W. bank of the Nile (Plin. v.
60 ; Strab. p. 817).
Aphthdnlus ('A<pB6vios), of Antioch, a Greek
rhetorician, lived at the end of the 3rd century
a.d. and wrote the introduction to the study of
rhetoric, entitled Progymnasmata (irpoyvpv-
dffpaTa). It was constructed on the basis of the
Progymnasmata of Hermogenes, and became
so popular that it was used as -the common
school-book in this branch of education • for
several centuries. — In Walz's Bhetores Graeci,
vol. i. ; Spengel's Bhet. Graec. vol. ii. 1853.
Aphthonius also wrote some Aesopic fables,
which are extant.
Aphytis ('Aipvris: Athyto), a town in the
peninsula Pallenein Macedonia, with a cele
brated temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon
(Hdt. vii. 123; Thuc. i. 64; Strab. p. 330;
Paus. iii. 18).
Apia ('Airia, sc. yrf), the Apian land, an
ancient name of Peloponnesus, especially
Argolis, said to have been so called from Apis,
a mythical king of Argos. The name is prob
ably from the root ap (whence aqua), and corre
sponds with the Slavonic Morea from more =
mare. If originally applied to the Western plain
of Argolis, ' Waterland ' would be appropriate,
and, as its application extended, the significance
was lost (cf. Apulia). [Peloponnesus; Apis.]
Apicata, wife of Sejanus, was divorced by
him, A. D. 23, and put an end to her own life on
the execution of Sejanus in 31 (Tac. Ann. iv. 3,
11 ; Dio Cass, lviii. 11).
Apicius, the name of three notorious glut
tons. — 1. The first lived in the time of Sulla,
and is said to have procured the condemnation
of Rutilius Rufus, b. c 92. — 2. The second and
most renowned, M. Gabius Apicius, flourished
under Tiberius. After squandering upwards
of £800,000 upon his stomach he found that
little more than 80,000 remained ; upon which,
despairing of being able to satisfy the cravings
of hunger from such a pittance, he forthwith
hanged himself. But he was not forgotten.
Sundry cakes (Apicia) and sauces long kept

APIS

87

alive his memory, and his name passed into
a proverb in all matters connected with the
pleasures of the table. (Tac. Ann. iv. 1 ; Dio
Cass. lvii. 19; Athen. p. 7; Plin. viii. 209, ix. 66,
xix. 187; Juv. iv. 28; Sen. de. Vit. Beat. 11,4.)
— 3. A contemporary of Trajan, sent to this
emperor, when he was in Parthia, fresh oysters,
preserved by a skilful process of his own
(Athen. p. 7). — The treatise we now possess,
bearing the title Caelii Apicii de Opsoniis
et Condimentis, sive de Be Cidinaria, Libri
decern, is a sort of Cook and Confectioner's
Manual, containing a multitude of receipts for
cookery. It was probably compiled in the 3rd
century a.d. by some Caelius who entitled it
Apicius to indicate its subject, and should
perhaps correctly be called Caelii Apicius. —
Edit. Schuch. Heidelb. 1874.
Apidanus ('AmSav6s, Ion. 'HiriSavds), a river
in Thessaly, which flows into the Enlpeus near
Pharsalus. Apiolae, a town of Latium, destroyed by
Tarquinius Priscus (Liv. i. 35; Diony. iii. 49).
Apion ('Airiav), a Greek grammarian, and a
native of Oasis in Egypt, studied at Alexandria,
and taught rhetoric at Rome in the reigns of
Tiberius and Claudius. In the reign of Caligula
he left Rome, and in A. D. 88 he was sent by the
inhabitants of Alexandria at the head of an
embassy to Caligula to bring forward complaints
against the Jews residing in their city. Apion
was the author of many works, all of which are
now lost. Of these the most celebrated were
upon the Homeric poems. The extant glosses
bearing his name are not genuine, but those
which he did write were used by Apollonius the
Sophist in his Homeric Lexicon. He also
wrote a work on Egypt in 5 books, ana a work
against the Jews, to which Josephus replied in
his treatise Against Apion.
Apion, Ptolemaeus. [Ptolemaeus Apion.]
Apis (TAiris). 1. The Bull of Memphis, wor
shipped as a god among the Egyptians. This
Apis was regarded as the incarnation of the
supreme god Ptah, the god of the sun, and
identified with Osiris, whence Apis is called by
Greek writers an incarnation of Osiris (Strab. p.
807 ; Diod. i. 85 ; Plut. Is. 20, 29). The Egyptians
held the new Apis to be born from a cow upon
whom a spark from heaven fell at the death of
the original Apis [see Sebapis]. The symbol of

Apis (Wilkinson's Egyptians).
Apis was a bull with the sun-disk between its
horns, the regular Egyptian symbol for the sun.
The worship was maintained of the living
incarnate Apis (as well as of the dead Osiris-
Apis, or Serapis) and the great temple for his
honour was at Memphis. He was called
Epaphus by the Greeks and regarded as the

88 APIS
son of Isis (Hdt. ii. 153). There were certain
signs by which he was recognised to be the god.
It was requisite that he should be quite black,
have a white, square mark on the forehead, on
his back a figure similar to that of an eagle,
have two kinds of hair in his tail, and on his
tongue a knot in the shape of a beetle. When
all these signs were discovered, the animal
was consecrated with great pomp, and was
conveyed to Memphis. His birthday, which
was celebrated every year, was his most solemn
festival ; it was a day of rejoicing for all
Egypt (Hdt. iii. 28 ; Aelian, H. A. xi. 11). The
god was allowed to live only a certain number
of years (Athen. p. 168). If he had not died
before the expiration of that period, he was
killed and buried in a sacred well, the place
of which was unknown except to the initiated.
But if he died a natural death, he was
buried publicly and solemnly ; and as his birth
filled all Egypt with joy and festivities, so
his death threw the whole country into grief
and mourning. (Plin. viii. 184 ; Plut. Is. 56.)
This account of his being put to death is not
borne out by the monumental representations
of the Serapeum. Pliny (I.e.) tells the story
that the refusal to take food from the hand of
Germanicus was an omen of death. — 2. Son of
Phoroneus and Teledice or Laodice, succeeded
his father in the kingdom of Argos and the
Peloponnesus generally, which was called Apia
after him. He ruled tyranically and was Blain
by Thelxion and Telchin. From an confusion
with the Egyptian Apis, he is further stated to
have migrated to Egypt, founded Memphis, and
to have been deified as Serapis (Apollod. ii. 1,
1; Euseb. Chron. 271).— 3. Son of Telchin of
Sicyon, also credited with giving the name
Apia to Peloponnesus (Paus. ii, 5, 7). — 4. Son
of the Arcadian Jason, slain by Aetolus (Paus.
v. 1, 6). — 5. Son of Apollo, endowed with the
arts of healing and prophecy, born at Naupac-
tus, freed Argos from monsters. He also was
said to have been the origin of the name Apia
(Aesch. Suppl. 262). No doubt the converse
was the truth and the name of the land was
accounted for by the various local traditions.
Apis (*Airis), a city of Egypt, on the coast of
the Mediterranean, on the border of the
country towards Libya, about 10 stadia W. of
Paraetonium ; celebrated for the worship of the
god Apis.
Apobathmi ('AirdpaBpoi), a place in Argolis
on the sea not far from Tyrea, where Danaus is
said to have landed (Paus. ii. 38, 4).
Apodoti and Apodeotae ('AiriiStoToi and
'AwoSoroi), a people in the SE. of Aetolia,
between the Evenus and Hylaethus.
Apollinaris, Sidonius. [Sidonius.]
Apollinis Pr. ('AirdXXavos axpov : C. Zibeeb
or C. Farina), a promontory of Zeugitana in
N. Africa, forming the W. point of the Gulf of
Carthage = the Pulchri Promont. Liv. xxix. 27.
Apollo ('Air6X\av), one of the great divinities
of Greece. In literature he is the son of Zeus
and Leto, born with his twin sister Artemis in
Delos under Mount Cynthus, whither his
mother had fled from the jealous anger of
Hera. The three deities Zeus, Apollo and
Athene were regarded as embodying in a
special degree the divine powers, so that the
solemn appeal in oath or prayer is ZeC Te irdrep
no.l 'ABrivairi Kal "AiroXXov (II. ii. 371, &c.) In
Homer, however, we find Apollo only as the
god of prophecy and as the god who sends
plagues. The manifold attributes which will
be described were the result partly of develop-

APOLLO
ment, but still more of the sweeping together of
various local traditions and forms of worship
into the religion of this deity, who became their
representative. It is probably right to find the
origin of most of these attributes in the nature-
worship of the god of Light, and though in
Homer the sun was a separate deity [Helios],
Apollo becomes afterwards identified with the
sun itself as well as with ideas belonging gener
ally to light. The physical conception, however,
was gradually lost (though revived sometimes
in art), and Apollo's special provinces are pro
phecy, music, poetry and the preservation of
the state from maladies. It isvery doubtful if
we should refer the epithets Xvxeios, &c. to this
original idea of light ; but there is little doubt
that the names ipolflos and xP"aoK^l">s nave
this meaning. Hence Apollo is (1) the god of
the year and its months, with epithets
apopiSav, apirns, veopiivios, ifiSopayirns (cf.
Hdt. vi. 57 ; Aesch. Th. 781) : the new and full
moon, the 7th and 20th of each month were
sacred to him [cf. Diet. Ant. s. v. Daphne-
phorid]. He is the god who brings back sun
shine and light in spring: according to Hes.
Op. 526 the sun went to Ethiopia in winter (cf.
Hdt. ii. 24). This return was celebrated at
Delphi in the Theophania on the 7th of the
month Bysios which began the Apollmean year
(see Diet. Ant. s.v. Theophania.) It is now
the general theory, and is very likely correct,
that the victory of Apollo over dragons and
serpents at Delphi and Delos (Hymn, ad Ap.
122, 178; Eur. I. T. 1250) symbolises the
driving away of winter and darkness by the
return of spring and light. In this view the
dragon is darkness ; the arrow which slew it is
the ray of the sun (cf. Eur. H. F. 1090). It is
possible also that the slaying of the giants
Tityus and the Aloidae may refer to the same
battle against winter. It may be observed,
however, that these legends may also signify the
prevalence of a new Greek religion over an
older local worship. Apollo seems to have been
once the rival of Asclepius, to whom the
serpent was sacred, and to have prevailed over
him [Asclepius] : it is not improbable that at
Delphi, at Delos, at Phlegyae and elsewhere,
there was an old serpent-worship, possibly
a relic of tribes to whom the serpent was a
totem, which the Apollinean worship overthrew,
and this would explain the expiation which
Apollo had to make for the slaughter of the
Python. Such an explanation would not
exclude the probability that the dragon or ser
pent was regarded in the worship of Apollo as
the symbol of darkness and winter, and that
the armed dances at the Ephesian Ortygia and
at Delos, like those of the Salii at Rome,
represent an attempt of savage superstition to
frighten away the powers of darkness (cf.
Strab. p. 640 ; Diet. Ant. s. v. Salii). (2) As god
of the sun and of the warmer part of the year
Apollo was honoured partly, though not solely,
in the character of a god of harvest in certain
festivals belonging to the summer and early
autumn (Diet. Ant. s.v. Carnea, Delia, Hyacin-
thia, Pyanepsia, Thargelia) : hence also comes
the epithet o-irdXKas (Paus. x. 15, 2). (3) The
god who sends plagues (II. i. 42 ; Paus. ix. 36,
3) ; and, by a common sequence, he was also
the god of healing who averted plagues (Eur.
Ale 220). This connexion with sickness and
death is no doubt owing to the observation that
the heat of the sun favoured the spread of
plagues, and that the sunstroke sometimes
killed directly : for his healing character, besides

APOLLO
the belief that the god who brought sickness
could also remove it, his identification with the
worship of Asclepius is also answerable. Here
belong the epithets oSXios, Xotpios, vaidvios,
aKiaios, iralav, aXe^iKaKos (which was said to
refer to his staying the plague of Athens, Paus.
i. 3, 4), iiriKoipios, opifer. Apollo's arrows slay
men, as those of Artemis slay women (see the
story of Niobe). (4) The god of oracles. The
prophetic power of Apollo is by some supposed
to express the idea that his light penetrated all
darkness: if it belongs to him as sun-god it
might better be regarded as a characteristic of
the all-seeing sun hs irdvr' i<popa /col irdvr'
iiraxovn. It is possible, however, that he
became the deity of more oracular temples
than any other god merely because he was
eventually regarded as the vicegerent and
mouthpiece of Zeus (cf . Aesch. Eum. 19 ; II. i.
72) and thus absorbed many local oracles. The
oracle of Zeus at Dodona was an earlier Greek
oracle than that of Apollo at Delphi, of which
the notice in II. ix. 404 belongs to a late portion
of the Iliad. It is said that Zeus and Apollo
shared the oracle of Branchidae, which may
account for his name Didymaeus there (Steph.
.s. v. AiSvpa) ; or it may only express his
twinship with Artemis. It is probable that
Apollo occupied an oracular seat at Delphi
once sacred to other deities in succession : to a
nature-deity such as earth (Eum. 1) ; to Posei
don, whence the symbol of the dolphin and the
names SeXQlvios, 5eA.<peios frupos ; and probably
to Dionysus. (Hymn, ad Apoll. 319; Diet.
Ant. s. v. Oraculum, where also an account of
the numerous oracles of Apollo in Greece and
Asia Minor will be found.) From oracular
temples he has many surnames, such as Clarius,
Lycius, Ismenius, Patareus. (5) The founder
of States and the leader of colonies. This at
tribute is commonly derived from the fact that
navigation began in spring and that colonies
started then, led by the god of spring. It is
better to assign a twofold reason : that Apollo's
oracle sanctioned the enterprise of the colonists,
and also that in most cases Apollo was the
representative Hellenic god whose worship
they carried with them. These functions are
expressed in the epithets irarpipos, apx7]yiT7]s,
&c. (see Thuc. vi. 3), in that of ayvieiis,
because he presided over the city, in traditions
of States founded by his sons and grandsons,
such as Ion, Dorus, Chaeron, &c. (see also
Paus. i. 42, 2 ; Callirn. Hymn, ad Apoll. 55). (6)
The god of expiation and purification :
xraT-rip, KaBdpo-ios, iarpdpavTis. This appears
especially in the atoning rites at Delphi, and in
the atonement at the Thargelia (see Diet. Ant.
s. v.), and is dwelt upon in the Eumenides.
This attribute may belong to him equally as
the god of healing, as the god of oracles, and as
the god of light. (7) Apollo as the god of
prophecy and oracular wisdom (Od. viii. 488)
was recognised also as the leader of the Muses,
as the god of music and poetry (II. i. 603 ; Pind.
Nem. v. 23 ; Paus. v. 18. 4, x. 19. 4). (8) The
ideal of manly youth and beauty (Od. viii.
86 ; Hes. Th. 347) ; hence a patron of athletes
with the epithet Spopaios. (9) Some have con
nected with the preceding the attribute of
aypevs, aypevrvs, &c, which he had as god of
hunting (Soph. 0. C. 1091 ; Paus. i. 41. 3) ; but
it is more probable that this, as in the case of
Artemis, arose from the fact that in various
ancient local religions certain animals were
sacred to him. On the whole it is most prob
able that in the consecration of the wolf to

Apollo Sauroctonos.

89
Apollo, and in his names XvKeios, Xvxriyeviis we
have, not the misinterpretation of a name
meaning light, but the relic of an ancient
totemistio religion in which a tribe whose totem
was the wolf and whose animal worship was
transferred to Apollo, at first imagined as the
wolf-god and receiving
special sacrifice of the
sacred animal of the
tribe, and then re
garded as the wolf-
slayer (XvkoktAvos,
Soph. El, 6, cf. Paus.
x. 14, 7; Xen. Anab.
ii. 2, 9.). ' To this the
story of the victory of
the wolf (i.e. a wolf-
tribe) over the bull at
Argos [Danaus], and
the figure of a wolf on
Argive coins (Paus. ii.
19, 3) seem to point;
and to this belongs the
name of the Lyceum
at Athens. The shep
herds, of whom in
some districts he was
a patron (cf. his ser
vice to Laomedon and
Admetus), may have
been glad to suppose
him the slayer of
the wolf rather than
its protector. It is remarkable that Mars,
between whom and Apollo a connexion has
been traced, has the same sacred animal. —
Other attributes. It is probably best to ac
count in the same way for the story of the
Telmissians that Apollo took the form of a
dog, and also for the better known stories of
Apollo Smintheus (i. e. the mouse-god), wor
shipped in several places under this title (Strab.
pp. 486, 604, Ael. H. A. xiii. 5; cf. II. i. 39),
and represented by Scopas with a mouse at his
foot. Some have supposed this to mean that as
harvest-god he destroyed the mice to save the
crops : it is more likely that the mouse was the
sacred animal, and that the idea of its destruc
tion by Apollo came later when the animal
worship was transferred to him. The dolphin
may have been sacred to him for a similar
reason, or from an association of Poseidon with
Delphi mentioned above: other reasons sug
gested are, that the dolphin symbolised his
claim to spring, when navigation began, or that
it was merely a misinterpretation of the local
name Delphi. [For the laurel see Daphne.]—
Worship of Apollo at Borne. This was intro
duced under Tarquinius Superbus, when the
Sibylline books were brought to Rome.
(Dionys. iv. 62; Diet. Ant.B.v.Libri Sibyllini).
Hence he is called Cumaeus Apollo : a temple
was built to him b.c. 430 (Liv. iv. 25) ; the
Ludi Apollinares (Diet. Ant.) were celebrated
from 212 B.C. onwards, and the worship of
Apollo, the giver of victory at Actium, was
especially favoured by Augustus, who was even
said to be the son of Apollo (Suet. Aug. 94).
As a Greek divinity he was honoured by the
Lectisternium (Diet. Ant. s. v.). Apollo is in
the more matured periods of Greek art gener
ally represented as a handsome beardless youth.
As god of music with the lyre he is always
clothed, and wears the long tunic (xirav
bpBoo-rdSios), as in the Vatican statue of Apollo
Citharoedus (p. 90), a copy of the statue by

Scopas placed by Augustus in the Palatine

90 APOLLOCRATES
temple. As the archer god, slayer of the dragon,
he is represented naked: highly idealised by
Praxiteles, as in
the ' SauroctonoB '
(p. 89) ; _ a type
which in later
works approaches
more nearly a fe
minine character.
The so-called ' Bel
vedere ' Apollo is
a beautiful marble
copy of an ori
ginal in bronze ;
from a comparison
with a small bronze
copy now at St.
Petersburg, it is
seen that the left
hand held the
aegis ; the right was
empty. It is now
generally thought
that the original
was made after the
Gallic repulse from
Delphi B.C. 278, and
that Apollo is here
the indignant war
like god repelling
the barbarians from his temple. The attri
butes of Apollo in art are the dolphin, the
griffin [sup
posed to be
derived from
his connexion
with Hyperbo
rean lands], the
wolf (Paus.

Apollo Citharoedus (in the
Vatican).

and

the (as
Smin- the

The Belvedere Apollo (in the Vatican),

mouseApollotheus), laurel crown,
the bow, the
lyre, and the
tripod. A fa
vourite subject
with vase-pain
ters is the
carrying off of
the tripod by
Heracles and
its restoration
to Apollo
(Paus. x. 13 ;
Heeacles.)

Apollocrates ('AiroXXoKpdTris), elder son of
Dionysius the Younger, was left by his father
in command of the citadel of Syracuse, but was
compelled by famine to surrender it to Dion,
about b.c. 354 (Plut. Dionys. 37 ; Strab. p. 259.)
Apollodorus ('AiroXXdSapos). — 1. Of Amphi
polis, one of the generals of Alexander the Great,
was intrusted in B.C. 331, together with Menes,
with the administration of Babylon and of all
the satrapies as far as Cilicia (Curt. v. 1 ; Diod.
xvii. 54). — 2. Tyrant of Cassandrea (formerly
Potidaea) in the peninsula of Pallene, obtained
the supreme power in B.C. 379, and exercised it
with the utmost cruelty. He was conquered
and put to death by Antigonus Gonatas. (Polyb.
vii. 7 ; Polyaen. vi. 7 ; Paus. iv. 5, 1.) — 3. Of
Carystus, a comic poet, probably lived B.C.
800-260, and was one of the most distinguished
of the poets of the new Attic Comedy. It was
from him that Terence took his Hecyra and

APOLLONIA
Phormio.—i. Of Gela in Sicily, a comic poet
and a contemporary of Menander, lived B.C.
840-290. He is frequently confounded with
Apollodorus of Carystus. The fragments of both
are edited by Meineke.— S. A Grammarian of
Athens, son of Asclepiades, and pupil of Ari-
starchus and Panaetius, flourished about b.c.
140. He wrote a great number of works, which
have perished, among them the Chronica, a
history of the world from the fall of Troy to his
own time, and a geographical treatise— both in
trimeter iambics. His surviving work is the
Bibliotheca, which consists of three books and
is of considerable value. It contains a well-
arranged account of the mythology and the
heroic age of Greece : it begins with the origin
of the gods, and goes down to the time of
Theseus, when the work suddenly breaks off. —
Editions. By Heyne, Gb'ttingen, 1808, 2d ed. ;
by Clavier, Paris, 1805, with a French transla
tion ; by Westermann in the Mythographi,
Brunswick, 1843 ; by Hercher, 1874. Its genu
ineness is, however, doubted by some writers
(see Hercher, and C. Robert, Berlin, 1873.)—
6. Of Pergamus, a Greek rhetorician, taught
rhetoric at Apollonia in his advanced age, and
had as a pupil the young Octavius, afterwards
the emperor Augustus (Strab. p. 625 ; Suet. Aug.
89).— 7. A painter of Athens, flourished about
B.C. 408, with whom commenced a new period in
the history of the art. He made a great advance
in colouring, and invented aerial perspective,
the treatment of different planes, and the right
management of chiaroscuro (Plin. xxxv. 69 : see
further Diet. Ant. ii. 409). Hence he was the
founder of the art of landscape painting. — 8. An
architect of Damascus, lived under Trajan and
Hadrian, by the latter of whom he was put to
death. He built the forum and the column of
Trajan. Apollonia ('AiroXXavia : 'AiroXXavidTTis). 1.
(Pollina or Pollona), an important town in
Illyria or new Epirus, not far from the mouth
of the Aous, and 60 stadia from the sea. It was
founded by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans,
and was equally celebrated as a place of com
merce and of learning ; many distinguished
Romans, among others the young Octavius,
afterwards the emperor Augustus, pursued their
studies here. Persons travelling from Italy to
Greece and the E., usually landed either at
Apollonia or Dyrrhachium ; and the Via Egna-
tia, the great high road to the East, commenced
at Apollonia or, according to others, at Dyrrha
chium (Thuc. i. 26 ; Strab. pp. 316, 322 ; Paus. v.
21, 12). [Egnatia Via.] — 2. (Polina), a town
in Macedonia, on the Via Egnatia, between
Thessalonica and Amphipolis, and S. of the lake
of Bolbe(Plin.iv.38; Athen. p. 334).— 3. (Size-
boli), a town in Thrace on the Black Sea, with
two harbours, a colony of Miletus, afterwards
called Sozopolis, whence its modern name ; it
had a celebrated temple of Apollo, from which
Lucullus carried away a colossus of this god,
and erected it on the Capitol at Rome (Hdt. iv..
90 ; Strab. pp. 319, 541). — 4. A castle or fortified
town of the Locri Ozolae, near Naupactus. —
5. A town in Sicily, on the N. Coast. It lay
near Haluntium, a little way inland, and seems
to have been a Sikel town whose name was
changed when the neighbouring Greek colonists
brought in the worship of Apollo. It is probably
the modern Pollina. (Cic. Verr. iii. 43, v. 33;
Diod. xiv. 72.) — 6. (Abullionte), a town in
Bithynia on the lake Apoiloniatis, through
which the river Rhyndacus flows (Strab. p. 575).
— 7. A town on the borders of Mysia and Lydia,

AP0LL0N1S
¦in the Caicus valley, between Pergamus and
Sardis (Strab. p. 625). — 8. A town in Palestina, .
between Caesarea and Joppa. — 9. A town in j
Assyria, hi the district of Apoiloniatis, through
which the Delas or Duras (Diala) flows. — 10.
(Marza Susa), a town in Cyrenaica and the
harbour of Cyrene, one of the 5 towns of the
Pentapolis in Libya: it was the birthplace of
Eratosthenes. — 11. A Lycian town on an island,
probably the island Dolichiste.
Apollonis (Palamut), a city in Lydia, be
tween Pergamus and Sardis. It was one of the
1-2 cities of Asia which were destroyed by an
earthquake in -the reign of Tiberius (a.d. 17).
(Strab. p. 625 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 47.) Its original
name was Doidya : it was a colony of Macedo
nian soldiers under the Seleucids about 260 B.C. ;
and was refounded by Attalus II., who named
it Apollonis after his mother, about 159 B.C.
Apollonius ('AiroXXcivios). 1. Of Alabanda
in Caria, a rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Rhodes,
about B.C. 120. He was a very distinguished
teacher of rhetoric, and used to ridicule and
despise philosophy. Scaevola was present at
his lectures (Cic. de Orat. i. 17, 75). He was
surnamed 6 MaXcacds, and must be distinguished
from the following. — 2. Of Alabanda, surnamed
Molo, likewise a rhetorician, taught rhetoric at
Rhodes, and also distinguished himself as a
pleader in the courts of justice (Strab. p. 655).
In B.C. 81, when Sulla was dictator, Apollonius
came to Rome as ambassador of the Rhodians,
on which occasion Cicero heard him; Cicero
also received instruction from Apollonius at
Rhodes a few years later (Cic. Brut. 89-91), and
later still Caesar (Suet. Jul. 4). — 3. Son of
Archebulus, a .grammarian of Alexandria, in
the first century of the Christian aera, and a
pupil of Didymus. He wrote a Homeric Lexi
con, based on glossaries of Apion, which is still
extant, and though much interpolated, is a work
of great value. — Editions. By Villoison, Paris,
1773 ; by H. Tollius, Lugd. Bat. 1788 ; and by
Bekker, Berlin, 1833. — 4. Surnamed Dyscolus,
1 the ill-tempered,' a grammarian at Alexandria,
in the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius
(a.d. 117-161), taught at Rome as well as Alex
andria. He and his son Heeodianus are called
by Priscian the greatest of all grammarians.
Apollonius was the first who reduced grammar
to anything like a system. Of his numerous
works only 4 are extant. 1. Ilept ffwrd^eas tov
X6yov pepuv, ' de Constructione Orationis,' or
' de Ordinatione sive Constructione Dictionum,'
in 4 books ; edited by Fr. Sylburg, Frankf . 1590 ;
by I. Bekker, Berlin, 1817; and by A. Butt-
mann, 1878. 2. IIspl avravvpias. 'de Prono-
mine ; ' edited by I. Bekker, Berlin, 1814. 3.
Ilepl ffvvS4o-pav, ' de Conjunctionibus,' and
4. Ilepl iirippripdTav, ' de Adverbiis,' printed in
Bekker's Anecdot. ii. p. 477, &c. Among the
works ascribed to Apollonius by Suidas there is
one irepl KaTt\pevo'p4vris io-ropias, on fictitious or
forged histories : this has been erroneously sup
posed to be the same as the extant work 'lo-ropiai
Bavpatriat, which purports to be written by an
Apollonius (published by Westermann, Para-
doxographi, Brunswick, 1839, and Keller, 1877) ;
but it is now admitted that the latter work was
written by an Apollonius who is otherwise un
known. — 5. Pergaeus, from Perga in Pam-
phylia, one of the greatest mathematicians of
antiquity, commonly called the ' Great Geo
meter,' was educated at Alexandria under the
successors of Euclid, and flourished about B.C.
250-220. His most important work was a
treatise on Conic Sections in 8 books, of which I

APOLLONIUS

91

the first 4, with the commentary of Eutocius,
are extant in Greek ; and all but the eighth in
Arabic. We have also introductory lemmata
to all the 8, by Pappus. Edited by Halley,
' Apoll. Perg. Conic, lib. viii., &c.,' Oxon 1710,
fol. The eighth book is a conjectural restora
tion founded on the introductory lemmata of
Pappus. — 6. Rhodius, a poet and grammarian,
son of Silleus or Illeus and Ehode, born at
Alexandria (according to Athen. p. 288, and
Aelian, N. A. xv. 28, he was a citizen of Nau-
cratis), wrote in the reigns of Ptolemy Philo.
pator and Ptolemy Epiphanes B.C. 222-181.
In his youth he was instructed by Callimachus;
but they afterwards became bitter enemies.
Their tastes were entirely different ; for Apol
lonius admired and imitated the simplicity of
the ancient epic poets, and disliked and de
spised the artificial and learned poetry of Calli
machus. When Apollonius read at Alexandria
his poem on the Argonautic expedition (Argo-
nautica), it did not meet with the approbation
of the audience : he attributed its failure to the
intrigues of Callimachus, and revenged himself
by writing a bitter epigram on Callimachus
which is still extant (Anth. Graec. xi. 275).
Callimachus in return attacked Apollonius in
his Ibis, which was imitated by Ovid in a poem
of the same name. Apollonius now left Alex
andria and went to Rhodes, where he taught
rhetoric with so much success that the Rhodians
honoured him with their franchise : hence he
was called the ' Ehodian.' He afterwards re
turned to Alexandria, where he read a revised
edition of his Argonautica with great applause.
He succeeded Eratosthenes as chief librarian
at Alexandria, in the reign of Ptolemy Epipha
nes, about B.C. 194, and appears to have held
this office till his death. The Argonautica,
which consists of 4 books, and is still extant,
gives a straightforward and simple description
of the adventures of the Argonauts : it is a
close imitation of the Homeric language and
style, but exhibits marks of art and labour as
of one who is a student only of the heroic age,
and thus forms a contrast with the natural
genius and flow of the Homeric poems. Still,
although not an exception to the rule that the
Alexandrian poetry was derivative and anti
quarian, rather than original, Apollonius Rho
dius has left us the best of the Alexandrian
epics, presenting detached passages of vivid
and telling description, which must rank high
as poetry, when they are taken out of their
somewhat dull and cold setting. Among the
Romans the work was much read, and P.
Terentius Varro Atacinus acquired great repu
tation by his translation of it. The Argonautica
of Valerius Flaccus is only a free imitation of
it. — Editions. By Brunck, Argentorat. 1780 ;
by G. Schaefer, Lips. 1810-13; by Wellauer,
Lips. 1828; Merkel, 1854. Apollonius wrote
several other works which are now lost. — 7.
Tyanensis or Tyanaeus, i.e. of Tyana in Cappa-
docia, a Pythagorean philosopher, was born
about 4 years before the Christian aera. At a
period when there was a general belief in
magical powers, it would appear that Apollonius
obtained great influence by pretending to them ;
and we may believe that his Life by Philo-
stratus gives a just idea of his character and
reputation, however inconsistent in its facts,
and absurd in its marvels. Apollonius, accord
ing to PhilostratuB, was of noble ancestry, and
studied first under Euthydemus, of Tarsus;
but, being disgusted at the luxury of the inhabi
tants, he retired to the temple of Asclepius

92

APOLLONIUS

at Aegae in Cilicia, guided, as was said, by some
inspiration. Here he dwelt from the age of 16
to 20, regarded as having especial favour from
the god, and, after a general study of Greek
philosophy, adopting that of Pythagoras and
living the ascetic life of a strict Pythagorean.
He subsequently travelled throughout the East,
visiting Nineveh, Babylon, and India. On his
return to Asia Minor, we first hear of his pre
tensions to miraculous power, founded, as it
would seem, on the possession of some divine
knowledge derived from the East. From Ionia
he crossed over into Greece, and from thence to
Rome, where he arrived just after an edict
against magicians had been issued by Nero. He
accordingly remained only a short time at Rome,
and next went to Spain and Africa ; at Alex
andria he was of assistance to Vespasian, who
was preparing to seize the empire. The last
journey of Apollonius was to Ethiopia, whence
he returned to settle in the Ionian cities. On
the accession of Domitian, Apollonius was
accused of exciting an insurrection against the
tyrant : he voluntarily surrendered himself and
appeared at Rome before the emperor ; but
as his destruction seemed impending, he was
smuggled out of Rome, or, as hiB admirers
averred, escaped by the exertion of his super
natural powers. The last years of his life were
spent at Ephesus, where he is said to have pro
claimed the death of the tyrant Domitian at
the instant it took place. It may be noted that
Dio Cassius emphatically avows his belief in
this story (lvii. ad fin.), though earlier in the
same book (lvii. 18) he calls him an impostor,
but does not seem to be aware that he is there
speaking of the same Apollonius. Many of the
wonders which Philostratus relates in con
nexion with Apollonius, curiously coincide with
the Christian miracles/ The proclamation of
the birth of Apollonius to his mother by Proteus,
and the incarnation of Proteus himself, the
chorus of swans which sang for joy on the occa
sion, the casting out of devils, raising the dead,
and healing the sick, the sudden disappearances
and reappearances of Apollonius, his adventures
in the cave of Trophonius, and the sacred voice
which called him at his death, to which may be
added his claim as a teacher having authority
to reform the world — cannot fail to suggest the
parallel passages in the Gospel history. We
know, too, that Apollonius was one among many
rivals set up by the Eclectics to our Saviour,
an attempt renewed by the English freethinkers
Blount and Lord Herbert. Still, it remains a
doubtful question whether Philostratus was de
liberately fabricating a parallel to please Julia
Domna, who shared the eclecticism apparent in
Alexander Severus when he placed busts of
Christ and of Apollonius, of Orpheus and of
Abraham in his Lararium, and who wished for
soma rival to set up against the exclusive
Christian religion — whether in short he was, as
Godet says, consciously opposing a Pythagorean
Messiah to the Christian Messiah, or was merely
(as seems more likely) a credulous romancer,
weaving into his narrative besides what he de
rived from the earlier biographies of Apollonius
by Maximus and Darius, stories also from Greek
mythology and from the Gospels. For an esti
mate of the character of Apollonius we have no
guide in the cursory allusions of Apuleius and
Lucian, of whom the former seems to consider
him as a magician, the latter as a teacher of
imposture to Alexander. But we have some
striking testimony to his personal virtue, and
even to the purity of some of his tenets, in

APPIA
Christian writers — in Eusebius (iii. 5, iv. 12) ; in
Origen, who had the biography of Moeragenes
before him (contr. Cels. vi. 41), and in Sidonius
Apollinaris (Ep. viii. 3). These passages have
been recently discussed by Professor Dyer (Gods
of Greece), and in a dissertation by Professor
Gildersleeve. We are led to the conclusion that
Apollonius was probably one of thoBe enthu
siasts of high aim and real virtue whose claim
to divine power and inspiration was not wholly
a conscious imposture, but was possibly in
greater part a self-deception. His tenets were
that the soul must be liberated from the fetters
of the sensual body by purity of life and true
worship of the highest god, by prayer and
contemplation but not by sacrifices : that life
must be purified by asceticism and devoted to
the good of the world, and that the higheBt
proficients in such virtues would have super
natural powers such as were ascribed alike to
Pythagoras and to Apollonius himself. — 8. Of
Tyre, a Stoic philosopher, who lived in the
reign of Ptolemy Auletes, wrote a history of the
Stoic philosophy from the time of Zeno (Strab.
757). — 9. Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles
(about 150 B.C.), were two brothers, and the
sculptors of the group which is commonly
known as the Farnese bull, representing the
punishment of Dirce by Zethus and Amphion.
[DrECE.] It was taken from Rhodes to Rome
by Asinius Pollio, and afterwards placed in the
baths of Caracalla, where it was dug up in the
sixteenth century, and deposited in the Farnese
palace. It is now at Naples. These sculptors
belong to the Hellenistic Asiatic schools. Then-
work is great in its rendering of anatomy, but
departs from the repose of sculpture and prefers
passion and emotion. Their style has many
points of likeness to that of Agesander as seen
in his Laocoon. — 10. Apollonius, a sculptor of
Athens in the 1st century B.C. His work is the
famous Heracles-torso in the Vatican, belong
ing to what is now called the ' Attic Renais
sance.' Apoliophanes ('AiroXXocpdvns), a poet of the
old Attic Comedy, of whose comedies a few
fragments are extant, lived about B.C. 400.
Aponus or Aponi Fons (Abano), warm medi
cinal springs, near Patavium, hence called
Aquae Patavinae, were much frequented by the
sick (Plin. ii. 227, xxxi. 61 ; Mart. vi. 42 ; Lucan,
vii. 193 ; Claud. Id. 6).
Appia or Apia ('Arnria, Amo), a city of
Phrygia Pacatiana.
Appia Via, the most celebrated of the Roman
roads (regina viarum, Stat. Silv. ii. 2, 12), was
commenced by Ap. Claudius Caecus, when
censor, B.C. 812, and was the great line of com
munication between Rome and southern Italy.
It issued from the Porta Capena, and passing
through Aricia, Tres Tabemae, Appii Forum,
Tarracina, Fundi, Formiae, Minturnae, Sinu-
essa, and Casilinum, terminated at Capua (181
Roman miles), but was eventually extended
through Calatia and Caudium to Beneventum,
and finally thence through Venusia, Tarentwm,
and Uria to Brundisium. The total distance
by this route from Rome to Brundisium was
363 miles. A variation of the route from Bene
ventum by Canusium and Barium to Brundi
sium was first regularly • constructed and
generally adopted under Trajan, with the name
of Via Trajana, often called Via Appia. It was
a route, however, sometimes used in earlier
times (e.g. by Horace), instead of the regular
road to Brundisium. In Horace's time also,
travellers used the canal through the Pontine

APPIANUS .
marshes from Forum Appii ; but a road also ran
by the side of the canal (cf. Strab. p. 288).
The road from Capua by Nuceria to Rhegium,
originally Via Popilia, is also sometimes called
Via Appia.
Appianus fAinriai«Ss), the Roman historian,
was born at Alexandria, and lived at Rome
during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and An
toninus Pius. He wrote in Greek a Roman
history ('PapaiKa, or 'Papa'iidi iffropia), in 24
books, arranged not synchronistically, but
ethnographically — that is, he did not relate
the history of the Roman empire in chrono
logical order ; but he gave a separate account
of the affairs of each country, till it was finally
incorporated in the Roman empire. The
subjects of the different books were : 1. The
kingly period. 2. Italy. 8. The Samnites. 4. The
Gauls or Celts. 5. Sicily and the other islands.
6. Spain. 7. Hannibal's wars. 8. Libya, Car
thage, and Numidia. 9. Macedonia. 10. Greece
and the Greek states in Asia Minor. 11. Syria
and Parthia. 12. The war with Mithridates.
18-21. The civil wars, in 9 books, from those
of Marius and Sulla to the battle of Actium.
22. 'EKaTovraeria, comprised the history of a
hundred years, from the battle of Actium to the
beginning of Vespasian's reign. 23. The wars
with Illyria. 24. Those with Arabia. We possess
only 11 of these complete : namely, the 6th, 7th,
8th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, and
23rd : there are fragments of several of the
others. The Parthian history, which has come
down to us as part of the 11th book, is not a
work of Appian, but merely a compilation from
Plutarch's Lives of Antony and Crassus. Ap-
pian's work is a compilation. His style is clear
and simple ; but he possesses few merits as an
historian, and he frequently makes blunders.
Thus, for instance, he places Saguntum on the
N. of the Iberus, and states that it takes only
half a day to sail from Spain to Britain. Never
theless he is an indispensable authority for the
period of the civil wars, and in other portions
has preserved for us records of writers whose
works have perished. — Editions. Schweig-
hauser, 1785; Bekker, 1852 ; Mendelssohn,
1879. Appias, a nymph of the Appian well, which
was situated near the temple of Venus Gene-
trix in the forum of Julius Caesar. It was
surrounded by statues of nymphs, called
Appiades. (Ov. A.A. i. 82, 3 ; Plin. xxxvi. 33.)
Appii Forum. [Foeum Appn.]
Appuleius. [Apuleius.]
Appuleius Saturnlnus. [Satueninus.]
Apries ('Airpins, 'Airpias), a king of Egypt,
the Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, succeeded
his father Psammetichus II. and reigned b.c.
588-570. He increased the number of Greek
mercenaries to 30,000, which roused the jealousy
of the Egyptian soldiers, who mutinied on the
occasion of an unsuccessful attempt against
Cyrene. They chose Amasis, the king's brother-
in-law, as their leader, and defeated Apries and
his mercenaries. Amasis allowed him to reign
six years jointly with himself, and then put him
to death. (Hdt. ii. 151.)
Apronius. 1. 0,., one of the worst instru
ments of Verres in oppressing the Sicilians. —
2. L., served under Drusus (a. d. 14) and Ger
manicus (15) in Germany. In 20 he was pro
consul of Africa, and praetor of Lower Germany,
where he lost his life in a war against the
Frisii. Apronius had two daughters: one of
whom was married to Plautius Silvanus ; the
other to Lentulus Gaetulicus, consul in 26.

APULEIUS

93

Apsilae ('AtytXai,) a Scythian people in Col
chis, N. of the river Phasis.
Apsines ('Atyivris), of Gadara in Phoenicia, a
Greek sophist and rhetorician, taught rhetoric
at Athens about A. D. 235. Two of Ins works
are extant : Ilepl t&v pepav tov itoXitikov Xoyov
t4xvti, which is much interpolated : and riepl
tSiv io-xitpariapivav irpo$XripdTav, both of
which are printed in Walz, Bhetor. Graec.
Apsus (Crevasta), a river in Illyria (Nova
Epirus), flowing into the Ionian sea (Strab. p.
316 ; Caes.iJ. G. iii. IS, &c; Appian, B. C. ii. 56).
Apsyrtus. [Absyrtus.]
Apta Julia (Apt), chief town of the Vul-
gientes in Gallia Narbonensis, and a Roman
colony. Aptera ('A7rT<r'pa : 'A7i-repa:oi : Palaeokas-
tron on the G. of Suda), a town on the W.
coast of Crete, 80 stadia from Cydonia (Strab.
p. 479).
Apuani, a Ligurian people on the Macra,
were subdued by the Romans after a long
resistance and transplanted to Samnium, B.C.
180 (Liv. xxxix. 2, 20, 32, xl. 1, 38, 41).
Apuleius, of Madaura in Africa, was born
about A. D. 114, of respectable parents. He
received the first rudiments of education at
Carthage, and afterwards studied the Platonic
philosophy at Athens. He next travelled
extensively, visiting Italy, Greece, and Asia,
becoming initiated in most mysteries, and
gathering information on magic and necro
mancy. At length he returned home, and spent
about two years at Rome ; but soon afterwards
undertook a new journey to Alexandria. On
his way thither he was taken ill at the town of
Oea, and was hospitably received into the
house of a young man, Sicinius Pontiahus,
whose mother, a very rich widow of the name
of Pudentilla, he married. Her relatives, being
indignant that so much wealth should pass out
of the family, accused Apuleius of gaining
the affections of Pudentilla by charms and
magic spells. The cause was heard at Sabrata
before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa,
A. D. 173, and the defence (Apologia) spoken
by Apuleius is still extant. Of his subsequent
career we know little, except that he lectured on
rhetoric at Carthage, and declaimed in public with
great applause. The most important of the ex
tant works of Apuleius are: I. Metamorphoseon
seu de Asino Aureo Libri XI. This cele
brated romance is imitated from the Aovkios $1
ivos of Lucian, but has much that is the fruit
of Apuleius' own imagination or researches,
notably the tale of Cupid and Psyche, and the
stories of bandits, magicians, jugglers and
priests. It is a satire in the guise of a fantas
tical autobiography of a supposed Lucius who
is transformed by an enchantress, with whom
he is in love, into an ass, in which shape he
has opportunities for observing the follies of
men, until he is restored to his natural form
by the priests of Isis. It seems to have been
intended as a satire upon the hypocrisy and
debauchery of certain orders of priests, the
frauds of juggling pretenders to supernatural
powers, and the general profligacy of public
morals. A vein of mysticism, however, runs
through the work, and there are some who dis
cover a more recondite meaning, and especially
bishop Warburton, in his Divine Legation of
Moses, who has at great length endeavoured to
prove, that the Golden Ass w&s written with the
view of recommending the Pagan religion in
opposition to Christianity, and especially of
inculcating the importance of initiation into

94

APULIA

the purer mysteries. The well-known and
beautiful episode of Cupid and Psyche is intro
duced in the 4th, 5th, and 6th books. This,
whatever opinion we may form of the principal
narrative, is evidently an allegory, and is gene
rally understood to shadow forth the progress of
the soul to perfection. II. Floridorum Libri
IV. An Anthology, containing select extracts
from various orations and dissertations, collected
probably by some admirer. III. De Deo
Socratis Liber. IV. De Dogmate Platonis
Libri tres. The first book contains some
account of the speculative doctrines of Plato,
the second of his morals, the third of his logic.
V. De Mundo Liber. A translation of the work
irepl K6<rpov, at one time ascribed to Aristotle. VI.
Apologia sive de Magia Liber. The oration de
scribed above, delivered before Claudius Maxi
mus. — The style of Apuleius is stilted and pre
tentious, andhis writings are statedby Macrobius
to have been of small account. His novel, how
ever, is amusing, and in spite of its licentious
tone, must be valued as instructive in several
features of the period to which it belongs, as
well as for the beauty of the allegory of Cupid
and Psyche. — Editions. By Hildebrand, 1842 ;
Oudendorp, 1823 ; ed. princeps, Rome, 1469 ;
Metamorph. by Eyssenhardt, 1869; O. Jahn,
1856 ; cf. Friedliinder, Sittengesch. vol. i.
Apulia or Appulia ('AirovXia: Apfllus or
AppHlus, 'AiroiXoi). The 'waterland' [root
ap, aqua, see Apia.] It is probable that the
name first belonged, as Strabo says, to the plain
just north of M. Garganus, which is extremely
well watered. As the name was extended the
meaning was lost, and Horace writes ' Siticu-
losae Apuliae,' and ' Daunus pauper aquae '
(Epod. 3, 16 ; Od. iii. 30, 11), in reference to
the plains of Northern Apulia, arid in summer.
It included, in its widest signification, the whole
of the SE. of Italy from the river Frento to
the promontory Iapygium, and was bounded on
the N. by the Frentani, on the E. by the
Adriatic, on the S. by the Tarentine gulf, and
on the W. by Samnium and Lueania, thus in
cluding the modern provinces of Bari, Otranto,
and Capitanata, in tjhe former kingdom of
Naples. Apulia in its narrower sense was the
country E. of Samnium on both sides of the Au-
fidus, the Daunia and Peucetia of the Greeks :
the whole of the SE. part was called Calabria by
the Romans. The Greeks gave the name of
Daunia to the N. part of the country from the
Frento to the Aufidus ; of Peucetia to the
country from the Aufidus to Tarentum and
Brundisium, and of Iapygia or Messapia to the
whole of the remaining S. part : though they
sometimes included under Iapygia all Apulia
* in its widest meaning (Strab. pp. 277, 283, 285 ;
Ptol. iii. 1, 15, 72.) The NW. of Apulia is a
plain, but the S. part is traversed by. the E.
branch of the Apennines, and has only a small
tract of land on the coast on each side of the
mountains. The country was very fertile,
especially in the neighbourhood of Tarentum,
and afforded excellent pasturage ; but the plain
of Northern Apulia, rich in winter, became dry
in summer, and the flocks were then driven to
the upland valleys of Samnium and the Abruzzi.
The population was of a mixed nature : in
legend they are said to have settled in the
country under the guidance of Iapyx, Daunius,
and Peucetius, three sons of an Hlyrian king,
Lycaon. But the Iapygian or Messapian race
seems to have more affinity to Greeks than to the
Italian stock. It may be conjectured that this
part of Italy was peopled by Pelasgian tribes

AQUILEIA
from Epirus and Greece. The Apulians joined
the Samnites against the RoWns, and became
subject to the latter on the conquest of the
Samnites. Aquae, the name given by the Romans to
many medicinal springs and bathing-places
(Plin. xxxi. 1-61):— (1) Aueeliae or Colo
nia Aueelia Aquensis (Baden-Baden).
(2) Apollinaees, in Etruria between Sabate
and Tarquinii = ' Phoebi vada' (Mart. vi. 42, 7). .
(3) Bormonis, applied to springs at Bourbonne
V Archambault in Allier, and also to those at
Bourbonne in Haute Marne. Bormonia was
a Celtic deity of medicinal springs. (4) Cuti-
liae, mineral springs in Samnium near the
ancient town of Cutilia, which perished in early
times, and E. of Reate. There was a celebrated
lake in its neighbourhood with a floating island,
which was regarded as the umbilicus or centre
of Italy. Vespasian died at this place, ^ionys.
i. 15 ; Macrob. Sat. i. 7 ; Sen. N.Q. iii. 25 ; Strab.
p. 228 ; Suet. Vesp. 24.) (5) Geatianae, Aix in
Savoy on the Lac de Bourget. (6) Mattiacae
or Fontes Mattiaci (Wiesbaden), in the land
of the Mattiaci in Germany. (7) Nisinci, Bour
bon VAnei in Saone-et-Loire. (8) Passebis,
in Etruria between Volsinii and Forum Cassi
(Mart. vi. 42) now Bacucco, 5 miles N. of
Viterbo. (9) Patavinae [Aponi Fons]. (IO)Sex-
tiae (Aix), a Roman colony in Gallia Narbon-
ensis, founded by Sextius Calvinus, B.C. 122;
its mineral waters were^long celebrated, but
were thought to have lost much of their efficacy
in the time of Augustus. Near this place
Marius defeated the Teutoni, B.C. 102 (Strab.
pp. 178, 180). It is 18 miles N. of Marseilles.
(11) Solis (Bath) in Britain called "TSara Beppa
in Ptol. ii. 3, 28. (12) Statlellae (Aequi), a
town of the Statielli in Liguria, celebrated for
its warm baths (Strab. p. 217 ; Plin. xxxi. 4).
(13) Taebellae, on the Aturus (Adour), now
Dacs. (14) Tauei in Etruria, 3 miles N. of
Civita Vecchia : now Bagni di Ferrata.
Aquae, in Africa. 1. (Meriga, Ru.), in the
interior of Mauretania Caesariensis. — 2. Cali-
dae (Gurbos or Hammam VEnf), on the gulf of
Carthage. — 3. Regiae (Hammam Truzza), in
the N. part of Byzacena. — 4. Tacapitanae
(Hammat-el-Khabs), at the S. extremity of
Byzacena, close to the large city of Tocape
(Khabs). Aquila. 1. Of Pontus, translated the Old
Testament into Greek, in the reign of Hadrian,
probably about a.d. 180. Only a few fragments
remain, which have been published in the
editions of the Hexapla of Origen. — 2. Julius
Aquila, a Roman jurist quoted in the Digest,
lived under or shortly before the reign of
Septimius Severus, a.d. 193-198. — 3. L. Pontius
Aquila, a friend of Cicero, and one of Caesar's
murderers, was killed at the battle of Mutina,
b.c. 43 (Appian, B. C. ii. 133 ; Dio Cass. xlvi.
38, 40 ; Cic. Phil. xi. 6, xiii. 12 ; Fam. x. 83).—
4. Aquila Romanus, arhetorican, who probably
lived in the third Century after Christ, wrote a
small work entitled De Figuris Sententiarum
et Elocutionis, which is usually printed with
Rutilius Lupus. — Editions. By Ruhnken,
Lugd. Bat. 1768, reprinted with additional notes
by Frotscher, Lips. 1881.
Aquilarla (Alhowareali), a town on the
coast of Zeugitana in Africa, on the W. side of
Hermaeum Pr. (C. Bon), the E. extremity of the
Gulf of Carthage. It was a good landing-place
in summer (Caes. B. C. ii. 23).
Aquileia (Aquiltnensis : Aquileia or Aglar),
a town in Gallia Transpadana at the very top

AQUILIA
of the Adriatic, between the rivers Sontius and
Natiso, about 60 stadia from the sea. It was
founded by the Romans in B.C. 182 as a
bulwark against the N. barbarians, and
is said to have derived its name from
the favourable omen of an eagle (aquila)
appearing to the colonists (Liv. xl. 34, xliii.
17 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15). As it was the key of Italy
on the NE., it was made one of the strongest
fortresses of the Romans (Amm. Marc. xxi. 12).
From its position it became also a most flourish
ing place of commerce : the Via Aemilia was
continued to this town, and from it all the roads
to Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Istria, and
Dalmatia branched off. Under Diocletian it
was the chief city of Venetia and Histria.
Ausonius (Ord. Nob. Urb. 6) reckons it as
ninth of the cities of the Roman Empire in the
4th century, and in Italy inferior only to Rome,
Milan, and Capua. It was taken and com
pletely destroyed by Attila in a.d. 452 ; its in
habitants escaped to the Lagoons, where Venice
was afterwards built.
Aquilia Severa, Julia, a vestal virgin, whom
Elagabalus married, after divorcing Paula (Dio
Cass, lxxix. 9).
Aquillius or Aquilius. 1. M'., consul B.C.
129, finished the war against Aristonicus, son of
Eumenes of Pergamus. He laid down the
road in the province of Asia from Ephesus to
Apamea. On his return to Rome he was
accused of maladministration in his province,
but was acquitted by bribing the judges (Just.
xxxvi. 4; Veil. Pat. ii. 4). — 2. M'., consul B.C.
101, conquered the slaves in Sicily, who had
revolted under Athenion. In 93 he was accused
of maladministration in Sicily, but was ac
quitted. In 88 he went into Asia as one of the
consular legates in the Mithridatic war : he was
defeated and handed over by the inhabitants of
Mytilene to Mithridates, who put him to death
by pouring molten gold down his throat
(Appian, Mithrid. vii. 19, 21 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 18 ;
Cic. pro Leg. Man. 5 ; Athen. p. 213.)
Aquillius Gallus. [Gallus.]
Aquilonla (Aquilonus), a town of Samnium,
E. of Bovianum, destroyed by the Romans in
the Samnite wars (Liv. x. 38-43).
Aquinum (Aquinas : Aquino), a town of the
Volscians, E. of the river Melpis, in a fertile
country ; a Roman municipium and afterwards
a colony ; the birth-place of Juvenal ; cele
brated for its purple dye (Strab. p. 237 ; Tac.
Hist. i. 88, ii. 63 ; Hor. Ep. i. 10, 27 ; Juv. iii.
319 ; Cic. Phil. ii. 41, 106).
Aquitanla. 1. The country of the Aquitani,
extended from the Garumna (Garonne) to the
Pyrenees, and from the ocean to Gallia Nar-
bonensis; it was first conquered by Caesar's
legates, and again upon a revolt of the inhabi
tants in the time of Augustus (Caes. B. G. i. 1,
viii. 46 ; Appian, B. C. v. 92 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 49 ;
Suet. Aug. 21). — 2. The Roman province of
Aquitania, formed in the reign of Augustus,
was of much wider extent, and was bounded on
the N. by the Ligeris (Loire), on the W. by the
ocean, on the S. by the Pyrenees, and on the
E. by the Mons Cevenna, which separated it
from Gallia Narbonensis (Strab. p. 177 ; Plin.
iv. 108). — The Aquitani were one of the three
races which inhabited Gaul; they were of
Iberian or Spanish origin, and differed from the
Gauls and Belgians in language, customs, and
physical peculiarity (Dio Cass. I.e. ; Strab. l.c).
Ara Ubiorum, in the Civitas Ubiorum
(= Cologne) was a sanctuary for the surround
ing province, not merely for the Ubii, since one

ARABIA

95

of the Cherusci is mentioned as priest (Tac.
Ann. i. 87, 39, 45, 57 ; see-COLONiA Agbippina).
Arabia (ri 'Aparta : "Apoi|/, pi. "Apafre s, "Apo-
jSot, Arabs, Arabfis, pi. Arabes, ArabI : Arabia),
a country at the SW. extremity of Asia, forming
a large peninsula, of a sort of hatchet shape,
bounded on the W. by the Aeabicus Sinus
(Bed Sea), on the S. and SE. by the Eey-
theaeum Mabe (Gulf of Bab-el-Mandeb and
Indian Ocean) and on the NE. by the Peesi-
CUS Sinus (Persian Gulf). On the N. or land
side its boundaries were somewhat indefinite,
but it seems to have included the whole of the
desert country between Egypt and Syria,
on the one side, and the banks of the Euphrates
on the other ; and it was often considered
to extend even further on both sides, so as
to include, on the E., the S. part of Mesopo
tamia along the left bank of the Euphrates,
and, on the W., the part of Palestine E. of the
Jordan, and the part of Egypt between the
Red Sea and the E. margin of the Nile valley,
which, even as a part of Egypt, was called
Arabiae Nomos. In the stricter sense of the
name, which confines it to the peninsula itself,
Arabia may be considered as bounded on the
N. by a line from the head of the Red Sea (at
Suez) to the mouth of the Tigris (Shat-el-Arab)
which just about coincides with the parallel of
30° N. lat. It was divided into 3 parts:
(1) Arabia Petraea (ri ireTpaia 'Apafiia : NW.
part of El-Hejaz), including the triangular
piece of land between the two heads of the Red
Sea (the peninsula of M. Sinai) and the country
immediately to the N. and NE. ; and called
from its capital Petra, while the literal signifi
cation of the name ' Bocky Arabia ' agrees also
with the nature of the country ; (2) Arabia
Deserta (El-Jebel), including the great Syrian
Desert and a portion of the interior of the
Arabian peninsula : (3) Arabia Felix (El-
Nejed, El-Hejaz, El-Yemen, El-Hadramaut,
Oman and El-Hejer), consisted of the whole
country not included in the other two divisions ;
the ignorance of the ancients respecting the
interior of the peninsula leading them to accept
the name Arabia Felix, although much of it
consists of a sandy desert of steppes and table
land, interspersed with Oases (Wadis), and
fringed with mountains, between which and the
sea, especially on the W. coast, lies a belt of
low land (called Tehdmah), intersected by
numerous mountain torrents, which irrigate
the strips of land on their banks, and produce
that fertility with which the ancients credited
the whole peninsula (Strab. p. 767 ; Diod. ii. 48 ;
Mela, iii. 8 ; Plin. vi. 142 f.). [The name Felix
or evSaipav, or in Plin. v. 65 beata, is said to
have arisen from the Semitic word Jaman
meaning ' right side ' — i.e. ' south ' — being mis
interpreted to mean ' lucky.' ] The width of
the Tehamah is, in some places on the W.
coast, as much as from one to two days' journey,
but on the other side it is very narrow, except
at the E. end of the peninsula (about Mvskat
in Oman) where for a small space its width is
again a day's journey. — The inhabitants of
Arabia were of the Semitic race. The NW.
district (Arabia Petraea)was inhabited by the
various tribes which constantly appear in
Jewish history : the Amalekites, Midianites,
Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites &c. The
Greeks and Romans called the inhabitants by
the name of Nabathaei, whose capital was
Petra (Jos. Ant. xiv. 1, 4 ; Ptol. v.- 17). The
people of Arabia Deserta were called Arabes
Scenltae (Smji'irai), from their dwelling in

96

ARABICUS

tents, and Arabes Nomades (No/uoSes), from
their mode of life, which was that of wandering
herdsmen, who supported themselves partly by
their cattle, and to a great extent also by the
plunder of caravans, as their unchanged de
scendants, the Bedouins, still do. The people of
the Tehamah were (and are) of the same race ;
but their position led them at an early period
to cultivate both agriculture and commerce,
and to build considerable cities. The chief
tribes were known by the following names,
beginning S. of the Nabathaei on the W.
coast : the Thamydeni and Minaei (in
the S. part of Hejaz) in the neighbour
hood of Mac-oraba (Mecca) ; the Sabaei and
Homerltae in the SW. part of the peninsula
(Yemen) ; on the SE. coast, the Chatramolltae
and Adramltae (in Et-Hadramaut, a country
very little known, even to the present day) ; on
the E. and NE. coast the Omanltae and Dara-
cheni (in Oman, and El-Asha or El-Hejer). —
From the earliest known period a considerable
traffic was carried on by the people in the N.
(especially the Nabathaei) by means of caravans,
and by those on the S. and E. coast by sea, in
the productions of their own country (chiefly
gums, spices, and precious stones), and in those
of India and Arabia. Besides this peaceful
intercourse with the neighbouring countries,
they seem to have made military expeditions
at an early period, for there can be no doubt
that the Hyksos or ' Shepherd-kings,' who for
some time ruled over Lower Egypt, were
Arabians. On the other hand, they have suc
cessfully resisted all attempts to subjugate
them. The alleged conquests of some of the
Assyrian kings could only have affected small
portions of the country on the N. Of the Per
sian empire we are expressly told that they
were independent. Alexander the Great died
too soon even to attempt his contemplated
scheme of circumnavigating the peninsula and
subduing the inhabitants. The Greek kings of
Syria made unsuccessful attacks upon the
Nabathaei. Under Augustus, Aelius Gallus, j
assisted by the Nabathaei, made an expedition
into Arabia Felix, but was compelled to retreat i
into Egypt to save his army from famine and
the climate. Under Trajan, Arabia Petraea
was conquered by A/Cornelius Palma (a.d. 107),
and the country of the Nabathaei became a
Roman province, to which in 295 Auranitis,
Batanea, and Trachonitis were added (Dio Cass.
lxviii. 14 ; Amm. Marc. xiv. 8). In the 5th
century there were two divisions of this pro
vince ; the northern called Arabia with the
chief city Bostra, the southern called Palaestina
Tertia or Palaestina Salutaris of which Petra
was the capital. Some partial and temporary
footing was gained on the SW. coast by the
Ethiopians; and both in this direction and
from the N. Christianity was early introduced
into the country, where it spread to a great
extent, and continued to exist side by side with
the old religion (which was Sabaeism, or the
worship of heavenly bodies), and with some
admixture of Judaism, until the total revolution
produced by the rise of Mohammedanism in 622.
Arablcus Sinus (6 'ApafiiKbs k6Xttos : Bed
Sea), a long narrow gulf between Africa and
Arabia, connected on the S. with the Indian
Ocean by the Angustiae Divae (Straits of Bab-
el-Mandeb), and on the N. divided into two
heads by the peninsula of Arabia Petraea
(Penins. of Sinai), the E. of which was called
Sinus Aelanites or Aelaniticus (Gulf of Akaba),
and the W. Sinus Heroopolites or Heroopoliti-

ARADUS
cus (Gulf of Suez), which must in Strabo's time
have extended 40 miles north of its present
limit, and included Lake Timsah. The upper
part of the sea was known at a very early
period; but it was not explored in its whole
extent till the maritime expeditions of the
Ptolemies. Respecting its other name see
Eeytheaeum Maee.
Arabis ("Apo^is, also 'Apdi3ios,"Ap0is, "Ap-
Tapis, and 'AprdiSios: Poorally or Agbor), a
river of Gedrosia, falling into the Indian Ocean
1000 stadia (100 geog. miles) W. of the mouth
of the Indus, and dividing the Oritae on its W.
from the Arabltae or Arbies on its E., who had
a city named Arbis on its E. bank (Strab. p.
720; Ptol. vi. 19).
Arabisea (Alanquer), a town of the Lusitani
on the right bank of the Tagus.
Arachnaeum ('ApaxvaTov), a mountain form
ing the boundary between Argolis and Corinthia
(Paus. ii. 25, 10).
Arachne, a Lydian maiden, daughter of
Idmon of Colophon, a famous dyer in purple.
Arachne excelled in the art of weaving, and,
proud of her talent, ventured to challenge
Athene to compete with her. The work of
Athene showed the Olympian gods in all their
dignity. Arachne produced a piece of cloth in
which the amours of the gods were woven,
and as Athene was indignant at the taunt, and
jealous of the faultless work, she tore it to
pieces. Arachne in despair hanged herself : the
goddess loosened the rope and saved her life,
but the rope was changed into a cobweb and
Arachne herself into a spider (hpdxvri), the
animal most odious to Athene. (Ov. Met. vi.
1 seq. ; Verg. Georg. iv. 246.) The myth seems
to represent the rivalry between the Lydian
and Greek arts of weaving. Nonnus (Dion.
xviii. 215) makes her an Assyrian.
Arachosia ('Apaxao-ia : 'Apaxaroi or -arai '.
SE. part of Afghanistan and NE. part of
Beloochistan), one of the extreme E. provinces
of the Persian (and afterwards of the Parthian)
empire, bounded on the E. by the Indus,- on
the N. by. the Paropamisadae, on the W. by
Drangiana, and on the S. by Gedrosia. It was
a fertile country, watered by the river Arachotus
('Apaxaros), some distance from which stood a
city of the same name, Arachotus, which was
said to have been built by Semiramis, and
which was the capital of the province until the
foundation of Alexandeia. The shortest road
from Persia to India passed through Arachosia
(Strab. p. 723 ; Arrian, An. vi. 17).
Arachotus. [Arachosia.]
Arachthus or Aretho (*Apox&>s or 'Ap48av :
Arta), a river of Epirus, rises in M. Lacmon
or the Tymphean mountains, and flows into the
Ambracian gulf, S. of Ambracia : it is deep and
difficult to cross, and navigable up to Ambracia
(Strab. pp. 325, 327).
Aracynthus ('ApdKvvBos '. Zigos), a mountain
on the SW. coast of Aetolia near Pleuron, some
times placed in Acarnania (Strab. pp. 450, 460).
Virgil and Propertius, however, place it between
Attica and Boeotia, and hence mention it in
connexion with Amphion, the Boeotian hero.
(Propert. iii. IS, 41; Actaeo [i.e. Attico] Ara-
cyntho, Verg. Eel. ii. 24.)
Aradus ("ApaSos: 'ApdSios, Aradius: in 0.
T. Arvad: Buad), an island off the coast of
Phoenicia, at the distance of 20 stadia (2 geog.
miles), with a city which occupied the whole
surface of the island, 7 stadia in circumference,
which was said to have been founded by exiles
from Sidon, and which was a very flourishing

ARAE
place under its own kings, under the Seleucidae,
and under the Romans. It possessed a har
bour on the mainland, called Antaeadus
(Strab. p. 758).
Arae Philaenorum. [Philaenoeum Aeae.]
Araethyrea ('ApaiBvpia), daughter of Aras,
an autochthon who was believed to have built
Arantea, the most ancient town in Phliasia.
After her death, her brother Aoris called the
country of Phliasia Araethyrea, in honour of
his sister (Paus. ii. 12, 5; Horn. II. ii. 571;
Strab. p. 382).
Araphen ('ApajpJiv ; 'Apa<pi)vios, 'ApaipiivoBev ;
Bafina), an Attic demus belonging to the tribe
Aegaeis, on the E. of Attica, N. of the river
Erasmus, not far from its mouth.
Arar or Araris (Saone), a river of Gaul, rises
in the Vosges, receives the Dubis (Doubs) from
the E., after whieh it becomes navigable, and
flows with a quiet stream into the Rhone at
Lugdunum (Lyon). In the time of Ammianus
(a.d. 370) it was also called Sauconna, and in
the middle ages Sangona, whence its modern
name Sadne (1mm. Marc. xv. 11).
Araros ('Apaptis), an Athenian poet of the
Middle Comedy, son of Aristophanes, flourished
B.C. 375. (Fragments in Meineke.)
Aras. [Abaethyeea.]
Araspes ('Apdo-irns), a Mede, and a friend of
the elder Cyrus, is one of the characters in
Xenophon's Cyropaedia. He contends with
Cyrus that love has no power over him, but
shortly afterwards refutes himself by falling in
love with Panthea, whom Cyrus bad committed
to his charge. (Xen. Cyr. v. 1, vi. 1, 36 ;
Abbadatas.) Aratus ("Aporos). 1. The celebrated general
of the Achaeans, son of Clinias, was born at
Sicyon, B.C. 271. On the murder of his father
by Abanttdas, Aratus, who was then a child,
was conveyed to Argos, where he was brought
up. When he had reached the age of 20 he
gained possession of his native city, B.C. 251,
deprived the usurper Nicocles of his power, and
united Sicyon to the Achaean League, which
gained in consequence a great accession of
power. [Achaei.] In 245 he was elected general
of the League, which office he frequently held
in subsequent years. Through his influence a
great number of the Greek cities joined the
League ; but he excelled more in negotiation
than in war, and in his war with the Aetolians
and Spartans he was often defeated. Indeed,
it must be admitted that he showed positive
cowardice in battle strangely contrasted with
the boldness of his plans and policy. In 234,
through the patriotism of Lydiadas, tyrant of
Megalopolis, that city was joined to the Achaean
League ; but it must be observed, as detracting
from the well-deserved fame of Aratus, that his
jealousy of Lydiadas often interfered with the
interests of the League. Thus he opposed the
scheme of Lydiadas for union with Argos in
229, but when he himself became general he
effected it. The death of Lydiadas also at
Laodicea (226) and the consequent defeat by
the Spartans were due to the want of courage
which Aratus showed in the battle. A still
greater calamity was his rejection of the pro
posal of Cleomenes to bring Sparta into the
League, and his resolution to seek the friendship
of Antigonus, and to surrender Acrocorinthus
to a Macedonian garrison — certainly the greatest
mistake of his life. To strengthen himself
against Aetolia and Sparta he cultivated the
friendship of Antigonus Doson, and of his
successor Philip ; but as Philip was evidently

ARAXES 97
anxious to make himself master of all Greece,
dissensions arose between him and Aratus, and
the latter was eventually poisoned in 218 by
the king's order. Divine honours were paid to
him by his countrymen, and an annual festival
('ApdVeio: see Diet, of Antiq.) established.
Aratus wrote Commentaries, being a history
of his own times down to B.C. 220, which are
commended by Polybius (ii. 40). Aratus un
questionably deserves the credit of the develop
ment and early successes of the League, and his
extraordinary personal ascendency, even after
reverses, with the citizens of the League is a
strong testimony to his political ability; but
he ruined the chances of the Achaean League
to become a lasting and independent bulwark
of Greece when he rejected the union with
Sparta and gave the key of the position to
Macedonia (Plut. Arat. and Agis ; Polyb. ii., iv.,
vii., viii.). — 2. Of Soli, afterwards Pompeiopolis,
in Cilicia, or (according to one authority) of
Tarsus, flourished B.C. 270, and spent all the
latter part of his life at the court of Antigonus
Gonatas, king of Macedonia. He wrote two
astronomical poems, entitled Phaenomena (<poi-
vdptva), consisting of 782 verses, and Diosemeia
(Aioo-nptia), of 422. The design of the Phae
nomena is to give an introduction to the know
ledge of the constellations, with the rules for
their risings and settings. The Diosemeia
consists of prognostics of the weather from
astronomical phaenomena, with an account of
its effects upon animals. It appears to be an
imitation of Hesiod, and to have been imitated
by Virgil in some parts of the Georgics. The
style of these two poems is distinguished by
elegance and accuracy; but it wants originality
and poetic elevation. That they became very
popular both in the Grecian and the Roman
world (cum sole et luna semper Aratus erit,
Ov. Am. i. 15, 16) is proved by the number of
commentaries and Latin translations. Parts of
three poetical Latin translations are preserved :
one written by Cicero when very young ; one by
Caesar Germanicus, the grandson of Augustus ;
and one by Festus Avienus. — Editions. By
Voss, Heidelb. 1824, with a German poetical
version; by Buttmann, Berol. 1826; and by
Bekker, Berol. 1828.
Arauris (Herault), erroneously Rauraris in
Strabo, a river in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in
M. Cevenna, and flows into the Mediterranean
(Strab. p. 182 ; Mel. ii. 5).
Arausio (Orange), a town of the Cavari or
Cavares, and a Roman colony, in Gallia Nar
bonensis, on the road from A-relate to Vienna :
it still contains remains of an amphitheatre,
circus, aqueduct, triumphal arch, &c. (Strab.
p. 185; Mel. ii. 5; Plin. iii. 36).
Araxes ('Apd^ijs), the name of several rivers.
— 1. In Armenia Major (Eraskh or Aras), rises
in M. Aba or Abus (nr. Erzeroum), from the
opposite side of which the Euphrates flows ;
and, after a great bend SE. and then NE., joins
the Cyrus (Kour), which flows down from tho
Caucasus, and falls with it into the Caspian by
two mouths, in about 39° 20' N. Lat. The
lower part, past Abtaxata, flows through a
plain, which was called rb 'Apa^ijvbv ireSiov
(Strab. p. 531 ; Ptol. v. 13). Herodotus, i. 202, iv.
40, is clearly speaking of this Araxes, which, he
says, runs eastward from the country of the
Matieni into the Caspian ; but he seems to be
misinformed about the position of the Massa
getae and to place them and other tribes too
far west, or the Araxes and Caspian too far
east. The upper branch or affluent of the
H

98

ARAXUS

Araxes is called Phasis (Xen. Anab, iv. 6, 4).
[Phasis.] The Araxes was proverbial for the
force of its current ; and hence Virgil (Aen. viii.
728) says pontem indignatus Araxes, with
special reference to the failure of Alexander to
throw a bridge over it (Arr. An. vii. 16, 3). — 2. In
Mesopotamia. [Chaboeas.] — 3. In Persia (.Bern2-
Emir), the river on which Persepolis stood,
rises in the mountains E. of the head of the
Persian Gulf, and flows SE. into a salt lake
(Bakhtegan) not far below Persepolis. — 4. The
Peneus, in Thessaly, was called Araxes (apdaaa)
from the violence of its torrent (Strab. I. c).
Araxus ("Apafos: C. Papa), a promontory of
Achaia near the confines of Elis.
Arbaees ('Ap/ScEmis), the. founder of the Me
dian empire, according to Ctesias (Diod. ii. 33),
is said to have taken Nineveh in conjunction
with Belesis, the Babylonian, and to have de
stroyed the Assyrian empire under the reign of
Sardanapalus. Ctesias assigns 28 years to the
reign of Arbaees, apparently about B.C. 870,
and makes his dynasty consist of eight kings.
This account differs from that of Herodotus,
who makes Deioces the first king of Media, and
assigns only four kings to his dynasty. There
seems to be in Ctesias (who is frequently con
futed by the inscriptions) a confused allusion to
the overthrow of Sardanapalus by the Baby
lonians in alliance with Cyaxares (Kastarit), king
of Media at a much later date. [Cyaxaees.]
Arbela (to"Ap/3t)Xo: Erbille), a city of Adia-
bene in Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and
Caprus (the greater and lesser Zab) ; celebrated
as the head-quarters of Darius Codomannus,
before the last battle in which he was over
thrown by Alexander (b.c. 331), which is hence
frequently called the battle of Arbela, though
it was really fought near Gaugamela, about 25
miles W. of Arbela. The district about Arbela
was called Arbelitis (>Ap0i]Aj-m). (Strab. p. 737 ;
Diod. xvii. 53 ; Arr. An. iii. 8 ; Curt. iv. 9 ; Amm.
Marc, xxiii. 6.)
Arbis. [Aeabis.]
Arbucala or Arbocala (Albercal), the chief
town of the Vaccaei in Hispania Tarraconensis,
north of the Tagus, in the modern province of
Salamanca, taken by Hannibal after a long
resistance (Liv. xxi. 5).
Arbuscula, a celebrated female actor in
pantomimes in the time of Cicero (Cic. AU. iv.
15 ; Hor. Sat. i. 10, 76).
Area or -ae ("Apxri, or -at : Tell-Ar ka),.s. very
ancient city in the N. of Phoenicia, not far
from the sea-coast, at the foot of M. Lebanon :
a colony under the Romans, named Area Cae
sarea or Caesarea Libani: the birthplace of
the emperor Alexander Severus, and famous
for a temple of Astarte (Ptol. v. 15 ; Macrob.
Sat. i._21 ; Vit. Alex. Sev.).
Arcadia ('ApKaSia: ^Apicai, pi. 'ApKdSes), a
country in the middle of Peloponnesus, was
bounded on the E. by Argolis, on the N. by
Achaia, on the W. by Elis, and on the S. by
Messenia and Laconica. Next to Laconica it
was the largest country in the Peloponnesus :
its greatest length was about 50 miles, its
breadth from 35 to 41 miles (Strab. pp. 385-337).
It was surrounded on all sides by mountains.
which likewise traversed it in every direction,
and it may be regarded as the Switzerland of
Greece. Its principal mountains were Cyllene
and Erymanthus in the N., Artemisius in the
E., and Parthenius, Maenalus, and Lycaeus in
the S. and SW. The Alpheius, the greatest
river of Peloponnesus, rises in Arcadia, and
flows through a considerable part of the country,

ARCADIA
receiving numerous affluents. The N. and E.
parts of the country were barren and unpro
ductive; the W. and S. were more fertile, with
numerous valleys where corn was grown. The
Arcadians, said to be descended from the epony
mous hero Aecas, regarded themselves as the
most ancient people in Greece: the Greek
writers call them indigenous (aMxBoves) and
Pelasgians, and Pelasgus is the name given to
their earliest king (Paus. viii. 1). They were
said to have 'lived before the moon' (irpo-
o-4Xrivoi), which is probably a corruption of a
statement that they were in the Peloponnese
before the Syllani or Hellenes. Their claim to
antiquity iB just, since in the security of their
mountains they withstood the Dorian conquest.
In consequence of the physical peculiarity of
the country, they were chiefly employed in
hunting and the tending of cattle, whence their
worship of Pan, who was especially the god of
Arcadia, and of Artemis. They were a people
simple in their habits and moderate in their
desires : they were passionately fond of music,
and cultivated it with great success (soli can-
tare periti Arcades, Verg. Eel. x. 39), which
circumstance was supposed to soften the natural
roughness of their character. The Arcadians,
thanks to their rugged country, experienced
fewer changes than any other people in Greece.
Like the other Greek peoples, they were ori
ginally governed by kings, but are said to have
abolished monarchy towards the close of the
second Messenian war, and to have stoned to
death their last king, Aristocrates, because he
betrayed his allies the Messenians. The different
towns then became independent republics, of
which the most important were Mantinea,
Tegea, Obchomenus, Psophis, and Pheneos,
which lie in the secluded valleys of the north
and east, protected by their mountains ; to the
west the valleys of the Alpheus and Ladon are
more accessible, and here, accordingly, were
cantons of hamlets rather than independent
cities : in the upper valley of the Alpheus, the
Maenalians, and Eutresians ; lower down, the
Parrhasians, Cynurians, and Heraeans ; in the
valley of the Ladon the Azanes. The bond
of union from early times was religious. Pan-
arcadian festivals were held to Zeus at Mi
Lycaeus, to Athene Alea at Tegea, and to
Artemis Hymnia at Orchomenus (Paus. viii. 2,
5, 53). Like the Swiss, the Arcadians frequently
served as mercenaries, and in the Pelopon-
nesian war they were found in the armies of
both the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. The
Lacedaemonians made many attempts to obtain
possession of parts of Arcadia, but these at
tempts were finally frustrated by the battle of
Leuctra (b.c. S71) ; and in order to resist all
future aggressions on the part of Sparta, the

Coin of Arcadia.
Obv., head of Zeus ; rev., Pan, seated on a rock, holding a
knotted shepherd's staff.
Arcadians, upon the advice of EpaminondaB,
and led by Lycomedes, built the city of Mega
lopolis, and instituted a general assembly of

ARCADIUS
the whole nation, called the Myrii ('Mvpfot,
Diet, of Antiq. s.v.). This Arcadian League did
not last long. Mantinea and Tegea were at en
mity already before the death of Epaminondas,
and though the assembly of the Ten Thousand
existed in the time of Demosthenes we have no
trace of an Arcadian League after the end of
the fourth cent. B.C. The Arcadian cities sub
sequently joined the Achaean League, and
finally became subject to the Romans.
Arcadius, emperor of the East (a.d. 895-408),
¦elder son of Theodosius I., was born in Spain,
a.d. 883. On the death of Theodosius he be
came emperor of the East, while the West was
given to his younger brother Honorius. Arca
dius possessed neither physical nor intellectual
vigour, and was entirely governed by unworthy
favourites. At first he was ruled by Rufinus,
the praef ect of the East ; and on the murder of
the latter, soon after the accession of Arcadius,
the government fell into the hands of the
eunuch Eutropius. Eutropius was put to death
in 899, and his power now devolved upon
Gainas, the Goth; but upon his revolt and
¦death in 401 Arcadius became entirely depen
dent upon his wife Eudoxia, and it was through
-her influence that St. Chrysostom was exiled in

ARCHELAUS

99

Arcadius, Boman Emperor, A.D. 895-408.
Obv., Dominus Noster Arcadius Pater Patriae Augustus ;
rev.. Concord. The letters Con signify the mint of Con
stantinople, and ob the purity of the metal (72 soldi to
one pound of gold).
404. Arcadius died on May 1, 408, leaving the
¦empire to his son Theodosius H., who was a
minor. (Sozom. viii. ; Socr. Hist. Eccl. vi. ;
Cedren. i. ; Claudian.)
Arcanum. [Abpinum.]
Areas ("Ap/cos), king and eponymous hero of
-the Arcadians, son of Zeus and Callisto, grand
son of Lycaon and father of Aphidas, Elatus,
and Azan. He taught his subjects the arts of
baking and weaving. Areas was the boy whose
flesh his grandfather Lycaon placed before Zeus
to try his divine character. Zeus upset the
table (rpdirefa) which bore the dish, and de
stroyed the house of Lycaon by lightning, but
restored Areas to life. When Areas had grown
up, he built on the site of his father's house the
town of Trapezus. Areas in hunting followed
his mother Callisto, who had the form of a she-
bear, into the temple of Zeus Lycaeus, a profa
nation which by Arcadian law would have
caused their death, but Zeus changed them into
stars as Arctophylax and the Great Bear. The
legends show traces of primitive totemism, and
of human sacrifices. (Hyg. Astr. 2 ; Paus. viii.
4 ; Ov. Met. ii. 496, Fast. ii. 183.)
Arcesilaus or Arcesilas ('ApKeo-iXaos, Ap«e-
o-iXas), a Greek philosopher (about B.C. 315-240),
son of Seuthes or Scythes, was born at Pitane
in Aeolis. He studied at first in his native
town under Autolycus, a mathematician, and
afterwards went to Athens, where he became
the disciple first of Theophrastus and next of
Polemo and of Crantor. He succeeded Crates
about B.C. in the chair of the Academy, and
became the founder of the second or middle
{p.4o-rj) Academy. He is said to have died in

his 76th year from a fit of drunkenness (Diog.
Laert. iv. 80). His philosophy was of a sceptical
character, though it did not go so far as that of
the followers of Pyrrhon. He did not doubt
the existence of truth in itself, only our capa
cities for obtaining it by the senses or by reason,
and he combated most strongly the dogmatism
of the Stoics, as regards Zeno's doctrine of the
KaTaXTiimK^i (pavrao-ia (or impression producing
conviction), holding that no impressions pro
vided a testimony of their truth : hence the ne
cessity of suspended judgment (iiroxfy, though
action according to our reason 'was not pre
cluded (Cic. de Orat. iii. 18, 67, Acad. ii. 24,
Arcesilaus ('Ap/tecrfAaos). 1. Son of Lycus
and Theobule, leader of the Boeotians in the
Trojan war, slain by Hector. — 2. The name of
four kings of Cyrene. [Battus and Battiadae .j
Arcesius ('Apke(o-ios), son of Zeus and Eury-
odia, father of Laertes, and grandfather of
Ulysses. Hence both Laertes and Ulysses are
called Arcesiades ('ApKeicridSris) (Od. xvi. 118 ;
Ov. Met. xiii. 144). According to Eustathius
(ad Horn. 1961), his mother was a she-bear,
Cephalus having been told by an oracle that he
should have a son by the first female being
whom he met on his way home. The story
doubtless arose from his name.
Archaeopolis ('ApxaidiroXis), the later capital
of Colchis ; near the river Phasis.
Archagathus, a Greek physician, the first
who made medicine a profession at Rome. He
came from the Peloponnese, and settled at
Rome B.C. 219, where a shop was bought for
him, and he received the Jus Quiritium. His
practice was mainly surgical (Plin. xxix. 12).
Archandropolis ('ApxaVSpou irdxts), a city of
Lower Egypt, on the Nile, between Canopus
and Cercasorus.
Archedemus ('Apx4Sripos : Dor. 'Apx4Sapos).
1. A popular leader at Athens, took the first
step against the generals who had gained the
battle of Arginusae, B.C. 406. The comic poets
called him ' blear-eyed ' (yXdpav), and said that
he was a foreigner, and had obtained the fran
chise by fraud. (Xen. Hell. vii. 1, Mem. ii. 9 ;
Arist. Ban. 419, 588 ; Lys. c. Ale § 25.)— 2. An
Aetolian (called Archidamus by Livy), com
manded the Aetolian troops which assisted the
Romans in their war with Philip (b.c. 199-197).
He afterwards took an active part "gainst the
Romans, and eventually joined Perseus, whom
he accompanied in his flight after his defeat in
168. — 3. Of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, men
tioned by Cicero, Seneca, and other ancient
writers. Archedlcus ('Apx4SiKos), an Athenian comic
poet of the New Comedy, supported Antipater
and the Macedonian party.
Archegetes ('Apxriy4Tr)s), a surname of
Apollo. Archelals ('ApxeWs). 1. In Cappadocia
(Akserai), on the Cappadox, a tributary of the
Halys, a city founded by Archelaus, the last
king of Cappadocia, and made a Roman colony
by the emperor Claudius.— 2. A town of Pales
tine, near Jericho, founded by Archelaus, the
son of Herod the Great.
Archelaus ('Apx4Xaos). 1. Son of Heeod
the Great, was appointed by his father as his
successor, and received from Augustus Judaea,
Samaria, and Idumaea, with the title of ethnarch.
In consequence of his tyrannical government,
the Jews accused him before Augustus in the
10th year of his reign (a.d. 7) : Augustus ban
ished him to Vienna in Gaul, where he died.—
*H2

100

ARCHELAUS

2. King of Macedonia (b.c. 413-399), an illegiti
mate son of Perdiccas II., obtained the throne
by the murder of his half-brother. He improved
the internal condition of his kingdom, and was
a warm patron of art and literature. His palace
was adorned with magnificent paintings by
Zeuxis ; and Euripides, Agathon, and other men
of eminence, were among his guests. According
to some accounts Archelaus was accidentally
slain in a hunting party by his favourite, Cra-
terus ; but according to other accounts he was
murdered by Craterus. (Diod. xiv. 37 ; Aristot.
Pol. v. 10.) — 3. A general of Mitheidates. In
B.C. 87 he was sent into Greece by Mithridates
with a large fleet and army ; at first he met
with considerable success, held most of northern
Greece, and took Peiraeus. After sustaining
a siege, he withdrew to Boeotia, where he was
twice defeated by Sulla in 86, near Chaeronea
and Orchomenos. Thereupon he was commis
sioned by Mithridates to sue for peace, which
he obtained ; but subsequently being suspected
of treachery by the king, he deserted to the
Romans just before the commencement of the
second Mithridatic war, B.C. 81. (Plut. Sull.
11-24 ; Appian, Mithr. 17-64 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 25.)—
4. Son of the preceding, was raised by Pompey,
in B.C. 63, to the dignity of priest of the goddess
(Enyo or Bellona) at Comana in Pontus or
Cappadocia. In 56 or 55 Archelaus became
king in Egypt by marrying Berenice, the
daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, who, after the
expulsion of her father, had obtained the sove
reignty of Egypt. Archelaus, however, was
king of Egypt only for 6 months, for Gabinius
marched with an army into Egypt in order to
restore Ptolemy Auletes, and in the battle
which ensued Archelaus perished. (Bell. Alex.
66 ; Strab. pp. 558, 796 ; Dio Cass, xxxix. 58 ; Cic.
pro Bab. Post. 8.) — 5. Son of No. 4, and his
suocessor in the office of high- priest of Comana,
was deprived of his dignity by Julius Caesar
in 47 (Cic. Fam. xv. 4 ; Bell. Alex. 66). — 6. Son
of No. 5, received from Antony, in b.c. 36, the
kingdom of Cappadocia — a favour which he
owed to the charms of his mother Glaphyra.
After the battle of Actium Octavianus not only
left Archelaus in the possession of his kingdom,
but subsequently added to it a part of Cilicia
and Lesser Armenia. But having incurred the
enmity rf Tiberius by the attention which he
had paid to C. Caesar, he was summoned to
Rome soon after the accession of Tiberius and
accused of treason. His life was spared, but
he was obliged to remain at Rome, where he
died soon after, a.d. 17. Cappadocia was then
made a Roman province. (Strab. pp. 540, 796 ;
Dio Cass. Ii. 3; T&a.Ann. ii. 42 ; Suet. Tib. 37,
Cat 1). — 7. A philosopher, probably born at
Athens, though others make him a native of
Miletus, flourished about b.c. 450. The philo
sophical system of Archelaus is remarkable as
forming a point of transition from the older to
the newer form of philosophy in Greece. As a
pupil of Anaxagoras he belonged to the Ionian
school, but he added to the physical system of
his teacher some attempts at moral speculation.
Against the statement that Socrates was taught
by him (Diog. Laert. ii. 19) it must be noted
that Plato and Xenophon say nothing about it.
— 8. A Greek poet, in Egypt, lived under the
Ptolemies, and wrote epigrams, some of which
are still extant in the Greek Anthology. — 9. A
sculptor of Priene, son of Apollonius, made the
marble bas-relief representing the Apotheosis
of Homer, which formerly belonged to the
Colonna family at Rome, and is now in the

ARCHIDAMUS
British Museum. This work, which probably-
belongs to the early part of the reign of Ti
berius, is noticed as a mixture of styles. The-
upper part is composed more in the painter's-
manner than the sculptor's (as is sometimes
found in the Alexandrian school); the lower
part revives the older style of Greek votive
tablets. Archemorus ('Apx^popos), or Opheltes, son
of the Nemean king Lycurgus and Eurydice.
When the Seven heroes on their expedition
against Thebes stopped at Nemea to obtain
water, Hypsipyle, the nurse of the child Opheltes,
while showing the way to the Seven, left the
child alone. In the meantime, the child was
killed by a serpent. The Seven gave him burial ;
but as Amphiaraus saw in this accident an omen
boding destruction to himself and his com-
panions, they called the child Archemorus, that .
is, 'Forerunner of Death,' and instituted the
Nemean games in honour of him. His death .
isfrequently represented in works of art. (Pind.
Nem. viii. 51, x. 28; Paus. ii. 15, viii. 48;
Apollod. iii. 6; Stat. Theb. iv. 624.)
Archestratus ('Apx4cTpa,Tos), of Gela or
Syracuse, about B.C. 850, wrote a poem on the
Art of Cookery, which was imitated or trans
lated by Ennius in his Carmina Hedypaihetica
or Hedypathica (from JiSvirdSeia). — Fragments
by Ribbeck, Berlin, 1877.
Archias (Apx^as). 1. An Heraclid of Corinth,
left his country in consequence of the death of
Actaeon, and founded Syracuse, b.c. 784, by
command of the Delphic oracle (Thuc. vi. 3;
Paus. v. 7, 2; Strab. pp. 262, 269).— 2. A. Lici-
nius Archias, a Greek poet, born at Antioch in
Syria, about B.C. 120, very early obtained cele
brity by his verses. In 102 he came to Rome, .
and was received in the most friendly way by
many of the Roman nobles, especially by the
Luculli, from whom he afterwards obtained the
gentile name of Licinius. After a short stay at •
Rome he accompanied L. Lucullus, the elder,
to Sicily, and followed him, in the banishment
to which he was sentenced for his management
of the slave war in that island, to Heraclea in
Lucania, in which town Archias was enrolled
as a citizen ; and as this town was a state
united with Rome by a foedus, he subsequently
obtained the Roman franchise in accordance
with the Lex Plautia Papiria passed in B.C. 89.
At a later time he accompanied L. Lucullus
the younger to the Mithridatic war. Soon after
his return, a charge was brought against him in
61 of assuming the citizenship illegally, and the
trial came on before Q. Cicero, who was praetor
this year. He was defended by his friend M.
Cicero in the extant speech Pro Archia, in
which the orator, after briefly discussing the
legal points of the case, rests the defence of
his client upon his surpassing merits as a poet,
which entitled him to the Roman citizenship.
We may presume that Archias was acquitted, .
though we have no formal statement of the fact.
Archias wrote a poem on the Cimbric war in
honour of Marius ; another on the Mithridatic
wojc in honour of Lucullus ; and at the time of
his trial was engaged on a poem in honour of
Cicero's consulship. No fragments of these
works are extant ; and it is doubtful whether
the epigrams preserved under the name of
Archias in the Greek Anthology were really
written by him. (Cic. pro Arch., ad AU. i. 16 ;
Quintil. x. 7, 19.)
Archidamus ('Apx(5op.os), the name of 5
kings of Sparta. 1. Son of Anaxidamiis, con
temporary with the Tegeatan war, which fol-

ARCHIGENES
lowed soon after the second Messenian, B.C. 668
(Paus. iii. 7, 6). — 2. Son of Zeuxidamus, suc
ceeded his grandfather Leotychides, and reigned
B.C. 469-427. During his reign, B.C. 464, Sparta
was made a heap of ruins by a tremendous
earthquake ; and for the next 10 years he was
¦engaged in war against the revolted Helots and
JMessenians. Towards the end of his reign the
Peloponnesian war broke out : he recommended
his countrymen not rashly to embark in the
war, and he appears to have taken a more
¦correct view of the real strength of Athens than
any other Spartan. After the war had been
declared (b.c. 431) he invaded Attica, and held
the supreme command of the Peloponnesian
forces till his death in 429. (Hdt. vi. 71 ; Thuc.
i. — iii. ; Diod. xi. 63 ; Paus. iii. 7.) — 3. Grandson
of No. 2, and son of Agesilaus H., reigned b.c.
¦861-388. During the lifetime of his father he
took an active part in resisting the Thebans
and the various other enemies of Sparta, and
in 867 he defeated the Arcadians and Argives in
the ' Tearless Battle,' so called because he had
won it without losing a man. In 862 he de
fended Sparta against Epa.minondas. In the
third Sacred war (b.c. 356-346) he assisted the
Phocians. In 338 he went to Italy to aid the
Tarentines against the Lucanians, and there
fell in battle. (Xen. Hell. v. 4, vii. 1-5 ; Diod.
xv., xvi. ; Strab. p. 280.) — 4. Grandson of No. 3,
and son of Eudamidas I., was king in B.C. 296,
when he was defeated by Demetrius Poliorcetes
(Plut. Demetr. 35). — 5. Son of Eudamidas II.,
and the brother of Agis IV. On the murder of
Agis, in B.C. 240, Archidamus fled from Sparta,
but afterwards obtained the throne by means
of Aratus. He was, however, slain almost im
mediately after his return to Sparta. He was
the last king of the Eurypontid race. (Plut.
Gleom. 1, 5 ; Polyb. v. 37, viii. 1.)
Archigenes i^Apxiyivris), an eminent Greek
physician, born at Apamea in Syria, practised
at Rome in the time of Trajan, A.D. 98-117.
He published a treatise on the pulse, on which
Galen wrote a Commentary. It seems to be
founded on preconceived theory rather than
practical observation. He was the most eminent
physician of the sect of the Eclectici, and is
mentioned by Juvenal as well as by other
writers. Only a few fragments of his works
remain. (Juv. vi. 236, xiii. 98, xiv. 252.)
ArchHochus (^Apx'iXoxos), of Paros, was one
of the earliest Ionian lyric poets, and the first
Greek poet who composed Iambic verses accord
ing to fixed rules. He lived about b.c. 720-676.
He was descended from a noble family, who
held the priesthood in Paros. His grandfather
was Tellis, his father Telesicles, and his mother
a slave named Enipo. In the flower of his age
(between B.C. 710 and 700), Archilochus went
from Paros to Thasos with a colony, of which
one account makes him the leader. The motive
for this emigration can only be conjectured. It
was most probably the result of a political
•change, to which cause was added, in the case
of Archilochus, a sense of personal wrong. He
lad been a suitor to Neobule, one of the
¦daughters of Lycambes, who first promised and
afterwards refused to give his daughter to the
poet. Enraged at this treatment, Archilochus
attacked the whole family in an iambic poem,
accusing Lycambes of perjury, and his daughters
¦of the most abandoned lives. The verses were
Tecited at the festival of Demeter, and produced
such an effect that the daughters of Lycambes
are said to have hanged themselves through
shame (Hor. Epod. 6, 13). The bitterness which

ARCHIMEDES

101

he expresses in his poems towards his native
island seems to have arisen in part also from
the low estimation in which he was held, as
being the son of a slave. Neither was he more
happy at Thasos. He draws the most melan
choly picture of his adopted country, which he
at length quitted in disgust.
While at Thasos, he incurred
the disgrace of losing his
shield in an engagement with
the Thracians of the opposite
continent ; but, instead of
being ashamed of the disas
ter, he recorded it in his
verse : not, however, because
he felt himself to be a coward,
but because he felt that his
courage had been proved be
yond dispute, and he wished
to express a cynical disap
probation of staying to be '
killed when there was no- Archilochus.
thing to be gained by it.
The feeling of Horace (if his case is real and
not a mere copy of Archilochus) was dif
ferent, since he never professed to be a warrior
by nature. At length he returned to Paros,
and in a war between the Parians and the
people of Naxos, he fell by the hand of a
Naxian named Calondas or Corax. The force
and originality of Archilochus is vindicated by
the Greek critics, who gave him a place in
poetry beside Homer, Pindar, and Sophocles —
perhaps as heading a fourth branch of poetry
(Longin. xiii. 3 ; Veil. Pat. i. 5 ; Diog. Laert. ix. 1 ;
Cic. Orat. 1, 4). He shared with his contem
poraries, Thaletas and Terpander, in the honour
of establishing lyric poetry throughout Greece.
The invention of the elegy is ascribed to him,
as well as to Callinus ; but it was on his satiric
Iambic poetry that his fame was founded. His
Iambics expressed the strongest feelings in the
most unmeasured language. The licence of
Ionian democracy and the bitterness of a dis
appointed man were united with the highest
degree of poetical power to give them force and
point. The emotion accounted most con
spicuous in his verses was ' rage ' — ' Archilochum
proprio rabies armavit iambo ' (Hor. Ar. Poet.
79). — The fragments of Archilochus are collected
in Bergk's Poet. Lyrici Graec. 1867, and by
Liebel, Archilochi Beliquiae, Lips. 1812, 8vo.
Archimedes ('ApxipflSris), of Syracuse, the
most famous of ancient mathematicians, was
born B.C. 287. He was a friend, and according
to Plutarch a kinsman, of Hiero, though his
actual condition in life does not seem to have
been elevated. In the early part of his life he
travelled into Egypt, where he studied under
Conon the Samian, a mathematician and as
tronomer. After visiting other countries, he
returned to Syracuse (Diod. v. 37). Here he
constructed for Hiero various engines of war,
which, many years afterwards, were so far
effectual in the defence of Syracuse against *
Marcellus as to convert the siege into a block
ade, and delay the taking of the city for a con
siderable time (Plut. Marcell. 14-18 ; Polyb.
viii. 5 ; Liv. xxiv. 34). The accounts of the
performances of these engines are evidently
exaggerated; and the story of the burning of
the Roman ships by the reflected rays of the
sun, though very current in later times, is
probably a fiction : it is not recorded by Plut
arch, Polybius, or Livy; the earliest writers
who mention it are Galen (de Temp. iii. 2) and
Lucian (Hipp. 2, 2). It is described more par-

102

ARCHINUS

ticularly by Tzetzes (Chil. ii. 103 f.). He super
intended the building of a ship of extraordinary
size for Hiero, of which a description is given
in Athenaeus (p. 206 d), where he is also said
to have moved it to the sea by the help of
a screw. He invented a machine called, from
its form Coclea, and now known as the water-
screw of Archimedes, for pumping the water
out of the hold of this vessel (Vitr. x. 11 ; Diet.
Ant. s.v. Coclea). Another celebrated proof of
his genius was the construction of a sphere — a
kind of orrery, representing the movements of
the heavenly bodies (Cic. N. D. ii. 35, 88,
Tusc. i. 25, 63; Ov. Fast. vi. 277; Claudian,
Ep. 21). When Syracuse was taken (b.c. 212),
Archimedes was killed by the Roman soldiers,
being at the time intent upon a mathematical
problem (Liv. xxv. 31 ; Plut. Marc. 19 ; Val.
Max. viii. 7 ; Cic. de Fin. v. 19, 50). Upon his
tomb was placed the figure of a sphere inscribed
in a cylinder. When Cicero was quaestor in
Sicily (75) he found this tomb near one of the
gates of the city, almost hid amongst briars,
and forgotten by the Syracusans (Cic. Tusc. v.
23, 64). The intellect of Archimedes was of
the very highest order. He possessed, in a
degree never exceeded, unless by Newton, the
inventive genius which discovers new provinces
of inquiry, and finds new points of view for old
and familiar objects ; the clearness of concep
tion which is essential to the resolution of
complex phaenomena into their constituent
elements ; and the power and habit of intense
and persevering thought, without which other
intellectual gifts are comparatively fruitless.
The following works of Archimedes have come
down to us : 1. On Equiponderants and Centres
of Gravity. 2. The Quadrature of the Para
bola. 3. On the Sphere and Cylinder. 4. On
Dimension of the Circle. 5. On Spirals. 6. On
Conoids and Spheroids. 7. The Arenarius
(d xj/appiriis), in which he calculates the sphere
of the stars, and shows that it is possible to
note a number greater than that of the grains
of sand which would fill it (64 figures in our
notation is his estimate). His real point is to
maintain that the power of notation is not
limited, as his contemporaries thought. It is
remarkable that he in some degree anticipated
the invention of logarithms. 8. On Floating
Bodies. 9. Lemmata. — Editions. Of his
works, by Torelli, Oxon. 1792 ; of the Spirals,
by C. Scherling, Liibeck, 1865 ; of the Dimen
sion of the Circle, by H. Menge, Coblenz, 1874.
There is a French translation of his works,
with notes, by F. Peyrard, Paris, 1808, and an
English translation of the Arenarius by G.
Anderson, London, 1784.
Archinus ('Apxivos), one of the leading Athe
nians, who, with Thrasybulus and Anytus, over
threw the government of the Thirty, B.C. 403
(Dem. c. Tim. p. 742 ; Aeschin. c. Ctesiph. 61).
Archippus ( ' Apx«"ros), an Athenian poet of
the Old Comedy, about B.C. 415. In his play
'IxBvs, he seems to have followed Magnes (as
.Aristophanes does in the Birds) in introducing
animals, for he has a chorus of fishes. — Fragm.
in Meineke.
Archytas ('Apxiras). 1. Of Amphissa, a
Greek epic poet, flourished about b.c. 800
(Athen. p. 82) . — 2, Of Tarentum, a'distinguished
philosopher, mathematician, general, and states
man, probably lived about B.C. 400, and on
wards, so that he was contemporary with Plato,
whose life he is said to have saved by his in
fluence with the tyrant Dionysius (Tzetz. Chil.
x. 359, xi. 862 ; cf. Plut. Dion. 18). He was 7

ARCTOS
times the general of his city, and he commanded
in several campaigns, in all of which he was
victorious. Whether we are to beheve that
he was drowned while upon a voyage in the
Adriatic, depends on the interpretation of Hor.
Od. i. 28. It is generally supposed that, if
the drowned body is not that of Archytas, his
tomb was on the shore near the spot where
the body lay ; but we have no positive record
of his death or the place of his burial. Our
chief authority for the little known of his life
is Diog. Laert. viii. 79-83 ; cf . Cic. de Sen. 12,
39, Tusc. iv. 36, 78, de Bep. i. 38 ; Val. Max.
iv. 1. As a philosopher, he belonged to the
Pythagorean school, and through his genius
and reputation raised the sect to something of
its former influence in Magna Graecia, from
which it finally declined as regards science soon
after his death ; and the Pythagorean mysteries
alone maintained their position. Like the
Pythagoreans in general, he paid much atten
tion to mathematics. To his theoretical science,
he added the skill of a practical mechanician,
and constructed various machines and auto
matons, among which his wooden flying dove
in particular was the wonder of antiquity. He
also applied mathematics with success to
musical science, and even to metaphysical
philosophy. His influence as a philosopher
was so great, that Plato was undoubtedly in
debted to him for some of his views ; and
Aristotle is thought by some writers to have
borrowed the idea of his categories, as well as
some of his ethical principles, from Archytas.
When Horace calls him mensorem arenae, he
implies, rightly or wrongly, that Archytas had
pursued the calculations of Archimedes in the
tyapplTris. Arconncsus ('ApK<W?jo-os : 'ApKovviifftos). 1.
An island off the coast of .Ionia, near Lebedus,
also called Aspis (Strab. p. 643.) — 2. (Orak
Ada), an island off the coast of Caria, opposite
Halicarnassus, of which it formed the harbour
(Strab. p. 656 ; Arrian, i. 23).
Arctinus ('ApKrivos), of Miletus, the most
distinguished among the cyclic poets, probably
lived about b.c. 776. Two epic poems were
attributed to him. 1. The Aethiopis, which
was a kind of continuation of Homer's Iliad :
its chief heroes were Memnon, king of the
Ethiopians, and Achilles, who slew him, in
vengeance for the slaughter of Antilochus. It
narrates also the combat between the Greeks
and Amazons, and the death of Penthesilea,
and concludes with the death of Achilles, his
funeral rites, and the contest for his arms.
2. The Sack of Hion ('I\iou iripais), which con
tained a description of the destruction of Troy,
and the subsequent events until the departure
of the Greeks, with which the story of the 2nd
Aeneid mainly agrees. The substance of these
two epics of Arctinus are preserved by Proclus.
Fragments in G. Kinkel, Epic. Graec. Fr.
1877 ; Kockly, Corp. Ep. Graec.
Arctophylax. [Akctos.]
Arctos (vApKTos), ' the Bear,' two constella
tions near the N. Pole. 1. The Great Bear
("ApKros peydXri : Ursa Major), also called the
Waggon (apa£a: plaustrum). The ancient
Italian name of this constellation was Septem
Triones, that is, the Seven Ploughing Oxen,
also Septentrio, and with the epithet Major to
distinguish it from the Septentrio Minor, or
Lesser Bear : hence Virgil (Aen. iii. 356) speaks
of geminosque Triones. The Great Bear was
also called Helice (ixUri) from its sweeping
round in a curve. — 2. The Lessee or Little,

ARDALUS
Beab ("Apuros piKpd : Ursa Minor), likewise
called the Waggon, was first added to the
Greek catalogues by Thales, by whom it was
probably imported from the East. It was also
called Phoenice (Qoivikti), from the circum
stance that it was selected by the Phoenicians
as the guide by which they shaped their course
at sea, the Greek mariners with less judgment
employing the Great Bear for the purpose ; and
Cynosura (Kvv6o~ovpa), dog's tail, from the
resemblance of the constellation to the upturned
curl of a dog's tail. The constellation before
the Great Bear was called Bootes (Bodrris),
Arctophylax ('ApKTo<puAa£), or Arcturus
('ApKrovpos from oipos, guard) ; the two latter
names suppose the constellation to represent a
man upon the watch, and denote simply the
position of the figure in reference to the Great
Bear, while Bootes, which is found in Homer,
refers to the Waggon, the imaginary figure of
Bootes being fancied to occupy the place of the
driver of the team. At a later time Arcto
phylax became the general name of the con
stellation, and the word Arcturus was confined
to the chief star in it. All these constellations
are connected in mythology with the Arcadian
nymph Callisto, the daughter of Lycaon,
metamorphosed by Zeus upon the earth into a
she-bear. [See Arcas.] In the poets the
epithets of these stars have constant reference
to the family and country of Callisto : thus we
find them called Lycaonis Arctos : Maenalia
Arctos and Maenalia Ursa (from M. Miw.ialus
in Arcadia) : Erymanthis Ursa (from & 3ry-
manthus in Arcadia) : Parrhasides stellae
(from the Arcadian town Parrhasia). Though
most traditions identified Bootes with Arcas,
others pronounced him to be Icarus or his
daughter Erigone. Hence the Septentriones
are called Boves Icarii. (See Diet, of Antiq.
s. v. Astronomia).
Ardalus, son of Hephaestus, built at Troezen
a temple to the Muses, where they were called
locally 'ApSaXiai ; said also to have invented the
flute. (Paus. ii. 31, 4; Plut. de Mus. 5).
Arcturus. [Abctos.]
Ardea (Ardeas, -atis : Ardea). 1. The chief
town of the Rutuli in Latium, a little to the
left of the river Numicus, 3 miles from the sea,
was situated on a rock surrounded by marshes,
in an unhealthy district (Strab. p. 231 ; Mart.
iv. 80). It was one of the most ancient places
in Italy, and was said to have been the capital
of Turnus (Verg. Aen. vii. 410; Plin. iii. 56).
It was one of the 30 cities of the Latin League,
and was besieged by Tarquinius Superbus
(Dionys. iv. 64, v. 61 ; Liv. i. 57). It was con
quered and colonised by the Romans, B.C. 442,
from which time its importance declined (Liv.
iv. 11 ; Diod. xii. 34 ; cf. Liv. v. 44, xxvii. 9 ;
Verg. Aen. vii. 413 ; Strab. p. 291 ; Juv. xii. 105).
In its neighbourhood was the Latin Aphrodi-
sium or temple of Venus, under the superin
tendence of Ardeates. — 2. (Ardekanl), an im
portant town in PerBis, SW. of Persepolis.
Arduenna Silva, the Ardennes, a vast forest,
in the NW. of Gaul, extended from the Rhine
and the Treviri to the Nervii and Remi, and N.
as far as the Scheldt : there are still consider
able remains of this forest, though the greater
part of it has disappeared (Caes. B. G. v. 3, vi.
29, 33). There was a Celtic goddess of this
name, whose attributes seem to have been akin
to those of Artemis (G. I. L. vi. 46).
Ardys ("ApSvs), son of Gyges, king of Lydia,
reigned B.C. 678-629 : he took Priene and made
-war against Miletus (Hdt. i. 15 ; Paus. iv. 24).

ARES

103

Area or Aretias ("Apeiu or 'Apr/rias vr\aos,
i.e. the island of Ares : Kerasunt Ada), also
called Chalceritis, an island off the coast of
Pontus, close to Pharnacea, celebrated in the
legend of the Argonauts (Ap. Rhod. ii. 884 ;
Mel. ii. 7).
Areithous ('ApntBoos), king of Arne in
Boeotia, and husband of Philomedusa, is called
in the Iliad (vii. 8) Kopwiir-ns, because he fought
with a club : he fell by the hand of the Arca
dian Lycurgus (II. vii. 182; Paus. viii. 11, 3).
Arelate, Arelas, or Arelatum (Arelatensis :
Aries), a town in Gallia Narbonensis at the
head of the delta of the Rhone on the left
bank, and a Roman colony founded by the
soldiers of the sixth legion, Colonia Arelate
Sextanorum. It is first mentioned by Caesar,
and under the emperors it became one of the
most flourishing towns on this side of the Alps.
Constantine the Great built an extensive
suburb on the right bank, which he connected
with the city by a bridge. The Roman remains
at Aries attest the greatness of the ancient
city : there are still to be seen an obelisk of
granite, and the ruins of an aqueduct, theatre,
amphitheatre, palace of Constantine, and a
large Roman cemetery. (Strab. p. 181 ; Mel. ii.
5 ; Plin. iii. 36 ; Caes. B. G. i. 36, ii. 5 ; Auson.
Urb. Nob. 8.)
Aremorica. [Aemobica.]
Arenacum (Amheim or Aert ?), a town of
the Batavi in Gallia Belgica (Tac. Hist. v. 20).
Areopagus. [Athenae.]
Ares ("Apris), the Greek god of war, re
presented as the son of Zeus and Hera
(II. v. 890 ; Hes. Th. 922). Another tradition
makes his birth a parallel to that of Athene :
he is born from Hera alone, to whom a flower
had been given by Flora (Ov. Fast. v. 229).
But while Athene represents wisdom in war,
Ares is described in Homer, who makes Eris
his sister, as rejoicing in tumult and bloodshed,
and a fickle partisan (aXXoirp6o~aX\os, II. v.
889) : he helps the Trojans though he had pro
mised aid to the Greeks (II. v. 832, xxi. 412).
His character is not congenial to the Greek
mind, certainly not to the spirit of Homer, and
for that reason, and probably also because in
spite of the parentage given him he is still to
some degree felt to be a foreign Thracian god,
we find him represented in undignified positions
in the Iliad, and often overborne by the more
truly Greek deities. He is ignominiously
driven from the field by Athene and Diomede
(II. v. 776) ; again overcome by Athene (II. xxi.
405), prevented by her from avenging his son
Ascalaphus (II. xv. 125), his son Cycnus (Hes.
Sc 455) : he was imprisoned for thirteen
months by the Aloidae (II. v. 385), and made a
laughing-stock to the gods (Ov. viii. 266), when
the partner of his disgrace was Aphrodite, her
self in many aspects a deity of alien origin.
He fights oftenest on foot, but sometimes in a
chariot (II. v. 356, xv. 119 ; Hes. Sc. 109, 191 ;
Pind. Pyth. iv. 87). Quintus Smyrnaeus
names his four horses Aithon, Phlogios, Kona-
bos, Phobos; in Homer he has two, and
Deimos and Phobos are his sons, not his horses.
As god of battles he has the epithet or surname
'KvvdXios in Homer (II. ii. 512, xiii. 518) : the
name was probably used as a battle-cry (cf.
Xen. Anab. i. 8, 18), and in later writers given
to a separate deity [Enyalius.] Thelove of
Ares for Aphrodite is noticed in the Iliad, and
in various traditions Eros and Anteros, Deimas
and Phobos, and Priapus are their children.
According to the Theban story he was the hus-

104

ARES

band of Aphrodite, and father by her of Har
monia (Hes. Th. 937). In Homer Thrace is
the home of Ares (II. xiii. 301, Od. viii. 361 ;
cf. Hdt. v. 7 ; Soph. Ant. 970, 0. B. 196) ; but
the most ancient seat of his worship in Greece
appears to have been Thebes (Aesch. Th. 135),
whence in the Iliad the
walls of Thebes are
called reixos "ApGiov
(iv. 407), and he was the
father of the dragon
which Cadmus slew at
the well of Ares (Paus.
ix. 10, 5 ; Cadmus). At
Athens his temple was
on the western slope of
Areiopagus and con
tained statues of Aphro
dite, of Ares (by Alca-
menes), of Athene, and
Enyo (Paus. i. 8, 5).
The Athenian story
makes him marry the
daughter of Erechtheus,
and become the father
of Alcippe; as slayer
of Hahi-rhothius, who

Ares and Aphroditi. .
(Osterley, DenkmaUr.)

assailed Alcippe, he was tried before the coun
cil of goda in the Areiopagus. [Halikrho-
thius ; Diet. Ant. s. v. Areiopagus^] It is clear
that this story points to a period when his wor
ship was introduced as that of a separate deity.
[For the Amazons, daughters of Ares, and their
attack on Athens, see Amazones.] As regards
the origin of Ares, some, from a theory that a
war-god is not a primitive idea, suppose him to
have been a storm-god or a light-god ; others
with greater truth regard him as one of the
xBdvioi Beol, working from the depths of the
earth to produce on the one hand increase, on
the other death and destruction : whence he
became the god of war. It may be replied that
it is difficult to conceive a primitive time to
which war was not familiar, and it is vain to
inquire what deity was appealed to by primitive
warring tribes. There must have been dif
ferent deities in different local religions whose
worship was appropriated by Ares. The
worship of "Apns a<pvet6s at Tyre and of "Apijs
yvvaiKoBoivas (Paus. viii. 44, 6; 48, 3) very
likely points to an old nature-worship of a god
of increase, as may also be suggested by his
union with Aphrodite : on the other hand when
we find "Ap7js Xirmos honoured with 'AB-fivij
iiriria at Olympia, and Ares receiving sacrifices
of dogs at Therapnae, the inference is that he
replaced for purposes of war a local animal-
worship (Paus. iii. 20, 1; 14, 9; v. 15, 4).
But that Ares mainly represents a worship
of a god of the netherworld in various parts of
Greece is highly probable. As regards the
earliest site of this worship there is every
probability that the idea of Ares which pre
dominated in Greece was derived from Thrace,
as is implied by Homer and Herodotus, and
was adopted by Thebes and other states as a
modification of their own worship. There may
be fewer Thracian than Theban legends about
Ares, but we know more about Thebes than
Thrace. The Theban story seems to express
the struggle between an ancient serpent-wor
ship with which Ares had become identified,
perhapB through Thracian influence, and a new
civilisation, probably at the time when the
worship of Dionysus began to prevail. In older
art Ares is represented as a fully armed,
bearded warrior: in the 5th century from

ARETE
Pheidias onwards the type is that of a hand
some beardless youth, naked or nearly so,

Ares. (Ludovisi Statue in Home.)
with a spear and sometimes a helmet: the
bearded type reappears later.
Arestor fApcorwp), father of Argus, the
guardian of Io, who is therefore called Are-
storides. Aretaeus ('ApeTaioj), the Cappadocian, one
of the most celebrated of the ancient Greek
physicians, probably lived in the reign of Ves
pasian. He wrote in Ionic Greek a general
treatise on diseases in 8 books, which is still
extant. He is noticeable for accuracy of dia
gnosis, and for a departure from the method of
Hippocrates when he considered that the
symptoms required it, in which he is supported
by modern experience. — The best edition is by
C. G. Kiihn, Lips. 1828.
Aretas (Ape-ros), the name of several kings
of Arabia Petraea. 1. A contemporary of
Pompey, invaded Judaea in B.C. 65, in order to
place Hyrcanus on the throne, but was driven
back by the Romans, who espoused the cause of
Aristobulus. His dominions were subsequently
invaded by Scaurus, the lieutenant of Pompey.
(Dio Cass, xxxvii. 15; Plut. Pomp. 89; Joseph
Ant. xiv.) — 2. The father-in-law of Herod Anti-
pas, invaded Judaea, because Herod had dis
missed the daughter of Aretas in consequence
of his connexion with Herodias (Jos. Ant.
xviii.). This Aretas seems to have been the
prince who had possession of Damascus at the
time of the conversion of the Apostle Paul,
a.d. 31.
Arete ('ApiiTri). 1. Wife of Alcinous, king of
the Phaeacians, received Ulysses with hospi
tality, and induced her people not to give up
Medea to the emissaries of Aeetes (Od. vi. 305,
vii. 66 ff. ; Ap. Rh. iv. 1010 ; Apollod. i. 9, 25).
— 2. Daughter of the elder Dionysius and
Aristomache, wife of Thearides, and after his
death of her uncle Dion. After Dion had fled
from Syracuse, Arete was compelled by her
brother to marry Timocrates, one of his friends ;
but she was again received by Dion as his wife
when he had obtained possession of Syracuse
and expelled the younger Dionysius. After
the assassination of Dion in 358, she was
drowned by his enemies. (Plut. Dion.; Ael.
V. H. xii. 47, where Arete and Aristomache are

ARETHUSA
confused.) — 3. Daughter of Aristippus, the
founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy,
was instructed by him in the principles of his
system, which she transmitted to her son the
younger Aristippus (Diog. Laert. ii. 72).
Arethusa ('Api8ovo-a), one of the Nereids,
and the nymph of the famous fountain of Are
thusa in the
island of Or
tygia near Sy
racuse. For
details, see Al
pheus. Virgil
(Eclog. iv. 1, x.
1) reckons her
among the Si
cilian nymphs,
and as the di
vinity who in
spired pastoral
poetry. The
head of Are
thusa with her
hair confined
in a net and
surrounded by
fishes, occurs
in the coins
of Syracuse. —
There were se
veral other
fountains in
Greece which
bore the name
of Arethusa, of
which the most
important was
Arethusa. Coin of Syracuse of the one in Ithaca,
reign of Gelon, whose Olympic vie- „,..„ T.ehnrlr,
tory is shown on the reverse. nov/ J-*e0aao,
and another m
Euboea near Chalcis (Strab. p. 58 ; Eur. Iph.
Aul. 170).
Arethusa ('Ap4Bovo-a: Er-Bestun), a town
and fortress on the Orontes, in Syria (Strab.
p. 753 ; Appian, Syr. 57). For its history and
government see Emesa.
Aretias. [Aeea.]
Aretium. [Arretlum.]
Areus (Apeus), two kings of Sparta. 1. Suc
ceeded his grandfather, Cleomenes H. (since
his father Acrotatus had died before him), and
reigned B.C. 309-265. He made several unsuc
cessful attempts to deliver Greece from the
dominion of Antigonus Gonatas, and at length
fell in battle against the Macedonians in 265,
and was succeeded by his son Acrotatus (Justin.
xxiv. 1; Plut. Pyrrh. 26-29; Paus. iii. 6;
Diod. xx. 29). — 2. Grandson of No. 1, reigned
as a child for 8 years under the guardianship of
his uncle Leonidas H., who succeeded him about
b.c 256_(Plut. Agis, 2,\.
Arevacae or Arevaci, the most powerful
tribe of the Celtiberians in Spain, near the
sources of the Tagus, derived their name from
the river Areva (Arlanzo), a tributary of the
Durius (Duero) (Strab. p. 162 ; Polyb. xxxv. 2 ;
Appian.fffisp, 45 ; Plin. iii. 19, 27).
Argaeus (Ap7a<bs). 1. King of Macedonia,
son and successor of Perdiccas I., the founder
of the dynasty. — 2. A pretender to the Mace
donian crown, dethroned Perdiccas II. and
Teigned 2 years (Diod. xiv. 92, xvi. 2).
Argaeus Mons ( 'Apyuios : Erdjish), a lofty
snow-capped mountain nearly in the centre of
Cappadocia ; an offset of the Anti-Taurus. At
its foot stood the celebrated city of Mazaca or
Caesarea (Strab. p. 538).

ARGONAUTAE

105

Arganthonlus ('ApyavBtivios), king of Tartes-
sus in Spain, in the 6th century B.C., is said to
have reigned 80 years, and to have lived 120
(Hdt. i. 168 ; Strab. p. 151 ; Lucian, Macrob. 10 ;
Cic. de Sen. 19 ; Plin. vii. 154, who cites Ana
creon as making him live 150 years).
Arganthonlus or Arganthus Mons (to Ap-
yavBaviov bpos : Katirli), a mountain in Bithy
nia, running out into the Propontis, forming
the Prom. Posidium (C. Bouz), and separating
the bays of Cios and Astacus (Strab. p. 564).
Argennum or Arginum ("Apycvvov, 'Apyivov :
C. Blanco), a promontory on the Ionian coast,
opposite to Chios (Thuc. viii. 84).
Argentarius Mons. 1. Monte Argentaro, a
promontory of Etruria, where it is said there
are traces of ancient silver mines. — 2, Part of
M. Orospeda in southern Spain, the source of
the river Baetis (Strab. p. 148).
Argenteus, a small river in Gallia Narbo-
nensis, which flows into the Mediterranean near
Forum Julii (Cic. Fam. x. 34 ; Plin. iii. 35).
Argentoriitum or -tus (Strasburg), an im
portant town on the Rhine in Gallia Belgica,
the head-quarters of the 8th legion, and a Roman
municipium. In its neighbourhood Julian
gained a brilliant victory over the Alemanni,
a.d. 357. It was subsequently called Strate-
burgum and Stratisburgum in the Notitia
and Ravenna Geog. (Amm. Marc. xv. 11,
xvi. 12 ; Zosim. iii. 3.)
Arges. [Cyclopes.]
Argia ('Apyeia), daughter of Adrastus and
Amphithea, and wife of Polynices (Apollod. i. 9 ;
Diod. iv. 65).
Argia ('Apyeia). [Aegos.]
Argiletum, a district in Rome, which exten
ded from the S. of the Quirinal to the Capito-
line and the Forum. It was chiefly inhabited
by mechanics and booksellers. The origin of
the name is uncertain : the most obvious deri
vation is from argilla, ' potter's clay ; ' but the
more common explanation in antiquity was
Argi letum, ' death of Argus,' from a hero Argus
who was buried there. (Varro, L.L. iv. 32; Cic.
AU. xii. 32 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 345 ; Mart. i. 4.)
Argilus ("ApytXos : 'ApyiXios), a town in Bi-
saltia, the E. part of Mygdonia in Macedonia,
between Amphipolis and Bromiscus, a colony
of Andros (Thuc. iv. 103, v. 6).
Arginusae ('Apyivovo-ai or 'Apyivovo-crai),
3 small islands off the coast of Aeolis, opposite
Mytilene in Lesbos, celebrated for the naval
victory of the Athenians over the Lacedae
monians under Callicratidas, B.C. 406 (Strab.
p. 617 ; Xen. Hell. i. 6.)
Argiphontes ('Apyenpivrris), 'the slayer of
Argus,' a surname of Hermes.
Argippaei ('Apyiiriraioi), a Scythian tribe in
Sarmatia Asiatica, who appear, from the de
scription of them by Herodotus (iv. 23),ito have
been of the Calmuck or Mongolian race.
Argissa. [Arguea.]
Argithea, the chief town of Athamania in
Epirus. Argiva, a surname of Hera or Juno.
Argivi. [Aegos.]
Argo, [Aegonautae.]
Argolis. [Aegos.]
Argonautae ('Apyovavrai), the Argonauts,
' the sailors of the Argo,' were the heroes who
sailed to Aea (afterwards called Colchis) for
the purpose of fetching the golden fleece. The
story of the Argonauts is variously related by
the ancient writers, but the common tale ran as
follows. In Iolcus in Thessaly reigned Pelias,
who had deprived his half-brother Aeson of the

106 sovereignty. In order to get rid of Jason the
son of Aeson, Pelias persuaded Jason to fetch
the golden fleece, which was suspended on an
oak-tree in the grove of Ares in Colchis, and
was guarded day and night by a dragon. Jason
willingly undertook the enterprise, and com
manded Argus, the son of Phrixus, to build a
ship with 50 oars; which was called Argo
('Apyd) after the name of the builder. Jason
was accompanied by all the great heroes of the
age, and their number is said to have been
50-60. (Pindar names only 11.) Among these
were Heracles, Castor and Pollux, Zetes and
Calais, the sons of Boreas, the singer Orpheus,
the seer Mopsus, Philammon, Tydeus, Theseus,
Amphiaraus, Peleus, Nestor, Admetus, &c. Ac
cording to Hdt. iv. 179, Jason made a pre
liminary voyage round the Peloponnesus, wish
ing to get to Delphi by the Corinthian gulf, and
was driven from Malea to Libya, where the Argo
went ashore at Lake Tritonis and was helped
off by a Triton. Their start from Iolcus for the
real expedition is marked by the name
Aphetae (Strab. p. 436; Hdt. vii. 193). After
leaving Iolcus they first landed at Lemnos,

Athene superintending the Bunding of the Argo (from a terra-cotta panel in
British Museum).

where they united themselves with the women
of the island, who had just before murdered
their fathers and husbands. From Lemnos
they sailed to the Doliones at Cyzicus, where
king Cyzicus received them hospitably. They
left the country during the night, and being
thrown back on the coast by a contrary wind,
they were taken for Pelasgians, the enemies of
the Doliones, and a struggle ensued, in which
Cyzicus was slain ; but he was recognised by the
Argonauts, who buried him and mourned over
his fate. They next landed in Mysia, where
they left behind Heracles and Polyphemus,
who had gone into the country in search of
Hylas, whom a nymph had carried off while he
was fetching water for his companions. In the
country of the Bebryces, king Amycus chal
lenged the Argonauts to fight with him ; and
when Pollux had conquered him, the Argonauts
afterwards slew many of the Bebryces, and
sailed to Salmydessus in Thrace, where the seer
Phineus was tormented by the Harpies. When
the Argonauts consulted him about their voyage
he promised his advice on condition of their
delivering him from the Harpies. This was
done by Zetes and Calais, wo sons of Boreas ;

ARGONAUTAE and Phineus now advised them, before sailing
through the Symplegades, to mark the flight of
a dove, and to judge from its fate what they
themselves would have to do. When they ap
proached the Symplegades, they sent out a,
dove, which in its rapid flight between the
rocks lost only the end of its tail. The Argo
nauts now, with the assistance of Hera, followed
the example of the dove, sailed quickly between
the rocks, and succeeded in passing without
injury to their ship, with the exception of some
ornaments at the stem. Henceforth the Sym
plegades stood immoveable in the sea. On
their arrival at the Mariandyni, the Argonauts
were kindly received by their king, Lycus.
The seer Idmon and the helmsman Tiphis died
here, and the place of the latter was supplied
by Ancaeus. They now sailed along the coast
until they arrived at the mouth of the river
Phasis. The Colchian king Aeetes promised
to give up the golden fleece, if Jason alone
would yoke to a plough two fire-breathing oxen
with brazen feet, and sow the teeth of the
dragon which had not been used by Cadmus at
Thebes, and which he had received from Athene.
The love of Medea fur
nished Jason with
means to resist fire
and steel, on condition
of his taking her as his
wife; and she taught
him how he was to kill
the warriors that were
to spring up from the
teeth of the dragon.
While Jason was en
gaged upon his task,
Aeetes formed plans
for burning the ship
Argo and for killing all
the Greek heroes. But
Medea's magic powers
sent to sleep the dra
gon who guarded the
golden fleece ; and
after Jason had taken
possession of the trea
sure, he and his Argo
nauts, together with
Medea and her young
brother Absyrtus, em

barked by night and sailed away. Aeetes
pursued them, but before he overtook them,
Medea murdered her brother, cut him into
pieces, and threw his limbs overboard, that her
father might be detained in his pursuit by
collecting the limbs of his child. Aeetes at
last returned home, but sent out a great num
ber of Colchians, threatening them with the
punishment intended for Medea if they re
turned without her. While the Colchians were
dispersed in all directions, the Argonauts had
already reached the mouth of the river Eridanus.
But Zeus, angry at the murder of Absyrtus,
raised a storm which cast the ship from its
course. When driven on the Absyrtian islands,
the ship began to speak, and declared that the
anger of Zeus would not cease unless they sailed
towards Ausonia and were purified by Circe.
They now sailed along the coasts of the Ligyans
and Celts, and through the sea of Sardinia, and
continuing their course along the coast of
Tyrrhenia, they arrived in the island of Aeaea,
where Circe purified them. When they were
passing by the Sirens, Orpheus sang to prevent
the Argonauts being allured by them. Butes,
however, swam to them, but Aphrodite carried

ARGOS

him to Lilybaeum. Thetis and the Nereids
conducted them through Scylla and Charybdis
and between the whirling rocks (ir4rpai irAa7/c-
toi) ; and sailing by the Thrinacian island with
its oxen of Helios, they came to the Phaeacian
island of Corcyra, where they were received by
Alcinous. In the meantime, some of the Col
chians, not being able to discover the Argonauts,
had settled at the foot of the Ceraunian moun
tains; others occupied the Absyrtian islands
near the coast of Illyricum ; and a third band
overtook the Argonauts in the island of the
Phaeacians. But as their hopes of recovering
Medea were deceived by Arete, the queen of
Alcinous, they settled in the island, and the
Argonauts continued their voyage. During the
night they were overtaken by a storm; but
Apollo sent brilliant flashes of lightning which
enabled them to discover a neighbouring island,
which they called Anaphe. [According to one
account, in the Pseudo-Orpheus, the stranding
of the ship in the Syrtes, and its reaching Lake
Tritonis, comes in here on the return voyage.]
Here they erected an altar to Apollo, and
solemn rites were instituted, which continued
to be observed down to very late times. Their
attempt to land in Crete was prevented by
Talus, who guarded the island, but was killed
by the artifices of Medea. From Crete they
sailed to Aegina, and from thence between
Euboea and Locris to Iolcus. Respecting the
events subsequent to their arrival in Iolcus,
see Aeson, Medea, Jason, Pelias. (Apoll. Rh.
Argonautica ; Apollod. i. 9, 16-26 ; Pind. Pyth.
iv. 171 ; Valer. Flacc. Argon.) Strabo notices
the local traditions in his account of each place
at which the Argo is supposed to have touched.
It is clear that the story was already a subject
for poets at any rate in the later Homeric age;
for the Argo is irao-i peXovaa in Od. xii. 70 ;
Jason is her captain, and she passes through
rocks like the Symplegades. In the Iliad there
are traces of a local tradition about Jason at
Lemnos (II. vii. 467, xxi. 40) ; but no apparent
knowledge of the Argo or of Jason's voyages.
The story of the Argonauts is by many writers
construed as a sun myth, expressing either
sunset and sunrise or a drawing of clouds by
the sun in various directions at various times
of the year. No doubt the idea of the golden
fleece in an Eastern land may have been in some
degree suggested by the sun's rays ; but the
main drift of the myth is to express the idea of
the earliest sea voyage. In different places
there were local traditions of the earliest sea
farers, and these have become a more or less
connected story attached to the name of Jason,
who, with his band of heroes, sets out on a
search which some modern writers have com
pared to the search after the Holy Grail. It is
natural that the mythical king of the Eastern
land should appear as the child of the sun. In
ancient art the most famous representations
(which have perished) were the sculptures of
Lysippus (Plin. xxxiv. 79), the paintings of
Micon in the temple of the Dioscuri at Athens
(Paus. i. 18), those of Cydias (Plin. xxxv. 130),
and those on the portico of Neptune (Juv. vi.
153 ; Mart. ii. 14). The Argonauts in Bithynia
are shown on the Ficoroni Cista. One of the
most remarkable of the vase-paintings on this
subject is at Munich, showing Jason at the
moment of taking the fleece from the custody
of the dragon.
Argos (rb "Apyos, -eos), is said by Strabo (p.
372) to have signified a plain in the language
of the Macedonians and Thessalians, and it

107

may therefore contain the same root as the
Latin word ager. In Homer we find mention
of the Pelasgic Argos (II. ii. 681), that is, a town
or district of Thessaly, and of the Achaean
Argos (II. ix. 141; Od. iii. 251), by which he
means sometimes the whole Peloponnesus,
sometimes Agamemnon's kingdom of Argos of
which Mycenae was the capital, and sometimes
the town of Argos. As Argos in Homeric times
was the most important part of the Pelopon
nesus, and sometimes stood for the whole of
it, so the 'Ap-veiot often occur in Homer as
a name of thb whole body of the Greeks, in
which sense the Roman poets also use Argivi. —
1, Argos, a district of Peloponnesus, called
Argolis (t) 'ApyoXis) by Herodotus (i. 82), but
more frequently by other Greek writers either
Argos, Argia (ij 'Apyela), or Argolice (fi
'ApyoXiicii). Under the Romans Argolis be
came the usual name of the ' country, while
the word Argos or Argi was confined to the
town. Argolis under the Romans signified the
country bounded on the N. by the Corinthian
territory, on the W. by Arcadia, on the S. by
Laconia, and included towards the E. the whole
Acte or peninsula between the Saronic and
Argolic gulfs : but during the time of Grecian
independence Argolis or Argos did not include
the territories of Epidaurus, &c, on the E. and
SE. coasts of the Acte, but only the country
lying round the Argolic gulf, bounded on the
W. by the Arcadian mountains, and separated
on the N. by a range of mountains from Corinth,
Cleonae, and Phlius. Argolis, as understood
by the Romans, was for the most part a moun
tainous and unproductive country; the whole
eastern part is of a dry and thirsty soil, with
few streams, the iroXvStyiov "Apyos of II. iv. 171.
The only extensive plain adapted for agriculture
was in the neighbourhood of the city of Argos :
this was the koiXov "Apyos (Soph. 0. C. 378),
and being well watered was famed as *Ap70s
imr6i3oTov (II. ii. 287 ; Strab. p. 388). Its rivers
were, however, small and often dry in summer :
the most important was the Inachus. The
country was divided into the districts of Argia
or Argos proper, Epidaubia, Teoezenia, and
Hebmionis. The original inhabitants of the
country were, according to mythology, the
Cynurii ; but the main part of the population
consisted of Pelasgi and Achaei, to whom
Dorians were added after the conquest of
Peloponnesus by the Dorians. The fame of
the cities of Argolis, and their prosperity in early
days, were greatly due to the favourable position
of the country for maritime intercourse in the
more timid period of navigators, when the
peculiar facility which vessels had for sailing
through a chain of sheltering islands SE. to
Crete, Cyprus, and Egypt, E. to Ephesus or
Miletus, and N. by Euboea to Thessaly, &c,
gave the settlements at Mycenae, Tiryns, or
Argos a start in the commerce before the 6 th
century b.c. — 2. Argos, or Argi, -orum, in the
Latin writers, now Argo, the capital of Argolis,
and, next to Sparta, the most important town
in Peloponnesus, situated in a level plain a
little to the W. of the Inachus. It had an
ancient Pelasgic citadel, called Larissa, and
another built subsequently on another height
(duas arces habent Argi, Liv. xxxiv. 25). It
possessed numerous temples, and was par
ticularly celebrated for the worship of Hera,
whose great temple, Heraeum, lay between
Argos and Mycenae. The remains of the Cy
clopean walls of Argos are still to be seen. It
is the natural centre of the plain, and probably

108

ARGOS

existed as early as any other Argolic city,
though not at first the most powerful. The
city is said to have been built by Inachus or
his son Phoboneus, or grandson Aegus. The
descendants of Inachus, who may be regarded
as the Pelasgian kings, reigned over the country
for 9 generations, but were at length deprived
¦of the sovereignty by Danaus, who is said to
have come from Egypt. This story, like the
similarity of Io and Isis, points to an early con
nexion with Egypt, though how early is a
doubtful question. [See Aegyptus.] The de
scendants of Danaus were in their time obliged
to submit to the Achaean race of the Pelopidae.
Under the rule of the Pelopidae Mycenae be
came the capital of the kingdom, and Argos
was a dependent state. Thus Mycenae was
the royal residence of Atreus and of his son
Agamemnon; but under Orestes Argos was
preferred. Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus
l>y the Dorians, Argos fell to the share of
Temenus, whose descendants ruled over the
•country ; but the great bulk of the population
continued to be Achaean, and the existence of
a fourth tribe at Argos (the Hyrnethian) pro
bably points to the inclusion of a part of the
old inhabitants in the citizenship. With the
Dorian conquest the supremacy of Mycenae in
Argolis ceased, and Argos thenceforth became
the leading city. All these events belong to
mythology ; and Argos first appears in history

Argos in Peloponnesus.
Obv., head of Hera ; rev., dolphins and hound.
about B.C. 750, as the chief state of Pelopon
nesus, under its ruler Phidon. The successors
of Temenus appear as Cisus, Medon, Thestius,
Merops, Aristodanidas, Eratus, Phidon (Paus.
ii. 19). After the time of Phidon its power
declined, being greatly weakened by its wars
with Sparta. The two states long contended
for the district of Cynuria, which lay between
Argolis and Laconia, and which the Spartans
at length obtained by the victory of their
300 champions, about B.C. 550. In B.C. 524
Cleomenes, the Spartan king, defeated the
Argives with such loss near Tiryns, that Sparta
*was left without a rival in Peloponnesus. In
the north also, after B.C. 600, the power of
Periander of Corinth, and Cleisthenes of Sicyon,
exceeded that of Argos, nor did she regain her
liegemony. In consequence of its weakness
and of its jealousy of Sparta, Argos took no
part in the Persian war. In order to strengthen
itself, Argos attacked the neighbouring towns
of Tiryns, Mycenae, &c, destroyed them, and
transplanted their inhabitants to Argos. The
introduction of so many new citizens was fol
lowed by the abolition of royalty and of Doric
institutions, and by the establishment of a
democracy, which continued to be the form of
government till later times, when the city fell
under the power of tyrants. In the Pelopon
nesian war Argos sided with Athens against
Sparta. In b.c. 248 it joined the Achaean
League, and on the conquest of the latter by
the Romans, 146, it became a part of the Roman

ARIABIGNES
province of Achaia. At any early time Argos
was distinguished by its cultivation of music
and poetry [Sacadas ; Telesilla] ; but at the
time of the intellectual greatness of Athens,
literature and science seem to have been en
tirely neglected at Argos. It produced some
great sculptors, of whom Ageladas and Poly-
cletus are the most celebrated. It must not
be forgotten that Argolis, in its extended sense,
was especially a land of great religious festivals :
the Nemea at Cleonae, that of Apollo Lycaeus
at Argos, the Heraea at the temple of Hera,
near Mycenae, those of Asclepius at Epidaurus,
the Cthonia of Demeter at Hermione. [See
Diet. Ant. s.w.]
Argos Amphil6ehicum("Ap7os to 'ApipiXoxi-
koV), the chief town of Amphilochia in Acar
nania, situated on the Ambracian gulf, and
founded by the Argive Amphilochus (Thuc.
ii. 68 ; Strab. p. 325).
Argos Hippium. [Aepi.]
Argons Portus (Porto Ferraio), a town and
harbour in the island of Hva (Elba).
Argura ("Apyovpa), a town in Pelasgiotis in
Thessaly, called Argissa by Homer (II. ii. 738).
Argus ("Ap7os). 1. Son of Zeus and Niobe,
3rd king of Argos, from whom Argos derived its
name (Apollod. ii. 1; Paus. ii. 16).— 2. Sur
named Panoptes, 'the all-seeing,' because he
had a hundred eyes, son of Agenor, Arestor,
Inachus, or Argus. Hera appointed him guar
dian of the cow into which Io had been meta
morphosed ; but Hermes, at the command of
Zeus, put Argus to death, either by stoning him,
or by cutting off his head after sending him
to sleep by the sweet notes of his flute. Hera
transplanted his eyes to the tail of the peacock,
her favourite bird (Apollod. ii. 1 ; Ov. Met. i.
264 ; Aesch. Pr. 569 ; Mosch. ii. 58). Many
have seen in the story a reference to the starry
' eyes' of the sky. — 3. The builder of the Argo,
son of Phrixus, Arestor, or Polybus, was sent
by Aeetes, his grandfather, after the death of
Phrixus, to take possession of his inheritance in
Greece. On his voyage thither he suffered
shipwreck, was found by Jason in the island of
Aretias, and carried back to Colchis. (Ap. Rh.
ii. 1095 ; Apollod. ii. 9.)
Argyra (Ap7upS), a town in Achaia near Pa
trae, with a fountain of the same name.
Argyripa. [Abpi.]
Aria (Apefa, 'Apia : "Apeios, "Apios : the E.
part ofKhorassan, and the W. and NW. part
of Afghanistan), the most important of the E.
provinces of the ancient Persian Empire, was
bounded on the E. by the Paropamisadae, on
the N. by Margiana and Hyrcania, on the W.
by Parthia, and on the S. by the great desert of
Carmania. It was a vast plain, bordered on
the N. and E. by mountains, and on the W. and
S. by sandy deserts; and, though forming a
part of the great sandy tableland, now called
the Desert of Iran, it contained several very
fertile oases, especially in its N. part, along the
base of the Sariphi (Kohistan and Hazarah)
mountains, which was watered by the river
Arius or -as (Herirood), on which stood the
later capital Alexandria (Herat). The river is
lost in the sand. The lower course of the great
river Etymandbus (Helmund) also belonged to
Aria, and the lake into which it falls was called
Aria Lacus (Zurrah). From Aria was derived
the name under which all the E. provinces were
included. [Ariana.]
Aria Lacus. [Aria.]
Ariabignes ('Apia$iyvris), son of Darius Hys-
taspis, one of the commanders of the fleet of

ARIADNE
Xerxes, fell in the battle of Salamis, B.C. 480.
(Hdt vii. 97, viii. 89.)
Ariadne ('ApidSvri), daughter of Minos and
Pasiphae or Creta, fell in love with Theseus,
when he was sent by his father to convey the
tribute of the Athenians to Minotaurus, and
gave him the clue of thread by means of which
he found his way out of the Labyrinth, and
which she herself had received from Hephaes
tus. Theseus in return promised to marry her,
and she accordingly left Crete with him ; but
on their arrival in the island of Dia (Naxos),
she was killed by Artemis. This is the Homeric
account (Od. xi. 322) ; but the more common
tradition, to mitigate the perfidy of Theseus,
related that Theseus left Ariadne in Naxos
alive, either because he was forced by Dionysus
to leave her, or because he was ashamed to
bring a foreign wife to Athens, or because he
was carried away by a storm (Plut. Thes. 20 ;
Diod. iv. 61 ; Paus. i. 20). Dionysus found her
at Naxos, made her his wife, and placed among
the stars the crown which he gave her at their
marriage (Ov. Met. viii. 181, Fast. iii. 459;
Hyg. Ast. 2, 5). There is no doubt that we
have in Ariadne the story of various local
nature-goddesses in the islands of Crete, Naxos
and Delos, nearly akin to and in some aspects
identified with Aphrodite ; whence the story of
the wooden statue of Aphrodite by Daedalus
left at Delos by Ariadne (Paus. ix. 40, 3;
Callim. Hymn. Del. 308) : this was honoured
with a Cretan labyrinth dance (Plut. I.e.). In
Cyprus also there was the tomb of Ariadne in
the grove sacred to Ariadne-Aphrodite. The
twofold aspect in Naxos of Ariadne the
mourner, deserted by Theseus, and Ariadne
the joyful bride of Dionysus, presents the idea
of the earth abandoned by its flowers and
fruits in winter, and renewing its gaiety in
Bpring. The same was probably the meaning
of the ffvppi^is toj Aiovvffa Kal 6 ydpos in
Aristot. 'A&ijv. iroXir. ch. 3. Similarly in Italy,
Ariadne becomes Libera the bride of Liber.
Ariaeus (Apioios), or Aridaeus ('ApiSaios),
the friend of Cyrus, commanded the left wing
of the army at the battle of Cunaxa, b. c. 401
(Xen. An. i. 8 ; Diod. xiv. 22). After the death
of Cyrus he first joined the Greeks, but after
wards obtained the pardon of Artaxerxes by
abandoning them and aiding Tissaphernes to
destroy the Greek generals (Xen. An. ii. ;
Plut. Artax. 18). We hear afterwards of his
being employed to put Tissaphernes to death,
and again of his revolting from Artaxerxes in
395 (Polyaen. viii. 16; Diod. xiv. 80; Xen.
Hell.jv. 1,27).
Ariamnes ('Apidpvns), the name of two kings
of Cappadocia, one the father of Ariarathes I.,
and the other the son and successor of Ariara
thes n.
Ariaua ('Apicarfi : Iran), derived from Aria,
¦from the specific sense of which it must be care
fully distinguished, was the general name of
the E. provinces of the ancient Persian Empire,
and included the portion of Asia bounded on
the W. by an imaginary line drawn from the
Caspian to the mouth of the Persian Gulf, on
the S. by the Indian Ocean, on the E. by the
Indus, and on the N. by the great chain of
mountains called by the general name of the
Indian Caucasus, embracing the provinces of
Parthia, Aria, the Paropamisadae, Arachosia,
Drangiana, Gedrosia, and Carmania (Khoras-
san, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, and Kirman).
But the name was often extended to the
country as far W. as the margin of the Tigris-

ARIASPAE

109

valley, so as to include Media and Persia, and
also to the provinces N. of the Indian Caucasus,
namely Bactria and Sogdiana (Bokhara). The
knowledge of the ancients respecting the
greater part of this region was confined to what
was picked up in the expeditions of Alexander
and the wars of the Greek kings of Syria, and
what was learned from merchant caravans.
(Strab. pp. 688, 696, 720 ff. ; Plin. vi. 98.)
Ariarathes ('Apiapc£07js), the name of several
kings of Cappadocia. — 1. Son of Ariamnes I.,
assisted Ochus in the recovery of Egypt, B.C.
850. Ariarathes was defeated by Perdiccas, and
crucified, 322. Eumenes then obtained posses
sion of Cappadocia (Diod. xviii. 16, xxxi. 3 ;
Plut. Eum. 8). — 2. Son of Holophernes, and
nephew of Ariarathes I., recovered Cappadocia
after the death of Eumenes, b.c. 315. He was
succeeded by Ariamnes II. (Diod. xxxi. 28). —
3. Son of Ariamnes II., and grandson of No. 2,
married Stratonlce, daughter of Antiochus II.,
king of Syria. — 4. Son of No. 3, reigned B. c.
220-162. He married Antiochis, the daughter
of Antiochus III., king of Syria, and assisted
Antiochus in his war against the Romans.
After the defeat of Antiochus, Ariarathes sued
for peace in 188, which he obtained on favour
able terms. In 183-179, he assisted Eumenes
in his war against Pharnaees. (Liv. xxxvii. 31,
xxxviii. 38 ; Polyb. xxii. 24, xxxi. 12-14.) — 5.
Son of No. 4, reigned B.C. 163-130. He was
surnamed Philopator, and was distinguished by
the excellence of his character and his cultiva
tion of philosophy and the liberal arts, having
been educated at Rome (Liv. xii. 19). He
assisted the Romans in their war against
Aristonicus of Pergamus, and fell in this war,
130 (Justin, xxxv. i. ; Polyb. xxxii. 20, xxxiii.
12).— 6. Son of No. 5, reigned b. c. 130-96. He
married Laodice, sister of Mithridates VI., king
of Pontus, and was put to death by Mithridates
by means of Gordius. On his death the king
dom was seized by Nicomedes, king of Bithynia,
who married Laodice, the widow of the late
king. But Nicomedes was soon expelled by
Mithridates, who placed upon the throne
(Justin, xxxvii. 1, xxxviii. 1) — 7. Son of No. 6.
He was, however, also murdered by Mithri
dates, in a short time, who now took possession
of his kingdom. The Cappadocians rebelled
against Mithridates, and placed upon the
throne — 8. Second son of No. 6 ; but he was
speedily driven out of the kingdom by Mith
ridates, and shortly afterwards died. Both
Mithridates and Nicomedes attempted to give a
king to the Cappadocians; but the Romans
allowed the people to choose whom they
pleased, and their choice fell upon Ariobar-
zanes (Justin, I.e. ; Strab. p. 540). — 9. Son of. Ari-
obarzanes II. went to Rome to seek Caesar's
support b.c. 45 ; got the throne after Philippi,
and reigned B.C. 42-36. He was deposed and
put to death by Antony, who appointed Arche
laus as his successor. (Appian, B. C. v. 7 ; Dio-
Cass. xlix. 32 ; Cic. Fam. xv. 2, Att. xiii. 2.)
Ariaspae or Agriaspae ('Apido-irai, 'Aypido-irai),
a people in the S. part of the Persian province
of Drangiana, on the very borders of Gedrosia,
with a capital city, Ariaspe ('Apido-irri). In
return for the services which they rendered to
the army of Cyrus the Great, when he marched
through the desert of Carmania, they were
honoured with the name of Evepy4rat, and
were allowed by the Persians to retain their
independence, which was confirmed to them by
Alexander as the reward of similar services ta
himself. (Arrian, iii. 27, 37 ; Curt. vii. 3.)

210

ARICIA

Aricia (Aricinus : Ariccia or Biccia), an
ancient town of Latium at the foot of the Alban
Mount, on the Appian Way, 16 miles from
Rome. It was a member of the Latin con
federacy, was subdued by the Romans, with the
other Latin towns, in B.C. 338, and received the
Roman franchise (Liv. viii. 14). In its neigh
bourhood was the celebrated grove and temple
of Diana Ariclna, on the borders of the Lacus
Nemorensis (Nemi). [See Diana, and Diet. Ant.
8. v. Bex Nemorensis^]
Ariconium (Weston), in Herefordshire, be
tween Blestum (Monmouth) and Glevum
(Gloucester), on the road leading from Silchester
to Caerleon.
Aridaeus. [Aelaeus : Aerhtdaeus.]
Arii. [Aria.]
Arimaspi (Api/ia(r7rof), a people in the N. of
Scythia, of whom a fabulous account is given
by Herodotus (iv. 27). The germ of the fable is
perhaps to be recognised in the fact that the
Ural Mountains abound in gold.
Arimazes ('Apipdfas) or Ariomazes (Apio-
pdfys), a chief in Sogdiana, whose fortress was
taken by Alexander in B.C. 328. In it Alex
ander found Roxana (the daughter of the
Bactrian chief, Oxyartes), whom he made his
wife. Curtius states that Alexander crucified
Arimazes ; but this is not mentioned by Arrian
or Polyaenus. (Arrian, iv. 19 ; Curt. vii. 11 ;
Polyaen. iv. 3.)
Arimi ("Apipoi) and Arima (to, "Apipa sc. vpri),
the names of a mythical people, district, and
range of mountains in Asia Minor, which the
old Greek poets made the scene of the punish
ment of the monster Typhoeus. Virgil (Aen.
ix. 716) has misunderstood the eiV 'Apipois of
Homer (II. ii. 788), and made Typhoeus lie
beneath Inarime, an island off the coast of
Italy — namely, Pithecusa or Aenaria (Ischia).
Arimlnuni (Ariminensis : Bimini), a town in
Umbria on the coast at the mouth of the little
river Ariminus (Marocchid). It was originally
inhabited by Umbrians and Pelasgians, was
afterwards in the possession of the Senones, and
was colonised by the Romans in B.C. 268, as one
of the 12 most recent Latin colonies which had
commercium, but not civitas (Cic. pro Caec.
35, 102). It obtained the full franchise in 188,
and is mentioned by Appian (B. C. iv. 3) as a
flourishing city in 43 B.C. Augustus established
a military colony there. It became in later
times subject to' the Exarchs of Ravenna.
After leaving Cisalpine Gaul, it was the first
town which a person arrived at in the NE. of
Italia proper. It was connected by the Via
Flammia with Rome, and by the Via Aemilia
with Placentia (Strab. p. 217).
Ariobarzanes ('Apiofjap(dvris). I. Kings or
Satraps of Pontus. — 1. Betrayed by his son
Mithridates to the Persian king, about B.C. 400
(Xen. Oyr. viii. 8; Ar. Pol. v. 8).— 2. Son of
Mithridates I., reigned B.C. 363-337. He re
volted from Artaxerxes in 362, and may be
regarded as the founder of the kingdom of
Pontus (Diod. xvi. 90).— 3. Son of Mithridates
HI., reigned 266-240, and was succeeded by
Mithridates IV. — II. Kings of Cappadocia. —
1. Surnamed Philoromaeus, reigned B.C. 93-63,
,and was elected king by the Cappadocians,
under the direction of the Romans. He was
several times expelled from his kingdom by
Mithridates, was restored by Sulla in 92, ex
pelled in 90, and fled to Rome, restored by
Aquillius in 89, expelled the next year, but
received his throne in 84 from Sulla, was ex
pelled again by Mithridates in 66, and finally

ARIPHRON
restored by Pompey in 63 (App. Mithr. 10, 57
60; Plut. Sull. 22; Justin, xxxviii. 2).— 2. Sur
named Philopator, succeeded his father in 63.
The time of his death is not known; but it
must have been before 51, in which year his son
was reigning (Cic. Fam. xv. 2 ; de Prov. Cons. 4).
— 3. Surnamed Eusebes and Philoromaeus, son
of No. 2, whom he succeeded about 51. He
assisted Pompey against Caesar in 48. but was
nevertheless pardoned by Caesar, who even en
larged his territories. He was slain in 42 by
Cassius, because he was plotting against him in
Asia. (Cic. Fam. ii. 17, xv. 2 ; Diod. xiii. 45 ;
Dio Cass, xlvii. 33 ; Caes. B. C. iii. 4.)
Arion ('Apiav). 1. Of Methymna in, Lesbos,
an ancient Greek bard and a celebrated player
on the cithara. He lived about B.C. 625, and
spent a great part of Ins life at the court of
Periander, tyrant of Corinth. His great work
was to develop the dithyramb or choral hymn
to Dionysus. He first employed a trained
chorus of 50 singers, with distinct parts for
singing and action, ranged in a circle around the
altar, and therefore called the cyclic chorus,
whereas Doric choruses had been drawn up in
a rectangular form. This was an important
step towards the growth of Greek tragedy (see
Diet. Ant. s.v. Tragoedia). Of his life scarcely
any thing is related beyond the beautiful story
of his escape from the sailors with whom he
sailed from Sicily to Corinth. On one occasion,
thus runs the story, Arion went to Sicily to take
part in some musical contest. He won the
prize, and, laden with presents, he embarked in
a Corinthian ship to return to his friend Peri
ander. The rude sailors coveted his treasures,
and meditated his murder. After trying in
vain to save his life, he at length obtained per
mission once more to play on the cithara. In
festal attire he placed himself in the prow of
the ship and invoked the gods in inspired
strains, and then threw himself into the sea.
But many song-loving dolphins had assembled -
round the vessel, and one of them now took the
bard on its back and carried him to Taenarus,
from whence he returned to Corinth in safety,
and related his adventure to Periander. Upon
the arrival of the Corinthian vessel Periander
inquired of the sailors after Arion, who replied
that he had remained behind at Tarentum ; but
when Arion, at the bidding of Periander, came
forward, the sailors owned their guilt, and were
punished according to their desert. In the time
of Herodotus and Pausanias there existed at
Taenarus a brass monument, representing Arioa
riding on a dolphin. Arion and his cithara
(lyre) were placed among the stars. (Hdt. i. 28 ;
Aelian, N. A. xii. 45 ; Cic. Tusc. ii. 27, 67 ; Ov.
Fast. ii. 83.) A fragment of a hymn to Poseidon,
ascribed to Arion, is contained in Bergk's Poetae
Lyrici Graeci, p. 566, &c. — 2. A fabulous horse,
of which Poseidon was the father. [Poseidon.]
Ariovistus, a German chief, who crossed the
Rhine at the request of the Sequani, when they
were hard pressed by the Aedui. He subdued
the Aedui, but appropriated to himself part of
the territory of the Sequani, and threatened to
take still more. The Sequani now united with
the Aedui in imploring the help of Caesar, who
defeated Ariovistus about 50 miles from the
Rhine, B.C. 58. Ariovistus escaped across the
river in a small boat. (Caes. B. G. i. 31-53 ; Dio
Cass, xxxviii. 81; Plut. Caes. 18.) That his
fame lived in Gaul is seen from Tac. Hist.
iv. 78.
Ariphron. 1. Grandfather of Pericles (Hdt.
vi. 181).— 2. A lyric poet of Sicyon (Athen. p.

ARISBE
702 ; Lucian, de Laps. 6). A fragment is printed
in Bergk, Poet. Lyr.
Arisbe, a town of the Troad. It was a camp
of Alexander, and was taken by the Gauls (II.
ii. 886 ; Arrian, i. 12 ; Polyb. v. 111).
Aristaenetus, a rhetorician of Nicaea, friend
of Libanius, killed in an earthquake at Nico-
media a.d. 858 (Amm. Marc. xvii. 7). To him is
wrongly ascribed a collection of erotic epistles,
ed. Hercher, 1873.
Aristaenus ('Apio-raivos), of Megalopolis,
sometimes called Aristaenetus, was frequently
strategus or general of the Achaean League from
B.C. 198 to 185. He was the political opponent
of Philopoemen, and a friend of the Romans.
(Polyb. xvii. 1-18, xxiii. 7, xxxii. 19 ; Liv. xxxiv.
25.) Aristaeus ('ApioToibs), an ancient divinity
representing the giver of best gifts, worshipped
in many ports of Greece, especially in Thessaly,
Boeotia, Arcada, Ceos, Corcyra, and other
islands of the Aegean and Adriatic. No doubt
Thera was an ancient seat of this worship, and
thence it passed to Cyrene. When the later
Hellenic religion prevailed, Aristaeus was re
presented as the son of one of the deities, a
mortal deified for his virtues. His origin is
then variously related in local traditions. (Hes.
Th. 975 ; Pind. Pyth. ix. 45 ; Diod. iv. 81 ; Ap.
Rh. iii. 500 ; Verg. Georg. i. 14, iv. 288.) He is
described either as a son of Uranus and Ge,
or, according to a more general tradition, as the
son of Apollo and Cyrene. His mother Cyrene
had been carried off by Apollo from mount
Pelion to Libya, where she gave birth to Ari
staeus. Aristaeus subsequently went to Thebes
in Boeotia ; but after the unfortunate death of
his son Actaeon, he left Thebes and visited
almost all the Greek colonies on the coasts of
the Mediterranean. Finally he went to Thrace,
and after dwelling for some time near mount
Haemus, where he founded the town of Ari-
staeon, he% disappeared. Aristaeus is one of
the most beneficent divinities in ancient mytho
logy: he was worshipped as the protector of
flocks and shepherds, of vine and olive planta
tions ; he taught men to keep bees, and^averted
from the fields the burning heat of the sun and
other causes of destruction.
Aristagoras ('Apio-Tay6pas), ' of Miletus,
brother-in-law of Histiaeus, was left by the
latter during his stay at the Persian court, in
charge of the government of Miletus. Having
failed in an attempt upon Naxos (B.C. 501),
which he had promised to subdue for the
Persians, and fearing the consequences of his
failure, he induced the Ionian cities to revolt
from Persia. He applied for assistance to the
Spartans and Athenians: the former refused,
but the latter sent him 20 ships and some troops.
In 499 his army captured and burnt Sardis, but
was finally chased back to the coast The Athe
nians now departed; the Persians conquered
most of the Ionian cities; and Aristagoras in
despair fled to Thrace, where he was slain by
the Edonians in 497 (Hdt. v» 30-51, 97-126 ;
Thuc. iv. 102).
Aristander ('Apio-ravSpos), the most cele
brated soothsayer of Alexander the Great, wrote
on prodigies (Arrian, iv. 4 ; Plin. xvii. 243).
Aristarchus (Apio-Topxos). 1. An Athenian,
one of the leaders in the revolution of the ' Four
Hundred,' B.C. 411. He was afterwards put to
death by the Athenians, not later than 406
(Thuc. viii. 90 ; Xen. Hell. i. 7, 28).— 2. A Lace
daemonian, succeeded Oleander as harmost of
Byzantium in 400, and in various ways ill treated

ARISTEAS

111

the Cyrean Greeks, who had recently returned
from Asia (Xen. An. vii. 2-6). — 3. Of Tegea, a
tragic poet at AthenB, contemporary with Eu
ripides, flourished about B.C. 454, and wrote 70
tragedies (Nauck, Fr. Poet. Trag. 1856).— 4. Of
Samos, an eminent mathematician and astro
nomer at Alexandria, flourished between b.c.
280 and 264. He employed himself in the de
termination of some of the most important ele
ments of astronomy ; but none of his works
remain, except a treatise on the magnitudes
and distances of the sun and moon (7repl peytBuv
Kal airoo-rripdrav riXiov (col aeXi\vtis). Edited
by Wallis, Oxon. 1688, and reprinted in vol. iii.
of his works ; by Nizze, 1856. — 5. Of Samo-
theace, the celebrated grammarian, flourished
B.C. 156. He was educated in the school of
Aristophanes of Byzantium, at Alexandria,
where he himself founded a grammatical and
critical school. At an advanced age he left
Alexandria, and went to Cyprus, where he is
said to have died at the age of 72, of voluntary
starvation, because he was suffering from in
curable dropsy. Aristarchus was the greatest
critic of antiquity. His labours were chiefly
devoted to the Greek poets, but more especially
to the Homeric poems, of which he published a
recension, which has been the basis of the text
from his time to the present day. The great
object of his critical labours was to restore the
genuine text of the Homeric poems, and to
clear it of all later interpolations and corrup
tions. He marked those verses which he thought
spurious with an obelos, and those which were
repeated with an asterisk. He adopted the
division (already made) of the Iliad and Odyssey
into 24 books each. He did not confine himself
to a recension of the text, but also explained
and interpreted the poems : he opposed the
allegorical interpretation which was then begin
ning to find favour, and which at a later time
became very general. His grammatical prin
ciples were attacked by many of his contem
poraries : the most eminent of his opponents
was Crates of Mallus. His criticisms are
best preserved in the Venetian Scholia (ed.
Bachmann, 1835). These Scholia include the
Epitome, formed from the collection which
Didymus and other Aristarcheans made from
the writings of their master.
Aristeas ('ApioT-eos), of Proconnesus, an epic
poet of whose life we have only fabulous ac
counts. His date is quite uncertain : some place
him in the time of Croesus and Cyrus ; but other
traditions make him earlier than Homer, or
a contemporary and teacher of Homer. We
only know that he was earlier than Herodotus.
He seems to have been a mystic writer about
the Hyperboreans, and was said to be a magician,
whose soul could leave and re-enter its body
according to its pleasure. He was connected
with the worship of Apollo, which he was said
to have introduced at Metapontum. He is said
to have travelled through the countries N. and
E. of the Euxine, and to have visited the Isse-
dones, Arimaspae, Cimmerii, Hyperborei, and
other mythical nations, and after his return to
have written an epic poem in 3 books, called
The Arismaspea (to ' Apipdo-ireia). This work is
frequently mentioned by the ancients, but it is
impossible to say who was the real author of it.
(Hdt. iv. 13, 86 ; Strab. pp. 6, 39 ; Tzetz. ii. 724 ;
Paus. i. 24, 6, v. 7, 9; Gell. ix. 4.)
Aristeas or Aristaeus, an officer of Ptolemy
Philadelphus (b.c. 285-247), the reputed author
of a Greek work giving an account of the man
ner in which the translation, of the Septuagint

112

ARISTIDES

was executed, but which is generally admitted
by the best critics to be spurious. Printed at
Oxford, 1692, 8vo.
Aristides ('Apio-TciSris). 1. An Athenian, son
of Lysimachus, surnamed the ' Just,' was of an
ancient and noble family. He was the political
disciple of Cleisthenes, and partly on that- ac
count, partly from personal character, opposed
from the first to Themistocles. Aristides fought
as the commander of his tribe at the 'battle of
Marathon, B.C. 490 ; and next year, 489, he was
archon. In 483 he suffered ostracism, probably
in consequence of the triumph of the maritime
and democratic policy of his rival. From Hdt.
viii. 79 he is generally supposed to have been
still in exile in 480 at the battle of Salamis,
where he did good service by dislodging the
enemy, with a band raised and armed by him
self, from the islet of Psyttaleia : but the words
of Herodotus are not precise, and in Arist.
'A0. iroX. 22 it is said that he was recalled before
the battle : this agrees with Plutarch (Arist. 8).
He was appointed general in the following year
(479), and commanded the Athenians at tr.3
battle of Plataea. In 477, when the allies had
become disgusted with the conduct of Pausanias
and the Spartans, he and his colleague Cimon
had the glory of obtaining for Athens the com
mand of the maritime confederacy : and to Aris
tides was by general consent entrusted the task
of drawing up its laws and fixing its assessments.
He sketched out the changes which Ephialtes
adopted in developing democracy by the over
throw of the Areiopagus (Arist. At?. iroX. 41).
This first tribute (cpdpos) of 460 talents, paid into
a common treasury at Delos, bore his name, and
was regarded by the allies in after times as
marking their Saturnian age. This is his last
recorded act. He died after 471, the year of the
ostracism of Themistocles, and very likely in
468. He died so poor that he did not leave
enough to pay for his funeral : his daughters
were portioned by the state, and his son Lysi
machus received a grant of land and of money.
(Plut. Arist. ; Nep. Arist. ; Hdt. vi. 110, viii.
89, ix. 18-70 ; Thuc. viii. 79.)— 2. The author of a
-work entitled Milesiaca, which was probably a
romance, having Miletus for its scene. It was
written in prose, and was of a licentious cha
racter. It was translated into Latin by L. Cor
nelius Sisenna, a contemporary of Sulla, and
it seems to have become popular with the
Romans. Aristides is reckoned as the inventor
of the Greek romance, and the title of his work
, gave rise to the term Milesian, as applied to
works of fiction. He probably wrote at Miletus
in the 1st or 2nd century B.C. (Ov. Trist. ii. 413,
443 ; Plut. Crass. 32.) Fragm. by C. Miiller
1851. — 3. Of Thebes, a celebrated Greek
painter, flourished about B.C. 360-330. The
point in which he most excelled was in depict
ing the feelings, expressions, and passions which
may be observed in common life. His pictures
were so much valued that long after his death
i Attalus, king of Pergamus, offered 600,000
sesterces for one of them. (Plin. xxxv. 98;
Diet. Ant. s.v. Pictura.) — i. P. Aelius Aris
tides, surnamed Theodorus, a celebrated Greek
rhetorician, was born at Adriani in Mysia, in
a.d. 117. He studied under Herodes Atticus at
Athens, and subsequently travelled through
Egypt, Greece, and Italy. The fame of his
talents and acquirements was so great that
monuments were erected to his honour in
several towns which he had honoured with his
presence. Shortly before his return he was
attacked by an illness which lasted for IS years,

ARISTIPPUS
but this did not prevent him from prosecuting
his studies. He subsequently settled at Smyrna,
and when this city was nearly destroyed by an
earthquake in 178, he used his influence with
the emperor M. Aurelius to induce him to assist
in rebuilding the town. The Smyrnaeans
showed their gratitude to Aristides by offering
him various honours and distinctions, most of
which he refused : he accepted only the office
of priest of Asclepius, which he held until his
death, about a.d. 180. The works of Aristides
which have come down to us, are 55 orations
and declamations, and 2 treatises on rhetorical
subjects of little value. His orations are much
superior to those of the rhetoricians of his time,
showing power both of thought and expression.
The best edition of Arisfldes is by W. Dindorf,
Lips. 1829.— 5. Quintilianus Aristides, the
author of a treatise in 3 books on music, pro
bably lived in the 1st century after Christ. His
work is perhaps the most valuable of all the
ancient musical treatises ; it is printed in the
collection of Meibomius entitled Antiquae Mu-
sicae Auctores Septem, Amst. 1652.
Aristion ('Apio-riav), a philosopher either of
the Epicurean or Peripatetic school, made him
self tyrant of Athens through the influence of
Mithridates. He held out against Sulla in B.C.
87 ; and when the city was taken by storm, he
was put to death by Sulla's orders. (Athen.
p. 211.)
Aristippus ('Apio-Tiinros). 1. Son of Antades,
and founder of the Cyrenaic school of philo
sophy, was born at Cyrene, probably about 428
B.C. The fame of Socrates brought him to
Athens, and he remained with him until a little
before his execution, b.c. 399. He then lived
as a teacher, receiving money from his pupils,
in various places, first at Aegina, and afterwards
at the court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse ;
but he appears at last to have returned to
Cyrene, and there to have spent his old age.
His philosophy rejected as useless discussions
about mathematics and physical science : like
Protagoras, he held that sensation consisted in
motion, and he distinguished two kinds of
motion, the rough (rpaxeia) producing pain,
and the smooth (Aeio) producing pleasure,
the absence of motion a neutral state. As we
are concerned only with our own feelings, not
with those of others, we should aim at gaining
as much of the pleasurable and as little of the
painful or neutral as possible. The nature of
actions is indifferent, so long as the result pro
duces a balance of pleasure. It is thus clear
that Aristippus was a Hedonist, but it would be
a mistake to suppose that he was himself an
advocate of immorality, or even what we should
call a mere sensualist, however much his theories
tended to that end. He held that by nature
the pleasant coincided with the good, and the
unpleasant with the bad, thus being at liberty
to condemn the vicious as ignorant of true plea
sure ; he taught that we should not seek plea
sures purchased by greater pain, and that we
should attain wisdom or insight to judge rightly
of relative values. Further he required self-
control, saying that there was no shame in in
dulgences, but it would be disgraceful if at any
time he could not give them up. He was emi
nently gifted with evrpaireXia, the power of
adapting himself to circumstances so as to
extract the greatest possible enjoyment from
them, while he secured his contentment by
limiting his desires. This is expressed in the
lines of Horace, ' mihi res non me rebus sub-
jungere,' 'omnis Aristippum decuit color et

ARISTO
status et res, tentantem majora, fere praesen-
tibus aequum ' (Ep. i. 1. 19 ; i. 17. 28). In his
striving for (ppdvijcris and freedom of mind he
witnesses to the teaching of Socrates, though in
his philosophy of life he is as far as possible
from the ethics of Socrates and from the Socratio
view of real existence. Among the members of
his school (some of whom, as might be expected,
pushed their founder's view of pleasure to an
extreme without his safeguards) were Antipater,
Anniceris, Theodorus and Hegesias. His
daughter Arete carried on his teaching, and
imparted it to her son Aristippus the younger,
thence called 6 pijTpoSlSaKTos. (Xen. Mem. ii.
1 ; Plut. Dion, 19 ; Diog. Laert. ii. 8, 56 ; Cic.
Acad. ii. 42, 131, Fin. i. 7, 28, Tusc. ii. 6, 15.)
— 2. Two tyrants of Argos, in the time of Anti
gonus Gonatas. See Aristomachus, Nos. 8
and 4.
Aristo, T. , a distinguished Roman jurist, lived
under the emperor Trajan, and was a friend of
the Younger Pliny. His works are occasionally
mentioned in the Digest, but there is no direct
extract from any of them in that compilation.
He wrote notes on the Libri Posteriorum of
Labeo, onCassius, whose pupil he had been, and
on Sabinus.
Aristo. [Ariston.]
Aristobulus (Apio-TcijSouA.os), princes of
Judaea. 1. Eldest son of Joannes Hyrcanus,
assumed the title of king of Judaea, on the death
of his father in B.C. 107. He put to death his
brother Antigonus, in order to secure his
power, but died in the following year, 106.
(Jos. Ant. xiii. 11, B. J. i. 2.) — 2. Younger son
of Alexander Jannaeus and Alexandra. After
the death of his mother in B.C. 70, there was a
civil war for some years between Aristobulus
and his brother Hyrcanus, for the possession of
the crown. At length, in B.C. 63, Aristobulus
was deprived of the sovereignty by Pompey and
carried away as a prisoner to Rome. In 57, he
escaped from his confinement at Rome, with his
son Antigonus, and, returning to Judaea, re
newed the war ; .but he was taken prisoner, and
sent back to Rome by Gabinius. In 49, he was
released by Julius Caesar, who sent him into
Judaea, but he was poisoned on the way by
some of Pompey's party. (Jos. Ant. xiii. 16,
xiv. 1 ; B. J. i. 6 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 15, xii. 18.)
—3. Grandson of No. 2, son of Alexander and
brother of Herod's wife Mariamne. He was
made high-priest by Herod, when he was only
17 years old, but was afterwards drowned
at Jericho, by order of Herod, b.c. 35. (Jos.
Ant. xv. 2.) — 4. Son of Herod the Great by
Mariamne, was put to death in B.C. 6, with his
brother Alexander, by order of their father,
whose suspicions had been excited against them
by their brother Antipater. (Jos. Ant. xvi. 1.)
—6. Surnamed ' the Younger,' son of Aristobulus
and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great.
He was educated at Rome with his two brothers,
Agrippa I. and Herod the future king of Chalcis.
He died, as he had lived, in a private station.
(Jos. Ant. xviii. 5.) — 6. Son of Herod king of
Chalcis, grandson of No. 4, and great-grandson
of Herod the Great. In a.d. 55, Nero made him
king of Armenia Minor, and in 61 added to his
dominions some portion of the Greater Armenia
which had been given to Tigranes. He joined
the Romans in the war against Antiochus, king
of Commagene, in 73. (Jos. Ant. xx. 8 ; Tac.
Ann. xiii. 7, xiv. 26.)
Aristobulus. 1. Of Cassandrea, served under
Alexander the Great in Asia, and wrote a his
tory of Alexander, which was one of the chief

ARISTODEMUS

118

sources used by Arrian in the composition of
his work. — 2. An Alexandrine Jew, and a Peri
patetic philosopher, lived B.C. 170, under Pto
lemy VI. Philometor.
Aristoeles ('Apio-ToKXys). 1. Of Rhodes, a
Greek grammarian and rhetorician, a contem
porary of Strabo. — 2. Of Pergamus, a sophist
and rhetorician, and a pupil of Herodes Atticus,
lived under Traj an and Hadrian. — 3. OfMessene,
a Peripatetic philosopher, probably lived about
the beginning of the 3rd century after Christ.
He wrote a work on philosophy, some fragments
of which are preserved by Eusebius. — 4. Sculp
tors. There were at least two sculptors of this
name : 1. Aristoeles of Sicyon, brother of Cana-
chus, who is said to have founded a school of
sculpture at Sicyon, with an hereditary reputa
tion for 7 generations, five of which are named :
Aristoeles, Synnob'n, Ptolichus, Sostratus, and
Pantias. This Aristoeles probably lived about
B.C. 520, in the later archaic period. — 2. Ari
stoeles of Athens, who lived at the end of the
same period, and of whose work a stele has been
preserved. It is probable that the Aristoeles of
Cydonia mentioned by Paus. v. 25 as a very
ancient sculptor is different from both of these
and of an earlier date. Whether the Aristoeles
' son and pupil of Cleoetas ' (Paus. v. 24) is the
same as No. 2 remains uncertain. The inscrip
tion on the stele seems to mean that the author
of it was son of Aristion (cf. Paus. vi. 8, 9).
Aristocrates ('AptaTo/cpa-n/s). 1. Last king
of Arcadia, was the leader of the Arcadians in
the second Messenian war, when they assisted
the Messenians against the Spartans. Having
been bribed by the Spartans, he betrayed the
Messenians, and was in consequence stoned to
death by the Arcadians, about B.C. 668, who
now abolished the kingly office. (Strab. p. 862 ;
Paus. iv. 17, viii. 5.) — 2. An Athenian of wealth
and influence, son of Scellias, was one of the
Athenian generalB at the battle of Arginusae,
B.C. 406, and on his return to Athens was
brought to trial and executed (Thuc. viii. 89 ;
Xen. Hell. i. 5-7; Diod. xiii. 101; Plat. Gorg.
472). Aristodemus ('Apio-TdSripos). 1. A descend
ant of Heracles, son of Aristomachus, and
father of Eurysthenes and Procles. According
to some traditions Aristodemus was killed at
Naupactus by a flash of lightning, just as he
was setting out on his expedition into Pelo
ponnesus; but a Lacedaemonian tradition re
lated that Aristodemus himself came to Sparta,
was the first king of his race, and died a natural
death (Paus. ii. 18, iii. 1; Hdt. vi. 52).— 2. A
Messenian, one of the chief heroes in the first
Messenian war. As the Delphic oracle had
declared that the preservation of the Messenian
state demanded that a maiden of the house of
the Aepytids should be sacrificed, Aristodemus
offered his own daughter. In order to save her
life, her lover declared that she was with child by
him, but Aristodemus, enraged at this assertion,
murdered his daughter and opened her body to
refute the calumny. Aristodemus was after
wards elected king in place of Euphaes, who
had fallen in battle against the Spartans,
though the soothsayers objected that he was
guilty of his daughter's blood. He continued
the war against the Spartans till at length,
finding further resistance hopeless, he put an
end to his life on the tomb of his daughter,
about b.c. 723. (Paus. iv. 9-13.)— 3. Tyrant of
Cumae in Campania, at whose court Tarquinius
Superbus died, B.C. 496 (Liv. ii. 21). — 4. One of
the 300 Spartans at Thermopylae (b.c 480),

114

ARISTOGITON

was not present at the battle in which his com
rades fell, either in consequence of sickness, or
because he had been sent on an errand from
the camp. The Spartans punished him with
Atimia, or civil degradation. Stung with this
treatment he met his death at Plataea in the
following year (479), after performing the wildest
feats of valour. (Hdt. vii. 229.) — 5. A tragic
actor of Athens in the time of Demosthenes,
took a prominent part in the political affairs of
his time, and advocated peace with Macedonia.
He was employed by the Athenians in their
negotiations with Philip, with whom he was a
great favourite (Dem. de Cor. p. 232, § 21 ; F.L.
p. 344, § 12).— 6. Of Miletus, a friend and
flatterer of Antigonus, king of Asia, who Bent
him into Greece in B.C. 815, in order to pro
mote his interests there (Diod. xix. 57-66). —
7. There were many literary persons of this
name referred to by the ancient grammarians.
Two were natives of Nysa in Caria, both gram
marians, one a teacher of Pompey, and the
other of Strabo. There was also an Aristo
demus of Elis, and another of Thebes, who are
quoted as writers.
Aristogiton ('Apio-Toyehuv). 1, The conspi
rator against the sons of Pisistratus. See
Habmodius. — 2. An Athenian orator and ad
versary of Demosthenes, Hyperides, and Dein-
archus. He was often accused by Demosthenes
and others, and defended himself in a number
of orations which are lost. A speech of Dein-
archus against Aristogiton is extant, and two
which are attributed to Demosthenes, but are
probably spurious.
Aristomache ('Apio-Topdxri), daughter of Hip-
parinus of Syracuse, sister of Dion, and wife of
the elder Dionysius, who married her and Doris
of Locri on the same day. She afterwards
perished with her daughter Arete.
Aristomachus ('Apio-T<Jn,oxos). 1. Son of
Talaus and brother of Adrastus. — 2. Son of
Cleodemus or Cleodaeus, grandson of Hyllus,
great-grandson of Heracles, and father of Te
menus, Cresphontes, and Aristodemus. He fell
in battle when he invaded Peloponnesus ; but
his three sons were more successful and con
quered Peloponnesus. (Hdt. vi. 52 ; Paus. ii. 7.
6 ; Apollod. ii. 8.) — 3. Tyrant of Argos, under
the patronage of Antigonus Gonatas, was as
sassinated and succeeded by Aristippus II.
(Plut. Arat. 25.) — 4. Tyrant of Argos, succeeded
Aristippus II. ; he resigned his power upon the
death of Demetrius in B.C. 229, and induced
Argos to join the Achaean League. He after
wards deserted the Achaeans, and again assumed
the tyranny of Argos ; but the city having been
taken by Antigonus Doson, Aristomachus fell
into the hands of the Achaeans, and was by
them put to death. It must be recollected
in his favour that his preference of the Spartan
leader to the Macedonian, whom Aratus called
in, was the better policy. (Polyb. ii. 59 ; Plut.
Arat. 25_-44.)
Aristomenes ('Apio-Top4vr)s). 1. The Messe
nian, the hero of the second war with Sparta,
belongs more to legend than to history. He
was a native of Andania, and was sprung from
the royal line of Aepytus. Tired of the yoke of
Sparta, he began the war in B.C. 685, thirty-
nine years after the end of the first war. Soon
after its commencement he so distinguished
himself by his valour that he was offered the
throne, but refused it, and received the office of
supreme commander. After the defeat of the
Messenians in the third year of the war, through
the treachery of Aristocrates, the Arcadian.

ARISTOPHANES
leader, Aristomenes retreated to the mountain
fortress of Ira, and there maintained the war
for eleven years, constantly ravagmg the land
of Laconia. In one of his incursions, however,
the Spartans overpowered him with superior
numbers, and carrying him with fifty of his
comrades to Sparta, cast them into the pit
(/teaSos) where condemned criminals were
thrown. The rest perished ; not so Aristomenes,
the favourite of the gods ; for legends told how
an eagle bore him up on its wings as he fell,
and a fox guided him on the third day from the
cavern. But having incurred the anger of the
Twin Brothers, his country was destined to
ruin. The city of Ira, which he had so long
successfully defended, fell into the hands of
the Spartans; Aristomenes, after performing
prodigies of valour, was obliged to leave his
country, which was again compelled to submit
to the Spartans, b.c. 668. He afterwards settled
at Ialysus in Rhodes, where he died. Dama-
getus, king of Ialysus, had been enjoined by
the Delphic oracle ' to marry the daughter of
the best of the Greeks,' and he therefore took
to wife the daughter of Aristomenes, who ac
companied him to Rhodes. The Rhodians
honoured Aristomenes as a hero, and from him
were descended the illustrious family of the
Diagoridae. At Leuctra his apparition was seen
aiding the Thebans against the Spartans. (Paus.
iv. 14-24, 32 ; Polyb. iv. 32.)— 2. An Acarna
nian, who governed Egypt with justice and
wisdom during the minority of Ptolemy V.
Epiphanes, but was put to death by Ptolemy
in 192 (Polyb. xv. 81, xviii. 86. — 3. A comic
poet of Athens, flourished during the Pelopon
nesian war.
Ariston ('Apio-rav). 1. Of Chios, a Stoic
philosopher, and a disciple of Zeno, flourished
about B.c. 260. Though he professed himself a
Stoic, yet he differed from Zeno in several
points: he more nearly approached to the
Cynics; he despised all culture, the study of
dialectics and physics, and valued ethical dis
cussion alone, holding indifference to worldly
goods to be the aim of philosophy. — 2. A Peri
patetic philosopher of Iulis in the island of
Ceos, succeeded Lycon as head of the Peri
patetic school, about B.C. 224. He wrote several
philosophical works which are lost (Diog. Laert.
v. 70; Cic. deFin. v. 5).— 3. Of Alexandria, a
Peripatetic philosopher and a contemporary of
Strabo, wrote a work on the Nile (Strab. p. 690).
Aristonautae ('Apio-Toj/aCTai), a town in
Achaia, the harbour of Pallene.
Aristonlcus ('ApioriiciKos). 1. A natural
son of Eumenes II. of Pergamus. Upon the
death of his brother Attalus IH. B.C. 138, who
left his kingdom to the Romans, Aristonicus
laid claim to the crown. At first he met with
considerable success. He defeated in 181 the
consul P. Licinius Crassus ; but in 180 he was
defeated and taken prisoner by M. Perperna,
was carried to Rome by M'. Aquillius in 129,
and was there put to death. (Veil. Pat. ii. 4;
Flor. ii. 20; Strab. p. 646.)— 2. An Alexandrine
grammarian, a contemporary of Strabo, and
the author of several works, most of which
related to the Homeric poems (Strab. p. 88).
Aristonymus ('Apio-Tdvvpos), a comic poet
and contemporary of Aristophanes and Ami-
psias. Aristophanes ('Apio-nxpai/Tjs). 1. The cele
brated comic poet of Athens, was born about
B.C. 444 ; he belonged to the deme of Cydathe-
naion. His father Philippus had possessions
in Aegina, and may originally have come from

ARISTOPHANES

115

that island, whence a question arose whether
Aristophanes was a genuine Athenian citizen :
his enemy Cleon brought against him more
than one accusation to deprive him of his civic
rights (£eWos ypa<pal), but without success.
He had three sons, Philippus, Araros, and
Nicostratus, but of his private history we know
nothing. He probably died about B.C. 880.
The comedies of Aristophanes are of the highest
historical interest, containing as they do an
admirable series of caricatures of the leading
men of the day, and a contemporary commen
tary on the evils existing at Athens. Indeed,
the caricature is the only feature in modern
social life which at all resembles them. Ari
stophanes wrote because he was a genius and
a poet; and it would be a mistake to sup
pose that he produced plays merely or pri
marily with a political purpose. At the same
time he wrote with a patriotic feeling, and in
many points with wisdom ; though in many
also he was above measure reactionary. He
had the strongest affection for Athens, and
longed to see her restored to the state in which
she was flourishing in the previous generation,
and almost in his own childhood, before Peri
cles became the head of the government, and
when the age of Miltiades and Aristides had
but just passed away. The first great evil of
his own time against which he inveighs, is the
Peloponnesian war, which he regards as the
-work of Pericles. To this fatal war, among a
host of evils, he ascribes the influence of dem
agogues like Cleon at Athens. Another great
object of his indignation was the recently
adopted system of education which had been
introduced by the Sophists, acting on the
speculative and inquiring turn given to the
Athenian mind by the Ionian and Eleatic
philosophers, and the extraordinary intellectual
development of the age following the Persian
war. The new theories introduced by the
Sophists threatened to overthrow the founda
tions of morality, by making persuasion and
not truth the object of man in his intercourse
with his fellows, and to substitute a universal
scepticism for the religious creed of the people.
The worst effects of such a system were seen in
Alcibiades, who combined all the elements
which Aristophanes most disliked, heading the
war party in politics, and protecting the sophis
tical school in philosophy and also in literature.
Of this latter school — the literary and poetical
Sophists — Euripides was the chief, whose works
are full of that psreapoo-oipia which contrasts so
strongly with the moral dignity of Aeschylus and
Sophocles ; on account of which Aristophanes
introduces him as soaring in the air to write his
tragedies. Another feature of the times was
the excessive love for litigation at Athens, the
consequent importance of the dicasts, and dis
graceful abuse of their power ; all of which
enormities, are made by Aristophanes objects
of continual attack. But though he saw what
were the evils of his time, he had not wisdom
to find a remedy for them, except the hopeless
and undesirable one of a movement backwards.
His first comedy was the AoiToAeis, or Ban
queters, which in b.c. 427 gained the second
prize : like the Clouds, it objected to the
modern tendency of education to produce
quibbles of rhetoric. In 428 his Babylonians
was produced in the name of Callistratus
(Acharn. 635). The title was applied to foreign
slaves and the chorus consisted of slaves
branded on the forehead with an owl, as the
property of Athens. The play was directed

against the arbitrary treatment of her allies
by Athens ; and as many of them were then
present for the spring payment of tribute, the
offence was greater, and Callistratus was in
dicted by Cleon (Acharn. 877). The follow
ing is a list of Ins extant comedies, with the
year in winch they were performed. In the
first group, those before the Sicilian expedition
may be reckoned, which used political satire
with no restraint : viz. in 425, Acharwians.
Produced in the name of Callistratus. First
prize. — 424. 'Iir7r6is, Knights or Horsemen.
The first play produced in the name of Aristo
phanes himself. First prize ; second, Cratinus.
— 428. Clouds. First prize, Cratinus ; second,
Amipsias. — 422. Wasps. Second prize. —
Clouds (second edition), failed in obtaining a
prize. Some writers place this B.C. 411, and
the whole subject is very uncertain. — 419.
Peace. Second prize ; Eupolis first. In the
second group there is less of political satire and
less bitterness : viz. in 414, Birds. Second
prize; Amipsias, first; Phrynichus, third.—
411. Lysistrata. — Thesmophoriazusae. Dur
ing the Oligarchy. — 408. First Plutus. — 405.
Frogs. First prize ; Phrynichus, second ; Plato,
third. Death of Sophocles. — 892. Ecclesiazusae.
— 388. Second edition of the Plutus. In the
Ecclesiazusae and the Plutus the personal
satire has nearly disappeared, and there is
more approach to the Middle Comedy : the
Plutus may be regarded as the transition, which
is also marked by the disappearance of the
chorus, connected perhaps with the poverty of
the time. — The last two comedies of Aristo
phanes were the Aeolosicon and Cocalus, pro
duced about B.C. S87 (date of the peace of
Antalcidas) by Araros, one of his sons. They
seem to have resembled the Middle Comedy,
having no chorus or parabasis and more regu
lar plots. Suidas tells us that Aristophanes was
the author, in all, of 54 plays. As a poet Ari
stophanes possessed merits of the highest order.
His works contain exquisite snatches of lyric
poetry ; and some of his choruses, particularly
one in the Knights, in which the horses are
represented as rowing triremes in an expedition
against Corinth, are written with a spirit and
humour unrivalled in Greek. They were in
some points not very dissimilar to English
ballads. He was a complete master of the
Attic dialect, and in his hands the perfec
tion of that glorious language is wonderfully
shown. The burlesque element also is freely
admitted : animals of every kind are pressed
into his service ; frogs chaunt choruses, a dog
is tried for stealing a cheese, and an iambic
verse is composed of the grunts of a pig. —
Editions. In the Poetae Scenici of Dindorf,
1870; Bergk, 1872; Meineke, 1861; Holden,
1868: the Frogs and Wasps by Rogers, with
a verse translation are to be recommended.
For the whole the most useful assistance is
Better's edition with notes variorum and
Scholia. — 2. Of Byzantium, son of Apelles, and
one of the most eminent Greek grammarians at
Alexandria. He was pupil of Zenodotus and
Eratosthenes, and teacher of the celebrated
Aristarchus. He was born about 260 B.C.,
lived in the reigns of Ptolemy II. and Ptolemy
III., and had the supreme management of the
library at Alexandria. Aristophanes was the
first who introduced the use of accents in the
Greek language. He devoted himself chiefly
to the criticism and interpretation of the Greek
poets, and more especially of Homer, of whose
work he made a new and critical edition
12

116

ARISTOPHON

(SidpBatris). The philosophers Plato and Ari
stotle likewise engaged his attention, and of the
former, as of several of the poets, he made new
and critical editions. All we possess of his
numerous works consists of fragments scattered
through the Scholia on the poets, some Argu-
menta to the plays of the tragic poets and of
Aristophanes, and a part of his Ae£eis, which
is printed in Boissonade's edition of Herodian's
Partitiones, London, 1819, p. 283-289 ; Nauck,
1848. Aristophon ('Apto-rdipav). 1. Of the demus
of Azenia in Attica, one of the most distin
guished Athenian orators about the close of the
Peloponnesian war. The number of laws
which he proposed may be inferred from his
own statement, as preserved by Aeschines, that
he was accused 75 times of having made illegal
proposals, but that he had always come off
victorious. In B.C. 354 he accused Iphicrates
and Timotheus, and in the same year he came
forward in the assembly to defend the law of
Leptines against Demosthenes. The latter
treats him with great respect, and reckons him
amongst the eloquent orators (Dem. Eubul. §
30 ; Athen. pp. 13, 38).— 2. Of the demus of Col-
yttus, a contemporary of Demosthenes, and an
orator of great distinction and influence. It
was this Aristophon whom Aeschines served as
a clerk, and in whose service he was trained
for his public career. [Aeschines.] — 3. A
comic poet of the Middle Comedy. — 4. A painter
of some distinction, son and pupil of Aglaophon,
and brother of Polygnotus.
Aristoteles (Apio-TOTeA»)j), the philosopher,
was born at Stagira, a ' town in Chalcidice in
Macedonia, B.C. 384. His father, Nicomachus,
was physician in ordinary to Amyntas II., king
of Macedonia, and the author of several treatises
on subjects connected with natural science : his
mother, Phaestis (or Phaestias), was descended
from a Chalcidian family. The studies and
occupation of his father account for the early
inclination manifested by Aristotle for the
investigation of nature, an inclination which is
perceived throughout his whole life. He lost
his father before he had attained his 17th yearjv
and he was entrusted to the guardianship of
one Proxenus of Atarneus in Mysia, who was
settled in Stagira. In 367, he went to Athens
topursuehis studies, and there became a pupil of
Plato, who had just returned from Sicily, about
365. Plato soon distinguished him above all
his other disciples. He named him the ' intellect
of his school,' and his house, the house of the
' reader.' Aristotle lived at Athens for 20 years,
till 347. During the whole of this period the
good understanding which subsisted between
teacher and scholar continued, with some
trifling exceptions, undisturbed ; for the stories
of the disrespect and ingratitude of the latter
towards the former are nothing but calumnies
invented by-his enemies. During the last 10
years of his first residence at Athens, Aristotle
gave instruction in rhetoric, and distinguished
himself by his opposition to Isocrates. It was
at this time that he published his first rhetorical
writings. Upon the death of Plato (847) Ari
stotle left Athens : perhaps he was offended by
Plato having appointed Speusippus as his suc
cessor in the Academy. He first repaired to his
friend Hermeias at Atarneus, where he married
Pythias, the adoptive daughter of the prince.
On the death of Hermeias, who was killed by
the Persians (344), Aristotle fled from Atarneus
to Mytilene. Two years afterwards (342) he
accepted an invitation from Philip of Macedonia,

ARISTOTELES
to undertake the instruction of his son Alex
ander, then 13 years of age. Here Aristotle
was treated with the most marked respect. His
native city, Stagira, which had been destroyed
by Philip, was rebuilt at his request, and Philip
caused a gymnasium (called Nymphaeum) to be
built there in a pleasant grove expressly for
Aristotle and his pupils. Several of the youths
of the Macedonian nobles were educated by
Aristotle along with Alexander. Aristotle spent
7 years in Macedonia ; but Alexander enjoyed
his instruction without interruption for only 4.
Still with such a pupil even this short period
was sufficient for a teacher like Aristotle to
fulfil the highest purposes of education, and to-
create in his pupil that sense of the noble and
great, which distinguishes Alexander from all
those conquerors who have only swept like a
hurricane through the world. On Alexander's
accession to the throne in 335, Aristotle re
turned to Athens. Here he found his friend
Xenocrates president of the Academy. He
himself had the Lyceum, a gymnasium sacred
to Apollo Lyceus, assigned to him by the state.
He soon assembled round him a large number
of distinguished scholars, to whom he delivered
lectures on philosophy in the shady walks
(irtpiiraToi) which surrounded the Lyceum,
while walking up and down (ireptirarwv), and
not sitting, which was the general practice of
the philosophers. From one or other of these
circumstances the name Peripatetic is derived,
which was afterwards given to his school.
According to an account preserved by Gellius
(xx. 5) he gave two different courses of lec
tures every day. Those which he delivered in
the morning (iuBtvbs irepiiraros) to a narrower
circle of chosen (esoteric) hearers, and which
were called acroamatic or acroatic, embraced
subjects connected with the more abstruBe
philosophy (theology), physics, and dialectics.
Those which he delivered in the afternoon
(SeiXivbs ireptiraros) and intended for a more
promiscuous circle (which accordingly he called
exoteric), extended to rhetoric, sophistics, and
politics. He appears to have taught not so
much in the way of conversation, as in regular
lectures. His school soon became the most
celebrated at Athens, and he continued to pre
side over it for 18 years (335-32S). During this
time he also composed the greater part of his
works. In these labours he was assisted by the
truly kingly liberality of his former pupil, who
not only presented him with 800 talents, but
also caused large collections of natural curi
osities to be made for him, to which posterity
is indebted for one of bis most excellent works,
the History of Animals. Meanwhile various
causes contributed to throw a cloud over the
latter years of the philosopher's life. In the
first place, he felt deeply the death of his wife,
Pythias, who left behind her a daughter of the
same name : he lived subsequently with a
friend of his wife's, the slave Herpyllis, who
bore him a son, Nicomachus. Another trouble
was the breach in his friendship with Alexander,
caused by the affair of Callisthenes. [SeeAxEX-
andeb ; Callisthenes.] The story that Ari
stotle had a share in poisoning the king is a
fabrication of a later age ; and moreover it is
certain- that Alexander died a natural death.
After the death of Alexander (32S) Aristotle was
looked upon with suspicion at Athens as a
friend of Macedonia ; but as it was not easy to
bring any political accusation against him, he
was accused of impiety (aurefSeias) by the hiero-
phant Eurymedon. He withdrew from Athens

ARISTOTELES

Amro.
Bust of Aristotle.

before his trial, and escaped in the beginning
of 822 to Chalcis in Euboea, where he died in
the course of the same year, in the 6Srd year of
his age, of a chronic disease of the stomach.
His body was transported to his native city
Stagira, and his memory was honoured there,
like that of a hero, by yearly festivals. He be
queathed to Theophrastus his well-stored
library and the originals of his writings. Im
plicit reliance cannot be placed on the depre
ciatory picture of some later writers, that
Aristotle was short and of slender make,
with small eyes, and a lisp in his pro
nunciation, using L for B, and with a sort
of sarcastic expression in his countenance
(Diog. Laert. v. 1; Ael. V.H. iii. 19 ; Anth.Pal.
"iii. 176). At any rate these carpings show
that there was nothing
to allege against the no
bility of character which
may be inferred from his
writings. He exhibited
remarkable attention to
external appearance, and
bestowed much care on
his dress and person.
He is described as having
been of weak health,
which, considering the
astonishing extent of his
studies, shows all the
more the energy of his
.mind. The importance
of Aristotle's work can
lardly be over-estimated, though his place as
the greatest of ancient philosophers was not
fully recognised till the middle ages. Indeed, it
would be difficult to name a writer in any age
who to such a degree combined thoroughness
and reality with comprehensiveness. For Ari
stotle dealt scientifically, so far as existing
materials could go, with all branches of know
ledge. He founded the science of reasoning,
since called Logic, as opposed to the Dialectic
or art of discussion instituted by Socrates and
Plato. In theoretical physics he could not
supply us with anything that makes for present
knowledge, but he did supply the foundation
-upon which the greater part of the system of
the Schoolmen, and the literature which grew
out of it, was based. In mathematics he seems
to have quitted the speculative methods of
Plato and to have brought us nearer to the
real discoveries of Archimedes. In natural his
tory, investigating the whole of zoology, he
arrived, as will be seen, at broad classifications
entirely his own, but approved by modern
science. The same force and clearness of reason,
and the same comprehensive grasp of his sub
jects, mark his works on moral philosophy, on
political history, and on literary criticism, and
have left their impress in much of modern
thought and method where the debt to Aristotle
as the originator is often forgotten. A com
plete list of the works written by Aristotle is
-unattainable. It is remarkable that while we
have two lists handed down, one said to be by
the Alexandrian Hermippus (200 a.d.), the other
by Ptolemaeus, a Peripatetic of the 2nd cen
tury a.d. (preserved by Arabian writers), the
former, putting the total at 400 writings, does
not mention important works of Aristotle which
we now possess : it was probably a list of Ari
stotelian works at that time in the Alexandrian
library. In the collection which we now have
many, no doubt, are rightly noted by modern
writers as spurious : it does not, however, follow

117

that they present to us nothing of Aristotle ;
for, while in several that are rightly attributed
to Aristotle there are insertions and alterations
by later writers, on the other hand much that
Aristotle did not write probably represents the
notes of his teaching thrown into shape by his
pupils and followers. The works by Aristotle,
or bearing his name, may be divided into the
following classes, according to the subjects of
which they treat. I. Dialectics and Logic. —
The extant logical writings are comprehended
as a whole under the title Organon ("Opyavov,
i.e. instrument of science). They are occupied
with the investigation of the method by which
man arrives at knowledge. An insight into the
nature and formation of conclusions and of
proof by means of conclusions, is the common
aim and centre of all the separate 6 works com
posing the Organon : these separate works are,
1. Kariiyopiai, Praedicamenta, in which Ari
stotle treats of the (10) comprehensive generic
ideas, under which all the attributes of things
may be subordinated as species : that is, in
order to get an exhaustive definition of con
cepts they are made to fall under one or other of
these classes or categories, of which the 4 most
important determine the substance of anything
(ovoia or ti ecrn), the quantity (irdrrov), the
quality (iro'iov), the relation (7rpos ri). 2. nepl
eppnvelas, De Interpretation, concerning the
expression of thought by means of speech.
[This is by a later writer.] 8, 4. 'AvaXvriKa
irpdYepa and Bo-repa, Analytica, each in 2
books, on the theory of conclusions : so called
from the resolution of the conclusion into its
fundamental component parts. 5. Tom/co, De
Locis, in 8 books, of the general points of view
(tu7j-oi) from which conclusions may be drawn.
6. nepl o-ofpio-riKav iXiyxav (the 9th of the
Topica), concerning the fallacies which only
apparently prove something. The term ( logic '
was not applied to this science by Aristotle
(who called it ' Analytic ' ), but by the Stoic
school. The best edition of the Organon is by
Waitz, Lips. 1846. — II. Metaphysics, or ' the
first philosophy,' in 14 books (toV pe-i-a ra
cpvo-iKa), originally distinct treatises, indepen
dent of one another, which were put together
as one work after Aristotle's death (Books ii.
and xi. from ch. 8 are spurious). The title also
is of late origin, and was given to the work
from its being placed in the collection of
Andronicus after (perd) the Physics (to
tpvo-iKa). The subject iB the origin and nature
of existence, or, more particularly, it treats
of (a) the relation of the individual to the
universal, (6) form to matter, (c) the moving to
the moved. Whereas Plato allows only ideas
(the universal) to have real existence, Aristotle
denies the separate and independent existence
of the Platonic ideas. His view is that the
formless substance of matter (vXrj) has merely
the capacity for becoming something (Svvdpei
%o~ti), it attains reality (ivipyeia or ivreXexeia)
when form (eiSos) is communicated to it.
From the relations of form and matter arises
motion : the moving element is the form, which
produces reality ; the moved is the potential or
material. The highest good being the final
object is the ultimate source of movement and
life in the world. [Separately edited by Bonitz
and Schwegler.] — III. Science, including
(a) Mathematics, on which we have two treatises
not by Aristotle, but probably conveying his
teaching : viz. nepl ar6pav ypappav, i. e. con
cerning indivisible lines, and MiixaviKd irpofiXii-
po.ro, Mechanical Problems; (6) Physics, in

118

ARISTOTELES

which we have — (1) (pvffiKii a,Kp6airis (called
also by others 7rep! apxav), in 8 books. In these
Aristotle develops the general principles of
natural science. (Cosmology.) (2) Concerning
the Heaven (irepl ovpavov), in 4 books. (3) On
Production and Destruction (irepl yeveffeas koX
tpBopcis, de Generations et Corruptione), in 2
books, develop the general laws of production
and destruction. (4) On Meteorology (pereapo-
\oymd, de Meteoris), in 4 books. (5) On the
Universe (irepl K6<rpov, de Mundo), a letter to
Alexander, treats the subject of the last 2 works
in a popular tone and a rhetorical style alto
gether foreign to Aristotle, and is certainly not
his work. The theories of Aristotle about the
nature of the world, where he was left to specu
lation unaided by experience, have a different
value from his treatment of natural history.
With the problems of creation he was not con
cerned, because he held matter and form to be
eternal. His theories of the spherical earth in
the centre, with concentric heavenly spheres
around it, and the heaven of the fixed stars as
the innermost, are of a purely literary value
from their bearing on the Paradiso of Dante.
(6) The History of Animals (irepi £dav lo-Topia),
in 9 books (the 10th being spurious), treats of all
the peculiarities of this division of the natural
kingdom, according to genera, classes, and
species ; especially giving all the character
istics of each animal according to its external
and internal vital functions ; according to the
manner of its copulation, its mode of life, and
its character. The best edition is by Schneider,
Lips. 1811. The observations in this work are
the triumph of ancient sagacity, and have been
confirmed by the results of the most recent in
vestigations. For instance, he divides the animal
kingdom into the vertebrate and invertebrate :
in the former he distinguishes mammals, birds,
reptiles and fishes, and recognises that whales
are mammals. (7) On the Parts of Animals
(irepl (day popiav), in 4 books, in which Ari
stotle, after describing the phaenomena in each
species, develops the causes of these phaeno
mena by means of the idea to be formed of the
purpose which is manifested in the formation
of the animal. (8) On the Generation of
Animals (irepl (dav yeveffeas), in 5 books,
treats of the generation of animals and the
organs of generation. (9) De Incessu Ani-
malium (irepl £dav iropeias). [irepl £dav
Kivficeas is spurious.] (10) Three books on
the Soul (irepl ifivxys). Aristotle defines the soul
to be that which gives real form to the bodily
matter, and therefore movement and life.
Man differs from other animals in having
spirit (yovs) besides the animal soul. There
are besides smaller treatises connected with this
subject, on memory, sleep, dreams, &c. (11) In
the 37 sections of Problems (irpofiXi)paTa) we
have many remarks that are Aristotle's on
various branches of knowledge, but buried in a
mass of later additions. The treatises irepl
(pvrav, irepl xpapdrav, irepl okouo-tw, irepl
Bavpaaiav aKovo-parav, and the <pvaioyvapiKa
are spurious. Several anatomical works of
Aristotle have been lost. He was the first
person who in any especial manner advocated
anatomical investigations, and showed the
necessity of them for the study of the natural
sciences. He frequently refers to investiga
tions of his own on the subject. — IV. Peacti-
oal Philosophy or Politics. — All that falls
within the sphere of practical philosophy is com
prehended in three principal works : the Ethics,
the Politics, and the Oeconomics. (1) The

Nicomachean Ethics ("H8iko NiKopaxeia), in
10 books. Aristotle here begins with the
highest and most universal end of life, for the
individual as well as for the community in the
state. This is happiness (evSaipovia) ; and its
conditions are, on the one hand, perfect virtue
exhibiting itself in the actor, and, on the other
hand, corresponding bodily advantages and
favourable external circumstances. Virtue is
the readiness to act constantly and consciously
according to the laws of the rational nature oi
man (opflos x6yos). The nature of virtue shows
itself in its appearing as the medium between two
extremes. In accordance with this, the several
virtues are characterised. Editions by Grant,
1874 ; Ramsauer, 1878 ; Bywater, 1890 ; Notes
by Stewart, 1893 ; Book v. by H. Jackson, 1879.
— (2) The Eudemean Ethics ('HBikol iZiSiipeia),
in 7 books, of which only books i. ii. iii. and vii.
are preserved, while the remaining books iv. v.
and vi. are a repetition of books v. vi. and vii. of
the Nicomachean Ethics. This ethical work
is a recension of Aristotle's lectures, edited by
Eudemus.— (3) 'HfliKO MeyaXa, in 2 books, a
sketch compiled from the Nicomachean and
Eudemean Ethics. — (4) Politics (TIoXitiku) in
8 books. The Ethics conduct us to the Politics.
The connexion between the two works is so
close, that in the Ethics by the word 'iarepov
reference is made by Aristotle to the Politics,
and in the latter by irp6repov to the Ethics.
The Politics show how happiness is to be
attained for the human community in the
state ; for the object of the state is not merely
the external preservation of life, but ' happy
life, as it is attained by means of virtue '
(aperii, perfect development of the whole man).
Hence also ethics form the first and most
general foundation of political life, because the
state cannot attain its highest object if mor
ality does not prevail among its citizens. The
house, the family, is the element of the state.
Accordingly Aristotle begins with the doctrine
of domestic economy, then proceeds to a de
scription of the different forms of government,
after which he gives a delineation of the most
important Hellenic constitutions, and then in
vestigates which of the constitutions is the
best (the ideal of the state) — an aristocracy in
which the citizenship is enjoyed only by those
whose position and education fits them to
direct the state. Hence he desires a state
education for the citizens. Manual labour is
left to slaves and aliens ; for he assumes
slavery as a necessary condition. The doctrine
concerning education, as most important hi
this best state, forms the conclusion. Editions
by Congreve, 1874 ; Susemihl, 1879 ; New
man, Oxford, 1887 ; transl. by Jowett ; and by
Welldon. — (6) It was known that Aristotle had
written wholly or in part several iroXireiai,
i. e. particular accounts of the constitutions-
of various states (more than 100 in number, as
was said). Of these it was supposed that only
fragments, collected by Neumann and by Rose,
survived. But a papyrus was discovered in
Egypt and was published in 1891 by the British
Museum, containing the greater part of the
'ABrivaiav iroXneia, a treatise of considerable
historical value for the elucidation and con.
firmation of several points in the constitutional
history of Athens down to the close of the 5th
century B. c. How far, or in what sense, this
is to be regarded as a genuine work of Aristotle
is still a subject of discussion. There is in
ternal evidence of its having been written be
fore the date of Aristotle's death : if not by -

ARISTOTELES
himself, at least from notes of his teaching.
Editio princeps by Kenyon, 1891 ; also by
Sandys, 1892.— (7) Oeconomics (ohovopiKd),
in 2 books, which are by a later writer. — V.
Works of Abt. To these belong the Poe
tics and Bhetoric. (1) The Poetics (Tlepl
ironiTiKrjs). Aristotle penetrated deeper than
any of the ancients into the essence of the
Hellenic art. He is the father of the aes
thetics of poetry, as he is the completer of
Greek rhetoric as a science. He holds that
' Poetry is more serious and more profound
than History, because it deals with universal
truth, not with that which lies in details.' The
greatest part of the treatise contains a theory
of Tragedy, under which head he has left us
criticisms on particular Greek plays : he defines
Tragedy as the imitation of some action of
proper magnitude in fitting language, not by
narrative, but by action, so as to effect through
pity and terror a purgation of the passions
(KaBapcis), i.e. so that the excitable passions
are ' worked out ' and the mind is left calm
though elevated (KaBapffis being a medical meta
phor). He calls Euripides the ' most tragic '
of the Tragedians. Epic poetry, as though
superseded in value by Tragedy, he treats
Slightly, and says little of Lyric. [Editions
and comments by Christ, 1878 ; Bernays, 1880 ;
Braunscheid, 1882; Wharton, 1883; Prickard,
1891.] — (2) The Bhetoric (rixvy tn)Topiici)), in
8 books ; but the genuineness of the 3rd is doubt
ful. Rhetoric, as a science, according to Ari
stotle, stands side by side with Dialectics. That
which makes a scientific treatment of rhetoric
possible is the argumentation which awakens
conviction : he therefore directs his chief atten
tion to the theory of oratorical argumentation.
The second division of the work treats of
the production of that favourable disposition
in the hearer in consequence of which the
orator appears to him to be worthy of credit.
The third part treats of oratorical expression
and arrangement. Edition by Cope and Sandys,
1877; transl. by Welldon. [The 'Pirropuri;
irpbs 'AXe^avSpov is spurious.]. — VI. Poetry.
Though several epigrams are falsely attributed
to him, it is probable that the beautiful
Scolion beginning 'Apera iroXipoxBe yevei
fiporeia, in praise of Hermeias, is his work. —
According to a story current in antiquity Ari
stotle bequeathed his library and MSS. to
Theophrastus, his successor in the Academy.
On the death of Theophrastus, the libraries and
MSS. both of Aristotle and Theophrastus are
said to have come into the hands of his relation
and disciple, Neleus of Scepsis. This Neleus
sold both libraries to Ptolemy IT. king of Egypt,
for the Alexandrian library ; but he retained
for himself, as an heirloom, the original MSS.
of the works of these two philosophers. The
descendants of Neleus, who were subjects of
the king of Pergamus, knew of no other way of
securing them from the search of the Attali,
who wished to rival the Ptolemies in forming a
large library, than concealing them in a cellar,
where for a couple of centuries they were
exposed to the ravages of damp and worms.
It was not till the beginning of the century
before the birth of Christ that a wealthy book-
collector, the Athenian Apellicon of Teos,
traced out these valuable relies, bought them
from the ignorant heirs, and prepared from
them a new edition of Aristotle's works. After
the capture of Athens, Sulla conveyed Apelli-
con's library to Rome, B.C. 34. Tyrannion
made copies of them, and Andronicus of Rhodes

ARMENIA

119

thence arranged an edition of Aristotle's works.
[Apellicon.] From this story an error arose,
which has been handed down from the age
of Strabo to recent times. It was concluded
from this account, that neither Aristotle nor
Theophrastus had published their writings,
with the exception of some exoteric works,
which had no important bearing on their sys
tem ; and that it was not till 200 years later
that they were brought to light by the above-
mentioned Apellicon, and published to the
philosophical world. That, however, was by
no means the case. Aristotle, indeed, did not
prepare a complete edition, as we call it, of his
writings. Nay, it is certain that death over
took him before he could finish some of his
works and put the finishing hand to others.
Nevertheless it cannot be denied that the Peripa
tetics in this interval of 200 years were acquain
ted with Aristotle's writings. It has, indeed,
been surmised that the 146 works catalogued (as
stated above) about 200 b.c. were the lost
Dialogues of Aristotle's earlier and Platonic
style, which would have explained Cicero's
description of his language as having ' a golden
flow.' — The complete edition of Aristotle's
works by Bekker has Scholia and a Latin
translation. This does not include the recently
discovered treatise on the Constitution of
Athens. This edition has been reprinted at Ox
ford in 11 vols. 8vo. ; and by Tauchnitz, 1877 :
there is a convenient edition in one volume by
Weise, 1843 ; for editions of separate treatises
see above.
Aristdxenus ('ApioTd'|ei'os), of Tarentum, a
Peripatetic philosopher and a musician, flour
ished about b. c. 818. He was a disciple of
Aristotle, whom he appears to have rivalled in
the variety of his studies. According to Suidas,
he produced works to the number of 453 upon
music, philosophy, history, in short every
department of literature. We know nothing of
his philosophical opinions, except that he held
the soul to be a harmony of the body (Cic.
Tusc. i. 10), a doctrine which had already been
discussed by Plato in the Phaedo. Of his
numerous works the only one extant is his
Elements of Harmony (appovtKa. ffroixe'ia), in
3 books : edited by Meibomius, in the Antiquae
Musicae Auctores Septem, Amst. 1652.
Aristus ("Apio-ros). 1. Of Salamis in Cyprus,
wrote a history of Alexander the Great (Arrian,
vii. 19 ; Strab. p. 682). — 2. An Academic philo
sopher, a contemporary and friend of Cicero,
and teacher of M. Brutus (Cic. ad Att. v. 10;
Plut. Brut. 2).
Arius, river. [Aria.]
Ariusia (r) 'Apiovcrta x^pa), a district on the
N. of Chios, where the best wine in the island
was grown (Verg. Eel. v. 71 ; Plin. xiv. 73).
Armene ('Appevri, or -r)vri : Akliman), a town
on the coast of Paphlagonia, where the 10,000
Greeks, during their retreat, rested 5 days,
entertained by the people of Sinope, a little to
the W. of which Armene stood (Xen. An. vi. 1,
15; Strab. p. 545).
Armenia ('Appevia : 'Appevios, Armenius :
Armenia), a country of Asia, lying between
Asia Minor and the Caspian, is a lofty table
land, backed by the chain of the Caucasus,
watered by the rivers Cyrus and Araxes, con
taining the sources also of the Tigris and of
the Euphrates, the latter of which divides the
country into 2 unequal parts, which were called
Major and Minor. 1. Armenia Major or Pro
pria (A. if peydXri or r) ISias KaXovpevri : Erze-
roum, Kars, Van, and Erivan), was bounded

120

ARMENIA

on the NE. and N. by the Cyrus (Kur), which
divided it from Albania and Iberia; on the
NW. and W. by the Moschici mountains (the
prolongation of the chain of the Anti-Taurus),
and the Euphrates (Frat), which divided it
from Colchis and Armenia Minor ; and on tbe
S. and SE. by the mountains called Masius,
Niphates, and Gordiaei (the prolongation of the
Taurus), and the lower course of the Araxes,
which divided it from Mesopotamia, Assyria,
and Media : on the E. the country comes to a
point at the confluence of the Cyrus and Araxes.
It is intersected by chains of mountains, be
tween which run the two great rivers Abaxes,
flowing E. into the Caspian, and the Arsanias,
or S. branch of the Euphrates (Murad), flow
ing W. into the main stream (Frat) just above
M. Masius. The E. extremity of the chain of
mountains which separates the basins of these
two rivers, and which is an offshoot of the
Anti-Taurus, forms the Ararat of Scripture. In
the S. of the country is the great lake of Van,
Thospitis Palus, enclosed by mountain chains
which connect Ararat with the S. range of
mountains. — 2. Armenia Minor (A. pixpd or
fipaxorepa), was bounded on the E. by the
Euphrates, which divided it from Armenia
Major, on the N. and NW. by the mountains
Scodises, Paryadres, and Anti-Taurus, dividing
it from Pontus and Cappadocia, and on the S.
by the Taurus dividing it from Commagene in
N. Syria, so that it contained the country E.
and S. of the city of Siwas (the ancient Cabira
or Sebaste) as far as the Euphrates and the
Taurus. The boundaries between Armenia
Minor and Cappadocia varied at different times ;
and indeed the whole country up to the
Euphrates is sometimes called Cappadocia,
and, on the other hand, the whole of Asia
Minor E. of the Halys seems at one time to
have been included under the name of Armenia.
It is described by Justin (xiii. 2) as the land
' from Cappadocia to the Caspian.' The people
of Armenia claimed to be aboriginal. Hero
dotus connects them with the Phrygians;
Strabo, with the Thessalians (Hdt. vii. 23;
Strab. p. 530). They seem to have belonged to
the same stem as the Medes. Their language,
though possessing some remarkable peculiari
ties of its own, was nearly allied to the Indo-
Germanic family ; and their manners and reli
gious ideas were similar to those of the Medes
and Persians, but with a greater tendency to
the personification of the powers of nature, as
in the goddess Anaitis, whose worship was
peculiar to Armenia. They had commercial
dealings with Assyria and Phoenicia. The
earliest Armenian traditions represent the
country as governed by native kings, who had
perpetually to maintain their independence
against attacks from Assyria. They were said
to have been conquered by Semiramis, but
again threw off the yoke at the time of the
Median and Babylonian revolt. Their relations
to the Medes and Persians seem to have
varied between successful resistance, unwilling
subjection, and friendly alliance. A body of
Armenians formed a part of the army which
Xerxes led against Greece ; and they assisted
Darius Codomannus against Alexander, and in
this war they lost their king, and became sub
ject to the Macedonian empire (b.c. 828). After
another interval of successful revolt (B.C. 817-
274), they submitted to the Greek kings of Syria ;
but when Antiochus the Great was defeated by
the Romans (b.c. 190), the country again re
gained its independence, and it was at this

ARNE
period that it was divided into the two kingdoms
of Armenia Major and Minor, under two dif
ferent dynasties, founded respectively by the
nobles who headed the revolt, Artaxias and
Zariadras. Ultimately, Armenia Minor was
made a Roman province (but for no long time)
by Trajan. M. Aurelius reduced it, but did
not make it a province ; but later two provinces
were formed from Armenia Minor, and under
Justinian four, the fourth comprising a part of
Armenia Major.
Armenius Mons (rb 'Appeviov opos), a branch
of the Anti-Taurus chain in Armenia Minor.
Arminius (the Latinised form of Hermann,
' the chieftain '), son of Sigimer, ' the conqueror,'
and chief of the tribe of the Cherusci, who
inhabited the country to the north of the Hartz
mountains, now forming the S. of Hanover and
Brunswick. He was born in B.C. 18 ; and in his
youth he led the warriors of his tribe as
auxiliaries of the Roman legions in Germany,
where he learnt the language and military dis
cipline of Rome, and was admitted to the free
dom of the city, and enrolled among the equites.
In A.D. 9, Arminius, who was now 27 years old,
and had succeeded his father as chief of his
tribe, persuaded his countrymen to rise against
the Romans, who were now masters of this
part of Germany, which seemed destined to
become, like Gaul, a Roman province. His
attempt was crowned with success. Quintilius
Varus, who was stationed in the country with
three legions, was destroyed with almost all his
troops [Varus] ; and the Romans had to relin
quish all their possessions beyond the Rhine.
In 14, Arminius had to defend his country
against Germanicus. At first he was success
ful ; the Romans were defeated, and Germanicus
withdrew towards the Rhine, followed by Armi
nius. But having been compelled by his uncle,
Inguiomer, against his own wishes, to attack
the Romans in their entrenched camp, his army
was routed, and the Romans made good their
retreat to the Rhine. It was in the course of
this campaign that Thusnelda, the wife of
Arminius, fell into the hands of the Romans,
and was reserved with the infant boy to whom
she soon after gave birth in her captivity, to
adorn the triumph of Germanicus at Rome. In
16, Arminius was again called upon to resist
Germanicus, in which campaign he rejected
with scorn the entreaties of his brother to join
the Romans ; he was defeated, and his country
was probably only saved from subjection by the
jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled Germanicus
in the following year. At length Arminius
aimed at absolute power, and was in consequence
put to death by his own relations in the S7th
year of his age, A.D. 19. (Tac. Ann. i. 55-68, ii. 9,
16, 45, 88 ; Strab. p. 293 ; Suet. Aug. 23 ; Veil.
Pat. ii. 118; Dio Cass. lvi. 18.)
Armorica or Aremorica, the name of the
NW. coast of Gaul from the Ligeris (Loire) to
the Sequana (Seine), derived from the Celtic
ar, air, ' upon,' and muir, mdr, ' the sea.' The
Armoricae civitates are enumerated bv Caesar
(B. G. vii. 75).
Arna (Arnas, -atis : Civitella d'Arno), a town
in Umbria near Perusia.
Arnae ("Apvai), a town in Chalcidice in Mace
donia, _S. of Aulon and Bromiscus.
Arne ("Apvrj). 1. A town in Boeotia mentioned
by Homer (II. ii. 507), supposed by Pausanias
to be the same as Chaeronea, but placed
by others near Acraephium on the E. of the
lake Copais.— 2. A town in the SW. of Thessaly,
near the modern Mataranga (Thuc. ii. 12).

ARNISSA
Arnissa ("Apvicroa : Ostroval), a town in
Eordaea in Macedonia.
Arnobius, a native of Africa, lived about a.d.
300, in the reign of Diocletian. He was at first
a teacher of rhetorio at Sicca in Africa, but
afterwards embraced Christianity ; and to
remove all doubts as to the reality of his con
version, he wrote, while yet a catechumen, his
celebrated work against the Pagans, in 7 books
(Libri septem adversus Gentes), which we still
possess. It is chiefly valuable for the informa
tion which it gives about Greek and Roman
customs and ritual. — Editions. By Orelli, Lips.
1816 ; by Reifferscheid, Vindob. 1876.
Arnon CApvav : Wad-el-Mojib), a consider
able river of E. Palestine, rising in the Arabian
Desert, and flowing W. through a rocky valley
into the Lacus Asphaltites (Dead Sea). The
surrounding district was called Arnonas ; and
in it the Romans had a military station, called
Castra Arnonensia.
Arnns (Arno), the chief river of Etruria,
rises in the Apennines, flows by Pisae, and falls
into the Tyrrhenian sea. It gave the name to
the Tribus Arnensis, formed b.c. 387. (Strab.
p. 222 ; Liv. xxii. 2 ; Tac. Ann. i. 79.)
Aroa (Apdo or Ap&rt), the ancient name of
Pateae. Aromata (to 'Apdpara, 'Apaudrav &Kpov :
Cape Guardafui), the E.-most promontory of
Africa, at the S. extremity of the Arabian Gulf :
also the surrounding district was called Aromata
or Aromatophora Regio, with a town 'Apapdrav
ipir6piov: so named from the abundance of
spices which the district produced.
Arpi (Arpanus : Arpi), an inland town in
the Daunian Apulia, founded, according to
tradition, by Diomedes, who called it"Ap7os
Xinriov, from which its later name, Argyrippa
or Argyripa and Arpi are said to have arisen
(Hie [Diomedes] urbem Argyripam, patriae
cognomine gentis, Verg. Aen. xi. 246). During
the time of its independence it was a flourish
ing commercial town, using Salapia as its har
bour. It was friendly to the Romans in the
Samnite wars, but revolted to Hannibal after
the battle of Cannae, B.C. 216 : it was taken by
the Romans in 313, deprived of its independence,
and never recovered its former prosperity.
(Strab. p. 283 ; Liv. xxii. 12, xxiv. 46.)
Arpinum (Arpinas, -atis : Arpino), a town of
Latium on the small river Fibrenus (Fibreno),
originally belonging to the Volscians and after
wards to the Samnites, from whom the Romans
wrested it, was a Roman municipium, and
received the jus suffragii, or right of voting in
the Roman comitia, B.C. 188. (Strab. p. 220 ;
Liv. xxxviii. 36.) It was the birthplace of
Marius and Cicero, the latter of whom was born
in his father's villa, situated on a small island
formed by the river Fibrenus. Cicero's brother
Quintus had an estate S. of Arpinum, called
Arcanum. (Sail. Jug. 67 ; Cic. Legg. ii. 1, 3,
ad Fam. xiii. 11.)
Arretium or Aretium (Arretinus: Arezzo),
one of the most important of the twelve cities
of Etruria, was situated in the NE. of the
country at the foot of the Apennines, and pos
sessed a fertile territory near the sources of the
Arnus and the Tiber, producing good wine and
corn (Liv. ix. 37, x. 37; Strab. pp. 222, 226.) It
was a Roman colony and municipium after the
2nd Punic war. It was particularly celebrated
for its pottery, which was of red ware. The
Cilnii, from whom Maecenas was descended,
were a noble family of Arretium. The ruins of
a city 2 or 3 miles to the SE. of Arezzo on a

ARRIANUS

121

height called Poggio di San Cornelio, or Cas-
tel Secco, are probably the remains of the
ancient Arretium.
Arrhapachitis ('Appairaxirts), a district of
Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and Choa-
tras. Arrhibaeus ('Appi/Soios), chieftain of the
Macedonians of Lyncus, revolted against king
Perdiccas in the Peloponnesian war. It was to
reduce him that Perdiccas sent for Brasidas
(b.c. 424), and against him took place the un-.
successful joint expedition, in which Perdiccas
deserted Brasidas, and Brasidas effected his
bold and skilful retreat. (Thuc. ii. 99, iv. 79, 83,
124 ; Strab. p. 326.)
Arrhidaeus ('AppiSaios) or Aridaeus ('Api-
SaTos). 1. A half-brother of Alexander the
Great, son of Philip and a female dancer,
Philinna of Larissa, was of imbecile under
standing. He was at Babylon at the time of
Alexander's death, B.C. 823, and was elected
king under the name of Philip, The young
Alexander, the infant son of Roxana, was asso
ciated with him in the government. In 822
Arrhidaeus married Eurydice. On their return
to Macedonia, Eurydice attempted to obtain the
supreme power in opposition to Polysperchon ;
but Arrhidaeus and Eurydice were made pri
soners, and put to death by order of Olympias,
317. (Plut. Alex. 77 ; Just. xiv. 5 ; Diod. xix.
52 ; Paus. viii. 7, 5.) — 2. One of Alexander's
generals, obtained the province of the Helles-
pontine Phrygia, at the division of the pro
vinces which was made in 321, but was deprived
of it by Antigonus in 319 (Just. xiii. 4 ; Diod.
xviii. 51, 72).
Arria. 1. Wife of Caecina Paetus. When
her husband was ordered by the emperor Clau
dius to put an end to his life, a.d. 42, and hesi
tated to do so, Arria stabbed herself, handed
the dagger to her husband, and said, ' Paetus,
it does not pain me.' (Plin. Ep. iii. 16; Dio
Cass. Ix. 16 ; Mart. i. 14.)— 2. Daughter of the
preceding, and wife of Thrasea (Tac. Ann. xvi.
34). Arrianus (Appiai'o'j). 1. Of Nicomedia in
Bithynia, born about a.d. 90, was a pupil and
friend of Epictetus, and first attracted attention
as a philosopher by publishing at Athens the
lectures of his master. In 124 he gained the
friendship of Hadrian during his stay in Greece,
and received from the emperor the Roman
citizenship ; from this time he assumed the
name of Flavius. In 136 he was appointed
praefect of Cappadocia, which was invaded the
year after by the Alani or Massagetae, whom
he defeated. Under Antoninus Pius, in 146,
Arrian was consul ; and about 150 he withdrew
from public life, and from this time lived in his
native town of Nicomedia, as priest of Demeter
and Persephone. He died at an advanced age
in the reign of M. Aurelius. Arrian was one of
the most active and best writers of his time.
He was a close imitator of Xenophon, both in
the subjects of his works and in the style in
which they were written. He regarded his
relation to Epictetus as similar to that of
Xenophon to Socrates ; and it was his endea
vour to carry out that resemblance. With this
view he published (1) the philosophical lectures
of his master (Aiorpi^ol 'EirtKTf)TOv) in 8 books,
the first four of which are still extant. Edited
in Schweighauser's Epicteteae Philosophiae
Monumenta, vol. iii., and in Coraes' nop€p7a
'EXX-qv. Bi$Xio6. vol. viii. (2) An abstract of the
practical philosophy of Epictetus ('Eyx^ipiSiov
'EiriKT'fiTov), which is still extant. This cele-

122

ARRIBAS

brated work maintained its authority for many
centuries, both with Christians and Pagans.
The best editions are those of Schweighauser
and Coraes, in the collections above referred to.
He also published other works relating to
Epictetus, which are now lost. His original
works are (3) A treatise on the chase (Kwjj-
yririKds), which forms a kind of supplement to
Xenophon's work on the same subject, and is
¦printed in most editions of Xenophon's works.
(4) The History of the Asiatic expedition of
Alexander the Great ('Avdfjaffis 'AXe^dvSpov) in
¦7 books, the most important of Arrian's works.
This great work reminds the reader of Xenophon's
Anabasis, not only by its title, but also by the
ease and clearness of its style. It is also of
great value for its historical accuracy, being
based upon the most trustworthy histories
written by the contemporaries of Alexander,
especially those of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus,
and of Aristobulus, the son of Aristobulus.
(5) On India ('IcSuc7; or to 'lvSiKd), which may
be regarded as a continuation of the Anabasis,
at the end of which it is usually printed. This
work is written in the Ionic dialect, probably
in imitation of Ctesias of Cnidus, whose work
on the same subject Arrian wished to supplant
by a more trustworthy and correct account.
The best editions of the Anabasis are by Sin-
tenis, Berlin, 1867; Abicht, Leipzig, 1876: of
the Indica by Schmieder, Halle, 1798. (6) A
description of a voyage round the coasts of the
Euxine (irepiirXovs ttovtov Ev£eivov), which had
been made by Arrian himself during his govern
ment of Cappadocia. This Periplus has come
down to us together with a Periplus of the Ery
thraean, and a Periplus of the Euxine and the
Palus Maeotis, both of which also bear the
name of Arrian, but they belong to a later
period. The best editions are in Hudson's
Geographi Minores, vol. i., and in Gail's and
Miiller's collections of the minor Geogra
phers. (7) A work on Tactics (x6yos raKTiicbs
or rexvri toktik^j), sometimes ascribed to him,
is now generally held to be by Aelian. — 2. A
Roman jurisconsult, probably lived under
Trajan, and is perhaps the same person with
the orator Arrianus who corresponded with the
younger Pliny. He wrote a treatise de Inter-
dictis, of which the second book is quoted in
the Digest.
Arribas, Arrybas, Arymbas, or Tharrytas
('AppijSos, 'Appvfias, 'Apvpj3as, or ©appvras), a
descendant of Achilles, and one of the early
kings of the Molossians in Epirus. He is said
to have been educated at Athens, and on his
return to his native country to have framed for
the Molossians a code of laws and established a
regular constitution. (Paus. i. 11 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 1.)
Q. Arrius. 1. Praetor, b.c. 72, defeated
Crixus, the leader of the runaway slave's, but
was afterwards conquered by Spartacus. Bi
71, Arrius was to have succeeded Verres as
propraetor in Sicily, but died on his way to
Sicily (Cic. Verr. ii. 15, iv. 20).— 2. A son of the
preceding, was an unsuccessful candidate for the
consulship, B.C. 59. He was an intimate friend
of Cicero (Cic. pro Mil. 17, ad Att. ii. 5, 7.)
Arrius Aper, [Apee.]
L. Arruntius. 1. Proscribed by the trium
virs in B.C. 43, but escaped to Sext. Pompey in
Sicily, and was restored to the state with Pom
pey. He subsequently commanded the left
wing of the fleet of Octavianus at the battle of
Actium, 31, and was consul in 22. (App. B. C. iv.
46; Plut. Ant. 66.)— 2. Son of the preceding,
consul a.d. 6. Augustus declared in his last

ARSACES
illness, that Arruntius was not unworthy of the
empire, and would have boldness enough to
seize it, if an opportunity presented. This
rendered him an object of suspicion to Tiberius.
He was charged in a.d. 37, as an accomplice in
the crimes of Albucilla, and put an end to his
own life. (Tac. Ann. i. 8, 13, 76, vi. 27, 47 ; Dio
Cass, lviii. 27.) . .
Arsa (Azunga), a town m Hispama ±Saetica.
Arsaces ('Apo-oKTjs), the name of the founder
of the Parthian empire, which was also borne
by all his successors, who were hence called the
Arsacidae.—I. He was of obscure origin, of
Scythian race, according to Strabo from the
country of the Ochus. He and his brother
Tiridates who had small satrapies in Bactria
under Antiochus H., resenting the tyranny of
Agathocles, slew him, and driving out the
Syrians, established for Arsaces a small Par
thian kingdom with the capital Hecatompylus,
b.c. 256. (Arrian ap. Syncellus 284 ; Strab. p.
515 ; Appian, Syr. 65.) He induced the Par
thians to revolt from the Syrian empire of the
Seleucidae, and he became the first monarch of
the Parthians. This event probably took place
about b.c. 250, in the reign of Antiochus H. ;
but the history of the revolt, as well as of the
events which immediately followed, is stated
very differently by different historians. Arsaces
reigned only two years, and was succeeded by
his brother Tiridates. — II. = Tiridates, reigned
37 years, B.C. 248-211, and defeated Seleucus
Callinicus, the successor of Antiochus II. — III,
= Artabanus I., son of the preceding, was
attacked by Antiochus III. (the Great), who,
however, was unable to subdue his country, and
at length recognised him as king, about 210
(Polyb. x. 27; Just. xii. 5).— IV.=Priapatius,
son of the preceding, reigned 15 years and left
three sons, Phraates, Mithridates, and Artaba-
nus. — V.= Phraates I., subdued the Mardi, and,
though he had many sons, left the kingdom to
his brother Mithridates.— VI. = Mithridates I,
son of Arsaces IV., greatly enlarged the Par
thian empire by his conquests. He defeated
Demetrius Nicator, king of Syria, and took him
prisoner in 138. Mithridates treated Demetrius
with respect, and gave him his daughter Rho-
dogune in marriage. Mithridates died during
the captivity of Demetrius, between 138 and 130
(Just. xii. 6 ; Strab. pp. 516, 524 ; Appian, Syr.
67). — VII.=Phraates II., son of the preceding,
carried on war against Antiochus VII. Sidetes,
whom Phraates defeated and slew in battle, B.C.
128. Phraates himself was shortly after killed
in battle by the Scythians, who had been
invited by Antiochus to assist him against
Phraates, but who did not arrive till after the
fall of the former (Just, xxxviii. 10, xiii. 1).
— VIII. =Artabanus II., youngest brother of
Arsaces VI., and youngest son of Arsaces IV.,
fell in battle against the Thogarii or Tochari,
apparently after a short reign. — IX. = Mithri
dates II., son of the preceding, prosecuted
many wars with success, and added many
nations to the Parthian empire, whence he
obtained the surname of Great. It was in his
reign that the Romans first had any official com
munication with Parthia. Mithridates sent an
ambassador to Sulla, who had come into Asia
B.C. 92, and requested alliance with the Romans
(Just. xiii. 2, 4; Plut. Sull. 5.)— X. = (Mnascires?)
Nothing is known of the successor of Arsaces
IX. Even his name is uncertain. — XI. = Sana-
troces, reigned seven years, and died about B.C.
70. — XII.=Phraates III., son of the preceding.
He lived at the time of the war between the-

ARSACES

123

Romans and Mithridates of Pontus, by both of
whom he was courted. He contracted an
alliance with the Romans, but he took no part
in the war. At a later period misunderstand
ings arose between Pompey and Phraates, but
Pompey thought it more prudent to avoid a
war with the Parthians, although Phraates had
invaded Armenia, and Tigranes, the
Armenian king, implored Pompey's
assistance. Phraates was murdered
soon afterwards by his two sons,
Mithridates and Orodes (Dio Cass.
xxxvi. 28, 34, xxxvii. 6, xxxix. 56 ;
Appian, Syr. 104; Plut. Pomp. 83-89).
—Xm. = Mithridates III., son of
the preceding, succeeded his father
during the Armenian war. On his
return from Armenia, Mithridates was
expelled from the throne, on account
of his cruelty, and was succeeded by
his brother Orodes. Mithridates after
wards made war upon his brother, but
was taken prisoner and put to death
(Dio Cass, xxxix. 56 ; Appian, Syr. 51 ; Jos. B. J.
i. 8). — XIV. = Orodes I., brother of the preceding,
was the Parthian king whose general Surenas
defeated Crassus and the Romans, B.C. 53.
[Cbassus.J After the death of Crassus, Orodes
gave the command of the army to his son
Pacorus, who entered Syria in 51 with a small
force, but was driven back by Cassius. In 50
Pacorus again crossed the Euphrates with a
much larger army, and advanced as far as
Antioch, but was defeated near Antigonea by
Cassius. The Parthians now remained quiet
for some years. In 40 they crossed the Eu
phrates again, under the command of Pacorus
and Labienus, the son of T. Labienus. They
overran Syria and part of Asia Minor, but were
defeated in 39 by Ventidius Bassus, one of
Antony's legates : Labienus was slain in the
flight, and the Parthians retired to their own
dominions. In 38, Pacorus again invaded
Syria, but was completely defeated and fell in
the battle. This defeat was a severe blow to
the aged king Orodes, who shortly afterwards
surrendered the crown to his son, Phraates,
during his lifetime (Dio Cass. xl. 28, xlviii.
24-41, xlix. 19, 23 ; Just. xiii. 4 ; Appian, B. C. v.
65; Plut. Ant. 33; Cic. Att.v. 18, Fam. xv. 1).
— XV. — Phraates IV., commenced his reign by
murdering his father, his 30 brothers, and his
own son, who was grown up, that there might
be none of the royal family whom the Parthians
could place upon the throne in his stead. In
consequence of his cruelty many of the Par
thian nobles fled to Antony (37), who invaded
Parthia in 36, but was obliged to retreat after
losing a great part of his army (Dio Cass. xlix.
23-31 ; Plut. Ant. 37-51; Strab. p. 523). A few
years afterwards the cruelties of Phraates pro
duced a rebellion against him ; he was driven
out of the country, and Tiridates proclaimed
king in his stead. Phraates, however, was soon
restored by the Scythians, and Tiridates fled to
Augustus, carrying with him the youngest son
of Phraates (Hor. Od. ii. 2, 17, cf. i. 26, 5, iii. 8,
19). Augustus restored his son to Phraates, on
eondition of his surrendering the Roman stan
dards and prisoners taken in the war with
Crassus and Antony (Dio Cass. Ii. 18, liii. 33,
liv. 8; Just. xiii. 5; Suet. Aug. 21; Hor. Od.
iv. 15, 6, Epist. i. 18). They were given up in
20 ; their restoration caused universal joy at
Rome, and was celebrated not only by the
poets, but by festivals and commemorative
monuments. Phraates also sent to Augustus

as hostages his four sons, with their wives and
children, who were carried to Rome. In a.d. 2,
Phraates was poisoned by his wife Thermusa,
and her son Phraataces (Jos. Ant. xviii. 2, 4). —
XVI. = Phraataces, reigned only a short time, as
he was expelled by his subjects on account of
his crimes. The Parthian nobles then elected

Coin ol Phraataces.
This is a good specimen ot the Parthian coins. Obv., head of king ;
rev., Parthian holding a bow, with the legend BAsiAEns basiaean
AP2AKOY EYEPrETOY AIKAIOY Eni*AN0YS *1AEAAHN02 [APTElMIZlOY .
A1T=S11. as king Orodes, who was of the family of the
Arsacidae. — XVII. = Orodes II., also reigned
only a short time, as he was killed by the Par
thians on account of his cruelty. Upon his
death the Parthians applied to the Romans for
Vonones, one of the sons of Phraates IV., who
was accordingly granted to them (Tac. Ann. ii.
1-4).— XVIII. = Vonones I., son of Phraates IV.,
was also disliked by his subjects, who therefore
invited Artabanus, king of Media, to take
possession of the kingdom. Artabanus drove
Vonones out of Parthia, who resided first in
Armenia, next in Syria, and subsequently in
Cilicia. He was put to death in a.d. 19, accord
ing to some accounts by order of Tiberius on
account of his great wealth (Tac. Ann. ii. 1-4,
56,68; Suet. Tib. 49).— XIX. = Artabanus III.,
obtained the Parthian kingdom soon after the
expulsion of Vonones, about A.D. 16. Artabanus
placed Arsaces, one of his sons, over Armenia,
and assumed a hostile attitude towards the
Romans. His subjects, whom he oppressed,
despatched an embassy to Tiberius to beg him
to send to Parthia Phraates, one of the sons of
Phraates IV. Tiberius willingly complied with
the request ; but Phraates upon arriving in
Syria was carried off by a disease, A.D. 35. As
soon as Tiberius heard of his death, he set up
Tiridates, another of the Arsacidae, as a claim
ant to the Parthian throne : Artabanus was
obliged to leave his kingdom, and to fly for
refuge to the Hyrcanians and Carmanians.
Hereupon Vitellius, the governor of Syria,
crossed the Euphrates, and placed Tiridates on
the throne. Artabanus was, however, recalled
next year (36) by his fickle subjects. He was
once more expelled by his subjects, and once
more restored (Tac. Ann. ii. 58, vi. 31-37, 41-44 ;
Dio Cass. Iviii. 26, lxix. 27 ; Jos. Ant. xviii. 5).
He died soon after his last restoration, leaving
two sons, Bardanes and Gotarzes. — XX. =
Gotarzes, succeeded his father, Artabanus
III., but was defeated by his brother Bardanes
and retired into Hyrcania. — XXI. = Bardanes,
brother of the preceding, was put to death by
his subjects in 47, whereupon Gotarzes again
obtained the crown. But as he ruled with
cruelty, the Parthians secretly begged the
emperor Claudius to send them from Rome
Meherdates, grandson of Phraates IV. Clau
dius complied with their request, and com
manded the governor of Syria to assist Meher-
dateB, but the latter was defeated in battle,
and taken prisoner by Gotarzes. (Tac. Ann. xi.

124

ARSACES

8-10, xii. 10-14. The account varies in Jos.
Ant. xx. 3.) — XXII. = Vonones II., succeeded
Gotarzes about 50. His reign was short. —
XXIH.= Vologeses I., son of Vonones II. or
Artabanus III. Soon after his accession, he
conquered Armenia, which he gave to his
brother Tiridates. In 55 he gave up Armenia
to the Romans, but in 58 he again placed his
brother over Armenia and declared war against
the Romans. This war terminated in favour of
the Romans : the Parthians were repeatedly
defeated by Domitius Corbulo, and Tiridates
was driven out of Armenia. At length, in 62,
peace was concluded between Vologeses and the
Romans on condition that Nero would sur
render Armenia to Tiridates, provided the
latter would come to Rome and receive it as a
gift from the Roman emperor. Tiridates came
to Rome in 63, where he was received with
extraordinary splendour, and obtained from
Nero the Armenian crown. Vologeses after
wards maintained friendly relations with Ves
pasian, and seems to have lived till the reign of
Domitian (Tac. Ann. xiii. 5-9, xiv. 23, xv. 1-18,
25-31 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 19-23, lxiii. 1-7, lxvi.
11). — XXIV. = Pacorus, succeeded his father,
Vologeses I., and was a contemporary of
Domitian and Trajan (Mart. ix. 39 ; Plin. Ep.
x. 16). — XXV. = Chosroes or Osroes, succeeded
his brother Pacorus during the reign of Trajan.
His conquest of Armenia occasioned the inva
sion of Parthia by Trajan, who stripped it of
many of its provinces, and made the Parthians
for a time subject to Rome. [Teajanus.] Upon
the death of Trajan in a.d. 117, the Parthians
expelled Parthamaspates, whom Trajan had
placed upon the throne, and recalled their
former king, Chosroes. Hadrian relinquished
the conquests of Trajan, and made the Eu
phrates, as before, the eastern boundary of the
Roman empire. Chosroes died during the
reign of Hadrian (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 17-83). —
XXVI. = Vologeses II., succeeded his father
Chosroes, and reigned from about 122 to 149
(Dio Cass. lxix. 15).— XXVII. = Vologeses III.,
began to reign in 149. He invaded Syria in
162, but the generals of the emperor Verus
drove him back into his own dominions, invaded
Mesopotamia and Assyria, and took Seleucia
and Ctesiphon; and Vologeses was obliged to
purchase peace by ceding Mesopotamia to the
Romans. From this time to the downfall of
the Parthian empire, there is great confusion in
the list of kings (Dio Cass. lxx. 2, lxxi. 2;
Capitol. M. Ant. Phil. 8, 9; Ver. 6, 7;
Eutrop. viii. 10).— XXVIII. = Vologeses IV.,
probably ascended the throne in the reign of
Commodus. His dominions were invaded by
Septimius Severus, who took Ctesiphon in 199.
On the death of Vologeses IV., at the beginning
of the reign of Caracalla, Parthia was torn
asunder by contests for the crown between the
sons of Vologeses (Dio Cass. lxxv. 9, lxxvii. 12 ;
Herodian, iii. 1-10 ; Script. Aug. Sever. 15, 16).
— XXIX. = Vologeses V., son of Vologeses IV.,
was attacked by Caracalla in 215, and about
the same time was dethroned by his brother
Artabanus (Dio Cass, lxxvii. 19) . — XXX. = Arta
banus IV., the last king of Parthia. The war
commenced by Caracalla against Vologeses was
continued against Artabanus; but Macrinus,
the successor of Caracalla, concluded peace
with the Parthians. In this war Artabanus
had lost the best of his troops, and the Persians
seized the opportunity of recovering their long-
lost independence. They were led by Arta
xerxes (Ardshir), the son of Sassan, and defeated

ARSINOE
the Parthians in three great battles, in the last
of which Artabanus was taken prisoner and
killed, a.d. 226 (Dio Cass, lxxviii. 1-27, lxxx.
3 ; Herodian, iv. 9-15 ; Capitol. Macrin. 8, 12 ;
Syncell. p. 677). Thus ended the Parthian
empire of the Arsacidae, after it had existed
476 years. The Parthians were now obliged
to submit to Artaxerxes, the founder of the
dynasty of the Sassanidae, which continued to
reign till a.d. 651.
Arsacia ('Apo-aKla : Ru. SE. of Teheran),
a great city of Media, S. of the Caspiae Portae,
originally named Rhagae ('Pa7a0 ; rebuilt by
Seleucus Nicator, and called Europus (Ebpair6s);
again destroyed in the Parthian wars and re
built by Arsaces, who named it after himself
(Strab. pp. 514, 524).
Arsacidae, the name of a dynasty of Par
thian kings. [Aesaces.] It was also the name
of a dynasty of Armenian kings, who reigned in
Armenia from B.C. 149 to A.D. 428. This dynasty
was founded by Abtaxias I., who was related
to the Parthian Arsacidae.
Arsamosata ('Apo-apdo-aTa, also wrongly
abbrev. 'App^dffara: Shemshat), a town and
strong fortress in Armenia Major, between the
Euphrates and the sources of the Tigris, near
the most frequented pass of the Taurus (Tac.
Ann. xv. 10; Plin. vi. 26).
Arsanias, -ius, or -us ('Apo-avias, &c), the
name of two rivers of Great Armenia. — 1,
(Murad), the S. arm of the Euphrates. [Ar
menia.] — 2. (Arslan ?), a small stream rising
near the sources of the Tigris, and flowing W.
into the Euphrates near Melitene.
Arsenaria, or -enn- ('Apo-r)vapia : Arzaw,
Ru.), a town in Mauretania Caesariensis, 3
miles (Rom.) from the sea : a Roman colony
(Plin. v. 19).
Arsene. [Aezanene.]
Arses, Harses, or Oarses ("ApoTjs, Ndpoys,
or 'Oopo"77?), youngest son of king Artaxerxes
III. Ochus, was raised to the Persian throne
by the eunuch Bagoas after he had poisoned
Artaxerxes, B.C. 339, but he was murdered by
Bagoas in the 3rd year of his reign, when he
attempted to free himself from the bondage in
which he was kept. After the death of Arses,
Bagoas made Darius III. king (Diod. xvii. 5 ;
Strab._p. 736 ; Arrian, An. ii. 14).
Arsia (Arsa), a river in Istria, forming the
boundary between Upper Italy and Hlyricum,
with a town of the same name upon it.
Arsia Silva, a wood in Etruria celebrated for
the battle between the Tarquins and the Romans
(Liv. ii. 7).
Arsinoe ('Apo-iv6ri). I. Mythological. 1.
Daughter of Phegeus, and wife of Alcmaeon.
As she disapproved of the murder of Alcmaeon,
the sons of Phegeus put her into a chest and
carried her to Agapenor at Tegea, where they
accused her of having killed Alcmaeon. [Alc
maeon ; Agenoe.]— 2. Nurse of Orestes, saved
the latter from the hands of Clytemnestra, and
carried him to Strophius, father of Pylades
(Pind. Pyth. xi. 18). Some accounts call her
Laodamla. — 3. Daughter of Leucippus and
Philodice, became by Apollo mother of Eriopis
and Aesculapius.— II. Historical. 1. Mother
of Ptolemy I., was a concubine of Philip, father
of Alexander the Great, and married Lagus,
while she was pregnant with Ptolemy.— 2.
Daughter of Ptolemy I. and Berenice, married
Lysimachus, king of Thrace, in B.C. 300, receiv
ing the cities of Heracles and Dium as her
appanage. After the death of Lysimachus in
281, she lived at Cassandreia in Macedonia.

ARSINOE
Her half-brother, Ptolemy Ceraunus, got pos
session of this town through promise of mar
riage, but drove out Arsinoe, and slew her
two children. Afterwards, in 279, she married
her own brother, Ptolemy II. Philadelphus.
Though Arsinoe bore Ptolemy no children, she
was exceedingly beloved by him ; he gave her
name to several cities, called a district (vop6s)
of Egypt Arsinoites after her, and honoured
her memory in various ways (Just. xxiv. 2 ;
Plut. Demetr. 81 ; Paus. i. 7 ; Theocr. xv. 128 ;

ARTAPHERNES

126

Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy I., and wife of Ptolemy II.
Rev., double cornucopia iDict. Ant. s.v. Rhyton).
Athen. p. 497 ; Diet. Ant. s. v. Bhyton.) — 3.
Daughter of Lysimachus, married Ptolemy H.
Philadelphus soon after his accession, B.C. 285.
In consequence of her plotting against her
namesake [No. 2], when Ptolemy fell in love
with her, she was banished to Coptos in Upper
Egypt. She had by Ptolemy three children,
Ptolemy ITT. Evergetes, Lysimachus, and Bere
nice (Polyb. xv. 25 ; Paus. I.e.). It is probable
that she is the Arsinoe who afterwards married
Magas, king of Cyrene (Just. xxvi. 3). — 4. Also
called Eurydice and Cleopatra, daughter of
Ptolemy III. Evergetes, wife of her brother
Ptolemy TV. Philopator, and mother of Ptolemy
V. Epiphanes. She was killed by Philammon
by order of her husband (Polyb. v. 83, xv. 25-
38). — 5. Daughter of Ptolemy XI. Auletes,
escaped from Caesar, when he was besieging
Alexandria in B.C. 47, and was recognised as
queen by the Alexandrians. After the capture
of Alexandria she was carried to Rome by
Caesar, and led in triumph by him in 46. She
was afterwards dismissed by Caesar, and re
turned to Alexandria; but her sister Cleopatra
persuaded Antony to have her put to death, in
41 (Dio Cass. xiii. 39 ; Caes. B. C. iii. 112 ; B.
Alex. 4, 33 ; Appian, B. C. v. 9).
Arsinoe ('Apo-iv6ri : 'Apmvoeis, or -or)rr)s), the
name of several cities of the times of the Dia-
dochi, each called after one or other of the
persons in the preceding article. — 1. In Aetolia.
[Conopa.] — 2. On the N. coast of Cyprus, on
the site of the older city of Marium (Mopioi'),
which Ptolemy L had destroyed (Strab. p. 683.) —
3. A port on the W. coast of Cyprus (Strab. ib.)
— 4. (Famagosta), on the SE. coast of Cyprus,
between Salamis and Leucolla (Strab. p. 682.) — 5.
In Cilicia, E. of Anemurium (Strab. p. 670.) — 6.
(Ajeroud or Suez), in the Nomos Her oopol ites
or W. branch of the Red Sea (Gulf of Suez).
It was afterwards called Cleopatris. — 7. (Medi-
net-el-Faioum, Ru.), the chief city of the
Nomos Arsinoites in the Heptanomis or Middle
Egypt [Aegyptus]; formerly called Crocodi-
lopolis (KpoKoSelXav ir6Xis), and the district
Nomos Crocodilopolites, from its being the
chief seat of the Egyptian worship of the cro
codile. This nomos also contained the Lake
Moeris and the labyrinth (Strab. p. 809 ; Hdt. ii.
48 ; Plin. v. 61). — 8. In Cyrenaica, also called
Taucheiba. — 9. On the coast of the Troglodytae
on the western coast of the Red Sea (Strab. p.
769). Its probable position is a little below the

parallel of Thebes. — Some other cities called
Arsinoe are better known by other names,
such as Ephesus in Ionia and Pataea in
Lycia. Arsissa or Arsese ('Apo-io-o-a : Argish), part of
the lake Thospitis, in the S. of Armenia Major.
[Thospitis.] Artabanus ('Aprdfiavos). 1. Son of Hystapes
and brother of Darius, whom he tried to dis
suade from the Scythian expedition, also men
tioned in the reign of his nephew Xerxes, as a
wise and frank counsellor (Hdt. iv. 83, vii.
10, 46-53). — 2. A Hyrcanian, commander of
the body-guard of Xerxes, assassinated this
king in B.C. 465, with the view of setting him
self upon the tin-one of Persia, but was shortly
afterwards killed by Artaxerxes (Diod. xi. 69 ;
Just. iii. 1).— 3. I. II. III. IV., kings of Par
thia. [Absaces, III. VIII. XIX. XXX.]
Artabazus ('Aprd&a&s). 1. A Mede, acts a
prominent part in Xenophon's account of Cyrus
the Elder (Xen. Cyrop. i. 4, &c.).— 2. A dis
tinguished Persian, a son of Pharnaces, com
manded the Parthians and Choasmians, in the
expedition of Xerxes into Greece, B.C. 480
(Hdt. vii. 66). He served under Mardonius
in 479, and after the defeat of the Persians at
Plataea, he fled with 40,000 men, and reached
Asia in safety. Afterwards an intermediary
between Xerxes and Pausanias (Hdt. ix. 41,
89 ; Diod. xi. 33-44 ; Thuc. i. 129) .—3. A general
of Artaxerxes I., fought against Inarus in
Egypt, B.C. 462. — 4. A Persian general, fought
under Artaxerxes II. against Datames, satrap
of Cappadocia, b.c. 362. Under Artaxerxes IH.,
Artabazus, who was then satrap of W. Asia,
revolted in B.C. 856, but was defeated and obliged
to take refuge with Philip of Macedonia. He
was afterwards pardoned by Artaxerxes, and
returned to Persia ; and he was one of the most
faithful adherents of Darius HI. Codomarmus,
who raised him to high honours. On the death
of Darius (330) Artabazus received from Alex
ander the satrapy of Bactria. One of his
daughters, Barsine, became by Alexander the
mother of Heracles ; a second, Artocama, mar
ried Ptolemy son of Lagus ; and a third, Artonis,
married Eumenes. (Diod. xvi. 22 ; Arrian, iii.
21 ; Strab. p. 578.)
Artabri, afterwards Arotrebae, a Celtic
people in the NW. of Spain, near the Promon
tory Nerium or Celticum, also called Artabrum
after them' (C. Finisterre). (Strab. pp. 137, 147.)
Art ace ('ApraKri : Artaki), a seaport town of
the peninsula of Cyzicus, in the Propontis : also
a mountain in the same peninsula. (Strab.
pp. 576, 582.)
Artachaees ('Apraxains), a distinguished
Persian in the army of Xerxes, died while
Xerxes was at Athos. The mound which the
king raised over him is still in existence.
(Hdt. vii. 22, 117.)
Artacoana ('ApraK6ava, or -Kavva: Sekh-
van ?) the ancient capital of Abia, not far from
the site of the later capital, Alexandeia.
Artaei (ApToioi), was, according to Hero
dotus (vi. 61), the old native name of the Per
sians. It signifies noble, and appears, in the
form Apra, as the first part of a large number
of Persian proper names.
Artanes ('Aprdvris). 1. A river in Thrace,
falling into the Ister. — 2. A river in Bithynia.
Artaphernes ('Apracpepvris). 1. Son of Hys-
taspes and brother of Darius. He was satrap
of Sardis at the time of the Ionian revolt, b.c.
500. See Aeistagoeas. — 2. Son of the former,
commanded, along with Datis, the Persian

126

ARTAUNUM

army of Darius, which was defeated at the
battle of Marathon, B.C. 490. Artaphernes com
manded the Lydians. and Mysians in the in
vasion of Greece by Xerxes in 480. (Hdt. vi.
94, 116 ; Aesch. Pers. 21.) — 3. An ambassador
from Artaxerxes to Sparta B.C. 425, intercepted
by the Athenians (Thuc. iv. 50).
Artaunum (Salburg near Homburg ?), a
Roman fortress in Germany on M. Taunus,
built by Drusus and restored by Germanicus
(Dio Cass. liv. 33; Tac. Ann. i. 56). Others
take it to be the modern Wiirtzburg.
Artavasdes or Artabazes ('ApraBd(ris).
1. King of the Greater Armenia, succeeded his
father Tigranes. In the expedition of Crassus
against the Parthians, B.C. 54, Artavasdes was
an ally of the Romans ; but after the defeat of
the latter, he concluded a peace with the Par
thian king (Plut. Crass. 19-22). In 86 he joined
Antony in his campaign against the Parthians,
and persuaded him to invade Media, because
he was at enmity with his namesake Artavasdes,
king of Media ; but he treacherously deserted
Antony in the middle of the campaign. Antony
accordingly invaded Armenia in 84, contrived
to entice Artavasdes into his camp, where he
was immediately seized, carried him to Alex
andria, and led him in triumph. He remained
in captivity till 30, when Cleopatra had him
killed after the battle of Actium, and sent his
head to his old enemy, Artavasdes of Media, in
hopes of obtaining assistance from the latter
(Dio Cass. xlix. 83-40 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 82 ; Tac.
Ann. ii. 8 ; Plut. Ant. 37-50). This ArtavasdeB
was well acquainted with Greek literature, and
wrote tragedies, speeches, and historical works
(Plut. Crass. 33). — 2. King of Armenia, pro
bably a grandson of No. 1, was placed upon the
throne by Augustus, but was deposed by the
Armenians (Tac. Ann. ii. 3, 4). — 3. King of
Media Atropatene, and an enemy of Artavasdes
I., king of Armenia. Antony invaded his
country in 36, at the instigation of the Armenian
king, but he was obliged to retire with great
loss. Artavasdes afterwards concluded a peace
with Antony, and gave his daughter Iotape in
marriage to Alexander, the son of Antony.
With the Roman help he was successful ; but
when Antony recalled his troops, he was de
feated by Artaxias. After Actium Octavianus
restored to him his daughter Iotape. (Dio
Cass. xlix. 25-41, li. 16 ; Plut. Ant. 38. 52.)
Artaxata or -ae (to 'Aprd£ara, or -£ioto : Ru.
above Nakshivan), the later capital of Great
Armenia, built by Aetaxias, under the advice
of Hannibal, on a peninsula, surrounded by
the river Araxes. After being burnt by the
Romans under Corbulo (a.d. 58), it was restored
by Tiridates, and called Neroniana. It was
still standing in the fourth century. (Strab.
p. 528 ; Dio Cass, lxiii. 7 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 39, xii.
50, xiii. 39.)
Artaxerxes or Artoxerxes ('Apra|<=p{7)s or
'ApTo£epfTjr), the name of four Persian kings.
1. Surnamed LongimanuB, from the circum
stance of his right hand being longer than his
left, reigned B.C. 465-425. He ascended the
throne after his father, Xerxes I., had been
murdered by Artabanus, and after he himself
had put to death his brother Darius on the
instigation of Artabanus. His reign was dis
turbed by several dangerous insurrections of
the satraps. The Egyptians also revolted in
460, under Inarus, who was supported by the
Athenians. The first army which Artaxerxes
sent under his brother Achaemenes was de
feated and Achaemenes slain. The second

ARTAXIAS
army which he sent, under Artabazus and
Megabyzus, was more successful. Inarus was
defeated in 456 or 455, but Amyrtaeus, another
chief of the insurgents, maintained himself in
the marshes of Lower Egypt. At a later period
(449) the Athenians under Cimon sent assist
ance to Amyrtaeus ; and even after the death
of Cimon, the Athenians gained two victories
over the Persians, one by land and the other by
sea, in the neighbourhood of Salamis in Cyprus.
After this defeat Artaxerxes is said to have
concluded peace with the Greeks on terms very
advantageous to the latter. Artaxerxes was
succeeded by his son Xerxes H. — 2. Surnamed
Mnemon, from his good memory, succeeded
his father, Darius II., and reigned B c 405-359.
Cyrus, the younger brother of Artaxerxes, who
was satrap of W. Asia, revolted against his
brother, and, supported by Greek mercenaries,
invaded Upper Asia. In the neighbourhood of
Cunaxa, near Babylon, a battle was fought
between the armies of the . two brothers, in
which Cyrus fell, B.C. 401 (Xen. Anab. i. 8-10.
Cybus.) Tissaphernes was appointed satrap of
W. Asia in the place of Cyrus, and was actively
engaged in wars with the Greeks. [Thtmbeon ;
Debcyllidas ; Agesilaus.] Notwithstanding
these perpetual conflicts with the Greeks, the
Persian empire maintained itself by the dis
union among the Greeks themselves, which was
fomented and kept up by Persian money. The
peaceof Antalcidas, inB.c. 388,gave the Persians
even greater power and influence than they hod
possessed before. [Antalcidas.] But the em
pire was suffering from internal disturbances,
and Artaxerxes had to carry on frequent wars
with tributary princes and satraps, who en
deavoured to make themselves independent.
Thus he maintained a long struggle against
Evagoras of Cyprus, from 385 to 376 ; he also
had to carry on war against the Cardusians, on
the shores of the Caspian Sea ; and his
attempts to recover Egypt were unsuccessful.
Towards the end of his reign he put to death
his eldest son Darius, who had formed a plot
to assassinate him. His last days were still
further embittered by the unnatural conduct
of his son Ochus, who caused the destruction
of two of his brothers, in order to secure the
succession for himself (Plut. Artax. ; Diod.
xv. 9, 90-93 ; Just. x. 8). Artaxerxes was suc
ceeded by Ochus, who ascended the throne
under the name of Artaxerxes III. — 3. Also
called Ochus, reigned B.C. 359-338. In order
to secure his throne, he began his reign with a
merciless extirpation of the members of his
family. He himself was a cowardly and reck
less despot; and the great advantages which
the Persian arms gained during his reign
were owing only to his Greek generals and
mercenaries. These advantages consisted in
the conquest of the revolted satrap Artabazus
[Aetabazus, No. 4], and in the reduction of
Phoenicia, of several revolted towns in Cyprus,
and of Egypt, 350. The reins of government
were entirely in the hands of the eunuch
Bagoas, and of Mentor the Rhodian. At last
he was poisoned by Bagoas, and was succeeded
by his youngest son, Aeses. (Diod. xvi. 40-52 ;
xvii. 5.) — 4. The founder of the dynasty of the
Sassanidae. Artaxias (Ap-ra^ar) or Artaxes ('ApTaifts),
the name of kings of Armenia. — 1. The founder
of the Armenian kingdom, was one of the
generals of Antiochus the Great, but revolted
from him about b.c. 188, and became an inde
pendent sovereign. Hannibal took refuge at

ARTAYCTES
the court of Artaxias, and he superintended
the building of Aktaxata, the capital of Ar
menia. Artaxias was conquered and taken
prisoner by Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, about
165. (Strab. pp. 528-582 ; Plut. Lucull. 81 ; Ap
pian, Syr. 45, 66 ; Polyb. xxvi. 6.)— 2. Son of
Artavasdes, was made king by the Armenians
when his father was taken prisoner by Antony
in 84. In 20 Augustus, at the request of the
Armenians, sent Tiberius into Armenia, in order
to depose Artaxias and place Tigranes on the
throne, but Artaxias was put to death before
Tiberius reached the country, Tiberius, how
ever, took the credit to himself of a successful
expedition: whence Horace (Epist. i. 12, 26)
says, Claudi virtute Neronis Armenius cecidit.
(Dio Cass. xlix. 89-44, liv. 9 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 8 ;
Suet. Tib. 9.) — 3. Son of Polemon, king of
Pontus, was proclaimed king of Armenia by
Germanicus, in a.d. 18. He died about 85. His
original name was Zenon, but Artaxias had
become a general title of Armenian kings. (Tac.
Ann. ii. 56, vi. 81.)
Artayctes ('ApravKTris), Persian governor of
Sestus on the Hellespont, when the town was
taken by the Greeks in B.C. 478, met with an
ignominious death on account of the sacrilegious
acts which he had committed against the tomb
of the hero Protesilaus. (Hdt. vii. S3, 78, ix.
116, 118-120 ; Paus. i. 4, 5.)
Artemldorus ('AprepiSapos). 1. Surnamed
Aristophanius, from his being a disciple of
the celebrated grammarian Aristophanes, was
himself a grammarian, and the author of several
works now lost. — 2. Of Cnidus, a friend of
Julius Caesar, was a rhetorician, and taught
the Greek language at Rome (Strab. p. 656 ;
Plut. Caes. 65).— -3. Daldianus, a native of
Ephesus, but called Daldianus, from Daldis in
Lydia, his mother's birthplace, to distinguish
him from the geographer Artemidorus. He
lived at Rome in the reigns of Antoninus Pius
and M. Aurelius (a.d. 138-180), and wrote a
work on the interpretation of dreams ('Oveipo-
KpiriKa), in 5 books, which is still extant. The
object of the work is to prove that the future is
revealed to man in dreams, and to clear the
science of interpreting them from the abuses
with which the fashion of the time had sur
rounded it. The style is simple and good, and
the book is valuable as giving an account of
myth and ritual and of contemporary thought.
— Editions. By Reiff, Lips. 1805 ; by Hercher,
Lips. 1864. — 4. Of Ephesus, a Greek geo
grapher, lived about B.C. 100. He made voyages
round the coasts of the Mediterranean, in the
Red Sea, and apparently even in the S. ocean.
He also visited Iberia and Gaul. The work in
which he gave the results of his investigations
consisted of 11 books, of which Marcianus after
wards made an abridgment. The original
work is lost ; but we possess fragments of Mar
cianus' abridgment, which contain the periplus
of the Pontus Euxinus, and accounts of Bithynia
and Paphlagonia. These fragments are printed
in Hudson's Geographi Minores, vol. i. — 5. The
son-in-law of the Stoic Musonius Ruf us, himself
a friend of Pliny the Younger, and one of the
philosophers expelled from Rome by Domitian,
A.D. 93 (Plin. Ep. iii. 11).
Artemis ("Aprepis), as presented to us in
literature, was the daughter of Zeus and Leto,
twin sister of Apollo, born at Ortygia (Hymn.
ad Apoll. 15), which is taken to be Delos or
the small island of Rheneia, close to Delos.
Hence for most Greeks Delos is their birthplace,
but local traditions make this claim for other

ARTEMIS

127

places named Ortygia, especially at Syracuse
and Ephesus. [See Oetygia.] Already in Ho
meric times Artemis is a kind of female Apollo :
that is, she as a female divinity represented the
same idea that Apollo did as a male divinity.
Apollo represented the beauty of youths, Ar
temis of maidens (Od. vi. 107, xx. 71) ; as Apollo
was sung in the paean, so we have "Aprepis
ypvla (Paus. viii. 5). As sister of Apollo, Artemis
is, like her brother, armed with a bow, quiver,
and arrows, and sends plagues and death
among men and animals. Sudden deaths, but
more especially those of women, are described
as the effect of her arrows. (II. xxi. 483.) These
deaths are oftenest painless (II. vi. 428 ; Od. xi.
172) ; but also as a punishment (II. xxiv. 606 ;
Od. v. 128 ; Niobe) ; she also heals (II. v. 447).
Delighting in wild beasts, like the Arcadian
Artemis [see below], she was regarded as the
Huntress (U. xxi. 511, xxiv. 606 ; Hymn, ad
Dian. 10). Hence the Attic name for the
month Elaphebolion (deer-shooting), which
corresponds to that elsewhere called Artemisios.
Although not a maiden-goddess in primitive
religions, she has, as the daughter of Leto, be
fore Homer's time come to be so regarded ; and
the epithets ayvf), irapBevos, a.Spr)rri refer to the
belief then prevalent, that she was never con
quered by love (cf. Eur. Hipp. 1301 ; Paus. vii.
19, 2). She was also, but in post-Homeric
literature and art (not earlier than the 5th
century B.C.), connected with the moon, as
Apollo with the sun, taking the place of Selene
(even sometimes in the story of Endymion),
and so called <reXao-<p6pos (Paus. i. 31), apcpi-
iropos (cf. Aesch. Fr. 164 ; Soph. 0. B. 207),
"Aprepis 'E/cdV?j and "Apr. o-eXrjvaia (Aesch.
Suppl. 676 ; Eur. Med. 896, Phoen. 176), and
worshipped in torch-races. [Bendis ; Hecate.]
It is plain that this worship of Artemis had
developed from a union of various religious
observances, and it is necessary to examine the
different local traditions and rites which have
combined to form the Artemis described above.
From these traditions, especially from those of
the Arcadian and Brauronian Artemis, it will
appear that the deity who was in historic times
worshipped in Greece as the daughter of Leto
and sister of Apollo, and as the virgin goddess,
was developed in most places from a nature-
goddess, representing and fostering the streams
which fertilise the earth, the trees which grow
from it, the wild animals of the wooded hills
and their increase ; and hence also presiding
over human birth and motherhood. But it is
probable that we may go a step further back,
and infer that this ancient worship itself sprang
from something older — a worship of a goddess
of increase and harvest under the form of the
various animals which were each regarded either
as the tutelar deity of tribes, or as the spirit of
the corn or of the wood, to whom human sacri
fice was offered. The deity, at first the animal
itself, became in some rites the recipient of the
animal sacrifice : in others, the protectress of
the animal itself ; and it is not unlikely that
the choice of different animals in different
localities depended on the animal totem of the
tribe or family from which the ritual sprang.
Recently a stone figure of a bear has been
found in the Acropolis, which may possibly
have been an offering to Artemis Brauronia. —
1. The Arcadian Artemis is a nature-deity of
fountains, streams, and wooded hills : in this
aspect a female Pan rather than a female
Apollo. (For her connexion with streams see
Paus. viii. 22, 5; Aeethusa.) She is called

128

ARTEMIS

Seo-iroiva Xipvrjs and irorapia (Eur. Hipp. 280 ;
Paus. v. 14, 4) ; she is worshipped on hills
(Paus. iii. 20, 7, viii. 36, 5) ; she is also the
goddess of vegetable fertility, of woods and
trees ; even her image is hung on trees (Paus.
viii. 13, 2), thus indicating that her worship
was formerly that of the tree itself. This will
explain how she was identified with the goddess
of the ancient rites at Aricia or Nemi. [See
DianaJ That she was thus at one time re
garded in many places as a goddess of harvest
appears in the Aetolian story, where Artemis
resents not receiving harvest-offerings (II. ix.
530 ; Meleagee). It is easy enough to trace
her special character as huntress of wild ani
mals from this Arcadian idea of her dwelling
in wooded hills. But from the Arcadian story
of Callisto, who is sometimes Artemis herself,
and yet was changed into a bear, it appears
that a primitive worship of animals was trans
ferred to this goddess, who thus became their
patroness, and in a further development the
huntress. Animals were sacrificed to her at
the festival of Laphria, and figures of animals
were carried in processions to do her honour

Artemis. (Louvre, in Paris.)
(Paus. vii. 18, 7 ; Theocr. ii. 67 ; Diet. Ant. s.v.
L aphria) . The more ancient totemistic religion
leaves traces also in her epithet at Tegea,
KvaKeuris (Paus. viii. 53. 5), signifying that the
statue of the deity was clothed in the skin of
the sacrificed animal [see below], the more
recent development in her Aetolian epithet
ripepao-ia, which represents her as taming the
sacred animals — wolves and deer — which are
kept in the enclosure of her temple. (Strab. p.
215; Paus. viii. 18 gives a different tradition.) 
2. Artemis Brauronia, Artemis Orthia, and
Artemis Taurica. These rites in Attica show
almost more clearly the absorption of an ancient
savage religion into that of Artemis. The
dance of girls in imitation of bears (dpureia),
wearing formerly the bear-skin and afterwards
the saffron robe instead (Aristoph. Lys. 646),
was i. e remnant in civilised' times of the local
religion, in which the deity herself was a bear,
and worshipped with human sacrifices : to which
refers the story that they were instituted because
a bear which tore a maiden to pieces had been
killed. Tradition therefore connected it with
the worship of Artemis Orthia at Limnaeum in

Laconia, at which the human sacrifices of
older times were replaced by the blood of boys
scourged at the altar (Paus. iii. 16, 7), and also
with the savage rites of Artemis Tauropolos in
the Tauric Chersonese [Iphigenia]. Legend
clearly represents the rites in Greece as derived
from those of the Chersonese, and so there is a
dispute whether the wooden image at Brauron,
or that at Limnaeum, or that at Laodicea, was
the actual £6avov brought by Iphigenia. This
does not prove that the rites actually came
from the Crimea, but merely that the Greeks
found a resemblance between the relics of
savage ritual which they still had and the
savage ritual which existed later in the Crimea.
[See also Diet. Ant. s.v. Brauronia.] — 3, Ar
temis Tauropolos. Although the poets, from
the similarity of the name, connect Artemis
Tauropolos with the bloodthirsty goddess of
Brauron and Tauri (X. T. 1424 ff. ; Soph. Aj.
172), there is little real likeness. The chief
sites of this religion were Samos and Icaria
(Hdt. iii. 46 ; Strab. p. 639 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.) ;
the name belongs to her also at Amphipolis
(Diod. xviii. 4 ; Liv. xliv. 44), and in some towns
of Asia Minor. The goddess was regarded as
presiding over the herds and receiving bloodless
offerings, and in coins as riding upon a bull.
Similarly at Pherae, a country of horsemen,
she presided over horses, and called iinroo-6a
and evpiinra (Pind. Ol. iii. 27 ; Paus. viii. 14). In
each case no doubt there had been the identifi
cation with the animal, and probably bloody
sacrifices ; but the idea of protectress of animals
only remained. — 4. Artemis Eileithyia, as the
goddess presiding over childbirth. [Ilei-
thyia.] Artemis and Eileithyia were regarded
as distinct deities in earlier poets, but are con
fused in the Tragedians (e.g. Eur. Hipp. 166),
and the epithets evXoxos, Xoxia, Xvo-i£avos are
applied to her. There is no ground for attaching
any such meaning to Homer II. xxi. 481.
Some have thought that this function was
assigned to her as a moon-goddess connected
with menstruation and with the fertilising dew ;
but it is much more probable that it was one
of the attributes of the nature-goddess who
favoured increase and presided over the young
alike of animals and of human beings : whence
she was called also Kovporp6<pos &o. — 5. Ar
temis of Ephesus shows all the characteristics
of an Asiatic nature-goddess, whose worship the
Ionians have found and have brought into their
own religion. Her statue, of unknown antiquity,
which was said to have fallen from heaven
(Sioireres), was an uncouth and essentially un-
Greek idol with many breasts, which symbolised
the productive forces of nature, and differed as
widely as possible from the Greek ideal of the
goddess of maiden purity. Later tradition of
course tried to account for her Ephesian wor
ship as though she were the Artemis of Greek
literature, and Tacitus records a local belief
that her birthplace, the Ortygia of the legend,
was at Ephesus, not at Delos (Ann. iii. 61).
The Oriental character of her temple service,
however, still remained in the service of eunuch
priests called peydBv(oi (Strab. p. 641), combined
with three grades of priestesses termed iepat,
irapiepai, and peXXiepai ; there were also temple
slaves (iep6SovXoi). The tumultuous procession
of her idol, attended with riot and bloodshed, is
described by Christian writers (Metaphr. Vita
Tiimoth. 769 ; Act. Sanct. 556). The original
deity of this religion, whether connected, as
some think, with Comana or not, presents many
points of resemblance with the Asiatic proto-

ARTEMIS
types of Aphrodite, regarded not only as the
goddess of fruitfulness, but also as a moon-
goddess and as a goddess of the sea, protectress
of sailors, and having fish among her sacred
animals (Athen. p. 861 ; Plin. ii. 201 ; cf . Callim.
Dian. 289) ; and she appears to have been for
the more northern pai'ts of Asia Minor what
Ashtoreth and the equivalent deities were more
to the south. [See Apheodite.] The supposed
connexion of Artemis with the Amazons points
the same way. The reason for the Greek
colonists identifying this Oriental deity with
Artemis may have been either because both
were regarded as goddesses of the moon, or from
the Arcadian idea of a deity presiding over
natural fruitfulness and birth, and caring for
the young, as is symbolised by the animals
upon the lower part of her image. It is remark
able that Pausanias mentions a worship of
Artemis after the Ephesian fashion at Alea in

ARUNS

129

Artemis (Diana) of Ephesus.
Arcadia, and that Pan is said to have been
associated with her in the Asiatic temples.
The Ephesian cult was carried by colonist! to
Marseilles and Spain (Strab. pp. 159, 179). Taci
tus (Ann. iii. 62) mentions also the worship of an
Artemis Persica at Hierocaesareia in Lydia,
apparently akin to fire-worship ; for, according
to Pausanias (v. 27, 3), there was a Magian
priest who used barbaric prayers and invoca
tions, causing fire to blaze spontaneously on
the altar. At Perga there was an oracle and
temple of Artemis Pergaea, served by mendi
cant priests (Strab. p. 667 ; Cic. Verr. i. 20, 54 ;
Suid. Phot. s.v. 'Apr. Tlepy.). [For "Aprepis
'lo-o-dpa see Bbitomaetis ; for the Roman deity,
Diana.] In art the most familiar type is the
ideal of staid maiden beauty, the dress a short
chiton ; she is represented as a huntress, with
bow and quiver, holding a stag, as in the statue
from Hadrian's Villa (the Versailles Diana), or
driving a chariot drawn by deer. Another

characteristic shows her as a light-goddess or
moon-goddess, and one of those honoured by
the torch-race. She bears a torch in her left
hand, but is still distinguished by the quiver,
though the dress is no longer that of the
huntress. Her connexion with the moon is
also represented by the attribute of a crescent,
or by her appearance in a biga. As Artemis
Tauropolos she is shown riding on a bull. The
types of the Ephesian Artemis as shown on
coins and statuettes have no doubt reSned upon
the original as regards the freedom of the arms
and the character of the face, but still retain
the multitude of breasts.
Artemisium ('Aprepto-iov), properly a temple
of Artemis. 1. A tract of country on the N.
coast of Euboea, opposite Magnesia, so called
from the temple of Artemis belonging to the
town of Hestiaea: off this coast the Greeks
defeated the fleet of Xerxes, b.c. 480 (Hdt.
vii. 185, viii. 8 ; Plut. Them. 7 ; Diod. xi. 12).—
2. A promontory of Caria near the gulf Glaucus,
so called from the temple of Artemis in its
neighbourhood (Strab. p. 651) =Pedalium (Plin.
v. 103). — 3. A mountain ridge between Argolis
and Arcadia (Paus. ii. 25, 3, viii. 5, 6).
Artemita ('Aprepira). 1. (Shereban?) a city
on the Sillas, in the district of Apoiloniatis in
Assyria (Strab. p. 519 ; Ptol. vi. 1).— 2. A city of
Great Armenia, S. of the lake Arsissa (Ptol. v.
13, 21). There is a village Artemid near Van.
Artemon ('Aprepav), a Lacedaemonian, built
the military engines for Pericles in his war
against Samos in b.c. 441 (Plut. Pericl. 27;
Diod. xii. 28). Pliny (xxxiv. 56) mentions his
statue by Polycletus. Among the writers of
tins name are : 1. Artemon of Clazomenae (Ael.
H. A. xii. 28). — 2. Of Cassandreia, a gramma
rian (Athen. p. 694). — 3. Of Pergamus, who
wrote a history of Sicily. (Frag, of all three in
Frag. Hist. Graec. ed. C. Miiller.) — 4. Artemon
of Magnesia, wrote a treatise on the virtues of
women (Phot. Bibl. 103).
M. Artorius, a physician at Rome, was the
friend and physician of Augustus, whom he
attended in his campaign against Brutus and
Cassius, B.C. 42. He was drowned at sea
shortly after the battle of Actium, 31 (Veil.
Pat. ii. 70; Appian, B. C. iv. 110; Dio Cass.
xlvii. 41 ; Suet. Aug. 91).
Arverni, a Gallic people in Aquitania in
the country of the M. Cebenna, in the modern
Auvergne. In early times they were the most
powerful people in the S. of Gaul : they were
defeated by Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius
Maximus in B.C. 121, but still possessed con
siderable power in the time of Caesar (58).
Their capital in Caesai's time was Geegovia,
afterwards transferred to Nemossus, also named
Augustonemetum or Arverni on the Elaver
(Allier), with a citadel, called, at least in the
middle ages, Clarus Mons, whence the name of
the modern town, Clermont (Caes. B. G. i. 45,
vii. 7 ff.; Strab. p. 191; Vebcingetoeix).
Arvlna, a cognomen of the Cornelia gens,
borne by several of the Cornelii, of whom the
most important was A. Cornelius Cossus Ar-
vina, consul B.C. 343 and 822, and dictator 320.
He commanded the Roman armies against the
Samnites, whom he defeated in several battles
(Liv. vii. 19-38).
Aruns, an Etruscan word, was regarded by
the Romans as a proper name, but perhaps
signified a younger son in general. 1. Younger
brother of Lucumo, i.e. L. Tarquinius Priscus.
—2. Younger brother of L. Tarquinius Super-
bus, was murdered by his wife. — 3. Younger K

180

ARUNTIUS

son of Tarquinius Superbus, fell in combat with
Brutus.— 4, Son of Porsena, fell in battle before
Aricia. — 5. Of Clusium, invited the Gauls
across the Alps (Liv. i. 34, 46, 56, ii. 14, v. 38).
Aruntius. [Aeeuntius.]
Arusianus, Messus or Messius, a Roman
grammarian, lived about a.d. 395, and wrote a
Latin phrase-book, entitled Quadriga, vel
Exempla Elocutionum ex Virgilio, Sallustio,
Terentio, et Cicerone per literas digesta. It
is called Quadriga from its being composed
from four authors, from whom he selects an
example for each construction in his alpha
betical list of substantives, adjectives, prepo
sitions and verbs. — Edition. By Lindemann,
in his Corpus Grammaticorum Latin, vol. i.
p. 199.
Arxata (Ap|aVa : Nakshivan), the capita of
Great Armenia, before the building of Artaxata,
lay lower down upon the Araxes, on the con
fines of Media (Strab. p. 529).
Aryandes ('ApvdvSns), a Persian, who was
appointed by Cambyses governor of Egypt, but
was put to death by Darius, because he coined
silver money of the purest metal, in imitation
of the gold money of that monarch (Hdt. iv.
165, 200).
Arycanda ('ApvKavSa), a small town of Lycia,
on the river Arycandus, a tributary of the
Limyrus (Stephan. s.v. ; Plin. v. 100).
Arzanene ('Ap(avnvf)), a district of Armenia
Major, bounded on the S. by the Tigris, on the
W. by the Nymphius, and containing in it the
lake Arsene ('Apffrivf) : Erzen). It formed part
of GOEDYENE.
Arzen or -es, or Atranutzin ('Aptfv, "Ap(es,
'ArpdvovT^iv: Erzeroum), a strong fortress in
Great Armenia, near the sources of the Euphra
tes and the Araxes, founded in the 5th century.
Asaei ('Ao-aToi), a people of Sarmatia Asia-
tica, near the mouth of the Tanais (Don)
(Ptol. v. 9).
Asander ("Ao-avSpos). 1. Son of Philotas,
brother of Parmenion, and one of the generals
of Alexander the Great ; appointed governor of
Lydia, B.C. 334 ; sent to bring reinforcements
from Europe, 331. After the death of Alex
ander in 323 he obtained Caria for his satrapy,
and took an active part in the wars which
followed. He joined Ptolemy and Cassander
in their league against Antigonus, but was
defeated by Antigonus in 313 (Arrian, Anab. i,
18, iv. 7; Just. xiii. 4; Diod. xix. 62-75). —
2. A general of Pharnaces II., king of Bosporus.
He put Pharnaces to death in 47, after the
defeat of the latter by Julius Caesar, in hopes
of obtaining the kingdom. But Caesar con
ferred the kingdom upon Mithridates of Per-
gamum, with whom Asander carried on war.
Augustus afterwards confirmed Asander in the
sovereignty (Dio Cass. xiii. 46, liv. 24 ; Appian,
Bell. Mithr. 120 ; Bell. Alex. 78).
Asbystae ('Ait/Suo-tcu), a Libyan people, in
the N. of Cyrenaica. Their country was called
'Ao-pvo-ris (Hdt. iv. 170; Ptol. iv. 4).
Asca ("Ao-ko), a city of Arabia Felix.
Ascalabus, son of Misme. When Demeter
came to this part of Attica, Misme gave her a
jar of water, which the goddess drained. Asca
labus mocked at her greediness, whereupon
the goddess changed him to a lizard (Ov. Met.
v. 446; Nicand. Ther. 484, and ap. Anton.
Lib. 24). The same story is told of Abas, son
of Metaneira. [Abas. No. 1.]
Ascalaphus ('Ao-KdXarbos). 1. Son of Ares
and Astyoche, led, with his brother Ialmenus,
the Minyans of Orchomenos against Troy, and

ASCLEPIUS
was slain by Dei'phobus (II. ii. 511, xiii. 518,
xv. 110; Paus. ix. 37, 7).— 2. Son of Acheron
and Gorgyra or Orphne. When Persephone
was in the lower world, and Pluto gave her
permission to return to the upper, provided she
had not eaten anything, Ascalaphus declared
that she had eaten part of a pomegranate.
Demeter punished him by burying him under
a huge stone, and when this stone was sub
sequently removed by Heracles, Persephone
changed him into an owl (affKdXacpos), by sprink
ling him with water from the river Phlegethon
(Ov. Met. v. 539 ; Apollod. i. 5, 3).
Ascalon ('Ao-KdXav : ' Ao-KaXave'nrts : Aska-
Idn), one of the chief cities of the Philistines, oh
the coast of Palestine, between Azotus and Gaza.
Ascania (r) 'Ao-Kavia Xipvrj). 1. (Lake of
Iznik), in Bithynia, a great fresh-water lake,
at the E. end of which stood the city of Nicaea
(Iznik). The surrounding district was also
called Ascania (Strab. p. 565). — 2. (Lake ofBul
dur), a salt-water lake on the borders of Phrygia
and Pisidia, the boundary between Pisidia and
the Roman province of Asia (Strab. p. 565;
B. ii. 862J.
Ascanius ('Ao-Kavios), son of Aeneas by
Creusa. According to some traditions, Ascanius
remained in Asia after the fall of Troy, and
reigned either at Troy itself or at some other
town in the neighbourhood. According to
other accounts he accompanied his father to
Italy. Other traditions again gave the name
of Ascanius to the son of Aeneas and Lavinia.
Livy states that on the death of his father
Ascanius was too young to undertake the
government, and that after he had attained the
age of manhood, he left Lavinium in the hands
of his mother, and migrated to Alba Longa.
Here he was succeeded by his son Silvius.
Some writers relate that Ascanius was also
called Bus or Julus. The gens Julia at Rome
traced its origin from Julus or Ascanius. [For
the variations of the story and for fuller details,
see Aeneas.]
Asciburgium (Asburg near Mors), an an
cient place on the left bank of the Rhine,
founded, according to fable, by Ulysses (Tac.
Hist. iv. S3, Germ. 3).
Asclepiadae, the reputed descendants of
Asclepius. [Asclepius.]
Asclepiades ('Ao-KXr/iridSris). 1. Alyric poet
of Samos early in the 2nd century B.C. who is
said to have invented the metre called after
him (Metrum Asclepiadeum). (Epigrams in
Anth. Pal.). — 2. There were a great many
physicians who assumed this name as a sort of
professional title, the most celebrated of whom
was a native of Prusias, in Bithynia, who came
to Rome in the middle of the first century B.C.,
where he acquired a great reputation (Plin. vii.
124, xxiii. 38, xxvi. 12). Nothing remains of his
writings but a few fragments published by Gum-
pert, Asclepiadis Bithyni Fragmenta, Vinar.
1794. Asclepiodorus ('Ao-K\7]7rio'5o>pos). 1. A general
of Alexander the Great, afterwards made
satrap of Persia by Antigonus, b.c 317 (Arrian,
Anab. iv. 13 ; Diod. xix. 48). — 2. An Athenian
painter, a contemporary of Apelles (Plin. xxxv.
107). Asclepius ('AencA.7]Tn<is), called Aesculapius
by the Romans, the god of the medical art : at
first in all probability the deity of a Thessalian
oracle. The name is connected by some modern
scholars with ao-KdXaBos (which is taken to have
meant a serpent as well as a lizard), by others
with &XKa. In the Homeric poems he is not a

ASCLEPIUS
deity, but simply the 'blameless physician'
Urirfip txpiipav), whose sons, Machaon and Po-
dalirius, were the physicians in the Greek army,
and ruled over Tricca, Ithome, and Oechalia.
The common story of later poets relates that he
was the son of Apollo and Coronis, the daughter
of Phlegyas, and that when Coronis was with
child by Apollo, she became enamoured of
Ischys, an Arcadian. Apollo, informed of this
by a raven, which he had set to watch her,
or, according to Pin
dar, by his own pro
phetic powers, sent
his' sister Artemis to
kill Coronis. Arte
mis accordingly de
stroyed Coronis in
her own house at
Laceria in Thessaly,
on the shore of lake
Baebia. According to
Ovid (Met. ii. 605), it
was Apollo himself
who killed Coronis
and Ischys. When
the body of Coronis
was to be burnt,
either Apollo or Her
mes saved the child
Asclepius from the
flames, and carried
him to Chiron, who
instructed the boy in
the art of healing
and in hunting. In
this account the He-
siodic poem Eoeae
Asclepius. (Statue at Florence.) &nd Pindar (Pyth.
m.) mainly agree,
except that Pindar gives greater credit to
Apollo than the earlier writer has given.
The legend is continued by Pindar that he
not only cured all the sick, but called the dead
to life again. But while he was restoring
Glaucus (or according to Verg. Aen. vii. 761,
Hippolytus) to life, Zeus killed him with a flash
of lightning, as he feared lest men might con
trive to escape death altogether. He was
married to Epione, and besides the two sons
spoken of by Homer, we also find mention of
the following children of his : Telesphorus,
Ianiscus, Alexenor, Aratus, Hygieia, Aegle,
Iaso, and Panaceia, most of whom are only
personifications of the powers ascribed to their
father. The fact is that the traditions are
modified according to the place to which they
belong. Thessaly and then Boeotia appear to
have been the earliest seats of his worship.
Hence the descent of Asclepius from Phlegyas.
But, as the worship passed into the Pelopon
nesus, we find Phlegyas a native of Epidaurus,
with a daughter Aegle (or Coronis), who bears
Asclepius, the god of healing, to Apollo, but
without mention of any catastrophe. (Inscr. of
a poem by Isyllus of Epidaurus, 'Erpnp. 'Apx.
1885.) Similarly we find an Arcadian story
which makes him the son of Arsinoe and Arsip-
pos, and a Messenian story which makes him
the son of Arsinoe and Apollo (see Pausan. ii.
26 ; Cic. Nat. De. iii. 22, 57). O. Miiller and
later writers are probably right in the conclu
sion that Asclepius, the deity of the Phlegyae,
was once the rival of Apollo, and that the
idea of his sonship to Apollo was introduced
to reconcile the two cults when the Apollo
worship predominated. We may go a step
further back and recognise in Asclepius the

ASCONIUS

131

survivor of a serpent worship which preceded
the Greek theology in that country, and was
perhaps even then connected with an oracle.
It is true that the poets from Homer onwards
represent him as a hero who dies, and that in
very late writers we find him among the
Argonauts and in the Calydonian hunt ; but
the fact remains that in his temples he was
worshipped as a god. Thraemer has noticed
that out of 820 places where his cult was pre
served, only four cities show traces of a hei-o
worship : from three of these we have the some
what dubious mention of his tomb, the fourth
is Athens, where r)paa are mentioned in the
Asclepieion ; but this may well refer to a hero
worship of some of the Asclepiadae. The chief
temples of Asclepius were at Tricca, Tithorea,
Athens, Pergamus, Colophon, and above all,
Epidaurus, from which place the worship of
Asclepius was introduced into Rome to avert a
pestilence B.C. 293 (Liv. x. 47). In the recently
discovered Mimes of Herodas (No. 4) there is a
description of his temple, probably at Cos (cf.
Strab. p. 657), and of the offerings made. The
rites for these temples consisted in lustral bath
ings of the worshippers, and in offerings of sacri
fices, more especially of cakes, and of libations :
among the sacrifices is to be noticed that of a
cock (Plat. Phaed. ad fin. ; Herodas, 4, 13), the
reason for which is uncertain : some have sug
gested that the cock is the herald of the dawn (of
a new life) : those who regard Asclepius as repre
senting the winds cite Pausan. ii. 34, 2, where a
cock is the sacrifice to avert wind hurtful to the
vines. The essential part of his temple worship
was the sleeping in the temple itself (incubatio :
see Arist. Plut. 421 ff.), where an oracle through
a dream revealed to the patient the method of
cure. That such dream apparitions could easily
be contrived by the priests is obvious, and there
is no doubt that the remedies were such as the
priests believed, rightly or wrongly, would be
beneficial. The cure, real or supposed, was
commemorated by an ex voto tablet. Hence
these temples supplied the place of public
hospitals (see Diet, of Antiq. s. v. Valetudi-
naria). The supposed descendants of the god
were called the Asclepiadae, to whom Hippo
crates belonged ; in them was by inheritance
the knowledge of medicine, and from them in
great part, though not exclusively, were taken
the priests of the daKXriirieia. In art the god is

Asclepius and a Sick Man.
(Millin, Gal. Myth., tav. 82, No. 105.)
represented (except in later Roman art) as a
bearded man with a head something like that
of Zeus ; the distinctive attribute is a staff with
a serpent twisted round it : he often stands by
the Omphalos (as in the Florentine statue) ;
with him we find, on coins and reliefs, his
daughter Hygieia and the boy Telesphorus.
Q. Asconius Pedianus, a Soman grammarian,
born at Patavium (Padua), about B.C. 2, lost
his sight in his 73rd year in the reign of Vespa-
K2

132

ASCORDUS

sian, and died in his 85th year in the reign of
Domitian. His most important work was a
Commentary on the speeches of Cicero, and
we still possess fragments of his Commentaries
on the Pro Gornelio, In Pisonem, Pro Milone,
Pro Scauro and In Toga Candida. They
refer chiefly to points of history and antiquities,
great pains being bestowed on the illustration
of those constitutional forms of the senate, the
popular assemblies, and the courts of justice,
which were fast falling into oblivion under the
empire. The notes on the Verrine orations,
which bear the name of Asconius, are written
in an unclassical style, and belong to a later
period, probably the 4th century or later. —
Edited in the 5th volume of Cicero's works by
Orelli and Baiter. There is a valuable essay
on Asconius by Madvig, Hafniae, 1828.
Ascordus, a river in Macedonia, which rises
in M. Olympus and flows between Agassa and
Dium into the Thermaic gulf.
Ascra ("Ao-Kpa : 'Ao-Kpaios), a town in Boeotia
on M. Helicon, where Hesiod resided, who had
removed thither with his father from Cyme in
Aeolis, and who is therefore called Ascraeus
(Strab. pp. 409, 413 ; Hes. Op. 638).
Asculum. 1. Picenum (Asculanus :.4scoM),
the chief town of Picenum and a Roman muni
cipium, was destroyed by the Romans in the
Social War (b.c. 89), but was afterwards rebuilt
(Strab. p. 241 ; Flor. i. 19 ; Caes. B. 0. i. 15 ; Cic.
pro Suit 8). — 2. Apulum (Ascullnus : Ascoli
di Satriano), a town of Apulia in Daunia on
the confines of Samnium, near which the
Romans were defeated by Pyrrhus, B.C. 279
(Flor. i. 18; Plut. Pyrrh. 21; Zonar. viii. 5).
Asciiris (Ezero), a lake in M. Olympus in
Perrhaebia in Thessaly, near Lapathus (Liv.
xliv. 2).__
Asdrubal. [Hasdeubal.]
Asea (i) 'Aaea), a town' in Arcadia, not far
from Megalopolis (Strab. pp. 275, 343 ; Paus. viii.
27, 3).
Asellio, P. Sempr5nius, tribune of the
soldiers under P. Scipio Africanus at Numantia,
B.C. 133, wrote a Roman history from the
Punic wars inclusive to the times of the
Gracchi (Gell. ii. IS, v. 18, xiii. 22).
Asellus, Tib. Claudius, a Roman eques, was
deprived of his horse by Scipio Africanus
Minor, when censor, B.C. 142, and in his tribune-
ship of the plebs in 139 accused Scipio Africa
nus before the people (Gell. ii. 20, iii. 4 ; Cic.
de Orat. ii. 64, 66).
Asia ('Asia), daughter of Oceanus and
Tethys, wife of Iapetus, and mother of Atlas,
Prometheus, and Bpimetheus (Hes. Th. 849 ;
Apollod. i. 2). According to some traditions,
the continent of Asia derived its name from her
(Hdt iv. 45).
Asia ('Aaia: 'Affieis, -iav6s,idTi]s, -otik6s:
Asia), also in the poets Asis ('Aais), one of the
three great divisions which the ancients made
of the known world. It is doubtful whether the
name is of Greek or Eastern origin; but, in
either case, it seems to have been first used by
the Greeks for the W. part of Asia Minor,
especially the plains watered by the river
Cayster, where the Ionian colonists first
settled; and, thence, as their geographical
knowledge advanced, they extended it to the
whole country E., NE., and SE. Apart from the
use of "Affios Xeipdv used of this plain (Horn.
II. ii. 461), the earliest writers who use the
name are Pindar (who speaks of the land oppo
site Rhodes as a promontory of Asia, Ol. vii.
18), Aeschylus (who separates Europe and Asia

ASIA
by the Cimmerian Bosporus, Pr. 730), and
Hecataeus. The Greek legends respecting the
Argonautic and the Trojan expeditions, and
other mythical stories, on the one hand, and the
allusions to commercial and other intercourse,
with the people of Asia Minor, Syria, and
Egypt, on the other hand, indicate a certain
degree of knowledge of the coast from the
mouth of the Phasis, at the E. extremity of the
Black Sea, to the mouth of the Nile. This
knowledge was improved and increased by the
colonisation of the W., N., and S. coasts of
Asia Minor, and by the relations into which
these Greek colonies were brought, first with
the Lydian, and then with the Persian empires,
so that, in the middle of the 5th century B.C.,
Herodotus was able to give a pretty complete
description of the Persian empire, and some
imperfect accounts of the parts beyond it;
while some knowledge of S. Asia was obtained
by way of Egypt ; and its N. regions, with their
wandering tribes, formed the subject of marvel
lous stories which the traveller heard from the
Greek colonists on the N. shores of the Black
Sea. The conquests of Alexander, besides the
personal acquaintance which they enabled the
Greeks to form with those provinces of the
Persian empire hitherto only known to them
by report, extended their knowledge over the
regions watered by the Indus and its four
great tributaries (the Punjab and Scinde) ; the
lower course of the Indus and the shores be
tween its mouth and the head of the Persian
Gulf were explored by Nearchus ; and some
further knowledge was gained of the nomad
tribes which roamed (as they still do) over the
vast steppes of Central Asia by the attempt of
Alexander to penetrate on the NE. beyond the
Jaxartes (Sihoun) ; while on all points, the
Greeks were placed in advanced positions from
which to acquire further information, especially
at Alexandria, whither voyagers constantly
brought accounts of the shores of Arabia and
India, as far as the island of Taprobane, and
even beyond this, to the Malay peninsula and
the coasts of Cochin China. On the E. and N.
the wars and commerce of the Greek kingdom
of Syria carried Greek knowledge of Asia no
further, except in the direction of India to a
small extent, but of course more acquaintance
was gained with the countries already subdued,
until the conquest of the Parthians shut out
the Greeks from the country E. of the Tigris-
valley ; a limit which the Romans, in their
turn, were never able to pass. They pushed
their arms, however, further N. than the Greeks
had done, into the mountains of Armenia, and
they gained information of a great caravan
route between India and the shores of the
Caspian, through Bactria, and of another com
mercial track leading over Central Asia to the
distant regions of the Seres. This brief sketch
will show that all the accurate knowledge of the
Greeks and Romans respecting Asia was con
fined to the countries which slope down S.-
wards from the great mountain-chain formed
by the Caucasus and its prolongation beyond
the Caspian to the Himalayas : of the vast
elevated steppes between these mountains and
the central range of the Altai (from which the
N. regions of Siberia again slope down to the
Arctic Ocean) they only knew that they were
inhabited by nomad tribes, except the country
directly N. of Ariana, where the Persian em
pire had extended beyond the mountain-chain,
and where the Greek kingdom of Bactria had
been subsequently established. — The notions of

ASIA
the ancients respecting the size and form of
Asia were such as might be inferred from what
has been stated. Distances computed from the
accounts of travellers are always exaggerated ;
and hence the S. part of the continent was
supposed to extend much further to the E. than
it really does (about 60° of long, too much,
according to Ptolemy), while to the N. and NE.
parts, which were quite unknown, much too
small an extent was assigned. However, all
the ancient geographers, except Pliny, agreed in
considering it the largest of the three divisions
of the world, and all believed it to be sur
rounded by the ocean, with the curious excep
tion of Ptolemy, who recurred to the early
notion, that the E. parts of Asia and the SE.
parts of Africa were united by land which
enclosed the Indian Ocean on the E. and S.
(Plin. v. 47; Ptol. vii. 3). The different
opinions about the boundaries of Asia on the
side of Africa are mentioned under Afeica : on
the side of Europe the boundary was formed by
the river Tanais (Do«),the Palus Maeotis (Sea
of Azof), Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), Propon-
tis (Sea of Marmora), and the Aegean (Archi
pelago). — The most general division of Asia
was into two parts, which were different at
different times, and known by different names.
To the earliest Greek colonists the river Halys,
the E. boundary of the Lydian kingdom, formed
a natural division between Upper and Lower
Asia (tj b\vu A., or to dva 'Ao~irjs, and r) Kara
'A., or to Kara rr}s 'Affirfs, or A. r) evrbs
"AXvos irorapov) ; and afterwards the Euphrates
was adopted as a more natural boundary.
Another division was made by the Taurus into
A. intra Taurum, i.e. the part of Asia N. and
NW. of the Taurus, and A. extra Taurum, all
the rest of the continent ('A. ivrbs rov Tavpov,
3 A. iKrbs rov Tavpov). The division ultimately
adopted, but apparently not till the 4th cen
tury of our era (e.g. in Justin) was that of A.
Major and A. Minor. — 1. Asia Major ('A. r)
peydXri) was the part of the continent E. of the
Tanais, the Euxine, an imaginary line drawn
from the Euxine at Trapezus (Trebizond) to
the Gulf of Issus, and the Mediterranean : thus
it included the countries of Sarmatia Asiatica
with all the Scythian tribes to the E., Colchis,
Tberia, Albania, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Baby
lonia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Media, Susiana,
Persis, Ariana, Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactriana,
Sogdiana, India, the land of the Sinae and
Serica ; respecting which, see the several
articles. — 2. Asia Minor ('Ada r) piKpd :
Anatolia), was the peninsula on the extreme
W. of Asia, bounded by the Euxine, Aegean,
and Mediterranean on the N., W., and S. ; and
on the E. by the mountains on the W. of the
upper course of the Euphrates. It was for the
most part a fertile country, intersected with
mountains and rivers, abounding in minerals,
possessing excellent harbours, and peopled,
from the earliest known period, by a variety of
tribes from Asia and from Europe. For parti
culars respecting the country, the reader is
referred to the separate articles upon the parts
into which it was divided by the later Greeks :
namely, Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on the W. ;
Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, on the S. ;
Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus, on the E. ;
and Phrygia, Pisidia, Galatia, and Cappadocia,
in the centre ; see also the articles Teoas,
Aeolia, Ionia, Doeia, Lycaonia, Peegamum,
Halys, Sangaeius, Taueus, &c. — 3. Asia Pro
pria (A. r) iSias xaXovpevi)), or simply Asia, the
Roman province, formed out of the kingdom of

ASMIRAEA

183

Pergamum, which was bequeathed to the
Romans by Attalus III. b.c. 188 (Liv. Ep. 58,
59 ; Plut. Ti. Gracch. 14 ; Justin, xxxvi. 4 ;
Strab. p. 624 ; Plin. xxxiii. 148), and the Greek
cities on the W. coast, and the adjacent
islands. It included, as arranged by M'.
Aquillius B.C. 129 (Strab. p. 646), the districts
of Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia ; but it did
not include Rhodes (cf. Cicero Flacc. 27, 65).
The town and districts of Cibyra were included in
Asia by Sulla ; but in b.c. 50 the three districts
of Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada were included
in the province of Cilicia : after B.C. 49 they
belonged to Asia (cf. Cic. Fam. xiii. 67). The
eastern part of Phrygia Magna belonged to
Galatia after 36 B.C. It was governed by a
propraetor (sometimes, however, called pro
consul) ; but after b.c. 27, when it was assigned
to the senate, by a proconsul. Sulla for purposes
of tribute divided it into 44 regions; but the
distribution which prevailed was the grouping
of several into Conventus, or dioceses, for
judicial purposes, taking the name of the prin
cipal town. Under the empire seven cities of
Asia stood forth as pxirpoir6Xeis, Smyrna, Sardis,
Synnada, Pergamum, Lampsacus, Cyzicus,
Ephesus, of which the last was distinguished
as the chief of all by the title irpdrrf. Under
Diocletian Asia was divided into seven small
provinces : 1. Asia proconsularis, chief town
Ephesus ; 2. Hellespontus, chief town Cyzicus ;
3. Lydia, chief town Sardis ; 4. Phrygia prima,
or Pacatiana, chief town Laodicea ; 5. Phrygia
secunda, or salutaris, chief town Eucarpia;
6. Caria, chief town Aphrodisias : 7. Insularum
provincia, chief town Rhodes. [For its fluctua
tions of freedom see Rhodus ; for the religious
organisation of Asia, see Diet. Ant. s. v.
Asiarchae.] Asinarus ('Aatvapos: Fiume di Noto or
FreddoT), a river on the E. side of Sicily, on
which the Athenians were defeated by the
Syracusans, B.C. 413; the Syracusans celebrated
here an annual festival called Asinaria (Thuc.
vii. 84;_Plat. Nic. 28).
Aslne ('Aoivri : 'Acivaios). 1. A town in La
conica on the coast between Taenarum and
Gythium (Strab. p. 363). — 2. A town in Argolis,
W. of Hermione, was built by the Dryopes, who
were driven out of the town by the Argives
after the first Messenian war, and built No. 3
(H. ii. 560; Paus. ii. 36; Strab. p. 373).— 3.
(Saratza ?), an important town in Messenia
near the Promontory Acritas, on the Messenian
gulf, which was hence also called the Asinaean
gulf (Paus. iv. 34, 12).
Aslnia Gens, plebeian, came from Teate, the
chief town of the Marrucini ; and the first per
son of the name mentioned is Herius Asinius,
the leader of the Marrucini in the Marsic war,
B.C. 90 (cf. Sil. Ital. xvii. 453). The Asinii are
given under their surnames, Gallus and Pollio.
Asms ("Affios). 1. Son of Hyrtacus of Arisbe,
and father of Acamas and Phaenops, an ally of
the Trojans, slain by Idomeneus (II. xiii. 389,
xvii. 582). — 2. Son of Dymas and brother of
Hecuba, whose form Apollo assumed when he
roused Hector to fight against Patroclus (II.
xvi. 715).— 3. Of Samos, one of the earliest
Greek poets, lived probably about B.C. 700. He
wrote epic and elegiac poems, which have
perished with the exception of a few fragments.
(Athen. 125, Paus. vii. 4, 2.) Fragm. in Poet.
Lyr. Bergk.
Asmiraea, a district and city of Serica in the
N. of Asia, near mountains called Asmiraei
Montes, which are supposed to be the Altai

134

ASOPUS

range, and the city to be Khamil, in the cen
tre of Chinese Tartary (Ptol. vi. 16; Amm.
Marc, xxiii. 6).
Asopus ('Ao-uir6s). 1. (Basilikos), a river in
Peloponnesus rises near Phlius, and flows
through the Sicyonian territory into the Corin
thian gulf (II. iv. 383 ; Strab. pp. 271, 382, 408,
409; Thuc. ii. 5). — 2. (Asopo), a riven in Boeo
tia, forms the N. boundary of the territory of
Plataeae, flows through the S. of Boeotia, and
falls into the Euboean sea near Delphinium in
Attica. The battle of Plataeae was fought on
the banks, B.C. 479 (Hdt. ix. 51). — 3. A river
in Phthiotis in Thessaly, rises in M. Oeta, and
flows into the Maliac gulf near Thermopylae
(Strab. p. 382). — 4. A river in Paros (Id. ib.) — 5.
A river in Phrygia, flows past Laodicea into
the Lycus. — 6. A town in Laconica on the E.
side of the Laconian gulf (Strab. p. 364 ; Paus.
iii. 21, 22).
Asopus, the river god, is claimed both by
the Boeotians and the Sicyonians as their
indigenous deity with a somewhat similar
genealogy (Paus. ii. 5, 2). Asopus was the son
of Poseidon and Pero (according to others of
Oceanus and Tethys, of Poseidon and Kelusa,
or Zeus and Eurynome). He married Metope,
daughter of the river god Ladon, who bore be
sides Ismenus and Pelasgos, a great number of
daughters. In the tablet dedicated at Olympia
by Phlius, Nemea, Aegina, Corcyra, and Thebe
are named (Paus. v. 22, 5). To these Apollo
dorus adds Salamis, Euboea, Cleone, Tanagra,
Thespiae, Oenia, and Chalcis. A story (which
clearly started in Sicyon) runs that Zeus carried
off Aegina : Asopus followed to Corinth, and,
having created a spring in Acrocorinthus, where
water had been scarce, he learned from Sisy
phus the name of the robber. As he still per
sisted in the pursuit Zeus smote him with a
thunderbolt, and from that time the river
carries down charcoal in its bed (Apollod. iii.
12 ; Eur. I. A. 697 ; Anton. Lib. 38). Aegina
was conveyed to the island which took her
name, or, according to one story, was changed
into an island. These many daughters seem to
indicate partly the towns connected by religious
rites or otherwise with the two chief rivers ;
partly places to which the name passed, whether
as a local name for a stream, or as representing
the worship of river-deities (cp. the name Are
thusa) . Other daughters of Asopus are Antiope
and Evadne. The name Asopis applies to the
daughters, Asopiades to Aeacus, son of Zeus and
Aegina. Aspadana ('AffiraSdva : Ispahan?), a town
of the district Paraetacene in Persis.
Asparagium (Iscarpar), a town in the terri
tory of Dyrrhachium in Illyria (Caes. B. G. iii.
30, 76).
Aspasia ('Aairaaia). 1. The elder, of Mile
tus, daughter of Axiochus, the most celebrated
of the Greek Hetaerae (see Diet, of Antiq. s. v.),
came to reside at Athens. Here she was visited
by Athenians most distinguished for position
and culture, offering what may be compared to
a, salon for witty and even learned conversation.
Socrates is said to have been among those
found there ; but in especial she gained the
affections of Pericles, who separated from his
wife and took Aspasia to live with him, in as
close a union as could be formed with a
foreigner. There was no doubt much exaggera
tion as to the political influence which she
exerted, and the storiesof her inducing Pericles
to make war on Samos for the sake of Miletus,
and on Sparta because of Aspasia's quarrel with

ACpACIA
Aspasia (Viscontl),

ASPII
Megara (Plut. Pericl. 24; Aristoph. Ach.
497), may be dismissed as lampoons. The
enemies of Pericles accused Aspasia of impiety
(kaeBeia), and it required all the personal influ
ence of Pericles, who defended her, and his
most earnest entreaties, to procure her acquittal.
On the death of Pericles (B.C. 429), Aspasia is
said to have attached herself to one Lysicles, a
dealer in cattle, and to have made him by her
instructions a first-
rate orator. The son
of Pericles by Aspasia
was legitimated by a
special decree of the
people, and took his
father's name. Some
of the sayings of As
pasia are collected
in Mulierum Graec.
Fragmenta, by Wolf,
1739. The bust here
engraved was found a4
Civita Vecchia : the
genuineness of the in
scription is, however,
now disputed. — 2. The
younger, a Phocaean,
daughter of Hermoti-
mus, was the favourite jl
concubine of Cyrus the /
Younger, who called
her Aspasia after the
mistress of Pericles, her previous name having
been Milto. After the death of Cyrus at the
battle of Cunaxa (b.c. 401), she fell into the hands
of Artaxerxes. When Darius, son of Artaxerxes,
was appointed successor to the throne, he asked
his father to surrender Aspasia to him. Arta
xerxes gave her up ; but he soon after took her
away again, and made her a priestess of a temple
at Ecbatana, where strict celibacy was requisite.
(Plut. Artax. 26-29; Just. *.. 2.)
Aspasii. [Aspn.]
Aspasius (Affirdoios). 1. A Peripatetic philo
sopher, lived about a.d. 80, and wrote commen
taries on most of the works of Aristotle. A
portion of his commentaries on the Nicoma
chean Ethics is still preserved. — 2. Of Byblus,
a Greek sophist, lived about a.d. 180, and wrote
commentaries on Demosthenes and Aeschines,
of which a few extracts are preserved.
Aspendus ("Ao-irevSos : 'Ao-irtvftios, Aspen-
dius : Dashashkehr or Manaugat), a strong
and flourishing city of Pamphylia, on the small
navigable river Eurymedon, 60 stadia (6 geog.
miles) from its mouth: said to have been a
colony of the Argives (Strab. p. 667 ; Thuc viii.
81 ; Polyb. v. 73).
Asper, Aemiliius, a Roman grammarian,
of the age of Trajan, who wrote commentaries
on Terence and Virgil, must be distinguished
from a very inferior grammarian of the 6th cen
tury, usually called Asper Junior, the author
of a small work entitled Ars Grammatica,
printed in the Grammat. Lat. Auctores, by
Putschius, Hanov. 1605. For remains of Aem
ilius Asper see Hagen, Philolog. xxv.
Asphaltites Lacus or Mare Mortuum
('Ao-tpaXr'iTis or ^oSopiris Xipvr/ or r) BdXaoaa jl
vexpd : Dead Sea), the great salt and bitumi
nous lake in the SE. of Palestine, which re
ceives the water of the Jordan. It has no visible
outlet, and its surface is considerably below
the level of the Mediterranean. (Diod. Sic.
ii. 48.)
Aspii or Aspasii ("An-moi, Ao-ttoVioi), an
Indian tribe, in the district of the Paropami-

ASPIS
sadae, between the rivers Choes (Kama) and
Indus, in the NE. of Afghanistan and the
NW. of the Punjab (Arrian, An. iv. 23).
Aspis ('Ao-irls). 1. Clypea (Klibiah), a city
on a promontory of the same name, near the
NE. point of the Carthaginian territory,
founded by Agathocles, and taken in the first
Punic War by the Romans, who called it Clypea,
the translation of 'Ao-iris, a name said to be
derived from the shield-like hill on which it
stands (Strab. p. 834 ; Polyb. i. 29, 86).— 2.
(Marsa-Zaffran 1 Ru.), in the African Tripoli-
tana, the best harbour on the coast of the great
Syrtis (Strab. p. 836). — 3. [Abconnesus.]
Aspledon (' A<rirXriSdv : 'Ao-irXriS6vios), or
Spledon, a town of the Minyae in Boeotia on
the river Melas, near Orchomenus; built by
the mythical Aspledon, son of Poseidon and
Midea (II. ii. 510 ; Strab. p. 416).
Assa (vA(ro-a: Ao-o-aios), a town in Chalci-
dice in Macedonia, on the Singitic gulf (Hdt.
vii. 122).
Assaceni ('Ao-o-ojtrivol), an Indian tribe, in the
district of the Paropamisadae, between the
rivers Cophen (Cabool) and Indus, in the NW.
of the Punjab) (Curt. viii. 10 ; Arr. An. iv. 25 ;
Strab._p._698). Assaracus ('Ao-o-dpoxos), king of Troy, son of
Tros, father of Capys, grandfather of Anchises,
and great-grandfather of Aeneas. Hence the
Romans, as descendants of Aeneas, are called
domus Assaraci (Verg. Aen. i. 284). [Teos.]
Assesus ('A<ro-ri<r6s), a town of Ionia near
Miletus, with a temple of Athene surnamed
'Affo-rio-ia (Hdt. i. 19).
Assorus ('Aco-apos or 'Affadpiov : 'Ao-ffaplvos :
Asaro), a small town in Sicily between Enna
and Agyrium. It contained a temple of the
local river god Chrysas, which Verres tried to
plunder (Cic. Verr. iv. 44). It was a Sicel
town, and a faithful ally of Dionysius in B. c.
896 (Diod. xiv. 58).
Assus ("Acro-os: "Ao-<nos, 'Aaaevs: Asso, Ru.,
near Berani), a flourishing city in the Troad,
on the Adramyttian Gulf, opposite to Lesbos :
afterwards called Apollonia : the birthplace of
Cleanthes the Stoic (Strab. pp. 610, 735).
Assyria ('Acro-vpia : 'Ao-cvpios, Assyrius :
Kurdistan). [The name is said to be derived
from an ancient capital, Assur = ' river-bank,'
now Kaleh Sherghat, on the right bank of the
Tigris: others derive the name of the town
from the Assyrian god Asur.] — 1. The country
properly so called, in the narrowest sense, was
a district of W. Asia, extending along the E.
side of the Tigris, which divided it on the W.
and NW. from Mesopotamia and Babylonia, and
bounded on the N. and E. by M. Niphates and
M. Zagrus, which separated it from Armenia
Media, and on the SE. by Susiana. It was
watered by Beveral streams, flowing into the
Tigris from the E.; two of which, the Lycus or
Zabatus (Great Zab), and the Caprus or Zabas
or Anzabas (Little Zab), divided the country
into three parts : that between the Upper Tigris
and the Lycus was called Aturia (a mere dia
lectic variety of Assyria), was probably the
most ancient seat of the monarchy, and con
tained the capital, Nineveh or Ninus : that
between the Lycus and the Caprus was called
Adiabene : and the part SE. of the Caprus con
tained the districts of Apoiloniatis and Sitta-
cene. Another division into districts, given by
Ptolemy, is the following : Arrhapachitis, Cala-
cine, Adiabene, Arbelitis, Apoiloniatis, and
Sittacene. — 2. In a wider sense the name was
applied to the whole country watered by the

ASTACUS 135
Euphrates and the Tigris, between the moun
tains of Armenia on the N., those of Kurdistan
on the E., and the Arabian Desert on the W., so
as to include, besides Assyria Proper, Mesopo
tamia and Babylonia (Strab. p. 736) ; nay, there
is sometimes an apparent confusion between
Assyria and Syria (Verg. Georg. ii. 465).— 3.
By a further extension the word is used to
designate the Assyrian Empire in its widest
sense. The early history of this great monarchy
cannot be given here in any detail. It was far
less ancient than the Babylonian monarchy.
The Assyrian rulers were at first merely petty
princes of Assur, subject to Babylon, among
whom Sammas-Rimmon, who built the temple
of Rimmon at Assur, is dated 1820 B.C. The
first ' king ' of Assyria seems to have been Belu-
sumeli-capi, about 1700 B.C.; but it was not till
the reign of Rimmon-nirari (the historical
Ninus), about 1330 B.C., that the king of Assyria
stood forth as completely independent, a rival
and superior of the Babylonish king, and Nine
veh became the capital. Babylon was captured
by Tiglath-Adar, king of Assyria, in 1270, but
regained its independence in the next reign,
when the Assyrians were at war with the Hittite
empire, which Tiglath-Pileser I. overthrew for
a time in 1130. The empire of this king and
his successors, though at some periods curtailed
by Babylonian, Hittite, or Syrian enemies,
included the countries just mentioned, with
Media, Persia, and portions of the countries to
the E. and NE., Armenia, Syria, Phoenicia, and
Palestine, except the kingdom of Judah ; and,
beyond these limits, some of the Assyrian kings
made incursions into Arabia and Egypt. The
empire, however, dwindled in the eighth century
B.C., several provinces revolted, and the dynasty
fell about 750. Pul or Poros, who then seized
the throne and called himself Tiglath Pileser II.
founded the ' second ' Assyrian empire and
restored all its power, which was further ex
tended by Shalmaneser IV., and Sargon, who
made himself master of Syria and of Babylon
(whose king he took captive) before his death
in 705. His son, Sennacherib, failed in his
attempt to conquer Egypt, and met with disas
ter in Judaea, 700 B.C. This so weakened the
empire, that after the death of Assurbani-pal
(Sardanapalus) the Medes revolted and formed
a separate kingdom, and at last, in b.c. 606, the
governor of Babylonia united with Cyaxares,
the king of Media, to conquer Assyria, which
was divided between them, Assyria Proper fall
ing to the share of Media, and the rest of the
empire to Babylon. The king (prob. Esarhad-
don II.) perished, and Nineveh was rased to the
ground. [Comp. Babylon and Media.]
Asta (Astensis). 1. (Asti in Piedmont), an
inland town of Liguria on the Tanarus, a Roman
colony (Plin. iii. 49). — 2. (Mesa de Asta), a
town in Hispania Baetica, near Gades, a Roman
colony with the surname Begia (Strab. p. 140).
Astaboras ('Ao-TO|8<ipaj : Atbarah or Tacazza)
and Astapus i^Ao-rdirovs, Bahr-el-Azak or Blue
Nile), two rivers of Aethiopia, having their
sources in the highlands of Abyssinia, and unit
ing in about 17° N. Lat. to form the Nile. The
land enclosed by them was the island of Meeoe.
Astacus ("Ao-tokos), father of Ismarus,
Leades, Asphodicus, and Melanippus (Hdt. v.
67 ; Aesch. Th. 407 ; Apollod. iii. 6).
Astacus ("Ao-tokos : 'Ao-toktiv6s). 1. (Dra-
gomestre), a city of Acarnania, on the Achelous
(Strab. p. 459).— 2. A city of Bithynia, at the SE.
corner of the Sinus Astacenus ('Ao-raKrivbs
KiXiros), a bay of the Propontis, was a colony

136

ASTAPA

from Megara, but afterwards received fresh
colonists from Athens, who called the place
Olbia ('OXBia) (Strab. p. 568; Scyl. p. 35). It
was destroyed by Lysimachus, but rebuilt on a
neighbouring site, at the NE. corner of the
gulf, by Nicomedes I., who named his new city
Nicomedia. Astapa (Estepa), a town in Hispania Baetica,
burnt by the inhabitants when the Romans
besieged it (Liv. xxviii. 22 ; Appian, Hisp. 33).
Astapus. [Astabobas.] ¦
Astarte. [Apheodite and Sybia Dea.]
Astelephus ('AorreXecpos), a river of Colchis,
falling into the Euxine 4 miles N. of the
Hippus. Asteria ('Aarepia), daughter of the Titan
Coeus and Phoebe, sister of Leto (Latona), wife
of Perses, and mother of Hecate. In order to
escape the embraces of Zeus, she is said to have
taken the form of a quail (ortyx, ftprvQ, and to
have thrown herself down from heaven into the
sea, where she was metamorphosed into the
island Asteria (the island which had fallen from
heaven like a star), or Ortygia, afterwards
called Delos. Cicero makes her the mother of
the Tyrian Heracles. (Hes. Th. 409 ; Apollod.
i. 2; Cic. N. D. iii. 16,42.)
Asterion or Asterius ('Affrepiav or Atrrepios),
1. Son of Teutamus, and king of the Cretans,
married Europa after she had been carried to
Crete by Zeus, and brought up her three sons,
Minos, Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthys, of whom
Zeus was the father. — 2. Son of Cometes, Pyre-
mus, or Priscus, by Antigone, daughter of
Pheres, was one of the Argonauts (Ap. Rh. i.
35). Asteris or Asteria ('Ao-repis, 'Aarepia), a
small island between Ithaca and Cephallenia
(Od. iv. 846 ; Strab. pp. 59, 456).
Asterium ('Ao-repiov), a town in Magnesia in
Thessaly; (II. ii. 735 ; , Strab. p. 439).
Asteropaeus ('Ao-Tepoiraios), son of Pelegon,
leader of the Paeonians, and an ally of the
Trojans,_was slain by Achilles (II. xxi. 140-200).
Astigi, a town in Hispania Baetica on the
river Singulis, a Roman colony with the sur
name Augusta Firma (Strab. p. 141).
Astraea (Ao-rpaia), daughter of Zeus and
Themis, or, according to others, of Astraeus and
Eos. During the golden age, this star-bright
maiden lived on earth and among men, whom
she blessed; but when that age had passed
away, Astraea, who tarried longest among
men, withdrew, and was placed among the stars,
where she was called UapBevos or Virgo. Her
sister AlSds or Pudicitia, left the earth along
with her (ad superos Astraea recessit, hac
[Pudicitia] comite, Juv. vi. 19 ; cf. Ov. Met. i.
149 ; Hyg. Ast. ii. 25 ; Arat. Phaen. 96).
Astraeus ('Affrpaios), a Titan, son of Crius
and Eurybia, husband of Eos (Aurora), and
father of the winds Zephyrus, Boreas, and
Notus, Eosphorus (the morning star) and all
the stars of heaven. Ovid (Met. xix. 545) calls
the winds Astraei [adj.] fratres, the ' Astraean
brothers.' (Hes. Th. 376.)
Astura. 1. (La Stura), a river in Latium,
rises in the Alban mountains, and flows between
Antium and Circeii into the Tyrrhenian sea.
At its mouth it formed a small island with a
town upon it, also called Astura (Torre d' As
tura) : here Cicero had an estate. (Strab. p. 282 ;
Cic. AU. xii. 19, 40, Fam. vi. 19.)— 2, (Ezla),
a river in Hispania Tarraconensis, flowing into
the Durius. >
Astures, a people in the NW. of Spain,
bounded on the E. by the Cantabri and Vaccaei.

ASYCHIS
on the W. by the Gallaeci, on the N. by the
Ocean, and on the S. by the Vettones, thus in
habiting the modern Asturias and the northern
part of Leon and Valladolid. They contained
22 tribes and 240,000 freemen, and were divided
into the Augustani and Transmontani, the
former of whom dwelt S. of the mountains as
far as the Durius, and the latter N. of the
mountains down to the sea-coast. The country
of the Astures was mountainous, rich in minerals
and celebrated for its horses : the people them
selves were rude and warlike. Their chief town
was Asturica Augusta (Astoria). (Strab. pp.
153, 167 ; Plin. iii. 35.)
Astyages ('Ao-Tvdyns), son of Cyaxares, last
king of Media, reigned b.c. 594-559. Alarmed
by a dream, he gave his daughter Mandane in
marriage to Cambyses, a Persian of good family,
by whose son Cyrus he was dethroned. [For
details see Cyrus.]
Astyanax (A<rTudVo£), son of Hector and
Andromache : his proper name was Scaman-
drius, but he was called Astyanax or ' lord of
the city ' by the Trojans, on account of the ser
vices of his father (II. vi. 400 ; Plat. Cratyl.
392 b). After the taking of Troy the Greeks
hurled him down from the walls, that he might
not restore the kingdom of Troy. This is pro
phesied in II. xxiv. 734, and related as per
formed either by resolution of the Greeks or as
a private act of Neoptolemus in Eur. Tro. 720,
Paus. x. 25, 4 (citing Lesches), Eur. And. 10,
Ov. Met. xiii. 415, Hyg. Fab. 109. Other tradi
tions make him survive and found cities in the
Troad (Strab. p. 607).
Astydamas (^Ao-rvSdpas). 1. A tragic poet,
son of Morsimus, the great-nephew of Aeschylus
[Pbtlocles], wrote 240 tragedies, and gained
the prize 15 times. His first tragedy was acted
B.C. 399. — 2. Son of the above, and a tragic poet
of considerable eminence, since it is recorded
that a statue to him was decreed on account of
his play Parthenopaeus, and that he won the
prize in two consecutive years.
Astydamia ('AoTuSaTieia). 1. Daughter of
Amyntor and mother of Tlepolemus by Hera
cles. — 2. Wife of Acastus.
Astymedusa ('Ao-rvpeSovo-a), wife of Oedipus
after the death of Jocasta.
Astynome ('Ao-Tvv6pri), daughter of Chryses,
better known under her patronymic Chbyseis.
Astyoche or Astyochia ('Ao-tv6xv or 'A<ttv6-
X«o). 1. Daughter of Actor, by whom Ares-
begot Ascalaphus and Ialmenus. — 2. Daughter
of Phylas, king of Ephyra in Thesprotia, became
by Heracles the mother of Tlepolemus.
Astyochus (Aoriioxos), the Lacedaemonian
admiral in B.C. 412, commanded on the coast of
Asia Minor, where he was bribed by the Persians
to remain inactive.
Astypalaea (Ao-TinraAoia : 'Ao-rviraXaieis,
'Ao-TviraXaidrris : Stampalia), one of the Spo
rades in the S. part of the Grecian archipelago
(so called after the daughter of Phoenix), with
a town of the same name, founded by the Me-
garians, which was under the Romans a libera
civitas. (Astypaleia regna, i.e. Astypalaea,
Ov. Met. vii. 461.) (Strab. p. 488 ; Plin. iv. 71.)
An inscription of b.c. 105 mentions it as a
civitas foederata (C. I. G. 2485). [See also
Cleomedes.1 Astyra (to "Atrrvpa), a town of Mysia, NW.
of Adramyttium, on a marsh connected with the
sea, with a grove sacred to Artemis surnamed
'Ao-Tvplvri or -rivr) (Strab. p. 613 ; Xen. Hell. iv.
Ml)-
Asychis ("Acrvxis), an ancient king of Egypt

ATABULUS
succeeded Myceeinus (Hdt. ii. 186). He
must therefore be the king Shepses-ka-f, the
last of the Fourth Dynasty, whose date is placed
by Brugsch at 8600 B.C.
Atabulus, the name in Apulia of the parching
SE. wind, the Sirocco, which is at present called
Altino in Apulia.
Atabyris or Atabyrium ('AraBipiov), the
highest mountain in Rhodes on the SW. of that
island, on which was a celebrated temple of
Zeus Atabyrius, said to have been founded by
Althaemenes, the grandson of Minos. (Pind.
Ol. vii. 87 ; Strab. p. 655 ; Diod. v. 59.)
Atagis. [Athesis.]
Atalanta ('AraXavrv). 1. The Arcadian Ata-
lanta, was the daughter of Iasus (Iasion or
Iasius) and Clymene. Her father, who had
wished for a son, was disappointed at her birth,
and exposed her on the Parthenian (virgin)
hill, where she was suckled by a she-bear, the
symbol of Artemis. After she had grown up
she lived in pure maidenhood, slew the centaurs
who pursued her, and took part in the Caly-
donian hunt. Her father subsequently recog
nised her as his daughter ; and when he desired
her to marry, she required every suitor who
wanted to win her, to contend with her first in
the foot-race. H he conquered her, he was to
be rewarded with her hand, if not, he was to be
put to death. This she did because she was
the most swift-footed of mortals, and because
the Delphic oracle had cautioned her against
marriage. She conquered many suitors, but
was at length overcome by Milamon with the
assistance of Aphrodite. The goddess had given
him 3 golden apples, and during the race he
dropped them one after the other : their beauty
charmed Atalanta so much, that she could not
abstain from gathering them, and Milonion thus
gained the goal before her. She accordingly
became his wife. [Pabthenopaeus.] They
were subsequently both metamorphosed into
lions, because they had profaned by their em
braces the sacred grove of Zeus. (Callim.
Dian. 216 ; Hyg. Fab. 99 ; Prop. i. 1. 10 ; Paus.
iii. 24. 2 ; Apollod. iii. 9. 2.) — 2. The Boeotian
Atalanta. The same stories are related of her
as of the Arcadian Atalanta, except that her
parentage and the localities are described dif
ferently. Thus she is said to have been a
daughter of Schoenus, and to have "been married
to Hippomenes. Her foot-race is transferred
to the Boeotian Onchestus, and the sanctuary
which the newly married couple profaned by
their love, was a temple of Cybele, who meta
morphosed them into lions, and yoked them to
her chariot (Ov. Met. viii. 318, x. 565; Hyg.
Fab. 185). It is clear that these are not to be
regarded as distinct personages. Indeed, Ata
lanta herself, in whatever locality her story is
placed, seems to be an expression in mortal
form of Artemis the virgin huntress, round
whom the local legends have gathered, and, as
is often the case, the representative of the
goddess becomes — not in this instance her child,
but her foster-child, or the foster-child of her
symbolical animal. [See Artemis.] An attri
bute of Artemis, the goddess of springs, is seen
in the story of her striking water from a rock
(Paus. I. c).
Atalante (AtoAoVtij : 'AraXavrcuos). 1. A
small island in the EuripuB, on the coast of the
Opuntian Locri, with a small town of the same
name (Strab. pp. 61, 395 ; Thuc. ii. 32, iii. 89).—
2. A town of Macedonia on the Axius, in the
neighbourhood of Gortynia and Idomene
(Thuc. ii. 100).

ATELLA

187

Atarantes ('Ardpavres), a people in the E. of
Libya, described by Herodotus (iv. 184).
Atarbechis. [Apheoditopolis.]
Atarneus or Atarnea ('Arapvevs : Dikeli), a
city on M. Cane, on the coast of Mysia, oppo
site to Lesbos : a colony of the Chians : the
residence of the tyrant Hermias, with whom
Aristotle resided some time : destroyed before
the time of Pliny (Hdt. i. 160 ; Strab. p. 670 ;
Plin. v. 122).
Ataulphus, Athaulphus, Adaulphus (i.e.
Athaulf, ' sworn helper,' the same name as that
which appears in later history under the form
of Adolf or Adolphus), brother of Alaric's wife.
He assisted Alaric in his invasion of Italy, and
on the death of that monarch in a.d. 410, he
was elected king of the Visigoths. He then
made a peace with the Romans, married Pla-
cidia, sister of Honorius, retired with his nation
into the S. of Gaul, and finally withdrew into
Spain, where he was murdered at Barcelona.
(Jornand. de Beb. Get. 82.)
Atax (Aude), originally called Narbo, a river
in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in the Pyrenees,
and flows by Narbo Martius into the Lacus
Rubresus or Rubrensis, which is connected with
the sea (Plin. iii. 32). In Polyb. iii. 37, xxxiv.
10, the river itself is called Narbo. From this
river the poet P. Terentius Varro obtained the
surname Atacinus. [Vaebo.]
Ate ("Attj), daughter of Eris or Zeus, was an
ancient Greek divinity, who led both gods and
men into rash and inconsiderate actions. She
personifies the infatuation which comes upon
the guilty and lures them to ruin, thus making
sin work its own punishment. She once even
induced Zeus, at the birth ai Heracles, to take
an oath by which Hera was afterwards enabled
to give to Eurystheus the power which had
been destined for Heracles. When Zeus dis
covered his rashness, he hurled Ate from
Olympus and banished her for ever from the
abodes of the gods. In the myth of II. ix. 502
Ate speeds on her work of evil for man, while
behind come the mediating Prayers (Airai) who
heal the mischief for those who regard them,
but entreat Zeus to bring greater evil on the
stubborn. In II. xix. 85 Agamemnon says that
the cause of his guilt is the infatuation which
the fates brought on him, and that this Ate is
a ' goddess born of Zeus who goes softly over
men's heads,' i.e. takes men unawares, and leads
them to ruin. In the tragic writers Ate appears
in a different light : she avenges evil deeds and
inflicts just punishments upon the offenders
and their posterity, so that her character is
almost the same as that of Nemesis and
Erinnys ; but still she has grown out of the
idea that sin brings its punishment. She
appears most prominent in the dramas of
Aeschylus, and least in those of Euripides, with
whom the idea of Dike (justice) is more fully
developed. Ateius, surnamed Praetextatus, and Philo-
logus, a celebrated grammarian at Rome, about
B.C. 40, and a friend of Sallust, for whom he
drew up an Epitome (Breviarium) of Roman
history. After the death of Sallust Ateius lived
on intimate terms with Asinius Pollio, whom
he assisted in his literary pursuits. (Sueton.
Gramm. 10.)
Ateius Capito. [Capito.]
Atella (Atellanus ; Aversa), a town in Cam
pania between Capua and Neapolis, originally
inhabited by the Oscans, afterwards a Roman
municipium and a colony. It revolted to Han
nibal (b.c. 216) after the battle of Cannae, and

138

ATERNUM

the Romans in consequence transplanted its
inhabitants to Calatia, and peopled the town
with new citizens from Nuceria. Atella owes
its celebrity to the Atellanae Fabulae or Oscan
farces, which took their name from this town.
(Diet, of Antiq. s.v. Satura.)
Aternum (Pescara), a town in central Italy
on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the river
Aternus (Pescara), was the common harbour of
the Vestini, Marrucini, and Peligni (Strab. p. 241).
Aternus. [Ateenum.]
Ateste (Atestinus : Este), a Roman colony in
the country of the Veneti in Upper Italy (Mart.
x. 93). _
Athacus, a town in Lyncestis in Macedonia.
Athamania ('ABapavia : 'ABapdv, -avos), a
mountainous country in the S. of Epirus, on the
W. side of Pindus, of which Argithea was the
chief town. The Athamanes were a Thessalian
people, who had been driven out of Thessaly by
the Lapithae. They were governed by inde
pendent princes, the last of whom was Amyn-
andeb. (Strab. pp. 434, 449.)
Athamas ('ABapas), son of Aeolus and Ena-
rete, and king of Orchomenus in Boeotia. At the
command of Hera, Athamas married Nephele,
by whom he became the father of Phbixus and
Helle. But he was secretly in love with the
mortal Ino, the daughter of Cadmus, by whom
he begot Learchus and Melicertes; and Nephele,
on discovering that Ino had a greater hold on
his affections than herself, disappeared in anger.
Having thus incurred the anger both of Hera
and of Nephele, Athamas was seized with mad
ness, and in this state killed his own son, Le
archus : Ino threw herself with Melicertes into
the sea, and both were changed into marine
deities, Ino beqoming Leucothea, and Melicertes
Palaemon. Athamas, as the murderer of his
son, was obliged to flee from Boeotia, and
settled in Thessaly. — Hence we have Atha-
mantiddes, son of Athamas, i.e. Palaemon ; and
Athamantis, daughter of Athamas, i.e. Helle.
[See Pheixus, Ino, Meliceetes.]
Athanagia (Agramunt ?), the chief town of
the Uergetes in Hispania Tarraconensis.
Athanarlcus, king of the Visi-Goths during
their stay in Dacia. In a.d. 867-369 he carried
on war with the emperor Valens, with whom he
finally concluded a peace. In 374 Athanaric
was defeated by the Huns, and, after defending
himself for some time in a stronghold in the
mountains of Dacia, was compelled to fly in
380, and take refuge in the Roman territory.
He died in 881. (Amm. Mar. xxvii. 5, xxx. 3 ;
Sozom. vi. 37.)
Athanasius, archbishop of Alexandria a.d.
326. (See Diet, of Christian Biogr.)
Athene ('ABrtvalri or 'ABrfvaia, whence 'ABr]vda
contracted in Attic into 'ABijva, in Trag. 'ABdva ;
in older Ionic 'ABr)vri), one of the great
deities of the Greek race, personifying to them
the guiding influence of life, in wise counsel,
in industry, and in strategy of war. The story
of her birth, as given in Hesiod and in Hymn.
ad Apoll., tells that Metis (= wise counsel)
was the wife of Zeus, and being pregnant with
Athene was, in the form of a fly which he had
persuaded her to assume, swallowed by him,
because he found that her child would be his
superior in might (Hes. Th. 886). Athene was
then born from the head of Zeus : springing
forth, as Pindar tells, fully armed with a great
shout (Ol. vii. 35). This has all the appearance
of a very old tradition from primitive ancestors :
but Homer, perhaps because he constantly
discards the more grotesque myths which Hesiod

ATHENE
retains, does not mention it, though his know
ledge of it may perhaps be traced in II. v. 875,
and in the epithets bBpipoirdrpn and rpiroyeveia.
The story fixed on later Tritonis in Libya as
the scene of her birth (cf . Apollod. i. 3, 6) :
and from Hdt. iv. 180 it may be surmised that
some local sea or water deity, daughter of
Poseidon, had become identified with Athene.
Out of her other name Pallas (often a surname
TlaXXhs 'ABr)vri), which some derive from her
brandishing the spear, others interpret as
= ' maiden,' probably arose a later story that
she was the daughter of the giant Pallas (Tzetz.
ad Lye. 355 ; Cic. N.D. iii. 23, 59). In Homer
she appears as the champion of the Greeks,
and in the Odyssey especially of the wise
Odysseus (cf. II. x. 244). She is already not
only the goddess of wisdom (iroXvBovXos), but
also the goddess of war, yet always of war
tempered by prudence (77. i. 206) ; already the
goddess of womanly industries (17. v. 785, ix.
390), and of other arts (Od. vi. 233), whence
came the later surname 'Epydvv (Paus. i. 24) ;
and already the protectress of Greek states
(epvo-iirroXis, II. vi. 305) : whence she was after
wards 'AB. rroXids or iroXiovxos. From this cha
racter as helper of industries she is regarded in
later literature as the goddess of agriculture also,
and so as the giver of the olive to Athens. The
story ran that, in the reign of Cecrops, Poseidon
and Athene contended for the control of Athens :
the gods decreed that whichever produced the
gift most useful to mortals should possess the
city. Poseidon struck the ground with his
trident, and a horse appeared : Athene made
the olive spring up, and was adjudged the giver
of the best gift and the protectress of Athens
(Hdt. viii. 55 ; Apollod. iii. 14). A contest
between two deities generally means that the
new religion brought in by immigrants pre
vailed over some older cult. It is probable in
this case that the worship of Poseidon had been
established by the Pelasgic inhabitants of
Attica, to whom the Lapithae belonged, and
that the Ionian immigrants made that of Athene
take the chief place. Thenceforth she was
entreated and thanked for the fruits of the
land and other aid. Her connexion with the
harvest appears in the story of Eeechtheus, and
in the festivals of the Panathenaea, the Plyn-
teria, the Procharisteria, the Oschophoria,
the Arrhephoria, and the Scirophoria. [Diet.
Ant. s.vvj. As divine patroness of all arts,
and not merely of weaving, she was at Athens
the especial deity of the potters : this brought
about a union of her worship with that of
Hephaestus (as well as Prometheus) in the
torch-race [Diet. Ant. s.v. Lampadedromia],
which accounts for the connexion of these two
deities in myths. The Peplos in the Pan
athenaea shows her as the weavers' goddess.
[For the special myths of her in connexion with
weaving, see Arachne.] As goddess of war we
find her in post-Homeric story celebrated in the
battle of the giants and the Gorgon (Eur. Hec.
466, Ion, 987 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 578 ; Paus. viii.
47), whence her epithets yopyotp6vos, ytyavro-
Xereipa. But she was also the goddess of
military arts in general and so of martial music
(Pind. Pyth. xii. 6 ; cf . 'A8r)vn XdXiriyl Paus.
ii. 21, 3), and of war-ships [Argo] : both music
and ship were represented in the Panathenaea
(both attributes, however, might be derived from
her care for art and for commerce). It is more
doubtful whether we should regard, as some do,
her epithets iiriria, yaAinTii (of. Belleeophon),
Sapdairnros, as goddess of horses and chariots

ATHENE

189

with the idea of war-horses and war-chariots,
or with an older religion in whioh the horse
was a sacred animal to her as it was to Poseidon
(Paus. i. 80, 4, ii. 4 ; Pind. Ol. xiii. 79 ; Soph.
0. C. 1071). She was the inventress also, by
some accounts, of the Pyrrhic dance (Plat. Legg.
796 b), and, as giver of victory in war, was
worshipped in 'ABf)vri Nf/n; (Paus. i. 42, 4). She
was in fact Nf/oj arrrepos, the wingless Victory,
to distinguish her from the conventional symbol
of winged Victory. As protectress of cities she
was called iroXiovxos not only at Athens but in
other states (Paus. i. 42, iii. 17) : at Athens in
this character she presided over the phratries or
clans, and sacrifice was offered to her at the
Apaturia. In many local legends of the Pelo
ponnesus, connected apparently with the Dorian
conquest, she appears as the friend and ally of
Heracles (Paus. v. 17, 11, vi. 19, 12). The
animals sacred to her were the owl, the serpent,
and the cock : for the last Pausanias (vi. 26, 2)
gives the rather doubtful reason that the cock

Athene. (Aegina Marbles.)
was a pugnacious bird ; the serpent was prob
ably consecrated to her as representative of an
old local religion connected with Erichthonius.
As regards the owl, the most reasonable expla
nation is that at one time she was worshipped
as the owl itself in the primitive days of animal
worship, and that when Greek art and civili
sation rejected monstrous forms of deities and
chose the idealised human form, then the owl
became merely her sacred bird or her symbol
on coins. (Even Homer seems to preserve a
trace of this primitive religion when he makes
Athene assume the form of a bird : It. vii. 59 ;
Od. iii. 372, v. 353.) It is impossible to accept
the idea that Homer when he called Athene
yXavKairis pictured her to himself as an owl-
faced deity, but there is much probability that
at one period she had that form : it is even
possible that though Homer (cf. Paus. i. 14, 6)
attached the sense of ' keen-eyed ' to the word,
he may be using an epithet which once meant
owl-faced. This is more reasonable than to ac
cept Roscher's view that the name was actually
derived from the flashing of lightning ; for there

is in truth very slight ground for the supposi
tion that Athene was originally conceived as a
goddess of the thunderstorm. Arguments for
this origin from the thunderstorm, whioh are far
from satisfactory, are
found in the aegis, and
even in Pindar's descrip
tion of her birth. Others
see in the Athene myth
the clouds, and argue
that her attribute of
weaving was imagined
from the fleecy clouds
of heaven : others again
upon the doubtful foun
dation of etymology
base the conclusion that
she was the goddess of
dawn or of light. It is
better not to regard
Athene as a nature god
dess at all, but simply as
the divinity of wisdom,
of arts and of industry :
the ideal for the Greek
race of the policy and
skill which brought pro
sperity to the state and
their protectress against
barbarism : a deity who,
far from resembling the
nature deities, is always
the inviolate maiden goddess. Besides the
Athenian festivals mentioned above, the Argive
ceremony deserves special notice, in which the
archaic image of Athene was washed in the
river Inachus, as a symbolical cleansing of the

Statuette of Athene
Parthenos.

Athene. (From a Statue in the Hope Collection.
blood-stained goddess after her battle with
the giants. (Callim. Lavacr. Pall.) She was
worshipped also at Epidaurus in the temple
of Asclepius as Athene Hygieia, in which
character she had an altar at Athens. It is
remarkable that the serpent and the cock were

140

ATHENAE

sacred to Asclepius as well as to Athene, but
there is not sufficient clue to the origin of the
consecration of these animals to warrant a
conclusion that they belonged to her healing
character especially. The temple of Athene
Itonia, near Coronea, was famous for the
meeting of the Boeotian congress. In archaic
art Athene was represented (1) as a throned and
unarmed deity, which may have been the form
in the ijjavov of Athene Polias ; (2) as a goddess
armed with helmet, shield, and spear, which
was the form of the Palladium. The armed
type was adopted and idealised by Phidias in
his famous statues, the colossal Athene Pro
machos on the Acropolis [Acbopolis] and that
of Athene Parthenos, which we know from copies
as wearing a high ornamented helmet, the aegis
(a goat skin plated with scales, and having the
Gorgon's head in the centre) on her breast, carry
ing the figure of victory in her right hand and
resting her left on a shield. Often her helmet is
the ' Corinthian ' visored helmet, plain, with
openings for eyes and mouth : this helmet she
wears on many coins, and in other represen
tations, thrown back on the head : the Attic
helmet which she wears on Athenian coins has
a high ipdXos [see coin on p. 144], but not so
high as that of Athene Parthenos, a neck-piece
fitting close to the neck, and a narrow guard for
the face which can be moved up or down. Her
face has a dignified type of beauty with some
what compressed lips, a broad clear brow, and
thoughtful eyes. The characteristic objects
often added are the owl, the serpent, and the
olive branch.
Athenae ('ABr)vai, also 'A8r)vri in Homer :
'ABrfvaios, Atheniensis : Athens), the capital of
Attica, is situated about three miles from the
sea coast, in the central plain of Attica, which
is enclosed by mountains on every side except
the south, where it is open to the sea. This
plain is bounded and sheltered on the NW. by
Mt. Parnes, on the NE. by Mt. Pentelicus, on
the SE. by Mt. Hymettus, and on the W. by
Mt. Aegaleos. In the southern part of the
plain there rise several eminences. Of these
the most prominent is a lofty insulated moun
tain, with a conical peaked summit, now called
the Hill of St. George, which used to be
identified by topographers with the ancient
Anchesmus, but which is now admitted to be
the more celebrated Lycabettus. This moun
tain, which was not included within the ancient
walls, lies to the north-east of Athens, and
forms the most striking feature in the environs
of the city. It is to Athens, as a modern
writer has aptly remarked, what Vesuvius is
to Naples or Arthur's Seat to Edinburgh. The
visitor to Athens is probably surprised when he
sees Lycabettus that so little is said of it in
Attic writers — in Plato, for instance, that it
should only once be mentioned (Crit. p. 112),
and then without much distinction- Strabo
however, does mention it as being the charac
teristic height of Athens, as Taygetus was of
Sparta, or Atabyris of Rhodes (p. 454). South
west of Lycabettus there are four hills of
moderate height, all of which formed part of
the city. Of these the nearest to Lycabettus,
'and at the distance of a mile from the latter,
was the Acropolis, or citadel of Athens, a
square craggy rock rising abruptly about 150
feet, with a flat summit of about 1000 feet long
from east to west, by 500 feet broad from north
to south. Immediately west of the Acropolis,
ib a second hill of irregular form, the Areiopa
gus. To the south-west there rises a third hill,

the Pnyx, on which the assemblies of the
citizens were held; and to the south of the
latter is a fourth hill, known as the Museum.
On the eastern and western sides of the city
there run two small streams, both of which are
nearly exhausted by the heats of summer and
by the channels for artificial irrigation before
they reach the sea. The stream on the east,
called the Tlissus, was joined by the Eridanus
close to the Lyceum outside the walls, and
then flowed in a south-westerly direction
through the southern quarter of the city. The
stream on the west, named the Cephissus, runs
due south at a distance of about a mile and a
half from the walls. South of the city lay the
Saronic gulf and the harbours of Athens. As
in the case of most early towns in Greece, and
indeed elsewhere, the firBt settlement was made
on the most defensible eminence of the plain,
and this was the Acropolis, which was at once a
more convenient height and a more convenient
shape than the peaked Lycabettus. [See Acbo
polis.] This was the nucleus round which
later Athens grouped itself when it had grown
to be the head of a united Attica. [See under
Attica, Ceceops, Theseus.] The city was
burnt by Xerxes in B.C. 480, but was soon re
built under the administration of Themistocles,
and was adorned with public buildings by
Cimon and especially by Pericles, in whose
time (B.C. 460-429) it reached its greatest splen
dour. Its beauty was chiefly owing to its
public buildings, for the private houses were
mostly insignificant, and its streets badly laid
out. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian
war, it contained 10,000 houses (Xen. Mem. iii.
6, 14), which at the rate of 12 inhabitants to
a house would give a population of 120,000,
though some writers make the inhabitants as
many as 180,000. Under the Romans Athens
continued to be a great and flourishing city,
and retained many privileges and immunities
when S. Greece was formed into the Roman
province of Achaia. It suffered greatly on its
capture by Sulla, B.C. 86, and was deprived of
many of its privileges. It was at that time,
and also during the early centuries of the
Christian aera, one of the chief seats of learn
ing, and the Romans were accustomed to send
their sons to Athens, as to a University, for
the completion of their education. Hadrian,
who was very partial to Athens and frequently
resided in the city (a.d. 122, 128), adorned it
with many new buildings, and his example was
followed by Herodes Atticus, who spent large
sums of money upon beautifying the city in the
reign of M. Aurelius. — Athens consisted of
three distinct parts united with one line of
fortifications. I. The Acbopolis ('AKp6iroXis) or
Polis (n<iAi$), also called the Upper City (ri
txva ir6Xis), which is described in a separate
article [Acbopolis]. II. The Asty (rb "Affrv),
also called the Lower City (r) kotw iroXis) to dis
tinguish it from the Acropolis, surrounded with
walls by Themistocles. Ill .The three harbour-
towns of Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum,
also surrounded with walls by Themistocles,
and connected with the city by means of the
long walls (to paKph reixv), built under the
administration of Pericles. The long walls
consisted of the wall to Phalerum on the E., 35
stadia long (about 4 miles), and of the wall to
Piraeus on the W., 40 stadia long (about 4$
miles) ; between these two, at a short distance
from the latter and parallel to it, another wall
was erected, thus making two walls leading to
the Piraeus (sometimes called to aKeXri), with

ATHENAE

141

a narrow passage between them. There were
therefore three long walls in all ; but the name
of Long Walls seems to have been confined to
the two leading to the Piraeus, while the one
leading to Phalerum was distinguished by the
name of the Phalerian Wall (to baXripiKbv
re'ixos). The entire circuit of the walls was
1744 stadia (nearly 22 miles), of which 48 stadia
(nearly 5£ miles) belonged to the city, 75 stadia

passed over the hill of the Museum including
in after times the monument of Philopappus :
they then continued a little to the north of the
Ilissus, including the Olympieum ; on the E.
they did not extend as far as the Lyceum. —
Gates. On the W. side were : — (1) Dipylum
(AiirvXov, more anciently ®piaaiai or KepapiKai),
the most frequented gate of the city, leading
from the inner Ceramieus to the outer Cera-

Stadia

1. Parthenon
2. Erechtheum
3. Propylaea
4. Prytaneum
5. Temple of Asclepius
6. Stoa of Eumenes
7. Mon. of Lysicrates
8. Eleusinlum
9. Metroon
10. Bouleuterion
11. Tholas
12. Temple of Furies
13. Temple of Ares
14. Enneacrounos
So-called Prison of
Socrates 

fo Sunium

IVatker ,5- Boutall sc.

Map of Ancient Athens.

(9£ miles) to the long walls, and 56£ (7 miles)
to Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum. — Topo
graphy of the Lower City — Walls. The line of
the walls surrounding the whole city, which were
built by Themistocles (Thuc. i. 90) can be traced
with certainty (see map above), and a portion of
them is especially noticeable near the Dipylon
Gate. On the W. they passed over the hill of the
Nymphs and included the Pnyx; on the S. they

micus, and to the Academy. It consisted of
two gates which with the walls joining them
inclosed a rectangular space : hence the name
' double-gate ' : each gate had double doors with
a centre pier : remains of the southern tower
which defended the gate are traceable. The
name of this gate has been the more celebrated
from a find in this spot of a number of vases
with geometric pattern which gave the desig-

142

ATHENAE

nation ( Dipylon vase ' to this class. [Diet.
Ant. s. v. Vas] This was the gate through
which the procession to Eleusis passed : hence
it is called by Plutarch 'Iepal TvXai. [It was
long supposed that this Sacred Gate was a
separate opening : but the" opening so explained
has been shown to be a watercourse through
which the Eridanus flowed.] The name Thri-
asian was given because it led to the Eleusinian
deme Thria. It is probable that the name
'Hpioi irvXai, the Gate of the Dead, belonged to
this gate also because it led to the Ceramieus.
(2) The Piraean Gate (r) Tleipa'iKri ir. : Plut. Sull.
14), between the Dipylon and the Nymphs'
Hill. (3) The Melitian Gate (ai MeXiriSes ir.),
so called because it led between the Long
Walls to the demus Melite, within the city.
On the S. side, going from W. to E. : — (4)
The Itonian Gate (at 'Iravtai ir.), near the
Bissus, where the road to Phalerum began.
On the E. side, going from S. to N. :— (5) The

outer Ceramieus; the S. part of the inner'.
Ceramieus contained the Agora (ayopd), or
'market-place.' The political Agora occupied
the space immediately surrounding the Areio
pagus and between the Areiopagus, Pnyx and
Acropolis, and there also was the market-place
of commerce; but as business increased, the
market for buying and selling was pushed
further out into the Ceramieus N. and NE. to
the neighbourhood of the Stoa of Attalos and
the Colonos Agoraios (the hill on which the
temple falsely called Theseum stands ; and in
Roman times further East to the Stoa of
Hadrian and gate of Athene Archegetis. This
gate of Athene Archegetis was built from dona
tions of Julius Caesar and Augustus, as an in
scription on it records. It seems to mark the
SE. entrance to the Agora of the Roman period :
whether, as some have conjectured, it was de
signed to mark some special point in state
processions, cannot be determined. The re-

Modulus 1:40.000
1234 cStadii.

Walker &Bontallst.

Plan of the Harbours of Athens.

Gate of Diochares (at Aioxdpovs ir.), leading to
the Lyceum. — 6. The Diomean Gate (7) Aioprfts
ttvXti, Alciphr. iii. 51, 4), leading to Cynosarges
and the demus Diomea. On the NE. side :
(7) The Acharnian Gate (al 'AxapviKal ir.),
leading to the demus Acharnae on the North. —
8. The Knights' Gate (at 'lmrdSes iriXai, Alciphr.
iii. 51, 4) whose position is not known. Some
take it to be an exit near the Olympieum lead
ing to Sunium. There were other unnamed
gates : e.g. one leading to the Stadium prob
ably existed. It must be observed that near
these gates (great double gates, and therefore
usually, though not invariably, spoken of in
the plural) there was a postern door (irvXts),
for foot-passengers : e.g. near the Achar
nian Gate (Plat. Lys. p. 203 a). — Chief
Districts. The inner Ceramieus (Kepo-
pem6s), or 'Potters' Quarter,' in the W. of
the city, extending N. as far as the gate
Dipylon by which it was separated from the

mains now extant, standing in the modern
' Poikile Street,' consist of four Doric columna
with an architrave and a plain pediment. The
demus Melite lay south of the inner Ceramieus,
and W. of the Agora, reaching nearly as far as
the Museum hill on the south and on the north
to the Piraean gate and Colonos Agoraios
(Dem. c. Con. p. 1258, § 7 ; Plut. Farm. 126).
The position of the demus Scambonidae is
disputed by recent writers. Some place it
outside the city ; others make it a city
deme to the south-west of the Acropolis:
the latter view is on the whole the best.
The demi Collytus and Cydathenaeum
cannot be placed with certainty : probably
the former lay in the northern part of the city,
the latter south of the Acropolis. Coele,
a district south of Collytus and the Museum,
along the Ilissus, in which were the graves of
Cimon and Thucydides. Limnae, a district E,
of Melite and Collytus, between the Acropolis

ATHENAE

143

and the Ilissus. Diomea, a district in the E.
of the city, near the gate of the same name and
the Cynosarges. Agrae, a district S. of Diomea.
— Hills. The Areiopagus ('Apelov irdyos or
"Apeios irdyos), the 'Hill of Ares,' W. of the
Acropolis (traditionally the hill from which the
Amazons attacked the Acropolis : Aesch. Eum.
680), which gave its name to the celebrated
council that held its sittings there (Diet, of Ant.
s. v.), was accessible on the S. side by a flight
of steps cut out of the rock. On its N.
slope stood a temple of Ares : the chasm on the
NE. side near the top is supposed to be the
shrine of the ~Sepi>al (Eumenides) and lower
down was the tomb of Oedipus. Traces of
primitive houses, of an early date, like those on
the Acropolis have been found on this hill.
The Hill of the Nymphs, NW. of the Areiopa
gus, so called because an inscription notes it as
sacred to the Nymphs : another has been found
on it telling that part of the hill was a precinct
of Zeus. The Pynx (Tlvv^), a semicircular hill,
SW. of the Areiopagus, where the assemblies of
the people were held in earlier times, for after
wards the people usually met in the Theatre of
Dionysus (Diet. Ant. s. v. Ecclesia). The
platform for speakers, or bema, which was the
basis or steps of an altar to Zeus is still visible
with three rows of seats cut in the reck behind

still standing, belong to the completed temple
of Hadrian (130 a.d.) The well-preserved
Doric temple on the rising ground of Colonos
Agoraios, which used to be known as ' the
temple of Theseus ' (Theseum), is probably the
temple of Hephaestus (Paus. i. 14, 6). The
real temple of Theseus (of which no traces
are discovered) stood near the temple of the
Dioscuri, which was under the N. side of the
Acropolis near the temenos of Agraulos. The
Temple of Ares stood on the NW. slope of the
Areiopagus. The Metrobn (Mnrpipov), or temple
of the mother of the gods (in which the state
archives were kept) in the Agora on the NW. of
the Areiopagus, near the Bouleuterion and
Tholos. The temple of Demeter and Kore and
that of Triptolemus in the same precinct
(Eleusinion) just S. of the Areiopagus; of
Artemis Eucleia SE. of the Pnyx ; of Aphrodite
Pandemos under the SW. of the Acropolis ; of
Apollo Patroos a little N. of the Metrobn ; of
Dionysus just S. of the Theatre, and of
Asclepius, whose site has been excavated (dis
covering among other remains the ancient
well), under the Acropolis to the W. of the
Theatre. The temple of Serapis, built after
Ptolemy Philadelphus introduced that worship
into Greece, seems to have stood NE. of the
Acropolis and NW. of the Olympieum. (2) The

-e^-

I IBHi ft hw 1 1 IS Wb IS If «''<

The Bema of the Pnyx at Athens.

it. The Prytanes seated on these faced the
people, who stood in a semicircular space (not
originally a downward slope) between the bema
and the Agora. The Museum (or hill sacred to
the Muses), S. of the Pnyx and the Areiopagus,
on which was the monument of Phtlopappus,
and where the Macedonians built a fortress. —
Streets. Of these we have little information.
We read of the Piraean Street, which led from
the Piraean gate to the Agora ; of the Street of
the Hermae, which was probably an avenue
at the N. side of the Agora formed by two
lines of Hermae running towards the Dipylon
from the ends of the Stoa Poecile' and the Stoa
Basileios respectively; of the Street of the
Tripods, on the E. of the Acropolis. This
street ran in a curve from the Prytaneum to
the eastern entrance of the Theatre : it was
bordered on each side by shrines surmounted
by the gilt or bronze tripods dedicated by the
tribe successful in the choregia. Of these the
monument of Lysicrates remains, and the base
of another has been discovered. — Public
Buildings. (1) Temples. Of these the most
important was the Olympieum ('OXvpirieiov),
or Temple of the Olympian Zeus, SE. of the
Acropolis, near the Ilissus and the fountain
Callirrhoe. This temple was begun by Peisi-
stratus and left unfinished by his sons : was
carried on further by Antiochus Epiphanes,
who employed the architect Cossutius, working
in the Corinthian style : of this work traces
have been found sufficient to recover the plan of
the half-finished temple of Antiochus. The
magnificent remains, 15 Corinthian columns

Senate House (BovXevrr)piov), next to the
Metrobn, NW. of the Areiopagus, and on the
other side of this nearer the Areiopagus (3)
the Tholos (B6Xos), a round building with
umbrella-shaped roof in which the Prytanes
and certain other officials (deiViToi) dined in the
period after Peisistratus, when the business
quarter was shifted to the N. of the Areiopagus
[see Diet. Ant. s.v. Prytaneum]. (4) The Pry
taneum, in which were the state hearth and sa
cred fire, and where foreign princes and envoys
and specially honoured citizens, and in old times
the Prytanes, dined at the state expense [see
Diet. Ant. s. v.]. The Prytaneum formerly
stood to the SW. of the Acropolis, in what was
probably the old Agora. Later, probably after
the Roman conquest, the new Prytaneum was
built on the NW. side of the Acropolis. In it
were preserved Solon's tables of law. (5) Stoae
or Halls, supported by pillars, and used as
places of resort in the heat of the day, of
which there were several in Athens. (Diet, of
Ant. art. Porticus.) In the Agora there were
three : the Stoa Basileios (o-roa Bao-'tXeios),
the court of the King-Archon, on the W. side of
the Agora under the E. slope of the Colonus
Agoraios ; the Stoa PoeciU (o-roa itoik'iXti), on
the N. side of the Agora, so called because
it was adorned with fresco painting of the
battle of Marathon by Polygnotus; and the
Stoa Eleutherius (o-roa iXevBepios), or Hall of
Zeus Eleutherius on the S. side of the Stoa
Basileios. The Stoa of Attalus, which has
been wrongly called 'the Gymnasium of
Ptolemy,' can be identified by an inscription

144

ATHENAE

of the epistyle. It was built by Attalos II., and
stood, where its remains may now be seen, in
the N. part of the Agora near the' Stoa Poecile ;
the Stoa of the Giants, apparently so called
from the statues which adorned it, of which
there are some remains of different dates, stood
about 90 yards to the West of the Stoa of
Attalus; the Stoa of Eumenes under the S.
rocks of the Acropolis running from the Theatre
to the Odeum of Herodes. The so-called ' Stoa
of Hadrian ' was not strictly a Stoa, but formed
part of the north front of the Gymnasium of
Hadrian. The extant remains consist of a wall
faced with a row of seven Corinthian columns.
This formed the eastern portion of the north
front. In the centre was originally a portico
giving access to the interior, and to the west of
that a wall faced with columns corresponding
to what is now called Hadrian's Stoa. The ex
cavations, carried as far as the modern ' Aeolus '
Street, show that the gymnasium was of great
size. Pausanias (i. 18, 9) says that it had 100
columns of African marble. (6) Theatres. The
Theatre of Dionysus, on the SE. slope of the
Acropolis, was the great theatre of the state (Diet.
&f Ant. s.v. Theatrum) ; besides this there were
three Odea (ipSe7a), for contests in vocal and in
strumental music (Diet, of Ant. s.v.), an ancient
one near the fountain Enneacrounos [see below],
a second built by PericleB, close to
the Theatre of Dionysus, on the SE.
slope of the Acropolis, and a third
built by Herodes Atticus, in honour
of his wife Regilla, on the SW. slope
of the Acropolis, of which there are
still considerable remains. (7) Sta
dium (to SrdSiov), S. of the Bissus,
in the district Agrae. Its site has been
fixed by the excavations of 1870. It
is said to date from the time of the
orator Lycurgus, and to have been
greatly improved and adorned with
marble by Herodes. It is supposed to
have had room for 40,000 spectators.
Between the actual Stadium and the
river remains of a portico are traced.
(8) Monuments. The Monument of
Andronicus Gyrrhestes, called the Tower of the
Winds, an octagonal building N. of the Acro
polis, still extant, was a horologium. (Diet.
of Ant. art. Horologium.) In the interior of
this octagonal tower was a water-clock, which
is said to have been served with water from
the Clepsydra well on the Acropolis. Part of a
covered aqueduct is traceable. The Ghoragic
Monument of Lysicrates, frequently but erro
neously called the Lantern of Demosthenes,
still extant, in the Street of the Tripods (see
above). The Monument of Nicias (Chora-
gus of boys in B.C. 320), of which the founda
tions are thought to be identified close to the
Odeum of Herodes. Fragments of the facade
were discovered built into the ' Beule ' Gate.
It is probable that this Choragic monument
was pulled down to make room for the road
when this odeum was built. The Monument of
Thrasyllus, victor with a chorus of men in the
same year (820), stood against a cave in the
rock above the Theatre of Dionysus. It seems
to have been nearly perfect up to the Turkish
siege in 1826 : there are still remains of
pilasters and three inscriptions. The statues
of the Eponymi (the heroes who gave their
names to Attic tribes) stood in the Agora prob
ably just to the E. of the Areiopagus and S. of
the Tholos : those of Harmodius and Aristo-
geiton a little nearer to the Hill of the

Nymphs. — Fountains. The wells of Asclepius,
of the Eumenides on the Areiopagus and the
Clepsydra on the Acropolis have been noticed
above. Of still greater topographical and
hterary importance are the springs Callirrhoe
and Enneacrounos about which there has been
some confusion. The true account seems to be
that Enneacrounos (' Nine Conduits) was
between the Areiopagus and the Pynx, near
the SW. corner of the former, being the water
supply of the ancient Agora : the traces of the
conduit made by Peisistratus are found here.
It once bore the common name for springs,
Callirrhoe, and this has caused a confusion
with the Athenian Callirrhoe oftenest men
tioned (Thuc. ii. 15 ; Hdt. vi. 137 ; Plat. Phaedr.
229), which was near the banks of the Hissus,
between that stream and the Olympieum, the
vaults of which temple are connected by a
subterranean passage with the spring. This
Callirrhoe still bears the same name. In
Plato's day there was already a confusion
between the two springs in connexion with the
legend of Oreithyia. — Suburbs. The Outer
Ceramieus (6 e£a KaXoiuevos), NW. of the
city, was the finest suburb of Athena ; origin
ally the 'Potters' Quarter' had been one
single district, but the wall of Themistocles cut
off the Inner from the Outer Ceramieus at tht,

Coin of Athens.
Obv., head of Athene ; >vi'., o-wl and amphora— legend Kt,pu.x«— Apwpa-
HpaxXe.. Euryclides -was one of the ^porrara. in 217 B.C. The three
figures probably represent the seal of one of the magistrates named
above.

Dipylon Gate ; through this suburb passed the
sacred road to Eleusis, and at the gate another
road branched to the Academia which stood at
the further end of the district, six stadia from
the city. The Outer Ceramieus was used as a
burial-place, and here those who had fallen in
war had a public funeral and a monument (cf.
Thuc. ii. 34 ; Aristoph. Av. 894 ; Dem. de Cor.
§ 297). A vast number of sculptured grave
stones and inscriptions have been found here.
Of these monuments the finest were just outside
the Dipylon Gate, where they had been pre
served by the denris of ruin and rubbish caused
by Sulla's destruction of the neighbouring wall,
under which they lay buried till 1863. Cynos-
arges (rb Kvv6aapyes), E. of the city, outside
the gate Diomea, a gymnasium sacred to
Heracles, where Antisthenes, the founder of
the Cynic school, taught. Lyceum (rb AvKeiov),
SE. of the Cynosarges, a gymnasium sacred to
Apollo Lyceus, where Aristotle and the Peripa
tetics taught. Others place the Lyceum a little
to the North of the Cynosarges. No certain
means of identification have yet been dis
covered. The Gardens (KTJiroi) and temple of
Aphrodite were close to the right bank of
the Ilissus (on the opposite side to the Sta
dium), between the city wall and the river.
Here was the famous statue of Aphrodite by
Alcamenes.

ATHENAE
Athenae ('ABiivai) : Atenah), a seaport town
of Pontus, named from its temple of Athene.
Athenaeum. 1. Li Arcadia, near Megalopolis
(Paus. viii. 44 ; Plut. Cleorn. 4). — 2. In Epirus,
in the district of Athamania (Liv. xxviii. 1).
Athenaeus (A6Voios). 1. A learned Greek
grammarian, of Naucratis in Egypt, lived about
A.D. 280, first at Alexandria and afterwards at
Rome. His extant work is entitled the Deipno-
sophistae (Aeiirvoo-ocpio-Tai), i.e. the Banquet
of the Learned, in 15 books, of which the first
2 books, and parts of the 3rd, 11th, and 15th,
exist only in an Epitome. The work may be
considered one of the earliest collections of
what are called Ana, being an immense mass
of anecdotes, extracts from the writings of
poets, historians, dramatists, philosophers,
orators, and physicians, of facts in natural
history, criticisms, and discussions on almost
every conceivable subject, especially on Gas
tronomy. Athenaeus represents himself as de
scribing to his friend Timocrates a full account
of the conversation at a banquet at Rome, at
which Galen, the physician, and Ulpian, the
jurist, were among the guests.— Editions. By
Casaubon, Genev. 1897 ; by Schweighauser,
Argentorati, 1801-1807 ; by W. Dindorf , Lips.
1827; by Meineke, Lips. 1867. — 2. A contempo
rary of Archimedes, wrote a work on military
engines (Trepl prixavripdrav), addressed to Mar-
cellus ; edited by C. Wescher, 1867. — 3. A cele
brated physician, founder of the medical sect
of the Pneumatici, born at Attalia in Cilicia,
practised at Rome about a.d. 50 (ed. C. Kiihn,
1867). Athenagoras ('A87ivay6pas), an Athenian phi
losopher, converted to Christianity in the second
cent. a.d. [See Diet, of Christ. Biogr.]
Athenals ('ABrivats). 1. Surnamed Philo-
storgus, wife of Ariobarzanes H., king of Cap
padocia, and mother of Ariobarzanes HI. (Cic.
adFam. xv. 4). — 2. Daughter of Leontius, after
wards named Eudocia.
Athenion ('ABTjviuv), a Cilician, one of the
commanders of the slaves in the second Servile
War in Sicily, defeated L. Licinius Lucullus,
but was at length conquered and killed B.C. 101
by the consul M'. Aquillius (Flor. iii. 19).
Athenodorus ('A6riv6Sapos). 1. Of Tarsus, a
Stoic philosopher surnamed Cordylio, was the
keeper of the library at Pergamus, and after
wards removed to Rome, where he lived with
M. Cato, at whose house he died (Strab. p. 674 ;
Plut. Cat. Min. 10).— 2. Of Tarsus, a Stoic
philosopher, surnamed Cananites, from Cana
in Cilicia, the birthplace of his father. He was
a pupil of Posidonius at Rhodes, and taught at
Apollonia in Epirus, where the young Octavius
(subsequently the emperor Augustus) was one
of his disciples. He accompanied the latter to
Rome, and became one of his intimate friends.
In his old age he returned to Tarsus, where he
died at the age of eighty-two. He was the
author of several works, which are not extant
(Suet. Claud. 4 ; Strab. p. 674.) — 3. A sculptor,
the son and pupil of Agesander of Rhodes,
whom he assisted in executing the group of
Laocoon. [Agesandee.]
Athesis (Adige or Etsch), rises in the Rhae-
tian Alps, receives the Atagis (Eisach), flows
through Upper Italy, past Verona, and falls
into the Adriatic by many mouths (Strab. p. 207) .
Athmone ('ABpovi), also 'ABpovla &nd."A8po-
vov : 'ABpovevs, fern. 'ABpovis), an Attic demus
belonging to the tribe Cecropis, afterwards to
the tribe Attalis.
Athos ("ABas, also "ABav : 'ABairns : Haghion

ATLAS

145

Oros, Monte Santo, i.e. Holy Mountain), the
mountainous peninsula, also called Acte, which
projects from Chaldice in Macedonia. It is
mentioned in II. xiv. 229. At the extremity of
the peninsula the mountain rises abruptly
from the sea to a height of 6849 feet ; there is
no anchorage for ships at its base, and the
voyage round it was so dreaded by mariners
that Xerxes had a canal cut through the
istlnnus which connects the peninsula with
the mainland, to afford a passage to his fleet
(Hdt. vii. 28 ; Thuc. iv. 109 ; Diod. xi. 1 ; Mel.
ii. 2, 10). The istlnnus is about li mile across ;
and there are distinct traces of the canal still
to be seen ; so that we must not imitate the
scepticism of Juvenal (x. 174), who refused to
believe that the canal was ever cut. The
peninsula contained several flourishing cities
in antiquity, and is now studded with numerous
monasteries, cloisters, and chapels, whence it
derives its modern name. In these monas
teries some valuable MSS. of ancient authors
have been discovered.
Athrlbis ("ABpiBis), a city in the Delta of
Egypt ; capital of the Nomos Athribites.
Atia, mother of Augustus.
Atilia or Atillia Gens, the principal members
of which are given under their surnames Cala-
tinus, Regulus, and Serranus.
Atilicinus, a Roman jurist of the first cent.
a.d., is referred to in the Digest.
Atilius or Acilius. 1. L,, one of the earliest
of the Roman jurists who gave public instruc
tion in law, probably lived about B.C. 100. In
Pompon. Dig. i. 2, 2, 38, he appears as Atilius,
but in Cic. de Senect. 2, 6 as Acilius. He wrote
commentaries on the laws of the Twelve
Tables. — 2. M., one of the early Roman poets,
wrote comedies imitated from the Greek (pal-
Uatae) about 200 B.C. (Cic. adAtt. xiv. 20). He
is probably the translator of Soph. Electra (Cic.
Fin. i. 2, 5).
Atina (Atlnas, -Stis : Atina), a town of the
Volsci in Latium, afterwards a Roman colony
(Verg. Aen. viii. 6, 30 ; Plin. xxii. 11).
Atmtanes ('ATivraves), an Epirot people in
Illyria, on the borders of Macedonia ; their
country, Atintania, was reckoned part of Mace
donia (Thuc. ii. 80 ; Liv. xiv. 30).
Atius Varus. JTabus.]
Atlanticum Mare. [Oceanus.]
Atlantis (AtAoctis, sc. vr)o-os), according to
an ancient tradition, a great island W. of the
Pillars of Hercules in the Ocean, opposite
Mount Atlas : it possessed a numerous popula
tion, and was adorned with every beauty ; its
powerful princes invaded Africa and Europe,
but were defeated by the Athenians and their
allies ; its inhabitants afterwards became wicked
and impious, and the island was in consequence
swallowed up in the ocean in a day and a
night. This legend is given by Plato in the
Timaeus, and is said to have been related to
Solon by the Egyptian priests. There was an
old legend of a victory of Athens over the
Atlantenes, which was worked on a peplos at
the Panathenaea. (Schol. ad Plat. Bep. 327 ;
Diod. iii. 53.) The Canary Islands, or the
Azores, which perhaps were visited by the
Phoenicians, may have given rise to the legend ;
but some modem writers regard it as indicative
of a vague belief in antiquity in the existence
of the W. hemisphere. (Plat. Tim. p. 24, Crit.
pp. 108, 113.)
Atlas ("At Aas), son of Iapetus and Clymene,
and brother of Prometheus and Epimetheus.
He made war with the other Titans upon Zeus,
L

146

ATLAS

and being conquered, was condemned to bear
heaven on his head and hands, standing in the
far west where day and night meet, at the
apparent junction of sky and sea. (Hes. Th.
517, 746.) According to Homer (Od. i. 52, vii.
245), Atlas bears the long columns which keep
asunder heaven and earth (or, as some inter
pret, he was merely in charge of the pillars
which keep apart, or which support on both
sides), and he seems to be imagined there as a
giant standing on the floor of the sea ; he is in
that account the father of Calypso. It does
not follow that Homer's idea of holding the
pillars is necessarily older than the simpler
idea of Hesiod, which makes Atlas himself the
pillar ; and no explanation of the myth is pre
ferable to that which assumes it to have arisen
from the idea that lofty mountains supported
the heaven. Later traditions distort the ori
ginal idea still more, by making Atlas a man
who was metamorphosed into a mountain.
Thus Ovid (Met. iv. 626 seq.) relates that Per
seus came to Atlas and asked for shelter, which

Atlas. (From the Farnese Collection.)
was refused, whereupon Perseus,by means of the
head of Medusa, changed him into M. Atlas, on
which rested heaven with all its stars. Others
try to rationalise, and represent Atlas as a
powerful king, who possessed great knowledge
of the courses of the stars, and who was the
first who taught men that heaven had the form
of a globe. Hence the expression that heaven
rested on his shoulders was regarded as a
merely figurative mode of speaking. (Diod. iii.
€0, iv. 27 ; Paus. ix. 20.) At first, the story of
Atlas referred to one mountain only, which was
believed to exist on the extreme boundary of
the earth ; but, as geographical knowledge ex
tended, the name of Atlas was transferred to
other places, and thus we read of a Mauretanian,
Italian, Arcadian, and even of a Caucasian,
Atlas. The common opinion, however, was, that
the heaven-bearing Atlas was in the NW. of
Africa. [See below.] Atlas was the father of the
Pleiades by Pleione or by Hesperis ; of the
Hyades and Hesperides by Aethra ; and of
Oenomaus and Maia by Sterope. Dione and

ATREUS
Calypso, Hyas and Hesperus, are likewise called
his children. Atlas was represented as bearing
a burden on his shoulders : in earlier times,
before the idea of a sphere obtained, merely a
rude mass of rock ; later, a sphere with zodiacal
signs. — Atlantiddes, a descendant of Atlas, es
pecially Mercury, his grandson by Maia (comp.
Mercuri facunde nepos Atlantis, Hor. Od.
i. 10), and Hermaphroditus, son of Mercury. —
Atlantias and Atlantis, a female descendant of
Atlas, especially the Pleiads and Hyads.
Atlas Mons (*AtAos : Atlas), was the general
name of the great mountain range which covers
the surface of N. Africa between the Mediter
ranean and Great Desert (Sahara), on the N.
and S., and the Atlantic and the Lesser Syrtis
on the W. and E. ; the mountain chains SE. of
the Lesser Syrtis, though connected with the
Atlas, do not properly belong to it, and were
called by other names (Hdt. iv. 184). The N.
and S. ranges of this system were distinguished
by the names of Atlas Minor and Atlas Major,
and a distinction was made between the 3
regions into which they divided the country.
[Afbica.] Atossa ("Atoo-o-o), daughter of Cyrus, and
wife successively of her brother Cambyses, of
Smerdis the Magian, and of Darius Hystaspis,
over whom she possessed great influence. She
bore Darius 4 sons, Xerxes, Masistes, Achae
menes, and Hystaspes. (Hdt. iii. 68, 133 ;
Aesch. Pers.)
Atrae or Hatra ("ATpai, to "Arpa : 'Arpr)v6s,
Atrenus : Hadr, SW. of Mosul), a strongly for
tified city on a high mountain in Mesopotamia,
inhabited by people of the Arab race.
Atratinus, Sempronlus. 1. A., consul b.c.
497 and 491. — 2. L., consul 444 and censor 443.
— 3. C, consul 423, fought unsuccessfully
against the Volscians, and was in consequence
condemned to pay a heavy fine. — 4. L., accused
M. Caelius Rufus, whom Cicero defended, 57
(pro Cael. 1, 8, 7).
Atrax ("ATpa|), a town in Pelasgiotis in
Thessaly, inhabited by the Perrhaebi, so called
from the mythical Atrax, son of Peneus and
Bura, and father of Hippodamia and Caenis
(Liv. xxxii. 15).
Atrebates ('ArpeBaToi), a people in Gallia
Belgica, in the modern Artois, a corruption of
their name. In Caesar's time (B.C. 57) they num
bered 15,000 warriors : their capital was Neme-
tocenna. Part of them crossed over to Britain,
where they dwelt in the upper valley of the
Thames. (Caes. B.G. ii. 4, 16, 23.)
Atreus ('Arpeiis), son of Pelops and Hippo
damia, grandson of Tantalus, and brother of
Thyestes and Nicippe. [Pelops.] He was first
married to Cleola, by whom he became the
father of Pllsthenes; then to Aerope, the widow
of his son Plisthenes, who was the mother of
Agamemnon, Menelaus, and Anaxibia, either
by Plisthenes or by Atreus [Agamemnon] ; and
lastly to Pelopia, the daughter of his brother
Thyestes. In Homer there is no hint of tra
gedy: Atreus dies, leaving the kingdom to
Thyestes ' rich in flocks ' (H. ii. 105) ; but in
the post- Homeric epics a story appears which
was adopted by the Tragedians. The strife
with Thyestes is first traceable to a golden
lamb, which Hermes gave as the pledge of
sovereignty to the possessor (cf. Aesch. Ag.
1585 ; Eur. Or. 988, El. 719). In consequence
of the murder of their half-brother Chrysippus,
Atreus and Thyestes were obliged to take to
flight; they were hospitably received at My
cenae (Thuc. i. 9); and, after the death of

ATRIA
Eurystheus, Atreus became king of Mycenae.
Thyestes seduced Aerope, the wife of Atreus,
and was in consequence banished by his
brother : from his place of exile he sent Plis
thenes, the son of Atreus, whom he had
brought up as his own child, in order to slay
Atreus; but Plisthenes fell by the hands of
Atreus, who did not know that he was his own
son. In order to take revenge, Atreus, pre
tending to be reconciled to Thyestes, recalled
him to Mycenae, killed his 2 sons, and placed
their flesh before their father at a banquet, who
unwittingly partook of the horrid meal. Thy
estes fled with horror, and the gods cursed
Atreus and his house. The kingdom of Atreus
was now visited by famine, and the oracle
advised Atreus to call back Thyestes.
Atreus, vainly searching for him in the
land of king Thesprotus, married as his
third wife, Pelopia, the daughter of Thy
estes, whom he believed to be a daughter
of Thesprotus. Pelopia was at the time
with child by her own father. This child,
Aegisthus, afterwards slew Atreus because
the latter had commanded him to slay
his own father Thyestes. [Aegisthus.]
Atria. [Adria.] '
Atrides ('ArpetSris), a descendant of
Atreus, especially Agamemnon and Me
nelaus. Atropatene ('ArpoirariivT)), or Media
Atropatia the NW. part of Media, adja
cent to Armenia, named after Atropates,
a native of the country, who, having been made
its governor by Alexander, founded there a
kingdom, which long remained independent
alike of the Seleucidae, the Parthians, and the
Romans, but was at last subdued by the Par
thians (Strab. p. 523 ; Just. xiii. 4).
Atropates (ArpoTrdrris), a Persian satrap,
fought at the battle of Gaugamela, B.C. 831, and
after the death of Darius, was made satrap of
Media by Alexander. His daughter was mar
ried to Perdiccas in 324 ; and he received from
his father-in-law, after Alexander's death, the
province of the Greater Media. (Diod. xviii. 3 ;
Arrian, iv. 18.) [Atropatene.]
Atropos. [Moiraz.]
Atta, T. Quintius, a poet of the national or
Roman Comedy (togata), which represented
Italian scenes, died B.C. 77. He is praised for
his vivid delineation of character. Horace (Ep.
ii. 1, 79) speaks of his plays as acted in his time.
Attaglnus ('Arrayivos), son of Phrynon, a
Theban, betrayed Thebes to Xerxes, B.C. 480.
After the battle of Plataeae (479) the other
Greeks required Attaginus to be delivered up
to them, but he made his escape. (Hdt. ix. 88 ;
Paus. vii. 10.)
Attalia ('ATTaAeia : 'ATraXedrris or -ot^s). —
1, A city of Lydia, formerly called Agroira
('Ayp6eipa.), and refounded by one of the kings
of Pergamus. — 2. (Adalia), a city on the coast
of Pamphylia, for which it was the port, near
the mouth of the river Catarrhactes, founded
by Attalus II. Philadelphus, and subdued by
the Romans under P. Servilius Isauricus (Strab.
p. 667)_.
Attains ("ArraXos). 1. A Macedonian, uncle
of Cleopatra, whom Philip married in B.C. 337.
At the nuptials of his niece, Attalus offered an
insult to Alexander, and, on the accession of
the latter, was put to death by his order in Asia
Minor, whither Philip had previously sent him
to secure the Greek cities to his cause (Diod.
xvii. 2). — 2. Son of Andromenesthe Stymphaean,
. and one of Alexander's officers ; after the death

ATTICA

147

of Alexander (b.c. 823), he served under Per
diccas, whose sister, Atalante, he had married ;
and after the death of Perdiccas (821), he joined
Alcetas, the brother of Perdicoas ; but their
united forces were defeated in Pisidia by Anti
gonus in 320. — 3. Kings of Pergamus. — (I.)
Nephew of Philetaerus, succeeded his cousin,
Eumenes I., and reigned B.C. 241-197. He
made head against the Gauls, and assumed the
title of king after his success (Strab. p. 624 ; Liv.
xxxviii. 16). He gained much of the territory of
the Seleucidae. He took part with the Romans
against Philip and the Achaeans. In 201 he
fought with the Rhodians against Philip, whose
attack on Pergamus he repelled. He died in 197,
when he was joining the Romans against Philip.

Coin of AttaluB I.
bv., head of Philetaerus, the founder of the dynasty ; rev.,
Athene, seated, crowning with wreath name of *1AETAIP0Y
between bunch of grapes and A.
He was celebrated not only in war, but for his en
couragement of literature and art. He founded
the library of Pergamus : the Pergamene
sculpture began with representations of hiB
Gallic victories, one of which is the dying Gaul
(the so-called Gladiator) of the Capitoline
Museum. — (II.) Surnamed Philadelphus, 2nd
son of Attalus I., succeeded his brother Eu
menes II., and reigned 159-133. Like his father
he was an ally of the Romans, and he also en
couraged the arts and sciences. — (III.) Sur
named Philometor, son of Eumenes II. and
Stratonice, succeeded his uncle Attalus II., and
reigned 138-133. He is known to us chiefly for
the extravagance of his conduct and the murder
of his relations and friends. In his will he
made the Romans his heirs ; but his kingdom
was claimed by Aristonicus. [Aristonicus.] —
4. Roman emperor of the West, was raised to
the throne by Alaric, but was deposed by the
latter, after a reign of one year (a.d. 409, 410),
on account of his acting without Alaric's advice.
— 5. A Stoic philosopher in the reign of Ti
berius, was one of the teachers of Seneca, who
speaks of him in the highest terms (Ep. 108).
Atthis or Attis ("ArBis or "Attis), daughter
of Cranaus, from whom Attica was believed to
have derived its name. The two birds into
which Philomele and her sister Procne were
metamorphosed were likewise called Attis.
[Philomela.] Attica (r) 'Attikyi, sc. yri), a division of Greece,
has the form of a triangle, two sides of which
are washed by the Aegaean sea, while the third
is separated from Boeotia on the N. by the
mountains Cithaeron and Parnes. Megaris,
which bounds it on the NW., was formerly a
part of Attica. In ancient times it was called
Acte and Actice ('Aktt) and 'Aktikt)), or the
' coastland ' [Acte], from which the later form
Attica is said to have been derived : but accord
ing to traditions it derived its name from Atthis,
the daughter of the mythical king Cranaus.
Attica is divided by many ancient writers into
l2

148

ATTICTJS

3 districts. 1. The Highlands (tj Siaxpia; also
bpeivT) 'Attikt)), the NE. of the country, con
taining the range of Parnes and extending S.
to the promontory Cynosura : the only level
part of this district was the small plain of Ma
rathon opening to the sea. 2. The Plain (i)
ireSias, rb ireSiov), the NW. of the country, in
cluded both the plain round Athens and the
plain round Eleusis, and extended S. to the
promontory Zoster. 3. The Sea-coast District
(q irapaXia), the S. part of the country, termi
nating in the promontory Sunium. Besides
these 3 divisions we also read of a 4th, The
Midland District (pecr6yaia), still called Me-
sogia, an undulating plain in the middle of the
country, bounded by M. Pentelicus on the N.,
M. Hymettus on the W., and the sea on the E.
The soil of Attica is not very fertile : the greater
part of it is not adapted for growing corn ; but
it produces olives, figs, and grapes, especially
the 2 former, in great perfection. The country
is dry : the chief river is the Cephissus, which
rises in Parnes and flows through the Athenian
plain. The abundance of wild flowers in the
country made the honey of M. Hymettus very
celebrated in antiquity. Excellent marble was
obtained from the quarries of Pentelicus, NE.
of Athens, and a considerable supply of silver
from the mines of Laurium near Sunium. The
area of Attica, including the island of Salamis,
which belonged to it, contained between 700 and
800 square miles ; and its population in its' flou
rishing period was probably about 500,000, of
which nearly 4-5ths were slaves. Attica is said
to have been originally divided into 12 inde
pendent states (traditionally by Cecrops), which
Philochorus. names as Cecropia ( = Athens),
Eleusis, Epacria, Decelea, Aphidnae, Thoricus,
Brauron, Cythera, Sphettus, Cephisia, Phale
rum, and the Tetrapolis of N. Attica, formed
by Marathon, Oenoe, Tricorythus, and Proba-
linthus, and occupied by settlers of Dorian
origin. These 12 communities probably pre
sent the names of the most important places
in early times, and are marked by various
local sacred rites, which reappear in the mytho
logy of literature. To Theseus is ascribed the
union of Attica, which is thought to have been
effected by an immigration of Ionian maritime
people who combined with the old inhabitants
of ' Cecropia ' in uniting the other districts with
Athens as the head. At some time, which seems
to be the period of Ionian immigration, the
people were divided (in Ionian fashion) into 4
tribes : Geleontes, Hopletes, Argadeis, Aegico-
reis, a distribution which tradition assigns to
Ion ; but there was also a triple division (Dorian
fashion) into Eupatridae or nobles, Geomori or
husbandmen, and Demiurgi or artisans : each
of the 4 tribes seems to have had this threefold
composition. Clisthenes (B.C. 510) abolished the
old tribes and created 10 new ones, according
to a geographical division : these tribes were sub
divided into 174 demi, townships or communes.
(For details, see Diet, of Ant. art. Tribus.)
Atticus Herodes, Tiberius Claudius, a cele
brated Greek rhetorician, born about a.d. 104, at
Marathon in Attica. He taught rhetoric both at
Athens and at Rome, and his school was fre
quented by the most distinguished men of the
age. The future emperors M. Aurelius and L.
Verus were among his pupils, and Antoninus
Pius raised him to the consulship in 143. He
possessed immense wealth, a great part of which
he spent in embellishing Athens, where he built
the Odeum (Diet. Ant. s.v. Theatrum), and a
Stadium. [Athenae.] He made gifts also of

ATTILA
building and sculpture to Corinth, Olympia, and
Delphi (Paus. i. 19, ii. 1, vi. 21, x. 32.) He
had a friendship, sometimes interrupted, with
Fronto. He died in 180. He wrote numerous
works, none of which have come down to us,
with the exception of an oration, entitled Ilepi
iroXireias, the genuineness of which, however, is
very doubtful. It is printed in the collections
of the Greek orators, and by Fiorillo, in Herodis
Attici quae supersunt, Lips. 1801.
Atticus, T. Pomponius, a Roman eques,bom
at Rome, B.C. 109. His proper name after his
adoption by Q. Caecilius, the brother of his
mother, was Q. Caecilius Pomponianus Atticus.
His surname, Atticus, was given him on account
of his long residence in Athens and his intimate
acquaintance with the Greek language and lite
rature. He was educated along with L. Tor-
quatus, the younger C. Marius, and M. Cicero.
Soon after the breaking out of the civil war be
tween Marius and Sulla, he resolved to take no
part in the contest, and accordingly removed to
Athens. During the remainder of his life, he
kept aloof from all political affairs, and thus
lived on the most intimate terms with the most
distinguished men of all parties. He was equally
the friend of Caesar and Pompey, of Brutus
and Cassius, of Antony and Augustus ; but his
most intimate friend was Cicero, whose corre
spondence with him, beginning in 68 and con
tinued down to Cicero's death, is one of the
most valuable remains of antiquity. He re
turned to Rome in 65, when he came into
possession of the inheritance from Caecilius.
He purchased an estate at Buthrotum in Epi
rus, between which place, Athens and Rome,
he divided the greater part of his time, engaged
in literary pursuits and in commercial under
takings, by which he greatly increased his
wealth. He died at Rome in 32, at the age of
77, of voluntary starvation, when he found that
he was attacked by an incurable illness. His
wife, Pilia, to whom he was married in 56, when
he was 53 years of age, bore him only one child,
a daughter, Pomponia or Caeeilia, whom Cicero
sometimes calls Attica and Atticula. She was
married in the lifetime of her father to M.
Vipsanius Agrippa. The sister of Atticus, Pom
ponia, was married to Q. Cicero, the brother of
the orator. The life of Atticus by Cornelius
Nepos is to be regarded rather as a panegyric
upon an intimate friend, than strictly speaking
a biography. In philosophy Atticus belonged
to the Epicurean sect. He was thorougMy
acquainted with the whole circle of Greek and
Roman literature. So high an opinion was
entertained of his taste and critical acumen,
that many of his friends, especially Cicero, were
accustomed to send him their works for revision
and correction. None of his own writings have
come down to us.
Attila ('Arr-fiXas or 'ArrlXas, German Etzel,
Hungarian Ethele), king of the Huns, attained
in A.D. 484, with his brother Bleda (in German
Blbdel), to the sovereignty of all the northern
tribes between the frontier of Gaul and the
frontier of China, and to the command of an
army of at least 500,000 barbarians. He gradu
ally concentrated upon himself the awe and
fear of the whole ancient world, which ulti
mately expressed itself by affixing to his name
the well-known epithet of ' the Scourge of God.'
His career divides itself into two parts. The
first (a.d. 445-450) consists of the ravage of the
Eastern empire between the Euxine and the
Adriatic and the negotiations with Theodosius
II., which followed upon it. They were ended

ATTILIUS
by a treaty which ceded to Attila a large terri
tory S. of the Danube and an annual tribute.
The second part of his career was the invasion
of the Western empire (450-452). He crossed
the Rhine at Strassburg, but was defeated at
Chalons by Aetius, and Theodoric, king of the
Visigoths, in 451. He then crossed the Alps,
and took Aquileia in 452, after a siege of 8
months, but he did not attack Rome, in conse
quence, it is said, of his interview with Pope
Leo the Great. He recrossed the Alps towards
the end of the year, and died in 453, on the
night of his marriage with a beautiful girl, vari
ously named Hilda, Ildico, Mycolth, by the
bursting of a blood-vessel. In person Attila
was, like the Mongolian race in general, a short
thickset man, of stately gait, with a large head,
dark complexion, flat nose, thin beard, and bald
with the exception of a few white hairs, his eyes
small, but of great brilliancy and quickness.
(Priscus, 33-76 : Jornand. de Beb. Get. 32-50.)
Attilius. [Atilius.]
Attis, Atys, or Attin ("Attis, ox" Arms). 1. A
Phrygian deity belonging to the myth of the
Phrygian 'Great Mother' [Cybele]. In the
mystical Eastern story current at Pessinus
Agdistis had been mutilated by the gods, and
from the blood sprang an almond tree, whose
fruit was gathered by Nana, the daughter
of the river-god Sangarius. She bore a son,
the beautiful Attis (who in Ovid's version is
the son of Nana and a shepherd), who was
reared by goats in the mountains. Agdistis,
who in this story becomes identified with
Cybele, fell in love with him [other versions
represent a rivalry between two personages,
Cybele and Agdistis], and when Attis wished
to marry the daughter of the king of Pessinus
(or the nymph Sagaritis), the goddess drove
him mad, so that he mutilated himself beneath
a pine tree, into which his spirit passed ; at its
foot violets sprang up from his blood (Paus. vii.
17 ; Diod. iii. 58 ; Arnob. adv. Gent. v. 5 ; Catull.
63 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 223). The fir tree wreathed
with violets became a sacred emblem of Attis
in the wild festivals of Cybele, whose priests, in
memory of Attis, were eunuchs. Attis dead
was mourned for two days, and then a feast of
joy was celebrated for his recovery. [For the
history of these ceremonies at Rome see Diet.
Ant. s. v. Megalensia.] There is much resem
blance in the character of this myth, though
not in its details, to the Eastern myth of Adonis.
It symbolises the growth of life in nature,
especially of plant and tree life, its death and
its resurrection, as well as the twofold character
of natural production, the male and the female.
[For some further mysteries connected with
these rites see Diet. Ant. s. v. Taurobolium.] —
2. Son of Manes, king of the Maeonians, from
whose son Lydus, his son and successor, the
Maeonians were afterwards called Lydians. —
-3. A Latin chief, son of Alba, and father of
Oapys, from whom the Atia Gens derived its
origin, and from whom Augustus was believed
to be descended on his mother's side. — 4. Son
of Croesus, slain by Adrastus.
Attius. [Accius.]
Attius or Attus Navius. [Navtus.]
Attius Tullius. [Tulltus.]
Atiiria ('Arovpia). [Assyria.]
Aturus (Adour), a river in Aquitania, rises
in the Pyrenees and flows through the territory
of the Tarbelli into the ocean.
Atymnius ('Arvpvios or"ATvpvos), son of Zeus
and Cassiopea, a beautiful boy, beloved by Sar-
pedon. Others call him son of Phoenix. He

AUGURINUS

149

was worshipped especially at Gortyna. When
Sarpedon quarrelled with Minos he took Atym
nius with him to Asia Minor, where he seems
to be identified with Miletus.
Aufidena (Aufidenas, -atis : Alfidena), a
town in Samnium on the river Sagrus.
Aufidius. 1. Cn., a learned historian, cele
brated by Cicero (Tusc. v. 38 ; Fin. v. 19) for
the equanimity with which he bore blindness,
was quaestor B.C. 119, tribunus plebis 114, and
finally praetor 108. — 2. T., a jurist, quaestor
B.C. 86, and afterwards propraetor in Asia. —
3. Bassus. [Bassus.] — 4. Lurco. [Lurco.] —
6. Orestes. [Orestes.]
Aufidus (Ofanto), the principal river of
Apulia, rises in the Apennines, in the territory
of the Hirpini in Samnium, flows at first with a
rapid current (hence violens and acer, Hor.
Od. iii. 30, 10, Sat. i. 1, 58), and then more
slowly (stagna Aufida, Sil. Ital. x. 171), into
the Adriatic. Venusia, the birthplace of Horace,
was on the Aufidus.
Augarus. [Abgarus.]
Auge or Augia (ASyn or Au7eia), daughter
of Aleus and Neaera, was a priestess of Athene,
and mother by Heracles of Telephus. the
afterwards married Teuthras, king of the
Mysians. Augeas or Augias (Ai^eas or Au7ei'as), son
of Phorbas or Helios (the Sun), and king of the
Epeans in Elis. He had a herd of 8000 oxen,
whose stalls had not been cleansed for thirty
years. It was one of the labours imposed upon
Heracles by Eurystheus to cleanse these stalls
in one day. As a reward the hero was to
receive the tenth part of the oxen ; but when
he had accomplished his task by leading the
rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the stables,
Augeas refused to keep his promise. Heracles
thereupon killed him and his sons, with the
exception of Phyleus, who was placed on the
throne of his father. (Paus. v. 1, 7 ; Theocr. 25 ;
Diod. iv. 13 ; Apollod. ii. 5.) Another tradition
represents Augeas as dying a natural death at
an advanced age, and as receiving heroic
honours from Oxylus (Paus. v. 3, 4).
Augila (to AvyiXa: AujUdh),atx oasis in the
Great Desert of Africa, about 3^° S. of Cyrene,
and 10 days' journey W. of the Oasis of Am
mon, abounding in date palms, to gather the
fruit of which a tribe of the Nasamones, called
Augilae (AiyiXai), resorted to the Oasis, which
at other times was uninhabited (Hdt. iv. 172).
Augurinus, Genucius. 1. T., consul b.c. 451,
and a member of the first decemvirate in the
same year. — 2. M., his brother, consul 445.
Augurinus, Minucius. 1. M., consul b.c.
497 and 491. He took an active part in the
defence of Coriolanus, who was brought to trial
in 491, but was unable to obtain his acquittal. —
2. L., consul 458, carried on war against the
Aequians, and was surrounded by the enemy
on Mt. Algidus, but was delivered by the dic
tator Cincinnatus. — 3. L., was appointed prae-
fect of the corn-market (praefectus annonae)
439, as the people were suffering from grievous
famine. The ferment occasioned by the assas
sination of Sp. Maelius in this year was ap
peased by Augurinus, who is said to have gone
over to the plebs from the patricians, and to
have been chosen by the tribunes one of their
body. Augurinus lowered the price of corn in
three market days, fixing as the maximum an
as for a modius. The people in their gratitude
presented him with an ox having its horns gilt,
and erected a statue to his honour outside the
Porta Trigemina. (Liv. iv. 12-16.)

150

AUGUSTA

Augusta, the name of several towns founded
or colonised by Augustus. 1. A. Asturica,
[Astures.]— 2. A. Emerita (Merida), in Lusi-
tania on the Anas (Guadiana), colonised by
Augustus with the veterans (emeriti) of the
fifth and tenth legions, was a place of consider
able importance, and the capital of Lusitania
(Strab. pp. 151, 156; Dio Cass. liii. 26 ; Aus. Ord.
Nob. Urb. 8).— 3. A. Firma. [Astigi.]— 4. A.
Praetoria (Aosta), a town of the Salassi in
Upper Italy, at the foot of the Graian and
Pennine Alps, colonised by Augustus with
soldiers of the praetorian cohorts. The modern
town still contains many Roman remains ; the
most important of which are the town gates
and a triumphal arch. (Strab. p. 106 ; Dio Cass.
liii. 25.) — 5. A. Rauracorum (Augst), the capital
of the Rauraci, colonised by Munatius Plancus
B.C. 44, was on the left of the Rhine near the
modern Basle : the ruins of a Roman amphi
theatre are still to be seen. Its first name was
Colonia Baurica : the title Augusta was added
under Augustus. — 6. A. Suessonum (Soissons),
the capital of the Suessones in Gallia Belgica,
probably the Noviodunum of Caesar (B.G. ii.
12). — 7. A. Taurinorum (Tmtoi), more anciently
called Taurasia, the capital of the Taurini on
the Po, was an important town in the time of
Hannibal, and was colonised by Augustus
(Polyb. iii. 60 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 66). Its import
ance was greatly owing to the fact that it
led to the passes of the Cottian Alps, the
M. Genevre, and the M. Cenis. [Alpes.] —
8, Trevirorum. [Treviri.] — 9. Tricastinorum
(Aouste), the capital of the Tricastini in Gallia
Narbonensis. — 10. A. Vindelicorum (Augs
burg), capital of Vindelicia or Rhaetia Se-
cunda on the Lisus (Lech), colonised by Drusus
under Augustus, after the conquest of Rhaetia,
B.C. 14.
Augustinus, Aurelius, the most illustrious
of the Latin Fathers, bom a.d. 354, at Tagaste,
an inland town in Numidia. [Diet, of Christian
Biogr.] Augustobona (Troyes), afterwards called
Trieassae, the capital of the Tricasii or Tricasses
in Gallia Lugdunensis.
Augustodunum. [Bibracte.]
Augustonemetum. [Arverni.]
Augustorltum. [Lemovices.]
Augustus, the first Roman emperor, was
born on the 23rd of September, B. c. 63, and
was the son of C. Octavius by Atia, a daughter
of Julia, the sister of C. Julius Caesar. His
original name was C. Octavius, and, after his
adoption by his great-uncle, C. Julius Caesar
Octavianus ; the title Augustus was given him
by the senate and the people in 27 as a mark of
peculiar rank and claim to veneration. Octavius
lost his father at 4 years of age, but his edu
cation was conducted with great care by his
grandmother Julia, and by his mother and step
father, L. Marcius Philippus, whom his mother
married soon after his'father's death. C. Julius
Caesar, who had no male issue, also watched
over his education with solicitude. In 45
he was sent by Caesar to Apollonia in Hly-
ricum, where some legions were stationed,
that he might acquire a more thorough prac
tical training in military affairs, and at the
same thne prosecute his studies. • He was at
Apollonia when the news reached him of his
uncle's murder at Rome in March 44, and he
forthwith set out for Italy, accompanied by
Agrippa and a few other friends. On landing
near Brundusium at the beginning of April, he
heard that Caesar had adopted him in his testa-

AUGUSTUS
ment and made him his heir. On reaching
Rome about the beginning of May, he demanded
nothing but the private property which Caesar
had left him, but declared that he was resolved
to avenge the murder of his benefactor. An
tony had spent a great part of the money left
by Caesar in bribes to Dolabella and others ;
and Octavius gained popularity by paying all
the legacies out of what remained to him. The
state of parties at Rome was most perplexing ;
and one cannot but admire the extraordinary
tact and prudence which Octavius displayed,
and the skill with which a youth of barely 20
contrived to blind the most experienced states
men in Rome, and eventually to carry all his
designs into effect. He had to contend against
the republican party as well as against Antony,
who foresaw that Octavius would stand in the
way of his views, and had therefore attempted,
though without success, to prevent him from
accepting the inheritance from his uncle.
Octavius, therefore, resolved to crush Antony
first as the more dangerous of his two enemies,
and accordingly made overtures to the republi
can party. These were so well received, espe
cially when 2 legions went over to him, that
the senate conferred upon him the title of
praetor, and sent him with the two consuls of
the year, C. Vibius Pansa and A. Hirtius, to
attack Antony, who was besieging D. Brutus
in Mutina. Antony was defeated and obliged
to fly across the Alps ; and the death of the
2 consuls gave Octavius the command of all
their troops. Cicero now showed his distrust
of his motives : the senate became alarmed,
and determined to prevent Octavius from ac
quiring further power. But he soon showed
that he did not intend to become the senate's
servant. Supported by his troops he marched
upon Rome, from which Cicero had retired,
and demanded the consulship, which the terri
fied senate was obliged to give him. He was
elected to the office along with Q. Pedius, and
the murderers of the dictator were outlawed.
He was formally admitted into the patrician
gens Julia, and henceforth known as Octavianus.
He now marched into the N. of Italy, pro
fessedly against Antony, who had been joined
by Lepidus and was descending from the Alps
at the head of the combined 17 legions. Octa
vianus and Antony now became reconciled ; and,
at a meeting on an island on the river Rhenus
near Bononia (Bologna), it was agreed that the
Western provinces should be divided between
Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus, under the
title of triumviri rei publicae constituendae,
and that this arrangement should last for the
next five years. Octavianus received Sicily,
Sardinia, and Africa; Lepidus, Spain and
Gallia Narbonensis ; Antony, the rest of the
two Gauls. Octavianus and Antony with 19 of
the legions were to wrest the Eastern provinces
from Brutus and Cassius. They published a
proscriptio or list of all their enemies, whose
lives were to be sacrificed and their property
confiscated: upwards of 2000 equites and
300 senators were put to death, among whom
was Cicero. Soon afterwards Octavianus and
Antony crossed over to Greece, and defeated
Brutus and Cassius at the battle of Philippi in
42, by which the hopes of the republican party
were ruined. The triumvirs thereupon made a
new division of the provinces. Lepidus obtained
-Africa, Octavianus the rest of the Western
provinces, and Antony all the Eastern : Octa
vianus returned to Italy to reward his veterans
with the lands he had promised them. Here a

AUGUSTUS

151

new war awaited him (41), excited by Fulvia,
the wife of Antony. She was supported by
L. Antonius, the consul and brother of the
triumvir, who threw himself into the fortified
town of Perusia, which Octavianus succeeded in
taking in 48. Antony now made preparations
for war, but the opportune death of Fulvia led
to a reconciliation between the triumvirs, who
concluded a peace at Brundusium. A new
division of the provinces was again made :
Octavianus obtained all the parts of the empire
W. of the town of Scodra in Illyricum, and
Antony the E. provinces, while Italy was to
belong to them in common : Lepidus retained
Africa. It is probable that this reconciliation
gave the theme for Virgil's Fourth Eclogue.
Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavi
anus, in order to cement their alliance. In 39
Octavianus concluded a peace with Sext. Pom
peius, whose fleet gave him the command of
the sea, and enabled him to prevent corn from
reaching Rome. For a short time Pompeius,
as a fourth ruler, received a share of provinces.
But this peace was only transitory. As long as
Pompeius was independent, Octavianus could
not hope to obtain the dominion of the West,
and he therefore eagerly availed himself of the
pretext that Pompeius allowed piracy to go on
in the Mediterranean, for the purpose of
declaring war against him. In 36 the contest
came to a final issue. The fleet of Octavianus,
under the command of M. Agrippa, gained a
decisive victory off the east coast of Sicily over
that of Pompeius, who abandoned Sicily and fled
to Asia. Lepidus, who had landed in Sicily to
support Octavianus, was impatient of the sub
ordinate part which he had hitherto played,
and claimed the island for himself; but he was
easily subdued by Octavianus, stripped of bis
power, and sent to Rome, where he resided for
the remainder of his life, being allowed to retain
the dignity of Pontifex Maximus. In 85 and
34 Octavianus was engaged in war with the
Hlyrians and Dalmatians. Meantime, Antony
had repudiated Octavia, and had alienated the
minds of the Roman people by his arbitrary
and arrogant proceedings in the East. This feel
ing was increased when Octavianus learnt from
Plancus and published the will which Antony
had prepared directing that his body should be
placed, like that of an Egyptian king, in Cleo
patra's mausoleum. Octavianus found that the
Romans were quite prepared to desert his rival,
and accordingly in 32 the senate declared war
against Cleopatra, for Antony was looked upon
only as her infatuated slave. In the spring of 31
Octavianus passed over to Epirus, and in Sep
tember in the same year his fleet gained a bril
liant victory over Antony's near the promontory
of Actium in Acarnania. The next eleven
months he spent in founding the city of Nico
polis, in making settlements for his veterans, and
in arranging the Eastern provinces. In the
following year (30) Octavianus sailed to Egypt.
Antony and Cleopatra, who had escaped in
safety from Actium, put an end to their lives
to avoid falling into the hands of the conqueror.
Octavianus returned to Rome in 29 and cele
brated the ' triple triumph ' (Verg. Aen. viii.
714) for victories in Dalmatia, at Actium, and
in Egypt. He was now master of the Roman
world with an authority which no party at
Rome really wished that he should resign. The
senatorial management was, as Julius Caesar
well understood, worn out and no longer possible
to renew : it was necessary that the executive
power should be concentrated in one strong

ruler, suoh as could be found in Octavianus
alone, and also that this should be legally
established : it was advisable, moreover, that it
should outwardly agree with the old republican
forms, so as to avoid as far as possible the
appearance of breach of continuity and revo
lution. Accordingly in his 6th consulship,
B. c. 28, he resigned by an edict to the senate
and people the extraordinary power which he
had wielded since he became triumvir in 48.
Thus nominally the republic was restored on
its old footing; but by a vote obtained from
the senate and people he received all his old
powers (theoretically for 10 years). His pro
vincia with the consulare imperium gave him
absolute control of the frontier provinces and
the appointment of their governors, the com
mand of all armies, the right of levying troops,
and of making peace or war. This was strictly
an enlarged proconsular power, but he held it
until 23 with the consulship, and thus continued
it, unlike any proconsul, in Rome, where he
was rendered inviolable and secured from inter
ference with his authority by the tribunicia
potestas, which had already in 36 been granted
him for life. Now also he received the cog
nomen of Augustus. In 23, when he gave up
the consulship, the principate assumed the
character, which
it retained, with
some changes in its
development, till
Diocletian. While
he held the pro
vincia above men
tioned, since he no
longer became con
sul and two other
consuls were an
nually elected, it
was now a pro
consular impe
rium: to compen
sate for this he
received in 23 the
majus imperium,
which, if nominally
on a level with
that of the consuls,
ranked over every other magistrate ; in 22 the
right of convening the senate and initiating busi
ness ; in 19 the 12 fasces : finally to give a name
to that power which made him superior to the
consuls and their routine domestic duties, he
relied on the perpetual tribuniciapotestas, under
cover of which he had supreme control over all
departments. Though Augustus had nominally
recognised the senate as the council of advisers
to the executive magistrates, yet it did not
really check absolutism : for (1) the most im
portant provinces were altogether transferred
from its control to that of the emperor, and the
number of senatorial provinces was always de
creasing ; and (2) though the emperor sat in the
senate as a senator, his opinion was really
decisive. Augustus officially, he was called also
Caesar from his adoption : the title Imperator
which he shared with others so saluted did not
distinguish the emperor till later times ; but a
common designation for Augustus and his suc
cessors in the first century a. D. was princeps,
i.e. the foremost man of the state. Augustus
had no regular cabinet ministers, but his trusted
friends Agrippa, Maecenas, Corvinus and Pollio,
especially the first two, served him as a privy
council. The almost uninterrupted festivities,
games, distributions of corn, and the like, made

Bust of Octavius (Augustus).
(British Museum.)

152

AUGUSTULUS

the people forget the substance of their republi
can freedom, and obey contentedly their new
ruler. The wars of Augustus were not aggress
ive, but were chiefly undertaken to protect the
frontiers of the Roman dominions. Most of
them were carried on by his relations and friends,
but he conducted some of them in person.
Thus, in 27, he attacked the warlike Cantabri
and Astures in Spain, whose subjugation, how
ever, was not completed till 19 by Agrippa.
In 21 Augustus travelled through Sicily and
Greece, and spent the winter following at
Samos. Next year (20) he went to Syria, where
he received from Phraates, the Parthian mon
arch, the standards and prisoners which had
been taken from Crassus and Antony. In 16
the Romans suffered a defeat on the Lower
Rhine by some German tribes ; whereupon
Augustus went himself to Gaul, and spent
4 years there, to regulate the government of
that province, and to make the necessary
preparations for defending it against the
Germans. In 9 he again went to Gaul, where
he received German ambassadors, who sued for
peace ; and from this time forward, he does not
appear to have taken any active part in the
wars that were carried on. Those in Germany
were the most formidable, and a Roman army
under Quintilius Varus was defeated and anni
hilated by Arminius. [Varus.] Augustus died

" Coin of Augustus.
Obv., head of Augustus laureate, with legend CAESAR
AVGVSTVS DIVI F. PATER PATRIAE ; rev., Caius and
Lucms Caesar ; between them, shields, spears, &c. ;
legend, C. L. CAESARES AVGVSTI F. COS. DESIG.
PRINC. IVVENT.
at Nola, on the 29th of August, a.d. 14, at the
age of 76. Augustus was first married, though
only nominally, to Clodia, a daughter of Clodius
and Fulvia. His 2nd wife, Scribonia, bore him
his only daughter, Julia. His 3rd wife was
Livia Drusilla, the wife of Tiberius Nero.
Augustus had at first fixed on M. Marcellus as
his successor, the son of his sister Octavia, who
was married to his daughter Julia. After his
death Julia was married to Agrippa, and her
2 sons, Caius and Lucius Caesar, were now
destined by Augustus as his successors. On
the death of these 2 youths, Augustus was per
suaded to adopt Tiberius, the son of Livia, and
to make him his colleague and successor. [For a
full account of the imperial power, as constituted
by Augustus, see Diet. Ant. s.v. Princeps.]
Augustulus, Romulus, last Roman emperor
of the West, was placed upon the throne by his
father Orestes (a.d. 475), after the latter had
deposed the emperor Julius Nepos. In 476
Orestes was defeated by Odoacer and put to
death; Romulus Augustulus was allowed to
live, but was deprived of the sovereignty.
Aulerci, a powerful Gallic people dwelling
between the Sequana (Seine) and the Liger
(Loire), were divided into three great tribes.
1. A. Eburovices, near the coast on the left
bank of the Seine in the modern Normandy :
the capital was Mediolanum, afterwards called
Eburovices (Evreux). — 2. A. Cenomani, SW.
of the preceding, near the Liger : their capital
was Subdinnum (le Mans). At an early period

AURELIANUS
some of the Cenomani crossed the Alps and
settled in Upper Italy. — 3. A. Brannovices, E.
of the Cenomani near the Aedui, whose clients
they were. The Diablintes mentioned by
CaeBar are said by Ptolemy to have been like
wise a branch of the Aulerci (Caes. B. G. ii. 34,
iii. 9, vii. 75).
Aulis (AiXis), a harbour in Boeotia on the
Euripus, where the Greek fleet is said to have
assembled before sailing against Troy : it had a
temple of Artemis (Strab. p. 403 ; Paus. ix. 19, 6).
Aulon (AvXdv : AvXav'nris.) 1. A district
and town on the borders of Elis and Messenia,
with a temple of Asclepius, who hence had the
surname Aulonius (Strab. p. 350; Paus. iv.
36). — 2. A town in Chalcidice in Macedonia, on
the Strymonic gulf (Thuc. iv. 103). — 3. (Melone),
a hill and valley near Tarentum celebrated for
its wine (amicus Aulon fertili Baccho, Hor.
Od. ii. 6, 18 ; Mart. xiii. 125).
Auranitis (Avpavlris : Hauran), a district S.
of Damascus and E. of Ituraea and Batanaea,
on the E. side of the Jordan, belonging either
to Palestine or to Arabia.
Aurea Chersonesus (}) Xpvo-r) Xepo-6vrio-os),
the name given by the late geographers to the
Malay Peninsula. They also mention an
Aurea Regio beyond the Ganges, which is sup
posed to be the country round Ava.
Aurelia, thewifeof C.Julius Caesar, by whom
she became the mother of C. Julius Caesar, the
dictator, and of 2 daughters. She died in B.C.
54, while Caesar was in Gaul.
Aurelia Gens, plebeian, of which the most
important members are given under their
family names, Cotta, Orestes, and Scaurus.
Aurelia Orestilla, a beautiful but profligate
woman, whom Catiline married. As Aurelia at
first objected to marry him, because he had a
grown-up son by a former marriage, Catiline is
said to have killed his own offspring in order to
remove this impediment to their union.
Aurelia Via, the great coast road from
Rome to Transalpine Gaul, at first extended to
no further than Pisae, but was afterwards con
tinued along the coast to Genua and Forum
Julii in Gaul.
Aureliani. [Genabum.]
Aurelianus, Roman emperor, a.d. 270-275,
was born about a.d. 212, at Sirmium in Pan
nonia. He entered the army as a common
soldier, but was adopted by a senator, Ulpius
Crrnitus, and by his extraordinary bravery was
raised to offices of trust and honour by Valerian
and Claudius II. On the death of the latter,
he was elected emperor by the legions on the
Danube. His reign presents a succession of
brilliant exploits, which restored for a while
their ancient lustre to the arms of Rome. He
first defeated the Goths and Vandals, who had
crossed the Danube, and were ravaging Pan
nonia. He next gained a great victory over the
Alemanni and other German tribes ; but they
succeeded notwithstanding in crossing the Alps.
Near Placentia they defeated the Romans, but
were eventually overcome by Aurelian in two
decisive engagements in Umbria. After crush
ing a formidable conspiracy at Rome, Aurelian
next turned his arms against Zenobia, queen of
Palmyra, whom he defeated, took prisoner, and
carried with him to Rome. [Zenobia.] On his
return to Italy he marched to Alexandria and
put Firmus to death, who had assumed the
title of emperor. He then proceeded to the
West, where Gaul, Britain, and Spain were
still in the hands of Tetricus, who had been
declared emperor a short time before the death

AUEELIANUS
of Gallienus. Tetricus surrendered to Aurelian
in a battle fought near Chalons. [Tetricus.]
The emperor now devoted his attention to
domestic improvements and reforms. Many
works of public utility were commenced : the

AUREOLUS

153

Aurelianus, Roman Emperor, a.d. 270-275.
Obv., bust of Aurelian, laureate and draped ; rev., Mars,
¦with spear and trophy ; P. M. TR. P. VII. COS. II. P. P. ;
Aureus, A.D. 275.
most important of all was the erection of a new
line of strongly fortified walls, embracing a
much more ample circuit than the old ones,
which had long since fallen into ruin ; but this
vast plan was not completed until the reign of
Probus. After a short residence in the city,
Aurelian visited the provinces on the Danube.
He now entirely abandoned Dacia, which had
been first conquered by Trajan, and made the
S. bank of the Danube, as in the time of Augus
tus, the boundary of the empire. A large force
was now collected in Thrace in preparation for
an expedition against the Persians ; but while
the emperor was on the march between Hera
clea and Byzantium, he was killed by some of
his officers. (Life in Script. August. ; Zosim, i.
47 ; Eutrop. ix. 12.)
Aurelianus, Caelius, or Coelius, a celebrated
Latin physician, a native of Numidia, probably
lived in the 4th century. Of his writings we
possess three books On Acute Diseases, l Cele-
rum Passionum ' (or i De Morbis Acutis,') and
five books On Chronic Diseases, l Tardarum
Passionum ' (or ' De Morbis Chronicis '). Edited
by Amman, Amstel. 1709.
M. Aurelius Antoninus, Roman emperor, a.d.
161-180, commonly called 'the philosopher,'
was born at Rome on April 20, a.d. 121. He
was adopted by Antoninus Pius immediately
after the latter had been himself adopted by
Hadrian, and was educated by Fronto. He
received the title of Caesar, and married
Faustina, the daughter of Pius (138). On the
death of the latter, in 161, he succeeded to the
throne, but he admitted to an equal share of
the sovereign power L. Ceionius Commodus,
who had been adopted by Pius at the same
time as Marcus himself. The two emperors

SI. Aurelius Antoninus, Roman Emperor, A.D. 161-180.
Obv., head of Emperor Aurelius, laureate; rev., pile of
German arms, ensigns, &c. ; IMP. VIII. COS. III. DE
GERMANIS. Struck A.D. 176, but commemorating vic
tory over the German! in A.D. 173.
henceforward bore respectively the names of
M. Aurelius Antoninus and L. Aurelius Verus.
Soon after their accession Verus was des
patched to the East, and for 4 years (a.d. 162-
165) carried on war with great success against

Vologeses III., king of Parthia, over whom his
lieutenants, especially Avidius Cassius, gained
many victories. At the conclusion of the war
both emperors triumphed, and assumed the
titles of Armeniacus, Parthicus Maximus,
and Medicus. Meanwhile Italy was threatened
by the numerous tribes dwelling along the
northern limits of the empire, from the sources
of the Danube to the Hlyrian border. Both
emperors set out to encounter the foe ; and the
contest with the northern nations was con
tinued with varying success during the whole
life of M. Aurelius, whose head-quarters were
generally fixed in Pannonia. After the death of
Verus in 169, Aurelius prosecuted the war
against the Marcomanni with great success,
and in consequence of his victories over them
he assumed in 172 the title of Germanicus,
which he also conferred upon his son Commo
dus. In 174 he gained a decisive victory over
the Quadi, mainly through a violent storm,
which threw the barbarians into confusion.
This storm is said to have been owing to the
prayers of a legion chiefly composed of Chris
tians. It has given rise to a famous contro
versy among the historians of Christianity upon
what is commonly termed the Miracle of the
Thundering Legion. The Marcomanni and
the other northern barbarians concluded a
peace with Aurelius in 175, who forthwith set
out for the East, where Avidius Cassius, urged
on by Faustina, the unworthy wife of Aurelius,
had risen in rebellion and proclaimed himself
emperor. But before Aurelius reached the
East, Cassius had been slain by his own officers.
On his arrival in the East, Aurelius acted with
the greatest clemency ; none of the accomplices
of Cassius were put to death, and to establish
perfect confidence in all, he ordered the papers
of Cassius to be destroyed without suffering
them to be read. During this expedition, Faus
tina, who had accompanied her husband, died,
according to some, by her own hands. Aurelius
returned to Rome towards the end of 176 ; but
in 178 he set out again for Germany, where the
Marcomanni and their confederates had again
renewed the war. He gained several victories
over them, but died in the middle of the war
on March 17, 180, in Pannonia, either at Vin-
dobona (Vienna) or at Sirmium, in the 59th year
of his age and 20th of his reign. — A notable
feature in the character of M. Aurelius was his
devotion to philosophy and literature. "When
only twelve years old he adopted the dress and
practised the austerities of the Stoics, and he
continued throughout his life a warm adherent
and a bright ornament of the Stoic philosophy.
We still possess a work by M. Aurelius, written
in the Greek language, and entitled Th els
eavrbv, or Meditations, in 12 books. It is a
sort of common-place book, in which were
registered from time to time the thoughts and
feelings of the author upon moral and religious
topics, without an attempt at order or arrange
ment. No remains of antiquity present a
nobler view of philosophical heathenism. Edi
tions of the Meditations by Gataker, Cantab.
1652 ; by Stich, Leips. 1882 ; translated by Long.
—The chief and perhaps the only stain upon
the memory of Aurelius is his persecution of the
Christians : in 166 the martyrdom of Polycarp
occurred, and in 177, that of Irenaeus. Aure
lius was succeeded by his son Commodus. _ (Life
in Script. August. ; cf. also Dio Cass, lxxi.)
Aurelius Victor. [Victor.]
Aureolus, one of the Thirty Tyrants (a.d.
260-267), who assumed the title of Augustus

154

AURORA

during the feeble rule of Gallienus. Aureolus
was proclaimed emperor by the legions of
Illyria in 267, and made himself master of N.
Italy, but he was defeated and slain in battle in
268, by Claudius II., the successor of Gallienus.
(Treb. Poll. XXX. Tyr. 10.)

Aur5ra. [Bos.]
Aurunci. [Italia .]
Aurunculeius Cotta. [Cotta.]
Ausa. [Ausetani.]
Ausci or Auscii, a powerful people in Aquita-
nia, who possessed the Latin franchise : their
capital was called Climberrum or Elimberrum,
also Augusta and Ausci (now Auch). (Strab.
p. 191.)
Auser (Serchio), a river of Etruria, north of
the Arnus ; in old times it flowed into the
Arnus near Pisa (Strab. p. 222; Plin. iii. 50).
They now have separate mouths.
Ausetani, a Spanish people in the modern
Catalonia : their capital was Ausa (Vique).
Auson (Auffaw), son of Ulysses and Calypso
or Circe, from whom the country of the Au-
runcans was believed to have been called
Ausonia. Ausones, Ausonia. [Italia.]
Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, a Roman poet,
born at Burdigala (Bordeaux), about a.d. 310,
taught grammar and rhetoric with such reputa
tion at his native town, that he was appointed
tutor of Gratian,son of the emperor Valentinian
(at which time probably he became a Christian),
and was afterwards raised to the highest hon
ours of the state. He was appointed by Gratian
praefectus of Latium, of Libya, and of Gaul,
and in 379 was elevated to the consulship.
After the death of Gratian, in 383, he retired
from public life, and ended his days in a country
retreat near Bordeaux, perhaps about 390. A
prose work, Gratiarum Actio, in ornate rhetori
cal style, addressed to Gratian, is extant. His
poems or metrical works are — 1. Epigramma-
tum Liber, a collection of 150 epigrams. 2.
Ephemeris, containing an account of the busi
ness and proceedings of a day. 3. Parentaha,
a series of short poems in memory of deceased
friends and relations. 4. Professores, notices
of the Professors of Bordeaux. 5. Epitaphia
Heroum, epitaphs on the heroes who fell in
the Trojan war and a few others. 6. A metrical
catalogue of the first twelve Caesars. 7. Tetra-
sticha, on the Caesars,f rom Julius to Elagabalus.
8. Ordo nobilium Urbium, the praises of 17 il
lustrious cities. 9. Ludus Septem Sapientum,
the doctrines of the 7 sages expounded by each
in his own person. 10. Idyllia, a collection of
20 poems. 11. Eclogarium, short poems con
nected with the Calendar, &c. 12. Epistolae,
25 letters, some in verse and some in prose.
13. Gratiarum Actio pro Consulatu, in prose,
addressed to Gratian. 14. Periochae, short
arguments to each book of the Iliad and Odys
sey. 15. Tres Praefatiunculae. Of these
works the Idyls have attracted most notice,
and of them the most pleasing is the Mosella,
or a description of the river Moselle, in a jour
ney from Bingen on the Rhine up the Moselle
to Treves. Ausonius possesses skill in versifi
cation, but is destitute of all the higher attri
butes of a poet. His poems are, however, both
interesting and valuable for their notice of per
sons 'and their pictures of certain features of
life at that time. He retains his pagan phrase
ology, and to some extent at least his pagan
ideas, speaking of the emperor as Deus, and
apparently doubting immortality (Prof. Burd.
L 39, xxiii. IS). — The best editions of his com-

AUXUME
plete works are by Tollius, Amstel. 1671 ; Weber,
Corp. Poetarum.
Autariatae (Avrapiarai), an Hlyrian people
in the Dalmatian mountains, extinct in Strabo's
time. Autesiodorum, -urum (Auxerre), a town of
I the Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis.
Autesion (Avreaiav), son of Tisamenus,
father of Theras and Argia, left Thebes at the
command of an oracle, and joined the Dorians
in Peloponnesus (Hdt. iv. 147 ; Paus. iii. 15 ;
Strab. p. 347).
Autochthones (avrSxBoves). [Abobigines.]
Autololes, or -ae, a Gaetulian tribe on the
W. coast of Africa, S. of the Atlas mountains.
Autolycus (AvtSxvkos). 1. Son of Hermes
and Chione, father of Anticlea, and thus mater
nal grandfather of Ulysses. He lived on Mount
Parnassus, and was renowned for his cunning
and robberies. He was able to defy detection
by changing the colour and shape of the stolen
property (Hes. Fr. 96; Ov. Met. xii. 314; H, x.
260; Od. xix. 392). Ulysses, when staying
with him on one occasion, was wounded by a
boar on Parnassus, and it was by the scar of
this wound that he was recognised by his aged
nurse, when he returned from Troy. — 2. A
Thessalian, son of Deimachus, one of the
Argonauts, and the founder of Sinope. — 3. A
mathematician of Pitane in Aeolis, lived about
B.C. 340, and wrote 2 astronomical treatises,
which are the most ancient existing specimens
of the Greek mathematics. 1. On the Motion
of the Sphere (irepl Kivovpevr/s <r<paipas). 2.
On the Bisings and Settings of the fixed Stars
(irepl imroXav Kal Svffeav). Edited by Dasy-
podius in his Sphaericae Doctrinae Proposi-
tiones, Argent. 1572.
Automata (to AvrSpaXa), a fortified place
on the Great Syrtis in N. Africa (Strab. p. 123).
Automedon (AvropeSav). 1. Son of Diores,
the charioteer and companion of Achilles, and,
after the death of the latter, the companion of
his son Pyrrhus (H. xvi. 148). Hence Autome
don is the name of any skilful charioteer. (Cic.
pro Bosc. Am. 35 ; Juv. i. 61.) — 2. Of Cyzicus,
a Greek poet, 12 of whose epigrams are in the
Greek Anthology, lived in the reign of Nerva.
Autonoe (Avrov6ri), daughter of Cadmus and
Harmonia, wife of Aristaeus, and mother of
Actaeon. With her sister Agave, she tore
Pentheus to pieces in Bacchic fury : her tomb
was shown in Megara (Paus. a. 17).
Autricum. [Cabnutes.]
Autrigones, a people in Hispania Tarraco-
nensis between the ocean (Bay of Biscay) and
the upper course of the Iberus : the chief town
was Flaviobbiga.
Autro.-'.ius Paetus. [Paetus.]
Auxes.-l (Au|7jer£a), the goddess who grants
growth and prosperity to the fields, honoured
at Troezen and Epidaurus, was another name
for Persephone. Damia, who was honoured
along with Auxesia at Epidaurus and Troezen,
was only another name for Demeter. They
seem to have been local deities of Crete, who
became identified with Demeter and Perse
phone, and were then said to have been Cretan
maidens who migrated to Troezen. The festi
val of Lithobolia in their honour, explained by
a tradition that they were stoned themselves, is
perhaps a reminiscence of human sacrifice.
(Paus. ii. 30, 81.)
Auximum (Auximas, -atis : Osmio), an im
portant town of Picenum, and a Roman colony.
Auxume or Ax- (Av£oipri, or 'A^dpri, and
other forms : Av^ovpirat or 'AJ&uutoi, &c. :

AUZEA
Axum, Ru., SW. of Adowa), the capital of a
powerful kingdom in Ethiopia, to the SE. of
Meroe, in Habesh or Abyssinia, which either
first arose or first became known to the Greeks
and Romans in the early part of the 2nd cen
tury of our aera. It grew upon the decline of
the kingdom of Meroe, and extended beyond
the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb into Arabia.
Being a mountainous region, watered by the
numerous upper streams of the Astaboras and
Astapus, and intersected by the caravan routes
from the interior of Africa to the Red Sea and
the Gulf of Bab-el-Mandeb, the country pos
sessed great internal resources and a flourishing
commerce. Auzea, or -ia, or Audia (Sur-Guzlan or
Hamza, Ru.), a city in the interior of Maure
tania Caesariensis ; a Roman colony under M.
Aurelius Antoninus.
Avalites (AiaXtrris : Zeilah), an emporium
in S. Aethiopia, on a bay of the Erythraean Sea,
called Avalites Sinus ('A. k6Xitos) probably the
Gulf of Bab-el Mandeb, or its innermost part,
S. of the Straits. A people, Avalltae, are also
mentioned in these parts.
Avaricum. [Bitubiges.]
Avaris. [Ababis.]
Avenio (Avignon), a town of the Cavares in
Gallia Narbonensis on the left bank of the
Rhone (Strab. p. 185).
Aventicum (Avenches), the chief town of the
Helvetii, and subsequently a Roman colony
with the name Pia Flavia Constans Emerita,
of which ruins are still to be seen in the modern
town (Tac. Hist. i. 68 ; ATnTnia.n. xv. 11 ; see
also C. I. Helvet. 179, &c).
Aventinensis, Genucius. 1. L., consul b.c.
365, and again 362, was killed in battle against
the Hernicans in the latter of these years, and
his army routed. — 2. Cn., consul 363.
Aventinus. 1. Son of Hercules and the
priestess Rhea (Verg. Aen. vii. 695.). — 2. King
of Alba, son of Romulus Silvius, or of Allodius,
buried on the Aventine, which was called after
him (Liv. i. 3; Dionys. i. 71).
Aventinus Mons. [Roma.]
Avernus Lacns (t) "Aopvos Xipvri : Lago
Averno), a lake close to the promontory which
runs out into the sea between Cumae and
Puteoli. This lake fills the crater of an extinct
volcano ; it is circular, about 1£ mile in circum
ference, is very deep, and was enclosed by steep
lava rocks and a gloomy cypress forest. From
its waters mephitic vapours arose, which are
said to have killed the birds that attempted to
fly over it, from which circumstance its Greek
name was supposed to be derived (from a priv.
and bpvis) (Lucret. vi. 738; Plin. iii. 61; Dio
Cass, lxviii. 27). The lake was celebrated in
mythology as being the entrance to the under
world, and hence was sacred to Proserpine
(Diod. iv. 22 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 126). Strabo cites
Ephorus as saying that the Cimmerians, the
people of dark dwellings, were connected once
with this spot. The idea may have sprung
from the name Chimerium belonging to a pro
montory in Thesprotia, near Acherusia and the
other Aornus. There is much interchange of
names in the stories belonging to these places.
Near Avemus was the cave of the Cumaean
Sibyl, through which Aeneas descended. Later
writers placed the scene of the descent of
Odysseus here also (Strab. p. 243) ; and there
was an oracle by which the spirits of the dead
were consulted (veKvopavretov), as at the simi
larly named Thesprotian lake [Aobnus]. Some
such rites may have belonged to Hannibal's

AXIUS

155

sacrifice here (Liv. xxiv. 12). The god Avernus,
whose statue sweated during the works of
Agrippa and was propitiated by sacrifices
(Serv. ad Georg. ii. 161), was a local Hades or
Dis Pater. Some of the pagan rites lingered
here in the tunc of Theodosius (C. I. L. x. 1,
3792), and a good deal of the superstition to the
present day. Agrippa, in the time of Augustus,
cut down the forest which surrounded the lake,
and connected the latter with the Lucrine
lake ; he also caused a tunnel to be made from
the lake to Cumae, of which a considerable
part remains and is known under the name of
Grotta di Sibylla. The Lucrine lake was filled
up by an eruption in 1530, so that Avernus is
again a separate lake.
Avianus, Flavlus, the author of 42 Aesopic
fables in Latin elegiac verse, which were much
used as a school book. The date of Avianus is
uncertain ; he probably lived in the 4th century
of the Christian aera. — Editions. By Canne-
gieter, Amstel. 1731 ; by Nodell, Amstel. 1787 ;
and bv Lachmann, Berol. 1845.
Avienus, Rufus Festus, a Latin poet to
wards the end of the 4th century of the Chris
tian aera. His poems are chiefly descriptive,
and are some of the best specimens of the poetry
of that age. His works are : — 1. Descriptio
Orbis Terrae, also called Metaphrasis Perie-
geseos Dionysii, in 1394 hexameter lines, de
rived directly from the rrepiiiyTiffis of Dionysius,
and containing a succinct account of the most
remarkable objects in the physical and political
geography of the known world. — 2. Ora Mari
tima, a fragment in 703 Iambic trimeters,
describing the shores of the Mediterranean from
Marseilles to Cadiz. — 3. Aratea Phaenomena,
and Aratea Prognostica, both in hexameter
verse, the first containing 1325, the second 552
lines, being a paraphrase of the two works of
Aratus. The poems are edited by Wernsdorf,
in his Poetae Latini Minores, vol. v. pt. 2,
which, however, does not include the Aratea.
Aviones, a people in the N. of Germany on
the W. coast of Cimbrica Chersonesus (Den
mark). Avitus, Alphius, a Latin poet under Augus
tus and Tiberius, the fragments of some of
whose poems are preserved in the Anthologia
Latina. Avitus, Cluentius. [Cluentius.]
Avitus, M. Maecilius, emperor of the West,
was raised to the throne by the assistance of
Theodoric II. king of the Visigoths in a.d. 455 ;
but, after a year's reign, was deposed by
Ricimer. Avona or Aufona, the Gloucestershire Avon
(Tac. Ann. xii. 31).
Axenus. [Euxinus Pontus.]
Axia (Castel d'Asso), a fortress in the terri
tory of Tarquinii in Etruria (Cic. pro Caec. 7).
Axion ('A£iav), son of Phegeus, brother of
Temenus, along with whom he killed Alcmaeon.
Axiothea ('A^ioBea), a maiden of Phlius, who
came to Athens, and putting on male attire, was
for some time a hearer of Plato, and afterwards
of Speusippus (Diog. Laert. iii. 46).
Axius, Q., an intimate friend of Cicero and
Varro, one of the speakers in the 3rd book of
Varro's De Be Bustica.
Axius ("Alios: Wardar or Vardhari), the
chief river in Macedonia, rises in Mt. Scardus,
receives many affluents, of which the most im
portant is the Erigon, and flows SE. through
Macedonia into the Thermaic gulf. As a river-
god, Axius begot by Periboea a son Pelegon,
the father of Astebopaeus.

156 AXONA
Axona (Aisne), a river in Gallia Belgica,
which falls into the Isara (Oise). (Caes. B.G.
ii. 5 ; Auson. Id. x. 461.)
Axume. [Auxume.]
Axus. [Oaxus.]
Azan ('A(dv), son of Arcas and the nymph
Erato, brother of Aphidas and Elatus. The
part of Arcadia which he received from his
father was called Azania : it was on the borders
of Elis. (Paus. viii. 4, 2, x. 9, 3.)
Azani ('A&vol : Tehardir Hisar), a town ot
Phrygia, on the river Rhyndacus, and 20 miles

Buins at Azani.
SW. of Cotyaium. The priestly dynast of the
temple (of Zeus) ruled the city, as in the case
of Pessinus, Comana, &c. Euphorbus is men
tioned as having instituted the rites — a sacrifice
of the hedgehog and the fox. There are fine
ruins of the temple, and remains of the theatre
and stadium. (Strab. p. 575 ; Stephan. s.v.)
Azania or Barbaria ('A^avia, BapBapia:
Ajan), the region on the E. coast of Africa, S.
of Aromata Pr. (G. Guardafui), as far as Rhap-
tum Pr. (Ptol. iv. 7, 28).
Azenia ('ACyvLa : 'Afyvievs), a demus in the
SW. of Attica, near Sunium, belonging to the
tribe Hippothoontis.
Azeus ('A(evs), son of Clymenus of Oreho-
menos, brother of Erginus, Stratius, Arrhon,
and Pyleus, father of Actor and grandfather of
Astyoche (II. ii. 512 ; Paus. ix. 37).
Aziris fAfipi's). 1. A town of Armenia, west
of the Euphrates (Ptol. v. 7, 2). — 2. A district in
the E. of Cyrenaica, where silphium was grown
(Hdt. iv. 157).
Azorus or Azorium ("Afapos, 'A^dpiov : 'A£iu-
p'iT7)s, 'A(apidrris, 'A(apeis), a town in the N.
of Thessaly, on the W. slope of Olympus, formed,
with Doliche and Pythium, the Perrhaebian
Tripolis (Liv. xiii. 53, xliv. 2).
Azotus ("A(aros : 'A^drios : Ashdod or Ash-
doud), a city of Palestine, near the sea-coast, 9
miles NE. of Ascalon. It was one of the free
cities of the Philistines, which were included
within the portion of the tribe of Judah. (Jos.
Ant. xiv. 5 ; B.J. i. 7.)

Babba, in full Babba Julia Campestris, a
Roman colony in Mauretania Tingitana founded
by Augustus (Plin. v. 5).
Babrius (BdBpios), whose full name seems to
have been Valerius Babrius, by birth an Italian,
lived at the court of Alexander Severus and
versified in Greek choliambics a collection of
fables. They are probably adapted and para
phrased by him from an older prose collection
of fables such as were ascribed to ' Aesop,' but

BABYLON
were partly old apologues such as Aristophanes
mentions [see Aesopus], of which we find ex-
amples even in Hesiod (Op. 203), partly exer
cises set by rhetors to their pupils. It is sug
gested that the foundation used by Babrius was
a prose collection in ten books by Nicostratus,
a contemporary of Hermogenes (Hermog. irepl
IS. ii. 12, 3) : many of his fables are merely old
proverbs expanded. He wrote in Attic Greek
with occasional Latinisms and other indications
that Greek was to him an adopted language.
The writings of Babrius were discovered on
Mount Athos by a Greek named Minoides
Menas in a codex containing 122 fables, of which
the editio princeps was issued by Boissonade in
1844. A second MS. containing 21 more fables
was found in the Vatican, and was first cor
rectly published by Knoell in 1878. The best
complete edition of Babrius is by Rutherford,
1883. Menas produced another set of 95 fables
which were edited by Cornewall Lewis in 1859 ;
but there is no doubt that they were forgeries.
Babylon (BaBuXdv : BaBvXdvios, fem. Baj3u-
Xavis : Babel in O.T. : Ru. at and around Hillah),
one of the oldest and greatest cities of the
ancient world, the capital of a great empire, was
built on both banks of the river Euphrates, in
about 32° 28' N. lat. It was of unknown anti
quity, thoughits foundation (which is mythically
ascribed to the god Belus =Marduk or Mero-
dach) was probably after Egypt had a settled
empire. According to an inscription of Nabo-
aldus (B.C. 554) now in the British Museum, the
temple of the sun-god Samas was founded by
Nasar-Sin, the son of Sargon, 3200 years earlier.
This gives a date of about 3800 B.C. for Sargon
the earliest king named. In several periods of
her history Babylon fell under the dominion of
the Assyrian monarchs [see Assybia] ; but Nabo-
polassar, viceroy of Babylon, made an alliance
with Pharaoh Necho and the Median king
Cyaxares (Kastarit) and revolted from Assyria. •
The allies took Nineveh b.c. 609 [see Sardana
palus]. Nabopolassar was succeeded by his
son Nebuchadnezzar, under whom (b.c. 604-
562), the Babylonian empire reached its height,
and extended from the Euphrates to Egypt, and
from the mountains of Armenia to the deserts
of Arabia. After his death it again declined,
until the reign of Nabu-Nahid ( = Nabonidus),
who reigned from B.C. 556 with his son Belshaz-
zar as commander of the army. In the 17th
year of his reign (b.c. 539) Babylon was cap
tured by Cyrus (the turning of the river is not
mentioned in inscriptions), and Gobryas was
made governor of Babylon. Nabonidus died in
captivity the same year. [See Cybus.] Babylon
became one of the capitals of the Persian
empire, the others being Susa and Ecbatana.
Under his successors the city rapidly sank.
Darius I. dismantled its fortifications, in conse
quence of a revolt of its inhabitants ; Xerxes
carried off the golden statue of Belus, and the
temple in which it stood became a ruin. After
the death of Alexander, Babylon became a part
of the Syrian kingdom of Seleucus Nicator, who
contributed to its decline by the foundation of
Seleucia on the Tigris, which soon eclipsed it.
At the commencement of our era, the greater
part of the city was in ruins ; and at the present
day all its visible remains consist of mounds of
earth, ruined masses of brick walls, and a few
scattered fragments. Its very site has been
turned into a dreary marsh by repeated inun
dations from the river. — The city of Babylon
had reached the summit of its magnificence in
the reign of Nebuchadnezzar. The accounts of

BABYLON
its dimensions vary somewhat. Herodotus
makes the circuit of the walls 480 furlongs : in
Ctesias, Clitarchus, Curtius and Strabo the
estimate is about 100 furlongs less. The breadth
of the walls waB said to be 50 feet ; the height,
according to Herodotus and Ctesias was 200
cubits, according to Strabo 75 cubits. Probably
the last estimate is right, and the higher number
arose from stating 200 cubits instead of 200
hands. (Hdt. i. 178 ; Strab. p. 738.) The Eu
phrates, which divided the city into 2 equal
parts, was embanked with walls of brick, the
openings of which at the ends of the transverse
streets were closed by gates of bronze. A bridge,
built on piers of hewn stone, united the 2 quar
ters of the city ; and at each end of it stood a
royal palace. Of two other public buildings of the
greatest celebrity, the one was the temple of
Belus, rising to a great height, and consisting
of 8 stories, gradually diminishing in width, and
ascended by a flight of steps, which wound
round the whole building on the outside ; in
the uppermost story was the golden statue of
Belus, with a golden altar and other treasures.
The ' hanging gardens ' of Nebuchadnezzar were
laid out upon terraces which were raised abo re
one another on arches. The houses of the city
were 3 or 4 stories in height, and the streets
were straight, intersecting one another at right
angles. The buildings were almost universally
constructed of bricks, some burnt and some
only sun-dried, cemented together with hot
bitumen and in some cases with mortar. — The
Babylonians were a people of Turanian or Ural-
Altaic origin. The original name of their
country (afterwards called Babylonia from its
capital) was Kaldu, and its people were called
Kaldai or Chaldaeans. — Their religion was
Sabaeism, or the worship of the heavenly bodies,
not purely so, but symbolised in the forms of
idols, besides whom they had other divinities,
representing the powers of nature. The three
chief deities were Anu, Ea, and Bel or Belus
( = Zeus), whose feminine counterpart Belit or
Beltis is the Mylitta of Herodotus (i. 199) : the
son of Ea, named Marduk or Merodach, was the
mediator for men and the god of healing : Istar
[see Aphbodite] was the daughter of the moon-
god, and was the spirit of the planet Venus.
Her husband was Tammuz. [See Adonis.] The
priests formed a caste, and cultivated science,
especially astronomy ; in which they knew the
apparent motions of the sun, moon, and 5 of the
planets, the calculation of eclipses of the moon.
the division of the zodiac into 12 constellations.
and of the year into 12 months, and the mea
surement of time by the sun-dial. They must
also have had other instruments for measuring
time, such as the water-clock, for instance ; and
it is highly probable that the definite methods
of determining such quantities, which the Chal-
daean astronomers invented, were the origin of
the systems of weights and measures used by
the Greeks and Romans. Their buildings
prove their knowledge of mechanics ; and their
remains, slight as they are, show considerable
progress in the fine arts. — The position of the
city on the lower course of the Euphrates, by
which it was connected with the Persian Gulf,
and at the meeting of natural routes between
E. Asia and India on the one side, and Europe,
Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, on the
other, made it the seat of a flourishing com
merce and of immense wealth and luxury. —
The district around the city, bounded by the
Tigris on the E., Mesopotamia on the N., the
Arabian Desert" on the W., and extending to the

BACTRIA

157

head of the Persian Gulf on the S., was known
in later times by the name of Babylonia. [See
above, and comp. Chaldaea.] This district was
a plain, subject to continual inundations from
the Tigris and Euphrates, which were regulated
by canals, the chief of which was the Naar-
malcha, i.e Boyal Biver or Canal (irorapbs
BaffiXeios, Siapv£ BaartXiKf), flumen regium),
which extended from the Tigris at Seleucia due
W. to the Euphrates, and was navigable.
Babylon (BaBvXd-v : nr. Fostat or Old Cairo),
a fortress in Lower Egypt, on the right bank of
the Nile, exactly opposite to the pyramids, and
at the beginning of the canal which connected
the Nile with the Red Sea. Its origin was
ascribed by tradition to a body of Babylonian
deserters. It first became an important place
under the Romans. Augustus made it the sta
tion of one of the 3 Egyptian legions. (Strab.
pp. 807, 812.)
Babylonia. [Babylon.]
Bacchae. [Maenades ; Dionysus.]
Bacchiadae (BaKxidSai), a Heraclid clan,
derived their name from Bacchis, king of
Corinth; for their history see Coeinthus.
Bacchius (BaKxelos). 1. The author of a
short musical treatise called eio-ayayrj rexvrjs
povo-iKTJs, printed by Meibomius, in the An-
tiquae Musicae Auctores Septem, Amst. 1652.
— -2. Of Miletus, the author of a work on agri
culture, referred to by Pliny and Varro.
Bacchus. [Dionysus.]
Bacchylides (BaKxvXiSris). one of the lyric
poets of Greece, born at Iulis in Ceos, and
nephew as well as fellow-townsman of Simo
nides. He flourished about B.C. 470, and lived
a long time at the court of Hiero in Syracuse,
together with Simonides and Pindar (Strab.
p. 426; Aelian, V. H. iv. 15). He wrote in the
Doric dialect Hymns, Paeans, Dithyrambs, &c. ;
but all his poems have perished, with the excep
tion of a few fragments, and two epigrams in
the Greek Anthology. The fragments have
been published by Neue, Bacchylidis Cei
Fragmenta, Berol. 1823, and by Bergk,
Poetae Lyrici Graeci.
Bacenis Silva, a forest which separated the
Suevi from the Chatti, at the sources of the
river Visurgis (Weser), probably = the Thurin-
gian Forest (Caes. B. G. vi. 10).
Bacis (Bixis), the name of several prophets,
of whom the most celebrated was the Boeotian
seer, who delivered his oracles in hexameter
verse at Heleon in Boeotia. In later times
there existed a collection of his oracles, similar
to the Sibylline books at Rome. (Hdt. viii. 20,
77, ix. 43 ; Plat. Theag. 124 d ; Paus. iv. 27, 2,
ix. 17, x. 12 ; Cic. Div. i. 18, 34.)
Bactra or Zariaspa (to BaKrpa, Ta Zapiaaira
and 7} Zapido-irTj '. Balkh), the capital of Bac-
teia, appears to have been founded by the early
Persian kings, but not to have been a consider
able city till the time of Alexander, who settled
in it his Greek mercenaries and his disabled
Macedonian soldiers. It stood at the N. foot of
the M. Paropamisus (the Hindoo Koosh) on
the river Bactrus (Adirsiah or Dehas) about
25 miles S. of its junction with the Oxus.
It was the centre of a considerable traffic. The
existing ruins, 20 miles in circuit, are all of
the Mohammedan period. (Strab. p. 513 ; Curt.
vii. 4-10;)
Bactria or -iana (BaHrpiavi) : BaKrpoi, -mi,
-icwol: Bokhara), a province of the Persian
empire, bounded on the S. by M. Paropamisus
which separated it from Ariana, on the E. by
the N. branch of the same range, which divided

158

BADUHENNAE

it from the Sacae, o» the NE. by the Oxus,
•which separated it from Sogdiana, and on the
W. by Margiana. It was inhabited by a rude
and warlike people, who were subdued by Cyrus
or his next successors. It was included in the
conquests of Alexander, and formed a part of
the kingdom of the Seleucidae, until B.C. 255,
when Theodotus, its governor, revolted from
Antiochus II., and founded the Greek kingdom
of Bactria, which lasted till B.C. 134 or 125,
when it was overthrown by the Parthians, with
whom, during its whole duration, its kings were
sometimes at war, and sometimes in alliance
against Syria. This Greek kingdom extended
beyond the limits of the province of Bactria,
and included at least a part of Sogdiana.
Bactria was watered by the Oxus and its tribu
taries, and contained much fertile land; and
much of the commerce between W. Asia and
India passed through it. (Strab. p. 516; Hdt.
iv. 204 ; Arrian, iii. 29.)
Baduhennae Lucus, a wood in W. Friesland.
(Tac. Ann. iv. 73).
Baebia Gens, plebeian, the most important
members of which are given under their sur
names, Dives, Sulca, Tamphilus.
Baecula, a town in Hispania Tarraconensis,
W. of Castulo, in the neighbourhood of silver
mines (Polyb. x. 38 ; Liv. xxvii. 18). It may
correspond to the modern Baylen.
Baeterrae (Besiers), also called Biterrensis
urbs, a town in Gallia Narbonensis on the
Obris, not far from Narbo, and a Roman
colony : its neighbourhood produced good wine
(Plin. iii. 36, xiv. 68).
Baetica. [Hispania.]
Baetis (Guadalquiver), a river in S. Spain,
formerly called Tartessus, and by the inhabit
ants Gertis, rises in Hispania Tarraconensis in
the territory of the Oretani, flows SW. through
Baetica, to which it gives its name, past the
cities of Corduba and Hispalis, and falls into
the Atlantic Ocean, by two mouths, N. of Gades
(Strab. p. 139).
Bagacnm (Bavai), the chief town of the
Nervii in Gallia Belgica: there are many
Roman remains in the modern town.
Bagaudae, a Gallic people, who revolted
under Diocletian, and were with difficulty sub
dued by Maximian, a.d. 286 (Eutrop. ix. 20).
Bagistanus Mons, and Bagistana (Behis-
tun), a range of hills and a town in Media, SW.
of Ecbatana (Diod. vi. 13, xvii. 110), celebrated
for its rock sculptures and inscriptions.
Bagoas (Baydas), a eunuch, highly trusted
and favoured by Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), whom
he poisoned, b.c. 338. He was put to death
by Darius III. Codomannus, whom he had
attempted likewise to poison, 336. The name
Bagoas frequently occurs in Persian history,
and is sometimes used by Latin writers as
synonymous with a eunuch.
Bagradas (BaypdSas: Mejerdah), a river of
N. Africa, falling into the Gulf of Carthage
near Utica (Caes. B. C. ii. 24; Liv. xxx. 10;
Lucan, iv. 588). It is the same as the Macaras
of Polyb. i. 75.
Baiae (Baianus), a town in Campania, on a
small bay W. of Naples, and opposite Puteoli,
was situated in a beautiful country, which
abounded in warm mineral springs. The baths
of Baiae were the most celebrated in Italy, and
the town itself was the favourite watering-place
of the Romans, who flocked thither in crowds
for health and pleasure. Seneca calls it ' diver-
sorium vitiorum.' The whole country was
studded with the palaces of the Roman nobles

BALBUS
and emperors, which covered the coast from
Baiae to Puteoli : many of these places were
built out into the sea. (Hor. Od. ii. 18, 20, Ep.
i. 15, 2 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 21, xiv. 9 ; Senec. Ep. 51 ;
Plin. xxxi. 4 ; Strab. p. 245.) Nero here matured
his plot for the murder of Agrippina : Hadrian
died here, and Alexander Severus built several
villas (Tac. Ann. xiv. 4 ; Vit. Hadr. 25 ; Alex.
Sev. 26). The site of ancient Baiae is now for
the most part covered by the sea.
Baiucasses, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis,
whose capital was Augustodurum (Bayeux).
Balbinus, D. Caelius, was elected emperor
by the senate along with M. Clodius Pupienus
Maximus, after the murder of the two Gordiaus

Balbinus, Roman Emperor, A.D. 2S8.
Obv.. bust of Balbinus ; rev., Emperor holding olive-branch
as a sceptre, P.M. TB. P. COS.H. P.P.
in Africa, at the beginning of a.d. 238 ; but the
new emperors were slain by the soldiers at
Rome in June in the same year (Eutrop. ix. 2).
Balbus, M\ Acilius, the name of two consuls,
one in B.C. 150, and the other in 114.
Balbus, T. Ampius, tribune of the plebs b.c.
63, was a supporter of Pompey, whom he joined
in the civil war b.c. 49. He was pardoned by
Caesar through the intercession of Cicero (ad
Fam. vi. 12 ; Suet. Jul. 77).
Balbus, M. Atius, married Julia, the sister
of Julius Caesar, who bore him a daughter,
Atia, the mother of Augustus Caesar. [Atia.]
Balbus, L. Cornelius. 1. Of Gades, served
under Q. Metellus and Pompey against Serto-
rius in Spain, and received from Pompey the
Roman citizenship. He accompanied Pompey
on his return to Rome, B.C. 71, and was for a
long time one of his most intimate friends. At
the same time he gained the friendship of
Caesar, who placed great confidence in him.
As the friend of Caesar and Pompey, he had
numerous enemies, who accused him in 56 of
having illegally assumed the Roman citizen
ship ; he was defended by Cicero, whose speech
has come down to us, and was acquitted. In
the civil war (49) Balbus did not take any open
part against Pompey ; but he attached himself
to Caesar, and, in conjunction with Oppius, had
the entire management of Caesar's affairs at
Rome. After the death of Caesar (44) he was
equally successful in gaining the favour of
Octavian, who raised him to the consulship in
40. Balbus wrote a diary (Ephemeris), which
has not come down to us, of the most remark
able occurrences in Caesar's life (Suet. Jul. 81).
He took care that Caesar's Commentaries on
the Gallic war should be continued ; and we
accordingly find the 8th book dedicated to him.
His letters to Cicero are in Cic. ad Att. viii. 15,
ix. 7, IS. — 2. Nephew of the preceding, received
the Roman franchise along with his uncle. He
served under Caesar in the civil war; he was
quaestor of Asinius Pollio in Further Spain in
b.c. 43, and while there added to his native
town Gades a suburb ; many years afterwards
he was proconsul of Africa, and triumphed over
the Garamantes in 19. He built a magnificent
theatre at Rome, which was dedicated in 13.
(Veil. Pat. ii. 51 ; Cic. Att. viii. 9.)

BALBUS
Balbus, Lucilius. 1. L. a jurist and brother
of the following. — 2. Q., a Stoic philosopher,
and a pupil of Panaetius, is introduced by
Cicero as one of the speakers in his De Natura
Deorum, iii. 40 (cf. Div. i. 5).
Balbus, Octavius, a contemporary of Cicero,
bore a high character as a judex ; he was put
to death by the triumvirs, B.C. 43 (Cic. pro Clu.
88 ; Val. Max. v. 7, 3).
Balbus, Sp. Thorius, tribune of the plebs,
about b.c. Ill, proposed an agrarian law. See
Diet, of Ant., art. Lex Thoria.
Baleares (BaXeapiSes, BaXiaplSes), also called
Gymnesiae (rvpvrio-iai) by the Greeks, two
islands in the Mediterranean, off the coast of
Spain, distinguished by the epithets Major and
Minor, whence their modern names Majorca
and Minorca. They were early known to the
Carthaginians, who established settlements
there for the purposes of trade ; they afterwards
received colonies from Rhodes ; and their
population was at a later time of a very mixed
kind. Their inhabitants, also called Baleares,
were celebrated.as slingers, and were employed
as such in the armies of the Carthaginians and
Romans. In consequence of their piracies they
provoked the hostility of the Romans, and were
finally subdued, B.C. 123, by Q. Metellus, who
assumed accordingly the surname Balearicus.
(Strab. pp. 167, 651 ; Polyb. i. 67, iii. 113 ; Diod.
v. 16 ; Flor. iii. 8 ; Oros. i. 2, v. 13.)
Balista, prefect of the praetorians under
Valerian, whom he accompanied to the East.
After the defeat and capture of that emperor
(a.d. 260), he rallied a body of Roman troops,
and defeated the Persians in Cilicia. His sub
sequent career is obscure ; he is mentioned as
one of the Thirty Tyrants, and was probably
put to death, about 264, by Odenathus. (Trebell.
Poll. Trig. Tyr. 17.)
Bambalio, M. Fulvius, father of Fulvia, the
wife of M. Antonius, the triumvir, received the
nickname of Bambalio on account of a hesitancy
in his speech (Cic. Phil. ii. 36, iii. 6).
Bambyce. [Htebapolis.]
Banasa (Mamora ? Ru.), a city of Mauretania
Tingitana, on the river Subur (Sebou), near the
W. coast: a colony under Augustus (Plin. v. 5).
Bandusiae Fons, a fountain celebrated by
Horace (Od. iii. 13). According to the scholiast
Acron it was in the neighbourhood of Horace's
Sabine farm ; and the spring called Fontana
degli Oratini, which gushes out under a small
rock on the hill side between the two supposed
sites of his farm, answers the description.
In the 12th century a church was standing
about six miles from Venusia in Apulia de
scribed in old documents as ' Eccles. SS. Gervasi
et Protasi in Bandusino Fonte apud Venusiam,'
whence some conclude that the spring men
tioned by Horace was near his birthplace, not
at his farm : but the expressions in the ode
itself point inevitably to the conclusion that
Horace speaks of a spring near his dwelling.
Bantia (Bantinus ; Banzi or Vanzi), a town
near Venusia, in a woody district (saltus
Bantini, Hor. Od. iii. 4, 15), on the borders of
Lucania and Apulia (Liv. xxvii. 25 ; Plin. iii. 16).
Barbana (Bojana), a river in Illyria, flows
through the Palus Labeatis (Liv. xliv. 31).
Barbaria. [Azania.]
Barbatio, commander of the household troops
under Gallus, whom he arrested by command
of Constantius, a.d. 354. In 835 he was sent
into Gaul to assist Julian against the Alemanni.
He was put to death by Constantius in 359.
(Amm. Marc. xiv. 11, xviii. 3.)

BARIUM

159

Barbatus, M. Horatius, consul b.c. 449 with
Valerius Publicola after the overthrow of the
decemvirs. [Publicola.]
Barbosthenes, a mountain E. of Sparta.
Barbiila, Aemilius. 1. Q., consul b.c. 817,
when he subdued Apulia, and consul again in
311, when he fought against the Etruscans. —
2. L., consul in 281, carried on war against the
Tarentines, Samnites, and Sallentines.— 3. M.
consul in 230, fought against the Ligurians.
Barca, the surname of Hamilcab, the father
of Hannibal, is probably the same as the
Hebrew Barak, which signifies lightning. His
family was distinguished as the ' Barcine
family,' and the democratical party, which
supported this family, as the ' Barcine party.'
Barca or -e (Bctpjoj : Bop/ciVijs, BapKaios,
Barcaeus). 1. (Merjeh, Ru.), the second city of
Cyrenaica, in N. Africa, 100 stadia (10 geog.
miles) from the sea, appears to have been at
first a settlement of a Libyan tribe, the
Barcaei, but about B.C. 560 was colonised by the
Greek seceders from Cyrene, and became so
powerful as to make the W. part of Cyrenaica
virtually independent of the mother city. In
B.C. 510 it was taken by the Persians, who

Barca In Africa.
Obv., head of Zeus ; rev., silphium plant, cultivated in
that district.
removed most of its inhabitants to Bactria, and
under the Ptolemies its ruin was completed by
the erection of its port into a new city, which
was named Ptolemais, and which took the
place of Barca as one of the cities of the
Cyrenaic Pentapolis. (Hdt. iv. 160, 164, 167,
171,200; Strab. p. 837; Plin. v. 32; Cyrene.)
— 2. A town in Bactria peopled by the removed.
inhabitants of the Cyrenaic Barca.
Barcino (Barcelona), a town of the Laeetani,
in Hispania Tarraconensis, afterwards a Roman
colony : the town was not large, but possessed
an excellent harbour (Ptol. ii. 6; Oros. vii. 143).
Bardanes. [Absaces XXI.]
Bardylisor Bardyllis (BdpSvXis, BapSvXXis),
an Hlyrian chieftain, carried on frequent wars
with the Macedonians, but was at length de
feated and slain in battle by Philip, the father
of Alexander the Great, B.C. 359 (Diod. xvi. 4 ;
Cic. Off. ii. 11, 40).
Barea Soranus, consul suffectus in a.d. 52
under Claudius, and afterwards proconsul of
Asia, was a man of justice and integrity. He
was accused of treason in the reign of Nero,
and also of employing his daughter Servilia to
use magic, and was condemned to death together
with her. The chief witness against him was
P. Egnatius Celer, a Stoic philosopher, and the
teacher of Soranus. (Juv. iii. 116 ; Dio Cass.
lxii. 26 ; Tac. Arm. xvi. 30.)
Bargiisii, a people in the NE. of Spain, be
tween the Pyrenees and the Iberus (Polyb. iii.
35.) Barium (Barinus : Bari), a town in Apulia,
on the Adriatic, a municipium, and celebrated
for its fisheries (Barium piscosum, Hor. Sat. i.

160

BARSAENTES

5, 97 ; Strab. p. 283). In the 10th century the
Greek emperors made it the capital of Apulia.
Barsaentes (Bapo-aevrns) or Barzaentus (Bap-
£devros), satrap of the Arachoti and Drangae,
took part in the murder of Darius III., and fled
to India, where he was seized by the inhabitants
and delivered up to Alexander, who put him to
death (Arrian, iii. 8, 21 ; Diod. xvii. 74).
Barsine (Bapo-'ivTi). 1. Daughter of Artabazus,
and wife of Memnon the Rhodian, subsequently
married Alexander the Great, to whom she bore
a son, Heracles. She and her son were put to
death by Polysperchon in 309. — 2. Also called
Statira, elder daughter of Darius III., whom
Alexander married at Susa. Shortly after Alex
ander's death she was murdered by Roxana.
Basanitis. [Batanaea.]
Basilla (Basel or Bale), a town oh the Rhine,
in the neighbourhood of which Valentinian built
a fortress (Amm. Marc. xxx. 3). It became im
portant after the ruin of Augusta Rauracorum.
Basilina, the mother of Julian the apostate,
being the second wife of Julius Constantius,
brother of Constantine the Great.
Basilius, commonly called Basil the Great,
was born a.d. 329, at Caesarea. (See Diet, of
Christ. Biogr.)
Basilus, L. Minucius, served under Caesar
in Gaul, and commanded part of Caesar's fleet
in the civil war. He was one of Caesar's assas
sins (b.c. 44), and in the following year was
murdered by his own slaves. (Caes. B. G. vi. 29,
vii. 92 ; Appian, B. C. iii. 96 ; Oros. vi. 18 ; Cic.
Fam. vi. 15.)
Bassareus. [Dionysus.]
Bassus, Aufldius, an orator and historian
under Augustus and Tiberius, wrote an account
of the Roman wars in Germany, and a work
upon Roman history of a more general cha
racter, which was continued in 31 books by the
elder Pliny (Quint, x. 1, 108 ; Plin. vi. 27).
Bassus, Q. Caecilius, a Roman eques, and an
adherent of Pompey, fled to Tyre after the battle
of Pharsalia, B.C. 48. Shortly afterwards he ob
tained possession of Tyre, and subsequently
settled down in Apamea, where he maintained
himself for 3 years (46-43). On the arrival of
Cassius in Syria in 43, the troops of Bassus
went over to Cassius. (Dio Cass, xlvii. 26 ; Veil.
Pat. ii. 69 ; Cic. Fam. xi. 1, xii. 11.)
Bassus, Caesius, a Roman lyric poet, and a
friend of Persius, who addresses his 6th satire
to him, was destroyed along with his villa in a.d.
79 by the eruption of Vesuvius which over
whelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii (Quint, x.
1, 96 ; Pers. vi. 1 ; Schol. ad loc. ; Plin. Ep. vi.
16). He also wrote a poem on metres, of which
it is thought fragments remain in a prose
version (Gaisford, Script. Metr. 1887 ; Keil, 1874).
Bassus, Saleius, a Roman epic poet of con
siderable merit, contemporary with Vespasian
(Tac. Dial. 5; Quint, x. 1, 90; Juv. vii. 80).
The poem ad Pisonem (in Poet. Lat. Min.) has
been ascribed to this Bassus, but probably
erroneously : it seems to belong to the age of
Claudius. Bastarnae or Basternae, a warlike German
people, who migrated to the country near the
mouth of the Danube. They are first mentioned
in the wars of Philip and Perseus against the
Romans, and at a later period they frequently
devastated Thrace, and were engaged in wars
with the Roman governors of the province of
Macedonia. In B.C. 80, they were defeated by
M. Crassus, and driven across the Danube ; and
we find them, at a later time, partly settled be
tween the Tyras (Dneister) and Borysthenes

BATTIADAE
(Dnieper), and partly at the mouth of the
Danube, under the name of Peucini, from their
inhabiting the island of Peuce, at the mouth of
this river. (Strab. pp. 98, 118, 291, 294, 305;
Liv. xl. 57 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 265, Germ. 46.)
Bastitani (also Bastetani, Bastuli), a people
in Hispania Baetica on the coast (Strab. p. 139).
Batanaea or Basanitis (Barava'ia, BacavTrts :
O. T. Bashan, Basan), a district of Palestine, E.
of the Jordan, extending from the river Jabbok
on the S. to Mt. Hermon, in the Antilibanus
chain, on the N. [Judaea.]
Batavi or Batavi (Juv. viii. 51 ; Lucan, i. 431),
a Celtic people who abandoned their homes in
consequence of civil dissensions, before the time
of Julius Caesar, and settled in the island
formed by the Rhine, the Waal, and the Maas,
which island was called after them Insula
Batavorum. They were for a long time allies
of the Romans in their wars against the Ger
mans, and were of great service to the former
by their excellent cavalry ; but at length, ex- '
asperated by the oppressions of the Roman
officers, they rose in revolt under Claudius
Civilis, in a.d. 69, and were with great difficulty
subdued. On their subjugation they were
treated by the Romans with mildness, and were
exempt from taxation. Their country, which
also extended beyond the island S. of the Maas
and Waal, was called, at a later time, Eatavia.
Their chief towns were Lugdunum (Leyden)
and Batavodurum, between the Maas and the
Waal. The Caninefates or Canninefates were
a branch of the Batavi, and dwelt in the W. of
the island. (Caes. B. G. iv. 10 ; Tac. Hist. iv.
12-37, v. 14, Germ. 29.)
Batavodurum. [Batavi.]
Bathycles (Ba8vKXr)s), a sculptor of Magnesia
on the Maeander, constructed for the Lacedae
monians the colossal throne of the Amyclaean
Apollo, a sort of carved screen surrounding
the statue and ornamented with mythological
figures. He belongs to the early Ionian school
soon after 600 B.C. (Paus. iii. 18, 6.)
Bathyllus. 1. Of Samos, a beautiful youth
beloved by Anacreon. — 2. Of Alexandria, the
freedman and favourite of Maecenas (Tac, Ann.
i. 54), brought to perfection, together with
Pylades of Cilicia, the imitative dance of the
Pantomimus. Bathyllus excelled in comic, and
Pylades in tragic personifications. (See Diet.
Ant. s.v. Pantomimus.)
Batnae (Bdrvai: Barvdios). 1. (Saruj), a
city of Osroene in Mesopotamia, E. of the Eu
phrates, and SW. of Edessa, at about equal
distances ; founded by the Macedonians ; cele
brated for its annual fair of Indian and Syrian
merchandise (Amm. Marc. xiv. 3). — 2. (Dahab),
a city in Syria, between Beroea and Hierapolis.
Bato (Bdrav). 1. The charioteer of Amphia
raus, was swallowed up by the earth along with
Amphiabaus. — 2. The name of 2 leaders of the
Pannonians and Dalmatians in their insurrec
tion in the reign of Augustus, a.d. 6. Tiberius
finally subdued Dalmatia; Bato surrendered
to him in 9 upon promise of pardon, and accom
panied him to Italy. (Dio Cass. Iv. 32, Ivi. 11 ;
Veil. Pat. ii. 110-115.)
Battiadae (BarTidSai), kings of Cyrene during
8 generations. 1. Battus I., of Thera, led a
colony to Africa at the command of the Delphic
oracle, which he consulted about his stammering
speech, and founded Cyrene about B.C. 631. He
was the first king of Cyrene, his government was
gentleand just, and after his death in 599hewas ;
worshipped as a hero. (Hdt. iv. 157 ; Pind. Pyih. .'"¦
iv. 10, v. 89.) According to the Scholiast on t

BATTIADES
Pindar, the founder was an Aristoteles, who was
called Ba tt us because that was the title of Libyan
native kings. — 2. Arcesilaus I., son of No. 1,
reigned B. c. 599-583. — 3. Battus II., surnamed
' the Happy,' son of No. 2, reigned B.C. 583-560 ?
In his reign, Cyrene received a great number
of colonists from various parts of Greece ; and
in consequence of the increased strength of his
kingdom Battus was able to subdue the neigh
bouring Libyan tribes, and to defeat Apries,
king of Egypt (570), who had espoused the
cause of the Libyans (Hdt. iv. 150). — 4. Arces
ilaus II., son of No. 8, surnamed ' the Oppres
sive,' reigned about b. c. 560-550. In conse
quence of dissensions between himself and his
brothers, the latter withdrew from Cyrene, and
founded Barca. He was strangled by his
brother or friend, Learchus (Hdt. iv. 160). —
5. Battus III., or ' the Lame,' son of No. 4,
reigned about B. c. 550-530. In his time,
Demonax, a Mantinean, gave a new consti
tution to the city, whereby the royal power was
reduced within very narrow limits. — 6. Arces
ilaus III., son of No. 5, reigned about B. c.
530-514, was driven from Cyrene in an attempt
to recover the ancient royal privileges, but
recovered his kingdom with the aid of Samian
auxiliaries. He endeavoured to strengthen
himself by making submission to Cambyses in
525. He was, however, again obliged to leave
Cyrene ; he fled to Alazir, king of Barca, whose
daughter he had married, and was there slain
by the Barcaeans and some Cyrenaean exiles.
(Hdt. iv. 162-167.)—7. Battus IV., probably son
of No. 6, of whose life we have no accounts. —
8. Arcesilaus IV., probably son of No. 1.
whose victory in the chariot- race at the Pythian
games, b. c. 466, is celebrated by Pindar in his
4th and 5th Pythian odes. At his death, about
450, a Dopular government was established.
Battiades. [Callimachus.]
Battus (Bdrros), a shepherd whom Hermes
turned into a stone, because he broke a promise
of silence regarding the cattle stolen by Hermes
(Ov. Met. ii. 688 ; of. Ant. Lib. 23).
Batulum, a town in Campania (Verg. Aen.
vii. 739 ; Sil. viii. 566).
Baucis. [Philemon.]
Bauli (Bacolo), a collection of villas rather
than a town, between Misenum and Baiae in
Campania. Bavins and Maevius, two malevolent poet
asters, who attacked the poetry of Virgil and
Horace (Verg. Eel. iii. 90 ; Hor. Epod. 10).
Bazira or Bezira (Bd(ipa : Bd(ipoi : Bajour,
NW. of Peshawur), a city in the Paropamisus,
taken by Alexander on his march into India.
Bebryces (BeBpvKes). 1. A mythical people
in Bithynia, said to be of Thracian origin
(Strab. p. 295) whose king, Amyous, slew Pollux
[Argonautae]. — 2. An ancient Lberian people
on the coast of the Mediterranean, N. and S.
of the Pyrenees : they possessed numerous
herds of cattle (Sil. It. iii. 420; Zonar. viii. 21).
Bedriacum (Calvatone), also spelt Bebn-
acum and Betnacum, a small place in Cisal
pine Gaul, between Cremona and Verona, cele
brated for the defeat both of Otho and, a few
months later, of the Vitellian troops, a. d. 69
(Tac. Hist. ii. 43, iii. 15).
Begorritis lacus (Ostrovo), a lake in
Eordaea of Macedonia (Liv. xiii. 53).
Belbina (BixBiva: BeXBivirns). 1. (St. George
d'Arbori), an island in the Aegaean sea, off the
S. coast of Attica (Hdt. viii. 125 ; Strab. p. 375).
— 2. See Belemtna.
Belemina (BeXepiva), also called Belmima

BELISARIUS

161

and Belbina, a town in theNW. of Laconia, on
the borders of Arcadia. The surrounding dis
trict was called Belminatis and Belbimatis.
(Strab. p. 848 ; Paus. viii. 85.)
Belesis or Belesys (BeA.e<ns, BeXetrvs), a
Chaldaean priest at Babylon, who is said, in
conjunction with Arbaees, the Mede, to have
overthrown the old Assyrian empire. [Aebaces.]
Belesis afterwards received the satrapy of
Babylon from Arbaees. (Diod. ii. 24.)
Belgae, one of the three great people into
which Caesar divides the population of Gaul.
They were bounded on the N. by the Rhine, on
the W. by the ocean, on the S. by the Sequana
(Seine) and Matrona (Marne), and on the E.
by the territory of the Treviri. They were of
German origin, and had settled in the country,
expelling or reducing to subjection the former
inhabitants. They were the bravest of the
inhabitants of Gaul, were subdued by Caesar
after a courageous resistance, and were the
first Gallic people who threw off the Roman
dominion. The Belgae were subdivided into
the tribes of the Nekvii, Bellovaci, Remi,
Suessiones, Moeini, Menaph, Aduatici, and
others ; and the collective forces of the whole
nation were more than a million. (Caes. B. G.
i. 1, ii. 4, v. 24 ; Strab. p. 192.) There were also
Belgae in the south of Britain, whom Caesar
seems to place in Kent and Sussex ; Ptolemy
more inland, in parts of Wilts, Hants, and
Somerset (Caes. B. G. v. 12 ; Ptol. ii. 3, 28).
Ptolemy gives their real settlement, whereas
Caesar speaks of stray bodies of immigrants
whom he came across.
Belgica. [Gallia.]
Belgium, the name generally applied to the
territory of the Bellovaci, and of the tribes
dependent upon the latter — namely, the Atre-
bates, Ambiani, Velliocasses, Aulerci, and
Caleti. Belgium did not include the whole
country inhabited by the Belgae, for we find
the Nervii, Remi, &c, expressly excluded from
it. (Caes:B. G. v. 24.)
Belisarius, the greatest general of Justinian,
was a native of Illyria and of mean extraction.
In A. D. 534, he overthrew the Vandal kingdom
in Africa, which had been established by
Genseric about 100 years previously, and took
prisoner the Vandal king, Gelimer, whom he
led in triumph to Constantinople (Procop.
Vand. i. 11, ii. 8). In 535-540, Belisarius
carried on war against the Goths in Italy, and
conquered Sicily, but he was recalled by the
jealousy of Justinian. In 541-544 he again
carried on war against the Goths in Italy,
but was again recalled by Justinian, leaving
his victories to be completed by his rival
Narses in the complete overthrow of the
Gothic kingdom, and the establishment of
the exarchate of Ravenna (Procop. Goth. i. 5,
ii. 30; iii. 1-32, iv. 21). The last victory of
Belisarius was gained in repelling an inroad of
the Bulgarians, 559 (Theoph. 198). In 563 he
was accused of a conspiracy against the life of
Justinian ; according to a popular tradition
(which rests merely on the authority of Tzetzes
in the 12th cent, and an anonymous writer
of the 11th) he was deprived of his property,
his eyes were put out, and he wandered as a
beggar through Constantinople ; but according
to the more authentic account, he was merely
imprisoned for a year in his own palace, and
then restored to his honours (Theoph. 160,198).
He died in 565. — The story of his blindness and
beggary — 'date obolum Belisario' — though it
should be rejected absolutely inasmuch as the
M

162

silence of the earlier writers practically contra
dicts it, was revived by some modern writers and
popularised by Marmontel; and it was even
said that the statue in the Borghese collection,
whieh Winckelmann showed to represent
Augustus propitiating Nemesis, was
Belisarius begging. As a military
commander, and as the preserver of
the empire against barbarian in
roads, Belisarius ranks among the
great men of antiquity : his private
life was rendered unattractive by
avarice and by his submission to his
wife, the infamous Antonina.
BeUerophon or Bellerophontes
(BeXXepocpav or BeXXepo(p6vrris), son
of the Corinthian king Glaucus and
Eurymede and grandson of Sisyphus
(17. vi. 155 ; Apollod. i. 9, 3) ; but ac
cording to Hyg. Fab. 191 he was son
of Poseidon (cf. Schol. ad Pind. Ol.
xiii. 66). Some said that he was
originally called Hipponous, and re
ceived the name BeUerophon from
slaying the Corinthian Bellerus (pro
bably a later addition to his story,
manufactured to explain his name ;
Schol. ad II. 6. 155, and Apollod. ii.
3). To be purified from the murder he fled to
Proetus, whose wife, Antea, fell in love with the
young hero ; but as her offers were rejected by
him, she accused him to her husband of having
made attempts on her honour. Other ac
counts name the wife Sthenoboea. Her punish
ment is related in Apollod. ii. 3, 2, and was a
subject for the Stheneboea of Euripides. She is
said to have mounted Pegasus and to have been
thrown into the sea. Proetus, unwilling to kill
BeUerophon with his own hands, sent him to his
father-in-law, lobates, king of Lycia, with a
letter begging that the messenger should be

BELLEROPHON killed the Chimaera with his arrows. lobates,
thus disappointed, sent BeUerophon against
the Solymi and next against the Amazons. In
these contests he was also victorious ; and on
his return to Lycia, being attacked by the

BeUerophon, Pegasus, and Chimaera.

put to death. lobates accordingly sent him to
kiU the monster Chimaera, thinking that he
was sure to perish in the contest. After ob
taining possession of the winged horse, Pega
sus, BeUerophon rose with him in the air, and

BeUerophon taking leave of Proetus. (Hamilton vases.)

bravest Lycians, whom lobates had placed in
ambush for the purpose, BeUerophon slew them
all. lobates, now seeing that it was hopeless
to kUl the hero, gave him his daughter
(Philonoe, Anticlea, or Cassandra) in marriage,
and made him his successor on the throne.
BeUerophon became the father of Isander,
Hippolochus, and Laodamia. At last BeUero
phon drew upon himself the hatred of the gods,
and, consumed by grief, wandered lonely
through the Aleian field, avoiding the paths of
men. This is all that Homer says respecting
Bellerophon's later fate : some traditions related
that he attempted to fly to heaven
upon Pegasus, but that Zeus sent a
gad-fly to sting the horse, which
threw off the rider upon the earth,
who became lame or blind in con
sequence. (Pind. Isth. vi. 44 ; Schol.
ad Ol. xiii. 90 ; Hor. Od. iv. 11, 26.)
BeUerophon was honoured as a god
at Corinth (on whose coins and on
those of her colonies Pegasus often
appears), and also in Lycia (Paus. ii.
2, 24 ; Q. Smyrn. x. 162). — As regards
the history and meaning of the
story, it must be observed that the
characteristic parts are the con
nexion with Pegasus and the fight
with the Chimaera. The story of
Proetus is one which is often re
lated of others in much the same
form. Homer teUs nothing of Pega
sus : it is not, however, necessary
to suppose that the Pegasus story is
everywhere post-Homeric. Homer
may have adopted the Corinthian
hero for his Lycian romance before
the connexion with Pegasus was
fully established : for it is clear that
the local Corinthian myths com
bined the two at some time or
other. In BeUerophon some see
merely a sun-god akin to Perseus.
Otherslay stress on his descent from Glaucus, a
sea-god, and Poseidon, combining this with the
descent of Pegasus from Poseidon ; the winged'
horse, they say, symbolises the clouds, and the
fight with the Chimaera, a thunderstorm in

as
(Hamilton vaseB.)

BELLI
which BeUerophon, the heavenly rider, destroys
the evil elements of the storm. [See further
under Chimaera and Pegasus.] Though
BeUerophon is sometimes represented as an
armed warrior, he most commonly appears,
when mounted on Pegasus, clad in chfamys and
petasus, with a spear in his right hand.
Belli, a Celtiberian people in Hispania Tar
raconensis. Bellona (originaUy DueUona, Varr. L. L. v.
73), the Roman goddess of war, was probably a
Sabine divinity =Nerio, the wife of Mars or tb.3
personification of his power. [See Maes.] She
has aU the attributes of Enyo in the Utera-
ture influenced by Greek, foUowing Mars with
weapons, or described as armed with a bloody
scourge. (Verg. Aen. viii. 703.) During the
Samnite wars, in B.C. 296, App. Claudius Caecus
vowed a temple to her, which was erected in
the Campus Martius, outside the Pomerium,
as a deity of trouble (Liv. x. 19 ; Ov. Fast. vi.
199). A further development came from Asia
Minor after the Mithridatic wars and the attri
butes of the goddess of Comana (a moon-goddess
.and a war-goddess) were transferred to Bellona.
Hence the fanatic character of the Bellonarii,
her priests, who wounded themselves in the
processions, attended with trumpets and cym
bals (Plut. Suit. 9; Strab. p. 535; Tibull. i. 6,
43 ; Mart. xii. 57 ; Lucan, i. 565).
Bellovaci, the most powerful of the Belgae,
dwelt in the modern Beauvais, between the
Seine, Oise, Somme, and Bresle. In Caesar's
time they could bring 100,000 men into the
field, but they were subdued by Caesar with
the other Belgae (Caes. B. G. ii. 4, 8, vii. 59).
Belon or Baelon (BeXdv, BouXdv, nr. Bolonia,
Ru.), a seaport town in Hispania Baetica on a
river of the same name (now Barbate), the usual
place for crossing over to Tingis in Mauretania
(Strab. p. 140).
Belus (Bi)\os), son of Poseidon and Libya or
Eurynome, twin-brother of Agenor, and father
of Aegyptus and Danaus (ApoUod. ii. 1, 4;
Hdt. vii. 61 ; Paus. iv. 23 ; Aesch. Suppl. 318).
He was properly the national deity of various
Semitic nations, worshipped as Baal or Bel,
and, while sometimes identified by the Greeks
with Zeus, was also regarded as the ancestral
hero of those nations from whom the legends
about him were transplanted to Greece and
there became mixed up with Greek myths.
Belus (BijXos : Nahr Naman), a river of
Phoenicia, rising at the foot of M. Carmel, and
jailing into the sea close to the S. of Ptolemais
(Acre), celebrated for the tradition that its fine
sand first led the Phoenicians to the invention
of glass (Plin. v. 75).
Benacus Lacus (Lago di Garda), a lake in
the N. of Italy (GaUia Transpadana), out of
which the Mincius flows (Verg. Georg. ii. 160,
Aen. x. 205; Plin. iii. 131).
Bendis (BevSts, BevSiSos), a Thracian goddess
whose worship was at an early period intro
duced into Attica by Thracian metoeci (Plat.
Bep. 327; Strab. p. 470; Hesych. s.v.). Livy
(xxxviii. 41) mentions a temple in her honour
near the Thracian Hebrus, B.C. 189. She was
identified by the Greeks with Artemis and with
Hecate for reasons which are easily understood
if she was, as is stated, a goddess of the moon
and also of hunting among the Thracians. The
epithet of the Thracian Bendis was SiXoyxos
(Cratin. ap. Hesych.), which, according to
Hesychius, signifies either the huntress or the
goddess who, like Hecate (Hes. Th. 413), reigns
ooth in earth and in heaven. It is clear that

BERENICE 168
Herodotus (v. 7) identifies her with Artemis.
As a goddess of light she was honoured with a
torch-race at the Bendideia in the Peiraeus,
with the peculiarity, doubtless Thracian, that
it was a mounted race. [Diet. Ant. s.v. Lam-
padedromia.] Beneventum.(Be«et)e»io), a town in Sam
nium on the Appia Via, at the junction of the
two valleys through which the Sabatus and
Calor flow, formerly called Maleventum or
MaX6evTov (probably from an original Maloeis).
It was one of the most ancient towns in Italy,
having been founded, according to tradition,
by Diomede. In the Samnite wars it was sub
dued by the Romans, who sent a colony thither
in B.C. 268, and changed its name Maleventum
into Beneventum (Liv. ix. 27 ; Fest. s.v. Bene-
ventum). It was colonised a second time, by
Augustus, and was hence called Colonia Julia
Concordia Augusta Felix (Strab. p. 250 ; OreU.
907). The modern town has several Roman
remains, among others a triumphal arch of
Trajan. Berecyntia. [Rhea.]
Berenice (BepeviicTi), a Macedonic form of
Pherenice (fyepev'iKTi), i.e. " Bringing Victory." —
1. A daughter of Lagos, first the wife of an
obscure Macedonian, and afterwards of Ptolemy
I. Soter, who feU in love with her when she
came to Egypt in attendance on his bride
Eurydice, Antipater's daughter. She was cele
brated for her beauty and virtue, and was the
mother of Ptolemy H. Philadelphus. (Paus. i.
6 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 4 ; Just. xvi. 2 ; Theocr. xvii.
34).— 2. Daughter of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus,
and wife of Antiochus Theos, king of Syria,
who divorced Laodiee in order to marry her,
B.C. 249. On the death of Ptolemy, B.C. 247,
Antiochus recalled Laodice, who notwithstand
ing caused him to be poisoned, and murdered
Berenice and her son (Athen. p. 45 ; Just, xxvii.
1). — 3. Daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and
wife of Ptolemy III. Euergetes. She was put

Berenice, "wife of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, King of Egypt.
Obv., head of Berenice, veiled ; rev., cornucopia bound
¦with fiUet, between caps of Dioscuri ; bepenikhs baxi.
aizshz.
to death by her son Ptolemy IV. Philopator on
his accession to the throne, 221. The famous
hair of Berenice, which she dedicated for her
husband's safe return from his Syrian expedi
tion in the temple of Arsinoe at Zephyrium,
was said to have become a constellation. It
was celebrated by Callimachus in a poem, of
which we have a translation by CatuUuB. (Just.
xxvi. 3, xxx. 1 ; Polyb. v. 36, xv. 25.)— 4. Other
wise called Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy
VIII. Lathyrus, succeeded her father on the
throne, B.C. 81, and married Ptolemy X. (Alex
ander II.), but was murdered by her husband
nineteen days after her marriage (Paus. i. 9 ;
Appian, B. C. i. 414). — S. Daughter of Ptolemy
XI. Auletes, and eldest sister of the famous
Cleopatra, was placed on the throne by the
Alexandrines when they drove out her father,
m2

164

BERENICE '

B.C. 58. She next married Archelaus, but was
put to death with her husband, when Gabinius
restored Auletes, 55. (Dio Cass, xxxix. 12,
55-58 ; Plut. Ant. 3.)— 6. Sister of Herod the
Great, married Aristobulus, who was put to
death, B.C. 6. She afterwards went to Rome,
where she spent the remainder of her life. She
was the mother of Agrippa I. — 7. Daughter of
Agrippa I., married her uncle Herod, king of
Chalcis, by whom she had two sons. After the
death of Herod, a.d. 48, Berenice, then twenty
years old, lived with her brother Agrippa II.,
not without suspicion of incestuous commerce
with him. She gained the love of Titus, who was
only withheld from making her his wife by fear
of offending the Romans by such a step (Juv. vi.
158 1 Tac. Hist. ii. 2, 81 ; Dio Cass. lxvi. 15, 18).
Berenice (BepeviKri : BepeviKevs), the name of
several cities of the period of the Ptolemies.
1. Formerly Eziongeber (Ru. nr. Akabah), in
Arabia, at the head of the Sinus Aelanites, or
E. branch of the Red Sea (Joseph. Ant. viii.
6.) — 2. In Upper Egypt (for so it was con
sidered, though it lay a little S. of the parallel
of Syene), on the coast of the Red Sea, on a
gulf caUed Sinus Immundus (atcdBapros k6Xitos,
now Foul Bay), where its ruins are stiU visible.
It was named after the mother of Ptolemy II.
Philadelphus, who built it, and made a road
hence to Coptos, so that it became a chief em
porium for the commerce of Egypt with Arabia
and India. Under the Romans it was the
residence of a praef ectus. (Strab. pp. 770, 815.) —
3. B. Panchrysos (B. rrdyxpvaos or 7) Kara 2d-
Bas), on the Red Sea coast in Aethiopia, con
siderably S. of the above ; so caUed from the
neighbouring gold mines worked by the Egyp
tians. (Strab. p. 771 ; Plin. vi. 170.)— 4. B. Epi-
dires (B. iirl Aetpris), on the Prom. Dira, on the
W. side of the entrance to the Red Sea (Straits
of Bab-el-Mandeb). (Strab. p. 769.) — 0. (Ben
Ghazi, Ru.), in Cyrenaica, formerly Hesperis
('EoTrepis), the fabled site of the Gardens of the
Hesperides, a colony of Arcesilas IV. It took
its later name from the wife of Ptolemy III.
Euergetes, and was the westernmost of the five
cities of the Lybian Pentapolis.
Bergistani, a people in the NE. of Spain
between the Iberus and the Pyrenees, whose
capital was Bergium (Liv. xxxiv. 16, 21).
Bergomum (Bergomas, -atis: Bergamo), a
town of the Orobii in Gallia Cisalpina, between
Comum and Brixia, afterwards a municipium.
Bermius Mons (to Beppiov opos ; Verria), a
mountain in Macedonia between the Haliacmon
and Ludias (Hdt. viii. 138 ; Strab. p. 330 ; Bora,
Liv. xiv. 29).
Beroe (Bep6ri). 1. A Trojan woman, wife of
Doryclus, whose form Iris assumed when she
persuaded the women to set fire to the ships of
Aeneas in Sicily (Verg. Aen. v. 620). 2. A
Nereid (Verg. Georg. iv. 341). — 3. Daughter of
Adonis and Aphrodite.
Beroea (Bepoict, also Beppoia, BepSri : Bepoievs,
Bepoiaios). 1. (Verria), one of the most ancient
towns of Macedonia, on one of the lower ranges
of Mt. Bermius, and on the Astraeus, a tributary
of the Haliacmon, SW. of Pella, and about twenty
miles from the sea. It was attacked unsuccess
ful by the Athenians, under Callias, who de
viated from their line of march between Pydna
and Potidaea (Thuc. i. 61).— 2. (Beria), a town
in the interior of Thrace, was under the later
Roman empire, together with Philippopolis,
one of the most important military posts (Amm.
Marc, xxvii. 4, xxxi. 9).— 3. (Aleppo or Haleb), a
town in Syria, near Antioch, enlarged by Seleu-

BIANOR
cus Nicator, who gave it the Macedonian name
of Beroea (Strab. p. 751 ; Procop. B. P. ii. 7). It
is called Helbon or Chelbon in Ezekiel (xxvii.
18), and Chalep in the Byzantine writers, a
name stiU retained in the modern Haleb, for
which Europeans have substituted Aleppo.
Berosns (Bripao-ds or Bripaaalis), a priest of
Belus at Babylon, lived in the reign of An
tiochus II. (b.c. 261-246), and wrote in Greek a
history of Babylonia in three books (called
BaBvXaviKd, and sometimes XaXSaiKd or ioto-
piai XaXSa'iKal). It embraced the earUest tra
ditions about the human race, a description of
Babylonia and its population, and a chrono
logical Ust of its kings down to the time of the
great Cyrus. Berosus says that he derived the
materials for his work from the archives in the
temple of Belus. The work itself is lost, but
considerable fragments of it are preserved in
Josephus, Eusebius, SynceUus, and the Chris
tian Fathers ; and even these remnants are of
great value. — Editions. By Richter, Lips. 1825,
and in Didot's Fragmenta Historicorum Grae-
corum, vol. ii. Paris, 1848.
Berytus (Bijpvto's : Btjpvtios : Beirut, Ru.),
one of the oldest seaports of Phoenicia, stood
on a promontory near the mouth of the river
Magoras (Nahr Beirut), half way between
Byblus and Sidon. It was destroyed by the
Syrian king Tryphon (b.c. 140), and restored by
Agrippa under Augustus, who made it a colony.
It afterwards became a celebrated seat of learn
ing. (Strab. p. 756.)
Besa. [Antinoopolis.]
Bessi, a fierce and powerful Thracian people,
who dwelt along the whole of Mt. Haemus as
far as the Euxine. After the conquest of Mace
donia by the Romans (b.c. 168), the Bessi were
attacked by them, and subdued. (Hdt. vii. Ill ;
Strab. p. 318 ; Liv. xxxix. 53.)
Bessus (Brio-ffos), satrap of Bactria under
Darius HI., seized Darius soon after the battle
of Arbela, B.C. 331. Pursued- by Alexander in
the foUowing year, Bessus put Darius to death,
and fled to Bactria where he assumed the title
of king. He was betrayed by two of his
followers to Alexander, who put him to death.
(Curt. v. 7, vii. 3, 10 ; Arrian, iii. 19, 28.)
Bestia, Calpnrnius. 1. L., tribune of the
plebs, B.C. 121, and consul 111, when he carried
on war against Jugurtha, but having received
large bribes he concluded a peace with the
Numidian king. On his return to Rome he
was in consequence accused and condemned
(Sail. Jug. 27, 40, 65; Cic. Brut. 34; Appian,
B. C. i. 37). — 2. L., one of the Catilinarian con
spirators, b.c. 63, was at the time tribunus
plebis designates, and not actuaUy tribune as
Sallust says. In 49 he was aedile, and in 57
was an unsuccessful candidate for the praetor-
ship, notwithstanding his bribery, for which
offence he was brought to trial in the foUowing
year and condemned, although defended by
Cicero. JSall. Cat. 17, 43; Appian, B. CM. 3.)
Betasii, a people in Gallia Belgica, between
the Tungri and Nervii, in the neighbourhood of
Beetz in Brabant (Tac. Hist. iv. 56, 66).
Beudos Vetus (Aghigi Kara), a town of Phry
gia five mues from Synnada, between that
town and Anabura, mentioned in the march of
Manlius (Liv. xxxviii. 15). Its name Vetus
probably is opposed to the newer Synnada.
Bezira. [Baziea.]
Bianor. 1. Also called Ocnus or Aucnus,
son of Tiberis and Manto, is said to have built
the town of Mantua, and to have called it after
his mother (Serv. ad Aen. x. 198). — 2. A Bithy-

BIAS
nian, the author of twenty-one epigrams in the
Greek Anthology, lived under Augustus and
TiberiuB. Bias (Bias). 1. Son of Amythaon, and brother
of the seer Melampus. He married Pero,
daughter of Neleus, whom her father had re
fused to give to any one unless he brought him
the oxen of Iphiclus. These Melampus obtained
by his courage and skill, and so won the prin
cess for his brother. Melampus also gained for
Bias a third of the kingdom of Argos, in con
sequence of his curing the daughters of Proetus
and the other Argive women of their mad
ness. (Paus. iv. 86 ; Hdt. ix. S4 ; Od. xv.
225.) — 2. Of Priene in Ionia, one of the Seven
Sages of Greece, flourished about b.c. 550. He
is the reputed author of <piXe7v as pio-fio-ovras
(Arist. Bhet. ii. 13 ; cf . Soph. Aj. 680 ; Cic. de
Am. 16, 59 ; Diog. Laert. i. 84, 88). He also
advised his countrymen, hard pressed by Cyrus,
to abandon their city and settle in Sardinia.
Bibaciilus, M. Furius, a Roman poet, born at
Cremona, B.C. 108, wrote iambics, epigrams, and
a poem on Caesar's Gaulish wars ; the opening
line in the latter poem is parodied by Horace.
('Furius hibernas cana nive conspuet Alpes ':
Sat.'ii. 5, 41) . Bibaculus had written * Jupiter ' &c,
in his poem, in which he praised Caesar, attack
ing him later in his career, probably because
he aimed at the monarchy. It is probable that
Bibaculus also wrote a poem entitled Aethiopis,
containing an account of the death of Memnon
by Achilles, and that the turgidus Alpinus of
Horace (Sat. i. 10, 36) is no other than Bibacu
lus, as Aero asserts. Porphyrio, however, says
that this refers to a Cornelius Alpinus : so that
the matter remains doubtful. He is mentioned
also in Quint, x. 1, 96; Plin. praef. 24; and
from Suet. Gramm. 4 it may be gathered that
he lived to a great age, and may therefore have
been living when Horace wrote his Satires.
The attacks of Horace against Bibaculus may
probably be owing to the fact that the poems
of Bibaculus contained insults against the
Caesars. (Tac. Ann. iv. 84.)
Bibracte (Autun), the chief town of the
Aedui in Gallia Lugdunensis, afterwards Augus-
todunum (Caes. B. G. i. 23).
Bibrax (Bievre), a town of the Remi in Gal
lia Belgica, not far from the Aisne.
Bibiilus, Calpurnius. 1. M., curule aedile
B.C. 65, praetor 62, and consul 59, in each of
which years he had C. Julius Caesar as his
•coUeague. He was a staunch adherent of the
aristocratical party, but was unable in his
consulship to resist the powerful combination
¦of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. After an in-
¦effectual attempt to oppose Caesar's agrarian
law, he withdrew from the popular assemblies
altogether ; whence it was said in joke, that it
was the consulship of Julius and Caesar. (Suet.
Jul. 9, 49 ; Cic. pro Dom. 15 ; ad Att. ii. 19,
20.) In 51 Bibulus was proconsul of Syria ;
and in the civil war he commanded Pompey's
fleet in the Adriatic, but without success, for
Caesar succeeded in crossing the Adriatic.
Bibulus then kept the sea to prevent other
forces of Caesar from following, and died near
Corcyra B.C. 48, before the battle of Dyr-
rachium (Caes. B. C. iii. 5-18; Dio Cass. xii.
48). He married Porcia, the daughter of Cato
Uticensis, by whom he had three sons, two of
whom were murdered by the soldiers of Gabi-
nius, in Egypt, 50. — 2. L., son of No. 1, was a
youth at his father's death, and was brought
up by M. Brutus, who married his mother
Porcia, and whose memoirs he wrote (Plut.

BISTONES

165

Brut. IS, 23). He fought with Brutus at the
battle of Philippi in 42, but he was afterwards
pardoned by Antony, whose legate he was in
Syria. He died there B.C. 81, shortly before
the battle of Actium. (Appian, B. C. iv. 88,
104,136, v. 182.)
Bidis (Bidlnus, Bidensis), a small town in
Sicily, W. of Syracuse (Cic. Verr. ii. 22 ; Plin.
iii. 91).
Biennus (Viand), a town of Crete, S. of Mt.
Dicte and E. of Gortyna.
Bigerra (Becerra 1), a town of the Oretani
in Hispania Tarraconensis (Liv. xxi. 41).
Bigerriones or Bigerri, a people in Aquitania
near the Pyrenees, whose name remains in
Bigorre (Caes. B. G. iii. 27). Their capital was
Turba, now Tarbes.
Bilbllis (Cerro de Bambola), a town of the
Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a
municipium with the surname Augusta, on the
river Salo, also called Bilbilis (Xalon), was the
birthplace of the poet Martial, and was cele
brated for its manufactories in iron and gold
(Strab. p. 162 ; Plin. xxxiv. 144 ; Mart. i. 49, iv.
55, x. 103).
Billaeus (BiXXa'ios: Filiyas), a river of Bi
thynia, rising in the Hypii M., and falling into
the Pontus Euxinus 20 stadia (2 geog. miles) E.
of Tium. Some made it the boundary between
Bithynia and Paphlagonia, but it hes east of
the strict Bithynian boundary.
Bingium (Bingen), a town on the Rhine in
Gallia Belgica (Tac. Hist. iv. 70 ; Amm. Marc.
xviii. 2).
Bion (Biav). 1. Of Smyrna, a bucolic poet,
about B.C. 280 : he spent the last years of his
life in Sicily, where he was poisoned. He was
older than Moschus, who laments his untimely
death, and calls himself the pupil of Bion
(Mosch. Id. iii.). Bion is best known to us from
his lament for Adonis. He is refined, and his
versification fluent and elegant, but he is inferior
to Theocritus in strength and depth of feeling.
— Editions, including Moschus, by Jacobs,
Gotha, 1795; Wakefield, London, 1795; Har-
tung, 1858 ; Ahrens, 1875.— 2. Of Borysthenes,
near the mouth of the Dnieper, flourished about
B.C. 250. He was sold as a slave, when young,
and received his liberty from his master, a rhe
torician. He studied at Athens, and embraced
the later Cyrenaic philosophy, as expounded by
Theodoeus. He lived a considerable time at
the court of Antigonus Gonatas, king of Mace
donia. Bion was noted for his sharp sayings,
whence Horace speaks of persons delighting
Bioneis sermonibus et sale nigra (Epist. ii.
2, 60 ; cf. Cic. Tusc. iii. 26 ; Athen. p. 591).
Birtha (Deir), on the Tigris, below Zenobia,
was a fortress built by Alexander (Ptol. v. 18 ;
Amm. Marc. xx. 7, 17).
Bisaltia (Bio-aXria-. Bio-dXTijs), a district in
Macedonia on the W. bank of the Strymon.
The Bisaltae were Thracians, and at the inva
sion of Greece by Xerxes (b.c 480) they were
ruled by a Thracian prince, who was indepen
dent of Macedonia ; but at the time of the '
Peloponnesian war they were subject to Mace
donia (Hdt. vii. 115, viii. 116 ; Thuc. iv. 109).
Bisanthe (Bio-dvBn: Bio-av87)v6s : Bodosto),
subsequently Bhaedestum or Bhaedestus, a
town in Thrace on the Propontis, with a good
harbour, was founded by the Samians, and was
in later times one of the great bulwarks of the
neighbouring Byzantium (Hdt. vii. 137 ; Procop.
de Aedif. iv. 9).
Bistones (Bio-roves), a Thracian people be
tween Mt. Rhodope and the Aegean sea, on the

166 BITHYNIA
lake Bistonis in the neighbourhood of Abdera,
through whose land Xerxes marched on his in
vasion of Greece (b.c. 480). — From the worship
of Dionysus in Thrace the Bacchic women are
caUed Bistonides. (Hdt. vii. 110 ; Strab. p. 331;
Plim iv. 42 ; Hor. Od. ii. 19, 20.)
Bithynia (BiBvvia: BiBvvos), a district of Asia
Minor, bounded on the W. by Mysia and Mt.
Olympus, on the N. by the Pontus Euxinus,
on the E. by Paphlagonia, and on the S. by
Phrygia Epictetus and Galatia, was possessed
at an early period by Thracian tribes from the
neighbourhood of the Strymon, caUed Thyni
(®vvoi) and Bithyni (BiBvvoi), of whom the
former dwelt on the coast, the latter in the
interior. The earlier inhabitants, who had been
subdued by the Thracian immigrants and had
amalgamated with them, were the Bebryces,
Caucones, and Mygdones, and in the NE. part
of the district the Maeiandyni (Hdt. i. 28, vii.
75; Strab. pp. 541, 563). The country was sub
dued by the Lydians, and afterwards became a
part of the Persian empire under Cyrus, and was
governed by the satraps of Phrygia. During
the decline of the Persian empire, the N. part
of the country became independent, under native
princes, called eirapxoi, who resisted Alexander
and his successors, and established a kingdom,
which is usuaUy considered to begin with Zi-
poetes (about B.C. 287) or his son Nicomedes I.
(B.C. 278), and which lasted till the death of
Nicomedes III. (B.C. 74), who bequeathed his
kingdom to the Romans (Appian, B. C. i. Ill ;
Liv. Ep. 93). It was at first a separate province,
but in 65 was combined with Pontus, forming
one province which extended to the Halys, and
included at first Amisus, being divided by
Pompey into 11 districts (Plut. Pomp. 38 ; Liv.
Ep. 102; Strab. p. 541). It was governed by a
propraetor at first, by a proconsul after 27 (Dio
Cass. liii. 13 ; Tac. Ann. i. 74, xvi. 18), with the
designation Bithynia Pontus. It was taken
back into the imperial jurisdiction by Trajan,
who sent PUny the Younger with the title lega-
tus pro praetore. About a.d. 380 Theodosius
divided the combined provinces into Bithynia
and Pontica prima. Bithynia was a fertile
country, intersected with wooded mountains,
the highest of which was the Mysian Olympus,
on its S. border. Its chief rivers were the
Sangaeius and the Billaeus : its chief towns
Nicomedia,Chalcedon, Heraoleia, Prusa, Nicaea,
and Dascylium.
Bithyninm (BiSvviov. Boii), aft. Claudio-
polis, a city of Bithynia, the birthplace of Ha
drian's favourite Antinous (Dio Cass. lxix. 11).
Biton (Birav), a mathematician, the author
of an extant work on Military Machines
(Karao-Keval iroXepiKav bpydvav Kal KaraireXri-
Kav), whose history is unknown. Edited in
Wescher's Poliorcetica, Paris, 1867.
Biton and Cleobis (KXeoBis),sons of Cydippe,
a priestess of Hera at Argos. They were cele
brated for their affection to their mother,
whose chariot they once dragged during a
festival to the temple of Hera, a distance of 45
stadia. The priestess prayed to the goddess to
grant them what was best for mortals ; and
during the night they both died while asleep
in the temple. (Hdt. i. 31 ; Paus. ii. 20 ; Cic.
Tusc. i. 47 ; Val. Max. v. 4.)
Bituitus, in inscriptions Betultus, king of
the Arverni in Gaul, joined the Allobroges in
their war against the Romans. Both the
Arverni and the Allobroges were defeated, b.c.
121, at the confluence of the Rhone and the
Isara, by Q. Fabius Maximus. Bituitus was

±SlJ<JSXUS

subsequently taken prisoner and sent to Rome.
(Liv. Ep. 61 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 10.)
Bitiiriges, a numerous and powerful Celtic-
people in Gallia Aquitanica, had in early times
the supremacy over the other Celts in Gaul,
(Liv. v. 34). They were divided into, 1. Bit.
Cubi, separated from the Carnutes and Aedui
by the Liger, and bounded on the S. by the
Lemovices, in the country of the modern
Bourges ; their capital was Avaeicum. (Strab.
p. 190 : Cass. B. G. vii. 15.) 2. Bit. Vivisci or
Ubisci on the Garumna : their capital was
Buedigala. Blaesus, C. Sempronius, consul with Cn.
Servilius Caepio, b.c. 253, in the 1st Punic war.
The two consuls sailed to the coast of Africa,
and on their return were overtaken off Cape
Palinurus by a tremendous storm, in which
150 ships perished (Polyb. i. 39).
Blaesus, Junius. 1. Governor of Pannonia.
at the death of Augustus, a.d. 14, when the
formidable insurrection of the legions broke
out in that province. He obtained the govern
ment of Africa in 21, where he gained a victory
over Tacfarinas. On the faU of his uncle
Sejanus in 31, he was deprived of the priestly
offices which he held, and in 36 put an end to
his own life, to avoid f aUing by the hand of the
executioner. (Tac. Ann. i. 16, iii. 72, v. 7, vi. 40 ;
Dio Cass. lvii. 4 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 125.)— 2. Son
of the above, who died with his father. — 3. Pro
bably a grandson : governor of Gallia Lugdu-
nensis a.d. 70; an adherent of ViteUius, but
poisoned by him on a suspicion of his wealth
and popularity (Tac. Hist. i. 59, ii. 59, iii. 38.)
Blanda. 1. (Blanos), a town of the Laeetani
in Hispania Tarraconensis. — 2. (St. Biasio), a
town in Lucania.
Blandus, a town on the borders of Cappa
docia and Pontus, on the road from Sebasteia.
to Melitena, 23 miles from the former.
Blariacum (Blerijk), a town of the Menapi;
on the Mosa or Maas.
Blascon (Brescou), a smaU island in the
GaUicus Sinus, off the town of Agatha.
Blasio, M. Helvius, praetor b.c. 197, defeated
the Celtiberi in Spain, and took IUiturgi (Liv.
xxxii. 27).
Blaundus (Sulei/manli), a town of Lydia.
(sometimes reckoned in Phrygia) ; it formed.
part of the conventus of Sardis. It stood on
the river Hippourios between Tripolis and
Trajanopolis. There are fine architectural
remains. The supposed Blados of Mysia near
Ancyra (Strab. p. 567) is probably a loose re
ference to this place.
Blavia (Blaye), a town of the Santones, in
Gallia Aquitanica, on the Garumna.
Blemyes (BXepves, BXeppves), an Aethiopian
people, on the borders of Upper Egypt, to.
which their predatory incursions were very
troublesome in the times of the Roman em
perors (Strab. p. 819 ; Vit. Aurelian. 33 ; Procop.
B. Pers. i. 19).
Blera (Bleranus : Bieda), a town in Etruria,
on the Via Clodia, between Forum Clodii and
Tuscania: there are many remains of the
ancient town and of Etruscan tombs at Bieda.
(Strab. p. 226).
Blosius or Blossius, the name of a noble
family in Campania. — One of this family, C.
Blosius of Cumae, was a philosopher, a disciple
of Antipater of Tarsus, and a friend of Tib-
Gracchus. After the death of Gracchus (b.c
133) he fled to Aristonicus, king of Pergamus,
and on the conquest of Aristonicus by the
Romans, Blosius put an end to his own life for

fear of falling into the hands of the Romans.
(Cic. deAm. 11, 87 ; Plut. Tib. Gracch. 20.)
Boadicea, more correctly spelt Bondicca,
queen of the Iceni in Britain, having been
shamefully treated by the Romans, who violated
her two daughters, incited an insurrection of
the Britons against their oppressors during the
absence of Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman go
vernor, on an expedition to the island of Mona.
She took the Roman colonies of Caniulodunum,
Londinium, and other places, and slew nearly
70,000 Romans and their aUies. She was at
length defeated by Suetonius Paulinus, and put
an end to her own life, a.d. 61. (Tac. Ann. xiv.
81, Agr. 15 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 1-12.)
Boagrius (Bodypios), a river in Locris, also
caUed Manes, flows past Thronium into the
Sinus Maliacus.
Bocchus (b6kxos). 1. King of Mauretania,
and father-in-law of Jugurtha, with whom at
first he made war against the Romans, but
whom he afterwards delivered up to SuUa, the
quaestor of Marius, b.c. 106 (SaU. Jug. 80-
120; Plut. M ar. 8-32).— 2. Son of the preced
ing, reigned along with his brother Bogudes
over Mauretania. Bocchus and Bogudes
assisted Caesar in his war against the Pom-
peians in Africa, B.C. 46; and in 45 Bogudes
joined Caesar in his war in Spain. After the
murder of Caesar, Bocchus sided with Octa
vianus, and Bogudes with Antony. When
Bogudes was in Spain in 38, Bocchus usurped
the sole government of Mauretania, in which
he was confirmed by Octavianus. He died
about 33, and his kingdom became a Roman
province. Bogudes had previously betaken him
self to Antony, and was killed on the capture
of Methone by Agrippa in 31. (Appian, B. C.
ii. 96, iv. 54 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 45, xlix. 33.)
Bodencns or Bodincus. [Padus.]
Bodotria or Boderia Aestuarium (Firth of
Forth), an aestuary on the E. coast of Scot
land (Tac. A gr. 23).
Boeae (Boiai : Boiottis : Vatka), a town in
the S. of Laconica, near C. Malea (Strab. p.
364 ; Paus. i. 27, iii. 221.
Boebe (BotBv : BoiPeis), a town in Pelasgiotis
in Thessaly, on the W. shore of the lake Boe-
beis (Karla), into which several rivers of
Thessaly flow (H. ii. 712; Hdt. vii. 129; Strab.
pp. 430, 441).
Boedromins (BoriSp6pios), ' the helper in dis
tress,' a surname of ApoUo at Athens, because
he had assisted the Athenians. (See Diet, of
Ant. art. Boedromia.)
Boenoa. [Ephyba.]
Boeotia (Boiarla: Boiar6s: part of Lioadia),
a district of Greece, bounded N. by Opuntian
Locris, E. by the Euboean sea, S. by Attica,
Megaris, and the Corinthian Gulf, and W. by
Phocis. It is nearly surrounded by mountains :
namely, Helicon and Parnassus on the W.,
Cithaeron and Parnes on the S., the Opuntian
mountains on the N., and a range of mountains
along the whole sea-coast on the E. The
country contains several fertile plains, of which
the two most important were the valley of the
Asopus in the S., the inhabitants of which
were caUed Parasopii, and the valley of the Ce-
phissus in the N. (the upper part, however,
belonged to Phocis), the inhabitants of which
were called Epicephisii. In the former vaUey
the chief towns were Thebae, Tanagea, The-
spiae, and Plataeae ; in the latter the chief
townswere Oechomenus, Chaeronea, Coeonea,
Lebadea, and Haliaetus ; the latter vaUey
included the lake Copais. The surface of

BOETHIUS

107

Boeotia is about 1080 square miles. The
atmosphere was damp and thick, to whioh
circumstance some of the ancients attributed
the dullness of the Boeotian intellect, with
which the Athenians frequently made merry,
but the deficiency of the Boeotians in this
respect was more probably owing, as has been
well remarked, to the extraordinary fertility of
their country, which probably depressed their
intellectual and moral energies. — In the earliest
legendary times Boeotia was inhabited by vari
ous tribes, the Aones (whence the country was
called Aonia), Temmices, Hyantes, Leleges,
etc. (Strab. p. 401 ; Paus. ix. 5). Orchomenus
was inhabited by the powerful tribe of the
Minyans, and Thebes by the Cadmeans, the
reputed descendants of Cadmus. It is pro
bable that the whole of Boeotia then formed
two principalities, one subject to Orchome
nus (the older city of the two), the other
to Thebes. The Boeotians or Arnaeans who
conquered both these cities were an Aeolian
people, who originally occupied Arne in
Thessaly, from which they were expeUed by
the Thessalians, according to Thuc. i. 12,
about 60 years after the Trojan war. Boeotia
was then divided into 14 independent states,
which formed a league, with Thebes at its
head. The chief magistrates of the con
federacy were the Boeotarchs, elected annually,
2 by Thebes and 1 by each of the other states ;
but as the number of the states was different at
different times, that of the Boeotarchs also

Boeotia.
06l).,head of Persephone ; rev., Poseidon -with trident and
dolphin: BOiaTQN. Struck about B.C. 244-197.
varied. The government in most states was an
aristocracy. (See Diet, of Ant. art. Boeot-
arches.) Boethius, or Boetius, whose full name was
Anicius Manlius Seveeinus Boethius, a Ro
man statesman and author, belonging to the
family of the Anicii, was born at Rome between
a.d. 470 and 475. He was famous for his gene
ral learning, and especiaUy for his knowledge of
Greek philosophy, which according to a com
mon account (though of doubtful authority) he
studied under Proclus at Athens. His wife was
Rusticiana, the daughter of Symmachus. He
was consul in 510, and was treated with great
distinction by Theodoric the Great ; but having
incurred the suspicion of the latter, by advoca-
ing the cause of the Italians against the oppres
sions of the Goths, he was involved in the
ruin of the Senator Albinus who was accused
of a treasonable correspondence with Byzan
tium, and whom he defended, declaring that, if
Albinus was guilty, he and the whole senate
were guilty also. Upon this, being accused of
upholding the senatorial authority against
Theodoric, and of being privy to an address
from the senate to the Emperor of the East
(his signature to which he alleged to be a for
gery), he was imprisoned in a castle near Pavia
and was executed in 525. During hiB impri
sonment he wrote his celebrated work De
Consolatione Philosophiae, in 5 books, which
is composed as a dialogue, and, like the Menip-.
pean saturae, alternately in prose and verse.

168

BOETHUS

The diction is pure and elegant, and the senti
ments are noble and exalted, showing that the
author had a real belief in prayer and Provi
dence, though he makes no reference to
Christianity. Boethius was the last Roman of
any note who understood the language and
studied the literature of Greece. He translated
many of the works of the Greek philosophers,
especially of^Aristotle, and wrote commentaries
upon them, several of which have come down
to us. He also wrote a commentary, in 6
books, upon the Topica of Cicero, which is also
extant. In the ignorance of Greek writers
which prevailed from the 6th to the 14th cen
tury, Boethius was looked upon as the head
and type of all philosophers, as Augustin was
of all theology and Virgil of all literature ; but
after the introduction of the works of Aristotle
into Europe in the 13th century, Boethius's
fame gradually died away. — The best edition of
his coUected works was printed at Basel, 1570;
the last edition of his De Gonsolatione is by
Obbarius, Jenae, 1843.
Boethus (BoriB6s). 1. A Stoic philosopher of
the 2nd century B.C., a pupil of Diogenes the
Stoic (the Babylonian) : he wrote several
works, from one of which Cicero quotes (de Div.
i. 8, ii. 21 ; Diog. Laert. vii. 148).— 2. A Peripa
tetic philosopher, was a native of Sidon in
Phoenicia, a disciple of Andronicus of Rhodes,
and an instructor of the philosopher Strabo.
He therefore flourished about b.c 30. He
wrote several works, all of which are now lost
(Strab. p. 757). — 3. A sculptor and engraver of
Chaleedon (according to the probable reading in
Paus. v. 17, 4). His most famous work was a
bronze of a boy strangling a goose, of which there
is a marble copy in the Vatican (Plin. xxxiv. 84).
Boeum (Botov, B6iov, Bo'iov : Boidrris), an
ancient town of the Dorian Tetrapolis.
Bogudes. [Bocchus, No. 2.]
Boii, one of the most powerful of the Celtic
people, said to have dwelt originally in Trans
alpine Gaul, but in what part of the country
is uncertain. At an early time they migrated
in two great swarms, one of which crossed the
Alps and settled in the country between the Po
and the Apennines ; the other crossed the
Rhine and settled in the part of Germany
caUed Boihemum (Bohemia) after them, and
between the Danube and the Tyrol (Polyb. ii.
17 ; Liv. v. 35). The Boii in Italy long carried
on a fierce struggle with the Romans, co-operat
ing with Hannibal in the second Punic war ;
but they were at length subdued by the consul
P. Scipio in B.C. 191, and were subsequently
incorporated in the province of Gallia Cisal-
pina (Polyb. ii. 20, iii. 40, 67; Liv. xxi. 25,
xxiii. 24, xxxii. 29, xxxiii. 46, xxxvi. 38). The
Boii in Germany maintained their power longer,
but were at length subdued by the Marco
manni, and expelled from the country. We
find 32,000 Boii taking part in the Helvetian
migration ; and after the defeat of the Helve
tians (b.c 58), Caesar aUowed these Boii to
dweU among the Aedui (Caes. B. G. i. 4, 28).
Boiorix, a chieftain of the Boii, fought
against the Romans, B.C. 194 (Liv. xxxiv. 46).
Boium, a town of Doris (Thuc. i. 108 ; Strab.
p. 427).
Bola, Bolae or Volae (Bolanus), an ancient
town of the Aequi, belonging to the Latin
league, not mentioned in later times (Verg.
Aen. vi. 776; Liv. iv. 49, vi. 2).
Bolanus, Vettius, governor of Britain in
A.D. 69, is praised by Statius in the poem (Silv.
>,t. 2) addressed to Crispinus, the son of Bo-

BONA
lanus (Tac. Ann. xv. 3, Hist. ii. 65, 97, Agr.
3, 16).
Bolbe (B6xBri : Beshek), a lake in Macedonia,
empties itself by a short river into the Strymo-
nic gulf near Bromiscus and Aulon : the lake is
now about twelve mUes in length, and six or
eight in breadth. — There was a town of the
same name upon the lake (Thuc. i. 58, iv. 103 ;
Aesch. Pers. 486).
Bolbitine (BoXBirivri), a city of Lower Egypt,
near the mouth of a branch of the Nile (the
W.-most but one), which was called the Bolbi
tine mouth (to BoXBirivov ar6pa) (Diod. i. 33 ;
Nixusj. Boline (BoX'ivti : BoXtvaTos),a. town in Achaia,
the inhabitants of which Augustus transplanted
to Pateae.
Bolissus (BoXio-<r6s : Volissos), a town on
the W. coast of Chios.
Bomilcar (BopiXKas, BoapiXxas). 1. Com
mander, with Hanno, of the Carthaginians
against Agathocles, when the latter invaded
Africa, B.C. 310. When Hanno had faUen,
Bomilcar is said to have lost the battle pur
posely, with the object of making himself tyrant
of Carthage. This he attempted again in 308,
but failed and was crucified (Diod. xx. 10, 43 ;
Just. xxii. 7). — 2. Commander of the Carthagi
nian supplies sent to Hannibal after the battle
of Cannae, 216. He afterwards attempted to
relieve Syracuse, when besieged by MarceUus,
but was unable to accomplish anything (Liv.
xxiii. 13, 41, xxiv. 36, xxv. 25). — 3, A Numidian,
deep in the confidence of Jugurtha. When
Jugurtha was at Rome, 109, Bomilcar effected
for him the assassination of Massiva. In 107
he plotted against Jugurtha (SaU. Jug. 35, 52,
61, 70).
Bomius Mons (Bc^ios and oi Bapol), the W.
part of Mt. Oeta in Aetolia, inhabited by the
Bomienses (Bapie7s) (Thuc. iii. 94 ; Strab. p. 451).
Bona Dea, a Roman goddess of the earth
(Macrob. i. 12, 21) described as the female
counterpart of Faunus, his daughter or, in other
accounts, his wife, and washerseU caUed-FaKMO,
and identified also with Maia and Ops. She
thus represented the fruitfulness of nature and
blessed aU the gifts of the earth. Hence we
find in inscriptions the titles Bona Dea Agrestis
Felix, Bona Dea Nutrix, Pagana (G. I. L. vi.
67-74). She was also the goddess of chastity,
one of the deities specially worshipped by the
Vestals. Her temple on the Aventine was built
by the Vestal Claudia and restored by Livia
(Ov. Fast. v. 155). The festival of the dedication
of her temple was kept on the 1st of May. On
the night between the 3rd and 4th of December
(Plut. Cic. 19) the secret rites were celebrated in
the house of the consul or praetor, as the sacri
fices on that occasion were offered on behalf of
the whole Roman people. The solemnities
were conducted by the Vestals, and no male
person was aUowed to be in the house at one of
the festivals. P. Clodius profaned the sacred
ceremonies, by entering the house of Caesar in
the disguise of a woman, B.C. 62. [See
Clodius.] Offerings of first-fruits were made
during May,(and she was specially worshipped
at the Vestalia on June 9th. The story of
Hercules being denied entrance at her May
festival, when he asked for a drink of water, is
told in Propert. v. 9, Macrob. i. 12, 28. The
animal sacrificed to her was a sucking pig, and
in her temple were sacred serpents, the rem
nants of an ancient worship and perhaps
regarded as showing her oracular power.
(Hence came the story that Faunus was turned

BONIFACIUS
into a serpent.) The wine jar beside her
statue shows her as patroness of vineyards.
Bonifacius, a Roman general, governor of
Africa under Valeutinian HI. Believing that
the empress Placidia meditated his destruction,
he revolted against the emperor, and invited
Genseric, king of the Vandals, to settle in
Africa. In 430 he was reconciled to Placidia,
and attempted to drive the Vandals out of
Africa, but without success. He quitted Africa
in 481, and in 432 he died of a wound received
in combat with his rival Aetius (Procop. Bell.
Vand. i. 8).
Bonna (Bonn), a town on the left bank of the
Rhine in (jower Germany, and in the territory
of the Ubii, was a strong fortress of the Romans
and the regular quarters of a Roman legion.
Here Drusus constructed a bridge across the
Rhine (Flor. iv. 12).
Bononia (Bononiensis). 1. (Bologna), a
town in Gallia Cispadana, originaUy caUed
Felsina, was in ancient times an Etruscan
city, and the capital of N. Etruria. It after
wards f eU into the hands of the Boii, but it was
colonised by the Romans on the conquest of
the Boii, B.C. 191, and its name of Felsina was
then changed into Bononia (Liv. xxxvii. 57).
It was one of the 12 most recent Latin colonies
[see Abtmxnum] and then obtained the full
franchise. It feU into decay in the civil wars,
but it was enlarged and adorned by Augustus,
82. — 2. (Boulogne) a town in the N. of Gaul.
See Gesoeiacum. — 3. (Banostorl), a town of
Pannonia on the Danube.
Bonosns, a Spaniard by birth, served with
distinction under Aurelian, and usurped the
imperial title in Gaul in the reign of Probus.
He was defeated and slain by Probus, a.d. 280.
Bootes. (^Aectueus.]
Borbetomagus (Warms), also caUed Van-
giones, at a later time Wormatia, a town of
the Vangiones on the left bank of the Rhine in
Upper Germany.
Boreas (Bopeas or Bopas), the N. wind, or
more strictly the wind from the NNE., was, in

BOSPORUS

169

Boreas. (From the monument of CyrrheBtes at Athens.)
mythology, a son of Astraeus and Eos, and
brother of Hesperus, Zephyrus, and Notus. He
dwelt in a cave of mount Haemus in Thrace.
He carried off Orithyia, daughter of Erechtheus,
king of Attica, by whom he begot Zetes, Calais,
and Cleopatra, wife of Phineus, who are there
fore called Boreades. (Hdt. vii. 189 ; Apollod.
iii. 15, 2.) Some have seen in this story the N.
wind snatching away the more genial rain-
cloud : others regard Orithyia as a Nereid who
was later identified with an Attic princess, and
think that the rape signifies the wind driving
the waves, and that the horses of Boreas have
the same connexion. In the Persian war,
Boreas showed his friendly disposition towards

the Athenians by destroying the ships of the
barbarians. According to a Homeric tradition
(II. xx. 228), Boreas begot 12 horses by the
mares of Erichthonius, which is commonly ex
plained as a figurative mode of expressing the
extraordinary swiftness of those horses. Boreas
was worshipped at Athens, where a festival,
Boreasmi, was celebrated in his honour. [Diet.
Ant. s.v. ; see also Calais, Zetes.]
Boreum (B6peiov). 1. (Malin Head), the N.
promontory of Hibernia (Ireland) (Ptol. ii. 2).
— 2. (Bas Teyonas), a promontory on the W.
coast of Cyrenaica, forming the E. headland of
the Great Syrtis.— 3, The N. extremity of the
island of Taprobane (Ceylon) (Ptol. vii. 4).
Boreus Mons (B6peiov 6pos), a mountain in
Arcadia, on the borders of Laconia, containing
the sources of the rivere Alpheus and Eurotas.
Boreus Portus (B6peios Xipijv), a harbour in
the island of Tenedos, at the mouth of a river
of the same name.
Borsippa (rd B6po-iirira : Birs-Nimrud), a
city of Babylonia, on the W. bank of the Eu
phrates, S. of Babylon, celebrated for its manu
factures of linen, and as the chief residence of
the Chaldaean astrologers. The Greeks held it
sacred to Apollo and Artemis. (Strab. p. 738.)
Borysthenes (Bopvo-Bevns : Dnieper), after
wards Danapris, a river of European Sarmatia,
flows into the Euxine, but its sources were un
known to the ancients. Near its mouth and at
its junction with the Hypanis, lay the town
Borysthenes or Borysthenis (Kudak), also
called Olbia, Olbiopolis, and Miletopolis, a
colony of MUetus, and the most important
Greek city on the N. of the Euxine. (Ethnic,
Bopvo-Bevtrris, 'OXBioiroXiTT/s.) (Hdt. iv. 17, 53 ;
Strab. pp. 107, 289.)
Bosporus (B6o-iropos), the Ox-ford, the name
of many straits among the Greeks, but espe-
ciaUy applied to the 2 following. — 1. The
Thracian Bosporus (Channel of Constanti
nople), unites the Propontis or Sea of Marmora
with the Euxine or Black Sea. According to
the legend it was called Bosporus from Io, who
crossed it in the form of a heifer. At the
entrance of the Bosporus were the celebrated
Symplegades. Darius constructed a bridge
across the Bosporus, when he invaded Scythia.
(Strab. p. 125; Hdt.iv.85; Polyb. iv. 39.)— 2. The
Cimmerian Bosporus (Straits of Kaffa), unites
the Palus Maeotis or Sea of Azof with the
Euxine or Black Sea. It formed, with the
Tanais (Don) the boundary between Asia and
Europe, and it derived its name from the Cim-
meeh, who were supposed to have dwelt in the
neighbourhood. On the European side of the
Bosporus, the modern Crimea, the Milesians
founded the town of Panticapaeum, also called
Bosporus, and the inhabitants of Panticapaeum
subsequently founded the town of Phanagoria
on the Asiatic side of the straits. (Hdt. iv. 12,
100 ; Strab. pp. 307, 309, 494.) These cities, being
favourably situated for commerce, soon became
places of considerable importance ; and a king
dom gradually arose, of which Panticapaeum
was the capital, and which eventually included
the whole of the Crimea. The first kings we
read of were the Archaeanactidae, who reigned
42 years, from B.C. 480 to 438. They were
succeeded by Spartacus I. and his descendants.
Several of these kings were in close alliance
with the Athenians, who obtained annually a
large supply of corn from the Bosporus. The
last of these kings was Paerisades, who, being
hard pressed by the Scythians, voluntarily
ceded his dominions to Mithridates the Great.

170

BOSTAR

On the death of Mithridates, his son Pharnaces
was allowed by Pompey to succeed to the do
minion of Bosporus ; and we subsequently find
a series of kings, who reigned in the country
till king Rescuporis VIII. A.D. 336, but ac
knowledging the suzerainty of the Roman
emperors, whose image appeared on their coins :
as an instance of these rights being exercised,
the Romans freed the town of Heraclea in the
Chersonesus (Plin. iv. 85 ; cf. Procop. B. Goth.
iv. 5). In this country, especiaUy at Panti
capaeum (Kertch), there have been important
discoveries of antiquities, described by Koehne,
1857, and in more recent numbers of the Peters
burg Gompte Bendu.
Bostar (BdffTap, Bdarapos). 1. A Cartha
ginian general, who, with Hamilcar and Has-
drubal, the son of Hanno, fought against M.
Atilius Regulus, in Africa, B.C. 256, but was
defeated, taken prisoner, and sent to Rome,
where he is said to have perished in conse
quence of the barbarous treatment which he
received from the sons of Regulus (Polyb. i. 28 ;
Eutrop. ii. 21). — 2. A Carthaginian general,
under Hasdrubal, in Spain, set at liberty the
Spanish hostages kept at Saguntum (Liv. xxii.22).
Bostra (to B6arpa: 0. T. Bozrah: Boarrivis
and -aios : Busrah, Ru.), a city of Arabia, in an
Oasis of the Syrian Desert, a little more than
1° S. of Damascus. It was enlarged and beau
tified by Trajan, who made it a colony. Under
the later emperors the seat of an archbishopric.
Bottia, Bottiaea, Bottiaeis (Borria,BoTTiaia,
Borriaiis : Borridios), a district in Macedonia,
on the right bank of the river Axius, extended
in the time of Thucydides to Pieria on the W.
It contained the towns of Pella and Ichnae
near the sea. The Bottiaei were a Thracian
people, who, being driven out of the country by
the Macedonians, settled in that part of the
Macedonian Chalcidice N. of Olynthus, which
was called Bottice (Bottikt)). (Hdt. vii. 185,
viii. 127 ; Arrian, i. 2, 5.)
Boudicca. [Boadicea.]
Bovianum (Bovianius : Bojano), the chief
town of the Pentri in amnium, was taken by
the Romans in the Samnite wars, and was
colonised by Augustus with veterans (Liv. ix.
31, x. 12 ; Plin. iii. 107 ; Sil. It. viii. 566). It is
probable that the site of the ancient Samnite
city Bovianum Vetus was about 20 miles to the
N. of the Roman Bovianum, at the spot where
Pietrabbondante now stands.
Bovillae (Bovillensis), an ancient town in La
tium at the foot of the Alban mountain, on the
Appian Way about 12 mUes from Rome. Near
it Clodius was killed by Milo (b.c. 52) ; and
here was the sacrarium of the Julia gens. (Pro-
pert, iv. 1, 33 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 667 ; Mart. ii. 6, 15 ;
Tac. Ann. ii. 41, Hist. iv. 2.)
Bracara Augusta (Braga), the chief town of
the Callaici Bracarii in Hispania Tarraconensis :
at Braga there are the ruins of an amphi
theatre, aqueduct, and other buiidings.
Brachmanae or -i (Bpaxpaves), is a name
used by the ancient geographers, sometimes for
a caste of priests in India (the Brahmins),
sometimes, apparently, for all the people whose
religion was Brahminism, and sometimes for a
particular tribe (Strab. pp. 712-719; Arrian,
Anab. vii. 3 ; Cic. Tusc. v. 25).
Brachodes or Caput Vada (BpaxdSvs aKpa:
Bas Kapoudiah), a promontory on the coast of
Byzacena in N. Africa, forming the N. headland
of the Lesser Syrtis.
Brachylles or Brachyllas (BpaxvXXns, Bpa-
XtXXas), a Boeotian, supported the Macedonian

JiiiiilNll UO
interests in the reigns of Antigonus Doson and
Philip V., and was murdered in 196 at Thebes
by the Roman party in that city (Polyb. xvii. 1,
xx. 5 ; Liv. xxxiii. 27).
Branchidae (oi BpayxiSai : Jeronda, Ru.), the
priestly famUy who administered the oracle of
Apollo Didymaeus at Didyma (ra AiSvpa), a
place on the sea-coast of Ionia, a little S. of
Miletus. This oracle, which the Ionians held
in the highest esteem, was said to have been
founded by Branchus, son of ApoUo or Smicrus
of Delphi, and a Milesian woman, and the
Branchidae were his reputed descendants. They
delivered up the treasures of the temple to
Darius or Xerxes ; and, when Xerxes returned
from Greece, the Branchidae, fearing the re
venge of the Greeks, begged him to remove
them to a distant part of his empire. They
were accordingly settled in Bactria or Sogdiana,
where their descendants are said to have been
punished by Alexander for the treason of
their forefathers. The temple, caUed Didy-
maeum, which was destroyed by Xerxes, was
rebuilt, and its ruins contain some beautiful
specimens of the Ionic order of architecture.
(Hdt. i. 157, vi. 19; Strab. pp. 517, 634; Paus.
vii. 2 ; Diet, of Antiq. s.v. Oraculum.)
Branchus (Bpdyxos). [Branchidae.]
Brannovices. [Aulerci.]
Brasidas (Bpao-iSas), son of Tellis, the most
eminent Spartan in the first part of the Pelo
ponnesian war. He distinguished himself first
in the relief of Methone B.C. 431, and was soon
after made ephor (Thuc. ii. 25, 93 ; Xen. Hell.
ii. 8, 10) : afterwards, at Sphacteria, he was
wounded in the attempt to land, B.C. 425. In
b.c. 424, at the head of a smaU force, he effected
a dexterous march through the hostile country
of Thessaly, and joined Perdiccas of Macedonia,
who had promised co-operation agamst the
Athenians. By his military skin, and the confi
dence which his character inspired, he gained
possession of many of the cities in Macedonia
subject to Athens ; his greatest acquisition was
AmphipoUs. In 422 he gained a brilliant victory
over Cleon, who had been sent, with an Athe
nian force, to recover AmphipoUs, but he was
slain in the battle. He was buried within the
city, and the inhabitants honoured him as a
hero, by yearly sacrifices and games. (Thuc. iv.
78, 120, v. 6; Diod. xii. 72; Paus. iii. 14; Diet.
of Ant. s.v. Brasideia.)
Bratuspantinm (Breteuil), a town of the
BeUovaci in GaUia Belgica (Caes. B. G.H.1S).
Brauron (Bpavpav : Bpavpdvios : Vraona or
Vrana), a demus in Attica on the E. coast on
the river Erasmus, with a celebrated temple of
Artemis, who was hence called Brauronia, and
in whose honour the festival Brauronia was cele
brated inttiis place. [Artemis.]
Bregetio (nr. Szony, Ru., E. of Comorn), a
Roman municipium in Lower Pannonia on the
Danube, where Valeutinian I. died (Amm.
Mare. xxx. 5).
Brennus (=chief or petty prince). 1. The
leader of the Senonian Gauls, who in B.C. 390
crossed the Apennines, defeated the Romans at
the AUia, and took Rome. After besieging the
Capitol for 6 months, he quitted the city upon
receiving 1000 pounds of gold as a ransom for
the Capitol, and returned home safe with his
booty. (Polyb. ii. 18.) The version of this in
popular legends was that Camillas and a Ro
man army appeared at the moment that the
gold was being weighed, that Brennus was de
feated by Camillus, and that he himself and
his whole army were slain to a man (Liv. v.

BREUCI
83; Plut. Cam, 14; Just. vi. 6; Dionys. xiii. 7).
— 2. The chief leader of the Gauls who invaded
Macedonia and Greece, B.C. 280, 279. In 280
Ptolemy Ceraunus was defeated by the Gauls
under Belgius and slain in battle ; and Brennus
in the following year penetrated into the S. of
Greece, but he was defeated near Delphi by the
Greeks, who hurled down rocks upon them in
the midst of a violent storm, aided, as tradition
asserted, by Apollo himself : most of his men
were -slain, and he himself put an end to his
own life. (Paus. x. 19-22 ; Just. xxiv. 6-8.)
Breuei, a powerful people of Pannonia in the
district between the Save and the Drave, took
an active part in the insurrection of the Panno-
nians and Dalmatians against the Romans,
a.d. 6 (Strab. p. 314 ; Dio Cass. Iv. 29).
Breuni, or Breones, a Rhaetian people, dwelt
in the Tyrol near the Brenner. They were
among the tribes conquered in the reign of
Augustus (Plin. iii. 136; Strab. p. 206; Hor.
Od. iv. 14, 11).
Briareus, [Aegeon.]
Bricinniae (BpiKivviai), a place in Sicily not
far from Leontini.
Brigantes, the most powerful of the British
tribes, inhabited the whole of the N. of the
island from the Abus (Humber) to the Roman
Wall, with the exception of the SE. corner of
Yorkshire, which was inhabited by the Parish.
The Brigantes consequently inhabited the
greater part of Yorkshire, and the whole of
Lancashire, Durham, Westmoreland, and Cum
berland. Their capital was Ebobacum. The
Romans found them hard to subdue : they were
reduced by PetUius Cerealis in the reign of
Vespasian (Tac. Ann. xii. 32, Hist. iii. 45,
Agr. 17), but not thoroughly conquered tiU
Hadrian's reign. — There was also a tribe of
Brigantes in the S. of Ireland, between the
rivers Birgus (Barrow) and Dabrona (Black-
water), in the counties of Waterford and Tip-
perary (Ptol. ii. 2, 7).
Brigantii, a tribe in VindeUcia on the lake
Brigantinus, noted for their robberies ; their
chief town was Brigantium (Bregenz).
Brigantinus Lacus (Bodensee or Lake of
Constance), also caUed Venetus and Acronius,
through which the Rhine flows, was inhabited
by the Helvetii on the S., by the Rhaetii on the
SE., and by the Vindelici on the N. Near an
island on it, probably Beichenau, Tiberius
defeated the Vindelici in a naval engagement.
(Plin. ix. 63; Strab. pp. 192, 207, 292, 313;
Mela, iii. 2 ; Amm. Marc. xv. 4).
Brigantium. 1. (Briancon), a town of the
Segusiani in Gaul at the foot of the Cottian
Alps and the pass of Mount Genevre, which
was probably the pass crossed by Hannibal. If
so, the rock on which the present forts are
placed is probably the XevKuirerpov of Polybius
(iii. 53). At Brigantium the road branched, the
older and easier foUowing the valley of the
Durance to Vapincum (Gap); the later road,
certainly not foUowed by Hannibal, is the
more direct route to the valley of the Isere,
Grenoble and Vienna (Vienne), and was used
by the Romans in and after the time of Caesar,
but it involved crossing the Col de Lauteret,
higher than the Genevre itself, between Brigan
tium and the valley of the Isere (Strab. p. 179 ;
Itin.). — 2. (Corunna), a seaport town of the
Lucenses in Gallaecia in Spain, with a light
house, which is stiU used for the same purpose,
having been repaired in 1791, and which is now
caUed La Torre de Hercules (Ptol. ii. 6, 4 ;
Oros. ii. 2). — 3. (Bregenz.) [Briganth.]

BRITANNIA 171
Brilessus (BpiXrio-o-6s), a mountain in Attica.
NE. of Athens.
Brimo (Bpipd), ' the angry or the terrifying,'
a surname of Hecate and Pei-Bephone.
Briniates, a people in Liguria S. of the Po,
near the modern Brignolo (Liv. xii. 19).
Briseis (Bpi<r?j/s), daughter of Brises of Lyr-
nessus, fell into the hands of AchiUes, but was
seized by Agamemnon. Hence arose the feud
between the two heroes. [Achilles.] Her pro
per name was Hippodamia (Schol. II. i. 392).
Britannia (7) BperraviKr) or BperaviKi), 7)
Bperravia or Bperavia : Bperravot, Bperavol [also
IlpeT-] : Britanni, Brittones), the island of Eng
land and Scotland, which was also called
Albion ("AXBiov, 'AXovtav, Insula Albionum).
Htbebnia or Ireland is usually spoken of as a
separate island, but is sometimes included
under the general name of the Insulae Britan-
nicae (BperaviKal vr)aoi), which also compre
hended the smaller islands around the coaBt of
Great Britain. The name Bepyiov (if that read
ing is correct) in the earliest Greek writer who
mentions this country (Pytheas), was derived
from Celtic mariners, and probably represents
Vergyn= Western. It was afterwards in the
form Ierne confined to Ireland. The name Bri
tannia first occurs as the Bperavvoi in [Aristot.]
irepl Kuapov, written probably about 200 B.C.,
and next in Polybius, iii. 57. It represents the
name used in the Gaelic language, Brythonr
of which the derivation is probably brith,
'painted,' from the custom which the inhabi
tants had of staining their bodies with a blue
colour. The name Albion is by some supposed
to describe the white cliffs of Dover : , it more
probably is an old Celtic word, Alba-inn (cf.
Alpes), signifying 'mountainous ' : but the de
rivation and original use of the word are un
certain. — In history andnationality these islands.
had agreed with the neighbouring continent of
Gaul. In pre-historic times the inhabitants
were probably Iberian (a fact which Tacitus sur
mised when he noticed Iberian characteristics
in the Silures, Agric. 11) ; but the Britons of
whom we have earliest record_were various
branches of the Celtic race. Their manners
and customs were in general the same as those
of the Gauls ; but, separated more than the
Gauls from intercourse with civilised nations,
they preserved the Celtic religion in a purer
state than in Gaul, and hence Druidism,
according to Caesar, was transplanted from
Gaul to Britain. The Britons also retained
many of the barbarous Celtic customs, which
the more civilised Gauls had laid aside, although
they had a coinage earlier than B.C. 100. They
painted their bodies with a blue colour extracted
from woad, in order to appear more terrible in
battle, and Caesar even states that they had
wives in common. The Belgae had crossed
over from Gaul, and settled on the S. and E.
coasts, driving the Britons into the interior of
the island. It was not till a late period that
the Greeks and Romans obtained any know
ledge of Britain. There is great reason to
doubt whether it is correct to state that the
Phoenicians visited the Scilly islands and the
coast of Cornwall for the purpose of obtaining
tin. It is more likely that the Tin Islands were
off the N. coast of Spain. [Cassiteeides.] At
the time when Caesar landed, the Cornish tin
was brought by land to the coast of Kent and
Hants, and thence by the trade route through
Gaul. (Caes. B. G. v. 12 ; Diod. v. 22.) The.
first certain knowledge which the Greeks ob
tained of Britain was from the merchants of

172

BRITANNIA

Massilia about the time of Alexander the Great,
and especially from the voyages of Pytheas,
who sailed round a great part of Britain. From
this time it was generally believed that the
island was in the form of a triangle, an error
which continued to prevail even at a later
period. Another important mistake, which like
wise prevailed for a long time, concerned the posi
tion of Britain in relation to Gaul and Spain. As
the NW. coast of Spain was supposed to extend
too far to the N., and the W. coast of Gaul to
run NE., the lower part of Britain was believed
to lie between Spain and Gaul. (For descrip
tion of Britain and its inhabitants see especially
Caes. B. G. iv. 33, v. 12; Strab. pp. 124-116,
199-201 ; Mela, iii. 6 ; Plin. iv. 102 ; Tac. Agr.
10-13.) The arrangement of territory, as the
Romans found it, was roughly as foUows : — the
Cantii in Kent, the Regni in Sussex ; the Belgae
in Hants, Wilts, and part of Somerset ; the Duro-
triges in Dorset and W. Somerset ; the Dum-
nonii in Devon and Cornwall ; the Dobuni in
Gloucester ; the Atrebates in Oxford and
Berks ; the CataveUauni in Herts, Cambridge,
and Rutland; the Trinobantes in Essex and
Suffolk; the Iceni in Norfolk; Coritani in
Lincoln ; Parish on the Humber ; to the east
¦of these two the Cornovii; in the country
between the Humber and Hadrian's Wall the
Brigantes ; in North Wales the Ordovices ; in
S. Wales the Silures and Demetae. The Ro
mans first became personaUy acquainted with
the island by Caesar's invasion. He twice landed
in Britain (b.c 55, 54), and though on the
second occasion he overran the greater part of
the SE. of the island, yet he did not take per
manent possession, imposing only a nominal
tribute ; and the Britons continued practically
as independent as before (Caes. B. G. iv. 20, v.
¦5). The Romans at that time regarded it as a
poor island hardly worth the conquest (Cic. Att.
iv. 18, Fam. vii. 7), and made no further at
tempts to conquer it for nearly 100 years, though
Strabo (p. 200) mentions some communication
with the British chieftains. In the reign of
Claudius (a.d. 43) they again landed in Britain,
and permanently subdued the southern parts of
the island (Suet. Claud. 17, Vesp. 4 ; Dio Cass.
Ix. 19 ; Tac. Agr. 18 ; C. I. L. vi. 920). They
probably soon extended their conquests as far
as Yorkshire, but had to crush frequent re
volts. The great victory (61) of Suetonius Pau
linus over the Britons who had revolted under
Boudicca, still further consolidated the Roman
dominions. In the reign of Vespasian, Peti-
lius Cerealis and Julius Frontinus made several
successful expeditions against the Silubes and
the Brigantes; and the conquest of S. Britain
was consolidated by Agricola, who in 7 cam
paigns (78-84), overran the whole of the island
as far N. as the Frith of Forth and the Clyde,
between which he erected a series of forts to
protect the Roman dominions from the incur
sions of the barbarians in the N. of Scotland
(Tac. Agr. 8-38, Ann. xiv.' 29-39). The Roman
part of Britain was now called Britannia Bo-
mana, and the N. part, inhabited by the Cale
donians, Britannia Barbara or Caledonia.
The Romans, however, gave up the N. con
quests of Agricola in the reign of Hadrian, who,
about 123 a.d., built a stone wall from New
castle to Carlisle, which formed the N. boun
dary of their dominions. In the reign of Anto
ninus Pius the Romans extended their boundary
as far as the conquests of Agricola, and erected
a turf-built rampart connecting the Forth and
the Clyde, the remains of which are now called

Grimes Dyke, Grime in the Celtic language
signifying great or powerful. The Caledonians
afterwards broke through this wall ; and in con
sequence of their repeated devastations of the
Roman dominions, the emperor Severus went
to Britain in 208, in order to conduct the war
against them in person. He died in the island
at Eboracum (York) in 211. After the death of
Severus, the Romans probably relinquished for
ever all their conquests N. of Hadrian's wall. In
287 Carausius assumed the purple in Britain, and
reigned as emperor, independent of Diocletian
and Maximian, till
his assassination
by Allectus in 293.
Allectus reigned 3
years, and Britain
was recovered for
the Empire in 296.
Upon the resig
nation of the em
pire by Diocle
tian and Maximian
(305), Britain feU to
the share of Con
stantius, who died
at Eboracum in 306,
and his son Con
stantine assumed
in the island the
title of Caesar.
Shortly afterwards
the Caledonians,
who now appear
under the name of
Picts and Scots,
broke through the
wall of Severus,
the Saxons ravaged
the SE. coasts of
Britain, and the
declining power of
the Roman empire
was unable to af
ford the province
any effectual assis
tance. In the reign
of Valentinian I.,
Theodosius, the
father of the em
peror of that name,
defeated the Picts
and Scots (367) ;
but in the reign of
Honorius, Constan
tine, who had been
proclaimed empe
ror in Britain (407),
withdrew all the
Roman troops from
the island, in order
to make himself
master of Gaul.
The Britons were
thus left exposed
to the ravages of

the Picts and Scots, and at length, in 447, they
caUed in the assistance of the Saxons, who be
came the masters of Britain.— Caledonia, which
appears to mean ' forest country,' was not occu
pied by the Romans beyond the walls above
mentioned. — The Roman dominions of Britain
formed a single province till the time of
Severus, and were governed by a legatus of the
emperor, with whom was a procurator. Seve
rus divided the country into 2 provinces, Bri
tannia Superior and Inferior, of which the latter

BRITANNICUS
perhaps contained the earlier conquests of the
Romans in the S. of the island, and the former
the later conquests in the N., the territories of
the Silures, Brigantes, &c. (Herodian, iii. 8, 2 ; cf .
Dio Cass. Iv. 23). Upon the new division of the
provinces in the reign of Diocletian, Britain
was governed by a Vicarius (who resided usu
ally at Eboracum) subject to the Praefectus
Praetorio of Gaul, and was divided into 4 pro
vinces : Britannia Prima, probably the coun
try S. of the Thames, and three others, of which
the limits are uncertain, viz. : Britannia Se-
cunda, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia
Caesariensis. Besides these, there was also a
fifth province, Valentia, which existed for a
short time, including the conquests of Theodo
sius beyond the Roman waU. — The only colonies
in Britain were Camulodunum (Colchester) in
the east, sometimes caUed simply Colonia, and
Glevum (Gloucester) in the west ; Lindum (Lin
coln) and Eboracum (York). Of these colonies
the capital was at first Camulodunum, but
afterwards Eboracum, while the other three
retained comparatively little importance. The
occupation being chiefly military, the most im
portant towns were the three great fortresses,
Eboracum, Deva (Chester), and Isca (Caerleon).
Other considerable places were Verulamium
(St. Albans), a municipium : Londinium, fa
mous for its commerce, and Aquae Sohs (Bath),
as a watering-place. The foUowing among the
native towns also deserve notice : Viroconium
(Wroxeter) and CaUeva (Silchester), both fa
mous, and especially the latter, for the excava
tions which afford a complete ground-plan of
the Roman town ; Venta Belgarum (Winches
ter), Regnum (Chichester), Durovernum (Can
terbury). The harbours for crossing to Gaul
were Rutupiae (Bichborough), Portus Dubris
(Dover), Portus Lemanae (Lympne). The
chief minerals worked in Roman times con
sisted of lead in the Mendips and in Flint ; iron
in Sussex and Forest of Dean ; copper in N.
Wales, and tin in CornwaU ; but there are no
traces of Roman workings in the Cornish tin-
mines before the fourth century a.d. Some
little gold was also found in Wales.
Britannicus (Claudius Tiberius Britannicus
Caesar), son of the emperor Claudius and Mes-
salina, was born A.D. 42. He was brought up
with Titus as companion, who afterwards put
up a golden statue to him in memory of his
youthful friendship (Suet. Tit. 2). He was
treated more as a state prisoner, when Agrip
pina, the second wife of Claudius, induced the
emperor to adopt her own son, and give him
precedence over Britannicus. This son, the
emperor Nero, ascended the throne in 54. When
Agrippina found that her son revolted from her
control, she induced Britannicus to lend his
name to a movement against Nero, who caused
him to be poisoned in 55. With him ended
the Claudian line. (Tac. Ann. xii. 25, 41, xiii.
14; Suet. Ner. 33 : Dio Cass.lx. 32.)
Britomartis (Bpir6papris). The name is
said to mean 'the sweet maiden' or the
'maiden who brings blessings' (Solin. 11.;
Hesych.) . She was a Cretan deity presiding over
the natural gifts of the earth, the fruits of the
soil as well as of hunting and fishing. From
the last attribute she was known also as
Dictynna, i.e. the goddess of the nets (S'iktvov).
When the Doric colonists absorbed her worship
into that of Artemis, whom she resembled,
they transformed the native deity into a nymph
favoured by Artemis, explaining the name
Dictynna by the story that she was a Cretan

BRUNDUSIUM

173

nymph, daughter of Zeus and Carme, and
beloved by Minos, who pursued her 9 months,
tiU at length she leaped into the sea from a
rock, was saved by falling into some nets spread
out below, and was changed by Artemis to a
goddess (Paus. ii. 80, 3; Strab. p. 479; Ant.
Lib. 40 ; CaUimach. Dian. 200 ; Eur. I.T. 126;
Verg. Cir. 301). Some have fancied an allu
sion to the setting of the moon in this leap into
the sea, and take her to have been a moon
goddess under her other name Aphaea, which
she bore specially at Aegina (Paus. I.e.). Her
worship was carried not only to islands and
coasts of the Aegean, but even to Marseilles
(G. I. G. 6764) ; whence the story of her wan
derings in Anton. Lib.
Brixellum (Brixellanus : Bregella or Bre-
scella), a town on the Po in Gallia Cisalpina,
where the emperor Otho put himself to death,
a.d. 69 (Tac. Hist. ii. 88, 39, 51).
Brixia (Brixianus : Brescia), a town in Gallia
Cisalpina on the road from Comum to Aquileia,
through which the river Mella flowed (flavus
quam molli percurrit flumine Mella, Catull.
lxvii. 83). It was probably founded by the
Etruscans, was afterwards a town of the Libui
(&pagus or head of a community of villages),
and then of the Cenomani, and finally became
a Roman municipium, and, under Augustus, a
colony (Strab. p. 213 ; PUn. iii. 138 ; Liv. v. 35,
xxxii. 30 ; OreU. 66). It was sacked by Attila
in 452, but recovered and flourished under the
Lombards. Bromius (BpSpios), a surname of Dionysus.
Brontes. [Cyclopes.]
Bruchium. [Alexandria.]
Bructeri, a people of Germany, dwelt on each
side of the Amisia (Ems) and extended S. as
far as the Luppia (Lippe) (Strab. p. 290 ; Tac.
Ann. xiii. 55). The Bructeri joined the Batavi
in their revolt against the Romans in a.d. 69,
and the prophetic virgin, Veleda, who had so
much influence among the German tribes, was
a native of their country. A few years after
wards the Bructeri were almost annihilated by
the Chamavi and Angrivarii. (Tac. Hist. iv. 61,
Germ. 33 ; Plin. Ep. ii. 7.)
Brundusium or Brundisium iBpevrr)o-iov,
Bpevreaiov : Brundusinus : Brindisi), a town in

Plan of Brundusium.
A A, inner harbour ; B, outer harbour ; C entrance which
Caesar tried to block ; D, modern town of Brindisi ;
E, islets of Barra (S. Andrea).
Calabria, on a small bay of the Adriatic, form
ing an exceUent harbour (mentioned in Hero
dotus iv. 99), to which the place owed its im-

174 BRUTTIUM
portance. The outer harbour was sheltered by
the islets of Barra, on which stood a lighthouse
(Mel. ii. 7) : from this a narrow channel led into
the inner harbour, formed by two arms running
inland. The Appia Via terminated at Brundu
sium, and it was the usual place of embarkation

Coin of Brundusium.
Cbv., head of Poseidon : behind, mark of value S (Semis) ;
before, magistrate's initials; rev., Taras on Dolphin:
mark of value and initials of city ; struck 2nd cent. B.C.
for Greece and the East. Hence it was the
scene of numerous historical incidents, of which
one of the most important was the attempt of
Caesar to block up the entrance to the inner
port, so as to prevent the departure of Pompey's
fleet (Caes. B. C. i. 24-28). It was an ancient
town of the Sallentines, and probably not of
Greek origin, although.its foundation is ascribed
by some writers to the Cretans, and by others
to Diomede (Just. xii. 2 ; but cf. Strab. p. 282 ;
Lucan, ii. 610). It was at first governed by
Icings of its own, but was conquered and colo
nised by the Romans, B.C. 245. The poet Pacu-
vius was born at this town, and Virgil died here
on his return from Greece, B.C. 19.
Bruttium, Bruttius and Bruttiorum Ager
(BpeTTta : Bruttius), more usually called Bruttii
after the inhabitants, the S. extremity of Italy,
separated from Lucania by a line drawn from
the mouth of the Laus to Thurii, and sur
rounded on the other 3 sides by the sea. It
was the country called in ancient times Oeno-
tria and Italia. The country is mountainous,
as the Apennines run through it down to the
Sicilian Straits ; it contained excellent pastu
rage for cattle, and the valleys produced good
corn, olives, and fruit. — The earliest inhabi
tants of the country were Oenotrians, a Pe
lasgian people from whom, with an admixture
of Samnite invaders, came the Lucanians.
Subsequently some Lucanians, who had re
volted from their countrymen in Lucania, took
possession of the mountainous district, and
were hence caUed Bruttii or Brettii, which word
is said to mean fugitives or rebels in the
language of the Lucanians. This people, how
ever, inhabited only the interior of the land ;
the coast was almost entirely in the possession
of the Greek colonies. They rose to greater
power about 356 B.C., and conquered the Greek
¦cities of Hipponium, Terina, and Thurii (Diod.
xvi. 15 ; Strab. p. 255). Hence they had a
considerable admixture of Greek in race and
language, and are called ' bilingues ' by Ennius.
They joined the Lucanians in repelling Alex
ander of Epirus, B.C. 326, and the Samnites
against Rome (Liv. Ep. 12) ; and though re
duced by the Romans after the defeat of
Pyrrhus, they rose again and joined Hannibal
after Cannae (Liv. xxii. 61). At the close of
the 2nd Punic war, in which the Bruttii had
been the aUies of Hannibal, they lost their inde
pendence and were treated by the Romans with
great severity. It is said by some that the
Bruttiani or public slaves employed as lictors
and servants of magistrates (Appian, Ann. 61 ;
Strab. p. 251 ; Gell. x. 3) originated in this
punishment : others think that the institution

BRUTUS
was probably older, and that the connexion with
measures taken after the Punic war was a later
invention (see Diet. Ant. s.v. Bruttiani). Under
Diocletian, Bruttii and Lucania were joined as
the 3rd region under the Vicarius Urbia, with a
Corrector immediately in charge.
Brutus, Junius. 1. L., son of M. Junius and
of Tarquinia, the sister of Tarquinius Superbus.
His elder brother was murdered by Tarquinius,
and Lucius escaped his brother's fate only by
feigning idiotcy, whence he received the sur
name of Brutus. After Lucretia had stabbed
herself, Brutus roused the Romans to expel the
Tarquins ; and upon the banishment of the
] atter he was elected first consul with Tarquinius
Collatinus. He loved his country better than
his children, and put to death his 2 sons, who
had attempted to restore the Tarquins. He feU
in battle the same year, fighting against Aruns,
the son of Tarquinius. Brutus was the great
hero in the legends about the expulsion of the
Tarquins, but we have no means of determining
what part of the account is historical. (Liv. i.
56-60, ii. 1 ; Dionys. iv. 67, v. 1 ; Macrob. ii. 16 ;
Dio Cass. xiii. 45.) — 2. D., surnamed Scaeva,
magister equitum to the dictator Q. Pubhlius
Philo, B.C. 339, and consul in 325, when he
fought against the Vestini (Liv. viii. 12). — 3. D.,
surnamed Scaeva, consul 292, conquered the
Faliscans (Liv. x. 43). — 4. M., tribune of the
plebs 195, praetor 191, when he dedicated the
temple of the Great Idaean Mother, one of the
ambassadors sent into Asia 189, and consul 178,
when he subdued the Istri. He was one of the
ambassadors sent into Asia in 171. (Liv. xxxiv.
1, xxxvii. 55, xii. 9, xiii. 5, xliii. 16.). — 5. P., tri
bune of the plebs 195, curule aedile 192, praetor
190, propraetor in Further Spain, 189 (Liv.
xxxiv. 1, xxxvii. 50). — 6. D., surnamed Gallae-
cus (Callaecus) or Callaicus, consul 138,
commanded in Further Spain, and conquered
a great part of Lusitania. From his victory
over the GaUaeci he obtained his surname.
(Liv. Ep. 55 ; Appian, Hist. 71 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 5.)
He was a patron of the poet L. Accius, and well
versed in Greek and Roman hterature (Cic.
Brut. 28). — 7. D., son of No. 6, consul 77, and
husband of Sempronia, who carried on an
intrigue with Catiline (Sail. Cat. 40). — 8. D.,
adopted by A. Postumius Albinus, consul 99,
and hence caUed Brutus Albinus. He served
under Caesar in Gaul and in the civil war. He
commanded Caesar's fleet at the siege of Mas-
silia, 49, and was afterwards placed over Further
Gaul. On his return to Rome Brutus was
promised the praetorship and the government
of Cisalpine Gaul for 44. Nevertheless, he
joined the conspiracy against Caesar. After
the death of the latter (44) he went into Cis
alpine Gaul, which he refused to surrender to
Antony, who had obtained this province from
the people. Antony made war against him, and
kept him besieged in Mutina, till the siege was
raised in April 43 by the consuls Hirtius and
Pansa, and Octavianus. But Brutus only ob
tained a short respite. Antony was preparing
to march against him from the N. with a large
army, and Octavianus, who had deserted the
senate, was marching against him from the S.
His only resource was flight, but he was be
trayed by Camillus, a Gaulish chief, and was
put to death by Antony 43. (Caes. B. G. iii. 11,
B. C. i. 36, 45 ; App. B. C. iii. 97 ; Dio Cass.
xlvi. 53; Cic. ad Fam. xi. 5, 6, 13.). — 9. M,,
praetor 88, belonged to the party of Marius, and
put an end to his own life in 82, that he might
not fall into the hands of Pompey, who com-

BRYANIUM
manded Sulla's fleet. — 10. L,, also called Da-
masippus, praetor 82, when the younger Marius
was blockaded at Praeneste, put to death at
Rome by order of Marius several of the moBt
eminent senators of the opposite party (Appian,
B. C. i. 88).— 11. M., married Servilia, the half-
sister of Cato of Utica. He was tribune of the
plebs, 83 ; and in 77 he espoused the cause of
Lepidus, and was placed in command of the
forces in Cisalpine Gaul, where he was slain by
command of Pompey (Appian, B. C. ii. 111). —
12. M., the so-caUed tyrannicide, son of No. 11
and ServUia, the half-sister of Cato Uticensis.
He lost his father when he was only 8 years
old, and was trained by his uncle Cato in the
principles of the aristocratical party. He was
adopted by his uncle, Q. Servilius Caepio, as his
heir ; hence he sometimes appears as Q. Caepio
Brutus. Accordingly, on the breaking out of
the civU war, 49, he joined Pompey, although
he was the murderer of his father. After the
battle of Pharsaha, 48, he was not only pardoned
by Caesar, but received from him the greatest
marks of confidence and favour. Caesar made
him governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 46, and
praetor in 44, and also promised him the go
vernment of Macedonia. But notwithstanding
aU the obhgations he was under to Caesar, he
was persuaded by Cassius to murder his bene
factor under the delusive idea of again establish
ing the republic. [Caesar.] After the murder
of Caesar Brutus spent a short time in Italy,
and then took possession of the province of
Macedonia. He was joined by Cassius, who
commanded in Syria, and their united forces
were opposed to those of Octavian and Antony.
Two battles were fought in the neighbourhood
of Philippi (42), in the former of which Brutus
was victorious though Cassius was defeated, but
in the latter Brutus also was defeated and put
an end to his own life. — Brutus's wife was
Porcia, the daughter of Cato. — Brutus was an
ardent student of Uterature and philosophy, but
he appears to have been deficient in judgment
and original power. He wrote several works,
aU of which have perished. He was a literary
friend of Cicero, who dedicated to him his Tuscu-
lanae Disputationes, De Finibus, and Orator,
and who has given the name of Brutus to his
dialogue on illustrious orators. (Plut. Brut ;
Dio Cass. xliv. 12-35 ; Appian, B. C. ii., iii., iv.)
Bryanium, a town of Paeonia in Macedonia
(Liv. xxxi. 39 ; Strab. p. 327).
Bryaxis (Bpva^is), an Athenian sculptor,
about 350 B.C. He was employed, along with
Scopas, Leochares, and Timotheus, for the
sculptures which adorned the sides of the Mau
soleum (see Diet. Antiq. s.v. Mausoleum).
Brygi or Bryges (Bpvyoi, Bpiyes), a barbarous
people in the N. of Macedonia, probably of
Hlyrian or Thracian origin, who were stUl in
Macedonia at the time of the Persian war. The
Phrygians were believed by the ancients to have
been a portion of this people, who emigrated to
Asia in early times. (Phrygia.]
Bryseae (Bpvo-eai), a town of Laconia, SW. of
Sparta (II. ii. 583 ; Paus. iii. 20).
Bubassus (BiBao-aos), an ancient city of Caria,
E. of Cnidus, which gave name to the bay (Bu-
bassius Sinus) and the peninsula (7) Xepo-ovTJiros
r) Bv$ao-o-lri), on which it stood (Hdt. i. 174;
Diod. v. 62; Plin. v. 104). Ovid speaks of
Bubdsides nurus (Met. ix. 643).
Bubastis (BovBao-ris), the Egyptian goddess
Bast, whose name has been confused with Pa-
Bast, i.e. the house of Bast. The Greeks identi
fied her with Artemis, since she was the goddess

BUPRASIUM 175
of the moon, and also of childbirth. The cat
was sacred to her, and she was represented in
the form of a cat, or of a female with the head
of a cat. (Hdt. ii. 59, 187, 156 ; Ov. Met. v. 380.)
Bubastis or -US (BoiS/3a<TTis or -os : BovBao-rl-
rtis : Tel Basta, Ru.), strictly ' the house of
Bast ' (see above), the PibeBeth of the Bible,
was the capital of the Nomos Bubastites in
Lower Egypt, stood on the E. bank of the Pelu-
siao branch of the Nile, and was the chief seat
of the worship of Bubastis, whose annual festival
was kept here. It was the capital of the 22nd
Dynasty, 966-766 B.C. Under the Persians the
city was dismantled, and lost much of its im
portance. (Hdt. ii. 59, 137 ; Strab. p. 805.)
Bubona. [Epona.]^
Bubulcus, C. Junius (C. Junius Bubulcus
Brutus), consul B.C. 817, a second time in 313,
and a third time in 311 ; in the last of these
years he carried on the war against the Sam
nites with great success. He was censor in
309, and dictator in 302, when he defeated the
Aequians ; in his dictatorship he dedicated the
temple of Safety which he had vowed in his
third consulship. The walls of this temple were
adorned with paintings by C. Fabius Pictor.
(Liv. ix. 88, x. 1 ; Val. Max. viii. 14 ; Plin.'
xxxv. 19.)
Bucephala or -ia (BovKerpaXa or -dXeia : Jhe-
lum), a city on the Hydaspes (Jhelum) in N.
India (the Punjab), built by Alexander, after
his battle with Porus, in memory of his fa
vourite charger Bucephalus, whom he buried
here. It stood at the place where Alexander
crossed the river. (Arrian, Anab. v. 19 ; Curt.
ix. 3, 23 ; Diod. xvii. 95.)
Bucephalus (BovKecpaXos), the celebrated
horse of Alexander the Great, which Philip
purchased for thirteen talents, and which no
one was able to break in except the youthful
Alexander. This horse carried Alexander
through his Asiatic campaigns, and died in
India B.C. 327. (Plut. Alex. 6, 61.)
Budalia, a town in Lower Pannonia near
Sirmium, the birth-place of the emperor Decius.
Budini (BovSlvoi), a Scythian people, who
dwelt N. of the Bastarnae in Sarmatia. Hero
dotus (iv. 108) caUs the nation yXavK6v re Kal
irvpp6v, which some interpret ' with blue eyes
and red hair,' and others ' painted blue and
red.' The former view is the more likely, and
they were probably a Slavonian race, dweUing
about the Borysthenes (Dnieper).
Budoron (BovSopov), a fortress in Salamis on
a promontory of the same name opposite

Bulis (BovXis) and Sperthias (SirepBiris), two
Spartans, voluntarily went to Xerxes and offered
themselves for punishment to atone for the
murder of the heralds whom Darius had sent
to Sparta ; but they were dismissed uninjured
by the king (Hdt. vii. 134).
Bulis (BovXis : BovXios), a town in Phocis on
the Corinthian gulf, and on the borders of
Boeotia (Paus. x. 37 ; Strab. pp. 409, 423).
Bullis (Bullinus, Bullio -onis, Bulliensis), a
town of Illyria on the coast, S. of Apollonia
(StraKp. 316).
Bupalus and his brother Athenis, sculptors
of Chios, lived about B.C. 500, and are said to
have made caricatures of the poet Hipponax,
which the poet requited by the bitterest satires
(Plin. xxxvi. 11; Hor. Epod. vi. 14).
Buphras (Bovrppds), a mountain in Messenia
near Pylos.
Buprasium (Bovirpdo-iov : -ffievs, -aiav,
-o-'iSris), an ancient town in Elis, mentioned in

176

BURA

the Iliad, which had disappeared in the time of
Strabo (II. ii. 615 ; Strab. p. 340).
Bura (Bovpa : Bovpaios, Bovpios), one of the
twelve cities of Achaia, destroyed by an earth
quake, together with Helice, but subsequently
rebuilt (Hdt. i. 145 ; Strab. p. 386 ; Paus. vii. 25).
Burdlgala (BovpSiyaXa : Bordeaux), the
capital of the Bituriges Vivisci in Aquitania, on
the left bank of the Garumna (Garonne), was a
place of great commercial importance, and at a
later time one of the chief seats of literature
and learning : under Diocletian the chief town
of Aquitania Secunda. It was the birthplace
of the poet Ausonius. (Strab. p. 190 ; Auson.
Ord. Nob. Urb. 14 ; Amm. Marc. xv. 11.)
Burgundiones or Burgundii, a powerful
nation of Germany, dwelt originaUy between
the Viadus (Oder) and the Vistula, and were of
the same race as the Vandals or Goths. They
pretended, indeed, to be descendants of the
Romans, whom Drusus and Tiberius had left
in Germany as garrisons, but this descent was
evidently invented by them to obtain more
easily from the Romans a settlement W. of the
Rhine (Amm. Marc, xviii. 5). They were driven
out of their original abodes between the Oder
and the Vistula by the Gepidae, and the greater
part of them migrated W. and settled in the
country on the Main, where they carried on
frequent wars with their neighbours the Ale-
manni. In the fifth century they settled W. of
the Alps in Gaul, where they founded the
powerful kingdom of Burgundy. Their chief
towns were Geneva and Lyons. (Zosim. i. 27,
68 ; Oros. vii. 32.)
Burii, a people of Germany, dwelt near the
sources of the Oder and Vistula, and sided with
the Romans in the wars of Trajan against the
Dacians, and of M. Aurelius against the Marco
manni (Tac. Germ. 43; Dio Cass, lxviii. 8,
lxxi. 18).
Burrus, Afranius, was appointed by Claudius
praefectus praetorio, a.d. 52, and in conjunc
tion with Seneca conducted the education of
Nero. He opposed Nero's tyrannical acts, and
was poisoned by command of the emperor, 63.
(Tac. Ann. xii. xiii. xiv. ; Dio Cass. Iii. 13 ;
Suet. Ner.)
Bursa. [Plancus.]
Bursao (Bursaoensis, Bursavolensis), a town
of the Autrigonae in Hispania Tarraconensis.
Busiris (Boii<npis), king of Egypt, son of
Poseidon and Lysianassa, is said to have sacri
ficed all foreigners that visited Egypt. Heracles,
on his arrival in Egypt, was likewise seized and
led to the altar, but he broke his chains, and
slew Busiris. This myth seems to point out a
time when the Egyptians were accustomed to
offer human sacrifices to their deities. (Hdt. ii.
45 ; Pherecyd. fr. 33 ; Diod. iv. 27 ; Ov. Met.
ix. 183 ; Verg. Georg. iii. 5.)
Busiris (Boitripis : Bovo-ipirris). 1. (Abousir,
Ru.), the capital of the Nomos Busirites in
Lower Egypt, stood just in the middle of the
Delta, on the W. bank of the Nile, and had a
great temple of Isis, the remains of which are
stiU standing (Hdt. i. 59; Strab. p. 802). —
2. (Abousir near Jizeh), a small town, a little
NW. of Memphis.
Buteo, Fabius. 1. N., consul B.c 247, in
the first Punic war, was employed in the siege
of Drepanum. — 2. M., consul 245, also in the
first Punic war. In 216 he was appointed
dictator to fiU up the vacancies in the senate
occasioned by the battle of Cannae. — 3. Q.,
praetor 181, with the province of Cisalpine
Gaul. In 179 he was one of the triumvirs for

BYZANTINI
founding a Latin colony in the territory of the
Pisani. (Liv. xiv. 13.)
Butes (Bourns). 1. Son of Teleon, an Athe
nian. He was one of the Argonauts, and when
the Argo passed the island of the Sirens swam
ashore, but was saved by Aphrodite, by whom
he became father of Eryx (Ap. Rh. iv. 914;
Hyg. Fab. 260). — 2. Son of Pandion and
Zeuxippe, brother of Erechtheus. He became
priest of Poseidon Erechthonius ; from him was
named the deme Butadae in the tribe Aegeis,
and his descendants were the priestly family of
the Eteobutadae. An altar to the hero Butes
stood in the Erechtheum (Paus. i. 26. 5 ; cf.
Chthonia; Ebectheus), and the priestess of
Athene Polias was chosen from the family of
the Eteobutadae.
Buthrdtum (BovBpar6v : BovBpdrios : Butrm-
to), a town of Epirus on a small peninsula,
opposite Corcyra, a seaport and colonised by
the Romans (Strab. p. 324 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 291).
Buto (Bovrd), an Egyptian divinity, wor
shipped principally in the town of Buto. She
was the nurse of Horus and Bubastis, the
children of Osiris and Isis, and she saved them
from the persecutions of Typhon by concealing
them in the floating island of Chemmis. The
Greeks identified her with Leto, and repre
sented her as the goddess of night. The shrew-
mouse (pvyaXTJ) and the hawk were sacred to
her. (Hdt. ii. 59, 67, 155.)
Buto (Bovrd, Bovtv, or Bovtos : Bovro'iTris :
Baltim? Ru.), the chief city of the Nomos
Chemmites in Lower Egypt, stood near the
Sebennytic branch of the Nile, on the Lake of
Buto (Bovtikti Xlpvri, also 'SeBevvvTiKJj), and
was celebrated for its oracle of the goddess
Buto, in honour of whom a festival was held at
the city.
Butuntum (Bitonto), a town of Apulia,
12 miles W. of Barium and 5 from the sea.
Buxentum (BuxentinuB, Buxentius : Poli-
castro), originally Pyxus (Tlv£ovs), a town on
the W. coast of Lucania and on the river
Buxentius, was founded by Micythus, tyrant
of Messana, B.C. 471, and was afterwards a
Roman colony (Diod. xi. 59 ; Strab. p. 258).
Byblini Montes (rd BiiBXiva opn), the moun
tains whence the Nile is said to flow in the
mythical geography of Aeschylus (Prom. 811).
Byblis (BvBXis), daughter of Miletus, was in
love with her brother Caunus, whom she pur
sued through various lands, till at length, worn
out with sorrow, she was changed into a
fountain (Ov. Met. ix. 450 ; Paus. vii. 5).
Byblus (BiBXos: Jebeil), an ancient city
on the coast of Phoenicia, between Berytus and
Tripolis, a little N. of the river Adonis, the chief
seat of the worship of Adonis. (Strab. p. 755.)
Bylazora (Veles), a town in Paeonia, on
the river Astycus (Pol. v. 97 ; Liv. xliv. 26).
Byrsa (Bupo-a), the citadel of Carthago.
Byzacium or Byzacena Regio (Bv^diaov,
Bv^axls x<*>pa'. S. part of Tunis), the S. portion
of the Roman province of Africa. [Africa.]
Byzantini Soriptores, the general name of
the historians who have given an account of
the Eastern or Byzantine empire from the
time of Constantine the Great, a.d. 325, to the
destruction of the empire, 1453. They aU
wrote in Greek, and may be divided into
different classes. 1. The historians, whose
collected works form an uninterrupted history
of the Byzantine empire, and whose writings
are therefore called Corpus Historiae Byzan-
tinae. They are : (1) Zonaras, who begins
with the creation of the world, and brings

BYZANTIUM
his history down to 1188. (2) Nicephoeus
Acominatus, whose history extends from 1188
to 1206. (3) Nicephoeus Geegoras, whose
history extends from 1204 to 1381. (4) Laonicus
Chalcondyles, whose history extends from
1297 to 1462 : his work is continued by an
anonymous writer to 1565. — 2. The chrono-
graphers, who give a brief chronological sum
mary of universal history from the creation of
the world to their own times. These writers
are very numerous : the most important of them
are Georgius Syncellus, Theophanes, Nice-
phorus, Cedrenus, Simeon Metaphbastes,
Michael Glycas, the authors of the Chronicon
Paschale, &c. — 3. The writers who have treated
of separate portions of Byzantine history, such
as Zosimus, Procopius, Agathias, Anna Com-
nena, Clnnamus, Leo Diaconus, &c. — 4. The
writers who have treated of the constitution,
antiquities, &c, of the empire, such as Joannes
Lydus, Constantinus VI. Porphyrogennetus.
A coUection of the Byzantine writers was pub
lished at Paris by command of Louis XIV. in
86 vols, f ol. 1645-1711. A reprint of this edition,
with additions, was published at Venice in 23
vols. fol. 1727-1733. The Corpus Scriptorum
Historiae Byzantinae, to include all the above,
was commenced by Niebuhr, Bonn, 1828, con
tinued by Bekker, Dindorf, and others.
Byzantium (Bv&vriov : Bv&vtios, Byzan-
tius: Constantinople), a town on the Thracian

CABIRI

177

great importance to its security because they
derived corn supplies from the shores of the
Black Sea. Afterwards it became subject in
succession to the Macedonians and the Romans.
In the civil war between PescenniuB Niger and
Severus, it espoused the oause of the former : it
was taken by Severus a.d. 196 after a siege of
three years, and a considerable part of it was
destroyed. A new city was built by its side
(380) by Constantine, who made it the capital
of the empire, and changed its name into Con-
Stantinopolis. The circumference of Byzan
tium was five miles ; that of Constantinople
about thirteen. In imitation of Rome it was
divided into fourteenregions, the thirteenthbeing
Galata, across the Golden Horn. It continued
the capital of the Roman empire in the East
until its capture by the Turks in 1453. An
account of its history does not fall within the
scope of this work.

Cabalia or -is (T/LaBaXia, KaBaXis: KaBa-
Xevs, KaBdXios), a smaU district of Asia Minor,
between Phrygia, Caria, Lycia, and Pamphylia :
the chief town was Cibyra (Hdt. iii. 90 ; Strab.
p. 631 ; Plin. v. 27).
Cabasa or -ns (KdBaaos: KaBaolrns), the
' chief city of the Nomos Cabasltes, in Lower
Egypt.

Walker & Boutall sc.

Plan of Byzantium and Constantinopolis.

Bosporus, founded by the Megarians, b.c. 658,
is said to have derived its name from Byzas,
the leader of the colony and the son of Posei
don. It was said that the oracle of Apollo told
them to build their city opposite ' the city of the
blind,' i.e. Chalcedon, whose founders had
blindly neglected the better site of Byzantium
(Hdt. iv. 144 ; Strab. p. 320 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 63 ;
Diod. iv. 49). It was situated on two hills,
was forty stadia in circumference, and its acro
polis stood on the site of the present seraglio.
Its favourable position, commanding as it did
the entrance to the Euxine, soon rendered it a
place of great commercial importance. It was
taken by Pausanias after the battle of Plataea,
B.C. 479 ; and it was alternately in the posses
sion of the Athenians and Lacedaemonians
during the Peloponnesian war. The Lacedae
monians were expelled from Byzantium by
Thrasybulus in 390, and the city remained inde
pendent for some years. It was besieged by
Philip in 340, and relieved by the Athenian
fleet under Chares. The Athenians attached

Cabellio (Cavaillon), a town of Gaul on the
Druentia between Vapincum (Gap) and Are
late (Aries).
Cabillonum (Chdlons-sur- Saone), a town of
the Aedui on the Arar (Saone) in Gallia Lug-
dunensis, a place of some commercial activity
when Caesar was in Gaul (b.c. 53) (Strab. p.
192 ; Caes. B. G. vii. 42 ; Amm. xv. 11).
Cabira (rd KdBetpa : Niksor), a place in Pon
tus (Polemoniacus) on the borders of Armenia,
a little NE. of Comana, and on the road from
Amasen to Colonia ; a frequent residence of
Mithridates, who was defeated here by Lucullus,
B.C. 71. Pompey made it a city, and named it
Diospolis. Under Augustus it was called
Sebaste (Strab. p. 557), afterwards Neocaesarea.
Cabiri (KdBeipoi), mystic divinities of the
Pelasgi (Hdt. ii. 51) ; i.e. of some tribe6 of the
Greek race dating from prehistoric times.
They were chiefly worshipped in the islands of
the North Aegaean, in Lemnos and Imbros,
and especially in Samothrace, but also on the
coasts of Asia Minor, at Thebes, Andania, and
N

178

CABYLE

even in parts of Western Europe (Strab. pp.
198, 472). They seem to have formed a group
of four deities, a mother goddess, Axieros, from
whom were born the god Axiocersos and, the
goddess Axiocersa, whose son Casmilos was
the orderer of the universe. The Pelasgi are
said to have offered tithes to them for fruitful
harvests and escape from famine (Dionys. i.
23) ; and their mysteries as celebrated in Samo-
thrace (into which Cicero may perhaps have
been initiated : see N. D. i. 42,119) revealed the
manner of the creation of the world with which
the Cabiri themselves were concerned. From
sinularity in their functions, as well as from
some resemblance in their mysteries to the
Eleusinia, these deities have been identified
with various Greek and Roman deities: Axi
eros with Demeter (but also with Aphrodite
and with Juno), Axiocersos with Hades but
also with Zeus, Apollo, and Dionysus), Axio
cersa with Persephone (but also with Athene),
Casmilos with Eros and with Hermes. In the
' Chablais ' sculptures of the Vatican the figures
of Apollo, Aphrodite, and Eros are represented
at the base of the statues of Axiocersos, Aphro
dite, and Eros respectively. A different view
of the Cabiri is presented in the traditions
which make them two youthful deities or
avaKres, compared to the Dioscuri and often so
regarded. One of these was slain by the other,
by which myth it is sought to explain the single
Cabirus deity worshipped at Thessalonica.
This myth (which recalls certain features in
the myth of Dionysus Zagreus, of Adonis, and
of Attis) is further varied by the representation
of three youthful Cabiri, one of whom is slain by
his two brothers and afterwards recalled to life.
This murder and the resurrection are repre
sented on Etruscan mirrors. With the Cabiric
rites of Etruria the Romans seem to have con
nected alike the Penates and the Dioscuri.
Cabyie (KaBix-q), a town on the river Tonsus
in Thrace (Strab. p. 330).
Cacus, son of Vulcan, was a huge giant, who
inhabited a cave on Mt. Aventine, and plun
dered the surrounding country. When Hercules
came to Italy with the oxen which he had
taken from Geryon in Spain, Cacus stole part
of the cattle while the hero slept ; and, as he
dragged the animals into his cave by their tails,
it was impossible to discover their traces. But
when the remaining oxen passed by the cave,
those within began to bellow, and were thus
discovered, whereupon Cacus was slain by
Hercules. In honour of his victory, Hercules
dedicated the ara maxima, which continued
to exist ages afterwards in Rome. (Ov. Fast.
i. 543 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 185 ; Liv. i. 7.)
Cacyparis (KaKvirapis or KaxSirapis : Cassi-
bili), a river in Sicily, S. of Syracuse.
Cadena (t& KaSriva), a city of Cappadocia,
residence of king Archelaus (Strab. p. 537).
Cadi (KdSoi : KaST/vds : Gediz), a city of
Phrygia Epictetus, on the borders of Lydia
(Strab. p. 576 ; Prop. v. 6, 8).
Cadmea. [Thebae.]
Cadmus (KdSpos). 1. Son of Agenor, king of
Phoenicia, and of Telephassa, and brother of
Europa. When Europa was carried off by Zeus
to Crete, Agenor sent Cadmus in search of his
sister, enjoining him not to return without her.
Unable to find her after journeying to Crete,
Rhodes, Thasos, and Thera, where local tradi
tions about him were preserved, Cadmus settled
in Thrace ; but having consulted the oracle at
Delphi, he was commanded by the srod to follow
a cow of a certain kind, and to build a town on

CADITIS
the spot where the cow should sink down with
fatigue. Cadmus found the cow in Phocis and
followed her into Boeotia, where she sank down
on the spot on which Cadmus built Cadmea,
afterwards the citadel of Thebes. (Diod. v. 58 ;
Apollod. ii. 1, 3 ; Hdt. ii. 44, iv. 147 ; Paus. iii.
1, ix. 12.) Intending to sacrifice the cow to
Athene, he sent some persons to the neighbour
ing well of Ares to fetch water. This well was
guarded by a dragon, a son of Ares, who kUled
the men sent by Cadmus. Thereupon Cadmus
slew the dragon, and, on the advice of Athene,
sowed the teeth of the monster, out of which
armed men grew up called Sparti or the Sown.
who killed each other, with the exception of
five, who were the ancestors of the Thebans.
(Eur. Phoen. 656 ; Pind. Pyth. iii. 167, Isthm.
vi. 18; Ov. Met. iii. 32.) Athene assigned. to
Cadmus the government of Thebes, and Zeus
gave him Harmonia, the daughter of Ares and
Aphrodite, for hiB wife. The marriage solemnity
was honoured by the presence of all the Olym
pian gods in the Cadmea. Cadmus gave to
Harmonia the famous peplus and necklace
which he had received from Hephaestus or
from Europa, and he became by her the father
of Autonoe, Ino, Semele, Agave, and Polydorus.
Subsequently Cadmus and Harmonia quitted
Thebes, and went to the Enchelians; this
people chose Cadmus as their king, and with
his assistance they conquered the Luyrians.
After this, Cadmus had another son, whom he
called Hlyrius (Hdt. v. 57, 61; Eur. Bacch.
1314 ; Apollod. iii. 5. 4 ; Paus. ix. 5 ; Strab. p.
326). In the end, Cadmus and Harmonia were
changed into serpents, and were removed by
Zeus to Elysium. — Cadmus is said to have
introduced into Greece from Phoenicia or Egypt
an alphabet of sixteen letters, and to have been
the first who worked the mines of Mount Pan-
gaeon in Thrace. The story of Cadmus seems
to suggest the establishment of a Phoenician
settlement in Greece, by means of which the
alphabet, the art of mining, and civilization,
came into the country. The name Cadmus is
taken to represent a Phoenician word Cadmon,
meaning ' the Oriental.' Some have preferred
to connect the stories of Cadmus with the
Cabiri, and to identify his name with Casmilos
[Cabiri]. — 2 Of Miletus, a son of Pandion, the
earliest Greek historian or logographer, lived
about B.C. 540. He wrote a work on the founda
tion of Miletus and the earliest history of
Ionia generally, in four books. (Strab. p. 18.)
Fragments in MiiUer, Fragm. Hist. Graec.
Cadmus (KdSpos). (Khonas Dagh), a moun
tain in Caria, on the borders of Phrygia. A
river of the same name flowed into the Lycua
(Strab. p. 578).
Cadurci, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, in
the country now called Querci (a corruption of
Cadurci), were celebrated for their manufac
tories of linen, coverlets, &c. Their capital
was Divona, afterwards Civitas Cadurcorum,
now Cahors, where are the remains of a Roman
amphitheatre and of an aqueduct. A part of
the town still bears the name les Cadurcas
(Caes. -B.G. vii. 4, 64, 75).
Cadusii (KaSoiicnoi), or Gelae (rijAai), a
powerful Scythian tribe in the mountains SW.
of the Caspian, on the borders of Media Atro
patene. Under the Medo-Persian empire they
were troublesome neighbours, but the Syrian
kings reduced them to tributary auxiliaries.
(StrabLpp. 506, 525 ; Diod. xv. 18 ; Polyb. v. 79.)
Cadytis (KdSvris), according to Herodotus, a
great city of the Syrians of Palestine, not much

CAECILIA
smaller than Sardis, was taken by Necho, king
of Egypt, after his defeat of the ' Syrians ' at
Magdolus. Some have thought it to be the
Greek form of a name Kadesh (i.e. the holy)
given to Jerusalem ; but Herodotus seems to
reckon it among the seaports of Palestine ; and
it is more probable that the Cadytis of Hero
dotus = Gaza, of which name Klazita and
Ghuzza are other forms (Hdt. ii. 159, iii. 5).
Caecilia. [Tanaquil.]
Caecilia Metella. [Metella.]
Caecilia Gens, plebeian, claimed descent
from Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste, or
Caecas, the companion of Aeneas. Most of the
Caecilii are mentioned under their cognomens,
Bassus, MetelluS, Rueus : for others see
below. Caecilius. 1. Q., a wealthy Roman eques,
who adopted his nephew Atticus in his will,
and left him a fortune of ten millions of
sesterces. — 2. Caecilius Calactinus, a Greek
rhetorician at Rome in the time of Augustus,
was a native of Cale Acte in Sicily (whence his
name Calactinus). He wrote a great number of
works on rhetoric, grammar, and historical
subjects, which have perished. — 3. Caecilius
Statius, a Roman comic poet, the immediate
predecessor of Terence, was by birth an Insu-
brian Gaul, and a native of Milan. Being a
slave he bore the servile appeUation of Statins,
which was afterwards, probably when he
received his freedom, converted into a sort of
cognomen, and he became known as Caecilius
Statius. He died b.c. 168. We have the titles
of forty of his dramas, but only a few fragments
of them are preserved. They belonged to the
class of Palliatae, or adaptations of the works
of Greek writers of the New Comedy. Caecilius
ranked high as a writer of comedy with the
Romans, and apparently as a critic, since
Terence is said to have trusted to his verdict
when he began to write (Suet, de Vir. Hlust. ; cf .
Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 59 ; GeU. iv. 20 ; Cic. Brut. 74,
258). Cicero finds fault with his Latinity (ad
Att. vii. 3, de Opt. Gen. Or. 1).
Caecina, the name of a fanuly of the Etrus
can city of Volaterrae, probably derived from
the river Caecina, which flows by the town. —
1. A. Caecina, whose cause Cicero pleaded in
an action to recover property from which he
had been ejected, b. c. 69. — 2. A. Caecina, son
of the preceding, published a UbeUous work
against Caesar, and was in consequence sent
into exUe after the battle of Pharsalia, b.c. 48.
He afterwards joined the Pompeians in Africa,
and upon the defeat of the latter in 46, he
surrendered to Caesar, who spared his life.
Cicero wrote several letters to Caecina, and
speaks of him as a man of ability. Caecina
was the author of a work on the Etrusca
Disciplina. (Suet. Jul. 75 ; Sen. Q.N. ii. 39, 49,
56 ; Cic. ad Fam. vi. 6, 9.) — 3. A. Caecina
Volaterranus assisted Octavianus in his nego
tiations with Antony B.C. 41, and was much
valued by him (Appian, B. C. v. 60 ; Cic. ad Att.
xvi. 8).— 4. A. Caecina Severus, a distinguished
general in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius.
He was governor of Moesia in a.d. 6, when he
fought against the two Batos in the neighbour
ing provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia.
[Bato.] In 15 he fought as the legate of
Germanicus, against Arminius, and in conse
quence of his success received the insignia of a
triumph. (Tac Ann. i. 81, 63, iii. 33.)— 5. Cae
cina Tuscus, son of Nero's nurse, appointed
.governor of Egypt by Nero, but banished for
making use of the baths which had been erected

CAENAE

179

in anticipation of the emperor s arrival in
Egypt. He returned from banishment on the
death of Nero, a.d. 68.-6. A. Caecina Alienus,
was quaestor in Baetica in Spain at Nero's
death, and was one of the foremost in joining
the party of Galba. He was rewarded by Galba
with the command of a legion in Upper Ger
many ; but, being detected in embezzling some
of the public money, the emperor ordered him
to be prosecuted. Caecina, in revenge, joined
Vitellius, and was sent by the latter into Italy
with an army of 80,000 men towards the end of
68. After ravaging the country of the Helvetii,
he crossed the Alps by the pass of the Great St.
Bernard, and laid siege to Placentia, from
which he was repulsed by the troops of Otho,
who had succeeded Galba. Subsequently he
was joined by Fabius Valens, another general
of Vitellius, and their united forces gained
a victory over Otho's army at Bedriacum.
Vitellius having thus gained the throne,
Caecina was made consul on the 1st of Septem
ber, 69, and was shortly afterwards sent against
Antonius Primus, the general of Vespasian.
But he again proved a traitor, and espoused the
cause of Vespasian. Some years afterwards (79),
he conspired against Vespasian, and was slain
by order of Titus. (Tac. Hist. i. 53, 61, iii. 13 ;
Dio Cass. Ixiv. 7, lxvi. 16; Suet. Tit. 6.)—
7. Decius Albinus Caecina, a Roman satirist
in the time of Arcadius and Honorius.
Caecinus (KaiKivds or KaiKivos), a river
in Bruttium flowing into the Sinus Scyla-
cius by the town Caecinum (Thuc. iii. 103.
Paus. vi. 6, 4).
Caecubus Ager, a marshy district in Latium,
bordering on the gulf of Amyclae close to Fundi,
and including the marshy district which sur
rounded Tarracina, celebrated for its wine
(Caecubum) in the age of Horace (Hor. Od. i.
20, ii. 14 ; cf . Strab. p. 234). In the time of Pliny
(xiv. 61) the reputation of this wine was entirely
gone. (See Diet, of Ant. s.v. Vinum.)
Caeculus, an ancient Italian hero, son of
Vulcan, is said to have founded Praeneste.
In the region of Praeneste there were two
brothers Depidii (some have read this into
Indigites), living as herdsmen. As their
sister sat by the fireside in their hut, a
spark fell upon her lap, and she became the
mother of Caeculus. The child grew up as a
robber, and eventually collected a number of
shepherds and founded Praeneste. When a
proof of his divine origin was demanded, Vulcan
sent a flame of fire. It is clearly a local Prae-
nestine story based upon the custom of a state-
hearth established at the foundation of cities,
the fratres Depidii being probably regarded as
the Lares of Praeneste ; there are also points
of resemblance to the stories of Romulus and
Servius TuUius (Verg. Aen. vii. 679, x. 544 ;
Serv. ad Aen. vii. 681).
Caeles or Caelius Vibenna, the leader of an
Etruscan army, is said to have come to
Rome in the reign either of Romulus or of
Tarquinius Priscus, and to have settled on the
hill called after him the Caelian.
Caelia (KaiXia: Geglie), a town in Apulia
between Canusium and Barium on the road to
Brundusium (Strab. p. 282).
Caelium (Ceglie), a town in Calabria about
25 miles west of Brundusium.
Caelius or Coelius. 1. Antipater. [Anti
pater.] — 2. Aurelianus. [Aurelianus.] —
3. Caldus. [Caldus.] — 4, Rufus. [Rurus.]
Caelius or Coelius Mons. [Roma.]
Caenae (Kaivai: Senn), a city of Mesopo- n 2

180

CAENE

tamia, on the W. bank of the Tigris, oppo
site the mouth of the Lycus (Xen. Anab. ii.
4> 28)-
Caene, Caenepolis, or Neapolis (Kaiviiir6xis,
Neri ir6Xis : Keneh), a city of Upper Egypt, on
the right bank of the Nile, a little below Coptos
and opposite to Tentyra (Hdt. ii. 91).
Caeneus (Kaiveis), one of the Lapithae, son
of Elatus, was originaUy a maiden named
Caenis, who was beloved by Poseidon, and was
by this god changed into a man, and rendered
invulnerable. As a man he took part in the
Argonautic expedition and the Calydonian
hunt. In the battle between the Lapithae and
the Centaurs at the marriage of Pirithous, he
was buried by the Centaurs under a mass of
trees, as they were unable to kul him, but he
was changed into a bird. In the lower world
Caeneus recovered his female form. (Verg.
Aen. vi. 448 ; Ov. Met. xii. 172, 459.)
Caeni or Caenici, a Thracian people between
the Black Sea and the Panysus.
Caenina (Caeninensis), a town of the Sabines
in Latium, whose king Acron carried on the
first war against Rome (Liv. i. 10 ; Dionys. ii.
35). Caenis. [Caeneus.]
Caenys (Kaivvs : Canitello), a promontory of
Bruttium opposite Sicily.
Caeparins, M., of Tarracina, one of Catiline's
conspirators : he escaped from the city, but was
overtaken, and executed with the other con
spirators B.C. 63 (SaU. Cat. 47, 55).
Caepio, Servilius. 1. Cn., consul b.c. 253,
in the first Punic war, sailed with his colleague,
C. Sempronius Blaesus, to the coast of Africa.
— 2. Cn., curule aedile 207, praetor 205, and
consul 203, when he fought against Hannibal
near Croton in the S. of Italy. He died in the
pestilence in 174. (Liv. xii. 26.) — 3. Cn., son of
No. 2, curule aedile 179, praetor 174, with Spain
as his province, and consul in 169, — 4. Q., son
of No. 3, consul 142, was adopted by Q. Fabius
Maximus. [Maximus.] — 5. Cn., son of No. 3,
consul 141, and censor ]25. — 6. Cn., son of No.
3, consul 140, carried on war against Viriathus
in Lusitania, and induced two of the friends of
Viriathus to murder the latter. — 7. Q., son of
No. 6, was conBul 106, when he proposed a law
for restoring the judicia to the senators, of
which they had been deprived by the Sem-
pronia lex of C. Gracchus. He was afterwards
sent into GaUia Narbonensis to oppose the
Cimbri, and was in 105 defeated by the Cimbri,
along with the consul Cn. Mallius or Manlius.
80,000 soldiers and 40,000 camp-followers are
said to have perished. Shortly before this cata
strophe he had sacked Tolosa, which had revolted
to the Cimbri, and plundered a temple, for
which his disaster was regarded as a punish
ment ; and the proverb arose ' Auruni Tolosa-
num habet ' (Strab. p. 188 ; Gell. iii. 9 ; Liv. Ep.
67; Val. Max. iv. 7). Caepio survived the
battle, but ten years afterwards (95) he was
brought to trial by the tribune C. Norbanus on
account of his misconduct in this war. He was
condemned and cast into prison, where accord
ing to one account he died, but it was more
generally stated that he escaped from prison,
and lived in exile at Smyrna. — 8. ft., quaestor
urbanus 100, opposed the lex frumentaria of
Saturninus. In 91 he opposed the measures of
Drusus, and accused two of the most distin
guished senators, M. Scaurus and L. Philippus.
He fell in battle in the Social War, 90. (Appian,
B. C. i. 44.)
Caepio, Fannius, conspired with Murena

CAESAR
against Augustus B.C. 22, and was put to death .
(Suet. Aug, 19, Tib. 8).
Caere (Caerites, Caeretes, Caeretani : Cerve-
tri), called by the Greeks Agylla t?AyvXXa :
AgylUna urbs, Verg. Aen. vii. 652), a city in
Etruria situated on a smaU river (Caeriti6
amnis), W. of Veii and 50 stadia from the coast.
It was an ancient Pelasgic city, the capital of
the cruel Mezentius, and was afterwards one of
the twelve Etruscan cities, with a territory ex
tending apparently as far as the Tiber. In early
times Caere was closely allied with Rome ; and
when the latter city was taken by the Gauls,
b.c 390, Caere gave refuge to the Vestal
virgins. In 353 Caere joined Tarquinii in
making war against Rome, but was obliged to
purchase a truce with Rome for 100 years by
the forfeiture of half of its territory, and received
only the civitas sine sufragio, i.e. an incom
plete Roman citizenship, without the privilege
of electing or being elected * (GeU. xvi. 18 ;
Liv. vii. 70). From this time Caere gradually.
sank in importance, and was probably destroyed
in the wars of Marius and Sulla. It was
restored by Drusus, who made it a municipium;
and it continued to exist till the 13th century,
when part of the inhabitants removed to a site
about three miles off, on which they bestowed the
same name (now Ceri), while the old town was
distinguished by the title of Vetus or Caere
Vetere, corrupted into Cervetri, which is a
small village with 100 or 200 inhabitants.
Here have been discovered, within the last few
years, the tombs of the ancient Caere, many of
them in a state of complete preservation. — The
country round Caere produced wine and a great
quantity of corn, and in its neighbourhood were
warm baths which were much frequented.
Caere used as its seaport the town of Pyrgi.
Caerellia, a Roman lady frequently men
tioned in the correspondence of Cicero as
distinguished for her acquirements and her
love of philosophy (ad Fam. xiii. 72 ; ad Att.
xii. 51, xiii. 21, 22, xiv. 19, xv. 1, 26 ; cf. Dio
Cass. xlvi. 18).
Caesar, the name of a patrician family of the
Julia gens, which traced its origin to lulus, the
son of Aeneas. [Julia Gens.] It may be con
nected with caesaries, and may have marked
a personal peculiarity in the man who first
adopted it. Pliny (vii. 47) derives it ' a caeso
matris utero.' The name was assumed by Au
gustus as the adopted son of the dictator C.
Julius Caesar, and was by Augustus handed
down to his adopted son Tiberius. It continued
to be used by Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, as
members either by adoption or female descent
of Caesar's family. Though the family be
came extinct with Nero, succeeding emperors
stUl retained the name not only for themselves
(e.g. Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus),
but also to mark the members of the reigning
house ; but when Hadrian adopted Aelius Verus,
he allowed him to take the title of Caesar ; and
from this time, while the title of Augustus con
tinued to be confined to the reigning prince, that
of Caesar was granted also to the second person
in the state, heir presumptive to the throne, but
not to other members of the imperial family.
* The Caerites appear to have been the first body of
Roman citizens who did not enjoy the suffrage. Thus,
when a Roman citizen was struck out of his tribe by
the Censors and made au aerarian, he was said to
become one of the Caerites, since he had lost the
suffrage : hence we And the expressions in tabulai
Caeritum referre and aeravium facere used as synoDV-
mous.

CAESAR

181

Caesar, Julius. 1. Sex., praetor b.c. 208,
with Sicily as his province (Liv. xxvii. 21). —
2. Sex., curule aedile, 165, when the Hecyra of
Terence was exhibited at the Megalesian games,
and consul 157. — 3. L., consul 90, fought against
the Socii, and in the course of the same year
proposed the Lex Julia de Civitate, which
granted the citizenship to the Latins and the
Socii who had remained faithful to Rome.
Caesar was censor in 89 ; he belonged to the
aristocratical party, and was put to death by
Marius in 87. (Appian, B. C. i. 40, 72 ; Cic. de
Or. hi. 3, 9.) — 4. C, surnamed Strabo Vopiscus,
brother of No. 8, was curule aedile 90, was a
candidate for the consulship in 88, and was
slain along with his brother by Marius in 87.
He was one of the chief orators and poets of
his age, and is one of the speakers in Cicero's
dialogue De Oratore. Wit was the chief cha
racteristic of his oratory ; but he was deficient
in power and energy. The names of two of his
tragedies are preserved, the Adrastus and Tec
messa (Val. Max. v. 3, 3). — 5. L., son of No. 3,
and uncle by his sister Julia of M. Antony the
triumvir. He was consul 64, and belonged, like
his father, to the aristocratical party. He ap
pears to have deserted this party afterwards ;
we find him in Gaul in 52 as one of the legates
of C. Caesar, and he continued in Italy during
the civU war (Caes. B. G. vii. 65, B. C. i. 8).
After Caesar's death (44) he sided with the
senate in opposition to his uncle Antony, and
was in consequence proscribed by the latter in
43, but obtained his pardon through the influ
ence of his sister Julia. — 6. L., son of No. 5,
usually distinguished from his father by the
addition to his name of filius or adolescens.
He joined Pompey on the breaking out of the
oivil war in 49, and was sent by Pompey to
Caesar with proposals of peace. In the course
of the same year, he crossed over to Africa,
where the command of Clupea was entrusted to
him. In 46 he served as proquaestor to Cato
in Utica, and after the death of Cato he sur
rendered to the dictator Caesar, and was shortly
afterwards put to death, but probably not by
the dictator's orders (Dio Cass, xliii. 12 ; Suet.
Jul. 75). — 7. C, the father of the dictator, was
praetor, but in what year is uncertain, and died
suddenly at Pisae in 84 (Suet. Jul. 1). — 8. Sex.,
brother of No. 7, consul 91. — 9. C, the Dictator,
son of No. 7 and of Aurelia, is usually con
sidered to have been born in B.C. 100 (July 12th),
since we are told by several writers that he had
nearly completed his 56th year at the time of
his murder, 15th of March, 44 (Suet. Jul. 88 ;
Plut. Caes. 69 ; Appian, B. C. ii. 149 ; cf. Veil.
ii. 41) ; but Mommsen gives strong reasons for
fixing the year of his birth in B.C. 102, since
otherwise Caesar would have fiUed aU the curule
offices two years before the legal period, and
there is no mention that he did so. The nu
meral LII on the denarii struck at the begin
ning of the civil war will, according to this
view, denote his age at the time. He was
taught in his boyhood by a tutor of GaUic birth
named M. Antonius Gnipho, whose school of
rhetoric Cicero is said to have attended after
he was fully grown up (Suet, de Gramm. 7).
Caesar was closely connected with the popular
party by the marriage of his aunt Julia with
the great Marius ; and in 83, though only 17
years of age, he married CorneUa, the daughter
of L. Cinna, the chief leader of the Marian
party. SuUa commanded him to put away his
wife, but he refused to obey him, and was con
sequently proscribed. He concealed himself

for some time in the country of the Sabines,
till his friends obtained his pardon from Sulla,
who is said to have observed, when they pleaded
his youth, ' that that boy would some day or
another be the ruin of the aristocracy, for that
there were many Mariuses in him.' Seeing
that he was not safe at Rome, he went to Asia,
where he served his first campaign under M.
Minucius Thermus. He was sent by Minucius
to Nicomedes in Bithynia to fetch the fleet, and
after his return, at the capture of Mytilene (80),
was rewarded with a civic crown for saving the
life of a feUow-soldier. On the death of SuUa
in 78, he returned to Rome, and in the following
year gained renown as an orator, though he was
only 22 years of age, by his prosecution of Cn.
Dolabella on account of extortion in his pro
vince of Macedonia. He did not, however, win
his case in this trial, nor in a simUar prosecu
tion of C. Antonius ; and to perfect himself in
oratory, he resolved to study in Rhodes under
ApoUonius Mblo, but on his voyage thither he
was captured by pirates, and only obtained his
liberty by a ransom of 50 talents. At Miletus
he manned some vessels, overpowered the pi-
rates, and conducted them as prisoners to Per
gamus, where he crucified them, a punishment
with which he had frequently threatened them
in sport when he was their prisoner (Suet. Jul.
4 ; Plut. Caes. 2). He then repaired to Rhodes,
where he studied under Apollonius, and shortly
afterwards returned to Rome. He now devoted
all his energies to acquire the favour of the
people. He was regarded as the rising man in
the democratic party ; became quaestor in 68,
and aedile in 65, when he spent enormous sums
upon the public games and buildings. His
liberality increased his favour with the people,
but also caused him to contract large debts.
He was said by many to have been concerned
in Catiline's conspiracy in 63, and the correct
conclusion from the evidence is probably that
both Caesai and Crassus were privy to it.
Caesar was deeply involved in debt, and more
over the democratic party was not unlikely to
hope for the success of the anarchists as a
counterpoise to the military power of Pompey.
Both Crassus and Caesar had supported Cati
line as candidate for the consulship : Suetonius
directly implicates Caesar in the conspiracy,
and Plutarch (Grass. 13 ; cf. Goes. 8) tells us
that Cicero, in his later life, stated Caesar to
have been guilty, though his name was sup
pressed when the senate received the informa
tion. As regards the account in Sallust, it
must be recollected that he was strongly preju
diced in Caesar's favour. In the debate in the
senate on the punishment of the conspirators,
Caesar opposed their execution in an able speech,
which made such an impression that their lives
would have been spared but for the speech of
Cato in reply. In the course of this year (63),
Caesar was elected Pontif ex Maximus, defeating
the other candidates, Q. Catulus and ServiUus
Isauricus, who had both been consuls, and were
two of the most iUustrious men in the state.
He had told his mother that if he did not suc
ceed in this election he would leave Rome for
ever. In 62 Caesar was praetor, and took an
active part in supporting the tribune MeteUus
in opposition to his coUeague Cato ; in conse
quence of the tumults that ensued, the senate
suspended both Caesar and MeteUus from their
offices, but were obliged to reinstate him in his
dignity after a few days. In the following year
(61) Caesar went as propraetor into Further
Spain, where he gained victories over the Lusi

182tanians. On his return to Rome, he became a
candidate for the consulship, and was elected
notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of
the aristocracy, who succeeded, however, in
carrying the election of Bibulus as his colleague,
who was one of the warmest supporters of the
aristocracy. After his election, but before he
entered upon the consulship, he formed that
coalition with Pompey and M. Crassus, usually
known by the name of the first triumvirate.
(It was, however, a secret combination, not an
open assumption of power.) Pompey had be
come estranged from the aristocracy, since the
senate had opposed the ratification of his acts
in Asia and an assignment of lands which he
had promised to his veterans. Crassus, in con
sequence of his immense wealth, was one of the
most powerful men at Rome, but was a personal
enemy of Pompey. They were reconci.ed by
means of Caesar, and the three entered into
an agreement for mutual support to aid each
other in political measures and in obtaining
commands and provinces. In 59 Caesar was
consul, and being supported by Pompey and
Crassus he was able to carry all his measures.
Bibulus, from whom the senate had expected
so much, could offer no effectual opposition,
and, after making a vain attempt to resist
Caesar, shut himself up in his own house, and
did not appear again in public till the expiration
of his consulship. Caesar's first measure was
an agrarian law, by which the rich Campanian
plain was divided among the poorer citizens.
He next gained the favour of the equites by
relieving them from one- third of the sum which
they had agreed to pay for the farming of the
taxes in Asia. He then obtained the confirma
tion of Pompey's acts. Having thus gratified
the people, the equites, and Pompey, he was
easily able to obtain for himself the provinces
which he wished. By a vote of the people,
proposed by the tribune Vatinius, the provinces
of Cisalpine Gaul and Hlyricum were granted
to Caesar with three legions for five years ; and
the senate added to his government the pro
vince of Transalpine Gaul, with another legion,
for five years also, as they saw that a bill would be
proposed to the people for that purpose, if they
did not grant the province themselves. Caesar
foresaw that the struggle between the different
parties at Rome must eventually be terminated
by the sword, and he had therefore resolved to
obtain an army, which he might attach to him
self by victories and rewards. In the course of
the same year Caesar united himself more
closely to Pompey by giving him his daughter
Julia in marriage. During the next nine years
Caesar was occupied with the subjugation of
Gaul. He conquered the whole of Transalpine
Gaul, which had hitherto been independent of
the Romans, with the exception of the SE. part
called Provincia ; he twice crossed the Rhine,
and twice landed in Britain, which had been
previously unknown to the Romans. — In his first
campaign (58) Caesar conquered the Helvetii,
who had emigrated from Switzerland with the
intention of settling in Gaul. He next defeated
Ariovistus, a German king, who had taken pos
session of part of the territories of the Aedui
and Sequani, and pursued him as far as the
Rhine. At the conclusion of the campaign
Caesar went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to
the civil duties of his province and to keep up
his communication with the various parties at
Rome. During the whole of his campaigns in
Gaul, he spent the greater part of the winter in
Cisalpine Gaul. — In his second campaign (57;

CAESAR Caesar carried on war with the Belgae, who
dwelt in the NE. of Gaul between the Sequana.
(Seine) and the Rhine, and after a severe.
struggle completely subdued them. — Caesar's
third campaign in Gaul (56) did not commence
tiU late in the year. He was detained some
months in the N. of Italy by the state of affairs.
at Rome. At Luca (Lucca) he had interviews
with most of the leading men at Rome, among
others with Pompey and Crassus, who visited.
him in April. He made arrangements with
them for the continuance of their power ; it was.
agreed between them that Crassus and Pompey
should be the consuls for the foUowing year,
that Crassus should have the province of Syria,
Pompey the two Spains, and that Caesar'sgovern-
ment, which would expire at the end of 54,
should be prolonged for five years after that date.
Caesar's main object just now was to finish the
work which he had begun in Gaul, and he prob
ably always looked to his troops trained in
that war as a support if needed agamst his
rivals. After making these arrangements he
crossed the Alps, and carried on war with the
Veneti and the other states in the NW. of Gaul,
who had submitted to Crassus, Caesar's. legate,
in the preceding year, but who had now risen
in arms against the Romans. They were de
feated and obliged to submit to Caesar, and
during the same time Crassus conquered Aqui
tania. Thus, in three campaigns, Caesar subdued
the whole of Gaul ; but the people made several
attempts to recover their independence ; and it
was not till their revolts had been again and
again put down by Caesar, and the flower of
the nation had perished in battle, that they
leamt to submit to the Roman yoke. — In his
fourth campaign (55) Caesar crossed the Rhine in
order to strike terror into the Germans, but he
only remained eighteen days on the further side of
the river. It is impossible rightly to condone,.
as some historians have tried to do, his slaughter
of the Usipetes and Tencteri in this campaign.
Late in the summer he invaded Britain, but
more with the view of obtaining some knowledge
of the island from personal observation than
with the intention of permanent conquest at
present. The places of his departure and land
ing are stiU subjects of dispute. It is on the
whole most probable that Portus Itius from
which he sailed is Wissant, and that he landed
at Bomney. Another view makes him start
from Boulogne and land at Pevensey. The
tides could not have taken kim, as was once
thought, to Deal. The late period of the
year compeUed him to return to Gaul after
remaining only a short time in the island. In
this year, according to his arrangement with
Pompey and Crassus, who were now con
suls, his government of the Gauls and Dly-
ricum was prolonged for five years, namely,
from the 1st of January, 53, to the end of De
cember, 49. — CaeBar's fifth campaign (54) was
chiefly occupied with his second invasion of
Britain. He landed in Britain at the same
place as in the former year, defeated the Britons
in a series of engagements, and crossed the
Tamesis (Thames). The Britons submitted,
and promised to pay an annual tribute; but
their subjection was only nominal, for Caesar
left no garrisons or military establishments be
hind him, and Britain remained nearly 100 years
longer independent of the Romans. During
the winter one of the Roman legions, which had
been stationed under the command of T.
Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta, in.
the country of the Eburones, was cut to pieces.

CAESAR

18S

by Ambiorix and the Eburones. Ambiorix
then proceeded to attack the camp of Q. Cicero,
the brother of the orator, who was stationed
with a legion among the Nervii; but Cicero
defended himself with bravery, and was at
length relieved by Caesar in person. In Sep
tember of this year, Julia, Caesar's only
daughter and Pompey's wife, died in childbirth.
— In Caesar's sixth campaign (53) several of the
Gallic nations revolted, but Caesar soon com
pelled them to return to obedience. The Tre-
viri, who had revolted, had been supported by
the Germans, and Caesar accordingly again
crossed the Rhine, but made no permanent
conquests on the further side of the river. —
Caesar's seventh campaign (52) was the most
arduous of all. Almost aU the nations of Gaul
rose simultaneously in revolt, and the supreme
command was given to Vercingetorix, by far
the ablest general that Caesar had yet encoun
tered. Caesar, after taking Avaricum (Bourges),
sustained his only reverse in Auvergne, where
he failed to take Gergovia, and, after a repulse
from its fortifications, was obliged to retreat ;
but he was successful in the famous siege of
Alesia which ended in the defeat of the Gauls
and the surrender of Vercingetorix. It is to be
regretted that he did not spare the life of the
Gallic prince ; but it must be remembered that
such clemency was contrary to Roman custom.
— The eighth and ninth campaigns (51, 50) were
employed in the final subjugation of Gaul, which
had entirely submitted to Caesar by the middle
of 50. Meanwhile, an estrangement had taken
place between Caesar and Pompey. Caesar's
briUiant victories had gained him fresh popu
larity and influence; and Pompey saw with
ill-disguised mortification that he was becoming
the second person in the state. He was thus
led to join again the aristocratical party, by the
assistance of which alone he could hope to re
tain his position as the chief man in the Roman
state. The great object of this party was to
deprive Caesar of his command, and to compel
him to come to Rome as a private man to sue
for the consulship. They would then have
formally accused him, and as Pompey was in
the neighbourhood of the city at the head of an
army, the trial would have been a mockery, and
his condemnation would have been certain.
Caesar offered to resign his command if Pompey
would do the same ; but the senate would not
listen to any compromise. Accordingly, on the
1st of January, 49, the senate passed a resolu
tion that Caesar should disband his army by a
certain day, and that if he did not do so, he
should be regarded as an enemy of the state.
Two of the tribunes, M. Antonius and Q.
Cassius, put their veto upon this resolution,
but their opposition was set at nought, and they
fled for refuge to Caesar's camp. Under the
plea of protecting the tribunes, Caesar crossed
the Rubicon, which separated his province from
Italy, and marched towards Rome. Pompey,
.who had been entrusted by the senate with the
conduct of the war, soon discovered how greatly
he had overrated his own popularity and influ
ence. His own troops deserted to his rival in
crowds; town after town in Italy opened its
gates to Caesar, whose march was like a trium
phal progress. The only town which offered
Caesar any resistance was Corfinium, into which
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus had thrown himself
with a strong force ; but even this place was
obUged to surrender at the end of a few days.
Meanwhile, Pompey, with the magistrates and
senators, had fled from Rome to Capua, and

now, despairing of opposing Caesar in Italy, he
marched from Capua to Brundusium, and on
the 17th of March embarked for Greece. Caesar
pursued Pompey to Brundusium, but he was
unable to follow him to Greece for want of ships.
He therefore marched back from Brundusium,
and repaired to Rome, having thus in three
months become master of the whole of Italy.
After remaining a short time in Rome, he set
out for Spam, where Pompey's legates, Afranius,
Petreius, and Varro, commanded powerful
armies. After defeating Afranius and Petreius,
and receiving the submission of Varro, Caesar
returned to Rome, where he had meantime been
appointed dictator by the praetor M. Lepidus.
He resigned the dictatorship at the end of eleven
days, after holding the consular comitia, in
which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia Isau-
ricus were elected consuls for the next year. —
At the beginning of January, 48, Caesar crossed
over to Greece, where Pompey had collected a
formidable army. At first the campaign was in
Pompey's favour ; Caesar was repulsed before
Dyrrhachium with considerable loss, and was
obliged to retreat towards Thessaly. In this
country on the plains of Pharsalus or*Pharsalia,
a decisive battle was fought between the two
armies on the 9th of August, 48, in which
Pompey was completely defeated. Pompey fled
to Egypt, pursued by Caesar, but he was mur
dered before Caesar arrived in the country.
[Pompeius.] His head was brought to Caesar,
who turned away from the sight, shed tears at
the untimely death of his rival, and put his
murderers to death. When the news of the
battle of Pharsalia reached Rome, various
honours were conferred upon Caesar. He was
appointed dictator for a whole year and consul
for five years, and the tribunician power was
conferred upon him for life. He declined the
consulship, but entered upon the dictatorship
in September in this year (48), and appointed
M. Antony his master of the horse. On his
arrival in Egypt, Caesar became involved in a
war, which gave the remains of the Pompeian
party time to rally. This war, usually called
the Alexandrine war, arose from the determi
nation of Caesar that Cleopatra, whose fascina
tions had won his heart, should reign in common
with her brother Ptolemy ; but this decision
was opposed by the guardians of the young
king, and the war which thus broke out was not
brought to a close till the latter end of March,
47. It was soon after this, that Cleopatra had
a son by Caesar. [Caesarion.] Caesar re
turned to Rome through Syria and Asia Minor,
and on his march through Pontus attacked

Obv., Caesar in hie fourth consulship with augural
lituus ; rev., crocodile, as Bign of the conquered Egypt.
Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates the Great,
who had assisted Pompey. He defeated Phar
naces near Zela with such ease, that he informed
the senate of his victory by the words, Veni,
vidi, vici. (Cf. Bell. Alex. 77.) He reached
Rome in September (47), was appointed consul
for the foUowing year, and before the end of
September set sail for Africa, where Scipio and
Cato had collected a large army. The war was
terminated by the defeat of the Pompeian army

184

CAESAR

at the battle of Thapsus, on the 6th of April,
46. Cato, unable to defend Utica, put an end
to his own life. — Caesar returned to Rome in
the latter end of July. He was now the undis
puted master of the Roman world, but he used
nis victory with the greatest moderation. Un
like other conquerors in civil wars, he freely
forgave all who had borne arms against him,
and declared that he would make no difference
between Pompeians and Caesarians. His cle
mency was one of the brightest features of his
character. At Rome all parties seemed to vie
in paying him honour: the dictatorship was

C. Julius Caesar, the Dictator, In this coin the natural
baldness of his head is concealed by a crown of laurel.
On the reverse the name of the quaestor L. Aem. Buca,
who struck the coin, is surmounted by a palm as sign
of victory, and a winged caduceus and joined hands as
signs of peace.
bestowed on him for ten years, and the censor
ship, under the new title of Praefectus Morum,
for three years. He celebrated his victories in
Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa by four magni
ficent triumphs. Caesar now proceeded to
correct the various evils which had crept into
the state, and to obtain the enactment of several
laws suitable to the altered condition of the
commonwealth. The most important of his
measures this year (46) was the reformation of
the calendar. As the Roman year was now three
months in advance of the real time, Caesar
added ninety days to this year, and thus made the
whole year consist of 445 days ; and he guarded
against a repetition of similar errors for the
future by adapting the year to the sun's course,
adding ten days to the original 355 days of the
year. (Diet, of Ant. art. Calendarium.) — Mean
time the two sons of Pompey, Sextus and Cneius,
had collected a new
army in Spain. Caesar
set out for Spain
towards the end of
the year, and brought
the war to a close by
the battle of Munda,
on the 17th of March,
45, in which the
enemy were only de
feated after a most
obstinate resistance.
Cn. Pompey was
killed shortly after
wards, but Sextus
made good his es
cape. Caesar reached
Rome in Septem-
,, .. . . . „ Der> and entered
the city in triumph. Fresh honours awaited
him. His portrait was to be struck on coins •
the month of Qumtilis was to receive the name
of Julius in his honour ; he received the title
oi imperator for life; and the whole senate
took an oath to watch over his safety. To re
ward his followers, Caesar increased the number
of senators and of the public magistrates, so
that there were to be sixteen praetors, forty
quaestors, and six aediles. He began to revolve
vast schemes for the benefit of the Roman world
Among his plans of internal improvement, he

Bust of Julius Caesar.
(British Museum.)

proposed to frame a digest of all the Roman
laws, to establish public libraries, to drain the
Pomptine marshes, to enlarge the harbour of
Ostia, and to dig a canal through the isthmus
of Corinth. To protect the boundaries of the
Roman empire, he meditated expeditions
against the Parthians and the barbarous tribes
on the Danube, and had already begun to make
preparations for his departure to the East. It
is questionable whether he wished to assume
the title of rex. Some have asserted that he
intended to rule the Romans as Imperator, the
non-Romans as Bex, but this story rests only
on Plut. Cass. 60, 64, and Appian, B.C. ii. 110 :
it is not apparently credited by Suetonius or
Dio Cassius, and Cicero speaks of it as a fiction
(de Div. ii. 54, 110). It is not like Caesar's
clear-sighted wisdom to have desired it. How
ever that may be, Antony offered him the
diadem in public on the festival of the Luper-
calia (the 15th of February) ; the proposition
was not favourably received by the people, and
Caesar declined it. — But Caesar's power was not
witnessed without envy. The Roman aristo
cracy, who had been so long accustomed to rule
the Roman world, could ill brook a master, and
resolved to remove him by assassination. The
conspiracy against Caesar's life had been set
afoot by Cassius, a personal enemy of Caesar's,
and there were more than sixty persons privy to
it. Many of these persons had been raised by
Caesar to wealth and honour ; and some of them,
such as M. Brutus, lived with him on terms of
the most intimate friendship. It has been the
practice of rhetoricians to speak of the murder
of Caesar as a glorious deed, and to represent
Brutus and Cassius as patriots ; but the mask
ought to be stripped off these false patriots :
their object in murdering Caesar was to gain
power for themselves and their party. Caesar
had many warnings of his approaching fate, but
he disregarded them all, and f eU by the daggers
of his assassins on the Ides or 15th of March,
44. At an appointed signal the oonspirators
surrounded him; Casca dealt the first blow,
and the others quickly drew their swords and
attacked him ; Caesar at first defended himself,
but when he saw that Brutus, his friend and
favourite, had also drawn his sword, he is said by
some accounts to have exclaimed ' Et tu Brute ! '
or in Greek ' Kal <rb reKvov ! ' then to have pulled
his toga over his face, and sunk pierced with
wounds at the foot of Pompey's statue. Sue
tonius, however, who is the safest authority,
expressly says that he uttered no word during
the struggle, and that the exclamation attributed
to him is an invention. — Julius Caesar was per
haps the greatest man of antiquity. He was
gifted by nature with the most various talents,
and was distinguished by the most extraordi
nary attainments in the most diversified pur
suits. He was at one and the same time a
general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, an
orator, a poet, an historian, a philologer, a
mathematician, and an architect. His main
work as a statesman, to which all his efforts
tended, was to reorganise the government of
the Btate, which had been fitted for the con
trol of Italy, but not for the rule of an empire.
But he was not only a consummate statesman
and general : during the whole of his busy life
he found time for literary pursuits, and was the
author of many works, the majority of which
has been lost. The purity of his Latin and the
clearness of his style were celebrated by the
ancients themselves, and are conspicuous in his
Commentarii, which are his only works that

CAESAR
"have come down to us. They relate the history
of the first seven years of the Gallic war in seven
books, and the history of the Civil war down
to the commencement of the Alexandrine in
three books. Neither of these works completed
the history of the Gallic and Civil wars. The
history of the former was completed in an eighth
book, which is usuaUy ascribed to Hirtius, and
the history of the Alexandrine, African, and
Spanish wars were written in three separate
bcoks, which are also ascribed to Hirtius, but
their authorship is uncertain. It is not impro
bable that Hirtius wrote the Bellum Alexan-
drinum : the Bellum Africanum is attributed
by some to Asinius Pollio, but without any strong
reason. The lost works of Caesar are : — 1. Anti-
cato, in reply to Cicero's Cato, which Cicero
wrote in praise of Cato after the death of the
latter in 46. 2. De Analogia, or, as Cicero ex
plains it, De Batione Latine loquendi, dedi
cated to Cicero, contained investigations on the
Latin language, and was written by Caesar
while he was crossing the Alps. 3. Libri Au-
spiciorum, or Auguralia. 4. De Astris. 5. Apo-
phthegmata, or Dicta collectanea, a coUec-
tion of good sayings. 6. Poemata. Two of
these written in his youth, Laudes Herculis
and a tragedy Oedipus, were suppressed by
Augustus. Among the numerous editions of
Caesar's Commentaries may be noticed those by
Nipperdey, Leipz. 1872 ; Diibner, Paris, 1867 ;
Long, 1868 ; Kramer, 1877.
C. Caesar and L. Caesar, the sons of M. Vip
sanius Agrippa and Julia, and the grandsons of
Augustus. L. Caesar died at MassiUa, on his

CALABRIA

185

C. Caesar and L. Caesar, grandsons of Augustus.
-way to Spain, a.d. 2, and C. Caesar in Lycia,
a.d. 4, of a wound which he had received in
Armenia. Caesarangusta (Zaragoza or Saragassa),
more anciently Salduba, a town of the Edetani
on the Iberus in Hispania Tarraconensis, was
¦colonised by Augustus, B.C. 27, and was the seat
of a Conventus Juridicus, and a centre through
which most of the great roads of Spain passed.
It was the birthplace of the poet Prudentius.
Caesarea (Kaitrdpeia : Kaiffapevs ¦ Caesarien
sis), a name given to several cities of the Roman
empire in honour of one or other of the Caesars.
— 1. C. ad Argaeum, formerly Mazaca, also
Eusebia (K. r) nobs t$ 'Apyaia, rh Md(aKa,
'Evo-eBeia : Kesarieh, Ru.), one of the oldest
cities of Asia Minor, stood upon Mount Argaeus,
about the centre of Cappadocia, in the district
(praefectura) called CiUeia. It was the capital
of Cappadocia, and when that country was
made a Roman province by Tiberius (a.d. 18), it
received the name of Caesarea (Strab. p. 539 ;
Eutrop. vii. 11 ; PUn. vi. 8).— 2. C. Philippi or
Paneas (K. fi QiXiirirov, N. T. ; K. Tlaveids :
Banias), a city of Palestine, at the S. foot of
M. Hermon, on the Jordan, just below its source
[Panium], built by PhUip the tetrarch, B.C. 3 ;
King Agrippa caUed it Neronias, but it soon lost
this name. — 3. C. Palaestinae, formerly Stra-
tonis Tunis (^rpdravos wvpyos : Kaisariyeh,

Ru.), an important city of Palestine, on the sea-
coast, just above the boundary line between
Samaria and Galilee. It was surrounded with
a wall and decorated with splendid buildings
by Herod the Great (b.c. 13), who called it
Caesarea, in honour of Augustus. He also
made a splendid harbour for the city. Under
the Romans it was the capital of Palestine and
the residence of the procurator. Vespasian
made it a colony, and Titus conferred additional
favours upon it ; hence it was called Colonia
Flavia (Jos. Ant. xv. 10, B. J. i. 21 ; Tac. Hist.
ii. 79).— 4. C. Mauretaniae, formerly Iol ('IdX
Kaiadpeta: Zershell), a Phoenician city on the
N. coast of Africa, with a harbour, the residence
of King Juba, who named it Caesarea, in
honour of Augustus. When Claudius erected
Mauretania into a Roman province, he made
Caesarea a colony, and the capital of the middle
division of the province, which was thence called
Mauretania Caesariensis (Strab. p. 831 ; Plin. v.
20). — 5. C. ad Anazarbum. [Anazarbus.]
Caesarion, son of C. Julius Caesar and of
Cleopatra, originally caUed Ptolemaeus as an
Egyptian prince, was born B.C. 47. In 42 the
triumvirs allowed him to receive the title of
king of Egypt, and in 34 Antony conferred
upon him the title of king of kings. After the
death of his mother in 30 he was executed by
order of Augustus (Suet. Jul. 52, Aug. 17;
Plut. Caes. 49, Ant. 54, 81).
Caesarodunum (Tours), chief town of the
Turones or Turoni, subsequently called Turoni,
on the Liger (Loire), in Gallia Lugdunensis.
Caesaromagus. 1. (Beauvais), chief town
of the Bellovaci in GaUia Belgica. — 2. (Chelms
ford), a town of the Trinobantes in Britain.
Caesena (Caesenas, -atis : Gesena), a town in
Gallia Cispadana on the Via Aemilia not far
from the Rubico (Strab. p. 216 ; Cic. ad Fam.
xvi. 27), used as a fortress by Justinian's
generals (Procop. B. G. i. 1, ii. 11).
Caesennius Lento. [Lento.]
Caesennius Paetus. [Paetus.]
Caesetius Flavus. [Flavus.]
Caesia, a surname of Minerva, a translation
of the Greek yXavKairis.
Caesia Silva (Hasernwald), a forest in Ger
many between the Lippe and the Yssel (Tac.
Ann. i. 501.
Caesoma, first the mistress and afterwards
the wife of the emperor Caligula, was a woman
of the greatest licentiousness, and was put to
death by Caligula with her daughter, a.d. 41.
M. Caesonius, a judex at the trial of Oppi-
anicus for the murder of Cluentius, B.C. 74, and
aedile with Cicero in 69.
Caicus (T/Loik6s : Bakir), a river of Mysia,
rising in M. Temnus and flowing past Pergamus
into the CumaeanGulf (Hes. Th. 343; Hdt. vi.
28 ; Strab. p. 615 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 370).
Caieta (Caietanus: Gaeta),a, town in Latium
on the borders of Campania, 40 stadia S. of
Formiae, situated on a promontory of the same
name and on a bay of the sea called after it
Sinus Caietanus. It possessed an excellent
harbour (Cicero. Leg. Man. 12), and was said
to have derived its name from Caieta, the
nurse of Aeneas, who, according to some
traditions, was buried at this place (Verg. Aen.
vii. 1 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 441).
Caius, the jurist. [Gaius.]
Caius Caesar. [Caligula.]
Calaber. [Quintus Smyrnaeus.] _
Calabria (Calabri), the peninsula in the SE.
of Italy, extending from Tarentum to the Prom.
Iapygium, formed part of Apulia.

186

CALACTA

Calacta (KaXr/ 'Axrr) : KaXaKnvos : nr. Caro-
nia), a town on the N. coast of Sicily, founded
by Ducetius, a chief of the Sicels, about b.c.
447. Calacta was, as its name imports, origi
nally the name of the coast. (Herod, vi. 22.)
Calactinus. [Caecilius Calactinus.]
Calagurris. 1. (Calagurritanus : Calahorra),
a town of the Vascones and a Roman muni
cipium in Hispania Tarraconensis near the
Iberus, memorable for its adherence to Sertorius
and for its siege by Pompey and his generals,
B.C. 71. It was the birthplace of Quintilian.

(Juv. xv. 93 ; Auson. de Prof. i. 7 ; Strab. p. 161
Val. Max. vii. 6). — 2. A town of Aquitania
(Cazdres). Calais, brother of Zetes. [Zetes.]
Calama. 1. (Gelma) a town in Numidia,
between Cirta and Hippo Regius, on the E.
bank of the Rubricatus (Seibous). — 2. (Kalat-
al-Wad), a town in the W. of Mauretania
Caesariensis, on the E. bank of the Malva, near
its mouth.
Calamine, in Lydia, a lake with floating
islands, sacred to the nymphs (Plin. ii. 209).
Calamis (KdXapis), a famous sculptor of
Athens about 470 B.C. He was the representa
tive of the Ionic- Attic school in the first half of
the 5th century, bringing to a high point of
grace and delicacy the ' development from the
stiff drapery and grimacing smile of the Ionic
art to the graceful drapery and unconscious
smile (o-epvbv Kal XeXriBbs peiSiapa) noted by
Lucian.' He was specially celebrated for his
representation of female beauty, which still
retained something of the austerity belonging
to the more antique sculpture. Especially
noticeable were the statues of Aphrodite on
the Acropolis, and of the Sosandra (which
some take to be the same statue). None of his
work survives, but it is possible that the terra
cotta of Hermes Criophoros, now in the British
Museum, is a copy from the statue by Calamis.
He was famous also for repousse* work in silver.
(Plin. xxxiv. 71 ; Cic. Brut. 18, 70 ; Lucian,
Dial. Meretr. iii. 3; Paus. i. 23, 2; Diet. Antiq.
art. Statuaria Ars.)
Calamus (KdXapos : Kalmon), a town on the
coast of Phoenicia, a little S. of Tripolis.
Calanus (KdXavos), an Indian gymnosophist,
followed Alexander the Great from India, and
having been taken ill, burnt himself alive in
the presence of the Macedonians, three months
before the death of Alexander (B.C. 323), to whom
he had predicted his approaching end (Strab.
p. 715 ; Cjc. Tusc. ii. 22, Div. i. 23).
Calaslries (KaXao-ipies), one of the two divi
sions (the other being the Hermotybii) of the
warrior-caste of Egypt. Their greatest strength
was 250,000 men, and their chief abode in the
W. part of the Delta. They formed the king's
body guard.
Calatia (Calatinus). 1, (Galazze), a town in
Campania on the Appia Via between Capua and
Beneventum, colonised by Julius Caesar with
his veterans. — 2. (Caiazzo), a town of Samnium,
frequently confounded with No. 1.
Calatinus, A. Atilius, consul b.c. 258, in the
first Punic war, carried on the war with success
in Sicily. He was consul a second time, 254, when
he took Panormus ; and was dictator, 249, when
he again carried on the war in Sicily, the first
instance of a dictator commanding an army
out of Italy. (Polyb. i. 24, 88 ; Liv. Ep. 19.)
Calaurea-ia (KaXaipeia, KaXavpla: KaXav-
peiVrjs : Poro), a small island in the Saronic
gulf off the coast of Argolis and opposite
Troezen, possessed a celebrated temple of

CALES
Poseidon, which was regarded as an inviolable*
asylum. Hither Demosthenes fled to escape
Antipater, and here he took poison, b.c. 322.
This temple was originally the place of meeting
of an Amphictyonia for the worship of Poseidon,.
in which Hermione, Epidaurus, Aegina, Athens,
Orehomenus. Nauplia, and Prasiae joined.
After the Dorian conquest Argos and Sparta
took the places of Nauplia and Prasiae. (Strab.
p. 374; Paus. ii. 33, 2; Plut. Dem. 29.)
Calavius, the name of a distinguished fanuly
at Capua, the most celebrated member of which
was Pacuvius Calavius, who induced his f eUow-
eitizens to espouse the cause of Hannibal after
the battle of Cannae, B.C. 216. (Liv. xxiii. 2-9.)
Calbis (6 KdXBis), also Indus (Dalian), a con
siderable river of Caria, which rises in M.
Cadmus, above Cibyra, and after receiving
(according to Pliny, v. 103) sixty smaU rivers
and 100 mountain torrents, faUs into the sea W.
of Caunus and opposite to Rhodes.
Calchas (KaXxas), son of Thestor of Mycenae
or Megara, the wisest soothsayer among the
Greeks at Troy, foretold the length of the
Trojan war, explained the cause of the pes
tilence which raged in the Greek army, and
advised the Greeks to buUd the wooden horse.
An oracle had declared that Calchas should die
if he met with a soothsayer superior to himself ;.
and this came to pass at Claros, near Colophon,
for here Calchas met the soothsayer Mopsus,
who predicted things which Calchas could not.
Thereupon Calchas died of grief. After his
death he had an oracle in Daunia. (17. i. 68 ;
ii. 300 ; Ov. Met. xii. 19.)
Caldus, C. Caelius. 1, Rose from obscurity
by his oratory, was tribune of the plebs B.C. 107,
when he proposed a lex tabellaria, and consul
94. In the civil war between Sulla and the
party of Marius, he fought on the side of the
latter, 83 (Cic. de Orat. i. 25). — 2. Grandson of
the preceding, was Cicero's quaestor in Cilicia,
50 (Cic. ad Fam. ii. 15).
Cale (Oporto), a port-town of the Callaeci in
Hispania Tarraconensis at the mouth of the
Durius. From Porto Cale the name of the
country Portugal is supposed to have come.
Caledonia. [Bbitannia.]
Calentum, a town probably of the Calenses
Emanici in Hispania Baetica, celebrated for its
manufacture of bricks so light as to swim upon
water (Plin. xxxv. 171 ; Strab. p. 615 ; Vitruv. ii. 3).
Calenus, Q. Fufins, tribune of the plebs,
B.C. 61, when he succeeded in saving P. Clodius
from condemnation for his violation of the
mysteries of the Bona Dea (Cic. ad Att. i. 16).
In 59 he was praetor, and from this time
appears as an active partisan of Caesar. In 51
he was legate of Caesar in Gaul, and served
under Caesar in the civil war (Caes. B. G. viii.
39). In 49 he joined Caesar at Brundusium
and accompanied him to Spain, and in 48 he
was sent by Caesar from Epirus to bring over
the remainder of the troops from Italy, but
most of his ships were taken by Bibulus. After
the battle of Pharsalia (48) Calenus took many
cities in Greece. In 47 he was made consul by
Caesar. After Caesar's death (44) Calenus
joined M. Antony, and subsequently had the
command of Antony's legions in the N. of Italy.
At the termination of the Perusinian war (41)
Calenus died, and Octavianus was thus enabled
to obtain possession of his army. (Caes. B. C.
i. 87, iii, 26, 55 ; Cic. Phil. viii. 4.)
Cales or -ex (KoAtjj or -r;| : Halabli), a river
of Bithynia (Thuc. iv. 75).
Cales (-is, usuaUy PI. Cales -ium : Calenus:

CALETES
Calvi), chief town of Caleni, an Ausonian
people in Campania, on the Via Latina, said to
have been founded by Calais, son of Boreas,
and therefore called Threicia by the poets.
Cales was taken and colonised by the Romans,
B.C. 385. It was celebrated for its excellent

CALIGULA

187

Cales in Campania. B.C. SS5-2G8.
Obv., head of Pallas ; rev., Caleno,' and Victory in a biga.
wine. (Strab. p. 237 ; Liv. viii. 16, xxii. 13 ; Tac.
Ann. yi. 15 ; Hor. Od. i. 20, iv. 12 ; Juv. i. 69.)
Caletes or -i, a people in Belgic Gaul near
the mouth of the Seine, whose name is pre
served in Caux (Caes. B. G. ii. 4 ; Strab. p. 189) ;
their capital was Juliobona.
Caletor (KaXiirap), son of Clytius, slain at
Troy by the Telamonian Ajax.
Calidins. 1. Q., tribune of the plebs b.c. 99,
carried a law for the recall of Q. MeteUus Numi-
dicus from banishment. He was praetor 79,
and had the government of one of the Spains,
and on his return was accused by Q. LoUius,
and condemned. (Cic. Plane. 28, Verr. i. 13,
iii. 25.) — 2. M., son of the preceding, distin
guished as an orator. In 57 he was praetor,
and supported the recaU of Cicero from banish
ment. In 51 he was an unsuccessful candidate
for the consulship, and on the breaking out of
the civU war, 49, he joined Caesar, who placed
him over GaUia Togata, where he died in 48.
(Cic. Brut. 79, 274, ad Fam. viii. 4 ; Quint, x.
1, 23 ;_ Caes. B.C. i. 2.)
Caligula, Roman emperor, a.d. 37-41, son of
Germanicus and Agrippina, was born a.d. 12, and
was brought up among the legions in Germany.
His real name was Gaius (Caius) Caesar, and
he was always caUed Gaius by his contem
poraries : Caligula was a surname given him
by the soldiers from his wearing in his boy
hood smaU caligae, or soldier's boots. Having
escaped the fate of his mother and brother, he
gained the favour of Tiberius, who raised him
to offices of honour, and held out to him hopes
of the succession. On the death of Tiberius
(37), which was either caused or accelerated by
him, he succeeded to the throne (Tac. Ann.
vi. 45 ; Suet. Gal. 12, Tib. 73). He was saluted
by the people with the greatest enthusiasm as
the son of Germanicus. His first acts gave
promise of a just and beneficent reign. He
pardoned aU the persons who had appeared as
witnesses or accusers against his family; he

Caligula, Roman Emperor, a.t>. 37-41.
Ofti;., head of Caligula— legend, C. CAESAE AVG. GERM.
P. M. TR. POT ; rev., head of August™, radiate— legend,
DIVVS. AVG. PATER PATRIAE— a memorial type.
released all the stale-prisoners of Tiberius ; he
restored to the magistrates full power of juris
diction without appeal to his person, and pro
mised the senate to govern according to the

laws. Towards foreign princes he behaved
with great generosity. He restored Agrippa,
the grandson of Herod, to his kingdom of
Judaea, and Antiochus IV. to his kingdom of
Ccmmagene. But at the end of eight months
the conduct of Caligula became suddenly
changed. After a serious illness, which pro
bably weakened his mental powers, he appears
as a sanguinary and licentious madman. He
put to death Tiberius, the grandson of his pre
decessor, compelled his grandmother Antonia
and other members of his family to make away
with themselves, often caused persons of both
sexes and of all ages to be tortured to death for
his amusement while taking his meals, and on
one occasion, during the exhibition of the
games in the Circus, he ordered a great number
of the spectators to be seized, and to be thrown >
before the wild beasts. Such was his love of
blood that he wished the Roman people had only
one head, that he might cut it off with a blow.
His obscenity was as great as his cruelty. He
carried on an incestuous intercourse with his
own sisters, and no Roman woman was safe
from his attacks.
His marriages
were disgrace
fully contracted
and speedily dis
solved; and the
only woman who
exercised a per
manent influ
ence over him
was his last wife
Caesonia. In his
madness he con
sidered himself
a god ; he even
built a temple
to himself as
Jupiter Latiaris,
and appointed
priests to attend
to his worship.
He sometimes
officiated as his
own priest, mak
ing his horse
Incitatus, which
he afterwards
raised to the
consulship, his statue of Caligula. (Found at Gabii.)
colleague. His
monstrous extravagancies soon exhausted the
coffers of the state. One instance may show
the senseless way in which he spent his
money. He constructed a bridge of boats be
tween Baiae and Puteoli, a distance of about
three miles, and after covering it with earth he
built houses upon it. When it was finished,
he gave a splendid banquet in the middle of
the bridge, and concluded the entertainment by
throwing numbers of the guests into the sea.
To replenish the treasury he exhausted Italy
and Rome by his extortions, and then marched
into Gaul in 40, which he plundered in aU
directions. With his troops he advanced to the
ocean, as if intending to cross over into Britain ;
he drew them up in battle array, and then gave
them the signal — to collect shells, which he
called the spoils of conquered Ocean. The
Roman world at length grew tired of such a
mad tyrant. Four months after his return to the
city, on the 24th of January, 41, he was murdered
by Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a praetorian
cohort, Cornelius Sabinus, and others. His

188

CALINGAE

wife Caesonia and his daughter were likewise
put to death. (Suet. Caligula; Tac. Ann. i.
41, vi. 20 ff ; Dio Cass, lix.)
Calingae, a people of India, on the E. coast,
below the mouths of the Ganges (Plin. vi.^64).
Calinipaxa, a city on the Ganges, N. of its
confluence with the Jomanes (Jumna), said to
have been the furthest point in India reached
by Seleucus Nicator (Plin. vi. 63).
Callaici, Callaeci. [Gallaeci.]
Callatebus (KaXXdrriBos), a city of Lydia
between Colossae and Sardis, where the inhabi
tants made sugar out of wheat and the tamarisk
(Hdt. vii. 31).
Callatis (KdXXans, KdXaris : KaXariavds :
Mangalia), a town of Moesia, on the Black Sea,
originally a colony of Miletus, and afterwards
of Heraclea (Strab. p. 319; Mel.ii. 2).
Calleva (Silchester), a town of Britain, 22
Roman miles from Venta Belgarum (Winches
ter). It is remarkable as the best preserved
Roman town in the north of Europe.
Calllarus (KaXX'tapos), a town in Locris (II.
ii. 531 ; Strab. p. 426).
Callias and Hipponlcus (KaXXlas, 'lmr6vi-
kos), a noble Athenian family, celebrated for
their wealth. They enjoyed the hereditary
dignity of torch-bearer at the Eleusinian mys
teries, and claimed descent from Triptolemus.
1. Hipponicus, acquired a large fortune by
fraudulently making use of the information he
had received from Solon respecting the intro
duction of his o-E!o-a;Y.0eia, b.c 594 (Plut. Sol.
15 ; cf. Arist. 'A8. iroX. 7).— 2. Callias, son of
Phaenippus, an opponent of Pisistratus, and a
conqueror at the Olympic and Pythian games
(Hdt. vi. 121). — 3. Hipponicus, surnamed Am
mon, son of No. 2. — 4. Callias, son of No. 8,
fought at the battle of Marathon, 490. He was
afterwards ambassador from Athens to Arta
xerxes, and according to some accounts nego
tiated a peace with Persia, 449, on terms most
humiliating to the latter. On his return to
Athens, he was accused of having taken bribes,
and was condemned to a fine of 50 talents.
(Dem. de Fals. Leg. p. 428, § 311.)— 5, Hippo
nicus, son of No. 4, one of the Athenian gene
rals in their incursion into the territory of
Tanagra, 426, also commanded at the battle of
Delium, 424, where he was killed (Thuc. iii.
Dl). It was his divorced wife, and not his
widow, whom Pericles married. His daughter
Hipparete was married to Alcibiades, with a
dowry of 10 talents ; another daughter was
married to Theodorus, and became the mother
of Isocrates the orator. — 6. Callias, son of No.
5, by the lady who married Pericles, dissipated
* aU his ancestral wealth on sophists, flatterers,
and women. The scene of Xenophon's Ban
quet, and also that of Plato's Protagoras is
laid at his house. He is said to have ultimately
reduced himself to absolute beggary. In 400
he was engaged in the attempt to crush Ando
cides. In 392 he commanded the Athenian
heavy-armed troops, -when Iphicrates defeated
the Spartans; and in 371 he was one of the
envoyB empowered to negotiate peace between
Athens and Sparta, caUed 'the peace of Cal
lias,' which was followed by the war between
Sparta and Thebes (Xen. Hell. vi. 3, 4).
Callias. 1. A wealthy Athenian, who, on con
dition of marrying Cimon's sister, Elpinice,
paid for him the fine of 50 talents which had
been imposed on Miltiades. He appears to
have beeji unconnected with the nobler family
of Callias and Hipponicus. — 2, Tyrant of Chalcis
in Euboea, and the rival of Plutarchusv tyrant

CALLIMACHUS
of Eretria. He was defeated by the Athenians
under Phocion, B.C. 350, and thereupon betook
himself to the Macedonian court; but as he
could not obtain aid from Philip, he formed
an alliance with the Athenians, and by their
means obtained the supremacy in the island.
(Dem. de Cor. p. 252, § 101).— 3. A poet of the
Old Comedy, flourished B.C. 412 ; the names of
6 of his comedies are preserved (Fragments
by Meineke).— 4. Of Syracuse, a Greek histo
rian,- was a contemporary of Agathocles, and
wrote a history of Sicily in 22 books, embracing
the reign of Agathocles, B.C. 317-289. (MuUer,
Fragm. Hist. Graec.)
Callicrates (KaXXiKparys). 1. An Achaean,
exerted all his influence in favour of the Romans.
On the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans,
B.C. 168, Callicrates pointed out 1,000 Achaeans,
as having favoured the cause of Perseus, who
were taken to Rome ; and among them was the
historian Polybius. Callicrates died at Rhodes,
149.  2. One of the architects of the Parthe
non at Athens.
Callicratidas (KaXXiKpariSas), a Spartan,
succeeded Lysander as admiral of the Lacedae
monian fleet, B.C. 406, took Methymna, and
shut up Conon in Mytilene ; but the Athenians
sent out a fleet of 150 sail, and defeated CaUi-
cratidas off the Arginusae. Callicratidas fell
in the battle. Callicratidas was a plain, blunt
Spartan of the old school. Witness his answer,
when asked what sort of men the Ionians were :
' Bad freemen, but exceUent slaves.' (Xen.
Hell. i. 6 ; Plut. Lys. 7.)
Callicula Mons, the ridge in Campania, which
separates the plain called ' Ager Falernus ' on
the north of the Voltumus from the country
about AUif ae, and is continued in M. Tif ata (Liv.
xxii. 15, 16).
Callidromus or -um (KaXXlSpopos), part of
the range of Mt. Oeta, near Thermopylae.
Callifae (Calvisi ?), a town in Samnium, per
haps in the territory of Allifae (Liv. viii. 25).
Callimachus (KaXXipaxos). 1. The Athenian
polemarch, commanded the right wing at
Marathon, where he was slain, after behaving
with much gallantry, B.C. 490 (Hdt. vi. 109).
This is the last recorded instance of the polem
arch performing the military duties which his
name implies. (Diet. Ant. s.v, Archon.) — 2. A
celebrated Alexandrine grammarian and poet,
was a native of Cyrene in Africa, and a descen
dant of the Battiadae, whence he is sometimes
called Battiades (Ov. Fast. ii. 867). He
lived at Alexandria in the reigns of Ptolemy
Philadelphus and Euergetes, and was chief
librarian of the famous library of Alexandria,
from about B.c, 260 until his death about 240.
He compiled the Tllvcutes, which was a cata
logue of the library in chronological order, with
notes on the genuineness and contents of the
books. Though, like all his prose work, this
has perished, it formed a basis for later literary
criticism. He founded a celebrated grammati
cal school at Alexandria, and among his pupils
were Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium,
and Apollonius Rhodius. His enmity with his
former pupil Apollonius Rhodius is related else
where. [Apollonius, No. 6.] He is said to have
written 800 works, in prose and in verse, on an
infinite variety of subjects, but of these we pos
sess only some of his poems, which are charac
terised rather by labour and learning than by
real poetical genius. Hence Ovid (Am. i. 15,
14) says of Callimachus, Quamvis ingenio non
valet, arte valet. He had great influence in
spreading a love of science and learning, and left

CALLIMEDON
his impress on the Alexandrian school of poetry,
which became learned and affected rather than
spontaneous. The extant works of CaUimachus
are 6 Hymns in hexameter verse, 5 in the Ionic
dialect, and 1, on the bath of Pallas, in the
Doric dialect, and 72 Epigrams, which belong
to the best specimens of this kind of poetry,
and were incorporated in the Greek Anthology
at an early time. We have only a few frag
ments of his elegies, which enjoyed great
celebrity, and were imitated by the Roman
poets, the most celebrated of whose imitations
is the De Coma Berenices of Catullus. Of the
¦ lost poems of Callimachus the most important
were, AXria, Origins, in 4 books, on the origins
of the various mythical stories, from which
Ovid took the idea of his Fasti (the Ibis also
was imitated from a poem of CaUimachus
attacking Apollonius), and an epic poem en
titled Hecale, the name of an aged woman who
received Theseus hospitably when he went out to
fight against the Marathonian bull. — Editions.
By Spanheim, Ultraj . 1697, re-edited by Ernesti,
Lugd. Batav. 1761; by Blomfield, Lond. 183 5;
by Volzer, Lips. 1817 ; Meineke, 1861 ; Schnei
der, 1870. — 3. A sculptor, probably of Athens,
who lived about 420 B.C., and is said to have
invented the Corinthian column. Among his
works was the golden chandelier in the Erech
theum, with a bronze palm-tree above to draw
off the smoke (Paus. i. 26, 7), and a statue of
Hera at Plataea. He was so anxious to give
his works the last touch of perfection that he
lost the grand and sublime ; whence Dionysius
compares him to the orator Lysias, but in deli
cacy to Calamis (Isocr. 3). Callimachus was
never satisfied with himself, and therefore re
ceived the epithet KaKi£6rexvos, which Pliny
interprets as calumniator sui (Plin. xxxiv. 92 ;
Vitruv. iv. 1, 10).
Callimedon (KaXXipebav), surnamed o
Kd.pafios, one of the orators at Athens in the
Macedonian interest, and a friend of Phocion,
condemned to death by the Athenians in his
absence, B.C. 317 (Plut. Phoc. 27, 33 ; Dem. 27).
Callinicus Seleucus. [Seleucus.]
Calllnns (KaXXlvos), of Ephesus, the earliest
Greek elegiac poet, probably lived about B.C.
700. Only one of his elegies is extant, consist
ing of 21 vigorous lines, in which he exhorts
his countrymen to courage. Printed in Bergk's
Poetae Lyrici Graeci.
Calliope. [Musae.]
Calliope (KbAAioVtj), a considerable city in
the W. of Parthia, founded, or else enlarged, by
Seleucus Nicator (Appian. Syr. 57).
Calliphon (KaXXiipav), a Greek philosopher,
and probably a disciple of Epicurus, is con
demned by Cicero as making the chief good of
man to consist in a union of virtue (honestas)
and bodily pleasure (voluptas), (Cic. Fin. ii. 6,
11, v. 8, 25 ; Tusc. v. 30, 85 ; Off. iii. 33, 119).
Callipolis (KaXXiiroXis : KaXXiiroXirris). 1.
(Gallipoli), a Greek town on a rocky peninsula
on the Tarentine gulf in Calabria. — 2. A town
on the E. coast of Sicily not far from Aetna
(Hdt. vii. 154 ; Strab. p. 272).— 3. (Gallipoli), a
town in the Thracian Chersonese opposite
Lampsacus. — 4. A town in Paeonia between the
Strymon and the Axius. — 5. See Callium.
Callippldes (KaXXiiririSris), of Athens, a cele
brated tragic actor, a contemporary of Alci
biades and Agesilaus.
Callippus(K(iA.AOT7ros). 1. An Athenian, ac
companied Dion to Syracuse. In B.C. 353 he
murdered Dion, and usurped the government
of Syracuse, but was expelled the city at the

CALLISTRATUS

189

end of 18 months, and after wandering about
Sicily with hi3 mercenaries was at length put
to death by his own friends. — 2. An astrono
mer of Cyzicus, came to Athens, where he
assisted Aristotle in rectifying and completing
the discoveries of Eudoxus. Callippus invented
the period or cycle of 76 years, estimated as =
27759 days, which more nearly approached
correctness than the estimate of Meton. This
was called after him the Gallippic cycle, and
commenced B.C. 380 (Diod. xii. 36).
Callirrhoe (KaAAippiir)). 1. Daughter of
Oceanus, wife of Chrysaor, and mother of
Geryones and Echidna (Hes. Th. 981). — 2.
Daughter of Achelous and wife of Alcmaeon,
induced her husband to procure her the peplus
and necklace of Harmonia, by which she caused
his death. [Alcmaeon.] — 3. Daughter of Sca-
mander, wife of Tros, and mother of Ilus and
Ganymede s.
Callirrhoe. [Athenae, p. 144 6.]
Callisthenes (KaAXio-Bevns), of Olynthus, a
relation and a pupU of Aristotle, accompanied
Alexander the Great to Asia. In his inter
course with Alexander he was arrogant and
bold, and took every opportunity of exhibiting
his independence. He expressed his indigna
tion at Alexander's adoption of Oriental cus
toms, and especially at the requirement of the
ceremony of adoration. He thus rendered him
self so obnoxious to the king, that he was
accused of being privy to the plot of Hermolaus
to assassmate Alexander ; and after being kept
in chains for 7 months, was either put to death
or died of disease (Curt. viii. 5 ; Arrian, iv.
14; Plut. Alex. 52; Alexandee). Callisthenes
wrote an account of Alexander's expedition ; a
history of Greece, in 10 books, from the peace
of Antalcidas to the seizure of the Delphic
temple by Philomelus (b.c. 387-357) ; and
other works, all of which have perished, except
fragments collected by Miiller in Hist. Graec.
CallistO (KaXXio-rd), an Arcadian nymph,
hence called Nonaerina virgo (Ov. Met. ii. 409)
from Nonacris, a mountain in Arcadia, was
daughter either of Lycaon or of Nycteus or of
Ceteus, and a companion of Artemis in the
chase. She was beloved by Zeus, who meta
morphosed her into a she-bear that Hera might
not become acquainted with the amour. But
Hera learnt the truth, and caused Artemis to
slay Callisto during the chase. Zeus placed
CaUisto among the stars under the name of
Arctos, or the Bear. Aecas was her son by
Zeus. According to Ovid, Jupiter (Zeus) over
came the virtue of Callisto by assuming the
form of Artemis ; Juno (Hera) then metamor
phosed Callisto into a bear ; and when Arcas
during the chase was on the point of killing his
mother Jupiter placed both among the stars.
(ApoUod. iii. 8, 2 ; Paus. viii. 35, x. 31 ; Ov. Met.
ii. 410 ; Aectos). In this story Artemis is
interchanged with Callisto. There can be
little doubt that originally Callisto was the
bear-goddess who received a totemistic worship
in Arcadia, and who was identified with Arte
mis, when the animal worship had left only
survivals of names and rituals. Artemis
having united the worship of Callisto with her
own, Callisto became in legend the mere atten
dant of the goddess. [See Artemis.]
Callistratia (KaXXio-rparia), a town in
Paphlagonia, on the coast of the Euxine.
Callistratus (KaXXiaTparos). 1. An Athe
nian orator, son of Callicrates of Aphidna.
His speech on the affair of Oropus, B.C. 366,
is said to have excited the emulation of De-

190

CALLISTUS

mosthenes, and to have caused the latter to
devote himself to oratory. After taking an
active part in public affairs, generaUy in favour
of Sparta, Callistratus was condemned to death
by the Athenians in 361, and went into banish
ment to Methone in Macedonia. He ultimately
returned to Athens, and was put to death.
During his exile he is said to have founded the
city of Datum, afterwards Philippi (Xen. Hell.
vi. 2, 29; Lycurg. Leocr. 98).— 2. A Greek
grammarian, and a disciple of Aristophanes of
Byzantium. — 3. A Roman jurist, frequently
cited in the Digest, wrote at least as late as the
reign (a.d. 198-211) of Severus and Antoninus
(i.e. Septimius Severus and Caracalla).
Callistus, C. Julius, a freedman of Caligula,
possessed influence in the reigns of Caligula
and Claudius, and is the person to whom the
physician Scribonius Largus dedicates his work.
Calllum (KdXXiov : KaXXievs), called Calli
polis by Livy (xxxvi. 30), a town in Aetolia in
the valley of the Spercheus, SW. of Hypata.
Callixenus (KaXXi£evos), the leader in the
prosecution of the Athenian generals who had
conquered at Arginusae, B.C. 406. Not long
after the execution of the generals, the Athe
nians repented of their unjust sentence, and
decreed the institution of criminal accusations
against Callixenus, but he escaped from Athens.
On the restoration of democracy, 403, Callixe
nus took advantage of the general amnesty, and
returned to Athens, but no man would give him
either water or light for his Are, and he
perished miserably of hunger. (Xen. Hell. i. 7.)
Callon (KdXXav). 1. A sculptor of Aegina,
about 520 B.C., whose style is described as stiff
and archaic (Quint, xii. 10 ; Paus. vii. 18, 6).
— 2. A sculptor of Elis, early in the 5th century
B.C. ; author of a Hermes and of a group of
boy fluteplayers at Olympia (Paus. v. 25, 27).
Calor. 1. A river in Samnium, flows past
Beneventum and falls into the Vulturnus.
Here Gracchus defeated Hanno B.C. 214 (Liv.
xxiv. 14). — 2. A river in Lucania, falls into the
Silarus. These rivers keep their name Galore.
Calpe (KaXirri : Gibraltar), a mountain in
the S. of Spain on the Straits between the
Atlantic and Mediterranean (Strab. p. 139). This
and M. Abyla opposite to it on the African
coast, were called the Columns of Hercules.
Calpe (KaXirri : Kirpeh), a river, promontory,
and town on the coast of Bithynia (Strab. p.
543; Xen. Anab. vi. 4).
Calpurnia, daughter of L. Calpurnius Piso,
consul B c 58, and last wife of the dictator
Caesar, to whom she was married in 59. The
reports respecting the conspiracy against
¦ Caesar's life filled Calpurnia with the liveliest
apprehensions ; she in vain entreated her hus
band not to leave home on the Ides of March,
44. [Caesae.]
Calpurnia Gens, plebeian, pretended to be
descended from Calpus, a son of Numa. It
was divided into the families of Bestia,
Bibulus, Flamma, and Piso.
T. Calpurnius Siciilus, a poet of Nero's
reign and imitator of Virgil. Of his writings
we have 7 Eclogues and the Aetna (at one time
attributed to Virgil). Four other Eclogues by
a later writer (probably Nemesianus) have
been attributed to Calpurnius. His versifica
tion is good and as an imitation (especially Eel.
ii.) not unsuccessful. In Eel. i. andiv. he seems
to praise Nero and to predict a wise rule.
Calva. __[Venus.]
Calventius, an Insubrian Gaul, of the town
of Placentia, whose daughter married L. Piso,

CALYPSO
the father of L. Piso Caesoninus, consul B.C. 58.
In his speech against the latter, Cicero up
braids him with the origin of his mother, calling
him Caesoninus Semiplacentinus Calventius.
Calvlnus, Domitius. 1. Cn., curule aedile,
B.C. 299, consul 283, and dictator and censor
280. In his consulship he, together with his
colleague Dolabella, defeated the Gauls and
Etruscans, and hence received the surname
Maximus (Polyb. ii. 19). — 2. Cn., tribune of
the plebs, 59, when he supported Bibulus against
Caesar, praetor 56, and consul 53, through the
influence of Pompey. In the civil war he joined
Caesar. In 49 he fought under Curio in Africa;
and in 48 he fought under Caesar in Greece,
and commanded the centre of Caesar's army at
the battle of Pharsalia (Caes. B. C. ii. 42, iii. 78,
79). In 47 he had the command in Asia, and in
46 he fought in Africa against the Pompeian
party. After Caesar's death (44) he fought
under Octavian and Antony against the re
publicans. In 40 he was consul a second time,
and in 39 went as proconsul to Spain.
Calvlnus, L. Sextius, consul b.c. 124, de
feated the Salluvii and other people in Trans
alpine Gaul ; in 123 founded the colony of Aquae
Sextiae (Aix) (Liv. Ep. 61 ; VeU. Pat. i. 15).
Calvlnus, T. Veturius, twice consul, B.C. 834
and 321. In his second consulship he and his
colleague Sp. Postumius Albinus were defeated
by the Sabines at Caudium. For detaUs see
Albinus^No. 3.
Calvisius Sablnus. [Sabinus.]
Calvus, Licinlus. [Licinius.]
Calycadnus (KaXvKaSvos : Gok-su), a con
siderable river of CUicia Tracheia, navigable as
far up as Seleucia, where it is 180 feet wide.
It rises in Isauria (Strab. p. 670). Thepromon-
tory at its mouth is mentioned by Polybius
(xxii. 26) and Livy (xxxviii. 38).
Calydnae (KaXiSvai vtjo-oi), a group of smaU
islands off the coast of Troas, N. of Tenedos,
The name Lagussae is also applied to the
group, and Calydnae to the largest island, now
Tauschan adalar, or ' hare island.'
Calydon (KaXvSdv : KaXvSdvios : Kurtaga),
an ancient town of Aetolia on the Evenus in
the land of the Curetes, said to have been
founded by Aetolus or his son Calydon. The
surrounding country produced wine, oU, and
corn. Homer calls it ipavvr) (II. ix. 577, xiii.
217, xiv. 116 ; cf. Strab. pp. 450, 460). In the
mountains in the neighbourhood took place
the celebrated hunt of the Calydonian boar.
[Meleagee.] The inhabitants were removed
by Augustus to Nicopolis.
Calymna (KdXvpva: Kalymnos), an island
off the coast of Caria, between Leros and Cos,
said to have been originaUy occupied by
Carians and then colonised by Dorians under
Heraclid leaders. In the Persian war it was
subject to Artemisia (Hdt. vii. 99 ; Diod. v. 54 ;
Ov. A. A. ii. 81).
Calynda (KdXvvSa : KaXvvSevs : Doloman),
a city of Caria, E. of Caunus, and 60 stadia (6
geog. miles) from the sea. The Calyndians
formed a part of the fleet of Xerxes : afterwards
they were subject to the Caunians; and both
cities were added by the Romans to the terri
tory of Rhodes. (Hdt. viii. 87 ; Polyb. xxxi. 17 ;
Strab. p. 561.)
Calypso (KaXvf/d), daughter of Oceanus and
Tethys, or of Nereus, or, according to Homer,
of Atlas (Hes. Th. 359; Horn. Od. i. 50;
Apollod. 1, 2 ; Atlas), was a nymph inhabiting
the island of Ogygia, on which Ulysses was
shipwrecked. -Calypso loved him, and pro-

CAMARINA
mised him immortality if he would remain with
her. Ulysses refused, and after she had de
tained him 7 years, the gods compelled her to

CAMICUS

191

Calypso. (From a vase painting.)
allow him to continue his journey homewards.
(Od. v. 28, vii. 259.)
Camarlna (Kapdpiva : Kapapivouos : Game-
rind), a town on the S. coast of Sicily, at the
mouth of the Hipparis, founded by Syracuse,
B.C. 599. It attempted to throw off the yoke of
Syracuse and was destroyed B.C. 552 ; recolo-
nised in 495, and destroyed by Gelon ten years
later ; a third time colonised 461 ; suffered
severely from the ravages of the Carthaginians

Camar ina in Sicily.
Obi-., head of Heracles in lion's skin, and legend Ka^api-
vatwv ; rev., Athene in a chariot crowned by Victory.
under Himuco 405, and in the wars of Agatho
cles (Hdt. vii. 154 ; Thuc. vi. 5 ; Pind. Ol. v. ;
Diod. xiii. 108-114, xxiii. 1-9). In the 1st
Punic war it was taken by the Romans, and
most of the inhabitants sold as slaves (Polyb. i.
29 ; Strab. p. 272). Scarcely any vestiges of the
ancient town remain. In the neighbourhood
was a marsh, which the inhabitants drained
contrary to the command of an oracle, and thus
opened away to their enemies to take the town :
hence arose the proverb pr) Kivei Kapapivav,
ne moveas Camarinam (cf. Verg. A en. iii. 700).
Cambodunum (Slack), a town in Britain
between Eboracum (York) and Mancunium
(Manchester). Camboritum (prob. Cambridge or Gran-
chester), a town in Britain on the road from
Camulodunum (Colchester) to Lindum (Lin
coln). Cambuni Montes, the mountains which sepa
rate Macedonia and Thessaly.
Cambysene (KapBvo-rivr)), a district of Ar
menia Major, on the borders of Iberia and
Colchis. Cambyses (KapBicrTis). 1. Father of Cyrus
the Great. — 2. Second king of Persia, suc

ceeded his father Cyrus, and roigned b.c. 529-
522. In 525 he conquered Egypt ; but an army
which he sent against the Ammonians perished
in the sands, and the forces, which he led in
person against the Aethiopians S. of Egypt,
were compelled by failure of provisions to
return. On his return to Memphis he treated
the Egyptians with great cruelty ; he insulted
their religion, and slew their god Apis with his
own hands. He also acted tyrannically towards
his own family and the Persians in general.
He caused his own brother Smerdis to be mur
dered ; but a Magian personated the deceased
prince, and set up a claim to the throne.
[Smeedis.] Cambyses forthwith set out from
Egypt against this pretender, but died in Syria,
at a place named Ecbatana, of an accidental
wound, 522. (Hdt. ii. 1, iii. 17, 30, 61.)
Cambyses (KapBirrns : Iora), a river of Iberia
and Albania (in the Caucasus) which, after unit
ing with the Alazon, falls into the Cyrus (Mel.
iii. 5 ; Plin. vi. 15 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 8).
Camenae, also called Casmenae, Garmenae.
The name is connected with carmen, a ' pro
phecy.' The Camenae were water nymphs at
whose spring was an oracle, and they belonged to
the religion of ancient Italy. Their sacred
spring at Rome was near the Porta Capena,
where, it was said, Numa had dedicated spring
and grove (Liv. i. 21 ; Plut. Num. 13) : the
vicus Camenarum (G. I.L. vi. 975) was hence
named. Yet their worship disappeared early,
because in the 2nd century b.c it was replaced
by the Greek worship of the Muses, who were
identified with them. Hence Juvenal (iii. 10)
does not speak of it as an existing worship.
Cameria, an ancient town of Latium, con
quered by Tarquinius Priscus (Liv. i. 38, iii.
51 ; Dionys. v. 49).
Camerlnum or Camarlnum, more anciently
Camers (Camertes : Camerino), a town in
Umbria on the borders of Picenum, an ally of
the Romans against the Etruscans, B.C. 308,
also an ally of the Romans in the 2nd Punic
war, appears as a place of importance in the
war between Caesar and Pompey, subsequently
a Roman colony (Liv. ix. 36, xxviii. 45 ; Caes.
B.C. i.J5 ; Cic. ad Att. viii. 12).
Camerinus, the name of a patrician family
of the Sulpicia gens, the members of which
frequently held the consulship in the early
times of the republic (b.c. 500, 490, 461, 393,
345 ; see Liv. ii. 19, iii. 10, 81, v. 8, vi. 5, 22, vii.
28). After B.C. 345 the Camerini disappear
from history for 350 years, but they are men
tioned again as one of the noblest Roman
families in the early times of the empire. (Juv.
vii. 90, viii. 38 ; Dio Cass, lxiii. 18.)
Camerinus, a Roman poet, contemporary
with Ovid, wrote a poem on the capture of
Troy by Hercules (Ov. Pont. iv. 16, 19), per
haps the Sulpicius Camerinus consul a.d. 9.
Camers, legendary founder of the old Latin
town Amyclae : Virgil introduces him as an ally
of Turnus (Verg. Aen. x. 562).
Cameses, a legendary Italian king, appa
rently brother of Janus. Part of Latium was
once called Camesene after him (Plut. Q. B. 22).
Camlous (KapiK6s : Kap'iKios), an ancient
town of the Sicani, near Ageigentum, to the
NE. on the S. coast of Sicily on a river of the
same name, said to have built by Daedalus
for Cocalus the Sicanian king, who when Minos
came in pursuit of Daedalus put him to death.
To revenge the death of Minos the Cretans
besieged Camicus in vain for 5 years. The story
formed the plot of Sophocles's Kap'iKioi. (Hdt.

192

CAMILLA

vii. 170 ; Diod. iv. 78 ; Ar. Pol. ii. 10 ; Strab.
p. 273 ; Athen. pp. 86, 388.)
Camilla, daughter of king Metabus of the
Volscian town of Privernum, was one of the
swift-footed servants of Diana, accustomed to
the chase and to war. She assisted Turnus
against Aeneas, and after slaying numbers of
the Trojans was at length killed by Aruns.
(Verg. Aen. vii. 803, xi. 531-838.)
Camillus, Furius. 1. M,, one of the great
heroes of the Roman republic. He was censor
B.C. 403, in which year Livy erroneously places
his first consular tribunate. He was consular
tribune for the first time in 401, and for the
second time in 398. In 396 he was dictator,
when he gained a glorious victory over the
Faliscans and Fidenates, took Veii, and entered
Rome in triumph, seated in a chariot drawn
by white horses. In 394 be was consular tri
bune for the third time, and reduced the Fali
scans. The story of the schoolmaster who
attempted to betray the town of Falerii to
Camillus, belongs to this campaign. In 391,
Camillus was accused of having made an unfair
distribution of the booty of Veii, and went
voluntarily into exile at Ardea. Next year
(390) the Gauls took Rome, and laid siege to
Ardea. According to the mythical traditions
(see below), the Romans in the Capitol recalled
CamiUus, having appointed him dictator in his
absence. Camillus hastUy collected an army,
attacked the Gauls, and defeated them com
pletely, having appeared on the scene just as
the Romans were weighing out gold to their
conquerors. [Brennus.] His fellow-citizens
saluted him as the Second Romulus. In 389
Camillus was dictator a third time, and defeated
the Volscians, Aequians, and other nations.
In 886 he was consular tribune for the fourth,
in 384 for the fifth, and in 381 for the sixth time.
In 368 he was appointed dictator a fourth time
to resist the rogations of C. Licinius Stolo.
Next year, 367, he was dictator a fifth time,
and though 80 years of age, he completely
defeated the Gauls (Liv. v. 10-vi. 4 ; Plut.
Camill.). He died of the pestilence, 365.
These legends of Camillus are late inventions
for the glorification of the house of the Furii,
from whose archives .they were adopted doubt
less by Livy. We have the truer account in
Polybius, that the Gauls on their own terms
restored the town to the Romans, and retired
urimolested with their gold and their plunder,
having heard of an attack by the Veneti on
their own country (Polyb. ii. 18). — 2. Sp., son
of No. 1, first praetor 367. — 3, L., also son of
No. 1, was dictator 350 in order to hold the
comitia, and consul 349, when he defeated the
Gauls (Liv. vii. 24). — 4. 1., son of No. 2,
consul 338, when he took Tibur, and in con
junction with his colleague Maenius completed
the subjugation of Latium, for which he was
honoured with a triumph and an equestrian
statue in the Forum. In 825 he was consul a
second time. (Liv. viii. 16). — 5. M., proconsul of
Africa in the reign of Tiberius, defeated the
Numidian Tacfarinas, A.D. 17 (Tac. Ann. ii.
52). — 6. M., surnamed Scribonianus, consul
a.d. 32, under Tiberius. At the beginning of
the reign of Claudius he was legate of Dal-
matia, where he revolted, but was conquered,
42, sent into exile, and died 53. (Tac. Ann.
xii. 52.)
Camirus (Kdpetpos), on the W. coast of the
island of Rhodes, founded by Camirus, son of
Cercaphus and Cydippe, and the principal town
in the island before the foundation of Rhodes.

CAMPI
It was the birthplace of the poet Pisander.
(II. ii. 656 ; Hdt. i. 144 ; Strab. p. 655.)
Camlsa (VLdpiaa), a fortress in Cappadocia,
23 Roman miles E. of Sebaste.
Camoenae. [Camenae.]
Campania (Campanus : Terra di Lavoro), a
district of Italy, the name of which is probably
(like that of Capua) comiected with campus
' a plain,' was bounded on the NW. by Latium,
N. and E. by Samnium, SE. by Lucania, and
S. and SW. by the Tyrrhenian sea. It was
separated from Latium by the river Liris, and
from Lucania at a later time by the river
Silarus, though in the time of Augustus it did
not extend further S. than the promontory of
Minerva. In stiU earlier times the Ager Cam
panus included only the country round Capua.
The country along the coast from the Liris
to the Promontory of Minerva is. a plain
inclosed by the Apennines which sweeps round
it in the form of a semicircle. Campania is a
volcanic country, to which circumstance it was
mainly indebted for its extraordinary fertility.
It produced corn, wine, oil, and every kind of
fruit in the greatest abundance, and in many
parts crops could be gathered 3 times in the
year. The fertility of the soU, the beauty of
the scenery, and the softness of the climate,
procured for Campania the epithet Felix, a
name which it justly deserved (Strab. p. 242 ;
Polyb. iii. 91 ; Cic. de Leg. Agr. i. 7). It was
the favourite retreat in summer of the Roman
nobles, whose villas studded a considerable
part of its coast, especiaUy in the neighbour
hood of Baiae. The principal river was the
Vultuenus : the minor rivers were the Liris,
Savo, Clanius, Sebethus, Sarncs, and
Silarus. The chief lakes were Lucrinus,
Acherusia, Avernus, and Literna, most of
them craters of extinct volcanos. — The earliest
inhabitants of the country were the Ausones
and Osci or Opici, whence the older Greek
name for the country was 'Ottikt). They were
subsequently conquered by the Etruscans, who
became the masters of almost all the country,
with a confederation of twelve cities, the chief
of which was Capua or Volturnum. In the
time of the Romans we find 3 distinct peoples,
besides the Greek population of Cumae : 1. The
Campani, properly so called, a mixed race,
consisting of Etruscans and the original inhabi
tants of the country, dweUing along the coast
from Sinuessa to Paestum. They were the
ruling race : their history is given under Capua,
their chief city. 2. Sidicini, an Ausonian
people, in the NW. of the country on the
borders of Samnium. 3. Picentini in the SB.
of the country.
Campe (Kdpirri), a monster which guarded
the Cyclopes in Tartarus, was killed by Zeus
when he wanted the assistance of the Cyclopes
against the Titans.
Campi Lapidei (rreSlov XiB&Ses ; la Crau),
'Plain of Stones ' in the S. of Gaul, E. of the
Rhone, near the Mediterranean, and on the
road from Aries to Marseilles. These stones
were probably deposited by the Rhone and the
Druentia (Durance), when their course was
different from what it is at present, and had
formed a lake. This singular plain was known
even to Aeschylus, who says that Zeus rained
down these stones from heaven to assist
Heracles in his fight with the Ligurians, after
the hero had shot away all his arrows. A sweet
herbage grows underneath and between the
stones, and consequently in ancient as well as
in modern times, flocks of sheep were pastured

CAMPI
on this plain. (Strab. p. 182 ; Plin. ii.. 84, xvi.
97.) Campi Maori (MaKpo! Kdpvoi : Magreta), the
' Long Plains,' a tract of country between
Parma and Modena, celebrated for the wool of
its sheep (Colum. vii. it, 8). There appears to
have been a place of the same name, where
annual meetings of the neighbouring people
were held. (Strab. p. 216 ; Liv. xii. 18.)
Campi Raudli, a plain in the N. of Italy near
VerceUae, where Marius and Catulus defeated
the Cimbri, B.C. 101 (Plut. Mar. 26).
Campi Veteres, in Lucania, the scene of the
death of Ti. Sempronius Gracchus B.C. 212
(Liv. xxv. 16). Some take its position to be
marked by Vietri a little W. of Potenza.
Campus Martins. [Roma.]
Camulodunum, or Camalodunum (Colches
ter), chief town of the Trinobantes in Britain,
named from Camulus, the Celtic Mars. A
Roman colony was established here in the reign
of Claudius. It was sacked in the insurrection
of Boudicca (Tac. Ann. xii. 32, xiv. 81) ; but
afterwards became the civil capital of Ro
man Britain, wlnle Eboracum was the military
centre. Eventually, however, its importance
diminished, as that of Eboracum increased.
Camuni (Kapovvot), an Alpine tribe in the
valley of the OUius (Oglio) N. of L. Selinus (L.
d' Iseo), now caUed Val Camonica (Strab.
p. 206 £ Plin. iii. 134, 136).
Canace (Kavdiai), daughter of Aeolus and Ena-
rete, had several chUdren by Poseidon. She
entertained an unnatural love for her brother,
Macareus, and on this account was forced by her
father to kill herself (Ov. Her. 11, Trist. ii. 384).
Canachns (Kdvaxos). 1. A Sicyonian sculp
tor, belonged to the later archaic period about
520 B.C., and executed, among other works, a
colossal statue of ApoUo PhUesius at Branchi
dae, which was carried to Ecbatana by Xerxes,
479. Cicero speaks of his works as ' rigidiora
quam ut imitentur veritatem' (Brut. 18, 70 ;
Paus. ii. 10, 4, ix. 10, 2). — 2. Probably grand
son of the former, from whom he is not dis
tinguished by the ancients. He and Patrocles
cast the statues of 2 Spartans, who had fought
at Aegospotamos, B.C. 405. (Paus. x. 9, 4.)
Canastrum or Canastraeum (Kdvaarpov,
Kavaarpaiov , sc. aKparijptov, r) Kavao-rpaifi
ixpTi : C. Paliuri), the S.E. extremity of the
peninsula PaUene in Macedonia.
Candace (KavSdKn), a queen of the Aethio-
pians of Meroe, invaded Egypt B.C. 22, but was
driven back and defeated by Petronius, the
Roman governor of Egypt. Her name seems
to have been common to queens of Aethiopia.
(Strab. p. 820 ; Plin. vi. 186.)
Candaules (KavSaiXvs), also caUed MyrsUus,
last HeracUd king of Lydia. His wife com-
peUed Gyges to put her husband to death,
because he had exhibited to Gyges her unveiled
charms. Gyges then married the queen and
mounted the throne, B.C. 716. (Hdt. i. 8.)
Candavia, Candavii Montes, the mountains
separating IUyricum from Macedonia, across
which the Via Egnatia ran (Strab. p. 323 ; Caes.
B. C. iii. 79).
Candldum Pr. (Bas-el-Abiad, Cap Bianco),
N.W. of Hippo Zaritus on the N. coast of
Zeugitana, in Africa, forms the W. headland of
the Sinus Hipponensis (Mel. i. 7, 2).
Cane or Canae (Kdvri : Karadagh), a promon
tory and town in Aeolis between Atarneus and
Pitane, opposite the S. extremity of Lesbos.
(Strab. pp. 581, 584, 615 ; Hdt. vii. 42 ; Liv.
xxxvi. 45.)

CANTHUS

198

Canens, a nymph wedded to Picus. When
Circe in jealousy changed Picus to a bird
[Picus], Canens after a vain search for her
husband sank in the Tiber, whence her song
was heard floating in the air. (0 v. Met. xiv. 820.)
Canicula. [Cams.]
Canidia, whose real name was Gratidia, was
a Neapolitan courtesan beloved by Horace ;
but when she deserted him, he revenged him-
seU by holding her up to contempt as an old
sorceress (Epod. 5, 17, Sat. i. 8).
Canidlus Crassus, P. [Crassus.]
Canlnius Gallus. [Gallus.]
Canlnius Rebilus. [Rebilus.]
Cards (Kiav), the constellation of the Great
Dog. The most important star in this con
stellation was specially named Canis or Ca
nicula, and also Sirius. About B.C. 400 the
hehacal rising of Sirius at Athens, corre
sponding with the entrance of the sun into the
sign Leo, marked the hottest season of the year,
and this observation being taken on trust by
the Romans, without considering whether it
suited their age and country, the Dies Canicu-
lares became proverbial among them, as the
Dog Days are among ourselves. — The con
stellation of the Little Dog was called Procyon
(TlpoKvav), literally translated Ante canem,
Antecanis, because in Greece this constellation
rises heliacally before the Great Dog. When
Bobtes was regarded as Icarius [Arctos],
Procyon became Maera, the dog of Icarius.
Cannae (Cannensis: Ganne), a viUage in
Apulia, N.E. of Canusium, situated in an
extensive plain E. of the Aufidus and N. of the
smaU river VergeUus, memorable for the defeat
of the Romans by Hannibal, B.C. 216 (Liv.
xxii. 46 ; Polyb. iii. 118 ; Appian, Hann. 20).
Canninefates. [Batavi.]
Canobus or Canopus (KdvaBos or Kdvanros)
according to Grecian story, the helmsman of
Menelaus, who on his return from Troy died in
Egypt, and was buried on the site of Canobus,
which derived its name from him (Strab. p. 801).
Canobus or Canopus (KdvaBos, Kdvairos:
KavaBirns : Ru. W. of Aboukir), an important
city on the coast of Lower Egypt, near the
W.-most mouth of the Nile, which was hence
caUed the Canopic Mouth (to KavaBtKbv ffrdpa).
It was 120 stadia (12 geog. miles) E. of Alex
andria, and was (at least at one time) the
capital of the Nomos Menelaites. It had a
great temple of Serapis, and a considerable
commerce ; and its inhabitants were proverbial
for their luxury (KavaBiap6s). After the esta
blishment of Christianity, the city rapidly de
clined. (Hdt. ii. 15, 97, 113 ; Strab. pp. 666, 800 ;
Aesch. Suppl. 112 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 287.)
Canonium, in Britain, 8 miles from Camu
lodunum (Colchester) on the road to Venta
Icenorum (Norwich) : probably about Kelvedon.
Cantabri, a people in the N. of Spain. The
Romans originally gave this name to all the
people on the N. coast of Spain ; but when
they became better acquainted with the country,
the name was restricted to the people bounded
on the E. by the Astures and on the W. by the
Autrigones. The Cantabri were a fierce and
warlike people, and were only subdued by
Augustus after a struggle of several years (b.c
25-19). (Strab. pp. 155, 164 ; Dio Cass. liii. 25,
liv. 20 ; Hor. Od. ii. 6, iii. 8.)
Cantharns (KdvBapos), a sculptor of Sicyon,
about B.C. 268 (Plin. xxxiv. 85).
Canthus (KdvBos), an Argonaut, son of Cane-
thus or of Abas of Euboea, was slain in Libya
by Cephalion or Caphaurus.

194

CANTIUM

Cantlum (Cantii : Kent), a district of Britain,
nearly the same as the modern Kent, but in
cluded Londinium.
Canuleius, C, tribune of the plebs, B.C. 445,
proposed the law, establishing conubium, or
the right of intermarriage, between the patri
cians and plebs. He also proposed that the
people should have the right of choosing the
consuls from either the patricians or the plebs ;
but this proposal was not carried, and it was
resolved instead, that military tribunes, with
consular power, should be elected from either
order in place of the consuls. [Diet. Ant. s.v.
Lex Canuleia.]
Canusium (Canusinus: Canosa), a town in
Apulia, on the Aufidus, and on the high road
from Rome to Brundusium, founded, according
to tradition, by Diomede (Strab. p. 284), whence
the surrounding country was called Campus
Diomedis. It was at all events a Greek colony,
and both Greek and Oscan were spoken there
in the time of Horace. (Canusmi more bilin-
guis, Hor. Sat. i. 10, 80.) Canusium was a town
of considerable importance, but suffered greatly,
like most of the other towns in the S. of Italy,
•during the second Punic war. Here the remains
¦of the Roman army took refuge after their de
feat at Cannae, b.c 216. It was celebrated for
its mules and its woollen manufactures, but it
had a deficient supply of water. (Hor. Sat. i.
5, 91.) There are still ruins of the ancient town
near Canosa.
Canutius, or Cannutius. 1. P., a distin
guished orator, frequently mentioned in Cicero's
oration for Cluentius. — 2. Ti., tribune of the
plebs, B.C. 44, a violent opponent of Antony, and,
.after the establishment of the triumvirate, of
Octavian also. He was taken prisoner at the
•capture of PeruBia, and was put to death 40.
Capaneus (Kairaveis), son of Hipponous and
Astynome or Laodice, and father of Sthenelus,
was one of the seven heroes who marched from
Argos against Thebes. He was struck by Zeus
with lightning, as he was scaling the waUs of
'Thebes, because he had dared to defy the god.
While his body was burning, his wife Evadne
leaped into the flames and destroyed herself.
Capella, the star. [Capea.]
Capella, an elegiac poet of whom nothing re
mains ; contemporary of Ovid (Pont. iv. 16, 36).
Capella, Martianus Mineus Felix, a native
¦of Carthage, probably flourished towards the
close of the fifth century of our era. He is the
¦author of a work in nine books, composed in a
medley of prose and various kinds of verse, after
the fashion of the Satyra Menippea of Varro.
.It is a sort of encyclopaedia, and was much
esteemed in the middle ages. The first two
books, which are an introduction to the rest,
consist of an allegory, entitled the Nuptials of
Philology and Mercury, while in the remaining
seven are expounded the principles of the seven
liberal arts, Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric,
•Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music,
including Poetry. — Editions. By Hugo Grotius,
Lugd. Bat. 1599 ; by Kopp, Francf. 1886 ; Eys
senhardt, Lips. 1886.
Capena (Capenas, -atis : Civitucola, an unin
habited hul), an ancient Etruscan town founded
by and dependent on Veii, submitted to the
Romans B.C. 395, the year after the conquest of
Veii, and subsequently became a Roman muni
cipium (Liv. v. 8-24). In its territory was the
celebrated grove and temple of Feronia on the
.small river Capenas. [Feeonia.]
Capena Porta. [Roma.]
Caper, Flavius, a Roman grammarian of un-

CAPPADOCIA
certain date, whose works are quoted repeatedly
by Priscian, and of whom we have two short
treatises extant : printed by Putschius, Gram-
mat. Latin, pp. 2289-2248, Hanov. 1605.
Capetus SUvins. [Silvius.]
Caphareus (Katpvpevs : Capo d' Oro), a rocky
and dangerous promontory on the SE. of
Euboea, where the Greek fleet was wrecked on
its return from Troy (Hdt. viii. 7; Strab. p.
368 ; Eur. Troad. 90 ; Verg. Aen. xi. 260 ; Ov.
Met. xiv. 472, 4811.
Caphyae (Kaibvai), a town in Arcadia, NW.
of Orchomenus (Strab. p. 608; Paus. viii. 28).
Capito, C. Ateius. 1. Tribune of the plebs
B.C. 55 ; opposed the triumvirs Pompeius and
Crassus as regards their levies of troops and
disposition of provinces (Plut. Crass. 19 ; Dio
Cass, xxxix. 33 ; Cic. ad Att. iv. 18).— 2. Son of
No. 1, an eminent Roman jurist, was appointed
Curator aquarum publicarum in a.d. 13, and
held this office till his death, 22. He gained
the favour of both Augustus and Tiberius by
flattery and obsequiousness. (Suet. Gramm.
22 ; Dio Cass. lvii. 17 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 75.) He
wrote numerous legal works, which are cited in
the Digest and elsewhere. Capito and his con
temporary Labeo were reckoned the highest
legal authorities of their day, and were the
founders of two legal schools, to which most of
the great jurists belonged. The schools took
their respective names from distinguished dis
ciples of those jurists. The foUowers of Capito
were called from Masurius Sabinus, Sabiniani;
and afterwards from Cassius Longinus, Cas-
siani. The foUowers of Labeo took from Pro-
culus the name Proculeiani. [Labeo.]
Capito, C. Fonteius, a friend of M. Antony,
accompanied Maecenas to Brundusium, B.C. 37,
when the latter was sent to effect a reconcUiation
between Octavianus and Antony (Hor. Sat. i.
5. 82). Capito remained with Antony, and went
with him to the East.
Capitollnus, Julius, one of the Scriptores
Historiae Augustae, lived in the reign of Dio
cletian (a.d. 284-305). The Lives of Antoninus
Pius, M. Aurelius. Verus, Pertinax, Clodius
Albinus, the two Maximians, three Gordiani,
Maximus and Balbinus, are attributed to him.
Capitollnus, Manllus. [Manlius.]
Capitollnus Mons. [Roma.]
Capitollnus, PetiUIus, was, according to the
Scholiast on Horace (Sat . i. 4. 94), entrusted with
the care of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol
(whence he was caUed Capitolinus), and was ac
cused of having stolen the crown of Jupiter, but
was acquitted by the judges in consequence of
his being a friend of Augustus. The surname
Capitolinus appears, however, to have been a
regular family-name of the gens. The story,
therefore, is doubtful, and it remains uncertain
for what peculation he was tried.
Capitollnns, Quintius. [Quintius.]
Capltollnm. [Roma.]
Cappadocia (KainraoWa: KainrdSof, Cappa-
dox), a district of Asia Minor, to which different
boundaries were assigned at different times.
Under the Persian empire it included the whole
country inhabited by a people of mixed origin,
the old Cimmerian stock being combined with a
large immigration of Assyrian colonists, whence
the inhabitants were called (from their com
plexion) White Syrians (AeuKdVupot), aB weU as
Cappadoces, which appears to have been a word
of Persian origin. Their country seems to have
embraced the whole NE. part of Asia Minor B.
of the Halys and N. of the Taurus. Under the
later Persian kings the country was divided

CAPPADOX
into two satrapies, which were named respec
tively from their proximity to the Euxine and
to the Taurus, the N. part being caUed Cappa
docia ad Pontum and then simply Pontus, the
S. part Cappadocia ad Taurum, and then simply
Cappadocia : the former was also caUed Cappa
docia Minor and the latter Cappadocia Major.
In the time of Strabo Amisus (Samsun) was, as
now, the seaport for Cappadocia ; but in earlier
times Sinope was the port for this district and
for merchandise from Central Asia. The change
seems to have come about the second century
B.C. Under the Persian Empire, the whole
country was governed by a line of hereditary
satraps, who traced their descent from Anaphas,
an Achaemenid, one of the seven chieftains that
slew the pseudo-Smerdis, and who soon raised
themselves to the position of tributary kings.
After a temporary suspension of their power
during the wars between the successors of Alex
ander, when Ariarathes I. was defeated and
slain by Perdiccas (b. c 822), the kings of S.
Cappadocia (respecting the other part see
Pontus) recovered their independence under
Ariarathes H., whose history and that of his
successors wiU be found under Ariarathes and
Ariobarzanes. In a. d. 17, Archelaus, the last
king, died at Rome, and Tiberius made Cappa-
-docia a Roman province, governed by a procu
rator tiU the reign of Vespasian (Dio Cass. lvii.
17; Tac. Ann. xii. 45; C. I. L. ii. p. 1970.)
Soon afterwards the districts of Cataonia and
Mehtene, which had before belonged to CUicia,
were added to Cappadocia, and the province then
comprised the ten praefecturae (arparnyiai) of
Melitene, Cataonia, Cilicia, Tyanitis, Garsau-
ritis, Laviniasene, Sargarausene, Sarauravene,
Chamanene, and Morimene (Strab. p. 534). The
W.frontier of the Roman province was formed by
Lake Tatta and a line passing S. to the Taurus,
so as just to include Cybistra: the Taurus
formed the southern and the Euphrates the
eastern boundary : on the NW. it just included
Parnassus and Zama : the northern frontier
seems to have varied, extending at one time
nearly as far as Sebastopolis and Zela, but in
Strabo's time falling south of Sibora. Vespa
sian in A. D. 70 placed the province of Cappadocia
under a consular legatus (Suet. Vesp. 8).
About A. D. 78 it was united with the province
Galatia ; but Trajan reverted to the original
•division, and added Pontus Galaticus and Pole-
moniacus to Cappadocia. In the fourth century
the province was divided into Cappadocia
Prima and Secunda, and Justinian again
-divided Cappadocia Secunda into two parts,
making Mocissus, which he named Justiniano-
poUs, the capital of Cappadocia Tertia. Cap
padocia was a rough and generally sterile
mountain region ; bordered by the chains of the
Paryadres on the N, the Scydisses on the E.,
and the Taurus on the S., and intersected by
that of the Anti-Taurus, on the side of whose
central mountain, Argaeus, stood the capital
Mazaca, aft. Caesarea ad Argaeum. Its chief
rivers were the Halys and the Melas. Its fine
pastures supported good horses and mules.
Cappadox (KairirdSo£ : Delidjeirmak), a tri
butary of the Halys, rising in M. Lithrus, in
the chain of Paryadres, and forming the NW.
boundary of Cappadocia, on the side of Galatia.
Capra, or Capella (AifJ), the brightest star in
the constellation of the Auriga, or Charioteer,
is sometimes called Olenia Capella, because it
rested on the shoulder (eirl rrjs aXevr/s) of the
Auriga. This star was said to have been origi-
jnally the nymph or goat who nursed the infant

CAPUA

195

Zeus in Crete. [Amalthea.] Its heliacal ris
ing took place soon before the winter solstice,
and thus it was termed signum pluviale.
Caprarla. 1. (Capraja), a small island off
the coast of Etruria between Populonia and the
N. extremity of Corsica, inhabited only by wUd
goats, whence its name : called by the Greeks
AtyiXov. — 2. (Cabrera), a smaU island off the
S. of the Balearis Major (Majorca), dangerous
to ships. — 3. See Aegates.— 4. See Foetu-
NATAE INSULAE.
Caprasla, a town of Bruttium, 28 miles from
Consentia : probably the modern Tarsia.
Capreae (Capri), a small island, 9 miles in
circumference, off Campania, at the S. entrance
of the gulf of Puteoli, and 2J miles from the
promontory of Minerva, from which the island
had been separated by an earthquake. It is
composed of calcareous rocks, which rise to two
summits, the highest of which is between 1600
and 1700 feet above the sea. The scenery is
beautiful, and the climate soft and genial. Ac
cording to tradition, it was originally inhabited
by the Teleboae, but afterwards belonged to the
inhabitants of Neapolis, from whom Augustus
either purchased it or obtained it in exchange
for the island Pithecusa. Here Tiberius lived
the last ten years of his reign, indulging in secret
debauchery, and accessible only to his creatures.
He erected many magnificent buildings on the
island, the chief of which was the Villa Jovis,
and the ruins of which are still to be seen. (Tac.
Ann. iv. 67 ; Suet. Aug. 92, Tib. 40-65.)
Caprla (Kairpid), a large salt lake in Pam-
phyha, between Perge and Aspendus.
Capricomus (Aiymepas), the Goat, a sign of
the Zodiac, between the Archer and the Water
man, fought with Jupiter against the Titans.
Caprus (Kdirpos). 1. (Little Zab), a river of
Assyria, rising in Mt. Zagros, and flowing SW.
into the Tigris, opposite to Caenae (Strab. p.
738). — 2. A Utile river of Phrygia, rising at
the foot of M. Cadmus, and flowing N. into the
Lycus. Capsa (Capsetanus : Ghafsah), a strong city
in the SW. of Byzacena in N. Africa, in a
fertUe oasis, surrounded by a sandy desert
abounding in serpents. Its foundation was
ascribed by tradition to the Libyan Hercules.
In the war with Jugurtha it was destroyed by
Marius ; but it was afterwards rebuilt and made
a colony (Strab. p. 831; Sail. Jug. 89).
Capua (Capuanus, Capuensis, but more com
monly Campanus: Capua), originally called
Vulturnum, the chief city of Campania after
the faU of Cumae, is said to have derived its
name from Capys. Capua was either founded
or colonised by the Etruscans, according to
some 50 years before the foundation of Rome,
and it became at an early period the most
prosperous, wealthy, and luxurious city in the
S. of Italy (Liv. iv. 37; Strab. p. 242; Veil. Pat.
i. 7). In B.C. 420 it was conquered by the war
like Samnites ; and the population, which had
always been of a mixed nature, now consisted
of Ausonians, Oscans, Etruscans, and Samnites.
At a later time Capua, again attacked by the
Samnites, placed itself under the protection of
Rome, 343. . It revolted to Hannibal after the
battle of Cannae, 216, but was taken by the
Romans in 211, was fearfuUy punished, and
never recovered its former prosperity. It was
now governed by a praefectus, who was sent
annuaUy to the city from Rome. It received
a Roman colony by the lex agraria of Julius
Caesar, 59, and under Nero a colony of veterans
was settled there (Suet. Jul. 20 ; Tac. Ann. xiii.
02

196

CAPUT

31). It was subsequently destroyed by the
barbarians who invaded Italy. The modem
town of Capua is built about 3 miles from the
ancient one, the site of which is indicated by
the ruins of an amphitheatre.
Caput Vada Prom. [Beachodes.]
Capys (Ka7ruj-). 1. Son of Assaracus and
Hieromnemone, and father of Anchises. — 2. A
companion of Aeneas, from whom Capua was
said to have been named (Verg. Aen. x. 145).
Capys Silvius. [Silvius.]
Capytium or Capltinm (Capizzi), called by
Cicero (Verr. iii. 43) Capitina Civitas, a town
in Sicily near Mt. Aetna (Ptol. iii. 4, 12).
Car (Kip), son of Phoroneus, and king of
Megara, from whom the acropolis of this town
was called Caria.
Caracalla, emperor of Rome, a.d. 211-217,
was son of Septimius Severus and his 2nd wife
Julia Domna, and was bom at Lyons, a.d. 188
(Herodian, iv. 1 ; Dio Cass, lxxvii. 2). He was
originally caUed Bassianus after his maternal
grandfather, but afterwards M. Aurelius Anto
ninus, which became his legal name, and ap
pears on medals and inscriptions. Caracalla
was a nickname derived from a long tunic worn
by the Gauls, which he adopted as his favourite
dress after he became emperor (Dio Cass.
lxxviii. 3). In 198 Caracalla, when 10 years
old, was declared Augustus, and in the same
year accompanied his father, Severus, in the
expedition against the Parthians. He returned
with Severus to Rome in 202, and married
Plautilla, daughter of Plautianus, the praeto
rian praefect. In 208 he went with Severus to
Britain; and on the death of the latter at
York, 211, Caracalla and his brother Geta

Caracalla, Roman Emperor, A.D. 211-217.
Obv., head of Caracalla laurelled with legend ANTO-
NINVS PIVS AVG. BEIT. ; rev., figure of Mars with
legend MABTI PEOPUGNATOEI.
succeeded to the throne, according to their
father's arrangements. Caracalla obtained
the sole government by the murder of his
brother, 212 (Dio Cass, lxxvii. 2 ; Herodian, iv.
8 ; Vita Carac. 6). The assassination of Geta
was followed by the execution of many of the
most distinguished men of the state, whom
Caracalla suspected of favouring his brother's
cause : the celebrated jurist Papinian was one
of his victims. His cruelties and extravagan
cies knew no bounds; and after exhausting
Italy by his extortions, he resolved to visit the
different provinces of the empire, which became
the scenes of fresh atrocities. In 214 he visited
Gaul, Germany, Dacia, and Thrace; and, in
consequence of a campaign against the Ale-
manni, he assumed the surname Alemannicus.
In 215 he went to Syria and Egypt ; his sojourn
at Alexandria was marked by a general slaughter
of the inhabitants, in order to avenge certain
sarcastic pleasantries in which they had in
dulged against himself and his mother. In 216
he crossed the Euphrates, laid waste Meso
potamia, and returned to Edessa, where he
wintered. Next year he again took the field,
intending to cross the Tigris, but was murdered
near Edessa by Macrinus, the praetorian prae
fect. Caracalla gave to all free inhabitants of

CARBO
the empire the name and privileges of Roman.
citizens. ( Vita Sever. ; Vita Carac. ; Dio Cass..
lxxvii. ; Herodian, iv.)
Caralis or Carales (Caralitanus : Cagliari),.
the chief town of Sardinia, with an excellent.
harbour, situated on the Sinus Caralitanus
and on a promontory of the same name (Capo-
S. Elia). It was founded by the Carthaginians ;
under the Romans it was the residence of the
praetor, and at a later period enjoyed the Roman
franchise. (Paus. x. 17, 9 ; Liv. xxx. 39 ; Caes..
B. C. i. 30 ; Strab. p. 224.)
Carambis (KapdpBis aKpa : Kerempe), a pro
montory, with a city of the same name, on the
coast of Paphlagonia, almost exactly opposite
the Kriu Metopon or S. promontory of the Cher-
sonesus Taurica (Crimea) (Strab. p. 545).
Caranus (Kdpavos). 1. Of Argos, a descendant
of Heracles, and a brother of Phidon, is said to
have settled at Edessa in Macedonia with an
Argive colony about B.c 750, and to have
become the founder of the dynasty of Mace
donian kings. — 2. Son of Philip and half-brother
of Alexander the Great. — 3. A general of Alex
ander the Great.
Caratacus, or Caractacus, king of the SUures
in Britain, defended his country against the
Romans, in the reign of Claudius. He was at
length defeated by the Romans, and fled to Car-
timandua, queen of the Brigantes ; but she be
trayed him to the Romans, who carried him to
Rome, a.d. 51. When brought before Claudius,
he addressed the emperor in so noble a manner
that he pardoned him and his friends. (Tac.
Ann. xii. 33 ; Hist. iii. 45.)
Carauslus, bom among the Menapii in Gaul,
was entrusted by Maximian with the command

Carausius, Roman Emperor, A.D. 287-29S.
0&v.,bust of Carausius laureate with legend IMP. CAEAV-
SIVS P. r. AVG. ; rev., within wreath, MVLTIS XX
IMP. ; around, VOTO PVBLICO. E. S. B.
of the fleet which was to protect the coasts of
Gaul against the ravages of the Franks. But
Maximian, having become dissatisfied with the
conduct of Carausius in this command, and
suspecting that he aimed at independent role,
gave orders for his execution. Carausius forth
with crossed over to Britain, where he assumed
the title of Augustus, a.d. 287. After several
ineffectual attempts to subdue him, Diocletian
and Maximian acknowledged him as their col
league in the empire, and he continued to reign
in Britain till 293, when he was murdered by
his chief officer, Allectus. (Eutrop. ix. 20-25 ;
Aurel. Caes. 89.)
Carbo, Papirius. 1. C, a distinguished
orator, and a man of great talents, but of no
principle. He commenced public life as one of
the 3 commissioners or triumvirs for carrying
into effect the agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus.
His tribuneship of the plebs, B.C. 131, was cha
racterised by the most vehement opposition to
the aristocracy ; and he was thought even to
have murdered Scipio Africanus, the champion
of the aristocratical party, 129. But after the
death of C. Gracchus (121), he suddenly de
serted the popular party, and in his consulship
(120) actually undertook the defence of Opimius,

CARCASO
-who had murdered C. Gracchus. In 119 Carbo
was accused by L. Licinius Crassus, who
brought a charge against him, and as he fore
saw his condemnation, he put an end to his
life. Valerius Maximus is probably mistaken
in saying that he went into exile. (Liv. Ep.
59, 61 ; Appian, B. C. 1, 18 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 4 ;
Cic. de Or. ii. 25, ad Fam. ix. 21 ; Val. Max.
iii. 7, 6.) — 2. Cn., consul 118, was defeated by
the Cimbri near Noreia, and being afterwards
accused by M. Antonius, he put an end to his
¦ownlife (Liv. Ep. 68). — 3. C, with the surname
Arvina, son of No. 1, was a supporter of the
aristocracy. In his tribuneship (90), Carbo and
his coUeague, M. Plautius Silvanus, carried a
law (Lex Papiria Plautia), giving the Roman
franchise to the citizens of the federate towns.
Carbo was murdered in 82, by the praetor
Brutus Damasippus, at the command of the
younger Marius. (Veil. Pat. ii. 26.) [Beutus,
No. 10.] — 4. Cn., son of No. 2, was one of the
leaders of the Marian party. He was thrice
consul — namely, in 85, 84, and 82. In 82 he
carried on war against SuUa and his generals,
but was at length obhged to abandon Italy : he
ffed to SicUy, where he was taken prisoner, and
put to death by Pompey at LUybaeum. (Plut.
Pomp. 5 ; Appian, B. C. i, 67-96.)
Carcaso (Carcassone), a town of the Tecto-
-sages in GalUa Narbonensis, on the river Atax
(Aude). P. Crassus drew troops from it in his
Aquitanian campaign of B.C. 56 (Caes. B. G.
iii. 20 ; Carcasum, Plin. iii. 36 ; Ptol. ii. 10).
Carcathiocerta (KapKadi6Kepra : Kartpurt
¦or Diarbekr), the capital of the district of
Sophene in Armenia Major (Strab. p. 527).
Carcinus (KapKivos). 1. A comic poet and a
contemporary of Aristophanes (Nub. 1263, Pax,
794). — 2. A tragic poet of Agrigentum, contem
porary of Sophocles and father of Xenocles,
who defeated Euripides in B.C. 415. — 3. Son of
Xenocles and grandson of No. 2, wrote trage
dies, which are characterised as sententious,
.and careless in versification (Ar. Poet. 16, 17.)
Cardamyle (KapSapvXrj : KapSapoXirTis). 1.
A town in Messenia, one of the 7 towns pro
mised by Agamemnon to AchiUes (II. ix. 150,
292). It stood on a rock 1 mile from the sea
and 7 from Leuctra ; by Augustus it was trans
ferred from Messenia to Laconia (Strab. p. 360 ;
Paus. iii. 26, 7). Ruins are seen NE. of the
modern Skardamula. — 2. An island near or
perhaps a town in Chios.
Cardea, a Roman divinity protecting the
hinges of doors (cardo), was a nymph beloved
by Janus. Ovid (Fast. vi. 101, seq.) confounds
this goddess with Caena.
Cardia (KapSla: KapSiav6s: Bakla-burun), a
town on the W. side of the Thracian Chersonese
on the gulf of Melas, founded by Miletus and
Clazomenae, and subsequently colonised by the
Athenians under Mutiades (Hdt. vii. 58, ix.
115). It was destroyed by Lysimachus, who
built the town of Lysimachta in its immediate
neighbourhood. Cardia was the birthplace of
Eumenes and of the historian Hieronymus.
(Paus. i. 9, 10 ; Strab. p. 331 ; Nep. Eum. 1.)
Carduchi (KapSovxoi), a powerful and warlike
people in the SE. of Great Armenia, on the
NE. margin of the Tigris valley, probably the
same as the TopSvdiot and TopSvrivoi of the late
geographers and the Kurds of modern times.
'They dwelt in the mountains which divided
Assyria on the NE. from Armenia (Mts. of
Kurdistan), and were never thoroughly sub
dued. (Strab. pp. 523, 734, 747; Xen. Anab.
iv. 1 : Diod. xiv. 27.1

CARIA

197

Caresus (Kdpr,aos), a town of the Troad, on a
river of the same name : destroyed before the
time of Strabo (II. xii. 20 ; Strab. p. 602).
Caria (Kapia : KSp), a district of Asia Minor,
in its SW. corner, bounded on the N. and NE.
by the mountains Messogis and Cadmus, which
divided it from Lydia and Phrygia, and adjacent
to Phrygia and Lycia on the E. and SE. It is
intersected by low mountain chains running
out far into the sea in long promontories, the
N.-most of which was called Mycale, ending in
the point Trogilium (opposite to Samos), the
next Posidium (on which stood Miletus and
Branchidae), the next is the long tongue of
land terminated by the two headlands of
Zephyrium and Termerium (with Halicarnassus
on its S. side), next the Cnidian Chersonesus,
terminated by the oape Triopium and the city
of Cnidus, then the Rhodian. Chersonesus, the
S. point of which was called CynosBema, oppo
site to Rhodes, and, lastly, Pedalium or Arte-
misium, forming the W. headland of the bay of
Glaucus. The chief gulfs formed by these pro
montories were the Maeandrian, between Tro
gilium and Posidium ; the Iassian, between
Posidium and Zephyrium ; and the Sinus Cera
mieus, between Termerium and Triopium. The
vaUeys between these mountain chains were
well watered and fertile. The chief river was
the Maeander, between the chains of Messogis
and Latmus, to the S.of which the country was
watered by its tributaries, the Marsyas, Har-
pasus, and Mosynus, besides some streams
flowing W. and S. into the sea, the most con
siderable of which was the Calbis. (See the
articles.) The chief products of the country
were corn, wine, oil, and figs ; for the last of
which Caunus, on the S. coast, was very famous.
An extensive commerce was carried on by the
Greek colonies on the coast. — Even before the
great colonisation of the coasts of Asia Minor,
Dorian settlements existed on the Triopian and
Cnidian promontories, and this part of Caria,
with the adjacent islands, received at that time
other Dorian colonies, and obtained the name
of Doris ; while to the N. of the Iassian Gulf,
the coast was occupied by Ionian colonies, and
thus formed the S. part of Ionia. The inha
bitants of the rest of the country were Carians
(Kcipes), a race probably of Semitic origin, which
appears, in the earliest times of which we know
anything, to have occupied the greater part of
the W. coast of Asia Minor and several islands
of the Aegaean, with Mylasa as their chief town,
in conjunction with the Leleges, from whom
the Carians are not easily distinguishable. [See
under Leleges.] The Carians, Lydians, and
Mysians were connected by their common wop-
ship of Zeus Carios at Mylasa (Hdt. i. 171) : the
Carians had also a common sanctuary of Zeus
Stratius at Labranda (Strab. p. 659 ; Hdt. v. 119).
Their language was reckoned by the Greeks
as a barbarian tongue (i.e. unintelligible), though
it early received an intermixture of Greek
(H. ii. 865 ; cf. Strab. p. 661). The people were
warlike and were employed as mercenaries.
e.g. by Egyptian kings (Hdt. ii. 163, iii. 11).
The Greeks are said to have borrowed from the
Carians the fashions of handles for shields and
devices on the shields, and of plumed helmets
(Hdt. i. 171). — The country was governed by a
race of native princes, who fixed their abode at
Halicarnassus after its exclusion from the
Dorian confederacy. [Halicarnassus.] These
princes were subject allies of Lydia and Persia,
and some of them rose to great distinction in
war and peace. [See Artemisia, Mausolus,

198

CARINAE

and Ada.] After the Macedonian conquest,
the S. portion of the country became subject to
Rhodes [Rhodus], and the N. part to the kings of
Pergamus. Under the Romans, Caria formed a
part of the province of Asia. [See these articles.]
Carinae. [Roma.]
Carinus , M. Aurelius, the elder of the 2 sons
of Carus, was associated with his father in the
government, A.D. 283, and remained in the W.,
while his father and brother Numerianus pro
ceeded to the E. to carry on war against the
Persians. On the death of his father, in the
course of the same year, Carinus and Nume
rianus succeeded to the empire. In 284 Nume
rianus was slain, and Carinus marched into

Carinus, Roman Emperor, A.D.
Obv., head of Carinus, with legend M. AVR. CARINVS
NOB. CAES. ; rev.. Pax, with legend PAX AETERNA.
Moesia to oppose Diocletian, who had been
proclaimed emperor. A decisive battle was
fought near Margum, in which Carinus gained
the victory, but, in the moment of triumph, he
was slain by some of his own officers, 285. Cari
nus was one of the most profligate and cruel of
the Roman emperors. (Vopisc. Carin. ; Eutrop.
ix. 18-20 ; Aurel. Caes. 39 ; Oros. vii. 25.)
Carmana (Kdppava: Kerman), the capital
of Carmania Propria, 8° long. E. of Persepolis.
Carmania (Kappavia: Ki/rman), a province
of the ancient Persian empire, bounded on the
W. by Persis, on the N. by Parthia, on the E.
by Gedrosia, and on the S. by the Indian
Ocean. It was divided into 2 parts, C. Propria
and C. Deserta, the former of which was well
watered by several smaU streams, and abounded
in corn, wine, and cattle. The country also
yielded gold, silver, copper, salt, and cinnabar.
The people were akin to the Persians (Strab.
p. 726 ; Arrian, Anab. vi. 28, Ind. 87).
Carmanor (Kappdvap), a Cretan, purified
Apollo and Artemis, after slaying the Python.
Carmelus, and-nm (KdppriXos : Jebel-Elyas),
a range of mountains in Palestine, branching
off, on the N. border of Samaria, from the
central chain (which extends S. and N. between
the Jordan and the Mediterranean), and run
ning N. and NW. through the SW. part of
Galilee, till it terminates in the promontory of
the same name (Cape Carmel), the height of
which is 1200 feet above the Mediterranean
(Strab. p. 758). Here was an oracle consulted by
Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 5 ; cf. Tac. Hist. ii. 78).
Carmenta, Carmentis, according to the pre
valent tradition, was an Arcadian nymph,
mother of Evander, Hermes being the father.
She accompanied her son in his migration to
Italy 60 years before the Trojan war. She was
famed for her prophetic power, and an altar was
erected to her at the Porta Carmentalis
(Verg. Aen. viii. 838; Ov. Fast. i. 461; Liv. i.
7; Dionys. i. 38; Plut. Q. B. 56). At her
festival on January 11th two sister ' Carmen-
tes,' known as Porrima or Prosa and Postverta,
Were worshipped with her, as deities of child
birth : their names seem to imply her attributes
as an oracular goddess who could declare alike
the past events and the future. One peculiar fea
ture of her ritual was the prohibition agamst

CARNUNTUM
bringing leather into her sanctuary (Ov. Fast.
i. 629). She is said to have had a 2nd temple
and 2nd festival on January 15th in aocordance
with the vow of Roman matrons when they
secured their right of going in carriages. There
is mention also of a flamen Carmentalis
(Macrob. Sat. i. 16, 6; Plut. Bom. 21; Ov.
Fast. 617; Cic. Brut. 59; GeU. xvi. 6, 4).
Carmenta, whose name is no doubt connected
with carmen, seems originaUy to have been an
Italian deity of streams, of oracles and of help
in chUd-birth, with whom tradition connected
other legends making her the mother of the
Arcadian Evander, or in other accounts giving
as her original names NiKoo-rpdrri and ®epis,
(Plut. Q. B. 56).
Carmo (Carmona), a fortified town in
Hispania Baetica, NE. of Hispalis (Strab. p. 141).
Cama, a Roman divinity, who was regarded
as the protector of the physical weU-being of
man ; at her festival on June 1st, offerings of.
the most nutritious food, especially of beans,
were made and part was eaten by the worship
pers : hence the name ( Kalendae f abariae ' for
the 1st of June. Her temple on the Caclian
hill was founded by M. Junius Brutus in the
first year of the republic (Macrob. Sat. i. 12,
81; C. I. L. i. p. 394 ; TertuU. ad Nat. ii. 9).
Ovid confounds this goddess with Cardea.
Carneades (KapvedSris), a celebrated philoso
pher, born at Cyrene about B.C. 213, was the
founder of the Third or New Academy at
Athens. In 155 he was sent to Rome, with
Diogenes and Critolaus, by the Athenians, to
deprecate the fine of 500 talents which had
been imposed on the Athenians for the de
struction of Oropus. At Rome he attracted
great notice, and it was here that he first
delivered his famous orations on Justice. The
1st oration was in commendation of the
virtue, and the next day the 2nd answered aU
the arguments of the 1st, and showed that
justice was not a virtue, but a matter of com
pact for the maintenance of civil society.
Thereupon Cato moved the senate to send the
philosopher home to his school, and save the
Roman youth from his demoralising doctrines.
Carneades died in 129, at the age of 85. He
was a strenuous opponent of the Stoics, and
brought Academic scepticism to its extreme
point, maintaining that neither our senses nor
our understanding supply us with a sure
criterion of truth (Cic. de Or. ii. 87, 155, Tusc.
iv. 3, 5 ;_ Gell. vi. 14 ; Diog. Laert. iv. 62).
Carneus (Kapveios), a surname of Apollo,
under which he was worshipped by the Dorians,
is derived by some from Carnus, a son of Zeus
and Leto, and by others from Carnus, an
Acarnanian soothsayer. The latter was mur
dered by Hippotes, and it was to propitiate
ApoUo that the Dorians introduced his worship
under the surname of Carneus. The festivaL
of the Carnea, in honour of Apollo, was one of
the great national festivals of the Spartans.
(Diet, of Ant. s. v.). [Apollo.]
Carni, a Celtic people, dwelling N. of the Ve
neti in the Alpes Carnicae. [Alpes.]
Carnuntum (Kapvovs, -ovvros : ruins be
tween Deutsch-Altenburg and Petronell), an
ancient Celtic town in Upper Pannonia on the
Danube, E. of Vindobona (Vienna), and sub
sequently a Roman municipium or a colony.
It was one of the chief fortresses of the Romans
on the Danube, and was the residence of the
emperor M. Aurelius during his wars with the
Marcomanni and Quadi (Eutrop. viii. 13). It
was the station of the Roman fleet on the

CARNUS
Danube and the regular quarters of the 14th
legion. It was destroyed by the Germans in
the 4th century (Ammian. xxx. 5), but was re
built and was finally destroyed by the Hun
garians in the middle ages.
Carnus. [Carneus.]
Carnutes or -i, a powerful people in Gallia
Lugdunensis between the Liger and Sequana ;
their capital was Genabum.
Carpasla (Kapiraffia : Karpass), a town in the
SE. of Cyprus (Strab. p. 682 ; Diod. xx. 48).
Carpates, also caUed Alpes Bastarnicae
(Carpathian Mountains), the mountains
running through Dacia, a continuation of
the Hercynia Silva. Strictly this name seems
to have belonged to that part of the range,
next to the Hercynia S., in which the Vistula
has its source, and the part actually in Dacia
should be termed only Alpes Bastarnicae (Ptol.
iii. 5, CM20).
Carpathus (KdpiraBos: Karpathos, or Scar-
panto), an island between Crete and Rhodes, in
the sea named after it : a Dorian country
under the rule of Rhodes (Strab. p. 488 ; Diod.
v. 24) ; chief towns, Posidium and Nisyrus.
Carpetani, a powerful people in Hispania
Tarraconensis, with a fertile territory on the
rivers Anas and Tagus, in the modern Castille
and Estremadura : their capital was Toletum.
Carpi or Carpiani, a German people between
the Carpathian mountains and the Danube.
Carrae or Carrhae (Kdppai: Haran or
Charran, SS. : Harran), a city of Osroene in
Mesopotamia, not far from Edessa, where Cras
sus was defeated by the Parthians, B.C. 53 (Strab.
p. 747 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 5, xl. 25).
Carrinas or Carinas. 1. C, one of the com
manders of the Marian party, fought B.C. 83
against Pompey, and in 82 against Sulla and
his generals. After the battle at the Colline
gate at Rome, in which the Marian army was
defeated, Carrinas took to flight, but was
seized, and put to death (Eutrop. v. 8 ; Appian,
B. C. v. 92). — 2. C, son of No. 1, sent by Caesar,
in 45, into Spain against Sext. Pompeius. In
43 he was consul, and afterwards served as a
general of Octavian against Sext. Pompeius
in Sicily, in 36, and as proconsul in Gaul in 31
(Appian, B. C. v. 96-112; Dio Cass. Ii. 22).—
3. Secundus, a rhetorician, expeUed by Cali
gula from Rome, because he had declaimed
against tyrants in his school (Tac. Ann. xiii. 10,
xv. 45). _
Carseoli (Carseolanus : ruins at Civitd, near
Carsoli), a town of the Aequi in Latium, colo
nised by the Romans at an early period (Liv.
x. 8, 13j Strab. p. 238 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 688).
Car siil ae (Carsulanus : Monte Casttilli), a
town in Umbria, was originally of considerable
importance, but afterwards declined (Strab.
p. 227 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 60).
Carteia (also called Carthaea, Carpia, Carpes-
sus : remains near Algeciras), more anciently
Tartessns, a celebrated town and harbour in
the S. of Spain, at the head of the gulf of which
M. Calpe forms one side, founded by the
Phoenicians, and colonised B.C. 171 by 4000
Roman soldiers, whose mothers were Spanish
women (Liv. xliii. 3 ; cf . G. I. L. ii. p. 152). Some
have thought that Calpe is the same as Carteia:
it is more probable that there was a town of
Calpe on the site of Gibraltar and that Carteia
was distinct from it. (Strab. pp. 141, 145, 151 ;
Mela, ii. 6, 8 ; PUn. iii. 17 ; Appian, Lber. 3).
Cartenna or Cartinna (Tennez), a colony on
the coast of Mauretania Caesariensis, founded
by Augustus (Plin. v. 20 j Ptol. iv. 2, 4).

CARTHAGO

199

Carthaea I KapBaia : Poles, Ru.), a town on
the S. side of the island of Ceos.
Carthago, Magna Carthago (KapxySdv :
KapxvSdvios, Carthaginiensis, Poenus : Ru.
near El-Marsa, NE. of Tunis), one of the most
celebrated cities of the ancient world, stood in
the recess of a large bay (Sinus Carthaginiensis)
enclosed by the headlands Apollinis and
Mercurii (C. Farina and C. Bon), in the middle
and N.-most part of the N. coast of Africa, in
lat. about 36° 65' N., and long, about 10° 20' E.
The Tyrian colony of Carthage was founded,
according to tradition, about 100 years before
the bmlding of Rome— that is, about B.c 858
— but of its date it would not be safe to assert
more than it was a later Phoenician settlement
than Utica, of which it may have been first a
dependency. The mythical account of its
foundation is given under Dido. The part of
the city first built was called, in the Phoenician
language, Betzura or Bosra, i.e. a castle, which
was corrupted by the Greeks into Byrsa
(Bvpaa), i.e. a hide, and hence probably arose
the story of the way in which the natives were
cheated out of the ground. As the city grew,
the Byrsa formed the citadel. The coast of
this part of Africa has been much altered by
the deposits of the river Bagradas and the
sand which is driven seawards by the NW.
winds. Hence it must be understood that the
identification of ancient sites at Carthage
cannot be regarded as ascertained. In ancient
times Carthage stood upon a peninsula sur
rounded by the sea on all sides except the W. ;
but now the whole space between the N. side of
this peninsula and the S. side of the Apollinis
Pr. (C. Farina) is filled up and converted into
a marsh; Utica, which was on the sea-shore,
being left some miles inland ; and the course of
the Bagradas itself being turned considerably
N. of its original channel, so that, instead of
flowing about half-way between Utica and Car
thage, it now runs close to the ruins of Utica,
and faUs into the sea just under G. Farina.
The NE. and SE. sides of the peninsula are
stiU open to the sea, which has indeed rather
encroached here, for ruins are found under
water. The S. side of the peninsula was formed
by an enclosed bay, the Lake or Bay of Tunis,
connected with the sea only by a narrow open
ing (now caUed the Goletta, or, in Arabic,
Haket-et-Wad, i.e. Throat of the Biver), which
was once much deeper than it is now. The
circuit of the old peninsula may be estimated
at about 25 miles, and this space was occupied
by the city itself, its gardens, suburbs, and
cemeteries : the width of the isthmus is 3 miles.
The N. and E. points of the peninsula are two
headlands, Cape Ghammart and Cape Car
thage : the space between them seems to have
been occupied by suburbs and cemeteries : to
the south of a line between the promontories
came the city proper as weU as part of the
suburb Megara, and in the south portion of
the city proper was the citadel, Byrsa itself.
South again of the citadel were the two defen
sible harbours, of which we have an accurate
description (taken no doubt from an older
writer, possibly from Polybius) in Appian (Pun.
96). The outer harbour had an entrance from
the sea 70 feet wide, closed by chains : this was
used for merchantmen. The inner harbour,
which communicated only with the outer, was
for ships of war, and all round it, as well as
round the island in the middle of it, were docks
for 220 ships, with two Ionic columns in front of
each dock, having the effect of colonnades : on

200
the island were quarters for the admiral. There
seems no adequate ground for doubting that
the name Cothon (KdBav) was given to the inner
harbour. Strabo (p. 832) refers it especiaUy to
the island in the inner harbour; but in its
origin it was probably meant to signify the cup-

IValker GfBoutall sc.
Plan of Carthage.
shaped harbour dug out with the island left in
the middle. According to Festus the name was
sometimes given to harbours on the sea coast
which had been ' artificiaUy withdrawn inland,'
i.e. hollowed out of the land (cf . ' portus effodi-
unt,' Yerg. Aen. i. 427). It is generally considered
that two pools on the Bhore S. of the citadel
mark these two haibours : this is by no means
impossible, but cannot be regarded as certain :
it has recently been disputed (see Classical
Beview, v. 280). They were probably larger at
one time than they are now. These two har
bours were in times of peace supplemented to
any extent for the great commerce of Carthage
by the Lake of Tunis (see above). The Ro
man city, which was built after the destruc
tion of the original Carthage, lay to the S. of it.
The fortifications of the city consisted of a
single wall on the side towards the sea, where
the steep shore formed a natural defence, and
a triple wall of great height, with battlements
and towers, cutting off the peninsula from the
mainland. On this side were barracks for
40,000 soldiers, and stables for 300 elephants
and 4000 horses. The suburb caUed Megara, —
probably a corruption of Magal, which Virgil
(Aen. i. 421, iv. 259) has Latinised into Magalia —
also called Neapolis, containing many beauti
ful gardens and villas, lay to the N. of the city
proper. The aqueduct which brought water
to the city is still traceable to a great distance
inland. The most remarkable buildings men
tioned within the city were the temple of the
god Esmun, whom the Greeks and Romans
identified with Asclepius, and that of ApoUo
(Baal- Moloch or the Sun) in the market-place.
The population of Carthage, at the time of the
3rd Punic war, is stated at 700,000 (Strab. p. 882 ;
Appian, Pun. 95, 119 ; Polyb. i. 73 ; Liv. Ep.
51 ; Diod. xxxii.). — The constitution of Carthage
was a municipal oligarchy, somewhat resem
bling that of Venice. The government was, by
the original constitution, in the hands of the

CARTHAGO Gerusia, or council of Ancients, formed of 28
members chosen (as it seems, annually) by the
citizens : at their head were two chief magis
trates, also elected annually, who were caUed
' kings ' by Greek and Roman writers, but had
little real power, and acted chiefly as supreme
judges : their title Suffetes or Shofetes is the
same as the Hebrew Shophetim, the 'Judges'
in our translation of the Bible. A general in
chief was appointed by the Gerusia and had a
practical dictatorship during a campaign, but
was called to account at the end of his office.
The real power, however, at Carthage was in
the hands of the councU of ' The Hundred ' (in
number 104), who were called ' Judges,' and
were an oUgarchic institution of the aristocratic
party about B.C. 450, originally intended to
check the power of the Suffetes and any
| attempt at tyranny. As they held office for
life, and could punish, even with death, the
suffetes, gerusiastB, or generals at the expira
tion of their office, they became practicaUy
suprerne, and their approval of measures was
generally sought beforehand. This council of
'The Hundred' was first formed when the
power of the house of Mago excited suspicion;
and its efficacy was shown in the defeat of the
attempts made by Hanno (b.c 340) and Hamil
car (b.c. 306) to seize the supreme power. Its
members were elected by the pentarchies, which
appear to have been committees of five, who
held office for life, and filled up vacancies in
their number by co-option. Originauy the
general assembly of citizens decided on matters
about which the gerusia and the suffetes dis
agreed; but when the power fell really into
the hands of the Hundred, it is probable that
the general assembly had no functions beyond
the duty of electing the suffetes and the geru-
siasts. — The general tone of social morality at
Carthage appears to have been high, at leaBt
during its earlier history : there was a censor
ship of pubUc morals, under the care of the
gerusia ; and all the magistrates were required,
during their term of office, to abstain from
wine : the magistrates were also unpaid. Their
punishments were very severe, and the usual
mode of inflicting death was by crucifixion.—
The religion of Carthage was that of the mother
country : Baal-Moloch, the Sun and Fire God,
was appeased with cruel human sacrifices by
fire, especially in time of reverses : the tutelary
deity of Carthage was Melcarth (' the king of
the city '), whom the Greeks caUed the Phoe
nician Heracles : they worshipped also Tanith
or Astarte [see Aphrodite], and Esmun or
Asclepius. — The chief occupations of the people

Carthage, about B.C. IdO.
Obv., head of Persephone ; rev., Pegasus with PuniO
legend, taken to be Byrsa.
were commerce and agriculture : in the former
they rivalled the mother city, Tyre; and the
latter they pursued with such success that the
country around the city was one of the best
cultivated districts in the ancient world, and a

CARTHAGO

201

•great work on agriculture, in 28 books, was
-composed by Mago, a suffete.— The revenues
•of the state were derived from the subject pro
vinces ; and its army was composed of merce
naries from the neighbouring country, among
whom the Numidian cavalry were especially
•distinguished. It was in this mercenary army
and the aversion of the citizens to mihtary
•service, devoted as they were to commerce and
wealth, that the eventual weakness of Carthage
was found. — Of the History of Carthage a
brief sketch wiU suffice ; as the most important
portions of it are related in the ordinary his
tories of Rome. The first colonists preserved
the character of peaceful traders, and main
tained friendly relations with the natives of the
country, to whom they long continued to pay
a rent or tribute for the ground on which the
-city was built. Gradually, however, as their
commerce brought them power and wealth,
they were enabled to reduce the natives of the
•district round the city, first to the condition of
allies, and then to that of tributaries. Mean
while they undertook military expeditions at
sea, and possessed themselves, first of the smaU
islands near their own coast, and afterwards of
Malta, and the Lipari and Balearic islands
they also sent aid to Tyre, when it was besieged
"by Nebuchadnezzar (b.c 600), and took part in
wars between the Etruscans and the Phocaean
colonies. On the coast of Africa they founded
numerous colonies, from the PUlars of Hercules
to the bottom of the Great Syrtis, where they
met the Greek colonists of Cyrenaica : the
people of these colonies became intermixed with
the Libyans around them, forming a population
who are caUed Libyo-Phoenicians. In connex
ion with their commercial enterprises, they no
doubt sent forth various expeditions of mari
time discovery ; among which we have mention
•of two, which were undertaken during the long
peace which foUowed the war with Gelon in
-B.C. 480, to explore the W. coasts of Europe
and Africa respectively. The record of the
latter expedition, under Hanno, is stiU pre
served to us in a Greek translation [Hanno],
from which we learn that it reached probably
aa far S. as 10° N. lat., if not further. The
relations of the Carthaginians with the interior
of N. Africa appear to have been very extensive,
Trot the country actuaUy subject to them, and
which formed the true Carthaginian territory,
was limited to the district contained between
the river Tusca (Zain) on the W. and the lake
and river Triton, at the bottom of the Lesser
Syrtis, on the S., corresponding very nearly to
the modern regency of Tunis ; and even within
this territory there were some ancient Phoe
nician colonies, which, though in alliance with
Carthage, preserved their independent munici
pal government, such as Hippo Zaritus, Utica,
Hadrumetum, and Leptis. — The first great
development of the power of Carthage for
foreign conquest was made by Mago (about
B.C. 550-500), who is said to have first esta
blished a sound discipUne in the armies of the
"republic, and to have freed the city from the
tribute which it stiU paid to the Libyans. His
sons, Hasdrubal and Hamilcar, reduced a part
•of the island of Sardinia, where the Carthagi
nians founded the colonies of CaraUs and Sulci ;
and by this time the fame of Carthage had
spread so far, that Darius is said to have sent
to ask her aid against the Greeks, which, how
ever, was refused. The Carthaginians, however,
took advantage of the Persian war to attempt
the conquest of SicUy, whither Hamilcar was

sent with a great force, in B.C. 480, but his
army was destroyed and himself killed in a
great battle under the walls of Himera, in
which the Sicilian Greeks were commanded by
Gelon, the tyrant of Syracuse, and which was
said to have been fought on the same day as
the battle of Salamis. It was, in fact, a con
certed part of the great struggle between
Grecian and Asiatic powers for the mastery
of Southern Europe, to be fought out in the
west, while the other attack was made from the
east. It is impossible to overrate the import
ance of this and of other attempts of Carthage
against Sicily and later against Italy. Their
next attempt upon Sicily, in B.C. 410, led to a
protracted war, which resulted in a treaty
between the Syracusans, under Timoleon, and
the Carthaginians, by which the latter were
confirmed in the possession of the W. part of
the island, as far as the river Halicus. From
B.C. 810-807 there was another war between
Syracuse and the Carthaginians, which was
chiefly remarkable for the bold step taken by
Agathocles, who invaded the Carthaginian
territory in Africa, and thus, though unable to
maintain himself there, set an example which
was followed a century later by Scipio, with
fatal results to Carthage. Passing over the
wars with Pyrrhus and Hiero, we come to
the long struggle between Rome and Carthage,
known as the Punic Wars, which are fully
related in the Histories of Rome. [See also
Hamilcar.] The first lasted from B.C. 265-242,
and resulted in the loss to Carthage of SicUy
and the Lipari islands. It was followed by a
fierce contest of some years between Carthage
and her disbanded mercenaries, which is called
the Libyan War, and which was terminated by
Hamilcar Barcas. After a hollow peace, during
which the Romans openly violated the last
treaty, and the Carthaginians conquered Spain
as far as the Iberus (Ebro), the Second Punic
War, the decisive contest between the two rival
states, which were too powerful to co-exist,
began with the siege of Saguntum (b.c 218)
and terminated (b.c. 201) with a peace by which
Carthage was stripped of all her power. [Han
nibal ; Scipio.] Her destruction was now only
a question of time, and, though she scrupu
lously observed the terms of the last peace for
50 years, in spite of every provocation from the
Romans and their ally Masinissa, the king of
Numidia, a pretext was at length found for a
new war (b.c. 149), which lasted only 3 years,
during which the Carthaginians, driven to de
spair by the terms proposed to them, sustained
a siege so destructive that, out of 700,000
persons, who were living in the city at its
commencement, only 50,000 surrendered to the
Romans. The city was razed to the ground,
and remained in ruins for 30 years. At the
end of that time a colony was established on
the old site by the Gracchi (Plut. C. Gracch.
8-14 ; Appian Pun. 136), which remained in a
feeble condition till the times of Julius and
Augustus, under whom a new city was built S.
of the former, on the SE. side of the peninsula;
with the name of Colonia Carthago. It soon
grew so much as to cover a great part (if not
the whole) of the site of the ancient Tyrian
city : it became the first city of Africa, and
occupied an important place in ecclesiastical as
well as in civil history. It was taken by the
Vandals in a.d. 439, retaken by Belisarius in a.d.
533, and destroyed by the Arab conquerors in
a.d. 698. — Respecting the territory of Carthage
under the Romans, see Africa, No. 2.

202

CARTHAGO NOVA

Carthago Nova (KapxriSav t) vea: Cartha-
gena), a town on the E. coast of Hispania Tar
raconensis, founded by the Carthaginians under
Hasdrubal, B.c 243, and subsequently con
quered and colonised by the Romans, from
which time its full name was Colonia Victrix
Julia Nova Carthago. It is situated on a pro
montory running out into the sea, and possesses
one of the finest harbours in the world : at the
entrance of the harbour was a small island
called Scombraria, from the great number of
scombri or mackerel caught here, from which
such famous pickle was made. In ancient
times Carthago Nova was one of the most im
portant cities in all Spain ; its population was
numerous, its trade flourishing, and its temples
and other public buildings handsome and
imposing. It was, together with Tarraco, the
residence of the Roman governor of the pro
vince. In the time of Strabo it was still
flourishing, but was almost destroyed by the
Goths. Isidore, who was a native, speaks of
its desolation, A.D. 595 (Orig. xv. 1). In the
neighbourhood were silver mines ; and the coun
try produced a quantity of Spartum or broom,
whence the town bore the surname Spartaria,
and the country was called Campus Spartarius.
(Strab. p. 158; Polyb. ii. 13; Liv. xxvi. 42;
Plin. iii. 19.)
Carura (rd Kapovpd : Sarikivi), a Phrygian
city, in Caria, on the Maeander, celebrated for
its hot springs (Strab. pp. 578, 668).
Cams, M. Aurelius, Roman emperor a.d.
282-283, probably born at Narbo in Gaul, was
praefectus praetorio under Probus, and on the

Carus, Roman Emperor, A.D. 282 283.
Obv., head of Emperor, with name and titles; rev., Pax,
with legend PAX AUGG.
murder of the latter was elected emperor.
After defeating the Sarmatians, Carus invaded
the Persian dominions, took Seleucia and Ctesi
phon, and was preparing to push his conquests
beyond the Tigris, when he was, according to
some accounts, struck dead by lightning,
towards the close of 283. Others infer that he
was murdered by Aper. He was succeeded by
his sons Carinus and Numerianus. Carus
was a victorious general and able ruler. (Vo-
pisc. Gar. 5-8, Pro6. 22; Oros. vii. 24.)
Carusa (t) Kapovaa : Kerzeh), a city on the
coast of Paphlagonia, S. of Sinope (Plin. vi. 7).
Carventum, a town of the Volsci, to which
the Carventana Arx mentioned by Livy be
longed, a town of the Volsci between Signia
and the sources of the Trerus (Liv. iv. 58, 55).
Carvilius Maximus. 1. Sp., twice consul,
B.c 298 and 273, both times with L. Papirius
Cursor. In their first consulship they gained
briUiant victories over the Samnites, and in
their second they brought the Samnite war to a
close (Liv. x. 9, 33, 46, Ep. 14).— 2. Sp., son of
the preceding, twice consul, 284, when he
conquered the Sardinians and Corsicans, and
228, was alive at the battle of Cannae, 216,
after which he proposed to fill up the vacancies
in the senate from the Latins. This Carvilius
Was the first person at Rome who divorced his
Wife. (Liv. xxvi. 23 ; Dionys. ii. 25.)

CASINUM
Caryae (Kapiai : Kapvdrys, fem. Kapvans), a
town in Laconia near the borders of Arcadia,
originally belonged to the territory of Tegea in
Arcadia. It revolted from Sparta in B.C. 371
after the battle of Leuctra, and was punished
by Archidamus, who took the town and slaugh
tered the citizens (Xen. Hell. vi. 5, 24, vii. 1, 28).
It possessed a temple of Artemis Caryatis, and
an annual festival in honour of this goddess
was celebrated here by the Lacedaemonian
maidens (Paus. iii. 10, 9, iv. 16, 9). Respecting
the female figures in architecture called Carya
tides, see Diet, of Ant. s.v.
Caryanda (rd KapvavSa : KapvavSevs : Kara-
koyan), a city of Caria, on a little island, once
probably united with the mainland, at the NW.
extremity of the peninsula on which Hali
carnassus stood. It once belonged to the
Ionian League ; and it was the birthplace of the
geographer Scylax. (Strab. p. 658.)
Caryatis. [Caryae.]
Carystlus (Kapiarios), a Greek grammarian
of Pergamus, lived about b.c. 120, and wrote
numerous works, aU of which are lost.
Carystus (Kdpvo-ros : Kapvo-rios '. Karysto or
Castel Bosso), a town on the S. coast of Euboea,
at the foot of Mount Oche, founded by Dryopes ;
caUed, according to tradition, after Carystus,
son of Chiron. Datis and Artaphernes landed
here in 490. In the neighbourhood was ex-
ceUent marble (Cipolino), which was exported
in large quantities ; and the mineral caUed
Asbestos was also found here. (11. ii. 539;
Thuc. vii. 57; Hdt. vi. 99 ; Strab. p. 446.)

Coin of Carystus.
Obv., cow suckling calf ; rev., within incuse square,
cock, K (Carystus.)
Casca, P. Servilius, tribune of the plebs,
b.c. 44, was one of the conspirators against
Caesar, and aimed the first stroke at his assassi
nation. He fought in the battle of Philippi
(42), and died shortly afterwards. — C. Casca,
the brother of the preceding, was also one of
the conspirators against Caesar.
Cascellins, A., an eminent- Roman jurist,
contemporary with Caesar and Cicero, was &
man of stern republican principles, and spoke
freely against the proscriptions of the triumvirs.
(Hor. A. P. 871; Plin. viii. 144.)
Casihnum (CasUinas, -atis : Capua nuova),
a town in Campania on the Vulturnus, and on
the same site as the modern Capua, celebrated
for its heroic defence against Hannibal B.C. 216.
It received Roman colonists by the Lex Julia,
but had greatly declined in the time of Pliny.
(Liv. xxii. 15, xxiii. 17 ; Strab. p. 237.)
Casinum (Casinas, -atis: S. Germano or
Casino), a town inXatium on the river Casinus,
and on the Via Latina near the borders of
Campania; colonised by the Romans in the
Samnite wars; subsequently a municipium;
its citadel containing a temple of ApoUo occu
pied the same site as the celebrated convent
Monte Cassino : the ruins of an amphitheatre
are found at S. Germano. Varro had a villa
there. (Strab. p. 237 ; Liv. ix. 28 ; Varr. L. L.
vii. 29, B. B. iii. 5.)

CASIOTIS
Casiotis. [Casius.]
Casius. 1, (Bas Kasaroun), a headland on
the coast of Egypt, E. of Pelusium, separating
Lake Serbonis from the sea, with a temple of
Zeus-Ammon on its summit. Here also was
the grave of Pompey. At the foot of the
mountain, on the land side, on the high road
from Egypt to Syria, stood the town of Casium
(Katieh). The surrounding district was called
Casiotis (Strab. p. 758 ; Lucan, viii. 589). — 2. (Je-
bel Akra), a mountain on the coast of Syria, S.
of Antioch and the Orontes, 5818 feet above the
level of the sea. The mountain was sacred to
Zeus, and also to Triptolemus (Strab. p. 750 ;
Ammian. xxii. 14, 8). In the life of Hadrian (14)
it is said that he passed a night on the top in
the vain hope of seeing day on one side and
night on the other, according to a belief men
tioned in Plin. v. 80. The name of Casiotis was
applied to the district on the coast S. of Casius,
as far as the N. border of Phoenicia.
Casmena, -ae (Kao-pevT), Herod. : Kao-pevai,
Thuc. : Spaccaforno), a town in Sicily, founded
by Syracuse about B.C. 648. Here the Gamori,
or oligarchical party expeUed from Syracuse,
found shelter (Hdt. vii. 155 ; Thuc. vi. 5). It
was in the interior, but not far from the coast,
and was one of the outposts of Syracuse to con
trol the Sicels.
Casperia or Casperula, a town of the
Sabines, NW. of Cures, on the HimeUa (Aspra).
Caspiae Portae or Pylae (Kdo-iriat irvXai:
Tengi Sirdara), the principal pass from Media
into Parthia and Hyrcania, through the Caspii
Montes, was a deep ravine, made practicable
by art, but stiU so narrow that there was only
room for a single wagon to pass between the
lofty overhanging walls of rock. The Persians
erected iron gates across the narrowest part of
the pass, and maintained a guard for its defence.
This pass was near the ancient Rhagae or Arsacia.
Alexander passed through it in pursuit of Darius
(Arrian, Anab. iii. 19). The Caspian gates, being
the most important pass from Western to
Central Asia, were regarded by many of the
ancients as a sort of central point, common to
the boundaries between W. and E. Asia and N.
and S. Asia; and distances were reckoned
from them. (Strab. pp. 64, 514, 522.)
Caspii (Kdairioi), the name of certain Scythian
tribes near the Caspian Sea, is used rather
loosely by the ancient geographers. The Caspii
of Strabo are on the W. side of the sea, and
their country, Caspiane, forms a part of
Albania. Those of Herodotus and Ptolemy are
in the E. of Media, on the borders of Parthia,
in the neighbourhood of the Caspiae Pylae
(Strab. p. 502 ; Hdt. iii. 29 ; Ptol. vi. 2, 5). Pro
bably it would not be far wrong to apply the
name generally to the people round the SW.
and S. shores of the Caspian in and about the
Caspii Montes.
Caspii Montes (to Kdtnria 6pn : Elburz Mts.)
or Caspius Mons, is a name applied generaUy
to the whole range of mountains which surround
the Caspian Sea, on the S. and SW., at the
distance of from 15 to 30 miles from its shore,
on the borders of Armenia, Media, Hyrcania,
and Parthia ; and more specificaUy to that part
of this range S. of the Caspian, in which was
the pass called Caspiae Pylae. The term was
also loosely applied to other mountains near
the Caspian, especially, by Strabo, to the E.
part of the Caucasus, between Colchis and the
Caspian. Caspiri or Caspiraei (Kdo-ireipot, Kao-mpaiot),
a people of India, probably in Cashmir.

CASSANDER

20B

Caspium Mare (ti Kao-irla BdXaao-a, the
Caspian Sea), also called Hyrcanium, Alba
num, and Scy thicum, all names derived from the-
people who lived on its shores, is a great salt
water lake in Asia, according to the ancient
division of the continents, but now on the
boundary between Europe and Asia. Its
average width from E. to W. is about 210 miles,
and its length from N. to S., in a straight line,
is about 740 miles ; but, as its N. part makes a
great bend to the E., its true length, measured
along a curve drawn through its middle, is
about 900 miles; its area is about 180,000
square miles. The notions of the ancients
about the Caspian varied very much ; and it is
curious that two of the erroneous opinions of
the later Greek and Roman geographers —
namely, that it was united both with the Sea of
Aral and with the Arctic Ocean — expressed what,
at some remote period, were probably real facts.
Their other error, that its greatest length lay
W. and E., very likely arose from its supposed
union with the Sea of Aral. Another conse
quence of this error was the supposition that
the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes flowed into the
Caspian. That the former really did so at some
time subsequent to the separation of the two
lakes (supposing that they were once united) is
pretty well established ; but whether this has
been the case within the historical period
cannot be determined [Oxus]. The country
between the two lakes has evidently been
greatly changed, and the sand-hills which cover
it have doubtless been accumulated by the
force of the E. windB bringing down sand from
the steppes of Tartary. Both lakes have their
surface considerably below that of the Black
Sea, the Caspian being nearly 350 feet, and
the Aral about 200 feet, lower than the level of
the Black Sea, and both are still sinking by
evaporation. Moreover, the whole country
between and around them for a considerable
distance is a depression, surrounded by lofty
mountains on every side, except where the
vaUey of the Irtish and Obi stretches away to
the Arctic Ocean. Besides a number of smaller
streams, two great rivers flow into the Caspian ;
the Rha (Volga) on the N., and the united
Cyrus and Araxes (Kour) on the W. ; but it
loses more by evaporation than it receives from
these rivers. (Strab. pp. 507, 519 ; Mel. iii. 5 ;
Plin. vi. 86 ; Diod. xviii. 5 ; Arist. Meteor, i.
13, 29.)
Cassandane (Kao-o-avSdvri), wife of Cyrus the
Great, and mother of Cambyses.
Cassander (Kdao-avSpos), son of Antipater.
His father, on his death-bed (b.c 321), appointed
Polysperchon regent, and conferred upon Cas
sander only the secondary dignity of Chiliarch.
Being dissatisfied with this arrangement,
Cassander strengthened himself by an aUiance
with Ptolemy and Antigonus, and entered into
war with Polysperchon. In 318 Cassander ob
tained possession of Athens and most of the
cities in the S. of Greece. In 817 he was re
called to Macedonia to oppose Olympias. He
kept her besieged in Pydna throughout the
winter of 317, and on her surrender in the
spring of the ensuing year, he put her to death.
The way now seemed open to him to the throne
of Macedon. He placed Roxana and her young
son, Alexander Aegus, in custody at Amphipo
lis, not thinking it safe as yet to murder them ;
and he connected himself with the regal family
by a marriage with Thessalonica, half-siBter to
Alexander the Great (Diod. xix. 49). In 815
Cassander joined Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysi-

204

CASSANDRA

machus in their war against Antigonus, of
whose power they had all become jealous.
This war was upon the whole unfavourable to
Cassander, who lost most of the cities in Greece.
By the general peace of 311, it was provided
that Cassander was to retain his authority in
Europe till Alexander Aegus should be grown
to manhood. Cassander thereupon put to
death the young king and his mother Roxana
(Diod. xix. 105, xx. 26). In 810 the war was
renewed, and Heracles, the son of Alexander
by Barsine, was brought forward by Polysper
chon as a claimant to the Macedonian throne ;
but Cassander bribed Polysperchon to murder
the young prince and his mother, 809. In 306
Cassander allowed himself to be called by the
title of king, when it was assumed by Antigonus,
Lysimachus, and Ptolemy (Plut. Demetr. 18).

Coin of Cassander.
Obv., head of Heracles; ref., boy on horse— legend BASI-
AEftS KA22ANAPOY.
In the following years, Demetrius Poliorcetes,
the son of Antigonus, carried on the war in
Greece with great success against Cassander ;
but in 302 Demetrius was obliged to pass into
Asia, to support his father ; and next year, 301,
the decisive battle of Ipsus was fought, in
which Antigonus and Demetrius were defeated,
and the former slain, and which gave to Cas
sander Macedonia and Greece. Cassander died
of dropsy in 297, and was succeeded by his son
Philip (Diod. xx. 112 ; Plut. Demetr. 31).
Cassandra (Kao-o-dvSpa,), daughter of Priam
and Hecuba, and twin-sister of Helenus (II.

Cassandra and Apollo. (Pitture d'Ercolano, vol. ii. tav. 17.)
:xiii. 365). According to a post-Homeric story,
she and her brother, when young, were left
asleep in the sanctuary of Apollo, when their
ears were purified by serpents, so that they

CASSIOPEA
could understand the divine sounds of nature
and the voices of birds. When she grew up
her beauty won the love of Apollo, who con
ferred upon her the gift of prophecy, upon her
promising to comply with his desires ; but after
she had become possessed of the prophetic art,
she refused to fulfil her promise. Thereupon
the god in anger ordained that no one should
believe her prophecies. She predicted to the
Trojans the ruin that threatened them, but no
one believed her ; she was looked upon as a
madwoman, and, according to a late account,
was shut up and guarded. On the capture of
Troy she fled into the sanctuary of Athene, but
was torn away from the statue of the goddess
by Ajax, son of Oi'leus, and, according to some
accounts, was even ravished by him in the
sanctuary. On the division of the booty, Cas
sandra feU to the lot of Agamemnon, who took
her with him to Mycenae. Here she was
killed by Clytaemnestra. (Od. xi. 421 ; Verg.
Aen. ii. 343 ; Aesch. Ag. 1300; Strab. p. 264.)
Cassandrea. [Potidaea.]
Cassia Gens. [Cassius.]
Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius, a distin
guished statesman, and one of the few men of
learning at the downf aU of the Western Empire,
was born about a.d. 468, at Scylacium in Brut-
tium, of an ancient and wealthy Roman family.
He enjoyed the full confidence of Theodoric the
Great and his successors, and under a variety
of different titles he conducted for a long series
of years -the government of the Ostrogothic
kingdom. At the age of 70 he retired to the
monastery of Viviers, which he had founded in
his native province, and there passed the last
30 years of his life. His time was devoted to
study and to the composition of elementary
treatises on history, metaphysics, the 7 liberal
arts, and divinity ; while his leisure hours were
employed in the construction of phUosophical
toys, such as sun-dials, water-clocks, &c. Of
his numerous writings the most
important is his Variarum
(Episto larum) Libri XII, an as
semblage of state papers drawn
up by Cassiodorus in accordance
with the instructions of Theo
doric and his successors. The
other works of Cassiodorus are
of less value to us. The prin
cipal are : 1. Chronicon, a sum
mary of Universal History giv
ing a catalogue of Roman con
suls ; 2. De Orthographia Liber;
3. De Arte Grammatica ad
Donati Mentem ; 4. De Artibus
ac Disciplinis LiberaliumLite-
rarum, much read in the middle
ages; 5. De Anima; 6. Libri
Xllde Bebus Gestis Gothorum,
known to us only through the
abridgment of Jornandes ; 7. De
Institutions Divinarum Lite-
rarum, an introduction to the
profitable study of the Scrip
tures. There are also several
other ecclesiastical works of
Cassiodorus extant. — The best
edition of his collected works is
by D. Garet, Rouen, 1679, 2 vols.
fol., reprinted at Venice, 1729.
Cassiope (KaoWirn), a town
in Corcyra on a promontory of the same name,
with a good harbour and a temple of Zeus.
Cassiopea, Cassiepea, or Cassiope (Ktur-
0"i4ireia, Kao-o-idireia. or Kan-cnoirij), wife of

CASSITERIDES
Cepheus in Aethiopia, and mother of Andro
meda, whose beauty she extoUed above that of
the Nereids. [Andromeda.]
Cassiterldes Insulae (Kaa-o-iTeptSes vr)o-oi),
' the Tin Islands,' from which the Phoenicians
at an early period procured tin. Herodotus
(iii. 125) has heard of then1 name, but doubts
their real existence, apparently thinking that
the Phoenicians merely concealed under this
name the spot where the metal was found. It
has been usual to identify them with the Scilly
Islands, and to say that the Phoenicians there
bought the tin which the Britons brought over
from Cornwall, but there is no authority for
any such idea, and it is from a common sense
point of view highly improbable that the Phoe
nician ships should have halted at this incon
venient anchorage instead of going on to get
the metal in the Cornish harbours. The ( Ictis'
of Diodorus (v. 38) may be St. Michael's Mount,
but certainly is not the Scilly Isles. Strabo
seems to fix the Cassiterides Insulae as off the
coast of the Artabri, at the extreme NW. of
Spain, not far from Cape Finisterre. He says
that they Ue out to sea northwards, but it is
inconceivable that he could have meant 500
miles away. He says that there are ten of
these islands (pp. 120, 129, 117, 175). Pliny
also places them off the north coast of Spain,
and though he seems to distinguish them from
the islands off the coast of the Artabri, it is not
certain that he should be so read (iv. 119). On
the whole, if these islands are to be fixed defi
nitely anywhere, there is most authority for
taking them to be small Spanish islands off the
Galician coast. But it is probable that some
ancient writers spoke of the British isles gene-
raUy under this name.
Cassius, the name of one of the most distin
guished of the Roman gentes, originally
patrician, afterwards plebeian. 1. Sp. Cassius
Viseellinns, thrice consul : first B.C. 502, when
he conquered the Sabines ; again, 493, when he
made a league with the Latins; and, lastly,
486, when he made a league with the Hernicans,
and carried his celebrated agrarian law, the
first which was proposed at Rome. It was an
attempt to take the control of the pubUc lands
from the senate and to provide for a more
equitable and less selfish appropriation. His
proposal was to have the public land measured ;
to lease a part for the benefit of the public trea
sury, and to assign a part to the plebeians ; that
the share of patricians in the pubUc land should
be strictly defined, and that the remainder should
be divided among the plebeians. In the foUow
ing year he was accused of aiming at regal power,
and was put to death. The manner of his death
is related differently, but it is most probable
that he was accused before the comitia curiata
by the quaestores parricidii, and was sentenced
to death by his feUow patricians. His house
was razed to the ground, and his property con
fiscated. His guilt is doubtful ; he had made
himself hateful to the patricians by his agrarian
law, and it is most likely that the accusation
was invented for the purpose of getting rid of
a dangerous opponent. At his death his law
fell into neglect, and it remained for others to
bring in the required legislation. (See Diet.
Ant. s.v. Agrariae Leges!) He left 3 sons ; but
as all the subsequent Cassii are plebeians, his
Bons were perhaps expelled from the patrician
order, or may have voluntarily passed over to
the plebeians, on account of the murder of their
father. — 2. C. Cass. Longinus, consul 171,
obtained as his province Italy and Cisalpine

CASSIUS

205

Gaul, and without the authority of the senate
attempted to march into Macedonia through
Hlyricum, but was obliged to return to Italy.
In 154 he was censor with M. Messala ; and a
theatre which these censors had built was
pulled down by order of the senate, at the sug
gestion of P. Scipio Nasica, as injurious to
public morals. (Liv. xliii. 1, Ep. 48 ; Veil. Pat. i.
15.) — 3. Q. Cass. Longinus, praetor urbanus
B.C. 167, and consul 164, died in his consulship.
— 4, L. Cass. Longinus Ravilla, tribune of the
plebs, 187, when he proposed a law for voting
by ballot (tabellaria lex) ; consul 127, and
censor 125. He was severe in his justice.
(Cic. Legg. iii. 16, 35, Bosc. Am. 30, 86; cf.
Val. Max. viii. 1, 7.) — 5. L. Cass. Longinus,
praetor 111, when he brought Jugurtha to
Rome ; consul 107, with C. Marius, and received
as his province Narbonese Gaul, in order to
oppose the Cimbri, but was defeated and killed
by the Tigurini. — 6. L. Cass. Longinus, tribune
of the plebs 104, brought forward many laws to
diminish the power of the aristocracy. — 7. C.
Cass. Longinus Varus, consul 73, brought for
ward, with his colleague M. Terentius, a law
(lex Terentia Cassia), by which corn was to be
purchased and then sold in Rome at a smaU
price. In 72 he was defeated by Spartacus near
Mutina ; in 66 he supported the Manilian law
for giving the command of the Mithridatic war
to Pompey ; and in his old age was proscribed
by the triumvirs and kiUed, 43. (Cic. Verr. v.
21, 52 ; Oros. v. 24 ; Appian, B. C. iv. 28.)— 8.
C. Cass. Longinus, the murderer of Julius
Caesar. In 53 he was quaestor of Crassus in
his campaign against the Parthians, in which
he distinguished himself (Plut. Crass. 27 ; Dio
Cass. xl. 28). After the death of Crassus, he
coUected the remains of the Roman army, and
made preparations to defend Syria against the
Parthians. In 52 he defeated the Parthians,
who had crossed the Euphrates, and in 51 he
again gained a still more important victory over
them (Cic. Phil. xi. 14, 35). Soon afterwards
he returned to Rome. In 49 he was tribune pf
the plebs, joined the aristocratical party in the
civU war, and fled with Pompey from Rome.
In 48 he commanded the Pompeian fleet ; after
the battle of Pharsalia he went to the Helles
pont, where he accidentally fell in with Caesar,
and surrendered to him. He was not only par
doned by Caesar, but in 44 was made praetor,
and the province of Syria was promised him
for the next year (Dio Cass. xiii. 13 ; Cic. ad
Fam. xv. 15 ; Plut. Caes. 62 ; Appian, B. C. ii.
111). But Cassius had never ceased to be
Caesar's enemy ; it was he who formed the con
spiracy against the dictator's life, and gained
over M. Brutus to the plot (Plut. Brut. 14;
Cic. ad Att. xiv. 21). After the death of Caesar,
on the 15th of March, 44 [Caesar], Cassius
remained in Italy for a few months, but in July
he went to Syria, which he claimed as his pro
vince, although the senate had given it to Do-
labella, and had conferred upon Cassius Cyrene
in its stead. He defeated Dolabella, who put
an end to his own life ; and after plundering
Syria and Asia most unmercifully, he crossed
over to Greece with Brutus in 42, in order to
oppose Octavian and Antony. At the battle of
Philippi, Cassius was defeated by Antony,
while Brutus, who commanded the other wing
of the army, drove Octavian off the field ; but
Cassius, ignorant of the success of Brutus,
commanded his freedman to put an end to his
life. Brutus mourned over his companion,
caUing him the last of the Romans (Plut. Brut.

206 CASSIUS
89 ; Dio Cass, xlvii. 42). Cassius was married
to Junia Tertia or Tertulla, half-sister of M.
Brutus. Cassius was well acquainted with
Greek and Roman literature ; he was a f oUower
of the Epicurean philosophy ; his abiUties were
considerable, but he was vain, proud, and re
vengeful. — 9. C. Cass. Longinus, brother of
No. 8, assisted M. Laterensis in accusing Cn.
Plancius, who was defended by Cicero in 54.
He joined Caesar at the commencement of the
Civil war, and was one of Caesar's legates in
Greece in 48. In 44 he was tribune of the
plebs, but was not one of the conspirators
against Caesar's life. He subsequently espoused
the side of Octavian, in opposition to Antony ;
and on their reconciliation in 43, he fled to
Asia : he was pardoned by Antony in 41. — 10.
Q. Cass. Longinus, the frater or first-cousin
of No. 8. In 54 he went as the quaestor of
Pompey into Spain, where he was universally
hated on account of his rapacity and cruelty.
In 49 he was tribune of the plebs, and a warm
supporter of Caesar, but was obliged to leave
the city and take refuge in Caesar's camp. In
the same year he accompanied Caesar to Spain,
and after the defeat of Afranius and Petreius,
the legates of Pompey, Caesar left him governor
of Further Spain. His cruelty and oppressions
excited an insurrection against him at Corduba,
but this was queUed by Cassius. Subsequently
2 legions declared against him, and M. Mar-
ceUus, the quaestor, put himself at their head.
He was saved from this danger by Lepidus,
and left the province in 47, but his ship sank,
and he was lost, at the mouth of the Iberus.
(Dio Cass. xiii. 15; Bell. Alex. 48.)— 11. L,
Cass. Longinus, a competitor with Cicero for
the consulship for 63 ; was one of Catiline's
-conspirators, and undertook to set the city on
fire; he escaped the fate of his comrades by
quitting Rome before their apprehension. — 12.
L. Cass. Longinus, consul a.d. 80, married to
Drusilla, the daughter of Germanicus, with
whom her brother Caligula afterwards lived.
Cassius was proconsul in Asia a.d. 40, and was
commanded by Caligula to be brought to
Rome, because an oracle had warned the em
peror to beware of a Cassius : the oracle was
fulfilled in the murder of the emperor by
Cassius Chaerea. — 13. C. Cass. Longinus, the
celebrated jurist, governor of Syria, a.d. 50, in
the reign of Claudius. He was banished by
Nero in a.d. 66, because he had, among his
ancestral images, a statue of Cassius, the mur
derer of Caesar (Tac. Ann. xvi. 7 ; Suet. Ner.
87; Plin. Ep. vii. 24). He was recalled from
banishment by Vespasian. Cassius wrote 10
books on the civil law (Libri Juris Civilis),
and Commentaries on ViteUius and Urseius
Ferox, which are quoted in the Digest. He was
a follower of the school of Ateius Capito ; and
as he reduced the principles of Capito to a more
scientific form, the adherents of this school re
ceived the name of Cassiani (Tac. Ann. xii. 12).
—14. L. Cass. Hemina, a Roman annalist,
lived about b.c 140, and wrote a history of
Rome from the earliest times to the end of the
3rd Punic war (Plin. xiii. 84, xxix. 6). — 15. Cass.
Parmensis, so called from Parma, his birth
place, was one of the murderers of Caesar, B.C.
43 ; took an active part in the war against the
triumvirs ; and, after the death of Brutus and
Cassius, carried over the fleet which he com
manded to Sicily, and joined Sex. Pompey;
upon the defeat of Pompey, he surrendered
himself to Antony, whose fortunes he followed
until after the battle of Actium, when he went

CASTULO
to Athens, and was there put to death by the
command of Octavian, B.C. 30 (Cic. ad Fam. xii,
18 ; Appian, B. G. v. 2 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 87). Cas
sius was a poet, and his productions were prized
by Horace (Ep. i. 4, 8). He wrote 2 tragedies,
entitled Thyestes and Brutus, epigrams, and
other works (Quintil. v. 11, 24 ; Varr. L. L. vi.
7, vii. 72). — 16. Cass. Etruscus, a poet censured
by Horace (Sat. i. 10, 61), must not be con
founded with No. 15. — 17. Cass. Avidius an
able general of M. Aurelius, was a native of
Syria. In the Parthian war (a.d. 162-165), he
commanded the Roman army as the general of
Verus, and after defeating the Parthians, he
took Seleucia and Ctesiphon. He was after
wards appointed governor of aU the Eastern
provinces, and discharged his trust for several
years with fideUty; but in a.d. 175 he pro
claimed himself emperor. He reigned only a
few months, and was slain by his own officers,
before M. Aurelius arrived in the East (Dio
Cass. lxxi. 21 ff. ; Capitol. Ver. 7 ; M. Aurel.
25).— 18. Dionysius Cassius, of Utica, a
Greek writer, Uved about b.c. 40, and translated
into Greek the work of the Carthaginian Mago
on agriculture. — 19. Cass. Feliz, a Greek phy
sician, probably lived under Augustus and
Tiberius; wrote a smaU work entitled
'larpiKal 'Airopiai Kal TlpoBXiipara $vo-iKd,
Questiones Medieae et Problemata Natu-
ralia : printed in Ideler's Physici et Medici
Graeci Minores, Berol. 1841. — 20. Cass.
Chaerea. [Chaerea.] — 21. Cass. Dion. [Dion
Cassius.] — 22. Cass. Severus. [SeverusJ
Cassivelaunus, a British chief, ruled over
the country N. of the Tamesis (Thames), and
was entrusted by the Britons with the supreme
command on Caesar's 2nd invasion of Britain,
b.c 54. He was defeated by Caesar, and was
obliged to sue for peace, and give hostages.
(Caes. B. G. v. 11-12; Dio Cass.xl.3.)
Cassope (Ka<rcr<£?rn), a town in Thesprotia
near the coast (Strab. p. 324). At one time it
ruled over neighbouring towns such as Pandosia
and Elateia (Dem. de Halon. 33). Its ruins
are near Lelovo.
Casta.ba.la (ret Kao-rdBaXa). 1. A city of
Cappadocia, near Tyana, celebrated for its
temple of Artemis Perasia (Strab. p. 537 ; Plin.
vi. 8). — 2. A town in Cilicia Campestris, near
Issus (Curt. iii. 7; Plin. v. 93).
Castalla (KaoraAfa), a celebrated fountain
on Mt. Parnassus, sacred to ApoUo and the
Muses, who were hence called Castalides;
said to have derived its name from Castalia,
daughter of Achelous, who threw herself into the
fountain when pursued by ApoUo. [Delphi.]
Castolus (KdaraXos) a plain in which the
troops of the Persian satrap over Lydia,
Phrygia and Cappadocia were mustered. It is
mentioned only in Xen. Anab. i. 1, 2 and Hell.
i. 4, 3. We have no clue to its position except
that Stephanus of Byzantium (s. v.) states it to
have been in Lydia.
Castor, brother of Pollux. [Dioscuri.]
Castor (Kdo-rap). 1. A Greek grammarian,
surnamed Philoromaeus, probably lived about
b.c. 150, and wrote several books; a portion of
his TexvV faropMr) is still extant and printed in
Walz's Bhetores Graeci, vol. iii. p. 712, seq. —
2. Grandson of Deiotarus. [Deiotarus.]
Castrimoenium (Marino) a town in the
Alban hiUs just N. of the Alban lake, a muni
cipium under the Roman empire (Orell. 1398).
Castulo (Kao-raXav or KaarXdv : Cazlona), a
town of the Oretani on the Baetis, and near the
frontiers of Baetica, at the foot of a mountain

CASUENTUS
which resembled Parnassus, was under the Ro
mans an important place, a municipium with
the Jus Latii, and included in the jurisdiction
of Carthago Nova. In the mountains (Saltus
Castulonensis) in the neighbourhood were silver
and lead mines. The wife of Hannibal was a
native of Castulo. (Strab. p. 142 ; Liv. xxiv. 41 ;
Plin. iii. 17, 25 ; SU. It. iii. 97.)
Casuentus (Basiento), a river in Lucania,
flows into the sea near Metapontum.
- Casus (Katror : Kasos) an island between
Carpathus and Crete : remains are found of its
ancient port (H. ii. 676 ; Strab. p. 489).
Casystes (Kao-vrrrris : Chismeh), on the coast
of Ionia, the harbour of Erythrae.
Catabathmus Magnus (Kai-o/3af)^os: i.e. de
scent; Marsa Sollern), a mountain and sea
port, at the bottom of a deep bay on the N. coast
of Africa, was generally considered the boundary
between Egypt and Cyrenaica (Plin. v. 82, 38).
Ptolemy distinguishes from this a place caUed
Catabathmus Parvus, near the borders of Egypt,
above Paraetonium. (Strab. p. 791).
Catacecaumene (t) KaraKeKavpevii, ' the
burnt country '), a volcanic region in the
Maeonian district of Lydia (Strab. p. 628).
Catadupa or -i (ra KardSovira, oi KardSoviroi),
a name given to the cataracts of the Nile, and
to the adjoining parts of Aethiopia. [Nilus.]
Catalanni or Cat elauni, a people in Gaul in
the modern Champagne, mentioned only by
later writers : their capital was Durocatelauni
or Catelauni (Chalons - sur - Marne), in the
neighbourhood of which AttUa was defeated by
A'etius and Theodoric, a.d. 451.
Catamit us, the Roman name for Ganymedes,
of which it is only a corrupt form.
Catana or Catina (Karavri : Karavaios : Cata
nia), an important town in SicUy on the E.
coast at the foot of Mt. Aetna, founded B.C. 730
by Naxos, which was itself founded by the
Chalcidians of Euboea. In B.C. 476 it was taken
by Hiero I., who removed its inhabitants to
Leontini, and settled 5000 Syracusans and
5000 Peloponnesians in the town, the name of
which he changed into Aetna. Soon after the
death of Hiero (467), the former inhabitants of
Catana again obtained possession of the town,
^md called it by its original name, Catana.

CATILINA

207

Coin of Catana.
¦Obv., head of Apollo, laureate, HPAKAEIAH2 (artist's name) ;
rev., quadriga ; above, Nike ; katanaiqn and Cray fish.
Subsequently Catana was conquered by Diony
sius, was then governed by native tyrants, next
became subject to Agathocles, and finally in
the 1st Punic war fell under the dominion of
Rome It was colonised by Augustus with
some veterans. Catana frequently suffered
from earthquakes and eruptions of Mt. Aetna.
It is now one of the most flourishing cities in
Sicily. (Thuc. vi. 3 ; Strab. p. 268 ; Cic. Verr. iii.
'83, 192 ; Liv. xxvii. 8 ; Dio Cass. liv. 7.) It has
important remains of the Roman period.
Cataonia (Karaovia), a district in the SE.
part of Cappadocia, to which it was first added
under the Remans, with Melitene, which lies E.

of it. These two distriots form a large and
fertile plain, lying between the Anti-Taurus
and the Taurus and Amanus, and watered by
the river Pyramus. (Strab. p. 535.)
Catarrhactes (KarappdKTTis). 1. (Duden-Su),
a river of Pamphylia, which descends from the
mountains of Taurus, in a great broken water
fall (whence its name, fr. Karappr)yvvpi), and
which, after flowing beneath the earth in two
parts of its course, falls into the sea E. of
Attalia(Strab.p.667; Mel. i. 14).— 2. The term
is also applied to the cataracts of the Nile,
which are distinguished as C. Major and C.
Minor [Nilus].
Catelauni. [Catalauni.]
Cathaei (KaBdioi), a great and warlike people
of India intra Gangem, upon whom Alexander
made war (Arrian. Anab. v. 22). It is said that
the name is not that of a tribe, but of a warrior
caste of the Hindoos, the Kshatriyas.
CatiHna, L. Sergius, the descendant of an
ancient patrician family which had sunk into
poverty. His youth and early manhood were
stained by every vice and crime. He first
appears in history as a zealous partisan of
Sulla ; and during the horrors of the proscrip
tion, he kiUed, with his own hand, his brother-
in-law, Q. CaecUius, a quiet inoffensive man, and
put to death by torture M. Marius Gratidianus,
the kinsman and fellow-townsman of Cicero.
He was suspected of an intrigue with the vestal
Fabia, sister of Terentia, and was said and
believed to have made away with his first wife
and afterwards with his son, in order that he
might marry Aurelia Orestilla, who objected
to the presence of a grown-up step-child ; but
notwithstanding this infamy he attained to the
dignity of praetor in B.C. 68, was governor of
Africa during the following year, and returned
to Rome in 66, in order to sue for the consul
ship. The election for 65 was carried by P.
Autronius Paetus and P. Cornelius Sulla, both
of whom were soon after convicted of bribery,
and their places supphed by their competitors
and accusers, L. Aurehus Cotta and L. Manlius
Torquatus. CatUine had been prohibited by
the senate from becoming a candidate, in con
sequence of a pending impeachment for oppres
sion in his province, preferred by P. Clodius
Pulcher, afterwards so celebrated as the enemy
of Cicero. Exasperated by their disappoint
ment, Autronius and Catiline formed a project,
along with Cn. Piso, to murder the new consuls
when they entered upon their office upon the
1st of January. This design is said to have
been frustrated solely by the impatience of
Catiline, who, upon the appointed day, gave
the signal prematurely, before the whole of
the armed agents had assembled. He was
acquitted in 65 on his trial for extortion, and
began to organise a more extensive conspiracy,
in order to overthrow the existing govern
ment. The time was propitious to his schemes.
The younger nobihty were thoroughly de
moralised, with ruined fortunes ; the Roman
populace were restless and discontented, ready
to follow at the bidding of any demagogue;
while many of the veterans of SuUa, who had
squandered their ill-gotten wealth, were now
anxious for a renewal of those scenes of blood
which they had found so profitable. Among
such men Catiline soon obtained numerous
supporters, and the difficult position of the
democratic party, whose safety was threatened
by the increased military power of Pompey,
caused them to view with more or less favour
the schemes of the anarchists : hence it was

208

CATILINA

that (as seems probable) Catiline was secretly
encouraged by Crassus and Caesar [see those
articles]. These circumstances of the time,
rather than their own capacity, explain the
influence which Catiline and the other conspi
rators attained; for neither Catiline himself
nor his associates were really brilliant or
capable leaders. Had they been such, they
would not have allowed their hand to be forced
by Cicero, or permitted themselves, as in fact
they did, to play the game of the senatorial
party. The most distinguished men who joined
him, and were present at a meeting of the
conspirators which he called in June, 64, were
P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura, who had been
consul in B.C. 71, but having been passed over
by the censors, had lost his seat in the senate,
which he was now seeking to recover by stand
ing a second time for the praetorship; C.
Cornelius Cethegus, distinguished throughout
by his headstrong impetuosity and sanguinary
violence; P. Autronius, spoken of above; L.
Cassius Longinus, at this time a competitor for
the consulship ; L. Vargunteius, who had been
one of the colleagues of Cicero in the quaestor-
ship, and had subsequently been condemned for
bribery; L. Calpurnius Bestia, tribune elect;
Publius and Servius Sulla, nephews of the
dictator; M. Porcius Laeca, &c. The first
object of Catiline was to obtain the consulship
for himself and C. Antonius, whose co-operation
he confidently anticipated. But in this object
he was disappointed : Cicero and Antonius were
elected consuls. This disappointment rendered
him only more vigorous in the prosecution of
his designs ; more adherents were gained, and
troops were levied in various parts of Italy,
especially in the neighbourhood of Faesulae,
under the superintendence of C. Manlius, one
of the veteran centurions of Sulla. Meantime,
Cicero, the consul, was unrelaxing in his efforts
to preserve the state from the threatened
danger. Through the agency of Fulvia, the
mistress of Curius, one of the conspirators, he
became acquainted with every circumstance as
soon as it occurred, and was enabled to counter
act all the machinations of Catiline. Cicero
at the same time gained over his coUeague
Antonius, by promising him the province of
Macedonia. At length Cicero openly accused
Catiline, and the senate, now aware of the
danger which threatened the state, passed the
decree, ' that the consuls should take care that
the republic received no harm,' in virtue of
which the consuls were invested for the time
being with absolute power, both civil and mili
tary. In the consular elections which followed
soon afterwards, Catiline was again rejected.
On the night of the 6th of November, B.C. 63,
he met the ringleaders of the conspiracy at the
dweUing of M. Porcius Laeca, and informed
them that he had resolved to wait no longer,
but at once to proceed to open action. Cicero,
informed as UBual of these proceedings, sum
moned the senate on the 8th of November,
and there delivered the first of his celebrated
orations against Catiline, in which he displayed
a most intimate acquaintance with all the pro
ceedings of the conspirators. Catiline, who
was present, attempted to justify himself, but
scarcely had he commenced when his words
Were drowned by the shouts of ' enemy ' and
'parricide' which burst from the whole as
sembly. Finding that he could at present effect
nothing at Rome, he quitted the city in the
night (8th-9th November), and proceeded to
the camp of Manlius, after leaving the chief

CATO
control of affairs at Rome in the hands of
Lentulus and Cethegus. On the 9th, when the
flight of Catiline was known, Cicero delivered
his second speech, addressed to the people in
the forum, in which he justified his recent.
conduct. The senate declared Catiline and
Manlius public enemies, and soon afterwards,
Cicero obtained legal evidence of the gmlt of
the conspirators within the city, through the*
ambassadors of the AUobroges. These men
had been solicited by Lentulus to join the plot,
and to induce their own countrymen to take
part in the insurrection. They revealed what
they had heard to Q. Fabius Sanga, the patron
of their state, who in his turn acquainted Cicero.
By the instructions of the latter, the ambas
sadors affected great zeal in the undertaking,
and having obtained a written agreement,
signed by Lentulus, Cethegus, and Statdlius,
they quitted Rome soon after midnight on the
3rd of December, but were arrested on the
Milvian bridge, by Cicero's order. Cicero in
stantly summoned the leaders of the conspiracy
to his presence, and conducted them to the
senate, which was assembled in the temple of
Concord (4th of December). He proved the
guilt of the conspirators by the testimony of wit
nesses and by their own signatures. They were
thereupon consigned to the charge of certain
senators. Cicero then summoned the people,
and delivered what is called his third oration
against Catiline, in which he informed them
of all that had taken place. On the following-
day, the nones (5th) of December, the day so
frequently referred to by Cicero in after times
with pride, the. senate was caUed together to
deliberate respecting the punishment of the
conspirators. After an animated debate, of
which the leading arguments are expressed in
the two celebrated orations assigned by Sallust
to Caesar and to Cato, a decree was passed,
that Lentulus and the conspirators should be-
put to death. The sentence was executed the
same night in the prison. Cicero's speech in.
the debate in the senate is preserved in his
fourth oration against CatUine. The consul
Antonius was then sent against Catiline, and
the decisive battle was fought early in 62.
Antonius, however, unwiUing to fight against
his former associate, gave the command on the
day of battle to his legate, M. Petreius. Cati
line fell in the engagement, after fighting with
the most daring valour. — The history of Cati
line's conspiracy has been written by Sallust :
see also Dio Cass, xxxvi. 27, xxxvii. 10, 29-42 ;
Liv. Ep. 101, 102;. Plut. Gat. Min. 23, Cic.
10-22 ; Cic. in Catil., pro Sulla, ad Att. i. 19,
ii. 1, xii. 21, xvi. 14.
Catillus or Catilus (in Statius CatiUus), the
founder of Tibur. According to the prevalent
tradition there were three brothers, Tiburtus,
Coras, and CatiUus (some make them sons of
CatiUus the son of Amphiaraus), who migrated
from Argos and founded Tibur, having driven
away the Sicani from that territory; Virgil
makes Catillus and Coras fight against Aeneas
(Aen. vii. 670 ; Serv. ad loc. ; Hor. Od. i. 18, 2 ;
Sil. viii. 866; Stat. Silv.i. 3,100; SoUn. ii.8).
Catms, an Epicurean philosopher, a native
of Gallia Transpadana (Insuber), composed a
treatise in 4 books, de Berum Natura et de
Summo Bono ; died b.c. 45 (Cic. ad Fam. xv.
16 ; Quint, x. 1, 124). This is not the Catius of
Hor. Sat. ii. 4, of whom nothing is known.
Cato, Dionysius, the author of a smaU work,
entitled Disticha de Moribus ad Filium, con
sisting of a series of sententious moral precepts.

CATO

209

Nothing is known of the author or the time
when he lived, but many writers place him
under the Antonines. He was first quoted by
Vindicianus in the reign of Valentinian. He
was quoted also by Isidore, Alcuin, and Chaucer,
and was made of more account by Erasmus
than his writings seem to deserve. Editions
by Arntzenius, Amsterdam, 1754 ; F. Hauthal,
Berl. 1869.
Cato, Porcins. 1. M., frequently surnamed
Censorius or Censor, also Cato Major, to dis
tinguish him from his great-grandson Cato
Uticensis [No. 8]. Cato was born at Tusculum
b.c 284, and was brought up at his father's
farm, situated in the Sabine territory. In 217
he served his first campaign in his 17th year,
and during the remaining years of the 2nd
Punic war he greatly distinguished himself by
his courage and military abilities. In the in
tervals of war, he returned to his Sabine farm,
which he had inherited from his father, and
there led the same frugal and simple life, which
characterised him to his last days. Encouraged
by L. Valerius Flaccus, a young nobleman in
the neighbourhood, he went to Rome, and
became a candidate for office. He obtained
the quaestorship in 204, and served under the
proconsul Scipio Africanus in Sicily and Africa.
From this time we may date the enmity which
Cato always displayed towards Scipio; their
habits and views of life were entirely different ;
and Cato on his return to Rome denounced in
the strongest terms the luxury and extravagance
of his commander. On his voyage home he is
said to have touched at Sardinia, and to have
brought the poet Ennius from the island to
Italy. In 199 he was aedile, and in 198 praetor ;
he obtained Sardinia as his province, which he
governed with justice and economy, and a sim
plicity of life carried to excess, but intended
doubtless as a rebuke to the luxury which was
growing with conquest. He entered the towns of
his province on foot, foUowed by a slave bearing
the sacrificial ladle. In 195 he was consul with
his old friend and patron L. Valerius Flaccus.
He carried on war in Spain with the greatest
success; he reduced an insurrection in Hisp.
Citerior, winning a battle at Emporiae. It is
to be regretted that he did not depart from the
custom of his age and country in the cruelty
with which the revolt was subdued. He received
the honour of a triumph on his return to Rome
in 194 ; but sold his horse before leaving Spain
because he thought it wrong to expend public
money on its transport. In 191 he served,
under the consul M'. Acilius Glabrio, in the cam
paign agamst Antiochus in Greece, and the deci
sive victory at Thermopylae was mainly owing
to Cato : in this also he foUowed the old cus
toms, and rebuked the pride, which made it now
unfashionable for a consular to serve as a sub
ordinate. From this time Cato's military career,
which had been a brilliant one, appears to have
ceased. He now took an active part in civil
affairs, and distinguished himself by his vehe
ment opposition to the Roman nobles, who
introduced into Rome Greek luxury and refine
ment. It was especially agamst the Scipios
that his most violent attacks were directed and
whom he pursued with the bitterest animosity.
He obtained the condemnation of L. Scipio, the
conqueror of Antiochus, and compeUed his
brother P. Scipio to quit Rome in order to avoid
the same fate. [Scipio.] In 184 he was elected
censor with L. Valerius Flaccus, having been
rejected in his application for the office in 189.
His censorship was a great epoch in his life.

He applied himself strenuously to the duties of
his office, regardless of the enemies he was
making ; but all his efforts to stem the tide of
luxury which was now setting in proved un
availing. He degraded men of high rank : in
some cases justly (as Flomininus who had been
guilty of gross and wanton cruelty : Liv. xxxix.
42) ; in some for trifling departure from his own
code of simplicity and reserve. He placed heavy
taxes on luxury and extravagance in slaves and
in dress (Liv. xxxix. 44) ; while zealous in public
works he diminished the contract prices for
them. He showed his disapproval of the idlers
of the day by proposing in jest that the market
place should be paved with sharp-pointed stones,
to make lounging as unpleasant as it was un
profitable. His strong national prejudices ap
pear to have diminished in force as he grew
older and wiser. He applied himself in old age
to the study of Greek literature, with which in
youth he had no acquaintance, although he was
not ignorant of the Greek language. But his
conduct continued to be guided often by narrow-
minded prejudices against classes and nations,
whose influence he deemed to be hostile to the
simplicity of the old Roman character. He had
an antipathy to physicians, because they were
mostly Greeks, and therefore unfit to be trusted
with Roman lives. When Athens sent Car
neades, Diogenes, and Critolaus as ambassadors
to Rome, he recommended the senate to send
them from the city an account of the dangerous
doctrines taught by Carneades. [Carneades.]
It iB noticeable that his influence procured the
release of Polybius and his fellow-prisoners,
many of whom were dying in prison, but his
speech in the senate was characteristic : ' Have
we nothing to do but to sit debating whether a
parcel of Greeks are to die here or at home ? '
Cato retained his bodily and mental vigour in his
old age. In the year before his death he was one
of the chief instigators of the 3rd Punic war.
He had been one of the Roman deputies sent
to Africa to arbitrate between Masinissa and
the Carthaginians, and he was so struck with
the flourishing condition of Carthage that on
his return home he maintained that Rome would
never be safe as long as Carthage was in exist
ence. From this time forth, whenever he was
called upon for his vote in the senate, though
the subject of debate bore no relation to Car
thage, his words were Delenda est Carthago.
Very shortly before his death, he made a
powerful speech in accusing Galba on account
of his cruelty and perfidy in Spain. He died
in 149, at the age of 85. His Life has been
written by Plutarch, Nepos, and Aurelius Vic
tor; see also Liv. xxxiv., xxxvi., xxxix. 40. —
Cato was not only a man of action. He was
the first prose writer among the Romans
of any value, and composed the first Roman
history in the Latin tongue (Quint, xii. 11, 23),
an important work entitled Origines, of which
only fragments have been preserved. The 1st
book contained the history of the Roman kings ;
the 2nd and 3rd treated of the origin of the
Italian towns, and from these two books the
whole work derived its title. The 4th book treated
of the first Punic war, and the other books con
tinued the narrative to the year of Cato's death.
He wrote Praecepta ad Filiwm, conveying in
the form of advice to his son his views on
country Ufe, sanitary rules, public speaking,
&c, and rules for conduct in verse (Carmen
de Moribus) : he also left 150 speeches, which
are highly praised by Cicero (Brut. 65). Of aU
his works his manual of agriculture alone has

210

CATO

been preserved, and even thiB is only a later
revision of the original work in a somewhat in
complete form. It is for the use of L. Manlius,
who had an estate near Casinum. The syste
matic beginning on the subject of agriculture
and country life is foUowed, as we now have
it, by disconnected rules for housekeeping, sa
crifices, forms of sale, receipts, &c. The style
is less archaic, no doubt, than the original
work. Edition in the Scriptores Bei Busticae,
Schneider, Lips. 1794 ; fragments of Origines
by Roth 1852, Peter 1871 ; of other works by
Wordsworth 1874.— 2. M., son of No. 1, by his
first wife Licinia, and thence called Licinianus,
was distinguished as a jurist. In the war
against Perseus, 168, he fought with great
bravery under the consul Aemilius Paulus
(Val. Max. iii. 12), whose daughter, Aemilia
Tertia, he afterwards married. He died when
praetor designatus, about 152. — 3. M., son of
No. 1, by his second wife Salonia, and thence
caUed Salonianus, was born 154, when his
father had completed his 80th year. — 4. M.,
son of No. 2, consul 118, died in Africa in the
same year. — 5. C, also son of No. 2, consul 114,
obtained Macedonia as his province, and fought
unsuccessfully against the Scordisci. He was
accused of extortion in Macedonia, and was
sentenced to pay a fine. He afterwards went
to Tarraco in Spain, and became a citizen of
that town. (Veil. Pat. ii. 18 ; Cic. pro Bulb.
11.)— 6. M,, son of No. 3, tribunus plebis, died
when a candidate for the praetorship. — 7. L.,
also son of No. 8, consul 89, was killed in the
Social war. — 8, M., son of No. 6 by Livia,
great-grandson of Cato the Censor, and sur
named TJticensis from Utica, the place of his
death, was born 95. In early childhood he lost
both his parents, and was brought up in the
house of his mother's brother, M. Livius Drusus,
along with his sister Porcia and the children of
his mother by her second husband, Q. Servilius
Caepo. In early years he discovered a stern
and unyielding character ; he applied himself
with great zeal to the study of oratory and
phUosophy, and became a devoted adherent of
the Stoic school; and among the profligate
nobles of the age he soon became conspicuous
for his rigid morality. He served his first
campaign as a volunteer, 72, in the servUe war
of Spartacus, and afterwards, about 67, as tri
bunus militum in Macedonia. In 65 he was
quaestor, when he corrected numerous abuses
which had crept into the administration of the
treasury. In 63 he was tribune of the plebs,
and supported Cicero in proposing that the
Catilinarian conspirators should suffer death.
[Catilina.] He now became one of the chief
leaders of the aristocratical party, and opposed
with the utmost vehemence the measures of
Caesar, Pompey, and CrasBus. In order to get
rid of him, he was sent to Cyprus in 58 with
the task of annexing the island to the Roman
dominions. He returned in 56, and continued
to oppose the triumvirs ; but all his efforts were
vain, and he was rejected when he became a
candidate for the praetorship. On the break
ing out of the civil war (49), he was entrusted,
as propraetor, with the defence of Sicily ; but,
on the landing of Curio with an overwhelming
force, he abandoned the island and joined Pom
pey in Greece. After Pompey's victory at
Dyrrachium, Cato was left in charge of the
camp, and thus was not present at the battle
of Pharsalia (48). After this battle, he set sail
for Corcyra, and thence crossed over to Africa,
where he joined MeteUus Scipio, after a terrible

CATULLUS
march across the desert. The army wished to
be led by Cato ; but he yielded the command
to the consular Scipio. In opposition to the
advice of Cato, Scipio fought with Caesar, and
was utterly routed at Thapsus (April 6th, 46).
All Africa now, with the exception of Utica,
submitted to Caesar. Cato wanted the Romans
in Utica to stand a siege; but when he saw
that they were inclined to submit, he resolved
to die rather than fall alive into the hands of
the conqueror. Accordingly, after spending
the greater part of the night in perusing Plato's
Phaedo, he stabbed himself below the breast. In
faUing he overturned an abacus : his friends,
hearing the noise, ran up, found him bathed in
blood, and, whUe he was fainting, dressed his
wound. When, however, he recovered feeling,
he tore open the bandages, and expired, at the
age of 49. — Cato soon became the subject of
biography and panegyric : his life was written
by Plutarch (Cato Min.) ; shortly after his
death appeared Cicero's Cato, which provoked
Caesar's Anticato. In Lucan the character of
Cato is a personification of virtue. In modern
times, the closing events of his life have been
dramatised, especially in the famous Cato of
Addison. — 9. M., a son of No. 8, fell at the battle
of PhiUppi, 42.
Cato, Valerius, a distinguished grammarian
and poet, lost his property in his youth during
the usurpation of Sulla, and taught fpr his
Uving. He is the
Cato grammaticus Latina Siren,
Qui solus legit et facit poetas.
He wrote love elegies and mythological poems,
of which nothing has been preserved. The
Dirae and Lydia, printed in Virgil's Catalecta,
were attributed to him, but it is generaUy con
sidered that this is an error. (Suet. Gr. 11.)
Cattigara (rd Karriyapa), the easternmost
town of ancient geography, a port S. of Thinae
and near the mouth of the river Cottiaris (prob.
Yang-tse-kiang). It may correspond with Ban-
chow. (Ptol. i. 11, 14, 17, vii. 8, viii. 27, 14.)
Catti. [Chatti.]
Catullus. 1. C. Valerius, one of the greatest
Roman poets, born at Verona or in its imme
diate vicinity, B.C. 87. It is probably an error
of Jerome when he says that Catullus died in
his 30th year, and it seems impossible to beheve
that the later date of b.c. 84 which some fix as
the year of his birth can be correct. His death
should probably be placed in b.c. 54, since he
mentions (113, 2) the 2nd consulship of Pompey,
which was in 55, and no later event is alluded
to in his poems. This date would stiU make
him a young man at his death, and would agree
with the 'juvenalia' of Ov. Am. iii. 9, 61.
Catullus inherited considerable property from
his father, but he squandered a great part of it.
In order to better his fortunes, he went to
Bithynia in the train of the propraetor Mem-
mius B.c 57, but it appears that the speculation
was attended with little success (10, 6 ; 28, 7 ;
31, 5; 46, 1). On his return he visited the
grave of his brother, who had died in the
Troad — a loss which he deplores in the affect
ing elegy to Hortalus. For the rest of his life
he continued to reside at Rome or at his
country-seats on the promontory of Sirmio and
at Tibur. Among his friends were Nepos,
Calvus, Cinna, PoUio, and Cicero, whom he
addresses as the most eloquent of Romans (49,
1). His special enemy was Mamurra, whom he
attacks under the name of Mentula when he
wished not to offend Caesar. Caesar himself
he had attacked, but not beyond the possibility

CATULUS
of reconciliation (Suet. Jul. 73). The strongest
personal feeling traceable in his poems, besides
his love for his brother, was his passion for
Clodia (if, as is probable, the Lesbia of his
poems was Clodia, the beautiful and infamous
sister of P. Clodius and wife of Metellus Celer),
to whom he addressed his most ardent lyrics.
It seems that he was disiUusioned at last as to
her character, but so far still under the spell
that it made his life unhappy (76 and 91). The
most perfect poems of Catullus are his lyrics,
especially his ode on Sirmio, on Acme and
Septimius, the poem to Lesbia, and the nuptial
ode for Manhus Torquatus ; but though he is
less great in dactylic metres, there is much
grandeur and beauty in his long hexameter
poem on the nuptials of Peleus. In this poem,
which, though original, is modeUed on the
Greek style, appears the influence of the Alex
andrian school, and especiaUy in the Coma Be
renices, a translation or paraphrase of a poem
of Callimachus. In consequence of the intimate
acquaintance which CatuUus displays with
Greek literature and mythology, he was called
doctus by TibuUus, Ovid, and others. The
Attis in the gaUiambic metre is due to Greek
study, but has aU the fire and passion of the
poet's own genius. — Editions. R. Ellis, Oxon.
1878 ; Schwabe, Berlin, 1886 ; Postgate, 1890 ;
Munro's Criticisms, 1878. — 2. A writer of mimes
in the first century A.D. (Juv. xiii. Ill ; ' facundi
scena CatuUi,' Mart. v. 30). One of his mimes
was caUed Laureolus, in which a robber was
crucified on the stage (TertuU. Valentin. 14 ;
Suet. Gal. 57 ; Joseph. Ant. xix. 1, 13 ; Mart.
Sped. 7 ; Juv. viii. 187) ; another was Phasma,
or the Ghost (Juv. viii. 186).— 3. Catullus Mes-
salinus, an informer in the reign of Domitian
(Juv. iv. 115 ; Plin. Ep. iv. 22, 5 ; Tac. Agr. 45).
Catulus, Lutatius. 1. C, consul b.c. 242,
defeated as proconsul in the following year the
Carthaginian fleet off the Aegates islands, and
thus brought the first Punic war to a close, 241
(Polyb. i. 58-64; Liv. Ep. 19).— 2. ft., consul
102 with C. Marius JV., and as proconsul next
year gained along with Marius a decisive vic
tory over the Cimbri near VerceUae (Vercelli),
in the N. of Italy. Catulus claimed the entire
honour of this victory, and asserted that Ma
rius did not meet with the enemy tiU the day
was decided; but at Rome the whole merit
was given to Marius. The accounts of Plu
tarch, who attributes the victory mainly to
Catulus, are taken from the annals of SuUa,
naturally adverse to the fame of Marius : both
Cicero and Juvenal speak of Marius as having
the chief merit (Plut. Mar. 27; Cic. Tusc. v.
19, 5,6 ; Juv. viii. 253 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 12 ; Appian,
B. C. i. 74). Catulus belonged to the aristo
cratical party ; he espoused the cause of SuUa,
was included by Marius in the proscription of
87, and, as escape was impossible, put an end
to his Ufe by the vapours of a charcoal fire.
Catulus was well acquainted with Greek litera
ture, and famed for the grace and purity with
which he spoke and wrote his own language.
He was the author of several orations, of a
historical work on his own consulship and the
Cimbric war, and of poems ; but aU these have
perished, with the exception of two epigrams
(Cic. N. D. i. 28, 79; Gell. xix. 9).— 3. ft., son
of No. 2, a distinguished leader of the aristo
cracy, also won the respect and confidence of
the people by his upright character and con
duct. Being consul with M. Lepidus in 78, he
resisted the efforts of his colleague to abrogate
the acts of SuUa, and the foUowing spring he

CAUCONES

211

defeated Lepidus in the battle of the Milvian
bridge, and forced him to take refuge in Sar
dinia. He opposed the Gabinian and Manilian
laws which conferred extraordinary powers upon
Pompey (67 and 66). He was censor with
Crassus jn 65, and died in 60 (Plut. Crass. 18).
Caturiges, a Ligurian people in Gallia Nar
bonensis, whose territory extended from Vapin-
cum (Gap) to the Cottian Alps: their chief
towns were Eburodunum, and Caturigae or
Catorimagus (Chorges) (Caes. B. G. i. 10;
Plin. iii. 187 ; Strab. p. 204).
Catus Decianus, procurator of Britain in
the reign of Nero, was by his extortion one of
the chief causes of the revolt of the people
under Boudicca or Boadicea, a.d. 62. He fled
to Gaul (Tac. Ann. xiv. 82).
Catuvellauni or Catyeuolani, a British tribe
in Rutland, Bedfordshire, Northampton, and
Huntingdon (Ptol. iii. 8, 21 ; Dio C ss. Ix. 20).
Cauea (Coca), a town of the Vaccaei in His
pania Tarraconensis; birthplace of the emperor
Theodosius I. (Zosim. iv. 24).
Caucaslae Pylae. [Caucasus.]
Caucasus, Caucasii Montes (<5 KavKao-os, to
KavKao-tov bpos, rd KavKao-ia opri l Caucasus).
1. A great chain of mountains extending WN W.
and ESE. from the E. shore of the Pontus
Euxinus (Black Sea) to the W. shore of the
Caspian. Its length is about 700 miles ; its great
est breadth 120, its least 60 or 70. Its greatest
height exceeds that of the Alps, its loftiest
summit (Mt. Elbruz, nearly in 43° N. lat. and
48° E. long.) being 18,000 feet above the sea,
and therefore reckoning now as the highest
European mountain, and to the E. of thiB there
are several other summits above the line of
perpetual snow, which, in the Caucasus, is from
10,000 to 11,000 feet above the sea. At both
extremities the chain sinks. Two chief passes
over the chain were known to the ancients : the
one, between its E. extremity and the Caspian,
near Derbent, was caUed Albanicae Pylae ; the
other, nearly in the centre of the range, was
called Caucasiae or Sarmaticae Pylae (Pass of
Dariel). In ancient times, as is stiU the case,
the Caucasus was inhabited by a great variety
of tribes, speaking different languages (Strabo
says, at least 70), but all belonging to that
family of the human race which has peopled
Europe and W. Asia, and which has obtained
the name of Caucasian. — That the Greeks had
some vague knowledge of the Caucasus in
very early times, is proved by the myths re
specting Prometheus and the Argonauts, from
which it seems that the Caucasus was regarded
as at the extremity of the earth, on the border
of the river Oceanus. The account which Hero
dotus gives is good as far as it goes (i. 203);
but it was not till the march of Pompey, in
the Mithridatic War, extended to the banks of
the Cyrus and Araxes and to the foot of the
great chain, that means were obtained for that
accurate description of the Caucasus which
Strabo gives in his 11th book. Pompey in bis
pursuit of Mithridates penetrated into this
country (Plut. Pomp. 84 ; Lucull. 14 ; Appian,
Mithrid. 108). The country about the E. part
of the Caucasus was called Albania ; the rest
of the chain divided Iberia and Colchis, on
the S., from Sarmatia Asiatica on the N. —
2. Caucasus Indicus [Paropamisus.]
Cauci. [Chauci.]
Caucones (Kaii/coves], the name of peoples both
in Greece and Asia. In Greece they belonged
mainly to Elis as aboriginal : i.e., they preceded
any historical Greek immigration (Strab. pp.
P2

212

CAUDIUM

342-353; Hdt. i. 147; Od. iii. 366). In Asia
Homer joins them with Leleges and Pelasgi as
allies of the Trojans (II. x. 429, xx. 329). Strabo
places them on the coast of Bithynia (pp. 845,
542). The Caucones in the NW. of Greece, in
Elis and Achaia, were supposed by the ancient
geographers to be an Arcadian people. The
Caucones in the NW. of Asia Minor are men
tioned by Homer as allies of the Trojans, and
are placed in Bithynia and Paphlagonia by the
geographers, who regarded them as Pelasgians,
though some thought them Scythians.
Caudlum (Montesarchio), a town in Samnium
on the road from Capua to Beneventum (Hor.
Sat. i. 5, 51; Strab. 249). In the neighbour
hood were the celebrated Furculae Caudinae,
or Gaudine Forks, narrow passes in the moun
tains, where the Roman army surrendered to
the Samnites, and was sent under the yoke,
b.c. 821 : it is probably the valley of Iselero.
Caulonla (KavXavia : KavXavidrifs), an
Achaean town on the E. coast of Bruttium,
NE. of Locri, originally caUed Aulonia ; founded
first by the Achaeans of Aegium, afterwards of
Croton ; destroyed by Dionysius the elder, who
removed its inhabitants to Syracuse and gave
its territory to Locri (Paus. vi. 3, 12 ; Strab. p.

Coin of Caulonia. (Ctre. B.C. 550-480.)
Obv., naked male figure, holding in right hand a branch,
and on his left arm a small naked figure, also holding a
branch and with winged sandals; in field a stag; rev.
same type incuse, but without small figure.
261 ; Diod. xiv. 106) ; afterwards rebuilt, but
again destroyed in the war with Pyrrhus ; re
built a third time and destroyed a third time
in the second Punic war (Liv. xxvii. 12-16;
Polyb. x. 1). It was celebrated for its worship
of the Delphian Apollo.
Caunus. [Byblis.]
Caunus (t) Kavvos : Kaivios '¦ ruins at Daliar),
one of the chief cities of Caria, on its S. coast,
a little E. of the mouth of the Calbis, in a
very fertile but unhealthy situation. It had a
citadel caUed Imbros, an enclosed harbour for
ships of war, and safe roads for merchant
vessels. It was founded by the Cretans : after
b.c 800 it was subject to the Rhodians. Its
dried figs (Cauneae ficus) were celebrated. The
painter Protogenes was born here (Strab. p. 652 ;
Hdt. i. 172 ; Cic. ad Q. Fr. i. 1 ; Plin. v. 108).
Caurus, the Argestes (' Apy do-riis) of the
Greeks, the NW. wind, in Italy a stormy wind.
Cavari, a people on the E. bank of the
Rhone, between the mouths of the Druentia
and the Isara (Strab. p. 185).
Cavarinus, a Senonian, whom Caesar made
king of his people, was expelled by his subjects
and compeUed to fly to Caesar, B.C. 54.
Caystrus (KoWtoos, Ion. Katrrrpus : or
Kuchuk-Meinder, i.e. Little Maeander), a river
of Lydia and Ionia, rising in the E. part of
Mount Tmolus), and flowing between the ranges
of Tmolus and Messogis into the Aegaean, a little
NW. of Ephesus. To this day it abounds in
swans, as it did in Homer's time. The valley

CELAENAE
of the Caystrus is called by Homer ' the Asian
meadow,' and is probably the district to which
the name of Asia was first applied. There was
an inland town of the same name on its S. bank
(Horn. II. ii. 461; Strab. p. 627; Verg. Georg. ¦
i. 383, Aen. vii. 699).
Caystrou Pedion (Kaiarpov ireSiov), a town
of Phrygia (Xen. An. i. 2, 11). It is probably
right to identify it as the town afterwards called
Julia, near Ipsus and a little NE. of Synnada.
Ceha (Ceva), a town in the Ligurian Apen
nines, near the source of the Tanarus, famous.
for its cheeses (Plin. xi. 241).
Cebenna Mons (rb Keppevov Spos : Civennes),.
mountains in the S. of Gaul, separating the
Arverni from the Helvii : Caesar found them in
the winter covered with snow 6 feet deep (Caes.
B. G. vii. 8 ; Strab. p. 177).
Cebes (KeBns), of Thebes, a disciple and
friend of Socrates, was present at the death of
his teacher. He wrote phUosophical works,
which have perished; for the treatise caUed
Tliva£, or Picture, ascribed to him is spurious.
This work is an aUegorical picture of human
life, which is explained by an old man to a circle
of youths. — Editions. By Schweighauser, Ar
gent. 1806, and by Coraes in his edition of
Epictetus, Paris, 1826.
Cebrene (Ke$piiv7i), a city in the Troad, on
M. Ida, fell into decay when Antigonus trans
planted its inhabitants to Alexandria Troas. A
little river, flowing past it, was called Cebren
(KeBpr)v), and the district Cebrenia.
Cecropia. [Cecrops.]
Cecrops (KeKpaip), said to have been the
first king of Attica (ApoUod. iii. 14). He was
married to Agraulos, daughter of Actaeus, by
whom he had a son, Erysichthon, who suc
ceeded him as king of Athens, and 3 daughters,
Agraulos, Herse, and Pandrosos. [See these
names.] In his reign Poseidon and Athene
contended for the possession of Attica, but
Cecrops decided in favour of the goddess (Hdt.
viii. 55 ; Paus. i. 26, 6 ; Athene). Cecrops is
said to have founded Athens, the citadel of
which was called Cecropia after him, to have
divided Attica into 12 communities, and to-
have introduced the first elements of civilised
life. (Paus. ix. S3; Strab. p. 407.) He is.
sometimes called Sttpvf)s or geminus (Diod. i.
28 ; Ov. Met. ii. 555 ; cf. Aristoph. Vesp. 488),
because the upper part of his body was repre
sented as that of a man and the lower part as.
that of a serpent, by which was symbolised his
origin as earth-born or autochthonous: he is
thus represented on an Athenian terracotta
(now at Berlin) when he is present at the birth
of Erichthonius. Later Greek writers made
Cecrops to be a native of Sais in Egypt, who led.
a colony of Egyptians into Attica (Diod. i. 29).
Cecryphalia (KeKpvipdXeia: Angistri),&sm&H
island in the Saronic gulf, between Aegina and
Epidaurus (Thuc. i. 105 ; Diod. xi. 78).
Cedreae (KeSpeai or -elm, KeSpedrris or -nios),
a town of Caria, on the Ceramic Gulf.
Cedrenus, Creorgius, a Byzantine writer,
author of a historical work, which begins with
the creation of the world, and goes down to AJ>.
1057. Edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1888-89.
Celaenae (KeXaivai, KeXaivlriis : Dener), the
greatest city of S. Phrygia, before the rise of
its neighbour, Apamea Cibotus, reduced it to
insignificance. It lay at the sources of the
rivers Maeander and Marsyas. In the midst
of it was a citadel built by Xerxes on a preci
pitous rock, at the foot of which, in the Agora
of the city, the Marsyas took its rise, and near

CELAENO
the river's source was a grotto celebrated by
tradition as the scene of the punishment of
Marsyas by Apollo. Outside of the city was a
royal palace, with pleasure gardens and a great
park (irapdSeio-os) full of game, which was
generally the residence of a satrap. The Mae
ander took its rise in the very palace, and
flowed through the park and the city, below
which it received the Marsyas (Hdt. vii. 28;
Xen. An. i. 2, 7; Liv. xxxviii. 13 ; Strab. p. 577).
Celaeno (KeXaivd). 1. A Pleiad, daughter
of Atlas and Pleione, beloved by Poseidon. —
2. One of the Harpies. [Harpyiae.]
Celeia (Cilli), an important town in the SE.
of Noricum, and a Roman colony with the
surname Claudia, was in the middle ages the
capital of a Slavonic state called Zellia (Plin.
iii. 146 ; C. I. L. iii. 5154).
Celenderis (KeXevSepts '¦ Khelindreh), a sea
port town of CUicia, said to have been founded
by the Phoenicians, and afterwards colonised
by the Samians. The acropolis was strongly
placed on a rock (Tac. Ann. ii. 80 ; Mel. i. IS).
Celenna, a town of Campania (Verg. Aen.
vii. 789).
Ceier, together with Severus, the architect of
Nero's immense palace, the golden house. He
and Severus projected and even began a canal
from the lake Avernus to the Tiber. (Tac. Ann.
xv. 42).
Ceier, P. Egnatins. [Barea.]
Celetrum (Kastoria), a town in Macedonia
on a peninsula of the Lacus Castoris (Liv.
xxxi. 40).
Celeus (K7)Ae<Ss), king of Eleusis, husband of
Metanira, and father of Demophon and Tripto-
lemus. He received Demeter with hospitality
at Eleusis, when she was wandering in search
of her daughter. The goddess, in return,
wished to make his son Demophon immortal,
and placed him in the fire in order to destroy
his mortal parts ; but Metanira screamed aloud
at the sight, and Demophon was destroyed by
the flames. Demeter then bestowed great
iavours upon Triptolemus. [Triptolemus.]
Celeus is described as the first priest and his
daughters as the first priestesses of Demeter
at Eleusis. [See further under Demeter.]
Celsa (Velilla Ru., nr. Xelsa), a town in
Hispania Tarraconensis on the Iberus, with a
stone bridge over this river, a Roman colony
•caUed Victrix Julia Celsa (Strab. p. 161).
Celsus. 1. A miHtary tribune in Africa who
in the 12th year of GaUienus, a.d. 265, was
proclaimed emperor by the proconsul of the
province. He was slain on the 7th day of his
usurpation (TrebeU. PoU. Trig. Tyr.).—2. An
Epicurean philosopher, lived in the time of
the Antonines, and was a friend of Lucian. He
is supposed to be the same as the Celsus who
wrote the work agamst Christianity called
A6yos aXTfBiis, which acquired so much noto
riety from the answer written to it by Origen. —
3. A. Cornelius Celsus, probably lived under
the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He wrote
^several works, of which only one remains entire,
his treatise De Medicina, ' On Medicine,' in
8 books. The first two books are principally
occupied by the consideration of diet, and the
general principles of therapeutics and patho
logy ; the remaining books are devoted to the
consideration of particular diseases and their
treatment; the third and fourth to internal
diseases ; the fifth and sixth to external diseases,
and to pharmaceutical preparations ; and the last
two to those diseases which more particularly be
long to surgery. — Editions. By MUligan, Edinb.

CELTAE

218

1826; by Ritter and Albers, Colon, ad Rhen.
1885. — 4. Julius Celsus, a scholar at Constan
tinople in the 7th century after Christ, made a
recension of the text of Caesar's Commentaries.
Many modern writers have attributed to him
the Life of Caesar which was in reality written
by Petrarch. — 5, P. Juventius Celsus, two
Roman jurists, father and son, both of whom
are cited in the Digest. Very little is known
of the elder Celsus. The younger Celsus, who
was the more celebrated, lived under Nerva
and Trajan, by whom he was highly favoured.
He wrote Digesta in 89 books, Epistolae,
Quaestiones, and Institutiones in 7 books
(Plin. Ep. vi. 5).— 6. P, Marius Celsus, an
able general first of Galba and afterwards of
Otho. After the defeat of Otho's army at the
battle of Bedriacum, Celsus was pardoned by
ViteUius, and was allowed by him to enter on
the consulship in July (a.d. 69).
Celsus Albinovanus. [Albinovanus.]
Celtae, a powerful race, which occupied a
great part of W. Europe. The Greek and
Roman writers caU them by three names,
which are probably only variations of one
name, namely Celtae (KeXral, KeXroi), Galatae
(VaXdrai), and Galli. Their name was origi
nally given to aU the people of N. and W.
Europe who were not Iberians, and it was not
till the time of Caesar that the Romans per
ceived the distinction between the Celts and
the Germans : the name of Celts then began to
be confined to the people between the PyreneeB
and the Rhine. The Celts belonged to the great
Indo-Germanic race, as their language proves,
and, at a period long antecedent to aU historical
records, settled in the W, of Europe. The most
powerfulpart of the nation appears to have taken
up their abode in the centre of the country called
after them Gallia, between the Garumna in the
S. and the Sequana and Matrona in the N. From
this country they spread over various parts of
Europe, and they appear in early times as a
migratory race, ready to abandon their homes,
and settle in any district which their swords
could win. Besides the Celts in Gallia, there
were eight other different settlements of the
nation, which may be distinguished by the fol
lowing names : — 1. Iberian Celts, who crossed
the Pyrenees and settled in Spain [Celtiberi].
2. British Celts [Britannia.] 3. Belgic Celts,
the inhabitants of GaUia Belgica, at a later
time much mingled with Germans. 4. Italian
Celts, who crossed the Alps at different periods,
and eventually occupied the greater part of
the N. of Italy, which was called after them
Gallia Cisalpina. 5. Celts in the Alps and
on the Danube, namely the Helvetii, Gothini,
OBi, Vindelici, Raeti, Norici, and Carni. 6. H-
lyrian Celts, who, under the name of Scordisci,
settled on Mt. Scordus. 7. Macedonian and
Thracian Celts, who had remained behind in
Macedonia, when the Celts invaded Greece,
and who are rarely mentioned. 8. Asiatic
Celts, the ToUstobogi, Trocmi, and Tectosages,
who founded the kingdom of Galatia. — Some
ancient writers divided the Celts into two great
races, one consisting of the Celts in the S. and
centre of Gaul, in Spain, and in the N. of Italy,
who were the proper Celts, and the other con
sisting of the Celtic tribes on the shores of the
Ocean and in the E. as far as Scythia, who
were called Gauls : to the latter race the Cimbri
belonged, and they are considered by some to
be identical with the Cimmerii of the Greeks.
— The Celts in outward appearance were dis
tinguished from Greeks and Romans by heir

214

CELTIBERI

shaggy hair and long moustaches, and are de
scribed by the ancient writers as men of large
stature, of fair complexion, and with flaxen or
red hair, ' procera corpora, flava caesaries, truces
oculi.' The Celtic element in France at the
present time preserves the old Celtic charac
teristic of a quick and lively temper, but not
those bodily characteristics which are nearer
the German type than the French. They hold
good more generaUy in the highlands of Scot
land and in Wales. They were brave and war
like, impatient of control and prone to change.
They fought with long swords; their first
charge in battle was the most formidable, but
if firmly resisted, they usually gave way. They
were long the terror of the Romans ; once they
took Rome, and laid it in ashes (b.c 390). — For
details respecting their later history and politi
cal organisation, see Gallia ; Galatia.
Celtiberi (KeXrtBrjpes), a powerful people in
Spain, consisting of Celts who crossed the
Pyrenees at an early period and became
mingled with the Iberians, the original inhabi
tants of the country. They dwelt chiefly in the
central part of Spain, in the highlands which
separate the Iberus from the rivers which flow
towards the W., and in which the Tagus and
the Durius rise. They were divided into various
tribes, the Arevacae, Berones, and Pelen-
dones, which were the three most important, the
Lusones, Belli, Dittani, &c. Their chief
towns were Segobbiga, Numantia, Bilbilis,
&c. Their country called Celtiberia was
mountainous and unproductive. They were a
brave and warlike people, and proved formidable
enemies to the Romans. They submitted to
Scipio Africanus in the 2nd Punic war, but the
oppressions of the Roman governors led them to
rebel, and for many years they successfully
defied the power of Rome. They were reduced
to submission on the capture of Numantia by
Scipio Africanus the younger (b.c. 134), but they
again took up arms under Sertorius, and it was
not till his death (72) that they began to adopt
the Roman customs and language. (Diod. v.
33 ; Liv.xxv. 33 ; Polyb. xxxv. 1 ; Strab. p. 151.)
Celtlci. 1. A Celtic people in Lusitania be
tween the Tagus and Anas. — 2. A Celtic people
in GaUaecia near the promontory Nerium,
which was called Celticum after them (C.

Cema, or Caenia, a mountain in the Maritime
Alps, which Pliny (iii. 35) mentions as the source
of the Varus (Var).
Cemenelum (Gimella or Cimiez), a town in
the Maritime Alps, two miles N. of Nice.
Cenaeum (Ktivoaov &Kpbv : Kanaia or Lit ar),
the NW. promontory of Euboea, opposite Ther
mopylae, with a temple of Zeus Cenaeus
(Strab. p. 444).
Cenehreae(K>yxp««)- !• The E. harbour of
Corinth on the Saronic gulf, important for the
trade and commerce with the E. — 2. A town in
Argolis, S. of Argos, on the road to Tegea.
Cenomani, apowerful Gallic people, originally
a branch of the Aulerci, crossed the Alps at an
early period, and settled in the N. of Italy in
the country of Brixia, Verona, and Mantua,
and extended N. as far as the confines of
Rhaetia (Polyb. ii. 17 ; Liv. v. 85). They were
at constant feud with the neighbouring tribes of
the Insubres, Boii, &c, and hence usually assis
ted the Romans in their wars with these people.
In the 2nd Punic war they sided with Rome,
except during the Gallic revolt on Hasdrubal's
approach. (Liv. xxi. 55, xxxi. 10 ; Strab. p. 216.)
Censorinus. 1, One of the 80 tyrants,

CENTAURI
assumed the purple at Bologna, a.d. 270, but
was shortly afterwards put to death by his own
soldiers (Trebell. Trig. Tyr. S3).— 2. Author of
a treatise entitled de Die Natali, which treats
of the generation of man, of his natal hour, of
the influence of the stars and genii upon his
career, and discusses the various methods em
ployed for the division and calculation of time.
The book is dedicated to Q. CereUius, and was
composed a.d. 238. A fragment de Metris and
lost tracts de Accentibus and de Geometria are
ascribed to this Censorinus. — Editions. Otto
Jahn, 1845 ; Hultsch, 1867.
Censorinus, Marclus. 1. C, son of C. Mar-
cius Rutilus, first plebeian dictator (b.c. 856),
was originaUy caUed Rutilus, and was the first
member of the family who had the surname
Censorinus. He was consul in B.C. 310, and con
ducted the war in Samnium. He was censor 294
and a second time 265, the only instance in which
a person held the office of censor twice (Liv. ix
33, x. 47 ; Val. Max. iv. 1, 3).— 2. L., consul 149^
the first year of the third Punic war, conducted
the war against Carthage with his colleague
M'. Manilius. — 3. C, one of the leaders of the
Marian party, fought against SuUa in the battle
near the CoUine gate, was token prisoner, and
put to death by Sulla's order. Censorinus was
one of the orators of his time, and versed in
Greek literature (Appian, B. C. i. 71-93; Cic.
Brut. 67, 90). — 4. L., a partisan of M. Antony,
praetor 43, and consul 39. — 5 C, consul B.C. 8,
died in Asia a.d. 2, while in attendance upon C.
Caesar, the grandson of Augustus (Veil. Pat.
ii. 102).
Centauri (Kevravpoi), a mythical race in
habiting the mountains of Thessaly, represented
as in form half horses and half men. In Homer
there is no certain aUusion to their semi-equine
form. In the Hiad they are called (pijpes ( = tfijpej),
possibly = ' wild men ' : in the Odyssey they
bear the name Kevravpot, and are spoken of as
intemperate (II. i. 268, ii. 743 ; Od. xxi. 295).
We have various genealogies: (-I) that they
sprang from Centaurus, the offspring of Ixion
and a cloud, who mingled with Magnesian
mares (Pind. Pyth. ii. 80), or that they were
born directly from Ixion and the cloud (Diod.
iv. 69) ; (2) that they were born from ApoUo and
Hebe, a daughter of Peneus (Diod. I.e.). The
most famous of the legends connected with
them, and a favourite subject for sculpture, is
the fight of the Centaurs and the Lapithae,
which arose from an insult offered to Hippo
damia by Eurytion, one of the Centaurs, in
flamed by wine, at the marriage-feast of
Peieithous : the Centaurs were driven away to
Mt. Pindus. Theseus is brought into the story
as aiding Peirithous in the battle (Pind. Fr.
143; Plut. Thes. 30; Diod. iv. 70; Ov. Met.
xii. 210 ; Hor. Od. i. 18, 8). SimUar storiea of
the unbridled passions of the Centaurs are given
in the attack of Nessus upon Deianira, and the
fight between Heracles and the Centaurs at the
cave of Pholus (Paus. vii. 18 ; Soph. Track
55 ; Eur. Here. Fur. 864 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 4). As
regards the origin and significance of these
myths, some adduce the story of Ixion to show
that the idea of Centaurs arose from tracing a /
likeness to the Centaur shape in clouds ; others I
rely on their supposed descent from Apollo to
prove that they represented rays of the sun ;
others note their descent from a river god, and
suggest that the Centaurs are the violent \
streams which rush from the mountains of
Thessaly. It is indeed possible that a fancied
likeness in cloud-shapes or torrents may have

CENTRITES
caused the various genealogies to be added to
the traditions ; but the origin of the myth was
probably simpler, and started with those who
first beheld an equestrian tribe from the North
settling in Thessaly at a time when horses were
not ridden in Greece, and imagined the horse
and its rider to be one being. The name
' bull - spearers ' or ' buU - goaders ' (Kevrew :
ravpos) suggests either the hunting of bulls by
mounted Thessahans (Schol. ad Pind. I.e.), or
the driving of bulls by mounted ' cowboys '
(Serv. ad Georg. iii. 115). But whatever the
origin of the myth, the Centaurs, like the
Satyrs, represented unbridled animal passions,
and the combats with Centaurs recorded the
strife between civihsation and barbarism.
Chiron alone among them has been made an
instance of learning and culture. In art of an
archaic type they are represented with the fore
part, including the legs, human, having the hind
quarters of ahorse attached : the more familiar
type, from the sculptures of the Parthenon
onwards, showed them as men from the head to
the loins, wlhie in the rest of the body, the four

CEPHALUS

215

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VvKsL/At^)
V>Jm iff \1
mk^
iCJw
1 P^~"v2r\
^vft
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iirTTr r \k w
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.^'j
Centaur. (Metope from the Parthenon.)
legs, and the tail, they are horses. The female
Centaur is described by Lucian, Zeuxis, 3 (cf .
Ov. Met. xii. 393), and appears in a Florentine
cameo suckling an infant Centaur.
Centrites (Kevrpirris : Bohtan-tschai), a smaU
river of Armenia, which it divided from the land
of the Carduchi, N. of Assyria. It rises in the
mountains S. of the Arsissa Palus (L. Van),
and flows into the Tigris. (Xen. Anab. iv. 3.)
Centumalus, Fulvius. 1. Cn., legate of the
dictator M. Valerius Corvus B.C. 301; consul
298, when he gained a victory over the Sam
nites ; and propraetor 295, when he defeated the
Etruscans (Liv. x. 26). — 2. Cn., consul 229, de
feated the Hlyrians subject to the queen Teuta
(Polyb. ii. 5). — 3. Cn., curule aedile 214 ; praetor
218, with Suessula as his province ; and consul
211; in the next year he was defeated by
Hannibal near Herdonia in ApuUa, and was
killed in the battle (Liv. xxiv. 43, 44, xxvii. 1).
— 4. M., praetor urbanus 192, superintended the
preparations for the war against Antiochus the
Great (Liv. xxxv. 20).
Centumcellae (Civitd, Vecchia), a seaport
town in Etruria, 47 miles from Rome, first be
came a place of importance under Trajan, who
built a villa there and constructed an excellent
harbour with a Ughthouse at each end of the
breakwater (Plin. Ep. vi. 31). It was destroyed
by the Saracens in the 9th century, but was
rebuilt on its ancient site, and was hence called
Civitd Vecchia.
Centuripae (rd KevrSptira, al Kevrovpiirai :
Kevropiirivos, in Thuc. oi Kevr6piires, Centuri-
pinus : Centorbi), an ancient town of the Siculi
in Sicily, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, on the road
from Catana to Panormus, and not far from the
river Symaethns ; in its neighbourhood a great
quantity of corn was grown, and it became
under the Romans one of the most flourishing
cities in the island. (Thuc. vi. 96 ; Diod. xiv.
78 ; Strab. p. 272 ; Cic. Verr. ii. 67, 69, iii. 6, 45.)
Ceos (Keats, Ion. Keos : Keios, Ion. Kii'ios,
Ceus : Zed), an island in the Aegaean Sea, one
of the Cyclades, between the Attic promontory
Sunium and the island Cythnus, celebrated for
its fertile soil and its genial climate. It was
inhabited by Ionians, and originally contained 4
towns, Iulis, Carthaea, Coressus, and Poeeessa ;
but the two latter perished by an
earthquake. Simonides was a native
of the island.
Cephale (KecjaXr)), an Attic demus,
on the right bank of the Erasmus,
belonging to the tribe Acamantis.
Cepnallenia (KeipaXXvvla, KeipaXTi-
via: Ke<paXX7)v,J>i.KeepaXX7)ves : Cepha-
lonia), called by Homer Same (Saprf)
or Samos (Sdpos) (II. ii. 634 ; Od. iv.
671, ix. 24), the largest island in the
Ionian sea, separated from Ithaca on
the E. by a narrow channel, contains
348 square mUes. It is said to have
been originally inhabited by Taphians,
and to have derived its name from the
mythical Cephalus. Even in Homer
its inhabitants are caUed CephaUenes,
and are the subjects of Odysseus : but
the name Cephallenia first occurs in
Herodotus (II. ii. 631 ; Od. xx. 210 ;
Hdt. ix. 28). The island is very moun
tainous (iranraXoeo-o-ri) ; and the highest
mountain, called Aenos, on which stood
a temple of Zeus, rises more than 4000
feet above the sea. CephaUenia was
a tetrapolis, containing the 4 towns,
Same, Pale, Cranii, and Proni. It
never attained political importance. In the
Persian wars the inhabitants of Pale are alone
mentioned. In the Peloponnesian war Cephal
lenia surrendered to the Athenians. Same
ventured to oppose the Romans, but was taken
by M. Fulvius, B.C. 189. (Strab. pp. 455, 461 ;
Thuc. ii. 30 ; Liv. xxxvii. 13 ; Polyb. xxii. IS, 23.)
Cephaloedlum (KetpaXoiSiov : Cephaloedita-
nus ; Cefali or Cephalu), a Sicel town, which
took a Greek name, on the N. coast of Sicily in
the territory of Himera. (Diod. xiv. 56 ; Strab.
p. 266.)
Cephalus (Ke<paA.os). 1. A young man of great
beauty, beloved by Eos (Aurora) and carried off
by her. He is generally explained as represent
ing the morning star which disappears at the
approach of dawn. One legend make3 him the
son of Hermes and Herse (dew) : he dwells with
Eos in the East, and their son is Tithonus
(Apollod. iii. 14). In other accounts Tithonus is
the husband of Eos ; and the son of Eos and
Cephalus is Phaethon (Hes. Th. 986 ; Paus. i. 8).
The most famous and poetical story of- Cepha
lus makes him the son of Deion and Diomede,
and husband of Procris or Procne, daughter of
216

CEPHEUS

Erechtheus, whom he tenderly loved. He was
beloved by Eos, but as he rejectedher advances
from love to his wife, she advised him to try
the fidelity of Procris. The goddess then meta
morphosed him into a stranger, and sent him
with rich presents to his house. Procris was
tempted by the brilliant presents to yield to the
stranger, who then discovered himself to be her
husband, whereupon she fled in shame to Crete.
Artemis made her a present of a dog called
Laelaps (Xal Xatp, storm) and a spear which were
never to miss their object, and then sent her
back to Cephalus in disguise. In order to
obtain this dog and spear, Cephalus promised
his love : Procris then made herself known to
him as his wife, and this led to a reconcilia
tion between them. Procris, however, stiU
feared the love of Eos, and therefore jealously
watched Cephalus when he went out hunting.
Once, having heard him call upon the breeze
(aura), and taking this to imply a mistress
named Aura, she watched him, hidden in a
bush. Cephalus, thinking that some animal was
stirring the leaves, killed her with the never-
erring spear. (Ov. Met. vii. 660-865 ; Apollod.
iii. 15 ; Hyg. Fab. 189.) He is said to have been
banished for this homicide by the Areiopagus
and to have gone to Thebes, where his dog
became useful for hunting a destructive fox
(Paus. ix. 19). Subsequently Cephalus fought
with Amphitryon against the Teleboans, upon
the conquest of whom he was rewarded with
the island which he called after hiB own name
Cephallenia (Strab. p. 456). Clearly a number
of local traditions, Athenian, Cretan, Theban,
and Cephalonian, have gathered round the name
of Cephalus ; some from legends of hunters and
huntresses, the last from the similarity of name.
— 2. A Syracusan, and father of the orator Lysias,
came to Athens at the invitation of Pericles.
He is one of the speakers in Plato's Bepublic.
— 3. An eminent Athenian orator of the Colly-
teon demus, flourished B.C. 402.
Cepheus (Ki)<pevs). 1. King of Ethiopia, son
of Belus, husband of Cassiopeia, and father of
Andromeda, was placed among the stars after
his death (Hdt. vii. 61; Hor. Od. iii. 29;
Andromeda). — 2. Son of Aleus and Neaera or
Cleobule, one of the Argonauts. He was king
of Tegea in Arcadia, and perished, with most of
his sons, in an expedition against Heracles.
Cephlsia or Cephissia (K?;<pi<r£a more correct
than Ki](pio-o-ia : K7]tpio-ievs : Kivisia), one of the
12 Cecropian towns of Attica, and afterwards a
demus belonging to the tribe Erechtheis, NE.
of Athens, on the W. slope of Mt. Pentelicus.
Cephisodorus (K7i<pia6Sapos). 1. An Athenian
comic poet of the Old Comedy, about B.C. 402.
— 2. An Athenian orator, a disciple of Isocrates,
wrote an apology for Isocrates against Aristotle,
entitled ai irpbs 'Apio-roreXn avriypaipai: it is
probable that it was this Cephisodorus who wrote
a History of the Sacred War.
Cephisodotus (Kr)<pio-d5oTos). 1. An Athenian
who led a fleet to Thrace in b,c. 859 with so little
success that he was recaUed and prosecuted:
whether he was the same person as the orator
Cephisodotus is disputed (Dem. c. Lept. p. 501,
§ 146 ; c. Aristocr. p. 670, § 158).— 2. An Athe
nian sculptor, father of Peaxiteles. He be
longed to that younger school of Attic artists who
early in the 4th cent. B.C. were passing from the
sterner majesty of Phidias to the idealised grace
and beauty which were perfected by Praxiteles.
The statue, now at Munich, of Eirene and the
infant Plutus (called the Leucothea) is a copy of
his work (Paus. ix. 16). It is interesting to trace

CERCETAE
a similar position of the infant Dionysus in the
great statue of Praxiteles. (Pirn, xxxiv. 74;
Paus. viii. 30, 5.)— 3. An Athenian sculptor,
caUed the Younger, a son of the great Praxiteles,
flourished 800 (Plin. xxxvi. 24).
Cephisophon (K.7i<pio-oq>av), a friend of Euri
pides, is said not only to have been the chief
actor in his dramas, but also to have aided him
with his advice in the composition of them.
Cephlsus or Cephissus (K7)<pio-6s, Krifio-o-6s).
1. The chief river in Phocis and Boeotia (now
Mavroneri), rises near Lilaea in Phocis, flows
through a fertile vaUey in Phocis and Boeotia,
and faUs into the lake Copais, which is hence
called Cephisis in the Hiad (v. 709). [Copais.]
— 2. The largest river of the Athenian plain,
rises in the W. slope of Mt. Pentelicus, and
flows past Athens on the W. into the Saronic
gulf between Phalerum and Peiraeus. — 3. An
other river of Attica, rising in Mt. Icarius
on the borders of Megaris, and flowing into the
sea at Eleusis, now Sarantaporos. — 4. A river
of Argolis, tributary of the Inachus.
Cer (Kfip, Kijoes). [Moirae.]
Ceramieus Sinus (Gulf of Giova), a bay in
Caria between Halicarnassus and Cnidus : on the
north side of this bay stood the town of Ceramus
which gave the name (Strab. p'. 656). — Cera
mieus, a district of Athens. [Athenae.]
Ceramon Agora (Islam Keui),a. town of Phry.
gia on the ' royal road ' from Susa to Sardis.
(Xen. Anab. i. 2, 10).
Cerasus (Kepao-oSs : Kepao-ovvrios : nr. Khere-
soun), a flourishing colony of Sinope, on the
coast of Pontus, at the mouth of a river of the
same name ; chiefly celebrated as the place
from which Europe obtained both the cherry
and its name. Lucullus is said to have brought
back plants of the cherry with him to Rome,
but this refers probably only to some particular
sorts, as the Romans seem to have had the
tree much earlier. — Cerasus feU into decay
after the foundation of Pharnacia (Kheresoun).
(Xen. Anab. v. 3, 2; Plin. xv. 102.)
Cerata (ra Kepara), the Horns, a mountain
on the frontiers of Attica and Megaris.
Ceraunli Montes (Kepaivia ipri : KMmara),
a range of mountains extending from the fron
tier of LUyricum along the coast of Epirus,
derived their name from the frequent thunder
storms which occurred among them. These
mountains made the coast of Epirus dangerous
(Hor. Od. i. 8, 20). They were also caUed Acro
ceraunia, though this name was properly applied
to the promontory separating the Adriatic and
Ionian seas. The inhabitants of these moun
tains were called Ceraunii (Caes. B.C. iii. 6).
Cerberus (KepiSepos), the dog that guarded
the entrance of Hades, is mentioned as early
as the Homeric poems, but simply as ' the dog,'
and without the name of Cerberus (II. viii. 868,
Od. xi. 628.) Hesiod caUshim a son of Typhon
and Echidna, and represents him with 50 heads.
Later writers describe him as a monster with
only 8 heads, with the taU of a serpent and with
serpents round his neck. Some poets again
call him many-headed or hundred-headed. The
den of Cerberus is placed on the further side of
the Styx, at the spot where Charon landed
the shades of the departed. [Hades.]
Cercasorum or -us or -esura (KepKiffapos
irSXis, Hdt., KepKeo-ovpa, Strab. : El-Arkas),
a city of Lower Egypt, on the W. bank of the
NUe, at the point where the river divided into
its 3 principal branches, the E. or Pelusiac, the
W. or Canopic, and the N. between them.
Ceroetae or -ii (KepKerai, the Circassians),

CERCETIUS
a people of Sarmatia Asiatica, beyond the Cim
merian Bosporus, on the E. coast of the Palus
Maeotis (Strab. p. 496 ; Plin. vi. 16).

CETEI

217

Cerberus. (From a bronze statue.

Cercetius, a mountain in Thessaly, part of
the range of Pindus.
Cerclna and Cercinitis (KepKiva, Kspiaviru :
Karkenah Is., Bamlah, and Gherba), 2 low
islands off the N. coast of Africa, in the mouth
of the Lesser Syrtis, united by a bridge, and
possessing a fine harbour. Cercina was the
larger, and had on it a town of the same name.
(Strab. pp. 128, 831.)
Cerclne (KepKivn: Kara-dagh), a mountain
in Macedonia, between the Axius and Strymon.
Cercinitis (KepKiviris), a lake in Macedonia,
near the mouth of the Strymon, through which
this river flows.
Cercinlum, a town in Thessaly between
Larissa and Pherae.
Cerco, ft. Lutatius, consul with A. Manlius
Torquatus, B.C. 241, in conjunction with his col
league, subdued the Fahsci or people of Falerii,
who revolted from the Romans.
Cercopes (Kep/tatTres), droU and thievish
gnomes, robbed Heracles in his sleep, but were
taken prisoners by him, and either given to
Omphale, or killed, or set free again. Some
placed them at Thermopylae (Hdt. vii. 216) ;
but the comic poem Cercopes, which bore the
name of Homer, probably placed them at
OechaUa in Euboea. Others transferred them
to Lydia, or the islands caUed Pithecusae,
which derived their name from the Cercopes
who were changed into monkeys by Zeus for
having deceived him. (Ov. Met. xiv. 90 ; Diod.
iv. 81 ; Mela, ii. 7 ; Suid. s.v.)
Cercops (KepKaty). 1. One of the oldest
Orphic poets, also caUed a Pythagorean, was
the author of an epic poem, ' on the descent of
Orpheus to Hades ' (Clem. Alex. Strom, p. 333 ;
•cf. Cic. N. D. i. 38.)— 2. Of Miletus, the con
temporary and rival of Hesiod, is said to have
been the author of an epic poem called
Aegimius, which is also ascribed to Hesiod
' piog. Laert. ii. 46 ; Athen. p. 503).
Cercyon (KepKiav), son of Poseidon or He
phaestus, a cruel tyrant at Eleusis, put to death
his daughter Alope, and killed all strangers
whom he overcame in wrestling ; he was in the
•end conquered and slain by Theseus.

Cerdyllum (KepSvXiov), a small town in Mace
donia on the right bank of the Strymon, oppo
site Amphipolis.
CSrealis, Petlllus, served under Vettius
Bolanus, in Britain, a.d. 61 ; was one of the
generals who supported the claim of Vespasian
to the empire, 69; suppressed the revolt of
Civilis on the Rhine, 70 ; and was governor of
Britain, 71, when he conquered a great part of
the Brigantes (Tac. Hist. v. 14, Agr. 8, 17).
Cereatae (Casamari), a town in Latium, in
the territory of Arpinum, and the actual birth
place of Marius (Kippedrai, Plut. Mar. 8), who
probably made it a municipium (Plin. iii. 63).
Ceres. [Demeter.]
Cerfenina, a town of the Marsi on the Via
Valeria, at the pass leading to Corfinium.
Cerilli (Cirella Vecchia), a town in Bruttium
on the coast, S. of the mouth of the Laus.
Cerinthus (Ki)piv6os), a town on the E. coast
of Euboea, on the river Budorus.
Cerne (Kepvri : prob. Arguin), an island off
the W. coast of Africa, to which the Phoenicians
traded (Ptol. vi. 4 ; Scyl. Peripl. 58).
Cerretani, an Iberian people in Hispania
Tarraconensis, in the modern Cerdagna, in the
Pyrenees, subsequently divided into two tribes,
the Juliani and Augustani (Plin. iii. 28).
Cersobleptes (Kepo-oBXeirrris), son of Cotys,
king of Thrace, on whose death in b.c. 858 he
inherited the kingdom in conjunction with
Berisades and Amadocus. As an aUy of the
Athenians, Cersobleptes became involved in
war with PhUip, by whom he was defeated
and reduced to the condition of a tributary, 348.
(Dem. Phil. iii. 114 ; Diod. xvi. 70.)
, Cersus (Kepcros : Merkes), a river of Cilicia,
flowing through the Pylae Syro-Ciliciae, into
the E. side of the Gulf of Issus.
CertSnium (Kepr6viov), a town in Mysia,
mentioned by Xenophon (Anab. vii. 8, 8).
Cervidius Scaevoia. [Scaevola.]
Cerus, an old Latin name for the deity of
creative power, is from the same root as creare
and Ceres: hence in the hymns of the Salii
' Cerus manus,' or ( Cerus duonus ' = creator
bonus (Varr. L. L. vii. 26 ; C. I. L. i. 46).
Cerynla (Kepvvia : Girne), a town of Cyprus
on the north coast between Lapethus and
Aphrodisium. Ceryx (K^pu|), an Attic hero, son of Hermes
and Aglauros, from whom the priestly family of
the Ceryces at Athens derived their origin
According to the Eleusinian tradition, however,
Ceryx, from whom they were descended, was a
younger son of Eumolpus. It is probable that
the Ceryces were an Athenian family which at
some time took the place of an Eleusinian
family of priests. [Diet. Ant. art. Eleusinia.]
Cestrine (Keo-rpivri), a district of Epirus
in the S. of Chaonia and N. of the Thyamis,
said to have been formerly caUed Cammania,
and to have derived its later name from Cestri-
nus, son of Helenus. (Thuc. i. 46 ; Paus. i. 11.)
Cestrus (Kearpos: Ak-su), a considerable
river of Pamphylia, flowing from the Taurus
southwards into the Mediterranean. It was
navigable in its lower course, at least as far as the
city of Perge, which stood on its W. bank, 60
stadia above its mouth. (Strab. p. 667.)
Cetei (KijTeioi), mentioned in Od. xi. 521 as
fighting on the Trojan side under Eurypylus, a
prince from the southern part of Asia Minor.
In thiB people (and in the legends of Memnon)
we have probably the Homeric tradition of the
Hittites (the Eheta of Egyptian monuments),
who seem to have migrated from Armenia into

218

CETHEGUS

the Semitic countries, and founded a great
empire, extending from their two capitals,
Eadesh on the Orontes and Carchemish ^Ni
nus Vetus) on the Euphrates, through a great
part of Asia Minor as far as the Aegaean. The
time of their greatest power was about the
14th century B.C., when they united the tribes
of a great part of Asia Minor in their wars
against Ramses II., which ended after the great
battle of Kadesh in an alliance on no unequal
terms with Egypt. The monuments between
Smyrna and Ephesus, mentioned by Herodotus
(ii. 106) as Egyptian, are reaUy Hittite, and
mark their conquests westward. Their empire
graduaUy dwindled and ended with the fall of
Carchemish B.C. 717. Their chief deity was the
goddess Atargates [see Aphrodite], whose
priestesses are held by some to be the origin of the
myths of the Amazons. [Amazones ; Memnon.]
Cethegus, Cornelius, an ancient patrician
family. They seem to have kept up an old fashion
of wearing the toga without a tunica beneath,
the toga being folded round the body like a
girdle as in the cinctus Gabinus [see Diet. Ant.
art. Toga], to which Horace alludes in the words
cinctuti Cethegi (Ars Poet. 50) ; and Lucan (ii.
543) describes the associate of Catiline thus,
exsertique manus vesana Cethegi. 1. M.,
curule aedUe and pontifex maximus B.C. 213 ;
praetor 211, when he had the charge of Apulia,
censor 209, and consul 204. In the next year
he commanded as proconsul in Cisalpine Gaul,
where he defeated Mago, brother of Hannibal:
He died 196. His eloquence was rated very
high, so that Ennius gave him the name of
Suadae medulla, and Horace twice refers to
him as an ancient authority for the usage of
Latin words. (Cic. de Sen. 14, 50 ; Hor. Epist.
ii. 2, 116, Ars PoSt. 50.) — 2. C, commanded in
Spain as proconsul 200 (Liv. xxxi. 49) ; was
aedile 199 ; consul 197, when he defeated the
Insubrians and Cenomanians in Cisalpine Gaul ;
and censor 194. — 3. P., curule aedile 187,
praetor 185, and consul 181. The grave of
Numa was discovered in his consulship (Plut.
Num. 22). — 4. M., consul 160, when he drained a
part of the Pomptine Marshes. — 5. P., a friend of
Marius, proscribed by SuUa, 88, but in 83 went
over to SuUa, and was pardoned. — 6. C, one of
Catiline's crew, was a profligate from his early
youth. When CatUine left Rome, 68, after
Cicero's first speech, Cethegus stayed behind
under the orders of Lentulus. His charge was
to murder the leading senators ; but the tardi
ness of Lentulus prevented anything being
done. Cethegus was arrested and condemned
to death with the other conspirators. (Sail. Cat.
46-55; Lucan, ii. 543.)
CetiUS (Kiireios), a small river of Mysia,
flowing from the N., and f aUing into the Caicus
close to Pergamum (Plin. v. 126).
Ceutrones or Centrones, a people in Gallia
Belgica, dependents of the Nervii.
Ceyx (K^i>£), king of Trachys, husband of
Alcyone. His death is differently related.
[Alcyone.] He was the father of Hippasus,
who fell fighting as the ally of Heracles.
Chaboras (XaBdpas : Khabur), a river of
Mesopotamia which rises in Mt. Marius and
flows S. into the Euphrates at Circesium (Ptol.
v. 18; Procop. B. P. ii. 5). Its name varied
(prob. in different parts of its course) : it ap
pears as Aborrhas in Strab. p. 747 ; Ammian.
xiv. 3 ; and as Araxes in Xen. Anab. i. 4, 19.
Chabrlas (XaBpias), a celebrated Athenian
general. In b.c. 392 he succeeded Iphicrates in
the command of the Athenian forces at Corinth.

CHALCE
In 388 he assisted Evagoras in Cyprus against
the Persians. In 378 he was one of the
commanders of the forces sent to the aid of
Thebes against Agesilaus, when he adopted for
the first time that manoeuvre for which he
became bo celebrated, — ordering his men to
await the attack with their spears pointed
against the enemy and their shields resting on
one knee. A statue was afterwards erected at
Athens to Chabrias in this posture. In 376 he
gained an important victory off Naxos over the
Lacedaemonian fleet under the command of
PoUis. In 361 he took the command of the naval
force of Tachos, king of Egypt, who was in
rebellion against Persia. In 358 he was sent as
the Athenian commander in Thrace, but was
compelled by Charidemus to make a peace
unfavourable to Athens. On the breaking out
of the Social war in 357, Chabrias commanded
the Athenian fleet. At the siege of Chios he
sailed into the harbour before the rest of the
fleet, and, when his ship was disabled, he
refused to save his life by abandoning it, and
feU fighting. (Nep. Chabrias; Xen. Hell. v.
1-4 ; Diod. xv. 29-34, xvi. 7.)
Chaerea, C. Cassius, tribune of the praetorian
cohorts, formed the conspiracy by which Cali
gula was slain, a.d. 41. Chaerea was put to
death by Claudius upon his accession. (Suet.
Gal. 56 ; Dio Cass. lix. 29 ; Tac. Ann. i. 32.)
Chaeremon (Xaipf)pav). 1. One of the most
celebrated of the later tragic poets at Athens,
about B.C. 380. .He was one of the 'Avayvair-
tikoI, or 'Reading Tragedians,' who in the
decline of tragedy composed subtle and over
strained playB which were not acted but read
before a select audience. Some of his plays
were for acting. (Athen. p. 607.) — 2. Of Alexan
dria, a Stoic philosopher, chief librarian of the
Alexandrian library, was afterwards called to
Rome, and became the preceptor of Nero. He
wrote a history of Egypt, on Hieroglyphics, on
Comets, and a grammatical work. Martial (xi.
56) wrote an epigram upon him.
Chaerephon (Xaiperpav), a pupil of Socrates,
was banished by the Thirty, and returned to
Athens on the restoration of democracy, B.C.
403. He was dead when the trial of Socrates
took place, 399. (Xen. Mem. i. 2, 48, ii. 3, 1.)
Chaeronea (Xaipdveia : Xaipavevs : Capurna),
the Homeric Arne according to Pausanias, a
town in Boeotia on the Cephisus near the
frontier of Phocis, a dependant of Orchomenus.
It stood where the valley of the Cephissus nar
rows to two miles, and thus it commanded the
approach from the north. It was memorable for
the defeat of the Athenians and the Boeotians
in b.c. 338 by Philip, king of Macedon, and for
Sulla's victory over the army of Mithridates, 86.
Chaeronea was the birthplace of Plutarch.
Several remains of the ancient city have been
discovered at Capurna : a theatre excavated in
the rock, an aqueduct, and the marble lion (broken
in pieces) which adorned the sepulchre of the
Boeotians who fell at the battle of Chaeronea.
(Thuc. iv. 76; Paus. ix. 41, 6; Strab. p. 414;
Plut. Suit. 17.)
Chalaeum (XiXaiov. XaXaTos), a, port-town
of the Locri Ozolae on the Crissaean gulf, on
the frontiers of Phocis (Thuc. iii. 101).
Chalastra (XaXdrrrpa), a town in Mygdoniain
Macedonia, at the mouth of the river Axius
(Hdt. vii. 128 ; Strab. p. 880).
Chalce or -ae or-ia (XdXKri, XdXKai, XaXKla:
Charki), an island of the Carpathian sea, near
Rhodes, with a town of the same name, and
temple of ApoUo (Strab. p. 488 ; Thuc. viii. 41).

CHALCEDON
Chalcedon (XaXKnSdv, more correctly, KoX-
XnSdv : XoXktiS6vios : Ohalkedon, Grk., Kadi-
Kicn, Turk., Ru.), a Greek city of Bithynia, on
the coast of the Propontis at the entrance of
the Bosporus, nearly opposite to Byzantium,
was founded by a colony from Megara in b.c
685. As occupying an inferior site to that of
Byzantium it was spoken of by the oracle as
' the city of the bhnd ' (Strab. p. 820 ; Tac. Ann.
xii. 63). After a long period of independence
it became subject to the kings of Bithynia, who

CHALYBES

219-

Coin of Chalcedon.
Obv., head of Demeter veiled : ivp., Apollo seated on om
phalos ; below KA\x ; struck ciro. B.C. 280-270.
removed most of its inhabitants to the new city
of Nicomedia (b.c. 140). The Romans restored
its fortifications, and made it the chief city of
the province of Bithynia, or Pontica Prima. It
was entirely destroyed by the Turks. — The
fourth oecumenical council of the Church met
here a.d. 451. (Horn. II. ii. 537 ; Strab. p. 320 ;
Thuc. h\ 75 ; Xen. An. vii. 1, 20 ; Plut. Lucull. 8.)
Chalcidice (XaXKiS'iKit), a peninsula in Mace
donia between the Thermaic and Strymonic
gulfs, runs out into the sea like a 3-pronged fork,

Coin of Chalcidian league, struck at Olynthus B.C. S92-S80.
06c., head of ApoUo laureate ; rev., lyre, xaakiaeon ; ma-
glstrate's name, Enl API2TQN0Z.
ending in 3 smaUer peninsulas, Pallene, Sitho-
nia, and Acte or Athos. It derived its name
from Chalcidian colonists. [Chalcis, No. 1.]
Chalcidius, a Platonic philosopher who lived
probably in the 5th century of the Christian
era, translated into Latin the Timaeus of Plato,
on which he likewise wrote a voluminous com
mentary. Edited by Meursius, Leyden, 1617,
and by Pabricius, Hamburg, 1718.
Chalcioecus (XoXk'ioikos), 'the goddess of the
brazen house,' a surname of Athene at Sparta,
from the brazen temple there. [Athene.]
Chalcidpe (XaXKiSirn). 1. Daughter of
Eurypylus, king of Cos, mother of Thessalus
by Heracles (II. ii. 676 ; ApoUod. ii. 7, 8).— 2.
Daughter of Aeetes, and sister of Medea, mar
ried to Phrixus (Ap. Rh. ii. 1140 ; ApoUod. i. 9).
Chalcis (XjxXk'is : XaXKiSeis, Chaleidensis).
1. (Egripo or Negroponte), the principal town
of Euboea, situated on the narrowest part of the
Euripus, and united, as early as B.C. 411, with
the mainland by a bridge (Thuc. viii. 95 ; Diod.
xv. 30). It was a very ancient town, originally
inhabited by Abantes or Curetes, and colonised
by Attic Ionians under Cothus. In the time of
Hesiod (Op. 655) Chalcis was ruled by a king : in,
the next century by an oligarchy of the richer
class called Hippobotae (Strab. p. 447 ; Hdt. v.
77). The Athenians planted 4,000 cleruchshere

in b.c. 506, who retired on the Persian invasion.
(Hdt. v. 77, vi. 100). Its flourishing condition
at an early period is attested by the numerous.
colonies which it planted in various parts of the '
Mediterranean. It founded so many cities in the
peninsula in Macedonia between the Strymonic
and Thermaic gulfs, that the whole peninsula
was caUed Chalcidice. In Italy it founded
Cuma, and in Sicily Naxos. Chalcis was usually
subject to Athens during the greatness of the
latter city, and afterwards passed into the hands
of the Macedonians, Antiochus, Mithridates, and
the Romans. It was a place of great military
importance, as it commanded the navigation
between the N. and S. of Greece, and hence it
was often taken and retaken by the different
parties contending for the supremacy in Greece.
— The orator Isaeus and the poet Lycophron.
were born at Chalcis, and Aristotle died here.

Coin of Chalcis in Euboea.
Obv., head of Herat?); rev., eagle flying and holding ser
pent, XAA ; struck circ. B.C. 850.
— 2. A town in Aetolia at the mouth of the
Evenus, situated at the foot of the mountain
Chalcis, and hence also caUed Hypochalcis
(Horn. II. ii. 640 ; Thuc. ii. 83 ; Strab. p. 451).—
3. (Kinnesrin, Ru.), a city of Syria, in a fruitful
plain, near the termination of the river Chalus :
the chief city of the district of Chalcidice, which
lay to the E. of the Orontes. — 4. A city of Syria
on the Belus, in the plain of Marsyas.
Chalcodon (XaXKdSav), king of the Abantes.
in Euboea, was said to be a son of Abas, the
descendant of Erechtheus. He was father of
Elphenor, who fought at Troy (II. ii. 541, iv.
461). He was killed by Amphitryon, fighting
againf t Thebes. His descendants were caUed
the Chalcodontidae, and ruled over parts of
Boeotia as well as of Euboea. (Eur. Ion. 59 ;.
Paus. viii. 15, 3, ix. 19, 8.)
Chaldaea (XaXSaia: XaXSdios), in the nar
rower sense, was a province of Babylonia, about
the lower course of the Euphrates, the border-
of the Arabian Desert, and the head of the Per
sian Gulf. It was intersected by numerous.
canals, and was extremely fertile. In a wider
sense, the term is applied to the whole of Baby
lonia, and even to the Babylonian empire, on
account of the supremacy which the Chaldaeans
acquired at Babylon. They seem to have been
settled on the shores of the Persian Gulf when
they are first heard of in the 9th cent. B.C.
Under Merodach Baladan, about B.C. 700, they
became masters of Babylonia and gave their
name to the whole country. [Babylon.]
Chalus (XdXos : Koweik), a river of N. Syria,
flowing S. past Beroea and ChaleiB, and ter
minating in a marshy lake.
Chalybes (XaXvBes), a people apparently of
Scythian origin (later called Chaldaei), said to
be descended from Chalybs son of Ares. They
represent the earliest workers in iron of whom
the Greeks had heard ; they are generally re
presented as dwelling on the S. shore of the
Black Sea, about Themiscyra and the Thermodon
(and probably to a wider extent, for Herodotus
clearly mentions them among the nations W.
of the Halys), and occupying themselves in the
working of iron. (Strab. p. 549, 551 ; Hdt. i. 28 ;

220

CHALYBON

Aesch. Pr. 717 ; Ap. Rh. ii. 1002 ; Verg. Georg.
i. 58.) Chalybon (XaXvBdv : 0. T. Helbon), a city of
N. Syria, afterwards Beboea.
Chamaeleon (XapaiXeav), a Peripatetic philo
sopher, or, rather, student of literature, of
Heraclea on the Pontus, one of the disciples of
Aristotle, wrote works on several ancient Greek
poets, and on philosophical subjects.
Chamavi, a people in Germany, who were
«ompeUed by the Roman conquests to change
their abodes several times. They first appear
in the neighbourhood of the Rhine, but after
wards migrated E., defeated the Bructeri, and
¦settled between the Weser and the Harz. At
•a later time they dwelt on the lower Rhine, and
were auxiliaries of the Pranks. (Strab. p. 291 ;
Tac. Germ. 2, 83, Ann. xiii. 55 ; Ammian. xvii. 8.)
Chaones (Xdoves), one of the 3 peoples in
habiting Epmus, were at an earlier period in
possession of the whole country, but sub-
.sequently dwelt along the coast from the river
Thyamis northwards to the Acroceraunian pro
montory, which district was therefore called
Chaonia. By the poets Chaonius is used as
equivalent to Epirot.
Chaos (Xaos), the vacant and infinite space
which existed according to the ancient cosmo
gonies previous to the creation of the world, and
out of which the gods, men, and aU things arose.
Chaos was the mother of Erebos and Nyx, from
whom again were born Aether and Hemera (Hes.
Th. 116 ff.). In the Orphic cosmogony Chaos
.and Aether are born from Chronos.
Charadra (XapdSpa : XapaSpaios). 1. A town
in Phocis on the river Charadrus, situated on
.an eminence not far from Lilaea (Hdt. viii. 33 ;
Paus. x. 3). — 2. A town in Epirus, SW. of Am
bracia. — 3. A town in Messenia, built by Pelops.
Charadrus (XdpaSpos). 1. A smaU river in
Phocis, a tributary of the Cephisus. — 2. A smaU
river in Argolis, a tributary of the Inachus. —
¦3. A small river in Messenia, rises near Oechalia.
Charadrus (XdpaSpos, Khaladran), a town in
•Cilicia on the coast road from Arsinoe to Selinus
{Trajanopolis). Charax (Xdpa£), of Pergamum, a historian
of the 2nd cent, b.c, wrote a work in 40 books,
called 'EXXyvwd, and another named XpoviKtL
{In Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Graec.)
Charax (Xapaf, i.e. a palisaded camp : Xapa-
Kwv6s), the name of several cities, which took
their origin from military stations. The most
remarkable of them stood at the mouth of the
•Tigris. [Alexandeia, No. 4.] There were
others in the CherBonesus Taurica, in N. Media,
near Celaenae in Phrygia, in Corsica, and on
the Great Syrtis in Africa.
Charaxus (Xapa£os) of Mytilene, son of Sca-
mandronymus and brother of Sappho, feU in
love with Rhodopis.
Chares (Xipr/s). 1. An Athenian general,
who for a long series of years contrived by pro
fuse corruption to maintain his influence with
the people, in spite of his very disreputable
character. In b.c. 867 he was sent to the aid
of the Phliasians, who were hard pressed by the
Arcadians and Argives, and he succeeded in
relieving them (Xen. Hell. vii. 2, 18; Diod.
xv. 75). In the Social war, after the death of
ChabriaB, 856, he had the command of the
Athenian fleet along with Iphicrates and
Timotheus. His colleagues having refused, in
consequence of a storm, to risk an engagement,
Chares accused them to the people, and they
were recalled (Diod. xvi. 21 ; Nep. Tim. 4).
Being now left in the sole command, and being

CHARLDEMUS
in want of money, he entered into the service of
Artabazus, the revolted satrap of Western Asia,
but was recalled by the Athenians on the com
plaint of Artaxerxes III. In the Olynthian
war, 349, he commanded the mercenaries sent
from Athens to the aid of Olynthus. In 340
he commanded the force sent to aid Byzantium
agamst Philip; but he effected nothing, and
was accordingly superseded by Phocion. In
838 he was one of the Athenian commanders at
the battle of Chaeronea. When Alexander
invaded Asia in 334, Chares was living at
Sigeum ; and in 333 he commanded for Darius
at Mytilene. (Arrian, Anab. ii. 1, iii. 2.)— 2. Of
Mytilene, an officer at the court of Alexander
the Great, wrote a history of Alexander in
10 books. — 3. An artist of Lindus in Rhodes,
the favourite pupil of Lysippus, flourished B.C.
290. He belonged to a period when it was
sought to replace the old grandeur and sim-
pUcity by mere size and dramatic effect. His
chief work was the statue of the Sun, which,
under the name of ' The Colossus of Rhodes,'
was celebrated as one of the 7 wonders of the
wbrld. Its height was upwards of 105 EngUsh
feet (70 cubits), the fingers being larger than
most statues (Phn. xxxiv. 41) ; it was 12 years
in erecting, and cost 300 talents. It stood
at the entrance of the harbour of Rhodes, but
there is no truth in the tradition that its legs
extended over the mouth of the harbour. It was
overthrown and broken to pieces by an earth
quake 56 years after its erection, B.c 224. (Cf.
Strab. p. 652; Polyb. v. 88.) The fragments
remained on the ground 900 years, till they
were sold by the general of the caliph Othman
IV. to a Jew of Emesa, who carried them away
on 980 camels, a.d. 672.
Charicles (XapiKXrjs). 1. An Athenian dema
gogue, son of ApoUodorus, was one of the com
missioners appointed to investigate the affair of
the mutilation of the Hermae, b.c. 415 ; was one
of the commanders of the Athenian fleet, 418 ;
and one of the Thirty on the capture of Athens
by Lysander, 404 (Xen. Hell. ii. 3, 2).— 2. An
eminent physician at Rome, attended the em
peror Tiberius.
Chariclo (XapiKXd). 1. A nymph, daughter
of Apollo, wife of the centaur Chiron, and
mother of Carystus and Ocyroe (Pind. Pyth. iv.
103). — 2. A nymph, wife of Eueres and mother
of Teibesias.
Charldemus (XapiSTipos). X. Of Oreus in
Euboea, of mean origin, became the captain of
a band of mercenaries, and served in this capa
city under the Athenian generals Iphicrates and
Timotheus. He next entered the service of the
satrap Artabazus, who had revolted against
Artaxerxes III., and subsequently of Cotys,
king of Thrace, whose daughter he married.
On the murder of Cotys, 360, Charidemus ad
hered to the cause of his son Cersobleptes, and
on behalf of the latter carried on the struggle
with the Athenians for the possession of the
Chersonesus. The Athenians, however, con
sidered that they were in some way indebted to
him for the surrender of the Chersonese, since
they voted him a golden crown. In 349 he was
appointed by the Athenians commander in the
Olynthian war, but next year was superseded
and replaced by Chares. (Dem. c. Aristocr. ;
Athen. p. 436.)— 2. An Athenian, one of the ora
tors whose surrender was required by Alexander
in b.c. 335, after the destruction of Thebes, fled
to Asia, and took refuge with Darius, by whose
orders he was put to death, 388, shortly before
the battle of Issus (Plut. Phoc. 16 ; Curt. iii. 2.)

CHARILAUS
Charilaus (XapiXaos), king of Sparta, son of
Polydectes, is said to have received his name
from the general joy excited by the justice of
his uncle Lycurgus when he placed him, a new
born infant, on the royal seat, and bade the
Spartans acknowledge b,im for their king. He
carried on war against Argos and Tegea; he
was taken prisoner by the Tegeana, but was dis
missed without ransom on giving a promise
(which he did not keep) that the Spartans
should abstain in future from attacking Tegea.
(Plut. Lye. 5; Hdt. viii. 181; Paus. iii. 7.)
Charis, Charites (Xdpts, Xdpires). Charis was
the personification of Grace and Beauty. In
the Hiad (xviii. S82 ; cf. Hes. Th. 945) she is de
scribed as the wife of Hephaestus, but in the
Odyssey Aphrodite appears as the wife of
Hephaestus, from which we may infer, not
indeed the identity of Aphrodite and Charis,
but a likeness of their attributes. The idea of
personified grace and beauty was at an early
period divided into a plurality of beings, and
even in the Homeric poems the plural Charites
occurs several times. — The Charites (called
Gratiae by the Romans) are usually described
as the daughters of Zeus, and as 3 in number,
namely Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia. (In
Cic. N.D. iii. 17, 44, they are chUdren of Erebus
and Nox, which may perhaps, like the theory of
their birth from Lethe, symbolise the perish
able nature of gratitude). The names of the
Charites suffieiently express their character.
They were the goddesses who enhanced the en
joyments of life by refinement and gentleness.
They are mostly described as in the service of
other divinities, and they lend their grace and
beauty to everything that dehghts and elevates
in heaven, on earth, and in the under world.
(Pind. Ol. xiv. 5; Theocr. xvi. 108.) The gen
tleness and gracefulness which they impart to
man's ordinary pleasures are expressed by their
moderating the exciting influence of wine (Hor.
Od. hi. 19, 15 ; cf. Athen. p. 36), and by their
accompanying Aphrodite as her tire-maidens
(II. v. 338; Od. viii. 362; Hes. Op. 72; Paus.
vi. 24). Poetry, however, is the art which is
especially favoured by them, and hence they are
the friends of the Muses, with whom they live
together in Olympus (Pind. Ol. xiv. 10). With
Athene also as the goddess of all arts, with
Hermes as the god of ready and winning speech,
and with Peitho for the same reason,the Charites
were often connected. The worship of the

CHARMIDES

221

Charites. (From a coin of Germa.)
Charites from an early period was especially
noticeable at Orchomenus, where they had a
temple, and were regarded as the givers of
increase (cf . Paus. ix. 35 ; Pind. xii. 26 ; Strab.
p. 414), to whom probably corresponded the two
Charites, Auxo and Hegemone worshipped at
Athens (Paus. i. 32, ix. 35; Pollux, viii. 106). In

art the familiar representation of the Graces as
three naked figures belongs to the Hellenistic
period ; in the earlier periods they were repre
sented as fully clothed ; it is probably right to
recognise a transition period when they were re
presented in transparent chiton without a girdle
(' solutis zonis,' Hor. Od. i. 30 ; ' soluta ac

Charites. {Pitture d'Ercolano, vol. iii. tav. 11.)
perlucida veste,' Sen. de Benef. i. 8), in statues
of (probably) about B.C. 800-200, after which
the naked type became more common.
Charlsius. 1. Aurelius Arcadius, a Roman
jurist, lived in the reign of Constantine the
Great, and wrote 8 works, De Testibus, De
Muneribus civilibus, and De Officio Praefeeti
praetorio, aU of which are cited in the Digest.
—2. Flavius Sosipater, a Latin grammarian,
a.d. 400, author of a treatise in 5 books, drawn
up for the use of his son, entitled Institutiones
Grammaticae, which has come down to us in a
very imperfect state. The work is of import
ance because he quotes largely from earher
writers, and, besides his grammatical informa
tion, preserves facts of value in archaeology.
Edited by Putschius in Grammaticae Latinae
Auctores Antiqui, Hanov. 1605, and by Linde-
mann, in Corpus Gram-mat. Latin. Veterum,
Lips. 1840 ; Keil, Lips. 1857.
Charites. [Chabis.]
Chariton (XapWav), of Aphrodisias, a town of
Caria, the author of a Greek romance, in 8
books, on the Loves of Chaereas and Callirrhoe.
The names are probably feigned (from x^P's
and 'A<ppoSirn), as the time and position of the
author certainly are. He represents himself as
the secretary of the orator Athenagoras, evi
dently referring to the Syracusan orator men
tioned by Thucydides (vi. 35, 86) as the political
opponent of Hermocrates. Nothing is known
respecting the real life or the time of the author ;
but he probably did not live earlier than the 4th
century after Christ. Edited by D'OrviUe, 3
vols. Amst. 1750, with a valuable commentary ;
reprinted with additional notes by Beck,
Lips. 1783.
Charmande (XappdvSri : nr. Hit), in Mesopo
tamia, on the Euphrates (Xen. An. i. 5, 10).
Charnudes (XapplSr/s). 1. An Athenian, son
of Glaucon, cousin to Critias, and uncle by the
mother's side to Plato, who introduces him in
the dialogue which bears his name as a very
young man at the commencement of the Pelo
ponnesian war. In B.C. 404 he was one of the
Ten, and was slain fighting against Thrasybulus
at the Piraeus (Xen. Hell. ii. 4, Mem. iii. 7). —
2. Called also Charmadas by Cicero, a friend of
Philo of Larissa, in conjunction with whom he
is said by some to have been the founder of a
4th Academy. He hved B.C. 100. Cicero praises

222

CHARON

his powers of memory and his eloquence (de Or.
i. 11.J8 ; Tusc. i. 24, 59 ; Acad. i. 6, 16).
Charon (Xdpav). 1. Son of Erebos, conveyed
in his boat the shades of the dead across the
rivers of the lower world. Por this service he
was paid with an obolus or danaces : the coin
was placed in the mouth of every corpse before
its burial (Lucian, Mart. Dial. i. 3, xi. 4). It
should be noticed that Charon is not mentioned
in Homer, and appears first in the Minyas of
the Theban epic cycle. He is represented as an

Charon, Hermes, and Soul. (From a Roman lamp.)
ugly bearded man clothed in the exomis. — 2. A
distinguished Theban, concealed Pelopidas and
his fellow conspirators in his house, when they
returned to Thebes with the view of deUvering
it from the Spartans, b.c. 879. — 3. A historian
of Lampsacus, lived about 460 B.C., and wrote
works on Aethiopia, Persia, Greece, See., the
fragments of which are coUected by Miiller,
Fragm. Histor. Graec.
Charondas (XapdvSas), a lawgiver of Catana,
who legislated for his own and the other cities
of Chalcidian origin in Sicily and Italy. His
¦date is uncertain. He is said by some to have
been a disciple of Pythagoras; and he must
have Uved before the time of AnaxUaus, tyrant
of Rhegium, b.c. 494-476, for the Rhegians used
the laws of Charondas tiU they were abolished
by Anaxilaus. The latter fact sufficiently re
futes the common account that Charondas drew
up a code of laws for Thurii, since this city was
not founded tiU 448. A tradition relates that
Charondas one day forgot to lay aside his sword
before he appeared in the assembly, thereby
violating one of his own laws, and that on being
¦.reminded of this by a citizen, he exclaimed,
' By Zeus, I wiU establish it,' and immediately
•stabbed himself. The laws ascribed to him by
Diodorus and Stobaeus cannot be regarded as
genuine, and belong to a later date. (Plat. Bep.
600 ; Arist. Pol. ii. 12, 5, 7, iv. 11, 10 ; Diod.
xii. 19, 85 ; Stob. xliv. 20.)
Charops (Xapoi//). 1. A chief among the Epi-
rots, sided with the Romans in their war with
Philip V., B.C. 198 (Polyb. xvii. 8).— 2. A grand
son of the above. He was educated at Rome,
and after his return to his own country adhered
to the Roman cause ; but he is represented by
Polybius as a monster of cruelty. He died at
Brundisium, 157. (Polyb. xxx. 14, xxxii. 21.)
Charybdis. [Scylla.]
Chasuari, a people of Germany, allies or
dependents of the Cherusci, to the N. and NW.
of whom they dwelt, on the W. bank of the I

CHEOPS
Visurgis (Weser), and to the E. of the Bructeri
(Tac. Germ. 34 ; Ptol. ii. 11, 22).
Chatti (sometimes written Catti), one of the
most important German tribes who occupied a
territory between the Rhine and the upper part
of the Weser. As they remained more stationary
than some other German tribes, they have left
their name in this, their earUest settlement, in
the name Hesse. The Adrana (Eder) flowed
through their land, and Mattium (Maden) was
their chief town. We hear of them as fighting
agamst the Romans under Drusus, defeated,
but never reaUy subdued, and as engaged in
hostihties with the Hermandures and Cherusci.
(Tac. Ann. i. 55, xii. 27, Hist. iv. 37, Germ. 36 ;
Dio Cass. liv. 33, lv. 1.)
Chattiiarii, a Frisian people who dwelt S. of
Flevo (Zuyder See) between the Amisia (Ems)
and the Rhine (Strab. p. 291).
Chauci or Cauci, a powerful people in the
NE. of Germany between the Amisia (Ems)
and the Albis (Elbe), divided by the Visurgis
(Weser), which flowed through their territory,
into Majores and Minores, the former W. and
the latter E. of the river. They are described by
Tacitus as the noblest and the justest of the
German tribes, and skilful seamen. They formed
an aUiance with the Romans a.d. 5, and assisted
them in their wars against the Cherusci; but
this aUiance did not last long. They were
at war with the Romans in the reigns of Clau
dius and Nero, but were never subdued. They
are mentioned for the last time in the 3rd cen
tury, when they devastated Gaul, and sub
sequently became merged in the general name
of Saxons. (Tac. Germ. 35, Ann. ii. 8, xi. 18;
Dio Cass. Uv. 62, lx. 30 ; Lucan, i. 463.)
Chelidon. 1. Daughter of Pandoreos, sister
of Aedon, changed into a swallow [see Aedon].
— 2. The mistress of Verres (Cic. Verr.).
Chelidonis (XeXiSovis), wife of Cleonymus,to
whom she proved unfaithful in consequence of
a passion for Acrotatus, son of Areus I.
Chelidomae Insulae (XeXiS6viai vfjo-oi : Khe-
lidoni), a group of 5 (Strabo mentions only 8)
small islands, surrounded by dangerous shal
lows, off the promontory called Hiera or Cheli-
donia (KheUdoni) on the S. coast of Lycia.
Chelonatas (XeXavdras : C. Tornese), a pro
montory in Elis, opposite Zacynthus, the most
westerly point of the Peloponnesus.
Chelone (XeXdvri), a maiden who neglected
the invitation to the wedding of Zeus and Hera,
and was changed by Hermes into a tortoiBe.
Chemmis, aft. Panopolis (Xeppis, Tlav6woXis :
Xepptrris : Ekhmim, Ru.), a great city of the
Thebais, or Upper Egypt, on the E. bank of the
Nile, celebrated for its manufactures of linen, its
stone quarries, and its temples of Pan and Per
seus. It was the birthplace of the poet Nonnds.
Chenoboscia (XrivoBoo-Kia : Kasees-Said,
Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt, on the right bank
of the Nile, opposite Diospolis Parva.
Cheops (Xtoip), is the name by which Hero
dotus speaks of the Egyptian king Khufu, who
belonged to the 4th dynasty and reigned about
8783 b.c. with Memphis as his capital. He is
famous as the builder of the Great Pyramid.
The later traditions followed by Herodotus
(ii. 124-127) and Diodorus (i. 68), who colls him
Chemmis, represent him as tyrannical and cruel
to his subjects and impious towards the gods.
The more trustworthy record of the rock tablets
describes him as a brave and wise ruler, and a
founder of temples. Rhampsinitus (Ramses
IH.), whom Herodotus places before Cheops,
lived about 2500 years later.

CHEPHREN
Chephren (Xediprjj/) is the name by which the
Greek writers (Hdt. ii. 127) designated Khaf-Ra,
the son-in-law of Cheops (or Khufu). He was
king of Egypt about 8666 B.C. (Tatf-Ra, who is
not mentioned by Herodotus, came between
Chufu and Khaf-Ra). He built the second
pyramid. A statue of Chephren (or Khaf-Ra)
has been discovered ; a seated figure snowing a
high stage of art in its execution, with the name
and title of the king on its base.
Chersiphron (Xepo-i<ppav) or Ctesiphon, an
architect of Cnossus in Crete, in conjunction
with his son Metagenes, built, or commenced
building, the great temple of Artemis at Ephe
sus early in the 6th century B.C. (Strab. p. 640 ;
Vitruv. vii. Praef . § 12 ; Ephesus.)
Chersonesus (Xep<rd'j'7|o-os, Att. Xeppivr/o-os),
' a land-island,' that is, ' a peninsula ' (from
xepo-os ' land ' and 1/7)0-0$ ' island ' ). 1. Ch.
Thracia (Peninsula of the Dardanelles or of
Gallipoli), usuaUy called at Athens ' The Cher
sonesus' without any distinguishing epithet,
the narrow strip of land, 420 stadia in length,
running between the Hellespont and the Gulf of
Melas, and connected with the Thracian main
land by an isthmus, which was fortified by a
wall, 36 stadia across, near Cardia. The Cher
sonese was colonised by the Athenians under
Mtltiades, the contemporary of Pisistratus
(Hdt. vi. 36 ; Xen. Hell. iii. 2, 10). It feU under
the Persian power during the war with Greece,
was under Athenian or Spartan control till its
occupation by the Macedonians and by the
successors of Alexander. After the defeat of
Antiochus the Romans added it to the pro
vince of Macedonia. — 2. Taurica or Scythica
(Crimea), the peninsula between the Pontus
Euxinus, the Cimmerian Bosporus, and the
Palus Maeotis, united to the mainland by an
isthmus 40 stadia
in width. The an
cients compared
this peninsula with
the Peloponnesus
both in form and
size. It produced a
great quantity of
corn, which was ex
ported to Athens
and other parts of
Greece. The E. part
of the peninsula was
called Tprix^Tj or
the Rugged (Hdt.
iv. 99). Respecting
the Greek kingdom
established in this
country see Bos
porus : for the wor
ship of the Tauric
goddess see Arte
mis. — There was a
town on the S. coast
of this peninsula
called Chersonesus,
founded by the in
habitants of the
Pontic Heraclea,
and situated on a
small peninsula,

CHIMAERA

22S

Cherusci, the most celebrated of all the tribes
of ancient Germany. The limits of their terri
tory cannot be fixed with accuracy, since the
ancients did not distinguish between the
Cherusci proper and the nations belonging to
the league of which the Cherusci were at the
head. The Cherusci proper dwelt on both sides
of the Visurgis (Weser), and their territories
extended to the Harz and the Elbe. They were
originally in aUiance with the Romans, but they
subsequently formed a powerful league of the
German tribes for the purpose of expelling the
Romans from the country, and under the chief
Arminius they destroyed the army of Varus and
drove the Romans beyond the Rhine, a.d. 9.
In consequence of internal dissensions among
the German tribes the Cherusci soon lost their
influence. Their neighbours the Catti suc
ceeded to their power. (Caes. B. G. vi. 10;
Tac. Germ. 36, Ann. xi. 16, 17.)
Chesium (Xfiaiov), a promontory of Samos,
with a temple of Artemis, who was worshipped
here under the surname of Xno-las. Near it was
a little river Chesius, flowing past a town of the
same name.
Chilius. [Thyillus.]
Chilon (XeiXav, XiXav), of Lacedaemon, son
of Damagetus, and one of the Seven Sages,
b.c 590. It is said that he died of joy when
his son gained the prize for boxing at the Olym
pic games. The institution of the Ephoralty is
erroneously ascribed by some to Chilon. A
shrine was erected to him at Sparta. (Hdt. i.
59 ; Diog. Laert. i. 68 ; Paus. iii. 16, x. 24.)
Chimaera (Xlpaipa), a fire-breathing monster,
the fore part of whose body was that of a hon,
the hind part that of a dragon, and the middle
that of a goat (Horn. II. vi. 179, xvi. 328). Ac
cording to Hesiod (Th. 319), she was a daughter

BeUerophon and the Chimaera. (From the Terra-cotta in the British Museum.)

called r) pixpd Xep. to distinguish it from the
larger, of which it formed a part. — 3. Cimbrica
(Jutland). See Cimbri. — 4. (C. Ghersonisi), a
promontory in Argolis between Epidaurus and
Troezen. — 5. (Chersoneso), a town in Crete on
the Prom. Zephyrium, the harbour of Lyctus in
the interior.

of Typhon and Echidna, and had 3 heads, one
of each of the three animals before mentioned.
She made great havoc in Lycia and the sur
rounding countries, and was at length kiUed
by Bellebophon. Virgil places her together
with other monsters at the entrance of Orcus.
The origin of the notion of this fire-breathing

224

CHIMERION

monster must probably be sought for in the vol
cano of the name of Chimaera near PhaseUs, in
Lycia (Plin. ii. 236). Servius (ad Aen. vi. 238)
speaks of a mountain in Lycia, which still in
his time vomited flames from its summit, lions
dwelt in the upper forests, goats in the pasture
slopes, and serpents in the marshes at its foot.

CHIRISOPHUS
and powerful maritime state, under a demo
cratic form of government, tiU the great naval
defeat of the Ionian Greeks by the Persians,
B.C. 494, after which the Chians, who had taken
part in the fight with 100 ships, were subjected
to the Persians, and their island was laid waste
and their young women carried off into slavery.

BeUerophon expelling the Chimaera. (Lycian Gallery in the British Museum.)

In the works of art discovered in Lycia, we
find several representations of the Chimaera in
the simple form of a species of lion stiU oc
curring inthat country. [Bellerophon.]
Chimerlon (Porto Hagianno), a promontory
and harbour of Thesprotia in Epirus.
Chion (Xiav), of Heraclea on the Pontus, a
disciple of Plato, put to death Clearchus, the
tyrant of his native town, and was in conse
quence killed, B.C. 353 (Justin, xvi. 5). There
are extant IS letters which are ascribed to Chion,
but which are undoubtedly of later origin.
Edited by Coberus, Lips, and Dresd. 1765, and
by OreUi, in his edition of Memnon, Lips. 1816.
Chione (Xi6v7J). 1. Daughter of Boreas and
Orithyia, became by Poseidon the mother of
Eumolpus S (Paus. i. 88 ; Apollod. iii. 15.)—
2. Daughter of Daedalion, beloved by Apollo and
Hermes, bore twins, Autolycus and Philammon,
the former a son of Hermes and the latter of
Apollo. She was killed by Artemis for having
compared her beauty to that of the goddess.
(Ov. Met. xi. 266.)
Chionldes (XiaviSr/s), an Athenian poet of the
Old Comedy, lived about b.c. 460, and was the
first poet who gave the Athenian comedy that
form which it retained down to the time of
Aristophanes (a few fragm. in Meineke).
Chios (Xios : Xios, Chius : Grk. Khio, Ital.
Scio, Turk. Saki-Andassi, i.e. Mastic island),
one of the largest and most famous islands of
the Aegaean, lay opposite to the peninsula of
Clazomenae, on the coast of Ionia, and was
reckoned at 900 stadia (90 geog. mUes) in
circuit. Its length from N. to S. is about 30
miles, its greatest breadth about 10, and the
width of the strait, which divides it from the
mainland, about 8. It is said to have borne, in
the eariiest times, the various names of Aethalia,
Maoris, and Pityusa, and to have been inhabited
by Tyrrhenian Pelasgians and Leleges. It was
colonised by the Ionians at the time of their
great migration, and became an important
member of the Ionian league ; but its popula
tion was mixed. It remained an independent

The battle of Mycale, 479, freed Chios from the
Persian yoke, and it became a member of the
Athenian league, in which it was for a long
time the closest and most favoured aUy of
Athens ; but an unsuccessful attempt to
revolt, in 412, led to its conquest and devasta
tion. It recovered its independence, with Cos
and Rhodes, in 358, and afterwards shared the
fortunes of the other states of Ionia. — Chios is
covered with rocky mountains, clothed with the
richest vegetation. It was celebrated for its
wine, which was among the best known to the
ancients, its figs, gum-mastic, and other natural
products, also for its marble and pottery, and
for the beauty of its women, and the luxurious
life of its inhabitants. — Of aU the states which
aspired to the honour of being the birthplace
of Homer, Chios was generally considered by
the ancients to have the best claim; and it
numbered among its natives the tragedian Ion,
the historian Theopompus, the sophist Theo
critus, and other eminent men. Its chief city,
Chios (Khio), stood on the E. side of the island,
at the foot of its highest mountain, PeUnaeus ;

Coin of Chios.
°hZv BP£!?,:L8<iatBd' ^J"? ut amphora, on whioh grapes ;
wWoJ ?™£Ji.qu?r.e di'lded by two """"Is. on onl of
SwiMI maglBtrate s name kpatophs ; struck ciro. B.C.
the other principal places in it were Posidium,
Phanae, Notium, Elaeus, and Leuoonium.
UurisSpnus (Xeipirrocpos), a Lacedaemonian,
was sent by the Spartans to aid Cyrus in his
expedition against his brother Artaxerxes, B.C.
401. After the battle of Cunaxa and the ar
rest of the Greek generals, Chirisophus was

CHIRON
appointed one of the new generals, and in con- j
junction with Xenophon had the chief conduct
of the retreat.
Chiron (Xeipav), the wisest and justest of all
the Centaurs, son of Cronos and Philyra (some
accounts make him the son of Poseidon or of
Ixion : Schol. ad II. iv. 219 ; Schol. ad Ap. Rh.
i. 554), and husband of Nai's or Chariclo, lived
on Mt. Pelion (ib. xi. 832 ; Hes. Th. 1002 ;
Pind. Pyth. iii. 5, ix. 30). He was instructed
by Apollo and Artemis, and was renowned for
his skill inhunting,medicine,music, gymnastics,
and the art of prophecy (II. xi. 831 ; Plin. vii.
196 ; Eur. I. A. 1064 ; Val. Flacc. Arg. i. 139 ;
Xen. Cyneg. 1.) All the most distinguished
heroes of Grecian story, as Peleus, Achilles,
Diomedes, Jason, are described as the pupils of
Chiron in these arts. His friendship withPeleus,
who was his grandson, is particularly cele
brated. Chiron saved him from the other Cen
taurs, who were on the point of killing him, and
he also restored to him the sword which Acastus
had concealed. Chiron further informed him
in what manner he might gain possession of
Thetis, who was destined to marry a mortal
(Pind. Nem. iv. 60 ; Apollod. iii. 13, 5, iv. 13, 8).
Heracles, too, was his friend ; but one of the
poisoned arrows of this hero was nevertheless
the cause of his death. WhUe fighting with
the other Centaurs, one of the poisoned arrows
of Heracles struck Chiron, who, although immor
tal, would not live any longer, and gave his
immortality to Prometheus. According to others,
Chiron, in looking at one of the arrows, dropped
it on his foot, and wounded himself. Zeus
placed Chiron among the stars. (Ov. Fast. v.
398 ; Plin. xxv. 66 ; Hyg. Ast. ii. 38 ; Centaubi.)
Chitone (Xirdvn), a surname of Artemis, be
cause she was represented with a short chiton
(CaUim. Hymn. 77 ; Athen. 629 ; Artemis).
Chloe (XX6n), the Blooming, a surname of
Demeter as the protectress of the green fields :
hence Sophocles (Oed. Col. 1600) calls her
piiTTip etf^Aoos (cf. Athen. p. 618).
Chloris (XXapis). 1. Daughter of the Theban
Amphion and Niobe : she and her brother Amy
clas were the only children of Niobe not killed
by ApoUo and Artemis (Paus. ii. 21, 10). — 2.
Daughter of Amphion of Orchomenos, wife of
Neleus, king of Pylos, and mother of Nestor. —
3. Wife of Zephyrus, and goddess of flowers,
identical with Flora (Ov. Fast. v. 195).
Choarene (Xoap7)vf)), a fertile valley in the
W. of Parthia, on the borders of Media, be
tween two ranges of the Caspii M. (Strab. p. 514 ;
Plin. vi. 44).
Choaspes (Xodo-irris). 1. (Kerkha), , a river of
Susiana, falling into the Tigris, near its mouth.
Its water was so pure that the Persian kings
used to carry it with them when on foreign
expeditions. Its Chaldaean name was Ulai ;
whence the river was called also Eulaeus. Susa
stood upon its banks. (Hdt. i. 188 ; Strab. pp. 46,
728 ; Plin. vi. 130.) — 2. (Khonah) a river in the
Paropamisus, falling into the Cophen (Cabul).
Choerades (XoipiSes : SS. Pietro e Paolo),
two small rocky islands off the coast of Italy,
near Tarentum (Thuc. vii. 33).
Choerllus (XoipiXos or XoipiXXos). 1. Of
Athens, a tragic poet, contemporary with
Thespis, Phrynichus, and Aeschylus, exhibited
tragedies for 40 years, B.C. 523-483, and gained
the prize 13 times. — 2. Of Samos, the author
of an epic poem on the Persian wars. He was
born about 470, and died at the court of Arche
laus, king of Macedonia, consequently not later
than 399, which was the last year of Archelaus.

CHRTSIPPUS

225

— 3. Of Iasos, a worthless epic poet in the train
of Alexander the Great, is said to have received
from Alexander a gold stater for every verse of
his poem (Suid. s.v. ; Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 282, Art.
Poet. 857).
Chollldae (XoAAeiSai or XoXXiSai : XoXXeiSvs,
-iSTjs), a demus in Attica of the tribe Leontis.
Chonia (Xavla), the name in early times of a
district in the S. of Italy, inhabited by the Chones
(Xdvcs), an Oenotrian people, who derived their
name from the town of Chone (Xdvri). Chonia
included the SE. of Lucania and the whole of
the E. of Bruttium as far as the promontory
Zephyrium. _(Ar. Pol. vii. 9 ; Strab. p. 255).
Ohorasniii (Xapdo-pioi), a people of Sogdiana,
who inhabited the banks and islands of the lower
course of the Oxus, were a branch of the Sacae
or Massagetae (Hdt. iii. 93 ; Strab. p. 513).
Chosroes. 1. King of Parthia. [Arsaces
xxv.] — 2. King of Persia. [Sassanidae.]
Chrysa or -e (Xpiaa, -ti), a city on the coast
of the Troad, near Thebes, with a temple of
Apollo Smintheus ; celebrated by Homer, but
destroyed at an early period, and succeeded by
another city of the same name, on a height
further from the sea, near Hamaxitos. This
second city fell into decay in consequence of
the removal of its inhabitants to Alexandria
Tboas. (II. i. 37, 390 ; Strab. p. 604.)
Chrysantas (Xpvodvras), described by Xeno
phon in the Cyropaedia as a Persian high in
the favour of Cyrus, who rewarded him with
the satrapy of Lydia and Ionia.
Chrysaor (Xpvodap). 1. Son of Poseidon and
Medusa, husband of Callirrhoe, and father of
Geryones and Echidna (Hes. Th. 278, 979;
Diod. iv. 17 ; Medusa).— 2. The deity with the
golden sword, a surname of Apollo, Artemis,
and Demeter.
Chrysas (Xpvoas : Dittaino), a small river in
Sicily, an affluent of the Symaethus, worshipped
as a god in Assorus, near which there was a
Fanum Ghrysae (Cic. Verr. iv. 44).
Chryse (Xpvo-ri), a Lemnian goddess, whose
altar was guarded by the serpent which bit
Philoctetes. It is possible, but by no means
certain, that she should be identified with the
Thracian Bendis. — 2. A district [see India;
Chrysa]. Chryseis (XpitoTjis). daughter of Chryses,
priest of Apollo at Chryse, was taken prisoner
by Achilles at the capture of Lyrnessus or the
Hypoplacian Thebe. In the distribution of
the booty she was given to Agamemon. Her
father Chryses came to the camp of the Greeks
to solicit her ransom, but was repulsed by
Agamemnon. Thereupon Apollo sent a plague
into the camp of the Greeks, and Agamemnon
was obliged, to restore her to her father to
appease the anger of the god. Her proper name
was Astynome. (II. i. 366, 430.)
Chryses. [Chryseis.]
Chrysippus (Xpu<n7r7ros). 1. Son of Pelops
and Axioehe, was hated by his stepmother
Hippodamia, who induced her sons Atreus and
Thyestes to kill him. According to another
tradition Chrysippus was carried off from his
father's house, or from the Nemean games, by
Laius and killed himself, whereupon Pelops
laid a curse upon the house of Laius. (Apollod.
iii. 5, 5 ; Athen. p. 602 ; Schol. Eur. Phoen. 66 ;
Schol. Eur. Or. 5 ; cf . Thuc. i. 9 ; Paus. vi. 20,
4.)— 2. A Stoic philosopher, son of Apollonius
of Tarsus, born at Soli in Cilicia, B.C. 280.
When young, he lost his paternal property,
and went to Athens, where he became the dis
ciple of the Stoic Cleanthes. Disliking the
Q

226

CHRYSOCERAS

Academic scepticism, he became one of the
most strenuous supporters of the principle that
knowledge is attainable and may be established
on certain foundations. Hence though not the
founder of the Stoic school, he was the first
person who based its doctrines on a plausible
system of reasoning, so that it was said, ' If
Chrysippus had not existed, the Porch could
not have been.' He died 207, aged 78. He
possessed great acuteness and sagacity, and
left behind him an extraordinary number of
writings, which have perished. (Diog. Laert.
vii. 7, 180 ; Zeno.) — 3. Of Cnidos, a physician,
sometimes confounded with the Stoic philo
sopher, but he lived about a century earlier.
He was son of Erineus, and pupil of Eudoxus
of Cnidos : his works, which are not extant,
are quoted by Galen.
Chrysoceras. [Byzantium.]
Chrysogonus, L. Cornelius, a favourite
freedman of Sulla, and a man of profligate
character, was the false accuser of Sex. Roscius,
whom Cicero defended B.C. 80 (Cic. Bosc. Am.).
Chrysopolis (Xpuo-<i7roA.is : Scutari), on the
Bosporus, opposite to Byzantium, at the spot
where the Bosporus was generally crossed. It
was originally the port of Chalcedon. (Polyb.
iv. 44 ; Diod. xiii. 64 ; Plin. v. 150.)
Chrysorrhoas (Xpv<ropp6as : Barrada), also
called Bardines, a river of Coele-Syria, flowing
from the E. side of Anti-Libanus, past Damas
cus, into a lake now called Bahr-el-Merj .
Chrysostomus, Joannes, archbishop of Con
stantinople, one of the most celebrated of the
Greek Fathers, born a.d. 847, died 407. [See
Diet, of Christian Biog.]
Chrysothemis (Xpvtr69epis). — 1. Daughter of
Agamemnon and Clytemnestra (II. ix. 145, 287 ;
Soph. El. 157). — 2. Son of Carmanor, the priest
of Apollo at Tarrha in Crete. In the first
musical contest at Delphi he won the prize by
his hymn on the victory of Apollo over the
Python (Paus. x. 7, 2).
Chthonia. [Eeechtheus.]
Chthonlus (XB6vios) and Chthonia (XBovla),
epithets of the gods and goddesses of the earth
and of the underworld, as opposed to the
ovpdvioi Beoi. The x^dvioi Beol as deities of the
. earth had control of all the fruits of the earth,
and as deities of the underworld were connected
with the death of men and animals as well as of
vegetation. The name therefore belongs to
Demeter, Persephone, Pluto (= Zebs x^ovios),
to Hermes as conductor of the Shades, to
Dionysus Zagreus and to the Erinyes ; also to
other deities who had taken to themselves
attributes of gods of the underworld. The
epithet is applied also differently to the Titans
(as earth-born), to country nymphs and to the
Erechtheidae (as indigenous).
Chytri (XiVpoi). 1. (Chytri) a town in
Cyprus on the road from Cerynia to Salamis. —
2. Warm springs at Salamis.
Ciaca, a fortress of the Romans, on the
borders of Armenia and Cappadocia.
Cibalae or Cibalis (Vinkovee), a town in
Pannonia between the Dravus and Savus, near
which Constantine gained a decisive victory
over Licinius, a.d. 814: the birthplace of
Valentinian and Gratian (Eutrop. x. 6 ;
Ammian, xxx. 7.)
Cibotus. [Alexandria, No. 1 ; Apamea, No.
3.] Cibyra (KiBvpa: KiBvpdrris, Cibyrdta). 1.
Magna ( r) peydXri : Khorzum), a great city of
Phrygia Magna, in the fertile district of Milyas,
on the borders of Caria, said to have been

CICERO
founded by the Lydians, but afterwards
peopled by the Pisidians. In Strabo's time, four
native dialects were spoken in it, besides
Greek — namely, those of the Lydians, the Pisi
dians, the Milyae, and the Solymi. It was the
head of a tetrapolis of which the other three cities
were Bubon, Balbyra and Oenoanda, each of
which had one vote, while Cibyra had two : its
own government was a despotism under moderate
princes : the city ruled over a large district
called Cibyratis (KiPvparis), and could send ;
into the field an army of 30,000 men. In B.C. ',
83, it was added to the Roman empire, and was 1

Coin of Cibyra Magna.
Obv., helmeted male head; rev., armed horseman, bee,
and magistrate's name : below Y.t,&vpttTwv ; date probably
before 84 B.C.
made the seat of a conventus juridicus, in which
at a later time Laodicea was the chief city.
After being nearly destroyed by an earthquake,
it was restored by Tiberius, under the names of
Caesarea and Civitas Cibyratica. The city was
very celebrated for its manufactures, especially
in iron. (Strab. p. 629 ; Liv. xxxviii. 14 ; Plin.
v. 105.) — 2. Parva (K. piKpd : Ibura), a city of
Pamphylia, on the borders of Cflicia.
C. Cicereius, praetor in B.C. 173, conquered
the Corsicans, but was refused a triumph. In
172 and 167 he was one of the ambassadors
sent to the Hlyrian king, Gentius : and in 168
he dedicated on the Alban mount a temple to
Juno Moneta. (Liv. xiii. 7, 21, 26.)
Cicero, Tullius. 1. M., grandfather of the
orator, lived at his native town Arpinum, which
received the full Roman franchise in B.C. 188. —
2. M., son of No. 1, also lived at Arpinum, and
died 64. — 3. L., brother of No. 2, was a friend of
M. Antonius the orator. — 4. L., son of No. 3,
schoolfellow of the orator, died 68 (Cic. ad
Att. i. 5). — 5. M., the orator, eldest son of
No. 2 and Helvia, was born on the 3rd of
January, B.C. 106, at the family residence in the
vicinity of Arpinum. He was educated along
with his brother Quintus, and the two brothers
displayed such aptitude for learning that his
father removed with them to Rome, where they
received instruction from the best teachers in
the capital. One of their most celebrated
teachers was the poet Archias of Antioch.
After assuming the toga virilis (91) the young
Marcus was placed under the care of Q. Mucius
Scaevola, the augur, from whom he learnt the
principles of jurisprudence. In 89 he served
his first and only campaign under Cn. Pompeius
Strabo in the Social war. During the civil
wars between Marius and Sulla, Cicero identi
fied himself with neither party, but devoted his
time to the study of law, philosophy, and
rhetoric. He received instruction in philo
sophy from Phaedrus the Epicurean, Philo, the
chief of the New Academy, and Diodotus the
Stoic, and in rhetoric from Molo the Rhodian.
Having carefully cultivated his powers, Cicero
came forward as a pleader in the forum, as soon
as tranquillity was restored by the final over-

CICEEO

227

throw of the Marian party. His first extant
speech was delivered in 81, when he was 25
years of age, on behalf of P. Quintius. Next
year (80) he defended Sex. Roscius of Ameria,
•charged with parricide by Chrysogonus, a
favourite freedman of Sulla. This was his first
public cause and was creditable to him, not
merely for the merits of the speech and its
successful result, but also for the boldness
of the protest against injustice sheltered by the
power of the dictator. (Cf. de Off. ii. 14, 61.)
Shortly afterwards (79) Cicero went to Greece,
•ostensibly for the improvement of his health,
which was very delicate, but perhaps because
he dreaded the resentment of Sulla. He first
went to Athens, where he remained six months,
studying philosophy under Antiochus of
Ascalon, and rhetoric under Demetrius Syrus ;
and here he made the acquaintance of Pom-
ponius Atticus, who remained his firm friend
to the close of his life. From Athens he passed
over to Asia Minor, receiving instruction from
the most celebrated rhetoricians in the Greek
cities of Asia ; and finally passed some time at
Rhodes (78), where he once more placed himself
under the care of Molo. After an absence of two
years, Cicero returned to Rome (77), with his
health firmly established and his oratorical
powers greatly improved. He again came for
ward as an orator in the forum, and soon
obtained the greatest distinction. His success
in the forum paved for him the way to the high
offices of state. In 75 he was quaestor in Sicily
under Sex. Peducaeus, praetor of Lilybaeum,
and discharged the duties of his office with an
integrity and impartiality which secured for
him the affections and confidence of the pro
vincials, which they soon afterwards showed by
selecting him to plead their cause against
Verres. He returned to Rome in 74, and for the
next four years was engaged in pleading causes.
In 70 he distinguished himself by the impeach
ment of Vekres, and in 69 he was curule aedile.
In 66 he was praetor, and while holding this
office he defended Cluentius in the speech still
extant [Cluentius], and delivered his celebrated
oration in favour of the Manilian law, which
appointed Pompey to the command of the
Mithridatic war. In 65 he defended with great
eloquence and ability, as we are told, the tribune
Cornelius, who was accused by the Optimates of
treason (Quintil. iv. 3, 13, viii. 3, 3). In the
following year he gained the great object of his
ambition, and although a novus homo was
elected consul with C. Antonius as a colleague.
He entered upon the office on the 1st of January,
€3. Hitherto Cicero had taken little part in the
political struggles of his time. It is unjust, as
some modern historians have done, to speak of
him as a { trimmer ' (cf . £,Trr]fjL<t>6Tepi.£€, Dio Cass.
xxxvi. 43), who had sought the favour of the
popular party in order to gain power, and then
deserted to the aristocracy. It is no proof what
ever to point to his earlier speeches : for a
young Roman the first step in political life was
advocacy, and he accepted those briefs by
which he was most likely to win fame for skill
and eloquence, doing his best for his client, as
an advocate now would do, whether he agreed
with him or not. Hence we cannot take his
advocacy of Roscius or Cornelius as evidence
that he was ' coquetting with the democracy ' at
that time : nor can we fairly say that he
changed his politics in order to secure the sup
port of the nobles in the consular elections.
His sentiments can best be traced through his
private letters. Cicero desired to maintain a

middle course between the extreme Sullan
party on the one hand, and the extreme demo
crats on the other. To counterbalance the
former he allied himself to the equestrian order
and supported Pompey, whom he expected to
be the champion of the republic on its old lines.
But at the time when he stood for the consul
ship the danger from the revolutionary party
made him approach the party of the nobles as
the surest bulwark agamst revolution. What
the aims of the revolutionary party were and
how they were crushed by Cicero is related in
the article Catilina. For his prudence and
energy in crushing the conspiracy Cicero re
ceived the highest honours ; he was addressed as
* father of his country,' and thanksgivings in his
name were voted to the gods. Cicero's hope now
seemed to be that Pompey, returning after the
Mithridatic war, would lead a conservative party
formed from the senate and the equestrian order ;
but this scheme proved abortive. Pompey was no
political leader, the equestrian order quarrelled
with the senate, and Caesar was able to bring
about his coalition with Pompey and Crassus.
Caesar was anxious to secure the adhesion of
Cicero, and nothing can be wider from the truth
than the idea of some modern writers that
Caesar and his party wished to avenge the death
of the Catilinarians. In fact, Cicero might have
joined the coalition as a fourth member (Cic. de
Prov. Cons. 17, 41; ad Att. ii. 3). His refusal
to support the triumvirate lost him the protec
tion which he might have had against those
whom he had made his enemies by his action
in the affair of Catiline or from other causes.
He had mortally offended Clodius by bearing
witness against him when the latter was accused
of a violation of the mysteries of the Bona Dea.
Clodius vowed deadly vengeance against Cicero.
To accomplish his purpose more securely,
Clodius was adopted into a plebeian family, and
it is significant that this adoption took place
immediately after a speech of Cicero's which
appeared to reflect upon the triumvirs (Cic. pro
Dom. 16, 41). Clodius was thus able to be
elected tribune of the plebs, and as tribune (58)
brought forward a bill, interdicting from fire and
water (i.e. banishing) anyone who should be
found to have put a Roman citizen to death un
tried. Caesar made another effort either to save
Cicero from exile or to secure his acquiescence in
the triumvirate — perhaps he had both motives —
he offered to make him an agrarian commissioner
or a legatus to himself in Gaul. Cicero refused
both offers, and, despairing of offering any
successful opposition to the measure of Clodius,
voluntarily retired from Rome before it was put
to the vote, and crossed over to Greece. He
took up his residence at Thessalonica in Mace
donia. Here he gave way to despair ; and his
letters during this period are filled with lamen
tations. Meanwhile his friends at Rome had
not deserted him ; and, notwithstanding the
vehement opposition of Clodius, they obtained
his recall from banishment in the course of next
year. In August, 57, Cicero landed at Brundi
sium, and in September he was again at Rome.
Taught by experience, Cicero would no longer
join the senate in opposition to the trium
virs. The extent to which he had been broken
in to support the triumvirate is shown by his
speech against Caesar's recall from Gaul (de
Prov. Cons.), and his speeches in defence of
Gabinius and Vatinius. How galling this was
to him appears from many expressions in his
letters (e.g. ad Att. iv. 5, 6, 16, x. 8). In 52 he
was compelled much against his will to go to
Q2

228

CICERO

the East as governor of Cilicia. Here he dis
tinguished himself by his integrity, but at the
same time it was an absurd vanity which led him
to assume the title of imperator and to aspire to
the honours of a triumph after subduing some
robber tribes in his province. He returned to
Italy towards the end of 50, and arrived in the
neighbourhood of Rome on the 4th of January
49, just as the civil war between Caesar and
Pompey broke out. After long hesitating which
side to join, he finally determined to throw in
his lot with Pompey, and crossed over to Greece
in June. After the battle of Pharsalia (48),
Cicero returned to Brundisium, where he lived
in the greatest anxiety for many months. He
was, however, not only pardoned by Caesar, but,
when the latter landed at Brundisium in Sep
tember, 47, he greeted Cicero with the greatest
kindness and. respect. Cicero was even able to
exert influence with Caesar in favour of some
of the Pompeian party, such as M. MarceUus
and Q. Ligarius (ad Fam. iv. 4, vi. 7, 12 ; Plut.
Cic. 39). But for the most part he retired from
public affairs, and during the next three or four
years composed the greater part of his philo
sophical and rhetorical works. The murder of
Caesar on the 15th of March, 44, again brought
Cicero into public life. He had begun to fear
a coming despotism, and, though not privy to
the plot, he certainly approved of the assassina
tion (ad Att. xiv. 11 ; ad Fam. xi. 8). He put
himself at the head of the republican party, and
in his Philippic orations attacked M. Antony
with unmeasured vehemence. But this jjroved
his ruin. The deaths of Hirtius and Pansa put
an end to Cicero's hopes that Octavian might
be prevented from coming to terms with Antony ;
and on the formation *¦ of fithe triumvirate be
tween Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus (27th of
November, 43), Cicero's name was in the list of
the proscribed. He was warned of his danger
while at his Tusculan villa, and embarked at
Antium, intending to escape by sea, but was
driven by stress of weather to Circeii, from
whence he coasted along to Formiae, where he
landed at his villa. Prom Formiae his attendants
carried him in a litter towards the shore, but
were overtaken by the soldiers before they could
teach the coast. They were ready to defend
their master with their lives, but Cicero com
manded them to desist, and stretching forward
called upon his executioners to strike. They
instantly cut off his head and hands, which were
conveyed to Rome, and, by the orders of Antony,
nailed to the Rostra. Cicero perished on the
7th of December, 43, and at the time of his
death had nearly completed hiB 64th year. — By
his first wife, Terentia, Cicero had two children,
a daughter Tullia, whose death, in 45, caused
him the greatest sorrow, and a son Marcus.
[No. 7.] His wife Terentia, to whom he had
been united for 30 years, he divorced in 46, in
consequence, it would appear, of some disputes
connected with pecuniary transactions ; and
soon afterwards he married a young and wealthy
maiden, Publilia, his ward, but found little com
fort in this new alliance, which was speedily dis
solved. — Cicero was not a great nor a strong
statesman, but rather an eloquent and adroit
politician. As astatesman he showed more judg
ment and foresight as well as greater firmness in
his suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy
than at any other time. As a judge of character
and of the times he failed : for while his desire.
to maintain the republic unchanged was sincere
and creditable, he was utterly wrong in his idea
that Pompey could succeed as champion of the

conservative party. That he was forced into>
a policy of opportunism by the coalition of
Pompey with Caesar does not merit all the con
demnation which it has received. No opposi
tion was possible : nor again can he rightly be
charged with pusUlanimity for acquiescing in
Caesar's rule after the overthrow of Pompey.
There was no lack of courage in his attitude
after the death of Caesar. StUl less need we
question the sincerity of his purpose to support
whatever person or policy was in his opinion
most likely to preserve the republican constitu
tion. Plutarch (Cic. 49) tells us that Augustus
himself pronounced him to have been truly a
lover of his country. But it is as an author
that Cicero deserves the highest praise. In his
works the Latin language attains its highest
perfection. They may be divided as follows. —
I. Rhetorical Works. 1. Bhetoricorum s. de
Inventione Bhetorica Libri II. This appears
to have been the earliest of Cicero's prose works.

Bust ol Cicero. (From the bust in the possession of the
Duke of WeUington.)
It was intended to exhibit in a systematic form
all that was most valuable in the works of the
Greek rhetoricians, but it was never completed.
— 2. De Partitions Oratoria Dialogus. ¦ A
catechism of Rhetoric, according to the method
of the middle Academy, by way of question and
answer, drawn up by Cicero for the instruction
of his son Marcus, written in 46. Editions bv
Piderit, Lips. 1866 ; Sauppe, Gott. 1877.— S. De
Oratore ad Quintum Fratrem Libri III. A
systematic work on the art of Oratory, written
m 55 at the request of his brother Quintus
This is the most perfect of Cicero's rhetorical
works. Editions : EUendt, 1840 ; Piderit, Lips.
1886 ; Wilkins, Oxf. 1881-1892.— 4. Brutus s.
de Claris Oratoribus. It contains a critical his
tory of Roman eloquence, from the earliest
times down to Hortensius inclusive. Editions
oy Beck, Camb. U.S. 1858 ; Piderit, 1875.— 5.
Ad M. Brutum Orator, in which Cicero gives
his views of a faultleBS orator: written 45:
Edited by Sandys, 1885.— 6. De Optimo Genere

CICERO

229

Oratorum. An introduction to Cicero's trans
lation of the orations of Aeschines and Demo
sthenes in the case of Ctesiphon : the translation
itself has been lost, — 7, Topica ad C. Treba-
tium. An abstract of the Topics of Aristotle,
illustrated by examples derived chiefly from
Roman law instead of from Greek philosophy :
it was written in July 44. — Bhetoricoruni. ad C.
Hercnniu m Libri IV. is generally printed with
Cicero's works, but was not by his hand. — II.
Philosophical Works. I. Political Philo
sophy. — 1. De Bepublica Libri VI. A work
on the best form of government and the duty
of the citizen, in the form of a dialogue, founded
on the Bcpublie of Plabo; written in 54. This
work disappeared in the 10th or 11th century of
our era with the exception of the episode of the
Somnium Scipionis, which had been preserved
by Macrobius; but in 1S22, Angelo Mai found
among the palimpsests in the Vatican a portion
¦of the lost treasure. Thus the greater part of
the 1st and 2nd books and a few fragments of
the others were discovered. Editions by Mai,
Rome, 1822, and by Creuzer and Moser, Frankf.
1826.— 2. De Legibus Libri III. A dialogue,
founded on the Laws of Plato ; probably written
52. A portion of the three books is lost, and it.
originaUy consisted of a greater number. Edited
by Moser and Creuzer, Frankf. 1824, and by
Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1842. — H. Philosophy of
Mobals. 1. De Officiis LibrihIII. Written
in 44 for the use of his son Marcus, at that time
residing at Athens. The first two books were
chiefly taken from Panaetius, and the third book
was founded upon the work of the Stoic Hecato ;
but the iUustrations are taken almost exclusively
from Roman history and Roman literature.
Edited by Holden, Camb. 1884 ; Schiehe, Prag.
1885. — 2. Cato Major s. de Senectute, ad
dressed to Atticus, and written at the beginning
of 44 : it points out how the burden of old age
may be most easily supported. Editions, Shuck-
burgh, 1886 ; Howson, 1887 ; Reid, 1883.— 8.
Laelius s. de Amicitia, written after the pre
ceding, to which it may be considered as forming
a companion ¦ also addressed to Atticus. Edit.
Reid, 1883 ; Shuckburgh, 1885. — 4. De Gloria
Libri II, written in 44, is now lost, though
Petrarch possessed a MS. of the work. — 5. De
•Consolatione s. de Luctu minuendo, written in
15, soon after the death of his daughter TuUia,
is also lost. — III. Speculative Philosophy.
L Academicorum Libri II, a treatise upon
the Academic philosophy, written 45. Edited
by Goerenz, Lips. 1810; Orelli, Turic. 1827;
J. S. Reid, 1885. — 2. De Finibus Bonorum et
Malorum Libri V. Dedicated to M. Brutus, in
which are discussed the opinions of the Epicu
reans, Stoics, and Peripatetics, on the Supreme
Good — that is, the finis, or end, towards which
all our thoughts and actions are or ought to be
directed. Written in 45. Edited by Madvig,
Copenhagen, 1839 ; J. S. Reid, 1890.— 3. Tuscu-
lanarum Disputationum Libri V. This work,
addressed to M. Brutus, is a series of discussions
on various important points of practical philo
sophy supposed to have been held in the Tus-
culanum of Cicero. Written in 45-44. Edited
by Kiihner, Jenae, 1874 ; O. Heine, Leips. 1881.
— 4. Paracloxa, six favourite Paradoxes of the
Stoics explained in familiar language, written
¦early in 46. — 5. Hortensius s. de Philosovhia,
a dialogue in praise of philosophy, of wrich
fragments only are extant, written in 45.— 0.
Timaeus s. de Universo, a translation of Plato's
Timaeus, of which we possess a fragment. — IV.
Theology. 1. De Natura Deorum Libri III.

An account of the speculations of the Epicu
reans, the Stoics, and the Academicians, on the
existence, attributes, and providence of a Divine
Being ; dedicated to M. Brutus, and written
early in 44. Edited by J. B. Mayor, 1885.— 2.
De Divinatione Libri II, a continuation of the
preceding work. It presents the opinions of the
different schools of philosophy upon the reality
of the science of divination. Written in 44,
after the death of Caesar. Edited by Creuzer,
Kayser, and Moser, Frankf. 1828 ; Stamm,
Rossel, 1881. — 3. De Fato Liber Singularis,
only a fragment. — III. Orations. The follow
ing is a list of Cicero's extant speeches, with the
date at which each was delivered. Some ac
count of each oration is given separately with
the- biography of the person principally con
cerned. 1. Pro P. Quintio, B.C. 31 (Klotz, Leips.
1862). — 2. Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino, 80 (Donkm,
Lond. 1882 ; Landgraf, Erl. 1884).— 3. Pro Q.
Roscio Comoedo, 76 (Schmidt, 1839).— 4. Pro M.
Tullio, 71 (Richter, 1834).— 5. In Q. Caecilium,
70 (C. Halm, Berl. 1882).— 6. In Verrem Actio 1.,
5th August, 70). — 7. In Verrem Actio II. Not
delivered (Heitland, Camb. 1877 ; C. Halm,
1882).— 8. Pro M. Fonteio, 69 (Schneider, Leips.
1876).— 9. Pro A. Caecina, 69, probably (Klotz,
Leips. 1866).— 10. Pro Lege Manilia, 66, or De
Imperio Pompei (A. S. Wilkins, 1885).— 11. Pro
A. Cluentio Avito, 66 (Ramsay, 1883).— 12. Pro
C. CorneUo, 55. — 13. Oratio in Toga Candida,
64. — 14. De Lege Agraria, 3 orations, 63
(Zumpt, Berl. 1861).— 15. Pro C. Rabirio, 63
(Heitland, 1882). — 16. In Catilinam, 4 orations,
63- (A. S. WUkins, 1879).— 17. Pro Murena, 63
(C. Halm, 1881).— 18. Pro P. Cornelio Sulla, 62
(J. S. Reid, 1882).— 19. Pro A. Licinio Archia,
61 (J. S. Reid, 1884).— 20. Pro L. Valerio Flacco,
59 (Mesnil, Leips. 1883).— 21. Post Reditum in
Senatu, 5th Sept. 57.-22. Post Reditum ad
Quirites, 6th or 7th Sept. 57.-23. Pro Domo
sua ad Pontifices, 29th Sept. 57. — 24. De Haru-
spicum Responsis, 56. (The above four speeches
ed. by H. Wagner, Leips. 1858).— 25. Pro P,
Sextio, 56 (H. A. Holden. 1883).— 26. In Vati-
nium, 56 (C. Halm, 1846).— 27. Pro M. Caelio
Rufo, 56 (Orelli, 1832).— 28. Pro L. Cornelio
Balbo, 56 (J. S. Reid, 1879).— 29. De Provinciis
Consularibus, 56 (Tischer, Berl. 1861).— 30. In
L. Pisonem, 55.— 31. Pro Cn. Plancio, 55 (H.
A. Holden, 1881).— 32. Pro C. Rabirio Postumo,
54.-33. Pro M. Aemilio Scauro, 54.-34. Pro
T. Annio Milone, 52 (J. S. Purton, 1877 ; Bouter-
wek, 1887).— 35. Pro M. MarceUo, 47 (Rich
ter, Leips. 1886).— 36. Pro Q. Ligario, 46
(Richter, 1886).— 37. Pro Rege Deiotaro, 45
(Richter, 1886).— 38. Orationes Philippicae, 14
orations against M. Antonius, 44 and 43 (King,
1868 ; J. E. B. Mayor, 1878 ; A. Peskett, 1887).—
IV. Epistles. Cicero during the most important
period of his life maintained a close correspond
ence with Atticus and with a wide circle of
literary and political friends and connexions.
We now have upwards of 800 letters, un
doubtedly genuine, extending over a space of
twenty-six years, and commonly arranged in the
foUowing manner : — 1. Epistolarum ad Fami-
liares s. Epistolarum ad Diversos Libri XVI,
a series of 426 letters, commencing with a
letter to Pompey , written in 62, and terminating.
with a letter to Cassius, July 43. They are not
placed in chronological order, but those ad
dressed to the same individuals, with their
replies, where these exist, are grouped together
wthout reference to the date of the rest. — 2.
Epistolarum ad T. Pomponmm Atticum
Lwri XVI, a series of 396 letters addressed

230

CICERO

to Atticus, of which eleven were written in 68,
67, 65, and 62, the remainder after the end of
62, and the last in Nov. 44. They are for the
most part in chronological order, although dis
locations occur. — 3. Epistolarum ad Q. Fra-
trem Libri III, a series of twenty-nine letters
addressed to his brother, the first written in 59,
the last in 54. — 4. We find in most editions Epi
stolarum ad Brutum Liber, eighteen letters, all
written after the death of Caesar. To these are
added eight more, first published by Cratander.
The genuineness of these two books, though
disputed, has been fairly established. — The best
edition of Cicero's letters, arranged in chrono
logical order, is by Tyrrell and Purser, 1879-
1890. — Cicero also wrote a great number of
other works on historical and miscellaneous
subjects, all of which are lost. He composed
several poems, most of them in his earlier
years, but two at a later period, containing a
history of his consulship, and an account of
his exile and recall. A line in one of these
poems contained the unlucky jingle so well
known to us from Juvenal (x. 122), 0 fortuna-
tam natam me consule Bomam. — Editions of
the collected works of Cicero by Orelli, Turic.
1826-1837, 9 vols.; by Baiter and Kayser, 11
vols., Leips. 1869 ; by Nobbe, 1 vol. Leips. 1869.
— 6. ft., brother of the orator, was born about
102, and was educated along with his brother.
In 67 he was aedile, in 62 praetor, and for the
next three years governed Asia as propraetor.
He returned to Rome in 58, and warmly exerted
himself to procure the recall of his brother from
banishment. In 55 he went to Gaul as legatus
to Caesar, whose approbation he gained by his
mUitary abilities and gallantry : he distinguished
himself particularly by the resistance he offered
to a vast host of Gauls, who had attacked his
camp, when he was stationed for the winter with
one legion in the country of the Nervii. In 51
he accompanied his brother as legate to Cilicia ;
and on the breaking out of the civil war in 49
he joined Pompey. After the battle of Phar
salia, he was pardoned by Caesar. He was
proscribed by the triumvirs, and was put to
death in 43. Quintus wrote several works,
which are all lost, with the exception of an ad
dress to his brother, entitled De Petitione Con-
sulatus. Quintus was married to Pomponia,
sister of Atticus ; but, from incompatibility of
temper, their union was an unhappy one. — 7. M. ,
only son of the orator and his wife Terentia,
was born 65. He accompanied his father to
Cilicia, and served in Pompey's army in Greece,
although he was then only 16 years of age. In
45 he was sent to Athens to pursue his studies,
but there fell into irregular and extravagant
habits. On the death of Caesar (44) he joined
the republican party, served as military tribune
under Brutus in Macedonia, and after the battle
of Philippi (42) fled to Sex. Pompey in Sicily.
When peace was concluded between the trium
virs and Pompey in 39, Cicero returned to Rome,
was favourably received by Octavian, who at
length accepted him as his colleague in the con
sulship (b. c. 30, from 13th Sept.). By a singular
coincidence, the despatch announcing the cap
ture of the fleet of Antony, which was immedi
ately followed by his death, was addressed to
the new consul in his official capacity, and thus,
says Plutarch, ' the divine justice reserved the
completion of Antony's punishment for the house
of Cicero.' — 8. Q., son of No. 6, and of Pomponia,
Bister of Atticus, was born 66 or 67, and perished^
with his father in the proscription, 43.
Cichyrus. [Ephyra.]

CILICIA
Cicones (KiWes), a Thracian people on the-
coast, west of the Hebrus, near Mt. Ismarus (II.
ii. 846; Od. ix. 39; Hdt. vii. 59; Verg. Georg.
"¦ 52°)-
Cicynna (KiKvvva : KiKvvvevs), a demus of
Attica, belonging to the tribe Cecropis, and
afterwards to the tribe Acamantis.
Cilicia (KiXiKia: KlXi£, fern. KiXiaoa), a dis
trict in the SE. of Asia Minor, bordering to the
E. on Syria, to the N. on Cappadocia and Ly
caonia, to the NW. and W. on Pisidia and
Pamphylia. On all sides, except the W., it is
enclosed by natural boundaries: namely, the
Mediterranean on the S., M. Amanus on the E.,,
and M. Taurus on the N. The W. part of
Cilicia is intersected by the offshoots of the
Taurus, while in its E. part the mountain chains
enclose much larger tracts of level country:
and hence arose the division of the country into
C. Aspera (K. r) rpax^a, or rpaxeidris), and C.
Campestris (K. r) ireSids) ; the latter was also
called Cilicia Propria (7) ISias K.). It united for
religious festivals in the Koivbv KiXiKias, which
met at Tarsus under the presidency of a KiXik-
dpxris. Numerous rivers, among which are the
Pyramus, Sabus, Cydnus, Calycadnus, and
smaller mountain streams, descend from the
Taurus. The E. division, through which most
of the larger rivers flow, was extremely fertile,
and the narrower vaUeys of CiUcia Aspera con
tained some rich tracts of land ; the latter dis
trict was famed for its fine breed of horses.
The inhabitants of the country seem to have
been of a Semitic stock from Syria. [See below,
Cilix.] The country remained independent
till the time of the Persian Empire, under which
it formed a satrapy, but appears to have been
still governed by its native princes. Alexander
subdued it on his march into Upper Asia ; and,
after the division of his empire, it formed a part
of the kingdom of the Seleucidae : its plains
were settled by Greeks, and the old inhabitants
were for the most part driven back into the
mountains of C. Aspera, where they remained
virtually independent, practising robbery by
land and piracy by sea. In B.C. 102 the Romans
sent a fleet under the praetor M. Antonius, who
not only destroyed the fleet of the Cilician pi
rates, but occupied ports in Cilicia. The Roman
province of Cilicia, therefore, really dates from
that year, and we find actual mention of Gover
nors of Cilicia, SuUa as praetor b.c. 92 (Appian,.
Mithr. 57, Aurel. Vict. 75), Oppius in B.C. 89,
whom Livy calls proconsul (Ep. 78) ; Mithri
dates got possession of it for a time, but after
the year 84 the province of Cilicia had its
regular succession of proconsuls (cf. Cic. Verr.
i. 16, 44). Down to the war against Tigranes
the plains of Eastern Cilicia (C. Pedias or
Campestris) belonged to the Syrian empire
(Appian, Syr. 48). After the defeat of Ti
granes, Pompey in B.C. 64 constituted as the
complete province of Cilicia the following dis
tricts : Cilicia Campestris, Cilicia Aspera, Pam
phylia, Pisidia, Isauria, Lycaonia, and the
districts of Laodicea, Apamea and Synnada, and
to these Cyprus was added in 58. The chief
city of Cilicia Campestris was Tarsus, as caput
Ciliciae (Cic. Fam. i. 7, 4), later called Me
tropolis: the chief town of Lycaonia was
Iconium : the other centres, which each formed
a conventus, were Laodicea and Lycum for the
foru',1 Cibyraticum (a group of 25 towns about
Cibyra) ; Perge, for the forum Pamphylium ;
Philomelium for the forum Isauricum. ; Apa
mea, Synnada and Cyprus. This was broken up
under Antony after Caesar's death, but Augus-

CILICIAE
tus reconstituted the province of Cilicia on a
smaller scale, embracing only C. Campestris and
Cyprus, whUe Lycaonia and Isauria were joined
to Galatia, and C. Aspera was given to Arche
laus, king of Cappadocia. In 22 B.C. Cyprus was
separated, and Cilicia Campestris either then or
in the reign of Tiberius was placed under the
proconsul of Syria. Under Hadrian C. Cam
pestris and Trachea became an imnerial province
under alegatus.
Ciliciae Pylae or Portae (ai nixai rijs Ki-
XtKias : Gulek-Boghaz), the chief pass between
Cappadocia and Cilicia, through the Taurus, on
the road from Tyana to Tarsus. This was the
way by which Alexander entered Cilicia.
Cilicium Mare or Anion Cilieius, the straits
between CiUcia and Cyprus, as far as the Gulf
of Issus.
Cilix (KfAi|), son of Agenor and Telephassa,
was, with his brothers, Cadmus and Phoenix,
sent out by their father in search of Europa,
who had been carried off by Zeus. Cilix settled
in the country caUed after him Cilicia.
Cilia (KiXXa), a small town in the Troad, on
the river Cilleus, at the foot of M. Cillaeus, in
the range of Gargarus, with a temple of Apollo
CUlaeus ; its foundation was ascribed to Pelops
(II. i. 36; Hdt. i. 149; Strab. p. 612).
Cilnii, a powerful family in the Etruscan
town of Arretium, were driven out of their
native town in B.C. 301, but were restored by
the Romans. The Cilnii were nobles or Lucu-
mones in their state, and some of them in
ancient times may have held even the kingly
dignity. (Comp. Hor. Od. i. 1.) The name has
been rendered chiefly memorable by C. Cilnius
Maecenas. [Maecenas.]
Cimber, C. Annius, had obtained the praetor
ship from Caesar, and was one of Antony's sup
porters, B.C. 43, on which account he is attacked
by Cicero. He was charged with having killed
his brother, whence Cicero calls him ironically
Philadelphus. (Phil. xi. 6, 13, xiii. 12, 26.) ¦
Cimber, L. Tillius (not Tullius), a friend of
Caesar, who gave him the province of Bithynia,
but subsequently one of Caesar's murderers,
B.C. 44. On the fatal day, Cimber was foremost
in the ranks, under pretence of presenting a
petition to Caesar for his brother's recall from
exile. After the assassination, Cimber went to
his province and raised a fleet, with which he
aided Cassius and Brutus.
Cimbri, a Celtic people, probably of the same
race as the Cymry. [Celtae.] They appear to
have inhabited the peninsula which was called
after them Chersonesus Cimbrica (Jutland),
though the greatest uncertainty prevailed among
the ancients respecting their original abode.
The Cimbrians were probably a Celtic people
with some Teutonic admixture. In conjunction
with the Teutones, Ambrones, and Tigurini, they
migrated S., with their wives and children,
towards the close of the second century B.C. ;
and the whole host is said to have contained
300,000 fighting men. They defeated several
Roman armies, and caused the greatest alarm
at Rome. In B.C. 113 they defeated the consul
Papirius Carbo, near Noreia, and then crossed
over into Gaul, which they ravaged in all direc
tions. In 109 they defeated the consul Junius
Silanus, in 107 the consul Cassius Longinus,
who feU in the battle, and in 105 they gained
their most brilliant victory near the Rhone over
the united armies of the consul Cn. Mallius and
the proconsul Servilius Caepio. Instead of
crossing the Alps, the Cimbri, fortunately for
Rome marched into Spain, where they remained

CIMON

231

two or three years. The Romans meantime had
been making preparations to resist their formid
able foes, and had placed their troops under the
command of Marius. The barbarians returned
to Gaul in 102. In that year the Teutones were
defeated and cut to pieces by Marius, near
Aquae Sextiae (Aix) in Gaul; and next year
(101) the Cimbri and their allies were likewise
destroyed by Marius and Catulus, in the decisive
battle of the Campi Raudii, near Verona, in the
N. of Italy. In the time of Augustus, the Cim
bri, who were then a people of no importance,
sent an embassy to the emperor.
Ciminus or Ciminius Mons (Monte Cimiuo),
a range of mountains in Etruria, reaching a
height of 3000 feet, thickly covered with wood
(Saltus Ciminius), near a crater lake of the
same name, between Volsinii and Falerii (Liv.
ix.86). Cimmerii (Kippepioi), the name of a mythical
and of a historical people. The mythical Cim
merii, mentioned by Homer, dwelt in the fur
thest W. on the ocean, enveloped in constant
mists and darkness (Od. xi. 14). Later writers
sought to localise them, and accordingly placed
them either in Italy near the lake Avernus, or
in Spain, or in the Tauric Chersonesus. — The
historical Cimmerii dwelt on the Palus Maeotis
(Sea of Azov), in the Tauric Chersonesus, and
in Asiatic Sarmatia. Driven from their abodes
by the Scythians, they passed into Asia Minor
on the NE., and penetrated W. as far as Aeolis
and Ionia. They conquered and held for some
time the Milesian colony of Sinope ; in 696 B.C.
they invaded Phrygia : took Sardis in 635 ;
burnt the temple of Artemis at Ephesus ; and
destroyed Magnesia on the Maeander. They
were defeated by Assurbanipal of Assyria, and
by Gyges of Lydia, but held their ground,
until they were expelled from Asia by Alyattes.
(Hdt. i. 6, 15, 103, iv. 11 ; Strab. pp. 627, 633.)
Cimmerius Bosporus. [Bospoeus.]
Cimdlis (KipaXis : Cimoli or Argentiera), an
island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades,
between Siphnos and Melos, celebrated for its
fine white earth (7) KipaXia yr), Cimolia creta),
used by fullers for cleaning cloths. (Strab.
p. 484 ; Plin. xxxv. 198; cf. Ov. Met. viii. 463.)
Cimon (Kipav). 1. Son of Stesagoras, and father
of Miltiades, victor at Marathon, gained three
Olympic victories with his four-horse chariot
and after his third victory was secretly murdered
by order of the sons of Pisistratus (Hdt. vi.
103). — 2. Grandson of the preceding, and son of
the great Miltiades and Hegesipyle, daughter of
the Thracian prince Olorus, born B.C. 504. On
the death of his father (b.c. 489), he was im
prisoned because he was unable to pay his fine
of 50 talents, which was eventually paid by Cal
lias on his marriage with Elpinice, Cimon's half-
sister. [Elpinice.] Cimon first distinguished
himself on the invasion of Greece by Xerxes (480),
and after the battle of Plataea was brought for
ward by Aristides. He frequently commanded
the Athenian fleet in the aggressive war against
the Persians. His most brilliant success was
in 466, when he defeated a large Persian fleet,
and on the same day landed and routed their
land forces also on the river Eurymedon in
Pamphylia. The death of Aristides and the
banishment of Themistocles left Cimon without
a rival at Athens for some years. But his in
fluence gradually declined as that of Pericles
increased. In 461 Cimon marched at the head
of some Athenian troops to the assistance of
the Spartans, who were hard pressed by their
revolted subjects. The Athenians were deeply

232

CINADON

mortified by the insulting manner in which
their offers of assistance were declined, and
were enraged with Cimon who had exposed them
to this insult. His enemies in consequence suc
ceeded in obtaining his ostracism this year. He
was subsequently recalled, in what year is un
certain, and through his intervention a five years'
truce was made between Athens and Sparta,
450. In 449 the war was renewed with Persia,
Cimon received the command, and with 200
ships sailed to Cyprus ; here, while besieging
Citium, illness or the effects of a wound carried
him off. — Cimon was of a cheerful convivial
temper ; frank and affable in his manners.
Having obtained a great fortune by his share
of the Persian spoils, he displayed unbounded
liberality. His orchards and gardens were
thrown open ; his fellow demesmen were free
daily to his table, and his public bounty verged
on ostentation. [For his buildings at Athens
see Athenae.] (Plut. Cimon, Pericles ; Thuc. i.
98, 112.). — 3. Of Cleonae, a painter of great
renown, flourished about B.C. 460, and appears
to have been the first painter of perspective.
Cinadon (Ki^Sap), formed aconspiracy against
the Spartan peers (ilpoioi) in the first year of
Agesilaus II. (b.c 398-397). The plot was
discovered, and Cinadon and the other con
spirators were put to death. (Xen. Hell. iii.
3,4.) Cinaethon. [Cyclici Poetae.]
Cinara or Cinarus (Zinara), a small island
in the Aegaean sea, E. of Naxos, celebrated for
its artichokes (Kivdpa : Athen. p. 70).
Cincinnatus, L. Quintius, a favourite hero
of the old Roman republic, and a model of old
Roman frugality and integrity. He lived on
his farm, cultivating the land with his own
hand. In B.C. 460 he was appointed consul
suffectus in the room of P. Valerius. In 458
he was called from the plough to the dictator
ship, in order to deliver the Soman consul and
army from the perilous position in which they
had been placed by the Aequians. He saved
the Roman army, defeated the enemy, and,
after holding the dictatorship only 16 days,
returned to his farm. In 439, at the age of
80, he was a second time appointed dictator, to
oppose Sp. Maelius. (Liv. iii. 25 ; Dionys. x.
25 ; Flor. i. 11.) Several of the descendants of
Cincinnatus held the consulship and consular
tribunate, but none of them is of sufficient
importance to require a separate notice.
Cincius Alimentus. [Alimentus.]
Cineas (Kiveas), a Thessalian, the friend and
minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He was
, the most eloquent man of his day, and reminded
his hearers of Demosthenes, whom he heard
speak in his youth. Pyrrhus prized his persua
sive powers so highly, that 'the words of
Cineas,' he was wont to say, ' had won him more
cities than his own arms.' The most famous
passage in his life is his embassy to Rome, with
proposals for peace from Pyrrhus, after the
battle of Heraclea (b.c. 280). Cineas spared
no arts to gain favour. Thanks to his wonder
ful memory, on the day after his arrival he was
able (we are told) to address all the senators
and knights by name. The senate, however,
rejected his proposals mainly throughthe dying
eloquence of old App. Claudius Caecus. The
ambassador returned and told the king that
there was no people like that people — their city
was a temple, their senate an assembly of kings.
Two years after (278), when Pyrrhus was about
to cross over into Sicily, Cineas was again sent
to negotiate peace. He appears to have died

CINNAMUS
in Sicily shortly afterwards. (Plut. Pyrrh.
11-21 ; Just, xviii. 2 ; Eutrop. u. 12.)
Cinesias (Kivno-ias), a dithyrambic poet of
Athens, ridiculed by Aristophanes and other
comic poets. But he had his revenge ; for he
succeeded in procuring the abolition of the
Choragia, as far as regarded comedy, about
B.C. 390.
Cinga (Cinca), a river in Hispania Tarracon
ensis, falls with the Sicoris into the Iberus.
Cingetorix, a Gaul, one of the first men
among the Treviri, attached himself to the
Romans, though son-in-law to Indutiomarus, the
head of the independent party. When Indutio
marus had been put to death by Caesar, he
became chief of his native city. (Caes. B.G. v.
3, vi. 8.)
Cingilia (perh. Civitd Bitenga) a town of
the Vestini (Liv. viii. 29).
Cingulum (Cingulanus : Cingolo), a town in
Picenum on a rock, rebuUt and fortified by
Labienus, shortly before the breaking out of
the Civil war, B.C. 49 (Caes. B. G. i. 15 ; Cic.
ad Att. mi. 11; Sil. x. 34).
Cinna, Cornelius. 1. L., the famous leader
of the popular party during the absence of
Sulla in the East (b.c. 87-84). In 87 Sulla
allowed Cinna to be elected consul with Cn.
Octavius, on condition of his taking an oath
not to alter the constitution as then exist
ing. But as soon as Sulla had left Italy, he
began his endeavour to overpower the senate,
and to recall Marius and his party. He was,
however, defeated by his coUeague Octavius in
the forum, was obliged to fly the city, and was
deposed by the senate from the consulate ; but
the troops at Nola acknowledged him as consul,
and with the assistance of Marius, who came
back to Italy, he collected a powerful army
and laid siege to Rome. The capture of the
city, and the massacre of SuUa's friends which
followed, more properly belong to the life of
Marius. For the next three years (86, 85, 84)
Cinna was consul. In 84 Sulla prepared to
return from Greece ; and Cinna was slain by
his own troops, when he ordered them to cross
over from Italy to Greece, where he intended to
encounter Sulla. (Plut. Mar. ; Appian, B. C. i.
64-78 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 24).— 2. L., son of No. 1.,
joined M. Lepidus in his attempt to overthrow
the constitution of Sulla (78) ; and on the
defeat of Lepidus in Sardinia, he went with
M. Perperna to join Sertorius in Spain. Caesar
procured his recall from exile. He was made
praetor by Caesar in 44 ; but was notwithstand
ing one of the enemies of the dictator. Though
he would not join the conspirators, he approved
of their act ; and so great was the rage of the
mob against him, that they nearly murdered
him. See below, Cinna, Helvius. (Plut. Caes.
68 ;_ Suet. Jul. 5, 85.)
Cinna, C. Helvius, a poet of considerable re
nown, the friend of Catullus. In B.C. 44 he was
tribune of the plebs, when he was murdered by
the mob, who mistook him for his namesake
Cornelius Cinna, though he was at the time
walking in Caesar's funeral procession. His
principal work was an epic poem entitled
Smyrna, containing the story of Myrrha. (Verg.
Eel. ix. 35 ; Catull. 95, 1.)
Cinnamus, Joannes ('ladvvTis Kivvapos), one
of the most distinguished Byzantine historians,
lived under the emperor Manuel Comnenus
(who reigned a.d. 1148-1180), and wrote the
history of this emperor and of his father Calo-
Joannes, in 6 books, which have come down to
us. Edited by Du Cange, Paris, 1670, fob, and

C1NYPS
by Meineke, Bonn, 1860, 8vo. [Byzantini Scbip-
TOBES.] Cinyps or Cinyphus (Ktvv^, Klvv<pos : Kinifo),
a small river on the N. coast of Africa, between
the Syrtes, forming the E. boundary of the
proper territory of the African Tripolis. The
district about it was called by the same name,
and was famous for its fine-haired goats. (Plin.
v. 27 ;_Verg. Georg. iii. 812 ; Mart. vii. 94.)
Cinyras (Kivvpas), son of Apollo, king of
Cyprus, and priest of the Paphian Aphrodite,
which latter office remained hereditary in his
famUy, the Cinyradae. He founded temples of
Aphrodite both at Paphos and at Byblus in
Syria. In Cyprus he was regarded as the in
ventor of useful arts, of mining, of brick-making
and of the implements of the smithy (Plin. vii.
195). He was married to Metharne, the daughter
of the Cyprian king Pygmalion, by whom he
had several chUdren, and among them was
Adonis. According to some traditions, he un
wittingly begot Adonis by his own daughter
Smyrna, and kUled himself on discovering the
crime he had committed. According to other
traditions, he had promised to assist Agamem
non with a certain number of ships, and gave
him only smaU clay models of ships ; but as he
did not keep his word, he was cursed by Aga
memnon, and perished like Marsyas, in a con
test of music with ApoUo. (Pind. Pyth. ii. 26 ;
H. xi. 20; Ov. Met. x. 310; Hyg. Fab. 58,
242 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 3.) His tomb was honoured
with that of Aphrodite in Paphos (Clem. Alex.
Protr. 3, Horn. v. 23).
Cipus or Cippns, Genucins, a Roman praetor
on whose head it is said that horns suddenly
grew, as he was going out of the gates of the
city, and, as the haruspices declared that if he
returned to the city he would be king, he im
posed voluntary exile upon himself (Ov. Met.
xv. 565 ; Val. Max. v. 6 ; Plin. xi. 123).
Circe (Kipan), a mythical sorceress, daughter
of Helios (the Sun) by the Oeeanid Perse, and
'T/T7''/^ f

CITIUM

288

ETAIPOT
TESfclEIilME—

K1PKH OAIXZEYS

Circe and Odysseus, and his Companions. {From an
ancient bas-relief.)
sister of Aeetes, lived in the island of Aeaea,
upon which Odysseus was cast. His companions,

Circe oflerinj; the Cup. (GeU's Pompeiana, pi. J2.)
whom he sent to explore the land, tasted of the
magic cup which Circe offered them, and were

forthwith changed into swine, with the excep
tion of Eurylochus, who brought the sad news
to Odysseus. The latter, having received from
Hermes the root moly, whioh fortified him
against enchantment, drank the magic cup
without injury, and then compelled Circe to
restore his companions to their former shape.
After this he tarried a whole year wibh her, and
she became by him the mother of Agrius and
Telegonus, the reputed founder of Tusculum.
The Latin poets relate that she metamorphosed
Scylla, and Picus king of the Ausonians. (Od.
x.-xii; Hyg. Fab. 125; Hes. Th. 10, 11; Ov.
Met. xiv. 9.)
Circeii (Circeiensis : Circello, and the Ru.
Cittd Vecchia), an ancient town of Latium on
the promontory Circeium founded by Tarquinius
Superbus, never became a place of importance,
in consequence of its proximity to the unhealthy
Pomptine marshes (Liv. i. 56 ; Diod. xiv. 102 ;
Strab. p. 232). The oysters caught off Circeii
were celebrated (Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 33 ; Juv. iv. 140).
Some writers say that Circe resided on this
promontory, and that hence it derived its name.
Circesium (KipKriaiov : Kerkesiah), a city of
Mesopotamia, on the E. bank of the Euphrates,
at the mouth of the Chaboras ; the extreme
border fortress of the Roman Empire. (Ammian.
xxiii. 6.)
Circus. [Roma.]
Cirphis (Klpipis), a mountain in Phocis,
separated by the valley of the Pleistus from
Parnassus (Strab. p. 418).
Cirrha. [Cbissa.]'
Cirta, aft. Constantina (Constantine, Ru.), a
city of the Massylii in Numidia, 50 Roman
miles from the sea; the capital of Syphax, and
of Masinissa and his successors. Its position
on a height, surrounded by the river Ampsagas,
made it almost impregnable, as the Romans
found in the Jugurthine, and the French in the
Algerine, wars. It was restored by Constan
tine the Great, in honour of whom it received
its later name. (Strab. p. 828 ; Polyb. xxxvii. 3.)
Cisseus (Kio-o-eis), a king in Thrace, and
father of Theane and of Hecuba, who is hence
called Cisseis (Kio-oTj'fr) (H- xi. 223, vi. 297 ;
Eur. Hec. 3).
Cissia (Kio-o-'ia), a fertile district of Susiana,
on the Choaspes (Hdt. iii. 91 ; Strab. p. 723).
Cissus (Kirro-6s : Khortiazi), a town in Mace
donia on a mountain of the same name, S. of
Thessalonica, to which place its inhabitants
were transplanted by Cassander (Dionys. i. 49).
Cisthene (Kio-Bt)vti). 1. A town on the coast
of Mysia, on the promontory of Pyrrha, on the
Gulf of Adramyttium (Strab. p. 606).— 2. (Gas-
tel-Boffo), an island and town on the coast of
Lycia. — 3. In the mythical geography of
Aeschylus (Prom. 799) the ' plains of Cis
thene ' are made the abode of the Gorgons.
Cithaeron (KiBaipdv ; Cithaeron, and its
highest summit Elatia), a lofty range of
mountains, separated Boeotia from Megaris and
Attica. It was covered with wood, abounded
in game, and was the scene of several cele
brated legends in mythology. It was said to
have derived its name from Cithaeron, a my
thical king of Boeotia. Its highest summit was
sacred to the Cithaeronian Zeus, and here was
celebrated the festival called Daedala. (Paus.
ix. 2, 4 ; Diet, of Ant. s. v.)
Citharista, a seaport town (Ceireste), and a
promontory (C. d'Aigle) in Gallia Narbonensis,
near Massilia.
Citium (Kiriov. Kirieis). 1. (Nr. Larneca,
Ru.), one of the 9 chief towns of Cyprus, with a

234

CIUS

harbour and salt-works, 200 stadia from
Salamis, near the mouth of the Tetius: here
Cimon, the celebrated Athenian, died, and
Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school was born.
(Strab. p. 682; Thuc. i. 12; Plut. Cim. 18.)— 2.
A town in Macedonia, on a mountain Citius,
NW. of Beroea.
Cius (Kios : Klos or Ketoy, Cianus : Ghio, or
Kemlik), a city in Bithynia, on a bay of the
Propontis called Cianus Sinus, was colonised
by the Milesians, and became a place of com
mercial importance. It joined the Aetolian
league', and was destroyed by Philip III., of
Macedonia, but rebuilt by Prusias, king of
Bithynia, from whom it was called Prusias.
(Strab. p. 564 ; Hdt. v. 122 ; Polyb. xvi. 21.)^
Civilis, Claudius, sometimes called Julius,
the leader of the Batavi in their revolt from
Rome, a.d. 69-70. He was of the Batavian
royal race, and, like Hannibal and Sertorius,
had lost an eye. His brother Julius Paulus
was put to death on a false charge of treason
by Fonteius Capito (a.d. 67 or 68), who sent
Civilis in chains to Nero at Rome, where he
was heard and acquitted by Galba. He was
afterwards prefect of a cohort, but under Vitel
lius he became an object of suspicion to the
army, and with difficulty escaped with his life.
He vowed vengeance. His countrymen, who
were shamefully treated by the officers of Vitel
lius, were easily1 induced to revolt, and they
were joined by the Canninefates and Frisii.
He took up arms under pretence of supporting
the cause of Vespasian, and defeated in succes
sion the generals of Vitellius in Gaul and
Germany, but he continued in open revolt even
after the death of Vitellius. In 70 Civilis
gained fresh victories over the Romans, and
took Castra Vetera (Tac. Hist. iv. 11, 33, 55,
62). At length he was defeated in the course of
the year by Petilius Cerealis, who had been
sent into Germany with an immense army (ib.
v. 14). Tacitus describes the meeting between
Civilis and the Roman general on a bridge over
the Nabalia, broken in the middle ; but at that
point the fragment of the fifth book comes to an
end ; and we know no more of Civilis. It
seems that, though the actual independence of
the Batavi was not achieved, yet the terms
granted were favourable, and they gained a
remission of tribute (cf. Tac. Germ. 29).
Cizara (Kifrpu), a fortress in the district of
Phazemonitis in Pontus ; a royal residence, but
destroyed before Strabo's (p. 560) time.
Cladaus (KXdSaos or KXdSeos), a river in
Elis, flows into the Alpheus at Olympia.
Clampetia, called by the Greeks Lampetia
(Aapireria, Aapirereia), a town of Bruttium, on
the W. coast : in ruins in Pliny's time (iii. 72).
Clanis (Chiana), a river of Etruria, rises S. of
Arretium, forms two smaU lakes near Clusium,
and flows into the Tiber E. of Vulsinii.
Clanius. [Lijtebnus.]
Clarus (ti Kxdpos), a small town on the
Ionian coast, near Colophon, with a celebrated
temple and oracle of Apollo, surnamed Clarius
(Paus. vii. 3 ; Strab. p. 642). Germanicus con
sulted this oracle (Tac. Afin. ii. 54).
Clarus, Sex. Eruoius, a friend of the
younger Pliny, fought under Trajan in the E.,
and took Seleucia, a.d. 115. — His son Sextus
was a patron of literature, and was consul
a.d. 146 (Plin. Ep. ii. 9 ; Gell. vi. 6).
Classicus, Julius, a Trevir, was prefect of
an ala of the Treviri in the Roman army under
Vitellius, a.d. 69, but afterwards joined Civilis
in his rebellion against the Romans. [Cevilis.]

CLAUDIANUS
Clastidium (Casteggio), a fortified- town of
the Ananes in Gallia Cispadana, not far from
the Po, on the road from Dertona to Placentia.
It was the scene of the victory of MarceUus over
the Insubrians in B.C. 222 (Polyb. ii. 34 ; Cic.
Tusc. iv. 22 ; Strab. p. 217). It was betrayed to
Hannibal by its commander (Liv. xxi. 48:
Polyb. iii. 69).
Claterna, a fortified town in Gallia Cispa
dana, near Bononia ; its name is retained in the
small river Quaderna (Strab. p. 216).
Claudia. 1. ftuinta, a Roman matron, not
a Vestal Virgin, as is frequently stated. When
the vessel conveying the image of Cybele from
Pessinus to Rome, had stuck fast in a shaUow
at the mouth of the Tiber, the soothsayers
announced that only a chaste woman could
move it. Claudia, who had been accused of in-
continency, took hold of the rope, and the
vessel forthwith followed her, B.C. 204. (Liv.
xxix. 14; Ov. Fast. iv. 305; Suet. Tib. 2.)— 2.
Or Clodia, eldest of the three sisters of P. Clo
dius Pulcher, the enemy of Cicero, married Q.
Marcius Rex (Plut. Cic. 29).— 3. Or Clodia
(probably the ' Lesbia ' of Catullus), second
sister of P. Clodius, married Q. MeteUus Ceier,
but became infamous for her debaucheries, and
was suspected of having poisoned her husband.
Cicero in his letters calls her Boairis. (Cic. pro
Cael. 14-20; ad Att. ii. 9.)— 4. Or Clodia,
youngest sister of P. Clodius, married L. Lucul
lus, to whom she proved unfaithful (Plut.
Lucull. 21, 38).
Claudia Gens, patrician and plebeian. The
patrician Claudii were of Sabine origin and came
to Rome in B.C. 504, when they were received
among the patricians. [Claudius, No. 1.]
They were noted for their pride and haughti
ness, their disdain for the laws, and their
hatred of the plebeians. They bore various
surnames, which are given under Claudius,
with the exception of those with the cognomen
Neko, who are better known under the latter
name. — The plebeian Claudii were divided into
several families, of which the most celebrated
was that of Makcellus.
Claudianus, Claudius, the last of the Latin
classic poetB, flourished under Theodosius and
his sons Arcadius and Honorius. He was a
native of Alexandria and removed to Rome,
where we find him in a.d. 395. He enjoyed the
patronage of the all-powerful Stilicho, by whom
he was raised to offices of honour and emolu.
ment. A statue was erected to his honour in
the Forum of Trajan by Arcadius and Honorius,
the inscription on which was discovered at
Rome'in the 15th century (Mommsen, I. B. N.
6794 ; C.I.G. iii. 6246). He also enjoyed the
patronage of the empress Serena, through
whose interposition he gained a wealthy wife.
The last historical allusion in his writings
belongs to 404 ; whence it is supposed that he
may have been involved in the misfortunes of
Stilicho, who was put to death 408. His extant
works are : — 1. The 3 panegyrics on the 3rd, 4th,
and 6th consulships of Honorius. 2. A poem
on the nuptials of Honorius and Maria. 3.
Four short Fescennine lays on the same subject.
4. A panegyric on the consulship of Probinus
and Olybrius. 5. The praises of StiUcho, in 2
books, and a panegyric on his consulship, in
1 book. 6. The praises of Serena, the wife of
Stilicho. 7. A panegyric on the consulship of
Flavius Mallius Theodoras. 8. The Epithal-
amium of Palladius and Celerina. 9. An invec
tive against Rufinus, in 2 books. 10. An invec
tive against Eutropius, in 2 books. 11. De

CLAUDIOPOLIS
Bello Gildonico, the first book of an historical
poem on the war in Africa against Gildo. 12.
De Bello Getico, an historical poem on the suc-
cesful campaign of Stilicho against Alaric and
the Goths, concluding with the battle of
PoUentia. IS. Baptus Proserpinae, 3 books of
an unfinished epic on the rape of Proserpine.
14. Gigantomachia, a fragment extending to
128 lines only. 15. 5 short epistles. 16.
Eidyllia, a collection of 7 poems chiefly on
subjects connected with natural history. 17.
Epigrammata, a collection of short occasional
pieces. — Claudian was a Pagan, and the Chris
tian hymns found among his poems in most
editions are certainly spurious. — The poems of
Claudian are distinguished by purity of lan
guage, and real poetical genius : Ins descriptions
are often too grandiose, but many, such as the
Rape of Proserpine, reach a high order of poetry.
Editions by Burmann, Amst. 1760 ; Jeep, Lips.
1872. Claudiopolis (KXavSioiroXis), the name of
some cities called after the emperor Claudius,
the chief of which were : 1. Li Bithynia
[BrrHYNruM]. 2. A town in Cappadocia, a little
S. of MytUene. 3. A town in Cilicia, near the
Calycadnus. Claudius, patrician. See Claudia Gens. — 1.
App. Claudius Sabinus Regillensis, a Sabine
of the town of RegiUum or Regilli, who in his
own country bore the name of Attus Clausus,
being the advocate of peace with the Romans,
when hostiUties broke out between the two
nations, withdrew with a large train of foUowers
to Rome, B.C. 504. He was received into the
ranks of the patricians, and lands beyond the
Anio were assigned to his followers, who were
formed into a new tribe caUed the Claudian.
He exhibited the characteristics which marked
his descendants, and showed the most bitter
hatred towards the plebeians. He was consul
495, and his conduct towards the plebeians led
to their secession to Mons Sacer 494. (Liv.
ii. 16-29 ; Dionys. v. 40 ; Suet. Tib. 1.)— 2. App.
Cl. Sab. Regill., son of No. 1, consul 471, treated
the soldiers whom he commanded with such
severity that his troops deserted him. Next
year he was impeached, but died or killed
himself before the trial. (Liv. ii. 59, 61;
Dionys. ix. 54.)— 3. C. Cl. Sab. Regill., brother
of No. 2, consul 460, when App. Herdonius
seized the Capitol. Though a staunch sup
porter of the patricians, he warned the decemvir
Appius against an immoderate use of his power.
His remonstrances being of no avafl, he with
drew to RegUlum, but returned to defend Appius
when impeached (Liv. iv. 6). — i. App. Cl. Cras
sus Regill. Sab., the decemvir, son of No. 2,
was consul 451, and on the appointment of the
decemvirs in that year, he became one of them,
and was reappointed the foUowing year. His
real character now betrayed itself in the most
tyrannous conduct towards the plebeians, till
his attempt against Virginia led to the over
throw of the decemvirate. App. was impeached
by Virgmius, but did not live to abide his
trial. He either killed himself, or was put to
death in prison by order of the tribunes. (Liv.
iii. 32-58 ; Dionys. xi. 3.) — 5. App. Claudius
Caecus, became blind before his old age. In
his censorship (312), to which he was elected
without having been consul previously, he built
the Appian aqueduct, and commenced the
Appian road, which was continued to Capua
(Liv. ix. 29; Diod. xx. 36). He retained the
censorship four years in opposition to the law
which limited the length of the office to eighteen

CLAUDIUS

235

months. He was twice consul, in 307 and 296 *
and in the latter year he fought agamst the
Samnites and Etruscans. In his old age,
Appius by his eloquent speech induced the
senate to reject the terms of peace which Cineas
had proposed on behalf of Pyrrhus (Liv. x.
18; Plut. Pyrrh. 19 ; Cic. Brut. 14, 55; de Sen.
6.) Appius was the earliest Roman writer in
prose and verse whose name has come down to
us. He was the author of a poem known to
Cicero through the Greek, and he also wrote a
legal treatise, De Usurp ationibus (Cic. Tusc. iv.
2, 4). He left four sons and five daughters. — 6.
App. Cl. Caudex, brother of No. 5, derived his
surname ( = ' ship's timber ') from his attention
to naval affairs (Sen. de Brev. Vit. 13). He was
consul 264, and conducted the war against the
Carthaginians in Sicily (Polyb. i. 11). — 7. P. Cl.
Pulcher, son of No. 5, consul 249, attacked the
Carthaginian fleet in the harbour of Drepana,
in defiance of the auguries, and was defeated,
with the loss of almost all his forces. He was
recalled and commanded to appoint a dictator,
and thereupon named M. Claudius Glycias or
Glicia, the son of a freedman, but the nomina
tion was immediately superseded. He was im
peached and condemned. (Liv. Ep. 19 ; Cic.
Div. i. 16, 29, N.D. ii. 3 ; Gell. x. 2 ; Polyb. i.
52.)— 8. C. Cl. Centho or Cento, son of No. 5,
consul 240, and dictator 213. — 9. Tib. Cl. Nero,
son of No. 5. An account of his descendants is
given under Nebo. — 10. App. Cl. Pulcher, son
of No. 7, aedile 217, fought at Cannae 216, and
was praetor 215, when he was sent into Sicily.
He was consul 212, and died 211 of a wound
which he received in a battle with Hannibal
before Capua. (Liv. xxv. 41.) — 11. App. Cl. Pul
cher, son of No. 10, served in Greece for some
years under Flamininus, Baebius, and Glabrio
(197-191). He was praetor 187 and consul
185, when he gained some advantages over the
Ingaunian Ligurians. He was sent as ambas
sador to Greece 184 and 176. (Liv. xxxix. 33.) — >
12. P. Cl. Pulcher, brother of No. 11, curule
aedile 189, praetor 188, and consul 184. — IS. C.
Cl. Pulcher, brother of Nos. 11 and 12, praetor
180 and consul 177, when he defeated the
Istrians and Ligurians. He was censor 160
with Ti. Sempronius Gracchus. He died 167.
(Liv. xiv. 44.)— 14. App. Cl. Cento, aedile 178
and praetor 175, when he fought with success
against the Celtiberi in Spain. He afterwards
served in Thessaly (173), Macedonia (172), and
Illyricum (170).— 15. App. Cl. Pulcher, son of
No. 11, consul 143, defeated the Salassi, an
Alpine tribe. On his return a triumph was
refused him ; and when, on his persistence, one
of the tribunes attempted to drag him from his
car, his daughter Claudia, one of the Vestal
Virgins, walked by his side up to the Capitol.
He was censor 136. He gave one of his
daughters in marriage to Tib. Gracchus, and in
133 with Tib. and C. Gracchus was appointed
triumvir for the division of the lands. He
died shortly after Tib. Gracchus. (Cic. Gael. 14,
34 ; Val. Max. v. 4, 6 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 2.)— 16. C.
Claudius Pulcher, curule aedile 99, praetor in
Sicily 95, consul in 92 (Cic. pro Dom. 31, 83).
— 17. App. Cl. Pulcher, consul 79, and after
wards governor of Macedonia. — 18. App. Cl.
Pulcher, praetor 89, belonged to Sulla's party,
and perished in the great battle before Rome 82
(Plat. Sull. 29).— 19. App. Cl. Pulcher, eldest
son of No 18. In 70 he served in Asia under
his brother-in-law, Lucullus; in 57 he was
praetor, and though he did not openly oppose
Cicero's recall from banishment, he tacitly

CLAUDIUS

abetted the proceedings of his brother Publius.
In 56 he was propraetor in Sardinia; and in
54 was consul with L. Domitius Ahenobarbus,
when a reconciliation was brought about be
tween him and Cicero, through the intervention
of Pompey. In 53 he went as proconsul to
CiUcia, which he governed with tyranny and
rapacity. (Cic. ad Att. vi. 1, ad Fam. xv. 4.)
In 51 he was succeeded in the government by
Cicero, whose appointment Appius received
with displeasure. On his return to Rome he
was impeached by Dolabella, but was acquitted.
(Cic. ad Fam. iii. 11.) In 50 he was censor
with L. Piso, and expelled several of Caesar's
friends from the senate. On the breaking
out of the civil war, 49, he fled with Pompey
from Italy, and died in Greece before the
battle of Pharsalia. He was an augur, and
wrote a work on the augural discipline, which
he dedicated to Cicero. He was also dis
tinguished for his legal and antiquarian know
ledge. (Cic. ad Fam. iii. 4, 9, 11.)— 20. C. Cl.
Pulcher, second son of No. 18, was a legatus
of Caesar, 58, praetor 56, and propraetor in
Asia 55. On his return he was accused of ex
tortion by M. Servilius, who was bribed to
drop the prosecution. He died shortly after
wards. (Cic. ad Fam. viii. 8.)— 21. P. Cl. Pul
cher, usually called Clodius and not Claudius,
the youngest son of No. 18, the notorious enemy
of Cicero, and one of the most profligate cha
racters of a profligate age. In 70 he served
under his brother-in-law, L. Lucullus in Asia ;
but, displeased at not being treated by Lucullus
with the distinction he had expected, he en
couraged the soldiers to mutiny. He then betook
himself to his other brother-in-law, Q. Marcius
Rex, proconsul in Cilicia, and was entrusted
by him with the command of the fleet. He
fell into the hands of the pirates, who, however,
¦dismissed him without ransom, through fear of
Pompey. He next went to Antioch, and joined
the Syrians in making war on the Arabians.
On his return to Rome in 65 he impeached
Catiline for extortion in his government of
Africa, but was bribed by Catiline to let him
escape. In 64 he accompanied the propraetor
L. Murena to GaUia Transalpina, where he re
sorted to the most nefarious methods of pro
curing money. In 62 he profaned the mysteries
of the Bona Dea, which were celebrated by the
Roman matrons in the house of Caesar, who
was then praetor, by entering the house dis
guised as a female musician, in order to meet
Pompeia, Caesar's wife, with whom he had an
intrigue. He was discovered, and next year, 61,
when quaestor, was brought to trial, but obtained
an acquittal by bribing the judges. He had
attempted to prove an alibi, but Cicero's evi
dence showed that Clodius was with him in
Rome only three hours before he pretended to
have been at Interamna. Cicero attacked Clo
dius in the senate with great vehemence. In
order to revenge himself upon Cicero, Clodius
was adopted into a plebeian family that he
might obtain the formidable power of a tribune
of the plebs. He was tribune 58, and, supported
by the triumvirs Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus,
drove Cicero into exile; but notwithstanding
all his efforts he was unable to prevent the re
call of Cicero in the following year. [Ciceko.]
In 56 Clodius was aedile and attempted to
bring his enemy Milo to trial. Each had a
large gang of gladiators in his pay, and frequent
fights took place in the streets of Rome between
the two parties. In 53, when Clodius was a
candidate for the praetorship, and Milo for the

consulship, the .contests between them became
more violent and desperate than ever. At
length, on the 20th of January, 52, Clodius ancj
Milo met, apparently by accident, on the Appian
road near Bovillae. An affray ensued between
their followers, in which Clodius was murdered.
The mob was infuriated at the death of their
favourite; and such tumults foUowed at the
burial of Clodius, that Pompey was appointed
sole consul in order to restore order to the ;
state. For the proceedings which followed ,
see Milo. The second wife of Clodius was
the notorious Fulvia. — 22. App. Cl. Pulcher,
the elder son of No. 20, was one of the accusers
of Milo on the death of P. Clodius, 52.-23. App.
Cl. Pulcher, brother of No. 21, joined his
brother in prosecuting Milo. As the two
brothers both bore the praenomen Appius, it is
probable that one of them was adopted by their
uncle Appius. [No. 19.]— 24. Sex. Clodius,
probably a descendant of a freedman of the
Claudia gens, was a man of low condition, and
the chief instrument of P. Clodius in all his
acts of violence. (Cic. pro Gael. 32.) On the
death of the latter in 52, he urged on the people
to revenge the death of his leader. For his
acts of violence on this occasion, he was brought
to trial, was condemned, and after remaining
in exile eight years, was restored in 44 by M.
Antonius. (Cic. ad Att. xiv. 13.)
Claudius I., Roman emperor a.d. 41-54. His
full name was Tib. Claudius Deusus Nero
Gebmanicus. He was the younger son of
Drusus, the brother of the emperor Tiberius,
and of Antonia, and was born on August 1st,
b.c. 10, at Lyons in Gaul. In youth he was
weak and sickly, and was neglected and de
spised by his relatives. When he grew up he
devoted the greater part of his time to literary
pursuits, but was not allowed to take any part
in pubUc affairs. (Suet. Claud. 2; Dio Cass.
Ix. 2.) He had reached the age of 50, when he
was suddenly raised by the soldiers to the
imperial throne after the murder of CaUgula.
He proclaimed an amnesty excepting the actual
murderers of Caligula. Claudius was not cruel,
but the weakness of his character made him
the slave of his wives and freedmen, and thus
led him to consent to acts of tyranny which he
would never have committed of his own accord.
He was married four times. At the time of his
accession he was married to his third wife, the
notorious Valeria MessaUina, who governed him
for some years, together with the freedmen

Claudius I., Roman Emperor, A.D. 41-64.
Bust of Emperor, laureate. TI. CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG.
P. M. TR. P. IMP. P. P. (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augus.
tus, Pontifex Maximus, Tribunitia PoteBtate, Imperator,
Pater Patriae).
Narcissus, Pallas, and others. After the execu
tion of MessaUina, 48, a fate which she richly
merited, Claudius was still more unfortunate in
choosing for his wife his niece Agrippina. She

CLAUDIUS
prevailed upon him to set aside his own son,
Britannicus, and to adopt her son, Nero, that
she might secure the succession for the latter.
Claudius soon after regretted this step, and
was in consequence poisoned by Agrippina, 54.
— Several public works of great utility were
executed by Claudius. He built, for example,
the famous Claudian aqueduct (Aqua Claudia),
the port of Ostia, and the emissary by which
the water of lake Fucinus was carried into the
river Liris. In his reign the southern part
of Britain was made a Roman province, and
Claudius himself, though naturally timid, wished
to make some show of military vigour, and
went to Britain in 43, where he remained, how
ever, only a short time, leaving the conduct of
the war to his generals. — Claudius wrote several
historical works, but without force or value, and
among them were a history of Rome from the
death of Julius Caesar, in 43 volumes, and an
Etruscan history written in Greek (Suet. Claud.
41). He also devised additions to the alphabet :

CLEARCHUS

237

Claudius I., Roman Emperor, A.D, 41-54.
Obv., head of Claudius, laureate. On the reverse is the
head of his wife Agrippina. This coin was struck in
Bosporus during the reign of Cotys I.
an inverted digamma for the consonant V ; the
left half of H for the sound of the Greek v, and
an inverted sigma for ps. These (except the
last) appear in some inscriptions of that reign,
but soon feU into disuse.
Claudius II. (M. Aurelius Claudius, sur
named Gotbtcus), Roman emperor a.d. 268-
270, was descended from an obscure family in
Dardania or Dlyria, and by his military talents
rose to distinction under Decius, Valerian, and
Gallienus. He succeeded to the empire on the
death of GaUienus (268), and soon after his
accession defeated the Alemanni inthe N. of
Italy. Next year he gained a great victory over
an immense host of Goths near Naissus in
Dardania, and received in consequence the sur
name Gothicus. He died at Sirmium in 270,
and was succeeded by AureUan. (Trebell. Poll.
Claud. ; Zosim. i. 40-43.)
Clazomenae (at KXa(opevai : KXafypevios :
Kelisman), an important city of Asia Minor,
and a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis, lay
on the N. coast of the Ionian peninsula, upon
the gulf of Smyrna. The city was said to have

Coin of Clazomenae in Asia Minor.
Obv., Head of Apollo; rev., swan (sacred to Apollo and
abundant on the Hermus) : legend KXafo, and Hpa«Aew5
(a magistrate's name ?) : date 4th cent, B.C.
been founded by the Colophonians under Para-
lus, on the site of the later town of Chytrium,
but to have been removed further E., as a

defence against the Persians, to a small island,
which Alexander afterwards united to the main
land by a causeway. It was one of the weaker
members of the Ionian league, and was chiefly
peopled, not by Ionians, but by Cleonaeans and
Phliasians. Under the Romans it was a free
city. It had a considerable commerce, and was
celebrated for its temples of Apollo, Artemis,
and Cybele, and still more as the birthplace of
Anaxagoras. (Hdt. i. 142, ii. 178 ; Paus. vii. 3,
8 ; Strab. p. 644 ; Liv. xxxviii. 39.)
Cleander (KXeavSpos). 1. Tyrant of Gela,
reigned seven years, and was murdered B.C. 498.
He was succeeded by his brother Hippocrates,
one of whose sons was also called Cleander.
The latter was deposed by Gelon when he
seized the government, 491. (Hdt. vii. 154.) —
2. A Lacedaemonian, harmost at Byzantium
400, when the Cyrean Greeks returned from
Asia (Xen. An. vi. vii). — 3. One of Alexander's
officers, was put to death by Alexander in
Carmania, 325, in consequence of his oppressive
government in Media. (Arr. An. vi. 27.) —
4. A Phrygian slave, and subsequently the
profligate favourite and minister of Commodus.
In a tumult, occasioned by a scarcity of corn,
he was IriUed by the mob. (Dio Cass. lxii. 12.)
Cleanthes (KXedvBris). 1. A Stoic, born at
Assos in Troas about B.C. 300. He entered life
as a boxer, and had only four drachmas of his
own when he began to study philosophy. He
first placed himself under Crates, and then
under Zeno, whose disciple he continued for
nineteen years, with marvellous strength of
purpose and endurance. Stories are told of his
taking notes on bones and potsherds of Zeno's
lectures, when he was too poor to buy tablets
or paper. In order to support himself, he
worked all night at drawing water for gardens ;
but as he spent the whole day in philosophical
pursuits, and had no visible means of support,
he was summoned before the Areiopagus to
account for his way of living. The judges were
so delighted by the evidence of industry which
he produced, that they voted him ten minae,
though Zeno would not permit him to accept
them. He was naturally slow, but his iron
industry overcame all difficulties ; and on the
death of Zeno in 263, Cleanthes succeeded him
in his school. He died about 220, at the age of
80, of voluntary starvation. He placed especial
value on strength of will (rivos, evrovia, lo-xvs),
making it the source of all virtues, which Zeno
sought rather in <pp6v7icris, and Chrysippus in
o-o<pia. A hymn of his to Zeus is still extant,
and contains some striking sentiments. Edited
by Sturz, 1785, and Mersdorf, Lips. 1835. —
2. A painter of Corinth, in the 6th cent. B.C.
Though Pliny mentions him among the in
ventors of linear drawing, he seems to come
after Ecphantus. Strabo mentions two paint
ings of his in the temple of Artemis. (Plin.
xxxv. 15; Strab. p. 343; Athen. p. 346; Diet.
Ant. s.v. Pictura.)
Clearchus (KXeapxos). 1. A Spartan, distin
guished himself in several important commands
during the latter part of the Peloponnesian war,
and at the close of it persuaded the Spartans
to send him as harmost to Byzantium, to pro
tect the Greeks in that quarter against the
Thracians. But having been recalled by the
Ephors, and refusing to obey their orders, he
was condemned to death. He thereupon
crossed over to Cyrus, collected for him a
large force of Greek mercenaries, and marched
with him into Upper Asia, 401, in order to de
throne Artaxerxes, being the only Greek who

238

CLEINIAS

was aware of the prince's real object. After
the battle of Cunaxa and the death of Cyrus,
Clearchus and the other Greek generals were
made prisoners by the treachery of Tissa
phernes, and were put to death (Xen. Anab. i.
ii ; Diod. xiv. 12, 22). — 2. A citizen of Heraclea
on the Euxine, obtained the tyranny of his
native town, B.C. 365, by putting himself at the
head of the popular party. He governed with
cruelty, and was assassinated 353, after a reign
of twelve years. He is said to have been a pupil
both of Plato and Isocrates (Diod. xv. 81 ;
Athen. p. 85). — 3. Of Soli, one of Aristotle's pu
pils, author of a number of works, none of
which are extant, on various subjects (Athen.
pp. 4, 255, 399, 648, 697). — 4. An Athenian poet
of the New Comedy, whose time is unknown
(Athen. p. 426).
Cleinias. [Clinias.]
Clemens. 1. T, Flavius, consul a.d. 95, son
of the brother of Vespasian, married Domitilla,
the daughter of Vespasian, and was put to death
by Domitian on a charge of ' atheism ' — that is,
Christianity (Suet. Dom. 15 ; Dio Cass, lxvii.
14). [Domitilla.] — 2. Romanus, bishop of
Rome at the end of the first century (Diet, of
Christian Biog.). — 3. Alexandrinus, a dis
tinguished Christian writer, died about a.d. 220
{Diet, of Christian Biog.).
Cleobis. [Biton.]
Cleobuline (KXeoBvXivri), or Cledbfile (KXeo-
BovXri), daughter of Cleobulus of Lindus, cele
brated for her composition of riddles; to her
is ascribed a well-known one on the subject of
the year : — ' A father has twelve children, and
each of these thirty daughters, on one side
white, and on the other side black, and though
immortal they aU die.' (Diog. Laert. i. 89.)
Cleobulus (KXe6BovXos), one of the Seven
Sages, of Lindus in Bhodes, son of Evagoras,
lived about B.C. 580. He wrote lyric poems, as
well as riddles ; he was said by some to have
been the author of the riddle on the year, gene
rally attributed to his daughter Cleobuline.
He was greatly distinguished for strength and
beauty of person. (Diog. Laert. i. 89-93.)
Cleochares (KXeoxdpns), a Greek orator of
Myrlea in Bithynia, contemporary with the
orator Demochares and the philosopher Arces-
ilas, towards the close of the 3rd century B.C.
(Strab. p. 566),
Cleombrotus (KXe6pBporos). 1. Son of Anax-
andrides, king of Sparta, became regent after
the battle of Thermopylae, B.C. 480, for Plist-
archus, infant son of Leonidas, but died in the
¦same year, and was succeeded in the regency
by his son Pausanias (Hdt. v. 41, viii. 71, ix.
10). — 2 I. King of Sparta, son of Pausanias,
succeeded his brother Agesipolis I., and reigned
B.C. 380-371. He commanded the Spartan troops
several times against the Thebans, and feU
fighting bravely at the battle of Leuctra (371)
(Xen. Hell. v. 4, 15, vi. 1 ; Paus. ix. 13, 2).—
3. II. King of Sparta, son-in-law of Leonidas II.,
in whose glace he was made king by the party
of Agis IV. about 243. On the return of Leoni
das, Cleombrotus was deposed and banished to
Tegea, about 240 (Plut. Agis, 11-17). — 4, An
Academic philosopher of Ambracia, said to have
killed himself, after reading the Phaedo of
Plato ; not that he had any sufferings to escape
from, but that he might exchange this life for a
better. (Cic. Tusc. i. 34, 84; Lucian, Philop. 1.)
Cleomedes (KXeopifiiis). 1. Of the island As
typalaea, an athlete of gigantic strength, who is
said, in his anger with the judges at the Olym
pic games, to have shaken down the pillars

CLEOMENES
which supported a roof (Paus. vi. 9). — 2. A Greek
mathematician, probably lived in the 2nd and
3rd centuries of the Christian era ; the author of
a Greek treatise in two books on The Circular
Theory of the Heavenly Bodies (KvkXiktjs
Qeapias Meredpav BiBXia Svo), which is stiU
extant. It is rather an exposition of the system
of the universe than of the geometrical prin
ciples of astronomy. Edited by Balfour, Bur-
digal. 1605 ; by Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1820 ; and by
Schmidt, Lips. 1832.
Cleomenes (KXeopevris). 1. King of Sparta,
son of Anaxandrides, reigned B.C. 520-491. He
was a man of an enterprising but wUd character.
His greatest exploit was his defeat of the
Argives, in which 6000 Argive citizens fell ;
but the date of this event is doubtful. In 510
he commanded the forces by whose assistance
Hippias was driven from Athens, and not long
after he assisted Isagoras and the aristocratical
party, against Clisthenes. He expeUed 700
families opposed to Isagoras, and tried to abolish
the senate ; the populace rose, and Cleomenes
and Isagoras were forced to take refuge in the
acropolis, whence they were aUowed to depart
with their Spartan troops under a truce, but
their Athenian adherents were put to death
(Hdt. v. 64-91; Aristot. 'Ad. iroX. 19, 20). Ari
stagoras tried to bribe him to assist the
Ionians, but faded, owing it was said to the
rebuke of Gorgo, the little daughter of Cleo
menes (Hdt. vii. 239). By bribing the priestess
at Delphi, he effected the deposition of his col
league Demaratus, 491. Soon afterwards he
was seized with madness and killed himself
(Hdt. vi. 75). — 2. King of Sparta, son of Cleom
brotus I., reigned 370-309 ; but during this long
period we have no information about him of any
importance (Diod. xx. 29). — 3. King of Sparta,
son of Leonidas II., reigned 236-222. WhUe
still young, he married Agiatis, the widow of
Agis IV. ; and following the example of the
latter, he endeavoured to restore the ancient
Spartan constitution, and to regenerate the
Spartan character. He was endowed with a
noble mind, strengthened and purified by philo
sophy, and possessed great energy of purpose.
He desired to unite Sparta to the Achaean
League, but stipulated for the chief direction of
the Peloponnesian states. It is probable that
if Aratus had consented to this the Confedera
tion would have been strong enough to resist
Macedonia, but unfortunately he refused to
admit the pretensions of Sparta ; and a war be
tween Sparta and the League followed, in which
Cleomenes was successful. Having thus gained
mUitary renown, he felt himself sufficiently
strong in the winter of 226-225 to put the
Ephors to death and restore the ancient consti
tution. The Achaeans now called in the aid of
Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, and for
the next three years Cleomenes carried on war
against their united forces. He was at length
completely defeated at the battle of Sellasia
(222), and fled to Egypt, where he was kindly
received by Ptolemy Euergetes, but on the
death of that king he was imprisoned by his
successor Philopator. He escaped from prison,
and attempted to raise an insurrection, but
finding no one join him, he killed himself, 210.
(Polyb. ii. v. ; Plut. Cleom., Arat.)
Cleomenes. 1. A Greek of Naucratis in
Egypt, appointed by Alexander the Great
nomarch of the Arabian district (vipos) of
Egypt, and receiver of the tribute from the
districts of Egypt, B.C. 331. His rapacity knew
no bounds, and he coUected immense wealth by

CLEON
his extortions. After Alexander's death, he was
put to death by Ptolemy, who took possession of
his treasures. (Arrian, iii. 5 ; Diod. xviii. 14.) —
2. A sculptor, the author of a group of Bacchan
tes (Plin. xxxvi. 33), possibly the same Cleo
menes as the sculptor whose name appears on
the so-caUed Germanicus, in the Louvre, which
is a Roman of the early empire, represented as
Hermes Logius. The famous statue called the
Venus de' Medici, at Florence [p. 86], has com
monly been attributed to Cleomenes, on the
strength of an inscription on the base, which
states it to be the work of ' Cleomenes, son of
Apollodorus of Athens.' Michaehs, however
{Arch. Ztg. 1880), argues that the inscription
dates only from the seventeenth century, and
his opinion is adopted try the best critics.
Cleon (KAeW), son of Cleanetus, was ori-
ginaUy a tanner, and first came forward in pub
lic as an opponent of Pericles. On the death of
this great man, B.C. 429, Cleon became the
favourite of the people, and for about six years
of the Peloponnesian war (428-422) was the
head of the party opposed to peace. He is
represented by Aristophanes as a demagogue of
the lowest kind, mean, ignorant, cowardly,
and venal; and this view of his character is
confirmed by Thucydides. But much weight
cannot be attached to the satire of the poet, who
was not only on the aristocratic side in politics,
but also had a quarrel with Cleon for the com
plaint laid against the Babylonians ; and the
usual impartiality of the historian may have
been warped by the sentence of his banishment,
if it be true, as has been conjectured with great
probability, that it was through Cleon that
Thucydides was sent into exile. But the facts
which were beyond dispute seem to indicate
violence in his political attacks, cruelty (in his
speeches on the Mytilenaeans, Thuc. iii. 36), and
a boastful self-confidence, which made him as
sume commands for which he was incompetent,
as at Pylos and AmphipoUs. It is impossible
therefore, to regard him as a statesman of high
character, though he had more merit probably
than Thucydides and Aristophanes attow him.
Cleon may be considered as the representative
of the middle classes of Athens, and by his
ready, though somewhat coarse, eloquence,
gained great influence over them. In 427 he
strongly advocated in the assembly that the
Mytilenaeans should be put to death. In 424
he obtained his greatest glory by taking prison
ers the Spartans in the island of Sphaeteria,
and bringing them in safety to Athens. Puffed
up by this success, he obtained the command of
an Athenian army, to oppose Brasidas in
Thrace ; but he was defeated by Brasidas, under
the waUs of Amphipolis, and fell in the battle,
422 (Thuc. iv. 21-39, v. 2-10). — The chief attack
of Aristophanes upon Cleon was in the Knights
(424), in which Cleon figures as an actual dra
matis persona, and, in default of an artificer
bold enough to make the mask, was represented
by the poet himself with his face smeared with
wine lees.
Clednae (KXeavai: KXeavau>s). 1. An an
cient town in ArgoUs, on the road from Corinth
to Argos, on a river of the same name which
flows into the Corinthian gulf, and at the foot
of Mt. Apesas; said to have been built by
Cleones, son of Pelops (II. ii. 570; Strab.
p. 377). — 2. A town in the peninsula Athos m
Chalcidice.— 3. [Hyampolis.]
Cleonymus (KXedvvpos). 1. An Athenian, fre
quently attacked by Aristophanes as a pestilent
demagogue (Ach. 88, Eq. 953, Vesp. 19, &c).

CLEOPATRA 239
— 2. A Spartan, son of Sphodrias, much be
loved by Archidamus, the son of Agesilaus : he
feU at Leuctra, b. c 871 (Plat. Ages. 25, 28 ;
Xen. Hell. v. 4, 25).— 3. Younger son of Cleo
menes II., king of Sparta, was excluded from
the throne on his father's death, 809, in conse
quence of his violent and tyrannical temper.
In 808 he crossed over to Italy to assist the
Tarentines against the Lucanians. He after
wards withdrew from Italy, and seized Corcyra ;
and in 272 he invited Pyrrhus to attempt the
conquest of Sparta. (Diod. xx. 104 ; Liv. x. 2 ;
Strab. p. 280; cf. Acrotatus.)
Cleopatra (KXeoirdrpa). 1. (Myth.) Daughter
of Idas and Marpessa, and wife of Meleager, is
said to have hanged herself after her husband's
death, or to have died of grief. Her real name
was Alcyone. [Meleager.] — 2. (Hist.) Niece
of Attalus, married Philip, B.C. 837, on whose
murder she was put to death by Olympias. —
3. Daughter of Philip and Olympias, and sister
of Alexander the Great, married Alexander,
king of Epirus, 336. It was at the celebration
of her nuptials that Philip was murdered. Her
husband died 326. After the death of her
brother she was sought in marriage by several
of his generals, and at length promised to
marry Ptolemy ; but having attempted to
escape from Sardis, where she had been for years
in a sort of honourable captivity, she was
assassinated by Antigonus. (Diod. xviii. 23,
xx. 37.) — 4. Daughter of Antiochus III. the
Great, married Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, 193. —
5. Daughter of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes and
No. 4, married her brother Ptolemy VI. Philo
metor, and on his death, 146, her other brother
Ptolemy VI. Physcon. She was soon afterwards
divorced by Physcon, and fled into Syria. —
6. Daughter of Ptolemy VI. Philometor and of
No. 5, married first Alexander Balas (150), the
Syrian usurper, and on his death Demetrius
Nicator. During the captivity of the latter in
Parthia, jealous of the connexion which he
there formed with Rhodogune, the Parthian
princess, she married Antiochus VII. Sidetes,
his brother, and also murdered Demetrius on
his return. She likewise murdered Seleucus,
her son by Nicator, who on his father's death
assumed the government without her consent.
Her other son by Nicator, Antiochus VIII.
Grypus, succeeded to the throne (125) through
her influence ; and he compeUed her to drink
the poison which she had prepared for him also.

Cleopatra (No. 6).
Obv., heads of Cleopatra and her son Antiochus VIII, Gry
pus ; reo., eagle— legend BA2IAE02 aniiuxoy ba:i.M2£hz
KAEOriATPAE.
[Antiochus VIII.] She had a son by Sidetes,
Antiochus IX., surnamed Cyzicenus. (Just.
xxxix. 1 ; Appian, Syr. 69.) — 7. Another
daughter of Ptolemy VI. Philometor and No.
5, married her uncle Physcon, when he di
vorced her mother. On the death of Physcon
she reigned in conjunction with her elder son,
Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, and then in conjunc
tion with her younger son, Alexander. She was

240

CLEOPATRA

put to death by the latter in 89. — 8. Daughter
of Ptolemy Physcon and No. 7, married first
her brother Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, and next
Antiochus IX. Cyzicenus. She was put to death
by Tryphaena, her own sister, wife of Antiochus
Grypus. — 9. Usually called Selene, another
daughter of Ptolemy Physcon, married first her
brother Lathyrus (on her sister No. 8 being
divorced), secondly Antiochus XI. Epiphanes,
and thirdly Antiochus X. Eusebes. — 10. Daugh
ter of Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, usually called
Berenice. [Berenice, No. 4.] — 11. Eldest
daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, celebrated for her
beauty and fascination, was 17 at the death of
her father (51), who appointed her heir of his
kingdom in conjunction with her younger
brother, Ptolemy, whom she was to marry. She
was expeUed from the throne by Pothinus and
Achillas, his guardians. She retreated into
Syria, and there coUected an army with which
she was preparing to enter Egypt, when Caesar
arrived in Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, 47
(Caes. B. C. iii. 103, 107). Her charms gained
for her the support of Caesar, who replaced her
on the throne in conjunction with her brother.
This led to the Alexandrine war, in the course
of which young Ptolemy perished (Bell. Alex.
31 ; Dio Cass. xiii. 43). Cleopatra thus ob
tained the undivided rule. She was, however,
associated by Caesar with another brother of

war.b. c.

Cleopatra (No. 11).
Obv., head of Cleopatra: rev., eagle— legend askaa[unitq]n
asynoy. In the field the monogram J^J, and the date
65 B.C. (The head of Cleopatra also appears on a coin of
tonius figured on p. 82.)
the same name, and still quite a child, to whom
she was also nominally married. She had a
son by Caesar, called Caesarion, and she after
wards followed him to Rome, where she appears
to have been at the time of his death, 44. She
then returned to Egypt, and in 41 she met An
tony in Cilicia. She was now in her 28th year,
and in the perfection of matured beauty, which,
in conjunction with her talents and eloquence,
completely won the heart of Antony, who hence
forth appears as her devoted lover and slave.
He returned with her to Egypt, but was obliged
to leave her for a short time, in order to marry
Octavia, the sister of Augustus. But Octavia
was never able to gain his affections ; he soon
deserted his wife and returned to Cleopatra,
upon whom he conferred the most extravagant
titles and honours. In the war between Augus
tus and Antony, Cleopatra accompanied her
lover, and was present at the battle of Actium
(31), in the midst of which she retreated with
her fleet, and thus hastened the loss of the day.
She fled to Alexandria, where she was joined by
Antony. Seeing Antony's fortunes desperate, she
entered into negotiations with Augustus, and
promised to make away with Antony. She fled
to a mausoleum she had built, and then caused
a report of her death to be spread. Antony,
resolving not to survive her, stabbed himself,
and was drawn up into the mausoleum, where

CLISTHENES
he died in her arms. She then tried to gain
the love of Augustus, but her charms failed to
soften his colder heart. Seeing that he de
termined to carry her captive to Rome, she put
an end to her own life, either by the poison of
an aBp or by a poisoned comb, the former suppo
sition being adopted by most writers. She died
in the 39th year of her age (b. c 30), and with
her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies in
Egypt, which was now made a Roman pro
vince. (Plut. Ant. 29-85 ; Dio Cass, xhx.-li.)—
12. Daughter of Antony and No. 11, born with
her twin brother Alexander in 40, along with
whom she was carried to Rome after the death
of her parents. Augustus married her to Juba,
king of Numidia. (Dio Cass. Ii. 15 ; Plut. Ant.
87.) — 13. A daughter of Mithridates, married
Tigranes, king of Armenia.
Cleopatris. [Arsinoe, No. 6.]
Cleophantus (KXe6<pavTos). 1. A Greek phy
sician early in the third century B. c. He is
mentioned for his use of wine as a remedy.
(Plin. xx. 31.) — 2. A physician of a much later
date mentioned in the Cluentius of Cicero.
Cleophon (KXeotpav) , an Athenian demagogue,
of obscure, and, according to Aristophanes, of
Thracian origin, vehemently opposed peace with
Sparta in the latter end of the Peloponnesian
During the siege of Athens by Lysander,
404, he was brought to trial by the aristo
cratical party, and was condemned and
put to death. (Aristoph. Ban. 677 ; Xen.
Hell. i. 7, 40.)
Cleostratus (KXedo-rparos) ¦ 1. An
astronomer of Tenedos, said to have
introduced the division of the Zodiac
into signs, probably Uved between B.C.
548 and 432. (Plin. ii. 31.)— 2. A youth
of Thespiae who, when a dragon was
devastating his country, armed himself
in a coat of mail with spikes projecting
from it, and offered himself to the dra
gon, whom he destroyed by the sacrifice
of his own life. The name of ( DeUverer '
(traojTTjs) was, however, given, not to
him, but to Zeus. (Paus. ix. 26, 7.)
Clevum, also Glevum and Glebon
(Gloucester), a Roman colony in Britain.
Clides (ai KXeTSes : G. S. Andre), ' the Keys,'
a promontory on the NE. of Cyprus, with two
islands of the same name lying off it.
Climax (KA7/ia£ : Ekder), the name applied
to the W. termination of the Taurus range,
which extends along the W. coast of the Pam-
phylian Gulf, N. of Phaselis in Lycia. Alexan
der made a road between it and the sea. It
was in fact a name applied to a narrow pass over
a ridge here and elsewhere.
Climberrum. [Ausci.]
Climas (KXeivias). 1. Father of the famous
Alcibiades, fought at Artemisium B. c. 430, in a
ship built and manned at his own expense : he
f eU 447, at the battle of Coronea. — 2. A younger
brother of Alcibiades. — 3. Father of Aratus of
Sicyon, was murdered by Abantidas, who seized
the tyranny, 264. — 4. A Pythagorean philo
sopher, of Tarentum, a contemporary and friend
of Plato.
Clio. JMusae.]
Clisthenes (KXeio-Bevris). 1. Tyrant of Sicyon.
In B. c. 595, he aided the Amphictyons in the
sacred war against Cirrha, which ended, after
ten years, in the destruction of the guilty city.
He was possessed by an anti-Dorian spirit,
which led him to give contemptuous names to
the Dorian tribes. The HyUeis, Dymanes, and
Pamphyli he changed to Hyatae, Choireatae,

1EPA2
LNE=M. An-

CLITARCHUS
and Oneatae (Pigs and Asses). In the same
feeling he made war on Argos, apparently with
success, and suppressed the rhapsodists of
Homer, because they told of the glories of the
Argives. His death cannot be placed earlier
than 582, in which year he won the victory in
the chariot-race at the Pythian games. (Hdt.
v. 67 ; Thuc. i. 18.) His daughter Agarista was
given in marriage to Megacles the Alcmaeonid.
The famous anecdote of the marriage feast is
told in Hdt. vi. 125. — 2. An Athenian, son of
Megacles and Agarista, and grandson of No. 1,
appears as the head of the Alcmaeonid clan on
the banishment of the Pisistratidae. He was
opposed by Isagoras and the great body of the
nobles, to whom the Solonian constitution gave
all political power. Clisthenes, as Herodotus
says, took the people into partnership, and in
his reforms aimed at placing the constitution
on a democratic basis ; so that he was the real
founder of Athenian democracy. Aristotle calls
his reforms the fifth change of constitution
in Athenian history : they consisted in (1) the
aboUtion of the four ancient tribes and the
estabhshment of ten tribes, with a further sub
division into demes, which became the local
units in poUtical arrangements. In all this he
desired to get rid of old associations. From the
number of ten tribes foUowed the number 500
for the Boule; (2) he introduced the law of
ostracism as a machinery for getting rid of a
violent party leader without civil war ; (3) he
re-established election by lot ; (4) he so arranged
the Heliaea as to give greater judicial power to
all citizens (Diet, of Ant. art. Dicastes). Isa
goras and his party called in the aid of the Spar
tans, but were defeated [see Cleomenes], and
Clisthenes, who had retired for a time, when the
Spartans demanded the expulsion of the ac
cursed Alemaeonids, was recalled and made
good his reforms, B. c. 508. Nothing certain is
known of his after life. (Hdt. v. 63-73, vi. 181 ;
Aristot. 'AB. iroX. 20, 21, 41 ; Diet . Ant. s. vv.
Boule, Demus, Exsilium, Tribus). — 3. An Athe
nian, whose foppery and effeminate profligacy
brought him under the lash of Aristophanes
(Nub. 354, Thesm. 574):
Clitarcnus (KXeirapxos). 1. Tyrant of Ere-
tria in Euboea, was supported by Philip against
the Athenians, but was expelled from Eretria
by Phocion, B. c. 341 (Dem. Phil. iii. 125 ;
Plut. Phoc. 13, Dem. 17).— 2. Son of the his
torian Dinon, accompanied Alexander the Great
in his Asiatic expedition, and wrote a history of
it. This work was deficiency in veracity and
inflated in style, but appears nevertheless to
have been much read, owing to the interest of
his narrative. His work was largely used by
Curtius and Diodorus. (Quintil. x. 1, 74 ; Cic.
Brut. 11, 42, de Leg. i. 2 ; Plut. Them. 27.)
Cliternum or Cliternia (Cliternmus), a town
of the Frentani, in the territory of Larinum.
Clitomachus (KXeirdpaxos), a Carthaginian
by birth, and called Hasdrubal in his own coun
try, came to Athens in the fortieth year of his
age, and there studied under Carneades, on
whose death he became the head of the New
Academy, b. c. 129. Of his works, which
amounted to 400 books, only a few titles are
preserved. His main object in writing them
was to make known the philosophy of his master
Carneades. When Carthage was taken in 146,
he wrote a work to console his countrymen.
Clitor or Clitorium (KXeirap : KXeirbpios :
near KUturas, Ru.), a town in the N. of Arcadia
on a river of the same name, a tributary of the
Aroanius : it was traditionally founded by Azan,

CLUENTIUS

241

and was part of the Azanian district : it had
temples of Demeter, Asclepius, and Eileithyia ;
and a temple of the Dioscuri half a mile from
the gates (Paus. viii. 4, 21). There was a
fountain in the neighbourhood, the waters of
which are said to have given to persons who
drank of them a dislike for wine (Ov. Met. xv.
822; Athen. p. 43). It joined the Achaean
League and bravely repelled the Aetolians
(Polyb. iv. IS).
Clitumnus (Clitumno), a small river in Um-
bria, springs from a beautiful rock in a grove of
cypress-trees, where was a sanctuary of the god
Clitumnus, and falls into the Tinia, a tributary
of the Tiber. The valley of the Clitumnus was
famed for a breed of white cattle. (Verg. Georg.
ii. 146 ; Prop. ii. 19 ; Juv. xii. 13.)
Clitus (KAefros or KXeir6s). 1. Son of Bar-
dylis, king of Illyria, defeated by Alexander the
Great, B. c. 335. — 2. A Macedonian, one of

Alexander's generals and friends, surnamed the
Black (MeXas). He saved Alexander's life at
the battle of Granicus, 884. In 328 he was slain
by Alexander at a banquet, when both parties
were heated with wine, and Clitus had provoked
the king's resentment by a taunt. Alexander
was inconsolable at his friend's death. [Alex
ander.] — 3. Another of Alexander's officers, sur
named the White (Aevn6s) to distinguish him
from the above (Arrian, Anab. vii. 12). — 4. An
officer who commanded the Macedonian fleet
for Antipater in the Lamian war, 323, and
defeated the Athenian fleet. In 321, he ob
tained from Antipater the satrapy of Lydia,
from which he was expelled by Antigonus, 319.
He afterwards commanded the fleet of Poly
sperchon, and was at first successful, but his
ships were subsequently destroyed by Antigo
nus, and he was kUled on shore, 318. (Diod.
xviii. 15, 39, 52, 72.)
Cloacina or Cluacina, the ' Purifier ' (from
cloare or cluere, ' to wash ' or ' purify '), a sur
name of Venus.
Clodius. [Claudius.]
Clodius, Albinus. [Albinus.]
Clodius Macer. [Macer.]
Cloelia, a Roman virgin, one of the hostages
given to Porsena, escaped from the Etruscan
camp, and swam across the Tiber to Rome.
She was sent back by the Romans to Porsena,
who was so struck with her gallant deed, that
he not only set her at liberty, but allowed her
to take with her a part of the hostages. He
also rewarded her with a horse adorned with
splendid trappings, and the Romans with the
statue of a woman on horseback, which was
erected in the Sacred Way. (Liv. ii. 13 ; Dionys.
v. 33 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 651.)
Cloelia or Cluilia Gens, of Alban origin,
said to have been received among the patricians
on the destruction of Alba. A few of its
members with the surname Siculus obtained
the consulship in the early years of the republic.
Clonas (KXovas) , of Thebes, a poet, and one
of the earliest musicians of Greece, probably
lived about B.C. 620. In music he is noticeable
for composing hymns for a flute accompani
ment, instead of the accompaniment of the
cithara. (Paus. x. 7, 3 ; Terpander.)
Clonius (KX6vios), leader of the Boeotians in
the war against Troy, slain by Agenor (II. ii.
495, xv. 340 ; Diod. iv. 67).
Clota Aestuarium (Frith of Clyde), on the
W. coast of Scotland.
Clothd. [Moirae.]
Cluentius Habitus, A., of Larinum, accused
in b.c. 74 his stepfather, Statius Albius Oppia- R

242

CLUNLA

nicus, of having attempted to procure his death
by poison. Oppianicus was condemned, and
it was generally believed that the judges had
been bribed by Cluentius. In 66, Cluentius
was himself accused by young Oppianicus, son
of Statius Albius who had died in the interval,
of three acts of poisoning. He was defended
by Cicero in the brilliant oration stiU extant,
and acquitted. Quintilian (ii. 17, 21) speaks of
Cicero having boasted that he misled the
judices. Clunia (Ru. on a hiU between Coruna del
Conde and Pennalbade Castro), a town of the
Arevacae in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a
Roman colony.
Clupea or Clypea. [Aspis.]
Clusium (Clusinus : Chiusi), one of the most
powerful of the 12 Etruscan cities, situated
on an eminence above the river Clanis, and
SW. of the Lacus > Clusinus (L. di Chiusi),
(Strab. p. 226). It was more anciently called
Camers or Camars, whence we may conclude
that it was founded by the Umbrian race of the
Camertes. It was the royal residence of
Porsena, and at Poggio Gajella, three miles
NNE. of Chiusi is a hill, in which can be traced
the remains of the celebrated sepulchre of this
king in the form of a labyrinth (Diet, of Ant.
art. Labyrinthus). Subsequently Clusium was
in aUiance with the Romans, by whom it was
regarded as a bulwark against the Gauls. Its
siege by the Gauls, b.c. 391, led, as is well
known, to the capture of Rome itself by the
Gauls. Clusium probably became a Roman
colony, since Pliny (iii. 52) speaks of Clusini
Veteres et Novi. In its neighbourhood were
cold baths (Hor. Ep. i. 15, 9).
Clusius (Chiese), a river in Cisalpine Gaul,
a tributary of the Ollius, and the boundary be
tween the Cenomani and Insubres (Pol. ii. 32).
Cluvius, a family of Campanian origin, of
which the most important person was M.
Cluvius Rufus, consul suffectus a.d. 45, and
governor of Spain under Galba, 69, on whose
death he espoused the cause of ViteUius. He
was a historian, and wrote an account of the
times of Nero, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. (Tac.
Hist. i. 8, ii. 65, iv. 43, Ann. xiii. 20, xiv. 2;
Plin. Ep. ix. 19.) It is probable that his writ
ings were a chief source of information for
Tacitus, Plutarch and Suetonius as regards the
above-mentioned reigns.
Clymene (KXvpevw). 1. Daughter of Oceanus
and Tethys, and wife of Iapetus, to whom she
bore Atlas, Prometheus, and others (Hes. Th.
351, 507; Verg. Georg. iv. 845).— 2. Daughter
of Iphis or Minyas, wife of Phylacus or Cepha
lus, to whom she bore Iphiclus and Alcimede.
According to Hesiod and others she was the
mother of Phaeton by Helios. (Paus. x. 29 ;
Od. xi. 325 ; ApoUod. iii. 9.) — 3. A companion of
Helena, with whom she was carried off by Paris
(II. iii. 144).
Clytaemnestra (KXvraipvfio-Tpa), daughter
of Tyndareus and Leda, sister of Castor, and
half-sister of Pollux and Helena. She was
married to Agamemnon. During her husband's
absence at Troy she lived in adultery with
Aegisthus, and on Agamemnon's return to
Mycenae she murdered him with the help of
Aegisthus. [Agamemnon.] She was subse
quently put to death by her son Orestes, who
thus avenged the murder of his father. For
details see Orestes.
Cnemis (Kvr)pis ; Spartia), a range of moun
tains on the frontiers of Phocis and Locris,
from which the N. Locrians were caUed Epi-

CNOSUS
cnemidii: A branch of these mountains runs
out into the sea, forming the promontory
Cnemides (KvripiSes), with a town of the same
name upon it, opposite the promontory
Cenaeum in Euboea. (Strab. pp. 416, 426.)
Cnemus (Kvfjpos), Spartan admiral in b.c.
430, when he made a descent upon Zacynthus.
In the following year he operated without
success against Phormio. (Thuc. ii. 66, 80.)
Cnidus or Gnidus (KviSos: KviSios: Ru. at
Cape Krio), a celebrated city of Asia Minor,
on the promontory of Triopium on the coa'it
of Caria, was a Lacedaemonian colony, and
the chief city of the Dorian Hexapolis. It
was built partly on the mainland and partly
on an island joined to the coast by a cause
way, and had two harbours. It had a con
siderable commerce ; and it was resorted to
by travellers from all parts of the civilised
world, that they might see the statue of
Aphrodite by Praxiteles, which stood in her
temple here. The city possessed also temples

Harbour and ruins of Cnidus.

of Apollo and Poseidon. The great naval
defeat of Pisander by Conon (B.C. 394) took
place off Cnidus. Pliny mentions it as a free
city (v. 104). Among the celebrated natives
of the city were Ctesias, Eudoxus, Sostratus,
and Agatharchides. It is said to have been
also called, at an early period, Triopia, from
its founder Triopas, and, in later times,
Stadia. (Strab. p. 656; Paus. v. 24, 7 viii.
30, x. 11.)
Cnosus or Gnosus, subsequently Cnossus or
Gnossus (Kvao-6s, Tvua6s, Kvarrcrds, Tvao-ois :
Kyd<rios, Kvdo-crios : Makro Teikho), an an
cient town of Crete, and the capital of king
Minos, was situated in a fertile country on the
river Caeratns (which was originally the name
of the town), at a short distance from the
N. coast. It was at an early time colonised

Coin of Cnosus.
Obv., Head of Hera with wreath of Bowers; rev., laby.
4th centP°a and thunderbolt <'°r Zeus). Coin'of
by Dorians, and from it Dorian institutions
BP j -uOVer the island- its power was weak
ened by the growing importance of Gortyn
and Cydoma; and these towns, when united,
were more than a match for Cnosus.— Cnosus

COBUS
is frequently mentioned by the poets in conse
quence of its connexion with Minos, Ariadne,
the Minotaur, and the Labyrinth; and the
adjective Cnosius, Cnossius, or Gnossius is fre
quently used as equivalent to Cretan. The
marriage of Zeus with Hera was celebrated as
an annual festival, and Hera appears on the
coins as a bride. (Od. xix. 178 ; Strab. p. 477 ;
Polyb. iv. 53 ; Diod. i. 61.)
Cobus or Cohibns (KdBos), a river of Asia,
flowing from the Caucasus into the E. side of
the Euxine.
Cocalus (KdKaXos), king of SicUy, received
Daedalus on his flight from Crete, and with
the help of his daughters put Minos to death,
when the latter came in pursuit of Daedalus
(Diod. iv. 78, 80 ; Hyg. Fab. 44 ; Paus. vii. 4).
Cocceins Nerve. [Nerva.]
Coche (Kaxi)), a city on the Tigris, near Cte
siphon. Cocinthum or Cocintmn (Punta di Stilo),
a promontory on the SE. of Bruttium in
Italy, with a town of the same name upon it.
(Pol. ii. 14).
Codes, Horatius — that is, Horatius the
" one-eyed ' — a hero of the old Roman lays, is
said to have defended the SubUeian bridge
along with Sp. Lartius and T. Herminius
against the whole Etruscan army under
Porsena, wlnle the Romans broke down the
bridge behind them. When the work was
nearly finished, Horatius sent back his two
companions. As soon as the bridge was quite
destroyed, he plunged into the stream and swam
across to the city in safety amid the arrows of
the enemy. The state raised a statue to his
honour, which was placed in the Comitium, and
aUowed him as much land as he could plough
round in one day^ Polybius relates that Hora-
tins defended the bridge alone, and perished in
the river. (Liv. ii. 10 ; Dionys. v. 24 ; Plut.
Poplic. 16; Polyb. vi. 55; GeU. iv. 5.)
Cocossates, a people in Aquitania. mentioned
with the Tarbelh (Caes. B. G. iii. 27).
Cocylinm (KokvXiov), an Aeolian city in
Mysia, whose inhabitants (KokuX7toi) are men
tioned by Xenophon; but it was abandoned
before Pliny's time (Xen. Hell. iii. 1, 16 ; Plin.
v. 122).
Cocytus (KukvtAs ; Vuvos), a river in Epirus,
a tributary of the Acheron. Like the Acheron,
the Cocytus was supposed to be connected with
the lower world, and hence came to be de
scribed as a river in the lower world.
.[Acheron; Avernus.]
Codanus Sinus, the SW. part of the Baltic,
whence the Danish islands are caUed Coda-
nonia (Mela, iii. 4).
Codomannus. [Darius.]
Codrus (KdSpos). 1. Son of Melanthus, and
last king of Athens. When the Dorians invaded
Attica from Peloponnesus (about B.C. 1068 ac
cording to mythical chronology), an oracle
declared that they should be victorious if the
life of the Attic king was spared. Codrus
thereupon resolved to sacrifice himself for his
country. He entered the camp of the enemy in
disguise, began to quarrel with the soldiers, and
was slain in the dispute. When the Dorians
discovered the death of the Attic king, they
returned home. Tradition adds, that as no one
was thought worthy to succeed such a patriotic
king, the kingly dignity was abolished, and Me-
don, son of Codrus, was appointed archon for
life instead. Pausanias (i. 19, 6) speaks of a
spot on the banks of the Ilissus where Codrus
was slain. An inscription has been found about

COLIAS 243
the temenos of Codrus, showing that it was
between the Dionysion and the city gate, SE. of
the Acropolis : it was also the temenos of Neleus
(American Journ. Arch. 1887; cf. C.I.A. iii.
9*8). — 2. A Roman poet (possibly a pseudonym),
ridiculed by Virgil (Eel. v. 11, vii. 22)
Juvenal (i. .2) speaks of a Cordus or Codrus, as
author of a tiresome Thebaid.
Coela (rd KoTXa tt)s EvBolas), ' the Hollows
of Euboea,' the W. coast of Euboea, between
the promontories Caphareus and Chersonesus.
very dangerous to ships: here a part of the
Persian fleet was wrecked, b.c. 480 (Hdt. viii.
118; Strab. p. 445).
Coele (KoiXri), an Attic demus belonging to
the tribe Hippothoontis, a Uttle way beyond the
Melitian gate at Athens : here Cimon and
Thucydides were buried.
Coelesyria. [Syria.]
Coeletae or Coelaletae, a people of Thrace,
divided into Majores and Minores, in the
district Coeletica, between the Hebrus and the
gulf of Melas.
Coelius. [Caelius.]
Coelus (KoiXbs Xipriv) or Coela (KolXa), a sea
port town in the Thracian Chersonese, near
Cynossema (Plin. v. 50 ; Mela, ii. 2, 7).
Coenus (Koivos), son-in-law of Parmenion,
one of the ablest generals of Alexander, died on
the Hyphasis, B.C. 327 (Arrian, i. 6, iv. 16, v. 16,
vi. 2).
Coenyra (Kolvvpa : Kinyra)) a town in the
island of Thasos, opposite Samothrace.
Coes (KdTis), of Mytilene, dissuaded Darius
Hystaspis, in his Scythian expedition, from
breaking up his bridge of boats over the
Danube. For this good counsel he was
rewarded by Darius with the tyranny of Myti
lene. On the breaking out of the Ionian revolt,
B.C. 501, he was stoned to death by the Mytile
naeans. _ (Hdt. iv. 97, v. 11, 37.)
Colapis (K6Xaip in Dio Cass. : Kulpa), a river
in Pannonia, flows into the Savus : on it dwelt
theColapiani (Strab. pp. 207, 214).
Colchis (KoXxis : KoXxos), a country of Asia,
bounded on the W. by the Euxine, on the N. by
the Caucasus, on the E. by Iberia ; on the S.
and SW. the boundaries were somewhat indefi
nite, and were often considered to extend as far
as Trapezus (Trebizond). The land of Colchis
(or Aea), and its river Phasis are famous in the
Greek mythology. [Argonautae.] The name
of Colchis is first mentioned by Aeschylus and
Pindar (Pind. Pyth. iv. 378, Aesch. Pr. 513), but
it was probably known to the Greeks at least as
early as the 7th century B.C. from its commerce
with the Milesian settlements on the Euxine,
especiaUy in linen. It was a very fertile
country, and yielded timber, pitch, hemp, flax,
and wax, as articles of commerce ; but it was
most famous for its manufactures of linen, on
account of which, and of certain physical
resemblances, Herodotus supposed the Col
chians to have been a colony from Egypt
(Hdt. ii. 104 ; Strab. p. 498). The land was
governed by its native princes, until Mithri
dates Eupator made it subject to the kingdom
of Pontus. After the Mithridatic war, it was
overrun by the Romans, but they did not sub
due it till the time of Trajan. Under the later
emperors the country was caUed Lazica, from
the name of one of its principal tribes, the Lazi.
Colias (KaXias), a promontory on the W.
coast of Attica, 20 stadia S. of Phalerum, with a
temple of Aphrodite, where some of the Persian
ships were cast after the battle of Salamis
(Hdt. viii. 96).
r2

244

COLLATIA

Collatia (Collatinus). 1. (Castellaccio), a
Sabine town in Latium, near the right bank of
the Anio, taken by Tarquinius Priscus.— 2. A
town in Apulia, east of Teanum.
Collatinus, L. Tarquinius, son of Egerius,
and nephew of Tarquinius Priscus, derived the
Surname Collatinus from the town Collatia, of
which his father was governor. The outrage
offered to his wife Lucretia by Sex. Tarquinius
led to the dethronement of Tarquinius Super-
bus. Collatinus and L. Junius Brutus were
the first consuls ; but as the people could not
endure the rule of any of the hated race of the
Tarquins, Collatinus resigned his office and
¦retired from Rome to Lavinium. (Liv. i. 38, 57,
ii. 2 ; Dionys. iv. 64.)
Collina Porta. [Roma.]
Collytus (KoXXvrds, also KoXvtt6s : KoXXv-
freis), a demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe
Aegeis, was within the walls of Athens, and
formed one of the districts into which the city
was divided. [Athenae.] It was the demus of
Plato and the residence of Timon the mis
anthrope. Colonae (KoXavat), a small town in the Troad
(Strab. p. 589 ; Thuc. i. 131 ; Plin. v. 122).
Coiania Agrippina or Agrippinensis (Co
logne on the Rhine), originally the chief town
of the Ubii, and called Oppidum or Civitas
Ubiorum, was a place of small importance till
A.D. 51, when a Roman colony was planted in
the town by the emperor Claudius, at the in
stigation of his wife Agrippina, who was born
here, and from whom it derived its new name.
Its inhabitants received the jus Italicum. It
soon became a large and flourishing city, and
was the capital of Lower Germany. (Tac. Ann.
i. 36, xii. 27, Hist. iv. 28; Strab. p. 194;
Ammian. xv. 11.) At Cologne there are still
several Roman remains, an ancient gate, with
the inscription C. C. A. A., i.e. Colonia Claudia
Augusta Agrippinensis, and the foundations
of the Roman walls.
Colonia (Kara Hissar), a Byzantine fortress
town in Pontus, between Cabira and Nicopolis.
Colonia Equestris. [Noviodunum.]
Colonus (KoXav6s: KoXavevs, -virris, -vidrns),
a demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Aegeis,
afterwards to the tribe Antiochis, ten stadia (or
about 1J mile) NNW. from the Dipylon gate of
Athens, near the Academy, lying on and round
a hill celebrated for a temple of Poseidon.
This hill was caUed Colonus Hippius, as being
sacred to Poseidon, and to distinguish it from
the other Colonus Agoraeus in Athens [see
Athenae]. The ecclesia summoned by Pisander
met within the enclosure of the temenos of this
temple on the hill Colonus (Thuc. vin. 67).
There were at Colonus altars both of Poseidon
Hippius and Athene Hippia, and shrines (hpipa)
of Oedipus, Adrastus, Theseus, and Pirithous ;
?,nd alBO a grove of the Eumenides, probably
on the NE. side of the hill. About £ of a mile
NNE. of the hill there is another HUock, which
was the hill of Demeter Euchloiis (Soph. 0. C.
1600) ; traces of old buildings are found there.
It is conjectured that the 7ip$a above mentioned
and the grave of Oedipus lay between these
mounds. The chasm, however, of the Karap-
pdKTns dSbs no longer exists. Sophocles, who
describes the scenery, was a native of the
demus (cf. Paus. i. 39, 4).
Colophon (KoXotpdv: R,vi.,nea,r Deirmendere),
one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Minor,
was said to have been founded by Mopsus, a
grandson of Tiresias. It stood about 10 miles
from the coast, near the river Halesus, which

COMAMA
was famous for the coldness of its water, between
Lebedus and Ephesus, 120 stadia (12 geog.
miles) from the former and 70 stadia (7 g. m.)
from the latter : its harbour was called Notium.
It was one of the most powerful members of
the Ionian confederacy, possessing a consider
able fleet and excellent cavalry ; but it suffered
greatly in war, being taken at different times
by the Lydians, the Persians, Lysimachus, and
the Cilieian pirates. The old Colophon was
desolated by Lysimachus, B.C. 302 (Paus. vii. 3,
4). Thus in Roman times the real Colophon
had lost its importance, and the name was
transferred to Notium: hence PUny (v. 116)
speaks of Notium as having disappeared, because
its name had passed out of use : hence also
Mela (i. 17) mentions Colophon, and not Notium :
the town which they knew as Colophon was
really the old Notium. It was made a free city
by the Romans after their war with Antiochus
the Great. Besides claiming to be the birth
place of Homer, Colophon was the native city
of Mimnermus, Hermesianax, and Nicander
(Paus. vii. 3, viii. 28 ; Hdt. i. 14 ; Liv. xxxviiii
39 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 4). It was also celebrated
for the oracle of Apollo Clarius in its neigh
bourhood. [Clarus.]
Colossae (KoXoo-o-ai, aft. KoXaccai'. KoXoff-
arivis, Strab., KoXoo-ffaevs, N. T.; Khonas, Ru.),
a city of Great Phrygia in the plain on the
river Lycus, once of great importance (Strab.
p. 576 ; Hdt. vii. 30 ; Xen. Anab. i. 2, 6), but so
reduced by the rise of the neighbouring cities
of Laodicea and Hierapolis, that the later geo
graphers do not even mention it, and it might
have been forgotten but for its place in the
early history of the Christian Church. A for
tress called Chonae (Xavai) was formed (prob
ably by Justinian) on a precipitous hiU 3 mUes
S. of Colossae, the position of which was not
defensible ; and in the course of the 8th cent.
b.c. altogether absorbed its population, so that
its name passed away, and the viUage near its
site bears the name Khonas.
Colotes (KoXdrvs). 1. Of Lampsacus, a
hearer of Epicurus, against whom Plutarch
wrote two of his works. — 2. A sculptor of Paros,
flourished B.C. 444, and assisted Phidias in
executing the colossus of Zeus at Olympia.
Columella, L. Junius Moderatus, a native of
Gades in Spain, and a contemporary of Seneca..
We have no particulars of his life ; it appears,
from his own account, that at some period of
his life he visited Syria and Cilicia ; but Rome
appears to have been his ordinary residence.
He wrote a work upon agriculture (De Be
Bustica), in twelve books, which is stiU extant.
It treats not only of agriculture proper, but of
the cultivation of the vine and the oUve, of
gardening, of rearing cattle, of bees, &c. The
tenth book, which treats of gardening, is com
posed in dactylic hexemeters of no poetical
merit, and forms a sort of supplement to the
Georgics. There is also extant a work De Ar-
boribus, in one book. The style of ColumeUa
is easy and clear, but ornate. Edition by Schnei
der, in Scriptores Bei Busticae.
Columnae Herculis. [Abyla ; Calpe.]
Coluthus (KiXouBos), a Greek epic poet of
Lycopolis in Egypt, lived at the beginning of
the 6th century of our era, the author of a
poem on ' The Rape of Helen ' ('EXevris dfmayr)),
of 392 hexameter lines. Edited by Bekker,.
Berl. 1816, and Schaefer, Lips. 1825.
Colyttus. [Collytus.]
Comama, a town of Pisidia, NW. of Ter-
messus.

COMANA
Comana (KApava). 1. C. Pontica (Guminik,
1 miles NE. of Tokat, Ru.), a flourishing city
of Pontus, upon the river Iris. Its commercial
importance arose from the fact that it lay upon
the trade route from Armenia and Pontus to
the port of Amisus : its religious importance
arose from its temple of Artemis Taurica,
the foundation of which tradition ascribed to
Orestes. The high priests of this temple took
rank next after the king, and their domain was
increased by Pompey after the Mithridatic war,
when he gave the high-priesthood to Archelaus
and the district within a radius of 8 miles. At
tached to the temple were numerous slaves
(J.ep6SovXoi), a mark of the Asiatic character of
this Artemis. No pig was aUowed to come near
the temple or even into the city (Strab. pp. 547,
557-560, 796; Artemis). — 2. Cappadociae, or
C Chryse (Bostan), in Cataonia, was also
celebrated for a temple of Artemis Taurica, the
foundation of which was likewise ascribed by
tradition to Orestes. Strabo, who had himself
visited the place, describes the wonderful gorge
at this point where the Pyramus breaks through
the Taurus range. Comana lay in a glen a
little off the main Roman road from Cocussus
to Sebasteia. In the temple were 6,000 slaves,
male and female, subject to the priest, who
ranked next to the king of Cappadocia (Strab.
pp. 535, 536; Bell. Alex. 66). [For the local
goddess Ma, identified with Artemis, see
Artemis.] Combrea (KdpBpeta), a town in the Macedo
nian district of Crossaea.
Conuninm, a town in Samnium, destroyed
by the Romans in the Samnite wars (Liv. x.
44). Commagene (Koppayrivi)), the NE.-most dis
trict of Syria, was bounded on the E. and SE.
by the Euphrates, on the N. and NW. by the
Taurus, and on the S. by Cyrrhestice. It
formed a part of the Greek kingdom of Syria,
after the fall of which it maintained its inde
pendence under a race of kings of the fanrily
of the Seleucidae, whoss names were Mithri
dates I. Callinicus (stepson of Antiochus VIII.
Epiphanes of Syria), Antiochus, Mithridates II.,
who sided with Antony at Actium (Plut. Ant.
€1), Mithridates HX, Antiochus HI., who
reigned tiU a.d. 17, when Tiberius gave over
Commagene to the province of Syria (Tac. Ann.
ii. 42) : it was restored in 38 to Antiochus IV.,
called Epiphanes Magnus, who reigned till > .d.
72, when Commagene, with Samosata ( = Flavia)
as its chief town, became part of the province
governed by the legatus of Syria (Suet. Vesp. 8).
Commius, king of the Atrebates, was ad
vanced to that dignity by Caesar, who had great
confidence in him. He was sent by Caesar to
Britain to accompany the ambassadors of the
British states on their return to their native
country, but he was cast into chains by the
Britons, and was not released tiU the Britons
had been defeated by Caesar, and found it ex
pedient to sue for peace. In B.C. 52 he joined
the other Gauls in their great revolt against the
Romans, and continued in arms even after the
capture of Alesia. (Caes. B. G. iv. 21, vii. 76.)
Commodus, L. Ceionius, was adopted by
Hadrian, a.d. 136, when hs took the name of L.
Aelius Verus Caesar. His health was weak ;
he died on the 1st of January, 138, and was
interred in the mausoleum of Hadrian. His
son L. Aurelius Verus was the colleague of
Antoninus Pius in the empire. [Verus.]
Commodus, L. Aurelius, Roman emperor,
-A.D. 180-192, son of M. Aurelius and the younger

CONCORDIA

245

Faustina, was born at Lanuvium, 161, and was
thus scarcely twenty when he succeeded to the
empire. He was an unworthy son of a noble
father. Notwithstanding the great care which
his father had bestowed upon his education,
he turned out one of the most sanguinary and
licentious tyrants that ever disgraced a throne.
It was after the suppression of the plot against
hi6 life, which had been organised by his sister
Lucilla, 188, that he first gave uncontrolled
sway to his ferocious temper. He resigned the
government to various favourites who foUowed
each other in rapid succession (Perennis, Ole
ander, Laetus, and Eclectus), and abandoned
himself without interruption to the most shame
less debauchery. But he was at the same time
the slave of the most childish vanity, and
sought to gain popular applause by fighting as
a gladiator, and slew many thousands of wild
beasts in the amphitheatre with bow and spear.
In consequence of these exploits he assumed
the name of Hercules, and demanded that he
should be worshipped as that god, 191. In the
following year his concubine Marcia found on
his tablets, while he was asleep, that she was
doomed to perish along with Laetus and Eclec
tus and other leading men in the state. She
forthwith administered poison to him, but as
its operation was slow, she caused him to be
strangled by Narcissus, a celebrated athlete,
Dec. 31, 192. (Script. Hist. Aug.)
Comnena. [Anna Comnena.]
Complutum, a town of the Carpetani in
Hispania Tarraconensis, between Segovia and
Bilbilis. Compsa (Compsanus : Conza), a town of the
Hirpini in Samnium, near the sources of the
Aufidus. Compulteria (Sta Maria di Cuvultere), a
town of Samnium on the Vulturnus, between
Calatia and AlUfae (Liv. xxiii. 39).
Comum (Comensis : Como), a town in Gallia
Cisalpina, at the S. extremity of the W. branch
of the Lacus Larius (L. di Como). It was
originaUy a town of the Insubrian Gauls, and
was colonised by Pompeius Strabo, by Cor
nelius Scipio, and by Julius Caesar. Caesar
settled there 6000 colonists, among whom were
500 distinguished Greek families ; and this new
population so greatly exceeded the number of
the old inhabitants, that the town was called
Novum Comum, a name, however, which it did
not retain. Comum was celebrated for its iron
manufactories: it was the birthplace of the
younger Pliny. (Strab. p. 213 ; Plin. Ep. i. 3,
iii. 6, iv. 13.)
Conana (KAvava: Gbnen), a town of Pisidia,
on the N. frontier.
Concordia, a Roman goddess (=the Greek
'Opbvoia), the personification of concord, had
several temples at Rome. In the earliest times
her functions and attributes belonged to Venus
Cloacina, to whom a temple in the Comitium is
said to have been built to sanctify the union
between Romans and Sabines (Plin. xv. 119).
But the worship, both pubUc and private, of
Concordia herself seems to reach back into
legendary times. Temples were dedicated to
her by Camillus, b.c. 367, on the reconciliation
of plebeians and patricians (Plut. Cam. 42;
Ov. Fast. i. 639); by Cn. Flavius near the
Area Vulcani in 304, at the end of the second
Samnite war (Liv. ix. 46) ; in 217, to fulfil a
vow of Manlius for the cessation of a mutiny
in his army (Liv. xxii. 33) ; by Opimius in 121,
after the overthrow of C. Gracchus (Appian,
B. C. i. 26). Under the empire the religion was

246

CONDATE

even more marked, probably from a desire to
popularise the idea of an acceptable rule
established without violent revolution. Livia
began a temple to Concord for which a festival
was kept on June 11 ; this temple was conse
crated to Concordia Augusta by TiberiuB on
Jan. 16, a.d. 10 (Suet. Tib. 20 ; C. I. L. i. 312 ;
cf. Ov. Fast. i. 645). Offerings were frequently
made to the goddess on birthdays of emperors
or after dangers averted, such as the discovery
of a conspiracy (cf. Tac. Ann. ii. 32 ; G. I. L.
vi. 91). Medals were often struck to symbolise
union, sometimes as unreal as that of Geta and
Caracalla. Concordia is generally represented
as a veiled matron, sometimes with a diadem,
sometimes a laurel wreath, bearing a cornucopia,
an olive branch, or a patera.
Condate, the name of many Celtic towns,
said to be equivalent in meaning to Confluentes,
i.e. the union of two rivers: 1. Gosne on the
Loire; 2. Condi on the Hon; 3. Bennes in
the territory of the Redones; 4. Cognac on
the Charente, in Aquitania ; 5. Montereau on
the Seine; 6. Seyssel on the Rhone, below
Bellegarde ; 7. in Britain, Kinderton, between
Chester and Manchester. Condatus Pagus
was the old name of Lugdunum (Lyons).
Condrusi, a German people in Gallia Belgica,
the dependents of the Treviri, dwelt between
the Eburones and the Treviri in the district of
Condros on the Maas and Ourthe.
Confluentes (Coblenz), a town in Germany at
the confluence of the Moselle and the Rhine.
Conisalus (Kovto-aXos), a deity akin to Pria-
PUS, worshipped at Athens (Strab. p. 588 ; Ari
stoph. Lys. 983 ; Athen. p. 441).
Conon (KoVa>i>). 1. A distinguished Athenian
general, held several important commands in
the latter part of the Peloponnesian war. After
the defeat of the Athenians by Lysander at
Aegos Potami (b.c. 405), Conon, who was one
of the generals, escaped with eight ships, and
took refuge with Evagoras in Cyprus, where he
remained for some years. He was subsequently
appointed to the command of the Persian fleet
along with Pharnabazus, and in this capacity
was able to render the most effectual service to
his native country. In 394 he gained a decisive
victory over Pisander, the Spartan admiral, off
Cnidus (Xen. Hell. iv. 3). After clearing the
Aegaean of the Spartans, he returned to Athens
in 393, and commenced restoring the long walls
and the fortifications of Piraeus. When the
Spartans opened their negotiations with
Tiribazus, the Persian satrap, Conon was sent
by the Athenians to counteract the intrigues of
Antalcidas, but was thrown into prison by
Tiribazus (Xen. Hell. iv. 8.). According to
some accounts, he was sent into the interior of
Asia, and there put to death. But according to
the most probable account, he escaped to
Cyprus, where he died (Lys. de Bon. Arist.
41-44; Nep. Con. 5; Isocr. Paneg. 41). — 2.
Son of Timotheus, grandson of the preceding,
lived about 318. — 3. Of Samos, a distinguished
mathematician and astronomer, Uved in the
time of the Ptolemies Philadelphus and
Euergetes (b.c. 283—222), and was the friend of
Archimedes, who praises him in the highest
terms. None of his works are preserved.
(Catull. 66, 7 ; Verg. Eel. iii. 40 ; Sen. Q. N.
vii. 3.) — 4. A grammarian of the age of Augus
tus, author of a work entitled Ainyfio-eis, a
collection of fifty narratives relating to the
mythical and heroic period. An epitome of the
work is preserved by Photius.
Conopa (Kuvdira : Kavtcirevs, -irtrTjs, -tralos :

CONSTANTLY
Angelokastron), a village in Aetolia on the
Achelous, enlarged by Arsinoe, wife of Ptolemy
II., and caUed after her name.
Consentes Dii. A hierarchy of twelve gods
is found among various nations of Italy.
Those of the Sabines were named Volcanus,
Volturnus, Palatua, Furrina, Flora, Falacer,
Pomona, Carmentis, Portunusf, and it is said
that Tatius raised altars to them (Serv. ad
Georg. i. 21) : Festus (p. 158) mentions twelve
gods of the Samnites : the twelve gods of the
Etruscans, whose names were concealed from
man, six male and six female, formed the
council of the supreme Jupiter and were caUed
Di Consentes or Complices (Arnob. iii. 40;
Sen. Q. N. ii. 41). At Rome there were also
twelve Di Consentes, whose statues were placed
in the forum, but they differed from the Etrus
can in being spoken of by name and including-
the supreme deities in their number. They
were Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, Minerva, Mars,
Venus, ApoUo, Diana, Vulcanus, Vesta, Mer-
curius, Ceres. (Enn. ap. Apul. de Deo Socrat.
ii. 6; Varr. B. B. i. 1, 4 ; C. I. L. vi. 102; cf.
Liv. xxii. 10.) The name Consentes (cum —
esse; cf. praesens) signified 'coUeagues,' and
the title was at a later time given to Mithras as
being received into the circle of Roman deities
(C. I. L. vi. 736).
Consentia (Consentlnus : Cosenza), chief
town of the Bruttii on the river Crathis : here
Alaric died.
P. Consentius, a Roman grammarian, flour
ished in the 5th century a.d. and is the author
of two extant grammatical works, one pubUshed
in the collection of grammarians by Putschius,,
Hanov. 1605 (De Duabus Partibus Orationis,.
Nomine et Verbo), and the other by Buttmann,
Berol. 1817.
C. Considius Longns, propraetor in Africa,
left his province shortly before the breaking'
out of the civU war b.c. 49, entrusting the
government to Q. Ligarius (Cic. pro Lig. 1).
He returned to Africa soon afterwards, and
held Adrumetum for the Pompeian party-
After the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus,
he attempted to fly into Mauretania, but was-
murdered by the Gaetulians (Bell. Afr. 93).
Constans, youngest of the three sons of
Constantine the Great and Fausta, received
after his father's death (a.d. 337) Hlyricum,.
Italy, and Africa as his share of the empire-
After successfuUy resisting his brother Con
stantine, who was slain in invading his territory
(340), Constans became master of the whole-
West. His weak and profligate character-
rendered him an object of contempt, and he was-
slain in 850 by the soldiers of the usurper Mag-
nentius. (Aurel. Vict. Caes. 41 ; Zonar. xni. 6.)
Constantia, 1. Daughter of Constantius
Chlorus and half-sister of Constantine the-
Great, married to Licinius, the colleague of
Constantine in the empire. — 2. Daughter of
Constantine II. and grand-daughter of Con
stantine the Great, married the emperor-
Gratian. Constantia, the name of several cities, aU
of which are either of little consequence, or
better known by other names. 1. In Cyprus,
named after Constantius [Salamis]. 2. In
Phoenicia, after the same [Antaradus]. 3. In
Palestine, the port of Gaza, named after the
sister of Constantine the Great, and also called
Magiuna. 4. In Mesopotamia. [Antonino-
polis.] 5. It was also the name of a town in
Rhaetia, the modern Constanz on the lake of
the same name.)

CONSTANTINA
Constantina, daughter of Constantine the
Great and Fausta, married to Hanniballianus,
and after his death to Gallus Caesar.
Constantina, the city. [Cirta.]
Constantinopolis. [Byzantium.]
Constantinus, 1. I., Surnamed ' the Great,'
Roman emperor, a.d. 306-387, eldest son of
the emperor Constantius Chlorus and Helena,
was born A.D. 272, at Naissus (Nissa), a town
in upper Moesia. He was early trained to
arms, and served with great distinction under
Galerius in the Persian war. Galerius became
jealous of him and detained him for some time
in the E. ; but Constantine at last contrived to
join his father in- Gaul just in time to accom
pany him to Britain on his expedition against
the Picts, 806. His father died at York in the
same year, and Constantine laid claim to a
share of the empire. Galerius, who dreaded a
struggle with the brave legions of the West,
acknowledged Constantine as master of the
countries beyond the Alps, but with the title of
Caesar only. The commencement of Constan
tino's reign, however, is placed in this year,
though he did not receive the title of Augustus
till S08. Constantine took up his residence at
Treviri (Treves), where the remains of his
palace are still extant. He governed with
justice and firmness, beloved by his subjects,
and feared by the neighbouring barbarians. It
was not long, however, before he became in
volved in war with his rivals in the empire. In
the same year that he had been acknowledged
Caesar (306), Maxentius, the son of Maximian,
had seized the imperial power at Rome. Con
stantine entered into a close alhance with
Maxentius by marrying his sister Fausta.
But in 310 Maximian formed a plot against
Constantine, and was put to death by his son-
in-law at MassiUa. Maxentius resented the
death of his father, and began to make prepa
rations to attack Constantine in Gaul. Con
stantine anticipated his movements, and in
vaded Italy at the head of a large army. The
struggle was brought to a close by the defeat of
Maxentius at the vUlage of Saxa Rubra near
Rome, October 27th, 312. Maxentius tried to
escape over the MUvian bridge into Rome, but
perished in the river. It was in this campaign
that Constantine is said to have been converted
to Christianity. On his march from the North to
Rome, either at Autun in Gaul, or near Ander-
nach on the Rhine, or at Verona, he is said to
have seen in the sky a luminous cross with the
inscription iv roina v'iKa, By this Conquer;
and on the night before the last and decisive
battle with Maxentius, a vision is said to have
appeared to Constantine in his sleep, bidding
him inscribe the shields of his soldiers with the
sacred monogram of the name of Christ. The
tale of the cross seems to have grown out of
that of the vision, and even the latter is not
entitled to credit. The story rests on the
authority of Eusebius (Vit. Const, i. 28-30),
who does not repeat it in his Hist. Eccles. It
was Constantine' s interest to gain the affec
tions of his numerous Christian subjects in his
struggle with his rivals ; and it was probably
only self-interest which led him at first to
adopt Christianity. But whether sincere or
not in his conversion, his conduct did little
credit to the religion which he professed.
His conversion was commemorated by the im
perial standard of the Labarum, at the sum
mit of which was the monogram of the name
of Christ. Constantine, by his victory over
Maxentius, became sole master of the West.

CONSTANTINUS

247

Meantime important events took place in
the_ East. On the death of Galerius in 811,
Licinius and Maximinus had divided the East
between them; but in 313 a war broke out
between them, Maximin was defeated, and died
at Tarsus. Thus there were only two emperors
left, Licinius in the East and Constantine in
the West ; and between them war broke out in
814, although Licinius had married in the
preceding year Constantia, the sister of Con
stantine. Licinius was defeated at Cibalis in
Pannonia and afterwards at Adrianople. Peace
was then concluded on condition that Licinius
should resign to Constantine Illyricum, Mace
donia, and Achaia, 814. This peace continued
undisturbed for nine years, during whioh time
Constantine was frequently engaged in war
with the barbarians on the Danube and the
Rhine. In these wars his son Crispus greatly
distinguished himself. In 823 the war between
Constantine and Licinius was renewed. Lici
nius was again defeated in two great battles,
first near Adrianople, and again at Chalcedon.
He surrendered himself to Constantine on
condition of having his life spared, but he was
shortly afterwards put to death at Thessalo-
nica by order of Constantine. Constantine
was now sole master of the empire. He
resolved to remove the seat of empire to
Byzantium, which he called after his own name
Constantinople, or the City of Constantine.
Among the evidences of his wisdom and
capacity the choice of this site for his capital is

Constantinus I. the Great, Roman Emperor A.D. 3
On the reverse, Victory crowning him.
not the least remarkable. The new city was
solemnly dedicated in 830. Constantine
reigned in peace for the remainder of his life.
In 325 he supported the orthodox bishops at the
great Christian council of Nicaea (Nice),
which condemned the Arian doctrine by adopt
ing the word bpoovaiov. In 324 he put to
death his eldest son, Crispus, on a charge of
treason, the truth of which, however, seems very
doubtful. He died in May, 337, having been
baptised shortly before his death by Eusebius.
His three sons Constantine, Constantius and
Constans succeeded him in the empire. (Aurel.
Vict. Caes. 40 ; Zos. ii. ; Zonar. xiii. ; Oros. vii. ;
Amm. Marc, xiv.; Euseb. Vita Gonstantini.)
— 2. II., Roman emperor, 337-840, eldest of the
three sons of Constantine the Great, by Fausta,
received Gaul, Britain, Spain, and part of
Africa at his father's death. Dissatisfied with
his share of the empire, he made war upon his
younger brother Constans, who governed Italy,
but was defeated and slain near Aquileia.
(Zosim. vi. ; Zonar.)— 3. A usurper, who as
sumed the purple in Britain in the reign of
Arcadius and Honorius, 407. He also obtained
possession of Gaul and Spain, and took up his
residence in the former country. He reigned
four years, but was defeated in 411, by Con
stantius, the general of Honorius, was taken
prisoner and carried to Ravenna, where he was
put to death. (Zosim. vi.; Oros. vii. 40.)— 4.
Constantine is likewise the name of many of
the later emperors of Constantinople. Of these

248

CONSTANTIUS

Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus, who reigned
911-959, was celebrated for his literary works,
many of which have come down to us.
Constantius. 1. I., Surnamed Chlorus, ' the
pale,' Roman emperor, a.d. 305-306, was the
son of Eutropius, a noble Dardanian, and of
Claudia, daughter of Crispus, brother of Clau
dius II. He was one of the two Caesars
appointed by Maximian and Diocletian in 292,
and received the government of Britain, Gaul,
and Spain, with Treviri (Treves) as his resi
dence. At the same time he married Theodora,
the daughter of the wife of Maximian, divorcing
for that purpose his wife Helena. As Caesar
he rendered the empire important services.
His first effort was to reunite Britain to the
empire, which after the murder of Carausius
was governed by Allectus. After a struggle of
three years (293-296) with Allectus, Constan
tius, established his authority in Britain. He
was equally successful against the Alemanni,
whom he defeated with great loss. Upon the
abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, in 305,
Constantius and Galerius became the Augusti.
Constantius died 15 months afterwards (July,
306) at Eboracum (York) in Britain on an
expedition against the Picts, in which he was
accompanied by his son Constantine, afterwards
the Great, who succeeded him in his share of
the government. (Aurel. Vict. Caes. 39 ; Eutrop.
ix. 14-23 ; Zosim. ii. 7.) — 2. II., Roman em
peror 337-361, third son of Constantine the
Great by his second wife, Fausta. On the
death of his father in 337, he received the East
as his share of the empire, and became in
volved in war with the Persians, which was
carried on during the greater part of his
reign. This war prevented him from taking
any part in the struggle between his brothers
Constantine and Constans, which ended in the
defeat and death of the former, and the acces
sion of the latter to the sole empire of the
West, 340. After the death of Constans in 350,
Constantius marched into the West in order to
oppose Magnentius and Vetranio, both of whom
had assumed the purple . Vetranio submitted
to Constantius, and Magnentius was finally
crushed in 353. Thus the whole empire again
became subject to one ruler. In 854 Constan
tius put to death his cousin Gallus, whom he
had left in command of the East, while he
marched against the usurpers in the West. In
355 Constantius made Julian, the brother of
Gallus, Caesar, and sent him into Gaul to
oppose the barbarians. In 360 Julian was pro
claimed Augustus by the soldiers at Paris.
Constantinus prepared for war and set out for
Europe, but died on his march in Cilicia, 361.
He was succeeded by Julian. (Amm. Marc, xiv-
xxi. ; Zosim. ii., iii. ; Agath. iv.) — 3. III., Em
peror of the West (a.d. 421), a distinguished
general of Honorius. He defeated the usurper
Constantine in 411, and also fought successfully
against the barbarians. He was rewarded for
these services with the hand of Placidia, the
sister of Honorius. In 421 he was declared
Augustus by Honorius, but died in the 7th
month of his reign. (Zosim. vi. ; Oros. vii. 42.)
Consus, an ancient Italian divinity, who was
wrongly identified with Neptunus Equester
= TlooeiSav "lirwios (Liv. i. 9 ; Dionys. ii. 81 ;
Plut. Q. B. 45 ; Strab. p. 230 ; cf. Auson. Ep. 69,
9). There can be little doubt that this idea
came from the use of horses in his festival
and that Consus was a primitive Italian deity
connected with the earth and agriculture. He
belonged to the circle of ancient deities, Sa-

CORA
turn, Janus and Terminus, his festival was at
the harvest season, and the practice of keep
ing his altar at the end of the Circus Maxi
mus (Varr. L. L. vi. 20; Tac. Ann. xii. 24),
always covered with earth except during the
days of his festival indicated the god of the
Earth (Plut. Bom. 14; TertuU. de Spect. 5;
Diet. Ant. s.v. Consualia). The Latin writers
explained his name by regarding him as the
god of good counsel, and said that he advised
the rape of the Sabines (Ov. Fast. iii. 199 ; Serv.
ad Aen. viii. 636). This shows the antiquity of
the worship : as to the name, it is perhaps con
nected with consero, consivia, Consus being the
god of seed-time and harvest:
Contrebia, one of the chief towns of the
Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraconensis, SE. of

Convenae, a people in Aquitania near the
Pyrenees and on both sides of the Garumna, a
mixed race which had served under Sertorius,
and were settled in Aquitania by Pompey.
They possessed the Jus Latii. Their chief town
was Lugdunum (St. Bertrand de Gomminges),
situated on a solitary rock : in its neighbour
hood were celebrated warm baths, Aquae
Convenarum (Bagnires). (Strab. p. 190.)
Copae (Kw7rcu: Kairaievs: nr. Topoglia), an
ancient town in Boeotia on the N. side of the
lake Copais, which derived its name from this
place. It was originally situated on an island
in the lake, subsequently connected with the
mainland by a mole. (Thuc. iv. 93 ; Paus. ix. 24.)
Copais (Kairats Xlpvn), a lake in Boeotia,
and the largest lake in Greece, formed chiefly
by the river Cephisus, the waters of which are
emptied into the Euboean sea by several sub
terraneous canals, called Katavothra by the
modern Greeks. The lake was originaUy called
Cephisis, under which name it occurs in Ho
mer (II. v. 709), and subsequently different
parts of it were called after the towns situ
ated on it, Haliartus, Orchomenus, Onchestus,
Copae, &c. ; but the name Copais became the
most common, because near Copae the waters
of the lake are the deepest and are never dried
up. In the summer the greater part of the
lake is dry, and becomes a green meadow, in
which cattle are pastured. The eels of this
lake were much prized in antiquity, and they
retain their celebrity in modern times.
Cophen or Cophes (Kacpr)v Arrian, Kdfris
Strab. : Cabul), the only large tributary river
which flows into the Indus from the W. It
was the boundary between India and Ariana.
C. Coponius, praetor b.c. 49, fought on the
side of Pompey ; he was proscribed by the
triumvirs in 43, but his wife obtained his
pardon from Antony by the sacrifice of her
honour (Appian, B. G. iii. 40).
Coprates (KoirpdrTis : Abzal), a river of Su-
siana, flowing from the N. into the Pasitigris
on itsW. side (Strab. p. 729).
Copreus (Koirpevs), son of Pelops, who after
murdering Iphitus, fled to Mycenae, where he
was purified by Eurystheus (II. xv. 639).
Coptos (Koirrbs : Koft, Ru.), a city of the
Thebais or Upper Egypt, lay a little to the E.
of the Nile, some distance below Thebes.
Under the Ptolemies, it was the central point of
the commerce with Arabia and India, by way
of Berenice and Myos-Hormos. It was de
stroyed by Diocletian, but again became a
considerable place. The neighbourhood was
celebrated for its emeralds and other precious
stones, and produced also a light wine.
Cora (Coranus: Cori), an ancient town in

CORACESIUM
Latium in the Volscian mountains, SE. of
Velitrae, said to have been founded by the
Argive Corax. At Cori are remains of Cyclo-
pian walls and of a temple. (Verg. Aen. vi. 766 ;
Liv.ii. 16; Dionys. v. 61 ; Propert. iv. 10, 26.)
Coraeeslum (KopaKf)<riov : Alaya), a very
strong city of Cilicia Aspera, on the borders of
Pamphylia, standing upon a steep rock, and
possessing a good harbour. It was the only
place in Cilicia which opposed a successful resis
tance to Alexander : it became at last the head
quarters of the Cilician pirates, and was taken
by Pompey. (Strab. p. 668 ; Plut. Pomp. 28.)
Corassiae (Kopao-oiai), a group of smaU
islands in the Iearian sea, SW. of Icaria. They
must not be confounded, as they often are, with
Corseae or Corsiae (KApaeai or Kipo-iai), off the
Ionian coast and opposite the promontory Am
pelus in Samos. (Strab. pp. 448, 636. )
Corax (Kopa|), a Sicilian rhetorician, who
by his oratorical powers became the leading
man in Syracuse, after the expulsion of Thrasy-
bulus, B.C. 467. He wrote the earliest work on
the art of rhetoric, and his treatise (entitled
Texvri) was celebrated in antiquity. (Aristot.
Bhet. ii. 24; Cic. de Or. i. 20, 91, iii. 21, 81,
Brut. 12, 45 ; Quintil. iii. 1.)
Corbio (Bocca Priore), an ancient city of
Latium on the NE. side of the Alban lulls,
about 8 mUes from Tusculum. It was first a
Latin, then an Aequian city, and is said to have
been destroyed by the Romans B.C. 457.
{Dionys. v. 61, x. 24 ; Liv. ii. 39, iii. 28.)
Corbulo, Cn. Domitius, a distinguished
general under Claudius and Nero. His sister
Caesonia was married to the Emperor Caligula.
In a.d. 47 he carried on war in Germany with
success, but his fame rests chiefly upon his
glorious campaigns against the Parthians in
the reign of Nero, against Vologaeses and Tiri
dates. Though beloved by the army, he con
tinued faithful to Nero, but his only reward
was death. Nero, who had become jealous of
his fame and influence, invited him to Corinth.
As soon as he landed at Cenchreae, he was in
formed that orders had been issued for his
death, whereupon he plunged his sword into his
breast exclaiming, ' WeU deserved ! ' It is pro
bable that it is the same Domitius Corbulo
of whom Tacitus speaks as praetor in a.d. 21
(cf. Dio Cass. Ux. 15). (Tac. Ann. iii. 81, ix. 18,
xiii. 6, 34, xiv. 22, Xv. 1, 26 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 19,
lxiii. i7.) Juvenal speaks of his great bodily
size (iii. 251).
Corcyra (KepKvpa, later KSpKvpa : KepKvpaios :
Corfu, from the Byzantine Kopvipd), an island
in the Ionian sea, off the coast of Epirus, about
38 miles in length, but of very unequal breadth.
It is generally mountainous, but possesses many
fertile valleys. Its two chief towns were Cor
cyra, the modern town of Corfu, in the middle
of the E. coast, and Cassiope, N. of the former.
The ancients universaUy regarded this island
as the Homeric Scheria ('Sxep'iv)t where the
enterprising and sea-loving Phaeacians dwelt,
governed by their king Alcinous (Od. v. 34 ;
Thuc. i. 25). The island is said to have also
borne the name of Drepane (Apeirdvn) or the
' Sickle ' in ancient times. About B.C. 700 it
was colonised by the Corinthians under Chersi-
crates, one of the Bacchiadae, who drove out
the Liburnians, who were then inhabiting the
island. It soon became rich and powerful by
its extensive commerce ; it founded many
colonies on the opposite coast, Epidamnus,
Apollonia, Leucas, Anactorium ; and it exer
cised such influence in the Ionian and Adriatic

CORFINIUM 249
seas as to becomo a formidable rival to Corinth.
Thus the two states early became involved in
war, and about B.C. 664 a battle was fought
between them, memorable as the most ancient
sea-fight noticed by Greek historians. At a later
period Corcyra by invoking the aid of Athens
against the Corinthians became one of the
proximate causes of the Peloponnesian war,
481. Shortly afterwards her power declined
in consequence of civil dissensions, in which
both the aristocratical and popular parties were
guilty of the most horrible atrocities against
each other (Thuc. iv. 46). It is mentioned
as under the sway of Athens in 375 B.C. (Xen.
Hell. v. 4, 64, vi. 2, 8). It fell later successively

Coin of Corcyra, of 4th cent. B.C.
Obv., cow suckling calf ; rev., ' Gardens of Alcinous,' and
legend Ko/>.
under the power of Agathocles, Pyrrhus, and
the Hlyrian Greek Teuta, from whose general
Demetrius the Romans took it B.C. 229 (Pol. ii.
9, Appian, III. 8). It seems to have been ad
ministered by a non-senatorial praefectus, sub
ject to the proconsul of GaUia Cisalpina at one
time and of Macedonia at another (Pol. xxii.
15) : in the time of Caesar to the former. Under
the empire it was attached to the province called
variously Hlyricum and Dalmatia.
Corcyra Nigra (Curzola, in Slavonic Kar-
kar) an island off the coast of Illyricum, sur
named the ' Black,' on account of its numerous
forests, to distinguish it from the more cele
brated Corcyra. It contained a Greek town
of the same name founded by Cnidos. (Strab.
pp. 124,^315.)
Corduba (Cordova), one of the largest cities
in Spain, and the capital of Baetica, on the right
bank of the Baetis ; made a Roman colony B.C.
152, and received the surname Patricia, because
some Roman patricians settled there ; taken by
Caesar in 45 because it sided with the Pom-
peians ; birthplace of the two Senecas and of
Lucan. It was the residence of the proconsul
of Baetica or Hisp. Ulterior (C. I. L. ii. p. 306 ;
Plin. iii. 10; Strab. p. 141).
Corduene. [Gordyene.]
Cordus, Cremutius, a Roman historian under
Augustus and Tiberius, was accused in a.d. 25
of having praised Brutus and denominated
Cassius ' the last of the Romans.' As the em
peror had determined upon his death, he put
an end to his own life by starvation. His works
were condemned to be burnt, but some copies
were preserved by his daughter Marcia and by
his friends. (Tac. Ann. iv. 34 ; Suet. Tib. 61,
Cal. 16 ; Sen. Suas. 7.)
Core (K6p7i), the Maiden, a name by which
Persephone is often called. [Persephone.]
CoreBSUS (K6peo-<ros). 1. A lofty mountain in
Ionia, 40 stadia from Ephesus, with a place of
the same name at its foot.— 2. A town of Ceos.
Corfinium (Corfiniensisl, chief town of the
Peligni in Samnium, not far from the Aternus,
strongly fortified, and memorable as the place
which the Italians in the Social War destined
to be the new capital of Italy in place of Rome,
on which account it was called Italica (Strab.
p. 241 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 16). It was a strong for-

250

CORINNA

tress in B.C. 49, surrendered after a week's siege
to Caesar by Domitius (Caes. B. G. i. 15-23).
Its site is occupied by the modern Penti/ma.
Corinna (Kbpivva), a Greek poetess, of Tana-
gra in Boeotia, sometimes caUed the Theban on
account of her long residence in Thebes. She
flourished about B.C. 490, and was a contempo
rary of Pindar, whom she is said to have in
structed, and over whom she gained a victory
at the public games at Thebes. Her poems
were written in the Aeolic dialect. They were
collected in five books, and were chiefly lyrical.
Fragments in Bergk, Poet. Lyric.
Corinthiacus Isthmus ('lo-Bpbs KopivBov),
often called simply the Isthmus, lay between
the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs, and connected
the Peloponnesus with the mainland or Hellas
proper. In its narrowest part it was 40 stadia
or 5 Roman miles across : here was the temple
of Poseidon ; here the Isthmian games were cele
brated ; andhere also was the Diolcos (AioXKOs),
or roads by which ships were dragged across
from the bay of Schoenus to the harbour of
Lechaeum. Four unsuccessful attempts were
made to dig a canal across the Isthmus — namely,
by Demetrius Poliorcetes, Julius Caesar, Cali
gula, and Nero.
Corinthiacus Sinus (KopivBiaKbs or KopivBios
kAxttos : G. of Lepanto), the gulf between the
N. of Greece and Peloponnesus, begins, accord
ing to some, at the mouth of the Achelous in
Aetolia and the promontory Araxus in Achaia,
according to others, at the straits between
Rhium and Antirrhium. In early times it was
called the Crissaean Gulf (Kpio-aa'ios kAXttos),
and its eastern part the Alcyonian Sea (ti
'AXkvovIs BdXaa-Q-a).
Corinthus (KbpivBos: KopivBios), called in
Homer Ephyra ('Etpipn, 11. vi. 152, 210), a city
on the above-mentioned Isthmus. Its terri
tory, called Corinthia (KopivBia), embraced the

CORINTHUS
of this mountain ; and the waUs, which in
cluded the Acrocorinthus, were 86 stadia in
circumference. It had two harbours, Cenchre ae
on the E. or Saronic gulf, and Lechaeum on
the W. or Crissaean gulf. Its favourable posi
tion between two seas, the difficulty of carrying
goods round Peloponnesus, and the facility
with which they could be transported across
the Isthmus, raised Corinth in very early times
to great commercial prosperity, and made it the
emporium of the trade between Europe and
Asia. Its navy was numerous and powerful.
At Corinth the first triremes were buUt, and the
first sea-fight mentioned by Greek writers was
between the Corinthians and the Corcyraeans.
Its greatness at an early period is attested by
numerous colonies, such as Ambracia ,Corcyra,
Apollonia, and Potidaea. It was adorned with
magnificent buUdings, and in no other city of
Greece, except Athens, were the fine arts
prosecuted with so much vigour and success.
Its commerce brought great wealth to its in
habitants ; but with their wealth, they became
luxurious and licentious. Thus the worship
of Aphrodite prevailed in this city, and in
her temples a vast number of courtesans .
was maintained. — Corinth was originally in
habited by the Aeolic race. Here ruled the
Aeolic Sisyphus and his descendants (Paus. ii.
3, 10). The legend that Medea ruled here be
fore SiByphus may, as some think, imply the
worship of the Phoenician sun-god Moloch in
this place. On the conquest of Peloponnesus by
the Dorians, the royal power passed into the
hands of the Heraclid Aletes. The conquering
Dorians became the ruling class, and the
Aeolian inhabitants, forming five out of the
eight tribes at Corinth, were subject to them.
After Aletes and his descendants had reigned
for five generations, royalty was aboUshed ; and
in its stead was established an oligarchical

View of Corinth and the Acrocorinthus.

greater part of the Isthmus with the adjacent
part of the Peloponnesus : it was bounded N.
by Megaris and the Corinthian gulf, S. by
Argolis, W. by Sicyonia and Phliasia, and E. by
the Saronic gulf. In the N. and S. the country
is mountainous, but in the centre it is a plain
with a solitary and steep mountain rising from
it, the Acrocorinthus ('AnpoKApivBos), 1,900 feet
in height, which served as the citadel of Co
rinth. The city itself was built on the N. side

form of government, confined to the powerful
family of the Bacchiadae. This famUy was ex
pelled b.c. 655 by Cypselus, who became tyrant
and reigned thirty years. He was succeeded,
625, by his son, Periandeb, who reigned forty
years. On the death of the latter, 585, his
nephew Psammetichus reigned for three years,
and on his fall in 581, the government again.
became oligarchic, with a supreme council of
eighty, of whom eight were prytanes. In the)

CORIOLANUS
Peloponnesian war Corinth was one of the
bitterest enemies of Athens. In 846 Timophanes
attempted to make himself master of the city,
but he was slain by his brother Timoleon. It
maintained its independence till the time of the
Macedonian supremacy, when its citadel was
garrisoned by Macedonian troops. This garri
son was expeUed by Aratus in 248, whereupon
Corinth joined the Achaean League, to which it

CORNIFICIUS

251

Coin of Corinth, of 4th cent. B.C.
Obv., Pegasus, under which Kopna, the initial of the city's
name in early times, and retained on its coinage; rev.,
head of Pallas.
continued to belong, tiU it was taken and de
stroyed in 146 by L. Mummius, the Roman con
sul, who treated it in the most barbarous
manner. Its inhabitants were sold as slaves ;
its works of art which were not destroyed by
the Roman soldiery were conveyed to Rome ;
its buddings were razed to the ground; and
thus was destroyed the lumen totius Graeciae,
as Cicero calls the city. For a century it lay in
ruins ; only the buUdmgs on the Acropolis and
a few temples remained standing. In 46 it was
rebuilt by Caesar, who peopled it with a colony
of veterans and descendants of freedmen. It
was now caUed Colonia Julia Corinthus and
became the capital of the Roman province of
Achala. Coriolanus, the hero of one of the most beau
tiful of the early Roman legends. His original
name was C. or Cn. Marcius, and he received
the surname Coriolanus from the heroism he
displayed at the capture of Corioli. [Scipio
was apparently the first historical person who
received a surname for a conquest.] His
haughty bearing towards the commons excited
their fear and dislike, and when he was a candi
date for the consulship, they refused to elect
him. After this, when there was a famine in the
city, and a Greek prince sent corn from Sicily,
Coriolanus advised that it should not be dis
tributed to the commons, unless they gave up
their tribunes. For this he was impeached and
condemned to exUe, B.C. 491. He now took
refuge among the Volscians, and promised
to assist them in war against the Romans.
Attius TuUius, the king of the Volscians, appoin
ted Coriolanus general of the Volscian army.
Coriolanus took many towns, and advanced
unresisted tiU he came to the fossa Cluilia, or
Cluilian dyke, close to Rome, 439. Here he en
camped, and the Romans in alarm sent to him
embassy after embassy, consisting of the most
distinguished men of the state. But he would
listen to none of them. At length the noblest
matrons of Rome, headed by Veturia, the mother
of Coriolanus, and Volumnia his wife, with his
two little children, came to his tent. His
mother's reproaches, and the tears of his wife
and the other matrons, bent his purpose. He
led back his army, and lived in exile among the
Volscians till his death ; though other tradi
tions relate that he was killed by the Volscians
on his return to their country. (Plut. Corio
lanus ; Liv. ii. 34-40 ; Dionys. vii. 20.)
Corioli (Coriolanus), a town in Latium, of
which, according to the legend, the Volsci had

gained possession. From its capture in b.c.
492, C. Marcius is said to have obtained the-
surname of Coriolanus. It was certainly a
Latin town in 498. Before 443 it had been
destroyed (Liv. iii. 71).
Cormasa (Kdppao-a), an inland town of Pam
phylia, or Pisidia, taken by the consul Manlius.
Cornelia. 1. One of the noble women at
Rome guilty of poisoning the leading men of
the state, b.c. 831 (Liv. viii. 18).— 2. Elder-
daughter of P. Scipio Africanus the elder,
married to P. Scipio Nasica. — 3. Younger sister
of No. 2, married to Ti. Sempronius Gracchus,.
censor 169, was by him the mother of the two
tribunes Tiberius and Caius. She was virtuous
and accomplished, and united in her person the
severe virtues of the old Roman matron, with
the superior knowledge and refinement which
then began to prevail in the higher classes at
Rome. She superintended with the greatest
care the education of her sons, whom she sur
vived. She was almost idolised by the people,
who erected a statue to her, with the inscription
Cornelia, Mother op the Gracchi. (Plut. Ti.
Gracch. 1, 8, G. Gracch. 4, 19 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 7.)
— 4. Daughter of L. Cinna, married to C.
Caesar, afterwards dictator. She bore him his
daughter Julia, and died in his quaestorship, 68..
— 5. Daughter of MeteUus Scipio, married first
to P. Crassus, the son of the triumvir, who
perished in the expedition against the Par
thians, 53. Next year she married Pompey the
Great, by whom she was tenderly loved. She
accompanied Pompey to Egypt after the battle
of Pharsalia, and saw him murdered. (Plut.
Pomp. 55, 78 ; Appian, B. C. ii. 83 ; Lucan, iii.
28, viii. 40.) She afterwards returned to Rome,,
and received from Caesar the ashes of her hus
band, which she preserved on his Alban estate.
Cornelia Orestilla. [Orestllla.]
Cornelia Gens, the most distinguished of all
the Roman gentes. All its great families be
longed to the patrician order. The names of
the patrician families are : — Arvina, Cethegus,.
Cinna, Cossus, Dolabella, Lentulus, Malu-
ginensis, Mammula, Merula, Rupinus, Scipio,
Sisenna, and Sulla. The names of the ple
beian families are Balbus and Gallus, and we
also find various cognomens, as Chrysogonus^
&c. given to freedmen of this gens.
Cornelius Nepos. [Nepos.]
Corniculum (Corniculanus), atown in Latium,
taken and destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus,
and celebrated as the residence of the parents
of Servius TuUius (Liv. i. 38).
Cornificius. 1. Q., a friend of Cicero, was
tribune of the plebs, B.C. 69, and one of Cicero's
competitors for the consulship in 64. When the
Catilinarian conspirators were arrested, Cethe
gus was committed to his care. (Sail. Cat. 47 ;
Cic. Att. i. 1.)— 2. Q., son of No. 1. In the
civil war (48) he was quaestor of Caesar, who
sent him into IUyricum with the title of pro
praetor : he reduced this province to obedience.
In 45 he was appointed by Caesar governor of
Syria, and in 44 governor of the province of Old
Africa, where he was at the time of Caesar's
death. He maintained this province for the
senate, but on the establishment of the trium
virate was defeated and slain in battle by T.
Sextius (Bell. Alex. 42 ; Appian, B. C. iii. 85,
iv. 53). Cornificius was well versed in litera
ture. The authorship of the ' Rhetorica ad
Herennium' (usually printed with Cicero's
works) has been with some probability attribu
ted to him (cf. Quintil. iii. 1, 21, v. 10, 2, ix. 2,
27, and ad Herenn. iv. 25, 48), but this is only a.

"252

CORNUS

¦conjecture  3. L., one of the generals of Oc
tavianus in the war against Sex. Pompey, and
¦consul 35.
Cornus, a town on the W. of Sardinia.
Cornutus, I. Annaeus, a distinguished Stoic
phUosopher, was born at Leptis in Libya. He
came to Rome, probably as a slave, and was
¦emancipated by the Annaei. He was the teacher
and friend of the poet Persius, who has dedi
cated his fifth satire to him, and who left him
his library and money. He was banished by
Nero, a.d. 68, for having too freely criticised
the literary attempts of the emperor. He wrote
a large number of works, of which the most im
portant was on Aristotle's Categories. His
only remaining work is atreatise on the Nature
of the Gods (Osannus, Gb'tting. 1844).
Coroebus (KApoiBos). 1. A Phrygian, son of
Mygdon, loved Cassandra, and for that reason
fought on the side of the Trojans : he was slain
by Neoptolemus or Diomedes (Verg. Aen. ii.
341 ; Paus. ix. 27). — 2. An Elean, who gained
the victory in the stadium at the Olympic
games, B.C. 776 : from this time the Olympiads
begin to be reckoned (Strab. p. 355 ; Paus. i.
43). 
Corone (Kopdvri : Kopavevs, -vaievs), a town in
Messenia on the W. side of the Messenian gulf,
founded B.C. 371 by the Messenians after their
return to their native country, with the assis
tance of the Thebans : it possessed several
public buildings, and in its neighbourhood was
a celebrated temple of Apollo (Strab. p. 360 ;
Paus. iv. 34).
Coronea (Kopdveia : Kopavaios, Kopdveios,
¦vios), 1. A town in Boeotia, SW. of the lake
Copais, situate on a height between the rivers
Phalarus and Curalius ; a member of the
Boeotian League ; in its neighbourhood was the
temple of Athene Itonica, where the festival of
the Pamboeotia was celebrated. Near Coronea
the Boeotians gained a memorable victory over
the Athenians under Tolmides, B.C. 447 ; and
here Agesilaus defeated the allied Greeks, 394.
(II. ii. 503; Thuc. i. 113; Xen. Hell. iv. 3;
Strab. p. ill.)-r-2. A town in Phthiotis in
Thessaly_ (Strab. p. 434).
Coronis (Kopavis). 1. The mother of Ascle
pius. — 2. Daughter of Phoroneus, king of Pho
cis, metamorphosed by Athene into a crow,
when pursued by Poseidon.
Corseae. [Corassiae.]
Corsia {Kopaeia, also Kopo-iai), a town in
Boeotia on the borders of Phocis.
Corsica, called Cyrnus by the Greeks (Kipvos,
Kiipvios, Kvpvaios, Corsus : Corsica), an island
N. of Sardinia, spoken of by the ancients as one
cf the seven large islands in the Mediterranean.
The ancients, however, exaggerate for the most
part the size of the island ; its greatest length
is 116 miles, and its greatest breadth about 51.
It is mountainous and was not much cultivated
in antiquity. A range of mountains running
from S. to N. separates it into two parts, of
which the E. half was more cultivated, while the
W. half was covered almost entirely with wood.
Honey and wax were the principal productions
of the island ; but the honey had a bitter taste
from the yew-trees with which the island aboun
ded (Cyrneas taxos, Verg. Eel. ix. 30). The
inhabitants were a rude mountain race, addic
ted to robbery, and paying little attention to
agriculture. Even in the time of the Roman
-empire their character had not much improved,
as we see from the description of Seneca, who
was banished to this island. The most ancient
inhabitants appear to have been Iberians ; but

CORYBANTES
in early times Ligurians, Tyrrhenians, Car
thaginians, and even Greeks [Aleria], settled
in the island. It was subject to the Cartha
ginians at the commencement of the first Punic
war, but in B.C. 238 passed into the hands of the
Romans, and subsequently formed a part of the
Roman province of Sardinia. The Romans
founded several colonies in the island, of which
the most important were Mariana and Aleria
(Plin. iii. 80).
Corsote (Kopo-arf) : Ersey, Ru.), a city of
Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, near the
mouth of the Mascas or Saocoras (Wady-el-
Seba), which Xenophon found already deserted
(Anab. i. 5, 4).
Cortona (Cortonensis : Cortona), one of the
twelve cities of Etruria, lay NW. of the Trasi-
mene lake, and was one of the most ancient
cities in Italy. It is said to have been originaUy
caUed Corythus from its reputed founder Cory-
thus, who is represented as the father of Dar-
danus (Verg. Aen. iii. 167, vii. 206 ; Sil. Ital. iv.
721). It is also called Croton, Cotliornia,
Cyrtonium, &c. (Dionys. i. 26). The Creston
mentioned by Herodotus (i. 57) was probably
Creston in Thrace and not Cortona, as many
modern writers have supposed. Crotona is
said to have been originally founded by the Um-
brians, then to have been conquered by the
Pelasgians, and subsequently to have passed
into the hands of the Etruscans, and was one of
their twelve cities (Liv. ix. 37). It was after
wards colonised by the Romans, but under their
dominion sank into insignificance. The remains
of the Pelasgic walls of this city are some of
the most remarkable in all Italy : there is one
fragment 120 feet in length, composed of blocks
of enormous magnitude.
Coruncanius, Ti., consul b.c. 280, with P.
Valerius Laevinus, fought with success against
the Etruscans and Pyrrhus. He was the first
plebeian who was created pontifex maximus
(Appian, Samn. 10, 3 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 128 ; Liv.
Ep. 18). He was one of th ¦ most remarkable
men of his age, possessed a profound knowledge
of pontifical and civil law, and was the first
person at Rome who gave regular instruction in
law (Cic. N. D. ii. 66, 165, Brut. 14, 55).
Corvinus Messala. [Messala.]
Corvus, M. Valerius, one of the most illus
trious men in the early history of Rome. He
obtained the surname of Corvus, or ' Raven,'
because, when serving as a military tribune
under Camillus, B.C. 349, he accepted the
challenge of a gigantic Gaul to single combat,
and was assisted in the conflict by a raven
which settled upon his helmet, and flew in the
face of the barbarian. He was six times consul,
B.C. 348, 346, 343, 335, 300, 299, and twice dic
tator, 342, 301, and by his military abilities
rendered the most memorable services to his
country. His most briUiant victories were
gained in his third consulship, 343, when he
defeated the Samnites at Mt. Gaurus and at
Suessula; and in his other consulships he
repeatedly defeated the Etruscans and other
enemies of Rome. He reached the age of 100
years, and is frequently referred to as a me
morable example of the favours of fortune.
(Liv. vii. 26-42, x. 2-11 ; Appian, Samn. 1 ;
Gell. ix. 11 ; Val. Max. viii. 15.)
Corybantes, priests of Cybele or Rhea in
Phrygia, who celebrated her worship with
enthusiastic dances, to the sound of the drum
and the cymbal. They are often confounded
with the Curetes and the Idaean Dactyli, the
attendants of Zeus in Crete. [Curetes.] In

OORYCIA
origin they were said to have been deities or
demigods ; and according to some were chil
dren of Apollo (Strab. p. 466 ; Plut. de Fac.
Lun. S0\.
Coryoia (KapvKla or KapvKls), a nymph, who
became by Apollo the mother of Lycorus or
Lycoreus, and from whom the Corycian Cave
in Mount Parnassus derived its name. The
Muses are sometimes called by the poets Cory-
cides Nymphae.
Corycus (KdpvKos : KapvKios, Corycius). 1.
(Koraka), a high rocky hiU on the coast of
Ionia, forming the SW. promontory of the Ery
thraean peninsula (Thuc. viii. 14 ; Strab. p. 644).
— 2. A city of PamphyUa, near Phaselis and
Mt. Olympus ; colonised afresh by Attalus II.
Philadelphus ; taken, and probably destroyed,
by P. Servilius Isauricus. — 3. (Ru. opp. the
island olKhorgos),& city in Cilicia Aspera, with
a good harbour, between the mouths of the
Lainus and the Calycadnus. Twenty stadia
(2 geog. imles) from the city, was a grotto or
glen in the mountains, called the Corycian Cave
(KapvKiov dvrpov) celebrated by the poets, and
also famous for its saffron. At the distance of
100 stadia (10 geog. miles) from Corycus, was a
promontory of the same name (Strab. p. 670 ;
cf. Pind. Pyth. i. 31 ; Aesch. Pr. 350 ; Verg.
Georg. iv. 127).
Corydallus (KopvSaXXbs : KopvSaXXevs), a de
mus in Attica belonging to the tribe Hippo-
thoontis, situate on the mountain of the same
name, which divides the plain of Athens from
that of Eleusis.
Coryphasinm (Kopvrpdo-iov) a promontory in
Messenia, enclosing the harbour of Pylos on the
N., with a town of the same name upon it.
Corythus (KbpvBos), an Italian hero, son of
Jupiter, husband of Electra, and father of
Iasius and Dardanus, is said to have founded
Corythus (Cortona) (Serv. ad Aen. iii. 167).
Cos, Coos, Cdiis (Kas, Koas: Kaos, Coiis:
Kos, Stanco), one of the islandscaUed Sporades,
lay off the coast of Caria, at the mouth of the
Ceramic Gulf, opposite to Halicarnassus. In
early times it was caUed Meropis and Nymphaea.
It was colonised by AeoUans, but became a
member of the Dorian confederacy. Its chief
city, Cos, stood on the NE. side of the island, in
a beautiful situation, and had a good harbour.
Near it stood the Asclepieum, or temple of
Asclepius, to whom the island was sacred, and
from whom its chief famUy, the Asclepiadae,
claimed their descent. The island was very
fertile; its chief productions were wine, oint
ments, and the light transparent dresses called
' Coae vestes.' It was the birthplace of the
physician Hippocrates, who was an Asclepiad,
of the poet PhUetas, and of the painter Apelles,
whose pictures of Antigonus and of Venus
Anadyomene adorned the Asclepieum. Theo
critus and Herodas were both either born there
or at any rate belonged to the school of poets
connected with the island. Under the Romans,
Cos was favoured by Claudius, who made it a
free state, and by Antoninus Pius, who rebuilt
the city of Cos after its destruction by an earth
quake. (Tac. Ann. xii. 61 ; Paus. viii. 43.)
Cosa or Cossa (Cossanus). 1. (Ansedonia,
about five miles SE. of Orbetello), a city of
Etruria near the sea, with a good harbour,
called Herculis Portus, was a very ancient
place ; and after the fall of Falerii, one of the
twelve Etruscan cities. It was colonised by
the Romans B.C. 278, and received in 197 an
addition of 1000 colonists. There are still
extensive ruins of its waUs and towers, built of

COTTA

258

polygonal masonry. (Verg. Aen. x. 167 ; Liv. Ep.
14, xxvii. 10.)— 2. A town in Lucania near
Thurii (Caes. B. G. iii. 22).
Cosconius. 1, C, praetor in the Social war,
B.C. 89, defeated the Samnites.— 2. C, praetor
in the consulship of Cicero, 68 ; governed in
the following year the province of Further
Spain ; was one of the twenty commissioners,
in 59, to carry into execution the agrarian law
of Julius Caesar, but died in this year (Cic. pro
Sull.li; Val. Max. viii. 1).— 3. C, tribune of
the plebs 59, aedile 57, and one of the judices
at the trial of P. Sextius, 56.
Cosmas (Koo-pds), commonly called Indico-
pleustes (Indian navigator), an Egyptian
monk, flourished in the reign of Justinian,
about A.D. 535. In early life he followed the
employment of a merchant, and visited many
foreign countries, of which he gave an account
in his Toiroypaqjia XpiOTiaviKTi, Topographia
Christiana, in twelve books, of which the
greater part is extant : it has value for its topo
graphy, and its notices of history and manners.
Cosroes. 1. King of Parthia. [Arsaces
XXV.] — 2. King of Persia. [Sassanidae.]
Cossaea (Kooo-ata), a district in and about
M. Zagros, on the NE. side of Susiana, and on
the confines of Media and Persia, inhabited by
a rude, warUke, predatory people, the Cossaei
(Koo-o-aloi), whom the Persian kings never sub
dued, but on the contrary, purchased their
quiet by paying them tribute. Alexander con
quered them (b.c. 325-24), and with difficulty
kept them in subjection : after his death they
soon regained their independence (Strab. p.
744 ; Diod. xvii. 111).
Cossus, Cornelius, the name of several illus
trious Romans in the early history of the
republic. Of these the most celebrated was-
Ser. Cornelius Cossus, consul B.C. 428, who
kUled Lar Tolumnius, the king of the Veii, in
single combat, and dedicated his spoils in the
temple of Jupiter Feretrius — the second of the
three instances in which the spolia opima were
won (Liv. iv. 19, 30 ; Plut. Bom. 16, Marcell.
8 ; Propert. v. 10, 23).
Cossutius, a Roman architect, who rebuilt at
the expense of Antiochus Epiphanes the temple
of the Olympian Zeus at Athens, about B.C.
168 (Liv. xii. 20 ; Vitruv. Praef. vii.).
Cosyra (Pantelaria), also written Cossyra,
Cosyrus, Cosura, Cossura, a small island in the
Mediterranean near Malta (Strab. p. 123 ; Ov.
Fast. iii. 567; Sil. Ital. xiv. 272).
Cothon. [Carthago.]
Cotiso, a king of the Dacians, conquered in
the reign of Augustus by Lentulus (Flor, iv.
12 ; Hor. Od. iii. 8, 18 ; Suet. Aug. 63).
Cotta, Aurelius. 1. C, consul b.c. 252 and
248, in both of which years he fought in Sicily
against the Carthaginians with success (Val.
Max. ii. 7, 4).— 2. C, consul 200, fought agamst
the Boii and the other Gauls in the N. of Italy.
— 3. L., tribune of the plebs 154, and consul
144. — 4. L., consul 119,opposedC. Marius. who
was then tribune of the plebs. — 5. C, was
accused under the Lex Varia, 91, of supporting
the claims of the Italian allies, and went into
voluntary exile. He returned to Rome while
Sulla was dictator, 82 ; and in 75 he was consul
with L. Octavius. He obtained the government
of Gaul, and died immediately after his return
to Rome. He was one of the most distinguished
orators of his time, and is introduced by Cicero
as one of the speakers in the De Oratore and
the De Natura Deorum, in the latter of which
works he maintains the cause of the Academics.

254

COTTA

— 6. M., brother of No. 5, consul 74, with L.
Licinius LucuUus, obtained Bithynia for his
province, and was defeated by Mithridates near
Chalcedon. — 7. L., brother of Nos. 5 and 6,
"praetor 70, when he carried the celebrated law
(Lex Aurelia judiciaria) which entrusted the
judicia to the senators, equites, and tribuni
aerarii. He was consul 65 with L. Manlius
Torquatus, after the consuls elect, P. Sulla and
P. Autronius Paetus, had been condemned of
ambitus. He supported Cicero during his con
sulship, and proposed his recall from exile. In
the civil war he joined Caesar, whom he sur
vived. (Suet. Jul. 79 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 32.)
Cotta, L. Aurunculeius, one of Caesar's
legates in Gaul, perished along with Sabinus in
the attack made upon them by Ambiorix, B.C.
.54. [Ambiorix.]
Cottius, son of Donnus, king of several Li-
gurian tribes in the Cottian Alps, which derived
their name from him. [Alpes.] He submitted
to Augustus, who granted him the sovereignty
over twelve of these tribes, with the title of
Praefectus. Cottius thereupon made roads
-over the Alps, and erected (B.C. 8) at Segusio
(Susa), a triumphal arch in honour of Augustus,
extant at the present day. His authority was
transmitted to his son, upon whom Claudius
conferred the title of king. On his death, his
kingdom was made a Roman province by Nero.
(Amm. Marc. xv. 10 ; Suet. Ner. 18.)
Cottus, a giant with 100 hands, son of Uranus
and Gaea.
Cotyla, L. Varius, one of Antony's most in
timate friends, fought on his side at Mutina,
B.C. 43 (Plut. Ant. 18).
Cotylus (KbrvXos), the highest peak of M. Ida
in the Troad, containing the sources of the
rivers Scamander, Granicus, and Aesepus.
Cotyora (KoTticopa), a colony of Sinope, in the
territory of the Tibareni, on the coast of Pontus
Polemoniacus, at the W. end of a bay of the
same name, celebrated as the place where the
10,000 Greeks embarked for Sinope. The foun
dation of Pharnacia reduced it to insignificance
(Xen. Anab. v. 5, 4 ; Strab. p. 548).
Cotys or Cotytto (Kbrvs or Korvrrd), a
Thracian divinity whose festival, the Cotyttia
(Diet, of Ant. s. v.), resembled that of the
Phrygian Cybele, and was celebrated with
Ucentious revelry. In later times her worship
was introduced at Athens and Corinth. Those
who celebrated her festival were called Baptae,
from the purifications connected with the so
lemnity. Eupolis wrote a play of this name.
(Strab. p. 470 ; Hor. Ep. xvii. 56 ; Juv. ii. 90.)
Cotys (KoVus). 1. King of Thrace, B.C.
382-358, was for a short time a friend of the
Athenians, but carried on war with them to
wards the close of his reign. He was cruel and
sanguinary, and was much addicted to gross
luxury and drunkenness. He was murdered
by two brothers whose father he had injured. —
2. King of the Odrysae in Thrace, assisted
Perseus against Rome, B.C. 168. His son was
taken prisoner and carried to Rome, whereupon
he sued for peace and was pardoned by the
Romans. — 3. A king of Thrace, who took part
against Caesar with Pompey, 48. — 4. King of
Thrace, son of Rhoemetalces, in the reigns of
Augustus and Tiberius. He carried on war
with his uncle Rhescuporis, by whom he was
murdered, A.D. 19. Ovid, in his exile at Tomi,
addressed an epistle to him (Ex Pont. ii. 9).
Cragus (Kpayos), a mountain consisting of
eight summits, being a continuation of Taurus
to the W., and forming, at its extremity, the

CRASSUS
SW. promontory of Lycia (Yedy-Booroon, i.e.
Seven Gapes). Some of its summits show
traces of volcanic action, and the ancients had
a tradition to the same effect. At its foot was
a town of the same name, on the sea-shore,
between Pydna and Patara. Parallel to it, N.
of the river Glaucus, was the chain of Anticra-
gus. The greatest height of Cragus exceeds
8000 feet. (Strab. p. 665 ; Hor. Od. i. 21.)
Cranae (Kpavdn), the island to which Paris
first carried Helen from Peloponnesus (II.
iii. 445), is said by some to be an island off
Gythium in Laconia, by others to be the island
Helena off Attica, and by others again to be
Cythera (Paus. iii. 22).
Cranaus (KpavaAs), king of Attica, the son-in-
law and successor of Cecrops. He was de
prived of his kingdom by his son-in-law
Amphictyon. Cranii, -ium (Kpdvioi, Kpdviov : Kpdvios : Kra-
nia, nr. Argostoli), a town of Cephallenia on the
S. coast (Thuc. ii. 30 ; Strab. p. 455).
Cranon or Crannon (Kpavdv, Kpavvdv : Kpav-
vdvios), in ancient times Ephyra, a town in
Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, not far from Larissa.
Crantor (Kpdvrap), of Soli in Cilicia, an
Academic phUosopher, studied at Athens under
Xenocrates and Polemo, and flourished B.C.
300. He was the author of several works, all
of which are lost, and was the first who wrote
commentaries on Plato's works. Most of his
writings related to moral subjects (Hor. Ep. i.
2. 4). One of his most celebrated works was On
Grief, of which Cicero* made great use in the
third book of his Tusc ulan Disputations, and in
the Consolatio which he composed on the
death of his daughter, Tullia.
Crassipes, Furius, Cicero's son-in-law, the
second husband of Tullia, whom he married
B.C. 56, but from whom he was shortly after
wards divorced.
Crassus, Licinius. 1. P., praetor B.C. 176, and
consul 171, when he carried on the war against
Perseus. — 2. C, brother of No. 1, praetor 172,
and consul 163. — 3. C, probably son of No. 2,
tribune of the plebs 145, was distinguished as a
popular leader. — 4. P., surnamed Dives or
Bich, elected pontifex maximus 212, curule
aedile 211, praetor 208, and consul 205 with
Scipio Africanus, when he carried on war
against Hannibal in the S. of Italy. He died
183. ""(Liv. xxix. 10, xxxix. 46.) — 5. P., surnamed
Dives Mucianus, son of P. Mucius Scaevola,
was adopted by the son of No. 4. In 131 he
was consul and pontifex maximus, and was the
first priest of that rank who went beyond
Italy. He earned on war against Aristonicus
in Asia, but was defeated and slain. He was a
good orator and jurist. — 6. M., surnamed
Agelastus, because he is said never to have
laughed, was grandfather of Crassus the
triumvir. — 7. P., surnamed Dives, son of No.
6, and father of the triumvir. He was the
proposer of the Lex Licinia, to prevent excessive
expense in banquets, but in what year is un
certain. He was consul 97, and carried on war
in Spain for some years. He was censor N9
with L. Julius Caesar. In the Civil war he
took part with Sulla, and put an end to his own
life when Marius and Cinna returned to Rome
at the end of 87. — 8. M., surnamed Dives, the
triumvir, younger son of No. 7. His life was
spared by Cinna, after the death of his father ;
but, fearing Cinna, he afterwards escaped to
Spain, where he concealed himself for eight
months. On the death of Cinna in 84, he
collected some forces and crossed over into

CRASSUS
Africa, whence he passed into Italy in 83 and
joined Sulla, on whose side he fought against
the Marian party. On the defeat of the latter,
he was rewarded by donations of confiscated
property, and thus greatly inoreased his patri
mony. His ruling passion was money, and he
devoted aU his energies to its accumulation.
He was a keen and sagacious speculator. He
bought multitudes of slaves, and, in order to
increase their value, had them instructed in
lucrative arts. He worked silver mines, culti
vated farms, and buUt houses, which he let at
high rents. In 71 he was appointed praetor in
order to carry on the war against Spartacus
and the gladiators ; he defeated Spartacus, who
was slain in the battle, and he was honoured
with an ovation. In 70 Crassus was consul
with Pompey ; he entertained the populace at
a banquet of 10,000 tables, and distributed corn
enough to supply the family of every citizen for
three months. He did not, however, co-operate
cordially with Pompey, of whose superior in
fluence he was jealous. He was afterwards
reconciled to Pompey by* Caesar's mediation,
and thus was formed between them, in 60, the
so-caUed triumvirate. In 55 Crassus was again
consul with Pompey, and received the province
of Syria, where he hoped both to increase his
wealth and to acquire military glory by attack
ing the Parthians. He set out for his province
before the expiration of his consulship, and
continued his march notwithstanding the un
favourable omens which occurred to him at
almost every step. After crossing the Eu
phrates in 54, he did not f oUow up the attack upon
Parthia, but returned to Syria, where he passed
the winter. In 53 he again crossed the Eu
phrates jhewasmisledbya crafty Arabian chief
tain to march into the plains of Mesopotamia,
where he was attacked by Surenas, the general
of the Parthian king, Orodes. In the battle
which foUowed, Crassus was defeated with
immense slaughter, and retreated with the
remainder of his troops to Carrhae (the Haran
of Scripture). The mutinous threats of his
troops compeUed him to accept a perfidious
invitation from Surenas, who offered a pacific
interview, at which he was slain. His head
was cut off and sent to Orodes, who caused
melted gold to be poured into the mouth of
his fallen enemy, saying, ' Sate thyself now
with that metal of which in life thou wert so
greedy.' (Dio Cass. xl. 27.) — 9. M., surnamed
Dives, son of No. 8, served under Caesar in
Gaul, and at the breaking out of the Civil war
in 49 was praefect in Cisalpine Gaul. — 10. P.,
younger son of No. 8, was Caesar's legate in
Gaul from 58 to 55. In 54 he followed his
father to Syria, and fell in the battle against
the Parthians. — 11. L., the celebrated orator.
At the age of 21 (b.c 119), he attracted great
notice by his prosecution of C. Carbo. He was
consul in 95 with Q. Scaevola, when he proposed
a law to compel aU who were not citizens to
depart from Rome : the rigour of this law
was one of the causes of the Social war. He
was afterwards proconsul of Gaul. In 92 he
was censor, when he caused the schools of the
Latin rhetoricians to be closed. He died in 91,
a few days after opposing in the senate with
great eloquence the consul L. PhiUppus, an
enemy of the aristocracy (Cic. de Or. iii. 1, 4).
His house upon the Palatium was one of the
most beautiful at Rome, and was adorned with
costly works of art. As an orator he surpassed
all his contemporaries (Veil. Pat. ii. 9). In the
treatise De Oratore Cicero introduces him as

CRATINUS

255

one of the speakers, and he is understood to
express Cicero's own sentiments.
Crastinus, one of Caesar's veterans, com
menced the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48, and
died fighting bravely in the foremost Une (Caes.
B. 0. iii. 91).
Craterus (KparepAs). 1. A distinguished
general of Alexander the Great, on whose death
(B.C. 828) he received in common with Anti
pater the government of Macedonia and
Greece. He arrived in Greece in time to render
effectual assistance to Antipater in the Lamian
war. At the close of this war he married
Phila, the daughter of Antipater. Soon after
he accompanied Antipater in the war against
the Aetolians, and in that against Perdiccas in
Asia. He fell in a battle against Eumenes, in
821. (Diod. xviii. 16, xix. 59 ; Plut. Alex. 47 ;
Nep. Eum. 4.) — 2. Brother of Antigonus
Gonatas, wrote on the history of Attica. — 3. A
Greek physician, who attended the family of
Atticus, mentioned also by Horace (Sat. ii. 8,
161; Cic. Att. xii. IS, 14).
Crates (Kpdrris) 1. An Athenian poet of the
Old Comedy, began to flourish B.C. 449, and was
one of the most celebrated of the comic poets.
He excelled in mirth and fun (Aristoph. Eq.
536 ; Athen. p. 429) ; and is considered by Ari
stotle to be the first poet who wrote comedies
with true dramatic action (Poet. 5). — 2. Of
TraUes, an orator or rhetorician of the school
of Isocrates. — 3. Of Thebes, a pupU of the Cynic
Diogenes, and one of the most distinguished
of the Cynic philosophers, flourished about 320.
Though heir to a large fortune, he renounced it
aU, and lived and died as a true Cynic, restrict
ing himself to the most absolute necessaries.
He received the surname of the ' Door-opener,'
because it was his practice to visit every house
at Athens, and rebuke its inmates. He married
Hipparchia, the daughter of a family of dis
tinction, who shared his life of privation and
mendicancy. He wrote several works, which
are lost, for the epistles extant under his name
are not genuine. — 4. Of Athens, the pupil and
friend of Polemo, and his successor in the
chair of the Academy, about 270. He was the
teacher of Arcesilaus, Theodorus, and Bion
Borysthenites. — 5. Of Mallus in Cilicia, a cele
brated grammarian. He was brought up at
Tarsus, whence he removed to Pergamos, where
he founded the Pergamene school of grammar,
in opposition to the Alexandrian. He wrote a
commentary on the Homeric poems, in opposi
tion to Aristarchus, and supported the system
of anomaly (dvapaXla) against that of analogy
(dvaXoyia). He also wrote commentaries on
the other Greek poets, and works on other
subjects, of which only fragments have come
down to us. In 157 he was sent by Attalus as
an ambassador to Rome, where he introduced
for the first time the study of grammar.
Crathis (KpdBis). 1. (Grata), a river in
Achaia, rises in a mountain of the same name in
Arcadia, receives the Styx flowing down from
Nonacris, and falls into the sea near Aegae —
2. (Crati), a river in lower Italy, forming the
boundary on the E. between Lucania and
Bruttii, and falling into the sea near Sybaris.
At its mouth was a celebrated temple of Min
erva : its waters were fabled to dye the hair
blond. (Eur. Troad. 228; Strab. p. 263; Ov.
Met. xv. 315.)
Cratinus (Kparivos). 1. One of the most cele
brated of the Athenian poets of the Old Comedy,
was born B.C. 519, but did not begin to exhibit
till 454, when he was 65 years of age. He ex-

256

CRATIPPUS

hibited twenty-one plays and gained nine vic
tories. He was the poet of the Old Comedy.
He gave it its peculiar character, and he did
not, like Aristophanes, live to see its decUne.
Before his time the comic poets had aimed at
little beyond exciting the laughter of their
audience : he was the first who made comedy a
terrible weapon of personal attack (on Pericles
among others), and the comic poet a severe
censor of public and private vice. He is fre
quently attacked by Aristophanes, who charges
him with habitual intemperance, an accusation
which was admitted by Cratinus himself, who
treated the subject in a very amusing way in
his TIvt'ivt). This play was acted in 423, when
the poet was 96 years of age ; it gained the prize
over the Connus of Amipsias and the Clouds of
Aristophanes. It was a practical reply to the
passage in the Knights which speaks of Crat
inus as worn out by age (Arist. Eq. 531).
Cratinus died in the following year, at the age
of 97. — 2. The younger, an Athenian poet of the
Middle Comedy, a contemporary of Plato the
philosopher, flourished as late as 324.
Cratippus (Kpdriiriros). 1. A Greek historian
and contemporary of Thucydides, whose work he
completed (Dionys. Jud. de Thuc. 16). — 2. A
philosopher of Mytilene, a contemporary of Pom
pey and Cicero, the latter of whom praises him
highly. In philosophy he transferred himself
from the school of the Sceptic Antiochus to the
Peripatetics. He accompanied Pompey in his
flight after the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48. He
afterwards settled at Athens, where young M.
Cicero was his pupil in 44. Through the in
fluence of Cicero, Cratippus obtained from
Caesar the Roman citizenship.
Cratos (Kpdros), the personification of
strength, a son of Uranus and Ge.
Cratylus (KpdrvXos), a Greek philosopher, a
pupil of Heraclitus, and one of Plato's teachers.
Plato introduces him as one of the speakers in
the dialogue which bears his name. Both Plato
and Aristotle speak of Cratylus and the later
Heracliteans as extravagant in their theories
and of little authority.
Cremera, a river in Etruria, falling into the
Tiber a little above Rome : memorable for the
death of the 300 Fabii (Liv. ii. 49 ; Ov. Fast. ii.
193). Cremna (Kprjpva: Gherme, Ru.), a fortified
city of Pisidia, on a precipitous rock of M. Tau
rus, noted for repeated obstinate defences : a
colony under Augustus (Strab. p. 569).
Cremni (Kpripvoi), an emporium of the free
Scythians on the Palus Maeotis (Hdt. iv. 20,
110). Cremona (Cremonensis : Cremona), a Roman
colony in the N. of Italy, N. of the Po, and at
no great distance from the confluence of the
Addua and the Po, was founded together with
Placentia B.C. 219 as a protection against
the Gauls and Hannibal's invading army. It
soon became a place of great importance and
one of the most flourishing cities in the N. of
Italy. Under the Lex Julia of B.C. 90 it received
the civitas and was changed into a municipium.
During the Civil war it espoused the side of
Brutus, and Octavian comfiscated much of its
territory and assigned it to his veterans : Man
tua suffered in the same way (Verg. Eel. ix. 28).
Later still, having espoused the cause of Vi
tellius, it was totally destroyed by the troops
of Vespasian, A.D. 01 (Tac. Hist. iii. 24). It was
rebuilt by Vespasian.
Cremonis Jugum. [Alpes.]
Cremutius Cordus. [Cordus.]

CRETA
Creon (Kpeav). 1. King of Corinth, son of
Lycaethus, whose daughter, Glauce or Creusa,
married Jason. Medea, thus forsaken, sent
Glauce a garment which burnt her to death
when she put it on ; the palace took fire, and
Creon perished in the flames. [Medea.]— 2. Son
of Menoecus, and brother of Jocaste, the wife
of Laius. After the death of Laius, Creon
governed Thebes for a short time, and then
surrendered the kingdom to Oedipus, who had
deUvered the country from the Sphinx. [Oedi
pus.] When Eteocles and Polynices, the sons
of Oedipus, feU in battle by each other's hands,
Creon became king of Thebes. His cruelty in
forbidding burial to the corpse of Polynices,
and his sentencing Antigone to death for dis
obeying his orders, occasioned the death of his
own son Haemon. For details see Antigone,
Creophylus (KpedcpvXos), of Chios, one of the
earliest epic poets, said to have been the friend
or son-in-law of Homer. The epic poem OlxaXia
or OlxaXias dXao-is, ascribed to him, related the
contest which Heracles, for the sake of Iole,
undertook with Eurytus, and the capture of
Oechalia. Cresphontes (Kpr/o-ipbvTTis), a Heraclid, son
of Aristomachus, and one of the conquerors of
Peloponnesus, obtained Messenia for his share.
During an insurrection of the Messenians, he
and two of his sons were slain. A third son,
Aepytus, avenged his death. [Aepytus.]
Crestonia (KpTiaravia : t) KpTiaraviKT)), a dis
trict in Macedonia between the Axius and Stry
mon, near Mt. Cercine, inhabited by the Cres-
tonaei (KpTio-ravaioi), a Thracian people : their
chief town was Creston or Crestone (Kp7)o-Tavy
KpTio-rdvTi), founded by the Pelasgians (Hdt.
i. 57, vii. 127 ; Thuc. ii. 99, iv. 109). This town
is erroneously supposed by some writers to be
the same as Cortona in Italy.
Creta (Kp-firv : Kpriraios : Candid), one of
the largest islands in the Mediterranean sea,
nearly equidistant from Europe, Asia, and
Africa, but always reckoned as part of Europe.
Its length from E. to W. is about 160 miles:
its breadth is very unequal, being in the widest
part about 35 miles, and in the narrowest only
6. A range of mountains runs through the
whole length of the island from E. to W., send
ing forth spurs N. and S. : in the centre of the
island rises Mt. Ida far above all the others.
[Ida.] The rivers of Crete are numerous, but
are little more than mountain-torrents, and are
for the most part dry in summer. The country
was celebrated in antiquity for its fertiUty and
salubrity. — Crete was inhabited at an early
period by a numerous and civilised population.
Homer speaks of its hundred cities (KpiyrTi
eKarbpiroXis, II. ii. 649) ; and before the Trojan
war mythology told of a king Minos, who resided
at Cnossus, and ruled over the greater part
of the island. The inhabitants were probably
a Carian people with Phoenician colonies plan
ted among them. The description of the in
habitants in Od. xix. 175 (after the Dorian
conquest) gives us Achaeans, 'ErebKpnTes,
Kvfiaves, Dorians and Pelasgians. It is prob
able that the Eteocretes were the Carian race,
and the Cydones were Phoenician. Minos is said
to have given laws to Crete, and to have been
the first prince who had a navy, with which he
suppressed piracy in the Aegaean. After his
descendants had governed the island for some
generations, royalty was abolished, and the
cities became independent repubUcs, of which
Cnossus and Gortyna were the most important,
and exercised a kind of supremacy over the rest.

CRETEUS
The ruling class were the Dorians, who settled
in Crete about sixty years after the Dorian
conquest of Peloponnesus, and reduced the for
mer inhabitants to subjection. The sooial and
political institutions of the island thus became
Dorian, and many of the ancients supposed that
the Spartan constitution was borrowed from
Crete. The chief magistrates in the cities were
the Gosmi, ten in number, chosen from cer
tain families : there was also a Gerusia, or
senate ; and an Ecclesia or popular assembly,
which, however, had very little power. (For
deta;1s, see Diet, of Ant. art. Cosmi.) The
Cretan system of the training of youths, and
the common meals of citizens, resembled the
Spartan (see Diet, of Ant. art. Syssitia). At a
later time the power of the aristocracy was
overthrown and a democratical form of govern
ment established. The ancient Dorian customs
likewise disappeared, and the people became
degenerate in their morals and character. The
historian Polybius accuses them of numerous
vices, and the Cretan poet Epimenides (who is
quoted by St. Paul) wrote of ' Kpfjres del ipeva-ral,
Kcucd Br/pia, yaffrepes dpyai.' — The Cretans were
celebrated as archers, and frequently served as
mercenaries in the armies of other nations.
The island was conquered by Q. MeteUus, who
received in consequence the surname Creticus
(B.C. 68-66), and it became a Roman province.
Crete and Cyrenaica subsequently formed one
province. [Cyrenaica.]
Creteus or Catreus (Kprireis), son of Minos
by Pasiphae' or Crete, and father of Althe
menes. Cretheus (Kpr/Bevs), son of Aeolus and En-
arete, wife of Tyro, and father of Aeson, Pheres,
Amythaon, and Hippolyte : he was the founder
of Iolcus.
Cretopolis (KpTjrAiroXis), a town in the dis
trict of MUyas.in Pisidia (Polyb. v. 72).
Creusa (Kpe'oixra). 1. A Naiad, daughter of
Oceanus, became by Peneus the mother of Hyp-
seus and StUbe. — 2. Daughter of Erechtheus
and Praxithea, wife of Xuthus, and mother of
Achaeus and Ion. She is said to have been be
loved by ApoUo, whence Ion is sometimes
called her son by this god. [Ion.] — 3. Daughter
of Priam and Hecuba, wife of Aeneas, and
mother of Ascanius. She perished on the night
of the capture of Troy, having been separated
from her husband in the confusion, [Aeneas.]
— 4. Daughter of Creon, who fell a victim to the
vengeance of Medea. [Creon, No. 1.]
Creusis or Creusa (Kpevo-is, Kpeovaa : Kpev-
o-ieis), a town on the E. coast of Boeotia, the
harbour of Thespiae (Strab. p. 405 ; Liv. xxvi.
21). Crimisa or Crimissa (Kpipio-a, Kpipiaoa : C.
dell' Alice), a promontory on the E. coast of
Bruttium, with a town of the same name upon
it, said to have been founded by PhUoctetes, a
little S. of the river Crimisus (Strab. p. 254).
Crimisus or Crimissus (Kpipto-As, Kpipio-o-6s),
a river in the W. of SicUy, falls into the Hypsa :
on its banks Timoleon defeated the Cartha
ginians, B.C. 339.
Crinagoras (Kpivaybpas), of Mytilene, the
author of fifty epigrams in the Greek Anthology,
lived in the reign of Augustus.
Crispinus, a person ridiculed by Horace (Sat.
i. 1. 120, i. 3, 129, ii. 7, 45), is said by the
Scholiasts on those passages to have written
bad verses on the Stoic philosophy, and to have
been surnamed Aretalogus.
Crispus, Flavius Julius, eldest son of Con
stantine the Great, was appointed Caesar a.d. I

CRITON 257
317, and gained great distinction in a campaign
against the Franks and in the war with Licinius
But having excited the jealousy of his step
mother Fausta, he was put to death by his
father, 326 (Sozom. H E. i. 5).
Crispus Passienus, husband of Agrippina,
and stepfather of the Emperor Nero, was dis
tinguished as an orator (Quintil. x. 1, 24)
Crispus, VIbius, of Vercelli, a contemporary
of Quintilian, and a distinguished orator (Tac.
Hist. ii. 10; Quintil. x. 1, 119).
Crissaor Crisa (Kpto-o-a, Kpie-a: Kpicro-ahs),
and Cirrha (Klppo: Kippouos), towns in Phocis,
regarded by some ancient as well as by some
modern writers as the same ; but there can be
no doubt that Crissa was a town inland SW. of
Delphi and that Cirrha was its port in the Cris
saean gulf (Strab. p. 418 ; cf. II. ii. 520 ; Hdt.
vm. 32; Pind. Istlim. ii. 26). The in
habitants of these towns levied contributions
upon the pilgrims frequenting the Delphic
oracle, in consequence of which the Amphic-
tyons declared war against them, B.C. 595, and
eventually destroyed them. Their territory, the
rich Crissaean plain, was declared sacred to the
Delphic god, and was forbidden to be cul
tivated. The cultivation of this plain by the
inhabitants of Amphissa led to the Sacred War,
in which Philip was chosen general of the Am.
phictyons, 338. Crissa remained in ruins, but
Cirrha was afterwards rebuilt, and became the
harbour of Delphi (Polyb. v. 27).
Critias (Kpirlas). 1. Son of Dropides, a con
temporary and relation of Solon's. — 2. Son of
CaUaeschrus, and grandson of the above, was
one of the pupils of Socrates, by whose instruc
tions he profited but little in a moral point of
view. He was banished from Athens, and on
his return became leader of the oligarchical
party. He was one of the 30 tyrants established
by the Spartans B.C. 404, and was conspicuous
above all his coUeagues for rapacity and cruelty.
He was slain at the battle of Munychia in the
same year, fighting against Thrasybulus and the
exiles. He was a distinguished orator, and
some of his speeches were extant in the time of
Cicero (Cic. de Or. ii. 22, 93). He also wrote
poems, dramas, and other works. Some frag
ments of his elegies are still extant, edited by
Bach, Leips. 1827.
Critius (Kptrios), a sculptor of the archaic
school at Athens in the early part of the 5th
century B.C. He seems to have been slightly
later than Antenor, and possfbly was his pupil.
His great work was the group of Harmodius and
Aristogiton which he executed in conjunction
with Nesiotes to replace the group by Antenor
which had been carried off to Persia (Paus. i. 8,
5). It is probable that the famous marble
statues at Naples are copies of this work.
[Harmodius.] Critius founded a school of
sculpture at Athens which lasted four genera
tions (Paus. vii. 3, 2).
Critolaus (KpirdXaos). 1. Of Phaselis in
Lycia, studied philosophy at Athens under
Ariston of Ceos, whom he succeeded as the head
of the Peripatetic school. In B.C. 155 he was
sent by the Athenians as ambassador to Rome
with Carneades and Diogenes. [Carneades.]
He lived upwards of 82 years. (Cic. de Or. i.
11, 45.)— 2. General of the Achaean League
147, distinguished by his bitter enmity to the
Romans. He was defeated by MeteUus, and
was never heard of after the battle. (Polyb.
xxxviii. 2, xl. 1 ; Liv. Ep. 52.)
Criton (Kpirav). 1. Of Athens, a friend and
disciple of Socrates, whom he supported with
S

258

CRIU-METOPON

his fortune. He had made every arrangement
for the escape of Socrates from prison, and tried,
in vain, to persuade him to fly, as we see from
Plato's dialogue named after him. Criton wrote
seventeen dialogues on philosophical subjects,
which are lost. — 2. A physician at Rome in the
1st or 2nd century after Christ, perhaps the
person mentioned by Martial (Epigr. xi. 60, 6).
Criu-metopon (Kpiou perairov), i.e. 'Ram's
Front.' I. A promontory at the S. of the
Tauric Chersonesus. — 2. A promontory at the
SW. of Crete.
Crius (Kp7os), one of the Titans, son of
Uranus and Ge (Hes. Th. 375).
Crooodilopolis (KpoKoSeiXav irAXis). 1. {Em-
beshundal), a city of Upper Egypt, in the
Nomos Aphroditopolites. — 2. [Arsinoe,, No. 7.]
Crocus, the beloved friend of Smilax, was
changed by the gods into a saffron plant (Ov.
Met. iv. 283 ; Serv. ad Georg. iv. 182).
Crocylea (ra KpoKvXeia), by Homer (II. ii.
633) spoken of as a place belonging to Ithaca,
but by Strabo (pp. 376, 452) assigned to Leucas.
It may be the small island now called Arkudhi,
which lies between Leucas and Ithaca.
Croesus (Kpoiiros), last king of Lydia, son of
Alyattes, reigned B.C. 560-546, but was prob
ably associated in the kingdom during his
father's life. The early part of his reign was
most glorious. He subdued all the nations be
tween the Aegaean and the river Halys, and
made the Greeks in Asia Minor tributary to
him. When he had taken Ephesus, he aided
the old temple of Artemis, then in course of
building, by gifts of columns. One of these
archaic columns, with part of the original in
scription stiU legible, Ba[o-iXebs] Kp[o«ros] dve-
[BTiKev], is now in the British Museum. The
fame of his power and wealth drew to his
court at Sardis all the wise men of Greece, and
among them Solon, whose interview with the
king was celebrated in antiquity. In reply to
the question who was the happiest man he had
ever seen, the sage taught the king that no man
should be deemed happy tiU he had finished his
life in a happy way. Alarmed at the growing
power of the Persians, Croesus sent to consult
the oracle of Apollo at Delphi whether he
should march agamst the Persians. Upon the
reply of the oracle that, if he marched against
the Persians, he would overthrow a great em
pire, he collected a vast army and marched
against Cyrus. Near Sinope an indecisive
battle was fought between the two armies ;
whereupon he returned to Sardis, and dis
banded his forces, commanding them to re
assemble in the following spring. But Cyrus
appeared unexpectedly before Sardis ; Croesus
led out the forces stUl remaining with him, but
was defeated, and the city was taken after a
siege of fourteen days. Croesus, who was taken
alive, was condemned to be burnt to death. As
he stood before the pyre, the warning of Solon
came to his mind, and he thrice uttered the
name of Solon. Cyrus inquired who it was that
he called on ; and, upon hearing the story, re
pented of his purpose, and not only spared the
rife of Croesus, but made him his friend.
Croesus survived Cyrus, and accompanied
Cambyses in his expedition against Egypt.
(Hdt. i. 26-94, 130, 155, 207, iii. 34, v. 36, vi. 37,
125, viii. 35 ; cf. Xen. Cijrop.)
Crommyon or Cromyon (Kpoppvdv, Kpo-
pvdv), a town in Megaris on the Saronic gulf,
afterwards belonged to Corinth ; celebrated on
account of its wild sow, slain by Theseus (Strab.
p. 380 ; Paus. ii. 1, 3 ; Thuc. iv. 45).

CROTON
Cronius Mons (KpSviov bpos), a mountain in
Elis near Olympia, with a temple of Cronus.
Cronus (KpAvos), the youngest of the Titans,
son of Uranus and Ge, father by Rhea of
Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and
Zeus (Hes. Th. 137, 452; ApoUod. i. 1, 3).
At the instigation of his mother, Cronus un
manned his father for having thrown the Cy
clopes, who were likewise his chUdren by Ge,
into Tartarus.
[Uranus.] Out
of the blood thus
shed sprang up
the Erinnyes.
When the Cy
clopes were de
livered from '
Tartarus, the
government of
the world was
taken from Ura
nus and given
to Cronus, who
in his turn lost
it through Zeus,
as was predicted
to him by Ge
a,nd Uranus.
[Zeus.] The Ro
mans identified
their Saturnus
with Cronus.
[Saturnus.] It
is likely that
Cronus was
strictly (in one
at least of his
aspects) a har
vest god, and
therefore repre- Cr°n™ ""SKWET *
sented with a
sickle. Some explain his being exiled by his
children as the mythical representation of suc
cessive seasons of the year, and the swallowing
of his children as Time swallowing days or
months : others take this to be rather the sun
swaUowing the stars, which disappear at his
rising : others think that it is a cannibal idea
of Moloch borrowed from Phoenicia.
Cropia (Kpaireta), an Attic demus belonging to
the tribe Leontis.
CrotonovCrotona (KpArav: Kporavidrris,Cro-
toniensis, Crotonensis, Crotoniata : Crotona),
a Greek city on the E. coast of Bruttium,
on the river Aesarus, and in a very healthy
locality, was founded by the Achaeans under
Myscellus of Aegae, assisted by the Spartans,
B.C. 710 (Strab. p. 262; Dionys. ii. 59; Ov.
Met. xv. 9). Its extensive commerce, the
virtue of its inhabitants, and the exceUence of
its institutions, made it the most powerful and
flourishing town in the S. of Italy. It owed
much of its greatness to Pythagoras, who esta
blished his school here. Gymnastics were cul
tivated here in greater perfection than in any
other Greek city ; and one of its citizens, Milo,
was the most celebrated athlete in Greece. It
attained its greatest power by the destruction of
Sybaris in 510 ; but it sustained a severe defeat
from the Locrians on the river Sagras. [It is
uncertain whether this defeat was before or after
the destruction of Sybaris. Justin (xx. 2) places
it before the arrival of Pythagoras, and there
fore about 560 b.c. : Strabo speaks of it as
marking the decline of the power of Croton, and
therefore after B.C. 510.] It suffered greatly in
the wars with Dionysius, Agathocles, and

l a painting

CRUSTUMERIA
Pyrrhus ; and in the second Punic war a con
siderable part of it had ceased to be inhabited.

CUMAE

269

Coins of Croton. (1) An early coin of 6th or 7th cent. B.C.,
having a tripod with the first three letters of the name
(Eoppa for K) on each side, that on the reverse being
incuse or concave. (2) Of 4th cent. B.C. Obv., bead of
Hera ; rev., Heraoles seated.
It received a colony from the Romans in 195
(Liv. xxxiv. 45).
Crustumeria, -rium, also Crustumium
(Crustumlnus), a town of the Sabines, situated
in the mountains near the sources of the AUia,
was conquered both by Romulus and Tarquinius
Priscus (Liv. i. 9, 38, ii. 64, ni. 42).
Crustumius (Gonca), a river of Umbria flow
ing into the Adriatic between Ariminum and
Pisaurum (Lucan, ii. 406).
Cteatus. [Moliones.]
Ctesias (KT^o-ioj),of Cnidus in Caria, a con
temporary of Xenophon, was private physician
of Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied
in his war against his brother Cyrus, B. c. 401.
He lived seventeen years at the Persian court,
and wrote in the Ionic dialect a great work on
the history of Persia (Tlepa-iKd), in 23 books. The
first six contained the history of the Assyrian
monarchy down to the foundation of the king
dom of Persia. The next seven contained the
history of Persia down to the end of the reign of
Xerxes, and the remaining ten carried the his
tory down to the time when Ctesias left Persia,
i.e. to the year 398. All that is now extant is a
meagre abridgment in Photius and a number
of fragments preserved in Diodorus and other
"writers. The work of Ctesias was compiled from
Oriental sources, and its statements are fre
quently at variance with those of Herodotus ;
but though ancient writers have therefore
¦doubted his statements, it must be remarked
that in foUowing Persian authorities he may be
giving the truer account. Ctesias also wrote a
work on India (IvSiKd) in one book, of which we
possess an abridgment in Photius. This work
contains numerous fables, but it probably gives
a faithful picture of India as it was conceived by
the Persians. The abridgment which Photius
made of the Persica and Indica of Ctesias has
been printed separately by Lion, Gb'ttingen,
1823, and by Bahr, Frankfort, 1824.
Ctesibius (Ki-no-iBios), celebrated for his me
chanical inventions, lived at Alexandria in the
reigns of Ptolemy PhUadelphus and Euergetes,
about B.c. 250. His father was a barber, but
his own taste led him to devote himself to me
chanics. He is said to have invented a cleps
ydra or water-clock, a hydraulic engine, and
other machines, and to have been the first to I

discover the elastic force of air and apply it as a
moving power. He was the teacher, and has
been supposed to have been the father, of Hero
Alexandrinus (cf. Diet, of Ant. art. Ctesibica
Machina). Ctesiphon (Krvo-itpav), son of Leosthenes of
Anaphlystus, was accused by Aeschines for
having proposed the decree that Demosthenes
should be honoured with the crown. [Aes
chines.] Ctesiphon (Krrio-Kpav : KrTio-Kpdvrios) : Takti
Kesra, Ru.), a city of Assyria, on the E. bank
of the Tigris, three Roman miles from Seleucia
on the W. bank, first became an important
place under the Parthians, whose kings used it
for some time as a winter residence, and after
wards enlarged and fortified it, and made it the
capital of their empire. It must have contained
a large population, if Severus, as is said, carried
off 100,000 prisoners. In the wars of the
Romans with the Parthians and Persians, it
was taken, first by Trajan (a.d. 115), and by
several of the later emperors, but Julian did not
venture to attack it, even after his victory over
the Persians before the city. (Polyb. v. 45 ;
Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6 ; Herodian, iii. 80 ; Dio Cass.
lxxv. 9.) Its site is marked by the ruins at
Takt iKesra, i.e. the arch of Chosroes.
Ctesippus (Krr)o-iiriros). 1. Two sons of Her
acles, one by Deianira, and the other by Asty-
damia. — 2. Son of Polytherses of Same, one of
the suitors of Penelope, killed by Philoetius.
Cucusus or Cocussus (Goksun), a town of
Cappadocia, at a junction of roads leading re
spectively from Comana to Commagene, and
from Melitene to Tarsus. It was the place of
banishment for Chrysostom a.d. 404.
Cularo, afterwards called Gratianopolis (Gre
noble), in honour of the emperor Gratian, a town
in Gallia Narbonensis on the Isara (Ise're) (Cic.
ad Fam. x. 23). It stood on the direct road
from the pass of Mt. Genevre to Vienne.
Culleo or Culeo, Q. Terentius. 1. A senator
of distinction, was taken prisoner in the second
Punic war, and obtained his liberty at the con
clusion of the war, B.C. 201. To show his grati
tude to P. Scipio, he followed his triumphal
car, wearing the pilleus or cap of liberty, like an
emancipated slave. In 187 he was praetor pere-
grinus, and in this year condemned L. Scipio
Asiaticus, on the charge of having misappropri
ated the money gained in the war with Anti
ochus (Liv. xxx. 43, xxxviii. 42, xiii. 85 ; Val.
Max. v. 2, 5).— 2. Tribune of the plebs, 58,
exerted himself to obtain Cicero's recall from
banishment. In the war which foUowed the
death of Caesar (43), Culleo was one of the
legates of Lepidus (Appian, B. G. iii. 83).
Cumae {Kipri : Kvpalos, Cumanus), a town
in Campania, and the most ancient of the
Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, was founded
by Cyme in Aeolis, in conjunction with Chalcis
and Eretria in Euboea (Strab. p. 243 ; Liv. viii.
22 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 2 ; Veil. Pat. i. 4). Its
foundation is placed in b.c. 1050, but the date
must be regarded as uncertain, except so far
that it was considerably older than any other
Greek town in Italy. It was situated on a
steep hill of Mt. Gaurus, a little N. of the pro
montory Misenum. It became in early times a
great and flourishing city ; its commerce was
extensive ; its territory included a great part of
the rich Campanian plain ; its population was
at least 60,000 ; and its power is attested by its
colonies in Italy and Sicily— Puteoli, Palaeo-
polis, afterwards Neapolis, Zancle, afterwards
Messana. But it had powerful enemies to
S3

260

CUNAXA

encounter in the Etruscans and the Italian
nations. It was also weakened by internal dis
sensions, and one of its citizens, Aristodemus,
made himself tyrant of the place. Its power
became so much reduced that it was only saved
from the attacks of the Etruscans by the assist
ance of Hiero, who annihilated the Etruscan
fleet, 474. It maintained its independence till
417, when it was taken by the Campanians and
most of its inhabitants sold as slaves (Liv. iv.
44; Diod. xii. 76). From this time Capua
became the chief city of Campania ; and
although Cumae was subsequently a Roman
municipium and a colony, it continued to
decline in importance. At last the AcropoUs
was the only part of the town that remained,
and this was eventually destroyed by Narses in
his wars with the Goths. — Cumae was cele
brated as the residence of the earliest Sibyl,
and as the place where Tarquinius Superbus
died. — Its ruins are stUl to be seen between the
Logo di Patria and Fusaro.
Cunaxa (Koiiva^a), a small town in Babylonia,
on the Euphrates, famous for the battle fought
here between the younger Cyrus and his
brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, in which the
former was MUed, B.C. 401 (Xen. Anab. i. 8).
Its position is uncertain. Plutarch (Artax. 8)
places it 500 stadia (50 geog. miles) above
Babylon ; Xenophon, who does not mention it
by name, makes the battle-field 360 stadia (36
geog. mUes) from Babylon.
Ciipldo. [Eros.]
Cupra (Cuprensis). 1. Maritima (Marano
at the mouth of the Monecchia), a town in
Picenum, with an ancient temple of Juno,
founded by the Pelasgians and restored by
Hadrian (Strab. p. 241 ; Plin. iii. 111.)— 2. Mon
tana, a town near No." 1, in the mountains.
Cures (Gen. Curium), an ancient town of the
Sabines, celebrated as the birthplace of T.
Tatius and Numa Pompilius (Liv. i. IS ; Dionys.
ii. 36, 48; Verg. Aen. vi. 812; Ov. Fast. ii.
477). Its position is marked by ruins at the
village of Arci, near the stream Correse.
Curates (KovprJTes),a, mythical people, said to
be the most ancient inhabitants of Acarnania

Curetes and the infant Zeus : the seated figure is either Adras
tela or Rhea-Cybele. (From a relief in the Capitoline Museum.)
and Aetolia; the latter country was called
Curetis from them (II. ix. 549 ; Diod. v. 46 ;
, Strab. p. 463). Ovid speaks of a story that

CURSOR
they were the chndren of the rain
iv. 282). They occur in Crete as the priests of
Zeus, and are spoken of in connexion with the
Corybantes and Idaean Dactyli. The infant
Zeus was entrusted to their care by Rhea ; and
by clashing their weapons in a warlike dance,
they drowned the cries of the child, and pre
vented his father Cronus from ascertaining the
place where he was concealed. The occurrence
of their name in several places is perhaps due
to the fact that the custom of scaring away
evil powers by the clashing of arms occurred in
religious rites of several different tribes. The
same superstition appears also in the Sain at
Rome, and in the Theophania at Delphi.
Curias. [Cuimum.]
Curiatii, a celebrated Alban famUy. Three
brothers of this family fought with three
Roman brothers, the Horatii, and were con
quered by them. Hence Alba became subject
to Rome. (Liv. i. 24 ; Dionys. iii. 11.)
Curiatius Maternus. [Maternus.]
Curio, C. Scribonius. 1. Praetor b.c. 121,
was one of the most distinguished orators of
his time. — 2. Son of No. 1, tribune of the plebs,
B.C. 90 ; afterwards served under Sulla in
Greece ; was praetor 82 ; consul 76 ; and after
his consulship obtained the province of Mace
donia, where he carried on war against the
barbarians as far N. as the Danube. He was a
personal enemy of Caesar, and supported P.
Clodius when the latter was accused of viola
ting the sacra of the Bona Dea. In 57 he was
appointed pontifex maximus, and died 53. He
had some reputation as an orator, and was a
friend of Cicero. — 3. Son of No. 2, also a
friend of Cicero, was a most profligate
character. He was married to Fulvia, after
wards the wife of Antony. He at first belonged
to the Pompeian party, by whose influence he
was made tribune of the plebs, 50 ; but he was
bought over by Caesar, and employed his
power as tribune against his former friends.
On the breaking out of the Civil war (49), he
was sent by Caesar to Sicily with the title of
propraetor. He succeeded in driving Cato out
of the island, and then crossed over to Africa,
where he was defeated and slain by Juba
and P. Attius Varus. (See index to Cicero.)
Curiosolitae, a GalUc people on the
Ocean in Armorica near the Veneti, in Cor-
seult, near St. Malo (Caes. B. G. ii. 34, iii. 7.)
Curium (Kovpiov : Kovpievs : nr. Piscopia,
Ru.), a town on the S. coast of Cyprus, near
the promontory Curias, W. of the mouth
of the Lycus (Hdt. v. 113 ; Strab. p. 683).
Curius Dentatus. [Dentatus.J
Curius, M'. an intimate friend of Cicero
and Atticus, Uved for several years as a ne
gotiator at Patrae in Peloponnesus. In his
wfll he left his property to Atticus and
Cicero. (Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 17, xvi. 4, 5, 6,
9, ad Att. vii. 2.) — 2. Quaestor urbanus in
b.c. 61, also a friend of Cicero, who had
been quaestor to the father of this Curius
(Cic. Post Bed. in Sen. 8, 21, ad Fam. xiii.
49, ad Q. Fr. i. 4).
Cursor, L. Papirius. 1. A distinguished
Roman general in the second Samnite war,
was five times consul (b.c. 333, 320, 819,
315, 318), and twice dictator (325, 809.) He
frequently defeated the Samnites, but his
greatest victory over them was gained in
his second dictatorship. Although a great
general, he was not popular with the' soldiers,
on account of his severity. (Liv. viii. and ix. ;
Aurel. Vict, de Vir. HI. 31.)— 2. Son of No. 1,

CURTIUS
was, like his father, a distinguished general.
In both his consulships (293, 272) he gained
great victories over the Samnites, and in the
second he brought the third Samnite war to a
•close (Liv. x. 81-47).
Curtius, Mettus or Mettius, a distinguished
Sabine, fought with the rest of his nation
agamst Romulus. According to one tradition,
the Locus Curtius, which was part of the
Roman forum, was called after him, because in
the battle with the Romans he escaped with
difficulty from a swamp, into which his horse
had plunged. But the more usual tradition
respecting the name of the Lacus Curtius
related that in B.C. 362 the earth in the forum
gave way, and a great chasm appeared, which
the soothsayers declared could only be filled up
by throwing into it Rome's greatest treasure ;
that thereupon M. Curtius, a noble youth,
mounted his steed in f uU armour ; and declar
ing that Rome possessed no greater treasure
than a brave and gallant citizen, leaped into
the abyss, upon which the earth closed over
him. The spot was supposed to be marked by
a circular pavment in the Roman Forum.
Varro gives a rationalistic explanation, that the
spot was struck by hghtning in B.C. 445, and
was enclosed by Curtius, one of the consuls for
that year. (Liv. i. 12, vii. 6 ; Dionys. ii. 42 ;
Varr. L. L. v. 148.)
Curtius Montanus. [Montanus.]
Curtius Rufus, Q., the Roman historian of
Alexander the Great, belonging to the first
century of our era. Respecting his life nothing
is known with certainty ; but it is most probable
that he wrote in the reign of Claudius, though
some have given him an eariier date, and
others a later. The work itself, entitled De
Bebus Gestis Alexandra Magni, consisted of
ten books, but the first two are lost, and the
remaining eight are not without considerable
gaps. It is written in a pleasing though some
what declamatory style, apparently modeUed
on Livy. His principal source was Cleitarchus,
"whom he foUowed uncritically, and he fre
quently shows his ignorance of geography,
chronology, and tactics. Editions by Vogel,
Leips. 1885 ; Heitland, Camb. 1879.
Cutaiae Aquae. [Aquae, No. 3.]
Cyane (Kvavri), a Sicilian nymph and play
mate of Proserpine, changed into a fountain
through grief at the loss of the goddess (Diod.
v. 4; Ov. Met. v. 412). The stream from this
fountain flows into the Anapus. The fountain
itself is remarkable for its clear blue waters,
whence, no doubt, its name. It is at the foot
of the limestone hiUs, two mUes W. of Syracuse.
Cyaneae Insulae (Kvaveai vr)o-oi or irerpai,
Urek-Jaki), two smaU rocky islands at the
entrance of the Thracian Bosporus into the
Euxine, the Planotae (TlXdyKrai) and Sym
plegades (SvpirXriydSes) of mythology, so
called because they are said to have been once
moveable and to have rushed together, and
thus destroyed every ship that attempted to
. pass through them. After the ship Argo had
passed through them in safety, they became
stationary. [Argonautae.]
Cyaxares (Kvatdpws), king of Media b.c.
634-594, son of Phraortes, and grandson of
Deioces. He was the most warlike of the
Median kings, and introduced great military
reforms. He defeated the Assyrians, who had
slain his father in battle, and he laid siege to
Ninus (Nineveh). But while he was before the
city, he was defeated by the Scythians, who
held the dominion of Upper Asia for twenty-

CYCLOPES 261
eight years (684-607), but were at length driven
out of Asia by Cyaxares. After the expulsion
of the Scythians, Cyaxares again turned his
arms against Assyria, and with the aid of the
king of Babylon (probably the father of
Nebuchadnezzar), he took and destroyed Ninus,
m 606. He subsequently carried on war for
five years agamst Alyattes, king of Lydia.
[Alyattes.] Cyaxares died in 594, and was
succeeded by his son Astyages. (Hdt. i 73
103-106, iv. 11.)— Xenophon speaks of a
Cyaxares II., king of Media, son of Astyages,
respecting whom see Cyrus.
Cybele. [Rhea.]
Cybistra (Ta KvBio-rpa), an ancient city of
Asia Minor, several times mentioned by Cicero
(ad Fam. xv. 2, 4, ad Att. v. 18, 20), who
describes it as lying at the foot of Mt. Taurus,
in the part of Cappadocia bordering on Cilicia.
Strabo (p. 539), places it 800 stadia from Tyana.
It is on the road from Tyana to Laranda. The
site is marked by the modern Eregli, Cybistra
being in Byzantine times distinguished as rh
'HpaKXeovs or Cybistra-Heraclea, Heraclea
being the fortress adjoining the ancient town.
Cyclades (KvKXdSes), a group of islands in
the Aegaean sea, so caUed because they lay in a
circle (iv kvkXoj) around Delos, the most im
portant of them. According to Strabo (p. 485),
they were twelve in number ; but their number
is increased by other writers. The most import
ant of them were Delos, Ceos, Cythnos,
Seriphos, Rhenia, Siphnos, Cimolos, Naxos,
Paros, Syros, Myconos, Tenos, Andros.
Cyclopes (KvKXaires) — that is, creatures with
round or circular eyes — are described differ
ently by different writers. Homer speaks of
them as a gigantic and lawless race of shep
herds in SicUy, who devoured human beings
and cared nought for Zeus, but were skilled
herdsmen (Od. i. 69, ix. 106). Thucydides so
far adopts this as to make the Cyclopes and
Laestrygones the oldest inhabitants of Sicily
(Thuc. vi. 21) . Each of them had only one eye, in
the centre of his forehead : the chief among
them was Polyphemus. Hesiod has a different
tradition (Th. 624 ; cf . Apollod. i. 4 ; Ap. Rh. i.
510) : the Cyclopes were Titans, sons of Uranus
and Ge, were three in number, Arges, Steropes,
and Brontes, and each of them had only one
eye, on his forehead. They were thrown into
Tartarus by Cronus, but were released by
Zeus, whom they provided with thunderbolts
and lightning, Pluto with a helmet, and Poseidon
with a trident. They were afterwards kiUed
by Apollo for having furnished Zeus with the
thunderbolts to kill Asclepius. A later tradi
tion regarded the Cyclopes as the assistants
of Hephaestus. Volcanoes were the workshops
of that god, and Mt. Aetna in Sicily and the
neighbouring isles were considered as their
abodes. As the assistants of Hephaestus they
make the metal armour and ornaments for gods
and heroes. Their number is no longer con
fined to three ; and besides the names mentioned
by Hesiod, we also find those of Pyracmon
and Acamas. (Strab. p. 275 ; Callim. Dian. 47 ;
Ap. Rh. iv. 761; Verg. Aen. viii. 416.) The
name of Cyclopian walls was given to the walls
buUt of great masses of unhewn stone, of which
specimens are stiU to be seen at Mycenae and
other parts of Greece, and also in Italy. They
were probably constructed by the prehistoric
races who are included in the name ' Pelasgi ' ;
and later generations, being struck by their
grandeur, ascribed their buUding to a fabulous
race of beings, who represented stories of

262

CYCNUS

primitive building and metallurgy. Some
writers have derived their name from the
KvkXos of fortifications.
Cycnus (Kiikvos). 1. Son of Apollo by Hyrie,
lived in the district between Pleuron and
Calydon, and was beloved by Phyllius ; but as
Phyllius refused him a buU, Cycnus leaped
into a lake and was metamorphosed into a
swan (Ov. Met. vii. 371 ; Ant. Lib. 12).— 2. Son
of Poseidon, was king of Colonae in Troas, and
father of Tenes and Hemithea. His second
wife Philonome fell in love with Tenes, her
stepson, and as he refused her offers, she
accused him to his father, who threw Tenes
with Hemithea in a chest into the sea. Tenes
escaped and became king of Tenedos. [Tenes.]
In the Trojan war both Cycnus and Tenes
assisted the Trojans, but both were slain by
Achilles. As Cycnus could not be wounded by
iron, Achilles strangled him with the thong of
his helmet, or killed him with a stone. When
AchiUes was going to strip Cycnus of his
armour, the body disappeared, and was changed
into a swan. (Paus. x. 14; Strab. p. 604; Verg.
Aen. ii. 21; Ov. Met. xii. 144; Diet. Cret. ii.
13.) — 3. Son of Ares and Pelopia, slain by
Heracles at Itone. — i. Son of Ares and Pyrene,
likewise killed by Heracles. — 5. Son of Sthene-
lus, king of the Ligurians, and a friend and
relation of Phaethon. While he was lamenting
the fate of Phaethon, he was metamorphosed by
ApoUo into a swan, and placed among the stars.
(Ov. Met. ii. 366 ; Paus. i. 30, 3).
Cydias, a celebrated painter from the island
Cythnus, B.C. 364, whose picture of the Argo
nauts was exhibited in a porticus by Agrippa
at Rome (Dio Cass. liii. 27 ; Plin. xxxv. 130).
Cydippe. [Acontius.]
Cydnus (KvSvos : Tersoos-Chai), a river of
Cilicia Campestris, rising in the Taurus, and
flowing through the midst of the city of Tarsus.
It was celebrated for the clearness and coldness
of its water, which was esteemed useful in gout
and nervous diseases, but by bathing in which
Alexander nearly lost his life. At its mouth
the river spread into a lagune, which formed
the harbour of Tarsus, but which is now choked
with sand. In the middle ages the river was
caUed Hierax. (Strab. p. 672.)
Cydonia, more rarely Cydonis (KvSavia,
KvSofvis: KvSavidrris : Khania), one of the chief
cities of Crete, the rival and opponent of
Cnossus and Gortyna, was situated on the
NW. coast, and derived its name from the
Cydones (KiSaves), a Cretan race (probably of
Phoenician origin, as the name of their river
Iardanus may imply), placed by Homer in the
W. part of the island (Od. iii. 292, xix. 176).
At a later time a colony of Zacynthians settled
in Cydonia ; they were driven out by the Sa-
mians about B.C. 524 ; and the Samians were in
their turn expelled by the Aeginetans (Strab.
p. 476 ; Diod. v. 78 ; Thuc. ii. 35 ; Liv. xxxvii.
40). Cydonia was the place from which quinces
(Cydonia mala) were first brought to Italy,
and its inhabitants were some of the best Cretan
archers (Cydonio arcu, Hor. Od. iv. 19, 17).
Cyllarus (KvXXapos), a beautiful centaur,
killed at the wedding feast of Pirithous. (Ov.
Met. xii. 393.) The horse of Castor was like
wise called Cyllarus (Verg. Georg. iii. 90).
Cyllene (KvXXr)vr,). 1. (Zyria), the highest
mountain in Peloponnesus on the frontiers of
Arcadia and Achaia, sacred to Hermes (Mer
cury), who had a temple on the summit, was
said to have been born there, and was hence
caUed Cyllenius (Hymn, ad Merc. 2; Verg.

CYNOSARGES
Aen. viii. 138; Paus. viii. 17). — 2. A seaport
town of EUs.
Cylon (KiiAa»'), an Athenian of noble family,
married the daughter of Theagenes, tyrant of
Megara, and gained an Olympic victory B.C. 640.
Encouraged by the Delphic oracle, he seized the
Acropolis, intending to make himself tyrant of
Athens (Hdt. v. 71 ; Thuc. i. 126 ; Plut. Sol.
12 ; Paus. i. 28, 40). From Aristot. 'Afl. iroA. 1.
it is clear that the attempt of Cylon was before
the legislation of Draco, and therefore an earlier
date than is sometimes given should be as
signed — probably before 630. Pressed by famine,
Cylon and his adherents were driven to take
refuge at the altar of Athene, whence they were
induced to withdraw by the archon Megacles,
the Alcmaeonid, on a promise that their lives
should be spared. Their enemies put them
to death as soon as they had them in their
power. Cyme (Kipri: Kvpaios: Sandakli), the largest
of the Aeolian cities of Asia Minor, stood upon
the coast of Aeolis, on a bay named after it,
Cumaeus (also Elaiticus) Sinus (6 Kvpaios
kAXttos : Gulf of Sandakli), and had a good
harbour. It was founded by a colony of Lo
crians from Mt. Phricius, and hence it had the
epithet QpiKavls (Strab. p. 621). It was the
native place of Ephorus, and Hesiod's father
emigrated from it to Boeotia (Hes. Op. 636).
It was the mother city of Side in Pamphylia
and Cumae in Campania.
Cyna. [Cynane.]
Cynaegirus (Kvvaiyeipos), brother of the poet
Aeschylus, distinguished himseU by his valour
at the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490. According
to Herodotus, when the Persians were en
deavouring to escape by sea, Cynaegirus seized
one of their ships to keep it back, but fell with
his right hand cut off. In the later versions of
the story Cynaegirus is made to perform stiU
more heroic deeds (Hdt. vi. 114; Just. ii. 9;
Val. Max. iii. 2, 22).
Cynaetha (KvvaiBa : KvvaiBevs, -Baievs : Ka-
lavryta), a town in the N. of Arcadia, whose
inhabitants, unlike the other Arcadians, had a
dislike to music, to which circumstance Poly
bius attributes their rude character (Strab. p.
371; Paus. vii. 24; Polyb. iv. 18).
Cynane, Cyna, or Cynna (Kwdvij, Kvvar
Kvvva), half-sister to Alexander the Great,
daughter of Philip by Audata, an Hlyrian wo
man. She was married to her cousin Amyntas ;
and after the death of Alexander she crossed
over to Asia, intending to marry her daughter
Eurydice to Arrhidaeus, who had been chosen
king. Her project alarmed Perdiccas, by whose
order she was put to death. (Arr. Anab. i. 5 ;
Diod. xix. 52.)
Cynesii or Cynetes (Kuj^o-ioi, Kivrires), a
people dwelling in the extreme W., beyond the
Celts, apparently in Spain (Hdt. iv. 49).
Cynisca (Kvvio-ko), daughter of Archidamus
II., king of Sparta, was the first woman who
kept horses for the games, and who gained an
Olympic victory (Hdt. vi. 71; Paus. iii. 8).
Cynopolis (Kwbs 7rcSAis : Samallout), a city
of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, on an
island in the Nile ; the chief seat of the worship
of Anubis (Strab. p. 812). There was a city of
the same name in the Delta (Strab. p. 802).
Cynos (Kvvos : Kiivios, Kvvdios), the chief sea
port in the territory of the Locri Opuntii.
Cynosarges (to Kvvbcrapyes), a gymnasium,
sacred to Heracles, outside Athens, E. of the
city and before the gate Diomea, for the use of
those who were not of pure Athenian blood ;

CYNOSCEPHALAE
here taught Antisthenes, the founder of the
Cynic school. [Athenae.]
Cynoscephalae (Kvvbs KetpaXal), ' Dog's
Heads.' 1. Two hills near Scotussa in Thes
saly, where Flaminius gained his celebrated
victory over Philip of Macedonia, B.C. 197
(Polyb. xviii. 3 ; Strab. p. 441 ; Liv. xxxiii. 6). —
2. A hiU between Thebes and Thespiae in
Boeotia. Cynossema (Kvvbs o-Tipa), 'Dog's Tomb,' a
promontory in the Thracian Chersonesus near
Madytus, so caUed because it was supposed to
be the tomb of Hecuba, previously changed
into a dog (Thuc. viii. 102 ; Strab. p. 595).
Cy no sura (Kvvbo-ovpa), an Idaean nymph,
and one of the nurses of Zeus, who placed her
among the stars. [Arctos.]
Cynosura (Kvv6o-oupa), 'Dog's Tail,' a pro
montory in Attica, S. of Marathon.
Cynthia and Cynthius (KuvBia and KvvBios),
surnames respectively of Artemis and Apollo,
which they derived from Mt. Cynthus in the
island of Delos, their birthplace.
Cynuria (Kvvovpia : Kvvovpios), a district on
the frontiers of ArgoUs and Laconia, for the
possession of which the Argives and Spartans
carried on frequent wars, and which the Spar
tans at length obtained about b.c. 550. [Argos.]
The inhabitants were Ionians.
Cyparissia (Kvirapio-o-ia). 1. A town in Mes
senia on the W. coast, S. of the river Cypa-
rissus, and on a promontory and bay of the same
name. Homer (H. ii. 593) speaks of a town
Cyparisseeis (Kmapiao-iieis) subject to Nestor,
which is probably the same as the preceding,
though Strabo places it in TriphyUa (Strab. p.
349). — 2. A town in Laconia on a peninsula
near the Asopus.
Cyparissus (Kvirdpioo-os), son of Telephus,
beloved by ApoUo or Silvanus. ' Having in
advertently killed his favourite stag, he was
seized with immoderate grief, and metamor
phosed into a cypress (Ov. Met. x. 120).
Cyparissus (Kvirdpio-aos), a small town in
Phocis on Parnassus near Delphi (II. ii. 519 ;
Strab. p. 423).
Cyphanta (to Kiqjavra), a town on the E.
coast of Laconia near Brasiae (Paus. iii. 24).
Cypria, Cypris, surnames of Aphrodite, from
the island of Cyprus.
Cyprianus, Bishop of Carthage, a.d. 248.
[Diet, of Christian Biography.]
Cyprus (Kvirpos : Kvirpios : Cyprus, caUed by
the Turks Kebris), a large island in the Medi
terranean, S. of CiUcia and W. of Syria. It is
caUed by various names in the poets, Cerastia
or Cerastis, Macaria, Sphecia, Acamantis,
Amathusia, and also Paphos. To Syrian na
tions it was known as Kittim. The island is of
a triangular form : its length from E. to W. is
about 140 miles ; its greatest breadth, which is
in the W. part, is about 50 miles from N. to S.,
but it gradually narrows towards the E. A
range of mountains caUed Olympus by the
ancients runs through the whole length of the
island from E. to W., and rises in one part more
than 7000 feet in height. The plains are chiefly
in the S. of the island, and were celebrated in
ancient aB well as in modern times for their
fertility. The largest plain, called the Sala
minian plain, is in the E. part of the island
near Salamis. The rivers are little more than
mountain torrents, mostly dry in summer.
Cyprus was in early times famed for its yield
of copper, found especially in the mountainous
country of Tamassus, Amathus, Soli and Cu
rium. In II. xi. 19 we hear of gifts of its

CYPSELUS 263
metals sent by Cinyras to Agamemnon. Cyprus
was never entirely Greek ; it was colonised by
the Phoenicians at a very early period ; Greek
colonies were subsequently planted in the island,
according to Herodotus (vii. 90), by emigrants
from Athens, Salamis, Arcadia, and Cynthus;
and accordingly we read of 9 independent Greek
states, each governed by its own king, Salamis,
Citium, Amathus, Curium, Paphos, Marium,
Soli, Lapethus, Cerynu ; but the island was,
with few intervals, under the rule of Egypt,
Assyria, or Persia. A mention of Cyprus being
forced to pay tribute is found as early as
the records of the wars of Tehutimes or
Thothmes III., whose date was probably about
1600 B.C. According to Menander, as cited by
Joseph. Ant. viii. 5, 3, Cyprus was subject to
the Phoenicians in the time of Solomon (cf.
Verg. Aen. i. 642), and their dominion left much
of their religion and ritual in the island. [Aphro
dite.] The Greek settlements mentioned above
probably began after or towards the end of this
period. The island fell under the Assyrian rule
in the time of Sargon (708 B.C.) : on the down-
faU of the Assyrian empire it probably enjoyed
a period of independence in its various petty
states, but was subdued by Amasis, king of
Egypt, about B.C. 540 (Hdt. ii. 182). Upon the
downfall of the Egyptian monarchy, it became
subject to the Persians ; during the hegemony
of Athens (478-449) Cyprus was free from
Eastern rulers ; but fell afterwards to a great
extent under a Phoenician adventurer who got
possession of Salamis and introduced as far as
possible Phoenician influence (Hdt. iv. 162, v.
104 ; Isocr. Evag. 22). He was dethroned and
slain in 411 ; and in the following year Eva
goras of Salamis began to unite the whole
island in one kingdom. He handed down the
sovereignty to his son Nicocles. It was sub
dued by the Persian king Ochus in 346 ; but,
recovering some independence in the wars of
Alexander, eventuaUy fell to the share of the
Ptolemies in Egypt, and was governed by them,
sometimes united to Egypt, and sometimes by
separate princes of the royal family. In 58 the
Romans made Cyprus one of their provinces,
and sent M. Cato to take possession of it. At
first it was united to the province of Cilicia
(Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 48, ad Att. v. 21) ; then
given by Antonius to Cleopatra (Dio Cass. xlix.
32; Strab. p. 685). After Actium it was first
an imperial province with Cilicia; then (b.c. 22)
separated and given to the senate, governed by
a propraetor with title of proconsul (Dio Cass.
liii. 12, liv. 4). Cyprus, since it feU under the
English protectorate in recent years, has been
already explored more systematically by com
petent antiquarians, whose excavations, espe
ciaUy at Paphos and Salamis, have thrown
much light on the history and the art of the
island. (See Hellenic Journal, vol. ix. sq.)
Cypsela (ra Kv^ieXa : Kv^ieX'ivos, -Xtiv6s). 1.
A town in Arcadia on the frontiers of Laconia
(Thuc. v. 33).— 2. A town in Thrace on the
Hebrus and the Egnatia Via (Strab. p. 322;
Liv. xxxi. 16).
Cypselus (KtyeXos). 1. Father of Merope
and grandfather of Aepytus. [Aepytus.]— 2.
Of Corinth, son of Aeetion. The mother of
Cypselus belonged to the house of the Bacchi-
adae— that is, to the Doric nobility of Corinth.
According to tradition, she married Aeetion,
because, being ugly, she met with no one among
the Bacchiadae who would have her as his wife.
As the oracle of Delphi had declared that her
son would prove formidable to the ruling party

204

CYRAUNIS

at Corinth, the Bacchiadae attempted to murder
the child. But his mother concealed him in a
chest (Kwl/eX7i), from which he derived his name,
Cypselus. When he had grown up to manhood,
he expelled the Bacchiadae, with the help of
the people, and then established himself as
tyrant. He reigned SO years, B.C. 655-625, and
was succeeded by his son Periander. The
celebrated chest of Cypselus, made of cedar
wood, ivory, and gold, and richly adorned with
figures in relief, is described at length by Pau
sanias (v. 17, &c).
Cyraunis (Kvpavvts), an island off the N.
coast of Africa mentioned by Herodotus (iv.
95) ; probably the same as Cerctne.
Cyrenaica (r) Kvpnvaia, t) KvpTivalri x^PVt
Herod. : Dernar or Jebel-Akhdar, i.e. the Green
Mountain, the NE. part of Tripoli), a district
of N. Africa, between Marmarica on the E. and
the Regio Syrtica on the W., was considered to
extend in its widest limits from the Pbilae-
norum Arae at the bottom of the Great Syrtis
to the Chersonesus Magna or N. headland of
the Gulf of Platea (G. of Bomba), or even to
the Catabathmus Magnus (Marsa Solium);
but the part actuaUy possessed and cultivated
by the Greek colonists can only be considered
as beginning at the N. limit of the sandy shores
of the Great Syrtis, at Boreum Pr. (Bas
Teyonas, S. of Ben-Ghazi), between which and
the Chersonesus Magna the country projects
into the Mediterranean in the form of a seg
ment of a circle, whose chord is above 150 miles
long and its arc above 200. From its position,
formation, climate, and soil, this region is per
haps one of the most delightful on the surface
of the globe. Its surface is occupied by a mode
rately elevated table-land, whose edge runs
parallel to the coast, to which it sinks down in
a succession of terraces, clothed with verdure,
intersected by mountain streams running
through ravines fiUed with the richest vegeta
tion, exposed to the cool sea-breezes from the
N., and sheltered by the mass of the mountain
from the sands and hot winds of the Sahara.
These slopes produced the choicest fruits, vege
tables, and flowers, and some very rare plants — ¦
above all, the silphium or laserpitium, an
umbelliferous plant not exactly determined by
modern botanists, which was valuable for its
fruit, its stalk, its leaf, and its juice, and, as
furnishing a great part of the wealth of Cyrene,
is figured on its coins. (Hdt. iv. 190 ; Strab. p.
837 ; Theophr. H. P. vi. 3.) The various har
vests, at the different elevations, lasted for eight
months of the year. The country was, however,
exposed to annual ravages by locusts. The belt
of mountainous land extends inwards from the
coast about 70 or 80 miles. — The first occupation
of this country by the Greeks of which we have
any clear account, was effected, according to
Herodotus (iv. 154), by Battus, who led a colony
from the island of Thera, and first estabUshed
himself on the island of Platea at the E. ex
tremity of the district, and afterwards built
Cyrene (b.c. 631), where he founded a dynasty,
which ruled over the country during eight reigns,
though with comparatively little power over
some of the other Greek cities. Battus is, how
ever, merely the Libyan title of the kings of
Cyrene ; the name of the founder seems to have
been Aristoteles (Schol. ad Pind. Pyth. iv. 10).
The earliest cities founded were Teuchtra and
Hesperis, then Barca, a colony from Cyrene;
and these, with Cyrene itself and its port Apol
lonia, formed the original Libyan Pentapolis,
though this name Beems not to have come into

CYRENE
general use till under the Ptolemies. The com
parative independence of Barca, and the tem
porary conquest of the country by the Persians
under Cambyses, diminished the power of the
later kings of Cyrene, and at last the dynastywas
overthrown and a republic estabUshed in the
latter part of the 5th century, b.c. When Alex
ander invaded Egypt, the Cyrenaeans formed an
aUiance with him ; but their country was made
subject to Egypt by Ptolemy the son of Lagus.
It appears to have flourished under the
Ptolemies, who pursued their usual poUcy of-
raising new cities at the expense of the ancient
ones, or restoring the latter under new names.
Thus Hesperis became Berenice, Teuchira was
called Arsinoe, Barca was entirely ecUpsed by
its port, which waB raised into a city under the
name of Ptolemais, and Cyrene suffered from
the favours bestowed upon its port ApoUonia.
The country was now usuaUy called Pentapohs,
from the five cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptole
mais, Arsinoe, and Berenice. In b.c. 95, the last
Egyptian governor, Apion, an Ulegitimate son
of Ptolemy Physcon, made the country over to
the Romans, who at first gave the cities their
freedom. In B.C. 74 Cyrenaica was formed into
a province, at first under a quaestor pro prae-
tore ; we have no evidence of its junction with
Crete before b.c. 27, when Octavian formed a
senatorial province under a proconsul : the pro
vince was called indifferently Creta or Cyrenaica,
or both combined. Under Diocletian Cyrenaica
was separated from Crete, and made a distinct
province, under the name of Libya Superior.
As the Roman empire declined, the attacks of
the native Libyan tribes became more frequent
and formidable, and the sufferings caused by
their inroads and by locusts, plague, and earth
quakes, are most pathetically described by
Synesius, bishop of Ptolemais, in the 5th cen
tury. The country was afterwards overrun by
the Persians, and soon afterwards it feU a final
prey to the great Arabian invasion.
Cyrene (Kvpr)vri), daughter of Hypseus,
mother of Aristaeus by Apollo, was carried by
the god from Mt. PeUon to Libya, where the
city of Cyrene derived its name from her (Pind.
Pyth. ix. 5 ; Ap. Rh. i. 500 ; Diod. iv. 81).
Cyrene (Kvprivn : Kvprivaios : Ghrennah, Ru.),
the chief city of Cyrenaica in N. Africa, was
founded by Battus (b.c. 631) over a fountain
consecrated to Apollo, and called Cyre (Kvpn :
'ATrdAAtwos Kpf)vri), which supphed the city
with water, and then ran down to the sea
through a beautiful ravine. The city stood 80
stadia (8 geog. rmles) from the coast, on the
edge of the upper of two terraces of table land,
at the height of 1800 feet above the sea, in one
of the finest situations in the world. The road

Coin of Cyrene.
Obv., head of Zeus Ammon (whose worship at Cyrene was
.... lrom the Libyan oracle of Ammon) : rev., the
silphium plant.
which connected it with its harbour, Apollonia,
stiU exists, and the ruins of Cyrene, though
terribly defaced, are very extensive, comprising

CYRESCHATA
. aqueducts, temples, theatres, tombs,
paintings, sculpture, and inscriptions. In the
face of the terrace on which the city stands is a
vast subterranean necropoUs. For the history
of the city and surrounding country, see Cyre
naica. Among its celebrated natives were the
philosopher Aristippus, the poet Callimachus,
and the Christian bishop_ and orator Synesius.
Cyreschata or Cyropolis (Kvpeo-xara, Kvpa,
Kipov iroXis), a city of Sogdiana, on the Jax
artes, the furthest of the colonies founded by
Cyrus, and the extreme city of the Persian
empire ; destroyed, after many revolts, by Alex
ander. Its position is doubtful, but it was pro
bably not far from Alexandreschata (Kokand).
(Strab. p. 517 ; Arr. An. iv. 3.)
Cyrillus(KiipiAAos). 1. Bishop of Jerusalem,
A.D. 851-386. — 2. Bishop of Alexandria, 412-444.
[Diet, of Christ. Biogr^]
Cyrrhestlce (Kuppeorurij), the name given
under the Seleucidae to a province of Syria,
lying between Commagene on the N. and the
plain of Antioch on the S., between Mt. Amanus
on the W. and the Euphrates on the E. (Strab.
p. 751). After the time of Constantine, it was
united with Commagene into one province,
under the name of Euphratesia.
Cyrrhus or Cyrus Kippos, Kipos: Korusl),
a city of Syria, founded under the Seleucidae,
and called after the city of the same name in
Macedonia ; chiefly remarkable as the residence
and see of Theodoret. Justinian rebuilt the
walls, and erected an aqueduct. (Strab. p.
751 ; Procop. de Aed. ii. 11.)
Cyrrhus, a town in Macedonia, near Pella
<Thuc. ii. 100).
Cyrus (Kipos). 1. The Elder, the founder
of the Persian empire. The history of his life
was overlaid in ancient times with fables and
romances, and is related differently by Hero
dotus, Ctesias, and Xenophon. The account
of Herodotus is as f oUows : Cyrus was the son
of Cambyses, a noble Persian, and of Mandane,
daughter of the Median king Astyages. In con
sequence of a dream, which seemed to portend
that his grandson should be master of Asia,
Astyages sent for his daughter, when she was
pregnant : and upon her giving birth to a child,
he committed it to Harpagus, his confidential
attendant, with orders to kiU it. Harpagus
gave it to a herdsman of Astyages, who was to
expose it. But the wife of the herdsman having
brought forth a stiU-born chad, they substituted
the latter for the chUd of Mandane, who was
reared as the son of the herdsman. When he
"was ten years old, his true parentage was dis
covered by the foUowing incident. In the
sports of his viUage, the boys chose him for
their king. One of the boys, the son of a noble
Median named Artembares, disobeyed his com
mands, and Cyrus caused him to be severely
scourged. Artembares complained to Astyages,
who sent for Cyrus, in whose person and
courage he discovered his daughter's son. The
herdsman and Harpagus, being summoned
before the king, told him the truth, Astyages
forgave the herdsman, but revenged himself on
Harpagus by serving up to him at a banquet
the flesh of his own son. As to his grandson,
by the advice of the Magians, who assured him
that his dreams were fulfilled by the boy's
having been a king in sport, he sent him back
to his parents in Persia. When Cyrus grew
up, he conspired with Harpagus to dethrone
his grandfather, He induced the Persians to
revolt from the Median supremacy, and at their
head marched against Astyages, whom he de- !

CYRUS

265

feated and took prisoner, b.c. 559. The Medes
accepted Cyrus for their king, and thus the
supremacy which they had held passed to the
Persians. It was probably at this time that
Cyrus received that name, which is a Persian
word (Kohr), signifying the Sun.— Cyrus now
proceeded to conquer the other parts of Asia. In
546 he overthrew the Lydian monarchy, and took
Croesus prisoner. [Croesus.] The Greek cities
in Asia Minor were subdued by his general Har
pagus. He next turned his arms against the
Assyrian empire, of which Babylon was then the
capital. After defeating the Babylonians in
battle, he laid siege to the city, and after a long
time he took it by diverting the course of the Eu
phrates, which flowed through the midst of it,
so that his soldiers entered Babylon by the bed
of the river. This was in 588. Subsequently
he crossed the Araxes, with the intention of sub
duing the Massagetae, a Scythian people, but
he was defeated and slain in battle. Tomyris,
the queen of the Massagetae, cut off his head!
and threw it into a bag filled with human blood,

Cyrus. (From a relief at Pasargadae.)
that he might satiate himself (she said) with
blood. He was killed in 529. He was suc
ceeded by his son Cambyses. — Ctesias, who as
physician to Artaxerxes Memnon must un
doubtedly have had access to Persian records,
contradicts Herodotus on many points, especi
ally as regards the early life of Cyrus. He says
that Astyages was no blood relation to Cyrus,
who raised troops against him, conquered him
and drove him from Media, but afterwards
treated him with honour, and married his
daughter Amytis. He represents Cyrus as
dying from a wound received in battle against
the Derbices. Xenophon represents Cyrus as
brought up at his grandfather's court, as serv
ing in the Median army under his uncle
Cyaxares II., the son and successor of Astyages,
of whom Herodotus and Ctesias know nothing ;
as making war upon Babylon simply as the
general of Cyaxares ; as marrying the daughter
of Qyaxares ; and at length dying quietly in his
bed, after a sage and Socratic discourse to his

266

CYRUS

children and friends. Xenophon's account is
preserved in the Gyropaedla, in which he
intends to draw a picture of what a wise and
just prince ought to be. The work is justly
termed a ' philosophical novel,' and must not be
regarded as a genuine history. — In the East
Cyrus was long regarded as the greatest hero of
antiquity, and hence the fables by which his
history is obscured. His sepulchre at Pasar-
gadae was visited by Alexander the Great
(Arr. An. vi. 29). — 2. The Younger, the second
of the four sons of Darius Nothus, king of Persia,
and of Parysatis, was appointed by his father
commander of the maritime parts of Asia Minor,
and satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia,
B.C. 407. He assisted Lysander and the Lace
daemonians with large sums of money in their
war against the Athenians. Cyrus was of a
daring and ambitious temper. On the death of
his father and the accession of his elder brother
Artaxerxes Mnemon, 404, Cyrus formed a plot
against the life of Artaxerxes. His design was
betrayed by Tissaphernes to the king, who con
demned him to death ; but, on the intercession
of Parysatis, he spared his life and sent him
back to his satrapy. Cyrus now gave himself
up to the design of dethroning his brother. He
collected a powerful native army, but he placed
his chief reliance on a force of Greek merce
naries. He set out from Sardis in the spring
of 401, and, having crossed the Euphrates at
Thapsacus, marched down the river to the plain
of Cunaxa, 500 stadia from Babylon. Here he
found Artaxerxes prepared to meet him. Arta
xerxes had from 400,000 to a million of men ;
Cyrus had about 100,000 Asiatics and 13,000
Greeks. The battle was at first altogether in
favour of Cyrus. His Greek troops on the right
routed the Asiatics who were opposed to them ;
and he himself pressed forward in the centre
against his brother, and had even wounded
him, when he was killed by one of the king's
body-guard. Artaterxes caused his head and
right hand to be struck off, and sought to have
it believed that Cyrus had fallen by his hand.
The character of Cyrus is drawn by Xenophon
in the brightest colours. It is enough to say
that his ambition was gilded by all those bril
liant qualities which win men's hearts. (Xen.
Hell. i. 4, ii. 1, iii. 1 ; Anab. i. ; Cyrop. viii. 8 ;
Ctes. Pers. i. 44.) — 3. An architect at Rome, who
died on the same day as Clodius, 52 (Cic. ad
Fam. vii. 14).
Cyrus (Kipos : Kour), one of the two great
rivers of Armenia, rises in the Caucasus, flows
through Iberia, and after forming the boundary
between Albania and Armenia, unites with
the Araxes, and faUs into the W. side of the
Caspian (Strab. pp. 491, 500). — There were
small rivers of the same name in Media and
Persis. Cyta or Cytaea (Kvra, Kvraia : Kvra7os, Kv-
raieis), a town in Colchis on the river Phasis,
where Medea was said to have been born.
Cythera (KvBripa : KvBr)pios : Cerigo), a
mountainous island off the SE. point of Laco
nia, with a town of the same name in the inte
rior, the harbour of which was called Scandea
(^KavSeia). It was colonised at an early time
by the Phoenicians, who introduced the worship
of Aphrodite into the island, for which it was
celebrated. This goddess was hence called
Cytheraea, Cythereis ; according to some tra
ditions, it was in the neighbourhood of this
island that she first rose from the foam of the
sea. [Aphrodite.] The Argives subsequently
took possession of Cythera, but were driven

CYZICUS
out of it by the Lacedaemonians, who added it
to their dominions.
Cytheris, a celebrated courtesan, the mistress
of Antony, and subsequently of the poet Gallus,
who mentioned her under the name of Lycoris
(Plut. Ant. 9 ; Cic. ad Att. x. 10, 16).
Cytherus (KvBnpos : KvBiipios), one of the
twelve ancient towns of Attica and subsequently
a demus, belonging to the tribe Pandionis.
Cythnus (KvBvos : KiBvios : Thermia), an
island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades.
It was colonised by the Dryopes (Hdt. viii. 46 ;
Strab. p. 485). It had warm springs, whence
its modern name.
Cytinium (Kvtlviov: KvTividr-tis), one of the
four cities in Doris, on Parnassus. It com
manded the pass from the valley of Doris to
the plain of Amphissa (Thuc. iii. 95, 101, 102 ;
Strab. pp. 427, 475).
Cytorus or -um (Kvrapos or -ov: Kidros),
a town on the coast of Paphlagonia, between
Amastris and the promontory Carambis was a
commercial settlement of the people of Sinope.
It stood upon or near the mountain of the same
name, which is mentioned by the Romans as
abounding in box-trees (II. ii. 853; Strab. p.
544; Verg. Georg. ii. 437; Catull. 4, 11).
Cyzicus (Kv(ikos), son of Aeneus and Aenete,
the daughter of Eusorus, or son of Eusorus, or
son of Apollo by Stilbe. King of the Doliones
at Cyzicus on the Propontis. [Argonautae.]
Cyzicus (KvCikos : Kv(iktiv6s : Bal Kiz or
Chizico, Ru.), one of the most ancient and
powerful of the Greek cities in Asia Minor,

Coin of Cyzicus. /
Obv., head of Demeter, with legend sqteipa: rev., lion's
head and tunny-fish, with legend KYZI.
stood upon an island of the same name in the
Propontis (Sea of Marmara). This island,
the earlier name of which was Arctonnesus
("ApKrav vijo-os), lay close to the shore of Mysia,
to which it was united by two bridges, and
afterwards (under Alexander the Great) by a
mole, which has accumulated to a considerable
isthmus. The city of Cyzicus stood on the S.
side of the island, at the N. end of the isthmus,
on each side of which it had a port. Tradition
ascribed the foundation of the city to the Do
liones, a tribe of prehistoric Thessalians, who had
been driven from their homes by the Aeolians.
It was afterwards colonised by the MUesians,
b.c 675, as the emporium for their trade with
the Black Sea (Strab. p. 635). The coinage of
Cyzicus was famous, since it gained almost a
monopoly of the coinage of electrum staters
(permitted by Persian kings to a few cities)
during the 5th and 4th cent. B.C. (Xen. An.
vii. 3, 10 ; Dem. c. Phorm. p. 914, § 23). The
tunny-fish is the mint mark of the city.
It took no conspicuous place in history till
about twenty-two years after the peace of
Antalcidas, when it made itself independent of
Persia. It preserved its freedom under Alex
ander and his successors, and was in alliance
with the kings of Pergamus, and afterwards
with the Romans. Its celebrated resistance

DAAE
against Mithridates, when he besieged it by sea
and land (b.c. 75), was of great service to the
Romans, and obtained for it the rank of a
' libera civitas,' which it lost in B.C. 20, recovered
in 15, and again lost under Tiberius (Dio Cass.
liv. 7, 23, 24 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 86). Under Con
stantine it became the chief city of the new
province of HeUespontus. It was greatly in
jured by an earthquake in a.d. 443, and finaUy
ruined by its conquest by the Arabians in 675.

Daae. [Dahae.]
Dachinabades (AaxivaBdSris), a general name
for the S. part of the Indian peninsula, derived
from the Sanscrit dakshina, the S. wind, and
connected with the modem name Deccan
([Scyl.J Peripl. Ind. p. 29).
Dacia (Dacus), as a Roman province, was
bounded on the S. by the Danube, which sepa
rated it from Moesia, on the N. by the Carpa
thian mountains, on the W. by the river Tysia
(Theiss), and on the E. by the river Hierasus
(Pruth), thus comprehending the modern Tran
sylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, and part of
Hungary. The Daci were of the same race
and spoke the same language as the Getae, and
are therefore usuaUy said to be of Thracian
origin. They were a brave and warlike people.
In the reign of Augustus they crossed the
Danube and plundered the aUies of Rome, but
were defeated and driven back into their own
country by the generals of Augustus. [Cotiso.]
In the reign of Domitian they became so for
midable under their king Decebalus, that the
Romans were obliged to purchase a peace of
them by the payment of tribute. Trajan de
livered the empire from this disgrace ; he crossed
the Danube, and after a war of five years (a.d.
101-106), conquered the country, made it a
Roman province, and colonised it with inhabit
ants from aU parts of the empire (Dio Cass.
lxviii. 14; Aurel. Vict. Caes. 13). At first it
was held as a single province under the empe
ror's legatus : then before the middle of the
2nd cent. a.d. it was divided into Dacia superior
and Dacia inferior, each under a legatus. M.
Aurelius in 168 made three divisions : Dacia
Porolissensis, with chief town Porolissum,
Apulensis, with chief town Apulum, and Ma-
luensis, from the colony of that name; but
these three, though each had its own procurator,
were united under a 'legatus Augusti pr. pr.
trium Daciarum ' or ' Daciae,' and had a single
capital, Sarmizegetusa. At a later period Dacia
was invaded by the Goths; and as Aurelian
considered it more prudent to make the Danube
the boundary of the empire, he resigned Dacia
to the barbarians, removed the Roman inhabit
ants to Moesia, and gave the name of Dacia
(Aureliani) to that part of the province along
the Danube where they were settled.
Dactyli (AoktvXoi), fabulous beings of super
human size and strength, to whom the discovery
of iron, the art of working it by means of fire,
and also magical powers were ascribed. Their
name Dactyls — that is, Fingers — is accounted for
in various ways : by their number being five or
ten, or by the fact of their serving Rhea just
as the fingers serve the hand, or by the story
of their having lived at the foot (iv SaKrvXois)
of Mount Ida. Most authorities describe
Mount Ida in Phrygia as the original seat of
the Dactyls, whence they are usually caUed
Idaean Dactyls. In Phrygia they were con-

DAEDALUS

267

nected with the worship of Rhea. (Strab. p.
473 ; Diod. xvii. 7 ; Ap. Rh. i. 1128.) They are
sometimes confounded or identified with the
Curetes, Corybantes, Cabiri, and Telchines.
This confusion with the Cabiri also accounts for
Samothrace being in some accounts described
as their residence. Here they are said to have
taught Orpheus ; for music, as well as magical
incantation, is set down as their invention
(Clem. Al. Strom,, i. 132). Other accounts
transfer them to Mount Ida in Crete, of which
island they are said to have been the original
inhabitants (Diod. v. 64 ; Plin. vii. 197 ; C. I. G.
2374). With this tradition, no doubt, is con
nected their confusion with the Curetes (Strab.
p. 466; Paus. v. 7, 6). Their number appears
to have been originally three : Gelmis (the
smelter), Damnameneus (the hammer), and
Acmon (the anvil). Their number was after
wards increased to five, ten (five male and five
female), fifty-two and 100.
Dadastana (r/ AaSao-rdva : Torbaleh or Kes-
tabeg ?), a fortress on the borders of Bithynia
and Galatia, where the emperor Jovian died
suddenly, a.d. 364 (Amm. Marc. xxv. 10).
Daedaia (to. AaiSaXa), a city in Asia Minor,
upon the Gulf of Glaucus, on the borders of
Caria and Lycia. The same name was given
to a mountain near the town (Strab. p. 664).
Daedalus (AaiSaXos). 1. A mythical per
sonage, under whose name the Greek writers

Daedalus and Icarus. (From a relief in the Villa Albanl.>

personified the earliest development of the arts
of sculpture and architecture, especially among
the Athenians and Cretans. Accordingly, some
traditions represent Daedalus as an Athenian,
of the royal race of the Erechthldae (Diod. iv.
76). Other traditions make him a Cretan ; and
in accordance with this story Crete is regarded
as the place where (,6ava or daedaia were first
made. He is said to have been the son of
Metion, the son of Eupalamus, the son of Erech-
theus. Others make him the son of Eupalamus,
or of Palamaon. His mother is called Alcippe,
or Iphinoe, or Phrasimede. He devoted him
self to sculpture, and made great improvements
in the art. He instructed his sister's son
Talus, who soon came to surpass him in skill
and ingenuity, and Daedalus killed him through
envy. Being condemned to death by the Areio
pagus for this murder, he went to Crete, where
the fame of his skill obtained for him the
friendship of Minos. He made the well-known
wooden cow for Pasiphae ; and when Pasiphae
gave birth to the Minotaur, Daedalus constructed.

268

DAEMON

the labyrinth, at Cnossus, in which the monster
was kept. For his part in this affair, Daedalus
was imprisoned by Minos; but Pasiphae re
leased him, and, as Minos had seized all the
ships on the coast of Crete, Daedalus made
wings for himself and his son Icarus, and
fastened them on with wax. Daedalus himself
flew safe over the Aegaean, but, as Icarus flew
too near the sun, the wax by which his wings
were fastened on was melted, and he dropped
down and was drowned in that part of the
Aegaean which was called after him the Icarian
sea (Diod. iv. 77 ; Ov. Met. viii. 195). Daedalus
fled to Sicily, where he was protected by
Cocalus, the king of the Sicani. When Minos
heard where Daedalus had taken refuge, he
sailed with a great fleet to Sicily, where he
was treacherously murdered by Cocalus or his
daughters (Hyg. Fab. 39-44). According to
some accounts Daedalus first alighted in his
flight from Crete at Cumae in Italy, where he
erected a temple to Apollo, in which he dedi
cated the wings with which he had fled from
Crete (Verg. Aen. vi. 14; Sil. It. xii. 102).
Several other works of art were attributed to
Daedalus in Greece, Italy, Libya, the islands
of the Mediterranean, and in Egypt (Diod. i.
.97 ; Paus. ix. 40). They belong to the period
when art began to be developed. The name
¦of Daedaia was given by the Greeks to the
ancient wooden statues, ornamented with gild
ing and bright colours and real drapery, which
were the earliest known forms of the images
of the gods, after the mere blocks of wood or
-stone which were at first used for symbols of
them. [Diet, of Ant. s. v.] — 2. Of Sicyon, a
statuary in bronze, son and disciple of Patrocles,
flourished B.C. 400.
Daemon (Aaipav). Jn general terms the
Zaipoves may be described as beings interme
diate between gods and men. In Homer the
word Saipav seems to express a divine agency
(II. iii. 420, xi. 192, xv. 418, 467 ; Od. x. 64, xviii.
146), and it wiU be observed that it is most
¦often a baneful or thwarting influence. Though
Homer also calls the gods Saipoves (H. i. 222),
this distinction may be noted, that the word is
an absolute synonym for Bebs only when he uses
the plural, speaking apparently of supernatural
beings generally, whereas he does not in speak
ing of any one of the greater deities in person
nse the term Saipav. Hesiod defines more
clearly: the Saipoves are 30,000 in number,
and are the spirits of those who lived in the
Golden Age: they walk abroad on the upper
earth, shrouded in mist, watching over men,
preserving justice and bestowing wealth in
kingly fashion (Hes. Op. 121, 251). From this
general conception many others branch off. (1)
The Saipav is the supernatural agency which
regards each human being (an idea partly sha
dowed out in Homer), and so is his own fate or
fortune, good or bad (Aesch. Sept. 812 ; Soph.
Aj. 534; Eur. Suppl. 592; Pind. Pyth. v. 115).
>(2) The idea of individual guardian spirits at
tending each human being from his birth to
his burial [cf. Genius] was a philosophical de
velopment from the above (Plat. Phaed. p.
107 D, Bep. x. p. 617 e) ; and from this again
came the idea of the good and bad angel, or
good and evil 'genius' (Plut. Brut. 36). (3)
Aaipoves irpAiroXoi were ministers (or, as von
Sybel caUs them, ' subalterns ') of the great
deities. Such were the Corybantes of Cybele,
Aeratus the Saipav of Dionysus (Paus. i. 2, 4),
Eurynomus in Hades (answering more nearly
to the modern idea of demon), Themis, Nemesis,

DAMASCIUS
Muses, Glaucus, &c. With these, as inferior
deities, ranked the personifications of natural
processes such as "Tirvos and @dvaros. (4) Like
the dii Manes (and also the Genius), Saipav
meant also the spirit of the departed dead, and
expressed the belief in immortality (Eur. Ale.
1003). This is frequent in sepulchral inscrip
tions. In art, though each particular Saipav
has its own attributes, it is a general character
istic of Saipoves (as distinguished from Beoi),
that they are represented with wings.
Dahae (Adai), a great Scythian people, who
led a nomad Ufe over a great extent of country
on the E. of the Caspian, in Hyrcania (which
still bears the name of Daghestan), on the
banks of the Margus, the Oxus, and even the
Jaxartes. Some of them served as cavalry and
mounted archers in the armies of Darius Codo-
mannus, Alexander and Antiochus, and they
were also good foot-soldiers. (Strab. p. 511;
Verg. Aen. viii. 728 ; Liv. xxxv. 48, xxxviii. 40.)
Daimachus (Aalpaxos), of Plataeae, was sent
by Seleucus as ambassador to Sandrocottus,
king of India, about b.c. 312, and wrote a work
on India, which is lost (Strab. p. 70).
Dalmatia or Delmatia (AaXparia : AaXpdrris,
more anciently AaXpareis, Dalmata), a part of
the country along the E. coast of the Adriatic
sea included under the general name of Ulyri-
cum, was separated from Liburnia on the N.
by the Titius (Kerka), and from Greek Ulyria
on the S. by the Drilon (Drino), and extended
inland to to the Bebian mountains and the
Drinus, thus nearly corresponding to the
modern Dalmatia. The capital was Dalminium
or Delminium, from which the country derived
its name. The next most important town was
Salona, the residence of Diocletian. The Dal
matians were a brave and warlike people, and
gave much trouble to the Romans. In b.c. 119
their country was overrun by L. MeteUus, who
assumed in consequence the surname Dalma-
ticus, but they continued independent of the
Romans. In 39 they were defeated oy Asinius
PoUio, of whose Dalmaticus triumphus Horace
speaks (Od. ii. 1, 16) ; but it was not tiU the
year 23 that they were finally subdued, by Sta-
tilius Taurus. They took part in the great
Pannonian revolt under their leader Bato, but
after a three years' war were again reduced to
subjection by Tiberius, a.d. 9. The province
originaUy called IUyricum was after the time of
Augustus usually known as Dalmatia (Dio
Cass. xlix. 36 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 5). It comprised
all the coast west of Macedonia from Lissus,
and the river DrUon on the south to the river
Arsia on the north, and was governed by a
legatus Augusti pro praetore : after 800 a.d. by
a praeses. [Illyricum.]
Dalmatius. [Delmatius.]
Dalminium. [Dalmatia.]
Damagetus (AapdyriTos), king of Ialysus in
Rhodes, married, in obedience to the Delphic
oracle, the daughter of Aristomenes of Messene,
and from this marriage sprang the family of the
Diagoridae, who were celebrated for their vic
tories at Olympia. [Aristomenes.]
Damalis or Bous (AdpaXis, t) Bovs), a small
place in Bithynia, on the shore of the Thracian
Bosporus, N. of Chalcedon ; celebrated by tra
dition as the landing-place of Io, the memory of
whose passage was preserved by a bronze cow
set up here by the Chalcedonians.
Damaratus. [Demaratus.]
Damascius (Aapdo-Kios), the Syrian, of Da
mascus, whence he derived his name, the last of
the renowned teachers of the Neo-Platonic

DAMASCUS
philosophy at Athens, was born about a.d. 480.
He first studied at Alexandria and afterwards
at Athens, under Marinus and Zenodotus, whom
he succeeded. When Justinian closed the
heathen schools of philosophy at Athens in 529,
Damascius emigrated to King Chosroes of
Persia. He afterwards returned to the W.,
since Chosroes had stipulated in a treaty that
the heathen adherents of the Platonic phUo-
sophy should be tolerated by the Byzantine
emperor. The only work of Damascius which
has been printed is entitled Doubts ana
Solutions of the first Principles, edited by
Kopp, Francof . 1828, 8vo.
Damascus (Aapao-nbs), son of Hermes and
Halimede, who migrated from Arcadia and
founded the Syrian city which bore his name.
When Dionysus on his eastern travels came
there, Damascus opposed the planting of the
vine, and was flayed ahve by the god (Steph.
Byz. s.v.). The story seems to be partly ety
mological, partly a mythical account of resist
ance offered to the introduction of the Bacchan
alian rites.
Damascus (r) Aapa<TK6s : Aapao-K7iv6s : Da-
meshk, Damascus, Esh-Sham), one of the most
ancient cities of the world, mentioned as exist
ing in the time of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15),
stood in the district afterwards caUed Coele-
Syria, upon both banks of the river Chrysor-
rhoas or Bardines (Burada), the waters of which,
drawn off by canals and aqueducts, fertilised
the plain around the city. This plain is open
on the S. and E., and sheltered on the W. and
N. by an offshoot of the Antilibanus ; its fruits
were celebrated in ancient, as in modem times ;
and altogether the situation of the city is one of
the finest on the globe. For its earlier history
see Diet, of the Bible. In the first century b.c.
it was under a dynasty of Nabathaean kings
who made Petrae their residence (Jos! Ant.
xiv. 1, 5). This dynasty lasted from 95 B.C. to
106 a.d. with various degrees of independence.
M. Aermlius Scaurus in 62 B.C. had a treaty
with Aretas I. (Dio Cass, xxxvii. 15) ; but later
there was more direct interference from the
Romans (Strab. p. 779 ; Jos. Ant. xiv. 11). In
a.d. 39, Damascus was ruled by an eBvdpxris of
Aretas 11. In 106, when Arabia Petraea became
a Roman province, Damascus was united with
the province of Syria. It flourished greatly
under the emperors, and is called by Julian
(Epist. 24) ' the Eye of all the East.' Diocletian
established in it a great factory for arms ; and
hence the origin of the fame of Damascus blades.
Its position on one of the high roads from Lower
to Upper Asia gave it a considerable trade. The
surrounding district was called AapaoKTivr).
Damasippus, L. Junius Brutus. [Brutus
No. 10.]
Damasippus, Licinius. 1. A Roman senator,
fought on the side of the Pompeians in Africa,
and perished B.C. 47 (Caes. B. C. ii. 44). — 2. A
contemporary of Cicero, who mentions him as a
lover of statues, and speaks of purchasing a
garden from Damasippus. He is probably the
same person as the Damasippus ridiculed by
Horace (Sat. ii. 3, 16, 64). It appears from
Horace that Damasippus had become bankrupt,
in consequence of which he intended to put an
end to himself; but he was prevented by the
Stoic Stertinius, and then turned Stoic himself,
or at least affected to be one in outward appear
ance. The Damasippus mentioned by Juvenal
(Sat. viii. 147, 151, 167) is a fictitious name,
under which the satirist ridiculed some noble
lover of horses.

DANALA 269
Damastes (Aapdo-T7)s), of Sigeum, a Greek his
torian, and a contemporary of Herodotus and
Hellanlcus of Lesbos ; his works are lost (Strab.
pp. 47, 583, 684).
Damia. [Auxesia.]
Damnonii. 1. Or Dumnonii or Dumnunii, a
powerful people in the SW. of Britain, inhabit
ing Cornwall, Devonshire, and the W. part of
Somersetshire, from whom was called the
promontory Damnonium, also Oorinum (C.
Lizard) in Cornwall.— 2. Or Damnii, a people
in N. Britain, inhabiting parts of Perth, Argyle,
Stirling, and Dumbarton-shires.
Damo (Aapd), a daughter of Pythagoras and
Theano, to whom Pythagoras entrusted his
writings, and forbade her to give them to any
one. This command she strictly observed, al
though she was in extreme poverty, and was
often asked to sell them. (Diog. Laert. viii. 42.)
Damocles (AapoKXijs), a Syracusan, one
of the companions and flatterers of the elder
Dionysius. Damocles having extolled the great
felicity of Dionysius on account of his wealth
and power, the tyrant invited him to try what
his happiness really was, and placed him at a
magnificent banquet, in the midst of which
Damocles saw a naked sword suspended over
his head by a single horse-hair — a sight which
quickly dispelled all his visions of happiness.
(Cic. Tusc._ v. 21, 61 ; cf. Hor. Od. iii. 1, 7.)
Damocritus, strategus of the Aetolians B.C.
200, opposed the Romans, but was defeated at
Heracleia near Mt. Oeta by Flamininus in 191.
He was taken to Rome, to adorn the triumph,
but escaped from his prison, and being pursued
killed himself. (Pol. xvii. 10, xxii. 14 ; Liv.
xxxi. 32, xxxv. 12, xxxvi. 24, xxxvii. 46.)
Damon (Adpav). 1. Of Athens, a celebrated
musician and sophist. He was a pupil of Lam-
prus and Agathocles, and the teacher of Peri
cles, with whom he lived on the most intimate
terms. He is also said to have taught Socrates,
but this statement is more doubtful. In his old
age he was banished from Athens, probably on
account of the part he had taken in politics.
(Diog. Laert. ii. 19.)— 2. A Pythagorean and
friend of Phintias (not Pythias). When the latter
was condemned to die for a plot against Diony
sius I. of Syracuse, he asked leave of the tyrant
to depart for the purpose of arranging his do
mestic affairs, promising to find a friend who
would be pledge for his appearance at the time
appointed for his punishment. To the surprise
of Dionysius, Damon unhesitatingly offered him
self to be put to death instead of his friend,
should he fail to return. Phintias arrived just
in time to redeem Damon, and Dionysius was so
struck with this instance of firm friendship on
both sides, that he pardoned the criminal, and
entreated to be admitted as a third into their
bond of brotherhood. (Cic. Tusc. v. 22, 63, de
Off. iii.10, 45 ; Diod. x. 3; Val. Max. ix. 7.)
Damoxenus (Aapb^evos), an Athenian poet of
the New Comedy, and partly of the Middle.
Dana (Adva), in Cappadocia (Xen. Anab. i. 2,
20), the same as the later Tyana.
Danae (Aavdri), daughter of Acrisius, and
mother of Perseus. For details, see Acrisius.
An Italian legend related that Danae came to
Italy, built the town of Ardea, and married
Pilumnus, by whom she became mother of
Daunus, ancestor of Turnus. (Verg. Aen. viii.
371 ; Plin. iii. 56.)
Danai. [Danaus.]
Danaides (AavatSes), the fifty daughters of
Danaus. [Danaus.]
Danala (to: AdvaXa), a city in the territory of

•270

DANAPRIS

the Trocini, in the NE. of Galatia, notable in
the history of the Mithridatic war as the place
where Lucullus resigned the command to
Pompey (Plut. Lucull. 86).
Danapris. [Borysthenes.]
Danastris. [Tyras.]
Danaus (Aavabs), son of Belus and twin-
brother of Aegyptus. Belus had assigned Libya
to Danaus, but the latter, fearing his brother
and his brother's sons, fled with his fifty
daughters to Argos. Here he was elected king
by the Argives in place of Gelanor, the reign
ing monarch. The story of the murder of the
fifty sons of Aegyptus by the fifty daughters of

Danaids. (From a relief in the Vatican.)
Danaus (the Danaides) is given under Aegyp
tus. There was one exception to the mur
derous deed. The life of Lynceus was spared
by his wife Hypermnestra ; and according to
the common tradition he afterwards avenged
the death of his brothers by killing his father-
in-law, Danaus. According to the poets the
Danaides were punished in Hades by being
compelled everlastingly to pour water into a
sieve or a jar with a hole in it (inane lymphae
dolium fundo pereuntis imo, Hor. Od. iii. 11,
26). — From Danaus the Argives were called
Danai, which name, like that of the Argives,
was often applied by the poets to the collective
Greeks. Daniibius (Danube, in Germ. Donau), also
Danuvius on coins and inscriptions, called
Ister (yIo"Tpos) by the Greeks, one of the chief
rivers of Europe, rises in the Black Forest, and
after flowing 1770 miles falls into the Black Sea.
It is mentioned by Hesiod, but the Greeks
knew very little about it. (Hes. Th. 338 ; Pind.
Ol. iii. 25 ; Hdt. ii. 33.) According to Herodo
tus it rises at the city Pyrene among the Celts
and flows through the whole of Europe. The
Romans first obtained some accurate informa
tion concerning the river at the commencement
of the empire. Tiberius in his campaign
against the Vindelicians, visited the sources of
the Danube, which, according to Tacitus, are
in M. Abnoba. The Danube formed the N.
boundary of the empire with the exception of
the time that Dacia was a Roman province.
In the Roman period the upper part of the
river from its source as far as Vienna was
called Danubius, wMle the lower part to its
entrance in the Black Sea was named Ister.
Daorsi or Daorizi, a tribe in Dalmatia.
Daphnae Pelusiae (Adqivai at TleXovo-iai :
Safnas), a border fortress of Lower Egypt
against Arabia and Syria, stood on the right
hand of the Nile, 16 Roman miles SW. of
Pelusium. Many Jews settled here after the
destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians.
Daphne (AdipvT)). 1. Daughter of the river-

DAPHNIS
god Ladon in Arcadia, by Ge (the earth)
(Paus. viii. 20, x. 7, 8), or of the river-god
Peneus in Thessaly (Ov. Met. i. 452; Hyg.
Fab. 203) ; a third account makes her the
daughter of the Laconian Amyclas, which
explains the aUusion in Verg. Eel. vi. 83
(Parthen. Erot. 15). She wasextremely beauti
ful, and was loved by Apollo, who pursued her,
and as she was on the point of being overtaken
by him, she prayed for aid, and was metamor
phosed into a laurel-tree (Sdipvrj), which
became in consequence the favourite tree of
Apollo : other stories make the Earth take her
into her bosom, and send up a laurel in her
stead (Tzetz. Lye. 6). In the Peloponnesian
legends she had been beloved also by Leucip-
pus, Bon of Oenomaus, who in order to win her
disguised himself as a maiden ; but Apollo's
jealousy caused his discovery and he was kUled
by the companions of Daphne (Paus. viii. 20 ;
Parthen. I. c). In these stories of Daphne
probably the older religion is preserved which
worshipped the laurel tree itself. When this
became part of Apollo's worship and the laurel
was regarded as sacred to him, the story of his
love for Daphne and her transformation grew
up. — 2. Daughter of Tiresias, better known
under the name of Manto.
Daphne (Adcpvri). 1. Beit-el-Moie, or Baby-
la (?), a beautiful spot, five miles S. of Antioch
in Syria, to which it formed a sort of park or
pleasure garden. Here was a grove of laurels
and cypresses, 80 stadia in circuit, watered by
fresh springs and consecrated by Seleucus
Nicator to Apollo, to whom also a magnificent
temple was built by Antiochus Epiphanes, and
adorned with a splendid statue of the god by
Bryaxis. (Hence the legend of Daphne was
transferred also to this spot : Auson. Clar.
Urb. 2.) To this temple were attached periodi
cal games and the privUege of asylum. Daphne
was a royal residence of the Seleucidae and of
the later Roman emperors, and a favourite
resort of the people of Antioch, who, however,
carried the pleasures they enjoyed here so far
beyond the bounds of moderation, that the
phrase Daphnici mores passed into a proverb.
It was from this place that Antioch received its
distinguishing name, 'A. iirl Adipv-qs (Strab. p.
750 ; Amm. Marc. xix. 12 ; Polyaen. viii. 50).— 2.
A place in Upper GalUee on the lake Seme-
chonitis. Daphnis (Aaipvis), a Sicilian hero, to whom
the invention of bucolic poetry is ascribed.
He was the son of Hermes by a nymph (Aelian,
V. H. x. 18). His mother placed him when an
infant in a charming valley in a laurel grove,
from which he received his name of Daphnis.
He was brought up by nymphs ; was taught by
Pan to play on the flute ; he became a shep
herd, and tended his flocks on Mt. Aetna
winter and summer (Theocr. i. 67, vii. 74, viii.
92 ; Parthen. Erot. 29). A Naiad fell in love
with him, and made him swear that he would
never love any other maiden, threatening him
with blindness if he broke his oath. For a time
the handsome shepherd resisted the numerous
temptations to which he was exposed, but at last
he forgot himself, having been made intoxicated
by a princess. The Naiad accordingly punished
him with blindness, or, as others relate, changed
him into a stone. Previous to this time he had
composed bucolic poetry, and with it delighted
Artemis during the chase. After having
become blind, he invoked his father to help him.
The god accordingly raised him up to heaven,
and caused a weU to gush forth on the spot

DAPHNUS
where this happened. The well bore the name 1
of Daphnis, and at it the Sicilians offered an j
annual sacrifice. This account AeUan seems to
have derived from Stesichorus, and some have
•conjectured . that Stesichorus introduced the
story in reference to his own blindness. In
Theocritus there is a different story, with no
allusion to blindness and another ending to his
Uf e. Daphnis in despair at unrequited love for
Xenia drowns himself and is mourned by all
nature. This unrequited love is explained as
being the punishment sent by Aphrodite, either
because Daphnis preferred music to love, or
according to the other legend, because he had
Iieen faithless. From Athen. p. 415 comes
another story, related in a Satyric drama of
Sositheus, which represents Daphnis as seeking
his love, named Piplea, and coming to Lityerses
in Phrygia, who made all strangers vie with
him in reaping his corn and then killed them
when they were defeated. Heracles helps
Daphnis, and Lityerses is kiUed. In this story
Daphnis instead of being the deity or hero of
herdsmen, is adopted into the myths of the
corn-spirit and the harvest sacrifices.
Daphnus (Aatpvovs, -ovvros : Aaipvovo-ios), a
town of the Locri Opuntn, in earlier times be
longing to Phocis (Strab. p. 416).
Daradax (AapdSa£: Abu-Ghalgall), a river
of Upper Syria, flowing into the Euphrates, 30
parasangs from the R. Chalos, ana 15 from
Thapsacus. Daras, a town of Mesopotamia, about 12
miles from Nisibis : it was strongly fortified by
the Greek emperors as a barrier against the
Persians (Procop. Bell. Pers. ii. 13).
Dardani (AdpSavoi). 1. [Dardania.] — 2. A
people in Upper Moesia, who also occupied
part of Hlyricum, and extended as far as the
frontiers of Macedonia (Strab. p. 316).
Dirdania (AapSavla), a district of the Troad,
lying along the Hellespont, SW. of Abydos,
and adjacent on the land side to the territories
of Ilium and Scepsis (Strab. pp. 592, 606). Its
people, the Dardani (AdpSavoi), were apparently
akin to the Trojans, both having descended
from the highlands of Asia Minor towards the
coast. Probably the name Dardani originally
included the Trojan branch as weU, and had
also been carried in a more distant migration of
the same people in ' Pelasgic ' wanderings to
niyricum. Their name seems to be rightly
traced on Egyptian records of about 1300 as
aUies of the Hittites who were defeated by
Ramses H. In the Hiad they appear as fight
ing under command of Aeneas in defence of
Troy (ii. 819, xv. 425) ; and their name in Latin
poets is often interchanged with that of the
Trojans. — 2. The name Dardania belonged
under the empire to southern Dacia, whose
chief town was Serdica (Sophia).
Dardanus (AdpSavos), son of Zeus and
Electra. His native place in the various
traditions is Samothrace, Crete, Troas, or Italy.
Dardanus is the mythical ancestor of the
Trojans, and through them of the Romans.
From Samothrace he passed over to Asia,
Where he received a tract of land from king
Teucer, on which he built the town of Dardania.
He married Batea, daughter of Teucer, or
Arisbe of Crete, by whom he became the father
of Erichthonius. [Another tradition makes
him marry Chryse, daughter of the Arcadian
Pallas : see Deimas.] His grandson was Tros,
who removed to Troy the Palladium, which had
belonged to his grandfather (II. xx. 215 ;
Strab. pp. 331, 50 ; Apollod. iii. 12 ; Diod. iv.

DARIUS

271

75, v, 48 ; Paus. vii. 19). According to the
Italian traditions, Dardanus was the son of
Corythus, an Etruscan prince of Corythus
(Cortona), or of Zeus by the wife of Corythus ;
and, as in the Greek tradition, he afterwards
emigrated to Phrygia (Verg. Aen. iii. 167, vii.
210 ; Serv. ad loc).
Dardanus (^ AdpSavos : AapSavevs), also,
-um and -ium, a Greek city in the Troad on
the Hellespont, near the Prom. Dardanis or
Dardanium and the mouth of the river Rhodius,
12 Roman miles from Ilium, and 9 (or 70
stadia) from Abydus. It was built by Aeolian
colonists, at some distance from the site of the
ancient city Dardania (AapSavtn), which is
mentioned by Homer (II. ii. 216) as founded by
Dardanus before the building of Ilium (cf.
Strab. p. 592). The Romans, after the war with
Antiochus the Great, made Dardanus and
Ilium free cities, as an act of filial piety. The
peace between Sulla and Mithridates was
made here, b.c. 84 (Strab. p. 595 ; Plut. Sull.
24). From Dardanus arose the name of the
Castles of the Dardanelles, after which the
Hellespont is now called.
Dares (Adpris), a priest of Hephaestus at
Troy, mentioned in the Iliad (v. 9), to whom
was ascribed in antiquity an Iliad, which was
believed to be more ancient than the Homeric
poems (Ael. V. H. xi. 2 ; Isid. i. 41). There is
extant a Latin work in prose in 44 chapters,
on the destruction of Troy, bearing the title
Daretis Phrygii de Excidio Trojae Historia,
and purporting to be a translation of the work
of Dares by Cornelius Nepos. But the Latin
work is evidently of much later origin : possibly
of the fifth century a.d. (It must be earlier
than the seventh century, since Isidore is
acquainted with it.) It has little merit, but is
important, because it was accepted as the
translation from the writings of an eye-witness
of the Trojan war (as it claimed to be), and
became the chief source of Trojan romances in
the Middle Ages. It is usually printed with
Dictys Cretensis : the best edition is by
Meister, Lips. 1873.
Darius (Aapdos). I., King of Persia, B.C.
521-485, was the son of Hystaspes, satrap of
the province of Persis, and of the royal family
of the Achaemenidae. He had served under
Cambyses in Egypt, and with six other Persian
chiefs slew the usurper Gomatas [Smerdis], and
possessed himself of the Persian throne.
According to Herodotus (iii. 85), the seven
chiefs agreed that the one of them whose horse
neighed first at an appointed time and place,
should become king ; and as the horse of Darius
neighed first, he was declared king. He
married Atossa and Artystone, the two daugh
ters of Cyrus, and Parmys, the daughter of
Cyrus's son Smerdis, and Phaedime, the
daughter of Otanes, one of the seven chiefs.
He then began to set in order the affairs of his
vast empire, which he divided into twenty
satrapies, assigning to each its amount of tribute.
Persis proper was exempted from all taxes, except
those which it had formerly been used to pay.
It was in the reign of Darius that the consoli
dation of the empire was effected, for Cyrus
and Cambyses had been engsgad in continual
wars. — A few years after his accession the
Babylonians revolted, but after a siege of twenty
months, Babylon was taken (as Herodotus
relates, iii. 188) by a stratagem of Zopyhus in
516. The reduction of Babylon was followed
by the invasion of Scythia (about 503). Darius
crossed the Danube, and marched far into the

272

DASCON

interior of modern Russia ; but after losing a
large number of men by famine, and being
unable to meet with the enemy, he was obliged
to retreat (Hdt. iv. 1). On his return to Asia,
he sent part of his forces, under Megabazus, to
subdue Thrace and Macedonia, which thus be
came subject to the Persian empire. In the reign
of Darius began the great war between the Per
sians and the Greeks. The details of this war
belong to the biographies of other men. In 501
the Ionian Greeks revolted ; they were assisted
by the Athenians, who burnt Sardis, and thus
provoked the hostility of Darius. [Aristagoras ;
Histiaeus.] In 492 Mardonius was sent with
a large army to invade Greece, but he lost a
great part of his fleet off Mt. Athos, and the
Thracians destroyed a vast number of his land
forces. [Mardonius.] He was, in consequence,
recalled, and Datis and Artaphernes appointed
to the command of the invading army. They
took Eretria in Euboea, and landed in Attica,
but were defeated at Marathon by the Athe
nians under the command of Miltiades. [Mil
tiades.] Darius now resolved to call out the
whole force of his empire for the purpose of
subduing Greece : but, after three years of pre
paration, his attention was called off by the
rebellion of Egypt. He died in 485, leaving
the execution of his plans to his son Xerxes.
Darius was great both as a conqueror and as
an organiser. To him especiaUy is due the
centralisation of the Persian government
at Susa with which the twenty satrapies were
connected by roads and posts. — -IX, King
of Persia, 424-405, named Ochus (*nxos)
before his accession, and then surnamed
Nothus (Ntiflos), or the Bastard, from his
being one of the bastard sons or Artaxerxes I.
Darius obtained the crown by putting to death
his brother Sogdianus, who had murdered
Xerxes II. He married Parysatis, daughter
of Xerxes I., by whom he had two sons,
Artaxerxes II., who succeeded him, and Cyrus
the younger. Darius was governed by eunuchs,
and the weakness of his government was shown
by repeated insurrections of his satraps. In 414
the Persians were expelled from Egypt by
Amyrtaeus, who reigned there six years, and at
whose death (408) Darius was obliged to recog
nise his son Pausiris as his successor. (Ctes.
Pers. 44-56; Diod. xii. 71, xiii. 36, 76. 108;
Xen. Hell, i.2, ii. 1.)— III., Last king of Persia,
336-831, named Codomannus before his acces
sion, was the son of Arsames and Sisygambis,
and a descendant of Darius II. He was raised
to the throne by Bagoas, after the murder of
Arses. The history of his overthrow by Alex
ander the Great, and of his death, is given in
the life of Alexander.
Dascon (Ado-Kav : Aao-Kdvios), a fortress near
Syracuse,_ situated on a bay of the same name.
Dasoylium (Aao-KvXiov or -eTov: Aao-KoXirr/s :
Diaskili), a town of western Bithynia, on the
Propontis, upon a small lake Dascylitis, be
tween the sea and two larger lakes, Apoiloniatis
and Miletopolitis (Strab. p. 575 ; Hdt. iii. 120).
Dasea (Aa<rea, also Aaoeai : Aao-edr-qs), a
town in Arcadia near Megalopolis (Paus. viii. 3).
Dassaretii or Dassaritae, Dassaretae (Ao<r-
ffapiiTioi, Aao-o-apirai), a people in Greek Illyria
on the borders of Macedonia : their chief town
was Lychnidus (Ai^'Sos-), on a hill, on the N.
side of the lake Lychnltis, which was so called
after the town (Strab. p. 318).
Datam.es (Aardpris), a distinguished Persian
general, a Carian by birth, son of Camissares
by a Scythian mother. He succeeded his

DECIUS
father as satrap of Cilicia, under Artaxerxes H.
(Mnemon), but, in consequence of the machina
tions of his enemies at the Persian court, he
threw off his allegiance to the king, and joined
the other satraps who had revolted from Persia.
He defeated the generals who were sent against
him, but was assassinated by Mithridates, son of
Ariobarzanes, about b.c. 362. Cornelius Nepos,
who has written his life, caUs him the bravest
and most able of all barbarian generals, except
Hamilcar and Hannibal. (Nep. Datames ; Diod.
xv. 91 ; Polyaen. vii. 21, 29.)
Datis (AStis), a Mede, commanded, along
with Artaphernes, the Persian army of Darius
which was defeated at Marathon, B.C. 490.
Datum or Datus (Adrov, Adros : Aarnvis), a
Thracian town on the Strymonic gulf, subject
to Macedonia, with gold mines in Mt. Pangaeus
in the neighbourhood, whence came the proverb
a ' Datum of good things ' (Strab. pp. 831, 36).
Daulis or Daulia (AavXis, -iSos, AavXta : Aau-
Xievs, AaitXios), an ancient town in Phocis on
the road from Chaeronea and Orchomenus to
Delphi, situated on a lofty hill (Strab. p. 423 ;
Paus. x. 4, 7) ; celebrated in mythology as the
residence of the Thracian king Tereus, and as
the scene of the tragic story of Philomela and
Procne. Hence Daulias (AavXids) is the sur
name both of Procne and Philomela.
Daunia. [Apulia.]
Daunus (Aavvos). 1. Son of Lycaon, and
brother of Iapyx and Peucetius. The three
brothers crossed over from Illyria, and settled in
Apulia, which was divided into three parts, and
named after them. The poets sometimes gave
the name of Daunia to the whole of Apulia:
Horace (Od. i. 22, 14) uses the adjective Daunias
(sc. terra). [Apulia.] — 2. Son of Pilumnus and
Danae, wife of Venilia, and ancestor of Turnus.
Decebalus (AeKeBaXos), a celebrated king of
the Dacians during the reigns of Domitian and
Trajan. For 4 years (a.d. 86-90) he carried on
war against the Romans with such success, that
Domitian was at length glad to conclude peace
with him by the payment of an annual tribute.
Trajan refused to continue this disgraceful pay
ment, and renewed the war. He defeated the
Dacians, and compelled Decebalus to sue for
peace (101-103). But in 104 the war broke out
again ; Decebalus was again defeated, and put
an end to his own life ; and Dacia became a
Roman province, 106. (Dio Cass. lxvn. 6, lxviii.
6 ; Eutrop. vii. 15 ; Oros. vii. 10.)
Decelea or -ia (AeKeXeia : AeKeXeis : Tatoi),
a demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Hip-
pothoontis, lay NW. of Athens, on the borders
of Boeotia, near the sources of the Cephissus.
In the nineteenth year of the Peloponnesian
war (b.c. 413), the Peloponnesians under Agis
seized and fortified Decelea, and thereby annoyed
the Athenians during the remainder of the war.
Decentius Magnus, brother or cousin of Mag
nentius, by whom he was created Caesar, a.d.
351. After the death of Magnentius, he put
an end to his own life, 353.
Decetia (Desize), a city of the Aedui, in Gallia
Lugdunensis, on an island in the Liger (Loire).
Deciates, a Ligurian people on the coast and
about the sources of the Druentia (Durance).
Their chief city, Deciatum (Ackititov), lay be
tween Nicaea and Antipolis. (Pol. xxxiii. 7 ;
Strab. p. 202.)
Decidius Saxa. [Saxa.]
P. Decius Mus (of a plebeian gens). 1.
Consul B.C. 340 with T. Manlius Torquatus in
the great Latin war. Each of the consuls had
a vision in the night, announcing that the

DECIUS
general of one side and the army of the other
¦were devoted to death. The consuls there
upon agreed that the one whose wing first
"began to waver should devote himself and the
army of the enemy to destruction. Decius
commanded the left wing, which began to give
-way, whereupon he devoted himself and the
army of the enemy to destruction, according to
the formula prescribed by the pontifex maxi
mus, then rushed into the thickest of the enemy,
and was slain, leaving the victory to the Ro
mans. (Liv. vii. 84, viii. 6 ; Cic. Div. i. 24, 51,
Tusc. i. 37, 89.) — 2. Son of the preceding, four
times consul, 312, 308, 297 and 295. In his
fourth consulship he commanded the left wing
at the battle of Sentinum, where he was op
posed to the Gauls, and when his troops began
to give way, he imitated the example of his
father, devoted himself and the enemy to de
struction, and fell as a sacrifice for his nation.
(Liv. x. 7, 27.)— 3- Son of No. 2, consul 279, in
the war against Pyrrhus. According to some
he sacrificed himself in battle like his father
and grandfather, but this is not true, for he
•survived the war with Pyrrhus. (Flor. i. 18, 21 ;
Oros. iv. 5 ; Val. Max. ix. L)
Deems, Roman emperor, a.d. 249-251, whose
full name was C. Messius Quintus Tbajanus
Decius, was born at Bubalia in Pannonia. He
was sent by the emperor Philippus in. 249 to re
store subordination in the army of Moesia, but
the troops compelled him to accept the purple

DEIPHOBUS

273

Decius, Roman Emperor A.D. 241-251.
Obv., IMP. C. M. <J. TBAIANVS DECIUS AVG. ; bust of
Decius, radiate; rev., PANNONIA ; figures of Upper and
Lower Pannonia, holding standard and cornucopia.
-under threats of death. Decius stiU assured
Philippus of his fideUty; but the latter, not
trusting these professions, hastened to meet his
rival in the field, was defeated near Verona, and
slain. The short reign of Decius was chiefly
occupied in warring against the Goths. He fell
in battle against them, in the marshes near
Forum Trebonii in Moesia, together with his
son, in 251. In his reign the Christians were
persecuted with great severity ; but he was in
the rest of his administration, and whoUy in
his military activity, deserving of admiration.
(Aurel. Vict. Caes. 28 ; Zos. i. 21.)
Decumates Agri. [Agri Decumates.]
Deianira (ATiidveipa), daughter of Althaea by
«ither Oeneus, or Dionysus, or Dexamenus, and
sister of Meleager. Achelous and Heracles both
loved Deianira, and fought for the possession
of her. Heracles was victorious, and she be
came his wife. She was the unwUling cause of
her husband's death by presenting him with the
poisoned robe which the centaur Nessus gave
her. In despair she put an end to her own life.
Por detaUs see Heracles.
Deidamla (Av'iSdpeia). 1. Daughter of Lyco-
medes in the island of Scyrus. When AchiUes
was concealed there in maiden's attire, she be
came by him the mother of Pyrrhus or Neopto-
lemus. [Achilles.]— 2. Wife of Pirithous,
commonly called Hippodamia. — 3. Sister of
Pyrrhus, married Demetrius Poliorcetes.

Deimas (Aelpas), son of Dardanus and
Chryse, who settled in Arcadia (Dionys. i. 61).
Deioces (An'idVijs), first king of Media, after
the Medes had thrown off the supremacy of the
Assyrians, was the son of Phraortes, and reigned
B.C. 709-656. He built the city of Ecbatana,
which he made the royal residence. His ad
ministration of justice was severe, and he kept
a body of spies and informers throughout the
whole country. He was succeeded by his son,
Phraortes. (Hdt. i. 95-102.)
Deion (AtjW), son of Aeolus and Enarete,
king in Phocis, husband of Diomede, and father
of Asteropia, Aenetus, Actor, Phylacus, and
Cephalus. Deione (Arfidv-fi), mother of Miletus, who is
hence called Deionides (Ov. Met. ix. 442).
Deiotarus (Aiji'oVctpos). 1. Tetrarch of Ga
latia, adhered firmly to the Romans in their
wars in Asia against Mithridates, and was re
warded by the senate with the title of king, and
the addition of Armenia Minor to his dominions
(Cic. Deiot. v. 12 ; Bell. Alex. 68). In the Civil
war he sided with Pompey, and was present at
the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48 (Cic. Deiot. v.
IS : Caes. B. C. iii. 4). In 47 he applied to
Domitius Calvinus, Caesar's legate in Asia, for
aid against Pharnaces, who had taken posses
sion of Armenia Minor. When Caesar, in the
same year, came into Asia from Egypt, Deio
tarus received him with submission, and en
deavoured to excuse the aid he had given to
Pompey. Caesar deprived him of part of his

Deiotarus, Tetrarch of Galatia.
Obv bust of Nike; rer., AHIOTAPOY; eagle on sword -in
sheath; on right, pilous of Dioscuri.
dominions, but allowed him to retain his regal
title. Two years afterwards (45) his grandson
Castor accused him of having formed a design
against Caesar's life, when he received Caesar
in Galatia. He was defended by Cicero before
Caesar, in the house of the latter at Rome, in
the speech (pro Bege Deiotaro) stiU extant
(cf. Cic. ad AU. v. 17). The result of the trial
is not known ; but it seems likely that Cicero s
advocacy so far prevaUed on Caesar that the
prosecution was dropped. After Caesar's death
he obtained from Antony the restitution of his
dominions by paying Fulvia a large sum of
money. In 42, he joined the party of Brutus
and Cassius, and died shortly afterwards at a
great age. (Cic. Phil. ii. 37 ; Dio Cass. xlvm.
33)— 2. Son and successor of the above, in
the war between Antony and Octavian he took
part with the former, but went over from him
to the enemy in the battle of Actium, 81.
Deiphobe (Arf<p6Br,), the Sibyl at Cumae,
daughter of Glaucus. [Sibylla.] _
Deiphdbus (Arii<poBos), a son of Priam and
Hecuba, and next to Hector the bravest among
the Trojans (II. xii. 94, xiii. 410 ; Od. iv. 276).
He always supported Paris in his refusal to
dehver up Helen to the Trojans ; and he married
her after the death of Paris. Accordingly, on
the fall of Troy, the vengeance of the Greeks
was chiefly directed against him. His house
was one of the first committed to the flames,

274 DEIPHONTES
and he was slain and fearfuUy mangled by
Menelaus. In this dreadful condition he was
found in the lower world by Aeneas, who erected
a monument to him on Cape Rhoeteum. (Verg.
Aen. vi. 493 ; cf . Od. viii. 417 ; Hyg. Fab. 110 ;
Diet. Cret. i. 10 ; Eur. Troad. 960.)
Deiphontes (Aiitybvrris), son of Antimachus,
and husband of Hyrnetho, the daughter of
Temenus the Heraclid, became king of Argos,
after Temenus had been murdered by his own
sons (Apollod. ii. 8). Pausanias (ii. 19) gives a
different account.
Delium (At)Xiov: Dhilessi), a town on the
coast of Boeotia, in the territory of Tanagra,
near the Attic frontier, named after a temple
of ApoUo similar to that at Delos. The Athe
nians used it as a fortress in the early part of
the Peloponnesian war, and in B.C. 424 they
were defeated here by the Boeotians. (Thuc. iv.
90; Strab. p. 403.)
Delius and Delia (Af)Xios, ArjXla), surnames
of Apollo and Artemis respectively, from the
island of Delos.
Dellius, Q., a Roman eques, who frequently
changed sides in the civU wars. In B.C. 44 he
joined Dolabella in Asia, afterwards went over
to Cassius, and then united himself to M. An
tony. He deserted to Octavian shortly before
the battle of Actium, 31. He appears to have
become a personal friend of Octavian and Mae
cenas, and is therefore addressed by Horace in
one of his Odes (ii. 3). He wrote a history of
Antony's war against the Parthians, in which
he had himself fought. (Plut. Ant. 25 ; Dio Cass.
xhx. 39, 1. 13, 23 ; Strab. p. 523.)
Delmatius or Dalmatius. 1. Son of Con
stantius Chlorus and his second wife, Theodora.
From his half-brother, Constantine the Great,
he received the title of censor ; he died before
a.d. 335. — 2. Son of the preceding, was created
Caesar by Constantine the Great, 335; and,
upon the division of the empire, received Thrace,
Macedonia, and Achaia, as his portion. He
was put to death in 337 on the death of Con
stantine. (Aurel. Vict. Caes. 41.)
Delos orDelus (r) At)Xos: At)Xios. Delo,Deli,
Dili, Sdilli, Ru.), the smaUest of the islands
called CycladeB, in the Aegaean Sea, lay in the
strait between Rhenea and Myconus. It was
also called in earlier times, Asteria, Ortygia, and
Chlamydia. According to a legend, founded
perhaps on some tradition of its late volcanic
origin, it was called out of the deep by the tri
dent of Poseidon, but was a floating island until
Zeus fastened it by adamantine chains to the
bottom of the sea, that it might be a secure
resting-place to Leto, for the birth of Apollo
and Artemis. Apollo afterwards obtained pos
session of Delos, by giving Calauria to Poseidon
in exchange for it ; and it became the most holy
seat of the worship of ApoUo (Hymn, ad Del.
49 ; Callim. Del. 35 ; Pind. Fr. 64 ; Verg. Aen.
iii. 75 ; Plin. iv. 66). Such is the mythical
story : we learn from history that Delos was
peopled by the Ionians, for whom it was the
chief centre of politioal and religious union in
the time of Homer : it was also the seat of an
Amphictyony, comprising the surrounding is
lands. In the time of Fisistratus, Delos became
subject to the Athenians; it was made the
common treasury of the Greek confederacy for
carrying on the war with Persia ; but the trans
ference of the treasury to Athens, and the
altered character of the league, reduced the
island to a condition of absolute political
dependence upon Athens. It stUl possessed,
however, a very extensive commerce, which

DELPHI
was increased by the downfall of Corinth, when
Delos became the chief emporium for the trade
in slaves ; and it was one of the principal seats
of art in Greece, especially for works m bronze,
of which metal one of the most esteemed
mixtures was called the Delian. An especial
sanctity was attached to Delos from its con
nexion with the worship of ApoUo; and the
peculiar character assigned to the island by
the traditions of its origin was confirmed by
the remarkable fact that, though of volcanic
origin, and in the midst of islands very subject
to earthquakes, Delos enjoyed an almost entire
exemption from such visitations, so that its
bein<* shaken by an earthquake was esteemed
a marked prodigy (Hdt. vi. 98; Thuc. ii. 8;
Plin. I. c). The city of Delos stood on the W.
side of the island at the foot of Mt. Cynthus
(whence the god's surname of Cynthius), near
a little river called Inopus. It contained a
temple of Leto, and the great temple of Apollo.
The latter was built near the harbour, and
possessed an oracle. Though enriched with
offerings from aU Greece, and defended by no
fortifications, it was so protected from plunder
by the sanctity of the place, that even the
Persians, when saiUng against Greece, not only
passed it by uninjured, but sent rich presents
to the god. With this temple were connected
games, called Delia, which were celebrated
every four years, and were said to have been
founded by Theseus. A like origin is ascribed
to the sacred embassy (Beapia) which the Athen
ians sent to Delos every year. (Diet, of Ant. art.
Delia; Theoris.) The temple and oracle were

Coin of Delos.
Obv., head of Apollo ; rev., lyre of Apollo and legend AH.
visited by pilgrims from every quarter, even
from the regions of Scythia. The greatest im
portance was attached to the preservation of
the sanctity of the island. It was twice purified
by the Athenians : once under Pisistratus, when
all tombs within sight of the temple were taken
away ; and again in B.C. 422, when all human
and animal remains were removed entirely from
the island, which was henceforth forbidden to
be polluted by births or deaths, or by the pre
sence of dogs : all persons about to die or to bring
forth chUdren were to be removed to the adja
cent island of Rhenea. Delos continued in a
flourishing condition, and under the rule of the
Athenians, who were confirmed in the possession
of it by the Romans, until the Mithridatic war,
when Menophanes, one of the generals of
Mithridates, inflicted upon it a devastation,
from which it never again recovered. — In recent
years (since 1873) important researches have
been made in Delos by the French Archaeological
School. The buildings on Mt. Cynthus, the
theatre, the temple of ApoUo, part of the Agora,
and other buildings, have been excavated.
Delphi (oi AeXipol : AeX<()6s : Kastri), a small
town in Phocis, but one of the most celebrated
in Greece, on account of its oracle of Apollo.
It was 16 stadia in circumference, was situated
on a steep declivity on the S. slope of Mt. Par
nassus, and its site resembled the cavea of a
great theatre. It was shut in on the N. by a
barrier of rocky mountains, which were cleft in

DELPHI
the centre into two great cliffs with peaked
summits, between which, from the rocks caUed
Phaedriadae, issued the waters of the Castalian
spring. The rocks from which the spring

275

generaUy given, from SeXipvs, womb, is right,
and that it was oalled Delphi because it stood
in a deep ravine. Delphi waB colonised at an
early period by Dorio settlers from the neigh.

whi

View of Delphi and Mount Parnassus.

issues were called Hyampeia (now Flembuko),
and from them, or from the neighbouring rock
Nauplia, were hurled criminals (Hdt. vin. 39 ;
Eur. Ion, 1266; Plut. de Ser. Num. Vind. 12).
It was originally called Pytho (TlvBd), by which

bouring town of Lycorea, on the heights of
Parnassus. The government was an oligarchy,
and was in the hands of a few distinguished
families of Doric origin. From them were
taken the chief magistrates, the priests, and a

7 Stadium*
.1 as 1 S eufTP

Map of Delphi.
A A, walls of Philomelus; BB, the Phaedriadae; C, sepulchres ; D, three temples; E, Temple of Athene Pronoia;
F, Sanctuary of Phylacus ; G, GymnaBium ; H, Sanctuary of Autonous ; I, Nauplia 1 tfiodbini) ; K, Hyampeia li lem-
biijio) ; L, Fountain of CaBtalia ; M, Fountain of Delphusa (Kemd) ; N, Synedrion.
The Sacred Enclosure— 1, the Temple : 2, the Great Altar ; 8, Thesauri : 4, Bouleuterlon ; 6, Stoa of the Athenians ,
6, Grave of Neoptolemus ; 7, Fountain of Cassotis ; 8, LeBche ; 9, Theatre.

name alone it is mentioned in Homer. The
ancients derived the name of Delphi from an
eponymous hero, Delphus, a descendant of Deu
calion ; it is probable that the derivation now

senate consisting of a very few members. Delphi
was regarded as the central point of the whole
earth, and was hence caUed the ' navel of the
earth.' It was said that two eagles sent forth
t a

276

DELPHI

by Jupiter, one from the E. and one from the
W, met at Delphi. — Delphi was the principal
seat of the worship of ApoUo, whose name is
most intimately associated with it; but Dio
nysus, too, was especially worshipped here, and
many of the Delphic festivals were in his
honour. [See Apollo ; Dionysus ; Parnassus.]
Besides the great temple of Apollo, it contained
numerous sanctuaries, statues, and other works
of art. The Pythian games were also celebrated
here, and it was one of the two places of meet
ing of the Amphictyonic council. Pausanias,
approaching by the road Schiste, passed four
temples, of which the fourth was that of
Athene Pronoia (cf. Dem. c. Aristog. i. p. 780,
§ 34), where sacrifices were offered before con
sulting the oracle ; beyond this the sanctuary
of Phylacus, a hero who had given supernatural
aid agamst both Persians and Greeks ; beyond
this the Gymnasium, where now stands the
monastery of Panaghia ; thence to the temple
of Apollo, on the way to which were passed the
Stoa of the Athenians, and several treasuries,
smaU buildings partly above and partly below
the earth ; to the right (North) of these was the
senate-house. The temple of ApoUo was situ
ated at the NW. extremity of the town. The
first stone temple was built by Trophonius and
Agamedes ; and when this was burnt down, B.C.
548, it was rebuilt by the Amphictyons with
still greater splendour. The expense was de
frayed by voluntary subscriptions, to which
even Amasis, king of Egypt, contributed. The
architect was Spintharus of Corinth ; the Alc-
maeonidae contracted to build it, and Uberally
substituted Parian marble for the front of the
building, instead of the common stone which
they had agreed to employ. The temple con
tained immense treasures; for not only were
rich offerings presented to it by kings and
private persons who had received favourable
replies from the oracle, but many of the Greek
states had in the temple separate thesauri, in
which they deposited, for the sake of security,
many of their valuable treasures. The wealth
of the temple attracted Xerxes, who sent part
of his army into Phocis to obtain possession of
its treasures, but the Persians were driven back
by the god himself, according to the account of
the Delphians. The Phocians plundered the
temple to support them in the war against
Thebes and the other Greek states (357-346) ;
and it was robbed at a later time by Brennus
and by Sulla. — In the centre of the temple
there was a smaU opening (xdo-pa) in the ground,
from which, from time to time, an intoxicating
vapour arose, which was believed to come from
the well of Cassotis. No traces of this chasm
or of the mephitic exhalations are now any
where observable. Over this chasm there stood
a tripod, on which the priestess, caUed Pythia,
took her seat whenever the oracle was to be
consulted. The words which she uttered after
exhaling the vapour were believed to contain
the revelations of Apollo. They were carefully
written down by the priests, and afterwards
communicated in hexameter verse to the per
sons who had come to consult the oracle. Be
yond the temple was the Lesche of the Cni-
dians, adorned with paintings by Polygnotus,
between which and the temple was the fountain
of Cassotis (cf. Eur. Ion, 112), and west of this
the Theatre; outside the sacred peribolus of
walls came the Stadium, and near it the foun
tain Delphusa, which chiefly supplied the town ;
below this, on the road to Crissa, was the sub
urb called Pylaea, where was the Synedrion

DEMETAE
for Amphictyonic meetings. (Paus. x. 8-30.) —
For details respecting the oracle and its influ
ence in Greece, see Diet, of Ant. art. Oraculum.
The recent excavations of the French Archaeo
logical School, besides providing a store of
inscriptions of great historical value, have done
much to ascertain the precise limits of the
ancient city and its sanctuaries.
Delphinium (AeXtpiviov). 1. A temple of
ApoUo Delphinius at Athens, said to have been
built by Aegeus, in which the Ephetae sat for
trying cases of intentional but justifiable homi
cide. [Diet, of Ant. art. Phonos.] — 2. The
harbour of Oropus in Attica, on the borders of
Boeotia, caUed 6 iepbs Xipnv. — 3. A town on
the E. coast of the island Chios.
Delphinius. [Apollo.]
Delphus (AeX<p6s). 1. Son of Poseidon and
Melantho, to whom the foundation of Delphi
was ascribed (Aesch. Eum. 16 ; Paus. x. 32). —
2. Son of ApoUo and Celaeno, who is also said
to have founded Delphi (Paus. x. 6).
Delta. [Aegyptus.]
Demades (AripdSris, a contraction of Ariped-
Stis), an Athenian orator, was of very low origin,
but rose by his talents to a prominent position
at Athens. He belonged to the Macedonian
party, and was a bitter enemy of Demosthenes.
He was taken prisoner at the battle of Chae
ronea, B.C. 338, but was dismissed by Philip
with distinguished marks of honour. After
Philip's death he was the subservient supporter
of Alexander, but notwithstanding frequently
received bribes from the opposite party. He
was put to death by Antipater in 318, because
the latter had discovered a letter of Demades,
urging the enemies of Antipater to attack him.
Demades. was a man without principle, and
lived in a most profligate and dissolute manner.
But he was a brilliant orator. He always spoke
extempore, and with such irresistible force that
he was a perfect match for Demosthenes him
self. There is extant a large fragment of an
oration bearing the name of Demades (irepl
SaSeKaerias), in which he defends his conduct
during the period of Alexander's reign. It is
printed in the collections of the Attic orators,
but its genuineness is doubtful. Cicero and
Quintilian both state that Demades left no
orations behind him. (Plut. Dem. 8, 10, 11, 23,
28; Diod. xvi. 87; Cic. Brut. 9, 36, Or. 26, 90;
Quint, ii. 17.)
Demaratus (Aripdparos, Dor. Aapdparos). 1.
King of Sparta, reigned from about B.C. 510 to
491. He was at variance with his unscrupulous
colleague Cleomenes, who at length accused
him before the Ephors of being an illegitimate
son of Ariston, and obtained his deposition by
bribing the Delphic oracle, B.C. 491. Demaratus
thereupon repaired to the Persian court, where
he was kindly received by Darius. He accom
panied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, and
recommended the king not to rely too confi
dently upon his countless hosts. His fanuly
continued long in Asia. (Hdt. v. 75, vi. 61-70,
vii. 101, 234, viii 65.) — 2. A merchant-noble of
Corinth, and one of the Bacchiadae. When
the power of his clan had been overthrown, by
Cypselus, about B.C. 657, he fled from Corinth,
and settled at Tarquinii in Etruria, where he
married an Etruscan wife, by whom he had
two sons, Aruns and Lucumo, afterwards L.
Tarquinius Priscus. (Liv. i. 84 ; Dionys. iii. 46 ;
Strab. p. 219.)
Demetae, a people of Britain, in the SW. of
Wales : their chief towns were Maridunum
(Carmarthen) and Luentinum.

DEMETER

277

Demeter (Anprjrrip), one of the great divinities
of the Greeks, was the goddess of the corn-
bearing earth and of agriculture, and of settled
famUy life. Formerly it was generally sup
posed that her name signified Mother-Earth
(on the theory that Si) or 80=77)) : but it is
probably truer to connect the word with ST/ai,
the Cretan form of feiaf, barley, so that her
name is reaUy " Corn-Mother'' She was the
deity of agricultural people, and therefore not
one of the Olympian deities of Homer, where
we hear very little of her, save that she is
present among winnowers, beloved by Zeus,
who slays in jealousy her mortal lover lasion
(II. v. 500, xiv. 826 ; Od. v. 125). This is not
because her worship in Greece was more recent
than Homer — on tne contrary, she was, as will
be seen, a Pelasgian deity — but because the
Homeric Achaeans were sea-men and warriors,
not agriculturists, nor was Ithaca a corn-land.
As might be expected, we find her fully recog
nised in Hesiod (Op. p. 465). Her myth is more

Demeter of Cnidus. fFrom a statue in the British
Museum.)
completely developed in the beautiful Homeric
Hymn to Demeter. She was the daughter of Cro
nus and Rhea, and sister of Zeus, by whom she
became the mother of Persephone (Proserpina)
or Cora: of this relationship Homer knows
nothing. Zeus, without the knowledge of
Demeter, had promised Persephone to Aidoneus
(Pluto); and while the unsuspecting maiden
was gathering flowers, the earth suddenly
opened and she was carried off by Aidoneus.
Her mother, who heard only the echo of her
voice, immediately set out in search of her
daughter. For nine days she wandered about
without obtaining any tidings of her, but on
the tenth she met Hecate, and from her — or, in
another form of the story, from the all-seeing
sun— she learnt the truth. FaUing to obtain
aid from Zeus, Demeter in her anger avoided
Olympus, and dwelt upon earth at Eleusis. As
the goddess still continued angry, and did not
aUow the earth to produce any fruits, Zeus
first sent Iris and then aU the gods to persuade

Demeter to return to Olympus. But she was
deaf to all their entreaties, and refused to
return to Olympus, and to restore fertility to
the earth, till she had seen her daughter again.
Zeus accordingly sent Hermes into Erebus to
fetch back Persephone. Aidoneus consented,
but gave Persephone the seed of a pomegranate
to eat. [Ascalaphus.] Hermes then took her
to Eleusis to her mother, who received her with
unbounded joy. Demeter now returned to
Olympus with her daughter, but as the latter
had eaten in the lower world, she was obliged
to spend one third of the year with Aidoneus,
but was allowed to continue with her mother
the remainder of the year. The earth now
brought forth fruit again. — In the localities of
the myth there are doubtless combined the
versions current in many different lands. Some
accounts represent as the scene of the rape of
Persephone the plain of Nysa in Asia, others
Colonus, or the Peloponnesian Hermione (Strab.
p. 373) or Crete ; the Latin poets generally
Sicily, but Propertius speaks of Cyzicus (iii. 21).
The Attic story which is adopted in the Homeric
Hymn makes Demeter in her wanderings come
to the Eleusinian well and sit wearied on the
'sorrowful stone' (dyeXaffros irerpa).. Here she
is found by the daughters of Celeus, who bring
her to their mother Metaneira. By her she is
installed as nurse of the child Demophob'n,
whom she would fain have made immortal by
a baptism of fire [see Celeus]. But in the
versions of her story which have the greatest
importance the favoured son of Celeus (or
Eleusis) is Triptolemus, whom Demeter makes
the teacher of agriculture to mankind, and who
is associated with her in her mysteries as the
deity or hero of Eleusis. In this myth, as
preserved especially in the great festivals of
the Eleusinia and the Thesmophoria, first the
growth of the corn is shown. Persephone, who
is carried off to the lower world, is the seed-
corn, which remains concealed in the ground
part of the year; Persephone, who returns to
her mother, is the corn which rises from the
ground and nourishes men and animals. Thus
also in the Cretan myth Plutus (wealth) is the
offspring of her union with lasion : but there
is probably the higher mystery, symbolised by
the seed, of the burial of the body and its
future life. How far this was so, as the
mysteries were never divulged by any ancient
writer, we must always lack full knowledge.
But the cult of Demeter, however much deve
loped by additions from Egyptian and from
Orphic religions, was probably in its first origin
merely such a worship of the Corn-mother or
Corn-spirit as is found in the folk-lore of many,
perhaps of most, countries. For the Greeks
she was originally a Pelasgian deity, named
Pelasgis, and foreign to the Dorian people
(Hdt. ii. 171; Paus. ii. 22). In this earlier
period she is connected with Poseidon rather
than with Zeus : in the myth of the horse Arion
born from Demeter and Poseidon, and still
more clearly in the primitive worship of the
' Black Demeter ' at Phigalia under the form
of a goddess with a horse's head (Paus. viii. 42,
4), the ancient notion, not uncommon in folk
lore, of the Corn-spirit having the form of some
animal is preserved. Among the most ancient
seats of her worship in Greece may have been
Thessaly, in the neighbourhood of Pherae, not
far from which was Pyrasus, the land of corn,
and Antron and Anthela, sacred to her (II. n.
696; Strab. pp. 176, 420, 429, 435). Hence her
rites came to Thebes, and there Dionysus

278

DEMETER

became associated with her, as in the mysteries
at Eleusis : from northern Greece they are said
to have been brought to Attica by the Gephy-
raeans, which wiU account for her connexion
with the Cabiri and with Cadmus. In the Pe
loponnesus her worship belongs least to the
most Dorian state, Sparta, and chiefly to the
most Pelasgic state, Arcadia, where her daughter
is called Despoina, and Poseidon is the father
(Paus. viii. 36, 37) : it is particularly noted also
at Andania. In the islands it is probably a
Pelasgian relic, particularly in Crete, whence
the Hymn makes her come to Attica. Her
celebrated worship in Sicily is said to have
been introduced by the colonists from Megara
and from Corinth (Paus. i. 44 ; Plut. Timol. 8) :
but it is not unlikely that it was in some part
much older ; the primitive worship appears in
the name Sito, under which she was sometimes
known at Syracuse (Athen. pp. 109, 416).
Among her most significant epithets should be
noticed x^ovia, because she was one of the old
deities of the underworld, and because the seed
came thence ; Anesidora, because she ' sends up

Demeter. IMus. Bar. vol. ix. tav. 85.)
gifts from below,' and Thesmophoros, because
she established civilisation and laws and settled
family life. For her festivals see Diet, of Ant.
arts. Eleusinia, Thesmophoria, Proerosia. —
In works of art Demeter was represented some
times in a sitting attitude, sometimes walking.
and sometimes in a chariot drawn by horses
or dragons, but always in full attire. She
is most frequently grouped with Persephone
(Cora), for the two are inseparably connected in
Greek religion as rd Bed, and with the youthful
Iacchus or with Triptolemus. A noble repre
sentation of her is the Cnidian Demeter (p. 277),
now in the British Museum, a seated figure of
the school of Praxiteles, which in its expression
of dignified and resigned sorrow seems to show
the goddess grieving for the loss of her daughter
during the dead winter time. Around her head
she wore a garland of corn-ears, or a simple
riband, or sometimes the calathus, and in her
hand she held a sceptre, corn-ears, or a poppy,
or a torch and the mystic basket (cf. the de
scription of the Thalysia at Cos in Theocr. vii.
156), both of which belong to the Eleusinian

DEMETRIUS
rites of initiation. The Romans worshipped
Demeter under the name of Ceres. This wor
ship, essentiaUy Greek in character and tradi
tion came to them from the Greek cities of
Campania. The first temple of Ceres at Rome
was vowed by the dictator A. Postumius Albi
nus, in B.C. 496, for the purpose of averting a
famine with which Rome was threatened during
a war with the Latins. The Romans instituted
a festival with games in honour of her (Diet.
of Ant. s.v. Cerealia). But the Greek goddess,
thus introduced, probably took the place and
name of an old Italian deity Ceres, a goddess
of the earth and its fruits, ' a creando dicta.'
Demetrias (ATipnrpids : Aripnrpievs). 1. A
town in Magnesia in Thessaly, on the innermost
recess of the Pagasaean bay, founded by Deme
trius Poliorcetes, and peopled by the inhabitants
of Iolcus and the surrounding towns : it soon
became one of the most important towns in the
N. of Greece, and is frequently mentioned in
the wars between the Macedonians and Romans.
 2, A town in Assyria, not far from Arbela.—
3. An Athenian tribe, added to the ten old
tribes, B.C. 307, and named in honour of
Demetrius Poliorcetes.
Demetrius (Aripiirpios). 1. A Greek of the
island of Pharos in the Adriatic. He was a ge
neral of Teuta, the Hlyrian queen, and treacher
ously surrendered Corcyra to the Romans, who
rewarded him with a great part of the domi
nions of Teuta, 228 (Pol. n. 11 ; Appian, Illyr.
8). Subsequently he ventured on many acts of
piratical hostility against the Romans, think
ing that they were too much occupied with
the Gallic war and the impending danger of
Hannibal's invasion to take notice of him. The
Romans, however, immediately sent the consul
L. Aemilius Paulus over to Illyria (219), who
took Pharos itself, and obUged Demetrius to
fly for refuge to Philip, king of Macedonia. He
died in an attack on Ithome. (Pol. iii. 16-19.) —
2. Younger son of Philip V., king of Macedonia,
was sent as a hostage to Rome after the battle
of Cynoscephalae (198). Five years afterwards
he was restored to his father, who subsequently
sent him as his ambassador to Rome. But
having incurred the jealousy of his father and
his brother, Perseus, by the favourable recep
tion he had met with from the Romans, he
was secretly put to death by his father's order.
(Liv. xl. 20 ; Pol. xxiv. 7.)
I. Kings of Macedonia. 1. Surnamed Polior
cetes (noA.iopK?jT7|j), or the Besieger, son of
Antigonus, king of Asia, and Stratonice. At an
early age he gave proofs of distinguished
bravery. He accompanied his father in his
campaigns against Eumenes (b.c. 317, 316), and
a few years afterwards was left by his father in
the command of Syria, whioh he had to defend
against Ptolemy. In 812 he was defeated by
Ptolemy near Gaza, but soon after retrieved his
disaster in part by defeating one of the generals
of Ptolemy. In 311 a general peace was con
cluded among the successors of Alexander, but
it was only of short duration. In 807 Deme
trius was despatched by his father with a
powerful fleet and army to wrest Greece from
Cassander and Ptolemy. He met with great
success. At Athens he was received with en
thusiasm by the people as their Uberator. De
metrius the Phalerean, who had governed the
city for Cassander, was expelled, and the fort
at Munychia taken. Demetrius took up his
abode for the winter at Athens, where divine
honours were paid him under the title of ' the
Preserver' (d Sott)p). He was recaUed from

DEMETRIUS

Athens by his father to take the command of
•the war in Cyprus agamst Ptolemy. Here also
he was successful, and in a great naval battle
he annihilated the fleet of Ptolemy (806).
Next year (805) he laid siege to Rhodes,
because the Rhodians had refused to sup
port him against Ptolemy. It was in conse
quence of the gigantic machines which Deme
trius constructed to assail the walls of Rhodes,
that he received the surname of Poliorcetes.
But aU his exertions were unavailing, and
after the siege had lasted above a year, he
at length concluded a treaty with the Rhodians
(804). — Demetrius then crossed over to Greece,
which had meanwhUe been almost conquered
by Cassander. He soon compelled Cassander
to evacuate aU Greece S. of Thermopylse, and
for the next two years continued to prosecute the
war with success. But in 302 he was obliged
to return to Asia in order to support his father
Antigonus. In 301 their combined forces were
totally defeated by those of Lysimachus and
Seleucus in the battle of Ipsus, and Antigonus
himself slain. Demetrius, to whose impetuosity
the loss of the battle would seem to be in great
measure owing, fled to Ephesus, and from
thence set saU for Athens ; but the Athenians
declined to receive him into their city. The
jealousies of his enemies soon changed the face
of his affairs ; and Ptolemy having entered into
a closer union with Lysimachus, Seleucus mar
ried Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius. By
this alliance Demetrius obtained possession of
Cilicia, and he had never lost Cyprus, Tyre,
and Sidon. In 297 he determined to make an
effort to recover his dominions in Greece. He
appeared with a fleet on the coast of Attica, but
was at first unsuccessful. The death of Cas
sander, however, in the course of the same year
gave a new turn to affairs. Demetrius made
himself master of Aegina, Salamis, and finally
of Athens, after a long blockade (295). In 294
he marched into Peloponnesus against the
Spartans, and was on the point of taking their
city when he was suddenly called away by the
state of affairs in Macedonia. Here the dissen
sions between Antipater and Alexander, the two
sons of Cassander, had led Alexander to call in
foreign aid to his support ; and he sent em
bassies at once to Demetrius and to Pyrrhus.
Pyrrhus was the nearest at hand, and had
already defeated Antipater and established
Alexander on the throne, when Demetrius ar
rived with his army. He was received with
apparent friendliness, but mutual jealousies
quickly arose. Demetrius caused the young king
to be assassinated at a banquet, and was there
upon acknowledged as king by the Macedonian
army. Demetrius kept possession of Macedonia
for seven years (294-287). His reign was a series
of wars. In 292 he marched against the The
bans, who had risen against him, and took their
city. In 291 he took advantage of the captivity
of Lysimachus among the Getae to invade
Thrace ; but he was recalled by the news of a
fresh insurrection in Boeotia. He repulsed
Pyrrhus, who had attempted by invading Thes
saly to effect a diversion in favour of the
Boeotians, and again took Thebes after a long
siege (290). In 289 he carried on war against
Pyrrhus and the AetoUans, but he concluded
peace with Pyrrhus that he might march into
Asia with the view of recovering his father's
dominions. His adversaries forestalled him.
In 287 Ptolemy sent a powerful fleet against
Greece, while Pyrrhus (notwithstanding his
recent treaty) on the one side and Lysimachus

279

on the other simultaneously invaded Macedonia.
Demetrius was deserted by his own troops, who
proclaimed Pyrrhus king of Macedonia. He
then crossed over to Asia, and after meeting
with alternate success and misfortune, was at

Demetrius Poliorcetes, King of Macedonia, ob. B.C. 283.
Obv., head of Demetrius, with horns to imitate Dionysus ;
rev., BA2IAE02 ahmhtpioy ; Poseidon, to commemorate
naval victory (B.C. 806).
length obliged to surrender himself prisoner to
Seleucus (286). That king kept him in confine
ment, but did not treat him with harshness.
Demetrius died in the third year of his im
prisonment and the fifty-sixth of his age (288).
He was one of the most remarkable characters
of his age : in restless activity of mind, fertility
of resource, and daring promptitude in the exe
cution of his schemes, he has perhaps never
been surpassed. His besetting sin was his un
bounded licentiousness. Besides Lamia and
his other mistresses, he was regularly married
to four wives, Phila, Eurydice, Deidamia, and
Ptolemais, by whom he left four sons. The
eldest of these, Antigonus Gonatas, eventually
succeeded him on the throne of Macedonia.
(Plut. Demetrius ; Diod. xix., xx.) — 2. Son of
Antigonus Gonatas, succeeded his father, and
reigned B.C. 239-229. He carried on war against
the Aetolians, and was opposed to the Achaean
League. He was succeeded by Antigonus
Doson. (Pol. ii. 44.)
II. Kings of Syria. 1. Soter (reigned b.c.
162-150), was the son of Seleucus IV. Philo
pator and grandson of Antiochus the Great.
While yet a child, he had been sent to Rome
by his father as a hostage, and remained there
during the whole of the reign of Antiochus IV.
Epiphanes. After the death of Antiochus,
being now twenty-three years old, he demanded
of the senate to be set at liberty ; but as his
request was refused by the senate, he fled
secretly from Rome, by the advice of the his
torian Polybius, and went to Syria. The Syrians
declared in his favour; and the young king
Antiochus V. Eupator, with his tutor Lysias,
was seized by his own guards and put to death.

Demetrius I. Soter, King of Syria, ob. B.C. 150.
Obv., head of Demetrius diademed; rev., baiiaem ah-
mhtpIoy 2QTHP02, in field monogram and Ml ; in ex
ergue A3P (161 of Era Seleuc.) ; seated female figure,
Tyche, to the left, with sceptre and cornucopia.
By valuable presents Demetrius obtained from
the Romans his recognition as king (Pol.
xxxi. 23, xxxii. 4). He expelled the opprese;ve
satrap Heracleides from Babylon; and thus
gained the surname Soter from the Babylonians;

280

DEMETRIUS

but he was not successful in his attempts against
the Jews (Jos. Ant. xiii. 4). But having alien
ated his own subjects by his luxury and intem
perance, they sided with an impostor of the
name of Balas, who took the title of Alexander.
By him Demetrius was defeated in battle and
slain (Pol. xxxiii. 14). He left two sons, Deme
trius Nicator and Antiochus Sidetes, both of
whom subsequently ascended the throne. — 2.
Nicator (b.c. 146-142, and again 128-125), son
of Demetrius Soter. He had been sent by his
father for safety to Cnidus, when Alexander
Balas invaded Syria ; and after the death of his
father he continued in exile for some years.
With the assistance of Ptolemy Philometor he
defeated Balas, and recovered his kingdom
(whence came his surname) ; but, having like his
father rendered himself odious to his subjects
by his vices and cruelties, he was driven out of
Syria by Tryphon, who set up Antiochus, the
infant son of Alexander Balas, as a pretender
agamst him. Demetrius retired to Babylon,
and from thence marched against the Parthians,
by whom he was defeated and taken prisoner,
138. He remained as a captive in Parthia ten
years, but was kindly treated by the Parthian
king Mithridates (Arsaces VI.), who gave him
his daughter Rhodogune in marriage. Mean
while, his brother, Antiochus VII. Sidetes,
having overthrown the usurper Tryphon, en
gaged in war with Parthia, in consequence of

Demetrius II. Nicator, King of Syria, ob. B.C. 125.
Obv., head of Demetrius diademed; rev., basiaeqs AH-
MHTPIOY 0EOY *IAAAEA*OY NIKAToPoS: ineXOrgUeKPe
(169 1 of Era Seleuc.) ; ApoUo to the left, seated on Cor
tina, with arrow and bow.
which Phraates, the successor of Mithridates,
brought forward Demetrius, and sent him into
Syria to operate a diversion against his brother.
In the same year Antiochus fell in battle, and
Demetrius again obtained possession of the
Syrian throne, 128. Having engaged in an ex
pedition against Egypt, Ptolemy Physcon set up
against him the pretender Alexander Zebina,
by whom he was defeated and compelled to fly.
His wife Cleopatra, who could not forgive him
his marriage with Rhodogune in Parthia, refused
to afford him refuge at Ptolemais, and he fled to
Tyre, where he was assassinated, 125. (Justin.
xxxvi. 1, xxxviii. 9, xxxix. 1 ; Liv. Ep. 60.)  3.
Eucaerus, son of Antiochus "VTH. Grypus, and
grandson of Demetrius H. During the civil
wars that followed the death of Antiochus Gry
pus (96), Demetrius and his brother Philip for a
time held the whole of Syria. But war broke
out between them ; Demetrius was taken pri
soner and sent to Parthia, where he remained
in captivity till his death (Jos. Ant. xiii. 14).
III. Literary. 1. Of Adramyttium, sur
named Ixion, a Greek grammarian of the time
of Augustus, lived partly at Pergamus and
partly at Alexandria, and wrote commentaries
on Homer and Hesiod and other works. — 2.
Magnes (that is, of Magnesia), a Greek gram
marian, and a contemporary of Cicero and
Atticus. He wrote a book on concord (irepl

DEMOCEDES
dpovoias), and another on poets and other
authors who bore the same name (Ilepl opuvvpav
iroiryrav /col crvyypajpeav. — 3. Phalereus, so
called from his birthplace, the Attic demos of
Phalerus, where he was born about B.C. 345.
His parents were poor, but by his talents and
perseverance he rose to the highest honours
at Athens, and became distinguished as an
orator, a statesman, a philosopher, and a poet.
He was educated, together with the poet
Menander, in the school of Theophrastus. He
began his public career about 325, and acquired
great reputatio . by his eloquence. In 317 the
government of Athens was entrusted to him by
Cassander, and he discharged the duties of his
office for ten years with such general satisfac
tion, that the Athenians conferred upon him
the most extraordinary distinctions, and erected
no less than 360 statues to his honour (Cic.
Bep. ii. 1 ; Nep. Milt. 6). But during the latter
period of his administration he seems to have
become intoxicated with his good fortune, and
he abandoned himself to dissipation. When
Demetrius Poliorcetes approached Athens, in
307, Demetrius Phalereus was obliged to take
to flight, and his enemies induced the Athenians
to pass sentence of death upon him (Plut.
Demetr. 8). He went to Ptolemy Lagi at
Alexandria, with whom he lived for many years -
on the best terms ; and it was probably owing
to the influence of Demetrius that the great
Alexandrine Ubrary was formed. His successor,
Ptolemy PhUadelphus, was hostile towards
Demetrius, because he had advised his father
to appoint another of his sons as his successor.
He banished Demetrius to Upper Egypt, where
he is said to have died from the bite of a snake
(Diog. Laert. v. 78). — Demetrius Phalereus was
the last among the Attic orators worthy of the
name ; but even his orations bore evident
marks of the decline of oratory, and were
characterised rather by elegance than by force
(Cic. Brut. 9, 38, Or. 27, 92 ; Quintil. x. 1, 80).
His numerous writings, the greater part of
which were probably composed in Egypt, em
braced subjects of the most varied kinds ; but
none of them has come down to us, for the
work on elocution (irepl epprjveias), extant under
his name, is probably the work of an Alexan
drine sonhist of the name of Demetrius. — 4.
Of Scepsis, a Greek grammarian of the time of
Aristarchus, wrote a learned commentary on
the Catalogue in the second book of the Hiad.
— 5. Of Sunium, a Cynic philosopher, Uved from
the reign of Caligula to that of Domitian, and
was banished from Rome in consequence of the
freedom with which he rebuked the powerful
(Tac. Ann. xvi. 34, Hist. iv. 40 ; Dio Cass.
lxvi. 13). He is praised by Seneca, and it seems
likely that, whUe he inculcated the moral prin
ciples of the Stoics, he sought (as did many of
the later philosophers of this school) to impress
them on the attention of a corrupt age by Cynic
eccentricities. Demooedes (AripoKr)S7is), a celebrated phy
sician of Crotona. He practised medicine suc
cessively at Aegina, Athens, and Samos. He
was taken prisoner along with Polycrates, in
B.C. 522, and was sent to Susa to the court of
Darius. Here he acquired great reputation by
curing the king's foot, and the breast of the
queen, Atossa. Notwithstanding his honours at
the Persian court, he was always desirous of
returning to his native country. In order to
effect this, he pretended to enter into the views
and interests of the Persians, and procured by
means of Atossa that he should be sent with

DEM0CHARE3
some nobles to explore the coast of Greece, and
ascertain in what parts it might be most suc-
cessfuUy attacked. When they arrived at
Tarentum, the king, Aristophilides, out of kind
ness to Democedes, seized the Persians as
spies, which afforded the physician an oppor
tunity of escaping to Crotona. Here he settled,
and married the daughter of the famous wrest
ler, Milo, the Persians having followed him to
Crotona, and in vain demanded that he should
be restored (Hdt. iii. 181-137).
Demochares (AnpoxdpTis), an Athenian, son
of the sister of Demosthenes. He was probably
trained by his uncle in oratory, and inherited
his patriotic sentiments. After the restoration
of the Athenian democracy in B.C. 307 by De
metrius Poliorcetes, Demochares was at the
head of the patriotic party and took an active
part in public affairs for the next twenty or
thirty years (Plut. Dem. SO). He left behind
him several orations, and an extensive history
of his own times. Fragments are preserved in
Orat. Attici, and in MuUer's Fr. Hist. Graec.
Democrates (AripoKpaTT/s), a Pythagorean
phUosopher, of whose life nothing is known, the
author of an extant coUection of moral maxims,
called the Golden Sentences (yvapai xpu<rou).
They are printed with Demophtlus.
Democritus (Atipokpitos), a celebrated Greek
phUosopher, was born at Abdera in Thrace,
about B.C. 460. (The date can only be inferred
by the statement in Diog. Laert. ix. 41, that he
was stiU young when Anaxagoras was already
old.) His father, Hegesistratus — or, as others
caUed him, Damasippus or Athenocritus — was
possessed of so large a property, that he was
able to entertain Xerxes on his march through
Abdera. Democritus spent the inheritance,
which his father left him, on travels into distant
countries, which he undertook to satisfy his
extraordinary thirst for knowledge. He travelled
over a great part of Asia, and spent some time
in Egypt. The many anecdotes preserved about
Democritus show that he was a man of a most
sterling and honourable character. His dUi-
gence was incredible : he Uved exclusively for
his studies, and his disinterestedness, modesty,
and simplicity, are attested by many facts
which are related of him. Notwithstanding the
great property he had inherited from his father,
he died in poverty, but highly esteemed by his
fellow-citizens. He died in 361 at a very ad
vanced age. There is a tradition that he de
prived himself of his sight, that he might be
less disturbed in his pursuits ; but this tradition
is one of the inventions of a later age, which was
fond of piquant anecdotes. It is more probable
that he may have lost his sight by too severe
application to study. This loss, however, did
not disturb the cheerful disposition of his mind,
which prompted him to look, in all circum
stances, at the cheerful side of things, which
later writers took to mean that he only laughed
at the follies of men (Juv. x. 28). His know
ledge was extensive. It embraced not only the
natural sciences, mathematics, mechanics, gram
mar, music, and philosophy, but various other
useful arts. His works were composed in the
Ionic dialect, though not without some admix
ture of the local peculiarities of Abdera. They
are nevertheless much praised by Cicero on
account of the Uveliness of their style, and are in
this respect compared even with the works of
Plato. The fragments of them are collected by
MuUach, Democriti Abderitae Operum Frag-
menta, Berlin, 1843. Leucippus appears to
have had most influence upon the philosophical

DEMOPHON

281

opinions of Democritus, and these two philoso
phers were the founders of the theory of atoms.
In order to explain the creation of all existing
things, Democritus maintained that there were
in infinite space an infinite number of atoms or
elementary particles, homogeneous in quality,
but different in form, capable of no change,
except of place. The difference of weight in two
bodies of the same size is caused by there being
more empty Bpaces in one than in the other.
AU creation or genesis results from the coming
together or ' concourse ' of atoms ; all decay from
the separation or resolution of atoms which had
combined to form any body. Bodies act on each
other by pressure and impact, or from a distance
(as the magnet on iron or light upon the eye)
by effluences. The properties of all things de
pend on the arrangement of atoms affecting
form and size ; the qualities which we ascribe^
to them only express the way in which they
affect our senses. Atoms move downwards in
space by their own gravity ; but the larger and
heavier fall more quickly (as he supposed), and
strike agamst the lighter : hence there is a re
bound and a whirling motion, from which result-
combinations of atoms so as to form innumer
able worlds, of which this is one. He speaks of
this as caused by tvxti in opposition to the vovs-
of Anaxagoras ; but he does not mean that the
result is a chance : on the contrary he regards
aU that is created as the necessary succession of
cause and effect.
Demodocus (AwpbSoKos), the celebrated bard
at the court of Alcinous who sang of the loves-
of Ares and Aphrodite, while Ulysses sat at the
banquet of Alcinous (Od. viii. 62, xiii. 27).
He was represented on the throne of ApoUo at.
Amyclae as playing for the dancers (Paus. iii.
18, 7).
Demonax (AnpavaQ, of Cyprus, a Cynic phi
losopher in the time of Hadrian. We owe our
knowledge of his character to Lucian, who has.
painted it in the most glowing colours, repre
senting him as almost perfectly wise and good.
He was nearly 100 years old at the time of his-
death. (Lucian, Demonax.)
Demonesi Insulae (ATipbvTiaoi : Prinkipo or
Princes' Islands), a group of islands in the Pro
pontis (Sea of Marmara), belonging to Bithy
nia : of these the most important were Pityodes.
and Chalcitis, also called Demonesus.
Demophilus (AvpiipiXos). 1. Son of Ephorus,
continued his father's history by adding to it the
history of the Sacred War (Diod. xvi. 14). —
2. An Athenian comic poet of the New Comedy,
from whose 'Ovaybs Plautus took his Asinaria.
— 3. A Pythagorean philosopher, of whose life
nothing is known, wrote a work entitled Biov
Bepdireia, part of which is extant, in the form of
a selection, entitled yvapind Spoidpara. Best
edition by Orelli, in his Opusc. Graec. Vet.
Sentent. Lips. 1819.
Demophon or Demophoon (Aripoipav or Atj-
poipbav). 1. Son of Celeus and Metanira, whom
Demeter wished to make immortal. For details
see Celeus.— 2. Son of Theseus and Phaedra,
accompanied the Greeks against Troy, and there
procured the liberation of his grandmother
Aethra, who lived with Helen as a slave. On
his return from Troy, he gained the love of
Phyllis, daughter of the Thracian king Sithon,
and promised to marry her (Hyg. Fab. 59,
243; Ov. Her. 2, A. A. iii. 38; Plin. xvi. 108).
Before the nuptials were celebrated, he went to
Attica to settle his affairs, and as he tarried
longer than Phyllis had expected, she thought
that she was forgotten, and put an end to her

282

DEMOSTHENES

life ; but she was metamorphosed into a tree.
Demophon became king of Athens. He marched
out against Diomedes, who on his return from
Troy had landed on the coast of Attica, and was
ravaging it. He took the Palladium from
Diomedes, but had the misfortune to kill an
Athenian in the struggle (Paus. i. 28; Ant.
Lib. 33). For this murder he was summoned
before the court iirl TlaXXaSia — the first time
that a man was tried by that court. The legend
of the capture of the Palladium by Demophon
seems to be an attempt to explain the name of
the judicial court.
Demosthenes (ATipoo-BevTis). 1. Son of Alci-
sthenes, a celebrated Athenian general in the
Peloponnesian war. In B.C. 426 he was sent
with a fleet to ravage the coast of Peloponnesus ;
he afterwards landed at Naupactus, and made a
descent into Aetolia ; he was at first unsuccess
ful, and was obliged to retreat; but he sub
sequently gained a brilliant victory over the
Ambraciots (Thuc. iii. 91 ; Diod. xii. 60). In 425,
though not in office, he sailed with the Athenian
fleet, and was allowed by the Athenian com
manders to remain with five ships at Pylos, which
he fortified in order to assail the Lacedaemonians
in their own territories. He defended Pylos
against all the attempts of the Lacedaemoni
ans, till he was relieved by an Athenian fleet
of forty ships. The Spartans, who in their siege
of the place had occupied the neighbouring
island of Sphacteria, were now cut off and
blockaded. Later in the same year he ren
dered important assistance to Cleon, in making
prisoners of the Spartans in the island of
Sphacteria, though the whole glory of the suc
cess was given to Cleon (Thuc. iv. 2-40 ; Diod.
xii. 61). In 413 he was sent with a large fleet
to Sicily, to assist Nicias. Fortune was un
favourable to the Athenians. Demosthenes now
counselled an immediate departure, but Nicias
delayed returning till it was too late. The
Athenian fleet was destroyed, and when Demo
sthenes and Nicias attempted to retreat by land,
they were obliged to surrender to the enemy
with all their forces. Both commanders were
put to death by the Syracusans (Thuc. vii;
Diod. xiii.). — 2. The greatest of Athenian ora
tors, was the son of Demosthenes, and was
born in the Attic demos of Paeania, about B. c.
385. At seven years of age he lost his father,
who left him and his younger sister to the care
of three guardians, Aphobus and Demophon,
two relations, and Therippides, an old friend.
These guardians squandered the greater part of
the property of Demosthenes, and neglected his
education to a great extent. He nevertheless
received instruction from the orator Isaeus ;
but it is exceedingly doubtful whether he was
taught by Plato and Isocrates, as some of the
ancients stated. At the age of eighteen Demo
sthenes called upon his guardians to render him
an account of their administration of his pro
perty; but by intrigues they contrived to
defer the business for two years. At length, in
861, Demosthenes accused Aphobus before the
arohon, and obtained a verdict in his favour.
Aphobus was condemned to pay a fine of ten
tilents (Dem. c. Aphob. i. ii., c. Onet.; Plut.
Dem. 4). Emboldened by this success, Demo
sthenes ventured to come forward as a speaker
in the public assembly. His first effort was
unsuccessful, and he is said to have been re
ceived with ridicule ; but he was encouraged
to persevere by the actor Satyrus, who gave him
instruction in action and declamation. In be
coming an orator, Demosthenes had to struggle

against the greatest physical disadvantages.
His voice was weak and his utterance defective ;
he could not pronounce the p, and constantly
stammered, whence he derived the name of
BdraXos. It was only owing to the most un
wearied exertions that he succeeded in over
coming the obstacles which nature had placed
in his way. Thus it is said that he spoke with
pebbles in his mouth, to cure himself of stam
mering ; that he repeated verses of the poets
as he ran up hill, to strengthen his voice;
that he declaimed on the sea-shore to accustom
himself to the noise and confusion of the popu
lar assembly ; that he lived for months in a
cave under ground, engaged in constantly
writing out the history of Thucydides, to form
a standard for his own style. These tales are
not worthy of much credit ; but they neverthe
less attest the common tradition of antiquity
respecting the great efforts made by Demo
sthenes to attain to excellence as an orator. —
It was about 355 that Demosthenes began to
obtain reputation as a speaker in the pubUc
assembly. It was in this year that he deUvered
the oration against Leptines, and from this
time we have a series of his speeches on pubUc
affairs. His eloquence soon gained him the
favour of the people. The influence which he ac
quired he employed for the good of his country,
and not for his own aggrandisement. He clearly
saw that Philip had resolved to subjugate
Greece, and he therefore devoted aU his powers
to resist the aggressions of the Macedonian
monarch. For fourteen years he continued the
struggle against Philip, and neither threats nor
bribes could turn him from his purpose. It is
true he failed ; but the failure must not be con
sidered Ms fault. The history of his struggle is
best given in the Ufe of PhUip. [Philippus.]
It is sufficient to relate here that it was brought
to a close by the battle of Chaeronea (338), by
which the independence of Greece was crushed.
Demosthenes was present at the battle, and fled
like thousands of others. His enemies re
proached him with his flight, and upbraided
him as the cause of the misfortunes of his
country ; but the Athenians judged better of
his conduct, requested him to deliver the fune
ral oration upon those who had f aUen at Chae
ronea, and celebrated the funeral feast in his
house. At this time many accusations were
brought against him. Of these one of the
most formidable was the accusation of Ctesi
phon by Aeschines, which was in reality direc
ted against Demosthenes himself. Aeschines
accused Ctesiphon for proposing that Demo
sthenes should be rewarded for his services
with a golden crown in the theatre. Aeschines
maintained that the proposal was not only
made in an illegal form, but that the conduct
of Demosthenes did not give him any claim to
such a distinction. The trial was delayed for
reasons unknown to us till 830, when Demo
sthenes delivered his oration on the crown
(xepl o-retpdvov). Aeschines was defeated and
withdrew from Athens. [Aeschines.] — Mean
time important events had taken place in Greece.
The death of Philip in 836 roused the hopes of
the patriots, and Demosthenes, althoughhe had
lost his daughter only seven days before, was
the first to proclaim the joyful tidings of the
king's death, and to call upon the Greeks to
unite their strength against Macedonia. But
Alexander's energy, and the frightful ven
geance which he took upon Thebes, compelled
Athens to submit and sue for peace. Alexander
demanded the surrender of Demosthenes and

DEMOSTHENES
the other leaders of the popular party, and with
difficulty aUowed them to remain at Athens.
During the life of Alexander, Athens made no
open attempt to throw off the Macedonian
supremacy. In 325 Harpalus fled from Babylon
with the treasure entrusted to his care by Alex
ander, and came to Athens, the protection of
which he purchased by distributing his gold
among the most influential demagogues. The
reception of such an open rebel was viewed
as an act of hostility towards Macedonia itself ;
and accordingly Antipater called upon the
Athenians to deliver up the
rebel and to try those who
had accepted his bribes.
Demosthenes was one of
those who were suspected
of having received money
from Harpalus. His guilt
is doubtful ; but he was
condemned and thrown
into prison, from which,
however, he escaped, ap-
»\ parently with the conniv-
' j ance of the Athenian ma
gistrates. He now resided
Bust of Demosthenes, partly at Troezene and
partly in Aegina, looking
daUy across the sea towards his beloved native
land. But his exile did not last long. On the
death of Alexander (323) the Greek states rose
in arms against Macedonia. Demosthenes was
recalled from exile; a trireme was sent to
Aegina to fetch him, and his progress to the
city was a glorious triumph. But in the follow
ing year (822) the confederate Greeks were de
feated by Antipater at the battle of Crannon,
and were obUged to sue for peace. Antipater
demanded the surrender of Demosthenes, who
thereupon fled to the island of Calauria, and
took refuge in the temple of Poseidon. Here
he was pursued by the emissaries of Antipater ;
he thereupon took poison, which he had for
some time carried about his person, and died
in the temple, 322. (Plut. Demosthenes and
Phocion, Vit. X. Orat. ; Liban. Vit. Demosth. ;
Lucian, Encom. Demosth.) — There existed
sixty-five orations of Demosthenes in antiquity ;
but of these only sixty-one have come down
to us, including the letter of Philip, which is
strangely enough counted as an oration.
Several of the orations, however, are spurious,
or at least of very doubtful authenticity. Be
sides these orations, there are fifty-six Exordia
to public orations, and six letters which bear
"the name of Demosthenes, but are probably
spurious, — The orations may be divided into
the following classes :
I. Political Speeches. These consist of eight
speeches against Philip, and three others. 1.
"FheFirst Philippic (351 b.c): that troops should
"be sent to Thrace. 2-4. The three Olynthiac
orations (349-8) : that Olynthus should be aided
and saved from destruction. These were before
Philip got a footing in Greece itself by his ad
mission to the Amphictyonic Council. 5. On
the Peace (346) : deprecating war with Philip
tiU they could detach other Greek states from
his interests. 6. The Second Philippic (344) :
against Philip's party. 7. On the Chersonese,
which was menaced by Philip. 8. The Third
Philippic : for energetic action in the Hellespont.
Editions of PhiUppics and Olynthiacs by Hes-
lop, 1871. [The oration on Halonnesus and the
Fourth Philippic, and on the letter of Philip,
are spurious.] 9. On the Navy boards (irepl
Svppopiwv), dehvered in 354 B. c. 10. For

DERBE 283
Megalopolis, 852. 11. For the Rhodians, 351.
The orations irepl <rwra|e as and irepl rdv irpbs
'AXe£avSpov o-vvBrfKav are spurious.
II. Speeches in public prosecutions. 1.
against Androtion (355). 2. Against Leptines
(854) ; ed. Beatson. 4, 5, Timocrates and
Aristocrats (352); 6. Meidias (849), which was
never spoken ; ed. Holmes. 7. On the Embassy,
irepl t-"/s Tlapairpeo-Beias, de Falsa Legations,
on the dishonest conduct of Aeschines during
his embassy to Philip) : this is practically one
of his speeches against Philip (343) ; ed. Shilleto.
8. On the Crown (330). This, the finest of all
Ms speeches, is really the defence of all his
political action against Philip ; ed. Holmes.
III. Speeches in private law-suits. Of the
thirty-two ascribed to him, only eleven are
certainly genuine : viz. four against Aphobus
and Onetor (ed. Penrose) ; those against Spu-
dias, Callicles, Pantaenetus, Nausimachus,
Boeotus (irepl bvbparos) and Conon, and that
For Phormio (ed. Sandys and Paley). Many
authors, however, accept as genuine the
Lacritus, Apaturius, Macartatus, Leochares,
Stephanus I., Olympiodorus, Polycles, Cal-
lippus, Nicostratus, Dionysidorus, Eubulides.
Editions of the complete orations by Dindorf,
1886; in Oratores Attici, by Bekker, 1828;
Dobson, 1828 ; Baiter, 1850 ; C. Miiller, 1868.
Denseletae or Dentheletae, a Thracian
people on the Haemus, between the Strymon
and Nessus.
Dentatus, M'. Curius, a favourite hero of the
Roman republic, was celebrated in later times
as a noble specimen of old Roman frugality
and virtue. He was of Sabine origin, and the
first of his family who held any of the high
offices of state (consequently a homo novus).
He was consul B. c. 290 with P. Cornelius
Rufinus. The two consuls defeated the Sam
nites, and brought the Samnite wars to a close.
In the same year Dentatus also defeated the
Sabines, who appear to have supported the
Samnites. In 283 he fought as praetor
against the Senones. In 275 he was consul
a second time, and defeated Pyrrhus near
Beneventum and in the Arusinian plain so
completely that the king was obliged to
quit Italy. The booty which he gained was
immense, but he would keep nothing for him
self. In 274 he was consul a tMrd time, and
conquered the Lucanians, Samnites, and Brut-
tians, who stiU continued in arms after the de
feat of Pyrrhus. Dentatus now retired to his
small farm in the country of the Sabines, and
cultivated the land with his own hands. Once
the Samnites sent an embassy to him with
costly presents ; they found him sitting at the
hearth and roasting turnips. He rejected their
presents, telling them that he preferred ruling
over those who possessed gold, to possessing it
himself. He was censor in 272, and in that year
executed public works of great importance.
He commenced the aqueduct which carried
the water from the river Anio into the city
(Aniensis Vetus) : and by a canal he carried
off the water of the lake Velinus into the river
Nar, in consequence of which the inhabitants
of Reate gained a large quantity of excellent
land. (Liv. Ep. 11-14 ; Pol. ii. 19 ; Val. Max.
iv. 3, vi. 3 ; Cic. de Sen. 13, 16 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 20.)
Deo (And), another name for Demeter:
hence her daughter Persephone is called by the
patronymic Deois and Deoine.
Derbe (AepBn : Aep0frnjs, AepBaios : Zosta),
a town in Lycaonia, on the frontiers of Isauria,
It is first mentioned as the residence of the

284

DERBICCAE

tyrant Antipater of Derbe, a friend of Cicero,
whom Amyntas put to death. The district
about Cybistra and Derbe belonged to the
province of Cappadocia, as constituted by
Tiberius A.D. 17, was transferred to Lycaonia,
probably by Claudius a.d. 41, and formed part
of the united province of Cappadocia and
Galatia under Vespasian. (Strab. p. 534 ;
Ptol. v. 6.)
Derbiccae or Derblces, a Scythian people in
Margiana, dwelling on the Oxus, near its
entrance into the Caspian Sea. They wor
shipped the earth as a goddess, neither sacri
ficed nor ate any female animals, and killed
and ate all their old men above 70 years of age.
(Strab. j>. 520 ; Ael. V. H iv. 1.)
Derceto; [Aphbodite, p. 85 ; Semlbahhs.]
Deroyllidas (AepKvXXiSas), a Spartan, suc
ceeded Thimbron, B.C. 399, in the command of
the army which was employed in the protection
of the Asiatic Greeks agamst Persia. He
carried on the war with success. Tissaphernes
and Pharnabazus were at length glad to sue for
peace. In 896 he was superseded by Agesi
laus. (Xen. Hell. iii. 1, 2, iv. 8.)
Dertona (Tortona), an important town in Li
guria, and a Roman colony, formed by Augus
tus or recolonised by Mm, with the surname
Julia, on the road from Genua to Placentia
(Strab. p. 217; Plin. iii. 49 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15).
Dertosa (Tortosa), a town of the Ilercavones
on the Iberus in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a
Roman colony (Plin. iii. 23 ; Strab. p. 159).
Despoena (Aeo-iroiva), the mistress, a sur
name of several divinities, as Aphrodite,
Demeter, and more especially Persephone, who
was worshipped under this name in Arcadia.
Deucalion (AevKaXlav). 1. Son of Prome
theus and Clymene, king of Phthia, in Thessaly,
the mythical progenitor of the Hellenic race,
with whose name were associated the traditions
of a great flood. When Zeus, after the treat
ment he had received from Lycaon, had resolved
to destroy the degenerate race of men, Deuca
lion and his wife Pyrrha were, on account of
their piety, the only mortals saved. On the
advice of his father, Deucalion built a ship, in
which he and his wife floated in safety during
the nine days' flood, which destroyed all the
other inhabitants of HeUas. At last the ship
rested on Mount Parnassus in Phocis, or,
according to other traditions, on Mount Othrys
in Thessaly, on Mount Athos, or even on Aetna
in Sicily. When the waters had subsided,
Deucalion offered up a sacrifice to Zeus the god
of escape (<pii|ios), and he and his wife then
consulted the sanctuary of Themis as to how the
race of man might be restored. The goddess
bade them cover their heads and throw the
bones of their mother behind them. After
some doubts and scruples respecting the mean
ing of this command, they agreed in interpret
ing the bones of their mother to mean the
stones of the earth. They accordingly threw
stones behind them, and from those thrown by
Deucalion there sprang up men, from those
thrown by Pyrrha women. Deucalion then
descended from Parnassus, and built his
first abode, at Opus or at Cynus. Deucalion
became by Pyrrha the father of Hellen, Am-
phictyon, Protogenia, and others. (Hes. Fragm.
135 ; Pind. Ol. ix. 64 ; Apollod. i. 7, 2, iii. 8, 2 ;
Ov. Met. i. 260 ; Strab. p. 425.) A tradition of
a great flood belongs to the folk-lore of most
nations of the world ; and this story is only one
among many forms of it, which must have been
brought by different tribes of the Hellenic

DIAGORAS
stock to different countries. The oldest site of
the Greek myth was perhaps Dodona (Aristot.
Meteor, i. 14), whence it was generally trans
ferred to Thessaly : but the name of the moun
tain on which the vessel of Deucalion first
rested is variously given as Parnassus, Othrys,
Athos and Aetna (Serv. ad Eel. vi. 41; Hyg.
Fab. 153). — 2. Son of Minos and Pasiphae, and
father of Idomeneus was an Argonaut and one
of the Calydonian hunters.
Deva. 1. (Chester), the principal town of
the Coma vii in Britain, on the Seteia (Dee),
and the head-quarters of the Legio XX. Victrix.
— 2. (Dee), an estuary in Scotland, on which
stood the town Devana, near Aberdeen.
Dexamenus ( Ae£dpevos), a Centaur who lived
in Bura in Achaia. According to some, he
was king of Olenus, and father of Deianira, who
is usuaUy represented as daughter of Oeneus.
Dexippus (Ae'fnriros). 1. Called also Dioxip-
pus, a physician of Cos, one of the pupils of
Hippocrates, lived about B.C. 320, and attended
the children of Hecatomnus, prince of Caria. —
2. P. Herennius, a Greek rhetorician and
historian, was a native of Attica, and held the
highest offices at Athens. He distinguished
Mmself in fighting against the Goths, when they
invaded Greece in a.d. 262 (Trebell. PoU.
Gallien. 13.) He was the author of three
historical works : — 1. A history of Macedonia
from the time of Alexander. 2. A chronological
history from the mythical ages down to the
accession of Claudius Gothicus, a.d. 268. 8.
An account of the war of the Goths or
Scythians, in which Dexippus himself had
fought. The fragments of Dexippus, which
are considerable, are published by Bekker and
Niebuhr in the first volume of the Scriptores
Historiae Byzantinae, Bonn, 1829, 8vo. — 3. A
disciple of the pMlosopher Iamblichus, lived
about a.d. 350, and wrote a commentary on the
Categories of Aristotle. Ed. by Spengel, Munich
1859. Dia (Ala), daughter of Deioneus and wife of
Ixion. By Ixion, or, according to some, by
Zeus, she became the mother of Pirithous.
Dia (Aia). 1. The ancient name of Naxos.
— 2. An island near Amorgos. — 3. A smaU
island off Crete, opposite the harbour of
Cnossus. — 4. An island in the Arabian gulf, on
the W. coast of Arabia.
Diablintes. [Aulerci.]
Diacria (7) Aiaxpia), a mountainous district
in the NE. of Attica, including the plain of
Marathon. [Attica.] The inhabitants of this
district (AiaKpieTs, Aidjcpioi), formed one of the
three parties into which the inhabitants of
Attica were divided in the time of Solon : they
were the most democratical of the three parties.
Diadumenianus or Diadumenus, son of the
emperor Macrinus, received the title of Caesar,
when his father was elevated to the purple, a.d.
217, and was put to death in the foUowing year
about the same time with Macrinus (Dio
Cass. Ixxviii. 4-40 ; Lamprid. Diadum).
Diaeus (Aiaios), of Megalopolis, general of
the Achaean League B.C. 149 and 147, took an
active part in the war against the Romans. On
the death of Critolaiis in 146, he succeeded to
the command of the Achaeans, but was defeated
by Mummius near Corinth, whereupon he put
an end to his own life, after slaying Ms wife to
prevent her falling into the enemy's power.
(Polyb. xl. 2-9 ; Paus. vii. 12.)
Diagoras (Aiaybpas). 1. Son of Damagetus,
of Ialysus in Rhodes, was very celebrated for
his own victories and those of his sons and

DIANA
grandsons, in the Grecian games. His fame
was celebrated by Pindar in the 7th Olympic
ode. He was victor in boxing twice in the
Olymrjian games, four times in the Isthmian,
twice in the Nemean, and once at least in the
PjftMan. He had therefore the high honour of
being a irepioSovlKris — that is, one who had
gained crowns at all the four great festivals.
When an old man, he accompanied his sons,
Acusilaiis and Damagetus, to Olympia. The
young men, having both been victorious, carried
their father through the assembly, whUe the
spectators showered garlands upon Mm, and
congratulated him as having reached the'
summit of human happiness. He gained Ms
Olympic victory b.c. 464. (Paus. vi. 7.) — 2,
Surnamed the Atheist ("ABeos), a Greek pMlo-
sopher and poet, was the son of Teleclides, and
was born in the island of Melos, one of the
Cyclades. He was a disciple of Democritus of
Abdera, and in Ms youth he acquired consider
able reputation as a lyric poet. He was at
Athens as early as B.C. 424, for Aristophanes in
the Clouds (880), wMch was performed in that
year, alludes to him as a weU-known character.
In consequence of Ms attacks upon the popular
religion, and especiaUy upon the Eleusmian
mysteries, he was formaUy accused of impiety
B.C. 411, and fearing the result of a trial, fled
from Athens. He was condemned to death in
Ms absence, and a reward set upon Ms head.
He first went to PaUene, and afterwards to
Corinth, where he died. One of the works of
Diagoras was entitled Qpiyioi Xbyoi, in which
he probably attacked the Phrygian divimties.
(Diog. Laert. vi. 59 ; Cic. Tusc. i. 46, 111.)
Diana (the quantity of the first syUable is
common, and no arguments of etymology can
safely be based on it), an ancient Italian
divinity, whom the Romans identified with the
Greek Artemis. Her worship is said to have
been mtroduced at Rome by Servius TuUius,
who dedicated a temple to her on the Aventine ;
and she appears to have been originaUy wor-
sMpped only by the plebeians. At Rome Diana
was the goddess of Ught and of the moon (for
no valid objection has been made against her
being the moon-goddess also), and her name
contains the same root as the word dies, sub dio
(cf. Janus). The attributes of the Greek
Artemis were afterwards ascribed to the Roman
Diana. [See Artemis.] Among the most notice
able sites of her worsMp as a genuine Italian
deity were Mount Tifata, near Capena (Plut.
Sull. 6; C.I.L, i. 569), and Aricia, where she
was worsMpped with harvest festivals as the
deity who gave fruitfuMess both in the vege
table world, and also apparently in the birth of
chUdren (Ov. Fast. iii. 266), and with a torch
light procession as being the goddess of light.
It is not unlikely that the peculiar law by
-wMch the priest of her grove must have slain
Ms predecessor was a relic of human sacrifice
offered to her (see Diet, of Antiq. art. Bex
Nemorensis). In tradition Diana Aricina is
connected with Virbius in a manner which
some writers compare with the conjunction of
Isis and Osiris. [See VrBBius.]
Dianium. 1. (Gianuti), a small island in the
Tyrrhenian sea, opposite the gulf of Cosa. — 2.
(Denia), caUed Hemeroscopion ('Upepoo-Ko-
ireiov) by Strabo, atown in Hispania Tarraconen
sis on a promontory of the same name (G.
Martin) founded by the MassiUans. Here stood
a celebrated temple of Diana, from which the
town derived its name ; and here Sertorius kept
most of Ms military stores.

DICTTS 285
Dicaea (AtKaia), a town in Thrace, on the
lake Bistonis (Hdt. vii. 109 ; Strab. p. 831).
Dioaearchia. [Puteoli.]
Dicaearohus (AiKaiapxos), a celebrated Peri
patetic philosopher, geographer, and historian,
was born at Messana in Sicily, but passed the
greater part of his life in Greece Proper, and
especiaUy in Peloponnesus. He was a disciple
of Aristotle and a friend of Theophrastus. He
wrote a vast number of works, of which only
fragments are extant. His most important
work was entitled Bios tt)s 'EXXdSos : it con
tained an account of the geography, history,
and moral and religious condition of Greece.
Dicaearchus was in part the source of Cicero's
De Bepublica. See Fuhr, Dicaearchi Messenii
quae supersunt composita et illustrata, Darm
stadt, 1841.
Dice (AIkti), the personification of justice, a
daughter of Zeus and Themis, and the sister of
Eunomia and Eirene (Hes. Th. 901 ; Pind. Ol.
xiii. 6). She was considered as one of the
Horae, and is frequently called the attendant
or counciUor (irdpeSpos or £iveSpos) of Zeus
(Soph. 0. C. 1381). In the tragedians she ap
pears as a divinity who severely punishes all
wrong, watches over the maintenance of justice,
and pierces the hearts of the unjust with the
sword (Aesch. Cho. 689). In this capacity she
is closely connected with the Erinnyes, though
her business is not only to punish injustice,
but also to reward virtue (Aesch. Ag. 1432,
Eum. 510; Soph. Aj. 1390; Eur. Med. 1389).
Dictaeus. [Dicte.]
Dictamnum (Aixrapvov), a town on the N.
coast of Crete with a sanctuary of Dictynna,
whose name the town bore (Ptol. iii. 17, 8).
Dicte (a'iki'ti), a mountain in the E. of Crete,
where Zeus is said to have been brought up.
Hence he bore the surname Dictaeus. The
Roman poets employ the adjective Dictaeus as
synonymous with Cretan (Strab. p. 578).
Dictynna. [Bbitomaetis.]
Dictys Cretensis, the reputed author of an
extant work in Latin on the Trojan war, divided
into six books, and entitled Ephemeris Belli
Trojani, professing to be a journal of the lead.
ing events of the war. In the preface to the
work we are told that it was composed by Dictys
of Cnossus, who accompanied Idomeneus to
the Trojan war, and was inscribed in Phoenician
characters on tablets of lime-wood or paper
made from the bark. The work was buried in
the same grave with the author, and remained
undisturbed till the sepulchre was burst open
by an earthquake in the reign of Nero, and
the work was discovered in a tin case. It was
carried to Rome by Eupraxis, whose slaves had
discovered it, and it was translated into Greek
by order of Nero. It is from this Greek version
that the extant Latin work professes to have
been translated by a Q. Septimius Romanus,
apparently of the 4th century, since he addresses
Aradius Rufinus, who was praefectus urbi a.d.
312. Although its alleged origin and discovery
are quite unworthy of credit, it appears never
theless to be a translation from a Greek work
quoted by the Byzantine writers, especially by
Malalas : it seems improbable that -Malalas
should have recourse to a Latin original ; and
the sources from which the work itself is drawn
are Greek writers such as Apollodorus and
Lycophron, whereas if the original author had
been a Latin writer, he would have drawn from
some at least of the Latin authorities. On the
other hand, those who deny that a Greek ori
ginal ever existed have in their favour the fact

286 DIDIUS
that in style it is not like a translation from
Greek, and seems to be an imitation of Sallust.
The work contains a history of the Trojan war,
from the birth of Paris down to the death of
Ulysses. The compUer not unfrequently differs
widely from Homer, adding many particulars,
and recording many events of which we find
no trace elsewhere. AU miraculous events and
supernatural agency are entirely excluded.
The compilations ascribed to Dictys and Dares
[Dabes], are of considerable importance in the
history of modern literature, since they are
the chief fountains from which the legends of
Greece first flowed into the romances of the
middle ages, and then mingled with the popular
tales and baUads of England, France, and
Germany. — Editions by Dederich, Bonn, 1885,
and by F. Meister, Lips. 1872.
Didius. 1. T., praetor in Macedonia, B.C. 100,
where he defeated the Scordiscans (Cic. in Pis.
25, 61), consul 98, and subsequently proconsul
in Spain, where he defeated the Celtiberians.
He fell in the Marsic war, 89 (Appian, B. C. i.
40). — 2. C, a legate of Caesar, fell in battle in
Spain fighting against the sons of Pompey, 46.
— 3. M. Didius Salvius Julianus, bought the
Roman empire of the praetorian guards, when
they put up the empire for sale after the death
of Pertinax, a.d. 193. Flavius Sulpicianus,
praefect of the city, and Didius bid against
each other, but it was knocked down to Didius,
upon his promising a donative to each soldier
of 25,000 sesterces. Didius, however, held the
empire for only two months, from March 28th
to June 1st, and was murdered by the soldiers
when Severus was marching against the city.
(Dio Cass, lxxiii. 11 ; Spartian. Did. Jul.)
Dido (AiSd), also called Elissa, the reputed
founder of Carthage. The name Dido was that

Dido (MS. Vatican Virgil).
of a Phoenician deity equivalent to Astarte,
originaUy worshipped by the Tyrian colonists
of Carthage, and then identified in legend with
Elissa. She was thus represented as the
daughter of the Tyrian king Mutto ( = Belus or
Agenor), and sister of Pygmalion, who succeeded
to the crown after the death of his father. She
was married to her uncle, Acerbas or Sichaeus,
a priest of Hercules, and a man of immense
wealth. He was murdered by Pygmalion, who
coveted his treasures ; but Dido secretly sailed
from Tyre with the treasures, accompanied by
some noble Tyrians, who were dissatisfied with
Pygmalion's rule. She first went to Cyprus
where she carried off eighty maidens to provide
the emigrants with wives, and then crossed
over to Africa. Here she purchased as much
land as might be covered with the Mde of a
bull; but she ordered the Mde to be cut up

DINDYMUS
into the thinnest possible strips, and with them
she surrounded a spot, on wMch she built a
citadel caUed Byrsa (from Bvpaa, i.e. the hide
of a buU) . Around tMs fort the city of Carthage
arose, and soon became a powerful and flourish
ing place. The neighbouring king IarbaB,
jealous of the prosperity of the new city, de
manded the hand of Dido in marriage, threaten
ing Carthage with war in case of refusal. Dido
had vowed eternal fidelity to her late husband;
but seeing that the Carthaginians expected her
to comply with the demands of Iarbas, she
pretended to yield to their wishes, and under
pretence of soothing the manes of Acerbas by
expiatory sacrifices, she erected a funeral pile,
on which she stabbed herself in presence of her
people. After her death she was worsMpped
by the Carthaginians as a divinity. — VirgU has
inserted in Ms Aeneid the legend of Dido with
various modifications. According to the common
chronology, there was an interval of more than
300 years between the capture of Troy (b.c
1184) and the foundation of Carthage (b.c. 853);
but VirgU nevertheless makes Dido a contem
porary of Aeneas, with whom she faUs in love
on his arrival in Africa. When Aeneas hastened
to seek the new home wMch the gods had
promised him, Dido in despair destroyed herself
on a funeral pile. The oldest authority for the
legends of Dido seems to be Timaeus (Fragm.
23), who is foUowed by Naevius and VirgU.
[See Aeneas.]
Didyma, [Branchidae.]
Didyme. [Aeoliae Insulae.]
Didymus (AiSvpos), a celebrated Alexandrine
grammarian, a contemporary of JuUus Caesar
and Augustus, was a follower of the school of
Aristarchus, and received the surname x"Xk4v-
repos, on account of his indefatigable and
unwearied application to study. He is said to
have written 4000 works, the most important of
which were commentaries on Homer, including
a revision of Aristarchus. He wrote commen
taries also on Pindar, Sophocles, Aristophanes,
and the Attic orators, and is a source of much
of the information contained in later schoha and
lexicons. Fragments edited by Schmidt, 1854.
Diespiter. [Jupiter.]
Digentisi (Licenza), a small stream in Latium,
beautifully cool and clear, wMch rises in Lu-
cretilis, and flows into the Anio near Vicovaro.
It flowed through the Sabine farm of Horace
(Hor. Ep. i. 16, 12, i. 18, 104). [For discussion
of the site of the villa, see Horatius.]
Dimallum, a town in Greek Hlyria.
Dinarchus (Aeivapxos), the last and least
important of the ten Attic orators, was born at
Corinth about b.c. 361. He was brought up at
Athens, and studied under Theophrastus. As
he was a foreigner, he could not come forward
himself as an orator, and was therefore obliged
to content Mmself with writing orations for
others. He imitated Demosthenes and Lysias,
but in neither case successfully. He belonged
to the friends of Phocion and the Macedonian
party. When Demetrius Poliorcetes advanced
against Athens in 807, Dinarchus fled to Chalcis
in Euboea, and was not allowed till 292 to re
turn to Athens, where he died at an advanced
age. Only three of Ms speeches (against Demo
sthenes, Aristogeiton, and Philocles) have come
down to us : they all refer to the question about
Harpalus. They are printed in the coUections
of the Attic orators. (Dionys. Dinarch. ; Plut.
Vit. X. Orat.)
Dindymene. [Dindymus.]
Dindymus, or Dindyma, -ornm (AivSvposl

DINOCRATES
rh AivSvpa). 1. (Gunusu Dagh), a mountain
in Phrygia on the frontiers of Galatia, near the
town Pessinus, sacred to Cybele, the mother
of the gods, who is hence called Dindymene
(Strab. p. 567). — 2. (Murad Dagh), a mountain
in PMygia, near the frontiers of Mysia, the
source of the river Hermus, also sacred to
Cybele (Hdt. i. 80; Strab. p. 626).— 3. (Kapu
Dagh), a mountain near Cyzicus. [Rhea.]
Dinocrates (Aeii/o/cpaT^s). 1. A distinguished
Macedonian architect in the time of Alexander
the Great. He was the architect of the new
temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which was built
after the destruction of the former temple by
Herostratus. He was employed by Alexander,
whom he accompamed into Egypt, in the build
ing of Alexandria. He formed a design for
cutting Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander ;
but the king forbad the execution of the pro
ject (Vitruv. i. 1, 4 ; Strab. p. 640). The right
hand of the figure was to have held a city, and
in the left there would have been a basin, in
which the water of all the mountain streams
was to pour, and thence into the sea. There is
a story of doubtful credit that he began the
erection of a temple to Arsinoe, the wife of
Ptolemy II., of which the roof was to be arched
with loadstones, so that her statue made of iron
might appear to float in the air, but died before
completing the work (PUn. xxxiv. 148). — 2. A
Messeman who opposed the Achaean League,
and, when PMlopoemen was taken prisoner, was
among those who caused him to be put to
death. In the next year, when the Achaean
general Lycostas occupied Messene, Dinocrates
anticipated his sentence by suicide. (Pol. xxiv.
5, 12 ; Plut. Philop. 18-21.)
Dlnomachus (Aeivdpaxos), a pMlosopher, who
agreed with Calliphon in considering the chief
good to consist m the union of virtue with
bodUy pleasure (Cic. Tusc. v. 30).
Dinomenes (Aeivopivrjs), a sculptor, whose
statues of Io and Callisto stood in the Acro
polis at Athens in the time of Pausanias : he
flourished B.C. 400 (Paus. i. 25; Plin. xxxiv. 50).
A base with the name of Dinomenes, found on
the Acropolis, and assigned to the second cent.
B.C., may be the work of a later sculptor of the
same name.
Dinon (Aeivav, Aivav), father of theMstorian
Clitarchus, wrote himself a Mstory of Persia.
Dio Cassius, the historian, was the son of a
Roman senator, Cassius Apronianus, and was
born a.d. 155, at Nicaea in Bithynia. He also
bore the surname Cocceianus, which he derived
from the orator Dio Chrysostomus Cocceianus,
his maternal grandfather. He was educated
with great care ; he accompanied Ms father to
Cilicia, of wMch he had the administration;
and after Ms father's death, he went to Rome,
about 180. He was straightway made a senator,
and frequently pleaded in the courts of justice.
He was aedile and quaestor under Commodus,
and praetor under Septimius Severus, 194. He
accompamed Caracalla on his journey to the
East : he was appointed by Macrinus to the
government of Pergamus and Smyrna, 218 ; was
consul about 220 ; proconsul of Africa 224, under
Alexander Severus, by whom he was sent as
legate to Dalmatia in 226, and to Pannonia in
227. In the latter province he restored strict
discipline among the troops ; which excited the
discontent of the praetorians at Rome, who de
manded Ms life of Alexander Severus. But the
emperor protected him and raised him to his
second consulsMp 229. Dio, however, retired
to Campania, and shortly afterwards obtained

DIOCLES

287

permission of the emperor to return to Ms
native town Nicaea, where he passed the re
mainder of Ms life. — Dio wrote several his
torical works, but the most important was a
History of Rome ("PupaiKri iaropia), in eighty
books, from the landing of Aeneas in Italy to
A.D. 229, the year in which Dio returned to
Nicaea. Unfortunately, only a comparatively
small portion of this has come down to us
entire. Of the first 34 books we possess only
fragments ; but since Zonaras in Ms Annals
chiefly followed Dio Cassius, we may regard
the Annals of Zonaras as to some extent an
epitome of Dio Cassius. Of the 35th book we
possess a considerable fragment, and from the
86th book to the 54th the work is extant com.
plete, and embraces the history from the
wars of Lucullus and Cn. Pompey against
Mithridates, down to the death of Agrippa, B.C.
10. Of the remaining books we have only the
extracts made by Xiphilinus and others. Dio
Cassius treated the history of the republic with
brevity, but gave a more minute account of
those events of which he had been himself an
eye-witness. He consulted original authorities,
and displayed great judgment and discrimina
tion m the use of them. He had acquired a
thorough knowledge of his subject, and his
notions of the ancient Roman institutions were
far more correct than those of some of Ms pre
decessors, such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
but he was a strong imperialist, and depreciated
whatever he thought tended to republicanism. —
Editions by Reimarus, Hamb. 1750-52, 2 vols.
f ol. ; Sturz, Lips. 1824, 9 vols. 8vo, and by Din-
dorf, Lips. 1885.
Dio Chrysostomus — that is, the golden-
mouthed, a surname given to him on account
of his eloquence. He also bore the surname
Cocceianus, which he derived from the emperor
Cocceius Nerva, with whom he was intimate.
He was born at Prusa in Bithynia, about the
middle of the first century of our era. He tra-
veUed in different countries, and came to Rome
in the reign of Vespasian, but having incurred
the suspicions of Domitian, was obhged to leave
the city. On the advice of the DelpMc oracle,
he put on a beggar's dress, and visited TMace,
Mysia, Scythia, and the country of the Getae.
After the murder of Domitian, A.D. 96, Dio used
Ms influence with the army stationed on the
frontier in favour of his friend Nerva, and seems
to have returned to Rome immediately after Ms
accession. Trajan also showed marked favour
to Dio, who died at Rome about a.d. 117- —
Dio Chrysostom is the most eminent of the
Greek rhetoricians and sophists in the time
of the Roman empire. There are extant eighty
of his orations ; but they are more like essays
on political, moral, and philosophical subjects
than real orations, of which they have only the
form. All these orations are written in pure
Attic Greek, though overloaded with the rheto
rical embellishments of the age. — Editions by
Reiske, Lips. 1784, 2 vols. ; by Emperius, Bruns.
1844 ; and by L. Dindorf, Lips. 1857.
Diocaesarea (Atoa-Ktuo-dpeia: Sefurieh),more
anciently Sepphoris (Seir.cpdpis), in Galilee,
was a small place until Herodes Antipas made
it the capital of Galilee, under the name of
Diocaesarea. It was destroyed in the fourth
century by Gallus, on account of an insurrec
tion which had broken out there. (Jos. Ant. xiv.
5.) Dioclea or Doclea (AoVcAea), a place in Dal
matia, near Salona, the birthplace of Diocletian.
Diodes (AiokXtjs). 1. A brave Athenian,.

¦288

DIOCLETIANOPOLIS

who lived in exile at Megara. Once in a battle
he protected with his shield a youth whom he
loved, but he lost his own life in consequence.
The Megarians rewarded Mm with the honours
¦of a hero, and instituted the festival of the
Dioclea, which they celebrated in the spring of
every year. — 2. A Syracusan, the leader of the
popular party in opposition to Hermocrates.
In B.C. 412 he was appointed with several
others to draw up a new code of laws. This
code wMch was ahnost exclusively the work of
Diocles, became very celebrated, and was
adopted by many other Sicilian cities. — 3.
Of Carystus in Euboea, a celebrated Greek
physician, lived in the fourth century B.C. He
wrote several medical works, of which only
:some fragments remain.
Diocletianopolis. [Celetrum.]
Diocletianus, Valerius, Roman emperor, a.d.
284-305, was born near Salona in Dalmatia, in
'245, of most obscure parentage. From Ms
mother, Doclea, or Dioclea, who received her
name from the village where she dwelt, he in
herited the appellation of Docles or Diocles,
which, after his assumption of the purple, was
expanded into Diocletianus, and attached as a
cognomen to the high patrician name of
Valerius. Having entered the army, he served
with high reputation under Probus and Aure
lian, followed Carus to the Persian war, and,
after the fate of Numerianus became known at
Chalcedon, was proclaimed emperor by the
troops, 284. He slew with his own hands
Arrius Aper, who was arraigned of the murder
of Numerianus, in order, according to some
authorities, that he might fulfil a prophecy
¦delivered to Mm in early youth by a Gaulish
Druidess, that he should mount a throne as
soon as he had slain the wild-boar (Aper).
Next year (285) Diocletian carried on war
against Carinus, on whose death he became
undisputed master of the empire. But as the
attacks of the barbarians became daily more
formidable, he resolved to associate with himself
a colleague in the empire, and accordingly
selected for that purpose Maximianus, who was
invested with the title of Augustus in 286.
Maximian had the care of the Western empire,
and Diocletian that of the Eastern. But as the
dangers which threatened the Roman dominions
from the attacks of the Persians in the East, and
the Germans and other barbarians in the West,
became still more imminent, Diocletian made a
still further division of the empire. In 292,
Constantius CMorus and Galerius were pro
claimed Caesars, and the government of the
Roman world was divided between the two
Augusti and the two Caesars. Diocletian had
the government of the East with Nicomedia as
his residence ; Constantius, Britain, Gaul, and
Spain, with Treves as Ms residence ; Galerius,
Hlyricum, and the whole line of the Danube,
with Sirmium as his residence. The wars in
the reign of Diocletian are related in the lives of
Ms colleagues, since Diocletian rarely com
manded the armies in person. It is sufficient
to state here that Britain, which had main
tained its independence for some years under
Carausius and Allectus, was restored to the
empire (296) ; that the Persians were defeated
and obliged to sue for peace (298) ; and that the
Marcomanni and other barbarians in the N.
were also driven back from the Roman
dominions. Though in most acts of his life he
has been praised for clemency and humanity,
he ordered in 803, chiefly at the instigation of
Gallienus, a fierce persecution of the Christians.

DIODORUS
This was nearly the last act of his rule; for
after an anxious reign of twenty-one years Dio
cletian longed for repose. Accordingly on the
first of May, 305, he abdicated at Nicomedia, and
compelled his reluctant colleague Maximian to
do the same at Milan. Diocletian retired to his
native Dalmatia, and passed the remaining
eight years of Ms life in philosophic retire
ment near Salona (where he built the magnifi
cent villa of which the remains form the town
of Spalatro), devoted to rural pleasures and the
cultivation of his garden. He died 313. His
talents for organisation place him among the
most remarkable of the emperors. He was not
only the author of the division of the empire,
but he entirely remodelled the arrangement of
provinces, constituting twelve great Sioi/rij<reij,
each comprising several provinces, with a
supreme officer called Vicarius to whom the
praesides of the several provmcesin the diocese
were answerable. He reorganised also the
administration of justice, and the system of
taxation throughout the empire. (Aurel. Vict.
Caes. 39 ; Eutrop. ix. 13 ff. ; Zonar. xii. 81.)
The Edict of Diocletian dated 303, fixing the
price of provisions, &c, has great antiquarian
value. It was inscribed on a temple at Strato-
nicea ; portions also have been discovered at

Diocletianus, Roman Emperor, A.D. 284-305.
Obv., DIOCLETIANVS AVG., head of Diocletian, laureate ;
rev., VIRTVS MILITVM C,t soldiers sacrificing before
camp.
Plataea and at MegalopoUs in 1888, 1890
(C. I. L. iii. p. 801 ; Ephem. Ep. iv. 180).
Diodorus (AibSapos). 1. Surnamed Cronus,
of Iasus in Caria, lived at Alexandria in the
reign of Ptolemy Soter, who is said to have
given him the surname of Cronus on account of
his inability to solve at once some dialectic
problem proposed by Stilpo, when the two
philosophers were dining with the king.
Diodorus is said to have taken that disgrace so
much to heart that after his return from the
repast, and writing a treatise on the problem,
he died in despair. According to another
account he derived Ms surname from Ms
teacher Apollonius Cronus. He belonged to
the Megaric school of pMlosophy, of wMch he
was the head. He was celebrated for his great
dialectic skill, for wMch he is called 6 SiaXeKTi-
Kbs, or SiaXeKTixdraros. (Diog. Laert. ii. Ill ;
Strab. pp. 658, 888.) — 2. Siculus, of Agyrium
in SicUy, was a contemporary of Julius
Caesar and Augustus. In order to collect
materials for his Mstory, he travelled over a
great part of Europe and Asia, and lived a long
time at Rome. He spent altogether tMrty
years upon his work. It was entitled Bifi^io-
6t)k7i io-Topiiefi, The Historical Library, and
was a universal history, embracing the period
from the earliest mythical ages down to the
beginning of Caesar's Gallic wars. It was
divided into three great sections and into forty
books. The first section, which consisted of the
first six books, contained the Mstory of the
mythical times previous to the Trojan war.
The second section, which consisted of eleven
books, contained the Mstory from the Trojan war
down to the death of Alexander the Great.

DIODOTUS
The third section, which contained the remain
ing twenty-tiiree books, treated of the history
from the death of Alexander down to the
beginning of Caesar's Gallic wars. Of this
work only the following portions are extant
entire : the first five books, which contain the
early history of the Eastern nations, the
Egyptians, AetMopians, and Greeks ; and from
book eleven to book twenty, containing the
Mstory from the second Persian war, B.C. 480,
down to 802. Of the remaining portion there
are extant a number of fragments and the
Excerpta, wMch are preserved partly in
Photius and partly in the Eclogae made at
the command of Constantine Porphyrogenitus.
The work of Diodorus is constructed upon the
plan of annals, and the events of each year are
placed one after the other without any internal
connexion. In compiUng Ms work Diodorus
exercised no judgment or criticism. He simply
coUected what he found in his different autho
rities, and thus jumbled together history,
mythus, and fiction : he frequently misunder
stood authorities, and not seldom contradicts
in one passage what he has stated in another.
But nevertheless the compUation is of great
importance to us, especiaUy for the history of
Sicily, on account of the great mass of materials
wMch are there collected from a number of
writers whose works have perished. The best
editions are by Wesseling, Amsterd. 1746, 2 vols.
fol., reprinted at Bipont, 1793, &c, 11 vols. 8vo. ;
and by Dindorf, Lips. 1867, 5 vols. 8vo. — 3. Of
Sinope, an Athenian comic poet of the Middle
Comedy, flourished 353. — 4. Of Tyre, a Peripa
tetic phUosopher, a disciple and foUower of
Critolaiis, whom he succeeded as the head of
the Peripatetic school at Athens. He flourished
B.C. 110.
Diodotus (Ai6Soros), a Stoic phUosopher and
a teacher of Cicero, m whose house he lived for
many years at Rome. In Ms later years, Dio
dotus became bhnd : he died in Cicero's house,
b.c. 59, and left to Ms friend a property of about
100,000 sesterces. (Cic. Tusc. v. 39, 113; ad
Att. ii. 20.)
Diogenes (Aioyevns). 1. Of Apollonia in
Crete, an eminent natural phUosopher, Uved in
the fifth century B.C., and was a pupil of Anaxi-
menes. He wrote a work in the Iomc dialect,
entitled Ilepl tpito-ews, On Nature, in wMch he
treated of physical science. He made air the
element of all things. (Diog. Laert. ix. 57 ; Cic.
N.D. i. 12, 29.)— 2. The Babylonian, a Stoic
phUosopher, was a native of Seleucia in Baby
lonia, was educated at Athens under Chrysippus,
and succeeded Zeno of Tarsus as the head of
the Stoic school at Athens. He was one of the
three ambassadors sent by the Athenians to
Rome in B.C. 155. [Carneades ; Critolaus.]
He died at the age of 88. — 3. The Cynic phUo
sopher, was born at Sinope in Pontus, about
B.C. 412. His father was a banker named
Icesias or Icetas, who was convicted of some
swindling transaction, in consequence of which
Diogenes quitted Sinope and went to Athens
(Diog. Laert. vi. 2, 20). His youth is said to
have been spent in dissolute extravagance ; but
at Athens his attention was arrested by the
character of Antisthenes, who at first drove him
away. Diogenes, however, could not be preven
ted from attending him even by blows, but told
him that he would find no stick hard enough to
keep him away. Antisthenes at last relented,
and his pupil soon plunged into the most frantic
excesses of austerity and moroseness. In sum
mer he used to roll in hot sand, and in winter

DIOGENES 289
to embrace statues covered with snow; he wore
coarse clothing, lived on the plainest food, slept
in porticoes or in the street, and finally, accord
ing to the common story, took up Mb residence
in a tub (a large earthenware jar) belonging to
the Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the
Gods. (Diog. Laert. vi. 28 ; Juv. xiv. 808 ; Sen.
Ep. 99 ; Lucian, Guam. Conscr. Hist. ii. p 364 )
The truth of tliis latter tale has, however, been
disputed, since it is not mentioned by Plutarch
Cicero or Epictetus (ap. Arrian. iii. 24) ; and
some have attempted to explain the story by
imagining a clay-built cottage. But, whatever
the truth of the story, it is repeated in works of
art as well as in literature. [See Diet, of Ant.
art. Dohum.] In spite of his strange eccentri
cities, Diogenes appears to have been much
respected at Athens, and to have been privUeged
to rebuke anything of wMch he disapproved.
He seems to have ridiculed and despised all
intellectual pursuits which did not directly and
obviously tend to some immediate practical
good. He abused literary men for reading about
the evils of Ulysses, and neglecting their own ;
musicians for stringing the lyre harmoniously
while they left their minds discordant ; men of
science for troubling themselves about the moon

Diogenes in his tub. (From fragment of lamp in British
Museum.)
and stars, wMle they neglected what lay im
mediately before them ; orators for learning to
say what was right, but not to practise it. — On
a voyage to Aegina he was taken prisoner by
pirates, and carried to Crete to be sold as a
slave. Here when he was asked what business
he understood, he answered, ' How to command
men.' He was purchased by Xeniades of Corinth,
over whom he acquired such influence, that
he soon received from Mm his freedom, was en
trusted with the care of his children, and passed
his old age in Ms house. During Ms residence
at Corinth Ms celebrated interview with Alex
ander the Great is said to have taken place.
The conversation between them began by the
king's saying, ' I am Alexander the Great ; ' to
which the philosopher replied, 'And I am
Diogenes the Cynic' Alexander then asked
whether he could oblige him in any way, and
received no answer except, ' Yes, you can stand
out of the sunshine.' We are further told that
Alexander admired Diogenes so much that he
said, ' If I were not Alexander, I should wish to
be Diogenes ' (Plut. Alex. 14 ; Cic. Tusc. v. 32,
92). Diogenes died at Corinth at the age of
nearly ninety, B.C. 323. [For the teaching of
the Cynics, see Antisthenes.] — 4. Laertius,
of Laerte in CUicia, of whose life we have no
U

290

DIOGENIANUS

particulars, probably lived in the second cen
tury after Christ. He wrote the Lives of the
Philosophers in ten books : the work is entitled
irepl Biav, Soypdrav, Kal diroipBeypdrav rdv iv
fpiXooo<pia evSoKtprio-dvTav. According to some
allusions which occur in it, he wrote it for a lady
of rank, who occupied herself with philosophy,
and who, according to some, was Arria, the
friend of Galen. In this work Diogenes divides
the philosophy of the Greeks into the Ionic —
which commences with Anaximander and ends
with Clitomachus, CMysippus, and Theophras
tus — and the Italian, which was founded by
Pythagoras, and ends with Epicurus. He
reckons the Socratic school, with its various
ramifications, as a part of the Ionic philosophy,
of wMch he treats in the first Beven books.
The Eleatics, Heraclitus and the Sceptics are
included in the Italian philosophy, wMch occu
pies the eighth and ninth books. Epicurus and
his philosophy are treated of in the tenth book
with particular minuteness, which has led some
writers to the belief that Diogenes himself was
an Epicurean. The work is of great value to
us, as Diogenes made use of a great number of
writers on the history of pMlosophy, whose
works are now lost ; but it is put together with
out plan, criticism, or connexion, and the
author had evidently no conception of the real
value and dignity of philosophy. The best
editions are by Meibom, Amsterd. 1692, 2 vols.
4to., and Hiibner, Lips. 2 vols. 8vo. 1828-1831 ;
Tauchnitz, 1877. — 5. Oenomaus, a tragic poet,
who began to exMbit at Athens B.C. 404.
Diogenianus (Aioyeveiavbs), of Heraclea on
the Pontus, a distinguished grammarian in the
reign of Hadrian, wrote a Greek Lexicon, from
which the Lexicon of Hesychius seems to have
been almost entirely taken. A portion of it is
still extant, containing a collection of proverbs
first printed by Schottus, with the proverbs of
Zenobius and Suidas, Antv. 1612, 4to., and sub
sequently in other editions of the Paroemio-
graphi Graeci.
Diomea (ra Ai6peia: Aiopeievs, Aiopevs), &
demus in Attica belonging to the tribe Aegeis,
with a temple of Heracles ; the Diomean gate
in Athens led to tMs demus. [Athenae.]
Diomedeae Insulae, five small islands in the
Adriatic sea, N. of the promontory Garganum in
Apulia, named after Diomedes. [Diomedes.]
The largest of these, called Diomedea Insula or
Trimerus (Tremiti), was the place where Julia,
the grand-daughter of Augustus, died.
Diomedes (AiopfiSns). 1. Son of Tydeus and
Deipyle, whence he is constantly called Tydides
(TuSei'Sijs), succeeded Adrastus as king of Argos.
— Homeric Story. Tydeus fell in the expedi
tion against Thebes, while his Bon Diomedes
was yet a boy; but Diomedes was afterwards
one of the Epigoni who took Thebes. He went
to Troy with eighty ships, and was, next to
Achilles, the bravest hero in the Greek army.
He enjoyed the especial protection of Athene ;
he fought against the most distinguished of the
Trojans, such as Hector and Aeneas, and even
against the gods who espoused the cause of the
Trojans. He thus wounded both Aphrodite and
Ares (II. v. 335, 440, 837). In Od. iii. 180, we
are told that he reached Argos on his return
from Troy in three days. — Later Stories. Dio
medes and Ulysses carried off the palladium
from the city of Troy, since it was believed that
Troy could not be taken bo long as the palla
dium was within its walls. Diomedes carried
"the palladium with him to Argos ; but according
to others it was taken from him by Demophon

DION
in Attica, where he landed one night on his
return from Troy, without knowing where he
was. [Demophon.] Another tradition stated
that Diomedes restored the palladium to Aeneas.
On his arrival in Argos Diomedes found Ms wife
Aegialea living in adultery with Hippolytus, or,
according to others, with Cometes or Cyllabarus.
This misfortune befeU Mm through the anger
of Aphrodite, whom he had wounded before
Troy. He therefore quitted Argos, either of
Mb own accord, or expelled by the adulterers,
and went to Aetolia. He subsequently attemp
ted to return to Argos, but on his way home a
storm threw him on the coast of Daunia in
Italy, where he was kindly received by Daunus,
the king of the country. Diomedes assisted
Daunus in Ms war against the Messapians,
married Euippe, the daughter of Daunus, and
settled in Daunia, where he died at an advanced
age. He was buried in one of the islands off
cape Garganum, which were called after Mm
the Diomedean islands. His companions were
inconsolable at his loss, and were metamor
phosed into birds (Aves Diomedeae), wMch,
mindful of their origin, used to fly joyfully to
wards the Greek ships, but to avoid those of the
Romans. According to others Diomedes re
turned to Argos, or disappeared in one of the
Diomedean islands, or in the country of the
Heneti. A number of towns in the E. part of
Italy, such as Beneventum, Argos Hippion
(afterwards Argyripa or Arpi), Venusia, Canu
sium, Venafrum, Brundusium, Sea., were be
lieved to have been founded by Diomedes. A
plain of Apulia, near Salapia and Canusium,
was called Diomedei Campi after him. He
was worshipped as a divine being, especially
in Italy, where statues of him existed at Ar
gyripa, Metapontum, Thurii, and other places.
(Verg. Aen. xi. 243 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 457 ; Ant.
Lib. 37 ; Strab. pp. 215, 284.)— 2. Son of Ares
and Cyrene, king of the Bistones in Thrace,
who dwelt near Abdera. He was kiUed by
Heracles on account of his mares, wMch he fed
with human flesh. (ApoUod. ii. 5, 8, Hyg. Fab.
SO ; cf . Eur. Ale. 499, H. F. 380.) Some modern
writers represent Diomedes as the Storm-king,
and his horses as the strong winds of the TMa-
cian coast.
Diomedes, a Latin grammarian, probably
lived in the fourth or fifth century after CMist,
and is the author of an extant work, De Ora-
tione et Partibus Orationis et Vario Genere
Metrorum libri III, printed in the Gram-
maticae Latinae Auctores Antiqui of Put-
schius, 4to, Hanov. 1605.
Diomedon (AiopeSav), an Athenian comman
der during the Peloponnesian war. He was
one of the commanders at the battle of Argi-
nusae (b.c. 406), and was put to death with five
of his colleagues on his return to Athens. (Thuc.
viii. 19-34 ; Xen. Hell. i. 5.)
Dion (Aiwv), a Syracusan, son of Hipparmus,
and a relation of Dionysius, born about 408 B.C.
His sister Aristomache was the second wife of
the elder Dionysius ; and Dion himself was
married to Arete, the daughter of Dionysius by
Aristomache. Dion was treated by Dionysius
with the greatest distinction, and was employed
by Mm in many services of trust and confidence.
Of this close connexion and favour with the
tyrant he seems to have availed himself to
amass great wealth. He made no opposition to
the succession of the younger Dionysius to his
father's power, but he became an object of
suspicion to the youthful tyrant, to whom he
also made himself personally disagreeable by

DION
4he austerity of his manners. Dion appears to
have been naturally a man of a proud and stern
.character ; and having become an ardent disciple
of Plato when that philosopher visited Syracuse
in the reign of the elder Dionysius, he dreamed
of making Syracuse a free city, of giving liberty
to the Greek cities in Sicily, and of expelling
the Carthaginians : he carried to excess the
austerity of a philosopher, and viewed with un
disguised contempt the debaucheries and disso
lute pleasures of his nephew. From these he
-endeavoured to withdraw him by persuading
him to invite Plato a second time to Syracuse ;
but the phUosopher, though received at first
with the utmost distinction, failed in obtaining
a permanent hold on the mind of Dionysius ;
and the intrigues of the opposite party, headed
by PMlistns, were successful in procuring the
banishment of Dion. Dion retired to Athens,
where he lived in habitual intercourse with
Plato and his disciples ; but Plato having
failed in procuring Ms recall (for wMch purpose
he had a third time visited Syracuse), and
Dionysius having confiscated Ms property, and
compeUed Ms wife to marry another person, he
determined on attempting the expulsion of the
•tyrant by force. In the year 857 he saUed from
Zacynthus with only a smaU force and obtained
possession of Syracuse, except Ortygia, without
opposition during the absence of Dionysius m
Italy. Dionysius returned shortly afterwards,
and, aided by PMlistus attempted to raise the
blockade of Ortygia : a battle was fought in the
Great Harbour, in wMch PhUistus was defeated
-and put to death ; and Dionysius found himself
obhged to quit Syracuse and sail away to Italy.
After Ms departure the Syracusans deposed
Dion from his command, an ingratitude which
embittered Ms mind, though he was soon after
wards recaUed, and on the surrender of Ortygia
found Mmself master of Syracuse. But he was
unwilling to give the citizens the Uberty which
they expected, and Ms despotic conduct soon
caused great discontent; the people complained
with justice that they had only exchanged one
tyrant for another. He caused his cMef
opponent, Heraclides, to be put to death, and
-confiscated the property of his adversaries.
CalUpus, an Athenian, who had accompanied
Mm from Greece, formed a conspiracy agamst
him, and caused him to be assassinated in Ms
own house, 353. (Plut. Dion ; Diod. xvi. 6-20 ;
Nep. Dion.)
Dion Cassius ; Chrysostomus. [Dio.]
Dionaea. [Dione.]
Dione (Aidvri), in Homer, is the mother of
ApModite by Zeus (II. v. 312, 330, 370, 422) : in
Hesiod, she is the daughter of Oceanus (Th.
353) ; but in later mythologists, of Uranus and
Ge or Aether and Terra (Apollod. i. 1, 3 ; Hyg.
Fab. 1). In post-Homeric authors she is some
times Aphrodite herself (Theocr. vii. 116 ; Ov.
Fast. ii. 461, A. A. iii. 3). Euripides (Fr. 177)
makes her =Semele, calling Dionysus hereon.
Dione was probably in the earliest Greek
mythology the feminine of Zeus (whence her
name), worshipped as a supreme goddess in
conjunction with him at Dodona (Dem. Meid.
p. 530, § 53) ; but afterwards, when the influ
ence of Dodona was less predominant (before
the Homeric period), she was displaced by Hera
as the consort of Zeus, and in many of her attri
butes by the Cyprian Aphrodite, who thereupon
becomes her daughter in mythology.
Dionysius (Aioviaios). I. Historical. — 1. The
Elder, tyrant of Syracuse, son of Hermocrates,
born b.c. 430. He was born in a private but not

DIONYSIUS

291

low station, and began life as a clerk in a public
office. He was one of the partisans of Hermo
crates, the leader of the aristocratical party, and
was severely wounded in the attempt which
Hermocrates made to effect by force his restora
tion from exile. He subsequently served in the
great war against the Carthaginians, who had
invaded Sicily under Hannibal, the son of Gisco,
and successively reduced and destroyed Selinus,
Himera, and Agrigentum. These disasters, and
especially the failure of the Syracusan general,
Daphnaeus, to relieve Agrigentum, had created
a general spirit of discontent and alarm, of
which Dionysius skilfully availed Mmself. He
succeeded in procuring a decree for deposing
the existing generals, and appointing others in
their stead, among whom was Dionysius him
self, B.C. 406. His efforts were from this time
directed towards supplanting his new colleagues
and obtaining the sole direction of affairs.
These efforts were crowned with success. In the
following year (405), the other generals were de
posed, and Dionysius, though only twenty-five
years of age, was appointed sole general, with
full powers. From this period we may date the
commencement of his reign, or tyranny, which
continued without interruption for thirty-eight
years. His first step was to procure the appoint
ment of a body-guard, which he speedily in
creased to the number of 1000 men: at the
same time he induced the Syracusans to double
the pay of all the troops, and took every means
to ingratiate himself with the mercenaries. By
his marriage with the daughter of Hermocrates
he secured to himself the support of all the
remaining partisans of that leader. He con
verted the island of Ortygia into a strong for
tress, in which he took up Ms own residence.
After concluding a peace with Carthage, and
putting down a formidable insurrection in
Syracuse, he began to direct his arms against
the other cities of Sicily. Naxos, Catana, and
Leontini, successively fell into his power, either
by force or treachery. For several years after
this he made preparations for renewing the war
with Carthage. In 897 he declared war against
Carthage. At first he met with great success,
but in 395 Ms fleet was totally defeated, and
he was obliged to shut Mmself up withm the
waUs of Syracuse, where he was besieged by
the Carthaginians both by sea and land. A
pestilence shortly after broke out in the Car
thaginian camp, and greatly reduced the enemy ;
whereupon Dionysius suddenly attacked the
enemy both by sea and land, defeated the army,
and burnt great part of their fleet. The Car
thaginians were now obliged to withdraw. In
893 they renewed the war with no better suc
cess, and in 392 they concluded a peace with
Dionysius. This treaty left Dionysius at
leisure to continue the ambitiouB projects in
which he had previously engaged agamst the
Greek cities in Italy. He formed an alliance
with the Lucanians, and crossed over into
Italy. He subdued Caulonia, Hipponium, and
Rhegium, 887. He was in close alliance with
the Locrians ; and his powerful fleets gave him
the command both of the Tyrrhenian and
Adriatic seas. He was now at the summit of
his greatness, and during the twenty years that
elapsed from this period to his death, he pos
sessed an amount of power and influence
far exceeding those enjoyed by any other
Greek before the time of Alexander. During
this time he was twice engaged again in war
with Carthage — namely, in 383, when a treaty
was concluded, by which the river Halycus was
U2

292

DIONYSIUS

fixed as the boundary of the two powers ; and
again in 368, in the middle of which war
Dionysius died at Syracuse, 367. His last
illness is said to have been brought on by ex
cessive feasting; but, according to some ac
counts, his death was hastened by his medical
attendants, in order to secure the succession for
his son. After the death of his first wife,
Dionysius had married almost exactly at the
same time — some said, even on the same day —
Doris, a Locrian of distinguished birth, and
Aristomache, a Syracusan, the daughter of his
supporter Hipparinus, and the sister of Dion.
By Doris he had three children, of whom the
eldest was his successor, DionysiuB. The cha
racter of Dionysius has been drawn in the
blackest colours by many ancient writers ; he
appears indeed to have been taken as the type of
a tyrant, in the worst sense. In his latter years
he became extremely suspicious, and apprehen
sive of treachery even from his nearest friends,
and is said to have adopted the most excessive
precautions to guard against it. Many of these
stories have, however, an air of great exaggera
tion. (Cic. Tusc. v. 20.) Dionysius was fond
of literature and the arts. He adorned Syracuse
with splendid temples and other public edifices,
so as to render it unquestionably the greatest
of all Greek cities. He was himself a poet, and
repeatedly contended for the prize of tragedy
at Athens. Here he several times obtained the
second and tMrd prizes, and just before his
death, bore away the first prize at the Lenaea,
with a play called ' The Ransom of Hector.'
He sought the society of men distinguished
in literature and phUosophy, entertaining the
poet Philoxenus at his table, and inviting Plato
to Syracuse, whom, however, he afterwards
dismissed. [Plato.] (Diod. xiii. xiv. xv.)
— 2. The Younger, son of the preceding, suc
ceeded his father as tyrant of Syracuse, B.C.
367. He was at this time under thirty years
of age : he had been brought up at his father's
court in idleness and luxury, and studiously
precluded from taking any part in public
affairs. The ascendency which Dion, and
tMough Ms means Plato, obtained for a time
over his mind was undermined by flatterers and
the companions of his pleasures. Yet Ms court
was at tMs time a great place of resort for
philosophers and men of letters : besides Plato,
whom he induced by the most urgent entreaties
to pay Mm a second visit, Aristippus of Cyrene,
Eudoxus of Cnidus, Speusippus, and others, are
stated to have spent some time with him at
Syracuse ; and he cultivated a friendly inter
course with Archytas and the Pythagoreans of
Magna Graecia. Dion, who had been banished
by Dionysius, returned to Sicily in 357, at the
head of a small force, with the avowed object
of detMoning Dionysius. The latter was absent
from Syracuse at the time that Dion landed in
Sicily ; but he instantly returned to Syracuse,
where the citadel still held out for him. [Dion.]
But finding it impossible to retain Ms power,
he sailed away to Italy with his most valuable
property, and thus lost the sovereignty after a
reign of twelve years, 356. He now repaired to
Locri, the native city of his mother, Doris,
where he was received in the most friendly
manner ; but he made himself tyrant of the
city, and is said to have treated the inhabitants
with the utmost cruelty. After remaining at
Locri ten years, he availed Mmself of the
internal dissensions at Syracuse to recover pos
session of his power in that city, 346. The
Locrians took advantage of Ms absence to revolt

against him, and wreaked their vengeance in the
most cruel manner on Ms wife and daughters.
He continued to reign in Syracuse for the next,
three years, tiU Timoleon came to Sicily, to-
deUver the Greek cities of the island from the
tyrants. As he was unable to resist Timoleon
he surrendered the citadel into the hands of the
latter, on condition of being allowed to depart
in safety to Corinth, 343. Here he spent the
remainder of Ms life in a private condition.
According to some writers, he was reduced to
support himself by keeping a school ; others
say, that he became one of the attendants on
the rites of Cybele, a set of mendicant priests
of the lowest class. (Diod. xvi. ; Plut. Timol.
14 ; Athen. p. 541 ; Aehan, V. H. vi. 12 ; Cic.
Tusc. iii. 12.) — 3. Tyrant of Heraclea on the--
Euxine, son of Clearchus, succeeded his brother
Timotheus m the tyranny about B.C. 338. He
was said to have been the mildest and justest of
all the tyrants that had ever Uved. He married.
Amastris, niece of Darius. In 306 he assumed
the title of king, and died shortly afterwards at.
the age of fifty-five. (Diod. xvi. 88, xx. 70.)
II. Literary. 1. Of Halicarnassus, a cele
brated rhetorician, came to Rome about B.C. 29,
for the purpose of making himself acquainted
with the Latin language and literature. He
lived at Rome on terms of f riendsMp with many
distinguished men, such as Q. Aelius Tubero,.
and the rhetorician Caecilius ; and he remained
in the city for twenty-two years, till Ms death,
B.C. 7. His principal work, wMch he composed
at Rome in the later period of Ms life, was a
history of Rome in twenty-two books, entitled
'PupatKTi ' ApxaioXoyia. It contamed the his
tory of Rome from the mythical times down to
B.C. 264, in which year the Mstory of Polybius.
begins with the Punic wars. The first nine-
books alone are complete ; of the tenth and
eleventh we have the greater part ; and of the
remaimng nine we possess notMng but frag
ments and extracts. Dionysius treated the-
early history of Rome with great minuteness.
The eleven books extant do not carry the his
tory beyond B.C. 441, so that the eleventh book
breaks off very soon after the decemviral legis
lation. This peculiar minuteness m the early
history, however, was in a great measure the
consequence of the object he had proposed to-
himself, which, as he himself states, was to-
impress upon the Greeks a just appreciation of
Rome's greatness. Dionysius had no clear no
tions about the early constitution of Rome, and
was led astray by the nature of the institutions
which he saw in his own day ; and thus makes
innumerable mistakes in treating of the Mstory
of the constitution. Nevertheless, he has pre
served to us from ancient authorities much
that is of the greatest value to the MBtorian
when other light fails altogether ; and for the
student of mythology his work is a storehouse
of ancient traditions. — Dionysius also wrote
various rhetorical and critical works, wMch
abound with excellent remarks and criticisms-
on the works of the classical writers of Greece.
They show that he was a greater critic than
historian. The foUowing are the extant works-
of this class : 1. TexvT) pirropucli, addressed to
one Echecrates, part of which is certainly
spurious. 2. riepl o-vvBeaeas bvopdrav, treats
of oratorical power, and on the combination of
words according to the different styles of ora
tory. 8. Tav apxalav Kpicris, contains cha
racteristics of poets, from Homer down to
Euripides ; of some historians, such as Hero
dotus, Thucydides, Philistus, Xenophon, and

DIONYSIUS
Theopompus ; and, lastly, of some philosophers
-and orators. 4. Ilepl w apxaiav faribpav
vTtopvTipariapoi, contains criticisms on the most
•eminent Greek orators, of which we now possess
only the first three sections, on Lycias, Iso
crates, and Isaeus. The other three sections
treated of Demosthenes, Hyperides, and Ae-
scMnes ; but they are lost, with the exception of
the first part of the fourth section, which treated
of the oratorical power of Demosthenes. 5.
'EiriaroX7\ irpbs 'Appcuov, a letter to his friend
Ammaeus, in which he shows that most of the
orations of Demosthenes had been delivered
before Aristotle wrote his Bhetoric, and conse
quently that Demosthenes had derived no in
struction from Aristotle. 6. 'Eirio-ToXii irpbs
TvaTov Tlopiriiiov, was written by Dionysius with
a view of justifying the unfavourable opinion
wMch he had expressed upon Plato, and which
Pompey had censured. 7. Ilepl toS QovkvSISov
XapaKTTJpos Kal rav Xoiiruv rov ffvyypacpeas
iStapdrav, was written by Dionysius at the re
quest of his friend Tubero, for the purpose of
explaining more minutely what he had written
¦on Thucydides. As Dionysius in tMs work
looks at the great Mstorian from his rhetorical
point of view, Ms judgment is often unjust and
incorrect. 8. Ilepl ruv rov ®ovKvSiSov ISia-
pdrav, addressed to Ammaeus. 9. Aelvapxos,
-a very valuable treatise on the Ufe and orations
of Dinarchus. The best editions of the com
plete works of Dionysius are by Sylburg, Frankf.
1586, two vols, fol., reprinted at Leipzig, 1691 ;
by Reiske, Lips. 1774. The History is edited
separately by Kiessling, Lips. 1870. — 2. Sur-
-named Chalcus, because he advised the Athe-
mans to com brass money (Athen. p. 669) ; wrote
rhetorical orations, which have perished, and
elegies, wMch are quoted by Plut. Nic. 5 ; Arist.
Bhet. m. 2 ; Athen. pp. 668, 702.— 3. Of Hera
clea, son of Theophantus, was a pupU of Zeno,
and adopted the tenets of the Stoics. But in
-consequence of a most painful complaint, he
abandoned the Stoic pMlosophy and joined the
Eleatics, whose doctrine, that tiSovt) and the
^absence of pam was the highest good, had
more charms for him than the austere ethics of
the Stoa. TMs renunciation of his former creed
drew upon him the nickname of peraBepevos,
i.e. the renegade. He died in Ms eightieth year,
of voluntary starvation. He wrote several
works, aU of which are lost. Cicero censures
him for having mixed up verses with Ms prose,
-and for his want of elegance and refinement. —
4. Of Kagnesia, a distinguished rhetorician,
taught in Asia between B.C. 79 and 77, when
Cicero visited the East. — 5. Of Miletus, one of
the earliest Greek Mstorians, or logographi, and
a contemporary of Hecataeus, wrote a history of
Persia (fragments by C. Miiller, 1848).— 6. Of
Mytilene, surnamed Scytobrachion, taught at
Alexandria in the first century B.C. He wrote
a prose work on the Argonauts, wMch was
consulted by Diodorus Siculus. — 7. Surnamed
Periegetes, from his being the author of a
irepif)y7i<ris tt)s yr)s, which is still extant ; pro
bably lived about a.d. 300. The work contains
a description of the whole earth, derived in
great measure from Eratosthenes, in hexameter
verse, and is written in a terse and elegant
style. It enjoyed great popularity in ancient
times. Two translations or paraphrases of it
were made by Romans, one by Rufus Festus
Avienus [Avlenus], and the other by the gram
marian Priscian [Priscianus]. The best edi
tion of the original is by Bernhardy, Lips.
1828. — 8. Of Sinope, an Athenian comic poet

DIONYSUS

293

of the Middle Comedy (fragments in Meineke).—
9. Surnamed Thrax, from his father being a
Thracian, was himself a native either of Alex
andria or Byzantium. He is also called a Rho-
dian, because at one time he resided at Rhodes,
and gave instructions there. He also taught
at Rome, about B.C. 80. He was a very cele
brated grammarian ; but only one of his works
has come down to us : a small treatise, en
titled rexvri ypappariKf), which became the
basis of all subsequent grammars, and was a
standard book in grammar schools for many
centuries. (Ed. Bekker, in Anecdota Gr. 1816.)
III. Artists. — 1. Of Argos, a statuary, flou
rished B.C. 476.-2. Of Colophon, a painter,
contemporary with Polygnotus of Thasos, whose
works he imitated in every respect except
in grandeur. Aristotle (Poet. 2) says that
Polygnotus painted the likenesses of men better
than the originals, Pauson made them worse,
and Dionysius just like them (dpoiovs). It
seems from this that the pictures of Dionysius
were deficient in the ideal. (Cf . Aelian, V H.
iv. 3; Plut. Timol. 86.)
Dionysopolis (Aiovicrov rriXis), a town in
PMygia, belonging to the conventus juridicus
of Ajjamea, founded by Attalus and Eumenes.
Dionysus (Aibvvaos : Epic Aidvvrros), the
god of wine (originally a nature-god of all trees
and of fruitfulness m general). He is also
caUed both by the Greeks and Romans Bacchus
(BaKxos), that is, the god who is worshipped with
loud cries, which was originally a mere epithet
or surname of Dionysus, and does not occur
tiU after the time of Herodotus. His names
Evius and Sabazius are derived from the
cry evoi oaBo'i uttered by his worshippers (Dem.
de Cor. p. 313, § 260) ; Bassareus from the long
dress, caUed bassara, worn by his Bacchanals,
and he is called Bromius as the god of revelry.
Dionysus is a deity of whom small account is
made in Homeric story. It does not appear
that he was known to Homer as the wine-god :
he is never so spoken of ; and Maron who gives
the wine in Od. ix. 193 is priest of Apollo. He
is named also in Od. xxiv. 74, in xi. 328 (in con
nexion with Naxos), and in II. xiv. 325 as born
of Semele ; but the only precise account of him
is in II. vi. 133, where the ' raving ' Dionysus is
represented as flying in terror from Lycurgus.
The earliest mention of him as the giver of wine
is in Hesiod (Op. 615). The history of Dionysus
as generaUy represented in post-Homeric lite
rature and art, but made up of various legends
of different origins and dates [see below], is as
follows. Dionysus was the son of Zeus and
Semele the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes. It
was generaUy believed that when Semele was
pregnant, she was persuaded by Hera, who ap
peared to her in disguise, to request the father
of the gods to appear to her in the same glory
and majesty in which he was accustomed to
approach Ms own wife Hera. Zeus unwiUingly
complied, and appeared to her in thunder and
lightning. Semele was terrified and over
powered by the sight, and being seized by the
flames, she gave premature birth to a cMld.
Zeus saved the child from the flames, sewed
Mm up in his thigh, and thus preserved Mm till
he came to maturity. (OtherB say that Hermes
saved him.) Various epithets which are given
to the god refer to that occurrence, such as
TTvpiyevhs, p7jpoppacpf)s, priporpa<pr)s, and igni-
gena [for the probable origin of the myth see
below]. After the birth of Dionysus, Zeus
entrusted him to Hermes, or, according to
others, to Persephone or Rhea, who took the

294
cMld to Ino and Athamas at Orchomenos, and
persuaded them to bring him up as a girl.
Hera was now urged on by her jealousy to
throw Ino and Athamas into a state of madness.
Zeus, in order to save his child, changed him
into a ram, and carried him (or Hermes carried
Mm) to the nymphs of Mt. Nysa, who brought
him up in a cave, and were afterwards rewarded
by Zeus, by being placed as Hyades among the
stars. Mt. Nysa, from which the god was
believed to have derived Ms name, was in
TMace ; but mountains of the same name are
found in different parts of the ancient world
where he was worshipped, and where he was
believed to have introduced the cultivation of
the vine. When he had grown np, Hera drove
Mm mad, in wMch state he wandered about
through various parts of the earth. In especial
he made a victorious progress in the East, teach
ing the inhabitants of the different countries of
Asia the cultivation of the vine, and introdu
cing among them the elements of civilisation.
In Euripides (Bacch. 15) his progress East
wards does not extend further than Bactria;
but, after the conquests of Alexander, legends
made Bacchus also reach and subjugate India.
(Diod. ii. 38 ; Strab. p. 505 ; Verg. Aen. vi.
805.) Hence he is frequently represented in
works of art as drawn by tigers in triumph.

DIONYSUS tion here given follows the lines of the Hymn-
The god is alone m the ship and the saUors are
already dolphins below it. On the monument
of Lysicrates there is another version. Satyrs,
have come to aid the god (who sits in the centre

Dionysus drawn by tigers. {Museum Capitolinum, vol.

The various stories of his inflicting punishment
on those who rejected him denote no doubt the
resistance wMch the spread of Ms worship en
countered in various countries. [See Damascus ;
Lycurgus ; Pentheus.] A legend (which may
have grown out of a custom among sailors of
wreathing their masts at certain times with
vine-leaves and ivy and clusters of grapes in
honour of vintage festivals) has been a favourite
subject with poets and artists in illustration of
the divine power of Dionysus. He hired a ship
which belonged to Tyrrhenian pirates to take
him from Icaria to Naxos ; but the men, instead
of landing at Naxos, steered towards Asia to
sell him there as a slave. Thereupon the god
changed the mast and oars into serpents, and
himself mto a Hon ; ivy grew around the vessel,
and the sound of flutes was heard on every side ;
the sailors were seized with madness, leaped
into the sea, and were metamorphosed into
dolphins. (Horn. Hymn, vii ; Ov. Met. iii. 582 ;
ApoUod. iii. 5 ; Hyg. Fab. 134.) The illustra-

Dionysus in vessel. (Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenb.)
with a lion beside Mm) ; and they are binding
and slaying the pirates, and driving others into
the sea as dolphins. After he had thus through
vicissitudes of suffering andl
insult established his di
vine nature throughout the
world, he took his mother
out of Hades, called her
Thyone, and rose with her-
into Olympus. (Pind. OL
ii. 25; Pyth. iii. 98; Diod.
iii. 62, iv. 25.) TMs myth
of his descent to the under
world and his return with
his mother was much re
garded in the highest and.
purest form of the religion
of Dionysus, as symbolising
future life and a triumph
over death. The story was.
localised especiaUy at Ar
gos, where there was an old
tradition that Dionysus had
descended to Hades by the
unfathomable lake Alcyo-
nia, at Lerna (according to
some accounts, having been
slam by Perseus), and re
gained the upper world with
his mother at the same spot. Hence mystic-
rites were celebrated annually to recall him
from the grave. In a beautiful Etruscan mirror
the youthful Dionysus is shown rejoining Ms
mother m the underworld, Apollo standing by.
Origin of the Worship of Dionysus. — Hero
dotus (ii. 52) speaks of Dionysus as a very late
addition to the Hellenic gods, and such doubtless-
he was under the guise f amUiar in Greek lite
rature ; but among the deities who had been.
identifled with him and absorbed into his
worsliip, were old gods of the country whose
local rites gave rise to many of the legends
about Dionysus himself. He represents among
other attributes a nature-god of fruitfulness-
and reproduction of aU trees and vegetation,.
and this from a period before the vme, after
wards his chief gift, had been introduced into
Greece. The deity was a tree spirit, or a spirit
of any other vegetable product of the earth,,
and either the tree itself or some animal re
garded in any locality as the incarnation of the

DIONYSUS

295

vegetation, became sacred and received sacri
fices — in earlier times, even human sacrifices.
It is thus not easy to say when the more savage
part of the ritual of Dionysus was a remnant
of primitive Greek worship, and when it was
Thracian or Oriental. Of this early Greek deity

Phupheus (Bacchus) finding Semla (Semele) in the under.
world. See p. 294, b. (From a mirror found at Vnlci.)
of trees and vegetation incorporated into the
worsMp of Dionysus, we have the survival in
Aibvvaos SevSpirris, or evSevSpos (Plut. Symp.
v. 1), A. o-vkIttis (Athen. p. 78), A. dvBios (Paus.
i. 31, 2) ; and in archaic art the god is repre
sented as a rude image, haU tree and half hu
man. The new rehgion of Dionysus, which
absorbed these old beliefs and rites, and took
their place alike in the higher mysteries and
in peasant festivals, was derived in the first
instance from the Thraeians. Herodotus speaks
of the three chief divimties of Thrace as
Dionysus, Ares, and Artemis (= Bendis). The
TMacians were notable for their strong belief
in a future Ufe and immortality. Herodotus
(iv. 94) describes the fashion among the Getae
of sending messages to their god by tossing one
of their tribesmen upon spears, that so he
might journey to the other world. This god,
named Zalmaxis, seems to be the same as
Sabazius (= Dionysus), who was worsMpped
both in Thrace and in Phrygia with orgiastic
rites, partly Phrygian and influenced by the
ritual of Cybele, and partly Thracian, since
the two races were of the same origin and
there was a near connexion in their sacred
rites. In Thrace, as in Phrygia, was an early
home of Dionysus ; and it is probable that the
orgiastic dances, with cymbals and drums, of
Bacchantic women, variously called Maenades,
Thyiades, or Clodones, was originally an in
cantation to wake and recall the sleeping god
of vegetation in the spring time, a custom trace
able in many other nations. From Thrace the
worship of Dionysus — perhaps simultaneously
with the introduction of the vine, which seems
to have come from Asia Minor through Thrace

into Greece — spread tirrough Thessaly to Delphi.
At Delphi the worship of Dionysus and his
oracle there were older than that of Apollo.
As deity of the vegetation of the earth, of its
death and reproduction, Dionysus was one of
the x^'oi Beoi, and possessed the oracular
powers which were attributed from primitive

Dionysus and Ampelus (the personified vine). (From a
marble group in the British Museum.)
times to earth-spirits. There is a conflict of
tradition as to the claims of Poseidon, Dionysus,
and Ge-Themis, to be the predecessors of Apollo
in this oracle ; but there is in truth no reason
why all three should not have been in their
various periods so regarded. The position
occupied by Dionysus after the worsMp of
Apollo gained the supremacy rather seems to
imply that he was the immediate predecessor,
and that he retained much of his old power
there by a sort of compromise (as indeed may
be indicated by the account of the battle of
Apollo with the Python and its results) ; for,
though Apollo became the great Delphic god,
sole possessor of the oracle, and reigning at
Delphi for nine out of the twelve months, yet
Dionysus held a place only second to him.
It is probable that the orgiastic worship of
Dionysus, with its midnight torch-revels on the
mountains of Thrace, of Parnassus and of
Cithaeron, was in Boeotia, as at DelpM, handed
on from Thrace, though it is possible that it
may have reached Thebes from the islands.
By whichever route it arrived, it found at
Thebes the local story of the birth of the earth-
deity, who became thereafter identified with
Dionysus. That it was not established without
a struggle and a victory over an older cult is
shown in the story of Pentheus. The theory
of Bachofen is probably right as to the origin
of the strange legend regarding the birth of
Dionysus from the thigh of Zeus : that it is an
expression in myth for the couvade among
primitive tribes ; i.e. the custom of asserting
the paternity of the father by pretending that
the birth-pangs affected him chiefly ; so that in
this Greek myth the struggle between the two

296

DIONYSUS

Dionysus.
(From a coin of Naxos in
Sicily : 5th cent. B.C.)

systems of kindred and descent, the maternal
and the paternal, may be traced. (Cf. Aesch.
Eum. 183, 253 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Matrimo-
nium.) More important still from its effect on
literature as well as on religion is the intro
duction of this worship into Attica. The men
tion in legend of the northern demes Eleutherae
and Icaria as the first seats of the cultivation
of the vine and the worship of its god indicate
that the introduction was from Boeotia. The
myth (wMch is related under Icarius) seems
to have arisen in explanation of the rituals of
the ascoliasmus, or peasant dance on the wine
skins, and the swinging images by which the
god of trees was propitiated [cf. Diet, of Ant.
art. Oscilla]. Dionysus so worshipped was
especially the peasant god, and the simpler
rites were preserved in the wine-feasts of the
rural Dionysia. [Diet, of Ant. s.v.] The really
important result was that from the custom of
representing in sacred choruses the history of
the god, as a benefactor of mankind who through
insults and sufferings gained his victory over
all Greek lands, the Attic
Tragedy was developed
as a national act of wor
sMp to the god [Diet.
of Ant. art. Tragoedia].
The mysteries in the wor
ship of Dionysus were
partly due to the Orphic
rites from Thracian and
Phrygian cult, but were
probably more directly
derived from the Cretan
worsMp of Dionysus-Za-
greus. The mythical story
tells that tMs deity was
born from Zeus (in the form of a snake) and
Persephone ; that from the jealousy of Hera he
was torn in pieces by the Titans, after he had in
vain assumed many shapes, and lastly that of
a bull, to escape them. His mangled body was
buried at Delphi, but Athene gave the heart to
Zeus, who swallowed it and brought forth the
new Dionysus, named Iacchus, who was nursed
by nymphs and satyrs, and swung in the
winnowing basket as a cradle, the ' mystica
vannus ' of Iacchus. The story (nearly akin to
the Egyptian myth of Osibis, whom the Greeks
identified with Dionysus) is a myth in the first
place of the death in winter and renewal in
spring of the vegetation ; and the swinging of
the basket was the ritual by which in early
times it was sought to rouse the plant-life from
its sleep ; and in the second place it expressed
the belief in a death and a resurrection: for
both these reasons Iacchus (or Dionysus) was
associated with Demeter and Core (or Perse
phone) in the mysteries. The notoriety of the
evils resulting from the worst festivals of
Dionysus, and the evil repute of the Baccha
nalia, have tended to obscure the purer and
more elevating part of the religion, but it is
important not to forget it. The rending of
Dionysus-Zagreus cannot be dismissed as merely
the crushing of the grape, like the John Barley
corn of English ballad : it is rather the tearing
of the victims in savage sacrifices, possibly in
totem sacrifices ; and in such sacrifices the deity,
or the sacred animal (at one time a human
sacrifice), was often slain, and the eating of the
slaughtered victim was supposed to give to the
worshippers some of the strength and power of
the deity. Out of some such ritual the story
of the death of Zagreus probably arose. The
rites spread westwards from Crete through the

islands, and so reached Athens (Diod. v. 74).
Hence perhaps the savage worship of Dionysus
aprio-rfis (eater of raw flesh) at Lesbos, Chios,
and Tenedos, betokening human sacrifice to
the god of vines m early times, though it may
as probably have been derived from TMace or
Phrygia : for the frantic worship of the TMacian
or the Boeotian thiasus had the same cha
racteristics. At Naxos Ms rites were less
barbarous, and that island, wMch claimed also
to be the birthplace of the god, seems to have
passed on some of the ritual, including the
marriage of Dionysus, to Athens. [See Ariadne.]
Dionysus, or Bacchus, was mtroduced into the
Roman worship tMough Magna Graecia and
Etruria, and with aU the worst features of the
rites [Diet, of Ant. art. Bacchanalia], and the

Dionysus. (From a painting at Pompeii.)
name and story of Bacchus took the place of
the native Italian deity of the vintage. [See
under Liber.] The animals specially sacred to
Dionysus and sacrificed to Mm were the bull
and the goat. The bull held this place as
signifying might and strength in generation
(possibly also, as some think, a relic of totemism),
and in some way identified with him, so that
Dionysus is caUed BovKepas, or, ' aureo cornu
decorus,' and appears on coins in the shape of
a bull. The ram or the goat was sacrificed to
Mm for the same reason, as signifying to the
herdsmen fertility, though poets gave as a cause
the story that the goat had eaten the vine.
(Anth. Pal. ix. 75 ; Ov. Fast. i. 357 ; Verg.
Georg. ii. 380.) The serpent was sacred to him
as being one of the x^bvioi Beoi, or gods of the
earth and of the underworld. In primitive art
Dionysus was worshipped under the rude
emblem of the phaUus, or as a figure partly
tree partly man. In more advanced art he was
represented as a bearded man, often of dignified
appearance, fully clothed in the long tunic, and
crowned with ivy or vine, often with the thyrsus
in his hand; and .this type reappears in late
Hellenic and in Roman art. But the type
which predominated from Praxiteles onwards,
was that of a youth, or young man, a soft and
almost feminine shape, with a languid expres
sion, naked, or clad only with a fawn-skin, and
crowned with ivy or vine leaves : common, too
is the representation of the infant Bacchus

DIOPHANES
[See cut under Praxiteles.] In many reliefs
and pictures he has Ms attendant troops of
satyrs and nymphs, and is sometimes drawn by
tigers or panthers in allusion to Ms Indian
conquests. In the scene engraved below, re
presenting Dionysus as the guest of a mortal

DIOSCURI

297

Dionysus received as a guest. (From the Combe Marbles, British Museum.)

TDict. of Ant. art. Theoxenia] — according to
some of Icarius ; according to others, of a suc-
¦cessf ul poet —the god is attended by Silenus and
youthful satyrs.
Diophanes (Aio<paVijs). 1. Of Mytilene, a
distinguished Greek rhetorician, came to Rome,
where he instructed Tib. Gracchus and became
his intimate friend. After the murder of Grac-
ohus, Diophanes was also put to death. (Cic.
Brut. 27, 104 ; Plut. Tib. Gracch. 8, 20.)— 2.
Of Nicaea, in Bithynia, in the first century B.C.,
abridged the agricultural work of Cassius
Dionysius for Mng Deiotarus (Varr. B. B. i. 1,
10). _
Diophantus (Aioipavros). 1. An Attic ora
tor and contemporary of Demosthenes, with
whom he opposed the Macedonian party (Dem.
F. L. p. 436, § 297). 2.— Of Alexandria, a
Greek writer on Algebra. His period is un
known : but he probably ought not to be
placed before the end of the fifth century of
our era. He wrote Arithmetica, in tMrteen
books, of wMch only six are extant, and one
book, De Multangulis Numeris, on polygonal
numbers. These books contain a system of
reasoning on numbers by the aid of general
symbols, and with some use of symbols of ope-
raton; it treats of the solution of algebraic
equations, determinate and indeterminate,
simple, quadratic or cubic, with one unknown
[see Diet, of Ant. art. Arithmetica]. Edition
"by Bachet, 1621 ; in German by Schulz, 1821.
Diopithes (AioTrelBris). 1. A half-fanatic,
half-impostor, who made at Athens an appa
rently thriving trade of oracles : he was much
¦satirised by the comic poets (Aristoph. Eq.
1081, Vesp. 380, Av. 988).— 2. An Athenian
general, father of the poet Menander, was sent
out to the Thracian Chersonesus about B. c. 344,
at the head of a body of Athenian settlers or
KXripovxoi. In the Chersonese he became in
volved in disputes with the Cardians, who were
supported by PMlip. The latter sent a letter
of remonstrance to Athens and Diopithes was
arraigned by the Macedonian party, but was
¦defended by Demosthenes in the oration, stiU
¦extant, on the Chersonese, B. c. 341, in conse

quence of wMch he was permitted to retain his
command. (Dem. de Chers.)
Dioscoridis Insula (Aioo-/cop/Bou vr)<ros : Soco-
tra), an island off the S. coast of Arabia.
The island itself was unproductive, but it was a
commercial emporium ; and the N. part of the
island was inhabited
by Arabian, Egyp
tian and Greek mer
chants (Ptol. viii. 22,
Dioscorides (Awa-
KopiSns). 1. A dis
ciple of Isocrates,
and a Greek gram
marian, wrote upon
Homer. — 2. The
author of thirty-nine
epigrams in the
Greek Anthology,
seems to have lived
m Egypt about the
time of Ptolemy
Euergetes. — 3. Pe-
dacius or Pedanius,
of Anazarba in Cili
cia, a Greek physi-
J cian, probably lived
M the second century
of the CMistian era.

He has left behind him a treatise on Materia
Medica (Ilepl "TXt/s 'larpiK7)s), in five books, a
work of great labour and research, which for
many ages was received as a standard produc
tion. It consists of a description of all the articles
then used in medicine, with an account of their
supposed virtues. The other works under the
name of Dioscorides are probably spurious. Best
edition by Sprengel (Lips. 1829, 1880).
Dioscuri (Ai6o-Kopoi : later Atbo-Kovpoi) — that
is, sons of Zeus — the well-known heroes, Castor
(Kderap) and Pollux or Polydeuces (rioA-u-
SevKrp:). The two brothers were sometimes called
Castores by the Romans. — According to Homer,
they were the sons of Leda and Tyndareus,
kmg of Lacedaemon, and consequently brothers
of Helen (17. iii. 236; Od.. xi. 298). Hence
they are often called by the patronymic Tyn-
ddrldae. But in later tradition they are sons
of Zeus (Hes. ap. Schol. ad Pind. Nem. x. 150 ;
Horn. Hymn. 16 ; Pind. Pyth. xi. 94 ; Eur. Or.
1689 ; Theocr. xxii. 1) : in Homer, too, Helen is
the daughter of Zeus (II. iii. 426). It is only
in late tradition that they, like Helen, are born
from an egg. Castor was famous for his skill
in taming and managing horses, and Pollux for
his skill in boxing. Both had disappeared from
the earth before the Greeks went against Troy.
Although they were buried, says Homer, yet
they came to life every other day, and they
enjoyed honours like those of the gods. — Ac
cording to another story again, Pollux and
Helen only were chUdren of Zeus, and Castor
was the son of Tyndareus. Hence Pollux was
immortal, wMle Castor was subject to old age
and death like every other mortal. (Apollod.
iii. 10 ; Hyg. Fab. 77 ; cf. Pind. Nem. x. 80 ;
Theocr. xxiv. 130.) They were born, according
to different traditions, at different places, such as
Amyclae, Mount Taygetus, or in a small island
nearPephnos (Paus. iii. 26, 2). — The fabulous life
of the Dioscuri is marked by three great events.
1. Their expedition against Athens. Theseus
had carried off their sister Helen from Sparta,
and kept her m confinement at Aphidnae, under
the superintendence of his mother Aetiira.
While Theseus was absent from Attica, the

298

DIOSCURI

Dioscuri marched into Attica, and ravaged the
country round the city. Academus revealed to
them that Helen was kept at ApMdnae : the
Dioscuri took the place by assault, carried away
their sister Helen, and made Aethra their
prisoner. (Plut. Thes. 41 ; Apollod. I. c. ; Paus.
i. 41, 4 ; Hdt. ix. 73.) 2. Their part in the
expedition of the Argonauts, as they had
before taken part in the Calydonian hunt.
During the voyage of the Argonauts, it once
happened that when the heroes were de
tained by a vehement storm, and Orpheus
prayed to the Samotiiracian gods, the storm
suddenly subsided, and stars appeared on the
heads of the Dioscuri. On their arrival in
the country of the Bebryces, Pollux fought
against Amycus, the gigantic son of Poseidon,
and conquered Mm. During the Argonautic
expedition they founded the town of Dioscurias.
This myth indicates the connexion of the Dios
curi with Orphic tradition, and with the Cabiri,
whose name is joined with theirs in some in
scriptions, and who are similarly saviours from
shipwreck. [Cabiri ; Diet, of Ant. art. Cabiri.]
3. Their battle with the sons of Aphareus.
Once the Dioscuri, m conjunction with Idas and
Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus, had carried
away a herd of oxen from Arcadia. Idas ap
propriated the herd to himself, and drove it to
Ms home in Messene. The Dioscuri then in
vaded Messene, drove away the cattle of wMch
they had been deprived, and much more in ad
dition. Hence arose a war between the Dios
curi and the sons of Aphareus, which was carried
on in Messene or Laconia. Castor, the mortal,
feU by the hands of Idas, but PoUux slew
Lynceus, and Zeus kiUed Idas by a flash of
Hghtning. Pollux then returned to his brother,
whom he found breathing his last, and he
prayed to Zeus to be permitted to die with
Mm. Zeus gave Mm the option, either to live
as his immortal son in Olympus, or to share Ms
brother's fate and to live alternately one
day under the earth, and the other in the
heavenly abodes of the gods. (Pind. Nem.
x. 60 ; Apollod. iii. 11 ; Tsetz. ad Lye.) A
variation of the story makes the quarrel arise
about the daughters of Lycippus, Phoebe and
Hilaira, whom the brothers had carried off.
They were therefore attacked by Idas and
Lynceus, to whom the maidens were betrothed.
(Theocr. xxii. 137 ; Ov. Fast. v. 699.) Accord-
mg to yet another form of the story, Zeus re
warded the attachment of the two brothers by
placing them among the stars as Gemini
(Hyg. Poet. Astr. ii. 22). These heroic youths
received divine honours. Laconia was ap
parently the earliest home of their worship : at
Sparta, Amyclae, and Therapne they were
specially honoured, with war-dances and games
(Paus. iii. 13, 14, 19, iv. 27) : but the Messenians
also claimed them as gods of their country
(Paus. iii. 26). From the Peloponnese their
worsMp naturally spread to the Greek colonies
m Sicily and Magna Graecia. Their principal
characteristic was that of t?eol o-arripes — that is,
mighty helpers of man — whence they were some
times called dvoKes or dvaKres : and under tMs
name especiaUy (wMch belonged to the Cabiri)
they were worsMpped at Athens, where they
had a temple called dvcucetov, on the northern
slope of the Acropolis (Paus. i. 18 ; Dem. c.
Steph. I. p. 1125, § 81). They were worsMpped
more especiaUy as the protectors of travellers by
sea, and their stars appeared above the sMp as
a sure sign of help (Callim. Lav. Pall. 24;
Hor. Od. i. 3, 2 ; i. 12, 27) : a myth which is with

much probability derived from the phenomenon.
' St. Elmo's Fire.' Twin deities and twin heroes
are common in all mythology : it is possibly
right to find, as some writers do, an origin for
the Dioscuri in Indian religion. However that
may be, they seem to have been twin gods of
light, and therefore on wMte horses (Pind..
Pyth. i. 126) ; but they were gods of the under
world as well as of the heaven, and presided
over changes from darkness to light, and from
death to life. Hence, perhaps, their general
character of saviours mvoked in battle and in
shipwreck' They were also the deities especi
ally invited as guests at the Theoxenia [Diet..

Dioscuri on Pulvinar at the Theoxenia. (From a Greek
vase of Camirus.)
of Ant. s.v.]. On a vase from Camirus now in
the British Museum, they are represented as
coming to such a feast ; and stories are told of
punishments inflicted upon the inhospitable,
and rewards for kindly reception (Hdt. vi. 127 ;
Paus. iii. 16). The archaic symbols of the twin
gods were two beams (So/cava, Plut. de Am*
Fr. i. p. 36), two amphorae, often entwined
with snakes, or two stars ; and on coins the
stars often appear above the two horsemen.
Their distinctive dress was the cMamys and the
conical cap (iriXos) which, however, does not
seem to have belonged to them earlier than the
third century B. c, when it begins to appear on
coins. On earlier representations they are bare
headed, or wear the petasus. TMs conical cap
was Spartan (Thuc. iv. 8), but it does not appear
why the Dioscuri received it so late, unless it be
that it was transferred to them from the Cabiri.
The explanation attempted was that it repre
sented half an egg (Lucian, Dial. Dear. 26).
Respecting their festivals, see Diet, of Ant., arts..
Anaceia, Dioseuria. Their usual representation.

The Dioscuri. (From a coin of Bruttium, of srd cent. B.C.)-

in works of art is that of two youthful horsemen
with the egg-shaped helmets or caps, crowned
with stars, and with spears in their hands. —
At Rome the worsMp of the Dioscuri was mtro-
duced at an early time. It had passed no doubt
from Tarentum to other parts of Italy, notably

DIOSCURIAS
to Etruria, where the Dioscuri are represented
with the Cabiri on mirrors. Tusculum had be
come a special site of their worship : hence in
the battle of Regillus the dictator, A. Postu-
mius, foUowing the custom of invokmg the ene
mies' gods, during the battle vowed a temple to
them. It was erected in the Forum, on the
spot where they had been seen after the battle,
opposite the temple of Vesta. It was conse
crated on the 15th of July, the anniversary of
the battle of Regillus. Similar aid had been
given to the Locrians, at the battle of Sagra,

The Dioscuri. (Millin, Gal. Alytlt., pi. 108.)
and was afterwards given at the battle of
Pydna, and again against the Cimbri (Cic.
N. D. ii. 2, 6, iii. 5, 11 ; Plut. Mar. 26). The
equites regarded the Dioscuri as their pa
trons. From the year B. c 305, the equites
went every year, on the 15th of July, at the
transvectio equitum, in a magnificent proces
sion on horseback, from the temple of Mars
tiirough the main streets of the city, across the
Forum, and by the temple of Castor and
Pollux. [Diet, of Ant. art. Equites.]
Dioscurias (Aioo-Kovptds : Aioo-Kovpievs : Isku-
ria), an important town in Colchis on the river
Anthemus, NW. of the Phasis, founded by the
MUesians, was a great emporium for all the
surrounding people : under the Romans caUed
Sebastopolis (Strab. p. 497 ; Procop. B. G. iv. 4).
Dios-Hieron (Aibs 'lepbv : Aioo-ie pirns), a
smaU town on the Cayster N. of Ephesus (Thuc.
viii. 29). Its medieval name was Pyrgi.
Diospolis (AiboiroXis : Aioo-iroXirris). 1. D.
Magna, the later name of Thebes in Egypt.
[Thebae.]— 2. D. Parva, caUed by Pliny Jovis
Oppidum, the capital of the Nomos Diospolites
in Upper Egypt. — 3. A town in Lower Egypt
in the Delta near Mendes, in the midst of
marshes. — 4. (Ludd, Lydd), the name given by
the Greek and Roman writers to the Lydda of
the Scriptures. — 5. A town in Pontus, originaUy
called Cabiba.
Diovis. [Jupiter.]
Diphilus (AitptXos), one of the principal Athe
nian comic poets of the New Comedy and a con
temporary of Menander and PMlemon, was a
native of Sinope. He is said to have exhibited
100 plays. Though, in point of time, Diphilus
belonged to the New Comedy, his poetry seems
to have had more of the character of the Middle.
This is shown, among other indications, by the
frequency with which he chose mythological
subjects for Ms plays, and by Ms bringing
on the stage the poets Archilochus, Hipponax,
and Sappho. The Roman comic poets bor
rowed largely from Diphilus. The Gasina of
Plautus is a translation of his KXripoipevoi.
His SvvairoBviio-KOVTes was translated by Plau
tus in the lost play of the Commorientes, and
was partly foUowed by Terence in his Adelphi.
The Budens of Plautus is also a translation of

DIVITIACUS 299-
a play of Diphilus, but the title of the Greek
play_ is not known. (Meineke, Fragm. Com. Gr.)
Dipoenus and Scyllis (Aivoivos Kal 2«ii\-
Xis), very ancient Greek soulptors, who are
always mentioned together, flourished about
b.c. 560. They were natives of Crete, whence
they went to Sicyon, which was for a long time
the chief seat of Grecian art. Their disciples.
were Tectaeus and Angelion, Learchus of Rhe-
gium, Doryclidas and his brother Medon, Don-
tas, and Theocles, who were all four Lacedae
monians. Dipoenus and Scyllis are sometimes
called sons of Daedalus, by which we are only
to understand that they belonged to the archaic
' Daedalian ' style of art. [Daedalus.] (Paus.
ii. 32, iii. 17, v. 17, vi. 19.)
Dirae, a name of the Furiae. [Eumenides.]
Dirce (AipKn), daughter of Helios and wife of
Lycus. Her story is related under Amphion.
Her punisMnent is the subject of the sculpture
at Naples by Apollonius and Tauriscus, called

Dirce, by Apollonius and Tauriscus.
' The Farnese Bull,' wMch shows Zethus and
AmpMon binding Dirce to the horns of the
bull. Antiope appears in the background, and
on the base are the hound of Zethus, the lyre
of AmpMon, and a figure representing Mount
Cithaeron. Dirphys (Aipipvs: Delphi), a mountain in
Euboea. Dis. [Pluto.]
Dium (Aiov : Aieis, Aiaariis : Malathria). 1.
An important town in Macedonia on the-
Thermaic gulf, so called after a temple of Zeus.
Here were placed the equestrian statues by
Lysippus of the Macedonians who had fallen at
the battle of the Granicus. (Strab. p. 330 ;
Thuc. iv. 78 ; Arrian, An. i. 16 ; Liv. xliv. 7.) — 2.
A town in Chalcidice in Macedonia, on the
Strymonic gulf. — 3. A town in Euboea, not far
from the promontory Cenaeum.
Divico, the leader of the Helvetians in the
war against L. Cassius in B.C. 107, was at the
head of the embassy sent to Julius Caesar,.
nearly fifty years later, B.C. 58, when he was
about to attack the Helvetians (Caes. B.G. i. 18).
Divitiacus, an Aeduan noble and brother of
Dumnorix, was a warm adherent of the Romans;
and of Caesar, who, in consideration of his en
treaties, pardoned the treason of Dumnorix in
B.C. 58. In the same year he took the most
prominent part among the Gallic chiefs in re
questing Caesar's aid against Ariovistus ; he had.

300

DIVODURUM

some time before gone even to Rome to ask the
senate to interfere, but without success. During
this visit he was the guest of Cicero. (Caes.
B. G. i. 16, ii. 4, vi. 12 ; Cic. Div. i. 41, 90.)
Divodurum (Metz), subsequently Medio-
matrici, and still later Metis or Mettis, the
capital of the Mediomatrici in Gallia Belgica
(Caes. B. G. iv. 10 ; Ptol. u. 9, 12)
Divona. [Cadurci.]
Diyllus (AivXXos), an Athenian, who wrote a
Mstory of Greece and Sicily in twenty-six or
twenty-seven books, from the seizure of the
Delphic temple by PMlomelus. The exact
period at which he flourished cannot be ascer
tained, but 'he belongs to the age of the
Ptolemies (Diod. xvi. 14, 78; Athen. pp. 155, 593).
Doherus (AbBripos), a town inPaeoniain Mace
donia, E. of the river Echedorus (Thuc. ii.98, 100).
Docimla or Docimium (Aoxipia, Aoxipaiov :
AoKipevs, AoKipTjvbs : Kara Hissar), a town in
Phrygia, thirty-two miles from Synnada : in its
neighbourhood were celebrated marble quarries
(Strab. p. 437, where the true reading is Aoki-
paiov ; p. 577).
Dodona (AaSdvri), the most ancient oracle in
Greece, was situated in Epirus, in the valley of
the Tcharacovitza about eleven miles SW. of
the town and lake of Janina (the ancient L.
Pambotis). This site was established in 1876 by
M. Carapanos, who excavated the foundations
of the temple and its enclosure, and found
numerous inscribed votive tablets. The place
agrees with Hesiod's description of it as a land
of cornfields and pastures (Hes. ap. Schol. ad
Soph. Trach. 1167). The oracle was founded
by the Pelasgians, and was dedicated to Zeus.
'The responses of the oracle were given from
lofty oaks or beech trees, probably from a grove
¦consisting of these trees. The will of the god
was declared by the wind rustling tMough the
trees ; and in order to render the sounds more
distinct, brazen vessels were suspended on the
branches of the trees, which being set in
¦motion by the wind came in contact with one
another. These sounds were in early times
interpreted by men, but afterwards, when the
worship of Dione became connected with that
of Zeus, by two or three aged women, who were
called ireA.e«£8es orireAetai, because pigeons were
said to have brought the command to found the
¦oracle. There were, however, also priests, called
SeUi or Helli, who had the management of the
temple. (II. xvi. 283; Od. xiv. 827, xix. 296;
Hdt. ii. 52 ; Dem. Meid. p. 531, § 58, F. L. p.
437, § 299 ; Strab. pp. 329, 402 ; Paus. x. 12, 5 ;
Plat. Phaedr. p. 244 B.) The oracle of Dodona
had less influence in historical times than in the
heroic age. It was cMefly consulted by the
neighbouring tribes, the Aetolians, Acarna-
nians, and Epirots, and by those who would not
go to DelpM on account of its partiality for the
Dorians. In b.c. 219, the temple was destroyed
by the Aetolians, and the sacred oaks cut down.
But the town continued to exist, and we hear
¦ of a bishop of Dodona in the council of
Ephesus. [Diet, of Ant. art. Oraculum.] In
II. ii. 750 a Thessalian Dodona is mentioned.
Dolabella, Cornelius. 1. P., consul b.c. 283,
conquered the Senones (Eutrop. ii. 6 ; Appian,
Gall. 11). — 2. Cn., curule aedile 165, in wMch
year he and his colleague, Sex. Julius Caesar,
had the Hecyra of Terence performed at the
festival of the Megalesia. In 159 he was consul
(Liv. xl. 42, xii. 5).— 3. Cn., a partisan of Sulla,
Toy whom he was made consul, 81. He after
wards received Macedonia for his province. In
77 he was accused by the young Julius Caesar

DOLOPES
of having been guilty of extortion in his pro
vince, but he was acquitted. (Plut. Sull. 28;
Appian, B. C. i. 100 ; Suet. Jul. 49, 55.)— 4. Cn.,
praetor urbanus 81, when the cause of P.
Quintius was tried; Cicero charges him with
having acted on that occasion unjustly. The
year after he had Cilicia for Ms province; C.
Malleolus was Ms quaestor, and the notorious
Verres his legate. Dolabella not only tolerated
the extortions and robberies committed by them,
but shared in their booty. On his return to
Rome, DolabeUa was accused by M. Aemilius
Scaurus of extortion in his province, and on that
occasion Verres deserted his accomplice and
furnished the accuser with all the necessary
information. Dolabella was condemned, and
went into exile. (Cic. pro Quint. 2, 8 ; in Verr.
i. 4, 15, 17, 29.)— 5. P., the son-in-law of Cicero,
whose daughter, Tullia, he married after di
vorcing his wife, Fabia, 51. He was one of the
most profligate men of his age, and Ms conduct
caused Cicero great uneasiness. On the break
ing out of the Civil war he joined Caesar and
fought on Ms side at the battle of Pharsalia
(48), in Africa (46), and in Spam (45). Caesar
raised him to the consulship in 44, notwith
standing the opposition of Antony. After the
murder of Caesar, he forthwith joined the
assassins of his benefactor ; but when Antony
gave him the province of Syria, with the com
mand against the Parthians, aU his republican
enthusiasm disappeared at once. On his way
to his province he plundered the cities of Greece
and Asia Minor, and at Smyrna he murdered
Trebonius, who had been appointed by the
senate proconsul of Asia. When his proceed
ings became known at Rome, he was declared a
public enemy ; and Cassius, who had received
Syria from the senate, marched against him.
Dolabella threw himself into Laodicea, wMch
was besieged by Cassius, who at length suc
ceeded in taking it. Dolabella, in order not
to fall into the hands of Ms enemies, ordered
one of his soldiers to kiU him, 43. (Index to
Cicero ; Dio Cass. xii. 40, xiii. 29, xliu. 51, xliv.
22, xlvii. 29 ; Appian, B. C. iii. 3, 7-26.)
Doliche (AoXlxn). 1. The ancient name of
the island Icarus. — 2. A town in Thessaly on
the W. slope of Olympus (Pol. xxviii. 11 ; Liv.
xiii. 53). — 3. A town in Commagene, between
Zeugma and Germanicia, also called Dolichene,
celebrated for the worship of Jupiter Do-
lichenus, wMch seems to have been brought to
Rome by Syrian artisans in the second century
a.d. (C.I.L. iii. 1201, ix. 948).— 4. Or Dulichium.
[ECHTNADES.] Dolichiste (AoXixio-rri : Kakava), an island
off the coast of Lycia, opposite the promontory
Chimaera (Ptol. v. 8).
Doliones (AoXioves), a Pelasgic people in My
sia, who dwelt between the rivers Aesepus and
Rhyndacus, near Cyzicus, which was caUed
after them Dolionis (Strab. p. 575).
Dolon (AbXav), a Trojan, sent by mght tp spy
the Grecian camp, was taken prisoner by
Odysseus and Diomedes, compeUed to give intel
ligence respecting the Trojans, and then slain
by Diomedes. The tenth book of the Hiad was
therefore called AoXdveia or AoXavofpovia.
Dolonci (AbXoymi), a Thracian people in the
Thracian Chersonesus.
Dol opes (Ad'A.oires), a powerful people in
Thessaly, dwelt on the Enipeus, and fought be
fore Troy (Hom. II. ix. 484). At a later time
they dwelt at the foot of Mt. Pindus ; and their
country, called Dolopia ( AoXoiria), was reckoned
part of Epirus. [Thessalia.]

DOMITIA
Domitia. 1. Sister of Cn. Domitius Aheno
barbus [Ahenobarbus, No. 10], and conse
quently an aunt of the emperor Nero. She was
the wife of Crispus Passienus, and was mur
dered in her old age by Nero, who wished to get
possession of her property. — 2. Lepida, sister of
the preceding, wife of M. Valerius Messala
Barbatus, and mother of Messalina, was put to
death by Claudius at the instigation of Agrip
pina. — 3. Longina, daughter of Domitius Cor
bulo was first married to L. Lamia Aemilianus,
and afterwards to the emperor Domitian. In
consequence of her adulterous intercourse with
Paris, an actor, Domitian repudiated her, but
was afterwards reconciled to her. She was
privy to Domitian's murder.
Domitia Gens, plebeian, was divided into the
two illustrious families of Ahenobarbus and
Calvinus. Domitianus, or with Ms f uU name, T. Fla vius
Domitianiis Augustus, Roman emperor a.d.
81-96, was the younger son of Vespasian and was
born at Rome, a.d. 51. When Vespasian was
proclaimed emperor by the legions in the E.
(69), Domitian, who was then at Rome, narrowly
escaped being murdered by Vitellius, and con
cealed himself until the victory of his father's
party was decided. After the fall of ViteUius,
Domitian was proclaimed Caesar, and obtained
the government of the city till the return of his
father. In tMs short time he gave full proofs of
Ms sanguinary and licentious temper. Vespa
sian entrusted Domitian with no pubUc affairs,
and during the ten years of Ms reign (69-79),
he Uved as a private person on an estate near
the Alban Mount, surrounded by a number
of courtesans, and devoting a great part of his
time to the composition of poetry and the reci
tation of Ms productions. During the reign of
Ms brother Titus (79-81), he was also not
allowed to take any part in public affairs. On
the death of Titus (81), which was in all pro-
babUity the work of Domitian, he was pro
claimed emperor by the soldiers. During the
first few years of Ms reign he kept a strict
superintendence over the governors of pro
vinces, enacted several useful laws, endeavoured
to correct the licentious conduct of the higher
classes ; and though he indulged his own pas
sions, his government was much better than
had been expected. But Ms conduct was soon
changed for the worse. His wars were mostly
unfortunate; and his want of success both
wounded Ms vanity and excited his fears, and
thus led him to deUght in the misfortunes
and sufferings of others. In 83 he undertook
an expedition against the Chatti, wMch was
attended with no result, though on his return to
Rome in the following year, he celebrated a
triumph, and assumed the name of Germamcus.
In 85 Agricola, whose success and merits ex
cited his jealousy, was recalled to Rome.
[Agricola.] From 86 to 90 he had to carry on
war with Decebalus and the Dacians, who de
feated the Roman armies, and at length com
pelled Domitian to purchase peace on very
humiliating terms. [Decebalus.] It was after
the Dacian war especiaUy that he gave full sway
to his cruelty and tyranny. No man of distinc
tion was safe unless he would degrade himself
to flatter the tyrant. The silent fear which
prevailed in Rome and Italy during the latter
years of Domitian's reign are briefly but
forcibly described by Tacitus in the mtroduc-
tion to his Life of Agricola, and Ms vices and
tyranny are exposed in the strongest colours by
the withering satire of Juvenal. AU the pMlo-

DONATUS

801

sophers who lived at Rome were expelled.
Christian writers attribute to him a persecution
of the Christians likewise, but there is some
doubt upon the matter ; and the belief seems to
have arisen from the strictness with which he
exacted the tribute from the Jews, and which may
have caused much suffering to the CMistians also.
Many conspiracies had been formed against his-
life, and at length three officers of his court,
assisted by Domitia, the emperor's wife, had him

Domitian, Roman Emperor, a.d. 81-f)6.
Obv., head of Domitian, IMP. CAES. DOMIT. AVG.
GERM. P. M. T. POTEST. XIII. ; rev., figure of Mi
nerva, -with legend IMP. XXII. COS. XVII. CENS. PPP.
(i.e. Perpetuus).
murdered by Stephanus, a freedman, on the 18th
of September, 96. (Tac. Hist, iii., iv., Agric.
39-45 ; Suet. Dom. ; Dio Cass, lvi., lvii. ;
Juvenal.) Domitilla, Flavia. 1. The first wife of Ves
pasian, and mother of Titus, Domitian, and
Domitilla. — 2. Daughter of Vespasian, married
to her cousin Flavius Clemens, and condemned
with Mm on a charge of ' atheism ' and ' Juda-
ising ' — that is, Christianity (Suet. Dom. 18 ;
Dio Cass, lxvii. 14). Her tomb exists in the
catacombs at Rome — ' Coemiterium Domitillae.''
[See Diet, of Christ. Biogr. art Domitilla.]
Domitius Afer. [Afer.]
Domitius Corbulo. [Corbulo.]
Domitius Marsus. [Marsus.]
Domitius TJlpianus. [Ulpianus.]
Domna, Julia, of Emesa, was born of humble-
parents, and married the emperor Septimius
Severus, when he was in a private station. She
was beautiful and profligate, but at the same
time gifted with strong powers of mind, and
fond of literature and of the society of literary
men. She had great influence over her hus
band, and after his death was entrusted by her
son Caracalla with the administration of the
most important affairs of state. After the
murder of CaracaUa, she was at firBt kindly
treated by Macrinus ; but having incurred the
suspicions of Macrinus, and being commanded
to quit Antioch, she put an end to her own life
by voluntary starvation, a.d. 217. (Vit. Sept.
Sever., Caracall., and Macrin. ; Dio Cass.
lxxiv. 8, lxxv. 15, lxxvii. 2-18, lxxviii. 23.)
Dona tus, Aelius. 1. A celebrated gram
marian, who taught at Rome in the middle of
the fourth century, and was the preceptor of
Saint Jerome. His most famous work is a
system of Latin Grammar, which has formed
the groundwork of most elementary treatises
upon the same subject, from Ms own time to
the present day. It has been usually published
in the form of two separate tracts : 1. Ars s.
Editio Prima, de Uteris, syliabis, pedibus, et
tonis; 2. Editio Secunda, de octo partibus
orationis ; to which are commonly annexed
De barbarismo, De soloecismo, De ceteris
vitiis ; De metaplasmo ; De schematibus ;
De tropis; but in the edition of Lindemann
(in Corpus Gramm. Latin. Lips. 1831) these
are all combined under one general title, Donati
Ars Grammatica tribus libris comprehensa.
We also possess introductions (enarrationes)
and scholia, by Donatus, to five out of the six

:302

DONUSA

plays of Terence, those to the Heautontimoru-
rnenos having been lost. Ed. by Reifferscheid,
1860. Donatus was also the author of a com
mentary on the Georgics and Aeneid, often
quoted by Servius, but with no approbation.
The preface and introduction are extant (ed. E.
Wb'lfiiin). [The Life of Virgil prefixed to the
¦commentary of Donatus was chiefly derived
from Suetonius, De Vir. illustr., whose materials
-were furnished by Asconius, L. Varius, and
Melissus. It is of great value, though it has
many mediaeval interpolations.] — 2. Tiberius
Claudius Donatus, towards the end of the
fourth century was the author of a commentary
¦on the Aeneid which survives, but is of small
value. Ed. by Reifferscheid, 1860.
Donusa or Donusia (Aovov<ria : Aovovcios :
Stenosa), one of the smaller Sporades in the
Aegaean sea, S. of Naxos, subject to the
Rhodians in early times. It produced green
marble, whence Virgil (Aen. iii. 125) calls the
island viridis. Under the emperors it was used
as a place of banishment (Tac. Ann. iv. 30).
Dora, Dorus, Dorum (rd Aapa, Aapos : Aai-
pirris), caUed Dor in the O. T., the most
-southerly town of Phoenicia on the coast, on a
kind of peninsula at the foot of Mt. Carmel.
Under the Seleucidae it was a strong fortress,
and was included in Coele-Syria. It subse
quently fell into decay, but was restored and
again made a fortified place by the Roman
general Gabimus. (Jos. Ant. xiv. 4, 4.)
Dorieus (Aapie-bs). 1. Eldest son of Anaxan-
drides, king of Sparta, by Ms first wife, was,
however, born after the son of the second mar
riage, Cleomenes, and therefore excluded from
the immediate succession. [Anaxandrides.]
On the accession of Cleomenes to the throne,
Dorieus left Sparta to establish for Mmself a
Mngdom elsewhere. He led his colony first to
Libya ; but, driven away thence, he passed over
to Eryx in Sicily, where he fell in a battle with
the Egestaeans and Carthaginians, about B.C.
£08. (Hdt. v. 41-66; Diod. iv. 23; Paus. iii.
16, 4.)— 2. Son of Diagoras of Rhodes [Dia-
goras], was celebrated for Ms victories in all
the great Grecian games. He settled in Thurii,
and from this place, after the defeat of the
Athenians at Syracuse, he led thirty gaUeys to
the aid of the Spartan cause in Greece, B.C. 412.
He continued to take an active part in the war
till 407, when he was captured by the Athenians ;
but the people, in admiration of his size and
beauty, dismissed Mm without a ransom. He
is said at a later time to have been put to death
by the Spartans. (Thuc. viii. 85, 44; Xen.
Hell. i. \5.)
Dorimachus (Aopipaxos), a native of Tri-
ohonium in Aetolia, led a band of freebooters
to plunder Messenia in B.C. 221, and fought
against that country during the two foUowing
years. In 220 he was chosen general of the
Aetolians, and in an invasion of Epirus de
stroyed the temple of Dodona. In 211 he made
a treaty with the Romans against Philip. (Pol.
iv. 3-19, v. 1-17, ix. 42, xviii. 37 ; Liv. xxvi. 24.)
Doris (Aapls). 1. Daughter of Oceanus and
Thetis, wife of her brother Nereus, and mother
of the Nereides. The Latin poets sometimes
use the name of this divinity for the sea itself.
(Verg. Eclog. x. 5.) — 2. One of the Nereides,
¦daughter of the preceding.
Doris (Aapis). 1. A small and mountainous
country in Greece, formerly called Dryopis
(Apvoiris), was bounded by Thessaly on the N.,
by Aetolia on the W., by Locris on the S., and
by Phocis on the E. It contained four towns

DORSO
— Boum, Citinium, Erineus, and Pindus — wMch
formed the Dorian tetrapolis. These towns
never attained any consequence, and in the
time of the Romans were in ruins; but the
country is of importance as the home of the
Dorians (Acupieis: Dores), one of the great
Hellenic races, who claimed descent from the
mythical Dorus. [Dorus.] The Dorians, how
ever, had not always dwelt in this land. Hero
dotus relates (i. 56), that they first inhabited
Phthiotis in the time of Deucalion ; that next,
under Dorus, they inhabited Histiaeotis at the
foot of Ossa and Olympus ; that, expeUed from
thence by the Cadmeans, they settled on Mt.
Pmdus ; and that they subsequently took up
their abode in Dryopis, afterwards called Doris.
Their fifth and last migration was to Pelopon
nesus, wMch they conquered, according to
tradition, eighty years after the Trojan war.
It was related that Aegimius, the king of the
Dorians, had been driven from his dominions
by the Lapithae, but was reinstated by Hera
cles ; that the cMldren of Heracles hence took
refuge in this land when they had been ex
pelled from Peloponnesus ; and that it was to
restore them to their rights that the Dorians
invaded Peloponnesus. Accordingly, the con
quest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians is usuaUy
called the Return of the Heraclidae, under
which story probably lies the fact that the
Dorians were aided by the Aetohans in the
conquest of Peloponnesus. [See Heraclidae.]
— The Dorians were divided into ttiree tribes :
the Hylleis ('TXXe7s), Pamphyli (TldptpvXoi),
and Dymanes (Avpdves). The first derived
their name traditionally from HyUus, son of
Heracles ; the last two, from Pamphylus and
Dymas, sons of Aegimius. It is probable that
the name Pamphyli denoted a tribe made up
of a number of scattered elements [Diet, of
Ant. art. Tribus], The Dorians were the
ruling class throughout Peloponnesus ; the old
inhabitants were reduced to slavery, or became
subjects of the Dorians under the name of
Perioeci (TleploiKoi). (Diet, of Antiq. art.
Perioeci.) — 2. A district in Asia Minor consist
ing of the Dorian settlements on the coast of
Caria and the neighbouring islands. Six of
these towns formed a league, called the Dorian
hexapolis, consisting of Lindus, Ialysus, and
Camirus in the island of Rhodes, the island
Cos, and Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the
mainland. There were also other Dorian
settlements in the neighbourhood, but they
were never admitted to the league. The mem
bers of the hexapolis were accustomed to cele
brate a festival with games on the Triopian
promontory near Cnidus, in honour of the
Triopian Apollo ; the prizes in those games
were brazen tripods, which the victors had to
dedicate in the temple of Apollo ; and Halicar
nassus was struck out of the league, because
one of her citizens carried the tripod to his house
instead of leaving it in the temple. The hexa
polis thus became a pentapolis. (Hdt. i. 144.)
Doriscus (AopiV/cos), a town in Thrace at the
mouth of the Hebrus, in the midst of an ex
tensive plain of the same name, where Xerxes
reviewed his vast forces (Hdt. v. 98).
Dorso, C. Fabius, greatly distinguished Mm
self when the Capitol was besieged by the
Gauls, B.c. 890. The Fabian gens was accus
tomed to celebrate a sacrifice at a fixed time
on the Quirinal hill, and accordingly, at the
appointed time, C. Dorso, who was then a
young man, descended from the Capitol, carry
ing the sacred things in Ms hands, passed in

DORUS
•safety through the enemy's posts, and, after
performing the sacrifice, returned in safety to
the Capitol. (Liv. v. 46, 52 ; Val. Max. i. 1, 11.)
Dorus (Aapos), the mytMcal ancestor of the
Dorians, is described either as a son of Hellen
and the nymph Orseis, and a brother of Xuthus
rand Aeolus, or as a son of Apollo and Phthia,
-and a brother of Laodocus and Polypoetes
{Hdt. i. 56 ; Diod. iv. 87, 58 ; Apollod. i. 7).
Dorylaeum (AopiiXaiov : AopvXaevs : Eski-
Shehr), a town in Phrygia Epictetus, on the
river Thymbris, with warm baths wMch are
used at the present day ; important under the
Romans as the place from which the roads
¦diverged to Pessinus, Iconium, and Apamea
(Strab. j). 576; Athen. t>. 48).
Dosiadas ( Aw<rid5as), of Rhodes, the author
of two poems in the Greek Anthology, the
verses of which are so arranged that each poem
presents the profile of an altar.
Dositheus (Aao-iBeosi. surnamed Magister, a
¦Greek grammarian, taught at Rome about
A.D. 207. He has left behind him a work
-entitled 'EpprjvevpaTa, of which the first and
-second books contain a Greek grammar written
in Latin, and Greek-Latin and Latin-Greek
glossaries. The third book, wMch is the most
important, contains translations from Latin
authors mto Greek, and vice versd, and has
been published by Bockmg, Bonn, 1882.
Dossennus Fabius, or Dorsennns, an an
cient Latin comic dramatist, censured by
Horace (Ep. ii. 1. 173) on account of the exag
gerated buffoonery of his characters. It
appears that the name Dossennus (like that of
Macchus) was appropriated to one of the
standard characters in the Atellane farces.
Hence some have supposed that Dossennus in
Horace is not the name of a real person.
Dotlum (Adriov : Aarievs), a town and plain
in Thessaly S. of Mt. Ossa, on the lake Bobeis
(Strab. pp. 61, 442).
Drabescus (ApdBrio-Kos, also ApdBio-Kos), a
town in Edonis in Macedoma, on the Strymon
(Thuc. i. 103, iv. 102 ; Strab. p. 331).
Dracanon (Apdxavov), a town and promon
tory m the island Icaria.
Draco (ApdKav), the author of the first
written code of laws at Athens, which were
caUed Beffpoi, as distingmshed from the vbpoi
of Solon — that is to say, he adopted the custo
mary penalties wMch had usuaUy been in
flicted by archons, and stereotyped them by
committing them to writing ; hence the severity
belonged to the times rather than to the man.
In this code he affixed the penalty of death to
almost aU crimes — to petty thefts, for instance,
as weU as to sacrilege and murder — which gave
occasion to the remark that Ms laws were written
not in ink, but in blood (Demades ap. Plut. Sol.
17). We are told that he himself defended this
extreme harshness by saying that small offences
¦deserved death, and that he knew no severer
punishment for great ones. His legislation is
placed in B.C. 621. After the legislation of
Solon (594), most of the laws of Draco fell into
disuse ; but some of them were still in force at
the end of the Peloponnesian war, as for
instance the law which permitted the injured
husband to slay the adulterer, if taken in the
act. (Paus. ix. 36, 4 ; Dem. c. Aristocr. p. 637,
§ 54.) In fact the laws of Draco on homicide
generaUy seem to have been incorporated in
the subsequent legislation (see Diet, of Ajit.
art. Phonos). But a much greater importance
than that of a mere codifier of criminal law is
assigned to Draco in Aristotle's recently dis-

DREPANUM

303

covered 'ABrivaiav iroXirela, where we are told
that Draco was a political reformer and the
author of much of the constitution hitherto
ascribed to Solon : especially that he created
the senate of 400, established a property quali
fication, and gave a more definite shape to the
Ecclesia. If this passage is both genuine and
authentic there is some difficulty in reconcihng
it with Aristotle's statements in the Politics
that Draco did not meddle with the constitu
tion. It may be that the germs of these
political institutions already existed and were
more clearly defined by Draco. (Aristot. Pol.
ii. 12, 13 = p. 1274; Bhet. ii. 25; 'A9. iroA.. 4;
Paus. ix. 86 ; Plut. Sol. 17 ; Gell. xi. 18.)
Dracontius, Blossius Aemilius, a Christian
poet of Carthage : wrote in the fifth century
a.d. (1) De Laudibus Dei in three books ; (2) a
collection of short mythological epics; (3) an
elegiac poem called Satisfactio, an apology to
the Vandal king Gunthamund (a.d. 484-496)
for having praised one of his enemies. His
verses are framed on classical models, but are
often too rhetorical. It is thought that the
Orestis tragoedia, written in similar style,
iB also the work of Dracontius. (This is edited
by Miihly, Lips. 1866.) Ed. by Bahrens, Poet.
Lat. Min. ; by Von Duhm, 1873.
Drangiana (Apayyiavi) : Sedjestdn), a part
of Ariana, was bounded by Gedrosia, Carmania,
Arachosia, and Aria. It sometimes formed a
separate satrapy, but was more usually united
to the satrapies either of Arachosia or of
Gedrosia, or of Aria. The chief product of the
country was tin : the chief river was the
Erymanthus or Erymandrus (Hilmend or
Hindmend). In the N. of the country dwelt the
Drangae (Apdyyai), a warlike people,from whom
the province derived its name : their capital
was Prophthasia. The Zarangae, Sarangae, or
Darandae, who are also mentioned as inhabit
ants of the country, are probably only other
forms of the name Drangae. The Ariaspae
inhabited the S. part. [Ariaspae.]
Draudacum (Dardasso), a fortress of the
Penestae in Greek IUyria (Liv. xliii. 19).
Dravus (Drave), a tributary of the Danube,
rises in the Noric Alps near Aguntum, flows
ttrrough Noricum and Pannonia; and, after
receiving the Murius (Muhr), falls into the
Danube E. of Mursa (Esseck) (Strab. p. 814;
Plin. Hi. 139).
Drecanum (ApeKavov) a promontory on the
W.'side of the island Cos.
Drepanius, Latinus Facatus, a friend of
Ausonius, and a correspondent of Symmachus,
delivered a panegyric on the emperor Theo
dosius, A.D. 891, after the victory of the latter
over Maximus. It is the eleventh in the col
lection of the Panegyrici Veteres.
Drepanum (Apeiravov : Apeiravevs), that is, a
sickle. 1. Also Drepana (rd Apeirava), more
rarely Drepane (Trapani), a seaport town in
the NW. corner of Sicily, so called because the
land on wMch it was built was in the form of a
sickle. It was founded by the Carthaginian
Hamilcar, at the commencement of the first
Punic war, and was one of the chief naval
stations of the Carthaginians ; it was the
attempt of Hanno to effect its relief that
brought on the battle of Aegates Insulae (Pol.
i. 41-51 ; Liv. xxviii. 41). Under the Romans
it was an important commercial town. It was
here that Anchises died, according to Virgil.
(Cic. Verr. iv. 17 ; Ptol. iii. 4 ; Verg. Aen. iii.
707, v. 24 ; Dionys. i. 52.)— 2. A promontory in
Achaia. [Rhium.] — 3. The ancient name of

804

DREPSA

Corcyra. — 4. Also Drepane, a town in Bithynia,
on the Sinus Astacenus, the birthplace of
Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, in
whose honour it was caUed Helenopolis, and
made an important place. In its neighbourhood
were medicinal baths, which Constantine the
Great frequently used in the latter part of his life.
Drepsa (Ape'uVa, also "ASpatpa, Adpatya,
Apd\paxa : Anderab or Inderab), a town in the
NE. of Bactriana, on the frontiers of Sogdiana.
Drilae (ApiXai), a brave people in Pontus,
near Trapezus (Xen. Anab. v. 2, 14).
Drilon, a river in IUyricum, flows into the
Adriatic near Lissus (Strab. p. 316).
Dromiohaetes (Apopixairris), king of the Ge-
tae, took Lysimachus prisoner. [Lysimachus.]
Dromos Achilleus. [Achilleus Dromos.]
Druentia (Durance), a large and rapid river
in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in the Alps, and
flows into the Rhone near Avenio (Avignon).
Druna (Drome), a river in Gallia Narbonen
sis, rises in the Alps at M. Genevre, near
Briancon, and flows into the Rhone S. of
Valencia (Valence) (Liv. xxi. 31 ; Strab. p. 203 ;
SU. It. iii. 478).
Drusilla. 1. Livia, mother of the emperor
Tiberius and wife of Augustus. [Livia.] — 2.
Daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina, mar
ried first to L. Cassius Longinus, and after
wards to M. Aemilius Lepidus ; but she lived
in incestuous intercourse with her brother
Caligula, whose passion for her exceeded all
bounds. On her death, in a.d. 38, he com
manded that she should be worshipped, by the
name Panthea, with the same honours as
Venus. (Tac. Ann. vi. 15 ; Suet. Gal. 24 ; Dio
Cass. lix. 11.) — 3. Daughter of Herodes Agrippa
I., king of the Jews, married first Azizus, king
of Emesa, whom she divorced, and secondly
Felix, the procurator of Judea. She was pre
sent when St. Paul preached before Felix in
a.d. 60 (Jos. Ant. xix. 7). Tacitus (Hist. v. 9)
speaks of Drusilla the wife of Felix as being
grand-daughter of Antony and Cleopatra, pro
bably daughter of Julia. Some reconcile this
with Josephus by supposing two Drusillas wives
of Felix (cf. Suet. Claud. 28).
Drusus, the name of a distinguished family
of the Livia gens. It is said that one of the
Livii acquired the cognomen Drusus for Mm
self and his descendants by having slain in
close combat one Drausus, a Gallic chieftain
(Suet. Tib. 3). — 1. M. Livius Drusus, tribune
of the plebs with C. Gracchus, B.C. 122. He
was a staunch adherent of the aristocracy, and
after putting Ms veto upon the laws proposed by
Gracchus, he brought forward almost the very
same measures, in order to gain popularity for
the optimates. He proposed to release from
rent those who received land under the law of
Gracchus ; to declare their allotments inalien
able, and to plant twelve colonies. These
laws were passed, and the people did not re
elect Gracchus as tribune. The success of his
measures earned for him the designation
patronus senatus. Drusus was consul 112,
obtained Macedonia as his province, and con
quered the Scordisci. (Appian, B.C.i. 28 ; Plut.
O. Gracch. 8-11 ; Liv. Ep. 63.)— 2. M. Livius
Drusus, son of No. 1, an eloquent orator, and a
man of great energy and ability. He was
tribune of the plebs, 91, in the consulship of L.
Marcius PhUippus and Sex. Julius Caesar.
Although, like his father, he belonged to the
aristocratical party, he meditated the most
extensive and organic changes in the Roman
state. To relieve the people and to reform the

DRUSUS
constitution he proposed to increase the
largesses of corn, to reserve all the undistri
buted land in Italy and Sicily for colomes of
citizens, to take away the office of jurymen
from the equestrian order, and lastly he pledged
himself to give the Roman franchise to the
Italian allies. Neither the senate nor the-
equites were satisfied with the judicial
reform, though he tried to content the latter
by proposing that 300 equites should be added
to the senate. The Roman populace also were
opposed to the Roman franchise being given to-
the Latins and the Socii, which measure,
though not yet formally proposed by Drusus,
was known to be intended. The senate per
ceiving the dissatisfaction of aU parties, voted
that all the laws of Drusus, bemg carried
against the auspices, were null and void
from the beginning. Shortly after, as Drusus
was entering the hall of Ms own house, he
was stabbed, and died a few hours afterwards..
The assassin was never discovered, and no
attempts were made to discover him. Caepio-
and Philippus were both suspected of having
suborned the crime ; but Cicero attributes it to
Q. Varius. The death of Drusus destroyed
the hopes of the Socii, and was thus immedi
ately followed by the Social war, wMch his
policy would have averted. (Appian, B. G. i. 35 ;
Cic. de Or. i. 25 ; Liv. Ep. 71 ; Diod. xxxvii.
10.)— 3. Livius Drusus Claudianus, father of
Livia, who was the mother of the emperor
Tiberius. He was one of the gens Claudia, and
was adopted by a Livius Drusus. It was
through this adoption that the Drusi became
connected with the imperial family. The
father of Livia, after the death of Caesar,
espoused the cause of Brutus and Cassius, and,
after the battle of Philippi (42), being pro
scribed by the conquerors, he killed himself in
his tent.— 4. Claudius Drusus Nero, commonly
called by the moderns Drusus Senior, to
distinguish him from No. 5, was the son of Tib.
Claudius Nero and Livia, and younger brother
of the emperor Tiberius. He was born m the
house of Augustus three months after the
marriage of Livia and Augustus, 38. Drusus,
as he grew up, was more liked by the people
than was his brother. His manners were
affable, and his conduct without reproach. He
married Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir,
and his fidelity to his wife was a theme of
admiration in a profligate age. He was greatly
trusted by Augustus, who employed him in
important offices. He carried on the war
against the Germans, and penetrated far into
the interior of the country. In 15, in conjunc
tion with Tiberius, he defeated the Rhaeti and
Vindelici (Dio Cass. liv. 19-22 ; Hor. Od. iv. 4).
In 12 he drove the Sicambri and their allies
out of Gaul, crossed the Rhine, then foUowed
the course of the river down to the ocean, and
subdued the Frisians. It was apparently
during this campaign that Drusus dug a canal
(Fossa Drusiana) from the Rhine near Arn-
heim to the Yssel, near Doesberg : and he
made use of this canal to sail from the Rhine
into the ocean (Tac. Ann. xiii. 55, Hist. v.
19). In his second campaign (11), Drusus sub
dued the Usipetes, invaded the country of the-
Sicambri, and passed on through the territory
of the Cherusci as far as the Visurgis (Weser).
On Ms return he was attacked by the united.
forces of the Germans, and defeated them with
great slaughter. — In his tliird campaign (10),
he conquered the Chatti and other German
tribes, and then returned to Rome, where he

DRYADES
was made consul for the following year. — In
Ms fourth campaign (9), wMch he carried on as
consul, he advanced as far as the Albis (Elbe),
sweeping everything before him. It is said
that he had resolved to cross the Elbe, but was
deterred by the apparition of a woman of
dimensions greater than human, who said to
him in the Latin tongue, ' Whither goest thou,
insatiable Drusus 1 The Fates forbid thee to
advance. Away ! The end of thy deeds and
thy life is nigh ' (Dio Cass. Iv. 1 ; Suet. Claud.
1). On the return of the army to the Rhine,

Coin of Drusus Senior.

Drusus died in consequence of a fracture of Ms
leg, wMch happened tMough a faU from Ms
horse. Upon receiving tidings of the dangerous
UMess of Drusus, Tiberius immediately crossed
the Alps, and after travelling with extraordi
nary speed arrived m time to close the eyes of
Ms brother. Tiberius brought the body to
Italy : it was burnt in the field of Mars, and the
ashes deposited m the tomb of Augustus. (Liv.
Ep. 140 ; Val. Max. v. 5.) — 5. Drusus Caesar,
commonly called by modern writers Drnsus
Junior, was the son of the emperor Tiberius
by Ms first wife, Vipsama. He married Livia,
the sister of Germamcus. After the death of
Augustus, a.d. 14, he was sent into Pannoma to
queU the mutiny of the legions. In 15 he was
consul, and in 16 he was sent Mto Hlyricum :
he succeeded in fomenting dissension among
the Germamc tribes, and destroyed the power
of Maroboduus. In 21 he was consul a second
time; and m 22 he received the tribunicia
potestas, by wMch he was pointed out as the
mtended successor to the empire. But Sejanus,
the favourite of Tiberius, aspired to the empire.
He seduced Livia, the wife of Drusus, and
persuaded her to become the murderer of her
husband. A poison was administered to
Drusus, wMch ternunatedMslife by a lingering
disease, that was supposed at the time to be
the consequence of intemperance, a.d. 23. (Tac.
Ann. iv. 3-11; Suet. Tib. 62.)— 6. Drusus,
second son of Germamcus and Agrippina.
After the death of Drusus, the son of Tiberius
[No. 5], Drusus and Ms elder brother Nero
became the heirs to the imperial throne. Sejanus
therefore resolved to get rid of them both. He
first engaged Drusus in the plots against Ms
elder brother, wMch ended in the banishment
and death of that prince. [Nero.] The turn
of Drusus came next. He was accused in 30,
and condemned to death as an enemy of the
state. Tiberius kept Mm imprisoned for tMee
years, and then starved him to death, S3. (Tac.
Ann. vi. 23 ; Suet. Tib. 54.)
Dryades. [Nymphae.]
Dry as (Apias), father of the Thracian king
Lycurgus, who ishence called Dryantides.
Drymaea or Drymus (Apvpaia, Apvpbs : Apv-
pieis : Baba ?), a town in Phocis, a httle S. of j

DUILIUS 805
the Cephissus, was destroyed by Xerxes (Hdt.
vm. 83; Paus. x. 8; Liv. xxviii. 7).
Drymus (Apvpbs). 1. See Drymaea.— 2. In
Attica, on the frontiers of Boeotia.
Drymussa (ApuuoBo-o-a : Apu^ouo-o-oioj), an
island in the Hermaean gulf, off the coast of
Ioniaj opposite Clazomenae.
Dryope (Apvbirri), daughter of king Dryops,
and the playmate of the Hamadryades on Mt.
Oeta. She was beloved by Apollo, who, to gain
possession of her, metamorphosed himself into
a tortoise. Dryope took the creature into her
lap, whereupon the god changed himself into a
Berpent. The nymphs fled away in affright,
and thus Apollo remained alone with Dryope.
Soon after she married Andraemon, but became,
by Apollo, the mother of Amphissus. Dryope
was afterwards carried off by the Hamadryades,
and became a nymph. (Ant. Lib. 32 ; Ov. Met
ix. 331.)
Dryopes (AptidVes), a Pelasgic people, de
scended from a mytMcal ancestor Dryops, dwelt
first in Thessaly, from the Spercheus to Par
nassus, and afterwards in Doris, which was
originally called from them Dryopis (Apuoirij).
Driven out of Doris by the Dorians, they mi
grated to other countries, and settled at Her-
mione and Asine in Peloponnesus, at Styrus
and Carystus in Euboea, and in the island of
Cythnus, and in Ionia ; part also were esta
blished in Epirus, near Ambracia, in which
district the name Dryopis remained. (Hdt. viii.
43, 46, 73; Strab. p. 373; Paus. iv. 34, v. 1 ;
Dicaearch. v. SO.)
Dryops (Apiioi^), son of the river-god Sper
cheus and the Danaid Polydora, or of Lycaon
and Dia, the daughter of Lycaon, the mythical
ancestor of the Dryopes (Paus. iv. 84).
Dryos Cephalae (Apvbs KeipaXai), a narrow
pass of Mt. Cithaeron, between Athens and
Plataeae. Dubis (Doubs), a river in Gaul, rises m M.
Jurassus (Jura), flows past Vesontio (Besangon),
and falls into the Arar (Saone) near Cabillonum
(Chalons) (Strab. p. 186; Ptol. ii. 10).
Dubris Portus (Dover), a seaport town of the
Cantii, in Britain : here was a fortress erected
by the Romans against the Saxon pirates.
Ducas, Michael, a Byzantine historian, held
a high office under Constantine XIII., the last
emperor of Constantinople. After the capture
of Constantinople, a.d. 1453, he fled to Lesbos.
His Mstory extends from the death of John VI.
Palaeologus, 1355, to the capture of Lesbos by
the Turks, 1462. The best edition is by Bekker,
Bonn, 1834.
Ducetius (AovKerios), a chief of the Sicels,
the native tribes in the interior of SicUy, en
larged and fortified Ms native town Menaenum,
and afterwards founded a new city, Palice, in
the plain below, near the sanctuary of the
Palici. He carried on a formidable war in the
middle of the fifth century B.C. against the
Greeks in the island ; but havmg been at last
defeated in a great battle by the Syracusans,
he repaired to Syracuse as a suppliant, and
placed himself at their mercy. The Syracusans
spared Ms life, but sent Mm mto an honourable
exile at Corinth. He returned soon afterwards
to Sicily, and founded the city of Calacte. He
died about B.C. 440. (Diod. xi. 76-92, xii. 8, 29.)
Duilius. 1. M., tribune of the plebs B.C. 471.
He was one of the chief leaders of the plebeians,
and it was on his advice that the plebeians mi
grated from the Aventine to the Mons Sacer,
just before the overthrow of the decemvirs.
He was then elected tribune of the plebs a

806

DUILIUS

second time, 449. (Liv. ii. 58, 61, iii. 52-64;
Diod. xi. 68 ; Dionys. xi. 46.)— 2. K, one of the
decemvirs, 450, on whose overthrow he went
into voluntary exile (Liv. iii. 58.) — 3. C, con
sul 260, with Cn. Cornehus Scipio Asma, in the
first Punic War. In tMs year the Romans
built their first fleet, using for their model a
Carthaginian vessel which had been thrown on
the coast of Italy. The command of this fleet
was given to Scipio, who was defeated by
the Carthaginians off Lipara. Thereupon
DMlius was entrusted with the command,
and as he perceived the disadvantages under
wMch the clumsy sMps of the Romans were
labouring, he devised the grappling irons by
means of which the enemy's ships might be
drawn towards his, and the sea-fight thus
changed mto a land-fight. By this means he
gained a brilliant victory over the Carthaginian
fleet near Mylae, and then prosecuted the war
in Sicily with success, relieving Egesta, and
taking Macella by assault. On his return to

Columna Rostrata of Duilius. (From a copy in Museum
of the Capitol.)
Rome, Duilius celebrated a splendid triumph,
for it was the first naval victory that the Ro
mans had ever gained, and the memory of it
was perpetuated by a column which was erected
in the forum, and adorned with the beaks of the
conquered ships (Columna Bostrata). This
column was dug out of the ground m the 16th
century, but the inscription upon it is not of
the time of Duilius. It has affected archaisms
side by side with later forms, and must be as
signed to the 1st century a.d. It is probable
that the column had no inscription, or a very
brief one, and that the extant words were
placed on it when it was restored by Claudius
(C. I. L. i. p. 40). DuUius was further re
warded for this victory by being permitted,
whenever he returned home from a banquet at
night, to be accompanied by a torch and a
flute-player. (Pol. i. 22 ff. ; Diod. xvii. 44 ;
Front. Strateg. iii. 2; Sil. It. vi. 667; Cic.de
Senect. 18.)

DYARDANES
Dulgibini, a people in Germany, dwelt SE
of the Angrivarii, on the W. bank of the Weser,
Dulichium. [TSchinades.]
Dumnorix, a chieftam of the Aedui, con
spired against the Romans, b.c. 58, but was
pardoned by Caesar in consequence of the en
treaties of his brother, Divitiacus. When
Caesar was going to Britain in 54, he suspected
Dumnorix too much to leave him behind m Gaul,
and he insisted upon Ms accompanying him.
Dumnorix fled from the Roman camp with the
Aeduan cavalry, but was overtaken and slain.
(Caes. B. G. i. 3-20, v. 6 ; Dio Cass, xxxviii. 31.)
Dunium. [Durotriges.]
Dura (rd Aovpa: Aovprjvbs). 1. A town In
Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, not far from
Circesium, founded by the Macedonians, and
hence surnamed Nicanoris; also caUed Europus
(Evpairbs) by the Greeks. In the time of Julian
it was deserted (Zos. iii. 14). — 2. (Dor), a town
in Assyria, on the Tigris (Pol. v. 52).
D fir anius (Dordogne), a river in Aquitania,
falling into the Garumna (Auson. Mosell. 464).
Duria. 1. (Dora Baited), a river wMch
rises on the S. side of Mt. Blanc, with an af
fluent which rises in the Little St. Bernard,
flows through the country of the Salassi, past
Augusta Praetoria (Aosta), bringing gold dust
with it, and falls mto thePo (Strab. pp. 203, 205).
Strabo is probably correct about the gold, since
mines have been worked in recent times high
above the glacier which forms the principal
source of this river ; but on p. 203, in speaking
of its origin, he confounds it with the other
river of the same name. — 2. (Dora Susa) rises
on the Italian side of Mt. Genevre, flows past
Segusio (Susa), and joms the Po at Augusta
Taurinorum (Turin).
Duris (AoSpis), of Samos, the Mstorian, was
a descendant of Alcibiades, and Uved in the
reign of Ptolemy PhUadelphus (Plut. Ale. 32).
He obtained the tyranny of Ms native island.
He wrote a considerable number of works,
the most important bemg a history of Greece,
from B.C. 870 to 281. He does not appear to
have enjoyed reputation as an Mstorian (Paus.
vi. 13 ; Cic. ad Att. vi. 1 ; Plut. Pericl. 28). His
fragments have been coUected by HuUeman,
Duridis Samii quae swpersunt, Traject. ad
Rhen. 1841.
Durius (Aovpios, Adpios : Duero, Douro), one
of the cMef rivers of Spain, rises among the
Pelendones, at the foot of M. Idubeda near
Numantia, and flows into the Atlantic ; it was
auriferous, and is navigable a long way from
its mouth (Strab. p. 153).
Durno varia, in Britain, probably Dorchester.
Durobrivae (Bochester), a town of the Cantii
in Britain.
Durocasis (Dreux), a town of the Carnutes
in Gallia Lugdunensis.
Durocatalauni. [Catalauni.]
Durocorno vium, in Britam, probably Ciren
cester. Durocortorum (Bheims), the capital of the
Remi in Gallia Belgica, subsequently called
Remi (Caes. B. G. vi. 44).
Duronia, a town in Samnium in Italy, W. of
the Caudine passes (Liv. x. 89).
Durotriges, a people in Britain, in Dorset
shire and the west of Somersetshire.
Durovernum or Darvernum (Canterbury), a
town of the Cantii in Britain, afterwards called
Cantuaria. Dyardanes or Oedanes (Brahmaputra), a
river in India, falls into the Ganges on the E.
side (Curt. viii. 9, 9).

DYMAS
Dymas (Aipas). 1. A PMygian king in the
district of the Sangarius, father of Asius and
Hecuba (H. xvi. 717 ; Ov. Met. xi. 761).— 2.
Son of Aegimius, from whom the Dymanes,
one of the tMee tribes of the Dorians, were
believed to have derived their name (Paus. vii.
17 ; Dores).
Dyme or Dymae (Aipri, Avpai : Avpatos, Dy-
maeus ; nr. Karavostasi, Ru.), a town in the
W. of Achaia, near the coast ; one of the twelve
Achaean towns (Hdt. i. 145 ; Pol. ii. 41) ; it
founded, along with Patrae, the second Achaean
League, and was at a later tune colonised by
the Romans, at first as a separate colony, but
afterwards subordmate to Patrae (PUn. iv. 18 ;
Strab. p. 665 ; Paus. vii. 17, 3).
Dyras (Aipas), a smaU river m Phthiotis in
Thessaly, falls into the Sinus Maliacus.
Dyrrhachium (Avppdxiov : Avppdxtos, Avppa-
yrivos, Dyrrachinus : Durazzo), formerly called
Epidamnus ^EirlSapvos : 'EirtSdpvios), a town
in Greek Illyria, on a peninsula m the Adriatic
sea. It was founded by the Corcyraeans, and
received the name Epidamnus (Thuc. i. 24). The
disputes regarding it between Corinth and Cor
cyra were one of the causes of the Peloponnesian
war. Plmy (in. 145) says that the Romans
changed the name as being iU-omened : but
DyrrhacMum was probably an old name of the
whole peninsula (Strab. p. 316). In 312 B.C. it
feU into the hands of Glaucias, Mng of Hlyria,
and was seized by the Hlyrian Monunius in
B.C. 280, but not long afterwards put itself
under the protection of Rome (Diod. xix. 70, 78 ;

Coin of Dyrrhachium.
Obv., cow suckling calf (as on coins of Corcyra) ; rer., ayp
(for &vppixto*>), and the so-called ' Gardens of Alcinous.'
liv. xxix. 12; Pol. ii. 11). Under the Romans
it became an important place ; it was the usual
place of landing for persons who crossed over
from Brundisium. Commerce and trade were
carried on here with great activity, whence it is
caned Taberna Adriae by Catullus (xxxvi. 15) ;
and here . commenced the great Egnatia Via,
leading to the East. In the CivU war it was
the head-quarters of Pompey, who kept aU his
nulitary stores here. The Romans at first
made it a free city (Appian, Hlyr. 8 ; Cic. ad
Fam. xiv. 1) ; and, when Augustus settled Ms
veterans in Italy, Dyrrhachium was one of the
towns in wMch he planted a colony of the dis
possessed Italians (Dio Cass. Ii. 4). Under the
later empire it became the capital of Epirus
Nova. Destroyed by an earthquake a.d. 345.
Dysaules (Avo-avXris), a deity or hero of
Agriculture (his name having reference to the
two ploughings of the year). In Orphic legends
he is father of Triptolemus and Eubulus.
.[Triptolemus.] Dysorum (to Ai5o-a>poc), a mountain in Mace
donia with gold mines, between Chalcidice and
Odomantice (Hdt. v. 17).
Dyspontium (AuottoVtioi/ : Avo-irbvrios : Pyr-
gos), a town of Pisatis M Elis, N. of the Alpheus,
was destroyed by the Eleans ; whereupon its
inhabitants removed to Epidamnus and Apol
lonia. (Strab. p. 357 ; Paus. vi. 22.)

ECHEDORUS

E.

307

Ebora. 1. Or Ebfira Cerealis, a small town
in Hispania Baetica, perhaps in the neighbour
hood of the modern Santa Cruz.— 2. Surnamed
Liberalitas Julia (Evora), a Roman muni
cipium in Lusitania (Ptol. ii. 5, 8). — 3. Or
Ebura (S. Lucar de Barrameda), a town in
Hispania Baetica, near the mouth of the
Baetis. Eboracum or Eburacum (York), a town of
the Brigantes in Britain, was made a Roman
station by Agricola, and soon became the chief
Roman settlement in the whole island. It was
both a municipium and a colony. It was the
head-quarters of the sixth legion, and the resi
dence of the Roman emperors when they
visited Britain. Here the emperors Septimius
Severus and Constantius CMorus died. Part
of the ancient Roman walls still exist at York ;
and many Roman remains have been found m
the modern city.
Eborolacum (Evreule on the river Sioule), a
town in Aquitania.
Ebrodfinum (Embrun), a town in Gallia
Narbonensis, m the CottianAlps (Strab. p. 179).
Ebudae or Hebudae (Hebrides), islands in
the Western Ocean off Britain. They were five
m number, according to Ptolemy, two caUed
Ebudae, Maleus, Epidium, and Ricina.
Eburomagus or Hebromagus (nr. Bram or
Villerazons), a town in Gallia Narbonensis.
Eburones, a German people, who crossed the
Rhine and settled in Gallia Belgica, between
the RMne and the Mosa (Maas) in a marshy
and woody district. They were dependents
(clientes) of the Treviri, and were in Caesar's
time under the rule of Ambiorix and Cativolcus.
Their insurrection against the Romans, b.c. 54,
was severely punished by Caesar, and from this
time they disappear from history. (Caes. B. G.
ii. 4, vi. 34.)
Eburovices. [Aulerci.]
Ebusus or Ebusus (Iviza), the largest of the
Pityusae Insulae, off the E. coast of Spam, reck
oned by some writers among the Baleares. It
was celebrated for its excellent figs. Its capital,
also called Ebusus, was a civitas foederata,
possessed an excellent harbour, and carried
on a considerable trade. (Strab. pp. 128, 159.)
Ecbatana (to 'EKBdrava, Ion. and Poet.
'AyBdrava : Hamadan), a great city, most
pleasantly situated, near the foot of Mt. Orontes,
in the N. of Great Media, was the capital of the
Median kingdom, and afterwards the summer
residence of the Persian and PartMan kings.
Herodotus ascribes its foundation to Deioces,
and Diodorus to Semiramis. It had a circuit of
240 stadia, and was surrounded by seven waUs,
each overtopping the one before it, and crowned
with battlements of different colours: these
walls no longer existed in the time of Polybius.
The citadel, of great strength, was used as the
royal treasury. Below it stood a magnificent
palace, the tiles of wMch were silver, and the
capitals, entablatures, and wainscotings, of
silver and gold ; treasures which the Seleucidae
coined into money, to the amount of 4000 talents.
The circuit of this palace was seven stadia.
(Hdt. i. 98 ; Diod. ii. 13 ; Strab. pp. 522, 524.)
Ecetra (Ecetranus), an ancient town of the
Volsci, and, according to Dionysius, the capital
of tMs people, was destroyed by the Romans at
an early period (Liv. ii. 25, vi. 31).
Echedorus ('ExeSapos, in Herod. 'Exei'Bwpos),
x2

308

ECHELIDAE

a small river in Macedonia, rises in Crestonia,
flows tirrough Mygdonia, and falls into the
Thermaic gulf (Hdt. vii. 124).
Echelidae ('ExeXtSar. 'ExeXiSris), an Attic
demus E. of Munychia, called after a hero
Echelus. Echemus ("Exepos), son of Aeropus and
grandson of Cepheus, succeeded Lycurgus as
king of Arcadia. In Ms reign the Dorians in
vaded Peloponnesus, and Echemus slew, in
single combat, HyUus, the son of Heracles. In
consequence of this battle, wMch was fought at
the Isthmus, the Heraclidae were obliged to
promise not to repeat their attempt upon Pelo
ponnesus for 50 years. (Hdt. ix. 26 ; Paus. viu.
5 ; Diod. iv. 58.)
Eohestratns ^Exetrrparos), king of Sparta,
son of Agis I., and father of Labotas or Leobotes.
Echetla ('ExerXa), a town m SicUy, W. of
Syracuse, in the mountains (Diod. xx. 32).
Echetlus ("ExerXos), M the form of a country
man appeared in the battle of Marathon and slew
many Persians with a ploughshare. An oracle
directed the Athenians to honour him asa hero :
represented in the Stoa Poecile. (Paus. i. 32, 4.)
Echetus ("ExeTos), a cruel king of Epirus. His
daughter, Metope or Amphissa, who had yielded
to her lover Aechmodicus, was blinded by her
father, and Aechmodicus was cruelly mutilated.
(Od. xviii. 85 ; Ap. Rhod. iv. 1091).
Echidna ('ExioVo), daughter of Tartarus and
Ge, or of Chrysaor and CaUirrhoe, or of Peiras
and Styx (Paus. viii. 18). The upper part of
her body was that of a beautiful maiden with
black eyes, while the lower part was that of a
serpent, of a vast size. She was a horrible and
blood-thirsty monster. She became by Typhon
the mother of the Chimaera, of the many-headed
dog Orthus, of the hundred-headed dragon
which guarded the apples of the Hesperides, of
the Colchian dragon, of the SpMnx, of Cerberus
(hence called Echidneus canis), of ScyUa, of
Gorgon, of the Lernaean Hydra (Echidna Ler-
naea), of the eagle which consumed the liver of
Prometheus, and of the Nemean lion. She
was killed in her sleep by Argus Panoptes.
(Hes. Th. 295, 306 ; Hyg. Fab. 151.) Accordmg
to Herodotus she lived with Typhon in a cave
in the country of the Arimi, but another tradi
tion transported her to ScytMa, where she be
came by Heracles the mother of Agathyrsus,
Gelonus, and Scythes. (Hdt. iv. 8-10.)
Echinades ('ExivdSes or 'Ex'ivai : Curzolari),
small islands at the mouth of the Achelous,
formed by the alluvial deposits of the river.
The legend related that they were originally
Nymphs, who dwelt on the mainland at the
mouth of the Achelous, and that on one occasion
having forgotten to present any offerings to
the god Achelous, when they sacrificed to the
other gods, the river-god, in wrath, tore them
away from the mainland with the ground on
which they were sacrificing, carried them out
to sea, and formed them into islands. — The
EcMnades appear to have derived their name
from their resemblance to the Echinus or sea-
urchin. — The largest of these islands was named
Dulic-hium (AovXlxiov) : at present united to
the mainland. It is mentioned by Homer, and
from it Meges, son of Phyleus, went to the Tro
jan war. (II. ii. 625 ; Od. i. 246 ; Strab. p. 458.)
Echion ('Exiav). 1. One of the five surviv
ing Sparti who had grown up from the dragons'
teeth which Cadmus had sown. He married
Agave, by whom he became the father of Pen
theus : he assisted Cadmus in the building of
Thebes. (ApoUod. iii. 4 ; Ov. Met. iii. 126.)—

EDESSA
2. Son of Hermes, and AntianIra, twin-brother
of Erytus or Eurytus, with whom he took part
in the Calydonian hunt, and in the expedition
of the Argonauts (Pmd. Pyth. iv. 179).
Echo ('Hxd), an Oreade who, according to
the legend related by Ovid, used to keep Juno
engaged by incessantly tailing to her, while
Jupiter was sporting with the nymphs. Juno,
however, found out the trick that was played
upon her, and punished Echo by changmg her
into an echo — that is, a being with no control
over its tongue, which is neither able to speak

Pan and the Nymph Echo. (From a lamp at Athens.)
(Baumeister.)
before anybody else has spoken, nor to be silent
when somebody else has spoken. Echo in this
state feU desperately m love with Narcissus ;
but as her love was not returned, she pined
away in grief, so that m the end there remained
of her nothing but her voice. (Ov. Met. iii.
356-401.) In another story Echo was beloved
by Pan, and, because she rejected Ms love,
was torn in pieces by shepherds, but her voice
still lived. In works of art she is sometimes
represented with Pan.
Ecphantides ('EK<poi'Tf5i)s), one of the earliest
poets of the Old Attic Comedy, flourished about
B.C. 460. The meaning of the surname of Kair-
vias, which was given to him by Ms rivals, seems
to imply a mixture of subtUty and obscurity.
He ridiculed the rudeness of the old Megaric
comedy, and was himself ridiculed on the same
ground by Cratinus and Aristophanes. (Schol.
ad Aristoph. Vesp. 151.)
Edessa or Antiochia Callirrhoe ("E5e<r<ra,
'Avribxeia t) iirl KaXXippbn, or 'A. pi£o$dpBapos :
O. T. Ur : Urfah), a very' ancient city in the N.
of Mesopotamia, the capital of Osroene. It be
longed to the province of Mesopotamia in the
time of Trajan, and accordingly was afterwards
sometimes under Roman, sometimes under
Oriental, rule. [See Mesopotamia.] It was
made a Roman colony and a metropolis, prob
ably by M. Aurelius, since it is so described
On a coin of Commodus. It was the seat of a
kingdom from B. c. 187 to A. D. 216, when the
king was sometimes partiaUy, sometimes whoUy,
a vassal of Rome. [Abgarus.] It stood on
the river Scirtus or Bardesanes, which often
inundated and damaged the city. It was here

EDETANI
that Caracalla was murdered. Having suffered
by an earthquake in 525, the city was rebmlt by
Justinian and named JustmopoUs. — The Edessa
of Strabo (p. 748 : if the text is right) is a differ
ent place — namely, the city usually caUed Bam-
hyce or HierapoUs.

Coin of Edessa in Mesopotamia.
Obv., Antoninus (Caracalla) ;rev„ K0.\. M. eaezsa, and the
heads of two cities, eastern and western ; below, small
temple. Edetani or Sedetani, a people in Hispania
Tarraconensis, E. of the Celtiberi. Their cMef
towns were Valencia, Saguntum, Caesar-
augusta, and Edeta, also caUed Liria (Lyria).
<Ptol. ii. 6; Liv. xxiv. 20 ; SU. It. iii. 871.)
Edoni or Edones ('HSavot, 'HSaves), a Thra
cian people, between the Nestus and the Stry
mon. They were celebrated for their orgiastic
worsMp of Bacchus ; whence Horace says (Od.
ii. 7, 26), Non ego sanius bacchabor Edonis,
and Edonis in the Latin poets signifies a
female Bacchante. — The poets use Edoni as
synonymous with TMacians. (Thuc. ii. 99 ;
Hdt. v. 11 ; Aesch. Pers. 493 ; Soph. Ant. 955.)
Eetion ('HeTW), ktog of the Placian Thebe
in Cilicia, and father of Andromache, the wife
of Hector. He and Ms sons were slain by Achil
les, when the latter took Thebes. (II. vi. 415.)
Egelasta, a town of the Celtiberi in Hispania
Tarraconensis. Egeria, a goddess of fountains who, like the
Camenae (also goddesses of f o im tains : see Ca
menae), possessed the gift of prophecy. Hence
in Roman legends she was the adviser and the
wife of Numa, who met her at the grove of the
Camenae near the Porta Capena (Liv. i. 21 ;
Plut. Num. 13 ; Juv. m. 11). But she was
specially worsMpped m a sacred grove not only
at Rome but also at Aricia ; and her connexion
with Diana Nemorensis is further shown by the
fact that she was also appealed to as the goddess
of cMldbirth. [For the characteristics of Diana
and Artemis as goddesses of fountains and of
chUdbirth, see those articles.] Hence in some
versions of Numa's story he meets Egeria also
at Aricia (Ov. Fast. in. 275). Her connexion
with the Camenae (as water nymphs) led to her
being sometimes confounded with the Muses
(Dionys. ii. 60), whose worsMp replaced that of
the Camenae m Italy. [Camenae.]
Egesta. [Segesta.]
Egnatia (Torre d' Anazzo), a town in Apulia,
on the coast, caUed Gnatia by Horace (Sat. i. 5,
97), who speaks of it as Lymphis (i.e. Nymphis)
iratis exstructa, probably on account of its bad
or deficient supply of water. It was celebrated
for its miraculous stone or altar, which of itself
set on fire frankincense and wood (Plin. ii.
240 ; Hor. Sat . i. 5, 98) : a prodigy which afforded
amusement to Horace and his friends, who
looked upon it as a mere trick. — Egnatia owed
its cMef importance to bemg situated on the
great high road from Rome to Brundisium
(Strab. p. 282). TMs road reached the sea at
Egnatia, and from this town to Brundisium it
bore the name of the Via Egnatia. The con
tinuation of tMs road on the other side of the
Adriatic from DyrrhacMum to Byzantium also

ELAGABALUS 809
bore the name of the Via Egnatia. It was the
great military road between Italy and the East.
Commencing at Dyrrhachium, it passed by
Lychnidus, Heraclea, Lyncestis, Edessa, Thes-
salonica, AmpMpolis, PMlippi, and traversing
the whole of Thrace, finally reached Byzantium.
Egnatii, a family of Samnite origin, some of
whom settled at Teanum. 1. Gellius Egna-
tius, leader of the Samnites in the tMrd Samnite
war, fell in battle against the Romans, B.C. 295.
—2. Marius Egnatius, one of the leaders of
the Italian aUies in the Social war, was MUed
in battle, 89. — 3. M. Egnatius Rufus, aedile
20 and praetor 19, was executed in the following
year, m consequence of Ms having formed a
conspiracy agamst the life of Augustus. — 4. P.
Egnatius Celer. [Barea.]
Eidothea, Eileithyia, Eirene. [Idothea, &c]
Eion ('tiidv : 'H'iovevs : Gontessa or Bendina),
a town m TMace, at the mouth of the Strymon,
25 stadia from AmpMpolis, of which it was the
harbour. Brasidas, after obtaining possession
of AmpMpolis, attempted to seize Eion also,
but was prevented by the arrival of Thucydides
with an Athenian fleet, B. c. 424. (Thuc. iv. 102.)
Eiones ('rl'ibves), a town in Argolis with a
harbour, subject to Mycenae m the time of
Homer, but not mentioned in later times (II.
ii. 561; Strab. p. 373).
Elaea ('EAolo : Kazlu), an ancient city on the
coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, said to have been
founded by Mnestheus, stood twelve stadia S.
of the mouth of the Caicus, and 120 stadia (or
sixteen Roman miles) from Pergamus, to wMch
city, in the time of the Pergamene kingdom, it
servedforaharbour(^irfceioy). Itwas destroyed
by an earthquake m B. c. 90. The gulf on which
it stood, which forms a part of the great Gulf
of Adramyttium, was named . after it Sinus
Elaiticus ('EXaiTiKbs k6Xtos, G. of Chandeli).
(Strab. p. 615 ; Liv. xxxv. 13.)
ElaeuS ('EXaioi/s, -ovvros : 'EXaioiffios). 1.
Or Eleus ('EAeoBs : Critia), a town on the SE.
pomt of the Thracian Chersonese, with a harbour
and a heroum of ProtesUaus (Strab. p. 593;
Hdt. ix. 118 ; Paus. i. 34, 2). — 2. (Mesolonghi),
a town in Aetolia, S. of Pleuron (Pol. v. 65). —
3. A town m Argolis. — 4. A demus in Attica,
belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis.
Elagabalus, Roman emperor, a.d. 218-222,
son of Julia Soemias and Varius MarceUus,
was born at Emesa about 201, and was origin
ally called Varius Avitus Bassianus. While
almost a cMld he became, along with Ms
cousin Alexander Severus, priest of Elagabalus,
the Syro-Phoenician Sun-god, to whose worsMp
a temple was dedicated in Ms native city, and
whose sacred image was a large black conical
stone, the ancient fetish of the place. It was
from this circumstance that Varius Avitus
obtained the name Elagabalus, by which he is
usually known. He owed his elevation to the
purple to the intrigues of Ms grandmother Julia
Maesa (sister of JuUa Domna), who circulated
the report that Elagabalus was the offspring of
a secret commerce between Soemias and Cara-
caUa, and induced the troops in Syria to salute
him as their sovereign by the title of M.
Aurelius Antoninus, the 16th of May, 218.
Macrinus forthwith marched against Elagaba
lus, but was defeated near Antioch, June 8th,
and was shortly afterwards put to death.
Elagabalus was now acknowledged as emperor
by the senate, and, after remaining one year at
Nicomedia, came m 219 to Rome, bringing the
sacred stone and its attendant priests with him.
The reign of tMs prince, who perished at the

310

ELANA

age of 21, after having occupied the throne
nearly four years, was characterised throughout
by an accumulation of the most fantastic folly
and superstition in the worship of the Sun-god,
together with the grossest impurity of life. In
221 he adopted Ms cousm Alexander Severus,

Elagabalus, Roman Emperor, A.D. 218-2-22.
Obv., head of Elagabalus, IMP. ANTONINVS PIVS AVG. ;
rev., emperor standing by an altar -with a patera in right
hand and branch in left ; above, star ; INVICTVS
SMCERDOS AVG.
and proclaimed Mm Caesar. Having become
jealous of Alexander, he attempted to put him
to death, but was himself slain along with Ms
mother Soemias by the soldiers, with whom
Alexander was a great favourite. (Lamprid.
Elagab. ; Herodian. iv. 12 ; Dio Cass, lxxviii. 81.)
Elana. [Aelana.]
Elara fEA-apa), daughter of Orchomenus or
Minyas, bore to Zeus the giant Tityus. Zeus,
from fear of Hera, concealed her under the
earth. Elatea ('EXdreia: 'EXarevs). 1. (Nr. Ele-
phtha, Ru.), a town in Phocis, and the most
important place in the country next to Delphi,
was situated near the Cephissus in a fertile
vaUey, which was an important pass from
Thessaly to Boeotia (Strab. p. 424 ; Paus. x. 34).
Elatea was thus frequently exposed to hostile
attacks. The alarm caused at Athens when
Philip seized tMs, the key of Southern Greece,
is described by Demosthenes (de Cor. p. 284,
§ 169; cf. Diod. xvi. 84). It is said to have
been founded by Elatus, son of Arcas. — 2. A
town in Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, near Gonni
(Liv. xiii. 54).— -3. Or Elatrea, a town in Epirus,
near the sources of the Cocytus (Liv. xxxiv. 25).
Elatus ("EXbtos). 1. Son of Arcas and
Leanira, king of Arcadia, husband of Laodice,
and father of Stymphalus, Aepytus, Cyllen, and
Pereus. He resided on Mount Cyllene, and
went from thence to Phocis, where he founded
the town of Elatea (Paus. viii. 4). — 2. A prince
of the Lapithae at Larissa in Thessaly, husband
of Hippea, and father of Caeneus and Poly
phemus (Ov. Met. xii. 497).
Elaver (Allier), subsequently Elaris or
Elauria, a river in Aquitania, a tributary of
the Liger.
Elbo ('EXBd), an island on the coast of the
Delta of Egypt, in the midst of the marshes
between the Phatnitic and the Tanitic mouths
of the Nile, was the retreat of the blind Pharaoh
Anysis from the Aethiopian Sabacon, and after
wards of Amyrtaeus from the Persians (Hdt.
ii. 140; Thuc. i. 110). It was probably the
island of Thennesis, now called Tennis, in the
lake Menzadeh.
Elea. [Velia.]
Electra ('HA-e'itTpa), i.e. the bright or briUiant
one. 1. Daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, wife
of Thaumas, and mother of Iris and the Har
pies, AeUo and Ocypete (Hes. Th. 266, 349;
Nonn. Dion. 26, 860).— 2. Daughter of Atlas
and Pleione, one of the seven Pleiades, and by
Zeus mother of lasion and Dardanus. She is
represented as living in Samothrace (Apollod.
iii. 10 ; Apoll. Rhod. i. 916 ; Verg. Aen. viii.
135). According to an Italian tradition, she

ELECTRYONE
was the wife of the Italian king Corythus, by
whom she had a son lasion ; whereas by Zeus
she was the mother of Dardanus (Verg. Aen.
iii. 167), and of Harmonia (Diod. iii. 48). It
was through her means, according to another
tradition, that the Palladium came to Troy; and
when she saw the city of her son Dardanus
perishing in flames, she tore out her hair for
grief, and was placed among the stars as a
comet. According to others, Electra and her
six sisters were placed among the starB as the
seven Pleiades, and lost their brilliancy on
Beeing the destruction of Hium (Eur. Phoen.
1136; Serv. ad Georg. i. 138; Hyg. Fab. 192).
The gate Electra at Thebes was called after her
(HeUan. Fr. 129 ; Schol. ad Eur. Phoen.) : for
it seems to be a mistake of Paus. iv. 83 to call
her sister of Cadmus, instead of mother-m-law.
—3. Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytaem-
nestra, also called Laodice, sister of IpMgenia
and Orestes. She does not appear in Homeric
story, though she is said to be the same as the
Laodice of Homer. The earliest distinct account

Orestes and Electra. (From a marble group at Naples, by
Stephanus.)
of her comes from Stesichorus (Fr. 41). After
the murder of her father by her mother, she
saved the life of her young brother Orestes by
sendmg him under the protection of a slave to
king Strophius at Phanote in Phocis, who had
the boy educated together with his own son
Pylades. According to Sophocles, she lived an
unhappy and menial life during her brother's
absence : according toEuripides, she was married
by the orders of Aegisthus to a peasant-farmer
near Mycenae. When Orestes had grown up
to manhood, Electra excited him to avenge the
death of Agamemnon, and assisted him in slay
ing their mother, Clytaemnestra. [Orestes.]
After the death of the latter, Orestes gave her
in marriage to Ms friend Pylades. The Mstory
and character of Electra form the subject of
the Choephori of Aeschylus, the Electra of
Euripides, and the Electra of Sophocles.
Electrides Insulae. [Eridanus.]
Electryon I^HXeKTpiav), son of Perseus and
Andromeda, kmg of Mycenae, husband of Anaxo,
and father of Alcmene, the wife of Amphitryon.
For details see Amphitryon.
Electryone ('HXeKrpvdvn). 1. Daughter of

ELEON
Helios and Rhodos, worsMpped at Ialysos,
probably a variation of the story of Electra
No. 2 (Diod. v. 56). — 2. A patronymic from
Electryon, given to Ms daughter, Alcmene.
Eleon ('EAeW), a town in Boeotia, near
Tanagra. Eleos CEA-eos), the personification of pity or
mercy, worsMpped by the Athenians alone
(Paus. i. 17).
Elephantine, or Elephantis ('EXetpavrivn,
'EXe<pavrls '. Jezirah-el-Zahir, or Jezirah-el-
Assouan), an island in the Nile, with a city of
the same name, opposite to Syene, and 7 stadia
below the Little Cataract, was the frontier
station of Egypt towards Ethiopia (i.e. the
southern limit of Upper Egypt), and was
strongly garrisoned under the Persians and the
Romans (Hdt. ii. 17, 80; Tac. Ann. ii. 61). The
island was extremely fertile : it had also great
quarries. Among the most remarkable objects
in it were the temple of CnupMs and a Nilo-
meter ; and it is still celebrated for the ruins of
its rock-hewn temples. The temple of Tehutmes
TTT-, of which considerable remains were drawn
by artists m the beginning of tMs century, was
destroyed by the Turkish governor of Assouan,
and is now marked only by a heap of stones.
Elephantis, a Greek poetess under the early
Roman emperors, wrote amatory works, molles
Elephantidos libelli (Mart. xii. 43, 5; Suet.
Tib. 43).
Elephenor ('EXe<pT)vap), son of Chalcodon
and of Imenarete or Melanippe, and prince of
the Abantes m Euboea, whom he led agamst
Troy. He was one of the smtors of Helen : kiUed
before Troy by Agenor. (II. n. 540, iv. 463.)
Eleusis ('EXevo-is, later 'EXevaiv : 'EXevai-
vios : Leosina or Lessina), a town and demus
of Attica, belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis,
was situated on the coast NW. of Athens, and
about 12 miles from it. The town lay upon the
slopes of a rocky MU which separates the
Thriasian from the Parian plain. To the S.
and E. of it is the Bay of Eleusis with Salamis
in the background. The legendary history
represents Eleusis as conquered by the Athe
nians under Erechtheus, who was helped by
Eumolpus (Paus. i. 38, 3). It seems to have
been an independent state with its own worsMp
of Demeter in the time when the Homeric
Hymn to Demeter was written. After its
union under the headsMp of Athens, it became
merely one of the demes, but of importance
far beyond aU other towns of Attica except
Athens herself, since it gave its name to the
great festival and mysteries of the Eleusinia
which were celebrated in honour of Demeter
and Persephone. [For an account of the festi
val see Diet, of Antiq. art. Eleusinia.] — The
site was partly excavated in 1817 by the
London DUettanti Society ; the more complete
excavations of 1887 by the Greek Archaeological
Society have made clear much of the topo
graphy, and Dr. Db'rpfeld has based upon
them the plan which is given on p. 312. — Eleu
sis was approached from Athens by the
sacred way, wMch passed out of the Dipylon
Gate across the CepMssus, and then through a
ravine in Mount CorydaUus (the Pass of
Daphne) to the sea shore, along wMch it con
tinued to the town and the entrance of the
sacred precincts. The great gate, or Propy
laea, was built by Hadrian ; just outside was a
temple of Artemis ; beyond it was the smaller
gateway of Appius Claudius, occupying the site
of the old gateway in the waU of fortification,
which gave entrance to the actual sacred pre-

ELIS

311

cincts of pre-Roman times. On the right or
west was the small temple of Hades or Pluto ;
beyond it (probably) the two treasuries ; to the
west at the northern end of the raised terrace
was a temple, perhaps the temple of Demeter :
the temple immediately to the east of it may
have been that of Persephone. The sacred
way led past these buildings to the great Hall
of Initiation or of the Mysteries (TeAeo-T^pioj'),
the remains of which belong to various dates.
The original building was destroyed by the
Persians, but the 25 square column-bases in
the smaller hall are attributed to this oldest
building, perhaps of the age of Pisistratus. In
Cimon's time the building destroyed by Xerxes
was replaced by a hall with the same frontage
to the SE., but extending further back into
the rock terrace ; this is traceable by the 20
circular bases (the 21st in the north angle is
not traceable). In the time of Pericles, Icti-
nus added another chamber to the Hall of
Cimon on the SW., which is marked by the 6
large square bases, with two others dotted.
The Porch of Philo was added at the expense
of Demetrius Phalereus B.C. 310. Lastly, the
Romans enlarged the whole by the building to
which the 42 bases belong, forming a haU rather
larger than the building completed by Ictinus ;
and about 170 feet by 169. There was an
upper story to the haU of Ictinus entered
from the terrace, and therefore more directly
from what is taken to be the temple of Deme
ter. TMs upper hall gave more space for great
meetings of the initiated, since it was undi
vided. Eleutherae ('EXevBepai : 'EXevBepeis), a
town in Attica on the frontiers of Boeotia,
originally belonged to the Boeotian confederacy,
and afterwards united itself to Attica.
Eleutherius ('EXevBepios), a surname of
Zeus, as the Deliverer. (Diet, of Ant. art.
Eleutheria.) Eleutherna ('EXevBepva : 'EXevBepvdios), a
town in the interior of Crete.
Eleutherus ('EXeiBepos : Nahr-el-Kebir, i.e.
Great Biver), a river forming the boundary
between Syria and Phoenice, rose in Mount
Bargylus, and fell into the sea between Ant-
aradus and Tripolis.
Elicius, a surname of Jupiter at Rome,
where King Numa dedicated to Jupiter Elicius
an altar on the Aventine. The origm of the
name is referred to the Etruscans, who by
certain prayers and sacrifices called forth
(eliciebant or evocabant) lightning, or invited
Jupiter to send lightning. The object of call
ing down lightning was to elicit prodigies (ad
prodigia elicienda, Liv. i. 20).
Elimberrum. [Ausci.]
Elimea, -ia, or Elimiotis ('EXipeia, 'EXipia,
'EXipiaris), a district of Macedoma, on the
frontiers of Epirus and Thessaly, originally
belonged to Dlyria, and was bounded by the
Cambunian mountains on the S. and the Tym-
phaean mountains on the W. Its inhabitants,
the Elimaei ('EAei/iiSToi), were Epirots.
Elis C HXis, Dor.^AXis/HXeiu : 'HXelos, Dor.
"AXios, whence Alii in Plautus), a country on
the W. coast of Peloponnesus, bounded by
Achaia on the N., Arcadia on the E., Messema
on the S., and the Ionian sea on the W. The
country was fertile, watered by the Alpheus
and its tributaries, and is said to have been
the only country in Greece which produced
flax. The Peneus is the only other river m
Elis of any importance. Elis was divided into
three parts:— 1. Elis Proper or Hollow Elis

312

ELIS

(7) KoiXri HXis), the N. part, watered by the
Peneus, of which the capital was also caUed
Elis.— 2. Pisatis (g IIio-Stis), the middle por-

Minyae or Arcadians), of which Pylos was the
capital, lay between the Alpheus and the Neda.
— In the heroic times we find the kmgdom of

1

Earlg Walla
Buildings destroyed btpCerxes
Buildinga ofPerlctea & additions
Later Buildinga

Plan of Eleusis. (After Dorpfeld.)

SoMetW<«««*'*'"

tion, of wMch the capital was Pisa. — 3. Tri-
phylia (7) TpicpvXia), the S. portion (i.e. the
abode of tMee tribes, Epeans, Eleans, and

Nestor and the Pelidae mthe S. of Elis; while
the N. of the country was inhabited by the
Epeans ('EireioQ, with whom some Aetolian

ELISO
tribes were mingled. On the conquest of
i'eloponnesus by the Heraclidae, the AetoUan
chief Oxylus received Elis as his share of the
conquest ; and it was the union of Ms Aetolian
and Dorian followers with the Epeans, wMch
formed the subsequent population of the
country, under the general name of Eleans.
Elis owed its importance m Greece to the
worship of Zeus at Olympia near Pisa, in
honour of whom a splendid festival was held
every four years. [Olympia.] In consequence
of this festival being common to the whole of
Greece, the country of Elis was declared
sacred, and its inhabitants possessed priestly
privileges. Being exempt from war and the
dangers of invasion, the Eleans became pro
sperous and wealthy ; their towns were unwalled
and their country was richly cultivated. The
prosperity of their country was ruined by the
Peloponnesian war; the Athenians were the
first to disregard the sanctity of the country ;
and from that time it frequently had to take
part m the other contests of the Greeks. The
women of Elis, like the Spartan women, enjoyed
a greater freedom and exercised more influ-
ence than was customary elsewhere m Greece ;
but they were not aUowed to be spectators at
the Olympic games. The town of EUs was
situated on the Peneus, and was built at the
time of the Persian war by the inhabitants of
eight villages, who united together, and thus
formed one town. It originally had no waUs,
being sacred like the rest of the country, but
subsequently it was fortified. The inhabitants
of EUs formed a close aUiance with the Spar-

Coin of Elis, of 4th cent. B.C.
Obv., head of Zeus, and legend J-AAEION (the digamma
being preserved on coins of Elis till after the Roman
conquest) ; rev., eagle on Ionic capital.
tans, and by their means destroyed the rival
city of Pisa, and became the rulmg city of the
country, B.C. 572. In the Peloponnesian war
they quarreUed with the Spartans, because
the latter had espoused the cause of Lepraeum,
which had revolted from EUs. The Eleans
retaliated upon the Spartans by excluding
them from the Olympic games in the year
420 (Thuc. v. 41). At the conclusion of the
war they relinquished their supremacy over
the Triphylian towns and never regained it.
At a later time, when the Eleans became the
firmest adherents m the Peloponnesus to the
Aetolian League, the Triphylians jomed the
hostile (but more patriotic) Achaean League.
The importance of Elis when it formed part of
the Roman province of Achaea was preserved
by the Olympic games, which lasted till the
reign of Theodosius.
Ellso. [Aliso.]
Elissa. [Dido.]
Ellopia ('EXXoiria). 1. A district in the N.
of Euboea, near the promontory Cenaeum,
with a town of the same name: the whole
island of Euboea is sometimes caUed Ellopia.
—2. An ancient name of the district about
Dodona in Epirus.

ELYSIUM sis
Elone (?EXdv7i), a town of the Perrhaebi in
Thessaly, afterwards called Limone (Aeipdvrj).
Elpenor ('EAiriji/cup), one of the companions
of Odysseus who were metamorphosed by Circe
into swine and afterwards back into men.
Intoxicated with wine, Elpenor one day fell
asleep on the roof of Circe's palace, and in
his attempt to rise he fell down and broke his
neck. When Odysseus was in the lower world, he
met the shade of Elpenor, who implored Mm to
burn his body, which Odysseus did on his return
to the upper world, (pd. x. 550, xi. 57, xii. 10.)
Elpinice ('EXirivlKri), daughter of Miltiades,
and sister of Cimon, married CaUias. [Callias.]
Elusates, a people in Aquitania, in the
interior of the country. Their chief town was
Elusa. (Nr. Fuse or Eause.) It was the
birthplace of Rufinus, the minister of Arca
dius (Claudius in Buf. i. 137).
Elymaei, Elymi. [Elymais.]
Elymais, a district of Susiana, extending
from the river Eulaeus on the W. to the
Oroatis on the E., derived its name from the
Elymaei or Elymi ('EXvpdiot, "EXvpoi) a war
like and predatory people, who are also found
in the mountains of Great Media : in the Per
sian armies they served as archers. (Strab. p.
744; Liv. xxxvii. 40.) These Elymaei were
probably among the most ancient inhabitants
of the country N. of the head of the Persian
Gulf: in the O. T. Susiana is called Elam.
Under the PartMan empire the kings of Ely
mais held the highest place among the satraps.
Elymi. [Elymus.]
Elymiotis. [Ellmea.]
Elymus ("EXvpos), a Trojan, natural son of
AneMses and brother of Eryx. Previous to the
emigration of Aeneas, Elymus and Aegestus
had fled from Troy to Sicily, and had settled on
the banks of the river Crimisus. When after
wards Aeneas also arrived there, he built for
them the towns of Aegesta and Elyme. The
Trojans who settled in that part of Sicily called
themselves Elymi, after Elymus. (Dionys. i.
47, 52 ; Verg. Aen. v. 73.)
Elyrus ("EAupoj), a town in the W. of Crete,
S. of Cydonia (Paus. x. 16, 3).
Elysium ('HXio-iov ireSlov, later simply 'HAii-
o-iov), the Elysian fields. [Hades.] In Homer
(Od. iv. 563) Elysium forms no part of the realms
of the dead ; he places it on the W. of the earth,
near Ocean, and describes it as a happy land,
where there is neither snow, nor cold, nor ram,
and always fanned by the delightful breezes of
Zephyrus. Hither favoured heroes, like Mene
laus, pass without dymg, and live happy under
the rule of Rhadamanthus. Hesiod (Op. 167)
places the heroes of the fourth age, such as
those who fought at Thebes and Troy, in the
Isles of the Blessed (paKapav vrjooi), which he de
scribes as set apart along the circumfluent Ocean
(cf. Hor. Epod.. xvi. 68), where Cronus rules
and the land is fruitful. Pindar distinguishes
Elysium, or the place of rest, where the good
live a tearless life, and the sun always sMnes,
from the pwcdpav vr)o-oi to wMch, as an ex
treme reward, those come who have gone
through a probation thrice m this world and
thrice in Elysium. Here Cronus reigns and
Rhadamanthus judges. In this happy spot he
places Peleus and Cadmus and Achilles (Ol. ii.
61). In Fr. 95 he describes the former place
or Elysium, and the life of those who dwell
there in flowery meadows, delighting themselves
with games and music, and never without the
sun. From these legends was imagined the
island of Atlantis. The Elysium of Virgil

314

EMATHIA

(Aen. vi. 541) is placed in the Under-world.
[See Hades.]
Emathia ('HpaBia: 'HpaBieis), a district of
Macedonia, between the Haliacmon and the
Axius, formerly part of Paeonia, and the origi
nal seat of the Macedonian monarchy. (In
Homer II. xiv. 226 it lies between Pieria and
Thrace.) The poets frequently give the name
of Ematliia "to the whole of Macedonia, and
sometimes even to the neighbouring Thessaly.
Under the Romans it formed part of the third
region of Macedonia.
Emathides, the nine daughters of Pierus,
king of Emathia (Ov. Met. v. 669).
Emathion ('HpaBiav), son of Tithonus and
Eos, brother of Memnon, was slain by Heracles
(Hes. Th. 984).
Embolima ('EpBbXipa), a city of the Paropa
misadae in N. India, near Aornos, sixteen days'
march from the Indus (Curt. viii. 12).
Emerita. [Augusta Emerita.]
Emesa or Emissa ("E,u.e<ra, "Epicro-a : 'Epeo-ti-
vos : Hums or Horns), a city of Syria, on the E.
bank of the Orontes, in the province of Apa-
mene, but afterwards the capital of Phoenice
Libanesia, was in the first cent. B.C. the resi
dence of independent Arabian princes. When
Pompey was in Syria in B.C. 69 it was ruled by
an Arabian prince Sampsiceramus, who held his
power as tributary. His dynasty lasted under
Iamblichus, another Sampsiceramus and Azizus
and others till the reign of Domitian, when it
formed part of the province of Syria. Under
Caracalla it was made a colony with the Jus
Italicum. It is a remarkable place in the
history of the Roman empire, being the native
city of Julia Domna, the wife of Septimius
Severus; of Elagabalus, who exchanged the
high-priesthood of the celebrated temple of the
Sun in this city for the imperial purple, and of
the emperor Alexander Severus ; and also the
scene of the decisive battle between Aurelian
and Zenobia, a.d. 273. (Strab. p. 753 ; He
rodian, v. 3 ; Dio Cass. liv. 8 ; Joseph. Ant.
xix. 8 ; Cic. ad Att. ii. 16, ad Fam. xv. 1.)
Emmenidae (^EppeviSai), a princely family at
Agrigentum, who traced their origin to the
mythical hero Polynices. Among its members
we know Emmenides (from whom the family
derived its name) the father of Aenesidamus,
whose sons Theron and Xenocrates are cele
brated by Pindar as victors at the great games
of Greece (Pind. 01. ii. 48, iii. 38, Pyth. vi. 5).
Emodl Montes, or -ns, or -es, or -on (ra
'HpaSd opr/, to 'HpaSbv bpos, or 6 'HpaSos:
Himalaya M), a range of mountains N. of
India, forming the prolongation eastwards of
the Paropamisus.
Empedocles ('EpireSoKX7)s), of Agrigentum in
Sicily, flourished about B.C. 490. Although he
was descended from an ancient and wealthy
family, he joined the revolution in wMch Thra-
sydaeus, the son and successor of Theron, was
expelled. His zeal in the establishment of
political equality is said to have been mani
fested by his magnanimous support of the poor,
by Ms severity against the overbearing con
duct of the aristocrats, and by his declining the
sovereignty which was offered to him. His
brilliant oratory, his penetrating knowledge of
nature, and the reputation of Mb marvellous
powers, which he had acquired by curing
diseases, by his successful exertions in dry
ing up marshy districts and in averting epi
demics and obnoxious winds, spread a lustre
around Ms name. He was caUed a magician
(ybris), and he appears to have attributed to

ENCELADUS
himself miraculous powers and a divine origin,
though in natural science he was certainly no
impostor. He travelled in Greece and Italy, and
made some stay at AthenB. His death happened
about 430, apparently not in Sicily. Many
legends grew up about it : one tradition repre
sented him as having been removed from the
earth, like a divine being ; and another related
that he tMew Mmself into the flames of Mount
Aetna, that by Ms sudden disappearance he
might be believed to be a god ; but it was
added that the volcano tMew up one of Ms
sandals, and thus revealed the manner of his
death (Diog. Laert. viii. 57-74 ; Hor. A.P. 464).
The rhetorician Gorgias was Ms disciple. The
works of Empedocles were all in verse. Frag
ments remain of the 'larpind, which assume the
power to heal all diseases, even old age : of the
KaBappol, which teaches the purification from
sin and evil, and of Ms greatest work, on
natural science (ITepl $iaeas). He seems to
have derived his mysticism from Pythagoras,
and in natural science it is likely that Acron
and Pausanias, great physicians of Sicily, were-
his first teachers. He held that there were
four indestructible elements — earth, air, fire,
and water (which he caUed Zeus, Hera, Aido
neus, and Nestis). These elements combine to
form the visible world, but they combine only
by the operation of ipiXia, or Love, which is
therefore the creative power ; and they can be
dissolved by Hate. Our senses are acted upon
by the particles thrown off by things around
us. He held the Pythagorean doctrine of
transmigration of souls. Lucretius speaks of
Empedocles with enthusiasm, and evidently
makes him Ms model (i. 715 ff).
Emporiae or Emporium ('Epiropiai, 'Epiro-
pe?ov, 'Epirbpiov : 'Epiropirns : Ampurias), a
town of the Indigetes in Hispania Tarraconensis
near the Pyrenees, was situated on the river
Clodianus, which formed the harbour of the
town. It was founded by the Phocaeans
from MassiUa, and was divided mto two parts,
at one time separated from each other by a
wall : the part near the coast being inhabited
by the Greeks, and the part towards the in
terior by the Indigetes. It was subsequently
colonised by Julius Caesar. Its harbour was
much frequented : here Scipio Africanus first
landed when he came to Spain in the second
Punic war. (Strab. p. 159 : Liv. xxi. 60.)
Empulum (Ampiglione), a small town in La
tium, near Tibur (Liv. vii. 18).
Empusa ("Epirov<ra), a monstrous spectre.
which was believed to devour human beings.
It could assume different forms, and was sent
by Hecate to frighten travellers. It was be
lieved usually to appear with one leg of brass
and the other of an ass, whence it was caUed
bvoffKeXis or bvoKdXT). The Lamiae and Mor-
molyceia, who assumed the form of handsome
women for the purpose of attracting young
men, and then sucked their blood like vampires
and ate their flesh, were reckoned among the
Empusae. (Aristoph. Ban. 294 ; Dem. de Cor.
p. 270, § 180 ; Philostr. Apoll. Tyan. ii. 4, iv. 25.)
Enarephorus ('Evavptiipopos), son of Hippo-
coon, a passionate suitor of Helen, when she
was yet quite young. Tyndareus, therefore,
entrusted the maiden to the care of' Theseus.
Enarephorus had a heroum at Sparta. (Plut.
Thes. 31_; Paus. iii. 15.)
Enceladus ('E7Ke'AoSos), son of Tartarus and
Ge, and one of the hundred-armed giants who
made war upon the gods. He was killed, ac
cording to some, by a flash of lightmng, by

ENCHELES
Zeus, who buried Mm under Mount Aetna;
according to others, Athene kiUed him with her
chariot, or tMew upon him the island of Sicily.
(Verg. Aen. iii. 578, iv. 179 ; Ov. Pont. ii. 2, 12 ;
Paus. viii. 47 ; Eur. Cycl. 7.|
Encheles ('EyxeXeis, also 'E7xeAe'ai, 'E7X«-
Xioi), an Hlyrian tribe.
Endius ("EvSios), a Spartan and a hereditary
friend of Alcibiades, whose famUy name seems
to have been adopted, for it was borne by the
father of Endius. He was an Ephor, and was
ambassador from Sparta to Athens in 420 and
410. (Thuc. v. 44, viii. 6, 12 ; Diod. xiii. 52.)
Endoeus ("EvSoios), an Athenian statuary, is
called a disciple of Daedalus, whom he is said
to have accompanied on Ms flight from Crete.
These statements must be taken to express, not
the time at which he lived, but the style of art
which he practised. It is probable that he
lived in the time of Pisistratus and Ms sons,
about B.C. 560. (Paus. i. 26, vii. 5, viii. 46.)
Endymion ('EvSvptav), a youth distinguished
by Ms beauty, and renowned in ancient story
for Ms perpetual sleep (cf. Plat. Phaedr. p. 72 ;
Aristot. Eth. N. x. 8). One set of traditions
about Endymion refer us to Elis, and another
to Caria, and others again are a combination
of the two. According to one set of legends,
he was a son of Aethlius and Calyce, or of
Zeus and Calyce, and succeeded AetMius in
the kingdom of EUs (Paus. v. 8, 1), or led a
band of Aeolians from Thessaly and took
possession of EUs (Paus. v. 1, 2 ; Apollod. i.
7, 5). According to the Schol. on Ap. Rh. iv. 57,
Hesiod and Phercydes also made him an El-
ean. His tomb was shown at Olympia (Paus.
v. 1, 4). Others related that he had come from
Elis to Mount Latmus in Caria, whence he is
called the Latmian (Latmius). This version
first appears in Sappho (Fr. 134) ; and this has
been generaUy followed by poets of a later
date (Theocr. xx. 37 ; Catull. lxvi. 5 ; Ov. A.
A. in. 83). Some stories tried to reconcile
the two by making Mm migrate from Elis to
Caria (Paus. v. 1, 5). The more poetical part
of Ms story may belong speciaUy to Caria, and
may have been engrafted on other Endymions
elsewhere ; but it might be imagined whenever
the moon was observed touching the rocks
with Ught and sinking behind them. As he
slept on Latmus, his beauty warmed the cold
heart of Selene (the moon), who came down
to him, kissed him, and lay by Ms side. ^ His
eternal sleep on Latmus is assigned to differ
ent causes : Selene had sent him to sleep, that
she might be able to kiss him without his
knowledge (Cic. Tusc. i. 38, 92) ; or he begged
from Zeus eternal sleep with immortal youth
(ApoUod.). By Selene he had fifty daughters,
according to the story of the Eleans, and tMs is
explamed as referring to the fifty moons of the
Olympic cycle. The best representation of the
story is a fine relief m the Capitoline Museum,
where there is also a beautiful relief of the
smgle sleepmg figure with his dog beside him.
In the first he is represented as a shepherd, in
the second as a hunter.
Engyum ("E77U01', 'E77t5i'o!': 'Eyymvos, En-
guinus : Gangi, or, accordmg to others, Troina),
a town m the interior of Sicily near the sources
of the Monalus, originaUy a town of the Siculi,
but said to have been colonised by the Cretans
under Minos : it possessed a celebrated temple
of the great mother of the gods, or, accordmg
to others, of &eal parepes, perhaps the nurses of
Zeus (Diod. iv. 79, xvi. 72; Plut. Marc. 20;
Cic. Verr. ni. 43, v. 72).

ENNIUS

815-

Enipeus ('Eviirevs). 1. (Tschamarlyj, a river
in Thessaly, rises in Mt. Othrys, receives the
Apidanus near Pharsalus, and flows into the
Peneus. Poseidon assumed the form of the god
of this river in order to obtain possession of Tyro,.
who was in love with Enipeus. She became by
Poseidon the mother of Pelias and Neleus. Ovid
relates (Met. vi. 116) that Neptune (Poseidon)
having assumed the form of Enipeus, became
by Iphimedia the father of Otus and Ephialtes..
— 2. A smaU river m Pisatis (Elis) flows into
the Alpheus near its mouth (Strab. p. 856). —
3. (Mavrolongos), a smaU river in Macedonia,
which rises in Olympus.
Enna or Henna ("Ewa: 'Evvdios: Castro
Giovanni), an ancient and strong town of the
Siculi in Sicily, on the road from Catania to
Agrigentum, on the summit of a rocky hill, and
hence a natural fortress (Strab. p. 272; Liv.
xxiv. 37), said to be the centre of the island
(optpaXbs ^tKeXias) (CaUim. Hymn, in Cer. 15 ;
Cic. Veil: iv. 48). It was surrounded by fertile
plains, which bore large crops of wheat ; it was-
one of the cMef seats of the worship of Demeter,
and possessed a celebrated temple of this
goddess. According to later tradition it was in
a flowery meadow in the neighbourhood of
Enna that Pluto carried off Persephone or
Proserpme, and the cave was shown through
which the god passed as he carried off Ms
prize (Ov. Met. v. 885 ; Claud, de Bapt. Pros.
ii. ; Diod. v. 3). Its importance declined from
the time of the second Punic war, when it was
punished by the Romans, because it had at
tempted to revolt to the Carthaginians.
Ennius, Q,., the Roman poet, was born at
Rudiae, in Calabria, B.C. 239 (Gell. xvii. 21,
43 ; Cic. de Or. iii. 42, 168, Brut. 18, 72). He
was a Greek by birth, but a subject of Rome,
and served in the Roman armies. In 204 Cato,
who was then quaestor, found Ennius iu Sar-
dmia, and brought Mm in his train to Rome. In
189 Ennius accompanied M. Fulvius Nobilior
through the Aetolian campaign, and shared his
triumph. Through the son of Nobilior, Ennius,
when far advanced in life, obtained the rights of
a Roman citizen. He dwelt in a humble house-
on the Aventine, and maintained himself by
teaching Greek to the sons of the Roman
nobles, and translating Greek plays for the stage.
Ennius in truth, as a Greek by culture and
partly by origin, gave to Roman poetry the
form which it ultimately adopted. The epic of
Naevius was in Saturnian metre. Ennius intro
duced the Greek hexameter and the Homeric
treatment, and thus gave the lead which was
foUowed by Virgil. Though Cato disapproved
of this as unpatriotic, it cannot be doubted that
his choice was right. He lived on terms of the
closest intimacy with the elder Scipio Africanus.
He died 169, at the age of seventy (Cic. de Sen.
5, 14). He was buried in the sepulchre of the
Scipios, and his bust was allowed a place among
the effigies of that noble house. Ennius was
regarded by the Romans as the father of their
poetry (alter Homerus, Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 50).
Cicero calls Mm Summus poeta noster (pro
Balb. 22, 51 ; cf. Luer. i. Ill), and Virgil was
not ashamed to borrow many of Ms thoughts,,
and not a few of Ms expressions. AU the works
of Ennius are lost with the exception of a few
fragments. His most important work was in
epic poem, in dactyUc hexameters, entitled
Annalium Libri xviii., being a Mstory of Rome
from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy to Ms own
times. No great space, however, was allotted
to the earlier records : the stories of Aeneas and

316

ENOPE

the royal period occupy the first three books ;
three are given to the conquest of Italy and
Pyrrhus ; and the contest with Hannibal,
which was described with great mmuteness,
began with the seventh book, the first Punic
war being passed over with a brief mention, as
having been described already by Naevius.
"The Hannibalian war ended with the ninth
book ; and the remaining nine brought the Ms
tory down to 181 B.C. or perhaps a few years
later. His service to the drama was of lesB
importance in literature : his translations were
mostly from Euripides ; he wrote also praetex-
toe, or tragedies on Roman subjects, of which
the Ambracia probably told of its capture by
Fulvius Nobilior, which he himself had seen :
he wrote also Comedies and was the first notable
writer of Saturae. His adaptations of Epichar-
mus and Euhemerus were apparently on the
rationalistic side, and no doubt offended those
who upheld the old Roman religion. The
fragments of Ennius are published by Vahlen,
LipB._1854; L. Miiller, Petersb. 1885.
Enope ('Evbirri), a town in Messenia, men
tioned by Homer (II. i. 150), supposed by some
to be the same as Gerenia.
Entella ("EvreXXa : Entellinus, Entellensis:
Entella), an ancient town of the Sicani in the
interior of the island on the W. side, said to
have been founded by EntelluB, one of the
companions of the Trojan Aegestus (Verg. Aen.
v. 387). It was subsequently seized and peopled
by the Campanian mercenaries of Dionysius
(Diod. xiv. 9).
Entoria, daughter of an Italian peasant who
entertained Cronos (Saturn). Cronos taught
the culture of the vine, and the peasants bemg
intoxicated, thought themselves poisoned, and
stoned the father of Entoria, whose sons by
Cronus hanged themselves. Long afterwards,
to avert a plague Lutatius Catulus built a
"temple of Saturn on the Tarpeian (Plut. Parall.
9; cf. Icarius).
Enyalius ('EvvdXios), the Warlike, frequently
¦occurs in the Iliad (never in the Odyssey) as an
epithet of Ares. At a later time Enyalius and
Ares were distinguished as two different gods of
war; Enyalius was looked upon as a son of
Ares and Enyo, or of Cronos and Rhea.
Enyo ('Evvd), the goddess of war, who de
lights in bloodshed and the destruction of towns,
and accompanies Ares in battles (II. v. 833,
£92). The goddess Ma or Anaitis at Comana
was called Enyo by the Greeks (Strab. p. 535).
Respecting the Roman goddess of war, see
Bellona.
Eordaea ('EopSaia, also 'EopSia), a district and
town in the NW. of Macedonia, inhabited by
the Eordi (Thuc. ii. 99).
Eos ('Hds, Att. "Eas), in Latin Aurora, the
goddess of the morning red, daughter of Hy
perion and Thia or Euryphassa (Hes. Th. 271 ;
Hymn. Hom. xxxi. 4) ; or of the giant Pallas
,(Ov. Met. ix. 421). In Od. xii. 4, the island of
Aea is spoken of as her dwelling; and there
seems there to be a confusion between the
eastern and western islands of the same name
[Aea] ; it cannot be an aUusion to the evening-
red, since the ' rising of the sun ' is also placed
there. Eos dwelt in the east, and at the close
of every night she rose from the couch of her
spouse Tithonus, and on a chariot (sometimes a
quadriga, but usually a biga) drawn by the
swift horses Lampus and Phaeton she ascended
to heaven from the river Oceanus, to announce
the coming light of the sun to the gods as
-well as to mortals (Od. xxiii. 258). In the

EPAMINONDAS
Homeric poems Eos only travels till the sun is
completely risen, or according to II. ix. 66, t.U
towards midday ; but m later poets the paths of
Aurora and the sun are the same : so also we
find 'H>epa and 'Hds synonymous (Eur. Troad.
847), and Eos has come to be regarded as the
goddess of the daylight. Goddess of aU that
was young and fresh, she is represented in
myth as loving and carrying off youths of
notable beauty ; and tMs may also be significant
of death in early youth, tv ®eol (piXovo-iv
airoBv-tiffKei vios. [For the stories thereon see
Cephalus, Orion.] Memnon was her son by
Tithonus. For these myths see Memnon and
Tithonus. Epaminondas ('EirapeivdvSas, 'EirapivdvSas),
the Theban general and statesman, son of
Polymnis, was born and reared m poverty,
though Ms blood was noble. His close and en
during friendsMp with Pelopidas is said to have
originated in the campaign in wMch they served
together on the Spartan side against Mantinea,
where Pelopidas having fallen m a battle, ap
parently dead, Epaminondas protected his body
at the imminent risk of Ms own life, B.C. 385.
(Plut. Pelop. 4 ; Xen. Hell. v. 2 ; Diod. xv. 5.)
Epaminondas had refused to take part in the
conspiracy for the liberation of Thebes, because
it involved assassination, but when the Spar
tans had been expeUed from it, he took an
active part in public affairs. In 371 he was one
oi the Theban commanders at the battle of
Leuctra, so fatal to the Lacedaemonians, in
which the success of Thebes is said to have
been owing mamly to his tactics. In 370 he
was one of the generals in the first invasion
of Peloponnesus by the Thebans; and before
leaving Peloponnesus he restored the Messen
ians to their country and established a new city,
named Messene. On their return home Epa-
mmondas and Pelopidas were impeached by
their enemies, on a capital charge of having
retained their command beyond the legal term.
The fact itself was true'enough ; but they were
both honourably acquitted, Epaminondas hav
ing expressed Ms willingness to die if the
Thebans would record that he had been put to
death because he had humbled Sparta and
taught Ms countrymen to face and to conquer
their enemies. (Plut. Pelop. 25 ; Paus. ix. 14 ;
Nep. Epam. 8.) In 369 he returned to the
Peloponnesus and took possession of Sicyon,
and ty his presence m that district so occupied
the Lacedaemonian forces that the inhabitants
of the new cities Messene and Megalopolis could
complete their fortifications. He was repulsed
by Chabrias in an attack wMch he made on
Corinth. In the foUowmg year we find him
serving, but not as general, m the Theban army
which was sent into Thessaly to rescue Pelo
pidas from Alexander of Pherae, andwMchwas
saved from utter destruction only by the abUity
of Epaminondas. In 367 he was sent at the
head of another force to release Pelopidas, and
accompUshed Ms object without even striking a
blow, and by the mere prestige of Ms name
(Diod. xv. 71-75). Later in 867 he invaded the
Peloponnesus for the third time, and m 862 for
the fourth time. In the latter year he gained a
brilliant victory over the Lacedaemonians at
Mantinea ; but in the f uU career of victory he
received a mortal wound. He was told that Ms
death would follow directly on the javelin being
extracted from the wound ; and he would not
aUow this to be done tiU he had been assured
that Ms sMeld was safe, and that the victory
was with his countrymen. It was a disputed

EPAPHRODITUS
pomt by whose hand he fell : among others, the
honour was assigned to Gryllus, the son of
Xenophon. (Xen. Hell. vii. 5; Diod. xv. 87;
Paus. ix. 15 ; Nep. Epaminondas.) — Epaminon
das was one of the greatest men of Greece. He
raised Thebes to the supremacy of Greece,
wMch she lost almost as soon as he died. He
was not only a great general and tactician
and a wise statesman, but alike in public and
m private life he was distinguished by integrity
and uprightness, and he carried into daily prac
tice the lessons of pMlosophy, of which he was an
ardent student. His patriotism was of the
widest and most enlightened kind, studying the
general mterests of the HeUenic race as well as
those of Ms own state.
Epaphroditus ('EirtKppd'o'iTos). 1. A freedman
and secretary of the emperor Nero. He assisted
Nero in kiUmg himself, and he was afterwards
put to death by Domitian. The pMlosopher
Epictetus was Ms freedman. (Tac. Ann. xv.
55; Suet. Ner. 49, Dom. 14.)— 2. M. Mettius
Epaphroditus, of Chaeronea, a Greek gram
marian, the slave and afterwards the freedman
of Modestus, the praefect of Egypt. He sub
sequently went to Rome, where he resided in
the reign of Nero and down to the time of Nerva.
He was the author of several grammatical works
and commentaries.
Epaphus ("Eiroipos), son of Zeus and Io, born
on the river NUe, after the long wanderings of
Ms mother. He was concealed by the Curetes,
at the request of Hera, but was discovered by
Io in Syria. He subsequently became kmg of
Egypt, married Memphis, a daughter of Nilus,
or, accordmg to others, Cassiopea, and Mult the
city of MempMs. He had a daughter Libya,
from whom Libya (Africa) received its name.
(Aesch. Pr. 846, Suppl. 536; Eur. Phoen.
678 ; Pind. Pyth. iv. 25 ; Hyg. Fab. 149.)
Epei. [Elis.]
Epetium ('EireViop : nr. Stobrez, Ru.), a
town of the Lissii m Dalmatia, with a good
harbour. Epeus fEireios). 1. Son of Endymion, kmg
in Elis, from whom the Epei are said to have
derived theirname (Paus. v. 1). — 2. Son of Pano-
peus, went with thirty ships from the Cyclades
to Troy. He bunt the wooden horse with the
assistance of Athene. (J?, xxiii. 665 ; Od. viii.
492; Paus. u. 29 ; Verg. Aen. ii. 264.)
Ephesus ("E(peo-os : 'Eipeoios : Ru. near
Ayasoluk, i.e. 'A710J @ebXoyos, the title of St.
John), the cMef of the twelve Ionian cities on
the coast of Asia Minor, was said to have been
founded as a Greek city by Androclus, the son
of Codrus, at the time of the great Ionian mi
gration, and united with the old town of the
Carians and Leleges. The Greek settlers adop
ted the worship of the Asiatic nature-goddess
wMch already existed there, and gave her the
name of Artemis. It stood a Utile S. of the
river Cayster, near its mouth, where a marshy
plain, extending S. from the river, is bounded by
two MUs, Prion or Lepre on the E', and Cores-
sus on the S. The city was buUt originally on
Mt. Coressus, but, m the time of Croesus, the
people transferred their habitations to the
valley, whence Lysimachus, the general of Alex
ander, compelled them again to remove to M.
Prion. On the N. side of the city was a lake,
communicating with the CajJster, and forming
the mner harbour, now a marsh; the outer
harbour (irdvoppos) was formed by the mouth of
the river. In the plain, E. of the lake, and NE.
of the city, beyond its walls, stood the celebra
ted temple of Artemis. The original temple is

EPHESUS

81T

Coin of Ephesus, exhibiting
the Temple of Artemis.

said to have heen built by Theodorus of Samos
about 630 B.C. Another was built in the latter
half of the sixth century B.C., by an architect
named ChersipMon. One of the sculptured
columns of this temple dedicated by Croesus,
and bearing part of his name inscribed on it, is
now in the British Museum. TMs temple was
burnt down by Herostratus in the night on
wMch Alexander the Great was born (Oct.
13-14, B.C. 856). The temple which took its
place, built by the joint efforts of all the Ionian
states, was regarded as one of the wonders of
the world (Plin. xxxvi.
179; Vitruv. x. 2, 11;
vii. Praef. 12, ii. Praef.
1). Foundations of the
two earlier temples
and fragments of the
columns of the second
were discovered in 1870
by Mr. Wood beneath
the great temple of the
Alexandrine age. Of
this the bases of the
columns were excava
ted and fragments of sculpture. [For description
see Diet, of Ant. art. Templum.] It stood nearly
a mile outside the Coressian gate of the city. The
temple was also celebrated as an asylum, till Au
gustus deprived it of that privilege. The other
buildings at Ephesus of which there are ruins,
are the agora, theatre, odeum, stadium, gymna
sium, and baths, temples of Zeus Olympius and
of Julius Caesar, and a large building near the
inner harbour : the foundations of the walls
may also be traced. With the rest of Ionia,
Ephesus fell under the power successively
of Croesus, the Persians, the Macedonians,
and the Romans. It was always very flourish
ing, and became even more so as the other
Ionian cities decayed. It was greatly favoured
by its Greek rulers, especially by Lysimachus,
who, in honour of his second wife, gave it
her name, Arsinoe", which, however, it did not
long retam. Attalus II. Philadelphus construc
ted docks for it, and improved its harbours.
Under the Romans it was the administrative
capital of the province of Asia (though Per
gamum was strictly the pnrpbiroXis), and by far
the greatest city of Asia Minor. (Plin. v. 120 ;
Cic. ad Fam. v. 20 ; Jos. Ant. xiv. 10, xvi. 6.)
It is conspicuous in the early history of the
CMistian Church, both St. Paul and St. John
having laboured in it, and addressed epistles to

Coin of Ephesus, of 4th cent. B.C.

Obv., E* and bee, which was the emblem of the city, and
connected with the worship of the Ephesian Artemis ;
rev., part of a stag (sacred to Artemis), and palm tree
and magistrate's name, apistoahmos.
the church of Ephesus ; and at one time its
bishop possessed the rank and power of a patri
arch over the churches in the province of Asia.
Its position, and the excellence of its harbours,
made it the chief emporium for the trade of all
Asia west of the Taurus ; and its downfall was
mainly owing to the destruction of its harbours
by the deposits of the Cayster.— Pliny (v. 115)

318

EPHIALTES

states that in the earliest times Ephesus was
called by various names, Alope, Ortygia (which
was the name of a sacred grove near it : Strab.
p. 639 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 61), Morge, Smyrna, Tra-
¦cheia, Haemonium, and Ptelea.
. EpMaltes ('E<pidX-rris). 1. One of the Aloldae.
[Aloeus.] — 2. A Malian, who in B.C. 480, when
Leonidas was defending the pass of Thermo
pylae, guided a body of Persians over the
mountain path, and thus enabled them to fall
on the rear of the Greeks. — 3, The Athenian
statesman, was a friend and partisan of Pericles,
whom he assisted in carrying his political mea
sures. He is mentioned in particular as chiefly
instrumental m that abridgment of the power
-of the Areiopagus wMch inflicted such a blow
on the oligarchical party. [Diet, of Ant. art.
Areiopagus.] This measure was carried in the
absence of Cimon, who, on Ms return, tried to
rescind it ; but, in Ms struggle with Ephialtes,
he failed and was ostracised. The services of
EpMaltes to the democratic cause excited the
rancorous enmity of some of the oligarchs, and
led to Ms assassmation during the night,
probably in 456. (Plut. Cim. 10-16; Aristot.
Pol. ii. 9, 3, 'A0. iroA. 26.)
Ephippus ("EQnriros). 1. An Athenian poet
of the Middle Comedy.— 2. Of Olynthus, a Greek
Mstorian of Alexander the Great.
Ephorus ("Eipopos), of Cyme in Aeolis, a cele
brated Greek historian, was a contemporary of
Philip and Alexander, and lived from about 400
to about 333 B.C. He studied rhetoric under
Isocrates, of whose pupils he and Theopompus
were considered the most distinguished. As
he lacked, in the opinion of Isocrates, the
energy required for political life, he was per
suaded to turn instead to historical writing.
Accordingly he wrote A History ('lo-ropiai) in
thirty books, which began with the return of
the Heraclidae, and came down to the siege of
Perinthus in 341. It treated of the Mstory of
the barbarians as weU as of the Greeks, and
was thus the first attempt at writing a universal
history that was ever made in Greece. It
-embraced a period of 750 years, and each of
the thirty books contained a compact portion
of the history which formed a complete whole
by itseU. Ephorus did not live to complete the
work, and it was finished by his son Demophilus.
Diyllus began his history at the point at which
the work of Ephorus left off. Ephorus also
wrote a few other works of less importance, of
which the titles only are preserved by the
grammarians. Of the Mstory likewise we have
notMng but fragments. It was written in a
clear and polished style, but was at the same
time deficient in power and energy. Ephorus
appears to have been faithful and impartial in
the narration of events ; but he did not always
foUow the best authorities (e.g. for the age of
Pericles he followed the writings of the comic
poets, without due allowance for caricature),
and m the later part of his work he frequently
differed from Herodotus, Thucydides, and
Xenophon, on points on which they are entitled
to credit. Diodorus Siculus made great use of
the work of Ephorus ; and he is commended
by Polybius for Ms accounts of naval warfare,
and by Strabo (Pol. xii. 25; Strab. p. 832).
The fragments of his work have been published
by Marx, Carlsruhe, 1815, and in Muller's
Fragm. Historicor. Graec. Paris, 1841.
Ephyra ('Eipipa). 1. The ancient name of
Corinth [Corinthus]. — 2. An ancient town of
¦the Pelasgi near the river Selleis in Elis, after-
-wards called Boenoa (II. ii. 659, xv. 531;

EPICRATES
Strab. p. 338).— 3. A town m Thessaly, after
wards called Cranon. — i. A town in Epirus,
afterwards called Cichyrus.
Epicaste ('Eiri/ccioTTj), commonly called Jo-
caste. Epicephesia ('EiriKri<prio-ia : 'ETiK7i(p7)<rios), a
demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Oeneis.
Epieharnius ('Eirixappos), the cMef comic
poet among the Dorians, was born in the island
of Cos, about b. c. 540. His father, Elothales,
was a physician, of the race of the Asclepiads.
At the age of tMee months, Epicharmus was
carried to Megara, in Sicily ; thence he removed
to Syracuse, when Megara was destroyed by
Gelo (484 or 483). Here he spent the re
mainder of Ms life, wMch was prolonged
tMoughout the reign of Hiero, at whose
court Epicharmus associated with the other
great writers of the time, and among them
with Aeschylus. He died at the age of 90 (450),
or, according to Lucian, 97 (443). Epicharmus
was a Pythagorean pMlosopher, and spent the
earUer part of Ms life in the study of philo
sophy, both physical and metaphysical. He is
said to have followed for some time Ms father's
profession of medicine ; and it appears that he
did not begin writing comedies tUl Ms re
moval to Syracuse. Comedy had for some time
existed at Megara in Sicily, which was a colony
from Megara on the Isthmus, the latter of which
towns disputed with the Athenians the inven
tion of comedy. But the comedy at the Sicilian
Megara before Epicharmus seems to have been
merely rude farces. It was he, together with
Phormis, who gave it a new form, and intro
duced a regular plot, but with no chorus. The
number of Ms comedies is differently stated at
52 or at 85. There are stUl extant 35 titles.
The majority of them are on mythological sub
jects — that is, travesties of the heroic myths ;
and these plays no doubt very much resembled
the satyric dramas of the Athenians. But
besides mythology, Epicharmus wrote on
other subjects, political, or relating to manners
and customs: such were probably The Boor
('Ayppao-rwos) and The Megarian Woman.
In Hebe's Wedding or The Muses Heracles
displayed the powers of eating which the Attic
poets afterwards signalised; and the Muses
appeared in the garb of Syracusan fish-wives.
The style of Ms plays appears to have been a
curious mixture of the broad buffoonery which
distinguished the old Megarian comedy and of
the sententious wisdom of the Pythagorean
pMlosopher. His language was remarkably
elegant: he was celebrated for Ms choice of
epithets : Ms plays abounded, as the extant
fragments prove, with philosophical and moral
maxims. He was imitated by Crates, and also
(in aiming at rapid movement of the drama) by
Plautus, as we learn from the lme of Horace
(Epist. ii. 1, 58),—
Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi.
Plato places him at the head of comedians
(Theaet. p. 152), inwMch criticism, however, he
is probably thinking most of the pMlosophical
element in Mb plays (cf. Diog. Laert. iii. 10).
Fragments in Meineke, Fr. Com. Graec.
Epicnemidii Locri. [Locris.]
Epicrates ('EirocpciT?)s). I. An Athenian,
took part in the overtiirow of the Thirty; but
afterwards, when sent on an embassy to the
Persian Mng, he was accused of receiving money
from Artaxerxes. He appears to have been ac
quitted tMs time ; but he was tried on a later
occasion, on another charge of corruption, and

EPICTETUS
only escaped death by a voluntary exile. (Dem.
F. L. p. 430, § 315; Athen. p. 251.) He was
ridiculed by the comic poets for Ms large beard,
and for tMs reason was caUed ffaKeo-cpbpos
(Aristoph. Eccles. 68, and Schol.). — 2. Of Am
bracia, an Athenian poet of the Middle Comedy.
Epictetus ('EirtKTriTos), of Hierapolis in
PMygia, a celebrated Stoic phUosopher, was a
freedman of EpapModitus, who was Mmself a
freedman of Nero. [Epaphroditus.] He lived
and taught first at Rome, and, after the expul
sion of the pMlosophers by Domitian, at Nico
polis m Epirus. Although he was favoured by
Hadrian, he does not appear to have returned
to Rome ; for the discourses wMch Arrian took
down in writing were delivered by Epictetus
when an old man at NicopoUs. Only a few
circumstances of Ms life are recorded, such as
Ms lameness, wMch is spoken of m different
ways, Ms poverty, and Ms few wants. Epictetus
did not leave any works beMnd Mm, and the
short manual (Enchiridion) which bears Ms
name was compiled from Ms discourses by Ms
faitMul pupU Arrian. Arrian also wrote the
philosophical lectures of Ms master in eight
books, from wMch, though four are lost, we are
enabled to gain a complete idea of the way in
wMch Epictetus conceived and taught the Stoic
pMlosophy. [Arrianus.] He teaches that man
should follow reason and Ms own conscience as
Ms guide patiently and trustfuUy ; and may feel
mdependent of all external circumstances which
are beyond Ms control and need not trouble
him if he knows how to find freedom and happi
ness m his own mind. He beheves in a Deity
or Providence who chooses better for men than
they could for themselves, and in a Guiding
Spirit or conscience (perhaps here foUowmg
Socrates) wMch aids men to judge rightly of
appearances, and to understand what they can
and ought to control and what is to be borne
patiently as beyond their control : the great
rule of life was ' endurance and abstinence '
(dvexov Kal direxov).
Epictetus Phrygia. [Phrygia.]
Epicurus ('EiriKoupos), a celebrated Greek
phUosopher, and the founder of a pMlosopMcal
school called, after him, the Epicurean. He
was a son of Neocles and Charestrata, and was
born B.C. 342, m the Attic demos of Gargettus,
and hence is sometimes called the Gargettian.
(Cic. ad Fam. xv. 16.) At an early age he
was taken to Samos by Ms father, who had
a settlement there as an Atheman colomst
(kXtipovxps). At 18 Epicurus came to
Athens, and there probably studied under
Xenocrates, who was then at the head of the
Academy. After a short stay at Athens he went
to Colophon, and subsequently resided at Myti
lene and Lampsacus, m wMch places he was
engaged for five years m teacMng phUosophy.
In 306, when he had attamed the age of 35, he
again came to Athens, where he purchased for
80 niinae a garden — the famous Kijiroi 'EiriKoipov
— in wMch he established Ms pMlosopMcal
school. Here he spent the remamder of his
life, surrounded by numerous friends and pupUs.
His mode of Uving was simple, temperate, and
cheerful ; and the aspersions of comic poets
and of later pMlosophers, who were opposed
to Ms pMlosophy and describe him as a per
son devoted to sensual pleasures, unjustly fix
upon him the reproach wMch belonged to some
of Ms followers at a later time. He took no
part m public affairs. He died in 270, at the
age of 72, after a long and painful iUness, wMch
he endured with truly philosophical patience

EPICYDE

319

Bust of J-Jpir; urus.

and courage. — Epicurus is said to have written
300 volumes. Of these the most important
was on On Nature (Ilepl 4>i<reas), in 37 books.
All Ms works are lost ; but some fragments of
the work on Nature were found among the rolls
at Herculaneum, and were published by Orelli,
Lips. 1818. Li his pMlosopMcal system (see
Diog. Laert. book x. ; Lucre
tius, iii. 3, &c. ; Cic. de Fin.
i. and ii., N. D. i.) Epicurus
prided himself in being in
dependent of all his pre
decessors ; but he was in
reality mdebted both to De
mocritus and the Cyrenaics.
His regard for science and
physics was mainly on the
ground that a true under-
standmg of them might
free mankind from the fear
of the gods (religio) and of
death. He regarded our
senses as the guide to truth
in theory and our sensa
tions of pleasure and pain
as the motives of choice in practical life. In
Ms physics he foUowed Democritus in his
atomic theory, except that he saw that atoms
must fall with equal velocity, and therefore
supposed some external force by which they were
deflected from their perpendicular path, and
hence, striking together, gave rise to a circular
motion wMch created many different worlds.
These worlds are separated by regions of space,
wMch he called pe-raKbffpia ( = internvundia) ;
all of them are subject to decay. The soul of
animals and of man consists of elements of fire
and air, and also of a certain matter derived
from their parents, whence comes their powers
of perception. Men have also a rational part
added to the irrational elements of the soul.
At death the atoms of the soul are scattered :
therefore we cannot exist after death, and need
not fear it. Freedom of will he mamtained abso
lutely. The gods, owing to the universality of
the belief m them, he did not seek to eliminate
from Mb scheme ; but he makes them ideals of
tranquil happiness : having fine bodies of light,
they dwell in the intermundia, where there are
no decaying bodies ; and they are troubled by
no cares for the worlds around them, but alto
gether out of their sphere. Hence it follows
that the gods need not inspire men with any
terrors. In Ms ethics he bids us seek for the
absence of pain as the greatest good : this con
sists especially m repose of mind (ctTapa|i'a);
and, smce virtue tends to this repose, therefore
virtue is essential for true happiness. He does
not indeed forbid sensual pleasures, but he de
mands that man should be independent of them,
and not their slave.
Epioydes ('EiriKiSTis), a Syracusan by origm,
but born and educated at Carthage. He served,
together with Ms elder brother, Hippocrates.with
much distinction in the army of Hannibal, both
in Spam and Italy ; and when, after the battle
of Cannae (b. c. 216), Hieronymus of Syracuse
sent to make overtures to Hannibal, that gene
ral selected the two brothers as Ms envoys to
Syracuse. They soon induced the young kmg
to desert the Roman alliance. Upon the murder
of Hieronymus shortly after, they were the
leaders of the Carthaginian party at Syracuse,
and eventuaUy became the masters of the city,
which they defended against Marcellus. Epi-
cydes fled to Agrigentum, when he saw that the
fall of Syracuse was inevitable. (Liv. xxiv.

320

EPIDAMNUS

6, 21, xxv. 23, 40 ; Plut. Marc. 14 ; Polyb. vii.
2.) Epidamnus. [Dyrrhachium.]
Epidaurus ('E7rf!5aupos:'Eiri8ai5p<os). 1. (Epi-
davra), a town in Argolis on the Saronic gulf,
formed with its territory Epidauria ('EmSavpia),
a district mdependent of Argos, and was not in
cluded in Argolis till the time of the Romans.
It was originaUy inhabited by Ionians and
Carians, whence it was called Epicarus, but it
was subdued by the Dorians under Deiphontes,
who thus became the ruling race. Epidaurus
was the chief seat of the worship of Asclepius,
and was to this circumstance indebted for its
importance. The temple of this god, wMch was
one of the most magnificent in Greece, was
situated about five miles SW. of Epidaurus.
The excavations, begun in 1881, have produced
the most important results : the ground plan of
the great temple itself has been ascertained ; of
the Tholos of Polycletus within the precincts ;
of the temple of Artemis and the gymnasium :
above aU, mscriptions of the greatest value as
throwing light on the worship of Asclepius have
been found (see Ephem. Att. 1881, 1883, p. 197,
1885, 1 ; Asclepius). On the slopes of Cynos-
tion above the temple is the theatre, which is
of the fourth century B. c, and the best pre
served example of a Greek theatre (see descrip
tion and plan in Diet, of Ant. art. Theatrum).
— 2. Surnamed Limera (i) Aipripd : Monembasia
or Old Malvasia), a town in Laconia, on the
E. coast, said to have been founded by Epidau
rus in Argolis (Strab. p. 368).
Epidelmm ('EmS7)Xiov), a town in Laconia
on the E. coast, S. of Epidaurus Limera, with a
temple of Apollo and an image of the god, which
is said to have been thrown into the sea at Delos
and to have come to land at this place.
Epig-enes ('Eiriyevris). 1. An Athenian poet
of the Middle Comedy, about b. c. 380.— 2. Of
Sicyon, said to have preceded Thespis, and to
have been the most ancient writer of tragedy
(Suid. s. v. Thespis). — 3. Of Byzantium, a Greek
astronomer, mentioned by Seneca (Q. N. vii. 80)
and Pliny (vii. 193). He studied in Chaldea,
but Ms date is uncertain.
Epigoni ('Eirlyovoi), that is, 'the Descend
ants,' the name in ancient mythology of the
sons of the seven heroes who perished be
fore Thebes. [Adrastus.] Ten years after
their death, the descendants of the seven
heroes marched against Thebes to avenge their
fathers. For the stories of the Epigoni, see
Alcmaeon, Aegialeus, Diomedes, Promachus,
Sthenelus, Thersander, Euryalus, 'and
Thebae. Epimenides ('EiripeviSTis). 1. A celebrated
poet and prophet of Crete, whose history is to a
great extent mythical. He was reckoned
among the Curetes, and is said to have been
the son of a nymph. He was a native of
Phaestus in Crete, and appears to have spent
the greatest part of his life at Cnossus, whence
he is sometimes called a Cnossian. There is a
legend that when a boy, he was sent out by
his father in search of a sheep, and that seek
ing shelter from the heat of the midday sun,
he went into a cave, and there fell into a deep
sleep, which lasted 57 years. On waking and
returning home, he found to his great amaze
ment that his younger brother had in the mean
time grown an old man. He is further said to
have attained the age of 154, 157, or even of
229 years. (Diog, Laert. i. 109-115 ; Strab. p.
479 ; Paus. i. 14, 4.) — His visit to Athens, how
ever, is an historical fact, and determines his

EPIRUS
date. The Athenians, who were visited by a
plague in consequence of the crime of Cylon
[Cylon], consulted the DelpMc oracle about
the means of their delivery. The god com
manded them to get their city purified, and the
Athenians invited Epimemdes to come and
undertake the purification. Epimenides ac
cordingly came to Athens, B.C. 596, and per
formed the desired task by certain mysterious
rites and sacrifices, m consequence of wMch
the plague ceased. He refused the large sums
of money offered Mm in gratitude by Athens,
and accepted only a branch from the sacred
olive of Athene. (Plut. Sol. 12; Aristot. 'A8.
iro\. 1.) — Epimenides was reckoned by some
among the seven wise men of Greece ; but all
that tradition has handed down about him sug
gests a different character from that of the
others ; he must rather be ranked m the class of
priestly bards and sages, such as Abaris and
Aristeas. Many works, both in prose and verse,
were attributed to him by the ancients, and the
Apostle Paul has preserved (Titus i. 12) a cele
brated verse of Ms against the Cretans.
Epimetheus. [Prometheus and Pandora.]
Epiphanes, a surname of Antiochus IV. and
Antiochus XL, Mngs of Syria.
Epiphania or -ea ('Eiriipdveia). 1. In Syria
(O. T. Hamath : Hamah), m the district of
Cassiotis, on the left bank of the Orontes, an
early colony of the Phoemcians ; may be pre
sumed, from its later name, to have been
restored or improved by Antiochus Epiphanes.
— 2. In Asia Minor (Urzin), on the SE. border
of Cilicia, close to the Pylae Amanides, was
formerly called Oeniandus, and probably owed
its new name to Antiochus Epiphanes. Pom
pey repeopled this city with some of the pirates
whom he had conquered. (Cic. ad Fam. xv.
4 ; Plin. v. 93 ; Appian, Mithr. 96.)
Epiphanius ('Eirupdvios), one of the Greek
Fathers of the Church. [Diet, of Christian
Biography.] Epipolae. [Syracusae.]
Epirus (''Hireipos : 'Hireipdrris, fern. 'HireipaJTis :
Albania), that is, ' the mainland,' a country
in the NW. of Greece, so caUed to distinguish
it from Corcyra and the other islands off the
coast. Homer gives the name of Epirus to the
whole of the W. coast of Greece, thus includ
ing Acarnania m it. Epirus was bounded by
Hlyria and Macedonia on the N., by Thessaly
on the E., by Acarnania and the Ambracian
gulf on the S., and by the Ionian sea on the W.
The principal mountains were the Acroceraunii,
formmg the NW. boundary, and Pindus,
formmg the E. boundary ; besides which there
were the mountains Tomarus in the E., and
Crania in the S. The chief rivers were the
Celydnus, Thyamis, Acheron, and Arachthus. —
The inhabitants of Epirus were numerous, but
were not of pure Hellenic blood. The original
population is spoken of as Pelasgic; and the
ancient oracle of Dodona in the country
was always regarded as of Pelasgic origm.
These early inhabitants were subsequently
mingled with Illyrians, who at various times
invaded Epirus and settled in the country.
Epirus contained fourteen different tribes. Of
these the most important were the Chaones,
Thesproti and Molossi, who gave their names
to the three principal divisions of the country,
Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. The
different tribes were originaUy governed by
their own princes. The Molossian princes, who
traced their descent from Pyrrhus (Neoptole-
mus), son of AcMUes, subsequently acquired

EPIRUS
the sovereignty over the whole country, and
took the title of kings of Epirus. The first
who bore this title was Alexander, who Mvaded
Italy to assist the Tarentines against the
Lucanians and Bruttii, and perished at the
battle of Pandosia, B.C. 326. The most cele
brated of the later Mngs was Pyrrhus, who
carried on war with the Romans. About B.C.
200 the Epirots established a republic ; and the
Romans, after the conquest of Philip, 197,
guaranteed its independence. But in conse
quence of the support which the Epirots
afforded to Antiochus and Perseus, Aemilius
Paulus received orders from the senate to
punish them with the utmost severity. He
destroyed seventy of their towns, and sold
150,000 of the inhabitants for slaves. In the
time of Augustus the country had not yet
recovered from the effects of this devastation.
Epirus at first formed part of the province of
Achaia (Tac. Ann. ii. 37) ; but from the time of
Hadrian (perhaps earlier) it formed an indepen
dent procuratorial province, separated from
Achaia by the Achelous (C.I.L. iii. 536).
Epirus Nova. [Illyricum.]
Epona (probably from the Celtic epo, horse),
a goddess worsMpped at Rome, the protectress
of horses and mules. It is probable that she
was not, as some have thought, a genuine
Italian deity, mcluded m the Indigitamenta,
but a somewhat late introduction from Gaul.
Her name does not occur m Latin literature
before Juvenal (viii. 157 ; cf . Plut. Parall. min.
29 ; Tert. Apol. 16 ; Apul. Met. iii. 27). Most
of the mscriptions m her honour come from
GauL Germany and Britam (C. I. L. iii. 788,
3420, 4776, vii. 747, 1114). Several representa
tions of her have been found, generaUy seated,
and laymg her hands on the heads of animals.
Epopeus ('Eirwireus). 1. Son of Poseidon and
Canace, came from Thessaly to Sicyon, of wMch
place he became king. He carried away from
Thebes the beautiful Antiope, daughter of
Nycteus, who therefore made war upon Epopeus.
The two kmgs died of the wounds wMch they
received m the war. — 2. One of the Tyrrheman
pirates who attempted to carry off Dionysus
but were changed by the god into dolphms.
Eporedia (Ivrea), a town in GaUia Cisalpina,
on the Duria, M the territory of the Salassi,
colonised by the Romans, b.c. 100, on the com
mand of the SibylUne books, to serve as a bul
wark agamst the neighbouring Alpine tribes
(VeU. Pat. i. 15 ; Strab. p. 205 ; Plto. ui. 123).
It was important as commanding the approach
to the Val d' Aosta and to the passes of the
Great and Little St. Bernard. [Alpes,]
Eporedorix, a cMeftam of the Aedui, was
one of the commanders of the Aeduan cavalry
sent to Caesar's aid against Vercingetorix, in
B.c. 52 ; but he himself revolted soon afterwards
and joined the enemy (Caes. B. G. vn. 38).
Epytus, a Trojan, father of Periphas, who
was a compamon of lulus, and is called by the
patronymic Epytides (Verg. Aen. ii. 340).
Equus Tuticus or Aequum Tuticum, a
small town of the Hirpini in Samnium, twenty-
one mUes from Beneventum (Cic. ad Att. vi.
1). The Scholiast on Horace (Sat. i. 5, 37)
supposes, but without sufficient reasons, that it
is the town quodversu dicere non est.
Erae ("Epai : Sighajik ?), a small but strong
seaport town on the coast of Ionia, N. of Teos
(Thuc. viii. 19 ; Strab. p. 664).
Erana, a town of the Eleutherocilices in the
district of M. Amanus, in the time of Cicero
(Cic. ad Fam. xv. 4).

ERATOSTHENES

821

Erannoboas ('EpavvoBbas : Gunduk), a river
of India, one of the chief tributaries of the
Ganges, into which it fell at Palimbotiira.
Erasinides ('Epao-ivtSTis), one of the Athenian
commanders at the battle of Arginusae. He
was among the six commanders who returned
to Athens after the victory, and were put to
death, B.C. 406.
Erasinus ('EpatrTvos). 1. (Kephalari), the
cMef river in Argolis, rises in the lake Stympha-
lus, then disappears under the earth, rises again
out of the mountain Chaon, and after receiving
the river Phrixu6, flows through the Lernaean
marsh into the Argolic guU (Strab. p. 275). — 2.
A smaU river near Brauron in Attica.
Erasistratus ('Epaoiorparos), a celebrated.
physician and anatomist, was born at Iulis in
the Island of Ceos. He was a pupil of Chrys
ippus of Cnidos, Metrodorus, and apparently
Theophrastus. He flourished from B.C. 300 to
260. He lived for some time at the court of
Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria, where he
acquired great reputation by discovering that
the illness of Antiochus, the Mng's eldest son,
was owing to his love for Ms stepmother,
Stratonice, the young and beautiful daughter of
Demetrius Poliorcetes, whom Seleucus had
lately married (Appian, Syr. 59-61 ; Plut.
Demetr. 38). Erasistratus afterwards lived at
Alexandria, wMch was at the time beginning to
be a celebrated medical school. He gave up
practice in Ms old age, that he might pursue
nis anatomical studies without interruption.
He prosecuted Ms experiments in this branch of
medical science with great success, and with
so little scruple that he is said to have dissected
criminals alive. He had numerous pupils and
foUowers, and a medical school bearing Ms
name continued to exist at Smyrna m Ionia
about the beginning of the CMistian era.
Eratidae ('EpaTUiai), an illustrious famUy of
Ialysus in Rhodes, to which Damagetus and
Ms son Diagoras belonged (Pmd. Ol. vii. 20).
Erato ('Epard). 1. Wife of Arcas, and
mother of Elatus and Aphidas. [Arcas.] — 2.
One of the Muses. [Musae.]
Eratosthenes ('Eparoo-BevTis), of Cyrene, was
born B.C. 276. He first studied in his native
city and then at Athens. He was taught by
Ariston of Chios, the philosopher ; Lysanias of
Cyrene, the grammarian ; and Callimachus, the
poet. He left Athens at the invitation of
Ptolemy Euergetes, who placed Mm over the
library at Alexandria. Here he continued till
the reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes. He died at
the age of 80, about B.C. 196, of voluntary star
vation, having lost Ms sight, and being tired of
Ufe. He was a man of very extensive learning,
and wrote on almost all the branches of know
ledge then cultivated — astronomy, geometry,
geography, pMlosophy, history, and grammar.
He is supposed to have constructed the large
armillae or fixed circular instruments wMch
were long in use at Alexandria. His works have
perished, with the exception of some fragments.
His most celebrated work was a systematic
treatise on geography, entitled TeaypajpiKd, in
three books. The first book, which formed a
sort of introduction, contained a critical review
of the labours of his predecessors from the
earliest to his own times, and investigations
concerning the form and nature of the earth,
wMch, according to him, was an immovable
globe. The second book contained what is now
called mathematical geography. He was the
first person who attempted to measure the
magnitude of the earth, in which attempt he

322

ERBESSUS

brought forward and used the method wMch is
employed to the present day. The third book
contamed political geography, and gave de
scriptions of the various countries, derived from
the works of earlier travellers and geographers.
In order to be able to determine the accurate
site of each place, he drew a line paraUel with
the equator, running from the pillars of Hercules
to the extreme east of Asia, and dividing the
whole of the inhabited earth into two halves.
Connected with this work was a new map of
the earth, in which towns, mountains, rivers,
lakes, and climates were marked according to
Ms own improved measurements. TMs im
portant work of Eratosthenes forms an epoch
to the history of ancient geography. Strabo,
as weU as other writers, made great use of it.
Eratosthenes also wrote two poems on astro
nomical subjects : one entitled 'Eppfjs, or KaT-
ao-repiapoi, wMch treated of the consteUations ;
and another entitled 'Hpiybvn : but the poem
Karao-repio-pot wMch is still extant under Mb
name is not the work of Eratosthenes. He
wrote several historical works, the most im
portant of which was a cMonological work
entitled Xpovoypatpia, and a grammatical work,
On the Old Attic Comedy. The best coUection
of Ms fragments is by Bernhardy, Eratosthe-
nica, Berol. 1822.
Erbessus ('Ep/3ij<ro-<(s), a town in Sicily, NE.
of Agrigentum, near the sourceB of the Acragas,
which must not be confounded with the town
Herbessus near Syracuse (Pol. i. 18).
Ercta (EipKri), or ElpKral), a fortress in Sicily,
on a hill with a harbour, near Panormus.
[Hamilcar.] Erebus ("EpeBos), son of Chaos, begot Aether
and Hemera (Day) by Nyx (Night), his sister.
The name signifies darkness, and is therefore
applied also to the dark and gloomy space
under the earth, through which the shades pass
mto Hades (Hes. Th. 123).
Erechtheum ('EpexBewv) stood on the site of
the ancient temple, said to have been built by
Erechtheus, which was burnt down by the
Persians in B.C. 480. [For its position see plan
of Acropolis.] It was supposed to stand upon
the spot where Athene and Poseidon strove for
the possession of Athens, and (such at least

neutered Plan oi Erechtheum. Scale, 50 feet to 1 inoh.
(The dark parts remain ; the shaded are restorations.)
A, Eastern Portico ; B, East Cella (usually taken to be the
temple of Athene Polias) ; C, North Portico ; D.West Hall;
E, West Cella; F, South Portico (.Porch of Caryatides).
has been the view commonly received) to con
tain the three shrines, of Athene Polias (the
protectress of Athens), of Poseidon, and of

ERETRIA
Erechtheus. This is, however, now disputed,
and it is mamtained by archaeologists of great
repute that the old temple of Athene (Xen.
Hell. i. 6 ; Strab. p. 396) discovered by Dr.
Db'rpfeld was really the sMme of Athene PoUas,
and that the eastern cella of the Erechtheum
never was her shrine, though it contained her
most ancient image. [For difficulties in this
view see Acropolis; Parthenon.] The new
Erechtheum was begun in the time of Pericles,
but it was completed later, betog stiU unfinished
in 409 (C. I. A. i. 822, where it is called 6 veas
iv $ to dpxatov ayaXpa). In its complete
form it was a beautiful Ionic temple, 70 feet
long (includmg the E. portico) and 32 broad.
It had tMee divisions : the eastern portion of
the ceUa contained the oldest image, or £6avov,
of Athene ; the central and western parts were
sacred to Poseidon and Erechtheus. The main
entrance was probably
the eastern portico. Pau-
sanias (though the identi
fication of the mternal
arrangements is only con-
jectural) entered by the
southern porch (the beau
tiful Caryatid portico),
and passed thence Mto
the western haU, where,
probably, stood the tMee
altars of Poseidon and
Erechtheus, of Butes, and
of Hephaestus ; thence
he passed into the west
ceUa (the central of the
tMee chambers), in wMch
were the well of salt
water, the marks of the
trident, and probably the
statue of Poseidon: re-
turnmg to the west haU
he went by the side pas
sage and steps up into
the eastern ceUa (usually
taken to be the temple of
Athene Polias), in wMch
were the ancient wooden
image (£bavov) and the
golden lamp of CaUi
machus. If this was the
temple of Athene Polias,
he found there also the
wooden Hermes. By the
side of the main, or
eastern, portico there is
flight of uncovered steps
by which the northern
porch (rather larger than the southern) could be
approached. This porch gave access by its main
door to the western hall, and probably by a
side door westwards into the enclosure of the
Pandroseum, where stood a small temple of
Pandrosos : in this enclosure stood the sacred
olive tree. It is by no means certam wMch
part of the building was sacred to Cecrops and
spoken of sometimes as the Cecropeion ; but it
may have been the southern or Caryatid porch.
TMs porch had, instead of columns, six figures
of maidens, one of which is now in the British
Museum. Erechtheus, [Erichthonius.]
Eresus, or Eressus ("Epecros, "Epeo-o-oj:
'EpeVios), a town on the W. coast of the island
of Lesbos, the birthplace of Theophrastus and
Phanias, and, accordmg to some, of Sappho
(Strab. g. 618 ; Thuc. ui. 25).
Eretria ('EpeVpia : 'EpeTpieiis: Aletria), an

One of the Caryatides sup
porting the southern por.
tico of the Erechtheum
(now in the British Mu
seum).

ERETUM
ancient and important town to Euboea, on the
Euripus, with a celebrated harbour Porthmos
(Porto Bufalo), was founded by the Athenians,
tout had a mixed population, among wMch was a
considerable number of Dorians. Its com
merce and navy raised it in early times to im
portance; it contended with Chalcis for the
supremacy of Euboea (Thuc. i. 15) ; it ruled
over several of the neighbouring islands, and
planted colonies in Macedonia and Italy: It
was destroyed by the Persians, B. c 490, and
most of its inhabitants were carried away mto
slavery (Hdt. vi. 125). Those who were left
behind built, at a little distance from the old

ERIGONE

82S

Coin of Eretria in Euboea (B.C. 197-146).
Obv., head of Artemis ; rev., bull (in allusion probably to
the bull dedicated by the Eretrians at Olympia ; Paus.
v. 27, 9); with legend epetpieqn and #anias, magis
trate's name.
-city, the town of New Eretria, wMch, however,
never became a place of importance. (Strab.
pp. 403,448.)— 2. A town in Phthiotis in Thes
saly, near Pharsalus.
Eretum, a town of the Sabines, at the junc
tion of the Viae Salaria and Nomentana,
about eighteen miles from Rome (Verg. Aen.
vii. 711 ; Liv. xxvi. 11).
Erginus ('Epyivos), son of Clymenus, king of
Orchomenos. After Clymenus had been killed
at Thebes, Ergtous, who succeeded him,
marched agamst Thebes and compeUed the The
bans to pay him an annual tribute of 100 oxen,
from which they were released by Heracles,
who kUled Ergmus. (Ptod. Ol. xiv. 2 ; Eur. H.
F. 49 ; Paus. ix. 37, 38.)
Erichthonius ('EptxBSvios), or Erechtheus
('EpexBeisj. In the ancient myths these two
names mdicate the same person; but later
writers mention two heroes, one of whom is
usuaUy called Erichthonius or Erechtheus I.,
and the other Erechtheus II. Homer knows
only one Erechtheus, as an autochthon and Mng
of Athens (H. n. 547 ; Od. vii. 81 ; Hdt. viii. 55) ;
.and the first writer who distinguishes them
is Pindar (ap. Harpocr. s. v. airbxBoves : cf . Plat.
Grit. 110 a). — 1. Erichthonius or Erechtheus
I., son of Hephaestus and AttMs, the daughter
of Cranaus; according to others, of Hephaestus
and the Earth (Gaia). Athene received the
cMld from Gaia, and entrusted Mm to Agraulos,
-Pandrosos, and Herse, concealed in a chest.
They were forbidden to open the chest, but
they disobeyed the command. Upon opening
it they saw the child with a snake coiled
round him, whereupon they were seized with
madness, and threw themselves down the
rock of the AcropoUs, or, according to others,
were kiUed by the snake. Erichthonius was
brought up in the temple of Athene (in
some stories, under the form of a snake) ;
when he had grown up, he expelled Amphictyon
(or, in other accounts, received the kingdom as
a gift from Cecrops), and became king of Athens.
His wife Pasithea bore Mm a son, Pandion.
He is said to have mstituted the festival of the
Panathenaea, and to have built a temple of
Athene on the Acropolis. He was further the
first who used a chariot with four horses, for

which reason he was placed among the stars as
Auriga. He was buried in the temple of Athene
and was worshipped as a god after Ms death.
[Erechtheum.] The myth probably grew up
partly from the adoption of Athene as supreme
goddess, when Erichthonius or Erechtheus,
originally a local nature-god and = Poseidon,
was to be represented as inferior to Athene,
and yet connected with her worship ; partly
from the rites of the Arrhephoria. [Diet, of
Ant. s. v. ; and Pandrosos.] The story is
given especially to Eur. Ion, Paus. i. 18, and
Apollod. iii. 14 ; but it was represented m works
of art earlier than the time of Euripides : espe
cially on an archaic terra-cotta at Berlm, where
Athene receives the child from Gaia, while
Cecrops, haU man, half snake, stands by ; and
on a vase also at Berlm. The opening of the
chest is shown on a later vase in the British
Museum. — 2. Erechtheus II. (or rather the
Erechtheus of the storieB wMch separate Erich-
thomus from Erechtheus), grandson of the
former, son of Pandion by Zeuxippe, and
brother of Butes, Procne, and PhUomela.
After Ms father's death, he succeeded him as
king of Athens, and was regarded in later times
as one of the Attic eponymi. He was married
to Praxithea, by whom he became the father of
Cecrops, Pandoros, Metion, Orneus, Procris,
Creusa, Chthoma, and Orithyia. In the war
between the Eleusinians and Athenians, Eu-
molpus, the son of Poseidon, was slam ; where
upon Poseidon demanded the sacrifice of one of
the daughters of Erechtheus. [See Aglauros.]
When one was drawn by lot, her tMee sisters
resolved to die with her ; and Erechtheus was
killed by Zeus with a flash of lightning at the
request of Poseidon. TMs story is first given
by .Euripides, especiaUy in his Erechtheus (cf.
Ion, 267, 1007 ; Paus. i. 5 ; Apollod. in. 15).
Erichthonius, son of Dardanus and Batea,
husband of Astyoche or CaUirrhoe, and father of
Tros or Assaracus. He was the wealthiest of
aU mortals; in his fields grazed 3000 mares,
wMch were so beautiful that Boreas fell in
love with them. (II. xx. 219 ; Ov. Fast. iv. S3.)
Ericinium, a town in Thessaly near GompM.
Eridanus ('HplSavos), a river god, a son of
Oceanus and Tethys, and father of Zeuxippe.
He is caUed the king of rivers, and on his banks
amber was found. In Homer the name does
not occur, and the first writer who mentions it
is Hesiod (Th. 338). Herodotus has heard of
a river in the north of this name where amber
was found (iii. 115). In later times the Eri
danus was supposed to be the same as the
Padus, because amber was exported from its
mouth, brought to that spot probably by traders
from the Baltic. Hence the Electrides Insulae
or ' Amber Islands ' are placed at the mouth of
the Po, and here Phaethon was supposed to have
fallen when struck by the lightning of Zeus
(Paus. i. 4, 1, v. 12, 7). It is not absolutely im
possible that Hesiod may have heard of the river
Po, though some maintain that this must be a
more easterly river. Aeschylus seems to have
placed the Eridanus to the west but to have
confused it with the Rhone (Plin. xxxvii. 82).
Euripides identifies it with the Po (Hipp. 782),
and the Latin poets use Padus and Eridanus
as synonymous (cf. Plin. iii. 117). [Padus.]
Erigon ('Epiyav), a tributary of the Axius in
Macedonia, the Agrianus of Herodotus. [Axius.]
'ETigbne('Hpiyov7i). 1. Daughter of Icarius,
beloved by Bacchus. For the legend respecting
her, see Icarius. — 2. Daughter of Aegisthus
and Clytaemnestra, and mother of Penthilus y 2

324

ERINEUS

by Orestes. One legend relates that Orestes
wanted to kill her with her mother, but that
Artemis removed her to Attica, and there made
her her priestess. Others state that Erigone
put an end to herself when she heard that
Orestes was acquitted by the Areiopagus (Paus.
ii. 18; Hyg. Fab. 122).
Erineus ('Epivebs or'Epivebv : 'Epiveis,'Epived-
tt)s). 1. A small but ancient town in Doris,
belonging to the TetrapoliB (Thuc. i. 107).
[Doris.] — 2. A town in PhtMotis in Thessaly. —
8. A small river on the E. coast of Sicily (now
the Miranda), between the Cacyparis and the
Asinarus (Thuc. vii. 30).
Erinna ('Hpivva), a Greek poetess, said to
have been born in Telos and to have been a
contemporary and friend of Sappho (about B.C.
612), who died at the age of 19. On the other
hand, Eusebius places her two centuries later.
Her cMef poem was entitled 'HAokoti), the
Distaff: it consisted of 300 lines, of wMch only
four are extant. Three epigrams in the Anthology
bear her name. We have nothing to explain
the opinion of an ancient critic who com
pared her to Homer. The poem to Rome be
ginning x<"P* poi Fdpri, in SappMc metre, which
has sometimes been ascribed to Erinna, is by
Melinnus, a poetess of Locri, in Italy, of the
third century B.C.,
Erinyes ('Epivies, 'Eptvvs), also called Eu
menides (EipevlSes), and by the Romans
Furiae or Dirae, the Avenging Deities, were
conceived as the personification of curses pro
nounced upon a criminal. The name Erinys is
the more ancient one ; the Greeks derived it
from the Arcadian ipivia, I am angry, so that
the Erinyes were the angry goddesses (Paus.
viii. 25, 4). Many modern writers take the
name to be identical with an Indian goddess
Saranyu. The name Eumenides, wMch signi
fies ' the kindly deities,' is a mere euphemism,
because people dreaded to call these fearful
goddesses by their real name (Soph. 0. C. 128).
It was said to have been first given them after
the acquittal of Orestes by the Areiopagus,
when the anger of the Erinyes had become
soothed. But at Athens their proper title was
'Sepvdi Beoi — that is, the venerable goddesses of
the earth and of the underworld. Sometimes
in the singular Erinys is spoken of in Homer
and in later writers, but they are oftener a
pluraUty of deities. Homer represents them
as inhabitants of Erebos, where they remain
quiet until some curse pronounced upon a
criminal calls them into activity (H. ix. 568 ;
cf. Aesch. Eum. 72). They watch particularly
, over the family ties : the crime wMch they
especiaUy punish is failure in duty to parents.
This is mentioned eight times in the Iliad and
Odyssey, and in all cases except one (II. ix. 454)
Erinyes of the mother are spoken of (cf . II. xxi.
412 ; Od. ii. 185). But Homer also makes
them intervene sometimes to check those who
in other ways overstep the limits of what is
becoming or right (cf. II. xix. 87, 418) ; and
punish the perjured and those who spurn the
beggar or the suppliant (II. xix. 259 ; Od. xvii.
475). In punishing they took away from men
all peace of mind, and led them into misery and
misfortune. Hesiod says that they were the
daughters of Ge, and sprung from the drops of
blood that feU upon her from the body of
Uranus ; and tMs, it may be noted, was a case
of violence done to a father (Hes. Th. 185).
Aeschylus calls them the daughters of Night ;
and Sophocles of Darkness and Ge (Aesch.
Eum. 321 ; Soph. 0. C. 40, 106). Aeschylus

ERINYES
describes them as divinities more ancient than
the Olympian gods, dwelling in the deep dark
ness of Tartarus, dreaded by gods and men ;
with bodies all black, serpents twined in their
hair, and blood dripping from their eyes. Euri
pides and other later poets describe them as
winged (Eur. Or. 817; Verg. Aen. xii. 848).
Euripides is the earUest Greek poet who gives
their number as three (Or. 408; Tro. 457),
though not consistently (I. T. 968). _ With
later writers their names are Tisiphone,
Alecto, and Megaera (Verg. Aen. vi. 571,
vii. 324, xii. 846; Apollod. i. 1, 4). In their
worsMp at Athens, where they had a sanctuary
and a cavern near the Areiopagus, in their
worsMp at Colonus, in that at Sicyon, where a
pregnant ewe was offered (Paus. ii. 11, 4), and
stUl more in the Erinys Thelpusa or Tilphossa,
they appear as ancient deities of the powers of
the earth, but especially as deities wMch in anger
withheld the fruits of the earth and must by aU
means be propitiated. This explains the identi
fication of Erinys Thelpusa with Demeter (i.e.
the enraged Demeter : Paus. viii. 25, 4 ; Schol.
Soph. Ant. 126). The offerings to them at Athens
were bloodless, cakes and milk and honey mixed
with water (vT/cpaXta), since the drink offering
had no wine. This, too, belonged to them as god
desses of the earth, who might give Mndly gifts
as well as punish. It is true that they are often
described by poets in words which belong to
lightning and fire, and this may be derived
from the idea that Zeus punished often by the
thunderbolt ; but there is no sufficient ground
for saying that the myth of the Erinyes was
derived from a thunderstorm. So far from the

Erinyes (Furies). (From a painted vase.)
snake necessaily implying lightmng, as some
modern writers argue, it is, rather, a symbol of
the underworld : the scourge (which is also
made to signify lightmng) is a natural emblem
of the avenger. Their torches have been
pressed into the same theory ; but may more
reasonably be taken to show their power of
lighting up the dark places of crime and
detecting the guilty. Still less reasonable is it to
insist that the obvious comparison of avengers to
hounds (e.g. Aesch. Cho. 904) shows them to be

ERIPHUS
cloud-deities. The idea of an avenging power
is natural enough to man, and our evidence
points rather to the original Erinyes being
deities of the earth. In art they seem to
have been at first represented as mUd and
venerable beings (Paus. i. 28, 6); and it is
remarked that the Furies are not figured on the
oldest vases. The type described above as
given by Aeschylus does not seem to be older
than Ms time, but prevailed afterwards. Their
attributes, besides the snakes or snaky hair and
wings, are the scourge, the torch, and the
sickle, and they often appear in hunting garb.
They gradually assumed the character of
goddesses who punished men after death, and
they seldom appeared upon earth.
Eriphus ("Epztpos), an Athenian poet of the
Middle Comedy.
Eriphyle ('EpiipiXri), daughter of Talaus and
Lysimache, and wife of AmpMaraus, whom she
betrayed for the sake of the necklace of
Harmoma. For details see Amphiaraus,
Alcmaeon, Harmonia.
Eris ("Epis), the goddess of Discord. Homer
describes her as the friend and sister of Ares,
and as deUghting with him in the tumult of
war and the havoc and angmsh of the battle
field. How far even in Homer she was allegor
ised is seen by the description ' who, at first
smaU, rears her head until it touches the sky
wMle she walks on the earth ' (II. iv. 440 ; cf.
v. 518, xi. 3, xx. 48 ; Eur. Phoen. 798). Ac
cordmg to Hesiod (TA. 225), she was a daughter
of Night, and the poet describes her as the
mother of a variety of allegorical beings, wMch
are the causes or representatives of man's mis
fortunes. The story that Eris tMew the golden
apple marked ' For the Fairest ' into the as
sembly of gods at the wedding of Peleus
(angry, like the malignant fairy in a fairy tale.
because she alone was not invited) does not
appear earUer than the Alexandrian Uterature
(Hyg. Fab. 92 : Apul Met. 10 ; Lucian, Symp.
35 ; Tzetz. Lye. 93 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 27 ; Paris).
— VirgU introduces Discordia as a being similar
to the Homeric Eris ; for Discordia in like
manner appears M company with Mars, Bellona,
and the Furies.
Eriza (rd"~Eipi£a: 'Epifneo's), a city of Caria,
on the borders of Lycia and Phrygia, on the
river Choiis (or rather Caiis). The surrounding
district was caUed Asia Erizena.
Eros ("Epas to older poets yEpos), in Latin
Amor or Cupldo, the god of Love. In order
to understand the ancients properly, we must
distinguish tMee gods of tMs name : (1) the
Eros of the ancient cosmogonies ; (2) the Eros
of the pMlosophers and mysteries, who bears
great resemblance to the first ; and (3) the Eros
whom we meet with in the epigrammatic and
erotic poets. Homer does not mention Eros,
and Hesiod, the earUest author who speaks of
him, describes him as the eosmogonic Eros.
First, says Hesiod, there was Chaos, then came
Ge, Tartarus, and Eros, the fairest among the
gods, who rules over the minds and the counsel
of gods and men. By the philosophers and in
the mysteries Eros was regarded as one of the
fundamental causes to the formation of the
world, inasmuch as he was the uniting power of
love, wMch brought order and harmony among
the conflicting elements of which Chaos con
sisted. The OrpMc poets described Mm as a
son of Cronus, or as the first of the. gods who
sprang from the world's egg ; and thus in Plato's
Symposium he is called the oldest of the gods
(cf. Aristoph. Av. 694). Under tMs idea he was

EROS

325

worshipped from very ancient times at Thespiae,
being represented by a mass of stone of un
known antiquity (afterwards replaced by the
famous statue of Praxiteles) ; a somewhat simi
lar ancient worship of Eros existed at Parium,
on the Hellespont. These two, both represent
ing an old Thracian religion, were the only
places where Eros was really worshipped as a
god of the state (Paus. ix. 27). In other parts
of Greece we find, as an observance of histori
cal times, the statue of Eros, and sometimes

Eros. (From a gem.)
his altar, placed in or near gymnasia. Here
he symbolised the affection and regard between
companions, which led to the nobler emulation
in warlike prowess : hence the Spartans sacri
ficed to Eros before the combat (Athen. p. 561).
The Eros of later poets, who gave rise to that
notion of the god which is most familiar to us,
is one of the youngest of all the gods. In
Pindar and Aeschylus, however, he appears
only as a persomfication of feeling, not as a real
Being, and this is also the case on archaic vases.

Eros whetting hiB darts. (De la Chausse, Gemme
Antiche.)
As a personal deity he is prominent in Sophocles,
and still more so in Euripides. The parentage
of this Eros is very differently described. He is
usually represented as a son of Aphrodite, but
his father is either Ares, Zeus, or Hermes (Plut.
Symp. p. 178 ; Cic. N. D. iii. 23). In tMs stage
Eros has nothing to do with uniting the dis
cordant elements of the universe, or with the
Mgher sympathy or love wMch binds human
kind together, but he is purely the god of

326

EROS

sensual love, who bears sway over the inha
bitants of Olympus as well as over men and all
living creatures. His arms consist of arrows,
wMch he carries in a golden quiver, and of

Eros. (Museum Capitolinum, vol. iv. tav. 57.)
torches wMch no one can touch with impunity.
His arrows are of different power: some are
golden, and kindle love in the heart they wound ;
others are blunt, and produce aversion and
disaster (Eur. Iph. Aul. 548 ; Ov. Met. i. 468).
Gentler attributes were flowers, as belonging to
the god of spring, the time of love, and the lyre
for love songs. In art he was at first generally
represented as a beautiful boy approaching the
age of a young man ; and from an early period,
though it is uncertain how early, with wings,
which usually denote a Saipav rather than a
Bebs- Phidias placed on the base of the statue
of Zeus at Olympia Eros receiving ApModite

Eros (as Dionysus) bridling the lion. (A mosaic, from Pompeii.)

as she rises from the sea (Paus. v. 11, 8). It is
probable that the silver medallion in the Louvre
[see woodcut under Aphrodite, p. 86] represents
tMs piece of sculpture. In the foUowing century

ERYSICHTHON
the statues of Eros by Praxiteles at Thespiae
and Parium were especiaUy famous (PUn. xxxvi.
23), represented no doubt as a youth. Both as
a boy and as a chUd he is often represented as
holding or stringing Ms bow : speciaUy famous
instances are that in the Vatican and that at
Berlin, perhaps after Lysippus (Paus. ix. 27, 3).
In later Greek and Roman times it became
common to represent a chUd Eros with a number
of winged Erotes, like a fairy-tale scene, en
gaged in any sort of work, maMng wreaths or
carpentering. On one gem he is whetting Ms
arrows (cf. Hor. Od. u. 8, 16). A beautiful
mosaic from Pompeii represents Mm as a cmld
riding on a Uon, and with all the attributes of
Dionysus, the cup, the ivy crown, the thyrsus,
and the tragic and comic masks around. This
partly symbolises a connexion between Eros
and Dionysus, the gods of wine and love, for
the Uon belongs to Dionysus ; but it can hardly
be doubted that the power of Eros to tame and
bridle wild beasts is also here shown (as in Eur.
Hipp. 1277). — Anteros, wMch UteraUy means
return-love, is usually represented as the god
who punishes those who did not return the love
of others : thus he is the avenging Eros, or a
deus ultor (Ov. Met. xiii. 750). But in some
accounts he is described as a god opposed to
Eros and struggUng against him. — Respecting
the connexion between Eros and Psyche, see
Psyche. Erotianus ('Epariavbs), a Greek grammarian
or physician in the reign of Nero, wrote a work
stUl extant, entitled TiSi' irap' 'Iirero/cpaTei Ae^eoiv
2vmyuyji, Vocum, quae apud Hippocratem,
sunt, Collectio. Edited by Franz, Lips. 1780.
Erubrus (Buber), a small tributary of the
MoseUe, near Treves. Erymanthus ('EpvpdvBos:
Olenos). 1. A mountain,
7300 feet Mgh, in Arcadia,
on the frontiers of Achaia
and EUs, celebrated to
mythology as the haunt of
the savage ErymantMan
boar destroyed by Heracles
(Od. vi. 104 ; Strab. pp. 348,
367). [Heracles.] — The
Arcadian nymph CalUsto,
who was changed into a she-
bear, is called Erymanthis
ursa, and her son Arcas
Erymanthidis ursae custos,
[Arctos.] — 2. A river in
Arcadia, wMch rises in the
above-mentioned mountain,
and falls mto the Alpheus.
Erymanthus or Ety-
mandrus ('EpipavBos, 'Eri-
pavbpos Arrian : Helmund),
a considerable river in the
Persian province of Aracho
sia, rising in M. Paropa
misus, and flowing SW. and
W. into the lake caUed Aria
(Zarah). Erysiehthon ('Epvo-(x8av)r
that is, ' the Tearer up of the
Earth.' 1. Son of Triopas,
cut down trees in a grove
sacred to Demeter, for which
he was punished by the
goddess with fearful hunger,
so that after spending all his substance on food
he made Ms daughter Mestra (apparently a
later addition to the myth) support him by
changing herself into various animals and

ERYTHINI
working for him : even that did not suffice,
and he devoured Ms own limbs (Hellan. ap.
Athen. 416; CaUim. Hymn, in Cer. 84; Ov.
Met. vni. 738-878). Some have tried to explain
Erysichthon as meaning mUdew ; a recent in-
gemous interpretation is that it shows the
barrenness and famine wMch result from de
stroying forests. The story may at any rate
have had to do with tree-worsMp before it was
fitted on to Demeter. — 2. Son of Cecrops and
Agraulos, died in Ms father's lifetime on Ms re
turn from Delos, from whence he brought to
Athens the ancient image of Hithyia (Paus. i.
18,5). Erythini ('Epvffivoi), a city on the coast of
Paphlagonia, between Cromna and Amastris
(17. ii. 855; Strab. p. 545). A range of cliffs
near it was caUed by the same name.
Erythrae ('EpvBpai: 'EpvBpaios). 1. (Nr.
Pigadia, Ru.), an ancient town in Boeotia, not
far from Plataeae and Hysia, and celebrated as
the mother city of ErytMae in Asia Minor
(Hom. II. u. 499 ; Strab. p. 404).— 2. A town of
the Locri Ozolae, but belonging to the AetoUans,
E. of Naupactus (Liv. xxviii. 8). — 3. (Bitri,
Ru.), one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia
Minor, stood at the bottom of a large bay, on
the W. side of the peninsula wMch lies opposite
to CMos. Tradition ascribed its foundation to
a mixed colony of Cretans, Lycians, Carians,
and PamphyUans, under Eryttoos the son of
Rhadamanthus ; and the leader of the Iomans,
who afterwards took possession of it, was said

ETEOCLES

327

Coin of Erythrae, of 4th cent. B.C.
Obv.. head of Heracles ; rev., club and bow in case (for
Heracles) and owl (for Athene) ; legend SPY and M uaiq n
(magistrate's name).
to have been Cnopus, the son of Codrus, after
whom the city was also caUed Cnopopolis
(KvairoinroXis) . (Strab. p. 633 ; Polyaen. viii. 43.)
The Uttle river Aleos (or rather Axus, as it
appears on coins) flowed past the city, and
the neighbouring seaport towns of Cyssus or
Casystes and Phoemcus formed its harbours.
ErytMae contained a temple of one of the Idaei
Dactyli worshipped here under the name of
Heracles Ipoctonos (Paus. ix. 27, 5 ; Strab. p.
613 ; Heracles), and also one of Athene Polias.
It was noted also as the dwelling of an inspired
prophetess or Sibyl (Strab. p. 645 ; Tac. Ann.
vi. 18) ; and on the coast near the city was a
rock of trachyte caUed Nigrum Promontorium
(&Kpa peXaiva), from which miU-stones were
hewn. Erythraeum Mare (r) 'EpvBpd BdXao-aa, also
rarely 'EpvBpdios irbvros), was the name applied
originaUy to the whole expanse of sea between
Arabia and Africa on the W., and India on the
E., including itB two great gulfs (the Bed Sea
and Persian Gulf). In this sense it is used by
Herodotus, who also distingmshes the Bed Sea
by the name of 'ApdBios KbXiros. [Arabicus
Sinus.] Supposing the shores of Africa and
Arabia to trend more and more away from each
other the further S. you go, he appears to
have caUed the head of the sea between them
6 'ApdBios KbXiros, and the rest of that sea, as

far S. as it extended, and also eastwards to the
shores of India, 7) 'EpvBpri BdXa<ro-a, and also
ri Noriii BdXao-cra ; though there are, again, some
indications of a distinction between these two
terms, the latter being applied to the whole
expanse of ocean S. of the former ; in one pas
sage, however, they are most expressly identi
fied (ii. 158). Afterwards, when the true form
of these seas became better known, under the
Ptolemies, their parts were distinguished by
different names, the main body of the sea being
caUed Indicus Oceanus, the Bed Sea Arabicus
Sinus, the Persian Gulf Persicus Sinus, and
the name ErytMaeum Mare being confined
by some geographers to the gulf between the
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and the Indian
Ocean, but far more generally used as identical
with Arabicus Sinus, or the corresponding
genuine Latin term, Mare Rubrum (Bed Sea),
Still, however, even long after the commence
ment of our era, the name ErytMaeum Mare
was sometimes used in its ancient sense, as in
the TlepiirXovs tt)s 'EpvBpds BaXdoo-ns, ascribed
to Arrian, but really the work of a later period,
which is a description of the coast from Myos
Hormos on the Red Sea to the shores of India.
The origin of the name is doubtful : it is gene
raUy supposed that the sea was caUed ' Red '
because of the coral banks wMch fringed it in
its southern part.
Eryx ("Epu|). 1. Also Erycus Mons (S. Giu-
liano), a steep and isolated mountain in the
NW. of SicUy, near Drepanum. On the summit
of tMs mountain stood an ancient and cele
brated temple of ApModite (Venus), said to
have been built by Eryx, king of the Elymi, or,
according to Virgil, by Aeneas, but more prob
ably by the Phoenicians, who introduced the
worsMp of ApModite into Sicily. [Aphrodite.]
From tMs temple the goddess bore the surname
Erycina, under wMch name her worship was
introduced at Rome about the beginning of the
second Punic war. At present there are
on the summit of the mountain the remains
of a castle, originaUy built by the Saracens. —
2. The town of tMs name was on the W. slope
of the mountain. It was destroyed by the
Carthaginians in the time of Pyrrhus, was
subsequently rebuUt, but was again destroyed
by the Carthaginians in the first Punic war,
and its inhabitants removed to Drepanum.
(Pol. i. 58 ; Diod. xxiv. 8.)
Esdraela ('Eo-SpaTiXd) and Esdraelon or
Esdrelon, or -om ('EoSpriXdv or -dp), the Greek
names for the city and valley of Jezreel in
Palestine. Esquiliae. [Roma.]
Essubii, a people in Gaul, W. of the Sequana,
also written Essui and Sessuvii (Caes. B. G. ii.
34, iii. 7, v. 24). Their name seems to be pre
served in Exmes, a little north of Alencon.
Estiones, a people in Rhaetia Secunda or
Vindelicia, whose capital was Campodunum
(Kempten) on the Iller (Strab. p. 206).
Eteocles ('ETeoKXris). 1. Son of Andreus and
Euippe, or of Cephisus ; said to have been the
first who offered sacrifices to the Charites at
Orchomenos in Boeotia (Paus. ix. 34, 35). —
2. A son of Oedipus and Jocaste (according to
Paus. ix. 5, 5, born from a second marriage, with
Eurygameia). After Ms father's flight from
Thebes, he and Ms brother Polynices under
took the government of Thebes by turns.
But, disputes having arisen between them, Poly
nices fled to Adrastus, who then brought about
the expedition of the Seven against Thebes.
[Adrastus.] (Eur. Phoen. 69 ff. ; ApoUod. iii.

328 ETEOCLUS
6 ; Stat. Theb. i. 137.) When many of the heroes
had fallen, Eteocles and Polynices resolved upon
deciding the contest by single combat, and both
the brothers fell. Sophocles (perhaps to make
Antigone's case stronger) throws the blame for
this quarrel chiefly on Eteocles, whom he repre
sents as the younger brother (0. G. 375, 1295).
Euripides (Phoen. 71) following the commoner
tradition makes Eteocles the elder. [Anti
gone.] Eteoclus ('EreoKXos), a son of Iphis, was one
of the seven heroes who went with Adrastus
against Thebes. He had to make the attack
upon the Neitian gate, where he was opposed by
Megareus (Aesch. Theb. 456).
Eteonus ('Ereavbs), a town in Boeotia, be-
longMg to the district Parasopia, mentioned by
Homer, subsequently caUed Scarphe (II. ii. 497 ;
Strab. p. 408).
Etesiae ('Ettjo-ioi, sc. avepoi), the Etesian
Winds, derived from eros, ' year,' signifying any
periodical winds, but more particularly nor
therly winds, wMch blew in the Aegaean for
forty days from the rising of the dog star.
Etis or Etia CHtis, "Hreia : "Htios, 'Hreios),
a town in the S. of Laconia near Boeae, said to
have been founded by Aeneas, and named after
his daughter Etias. Its inhabitants were trans
planted at an early time to Boeae, and the place
disappeared. (Paus. iii. 22, 11.)
Etovissa, a town of the Edetani in Hispania
Tarraconensis. Etruria or Tuscia, called by the Greeks
Tyrrhenia or Tyrsenia (Tvppnvia, Tvpo-rivia),
a country in central Italy. The inhabitants
were caUed by the Romans Etrusci or Tusci,
by the Greeks Tyrrheni or Tyrseni (Tvpp7)voi,
Tvpo-7]voi), and by themselves Rasena. Etruria
was bounded on the N. and NW. by the Apen
nines and the river Macra, which divided it from
Liguria, on the W. by the Tyrrhene sea or Mare
Inferum, on the E. and S. by the river Tiber,
wMch separated it from Umbria and Latium.
It was intersected by numerous mountains, off
shoots of the Apennines, consisting of long
ranges of Mils in the N., but in the S. lying in
detached masses, and of smaller size. The land
was celebrated in antiquity for its fertility, and
yielded rich harvests of corn, wine, oil, and
flax. The upper part of the country was the
most healthy — namely, the part at the foot of
the Apennines, near the sources of the Tiber
and the Arnus, in the neighbourhood of Arre
tium, Cortona, and Perusia. The lower part
of the country on the coast was marshy and
unhealthy, like the Maremma at the present
day. — The early history of the population of
Etruria has given rise to much discussion in
modern times. In their physical form, in their
gloomy religion, in their customs, especially of
burial, and in their language they were distinct
alike from Greeks and Italians. It is admitted
on aU hands that the people known to the
Romans under the name of Etruscans were not
the original inhabitants of the country, but a
mixed race. The most ancient inhabitants ap
pear to have been Ligurians in the N. and Sicu-
lians in the S., both of whom were subsequently
expeUed from the country by the Umbrians.
So far most accounts agree ; but from this point
there is great difference of opinion. The an
cients — -except one writer, who believed them to
be autochthonous (Dionys. i. 28) — generally
stated that a colony of Lydians, led by Tyr-
senus, son of the king of Lydia, settled in the
country, to which they gave the name of their
leader (Hdt. i. 94 ; Strab. p. 221 ; Plut. Bom. 2 ;

ETRURIA
Tac. Ann. iv. 55). It is difficult to believe that
no ground for this persistent tradition existed
except a fancied resemblance of their name to
the Lydian Torrhebi. On the other hand, there
is much forcfe in the argument that their oldest
and most important settlements were inland,
and therefore that they probably arrived by
land. It is thought that they came down from
Rhaetia, where we are told that the Etruscan
language was spoken in historical times (Liv. v.
34) : hence they may have migrated into Lom-
bardy and pushed on southwards. It is by no
means impossible that tMs invading race of
barbarous Rasena from the north found a people
of mixed Greek and Lydian (Tyrrheno-Pelas-
gian) origin in possession of Etruria, won by
them from the Umbrians, and that the Etruscan
nation was formed by the union of the conquer
ing Rasena with this more civilised race. If so,
the Rasena were numericaUy strong enough to
preserve their language, while the art and to
some extent the reUgion of the Lydian and
Greek element were adopted. A Ukeness has been
traced between the character of the tombs in
Etruria and in Lydia. The language of a people
is the only means by wMch we can pronounce
with certainty respecting their origin. On tMs
point there is the greatest difference of opimon.
The most notable views are those of Corssen
who pronounces the language to be Italian (a
view which Mommsen is on the whole disposed
to adopt), and the totaUy opposite opinion,
wMch is now favoured by Deecke, that it was
Turanian or Finnish. H tMs latter opinion is
correct, it would support the idea of an im
migration from the north for the Rasena them
selves. But it must be confessed that httle
has as yet been made of their inscriptions,
which, indeed, for the most part consist of per
sonal names. [It is possible that a book written
on linen, which was found in a mummy case,
and has just been recognised as Etruscan, may
furnish the key ; but as yet the meaning haB not
been ascertained.] But whatever may have been
the origin of the Etruscans, we know that they
were a very powerful nation when Rome was
stiU in its infancy, and that they had at an
early period extended their dominion over the
greater part of Italy, from the Alps and the
plains of Lombardy on the one hand, to Vesu
vius and the Gulf of Sorrento on the other.
These dominions may be divided into three
great districts: Circumpadane Etruria in the
N., Etruria Proper in the centre, and Campanian
Etruria in the S. In each of these districts
there were twelve principal cities or. states, who
formed a confederacy for mutual protection.
TMough the attacks of the Gauls in the N., and
of the Sabines, Samnites, and Greeks in the
S., the Etruscans became confined witMn the
limits of Etruria Proper, and continued long
to flourish in this country, after they had dis
appeared from the rest of Italy. Of the twelve
cities wMch formed the confederacy in Etruria
Proper no list is given by the ancients. They
were most probably Cortona, Arretium, Clu
sium, Perusia, Volaterrae, Vetulonia, Ru-
sellae, Volsinu, Tarquinii, Valerii, Volci,
Caere more anciently caUed AgyUa. Of these,
however, there is no certainty except aB regards
Volsinii, Tarquinii, Perusia, Vetulonia, and
Volci. Each state was independent of all the
others. The government was a close aristo
cracy, and was strictly confined to the Lucu-
mones, who united in their own persons the
ecclesiastical as well as the civil functions. The
people were not only rigidly excluded from all

ETRURIA
share in the government, but appear to have
been in a state of vassalage or serfdom. From
the noble and priestly f amUies of the Lucumones
a supreme magistrate was chosen, who appears
to have been sometimes elected for life, and to
have borne the title of king ; but Ms power
was much fettered by the noble f amilies. At a
later time the Mngry dignity was aboUshed, and
the government was entrusted to a senate. A
meeting of the confederacy of the twelve states
was held annuaUy in the spring, at the temple
of Voltumna near Volsimi. — The Etruscans
were a higMy civiUsed people, and from them
the Romans borrowed many of their reUgious
and political institutions. The last tMee kings
•of Rome were undoubtedly Etruscans, and they
left in the city enduring traces of Etruscan
power and greatness. The Etruscans paid the
greatest attention to religion ; and their religious
system was closely interwoven with all public
and private affairs. The principal deities were
divided into two classes. The Mghest class
were the ' SMouded Gods,' who did not reveal
themselves to man, and to whom all the other
.gods were subject. The second class consisted
of the twelve great gods, six male and six female,
caUed by the Romans Dii Consentes. [Con
sentes.] They formed the council of Tina or
Tinia, the Roman Jupiter, and the two other
most powerful gods of the twelve were Cupra,
. corresponding to Juno, and Menrva or Menerva,
corresponding to the Roman Minerva. Besides
these two classes of gods, there was a great
number of other gods, penates and lares, to
whom worsMp was paid. The mode in which
the gods were worsMpped was prescribed in
certain sacred books, said to have been written
by Tages. These books contained the ' Etrusca
Disciplina,' and gave minute directions respect
ing the whole of the ceremoma! worsMp. They
were studied in the schools of the Lucumones,
to wMch the Romans also were accustomed to
¦send some of their noblest youths for instruc
tion ; since it was from the Etruscans that the
Romans borrowed most of their arts of divina
tion. — In arcMtecture, the Etruscans were ac
quainted with the use of the arch at an early
period, and they employed it in constructing
the great cloacae at Rome. In sculpture and
painting also they attained to great skiU, but it
was rather sMlful imitation than an original
school of art. In the Etruscan tombs some
Greek and some Egyptian influence may be
traced. The Etruscan bronze statues were
famous (' Tyrrhena sigilla,' Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 180)
and examples still remain, especially the She
Wolf of the Capitol and the Orator of the Flor
ence GaUery. The beautiful vases which have
been discovered in such numbers in Etruscan
tombs cannot be cited as proofs of the excel
lence of Etruscan workmanship, since it is now
admitted by the most competent judges, that
these vases were either made in Greece, or by
Greek artists settled in Italy ; and though the
bronze mirrors are a special product of Etruria,
the engravings on them are Greek in design and
origin. The Etruscans were skilled also in terra
cotta ornamentation, sometimes in works of great
size, e.g. the Sarcophagus in the British Museum.
— Of the private life of the Etruscans we have a
lively picture from the paintings discovered in
their tombs ; but into tMs subject our limits
forbid us to enter. — In their earlier Mstory they
were allied with the Carthaginians, with whose
aid they occupied and retained Corsica : and,
as might be expected, they were at enmity with
the Syracusans, who defeated them in 474 at

EUBULIDES

829

Cyme, and who sought by incursions on the
coasts of Etruria to repress the Tuscan pirates.
Later the Mstory of Etruria is a struggle against
the rising power of Rome, to which it was finally
compelled to yield. After the capture of Veii
by the dictator Camillus, b. c. 896, the Romans
obtained possession of the E. part of Etruria ;
and the Ciminian forest, instead of the Tiber,
now became the boundary of the two people.
The defeat of the Etruscans by Q. Fabius
Maximus, in 310, was a great blow to their power.
They still endeavoured to maintain their in
dependence with the assistance of the Samnites
and the Gauls ; but after their decisive defeat
by Cornelius Dolabella in 283, they became the
subjects of Rome. In 91 they received the
Roman franchise. The numerous military
colonies established in Etruria by Sulla and
Augustus destroyed to a great extent the na
tional character of the people, and the country
thus became in course of time completely
Romanised. Euboea (EHBoia: EvBoieis, EvBoeis, fern.
EvBots). 1. (Negropont), the largest island of
the Aegaean sea, lying along the coasts of
Attica, Boeotia, and the S. part of Thessaly,
from which countries it is separated by the
Euboean sea, called the Euripus in its narrowest
part. Euboea is about ninety miles in length ;
its extreme breadth is tMrty miles, but in the
narrowest part it is only four miles across.
TMoughout the length of the island runs a
lofty range of mountains (a prolongation of
Mt. Othrys), which rise in one part as high as
7266 feet above the sea. It has a dangerous
rocky shore towards the Aegaean, but good
harbours, such as Chalcis and Eretria on its
western coast. It contains nevertheless many
fertile plains, and was celebrated in antiquity
for the excellence of its pasturage and corn
fields. According to the ancients it was once
united to Boeotia, from which it was separated
by an earthquake (Plin. iv. 63 ; cf. Strab. p. 58).
In Homer the inhabitants are called Abantes,
and are represented as taking part in the expe
dition agamst Troy (II. ii. 536 ; Strab. p. 445).
In the N. of Euboea dwelt the Histiaei, from
whom that part of the island was caUed
Histiaea ; below these were the Ellopii, who
gave the name of Ellopia to the district, extend
ing as far as Aegea and Cerinthus ; and in the
S. were the Dryopes. The centre of the island
was inhabited chiefly by Ionians. At what time
the Ionians came there it is impossible to say ;
but there was probably at an early date an
amalgamation of these Greek immigrants with
the Abantes, who were a Thracian people (Strab.
1. c. ; Hdt. i. 146). It was in this part of Euboea
that the Athenians planted the colonies of
Chalcis and Eretria, wMch were the two
most important cities in the island. After the
Persian wars Euboea became subject to the
Athenians, who attached much importance to
its possession ; and consequently Pericles made
great exertions to subdue it when it revolted
in B.C. 445. For its wars in 350 see Callias.
Under the Romans Euboea formed part of the
province of Achaia. — Since Cumae in Italy was
a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, the adjective
Euboicus is used by the poets in reference to
the former city. Thus Virgil (Aen. vi. 2) speaks
of Euboicis Gumarum oris. — 2, A town in the
interior of Sicily, founded by Chalcis in Euboea,
but destroyed at an early period.
Eubulides (EvBovXiSris). 1. Of Miletus, a
pMlosopher of the Megaric school. He was a
contemporary of Aristotle, against whom he

330

EUBULUS

wrote with great bitterness ; and he is stated to
have given Demosthenes instruction in dialec
tics. He is said to have invented the forms of
several of the most celebrated false and
captious syllogisms. (Diog. Laert. i. 111.) — 2.
An Athenian sculptor of the second century B.C.
son of Eucheir. Pausamas (i. 2, 5) mentions
an Apollo by hhn in a precinct of Dionysus
near the Dipylon Gate. Portions of a group by
Mm were excavated in this neighbourhood in
1887, and a marble head of Athene by him was
found in 1874. These fragments may all be
parts of the votive offering mentioned by Pau
sanias, but this is a disputed question on wMch
there is no sufficient evidence.
Eubulus (EilBovXos). 1. An Atheman, of the
demus Anaphlystus, a distinguished orator and
statesman, was one of the most formidable
opponents of Demosthenes. It was with Mm
that Aeschines served as secretary in the earlier
part of Ms Ufe. — 2. An Athenian, son of Eu-
pManor, of the Cettian demus, a distinguished
poet of the Middle Comedy, flourished B.C. 376.
He wrote 104 plays, of which there are extant
more than fifty titles. His plays were cMefly
on mythological subjects. Several of them
contained parodies of passages from the tragic
poets, and especiaUy from Euripides (Meineke,
Frag. Com. Gr.).
Euclides (EvitXeiSris). 1. The celebrated
mathematician, who has almost given his own
name to the science of geometry in every
country in wMch Ms writings are studied ; but
we know next to nothing of his private history
The place of his birth is uncertain. He lived
at Alexandria in the time of the first Ptolemy,
B.C. 323-283, and was the founder of the Alex
andrian mathematical school. He was of the
Platonic sect, and well read in its doctrines.
It was his answer to Ptolemy, who asked if
geometry could not be made easier, that there
was no royal road. Of the numerous works
attributed to Euclid the following are still
extant : — 1. S.roixe'ia, the Elements, in 13
books, with a fourteenth and fifteenth added by
Hypsicles. 2. AeSopeva, the Data, containing
100 propositions, with a preface by Marinus of
Naples. 3. Kararopri Kavbvos, the Division of
the Scale. 4. A work on astronomy, called
Qaivipeva, the Appearances (of the heavens).
Besides these, Eloayayri 'AppoviKf) (an intro
duction to music), 'OirriKd (on Optics) and Kot-
oirrpmd (on Catoptrics) have been attributed to
him, but are probably by other writers. The
only complete edition of all the reputed works
of Euclid is that published at Oxford, 1708,
folio, by David Gregory, with the title
EvKXeiSov rd (ra(6peva. The Elements and the
Data were published in Greek, Latin, and
French, in 3 vols. 4to, Paris, 1814-16-18, by
Peyrard. The most convenient edition for
scholars of the Greek text of the Elements is
the one by August, Berol. 1826, 8vo. — 2. Of
Megara, was one of the chief of the disciples
of Socrates, but before this, he had studied
the doctrines, and especially the dialectics,
of the Eleatics. Socrates on one occasion
reproved Mm for Ms fondness for subtle and
captious disputes. On the death of Socrates
(b.c. 399), Euclides took refuge in Megara, and
there established a school which distinguished
itself cMefly by the cultivation of dialectics.
The doctrines of the Eleatics [Parmenides]
formed the basis of his philosophical system;
but, wMle he held that the real existence or
' God ' was one and unchangeable, he gives it
various names, ' God,' ' Reason ' &c, to explain

EUDOXUS
how that which was one appeared to be many..
With these he blended the etMcal and dialecti
cal principles of Socrates. He was the author
of six dialogues, none of which, however, have-
come down to us. He has frequently been
confounded with the mathematician of the-
same name. The school which he founded was
called sometimes the Megaric, sometimes the
Dialectic or Eristic. (Diog. Laert. ii. 108 ; Cic.
Acad. ii. 42, 129 ; Gell. vi. 10.)— 3. The Archon
Eucleides was Arch. Eponymus in B.C. 403 (01.
94, 2), which is an important epoch both as
marking the restored constitution after the faU
of the Thirty, and also the adoption of the fuU
Ionic alphabet of twenty-four letters tostead of
the old Attic alphabet. Thenceforth the laws.
and all state acts were to be written in the fuU
Ionic alphabet. (Plut. Arist. 1; Arist. 'A8.
iroX. 39.)
Eucratides (EvKpariSris), king of Bactria,.
from about B.C. 181 to 161, was one of the most.
powerful of the Bactrian kings, and made great-
conquests in the N. of India.
Euctemon, the astronomer. [Meton.]
Eudamidas (EvSapiSas). I., King of Sparta,
reigned from B.C. 330 to about 300. He was the
younger son of Archidamus III., and succeeded
Ms brother Agis III. — II., King of Sparta, was-
son of Archidamus IV., whom he succeeded,
and father of Agis TV.
Eudemus (EiiSripos). 1. Of Rhodes, a Peri
patetic pMlosopher, and one of the most-
important of Aristotle's disciples. He edited
many of Aristotle's writings ; and one of them
even bears the name of Eudemus — namely, the
'HBiKd EvS-fipeia, which work was in aU proba-
bUity a recension of Aristotle's lectures edited
by Eudemus [see p. 118]. — 2. The physician of
Livilla, the wife of Drusus Caesar, assisted her
and Sejanus in poisoning her husband, a.d. 23.
Eudocia (EvSokIo.). 1. OriginaUy caUed
Athenais, daughter of the sopMst Leontius,.
was distinguished for her beauty and attain
ments. She married the emperor Theodosius-
II., a.d. 421 ; and on her marriage she embraced
Christianity, and received at her baptism the
name of Eudocia. She died at Jerusalem, A.D-
460. The theological cento formed from Homer-
is attributed to her (Teucher, Lips. 1793). — 2.
Of Macrembolis, wife of the emperors Constan
tine XI. Ducas and Romanus IV. Diogenes.
(a.d. 1059-1071), wrote a dictionary of Mstory
and mythology, which she called 'lavid, Viola-
rium, or Bed of Violets. Printed for the first
time by Villoison, in Ms Anecdota Graeea,
Venice, 1781. Its sources are nearly the same
as those used by Suidas.
Eudoses, a people to Germany near the Varini,,
probably in the modern Mecklenburg.
Eudoxus (ESSoZos). 1. Of Cnidus, son of
Aeschines, a celebrated astronomer, geometer,
physician, and legislator, lived about B.C. 366.
He was a pupil of Archytas and Plato, and also-
went to Egypt, where he studied some time with.
the priests. He afterwards returned to Athens,
but it would appear that he must have spent -
some time in his native place, for Strabo say s that
the observatory of Eudoxus at Cnidus was ex
isting in his time. He died at the age of fifty-
three. He is said to have been the first who ¦
taught in Greece the motions of the planets ;
and he is also stated to have made separate -
spheres for the stars, sun, moon, and planets.
He wrote various works on astronomy and geo
metry, wMch are lost ; but the substanoe of his
faivbpeva is preserved by Aratus, who turned
into verse the prose work by Eudoxus with that-

EUGAMON
title. (Strab. pp. 119, 806 ; Sen. Q. N. vii. 8.)—

EUMENES

831

2. An Athenian comic poet of the New Comedy,
was by birth a Sicilian and the son of Agathocles.
— 3. Of Cyzicus, a geographer, who went from
his native place to Egypt, and was employed by
Ptolemy Euergetes and his wife Cleopatra in
voyages to India ; but afterwards being robbed
of all Ms property by Ptolemy Lathyrus, he
sailed away down the Red Sea, and at last
arrived at Gades. He afterwards made attempts
to circumnavigate Africa in the opposite direc
tion, but without success. He lived about B.C.
ISO. (Strab. p. 98.^
Eugamon (Evyapav), one of the Cyclic poets,
was a native of Cyrene, and Uved about B.C. 568.
His poem (TTiXeyovia) was a continuation of the
Odyssey, and formed the conclusion of the epic
cycle. It concluded with the death of Odysseus.
Euganei, a people who formerly inhabited
Venetia on the Adriatic sea, and were driven
towards the Alps and the Lacus Benacus by the
Heneti or Veneti (Liv. i. 1 ; Plin. hi. 130, 184).
According to some traditions they founded
Patavium, Verona and Altinum, to the neigh
bourhood of wMch were the Euganei Colles.
They possessed numerous flocks of sheep, the
wool of wMch was celebrated (Juv. viii. 15 ;
Mart. xiv. 155).
Euhemerus (Evr)pepos), probably a native of
Messene in SicUy, Uved at the court of Cassander
in Macedoma, about B.C. 316. Cassander fur
nished Mm with the means to undertake a
voyage of discovery. He is said to have sailed
down the Red Sea and round the southern
coasts of Asia, until he came to an island called
Panchaea. After Ms return he wrote a work
entitled 'Iepa 'Avaypaipr), or a Sacred History,
in nine books. He gave tMs title to Ms work
because he pretended to have derived Ms infor
mation from 'Avaypajpai, or inscriptions in
temples, wMch he had discovered in Ms travels,
especially in the island of Panchaea. Euhe
merus had been trained to the school of the
Cyrenaics, who were notorious for their scep
ticism in matters connected with the popular
rehgion ; and the object of his work was to ex
clude everything supernatural from the popular
reUgion, and to dress up the myths as so many
plain Mstories. In Ms work the several gods
were represented as having originaUy been men
who had distinguished themselves either as
warriors, or benefactors of manMnd, and who
after their death were worsMpped as gods by
the grateful people. Zeus, for example, was a
king of Crete, who had been a great conqueror ;
and Euhemerus asserted that he had seen in
the temple of Zeus Triphyhus a column with an
inscription detaUing all the exploits of the Mngs
Uranus, Cronus, and Zeus (Plut. Is. et Os. 23 ;
Euseb. Praep. Ev. ii. 2 ; Strab. pp. 47, 102, 104,
299). The book was written in an attractive
style, and became very popular, and many of
the subsequent Mstorians, such as Diodorus,
adopted Ms mode of deaUng with myths. Ennius
made a Latin translation of the work (Cic. N.
D. i. 42, 119). TMs method of rationalising an
cient myths (generally a false explanation) was
foUowed in later times, and called Euhemerism.
Eulaeus (EvXahs : O. T. Ulai : Karoon), a
river in Susiana, on the borders of Elymais,
rises in Great Media, flows S. ttoough Mesoba-
tene, passing E. of Susa, and, after umting
with the Pasitigris and the Choaspes, faUs into
the head of the Persian Gulf.
Eumaeus (E&paios), the faithful swineherd of
Odysseus, had been carried away from his
father's house by a Phoenician slave, and Phoe

nician sailors, who sold Mm to Laertes, the
father of Odysseus.
Eumelus (Evpr,Xos). 1. Son of Admetus and
Alcestis, went with eleven ships from Pherae to
Troy. He was distinguished for his excellent
horses, which had once been under the care of
Apollo. His wife was Iphthima, daughter of
Icarius (II. ii. 711, xxiii. 375, 586 ; Od. iv. 798 ;
Strab. p. 486).— 2. Of Corinth, one of the Bac-
cMadae, an ancient Epic poet, flourished about
B.C. 760. His principal poem seems to have
been Ms Corinthian History.
Eumenes (EO/ieVijs). 1. Of Cardia, served as
private secretary to Philip and Alexander, whom
he accompanied ttooughout Ms expedition in
Asia, and who treated him with marked confi
dence and distinction. After the death of Alex
ander (B.C. 823) Eumenes obtained the govern
ment of Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus,
wMch provinces had never yet been conquered
by the Macedonians. Eumenes entered into a
close alliance with Perdiccas, who subdued these
provinces for him. When Perdiccas marched
into Egypt against Ptolemy, he committed to
Eumenes the conduct of the war against Anti
pater and Craterus in Asia Minor. Eumenes
met with great success ; he defeated Neopto-
lemus, who had revolted from Perdiccas ; and
subsequently he again defeated the combined
armies of Craterus and Neoptolemus : Craterus
himself feU, and Neoptolemus was slain by
Eumenes with Ms own hand, after a deadly
struggle M the presence of the two armies.
Meantime the death of Perdiccas in Egypt,
changed the aspect of affairs. Antigonus now
employed the whole force of the Macedonian
army to crush Eumenes. The struggle was
carried on for some years (320-316). It was
conducted by Eumenes with consummate skill ;
and notwithstanding the numerical inferiority
of Ms forces, he maintained Ms ground against.
Ms enemies, till he was surrendered by the
Argyraspids to Antigonus, by whom he was put
to death, 316. He was forty-five years old at-
the time of Ms death. Of Ms ability, both as a
general and a statesman no doubt can be enter
tained ; and it is probable that he would have
attained a far more important position among
the successors of Alexander, had it not been for
the accidental disadvantage of his birth. But
as a Greek of Cardia, and not a native Mace
donian, he was constantly looked upon with
dislike both by Mb opponents and companions
in arms (Life by Plutarch and by Nepos;
cf. Diod. xviii, xix. ; Arrian, Anab. vii.). —
2. I., King of Pergamum, reigned b.c. 263-241 ;
and was the successor of his uncle, Philetaerus.
He obtained a victory near Sardis over Antiochus
Soter, and thus established his dominion over
the provinces in the neighbourhood of Ms
capital (Strab. p. 624).— 3. II., King of Per
gamum, reigned B.C. 197-159 : and was the son
and successor of Attalus I. He inherited from
his predecessor the friendship and alliance of
the Romans, which he took the utmost pains to
cultivate. He supported the Romans in their
war against Antiochus ; and after the conquest
of the latter (190) he received from the senate
Mysia, Lydia, both Phrygias, and Lycaonia, as
weU as Lysimachia, and the Thracian Cher
sonese. (Liv. xxxvii. 45-55; Pol. xxii. 1-27.)
By this means he was at once raised from a
state of comparative insignificance to be the
sovereign of a powerful monarchy. Subsequently
he was involved in war with Pharnaces, king of
Pontus, and Prusias, king of Bithynia, but both
wars were brought to a close by the interposi-

832

EUMENIA

tion of the Romans (Pol. xxv. 2). At a later
period Eumenes was regarded with suspicion by
the Roman senate, because he was suspected of
having corresponded secretly with Perseus, king
of Macedonia, during the war of the latter with
the Romans (Pol. xxx. 17, xxxii. 5). For the
splendour of his capital see Pergamum.
Eumenia (Evpeveia or Evpevia: Ishekli), a
city of Great Phrygia, on the rivers Glaucus
and Cludrus, N. of the Maeander, named by
Attalus II. after his brother Eumenes II.
Eumenides. [Erinyes.]
Eumenius, a Roman rhetorician of Augusto-
dunum (Autun) in Gaul, held a high office
under Constantius CMorus. He is the author
of four orations in the 'Panegyrici Veteres.'
Eumolpus (EBpoXiros), that is 'the good
singer,' a Thracian bard, usually represented as
a son of Poseidon and Chione, the daughter of
Boreas. As soon as he was born, he was tMown
into the sea by his mother, who was anxious to
conceal her shame, but was preserved by his
father Poseidon, who had him educated in
EtMopia by his daughter Benthesicyma. When
he had grown up, he married a daughter of
Benthesicyma ; but as he made an attempt upon
the chastity of his wife's sister, he was expelled
together with Ms son Ismarus. They went to
the Thracian king Tegyrius, who gave Ms
daughter in marriage to Ismarus ; but as Eu
molpus drew upon himself the suspicion of
Tegyrius, he was again obliged to take to flight,
and came to Eleusis in Attica, where he formed
a friendship with the Eleusinians. After the
death of Ms son Ismarus, he returned to TMace
at the request of Tegyrius. The Eleusinians,
who were involved in a war with Athens, called
Eumolpus to their assistance. Eumolpus came
with a numerous band of Thracians, but he was
slain by Erechtheus. Eumolpus was regarded
as the founder of the Eleusinian mysteries, and
as the first priest of Demeter and Dionysus.
He was succeeded in the priestly office by his
son Ceryx (who was, according to some ac
counts, the son of Hermes), and his family, the
Eumolpidae, continued till the latest times the
priests of Demeter at Eleusis. (Apollod. iii. 14,
4 ; Paus. i. 38, 2, ii. 14, 3 ; Hymn, ad Cer. 476.)
— The legends connected Eumolpus with Hera
cles, whom he is said to have instructed in
music, or initiated into the mysteries (Theocr.
xix. 110, where he is called son of Philammon).
Another story makes him son of Musaeus. It
is probable that part of his story is due to the
old worship of Poseidon in Attica, and part to
the connexion of the Eumolpidae with the
mysteries, for which reason Eumolpus is made
the planter of trees and vines (Plin. vii. 199).
Eunapius (Eivdirios), a Greek sophist, was
born at Sardis a.d. 347, and lived and taught at
Athens as late as the reign of Theodosius H.
He wrote, 1. Lives of Sophists (Bi'oi <piXooS<pav
Kal o-ocpio-rav), still extant, which supply us
with our only information respecting the Neo-
Platonism of that period. Edited by Boisso-
nade, Amsterdam, 1822. 2. A continuation of
the Mstory of Dexippus (\yierd Ae|«raw xpovmr]
iaropia), in fourteen books, began with a.d. 270,
and went down to 404, of which we have only
extracts published along with Dexippus.
[Dexippus.] Euneus (ESvijos or Eivevs), a son of Jason
and Hypsipyle in Lemnos, supplied the Greeks
with wine during their war agamst Troy. He
purchased Lycaon of Patroclus for a silver urn
(II. vii. 468, xxiii. 747 ; Hypsipyle.)
Eunomia. [Horae.]

EUPHORION
Eunomus (Eivopos), Mng of Sparta, is de
scribed by some as the father of Lycurgus and
Pblydectes (Paus. iii. 7 ; Plut. Lye. 2). Hero
dotus, on the contrary, places Mm in his Ust
after Polydectes (viii. 131). In all probabUity,
the name was invented with reference to the
Lycurgean Evvopia, and Eunomus, if not whoUy
rejected, must be identified with Polydectes.
Eunus (E&vovs), a Sicilian slave, and a native
of Apamea in Syria, was the leader of the
SicUian slaves in the Servile war. He attracted
attention by pretendtogto the gift of prophecy,
by appearing to breathe flames from his mouth,
and other simUar juggleries. He was pro
claimed king, and soon coUected formidable
forces, with wMch he defeated several Roman
armies. The insurrection now became so for
midable that for tMee successive years (b.c
134-132) three consuls were sent agamst the
insurgents, and it was not tiU the third year
(132) that the revolt was finaUy put down, by
the consul RupUius. Eunus was taken prisoner,
and died in prison at Morgantia. (Diod. Fr.
34 ; Liv. Ep. 56 ; Plut. Sull. 36.)
Eupalium (EvirdXtov : EviraXieis), a town of
the Locri Ozolae, subsequently included in
Aetolia Epictetus (Strab. p. 427).
Eupator (Evirdrap), a surname assumed by
many of the kings to Asia. See Antiochus,
Mithridates. Eupatoria. [Magnopolis.]
Eupatorium (Evirarbpiov. Eupatoria), a
town in the Chersonesus Taurica, founded by
Mithridates Eupator (Strab. p. 812).
Eupha.es (Evdjdns), king of the MessenianB,
fell in battle against the Spartans in the first
Messenian war. He was succeeded by Aristo
demus. Euphemus (Etjipnpos), son of Poseidon by
Europe, the daughter of Tityus, or by Meci-
onice or Oris, a daughter of Orion or Eurotas
(Schol. ad Pind. Pyth. iv. 15). According to
one account he was an inhabitant of Panopeus
on the Cephissus in Phocis, and according to
another of Hyria in Boeotia, and afterwards
lived at Taenarus. He was married to Lao-
nome, the sister of Heracles ; he was one of the
Calydonian hunters, and the helmsman of the
vessel of the Argonauts, and, by a power which
his father had granted to him, he could walk
on the sea just as on firm ground. He is men
tioned also as the ancestor of Battus, the
founder of Cyrene. (Ap. Rh. i. 182; Pind.
Pyth. iv. 1 ; Hdt. iv. 150!)
Euphorbus (EUcpopBos). 1. Son of Panthous,
one of the bravest of the Trojans, was slain by
Menelaus, who subsequently dedicated the
shield of Euphorbus in the temple of Hera,
near Mycenae (II. xvi. 806, xvii. 1 ; Paus. ii.
17,3; Gell. iv. 11). Pythagoras asserted that
he had once been the Trojan Euphorbus, and in
proof of his assertion took down at first sight
the shield of Euphorbus from the temple of
Hera (clipeo Trojana refixo tempora testatus,
Hor. Od. i. 28, 11). — 2. Physician of Juba
II., king of Mauretania, about the end of the
first century B.C., and brother to Antonius
Musa, the jmysician to Augustus.
Euphonon (Evipopiav). 1. Father of the
poet Aeschylus. — 2. Son of Aeschylus, who
brought out four plays of his father, not pro
duced on the stage in the lifetime of their
author. Each won the first prize. He also
wrote plays Mmself. — 3. Of Chalcis in Euboea,
an eminent grammarian and poet, son of Poly-
mnetus, was born about B.C. 274. He became
the librarian of Antiochus the Great, 221, and

EUPHRANOR
died in Syria, either at Apamea, or at Antioch.
Of his works fragments are collected by
Meineke, in Analecta Alexandrina, Berol. 1843.
Euphranor (Evrppdvap), a distinguished
sculptor and painter, was a native of the Corin
thian isthmus, but worked at Athens about b.c.
536. He was noted for power of expression.
His most celebrated statues were the Apollo
Patroos (Paus. i. 8, 3), and the Paris, which
expressed alike the judge of the goddesses,
the lover of Helen, and the slayer of AcMUes.
His best paintings were preserved in a porch
in the Ceramieus at Athens. On the one side
were the twelve gods ; and on the opposite waU
Theseus, with Democracy and Demos. (Plin.
xxxiv. 77^«»xxv. 128.)
Euphrates (Evippdrns), an eminent Stoic
pMlosopher, was a native of Tyre, or, according
to others, of Byzantium. He was an intimate
friend of the younger Pliny. In his old age he
became tired of Ufe, and obtained from Hadrian
permission to put an end to himself by poison.
(Plin. Ep. i. 10 ; Dio Cass. lxix. 8.)
Euphrates (Evcppdrns : 0. T. Phrat : El-
Fraf), a great river of W. Asia, forming the
boundary of Upper and Lower Asia, consists, in
its upper course, of two branches, both of which
rise in the mountains of Armenia. The N.
branch (Kara- Su), which is the true Euptoates,
rises in the mountain above Erzeroum (the M.
Abus or Capotes of the ancients) and flows W.
and SW. to a little above lat. 39° and E. of
long. 89°, where it breaks tMough the chain of
the Anti-Taurus, and, after receiving the S.
branch (MouracLGhai), or, as the ancients
caUed it, the Arsanias, it breaks tMough the
main chain of the Taurus between MeUtene
and Samosata, and then flows in a general S.
direction, tiU it reaches lat. 36°, whence it flows
in a general SE. direction, tiU it approaches
the Tigris opposite to Seleucia, where the dis
tance between the two rivers was reckoned at
only 200 stadia. Then it flows tMough the
plain of Babylonia, at first receding further
from the Tigris, and afterwards approaching it
again, tiU it joins it about 60 miles above the
mouth of the Persian Gulf, having already had
its waters much diminished by numerous
canals, wMch irrigated the country in ancient
times, but the neglect of wMch at present has
converted much of the once fertile district
watered by the Euptoates into a marshy
desert. The whole length of the Euptoates is
between 500 and 600 miles. In its upper
course, before reaching the Taurus, its N.
branch and a part of the united stream divided
Armenia Major from Colchis and Armenia
Minor, and its lower course divided Mesopo
tamia from Syria. Its chief tributary, besides
the Arsanias, was the Chaboras. [Hdt. i.
180 ; Strab. pp. 521, 739, 746.]
Euphron (ESippav), an Atheman poet of the
New Comedy, whose plays, however, partook
largely of the character of the Middle Comedy.
Euphrosyne, one of the Charites or Graces.
[Charis.] Eupolis (EtiiroXis), son of Sosipolis, an Athe
nian poet of the Old Comedy, and one of the
tMee who are distinguished by Horace, in his
well-known line, ' Eupolis, atque Cratinus,
Aristophanesque poetae,' above aU the others
' quorum prisca comoedia virorum est.' He
was born about b.c. 446, and is said to have ex
hibited his first drama in his seventeenth year,
429, two years before Aristophanes. The date
of his death is uncertain. The common story
was that Alcibiades, when sailing to Sicily

EURIPIDES 888
(415), tMew Eupolis into the sea, in revenge
for an attack which he had made upon him to
Ms Bdirrai ; but this cannot be true, as we
know that Eupolis produced plays after the
Sicilian expedition. He probably died in 411.
The chief characteristic of the poetry of Eupolis
seems to have been the liveliness of his fancy,
and the power wMch he possessed of imparting
its images to the audience. In elegance he is
said to have even surpassed Aristophanes, while
in bitter jesting and personal abuse he emulated
Cratinus. Among the objects of his satire was
Socrates, on whom he made a bitter, though
less elaborate attack than that in the Clouds of
Aristophanes. The dead were not exempt
from Ms abuse, for there are still extant some
lines of Ms in which Cimon is most unmerci-
fuUy treated. A close relation subsisted be
tween Eupolis and Aristophanes, not only as
rivals, but as imitators of each other. Cratinus
attacked Aristophanes for borrowing from Eu
polis, and Eupolis in his BairTai made the same
charge, especiaUy with reference to the Knights.
The Scholiasts specify the last Parabasis of
the Knights as borrowed from Eupolis. On
the other hand, Aristophanes, in the second (or
third) edition of the Clouds, retorts upon Eu-
poUs the charge of imitating the Knights in
his Maricas. The truth may be that Eupolis
to some extent collaborated with Aristophanes
in this play and considered that the obligation
was not sufficiently acknowledged. (Meineke,
Frag. Com. Graec. 1847.)
Eupompus (Ethropiros), of Sicyon, a distin
guished Greek painter, was the contemporary
of Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Timanthes, and the
instructor of PamphUus, the master of Apelles.
The fame of Eupompus caused the Sicyonian
school to take its place beside the Ionic and
Attic (Plin. xxxv. 74).
Euripides (EvpiiriSris). 1. The third great
Attic tragedian, was the son of Mnesarchus and
CUto, and is said to have been born at Salamis,
B.C. 480, on the very day that the Greeks defeated
the Persians off that island, whither his parents
had fled from Athens on the invasion of Xerxes.
Some writers relate that Mb parents were in
mean circumstances, and Ms mother is repre
sented by Aristophanes as a herb-seller (Ach.
454, Thesm. 387, Eq. 19, Ban. 339), but this is
a tale unworthy of credit : it is contradicted by
Philochorus ; and we know, too, that the poet,
when a boy, was cup-bearer to a chorus of noble
Athenians at the Thargelian festival — an office
for wMch nobility of blood was requisite — and
that he was taught rhetoric by Prodicus, who
was certainly not moderate in Ms terms for in
struction, and who was in the habit of seeking
his pupils among youths of high rank. It is
said that the future distinction of Euripides was
predicted by an oracle, promising that he should
be crowned with ' sacred garlands,' in conse
quence of which his father had him trained to
gymnastic exercises ; and we learn that, while
yet a boy, he won the prize at the Eleusinian
and Thesean contests, and offered himself, when
seventeen years old, asa candidate at the Olympic
games, but was not admitted because of some
doubt about his age. But he soon abandoned
gymnastic pursuits, and studied the art of
painting, not, as we learn, without success.
To philosophy and literature he devoted him
self with much interest and energy, studying
physics under Anaxagoras and rhetoric, as we
have already seen, under Prodicus. He lived
on intimate terms with Socrates, and traceB of
the teaching of Anaxagoras have been re-

334

EURIPIDES

marked in many passages of Ms plays. He is said
to have written a tragedy at the age of eighteen ;
but the first play which was exhibited in his
own name was the Peliades, when he was
twenty-five years of age (b. c. 455). In 441 he
gained for the first time the first prize, and he
continued to exMbit plays until 408, the date of
the Orestes. Soon after this he left Athens
for the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia,
Ms reasons for which step can only be matter
of conjecture. It was alleged that he was dis
gusted by the taunts of the comic poets about
his unhappy domestic relations : for his first
wife, Choerile, was divorced for infidelity, and
the second, Melito, separated from him. But
these are rather matters of ill-natured gossip,
and it may be believed that other causes led Mm
to accept an invitation from Archelaus, at whose
court the Mghest honours awaited him. The
attacks of Aristophanes and others had prob
ably not been without their effect, and he
must have been aware that his philosophical
tenets were regarded with considerable sus
picion. He died in Macedonia in 406, at the
age of seventy-five. Little credit need be given
"to the story that he was torn in pieces by the
Mng's dogs, wMch, according to some, were set
upon him through envy by ArrMdaeus and
Crateuas, two rival poets. The regret of
Sophocles for Ms death is said to have been so
great, that at the representation of his next play
he made Ms actors appear
uncrowned. The accounts
which we find in some writers
of the profligacy of Euripides
are mere idle scandal, and
scarcely worthy of serious re
futation. Nor does there ap
pear to be any better founda
tion for that other charge
which has been brought
i against him, of hatred to the
female sex. He was a man of
serious and austere temper :
and it was in consequence of
"tMs that the charge probably originated. It is
certain that the poet who drew such characters
as Alcestis was not blind to the gentleness, the
strong affection, the self-abandoning devoted-
ness of women. With respect to the world and
the Deity, he seems to have adopted the doc
trines of Anaxagoras, not unmixed apparently
with pantheistic views. [Anaxagoras.] To
class him with atheists, as some have done, is
undoubledly unjust. At the same time, it must
lie confessed that we look in vain in Ms plays
for the unquestioning faith of Aeschylus ; nor
can we fail to admit that the pupil of Anaxa
goras could not sympathise with the popular
religious system around Mm. He frequently
altered the traditional treatment of ancient
legends. Thus, to the Orestes, Menelaus comes
before us as a selfish coward, and Helen as a
wortMess wanton ; in the Helena, the notion of
Stesichorus is adopted, that the heroine was
never carried to Troy at all, and that it was a
mere etSaXov of her for which the Greeks and
Trojans fought; Andromache, the widow of
Hector and slave of Neoptolemus, seems almost
to forget the past in her quarrel with Hermione
and the perils of her present situation ; tragedy
is brought down into the sphere of every-day
life ; men are represented, according to the re
mark of Sophocles quoted with approval by
Aristotle (Poet. 25), not as they ought to be, but
as they are ; under the names of the ancient
heroes the characters of his own time are set

Bust of Euripides.

before us ; it is not Medea, or Iphigenia, or
Alcestis that is speaking, but abstractedly a
mother, a daughter, or a wife. AU this, indeed,
gave fuller scope, perhaps, for the exhibition of
passion and for those scenes of tenderness and
pathos in which Euripides especiaUy exceUed.
Hence Aristotle (Poet. 13) calls Euripides ' the
most tragic of poets,' because he neglected na
means of appealing to the feeUngs of the
audience — not even the misery of appearance,
such as that of Telephus — and therefore most
worked upon pity, which is the office of Tragedy.
Hence, perhaps, also the preference given to Ms
plays by the practical Socrates, who is said
to have never entered the theatre unless when
they were acted, as weU as for the admiration
felt for him by Menander and PMlemon, and
other poets of the New Comedy. The most
serious defects in Ms tragedies, artisticaUy
speaking, are : his constant employment of the
' Deus ex macMna ; ' the disconnexion of Ms
choral odes from the subject of the play ; the
extremely awkward and formal character of Ms
prologues ; and the frequent introduction of
frigid yvdpai and of pMlosopMcal disquisitions,
making Medea talk like a sophist, and Hecuba
like a freethinker, and aiming rather at subtilty
than simplicity. On the same principles on
wMch he Drought his subjects and characters to
the level of common Ufe, he adopted also in Ms
style the every-day mode of speaking. But
while, on the one hand, to many of Ms plays, the
Electra, for instance, and the Andromache, he
ranks far below his two predecessors and fails
altogether in harmony of composition : in
others, such as the Hippolytus, the Medea, the
Iphigenia in Tauris, the Ion, and, perhaps
above aU, the Bacchae, he reaches a height of
poetry equal to that of Sophocles. — According
to some accounts, he wrote, in aU, seventy-five
plays ; according to others, ninety-two. Of these,
eighteen are extant, if we omit the Bhesus,
which is probably spurious : of the 18 a list is
subjoined, with their dates, ascertained or pro
bable : — Alcestis,B.c. 488, brought out as the last
of a tetralogy, and stood therefore in the place
of a satyric drama, to which indeed it bears, in
some parts, great similarity, particularly in the
representation of Heracles in Ms cups.
Medea, 481 (ed. by Porson; VerraU). Hip
polytus Coronifer, 428 (upon wMch Racine
founded Ms Phidtre), gained the first prize
(ed.Monk). Hecuba, exMbited before 428. He
raclidae, about 421. Supplices, about 421.
Ion, of uncertain date. Hercules Furens, of
uncertain date (ed. Hutchinson, 1878).
Andromache, about 420. Troades, 416.
Electra, about 415-413. Helena, 412. Iphi
genia at Tauri, of uncertain date. Phcenissae,
411 (ed. Porson). Orestes, 408. Bacchae:
this play was written for representation in
Macedonia, and therefore at a very late period
of the life of Euripides. It is notable not only
as among the grandest of Attic tragedies but
also as inspired by the actual scenes amid wMch
it was composed, in the country where he might
see the Maenads with brandished torches
dashing down the mountain side. (Editions by
Elmsley ; by Sandys, 1874 ; by Tyrrell, 18710
Iphigenia at Aulis : tMs play, together with
the Bacchae and the Alcmaeon, was brought
out at Athens, after the poet's death, by the
younger Euripides. Cyclops, of uncertain
date : it is interesting as the only extant speci
men of the Greek satyric drama. Besides the
plays, there are extant five letters, p urporting to
have been written by Euripides, but they are

EURIPCS
¦spurious. — Editions of complete plays. In
T)indorf's Poetae Scenici; by Nauch,1871; with
notes by Paley, 1872. — 2. The youngest of the
tMee sons of the above. After the death of Ms
father he brought out tMee of Ms plays at the
great Dionysia, viz. the Alcmaeon (no longer
«xtant), the Iphigenia at Aulis, and the
Bacchae. Euripus (Eitpiiros), any part of the sea where
the ebb and flow of the tide were remarkably
violent, is the name especiaUy of the narrow
strait which separates Euboea from Boeotia.
The extraordinary tides of the Euripus have
been noticed by modern observers : the water
sometimes runs as much as eight mUes an hour.
At Chalcis there was a bridge over the Euripus,
uniting Euboea with the mainland. [Chalcis.]
Euromus (E&papos : Jaklys), a small town of
Caria, at the foot of Mt. Grion (a ridge parallel
to Mt. Latmus), in the conventus juridicus of
Alabanda. It lay eight EngUsh mUes NW. of
Mylasa. Europa (Evpdirri), according to the Hiad (xiv.
821), a daughter of Phoenix, but according to
-the common tradition a daughter of the Phoe-

EURYCLEA

835

Europa. SchlichtergroU, Stosch Collection

nician king Agenor (Hdt. iv. 147 ; Eur. Phoen.
281 ; Diod. v. 78 ; Ov. Met. ii. 858). Her sur-
passtog beauty charmed Zeus, who assumed
the form of a buU and mingled with the herd
as Europa and her maidens were sporting on
the sea-shore. Encouraged by the tameness of
the animal, Europa ventured to mount Ms back;
whereupon Zeus rushed into the sea, and swam
with her in safety to Crete. (Hor. Od. iii. 27,
25 ; ApoUod. iii. 1 ; Anth. Pal. i. 116 ; Ov. Met.
n. 850, Fast. v. 605.) Here she became by Zeus
the mother of Minos, Rhadamanthus, and, in
post-Homeric story, of Sarpedon (Hdt. i. 173 ;
Eur. Bhes. 29). She afterwards married Aste-
rion, king of Crete, who brought up the children
whom she had had by the king of the gods
(ApoUod. 1. c. ; Diod. iv. 60). After her death
she was deified under the name HeUotis or
HeUotia (cf. Athen. p. 678). Among various
attempts to rationalise the myth was the ex
planation that Europa was carried away captive
by a Cretan king to a ship which had a bull as
figure-head. Modern writers, though without
very sure grounds, have interpreted Europa to
be a moon-goddess.
Europa (Eipdmi), one of the three divisions
of the ancient world. The name is not found

in the Iliad and Odyssey, and first occurs in
the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (251), but even
there it does not indicate the continent, but
Bimply the mainland of Hellas proper, in oppo
sition to Peloponnesus and the neighbouring
islands; and bo perhaps Pind. Nem. iv. 70.
Aeschylus (Prom. 735) and Herodotus (iv. 45)
are the earliest writers who use it to the sense
of one of the divisions of the world. The
meaning of the name is doubtful. Some give
it a Greek root, and make it signify either
'widely extended' (evpis...bir) or 'dark' — i.e.
western (cf. epeBos); others obtain the latter
meaning from a Semitic root. Most of the
ancients supposed the name to be derived from
Europa, the daughter of Agenor. The boun
daries of Europe on the E. differed at various
periods. In earlier times the river Phasis was
usuaUy supposed to be its boundary, and some
times even the Araxes and the Caspian sea ; but
at a later period the river Tanais and the Palus
Maeotis were usually regarded as the boun
daries between Asia and Europe. The N. of
Europe was little known to the ancients, but it
was generaUy believed, at least in later times,
that it was bounded on the N. by
the Ocean.
Europus (EfpaTos). 1. A town of
EmatMa, on the river Axius (Strab.
p. 327).— 2. (Yera-bolus, or Kulat-
el-Nejin ?), a city to the district of
Cyrrhestice in Syria, on the W. bank
of the Euptoates, a few mUes S. of
Zeugma. — 3. Europus was the earlier
name of Dura Nicanoris in Mesopo
tamia ; and (4) it was also given by
Seleucus Nicator to Rhagae in Media.
— 5. A river of Thessaly, also called
Titaresius. [Titaresius.]
Eurotas (Ebpdras : Iri), the chief
river to Laconia, but not navi
gable, rises in Mt. Boreum in Arcadia
(according to Pausanias and Strabo,
from a common source with the
Alpheus), then disappears under
the earth, rises again near Sciritis,
and flows southwards, passing Sparta
on the E., tMough a narrow and
fruitful valley, into the Laconian
gulf (Paus. viii. 44 ; Strab. p. 348).
Euryalus (EvpiaXos). I. Son of Mecisteus,
one of the Argonauts and of the Epigoni, ac
companied Diomedes to Troy, where he slew
several Trojans (II. ii. 565, vi. 20; Apollod. i.
9, 16, in. 7, 2). — 2. Son of Odysseus and Evippe,
slain by Telemachus, hero of a play of Sopho
cles (Eustath. p. 1796, 52).
Euryanassa. [Pelops.]
Eurybates (EvpvBaTvs), called Eribotes by
Latin writers, one of the Argonauts.
Eurybatus (EvpvBaros), an Ephesian, whom
CroeBUB sent with a large sum of money to the
Peloponnesus to hire mercenaries for him in
Ms war with Cyrus. He, however, betrayed
the whole matter to Cyrus. In consequence of
tMs treachery, his name passed into a proverb
amongst the Greeks (Plat. Protag. p. 327, d).
Eurybia (EvpvBia), daughter of Pontus and
Ge, mother by Crius of Astraeus, Pallas, and
Perses. Eurybiades. [Themistocles.]
Euryclea (EvpvKXeia). 1. Daughter of Ops,
was purchased by Laertes and brought up Tele
machus. Wlien Ulysses returned home, she
recognised him by a scar, and afterwards faith
fully assisted Mm against the suitors (Od. i.
429, xix. 401).— 2. Mother of Oedipus.

336

EURYDICE

Eurydice (EupuSimj). 1. Wife of Orpheus.
[Orpheus.] — 2. An Hlyrian princess, wife of
Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, and mother of
the famous Philip. — 3. An Blyrian, wife of
PMlip of Macedon, and mother of Cynane or
Cynna. — 4. Daughter of Amyntas, son of Per
diccas III., king of Macedonia, and Cynane,
daughter of Philip. After the death of her
mother in Asia [Cynane], Perdiccas gave her
in marriage to the king Arrhidaeus. She was a
woman of a mascuUne spirit, and entirely ruled
her weak husband. On her return to Europe
with her husband, she became involved in war
with Polysperchon and Olympias, but she was
defeated in battle, taken prisoner, and com
pelled by Olympias to put an end to her life,
B.C. 317. (Diod. xviii. 39, xix. 11; Athen. p.
560.) — 5. Daughter of Antipater, and wife of
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. She was the mother
of three sons, viz. Ptolemy Ceraunus, Meleager,
and a third (whose name is not mentioned) ;
and of two daughters, Ptolemais, afterwards
married to DemetriusPoliorcetes, and Lysandra,
the wife of Agathocles, son of Lysimachus
(Plut.Demefr.46). — 6. An Athenian, of a family
descended from the great Miltiades. She was
first married to Ophelias, the conqueror of Cy
rene, and after Ms death returned to Athens,
where she married Demetrius Poliorcetes.
EurylSehus (EvpiXoxos). 1. Companion of
Odysseus in Ms wanderings, was the only one
that escaped from the house of Circe when his
friends were metamorphosed ink swine (Od. x.
203, xii. 339). — 2. A Spartan commander, in the
Peloponnesian war, B.C. 426, defeated and slain
by Demosthenes at Olpae (Thuc. iii. 100-109).
Eurymedon (EvpvpeSav). 1. One of the
Cabiri, son of Hephaestus and Cabiro, and
brother of Alcon. — -2. An attendant of Nestor.
— 3. Son of Ptolemaeus, and charioteer of Aga
memnon. — 4. Son of Thucles, an Athenian
general in the Peloponnesian war. He was one
of the commanders in the expedition to Corcyra,
B.C. 428, and also to the expedition to Sicily,
425. In 414, he was appointed, in conjunction
with Demosthenes, to the command of the
second Syracusan armament, and fell in the
first of the two sea-fights in the harbour of
Syracuse (Thuc. vii. 52).
Eurymedon (EvpvpeSav : Kapri-Su), a small
river in Pamphylia, navigable as far up as the
city of Aspendus, through wMch it flowed;
celebrated for the victory which Cimon gained
over the Persians on its banks, b.c. 469 (Thuc.
i. 100; Xen. Hell. iv. 8, 80).
Eurymenae (Evpvpevai), a town in Magnesia
in Thessaly, E. of Ossa.
Eurynome (Evpwbpri), daughter of Oceanus
(Hes. Th. 358). When Hephaestus was ex
pelled by Hera from Olympus, Eurynome and
Thetis received him in the bosom of the sea
(II. xviii. 398). Before the time of Cronos and
Rhea, Eurynome and Ophion had ruled to
Olympus over the Titans. The worship of
Eurynome was localised at Phigalea in Arcadia,
where she was represented half woman and
half fish, and was identified with Artemis (PauS.
viii. 41) : that is to say, the older worship of
Eurynome in this place was at some time
transferred to the religion of Artemis, prevail
ing at a later time.
Euryphon (Evpvtpav), a celebrated physician
of Cnidos in Caria, was a contemporary of Hip
pocrates, but older. He is quoted by Galen,
who says that he was considered to be the
author of the ancient medical work entitled
KviSiai Tvupai, and also that some persons

EURYTUS
attributed to him several works included to the
Hippocratic Collection.
Eurypon, otherwise called Eurytion (Eipv-
irav, EvpvTiav), grandson of Procles, was the
third king of that house at Sparta, and thence
forward gave it the name of Eurypontidae
(Paus. iii. 7; Plut. Lye. 2).
Eurypylus (EvpiirvXos). 1. Son of Euaemon
and Ops, appears in different traditions as Mng-
either of Ormenion, or Hyria, or Cyrene. In
the Hiad he is represented aB having come from
Ormenion to Troy with forty sMps (II. ii. 734,
v. 76, vi. 36, xi. 575 ; Ov. Met. xiii. 357). Ac
cording to some traditions it was this Eurypylus
who was worsMpped as a hero at Patrae (Paus.
vii. 19). — 2. A son of Poseidon and Celaeno,
who went to Libya, where he ruled in the
country afterwards caUed Cyrene, and there
became connected with the Argonauts. He
married Sterope, the daughter of Helios, by
whom he became the father of Lycaon and
Leucippus i(Pind. Pyth. iv. 33; Ap. Rh. iv.
1551).— 3. Son of Poseidon and Astypalaea,
king of Cos, was killed by Heracles, who on his
return from Troy landed in Cos, and being taken
for a pirate, was attacked by its inhabitants.
According to another tradition Heracles at
tacked the island of Cos, to order to obtain
possession of Chalciope, the daughter of Eury
pylus, whom he loved ( II. ii. 677 ; Pind. Nem.
iv. 25; Hyg. Fab. 254).— 4, Son of Telephus
and Astyoche, king of Mysia or CiUcia, was in
duced by the presents which Priam sent to Ms
mother or wife, to assist the Trojans against
the Greeks. Eurypylus kUled Machaon, but
was himself slain by Neoptolemus. (Od. xi. 519 ;
Q. Smyrn. vi. 408.)
Eurysaces (Evpvo-aKris), son. of the Telamo-
nian Ajax and Tecmessa, named after the
' broad shield ' of his father (Soph. Aj. 575).
An Athenian tradition related that Eurysaces
and his brother PhUaeus had given up to the
Athenians the island of Salamis, which they
had inherited from their grandfather, and that
the two brothers received in return the Attic
franchise. Eurysaces was honoured like Ms
father, at Athens, with an altar. (Plut. Sol. 10.)
Pausanias (i. 35) ascribes this gift to PMlaeus
the son of Eurysaces.
Eurysthenes (Eipvo-eivjis), and Procles (npo-
kXtjs), the twin sons of Aristodemus, were born,
according to the common account before, but
according to the genuine Spartan story after,
their father's return to Peloponnesus and occu
pation of Ms aUotment of Laconia. He died
immediately after the birth of his chUdren, and
had not even time to decide which of the two
should succeed Mm. The mother professed to
be unable to name the elder, and the Laoedae-
monians applied to Delphi, and were instructed
to make them both kings, but give the greater
honour to the elder. The difficulty thus re
maining was at last removed at the suggestion
of Panites, a Messenian, by watching wMch of
the children was first washed and fed by the
mother; and the first rank was accordingly
given to Eurysthenes and retained by his
descendants. From these two brothers, the two
royal families in Sparta were descended, and
were called respectively the Eurysthenidae
and Proclidae. The former were also called
the Agidae from Agis, son of Eurysthenes;
and the latter Eurypontidae from Eurypon,
grandson of Procles. (Hdt. vi. 51 ; Paus. iii. 16).
Eurystheus. [Heracles.]
Eurytus (Eipvros). 1. Son of Melaneus and
Stratonice, was king of Oechalia, probably the

EUSEBIUS
Thessalian town of this name. He was a skilful
archer and married to Antioche, by whom he
became, the father of Iole, Iphitus, Molion or
Deion, Clytius, and Toxeus. He was proud of
his skiU in using the bow, and is said to have
instructed even Heracles in Ms art. He offered
Ms daughter Iole as a prize to the man who
should conquer Mm and Ms sons in shooting
with the bow. Heracles won the prize, but
Eurytus and his sons, with the exception of IpM-
tus, refused to give up Iole, because they feared
lest Heracles should kUl the children he might
have by her. Heracles accordingly marched
against Oechalia with an army, took the place
and killed Eurytus and his sons. Accordmg to
Homer, on the other hand, Eurytus was killed
by Apollo, whom he presumed to rival to using
the bow. (Od. vui. 224, xxi. 14 ; Soph. Trach.
354 ; Theocr. xxiv. 105 ; Ap. Rh. i. 88 ; ApoUod.
ii. 6.) He was worsMpped as a hero to the
mystic rites at Andania (Paus. iv. 2). — 2. Son
of Actor and Mohone of EUs. [Moliones.] —
3. Son of Hermes and AntianIra, and brother
of Echion, was one of the Argonauts (Paus. ii.
15). — 4. A Pythagorean philosopher, a disciple
of PMlolaus (Diog. Laert. iii. 6).
Eusebius (Evo-eBios) was born in Palestine
about ax. 264, was made bishop of Caesarea
315, and died about 340. His works are valu
able for general Mstory, quite apart from their
great importance to Church Mstory. [See Diet.
of Christ. Biogr.]
Eustathius (EicrriBios). 1. Of Cappadocia,
a Neo-Platomc pMlosopher, was a pupil of
Iamblichus and Aedesius. In a.d. 358, he was
sent by Constantius as ambassador to Mng
Sapor, and remained to Persia, where he was
treated with the greatest honour. — 2. Or Eu-
mathius, probably Uved as late as the twelfth
century of our era. He wrote a Greek romance
in eleven books, stiU extant, containing an
account of the loves of Hysmtoias andHys-
mine. The tale is wearisome and improbable.
Edited by Gaulmto, Paris, 1617, and by
Teucher, Lips. 1792.— 3. Archbishop of Thes-
salomca, was a native of Constantinople, and
Uved during the latter half of the twelfth
century. He was a man of great learning and
wrote numerous works, the most important of
wMch is Ms commentary on the Hiad and
Odyssey (TlapeKBoXal eis ttjv 'Opiipov 'IXidSa
Kal 'OSvaaeiav), or rather his collection of ex
tracts from earlier commentators on those two
poems. TMs vast compUation was made from
the numerous and extensive works of the
Alexandrian grammarians and critics ; and as
nearly aU the works from which EustatMus
made his extracts are lost, Ms commentary is
of great value. Editions : at Rome, 1542-
1550, 4 vols. fol. ; at Basle, 1559-60 ; at Leipzig,
1825-26, containing the commentary on the
Odyssey, and at Leipzig, 1827-29, the commen
tary on the Diad. There is also extant by
EustatMus a commentary on Dionysius Peri-
egetes, wMch is pubUshed with most editions
of Dionysius.— 4. UsuaUy caUed Eustathius
Eomanus, a celebrated Graeco-Roman jurist
from a.d. 960 to 1000.
Euterpe. [Musae.]
Euthydemus (EvBiSTipos). 1. A sophist, was
born at CMos, and migrated with Ms brother
Dionysodorus to Thurii in Italy. Being exiled
thence, they came to Athens, where they resided
many years. The pretensions of Euthydemus
and Ms brother are exposed by Plato in the dia
logue which bears the name of the former. — 2,
King of Bactria, was a native of Magnesia. We

EUTYCHIDES

887

know notMng of the circumstances attending
his elevation to the sovereignty of Bactria. He
extended his power over the neighbouring pro
vinces, so as to become the founder of the

Coin of Euthydemus, King of Bactria, about B.C. 212.
Obv., head of Euthydemus ; rev., Heracles.
greatness of the Bactrian monarchy. His do
minions were invaded about B.C. 212, by Antio-
ohus the Great, with whom he eventually con
cluded a treaty of peace. (Polyb. xi. 34 ; Strab.
p. 515.) He had a son Demetrius and a grand
son Euthydemus II.
Euthymus (EtfBvpos), a hero of Locri in Italy,
son of Astycles or of the river-god Caecinus.
He was famous for his strength and sMU in
boxing, and delivered the town of Temesa from
the evil spirit Polites, to whom a fair maiden
was sacrificed every year. Euthymus himself
disappeared at an advanced age in the river
Caecinus. (Paus. vi. 6, 2 ; Strab. p. 255.)
Eutrapelus, P. Volumnius, a Roman knight,
obtained the surname of Eutrapelus (Evrpd-
ireXos), on account of his liveUness and wit. He
was an intimate friend of Antony, and a com-
pamon of his pleasures and debauches. Cytheris,
the mistress of Antony, was originaUy the freed-
woman and mistress of Volumnius Eutrapelus
(whence we find her called Volumnia), and was
surrendered to Antony by his friend. Eutra
pelus is mentioned by Horace (Epist. i. 18, 31).
Eutresii (Evrpr)o-ioi), the inhabitants of a dis
trict to Arcadia, N. of MegalopoliB.
Eutresis (Eirp-no-is), a small town in Boeotia
between Thespiae and Plataeae, with a temple
and oracle of Apollo, who hence had the sur
name Eutresltes (II. ii. 502 ; Strab. p. 411).
Eutropius. 1. A Roman historian, held the
office of a secretary under Constantine the
Great, was patronised by Julian, whom he
accompanied to the Persian expedition, and
was alive to the reign of Valentinian and
Valens. He is the author of a brief com
pendium of Roman history in ten books, from
the foundation of the city to the accession of
Valens,, A.D. 364, to whom it is inscribed. In
drawing up this abridgment Eutropius appears
to have consulted the best authorities, and to
have executed his task in general with care.
The style is in perfect good taste and keeping
with the nature of the undertaking, being plain,
precise, and simple. It was translated into
Greek by Paeanius, and was used as the basis
of Ms work by Paulus Diaconus. Editions are
by Tzchucke, Lips. 1796 ; by Grosse, Hal. 1813,
and by Droysen, Berl. 1878. — 2. A eunuch, the
favourite of Arcadius, became the virtual
governor of the E. on the death of Rufinus,
a.d. 395. He was consul to 399, but in that
year was deprived of his power by the intrigues
of the empress Eudoxia and Gainas, the Goth ;
he was firBt banished to Cyprus, was shortly
afterwards recalled and put to death at Chalce
don. The poet Claudian wrote an invective
against Eutropius.
Eutychldes (Eutux^s).01 Sicyon, a sculptor, Z

338 EUXINUS
and a pupil of Lysippus, flourished B.C. 300,
was the author of a statue representing Antioch
(Paus. vi. 2, 4), which is preserved by a copy
now in the Vatican [see Antiochia.]
Euxinus Pontus. [Pontus Euxinus.]
Evadne (EidSvTi). 1. Daughter of Poseidon
and Pitane, who was brought up by the Arca
dian king Aepytus, and became by Apollo the
mother of Iamus. — 2. Daughter of Iphis (hence
caUed Iphias), or Philax, and wife of Capaneus.
For details see Capaneus.
Evagoras (Evaybpas), Mng of Salamis in
Cyprus. He was sprung from a family which
claimed descent from Teucer, the reputed
founder of Salamis ; and his ancestors appear
to have been during a long period the heredi
tary rulers of that city under the supremacy of
Persia. They had, however, been expelled by
a Phoenician exile, who obtained the sove
reignty for himself, and transmitted it to his
descendants. [Cyprus.] Evagoras succeeded
in recovering Ms hereditary kingdom, and
putting the reigning tyrant to death, about
B.C. 410. His rule was distinguished for its
mildness and equity, and he greatly increased
the power of Salamis, speciaUy by the forma
tion of a powerful fleet. He gave a friendly
reception to Conon, when the latter took refuge
at Salamis after the defeat of the Athenians at
Aegospotami, 405 ; and it was at his interces
sion that the Mng of Persia aUowed Conon the
support of the Phoenician fleet at the time of
the battle of Cnidus (894) : hence he was a
main cause of the Athenian success. In grati
tude for these good offices, the Athenians
placed Ms statue in the Ceramieus (Isocr. Evag.
51-68 ; Xen. Hell. ii. 1, 29 ; Paus. i. 3, 2). But
Ms growing power excited the jealousy of the
Persian court, and at length war was declared
against Mm by Artaxerxes. Evagoras received
the assistance of an Athenian fleet under
Chabrias, and at first met with great success ;
but the fortune of war af terw ards turned against
him, and he was glad to conclude a peace with
Persia, by which he resigned Ma conquests in
Cyprus, but was allowed to retain possession
of Salamis with the title of king. This war
was brought to a close in 385. Evagoras was
assassinated to 374, together with his eldest
son Pnytagoras (Diod. xv. 2-9 ; Arist. Pol.
v. 8, 10). There is extant an oration of Iso
crates in praise of Evagoras, addressed to his
son Nicocles, who succeeded him.
Evagrius (Evdypios), of Epiphania to Syria,
born about a.d. 536; wrote An Ecclesiastical
History, still extant. [See Diet, of Christ.
Biogr.] Evander (EtavSpos). 1. Son of Hermes by
an Arcadian nymph, called Themis or Nico-
strata, and to Roman traditions Carmenta or
Tiburtis (Dionys. i. 31 ; Liv. i. 5 ; Paus. viii. 43).
About sixty years before the Trojan war,
Evander is said to have led a Pelasgian colony
from PaUantium in Arcadia into Italy, and
there to have built a town, PaUantium, on the
Tiber, at the foot of the Palatine HU1, which
town was subsequently incorporated with Rome.
Evander taught his neighbours milder laws and
the arts of peace and of social life, and espe
cially the art of writing, with which he himself
had been made acquainted by Heracles, and
music; he was said also to have introduced
among them the worship of the Lycaean Pan
( = Lupercus), of Demeter, Poseidon, and
Heracles. (Liv. I.e. ; Dionys. i. 33 ; Plut. Q. B.
56 ; Tac. Ann. xi. 14 ; Justin, xliii. 1, 6.) VirgU
(Aen. viii. 51) represents Evander as still alive

FABATUS
at the time when Aeneas arrived to Italy, and
as forming an alliance with him against the
Latins. Evander was worsMpped at PaUan
tium in Arcadia as a hero. At Rome he had
an altar at the foot of the Aventine. Most
modern Mstorians (see especiaUy Schwegler)
reject the idea of the Arcadian immigration
altogether. The authorities for it are mani
festly late, and the Arcadians are the most
unlikely colonists. It is probable that the
story grew out of the resemblance of the Luper-
calia to the Arcadian festivals of Pan. It is
suggested, with much probability, that to
Evander Mmself (whose name, ' the kindly,'
may have the same meatong) we have the native
Italian deity Faunus transformed into an
apparently Mstorical person, who is said to have
founded the ritual out of wMch his own story
was developed. [Faunus.] — 2. A Phocian, was
the successor of Lacydes as the head of the
Academic School at Athens, about B.C. 215.
Evenus (Eih)vos). 1. Son of Ares and
Demonice, and father of Marpessa. For detaUs
see Marpessa. — 2. Two elegiac poets of Paros.
One of these poets, though it is uncertain
whether the elder or the younger, was a con
temporary of Socrates, whom he is said to have
instructed to poetry; and Plato in several
passages refers to Evenus, somewhat ironicaUy,
as at once a sophist or pMlosopher and a poet.
There are sixteen epigrams in the Greek
Anthology bearing the name of Evenus, but it
is difficult to determine wMch of them should
be assigned to the elder and wMch to the
younger Evenus. (Plat. Apol. p. 20, Phaed^
p. 60, Phaedr. p. 267.)
Evenus (Evnvos : Fidhari), formerly Lycor-
mas, rises in Mt. Oeta, and flows through
Aetolia into the sea, W. of Antirrhium (Strab.
p. 451 ; Thuc. ii. 83; Ov. Met. ix. 104).
Evenus (Eilrivos : Sandarli), a river of Mysia,
rising in Mt. Temnus, flowing S. through AeoUs,
and falling into the Sinus Elaiticus near Pitane.
The city of Adramyttium, which stood nearly
due W. of its sources, was suppUed with water
from it by an aqueduct (Strab. p. 614).
Evergetes (Evepyerns), the 'Benefactor,' a
title of honour frequently conferred by the
Greek states upon those from whom they had
received benefits. It was assumed by many of
the Greek Mngs to Egypt and elsewhere.
[Ptolemaeus.] Evius. [Dionysus.]
Exadius ('E£dSios), one of the Lapithae,
fought at the nuptials of PirithottB (II. i. 204 ;
Ov. Met. xii. 266).
Exsuperantius, Julius, a Roman Mstorian,
who lived probably about the fifth century of
our era. He is the author of a short tract
entitled De Marii, Lepidi, ac Sertorii bell/is
civilibus, which many suppose to have been
abridged from the Histories of Sallust. It is
appended to several editions of Sallust.
Eziongeber. [Berenice, No. 1.]

F.
Fabaris or Farfarus (Farfa), a small river
in the Sabine territory between Reate and Cures
(Verg. Aen. vii. 715 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 830).
Fabatus, L. Roscius, one of Caesar's lieu
tenants in the Gallic war, and praetor in B.C. 49,
espoused Pompey's party. He was MUed in
the battle at Mutina, b.c. 43. (Caes. B. G. v.
24, 53, B. C.i.8; Cic. ad Fam. x. 83.)
Fabatus, Calpurnius, a Roman knight,

FABERIUS
accused in a.d. 64; was grandfather of Cal
purnia, wife of the younger Pliny, many of
whose letters are addressed to Mm. (Tac. Ann.
xvi. 8 ; Plin. Ep. vin. 10.)
Faberius. 1. A debtor of M. Cicero (Cic.
ad Att. xii. 21, 51). — 2. One of the private
secretaries of C. Julius Caesar.
Fabia, two daughters of M. Fabius Ambustus.
The elder was married to Ser. Sulpicius, a
patrician, and one of the military tribunes
B.C. 376, and the younger to the plebeian C.
Licinius Stolo.
Fabia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician
gentes at Rome, which traced its origin to Her
cules and the Arcadian Evander. The Fabii
occupy a prominent part in history soon after
the commencement of the republic ; and three
brothers belonging to the gens are said to have
been invested with seven successive consul
ships, from B.C. 485 to 479. The house derived
its greatest lustre from the patriotic courage
and tragic fate of the 306 Fabii to the battle on
the Cremera, b.c. 477. [Vlbulanus.] The
principal fannlies of this gens bore the names
of Ambustus, Buteo, Dorso, Labeo, Maximus,
Pictor and Vlbulanus.
Fabianus, Papirius, a Roman rhetorician
and pMlosopher to the time of Tiberius and
Caligula. He wrote works on pMlosophy and
physics (Sen. Ep. 40, 100).
Fabrateria (Fabraternus : Falvaterra), a
town to Latium on the right bank of the Trerus,
originally Volscian, but colonised by the Ro
mans (Strab. p. 237 ; Liv. vm.19; VeU.Pat.i. 15).
Fabricii belonged originaUy to the Hermcan
town of Aletrium, where some of tMs name
Uved as late as the time of Cicero. 1. C. Fa-
hricius Luscinus, was probably the first of Ms
family who quitted Aletrium and settled at
Rome. He was one of the most popular heroes
in the Roman annals, and, like Cincinnatus
and Curius, is the representative of the purity
and honesty of the good old times. In Mb
first consulsMp, B.C. 282, he defeated the
Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites, gained a
rich booty and brought into the treasury more
than 400 talents (Liv. Ep. 12 ; Val. Max. i. 8, 6).
Fabricius probably served as legate in the
unfortunate campaign against Pyrrhus in 280 ;
and at its close he was one of the Roman
ambassadors sent to Pyrrhus at Tarentum to
negotiate a ransom or exchange of prisoners.
The conduct of Fabricius on this occasion
formed one of the most celebrated stories in
Roman annals. Pyrrhus used every effort to
gain Fabricius ; he offered him the most
splendid presents and endeavoured to persuade
him to enter into his service, but the sturdy
Roman was proof against aU his offers. On
the renewal of the war in the following year
(279), Fabricius again served as legate, and
shared in the defeat at the battle of Asculum.
In 278 Fabricius was consul a second time, and
had the conduct of the war against Pyrrhus.
The king was anxious for peace; and the
generosity with which Fabricius sent back to
Pyrrhus the traitor who had offered to poison
him afforded an opportunity for opening nego
tiations, which resulted in the evacuation of
Italy by Pyrrhus (Plut. Pyrrh. 18-24 ; Val.
Max. ii. 7, 15 ; Gell. iii. 8). Fabricius then
subdued the allies of the king in the S. of Italy
(Eutrop. ii. 13). He was censor in 275, and
distinguished Mmself by the severity with wMch
he attempted to repress the growing taste for
luxury. His censorship is particularly cele
brated from Ms expelling from the Benate P.

FALERII

339

Cornelius Rufinus, on account of his possessing
ten pounds' weight of sfiver plate. The love of
luxury and the degeneracy of morals which had
already begun brought out still more promi
nently the simplicity of life and the integrity of
character which distinguished FabriciuB as
well as his contemporary Curius Dentatus : and
ancient writers love to tell of the frugal way in
wMcb they lived on their hereditary farms, and
how they refused the rich presents which the
Samnite ambassadors offered them. Fabricius
died as poor as he had lived ; he left no dowry
for his daughters, which the senate, however,
furnished ; and, to order to pay the greatest
possible respect to Ms memory, the state
interred him within the pomerium, although
this was forbidden by the Twelve Tables (Cic.
Tusc. iii. 23 ; Val. Max. iv. 4, 10 ; Gell. iv. 8 ;
Plut. Sull. 1). — 2. I. Fabricius, curator
viarum in B.C. 62, built a new bridge of stone,
which connected the city with the island in the
Tiber, and which was, after Mm, caUed pons
Fabricius. The name of its author is stiU seen
on the remnants of the bridge, which now bears
the name of Ponte Quattro Capi, in allusion to
a head of Janus wMch stood upon the parapet
[Diet, of Ant. art. Pons]. — 3. Q. Fabricius,
tribune of the plebs, 57, proposed as early as
the month of January of that year, that Cicero
should be recalled from exile ; but this attempt
was frustrated by P. Clodius by armed force
(Cic. Sest. 35). _
Fadus, Cuspius, appointed by the emperor
Claudius procurator of Judaea to a.d. 44. He
was succeeded by Tiberius Alexander.
Faesulae (Faesulanus : Fiesole), a very
ancient and important city of the Etruscans,
situated on a hill three miles NE. of Florence
(Sil. It. viii. 477 ; Pol. ii. 25). Sulla sent to it a
military colony ; and it was the head-quarters
of Catiline's army (Cic. Muren. 24, Gat. iii. 6,
14 ; Sail. Cat. 24-32). The growing import
ance of Florentia lessened that of Faesulae,
wMch, however, was a strong place in the
Gothic wars (Procop. B. G. ii. 23-27). There are
stiU to be seen the magnificent remains of the
ancient walls and also a Roman theatre.
Falacrine or Falacrinum, a Sabine town at
the foot of the Apennines on the Via Salaria
between Asculum and Reate, the birthplace of
the emperor Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 2).
Falerii or Falerium, a town in Etruria,
situated on a steep and lofty height near Mt.
Soracte, said to have been founded by Halesus,
from Argos (Dionys. i. 21 ; Plin. iii. 51). Its in
habitants were called Falisci, and were regarded
by many as of the same race as the Aequi,
whence we find them often called Aequi Falisci.
Falerii afterwards became one of the twelve
Etruscan cities ; but its inhabitants continued
to differ from the rest of the Etruscans both in
their language and customs even in the time of
Augustus. After a long struggle with Rome,
the Faliscans yielded to Camillus, B.C. 394
(Liv. v. 8-19). They subsequently joined
their neighbours several times to warring
against Rome, but were finally subdued. At
the close of the first Punic war, 241, they again
revolted. The Romans now destroyed Falerii
and compelled the Faliscans to build a new
town to the plain (Pol. i. 65 ; Eutr. ii. 28). The
ruins of the new city are to be seen at Falleri;
while the remains of the more ancient one are at
Civitd Castellana. The ancient town of
Falerii was afterwards colonised by the Ro
mans under the name of ' Colonia Etruscorum
Falisca,' or ' Colonia Junonia Faliscorum,' but
z2

340

FALERNUS

it never became again a place of importance.
The ancient town was celebrated for its worsMp
of Juno Curitis or Quiritis, and it was in
honour of her that the Romans founded the
colony. Minerva and Janus were also wor
shipped in the town. — Falerii had extensive
linen manufactories, and its wMte cows were
prized at Rome as victims for sacrifice (Ov.
Am. iii. 13).
Falernus Ager, a district in the N. of Cam
pania, extending from the Massic hills to the
river Vulturnus. It produced some of the finest
wine in Italy, which was reckoned only second
to the wine of Setia. Its choicest variety was
called Faustianum. It became fit for drinMng
in ten years, and might be used when twenty
years old (Diet, of Antiq. a. v. Vinum).
Falesia Portus, a harbour in Etruria S. of
Populonium, opposite the island Ilva.
Falisci. [Falerii.]
Falisous. TGrattius.]
Fannia. 1. A woman of Minturnae, who
hospitably entertained Marius, when he came
to Minturnae in his flight, B.C. 88, though he
had formerly pronounced her guilty of adultery.
— 2. The second wife of Helvidius Priscus.
Fannius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs, B.C.
187 (Liv. xxxviii. 60). — 2. L., deserted from the
Roman army in 84, with L. Magius, and went
over to Mithridates, whom they persuaded to
enter into negotiations with Sertorius in Spain.
Fannius afterwards commanded a detachment
of the army of Mittoidates against Lucullus
(Plut. Sert. 24).— 3. C, consul B.C. 122, author
of a speech against C. Gracchus, which is
praised by Cicero (Brut. 26, 99). — 4. C, son of
a M. Fannius, was present at the taking of
Carthage, and was an annalist of some reoute
(Cic. Brut. 27, 101 ; Plut. Ti. Gracch. 4)?— 5.
C., one of the persons who signed the accusa
tion brought against P. Clodius in 61 (App.
B. C. v. 139). In 59 he was mentioned by L.
Vettius as an accomplice in the alleged con
spiracy against Pompey. — 6. C, tribune of the
plebs, 59, opposed the lex agraria of Caesar.
He belonged to Pompey's parity, and in 49 went
as praetor to Sicily (Cic. Sest. 53). — 7. A worth
less poet, contemporary of Horace (Hor. Sat.
i. 4, 21). — 8. A contemporary of the younger
Pliny, the author of a work, very popular at
the time, on the deaths of persons executed or
exiled by Nero (Plin. Ep. v. 5).
Fannius Caepio. [Caepio.]
Fannius ftuadratus. [Quadratus.]
Fannius Strabo. [Strabo.]
Fanum Fortunae (Fano), an important
town in Umbria at the mouth of the Metaurus.
with a celebrated temple of Fortuna, whence
the town derived its name. Augustus sent to it
a colony of veterans, and it was then called
'Colonia Julia Fanestris.' Here was a trium
phal arch in honour of Augustus. (Caes. B. C.
i. 11 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 50 ; Mel. ii. 4, 5.)
FarfaruB. [Fabaris.]
Faula or Fauna. [Bona Dea.]
Faunus, son of Picus, grandson of Saturnus,
and father of Latinus, was the third in the
series of the kings of the Laurentes (Verg. Aen.
vii. 45; Arnob. ii. 71). So far from being an
ancient hero honoured as a god, as it was once
held (Serv. ad Aen. viii. 275), he must rather
be regarded as an old Italian nature-god, whom
tradition changed into a pre-historic king. It
is held with great probability that Mars,
Silvanus and Faunus were kindred Italian
deities with different provinces, that of Faunus
being especially the rural community or pagus.

FAUSTINA
Hence his guardianship of country life and
pursuits, and of herds (Ov. Fast. ii. 361 : Hor.
Od. i. 4, 12, i. 17, iii. 18, 12). It is probable,
though not certain, that the name Lupercus,
which belongs to him means 'the averter of
the wolf ' (from the flocks). The Lupercalia, in
which Faunus was worshipped (Diet, of Antiq.
s. v.) were therefore at once a purification by
which evil influences were scourged away and
an offering for the increase of the flocks.
Faunus, like other deities of the earth, had also
prophetic powers, conveyed sometimes by
mysterious voices from MUs or woods, some
times by visions in sleep (Dionys. v. 16 ; Liv.
ii. 7 ; Cic. Div. i. 101 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 82 ; Ov.
Fast. iv. 649). The true ItaUan representation
of Faunus was probably as a man of middle age,
bearded, and with a 'Jupiter' type of head,
wearing a goat-skin over the shoulders and
bearing a staff or club to one hand and a horn
in the other. The more familiar type is due to

A Faun, from an anoient gem Gori, Gem. Ant. Flor.)
the Greek influence wMch identified Faunus-
with Pan, and imagined a plurality of Fauns,
represented as Satyrs.
Fausta. 1. Cornelia, daughter of the dic
tator Sulla, and twin sister of Faustus SuUa,
was born about B.C. 88. She was first married
to C. Memmius, and afterwards to Milo. She
was infamous for her adulteries, and VilUuswas
one of her paramours, whence Horace caUs Mm
' SuUae gener ' (Sat. i. 64). — 2. Flavia Maxi-
miana, daughter of Maximianus, and wife of
Constantine the Great, to whom she bore
Constantinus, Constantius, and Constans.
Faustina. 1. Annia Galeria, commonly dis
tinguished as Faustina Senior, the wife of
Antoninus Pius, died in the third year of his
reign, a.d. 141. Notwithstanding the profligacy
of her life, her husband loaded her with
honours both before and after her decease. It
was to honour of her that Antoninus established
a hospital for the education and support of
young females, who were called after her
puellae alimentariae Faustinianae. [Anto
ninus.] — 2. Annia, or Faustina Junior, daughter
of the elder Faustina, was married to M.
Aurelius in a.d. 145 or 146, and she died in a
village on the skirts of Mount Taurus in 175,
having accompanied the emperor to Syria.
Her profligacy was so open and infamouB,
that the good nature or blindness of her

FAUSTULUS
husband, who cherished her fondly while alive,
and loaded her with honours after her death,
appears truly marveUous. [M. Aurelius.] — 3.
Annia, grand-daughter or great-grand-daughter
of M. Aurelius, the ttord of the numerous wives
of Elagabalus.
Faustulus. [Romulus.]
Faventia (Faventinus : Faenza), a town in
GaUia Cisalpina on the river Anemo and on
the Via AemUia, celebrated for its linen manu
factories (Strab. p. 217 ; Plin. xix. 1).
Favonii Portus (Porto Favone), a harbour on
the coast of Corsica.
FavoniusL the West wind. [Zephyrus.]
M. Favdmus, an imitator of Cato Uticensis,
whose character and conduct he copied so
servUely as to receive the nickname of Cato's
ape. He was a warm supporter of the party of
the optimates, and opposed aU the measures of
the first triumvirate. On the breaking out of
the Civil war in B.C. 49, he joined Pompey, not
withstanding Ms personal aversion to Mm, and
opposed all proposals of reconcUiation with
Caesar. He served to the campaign against
Caesar in Greece in 48, and after the defeat of
Ms party at Pharsalus, he accompanied Pompey
in Ms flight. Upon Pompey's death he
returned to Italy, and was pardoned by Caesar.
He took no part in the conspiracy against
Caesar, but, after Ms murder, espoused the side
of Brutus and Cassius. He was taken prisoner
in the battle of PhiUppi to 42, and was put to
death by Octavianus. (Plut. Cat. Min. 32-46,
Pomp. 60 ; Suet. Aug. 13.)
Favorinus, a pMlosopher and sopMst to the
reign of Hadrian, was a native of Aries in Gaul.
He resided at different periods of Ms Ufe to
Rome, Greece, and Asia Minor, and obtained
Mgh distinctions. He was intimate with Plu
tarch, who dedicated to Mm Ms treatise on
the principle of cold, and with Herodes
Atticus, to whom he bequeathed Ms library and
house at Rome. He wrote several works on
various subjects, but none of them are extant.
Febris, the goddess, or rather the averter, of
fever. She had tMee sanctuaries at Rome, in
which amulets were dedicated wMch people had
worn during a fever (Cic. N. D. ui. 25, 63.
Legg. u. 11, 28; Plin. ii. 16). A dea Tertiana
(i.e. goddess of tertian fevers or agues) is men
tioned in an inscription (C. I. L. vii. 999).
Februus, an ancient ItaUan divinity, to
whom the month of February was sacred, for in
the latter half of that month general purifica
tions and lustrations were celebrated. The
name is connected with februare (to purify).
and februae (purifications). Februus was also
regarded as a god of the lower world, and the
festival of the dead (Feralia) was celebrated to
February (Diet, of Ant. art. Februa).
Felicitas, the personification of happiness, to
whom a temple was erected by Lucullus in B.C.
75 ; and a second was dedicated by M. AemiUus
Lepidus (Plin. xxxv. 156, xxxvi. 39 ; Cic. Verr.
iv. 2 ; cf. Strab. p. 381 ; Dio Cass. xliv. 5).
Felicitas is frequently seen on Roman medals,
in the form of a matron, with the staff of
Mercury (caduceus) and a cornucopia.
Felix Antonius, procurator of Judaea, in the
reigns of Claudius and Nero, was a brother
of the freedman PaUas, and was himself a
freedman of the emperor Claudius. Hence
he is also called Claudius Felix. In Mb pri
vate and his public character aUke Felix
was unscrupulous and profligate. Having
fallen in love with Drusilla, daughter of Agrippa
I., and wife of Azizus, king of Emesa, he

FERRATUS

341

induced her to leave her husband ; and she was
still living with him in 60, when St. Paul
preached before him. His government, though
cruel and oppressive, was strong : he suppressed
all disturbances, and cleared the country of
robbers. He was recaUed in 62, and succeeded
by Porcius Festus; and the Jews having lodged
accusations against him at Rome, he was saved
from punishment only by the influence of his
brother PaUas with Nero (Tac. Ann. xii. 54, Hist.
v. 9; Suet. Claud. 28; Jos. Ant. xx. 7).
Felix, M. MinueiUB, a Roman lawyer, who
flourished about a.d. 289, wrote a dialogue en
titled Octavius, which occupies a conspicuous
place among the early Apologies for Christian
ity. Edited by Gronovius, Lug. Bat. 1707;
by Ernesti, ibid. 1773 ; by Muralto, Turic. 1836.
Felsina. [Bononia.]
Feltria (Feltrlnus: Feltre), a town in
Rhaetia, a little N. of the river Plavis.
Fenestella, a Roman Mstorian, who lived in
the time of Augustus, and died a.d. 21, in the
seventieth year of Ms age (Sen. Ep. 108 ; Plin.
viii. 19, ix. 65, xv. 1 ; Gell. xv. 28). His work, en
titled Annates, extended to at least 22 books.
The few fragments preserved relate to events
subsequent to the Carthaginian wars ; and we
know that it embraced the greater part of
Cicero's career. A treatise, De Sacerdotiis et
Magistratibus Bomanorum Libri II, ascribed
to Fenestella, is a work of the 15th century, not
apparently intended as a forgery, since the
author (FioccM) speaks in one passage of
Christian bishops.
Fenni, a savage people living by the chase,
whom Tacitus (Germ. 46) reckons among the
Germans. They appear to have dwelt in the
further part of E. Prussia, and to have been
the same as the modern Finns.
Ferentina, a goddess of the Latins, at
whose sacred spring and grove the meetings of
the Latin League were held (Liv. i. 50, 52, ii.
38, vii. 25 ; Dionys. iii. 84, 51). The situation
is doubtf ui, but it was near Alba Longa — accord
ing to some, close to Marino ; according to
others, nearer Nemi.
Ferentinum (Ferentinas, Ferentinus). 1.
(Ferento), a town of Etruria, S. of Volsinii, the
birthplace of the emperor Otho. It is called
both a colonia and a municipium. There are
stiU remains of its walls, of a theatre and of
sepulctoes at Ferento. (Strab. p. 226; Tac.
Hist. n. 50). — 2. (Ferento), an ancient town of
the Hermci in Latium, SW. of Anagnia, colon
ised by the Romans in the second Punic war.
There are still remains of its ancient walls.
polygonal, but patched with Roman masonry.
(Strab. p. 287 ; GeU. x. 3 ; Liv. xxxiv. 42 ; Hor.
Ep. i. 17, 8.)
Ferentum. [Forentum.]
Feretrius. [Jupiter.]
Feronia, a goddess of the central Italians,
probably a goddess of the earth and its fruits,
especially of corn. Her chief sanctuaries were
at the foot of Mt. Soracte near Capena (Liv.
xxii. 1, xxiv. 11) ; near Terracina (Hor. Sat. i. 5,
24; Verg. Aen. vii. 800; Plin. ii. 146), where
remains of a temple at a spring, stiU called
Ferronia, have been found. Her worsMp was
carried by Latin colonists to other places (e. g.
Aquileia, C. 1. L. v. 412) ; and to Rome by the
Sabines (Varr. L. L. v. 74). There her festival
was held on November 14 (the seed-time).
Ferratus Mons (Jebel-Jurjurah), one of the
principal mountain-chains in the Lesser Atlas
system, in N. Africa, on the borders of Maure
tania Caesariensis and Mauretania Sitifensis.

342

FESCENNIUM

Fescennium or Fescennia (Fescenninus)), a
town of the Falisci in Etruria, and conse
quently, like Falerii, of Pelasgic origin.
[Falerii.] From this town the Romans are
said to have derived the Fescennine songs.
[Diet, of Antiq. s.v.] The site of the town may
perhaps be placed at S. Silvestro.
Festus, Sext. Pompeius, a Roman gram
marian, probably lived in the second century of
our era, since he is quoted by Julius Romanus
(ap. Charis. n. 220), who lived in the third cen
tury. His name is attached to a dictionary or
glossary of Latin words and pMases, divided
into 20 books, and commonly called Sexti
Pompeii Festi de Verborum Significatione.
It was abridged by Festus from the great work
with the same title by M. Verrius Flaccus, a
celebrated grammarian in the reign of Augus
tus. Festus made alterations and criticisms
(of little value) of his own, and inserted nu
merous extracts from other writings of VerriuB ;
but, unfortunately, altogether omitted those
words wMch had fallen into disuse, intending
to make these the subject of a separate volume.
Towards the end of the eighth century, Paul,
son of Warnefrid, better known as Paulus Dia-
co-nus, from having officiated as a deacon of
the church at Aquileia, abridged the abridg
ment of Festus. The original work of Verrius
Flaccus had perished with the exception of
one or two inconsiderable fragments. Of the
abstract by Festus one MS. only has come
down to us, containing the second half only of
the work (letters M-V), and that in an im
perfect condition. The numerous blanks in
this MS. have been ingeniously filled up by
Soaliger and Ursinus, partly from conjecture
and partly from the corresponding paragraphs
of Paulus, whose performance appears in a
complete form in many MSS. The best
editions of Festus are by K. 0. MiiUer, Lips.
1839 and 1880 (to which the text of Festus is
placed face to face with the corresponding text
of Paulus, so as to admit of easy comparison),
and by E. Thewrewk, Pesth, 1889. The work
is one of great value, containing a rich treasure
of learning upon many points connected with
antiquities, mythology, and grammar.
Festius, Porcius, before whom St Paul was
brought, succeeded Antomus Felix as procura
tor of Judaea in A.D. 62, and died not long after.
Fibrenus. [Arpinum.]
Fie ana (Ficanensis), one of the Latin
towns destroyed by Ancus Martius (Liv. i. 88).
Ficulea (Ficuleas, -atis, Ficolensis), a town
of the Sabines, E. of Fidenae, said to have
been founded by the Aborigines, but early sunk
into_ decay (Dionys. i. 13 ; Liv. i. 38).
Fidenae, sometimes Fidena (Fidenas, -atis :
Castel Giubileo), an ancient town in the land
of the Sabines, nearly five miles NE. of
Rome, situated on a steep hill, between the
Tiber and the Anio. It is said to have been
founded by Alba Longa, and also to have been
conquered and colonised by Romulus ; but the
population appears to have been partly Etrus
can, and it was probably colonised by the
Etruscan Veii, with which city we find it in
close aUiance. (Verg. Aen. vi. 773 ; Dionys. ii.
53 ; Liv. i. 15, 27.) It frequently revolted and
was frequently taken by the Romans. Its last
revolt was in B.C. 438, and in the following
year it was destroyed by the Romans. Sub
sequently the town was rebuUt ; but it is
spoken of as a poor place (Cic. de Leg. Agr.
ii. 85; Hor. Ep. i. 11, 7; Juv. x. 100). In the
reign of Tiberius, in consequence of the fall of

FIMBRIA
a temporary wooden theatre here, 20,000 or, ac
cording to some accounts, 50,000 persons lost
their lives (Tac. Ann. iv. 62;, Suet. Tib. 40).
Fidentia (Fidentinus : Borgo S. Donino), a
town in Cisalpine Gaul on the Via Aemilia,
between Parma and Placentia, memorable for
the victory wMch Sulla's generals gained over
Carbo, B.C. 82.
Fides, the personification of fidelity or faith
fulness. Noma is said to have built a temple
to Fides publica, on the Capitol, and another
was built there in the consulship of M. Aemilius
Scaurus, B.C. 115 (Plut. Num. 16; Cic. Off. iii.
104, N. D. ii. 61). She was represented as a
matron wearing a wreath of olive or laurel
leaves, and carrying in her hand corn ears, or a
basket with fruit. She is also symbolised on
coins by joined hands, and by the caduceus.
Fidius. The name Dius Fidius betokened
the Genius Jovis — that is, the God of Right and
Faith upon earth, who guarded faith for men
in their own families and communities, as
Jupiter did for the gods. Dius Fidius was
identical with the Sabine demigod Semo Sancua
(Dionys. ii. 49 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 213 ; Fest. p. 238 ;
Sil. It. viii. 422 ; cf. Varr. L.L. v. 66), and Semo
Sancus again was identical with the Itahan
Hercules, who watched over the rights and the
faith of the homestead and family (Prop. v. 9,
71; Varr. I.e.). Hence we find the names Semo
Sancus Dius Fidius combined together (C. I. L.
vi. 568), and hence also the oaths me Dius
Fidius (juvet) and me Hercules juvet are
equivalent. There was a temple of Dius Fidius
on the Quirinal, and his festival was on June
5th (Ov. Fast. I.e.). The custom of swearing
by him only under the open sky (Varr. L i. v. 66)
seems to betoken his connexion with Jupiter,
the god of the sky, and some have explained the
bronze orbs dedicated in the temple of Sancus
(Liv. viii. 20) in the same way.
Figulus, C. Marcius. 1. Consul b.c. 162, and
again consul 156, when he carried on war with
the Dalmatae in Hlyricum. — 2. Consul 64, sup
ported Cicero in Ms consulsMp.
Figulus, P. Nigidius, a Pythagorean phUo
sopher of high reputation, who flourished about
B.C. 60. Mathematical and physical investiga
tions appear to have occupied a large share of
Ms attention; and such was his fame as an
astrologer, that it was generaUy believed, in
later times at least, that he had predicted the
future greatness of Octavianus on hearing the
announcement of his birth. He, moreover, pos
sessed considerable influence in political affairs ;
was one of the senators selected by Cicero to
take down the depositions of the witnesses who
gave evidence with regard to Catiline's con
spiracy, b.c. 63 ; was praetor, 59 ; took an active
part in the Civil war on the side of Pompey ; was
compelled to consequence by Caesar to live
abroad, and died in exile, 44.
Fimbria, C. Flavius. 1. A homo moros, who
rose to the Mghest honours through Ms own
merits and talents. Cicero praises him both as a,
jurist and as an orator. He was consul B.C. 104,
and was subsequently accused of extortion in
Ms province, but was acquitted (Cic. Verr. v.
70, Brut. 84, Off. iii. 19).— 2. Probably son of
the preceding, was one of the most violent par
tisans of Marius and Cinna during the CivU war
with Sulla. In B.C. 86 he was sent into Asia as
legate of Valerius Flaccus, and took advantage
of the unpopularity of his commander with the
soliers to excite a mutiny against him. Flaccus
was kiUed at Chalcedon, and was succeeded in
the command by Fimbria, who carried on the

FINES
war with success against the generals of Mithri
dates. In 84 Sulla crossed over from Greece
into Asia, and, after concluding peace with
Mittoidates, marched against Fimbria. The
latter was deserted by Ms troops, and put an
end to Ms life (VeU. Pat. ii. 24 ; Plut. Sull. 23).
Fines, the name of a great number of places,
either on the borders of Roman provinces or of
different tribes. These places are usually found
only in the Itineraries, and are not of sufficient
importance to be enumerated here.
Firmanus, Tarutius, a mathematician and
astrologer, contemporary with M. Varro and
Cicero. At Varro's request Firmanus took the
horoscope of Romulus, and from the circum
stances of the life and death of the founder
determined the era of Rome (Cic. Div. ii. 47,
98 ; Plut. Bom. 12).
Firmianus Symposius, Caelius, of uncertain
age and country, the reputed author of 100
insipid riddles, each comprised in three hexa
meter lines, coUected, as we are told in the pro
logue, for the purpose of promoting the festi
vities of the Saturnalia. There is, however,
some doubt whether they are not the work of
Lactantius Firmianus, and entitled Ms ' Sympo
sium.' [Lactantius.] Printed in the Poet.
Lat. Min. of Wernsdorf, vol. vi.
Firmicus Maternus, the author of a work
entitled Matheseos Libri VIII, wMch is a
complete system of astrology, according to the
discipline of the Egyptians and Babylonians.
The writer Uved in the time of Constantine the
Great. In Ms views he is a Neo-Platonist and op
posed to Christiamty. The work is of interest as
showing the importance attached to astrology. —
Editions, Aldtoe 1499 ; K. Sittl, 1892.— 2. About
the same time another Firmicus Maternus
wrote a work in favour of Christiamty, entitled
De Errore Profanarum Beligionum ad Con-
stantium. et Constantem. Edited by F. OeMer,
Lips. 1847.
Firmum (Firmanus: Fermo), a town in
Picenum, tMee miles from the coast, and S. of
the river Tinna, colonised by the Romans at the
beginning of the first Funic war. On the coast
was its strongly fortified harbour, Castellum
Firmanum or Firmanorum (Porto di Fermo).
M. Firmus, a native of Seleucia, the friend
and aUy of Zenobia, seized upon Alexandria,
and proclaimed himself emperor, but was de
feated and slain by AureUan, a.d. 273.
Flaccus, Calpurnius, a rhetorician, probably
in the reign of Hadrian, excerpts of whose fifty-
one declamations are edited with those of Quin
tilian by Burmann (Leid. 1620).
Flaccus, Fulvius. 1. M., consul with App.
Claudius Caudex, b.c. 264, in which year the
first Punic war broke out. — 2. Q., son of No. 1,
consul 237, fought against the Ligurians in Italy.
In 224 he was consul a second time, and con
quered the Gauls and Insubrians in the N. of
Italy. In 215 he was praetor, after having been
twice consul ; and to the following year (214) he
was re-elected praetor. In 213 he was consul
for the tMrd time, and carried on the war in
Campania against the Carthaginians. He and
Ms colleague, Ap. Claudius Pulcher, took
Hanno's camp by storm, and then laid siege to
Capua, which they took in the following year
(212). In 209 he was consul for the fourth time,
and continued the war against the Carthagimans
in the S. of Italy. (Liv. xxvi. 8, xxvii. 15.) — 3. Cn.,
brother of No. 2, was praetor 212, and had
ApuUa for Ms province: he was defeated by
Hannibal near Herdonea. In consequence of
iris cowardice in this battle he was accused

FLACCUS

843

before the people, and went into voluntary
exile before the trial. (Liv. xxvi. 2.) — 4. Q,, son
of No. 2, was praetor 112, and carried on war in
Spain against the Celtiberians, whom he defeated
in several battles. He was consul 179 with his
brother, L. Manlius Acidinus Fulvianus, who
had been adopted by Manlius Acidinus. In
Ms consulsMp he defeated the Ligurians. In
174 he was censor with A. Postumius Albinus.
Shortly afterwards he became deranged, and
hanged himself in his bedchamber. (Liv. xl. 16,
xUi. 28.)— 5. M., nephew of No. 4, and a friend
of the Gracchi, was consul 125, when he subdued
the Transalpine Ligurians. He was one of the
triumvirs for carrying into execution the
agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus, and was slain
together with C. Gracchus in 121 (Cic. Phil. iv.
4). He was a man of a bold and determined
character, and was more ready to have recourse
to violence and open force than C. Gracchus. —
6. Q., praetor in Sardinia, 187, and consul 180.
— 7. Ser., consul 135, subdued the Vardaeansin
Hlyricum. Flaccus, Granius, a contemporary of Julius
Caesar, wrote a book, De Jure Papiriano, which
was a collection of the laws of the ancient kings
of Rome, made by Papirius. [Papirius.]
Flaccus, Horatius. [Horatius.]
Flaccus, Hordeonlus, consular legate of
Upper Germany at Nero's death, a.d. 68. He
was secretly attached to the cause of Vespasian,
for which reason he made no effectual attempt
to put down the insurrection of CivUis [Civilis].
His troops, who were in favour of ViteUius,
compelled him to give up the command to
Vocula, and put him to death.
Flaccus, C. Norbanus, a general of Octavian
and Antony in the campaign against Brutus and
Cassius, b.c. 42. He was consul in 88. (Appian,
B.C. iv. 87-106.)
Flaccus, Persius. [Persius.]
Flaccus Siculus, an agrimensor by profession,
probably lived about the reign of Nerva. He
wrote a treatise De Conditionibus Agrorum,
of which the beginning is preserved in the
collection of Agrimensores. [Frontinus.]
Flaccus, Valerius. 1. L., curule aedile b.c.
201, praetor 200, and consul 195 with M. Porcius
Cato. In Ms consulship, and in the following
year, he carried on war, with great success,
against the Gauls in the N. of Italy. In 184 he
was the coUeague of M. Cato in the censorsMp, .
and in the same year was made princeps senatus.
He died 180. (Liv. xxxi. 4, xxxiv. 21, xxxix. 40.)
— 2. L., consul 131, with P. Licinius Crassus. —
3. L., consul 100 with C. Marius, when he took
an active part in putting down the insurrection
of Saturninus. In 97 he was censor with M.
Antonius, the orator. In 86 he was chosen
consul in place of Marius, who had died in Mb
seventh consulship, and was sent by Cinna into
Asia to oppose Sulla, and to bring the war
against Mithridates to a close. The avarice and
severity of Flaccus made Mm unpopular with
the soldiers, who at length rose in mutiny at the
instigation of Fimbria. Flaccus was then put
to death by order of Fimbria. [Fimbria.] — 4. L.,
the interrex, who proposed that Sulla should be
made dictator, 82, and who was afterwards made
by Sulla his magister equitum (Plut. Sull. 33).
— 5. C, praetor 98, consul 93, and afterwards
proconsul in Spain. — 6. 1., praetor 63, and
afterwards propraetor in Asia, where he was
succeeded by Q. Cicero. In 59 he was accused
by D. Laelius of extortion in Asia ; but, although
undoubtedly guilty, he -was defended by Cicero
(in the oration pro Flacco, which is still extant)

344

FLACCUS

and Q. Hortensius, and was acquitted. — 7. C, a
poet, was a native of Padua, and lived in the
time of Vespasian. He is the author - of the
Argonautica, an unfinished heroic poem in eight
books, on the Argonautic expedition, in which
he follows Apollonius Rhodius. The eighth
book terminates abruptly, at the point where
Medea is urging Jason to make her the com
panion of Ms homeward journey. Flaccus is
otoy a second-rate poet. His diction is pure ;
his general style is free from affectation ; his
versification is polished and harmonious; his
descriptions are lively and vigorous ; but he
displays no originality, nor any of the Mgher
attributes of genius. Editions by Wagner,
1805 ; by Schenkl, 1871 ; by Bahrens, 1875.
Flaccus, Verrius, a freedman by birth, and a
distinguished grammarian, in the reign of Au
gustus. He was renowned for his success as a
teacher. His method was to employ competi
tion, setting subjects upon which those of the
same age might write, and giving a book as a
prize for the winner. Augustus showed his
approval by maMng him the tutor of his grand
sons, Caius and Lucius Caesar, with a salary of
about 1,000Z. a year. He died at an advanced
age, in the reign of Tiberius. (Suet. Gr. 17 ;
Gell. iv. 5, xvii. 6.) He is frequently cited by
Pliny the Elder. At the lower end of the market
place at Praeneste was a statue of Verrius
Flaccus, fronting the Hemicyclium, on the
inner curve of which were set up marble tablets,
inscribed with the Fasti Verriani. These Fasti
were a calendar of the days and vacations of
public business — dies fasti, nefasti, and i/nter-
cisi — of religious festivals, triumphs, &c, espe
cially including such as were peculiar to the
family of the Caesars. They supplied Ovid with
the framework of Ms Fasti, which, as far as can
be judged from the extant remains of the Fasti
Verriani, expresses the same views (G. I. L. i.
pp. 295, 311). The fragments were discovered in
1770 in the ruins of a building about two miles
from Praeneste. But the great work of Verrius
was Ms lexicon, entitledDe Verborum Significa
tions, wMch was abridged by Festus. [Festus.]
Flamininus, Quintius. 1. T,, a distinguished
general, was consul B.C. 198, and had the con
duct of the war against Philip of Macedonia,
wMch he brought to a close in 197, by the
defeat of PMlip, at the battle of Cynos-
cephalae in Thessaly ; and peace was shortly
afterwards concluded with Philip. Flamininus
continued in Greece for the next tMee years,
in order to settle the affairs of the country.
At the celebration of the Isthmian games
at Corinth in 196, he caused a herald to pro
claim, in the name of the Roman senate, the
freedom and independence of Greece. In 195
he made war against Nabis, tyrant of Sparta,
who had refused to give up Argos to the
Achaean League. Nabis waB compelled to yield
to the terms agreed upon ; but otherwise Sparta
was left independent in her Greek possessions ;
and at this period it may fairly be said that
the Romans acted up to their proclamation of
Greek liberty. The change in their policy did
not come till after the wars with Antiochus.
Flamininus in 194 returned to Rome, having
won the affections of the Greeks by his prudent
and conciliating conduct. In 192 he was again
sent to Greece as ambassador, and remained
there till 190, exercising a sort of protectorate
over the country, In 183 he was sent as am
bassador to Prusias of Bithynia, in order to
demand the surrender of Hannibal. He died
about 174. (Plut. Flamin. ; Liv. xxxii.-xxxix. ;

FLAVIUS
Pol. xvii., xviii.) — 2. L., brother of the pre
ceding, was curule aedile 200, praetor 199, and
afterwards served under Ms brother as legate
in the war against Macedoma. He was consul
in 192, and received Gaul as Ms province, where
he behaved with the greatest barbarity. On
one occasion he killed a cMef of the Boii who
had taken refuge in his camp, in order to afford
amusement to a profligate favourite. For tMs
and similar acts of cruelty he was expelled from
the senate in 184, by M. Cato, who was then
censor. He died in 170. (Liv. xxxix. 42 ; Cic.
de Sen. 12, 42.)— 3. T., consul 150, with M'.
Acilius Balbus. — 4. T., consul 123, with Q. Me
teUus Balearicus. Cicero says that he spoke
Latin with elegance, but that he was an illite
rate man (Brut. 28, 74).
Flaminius. 1. C., was tribune of the plebs,
B.C. 232, in wMch year, notwithstanding the
violent opposition of the senate, he carried an
agrarian law, ordaining that the Ager Gallicus
Picenus, which had recently been conquered,
should be distributed among the plebeians (Pol.
ii. 21). In 227, in which year four praetors
were appointed for the first time, he was one
of them, and received Sicily for Ms province,
where he earned the goodwill of the provincials
by his integrity and justice. In 223 he was
consul, and marched against the Insubrian
Gauls. As the senate were anxious to deprive
Flaminius of Ms office, they declared that the
consular election was not vahd on account of
some fault in the auspices, and sent a letter to
the consuls, with orders to return to Rome.
But as all preparations had been made for a
battle against the Insubrians, the letter was left
unopened until the battle was gained. (Pol. ii.
32 ; Liv. xxi. 63, xxii. 6.) In 220 he was censor,
and executed two great works, which bore Ms
name, viz. the Circus Flaminius and the Via
Flaminia. In 217 he was consul a second time,
and marched against Hannibal, but was de
feated by the latter at the fatal battle of the
Trasimene lake, on the 23rd of June, in wMch
he perished with the greater part of Ms army
(Liv. xxii. 3 ; Pol. iii. 77).— 2. C, son of No. 1,
was quaestor of Scipio Africanus in Spain, 210 ;
curule aedile 196, when he distributed among
the people a large quantity of grain at a low
price, which was furnished him by the Sicilians
as a mark of gratitude towards his father and
himself ; was praetor 193, and obtained His
pania Citerior as his province, where he carried
on the war with success ; and was consul 185,
when he defeated the Ligurians (Liv. xxxix. 1).
Flanaticus or Flanonicus Sinus (Gulf of
Quarnaro), a bay of the Adriatic sea on the
coast of Liburnia, named after the people Fla-
nates and their town Flanona (Fianona).
Flavia, a surname given to several towns in
honour of the Flavian fanuly.
Flavia gens, celebrated as the house to wMch
the emperor Vespasian belonged. During the
later period of the Roman empire, the name
Flavius descended from one emperor to another,
Constantius, the father of Constantine the
Great, being the first in the series.
Flavia Domitilla. [Domitilla.]
Flavius, Cn, the son of a freedman, became
secretary to- App. Claudius Caecus, and, in conse
quence of this connexion, became curule aedile
B.C. 803. He drew up and published a list of
dies fasti and nefasti, and also an account of
legal procedure (legis actiones), wMch pre
viously had been kept secret 'as the exclusive
patrimony of the pontiffs and the patricians.
(Liv. ix. 46 Val. Max. ii. 219 Cic. Mar. 11, 25.)

Flora. (From a
Roman coin.)

FLAVIUS
Flavius Fimbria. [Fimbria.]
Flavius JosSphus. [Josephus.]
Flavius Vopisous. [Vopiscus.]
Flavus, L. Caesetius, tribune of the plebs,
B.C. 44, was deposed from Ms office by C. Julius
Caesar, because, to concert with C. Epidius Ma-
ruUus, one of Ms colleagues in the tribunate,
ie had removed the crowns from the statues of
the dictator, and imprisoned a person who had
saluted Caesar as ' king ' (Suet. Jul. 79).
Flavus or Flavius, Subrius, tribune in the
Praetorian guards, was the most active agent in
the conspiracy against Nero, a.d. 66, wMch,
from its most distinguished member, was caUed
Piso's conspiracy (Tac. Ann. xv. 49).
Flevum (Tac. Ann. iv. 72), a fortress in Ger
many at the mouth of the Amisia (Ems).
Flevum, Flevo. [Rhenus.]
Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers and
spring. The writers whose object was to bring
the Roman reUgion into contempt relate that
Flora was a courtesan, who had accumulated a
large property, and bequeathed it to the Roman
people, in return for wMch she was honoured
with the annual festival of
the FloraUa (Lactant. de Fals.
Bel. i. 20). But her worship
was established at Rome to
the very earUest times, for a
temple is said to have been
vowed to her by king Tatius,
and Numa appointed a flamen
to her (Varr. L. L. v. 32, 74,
158; Mart. v. 22). The re
semblance between the names
Flora and CMoris led the later Romans to
identify the two divinities. Her temple at
Rome was situated near the Circus Maximus,
and her festival was celebrated from the 28th
of April tiU the 1st of May, with extravagant
merriment and lasciviousness. (Diet, of Ant.
art. Floralia.)
Florentia (Florentinus). 1. (Firenze, Flor
ence), a town in Etruria on the Arnus, was a
Roman colony, and was probably founded by
the Romans during their wars with the Li
gurians. In the time of SuUa it was a flourish
ing mumcipium, but its greatness as a city
dates from the middle ages. (Flor. hi. 21, 27 ;
Tac. Ann. i. 79 ; Ptol. ni. 1, 48.)— 2. (Fioren-
zuola), a town in Cisalpine Gaul on the
Aemilia Via, between Placentia and Parma.
Florentinus, a jurist, one of the council of
the emperor Severus Alexander, wrote Insti
tutiones in twelve books, which are quoted in
the Corpus Juris.
Florianus, M. Annius, the brother, by a
different father, of the emperor Tacitus, upon
whose decease he was proclaimed emperor at
Rome, a.d. 276. He was murdered by his own
troops at Tarsus, after a reign of about two
months, wMle on Ms march against Probus,
who had been proclaimed emperor by the
legions in Syria.
Floras. 1. L. Julius or Annaeus (the titles
vary in the MSS.), a Roman Mstorian, lived
under Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote a sum
mary of Roman history, divided into two books,
extending from the foundation of the city to
the establishment of the empire under Augus
tus, entitled Epitomae de T. Livio bellorum
omnium annorum DGC libri duo. But,
though it is drawn chiefly from Livy, the
author does not strictly follow him. His work
is of a rhetorical character, intended to glorify
Rome. Editions by O. Jahn, 1852; C. Halm,
1854. — 2. A rhetorician and poet under Hadrian,

FORNAX 846
possibly, as some think, the same person as
No. 1 ; or he may be identified with P. Annius
Florus, who wrote a dialogue about Virgil's
claim to be an orator or poet. (Included in the
editions of No. 1.)
Florus, Gessius, a native of Clazomenae,
succeeded Albinus as procurator of Judaea,
A.D. 64-65. His cruel and oppressive govern
ment was the main cause of the rebeUion of
the Jews. (Tac. Hist. v. 10 ; Suet. Vesp. 4 ;
Joseph. B. J. ii. 14.)
Florus, Julius, addressed by Horace in two
epistles (i. 3, ii. 2), was attached to the suite of
Claudius Tiberius Nero, when the latter was
despatched by Augustus to place Tigranes upon
the throne of Armenia. He was a writer of
satires. Foca or Fhocas, a Latin grammarian, author
of a dull, foolish Life of Virgil in hexameter
verse, of which 119 lines remain. Printed in the
Anthol. Lat. of Burmann and Wernsdorf.
Foenicularius Campus, a plain covered with
fennel, near Tarraco in Spain (Strab. p. 160;
Cic. ad Att. xii. 10).
Fonteius, M., propraetor of Narbonnese
Gaul, between B.C. 76-78, was accused of ex
tortion in his province by M. Plaetorius in 69.
He was defended by Cicero in an oration (pro
M. Fonteio), part of which is extant.
Fonteius Capito. [Capito.]
Fontus or Fontanus, a Roman divinity, son
of Janus, had an altar on the Janiculum, wMch
derived its name from his father, and on which
Numa was believed to be buried (Arnob. iii.
29). The name of this divinity is connected
with fons, a fountain ; and he was the personi
fication of the flowing waters. On the 13th of
October the Romans celebrated the festival of
the fountains called Fontinalia, at wMch the
fountains were adorned with garlands.
Forentum or Ferentum (Forentanus: Fo-
renza), a town in Apulia, surrounded by fertile
fields and in a low situation, according to
Horace (arvum pingue humilis Forenti : Od.
iii. 4, 16). Livy (ix. 20) describes it as a forti
fied place, which was taken by C. Junius
Bubulcus, B.C. 317. The modern town lies on
a hill. (Strab. p. 233 ; Plin. iii. 105.)
Formiae (Formianus : nr. Mola di Gaeta,
Ru.), a town in Latium, on the Appia Via, in
the innermost corner of the beautiful Sinus
Caietanus (Gulf of Gaeta). It was a very
ancient town, founded by the Pelasgic Tyr
rhenians ; and it appears to have been one ol
the head-quarters of the Tyrrhenian pirates,
whence later poets supposed the city of Lamus,
inhabited by the Laestrygones, of which Homer
speaks (Od. x. 81), to be the same as Formiae;
and from this Lamus the Roman Lamiae
claimed to be descended. (Cic. ad Att. ii. 13 ;
Hor. Od. iii. 17; Sil. It. vii. 410.) Formiae
became a municipium without the suffragium
[cf. Caere] in 338 b.c, having sided with Rome
in the Latin war (Liv. viii. 14; Veil. Pat. i.
14), and received the full franchise in 188 (Liv.
xxxviii. 86). The beauty of the surrounding
country induced many of the Roman nobles to
buUd villas at this spot; of these the best
known is the Formianum of Cicero, near which
he was killed. The remains of Cicero's villa
are still to be seen at the Villa Marsana near
Castiglione. The hills of Formiae produced
good wine (Hor. Od. i. 20).
Formio (Formione, Busano), a smaU river,
forming the N. boundary of Istria.
Fornax, a Roman goddess, who presided over
the oven for drying the corn, and whose fes-

S46

FORTUNA

tival was a thanksgiving for the good supply,
and was also connected with the division of the
Curiae (Ov. Fast. ii. 575 ; Diet, of Antiq. art.
Fomacalia). Fortuna (Tuxi)> the goddess of fortune, was
worshipped both to Greece and Italy. Hesiod
describes her as a daughter of Oceanus ; Pindar
in one place calls her a daughter of Zeus the
Liberator, and to another place one of the
Moerae or Fates. But the worsMp of Tvxri as
a personal deity was far less distinct in Greece
than in Italy, where it was of ancient native
origin. Praeneste and Antium were special
seats of her worship, and may, perhaps, repre
sent older forms of it than any other places.
At Praeneste she was worshipped as Fortuna
Primigenia, i.e. as the eldest child of the gods,
daughter of Jupiter, whose power over the
world dated from the very beginning. Her
temple at Praeneste was also the seat of an
oracle. At Antium (cf. Hor. Od. i. 35) the
temple was also oracular, and it appears from
coins and inscriptions that here two sister
deities, Fortunae, were worshipped (cf. Mart.
v. 1, 3 ; Suet. Cal. 57 ; Macrob. Sat. i. 23, 13),
either because one presided over peace and the
other over fortunes of war, or because one ruled
on land and the other on the sea. At Rome
her worsMp is said to have been introduced to
the reigns of Ancus Martius and Servius TuUius,
and the latter is said to have built two temples
to her, the one in the Forum Boarium, and the
other on the banks of the Tiber. (Ov. Fast.
vi. 781, Val. Max. iii. 4, S ; Plut. de Fort.
Bom. 10, Q.B. 74, 106.) She was often known
as Fors Fortuna, which may, as some hold, be
the names of originally distinct goddesses but
as a double name signified Fortune in her aspect
of uncertainty. As the state goddess she was
spoken of as Fortuna Publica or Populi
Romani, with other epithets describing her
attributes, such as obsequens, felix, viscata
(i.e. ensnaring).
But she was also
regarded to much
the same way as
the GeniuB, and
attached to spe
cial corporations,
families, or indi
viduals (cf . Plin. ii.
22). Thus we find
Fortuna eques-
tris, presiding over
the Equites ; viri-
lis, addressed by
women that they
might please their
husbands; mulie-
bris, said to have
originated when
Coriolanus was
persuaded by the
women to spare
Rome : a temple
with this designa
tion stood on the
Via Latina, four
miles from Rome
(Val. Max. i. 8).
A special signifi
cance attached to the title Fortuna Bedux,
or Fortuna Bedux Augustorum, wMch was
originaUy commemorative of the return of
Augustus to Rome in b.c. 19, and afterwards
denoted the protectress of the imperial house,
especially on their campaigns or journeys.

Fortuna. (Bronze, in the British
Museum.)

FORUM
These various functions are denoted by her
emblems on coins or statuettes. Fortuna is
represented holding a rudder (to show that
she guided the destinies of men or states) ; a
cornucopia to show that she gave wealth and
prosperity, and with a ball or globe, denoting
either the revolutions of chance, or the world
itself as subject to chance. The former of
these ideas is shown by the wheel which some
times appears (Hor. Od. iii. 10, 10 ; Cic.
Pis? 10, 22); and her mutability is sometimes
shown also by wings (cf. Hor. Od. iii. 29, 53).
In the imperial period new forms of worship
came in, under the titles Fortuna-Isis and
Fortuna-Panthea. Fortuna when identified
with Isis was represented with the attributes
of Isis, the lotus-flower, the horns, and erect
feathers upon the head with the crescent
and orb between, holding a sistrum (but also
with the rudder and the cornucopia). Fortuna-
Panthea expressed the idea that Fortuna
included the attributes of other deities : she was
represented like Fortuna-Isis, but with wings.
Fortunatae or -orum Insulae (af rav paxd-
pav vrjo-oi, i.e. the Islands of the Blessed). The
early Greeks, as we learn from Homer, placed
the Elysian fields, into wMch favoured heroes
passed without dying, at the extremity of the
earth, near the river Oceanus. In poems later
than Homer, an island is clearly spoken of as
their abode; and though its position was of
course indefinite, both the poets and the geo
graphers who followed them placed it beyond
the PiUars of Hercules. Hence when, just after
the time of the Marian civil wars, certain
islands were discovered in the Ocean, off the
W. coast of Africa, the name of Fortunatae In
sulae was applied to them (Plut. Sert. 8;
Plin. iv. 119). As to the names of the individual
islands (Capraria, Canaria, Junoma, Nivaria,
Ombrios, with some other variations in Plin.
vi. 202), and the exact identification of them
by their modern names, there are difficulties ;
but it may be safely said, generally, that the
Fortunatae Insulae of Pliny, Ptolemy, and
others, are the Canary Islands, and probably
the Madeira group ; the latter being perhaps
those caUed by Pliny (after Juba) Purpurariae.
[Elysium.] Fortunatianus, Atilius, a Latin grammarian,
author of a treatise (Ars) upon prosody, and the
metres of Horace. Ed. by Keil, HaUe, 1885.
Fortunatianus, Chirius, about 400 a.d., was
the author of a compendium of technical rhe
toric, in tMee bookB, under ;the title Curii
(Chirii) Fortunatiani Gonsulti Artis Bhe-
ioricae Scholicae libri tres, wMch at one period
was held in high esteem as a manual. Printed
to C. Halm's Bhet. Lat. Min.
Forum. [Roma.]
Forum, the name of several towns in various
parts of the Roman empire, which were origin
ally simply markets or places for the adminis
tration of justice. 1. Alien! (Ferraral), in
Cisalpine Gaul.— 2. Appii (nr. S. Donato, Ru.),
in Latium, on the Appia Via, in the midst of
the Pomptine marshes, 48 miles SE. of Rome,
founded by the censor Appius Claudius when
he made the Appia Via (Strab. p. 238 ; Suet.
Tib. 2 ; Hor. Sat. i. 5, 8).— 3. Amelii or Ame-
lium (Montalto), in Etruria, on the Aurelia
Via. — 4, Cassii, in Etruria, on the Cassia Via,
near Viterbo. — 5. Clodii (Oriuolo), in Etruria.-^
6. Cornelii (Imola), in Gallia Cispadana, on
the Aemilia Via, between Bononia and Faventia,
a colony founded by CorneUus Sulla (Strab. p.
216).— 7. Flaminii, in Umbria on the Flamtoia,

FOSI
Via.— -8. Fulvii, surnamed Valentinum (Va-
lenza), in Liguria, on the Po, on the road from
Dertona to Asta,— 9. Gallorum (Castel Franco),
in Gallia Cisalpina, on the Aemilia Via, between
Mutina and Bononia, memorable for the two
battles fought between Antonius and the con
suls Pansa and Hirtius (Appian, B. C. iii. 66).
—10. Hadriani (Voorburg), in the island of
the Batavi to Gallia Belgica, where several
Roman remains have been found. — 11. Julii
or Julium (Forojuliensis : Fre'jus), a Roman
colony founded by Julius Caesar, B.C. 44, in
GaUia Narbonensis, on the river Argenteus and
on the coast, 600 stadia NE. of MassiUa. It
possessed a good harbour, and was the usual
station of a part of the Roman fleet. It was
the birthplace of Agricola. At Frejus are the
remains of a Roman aqueduct, circus, arch, &c.
(Strab. p. 184; Cic. Fam. x. 15; Tac. Ann. iv.
63, Hist. n. 43).— 12. Julii or Julium (Friaul),
a fortified town and a Roman colony in the
country of the Carni, NE. of Aquileia : in the
middle ages it became a place of importance. —
13. Julium. See Illiturgis. — 14. Livii (Forli),
in Cisalpine Gaul, to the territory of the Boii,
on the AemiUa Via, SW. of Ravenna : here the
Gottoc king Athaulf married GaUa Placidia. —
15. Popilii (Forlimpqpoli), to GaUia Cisalpina,
E. of No. 14, and on the same road. — 16. Popilii
(Polla), to LucaMa, E. of Paestum on the
Tanger and on the PopUia Via. On the waU of
an inn at Polla was discovered an inscription
respecting the praetor Popilius. — 17. Segusia-
norum (Feurs), in GaUia Lugdunensis, on the
Liger, and W. of Lugdunum, a town of the
Segusiani and a Roman colony with the sur
name JuUa Felix. — 18. Sempronii (Forosem-
promensis : Fossombrone), a municipium in
Umbria, on the Flaminia Via. — 19. Voeontii
(Vidauban, E. of Canet), a town of the Salyes
in GaUia Narbonensis.
Fosi, a people of Germany, the neighbours
and allies of the Cherusci, to whose fate they
shared. [Cherusci.] It is supposed that their
name is retained to the river Fuse to Brunswick.
Fossa or Fossae, a canal. 1. Clodia, a canal
between the mouth of the Po and Altinum in
the N. of Italy ; there was a town of the same
name upon it. — 2. Cluilia or Cluiliae, a trench
about five miles from Rome, said to have been
the ditch with wMch the Alban king Cluilius
protected Ms camp, when he marched against
Rome to the reign of TuUus Hostilius. —
3. CorbuldniS, a canal in the island of the
Batavi, connecting the Maas and the Rhine,
dug by command of Corbulo to the reign of
Claudius (Tac. Ann. xi. 20 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 30).
— 4. Drusianae or Drusinae, a canal which
Drusus caused Ms soldiers to dig to B.C. 11,
uniting the Rhine with the Yssel. It probably
commenced near Arnheim on the Rhine and
feU into the YsBel near Doesberg. (Tac. Ann. ii.
8.) — 5. Mariana or Marianae, a canal dug by
command of Marius during his war with the
Cimbri, in order to connect the Rhone with
the Mediterranean, and thus make an easier
passage for vessels into the Rhone, because the
mouths of the river were frequently choked up
with sand. The canal commenced near Arelate,
but in consequence of the frequent changes in
the course of the Rhone, it is impossible now
to trace the course of the canal. (Plut. Mar.
15 ; Strab. p. 183.) — 6. Xerxis. See Athos.
Franci, i.e. 'the Free men,' a confederacy
of German tribes, formed on the Lower Rhine
in the place of the ancient league of the
Cherusci, and consisting of the Sigambri, the

FRONTINUS

847

chief tribe, the Chamavi, Ampsivarii, Bructeri,
Chatti, &c. They are first mentioned about
A.D. 240 (Vopisc. Aurel. 7). After carrying on
frequent wars with the Romans, they at length
settled permanently in Gaul, of which they
became the rulers under Clovis, a.d. 496.
Fregellae (Fregellanus : Ceprano), an an
cient and important town of the Volsci com
manding the passage of the Liris in Latium,
conquered by the Romans, and colonised B.C.
828. It took part with the allies in the Social
war and was destroyed by Opimius. (Strab. p.
237 ; Liv. viii. 22 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 6.)
Fregenae, sometimes called Fregellae
(Torre Maccarese), a town of Etruria on the
coast between Alsium and the Tiber, on a low
swampy shore, colonised by the Romans, prob
ably in B.c.245 (Strab. p. 226; Liv. xxxvi. 3).
Frentani, a Samnite people, inhabiting a
well watered territory on the coast of the
Adriatic, from the river Sagrus on the N. (and
subsequently almost as far N. as from the
Aternus) to the river Frento on the S., from
which they derived their name. They were
bounded by the Marrucini on the N., by the
Peligni and by Samnium on the W., and by
Apulia on the S. They submitted to the
Romans in B.C. 304 and concluded a peace with
the republic (Liv. ix. 45).
Frento (Fortore), a river in Italy, forming
the boundary between the Frentani and Apulia,
rises in the Apennines and falls into the
Adriatic sea.
Friniates, a people in Liguria, probably the
same as the Briniates, who, after being sub
dued by the Romans, were transplanted to
Samnium. Frisiabones, a tribe of the Frisii, inhabiting
the islands at the mouth of the Rhine.
Frisii, a people in the NW. of Germany, in
habited the coast from the E. mouth of the
RMne to the Amisia (Ems), and on the S. to
the Bructeri, comprising Friesland, Grbningen,
&c. Tacitus divided them into Majores and
Minores, the former in the E., and the latter
in the W. of the country. The Frisii were on
friendly terms with the Romans from the first
campaign of Drusus tiU a.d. 28, when the
oppressions of the Roman officers drove them
to revolt. In the fifth century they joined the
Saxons and AngU in their invasion of Britain.
(Tac. Germ. 34: Dio Cass. liv. 32; Procop.
B. G. iv. 20.)
Frontinus, Sex. Julius, w»s praetor a.d. 70,
and to 75 succeeded CereaUs as governor of
Britain, where he distinguished himself by the
conquest of the Silures, and maintained the
Roman power unbroken until superseded by
Agricola in 78. In 97 Frontinus was nomi
nated curator aquarum. He died about 106.
(Tac. Hist. iv. 39; Agr. 17; Plin. Ep. iv. 8,
ix. 19.) He evidently possessed considerable
knowledge both of engineering and of strategy.
Two of his works are stiU extant : — 1. Stratege~
maticon Libri III, a sort of treatise on the art
of war, developed in a collection of the sayings
and doings of the most renowned leaders of
antiquity, written as a supplement to a military
work which is lost : a fourth book is different
in plan and style and was added by an unknown
writer. 2. De Aquaeductibus Urbis Bomae
Libri II, which forms a valuable contribution
to the Mstory of architecture (Diet, of Ant.
art. Aquaeductus). The best edition of the
Strategematica is by Gundermann, Lips.
1888; of the De Aquaeductibus by Polenus,
Patav. 1722, and by Bucheler, Lips. 1858. It

348

FRONTO

is often published with Vitruvius. — In the
coUection of the Agrimensores or Bei Agrariae
Auctores (ed. Goesius, Amst. 1674 ; ed. Lach-
mann, Berlin, 1848) are preserved extracts
from treatises ascribed to Frontinus on the art
of measuring land and ascertaining boundaries.
[Diet, of Ant. art. Groma.]
Fronto, M. Cornelius, was born at Cirta in
Numidia, in the reign of Domitian, and came
to Rome in the reign of Hadrian, where he
attained great celebrity as a pleader and a
teacher of rhetoric. He was entrusted with
the education of the future emperors M.
Aurelius and L Verus, who entertained, especi
ally the former, the deepest affection for him,
and rewarded him with wealth and honours.
He was raised to the consulship in A.D. 148. So
great was Ms fame as a speaker that a sect of
rhetoricians arose who were denominated
Frontoniani, professing to avoid the exag
geration of the Greek sopMstical school, and
bestowing especial care on the purity of their
language and the simplicity of their style. But
that Fronto's influence upon taste and educa
tion was not good is evident from the fact that
he led the way in depreciating the authors of
the Augustan age, that Gracchus, Cato, Ennius,
and Plautus took the place of Cicero, Virgil and
Horace in schools and in public esteem (Diet.
of Ant. art. Ludus Litter arius). Fronto lived
till the reign of M. AureUus. The latest of his
epistles belongs to the year 166. — Up to a
recent period no work of Fronto was known to
be in existence, with the exception of a corrupt
and worthless tract entitled De Differentiis
Vocabulorum, and a few fragments preserved
by the grammarians. But about the year 1814
Angelo Mai discovered on a palimpsest in the
Ambrosian Library at MUan a considerable
number of letters which had passed between
Fronto, Antoninus Pius, M. Aurelius, L. Verus,
and various friends, together with some short
essays. These were published by Mai at MUan
to 1815, and in an improved form by Niebuhr,
Buttmann and Heindorf, Berlin, 1816. Subse
quently Mai discovered on a palimpsest in the
Vatican Library at Rome, upwards of 100 new
letters ; and he published these in Rome in
1823, together with those which had been pre
viously discovered. It is clear from Ms works
that his reputation as a great writer and orator
was undeserved. As an author he is without
genius, but vain and pretentious, with a man
nerism arising from his effort to revert to an
antique style. The value of his writings lies in
their notice of contemporary men and manners.
Ed. by S. Naber, Lips. 1867.
Fronto, Papirius, a jurist, who probably
lived about the time of Antoninus Pius, or
rather earUer.
Frusino (Frusinas, -atis : Frosimone), a town
of the Hernici to Latium, in the valley of the
river Cosas, and subsequently a Roman colony.
It was celebrated for its prodigies. (Strab. p.
237 ; Juv. iii. 224 ; Liv. xxvi. 9.)
Fucentis, Fucentia. [Alba, No. 4.]
Fucinus Lacus (Lago di Celano or Gapi-
strano), a large lake in the centre of Italy and
in the country of the Marsi, about thirty mUes
in circumference, into which all the mountain
streams of the Apennines flow. As the water
of this lake had no visible outlet, and frequently
inundated the surrounding country, the emperor
Claudius constructed an emissarium or artificial
channel for carrying off the waters of the lake
into the river Liris. (Verg. Aen. vii. 759 ; Tac.
Ann. xii. 57; Suet. Claud. 20; Plin. xxxvi.

FURIA
124.) TMs emissarium is stiU nearly perfect :
it is almost three miles in length. It appears
that the actual drainage was relinquished soon
after the death of Claudius, for it was reopened
by Hadrian. (For a fuller description see Diet.
of Ant. art. Emissarium).
Fiifius Calenus. [Calenus.]
Fufluns, the Etruscan name of Dionysus.
Fulgentius, Fabius Planciades, a Latin
grammarian about A.D. 480 to 550. He was re
lated to Fulgentius bishop of Ruspe, in Africa,
A.D. 508, and probably belonged to the same
country. He is the author of : 1. Mytholo-
giarum Libri III ad Gatum Presbyterum, a
collection of mythological tales. His models
are Apuleius and Martianus Capella. 2. Expo-
sitio Sermonum Antiquorum cum Testimoniis,
a glossary of obsolete words and ptoases; of
very Uttle value. 3. Liber de Expositions
Virgilianae Continentiae, an aUegorical ex
planation of the Virgilian poems. 4. De Aeta-
tibus Mundi, a universal Mstory, of Uttle worth.
Ed. by Van Staveren, Lug. Bat. 1742, and to
Mythogr. Lat. by Bunte, Bremen, 1852.
Fulginia, Fulgimum (Fulgtoas, -atis: Fo-
ligno), a town in the interior of Umbria on the
Via Flaminia, was a mumcipium.
Fulvia. 1. The mistress of Q. Curius, one
of Catiline's conspirators, divulged the plot to
Cicero. [Catilina.] — 2. A daughter of M. Ful
vius Bambalio of Tusculum, thrice married,
first to the notorious P. Clodius, by whom she
had a daughter Clodia, afterwards the wife of
Octavianus; secondly to C. Scribonius Curio,
and thirdly to M. Antony, by whom she had
two sons. She was a bold and ambitious woman.
In the proscription of B.C. 43 she acted with
the greatest arrogance and brutality : she gazed
with delight upon the head of Cicero, the victim
of her husband. Her turbulent and ambitious
spirit excited a new war in Italy in 41. Jealous
of the power of Octavianus, and anxious to
withdraw Antony from the East, she induced L.
Antonius, the brother of her husband, to take
up arms against Octavianus. But Lucius was
unable to resist Octavianus, and threw himself
into Perusia, which he was obliged to surrender
in the foUowing year (40). Fulvia fled to
Greece and died at Sicyon to the course of the
same year (Veil. Pat. ii. 74).
Fulvia Gens, plebeian, but one of the most
illustrious Roman gentes. It originaUy came
from Tusculum. The principal families to the
gens are those of Centumalus, Flaccus, Nobi
lior, and Paetinus.
Fundanius. 1. C, father of Fundania, the
wife of M. Terentius Varro, is one of the speakers
to Varro's dialogue De Be Bustica. — 2. M.,
defended by Cicero, b.c. 65; but the scanty
fragments of Cicero's speech do not enable us
to understand the nature of the charge. — 3. A
writer of comedies praised by Horace (Sat. i.
10, 41, 42).
Fundi (Fundanus : Fondi), an ancient town
to Latium on the Appia Via, at the head of a
narrow bay of the sea running a considerable
way into the land, called the Lacus Fundanus.
Fundi was a municipium sine suffragio [Caere]
to B.c 338, received the full franchise in 188,
and was subsequently colomsed by the veterans
of Augustus. The surrounding country pro
duced good wine. There are still remains at
Fondi of the walls of the ancient town. (Liv.
viii. 14, xxxviii. 36 ; Strab. p. 234 ; Hor. Sat. i.
5, 34; Mart. xiii. 113.)
Furculae Caudinae. [Caudium.]
Fiiria Gens, an ancient patrician gens, prob-

FURIAE
ably came from Tusculum. The most cele
brated families of the gens bore the names of
Camillus, Medullinus, Pacilus, and Philus.
For others of less note see Bibaculus, Cras-
SIPES, PURPUREO.
Furiae. [Erinyes.]
Furina, an Italian divinity, who had a sacred
grove at Rome. Her worship seems to have
become extinct at an early time. An annual
festival (Furinalia or Furinales feriae) had
been celebrated in honour of her on July 25,
and a flamen (flamen Furinalis) conducted her
worsMp. She had also a temple in the neigh
bourhood of Satricum. (Cic. N. D. iii. 46 ; ad
Q. Fr. iii. 1 ; Varr. L. L. vi. 19.) She is con
nected by some writers with the Furies; but
this seems only an attempt at etymology.
C. Furnius, a friend and correspondent of
Cicero, was tribune of the plebs B.C. 50 ; sided
with Caesar in the CivU war ; and after Caesar's
death was a staunch adherent of Antony. After
the battle of Actium, 31, he was reconcUed to
Augustus, tMough the mediation of Ms son,
was appointed consul to 29, and was prefect of
Hither Spain to 21. (Appian, B. C. v. 30, 137 ;
Dio Cass. hi. 42 ; Cic. Fam. viii. 11.)
Fuscus. 1. Arellius, a rhetorician at Rome
to the latter years of Augustus, instructed in
rhetoric the poet Ovid. He declaimed more
frequently in Greek than to Latin, and Ms style
of declamation is described by Seneca as more
brilliant than soUd, antithetical rather than
eloquent (Sen. Contr. u. 1). His rival to teach
ing and declaiming was Porcius Latro. [La-
tbo.] — 2. Aristius, a friend of the poet Horace,
who addressed to him an ode (Od. i. 22) and
an epistle (Ep. i. 10), and who also introduces
him elsewhere (Sat. i. 9, 61 ; 10, 83).— 3. Corne
lius, one of the most active adherents of
Vespasian to Ms contest for the empire, A.D. 69.
In the reign of Domitian he was sent against
the Dacians, by whom he was defeated. (Juv.
iv. 112 ; Tac. Hist. n. 86, iii. 42, iv. 4.) Martial
wrote an epitaph on Fuscus (Ep. vi. 76), in
wMch he refers to the Dacian campaign.

G.
Giibae (TdBai). 1. (Darabgherdt), a fortress
and royal residence to the interior of Persis, SE.
of Pasargadae, near the borders of Carmania
(Strab. p. 728). — 2. Or Gabaza, or Cazaba, a
fortress in Sogdiana, on the confines of the
Massagetae (Arrian, iv. 17).
Gabala (Td$aXa), a seaport town of Syria
Seleucis, S. of Laodicea; whence good storax
was obtained (PUn. xii. 124).
Gabali, a people to Gallia Aquitanica, whose
country possessed silver mines and good pastu
rage. Their chief town was Anderitum (Ante-
rieux). (Caes. B. G. vii. 75 ; Strab. p. 191.)
Gabiana or -ene (TaBiavf), TaBiTiv-h), a fertile
district to the Persian province of Susiana, W.
of M, Zagros.
Gabii (Gabinus : nr. Castiglione, Ru.), a town
in Latium, on the Lacus Gabinus (Lago di
Gavi), between Rome and Praeneste, was in
early times one of the most powerful Latin
cities ; a colony from Alba Longa ; and the
place, according to tradition, where Romulus
was brought up (Plut. Bom. 6 ; Dionys. i. 84).
It was taken by Tarquinius Superbus by strata
gem (Liv. i. 53), and it was to ruins in the time
of Augustus (Gabiis desertior vicus, Hor. Ep. i.
11, 7). The cinctus Gabinus, a peculiar mode
of wearing the toga at Rome, appears to have

GADES

849

been derived from this town. Near Gabii are
the immense stone quarries from wMch a part
of Rome wis built (cf. Tac. Ann. xv. 43).
A. Gabinius, dissipated his fortune in youth
by his profligate mode of Ufe. He was tribune
of the plebs b.c. 66, when he proposed and
carried a law conferring upon Pompey the com
mand of the war against the pirates, with power
to raise an army and a fleet of 500 ships, and to
select Ms legati and quaestors, while he acted
as supreme commander (practically a dictator)
for three years over all the Mediterranean and
over the coasts for fifty miles inland. He
was praetor in 61, and consul in 58 with L.
Piso. Both consuls supported Clodius in Ms
measures against Cicero, which resulted in the
banishment of the orator. In 57 Gabinius went
to Syria as proconsul. His first attention was
directed to the affairs of Judea. He restored
Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood, of which he
had been dispossessed by Alexander, the son of
Aristobulus, and he suppressed revolts of Jews,
imposing heavy taxation. He next marched
into Egypt, and restored Ptolemy Auletes to
the throne. The restoration of Ptolemy had
been forbidden by a decree of the senate, and
by the Sibylline books ; but Gabinius had been
promised by the king a sum of 10,000 talents
for this service, and set at nought both the
senate and the Sibyl. His government of the
province was marked by the most shameful
venality and oppression. He returned to Rome
in 54. He was accused of majestas or high
treason, on account of Ms restoration of Ptolemy
Auletes in defiance of the Sibyl and the au
thority of the senate. He was acquitted on tMs
charge ; but he was forthwith accused of ex
tortion, speciaUy on account of the receipt of
10,000 talents from Ptolemy. He was defended
by Cicero, who had been persuaded by Pompey
to undertake the defence. Gabinius was con
demned on this charge, and went into exile.
He was recalled by Caesar in 49, and in the
following year (48) was sent into Illyricum by
Caesar with some newly levied troops to re
inforce Q. Cornificius. He died in Illyricum
about the end of 48. (Cic. de Imp. Pomp. ;
Plut. Pomp. 25 ff. ; Dio Cass, xxxix. 55-63 ;
Bell. Alex. 44.)
Gadara (rdSapa: TaSaprivbs: Um-Keis), a
large fortified city of Palestine, one of the ten
which formed the Decapolis in Peraea, stood a
little S. of the Hieromax (Yarmuk), an eastern
tributary of the Jordan. The Burroundtog dis
trict, SE. of the lake of Tiberias, was called
Gadaris, and was very fertile. Augustus pre
sented Gadara to king Herod, after whose death
it was assigned to the province of Syria. It was
made the seat of a Christian bishopric. There
were celebrated baths to its neighbourhood, at
Amatha. (Strab. p. 759 ; Jos. Ant. xii. 3.)
Gades (rd TdSeipa : TaSeipeis, Gaditanus :
Cadiz), a very ancient town in Hispania Baetica,
W. of the Pillars of Hercules, founded by the
Phoenicians, and one of the chief seats of their
commerce in the W. of Europe, was situated on
a small island of the same name (I. de Leon),
separated from the mainland by a narrow chan
nel, which in its narrowest part was only the
breadth of a stadium, and over which a Midge
was built. Herodotus says (iv. 8) that the
island of Erythla was close to Gadeira ; whence
most later writers supposed the island of Gades
to be the same as the mythical island of Erythia,
from which Heracles carried off the oxen of
Geryon (Strab. pp. 148, 168; Diod. v. 20; Hes.
Th. 287, 979). In Roman times a new town

350

GAEA

was built by Cornelius Balbus, a native of
Gades, and the circumference of the old and
new towns together was only 20 stadia. The
town, however, included inhabitants on the main
land opposite the island, as well as those on a
smaller island (S. Sebastian or Trocadero) in
the immediate neighbourhood of the larger one.
After the first Punic war Gades came into the
hands of the Carthagtoians, having previously
been merely under their hegemony ; and in the
second Punic war it surrendered of its own
accord to the Romans. Its inhabitants received
the Roman franchise from JuliuB Caesar to B.C.
49 (Dio Cass. xii. 24). It became a municipium,
and was called Augusta urbs Julia Gaditana.
¦ — Gades was from the earliest to the latest
times an important commercial town. Its
inhabitants were wealthy and luxurious, and
their licentious dances were notorious at
Rome (Juv. xi. 162). Gades possessed cele
brated temples of Cronus and Heracles. — Gades
gave its name to the Fretum Gaditanum,
the straits at the entrance of the Mediterra
nean between Europe and Africa (Straits of
Gibraltar). Gaea or Ge (Tdia or rij), the personification
of the earth. Homer describes her as a divine
being, to whom black sheep were sacrificed, and
who was invoked by persons taking oaths ;
and he calls her the mother of Erechtheus and
Tityus. But though she takes in Homer no
prominent position, yet the inference is that he
has merely put aside the myths about her, not
that they are later than his period. Her im
portance before Homer's time is indicated by
her position to the oaths and sacrifices beside
Zeus and Helios (II. iii. 103, xviii. 259). In
Hesiod she is the first being that sprang from
Chaos, and gave birth to Uranus and Pontus.
By Uranus she became the mother of Oceanus,
Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Thia, Rheia,
Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Thetys, Cronos,
the Cyclopes, Brontes, Steropes, Arges, Cottus,
Briareus, and Gyges. These children were
hated by their father, and Ge therefore con
cealed them in the bosom of the earth ; but she
made a large iron sicMe, gave it to her sons,
and requested them to take vengeance upon
their father. Cronos undertook the task, and
mutilated Uranus. The drops of blood, which
fell from Mm upon the earth (Ge), became the
seeds of the Erinyes, the Gigantes, and the
MeUan nymphs. [For this myth see Uranus.]
Subsequently Ge became, by Pontus, the mother
of Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and Eury-
bia. As regards her functions : (1) Ge belonged
to the deities of the nether world (Beoi x^vioi),
and hence she is frequently mentioned where
they are invoked (cf. Aesch. Pers. 220, 621).
(2) The surnames and epithets given to her have
more or less reference to her character as the
all-producing and all-nourishing mother (irap-
pf)reipa, Kovporpbipos, omniparens). (8) She had
oracular power, which accordingly was shared
by other deities connected with the earth and
its fruits, or with the underworld (Aesch. Eum.
2; Eur. Iph. T. 1249; Paus. x. 5, 5; Diet.
of Antiq. art. Oraculum). Her worsMp was
noticeable especially at Athens under the name
of Kovporpbipos on the Areiopagus and possibly
on the Acropolis, and at Olympia in the pre-
-cinct of Zeus (Thuc. ii. 15 ; Paus. i. 18) ; but
altars in her honour existed in many, probably
to most, Greek cities. At Rome the earth was
worshipped under the name of Tellus (wMch is
only a variation of Terra). She was regarded
by the Romans also as one of the gods of the

GALATIA
nether world (Inferi), and is mentioned in con
nexion with Dis and the Manes. A temple was
built to her by the consul P. Sempronius So-
phus, in B.C. 304. Her festival was celebrated
on the 15th of April, and was called Fordicidia
or Hordicidia [see Diet, of Antiq. art. Fordi
cidia], This sacrifice, consisting of cows, was
offered up to the Capitol in the presence of
the Vestals--. In art Gaea is represented as a
matronly figure, often with a cornucopia or
with fruits about her : in some reliefs with little
children beside her: she either recUnes on
the ground, or is a half-figure emerging from
beneath, as in the relief of Pergamum (Giganto-
machia), and in the terracotta of the birth of
Erichthonius Gaeson, Gaesus, or Gessus (Taio-av), a river
of Ionia in Asia Minor, f aUing into the GuU of
Maeander near the promontory of Mycale.
Gaetulia (TairovXia), the interior of N.- Africa,
S. of Mauretama, Numidia, and the region bor
dering on the Syrtes, reaching to the Atlantic
Ocean on the W., and of very indefinite extent
towards the E. and S. The people included
under the name Gaetuli (TaiTovXoi), in its
widest sense, were the inhabitants of the region
between the countries just' mentioned and the
Great Desert, and also in the Oases of the
latter, and nearly as far S. as the river Niger.
They were a nomad race, including several
tribes, the chief of whom were the Autoteles
and Pharusii on the W. coast, the Darae, or
GaetuU-Darae, to the steppes of the Great
Atlas, and the Melanogaetuli, a black race re
sulting from the intermixture of the GaetuU
with their S. neighbours, the Nigritae. The
pure Gaetulians were not an Aethiopic (i.e.
negro), but a Libyan race, supposed to have
been the ancestors of the Berbers (Strab. pp.
826-829 ; Plin. v. 9, 10).
Gaetulicus. [Lentulus.]
Gainas. [Arcadius.]
Gaius or Caius. [Caligula.]
Gaius, a celebrated Roman jurist, wrote
under Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius. His
works were very numerous, and great use was
made of them in the compilation of the Digest.
One of his most celebrated works was an ele
mentary treatise on Roman law, entitled Insti
tutiones, in four books. TMs work was for a
long time the ordinary text book used by those
who were commencing the study of the Roman
law; but it went out of use after the com
pilation of the Institutiones of Justinian, and
was finally lost. It was again discovered by
NiebuM in 1816 in the library of the Chapter
at Verona. The MS. containing Gaius was
a palimpsest. The original writing of Gaius
had on some pages been washed out, and on
others scratched out, and the whole was re
written with the Letters of St. Jerome. The
task of deciphering the original MS. was a very
difficult one, and some parts were completely
destroyed. Ed. by Goschen in 1821 ; by Muir-
head, 1880 ; by Kriiger and Studemund, 1884.
Gagae (Vdyai), a town on the coast of Lycia,
E. of Myra, whence was obtained the mineral
called Gagates lapis — that is, jet, or, as it is stiU
caUed in German, gagat (Plin. xxxvi. 141).
Galaesus. [Galesus.]
Galanthis. [Galinthias.]
Galatea (raXdreia), daughter of Nereus and
Doris. For details, see Acis.
Galatia (TaXarta : TaXdrvs : to the E. part of
Anadoli and the W. part of Bumili), a country
of Asia Minor, composed of parts of Ptoygia
and Cappadocia, and bounded on the W., S.,

GALATIA
and SE. by those countries, and on the NE.,
N., and NW. by Pontus, Paphlagonia, and
Bithynia. It derived its name from its inha
bitants, who were Gauls that had invaded and
settled in Asia Minor at various periods during
the third century B.C. First, a portion of the
army which Brennus led against Greece sepa
rated from the main body and marched into
Thrace, and, having pressed forward as far as
the shores of the Propontis, some of them
crossed the Hellespont on their own account,
wMle others, who had reached Byzantium, were
invited to pass the Bosporus by Nicomedes I.,
king of Bithynia, who required their aid against
Mb brother Zipoetus (B.C. 279). (Liv. xxxviii.
16 ; Just. xxv. 2 ; Strab. p. 541.) They speedily
overran aU Asia Minor within the Taurus, and
exacted tribute from its various princes, and
served as mercenaries not otoy in the armies
of these princes, but also of the Mngs of Syria
and Egypt ; and, according to one account,
a body of them found their way to Babylon.
During their ascendency, other bodies of Gauls
foUowed them into Asia. Their progress was
at length checked by the arms of the kings of
Pergamum : Eumenes fought against them with
various fortune ; but Attalus I. gained a com
plete victory over them (b.c. 2S0), and compeUed
them to settle down within the limits of the
country thenceforth caUed Galatia, and also,
on account of the mixture of Greeks with the
Celtic inhabitants, wMch speedily took place,
Graeco-Galatia and Gallograecia. The people
of Galatia adopted to a great extent Greek
habits and manners, but preserved their own
language, wMch is spoken of as resembling
that of the Treviri, and some features of their
national reUgion, e.g. their assemblies in the
sacred oak-grove. They retained also their
poUtical divisions and forms of government.
They consisted of three great communities or
cantons, the ToUstobogi, the Trocmi, and the
Tectosages, each subdivided into four parts,
called by the Greeks rerpapxiai. At the head
of each of these twelve Tetrarchies was a cMef,
or Tetrarch, who appointed the cMef magistrate
(Stxao-His), and the commander of the army
(ffTparotpiXa^), and two lieutenant-generals (viro-
o-TparoipbXaKes). The twelve tetrarchs together
had the general government of the country, but
their power was checked by an assistant senate
of 300, who met in a place called Dryaenetum,
i.e. the oak-grove, and had jurisdiction in all
capital cases (Strab. p. 566 ; Diet, of Ant. art.
Pagus). This form of government had a na
tural tendency to monarchy, according as either
of the twelve tetrarchs became more powerful
than the rest, especially under the protection
of the Romans, to whom Galatia became vir-
tuaUy subject as the result of the campaign
wMch the consul Cn. ManUus undertook against
the Gauls, to punish them for the assistance
they had given to Antiochus the Great (b.c. 189).
At length one of the tetrarchs, Deiotarus, was
rewarded for Ms services to the Romans in the
Mithridatic war, by the title of Hng, together
with a grant of Pontus and Armenia Minor;
but after the death of his successor, Amyntas,
Galatia was made by Augustus a Roman pro
vince (b.c. 25). It was soon after enlarged by
the addition of PapMagonia. Under Constan
tine it was restricted to its old limits, and
under Valens it was divided into two provinces,
Galatia Prima and Galatia Secunda. The
country was beautiful and fertUe, being watered
by the rivers Halys and Sangarius. Its only
important cities were, in the SW. Pessinus,

GALBA

351

the capital of the ToUstobogi; to the centre
Ancyra, the capital of the Tectosages ; and in
the NE. Tavium, the capital of the Trocmi. —
Cicero speaks of the Galatians as being among
the best soldiers levied in Asia (ad AU. vi. 5).
[For the history of their Christian churches
see Diet, of the Bible.]
Galaxius (TaXd^ios), a small river in Boeotia,
on which stood a temple of Apollo Galaxios : it
derived its name from its milky colour, which
was owing to the chalky nature of the soil
through which it flowed.
Galba, Sulpicius, a patrician name. 1. P.,
consul B.C. 211, defeated by Hannibal in Ms re
treat from Rome in that year, a loss which was
compensated by Capua falling into the hands of
the Romans. Galba received Macedonia as his
province, where he remained as proconsul till
204, and carried on the war against Philip. In
200, he was consul a second time, and again
obtained Macedonia as his province ; but he
was unable to accomplish anything of import
ance agamst PMlip, and was succeeded in the
command in the following year by Villius
Tappulus. He was one of the ten commis
sioners sent to Greece in 196, after the de
feat of Philip by Flamininus, and was one of
the ambassadors sent to Antiochus in 193.
(Liv. xxv. 41, xxvii. 22-33, xxxv. 13-16 ; Polyb.
ix, 6, xxiii. 8). — 2. Ser., was praetor 151, and
received Spain as his province. His name
is infamous on account of his treacherous
murder of the Lusitanians, with their wives
and children, who had surrendered to him on
the promise of receiving grants of land. Viri
athus was one of the few Lusitanians who
escaped from the bloody scene. (Viriathus. ]-
On his return to Rome in 149, he was brought
to trial on account of the massacre of the
Lusitanians. His conduct was denounced in
the strongest terms by Cato, who was then
eighty-five years old, but he was nevertheless
acquitted. He was consul 144. Cicero praises
his oratory in the highest terms. (Appian, Hisp.
58-60; Plut. Cat. Maj. 15; Nep. Cat. 3; Cic.
de Or. i. 10, 40). — 3. Ser., great-grandfather of
the emperor Galba, served under Caesar to the
GalUc war, and was praetor in 54. After
Caesar's death he served against Antony in the
war of Mutina. — 4. C, father of the emperor
Galba, was consul in A.D. 22.
Galba, Ser. Sulpicius, Roman emperor, from
June, a.d. 68, to January, a.d. 69. He was born
near Terracina, on the 24th of December, B.C. 3.
Both Augustus and Tiberius are said to have
told him that one day he would be at the head
of the Roman world, from which we must infer
that he was a young-man of more than ordinary
talents (Tac. Ann. vi. 20). From his parents
he inherited great wealth. He was invested
with the curule offices before the legitimate
age. He was praetor A.D. 20, and consul 33.
After his consulship he had the government of
Gaul, 39, where he carried on a successful war
against the Germans, and restored discipline
among the troops. On the death of Caligula
many of Ms friends urged him to seize the
empire, but he preferred a private station.
Claudius entrusted him, in 45, with the adminis
tration of Africa, which he governed with
wisdom and integrity. In the reign of Nero he
lived for several years to retirement, tMough
fear of the tyrant's suspicion ; but in 61 Nero
gave Mm the government of Hispania Tarra
conensis, where he remained for eight years.
In 68 Vindex rebelled in Gaul. About the
same time Galba was informed that Nero had

852 GALENUS
sent secret orders for his assassination. He
therefore resolved to follow the example of
Vindex ; but he did not assume the imperial
title, and professed to act only as the legate of

Ser. Sulpicius Galba, Roman Emperor, A.D. 68-
Obv., head of emperor, IMP. SER. GALBA AVG. ; rev.,
crown of oak-leaves (corona civica), SPQR OB C S (civie
servatos).
the Roman senate and people. Shortly after
wards Nero was murdered ; and Galba pro
ceeded to Rome, where he was acknowledged
as emperor. But Ms severity and avarice made
Mm unpopular, especiaUy with the soldiers.
His powers had also become enfeebled by age,
and he was under the sway of favourites, who
perpetrated many enormities in Ms name. Per
ceiving the weakness of his government, he
adopted Piso Licinianus as Ms successor. But
tMs only hastened his ruin. Otho, who had
hoped to be adopted by Galba, formed a con
spiracy among the soldiers, who mutinied six
days after the adoption of Piso. Galba was
murdered, and Otho was proclaimed emperor.
(Life by Suet, and Plut.; Tac. Hist. i. 7-49;
Dio Cass, lxiii. 22 ff.).
Galenus, Claudius, commonly called Galen,
the celebrated physician, whose works have had
a longer and more extensive influence on the
different branches of medical science than those
of any other individual either in ancient or
modern times. He was born at Pergamum in
a.d. 130. His father, Nicon, who was an archi
tect and geometrician, carefully superintended
his education. In his seventeenth year (146),
his father, who had hitherto destined him to be
a philosopher, altered Ms intentions, and, in
consequence of a dream, chose for him the
profession of Medicine. He at first studied
medicine in Ms native city. In his twentieth
year (149), he lost his father, and about the
same time he went to Smyrna for the purpose
of studying under Pelops the physician, and
Albinus the Platonic philosopher. He after
wards studied at Corinth and Alexandria. He
returned to Pergamum in his twenty-ninth
year (158), and was immediately appointed
physician to the school of gladiators, an office
which he filled with great success. In 164 he
went to Rome for the first time. Here he
stayed about four years, and gained great
reputation from his skill to anatomy and
medicine. He returned to Pergamum in 168,
but had scarcely settled there, when he re
ceived a summons from the emperors M.
Aurelius and L. Verus to attend them at
Aquileia in Venetia. From Aquileia Galen
followed M. Aurelius to Rome in 170. When
the emperor again set out, to conduct the war
on the Danube, Galen with difficulty obtained
permission to be left behind at Rome, alleging
that such was the will of Aesculapius. Before
leaving the city the emperor committed to the
medical care of Galen his son Commodus, who
was then nine years of age. Galen stayed at
Rome some years, during which time he em
ployed himself in lecturing, writing, and prac
tising, with great success. He subsequently
returned to Pergamum, but whether he again
visited Rome is uncertain. He is said to have

GALINTHIAS
died in the year 200, at the age of seventy, to
the reign of Septimius Severus ; but it is not
improbable that he lived some years longer.
Galen wrote a great number of works on
medical and philosophical subjects. The
works still extant under his name consist of
eighty-three treatises acknowledged to be
genuine ; nineteen whose genuineness has been
doubted; forty-five undoubtedly spurious;
nineteen fragments ; and fifteen commentaries
on different works of Hippocrates. Galen
attached Mmself exclusively to none of the
medical sects into wMch the profession was
divided, but chose from the tenets of each what
he believed to be good and true, and caUed
those persons slaves who designated them
selves as followers of Hippocrates, Praxagoras,
or any other man. The best edition of Ms
works is byKiihn, Lips. 1821-1833, 20 vols. 8vo.
Galepsus (YaXTftyos : TaXip\iios), a town in
Macedoma, on the Toronaic gulf (Thuc. iv. 107).
Galerius Maximianus. [Maximianus.]
Galerius Trachalus. [Trachalus.]
Galesus or Galaesus (Galeso), a river to the
S. of Italy, flows into the gulf of Tarentum
(Liv. xxv. 11), tMough the meadowB where the
sheep fed whose wool was so celebrated to
antiquity (dulce pellitis ovibus Galaesi flu
men, Hor. Od. ii. 6, 10 ; of. Mart. xii. 63, 3).
Galeus (r<£\.eos) — that is, ' the lizard ' — son of
Apollo and Themisto, the daughter of the
Hyperborean Mng Zabius. In pursuance of an
oracle of the Dodonean Zeus, Galeus emigrated
to SicUy, where he built a sanctuary to Ms
father Apollo. (Cic. Div. i. 20 ; Ael. V. H. xii.
46 ; Paus. vi. 2, 2.) The Galeotae, a famUy of
SiciUan soothsayers, derived their origin from
him. The principal seat of the Galeotae was
the town of Hybla, which was hence called
Galeotis or Galeatis. The lizard was a sacred
animal of Apollo, and it is probable that the
whole story denotes an early estabhsMnent of
the worship of ApoUo in Sicily.
Galgacus or Calgacus, the chief of the Cale
donian tribes who fought with the Romans at
the Mons Graupius (Tac. Agr. 29).
Galilaea (rctA-iAaia), theN.-most of the tMee
divisions of Palestine W. of the Jordan. It lay
between the Jordan and the Mediterranean on
the E. and W., and the mountains of Hermon
and Carmel on the N. and S. It was divided
into Upper or N. Gahlee, and Lower or S.
Galilee. (Strab. p. 760.) It was very fertUe
and densely peopled ; but its inhabitants were
a mixed race of Jews, Syrians, Phoenicians,
Greeks, and others, and were therefore despised
by the Jews of Judaea. [Palaestina.]
Galinthias or Galanthis (Ov. Met. ix. 306),
daughter of Proetus of Thebes and a friend of
Alcmene. When Alcmene was on the point of
giving birth to Heracles, and the Moerae and
Hithyiae, at the request of Hera, were en
deavouring to delay the birth, GalintMas
suddenly rushed in with the false report that
Alcmene had given birth to a son. The hostile
goddesses were so surprised at this information
that they withdrew their hands. Thus the charm
was broken, and Alcmene was enabled to give
birth to Heracles. The deluded goddesses
avenged the deception practised upon them by
metamorphosing Galinthias into a weasel or
a cat (yaXr)). Hecate, however, took pity upon
her, and made her her attendant, and Heracles
afterwards erected a sanctuary to her. At
Thebes it was customary at the festival of
Heracles first to offer sacrifices to Galinthias.
(Ov. Met. ix. 284 ; Ant. Lib. 29.)

GALLA
Galla. 1. Wife of Constantius, son of the em
peror Constantius CMorus. She was the mother
of Gallus Caesar. [Gallus.]— 2. Daughter
of the emperor Valentinian I., and second wife
of Theodosius the Great. — 3. Galla Placidia
or simply Placidia, daughter of Theodosius the
Great by No. 2. She fell into the hands of
Alaric, when he took Rome, a.d. 410; and
Ataulphus, the Gothic king, married her in
414. After the death of Ataulphus she was
restored to Honorius ; and in 417 she was mar
ried to Constantius, to whom she bore the
emperor Valentinian III. During the minority
of the latter she governed the Western Empire.
She died about 450.
Gallaecia, the country of the Gallaeci (KaX-
XaiKoi), in the N. of Spain, between the Astures
and the Durius, was to earUer times included
in Lusitania. GaUaecia was sometimes used
to a wider sense to include the country of the
Astures and the Cantabri. It produced tin
(especially the country of the Artabri ; cf . Cas-
sitertdes), gold, and a precious stone caUed
gemma Gallaica. Its inhabitants were among
the most uncivUised to Spain. They were
defeated by D. Brutus, consul b.c. 138, who
obtained in consequence the surname of Gal-
laecus._ (Strab. pp. 147, 152, 155.)
Gallia (t) KeXriKr), TaXaria), was used before
the time of Julius Caesar to indicate all the
land inhabited by the GalU or Celtae, and con
sequently included not only the later Gaul and
the N. of Italy, but a part of Spain, the greater
part of Germany, the British isles, and other
countries. The early Mstory of the Celtic race,
and their various settlements to different parts
of Europe, are related under Celtae. —
1. Gallia, also caUed Gallia Transalpina
(Varr. B. B. i. 7, 8), or Gallia Ulterior (jj inrep-
dXneios or inrep rav 'AXireav KeXriKr), Strab.
p. 176 ; FaXdrai Tpavo-aXmvoi, Polyb. n. 15), to
distinguish it from Gallia Cisalpina or the N.
of Italy. Gallia Braccata and Gallia Comata
are also used to contradistinction to GaUia
Togata or the N. of Italy, but these names are
not identical with the whole of GaUia Trans
alpina. Gallia Braccata was the part of the
country first subdued by the Romans, the later
Provincia, and was so caUed because the
inhabitants wore braccae or trowsers. Gallia
Comata was the remainder of the country,
excluding Gallia Braccata, and derived its
name from the inhabitants wearing their hair
long. The Romans were acquainted with only
a small portion of Transalpine Gaul till the
time of Caesar. In the time of Augustus it was
bounded on the S. by the Pyrenees and the
Mediterranean ; on the E. by the river Varus
and the Alps, wMch separated it from Italy,
and by the river Rhine, wMch separated it
from Germany; on the N. by the German
Ocean and the English Channel ; and on the
W. by the Atlantic : thus including not only
the whole of France and Belgium, but a part of
HoUand, a great part of Switzerland, and all
the provinces of Germany W. of the RMne.
The greater part of this country is a plain, weU
watered by numerous rivers. The principal
mountains were Mons Cebenna or Gehenna
to the S. ; the range of Mons Jura to the E.,
separating the Sequani and the Helvetii ; and
Mons Vosegus or Vosesus, a continuation of
the Jura. The cMef forest was the Silva Ar-
duenna, extending from the Rhine and the
Treviri as far as the Scheldt. The principal
rivers were, in the E. and N., the Rhenus
(Ehine), with its tributaries the Mosa (Maas)

GALLIA 353
and Mosella (Moselle) ; the Scaldis (Scheldt) ;
the Sequana (Seine), with its tributary the
Matrona (Marne) : to the centre the Ligeris
(Loire) ; in the W. the Garumna (Garonne) ; and
mthe S. the Rhodanus (Bhone). These river
names dated from a time long before the Ro
man acquaintance with Gaul. The Arar was so
oalled by the Romans, instead of its original
name Sauconna, which came again into UBe and
still survives in the modern name Sadne. The
country was celebrated for its fertility in
ancient times, and possessed a numerous and
warlike population.— The Greeks, at a very
early period, became acquainted with the S.
coast of Gaul, where they founded, in B.C. 600,
the important town of Massilia, which to its
turn founded several colonies, and exercised a
kind of supremacy over the neighbouring dis
tricts. The Romans did not attempt to make
any conquests in Transalpine Gaul till they had
finaUy conquered, not only Africa, but Greece
and a great part of Western Asia. In b.c. 154
Q. Opimius went to aid the Massiliots and
subdued their enemies the Ligures. In b.c. 125
the consul M. Fulvius Flaccus commenced the
subjugation of the Salluvii in the S. of Gaul.
In the next three years (124-122) the Salluvii
were completely subdued by Sextius Calvinus,
and Aquae Sextiae (Aix) was founded to their
country, as a fortress (castellum or rppovpdr
Strab. p. 180 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15 ; in Liv. Ep. 61 it
is erroneously caUed a colony). In 121 the
Allobroges were defeated by the proconsul
Domitius Ahenobarbus ; and in the same year
Q. Fabius Maximus gained a great victory over
the united forces of the Allobroges and Ar-
verm, at the confluence of the Isara and the
Rhone. The S. of Gaul was now made a
Roman province (Caes. B. G. i. 45) ; and in 118
was founded the colony of Narbo Martius (Nar-
bonne), which was the chief town of the pro
vince (Cic. Brut. 43, 160; VeU. Pat. i. 15). In
Caesar's Commentaries the Roman province is
caUed simply Provincia, in contradistinction to
the rest of the country : hence comes the
modern name of Provence. It was bounded on
the E. by the Alps, on the N. by the bend of
the Rhone from the Lake of Geneva to Vienne,
on the W. by the Upper Garonne and the
Cevennes, on the S. by the sea and the Eastern
Pyrenees. The rest of the country was sub
dued by Caesar after a struggle of several
years (58-50). At tMs time Gaul was divided
into three parts, Aquitania, Geltica, and Bel
gica, according to the tMee different races by
which it was inhabited. The Aquitani dwelt
in the SW. between the Pyrenees and the
Garumna ; the Celtae, or Galli proper, in the
centre and W., between the Garumna and the
Sequana and the Matrona ; and the Belgae in
the NE. between the two last mentioned rivers
and the Rhine. The different tribes inhabiting
Aquitania and Belgica are given elsewhere.
[Aquitania: Belgae.] The most important
tribes of the Celtae or GalU were : 1. Between the
Sequana and the Liger : the Armoricae civi-
tates, under which name were included several
tribes dwelling on the coast between the mouths
of these two rivers [Armorica] ; the Aulerci,
dwelling more inland, the Namnetes, Ande
cavi or Andes, on the banks of the Liger ; E. of
them the Carnutes ; and on the Sequana, the
Parish, Senones, and Tricasses— 2 Between
the Liger and the Ga/rumna : on the coast the
Pictones and Santones ; inland the Turones,
probably on both sides of the Liger, the
Bituriges Cubi, Lemovices, Petrocorh, and
AA

854

GALLIA

Cadurci; E. of these, to the mountains of
Cebenna, the powerful Arverni (in the modern
Auvergne) ; and S. of them the Ruteni. — 3. On
the Shone and im the surrounding country :
between the Rhone and the Pyrenees, the
Volcae ; between the Rhone and the Alps,
the Salyes or Salluvii ; N. of them the
Cavares ; between the Rhone, the Isara, and
the Alps, the Allobroges ; and further N. the
Aedui, Sequani, and Helvetii, tMee of the
most powerful people to all Gaul. — Augustus
divided Gaul into four provinces. 1. Gallia
Narbonensis, the same as the old Provincia,
under a proconsul. 2. G. Aquitanica, wMch
extended from the Pyrenees to the Liger. 3. G.
Lugdunensis, the country between the Liger,
the Sequana, and the Arar, so caUed from the
colony of Lugdunum (Lyon), founded by Mu-
natius Plancus. 4. G. Belgica, the country
between the Sequana, the Arar, and the RMne.
These tMee last named, conquests of Julius
Caesar, were (in distinction to G. Narbonensis)
called Tres GaUiae (Liv. Ep. 134; Plin. iv.
105) ; they were imperial provinces and each
was administered by a legatus of the emperor.
Shortly afterwards the portion of Belgica
bordering on the Rhine, and inhabited by
German tribes, was subdivided into two new
provinces, called Germania Prima and Se-
cunda, or Germania Superior and Inferior.
[Germania.] At a later time the provinces of
Gaul were still further subdivided, till at
length, under the emperor Gratian, they
reached the number of seventeen. The
difference of administration in the old pro
vince of G. Narbonensis, and in the 'three
Gauls ' was much greater than the super
ficial distinction of senatorial and imperial
government. The southern province was
completely Romanised, and Roman colonies
took the place of old cantons. Important
towns of a purely Roman character were thus
established. Besides Narbo, these were es
pecially Arelate (Aries), with commerce from
the mouth of the Rhone ; Forum Julii (Frejus)
the station of the fleet ; Baeterrae (Biziers),
Arausio (Orange), and Nemausus (Nismes) :
other burgess communities were added after
wards: hence the Latin language early took
root and the distinction began, which stiU
exists, between the countries of Langue d'oc and
Langue d'oil. On the other hand, to the
three more northern provinces the Celtic
cantonal organisation remained [Diet, of Ant.
art. Pagus] ; and therefore the old tribal
influence lasted, and those districts became
more slowly and less completely Romanised.
The only town in these provinces which was
founded as a colony in an early period of the
conquest, and did not grow out of a canton, was
Lugdunum, wMch eventually took the pre
cedence of all Gallic towns until the end of the
third century, when Treviri (Trives) became
the capital of Gaul. And the poUcy of
Augustus allowed to the three provinces the
right of assembling at Lugdunum a diet of
representatives from sixty-four cantons, which
not only consohdated the nation in religious
matters but also had poUtical functions for
considering and presenting to Rome their
complaints or desires. The rhetoricians and
poets of Gaul, first in the towns of the old
province and at Lugdunum, but afterwards in
others also, occupy a distinguished place in the
later history of Roman literature ; and Burdi-
gala, Narbo, Lugdunum, Augustodunum, and
other towns, possessed schools, in which litera-

GALLIENUS
ture and pMlosophy were cultivated with
success. On the dissolution of the Roman
empire, Gaul, like the other Roman provinces,
was overrun by barbarians, and the greater
part of it finally became subject to the Franci
or Franks, under their king Clovis, A.D. 496. —
2. Gallia Cisalpina, also caUed G. Citerior
and G. Togata, a Roman province in the N. of
Italy, was bounded on the W. by Liguria and
and Gallia Narbonensis (from which it was
separated by the Alps), on the N. by Rhaetia
and Noricum, on the E. by the Adriatic and
Venetia (from wMch it was separated by the
Athesis), and on the S. by Etruria and Umbria
(from which it was separated by the river
Rubico). It was divided by the Po into GaUia
Transpadana, also called Italia Transpadana,
in the N., and Gallia Cispadana to the S.
The greater part of the country is a vast plain,
drained by the Padus (Po) and its affluents,
and has always been one of the most fertile
countries of Europe. It was originally in
habited by Ligurians, Umbrians, Etruscans,
and other races ; but its fertUity attracted the
Gauls, who at different periods crossed the
Alps, and settled in the country, after expelling
the original inhabitants. We have mention of
five distinct immigrations of Gauls into the N.
of Italy. The first was in the reign of Tar
quinius Priscus, and is said to have been led by
Bellovesus, who settled with Ms followers in
the country of the Insubres, and built Milan.
The second consisted of the Cenomam, who
settled to the neighbourhood of Brixia and
Verona. The third of the SaUuvii, who pressed
forward as far as the Ticinus. The fourth of
the Boii and Lingones, who crossed the Po, and
took possession of the country as far as the
Apennines, driving out the Etruscans and
Umbrians. The fifth immigration was the
most important, consisting of the warlike race
of the Senones, who invaded Italy in immense
numbers, under the command of Brennus, and
took Rome in B.C. 390. Part of them subse
quently recrossed the Alps and returned home ;
but a great number of them remained in the
N. of Italy, and were for more than a century
a source of terror to the Romans. After the
first Punic war the Romans resolved to make
a vigorous effort to subdue their dangerous
neighbours. In the course of four years
(225-222) the whole country was conquered,
and the Latin colonies Cremona and Placentia
were founded in 218 to retain the hold upon it.
The inhabitants, however, did not bear the yoke
patiently, and it was not till after the final
defeat of the Boii in 191 that the country
became submissive to the Romans. Roman
colomes, Bononia (189) and Parma and
Mutina (183), were now founded, and other
towns grew up with the prolongation of the Via
Flaminia (under the name of Via Aemilia) to
Placentia. By Sulla it was erected into a
Roman province under a proconsul to B.C. 81.
In 49 the civitas, which since the Social war
had belonged to G. Cispadana, was extended to
G. Transpadana. After 42, however, it reckoned
as part of Italy, and Augustus constituted G.
Cispadana the eighth, and G. Transpadana the
eleventh, region. — The most important tribes
were : in Gallia Transpadana, in the direction
of W. to E., the Taurini, Salassi, Libici,
Insubres, Cenomani ; to G. Cispadana, in the
same direction, the Bon, Lingones, Senones.
Gallienus, with his full name, P. Licinius
Valerianus Egnatius Gallienus, Roman em
peror, a.d. 260-268. He succeeded his father

GALLINARIA
Valerian, when the latter was taken prisoner by
the Persians in 260 ; but he had previously
reigned to conjunction with him from 253.
GaUienus was indolent, profligate, and indif
ferent to the public welfare ; and Ms reign was
one of the most ignoble and disastrous in the
Mstory of Rome. The barbarians ravaged the
fairest portion of the empire, and the inhabi
tants were swept away by one of the most
frightful plagues recorded in Mstory. TMs

GALLUS

355

GaUienus, Roman Emperor, a.d. 260-268.
Obv., head of Gallienus, GALLIENVS AVG. : rev., Fides
holding miUtary standards, FIDES MILIT.
pestilence foUowed a long protracted famine.
When it was at its greatest height, 5000 sick
are said to have perished daily at Rome ; and,
after the scourge had passed away, it was
found that the inhabitants of Alexandria were
diminished by nearly two-thirds. The over-
tMow of the empire was averted mainly by
able officers, who sprang up in every dis
trict, and asserted the digmty of independent
nrinces. The armies levied by these usurpers,
ivho are commonly distinguished as The Thirty
Tyrants, to many cases protected the empire
from external dangers by arresting the pro
gress of the invaders, and restored order to the
provinces wMch they governed. GaUienus was
at length slain by his own soldiers to 268, wMle
besieging Milan, to which the usurper Aureolus
had taken refuge. (TrebeU. PoU. Gallienus;
Zos. i. 37 ff.)
Gallinaria. 1. (Galinara), an island off the
coast of Liguria, celebrated for its number of
hens ; whence its name. — 2. Silva, a forest of
pine-trees near Cumae to Campama (Cic.
Fam. ix. 23 ; Juv. hi. 307 ; Strab. p. 243).
Gallio, Junius. 1. A Roman rhetorician,
and a friend of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rheto
rician, whose son he adopted (Quint, iii. 1,
21 ; Tac. Dial. 26). He was put to death by
Nero. In early life he had been a friend of
Ovid (Ex Pont. iv. 11).— 2. Son of the rhetori
cian M. Annaeus Seneca, and an elder brother
¦of the pMlosopher Seneca, was adopted by
No. 1. After Ms consulship he became, in a.d.
52, proconsul of Achaia. He is spoken of with
great affection by Seneca and by Statius (who
calls him dulcis) ; he survived Seneca, but put
an end to his own life soon afterwards in 64.
(Dio Cass. Ix. 35, lxii. 25 ; Sen. Ep. 104 ; Stat.
Silv. ii. 7, 32 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 73.)
Q. Gallius, was a candidate for the praetor
ship in B.C. 64, and was accused of ambitus or
bribery by M. CaUdius. He was defended on
that occasion by Cicero in an oration of wMch
a few fragments have come down to us. He
was praetor urbanus B.C. 63, and presided at
the trial of C. CorneUus. (Val. Max. viii. 10.) —
He left two sons, Q. Gallius, who was praetor
to 43, and was put to death by the triumvirs ;
and M. Gallius, who is mentioned as one of
Antony's partisans in 43 (Suet. Aug. 27).
Gallograecia. [Galatia.]
Gallonius, a public crier at Rome, probably
contemporary with the younger Scipio, whose
wealth and gluttony passed into the proverb
'to hve like GaUonius' (Cic. De Fin. ii. 8,

24, pro Quint. 80, 94). He was satirised by
Lucilius and by Horace (Sat. ii. 2, 46).
Gallus, Aelius. 1. A jurist, contemporary
with Cicero and Varro, though probably rather
older than either. He was the author of a
treatise, De Verborum, quae ad Jus Civile
pertinent, Significatione, wMch is frequently
cited by the grammarians. (Gell. xvi. 5;
Macrob. vi. 8, 16.)— 2. An intimate friend of the
geographer Strabo, was prefect of Egypt in
the reign of Augustus. In B.C. 24 he invaded
Arabia, but was misled by a treacherous guide
and wandered for nearly six months to a point
from which he was able to return in sixty days.
His army had suffered dreadfuUy from the heat
and want of water, and he was obliged to re
treat with great loss. (Strab. p. 780 ; Dio Cass.
liii. 29 ; cf. Hor. Od. i. 29.)
Gallus, 1 Anlcius, praetor b.c. 168, con
ducted the war agamst Gentius, king of the
Hlyrians, whom he compelled to submit to the
Romans (Liv. xliv. 30, xiv. 43).
Gallus, C. AquiUius, a distinguished Roman
jurist, was a pupil of Q. Mucius Scaevola, and
the instructor of Serv. Sulpicius. He was
praetor along with Cicero, B.C. 66. He is often
cited by jurists in the Digest, but there is no
direct extract from Ms own works to the Digest.
(Cic. pro Caee. 27, 77.)
Gallus Saloninus, 1. Asinius. I. Son of C.
Asinius Pollio, was consul B.C. 8. He was
hated by Tiberius, because he had married
Vipsania, the former wife of Tiberius. In a.d.
30, Tiberius got the senate to sentence him to
death, and kept Mm imprisoned for three years,
on the most scanty supply of food. He died in
prison of starvation, but whether his death was
compulsory or voluntary is unknown. Gallus
wrote a work, entitled De Comparatione Pairis
ac Ciceronis, which was unfavourable to the
latter, and against which the emperor Claudius
wrote his defence of Cicero. (Tac. Ann. vi.
29; Suet. Claud. 41: Gell. xvii. 1.)— 2. Son of
the preceding, half-brother of Drusus, the son
of Tiberius. He formed a conspiracy against
Claudius and was exiled. (Suet. Claud. 13 ;
Dio Cass. Ix. 27.)
Gallus, L. Canlnius, was tribune of the plebs,
B.C. 56, when he supported Pompey. During
the CivU war he appears to have remained
neutral. He died in 44. (Cic. ad Att. xv. 18,
xvi. 14 ; Dio Cass, xxxix. 16 ; Val. Max. iv. 2, 6.)
Gallus, Cestius, governor of Syria (legatus
A.D. 64, 65), under whom the Jews broke out into
the rebeUion which ended in the destruction of
their city and temple by Titus (Tac. Hist. v. 10).
Gallus, Constantius, son of Julius Constan
tius and Galla, grandson of Constantius CMorus,
nephew of Constantine the Great, and elder
brother, by a different mother, of Julian the
Apostate. In a.d. 351 he was named Caesar
by Constantius II., and was left to the com
mand of the East, where he conducted himself
with the greatest haughtiness and cruelty. In
354 he went to the West to meet Constantius at
Milan, but was arrested at Petovio in Pannonia,
and sent to Pola in Istria, where he was put to
death. Gallus, C. Cornelius, was born at Forum
Julii (Frejus) in Gaul, of poor parents, about
B.C. 66. He went to Italy at an early age, and
began his career as a poet when he was about
twenty. He had already attained considerable
distinction at the time of Caesar's death, 44 ;
and upon the arrival of Octavian in Italy after
that event, Gallus joined Ms party, and soon
acqtored great influence with him. In 41 he
A a 2

356

GALLUS •,

was one of "the triumviri appointed by Octa
vian to distribute lands in the N. of Italy
among his veterans, and on that occasion he
afforded protection to the inhabitants of Man
tua and to Virgil. He afterwards accompanied
Octavian to the battle of Actium, 31, and com
manded a detachment of the army. After the
battle, Gallus was sent with the army to Egypt,
in pursuit of Antony; and when Egypt was
made a Roman province, Octavian appointed
GaUus the first prefect of the province. He
remained in Egypt for nearly four years ; but
he incurred at length the enmity of Octavian,
though the exact nature of his offence is un
certain. According to some accounts he spoke
of the emperor in an offensive and insulting
manner ; he erected numerous statues of himself
in Egypt, and had his own exploits inscribed on
the pyramids. The senate deprived him of his
estates, and sent Mm into exile ; whereupon he
put an end to Ms life, b.c. 26. (Dio Cass. U. 9, 17,
23; Suet. Aug. 66 ; Strab. p. 819; Eutrop. vii. 7.)
The intimate friendship existing between Gal
lus and the most eminent men of the time, as
Asinius PoUio, Virgil, Varus, and Ovid, and the
Mgh praise they bestow upon him, prove that he
was a man of great intellectual powers and
acquirements. Ovid (Trist. iv. 10, 5) as
signs to him the first place among the Roman
elegiac poets. We know that he wrote a col
lection of elegies in four books, the principal
subject of which was his love of Lycoris, whose
real name was Cytheris (cf. Ov. Trist. ii. 4, 45,
Am. iii. 9, 63 ; Propert. iii. 84, 91 ; Verg. Eel.
ix. 10, x. 1). But aU his productions have
perished; for the four fragmentary poems
attributed to Gallus (in Wernsdorf, Poet. Lat.
Min.) are undoubtedly forgeries.
Gallus, M. Fadius, a friend of Cicero,
wrote a panegyric on Cato Uticensis (Cic. ad
Fam. xxiv. 2). Cicero speaks also of a Q.
Fadius Gallus and a T. Fadius Gallus, the
latter of whom was Ms quaestor in B.C. 63
(Cic. ad Q. F. i 4, ad Att. iii. 23).
Gallus, Sulpicius, a distinguished orator and
man of learning, was praetor B.C. 169, and con
sul 166, when he fought against the Ligurians.
In 168 he served as tribune of the soldiers
under Aemilius Paulus in Macedonia, and dur
ing tMs campaign predicted an eclipse of the
moon. (Cic. Brut. 20, 78, de Off. i. 6, 19;
Liv. xliii. 2, 16, xiv. 44.)
Gallus, Trebonianus, Roman emperor, a.d.
251-254. His fuU name was C. Vlbius Trebo
nianus Gallus. He served under Decius in
the campaign against the Goths, 251, and he is
said to have contributed by Ms treachery to
the disastrous issue of the battle, wMch proved
fatal to Decius and his son Herennius. GaUus
was thereupon elected emperor, and Hostilia-
nus, the surviving son of Decius, was nominated
his colleague. He purchased a peace of the
Goths by allowing them to retain their plunder,
and promising them a fixed annual tribute. In
253 the Goths again invaded the Roman
dominions, but they were driven back by Aemi
lianus, whose troops proclaimed Mm emperor
in Moesia. Aemilianus thereupon marched into
Italy ; and Gallus was put to death by Ms own
soldiers, together with his son Volusianus.
The name of Gallus is associated with nothing
but cowardice and dishonour. In addition to
the misery produced by the inroads of the
barbarians during this reign, a deadly pesti
lence broke out to 252, and continued its ravages
over every part of the empire for fifteen years.
(Zosim. i. 23-28 ; Zonar. xii. 20.)

GANYMEDES
Gallus. 1. A river in Bithynia, rising near
Modra, on the borders of Phrygia, and falling
into the Sangarius near Leucae (Strab. p. 543).
— 2. A river in Galatia, which also fell into the
Sangarius, near Pessinus. From it the priests
of Cybele are said to have obtained their name
of GalU (Ov. Fast. iv. 364).
Gamelii (yapr)Xioi Beoi), that is, the divinities
protecting and presiding over marriage. These
divinities are usually regarded as the protec
tors of marriage. In Plutarch the names are
Zeus, Hera, ApModite, Peitho, and Artemis
(Q. B. 2) ; in PoUux, Hera, Artemis, and the
Fates. At Troezen Athene Apaturia was thus
regarded (Paus. ii. 53).
Gandarae (TavSdpai), or Gandaridae, an
Indian people tributary to the Persian king in
the Paropamisus, on the NW. of the Punjab,
between the rivers Indus and Suastus. Their
country was caUed Gandaritis (TavSaplris}.
(Hdt. iii. 91, vii. 66 ; Strab. pp. 69,7, 699.)
Gangarldae (ra77api'5ai), an Indian people)
about the mouths of the Ganges.
Ganges (Tdyyris : Ganges or Ganga), the great
river of India, wMch it divided into the two
parts named by the ancients India intra Gangem
(Hindustan) and India extra Gangem (Bur.
mah, Cochin China, Siam, and the Malay
Peninsula). It rises in the Mghest part of ths
Emodi Montes (Himalaya), and flows to a
general SE. direction till it falls by several
mouths into the head of the Gangeticus Sinus
(Bay of Bengal) (Strab. p. 719). Like the
Nile, it overflows its banks periodically, and
these inundations render its valley the most
fertUe part of India. The knowledge of the
ancients respecting it was very imperfect, and
they give very various accounts of its source,
its size, and the number of its mouths. The
breadth wMch Diodorus assigns to it in the-
lower part of its course, tMrty-two stadia, or
about three miles, is perfectly correct (Diod,
xvii. 93). The following rivers are mentioned
as its tributaries : Cainas, Jomanes or Diamu-
nas, Sarabus, Condochates, Oedanes, Cosoagus
or Cossoanus, Erannoboas, Sonus or Soas, Sit.
tocestis, Solomatis, Sambus, Magon, Agoranis,
Omalis, Commenases, CacutMs, Andomatis,
Amystis, Oxymagis, and Errhenysis (Arrian,
Ind. 4).— The name Ganga (Tdyyn)) is apphed
to a city in the interior of India, on the Ganges,
where it makes it great bend to the E., perhaps
Allahabad (Strab. I.e.).
Gangra (Tdyypa : Kankari), afterwards called
Germanicopolis, a city of PapMagoma, near
the confines of Galatia, was originaUy a fortress ;
in the time of king Deiotarus, a royal residence.
In B.C. 7 it was added to Galatia. (Strab. p. 562.)
Ganos (rdvos), a fortress in Ttoace, on the
Propontis (Xen. Anab. vii. 5, 81).
Ganymedes (TavvpiiSTis), son of Tros and
Callirrhoe, and brother of Dus and Assaracus,
was the most beautiful of aU mortals, and was
carried off by the gods that he might fill the
cup of Zeus, and live among the eternal gods
(II. v. 265, xx. 232; Apollod. iii. 12). This is
the Homeric account ; but other traditions give
different detaUs. Some caU Mm son of Laome-
don, others son of Hus, and others again of
Erichthonius or Assaracus. (Eur. Tro. 822;
Tzetz. Lye. 34 ; Hyg. Fab. 224, 271.) The
manner also in which he was carried away from
the earth is differently described ; for while
Homer mentions the gods in general, later
writers state that he was carried off by the eagle
of Zeus (Verg. Aen. v.* 253; Hor. Od. iv. 4, 2;
ApoUod. I.e.); and this is developed into the

GARAMA
account that Zeus Mmself to the form of an
-eagle was the robber (Ov. Met. x. 155 ; Nonn.
Dionys. xv. 280). There is, further, no agree
ment as to the place where the event occurred ;

GAZA

857

Ganymedes, from a copy of the group by Leochares.
(Visconti, ATus. Pio Clem.)
and some legends mentioned Crete (Plat. Legg.
i. p. 636), though later writers usually represent
him as carried off from Mount Ida (raptus ab
Ida, Hor. Od. iii. 20, 15). The early legend
simply states that Ganymedes was carried off
that he might be the cup-bearer of Zeus, in
wMch office he was conceived to have succeeded
Hebe (B. xx. 234 ; Pind. Ol. xi. 105) ; but later
writers describe him as the beloved and favourite

Ganymedes. (Zannoni; Gal. di Firenze, serie 4, vol. ii.
tav. 101.)
of Zeus, without aUusion to his office. Zeus
•compensated the father for his loss by a pair of
divine horses. Astronomers have placed Gany
medes among the stars under the name of Aqua
rius (Serv. ad Aen. i. 28). The Romans caUed
him by a corrupt form of his name, Catamitus.
On vase paintings Zeus in Ms own shape is
usually represented as pursuing Ganymedes, but
in sculpture the eagle carrying off Ganymedes
is a favourite subject (cf. PUn. xxxiv. 79) : others
represent Ganymedes in PMygian cap fondling
the eagle or giving Mm drink from a bowl.
Garama. [Garamantes.]
Garamantes (Tapapavres), the S.most people
known to the ancients to N. Africa, dwelt far S.
of the Great Syrtis in the region called Phazania
(Fezzan), where they had a capital city, Garama
(Tdpapa : Mourzouk, lat. 25° 53' N., long. 14° 10'

E.). They were mentioned by Herodotus as
an unwarlike people ; he places them nineteen
days' journey from AetMopia and the shores of
the Indian Ocean, fifteen days' journey from
Ammonium, and thirty days' journey from
Fgypt. The Romans obtained fresh knowledge
of them by the expedition of Cornelius Balbus
in b.c. 19. (Hdt. iv. 174, 183; Plin. v. 36 ; Verg.
Aen. vi. 795.) In Tacitus they are mentioned
as allies of Tacfarinas (Ann. iv. 23).
Garganus Mons (Monte Gar gano), a moun
tain and promontory to Apulia, on which were
oak forests (Hor. Od. ii. 9, 7, Ep. ii. 1, 102).
Gargara, -on, or -us (rdp7apa, -ov, -os : Tap-
yapevs). 1. (Kaz-Dagh) the S. summit of M.
Ida, in the Troad (H. viii. 48 ; Strab. p. 583).—
2. A city at the foot of M. Ida, on the shore of
the Gulf of Adramyttium, between Assus and
Antandrus; said to have been founded origi
nally on the summit of the mountain by the
Leleges ; afterwards colonised from Miletus ;
and removed to the lower site on account of the
inclemency of its situation on the mountain.
Its neighbourhood was rich in corn. (Strab. pp
606, 618 ; Verg. Georg. i. 103.)
Gargettus (Tapyrirrbs : TapyiiTTios), a demus
in Attica, belonging to the tribe Aegeis, on the
NW. slope of Mt. Hymettus ; the birthplace of
the phUosopher Epicurus.
Garltes, a people in Aquitania, neighbours of
the Ausci, in the modern Oomti de Gauve
(Caes. B.G. iii. 27).
Garsauria, or -ltis (Tapaaovpia, or -Ins), a
praefectura in Cappadocia, on the borderB of
Lycaonia and Tyanitis. Its chief town was
caUed Tapo-dovpa. (Strab. p. 663.)
Garuli, a people of Liguria in the Apennines.
Garumna (Garonne), one of the chief rivers
of Gaul, rises to the Pyrenees, flows NW. through
Aquitania, and forms an estuary below Burdi-
gala (Bordeaux) (Strab. p. 190 ; Tibull. i. 7, 11).
Garumni, a people in Aquitania on the Ga
rumna. Gatheae (TaBeai), a town to Aroadia on the
Gatheatas, a river wMch flows into the Alpheus,
WSW. of MegalopoUs (Paus. viii. 34).
Gauganieia (Ta TavydpTiXa : Karmelis), a
viUage in the district of Aturia in Assyria, the
scene of the last and decisive battle between
Alexander and Darius Codomannus, B.C. 331,
commonly caUed the battle of Arbela.
Gaulanitis (TavXaviris : Jaulan), a district in
the N. of Palestine, on the E. side of the Lake
of Tiberias, as far S. as the river Hieromax,
named from the town of Golan (TavXava).
Gaulos (TavXos : TavXirris : Gozo), an island
and a municipium in the Sicilian sea near
Melite (Malta) (Plin. ui. 92).
Gaureleon, Gaurion. [Andros.]
Gaurus Mons, Gauranus or -ni M. (Monte
Gauro), a volcanic range of mountains in Cam
pania, between Cumae and Neapolis, in the
neighbourhood of Puteoli, noted for good wine,
and memorable for the defeat of the Samnites
by M. Valerius Corvus, b.c. 343 (Liv. vii. 32).
Gaza (rd£a). 1. (Ghuzzeh), the last city on
the SW. frontier of Palestine, and the key of
the country on the side of Egypt, stood on an
eminence about two miles from the sea, and was,
from the very earliest times of which we have
any record, strongly fortified. It was one of
the five cities of the Philistines ; and, though
taken from them more than once by the Jews,
was each time recovered. It was taken by
Cyrus the Great, and remained in the hands of
the Persians till the time of Alexander, who
only gained possession of it after an obstinate

858

GAZACA

defence of several months (Arrian, An. ii. 27 ;
Polyb. xvi. 40). In B.C. 315, it fell into the power
of Ptolemy the Bon of Lagus, as the result of his
victory over Demetrius before the city, and was
destroyed by him. But it again recovered, and
was possessed alternately by the kings of Syria
and Egypt, during their prolonged wars, and
afterwards by the Asmonaean princes of Judaea,
one of whom, Alexander Jannaeus, again de
stroyed it, B.C. 96. It was rebuilt by Gabinius ;
given by Augustus to Herod the Great; and,
after Herod's death, united to the Roman pro
vince of Syria (Jos. Ant. xv. 7, 3, xvii. 11, 4).
In a.d. 65, it was again destroyed in an insur
rection of its Jewish inhabitants ; but it re
covered once more, and remained a flourishing
city till it fell into the hands of the Arabs in
A.D. 634. It was made a Roman colony (Wad-
dington, 1904), but at what period is uncertain.
In addition to its importance as a mUitary post,
it possessed an extensive commerce, carried on
tMough its port, Majuma, or Constantia. —
2. (Ghaz), a city to the Persian province of
Sogdiana, between Alexandria and CyropoUs ;
one of the seven cities which rebelled against
Alexander in B.C. 328 (Arrian, An. iv. 2).
Gazaca (Td(aKa : Tabreez), a city in tiie N. of
Media Atropatene, equidistant from Artaxata
and Ecbatana, was a summer residence of the
kings of Media (Strab. p. 523).
Gazelon (TafaXdv : al. TaSiXdv), a town E. of
the Halys, on the borders of Pontus and PapMa-
gonia, prob. Vezw Kupreu. It was chief town
of the district Gazelonitis (Strab. pp. 547, 553).
Gaziura (Ta£iovpa), to Pontus Galaticus, on
the river Iris, below Amasia, once the residence
of the kings of Pontus (Strab. p. 547).
Gebalene (TeBaXrivii), the district of Arabia
Petraea around the city of Petra.
Gehenna Mons. [Cebenna.]
Gedrosia (TeSpao-ia, and TaSpao-la : SE. part
of Beloochistan), the furthest province of the
Persian empire on the SE., and a subdivision of
Ariana, was bounded on the W. by Carmania,
on the N. by Drangiana and Arachosia, on the
E.by the country about the lower course of the
Indus, and on the S. by the Indian Ocean. It
is formed by a succession of sandy steppes,
rising from the sea-coast towards the table-land
of Ariana, and produced little besides aromatic
sMubs. The slip of land between the coast and
the lowest mountain range is watered by several
rivers ; but even this district is for the most
part only a series of salt marshes. Gedrosia is
known in Mstory chiefly tMough the distress
from want of water suffered by the armies of
Cyrus and of Alexander (Arrian, An. vi. 24) . The
inhabitants were divided by the Greek writers
into two races, the Ichthyophagi on the sea
coast, and the Gedrosi in the interior (Strab.
pp. 720-723). The latter were a nomad people,
whom even Alexander was only able to reduce
to a temporary subjection. The whole country
was divided into eight districts. Its chief cities
were Rhambacia and Pura, or Parsis.
Gegania Gens, traced its origin to the mythi
cal Gyas, one of the companions of Aeneas. It
was transplanted to Rome on the destruction of
Alba by TuUus Hostilius, and enroUed among
the Roman patricians (Liv: i. 80). There ap
pears to have been only one family in this gens,
that of Macerinus, to which belonged consuls
in the years 492, 432, B.C. (Liv. ii. 84, iv. 22).
Gela (t) TeXa, Ion. riXTi : TeXfos, Gelensis :
nr. Terra Nuova, Ru.), a city on the S. coast of
Sicily, on a small river (poetically exaggerated)
of the same name (Fiume di Terra Nuova),

GELLIUS
founded by Rhodians from Lindos, and by
Cretans, B.C. 690 (Hdt. vii. 153 ; Diod. viii. 25 f
Strab. p. 272). It was originaUy called Lindu
(Thuc. vi. 4) ; and it is suggested with proba
bility that Lindii was on the west side of the

Coin of Gela, about 460 B.C.
Obv., man-headed buU (river-god), tkaaz ; rev., horseman
withe

river, and that Gela was originally an outpost
on the east bank. It soon obtained great power
and wealth ; and, to 582, it founded Agrigentum,
wMch became more powerful than the mother
city. Like the other cities of Sicily, it was
subject to tyrants, of whom the most important
were Hippocrates, Gelo, and Htero. Gelo
transported half of its inhabitants to Syracuse;
the place graduaUy feU into decay, and in the
time of Augustus was no longer inhabited. The
poet Aeschylus died here. — N. of Gela were the
celebrated Campi Geloi, wMch produced rich
crops of wheat (Verg. Aen. M. 701).
Gelae. [Cadusii.]
Gelanor (TeXavap), king of Argos, was ex
pelled by Danaus.
Gelduba (Gellep, below Cologne), a fortified
place of the Ubii on the RMne to Lower Ger
many (Tac. Hist. iv. 25 ; Plin. xix. 90).
Gellia Gens, plebeian, was of Samnite origin,
and afterwards settled at Rome. There were
two generals of tMs name to the Samnite wars :
GeUius Statius in the second Sammte war, who
was defeated and taken prisoner, B. c. 305, and
GeMus Egnatius to the third Samnite war.
[Egnatius.] The chief family of the Gellii at
Rome bore the name of Publicola.
Gellias (TeXXias), a citizen of Agrigentum in
the fifth century B. c. celebrated for Ms wealth
and Ms hospitality. When Agrigentum was
taken by the Carthaginians in 406, he set fire
to the temple of Athene and perished in the
flames^ (Diod. xiii. 83-90 ; Val. Max. iv. 8.)
Gellius. 1. Cn., a contemporary of the
Gracchi, the author of a Mstory of Rome from
the earliest epoch down to b. c. 145 at least.
The work is lost, but it is frequently quoted by
later writers (Dionys. ii. 31 ; Macrob. i. 16, 21).
— 2. Aulus, a Latin grammarian of good family,
was probably a native of Rome. He studied
rhetoric under T. Castricius and Sulpicius
ApoUinaris, pMlosophy under Calvisius Taurus
and Peregrinus Proteus, and enjoyed also the
friendship and instructions of Favorinus,
Herodes Atticus, and Cornelius Fronto. WhUe
yet a youth he was appointed by the praetor to
act as an umpire in civil causes. The precise
dates of Ms birth and death are unknown ; but
he must have lived under Hadrian, Antoninus
Pius, and M. Aurelius, A. d. 117-180. He wrote
a work entitled Nodes- Atticae, because it was.
composed in a country house near Athens,
during the long nights of winter. It is of great
value for its citations from books which have
perished, and for its notices of persons and of
manners and customs, being a sort of miscel
lany, containing numerous extracts from Greek
and Roman writers, on a variety of topics con
nected with Mstory, antiquities, philosophy, and
philology, interspersed with original remarks,

GELO
the whole thrown together into twenty books,
without any attempt at order or arrangement.
The eighth book is lost with the exception of
the index. ^ Ed. by Hertz, Berl. 1888 and 1886.
Gelo (riXav). 1. Son of Dinomenes, tyrant
of Gela, and afterwards of Syracuse, was de
scended from one of the most iUustrious families
in Gela. He held the chief command of the
cavalry in the service of Hippocrates, tyrant of
Gela; shortly after whose death he obtained
the supreme power, b. c. 491. In 485 Ms aid
was sought by the Gamori, or oligarchic party
at Syracuse, who had been driven out by the
populace. Gelo restored them, but used the
opportunity to get possession of Syracuse.
From tMs time he neglected Gela, and bent all
Ms efforts to the aggrandisement of Syracuse,
to wMch place he removed many of the in
habitants of other cities of SicUy, especially
Camarina, Megara, and Hyblaea. When the
Greeks asked his aid against Xerxes, he offered
them a force of 80,000 men on condition that
he should command the aUied army. This
they refused, fearing perhaps that he might try
to master Greece as he had mastered Syracuse
(Hdt. vii. 171). It may have been the case that
the negotiations feU tMough because of the

GENIUS

359

Coin of Gelo.

Obv., head of Gelo ; rev., Victory i a biga, 2YPAK02I0I
rEAONos.
need of troops to SicUy herself ; for to 480 the
Carthaginians invaded SicUy with an army
amounting, it is said, to the number of 300,000
men. Gelo gained a brilliant victory over them
at Himera on the same day as the battle of
Salamis. Gelo died to 478 of a dropsy, after
reigning seven years at Syracuse, and was suc
ceeded by Ms brother, Hlebo. His subjects
showed their sense of the dangers from which
he saved them. A splendid tomb was erected
to him by the Syracusans at the pubUc ex
pense, and heroic honours were decreed to Ms
memory. (Diod.xi. 20-38 ; Pind. Pyth. i. 75.) —
2. Son of Hiero II., king of Syracuse, who died
before Ms father. He received the title of king
in the lif etime of Ms father.
Geloni (TeXavoi), a ScytMan people, who
dwelt in Sarmatia Asiatica, to the E. of the
river Tanais (Don). They were said to have
been of Greek origin, and to have migrated
from the shores of the Euxine ; but they inter
mixed with the ScytMans, and lost all traces
of their HeUemc race. Their chief city was
caUed Gelonus (TeXavbs). (Hdt. iv. 108; Verg.
Georg. ii. 115 ; Hor. Od. ii. 9, 23.)
Geminus (Tepivos), an astronomer, was a
native of Rhodes, and flourished about B. c 77.
He is the author of an extant work, entitled
Eio-ayayri els to &aivbpeva, which is a descrip
tive treatise on elementary astronomy, with a
great deal of historical aUusion. It is printed
to the Uranologion of Petavius, Paris, 1630,
and in Halma's edition of Ptolemy, Paris, 1819.
Geminus, Servilius. 1. P., twice consul with
C. Aurelius Cotta in the first Punic war —
namely, in b. c. 252 aud 248. In both years he
carried on war against the Carthaginians (Zonar.
viu. 14). — 2. Cu,, son of No. 1, was consul 217

with C. Flaminius, in the second Punic war,
and ravaged the coast of Africa. He fell in the
battle of Cannae, 216 (Liv. xxii. 81-49).— 3. M.,
also surnamed Pulex, conBul 202 with Tib.
Claudius Nero, obtained Etruria for his pro
vince (Liv. xxvi. 28).
Gemoniae (scalae) or Gemonii (gradus), a
flight of steps cut out of the Aventine, down
which the bodies of criminals strangled in the
prison were dragged by hooks, and afterwards .
thrown into the Tiber (Juv. x. 66 ; Tac. Ann.
iii. 14, Hist. iii. 74).
Genabum or Cenabum (Orleans), a town in
GaUia Lugdunensis, on the N. bank of the
Ligeris, was the chief town of the Carnutes ; it
was plundered and burnt by Caesar, but subse
quently rebuilt. In later times it was called
Civitas Aurelianorum or Aurelianensis Urbs,
whence its modern name. (Caes. B.G. viii. 3.)
Genauni, a people in Vindelicia, the inhabit
ants of the Alpine valley now called Valle di
Non, were subdued by Drusus (Hor. Od. iv.
14, 10 ; Strab. p. 206).
Genava (Genavensis: Geneva), the last town
of the Allobroges on the frontiers of the Hel-
vetii, was situated on the S. bank of the Rhone,
at the spot where the river flowed out of the
Lacus Lemannus (Caes. B.G. i. 6). There was
a bridge here over the Rhone.
Genesius, Josephus, lived about a.d. 940,
and wrote in four books a history of 'the Byzan
tine emperors from A. D. 813 to 886. Edited by
Lachmann, Bonn, 1834.
Genetes (<S Teviirris), a rocky point on the
Euxine, close to Pr. Iasonium, where there was
a temple of Zeus Genetaeus (Strab. p. 548 ;
Ap. Rh. ji. 378, 1009 ; Val. Flacc. v. 148).
Genetiva, a Roman colony founded in b. c. 44
according to the directions of Julius Caesar, at
Urso in the Spanish province of Baetica, a
little north of Munda. Its f uU title was Colonia
Julia Genetiva. In Pliny (iii. 12) the words
( Urso quae Genua urbanorum ' are altered by
some to ' Genetiva urbanorum ' ; by others to
' Genetiva Ursaonum.' The old name reappears
in the modern town Ossuna. The importance
of Genetiva to historians is due to the fact that
in 1870-1875 considerable fragments were found
at Ossuna of the law for the regulation of the
colony, which throw much light on Roman
colonial administration. (C.I.L. ii. p. 191 ;
Mommsen, Ephem. Epig. ii. p. 119.)
Genita Mana (cf. Manes, Mania), an ancient
Italian deity who watched over both the birth
and death of human beings. Her connexion
with death and the underworld is indicated by
the custom of sacrificing dogs 1!o her. (Plut.
Q.B. 52 ; Plin. xxix. 58).
Genitrix. [Venus.]
Genius; in its earliest form a purely Italian
conception, to which there was nothing exactly
similar to the Greek religion. 1. The Genius
(from gigno) was that Power wMch gave fruit
fulness to each man or to the earth itself. For
each woman the similar Power was caUed her
Juno (Tibull. iv. 6; Petron. 25; Plin. ii. 16,
' Junones Geniosque '). This idea of an influ
ence for fruitfulness is expressed in the lectus
genialis, wMch stood in the atrium of the
married (Hor. Ep. i. 1, 87; Cic. Clu. 5, 14;
Juv. x. 333). 2. The genius of each man came
into being with him and was somewhat like a
i guardian spirit tMough his life (Hor. Ep. ii. 2,
187), sometimes with favourable fortune, some
times with the reverse. Hence it is that Horace
calls the genius ' albus et ater ' and ' voltu
mutabilis ' : it is a question whether moralis

360

GENIUS

should be read for mortalis in that passage :
the latter word would aUude to the belief that
the guardianship of the genius ended with the life
of the man (cf . Macrob. Sat. i. 10) ; on the other
hand moralis would in some ways agree better
with the context which calls the genius ' naturae
deus humanae (cf. Serv. ad Georg. i. 302), and re
presents him as having to do with the character
of the man ; tMs again agrees with the frequent
aUusions to the genius as meaning the natural
capacity for enjoyment or the reverse : ' genio
indulgere,' 'genium defraudare ' (Pers. v. 151;
Plaut. Aul. 728, Pers. 263). 3. It is a natural
sequence of tMs that the Genius was regarded
as one of the Lares and was honoured under
the title of 'genius domus.' 4. Further, the
genius of each person expressed the Roman's
belief in immortaUty, and, like the Dii Manes,
was the soul or divine part of Mm which lasted
after death, so that 'manibus et genio' is a
phrase on monuments, and in the case of a
married couple ' genio et junoni ' (GIL. v. 246,
viii. 3695). 5. When the tendency arose, per
haps from Greek influence, to make the nature
of the gods more completely correspond with
that of man, the Romans began to speak in a
similar manner of the genius of gods, and we
find ' genius Jovis,' &c, spoken of as an attri
bute of the deity, but not as to any way a se
parate personality. The earUest instance of
tMs wMch has been cited is dated B. c. 58 (C.I.L.
i. 603). 6. Genius loci. Divine protectors
were imagined also as watching over and in
fluencing each place as weU as each person —
an idea which can belong to the most primitive
religion. Thus we have ' genius pagi,' ' vici,'
' horreorum,' Sea. 7. Analogous to the genius
loci is the genius civitatis. The Genius Romae,
representing both the creation and the preser
vation of Rome was honoured as early as 218
B. c. (Liv. xxi. 62), and the same idea is ex
tended to the provinces : e.g. ' Genius terrae
Britannicae' (C.I.L. vii. 1113). 8. A later
development was the worship of the Genius of
the Emperor, more akin in its nature to the
Greek custom of paying divine honours to the
hero after his death ; but differing in so far
that he received the worship in his lifetime
(but cf . dvBpuiroSaipav, Eur. Bhes. 971). It was
a method of introducing the deification of the
emperor, resting perhaps on his claim to em
body the Genius populi Romani. The Genius
Augusti was associated with the worship of the
Lares after the battle of Actium (Ov. Fast. v.
145 ; Dio Cass. Ii. 19), and thenceforward the
imperial image found a place to the lararium
ana received Honours at meal-times (cf . ' alteris
te mensis adhibet deum .... Laribus tuum
miscet numen,' Hor. Od. iv. 5, 81). In art the
genius loci was commonly represented by a
snake, which points to the double connexion of
the genius with the earth and its fruits and
with the underworld of the dead (the snake
being a symbol of the deities who were so con
nected). TMs explains some well-known pas
sages, the ' gemumne loci f amulumne parentis '
to Verg. Aen. v. 95, and the ' pinge duos angues,
sacer est locus ' to Pers. i. 118. It is illustrated
by a picture found at Herculaneum represent
ing the genius of a spot on the hillside. The
snake is the genius devouring the offerings laid
upon Ms altar. The naked boy is perhaps marked
out by the lotos on his forehead and the rais
ing of Mb hand to Ms lips as Harpocrates :
others see to him merely a boy who has made
an offering. The genius of a person is repre
sented by the idealised figure of the person

GENUCIA
himself with the toga drawn over his head as
in the ritus Bomanus and with a cornucopia
in Ms hand. The Genius Augusti is thus repre
sented in a statue in the Vatican. It was a

CENIV) HVIVS LOCI
MONTIS

c3*RL

Snake as Genius Loci. (From a painting at Herculaneum.)

mistaken idea that the winged figures [Eros]
found in various sculptures and paintings re
present Genu. There is no ground for the beUef
that the Genius was so represented ; but the idea
may be partly due to the confusion of the Gemus
with the Greek Saipav, who was commonly
represented by the Greek artists as winged.
Genseric, king of the Vandals, and the most
terrible of aU the barbarian invaders of the em
pire. In A. D. 429 he crossed over from Spain
to Africa, and ravaged the country with fright
ful severity. Hippo was taken by him in 431,
Carthage did not faU into Ms hands tUl 439.
Having thus become master of the whole of the
NW. of Africa, he attacked Italy itself. In
455 he took Rome and plundered it for fourteen
days, and in the same year he destroyed Capua,
Nola, and Neapolis. Twice the empire endea
voured to revenge itself, and twice it f aUed :
the first was the attempt of the Western em
peror Majorian (457), whose fleet was destroyed
in the bay of Carthagena. The second was the
expedition sent by the Eastern emperor Leo
(468), which was also baffled by the burning of
the fleet off Bona. Genseric died to 477, at a
great age. He was an Arian ; and in the
cruelties exercised under Ms orders against Ms
Catholic subjects he exMbited the first instance
of persecution carried on upon a large scale by
one body of Christians against another.
Gentius or Genthius (TevBios), son of Pleu-
ratus, a Mng of the Dlyrians. As early as
b. c. 180, he had given offence to the Romans
on account of the piracies of his subjects ; and
in 168 he entered into an alliance with Perseus,
king of Macedonia. In the foUowing year the
praetor L. Anicius Gallus was sent against Mm.
The war was finished within thirty days. Gen
tius was defeated in battle, and then surren
dered himself to Anicius, who carried Mm to
Rome to adorn his triumph. He was after
wards kept as a prisoner at Spoletium. (Liv.
xliv. 80, xiv. 26; Plut. Aemil. 29.)
Genua (Genuas, -atis, Genuensis: Genoa),
an important commercial town in Liguria,
situated at the extremity of the Ligurian gulf
(Gulf of Genoa), was to the possession of the
Romans at the beginning of the second Punic
war, but towards the end of the war was held
for some time by the Carthaginian Mago (Liv.
xxi. 32, xxviii. 40 ; Strab. pp. 201, 216). It was
a Roman municipium, but it did not become of
political importance till the middle ages, when
the name often appears as Janua.
Genucia Gens, patrician, of which the prin
cipal families bore the names of Aventinensis
and Augurinus.

GENUSUS
Genusus (Iskumi), a river to Greek Illyria,
N. of the Apsus (Caes. B.C. iii. 75).
Gephyraei (TerpvpaToi) [Harmodius.]
Gepidae, a Gothic people, who came from
Scandinavia, and first settled in the country
between the Oder and the Vistula, from which
they expelled the Burgundiones. Subsequently
they joined the hosts of AttUa ; and after his
death they settled in Dacia, near the Danube.
As they were dangerous neighbours, Justinian
invoked the aid of the Langobardi or Lom
bards, who conquered the Gepidae and de
stroyed their kingdom (Procop. B.G. vi. 5).
Ger or Gir (Telp : Ghir or Mansolig), a river
of Gaetulia to Africa, flowing SE. from the M.
Atlas, till it is lost in the desert. It first be
came known to the Romans tMough the expe
dition of Suetonius PauUnus to the reign of
Nero (Plin. v. 15).
Geraestus (Tepaio-rbs : Tepaio-rios), a promon
tory and harbour at the S. extremity of Euboea,
with a celebrated temple of Poseidon, in whose
honour the festival of the Geraestia (Tepalo-Tia)
was here celebrated (Od. m. 177 ; Hdt. viii. 7 ;
¦Strab. p. 446).
Geranea (r) Tepdveia), a range of mountains,
beginning at the SW. slope of Cithaeron, and
-running along the W. coast of Megaris, till it
terminated to the promontory Olmiae in the
CortotMan territory (Paus. i. 40, 1 ; Thuc. i. 105).
Gerenia (Teprivia), an ancient town to Mes-
sema, the birthplace of Nestor, who is hence
called Gereman (repr)vios). It was on the
western side of Messema near the river Choerius,
or possibly a Uttle further N. and near Pherae :
some writers place it at the modern Zarnata.
Strabo says that the people of EUs asserted it
to be a place called Gerenus to their own terri
tory (Strab. pp. 340, 360 ; Paus. iii. 26, 8).
Gergis, or Gergltha, or -es, or -us (Tepyis,
TepyiBa, or -es, or -os : TepyiBios), a town to the
Troad, N. of the Scamander, inhabited by Teu-
¦crians (Hdt. v. 122, vii. 43). Attalus removed
the inhabitants to the sources of the Caicus,
where mention is made of a place caUed Ger-
getha or GergitMon, to the territory of Cyme
(Strab. p. 616).
Gergovia, a fortified town of the Arverni
in Gaul, situated on a hiU, which is precipitous

GERMANIA

861

Engtii.hJjirds.

3000 aooo i-ooo JOOO

Plan of the Mountain of Gergovia and its environs.
1. Plateau of Gergovia ; 2. R. Auzon ; 8, La Roche and
smaller Roman camp ; 4. Large camp ; 5. Puy de Jussat ;
6. Romagnat; 7. R. CUmensat; 8. Mont Rognon ; 9. HiU of
Rise-lies connected -with plateau by ridge (jugum).
-or very difficult of approach on all sides except
a portion of the SW., where the slope is gentler.
It is about four miles S. of Clermont-Ferrand,

close to the village of Bomagnat, and between
the streams Cldmensat and Auzon, which flow
eastward into the Allier. On the summit is a
plateau about three-quarters of a mile long. It
is remarkable as being the scene of Caesar's only
Gallic repulse. His unsuccessful attack was
delivered from the SW. corner, above the Auzon,
where a cart-road now ascends to the plateau.
(Caes. B. G. vii. 84.)
Germa (Teppri), the name of three cities in
Asia Minor. 1. (Germaslu, Ru.) in Mysia Minor,
near Cyzicus. — 2. (Yermatepe) in Mysia, be
tween Pergamus and Thyatira  3. (Yerma), in
Galatia, between PesBtous and Ancyra ; a colo-
ma (Ptol. y. 4, 7).
Germania, was bounded by the Rhine on the
W., by the Vistula and the Carpathian moun
tains on the E., by the Danube on the S., and
by the German Ocean and the BaRjic on the N.
It thus included much more than modern Ger
many on the N. and E., but much lesB in the W.
and S. Out of the country W. of the Rhine,
originaUy reckoned in Gallia Belgica, were
formed under the empire the separate provinces
of Upper and Lower Germany [see below] ; and
it was to contradistinction to these provinces
that Germania proper was also called Germania
Magna or G. Transrhenana or G. Barbara. It
was not tiU Caesar's campaigns in Gaul (b.c.
58—50) that the Romans obtained any real
knowledge of the country. The Roman writers
represent Germany as a dismal land, covered for
the most part with forests and swamps, pro
ducing little corn, and subject to intense frosts
and almost eternal winter (Tac. Germ. 2 ; Sen.
de Prov. 4). Although these accounts are pro
bably exaggerated, yet there can be no doubt
that the clearing of woods and draining of mo
rasses have produced changes to the climate.
Pliny, however, praises its pasturage (xvii. 26).
The N. of Germany is a vast plain, but in the S.
are many mountains, which were covered in
antiquity with vast forests, and thus were called
Silvae. Of these the most important was the
Hercynia Silva : the other mountain dis
tricts most noticed by Roman authors were
the Taunus and Abnoba, the source of the
Danube. — The chief rivers were the Rhenus
(Bhine), Danubius (Danube), Vistula, Amisia
(Ems), Visurgis (Weser), Albis (Elbe), Viadus
(Oder). — The inhabitants were caUed Germani
by the Romans. Tacitus says (Germ. 2) that
Germani was the name of the Tungri, who were
the first German people that crossed the Rhine.
It would seem that this name properly belonged
only to those tribes who were settled in Gaul ;
and as these were the first German tribes with
which the Romans came into contact, they ex
tended the name to the whole nation. The
Germans themselves do not appear to have used
any one name to indicate the whole nation ; for
there is no reason to believe, as some have done,
that the name Teutones was the general name
of the nation in the time of the Romans. The
Germans regarded themselves as indigenous in
the country; but there can be no doubt that
they were a branch of the great Indo-Germanic
race, who, along with the Celts, migrated into
Europe from the Caucasus and the countries
around the Black and Caspian seas, at a period
long anterior to historical records. They are
described as a people of high stature and of
great bodily strength, with fair complexions,
blue eyes, and yellow or red hair. Notwith
standing the severity of their climate, they wore
little clothing, and their children went entirely
naked. They had scarcely any defensive armour :

362

GERMANIA

their cMef offensive weapon was the framea,
a long spear with a narrow iron point, which
they either darted from a distance or pushed in
close combat. Their houses were only low huts,
made of rough timber, and thatched with straw.
A number of these were of course often built
near each other ; but they could not be said to
have any towns properly so called. Many of
their tribes were nomad, and every year changed
their place of abode. They were disinclined to
husbandry, growing little corn, and supporting
themselves mainly by the produce of their herds
and by hunting. The men found their cMef de
light in the perils and excitement of war. In
peace their chief amusements were gaming and
excessive drinking. Their cMef drink was beer ;
and their carouses frequently ended in blood
shed. The women were held in high honour.
Their chastity was without reproach. They ac
companied their husbands to battle, and cheered
them on by their presence, and frequently by
their example as well. Both sexes were equally
distinguished for their unconquerable love of
liberty ; and the women frequently destroyed
both themselves and their children, rather than
fall into the power of their husbands' con
querors. — In each tribe we find the people
divided into four classes : the nobles, the free
men, the freedmen or vassals, and the slaves.
AU questions relating to peace and war, and the
general interests of the tribe, were decided in
the popular assembly, in which each freeman
had a right to take part. In these assemblies
a Mng was elected from among the nobles ; but
Ms power was very limited, and he only acted
as the supreme magistrate in time of peace ;
for when a war broke out, the people elected a
distinguished warrior as their leader, upon whom
the prerogatives of the Mng devolved. — The
religion of the Germans is known to us only
from the Greek and Roman writers, who have
confused the subject by seeking to identify the
gods of the Germans with their own divinities.
We know that they worsMpped the Sun, the
, Moon, and the Stars. According to the Roman
account, they are also said to have paid espe
cial honour to Mercury, who was probably the
German Wodan or Odin. Their other chief di
vinities were Isis (probably Freia, the wife of
Odin) ; Mars (Tyr or Zio, the German god of
war) ; the mother of the gods, called Nerthus
(less correctly Herthus or Hertha) ; and Jupiter
(Thor, or the god of thunder). The worship of
the gods was simple. They had both priests
and priestesses to attend to their service ; and
some of the priestesses, such as Veleda among
the Bructeri, were celebrated ttooughout Ger
many for their prophetic powers. (Tac. Germ. ;
Caes. B. G. iv. 1-3, vi. 21-28 ; Strab. vii. 1 ;
Mel. iii. 2, 3.)— The Germam first appear to
Mstory in the campaigns of the Cimbri and Teu
tones (b.c. 113), the latter of whom were un
doubtedly a Germanic people. [Teutones.]
About fifty years afterwards Ariovistus, a Ger
man chief, crossed the RMne, with a vast host
of Germans, and subdued a great part of Gaul ;
but he was defeated by Caesar with great
slaughter (58), and driven beyond the Rhine.
Caesar twice crossed this river (55, 23), but made
no permanent conquest on the E. bank. Several
German tribes, the remnants of the armies of
Ariovistus, were settled by Caesar's arrange
ment on the Gallic side of the RMne; the
Triboci to Alsace, the Nemetes at Spires, and
the Vangiones at Worms. The Germans on
this side of the Rhine were more friendly to
Rome than to the Celts, and those who sought

the alliance of Rome were desirous of passing
the boundary. Cologne itself grew out of a.
settlement of the Ubii on the Roman bank,
effected by Agrippa B.C. 38. Attempts to cross
the Rhine made by the hostile Usipu and
Tencteri in 16 led to the unfortunate expedi
tion of Lollius. The campaign of Drusus fol
lowed (b.c. 12-9), in wMch the Romans acquired.
the coast from the mouth of the Rhine to the
Weser, and then attempted the conquest of the
interior. They occupied the whole country
between the Rhine and Weser, and Drusus
advanced as far as the Elbe. On his death
(9), his brother Tiberius succeeded to the com
mand; and under him the country between
the Rhine and the Visurgis (Weser) was en
tirely subjugated, and for about twenty years-
reckoned as a Roman province. But in A.D.
9, the impolitic and tyrannical conduct of
the Roman governor, Quintihus Varus, pro
voked a general insurrection of the various.
German tribes, headed by Arminius, the Che-
ruscan. Varus and Ms legions were defeated
and destroyed, and the Romans lost all then-
conquests E. of the Rhine. [Varus.] The de
feat of Varus was avenged by the successful
campaigns of Germanicus, who would probably
have recovered the Roman dominions E. of the
river ; but the policy of the emperor was altered.
and he was recaUed to Rome A.D. 16. [For de
tails, see Germanicus.] From tMs time the
Romans abandoned all further attempts to con
quer Germany beyond the Rhine, except that.
they were enabled to obtain peaceable posses
sion of a large portion of the SW. of Germany
between the Rhine and the Danube, to wMch
they gave the name of the Agri Decumates.
[See p. 37, b.] On the, death of Nero, several
of the tribes in W. Germany joined the Batavi.
to their insurrection against the Romans (a.d.
69-71). Domitian and Trajan had to repel the-
attacks of some German tribes : but in the
reign of Antoninus Pius, the Marcomanni, joined
by various other tribes, made a more formid
able attack upon the Roman dominions, and
ttoeatened the empire with destruction. From
tMs time the Romans were often called upon to-
defend the left bank of the RMne against their
dangerous neighbours, espeeiaUy against the
two powerful confederacies of the Alemanni and
Franks [Alemanni; Franci]; and to the 4th
and 5th centuries the Germans obtained posses
sion of some of the fairest provinces of the
empire. — In considering the administration of
Germany it is necessary first to distinguish the-
provinces. Germania, Superior and Germania
Inferior— or, as they were afterwards called,.
Germania Prima and Secunda — from the inde
finite Germania Magna beyond the Rhine
which was not subjugated by the Romans,.
except during the twenty years between the
campaign of Drusus in b.c. 12 and the defeat
of Varus in a.d. 9. The original intention, no
doubt, was to retain this as the province of
Germania, and to leave the territory west of
the Rhine in the Belgic province; but the
necessity of keeping strong military posts of
the legions who guarded the Rhine frontier-
after the withdrawal from Germania Magna,.
led to the creation of two separately adminis
tered provinces. Germania Superior extended
from the Jura mountains northwards to a.
line a little beyond Coblentzi; Mogontiacum
(Maintz) was the capital and residence of the
legatus; its western boundary included the
districts of the Helvetii (Switzerland), the-
Sequani (Besangon), the Lingones (Langres)v

GERMANICIA
Rauraci (Basle), the Triboci (Alsace), the
Nemetes (Spires), and the Vangiones (Worms).
The districts of the Treveri (Treves), and the
Mediomatrici (Metz), reckoned in the Gallic pro
vinces. To the E. Germania Superior was at
first limited by the Rhine, but in Domitian's
reign it extended again beyond the RMne, and
in Hadrian's time the Limes, or fortified boun
dary marked its eastern limit, and was guarded
by a chain of forts. It extended 228 miles,
from Bheinbrohl to Larch. It included the
Taunus and Friedberg, then turned S. to the
Main above Frankfort; thence foUowed the
Main to its bend at - Miltenberg, thence to the
Neckar at Wimpfen. From this point it con
tinued up the Neckar to the neighbourhood of the
Stuttgart, where it joined the Rhaetian Limes.
The forts on tMs Germanic frontier were about
nine miles apart, and, moreover, wherever
the boundary was not a river, it was marked
first by a palisade, and later by a wall and ditch
with towers at intervals. Germania Inferior
extended from Bemagen northwards, the Rhine
and the lower Ems forming the boundary of
the province. Westward it extended to the
Scheldt and the Sambre. Its capital and the
residence of the legatus was Colonia Agrippin
ensis (Cologne). Under Diocletian, the two pro
vinces were called Germania Prima and G.
Secunda. Germanicia or Caesarea Germanica (Teppa-
viKeia, Kaiffdpeia Teppavucr) : Marash), a town to
the Syrian province of Commagene, near the
borders of Cappadocia.
Germanicopulis. 1. (Ermenck), a town to
the west of Cilicia on the road from Laranda
to Anemurium. — 2. [Gangra.]
Germanicus Caesar son of Nero Claudius
Drusus and Antonia, the daughter of the tri
umvir Antony, was born B.C. 15. He was
adopted by Ms uncle Tiberius to the lifetime
of Augustus, and was raised at an early age to
the honours of the state. He assisted Tiberius
to the war against the Pannonians and Dalma
tians (a.d. 7-10), and also fought along with
Tiberius against the Germans in the foUowing
year. In 12 he filled the consulship at Rome
whUe Tiberius commanded alone on the Rhine
(Dio Cass. Ivi. 26) ; but to the next year (13) he
was sole commander of the Rhemsh army, and
was holding this office when the alarming
mutiny broke out among the troops to Ger
many and Hlyricum, upon the death of Augus
tus (14). Germanicus was a favourite with the
soldiers, and they offered to place Mm at the
head of the empire : but he rejected their pro
posals, and exerted all his influence to queU the
mutiny, and reconcile them to their new
sovereign. After restoring order among the
troops, he crossed the Rhine from Vetera, and
laid waste the country of the Usipii and Bruc
teri about the Lippe. In the following year
(15), he again crossed the Rhine and attacked
the Marsi and Cherusci. He penetrated as far
as the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, N. of the Lippe,
in which forest the army of QuintiUus Varus had
been destroyed by the Germans. Here Ms troops
gathered up the bones of their ill-fated com
rades, and paid the last honours to their
-memory. But meantime Arminius had col
lected a formidable army, with which he
attacked the Romans : and it was not without
considerable loss that Germanicus and Caecina
each made good his retreat to the Rhine. It
was in tMs campaign that Thusnelda, the wife
of Arminius, fell into the hands of Germanicus
[Ahmlnlus]. (Tac. Ann. i. 51-63.) Next year

GERONTHRAE

363

(16) Germanicus placed his troops on board a
fleet of 1,000 vessels, and sailed through the
canal of Ms father, Drusus [see p. 804, b.], and
the Zuyder Zee to the ocean, and from thence
to the mouth of the Amisia (Ems), where he
landed his forces. After crossing the Ems and
the Weser, he fought two battles with Arminius,
in both of which the Germans were completely
defeated. The complete success of this year
was marred by the destruction of a great
part of his fleet with part of his legions in the
North Sea ; but as a result of the campaign the
Germans could no longer offer him any effectual
resistance, and Germanicus considered that he
needed only another year to reduce completely
the whole country between the RMne ahd the
Elbe. Tiberius, however, thought otherwise.
It has been said that he was jealous of the
success of Germanicus : it is more likely that
he began to consider the subjugation and
retention of the country between the Rhine
and the Elbe too great and hazardous a task, or
too heavy a tax on Ms resources. However
that may be, upon pretence of the dangerous
state of affairs in the East, the emperor recaUed
Germanicus to Rome, which he entered in

Coin of Germanicus, commemorating conquest of
Germany, A.D. 16.
Obv., Germanicus in triumphal chariot, GERMANICVS
CAESAR ; rev., Germanicus, right hand raised and
holding standard in left, SIGNIS RECE [ptis] DEVICTIS
GERM. S. O.
triumph on the 26th of May, 17. (Tac. Ann.
ii. 6-41 ; Strab. p. 291). In the same year all
the Eastern provinces were assigned to Ger
manicus ; but Tiberius placed Cn. Piso in
command of Syria, with secret instructions to
check and thwart Germanicus. Piso soon
showed Ms hostility to Germanicus, and his
wife Plancina, in like manner, did every thing
in her power to annoy Agrippina, the wife of
Germanicus. In 18, Germanicus proceeded to
Armenia, where he placed Zeno (who as king
assumed the name of Artaxias) on the throne,
and in the foUowing year (19) he visited Egypt,
and on his return he was seized with a danger
ous illness, of which he died. He believed
that he had been poisoned by Piso, and shortly
before he died, he summoned his friends, and
called upon them to avenge his murder. He
was deeply and sincerely lamented by the
Roman people ; and Tiberius was obliged to
sacrifice Piso to the public indignation. (Tac.
Ann. ii. 43 — iii. 4 ; Suet. Gal. 1 ; Dio Cass.
lvii. 18.) [Piso.] By Agrippina he had nine
children, of whom six survived him. Of these
the most notorious were the emperor Caligula,
and Agrippina, the mother of Nero. Germani
cus was an author of Borne repute. He wrote
several poetical works. We still possess the
remains of Ms Latin translation of the Phae
nomena of Aratus. (Suet. Cal. 3, Claud. 11 ;
Plin. viii. 155; Ov. Pont. iv. 8, 67.) Ed. by
Orelli at the end of his PhaedruB, Zurich, 1831 ;
by Breysig, Berl. 1867.
Geronthrae (TepbvBpai : Geraki), a town of

864 GERRA
Laconia SE. of Sparta. It was an old Achaean
town whose inhabitants were dispossessed by
the Dorian invaders. (Paus. iii. 22, 5.)
Gerra (Teppa: Djerra), one of the cMef
cities of Arabia, and a great emporium for the
trade of Arabia and India, stood on the NE.
coast of Arabia Felix, 200 stadia (20 geog.
:miles) from the shore of the Sinus Gerraeus or

GIGANTES
Geranium (Girone), a town of Apulia near
Larinum (Liv. xxii. 18).
Geryon or Geryones (FnpvbvTis), son of Chry-
saor and CalUrrhoe, a monster with tMee
heads, or, according to others, with tMee bodies
united together, was a Mng in Spain, and pos
sessed magnificent oxen, which Heracles carried
away (Hes. Th. 287 ; Aesch. Ag. 870 ; Verg. Aen.
vi. 289; Apollod. ii.
5, 10). For details
see Heracles.
Gesoriaeum(Bow-
logne) a port of the
Mortoi in Gallia
Belgica, at which
persons usually em
barked to cross over
to Britain: it was
subsequently called
Bononia, whence its
modern name (Plin.
iv. 102; Suet. Claud.
17 ; Mel. iii. 2 ; Am-
mian. xx. 9 ; Eutrop.
ix. 21).
Gessius Florus.
[Florus.] Geta, Septimius,
brother of CaracaUa,
Battle of Gods and Giants. (From a vase painting of the end of 5th cent. B.C., now at Berlin.) "$ whom he was
assassinated, a.d.

Gerraicus, a bay on the W. side Of the Persian
Gulf, 2,400 stadia (240 geog. miles = 4° of lat.)
from the mouth of the Tigris. The city was
five Roman miles in circuit. The inhabitants,
called Gerraei (Teppaioi), were said to have been
originally Chaldaeans who were driven out of
Babylon. (Strab. p. 766 ; Plin. vi. 147.)
Gerrhus (Teppos), a river of Scythia, flowing

212. For detaUs see Caracalla.
Getae, a TMacian people, called Daci by the
Romans. Herodotus and Thucydides place
themS. of the Ister (Danube) near its mouths;
but in the time of Alexander the Great they
dwelt beyond this river and N. of the Tri-
balli. They were driven by the Sarmatians
further W. towards Germany. (Hdt. iv. 93;

Athene and Giant. (From great altar at Pergamum. Berlin.) Athene grasps Enceladus by the hair while her
serpent ](not easily distinguishable from the serpent-lees of the other g&nts on the frieze) has coiled round him
On her left is Victory ; below, Ge with uplifted hand entreats for her children. •.""=" ™«" """•

through a country of the same name, was a
branch of the Borysthenes, and flowed into the
Hypacyris, dividing the country of the Nomad
Scythians from that of the Royal Scythians
(Hdt. v. 53 ; Ptol. iii. 5, 12).
Gerunda (Gerona), a town of the Ausetani
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from
Tarraco to Narbo in Gaul.

Thuc. ii. 96 ; Strab. p. 294.) For their later
Mstory see Dacia.
Gigantes (Tiydvres), the giants. According
to Homer, they were a gigantic and savage
race of men, dweUing in the distant W. in the
island of Trinacria, near the Cyclopes, and
were destroyed on account of their impiety.
(Od. vii. 59, 206, x. 120 ; cf. Paus. viii. 29, 2.)

GIGANTES
Hesiod considers them divine beings, who
sprang from the blood that fell from Uranus
upon the earth, so that Ge (the earth) was
their mother (Th. 185). Neither Homer nor
Hesiod know anything about their contest with
the gods. Later poets and mythographers
frequently confound them with the Titans,
and represent them as enemies of Zeus and
the gods, whose abode on Olympus they
attempt to take by storm. Their battle with
the gods seems to be only an imitation of the
revolt of the Titans against Uranus. Ge, it is
said (ApoUod. i. 6), indignant at the fate of her
former children, the Titans, gave birth to the
Gigantes, who were beings of a monstrous
size, with fearful countenances and legs ending
in serpents. They were born, according to some,
in the PMegraean plains in Sicily, Campania,
or Arcadia, and, according to others, in the
TMacian PaUene. In their native land they
made an attack upon heaven, being armed with
huge rocks and trunks of trees. The gods
were told that they could not conquer the
giants without the assistance of a mortal ;
whereupon they summoned Heracles to their

GLABRIO

365

Zeus and the Giants. (Neapolitan gem.)
aid. The giants Alcyoneus, Enceladus and
Porphyrion distinguished themselves above
their brethren. Alcyoneus (whose story be
longed to the Isthmus of Corinth) was slain
by Heracles (Pind. Nem. iv. 27); Porphyrion
was feUed by the bolt of Zeus and slain by the
arrows of Heracles ; Enceladus was overthrown
either by the lightning of Zeus or by the aegis
of Athene, and buried under Sicily. The other
giants, whose number is said to have been
twenty-four, were then killed one after another
by the gods and Heracles, and some of them
were buried by their conquerors under (vol
canic) islands. Thus Polybotes, pursued by
Poseidon over the Aegaean, was buried by Mm
under a fragment snatched from Cos, which
became the island of Nisyros. Among the
others named are Mimas, Phrytos or Rhoetus,
Ephialtes, and Pallas. (Pind. Nem. i. 67, Hor.
Od. iii. 4, 42 ; Ov. Met. i. 151 ; Strab. pp. 245,
281, 330; ApoUod. I. c.) It is worthy of
remark, that most writers place the giants to
volcanic districts ; and it is probable that the
story of their contest with the gods took its
origin from volcanic convulsions. The Battle
of the Giants was not only a frequent subject
for vase paintings, but was a sculptured deco
ration of many temples (Paus. ii. 17, 3, viii. 19,
9; Diod. xiii. 82 ; Eur. Ion, 206). In the most
famous of all, the reUef s from the great altar of
Pergamum, some of the giants have serpent-
feet and wings, others are of whoUy human

form. The serpent-footed form scarcely appears
in any vase painting, and was clearly not the
oldest conception, though not an unlikely way
of indicating an earth-born race.
Gigonus (Tiyavos : Tiydvios), town and pro
montory of Macedonia on the Thermaic gulf.
Gildo, or Gildon, a Moorish chieftain, go
verned Africa for some years as a subject of the
Western empire ; but in a.d. 397, he transferred
his allegiance to the Eastern empire, and the
emperor Arcadius accepted him as a subject.
Stilicho, guardian of Honorius, sent an army
against him. Gildo was defeated ; and being
taken prisoner, put an end to his own life (398).
TMs war forms the subject of one of Claudian's
poems (De Bello Gildonico ; cf. Amm. Marc.
xxix. 5 ; Oros. vii. 36 ; Zos. v. 11).
Gindarus (TivSapos : Gindaries), a strong
fortress in Cyrrhestice to Syria, NE. of Antioch.
Girba, a city on the island of Meninx (Jer-
bah), at the S. extremity of the Lesser Syrtis :
celebrated for its manufactures of purple.
Gisco or Gisgo (TioKav or TeaKav). 1. Son
of the Hamilcar who was defeated and killed
to the battle of Himera, B.C. 480. In conse
quence of this calamity, Gisgo was banished
from Carthage. He died at Selinus to Sicily.
(Diod. xiii. 43.) — 2. Son of Hanno, was in exile
when the Carthaginians were defeated at the
river Crimissus by Timoleon, 389. He was
then recalled from exile, and sent to oppose
Timoleon. (Diod. xvi. 81 ; Plut. Timol. 30-34.)—
3. Commander of the Carthaginian garrison at
Lilybaeum, at the end of the first Punic war.
After the conclusion of peace, 241, he was de
puted by the government to treat with the mer
cenaries who had risen in revolt, but he was
seized by them and put to death. (Pol. i. 66-80.)
Gitiadas (TiridSas), a Lacedaemonian sculp
tor and poet, about 520 B. c. He made a
bronze statue of the goddess for the temple of
Athene Poliouchos at Sparta, and ornamented
the interior of the building with works to bronze
(i.e., probably, overlaid the walls with bronze
plates sculptured in relief), from which it was.
caUed the Brazen House, and hence the goddess ¦
received the surname of XaXKio?Kos. He com
posed a hymn to the goddess, besides other
poems (Paus. iii. 17, 2; 18, 8).
Glabrio, Acilius, a plebeian name. 1. C,
quaestor B.C. 203, and tribune of the plebs 197.
He acted as interpreter to the Athenian embassy
in 155, when the three philosophers, Carneades,
Diogenes, and Critolaus came as envoys to
Rome (Gell. vii. 14 ; Plut. Cat. Maj. 22). He
wrote in Greek a history of Rome from the
earliest period to his own times. It was trans
lated into Latin by one Claudius, and Ms version
is cited by Livy, under the titles of Annates
Aciliani (xxv. 39) and Libri Aciliani (xxxv. 14).
— 2. M\, tribune of the plebs 201, praetor 196,
and consul 191. In his consulship he defeated
Antiochus at Thermopylae, and the Aetolians
also (Liv. xxxvi. 2, 22). — 3. M\, married a.
daughter of M. Aemilius Scaurus, consul 115,
whom Sulla, to 82, compelled him to divorce..
Glabrio was praetor uroanus to 70, when he
presided at the impeachment of Verres. He
was consul in 67, and in the foUowing year pro
consul of Cilicia. He succeeded L. Lucullus in
the command of the war against Mittoidates,
but remained inactive in Bithynia. He was
superseded by Cn. Pompey (Cic. pro Leg. Man.
9, 17, 26 ; Plut. Pomp. 30).— 4. M\, son of No. 3,
was born in the house of Cn. Pompey, B. c. 81,
who married Ms mother after her compulsory
divorce from the elder Glabrio. Aemilia died-

366

GLANIS

in giving birth to him. In the Civil war, Gla
brio was one of Caesar's lieutenants ; com
manded the garrison of Oricum in Epirus in 48,
and was stationed in Sicily in 46. He was twice
defended on capital charges by Cicero, and ac
quitted. (Plut. Sull. 33, Pomp. 9 ; Caes. B. C.
iii. 15; Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 30-39.)
Glanis, more usually written Clanis.
Glanum Livii (nr. St Bemy, Ru.), a town of
the Salyes in Gallia Narbonensis (Plin. iii. 36).
Glaphyra. [Archelaus, No. 6.]
Glauce (TXaiKri). 1. One of the Nereides,
the name Glauce being only a personification
of the colour of the sea (II. xviii. 39 ; Hes. Th.
244). — 2. Daughter of Creon of Corinth, also
called Creusa. For details see Creon.
Glaucia, C. Servilius, praetor b. c. 100, the
chief supporter of Saturninus, with whom he
was put to death in this year. [Saturninus.]
Glaucias (TXavKias). 1. King of the Taulan-
tians, one of the Hlyrian tribes, fought against
Alexander the Great, B. c. 335. In 316 he
afforded an asylum to the infant Pyrrhus, and
refused to surrender him to Cassander. In 307
he invaded Epirus, and placed Pyrrhus, then
twelve years old, upon the throne (Plut. Pyrrh.
3 ; Diod. xix. 67). — 2. A Greek physician, who
probably lived in the third or second century
B. c. — 3. A sculptor of Aegina, who made the
bronze chariot and statue of Gelo, to comme
morate an Olympian victory B. c. 488 (Paus. vi.
9, 2). The name of Glaucias was found on a
base at Olympia in the excavations of 1878.
Glaucon (TXavKav). 1. Son of Critias, brother
of Callaeschrus, and father of Charmides and
of Plato's mother, Perictione. — 2. Brother of
Plato : one of the speakers in the Bepublic.
Glaucus (TXavKos). 1. Grandson of Aeolus,
son of Sisyphus and Merope, and father of Bel
lerophontes (II. vi. 154; Apollod. ii. 3; Paus.
ii. 4, 3). He lived at Potniae, despised the
power of Aphrodite, and did not allow his mares
to breed, that they might be the stronger for
the chariot race. TMs excited the anger of
Aphrodite, who destroyed him. According to
others he fed them with human flesh. According
to some accounts his horses became frightened
and threw him out of his chariot, as he was
contending in the funeral games celebrated by
Acastus in honour of Ms father, Pelias (Paus. vi.
20, 19 ; Ov. Ibis, 557 ; Hyg. Fab. 250, 273). Ac
cording to others, his horses tore him to pieces,
having drunk from the water of a sacred weU
in Boeotia, or eaten the herb Hippomanes, in
consequence of which they were seized with
madness (Paus. ix. 8, 1 ; Strab. p. 409 ; Verg.
Georg. iii. 267 ; Plin. xxv. 94 ; cf. Eur. Phoen.
1124). Glatious of Potniae (TXavKos Tlorvieis)
was the title of one of the lost tragedies of
Aeschylus. It is probable that this Glaucus
was a local sea-deity (like No. 5), upon whose
worship these stories were engrafted. An indi
cation of Poseidon having taken Ms place is
afforded by the story which, makes BeUerophon
the son of Poseidon (Hyg. Fab. 191). That
horses were sacrificed to him as to Poseidon is
probable enough, and thence the story of his
death might have arisen. The Euhemeristic
interpretation was that he merely ruined Mm
self by racing (Palaeph. irepl dirio-r. 26). — 2. Son
of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophontes,
was a Lycian prince, and assisted Priam to the
Trojan war. He was connected with Diomedes
by ties of hospitality ; and when they discovered
this in the battle, they abstained from fighting,
and exchanged arms with one another, the
armour of Glaucus being golden, that of Dio-

From
an ancient gem at Florence
(Overbeds).

GLAUCUS
medes bronze. Glaucus was slain by Ajax. (17.
vi. 119-236 ; Hyg. Fab. 112, 113 ; Dictys, ii. 35.)
The story gave risje
to a proverb xpi°'€a
XaXKeiav(taken. from
II. vi. 236), to express
a bad exchange (cf.
Gell. ii. 23).— 3. Son
of the Messenian
king Aepytus, whom j
he succeeded on the ;
throne. — 4. One of
the sons of the Cre- '
tan king Minos by
Pasiphae or Crete.
When a boy, he feU
into a cask full of
honey, and was
smothered. Minos Glaucus and Diomede^
searched for his son
in vain, and was at
length informed by ApoUo or the Curetes that
the person who should devise the most appro
priate comparison of a cow which could assume
tMee different colours, with any other object,
would find the boy. The soothsayer Polyidus of
Argos solved the problem by likening the cow to
a mulberry, which is at first wMte, then red, and
in the end black. By his prophetic powers he
then discovered the boy. Minos now required
Polyidus to restore Ms son to life ; but as he
could not accompUsh tMs, Minos ordered him
to be entombed alive with the body of Glaucus.
When Polyidus was shut up to the vault, he
saw a serpent approaching the dead body, and
killed the reptile. Presently another serpent
came, and placed a herb upon the dead serpent,
which was thereby restored to life. Thereupon
Polyidus covered the body of Glaucus with the
same herb, and the boy at once rose into life
again. (Hyg. Fab. 136 ; Apollod. iii. 1, 2 ;
Tzetz. Lye. 811 ; Claud. Bell. Get. 442.) Some
modern authorities see to the myth the setting
and rising of the morning star. It is a more
probable conjecture that it may have something
to do with the death and renewal of vegetation,
originally expressed in the story of the death of
the youthful Cretan deity, the search, and the re
storation to life. TXavKos iridv peXi aveo-rrt be
came a proverb for an unexpected recovery.
— 5. Of Anthedon in Boeotia, a fisherman, who
became immortal by eating a part of the divine
herb which Cronos had sown (this part of Ms
story bears some resemblance to No. 4). His
parentage is differently stated : some called Ms
father Copeus, others Polybus, the husband of
Euboea, and others again Anthedon or Poseidon.
He was further said to have been a clever diver,
to have built the ship Argo, and to have accom
panied the Argonauts as their steersman. In
the sea-fight of Jason against the Tyrrhenians,
Glaucus alone remained unhurt ; he sank to the
bottom of the sea, where he was visible to none
save Jason. From this moment he became a
sea-god, and was of service to the Argonauts.
The story of his sinking or leaping into the sea
was variously modified in the different tradi
tions — from a frenzy on the discovery that he
was immortal, or from love of the sea-deity
Melicertes. There was a belief in Greece that
once in every year Glaucus visited aU the coasts
and islands, accompanied by sea monsters,
and gave his prophecies. Fishermen and
sailors paid particular reverence to him, and
watched his oracles, which were believed to be
very trustworthy. He is said to have even in
structed Apollo in the prophetic art. Some

GLAUCUS
-writers stated that he dwelt in Delos, where he
prophesied to conjunction with the nymphs;
but the place of his abode varied in different
traditions. (Ov. Met. xiii. "904 ; Tzetz. Lye.
758 ; Paus. ix. 22, 6 ; Verg. Georg. i. 437, Aen.
iii. 420, v. 882, vi. 86 : Serv. ad loc. ; Strab. p.
405 ; Schol. ad Plat. Bep. p. 611 ; Athen. pp.
296, 297). The stories about his various loves
were favourite subjects with the ancient poets.
He is described as biformis, with the body of a
man covered with seaweed and shells ending to
the tail of a fish (Plat. Bep. p. 611 ; VeU. Pat.
ii. 88; Stat. Thet. vii. 335)'. Aeschylus wrote a
play TXavKos ndWios about tMs Glaucus also.
His reception by Poseidon and Amphitrite is a
subject of vase paintings. — 6. A Lacedaemoman,
son of Epicydes. He was famed for his honesty,
and therefore was asked by a Milesian to take
care of Ms money : when the sons reclaimed it,
he denied the possession, but asked the oracle
at DelpM if he might persist in the denial. The
god punished Ms falsehood, and his sin of tempt
ing the deity, by the destruction of his family
(Hdt. vi. 86 ; Paus. n. 18, 2, viii. 7, 4 ; Juv. xui.
199). — 7. Of CMos, a sculptor and worker to
metal, distinguished as the inventor of the art
of soldering (KbXXnots), flourished B. c. 490.
His most noted work was an iron base (viroKpri-
rriplSiov), wMch, with the silver bowl it sup
ported, was presented to the temple at DelpM
by Alyattes, Mng of Lydia (Hdt. i. 25 ; Paus.
x. 16; Athen. p. 210). — 8. A sculptor of Argos
who to coUaboration with Dionysius executed
statues dedicated by Smicythus at Olympia
(Paus. v. 26). His date was about 470 B. c.
Glaucus (TXavKos). 1. A small river of
Ptoygia, faUing into the Maeander near Eu-
menia. — 2. A small river of Lycia, on the
borders of Caria, flowing into the Sinus Glaucus
(Gulf of Makri). — 3. A river of Achaia.
Glaucus Sinus. [Glaucus.]
Glessaria (Ameland), an island off the coast
-of the Frisii, so called from ' glessum ' or amber
wMch was found there : its proper name was
Auslieravia (Plin. xxxvii. 42).
Glisas (rxlo-as : TXiadvrios), an ancient town
in Boeotia, on Mt. Hypaton. It was in ruins in
the time of Pausanias (II. ii. 504 ; Paus. ix. 19, 2.)
Glycas, Michael, a Byzantine Mstorian, the
author of a work entitled Annals (filBXos
XpoviKr)), containing the Mstory of the world
from the creation to the death of Alexis I.
Comnenus, a. d. 1118. Edited by Bekker, Bonn,
1836 ; Migne, Paris, 1866.
Glycera (TXvKepa), ' the sweet one,' a favourite
name of hetairae. The most celebrated he-
tairae of tMs name are, 1. The daughter of
Thalassis, and the mistress of Harpalus. — 2.
Of Sicyon, and the mistress of Pausias. — 3. A
favourite of Horace (Od. i. 19, 30, iii. 19, 29).
Glycerins, became emperor of the West a. d.
473, after the death of Olybrius, by the assist
ance of Gundobald the Burgundian. But the
Byzantine court did not acknowledge Glycerius,
and proclaimed Julius Nepos emperor, by whom
Glycerius was dettooned (474), and compelled
to become a priest. He was appointed bishop
of Salona to Dalmatia.
Glycon (TXiKav), a deity worshipped at
Abonitichos under the form of a snake, and re
presented by the impostor Alexander as the in
carnation of Asclepius (Lucian, Alex. 18). The
name appears on coins and inscriptions.
Glycon (TXiKav), an Athenian sculptor of the
first century B. c, known to us by his magnifi
cent colossal marble statue of Heracles, com
monly called the ' Farnese Hercules.' It was

GORDIANUS

367

found in the baths of CaracaUa, and, after
adorning the Farnese palace for some time, was
removed to the royal museum at Naples. It
represents the hero resting on his club. It is
supposed (from a comparison with a fresco from
Herculaneum) that he is looking down at the
infant Telephus suckled by a deer. [See cut
under Heracles.]
Gnipho, M. Antonius, a Roman rhetorician,
was born B. c. 114, in Gaul, but studied at Alex
andria. He afterwards established a school at
Rome, which was attended by many distin
guished men, and among others by Cicero, when
he was praetor (Suet. Gramm. 7).
Gnosus, Gnossus. [Cnosus.]
Gobryas (TaBpias), a noble Persian, one of
the seven conspirators against Smerdis the
Magian. He accompanied Darius into Scythia.
He was doubly related to Darius by marriage :
Darius married the daughter of Gobryas, and
Gobryas married the sister of Darius. (Hdt. iii.
70-78 ; Val. Max. iii. 2.)
Golgi (ToXyoi: r<5A7ioj: Gorgus), a town in
Cyprus, between Idalium and Tremithus, was
a Sicyonian colony, and one of the chief seats
of the worsMp of Aphrodite (Paus. viii. 5 ;
Theocr. xv. 100; Catull. 36, 15).
Gomphi (Tbptpoi : Topipeis : Palaea Episcopi),
a town to Hestiaeotis to Thessaly, was a strong
fortress on the confines of Epirus, and com
manded the chief pass between Thessaly and
Epirus ; it was taken and destroyed by Caesar
(b. c. 48), but was afterwards rebuilt (Strab.
p. 437 ; Caes. B. C. iii. 80).
Gonni, Gonnus (Tbwoi, Tbwos: Tbwios:
Lycostomon), a strongly fortified town of the
Perrhaebi to Thessaly, on the river Peneus and
at the entrance of the vale of Ternpe, was, from
its position, of great military importance (Liv.
xxxiii. 10, xUi. 54 ; Strab. p. 440) ; but it is not
mentioned after the time of the wars between
the Macedonians and Romans.
Gordianus, M. Antonius, the name of tMee
Roman emperors — father, son, and grandson.
1. Surnamed Africanus, son of Metius MaruUus
and Ulpia Gordiana, possessed a princely for
tune, and was distinguished alike by moral and

Gordianus I., Roman Emperor, A.D. :
Obv., head of Gordian L, laureate, IMP. M. ANT. GORDI-
ANVS AFR. AVG. ; rev., VIRTVS AVGG., ngure of
Roman soldier.
inteUectual excellence. In his first consulship,
A. D. 213, he was the colleague of Caracalla ; in
Ms second, of Alexander Severus ; and soon
afterwards was nominated proconsul of Africa.
After he had governed Africa for several years
with justice and integrity, a rebellion broke out
in the province to consequence of the tyranny of
the procurator of Maximinus. The ring-leaders
of the conspiracy compelled Gordian, who was
now in his 80th year, to assume the imperial
title, a.d. 238. He entered on his new duties
at Carthage to the month of February, asso
ciated Ms son with Mm in the empire, and des
patched letters to Rome announcing his eleva
tion. Gordianus and his son were at once pro
claimed Augusti by the senate, and preparations
were made in Italy to resist Maximinus. But

368

GORDIUM

meantime a certain Capellianus, procurator of
Numidia, refused to acknowledge the authority
of the Gordiani and marched against them.
The younger Gordianus was defeated by him,
and slain in the battle ; and Ms aged father
thereupon put an end to Ms own life, after
reigning less than two months. — 2. Son of the
preceding and of Fabia Orestilia, was born
a. d. 192, was associated with his father to the
purple, and fell in battle, as recorded above.

Gordianus II., Roman Emperor, a.d. 238.
Obv., head of Gordian II., laureate, IMP. M. ANT. GORDI-
ANVS AFR. AVG. ; rev., ROMAE AETERNAE, Genius of
Rome.
— 3. Grandson of the elder Gordianus, either
by a daughter or by the younger Gordianus.
The soldiers proclaimed him emperor in July,
A. D. 238, after the murder of Balbinus and
Pupienus, although he was a mere boy, pro
bably not more than twelve years old. He

Gordianus ILL, Roman Emperor, A.D. 238-244.
Obv., head of Gordian III., laureate, IMP. GORDIANVS
PIVS FEL. AVG. ; rev., SALVS AVGVSTI, figure of Salus.
reigned six years, from 238 to 244. In 241 he
married the daughter of Misitheus, and to the
same year set out for the East to carry on the
war against the Persians. With the assistance
of Misitheus, he defeated the Persians to 242.
Misitheus died in the following year ; and Phil
ippus, whom Gordian had taken into his con
fidence, excited discontent among the soldiers,
who at length rose to open mutiny, and assassi
nated Gordian in Mesopotamia, 244. He was
succeeded by Philippus. (Lives of the three
Gordians to Script. Hist. Aug., ascribed to
Capitolinus ; Herodian, vii. and viii.)
Gordium (TbpSiov, TopSiov Kdpv), the ancient
capital of Phrygia, the royal residence of the
kings of the dynasty of Gordius, and the scene
of Alexander's celebrated exploit of ' cutting the
Gordian knot.' [Gordius.] It was situated in
the W. of that part of Phrygia which was after
wards called Galatia, N. of Pessinus, on the N.
bank of the Sangarius. Some have identified
it with Yurme, and beheve that the later town
of Eudoxias was on the site of Gordium. The
town of Gordiucome (TopSiov KdpTi) was
further north in Bithynia and was caUed Julio-
polis in the reign of Augustus.
Gordius (TbpSios), an ancient king of Ptoygia,
and father of Midas, was originally a peasant.
Disturbances having broken out in Phrygia, an
oracle declared that a waggon would bring them a
king who should restore peace. When the people
were deliberating, Gordius, with his wife and
son, suddenly appeared in his waggon, and was
acknowledged as king. He dedicated his
waggon to Zeus, in the acropolis of Gordium.
The pole was fastened to the yoke by a knot of

GORGO
bark; and an oracle declared that whosoever
should untie the knot should reign over Asia.
Alexander cut the knot with his sword, and.
appUed the oracle to himseU (Plut. Alex. 13;
Curt. iii. 1, 15).
Gordiutichos (TopSiov retxos), town in Caria,.
near the borders of Phrygia (Liv. xxxvui. 13).
Gordyaei. [Gordyene.]
Gordyene or Corduene (TopSwivt), KopSovTivi),.
a mountainous district to the S. of Armenia-
Major, between the Thospitis Palus (Lake Van)
and the Tigris. After the Mittoidatic war, it
was assigned by Pompey to Tigranes, with whom
its possession had been disputed by the Parthian
king Ptoaates. Trojan added it to the Roman
empire ; and it formed afterwards a constant
object of contention between the Romans and
the Parthian and Persian kings, but was for the
most part virtually independent. Its warlike
inhabitants, caUed TopSvaioi or Corduem, were
no doubt the same people as the Carduchi of
the earlier Greek geographers, and the Kurds-
of modern times (Strab. p. 747).
Gorge (Tbpyrj), daughter of Oeneus and.
Althea. She and her sister Deianira alone re
tained their original forms, when their other
sisters were metamorphosed by Artemis into-
birds (Ov. Met. xin. 543; Hyg. Fab. 97).
Gorgias (rop7fos). 1. Of Leonttoi, in SicUy,
a celebrated rhetorician and orator, sophist and
pMlosopher, was born about B.C. 480, and is said.
to have lived 105, or even 109 years. In B.C.
427 he was sent by his fellow-citizens as am
bassador to Athens to ask for aid against Syra
cuse (Diod. xii. 53). He spent the remaining-
years of Ms vigorous old age in the towns of
Greece Proper, especiaUy at Athens and the
Thessalian Larissa, enjoying honour every
where as an orator and teacher of rhetoric. It.
is probable that he to some extent influenced
Thucydides; and Alcibiades, Alcidamas, Aes
chines and Antisthenes are called either pupils-
or imitators of Gorgias, and his oratory must,
have had great influence upon the rhetorician
Isocrates. The Mgh estimation to wMch he was
held at Athens appears from the way in wMch
he is introduced in the dialogue of Plato wMch
bears Ms name. The eloquence of Gorgias was
florid and marked by antitheses, alliterations,
the symmetry of its parts, and similar artifices ;
and his great fame is due to the fact that he
first aimed at artistic prose, seeMng to give it a
rhythm. Two declamations have come down
to us under the name of Gorgias, viz. the
Apology of Palamedes, and the Encomium on
Helena, the genuineness of wMch is doubtful.
Besides Ms orations, wMch were mostly what-
the Greeks caUed Epideictic or speeches for
display, such as Ms oration addressed to the
assembled Greeks at Olympia, Gorgias also-
wrote loci communes, probably as rhetorical
exercises; a work on dissimUar and homo
geneous words, and another on rhetoric. The
works of Gorgias did not even contain the ele
ments of a scientific theory of oratory, any
more than his oral instructions. He confines.
himself to teacMng his pupfls a variety of rhe
torical artifices, and made them learn by heart
certain formulas relative to them. — 2. Of
Athens, gave instruction in rhetoric to young
M. Cicero, when he was at Athens (Cic. ad Fam.
xvi. 21). He wrote a rhetorical work, a Latin
abridgment of which by Rutilius Lupus is still
extant, under the title De Figuris Sententi-
arum et Elocutionis (Quintil. ix. 2, 101).
Gorgo and Gorgones (rop7di and Topyoves).
Homer mentions only one Gorgo, who appears.

GORGO
in the Odyssey (xi. 638) as one of the frightful
phantoms in Hades : in the Diad the Aegis of
Athene contains the head of Gorgo, the terror
of her enemies. It is represented also on the
shield of Agamemnon (II. v. 741, xi. 36).
Hesiod mentions three Gorgones, Stheuo (the
Strong), Euryale tthe Far- springer), and
Medusa (the Ruler), daughters of Phorcys
and Ceto, whence they are sometimes caUed
Phorcydes. Hesiod placed them in the far W.
in the Ocean, in the neighbourhood of Night
and the Hesperides ; but later traditions trans
ferred them to Libya
(Hes. Th. 274; Hdt. ii.
91 ; Paus. ii. 21, 6). They
were frightful beings ;
instead of hair, their
heads were covered
with hissing serpents ;
and they had wings,
brazen claws, and enor
mous teeth (Hes. Scut.
283; Pind. Ol. xiii. 63,
Pyth. x. 47 ; Aesch.
Pr. 799 ; Eum. 46 ;
Ov. Met. iv. 771).
Medusa, who alone of the three was mortal,
was, according to some legends, at Mst a beau
tiful maid (cf. Pind. Pyth. xii. 27), but her hair
was changed into serpents by Athene, to con
sequence of her having become by Poseidon
the mother of Ctoysaor and Pegasus, in one
of Athene's temples. Her head now became
so fearful that everyone who looked at it
was changed into stone. For the manner of

Archaic head of the Gorgon
Medusa on a coin of Eretria.

The Gorgon Medusa. (Marble head, at Munich.)
her death see Perseus. As she was already
with cMld, from the drops of blood wMch fell
from her severed head Pegasus was born. This
blood had both a healing and a destructive
power (Eur. Ion, 1003). The head was after
wards placed in the aegis of Athene. [See
Diet, of Ant. art. Aegis.] The interpreta
tions of the myth are manifold and doubt
ful. The idea of a power that turned into
stone may easily originate from rocks which
have a human or animal shape ; but the rest of
the myth is harder to explain. The old Euhe-
merists made her either a princess whose army
fought with Perseus, or represented the Gorgons
as a tribe of wild women with hairy bodies
(Paus. ii. 21, 5; Plin. vi. 200). Some of the
nature school have imagined her to represent
the sun or the moon ; but Roscher ana other
recent mythologists derive all her attributes
from thunderstorms and thunderclouds, rely
ing especially on the idea of flashing, yopybv
bppa (cf. II. viii. 849), and upon the snaky hair
representing forked lightning. It may perhaps
be a question whether part of the story may not
have grown out of the emblems upon ancient

GOTHI 869
shields and out of Oriental masks, instead of the
emblems and masks from the story. In art
Gorgons were represented with wings when more
than the mere mask was shown. In archaic
art the head was
Mdeous and mon
strous, with great
teeth and lolling
tongue. It is so
represented to an
ancient coin of
Eretria in Euboea
[Bee cut above]
and to a metope
of the temple of
Selinus, where
Perseus is cut
ting off the head
of Medusa. About
the middle of the
fifth century B.C.
the type was more
human, but still The Gorgon Medusa. (Florentine
had the ugliness. gBm,)
Towards the year 400 B.C. the type became that
of a beautiful face.
Gortyn, Gortyna (Tbprvv, Tbprwa: Topri-
vios). 1. (Nr. Hagios Dekha, Ru., six miles
from the foot of Mt. Ida), one of the most ancient
cities in Crete, on the river Lethaeus, ninety
stadia from its harbour Leben, and 130 stadia
from its other harbour Matalia (II. ii. 646 ; Od.
hi. 294; Strab. p. 478). It was the second city
in Crete, being only inferior to Cnossus ; and on
the dechne of the latter place under the Romans,
it became the metropolis of the island. — 2. Also
Gortys (Nr. Atzikolo, Ru.), a town to Arcadia on
the river Gortynius, a tributary of the Alpheus.
Gortynia (Toprvvla), a town in Emathia in
Macedonia, north of Pella, on the river Axius
(Thuc. ii. 100 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 39).
Gotarzes. [Arsaces XX. XXI.]
Gothi, Gothones, Guttones, a .powerful Ger
man people, who played an important part in
the overttoow of the Roman empire. From
Plin. xxxvii. 35 it seems that they were men
tioned by Pytheas. They originally dwelt on
the Prussian coast of the Baltic at the mouth
of the Vistula, where they are placed by Tacitus
(Germ. 43) ; but they afterwards migrated S.,
and at the beginning of the ttord century, they
appear on the coasts of the Black Sea, where
Caracalla encountered them on Ms march to
the East (Spartian, Carac. 10). In the reign of
the emperor Phihppus (a. d. 244-249), they ob
tained possession of a great part of the Roman
province of Dacia ; and in consequence of their
setthng in the countries formerly inhabited by
the Getae and Scythians, they are frequently
called both Getae and Scythians by later writers.
From the time of Philippus the attacks of the
Goths, who had united with the Carpi, against the
Roman empire became more frequent and more
destructive. In A. D. 272 the emperor Aurelian
surrendered to them the whole of Dacia. It is
about tMs time that we find them separated
into two great divisions, the Ostrogoths or E.
Goths, and the Visigoths or W. Goths. The
Ostrogoths settled in Moesia and Pannonia,
while the Visigoths remained N. of the Danube.
— The Visigoths under their king Alaric invaded
Italy, and took and plundered Rome (410). A
few years afterwards they settled permanently
in the SW. of Gaul, and established a kingdom
of which Tolosa was the capital. From thence
they invaded Spain, where they also founded a
kingdom, which lasted for more than two cen-
B B

370

GOTHINI

turies, till it was overttoown by the Arabs. —
The Ostrogoths meantime had extended their
dominions almost up to the gates of Constan
tinople ; and the emperor Zeno was glad to get
rid of them by giving them permission to invade
and conquer Italy. Under their king Theodoric
the Great they obtained possession of the whole
of Italy (493). Theodoric took the title of king
of Italy, and an Ostrogothic dynasty reigned in
the country, till it was destroyed by Narses, the
general of Justinian, A. D. 553. — The Ostrogoths
embraced Christianity at an early period ; and
it was for their use that Ulphilas translated the
Bible into Gothic, about the middle of the fourth
century. Gothini or Cotini (Kbrtvoi, Dio Cass. lxxi.
12), a Celtic people in the SE. of Germany,
subject to the Quadi (Tac. Germ. 43).
Gracchanus, M. Junius, assumed his cogno
men on account of his friendship with C. Grac
chus. He wrote a work, De Potestatibus,
which gave an account of the Roman constitu
tion and magistracies from the time of the kings.
It was addressed to T. Pomponius Atticus, the
father of Cicero's friend (Cic. Legg. iii. 20,
49 ; Plin. xxxiii. 36; Varr. L. L. vi. 33). TMs
work, which appears to have been one of great
value, is lost, but some parts of it are cited by
Joannes Lydus (de Magistr. i. 24).
Gracchus, Sempronius, plebeian. — 1. Tib.,
a distinguished general in the second Punic war.
In B.C. 216 he was magister equitum to the
dictator, M. Junius Pera ; in 215 consul for the
first time; and in 213 consul for the second
time. In 212 he fell in battle against Mago,
at Campi Veteres, in Lucania (Liv. xxv. 15).
His body was sent to Hannibal, who honoured
it with a magnificent burial. — 2. Tib., was tri
bune of the pleba in 187 ; and although per
sonally hostile to P. Scipio Africanus, he
defended Mm against the attacks of the other
tribunes, for which he received the thanks
of the aristocratical party. Soon after tMs
occurrence Gracchus was rewarded with the
hand of Cornelia, the youngest daughter of P.
Scipio Africanus. In 181 he was praetor, and
received Hispania Citerior as his province,
where he carried on the war with great success
against the Celtiberians (Liv. xl. 48). After
defeating them to battle, he gained their con
fidence by his justice and kindness. He re
turned to Rome in 178 ; and was consul in 177,
when he was sent against the Sardinians, who
had revolted. He reduced them to complete sub
mission in 176, and returned to Rome in 175.
He brought with him so large a number of
captives, that they were sold for a mere trifle,
which gave rise to the proverb Sardi venales
(Liv. xii. 7 ; Aurel. Vict, de Vir. III. 57). In
169 he was censor with C. Claudius Pulcher,
and was consul a second time to 163. He had
twelve children by Cornelia, all of whom died
at an early age, except the two tribunes, Tibe
rius and Gaius, and a daughter, Cornelia, who
was married to P. Scipio Africanus the younger
(Cic. Brut. 27, 104.)— 3. Tib., elder son of No.
2, lost his father at an early age. He was
educated together with his brother Gaius by
his illustrious mother, Cornelia, who made it
the object of her life to render her sons worthy
of their father and of her own ancestors. She
was assisted in the education of her chUdren
by eminent Greeks, who exercised great influ
ence upon the minds of the two brothers, and
among whom we have especial mention of
Diophanes of Mytilene, Menelaus of Marathon,
and Blossius of Cumae. Tiberius was nine

GRACCHUS
years older than his brother Gaius ; and al
though they grew up under the same influence,
and their characters resembled each other in
the main outlines, yet they differed from each
other to several important particulars. Tibe
rius was inferior to his brother in talent, but
surpassed him in the amiable traits of his gentle
nature : the simplicity of his demeanour, and
his calm dignity, won for him the hearts of
the people. His eloquence, too, formed a
strong contrast with the passionate and im
petuous harangues of Gaius ; for it was tem
perate, graceful, persuasive, and, proceeding as
it did from the fulness of his own heart, it found
a ready entrance into the hearts of Ms hearers.
Tiberius served in Africa under P. Scipio Afri
canus the younger (who had married his sister),
and was present at the destruction of Car
thage (146). In 137 he was quaestor, and in
that capacity he accompanied the consul, Hos-
tilius Mancinus, to Hispania Citerior, where he
gained both the affection of the Roman soldiers
and the esteem and confidence of the victori
ous enemy. The distressed condition of the
Roman people had deeply excited the sympa
thies of Tiberius. As he traveUed through
Etruria on his journey to Spain, he observed
with grief and indignation the deserted state
of that fertile country ; thousands of foreign
slaves in chains were employed in cultivating
the land and tending the flocks upon the im
mense estates of the wealthy, wMle the poorer
classes of Roman citizens, who were thus
thrown out of employment, had scarcely their
daily bread or a clod of earth to caU their own.
He resolved to use every effort to remedy tMs
state of things by endeavouring to create an
industrious middle class of agriculturists, and
to put a check upon the unbounded avarice of
the ruling party, whose covetousness, combined
with the disasters of the second Punic war, had
completely destroyed the middle class of small
landowners. With this view, he offered him-
seU as a candidate for the tribunesMp, and
obtained it for the year 138. The agrarian law
of Liciniu3, which enacted that no one should
possess more than 500 jugera of public land,
had never been repealed, but had for a long
series of years been totally disregarded. The
first measure, therefore, of Tiberius was to
propose a bill to the people, renewing and
enforcing the Licinian law, but with the modi
fication, that besides the 500 jugera allowed
by that law, anyone might possess 250 jugera
of the public land for each of his sons. This
clause, however, seems to have been limited to
two : so that a father of two sons might occupy
1,000 jugera of public land. The surplus was
to be taken from them and distributed in small
farms of 80 jugera among the poorer citizens,
with permanent leases at a moderate rent.
The business of measuring and distributing the
land was to be entrusted to triumvirs, who were to
be elected annually. This measure encountered
the most vehement opposition from the senate
and the aristocracy, and they got one of the
tribunes, M. Octavius, to put his intercessio or
veto upon the bill. When neither persuasions
nor threats would induce Octavius to with
draw his opposition, the people, upon the pro
position of Tiberius (an unconstitutional
measure), deposed Octavius from his office. The
law was then passed, and the triumvirs
appointed to carry it into execution were Tib.
Gracchus, App. Claudius, his father-to-law,
and his brother C. Gracchus, who was then
little more than twenty yea:.s old, and was

GRACCHUS
•serving in the camp of P. Scipio at Numantia. '
About tMs time Attalus died, bequeatMng his
Mngdom and Ms property to the Roman
people. Gracchus thereupon proposed that
tMs property should be distributed among the
people, to enable the poor who were to receive
lands to purchase the necessary implements,
cattle, and the Uke. When the time came for
the election of the tribunes for the following
year, Tiberius again offered himself aB a can
didate. The senate declared that it was illegal
for anyone to hold this office for two consecu
tive years ; but Tiberius paid no attention to
the objection. WMle the tribes were vottog,
a band of senators, headed by P. Scipio Nasica,
rushed from the senate house into the forum
and attacked the people. Tiberius was kiUed
as he was attempting to escape. He was pro
bably about tMrty-five years of age at the time
of Ms death. (Plut. Tib. Gracch. ; Appian,
B. C. i. 9-17 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 2 ; index to Cicero).
— There can be no doubt that the motives of
Tiberius were pure, and that he came forward
from a genuine desire to remedy the abuses of
the land occupation and to ameliorate the con
dition of the poorer citizens. Unfortunately
he adopted a revolutionary method in illegaUy
deposing Ms coUeague, and by Ms subsequent
methods for gaining the support of the popu
lace against the senate gave some colour for
the undoubtedly false accusation that he was
seeking power for MmseU, wMch led some even
of the more moderate men to approve of Ms
death. [See also Diet, of Antiq. art. Agrariae
Leges.]-— i. C, brother of No. 3, was in Spain
at the time of Ms brother's murder, as has been
already stated. He returned to Rome in the
foUowing year (132), but kept aloof from public
affairs for some years. In 126 he was quaestor,
and went to Sardtoia, under the consul L.
AureUus Orestes, and there gained the appro
bation of Ms superiors and the attachment of
the soldiers. The senate attempted to keep
him in Sardtoia, dreading his popularity to
Rome: but after he had remained there two
years, he left the province without leave, and
returned to the city in 124. Urged on by the
popular wish, and by the desire of avenging
the cause of his murdered brother, he became
a candidate for the tribuneship of the plebs,
and was elected for the year 123. His reforms
were far more extensive than Ms brother's, in
fact they amounted to revolution, and such was
his influence with the people that he carried
aU he proposed ; and the senate were deprived
-of some of their most important privileges.
His first measure was to secure the right of
being elected tribune for two or more years
in succession. Having gained tMs point, he
proceeded to win over the populace by enacting
that aU citizens who applied should receive at
a low price five modii of corn — the beginning
of the pernicious system of doles which more
than anytMng else demoralised the proletariate
of Rome. He then renewed his brother's
agrarian law, and also established colonies at
Tarentum and Capua. He next passed laws for
the benefit of the military levies, enacting that
the soldiers should be equipped at the expense
of the repubhc, and that no person under the
age of seventeen should be drafted for the army.
In order to weaken the power of the senate,
and to set them at enmity with the monied
•commercial class, he enacted that the judices
in the judicia publica, who had hitherto been
¦elected from the senate, should in future be
chosen from the equites, and that in every

GRAEAE 871
year, before the consuls were elected, the
senate should determine the two provinces
wMch the consuls should have. Moreover, by
enacting that the taxes of Asia should be put
up for auction at Rome, he threw both the
farming of the taxes and the judicial trial for
extortionate taxation into the hands of the
equites. This plan, though it secured him
support, was certain to cause corruption and
extortion mthe system of provincial tax-gather
ing.— Gaius was elected tribune again for the
foUowing year, 122. The senate, finding it im
possible to resist the measures of Gaius,
re.s°lvfd ** P°ssible to destroy his influence
with the people. For this purpose they per
suaded M. Livius Drusus, one of the colleagues
of Gaius, to propose measures still more popu
lar than those of Gaius. The people allowed
themselves to be duped by the agent of the
senate, and the popularity of Gaius gradually
waned. During Ms absence in Africa, whither
he had gone as one of the triumvirs to esta
blish a colony at Carthage, in accordance with
one of Ms own laws, his party had been con
siderably weakened by the influence of Drusus
and the aristocracy, and many of his friends
had deserted Ms cause. He failed in obtaining
the tribunesMp for the foUowing year (121) ;
and when his year of office expired, his enemies
began to repeal several of his enactments.
Gaius appeared in the forum to oppose these
proceedings. Antullius, one of the attendants
of the consul Opimius, was slain by the friends
of Gaius. Opimius gladly availed himBelf of this
pretext to persuade the senate to confer upon
him unlimited power to act as he thought best
for the good of the republic. Fulvius Flaccus,
and the other friends of Gaius, called upon him
to repel force by force : but he refused to arm,
and wMle his friends fought to his defence, he
fled to the grove of the Furies, where he fell by
the hand of Ms slave, whom he had commanded
to put Mm to death. The bodies of the slain,
whose number is said to have amounted to 3000,
were ttoown into the Tiber, their property was
confiscated, and their houses demolished. All
the other friends of Gracchus who feU into the
hands of their enemies were ttoown into prison
and there strangled. — It is impossible to aUow
to C. Gracchus that freedom from personal
motives — of ambition as well as of revenge —
which ennobled Ms brother. That he also was
to many points reforming abuses is undeniable ;
but his methods were revolutionary and vio
lent, and were in some degree the cause of a
century of wars which more judicious and
gradual reform might possibly have avoided.
Two of his measures, the gifts of corn, and the
baits offered to the equites were calculated to
work great evil to the state. In ability, how
ever, he was his brother's superior, and his
death by what was unjustifiable violence has
transferred much of the blame to his oppo
nents. (Plut. C. Gracch. ; Appian, B. G, i. 21-
26 ; index to Cicero.)
Gradivus. [Mars.]
Graeae (Tpdiai) — that is, ' the old women '—
daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, were three in
number, Pephredo, Enyo, and Dino, and were
also called Phorcydes. They had grey hair
from their birth ; and had only one tooth and
one eye in common, which they borrowed from
each other when they wanted them. They
protected their sisters, the Gorgons, and dwelt
outside the light of sun and moon beyond Wes
tern Libya. Aeschylus (who gives them the
bodies of swans) makes them one of the stages
BB 2

872

GRAECIA

in the wanderings of Io, and they appear in the
the story of Perseus. [Perseus.] Roscher and
other recent mythologists maintain that the
story, Uke that of the Gorgons, arose from
thunderclouds : a tooth is said to represent
lightning in Aryan mythology, and the pass
ing of the eye and the tooth to signify the
lightning flasMng from cloud to cloud. It must
be confessed that this does not seem an obvious
or natural idea to connect with a thunderstorm.
It may perhaps be enough to regard them as
personifying old age. The conception is more
like Norse than Greek mythology, and may
possibly have been passed on to Greece from a
northern people.
Graecia or Hellas (ti 'EXXds), a country in
Europe, the inhabitants of which were called
Graeci or Hellenes (*EU?|to). Among the
Greeks Hellas was used in general to signify
the abode of the Hellenes, wherever they might
happen to be settled. Thus the Greek colo
nies of Cyrene to Africa, of Syracuse in Sicily,
of Tarentum to Italy, and of Smyrna in Asia,
are said to be in Hellas ; but before the western
colonies were founded, Delos was about the
centre of the HeUenic world. Latin geographers
limited the name Hellas to Middle Greece, ex
cluding the Peloponnessus and all that lies
north of the Malian Gulf. Eastern nations
called the Hellenes generally ' Ionians ' ; western
nations knew them as ' Greeks ' (see below). In
the most ancient times Hellas was a small dis
trict of Phthiotis to Thessaly, in which was
situated a town of the same name (II. ii. 683 ;
Thuc. i. 3 ; Strab. 431). As the inhabitants of
this district, the HeUenes, graduaUy spread
over the surrounding country, their name was
adopted by other tribes, who became assimilated
in language, manners, and customs to the
original Hellenes ; tUl at length the whole of
the N. of Greece from the Ceraunian and Cam-
bunian mountains to the Corinthian isthmus
was designated by the name of Hellas.* In
later times even Macedonia, and the S. part of
Illyria were sometimes reckoned part of Hellas.
The Romans called the land of the Hellenes
Graecia, whence we have derived the name of
Greece. They probably gave this name to the
country from their first becoming acquainted
with the tribe of the Graeci, who were said to be
descended from Graecus, a son of Thessalus,
and who appear at an early period to have dwelt
on the W. coast of Epirus (cf . Aristot. Meteor.
i. 4). — HeUas, or Greece proper, including
Peloponnesus, lies between the 86th and 46th
degrees of N. latitude, and between the 21st and
26th degrees of E. longitude. Its greatest
length from Mt. Olympus to Cape Taenarus is
about 250 English miles : its greatest breadth
from the W. coast of Acarnania to Marathon
in Attica is about 180 mUes. Its area is some
what less than that of Portugal ; yet so deeply
is the land indented by arms of the sea that
Greece has as many miles of sea coast as Spain
and Portugal together, and no spot even in
Thessaly or Arcadia is more than forty miles
from the sea. The rivers of Greece have the
character of torrents, not one being navigable
even for boats ; few of them have any volume
of water in the dry season of the year, the
Achelous, which has the respectable course of
100 mUes, the Peneus and Alpheus. The other
rivers of Greece, however renowned, carry down

* Epirus is, for the sake of convenience, usually in
cluded in Hellas by modern geographers, but was
excluded by the Greeks themselves, as the Epirots were
not regarded as genuine Hellenes.

GRAIOCELI
little water to the summer, and many are
at that time dried up altogether. On the N.
it was separated by the Cambunian and Cerau
nian mountains from Macedonia and Illyria;
and on the other tMee sides it is bounded by
the sea : namely, by the Ionian sea on the W.,
and by the Aegaean on the E. and S. It is
one of the most mountainous countries of Eu
rope, and possesses few extensive plains (those
of Thessaly and Boeotia alone are reaUy large),
and few continuous valleys. The inhabitants
were thus separated from one another by bar
riers which it was not easy to surmount, and
were naturally led to form separate political
communities ; while the numerous inlets of sea,
mentioned above, led to maritime enterprise in
most of these small states. Bonds of union for
all were found in their national games, wMch
were the great festivals of their common
religion, and in their common Amphictyonic
council. At a later time the N. of Greece was
generally divided into ten districts : Epirus,
Thessalia, Acarnania, Aetolia, Doris, Lo
cris, Phocis, Boeotia, Attica and Megaris.
The S. of Greece or Peloponnesus was usually
divided into ten districts Ukewise : Corintbta,
Sicyonia, Phliasia, Achaia, Elis, Messenia,
Laconica, Cynuria, Argolis and Arcadia. An
account of the geography, early inhabitants, and
history of each of these districts is given in sepa
rate articles. Of the earliest inhabitants we know
very little. The Carians and Leleges were both
regarded as barbarouB people, and may have
been of altogether ahen stock. On the other hand,
the term ' Pelasgian ' seems to have included
every prehistoric people of the lands after
wards HeUenic, yet the Pelasgi may have been
merely an earlier immigration of the same race.
[Cares ; Leleges ; Pelasgi.] The numerous
Phoenician trading ports gave at any rate a large
Semitic element alike of blood and of civilisa
tion. [Cadmus.] In Crete especially all those
nationalities left their traces. To Homer the
Greeks were Achaeans or Argives or Danai ;
but the relationship of the Achaeans to the
Pelasgi, or whether they were really distinct,
remains an open question, as does also the
origin of the dynasty wMch ruled in the Ho
meric Argos. [Achaei ; Pelops.]
Graecia Magna, or G. Major (r) peydxri
'EXXds), a name given to the districts in the S.
of Italy inhabited by the Greeks. This name
was never used simply to indicate the S. of
Italy ; it was always confined to the Greek cities
and their territories, and did not include the
surrounding districts, inhabited by the Italian
tribes. It appears to have been applied chiefly
to the cities on the Tarentine gulf, Tarentum,
Sybaris, Croton, Caulonia, Siris (Heraclea),
Metapontum, Locri, and Rhegium ; but it also
included the Greek cities on the W. coast, such
as Cumae and Neapolis. Strabo extends the
appellation even to the Greek cities of SicUy.
The name of the country before the Greek
colonisation is said to have been Oenotria ;
the first writer who used the term r\ peydxri
'EXXds was Polybius (ii. 39 ; cf. Strab. p. 253).
Cicero speaks of Magna Graecia (de Or. iii. 84,
&c). ' Graecia Major ' is also found in Livy and
Ovid (Liv. xxxi. 7 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 64).
Graioceli (Caes. B. G. i. 10), a Gallic people
of the Cottian Alps, occupying the country be
tween the Ceutrones (who lived in Tarentaise,
or upper valley of the Isara), and the Caturiges
(who lived in the upper valley of the Durance).
West of them were the Vocontii (who lived about
Grenoble). It is therefore plain that the

GRAMPIUS
country of the Graioceli was the Maurienne, or
valley of the Are, on the French side of Mt. Cenis,
wMch pass (or rather the little Mt. Cenis) was
crossed by Caesar as the shortest way to Further
Gaul. The name Ungered in the corrupt form
' Garocelia ' for the Maurienne and ' S. Joannes
GaroceUius ' for St. Jean de Maurienne.
Grampius Mons. [Graupius.]
Granicus (TpdviKos: Koja-Chai), a river of
Mysia Minor, rising in M. Cotylus, the N. sum
mit of Ida, and falUng toto the Propontis (Sea
of Marmara) : memorable as the scene of the
first of the three great victories by which Alex
ander the Great overthrew the Persian empire
(B.C. 834), and, to a less degree, for a victory
gained upon its banks by LucuUus over Mith
ridates, 78 (II. xii. 21 ; Strab. p. 587 ; Arrian,
An. 1, 18 ; Plut. Alex. 24, Lucull. 11).
Granis (Tpdvts : Khisht), a river of Persis, with
a royal palace on its banks. It fell into the
Persian GuU near Taoce. (Arrian, Ind. 89.)
Granius, ft., a clerk employed by the auc
tioneers at Rome to coUect the money at sales,
lived about b.c 110. He was a friend of Luci-
lius, and was celebrated for his wit. (Cic. de
Or. 60, 244, Brut. 43, 160, ad Att. vi. 3.)
Granius Licinianus, a Mstorian, probably of
the 2nd century a.d. (Macrob. i. 16, 30 ; Solin.
Polyb. ii. 12). Wrote a short Mstory of the
Roman republic to about forty books : parts of
books 26, 28, and 36 are extant, relating to
events 163-78 B.C. He pays minute attention
to omens and prodigies. He aUudes (p. 8) to the
completion of the Olympieum at Athens : which
makes Ms date at least as late as Hadrian's
reign. Ed. by Perz, Lips. 1858.
Granua (Tpavova : Graan), a river in the land
of the Quadi and the SE. of Germany, and a
tributary of the Danube, on the banks of which
M. Aurelius wrote the 1st book of his Medita
tions (Antomn. Comment, i. 17).
Gratiae. [Charites.]
Gratianns. 1. Emperor of the Western Em
pire, a.d. 367-383, son of Valentinian I., was
raised by his father to the rank of Augustus in
367, when he was only eight years old. On the
death of Valentinian in 375, Gratian did not
succeed to the sole sovereignty ; as Valentinian
II., the half-brother of Augustus, was proclaimed
Augustus by the troops. He was educated by
Ausonius, whom he rewarded to 379 with the
consulsMp. By the death of his uncle, Valens
(878), the Eastern empire devolved upon him ;
but the danger to which the East was exposed
from the Goths led Gratian to send for Theo
dosius, and appoint him emperor of the East
(379). Gratian was fond of quiet and repose,

GRUDII

878

Gratianns, Roman Emperor, a.d. 867-888.
Cbv., head ol Gratianus, D. N. GRATIANVS AVG.;
rev., Genius of Rome holding Victory, VRBS ROMA.
and was greatly under the influence of ecclesi
astics, especiaUy of Ambrose of Milan. He
became unpopular with the army. Maximus
was declared emperor in Britain, and crossed
over to Gaul, where, in the neighbourhood of
Paris, he defeated Gratian, who was overtaken
and slain in his flight after the battle. (Aurel.
Vict. Epit. 45-48 ; Zos. vi. 12-36 ; Zonar. xiii.

17 ; Auson. Gratiarum Actio.) — 2. A usurper,
who assumed the purple to Britain, and was
murdered by his troops about four months after
wards (407) (Oros. vii. 40). He was succeeded
by Constantine. [Constantinus, No. 8.]
Gratianopolis. [Cularo.]
Gratiarum Collis (Xapirav Xb<pos, Hdt. iv.
175 : Hills of Tarhounah), a range of wooded
hills running parallel to the coast of N. Africa
between the Syrtes, and containing the source
of the Cinyps and other small rivers.
Gratidianus. [Gratidius.]
GratidlUS. 1. M., of Arpinum, great-uncle of
Cicero. He proposed a lex tabellariaior Arpi
num in 115, and was opposed by Cicero's grand
father, who had married his sister, Gratidia.
He was killed in the war of Antonius against the
pirates, B.C. 103. (Cic. Legg. iii. 16, 36, Brut. 45,
168.) — 2. His son, M. Marius Gratidianus, was
adopted by the brother of C. Marius, and was
proscribed by Sulla and murdered by Catiline.
He had been praetor in 86 and had won popular
favour by an edict about the coinage. (Cic. Legg.
I.e., Brut. I.e., de Off. iii. 16, 67 ; Plin. xxxiii.
132.) — 3. M., legate of Q. Cicero in Asia 61-59:
perhaps a grandson of No. 1 (Cic. Flacc. 21, 49).
Grattius or Gratius (to whom the cognomen
Faliscus is also given, but with no good autho
rity), a contemporary of Ovid (Pont. iv. 16, 34),
and the author of an uninteresting didactic
poem on Hunting (Gynegetica). Edited in
Poet. Lat. Min. by Bahrens, Lips. 1879.
GratuB, Valerius, procurator of Judaea from
a.d. 15 to 27, and the immediate predecessor of
Pontius Pilate (Jos. Ant. xviii. 6).
Graupius Mons, to Caledonia (Grampian
HiUs). [There is no doubt that Graupius, not
Grampius, is the form known to the Romans :
though whether Grampian is a corruption of
Graupian or preserves the true original name it
is impossible to say.] This is a general term
for the ranges separating the highlands of
Perthshire from the lowlands, and extending to
AberdeensMre. Somewhere at the foot of the
Grampians Agricola, having crossed the Forth,
fought with Galgacus (Tac. Agr. 29). The site
may possibly be, as some maintain, near Gomrie
in PerthsMre, to the valley of the Earn. Here
there are traces of a Roman camp at Dalginross,
wMch claims to preserve the name of Galgacus.
Graviscae, an ancient city of Etruria, sub
ject to Tarquinii, was colonised by the Romans
B. c. 183, and received new colonists under
Augustus. It was situated in the Maremma,
and its air was unhealthy (intempestae Gra
viscae, Virg. Aen. x. 184) ; whence the ancients
ridiculously derived its name from aer gravis.
Its ruins are on the right bank of the river
Marta, about two miles from the sea, where are
the remains of a magnificent arch. (Liv. xl.
29 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15 ; Strab. p. 225.)
Gregoras, Nicephorus, a Byzantine histo
rian, about a.d. 1295-1359. His work is in
thirty-eight books, of which only twenty-four
have been printed. It begins with the capture
of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, and goes
down to 1359 ; the twenty-four printed books
contain the period from 1204 to 1351. Edited
by Schopen, Bonn, 1829.
Gregorius (Tpriybpios). 1. Surnamed Nazi-
anzenus, and usuaUy caUed Gregory Nazian-
zen, bishop of Constantinople a. d. 380-390. — 2,
Nyssenus, bishop of Nyssa about 372-394. — 3,
Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neocaesarea about
a.d. 240. [See Diet, of Christian Biography]
Grudii, a people in Gallia Belgica, subject to
the Nervii, N. of the Scheldt (Caes. B. G. v. 39).

374

GRUMENTUM

Grumentum (Grumentinus : Saponara), a
town to the interior of Lucania on the road from
Beneventum to Heraclea, mentioned in the 2nd
Punic war (Liv. xxiii. 37, xxvii, 41 ; Strab. p. 254).
Grumum (Grumo), a town of ApuUa, fourteen
miles SW. of Barium (Bari).
Gryllus (TpvXXos), elder son of Xenophon, feU
at the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362, after he had,
according to some accounts, given Epaminondas
his mortal wound (Paus. viii. 9, 5, x. 8, 11).
Grynia or -lum (Tpiveia, Tpiviov : Porto
Glymi), a fortified city on the coast of the Sinus
Elaiticus, to the S. of Mysia, between Elaea and
Myrina, 70 stadia from the former and 40 from
the latter ; celebrated for its temple and
oracle of Apollo, who is hence called Grynaeus
Apollo (Virg. Aen. iv. 345). It possessed also a
good harbour. Parmenion, the general of Alex
ander, destroyed the city (Hdt. i. 149 ; Strab. p.
622 ; Diod. xvii. 7).
Gryps or Grypnus (TpJnp), a griffin, a fabulous
animal, dweUing in the Rhipaean mountains, be
tween the Hyperboreans and the one-eyed Ari-
maspians, and guarding the gold of the north.
The Arimaspians mounted on horseback, and
attempted to steal the gold, and hence arose the
hostility between the horse and griffin. (Hdt.
iii. 116, iv. 13, 27 ; Paus. i. 24, 6, viii. 2, 3 ; Ael.
H. A. iv. 27 ; Plin. vii. 10.) Hesiod seems to
have been the first Greek who mentions griffins
(Schol. ad Aesch. Pr. 803), and next Aristeas.
The idea of the griffin came from the East : the
figure is found in sculptures of Persia, Phoe
nicia, and Egypt, from wMch country it passed
probably to Mycenae, where a griffin dagger has
been found. It is a common figure on vases.
The griffin was among the attributes of Apollo.
Gugerni or Guberni, a people of Germany,
probably of the same race as the Sigambri,
crossed the Rhine, and settled on its left bank,
between the Ubii and Batavi (Tac. Hist. iv.
28, v. 16 ; Plin. iv. 106).
Gulussa, a Numidian, second son of Masi-
nissa, and brother to Micipsa and Mastanabal.
On the death of Masinissa, in B. c. 149, he suc
ceeded along with his brothers to the dominions
of their father. (Liv. xiii. 23 ; Pol. xxxix. 1 ;
Sail. Jup. 5, 35.) He left a son, named Massiva.
Guntia (Gunzberg), a town in VindeUcia, be
tween Campodunum and Augusta Vindelicorum
(Augsburg). Guraeus (Tovpaios, Tappoias), a river of India,
flowing through the country of the Guraei (in
the NW._ of the Punjab) into the Cophen.
Gurulis (Guglieri), a town in the west of
Sardinia, a few miles inland (Ptol. iii. 3, 7).
Guttones. [Gothi.]
Gyarus or Gyara (7) Tvapos, ra Tiapa
Tvapevs : Chiura or Jura), one of the Cyclades
a small island, twelve miles in circumference.
SW. of Andros, poor and unproductive, and in
habited only by fishermen (Strab. p. 485 ; Plin,
iv. 69, viii. 82). Under the emperors it was a
place of banishment (Aude aliquid brevibus
Gyaris et carcere dignum, Juv. i. 73).
Gyes or Gyges (Tvris, Tiyris), son of Uranus
(Heaven) and Ge (Earth), a hundred-handed
giant, who made war upon the gods (Ov. Fast.
iv. 593 ; Hor. Od. ii. 17, 14 ; Gigantes).
Gygaeus Lacus (f/ Tvyain xipvn : Lake of
Marmora), a smaU lake in Lydia, between the
rivers Hermus and Hyllus, N. of Sardis, the
necropolis of which city was on its banks. It
was afterwards called Coloe (II. xx. 891 ; Hdt.
i. 93 ; Strab. p. 626).
Gyges (riiyijj), the first king of Lydia of the
dynasty of the Mermnadae, detMoned Candau-

HADES
les, and succeeded to the kingdom, as related
under Candaules. He reigned B. c. 716-678.
He sent magnificent presents to DelpM, and
carried on various wars with the cities of Asia
Minor, such as Miletus, Smyrna, Colophon, and
Magnesia. 'The riches of Gyges' became a
proverb (Hdt. i. 7-14 ; Paus. iv. 21, 5).
Gylippus (riXiinros), a Spartan, son of Clean-
dridas, was sent as the Spartan commander to-
Syracuse, to oppose the Athenians, B. c. 414.
Under his command the Syracusans anniMlated
the great Athenian armament, and took Demo
sthenes and Nicias prisoners, 413. (Thuc, vi.
93-vii. 86, viii. 13.) In 404 he was commissioned
by Lysander, after the capture of Athens, to
carry home the treasure ; but by opening the
seams of the sacks underneath, he abstracted a
considerable portion. The theft was discovered,
and Gylippus went into exUe. (Plut. Lys. 16,
Nic. 28 ; Diod. xiii. 106 ; Athen. p. 234.)
Gymnesiae. [Baleares.]
Gymnosophistae (Tvpvoooipio-Tai), a sect of
Indian ascetic philosophers, who went about
naked (Curt._viii. 9, 33; Plut. Alex. 64).
Gynaecopolis (TvvaiKbiroXis or TvvaiKav .
irbXis), a city in the Delta of Egypt, on the W.
bank of the Canopic branch of the Nile, between
Hermopolis and Momemphis.
Gyndes (TivSris), a river of Assyria, rising in
the country of the Matieni (in Kurdistan), and
flowing into the Tigris, celebrated tMough the
story that Cyrus the Great drew off its waters
by 360 channels (Hdt. i. 189).
Gyrton, Gyrtona (Tvprdv, Tvprdvn : Tvp-
rdvios : nr. Tatari, Ru.), an ancient town in
Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, on the Peneus (II. iii
788 ; Thuc. ii. 22 ; Strab. p. 439).
Gytheum, Gythium (to TiBeiov, TiBiov.
TvBedrTjS : Palaeopolis, nr. Marathonisi), an
ancient town on the coast of Laconia, founded
by the Achaeans, lay near the head of the
Laconian bay, SW. of the mouth of the river
Eurotas. It served as the harbour of Sparta,
and was important from a military point of view.
In the Persian war the Lacedaemonian fleet
was stationed at Gytheum, and the Athenians
under Tolmides burnt the Lacedaemonian
arsenal, B. c. 455 (Thuc. i. 102). After the
battle of Leuctra (370) it was taken by Epami
nondas (Xen. Hell. vi. 5, 32). In 195 it was
taken by Flamininus, and made independent of
Nabis, tyrant of Sparta; whereupon it joined
the Achaean League (Liv. xxxiv. 29 ; Strab. p.
363 ; Paus. iii. 21, 8).
Gyzantes (Ti(avres), a people in the W.part
of Libya (N. Africa), whose country was rich in
honey and wax. Probably dwelt in Byzacium.

Hades or Pluto ("AiStjs, TlXobrav, or poeti
cally 'AtSrjs, 'AiSaveis, TlXovreis), the God of
the Nether World. His name is from d-iSeiv
(the dark, unseen god) : a less probable sugges
tion is J the god of the earth or underworld '
from aTa. Hades was son of Cronus and Rhea,
and brother of Zeus and Poseidon (II. xv. 187).
Hesiod (Th. 458) adds two other sisters, Hestia
and Demeter. His wife was Persephone or
Proserpina, the daughter of Demeter, whom he
carried off from the upper world, as is related
elsewhere. [Demeter ; Persephone.] In the
division of the world among the three brothers,
Hades obtained the Nether World, the abode
of the shades, over wMch he ruled. Hence he
is caUed the infernal Zeus (Zebs KaraxBbvios or

HADES

375

xBbvios), or the Mng of the shades (2ti/a£ ivepav).
(II. ix. 457, xv. 191 ; Aesch. Pr. 627 ; Paus. ii.
24, 4.) He possessed a helmet (like the ' cap of
darkness ' in Northern myths) which rendered
the wearer mvisible, and later traditions stated
that this helmet was given him as a present by
the Cyclopes after their delivery from Tartarus.
Ancient story mentions both gods and men who
were honoured by Hades with the temporary
use of this helmet. (II. v. 845 ; Hes. Scut. 22 ;
Aristoph. Ach. 390 ; ApoUod. i. 6, 2.) His cha
racter is described as fierce and inexorable,
whence of all the gods he was most hated by
mortals. He kept the gates of the lower world
closed (and is therefore called TlvXaprTts), that
no shades might be able to escape or return to
the region of light (II. viii. 867 ; Paus. v. 20, 1).

the surnames which described Mm personally,
or Ms realm, such as TloXvSeypav, he was known
as Clymenus ' the Illustrious ' (perhaps to propi
tiate Mm) at Hermione (Paus. ii. 85, 5), and in the
Eleusinian mysteries as Eubuleus, i.e. the god
who counsels weU for mankind in giving them
rest from their labours (Cornut. N. D. 35). The
name Pluto (TlXoirav) marks a new departure
to his attributes. As Hades he was the severe
and sterile god, giving no fruits and father of
no children (that he was father of the Furies is
a late tradition cf. Servius, ad Aen. i. 86). But,
perhaps from the influence of the Eleusinian
mysteries, the god of the underworld came to
be regarded as the god of the earth and all that
it gives (an old and primitive idea of course, but
new as applied to Hades). Therefore wealth
and fruits were given by
him, and he was wor
shipped as TlXoirav (care
fully to be distinguished
from the personified riches
TIXovtos, or Plutus). The
name is first traceable
in the Attic writers early
in the fifth cent. B. c.
and eventually prevailed,
though not to the entire
exclusion of the name
"AiSr/s (cf. Plat. Crat. p.
403). In art the represen
tations of Hades (not fre
quent) have the same
character as those of Zeus,
but are distinguished by
the sterner countenance,
the shaggy hair (some
times with a wolfsMn cap)
and beard, and attributes
such as the cock, the wolf,
and the pomegranate, or
Cerberus at his side. As
Pluto or "AiSTis-UXoirav
the god has a more gra
cious expression, and the
attributes also vary : most
frequently he has a cornu
copia and carries a sceptre
or a two-pronged fork,
which some take for an
agricultural implement,
and others believe to be a
late and spurious addition.
The figures of Serapis or
Zeus-Serapis have often
been confused with those
of Hades-Pluto, because
Hades and Persephone seated on a throne and engaged apparently in earnest Serapis is represented with
iription ETTA, i.e. Hades, and above the n ih-ree-benHerl Ana Vipqirle
From an Etruscan tomb at Orvieto. a tnree-neao-ea aog pesiae
Mm. His distinguishing
mark is the modius upon
Ms head. [Serapis.] — The kingdom of Hades,
i.e. the underworld. The Homeric Hades is a dark
sunless abode within the earth, the entrance to
wMch lies in a grove of black poplars beyond
the stream of Ocean (II. xx. 61 ; Od. x. 508).
Here are the asphodel meadows, a dull and
cheerless place (Od. xi. 489), even if Orion
can stiU pursue his occupation of hunting (Od.
xi. 539, 573, xxiv. 18) . Beyond this was Erebus,
the place of darkness and the abode of Hades
and Persephone, to which Odysseus did not pene
trate. There is a general idea of vastness and
of gloom or twilight with unsubstantial inarti
culate ghosts, who twitter like bats, flitting
about among whom appear more distinctly the
figures of the heroes. The dead in Od. xi. are

conversation. Above the god is the inscription EIT
goddess PHERSIPNAI, i.e. Persephone. From an
(Dennis, Etruria, ii. 58.)
When mortals invoked him, they struck the
earth with their hands ; the sacrifices which
were offered to him and Persephone consisted
of black sheep ; and the person who offered the
sacrifice had to turn away Ms face (II. ix. 567 ;
Od. x. 527). The ensign of his power was a
staff, with wMch, Uke Hermes, he drove the
shades into the lower world. There he sat upon
a ttoone with his consort Persephone, as grim
in appearance (in tMs period of the myth) as
himself (H. ix. 457 ; Pind. Ol. ix. 35). He ap
pears seldom in story, since he rarely left his
nether realm. The exceptions were, when he
carried off Persephone, and when he went to
Olympus to be cured by Paeon of the wound
dealt to him by Heracles (II. v. 395). Besides

376

HADES

unsubstantial images of the living persons
without flesh or bones or recollection ; yet con
sciousness and memory can be recalled when
they drink the blood. But even to Homer be
sides this unreal, impersonal existence there
are traces of a belief in conscious life, as to the
twenty-fourth book of the Odyssey. The descrip
tions of Minos, Orion and Heracles resuming

HADRIANUS
The art representations of the underworld are
frequent in vase paintings ; the punishments of
Sisyphus &c. date back as far as black-figure
vases of the seventh century B.C. It is probable
that such paintings, especiaUy those of Poly
gnotus to the Lesche at DelpM (Paus. x. 19),
did not merely foUow the popular idea but in
some measure formed it.

Hermes presenting a Sonl to Hades and Persephone. (Pict. Ant. Sepuleri Nasonum, tab. 6.]

their old life, and the punishment of Tantalus
and Sisyphus would also imply a conscious life ;
but there are reasonB for considering the whole
passage in Od. xi. 565-627 a later introduction ;
and such probably is the 24th book also. In
post-Homeric authors rocky hohows or caves
are regarded as entrances to Hades : e.g. those
at Colonus, the Italian Cumae, Hermione and
Taenarus, and the approach is cut off by streams
flowing underground [Styx, Cocytus, Ache
ron] ; over these the buried dead are ferried by
Charon, and on the opposite shore Cerberus
keeps guard. The underworld is regarded now
(which it probably was not to Homer) as a place
where the life of the upper world and its amuse
ments can be repeated. It is also a place of
retribution [see Tantalus, Sisyphus, Ion,
Danaides]. The dead are judged, the Asiatics
by Rhadamanthus, the Europeans by Aeacus,
Minos being the referee for doubtful cases (Plat.
Gorg. p. 524). Triptolemus also in the Eleusi
nian account acts as a judge. This difference
of state led to the separation of Tartarus (in
Homer only the prison of Titans) from the rest
of Hades by the blazing Pyriphlegethon which
flows between (cf. Plat. Bep. x. p. 616 a; Verg.
Aen. vi. 543). In the asphodel meadows were
those who deserved neither great bliss nor
punishment : the places of reward were separate
altogether. [Elysium, Fortunatorum In
sulae.] In Virgil, however (Aen. vi.), Elysium
is placed in Hades. Although a more hopeful
conception of the future life was introduced
with the Eleusinian religion and by the pMlo
sophers, and the underworld was not like that
of Homer, to which AcMUes would prefer the
life of a serf, yet very few Greeks looked for
ward to it as a gain in comparison with life in
the upper world. The Roman Orcus was to the
main borrowed, through poets and works of art,
from the Greek idea, but with certain survivals
of Italian belief [see Lares, Manes, Lemures].

Hadranum. [Adranum.]
Hadria. [Adria.]
Hadriani or Adriani, near the river Rhyn-
dacus, on thejrontiers of Mysia and Bithynia.
Hadrianopolis. 1. ('ASpiavbiroXis : 'ASpiavo-
iroXirns : Adrianople), a town to Ttoace, on the
right bank of the Hebrus, in an extensive plain,
founded by the emperor Hadrian. It was
strongly fortified ; possessed an extensive com
merce ; and in the middle ages was the most
important town to the country after Constan
tinople. (Amm. Marc. xiv. 11 ; Eutrop. vi. 8.) —
2. A town in Bithynia. — 3. A town of Phrygia.
Hadrlanotnera or -ae ('ASpiavovBijpa), a city
in Mysia, on the road between Pergamus and
Miletopolis, founded by the emperor Hadrian
(Dio Cass. lxix. 10 ; Vit. Hadr. 20).
Hadrianus, P. Aelius, usually called Ha
drian, Roman emperor, A.D. 117-138, was born
at Rome, a.d. 76. His family belonged, like
that of Trajan, to Italica, in Spain. He lost
his father at the age of ten, and was brought
up by Ms Mnsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards
emperor) and by Caelius Attianus. From an
early age he studied with zeal the Greek
language and literature. At the age of fifteen
he went to Spain, where he entered upon Mb
military career : and he subsequently served
as military tribune in Lower Moesia. After
the elevation of Trajan to the throne (98), he
married Julia Sabina, a grand-daughter of Tra
jan's sister Marciana. TMs marriage was
brought about through the influence of Plotina,
the wife of Trajan; and from this time Ha
drian rose rapidly in the emperor's favour. He
was raised successively to the quaestorsMp (101),
praetorship (107), and consulship (109). He ac
companied Trajan in most of his expeditions, and
distinguished himself in the second war against
the Dacians, 104-106 ; was made governor of
Pannonia in 108; and subsequently fought
under Trajan against the Parthians. When

HADRIANUS
Trajan's serious illness obliged him to leave
the East, he placed Hadrian at the head of the
army. Trajan died at Cilicia on his journey to
Rome (117). Before his death, as was alleged,
probably influenced by Plotina, he appointed
Hadrian as his successor. Hadrian was pro
claimed emperor by the legions in Syria, and
the senate ratified the election. Hadrian's first
care was to make peace with the Parthians,
which he obtained by reUnquishing the con
quests of Trajan east of the Euphrates. He
returned to Rome in 118, but almost imme
diately afterwards set out for Moesia, to conse
quence of the invasion of this province by the
Sarmatians. After making peace with the
Sarmatians, and suppressing a formidable con
spiracy which had been formed against his
life by some of the most distinguished Roman
nobles, all of whom he put to death, he re
turned to Rome in the course of the same
year. He sought to obtain the goodwill of the
senate by gladiatorial exMbitions and liberal
largesses, and he also canceUed all arrears of
taxes due to the state for the last fifteen years.
The remainder of Hadrian's reign was disturbed
by few wars. He spent the greater part of Ms
reign to travelling tMough the various pro
vinces of the empire, in order that he might
inspect personaUy the state of affairs in the
provinces, and apply the necessary remedies
wherever mismanagement was discovered. He
began these travels to 119, visiting first
Gaul, Germany, and Britain, in the latter of
wMch countries he caused a wall to be buUt
from the Solway to the mouth of the river Tyne.
[Britannia.] He afterwards visited Spain,
Africa, and the East, and took up Ms residence
at Athens for tMee years (123-126). Athens was
Ms favourite city, and he conferred upon its in
habitants many privUeges. The most important
war during Ms reign was that against the Jews,
wMch broke out in 131. The Jews had revolted
in consequence of the estabUshment of a colony
under the name of Aelia Capitolina on the site
of Jerusalem, and of their having been forbid
den to practise the rite of circumcision. The
war was carried on by the Jews as a national
struggle with the most desperate fury, and was
not brought to an end tiU 136, after the country
had been nearly reduced to a wilderness.
During the last few years of Hadrian's life, his
health failed. He became suspicious and cruel,
and put to death several persons of distinction.
As he had no cMldren, he adopted L. Aelius
Verus, and gave Mm the title of Caesar in 136.
Verus died on the 1st of January, 138, where
upon Hadrian adopted Antoninus, afterwards
surnamed Pius, and conferred upon him like-
¦wise the title of Caesar. In July in the same
.year, Hadrian himself died, in Ms 62nd year,
¦and was succeeded by Antoninus. — The reign of
Hadrian may be regarded as one of the hap
piest periods in Roman Mstory. His policy
was to preserve peace with foreign nations, and
not to extend the boundaries of the empire, but
to secure the old provinces, and promote their
welfare. He paid particular attention to the
administration of justice in the provinces as well
as to Italy. His reign forms an epoch in the
history of Roman jurisprudence. It was at
Hadrian's command that the jurist Salvius
¦Julianus drew up the edictum perpetuum,
wMch formed a fixed code of laws. Some of
the laws promulgated by Hadrian are of a
truly humane character, and aimed at im
proving the pubUc morality of the time. The
various cities wMch he visited received marks

Hadrianus, RomaD Emperor,
a.d. 117-138.

HAEMUS 377
of Ms favour or liberality ; in many places he
built aqueducts, and in others harbours or
other public buildings, either for use or orna
ment. But what has rendered his name more
illustrious than anything else are the numerous
and magnificent architectural works which he
planned and com
menced during his
travels, especially
at Athens, in the
S. part of which
he built an entirely
new city, ' Novae
'Athenae.' We can
not here enter into
an account of the
numerous build
ings he erected ; it
is sufficient to di
rect attention to
his villa at Tibur,
which has been a
real mine of trea
sures of art, and his mausoleum at Rome,
which forms the groundwork of the present
Castle of St. Angelo. Hadrian was a patron of
learning and literature, as well as of the arts,
and he cultivated the society of poets, scholars,
rhetoricians, and philosophers. He founded at
Rome a scientific institution under the name of
Athenaeum, which continued to flourish for a
long time after him. He was himself an author,
and wrote numerous works both in prose and in
verse, all of which are lost, with the exception
of a few epigrams in the Greek and Latin Antho
logies, which lack evidence of their authorship.
The well known address to his soul —
Animula vagula blandula,
Hospes comesque corporis,
Quae nunc abibis in loca
Pallidula, rigida, nudula —
Nee ut soles dabis jocos ?
is attributed to him by his biographer. (Life
of Hadrian in Script. Hist, Aug. ; Dio Cass
lxix. ; Aurel. Vict. Ep. 14 ; Zonar'. xi. 23.)
Hadrianus, the rhetorician. [Adrianus.]
Hadrumetum or Adrumetum ('ASpipri:
Hammeim), a flourisMng city founded by the
Phoenicians in N. Africa, on the E. coast of
Bycazena, of wMch district it was the capital
under the Romans. It had not sided with
Carthage and was left a free city after the third
Punic war. Trajan made it a colony; and it
was afterwards caUed Justinianopolis. (Strab. p.
834; Sail. Jug. 19; Plin. v. 25; Pol. xv. 5;
Procop. B. V. i. 17, ii. 23.)
Haemon (A'lpav). 1. Son of Pelasgus and
father of Thessalus, from whom the ancient
name of Thessaly, Haemonia or Aemonia, was
believed to be derived. The Roman poets
frequently use the adjective Haemonius as
equivalent to Thessalian. (Strab. p. 443;
Dionys. i. 17 ; Plin. iv. 28.) — 2. Son of Lycaon,
and the reputed founder of Haemonia in
Arcadia (Paus. vii. 44). — 3. Son of Creon of
Thebes, was destroyed, according to some
accounts, by the sphinx (Apollod. iii. 5, 8).
But, according to other traditions, he was in
love with Antigone, and killed himself on
hearing that she was condemned by Ms father
to be entombed alive. [Antigone.]
Haemonia (Aipovia). [Haemon, No. 1.]
Haemus (Alpos), son of Boreas and Orithyia
(wife of Rhodope) , and father of Hebrus. As he
and his wife presumed to assume the names of
Zeus and Hera, both were metamorphosed into
mountains. (Ov. Met. vi. 87.)

378

HAEMUS

Haemus (6 ATpos, to Atpov : Balkan), a lofty
range of mountains, separating Thrace and
Moesia, extended from M. Scomius, or, accord
ing to Herodotus, from M. Rhodope on the W.
to the Black Sea on the E. The highest point
of the range is about 8000 feet above the sea.
There are several passes over them ; but the
one most used to antiquity was to the W. part
of the range, called ' Succi ' or ' Succorum
angustiae,' also ' Porta Trajani ' (Sulu Der-
bend), between Philippopolis and Serdica
(Sophia). The later province of 'Haemi-
montus ' in Ttoace derived its name from this
mountain. (Hdt. iv. 49 ; Strab. p. 313 ; Amm.
Marc. xxi. 10, xxvii. 4.)
Hagno i^Ayvd), the nymph of a spring on Mt.
Lycaeus in Arcadia. The local legend makes
this the birthplace of Zeus, who was brought up
by the nymph. In times of drought the priest
of Zeus Lycaeus conjured rato by dipping an
oak bough into the spring of Hagno. (Paus. viii.
31,2; 32,2; 47,2.)
Hagnon ("A7«w), an Athenian who founded
the colony of Amphipolis, b.c. 437 (Thuc. iv.
102; Diod. xii. 32).
Hagnus ('Ayvovs, -ovvros : 'Ayvoio-ios : near
Markopulo), a demus in Attica, W. of Paeania,
belonging to the tribe Acamantis.
Halae^'AA.ai,"A\oi, 'AXai: 'AXaieis). 1. H.
Araphenides ('ApaiprivlSes), a demus in Attica,
belonging to the tribe Aegeis, was situated on
the E. coast of Attica, and served as the harbour
of Brauron : it possessed a temple of Artemis
(Strab. pp. 339, 446).— 2. H. Aexonides (Ai£a>-
viSes), a demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe
Cecropis, situated on the W. coast (Strab. p.
398). — 3. A town, formerly of theOpuntii Locri,
afterwards of Boeotia, situated on the Opuntian
gulf (Strab. p. 405).
Hales ("AA.r;s). 1. A river of Ionia in Asia
Minor, near Colophon, celebrated for the cold
ness of its water (Liv. xxxvii. 36).— 2. A river in
the island of Cos.
Halesa ("AAaicra : Halesinus: Torre di Pitti-
neo), a town on the N. coast of Sicily, on the
river Halesus (Pittineo), was founded by the
Greek mercenaries of Archonides, a chief of the
SicuU, and was originally called Archonidion.
It was in later times a municipium, exempt
from taxes. (Strab. pp. 266, 272 ; Cic. Verr. in.
73 ; Diod. xiv. 16.)
Halesus, a chief of the Auruncans and
Oscans, the son of a soothsayer, and an ally of
Turnus, was slain by Evander. He came to
Italy from Argos in Greece, whence he is caUed
Agamemnonius, Atrides, or Argolicus. He is
said to have founded the town of Falerii. (Ov.
Am. iii. 13, 31, Fast. iv. 73 ; Serv. ad Aen. vii.
723 ; Plin. iii. 51.)
Halex. [Alex.]
Haliacmon ('AXiaKpav : Vistriza), an impor
tant river in Macedonia, rises in the Tymphaean
mountains, forms the boundary between Eor-
daea and Pieria, and falls into the Thermaic
gulf in Bottiaeis (Hdt. vii. 127; Strab. p.
330). Caesar (B. G. iii. 36) incorrectly makes
it the boundary between Macedonia and Thes
saly. Haliartus ('AAiapToj : 'AXidprios : Mazi), an
ancient town in Boeotia on the S. of the lake
Copais. It was destroyed by Xerxes in Ms in
vasion of Greece (b.c. 480), but was rebuilt, and
appears as an important place in the Pelopon
nesian war. Under its walls Lysander lost his
life (895). It was destroyed by the Romans
(171), because it supported Perseus, king of
Macedonia, and its territory was given to the

HALICYAE
Athenians. (H. ii. 503 ; Hymn, in Apoll. 243 J
Strab. p. 411; Paus.ix. 32, 5.)
Halias ('AXids: 'AXievs), a district on the
coast of ArgoUs between Asine and Hermione,
so called because fishing was the chief occu
pation of its tohabitants. Their town was
called Haliae ('AXiai) or Halies ('AXieis) Strab.
p. 373.)
Halicarnassus ('AXiKapvao-o-bs, Ion. 'AXi-
Kapvnaabs : 'AXiKapvaffoevs, Halicarnassensis,
Haliearnassius : Bud/rum, Ru.), a celebrated
city of Asia Minor, stood in the SW. part of
Caria, on the N. coast of the Sinus Ceramieus,
opposite to the island of Cos. It was said to
have been founded by Dorians from Troezen,
and was at first called Zephyra. It was one of
the six cities that originally formed the Dorian
Hexapolis, but it was early excluded from the
confederacy, as a punishment for the violation,
by one of its citizens, of a law connected with
the common worship of the Triopian ApoUo.
(Hdt. i. 144.) With the rest of the coast of
Asia Minor, it fell under the dominion of the
Persians, at an early period of whose rule Lyg-
damis made himself tyrant of the city, and
founded a dynasty which lasted for some gene
rations. His daughter Artemisia assisted
Xerxes in his expedition against Greece [Arte
misia, No. 1]. Her grandson Lygdamis was
overthrown by a revolution, to which Herodotus
is said to have taken part [Herodotus]. In
the Peloponnesian war, we find HaUcarnassus,
with the other Dorian cities of Caria, on the
side of the Athenians; but we do not know
what was its form of government, until the re-
establishment, by Hecatomnus, of a dynasty
ruling over all Caria, with its capital first at
Mylasa, and afterwards at HaUcarnassus, and
virtuaUy independent of Persia: before B.C. 380.
It seems not unlikely that both this and the
older dynasty of tyrants of HaUcarnassus, were
a race of native Carian princes, whose as
cendency at Halicarnassus may be accounted
for by the prevalence of the Carian element in
its population at an early period. Hecatomnus
left three sons and two daughters, who aU suc
ceeded to his ttoone in the following order :
Mausolus, Artemisia, Idrieus, Ada, Pixodarus,
and Ada again. In B.C. 334, Alexander took
the city, after an obstinate defence by the
Persian general Memnon, and destroyed it
(Arrian, An. i. 23). From tMs blow it never re
covered, although it continued to be celebrated
for the Mausoleum, a magnificent edifice wMch
Artemisia II. bmlt as a tomb for Mausolus, and
which was adorned with the works of the most
eminent Greek sculptors of the age. Frag
ments of these sculptures, which were dis
covered built toto the walls of the citadel of
Budrum, are now in the British Museum [Diet.
of Antiq. art. Mausoleum], With the rest of
Caria, Halicarnassus was assigned by the Ro
mans, after their victory over Antiochus the
Great, to the government of Rhodes, and was
afterwards united to the province of Asia. The
city was very strongly fortified, and had a fine
harbour, which was protected by the island of
Arconnesus: its citadel was called Salmacis
(SaXpaxts) from the name of a spring which
rose from the hill on which it stood. Hali
carnassus was the birthplace of the historians
Herodotus and Dionysius. (Hdt. i. 144, iii.
14, vii. 99 ; Strab. pp. 653, 656 ; Cic. ad Q. Fr.
i. 1 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 55.)
Halicyae ('AXiKiai : Halicyensis), a town in
the NW. of Sicily, between EnteUa and Lily-
baeum, was long in the possession of the

HALIMUS
Carthaginians, and in Cicero's time was a muni
cipium (Diod. xiv. 48 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 7, 40).
Hallmus ('AXipovs, -ovvtos : 'AXipoiiriot), a
demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis,
on the W. coast, a little S. of Athens.
Halirrhdthius ('AXippbBios), son of Poseidon
and Euryte, attempted to violate Alcippe,
daughter of Ares and Agraulos, but was slain
by Ares. Ares was brought to trial by Poseidon
for this murder, on the hill at Athens, which
was hence called Areiopagus, or the HiU of Ares.
(Apollod. iii. 14, 2 ; Paus. i. 21, 7, 28, 5.) An
other story makes HalirrhotMus fall by his own
axe when he was trying to cut the sacred olive
of Athene (Serv. ad Georg. i. 18).
Haliusa ("AAioGo-a : ? Karavi), an island to the
Argolic gulf (Paus. ii. 34, 8).
Halizones ('AXl£aves, and -oi), a people of
Bithynia, with a capital city Alybe ('AXiBv),
mentioned by Homer as allies of the Trojans
(17. ii. 856, v. 39 ; Strab. pp. 549, 677).
Halmydessus. [Salmydessus.]
Halmyris ('AXpvpis, sc. xipvv), a bay of the
Black Sea formed by the S. mouth of the Da
nube, with a town of the same name (PUn. iv. 79).
Halonesus ('AXbvTio-os, 'AXivvntros : 'AXovt;-
trios, 'AXovTjo-irris : Khiliodromia), an island of
the Aegaean sea, off the coast of Thessaly, and
E. of Sciathos and Peparethos, with a town of
the same name upon it. The possession of this
island occasioned great disputes between Philip
and the AtheMans : there is a speech on this
subject among the extant orations of Demo
sthenes, but it was probably written by Heges-
ippus, who was head of the embassy sent to
demand restitution of the island. (Strab. p.
436 ; Ptol. ui. 13, 47 ; Dem. de Cor. p. 248, § 69;
Aeschto. Ctes. 80.)
Halosydne ('AXoo-iSvri), ' the Sea-born,' a
surname of Amphitrite and Thetis (Od. iv. 404 ;
H. xx. 207).
Haluntlum. [Aluntium.]
Halus. [Alus.]
Halycus ("AXvkos : Platani), a river in the
S. of Sicily, which flows into the sea near Hera
clea (Diod. xv. 17, xvi. 82).
Halys ("AXvs : Kizil-Irmak, i.e. the Bed
Biver), the greatest river of Asia Minor, rises
to that part of the An ti- Taurus range caUed
the Paryadres, on the borders of ArmeMa Minor
and Pontus, and after flowing W. by S. through
Cappadocia, turns to the N. and flows through
Galatia to the borders of PapMagoma, where it
takes a NE. direction, dividing Paphlagonia
from Pontus, and at last falls into the Euxine
(Black Sea) between Sinope and Amisus. In
early times it was a most important boundary,
ethnographical as weU as political. It divided
the Indo-European races which peopled the W.
part of Asia Minor from the Semitic (Syro-
Arabian) races of the rest of SW. Asia ; and it
separated the Lydian empire from the Medo-
Persian, until, by marching over it to meet
Cyrus, Croesus began the contest which ended
in the overthrow of the Lydian empire. (Hdt.
i. 53, 72, 75; Strab. pp. 534, 544, 546.)
Hamadryades. [Nymphae.]
Hamae, a town to Campania, between Capua
and Cumae (Liv. xxiii. 35).
Hamaxitus ('Apa^irbs), a small town on the
coast of the Troad, near the promontory Lectum ;
said to have been the first settlement of the Teu-
crian immigrants from Crete. The surround
ing district was caUed 'Apa^nia. Lysimachus
removed the inhabitants to Alexandria Troas.
Near Hamaxitus was a temple of Apollo
Smintheus, regardtog wMch Strabo teUs a story

HAMILCAR 879-
that the colonists had been told to settle where
their enemies issued from the earth, and that
at this spot their leathern shields were devoured
by an army of field mice (Strab. p. 604 ; cf. Ael.
H. A. xii. 5). For the various explanations of
ApoUo Smintheus, see p. 89. Some support for
the belief that the myth refers, not to a totem,
but to a real plague of mice or voles may be
derived from Aristot. H. A. vi. 37, p. 580 B.
Hamaxobii ('Apa^bBiot) , a people in European
Sarmatia, in the neighbourhood of the Palus
Maeotis, were a nomad race, as their name
signifies (Ptol. iii. 5, 19).
Hamilcar ('ApiXKas). 1. Son of Hanno, or
Mago, commander of the great Carthaginian
expedition to Sicily, B.C. 480, which was de
feated and almost destroyed by Gelo at
Himera. [Gelo.] Hamilcar fell in the battle
(Hdt. vii. 156). — 2. Surnamed Rhodanus, was
sent by the Carthaginians to Alexander after
the fall of Tyre, B.C. 332. On his return home
he was put to death by the Carthaginians for
having betrayed their interests (Justin, xxi.
6). — 3. Carthaginian governor in SicUy at the
time that Agathocles was rising toto power. At
first he supported the party at Syracuse which
had driven Agathocles into exUe, but he after
wards espoused the cause of Agathocles, who
was thus enabled to make himself master of
Syracuse, 817 (Justin, xxii. 2 ; Diod. xix. 5, 71). —
4. Son of Gisco, succeeded the preceding as
Carthaginian commander to Sicily, 811. He
carried on war against Agathocles, whom he
defeated with great slaughter, and then obtained
possession of the greater part of Sicily ; but he
was taken prisoner while besieging Syracuse,
and was put to death by Agathocles (Diod. xx.
29; Justin, xxii. 7). — 5. A Carthaginian general
in the first Punic war, must be carefully dis
tinguished from the great Hamilcar Barca [No.
6]. In the third year of the war (262) he suc
ceeded Hanno in the command in Sicily, and
carried on the operations by land with success.
He made himself master of Enna and Cama-
rina, and fortified Drepanum. In 257 he com
manded the Carthaginian fleet on the N. coast
of Sicily, and fought a naval action with the
Roman consul C. Atilius Regulus. In the fol
lowing year (256), he and Hanno commanded
the great Carthaginian fleet which was de
feated by the two consuls M. Atilius Regulus.
and L. Manlius Vulso, off Ecnomus, on the S.
coast of Sicily. He was afterwards one of the
commanders of the land forces in Africa opposed
to Regulus (Diod. xxiii. 9 ; Pol. i. 24-30). —
6, Surnamed Barca, an epithet supposed to be
related to the Hebrew Barak, and to signify
( lightning.' It was merely a personal appeUa-
tion, and is not to be regarded as a family name,
though from the great distinction that he ob
tained, we often find the name of Barcine ap
plied either to his family or to his party in the
state. He was appointed to the command of the
Carthaginian forces in Sicily, in the eighteenth
year of the first Punic war, 247. At this time
the Romans were masters of the whole of Sicily,
with the exception of Drepanum and Lily-
baeum, both of which were blockaded by them
on the land side. Hamilcar established Mmself
with his whole army on a mountain named
Hercte (Monte Pellegrino), in the midst of the
enemy's country, and in the immediate neigh
bourhood of Panormus, one of their most im
portant cities. Here he succeeded in maintaining
his ground, to the astonishment alike of friends
and foes, for nearly three years. In 244 he
abruptly quitted Hercte, and took up a still

880

HANNIBAL

stronger position on Mt. Eryx, after seizing the
town of that name. Here he also maintained
himself to spite of all the efforts of the Romans
to dislodge him. After the great naval defeat
of the Carthaginians by Lutatius Catulus (241),
Hamilcar, who was still at Eryx, was entrusted
by the Carthaginian government with the con
clusion of the peace with the Romans. (Pol. i.
56-66 ; Zonar. viii. 16 ; Nep. Hamilc. 1.) — On
Ms return home, he had to carry on war in
Africa with the Carthaginian mercenaries, whom
he succeeded in subduing after an arduous
struggle of three years (240-238) (Pol. i. 86-88).
Hamilcar now formed the project- of establish
ing in Spain a new empire, which should not
only be a source of strength and wealth to
Carthage, but should be the point from whence
he might at a subsequent period renew hostili
ties against Rome. He crossed over into Spain
soon after the termination of the war with the
mercenaries ; but we know nothing of Ms ope
rations in the country, save that he obtained
possession of a considerable portion of Spain,
partly by force of arms, and partly by negotia
tion (App. Hisp. 4 ; Pol. iii. 9). After remain
ing in Spain nearly nine years, he feU in battle
(228) against the Vettones (Nep. Hamilc. 3;
Strab. p. 139 ; Liv. xxiv. 41). He was succeeded
in the command by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal.
Cato the elder bore testimony to Ms work to
Spain when he exclaimed that there had been
no king worthy to rank with Hamilcar. He
left tMee sons, the celebrated Hannibal, Has
drubal, and Mago. — 7. Son of Gisco, Cartha
ginian governor of Melite (Malta), wMch sur
rendered to the Romans, 218 (Liv. xxi. 51). —
9, Son of Bomilcar, one of the generals in Spain,
215, with Hasdrubal and Mago, the two sons of
Barca. The three generals were defeated by
the two Scipios, wMle besieging IUiturgi. (Liv.
xxii. 49.) — 9. A Carthaginian, who excited a
general revolt of the Gauls in Upper Italy,
about 200, and took the Roman colony of Pla
centia. On the defeat of the Gauls by the
¦consul Cethegus in 197, he was taken prisoner.
{Liv. xxiii. S3.)
Hannibal ('AvvlBas). 1. Son of Gisco, and
grandson of Hamilcar [No. 1]. In 409 he was
sent to Sicily, at the head of a Carthaginian
army to assist the Segestans against the Seli-
nuntines. He took Selinus, and subsequently
Himera also. In 406 he again commanded a
Carthaginian army in Sicily along with Himilco,
but died of a pestilence while besieging Agri
gentum. (Diod. xiii. 43-86 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 37.)
— 2. Son of Gisco, was the Carthaginian com-
' mander at Agrigentum, when it was besieged by
the Romans, 262. After standing a siege of Beven
months, he broke tMough the enemy's lines,
leaving the town to its fate. After tMs he
¦carried on the contest by sea, and for the next
year or two ravaged the coast of Italy ; but in
260 he was defeated by the consul Duilius. In
¦259 he was sent to the defence of Sardinia.
Here he was again unfortunate, and was seized
by Mb own mutinous troops, and put to death
(Pol. i. 17-24 ; Zonar. viii. 10).— 3. Son of Ha
milcar (perhaps Hamilcar, No. 5), succeeded in
¦carrying succours of men and provisions to
Lilybaeum, when it was besieged by the Romans,
250 (Pol. i. 44). — 4. A general in the war of the
Carthaginians against the mercenaries (240-
238), was taken prisoner by the insurgents, and
crucified (Pol. i. 82). — 5, Son of Hamilar Barca,
and one of the most illustrious generals of anti
quity, was born B. c. 247, He was only nine
years old when his father took Mm with him into

Spain, and it was on this occasion that Hamilcar
made him swear upon the altar eternal hostility
to Rome. (Nep. Harm. 2 ; Pol. iii. 11 ; Liv. xxi.
1 ; Appian, Hisp. 9 ; Val. Max. ix. 3, 3.) ChUd
as he then was, Hannibal never forgot his vow,
and Ms whole life was one continual struggle
against the power and domination of Rome.
He was early trained in arms under the eye of
his father, and was present with him in the
battle to which Hamilcar perished (228).
Though only eighteen years old at tMs time, he
had already displayed so much courage and
capacity for war, that he was entrusted by
Hasdrubal (the son-in-law and successor of
HamUcar) with the cMef command of most of
the military enterprises planned by that general.
He secured to himself the devoted attachment
of the army under his command ; and, accord
ingly, on the assassination of Hasdrubal (220),
the soldiers unanimously proclaimed their
youtirful leader commander-in-cMef, and the
government at Carthage ratified the choice.
Hannibal was at this time in the twenty-sixth
year of Ms age. There can be no doubt that he
already looked forward to the invasion and con
quest of Italy as the goal of Ms ambition ; but
it was necessary for him first to complete the
work wMch had been so ably begun by Ms two
predecessors, and to establish the Carthaginian
power as firmly as possible to Spain. In two
campaigns he subdued all the country S. of the
Iberus, with the exception of the wealthy town
of Saguntum. In the spring of 219 he proceeded
to lay siege to Saguntum, which he took after a
desperate resistance, which lasted nearly eight
months (Pol. iii. 17 ; Liv. xxi. 6). Saguntum
lay S. of the Iberus, and was therefore not in
cluded under the protection of the treaty wMch
had been made between Hasdrubal and the
Romans ; but as it had concluded an alliance
with the Romans, the latter regarded its attack
as a violation of the treaty between the two
nations. On the f aU of Saguntum, the Romam,
demanded the surrender of Hannibal ; and when
this demand was refused, war was declared, and
thus began the long and arduous struggle called
the second Punic war. In the spring of 218
Hannibal quitted Ms winter-quarters at New
Carthage and began Ms march to Italy with
50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry. He crossed
the Pyrenees, and marched along the S. coast of
Gaul. The Romans sent the consul P. Scipio
to oppose him in Gaul ; but when Scipio arrived
to Gaul, he found that Hannibal had already
reached the Rhone, and that it was impossible
to overtake him. After Hannibal had crossed
the Rhone, he continued his march up the left
bank of the river as far as its confluence with
the Isere. Here he struck away to the right
and began his passage across the Alps. He
probably crossed the Alps either by the pass
of Mont Genevre or that of the Col de l'Argen-
tiere [see Alpes, p. 55].* HiB army suffered
* It is impossible here to give in detail the reasons
for adopting this view. They are in the main those
set forth by Mr. Freshfield (Alp. Journ. xi. 274, where,
however, the Argentiere is preferred), and followed by
Arnold, /Second Punic War, ed. 1886. It will suffice to
state here (1) that the Little St. Bernard cannot be
reconciled with Polybius : the W. side does not really
agree with his narrative, and the long and broken
valley of Aosta could not possibly be traversed in the
two days and a half which he gives from the summit
to the plains of the Po ; (2) that the two passes men
tioned above (which coincide for a great part of the
route) suit the narrative of Polybius better than the
Mont Cenis, and are the only passes that agree with
the narrative both of Polybius and of Livy ; and they

HANNIBAL

381

much from the attacks of the Gaulish moun
taineers and from the natural difficulties of the
road, which were enhanced by the lateness of
the season (the beginning of October, at which
time the snows had already commenced in the
Alps). (Pol. iii. 40-56 ; Liv. xxi. 21-37 ; Strab.
p. 209 ; Varro, ap. Serv. ad Aen. x. 18.) So
heavy were Ms losses, that when he at length
emerged into the plains of the Po, he had with
him no more than 20,000 foot and 6000 horse.
Here he halted under the skirts of the Alps
(vir' avTTiv rijv irapdpeiav rav 'AXireav), and then
proceeded to attack the Taurini, who dwelt near
(irpbs r§ irapapela), and, being at enmity with his
friends the Insubres, who dwelt further down
the Po, would not accept Ms overtures. He
stormed their chief place (probably at, or near,
Turin), and by that time found it necessary to
meet the Roman legions. During Hannibal's
march over the Alps, P. Scipio had sent on his
own army toto Spain, under the command of
his brother Cneius, and had himself returned to
Italy. He forthwith hastened into Cisalpine
Gaul, took the command of the praetor's army,
which he found there, and led it against Hanni
bal. In the first action, which took place near
the Ticinus, the cavalry and Ught-armed troops
of the two armies were alone engaged ; the
Romans were completely routed, and Scipio
Mmself severely wounded. Scipio then crossed
the Po and withdrew to the hills on the left
bank of the Trebia, where he was soon after
joined by the other consul, Ti. Sempronius
Longus. Here a second and more decisive
battle was fought. The Romans were com
pletely defeated, with heavy loss, and the re
mains of their army took refuge within the waUs
of Placentia. This battle was fought towards
the end of 218. Hannibal was now joined by
all the Gaulish tribes, and he was able to take
up his winter-quarters in security. Early to
217 he descended by the vaUey of the Macra
toto the marshes on the banks of the Arno. In
struggling through these marshes great num
bers of Ms horses and beasts of burden perished,
and he MmseU lost the sight of one eye by a
violent attack of ophthalmia. The consul Fla
minius hastened to meet him, and a battle was
fought on the lake Trasimenus, to wMch the
Roman army was destroyed ; thousands feU by
the sword, among whom was the consul himself ;
thousands more perished to the lake, and no less
than 15,000 prisoners fell toto the hands of
Hannibal. Hannibal now marched through the
Apennines toto Picenum, and thence into
Apulia, where he spent a great part of the
summer. The Romans had coUected a fresh
army, and placed it under the command of the
dictator Fabius Maximus, who had prudently
avoided a general action, and only attempted
to harass and annoy the Carthaginian army.
Meanwhile the Romans had made great prepa
rations for the campaign of the following year
(216). The two new consuls, L. Aemilius Paulus
and C. Terentius Varro, marched into Apulia,
at the head of an army of Uttle less than 90,000
men. To tMs mighty host Hannibal gave battle

are not contradicted by Varro. The Mont Genevre
seems somewhat preferable to the Argentiere, which
brings Hannibal too far S. of Turin and the Po. As
far as the natural features of the four competing
passes are concerned there is little to choose between
them. Any attempt to make Polybius's distances cor
respond with measured miles will of course be rejected
by all who understand the conditions of mountain
routes. Polybius takes account of days, and allows
an average distance for each march.

in the plains on the right bank of the Aufidus,
just below the town of Cannae. The Roman
army was again annihilated: between 40,000
and 50,000 men are said to have fallen in the
field, among whom was the consul Aemilius
Paulus, both the consuls of the preceding year,
above eighty senators, and a multitude of the
wealthy knights who composed the Roman
cavalry. The other consul, Varro, escaped with
a few horsemen to Venusia, and a small band of
resolute men forced their way from the Roman
camp to Canusium ; all the rest were killed,
dispersed, or taken prisoners. (Pol. iii. 60-117 ;
Liv. xxi. 39-50 ; Appian, Annib. 5-25 ; Zonar. ix.
1.) TMs victory was followed by the revolt
from Rome of most of the nations in the S. of
Italy. Hannibal established his army in winter-
quarters in Capua, which had espoused his side.
Capua was celebrated for its wealth and luxury,
and the enervating effect which these produced
upon the army of Hannibal became a favourite
theme of rhetorical exaggeration in later ages.
The futUity of such declamations is sufficiently •
shown by the simple fact that the superiority of
that army in the field remained as decided as
ever. Still it may be truly said that the winter
spent at Capua, 216-215, was in great measure
the turning point of Hannibal's fortune, and
from this time the war assumed an altered cha
racter. The experiment of what he could effect
with his stogie army had now been fully tried,
and, notwithstanding all Ms victories, it had
decidedly failed ; for Rome was still unsubdued,
and still provided with the means of maintain
ing a protracted contest. The Carthaginians
were f ataUy hampered by their inability to take
fortified towns. From this time the Romans
in great measure changed their plan of opera
tions, and, instead of opposing to Hannibal one
great army in the field, they hemmed to his
movements on all sides, and kept up an army
in every province of Italy, to thwart the opera
tions of his Ueutenants, and check the rising
disposition to revolt. It is impossible here to
follow the complicated movements of the sub
sequent campaigns, during which Hannibal
himself frequently traversed Italy to all direc
tions. In 215 Hannibal entered into negotia
tions with Philip, king of Macedonia, and
Hieronymus of Syracuse, and thus sowed the
seeds of two fresh wars. From 214 to 212 the
Romans were busily engaged with the siege of
Syracuse, which was at length taken by Mar-
ceUus in the latter of these years. In 212
Hannibal obtained possession of Tarentum ;
but in the following year he lost the important
city of Capua, which was recovered by the
Romans after a long siege. In 209 the Romans
also recovered Tarentum. Hannibal's forces
gradually became more and more weakened ;
and Ms only object now was to maintain his
ground to the S. until Ms brother Hasdrubal
should appear in the N. of Italy, an event to
which he had long looked forward with anxious
expectation. In 207 Hasdrubal at length crossed
the AlpB, and descended into Italy ; but he was
defeated and slain on the Metaurus, near Sena
Gallica. [Hasdrubal, No. 3.] The defeat and
death of Hasdrubal was decisive of the fate of
the war in Italy. From this time Hannibal
abandoned all thoughts of offensive operations,
and collected together his forces within the
peninsula of Bruttium. In the fastnesses of
that wild and mountainous region he maintained
his ground for nearly four years (207-203). He
crossed over to Africa towards the end of 203
in order to oppose P. Scipio. In the following

382

HANNIBALLIANUS

year (202) the decisive battle was fought near
Zama. Hannibal was completely defeated with
.great loss. All hopes of resistance were now
at an end, and he was one of the first to urge
the necessity of an immediate peace. The
treaty between Rome and Carthage was not
finaUy concluded until the next year (201),
(Pol. vii. 1-4, viii., ix., xi., xiv. 1-10, xv. 1-19 ;
Liv. xxiii.-xxx. ; Appian, Annib. 28 ff.) By this
treaty Hannibal saw the object of his whole life
frustrated, and Carthage effectually humbled
before her imperious rival. But Ms enmity to
Rome was unabated ; and though now more than
forty- five years old, he set MmseU to work to pre
pare the means for renewing the contest at no
¦distant period. He introduced the most bene
ficial reforms into the state, and restored the
ruined finances ; but having provoked the enmity
of a powerful party at Carthage, they denounced
Mm to the Romans as urging on Antiochus III.,
king of Syria, to take up arms against Rome.
Hannibal was obliged to flee from Carthage,
and took refuge at the court of Antiochus, who
was at this time (193) on the eve of war with
Rome. Hannibal in vain urged the necessity
of carrying the war at once into Italy, instead
of awaiting the Romans in Greece. On the de
feat of Antiochus (190), the surrender of Han
nibal was one of the conditions of the peace
granted to the king (Pol. xxi. 14, xxii. 26).
Hannibal, however, foresaw Ms danger, and
took refuge at the court of Prusias, king of
Bithynia. Here he found for some years a se
cure asylum ; but the Romans could not be at
ease so long as he lived ; and T. Quintius Fla
minius was at length despatched to the court of
Prusias to demand the surrender of the fugitive.
The Bithynian king was unable to resist ; and
Hannibal, perceiving that fighting was impos
sible, took poison, to avoid falling into the hands
of his enemies, about the year 183. (Liv.
xxxix. 51 ; Nep. Hann. 12 ; Justin, xxxii. 4, 8 ;
Zonar. ix. 21). — Of Hannibal's abilities as a
general it is unnecessary to speak : all the
great masters of the art of war, from Scipio to
the emperor Napoleon, have concurred to their
homage to his genius. But in comparing Han
nibal with any other of the great leaders of
antiquity, we must ever bear in mind the pecu
liar circumstances to which he was placed.
Feebly and grudgingly supported by the govern
ment at home, he stood alone, at the head of an
army composed of mercenaries of many nations.
Yet not only did he retain the attachment of
these men, unshaken by any change of fortune,
for a period of more than fifteen years, but he
trained up army after army ; and long after the
veterans that had followed Mm over the Alps
had dwindled to an inconsiderable remnant, Ms
new levies were still as invincible as their pre
decessors. Hannibalis Castra, a port of Bruttium in the
gulf of Scyllacium : it was perhaps near the
Mouth of the river Corace (Plin. iii. 95).
Hanniballianus. 1. Son of Constantius
CMorus and his second wife Theodora, and half-
brother of Constantine the Great. He was put
to death in 337 on the death of Constantine.
(Zonar. xii. 83 ; Zos. ii. 89.)— 2. Son of the elder,
brother of the younger, Delmatius, was alBO put
to death on the death of Constantine (Amm.
Marc. xiv. 1).
Hanno I^Avvav), one of the most common
names at Carthage. Only the most important
persons of the name can be mentioned. — 1. One
of the Carthaginian generals who fought against
Agathocles in Africa, b. c. 310 (Diod. xx. 10).

HANNO
— 2. Commander of the Carthaginian garrison
at Messana, at the beginning of the first Punic
war, 264. In consequence of his surrendering
the citadel of tMs city to the Romans, he was
crucified on Ms return home. (Pol. i. 11 ; Zonar.
viii. 8.) — 3. Son of Hannibal, was sent to SicUy
by the Carthaginians with a large force after the
surrender of Messana to the Romans by another
Hanno, 264. He carried on the war against the
Roman consul Ap. Claudius. In 262 he again
commanded in SicUy, but failed in relieving Agri
gentum, where Hannibal was besieged by the
Romans. [Hannibal, No. 2.] In 256 he com
manded the Carthaginian fleet, along with Ha
milcar, at the great battle of Ecnomus. (Pol.
i. 18-27.) — 4. Commander of the Carthaginian
fleet which was defeated by Lutatius Catulus off
tiie Aegates, 241. On his return home, he was
crucified. (Zonar. viii. 17.) — 5. Surnamed the
Great, apparently for his successes in Africa.
We do not, however, know against what nations
of Africa his arms were directed, nor what was
the occasion of the war. He was one of the
commanders in the war against the mercenaries
in Africa after the end of the first Punic war
(240-238). From tMs time forward he appears
to have taken no active part in any of the foreign
wars or enterprises of Carthage. But his in
fluence in her councils at home was great ; he
was the leader of the aristocratic party, and, as
such, the chief adversary of HamUcar Barca
and his famUy. On aU occasions, from the
landing of Barca to Spain till the return of
Hanmbal from Italy, a period of above tMrty-
five years, Hanno is represented as thwarting
the measures of that able and powerful family,
and taking the lead in opposition to the war with
Rome, the great object to which all their efforts
were directed. He survived the battle of Zama,
202. (Appian, Hisp. 4, Pun. 34, 39 ; Pol. i. 73-78 ;
Liv. xxi. 3, 10, 11, xxiii. 12, 13 ; Zonar. viii. 22.)
— 6. A Carthaginian officer left to Spain by Han
nibal when that general crossed the Pyrenees,
218. He was shortly afterwards defeated by Cn.
Scipio, and taken prisoner (Pol. iii. 85, 76).— 7.
Son of Bomilcar, one of the most disttogmshed
of Hannibal's officers. He commanded the right
wing at the battle of Cannae (216), and is fre
quently mentioned during the succeeding years
of the war. In 203 he took the command of
the Carthaginian forces in Africa, wMch he held
till the arrival of Hannibal. (Pol. iii. 42, 114 ;
Liv. xxv. 13.) — 8. A Carthaginian general, who
carried on the war to SicUy after the faU of
Syracuse, 211. He left SicUy in the foUowing
year, when Agrigentum was betrayed to the
Romans. (Liv. xxv. 40, xxvi. 40.) — 9. The last
commander of the Carthaginian garrison at
Capua, when it was besieged by the Romans
(212-211) (Liv. xxv. 15, xxvi. 12).— 10. A Car
thaginian navigator, under whose name we
possess a Periplus (irepiirXovs), which was ori
ginally written in the Punic language, and after
wards translated into Greek. The author had
held the office of suffes, or supreme magistrate
at Carthage, and he is said by Pliny to have
undertaken the voyage when Carthage was in a
most flourishing condition. Hence it had been
conjectured that he was the same as the Hanno,
the father or son of HamUcar, who was kiUed
at Himera, B. c. 480 ; but this is quite uncertain.
In the Periplus itself Hanno says that he was
sent out by his countrymen to undertake a
voyage beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and to
found Libyphoenioian towns, and that he sailed
with a body of colonists to the number of 30,000.
On Ms return from Ms voyage, he dedicated an

HARMA
account of it, inscribed on a tablet, in the temple
of Cronos. It is therefore presumed that our
Periplus is a Greek version of that Punic tablet.
Edited by Falconer, Lond. 1797, with an English
translation ; by K. MiiUer, 1855.
Harma (rb "Appa: 'Appareis). 1. A small
place to Boeotia near Tanagra, said to have been
so caUed from the harma or chariot of
Adrastus, wMch broke down here, or from the
chariot of AmpMaraus, who was here swallowed
up by the earth along with his chariot (II. ii.
499 ; Strab. p. 404 ; Paus. ix. 19, 4).— 2. A small
-place in Attica, near Phyle.
Harmatus (Apparovs), a city and promontory
•on the coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, on the
Sinus Elaiticus (Thuc. viii. 101).
Harmodius and Aristogiton ('AppbSios,
'Apio-Toyelrav), Athenians, belonging to the
ancient tribe of the Gephyraei, which according
to some had come to Attica from Eretria, ac
cording to others from Boeotia, and of Phoeni
cian descent (Hdt. v. 57 ; Strab. p. 404). They
were the murderers of Hipparchus, brother of
the tyrant Hippias, to B.C. 514. Aristogiton
was strongly attached to the young and beauti
ful Harmodius. Hipparchus, as a disappointed
rival, resolved to avenge the slight by putting
upon him a pubUc insult. Accordingly, he took
care that the sister of Harmodius should be
summoned to bear one of the sacred baskets to
a rehgious procession, and when she presented
herself for the purpose, he caused her to be
dismissed as unworthy of the honour. This
insult determined the two friends to slay
both Hipparchus and his brother Hippias as
weU. They communicated their plot to a few
friends: and selected for their enterprise the
day of the festival of the great Panathenaea,
the only day on which they could appear to
arms without exciting suspicion. (Aristotle,
'Ad. iroX. 18 denies that the people carried arms
at the festival.) When the appointed time
arrived the two chief conspirators observed one
of their accompUces to conversation with
Hippias. Believing, therefore, that they were
betrayed, they slew Hipparchus. Harmodius
was immediately cut down by the guards.
Aristogiton at first escaped, but was afterwards
taken, and was put to the torture ; but he died
without revealing any of the names of the con
spirators. Four years after this Hippias was
expeUed, and thenceforth Harmodius and
Aristogiton obtained among the Athenians of
all succeeding generations the character of pa
triots, deUverers, and martyre — names often
abused indeed, but seldom more grossly than in
the present case. Their deed of private ven
geance formed a favourite subject of drinking
songs. To be born of their blood was esteemed
among the Mghest of honours, and their
descendants enjoyed an immunity from public
burdens, and entertainment in the Prytaneum.
(Hdt. v. 55, vi. 109, 123; Thuc. i. 20, vi. 54;
Plat. Symp. p. 182 ; Aristot. Pol. v. 10, Bhet.
ii. 24, 'A8. iroX. 18, 58; Athen. p. 695;
Aristoph. Ach. 942, Vesp. 1225 ; Isae. Die.
Her. § 47.) Their statues, made of bronze
by Antenor, were set up in the Agora. When
Xerxes took the city, he carried these statues
away, and new ones, the work of Critias, were
erected to 477. The original statues were
afterwards sent back to Athens by Alexander
the Great. It is a reasonable belief that the
bronze statues at Naples are a copy of this
group ; for the attitudes are much the same as
on a coin, a relief and a vase of Athens which
are presumed to have this common origin.

HARPALYCE

383

Harmonia ('Appovia), daughter of Ares and
Aphrodite, or, according to others, of Zeus and
Electra, the daughter of Atlas, in Samothrace.
When Athene assigned to Cadmus the govern
ment of Thebes, Zeus gave him Harmonia for
his wife, and all the gods of Olympus were
present at the marriage. On the wedding-day
Cadmus received a present of a necklace, which
afterwards became fatal to all who possessed it.
(Apollod. iii. 4, 2 ; Hes. Th. 984 ; Diod. iv. 48 ;
Pind. Pyth. iii. 167.) Harmonia accompanied
Cadmus when he was obliged to quit Thebes,
and shared his fate. [Cadmus.] Polynices, who
inherited the fatal necklace, gave it to Eriphyle,
that she might persuade her husband,
Amphiaraus, to undertake the expedition
against Thebes. Through Alcmaeon, the son
of Eriphyle, the necklace came into the hands
of Arsinoe, next into those of the sons of
Phegeus, Pronous and Agenor, and lastly into
those of the sons of Alcmaeon, Amphoterus and
Acarnan, who dedicated it in the temple of
Athene Pronoia at Delphi. (Apollod. iii. 7, 5 ;
Athen. r>. 232.)
Harpagia, or -ium ('ApirayeTa, or -dyiov), a
small town in Mysia, between Cyzicus and
Priapus, the scene of the rape of Ganymedes,
according to some legends (Strab. p. 587).
Harpagus ("ApTrcryos). 1. A noble Median,
whose preservation of the infant Cyrus, with the
events consequent upon it, are related under Cy
rus. He became one of the generals of Cyrus,
and conquered the Greek cities of Asia Minor.
(Hdt. i. 162-177.)— 2. A Persian general, under
Darius I., took Histiaeus prisoner (Hdt. i. 28).
Harpalus ("AprraXos). 1. A Macedonian of
noble birth, accompanied Alexander the Great
to Asia, as superintendent of the treasury.
After the conquest of Darius, he was left by
Alexander in charge of the royal treasury, and
of the satrapy of Babylon. Here, during
Alexander's absence in India, he gave himself
up to luxury and squandered the treasures en
trusted to him. (Arrian, Anab. iii. 19; Plut.
Alex. 85; Diod. xvii. 108.) When he heard
that Alexander was returning from India, he
fled from Babylon with about 5000 talents and a
body of 6000 mercenaries, and crossed over to
Greece, b.c. 324. He took refuge at Athens,
where he employed his treasures to gain over
the orators and induce the people to support
him against Alexander and Ms vicegerent, Anti
pater. Among those whom he thus corrupted
are said to have been Demades, Charicles, the
son-in-law of Phocion, and even Demosthenes
himself. [Demosthenes.] But he failed in Ms
object, for, Antipater having demanded his
surrender, it was resolved to place him in con
finement until the Macedonians should send for
him. He succeeded in making his escape from
prison, and fled to Crete, where he was
assassinated soon after his arrival by Thim-
bron, one of his own officers. (Plut. Dem. 25 ;
Phoc. 21; Paus. ii. 38, 4.)— 2. A Greek
astronomer, introduced some improvements
into the cycle of Cleostratus. Harpalus lived
before Meton.
Harpalyce ('Ap7raAiiKr)). 1. Daughter of Har-
palycus, king in Thrace. As she lost her
mother in infancy, she was brought up by her
father with the milk of cows and mares, and
was trained in all manly exercises. After the
death of her father, she lived to the forests as
a robber, being so swift in running that horses
were unable to overtake her. At length she
was caught in a snare by shepherds, who killed
her. (Hyg. Fab. 193; Serv. ad Aen. i. 821.)

384

HARPASA

The story seems to be of Northern origin ; and
analogies are traced to the Corn-wolf and
Wehr-wolf of popular legends in Germany and
elsewhere. — 2. Daughter of Clymenus and
Epicaste, was seduced by her own father. To
revenge herself she slew her younger brother,
and served Mm up as food before her father.
The gods changed her into a bird.
Harpasa ("Apiracra : Arepas), a city of Caria,
on the river Harpasus.
Harpasus ("Apirao-os). 1. (Arpa-Su), a river
of Caria, flowing N. into the Maeander, into
which it falls opposite to Nysa. — 2. (Harpa-Su),
a river of Armenia Major, flowing S. into the
Araxes. Xenophon, who crossed it with the
10,000 Greeks, states its width as 400 feet.
Harpina or Harpinna ("Apirtva, "Apmvva),
a town in Elis Pisatis, near Olympia, said to
have been called after a daughter of Asopus
(Strab. p. 356 ; Paus. vi. 20, 8).
Harpocrates. [Horus.]
Harpocration, Valerius, a Greek gramma
rian of Alexandria, probably of 2nd cent. A.D.,
the author of an extant dictionary to the works
of the ten Attic orators, entitled Ilepl rav
Xe£eav rav SeKa farbpav, or Ae£tKbv rav 8€«a
firirbpuv. It contains not only explanations of
legal and political terms, but also accounts of
persons and things mentioned in the Attic
orators, and is a work of great value. Editions
by Bekker, Berlin, 1833 ; Dindorf, Oxon. 1853.
Harpyiae ("Apirviai), the Harpies — that is, the
Bobbers or Spoilers — are in Homer nothing but
personified storm wtods, who are said to oarry
off anyone who had suddenly disappeared from
the earth. Thus they carried off the daughters
of king Pandareus, and gave them as servants
to the Erinyes. (Od. i. 241, xiv. 371, xx. 66 ;
H. xvi. 149.) — Hesiod describes them as daugh
ters of Thaumas by the Oceanid Electra, fair-

¦1\ AA/AA* ¦»* AL Al tQllL

Ai Al fl A_A/~AAAA.

A Harpy. (British Museum. From a tomb at Xanthus.)
locked and winged maidens, who surpassed
winds and birds to the rapidity of their flight.
(Hes. Th. 265; Apollod. i. 2, 6; Hyg. Fab.
14.) In Val. Flacc. Arg. iv. 428 their father is
Typhon. But even to Aeschylus they appear
as ugly creatures with wings ; and later writers
represent them as most disgusting monsters,
being birds with the heads of maidens, with
long claws and with faces pale with hunger
(Verg. Aen. iii. 209, vi. 289). They were sent
by the gods to torment the blind Phineus, and

HASDRUBAL
whenever a meal was placed before him, they
darted down from the air and carried it off.
Phineus was delivered from them by Zetes and
Calais, sons of Boreas, and two of the Argo
nauts. [See p. 106.] Hesiod mentions two
Harpies, Ocypete and Aello : later writers,
tMee ; but their names are not the same in aU
accounts. Besides the two already mentioned,
we find Nicothoe and Celaeno. VirgU places
them in the islands caUed Strophades, in the
Ionian sea (Aen. iii. 210), where they took up
their abode after they had been driven away
from Phineus. — In the famous Harpy monu
ment from Xanthus, now to the British Museum,
the Harpies are represented in the act of
carrying off the daughters of Pandareus.
Harudes, a people in the army of Ariovistus
(b.c. 58), supposed to be the same as the
Charudes mentioned by Ptolemy, and placed
by him to the Chersonesus Cimbrica (Caes.
B. G. i. 81, 37, 51 J Ptol. ii. 11, 12).
Hasdrubal ('Ao-SpoiBas), a Carthaginian
name. 1. Son of Hanno, a Carthaginian gene
ral in the first Punic war. He was one of the
two generals defeated by Regulus b.c. 256. In
254 he was sent into Sicily, with a large army,
and remained in the island four years. In
250, he was totaUy defeated by MeteUus, and
was put to death on Ms return to Carthage.
(Pol. i. 30-40 ; Zonar. viii. 14.)— 2. A Cartha
ginian, son-in-law of HamUcar Barca, on whose
death in 229, he succeeded to the command in
Spain. He ably carried out the plans of hisfather-
in-law forextending the Carthaginian dominions
in Spain, and entrusted the conduct of most of
Ms military enterprises to the young Hannibal.
He founded New Carthage, and concluded with
the Romans the celebrated treaty which fixed
the Iberus as the boundary between the Car
thaginian and Roman dominions. He was
assassinated by a slave, whose master he had
put to death (221), and was succeeded to the
command by Hannibal (Pol. ii. 1, 13, 36; Ap
pian, Hisp. 4-8). — 3. Son of HamUcar Barca,
and brother of Hannibal, a man of great military
ability and untiring energy. When Hannibal set
out for Italy (218), Hasdrubal was left in the
command of Spain, and there fought for some
years against the two Scipies. His scheme of
joining Hannibal directly after Cannae was
frustrated by the victory of the two Scipios on
the Ebro (Liv. xxiii. 26), and even after Ms re
inforcement by Mago he was kept to check by
the Roman successes; but at length in the
autumn of 208 he crossed the Pyrenees, and in
the foUowing year the Alps by the pass of the
Little Mt. Cenis (Varro, ap. Serv. ad Aen.
x. 13; cf. p. 56), and marched toto Italy, to
order to assist Hannibal ; but he was defeated
on the Metaurus, by the consuls C. Claudius
Nero and M. Livius Saltoator, his army was
destroyed, and he himself fell in the battle.
His head was cut off and ttoown toto Hanni
bal's camp. (Liv. xxvii. 1-51 ; Pol. x. 84-xi. 3.)
— 4, One of Hannibal's chief officers, com
manded the left wing of the Carthaginian army
at the battle of Cannae (216) (Pol. iii. 102).— 5.
Surnamed the Bald (Calvus), commander of the
Carthaginian expedition to Sardinia to the second
Punic war, 215. He was defeated by the Roman
praetor, T. Manlius, taken prisoner, and carried
to Rome. (Liv. xxiii. 32-41 ; Zonar. ix. 4.) — 6.
Son of Gisco, one of the Carthaginian generals in
Spain during the second Punic war. He fought
in Spain from 214 to 206. After he and Mago
had been defeated by Scipio in the latter of
these years, he crossed over to Africa, where

HATERIUS
he succeeded to obtaining the alliance of
Syphax by giving him Ms daughter Sophonisba
to marriage. In conjunction with Syphax, Has
drubal carried on war against Masinissa, but
he was defeated by Scipio, who landed in Africa
in 204. He was condemned to death for his ill
success by the Carthaginian government, but
he still continued in arms against the Romans.
On the arrival of Hannibal from Italy Ms sen
tence was reversed; but the popular feeling
against him had not subsided, and in order to
escape death from his enemies, he put an end
to Ms life by poison. (Liv. xxviii. 1-18, xxx.
3-8 ; Pol. xi. 20 ; Appian, Pun. 10-88.)— 7. Com
mander of the Carthaginian fleet to Africa in
208, must be distinguished from the preceding
(Liv. xxx. 24; Appian, Pi(7i. 34). — 8. Surnamed
the Kid (Haedus), one of the leaders of the
party at Carthage favourable to peace towards
the end of the second Punic war (Liv. xxx. 42).
— 9. General of the Carthaginians to the third
Punic war. When the city was taken he sur
rendered to Scipio, who spared his life. After
adorning Scipio's triumph, he spent the rest ef
Ms Ufe to Italy. (Appian, Pun. 70-131 ; Pol.
xxxix. ; Zonar. ix. 29.)
Haterius, Q., a senator and rhetorician in
the age of Augustus and Tiberius, died a.d. 26,
in the 89th year of Ms age (Tac. Ann. ii. 38,
iv. 61; Suet. Tib. 29).
Hebe (°Hj8rj), the goddess of youth, was a
daughter of Zeus and Hera (Hes. Th. 922, 952).
She filled the cups of the gods with nectar (II.
iv. 2 ; Athen. p. 425), and she was the attendant

Hebe. (From a bas-relief at Rome.)
of Hera, whose horses she harnessed (H. v.
722). She married Heracles after he was re
ceived among the gods, and bore to Mm two
sons, Alexiares and Anticetus (Od. xi. 605 ;
Hes. Th. 910 ; Pind. Nem. i. 71 ; Eur. Or.
1686 ; Propert. i. 13, 23 ; Mart. ix. 66, 13).
At PhUus she was worshipped originally as
Ganymeda (Paus. ii. 13, 3), and at Sicyon
as Dia, i.e. the daughter of Zeus and Dione.
There is some probabUity to the theory that
Hebe was an older goddess of youth and
growth and the spring of the year among the
Greeks than Aphrodite, to whom subsequently
some of her functions were transferred [see p.
86, a]. Hence she is naturally represented as
in the trato of Venus (Hor. Od. i. 30, 8). The
Romans identified with her their goddess
Juventas, who was probably an old Italian
personification of youth &c, but received the
Greek character and attributes, being honoured
in the lectisternium (Liv. xxi. 62; cf. Cic. N.
D. i. 40, 112 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 65). She was wor-

HECATAEUS S85
shipped on the Capitol in the time of Tarqui
nius Superbus, and had a temple of her own in
191 B.C. (Liv. v. 54, xxxvi. 86; Dionys. iii. 69).
The Latin poets, however, commonly retained
the Greek name Hebe in relating her story. At
Rome there were several temples of Juventas.
She is even said to have had a chapel on the
Capitol before the temple of Jupiter was built.
Hebromagus. [Eburomagus.]
Hebron ('EBpdv, Xefipdv 'EBpdvtos: El- ¦
Khalil), a city in the S. of Judaea, and the first
capital of the kingdom of David. It was burnt
by the Romans (Jos. B. J. iv. 9, 9).
Hebrus ("EBpos : Maritza), the principal
river in Thrace, rises to the mountains of Sco-
mius and Rhodope, flows first SE. and then
SW, becomes navigable for smaller vessels at
Philippopolis, and for larger ones at Hadriano-
polis, and falls into the Aegaean sea near Aenos,
after forming by another branch an estuary
called Stentoris Lacus.— The Hebrus was cele
brated in Greek legends. On its banks Orpheus
was torn to pieces by the Ttoacian women ; and
it is frequently mentioned in connexion with
Dionysus. (Hdt. iv. 90, vii. 58; Thuc. ii. 96;
Strab. pp. 322, 329, 590 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 524.)
Hecaerge ('EKaepyT/). 1. Daughter of Boreas,
and one of the Hyperborean maidens who were
believed to have introduced the worsMp of
Artemis in Delos (Hdt. iv. 35 ; Paus. v. 7, 4).
— 2. A surname of Artemis, signifying the
goddess who shoots from afar.
Hecale ('EjcaA-Tj), a poor old woman, who hos
pitably received Theseus when he had gone
out for the purpose of kiUtog the Marathonian
bull. She vowed to offer to Zeus a sacrifice for
the safe return of the hero; but as she died
before his return, Theseus ordained that the
inhabitants of the Attic tetrapolis should offer a
sacrifice to her and Zeus Hecalus, or Hecaleius.
(Plut. Thes. 14 ; Ov. Bern. Am. 747.)
Hecataeus ('E/cavreuos). 1. Of Miletus, one
of the early Greek Mstorians, or logographi
(prose-narrators). He was the son of Hege-
sander, and belonged to an ancient and illus
trious family. In B.C. 500 he endeavoured to
dissuade his countrymen from revolting from
the Persians; and when this advice was dis
regarded, he gave them some sensible counsel
respecting the conduct of the war, which was
also neglected. Before this, Hecataeus had
visited Egypt and many other countries. He
survived the Persian wars, and appears to
have died about 476. (Hdt. ii. 143, v. 36, 124.)
He -wrote two works : — 1. TlepioSos yTJs, or
Tlepi7)y7]o-is, divided into two parts, one of
which contained a description of Europe, and
the other of Asia, Egypt, and Libya. Both
parts were subdivided into smaller sections,
which are sometimes quoted under their re
spective names, such as Hellespontus, &c. —
2. TeveaXoyiai or 'IoTopfai, in four books, con
tained an account of the poetical fables and
traditions of the Greeks. His work on geography
was the more important, as it embodied the
results of his numerous travels. He also cor
rected and improved the map of the earth
drawn up by Anaximander. Herodotus knew
the works of Hecataeus, and sometimes contro
verts his opinions (ii. 148, vi. 187). The frag
ments of his workB are collected by Klausen,
Hecataei Milesii Fragmenta, Berlin, 1881,
and by C. and Th. Miiller, Frag. Hist. Graec.
Paris, 1841.— 2. Of Abdera, a contemporary
of Alexander the Great and Ptolemy the son
of Lagus, appears to have accompanied the
former on his Asiatic expedition. He was a
CC

386

HECATE

pupil of the Sceptic Pyrrho, and is himself
called a philosopher, critic, and grammarian.
In the reign of the first Ptolemy he traveUed
up the Nile as far as Thebes. (Diog. Laert. ix.
61.) He was the author of several works, of
which the most important were : — 1. A History
of Egypt. — 2. A work on the Hyperboreans. —
3. A History of the Jews, frequently referred
to by Josephus and other ancient writers. This
work was declared spurious by Origen : modern
critics are divided in their opinions. (Fragm.
by C. Miiller, 1848.) — 3. Prince of Cardia to
the reign of Alexander the Great, an adversary
of Eumenes (Plut. Eum. 3).
Hecate ('EKdrn), a goddess represented in
Greek literature and art as deity of the moon
and of night, of cMldbirth, and of the under
world and magic. Her origin, whether HeUenic
or not, is not clearly traced ; and, further, she
has been confused or interchanged to tradition
with other deities. She is not mentioned in
Homer : in Hesiod she is daughter of the Titan
Perses and Asteria (Hes. Th. 409; cf. Hymn.
v. 25; Apollod. i. 2, 4; Cic. N. D. iii. 18, 45;

Hecate. (Causei, Museum. Romanum, vol. i. tav. 21.)
Ov. Met. vii. 74) ; but other accounts make her
the daughter of Zeus (Ap. Rh. iii. 469, 1035).
As goddess of the moon Hecate was called
i>aad>bpos (Eur. Hel. 569), was represented as
bearing torches (AriBtoph. Ban. 1362), and it
is possible that the triple character and form
belonging to her was derived from the three
phases of the new, fuU, and waning moon:
others (Serv. ad Eel. viii. 75) assign as the
cause her ttoeefold aspect of birth-goddess
(= Lucina), giver of strong life (= Diana), and
goddess of death (Hecate). A third explanation
is that she was worsMpped in heaven (as the
moon), on the earth (as Artemis), and in the
underworld (as Hecate). Lastly, it is not
impossible that the triple form was derived from
her being placed at the fork of roads, looking
each way [see below]. To Hecate, as to other
moon-goddesses, belongs the guardianship of
childbirth (Hes. Th. 450; Eur. Troad. 328):
as moon-goddess also she had power over the
sea and over fishermen (Hes. Th. 439, 448) ; and
for the same reason (though this and the fol
lowing characteristics do not appear in the

HECTOR
earliest literature) she was the goddess of night
and darkness, and hence of the underworld and
of the dead (Ap. Rh. iii. 467; Verg. Aen. vi.
118, 247-257) : hence again she was the deity
of ghosts and nightly apparitions, and the
patroness of aU necromancy and magic (Eur.
Hel. 569 ; Theocr. u. 10-15 ; Ov. Her. xu. 168,
Met. xiv. 44). From the similarity of her func
tions she was often confounded with Artemis
(Aesch. Suppl. 676; Eur. Phoen. 110), and
sometimes with Aphrodite. Her worship was
especiaUy noticeable to Asia Minor (particularly
at Stratonicea and Lagina in Caria), in Ttoace
(Strab. p. 472 ; Paus. ii. 30 ; whence some imagine
a Thracian origin), and at Argos (Paus. ii. 22,
7). At Aegina she had honour beyond other
gods (Paus. ii. 30), and at Athens it was a custom
to place 'EKareia — that is, shrines with figures
of the goddess — before the doors (Aristoph.
Vesp. 804, Lys. 64, Ban. 866; Hesych. s.v,).
The peculiar offerings made to her were sacri
fices of puppies, especially black puppies (Paus.
iii. 14, 9; Schol. ad Theocr. ii. 12), which
probably denoted her connexion with the
underworld. She was regarded as present par
ticularly at forked roads (iv rpibSois, ivoSia:
Soph. Fr. 480 ; Ov. Fast. i. 141), perhaps be
cause of her triple form : but superstitions
about cross roads are also common to many
nations. Offerings were also set before her
stoines at the doors and at the forked roads at
each full moon, and were then eaten by the
poor (Aristoph. Plut. 594 ; Dem. Con. p. 1269,
§ 89; Plut. Symp. vn. 6). In art she is repre
sented with torches, as a moon-goddess ; with
keys, as portress of Hades (Verg. Aen. vi.
215). The oldest representations showed her
with the natural female shape (Paus. ii. 30, 2) :
afterwards the triple form appeared most fre
quently, though not universally.
Hecatomnus ('EKarbpvas), king or dynast of
Caria, in the reign of Artaxerxes HI. He left
tMee sons, Maussolus, Idrieus, and Pixodarus,
all of whom, to their turn, succeeded hi-m in
the sovereignty ; and two daughters, Artemisia
and Ada. (Diod. xv. 2 ; Strab. p. 659.)
Hecatompylos ('EKarbpiroXos, i.e. having 100
gates). 1. An epithet of Thebes in Egypt.
[Thebae.] — 2. A city to the middle of Parthia,
1260 stadia or 133 Roman miles from the Cas
piae Pylae; enlarged by Seleucus; and after
wards used by the Parthian kings as a royal
residence (Strab. p. 514).
Hecaton ('EKarav), a Stoic phUosopher, a
native of Rhodes, studied under Panaetius, and
wrote numerous works, all of wMch are lost
(Cic. de Off. iii. 15, 63 ; Diog. Laert. vii. 87).
Hecatonnesi ('EKarbvvno-oi : Mosko-nisi), a
group of smaU islands, between Lesbos and the
coast of Aeolis, on the S. side of the mouth of
the Gulf of Adramyttium. The name, 100
islands, was indefinite; the real number was
reckoned by some at 20, by others at 40. Strabo
derives the name, not from eKarov, 100, but
from "Ekoto j, a surname of Apollo. (Diod. xiu.
77; Strab. p. 618.)
Hector ( Em-cup), the chief hero of the Trojans
to their war with the Greeks, was the eldest
son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of
Andromache, and father of Scamandrius (II.
ii. 817 ; Apollod. iii. 12, 5 ; Theocr. xv. 139). He
fought with the bravest of the Greeks, and at
length slew Patroclus, the friend of Achilles.
The death of Ms friend roused Achilles to the
fight. The other Trojans fled before him into
the city. Hector alone remained without the
walls, though Ms parents implored Mm to

HECUBA
return; but when he saw AcMUes, his heart
failed him, and he took to flight. TMice did
he race round the city, pursued by the swift-
footed Achilles, and then fell pierced by AchiUes'
spear. Achilles tied Hector's body to his
chariot, and thus dragged him into the camp of
the Greeks (II. xxii. 182-830) ; but later tradi
tions relate that he first dragged the body tMice
around the waUs of Ilium (Verg. Aen. i. 484).
At the command of Zeus, AchiUes surrendered
the body to the prayers of Priam, who buried
it at Troy with great pomp (II. xxiv. 718 ff.).
Hector is one of the noblest conceptions of the
poet of the Iliad. He is the great bulwark of
Troy, and even AchiUes trembles when he
approaches him. He has a presentiment of the
fall of his country, but he perseveres in Ms
heroic resistance, preferring death to slavery
and disgrace. Besides these virtues of a war
rior, he is distinguished also by his tender
affection for his parents, Ms wife, and Ms son,
and by a cMvalrous compassion even for Helen.
The lines wMch describe Ms parting with
Andromache (II. vi. 406), and the lament of
Helen over Ms body (xxiv. 762) are among the
most beautiful and pathetic to Homer.
Hecuba ('EKci/37)), daughter of Dymas to Phry
gia, or of Cisseus, Mng of Thrace (II. xvi.
718). Her mother was variously named, Tele-
clea, Evagore, Eunoe, Glaucippe, and Metope,
wMch explains the conundrum of Tiberius,' Quae
mater Hecubae ? ' (Suet. Tib. 70). She was the
wife of Priam, king of Troy, to whom she bore
Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, Cassandra,
and many other children (H. xxiv. 496;
Theocr. xv. 139 ; ApoUod. ni. 12, 5). The fifty
chUdren mentioned to Eur. Hec. 421, include
her stepcMldren. Her dream before the birth
of Paris, that she had borne a firebrand, is
noticed by many writers (Eur. Troad. 922;
Tzetz. ad Lye. 224 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 320, x. 704 ;
Cic. Div. i. 21, 42). On the capture of Troy,
she was carried away as a slave by the Greeks.
According to the tragedy of Euripides wMch
bears her name, she was carried by the Greeks
to Chersonesus, and there saw her daughter
Polyxena sacrificed. On the same day the
waves of the sea washed on the coast the body
of her last son, Polydorus, who had been mur
dered by Polymestor, king of the Ttoacian
Chersonesus, to whose care he had been en
trusted by Priam. Hecuba thereupon MUed
the chUdren of Polymestor, and put out the
eyes of their father. (Eur. Hec. ; Ov. Met. xiii.
431.) Agamemnon pardoned her the crime,
and Polymestor prophesied that she should be
metamorphosed toto a she-dog, and should leap
into the sea at a place caUed Cynossema. It
was added that the inhabitants of Ttoace en
deavoured to stone her, but that she was
metamorphosed toto a dog, and in this form
howled through the country for a long time.
(Eur. Hec. 1259 ; Tzetz. Lye. 1176 ; Cic. Tusc.
iii. 26, 63 ; Ov. Met. I.e. ; Strab. p. 595).— Ac
cording to other accounts, she was given as a
slave to Ulysses, and in despair leaped into
the HeUespont; or, being anxious to die, she
uttered such invectives against the Greeks,
that the warriors put her to death, and caUed
the place where she was buried Cynossema,
with reference to her invectives. (Tzetz. ad
Lye. 315; Dictys, v. 16.)
Hedylus ("HSvXos), son of Melicertus, was a
native of Samos or of Athens, and an epigram
matic poet. Eleven of his epigrams are in the
Greek Anthology. He was a contemporary and
rival of CaUimachus, and lived, therefore, about

HEGESIPYLA 887
the middle of the 3rd century B. c (Athen.
pp. 297, 844.)
Hedylius Mons ('H5u,\.eio><),arange of moun
tains in Boeotia, W. of the Cephissus.
Hegemon ('Hyripav), of Thasos, a poet of the
Old Comedy at Athens, but more celebrated for
his parodies, of which kind of poetry he was
the inventor. He was nicknamed Qaicrj, on
account of his fondness for that kind of pulse.
He lived in the time of the Peloponnesian war,
and was a friend of Alcibiades ; Ms parody of
the Gigantomachia was the piece to which the
Athenians were listening when the news was
brought to them to the theatre of the destruc
tion of the expedition to Sicily. (Aristot. Poet.
2 ; Athen. pp. 5, 108, 406, 698.)
Hegemone ('Hyepbvv), the leader or ruler, is
the name of one of the Athenian Charites or
Graces. It was also a surname of Artemis at
Sparta and in Arcadia. (Paus. viii. 37, 47.)
Hegesander. 1. A companion of Xenophon in
the retreat of the 10,000 (Xen. An. vi. 1).— 2. A
native of Delphi and writer of viropvr)paTa,
often mentioned by Athenaeus. He probably
lived in the 8rd century B. c. (Athen. p. 400).
Hegesianax ('HyTio-idvat,), an historian of
Alexandria, is said to have been the real author
of the work caUed Troica which went under
the name of Cephalon or Cephahon (Athen.
p. 293 ; Strab. p. 594). He appears to be the
same as the Hegesianax sent by Antiochus the
Great as one of his envoys to the Romans in
B.C. 196 and 193 (Pol. xvni. 30, 33).
Hegesias ("Hyrioias). 1. Of Magnesia, a
rhetorician and historian, lived about B. c. 290,
wrote the Mstory of Alexander the Great. He
was regarded by some as the founder of that
degenerate style of composition which bore the
name of the Asiatic. His own style was desti
tute of all vigour and dignity, and was marked
cMefly by childish conceits and minute pretti-
nesses. (Strab. p. 648 ; Cic. Orat. 67, 69 ; Gell.
ix. 4.) — 2. Of Salamis, supposed by some to
have been the author of the Cyprian poem
wMch, on better authority, is ascribed to
Stasinus (Athen. p. 682).— 3. A Cyrenaic
phUosopher, who lived at Alexandria in the time
of the Ptolemies, perhaps about b. c. 260. He
wrote a work containing such gloomy descrip
tions of human misery, that it drove many per
sons to commit suicide ; hence he was surnamed
Peisithanatos (TleiffiBdvaros). He was, in con
sequence, forbidden to teach by Ptolemy.
(Diog. Laert. ii. 86 ; Cic. Tusc. i. 84, 83.)
Hegesias or Hegias ('llerias, 'Hyias), an
Athenian sculptor early to the 5th century B. c.
His chief works were the statues of Castor and
Pollux, which were at Rome in Pliny's time.
(PUn. xxxiv. 78 ; Paus. viii. 42, 10 ; Lucian,
Bhet. Praec. 9.)
Hegesinus ^Hy-no-ivovs), of Pergamum, the
successor of Evander and the immediate pre
decessor of Carneades in the chair of the
Academy, flourished about b. c. 185 (Diog.
Laert. iv. 60 ; Cic. Ac. ii. 6, 16.)
Hegesippus ('Hyiiannros). 1. An Athenian
orator, and a supporter of Demosthenes. He
was probably the author of the oration on
Halonesus, wMch has come down to us under
the name of Demosthenes. (Dem. F.L.v. 364,
§ 82, Phil. iii. p. 129, § 85 ; Hesych. and Phot, s.v.)
— 2. A poet of the New Comedy, about b.c.
300. — 3. A Greek historian of Mecyberna, wrote
an account of the peninsula of Pallene (Dionys.
i. 49). Hegesipyla ('Hyrio-nriXTi), daughter of Olorus,
king of Thrace, and wife of MiltiadeB (Hdt. vi. 39).
c c2

888

HEGIAS

Hegias. [Hegesias.]
Helena ('EXevri). In Homer Helen is de
scribed as daughter of Zeus, half-sister of
Castor and Polydeuces, and mother of one cMld,
Hermione (II. iii. 237; Od. iv. 14, 227, 569,
xi. 299), and of surpassing beauty. She was
wife of Menelaus and was carried off to Troy
by Paris [for details see Paris], and thus be
came the cause of the Trojan war (II. iii. 165 ;
cf. Aesch. Ag. 607). In the last year of the war
she is led by Iris to the waUs, where she names
to Priam the Greek leaders ; the impression
made by her beauty is particularly described
(II. in. 156). In her lament over Hector she
contrasts his chivalrous kindness towards her
with the taunts of the other Trojans (II. xxiv.
761). The common tradition was that, after the
death of Paris, she married Deiphobus ; and
this is perhaps alluded to in Od. iv. 275.
Near the end of the siege she recognised
Odysseus when he entered Troy in disguise,
but sMelded Mm because she wished to return
to Greece (Od. iv. 244). After the fall of Troy
she returned with Menelaus to Sparta, but
not untU they had wandered for eight years,
part of which- was spent in Egypt (Od. iii. 300,
312, iv. 125, 228). — In the post-Homeric stories
there are many additions. Helen is by some
accounts the daughter of Nemesis (probably
as an aUegory) ; and the egg from which she
is born is merely entrusted to Leda. This
version was as old as the Cyclic poets (Athen.
p. 334 ; ApoUod. iii. 10, 8). Euripides retains
the account of the birth from Leda (Hel. 18).
Again in some traditions Helen and the Dioscuri
are born from one egg (Eur. Hel. 1644) ; in
others there were two eggs (' gemino ovo,' Hor.
A.P. 147), from one of which were born Helen
and Polydeuces as immortals and children of
Zeus and Leda, from the other Castor and
Clytemnestra, as mortal children of Tyndareus
and Leda (Tzetz. ad Lye. 88 ; Hyg. Fab. 77,
80). In her chUdhood Helen was carried off to
Athens by Theseus, and rescued by the Dioscuri
[Aethra; Dioscuri; Theseus]. After this
many princely suitors came to Sparta, and
Tyndareus, by advice of Odysseus, gave her in
marriage to Menelaus. The most important
variation to the Trojan episode in her life was
that she was taken to Egypt, and that her
phantom went to Troy. This was said to have
been adopted as a palinode or recantation by
Stesichorus, who had spoken against the
character of Helen and had been smitten with
blindness (Plat. Phaedr. p. 243, Bep. p. 586;
Hor. Epod. 17, 42 ; Paus. iii. 19, IS). Accord
ing to this story (which was known to the
Egyptian priests), Paris and Helen were driven
by contrary winds to Egypt. Here Helen and
the treasures taken from Sparta were detained
by King Proteus, and Paris went on to Troy
{Hdt. ii. 112-120). Euripides in his Helena
makes Helen Btill more guiltless, for she is
taken by Hermes first to an island off Attica,
and thence to Egypt, while Paris carried off
her phantom from Sparta as the cause of war.
In either account it is only her phantom that
is present in Troy and is brought thence by
Menelaus after the fall of the city. When
Menelaus recovered the true Helen from
Egypt, the phantom disappeared. Helen re
ceived divine honours to her temple at
Therapnae (cf. Od. iv. 560; Eur. Or. 929;
where also her grave was shown (Hdt. vi. 61
Paus. iii. 15, 8; 19, 9). A Rhodlan legend
spoke of her going to Rhodes after the death of
Menelaus, and being hanged on a tree there in

HELENUS
revenge by Polyxo, and therefore caUed
SevSpiris (Paus. iii. 19, 10). TMs probably pre
serves some account of tree worship, which
has been identified at some time with her
name, and which appears also in the 'EXevas
(pvrbv at Sparta (Theocr. xvm. 48). Another
story which Pausanias hears from the people
of Croton and of Himera is that Helen, after
her death, became the wife of AchiUes, in the
island of Leuce, in the Euxine (Paus. iii. 19,
11). In her divine character Helen, like the
Dioscuri, caused the appearance of light (the
St. Elmo's Fire) about a ship ; but her single
star was baneful, whUe the double star of her
brothers brought safety (Plin. ii. 101). Euri
pides, on the contrary, describes her star as
beneficial to saUors (Orest. 1629).
Helena, Flavia Julia. 1. The mother of
Constantine the Great. When her husband,
Constantius, was raised to the dignity of
Caesar by Diocletian, a. d. 292, he was com
pelled to repudiate Ms wife, to make way for
Theodora, the stepchild of Maximianus Her-
culius. Subsequently, when her son succeeded
to the purple, Helena was treated with marked
distinction and received the title of Augusta.
She died about 328. She was a Christian,
and was said to have discovered at Jerusalem
the sepulchre of our Lord, together with the
wood of the true cross. [See Diet, of Christian
Biography.] — 2. Daughter of Constantine the
Great and Fausta, married her cousin, Julian
the Apostate, 355, and died 360 (Amm. Marc.
xv. 8, xxi. 1).
Helena ('EXevri). 1. (Makronisi), a smaU
and rocky island, between the S. of Attica and
Ceos, formally called Cranae (Strab. p. 899 ;
Paus. i. 35, 1). — 2". The later name of Illi-
berris in Gaul.
Helenus ("EXevos). 1. Son of Priam and
Hecuba, was celebrated for his prophetic
powers, and also fought against the Greeks in
the Trojan war (II. vi. 76, vii. 44, xii. 94,
xiii. 580). In Homer we have no further par
ticulars about Mm ; but in later traditionB
he is said to have deserted Ms countrymen
and joined the Greeks. There are various
accounts respecting this desertion of the
Trojans. According to some he did it of Ms
own accord ; according to others, he waB en
snared by Odysseus, who was anxious to obtain
his prophecy respecting the faU of Troy.
(Tzetz. ad Lye. 905; Soph. Phil. 605, 1838;
Ov. Met. xiii. 99, 723.) Others, again, relate
that, on the death of Paris, Helenus and
Deiphobus contended for the possession of
Helena, and that Helenus, being conquered,
fled to Mt. Ida, where he was taken prisoner
by the Greeks (Serv. ad Aen. ii. 166). After
the fall of Troy, he feU to the share of
Pyrrhus. He foretold Pyrrhus the sufferings
which awaited the Greeks who returned home
by sea, and prevailed upon him to return by
land to Epirus. After the death of Pyrrhus he
received a portion of the country, and married
Andromache, by whom he became the father
of Cestrinus. When Aeneas in his wanderings
arrived in Epirus, he was hospitably received
by Helenus, who also foretold him the future
events of his life. (Verg. Aen. iii. 245, 374;
Ov. Met. xv. 438.)— 2. Son of Pyrrhus, king
of Epirus, by Lanassa, daughter of Agathocles.
He accompanied his father to Italy B. c. 280,
and was with him when Pyrrhus perished at
Argos, 272. He then fell into the hands of
Antigonus Gonatas, who, however, sent him back
in safety to Epirus. (Plut. Pyrrh. 33, 34.)

HELIADAE
Heliadae and Heliades ('HXidSat and
'HAieSoes), the sons and daughters of Helios
(the Sun) (Diod. v. 56 ; Pind. Ol. vii. 71). The
name Heliades is given especially to PhaSthusa,
Lampetie and Phoebe, the daughters of HeUos
and the nymph Clymene, and the sisters of
Phaethon. They bewaUed the death of their
brother Phaethon so bitterly on the banks of
the Eridanus, that the gods to compassion
changed them toto poplar trees and their tears
into amber. (Ov. Met. ii. 840; Ap. Rh. iv.
604 ; Eridanus.)
Helice ('EKiKri), daughter of Lycaon, was
beloved by Zeus, but Hera, out of jealousy,
metamorphosed her toto a she-bear, whereupon
Zeus placed her among the stars, under the
name of the Great Bear.
Helice ('EAi/«j : 'EXiKdvios, 'EXiKeis). 1.
The ancient capital of Achaia, said to have
been founded by Ion, possessed a celebrated
temple of Poseidon, which was regarded as the
great sanctuary of the Achaean race. Helice
was swallowed up by an earthquake together
with Bura, B.C. 378. The earth sank, and the
place on which the cities stood was ever after
wards covered by the sea. (II. ii. 575, viii. 203 ;
Hdt. i. 145 ; Paus. vii. 1, 24 ; Diod. xv. 24 ;
Strab. p. 384.) — 2. An ancient town to Thessaly,
disappeared to early times.
Helicon ('EXiKdv), son of Acesas, a cele
brated artist. [Acesas.]
Helicon ('EXtKdv : Helicon, Palaeo-Buni,
Turk. Zagora), a celebrated range of moun
tains to Boeotia, between the lake Copais and
the Corinthian gulf, was covered with snow the
greater part of the year, and possessed many
romantic ravines and lovely vaUeys. Helicon
was sacred to ApoUo and the Muses, the latter
of whom are hence called 'EXiKdviai irap&evot and
'EXiKaviaSes vvpcpai by the Greek poets, and
Heliconiades and Heliconides by the Roman
poets. Here sprang the celebrated fountains
of the Muses, Aganippe and Hippocrene. At
the fountain of Hippocrene was a grove sacred
to the Muses, wMch was adorned with some of
the finest works of art. (Strab. p. 409 ; Paus.
ix. 25 ; Hes. Th. 1 ; Verg. Eel. x. 12.)
Heliodorus ('HXibSapos). 1. An Atheman,
surnamed Periegetes (TIepiriyrir'ils), probably
Uved about B.C. 164, and wrote a description of
the works of art in the Acropolis at Athens.
This work was one of the authorities for Pliny's
account of the Greek artists. — 2. A rhetorician
at Rome to the time of Augustus, whom Horace
mentions as the companion of his journey to
Brundisium (Sat. i. 5, 2, 3). — 3. A Stoic philo
sopher at Rome, who became a delator to the
reign of Nero (Juv. Sat. i. 33). — 4. A rhetori
cian, and private secretary to the emperor
Hadrian.— 5. Of Emesa to Syria, lived about
the end of the fourth century of our era, and was
bishop of Tricca to Thessaly. Before he was
made bishop, he wrote a romance in ten books,
entitled Aethiopica, because the scene of the
beginning and the end of the story is laid to
AetMopia. TMs work h&3 come down to us,
and is far superior to the other Greek romances.
It relates the loves of Theagenes and Chariclea.
Though deficient in those characteristics of
modern fiction which appeal to the umversal
BympatMes of our nature, the romance of HeUo-
dorus is interesting on account of the rapid
succession of strange and not altogether im
probable adventures, the many and various
characters introduced, and the beautiful scenes
described. The language is simple and elegant.
Editions are by Mitscherlich to his Scriptores

HELIOS 889
Graeci Erotici, Argentorat. 1798, and by
Bekker, Lips. 1856. — 6. Of Larissa, the author
of a short work on optics, still extant, ohiefly
taken from Euclid's Optics : edited by Matani,
Pistor. 1758.
Heliogabalus. [Elagabalus.]
HeliopSlis ('HXlov irbXis or 'HA.ioi5itoA.is, i.e.
the City of the Sun). 1. (Heb. Baalath:
Baalbek, Ru.), a celebrated city of Syria, a chief
seat of the worship of Baal, whom the Greeks
identified sometimes with Helios, sometimes
with Zeus. It was situated in the middle of
Coele-Syria, at the W. foot of Anti-Libanus, on
a rising ground at the NE. extremity of a large
plain watered by the river Leontes (Nahr-el-
Kasimiyeh), near whose sources Heliopolis was
buUt : the sources of the Orontes are not far N.
of the city. The situation of Heliopolis neces-
sarUy made it a place of great commercial
importance, as it was on the direct road from
Egypt and the Red Sea and also from Tyre to
Syria, Asia Minor, and Europe; and hence,
probably, the wealth of the city, to which its
magnificent ruins of temples and other build
ings still bear witness. It was made a Roman
colony by the name of Colonia Julia Augusta
Felix HeUopolitana, and colonised by veterans
of the 5th and 8th legions, under Augustus
(Strab. p. 753 ; Ptol. v. 15, 22). The worship of
Jupiter Heliopolitanus was introduced into
Italy, especially at Puteoli (C. I. L. x. 1578).
— 2. Matarieh, Ru. N.E.of Cairo), a celebrated
city of Lower Egypt, capital of the Nomos
HeUopolites, stood on the E. side of the
Pelusiac branch of the NUe, a little below the
apex of the Delta, and near the canal of Trajan,
and was, in the earliest period of which we have
any record, a chief seat of the Egyptian wor
ship of the Sun. Its civil name was An, to
Hebrew On ; its sacred name Pe-Ra, i.e. the
abode of the Sun. Here also was established
the worsMp of Mnevis, a sacred bull similar to
Apis. The priests of Heliopolis were renowned
for their learning, and learned Greeks (Plato
and Eudoxus are mentioned by Strabo) studied
there up to the time when its fame was sup
planted by that of Alexandria. It suffered
much during the invasion of Cambyses ; and
by the time of Strabo it was entirely ruined.
(Hdt. ii. 3, 7, 59 ; Strab. p. 805 ; Tac. Ann. vi.
28.) Helios ("HAios or 'HeXios), called Sol by the
Romans, the god of the sun. He was the son
of Hyperion and Thea, and a brother of Selene
and Eos. (Od. xii. 176, 322 ; Hes. Th. 371.)
From Ms father, he is frequently called
Hyperionides, or Hyperion, a form of the
patronymic. In the Homeric hymn on Helios,
he is called a son of Hyperion and Eury-
phaessa. Homer describes Helios as giving
light both to gods and men : he rises to the E.
from Oceanus, traverses the heaven, and
descends in the evening into the darkness of
the W. and Oceanus (II. vii. 422 ; Od. iii. 1,
xi. 16, xii. 880). Later poets have marvellously
embellished this simple notion. They tell of a
most magnificent palace of Helios in the E.,
containing a throne occupied by the god, and
surrounded by personifications of the different
divisions of time. They also assign him a
second palace in the W., and describe Ms
horses as feeding upon herbs growing in the
Islands of the Blessed. (Ov. Met. ii. 1 ; Stat.
Theb. iii. 407 ; Athen. p. 296.) The manner in
which Helios during the night passes from the
western into the eastern ocean is not mentioned
either by Homer or by Hesiod, but later poets

390

HELIOS

make him sail in a golden boat, the work of
Hephaestus, round one-half of the earth, and
thus arrive in the E. at the point from which
he has to rise again (Athen. pp. 469, 470;
Apollod. ii. 5, 10). Others represent him as
making Ms nightly voyage while slumbering in
a golden bed (Mtom. Fr. 12 ; Athen. p. 470).
The horses and chariot with which Helios
traverses the heavens are not mentioned in the
Diad and Odyssey, but first occur to the

Helios. (From the metope at Ilium : Schiiemann, Troy and its Remains.)

Homeric hymn on Helios ; and by later writers
the four horses are named Pyrois, Eous, Aethon,
and PMegon, or Eous, Aethiops, Bronte and
Sterope (Ov. Met. h. 153 ; Hyg. Fab. 183).—
Helios is described as the god who sees and
hears everything, and was thus able to reveal
to Hephaestus the faithlessness of Aphrodite,
and to Demeter the abduction of her daughter
(Od. viii. 271 ; Hymn, ad Cer. 75). — The island
of Ttoinacia (Sicily) was sacred to Helios, and

Helios. (Coin of Rhodes, In the British Museum.)
there he had flocks of sheep and oxen, which
were tended by his daughters Phaethusa and
Lampetie (Od. xii. 128). Later traditions
ascribe to him flocks also in the island of
ETythia ; and it may be remarked in general,
that sacred flocks, especially of oxen, occur in
most places where the worship of Helios was
estabUshed. By Perse he was the father of

HELLE
Aeetes, Circe and Pasiphae, and by Clymene of
Phaethon. Temples of Helios probably existed
in Greece at a very early time, since the vow to
build a temple to Helios is regarded as natural
in Od. xii. 346 ; and in later times we find Ms
worsMp estabUshed to various places, and
especiaUy in the island of Rhodes — which, as
specially belonging to Mm, held annual games
(r)Xieia or iiXeia) in his honour (Pind. Ol. vn.
70 ; Diod. v. 56) — and on the Acrocorinthus
(Paus. ii. 1, 6; 5, 1). The sacri
fices offered to him consisted of
white rams, boars, bulls, goats,
lambs, especially white horses,
and honey. — There had been an
early interchange to the attri
butes and provinces of ApoUo
and Helios, both as regards the
gift of light and prophetic know
ledge, but it was not until after
the time of Euripides that Helios
was identified with ApoUo. The
Roman poets, when speaking of
the god of the sun (Sol), usually
adopt the notions of the Greeks.
The worsMp of Sol existed at
Rome from an early period, Sol
being an Italian deity whom the
Romans afterwards identified
with Helios. This deity was
honoured as ' Sol indiges ' by a
festival on the Quirtoal on August
8th. The Eastern sun-worsMp
was widely spread in Italy after
the 1st century a.d. [Elagaba
lus ; Mithras.]
Helisson ('EXia-o-dv or 'EAio--
trovs), a small town in Arcadia, on
a river of same name, wMch f aUs
toto the Alpheus (Paus. viii. 3, 1).
Hellanicus ('EXXdviKos). 1. Of Mytilene
to Lesbos, the most eminent of the Greek
logographers, or early Greek Mstorians, was in
all probability born about B.C. 490, and died
some time after the beginning of the Pelopon
nesian war (Thuc. i. 97). We have no parti
culars of his life, but we may presume that he
visited many of the countries of whose Mstory
he gave an account. He wrote a great number
of genealogical, chronological and historical
works, which are cited under the titles of
Troica, Aeolica, Persica, &c. One of Ms most
noted works was entitled 'lepeiai ttjs "Hpas :
it contained a chronological Ust of the priest
esses of Hera at Argos, compUed from the
records preserved to the temple of the goddess
of this place. This work was one of the earUeBt
attempts to regulate cMonology, and was made
use of by Thucydides, Timaeus and others.
The fragments of Hellanicus are collected by
Sturz, Hellanici Lesbii Fragmenta, Lips.
1826; and by C. and Th. Miiller, Fragm.
Histor. Graec. Paris, 1841. — 2. A Greek gram
marian, a disciple of Agathocles, and appa
rently a contemporary of Aristarchus, wrote on
the Homeric poems.
Hellas, Hellenes. [Graecia.]
Helle f EXXrj), daughter of Athamas and Ne
phele, and sister of Phrixus. When Phrixus
was to be sacrificed [Phrtxus], Nephele rescued
her two children, who rode away through the
air upon the ram with the golden fleece, the
gift of Hermes ; but, between Sigeura and the
Chersonesus, Helle fell into the sea, which was
thence called the Sea of Helle (Hellespontus).
Her tomb was shown near Pactya, on the
Hellespont. fAesch. Pers. 70, 875; Hdt. vii.

HELLEN
57 ; Ap. Rh. i. 927 ; Ov. Met. xi. 195 ; Atha
mas.) Hellen ("EAA.?j>/), son of Deucalion and Pyrrha,
or of Zeus and Dorippe, husband of Orseis, and
father of Aeolus, Dorus, and Xuthus. He was
king of Phthia in Thessaly, and was succeeded
by his son Aeolus. He is the mythical ancestor
of aU the Hellenes ; from his two sons Aeolus
and Dorus were descended the Aeolians and
Dorians ; and from Ms two grandsons Achaeus
and Ion, the sons of Xuthus, the Achaeans and
Ionians. (Hdt. i. 56 ; Thuc. i. 3 ; Strab. p. 388.)
Hellespontus (EXXf)o-irovTos : Straits of the
Dardanelles, or of Gallipoli, Turk. Stambul
Denghiz), the long narrow strait connecting the
Propontis (Sea of Marmara) with the Aegaean
sea, tMough which the waters of the Black
sea discharge themselves into the Mediter
ranean to a constant current. The length of
the strait is about fifty miles, and the width
varies from six mUes at the upper end to two
at the lower, and in some places it is only one
nnle wide, or even less. The narrowest part
is between the ancient cities of Sestus and
Abydus, where Xerxes made his bridge of boats,
[Xerxes] and where the legend related that
Leander swam across to visit Hero. [Leander.]
The name of the HeUespont (i.e. the Sea of
Helle) was derived from the story of HeUe's
being drowned to it [Helle]. The HeUespont
was the boundary of Europe and Asia, dividing
the Ttoacian Chersonese to the former from
the Troad and the territories of Abydus and
Lampsacus in the latter. The district just
mentioned, on the S. side of the HeUespont,
was also caUed 'EAA^ottoi'tos, its inhabitants
'EAAtjottoVtioi, and the cities on its coast
'EXXrio-irbvTiai irbXeis. (H. n. 845 ; Od. xxiv. 82 ;
Hdt. iv. 85 ; Strab. p. 591.)— 2. Under Diocle
tian, HeUespontus was the name of a consular
province, composed of the Troad and the
N. part of Mysia, with Cyzicus for its capital.
Hellomenum ('EXXbpevov), a seaport town of
the Acarnanians on the island Leucas.
Hellopia. [Ellopla.]
Hellotis ("EAAtoTis), a surname of Athene at
Corinth (Schol. ad Pind. Ol. xiii. 56), and also
of Europa among the Cretans.
Helorus or Helorum (t) "EXapos : 'EXapirris),
a town on the E. coast of SicUy, S. of Syracuse,
at the mouth of the river Helorus. There was
a road from Helorus to Syracuse (bSbs 'EXapivTi,
Thuc. vi. 70, vii. 80).
Helos (to "EXos : 'EXe?os, 'EXedrijs). 1. A
town to Lacoma, on the coast, to a marshy
situation, whence its name (eXos = marsh). The
town was to ruins to the time of Pausanias.
(Pol. v. 19; Paus. iii. 22, 3; Strab. p. 363.)—
2. A town or district of EUs on the Alpheus
(11. ii. 594 ; Strab. p. 350).
Helveconae, a people in Germany, between
the Viadus and the Vistula, S. of the Rugii, and
N. of the Burgundiones, reckoned by Tacitus
among the Ligii (Germ. 43).
Helvetii, a brave and powerful Celtic people,
who dwelt between M. Jurassus (Jura), the
Lacus Lemannus (Lake of Geneva), the Rhone,
and the Rhine as far as the Lacus Brigantinus
(Lake of Constance). They were thus bounded
by the Sequam on the W., by the Nantuates
and Lepontii to Cisalpine Gaul on the S., by
the Rhaeti on the E., and by the German
nations on the N. beyond the Rhine. Their
country, caUed Ager Helvetiorum (but never
Helvetia), thus corresponded to the W. part of
Switzerland. — The Helvetii are first mentioned
in the war with the Cimbri. In B.C. 107 the

HELVII

891

Tigurini defea.ted and killed the Roman consul
L. Cassius Longinus, on the lake of Geneva,
while another division of the Helvetii accom
panied the Cimbri and Teutones in their inva
sion of Gaul. Subsequently the Helvetii invaded
Italy along with the Cimbri ; and they returned
home in safety, after the defeat of the Cimbri
by Marius and Catulus in 101. They had once
possessed the country further to the east, in
cluding the district about the Neckar after
wards called Agri Decumates. (This had gained
the name of ' the Helvetian desert,' because it
was for a long period wasted by the struggles
for its possession between Helvetians and Ger
mans.) From this country they were pressed
by their foes westward, and accordingly about
60 B.C. they resolved, upon the advice of Orge-
torix, one of their chiefs, to migrate from their
country with their wives and children, and seek
a new home in the more fertile plains of Gaul.
In 58 they endeavoured to carry their plan toto
execution, but they were defeated by Caesar,
and driven back into their own territories. At
tMs time the Civitas Helvetiorum was, after
the Celtic fashion, divided into four pagi or
cantons [Diet, of Antiq. art. Pagus], comprising
400 vici and twelve oppida, which they burned
when they started westward (Caes. B. G. 1, 5).
After their enforced return they rebuilt several
vici, of which the most notable were Lousona
(Lausanne), Eburodunum (Yverdon), Mino-
dunum (Moudon), Salodurum (Solothurn),
Turicum (Zurich), Vitudurum (Winterthur),
Aquae (Baden, near Zurich), Vindonissa (Win-
disch), with the chief town (Tac. Hist. i. 68) of
aU the civitas, Aventicum (Avanches), which
Augustus made the residence of the tax col
lector for the Helvetian district. For military
strength two Roman colonies were established,
at Noviodunum (Nyon, on the lake of Geneva),
which was called Colonia Julia Equestris, and
Colonia Raurica (Augst, near Basle). The
Helvetian civitas formed part of the province
of Gallia Belgica until the reign of Tiberius.
Like the rest of the ' Tres GaUiae ' it was, by
Caesar's policy, allowed to retain something of
their old cantonal administration, not merely in
their religious gatherings, but with rights of
meeting in their councils to present their
grievances, and even with some military organi
sation, the native magistrates having power to
call out a militia [Gallia]. When the provinces
of Upper and Lower Germany were, under
Tiberius, detached from Gallia Belgica, the
Helvetii formed part of Germania Superior
[Germania]. They were severely dealt with by
the troops of Vitellius (a.d. 70), one of whose
messengers they had arrested : many of their
towns were burnt, and Aventicum narrowly
escaped destruction. It was a mark of a further
tendency to Romanise the district that Aventi
cum received Latin rights. When Gaul was
subdivided toto a greater number of provinces
in the fourth century A.D., the country of the
Helvetii formed, with that of the Sequani and
the Rauraci, the province of Maxima Sequa-
norum, with the chief town Visontio (Besancon).
The chief original authorities for the affairs of
the Helvetii under the Romans may be found
in the volume of inscriptions (C. I. Helvet.).
Helvia, mother of the philosopher Seneca.
Helvidius Priscus. [Priscus.]
Helvii, a people in Gaul, between the Rhone
and Mt. Cebenna, which separated them from
the Arverni, were for a long time subject to
MassiUa, but afterwards belonged to the pro
vince of GaUia Narbonensis. Their country

392

HELVIUS

produced good wine. (Caes. B. G. vii. 7, 78;
Plin. xiv. 43.)
Helvius. 1. Blasio. [Blasio.] — 2. Cinna.
[Cinna.]— 3. Mancia. [Mancia.] — 1 Pertinax,
[Pertinax.] Hemeresla ('Hpeprio-ia), the soothing goddess,
a surname of Artemis, under which she was
worshipped at the fountain Lusi (Aoutrof), in
Arcadia (Paus. viii. 18, 8).
Hemeroscopion. [Dianium, No. 2.]
Hemina, Cassius. [Cassius, No. 14.]
Heneti ('Everoi), an ancient people in Paphla
gonia, dwelling on the river Parthenius, fought
on the side of Priam against the Greeks, but
had disappeared before the historical times.
They were regarded by many ancient writers as
the ancestors of the Veneti toTtaly. [Veneti.]
Heniochi ('Hvtoxoi), a people in ColcMs,
N. of the Phasis, notorious as pirates (Strab.
p. 496.)
Henna. [Enna.]
Hephaestla ('Hipaia-ria). 1. ('Hipaio-rieis), a
town in the NW. of the island of Lemnos. —
2. ('Hqjaio-rlSTis, -relST/s), a demus to Attica, be
longing to the tribe Acamantis.
Hephaestiades Insulae. [Aeoliae.]
Hephaestlon ('rltpaio-rlwv). 1. Son of Amyn-
tor, a Macedonian of Pella, celebrated as the
friend of Alexander the Great, with whom he had
been brought up. Alexander caUed Hephaes-
tion Ms own private friend, but Craterus the
friend of the king. Hephaestion accompanied
Alexander to Asia, and was employed by the
king in many important commands. He died at
Ecbatana, after an illness of only seven days,
B.C. 325. Alexander's grief for his loss was
passionate and violent. A general mourning
was ordered ttooughout the empire, and a
funeral pile and monument erected to him at
Babylon, at a cost, it is said, of 10,000 talents
[authorities under Alexander]. — 2. A Greek
grammarian, who instructed the emperor Verus
in Greek, and whose date is therefore about
a.d. 150. He was perhaps the author of a
Manual on Metres ('EyxeipiSiov irepl perpav),
which has come down to us under the name of
Hephaestion. TMb work is a tolerably complete
manual of Greek metres, and forms the basis of
all our knowledge on that subject. Edited by
Gaisford, Oxon. 1810, and by Westphal, 1866,
in Scriptores Metrici Graeci.
Hephaestus ("Hcpaicrros), called Vulcanus by
the Romans, the god of fire. He was, according
to Homer, the son of Zeus and Hera (H. i. 572,
xiv. 338 ; Od. viii. 312). Later traditions state
that he had no father, and that Hera gave birth
to him independent of Zeus, as she was jealous
of Zeus having given birth to Athene inde
pendent of her (Hes. Th. 927 ; ApoUod. i. 3, 5).
He was born lame and weak, and was to conse
quence bo much disliked by his mother, that
she threw him down from Olympus. Thetis and
Eurynome received Mm, and he dwelt with
them for nine years in a grotto, beneath Oceanus,
making for them beautiful works of art ( II. xviii.
394-409). He afterwards returned to Olympus,
and he appears in Homer as the great artist of
the gods of Olympus. As to this return a post-
Homeric story tells us that out of revenge for
his downfall he sent to Ms mother Hera a
golden throne with invisible fetters. When she
sat thereon she was fast bound, and, as the only
means of her release, the gods wished to bring
back Hephaestus. Ares tried his strength, but
was repulsed ; Dionysus succeeded by making
him drunk. (Paus. i. 20, 3 ; Sappho, Fr. 66 ; Plat.
Bep. p. 378.) This scene is depicted to vase

HEPHAESTUS
paintings as early as the Francois Vase, i.e. in
the sixth century B.C. In Homer there is no-
allusion to the revenge, and although he had
been cruelly treated by his mother, he always
showed her respect and kindness ; and on one
occasion took her part when she was quarrelling
with Zeus, which so much enraged the father of
the gods, that he seized Hephaestus by the leg,
and hurled him down fromheaven. Hephaestus
was a whole day falling, but in the evening he
alighted in the island of Lemnos, where he was
kindly received by the Sintians (II. i. 590 ;
Apollod. i. 3, 5). He again returned to Olympus,
where Hesiod describes his creation of Pandora
(Th. 570 ; Op. 80). In Homer he is mocked by
the gods for his ungainly walk (II. xviii. 410),
but he revenged Mmself upon Ares (Od. viu.
275). His lameness, which belongs to aU tra
ditions, is accounted for to mythology by one
or other of his two falls from heaven. Some
modern writers explain it as suggested by the
flickering either of fire or of lightning; others,
not without probabihty, believe the idea to have
originated from the fact that blacksmiths were
commonly lame men, because this trade was
one for which a strong man who happened to
be lame was as well suited as anyone else.
The palace of Hephaestus in Olympus was im
perishable, and shining like stars. It contained
his workshop, with the anvil and twenty beUows,
which worked spontaneously at Ms bidding
(H. xvni. 370). It was there that he made aU
his beautiful and marvellous works, both for
gods and men. The ancient poets abound to
descriptions of exquisite pieces of work wMch
had been manufactured by the god. All the
palaces in Olympus were his workmansMp. He
made the armour of AcMUes ; the fatal neck
lace of Harmonia ; the fire-breathing buUs of
Aeetes, Mng of Colchis, &c. In the Diad the
wife of Hephaestus is Charis, in Hesiod Aglaia,
the youngest of the Charites ; but to the
Odyssey, as weU as in later accounts, ApMo
dite (who proved f aitMess to Mm, Od. viii. 295)
appears as his wife. The union of Hephaestus
with Charis probably signifies the grace of
artistic work, though some prefer to connect it
with a myth of spring-time ; the marriage with
Aphrodite would also bear either of these
meanings, and moreover there is some ground
for the supposition that ApModite in Greek
mythology took to herself some of the attributes
and functions of an older Greek deity Charis
[see Aphrodite, p. 86]. Among the later myths
connected with Hephaestus is that wMch makes
him assist at the birth of Athene from the head
of Zeus (the aid of Hephaestus is not mentioned
in Hesiod, but appears to Pind. Ol. vii. 3;
Apollod. i. 3, 6, and on vases) ; and also the
story of the birth of Erichthonius, which is re
lated by no writer earlier than Apollodorus (iii.
14, 6), and probably arose out of the desire to
connect the earth-born king with Athene and
Hephaestus, the patrons of art at Athens : for
Hephaestus, like Athene, gave skill to mortal
artists, and, conjointly with her, he was believed
to have taught men the arts which embellish
and adorn life. Hence at Athens they had
temples and festivals in common. Hence also
both were worshipped in the torch-races ; and
with them was associated in those festivals Pro
metheus [Diet, of Ant. art. Lampadedromia],
This latter fact is not hard to explain, for Pro
metheus was in many respects a counterpart of
Hephaestus : both were connected with the gift
of fire, though in mybh the one appears as the
fire-god, the other only as the purveyor of fire ;

HEPTANOMIS
both were patrons of the arts, and in the story
of Pandora were again brought into connexion.
As to the origin of the Hephaestus myth, it has
doubtless grown out of various natural aspects
of fire : primarily perhaps, as many modern
writers on mythology now hold, from lightmng,
the thunder being the hammering of the
Olympian smithy ; and it is likely enough that
the lightning falling to earth suggested the falls
of Hephaestus from heaven (Serv. ad Aen. viii.
414) ; but the observation of volcanoes also
supphed parts of the myth. It seems now to be
doubted whether Lemnos was reaUy a volcanic
island, and some physicists hold that the fire
which the ancients saw issuing from it, and of
course connected with Hephaestus, was gaseous
and not volcanic. But in the sojourn with
Thetis beneath the sea there is a clear indica
tion of a myth from volcanoes, and it is
questionable whether it is right to make his
location to volcanoes merely a late develop
ment of the myth. At any rate, the active
volcanoes of SicUy and the Lipari islands be
came fabled as his workshops to the fifth
century B.C. ; and to them he worked metals
and forged thunderbolts with Ms attendant
Cyclopes. (Aesch. Pr. 366 ; CaUim. Hymn, ad
Dian. 46 ; Verg. Aen. vhi. 416 ; Strab. p. 275.)
As regards his con
nexion to myth with
Dionysus, it maybe
observed that all
good wine countries
have volcamc soil.
During the best pe
riod of Grecian art,
he was represented
as a vigorous man
with a beard, and is
characterised by Ms
hammer or some
other instrument, his
oval cap, and the
cMton, wMch leaves
the right shoulder
and arm uncovered.
One leg is sometimes
shortened to denote
Ms lameness. As
regards the dwarfish figures mentioned in Hdt.
ui. 37, as being at MempMs, it may be noted
that they were reaUy images of the Egyptian
Ptah. — The Roman Vulcanus was an old Italian
divinity. JVulcanus.]
Heptanomis. [Aegyptus.]
Hera ("Hpa or"Hprj),caUed Juno by the Ro
mans. The Greek Hera was a daughter of
Cronos and Rhea, and sister and wife of Zeus
(H. v. 721, xiv. 194. xvi. 432; Hes. Th. 454).
According to Homer she was brought up by
Oceanus and Tethys, and afterwards became
the wife of Zeus without the knowledge of
her parents (II. xiv. 202, 296). This account
is variously modified in other traditions. Be
ing a daughter of Cronos, she, like Ms other
children, was swaUowed by her father, but
afterwards released; and according to an Ar
cadian tradition she was brought up by Te
menus, the son of Pelasgus. The Argives, on
the other hand, related that she had been
brought up by Euboea, Prosymna, and Acraea,
the three daughters of the river Asterion (II.
xiv. 346 ; Paus. ii. 17, 36, vii. 4, 7 ; Ap. Rh. i.
187 ; Strab. p. 417 ; Diod. v. 72). Several parts
of Greece claimed the honour of being her
birthplace, and more especiaUy Argos and
Samos, which were the principal seats of her

HERA

898

Hephaestus. (From an altar
in the Vatican.)

worship. Several places in Greece also claimed
to have been the scene of the marriage with
Zeus, such as Euboea, Samos, Cnossua in
Crete, and Mount Thornax, in the S. of Argolis.
Her marriage, called the Sacred Marriage
(lepbs ydpos), was represented in many places
where she was worshipped. At her nuptials
all the gods honoured ,her with presents,
and Ge presented to her a tree with golden
apples, which was watched by the Hes-
perides, at the foot of the Hyperborean
Atlas. (Paus. ii. 7, 1, viii. 22, 2; ApoUod.
i. 1, 5.) — In the Iliad Hera is treated by
the Olympian gods with the same reverence as
her husband. Zeus himself listens to her
counsels, and communicates Ms secrets to her.
She is, notwithstanding, far inferior to him in
power, and must obey Mm unconditionally. She
is not, like Zeus, the ruler of gods and men,
but simply the wife of the supreme god. Yet
she has a reflected greatness and power from
Zeus. Iris is her messenger as well as servant
of Zeus, and even Athene is sent by her to
AcMUes. She can set in motion the thunder,
and the sun himself obeys her order to close
the day. (II. i. 55, ii. 156, xi. 45, xviii. 106, 240.)
Her character, as described by Homer, is

The Farnese Hera. (From the marble head in the
Naples Museum.)
marked by jealousy and by a quarrelsome
disposition. Hence arise frequent disputes
between Hera and Zeus ; and on one occasion
Hera plotted with Poseidon and Athene to put
Zeus into chains. Zeus, in such cases, not
only ttoeatens, but even strikes her. Once he
hung her up in the clouds, with her hands
chained, and with two anvils suspended from
her feet ; and on another occasion, when He
phaestus attempted to help her, Zeus hurled
him down from Olympus. — By Zeus she was
the mother of Ares, Hebe, and Hephaestus. —
As Hera was the type of a married goddess
among the Olympians, so she is the goddess
of marriage and of the birth of children. [For
the reason of this, see below.] ^Several epi
thets and surnames, such as ElXeiBvia, Ta-
pifXia, Zvyia, TeXeia, &c, contain allusions to
this character of the goddess, and the Ilithyiae
are described as her daughters (II. xi. 270). —
Owing to the judgment of Paris [Paris], she
was hostile to the Trojans, and in the Trojan
war she accordingly sided with the Greeks.
She persecuted aU the chUdren of Zeus by
mortal mothers, and hence appears as the
enemy of Dionysus, Heracles, and others. In
the Argonautic expedition she assisted Jason.

894

HERA

It is impossible here to enumerate all the events
of mythical story to which Hera acts a part ;
and the reader must refer to the particular
deities or heroes with whose story she is con
nected. — Hera was worshipped in many parts of
Greece, but more especially at Argos (II. v.
908 ; Hes. Th. 12), in the neighbourhood of
which she had a splendid temple, on the road to
Mycenae. Her great festival at Argos is de
scribed in the Diet, of Ant. art. Heraea. Next
in importance may be regarded her worship at
Samos (Hdt. iii. 60; Strab. p. 637) and at
Sparta (II. iv. 51 ; Paus. iii. 13, 8) ; but it was
widely spread over all Greece and the islands
and in the western colonies, especially at
Croton. The ancients gave several interpre
tations respecting the real significance of Hera.
By some she was regarded as the goddess of
the earth, and the iepbs ydpos was interpreted
as the union of earth and heaven. By others
she was made the goddess of the air or of the
clouds. But probably the truest view is that
she was originally a moon-goddess, as was

HERACLEA
119, possibly a later addition to the Iliad) ; but
it is indicated by her being called the mother of
the Ilithyiae, as was stated above, and in some
places she was herself worshipped as"Hpa ElXei-
Bvia (cf . Schol. ad Pind. Ol. vi. 149). From this
follows her position as the goddess of marriage
[see above]. In the earliest art the representa
tions of Hera, after the mere shapeless blocks of
wood or stone (Paus. vii. 22, 4 ; Arnob. vi. 2), were
wooden £bava, of which the earUest was said to
be that of Tiryns (Paus. ii. 17, 5) ; later, but
still archaic, representations showed her as the
bride of Zeus, standing with a long veil, as may
be seen on some Samian coins ; in other ar
chaic sculptures she was seated on a throne. In
her idealised form, from the great statue of
Polycletus at Argos onwards (Paus. ii. 17, 4),
the type of Hera's statues was probably such as
later works have preserved to us, that of a ma
jestic woman with a beautiful forehead and large
widely-opened eyes (the Homeric Boairis). Her
head is often adorned with a diadem (stephanos),
sometimes with a calathus, or with a veil ; in
her hand she carries a sceptre, which is some
times surmounted by the figure of a cuckoo (as
in the statue of Polycletus). Sometimes her
sacred bird, the peacock, is painted by her side.
Heraclea ('HpdKXeia : 'HpcutXedrris : Hera-
cleensis : Policoro). I. In Europe. 1. H., in
Lucania, on the river Siris, founded by the
Tarentines (Diod. xii. 36 ; Strab. p. 264). During
the independence of the Greek states in the S.

The Barberini Hera. (From the Vatican.)
also her Roman counterpart, Juno. Hence it
was that in some places, as Naxos, she was
identified with Dione, by which name that
Power, who to the Homeric age was called
Hera, seems to have been originaUy known.
Her old position as moon-goddess explains her
being worshipped at the new moon, her rank as
queen of heaven and wife of Zeus, her attribute
of Boairis, which, though not so used in Homer,
probably points to an original representation
with crescent horns ; above all it supplies the
reason for Hera being one of the deities (all to
some way connected with the moon) who presided
over childbirth (as did Juno in Italy). This
was because the moon was regarded as in
fluencing menstruation, and was therefore
thought to be especially connected with the
birth of children (Aristot. H. A. vii. 2, 1 ; Plut.
Symp. iii. 10, 3; Varro, L. L. v. 59). That
such was her function does not indeed appear
in Homer, who does not represent her as inter
vening in childbirth, except adversely (II. xix.

Coin of Heraclea in Lucania, about 330 B.C.
Obv., head of Pallas, with ScyUa on her helmet ; rev.,
Heracles strangling lion, club and owl beneath.
of Italy, congresses were held to tMs town
under the presidency of the Tarentines. Pyrrhus
here defeated the Romans under Laevtous, B.C.
280 ; and to gain over the Heracleots to their
side the Romans granted them a treaty on
favourable terms in 278 (Cic. pro Arch. 4, 6,
pro Balb. 8, 21). The Tabulae Heracleenses
found in the last century give valuable informa
tion about the mumcipal law (Diet, of Ant. art.
Lex Julia Municipalis). — 2. In Acarnania on
the Ambracian gulf. — 3. In Pisatis Elis, in ruins
in the time of Strabo. — 4. The later name of
Perinthus in Ttoace. [Perinthus.] — 5. H.
Caccabaria (Cavalaire), to Gallia Narbonensis
on the coast, a seaport of the Massilians. — 6. H.
Lyncestis (AiyKno-ris), also called Pelagonia
(Bitoglia or Bitolid), in Macedonia, on the Via
Egnatia, W. of the Erigon, the capital of one
of the four districts into wMch Macedonia was
divided by the Romans. — 7. H. Minoa (Mivda:
nr. Torre di Cape Bianco, Ru.), on the S. coast
of Sicily, at the mouth of the river Halycus,
between Agrigentum and Selinus. According
to tradition it was founded by Minos, when
he pursued Daedalus to Sicily, and it may
have been an ancient colony of the Cretans.
We know, however, that it was afterwards
colonised by the inhabitants of Selinus, and that
its original name was Minoa, which it continued
to bear till about B.C. 500, when the town was
taken by the Lacedaemonians under Euryleon,

HERACLEOPOLIS
who changed its name into that of Heraclea;
but it continued to bear its ancient appeUation
as a surname to distinguish it from other places
of the same name (Diod. iv. 28 ; Hdt. v. 46 ;
Pol. i. 25 ; Liv. xxiv. 35). It feU at an early
period into the hands of the Carthaginians, and
remained in their power tiU the conquest of
SicUy by the Romans, who planted a colony
there (Cic. Verr. ii. 50, 125). — 8. H. Sintica
(SivriKi)), to Macedoma, a town of the Sinti, on
the left bank of the Strymon, founded by
Amyntas, brother of PMlip (Ptol. iii. 18, SO).
—9. H. Trachiniae, in Thessaly. See Trachis.
— II. In Asia. 1. H. Pontica ('H. t) TIovtikt),
or Tibvrov, or iv Ubvra : Eregli), a city on the
S. shore of the Pontus Euxinus, on the coast of
Bithyma, in the territory of the Mariandyni,
was situated 20 stadia N. of the river Lycus,
near the base of a peninsula caUed Acherusia,
and had a fine harbour. It was founded about
B. c. 550, by colonists from Megara and from
Tanagra to Boeotia (not, as Strabo says, from
MUetus). (Paus. v. 26, 6 ; Just. xvi. 3; Strab.
p. 546 ; Xen. An. vi. 2, 1.) After various politi
cal struggles, it settled down under a monarcM-
cal form of government. It reached the height
of its prosperity to the reign of Darius Codo-
mannus, when it had an extensive commerce,
and a territory reacMng from the Parthenius to
the Sangarius. It began to decline to conse
quence of the rise of the kingdom of Bithynia
and the foundation of Nicomedia, and the in
vasion of Asia Minor by the Gauls ; and its
ruin was completed to the Mittoidatic war,
when the city was taken and plundered, and
partly destroyed, by the Romans under Cotta.
It was the native city of Heraclldes Ponticus,
and perhaps of the painter Zeuxis. — 2. H. ad
Latmum ('H. Adrpov, or t) virb Adrpa : Ru. near
the Lake of Baffi), a town of Ionia, SE. of
MUetus, at the foot of Mt. Latmus and upon
the Sinus Latmicus ; formerly caUed Latmus.
Near it was a cave, with the tomb of Endymion
(Pans. v. 1, 4 ; Strab. p. 635). — There was another
city of the same name in Caria, one in Lydia,
two to Syria, one in Media, and one in India,
none of wMch require special notice.
Heracleopolis ('HpoxXeovTroXis). 1. Parva
(t) piKpd), also caUed Sethron, a city of Lower
Fgypt, to the Nomos Sethroites, 22 Roman
miles W. of Pelusium. — 2. Magna (r) peydXv,
also r) &va), the capital of the fertUe Nomos
Heracleopolites or Heracleotes, in the Hepta-
nomis, or Middle Egypt; a chief seat of the
worsMp of the ichneumon (Ael. H. A. x. 47).
Heracles ('HpokXtjs), in Latin writers Hercu
les, the most celebrated of aU the heroes of anti-
¦ qMty. For, as the various local legends exempli
fying heroic strength were by the Greek colonists
adopted for their own Heracles, his name pre
vailed, not only to aU the countries round the
Mediterranean, but even in the most distant
lands of the ancient world. The question of
Ms origin will be more conveniently touched
upon when the stories in Greek literature have
been briefly told, in which a constant develop
ment from the accretion of local Greek myths,
and stiU more from the influence of Phoenician
and Egyptian religions, will be apparent. For
whUe to the earliest traditions Heracles was pro
bably a purely human hero, a conqueror of men
and cities, he afterwards appears as the subduer of
monstrous animals, and is connected in a variety
of ways with astronomical phaenomena. I.
Greek Legends. According to Homer (though
it may be observed that he is not named in what
are regarded as the older portions of the Iliad),

HERACLES

895

Heracles was the son of Zeus by Alcmene of
Thebes to Boeotia. His stepfather was AmpM-
tryon. (II. v. 892, xiv. 250, 823, xviii. 118, xix.
98 ; Od. xi. 266, 620, xxi. 25 ; cf. Hes. Th. 526,
951, Sc. 85 ; Pind. Isthm. vii. 5 ; Apollod. ii.
4, 7.) Amphitryon was the son of Alcaeus, the
son of Perseus; and Alcmene was a grand
daughter of Perseus. Hence Heracles belonged
to the family of Perseus. Zeus visited Alcmene
in the form of Amphitryon, while the latter was
absent warring against the Taphians ; and he,
pretending to be her husband, became by her
the father of Heracles. [For details, see Alc
mene ; Amphitryon.] On the day on which
Heracles was to be born, Zeus boasted of his
becoming the father of a hero who was to rule
over the race of Perseus. Hera prevailed upon
him to swear that the descendant of Perseus
born that day should be the ruler. Thereupon
she hastened to Argos, and there caused the
wife of Sthenelus to give birth to Eurystheus ;
whereas, by keeping away the Ilithyiae, she
delayed the birth of Heracles, and thus robbed
him of the empire wMch Zeus had destined for
him. Zeus was enraged at the imposition prac
tised upon him, but could not violate his oath.
Alcmene brought into the world two boys,
Heracles, the son of Zeus, and Iphicles, the son
of Amphitryon, who was one night younger
than Heracles. (II. xix. 95-132 ; Hes. Sc. 1-56.)
In Homer and Hesiod we are only told that he
grew strong in body and mind, that confiding
in his own powers he defied even the immortal
gods, and wounded Hera and Ares, and that
under the protection of Zeus and Athene he
escaped the dangers wMch Hera prepared for
him. To these simple accounts various particu
lars are added to later writers. As he lay in his
cradle, Hera sent two Berpents to destroy him,
but the infant hero strangled them with his own
hands (Pind. Nem. i. S3; Theocr. xxiv. 1;
ApoUod. ii. 4, 8). As he grew up, he was in
structed by Amphitryon in driving a chariot,
by Autolycus to wrestling, by Eurytus to
archery, by Castor in fighting with heavy
armour, and by Linus in singing and playing
the lyre. Linus waB killed by his pupil with the
lyre, because he had censured him ; and Am
phitryon, to prevent similar occurrences, sent
him to feed his cattle. (Theocr. xxiv. 103-114;
Apollod. ii. 4, 9 ; Diod. iii. 66.) In tMs manner
he spent his life tUl Ms 18th year. To tMs
period belongs the beautiful aUegory introduced
by Prodicus as the ' Choice of Heracles.' He
racles, when he had reached the critical time of
youth, went out into a solitary place and sat
in doubt, which path of life he should follow.
Here Virtue and Pleasure (whose name was also
Vice) appeared to him in the guise of taU and
beautiful women, but the one of modest beauty,
the other of the reverse. Pleasure offered him a
life of ease and enjoyment, Virtue a path of toil
leading to glory; and he chose the toilsome
path of virtue. (Xen. Mem. ii. 1, 21 ; Cic. de
Off. i. 32, 118.) His first great adventure hap
pened while he was still watching the oxen of
his father. A huge lion, which haunted Mount
Cithaeron, made great havoc among the flocks
of Amphitryon and Thespius (or Thestius), king
of Thespiae (Apollod. ii. 4, 10 ; Diod. iv. 29 ;
Athen. p. 556). Heracles slew the lion, and
henceforth wore its skin as his ordinary gar
ment, and its mouth and head as his helmet.
Others related that the lion-skin of Heracles
was taken from the Nemean lion. On his re
turn to Thebes, he met the envoys of king
Erginus of Orchomenos, who were going to fetch

396

HERACLES

the annual tribute of 100 oxen wMch they had
compelled the Thebans to pay. Heracles cut
off the noses and ears of the envoys, and thus
sent them back to Erginus. The latter there
upon marched against Thebes; but Heracles
defeated and MUed Erginus, and compelled the
Orchomenians to pay double the tribute which
they had formerly received from the Thebans
(Eur. H. F. 220 ; Apollod. ii. 4, 11 ; Diod. iv.
10 ; Paus. ix. 37, 3). Creon rewarded Heracles
with the hand of Mb daughter, Megara, by
whom he became the father of several children.
The gods made him presents of arms : Hermes
gave him a sword, Apollo, a bow and arrows,
Hephaestus a golden coat of mail, and Athene
a peplus. He cut for himself a club in the
neighbourhood of Nemea — according to others,
the club was of brass, and the gift of He
phaestus (Ap. Rh. i. 1196; Diod. iv. 14).—
Soon afterwards Heracles was driven mad by
Hera, and to this state he MUed his own
children by Megara and two of Iphicles. In
his grief he sentenced himself to exile, and
went to Thespius, who purified him (Apollod,
ii. 4, 12, cf. Paus. ix. 11, 1). [The Attic legend,
followed by Euripides in the Hercules Furens,
places this madness later.] He then consulted
the oracle of Delphi as to where he should
settle. The Pythia first called him by the
name of Heracles — for hitherto Ms name had
been Alcides or Alcaeus (from his grandfather,
Alceus or Alcaeus, the father of Amphitryon) —
and ordered Mm to live at Tiryns, and to serve
Eurystheus for the space of twelve years, after
wMch he should become immortal. Heracles
accordingly went to Tiryns, and executed the
twelve labours which- EurystheuB ordered Mm
to perform. — The number twelve is not found in
the older writers, and the complete cycle is made
up by later additions. It is probably of Phoeni
cian origin, and is borrowed from the twelve signs
of the Zodiac in connexion with the worship of
Melkart or of the sun-god Baal [see below].
In literature the whole twelve labours first
appear in the Heraclea of Pisander, about 650
B.C., and are similarly given by Euripides
(H. F. 347 ff.), but Sophocles (Track. 1092 ff.)
mentions only six. Ten appear on the so-called
Theseum at Athens ; twelve were shown on the
temple of Zeus at Olympia (of which fragments
have been discovered) and on the Heracleum at
Thebes (Paus. v. 10, 9, ix. 11, 4). The only one

I. Heracles and Nemean Lion. (From a Roman lamp.)
of the twelve labours mentioned by Homer is
his descent into the lower world to carry off
Cerberus, but he speaks of them in the plural
(II. v. 895, viii. 366, xv. 639; Od.xi. 623). We also

find to Homer Ms expedition to Troy, to fetch
the horses wMch Laomedon had refused him ;
and Ms war against the Pylians, when he
destroyed the whole famUy of their king, Ne
leus, with the exception of Nestor (H. v. 638 ;
Od. xxi. 14). Hesiod mentions several of the
feats of Heracles distinctly, but knows notMng
of their number twelve. They are usuaUy ar
ranged in the following order. — 1. The fight
with the Nemean lion. The vaUey of Nemea,
between Cleonas and Phlius, was inhabited by
a monstrous lion, the offspring of Typhon and
EcMdna. Eurystheus ordered Heracles to
bring him the skin of tMs monster. After
using in vain Ms club and arrows against the
Uon, he strangled the animal with Ms own
hands. (Hes. Th. 327; Theocr. xxv. 251 ; Diod.
iv. 11.) — 2. Fight against the Lernean hydra.

II. Heracles and Hydra. (From a marble at Naples.?
TMs monster, like the lion, was the offspring of
Typhon and Echidna, and was brought up
by Hera. It ravaged the country of Lernae
near Argos, and dwelt in a swamp near the
well of Amymone. It had nine heads, of wMch
the middle one was immortal. Heracles struck
off its heads with Ms club ; but in the place of
the head he cut off, two new ones grew forth
each time. A gigantic crab also came to the
assistance of the hydra, and wounded Heracles.
However, with the assistance of Ms faithful
servant Iolaus, he burned away the heads of
the hydra, and buried the ninth or immortal

in. Heracles and Arcadian Stag. (From a group at
Naples.)
one under a huge rock. Having thus con
quered the monster, he poisoned his arrows
with its bile, whence the wounds inflicted by
them became incurable. Eurystheus declared

HERACLES

the victory unlawful, as Heracles had won it
with the aid of Iolaus. (Hes. Th. 813 ; Eur.
H. F. 419 ; Paus. ii. 86, 37 ; Apollod. ii. 6, 2 ;
Diod. iv. 11 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 800 ; Ov. Met. ix.
70). — 3. Capture of the Arcadian stag (or
hind). TMs animal had golden antlers and
brazen feet. It had been dedicated to Artemis
by the nymph Taygete, because the goddess
had saved her from the pursuit of Zeus.
Heracles was ordered to bring the animal alive
to Mycenae. He pursued it in vain for a
whole year ; at length he wounded it with an
arrow, caught it, and carried it away on his
shoulders. While in Arcadia, he was met by
Artemis, who was angry with him for having
outraged the animal sacred to her ; but he suc
ceeded to soothing her anger, and carried his
prey to Mycenae. (Pind. Ol. ui. 27 ; Eur. H. F.
378; Diod. iv. 18 ; Ov. Met. ix. 188; Verg. Aen.
vi. 808.) — 4. Destruction of the Erymanthian
boar. This animal, wMch Heracles was ordered
to bring alive to Eurystheus, had descended
from Mount Erymanthus toto Psophis. Hera
cles chased Mm through the deep snow, and
having thus worn him out, he caught him
to a net, and carried him to Mycenae. Other
traditions place the hunt of the Erymanthian

397

IV. Heracles and Boar, with Eurystheus. (From a
marble at Naples.)
boar in Thessaly, and some even to Phrygia.
When Heracles appeared carrying the huge
beast on Ms shoulders, Eurystheus was seized
with panic, and took refuge in a tub. (Eur.
H.F. 368; Diod. iv. 12; ApoUod. U. 5, 4.) It
must be observed that this and the subsequent
labours of Heracles are connected with certain
subordinate labours, caUed Parerga (Tldpepya).
The first of these parerga is the fight of
Heracles with the Centaurs. In his pursuit of
the boar he came to the centaur Pholus, who
had received from Dionysus a cask of exceUent
wine. Heracles opened it, contrary to the wish
of his host, and the delicious fragrance attracted
the other centaurs, who besieged the grotto of
Pholus. Heracles drove them away ; they
fled to the house of Chiron ; and Heracles,
eager in Ms pursuit, wounded Chiron, Ms old
friend, with one of his poisoned arrows ; in con
sequence of wMch Chiron died. [Chtron.]
Pholus likewise was wounded by one of the
arrows, wMch by accident feU on Ms foot and
killed him. This fight with the centaurs gave
rise to the estabhshmen-t of mysteries by wMch

Demeter intended to purify the hero from the
blood he had shed against his own will. (Eur.
H F. 864 ; Paus. viii. 24, 2 ; Diod. iv. 14 ; Ov.
Met. ix. 192.)— 5. Cleansing of the stables of
Augeas. Eurystheus imposed upon Heracles
the task of cleansing in one day the stalls of
Augeas, king of Elis. Augeas had a herd of
8000 oxen, whose stalls had not been cleansed
for thirty years. Heracles, without mentioning
the command of Eurystheus, went to Augeas,
and offered to cleanse his stalls in one day, if
he would give him the tenth part of his cattle.
Augeas agreed to the terms; and Heracles
after taking Phyleus, the son of Augeas, as his
witness, led the rivers Alpheus and Peneus
through the stalls, which were thus cleansed in
a single day. But Augeas, when he learned that
Heracles had undertaken the work by the com
mand of Eurystheus, refused to give Mm the
reward. His son Phyleus then bore witness
against his father, who exUed him from Elis.
Eurystheus, however, declared the exploit null
and void, because Heracles had stipulated with
Augeas for a reward for performing it. (Theocr.
xxv. 88 ; ApoUod. ii. 5, 5 ; Athen. p. 412 ; Paus.
v. 1, 7.) At a later time Heracles invaded Elis,
and kiUed Augeas and Ms sons. After tMs he
is said to have founded the Olympic games
(Pind. Ol. xi. 27; Apollod. ii. 7, 2).— 6. De
struction of the Stymphalian birds. These
birds had been brought up by Ares. They
had brazen claws, wings, and beaks, UBed
their feathers as arrows, and ate human flesh.
They dwelt on a lake near Stymphalus in
Arcadia, from which Heracles was ordered by

VI. Heracles and the Stymphalian Birds. (From a gem
at Florence.)
Eurystheus to expel them. When Heracles
undertook the task, Athene provided him with
a brazen rattle, by the noise of which he
startled the birds ; and, as they attempted to
fly away, he killed some of them with Ms
arrows. Others he only drove away ; and they
appeared again in the island of Aretias, where
they were found by the Argonauts. (Paus. viii.
22, 4 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 6 ; Ap. Rh. ii. 1087.)— 7.
Capture of the Cretan bull. According to
some this was the buU which had carried
Europa across the sea. According to others,
the bull had been sent out of the sea by
Poseidon, that Minos might offer it in sacrifice.
But Minos was so charmed with the beauty of
the animal, that he kept it, and sacrificed
another in its stead. Poseidon punished
Minos, by driving the bull mad, and causing it
to commit great havoc in the island. Heracles
was ordered by Eurystheus to catch the bull,
and Minos willingly allowed him to do so.
Heracles accomplished the task, and brought
the animal home on his shoulders; but
he then set it free again. The bull now

398 roamed through Greece, and at last came to
Marathon, where we meet it again in the stories
of Theseus. (Apollod. ii. 5, 7; Paus. v. 10, 9 ;

VII. Heracles and Bull. (From a bas-relief in the
Vatican.)

HERACLES first received him kindly, and promised Mm her
girdle ; but Hera having excited the Amazons
against Mm, a contest ensued, to which
Heracles kUled their queen. He then took
her girdle, and carried it with him. In this
expedition Heracles killed the two sons of
Boreas, Calais and Zetes; and he also begot
three sons by Echidna, to the country of the
Hyperboreans. On his way home he landed in
Troas, where he rescued Hesione from the
monster sent against her by Poseidon; in
return for which service her father Laomedon
promised Mm the horses he had received from
Zeus as a compensation for Ganymedes. But,
as Laomedon did not keep Ms word, Heracles on
leaving threatened to make war against Troy.
He landed in Thrace, where he slew Sarpedon,
and at length returned tMough Macedoma to
Peloponnesus. (Eur. H. F. 413, Ion, 1143;
ApoUod. ii. 5,9; Diod. iv. 16; cf. II. v. 649;
Hdt. iv. 9.) — 10. Capture of the oxen of
Geryones in Erythia. Geryones, the monster
with three bodies, lived in the fabulous island
of Erythia, so caUed because it lay under the
red rays of the setting sun in the W. This
island was originaUy placed off the coast of
Epirus, but was afterwards identified either
with Gades or the Balearic islands, and was at

Diod. iv. IS.) — 8. Capture of the mares of the
Thracian Diomedes. This Diomedes, king of
the Bistones in Thrace, fed his horses with
human flesh. Eurystheus ordered Heracles to
bring these animals to Mycenae. With a few
companions, he seized the animals, and con
ducted them to the sea coast. But here he
was overtaken by the Bistones. During the
fight he entrusted the mares to his friend Ab-
derus, who was devoured by them. Heracles
defeated the Bistones, killed Diomedes, whose
body he threw before the mares, built the town
of Abdera in honour of his unfortunate friend,
and then returned to Mycenae with the mares,
which had become tame after eating the flesh
of their master. The mares were afterwards
set free, and were destroyed on Mt. Olympus by

VIII. Heracles and Horses of Diomedes. (From the
Museo Borbonico.)
wild beasts. (Eur. Ale. 483, 493; H. F. 380;
Diod. iv. 15 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 8.) — 9. Seizure of
the girdle of the queen of the Amazons.
Hippolyte, the queen of the Amazons, possessed
a girdle, which she had received from Ares.
Admete, the daughter of Eurystheus, wished to
obtain this girdle ; and Heracles was therefore
sent to fetch it. He was accompanied by a
number of volunteers, and after various adven
tures in Europe and Asia, he at length reached
the country of the Amazons. Hippolyte at

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X. Heracles and Geryones. (Museo Borbonico.)
all times believed to be in the distant W. The
oxen of Geryones were guarded by the giant
Eurytion and the two-headed dog Orthrus ; and
Heracles was commanded by Eurystheus to
fetch them. After traversing various countries,
he reached at length the frontiers of Libya and
Europe, where he erected two piUars (Calpe
and Abyla) on the two sides of the straits of
Gibraltar, wMch were hence caUed the pUlars
of Heracles. Being annoyed by the heat of the
sun, Heracles shot at Helios, who so much
admired his boldness, that he presented him
with a golden cup or boat, in which he sailed to
¦Erythia. He there slew Eurytion and Ms dog,
as well as Geryones, and sailed with his booty
to Tartessus, where he returned the golden cup
(boat) to Helios. On his way home he passed
through Gaul, Italy, Hlyricum and Thrace, and
met with num.erous adventures, wMch are
variously embellished by the poets. Many
attempts were made to deprive him of the
oxen, but he at length brought them to safety
to Eurystheus, who sacrificed them to Hera.
(Hes. Th. 287 ; Pind. Nem. iii. 21 ; Hdt. iv. 8 ;
Apollod. ii. 5, 10 ; Strab. p. 221 ; Diod. iv. 17.)
These ten labours were performed by Heracles
to the space of eight years and one month ; but
as Eurystheus declared two of them to have been
performed unlawfully, he commanded Mm to
accomplish two more.— 11, Fetching the golden
HERACLES

399

apples of the Hesperides. This was particu
larly difficult, since Heracles did not know
where to find them. They were the apples
which Hera had received at her wedding from
Ge, and which she had entrusted to the keep
ing of the Hesperides and the dragon Ladon,
on Mt. Atlas, to the country of the Hyper
boreans. [Por details see Hesperides.] After
various adventures to Europe, Asia and Africa,

XI. Heracles and the Hesperides. (From a bas-relief at
Rome.)
in the course of wMch he deUvered Prome
theus, and slew Antaeus, Busiris and Emathion,
Heracles at length arrived at Mt. Atlas. On
the advice of Prometheus, he Bent Atlas to fetch
the apples, and to the meantime bore the
weight of heaven for him. Atlas returned with
the apples, but refused to take the burden of
heaven on Ms shoulders again. Heracles,
however, contrived by a stratagem to get the
apples, and hastened away. On his return
Eurystheus made him a present of the apples ;
but Heracles dedicated them to Athene, who
restored them to their former place. In tradi
tions Heracles MUed the dragon Ladon, and
gathered the apples himself. (Eur. H. F.
394 ; ApoUod. u. 5, 11 ; Diod. iv. 26 ; Ap. Rh.
iv. 1396; Hyg. Fab. 31.)— 12. Bringing Cer
berus from the lower world. TMs was the

XII. Heracles and Cerberus. Canosa.)

(Millin, Tombeaux de

most difficult of the twelve labours of Heracles.
He descended into Hades, near Taenarum in

Laconia, accompanied by Hermes and Athene.
He delivered Theseus and Ascalaphus from their
torments. He obtained permission from Pluto
to carry Cerberus to the upper world, provided
he could accomplish it without force of arms,
Heracles succeeded in seizing the monster and
carrying it to the upper world; and after he
had shown it to Eurystheus, he carried it back
again to the lower world. (II. viii. 366; Od,
xi. 628 ; Diod. iv. 25 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 12 ; Paus. ii.
81, 2.) — Besides these twelve labours (aBXoi),
Heracles performed several other feats (as irdp-
epya) without being commanded by Eurys
theus. Several of them were interwoven with
the twelve labours and have been already
described : those which had no connexion
with the twelve labours are spoken of below.
After Heracles had performed the twelve
labours, he was released from the servitude
of Eurystheus, and returned to Thebes. He
there gave Megara in marriage to Iolaus;
and he wished to gain in marriage for him
self Iole, the daughter of Eurytus, king of
Oechalia. Eurytus promised his daughter to
the man who should conquer Mm and his sons
to shooting with the bow. Heracles defeated
them ; but Eurytus and Ms sons, with the
exception of Iphitus, refused to give Iole to
him, because he had murdered Ms own
children. Soon afterwards the oxen of Eurytus
were carried off, and it was suspected that
Heracles was the offender. Iphitus again
defended him, and requested Ms assistance to
searching after the oxen. Heracles agreed ;
but when the two had arrived at Tiryns,
Heracles, in a fit of madness, tMew his
friend down from the wall, and killed him.
Deiphobus of Amyclae purified him from tMs
murder, but he was, nevertheless, attacked by
a severe UMess. Heracles then repaired to
Delphi to obtain a remedy, but the Pythia re
fused to answer his questions. A struggle
ensued between Heracles and Apollo, and the
combatants were not separated till Zeus sent a
flash of lightning between them. (Od. xxi. 22 ;
Soph. Trach. 270 ; Paus. x. 13 ; Apollod. ii. 6,
1; Diod. iv. 31.) In this combat Heracles
attempted to carry off the tripod : a story which
indicates that Heracles at one time shared with
Apollo the attribute of the tripod as weU as that
of the bow, though the tripod passed entirely to
Apollo. It may also denote a displacement of
the worship of Heracles at Delphi by Apollo, to
which Pausanias seems to allude. It was a
favourite subject in vase paintings from an
early period. The oracle now declared that he
would be restored to health if he would serve
three years for wages, and surrender Ms earn
ings to Eurytus, as an atonement for the murder
of Iphitus. Thereupon he became a servant to
Omphale, queen of Lydia, and widow of Tmolus.
Heracles is described as living effeminately
during his residence with Omphale : he span
wool, it is said, and sometimes put on the gar
ments of a woman, while Omphale wore Ms
lion-skin. (Diod. iv. 31 ; Apollod. ii. 6, 3 ; Ov.
Fast. ii. 305, Her. ix. 53.) According to other
accounts he nevertheless performed several
great feats during Mb time. He made prisoners
of the Cercopes, who had robbed him [Cerc
opes] ; he undertook an expedition to Colchis,
wMch brought him into connexion with the
Argonauts; he took part in the Calydonian
hunt, and met Theseus on his landing from
Troezen on the Corinthian isthmus. An ex
pedition to India, which was mentioned in some
traditions, may likewise be inserted in this.

400

HERACLES

place. (Hdt. vii. 193 ; Ant. Lib. 26 ; Apollod.
i. 9, 16 ; Arrian, Ind. 8, 9.) — When the time of
his servitude had expired, he sailed agamst
Troy, took the city, and killed Laomedon, its
king. (II. v. 641, xiv. 251, xx. 145 ; Eur. Troad.
802.) On his return from Troy, a storm drove
Mm on the island of Cos, where he was attacked
by the Meropes ; but he defeated them and
killed their king, Eurypylus. It was about this
time that the gods sent for him to order to
fight againt the Giants. (II. xiv. 255 ; Pind.
Nem. iv. 40 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 1.) [Gigantes.] —
Soon after his return to Argos, he marched
against Augeas, as has been related above.
He then proceeded against Pylos, wMch he
took, and killed Periclymenus, a son of Neleus.
He next advanced against Lacedaemon, to
punish the sons of Hippocoon, for having
assisted Neleus and slain Oenus, the son of
Licymnius. He took Lacedaemon, and assigned
the government of it to Tyndareus. (Paus. iii.
15, 2 ; Diod. iv. 33.) On his return to Tegea,
he became, by Auge, the father of Telephus
[Auge] ; and he then proceeded to Calydon,
where he obtained Deianira, the daughter of
Oeneus, for his wife, after fighting with Ache
lous for her. [Deianira : Achelous.] After
Heracles had been married to Deianira nearly
three years, he accidentally killed, at a banquet
in the house of Oeneus, the boy Eunomus. In
accordance with the law Heracles went into
exile, taking with him his wife Deianira. On
their road they came to the river Evenus,
across wMch the centaur Nessus carried tra
vellers for a small sum of money. Heracles
himself forded the river, but gave Deianira to
Nessus to carry across. Nessus attempted to
outrage her : Heracles heard her cries, and shot
an arrow into the heart of Nessus. The dying
centaur caUed out to Deianira to take Ms blood
with her, as it was a sure means of preserving
the love of her husband. (Soph. Trach. 555 ;
Ov. Met. ix. 201.) He then conquered the
Dryopes, and helped Aegimius, king of the
Dorians, against the Lapithae. [Aegimius.]
After this he took up his abode at Trachis,
whence he marched against Eurytus of Oechalia.
He took Oechalia, killed Eurytus and his sons,
and carried off his daughter Iole as a prisoner.
On his return home he landed at Cenaeum, a
promontory of Euboea, erected an altar to
Zeus, and sent Ms companion, Lichas, to Tra
chis, in order 'to fetch him a wMte garment,
which he intended to use during the sacrifice.
Deianira, afraid lest Iole should supplant her in
the affections of her husband, steeped the wMte
garment in the blood of Nessus. This blood
had been poisoned by the arrow with which
Heracles had shot Nessus ; and accordingly as
soon as the garment became warm on the body
of Heracles, the poison penetrated toto all his
limbs, and caused him the most excruciating
agony. He seized Lichas by his feet, and threw
him into the sea. He wrenched off the gar
ment, but it stuck to his flesh, and with it he
tore away whole pieces from his body. In this
state he was conveyed to Trachis. Deianira, on
seeing what she had unwittingly done, hanged
herself. Heracles commanded Hyllus, his
eldest son by Deianira, to marry Iole as soon
as he should arrive at the age of manhood. He
then ascended Mt. Oeta, raised a pile of wood,
on which he placed himself, and ordered it
to be set on fire. No one ventured to obey
him, until at length Poeas the shepherd
was prevailed upon to comply with the de
sire of the suffering hero. (Hdt. vii. 198 ; Soph.

Trachmiae ; Diod. iv. 38 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 7 ; Ov.
Met. ix. 155.) When the pUe was burning,
a cloud came down from heaven, and amid
peals of thunder carried him to Olympus, where
he was honoured with immortality, became
reconciled to Hera, and married her daughter
Hebe, by whom he became the father of
Alexiares and Anicetus. (Od. xi. 60S ; Hes. Th,
949; Pind. Nem. i. 70.) — Heracles, as a god,
was introduced into Greece by the Phoemcian
traders and settlers, especiaUy those at Thebes,
Rhodes, and Thasos, and he represents partly
the Babylonian sun-god Baal, who undergoes
twelve labours as the sun passes tMough
twelve signs of the zodiac ; partly the city-god
Melkart of the Phoenicians (cf. Hdt. ii. 48). The
Greeks to adopting the Eastern deity, altered
the mythology relating to Mm by transforming
Mm into a national hero who delivers the
country from many monsters and from all sorts
of difficulties. The stories of the land to pre
historic times being cleared from wild beasts were
attached to the name of Heracles, and the works
of drainage and road- making, executed by some
ancient and forgotten inhabitants (in many
cases probably by the Phoenicians), were ex
aggerated into the miraculous deeds ascribed to
him. The legends about him were constantly
increasing, because in new lands reached by the
Greeks some local hero or divinity who repre
sented strength of body and mighty deeds was
identified with Heracles, and Ms acts were
added to the list. Moreover, the worsMp of the
Phoenician Melkart had been carried by traders
to many places in the West : from this cause also
Heracles became the type of a mighty traveUer.
Especially Ms story became connected with
deeds at Phoemcian Gades (as to the tenth
labour) ; and again, since he was worshipped
to Lydia, it became necessary for him to serve
the Lydian Omphale ; he even took her garb,
as some think, because an Oriental deity as a
female counterpart of the male god existed
there. A theory has recently been put forward
which deserves consideration, that Omphale was
really the local deity of the Malian district, and
also that the myth of Heracles taking a woman's
dress was derived from a ritual mentioned by
Plutarch at Cos, to wMch the priest was dressed
as a woman. It has been suggested again, that
as the Heraeum at Argos was a refuge for slaves,
the stories of servitude to Hera arose from that
fact. Heracles took to himself also many other
characteristics of local divinities. Among them,
he was in some places regarded as the god
of the gifts of the earth (which explains Ms
being sometimes represented with a cornu
copia) ; and perhaps from a kindred idea he
appears as the god who finds and guards hot
springs rising from the ground, being identified
with local deities of springs. TMs is more
probable than that it was, as some say, merely
because athletes bathe frequently. — II. The
Roman Hercules, though eventually identified
with the Greek Heracles, and probably deriving
his name from Mm, holds the place of a deity
whose origin was distinctly Italian. This
Italian deity among the Sabines was called
Semo Sancus, and there is good reason for the
belief that he was in reality the Genius Jovis :
that is, he was Jihe power who watched over
men and gave them strength and victory, just
as the Italian Juno watched over women
[Genius]. Hence Hercules was the' god who
guarded the household (Hercules Domesticus)
and also who guarded the state (H. Custosl;
the giver of victory (H. Victor and Invictus) ;

HERACLES
and especially he was the god who maintained
righteous dealing and the sanotity of oaths;
and therefore was the god by whom oaths were
taken = Dius Fidius [Fidius]. Again from
the relations of Hercules and Juno to men and
women respectively, and from the fact that
obligations and compacts were under the pro
vince of Hercules, both these deities had to do
with the Roman rite of marriage, and the bridal
dress was fastened by the nodus Herculeus
or Herculaneus. [Diet, of Ant. art. Matri-
monium.] When the ItaUan deity was iden
tified with tMs Greek deity is not certain;
but it is probable that the Hercules whom
Romulus is said to have worshipped — i.e. the
original Hercules ab Rome — was the purely
Italian deity, and that the Greek Heracles was
not adopted at any rate before the Tarquinian
epoch, though Livy (i. 7) assigned an earlier
date. The reasons for the identification were
probably that both were deities who gave
strength, and both were connected with stories
of combat against powers of evU or of darkness :
and, moreover, the Genius Jovis or Dius Fidius
came to be regarded as the son of Jupiter, and
so was taken to be Heracles the son of Zeus.
With regard to the name there is more doubt,
but it seems on the whole probable that
the name Hercules is an Italiamsed form of
Heracles, and prevaUed over the native name
when the Greek legends and the Greek form of
worsMp was established. Some, however, have
held that the word is Latin and is connected
with hercere or herciscere, denoting the god of
enclosures or property : others connect it with
Kerus = Gemus ; but though the latter would
agree with the fact that Hercules = Genius, yet
it is difficult to regard the simUarity of the
Greek and Roman names as a mere accident.
The Greek form of worsMp was at any rate in
use when the lectisternium was first introduced,
B.C. 399 (Liv. v. 13), for Hercules was one of the
six deities then honoured, and there is little
doubt of the Greek origin of the rite [Diet, of
Ant. art. Lectisternium]. All the Greek stories
of HeracleB were also incorporated with the
legends of the native deity; and so to the
myth of Cacus Hercules is represented as on
his return from the expedition which Heracles
made agamst Geryon (Verg. Aen. vni. 190 ; Ov.
Fast. i. 543). Yet this is clearly added, and
the story was of Italian origin to wMch the god
bore the name Garanus (Verr. Flacc. ap. Serv.
ad Aen. viii. 203). This name (which appears
as Recaranus in Aurel. Vict. Orig. 8), whether
it be, as some think, of Celtic origin, or, as is
not improbable, connected with the word
Kerus = Genius, was a local name for the
Italian Hercules, and the native legend makes
him a country god or deified herdsman, who
smote Cacus the robber of oxen. Cacus is by
many supposed to represent the evil powers of
the underworld, against whom Heracles
Garanus contended. [Cacus.]
mention of Hercules as the god of gain and the
protector of treasures (Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 12 ; Pers.
ii. 10), and his connexion on this account with
Mercury to inscriptions, may be traced to his
functions as god of the household store, men
tioned above. It has often been supposed that
the connexion with the Muses indicated by the
title Hercules Musarum and Here. Musagetes
is not of Greek origin, but this is probably
erroneous, and it is likely that the attribute
was borrowed from Heracles with the lyre,
which is a favourite representation in Greek
art, alluding probably to songs of victory be-

401
longing to a 'HpaKXr)s KaXXlviKos. Hercules
was worshipped at Rome in the round temple
of H. Victor to the Boarium and at the Ara
Maxima near it, on which a tithe of the spoils
taken in war was dedicated to him as god of
victory. A peculiar point in the ritual of this
temple was the exclusion of flies and dogs (Plin.
xxxiv. 88 ; Solin. i. 10). Whether this ' taboo '
has the same origin as the Arcadian deity Myi-
agrus and the Elean Myiacores, who delivered
the people from plagues of flies (Paus. viii. 26,
7 ; Plin. x. 75), is not very certain. It is remark
able with regard to the position of Hercules as
god of victory that the Salii at Tibur were
priests in the temple of Hercules Victor. For
the priests of Hercules at Rome, see Pinaria
Gens.— In art Heracles is represented with a
powerful frame and small head, having a club

or a bow, and usually with a lion-skin, but it
should be noted that this lion-skin does not
appear on any representation earlier than the
end of the sixth century B.C., which agrees
The frequent with the theory that the epic of Pisander of
Rhodes marks the time when there was a great
development and increase in the myths of
Heracles, partly from Phoenician and Egyptian
influence. The lion-skin is sometimes drawn,
like a cowl, over the head, especially on coins ;
but the favourite type of Heracles is that of a
powerful bearded man, naked, but with the lion-
skin hanging on his arm or worn like a chlamys.
The beardless type is also common at various
dates. The famous 'Farnese Hercules by
Glycon, showing Heracles leaning on his club
and (probably) looking down at Telephus, is
with good reason thought to preserve the atti-

402

HERACLEUM

tude and characteristics which were adopted
and popularised by Lysippus.
Heracleum ('HpdKXeiov), the name of several
promontories and towns, of which none require
special notice except : 1. A town in Macedonia
at the mouth of the Apilas, near the frontiers
of Thessaly. — 2. The harbour of Cnossus in
Crete. — 3. A town on the coast of the Delta of
Egypt, a little W. of Canopus ; from which the
Canopic mouth of the Nile was often called also
the Heracleotic mouth. — 4. A place near Gin-
darus in the Syrian province of Cyrrhestice,
where Ventidius, the legate of M.Antony, gained
his great victory over the Parthians under Pa
corus, in B.C. 38 (Strab. p. 751).
Heraclianus ('HpaKXeiavbs), one of the officers
of Honorius, put Stilicho to death (a.d. 408), and
received, as the reward, the government of
Africa. In 413 he revolted against Honorius,
and invaded Italy ; but his enterprise failed,
and on Ms return to Africa he was put to death
at Carthage. (Zos. v. 37, vi. 7-11.)
Heraclidae ('HpaKXe7Sai), the descendants of
Heracles, who, in conjunction with the Dorians,
conquered Peloponnesus. It had been the wUi
of Zeus, so ran the legend, that Heracles should
rule over the country of the Perseids, at Mycenae
and Tiryns. But, through Hera's cunning,
Eurystheus had been put into the place of
Heracles, who had become the servant of the
former. After the death of Heracles, Ms claims
devolved upon his sons and descendants. At
the time of his death, HyUus, the eldest of his
four sous by Deianira, was residing with his
brothers at the court of Ceyx at Trachis. As
Eurystheus demanded their surrender, and
Ceyx was unable to protect them, they fled to
various parts of Greece, until they were received
as suppliants at Athens, at the altar of Eleos
(Mercy). (Diod. iv. 57 ; Paus. i. 32, 5 ; Apollod.
ii. 8, 1.) According to the Heraclidae of Euri
pides, the sons of Heracles were first staying at
Argos, thence went to Trachis in Thessaly, and
at length came to Athens. Demophon, the son
of Theseus, received them, and they settled in
the Attic tetrapolis. Eurystheus, to whom the
Athenians refused to surrender the fugitives,
now marched against the Athenians with a
large army, but was defeated by the Athenians
under Iolaus, Theseus, and Hyllus, and was
slain with his sons. The battle itself was cele
brated in Attic story as the battle of the Sci-
ronian rock, on the coast of the Saronic gulf,
though Pindar places it to the neighbourhood
of Thebes (Pyth. 137 ; cf. Hdt. ix. 137). After
the battle, the Heraclidae entered Pelopon
nesus, and maintained themselves there for one
year. This was their firBt invasion of Pelopon
nesus. But a plague, which spread over the
whole peninsula, compelled them to return to
Attica, where, for a time, they again settled in
the Attic, tetrapolis. From thence they pro
ceeded to Aegimius, Mng of the Dorians, whom
Heracles had assisted to Ms war against the
Lapithae, and who had promised to preserve a
third of his territory for the children of Hera
cles. [Aegimius.] The Heraclidae were hospi
tably received by Aegimius, and HyUus was
adopted by the latter. After remaining in
Doris tMee years, Hyllus, with a band of Do
rians, undertook an expedition against Atreus,
who had married a daughter of Eurystheus,
and had become king of Mycenae and Tiryns.
Hyllus marched across the CorintMan isthmus,
and first met Echemus of Tegea, who fought
for the Pelopidae, the principal opponents of
the Heraclidae. Hyllus fell in stogie combat

HERACLIDES
with Echemus, and, according to an agreement
which had been made before the battle, the
Heraclidae were not to make any further at
tempt upon Peloponnesus for the next fifty
years. Thus ended their second invasion. They
now retired to Tricorythus, where they were
aUowed by the Athenians to take up their abode.
During the period which followed (ten years
after the death of HyUus), the Trojan war took
place ; and thirty years after the Trojan war
Cleodaeus, son of Hyllus, again invaded Pelo
ponnesus; which was the third invasion. About
twenty years later Aristomachus, the son of :
Cleodaeus, undertook the fourth expedition;
but both heroes fell. Not quite thirty years
after Aristomachus (that is, about eighty years
after the destruction of Troy), the Heraclidae
prepared for their fifth and final attack. Te
menus, Cresphontes, and Aristodemus, the sons
of Aristomachus, upon the advice of an oracle,
buUt a fleet on the Corinthian guU ; but this
fleet was destroyed, because Hippotes, one of
the Heraclidae, had MUed Carnus, an Acarna
nian soothsayer; and Aristodemus was killed
by a flash of lightning (Apollod. ii. 8, 2 ; Paus.
iii. 1, 5). An oracle now ordered them to take
a three-eyed man for their commander. He
was found in the person of Oxylus, the son of
Andraemon, an AetoUan, but descended from a
famUy to Elis. The expedition now successfuHy
sailed from Naupactus towards RMum in Pelo
ponnesus. Oxylus, keeping the invaders away
from Elis, led them tMough Arcadia. (Paus. iv.
3, 4, viii. 5, 4.) The Heraclidae and Dorians
conquered Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, who
ruled over Argos, Mycenae, and Sparta. After
this they became masters of the greater part of
Peloponnesus, and then distributed by lot the
newly acquired possessions. Temenus obtained
Argos ; Procles and Eurystheus, the twin sons
of Aristodemus, Lacedaemon; and Cresphontes,
Messenia. — Such are the traditions about the
HeracUdae and their conquest of Peloponnesus.
They are not purely mythical, but contain a
genuine Mstorical substance, notwithstanding
the various contradictions in the accounts.
They represent the conquest of the Achaean
population by Dorian invaders, who had origi
nally been pressed southwards by the Thes-
salians [Dores], and then, finding their new
settlements about the Spercheus too small,
joined the Aetolians in invading the Pelopon
nesus. The Dorian account somewhat obscures
the part in the conquest taken by the Aetolians,
who obtained the land of the Epeans or Elis
as their share ; and it also compresses into one
generation a conquest which was probably slow
and gradual. The length of the period spent in
the conquest may perhaps be indicated by the
time aUowed in the legend between the attempt
of HyUus and the successful invasion. [See
Diet, of Ant. art. Perioeci.]
Heraclides ('Hptuc\ef8i)s). 1. A Syracusan,
son of Lysimachus, one of the generals when
Syracuse was attacked by the Athenians, B.C.
415 (Thuc. vi. 103).— 2. A Syracusan, who held
the chief command of the mercenary forces
under the younger Dionysius. Being suspected
by Dionysius, he fled from Syracuse, and after
wards took part with Dion in expelling Diony
sius from Syracuse. After the expulsion of the
tyrant, a powerful party at Syracuse looked up
to Heraclides as their leader, in consequence of
which Dion caused him to be assassinated, 354.
(Plut. Dion, 85-68; Diod. xvi. 16-20.)— 3. Son
of Agathocles, accompanied his father to Africa,
where he was put to death by the soldiers when

HERACLITUS
they were deserted by Agathocles, 807 (Diod.
xx. 68). — 4. Of Tarentum, one of the chief
counseUors of Philip V. king of Macedonia (Pol.
xiii. 4). — 5. Of Byzantium, sent as ambassador
by Antiochus the Great to the two Scipios, 190
(Pol. xxi. 10). — 6. One of the tMee ambassadors
sent by Antiochus Epiphanes to the Romans,
169. Heraclides was banished by Demetrius
Soter, the successor of Antiochus (162), and in
revenge gave his support to the imposture of
Alexander Balas. (Pol. xxvii. 17, xxxiii. 14.) —
7. Surnamed Ponticus, because he was born at
Heraclea in Pontus. He was a person of con
siderable wealth, and migrated to Athens,
where he became a pupil of Plato. He studied
also the Pythagorean system, and afterwards
attended the instructions of Speusippus, and
finaUy of Aristotle. He wrote a great number
of works upon philosophy, mathematics, music,
Mstory, pohtics, grammar, and poetry ; but of
these works only fragments remain (Diog. Laert.
v. 86). There is a smaU work of Heraclides,
entitled 7repl iroXneiav, edited by Koler, Halle,
1804, and by Coraes, in Ms edition of Aelian,
Paris, 1805. Another extant work, 'AXXriyoplai
'OpTjptKai, wMch also bears the name of Hera
clides, was certainly not written by this Hera
clides. — 8. A historian, who lived in the reign of
Ptolemy PMlopator (222-205), and wrote several
works, quoted by the grammarians. — 9. A phy
sician of Tarentum, Uved in the third or second
century B.C., and wrote some works on Materia
Medica, and a commentary on all the works to
the Hippocratic CoUection. — 10. A physician of
ErytMae in Ionia, was a pupU of Chrysermus,
and a contemporary of Strabo in the first cen
tury B.C.
Heraclitus ('HpdjcXeiTos.) 1. Of Ephesus, a
pMlosopher generaUy considered as belonging to
the Ionian school, though he differed from their
principles to many respects. In his youth he
traveUed extensively, and after his return to
Ephesus the cMef magistracy was offered him,
which, however, he transferred to his brother,
He appears afterwards to have become a com
plete recluse, rejecting even the kindnesses
offered by Darius, and at last retreating to the
mountains, where he Uved on pot-herbs ; but,
after some time, he was compeUed by the sick
ness consequent on such meagre diet to return
to Ephesus, where he died at the age of
sixty. He flourished about B.C. 513. — Hera
clitus wrote a work On Nature (irepl tpioeas),
which contained his philosophical views. From
the obscurity of his style, he gained the title of
the Obscure (o-Koreivbs). (Cic. Fin. ii. 5, 15 ;
Sen. Ep. xii. 7.) The leading ideas of the philo
sophy of HeracUtus were dualism and motion,
while those of the Eleatics were unity and rest.
EverytMng in Ms view was in a state of passage
backwardB and forwards between two condi
tions. Fire, which seemed to typify this constant
motion, was in Ms philosophy the genesis of all
things, Mndling and extinguishing itself; and
so far did he carry this that he regarded the
sun as born anew and dying every day. The
universal process of nature was a motion up
wards and downwards. Fire tMough air and
water passed down to earth, and by the opposite
process earth passed upwards through water
and air to fire. The death of each became the
life of the other, and, as fire was the highest
element, so the conception of its dry and clear
nature entered into his moral system. The soul
or mind of man was an emanation from the
divine fire ; and the clouded intellect of a
drunkard was described by him as a 'wet soul.'

HERCULANEUM

403

He said of vision that the eyes cannot see, but
the mind sees through them, as through an
open door. (Sext. adv. Math. vii. 130; cf.
Lucret. iii. 869 ; Cic. Tusc. i. 20, 46.) The di
recting power of this order or process of nature
was apparently a soul of the world, the essence
of the fire, wMch passed through everything,
and back to itself. From this passage back
wards and forwards or upwards and downwards
there results whatever harmony and order of
nature there is, but it is a harmony arising from
conflict, so that Heraclitus found fault with
Homer for speaking of strife being banished
from gods and men, objecting that then nature
could not go on. To this theory refers the
' quid velit et possit rerum concordia discors '
of Horace (Ep. i. 12, 19). The constant change
and motion in the system, forcibly expressed by
Heraclitus in the words that ' no man can twice
enter the same river,' gained for Heraclitus and
his school the name of oi fieovres (Plat. Theaet.
p. 181). Heraclitus was more fiercely and more
unjustly atta'cked than any other philosopher by
Lucretius, because the physics of the Stoics, to
whom Lucretius was particularly opposed, were
in part based on Heraclitean views (Lucr. i. 639).
The tone of sadness in Heraclitus arising from
his despair of absolute knowledge, and from a
feeling of the changeable and fleeting character
of human life, and also from the amount of evil
in the world, gained for him the title of the
' weeping philosopher.' (Juv. x. 30 ; Sen. de Ir.
ii. 2, 5 ; Anth. Pal. ii. 148 ; cf. Democritus.)
On the other hand, many of his utterances were
cited with approval by early Christian writers,
while other passages which seemed to regard
the divine reason or xbyos were caught up by
the Neo-Platonists. (Edition of the remains of
Heraclitus by Bywater, Oxford, 1877.)
Heraea ('Hpaia : 'Hpaieis : nr. S. Joannes,
Ru.), a town to Arcadia, on the right bank of
the Alpheus, near the borders of Elis. Its terri
tory was called Heraeatis ('Hpaidris). It was
closely connected with Sparta in the fourth
century ; but afterwardB joined the Achaean
League. (Paus. viii. 26, 1 ; Strab. p. 337 ; Xen.
Hell. vi. 5, 22 ; Pol. ii. 54.)
Heraei Montes (rd"Hpaia bp-q : Monti Sori),
a range of mountains in Sicily, running from the
centre of the island SE., and ending in the pro
montory Pachynum (Diod. iv. 84).
Heraeum. [Argos, p. 107, b.]
Herbessus. [Erbessus.]
Herblta ("EpBtra : 'EpBiraios, Herbitensis), a
town in Sicily, N. of Agyrium, a powerful place
under the tyrant Archonides, but afterwards
declined (Diod. xii. 8 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 18, 32).
Herculaneum, a town in Samnium, conquered
by the consul Carvilius, B.C. 293 (Liv. x. 45),
must not be confounded with the more cele
brated town of this name mentioned below.
Herculaneum, Herculanium, Herculanum,
Herculense Oppidum, Herculea Urbs ('Hpd
KXeiov), an ancient city in Campania, near the
coast, between Neapolis and Pompeii, wa3 ori
ginally founded by the Oscans, was next in the
possession of the Tyrrhenians, and subsequently
was chiefly inhabited by Greeks, who appear to
have settled in the place from other cities of
Magna Graecia, and to have given it its name.
(Dionys. i. 44 ; Strab. p. 247 ; Ov. Met. xy. 711.)
It was taken by the Romans in the Social war
(B.C. 89, 88), and was colonised by them (Veil.
Pat. ii. 16). In a.d. 63 a great part of it was
destroyed by an earthquake ; and in 79 it was
overwhelmed, along with Pompeii and Stabiae,
by the great eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. It was
D D 2

404

HERCULES

buried under showers of ashes and streams of
lava from 70 to 100 feet under the present
surface of the ground. On its site stand the
modern Portici and part of the village of Be-
sina : the Italian name of Ercolano does not
indicate any modern place, but only the part of
Herculaneum that has been disinterred. The
ancient city was accidentally discovered by the
' sinking of a well, in 1720, since which time the
excavations have been carried on at different
I periods ; and many works of art have been dis
covered, which are deposited in the Royal Mu
seum at Portici. It has been found necessary
to fill up again the excavations which were
made, in order to render Portici and Resina
secure, and therefore very little of the ancient
city is to be seen. The buildings that have been
discovered are a theatre capable of accommo
dating about 10,000 spectators, the remains of
two temples, a large building, commonly desig
nated as & forum civile, 228 feet long and 132
broad, and some private houses, the walls of
which were adorned with paintings, many of
which, when discovered, were in a state of admi
rable preservation. There have been also found
at Herculaneum many MSS., written on rolls of
papyrus ; but the difficulty of unrolling and de
ciphering them was very great ; and the few
which have been deciphered are of later Greek
writers, among them some writings of Epicurus
and Philodemus.
Hercules, the hero. [Heracles.]
Hercules ('HpaKXfis), a son of Alexander the
Great by Barsine, the widow of the Rhodian
Memnon. In B. c. 310 he was brought forward
by Polysperchon as a pretender to the Mace
donian throne ; but he was murdered by Poly
sperchon himself in the following year, when
the latter became reconciled to Cassander.
(Diod. x. 20, 28 ; Just. xv. 2.)
Herculis Columnae. [Abyla; Calpe.]
Herciilis Monoeci Portus. [Monoecus.]
Herculis Portus. [Cosa.]
Herculis Promontorium (G. Spartivento),the
most southerly point of Italy, in Bruttium.
Herculis Silva, a forest in Germany, sacred
to Hercules, E. of the Visurgis.
Hercynia Silva, Hercynms Saltus, Hercy-
nium Jugum, an extensive range of mountains
in Germany, covered with forests, is described
by Caesar (B. G. vi. 24) as nine days' journey
to breadth, and more than sixty days' journey
in length, extending E. from the territories of
the Helvetii, Nemetes, and Rauraci, parallel to
the Danube, to the frontiers of the Dacians.
Under this general name Caesar appears to have
included all the mountains and forests in the S.
and centre of Germany, the Black Forest,
Odenwald, Thiirimger-Wald, the Harz, the
Erzgebirge, the Biesengebirge, &c. As the
Romans became better acquainted with Ger
many, the name was confined to narrower limits.
Pliny and Tacitus use it to indicate the range
of mountains between the Thiiringer-Wald and
the CarpatMan mountains (Plin. iv. 97 ; Tac.
Germ. 28, 80). The name is still preserved to
the modern Harz and Erz.
Herdonia (Herdoniensis : Ordona), a town
in Apulia, was destroyed by Hannibal, who re
moved its inhabitants to Thurii and Metapon-
tum ; it was rebuilt by the Romans (Strat. p.
282 ; Liv. xxi. 21, xxvii. 1).
Herdonius. 1. Turnus, of Aricia in Latium,
endeavoured to rouse the Latins against Tar
quinius Superbus, and was in consequence
falsely accused by Tarquinius, and put to death
(Liv. i. 50 ; Dionys. iv. 45). — 2. Appius, a Sabine

HERMARCHUS
chieftain, who, in B. c. 460, with a band of out
laws and slaves, made himself master of the
Capitol. On the fourth day from his entry the
Capitol was retaken, and Herdonius was slain.
(Liv. iii. 15-19 ; Dionys. x. 14.)
Herennia Gens, originally Samnite, and by
the Samnite invasion established in Campania,
became at a later period a plebeian house at
Rome. The Herennii were a family of rank to
Italy, and the hereditary patrons of the Marii.
(Liv. ix. 3 ; Plut. Mar. 5.)
Herennius. 1. Modestinus. [Modestinus.]
— 2. Pontius. [Pontius.] — 3, Seneelo. [Se-
necio.J Herillus ("HpiXXos), of Carthage, a Stoic
philosopher, was the disciple of Zeno of Cittium.
He did not, however, confine himself to the
opinions of his master, but held some doctrines
directly opposed to them. He held that the
cMef good consisted in knowledge (iirio-rf)p7i), a
notion often attacked by Cicero. (Cic. de Fin.
ii. 11, 13, Tusc. v. 30 ; Diog. Laert. vii. 165.)
Hermaeum, or, in Latin, Mercurii Promon
torium ('Eppaia &Kpa). 1. (Gape Bon, Arab.
Bos Addar), the headland which forms the E.
extremity of the Sinus Carthaginiensis, and the
extreme NE. point of the Carthaginian terri
tory (aft. the province of Africa) opposite to
Lilybaeum, the space between the two being the
shortest distance between Sicily and Africa
(Strab. p. 832; Pol. i. 29; Liv. xxix. 27).— 2.
(Bas el Ashan), a promontory on the coast of
the Greater Syrtis, 50 stadia W. of Leptis. — 3.
A headland of Lemnos (Aesch. Pr. 283 ; Soph.
Phil. 1459).
Hermagoras ('Eppaybpas). 1. Of Temnos, a
distinguished Greek rhetorician of the time of
Cicero. He belonged to the Rhodian school of
oratory, but is known chiefly as a teacher of
rhetoric. He devoted particular attention to
what is called invention — that is, the province
of rhetoric wMch is occupied with discovering
facts and probabilities such as will support the
case — and made a peculiar division of the parts
of an oration which differed from that adopted
by other rhetoricians. (Quintil. iii. 1, 16; 6, 60 ;
Cic. de Invent, i. 11, 16.) — 2. Surnamed Carion,
a Greek rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Rome
in the time of Augustus. He was a disciple of
Theodorus of Gadara. (Quintil. iii. 1, 18.)
Hermanubis. [Anubis.]
Hermaphroditus ('EppaippbSiros), son of Her
mes and Aphrodite, and consequently great-
grandson of Atlas, whence he is called Atlan-
tiades or Atlantius (Ov.Met. iv. 368). He had
inherited the beauty of both Ms parents, and
was brought up by the nymphs of Mount Ida.
In his fifteenth year he went to Caria. In the
neighbourhood of Halicarnassus he lay down
by the fountain of Salmacis. The nymph of the
fountain fell in love with him, and tried in vain
to win his affections. Once when he was bath
ing in the fountain, she embraced him, and
prayed to the gods that she might be united
with him for ever. The gods granted the re
quest, and the bodies of the youth and the
nymph became united together, but retained
the characteristics, of each sex. HermapMo-
ditus, on becoming aware of the change, prayed
that in future everyone who bathed in the well
might be metamorphosed in the same manner
(Ov. Met. iv. 285 ; cf. Diod. iv. 6). The myth
represents an Oriental belief in masculine deities
with a female counterpart (whence the bearded
ApModite at Cyprus ; Macrob. Sat. iii, 8).
Hermarchus ("Eppapx°s), of Mytilene, a rhe
torician, became afterwards a disciple of Epi-

HERMES

405

curus, who left to him his garden, and appointed
Mm Ms successor in his school, about b. c. 270.
(Diog. Laert. x. 25.)
Hermes ('Eppr)s, 'Eppelas, Dor. 'Eppds), called
Mercurius by the Romans. The Greek Hermes
was a son of Zeus and Maia, the daughter of
Atlas, and born in a cave of Mt. CyUene in
Arcadia, whence he is called Atlantiades or
Cyllenius (Od. viii. 885, xiv. 485, xxiv. 1 ; Hes.
Th. 988 ; Hymn, in Merc. 1 ff. ; Ov. Met. i. 682,
xiv. 291.) A few hours after his birth, he escaped
from his cradle, went to Pieria, and carried off
some of the oxen of ApoUo (Hymn. 17). In the
Diad and Odyssey this tradition is not men
tioned, though Hermes is characterised as a
cunning tMef and deceiver (II. v. 390, xxiv. 24,
S95, 444, 680). That he might not be discovered
by the traces of his footsteps, he put on sandals,
and drove the oxen to Pylos, where he killed
two, and concealed the rest in a cave. Some
traveUers have fancied that they find the actual
-cave of the story to a stalactite cavern on the
NE. slope of the Acropolis of Pylos (Navarino),
wMch in the time of Pausamas -was called
Nestor's cattle-shed (Paus. iv. 36, 2). The
sMns of the slaughtered animals were nailed to
a rock ; and part of their flesh was cooked and
eaten, and the rest burnt (Hymn. I.e. ; Ant.
Lib. 23 ; Diod. i. 16). Thereupon he returned
to CyUene, where he found a tortoise at the en
trance of Ms native cave. He took the animal's
sheU, drew strings across it, and thus invented
the lyre, on wMch he immediately played.

Hermes making a Lyre. (Osterley, Denlim. alt. Kunst,
vol. ii. tav. 29.)
Apollo, by Ms prophetic power, had meantime
discovered the thief, and went to CyUene to
charge Hermes with the crime before Ms mother,
Maia. She showed to the god the child in its
cradle ; but Apollo carried the boy before Zeus,
and demanded back his oxen. Zeus commanded
him to comply with the demand of Apollo, but
Hermes denied that he had stolen the cattle.
As, however, he saw that his assertions were
not believed, he conducted Apollo to Pylos, and
restored to him his oxen; but when Apollo
heard the sounds of the lyre, he was so charmed
that he aUowed Hermes to keep the animals.
Hermes now invented the syrinx, and after dis
closing his inventions to Apollo, the two gods
concluded an intimate friendship with each
other. Apollo presented Ms young friend with
Ms own golden shepherd's staff, and taught him
the art of prophesying by means of dice. Zeus
made Mm Ms own herald, and likewise the
herald of the gods of the lower world (Hymn.
514 ; cf. Hor. Od. i. 10, 6).— The principal fea
ture in the traditions about Hermes consists in
his being the herald of the gods, and in this
capacity he appears in the Homeric poems. As

the herald of the gods, he is the god of elo
quence, for the heralds are the public speakers
in the assemblies and on other occasions. The
gods especiaUy employed him as messenger
when eloquence was required to attain the de
sired object (II. i. 888, iv. 198, xi. 684, xxiv. 390 ;
Od. i. 88). As heralds and messengers are
usually men of prudence and circumspection,
Hermes was also the god of prudence and skill
in all the relations of social intercourse (II. xx.
85). These qualities were combined with simi
lar ones, such as cunning, both in words and
actions, and even fraud, perjury, and the in
clination to steal ; but acts of this kind were
committed by Hermes always with a certain
skill and gracefulness. — He was employed by
the gods, and more especiaUy by Zeus, on a
variety of occasions which are recorded in an
cient story. Thus he led Priam to AcMUes to
fetch the body of Hector (II. xxiv. 182 ; Ov.
Met. i. 670) ; tied Ixion to the wheel (Hyg. Fab.
62) ; conducted Hera, Aphrodite, and Athene to
Paris (Paus. v. 19, 1) ; rescued Dionysus after
his birth, from the flames, or received him from
the hands of Zeus to carry him to Athamas
(Apollod. iii. 4, 3 ; Ap. Rh. iv. 1137) ; and was
ordered by Zeus to carry off Io, who was meta
morphosed into a cow, and guarded by Argus,
whom he slew. [Argus.] From this murder
he is very commonly called 'ApyeiqjbvTTis. It is
true that Homer, who uses the epithet, makes
no mention of the story ; but there is no diffi
culty in supposing that this local myth was
known to Mm and had become widely enough
spread to furnish a surname. Roscher, how
ever, objecting to this view, beheves that the
epithet = ap7^o-T7)s, and signifies the clearing
or brightening effect of the wind, like the ' albus
Notus ' [see below]. His ministry to Zeus was
not confined to the offices of herald and mes
senger, but he was also his charioteer and cup
bearer. As dreams are sent by Zeus, Hermes
conducts them to man, and hence he is also
described as the god who had it in his power to
send refresMng sleep or to take it away. An
other important function of Hermes was to
conduct the shades of the dead from the
upper into the lower world [see cut, p. 376]
whence he is called tyvxoiropirbs, veKpoiropirbs,
>f/vxayaybs, &c. — All these functions are held
by several modern mythologists of great
authority, especially by Roscher, to proceed
from the original conception of the Wind, trans
formed into a. deity. It is argued that the
wind is sent by Zeus, as Aibs ovpos; that
Hermes is the son of Zeus as god of heaven
and Maia as goddess of rain-clouds ; that he is
born in the wind-cave of CyUene ; that his
winged feet have this meaning : that he is god
of theft, because winds, like the Harpies, snatch
away ; that especially in the theft of cattle he
is the wind carrying off the clouds and hiding
them behind the mountains ; that he is god of
fruitfulness in herds Sea., because the wind is
' genitabilis ' ; the god of luck to allusion to the
favourable (oUpios) breeze ; the god of gymna
siums because it is strong and swift ; that he
is conductor of souls because they are com
pared to breezes or air; and even that his
discovery of the lyre and the pipe symbolises
the whistling of the wind. There is force in a
great deal of the argument ; but it is not con
vincing. Others, again, with somewhat similar
reasons make him the rain-god. It is simpler
to understand as the original idea of Hermes
the Power which brings good fortune to men
whatever their Une of life may be. He is to the

406

HERMES

Greeks the nearest equivalent (as regards Ms
functions) to the Italian Gemus ; but, with this
difference, that he is regarded as a distinct
Olympian deity. His functions are manifold,
because each different class of men had its own
requirements for his help. Arcadia was perhaps
the oldest seat of his worship in Greece ; the
most generaUy accepted place of Ms birth, and
the country where the old a7oA.,uaTa rerpdyava
were seen by Pausanias (Hymn, in Merc. 2 ;
Pind. Ol. vi. 80; Paus. viii. 17, 1). Since,
therefore, Arcadia was pre-eminently the pas
toral country, it is natural that the deity of good
fortune should there be connected especially
with the prosperity and increase of flocks and
herds. Whether herdsmen were gaining wealth
by breeding stock or by skilful ' cattle-lifting,'
this deity would be regarded as their helper,
and in myth as the hero of successful enterprise
in the same line. The like characteristics
would belong to the deity who brought good
luck in any other occupations and industries ;
to all he was lEppr)s 'Epiovvios and Sarrip idav ;
in commercial enterprise he was dyopciios,
epiroXoiios, iraXiyKdirriXos, KepSipos, KepSepiropos
(Aristoph. Plut. 1155, &c.) ; and in general a
lucky find was ascribed to his favour, and was
caUed eppdiov or eppaia Sbais (Aesch. Eum.
947), "Eppov KXripos (Aristoph. Pax, 365, &c).
It is clear that from this general idea of success
in skilful work of any sort may naturally pro
ceed his aid in ready speech, his aid in inven
tions such as the lyre, the syrinx, writing, astro
nomy, and, and mathematics, which led to his
identification with the Egyptian Thoth (Strab.
p. 816 ; Cic. N. D. iii. 22, 56 ; Hor. Od. i. 10, 3 ;
Ov. Fast. v. 668). Further, as god of good for
tune in commerce he was the leader of travellers,
and indeed of any expeditions, whether for war
or peace, and on this account received sacrifices
as TiyifTap and r)yepbvios. His position, which
belongs to the oldest Greek literature and has
to do with the greatest number of stories about
him, as messenger of Zeus expresses simply the
idea that wealth and good fortune are sent from
Zeus (Od. vi. 188 ; cf. Hor. Od. i. 28, 27). This
is well expressed in the Pompeian picture en
graved below, where Hermes the messenger is

Hermes bringing wealth. From a wall-painting at
Pompeii. (Mils. Borb. vi. 2.)
starting forth with a bag of money in his hand.
Hermes, then as the intermediary, becomes the
envoy and Kjjpu| of Zeus. His other ancient
function, conducting the souls to Hades (Od.
xxiv. 1, 9 ; Hymn, in Merc. 572, in Cer. 377 ;
Hyg. Fab. 251 ; Hor. Od. i. 13, 17), whence he

Terminal Hermes.
(British Museum.)

is called if/vxovopirbs, x^vios, &c., was probably
attributed to him, because he watches over the
fortunes of each mortal, like the Italian Genius,
from his birth to the grave. As his image.
(eppaiov) stands before each
citizen's door to guard and
increase his wealth, so at
his death 'Epprjs guides his
soul to Hades. His office
of presiding over the gym
nasium was a later attri
bute ; it signified that he
was the god who gave good
luck in contests and also
that beauty of youtMul
form of which he was him
self the ideal. Statues of
Hermes consisting of a
head placed on a quad
rangular pillar, and set up
before nouses, temples,
gymnasia, &c. are preserved
in large numbers. (See
Diet, of Ant. art. Hermae.)
As might be expected from
the variety of Ms functions
and the universal need of
his help for all undertak
ings, he was worshipped to
temples and shrines all
over Greece and her co
lonies. Next to Arcadia
those places moBt deserving
mention were Athens —
where the antiquity of his
worship was attested by
the ancient image in the
temple of Athene Polias, and the Hermae of
primitive shape before the doors of houses
(Paus. iv. S3, 4 ; Thuc. vi. 27) — and Tanagra,
which claimed to be Ms birthplace (Paus. ix.
20, 8), and where also, as a proof of his worship
in the character of protector of the flocks, he
.had a statue by Calamis as Kpiotpbpos, bearing
a ram upon his shoulders, and a festival at
which the handsomest
youth of the city went
round the walls carry
ing in like manner a
lamb on his shoulders.
As tutelary god, too,
of the same place he
was caUed irpbpaxos
(Paus. ix. 22, 2). His
connexion with Elis is
shown by the claim of
the Elean CyUene to
be his birthplace, and
also by Ms famous
statue in the Heraeum
at Olympia (Paus. v.
17, vi. 26). There was
also a specially ancient
seat of his worship,
which Herodotus calls
Pelasgian, in Samo
thrace (Hdt. ii. 51).
The fourth of the
month (rerpds), tradi- Hermes Criophorus. (Terra-
tionally Ms birthday, S*^^f <Jela in Britlsh
was sacred to Mm ; the
most ancient sacrifices mentioned belonged to
Mm as god of flocks, the lamb and the Md (Od.
xix. 897). In art the principal attributes of
Hermes are : 1. A petasus, or hat with a broad
brim, which signified the traveUer. From the
latter part of the fifth cent. B.C., but not in

HERMES
earlier art, this hat was sometimes, and in
Roman art always, adorned with small wings.
2. The staff (pd$Sos or o-Kr)irrpov), which he bore
as a herald, and had received from Apollo. In
late works of art the wMte ribbons which sur
rounded the herald's staff were changed toto
two serpents [Diet, of Ant. art, Caduceus]. 3.
The sandals (rreSiXa). They were beautiful and
golden, and carried the god across land and sea
with the rapidity of wind ; at the ankles of the
god they were provided with wings, whence he
is called irrnvoireSiXos, or alipes. In the most
primitive times he was represented by more or
less rude blocks of stone or wood with the
phallus and then by the Hermae, i.e. heads of
the god placed on a quadrangular base [Diet.
of Ant. art. Hermes] ; such were the Hermae
of the Attic streets mentioned above, and they
were probably to some extent copies of the an
cient £bavov in the temple of Athene Polias.
On archaic vases he is easily distinguished, but
he is a bearded man with none of the more
youthful beauty of the familar later types.
TMs is first traceable to the work of the fifth
century, and was, no doubt, a characteristic of
the famous statue by Calamis representing
Hermes Criophorus of Tanagra [see above]. A
good idea of the attitude of tMs statue (which
appears also on coins of Tanagra) may probably
be gained from the terracotta figure in the Bri
tish Museum, wMch is reasonably taken to be
an imitation of the statue, but it is only a rude
imitation. Of the youtMul and idealised type
handed down from Polycletus and above aU
from Praxiteles, and adopted as the Hermes of
later Greek and Roman art, there are numerous
examples, copies or imitations of the great sculp
tors, and among them is probably to be reckoned
the so-caUed Antinous to the Vatican. Most
famous and most beautiful of all is the original
statue of Praxiteles, Hermes with the child
Dionysus [see under Praxiteles]. The Hermes

HERMIONE

407

Hermes, as messenger, resting. (From a bronze statue
at Naples, probably after Lysippus.)
of Lysippus, from which the bronze figure from
Herculaneum here shown was probably copied,
has a further development to slimness and
gracefulness of form.
Hermes Trismegistus ('Eppys Tpio-peyio-ros),
the reputed author of a variety of works, some
of which are still extant. The Greek god Hermes
was identified with the Egyptian Thoth aB early
as the time of Plato. The Neo-Platonists re
garded an Egyptian Hermes as the source of all

knowledge and thought, or the xbyos embodied,
and hence called him Trismegistus. A vast num
ber of works on philosophy and religion, written
by the Neo-Platonists, were ascribed to this
Hermes; from whom it was pretended that
Pythagoras and Plato had derived all their
knowledge. Most of these works were probably
written in the fourth century of our era. The
most important of them is entitled Poemander
(from noipiiv, a shepherd, pastor), apparently
in imitation of the Pastor of Hennas. TMs
work is in the form of a dialogue. It treats of
nature, the creation of the world, the deity, his
nature and attributes, the human soul, know
ledge, &c. w_(Ed. by Parthey, Berlin, 1854.)
Hermesianax ('Epprio-idvag), of Colophon, a
distinguished elegiac poet, lived in the time of
Alexander the Great. His chief work was an
elegiac poem of love-stories to three books,
addressed to his mistress, Leontium, whose
name formed the title of the poem. The frag
ments are edited by Rigler and Axt, Colon.
1828, and by Bailey, Lond. 1839.
Hermias or Hermias ('Eppeias or 'Eppias).
1. Tyrant of Atarneus and Assos in Mysia, said
to have been originally a slave, celebrated as
the friend and patron of Aristotle, Aristotle
remained with Hermiaa three years, from B.c.
347 to 344, to the latter of which years Hermias
was seized by Mentor, the Greek general of the
Persian king, and sent as a captive to the
Persian court, where he was put to death.
Aristotle married Pythias, the adopted daughter
of Hermias, and celebrated the praises of Ms
benefactor in an ode addressed to Virtue,
which is still extant. (Strab. p. 610 ; Diog.
Laert. v. 3). — 2. A Christian writer, who lived
about a.d. 180, author of an extant work, en
titled Aiaavppbs rav e\a cpiXoirbipav, in which
Greek pMlosophers are held up to ridicule.
Edited with Tatianus by Worth, Oxon. 1700.
Herminia Gens, a patrician house at Rome,
which appears in the first Etruscan war with
the republic, B.C. 506, and vanishes from history
to 448. T. Herminius was one of the three
heroes who kept the Sublician bridge against
the whole force of Porsena (Liv. ii. 10).
Herminius Mons (Sierra de la Estrella),
the cMef mountain in Lusitania, S. of the
Durius, from 7000 to 8000 feet high, called in
the middle ages Hermeno (Bell. Alex. 48).
Hermione ('Eppibv-n), the daughter of Mene
laus and Helena (II. iii. 175 ; Od. iv. 4 ; Verg.
Aen. iii. 328). She had been promised in
marriage to Orestes before the Trojan war;
but Menelaus after his return home married
her to Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus). Thereupon
Orestes claimed Hermione for himself, but
Neoptolemus refused to give her up. Orestes,
in revenge, incited the Delphians against Mm,
and Neoptolemus was slain. Hermione after
wards married Orestes, whom she had always
loved, and bore him a son Tisamenus.- The
history of Hermione is related with various
modifications. According to some, Menelaus
betrothed her at Troy to Neptolemus ; but to
the meantime her grandfather, Tyndareus,
promised her to Orestes, and actually gave her
to marriage to him. Neoptolemus, on his
return, took possession of her by force, but was
slain soon after either at Delphi or in his own
home at Phthia. (Pind. Nem. vii. 43 ; Eur.
And. 891 ; Hyg. Fab. 123.)
Hermione ('Eppibvri : 'Eppioveis : Kasiri), a'
town of Argolis, but originally independent of
Argos, was situated on a promontory on the E.
coast, and on a bay of the sea, which derived

408

HERMIONES

its name from the town (Hermionicus Sinus).
Its territory was called Hermionis, It was
originally inhabited by the Dryopes; and, in
consequence of its isolated position, it became a
flourishing city at an early period. It contained
several temples, and among them a celebrated
one of Demeter Chthonia. At a later time it
joined the Achaean League. (II. ii. 560 ; Hdt.
viii. 43 ; Strab. p. 378 ; Paus. ii. 35 ; Pol. ii. 44.)
Hermiones or Herminones (perhaps 'the
warriors '), a name apparently given collectively
to certain tribes in the interior of Germany,
who were generally known as the Cherusci, &c.
(Tac. Germ. 2; Mel. iii. 3).
Hermippus ("EppiTiros). 1. An Athenian
poet of the Old Comedy, vehemently attacked
Pericles and Aspasia (Plut. Per. 32 ; Aristoph.
Nub. 553). Fragments in Meineke, Fr. Com.
Gr. — 2. Of Smyrna, a distinguished pMloso
pher, was a disciple of CaUimachus of Alex
andria, and flourished about b.c. 200. He
wrote a biographical work (Bioi), which is
frequently referred to by later writers. (Miiller,
Fr. Hist. Gr.) — 3. Of Berytus, a grammarian,
under Trajan and Hadrian.
Hermisium, a town in the Tauric Cherso
nesus, on the Cimmerian Bosporus.
Hermocrates ^EppoKpdrns), a Syracusan of
rank, and an able statesman and orator, was
chosen one of the Syracusan generals, B.C. 414,
in order to oppose the Athenians (Thuc. iv.
58, 65; Pol. xii. 22). He afterwards served
under Gylippus, when the latter took the com
mand of the Syracusan forces ; and after the
destruction of the Athenian armament he
attempted to save the lives of Nicias and
Demosthenes (Thuc. vi. 72— vii. 73). He then
employed aU Ms influence to induce Ms
countrymen to support with vigour the Lace
daemonians to the war in Greece itself. He
was with two colleagues appointed to the com
mand of a small fleet, which the Syracusans
sent to the assistance of the Lacedaemonians.
(Thuc. viii. 26.) But during his absence from
home, he was banished by the Syracusans
(410). Having obtained support from the Per
sian satrap Pharnabazus, he returned to SicUy,
and endeavoured to effect his restoration to his
native city by force of arms, but was slain in an
attack which he made upon Syracuse to 408.
(Xen. Hell. i. 1, 27 ; Diod. xiii. 63, 75.)
Hermodorus ('EppbSapos). 1. Of Ephesus,
a person of distinction, was expelled by his
fellow-citizens, and is said to have gone to
Rome, and to have explained to the decemvirs
the Greek laws, and thus assisted them in
drawing up the laws of the Twelve Tables, B.C.
451 (Diog. Laert. ix. 2; Cic. Tusc. v. 36,
105). — 2. A disciple of Plato, whose works he
is said to have circulated, especially to Sicily.
He wrote a work on Plato.— 3$. Of Salamis, at
the end of 2nd century B.C., the architect of the
temple of Mars to the Flaminian Circus, and
also of the navalia (Cic. de Or. i. 14, 62).
Hermogenes ('Eppoyevris). 1. A son of Hip
ponicus, and a brother of the wealthy Callias, is
introduced by Plato as one of the speakers in
his Cratylus, where he maintains that all the
words of a language were formed by an agree
ment of men among themselves (Plat. Crat.
p. 391, . c ; Xen. Mem. ii. 10, 3). — 2. A cele
brated Greek rhetorician, was a native of
Tarsus, and lived in the reign of M. Aurelius,
A.D. 161-180. He was appointed public teacher
of rhetoric, and he began Ms career as a writer
at the age of seventeen, but when he was twenty-
live Ms mental powers gave way, and he never

HERMOTIMUS
recovered their full use, although he lived to
an advanced age. His works, five in number,
which are still extant, were for a long time
used in the rhetorical schools as manuals.
They are : 1. Texvn b-qropiKri irepl rav o-rdaeav.
2. Ilepl evpeo-eas (De Inventions). 3. Ilepl
iSeav (De Formis Oratoriis). 4. Ilepl peBbSov
SeivbrrjTos (De apto et solerti genere dicendi
Methodus). 5. Tlpoyvpvdtrpara. An abridg
ment of the latter work was made by Aphtho-
nius, to consequence of wMch the original fell
into oblivion. The works of Hermogenes are
printed in Walz's Bhetor. Graec. — 3. An
architect of Alabanda, in Caria, who invented
what was called the pseudodipterus — that is, a
form of a temple, to wMch the single row of
columns stood at the same distance from the
wall of the cella as the outer row in a dipteral
temple (Vitr. iii. 2, 6). The great temple in
the agora of Selinus is an example of tMs form.
Hermogenes, M. Tigellius, an enemy of
Horace, who, however, admits his merits as a
singer (Sat. i. 3, 129 ; cf. 9, 25 ; 10, 18, 80, 90).
He must be distinguished from the Sardinian
Tigellius (whose adopted son some suppose
him to have been), who is mentioned both
by Cicero and Horace (Cic. ad Fam. vii.
24, ad Att. xiii. 49, 51 ; Hor. Sat. i. 2, 3).
Hermogenianus, the latest Roman jurist
from whom there is an extract to the Digest,
lived to the time of Constantine the Great.
Hermolaus ('EppbXaos), a Macedonian youth,
and a page of Alexander the Great. During a
hunting party in Bactria, B.C. 327, he slew a
wild boar, without waiting to allow Alexander
the first blow, whereupon the Mng ordered him
to be flogged. Incensed at this indignity,
Hermolaus formed a conspiracy against the
king's life; but the plot was discovered, and
Hermolaus and Ms accomplices were stoned to
death by the Macedonians. (Arrian, Anab. iv.
13; Curt. viii. 6; Plut. Alex. 55.)
Hermonassa. 1. A town of the Sindi at the
entrance of the Cimmerian Bosporus (Mel. i.
19, 5). — 2. A town on the coast of Pontus, near
Trapezus. Hermonthis ("EppavBis : Erment, Ru.), the
chief city of the Nomos Hermonthites, in Upper
Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, a little
above Thebes (Strab. p. 817).
Hermopolis ('EppbiroXis, "Eppov irbXis). 1.
Parva (r) piKpd: Damanhour), a city of Lower
Egypt, the capital of the Nomos of Alexandria,
stood upon the canal which connected the
Canopic branch of the NUe with the Lake
Mareotis (Strab. p. 802 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 46).—
2. Magna (rj peyaXrj : nr. Eshmounein, Ru.),
the capital of the Nomos Hermopolites, to the
Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, and one of the
oldest cities to the land, stood on the W. bank
of the NUe, a little below the confines of Upper
Egypt. At the boundary line itself was a
military station, or custom house, caUed 'Eppo-
iroXiriKri ipvXaKf), for collecting a toU on goods
entering the Heptanomis. Hermopolis was a
chief seat of the worsMp of Thoth, the Egyptian
Hermes._ (Ptol. v. 9, 11 ; Strab. p. 813.)
HermotimuB ('Eppbri/ios). 1. A mathema
tician of Colophon, was one of the immediate
predecessors of Euclid, and the discoverer of
several geometrical propositions. — 2. Of Clazo
menae, an early Greek philosopher of uncertain
date, belonged to the Ionic school. Some tra
ditions represent Mm as a mysterious person,
gifted with supernatural power, by which his
soul, apart from the body, wandered from place
to place, bringing tidtogs of distant events to

HERMUNDURI
incredibly short spaces of time. At length his
enemies burned his body, in the absence of the
soul, which put an end to his wanderings.
(Plin. vii. 174 ; Lucian, Encom. Muse. 7 ; Arist.
Metaph. i. 8.)
Hermundiiri, one of the most powerful na
tions of Germany, belonged to the Suevic race,
dwelt between the Main and the Danube, and
were bounded by the Sudeti mountains in the
N., the Agri Decumates of the Romans in the
W. and S., the Narisci on the E., the Cherusci
on the NE., and the Catti on the NW. They
were for a long time the allies of the Romans ;
but along with the other German tribes they
assisted the Marcomanni in the great war against
the Romans to the reign of M. Aurelius. After
tMs time they are rarely mentioned as a sepa
rate people, but are included under the name
of Suevi. (Tac. Germ. 41, Ann. ii. 63, xii. 29.)
Hermus (rb "Eppos : "Eppeios), a demus to
Attica, belonging to the tribe Acamantis, on
the road from Athens to Eleusis.
Hermus ("Eppos : Ghiediz-Ghai), a consider
able river of Asia Minor, rises in Mt. Dindymene
(Morad-Dagh) to Phrygia ; flows tMough Ly
dia, watering the plain N. of Sardis, wMch was
hence called- "Eppov ireSiov ; passes by Mag
nesia and Temnus ; and falls toto the Gulf of
Smyrna, between Smyrna and Phocaea. It
formed the boundary between Aeolia and Ionia.
Its tributaries were the HyUus, Cogamus, Pacto-
lus, and Phrygnus. (Strab. p. 554 ; Hdt. i. 80.)
Hernici, a people to Latium, belonged to the
Sabine race, and are said to have derived their
name from the Marsic (Sabine) word herna,
' rock ' (Fest. s.v.). According to this etymo
logy their name would signify 'mountaineers.'
They inhabited the mountains of the Apennines
between the lake Fuctous and the river Trerus,
and were bounded on the N. by the Marsi and
Aequi, and on the S. by the Volsci. Their
cMef town was Anagnia. They were a brave
and warlike people, and long offered a formid
able resistance to the Romans. The Romans
formed a league with them on equal terms to
the third consulship of Sp. Cassius, B.C. 486.
They were finally subdued by the Romans, 306.
(Verg. Aen. vii. 684 ; Liv. ii. 22, vi. 17, vii. 15.)
Hero. [Leander.]
Heron ("Hpov). 1. The Elder, a celebrated
mathematician, was a native of Alexandria,
and lived in the reigns of the Ptolemies Phil
adelphus and Evergetes (b.c. 285-222). He is
celebrated on account of Ms mechanical inven
tions, of which one of the best known is the
common pneumatic experiment, caUed Heron's
fountain, in which a jet of water is maintained
by condensed air. We also find in his works a
description of a steam engine, and of a double
forcing pump used for a fire-engine. The fol
lowing works of Heron are extant, though not
in a perfect form: — 1. XeipoBaXiffTpas Kara-
GKevr) Kal avpperpia, De Constructione et Men-
sura Manubalistae. 2. BeXoiroiiKa, on the
manufacture of darts. 3. TlvevpariKd, or Spirit-
alia, the most celebrated of Ms works. 4. Ilepl
avTopaToiroir)TiKav, De Automatorum Fabrica
Libri duo. All these works are published in
the Mathematici Veteres, Paris, 1693; the
military treatises by Riistow and Kochly, 1853.
— 2. The Younger, a mathematician, is sup
posed to have lived under Heraclius (a.d. 610-
641). The extant works assigned to Mm are : —
1. De Machinis bellicis. 2. Geodaesia, on
practical geometry. 3. DeObsidionerepellenda.
Published in the Mathematici Veteres.
Herodas. [Herondas.]

HERODLANUS

409

Herodes I, ('HpdSris), commonly called Herod.
1. Surnamed the Great, king of the Jews, was
the second son of Antipater, and consequently
of Idumaean origin. [Antipater, No. 8.] When
his father was appointed by Caesar procurator
of Judaea, to B.C. 47, Herod, though only 25
years of age, obtained the government of Gali
lee. In 46 he obtained the government of
Coele-Syria. After the death of Caesar (44),
Herod first supported Cassius; but upon the
arrival of Antony in Syria, in 41, he exerted
Mmself to secure his favour, and completely
succeeded in his object. Li 40 he went to Rome,
and obtained from Antony and Octavian a
decree of the senate, constituting him king of
Judaea. He supported Antony to the Civil war
against Octavian; but after the battle of Actium
(81) he was pardoned by Octavian. During the
remainder of his reign he cultivated the friend-
sMp of Augustus and Agrippa, and enjoyed
the favour of both. He possessed a jealous
temper and ungovernable passions. He put to
death his wife Mariamne, whom he suspected
without cause of adultery, and with whom he
was violently in love ; and at a later period he
also put to death his two sons by Mariamne,
Alexander and Aristobulus. His government,
though cruel and tyrannical, was vigorous ; and
he was both feared and respected by his subjects
and the surrounding nations. Among other
splendid public works, he partly rebuilt the
temple of Jerusalem, and the city of Samaria,
on wMch he bestowed the name of Sebaste;
while he converted a small town on the sea-
coast into a magnificent city, to which he gave
the name of Caesarea. He died to the 37th
year of his reign, and the 70th of his age, B.C.
4.* — 2. Herodes Antipas, son of Herod the
Great, by Malthace, a Samaritan, obtained the
tetrarchy of Galilee and Peraea, on his father's
death, while the kingdom of Judaea devolved
on Ms elder brother Archelaus. He married
Herodias, the wife of his half-brother, Herod
Philip. He had been previously married to a
daughter of the Arabian prince Aretas, who
invaded the dominions of Antipas, and defeated
the army which was opposed to him. In a.d.
38, through the intrigues of Herod Agrippa, who
was high in the favour of the Roman emperor,
Antipas was deprived of his dominions, and
sent into exile at Lyons (39) ; he was subse
quently removed to Spain, where he died. —
3. Herodes Agrippa. [Agrippa.] — 4. Brother
of Herod Agrippa I., obtained the kingdom of
Chalcis from Claudius at the request of Agrippa,
41. After the death of Agrippa (44), Claudius
bestowed upon him the superintendence of the
temple at Jerusalem, together with the right of
appointing the high priests. He died in 48,
when his kingdom was bestowed by Claudius
upon his nephew, Herod Agrippa II. [For
further account of the Herods, see Dictionary
of the Bible, art. Herodes.] — 5. Herodes Atti
cus, the rhetorician. [Atticus.]
Herodianus ('HpaSiavbs). 1. A historian,
who wrote in Greek a history of the Roman
empire in eight books, from the death of M.
Aurelius to the beginning of the reign of Gordi
anus III. (a.d. 180-238). He himself informs
us that the events of this period had occurred
in his own lifetime ; but beyond this we know
nothing respecting his life. He appears to
have had Thucydides before him as a model,

' The death of Herod took place in the same year
as the birth of Christ, but this is to be placed 4 years
before the date in general use as the Christian era.

410

HERODICUS

both for style and for the general composition
of his work, like Mm, introducing here and
there speeches wholly or in part imaginary. In
spite of occasional inaccuracies in chronology
and geography, his narrative is in the main
truthful and impartial. Edited by Irmisch,
Lips. 1789-1805, 5 vols., and by Bekker, Lips.
1855. — 2. Aelius Herodianus, one of the most
celebrated grammarians of antiquity, was the
son of Apollonius Dyscolus [Apollonius, No. 4],
and was born at Alexandria. From that place
he removed to Rome, where he gained the
favour of the emperor M. Aurelius, to whom
he dedicated Ms work on prosody, syntax, and
etymology. The estimation in which he was
held by subsequent grammarians was very
great. Priscian styles him maximus auctor
artis grammaticae. Remains of Ms work are
edited by Lentz, Lips. 1867.
Herodicus ('HpbSiKos). 1. Of Babylon, a
grammarian, was one of the immediate succes
sors of Crates of Mallus, and an opponent of
followers of Aristarchus, against whom he
wrote an epigram, which is in the Greek Antho
logy. — 2. A celebrated physician of Selym-
bria in Thrace, lived in the 5th century B. c,
and was one of the tutors of -Hippocrates.
Herodorus ('HpbSapos), of Heraclea, in Pon
tus, about B. c. 510, wrote a work on Heracles
(Pint. Thes. 26).
Herodotus ('HpbSoros). 1. A Greek his
torian, and the father of history, was born at
Halicarnassus, a Doric colony in Caria. He
belonged to a noble family at Halicarnassus.
He was the son of Lyxes and Dryo ; and the
epic poet Panyasis was his uncle. Herodotus
left Ms native city at an early age, in order to
escape from the oppressive government of
Lygdamis, the tyrant of Halicarnassus, who
put to death Panyasis. He settled at Samos
for some time, and there became acquainted
with the Ionic dialect ; but he spent many years
in Ms travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa, of
which we shall speak presently. At a later
time he returned to Halicarnassus, and took a
prominent part in expelling Lygdamis from his
native city. In the contentions which followed,
Herodotus was exposed to the hostile attacks
of one of the political parties, whereupon he
again left Halicarnassus, and settled at Thurii,
in Italy, where he died. Whether he accom
panied the first colonists to Thurii in 443, or
followed them a few years afterwards, is a dis
puted point ; though it appears probable from
a passage in his work that he was at Athens at
the beginning of the Peloponnesian war (431).
It is also disputed where Herodotus wrote his
history. Lucian relates that Herodotus read his
work to the assembled Greeks at Olympia, and
it was received with such universal applause,
that the nine books of the work were in conse
quence honoured with the names of the nine
Muses. The same writer adds that the young
Thucydides was present at this recitation and
was moved to tears. But this story, which
rests upon the authority of Lucian alone, must
be rejected. If Thucydides was a boy of fif
teen the recitation would have to be placed in
B. c. 456, when Herodotus was barely thirty,
and could not have completed his travels, far
less have finished his history. Lucian, how
ever, may be right in his statement that
Herodotus recited parts of his history at vari
ous times at Olympia, Athens, Corinth, Argos,
and Sparta. At Athens he is said to have been
presented with ten talents from the public
treasury. Whenever and wherever he wrote

HERODOTUS
the bulk of his work, there is no doubt that he
added and revised while he was at Thurii;
and it appears that he was engaged upon it
when he was seventy-seven years of age, since
he mentions the revolt of the Medes agatost
Darius Nothus, and the death of Amyrtaeus,
events which belong to the years 409 and 408.
Though the work of Herodotus was probably
not written till he was advanced to years, yet
he was collecting materials for it during a great
part of his life. It was apparently with this
view that he undertook his extensive travels
through Greece and foreign countries ; and his
work contains on almost every page the results
of Ms personal observations and inquiries.
There was scarcely a town of any importance
to Greece Proper and on the coasts of Asia
Minor with which he was not familiar ; and at
many places, such as Samos, Athens, Corinth,
and Thebes, he seems to have stayed some
time. The sites of the great battles between
the Greeks and barbarians, as Marathon, Ther
mopylae, Salamis, and Plataeae, were well
known to him ; and Xerxes' Une of march from
the Hellespont to Athens he had probably him
self explored. He also visited most of the Greek
islands, not only in the Aegaean, but even in
the west of Greece, such as Zacynthus. In the
North of Europe he visited Thrace and the
Scythian tribes on the Black Sea. In Asia he
traveUed through Asia Minor and Syria, and
visited the cities of Babylon, Ecbatana, and
Susa. He spent some time in Egypt, and
travelled as far south as Elephantine. He saw
with his own eyes all the wonders of Egypt,
and the accuracy of his observations and de
scriptions still excites the astonishment of
travellers in that country. From Egypt he
appears to have made excursions to the east
toto Arabia, and to the west into Libya, at
least as far as Cyrene, which was weU known
to him. — The object of his work is to give an
account of the struggles between the Greeks and
Persians. He traces the enmity between Europe
and Asia to the mythical times. He passes
rapidly over the mythical ages to come to
Croesus, king of Lydia, who was known to have
committed acts of hostility against the Greeks.
This induces him to give a full history of
Croesus and of the kingdom of Lydia. The
conquest of Lydia by the Persians under Cyrus
then leads him to relate the rise of the Persian
monarchy, and the subjugation of Asia Minor
and Babylon. The nations wMch are mentioned
to the course of his narrative are again dis
cussed more or less minutely. The Mstory of
Cambyses and Ms expedition toto Egypt induce
Mm to enter toto the details of Egyptian his
tory. The expedition of Darius against the
Scythians causes him to speak of Scythia and
the North of Europe. In the meantime the
revolt of the Ionians breaks out, which eventu-
aUy brings the contest between Persia and
Greece to an end. An account of this insur
rection is foUowed by the history of the inva
sion of Greece by the Persians ; and the his
tory of the Persian war now runs in a regular
channel until the taking of Sestos by the
Greeks, B. c. 478, with which event Mb work
concludes. It will be seen from the preceding
sketch that the history is full of digressions
and episodes ; but those do not impair the unity
of the work, for one thread, as it were, runs
through the whole, and the episodes are only like
branches of the same tree. The structure of
the work thus bears a strong resemblance to
a grand epic poem, describing the punishment

HERONDAS
which foUowed the pride of the Persian king
and his rejection of good advice. The whole
work is pervaded by a deep religious sentiment.
Herodotus shows the most profound reverence
for everything which he conceives as divine,
and rarely ventures to express an opinion on
what he considers a sacred or religious mys
tery. — In order to form a fair judgment of the
historical value of the work of HerodotuB, we
must distinguish between those parts in which
he speaks from Ms own observations and those
in which he merely repeats what he was told
by priests and others. In the latter case he
was undoubtedly often deceived; but whenever
he speaks from his own observations, he is a
real model of truthfulness and accuracy ; and
the more the countries wMch he describes have
been explored by modern travellers, the more
firmly has Ms authority been estabUshed.
Many things which used to be laughed at as
impossible or paradoxical are found now to be
strictly in accordance with truth. He writes to
what it was caUed the Xe£is etpopevv, or running
style, from its absence of logical periods. The
dialect in wMch he wrote is the Ionic, the dia
lect used by the earUer logograpM, intermixed
with Epic or poetical expressions, and some
times even with Attic and Doric forms. The
exceUencies of his style consist to its transpar
ent clearness and the Uvely flow of the narra
tive. He is rightly regarded as the earliest
real historian, because he was the first who
carefuUy coUected materials, sifted as far as he
was able their accuracy (for this is by no means
neglected), and arranged them to a delightful
form. His weakest point as a Mstorian, to
wMch Thucydides forms a complete contrast,
was Ms tendency to overlook the real causes of
events and to trace them to personal motives.
— The best editions of Herodotus are by
Schweighauser, Argentor. 1806 ; by Gaisford,
Oxon. 1824 ; by Bato, Lips. 1830 ; by Blakesley,
London, 1854 ; by Woods, London, 1873 ; and
by Abicht, Leipsic, 1877. — 2. A Greek phy
sician, who practised at Rome with great repu
tation, about A. D. 100. He wrote some medical
works, which are several times quoted by
Galen. — 3. Also a Greek physician, a native
either of Tarsus or Philadelphia, taught Sextus
Empiricus. Herondas ('HpdvSas), a writer of mimes in
the choliambic metre. The name is now com
monly written Herodas ; but there is no suffici
ent reason for departing from the spelling
'HpdvSas to Athenaeus p. 86 ; and it is more
probable that Herondas (formed from Heron ;
cf, Epaminondas, &c.) should be corrupted into
Herodas and Herodes, than that Herodes and
Herodas should be changed into Herondas.
The date of Herondas was probably the 3rd
century B. c. H he was not, as seems likely,
a native of Cos, he certainly lived there and
belonged to that literary school of Cos which
included Philetas and Theocritus. It has
been suggested, rather fancifully, that he wrote
after CatuUus. H the very slight resemblances
which have been traced are due to more than
accident, CatuUus is certainly the borrower.
Herondas (as Crusius notices) places himself
earUer than CaUimachus when he speaks of
Mmself (ix. 6) as the next writer of choliambics
after Hipponax. H he had lived after Calli
machus he could not have been ignorant of the
choliambics of that poet. Till 1890 only a few
fragments of Herondas, quoted by other
writers, were known. The papyrus in the Brit
ish Museum has given us seven ofhismimesina

HERULI 411
more or less complete form. They are written
to the literary Ionic with some Doric of the
writer's own country and considerable traces
of Atticising by the copyists. The mimes give
vivid scenes of ordinary life in dialogue, and
were probably intended for acting. The scene
of the second (perhaps of most) is laid in Cos.
They have great value for the insight which
they give into manners and customs. A like
ness to the Adoniazusae of Theocritus is clearly
seen in the sixth, but it is doubtful whether this
is due to direct imitation or to the fact of both
writers belonging to the same school. It may
be added that the greater genius of Theocritus
appears in this branch, the only one in which
they can be compared. Editions by Kenyon
(ed. princ), 1890 ; by Rutherford, 1891.
Heroopolis or Hero ('Hpdav irbxis, 'Hpd:
O. T. Raamses or Rameses ?), the capital of
the Nomos Heroopolites or Arsinoites to Lower
Egypt, stood on the border of the Desert east
of the Delta, upon the west head of the Red
Sea, which was called from it Sinus Heroopo-
liticus (koXttos 'Hpdav, 'HpaoiroXirns or -irmbs)
(Strab. pp. 759, 767; Jos. Ant. ii. 7, 5). Its
site is NW. of Lake Timsah not far from
Ismalia. In Strabo's time the Gulf of Suez
extended forty miles N. of its present head.
Herophllus ('Hpo'ipiA.oi), one of the most
celebrated physicians of antiquity, was born at
Chalcedon in Bithynia, was a pupil of Prax-
agoras, and lived at Alexandria, under the first
Ptolemy, who reigned B. c. 323-285. Here he
soon acquired a great reputation, and was one
of the founders of the medical school in that
city. He seems to have given his chief atten
tion to anatomy and physiology, which he
studied not merely from the dissection of
animals, but also from that of human bodies.
He is even said to have carried his ardour in
his anatomical pursuits so far as to dissect
criminals alive. He was the author of several
medical and anatomical works, of which nothing
but the titles and a few fragments remain.
These have been published by Marx, De Hero-
phili Vita, &c. Gotting. 1840.
Herostratus ('HpuVrpctTos), an Ephesian, set
fire to the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, on the
same night that Alexander the Great was born,
B. c. 356. He was put to the torture, and con
fessed that he had fired the temple to immortal
ise himself. The Ephesians passed a decree
condemning his name to oblivion ; but it has.
been, as might have been expected, handed
down by history. (Strab. p. 640; Val. Max.
viii. 14, 5 ; GeU. ii. 6.)
Herse ("EpoTj), daughter of Cecrops and sister
of Aglauros, was beloved by Hermes, by whom
she became the mother of Cephalus. Respect
ing her story, see Aglauros. She was supposed
to be honoured in the festival of the Arrephoria
or Hersephoria (C. I. A. iii. 3, 8), in which
maidens are thought to have carried dew-laden
branches : others have suggested that the epaai
were sucklings or young animals. In either
case it is probable that fertility was symbolised,
and that Herse in the myth grew out of the ritual.
Hersilia, the wife of Romulus, was the only
married woman carried off by the Romans in the
rape of the Sabines. As Romulus after death
became Quirinus, so Hersilia his wife became
a goddess, Hora or Horta. (Plut. Bom. 14 ;
Liv. i. 11; Ov. Met. xiv. 829.) Some writers,
however, made Hersilia the wife of Hostus,
grandfather of Tullus Hostilius (Dionys. iii.
1 ; Plut. Bom. 18 ; Macrob. i. 6, 16).
Heriiii or Eruli, a powerful German race, are

412

HESIODUS

-said by Jornandes to have come originally from
Scandinavia, but they appear on the shores of
the Black Sea in the reign of GaUienus (a.d.
262), when in conjunction with the Goths, they
invaded the Roman empire. They were con
quered by the Ostrogoths, and afterwards
formed part of the great army of Attila, with
which he invaded Gaul and Italy. After the
death of Attila (453) a portion of the Heruli
united with other German tribes ; and under
the command of Odoacer, who is said to have
Tieen an Herulian, they destroyed the Western
Empire, 476. Meantime the remainder of the
nation formed a powerful kingdom on the
hanks of the Theiss and the Danube, which was
eventuaUy destroyed by the Longobardi or Lom
bards. Some of the Heruli were allowed by
Anastasius to settle in Pannonia, and they
-served with distinction in the armies of Jus
tinian. (Jornand. de Beb. Get. 12, 43-50 ; Vit.
Gallien. 13 ; Procop. B. G. ii. 11-22, iv. 26-31.)
Hesiodus ('HoioSos), one of the earliest Greek
poets, of whose personal history we possess
little authentic information. He is frequently
mentioned along with Homer ; as Homer repre
sents the Ionic school of poetry in Asia Minor,
so Hesiod represents the Boeotian school of
poetry, which spread over Phocis and Euboea.
'The only points of resemblance between the
two schools consist in their Epic form and their
dialect. In other respects they entirely differ.
The Homeric school takes for its subjects the
restless activity of the heroic age, while the
Hesiodic turns its attention to the quiet pur
suits of ordinary life, to the origin of the
world, the gods and heroes. Hesiod lived
about a century later than Homer, and is
placed about B.C. 735. He must at any rate be
distinctly earlier than the poets who wrote in
the middle of the seventh century B.C. We
learn from his own poem on Works and Days,
that he was born in the viUage of Ascra in
Boeotia, whither his father had emigrated from
the Aeolian Cyme in Asia Minor. After the
death of his father, he was involved in a dispute
with Ms brother Perses about Ms small patri
mony, which was decided in favour of Ms
brother, who had bribed the judges. He then
emigrated to Orchomenos, where he spent the
remainder of his life. This is all that can be
said with certainty about the life of Hesiod.
Tradition speaks of his being murdered at Oenoe
to Locris, and buried at Naupactus, from which
place his bones were afterwards moved to
Orchomenos. Many of the stories related about
him refer to Ms school of poetry, and not to the
poet personally. In this light we may regard
the tradition, that Hesiod had a poetical contest
with Homer, which is said to have taken place
at Chalcis during the funeral solemnities of
king Amphidamus; or, according to others, at
Aulis or Delos. The story of this contest gave
rise to a composition still extant under the title
of 'A7(i>!' 'Opr)pov Kal 'HoibSov, the work of a
grammarian who lived towards the end of the first
century of our era, in which the two poets are re
presented as engaged in the contest, and answer
ing one another. — The following are the works
of Hesiod: l.yEp7aor"Ep7aKal^ue'pai, Opera et
Dies, Works and Days. It is written in the most
homely style, with scarcely any poetical imagery
or ornament, and mu st be looked upon as the most
ancient specimen of didactic poetry. It follows
the precept which he declares himself to have
received from the Muses, ' to speak true things '
(Th. 26). It is a realistic picture of the daily
life and work in Boeotia, a picture, generaUy to

HESPERIDES
gloomy colours, of the monotony of toil which
the earth demands for its tUlage, and the diffi
culty of getting justice to the world. The
tendency to make might right he illustrates by
the earliest fable in Greek literature, that of
the Hawk and the Nightingale. The poet
exhorts his brother to make gain by hard work
instead of unjust dealing, and accordingly
gives Mm rules for husbandry, its times and
seasons, for navigation, and for domestic
economy. Three episodes are included in it:
viz. (1) the fable of Prometheus and Pan
dora (47-105) ; (2) on the ages of the world,
wMch are designated by the names of metals
(109-201) ; and (3) a description of winter
(504-558). 2. ©6070^0, a Theogony, gives an
account of the origin of the world and the birth
of the gods, explaining the whole order of nature
to a series of genealogies, for every part of
physical as well as moral nature there appears
personified in the character of a distinct being.
The whole concludes with an account of some
of the most Ulustrious heroes. Though he gives
many details not found in Homer, and often dif
ferent views, he is probably in most cases follow
ing legends and myths much older than Homer,
and derived from ancient hymns and popular
stories. [Homerus.] 3. 'Holai or iioiai peyaXai,
also called KardXoyoi yvvaiKav, Catalogue of
Women. This work is lost. It . contained
accounts of the women who had been beloved
by the gods, and had thus become the mothers
of the heroes in the various parts of Greece,
from whom the ruling famines derived their
origin, but fifty-six lines of it have been prefixed
to the 'AoTrls 'HpaKXeovs, Shield of Hercules,
wMch contains a description of the shield of
Heracles, and is an imitation of the Homeric
description of the shield of Achilles. It is not
Hesiod's work, and belongs to a later period. —
Editions of Hesiod by Paley, 1861; Kb'chly,
Lips. 1870 ; Flach, Berl. 1873 ; Lange, Lips. 1890.
Hesione ('H<noVjj), daughter of Laomedon,
king of Troy, was chained by her father to a
rock, to order to be devoured by a sea-monster,
that he might thus appease the anger of Apollo
and Poseidon. Heracles promised to save her,
if Laomedon would give Mm the horses which
he had received from Zeus as a compensation
for Ganymedes. Heracles killed the monster,
but Laomedon refused to keep his promise.
Thereupon Heracles took Troy, killed Lao
medon, and gave Hesione to his friend and
companion Telamon, by whom she became the
mother of Teucer. Her brother, Priam, sent
Antenor to claim her back, and the refusal on
the part of the Greeks is mentioned as one of
the causes of the Trojan war. (II. v. 649 ;
Diod. iv. 42 ; ApoUod. iii. 12, 7 ; Hyg. Fab. 89.)
Hesperia ('EoTrepia), the Western land (from
eo-irepos, vesper), the name given by the Greek
poets to Italy, because it lay W. of Greece. In
imitation of them, the Roman poets gave the
name of Hesperia to Spain, which they called
ultima Hesperia (Hor. Od. i. 36, 4) to distinguish
it from Italy, which they occasionally called
Hesperia Magna (Verg. Aen. i. 569).
Hesperides ('Eo-ireplSes), the celebrated guar
dians of the golden apples which Ge (Earth)
gave to Hera at her marriage with Zeus
(Pherec. ap. Schol. ad Ap. Rh. iv. 1896 ; Athen.
p. 83 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 8). Their parentage is
differently related. They are called the daugh
ters either of Night or Erebus (Hes. Th. 215),
or of Phorcys and Ceto, or of Atlas and Hes
peris (whence their names Atlantides or Hes
perides; Diod. v. 27), or of Zeus and Themis

HESPERIDUM
(Pherec. I.e.). Some traditions mentioned three
Hesperides, viz. Aegle, Arethusa, and Hes
peria; others four, Aegle, Crytheia, Hestia,
and Arethusa; and others again seven. The
poets describe them as possessing the power of
sweet song (Eur. Hipp. 742). In the earliest
legends, these nymphs are described as living
on the river Oceanus, in the extreme West ;
but the later attempts to fix the geographical
position of their gardens led poets and geo
graphers to different parts of Libya, as the
neighbourhood of Cyrene, Mount Atlas, or the
islands on the W. coast of Libya (Hes. Th. 334,
518 ; Eur. Hipp. 742 ; PUn. vi. 201 ; Mel. iii. 10).
ApoUodorus is alone to placing them among the
Hyperboreans (ii. 5, 11). They were assisted in
watching the golden apples by the dragon
Ladon. It was one of the labours of Heracles
to obtain possession of these apples. (See
p. 399.) The golden apples, which seem to
have been connected with the rays of the sun
and to have betokened love and fruitfulness,
appear, not otoy in the stories of the marriage of
Hera, but also to the marriage of Peleus and in
the race of Atalanta (Verg. Eel. vi. 61).
Hesperldum Insulae. [Hesperium.]
Hesperis. [Berenice, No. 5.]
Hesperium ('Ecrirepiov, 'EoTrepou Kepas : C.
Verde or C. Boxo), a headland on the W. coast
of Africa, was one of the furthest points to
which the knowledge of the ancients extended
along that coast. Near it was a bay called
Sinus Hesperius ; and a day's journey from it a
group of islands called Hesperidum Insulae,
wrongly identified by some with the Fortunatae
Insulae : they are either the Cape Verde islands,
or, more probably, the Bissagos, at the mouth
of the Bio Grande.
Hesperus ("Eo-irepos), the evening star, is
caUed by Hesiod (Th. 381, 987) a son of As
traeus and Eos. He was also regarded as the
same as the morning star, whence both Homer
and Hesiod caU him the bringer of light (eaff-
<pbpos : II. xxn. 318, xxiii. 226). A later
account makes him a son of Atlas, who was
fond of astronomy, and who disappeared, after
ascending Mount Atlas to observe the stars
(Diod. iii. 60, iv. 27 ; Tzetz. ad Lye. 879.) Hes
perus and Phosphorus among the Greeks, and
Hesperus and Lucifer among the Romans, were
from an early period recognised as names for
the same star. (Hyg. Fab. 65, Astr. ii. 42 ; Cic.
N.D. n. 20; Plin. ii. 36). In art they appear
as beautiful youths with torches.
Hestia ('Eo-ria, Ion. 'Io-tiij), caUed Vesta by
the Romans, the goddess of the hearth, or
rather of the fire burning on the hearth, was a
daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and, according to
common tradition, was the first-born of Rhea,
and consequently the first of the children
swallowed by Cronus. She was a maiden
divinity, and when ApoUo and Poseidon sued
for her hand, she swore by the head of Zeus
to remain a virgin for ever. (Hes. Th. 454;
Pind. Nem. ix. 1 ; Hymn, in Ven. 4, 22 ; Diod.
v. 68.) It is not probable that Homer regarded
her as a personal deity : in the Odyssey oaths
are taken by the iari-n (xiv. 159, xvii. 156, xx.
231) ; but the words imply rather that she had
no individual personality apart from the sacred
fire. In post-Homeric religion she is regarded
as one of the twelve Olympian deities. As the
hearth was looked upon as the centre of do
mestic life, so Hestia was the goddess of domes
tic life and the giver of all domestic happiness :
as such she was believed to dwell in the inner
part of every house, and to have invented the

HESYCHIUS

413

art of building houses. In this respect she
often appears together with Hermes, who was
likewise a deus penetralia. Being the goddess
of the sacred fire of the altar, Hestia had a
share in the sacrifices offered to all the gods.
Hence, when sacrifices were offered, she was
invoked first, and the first part of the sacrifice
was presented to her. (Hymn. 32, 5; Pind.
Nem. xi. 5 ; Aristoph. Vesp. 842, and Schol. ;
Plat. Cratyl. p. 401 ; Paus. v. 14, 5.) The hearth
itself was the sacred asylum where suppliants
implored the protection of the inhabitants of the
house (Thuc. i. 186). The idea of this sanctity is
derived in all probability from the care with
which all primitive nations found it necessary
to preserve the fire of the community. Just as
in an uncivilised tribe the fire was studiously
kept up in the chief's dwelling, so the state-
hearth with its perpetual fire was maintained,.
no longer, indeed, as a necessity, but as a tra
ditional religious duty, in the prytaneum of
most, probably of all, Greek states where the
goddess had her especial sanctuary (BdXapos),
under the name of Prytanitis (Tlporavms), with
a statue and the sacred hearth. There, as at a,
private hearth, Hestia pro
tected the suppliants. When
a colony was sent out, the
emigrants took the fire
which was to burn on the
hearth of their new home
from that of the mother
town. H ever the fire of
her hearth became extinct,
it was not allowed to be
Ughted again with ordinary
fire, but, as in the primitive
times, either by fire pro
duced by friction, or by
burning glasses drawing
fire from the sun. [Diet.
of Antiq. art. Prytaneum^]
The mystical speculations
of later times took their
origin from the simple ideas
of the ancients, and as
sumed a sacred hearth not
only in the centre of the
earth, but even in that of the Giustiniani 'Hestia.*
universe, and confounded ^"^e^,10"**
Hestia in various ways with
other divinities, such as Cybele, Gaea, Demeter,
Persephone, and Artemis. Pausanias mentions
a temple of Hestia at Hermione (ii. 35, 1) ; but
in general no separate temple was erected,
since every prytaneum was a sanctuary of the
goddess, and a portion of the sacrifices, to what
ever divinity they were offered, belonged to her.
The worsMp of the Roman Vesta is spoken of
under Vesta. No description remains of the
statue of Hestia in the Athenian Prytaneum
(Paus. i. 18, 3) ; nor of that which Tiberius
transferred from Paros to Rome (Dio Cass. Iv.
9). The famous ' Giustiniani Hestia ' in the
Torlonia Museum is generally taken to repre
sent Hestia, but there are no certain indica
tions, and it might stand for other goddesses,
such as Hera or Demeter. The left hand origi
nally held a sceptre, or, perhaps, if it is Hestia,
a torch. Hestiaeotis ('Eo-TiaiojTis). 1. The NW. part
of Thessaly [Thessalia].— 2. Or Histiaea, a
district in Euboea. [Euboea.]
Hesychius ('Ho-&xL0S)- *¦ ¦An Alexandrine
grammarian, under whose name a large Greek
dictionary has come down to us. Respecting
his personal history nothing is known, but he

414

HETRICULUM

probably lived about a.d. 380. The work is
based, as the writer himself tells us, upon the
lexicon of Diogenianus. HesycMus was pro
bably a pagan : the Christian glosses and the
references to Ctoistian writers in the work are
interpolations by a later hand. The work is one
of great importance, not only on account of its
explaining the words of the Greek language,
but also from its containing much literary and
archaeological information, derived from earUer
grammarians and commentators, whose works
are lost. The arrangement of the work, however,
is very defective. Editions by Alberti, com
pleted after Alberti's death by Ruhnken, Lugd.
Bat. 1746-1766, 2 vols. fol. ; and by Maur.
Schmidt, Jen. 1868.— 2. Of Miletus, surnamed
Illustris, from some office which he held, lived
about a.d. 540, and wrote an Onomasticon,
published by Orelli, Lips. 1820.
Hetriculum, a town of the Bruttii.
Hiarbas. [Hiempsal.]
Hibernia, also caUed Ierne, Iverna or Ju-
verna('Iep^7j, 'lepvls vrpros, 'lovepvia), the island
of Ireland, appears to have derived its name
from the inhabitants of its S. coast, called Ju-
verni ('lovepvoi) by Ptolemy, but its original
name was probably Bergion or Vergion. It
was mentioned by Pytheas (Strab. p. 62) and by
Aristotle (de Mund. 3), and is frequently spoken
-of by subsequent writers (Diod. v. 32; Strab.
pp. 72, 115, 201 ; Caes. B. G. v. 13 ; Tac. Agr.
24 ; Plin. iv. 102 ; Avien. Or. Mar. 109) ; but
the Romans never made any attempt to conquer
the island, though they obtained some knowledge
of it from the commercial intercourse which was
carried on between it and Britain. Ptolemy,
who must have derived his information from the
statements of the British merchants who visited
its coasts, gives a list of its promontories, rivers,
tribes and towns : among them are Eblana and
Nagnatae, which may survive in Dublin and
Connaught. Hicesia. [Aeoliae Insulae.]
Hicetas ('iKeVaj or 'Ikcttis). 1, A Syracusan,
contemporary with the younger Dionysius and
Timoleon. He was at first a friend of Dion,
after whose death (b.c 353) his wife Arete, and
Ms sister Aristomache placed themselves under
the care of Hicetas ; but he was persuaded not
withstanding to consent to their destruction.
A few years later he became tyrant of Leontini.
He carried on war against the younger Diony
sius, whom he defeated, and had made himself
master of the whole city, except the island
citadel, when Timoleon landed in Sicily, 344.
Hicetas then opposed Timoleon and oalled in
the aid of the Carthaginians, but he was de
feated and put to death by Timoleon, 339 or
338. (Plut. Dion. 58, Timol. 1-88 ; Diod. xvi.
65-82.) — 2. Tyrant of Syracuse, during the
interval between the reign of Agathocles and
that of Pyrrhus. He defeated Phintias, tyrant
of Agrigentum, and was himself defeated by
the Carthaginians. After a reign of nine years
(288-279), he was expeUed from Syracuse. (Diod.
xxii. 2.) — 3. Of Syracuse, one of the earlier
Pythagoreans (Cic. Acad. ii. 89).
Hiempsal. 1. Son of Micipsa, king of Nu
midia, and grandson of Masinissa, was murdered
by Jugurtha, soon after the death of Micipsa,
B.C. 118 (SaU. Jug. 5).— 2. King of Numidia,
grandson or great-grandson of Masinissa, and
father of Juba, received the sovereignty of part
of Numidia after the Jugurthine war. He was
expelled from his kmgdom by Cn. Domitius
Ahenobarbus, the leader of the Marian party in
Africa, who gave the throne to his supporter

HIERO
Hiarbas, but was restored by Pompey in 81,
when Hiarbas was put to death. Hiempsal
wrote some works to the Punic language, citedby
Sallust. (Plut. Mar. 40, Pomp. 12 ; Sail. Jug. 17.)
Hiera. 1. [Aeoliae.].— 2. [Aegates.]
Hierapolis ('lepdiroXis). 1. A city of Great
Phrygia, near the Maeander, celebrated for its
hot springs and its Plutomum (Strab. p. 629). —
2. Formerly Bambyce (BapBiKn : Bambuch, or
Membij), a city to the NE. of Syria, one of the
cMef seats of the worship of Astarte (Lucian,
de Dea Syr. 1).
Hierapytna ('lepdirvrva : Gerapetra), an
ancient town on the SE. coast of Crete, tra
ditionally founded by the CorybanteB. It stood
at the narrowest part of the island due S. of
Minoa. (Strab. pp. 440, 472, 475, 479.)
Hierocles ('lepoKXr)s). 1. A Greek rhetorician
of Alabanda in Caria, lived about B.C. 100, and
was distinguished, like his brother Menecles, by
the Asiatic style of oratory (Cic. de Or. ii. 23 ;
Strab. p. 661). — 2. Governor of Bithynia, and
afterwards of Alexandria, is said to have been
one of the chief instigators of the persecution
of the Christians under Dioeletian.-^-S. A Neo-
Platonist, who lived at Alexandria about the
middle of the fifth century. He wrote, besides
other works which have perished, a commentary
on the golden verses of Pythagoras, in which
he endeavours to give an intelligible account
of the pMlosophy of Pythagoras. Edited by
Needham, Cambridge, 1709 ; and by Warren,
London, 1742. The extant work entitled
'Aore'ia, a collection of ludicrous tales, is erro
neously ascribed to Hierocles the Neo-Plato-
nist. The work is of no merit. — 4. A Greek
grammarian, the author of an extant work, en
titled SweKSripos (that is, The TraveUtog Com
panion), intended as a handbook for travellers
through the provinces of the Eastern empire.
It was perhaps written at the beginning of the
sixth century of our era. It contains a list of
sixty-four eparchiae or provinces of the Eastern
empire, and of 935 different towns, with brief
descriptions. Edited by Wesseling, to Voter um
Bomanorum Itineraria, Amsterdam, 1785, and
by Parthey, Berl. 1866.
Hiero ('Upon). 1. Tyrant of Syracuse (b.c.
478-467), was son of Dinomenes and brother of
Gelo, whom he succeeded in the sovereignty.
In the early part of Ms reign he became involved
in a war with Theron of Agrigentum, who had
espoused the cause of his brother Polyzelus,
with whom he had quarreUed. But Hiero after
wards concluded a peace with Theron, and be
came reconciled to his brother Polyzelus. After
the death of Theron, to 472, he carried on war
against Ms son Thrasydaeus, whom he defeated
in a great battle, and expelled from Agrigentum.
(Diod. xi. 88-49.) But by far the most im
portant event of his reign was the great victory
which he obtained over the Etruscan fleet near
Cumae (474), and wMch appears to have effectu-
aUy broken the naval power of that nation
(Pind. Pyth. i. 137; Diod. xi. 51). A bronze
helmet from the spoils was dedicated at Olympia
with an inscription commemorating the victory
(G. I. G. 29). It is now to the British Museum.
Hiero died at Catana in the twelfth year of his
reign, 467. His government was much more
despotic than that of his brother Gelo. He
maintained a large guard of mercenary troops,
and employed numerous spies and informers.
He was, however, a liberal and enlightened
patron of men of letters ; and his court became
the resort of the most distinguished poets and
philosophers of the day. Aeschylus, Pindar,

HIERONYMUS
and Bacohylides took up their abode with him,
and we find him associating to friendly inter
course with Xenophanes, Epicharmus, and Si
monides. (Paus. i. 2, 3 ; Athen. pp. 121, 656 ;
Ael. V. H. iv. 15.) His intimacy with the latter
was particularly celebrated, and has been made
by Xenophon the subject of an imaginary dia
logue, entitled 'lepav. His love of magnificence
was especiaUy displayed in the great contests
of the Grecian games, and his victories at
Olympia and DelpM have been immortalised
by Pindar. — 2. King of Syracuse (b.c. 270-216),
was the son of Hierocles, a noble Syracusan,
descended from the great Gelo, but his mother
was a female servant. When Pyrrhus left
Sicily (275), Hiero, who had distinguished him
self in the wars of that monarch, was de
clared general by the Syracusan army. He
strengthened Ms power by marrying the
daughter of Lepttoes, at that time the most
influential citizen at Syracuse ; and after his
defeat of the Mamerttoes, he was saluted by his
feUow-citizens with the title of king, 270. It
was the great object of Hiero to expel the Ma
merttoes from SicUy ; and accordingly when the
Romans, to 264, interposed to favour of that
people, Hiero concluded an aUiance with the
Carthagtoians, and to conjunction with them,
carried on war agatost the Romans. But
having been defeated by the Romans, he con-

HIMERA

415

Coin of Hiero II., King of Syracuse, B.C. 270-216.
Obv., head of Hiero, diademed ; rev., Quadriga, with
BA2IAE02 IEPQNOZ.
eluded a peace with them in the foUowing year
(263), in virtue of wMch he obtained possession
of the whole SE. of SicUy, and the E. side of
the island as far as Tauromenium. (Pol. i. 8-16;
Zonar. viii. 9 ; Oros. iv. 7.) From tMs time
till his death, a period of about half a century,
Hiero continued the friend and aUy of the
Romans, a policy of wMch Ms subjects as
well as himself reaped the benefits to the en
joyment of a state of uninterrupted tranquillity
and prosperity (Pol. i. 18, 62). Even the heavy
losses which the Romans sustained in the first
tMee years of the second Punic war did not
shake Ms fideUty ; and after their great defeats,
he sent them large suppUes of corn and auxiliary
troops (Liv. xxi. 49, xxii. 37, xxiii. 21). He died
in 216 at the age of ninety-two (Lucian, Macrob.
10 ; cf. Pol. vii. 8 ; Liv. xxiv. 4). His govern
ment was mUd and equitable. His careful ad
ministration of finances is attested by the laws
regulating the tithes of corn and other agri
cultural produce, which, under the name of
Leges Hieronicae, were retained by the Romans
when they reduced SicUy to a province (Cic.
Verr. ii, 13, iii. 8, 51). He adorned the city of
Syracuse with many public works. His power
and magnificence were celebrated by Theocritus
in his 16th Idyll. Hiero had only one son,
Gelo, who died shortly before Ms father. He
was succeeded by Ms grandson, Hieronymus.
Hieronymus, ('lepdvvpos). 1. Of Cardia,
probably accompanied Alexander the Great to

Asia, and after the death of that monarch
(b.c. 828) served under his countryman Eu
menes. In the last battle between Eumenes
and Antigonus (316) Hieronymus fell into the
hands of Antigonus, to whose service he hence
forth attached himself (Diod. xix. 44). After
the death of Antigonus (301), Hieronymus
continued to follow the fortunes of his son
Demetrius, and was appointed by Mm governor
of Boeotia, after Ms first conquest of Thebes,
292 (Plut. Demetr. 39). He continued un
shaken in tos attachment to Demetrius and to
tos son, Antigonus Gonatus, after him. He
survived Pyrrhus, and died at the age of 104.
Hieronymus wrote a history of the events from
the death of Alexander to that of Pyrrhus, if not
later. This work has not come down to us, but
it is frequently cited by later writers as one of
the chief authorities for the history of Alex
ander's successors. We are told by Pausanias
that Hieronymus displayed partiality to Anti
gonus and Demetrius, and in consequence
treated Pyrrhus and Lysimachus with great
injustice. (Paus. i. 9, 13.)— 2. King of Syracuse,
succeeded his grandfather Hiero II., B.C. 216,
at fifteen years of age. He was persuaded by the
Carthaginian party to renounce the alliance
with the Romans, which Ms grandfather had
maintained for so many years. He was assassi
nated after a short reign of only thirteen months.

Coin of Hieronymus, King of Syracuse, B.C. 216.
Obv., head of Hieronymus, diademed; rev., thunderbolt,
With BA2IAE02 IEPGNYMOY.
(Pol. vii. 2-7; Liv. xxiv. 4).— 3. Of Rhodes,
was a disciple of Aristotle, and appears to have
lived down to the time of Ptolemy Philadel
phus. He held the highest good to consist in
freedom from pain and trouble, and denied
that pleasure was to be sought for its own sake.
(Cic. Or. 56, 190, Acad. ii. 42, 129, Fin. ii.
6, 19 ; Diog. Laert. iv. 41, 45.)— 4. Commonly
known as Saint Jerome, one of the most cele
brated of the CMistian Fathers, was born at
Stridon, a town upon the confines of Dalmatia
and Pannonia, about a.d. 340. For an account
of his life and writings see Diet, of Christian
Biography. Hierosolyma. [Jerusalem.]
Hilarius. 1. Bishop of Poitiers, a.d. 350.
—2. Bishop of Aries, a.d. 429. [See Diet, of
Christian Biography.]
Himera ('ipipaj. 1. (Fiume Salso), one of
the principal rivers in the S. of Sicily, at one
time the boundary between the territories of
the Carthaginians and Syracusans, receives
near Enna the water of a salt spring, and
hence has salt water as far as its mouth (Diod.
xix. 109 ; Pol. vii. 4). — 2. A smaller river in
the N. of Sicily, flows into the sea between the
towns of Himera and Thermae (Pind. Pyth. i.
153 ; Plin. iii. 90).— 3. A celebrated Greek city
on the N. coast of Sicily, W. of the mouth
of the river Himera [No. 2], was founded by
the Chalcidians of Zancle, B.C. 648, and after
wards received Dorian settlers, so that the

416

HIMERIUS

inhabitants spoke a mixed dialect, partly Ionic
(Chalcidian) and partly Doric (Thuc. vi. 5 ;
Strab. p. 272; Diod. xiii. 62). About 560
Himera, being threatened by its powerful
neighbours, placed itself under the protection
of Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, in whose
power it appears to have remained till Ms
death. At a later time (500) we find Himera
governed by a tyrant, Terillus, who was expelled
by Theron of Agrigentum. Terillus thereupon
applied for assistance to the Carthaginians,
who, anxious to extend their influence in Sicily,
sent a powerful army into Sicily under the
command of Hamilcar. The Carthaginians
were defeated with great Slaughter at Himera
by the united forces of Theron and Gelo of
Syracuse on the same day as the battle of
Salamis was fought, 480. (Pind. Pyth. i. 152 ;
Hdt. vii. 166 ; Diod. xi. 20.) Himera was now
governed by Ttoasydaeus, the son of Theron,
in the name of his father ; but the inhabitants
having attempted to revolt, Theron put to
death or drove into exile a considerable part of
the population, and repeopled the city with
settlers from all quarters, but especiaUy of
Dorian origin (Diod. xi. 48). After the death
of Theron (472), Himera recovered its indepen
dence, and for the next sixty years was one of
the most flourishing cities in Sicily. It assisted
Syracuse against the Athenians in 415 (Thuc.

Coin of Himera (about 450 B.C.)
Obv., Nymph Himera sacrificing at altar: above her, a
grain of corn: behind her, Silenus bathing at a foun
tain; rev., 1MEPA10N; chariot, with Nike crowning the
charioteer.
vi. 62). In 409 it was taken by Hannibal, the
son of Gisgo, who, to revenge the great defeat
which the Carthaginians had suffered before
this town, levelled it to the ground and de
stroyed almost all the inhabitants (Diod. xiii.
59 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 37). Himera was never
rebuilt ; but on the opposit.e bank of the river
Himera, the Carthaginians founded a new
town, which, from a warm medicinal spring in
its neighbourhood, was called Thermae (®eppai :
Beppirr/s, Thermitanus : Termini). Here the
remains of the unfortunate inhabitants of
Himera were allowed to settle. The Romans,
who highly prized the warm springs of
Thermae, permitted the town to retain its own
constitution ; and Augustus made it a colony.
(Cic. Verr. ii. 37, 46, 75.)— The poet Stesichorus
was born at the ancient Himera, and the
tyrant Agathocles at Thermae.
Himenus ('Ipepios), a Greek sophist, was
born at Prusa in Bithynia, and studied at
Athens. He was subsequently professor of
rhetoric at Athens, where he gave instruction to
Julian, afterwards emperor, and the Ctoistian
writers, Basil and Gregory Nazianzen. In 862
the emperor Julian invited Mm to his court at
Antioch, and made him Ms secretary. He
returned to Athens in 368, and there passed
the remainder of his life. There were extant
in the time of Photius seventy-one orations
by Himerius ; but of these only twenty-four

HIPPARCHUS
have come down to us complete. Edited by
Wernsdorf, Gottingen, 1790, and by Diibner,
1849. Himilco ('IpiXKav). 1. A Carthaginian, who
conducted a voyage of discovery from Gades
towards the N., along the W. shores of Europe,
at the same time that Hanno undertook his
voyage to the S. along the coast of Africa.
[Hanno, No. 10.] Himilco represented that his
further progress was prevented by the stagnant
nature of the sea, loaded with sea weed, and by
the absence of wind. His voyage is said to
have lasted four months, but it is impossible to
judge how far it was extended. Perhaps it was
intentionally wrapt in obscurity by the com
mercial jealousy of the Carthaginians. (Plin. ii.
169 ; Avien. Or. Mar. 117, 383, 412.)— 2. Son of
Hanno, commanded, together with Hannibal,
son of Gisco [Hannibal, No. 1], a Carthagi
nian army in SicUy, and laid siege to Agrigen
tum, B.C. 406. Hannibal died before Agrigen
tum of a pestilence which broke out in the
camp ; and Himilco, now left sole general,
succeeded to taMng the place, after a siege of
nearly eight months (Diod. xiii. 80-114.) At a
later period he carried on war against Diony
sius of Syracuse. In 395 he defeated Dionysius,
and laid siege to Syracuse ; but, while pressing
the siege of the city, a pestilence carried off a
great number of Ms men. In this weakened
condition, Himilco was attacked and defeated
by Dionysius, and was obUged to purchase his
safety by an ignominious capitulation. Such
was his grief and disappointment at this termi
nation to the campaign, that, on Ms return to
Carthage, he put an end to Ms life by voluntary
abstinence. (Diod. xiv. 41-76 ; Just. xix. 2.) — 3.
The Carthaginian commander at Lilybaeum,
wMch he defended with sMU and bravery
when it was attacked by the Romans, 250 (Pol.
i. 41-53). — 4. Commander of the Carthaginian
forces in Sicily during a part of the second Pumc
war, 214-212 (Liv. xxiv. 27-39). — 5. Surnamed
Phamaeas, commander of the Carthaginian
cavalry in the third Punic war. He deserted to
the Romans, by whom he was Uberally re
warded. (Appian, Pun. 97-109.)
Hippana (t& "lirirava), a town in the N. of
Sicily near Panormus (Pol. i. 24).
Hipparchia ('lirirapx'ia), wife of Crates the
Cynic. [For details, see Crates, No. 3.]
Hipparchus ("Imrapxos). 1. Son of Pisis-
tratus. [Pisistratidae.] — 2. A celebrated
Greek astronomer, was a native of Nicaea in
Bithynia, and flourished B.C. 162-145. He
resided both at Rhodes and Alexandria. He
was the true father of astronomy, but our
knowledge of his greatness is derived from
Ptolemy. He was the first who demonstrated
the means of solving all triangles, rectilinear
and spherical. He constructed a table of
chords, of which he made the same sort of
use as we make of our sines. He made more
observations than his predecessors, and under
stood them better. He invented the plani
sphere, or the mode of representing the starry
heavens upon a plane, and of producing the
solution of problems of spherical astronomy.
He is also the father of true geography, by his
happy idea of marking the position of spots on
the earth, as was done with the stars, by circles
drawn from the pole perpendicularly to the
equator : that is, by latitudes and longitudes.
The catalogue which Hipparchus constructed
of the stars is preserved in the Almagest of
Ptolemy. Hipparchus wrote numerous works,
which are all lost with the exception of his

HIPPARINUS
commentary on the Phaenomena of Aratus. Ed.
by Petavius, Paris, 1680.
Hipparinus ('lirirapivos). 1. A Syracusan,
father of Dion and Aristomache, supported the
elder Dionysius, who married his daughter
Aristomache (Ar. Pol. v. 6 ; Plut. Dion. 8). — 2,
Son of Dion, and grandson of the preceding,
threw himself from the roof of a house, and was
MUed on the spot, when his father attempted,
by restraint, to cure Mm of the dissolute habits
which he had acquired while under the power
of Dionysius (Plut. Dion, 55 ; Ael. V. H. iii. 4).
— 3. Son of the elder Dionysius by Aristomache,
daughter of No. 1, succeeded Callippus to the
tyranny of Syracuse, b. c. 852. He was assassi
nated, after reigning two years. (Diod. xvi. 36.)
Hipparis ('lirirapis : Camarina), a river to
the S. of Sicily, which flows into the sea near
Camarina. Hippasus ("imrcKros), of Metapontum or Cro-
ton, to Italy, one of the elder Pythagoreans,
held the element of fire to be the cause of aU
things. In consequence of Ms making known
the sphere, consisting of twelve pentagons, re
garded by the Pythagoreans as a secret, he is
said to have perished to the sea as an impious
man. (Diog. Laert. viu. 84 ; Iambi. Pyth. 18, 23.)
Hippias ('lVirias). 1. Son of Pisistratus.
[PisrsTRATrDAE.] — 2. The SopMst, was a native
of Elis, and the contemporary of Socrates. His
feUow-citizens avaUed themselves of Ms abilities
in poUtical matters, and sent him on a diploma
tic mission to Sparta. He travelled through
Greece for the purpose of acquiring wealth and
celebrity, by teaching and public speaking. His
character as a sopMst, Ms vanity and boastful
arrogance, are described h* the two dialogues
of Plato, Hippias major and Hippias minor.
Hippo ('lirirdv), to Africa. 1. H. Beglus
( I. Bao-iXiKbs : nr. Bonah, Ru.), a city on the
coast of Numidia, W. of the mouth of the Ru-
bricatus (Strab. p. 832; SaU. Jug. 19), cele
brated as the bishopric of St. Augustine. — 2.
H. Diarrhytus or Zaritus ('I. Sidppvros:
Bizerta), a city on the N. coast of the Cartha
ginian territory (Zeugitana), W. of Utica, at the
mouth of the Sinus Hipponensis (Plin. v. 23).
— 3. A town of the Carpetani in Hispama Tar
raconensis, S. of Toletum.
Hippocentanri. [Centauri.]
Hippocoon ('liriroKbav), son of Oebalus and
Batea. After Ms father's death, he expeUed his
brother, Tyndareus, in order to secure the king
dom; but Heracles led Tyndareus back, and
slew Hippocoon and Mb sons (Apollod. hi. 10, 4 ;
Paus. ni. 1, 4). Ovid (Met. viii. 314) mentions
the sons among the Calydonian hunters.
Hippocrates ('lTr7roKpaT7)s). 1. Father of Pi
sistratus, the tyrant of Athens (Hdt. i. 59, v. 65).
— 2. An Athenian, son of Megacles, was brother
of Clisthenes, the legislator, and grandfather,
tMough his daughter, Agariste, of the Ulustrious
Pericles (Hdt. vi. 131). — 3. An Athenian, son of
Xanthippus and brother of Pericles. He had
three sons, who, as weU as their father, are
alluded to by Aristophanes as men of a mean
capacity and devoid of education (Ar. Nub. 1001,
Therm. 273). — 4. An Athenian, son of Ariphron,
commanded the Athenians, b. c. 424, when he
was defeated and slain by the Boeotians at the
battle of Delium (Thuc. iv. 89-101 ; Diod. xii.
69) .—5. A Lacedaemonian, served under Mto
darus on the Asiatic coast to 410, and after the
defeat of Mtodarus at Cyzicus, became com
mander of the fleet. He was the author of the
well-known laconic despatch, " Our ships (rd
KaXa) are lost ; Mtodarus is gone ; the men are

HIPPOCRATES 417
hungry ; what to do we know not." (Xen. Hell.
i. 1, 23.) — 6, A Sicilian, succeeded his brother
Cleander as tyrant of Gela, 498. His reign
was prosperous; and he extended his power
over several other cities of Sicily. He died in
491, while besieging Hybla (Hdt. viii. 154).— 7.
A SicUian, brother of Epicydes. — 8. The most
celebrated physician of antiquity. He was born
in the island of Cos about B. c. 460. He belonged
to the family of the Asclepiadae, and was the
son of Heraclides, who was also a physician.
His mother's name was Phaenarete, who was
said to be descended from Heracles. He was
instructed in medical science by Ms father and
by Herodicus, and he is said to have been also
a pupil of Gorgias of Leontini. He wrote,
taught, and practised Ms profession at home ;
traveUed in different parts of the continent of
Greece ; and died at Larissa to Thessaly, about
357, at the age of 104. He had two sons, Thes-
salus and Dracon, and a son-in-law, Polybus,
all of whom followed the same profession, and
who are supposed to have been the authors of
some of the works in the Hippocratic coUection.
These are the only certain facts which we know
respecting the life of Hippocrates ; but to these
later writers have added a large collection of
stories, many of which are clearly fabulous.
Thus he is said to have stopped the plague at
Athens by burning fires throughout the city, by
suspending chaplets of flowers, and by the use of
an antidote. It is also related that Artaxerxes
Longimanus, king of Persia, invited Hippocrates
to come to Ms assistance during a time of pesti
lence, but that Hippocrates refused his request,
on the ground of Ms being the enemy of his
country. — The writings which have come down
to us under the name of Hippocrates were com
posed by several different persons, and are of
very different merit. They are more than sixty
in number, but of these only a few are certainly
genuine. They are : — 1. TlpoyvaariKbv, Prae-
notiones or Prognosticon. 2. 'Arpopiopoi, Aph-
orismi. 3. 'EiriSripiav BiBXia, De Morbis Po-
pularibus (or Epidemiorum). 4. Ilepl Aiairns
'0|eW, De Batione Victus in Morbis Acutis,
or De Diaeta Acutorum. 5. Ilepl 'Aepav,
"TSdruv, Tbirav, De Aire, Aquis, et Locis. 6.
Ilepl rav iv KecpaX-fi Tpapdrav, De Capitis Vul-
neribus. Some of the other works were perhaps
written by Hippocrates ; but the great majority
of them were composed by his disciples and
followers, many of whom bore the name of
Hippocrates. The ancient physicians wrote
numerous commentaries on the works in the
Hippocratic coUection. Of these the most
valuable are the commentaries of Galen. — Hip
pocrates divided the causes of disease toto two
principal classes: the one comprehending the
influence of seasons, climates, water, situation,
&c, and the other the influence of food, exer
cise, &c. He considered that while heat and
cold, moisture and dryness, succeeded one
another throughout the year, the human body
underwent certain analogous changes, which
influenced the diseases of the period. He sup
posed that the four fluids or humours of the
body (blood, pMegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
were the primary seat of disease ; that health
was the result of the due combination (or crasis)
of these, and that, when this crasis was dis
turbed, disease was the consequence ; that, in
the course of a disorder that was proceeding
favourably, these humourB underwent a certain
change to quality (or coction), which was the
sign of returning health, as preparing the way
for the expulsion of the morbid matter, or
EE

418

HIPPOCRENE

crisis ; and that these crises had a tendency to
occur at certain stated periods, which were
hence caUed ' critical days.' — Hippocrates was
evidently a perBon who not only had had great
experience, but who also knew how to turn it to
the best account ; and the number of moral re
flections and apophthegms that we meet with
in Ms writings, some of which (as, for example,
' Life is short, and Art is long ') have acquired
a sort of proverbial notoriety, show him to have
been a profound thinker. His works are written
to the Ionic dialect, and the style is so concise
as to be sometimes extremely obscure. — The
best edition of his works is by Littre', Paris,
1839 seq., with a French translation.
Hippocrene ('liriroKpr)vn, the ' Fountain of the
Horse,' caUed by Persius Fons Caballinus), was
a fountain in Mt. Helicon in Boeotia, sacred to
the Muses, said to have been produced by the
horse Pegasus striking the ground with his feet.
Hippodamia ('liriroSdpeid). 1. Daughter of
Oenomaus, Mng of Pisa in Elis. For details
see Oenomaus and Pelops. — 2. Wife of Piri-
thous, at whose nuptials took place the cele
brated battle between the Centaurs and Lapi
thae. See Pirithous. — 3. See Briseis.
Hippodamus ('lirirbSapos), a distinguished
Greek architect, a native of Miletus, and the son
of Euryphon or Eurycobn. His fame rests on
his construction, not of single buildings, but of
whole cities. His first great work was the town
of Piraeus, which he built under the auspices
of Pericles. When the Athenians founded
their colony of Thurii (b. c. 443), Hippodamus
went out with the colonists, and was the archi
tect of the new city. Hence he is often caUed
a Thurian. He afterwards buUt Rhodes, B.C. 407.
(Ar. Pol. ii. 5 ; Strab. p. 654 ; Diod. xii. 10.)
Hippolochus ('lirirbXoxos), son of BeUero-
phontes and PMlonoe or Anticlea, and father of
Glaucus, the Lycian prince.
Hippolyte ((l7nro\riTj;). 1. Daughter of Ares
and Otrera, was queen of the Amazons, and sister
¦of Antiope and Melamppe. She wore a girdle
given to her by her fabher ; and when Heracles
came to fetch tMs girdle, she was slain by him.
[See p. 398.] According to another tradition,
Hippolyte, with an army of Amazons, marched
into Attica, to take vengeance on Theseus for
having carried off Antiope ; but being conquered
by Theseus, she fled to Megara, where she died
of grief, and waB buried (Paus. i. 41, 7 ; Plut.
Thes. 27 ; ApoUod. ii. 5, 9). In some accounts
Hippolyte, and not Antiope, is said to have been
married to Theseus (Schol. ad Eur. Hipp. 10 ;
Athen. p. 557; Stat. Theb. xii. 534).— 2. Or
Astydamia, wife of Acastus, fell in love with
Peleus. [See Acastus.]
Hippolytus ('IirirbXvTos). 1. Son of Theseus
by Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons [see above],
or her sister Antiope (Plut. Thes. 28 ; Isocr.
Panath. 193; Diod. iv. 62; Paus. i. 2, 1). Ac
cording to the Attic story, which through the
gemus of Euripides has prevailed over the older
Troezenian account, Theseus afterwards married
Phaedra, who fell in love with Hippolytus, led
thereto by Aphrodite, who was indignant be
cause Hippolytus preferred hunting to love.
Phaedra, when her offers were rejected by her
stepson, hanged herself, leaving a letter in
which she accused him to his father of having
attempted her dishonour. Theseus thereupon
cursed his son, and begged Ms father (Aegeus
or Poseidon) to destroy Mm. Accordingly, as
Hippolytus was driving in his chariot along the
sea-coast, Poseidon Bent forth a bull from the
water. The horses were frightened, upset the

HIPPON
chariot, and dragged Hippolytus along the
ground till he was dead. Troezen has a different
local myth. Hippolytus has a temple and an
image of great antiquity dedicated by Diomedes,
who first sacrificed there. Every maiden before
her marriage dedicates to this temple a lock of
her hair. The story of his death is denied, but
he was placed to the stars as the Charioteer.
They showed also a myrtle in the neighbouring
temple of Aphrodite connected with the story
of the love of Phaedra, whose tomb is hard by ;
and a statue called Asclepius, which is said by
the Troezenians to be really the image of Hip
polytus. (Paus. ii. 82 ; cf . Diod. iv. 62 ; Eur. Hipp.
1424.) At Epidaurus there was a stele on which
it was recorded that Hippolytus dedicated twenty
horBes to Asclepius, and also a tradition that
he was restored to life by Asclepius, and went to
Aricia in Italy, where he became king and made
a grove for Artemis (Paus. ii. 27, 4). In this
story the Latin poets make Mm take the name
of Virbius and exclude horses from the grove
(Verg. Aen. vii. 774; Ov. Met. xv. 544; Stat.
Silv. iii. 1, 55 ; Ov. Fast. ui. 266 ; cf . Hor. Od.
iv. 7, 25, who follows Euripides and denies the
restoration to life). There is no great probabUity
in the theory now held by many that Hippolytus
and Phaedra have to do with the sun and moon.
It is better to regard Hippolytus as an ancient
local deity of Troezen who has been altered into
a hero. He was probably originally, as a god at
once of purity and of hunting, the male counter
part of Artemis, and the story of Ms death is
partly a reminiscence of a struggle between Ma
worsMp and that of Poseidon, and partly derived
from some ritual involving the dedication or
sacrifice of horses. Again, there may be a
question whether his name was derived from the
Btory or the story, to some extent, from Ms
name. How the story of Phaedra came in is
not so clear, but it has been suggested with some
probability that it arose from his reputation for
continence and purity of life. The mingling of
Mb worship with that of Asclepius transformed
Mm into a mortal hero raised from death by
Asclepius ; and in Italy, because of Ms connexion
with Artemis and with horses, he became iden
tified with the Italian deity Virbius, a sort of
Tree-spirit worsMpped in conjunction with
Diana at Aricia. [Diana ; Virbius.} — 2. Of
Rome, a Christian writer at the end of the 2nd
and beginning of the 3rd centuries. [See Diet.
of Christ. Biogr.]
Hippomedon ('liriropebuv), son of Aristo
machus, or, according to Sophocles, of Talaus,
was one of the Seven against Thebes, where he
was slain during the siege by Hyperbius or
Ismarus (Aesch. Sept. 490 ; Soph. 0. C. 1818 ;
ApoUod^ iii. 6, 3).
Hippomenes ('liriropevris). 1. Son of Mega-
reus, and great-grandson of Poseidon, conquered
Atalanta in the foot-race. For detaUs see
Atalanta, No. 2.-2. A descendant of Codrus,
the fourth of the decennial archons. Incensed
at the barbarous punishment wMch he inflicted
on Ms daughter, the Attic nobles deposed
him, 722 B.C., and thenceforth the dignity no
longer appertained exclusively to the descen
dants of Medon. (Heracl. Pol. i. ; Damasc. p. 42.)
Hippon t^linrav), of Rhegium, a pMlosopher
of uncertain date, belonging to the Ionian
school. He was accused of Atheism, and so
got the surname of the Melian, as agreeing in
sentiment with Diagoras. He held water and
fire to be the principles of all things, the latter
springing from the former, and developing it
self by generating the universe (Arist. Met. i. 3).

HIPPONAX
Hipponax ('lirirava£), of Ephesus, son of
Pytheus and Protis, was, after Archilochus and
Simonides, the ttord of the Iambic poets of
Greece. He flourished B.C. 546-520. He was
distinguished for Ms love of Uberty, and having
been expeUed from his native city by the
tyrants, he took up his abode at Clazomenae,
for wMch reason he is sometimes called a
Clazomenian. In person, Hipponax was little,
thin, and ugly, but very strong. The two
brothers Bupalus and Athenis, who were sculp
tors of Chios, made statues of Hipponax, in
wMch they caricatured his natural ugliness;
and he to return directed all the power of Ms
satirical poetry against them, and especially
against Bupalus. The sculptors are said by
some writers to have hanged themselves in
despair. (Hor. Epod. vi. 14 ; Plin. xxxvi. 11 ;
Strab. p. 642; Aelian, V. H x. 6; Athen. p.
552.) Hipponax was celebrated in antiquity
for the severity of his satires. He severely
chastised the effeminate luxury of his Ionian
brethren ; he did not spare Ms own parents ;
and he ventured even to ridicule the gods. — In
Ms satires he introduced a spondee or a trochee
in the last foot, instead of an iambus. This
change made the verse irregular to its rhythm,
and gave it a sort of halting movement, whence
it was caUed the ChoUambus (xaXlapBos, lame
iambic), or Iambus Scazon (o-Kafav, limping).
He also wrote a parody on the Hiad. Frag
ments edited by Welcker, Gotting. 1817, and by
Bergk, to the Poetae Lyrici Graeci.
Hipponicus. [Callias and Hipponicus.]
Hipponium. [Vibo.]
Hipponous. [Bellerophon.]
Hippotades ('lirirordSris), son of Hippotes:
that is, Aeolus. [Aeolus, No. 2.] Hence the
AeoUae Insulae are caUed Hippotadae regnum.
(Ov. Met. xiv. 86).
Hippotes fl7nrdV7is). 1. Father of Aeolus.
[Aeolus, No. 2.] — 2. Son of Phylas by a
daughter of Iolaus, great-grandson of Heracles,
and father of Aletes. When the Heraclidae
invaded Peloponnesus, Hippotes killed the
seer Carnus. The army to consequence began
to suffer very severely, and Hippotes by the
.command of an oracle was banished for ten
years. (Apollod. ii. 8, 3 ; Paus. hi. 13, 3 ; Diod.
v. 9.)— -3, Son of Creon king of Corinth.
[Jason.] Hippothoon ('lirnoBbav), an Attic hero, son of
Poseidon and Alope, the daughter of Cercyon.
He had a heroum at Athens ; and one of the
Attic phylae, or tribes, was called after him
Hippothoontis. (Paus. i. 5, 38, 39.)
Hippothous (tlir7ro'6'ooy). 1. Son of Cercyon,
and father of Aepytus, succeeded Agapenor as
king to Arcadia (Paus. vin. 5, 45). — 2. Son of
Lethus, grandson of Teutamus, and brother of
Pylaeus, led a band of Pelasgians from Larissa
to the assistance of the Trojans. He was slain
by the Telamonian Ajax (II. ii. 842, xvii. 288).
Hirpini, a Samnite people, whose name is
said to come from the Sabine word hirpus,
' a wolf,' dwelt in the S. of Samnium, between
Apulia, Lucania and Campania. Their chief
town was Aeculanum. [Samnites.]
Hirtius, A., belonged to a plebeian family
which came probably from Ferentinum in the
territory of the Hernici. He was the personal
and political friend of Caesar the dictator. In
B.c. 58 he was Caesar's legatus in Gaul, and
during the CivU war Ms name constantly
appears in Cicero's correspondence. He was
-one of the ten praetors nominated by Caesar for
46, and during Caesar's absence in Africa he

HISPANIA

419

lived principally at his Tusculan estate, wMch
was contiguous to Cicero's villa. Though
politically opposed, they were on friendly
terms, and Cicero gave Hirtius lessons in
oratory. (Cic. ad Fam. vii. 83, ix. 6, xvi. 18 ;
Suet. Rhet. 1.) In 44 Hirtius received Belgic
Gaul for his province, but he governed it by
deputy, and attended Caesar at Rome, who
nominated him and Vibius Pansa consuls for
43. After Caesar's assassination (44) Hirtius
first joined Antony, but, being disgusted by the
despotic arrogance of the latter, he retired to
Puteoli, where he renewed his intercourse with
Cicero. Later in the year he resided at his
Tusculan villa, where he was attacked by a
dangerous illness, from which he never per
fectly recovered. On the 1st of January, 43,
Hirtius and Pansa entered on their consulship,
according to Caesar's arrangement. The two
consuls were sent with Octavian agatost
Antony, who was besieging Dec. Brutus at
Mutina. Pansa was defeated by Antony, and
died of a wound which he had received in the
battle. Hirtius retrieved this disaster by defeat
ing Antony, but he also fell on the 27th of
April, in leading an assault on the besiegers'
camp. (Appian, B. C. iii. 60-71 ; Dio Cass.
xlvi. 36-89 ; Ov. Trist. iv. 10, 6 ; Tibull. iii. 5,
18.) Octavian sent the bodies of the slain
consuls to Rome, where they were received
with extraordinary honours, and publicly buried
in the Field of Mars (Veil. Pat. ii. 62). To
Octavian their removal from the scene was so
timely, that he was accused by many of
murdering them (Dio Cass. xlvi. 89; Suet.
Aug. 11; Tac. Ann. i. 10). Hirtius wrote the
8th book of the Gallic War ; and the authorship
of the Alexandrian, African, and Spanish was
ascribed by some to Hirtius, by others to
Oppius (Suet. Jul. 56). It is possible that
Hirtius wrote the Alexandrian War ; but the
inferior style of the African and Spanish wars
makes it tolerably certain that they were not
his work, nor that of Oppius either. They
seem also to be written by some one who took
part in the campaigns, from wMch both Hirtius
and Oppius were absent.
Hirtuleius, a distinguished officer of Ser
torius in Spain. In B.C. 78 he was routed and
slain near ItaUca in Baetica by MeteUus
(Appian, B. C. i. 100).
Hispalis, more rarely Hispal (Seville), a
town of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica,
founded by the Phoenicians, was situated on
the left bank of the Baetis, and was in reaUty a
seaport, for, although 500 stadia from the sea,
the river is navigable for considerable vessels up
to the town. Under the Romans Hispalis was
the third town in the province, Corduba and
Gades being the first two. It was patronised
by Caesar, because Corduba had espoused
the side of Pompey. He made it a Roman
colony, under the name of Julia Bomula or
Bomulensis, and a conventus juridicus or town
of assize. Under the Goths and Vandals
Hispalis was the cMef town in the S. of Spain,
and under the Arabs was the capital of a sepa
rate kingdom. (Strab. p. 141 ; Bell. Alex. 51 ;
Dio Cass, xliii. 39.)
Hispania or Iberia ('lo-iravia, 'I0ripia : His-
panus, Iberus : Spain), a peninsula in the SW.
of Europe, is connected with the land only on
the NE., where the Pyrenees form its boun
dary, and is surrounded on all other sides by
the sea : on theE. and S. by the Mediterranean,
on the W. by the Atlantic, and on the N. by the
Cantabrian sea. Vague legends of Spain had
E e 2

420

HISPANIA

reached the Greeks, doubtless through Phoeni
cians at an early period, even as early as Hesiod
(who mentions Erythea : Th. 290), and the
lyric poets of the 7th century b.c. (Strab. p.
148). Pindar mentions also the 'PiUars of
Hercules ' ('HpaKXeos crraXai : Ol. in. 44,
Isthm. iii. 30) as the limits of the world. The
country generaUy was first mentioned by
Hecataeus (about B.C. 500) under the name of
Iberia; but this name originally indicated only
the E. coast : the W. coast beyond the PiUars
of Hercules was caUed Tartessis (TapTTjo-iris) ;
and the interior of the country Celtica (r/
KeXrtKf)). Herodotus also speaks of Iberia,
but Ms information does not extend much
beyond the country about Gades (i. 163, iv. 8,
152). At a later time the Greeks applied the
name of Iberia, wMch is usuaUy derived from
the river Iberus, to the whole country. Con
siderably greater knowledge of the coast,
though probably not of the interior, was
possessed by Eratosthenes and Pytheas (Strab.
pp. 64, 92), of whose writings Avienus, many
centuries later, made use for his Ora Maritima
(to which he used also earlier writers, such as
Hecataeus). But neither Greeks nor Romans •
had any accurate knowledge of the country be
fore the second Punic war. The name Hispania,
by which the Romans call the country, first
occurs at the time of the Roman invasion.
The origin of the name is quite uncertain,
though some take it to be merely a corruption
of the name Hesperia, or 'western land,' by
wMch it was known to the ItaUans and Italian
Greeks. It may be of a Basque or Iberian
origin to wMch we have no clue. — Spain is a
very mountainous country. The principal
mountains are, in the NE. the Pyrenees
[Ptrenaeus M.], and in the centre of the
country the Idubeda, which runs parallel with
the Pyrenees from the land of the Cantabri to
the Mediterranean, and the Orospeda or
Ortospeda, which begtos to the centre of the
Idubeda, runs SW. ttooughout Spain, and
terminates at Calpe. The rivers of Spain are
numerous. The six most important are the
Iberus (Ebro), Baetis (Guadalquivir), and
Anas (Guadiana), in the E. and S. ; and the
Tagus, Durius (Douro), and Mlnius (Minho),
to the W. Spain was considered by the an
cients very fertile, but more especially the S.
part of the country, Baetica and Lusitania,
which were also praised for their climate. The
central and N. parts of the country were less
productive, and the climate in these districts
was cold in winter. In the S. there were numer
ous flocks of sheep, the wool of which was
celebrated to foreign countries. The Spanish
horses and asses were also much valued in
antiquity ; and on the coast there was abun
dance of fish. The country produced a great
quantity of corn, oil, wine, flax, figs, and other
fruitB. But the principal riches of the country
consisted in mineral productions, of which the
greatest quantity was found in Turdetania.
Gold was found to abundance in various parts
of the country ; still more important were the
silver mines, of which the most celebrated were
near Carthago Nova, Ilipa, Sisapon, and Cas-
tulo. (Strab. p. 146 ; Plin. xxxiii. 66-160.) The
precious stones, copper, lead, tin, and other
metals, were also found in more or less abun
dance. [As to the probability that the Tin
Islands were off the NW. coast of Spain, see
Cassiterides Insulae.] The most ancient
tohabitants of Spain were the Iberi, who were
a distinct people, though their name was

loosely used by Greeks and Romans to desig
nate aU the mixed races of the peninsula.
The Djeri dwelt on both sides of the Pyrenees,
and were found in the S. of Gaul, as far as the
Rhone. Of their origin and language no cer
tain account can be given ; but it is probable
that the Basques of to-day are the remnants
of tMs people, who once occupied the whole of
Spain. They seem to have been akin to the
Finnish, not to the Indo-Germanic stock. Celts
afterwards crossed the Pyrenees, and became
mingled with the Iberi, whence aroBe the
mixed race of the Celtiberi, who dwelt chiefly
in the Mgh table-land in the centre of the
country. [Celtiberi.] But besides this mixed
race of the Celtiberi, there were also several
tribes, both of Iberians and Celts, who were
never united with one another. The unmixed
Iberians, from whom the Basques are descended,
dwelt cMefly in the Pyrenees and on the
coasts, and their most distingmshed tribes were
the Astures, Cantabri, Vaccaei, &a. The
unmixed Celts dwelt chiefly on the river Anas,
and in the NW. corner of the country or
GaUaecia. Besides these inhabitants, there
were Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements
on the coasts, of wMch the most important
were Gades and Carthago Nova; there were
likewise Greek colomes, such as Emporiae and
Saguntum ; and lastly the conquest of the coun
try by the Romans introduced many Romans,
whose customs, civilisation, and language, gra
dually spread over the whole peninsula, and
effaced the national characteristics of the ancient
population. The spread of the Latin language
in Spain seems to have been facilitated by1 the
schools estabUshed by Sertorius, in which both
the languages and Uteratures of Greece and
Rome were taught. Under the empire some of
the most distinguished Latin writers were na
tives of Spain, such as the two Senecas, Lucan,
Martial, Quintilian, SUius Italicus, Pomponius
Mela, Prudentius, and others. — The ancient
inhabitants of Spain were a proud, brave, and
warlike race ; easUy excited and ready to take
offence; inveterate robbers; moderate to the
use of food and wine ; fond of song and of the
dance ; lovers of their liberty, and ready at aU
times to sacrifice their lives rather than submit
to a foreign master. The Cantabri and tohabi
tants of the mountains in the N. were the
fiercest and most uncivUised of aU the tribes ;
the Vaccaei and the Turdetani were the most
civilised ; and the latter people were not only
acquainted with the alphabet, but possessed a
literature which contained records of their Ms
tory, poems, and coUections of laws composed
to verse. — The history of Spain begins with
the invasion of the country by the Carthagini
ans, B. c. 238 ; for up to that time hardly any
thing was known of Spain except the existence
of two powerful commercial states to the W.,
Tartessus and Gades. After the first Punic
war Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal, formed
the plan of conquering Spain, in order to obtain
for the Carthaginians possessions wMch might
indemnify them for the loss of Sicily and Sar
dinia. Under his command (239-228), and that
of Ms son-in-law and successor, Hasdrubal
(228-220), the Carthaginians conquered the
greater part of the SE. of the peninsula as far
as the Iberus ; and Hasdrubal founded the im
portant city of Carthago Nova. The successes
of the Carthaginians excited the jealousy of
the Romans ; and a treaty was made between
the two nations about 228, by which the
Carthaginians bound themselves not to cross

HISPANIA
the Iberus. (Pol. ii. 13.) The town of Sagun
tum, although on the W. side of the river, was
under the protection of the Romans ; and the
capture of tMs town by Hannibal, in 219, was the
immediate cause of the second Punic war. In
the course of this war the Romans drove the
Carthaginians out of the peninsula, and be
came masters of their possessions to the S. of
the country. But many tribes in the centre
of the country, wMch had been only nomtoaUy
subject to Carthage, stiU retained their virtual
independence; and the tribes in the N. and
NW. of the country had been hitherto quite
unknown both to the Carthaginians and to the
Romans. There now arose a long and bloody
struggle between the Romans and the various
tribes to Spain, and it was nearly two centuries
before the Romans succeeded to subduing
entirely the whole of the peninsula. The
Celtiberians were conquered by the elder Cato
(195) and Tib. Gracchus, the father of the two
tribunes (179). The Lusitanians, who long
resisted the Romans under their brave leader
Viriathus, were obliged to submit, about the
year 137, to D. Brutus, who penetrated as far
as Gallaecia ; but it was not tiU Numantia was
taken by Scipio Africanus the younger, in 133,
that the Romans obtained the undisputed
sovereignty over the various tribes to the
centre of the country, and of the Lusitanians
to the S. of the Tagus. A serious insurrection
•of the Celtiberians and Lusitanians was sub
dued by Didius and Crassus to 98-93. Julius
Caesar, after Ms praetorship, subdued the
Lusitamans N. of the Tagus (60). The Can
tabri, Astures, and other tribes to the moun
tains of the N., were finaUy subjugated by
Augustus and Ms generals. The whole pen
insula was now subject to the Romans ; and
Augustus founded to it several colomes, and
caused exceUent roads to be made throughout
the country. In Spain before the death of
Augustus, there were nearly fifty communities
with fuU citizensMp, and about as many more
with Latin rights ; and within the same period
in aU the E. and S. of Spain Roman dress
and manners prevaUed. That Spain, except
the N. and NW. was more completely Roman
ised to language and customs than any other
province was due greatly to the influence of
the numerous colonies and municipia, partly to
its easy trade and commerce directly with Italy,
and partly also that it did not preserve its old
¦cantonal arrangement nor even its old reUgious
meetings in the same way as did the Celts of
Gaul. The towns of Corduba, Gades, Emerita,
Bflbilis, Calagurris, and others fostered
Latin literature and produced writers such
-as Quintilian, Martial, Seneca, Lucan, Mela,
and Columella. The Romans had as early as
the end of the second Punic war reckoned
Spain as a province, and from the year 206 two
proconsuls were chosen for the command(Appian,
Misp. 38) : but the organisation of two prov
inces, separated from one another by the Iberus,
and called Hispania Citerior and Hispania
Ulterior, the former being to the E., and the
latter to the W. of the river, dates from 197,
•after wMch two praetors with proconsular
'power were annually appointed to administer
them (Liv. xxviii. 2, xxxi. 27). The Saltus
Castulonensis was regarded as the dividing Une,
and Carthago Nova became cMef town of the
Hither, Corduba of the Further, Spain. In
¦consequence of there being two provinces, we
frequently find the country called Hispaniae.
A.ugustus made a new division of the country,

HISTIAEUS

421

and formed three provinces, Tarraconensis
Baetica, and Lusitania, in B. c. 27 (App. Hisp.
102 ; Dio Cass. liii. 12 ; Strab. p. 166 : the ex
pression ' utraque Hispania ' in Mon. Ancyr.
refers to the distinction between imperial and
senatorial Spain). The province Tarracon
ensis, which derived its name from Tarraco,
the capital of the province, was far the largest
of the three, and comprehended the whole of
the N., W., and centre of the peninsula. The
province Baetica, which derived its name from
the river Baetis, was separated from Lusitania
on the N. and W. by the river Anas, and from
Tarraconensis on the E. by a line drawn from
the river Anas to the promontory Charidemus
in the Mediterranean. The province Lusi
tania, wMch corresponded very nearly to ex
tent to the modern Portugal, was separated
from Tarraconensis on the N. by the river
Durius, from Baetica on the E. by the Anas,
and from Tarraconensis on the E. by a line
drawn from the Durius to the Anas, between
the territories of the Vettones and Carpetani.
Augustus made Baetica a senatorial province,
but reserved the government of the two others
for the Caesar ; so that the former was governed
by a proconsul appointed by the senate, and
the latter by imperial legati. In Baetica,
Corduba was the seat of government ; in
Tarraconensis Tarraco ; and in Lusitania Au
gusta Emerita. The NW. or most turbulent
part of TarraconenBis (which included Gal
laecia, or CaUaecia) was permanently occupied
by three legions, two in Asturia with their
head-quarters between Lancia and Asturica,
and one to Cantabria. On the reorganisation
of the empire by Constantine, Spain, together
with Gaul and Britain, was under the general
administration of the Praefectus Praetorio
Galliae, one of whose three vicarii had the
government of Spain, and usually resided at
Hispalis. At the same time the country was
divided into seven provinces : Baetica, Lusi
tania, Gallaecia, Tarraconensis, Carthagini
ensis, Baleares, and Mauretania Timgitana
to Africa (wMch was then reckoned part of
Spain, and with its troops helped to protect
the S. of Spain from the incursions of Moorish
pirates). The capitals of these seven pro
vinces were respectively Hispalis, Augusta
Emerita, Bracara, Caesaraugusta, Carthago
Nova, Palma, and Tingis. In a. d. 409 the
Vandals and Suevi, together with other bar
barians, invaded Spain, and obtained posses
sion of the greater part of the country. Li
414 the Visigoths, as allies of the Roman em
pire, attacked the Vandals, and in the course
of four years (414-418) compelled a great part
of the peninsula to submit again to the
Romans. In 429 the Vandals left Spain, and
crossed over toto Africa under their king
Genseric; after which time the Suevi estab
lished a powerful kingdom in the S. of the
peninsula. Soon afterwards the Visigoths again
invaded Spain, and after many years' struggle,
succeeded in conquering the whole peninsula,
which they kept for themselves, and continued
the masters of the country for two centuries,
tUl they were in their turn conquered by the
Arabs, a. d. 712.
Hispellum (Hispellas, -atis: Hispellensis:
Spello), a town in Umbria, and a Roman colony,
with the name of Colonia Julia Hispellum
(Strab. p. 227 ; Plin. iii. 113).
Histiaea. [Hestiaeotis.]
Histiaeus ('lo-ndios), tyrant of Miletus, was
left with the other Ionians to guard the bridge

422

HISTONIUM

of boats over the Danube, when Darius in
vaded Scythia (b. c. 513). He opposed the
proposal of Miltiades, the Athenian, to destroy
the bridge, and leave the Persians to their fate,
and was in consequence rewarded by Darius
with the rule of Mytilene, and with a district
to Thrace, where he built a town called Myr-
cinus, apparently with a view of establisMng
an independent Mngdom (Hdt. iv. 137-141, v.
11). This excited the suspicions of Darius,
who invited Histiaeus to Susa, where he treated
him kindly, but prohibited him from return
ing (Hdt. v. 23). Tired of the restraint in
which he was kept, he induced his kinsman
Aristagoras to persuade the Ionians to revolt,
hoping that a revolution to Ionia might lead to
his release. A curious story is told of his method
of communicating : that he shaved the head of
a trusty slave, tattooed on it his message, and
sent him to Aristagoras when the hair had
grown (Hdt. v. 35). His design succeeded.
Darius aUowed Histiaeus to depart (496) on Ms
engaging to reduce Ioma. The revolt, however,
was nearly put down when Histiaeus reached
the coast. Here Histiaeus threw off the mask,
and after raising a small fleet carried on war
against the Persians for two years, and obtained
possession of Chios. In 494 he made a descent
upon the Ionian coast, but was defeated and
taken prisoner by Harpagus. Artaphernes, the
satrap of Ionia, caused Mm to be put to death by
impalement, and sent Ms head to the king.
(Hdt. v. 105-107 ; vi. 1-30.)
Histonium (Histoniensis : Vasto d'Ammone),
a town of the Frentani on the Adriatic coast
(Plin. iii. 166).
Homeridae ('OpnpiSat), the name of a family
or gens in Chios, which claimed descent from
Homer (Strab. p. 645). Some modern writers
have formed a theory that they were a hereditary
guild of rhapsodists, and refer to Pindar, Nem.
ii. 2. But there is no positive authority for the
connexion of the Chian gens with any school
of rhapsodists. The word 'OprfpiSat in Pindar
and in Plato (Bep. p. 599, Ion, p. 530, Phaedr.
p. 252) need not mean more than students of
Homeric poetry, though it is by no means im
probable that rhapsodists may have been so
called. Homeritae ('Opr/piTai), a people of Arabia
Felix, who migrated from the interior to the S.
part of the W. coast, and established themselves
to the territory of the Sabaei (in El Yemen),
where they founded a kingdom, which lasted
more than five centuries, with an extensive
commerce in frankincense (Plin. vi. 121 ; Ptol.
vi. 7j Procop. B. P. i. 19).
Humerus ("O/iijpos). 1. The great epic poet
of Greece. His poems formed the basis of
Greek literature, and they were appealed to as
the. authority on morals and religion in a
manner wMch justifies the assertion that they
were the Bible of the Greek nation in pagan
times. Every Greek who had received a liberal
education was perfectly well acquainted with
them from his chUdhood, and had learnt them
by heart at school; but nobody could state
anything certain about their author. His date
and birthplace were equally matters of dispute.
Seven cities claimed Homer as their countryman,
Smyrna, Rhodus, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos,
Athenae.
The author of the Hymn to Apollo spoke of
himself as a blind old man of Chios, and as this
hymn was ascribed to Homer it was taken as
an argument for the blindness and the Chian

HOMERUS
origin of Homer Mmself. The claim of Colophon
rests on the Margites. The other cities are
mentioned in epigrams of uncertain date ; and
tradition gives him a name Melesigenes, prob
ably from Meles, a river of old Smyrna. The
traditions of Ms date are no less divergent, vary
ing between 1050 B.C., which seems to be the
date assigned by Aristotle and Aristarchus, and
850, which is the date given by Herodotus (ii. 53).
The earliest mention of Homer is about b.c. 700
by Calltous (as cited by Paus. ix. 9, 5), who
ascribed to Mm the epic Thebais. Herodotus
states that CUsthenes of Sicyon, about 580 b.c,
was jealous of the fame which the Hiad gave
to Argos (Hdt. v. 67). Homer is mentioned
(with blame) by Xenophanes b.c. 510 (ap. Sext.
Emp. adv. Math. ix. 193) : at about the same
date Simomdes of Cos (Fr. 85) makes the
earliest quotation from the Hiad (vi. 148), and
caUs the author a Chian. The extant Lives of
Homer (Westermann, Vitarum Script. Graec.
Min.) are probably not earUer than the 2nd
century a.d. They preserve, however, some
local traditions and some epigrams on which the
narratives seemed to bo based. The common
tradition related that he was the son of Maeon
(hence called Maeonides), and that to Ms old
age he was bUnd and poor. Homer was uni
versally regarded by the ancients as the author
of the two great poems of the Hiad and Odyssey.
Other poems were also attributed to Homer the
genuineness of which was at all times disputed ;
but the Iliad and Odyssey were ascribed to him
by the concurrent voice of antiquity. It is true
that a school of critics caUed oi Xapl£ovres
(Separators), among whom were Xenon and
Hellanicus, about the year 200 b.c, held that the
Iliad and Odyssey were by different authors ; but
they were opposed by Aristarchus and others,
and apparently the theory died out, for Seneca
discredits it (de Bret). Fii. 13), and Suidas, about
1100 A.D., speaks of Homer as ' undisputed '
author of both epics. Such continued to be
the prevalent belief of modern times. The
first note of dissent was the surmise of the
Neapolitan Vico, a.d. 1730, that there were
several authors of the Homeric poems, of whom
the earliest wrote the Iliad to N. Greece, and
the second wrote the Odyssey in SW. Greece.
But tMs theory was not supported by argument,
and the great change in opinion came in 1795,
when F. A. Wolf wrote his famous Prolegomena,
in which he endeavoured to show that the Diad
and Odyssey were not two complete poems, but
small, separate, independent epic songs, cele
brating single exploits of the heroes, and that
these lays were for the first time written down
and united, as the Hiad and Odyssey, by Pisis-
tratus, the tyrant of Athens, and were afterwards
still further altered and brought into harmony
by revisers (Siao-/ceuoo"Tai) and critics. The argu
ments for this conclusion were cMefly the sup
posed impossibility of so long a poem as either
of the epics being composed or handed down
without writing, and the fact (as it was aUeged)
that writing was unknown to the Greeks to the
tenth century B.C. In reply to this it is urged
with much force that such feats of memory are
not uncommon : e.g. the German poem Parzival,
which was composed to the thirteenth century
by an author unable to write, is longer than the
Hiad ; moreover Xenophon (Symp. 3, 5) speaks
as though it was considered quite possible to
commit the whole Hiad and Odyssey to memory.
Add to which, though Greek inscriptions on stone
do not take us back beyond the seventh century
b.c, it is a disputed point whether writing on

HOMERUS

other materials may not have been much earlier
among the Greeks, as it was certainly among
the Phoenicians. As to the evidence of the
collection by Pisistratus, it should not be for
gotten that we have no authorities for this
earlier than the first century B.C. (Cic. de Or.
iii. 34, 187 ; Paus. vii. 26), and it is certainly
strange that if the story is true it is not alluded
to to Aristotle. It is a much more probable
conception that the Diad, so far from being a
mere agglomeration of original short lays or
ballads pieced together by comparatively in
significant men of the sixth century, was a
great epic based, no doubt, upon popular
legends and ballads, but still to its original
form a complete poem. Hence it is now com
monly held that the Hiad as we have it is greatly
expanded from the epic of the original Homer
by the insertion at various dates of episodes :
which accounts for inconsistencies and discrep-

423

the greatest authority, though more or less
divergent opinions, especially from thoBe of Mr.
Jebb, Mr. Leaf, Mr. Monro and Mr. Lang. The
great period of the Achaean power in Greece, and
particularly at Mycenae, seems to have been the
thirteenth and twelfth cent. B.C.; and tMs power
seems to have fallen through the Dorian attacks
about 1000 b.c It was succeeded by a time of
inferior civilisation (as may be gathered from
the discoveries by the spade among other evi
dences : e.g. from a comparison of the pottery
at Mycenae and the oldest pottery at Olympia,
wMch is post-Dorian). It is a reasonable con
clusion (though some dispute it) that the author
of the primary Iliad was pre-Dorian : first be
cause he shows no knowledge of the Dorian
invasion nor of the Ionians to Asia (where
Miletus is stiU held by barbarous Carians) ; and
secondly, because the picture of civilisation in
the Hiad is higher than anything wMch seems

0 1 KQYMEM1R XPONOSIAIAZOAYZZEIAOMHPQi: MY60E
Apotheosis of Homer. (Part of the relief now in the British Museum, ascribed to Archelaus.)

ancies. Homer, who came at the end rather
than the beginning of a poetical period, wrote
a primary ' AcMUeid ' or ' Wrath,' fimshed and
perfect to itself, and the interpolations were
due to the rhapsodists who recited it, the
piecing together of interpolations and original
to the school of foUowers called Homeridae
who were estabUshed to CMos. This was the
view to some extent put forward by Nitsch
and developed with great force and acuteness
of criticism by Grote. Since his time many
other considerations have come in from re
searches into the history of language and of art.
For those who assume the theory to be correct
in its main outline, there are various points to
be discussed : the date and country of the pri
mary epic ; whether the precise portions of the
Iliad belonging to it were correctly assigned by
Grote; the manner in which it was altered,
translated, or redacted into its present shape
and dialect. These again are opposed by the
more conservative view which believes in a
much greater unity of composition. It is only
possible here to sketch some general conclusions
which may be gathered from the works of those
who have recently discussed the subject with

to have followed that conquest until a consider
able period had elapsed. The manner of life
also and the geographical descriptions of the
Hiad would better suit the age before than after
the commercial activity of the Ionians was
beginning. The primary Hiad is therefore as
cribed to the eleventh century B.C., somewhat
later than the remains found at Mycenae, which
most experts date about 1150 and consider to
belong to a civilisation slightly less advanced
than that of the poems. The Iliad itself is a
court poem dealing with the greatness of
princes, not, like the chief poem of Hesiod, with
the condition of the common people, who, indeed,
are disparaged and contemned. AU tMs will
convey the impression — not, of course, the cer
tainty — that it was composed to be sung in the
palaces of Achaean princes and wealthy Achaean
nobles. There is probability in the view that
it was composed originally in Thessaly, whose
hero, Achilles, it specially glorifies ; and this
would help to account for the fact that the dress
in the Iliad is quite different from the Oriental
type belonging to Mycenae, and for the mention
of iron (which is totally absent in the remains
from Mycenae) as being to some extent used.

424

HOMERUS

Homer's description of fortresses and houses
would suggest some acquaintance with Mycenae ;
but possibly the poet describes the actual life of
Thessaly rather than of Mycenae. TMs great
epic of the Achaeans was then carried by the
emigrants to Asia Minor; but it is conceived
by those who maintain a greatly divided author
ship that later bards introduced episodes to
glorify the heroes of famUies by whom they
were patronised, or sometimes to honour a
deity at whose festival they were reciting. Yet
each poet who expanded the primary Diad by
any such episode added it to the epic under the
original name, and it becomes difficult, or rather
impossible, to judge exactly where the .junction
was made. In Mr. Leaf's scheme the primary
Hiad recounted the quarrel of Agamemnon and
Achilles, and the promise of Zeus, to book i.
and part of ii. ; the consequent rout of the
Greeks (xi); the exploits and death of Patroclus
(xvi.) and the death of Hector (xxii.), with cer
tain large portions of the intermediate books,
especiaUy of xvii.-xxi, which formed the con
necting links. H this structure of the primary
Iliad is conjectural, the determination how and
when the additions were made is even more so ;
but there is much ingenuity in the arguments
for supposing a second and third stratum. The
second consisted of episodes introduced to
glorify old Achaean families, whose heroes had
been unnoticed in the primary Iliad — the
prowess of Menelaus (iii. and iv.), of Diomede
(v. and vi.), of Ajax (vii.), and of Idomeneus
(xiii.). But, though later than the oldest part,
they must from their nature have stUl been
before the Dorian, and therefore little after the
oldest — indeed it is not absolutely incompatible
with the theory to imagine that they were a later
addition by Homer MmseU, the author of the
primary Iliad. These first two strata the
Homeric school took with them across the sea
to Asia Minor. The third stratum was probably
added after the Dorian conquest, when there
were no Achaean families to glorify ; and such
additions were made as the embassy to Achilles
(ix.), wMch is therefore unknown to the AcMUes
of books xi. and xix. ; the capture of the wall
(xii.), wMch does not seem to have been built at
all to the older books; the shield of Achilles
(perhaps to glorify Hephaestus at some festi
val ?) ; the funeral of Patroclus and the ransom
of Hector ; the catalogue of ships and book viii.,
which connects ix. It should be noticed that
linguistically books ix., x., xxiii. and xxiv. are
regarded as later than most of the Biad, and in
tMs respect as agreeing more nearly with the
Odyssey. According to the view here given, the
third stratum belongs to the period between
1000 and 800 b.c — It will easily be seen by
examination of the above scheme that many of
the most famous and beautiful passages of the
Iliad are thus attributed to interpolators ; and,
besides this objection from sentiment and taste,
it must be confessed that there are grave diffi
culties in accounting for the acceptance of aU
these interpolations, and also to explaining
why writers capable of such work did not, like
the inferior authors of Cyclic poems, write epics
under their own name. Moreover, there are
numerous lines in the ' Wrath ' which aUude to
the supposed interpolations ; and all these must
be arbitrarily rejected. On the other hand,
attempts which have been made to account for
the alleged inconsistencies are not altogether
unsuccessful. In point of fact the linguistic
objections urged against some of the books are
of small weight. In the ninth book they are

slight and uncertain ; and, as it is by no means
necessary to hold that the expression in xi. 609
contradicts the embassy in book ix., we are
probably not obliged to regard that magnificent
book as no part of the original poem. In truth,
the tenth book and the catalogue of stops in
book ii. are the only portions which from con
siderations of language and of style may with
tolerable certainty be set down as later addi
tions ; and their introduction can be imagined
without grave difficulty. As regards the other,
and more important, rejected portions, it is
quite permissible to consider the question at
least an open one. The question of the dialect is
no less controverted. The view wMch has been
put forward by the German pMlologist Dr.
Fick, and which finds considerable support, is
that, to account for the AeoUc forms in the
older portions (which are retained when the
metre makes the change impossible, but are
altered elsewhere to Ionic) we must beUeve the
epic to have existed first to an AeoUc dialect
( = Achaean) , to which form they were originaUy
sung to the palaces of Achaean princes, and,
having been brought to Asia Minor, were even-
tuaUy converted into the Ionian dialect, the
latest insertions being made in Ionic. One
difficulty in tMs theory, especiaUy if we take so
late a date as was proposed (about 530) for the
version, is that no early Greek writer knows
anything of the Aeolian version — indeed,
Simonides quotes in Ionic from vi. 148, wMch
is not considered to be one of the later portions.
In truth we are scarcely to a position to state
what was Achaean or Aeolic, or the oldest form
of Ionic, in the centuries 1000-600 B.C. The
knowledge of tMs may come, but it is not yet
clear enough for confident speaMng. It is
easier to imagine the poems — handed down as
they were orally — gradually, without any single
work of transcription, taking a form wMch we
call old Ionic, but which may possibly be by no
means the oldest Iomc ; and to such a process
naturally the archaic forms, whether Achaean,
Aeolic or Ionic, wMch affected the metre, would
be most readUy preserved and would result m
the apparently mixed dialect of Homer. — The
historical bearing of the Diad wiU be noticed
under the article Teoja. It need only be said
here that there is no reason to doubt that the
conflict between the Achaeans and Trojans was
a real event of the period when the Achaeans
were powerful enough to collect their forces for
a war on the other side of the Aegaean. H those
are right who see to the Egyptian inscriptions a
proof that the Achaeans of Greece were allies of
bhe Libyans against Egypt in the reign of
Ramses HI., the Achaeans were probably able
to achieve tMs at any time between 1300 and
1100 b.c But whenever the war took place it
is clear that the epic was written at some dis
tance of time, that the two nations were really
distinct in dreBS, language and civUisation, and
that, although the poet knew much of the
topography from tradition, yet it was poeticised.
Some authorities on archaeology, notably Pro
fessor Gardner, believe that the Hiad was com
posed long after the faU of the Achaean power
from the mere traditions which the emigrants
carried with them into Asia Minor; and it is
possible that further discoveries may strengthen
tMs position, though at present the strongest
arguments lead the other way. But, more than
tMs, the study of language and dialects is pro
gressive, and its conclusions by no means final ;
and so is the study of ancient art, to wMch
fresh discoveries by the spade are year by year

HOMERTJS
leing achieved. It is therefore both unwise
and unprofitable to put forward dogmatically
any reply to the question. It is possible, as
was hinted above, that fuller knowledge of
language and archaeology may even remove
the most important obstacles to a belief in a
much greater unity of the Hiad, and the opinion,
wMch has quite recently been urged with con
siderable force by Mr. Lang, may be materially
strengthened, that the Iliad was composed prac
tically as a whole by its original author Homer.
The explanation suggested by Mr. Jevons may
be the true one, that it was for centuries re
cited in parts, suitable to the occasion, by the
rhapsodists (i.e. the minstrels who recited at
banquets and great reUgious festivals) ; and that
this accounts for discrepancies and for many
obviously late detached passages, inasmuch as
a rhapsodist might often insert some lines of
prelude to his extract, wMch might be handed
on as an interpolation, or he might, with a
simUar result, introduce some Hnes in honour
of a particular deity or locality, wMch, for
reasons now impossible to trace, met with
general acceptance. — The Odyssey is more
generally acknowledged as a complete poem by
one hand. It may possibly, though not certainly,
be right to separate the episode of Telemachus
(ii.-iv.) ; and there is good reason to tMnk that
the twenty-fourth book and the latter part of
the eleventh are late additions. Moreover,
being also handed down by oral recitation, there
are interpolations here and there ; but to the
main it is probably composed by one author,
and based upon legends and lays regardtog the
Return of Odysseus. That it is later than the
main part of the Hiad is the opinion of most
critics, and is probably right. Making all
aUowance for the fact that one poem describes
war, the other, cMefly, domestic life, there
remain differences of style and of language in
its forms and its syntax, and of mythology
wMch seem to imply a later date, and it is very
likely correct to assign the composition of the
Odyssey to a period early in the ninth cen
tury B.C. It must be admitted, however, that
tMs view increases the difficulty of accounting
for a complete poem by another poet of the
greatest gemus being ascribed to Homer. The
only explanation that can be given (not a very
satisfactory one) is that the influence of the
Hiad and the Homeric school tended to include
under that name tMs second great epic com
posed on the coast or islands of Ionia at the
time when the Hiad itself received some large
episodic additions, possibly by the author of the
Odyssey. — The ' Homeric ' Hymns were doubt
less of stiU later date and of uncertain author
ship, probably composed by rhapsodists of the
Homeric school, who prefaced the recitation of
their epic (such as a portion of the Hiad or
Odyssey) by a hymn or address to the god of
the festival or the locality. Of these the five
longer are to the Delian and Pythian ApoUo,
to Hermes, Aphrodite and Demeter, and there
are twenty-nine shorter. The dates of their
composition probably range between 700 and
500 B.C. Many of them have great beauty
and poetic merit, and they are of the greatest
value also for the study of mythology. In myth
they agree more with Hesiod than with Homer,
though in aU likelihood they follow traditions
older than Homer. The truth probably is that
Homer rejected parts of the ruder and more
savage myth, wMch reappears in Hesiod ; and
tMs is one mark of a higher civilisation to some
degree retrograding. — Two humorous poems

HONOR

425

were also included under the name of Homer :
(1) the Margites or ' Booby,' of which few frag
ments remain : Aristotle believed it to be by
Homer (which the Alexandrian critics altogether
denied), and considered.it the beginning of
Comedy : (2) the Batrachomyomachia or ' Battle
of Frogs and Mice,' a parody on Homer, by some
ascribed to Pigres, brother of Artemisia ; but
probably two centuries later. — The most useful
editions of the Iliad are by Monro, Oxford,
1878; Leaf, Camb. 1883; Ameis, Lips. 1878;
others by Paley, Camb. 1873 ; La Roche, Lips.
1876 ; Heyne, 1834 : transl. by Leaf, Camb.
1890 : of the Odyssey by Merry, Oxf. 1871 ;
Amies, Lips. 1877 ; Pierron, Paris, 1875 : transl.
by Butcher and Lang, 1879 : of the Homeric
Hymns by Baumeister, 1860 and 1877 ; by
Pierron, 1875. The Batrachomyomachia is
printed with the Hymns. — We must add a few
words on the ancient editions of the Iliad and
Odyssey. From the time of Pisistratus to the
establishment of the Alexandrine school, we
read of two new editions (SiopBdoeis) of the text,
one made by the poet Antimachus, and the
other by Aristotle, wMch Alexander the Great
used to carry about with him to a splendid case
(vdpBril;) on all his expeditions. But it was not
tUl the foundation of the Alexandrine school,
that the Greeks possessed a really critical
edition of Homer. Zenodotus was the first who
directed his attention to the study and criticism
of Homer. He was followed by Aristophanes
and Aristarchus; and the edition of Homer
by the latter has been the basis of the text
to the present day. Aristarchus was the
prince of grammarians, and did more for the
text and interpretation of Homer than any
other critic. ¦ He was opposed to Crates of .
Mallus, the founder of the Pergamene school
of grammar. [Abistabchos ; Cbates.] In the
time of Augustus the great compiler, Didymus,
wrote comprehensive commentaries on Homer,
copying mostly the works of preceding Alexan
drine grammarians, which had swoUen to an
enormous extent. Under Tiberius, Apollonius
SopMsta Uved, whose Lexicon Homericum is
very valuable (ed. Bekker, 1833). The most
valuable scholia on the Iliad are those which
were published by ViUoison from a MS. of the
tenth century in the library of St. Mark at
Venice, 1788, fol. These schoha were reprinted
with additions, edited by I. Bekker, Berlin,
1825, 2 vols. 4to. The most valuable scholia to
the Odyssey are those published by Butt-
mann, Berl. 1821. The extensive commentary
of Eustathius contains much valuable infor
mation from sources wMch are now lost.
[Eustathtus, No. 3.] — 2. A grammarian and
tragic poet of Byzantium, in the time of
Ptolemy PhUadelphus (about B.C. 280), was the
son of the grammarian Andromachus and the
poetess Myro. He was one of the seven poets
who formed the tragic Pleiad.
Homole ('OpbXri). 1. A lofty mountain to
Thessaly, near Tempe, with a sanctuary of Pan.
— 2. Or Homolium ('OpbXiov: 'OpoXieis: La
mina), a town to Magnesia in Thessaly, at the
foot of Mt. Ossa, near the Peneus.
Honor or Honos, the personification of honour
at Rome. Marcellus had vowed a temple, which
was to belong to Honos and Virtus in common ;
but as the pontiffs refused to consecrate one
temple to two divinities, he built two temples,
near Porta Capena, one of Honos — which was a
restoration of an earlier temple dedicated by
Fab. Max. Verrucosus after the Ligurian war
(Cic. N. D. ii. 23, 61)— and the other of Virtus,

426

HONORIA

close together, B.C. 205". (Liv. xxvii. 25, xxix.
11 ; Val. Max. i. 1, 8 : Plut. Marc. 28.) This
temple of Honos was the starting-point for the
Transvectio Equitum. C. Marius also built
a temple to Honos, after his victory over the
Cimbri and Teutones. There was also an altar
of Honos outside the Colline gate, wMch was
more ancient than either of the temples. Honos
is represented on coins as a male figure in
armour, and standing on a globe, or with the
cornucopia in Mb left and a spear in Ms right

Honos et Virtus. (Coin of Galba, British Museum.)
hand, and frequently combined on coins with a
female figure of Virtus.
Honoria. [Gbata.]
Honorius, Flavius, Roman emperor of the
West, a.d. 395-423, was the second son of Theo
dosius the Great, and was born 384. On the
death of Theodosius, in 395, Honorius suc
ceeded to the sovereignty of the West, which
he had received from his father in the preceding
year ; wMle Ms elder brother Arcadius obtained
possession of the East. During the minority of
Honorius, the government was in the hands of

HORAE
life at Ravenna until his death, in 423. (Zos.
v. 58 ; Oros. vii. 36-43 ; Procop. B. V. i. 1-3.)
Horae (Trlpai), originally the goddesses of the
order of nature and of the seasons, in especial
the rain-giving goddesses, but to later times
also the goddesses of order to general and of
justice. In the Iliad we have clear evidence of
the belief that they are the Olympian divinities
of the weather : therefore they open or shut the
doors of heaven, wMch are a cloud — that is, they
give or withhold rain, the source of fruitful
seasons ; but this has been materialised into
a door opening for the passage of the gods.
(H. v. 750, viii. 393; cf. Paus. v. 11, 7; Ov.

Horae (Seasons). (From a coin of Commodus.)
Fast. i. 125.) Hence they bring wealth or
gifts generally (II. xxi. 450). In the Odyssey,
on the other hand, they are mentioned only
with the more abstract, impersonal, idea of the
changing seasons. As the weather is regulated
according to the seasons, they are further de
scribed as the goddesses of the seasons. The
course of the seasons is symbolically described
as the dance of the Horae. Carpo and Auxo
were worshipped from very early times. The
Hora of spring accompanied Persephone every
year on her ascent from the lower world ; and

Horae (Seasons). (From a bas-relief at Borne.)

the able and energetic Stilicho, whose daughter
Maria the young emperor married. Stilicho
for a time defended Italy against the attacks of
the Visigoths under Alaric (402, 408), and the
ravages of other barbarians under Radagaisus ;
but after Honorius had put to death StiUcho,
on a charge of treason (408), Alaric again
invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome
(410). Honorius meantime lived an inglorious

the expression of ' The ohamber of the Horae
opens ' is equivalent to ' The spring is coming '
(Pind. Fr. 45). The attributes of spring—
flowers, fragrance, and graceful freshness — are
accordingly transferred to the Horae. Thus
they adorned Aphrodite as she rose from the
sea, and made a garland of flowers for Pandora.
Hence they bear a resemblance to and are
scarcely distinguished from the Charites (cf.

HORATIA
Paus. ix. 85, 1). The Horae were probably
always three in number, and at Athens bore the
names of Thallo, Carpo, and Auxo (though
Pausanias takes the last to be only one of the
Charites). It might be thought that this
number meant the old Greek threefold division
of _ the year, spring, summer, and winter; but
this was not the original conception of the
Horae, and the number three probably belongs
to them as a customary number for deities, as
in the case of the Fates and the Graces. Even
in early times etMcal notions were attached to
the Horae ; and the influence which these god
desses originally exercised on nature was subse
quently transferred to human life to particular.
Hesiod describes them as giving to a state good
laws, justice, and peace ; he caUs them the
daughters of Zeus and Themis, and gives them
the significant names of Eunomia, Dike, and
Irene (Th. 901 ; cf. Pind. Ol. iv. 1). It is prob
able that tMs idea arose from the conception
of a regular and orderly arrangement of the
times for rato and sunshine fixed by the gods :
not, indeed, of the four seasons, for that distri
bution does not appear to art or literature before
the fourth century b.c (cf. Athen. p. 198), but
of the right and just time for each event. As
beings tMough whom came wealth to the earth
they were naturally connected with the Fates,
wMch to mythology is expressed by their being
sisters of the Fates ; and it is either for tMs
reason that they sometimes appear as helpers
at birth (Pind. Pyth. ix. 62) and marriage, or
merely because they express timeliness and
ripeness. At Athens and at Olympia they had
altars ; and it was customary to group them by
the statues or thrones of Zeus, Hera, or Athene,
and to conjunction with the Moirae or Charites
(Paus. v. 17, 1, vii. 5, 4). In works of art the
Horae were represented as blooming maidens,
carrying the different products of the seasons.
Horatia Gens, one of the most ancient pa
trician gentes at Rome. Three brothers of this
race fought with the Curiatii, three brothers
from Alba, to determine whether Rome or Alba
was to exercise the supremacy. The battle was
long undecided. Two of the Horatii fell ; but
the tMee Curiatii, though alive, were severely
wounded. Seeing tMs, the surviving Horatius,
who was stiU unhurt, pretended to fly, and
vanquished Ms wounded opponents by en
countering them severaUy. He returned to
triumph, bearing his threefold spoils. As he
approached the Capene gate Ms sister Horatia
met him, and recognised on his shoulders the
mantle of one of the Curiatii, her betrothed
lover. Her grief drew on her the wrath of Ho
ratius, who stabbed her, exclaiming ' So perish
every Roman woman who bewails a foe ! ' For
tMs murder he was adjudged by the duoviri
to be scourged, and hanged on the accursed
tree. Horatius appealed to Ms peers, the
burghers, who acquitted Horatius, but pre
scribed a form of punishment. With veiled
head, led by his father, Horatius passed under
a yoke or gibbeli — tigillum sororium, ' sister's
gibbet.' (Liv. i. 26 ; cf. Diet, of Ant. art.
Perduellionis Duoviri.)
Horatius Codes. [Cocles.]
Q. Horatius Flaccus, the poet, was born
December 8th, B.C. 65, at Venusia to Apulia
(Od. iii. 21, 1, Epod. xiii. 6; Ep. i. 20, 27).
His father was a libertinus or freedman, who
had probably been a public slave of Venusia,
and adopted the name Horatius because that
town was assigned to the Horatian tribe. He
had received his manumission before the birth

HORATIUS

427

of the poet, who was of free birth, but who did
not altogether escape the taint which adhered
to persons even of remote servile origin (Sat. i.
6, 46). His father's occupation was that of col
lector (coactor) of the payments at sales by
auction (Sat. i. 6, 86 ; Suet. Vit. Horat.). With
the profits of his office he had purchased a
small farm in the neighbourhood of Venusia,
where Horace was born (Sal. ii. 1, 84). The
father, either in his care for his only Bon, or
discerning some sign in the boy of a literary
taste (such as may perhaps be hinted at by the
partly fanciful adventure in Od. iii. 4, 5), deter
mined to devote his whole time and fortune to
the education of the future poet. Though by
no means rich, he declined to send the young
Horace to the common school, kept to Venusia
by one Flavius, to which the children of the
provincial magnates resorted, and, probably
about his twelfth year, carried him to Rome, to
receive the usual education of a knight's or
senator's son (Sat. i. 6, 71-82). The school
selected was that of Orbilius, whom Horace
mentions only as being a severe flogger (Ep. ii.
1, 71), but whom from other sources we know
to have been also a teacher of great ability
(Suet. Gr. 9 ; Macrob. Sat. ii. 6, 3). It is likely
that to him to some degree Horace owed his
clearness of style, and his inclination towards
satire. Among his school books he mentions
(without grateful recollection) Livius Andro
nicus (Ep. u. 1, 70), probably his Latin trans
lation of the Odyssey ; and he was taught also
something of the Iliad, probably in the original
Greek (Ep. ii. 2, 41). Of Ms father's zealous
care to preserve him from the dangers and
temptations of the city he speaks with gratitude.
In his eighteenth year Horace, following an
ordinary course of the richer and better edu
cated Romans of the day, proceeded to Athens,
in order to continue his studies at that seat of
learning (Ep. ii. 2, 43). He seems chiefly to
have attached himself to the opinions which he
heard in the Academus, though later in life he
inclined to those of Epicurus. It has been re
marked as an important result from his studying
Greek literature at Athens instead of under
Greek teachers at Rome, that he escaped the
Alexandrian influence which considerably
affected some other poets of his day. When
Brutus came to Athens after the death of
Caesar, Horace joined his army, and received
at once the rank of a military tribune, and the
command of a legion (Sat. i. 6, 48). It is pos
sible that this curious selection of so young and
inexperienced a man may have been due to a
literary friendship between Horace and Brutus
(cf. Ep. i. 20, 18), who first placed him on his
staff and then gave him a command. The rela
tions of CatuUus with Memmius, and Florus
with Tiberius are cited as parallel. He was
present at the battle of PhUippi, shared in the
flight of his side, and adopts for Ms own case
the words of ArchUochus and Alcaeus who de
clare that they flung away their arms (Od. ii.
7, 9 ; Ep. ii. 2, 46-50). There is no reason to
suppose that his courage was less than that of
the rest of the fugitive army. He now resolved
to devote himself to more peaceful pursuits, and
having obtained his pardon, he ventured at
once to return to Rome. He had lost all his
hopes in life ; his paternal estate had been
swept away to the general forfeiture; but he
was enabled to obtain sufficient money to pur
chase a clerkship in the quaestor's office;
and on the profits of that place he managed to-
live with the utmost frugality (Ep. ii. 2, 50;

428

HORATIUS

Suet. Vit.). In these circumstances poverty,
as he himself tells us, stimulated him to write,
as a means of gaining notice and patronage
(Ep. ii. 2, 40, 51). In course of time some of his
poems attracted the notice of Varius and Virgil,
who introduced Mm to Maecenas (b.c. 39).
Horace soon became the friend of Maecenas,
and this friendship quickly ripened into inti
macy (Sat. i. 6, 54). In a year or two after the
commencement of their friendship (37), Horace
accompanied Ms patron on that journey to
Brundusium so brilliantly described in the
fifth Satire of the first book. The influence
of Maecenas gradually reconciled Horace to
the imperial rule ; and it is reasonable to
believe that the difference of feeling in poUtics
which is traceable between poems such as the
16th Epode, wMch despaired of Rome and
advised emigration, and the Odes of the 3rd
and 4th books, which lauded the rule of Augus
tus, was caused by this gradual change in Ms
convictions, not by a mere desire to court the
powerful. About the year 33 Maecenas be
stowed upon the poet a Sabine farm, sufficient
to maintain him in ease, comfort, and even to
content (satis beatus unicis Sabinis), during
the rest of his life. The situation of this
Sabine farm was in the vaUey of Ustica, within
view of the mountain Lucretilis, and near the
Digentia, about fifteen miles from Tibur ( Tivoli) .
Just after passing Vicovaro, the Varia which
Horace mentions as a town near his farm (Ep.
i. 14, 3), on the road from Tivoli to Subiaco, the
vaUey is reached down which the Digentia
flowed to join the Anio. TMs valley runs up
due north to its head, which is formed by a semi
circle of Mils rising to a height of 3000 or 4000
feet. It is possible, as some think, that the
viUage of Cantalupo Bardello, high up on the
E. slope, is the ' Mandela, rugosus frigore
pagus ' of Ep. i. 18, 105. There is a difference
of opinion about the actual site of the villa. It
has been common to place it on a plateau
about a mile up the valley on the W. side, con
siderably above the village of Rocca Giovine, near
which have been found the remains of the old
temple of Vacuna (Ep. i. 10, 49) and an inscrip
tion. But this stands much too high above the
stream to suit the description of his farm as
having sunny meadows which must be guarded
by embankments from the stream (Ep. i. 14,
29). It is probable that the true site is a spot
higher up the same side of the vaUey, but near
the river, where a small brook joins it wMch
may be the water from Bandusia. There are
the remains of a tessellated pavement, which,
if of later date than Augustus, may mark addi
tions to the old villa or one built on the same
ground. The ' angulus iste ' is then taken to
be the nook at the upper end of the valley (see
Epistles 14, 16, 18 of the first book, and cf. Od.
i. 17, ii. 18, 14, iii. 1, 48). We trace in Ms
writings the delight which this Sabine home and
its country beauty gave to him, and the health
ful effect of its quiet life, from which he was
yet able to retain his hold on the society of
Rome. He spent also much time at Tibur, and
some at Praeneste and at Baiae. He continued
to live on the most intimate terms with
Maecenas ; and this intimate friendship natu
rally introduced Horace to the notice of the
other great men of his period. (For his chief
friends see Sat. i. 10, 81-86.) At what time he
first gained the favour of the emperor is not
quite clear; but his conversion to approval of
the policy of Augustus appears in odes written
not long after Actium. After the death of

Virgil, to 19, Horace stood first of living poets,
and was appointed by Augustus to compose the
ode for the Secular games (Carmen saeaulare)
in 17. His relations with Augustus and the
imperial family were certainly closer from this
date onward, but it is an entire mistake to sup
pose that he was unfaithful to Maecenas, who
was now out of favour. On the contrary, he
refused the offered post of private secretary to
Augustus to order not to be withdrawn from
Maecenas ; and of their undiminished friend-
stop we have proof enough in such lines as
Od. iv. 11 (which was written not earUer than
B.C. 15), and in the last commendation ad
dressed by Maecenas to Augustus: 'Horati
Flacci utmeiesto memor' (Suet. Vit.). Horace
died on November 17th, B.C. 8, aged nearly 57.
His death was so sudden that he had not time
to make his will ; but he left the admimstra-
tion of his affairs to Augustus, whom he insti
tuted as his heir. He was buried on the slope
of the Esquiline Hill, close to Ms friend and
patron, Maecenas, who had died before Mm in
the same year. — Horace has described Ms own
person. He was of short stature, with dark eyes
and dark hair, but early tinged with grey. In
his youth he was tolerably robust, but in more
advanced life his health was not always good,
and he seems to have inclined to be a valetudi
narian. His habits, even after he became
richer, were generally frugal and abstemious ;
though on occasions, both to youth and
maturer age, he liked choice wine, and in the
society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the
luxuries of Ms time. — The pMlosophy of
Horace was that of a man of the world. He
playfully aUudes to Ms Epicureamsm, but it
was practical rather than speculative Epicurean
ism. His calm judgment and self-command
followed the precepts of Aristippus, and secured
contentment by limiting his desires, so that
although he studied how to enjoy life he was
never a Blave to Ms pleasures. His mind,
indeed, was not in the least speculative.
Common life wisdom was his study, and to this
he brought a quickness of observation and a
sterUng common sense which have made his
works the delight of practical men. — In Utera-
ture Horace was many-sided. In his Satires
and Epistles he is to be compared with brUliant
prose-writers of essays on morals and manners,
in the Epistles to Augustus and to Florus,
and still more in the Ars Poetica, he is a hterary
critic ; in the Odes and Epodes he is a lyric poet ;
and each department has to be considered by
itself. His earliest written work was probably
to the direotion of lampoons to which he
imitated Hipponax and Archilochus, and it is
possible that some of the Epodes, though pub
lished later, may date from this time. His first
publication was the first book of Satires, which
probably appeared about B.C. 35 (Sat. i. 10, 44
alludes to the Eclogues of VirgU, which appeared
to 86). Some of the Satires, however, had been
written much earlier : the 7th may date from Ms
service with Brutus in 42, and it is not unlikely
that the 2nd was written soon after his return
to Rome, when he was more inclined to follow
the style of Lucilius. The 2nd book of the
Satires was written after he obtained his Sabine
farm, and probably appeared in 80 : the allu
sion to the Parfchians prevents an earUer date.
In the Satires there is none of the lofty moral
indignation or vehemence of invective which
characterises Juvenal. Horace followed the
plan of Satura which belonged to Lucilius,
making it a semi-dramatic conversation with

HORATIUS
the age on its manners and foibles ; but he is
much smoother and Ms wit more polished than
that of Lucilius. As a moralist he potots to
the folly rather than the wickedness of vice :
nothing can surpass the keenness of Ms observa
tion, his ease of expression or his lucid common
sense ; so it is no wonder that his writings have
become a storehouse of wise and witty sentences
on the affairs of life : the line of Persius
' admissus circum praecordia ludit ' expresses
the truth that Ms light and playful touch of
satire makes its way to the hearts of successive
generations of readers. The dramatic element
of the dialogue appears more in the second
book of Satires than the first, and there is less
reference to personal experiences. The Epodes
appeared about the same time as the second
book of Satires. Like the two books of Satires
they embrace all the first period of Ms Uterary
life, from the earUer and bitterer times down to
the battle of Actium, when he was beginning to
see the great ideal of strong and peaceful
government, wMch he does not fuUy realise
tUl the next period. Epod. 7 and 16 belong
to the time soon after Philippi, and show that
he then despaired of peace and security at
Rome ; but the 1st is written after Ms friend-
sMp with Maecenas has begun, and probably
just before Actium, and the 9th is clearly after
the victory. In the virulence of lampoon
wMch marks some Epodes he is probably
foUowing Hipponax and ArcMlochus : to metre
he often follows the long and short iambics
used by ArcMlochus wMch (from the name
iiraSbs for the short Une) have given the name
to the book. It is in reference to tMs metre
that he says ' Parios ego primus iambos ostendi
Latio ' ; for CatuUus had already used iambics.
In the Epistles, which came after the first
tMee books of Odes, Horace again appears as
the morahst writing conversational essays, to a
perfect form for their purpose, on manners and
society, and potots of literary criticism. They
are written at a time when he surveyed Roman
Ufe from a Mgher and more secure position. It
is probable that the first book of Epistles
appeared about 20, and the second later than
19. In Ep. n. 1, 247 there is an aUusion to the
Aeneid, wMch was not pubUshed tiU after
VirgU's death. The date of Horace's cMef
work of hterary criticism, the Ars Poetica, is
much disputed. In subject it hangs together
rather with the 2nd book of the Epistles wMch
is also the work of the critic rather than the
moralist. According to Porphyrion, to the
criticism of the Greek drama he is foUowing the
Alexandrian critic, Neoptolemus. It has com
monly, and partly on the authority of Porphy
rion, been considered his latest work, written
between 12 and 8 B.C., nor have any strong
arguments been adduced for a date much
earlier than tMs. Tarpa, who is mentioned in
v. 387 might still have been a recognised critic
at the age of 75 (and to truth Ms age is only a
matter of conjecture) ; and, as regards Virgil and
Quintilius Varus (vv. 55 and 488) the language
used by no means implies necessarily that
Virgil was living, and rather implies that Varus
was dead. On the whole, there is no evidence
agatost its being posterior to the 2nd Epistle
and the 4th book of Odes. The composition of
the first three books of the Odes extends over
a long period of years, perhaps from B.C. 31-23,
certainly from 29. It is argued with much
probability that Od. i. 2 and 14 refer to the
civil troubles of B.C. 33, and i. 26 to B.C. 32.
At any rate there is no doubt that i. 37 was

HORTENSIUS

429

written soon after Actium and ii. 2 refers to
b.c. 80. All other Mstorical allusions to these
three books are included in the years which
precede 28. On the other hand, Od. i. 12
cannot have been written after the death of
Marcellus, b.c 23. The conclusion therefore is,
that these books were published together in
28. There was then an interval, perhaps of less
literary stress in Horace's secured position, and
maturer age, but occupied by his work at the
Epistles. He was called upon, by a position
analogous to that of Poet Laureate, to write the
Cm-men saeculare to 17, and then to continue
Ms lyrical work mainly on great patriotic themes
written by desire of Augustus. The dates in this
book of the Odes range between iv. 6 of B.C. 17
and iv. 5 of B.C. 13. The book was probably
published in 18, when Horace was 52 (cf. iv. 1,
6). The Odes give Horace his claim to the
rank of a great lyrical poet both in lighter and
in more serious vein. Of the charm of his
writing, whether on Anacreontic themes or on
those loftier subjects wMch the passage of the
empire from perils to security called forth, there
are hardly two opinions. It must be admitted
that he has not the fire or inspiration of Catul
lus — the difference appears alike in Ms expres
sions of affection and in Ms invective — but for
exquisite finish and for mastery of metre his
lyrics are unsurpassed in Latin literature. It
may be added that he is not easily compared
with Catullus, because he reserves his deeper
feeling for odes on matters of the state. It has
been well said that ' Horace's tone to love-
poems is rather that of persiflage than of
ardent passion,' such as was that of Catullus.
Those whom he professes to address are imagin
ary heroines, partly borrowed from Greek poets,
partly from ' society ' stories of the day. His
personal feeling (though even there expressed
in less burning words than Catullus uses) is
more forcibly and sincerely shown in odes to
Ms friends such as Virgil, Lamia, Fuscus,
Septimius, and Maecenas, and, it may be added,
in those which speak of his country home. — For
the position which Horace took already in the
first century A.D. as a classic both in literary
circles and in schools references may be made
to Juv. vii. 26 ; Pers. v. 45 ; Quintil. i. 12, 40,
ii. 17, 17, ix. 3, 18 ; Auson. Id. iv. 55.— The
most useful editions of Horace are by Wickham,
1875-1888 ; Palmer, 1885 ; Orelli, 1852, 1868,
1885; Keller and Holder, Lips. 1870: Dillen-
burger, Bonn, 1881.
Hordeonius Flaccus. [Flaccus.]
Hormisdas. [Sassanidae.]
Horta or Hortanum (Hortanus : Orte), a
town in Etruria, at the junction of the Nar and
the Tiber, so called from the Etruscan goddess
whose temple at Rome always remained open,
Horta (or Hurta), a goddess apparently of good
fortune (Plut. Q. B. 46).
Hortensius. 1. Q., the orator, was born to
B.C. 114, eight years before Cicero. At the
early age of nineteen he spoke with great
applause in the forum, and at once rose to
eminence as an advocate. He served two
campaigns to the Social war (90, 89). In the
Civil wars he joined Sulla, and was afterwards a
constant supporter of the aristocratical party.
His chief professional labours were in defending
men of this party when accused of mal-
adminstration and extortion in their provinces,
or of bribery and the- like in canvassing for
public honours. He had no rival in the
forum, till he encountered Cicero, and he long
exercised an undisputed sway over the courts

430

HORTENSIUS

of justice. In 81 he was quaestor; n 75
aedile ; in 72 praetor ; and to 69 consul with
Q. Caecilius MeteUus. — It was in the year
before his consulsMp that the prosecution of
Verres commenced. Hortensius was the advo
cate of Verres, and attempted to put off the
trial till the next year, when he would be able
to exercise all the consular authority in favour
of his client. But Cicero, who accused Verres,
baffled all the schemes of Hortensius, and this
contest left Cicero in the first place as an advo
cate and orator. After his consulship, Hortensius
took a leading part in supporting the optimatea
against the rising power of Pompey. He spoke
against the Gabinian law, which invested
Pompey with absolute power on the Mediter
ranean, in order to put down the pirates of
Cilicia (67) ; and the Manilian, by which the
conduct of the war against Mithridates was
transferred from Lucullus to Pompey (66).
Cicero in his consulship (63) deserted the
popular party, with whom he had hitherto
acted, and became one of the supporters of the
optimates. Thus Hortensius no longer appears
as his rival. We first find them pleading

HOSTILIA
ordered C. Antonius, who had been taken
prisoner, to be put to death. After the battle
of Philippi, he was executed on the grave of his
victim. Horus C^lpos), the Egyptian god of light,
whose worsMp was also established to Greece,
and afterwards as Harpocrates at Rome. He
was the son of Osiris and Isis (but according
to another view, of Re), and was regarded as
waging war against the powers of darkness in
the form of crocodiles and serpents. It is easy
to see how tMs led to Ms identification with

Bust of Hortensius.
together for C. Rabirius, for L. Muraena, and
for P. SuUa. After the coalition of Pompey
with Caesar and Crassus to 60, Hortensius
drew back from public life, and confined him-
seU to Ms advocate's duties. He died in 50.
(Cic. ad Att. vi. 6.) The style of Hortensius was
florid ; Ms memory so ready and retentive, that
he is said to have been able to come out of a
sale-room and repeat the auction-list backwards
(Cic. Brut. 95, 96; Sen. Praef. in Contr. 1). He
possessed immense wealth, and had several
villas, the most splendid of which was the one
near Laurentum. He was the first person at
Rome who brought peacocks to table (Varr. B.
B. iii. 18, 17; Plin. xiv. 96).— 2. Q., surnamed
Hortalus, son of the preceding, by Lutatia,
the daughter of Catulus. In youth he lived a
low and profligate life, and appears to have
been at last cast off by his father. On the
breaking out of the Civil war in 49, he joined
Caesar, and fought on his side in Italy and
Greece (Plut. Caes. 82 ; Suet. Jul. 31). In 44
he held the province of Macedonia, and Brutus
was to succeed him. After Caesar's assassina
tion, M. Antony gave the province to his
brother Caius. Brutus, however, had already
taken possession, with the assistance of Horten
sius.^ When the proscription took place, Hor
tensius was to the list; and in revenge he

Horus. (Wilkinson.)
Apollo (Hdt. ii. 144). As avenger of the death
of his father Osiris he overcame the evil deity
Typhon. Horus was in the prevailing myth
regarded as the youthful sun, born afresh every
morning, and in this guise was called Harpe-
chrat, or ' the child- Horus,' wMch the Greeks
represented by Harpocrates. The conventional
statues of this child-Horus were represented in
a sitting posture with Ms finger in his mouth,
which was a symbol of childhood. From a
misapprehension of this attitude in the Egypt
ian statues the Greeks and Romans regarded
Harpocrates as the god of Silence (Ov. Met.
ix. 691 ; Varr. L.L. v. 57 ; Plut. Is. 68). Under
the empire his worship in this character came in
with that of other Egyptian deities. In art
he was represented most commonly as a naked
boy with his finger on Ms lips and with a lotus
flower on Ms head. His image was also placed
as an amulet on signet rings (Plin. xxxiii. 41).
But he was represented also on bronzes and re
liefs as an armed and mounted warrior (but
often with the head of a hawk) driving his spear
through a crocodile or dragon. It is surmised,
not without probability, that some part of the
legends of St. George was drawn from these
sculptures. Hostllia (Ostiglia), a small town in Gallia
Cisalpina, on the Po, and on the road from

HOSTILIUS
Mutina to Verona ; the birthplace of Cornelius
Nepos. Hostilius Mancinus. [Mancinus.]
Hostilius Tullus. [Tullus Hostilius.]
Hostius, the author of a poem on the Istrian
war, probably the war of 125 b.c, not that of
178, of which Ennius had already written. He
is quoted by Macrob. vi. 8, 5 ; Serv. ad Aen. xii.
121. He lived early in the 1st century B.C., and
is probably the ' doctus avus ' of Propert. iv. 20,
8 (Cynthia being really Hostia).
Hunneric, king of the Vandals in Africa, a.d.
477-484, was the son of Genseric, whom he
succeeded. His reign was chiefly marked by
Ms savage persecution of the Catholics.
Hunni (Oivvoi), an Asiatic race, who dwelt
for some centuries to the plains of Tartary, and
were formidable to the Chinese empire long
before they were known to the Romans. It
was to repel the inroads of the Huns that the
Chinese built their celebrated waU, 1500 miles
in length. A portion of the nation afterwards
migrated W., conquered the Alani, a warlike
race between the Volga and the Tanais, and
then crossed toto Europe about a.d. 375. A
curious story is told by Olympiodorus (Fr. 27)
that Constantine, hearing of buried treasure in
Thrace, had ordered it to be dug up. It con
sisted of three sUver images which had been
buried by the people of the country: one to
keep out the Goths, the second the Huns, and
the third the Sarmatians ; and accordingly after
their removal Thrace and Illyria were overrun
by Goths, Huns and Sarmatians. The appear
ance of these new barbarians excited the great
est terror, both among the Romans and the
Germans. They are described by Greek and
Roman Mstorians as having broad shoulders,
flat noses, and small black eyes deeply buried
in their heads ; and as savage in manners and
habits. They destroyed the powerful monarchy
of the Ostrogoths, who were obliged to retire
before them, and were allowed by Valens
to settle to Thrace, A.D. 376. The Huns now
frequently ravaged the Roman dominions.
They were joined by many other barbarian
nations, and under their king AttUa (a.d. 434-
453), they devastated the fairest portions of
the empire, both to the E. and the W. [Attila.]
On the death of AttUa, the various nations
wMch composed Ms army, dispersed, and his
sons were unable to resist the arms of the
Ostrogoths. In a few years after the death of
Attila, the empire of the Huns was completely
destroyed. The remains of the nation became
incorporated with other barbarians, and never
appear again as a separate people. (Amm.
Marc. xxxi. ; Prise. Attil.)
Hyacinthides ('TaKivBiSes), daughters of a
Lacedaemonian named Hyacinthus, who is said
to have gone to Athens and to have sacrificed
tham for the purpose of delivering the city
from a famine and plague under which it was
suffering during the war with Minos. They
were named 'AvBrps, AiyXr/'ts and Avraia
(Apollod. iii. 15, 5; Hyg. Fab. 238). Some
traditions make them the daughters of Erech
theus, and relate that they received their name
from the village of Hyacinthus, where they were
sacrificed at the time when Athens was attacked
by the Eleusinians and Thracians, or Thebans.
(Suid. s.v. itapBevoi; [Demosth.] Epitaph, p.
1397). It is difficult when comparing the story
of Hyacinthus at Amyclae to resist the con
clusion that we may have here a reminiscence
of an old sacrifice of maidens at Athens for a
festival of a deity of the spring which was ex-

HYADES

431

plained in this way when the worsMp of the
deity akin to the Amyclaean Hyacinthus had
died out at Athens.
Hyacinthus ('TaKivBos), son of the Spartan
kmg Amyclae and Diomede, or of Oebalus
(Paus. iii. 1, 8 ; Apollod. iii. 10, 3 ; Ov. Met. x.
196 ; Hyg. Fab. 271 ; Serv. ad Aen. xi. 68). He
was a youth of extraordinary beauty, and was
beloved by Apollo, and as he was once playing
at quoits with the god, the wind turned the
quoit so that it struck the boy and slew him.
Such was the original story at Amyclae
(Apollod. i. 8, 3, iii. 10, 3; Eur. Hel. 1469;
Paus. in. 19, 5) ; but from the mention of the
wind grew up a later story that Zephyrus also
loved Hyacinthus and slew him from jealousy
because Apollo was preferred (Palaeph. 47;
Lucian, Dial. Deor. 14 ; Philostr. Imag. i. 24).
A third story, apparently Orphic, makes Hya
cinthus beloved by Thamyris. From the blood
of Hyacinthus there sprang the flower of the
same name, on the leaves of which appeared
the exclamation of woe AI, AI, or the letter T,
being the initial of 'XdmvBos. [That the Greek
hyacinth was not ours is clear enough: prob
ably it was an iris : for a similar flower-legend,
see Ajax.] Hyacinthus was worsMpped at
Amyclae as a hero, and a great festival, Hya-
cinthia, was celebrated in his honour. It was a
festival older than the Dorians, and adopted by
them. [For an account of the rites, see Diet.
of Ant. art. Hyacinthia.] The myth seems to
mean the effect of the hot summer sun in
withering the spring flowers, the quoit being
the sun's disk. It may be noticed that the
Apollo of the original story cannot be the
Dorian god, and the theory deserves considera
tion, that this Apollo and Hyacinthus are both
sun-deities — Hyacinthus the younger or weaker
sun of spring which fosters the spring vege
tation (cf. the Egyptian cMld-Horus), and
Apollo the strong summer sun. It is possible,
again, that the story may have been developed
when the religion of the Dorian Apollo over
powered that of an earlier Amyclaean Hya
cinthus, god of the sun in spring.
Hyades ("CdSes) — that is, the Rainy — the
name of nymphs, whose parentage, number and
names are described to various ways by the
ancients. Their parents were Atlas and Aettoa,
or Atlas and Pleione, or Hyas and Boeotia :
others call their father Oceanus, Melisseus,
CadmUus, or Erechtheus. Their number differs
in various legends ; but their most , common
number is seven, as they appear in the con
stellation which bears their name, viz. Am
brosia, Eudora, Pedile, Coronis, Polyxo,
Phyto, and Thyene or Dione (Ov. Fast. v.
166; Hyg. Fab. 182, 192; Ast. ii. 21). They
were entrusted by Zeus with the care of Ms
infant son Dionysus, and were afterwards
placed by Zeus among the stars. The story
which made them the daughters of Atlas re
lates that their number was twelve or fifteen,
and that at first five of them were placed
among the stars as Hyades, and the seven (or ,
ten) others afterwards under the name of
Pleiades, to reward them for the sisterly love
they had evinced after the death of their
brother Hyas, who had been killed in Libya by
a wild beast. Their name, Hyades, was derived
by some from Hyes, a mystic surname of
Dionysus (Suid. s.v.). The Romans, who de
rived it from vs, a pig, translated the name by
Suculae (Cic. N. D. ii. 43, 111 ; Plin. ii. 106).
The most natural derivation is from Seiv, to
rain, as the constellation of the Hyades, when

432

HYAMPEA

rising simultaneously with the sun, announced
rainy weather. (II. xviii. 486, and Schol. ; Verg.
Aen. i. 743 ; Hor. Od. i. 3, 14.)
Hyampea. [Pabnassus.]
Hyampolis ('TdpiroXis : 'TapiroXirrjs), a town
in Phocis, E of the Cephissus, near Cleonae,
was founded by the Hyantes, when they were
driven out of Boeotia by the Cadmeans ; was
destroyed by Xerxes ; afterwards rebuilt ; and
again destroyed by PMUp and the Amphictyons
(II. ii. 521; Paus. ix. 35, 5; Strab. p. 424).
Cleonae, from its vicinity to HyampoUs, is caUed
by Xenophon (Hell. vi. 4, § 27) 'TapiroXtrav rb
irpodoreiov. Hyantes (^Tavres), the ancient inhabitants
of Boeotia, from which country they were ex-
peUed by the Cadmeans. Part of the Hyantes
emigrated to Phocis [Hyampolis], and part to
Aetolia. The poets use the adjective Hyantius
as equivalent to Boeotian. (Strab. pp. 321, 401,
464; Ov. Met. iii. 147.)
Hyas ("Tas). — 1. The name of the father
and the brother of the Hyades. — 2. (Sometimes
confused with No. 1), the eponymous hero of
the Boeotian Hyantes. He was married to
Boeotia. (Paus. ix. 5, 1 ; Plin. iv. 26.)
Hybla frpxri: 'rBXaws, Hyblensis), tMee
towns in Sicily, named after a SicUian goddess
Hybla. 1. Major (t) pei^avox peydx-n), on the S.
slope of Mt. Aetna and on the river Symaethus,
was originaUy a town of the Siculi. It was called
Hybla Gereatis or Galeatis (Thuc. vi. 62 ; Paus.
v. 28 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.). It is probably the
Hybla famous for honey (Verg. Eel. i. 87 ; Ov.
Trist. v. 13, 22), though Strabo (p. 267) seems
to make that a characteristic of Megara. — 2.

Coin of Hybla Major (about 210 B.C.).
Obv., head of goddess Hybla, crowned with the aiodius ;
rev., Dionysus and panther, with legend ybaas MErAAAZ.
Minor (r) piKpd), afterwards caUed Megara.
[Megaea.]— 3. Heraea, in the S. of the island,
on the road from Syracuse to Agrigentum. —
The above seems the true distinction between
the first two towns, but it is not unquestioned,
partly owing to the confused description in
Pausanias and Stephanus.
Hybreas ('TBpeas), of Mylasa to Caria, a cele
brated orator, contemporary with the triumvir
Antonius (Strab. pp. 630, 659; Plut. Ant. 24).
Hyccara (ra TKKapa : 'TKKapevs : Muro di
Carini), a town of the Sicani on the N. coast of
Sicily, W. of Panormus, said to have derived its
name from the sea fish iucu. It was taken by
the Athenians, and plundered, and its inha
bitants sold as slaves, B.C. 415. Among the
captives was the beautiful Timandra, mistress
of Alcibiades and mother of Lais. (Thuc. vi.
62 ; Diod. xiii. 6 ; Plut. Ale. 39 ; Paus. ii. 2, 5.)
Hydarnes ('TSdpvris), one of the seven Per
sians who conspired against the Magi in b. c 521
(Hdt. iii. 70).
Hydaspes ('TSaoTnjs : Jelum), the northern
most of the five great tributaries of the Indus,
which, with the Indus itself, water the great
plain of N. India, now called the Punjab, i.e.
five rivers. The Hydaspes falls into the Acesines
(Chenab), wMch also receives, from the S., first

HYGIEA
the Hydraotes (Bavee), and then the Hyphasis.
(Beeas, and lower down, Gharra), which has
previously received, on the S. side, the Hesidrus
or Zaradrus (Sutlej or Hesudru); and the
Acesines itself falls into the Indus. These five
rivers aU rise on the SW. side of the Emodi M.
(Himalaya), except the Sutlej, wMch, like the
Indus, rises on the NE. side of the range.
They became known to the Greeks by Alexan
der's campaign to India : his victory over Porus
(b. c. 327) was gained on the left side of the
Hydaspes, near, or perhaps upon, the scene of
the battle of Chiliianwallah ; and the Hyphasis
formed the tonit of Ms progress. (Strab. p.
686 ; Plin. vi. 71 ; Arrian, An. v. 19 ; Curt. ix. 4.)
The epithet ' f abulosus ' which Horace applies
to the Hydaspes (Od. i. 22, 7) refers to the mar
vellous stories current about it as the river of a
practically unknown land ; and the ' Medus
Hydaspes ' of Virgil (Georg. iv. 211) is merely
an example of the vagueness with which the
Roman writers, especially the poets, refer to the,
countries beyond the E. limit of the empire.
Hydra. [Heracles, p. 396.]
Hydraotes or Hyarotis ('TSpadrns, 'tdparis :
Bavee), a river of India, faUtog into the Ace
sines. [Hydaspes.]
Hydrea ('TSpeo: 'T8pedVr7y: Hydra), a smaU
island in the gulf of Hermione off Argolis (Hdt.
in. 59 ; Paus. ii. 39, 4), of no importance to
antiquity, but the inhabitants of which to
modern times played a distinguished part to the
war of Greek independence, and are some of the
best saUors in Greece.
Hydruntum or Hydrus ('TSpovs : Hydrunti-
nus : Otranto), one of the most ancient towns
of Calabria, situated on the SE. coast, with a
good harbour, near a mountain Hydrus, in
later times a municipium. Persons frequently
crossed over to Epirus from tMs port. (PUn. ui.
100 ; Cic. ad Att. xv. 21, xvi. 6 ; Strab. p. 281.)
Hyettus ('tr/rrbs : 'Tt)ttios), a small town
to Boeotia on the lake Copais, and near the
frontiers of Locris (Paus. ix. 24, 8).
Hygiea ('Tyieia), also caUed Hygea or Hygia,
the goddess of health, and a daughter of Ascle
pius. [As Ms wife she only appears in very late
OrpMc hymns.] She was worshipped particu
larly at Athens, where representations to reUef
and votive tablets have been found to the As
clepieum, and not only as the daughter of Ascle
pius but as Athene Hygiea, to whom a statue
and an altar were set up by Pericles [see p. 13, a].
On tMs various theories have been mooted : (1)
that her worship originated at Athens either as
an offshoot from that of Athene or from a con
ception of the poets, (2) that it came to Athens
with the worsMp of Asclepius from Epidaurus ;
(3) that she took the place of Alcippe, a nymph
of the spring to the Asclepieum. These are
matters of conjecture, and the question of origm
may be settled some day by the discovery of
inscriptions. It is true that no pre-Roman in
scriptions about Hygiea have yet been found at
Epidaurus ; but Pausanias (ii. 11, 6) mentions
a very old temple of Asclepius at Titane near
Sicyon where Hygiea was worsMpped equaUy
with her father. It seems likely that her wor
ship was united with that of Asclepius to ex
press the abstract idea of his healing power as
distinct from Ms old oracular character [AsCLE-
prcrs]. It is on the whole more likely to have
originated to the Peloponnesus than at Athens ;
but the worsMp of Athene Hygiea was merely
the addition of the function of healing to the
other qualities of Athene the protectress, and
was quite distinct from the worsMp of Hygiea

HYGINUS
the daughter of Asclepius. At Rome her proper
name as introduced from Greece was Valetudo,
but she was gradually identified with the genuine
Italian deity Salus. In art Hygiea was repre
sented as a maiden clad either in the Doric or
Ionic chiton feeding a snake from a saucer. In
the Vatican group she stands by the seated
Asclepius with one hand on Ms shoulder ; with
the other she offers the saucer to the snake
which is twined about her father's staff.
Hyginus. 1. C. Julius, a Roman gramma
rian, was a native of Spain, and lived at Rome
in the time of Augustus, whose freedman he
was, and who made him librarian of the Pala
tine library (Suet. Gr. 20). He wrote several
works, all of wMch have perished, unless he is
the author of the works described under No. 3.
—2. Hyginus Gromaticus, so called from
gruma, an instrument used by the Agrimen-
sores. He lived in the time of Trajan, and
wrote works on land-surveying. The work D-3
Limitibus constituendis is by some attributed
to him, by some to a later Hyginus. (Ed. by
Hultsch, 1866 ; Lachmann, 1848.) The work on
castrametation (De Munitionbus Gastrorum)
is assigned to Mm without due reason, and
seems to be by a later writer. It is valuable
for its subject. (Ed. by DomaszewsM, Lips.
1887; Lange, Gott. 1848.)— 3. Hyginus, the
author of two extant works : 1. Fabularum
Liber, a series of short mythological legends,
with an introductory genealogy of divinities.
2. Poeticon Astronomicon Libri IV, which
gives an account of the consteUations and the
myths about them. Both works, and especially
the former, have considerable value for the study
of Greek mythology, since the author has made
use of many works, particularly of the Greek
tragedians, wMch have been lost. It is a doubt
ful question whether the original author of these
works was C. Julius Hyginus or not. It is the
opinion of most critics that he was a writer of
a later period, perhaps of the second cent. A. D.
There is no doubt that the Latinity is of a later
period, but the books which we have are only
an abridgment of the original works, and the
language maybe much altered. The statement
of Suetonius that Julius Hyginus was learned
in Alexandrian Uterature would agree with the
researches to these two works, and the fact of
his being a friend of Ovid might account for
certain resemblances in the statements of the
Fabulae and the Metamorphoses. Both works
of Hyginus are included to the Mythographi
Latini of Muncker, Amst. 1681, and of Van
Staveren, Lugd. Bat. 1742. They are edited by
Bunte, Lips. 1857 ; and the Fab. separately by
M. Schmidt, Jen. 1872.
Hylaea ('"CXairj), a district to ScytMa, covered
with wood, is the peninsula adjacent to Taurica
on the NW., between the rivers Borysthenes
and Hypacyris (Hdt. iv. 9, 18, 76).
Hylaeus ("TXaios) — that is, the Woodman —
the name of an Arcadian centaur, who was slain
by Atalante, when he pursued her. According to
some legends, Hylaeus fell in the fight against
the Lapithae, and others again said that he was
one of the centaurs slain by Heracles. (ApoUod.
iii. 9, 2 ; Verg. Georg. ii. 457 ; Aen. viii. 294 ;
Propert. i. 1, 13.)
Hylas ("TXas), in the Alexandrian poets, was
the son of Theodamas, Mng of the Dryopes,
by the nymph Menodice. He was beloved by
Heracles, whom he accompanied in the expedi
tion of the Argonauts. On the coast of Mysia,
Hylas went on shore to draw water from a
fountain ; but his beauty excited the love of the

HYMEN 438
Naiads, who drew him down into the water, and
he was never seen again. Heracles endeavoured
in vain to find Mm ; and when he shouted out
to the youth, the voice of Hylas was heard from
the bottom of the well only like a faint echo,
whence some say that he was actually meta
morphosed into an echo (Verg. Eel. vi. 43).
Hence arose the proverb "TAoi/ Kpavyd(etv (Suid.)
for 'wasted labour' (cf. Aristoph. Plut. 1127).
While Heracles was engaged in seeking his
favourite, the Argonauts sailed away, leaving
him and his companion, Polyphemus, behind
(Ap. Rh. i. 1207 ; Val. Flacc. iii. 481 ; Hyg. Fab.
14, 271 ; Theocr. xiii. ; Propert. i. 20). The cry
for Hylas was very much older than these
stories of the Alexandrian poets. It is the
' Mysian cry ' of Aesch. Pers. 1054. At what
period Hylas and Heracles were connected
in mythology it is impossible to say, but it is a
reasonable suggestion that the myth of Hylas
grow out of the ritual of a Mysian harvest fes
tival in wMch the figure of a boy was cast into
the stream or fountain with cries upon a harvest
deity Hylas (cf. Strab. p. 564). Others imagine
him to have been the deity of the spring called
upon in summer to give more water.
Hyle ("TXri, also TYXai), a small town in
Boeotia, on the lake Hylice, which was called
after this town, and into which the Ismenus flows
(17. ii. 500, v. 708, vii. 221 ; Strab. p. 407).
Hylias, a river in Bruttium, separating the
territories of Sybaris and Croton (Thuc. vii. 35).
Hylice (f) 'TXikti Xipvri), a lake in Boeotia,
S. of the lake Copais. [See Hyle.]
Hylicus ("TXikos, "rxxmos), a small river to
ArgoUs, near Troezen.
Hyllus ("VXXos), son of Hercules by Deianira.
For details see Heraclidae.
Hyllus ("TAA.OI : Kumtschai), a river of
Lydia, falling into the Hermus on its N. side
(II. xx. 392 ; Hdt. i. 80 ; Strab. p. 626).
Hymen or Hymenaeus ('Tpiiv or "tpevaios),
the god of marriage, was conceived as a hand
some youth, and invoked to the hymeneal or
bridal song (Sapph. Fr. 91, 107, 108; Eur.
Troad. 310). The names originally designated
the bridal song itself, which was subsequently
personified, whence as a deity he becomes the
son of deities connected with music, and also
gathers to himself local stories of mortals
arising from some marriage custom. He is
described as the son of Apollo and a Muse,
either CaUiope, Urania, or Terpsichore. Others
describe him only as the favourite of Apollo
or Thamyris, and call him a son of Magnes and
Calliope, or of Dionysus and Aphrodite. This
last genealogy points to his being regarded as
the god of fruitfulness (Pind. Fr. 139 ; Schol.
ad Pind. iv. 313 ; Catull. 61, 2 ; Serv. ad Aen.
iv. 127). The Attic legends described him as a
youth of such delicate beauty, that he might be
taken for a girl. He fell in love with a maiden,
who refused to listen to him ; but in the disguise
of a girl he foUowed her to Eleusis to the festival ¦
of Demeter. The maidens, together with
Hymenaeus, were carried off by robbers into a
distant and desolate country. On their land
ing, the robbers lay down to sleep, and were
killed by Hymenaeus, who now returned to
Athens, requesting the citizens to give him his
beloved in marriage, if he restored to them the
maidens who had been carried off by the
robbers. His request was granted, and his
marriage was extremely happy. For this
reason he was invoked in the hymeneal songs.
According to others he was a youth who was
MUed by the fall of his house on his wedding-
FF

434 day, whence

HYMETTUS
he was afterwards

was afterwards invoked to
bridal songs, in order to be propitiated (Serv.
ad Aen. i. 655, ad Eel. viii. 30). Some related
that at the wedding of Dionysus and Ariadne
he sang the bridal hymn, but lost Ms voice.
He is represented to works of art as a young
man carrying a bridal torch. Most notable is a
painting from Pompeii (Mus. Borb. xii. 17).
Hymettus ('Y/i«jttos), a mountain in Attica,
celebrated for its marble and more especially
for its honey (Hor. Od. ii. 18, 3, Sat. ii. 2, 15).
It is about tMee miles S. of Athens, and forms
the commencement of the range of mountains
which runs S. tMough Attica [p. 148]. It is
now called Telovuni or Hymettos : the part of
the mountain near the promontory Zoster,
wMch was caUed in ancient times Anhydrus (o
"AvvSpos, sc. 'Xprirrbs), or the Dry Hymettus, is
now called Mavrovuni.
Hypacyris, Hypacaris, or Pacaris (Kanil-
shak), a river in European Sarmatia, which
flows through the country of the nomad Scy
thians, and falls into the Sinus Carcinites to
the Euxine sea.
Hypaea, [Stoechades.]
Hypaepa ( tiraiira : Dokboi), a city of Lydia,
on the S. slope of Mt. Tmolus, near the N.
bank of the Caister (Strab. p. 627 ; Paus. v.
27, 5 ; Ov. Met. vi. 13).
Hypana ('tirdv-n ¦ ra "Tirava : 'Tiraveis), a
town in Triphylian Elis, belonging to the
Pentapolis (Strab. p 343).
Hypanis. 1. (Bug), a river in European
Sarmatia, rises, according to Herodotus, in a
lake, flows parallel to the Borysthenes, has at
first sweet, then bitter water, and falls into the
Euxine sea W. of the Borysthenes (Hdt. ii.
102, iv. 17; Strab. p. 107; Ov. Pont. iv. 10,
47). — 2. (Kuban), a river of the Sarmatian
Caucasus, rising in the mountains of the
Caucasus and flowing into the Palus Maeotis
(Strab._p. 494).
Hypata (rd "Tirara, r) 'Tirdrri: 'tiraraios,
"tirareis: Neopatra, Turk. Batrajik), a town
of the Aenianes in Thessaly, S. of the Sper-
cheus, belonged in later times to the AetoUan
league (Pol. xx. 9, 11, xxi. 2, 3). The inhabi
tants of this town were notorious for magic
(Lucian, Asin. 1, Apul. Met. i. 104).
Hypatia ('tirarla), daughter of Theon, by
whom she was instructed in philosophy and
mathematics. She lectured to the Neoplatonic
school of Plotinus at Alexandria. She ap
pears to have been modest as well as beautiful,
but nevertheless to have been a victim to
slander and falsehood. She was accused of
influencing Orestes, prefect of Alexandria,
against Cyril ; and (possibly at the instigation
of the archbishop himself) a number of fana
tical monks seized her in the street, and
dragged her into one of the churches, where
they tore her to pieces, a.d. 415.
Hypatodorus (YirarbSapos), a sculptor of
Thebes, B.C. 872 (Paus. viii. 26, 5, x. 10, 3).
Hyperbolus ('TirepBoXos), an Athenian de
magogue in the Peloponnesian war, was of
servile origin, and was frequently satirised by
Aristophanes and the other comic poets
(Aristoph. Aeh. 846, Eq. 1301, Vesp. 1007). In
order to get rid either of Nicias or Alcibiades,
Hyperbolus caUed for the exercise of the ostra
cism. But the parties endangered combined
to defeat Mm, and the vote of exile fell on
Hyperbolus himself: an application of that
dignified punishment by which it was thought
to have been so debased that the use of it was
never recurred to. Some years afterwards he

HYPERBOREI
was murdered by the oligarchs at Samos, B.C.
411. (Thuc. vui. 74, Plut. Arist. 7, Ale. 13).
Hyperborei or-ei ('TirepBbpeoi, 'trrepBbpeioi),
a fabulous people, the earliest mention of whom
seems to have been in the sacred legends con
nected with the worsMp of Apollo, both at Delos
and at DelpM. They are not mentioned by
Homer, but it does not follow that the legend
was post-Homeric. Herodotus (iv. 32) notices
them as spoken of in the Epigoni and by . .
Hesiod. In the earliest Greek conception . .
of the Hyperboreans, as embodied by the
poets, they were a blessed people, living in
a land of perpetual sunshine, which produced
abundant fruits, on which the people lived,
abstaining from animal food. In innocence
and peace, free from disease and toil and care,
ignorant of violence and war, they spent a long
and happy life, to the due and cheerful obser
vance of the worsMp of ApoUo, who visited their
country soon after his birth, and spent a whole
year among them, dancing and singing, before
he returned to Delphi. The poets related
further how the sun only rose once a year and
set once a year, upon the Hyperboreans, whose
year was thus divided, at the equinoxes, into a
six months' day and a six months' night, and
they were therefore said to sow to the morning,
to reap at noon, to gather their fruits in the
evening, and to store them up at night : how,
too, their natural Ufe lasted 1000 years, but if
any of them was satiated with its unbroken
enjoyment, he threw himself, crowned and
anointed, from a sacred rock into the sea (Strab.
p. 711 ; PUn. iv. 82). The Delian legends told
of offerings sent to Apollo by the Hyberboreans,
first by the hands of virgins named Arge and
Opis (or Hecaerge), and then by Laodice and
Hyperoche, escorted by five men called Per-
pherees ; and lastly, as their messengers did not
return, they sent the offerings packed to wheat-
straw, and the sacred package was forwarded
from people to people tiU it reached Delos.
Pausanias cites the old Delian hymns ascribed
to Olen as saying that a shrine made of wax and
feathers was sent by ApoUo to the Hyperboreans,
apparently to Delphi (Paus. x. 6). Hence it
would Beem that they were originaUy regarded
as Delphians, and the XevKal xbpai who were sup
posed to aid Delphi against the Gauls may have
been the Hyperborean maidens Laodice and
Hyperoche (Paus. i. 4, 4, x. 23, 1 ; Cic. Div. i. 87,
81). The notion that they dwelt to the extreme
north ' beyond the influence of the north wind,'
may have arisen from the derivation of their
name .(now generally rejected) virep — Bopeas.
Herodotus says that Aristeas placed them in a
gold-producing country (Ural Mountains'!)
near the Arimaspi (Hdt. iv. 13) ; but the older
legends seem to connect them with the lands of
the sun to the south-west or south-east (Pind.
Pyth. x. 30 ; Aesch. Pr. 805), and when Pindar
speaks of the sources of the Ister as their dwell
ing (Ol. iii. 14, viii. 47 ; Isthm. v. 22), he probably
meant to express the extreme west ; but un
questionably they were eventually conceived as
dweUtog far in the north, and their name meant
northerly, as when VirgU and Horace speak
of the 'Hyperboreae rirae' and 'Hyperborei
campi. ' Some modern writers derive their name
from u7rep — 6pos = i beyond the mountains':
others connect the word with ipepa, as though
for vireptpeperai, so that the name meant ' the
bringers of offerings to Apollo ' to its original,
and ' northern ' only in its later, use.
Hyperborei Montes was originally the mythi
cal name of an imaginary range of mountains

HYPERIDES
in the N. of the earth [Hypebbobei], and
was afterwards applied by the geographers to
various chains, as, for example, the Caucasus,
the Rhipaei Montes, and others.
Hyperides ('TirepefSijs or "TirepfSijj), one of
the ten Attic orators, was the son of Glaucippus,
and belonged to the Attic demus of Collytus.
He was a pupU of Isocrates, and a friend and
feUow-pupil of Lycurgus. He is first mentioned
B.C. 860, when he prosecuted Autocles for
treason to a Thracian command. About B.C.
358 he and Ms son equipped two triremes at
their own expense in order to serve agatost
Euboea. From the peace of 846 till 324 he aided
Demosthenes to the patriotic struggle against
Macedon. After the death of Alexander (828)
Hyperides took an active part to organising
that confederacy of the Greeks agatost Anti
pater wMch produced the Lamian war. Upon
the defeat of the confederates at the battle of
Crannon to the foUowing year (322), Hyperides
fled to Aegina, where he was slain by the
emissaries of Antipater. His oratory, holding
a middle place between that of Lysias and
Demosthenes, combined vigour with grace and
wit, and is remarkable also for its pathetic
passages. Longinus (de Sublim. 34) ranks him
very high for all these quaUties. Out of the
77 orations attributed to Hyperides, until the
middle of tMs century none were known to be
extant, but to 1847 and succeeding years the
greater part of the speech For Euxenippus
and of the Funeral Oration on those who feU
in the Lamian war, and (to 1892) most of the
speech Against Athenagoras, and parts of those
Against Demosthenes and .For Lycophronwere
recovered from papyri found in Egypt. Ed.
C. Babington, 1853; Blass, Lips. 1869.
Hyperion ('Tireplav), a Titan, son of Uranus
and Ge, and married to Ms sister TMa, or
Euryphaessa, by whom he became the father
of HeUos, Selene, and Eos. [Helios.]
Hypermnestra ('Tireppvi)o-Tpa). 1. Daughter
¦of Thestius and Eurythemis, wife of Oicles,
and mother of Amphiaraus. — 2. One of the
daughters of Danaus and wife of Lynceus,
[Danaus ; Lynceus.]
Hyphasis or Hypasis or Hypanis ("Tipao-is,
~°YiTao-is, "Tiravis : Beeas, and Gharra), a river
of India. [Hydaspes.]
Hypius ("Ttios), a river and mountain to
Bithynia. Hypsas ("T^/as), two rivers on the S. coast
of Sicily, one between Selinus and Thermae
Seltountiae (now Belici) and the other near
Agrigentum (now Fiume Drago).
Hypseus ("Ti^eiis), son of Peneus and Creusa,
was king of the Lapithae, and father of Cyrene
(Pind. Pyth. ix. 13 ; Paus. ix. 34, 5).
Hypsicles ('Tif/iKXfis), of Alexandria, a Greek
mathematician, usually said to have Uved about
a.d. 160, but ought not to be placed earlier than
a.d. 550. His only extant work is entitled Ilepl
tt)s rav £aSiav dvaipopas, pubhshed with the
Optics of Heliodorus at Paris, 1567. He is sup
posed to have added the 14th and 15th books to
the Elements of Euclid.
Hypsipyle ("<rif/iiriXv), daughter of Thoas,
king of Lemnos. When the Lemnian women
kUled all the men in the island, because they
had taken some female Thracian slaves to their
beds, Hypsipyle saved her father. [Thoas.]
She then became queen of Lemnos ; and when
the Argonauts landed there shortly afterwards,
she bore twin sons to Jason, Euneus and
Nebrophonus, also called DeiphUus or Thoas.
[Jason.] The Lemnian women subsequently

HYRCANUS

435

discovered that Thoas was alive, whereupon
they compelled Hypsipyle to quit the island.
On her flight she was taken prisoner by pirates
and sold to the Nemean king Lycurgus, who
intrusted to her care his son Archemorus or
Opheltes. [Archemorus.]
Hypsus ('T^iovs, -ovvros), a town in Arcadia,
on a mountain of the same name.
Hyrcania ('TpKavia : 'TpKavios, Hyrcanus :
Mazanderan), a province of the ancient Per
sian Empire, on the S. and SE. shores of the
Caspian or Hyrcanian Sea, and separated by
mountains on the W., S., and E., from Media,
Parthia, and Margiana. Its valleys were very
fertile ; and it flourished most under the Par-
tMans, whose kings often resided in it during
the summer. (Strab. p. 508.)
Hyrcanum or -ium Mare. [Caspium Mare.]
Hyrcanus ("tpKavbs). 1. Joannes, prince
and Mgh-priest of the Jews, was the son and
successor of Simon Maccabaeus. He succeeded
to his father's power B.C. 135. He was at first
engaged in war with Antiochus VII. Sidetes,
who invaded Judaea, and laid siege to Jerusalem.
In 133 he concluded a peace with Antiochus,
on the condition of paying an annual tribute.
In 109 Hyrcanus took Samaria, and razed it
to the ground. He died in 106. Although he
did not assume the title of king, he may be
regarded as the founder of the monarchy of
Judaea, which continued to his family till the
accession of Herod. (Jos. Ant. xiii. 7-9.) —
2. High-priest and king of the Jews, was
the eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus. On
the death of Alexander (78) the royal autho
rity devolved upon Alexandra, Ms wife, who
appointed Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood;
and upon her death in 69, Hyrcanus suc
ceeded to the sovereignty, but was attacked
by Ms younger brother, Aristobulus, in the fol
lowing year (68), and, being driven from the
throne, took refuge with Aretas, king of Arabia
Petraea. That monarch assembled an army,
with which he invaded Judaea. Aristobulus,
however, gained over by bribes and promises
Pompey's lieutenant, M. Scaurus, who now
ordered Aretas and Hyrcanus to withdraw from
Judaea (64). The next year Pompey himself
arrived in Syria : he reversed the decision of
Scaurus, carried away Aristobulus as a prisoner
to Rome, and reinstated Hyrcanus in the high-
priesthood, with the authority, though not the
name, of royalty; but Alexander, the son of
Aristobulus, and subsequently Aristobulus him
self, escaped from Rome, and excited revolts,
which were only quelled by the assistance of
the Romans. The real government was now
in the hands of Antipater, the father of Herod,
who aided Caesar during the Alexandrian war
(47), and was made procurator of Judaea.
Antipater was poisoned by the contrivance of
Hyrcanus (43) ; but Herod succeeded to his
father's power. The Parthians, on their inva
sion of Syria, carried away Hyrcanus as prisoner
(40). He was treated with much liberality
by the Parthian king, and allowed to live in
freedom at Babylon. Here he remained for
some years ; but having at length received an
invitation from Herod, who had meanwhile
established himself on the throne of Judaea, he
returned to Jerusalem. He was treated with
respect by Herod till the battle of Actium;
when Herod, fearing lest Augustus might place
Hyrcanus on the throne, accused him of a
treasonable correspondence with the king of
Arabia, and put Mm to death (30). (Jos. Ant.
xiv. 5-13, xv. 2, 6 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 26.) p r 2

436

HYRIA

Hyria ('tpia : 'Ypievs, 'tpidrris). 1. A town
to Boeotia, near Tanagra, was in the earliest
times a place of importance, but afterwards
sank into insignificance (Strab. pp. 404, 408). —
2. A town in Apulia. [Uria.]
Hyrieus ('Tpieis), son of Poseidon and Al
cyone, king of Hyria to Boeotia, husband of
Clonia, and father of Nycteus, Lycus, and Orion.
Respecting his treasures see Agamedes.
Hyrmina ('tppivri), a town in Elis, mentioned
by Homer, but of wMch aU trace had dis
appeared in the time of Strabo (Strab. p. 341).
Near it was the promontory Hyrmina or Hor-
mina (C. Ghiarenza).
Hyrmine ('Tppivri), daughter of Neleus, or
Nycteus, wife of Phorbas, and mother of Actor.
Hyrtacus ("TpraKos). 1. A Trojan, to whom
Priam gave his first wife Arisba, when he
married Hecuba. Homer makes him the father
of Asius, hence called Hyrtacides (11. ii. 837).
—2. Father of Nisus (Verg. Aen. ix. 177).—
3. Father of Hippocoon (Verg. Aen. v. 492).
Hysiae ("T<riai). 1. ("To-idrris), a town in
Argolis, S. of Argos, destroyed by the Spartans
in the Peloponnesian war (Thuc. v. 83). — 2.
('To-ieis), a town in Boeotia, E. of Plataeae,
called by Herodotus (v. 74) a demus of Attica,
but probably belonging to Plataeae.
Hystaspes ('"Co-rdo-irris). 1. Son of Arsames,
and father of Darius I., was a member of the
Persian royal house of the Achaemenidae.
He was satrap of PersiB under Cambyses, and
probably under Cyrus also. (Hdt. i. 209, iii. 70,
iv. 83, vii. 224.) — 2. Son of Darius- 1, and
Atossa (Hdt. vii. 64).

Iacchus. [Dionysus, p. 296, a.]
Iadera or Iader (Iadertlnus : Old Zara), a
town on the coast of Illyricum, with a good
harbour, and a Roman colony under the name
of 'Colonia Claudia AugUBta Felix' (Plin. iii.
140 ; C. I. L. Ui. 2909).
lalemus ('idXepos), a similar personification
to that of Linus, and hence called a son of
ApoUo and Calliope (and consequently brother
of (Hymenaeus and Orpheus). He was regarded
as the inventor of the song lalemus, which was
a kind of dirge, and is otoy mentioned as sung
on most melancholy occasions. (Pind. Fr. ;
Schol. ad Eur. Or. 1391, ad Suppl. 281, ad Bhes.
982). The dirges both of Linus and lalemus
seem to be the lamentation for death alike of
vegetation and of early manhood, and the myths
probably grew out of the rites which succeeded
the harvest, when the plant life was dying away
as winter drew near.
Ialmenus ('idXpievos), son of Ares and Asty-
oche, and brother of Ascalaphus, was a native
of the Boeotian Orchomenos. He was one of
the Argonauts and a suitor of Helena. After
the destruction of Troy, he wandered about
with the Orchomenians, and founded colonies
in Colchis. (II. ii. 512, ApoUod. iii. 10, 8 ; Paus.
ix. 87 ; Strab. p. 416.)
Ialysus ('idXvffos : Philerimos), one of the
three very ancient Dorian cities to the island of
Rhodes, and one of the six original members of
¦ the Dorian Hexapolis [Doris], stood on the
NW. coast of the island, about sixty stadia SW.
of Rhodes. It is said to have derived its name
from the mythical Ialysus, son of Cercaphus,
and grandson of Helios. (Pind. 01. vii. 74;
Diod. v. 57 ; Strab. p. 654. For its pottery, see
Rhodus.)

IAPETUS
Iambe ('lapBri), a Thracian woman, daughter
of Pan and Echo, and a slave of Metanira.
When Demeter, in search of her daughter,
arrived to Attica, and visited the house of
Metanira, Iambe cheered the mournful goddesa
by her jokes (Hymn, ad Dem. v. 195). The
custom of jests and mockeries in the Eleusinian
procession was said to commemorate this
(Diod. v. 4; Apollod. i. 5, 1). There can be
little doubt that the converse was the order of
events, and that the story of Iambe grew out of
the practise of jeering to the procession, wMch
was called lapBi^eiv.
Iamblichus ('IdpBXixos). 1. A Syrian who
lived to the time of the emperor Trajan, wrote
a romance in the Greek language, entitled
Babylonica. The work itself is lost, but an
epitome of it is preserved by Photius. — 2. A
celebrated Neo-Platonic philosopher, was born
at Chalcis in Coele-Syria. He died in the
reign of Constantine the Great, probably before
a.d. 333. He was inferior in judgment and
learning to the earlier Neo-Platonists, Plotinus
and Porphyry ; and he introduced into his
system a great deal of Oriental mystery and
magic, gaining for himself from Ms disciples the
reputation of working miracles. IambUchus
wrote (among many other works wMch have
perished) a treatise Ilepl TlvBaybpov aipeffews,
on the philosophy of Pythagoras. It was in
tended as a preparation for the study of Plato,
and consisted originaUy of ten books, of which
four are extant. The first book contains an
account of the life of Pythagoras, and though
compiled without care, it is yet of value, as the
other works from which it is taken are lost.
Edited by Kuster, Amsterd. 1707, and by
Kiessling, Lips. 1815 : the Life of Pythagoras
by Westermann, 1850. Two other works, Ttt
BeoXoyoipeva apiBpriTiKrjs, on mystic numbers
(ed. by Ast, Lips. 1817), and Ilepl pvtrrripiav,
on the mysteries of Egyptian and Chaldaean
theology (ed. by Parthey, Berl. 1857), are
wrongly attributed to him. — 3. A later philo
sopher of the same name, contemporary with
the emperor Julian (Julian, Ep. 84, 40).
Iamidae. [Lamus.]
Iamnia ('lapveia, 'lapvia : 'lapveirins : 0. T.
Jabneel, Jabneh: Ibneh or Gabneh), a con
siderable city of Palestine, between Diospohs
and Azotus, near the coast, with a good har
bour (Stiab. p. 759).
lamus ("lapios), son of Apollo and Evadne,
received the art of prophecy from Ms father, and
was regarded as the ancestor of the famous
family of seers, the Iamidae at Olympia. The
story says that, being deserted by his mother
for a time, he was fed with honey by two snakes,
and was called lamus because he was found
lying in a bed of violets. Apollo afterwards
led Mm to Olympia and gave him prophetic
power. (Pind. 01. vi. 28-70 ; Paus. vi. 2, 8. )
Ianira ('idveipa), one of the Nereids.
Ianthe ('IdvBri). 1. Daughter of Oceanus and
Tethys, and one of the playmates of Persephone
(Paus. iv. 30, 3 ; Hes. Th. 349).— 2. Daughter
of Telestes of Crete, beloved by L?ms.
Iapetus ('laxerbs), one of the Titans, son of
Uranus and Ge, married Asia or Clymene, the
daughter of his brother Oceanus, and became
by her the father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epi-
metheus, and Menoetius (Hes. Th. 507). In
Homer (II. viii. 479) he is mentioned only
as a Titan, imprisoned with Cronus to Tar
tarus. Being the father of Prometheus, he was
grandfather of Deucalion, who was regarded by
the Greeks as the progenitor of the human race,

IAPYDES
and Iapetus Mmself seems to have been
looked upon as progenitor of the older race of
mankind under Cronus, His descendants, Pro
metheus, Atlas, and others, are often designated
by the patronymics Iapetidae (-es), Iapetioni-
dae (-es), and the feminine Iapetionis.
Iapyd.es ('idirvSes or 'Io;7ro8es), a warlike and
barbarous people in the N. of Hlyricum, be
tween the rivers Arsia and Tedanius, were a
mixed race, partly Hlyrian and partly Celtic,
who tattooed their bodies (Strab. pp. 813-815).
They were subdued by Augustus. Their coun
try was caUed Iapydia.
Iapygia ('lamiyia : Idirvyes), the name given
by the Greeks to the S. of Apulia, from Taren
tum and Brundusium to the Prom. Iapy glum
(C. Leuca) ; though it is sometimes applied to
the whole of ApuUa. [Apulia.] The name is
derived from the mythical Iapyx.
Iapyz ('Iairuf). 1. Son of Lycaon and brother
of Daumus and Peucetius, who went as leaders
of a colony to Italy (Ant. Lib. 81). According
to others, he was a Cretan, and a brother of
Icadius, or a son of Daedalus and a Cretan
woman, from whom the Cretans who migrated
to Italy derived the name of Iapyges (Serv. ad
Aen. hi. 332).— 2. The WNW. wind, blowing off
the coast of Iapygia (ApuUa), to the S. of Italy,
and consequently favourable to persons crossing
over to Greece. It was the same as the dp-
yeorris of the Greeks.
Iarbas or Hiarbas, Mng of the GaetuUans,
and son of Jupiter Ammon by a Libyan nymph,
sued to vain for the hand of Dido in marriage
(Verg. Aen. iv. 36, 196 ; Ov. Her. vin. 123 ; Juv.
v. 45 ; Just, xviii. 6). For detaUs see Dido.
Iardanes ('lapSavris), a king of Lydia, and
father of Omphale, who is hence called Iarda-
nis (ApoUod. n. 6, 3).
Iardanes or Iardanus ('lapSavris, 'IdpSavos).
1. (Jardan), a river in EUs (Strab. p. 342 ;
Paus. v. 5, 9). — 2. A river to the N. of Crete,
wMch flowed near Cydonia (Paus. vi. 21, 6).
lasion or Iasius ('laoiav, 'ido-ios), in Homer
(Od. v. 125) is mentioned as a mortal who won
the love of Demeter to a thrice-ploughed field
(rpiiroXos). Homer alone adds that Zeus killed
him with a thunderbolt. In Hesiod the 6cene
of his union with Demeter is Crete, and the son
born to them was Plutus (Th. 969). It would
seem that the original lasion was a local Pelas
gic deity of Crete, and the myth signifies the
adoption of agriculture by the people and the
consequent wealth ; in respect of which De
meter became the chief deity to their rites and
lasion subordinate (cf. Ov. Met. ix. 422, Am.
iii. 10, 25 ; ApoUod. ui. 12, 1). He iB represented
as being the son of Zeus and Electra, the
daughter of Atlas, in a different legend, which
connects him with Samothrace, in which island
Demeter, having met him at the marriage of
Harmonia, instructs him in the mysteries
(Diod. v. 48). A third version gives an Italian
origin to him and Ms brother, Dardanus, who are
, sons of Electra and Corythus, the founder of
Cortona (Verg. Aen. iii. 167 ; Serv. ad loc).
Iasis, i.e. Atalante, the daughter of Iasius.
Iaso ('lao-d), i.e. Recovery, a daughter of
Asclepius, or Amphiaraus, and sister of Hygiea,
was worshipped as the goddess of recovery.
Iassius or Iassicus Sinus ('lacriKbs KbXiros :
Gulf of Mandeliyeh), a large gulf on the W.
coast of Caria, between the peninsulae of Mile
tus and Myndus ; named after the city of lassus,
and called Bargylieticus Sinus (BapyvXi-nTiKbs
KbXiros) from another city, Bargylia.
lassus or Iasus ("laooos, "laaos : 'laaevs :

ICARIA

437

Asyn-Kalessi, Ru.), a city of Caria, on the
Iassius Sinus, founded by Argives and colonised
by Milesians (Thuc. viii. 28 ; Strab. p. 658).
Iasus ("Ioo-os). 1. An Arcadian, son of Lycur
gus and CleopMle or Eurynome, brother of
Ancaeus, husband of Clymene, the daughter
of Minyas, and father of Atalante (Apollod. iii.
9, 2). He is likewise called Iasius. — -2. Father
of AmpMon, and Mng of the Minyans.
Iazyges ('id&yes), a powerful Sarmatian
people, who originally dwelt on the coast of the
Pontus Euxinus and the Palus Maeotis, but to
the reign of Claudius settled near the Quadi to
Dacia, in the country bounded by the Danube,
the Theiss, and the Sarmatian mountains. They
are called from this migration Iazyges Metanas-
tae ; but sometimes called Sarmatae Iazyges
or simply Sarmatae. They were in alliance
with the Quadi, with whom they frequently at
tacked the Roman dominions, especially Moesia
and Pannonia. In the fifth century they were
conquered by the Goths. (Strab. pp. 294, 306.)
Iberia ('IBripla : S. part of Georgia), a coun
try of Asia, in the centre of the isthmus between
the Black and Caspian Seas, was surrounded on
every side by mountains, through which there
were only four passes. Sheltered by these
mountains and watered by the Cyrus (Kour) and
its upper tributaries, it was framed for fertility,
and its inhabitants, Iberes ("IBnpes) or Iberi,
whom the ancients beUeved to be of the same
family as the Assyrians and Medes, were an
agricultural people, more civilised than their
neighbours to Colchis and Albania. They were
divided toto four casteB : (1) the nobles, from
whom two Mngs were chosen ; (2) the priests,
who were also the magistrates ; (8) the soldiers
and husbandmen ; (4) the slaves, who performed
all pubUc and mechanical work. The Romans
first became acquainted with the country
through the expedition of Pompey, to b.c 65;
and under Trajan it was subjected to Rome.
In the fifth century it was conquered by the
Persian king, Sapor. (Strab. pp. 499-501 ; Plin.
vi. 29.) — No connexion can be traced between
the Iberians of Asia and those of Spain.
Iberia. [Hispania.]
Iberus ("IBr/pos or *I,8i7p : Ebro), the principal
river of the NE. of Spain, rises among the
mountains of the Cantabri near Juliobriga,
flows SE. through a great plain between the
Pyrenees and the M. Idubeda, and faUs into
the Mediterranean, near Dertosa, after forming
a Delta. Ibycus ("IBvkos), a Greek lyric poet, was a
native of Rhegium, and spent the best part of
Ms life at Samos, at the court of Polycrates,
about b.c. 540. It is related that traveUing
through a desert place near Corinth, he was
murdered by robbers, but before "he died he
caUed upon a flock of cranes that happened to
fly over him to avenge his death. Soon after
wards, when the people of Corinth were assem
bled in the theatre, the cranes appeared ; and
one of the murderers, who happened to be
present, cried out involuntarily, ' Behold the
avengers of Ibycus : ' and thus were the authors
of the crime detected. The phrase of al 'IBinov
yepavoi passed into a proverb. (Suid. s.v. ;
Antip. Sid. Ep. 78; Plut. de Garrul. p. 610.)
The poetry of Ibycus consisted partly of
choral odes or hymns on epic subjects, partly
of love songs, and partook largely of the im
petuosity of Ms character (Cic. Tusc. iv. 33,
71). His remains are edited by Schneidewin,
Gotting. 1833, and in Bergk's Poet. Lyr.
' Icaria or Icarius ('iKapia, 'iKaptos : 'Uapteis),

438

ICARIUS

a mountain and a de-nus in Attica, belonging
to the tribe Aegeis. See foil. art.
Icarius ('I/ccSpios), also called Icarus or Ica-
rion. 1. An Athenian, who lived in the reign
of Pandion, and hospitably received Dionysus
on his arrival in Attica. The god in return
taught him the cultivation of the vine. Icarius
made a present of some wine to peasants, who
became intoxicated by it, and thinking that
they were poisoned by Icarius, slew him, and
threw his body into a well, or buried it under a
tree. His daughter, Erigone, after a long
search, found Ms grave, to which she was con
ducted by his faithful dog Maera. From grief
she hanged herself on the tree under wMch he
was buried. [In Et. Mag. Aletis is said to be
another name for Erigone, given to her because
of her wanderings. It has been suggested
that this was a corruption of dXe'iTris, and that
the original was a propitiatory sacrifice of a
maiden.] Zeus or Dionysus placed her and
Icarius among the stars, making Erigone the
Virgin, Icarius Bootes or Arcturus, and Maera
Procyon or the Little Dog. Hence the latter is
called Icarius canis. The god then punished
the ungrateful Athenians with madness, in
which condition the Athenian maidens hanged
themselves as Erigone had done. The Athe
nians propitiated Icarius and Erigone by the
institution of the festival of the Aeora. For
the origin and meaning of the myth see p. 296,
a; and cf. Diet, of Ant. art. Aeora, Oscilla.
The connexion of the dog with the story is
probably that the burning up of the vines in
the hot season of the dog-star was to be averted
by the rites. (ApoUod. iii. 14, 7 ; Paus. i. 2, 4 ;
Hyg.Fafc. 130, Ast. ii. 4, 5; Ov. Met. vi. 126,
x 451.) — 2. A Lacedaemonian, son of Perieres
and Gorgophone, and brother of Tyndareus.
Others called him grandson of Perieres, and
son of Oebalus. When Icarius and Tyndareus
were expeUed from Lacedaemon by their half"
brother, Hippocoon, Icarius went to Acarnania,
and there became the father of Penelope, and
of several other cMldren. He afterwards
returned to Lacedaemon. Since there were
many suitors for the hand of Penelope, he
promised to give her to the hero who should
conquer in a foot-race. Odysseus won the prize,
and was betrothed to Penelope. Icarius tried
to persuade his daughter to remain with him and
not accompany Odysseus to Ithaca. Odysseus
allowed her to do as she pleased, whereupon
she covered her face with her veil to hide her
blushes, and thus intimated that she would
follow her husband. Icarius then desisted
from further entreaties, and erected a statue of
Modesty on the spot. (Paus. ui. 1, 4 ; Apollod.
i. 9, 5, iii. 10, 3 ; Schol. ad Od. xv. 16.)
Icarus ("Iicopos), son of Daedalus. [Dae
dalus.] Icarus or Icaria ("iKapos, 'Uapia : Nikaria),
an island of the Aegaean sea, one of the
Sporades, W. of Samos; called also Doliche
(SoXixf), i.e. long island). Its common name,
and that of the surrounding sea, Icarium
Mare, were derived from the myth of Icarus.
[Daedalus.] It was first colonised by the MUe-
sians, but afterwards belonged to the Samians,
who fed their herds on its rich pastures. (Strab.
pp. 124, 766; Thuc. iii. 92; Hdt. vi. 95.)
Iccius, a friend of Horace, who addressed to
him an ode (Od. i. 29), and an epistle (Ep.
i. 12). The ode was written in B.C. 25, when
Iccius was preparing to join Aelius Gallus in
his expedition to Arabia. The epistle was
composed about ten years afterwards, when

IDA
Iccius had become Vipsanius Agrippa's steward
in Sicily. In both poems Horace reprehends.
the inordinate desire for wealth.
Iceni, called Simeni (%ipevoi) by Ptolemy,
a numerous and powerful people in Britain,
who dwelt N. of the Trinobantes, to the modern
counties of Suffolk and Norfolk. Their revolt
from the Romans, under their heroic queen
Boudicca or Boadicea, is celebrated to history.
[Boudicca ; Britannia.] Their chief town was
venta Icenorum (Gaister), about three mUes
from Norwich.
Ichnae flxvai : 'Ixvalos). 1. A town in
Bottiaea to Macedonia, near the mouth of the
Axius. — 2. A town to Phthiotis to Thessaly,
celebrated for its worsMp of Themis, who was
hence surnamed Ichnaea (Strab. p. 435).
Ichnae or Ischnae Clxvai, "lo-xvai), a Greek
city in the N. of Mesopotamia, founded by the
Macedonians, was the scene of the first battle
between Crassus and the PartMans, in wMch
the former gained the victory. [Crassus.]
Iehthyophagi ('IxBvoipdyoi, i.e. Fish-eaters),
was a vague descriptive name given to various
peoples on the coasts of Asia and Africa, of whom
the ancients knew but little. Thus we find Ieh
thyophagi : (1) to the extreme SE. of Asia, in
the country of the Sinae : (2) on the coast of
Gedrosia : (3) on the NE. coastof Arabia Felix :
(4) in Africa, on the coast of the Red Sea, above
Egypt : (5) on the W. coast of Africa.
Icilius. 1. Sp., was one of the tMee envoys
sent by the plebeians, after their secession to
the Sacred Mount, to treat with the senate,
B.C. 494. He was thrice elected tribune of the
plebs : namely, to 492, 481, and 471. (Liv. ti.
58; Dionys. vn. 26, ix. 48.) — 2. L., a man of
great energy and eloquence, was tribune of the
plebs, 456, when he claimed for the tribunes
the right of convoMng the senate, and also
carried the important law for the assignment of
the Aventine (de Aventino publicando) to the
plebs. In the following year (455), he was
again elected tribune. He was one of the chief
leaders in the outbreak against the decemvirs,
449. Virginia had been betrothed to him, and
to revenge her death IciUus hurried to the army
which was carrying on the war agatost the
Sabines, and prevailed upon them to desert the
government. (Liv. iii. 44.)
Iconium ('iKbviov : 'iKovieis : Koniyeh), the
capital of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor (Xen. An.
i. 2, 19 ; Strab. p. 568 ; Cic. Fam. iii. 8, 5), was,
when visited by St. Paul, a flourishing city,
with a mixed population of Jews and Greeks-
It was made a colony by Claudius, and there
fore sometimes bore the name of Claudia, and
the inhabitants KA.auSei/coi'ieis : refounded by
Hadrian, and therefore also called Col. Aelia
Iconiensis ; in the middle ages one of the
greatest cities of Asia Minor, and important in
the history of the crusades.
Ictinus ('IktTvos), a contemporary of Peri
cles, was the architect of two of the most cele
brated of the Greek temples — namely, the
great temple of Athene, on the acropolis of
Athens, called the Parthenon, and the temple
of Apollo Epicurius, near PMgalia in Arcadia.
Callicrates was associated with Ictinus in
building the Parthenon. Ictinus also built
part of the HaU of Initiation at Eleusis. [Eleu
sis ; Parthenon ; Phig-alia.]
Ida("lS7), Dor."ISo). 1. (Ida, or Kas-Dagh),
a mountain range of Mysia, in Asia Minor,
which formed the S. boundary of the Troad;
extending from Lectum Pr. in the SW. corner
of the Troad, eastwards along the north side of

ID AEA
the Gulf of Adramyttium, and further east in
the centre of Mysia. Its highest summits were
Cotylus on the north, and Gargara on the
south : the latter is about 5000 feet high, and
is often capped with snow. Lower down, the
slopes of the mountain are well- wooded ; and
lower still, they form fertile fields and valleys.
The sources of the Scamander and the Aese-
pus, besides other rivers and numerous brooks,
are on Ida. The mountain is celebrated in
mythology as the scene of the rape of Gany
mede, whom Ovid (Fast. ii. 145), calls Idaeus
puer, and of the judgment of Paris, who is
called Idaeus judex by Ovid (Fast. vi. 44),
and Idaeus pastor by Cicero (ad Att. i. 18).
In Homer, too, its summit is the place from
which the gods watch the battles in the plain
of Troy (77. viii. 47). Ida was also an ancient
seat of the worsMp of Cybele, who obtained
from it the name of Idaea Mater (Strab. p.
469). — 2. (Psilorati), a mountain in the centre
of Crete, belonging to the mountain range
wMch runs tMough the whole length of the
island. Mt. Ida is 7674 feet above the level of
the sea. (Strab. pp. 472, 604.) It was connected
with the worsMp of Zeus, said to have been
brought up in a cave to tMs mountain. [Zeus.]
Idaea Mater. [Rhea.]
Idaei Dactyli. [Dactyli.]
Idalium ('ISaXiov), a town in Cyprus, sacred
to Venus, who hence bore the surname Idalia.
Idas ("ISos), son of Aphareus and Arene, the
daughter of Oebalus, brother of Lynceus, hus
band of Marpessa, and father of Cleopatra or
Alcyone. From the name of their father, Idas
and Lynceus are called Apharetidae and
Apharidae. (Ap. Rh. i. 485 ; Pind. Nem. x.
121.) ApoUo was to love with Marpessa, the
daughter of Evenus, but Idas carried her off
in a winged chariot which Poseidon had given
him. Evenus could not overtake Idas, but
ApoUo found him in Messene, and took the
maiden from him. The lovers fought for her
possession, but Zeus separated them, and left
the decision with Marpessa, who chose Idas
from fear lest ApoUo should desert her if she
grew old. (II. ix. 534 ; ApoUod. i. 7, 8.) . The
Apharetidae also took part to the Calydonian
hunt, and in the expedition of the Argonauts.
But the most celebrated part of their story is
their battle with the Dioscuri, Castor and
PoUux, which is related elsewhere [p. 298].
I dista visus Gampns, a plain in Germany near
the Weser, probably near the Porta Westphalica,
between Bi/nteln and Hausberge, memorable
for the victory of Germamcus over the Cherusci,
A.D. 16 (Tac. Ann. ii. 16).
Idmon ("ISpav), son of Apollo and Asteria, or
Cyrene, was a soothsayer, and accompanied the
Argonauts, although he knew beforehand that
death awaited Mm. He was killed to the
country of the Mariandynians by a boar or a
serpent ; according to others, he died there of a
disease.^ (Ap. Rh. i. 139, ii. 815; Hyg. Fab. 14.)
Idomeneus ('iSopeveis). 1. Son of the Cretan
Deucalion, and grandson of Minos and Pasiphae,
was Mng of Crete. He is sometimes called
Lyctius or Cnossius, from the Cretan towns of
Lyctus and Cnossus. (II. xiii. 807, 446 ; Verg.
Aen. iii. 401 ; Diod. v. 79.) He was one of the
suitors of Helen; and in conjunction with
Meriones, the son of his half-brother Molus, he
led the Cretans in eighty ships agatost Troy.
He was one of the bravest heroes in the Trojan
war, and distinguished himself especially in
the battle near the ships. (II. ii. 645, iii. 230, iv.
251, v. 43, vii. 165, xiii. 361, xvi. 345.) Accord-

IGUVIUM

439

tog to Homer, Idomeneus returned home in
safety after the fall -of Troy (Od. iii. 191).
His tomb was preserved at Cnossus, where he
was honoured in conjunction with Meriones
(Diod. v. 79). Later traditions relate that once
in a storm he vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon
whatever he should first meet on his landing,
if the god would grant him a safe return. This
was his own son, whom he accordingly sacri
ficed. As Crete was thereupon visited by a
plague, the Cretans expelled Idomeneus. He
went to Italy, where he settled in Calabria, and
built a temple to Athene. From thence he is
said to have migrated again to Colophon, on
the coast of Asia. (Verg. Aen. iii. 121, 400, 531 ;
Serv. ad loc. ; Strab. p. 480.)— 2. Of Lampsacus,
a friend and disciple of Epicurus, flourished
about B.C. 810-270. He wrote philosophical and
Mstorical works, all of which are lost. (Diog.
Laert. xL 28 ; Strab. p. 589 ; Athen. p. 532.)
Idothea (EiSoBea), daughter of Proteus, taught
Menelaus how he might secure her father, and
compel him to show how he might reach home
(Od. iv.).
Idrieus or Hidrieus ('ISpieiis, 'iSpieis), king
of Caria, second son of Hecatomnus, succeeded
to the throne on the death of Artemisia in B.C.
351. He died to 344, leaving the kingdom to his
sister Ada, whom he had married. (Diod. xvi.
42, 69 ; _Strab. p. 656.)
Idubeda (Sierra de Oca and Lorenzo), a
range of mountains in Spain, forms the S.
boundary of the plain of the Ebro, and runs
SE. to the Mediterranean.
Idumaea ('ISovpaia), is the Greek form of
the scriptural name Edoni, but the terms are
not precisely equivalent. In the O. T., and in
the time before the Babylonish captivity of
the Jews, Edom is the district of Mt. Seir — that
is, the mountainous region extending N. and S.
from the Dead Sea to the E. head of the Red
Sea. The decline of the Mngdom of Judaea
enabled the Edomites to extend their power to
the NW. as far as Hebron, while their original
territory was taken possession of by the Na-
bathaean Arabs. Thus the Idumaea of the
later Jewish, and of the Roman, history is the
S. part of Judaea, and a small portion of the
N. of Arabia Petraea, extending NW. and SE.
from the Mediterranean to the W. side of Mt.
Seir. [For the rise of the Idumaean dynasty
to Judaea see Antipateb, Herodes.] The
Roman poets use Idumaea and Judaea as equi
valent terms (Verg. Georg. iii. 12 ; Mart. ii. 2, 5).
Idyia ('ISuia), daughter of Oceanus and
Tethys, and wife of the Colchian king Aeetes.
Ierne. [Hibernia.]
Ietae ('Ural : 'lertvos : Jato), a town in the
interior of Sicily, on a mountain of the same
name, S. of Hyccara.
Igilgili (Djidjeli), a town of Mauretania on
the Sinus Numiaicus, and a colony under Au
gustus (Plin. v. 21).
Igilium (Giglio), a smaU island off the
Etruscan coast, opposite Cosa (Caes. B.C. i. 34).
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in a.d. 69. [Diet.
of Christian Biography.]
Iguvium (Iguvinus, Iguvinas, -atis : Gubbio
or Eugubio), an important town in Umbria, on
the S. slope of the Apennines. On a moun
tain in the neighbourhood of this town was a
celebrated temple of Jupiter, in the ruins of
wMch were discovered, a.d. 1444, seven brazen
tables, covered with Umbrian inscriptions, still
preserved at Gubbio. These tables, called the
Eugubian Tables, contain more than 1000 Um
brian words, and are of importance for a know-

440

ILAIRA

ledge of the ancient languages of Italy. Edi
tions by.Huschke, 1859, and Breal, 1875.
Ilaira or Hilaira ('IXdeipd), daughter of
Leucippus and Philodice, and sister of Phoebe.
The two sisters are frequently mentioned by
the poets under the name of Leucippidae.
Both were carried off by the Dioscuri, and
Haira became the wife of Castor. (Paus. ii.
22, 5, iii. 16, 1.)
Ileracones, Ilercaonenses, or Illurgavon-
enses, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis on
the W. coast between the Iberus and M. Idubeda.
Their chief town was Dertosa.
Ilerda (Lerida), a town of Illergetes in His
pania Tarraconensis, situated on a height above
the river Sicoris (Segre), which was here crossed
by a stoife bridge. It was afterwards a Roman
colony, but in the time of Ausonius had ceased
to be a place of importance (Ep. xxv. 59.) Here
Afranius and Petreius, the legates of Pompey,
were defeated by Caesar (b.c 49). (Caes. B. C.
i. 41-45 ; Hor. Ep. i. 13, 20 ; Lucan, iv. 144.)
Ilergetes, a people in Hispania Tarra
conensis, between the Iberus and the Pyrenees.
Ilia or Shea Silvia. [Romulus.]
Ilici or Illice (Elche), a town of the Con-
testani on the E. coast of Hispania Tarra
conensis, on the road from Carthago Nova to
Valentia, was a colonia immunis (Ptol. ii. 6, 62 ;
Plin. iii. 19).
Ilienses, an ancient people in Sardinia.
Ilion" ('IXibvi}), daughter of Priam and
Hecuba, wife of Polymnestor or Polymestor,
king of the Thracian Chersonesus, to whom she
bore a son, Deipylus. At the beginning of the
Trojan war her brother Polydorus was intrusted
to her care, and she brought him up as her own
son. For details see Polydorus. Iliona was
the name of one of the tragedies of Pacuvius.
(Hox._Sat. ii. 8, 61.)
Ilioneus ('IXioveis), a son of Niobe, whom
Apollo would have liked to save, because he
was praying; but the arrow was no longer
under the control of the god. [Niobe.]
Ilipa (Pennaftor), a town to Hispania Baetica,
on the right bank of the Baetis (Strab. p. 141).
Ilissus ' ('IXio-o-bs, more rarely EiXio-ffbs), a
smaU river in Attica, rises on the N. slope of
Mt. Hymettus, flows on the E. and S. of Athens
and joins the Cephissus. Except after heavy
rain it is nearly dry, as its waters are drawn off
to supply the city.
Ilithyia (ElXeiBvia), also caUed Elithyia, He-
thyia, or Eleutho, was the impersonation of the
pain or (in the plural) of the pains of child
birth, and therefore, in the development of the
myth, was worshipped independently as the
goddess who came to the assistance of women
in labour. When she was kindly disposed, she
furthered the birth ; but when she was angry,
she protracted the labour. In II. xix. 119, the
ElXelBviai appear to have no personality, but in
II. xi. 271, they are called the daughters of Hera :
to Hes. Th. 922, the daughters of Zeus and Hera
(cf. Pind. Nem. vii. 2 ; ApoUod. i. 8, 1). But as
all moon-goddesses had influence over birth, so
Hithyia is found in one myth connected, and
at times identified, with Hera, in another with
Artemis. Thus she is not always spoken of as
the daughter of Hera, but is worshipped as
Hera-Ilithyia and as Artemis-Hithyia (cf. Juno-
Lucina). For the same reason she was in some
places identified with ApModite, -who in one of
her aspects was a moon-goddess; and tMs ex
plains the story (perhaps Lycian) in Olen's
Delian hymn that she was the mother of Eros
(Paus. i. 18, 5, ix. 27, 2). According to the

ILLYRICUM
Cretan legend Ilithyia was believed to have
been born in a cave in the territory of Cnossus.
From thence her worship spread over Delos
and Attica. (Od. xix. 188 ; Strab. p. 476 ; Diod.
v. 92.) According to a Delian tradition Ilithyia
was not born in Crete, but had come to Delos
from the Hyperboreans, for the purpose of as
sisting Leto (Paus. i. 18, 5). Her connexion
with the Fates (Pind. Ol. vi. 42, Nem. vii. 1) is
due to the idea that the Fates also had control
over the birth of a child [see also Hobae].
Ilium. [Troas.]
Illiberis ('IxXiBepts). 1. (Tech), called TicMs
or Techum by the Romans, a river in GaUia
Narbonensis in the territory of the Sardones,
rises in the Pyrenees and falls, after a short
course, into the Mare Gallicum (Strab. p. 182).
— 2. (Elne), a town of the Santones, on the
above-mentioned river, at the foot of the
Pyrenees, was originally a place of importance,
but afterwards insignificant. It was restored by
Constantine, who changed its name toto Helena,
whence the- modern Elne. (Liv. xxi. 24.)
Illitnrgis or Illiturgi (Andujar), an im
portant town of the Turduli in Hispania
Tarraconensis, situated on a steep rock near
the Baetis, and on the road from Corduba to
Castulo ; destroyed by Scipio b.c 210, but re-
btolt, and received the name of Forum Julium
(Liv. xxviii. 19, xxxiv. 10 ; Plin. iii. 10).
Illyricum or Illyris, more rarely Illyria (rb
'IXXvpiKbv, 'IXXvpis, 'IXXvpia), included, in its
widest signification, aU the land W. of Macedonia
and E. of Italy and Rhaetia, extending S. as far
as Epirus, and N. as far as the vaUeys of the
Savus and Dravus, and the junction of these
rivers with the Danube. The wide extent of
country was inhabited by numerous Hlyrian
tribes, aU of whom were more or less barbarous.
They were probably of the same origin as the
Thracians, but some Celts were mingled with
them. The country was divided into two parts :
1. Illyris Barbara or Somana, the Roman
province of Illyricum, extended along the
Adriatic sea from Italy (Istria), from which
it was separated by the Arsia, to the river DrUon,
and was bounded on the E. by Macedonia and
Moesia Superior, from wMch it was separated
by the Drinus, and on the N. by Pannoma,
from which it was separated by the Dravus.
It thus comprehended a part of the modem
Croatia, the whole of Dalmatia, almost the
whole of Bosnia, and a part of Albania. It
was divided in ancient times into tMee dis
tricts, according to the tribes by which it was
inhabited : — Iapydia, the interior of the country
on the N., from the Arsia to the TedaMus
[Lapydes] ; Liburnia, along the coast from the
Arsia to the Titius [Liburni] ; and Dalmatia,
S. of Liburnia, along the coast from the Titius
to the Drilon. [Dalmatia.] The Liburnians
submitted at an early time to the Romans ; but
it was not till after the conquest of the Dal
matians in the reign of Augustus, that the
entire country was organised as a Roman pro
vince. From tMs time the Dlyrians, and es
pecially the Dalmatians, formed an important
part of the Roman legions. — 2. Illyris Graeca,
or Illyria proper, also called Epirus Nova,
extended from the Drilon along the Adriatic, to
the Ceraunian mountains, which separated it
from Epirus proper : it was bounded on the E.
by Macedonia. It thus embraced the greater
part of the modern Albania. It was a moun
tainous country, but possessed some fertile land
on the coast. Its principal rivers were the Aous,
Apsus, Genusus, and Panyasus. In the in-

ILUS
terior was an important lake, the Lychnitis.
On the coast there were the Greek colonies of
Epidamnus, afterwards Dyrrhachium, and
Apollonia. It was at these places that the
celebrated Via Egnatia commenced, which ran
through Macedonia to Byzantium. The country
was inhabited by various tribes, Atintanes,
Taulantii, Partblni, Dassabetae, *c. In
early times they were troublesome and danger
ous neighbours to the Macedonian kings. They
were subdued by Philip, the father of Alexander
the Great, who defeated and slew in battle
their king Bardylis, B.C. 859. After the death
of Alexander the Great, most of the Hlyrian
tribes recovered their independence. At a later
time the injury wMch the Roman trade suffered
from their piracies brought against them the
arms of the republic. The forces of their queen
Teuta were easily defeated by the Romans, and
she was obliged to purchase peace by the sur
render of part of her dominions and the pay
ment of an annual tribute, 229. The second
Hlyrian war was finished by the Romans with
the same ease. It was begun by Demetrius of
Pharos, who was guardian of Ptoeus, the son
of Agron, but he was conquered by the consul
AemiUus Paulus, 219 (Pol. ii. 12, ui. 16-19).
Pineus was succeeded by Pleuratus, who culti
vated friendly relations with the Romans. His
son Gentius formed an alliance with Perseus,
king of Macedonia, against Rome ; but he was
conquered by the praetor L. Amcius, to the
same year as Perseus, 168 ; whereupon Hlyria,
as well as Macedoma, became subject to Rome.
(Liv. xiv. 26.) — In the new division of the em
pire under Constantine, Hlyricum formed one
of the great provinces of the empire. It was
divided into Illyricum Occidentale, wMch in
cluded Hlyricum proper, Pannoma, and Nori-
cum, and Hlyricum Orientale, wMch compre
hended Dacia, Moesia, Macedoma, and Thrace.
Hus ("IXos). 1. Son of Dardanus by Batea,
the daughter of Teucer. Hus died without
issue, and left Ms king lorn to Ms brother,
Erichthomus (ApoUod. hi. 12, 2). — 2. Son of
Tros and Callirhoe, grandson of Erichthonius,
and great-grandson of Dardanus ; whence he is
called Dardanides (II. xi. 372). He was the
father of Laomedon and the grandfather of
Priam. He was believed to be the founder of
Troy (H. xx. 232, 236), regardtog wMch ApoUo-
dorus teUs that, when he had won a wrestling
prize at the court of the Mng of Phrygia, the
king gave him a cow, and the oracle having de
clared that where the cow lay down the city
should be built, the site of Troy was thus deter
mined. When he asked for yet another sign,
Zeua gave Mm the palladium, a statue of three
cubits Mgh, with its feet close together, holding
a spear in its right hand, and a distaff in its left,
and promised that as long as it remained to
Troy, the city should be safe. The tomb of
Hus waB shown in the neighbourhood of Troy
(II. x. 415, xxiv. 349; Theocr. xvi. 75).— 3. Son
of Mermerus, and grandson of Jason and Medea.
He Uved at Ephyra, between Elis and Olympia ;
and when Odysseus came to fetch the poison for
Ms arrows, Hus refused it, from fear of the ven
geance of the gods (Od. i. 259 ; Strab. p. 338).
Ilva. [Aethalia.]
Urates, a people in Liguria, S. of the Po, in
Montferrat (Liv. xxx. 10, xxxi. 29).
Im.acha.ra (Imacharensis : Troina), a town
in Sicily, to the Heraean mountains (Cic. Verr.
iii. 18, 42).
Imaus (rb "Ipaov bpos), the name of a great
mountain range of Asia, is one of those terms

INAROS 441
which the ancient geographers appear to have
used indefinitely, for want of exact knowledge.
In its most definite application, it appears to
mean the W. part of the Himalaya, between
the Paropamisus and the Emodi Montes ; but
when it is applied to some great chain, extend
ing much further to the N. and dividing Scythia
mto two parts, Scythia intra Imaum and Scythia
extra Imaum, it must be understood to mean
either the Moussour or Altai mountains, or else
some imaginary range. (Strab. pp. 129, 689 ;
Ptol. vi. 14, 1.)
Imbrasus ("ipBpcuros), a river in Samos, for
merly called Parthenius, flowing into the sea
not far from the city of Samos. The celebrated
temple of Hera ("Hpaiov) stood near it, and it
gave the epithet of Imbrasia both to Hera and
to Artemis. (Strab. p. 687.)
Imbros ("IpBpos : "ipBpios : Embro or Imbrus),
an island in the N. of the Aegaean sea, near the'
Thracian Chersonesus, about 18 miles SE. of
Samothrace, and about 22 NE. of Lemnos. It
is about 25 miles in circumference, and is hilly,
but contains many fertile valleys. (II. xiii. 83,
xiv. 281, xxiv. 78 ; Plin. iv. 72.) Imbros, like
SamotMace, was to ancient times one of the chief
seats of the worship of the Cabiri. There was a
town of the same name on the E. of the island,
of which there are still some ruins.
Inachis ('Ivax'is), a surname of Io, the
daughter of Inachus. The goddess Isis is also
caUed Inachie, because she was identified with
Io. — Inachides to the same way was used as a
name of Epaphus, a grandson of Inachus, and
also of Perseus, because he was born at Argos,
the city of Inachus.
Inachus ("Ivaxos), son of Oceanus and Tethys
(Aesch. Pr. 636 ; Dionys. i. 25), and father of
Phoroneus and Aegialeus, to whom others add
Io, Argos Panoptes, and Phegeus or Pegeus
(ApoUod. ii. 1 ; Hyg. Fab. 143, 145 ; Ov., Met. i.
583 ; Serv. ad Georg. iii. 153). He was the first
king and the most ancient hero of Argos, whence
the country is frequently called the land of
Inachus ; and he is said to have given his name
to the river Inachus (Paus. ii. 15, 4 ; Hor. Od.
ii. 3, 2, iii. 19, 1). In the dispute for the posses
sion of Argos between Poseidon and Hera,
Inachus decided to favour of Hera, and Poseidon
therefore caused the river Inachus to be dry
except to the rainy season. In this story Ina
chus is the river-god and his son Phoroneus is
the founder of Argos (Paus. ii. 15, 4). Another
story makes him gather the inhabitants of
Argos in their plain after the cessation of the
great flood of Deucalion (Schol. ad Eur. Orest.
932). Inachus ("Ivaxos). 1. (Banitza), the cMef
river in Argolis, rises to the mountain Lyrceus
on the borders of Arcadia, flows in a south
easterly direction, receives near Argos the
Charadus, and faUs into the Sinus Argolicus S.
of Argos (Strab. pp. 271, 387). — 2. A river to
Acarnania, which rises in Mt. Lacmon to the
range of Ptodus, and faUs toto the Achelous
(Strab. _p. 316).
Inarime. [Aenaria.]
Inaros ('Ivapas, occasionally "Ivapos), son of
Psammitichus, a chief of some Libyan tribes to
the W. of Egypt, commenced hostilities against
the Persians, which ended in a revolt of the
whole of Egypt, B. c. 461. In 460 Inaros called
in the Athenians, who, with a fleet of 200 galleys,
were then off Cyprus : the ships sailed up to
Memphis, and, occupying two parts of the town,
besieged the third. In the same year Inaroa
defeated the Persians in a great battle, in which

442

INDIA

Achaemenes, the brother of the king Artaxerxes,
was slain. But a new army, under a new com
mander, Megabyzus, was more successful. The
Egyptians and their allies were defeated ; and
Inaros was taken by treachery and crucified,
455. (Thuc. i. 104, 110 ; Hdt. iii. 12, 15.)
India (rj 'IvSia : 'IvSbs, Indus), was a name
used by the Greeks and Romans to describe
the whole of the SE. part of Asia, to the E., S.,
and SE. of the great ranges of mountains now
caUed the Suleiman and Himalaya Moun
tains, including the two peninsulas of Hindus
tan, and of Burmah, Cochin-China, Siam,
and Malacca, and also the islands of the Indian
Archipelago. There is evidence that commer
cial intercourse was carried on from a very
early time between the W. coast of Hindustan
and the W. parts of Asia, by the way of the
Persian Gulf, the Euptoates, and across the
Syrian Desert to Phoenicia, and also by way of
the Red Sea and Idumaea, both to Egypt and
to Phoenicia ; and so on from Phoenicia to Asia
Minor and Europe. The direct acquaintance
of the western nations with India dates from
the reign of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who
added to the Persian empire a part of its NW.
regions, perhaps only as far as the Indus, cer
tainly not beyond the limits of the Punjab ; and
the slight knowledge of the country thus ob
tained by the Persians was conveyed to the
Greeks through the inquiries of traveUers, es
pecially Herodotus, and afterwards by those
Greeks who resided for some time in the Persian
empire, such as Ctesias, who wrote a special
work on India ('IvSiko), of wMch fragments only
remain. The expedition of Alexander into
India first brought the Greeks into actual con
tact with the country ; but the conquests of
Alexander only extended within Scinde, and
the Punjab, as far as the river Hyphasis, down
which he saUed into the Indus, and down the
Indus to the sea. The Greek king of Syria,
Seleucus Nicator, crossed the Hyphasis, and
made war with the Prasii, a people dwelling on
the banks of the upper Ganges, to whom he
afterwards sent ambassadors, named Mega-
sthenes and Daimachus, who lived for several
years at Palibothra, the capital of the Prasii,
and had thus opportunity of obtaining much
information respecting the parts of India about
the Ganges. (Strab. pp. 70, 724 ; Athen. p. 67.)
Megasthenes composed a work on India, which
appears to have been the cMef source of all the
accurate information contained to the works of
later writers. After the death of Seleucus
Nicator, B. c. 281, the direct intercourse of the
western nations with India, except to the way
of commerce, ceased almost entirely. Mean
while, the foundation of Alexandria had created
an extensive commerce between India and the
West, by way of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea,
and Egypt, which made the Greeks better ac
quainted with the W. coast of the peninsula,
and extended their knowledge further into the
eastern seas; but the information they thus
obtained of the countries beyond Cape Comorin
was extremely vague and scanty. Another
channel of information, however, was opened,
during this period, by the establishment of the
Greek kingdom of Bactria, which included part
of N. India. The later geographers made two
great divisions of India, which are separated by
the Ganges, and are called India intra Gangem
(the peninsula of Hindustan), and India
extra Gangem (the Burmese peninsula). They
were acquainted with the division of the people
of Hindustan into castes, of which they enu-

INDIGETES
merate seven. (For tMs and other customs, see
Strab. pp. 699-717 ; Arrian, Ind. 3-16.)
Indibilis and Mandonius, two brothers, and
cMefs of the Spanish tribe of the Hergetes.
during the second Punic war. For some years.
they were f aitMul allies of the Carthaginians ;
but in consequence of the generous treatment-
which the wife of Mandonius and the daughters
of Indibilis received from P. Scipio, the two
brothers deserted the Carthaginian cause, and
joined Scipio in 209 with all the forces of their
nation. (Pol. ix. 11, x. 18-40; Liv. xxvi. 49,
xxvii. 17.) But in 206 the illness and reported
death of Scipio gave them hopes of shaking off
the yoke of Rome, and they excited a general
revolt among their own subjects and among
Celtiberian tribes. They were defeated by
Scipio, and pardoned. (Pol. xi. 26-33 ; Liv.
xxviii. 24-34.) But when Scipio left Spain in
the next year (205), they again revolted. The
Roman generals marched agatost them ; Indi
bilis was slain in battle, and Mandonius was
taken soon afterwards and put to death (Liv.
xxix. 1 ; Appian, Hisp. 38).
Indicetae or Indigetes, a people to the NE.
comer of Hispania Tarraconensis, close upon the
Pyrenees. Their chief town was Emporium.
Indicus Oceanus. [Erythraeum Mare.]
Indigetes, Indigitamenta. In literature
the Dil Indigetes appear to be the genuine
deities of Italy who are regarded as the national
defenders (Verg. Georg. i. 498 ; Ov. Met. xv.
861 ; Lucan, i. 556) : they are the older dii
patrii opposed to the dii novensiles or deities
of foreign origin and later introduction (Liv.
viii. 9). Thus Claudian (Bell. Gild. 128) dis
tinguishes them from those gods ' quos Roma.
recepit, aut dedit ipsa ' — that is, from those
borrowed from abroad or lately created. Hence
arose the practice of regarding the indigetes
often as deified heroes of the country, who had
once been kings (like Romulus-Quirinus) or
warriors (Serv. ad Aen. xti. 794) : thus Aeneas
on being identified with a local deity of the
river Numicus, known as Jupiter Indiges (Liv.
i. 2 ; Verg. Aen. xii. 794), was called Aeneas
Indiges ; but the title must have been given
him after the Greek influence had affected the
Roman mythology. All these conceptions of
the dii indigetes are connected with the common
derivation from in or indu and gigno, wMch
takes the word as = indigena (native to the
country) and equivalent to Beoi or r)paes
iyxdpiot. But the original meaning is with
more probability derived from indu — agere, and
strictly meant those deities who had a special
and limited part to play to the lives and actions
of men : all those whose names, with the occa
sions for invoking them, were included in the
priestly books called indigitamenta. (Somepre-
fer to derive indigitamenta, and consequently
also indiges, from a word indigere, connected
with axare, meaning to invoke or pray to.)
There is a difference of opinion as to precisely
what Beings were included to these books. Varro
(whose statements in the Antiquitates Berum
Divinarum are mainly preserved by Tertullian
and Augustine) distinguished dii certi as those
who had fixed limited functions for particular
occasions, and dii incerti as deities of general
power not thus limited or defined; and some
have thought that the deities included in the
indigitamenta were merely the dii certi. But
it is clear that many of the greater deities with
manifold functions were included in the list of
dii certi so far as a particular function was in
question — e.g. Juno Lucina as goddess of cMld-

INDIGETES
birth ; and again some distinctly Greek deities
were included, as Apollo Medicus or Aescula
pius, to whom healing was the function defined ;
yet if these were true indigetes, how could the
idea have arisen that they were dii patrii as
opposed to novensiles ? Hence there is prob
ability to the most recent view, that the dii
indigetes were originally those deities of ancient
Italy watching over various operations of life,
whose actions are fixed and expressed for each
one by their names — i.e. they were personifica
tions of the action, occasion, or thing. Being
thus deities ' quibus rerum exiguarum singulis
singula distribuuntur ' (August. C. D. vi. 1), they
were sometimes called ' dii minuti ' (cf. Plaut.
Cist. u. 1, 45). These deities expressed a super
stition, which there is reason to beheve is still
more or less unconsciously retained, of attach
ing influence for luck to certain places, or even
to certain articles of dress or equipment : with
this difference, that it was a matter of religion
in the Roman, and that each separate thing
had its own personal deity to whom prayer for
a prosperous action or use was made. A dif
ference may be noticed between the Greek and
Roman religions, that the Greek tended to
centralisation, to gathering a number of attri
butes and functions originaUy belonging to
separate or local deities, and ascribing them to
a stogie greater deity, whereas the Romans
(as far as they preserved their own ritual)
retained the converse system of imagining a
separate deity for each function. In this way
' nomina numtoibus ex officiis constat imposita ;
ut ab occatione deus Occator dicatur, a sarri-
tione Sarritor, a stercoratione Stercultoius, a
satione Sator ' (Varro, ap. Serv. ad Georg. i.
21). In matters referring to Ufe a long line of
deities is conceived for the needs of each
stage from birth to death. Thus Parca (a
pariundo) was the deity who made the birth
propitious or otherwise, and the being born
right and straight with no deformities depended
on Antevorta and Porrima, Postvorta or Prosa
(Varro, ap. GeU. xvi. 16, 4) : another view took
these as deities who regarded destiny with
knowledge of future and of past (Ov. Fast. i.
633); Bumina watched the suckling of the
child ; Levana its upUf ting or adoption by its
father; Nundina its ninth or name-day; Ali-
mona, Edusa, and Potina its nourishment;
Abeona, Adeona, Iterduca its learning to
walk and its guidance through Ufe ; Cuba and
Cunina its cradling; Farinus the power of
speech; Mutunus Tutunus the fruitful mar
riage ; Picumnus and Pilumnus the protection
of the marriage and of the new-born cMldren ;
Viriplaca the agreement of husband and wife ;
Nenia the funeral rites. Again, aU the actions
and businesses of life had their abstract deities
whose names it would be unlucky to neglect,
such as Agonius, who presided over business
actions ; Aescolanus, Argentinus, and Arculus,
who had to do with copper and silver money
and the money-box ; Vica Pota, the deity of
success and victorious action, who had a sanc
tuary near the VeUa (Liv. ii. 7 ; Plut. Publ. 10 ;
Cic. Legg. ii. 11, 28). And for agriculture each
operation had its divinity — e.g. Semonia and
Segesta for sowing; Panda or Patella lor
opening the earth to the sprouting seed ; Ster-
culinius for manuring ; Messia for harvesting.
Lastly, there were a few added within historical
times for special occasions, as Aius Locutius, for
the warning of invasion of the Gauls (Liv. v. 50 ;
GeU. xvi. 17), and Bediculus, for turning Hanni
bal back from Rome in 211 B.C. (Plin. x. 122).

INOUS

443

Indus or Sindus ('IvSbs : Indus, Sind), a
great river of India. The earliest mention in
Greek literature is to Hecataeus (Fr. 144).
Herodotus (iv. 44) has some knowledge of its
character and of its position to the far East,
which he derived from Soylax. It rises in the
table land of Thibet, N. of the Himalaya
mountains, flows nearly paraUel to the great
bend of that chain on its N. side, till it breaks
through the chain a little E. of Attack, in the
NW. corner of the Punjab, and then flows SW.
tMough the great plain of the Punjab, into
the ErytMaeum Mare (Indian Ocean), which
it enters by several mouths — two according to
the earlier Greek writers, six according to the
later. (Arrian, An. v. 6, Ind. 2; Ptol. vii. 1,
28 ; Strab. p. 690.) Its chief tributaries are
the Cophen (Cabul), which enters it from the
NW. at Attack, and the Acesines on the E.
side. [Hyphasis.]
Indus ('IvSbs : Dollomon-Chai), a river of
Asia Minor, rising to the SW. of Phrygia, and
flowing through the district of Cibyratis and
the SE. of Caria into the Mediterranean, oppo
site to Rhodes (Liv. xxxviii. 14; Plin. v. 103).
Indutiomarus, or Induciomarus, one of
the chiefs of the Treviri in Gaul. As he was
opposed to the Romans, Caesar induced the
leading men of the nation to side with Cinge-
torix, the rival of Indutiomarus, B.C. 54. Indu
tiomarus took up arms against the Romans,
but was defeated and slain by Labienus. (Caes.
B. G. v. 53-58.)
Inessa. [Aetna, No. 2.]
Inferi, the gods of the Nether World, to con
tradistinction from the Superi, or the gods of
heaven. In Greek the Inferi are called oi
xBbvtoi. [Chthonius.] Among the dii inferi
were reckoned those who were supposed to
control the lower world, as Dis Pater, Proser
pina, Libera ; or were connected with the dead,
as Mania, Larunda, Avia Larvarum ; or with
the earth and its fruits (of whom some were in
other aspects Superi), as Tellus, Saturnus,
Ceres. Hence the devotio or consecratio in-
feris (or Dis Manibus et Telluri, &c.) meant
that the living persons so devoted were given
over to the power of the gods of the under
world (cf. Liv. viii. 9 ; Macrob. Sat. iii. 9, 10).
But the word Inferi is also frequently used to
designate the dead, in contradistinction from
those living upon the earth; so that apud
inferos is equivalent to ' in Hades,' or ' in the
lower world.' [See Larvae, Lemures, Manes,
Orcus, Hades, Elysium.]
Inferum Mare, caUed also Tuscum or Tyr-
rhenum, was the sea between the islands of
Corsica and Sardinia and the west coast of
Italy extending southwards to Sicily. It was
so called in distinction to Superum Mare — i.e.
the Adriatic.
Ingaevdnes, a name which some authorities
gave to the tribes on the sea-coast of Germany
(Tac. Germ. 2).
Ingauni, a people to Liguria on the coast,
whose chief town was Albium Ingaunum.
Ingeniius, one of the Thirty Tyrants, was
governor of Pannonia when Valerian Bet out
against the Persians, A.D. 258. He assumed
the purple in his province, but was defeated
and slain by Gallienus. (Trebell. Poll. Trig.
Tyr. ; Zonar. xii. 24.)
Ino (!lvd), daughter of Cadmus and Har
monia, and wife of Athamas. For details see
Athamas. Indus, a name both of Melicertes and of
Palaemon, because they were the sons of Ino.

444

INSUBRES

Insubres, a Gallic people, who crossed the
Alps and settled in Gallia Transpadana in the
N. of Italy. Their chief town was Mediolanum.
Next to the Boii, they were the most powerful
of the Gallic tribes to Cisalpine Gaul. They
were conquered by the Romans, shortly before
the commencement of the second Punic war,
but friendly to Hannibal when he descended
into Italy. (Pol. ii. 17 ; Liv. xxi. 25, 39, 45.)
Intaphernes ('IvTaqjepv-qs), one of the seven
conspirators against the Magi, B.C. 522. He was
put to death by Darius. (Hdt. iii. 70-119.)
Intemelii, a people in Liguria on the coast,
whose chief town was Albium Intemelium.
Interamna (Interamnas),the name of several
towns in Italy, so caUed from their lying be
tween two streams. 1. (Terni), an ancient
municipium to Umbria, situated on the Nar,
and surrounded by a canal flowing into this
river, whence its inhabitants were called Inter-
amnates Nartes. It was the birthplace of the
historian Tacitus, as well as of the emperor of
the same name. (Plin. iii. 114.) — 2. A town in
Latium on the Via Latina, and at the junction
of the Casinus with the Liris, whence its in
habitants are caUed Interamnates Urinates.
It was made a Roman colony, b.c 312, but
subsequently sank into insignificance. (Liv.
ix. 28 ; Plin. iii. 64.)
Intercatia, a town of the Vaccaei to His
pania Tarraconensis, on the road from Asturica
to Caesaraugusta.
Intercisa or Petra Pertusa, a post-station
in Umbria, so called because the Via Flaminia
was here cut tMough the rocks by order of
Vespasian. An ancient inscription on the spot
still commemorates this work. (Vict. Caes. 9 ;
Procop. B. G. ii. 11.)
Internum Mare, the Mediterranean Sea,
extended on the W. from the Straits of Her
cules to the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor on
the E. In the NE. it was usuaUy supposed to
terminate at the HeUespont. From the Straits
of Hercules to the furthest shores of Syria it
is 2000 mUes in length ; and, including the
islands, it occupies an area of 734,000 square
mUes. (Strab. pp. 51-54.) It was called by the
Romans Mare Internum or Intestinum ; by
the Greeks r) eaa BaXarra or r) ivrbs BdXarra,
or, more fuUy, i) ivrbs 'HpaxXeiav arriXuv
BdXarra : and from its washing the coasts both
of Greece and Italy, it was also called both
by Greeks and Romans Our Sea (r) r)perepa
BdXarra, r) KaB' r)pMs BdXarra, Mare Nostrum).
(Mel. i. 1, 4 ; Plin. iii. 8 ; Sail. Jug. 17 ; Plat.
Phaed. p. 109 b; Pol. iii. 39; Strab. p. 121;
. Arist. Met. ii. 1 ; Caes. B. G. v. 1.) The term
Mare Mediterraneum is not used by the best
-classical writers, and occurs first in Solinus.
The ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible in
only a few parts of the Mediterranean, such as
in the Syrtes on the coast of Africa, to the
Adriatic, &c. The different parts of the Medi
terranean are called by different names. See
Mare Tyrrhenum or Inperum, Adria or M.
Adriaticum or M. Supeeum, M. Siculum,
M. Aegaeum, &c.
Intibili, a town of Hispania Baetica, near
LUiturgis (Liv. xxiii. 49).
Iniii Gastrum, a city of Latium (Verg. Aen.
vi. 776), on the coast between Antium and
Lavinium (Ov. Met. xv. 727 ; Sil. It. viii. 861).
Inuus, an old Italian deity of the increase in
flocks and herds, to reality merely another name
of Faunus or Lupercus (Liv. i. 5; Serv. ad
Aen. vi. 775 ; Macrob. i. 22). He was specially
worshipped in old times at Castrum Inui.

IOLAUS
Inycum ("Ivvkov), a town in the S. of Sicily,
near Selinus, on the Hypsas (Hdt. vi. 23 ; Paus.
vi. 4, 6).
Io ('Id), daughter of Inachus, the first king of
Argos, or, according to others, of Iasus or Piren.
Zeus loved Io, but on account of Hera's
jealousy, he metamorphosed her toto a white
heifer (Apollod. ii. 1, 3 ; Hyg. Fab. 145). The
goddess, who was aware of the change, obtained
the heifer from Zeus, and placed her under the
care of Argus Panoptes. According to the
story which Aeschylus foUows, it was Hera
who changed Io toto a cow ; and tMs also was
implied by the representation on the throne of
Apollo at Amyclae (Aesch. Suppl. 299 ; Paus.
iii. 18, 13). Zeus sent Hermes to slay Argus
and deliver Io. [Argus.] It is a disputed
point whether tMs act is sigmfied by the
epithet 'Apyeupbvrris. [See Hermes, p. 405, b.]
Hera then tormented Io with a gad-fly, and
drove her in a state of frenzy from land to
land over the whole earth, until at length she
found rest on the banks of the Nile. Here she
recovered her original form, and bore a son to
Zeus, caUed Epaphus. [Epaphus.] The wan
derings of Io were celebrated in antiqmty, and
were extended with the increase of geographical
knowledge. (Aesch. Pr. 700-815 ; Suppl. 540-
565 ; Eur. I. T. 394 ; cf. Athen. p. 619 ; Lucian,
Dear. Dial. 3 ; Strab. p. 320.) The Bosporus
is said to have derived its name from her
swimming across it (Aesch. Pr. 732 ; Appian,
Bell. Mithr. 101). An early attempt to ration
alise the story is given by Herodotus (i. 1) : that
Io was a princess of Argos who was carried off
to Egypt by Phoenicians. It has been a
common interpretation that tMs horned Io
signifies the crescent moon and Argus the starry
heaven. It is more likely that Io was originally
Hera herself, or, rather, that she was a deity
worsMpped in certain places to the shape of a
cow (whether by a totemistic custom or not),
whose worship was superseded by that of Hera,
and who accordingly was represented as a rival
transformed by Hera. It is another question
whether this cow-shaped deity was originaUy
imagined from the Egyptian Isis, or whether a
Greek Io was identified with Isis, and was there
fore represented as having gone to Egypt. At
any rate it is likely that her wanderings were
in part suggested by the Egyptian goddess,
though in part they arose from local myths and
also from an attempt to explain certain local
names. [See also Isis.] In art representations
three periods are distinguished : to the oldest
she has the form of a cow (cf . Paus. i. 25 ; Verg.
Aen. vii. 789). -In the second period (possibly
to suit the representation on the stage) she is a
maiden with horns (Aesch. Pr. 588 ; cf. Hdt.
ii. 41). The change appears on vases to begin
after the Persian wars, and this form may have
conduced to the identification with Isis. The
third period in the decadence of art reverts to
the cow-form.
lobates, king of Lycia. [Bellerophon.]
Iol. [Caesarea, No. 4.]
Iolaenses. [Iolaus.]
lolaus ('ibXaos), son of Iphicles and Autome-
dusa. Iphicles was the half-brother of Hera
cles, and Iolaus was the faittoul companion
and charioteer of the hero (Hes. Sc. 74 ; Apollod.
ii. 4, 11 ; Paus. viii. 14, 6). He helped Heracles
to slay the Lernean Hydra. After Heracles
had instituted the Olympic games, Iolaus won
the victory with the horses of Ms master (Paus.
v. 8, 1). Heracles sent him to Sardinia at the
head of Ms sons whom he had by the daughters

IOLCUS
°l -^espius. He introduced civilisation among
the inhabitants of that island, and was wor
shipped by them; and Ms descendants were
the Iolaenses ('loXaets). This story was prob
ably an attempt to explain the name of the
native tribe so called to Sardinia, whom Strabo,
p. 225, states to have been a Tyrrhenian people.
(Paus. x. 17, 5 ; Diod. iv. 80, v. 15 ; Sardinia.)
From Sardinia he went to Sicily, and then
returned to Heracles shortly before the death
of the latter. After the death of the hero,
Iolaus was the first who offered sacrifices to him
as a demigod. There are two stories of his aid
to the cMldren of Heracles after the death of
their father. One makes him do battle for them
in his natural life, and kUl Eurystheus in battle
(Paus. i. 44, 13 ; Strab. p. 877) : the other (a
Theban story) makes him return from the
grave for these exploits ; and then, after his
second death, he is buried in the grave of
Amphitryon (Pind. Pyth . ix. 79) . In Pausanias'
account he dies to Sardtoia, having apparently
returned there after the victory over Eurys
theus, and is buried there (Paus. ix. 23, 1).
Iolcus ('laXKbs, Ep. 'laaXKbs, Dor. 'IaWs :
'IwXkios : Volo), an ancient town to Magnesia
in Thessaly at the top of the Pagasaean gulf,
seven stadia from the sea, at the foot of Mt.
Pehon. It is said to have been founded by
Cretheus, and to have been colonised by Min
yans from Orchomenus. It was celebrated in
mythology as the residence of PeUas and Jason,
and as the place from which the Argonauts
sailed in quest of the golden fleece. [Argo-
nautae ; Jason.] The Thessalians offered it to
Hippias when he was driven out from Athens
(Hdt. v. 94). Its inhabitants were removed to
the neighbouring town of Demetrias, which was
founded by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and the old
town went to rain. (II. ii. 712 ; Od. xi. 256 ;
Strab. pp. 414, 436, 438.)
Iole ('ibXri), daughter of Eurytus of Oechalia,
was beloved by Heracles. For detaUs see p.
400. After the death of Heracles, she married
his son HyUus.
Iollasor Iolaus ('ibXXas or 'ibXaos). 1. Son
of Antipater, and brother of Cassander, king of
Macedonia. He was cup-bearer to Alexander at
the period of Ms last illness. Those writers who
adopt the idea of the Mng having been poisoned,
represent Iollas as the person who actually
administered the fatal draught. This accu
sation was undoubtedly false, and was originated
six years later by Olympias as a pretext for
oppressing the adherents of Antipater. She
then caused the grave of Iollas to be desecrated.
(Plut. Alex. 77 ; Diod. xix. 11 ; Arrian, An. vii.
27 ; Curt. x. 10, 14 ; Just. xii. 14 ; Vitruv. viii.
3, 16). — 2. Of Bithynia, a writer on Materia
Medica, flourished in the third century B.C.
Ion (lav). 1. The mythical ancestor of the
Ionians, was the son of Xuthus and Creusa, the
daughter of Erechtheus, Mng of Athens (Hdt.
vii. 94, viii. 44). When Xuthus had been driven
from Athens he settled at Aegialus (the N.
coast of Peloponnesus), and died there. One of
Ms two sons, Achaeus, took possession of the
ancestral home in Thessaly, but Ion raised
an army against Selinus, king of Aegialus.
Selinus came to terms by giving him Ms
daughter in marriage and making him his
heir. When the Eleusinians and Eumolpus
were at war with Athens the Athenians asked
aid from Ion, and made him their general. He
won the victory for them, died to Attica, and
was buried at Potamus, near Prasiae (Paus. i.
31, 3 ; Strab. p. 383). The four Attic tribes

IONIA

445

were called after the four sons of Ion, Geleon,
Aegicores, Argades and Hoples (Hdt. v. 66).
In Strabo's account he eventually becomes
king of Athens ; but in Herodotus (viii. 44) he is
only commander of their army. The Attic
story, which through the Ion of Euripides has
become the best known version, alters the
genealogy in order to make ApoUo Patrous the
ancestor of the Ionians as well as their protector.
Ion is therefore the son of Apollo, not of Xuthus.
Apollo had visited Creusa in a cave below the
Propylaea, at Athens, and when she gave birth
to a son, she exposed him in the same cave. The
god, however, had the child conveyed to DelpM.
where he was educated by a priestess. Many
years afterwards Xuthus and Creusa came to
consult the oracle about the means of obtaining
an heir. They received for answer that the
first human being whom Xuthus met on leaving
the temple should be his son. Xuthus met Ion,
and acknowledged Mm as his son ; but Creusa,
imagining him to be a son of her husband by a
former mistress, caused a poisoned cup to be
presented to the youth. However, her object
was discovered, for as Ion, before drinking,
poured out a libation to the gods, a pigeon
wMch drank of it died on the spot. Creusa
thereupon fled to the altar of the god. Ion
dragged her away, and was on the point of
Mlling her, when a priestess interfered, ex
plained the mystery, and showed that Ion was
the son of Creusa. Mother and son thus be- .
came reconciled, but Xuthus was not let into the
secret, and Ion was declared the heir of Xuthus
and Creusa and the destined founder of the
Ionic race. (Eur. Ion. This was probably the
version followed also in the Creusa of Sopho
cles.) — 2. A poet of Chios, was son of Ortho-
menes. He went to Athens when young, and
there enjoyed the society of Aeschylus and
Cimon. He began to produce tragedies on the
Athenian stage in 452, and won the third prize
in 428, when Euripides won thefirst and Iophon
the second. He died before 418. (Aristoph. Pax,
835). The number of his tragedies is variously
stated at twelve, thirty, and forty. We have
the titles and a few fragments of eleven. Ion
also wrote elegies, dithyrambs, and a his
tory of Chios. (Strab. p. 645 ; Schol. ad Ar.
Pax, 830 ; Plut. Cim. 5 ; Athen. pp. 3, 486.)
— 3. Of Ephesus, a rhapsodist in the time of
Socrates, from whom one of Plato's dalogues is
named. Ionia ('lavia : "laves) and Ionis (Rom. poet.),
a district on the W. coast of Asia Minor, so called
from the Ionian Greeks who colonised it at a
time earlier than any distinct historical records.
At a still earlier time the Ionian branch of the
Hellenic race was in possession of Attica (and
apparently of Euboea). Some of the Ionians
from Attica occupied the S. coast of the Co
rinthian gulf, but were afterwards driven back
into Attica by the Achaeans. The mythical
account of ' the great Ionic migration ' relates
that in consequence of the disputes between
the sons of Codrus, king of Athens, about the
succession to his government, his younger sons,
Neleus and Androclus, resolved to seek a new
home beyond the Aegaean sea. Attica was at
the time overpeopled, partly owing to the re
turn of those whom the Achaeans expelled from
Achaea, and still more by the more recent ex
pulsion of Ionians from Epidaurus, Troezen, and
PMius by the Dorian invaders. A large portion
of this superfluous population went forth as
Athenian colonists, under the leadership of
Androclus and Neleus, joined by emigrants of

446 IONIA
other tribes, Cadmeans, Euboeans, Phocians,
and Pylians, and settled on that part of the W.
shores of Asia Minor which formed the coast of
Lydia and part of Caria, and also in the adj acent
islands of Chios and Samos, and in the Cyclades.
(Hdt. i. 142-146 ; Paus. vii. 2 ; Strab. p. 632.)
It may safely be assumed that this migration
and conquest was not the result of a single expe
dition, but extended over several years, and
probably more than one generation. It is likely
that the migrating Ionians drove out the Ca
rians from the Cyclades, before they went on to
conquer the coast of Asia Minor. The great
cities of Miletus and Ephesus were wrested
by them from the Carians and the Leleges, and
several towns were newly founded. The date of
the migration, or successive migrations, cannot
be accurately fixed. The movement probably
took place soon after the Dorian invasion of the
Peloponnesus, and may even have begun a little
earlier. It may therefore be roughly dated at
about 1000 B.C. The earliest authentic records
show us the existence of twelve great cities on
the above-named coast, all united into one con
federacy. The district they possessed formed a
narrow strip of coast, extending between, and
somewhat beyond, the mouths of the rivers
Maeander, on the S., and Hermus, on the N.
The names of the twelve cities, going from S. to
N., were Miletus, Myus, Priene, Samos (city
and island), Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus,
Teos, Erythrae, Chios (city and island), Cla
zomenae, and Phocaea ; the first tMee on the
coast of Caria, the rest on that of Lydia : the
¦city of Smyrna, which lay witMn this district,
but was of Aeolic origin, was afterwards (about
B.C. 700) added to the Ionian confederacy. The
.common sanctuary of the league was the Panio-
nium (iravidvLov), a sanctuary of Poseidon Heli-
-conius, on the N. side of the promontory of
Mycale, opposite to Samos ; and here was held
the great national assembly (iravfiyvpis) of the
confederacy, called Panionia (iravidvia: see Diet.
of Antiq. s.v.). It is important to observe that
the inhabitants of these cities were not exclu
sively of Ionian descent. The traditions of the
¦original colonisation and the accounts of the
Mstorians agree in representtog them as peopled
by a great mixture, not only of Hellenic races,
but also of these with the earlier inhabitants —
such as Carians, Leleges, Lydians, Cretans, and
Pelasgians — and with differences of dialect.
The religious rites, also, which the Greeks of
Ionia observed, to addition to their national
worship of Poseidon, were borrowed in part from
the native peoples ; such were the worship of
e ApoUo Didymaeus at Branchidae near Miletus,
¦of Artemis at Ephesus, and of ApoUo Clarius at
Colophon. The central position of this district,
its exceUent harbours, and the fertility of its
plains, watered by the Maeander, the Cayster,
and the Hermus, combined with the energetic
-character of the Ionian race to confer prosperity
upon these cities ; and it was not long before
they began to send forth colonies to many places
on the shores of the Mediterranean and the
Euxine, and even to Greece itself. During the
rise of the Lydian empire, the cities of Ionia
preserved their independence until the reign of
Croesus, who subdued those on the mainland,
but relinquished his design of attacking the
islands. When Cyrus had overthrown Croesus,
he sent Ms general Harpagus to complete the
conquest of the Ionic Greeks, b.c. 545. Under
the Persian rule, they retained their political
¦organisation, subject to the government of the
Persian satraps, and of tyrants who were set up

IOPHON
to single cities, but they were required to render
tribute and mUitary service to the king. In b.c.
500 they revolted from Darius Hystaspis, under
the leadership of Histiaeus, the former tyrant
of MUetus, and Ms brother-to-law Aristagoras,
and supported by aid from the Athenians. The
Ionian army advanced as far as Sardis, wMch
they took and burnt, but they were driven back
to the coast, and defeated near Ephesus b.c.
499. The reconquest of Ionia by the Persians
was completed by the taking of Miletus, m 496,
and the Ionians were compelled to furnish ships,
and to serve as soldiers, in the two expeditions
against Greece. After the defeat of Xerxes, the
Greeks carried the war to the coasts of Asia,
and effected the liberation of Ionia by the
victories of Mycale (479), and of the Eurymedon
(469). In 387 the peace of Antalcidas restored
Ionia to Persia; and after the Macedonian con
quest, it formed part, successively, of the Mng-
dom of Pergamum, and of the Roman province
of Asia. For the history of the several cities,
see the respective articles. In no country in
habited by the Hellenic race, except at Athens,
were the refinements of civilisation, the arts,
and literature, more MgMy cultivated than in
Ionia. The restless energy and free spirit of
the Ionic race, the riches gained by commerce,
and the neighbourhood of the great seats of
Asiatic civilisation, combined to advance with
rapidity the inteUectual progress and the social
development of its people ; but whUe the leisure
afforded by their wealth tended to produce
among them schools of poets and of speculative
pMlosophers, on the other hand the same
growth of wealth combined with the_ more
enervating climate, and perhaps also with the
Oriental influences in their mixed blood and
association, to make the Ionians of Asia Minor
softer and more luxurious than their kinsfolk
in Greece. Out of the long list of the authors
and artists of Ionia, we may mention the poets
Mimnermus of Colophon, and Anacreon of Teos ;
the philosophers Thales of Miletus, and Anaxa
goras of Clazomenae ; the early annaUsts, Cad
mus, Dionysius, and Hecataeus, aU of MUetus ;
and, to the fine arts, besides being the home of
that exquisitely beautiful order of architecture,
the Ionic, and possessing many of the most
magnificent temples to the world, Ioma waB the
native country of that school of painting which
included Zeuxis, Apelles, and Parrhasius. Its
history under the Romans belongs to that of
the province of Asia.
Ionium Mare I'lbvios irbvros, 'ibviov ireXayos,
'lovin BdXarra, 'Uvios irbpos), a part of the Medi
terranean Sea between Italy and Greece, was
S. of the Adriatic, and began on the W. at
Hydruntum in Calabria, and on the E. at Oricus
in Epirus, or at the Ceraunian mountains. In
more ancient times the Adriatic was called
'IdVios pvxbs or 'Ibvios kSXttos (Hdt. vi. 127, vii.
20 ; Thuc. i. 24V But in its wider signification
it is found in Polybius and Strabo (Strab. pp.
123, 316; Pol. ii. 14). Its name, mythically
derived by the ancients from the wanderings
of Io (Aesch. Pr. 830), came froin the Ionian
colonies which settled in Cephallenia and other
islands off the W. coasts of Greece.
Iophon ('IocptSi'), son of Sophocles, by Nico-
strate, was a distinguished tragic poet. He
brought out tragedies during the life of Ms
father, and was still living in B.C. 405 (Ar. Ban.
73). He won the second prize in 429, and was
suspected by some of having received assistance
from his father. For the story of his undutiful
charge against his father, see Sophocles.

IPHIAS
Iphias ('Ifids), i.e. Evadne, a daughter of
Iphis,_and wife of Capaneus.
Iphicles, or Iphiclus ('IcpiKXfis, "lipiKXos or
'lipiKXeis). 1. Son of Amphitryon and Alcmene,
was one night younger than Ms half-brother
Heracles. He was first married to Automedusa,
the daughter of Alcathous, by whom he became
the father of Iolaus, and afterwards to the
youngest daughter of Creon. He accompanied
Heracles on several of Ms expeditions, and
took part in the Calydonian hunt (Apollod. i.
8, 2 ; Diod. iv. 48). He fell in battle against
the sons of Hippocoon, or, according to another
account, was wounded in the battle against the
MoUonidae, and was carried to Pheneus, where
he died (ApoUod. ii. 7, 8).— 2. Son of Thestius
by Laophonte or Deidamia or Eurythemis or
Leucippe. He took part in the Calydonian
hunt and the expedition of the Argonauts (Ap.
•Rh. i. 201). — 3. Son of Phylacus, and grandson
of Deion and Clymene, or son of Cephalus and
Clymene, the daughter of Minyas. He was
married to Diomedia or Astyoche, and was the
father of Podarces and ProtesUaus. He was one
of the Argonauts, possessed large herds of oxen,
wMch he gave to the seer Melampus, and was
celebrated for Ms swiftness in running. (H. ii.
705, xiii. 698 ; Paus. iv. 36, 2 ; ApoUod. i. 9, 12.)
IpMcrates ('ItpiKparins), the Atheman gene
ral, was the son of a shoemaker. He distin
guished himself at an early age by Ms gaUantry
to battle ; and in B. c 394, when he was only
25 years of age, he was appointed by the Athe
nians to the command of the forces wMch they
sent to the aid of the Boeotians after the battle
of Coronea. In 393 he commanded the Athe
nian forces at Corinth, and at the same time
introduced an important improvement to mili
tary tactics — the formation of a body of tar-
geteers (ireXracrrai) possessing, to a certain ex
tent, the advantages of heavy and Ught-armed
forces. This he effected by substituting a small
target for the heavy sMeld, adopting a longer
sword and spear, and replacing the old coat of
mail by a linen corslet. At the head of Ms
targeteers he defeated and nearly destroyed a
Spartan Mora to the foUowing year (392), an
exploit wMch was celebrated throughout Greece
(Xen. Hell. iv. 5, 8 ; Diod. xiv. 91 ; Paus. iii. 10).
In the same year he was succeeded to the com
mand at Corinth by Chabrias. In 389 he was
sent to the HeUespont to oppose Anaxibius, who
was defeated by him and slain to the foUowing

IPHIGENIA 447
his daughter in marriage. In 877 Iphicrates
was sent by the Athenians, with the command
of a mercenary force, to assist Pharnabazus in
reducing Egypt to subjection ; but the expedi
tion failed through a misunderstanding between
Iphicrates and Pharnabazus. In 878 IphicrateB
was sent to Corcyra, in conjunction with Calli
stratus and Chabrias, in the command of an
Athenian force, and he remained in the Ionian
sea till the peace of 871 put an end to hostilities.
(Xen. Hell. vi. 2 ; Diod. xv. 41-xvi. 57.) About
867, he was sent against Amphipolis, and after
carrying on the war agatost this place for three
years, was superseded by Timotheus. Shortly
afterwards, he assisted his father-in-law, Cotys,
to his war against Athens for the possession of
the Thracian Chersonesus. But his conduct in
this matter was passed over by the Athenians.
After the death of Chabrias (357), IpMcrates,
Timotheus and Menestheus were joined with
Chares as commanders in the Social war, and
were prosecuted by their unscrupulous col
league, because they had refused to risk an
engagement in a storm. Iphicrates was ac
quitted. From the period of his trial he seems
to have lived quietly at Athens. He died before
348. (Diod. xvi. 21; Nep. Iphicrates.) Iphicrates
has been commended for his combined prudence
and energy as a general. The worst words, he
said, that a commander could utter were, 'I
should not have expected it ' (Plut. Apoph. Iph.
2; Polyaen. iii. 9). His services were highly
valued by the Athenians, and were rewarded by
them with almost unprecedented honours.
Iphigenia ('lipiyeveia), according to the most
common tradition, a daughter of Agamemnon
and Clytaemnestra, but according to Stesichorus
and others (Paus. ii. 22, 7), a daughter of
Theseus and Helena, and brought up by Clytae
mnestra as a foster-child. In the earliest
accounts of Agamemnon's daughters three are
named : Iphianassa, Chrysothemis, and Laodice
(H. ix. 145, 287). The Cyclic poets (Cypr. 3)
added IpMgenia as a fourth (Soph. El. 157), but
eventuaUy she takes the place of Iphianassa,
as Electra has displaced Laodice ; and the name
Iphianassa is sometimes used as a synonym for
Iphigenia (Lucret. i. 86). Agamemnon had
once killed a stag in the grove of Artemis ; or
he had boasted that the goddess herself could
not aim better ; or he had vowed in the year to
wMch IpMgenia was born to sacrifice the most
beautiful production of that year, but had after-

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Iphigenia at Aulis. (From the Medici Vase.)
year. On the peace of Antalcidas, in 387,
IpMcrates went to Thrace to assist Seuthes,
Mng of the Odrysae, but he soon afterwards
formed an aUiance with Cotys, who gave him
wards neglected to fulfil his vow. One of these
circumstances is said to have been the cause of
the calm which detained the Greek fleet in
Aulis, when the Greeks wanted to sail against
448 IPHIMEDIA
Troy. The seer Calchas declared that the sacri
fice of Iphigenia was the only means of pro
pitiating Artemis. Agamemnon was obliged to
yield, and Iphigenia was brought to Chalcis
under the pretext of being married to Achilles.
When Iphigenia was on the point of being sacri
ficed, Artemis carried her in a cloud to the Tauric
Chersonesus (the Crimea), where she became
the priestess of the goddess, and a stag was sub
stituted for her by Artemis. (Cypria, ed. Kinkel,
p. 19 ; Eur. I. A. 1540, I. T.1S.; Aesch. Ag.
185 ; Pind. Pyth. xi. 23 ; Paus. ix. 19 ; Lucret.
i. 85.) While Iphigenia was serving Arte
mis as priestess, her brother Orestes and Ms
friend Pylades came to Tauri to carry off the
image of the goddess at this place, which was
believed to have faUen from heaven. As
strangers they were to be sacrificed in the temple
of Artemis; but IpMgenia recognised her
brother, and fled with Mm and the statue of the
goddess. (Eur. I. T.\ Hyg. Fab. 120-122;
Naev. Iphig.) The story which Sophocles
follows in his Chryses (Hyg. Fab. 120) makes
Iphigenia and Orestes reach Sminthus, where
they are overtaken by Thoas, and when Chryses,
son of Agamemnon and priest of ApoUo, is
about to surrender them, he discovers their
parentage and joins Orestes in Mlling Thoas.
The image of the Tauric Artemis was, accord
ing to the Spartan legend, taken to Sparta
(Paus. iii. 16, 6) ; according to the Attic legend,
it was placed in the temple of Artemis at Brau
ron on the east coast of Attica, where IpMgenia
became the priestess (Eur. I. T. 1446 ; Strab. p.
399 ; Paus. i. 23, 9) ; according to the legend at
Laodicea the original image was taken from
Brauron by Xerxes, and placed at Laodicea.
In other words there were wooden images of an
Artemis worshipped in Tauric fashion at all
these places, and each place claimed to possess
the genuine image. [Artemis, p. 128.] Pau
sanias .apparently considered that at Sparta to
be the most ancient, since he inclines to believe
it to be the actual statue brought by Iphigenia.
The stories of the death of Iphigenia vary to like
manner : in one, she died at Megara, and was
honoured there with a shrine (Paus. i. 43, 1) ; in
another, she died in Attica and was there buried ;
according to some traditions Iphigenia never
died, but was changed by Artemis into Hecate,
or was endowed by the goddess with immortality
and eternal youth, and under the name of Ori-
lochia became the wife of Achilles in the island
of Leuce (Ant. Lib. 27). — There can be little
doubt that under these myths lies the fact that
Iphigenia was Artemis herself : that is, Iphi
genia represents an ancient local deity wor-
• - shipped in each of these places, Sparta, Brau
ron, and Megara, with human sacrifices and
rites akin to those of the Tauric Artemis, and
when Artemis took her place, she was trans
formed into the- priestess of Artemis, and her
connexion with these various places was ac
counted for by the stories of the wanderings of
Agamemnon's daughter [see p. 128]. The cus
tom of dedicating to her the clothes of women
who had died in cMldbirth (J. T. 1465) points
to the same conclusion. She had originally
been a goddess of cMldbirth, as Artemis was,
perhaps as' being, like Artemis also, a moon-
goddess, or a goddess of natural fruitfulness.
Iphimedia or Iphimede ('l<pipeSeia, 'lipipeSri),
daughter of Triops, and wife of Aloeus. Being
in love with Poseidon, she often walked on the
seashore, and collected its waters in her lap,
whence she became, by Poseidon, the mother of
the Aloldae, Otus and Ephialtes. While IpM-

IRENE
media and her daughter, Pancratis, were cele
brating the orgies of Dionysus on Mount Dnus,
they were carried off by TMacian pirates to
Naxos or Strongyle; but they were delivered
by the Aloldae. (Od. xi. 305 ; Pind. Pyth. iv.

89; Apollod. i. 7, 4; Diod. v. 50.)
Iphis Cl<pis). !•¦ Son of Alector, and father
of Eteoclus and Evadne, the wife of Capaneus,
was king of Argos. He advised Polynices to
give the celebrated necklace of Harmonia to
Eriphyle, that she might persuade her husband
Amphiaraus to take part in the expedition
against Thebes. He lost his two oMldren, and
therefore left his kingdom to Sthenelus, son of
Capaneus (Paus. ii. 18, 4).— 2. Son of Sthenelus,
and brother of Eurystheus, was one of the
Argonauts who fell in the battle with Aeetes.
 3. A youth in love with Anaxarete. [Anax-
abete.] — 4. Daughter of Ligdus and Telethtlsa,
of Phaestus in Crete. She was brought up as
a boy, on the advice of Isis, because her father,
before her birth, had ordered the cMld to
be killed if it should be a girl. When Iphis
had grown up, and was to be betrothed to
Ianthe, she was metamorphosed by Isis toto a
youth (Ov. Met. ix. 666).
Iphitus ("I<piTos]. 1. Son of Eurytus of
Oechalia, one of the Argonauts, was afterwards
killed by Heracles. (For details, see p. 399.)
— 2. Son of Naubolus, and father of Schedius,
Epistrophus, and Eurynome, in Phocis, Ukewise
one of the Argonauts (II. ii. 518; Ap. Rh. i.
207 ; ApoUod. i. 9, 16). — 3. Son of Haemon, or
Praxonides, or Iphitus, king of EUs, restored the
Olympic games, and instituted the cessation of
war during their celebration, B.C. 884 (Paus. v. 4,
5 ; 8, 5 ; 10, 10 ; 26, 2 ; viii. 26, 4 ; Plut. Lye. 1).
Ipnus ("lirvos), a town of the Locri Ozolae
(Thuc. iii. 101).
Ipsus ("lif/os), a small town in Great Ptoygia,
celebrated in history as the scene of the decisive
battle which closed the great contest between
the generals of Alexander for the succession to
his empire, and in which Antigonus was defeated
and slain, b. c. 301. [Antigonus.] The site of
Ipsus was on the slopes of the modern Sultan
Dagh ; the town of Julia, which took its place,
was built a little below. It was on the mam
road from Iconium to the north and west, and
was a little to the NE. of Synnada.
Ira (Eipa, 'Ipd). 1. A mountain fortress in
Messenia, memorable as the place where Ari
stomenes defended Mmself for eleven years
against the Spartans. Its capture by the Spar
tans in B. c. 668 put au end to the second Mes
senian war (Paus. iv. 17,20; Strab. p. 360). It
is usually identified with the Mil of Hagios
Athanasios near Kakaletri. — 2. One of the
seven cities wMch Agamemnon promised to
Achilles (H. ix. 150). It can hardly be the same
as No. 1, since it is described as near the sea-
coast of Messenia.
Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, 177 a. d. [Diet.
of Christian Biography.]
Irene (Elpf)vn), called Pax by the Romans,
the goddess of Peace, was, according to Hesiod,
a daughter of Zeus and Themis, and one of the
Horae (Hes. Th. 902 ; Pind. Ol. xiii. 6 ; Diod.
v. 72 ; Bacchyl. Fr. 18 ; Horae). After the
battle of Eurymedon, and also after the victory
of Timotheus over the Lacedaemonians, altars
were erected to her at Athens at the public ex
pense (Plut. Cim. 18; Isocr. irepl avriS. 109;
Nep. Timoth. 2). Her statue at Athens carry
ing in its arms Plutus, the god of wealth, was
the work of Cephisodotus, and another stood
near that of Hestia in the Prytaneum (Paus. i.

IRIS
8, 8, ix. 16, 1). A copy of it (called wrongly
Leucothea) is now at Munich [Cephisodotus].
At Rome, where Peace was also worshipped as
a goddess, she had a magnificent temple, which
was buUt by the emperor Vespasian. Pax is
represented on coins as a young woman, hold
ing in her left arm a cornucopia, and in her
right hand an olive branch or the staff of Mer
cury. Sometimes she appears in the act of
burning a pile of arms, or carrying corn-ears in
her hand or upon her head.
Iris Clpis), in mythology, is daughter of
Thaumas (whence she is called Thaumantias)
and of Electra, and sister of the Harpies
(Hes. Th. 266, 780; Plat. Theaet. p. 155;
ApoUod. i. 2, 6; Verg. Aen. ix. 5). In the Hiad
she appears as the messenger of the gods, es
peciaUy of Zeus and Hera (II. ii. 787, xv. 144,
xvni. 166, xxiv. 78, 95). In the Odyssey, Hermes
is the messenger of the gods, and Iris is never
mentioned. It should be observed that in
Homer the word Ipis is only twice used imper
sonally, either as the rainbow or merely as
something curved (17. xi. 26 ; xvii. 545). It
seems probable that Iris was originaUy a goddess
of rato, which was expressed to myth as the
messenger sent by Zeus to men, and then was
the path of tMs messenger, or actually the
personification of the rainbow, for tMs briUiant
phenomenon to the sMes, wMch vanishes as
quicMy as it appears, was regarded as the swift
messenger of the gods. VirgU represents the
bow as the road on which Iris travels, which
therefore appears whenever the goddess wants
it, and vanishes when it is no longer needed
(Serv. ad Aen. v. 610). In the earUer poets,
Iris appears as a virgin goddess ; but in the
later, she is the wife of Zephyrus, and the
mother of Eros. Iris is represented in works

Iris. (From an ancient vase.)

of art dressed in a long and wide tunic, over
which hangs a light upper garment, with
wings attached to her shoulders, carrying the
herald's staff to her left hand, and sometimes
also holding a pitcher.
Iris ("Ipis: Yeshil-Irmak), a considerable
river of Asia Minor, rises on the N. side of the
Anti-Taurus, in the S. of Pontus, and flows past
Comana Pontica, to Amasia and Eupatoria
(Megalopolis), where it receives the Lycus, and
then flows N. toto the Sinus Amisenus. Xeno
phon states its breadth at three plethra. (Strab.
p. 556 ; Xen. An. v. 6, 3.)
Irns (*Ipos). 1. Son of Actor and father of
Eurydamus and Eurytion. He purified Peleus,
when the latter had murdered his brother ; but
during the chase of the Calydonian boar, Peleus
unintentionally killed Eurytion, the son of Irus.
Peleus endeavoured to soothe him by offering
him his flocks ; but Irus would not accept them,

ISAURIA 449
and, at the command of an oracle, Peleus aUowed
them to run wherever they pleased. A wolf
devoured the sheep, but was thereupon changed
into a stone, which was shown, in later times,
on the frontier between Locris and Phocis.
(Ant. Lib. 88; Tzetz. ad Lye. 175.)— 2. The
well-known beggar of Ithaca. His real name
was Arnaeus.but he was called Irus, in aUusion
to Iris, because he was the messenger of the
suitors. He was slain by Odysseus. (Od. xviii.
5, 289.)
Is ( Is : Hit), a city in the S. of Mesopotamia,
eight days' journey from Babylon, on the W.
bank of the Euptoates, and upon a' little river
of the same name. In its neighbourhood were
the springs of asphaltus, from which was ob
tained the bitumen that was used in the walls
of Babylon (Hdt. i. 179).
Isaeus ('Io-aibs). 1. One of the ten Attic
orators, was born at Chalcis, and came to Athens
at an early age. He was instructed in oratory
by Lysias and Isocrates. He was afterwards
engaged to writing judicial orations for others,
and established a rhetorical school at Athens,
in which Demosthenes is said to have been Ms
pupU. It is further said that Isaeus composed
for Demosthenes the speeches against his
guardians, or at least assisted him in the com
position. We have no particulars of Ms life.
He lived between B.C. 420 and 848. Isaeus is
said to have written sixty-four orations, but of
these only eleven are extant. They aU relate
to questions of inheritance, and afford consider
able information respecting this branch of the
Attic law. Isaeus was the first great master of
forensic argument. His style is clear and con
cise, and at the same time vigorous and powerful,
and is intermediate between what is called the
plain style of Lysias and the full development
of oratory in Demosthenes (Plut. Vit. X. Or.
p. 839 ; Dionys. Isaeus). His orations are con
tained in the coUections of the Greek Orators.
[Demosthenes.] Separate editions by SchB-
mann, 1831; Scheibe, 1874. — 2. A sopMst, a
native of Assyria, taught at Rome in the time
of the younger Pliny (Plin. Ep. ii. 8 ; Juv. iii.
74 ; Philostr. Soph. i. 20).
Isagoras ('lo-aybpas), the leader of the olig
archical party at Athens, to opposition to CUs-
thenes, B.C. 510. He was expelled from Athens
by the popular party, although supported by
Cleomenes and the Spartans. (Hdt. v. 66-75 ;
Paus. iii. 4 ; Arist. 'A8. iroX. 20 ; Clisthenes.)
Isander ("lo-avSpos), son of Bellerophon, MUed
by Ares to the fight with the Solymi (H. vi.
197 ;_ Strab. pp. 573,630).
Isara (Isere), a river in Gallia NarbonenBis,
descends from the Col d'Isiran in the Graian
Alps, is approached by the route from the Little
St. Bernard at Bourg S. Maurice a little above
Axima (Aisne), passes Cularo (Grenoble) and
joins the Rhone at Valentia (Valence), at which
point Hannibal left the 'island' B.C. 218, and
Fabius AemilianuB defeated the Allobroges and
Arverni, B.C. 121. It was the river valley which
Hannibal followed tiU he. reached the junction
with the Drac. (Pol. iii. 49; Liv. xxi. 31.)
Isauria (r) 'laavpia, ij 'IcravpiKf)), a district of
Asia Minor, on the N. side of the Taurus, be
tween Pisidia and Cilicia, of which the ancients
knew little beyond the fact that its inhabitants,
the Isauri ("loavpoi) were daring robbers, whose
incursions received only a temporary check from
the victory over them which gained for L. Ser
vilius the surname of Isauricus (B.C. 75). Their
chief city was called Isaura. (Strab. p. 568 ;
Diod. xviii. 22 ; Dio Cass. xiv. 16.)
GG

450

ISCA

Isca. 1. (Exeter), the capital of the Damnonii
or Dumnonii in the SW. of Britain. — 2. (Caer
Leon), sit the mouth of the Usk), a town of the
Silures in Britain, and the head-quarters of the
Legio II. The word Leon is a corruption of
the word Legio : Caer is the old Celtic name.
Ischys. [Asclepius.]
Isidorus ('liriSapos). 1. Of Aegae, a Greek
poet of uncertain date, five of whose epigrams are
contained in the Greek Anthology. — 2. Of Cha
rax, a geographical writer, who probably lived
under the early Roman emperors. His work,
SraBpol TlapBiKot, is printed in the edition of the
minor geographers, by Hudson, Oxon. 1703. —
3. Of Gaza, a Neo-Platonic philosopher,the friend
of Proclus and Marinus, whom he succeeded as
cMef of the school. — 4. Bishop of Hispalis,
(Seville) in Spain, from a.d. 600 to 636, one of
the most learned men of his age. A great
number of his works is still extant, but the
most important of them is Ms Originum s.
Etymologiarum Libri XX, an Encyclopae
dia of Arts and Sciences, treating of all sub
jects in literature, science and religion, and, from
its acquaintance with earlier writers, of great
value for the study of Roman archaeology.
His De Natura Berum, on natural Mstory, was
also much used in the middle ages; it is edited
by Becker, Berl. 1857 ; the Origines is edited
by Otto in the Corpus Grammaticorum Vete-
rwm, Lindemann, Lips. 1833. A complete col
lection of the works was published by Arevali,
Rom. 1797, and by Migne, Paris, 1850.— 5. Of
Miletus, the elder and younger, eminent archi
tects in the reign of Justinian.
Isigonus ('laiyovos), a Greek writer, of un
certain date, but who lived before the time of
Pliny, wrote a work entitled "Airio-ra, a few
fragments of which are extant. Published in
Westermann's Paradoxographi, 1839.
Isionda or Isinda ('laibvSa : 'lotovSeis, Ision-
densis), a city of Pisidia to Asia Minor, on the
road between Cibyra and Termessus, a little to
the NW. of which it lies (Liv. xxxviii. 15). Its
ruins are at Istanoz.
Isis (TIo*is), one of the great deities of the
Egyptians in their later mythology, and espe
cially important among the Oriental religions
which spread over Greece and Italy after the
age of Alexander. The worship of Isis did not
belong to the earlier dynasties, but grew up out
of myths. Isis was one of the local divinities,
and when the custom arose of expressing deities
in animal form, she was represented in the
cow-shape (Hdt. ii. 41), which the agricultural
people took as their typical representation of
beneficence, whether it is to be understood, as
some think, as signifying the productive powers
of nature, or merely as the form in which they
chose to worship a goddess of heaven. In the
myths at any rate Isis is a goddess of the sky,
and the daughter of the earth-god Queb and
Nut, whom the Greeks identified with Cronos
and Rhea, sister and wife of Osiris and mother
of Horus ; sister also of Nephthys and of the
evil power of darkness, Set ( = Typhon). Much
of the myth represents a struggle between
light and darkness, civilisation and barbarism,
wMch was partially caught up by the Greeks.
When Osiris had been killed by Set, he was
mourned over by IsiB and her sister Nephthys
in dirges, which are the "I<ri5os peXv of Plato
(Legg. p. 657 b). The protection which Isis
gave for a time to her brother Set against her
son the avenging Horus, led to a quarrel, the
head of Isis was cut off, but replaced by magic

ISIS
as the "loiSos airoKefaXto-pbs, and also in Ms
story of Hermes placing upon her a cow's head/
The rehgion of Isis and Osiris increased in
Egypt as the power of Thebes dimtoished, and
the worship of Ammon took a less prominent
place. Busiris was the centre of her worship.
Isis came to be regarded as the great nature-
goddess, the deity of motherhood and of ail
natural production, and as the goddess of magic,
to wMch belonged the mythB of her healing
Osiris from his wounds. She was also, in rela
tion to the mysteries of the death of Osiris, the
goddess of the underworld. It is to these vary
ing forms of her story that the bewildering
identification of Isis with so many different
Greek deities is due. The worsMp of Isis, espe
cially after the age of Alexander, spread widely
over Western Asia and Southern Europe, in
Syria (where it had a footing earlier), Asia
Minor, the islands of the Aegaean, particularly

Isis suckling Horus. (Wilkinson.)
Cyprus and Rhodes, in Greece, particularly at
Athens, Corinth, Cenchreae, and Hermione
(Paus. i. 41, ii. 2, 32, 34), in SicUy and Italy,
where it was especially notable at Puteoli,
and, as the remains have proved, at Pompeii,
Herculaneum, and Stabiae. At Rome it took a
strong hold. At its first introduction after the
second Punic war it was opposed on several
occasions by the senate. In B.c 50 AemiUus
Paulus himself aided in the destruction of her
shrines (Val. Max. i. 8, 4) ; but in 48 the tri
umvirs built the first temple for her public
worship, probably in the Campus Martius (Dio
Cass, xlvii. 15 ; cf. Lucan, viii. 881). Under the
empire the religion spread wherever the Roman
armies went, and abundant traces are found in
Gaul, Germany, and Britain. To the better
natures, by rules of abstinence and purifica
tion and by the glimpses which the mysteries
seemed to give of a future world, it appeared to
lead to higher things: the multitude was at
tracted by the processions of priests in linen
robes with the sistrum in their hands, and by
as a cow's head, which appears in Plut. Is. 19 I the novelty of the Oriental rites. Besides the

ISIS
mysteries there were the public festivals to No
vember and March : the former being, like the
Megalensia, a mixture of grief for the death of
Osiris and joy at the restoration; the latter,
called Isidis navigium, representing her as
opening the season of navigation to her cha
racter of a goddess of the sea, when the proces
sion of priests went down to the shore and
launched then- sacred stop (Apul. Met. xi. 6).
From the various aspects of Isis as goddess of
the sky, of fruitfulness, and of the underworld,
there foUowed her identification with many dif
ferent deities : with Selene, as though a moon-
goddess, and with Io (Hdt. ii. 61 ; Ov. Met. ix.
•687; Io). Frequently she was confused with
Demeter, partly as goddess of the earth and its
fruits, partly as celebrated to the mysteries;
and hence she is represented with many attri
butes of Demeter, carrying a torch and ears of
corn, or a cornucopia. Her connexion with the
sea, asTI<r(y ireXayia
(Paus. ii. 4, 6), was
probably of a com
paratively early
date in Egypt, and
was perhaps de
rived from the

ISOCRATES

451

Isis in Roman costume.

Phoemcian Ater-
gates [Aphrodite,
p. 85, a] ; hence she
is said to have in
vented sailing stops
in order to seek
Harpocrates, and
the Romans painted
votive pictures for
her as their pro
tectress from ship
wreck (Hyg. Fab.
27 ; TibuU. i. 3, 27 ;
Juv. xn. 28; Stat.
Silv. in. 2, 101).
Both tMs attribute
and her character
istic as nature-god
dess may account
for her frequent
identification with
ApModite, whose
form she sometimes
assumes in sculp
ture, but distin
guished by the lotus
flower on her head,
with Harpocrates

statue in the VaticaS°m " in the S^iBe oi Eros>
marked by the posi
tion of his finger on Ms lips. As Queen of Heaven
she is often represented in the form of Hera with
the Juno head and dress and a diadem Uke Hera's
(the 'regale decus' of Ov. Met. ix. 689), and
even the peacock of Hera, but distinguished by
the sistrum or the lotus. As goddess of magic
healing she was adopted into the worship of
Asclepius, and in the temple of imperial times
at Epidaurus, Isis, Serapis and Horus were
worshipped as Hygiea, ApoUo and Asclepius
(Paus. ii. 27, 6). This connexion was probably
made closer by the fact that as goddess of the
underworld the Egyptians made the snake an
attribute of Isis, and this was confused with the
snake of Asclepius. Isis-Hygiea appears often
on amulets and in votive inscriptions, Lastly,
as Fortuna-Isis she has the rudder, but the
Egyptian head-dress. It was not unnatural
that with aU these varieties of worship she
should, as a iroXvdvvpos or universal deity, be

worshipped also as Isis-Panthea (Apul. xi. 5,
22 ; cf. Fortuna-Panthea, p. 846). In all these
confusions of form with true Greek deities her
character as Isis is marked by the sistrum or
by the characteristic head-dress, the lotus
flower, the crescent horns, the moon-disc, and
the upright feathers.
Ismarus ("lopapos : 'lo-pdpios), a town in
Thrace, near Maronea, situated on a mountain
of the same name, which produced exceUent
wine (Strab. p. 881 ; Verg. Eel. vi. 30, Georg.
ii. 87). It is mentioned in the Odyssey as a
town of the Cicones (ix. 40, 198). Near it was
the lake Ismaris ('lo-papis). The poets use the
adjective Ismarius as equivalent to TMacian.
Ovid caUs Tereus, king of Ttoace, Ismarius
tyr annus (Am. ii. 6, 7), and Polymnestor, king
of Thrace, Ismarius rex (Met. xiii. 530).
Ismene ('lo-pfyrj). I. Daughter of Asopus,
wife of Argus, and mother of Iasus (Apollod.
n. 1, 3). — 2. Daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta,
and sister of Antigone.
Ismenus ('lopr)vos), a small river in Boeotia,
which rises in Mount Cithaeron, flows through
Thebes, and falls into the lake Hylica. The
brook Dirce, celebrated in Theban story, flowed
into the Ismenus. (Hdt. 1, 52 ; Paus. iv. 27, 6.)
From this river Apollo was called Ismenius.
His temple, the Ismenium, at wMch the festival
of the Daphnephoria was celebrated, was
situated outside the city. The river is said to
have been originally called Ladon, and to have
derived its subsequent name from Ismenus, a
son of Asopus and Metope. (Apollod. iii. 12,
6 ; Diod. iv. 72.) According to other traditions,
Ismenus was a son of Amphion and Niobe, who
when struck by the arrow of Apollo leaped into
a river near Thebes, which was hence called
Ismenus (Paus. ix. 10, 5).
Isocrates ('Io-o/cpaTTjs), one of the ten Attic
orators, was the son of Theodorus, and was
born at Athens B.C. 436. Theodorus was a man
of wealth, and educated Ms son with the
greatest care. Among his teachers were Tisias,
Gorgias, ProdicuB, and also Socrates. Since
Isocrates was naturally timid, and of a weakly
constitution, he did not come forward as a pub
lic speaker Mmself, but devoted himself to
giving instruction to oratory, and writing ora
tions for others. He first taught rhetoric in
Chios, and afterwards at Athens. At the latter
place he met with great success, and graduaUy
acquired a large fortune by his profession. He
had 100 pupils, every one of whom paid him
1000 drachmae. He also derived a large
income from the orations which he wrote for
others. Although Isocrates took no part in
public affairs, he sought to influence public
feeling by his orations, which (apart from the
forensic speeches) were intended to be read, not
to be spoken. He was an ardent lover of his
country, and had brought himself to regard the
leadership of some strong power as the only
chance of union to Greece; hence, as Dante
hoped in Henry VII. as the saviour of Italy, for
much the same reason Isocrates turned to
Philip of Macedon, whom he urged to put him
self at the head of a full and united Greece,
and to liberate the Greeks of Asia Minor from
the Persian rule ; and, accordingly, when the
battle of Chaeronea had destroyed the last
hopes of freedom, he put an end to Ms life, B.C.
338, at the age of 98. — The school of Isocrates
exercised the greatest influence, not only upon
the development of public oratory at Athens,
but upon the style of writers to his own and
in other countries. The language of Isocrates
o G 2

452

ISSA

forms a great contrast with the natural simpli
city of Lysias. Among his characteristics are
the avoidance of declamatory language and the
frequent use of figures ; but the chief point to
observe is that Isocrates more than any other
Greek writer studied the rhythm of prose,
careful in his choice of words, and aiming at
smoothness in long and finished periods.
EspeciaUy he avoided hiatus. The style of
Cicero was in great measure modeUed upon that
of Isocrates ; and, through Cicero, Isocrates
has had much to do with the training of the
greatest masters of English prose; notably
with that of Milton. The carefully-rounded
periods, and the frequent application of figura
tive expressions, are features which remind us
of the sopMsts. The immense care he bestowed
upon the composition of his orations may be

BuBt oi Isocrates. (VUla Albani.)
inferred from the statement that he was engaged
for ten years upon Ms Panegyric oration alone.
There were in antiquity sixty orations which
went under the name of Isocrates, but they
were not all recognised as genuine. Only 21
have come down to us. Of these six were
written for the courts; the others are chiefly
political discourses, intended to be read by a
large public. The most celebrated is his Pane
gyric oration, in which he shows what services
Athens had rendered to Greece in every period
of her history, and contends that she, and not
Sparta, deserves the supremacy in Greece. The
Areicpagiticus (355 B.C.) argues for a restora
tion of the influence of the Areiopagus. The
t orations are printed in the coUections of the
Greek orators. [Demosthenes.] The text ia
separately edited by Blass, 1878; the Pane-
gyricus by Sandys, 1868 ; the Panegyricus and
Areicpagiticus by Rauchensteto, 1874 ; the Ad
Philippum, by Benseler, 1854.
Issa ("loo-a), daughter of Macareus of Les
bos, and beloved by ApoUo. The Lesbian town
of Issa is said to have received its name from
her. (Strab. p. 60 ; Ov. Met. vi. 124.)
Issa (Issaeus : Lissa), a small island in the
Adriatic sea, with a town of the same name, off
the coast of Dalmatia, was colonised at an early
period by the Greeks. It was inhabited by a
hardy race of sailors, whose barks (lembi Issaei)
were much prized. The Issaei placed them
selves under the protection of the Romans
when they were attacked by the Hlyrian queen,
Teuta, B.C. 229 ; and then- town is spoken of as
a place of importance in Caesar's time. (Ptol
ii. 16, 14; Strab. p. 315; Liv. xxxi. 45, xiv. 8.)

ITALIA
Issedones ('lo-0-n.Sbves), a Scythian tribe, in
Scythia extra Imaum, the most remote people
in Central Asia with whom the Greeks of the
time of Herodotus had any intercourse. Their
country was in Great Tartary, near the
Massagetae, whom they resembled in their
manners. They are represented as extending
as far as the borders of Serica. (Hdt. iv. 26 ;
Mel. ii. 1, 13.)
Issicus Sinus (b 'lo-o-iKbs KbXvos : Gulf of
Iskenderoon), the deep gulf at the NE. corner
of the Mediterranean, between CUicia and Syria,
named after the town of Issus. The width is
about eight miles. The coast is much altered
Bince ancient times.
Issoria ('loo-apla), a surname of Artemis, de
rived from Mt. Issorion, in Laconia, on which
she had a sanctuary. [Artemis.]
Issus ('Ico-bs, also 'lao-oi, Xen. : 'lo-ffaios), a
city in the SE. extremity of Cilicia, near the
head of the Issicus Sinus, and at the N. foot of
the pass of M. Amanus called the Syrian Gates ;
memorable for the great battle in which Alex
ander defeated Darius Codomannus (b.c 333),
which was fought in a narrow valley near the
town. [Alexander.] Its importance was much
diminished by the foundation of Alexandria ad
Issum, a little to the south. (Xen. An. i. 4, 4 ;
Arrian, Anab. ii. 7 ; Strab. p. 676 ; Ptol. v. 8, 7.)
Ister. [Danubius.]
Ister, a Greek historian, was at first a slave
of CaUimachus, and afterwards Ms friend, and
consequently lived in the reign of Ptolemy
Euergetes (b.c 247-222). He wrote a large
number of works, the most important of which
was an Atthis, or Mstory of Attica. Fragments
are published by Miiller, Fragm. Histor. Graec.
Istria or Histria, a peninsula at the N. ex
tremity of the Adriatic, between the Sinus Ter-
gestinus on the W. and the Sinus Flanaticus on
the E. It was separated from Venetia on the
NW. by the river Timavus, and from Hlyricum
on the E. by the river Arsia. Its tohabitants,
the Istri or Histri, were a warlike Hlyrian
race, who carried on several wars with the
Romans, till their final subjugation by the
consul C. Claudius Pulcher, B.C. 177. Their
chief towns were Tebgeste and Pola. Istria
was originally reckoned part of Hlyricum, but
from the time of Augustus it formed one of the
divisions of Upper Italy. (Strab. pp. 67, 215
Liv. x. 2, xii. 1-18.)
Istropolis, Istros or Istria ('lo-rpbiroXis, "la-
rpos, 'lorptri, Hdt. ii. 33: latere), a town to
Lower Moesia, not far from the mouth of the
Danube, and at a little distance from the coast,
was a colony from Miletus.
Italia ('iTaXta), signified, from the time of
Augustus, the country which we call Italy. It
was bounded on the W. by the Mare Ligusticum
and Mare Tyrrhenum, Tuscum or Inferum ; on
the S. by the Mare Siculum or Ausonium ; on the
E. by the Mare Adriaticum or Superum ; and
on the N. by the Alps, which sweep round it in
a semicircle, the river Varus (Var, Varo) sepa
rating it on the NW. from Transalpine Gaul,
and the river Arsia (Arsa) on the NE. from
Illyricum. The name Italia, however, was
origtoally used to indicate a much more limited
extent of country. Till a comparatively late
period, the mountain boundary of Italy was,
not the Alps, but the Apennines ; for the country
on the east coast N. of Sena Gallica was nob
reckoned in Italy till the second century B.c,
and the plain of the Po only in the first century
B.c. In the earliest times the application of
. the name was much more restricted even than

ITALIA

this, and applied only to the SW. point of the
peninsula— the districts, that is, afterwards
known as Bruttii and Lucania (Thuc. i. 12;
Arist. Pol. iv. 10, 3 = p. 1829). Modern etymo
logists are to favour of the old derivation (Var
BJEl. ii. 5 ; GeU. xi. 1 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 588) of
Italia from IraXbs = vitulus. It seems to be
confirmed by tile inscription Viteliu found on
Oscan coins. It would imply that the Italians
were first famed as herdsmen of cattle on the
Lucanian plains. [Italus.] After the Romans
had conquered Tarentum and the S. part of the
peninsula, about B.C. 272, the name Italia sig
nified the whole country subject to them,
from the SicUian straits as far N. as the Arnus
on the W. coast, and Sena Gallica on the E. ;
for the river Aesis formed its northern boundary,
and the district of Arimtoum was stiU 'ager
GaUicus ' untU the first century b.c, when the
province of GaUia Cisalpina (as JuUus Caesar
received it in 59 B.C.) ended at theRubico ; and
on the E. side the country N. of the Arnus was
sttil caUed Liguria. Augustus was the first who
extended the name of ItaUa, so as to compre
hend the whole of the basin of the Po and the
S. part of the Alps, from the Maritime Alps to
Pola to Istria, both inclusive. In the later
times of the empire, when Maximian had trans
ferred the imperial residence to Milan, the
name ItaUa was again used in a narrower com
pass. As it had originaUy signified only the S.
of the country, so now it was restricted to the
N., comprising the five provinces of Aemilia,
Liguria, Flamtoia, Venetia, and Istria. Though,
however, the above limitations appUed to re
gard to Mstory and government, the name Italia
was applied by Greek writers to the whole
peninsula considerably earUer, and probably
from the time when Cisalpine Gaul was brought
under the Roman power, and accordingly Poly
bius so uses it to the second century B.C. —
Besides Italia, the country was caUed by various
other names, especiaUy by the poets. These
were Hesperia, a name which the Greeks gave
to it because it lay to the W. of Greece, or
Hesperia Magna, to distinguish it from Spain
[Hesperia] ; Saturnia, because Saturn was said
to have once reigned to Latium ; and Ausonia,
from the Ausonian race. The name Oenotria
is probably merely ' the wine country,' and was
appUed to the southern part by early Greek
voyagers. From tMs some have deduced that
the vine was cultivated to Italy before the
Greek colonies were founded there; but as
otvarpos strictly means a vine-prop, it may de
note that the Greeks found here the vine grown
on props instead of traUing. The ItaUan pen
insula contained a great number of different
races, who had migrated into the country at a
very early period. In central and south Italy
three primitive stocks may be distinguished :
the Etruscan, wMch is described under Etruria,
the Iapygian, and what is usuaUy called the
Italian stock. The Iapygian race occupied the
SE. part, the country of the Messapians, Peu-
cetians, and Daunians [see Apulia, p. 94].
The 'ItaUan' stock is divided into two main
branches : (a) the Latin branch, and (b) the
Umbro-Sabellian, to which, according to their
dialects, the Umbri, Massi, Volsci, and Samnites
(— Osci) are assigned. The history of the mi
grations and settlements of these branches, so
far as it can be conjectured, seems to be as
foUows. Both together separated from a stock
which included Greeks and Italians alike, and
¦when they also separated it is probable that the
Latin branch (who are the same as the Opici in

453

Thuc. vi. 3; Ar. Pol. iv. 10) came southward
first and occupied the richer country of Latium,
Campania, and Lucania ; possibly also the
eastern part of Sicily [Sicilia] : theAuBones, or
Aurunci, who settled in Campania were probably
a Latin tribe, but they were early Hellenised by
Greek immigrants and conquered by Samnites,
and therefore disappeared from history, leaving
the name Ausonia as a common poetical name
for Italy [cf. Campania]. The Umbro-Sabellian
branch seems to have followed afterwards along
the mountain ridges, and settled in the more
MUy districts ; but this branch again divided,
the Umbri taking to the E. side of the Apen
nines and being eventually, by the encroach
ments of the Etruscans, penned up in the
narrow district called Umbria. On the other
hand, the Sabellian tribes who split off moved
further southward ; the Sabines, nearer to the
Latin settlements, and probably at that time
differing but little in dialect, were early amal
gamated with the Latins ; the Samnites to the
larger district further south [Samnium], where
they long remained independent, and spread
toto Campania; the smaller offshoots which
followed occupied the districts between Umbria
and Samnium [see Marsi; Picentes ; Pae-
ligni]. In the above distribution the name
' Italian ' has been taken for convenience to
denote the common source of the Latin and
Umbro-Sabellian stocks; but it must not be
forgotten that, as was said before, the name
Itali is only applied in the earliest literature
to those who dwelt in the extreme SW., and
was not used as a common national term until
the combined allies called their temporary
capital Italica, in the year 90 B.C. The to
habitants of the northern part of Italy are
described separately under Gallia Cisalpina,
Liguria (possibly containing the remains of the
most primitive race of the peninsula), and
Venetia. For the Greek colonisation of
Southern Italy see p. 372. At the time of
Augustus the foUowing were the chief divisions
of Italy, an account of which is also given in
separate articles : I. Upper Italy, which ex
tended from the Alps to the rivers Maera on
the W. and Rubico on the E. It comprehended :
1. Liguria. 2. Gallia Cisalpina. 3. Venetia,
including Carnia. 4. Istria. II. Central Italy,
sometimes caUed Italia Propria (a term not
used by the ancients), to distinguish it from
Gallia Cisalpina or Upper Italy, and Magna
Graecia or Lower Italy, extended from the rivers
Maera on the W. and Rubico on the E., to the
rivers Silarus on the W. and Frento on the E.
It comprehended : 1. Etruria. 2. Umbria.
3. Picenum. 4. Samnium, including the country
of the Sabini,Vestini, Marrucini, Marsi, Paeligni,
&c. 5. Latium. 6. Campania. III. Lower
Italy or Magna Graecia [p. 372], included the
remaining part of the peninsula S. of the rivers
Silarus and Frento. It comprehended : 1.
Apulia, including Calabria. 2. Lucania. 3.
Bruttiuh. — Augustus divided Italy into the
foUowing 11 Regiones: 1. Latium and Cam
pania. 2. The land of the Hirpini, Apulia, and
Calabria. 3. Lucania and Bruttium. 4. The
land of the Frentani, Marrucini, Paeligni, Marsi,
Vestini, and Sabini, together with Samnium.
5. Picenum. 6. Umbria and the district of
Ariminum, to what was formerly called Gallia
Cisalpina. 7. Etruria. 8. (called Aemilia,
after the road of that name) Gallia Cispadana.
9. Liguria. 10. The E. part of Gallia Trans
padana, Venetia, Camia, and Istria. 11. The
W. part of Gallia Transpadana. Rome herself

454

ITALIA

stood apart as a 12th division. This distribution
seems at first to have been mainly geographi
cal for the convenience of census and for fiscal
regulations. The regions were grouped to the
time of Aurelius under juridici for the purposes
of justice, but how many were thus combined
is uncertain. Under Diocletian twelve provinces
were formed, the last tMee being the three
larger islands, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily,
each province under a praeses or a consularis,
and so arranged that of the Augustan regions
1 to 7 were, together with the three islands,
under the Vicarius Urbis ; regions 8 to 11,
together with Rhaetia and Alpes Cottiae, were
under the Vicarius Italiae. — The leading fea
tures of the physical geography of Italy may
be sketched as follows. The peninsula is
formed by the chain of the Apennines breaking
off from the WeBtern Alps and taking a direc
tion, first, mainly E., till it nears the Adriatic,
and then mainly S. and SE. The first direction,
extending across from Genoa almost to the
Adriatic coast at Sena GaUica, formed a natural
boundary between Gallia Cisalpina and the
lands to the south. From that point the
Apennines in their southward course form the
backbone of Italy, but the range is at first
much nearer to the Eastern side ; and about
half way down they broaden out into a moun
tainous district some 50 miles across, which
formed the old settlements of the Sabellian
tribes mentioned above. Some distance S. of
this the great mass of Mte Matese, extending
westwards, forms the hill country of Samnium ;
and from that point the chain, after throwing
out a spur to the eastwards which terminates to
M. Garganus, bends more and more to the
western coast and runs down to the toe of Italy
tMough Bruttium. It will at once be seen, as
a result of this conformation, that in Central
Italy the fertile and populous plains (Etruria,
Latium, and Campania) lie entirely on the
western side ; wMle to the southern, but much
smaller, portion they are almost entirely on the
E. side (Apulia and most of Lucania). For the
same reason the rivers on the Adriatic coast
are short and unimportant torrents running
straight down from the mountains, while those
on the W. side have a winding and fertilising
course over a large extent of country. More
over, the action of these rivers, combined with
the volcanic activity on that side at an early
period, has produced a number of bays and
excellent harbours, in strong contrast to the
Adriatic coast-line, and affording an additional
reason for the prosperity of the western states.
The historical result cannot be better described
than in the words of the great historian of
Rome : — ' While the Grecian peninsula turns
towards the east, the Italian turns towards the
west. As the coasts of Epirus and Acarnania
had but a subordinate importance in the case
of Hellas, so had the Apulian and Messapian
coasts in that of Italy ; and, while the regions
on which the historical development of Greece
has been mainly dependent — Attica and Ma
cedonia — look to the east, Etruria, Latium, and
Campania look to the west. In this way the two
peninsulas, such close neighbours and ahnost
sisters, stand, as it were, averted from each other.'
Had it not been that Rome, owing to this cause,
directed her first efforts westwards to Spain,
and gathered strength there before she met the
Macedonian power to Alexander's later succes
sors, the history of the world might have been
different ; and the same cause at a later time
tended to the complete separation between the

ITHACA
eastern and western empires. Two other potots
may be noticed to wMch the differences to
geography of Italy and Greece produce corre
sponding differences in their history— (1) that
the Italian coast is, on the whole, even on the
western side, very much less broken up by
inlets of sea than the Grecian, and has few
islands, and therefore her people were not so
naturally a sea-going people, and her colonies
were rather military stations than true colonies ;
(2) that the great backbone of the Apennines
makes for the most part large divisions : Italy
is not, like Greece, cut up into an infinite num
ber of smaU vaUeys, and therefore had not the
immense number of small states, each jealously
preserving its own independence, and more
easUy protected from its neighbours. — More
detaUs respecting the physical features of the
different parts of Italy are given in the articles
on the provinces toto wMch it is divided.
Italica. 1. (Santiponce), a municipium in
Hispania Baetica, on the W. bank of the Baetis,
NW. of Hispalis, was founded by Scipio Afri
canus in the second Punic war, who settled
here some of his veterans. It was the birth
place of the emperors Trajan and Hadrian
(Strab. p. 141 ; Ptol. ii. 4, 13).— 2. The name
given to Corfinium by the Italian Socii during
their war with Rome. [CoRFrNiUM.]
Italicus, Silius. [Silius.]
Italus, a mythical king who was said to have
reigned over Sicels in the south of Italy (Thuc.
vi. 2). Servius (who gives a number of ety
mologies for Italia) speaks of him as king of
Sicily (ad Aen. i. 533). He reigned over the
land to which he gave Ms name, between the
gulfs Scyllacinus and Napetinus, and turned
his people from herdsmen into agriculturists.
(Antioch. Syr. ap. Dionys. i. 12, 35,73; Arist.
Pol. iv. 10, 3 = p. 1329.) TMs probably points to
the adoption of vine-cultivation, wMch caused
the Greeks to call Ms land sometimes Oenotria.
His sons were Sicelus and Auson, and Ms wife
was Leucania. (Dionys. i. 22 ; Tzetz. ad Lye.
702 ; Plut. Bom. 2.) There seems to be truth
in the connexion of races and countries to
which these traditions point. [See Italia and
Sicilia.] Itanus ("Iravos), a town on the E. coast of
Crete, near a promontory of the same name,
founded by the Phoenicians (Ptol. iii. 17, 4).
Ithaca ('IBdKri : IBokt)o-ios : Thiaki), a smaU
island in the Ionian Sea, celebrated as the birth
place of Odysseus, lies off the coast of Epirus,
and is separated from Cephalonia by a channel
about three or four miles wide. The island is
about twelve miles long, and four in its greatest
breadth. It is divided into two parts, which
are connected by a narrow isthmus, not more
than half a mile across. In each of these parts
there is a mountain-ridge of considerable height :
the one in the N. called Neritum (N^piTov, now
And), and the one in the S. Neium (\Sr)Xov, now
Haghios Stephanos). The city of Ithaca, the
residence of Odysseus, is considered by many to
have been situated on a precipitous, conical
hill, now called Aeto, or ' eagle's cliff,' occupy
ing the whole breadth of the isthmus mentioned
above. The acropolis, or castle of Odysseus,
crowned the bleak summit of the mountain.
Hence Cicero (de Orat. i. 44) describes it, in
asperrimis saxulis tanquam nidulus affixa.
It is at the foot of Mt. Neium, and is hence
described by Telemachus as ' Under-Neium '
('IBd/cns "tirovritov, Od. iii. 81). Ancient, or
Cyclopean, walls are in many places trace
able. Others think that the above site is too

ITHOME
iax fJ°m the sea, and that a smaU place still
called Polis marks the true site. This is near
Stayros on the NW. of the island ; it has an
avaUable harbour near, and there is the small
island Daskalio about six miles from Polis
which would answer to the island Asteris, where
the suitors lay to wait for Telemachus between
Ithaca and Cephallenia (Od. iv. 845). There
seems no reason to doubt that the writer of the
Odyssey had knowledge of the local features of
the island, and inlets suiting the description
of the harbour of Phorcys are pointed out both
in the bay of Vathy and that of Dexia : there
is a stalactite cave which claims to be the grotto
of the nymphs, equidistant from both these
bays (Od. xiii. 96).
Ithome ('IBdpri : 'IBap-hrns, 'IBapdios). 1. A
strong fortress to Messenia, situated on a
mountain of the same name, 2680 feet high,
wMch afterwards formed the citadel of the town
of Messene. On the summit of the mountain
stood the ancient temple of Zeus, who was
hence surnamed Ithometas ('l8opr)rris, Dor.
'IBopdras). Ithome was taken by the Spartans,
B.C. 723, at the end of the last Messenian war,
after an heroic defence by Aristodemus, and
again in 455, at the end of the third Messenian
war. There are remains of ancient walls which

ITYS

455

Iton. [Itonia.]
. Itonia, Itonias, or Itonis ('Iravla, 'Iravids,
or 'Iravis), a surname of Athene, derived from
the town of Iton, in the S. of Phthiotis in Thes
saly. The goddess there had a celebrated sanc
tuary and festivals, and hence the battle-cry of
the Thessalians was 'AB-nva 'Iravta (Paus. x. 1,
10; Strab. pp. 411, 485). She had also a temple
between Pherae and Larissa (Paus. i. 18, 2).
From Iton her worship spread into Boeotia and
the country about Lake Copais, where the Pam-
boeotia was celebrated, to the neighbourhood of
a temple and grove of Athene, not far from
Coronea (Paus. iii. 9, 13, ix. 34, 1). It is from
this place that she is called by Catullus
'incola Itoni' (lxiv. 228; cf. Stat. Theb. ii.
721). Itucci ('IriKKri, App.), a town in Hispania
Baetica, in the district of Hispalis, and a Roman
colony called Virtus Julia (Plin. iii. 25).
Itiina (Solway Frith), an aestuary to Britain,
between England and Scotland.
Ituraea, Ityraea ('irovpaia : 'Irovpdtoi, Itu-
raei, Ityraei : El-Jeidur), a district on the NE.
borders of Palestine, bounded on the N. by the
plain of Damascus, on the W. by the mountain-
chain (Jebel-Heish) which forms the E. margin
of the vaUey of the Jordan, on the SW. and S.

Ithome, from the Stadium of Messene.

may belong to the fortress built to the third
Messenian war. (Thuc. i. 103 ; Paus. iii. 11,8;
iv. 9, 1 ; Strab. p. 361.) — 2. A mountain fortress
in Pelasgiotis, in Thessaly, near Metropolis,
also jjaUed Thome (H. n. 729 ; Strab. p. 437).
Itius Portus, a harbour of the Morini, on the
N. coast of Gaul, from which Caesar set sail for
Britain. The position of this harbour has been
much disputed. It used to be identified with
GeBoriacum, or Boulogne, but is now generally
admitted to be the harbour of Wissant, about
twelve miles W. of Calais, sheltered from the
SW. gales by Itium Pr. (Cape Grisnez). The
point to Britain to which the passage from Itius
Portus led is more doubtful. The old idea
that it was Deal has been abandoned as impos
sible since the set of the tides has been better
understood. The most probable view is that
the landing was at Bomney, but Pevensey,
which some prefer, is not impossible. (Caes.
B. G. iv. 21, v. 2 ; Strab. p. 199.)

by Gaulanitis, and on the E. by Auranitis and
Trachonitis. It occupied a part of the elevated
plain into which Mt. Hermon sinks down on
the SE., and was inhabited by an Arabian
people of warlike and predatory habits. Pom
pey reduced them to order, and many of
their warriors entered the Roman army, in
which they became celebrated as archers (Verg.
Georg. ii. 448 ; Lucan, vii. 230, 514). They
were not, however, reduced to complete subjec
tion to Rome until after the civil wars. Augus
tus gave Ituraea, which had been hitherto ruled
by its native princes, to the family of Herod.
It was governed by Herod Philip as tetrarch,
and at his death, a.d. 34, it was united to the
Roman province of Syria (Jos. Ant. xviii. 4, 6),
from which it was again separated, and assigned
to Soaemus, the prince of Emesa. In a.d. 50, it
was finally reunited by Claudius to the Roman
province of Syria (Tac. Ann. xii. 23).
Itys. [Tereus.]

456

IULIS

Iulis ('lovXts: 'lovXir)rris, 'lovXievs), chief
town to Ceos ; birthplace of Simonides. [Ceos.]
lulus, son of Aeneas, usually called Asca
nius (Verg. Aen. iv. 274; Ov. Her. vii. 75,
137 • Sil It. viii. 71), and founder of the Julian
family (Verg. Aen. 1, 288, vi. 789 ; Ov. Fast. iv.
89) : but later traditions separated the two
names, and related that lulus was son of
Ascanius, and was deprived of Ms inheritance
by his half-uncle Silvius (Dionys. i. 70, 4 ;
Aeneas, Ascanius, Silvius).
Ixion ('l£lav) (who is not mentioned in Homer
or Hesiod), was the son of PMegyas, or of
Antion and Perimela, or of Pasion, or of Ares.
According to the common tradition, Ms mother
was Dia, a daughter of Deioneus. He was king
of the Lapithae or Phlegyes, and the father of
Pirithous. When Deioneus demanded of Ixion
the bridal gifts he had promised, Ixion treacher
ously invited him to a banquet, and then con
trived to make him fall into a pit filled with
fire. As no one purified Ixion of tMs treacherous
murder, Zeus took pity upon him, purified him,
carried him to heaven, and caused him to sit
down at his table. But Ixion was ungrateful to
the father of the gods, and attempted to win the
love of Hera. Zeus thereupon fashioned a cloud
in the likeness of Hera, and by it Ixion became
the father of a Centaur. [Centaurl] Ixion

Sisyphus, Ixion, and Tantalus. (Bartoli, Sepole. Ant. tav,

was fearfuUy punished for his impious ingrati
tude. His hands and feet were chained by
Hermes to a wheel, which is said to have rolled
perpetually in the air (which is the older ver
sion) or in the lower world. He is further said
to have been scourged, and compelled to ex
claim, 'Benefactors should be honoured.'
(Pind. Pyth. ii. 21-89; Aesch. Eum. 440;
Soph. Phil. 679 ; Ap. Rh. iii. 62 ; Tzetz. Chil.
ix. 278; Diod. iv. 69; Schol. ad Eur. Phoen.
1185 ; Lucian, Dial. Deor. 6 ; Verg. Georg. iv.
484, Aen. vi. 601; Ov. Met. iv. 460.) Some
modern writers explain Ixion as symbolising
the whirlwind; others (which is the most
general view), as the sun eternally moving with
its fiery orb. It may be questioned whether it
is not a myth borrowed from a ritual known to
have been practised by people of central Europe
as a sun-charm. It consisted in carrying a
blazing wheel brandished or made to revolve in
the air, about the fields which needed sunshine.
That a figure, whether real or an imitation, was
sometimes bound on it just as the 1vy% was
bound on the wheel to Theocr. Id. 2, is likely
enough. H so, the myth grew up to explain
the custom, and was borrowed from the more
northern tribes by the Greeks, who fitted it into
their own mythology.

JANUS
Ixionides, i.e. Pirithous, the son of Ixion. —
The Centaurs are also caUed Ixionidae.
Ixius ("l£ios), a surname of ApoUo, derived
from a district of the island of Rhodes which
was called Ixiae or Ixia (Steph. Byz. s.v.).
lynx ("Iu7£), daughter of Peitho and Pan, or
of Echo. She endeavoured to charm Zeus, or
to make him fall to love with Io ; but she was
metamorphosed by Hera toto the bird called
lynx. (Tzetz. ad Lye. 310; Ant. Lib. 9;
Schol. ad Pind. Pyth. iv. 214.) TMs bird was
used as a love-charm, being tied to a wheel and
made to revolve. It is probable that the charm
(which was known to Pindar) is older than the
story of lynx (Pind. Pyth. iv. 214, Nem. iv.
35 ; Theocr. ii. 17; Xen. Mem. iii. 11, 17), and
the story is merely a late explanation.

Jaccetani, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis
between the Pyrenees and the Iberus, in the
NE. corner of Spain, in whose country the wars
between Sertorius and Pompey, and between
Caesar and Petreius took place (Caes. B. C. i.
60 ; Strab. p. 161 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 72).
Jana, apparently an old Latin equivalent of
Diana (Varro, B. B. i. 37, S ; Macrob. i. 9, 8),
though it is also possible that she may
originally have been the femimne coun
terpart (according to a common custom
of imagining pairs of divinities) to Janus
(who had nothing to do with Diana), and
was afterwards identified with that god
dess. Janiculum. [Roma.]
Janus, an ancient Latin deity, and
apparently at one period the cMef deity.
Roman writers lay special stress upon
the antiquity of Ms worship (Varro, ap.
August. Civ. D. iv. 23; Juv. vi. 893,
' antiquissime divum ' ; cf . Herodian, i.
16; Procop. B. G. i. 25). Janus was the
god of aU beginnings both in public and
to private life : of the birth of man and
of the opening of the year, so that he
presided over what was the first month
of the year in later, and perhaps also
in the earliest, times [see below] ; he was the
god, too, of the beginnings of enterprises alike
of trade and of warfare, in wMch he secured
a safe return of the outgoing host. On what
principle aU these functions belonged to him
is a much disputed question. The theory ttil
recently most in favour was that his name was
connected with dies, that he was the sun-god,
as Jana = Diana was the moon-goddess. The
reasons for this on which PreUer particularly
relies were (1) the supposed etymology of Ja
nus and Jana from dies; (2) the custom of
placing Ms shrine east and west ; (8) that if
Janus is not the sun-god the Latins had none.
To the first it may be repUed that there is abso
lutely no connexion between the functions of
Diana and Janus or their ritual, and that Diana
has traditionaUy a later origin at Rome, of the
time of Servius TuUius, whereas Janus stands
out as pre-eminent in antiquity ; to the second,
that the orientation of the stoine is much more
likely to be connected with omens, if a reason is
to be assigned ; and to the third that there is
some reason to believe that to the early Latins
Mars held that relation to the sun which was
afterwards held by Apollo. Others have ex
plained Mm as the god of the vault of heaven,
and have sought an Etruscan origin connecting

JANUS

Mm with the Etruscan arch ; but the evidence
is against Janus being originaUy an Etruscan
deity, and his connexion with the arch (whioh is
not really like the vault of heaven), if he is con
nected, probably comes from the gateway. Janus
has probably a much simpler origin. He belongs
to the most primitive religion of the household,
and just as Vesta was the old goddess of the
hearth and its fire, so Janus was the god of the
doorway (janua), who guarded and watched aU
that went out and came in (therefore looking both
-ways) ; who prospered the outgoings and kept off
evil influence (as to the superstitions of many
nations) from crossing the ttoeshold ; and who
sanctioned the opening and shutting of the
door (Ov. Fast. i. 125, 137 ; Cic. N.D. ii. 27, 67 ;
Macrob. i. 9, 7). Hence his name of Patuleius
(the Opener) and Clusius (the Closer). It was
doubtless a later development of tMs idea which
made him the door-keeper of heaven (Ov. Fast.
i. 117, 125), and again the god who granted
birth, or the opening of the womb, hence caUed
' Consivius,' and to the Salian hymn ' duonus
cerus,' that is ' the good creator.' It was natural
that, as the god of the goings out and the
comings to, he should be the patron whose aid
was sought to all beginnings and undertakings,
and should be the 'matutinus pater' who
started the daily work (Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 20). The
prayer versified by Serenus (a poet of Hadrian's
time) probably represents an ancient prayer,
and is worth quoting as iUustrating tMs passage
of Horace, and as showing the real conception
of Janus. Jane pater, Jane tuens, dive biceps, biformis,
O cate rerum sator O principium deorum,
Stridula cui liroina, cui cardines turnultus,
Cui reserata mugiunt aurea claustra mundi,
Tibi vetus ara cahiit aborigineo sacello.
As the houses became grouped into a fortified
town, so the pubUc functions of Janus ensued.
He was the god of the city gates as of the
house door, and there is good reason for the
belief that Portumnus (Verg. Aen. v. 241), who
was simUarly represented with keys, was merely
Janus-Portumnus, the Janus who presided over
the gates of the city (portae) and the havens or
wharfs of the Tiber (portus), for which reason
a sMp appears on the Janus coins. For Janus
presided over public as well as private out
goings to commerce ; and the meaning of his
being special god of the Janiculum (Verg. Aen.
viii. 819 ; Ov. Fast. i. 245) is that it was the
place of egress and ingress for trade with
Etruria by land, and also the fortress guarding
the ancient wharfs of the Tiber (cf. Liv. i. 33 ;
Dionys. in. 45) ; hence in some myths Tiberinus
was son of Janus. Another of Ms public func
tions, foUowing from Ms being the god of begin
nings, was that of presiding over the year (Ov.
Fast. i. 43 ; Mart. viii. 2, 1). His own month,
January, was the first month of the year in the
later Calendar, and it is possible that there may
he truth to Ovid's assertion, that in the very
oldest (i.e. before the Decemvirs) it was also the
first [Diet, of Ant. art. Galendarium]. He
also presided over the Calends of each month,
whence he is caUed Junonius, because Juno as
moon-goddess had to do with the months
(Macrob.- i. 9, 16). A remarkable confirmation
of the view that Janus and Vesta were the two
most ancient deities of the house may be found
to the fact that these relations reappear in the
pubUc ritual. The Bex Sacrorum [Diet, of
Ant. s.v.], who represented the oldest Roman
religion, offered sacrifices at the Calends to
Janus on the Capitol, wMle Ms wife sacrificed

457

in the Regia, which represented the old state-
hearth of the king's or chief's house : on Jan. 9
he offered a ram to Janus in the Regia. The
special cake called janual or irbiravov was
offered on the 1st of January at Ms shrines gene
rally (Ov. Fast. i. 127 ; Lyd. Mens. iv. 2 ; Fest.
p. 810). The public function of Janus which

Head of Janus. (From a coin [<w] of the 4th cent. B.C.)
has been more celebrated than any other is his
guardianship of the state in time of war, when
the gates of his most ancient sanctuary at the
NE. end of the Forum (closed in time of peace)
were left open. This sanctuary, as old as Numa's
reign (Varro, L.L. v. 165 ; Liv. i. 19), was a square
building open at both ends with a flat roof : in

Temple of Janus -with closed doors. (From a coin of Nero
in the British Museum.)
fact, rather a gate-house than a temple. The
tradition wMch attempted to account for the
custom of opening it in time of war related that
in the Sabine war a stream of water gushed
forth from this sanctuary and swept back the
invaders (Ov. Fast. i. 269, Met. xiv. 786;
Macrob. i. 9, 17). It has been suggested that
the custom meant that the god, who in peace
remained in his shrine, in war went out to
battle (cf . Verg. Aen. i. 294 ; Ov. Fast. i. 281 ;
Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 255) ; but Janus was not the god
who went out to battle, and it is a far more
likely explanation that, just as the old custom
was not to close the door of the private house
when the members of the famUy were out, so it
was regarded as a bad omen to close what repre
sented the gates of the state against the citizens
who had gone out to war. It remained open to
show that the god was ready to welcome them
returning home safe and victorious. It was
probably actuaUy the Latin custom in old times
that the army marched out through the eastern
gate of Janus (which at Rome led from the
Forum) and at the conclusion of the war quitted
the gate-house of Janus by the western gate
(Lyd. Mens. iv. 2 ; cf. Verg. Aen. vii. 611). The
legend of the water gusMng forth probably
arose from the fact that Janus was the god who
opened the springs of water, hence in mythology
made the husband of Juturna the water-nymph

458 and father of Fontus (Arnob. iii. 29). The
buUding, in which the double statue of the god
was placed, facing both ways, was spoken of as
Janus, or often as Janus Quirinus (Suet. Aug.
22), where Quirinus seems to be an adjective
and to give the meaning as 'Janus the god of
the Roman citizens ' : possibly it was first used
when the peoples on the Quirinal and the Pala
tine united, to show that the Janus of the
latter people belonged also to the former : in
Hor. Od. iv. 15, 9 the genitive ' Quirini ' is simi
larly used, though some alter it to ' Quirinum ' ;
other descriptions of the building are ' porta
Janualis,' ' geminae portae belli,' iriXi) evvaXios,
iriXn iroXepov (Plut. Num. 20). There were
besides many arches of Janus (Ov. Fast. i. 257 ;
Liv. xii. 27) : the Janus Medius (Cic. Off. ii. 25,
90 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 18) was probably an arch over
the Vicus Tuscus, and therefore appropriately
connected with business and trade, with books
and money-changing (Hor. Ep. i. 20, 1), and there
was at least one other in the Forum (cf. Hor.
Ep. i. 1, 54). A temple of Janus stood also near
the theatre of Marcellus, dedicated by C.
Duilius (Tac. Ann. ii. 49). The Janus with
four gates and a four-headed figure of the god
(Janus Quadrifrons), said to be derived from
Falerii (Serv. ad Verg. Aen. vii. 607), stood in
the Forum Transitorium, which was connected
with three other fora. In historical times
Janus no longer held the supremacy among
Roman deities, though he was still in old forms
of prayer addressed first (Cic. N. D. ii. 27, 67).
This was probably owing to the acceptance (as
representing the great Roman deities) of the
Greek gods, with whom Janus had no point of
agreement. In art Janus is represented by two
bearded faces (sometimes four), and, in full-
length figures, holding a key and a staff.
Jason ('ldo-uv). 1. The celebrated leader of
the Argonauts, was a son of Aeson and Poly-
mede or Alcimede, and belonged to the family
of the Aeolidae, at Iolcus in Thessaly. Cre-
theus, who had founded Iolcus, was succeeded
by Ms son Aeson ; but the latter was deprived
of the kingdom by his half-brother Pelias, who
tried to kUl the infant Jason. (In Od. xi. 256
Pelias is rightful Mng of Iolcus.) Jason was
saved by his friends, and intrusted to the care
of the centaur Chiron (Hes. Th. 995 ; Pind.
Pyth. iv. 70-262). Pelias was now warned by
an oracle to be on Ms guard against the one-
sandaled man. When Jason had grown up, he
came to claim the throne. As he entered the
market-place, PeKas, perceiving he had only one
sandal, asked Mm who he was ; whereupon Jason
declared his name, and demanded the kingdom
* (Phercyd. Fr. 60). Pelias consented to sur
render it to Mm, but persuaded him to remove
the curse wMch rested on the family of the
Aeolidae, by fetching the golden fleece and
soothing the spirit of Phrixus (Phercyd. Fr. 60).
Another tradition related that when Pelias was
sacrificing to Poseidon Jason came with the
other citizens, but, on his journey to Iolcus, he
had lost one of his sandals in crossing the river
Anaurus. Pelias, remembering the oracle about
the one-sandaled man, asked Jason what he
would do if he were told by an oracle that he
would be killed by one of Ms subjects ? Jason,
on the suggestion of Hera, answered, that he
would send him to fetch the golden fleece.
Pelias accordingly ordered Jason to fetch the
golden fleece, which was to the possession of
king Aeetes in Colchis, and was guarded by a
dragon. Jason set sail in the sMp Argo,
accompanied by the chief heroes of Greece.

JASON He obtained the fleece with the assistance of
Medea, whom he made his wife, and with whom
he returned to Iolcus. [For a fuller account
see Argonautae.] On his arrival at Iolcus,
Jason, according to one account, found Ms aged
father still alive, and succeeded him in the
Mngdom (Hes. Th. 997 ; Ov. Met. vii. 162), but
according to the more common tradition (which
was probably late, and accounted for the remo
val of Jason and Medea to Corinth), Aeson had
been slain by Pelias, during the absence of
Jason, who accordingly called upon Medea to
take vengeance on Pelias. Medea thereupon
persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut their
father to pieces and boil him, in order to
restore him to youth and vigour, as she had
before changed a ram into a lamb, by boiling

Medea boiling a ram, in order to persuade the daughters
of Pelias to put him to death. (From a vase in the
British Museum.)
the body in a cauldron. (Diod. iv. 50 ; Apollod.
i. 9, 27.) But Pelias was never restored to life,
and his son Acastus expeUed Jason and Medea
from Iolcus. They then went to Corinth, where
Jason deserted Medea, to order to marry
Glauce or Creusa, daughter of Creon, the Mng
of the country. Medea in revenge sent Glauce
a poisoned garment, which burnt her to death
when she put it on. Creon likewise perished in
the flames. Medea also killed her two chil
dren, Mermerus and Pheres, and then fled to
Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons.
(Eur. Medea; Paus. ii. 3, 11; Diod. iv. 54.)
Later writers represent Jason as becoming in
the end reconciled to Medea, returning with
her to ColcMs, and there restoring Aeetes to
Ms kingdom, of which he had been deprived
(Tac. Ann. vi. 84 ; Just. xln. 2). The death of
Jason is related in different ways. According to
some, he made away with himself from grief
(Diod. iv. 55) ; according to others, he was
crushed by the poop of the stop Argo, which f eU
upon him as he was lying near it. (Staphyl. Fr.
5 ; Schol. on the Argument of Eur. Med.) — 2. Ty
rant of Pherae and Tagus (or generalissimo) of
Thessaly (Diet, of Antiq. art. Tagus), was prob
ably the son of Lycophron, who established a
tyranny on the ruins of aristocracy at Pherae.

'JAVOLENUS
He succeeded his father as tyrant of Pherae
soon after B.C. S95, and in a few years extended
Ms power over almost the whole of Thessaly.
Pharsalus was the only city in Thessaly wMch
maintained its independence, under the govern
ment of Polydamas ; but even this place sub
mitted to him in 875. In the following year
(874) he was elected Tagus of Thessaly. His
power was strengthened by the weakness of the
other Greek states, and by the exhausting con
test in which Thebes and Sparta were engaged.
He had every prospect of becoming master of
Greece, when, at the height of his power, he
was assassinated, 870. Jason had aU the quali
fications of a great general and diplomatist : he
was active, prudent, capable of enduring much
fatigue, and skilful to concealing his own
designs and penetrating those of Ms enemies.
As a strong and capable ruler he won the admi
ration and friendship of Isocrates (Xen. Hell. vi.
1 ; Diod. xv. 57 ; Paus. vi. 17 ; Isocr. Epist. ad
Jas. fil.). — 3. Of Argos, a Mstorian, under Ha
drian, wrote a work on Greece in four books.
Javolenus Priscus, an eminent Roman jurist,
was bom about the commencement of the reign
of Vespasian (ajx 79), and was one of the
councU of Antoninus Pius (Vit. Ant. 12; Plin.
Ep. vi. 15). He was a pupil of Caelius Sabinus,
and a leader of the Sabtoian or Cassian school.
[Capito.] Jaxartes ('IafaprTjs : Syr, Syderia, or Sy-
houn), a great river of Central Asia, about
which the ancient accounts are very different
and confused. It rises in the Comedi Montes
(Moussour), and flows XW. into the Sea of
Aral : the ancients supposed it to faU toto the
N. side of the Caspian, not distinguishing be
tween the two seas. It divided Sogdiana from
ScytMa. On its banks dwelt a Scythian tribe
caUed Jaxartae. (Ptol. vi. 12, 1; Strab. pp.
507-517.) Jericho or Hierichus ('Iepixw, 'IepixoSj :
Er-Biha? Ru.), a city of the Canaanites, in a
plain on the W. side of the Jordan near its
mouth, was destroyed by Joshua, rebuilt in the
time of the Judges, and formed an important
frontier fortress of Judaea. Under Gabinius,
B.C. 57, Jericho was one of the five cMef centres
of admtoistration for Judaea (Jos. Ant. xiv.
5, 4). It was again destroyed, by Titus, rebuilt
under Hadrian, and finally destroyed during
the crusades.
Jerome. [HxeronymusJ
Jerusalem or HIerosolyma ('lepovo-aXf)p,
*lepocrbXvpa : 'lepoaoXvpir-ns : Jerusalem), the
capital of Palestine. It was the chief city of
the Jebusites till B.C. 1050, when David took
the city, and made it his capital. It was de
stroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, Mng of Babylon,
B.C. 588. In B.C. 536, the Jewish exiles, having
been permitted by Cyrus to return, rebuilt the
city and temple. In B.C. 332, Jerusalem quietly
submitted to Alexander (Jos. Ant. xi. 8).
During the wars which foUowed Ms death, the
city was taken by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus
(b.c. 320), and remained subject to the Greek
kings of Egypt till the conquest of Palestine
by Antiochus III. the Great, king of Syria,
B.C. 198. Up to tMs time the Jews had been
allowed freedom of their religion and local
government ; but the oppression of Antiochus
IV. Epiphanes provoked a rebellion, which was
at first put down when Antiochus took Jeru
salem (b.c. 170) ; but in a new revolt under the
Maccabees, the city was retaken to B.C. 163.
[Maccabaei.] In B.C. 133, Jerusalem was taken
by Antiochus VII. Sidetes, and its fortifications

JORDANES 459-
dismantled, but its government was left in the
hands of the Maccabee John Hyrcanus, whose
son, Aristobulus, assumed the title of king of
Judaea, and Jerusalem continued to be the
capital of the kingdom till B.C. 68, when it was
taken by Pompey. (Strab. pp. 759-762 ; Tac.
Hist. v. 9 ; Jos. Ant. xv. 11.) For the events
which followed, see Hyrcanus, Herodes, and
Palaestina. In a.d. 70, the rebellion of the
Jews against the Romans was put down, and
Jerusalem was taken by Titus, after a siege of
several months, and razed to the ground (Jos.
B. J. vn. 1, 2 ; Tac. Hist. v. 9-14). In conse
quence of a new revolt of the Jews, the emperor
Hadrian resolved to destroy all vestiges of their
national and religious peculiarities ; and, as
one means to this end, he established a new
Roman colony, on the ground where Jerusalem
had stood, by the name of Aelia Capitolina,
and built a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on
the site of the Jewish temple, a.d. 135 (Dio
Cass. lxix. 12; Euseb. H. E. iv. 6). [For a
fuller account see Diet, of the Bible.]
Jocaste ('loKao-Tri), called Epicaste in Homer,
daughter of Menoeceus, and wife of the Theban
king Laius, by whom she became the mother
of Oedipus. She afterwards married Oedipus,
not knowing that he was her son; and when
she discovered the crime she had unwittingly
committed, she put an end to her life. For
details see Oedipus.
Joppe, Joppa ('Ibirirri : O. T. Japho : Jaffa),.
a very ancient maritime city of Palestine, and,
before the building of Caesarea, the only sea
port of the whole country, and therefore called
by Strabo the port of Jerusalem, lay just S. of
the boundary between Judaea and Samaria.
(Strab. p. 759).
Jordanes ('lopSdvns, 'ibpSavos : Jordan, Esch
Scheria), has its source at the S. foot of M.
Hermon (the S.most part of Anti-Libanus), near
Paneas (aft. Caesarea Philippi), whence it flows
S. into the little lake Semechonitis, and thence
into the Sea of Gahlee (Lake of Tiberias), and
thence by a winding course in a narrow valley,
depressed below the level of the surrounding
country, into the lake Aaphaltites (Dead Sea).
Jordanes, or Jornandes, a historian in the
time of Justinian, the 6th century of our era.
He was a Goth by birth, and was secretary to
the Mng of the Alani. The idea that he was a
bishop probably arose from his being confused
with a bishop of that name (perh. bishop of
Ravenna) to whom a certain Honorius Scholas-
ticus wrote a poem. The title Episcopus is
not given to the historian in the best MSS.,
nor is there any ground for identifying him
with Jordanes bishop of Croton about 537 a.d.
As regards the name of the historian, he appears
as Jordanes in the best, as Jornandes only in
inferior MSS. He wrote two historical works
to Latin. 1. De Getarum (Gothorum) Origine
et Bebus Gestis (in short, Getica), containing
the history of the Goths, from the earliest times
down to their subjugation by Belisarius in 541.
The work is abridged from the lost Mstory of
the Goths by Cassiodorus, to which Jordanes
added various particulars ; but it is written in
semi-barbarous Latin, is compiled without
judgment, and is characterised by partiality to
the Goths, but gives valuable details. 2. De
Sum/ma Temporwm vel Origine Actibusque
Gentis Bomanorum (in short, Bomana), a short
compendium of history from the creation down
to the victory obtained by Narses, in 552, over
king Theodotus. It is valuable for accounts
of the barbarous nations of the North, and the

460

JOSEPHUS

countries which they inhabited. Both works
edited by Th. Mommsen, Berl. 1882.
Josephus, Flavius, the Jewish historian, was
born at Jerusalem, a.d. 37. On Ms mother's
side he was descended from the Asmonaean
princes, while from his father, MattMas, he
inherited the priestly office. At the age of 26
he went to Rome to plead the cause of some
Jewish priests whom Felix, the procurator of
Judaea, had sent thither as prisoners. Here
he gained the favour of Poppaea, and not only
effected the release of his friends, but received
presents from the empress. On his return to
Jerusalem he found Ms countrymen bent on a
revolt from Rome, from which he tried to dis
suade them ; but failing in this, he gave in to
the popular feeling. He was chosen one of the
generals of the Jews, and defended Jotapata
agatost Vespasian. When the place was taken,
the life of Josephus was spared by Vespasian,
whose favour he won by prophesying that the
empire would faU to him and Titus in succes
sion. Vespasian released him from captivity
when he was proclaimed emperor, nearly three
years afterwards (a.d. 70). Josephus was pre
sent with Titus at the siege of Jerusalem, and
afterwards accompanied him to Rome. He
took the name of Flavius from Vespasian, who
gave him a house at Rome, where he dwelt till
Ms death, about 98. His time at Rome appears
to have been employed mainly in the composi
tion of his works. — The works of Josephus are
written in Greek. They are : — 1. The History
of the Jewish War (Ilepl rod 'lovSa'iKov iroXe-
pov), in seven books, written in Syro-Chaldaic,
and then translated by him toto Greek. It
begins with the capture of Jerusalem by Antio
chus Epiphanes in b.c. 170, runs rapidly over
the events before Josephus's own time, and
gives a detailed account of the war with Rome,
especially valuable as a graphic account by an
eye-witness. 2. The Jewish Antiquities ('lov-
Sa'tKri apxaioXoyia), in twenty books, completed
about A.D. 98, and addressed to EpapModitus.
The title as well as the number of books may
have been suggested by the 'TupiuKri apxaio-
Xoyla of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. It gives
an account of Jewish History from the creation
of the world to a.d. 66. In thiB work Josephus
seeks to accommodate the Jewish religion to
heathen tastes and prejudices, but it has value
for historical reference. 3. His own life, in one
book. This is an appendage to the Archaeo-
logia, and is addressed to the same Epaphro
ditus. It was not written earlier than a.d. 97,
since Agrippa II. is mentioned in it as no longer
. living. 4. Against Apion, in two books, also
addressed to Epaphroditus. It is in answer to
such as impugned the antiquity of the Jewish
nation, on the ground of the silence of Greek
writers respecting it. [Apion.] The treatise
exhibits extensive acquaintance with Greek
literature and. philosophy. 5. Els MaKKaBalovs
r) irepl avroKpdropos Xoyiapov, in one book. Its
genuineness is doubtful. It is a declamatory
account of the martyrdom of Eleazar (an aged
priest), and of seven youths and their mother,
in the persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes.
.Editions by Havercamp, Amst. 1726; by
Bekker, LipB. 1855.
Jovianus, Flavius Claudius, was elected
emperor by the soldiers, to June A. D. 363, after
the death of Julian [Julianus], whom he had
accompanied in Ms campaign agatost the Per
sians. In order to effect his retreat in safety,
Jovian surrendered to the Persians the Roman
conquests beyond the Tigris, and several for-

JUGURTHA
treBses in Mesopotamia. He died suddenly at
a small town on the frontiers of Bithynia and
Galatia, February 17th, 364, after a reign of
little more than seven months. Jovian was a
Ctoistian ; but he was tolerant. (Amm. Marc.
xxv. 5-10.)
Juba ('IbBas). 1. King of Numidia, was son
of Hiempsal, who was re-established on the
ttoone by Pompey. On the breaking out of the
civil war between Caesar and Pompey, he ac
tively espoused the cause of the latter; and,
accordingly, when Caesar sent Curio into Africa
(b. c. 49), he supported the Pompeian general
Attius Varus with a large body of troops. Curio
was defeated by their united forces, and feU in
the battle. (Caes. B. G. ii. 23-44 ; Appian, B. C.
ii. 44-46 ; Lucan, iv. 581.) In 46 Juba fought
along with Scipio agatost Caesar Mmself, and
was present at the decisive battle of Thapsun.
Not long after this defeat he put an end to Ms
own life. (Bell. Afr. 25-94 ; Appian, B. C. ii.
95-100 ; Suet. Jul. 35.)— 2. King of Mauretania,
son of the preceding, was a mere cMld at Ms
father's death (46), was carried a prisoner to
Rome by Caesar, to grace his triumph. He was
brought up in Italy, and became distinguished
for learning. After the death of Antony (30),
Augustus conferred upon Juba Ms paternal
kingdom of Numidia, and at the same time
gave him in marriage Cleopatra, otherwise caUed
Selene, the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra
(Dio Cass. Ii. 15). In 25 he received Mauretania,
in exchange for Numidia, which was made a
Roman province. He continued to reign in
Mauretania till his death, wMch happened
about A. D. 19. (Dio Cass. liii. 26, liv. 28 ; Strab.
p. 828.) He wrote a great number of works in
almost every branch of literature, especially on
Mstory; but only a few fragments survive
(Athen. pp. 83, 98, 175, 229). He is cited by
Pliny as an authority on natural Mstory.
Judaea, Jndaei. [Palaestina.]
Jugurtha ('lovyoipBas or 'Io7(ipflas), king of
Numidia, was an illegitimate son of Mastanabal,
and a grandson of Masinissa. He lost his father
at an early age, but was adopted by Ms uncle
Micipsa, who brought Mm up with Ms own sons,
Hiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha quickly dis
tinguished himself both by Ms abflities and Ms
skill to all bodily exercises, and gained so much
popularity with the Numidians that he began
to excite the jealousy of Micipsa. In order to
remove him to a distance, Micipsa sent him, in
B. c. 184, to assist Scipio against Numantia.
Here his courage and abUity gained for Mm the
favour of Scipio ; and this circumstance deter
mined Micipsa to adopt him as a useful sup
porter for his sons. Micipsa died in 118, leaving
the kingdom to Jugurtha and his two sons,
Hiempsal and Adherbal, in common. Jugurtha
Soon found an opportunity to assassinate Hiem
psal at Thirmida, and afterwards defeated Ad
herbal in battle. Adherbal fled to Rome to
invoke the assistance of the senate; but Ju
gurtha, by a lavish distribution of bribes, ob
tained a decree of the senate that the kingdom
of Numidia should be equally divided between
the two competitors; but the commissioners
entrusted with the execution of this decree were
also bribed by Jugurtha, who thus succeeded
in obtaining the W. division of the kingdom,
adjacent to Mauretania, by far the larger and
richer portion of the two (117). But this ad
vantage was far from contenting Mm. Shortly
afterwards he invaded the territories of Adherbal
with a large army, and defeated him. Adherbal
made his escape to the fortress of Cirta, where

JULIA

he was blockaded by Jugurtha. The Romans
commanded Jugurtha to abstain from further
hostihties ; but he paid no attention to their
commands, and at length gained possession of
Cirta, and put Adherbal to death, 112. War
was now declared agatost Jugurtha at Rome,
and the consul, L. Calpurmus Bestia, was sent
into Africa, 112-111. Jugurtha had recourse to
his customary arts ; and by means of large
sums of money given to Bestia and M. Scaurus,
his principal lieutenant, he purchased from
them a favourable peace. The conduct of
Bestia excited the greatest indignation at Rome ;
and Jugurtha was summoned to the city under
a safe conduct, the popular party hoping to be
able to obtain a conviction by means of Ms
evidence. The scheme, however, failed ; since
one of the tribunes who had been gained over
by the friends of Bestia and Scaurus forbade
the king to give evidence. Soon afterwards
Jugurtha contrived the assassination of Massiva,
who claimed the ttoone of Numidia. [Massiva.]
Jugurtha was ordered to quit Rome, and war
was renewed ; but the consul, Sp. Postumius
Albinus, who arrived to conduct it (110), was
able to effect nothing. When the consul went
to Rome to hold the comitia, he left his brother
Aulus in command of the army. Aulus was
defeated by Jugurtha ; great part of his army
was cut to pieces, and the rest only escaped a
similar fate by the ignominy of passing under
the yoke. TMs disgrace roused the spirit of
the Roman people : the treaty concluded by
Aulus was annulled ; and the consul Q. Caecilius
MeteUus was sent into Africa at the head of a
new army (109) with Marius as one of Ms lieu
tenants. MeteUus was an able general and an
upright man, whom Jugurtha was unable to
cope with to the field, or to seduce by bribes,
and routed the troops of his enemy, though he
could not secure his person. MeteUus was
succeeded in the command to 106 by Marius;
but the cause of Jugurtha had meantime been
espoused by Ms father-to-law, Bocchus, king of
Mauretania, who had advanced to Ms support
with a large army. The united forces of Ju
gurtha and Bocchus were defeated, though not
without difficulty, by Marius ; and Bocchus
purchased the forgiveness of the Romans by
surrendering his son-in-law to SuUa, the quaes
tor of Marius (105). Jugurtha remained to
captivity tUl the return of Marius to Rome,
when, after adorning the triumph of Ms con
queror (Jan. 1, 104), he was thrown into the
prison below the Capitol (Tullianum), which
he caUed ' Ms bath of ice,' and there left to die
of cold and hunger. (Sail. Jugurtha ; Liv. Ep.
lxii.-lxvii. ; Plut. Mar. 7-10, Sull. 3, 6 ; Veil.
Pat. ii. 11.)
Julia. 1. Aunt of Caesar the dictator, and
wife of C. Marius the elder. She died b. c. 68,
and her nephew pronounced her funeral oration.
(Plut. Mar. 6 ; Suet. Jul. 6.)— 2. Mother of M.
Antonius, the triumvir. In the proscription of
the triumvirate (43) she saved the life of her
brother, L. Caesar [Caesar, No. 5]. — 3. Sister
of Caesar the dictator, and wife of M. Atius
Balbus, by whom she had Atia, the mother of
Augustus [Atia]. — 4. Daughter of Caesar the
dictator, by Cornelia, and Ms only child in
marriage, was married to Cn. Pompey in 59.
She was a woman of beauty and virtue, and was
tenderly attached to her husband, although
twenty-three years older than herself. She
died in childbed in 54. (Plut. Pomp. 48, 53 ;
Veil. Pat. ii. 44, 47.) — 5. Daughter of Augustus
by Scribonia, and Ms only child,. was born in 39.

461

fahe was educated with great strictness, but
grew up one of the most profligate, as well as
one of the most beautiful and brilliant, women
of her age. She was thrice married : to M.
Marcellus, her first cousin, in 25 ; after his death
(28) without issue, to M. Agrippa, by whom she
had three sons, C. and L. Caesar, and Agrippa
Postumus, and two daughters, Julia and Agrip
pina; after Agrippa's death, in 12, to Tiberius
Nero, the future emperor. In B.C. 2 Augustus
at length became acquainted with the miscon
duct of his daughter, whose notorious adulteries
had been one reason why her husband Tiberius
had quitted Italy four years before. (Suet. Aug.
19, 63, 64 ; Veil. Pat. i. 100 ; Dio Cass. Iv. 10 ;
Macrob. i. 11, vi. 5.) She was banished to
Pandataria, an island off the coast of Campania,
and at the end of five years was removed to
Rhegium, but never suffered to quit the bounds
of the city. Some have thought that she was
the 'Cortona' celebrated by Ovid in poems
written between B. c. 14 and 2 ; but this is not
very probable. Augustus bequeathed her no

Julia, daughter of Augustus, oh. a.d. 29.
legacy, and did not allow her ashes to repose in
his mausoleum. Tiberius on Ms accession (a.d.
14) deprived her of almost all the necessaries of
life ; and she died in the same year (Suet. Tib.
50 ; Tac. Ann. i. 53). — 6. Daughter of the pre
ceding, and wife of L. Aemilius Paulus. She
inherited her mother's licentiousness, and was
banished by her grandfather, Augustus, to the
little island Tremerus, on the coast of Apulia,
A. D. 9, where she lived nearly twenty years.
She died in 28. It was believed by many that
an intrigue of Ovid's with this Julia was the
cause of his banishment, a.d. 9. [Ovidius.] (Tac.
Ann. iii. 24, iv. 71 ; Suet. Aug. 64, 101.)— 7.
Youngest child of Germanicus and Agrippina,
was born a. D. 18 ; was married to M. Vinicius
in 33 ; and was banished in 37 by her brother
Caligula. She was recalled by Claudius, but
was afterwards put to death at Messalina's in
stigation. The charge brought against her was
adultery, and Seneca, the philosopher, was
banished to Corsica as the partner of her guilt
(Dio Cass. lix. 3, 8). — 8. Daughter of Drusus
and Livia, the sister of Germanicus. She was
married, a. d. 20, to her first cousin, Nero, son
of Germanicus and Agrippina ; and after Nero's
death, to Rubellius Blandus, by whom she had
a son, Rubellius Plautus. She, too, was put to
death by Claudius, at the instigation of Messa-
lina, 59. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 43 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 18.)
— 9. Daughter of Titus, the son of Vespasian,
married Flavius Sabinus, a nephew of the em
peror Vespasian. (Dio Cass, lxvii. 3 ; Suet. Dom.
17, 22; Juv. ii. 32.) — 10. Domna [Domna]. —
11. Drusilla [Drusilla].— 12. Maesa [Maesa].
Julia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician
houses at Rome, was of Alban origin, and was
removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius upon the
destruction of Alba Longa. It claimed descent
from the mythical lulus, the son of Venus and
Anchises. The most distinguished family in the

462

JULIANUS

gens is that of Caesar. Under the empire
there were a great number of persons of the
name of Julius, the most important of whom
are spoken of under their surnames.
Julianus Didius. [Didius.]
Julianus, Flavins Claudius, whom Christian
writers surnamed the Apostate, Roman em
peror, a.d. 361-363. He was born at Constan
tinople, a.d. 331, and was the son of Julius
Constantius by his second wife, Basilina, and
the nephew of Constantine the Great. Julian
and his elder brother, Gallus, were the only
members of the imperial family whose lives
were spared by the sons of Constantine the
Great, on Ms death in 337. The two brothers
were educated with care, and were brought up
as Christians ; but as they advanced to man
hood, they were watched with jealousy and
suspicion by the emperor Constantius. After
the execution of Gallus in 354 [Gallus], the
life of Julian was in great peril; but he suc
ceeded in pacifying the suspicions of the
emperor, and was allowed to go to Athens to
355 to pursue his studies. Here he devoted
Mmself with ardour to the study of Greek
literature and pMlosophy. Among Ms fellow-
students were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil.
.Julian had already abandoned Christianity in
his heart and returned to the pagan faith of his
ancestors; but fear of Constantius prevented
him from making an open declaration of his
-apostasy. In November, 355, he received from
Constantius the title of Caesar, and was sent
into Gaul to oppose the Germans, who had
crossed the Rhine, and were ravaging the east
of Gaul. During the next five years (356-360)
Julian carried on war against the German
confederacies of the Alemanni and Franks with
.great success, and gained many victories over
them. His administration was distinguished
by justice and wisdom; and he gained the
.goodwill of the provinces intrusted to his care.
His growing popularity awakened the jealousy
of Constantius, who commanded him to Bend
some of his best troops to the East, to serve
against the Persians. His soldiers refused to
leave their favourite general, and proclaimed
him emperor at Paris in 860. After fruitless
negotiations between Julian and ConstantiuB,
both parties prepared for war. In 361 Julian
marched along the valley of the • Danube
towards Constantinople ; but Constantius, who
had set out from Syria to oppose Ms rival, died
on his march in Cilicia, and left Julian the un
disputed master of the empire. On the 11th of
December Julian entered Constantinople. He
lost no time in publicly avowing Mmself a
pagan, but he proclaimed a policy of religious
toleration. He did not, however, act with
absolute impartiality. He preferred pagans as
his civil and military officers, and forbade the
Ctoistians to teach rhetoric and grammar in
the schools. He allowed the Jews to rebuild
the temple at Jerusalem. In the following year
(362) Julian went to Syria in order to make
preparations for the war against the Persians.
He spent the winter at Antioch, where he made
the acquaintance of the' orator Libanius ; and in
the spring of 368 he set out against the Per
sians. He crossed the Euphrates and the
Tigris ; and after burning his fleet on the Tigris,
that it might not fall into the hands of the
enemy, he boldly marched into the interior of
the country to search of the Persian king. His
army suffered from the heat, and from want of
water and provisions; and he was at length
compelled to retreat. The Persians now

JUNCARIA
harassed his rear. Still the Romans remained
victorious in many engagements; but in the
last battle fought, on the 26th of June, Julian
was mortally wounded, and died in the course
of the day. Jovian was chosen emperor in his
stead, on the field of battle. [Jovianus.] Julian
was an extraordinary character. As a monarch,
he was indefatigable in his attention to busi
ness, upright in Ms administration, and com
prehensive in his views ; as a~man, he was
virtuous, in the midst of a profligate age, and
did not yield to the temptations of luxury. In
consequence of his apostasy he has been
calumniated by Ctoistian writers ; but for the
same reason he has been unduly extolled by
heathen authors. It may fairly be urged in his
favour that he had become a Christian under
compulsion, and that his whole family had been
treacherously put to death by the professedly
Ctoistian sons of Constantine. The writings
of Julian are conspicuous for cleverness and
grace of style, and are an evidence of the
remarkable activity of his mind. The following
are his most important works : — (1) Letters,
most of which were intended for public circu
lation, and are of importance for the history of
the time. Edited by Heyler, Mainz, 1828, and
Hercher, 1873. — (2) Orations, on various sub
jects, as for instance, On the emperor Constan
tius, On the worship of the sun, On the mother
of the gods (Cybele), On true andfalse Cynicism,
&c. — (3) The Caesars, or the Banquet (Kaiaapes
!) %vpir6o-iov), modelled on Varro's Menippean
Satires, is one of the most brilliant productions
of ancient wit. Julian describes the Roman empe
rors approaching one after the other to sit round
a table in the heavens ; and as they come up,
their faults, vices, and crimes, are censured with
a sort of bitter mirth by old Silenus, whereupon
each Caesar defends himself as well as he can.
Edited by Heusinger, Gotha, 1736, and by
Harless, Erlangen, 1785. — (4) Misopogon or the
Enemy of the Beard (Microirdyav), a severe
satire on the licentious and effeminate manners
of the inhabitants of Antioch, who had ridiculed
Julian, when he resided in the city, on account
of his austere virtues, and had laughed at his
allowing Ms beard to grow in the ancient
fasMon. — (5) Against the Christians (KardXpia-
riavuv). This work is lost, but some extracts
from it are given in Cyril's reply to it. The
most convenient edition of the collected works
of Julian is by F. C. Hertlein, Lips. 1875.
Julianus, Salvius, a Roman jurist under
Hadrian and the Antonines. He was prae-
fectus urbi, and twice consul, but Ms name
does not appear in the Fasti. By the order of
Hadrian, he drew up the edictum perpetuum,
important in the history of Roman juris
prudence. His work consisted in collecting
edicts of the praetors, in condensing the ma
terials^ and to omitting antiquated provisions.
Julias ('lovXias: Bib. Bethsaida: Et-Tell,
Ru.), a city of Palestine on the E. side of the
Jordan, N. of the Lake of Tiberias, so called by
the tetrarch Philip, in honour of Julia, the
daughter of Augustus.
Juliobriga (Beynosa), a town of the Cantabri
to Hispania Tarraconensis, near the sources of
the Iberus (Ptol. ii. 6, 51 ; PUn. iii. 27).
Julioma^us. [Andecavi.]
JuliopShs ('IouA.idVoA.is). [Gordium ; Tarsus.]
Julius. [Julia Gens.]
Junoaria (Junquera), a town of the Indigetes
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from
Barcino to Gaul, in a plain covered with rushes
('lovyKdptov ireSiov). (Strab. p. 160.)

JUNIA
Junia. 1. Half-sisterof M. BrutuB, the mur
derer of Caesar, and wife of M. Lepidus, the
triumvir (Veil. Pat. ii. 88).— 2. Tertia, or Ter-
tulla, own sister of the preceding, was the
wife of C. Cassius, one of Caesar's murderers.
Sheliyed till a.d. 22. (Tac. Ann. iii. 76.)
Junia Gens, an ancient patrician house at
Rome, to which belonged the celebrated M.
Junius Brutus, who took an active part in ex
pelling the Tarquins. But afterwards the gens
appears as only plebeian. Under the republic
the chief families were those of Brutus, Bubul
cus, Gracchanus, Norbanus, Pullus, Silanus.
The Junii who lived under the empire are
likewise spoken of under their various surnames.
Juno, an old Italian deity afterwards identi
fied with the Greek Hera, who is accordingly al
ways spoken of in Latin Uterature as Juno. For
the mythology see Hera. The word Juno, like
Jupiter and also Diovis, contains the root div,
signifying a deity of the sky. Juno, therefore,
was a moon-goddess, and as Jupiter is the king
of heaven and of the gods, so Juno is the queen
of heaven, or the female Jupiter. Hence as
Juno Begina she had a cella adjoining the
Capitoline temple of Jupiter (and a temple also
under that name on the Aventine). She was
worsMpped at Rome from early times, and is
reckoned by Varro with Jupiter and Minerva
1 inter antiquissimos deos ' (Tertull. ad Nat. ii.
12). Being, like Hera, a goddess of the moon,
she had the same functions to the Roman
mythology, as goddess of cMldbirth (Juno
Lucina, Verg. Eel. iv. 8 ; Hor. Epod. v. 5 ; Ter.
Ad. in. 4, 41), and as goddess of marriage, thence
called Pronuba, Juga, Domiduca (Verg. Aen. iv.
166 ; Mart. Cap. n. 149 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Ma-
Irimonium) ; and as she was the goddess of the
month, the Calends were sacred to her. These
attributes do not seem borrowed from Greek
mythology, though of course the legends about
her to Uterature were ; the inference is rather
that she represents a deity worsMpped by the
old stock of Greek and Italian races before they
separated, and was handed down to the one as
Hera, to the other as Juno. A more distinctly
Roman attribute is that she was regarded as the
guardian spirit of women from birth to death,
just as the Genius was to men, and was spoken
of as their ju no [see p. 359, b]. As she was the
model and pattern of dignified womanhood and
matronly honour she was caUed Juno Moneta,
the giver of good counsel, and a temple under
tMs title was dedicated to her on the Capitol.
The mint was attached to this temple from the
time of CamUlus (Liv. vii. 28; Ov. Fast. vi.
182), so that from her title comes our word
money. She was known also as Juno Sospita
(the saviour) ; a worship derived from Lanuvium
and transferred to two of her temples at Rome
(Liv. viii. 14, xxxti. 30), was celebrated on the
Calends of February (Ov. Fast. ii. 55). The
great festival, celebrated by all the women, in
honour of Juno, was caUed Matronalia (Diet, of
Ant. s.v.),andtookplaceonthelstofMarch. She
was worshipped also by women as Juno Capro-
tina, apparently a goddess of fruitful marriage :
the name may come from capra, a goat, but
was explained by a traditional custom of sacri
ficing under a wild fig-tree (caprificus ; Macrob.
i. 11, 36) ; and as Juno Quiritis, Curitis or
Curritis, which is said to designate her being a
war-goddess of the Sabines (armed with a
spear), but may also be compared with Janus
Quirinus (p. 458, a). The title Juno Caelestis
refers to a worship of the Phoenician Astarte
introduced from Carthage after the third Punic

JUPITER

463

war. The animals sacred to Juno were : the
peacock to Juno Regina of the Capitoline
temple the goose to Juno Moneta, whose
temple was also on the Capitol (Liv. v. 47) ; the
crow, which symbolised faithful marriage (Ael.
H. A. iii. 9) ; and for Caprotina the goat, whence
she is shown on some coins drawn in a carriage
by goats. In Etruria she was worshipped under
the name of Cupra. In the representations of
the Roman Juno that have come down to us,
the type of the Greek Hera is commonly adop
ted. [Hera.]
Jupiter or Juppiter, called Zeus by the
Greeks. The Greek god (whose myths were
transferred in literature to the Italian deity) is
spoken of in a separate article [Zeus]. Jupiter
was originally an elemental divinity, and Ms
name signifies the bright heaven, being origi
nally Diovis-pater: Diovis, like Zeis, comes
from the root div to shine. Another form of
his name, Diespiter, connected similarly with
the bright day, conveyed the same idea. The
name was spelt indifferently Jupiter or Juppi
ter till the end of the republic, but under the
empire nearly always Juppiter. The Etruscans
called Mm Tinea, and in Oscan his name
was LucetiuB, i.e. god of light (Serv. ad Aen.
ix. 567), a name in the hymns of the Salii
(Macrob. i. 15, 14). Being the lord of heaven,
he was worsMpped as the god of rain, storms,
thunder, and lightning, whence he had the
epithets of Pluvius, Fulgurator, Tonitrualis,
Tonans, and Fulminator. The worship of
Jupiter seems to have belonged, in some form
or other, to aU the nations of the Italian stock ;
but he was peculiarly the great deity oi the
Latin nation. All the Latin communities
united to the sacrifice to Jupiter Latiaris in
Ms sacred grove on the Alban Mount, probably
from a date much earlier than the beginning of
Rome [Diet, of Ant. art. Feriae Latinae],
There is no doubt that the later Romans wor
sMpped Janus and Jupiter on their Palatine
settlement, while the Sabine Tities worshipped
Quirinus, Sancus and Sol on the Quirinal, but
both may have united for the worship of the
Capitoline Jupiter even before their amalga
mation ; and after it Jupiter at once took the
supreme place as god and protector of the
Roman people, the place of Janus being thence
forth quite subordinate and first only in formu
laries. Another very old seat of the worship of
Jupiter was Lanuvium, in some ways a religious
centre of the Latins : here, on the river Numicus,
was a sMine of a deity called sometimes Jupiter
Indiges, sometimes Aeneas Indiges. That
Jupiter was the original god of the place can
not be doubted [see p. 442, b]. The earliest site
of the old Roman worship seems to be the
Fagutal, a sacred tree or grove of Jupiter
(Varr. L. L. v. 49, 50, 152 ; Fest. p. 87), ap
parently some relic of primitive tree or grove
worship, traceable in the ' quercus pastoribus
sacra ' (Liv. i. 10) and in the grove of Jupiter
on the Alban Mount, and resembling the
worsMp of Diana Nemorensis. Jupiter Eli
cius was invoked as the god who gave rain, and
belonged to the religious processions in times of
drought called Aquaelicium [Diet, of Ant. s.v.],
when the sacred stone called the Lapis Manalis
was carried to the Capitol. This was probably
the true meaning of the title — to obtain water
from Jupiter, the god of the sky— though
legends connected it with drawing Jupiter from
heaven to interpret omens of lightning (Liv. i.
20 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 285-348). As the god who
fertilised the earth with his rain he was the

464

JUPITER

nourisMng god Jupiter Ruminus, and as
Jupiter Silvanus and Jupiter Arborator he
was identified with the rural gods. It is
probable that the temple of Jupiter Fere-
trius on the Capitol was among the oldest, if
not actuaUy the oldest, to Rome (Liv. i. 10 ;
Nep. Attic. 20) ; and there is little doubt that
the name was derived from feri/re to strike, and
taught that Jupiter was the god of treaties and
oaths, which were ratified by the killing of the
victim. In the temple of Jupiter Feretrius
were preserved the sceptre of the god and
the stone (lapis, silex) which was brought
in making treaties for the formal striking of
the victim : the axe no doubt being afterwards
used for the actual slaughter (Liv. i. 24, ix. 5,
xxx. 43; Pol. iii. 25). Some have thought that
it was a stone axe, still used as it had been
before the days of iron axes, or because iron
was unlucky; but the more probable view is
that it was a fire-stone or flint (though it must
be recollected that silex does not necessarily
mean a flint), which had from primitive times
been regarded as the symbol for the god of
lightning, or else merely a rough stone like the
earliest symbols of many deities in many nations.
Hence the expression Jovemlapidemjurare (i.e.
to swear by the stone which is Jupiter), for a pe
culiarly solemn oath (Cic. ad Fam. vii. 12 ; Gell.
i. 21). Later a historical reason was found
for the name from the custom of dedicating
in tMs temple the spolia opima taken on the
field of battle from the general of the enemy, as
was done traditionally by Romulus and in later
times by Cossus and Marcellus [Diet, of Ant.
art. Spolia]. Accordingly in Jupiter Feretrius,
Stator (stayer of flight), Victor, Invictus, the
Romans recognised Mm as the giver of victory,
hardly less than Mars the god of war himself.
His chief temple at Rome was that of Jupiter
Capitolinus. The two other deities of the
Capitoline triad, Juno and Minerva, had cellae
in this temple, and were admitted to the sacred
feast called Epulum Jovis ; but in the temple
he reigned as Jupiter Optimus Maximus, the
Head of the State and the giver of its power
and wealth : in it were the earthenware image
holding a thunderbolt, and the quadriga which
belonged to him as the god of thunder. Here
ended the triumphal processions, and the vic
torious general, offering white oxen— white as
for the god of light, like the white lamb offered
on the Ides (Ov. Fast. i. 56) — placed on the
knees of the god his laurel wreath. That the
general who could not obtain this triumph
should triumph instead on the Alban Mount
(Liv. xxxiii. 23) is another indication that this
worship of Jupiter was only an offshoot of that
of Jupiter Latiaris. The temple, which was the
central point for the whole Roman people, was
said to have been dedicated by Tarquinius (if
so, probably on the site of an older sanctuary)
and completed by his son (Cic. Bep. ii. 20, 36 ;
Liv. i. 88, 55 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 72) ; its age was
marked by a nail driven into the wall by the
praetor on the Ides of each September (Liv.
vii. 8) ; it was burnt in 83 and rebuilt by SuUa
and completed by Catulus ; in place of the
ancient earthenware image a copy in gold and
ivory of the Olympian Zeus was set up in it.
The temple was twice burnt again, in A.D. 70
and 80, and a last restoration was made by
Domitian. In each phase of its existence it
was richly endowed by offerings from victorious
generals, from wealthy citizens, and from foreign
princes. In honour of the god both the Ludi
Capitolini and the Ludi Bomani were held

JUSTINIANUS
[see Diet, of Ant. s.vv.]. By the country people
Jupiter was celebrated, as in the earUest times,
as the deity who gave them their prosperity,
and he therefore received sacrifices before har
vest, and libations at the vintage [Diet, of Ant.
art. Vinalia] in the character of Jupiter-Liber.
It has been plausibly suggested that these
vintage festivals of Jupiter-Liber date from the

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. (From a coin of
Vespasian.)
overthrow of the Etruscan power in Latium
and Campania by an alliance of Latins with
Greeks, from whom they learnt Greek viticul
ture, and that the story about Mezentius arose
from this [Mezentius]. By the country house
holder, too, Jupiter Dapalis was honoured as
the giver of good (Cato, B.B. 132) ; and that in
all Roman family life Jupiter Farreus had been
a guardian of the marriage rites appears to the
ceremony of marriage by confarreatio. The
worship of Jupiter was carried wherever the
Roman colonies established themselves, and
there was naturally a tendency to identify with
his worship that of kindred deities among
conquered nations : hence the worship of Ju
piter Penninus, who had a temple on the
Great St. Bernard, replacing the sanctuary of a
Celtic deity ; hence also the more famous
temples, to Jupiter Dolichenus and Jupiter
Hehopolitanus, who took the places of Eastern
sun-gods at Doliche and Heliopolis.
Jura or Jurassus Mons (Jura), a range of
mountains which run N. of the lake Lemanus
as far as Augusta Rauracorum (August, near
Basle), on the RMne, forming the boundary
between the Sequani and Helvetii (Caes. B. G.
Justiniana. I. Prima, a town in Hlyria,
near Tauresium, the birthplace of Justinian,
was built by that emperor ; it became the resi
dence of the archbishop of Illyria, and, in the
middle ages, of the Servian kings. — 2. Secunda,
also a town in Hlyria, previously called Ulpiana,
was eMarged and embellished by Justtoian.
Justinianus, emperor of Constantinople, a.d.
527-563, and one of the greatest of the emperors.
He was born near Tauresium in Hlyria, a.d.
483 ; was adopted by Ms uncle, the emperor
Justinus, in 520 ; succeeded his uncle in 527 ;
married the beautiful but licentious actress,
Theodora, who exercised great influence over
Mm ; and died in 565, leaving the crown to his
nephew, Justin II. His foreign wars were
glorious, and though he took no personal part,
he deserves the credit of employing able generals
and fostering the organisation of his armies.
The empire of the Vandals in Africa was over
thrown by Belisarius, and their Mng Gelimer
led a prisoner to Constantinople ; and the king
dom of the Ostrogoths to Italy was Ukewise
destroyed, by the successive victories of Beli
sarius and Narses. [Belisarius; Narses.] So

JUSTINIANUS
that Justinian reunited the dominions of the
West and East, and Ms empire extended from
the Atlantic to the Euphrates. Justinian
adorned Constantinople with many magnificent
buildings, among them the great church of S.
Sophia ; but the cost of their erection, as well
as the expenses of Ms foreign wars, obUged Mm
to impose heavy taxation. The greatest work,
however, of Justinian is his legislation. He
resolved to estabUsh a perfect system of written
laws for all his dominions ; and, for this end,
to make two great collections, one of the im
perial constitutions, the other of all that was
valuable to the works of jurists. His first work
was the coUection of the imperial constitutions.
TMs he commenced in 528, to the second year
of his reign. The task was entrusted to a com
mission of ten, who completed their labours in
the foUowing year (529); and their collection
was declared to be law under the title of Jus-
tinianeus Codex. — In 530 Tribonian, who had
been one of the commission of ten employed to
drawing up the Code, was authorised by the
emperor to select fellow-labourers to assist him
to the other division of the undertaking. Tri
bonian selected sixteen coadjutors ; and tiiiB
commission proceeded at once to lay under
contribution the works of those jurists who had
received from former emperors ' auctoritatem
conscribendarum toterpretandarumque legum.'
They were ordered to divide their materials into
50 Books, and to subdivide each Book toto
Titles (Tituli). Nothing that was valuable was
to be excluded, nothing that was obsolete was
to be admitted, and neither repetition nor in
consistency was to be aUowed. This work was
to bear the name Digesta or Pandectae. The
work was completed, in accordance with the
instructions that had been given, in the short
space of three years ; and on the 30th of Dec.
633, it received from the imperial sanction the
authority of law. It comprehends upwards of
9000 extracts, to the selection of which the
compUers made use of nearly 2000 different
books, containing more than 3,000,000 lines. —
The Code and the Digest contained a complete
body of law ; but as they were not adapted to
elementary instruction, a commission was ap
pointed, consisting of Tribonian, Theophilus,
and Dorotheus, to compose an institutional
work, wMch should contain the elements of the
law (legum incunabula), and should not be en
cumbered with useless matter. Accordingly
they produced a treatise under the title of
Institutiones, wMch was based on elementary
works of a similar character, but chiefly on the
Institutiones of Gaius, and served as a manual
or as an introduction to the Code and Digest.
The Institutiones consisted of four books, and
were published, with the imperial sanction, at
the same time as the Digest. — After the publi
cation of the Digest and the Institutiones, 50
Decisiones and some new Constitutiones also
were promulgated by the emperor. This ren
dered a revision of the Code necessary; and
accordingly a new Code was promulgated at
Constantinople on the 16th of November, 534.
The second edition (Codex Bepetitae Praelec-
tionis) is the Code that we now possess, in
twelve books, each of which is divided into titles.
— Justinian subsequently published various new
ConBtitutiones, to which he gave the name of
Novellae Constitutiones. These Constitutiones
form a kind of supplement to the Code, and
were published at various times from 535 to
565. — The four legislative works of Justinian,
the Institutiones, Dig esta or Pandectae, Codex,

JUVAVUM 465
and Novellae, are included under the general
name of Corpus Juris Civilis, and form the
Roman law, as received to Europe. — Editions
of the Corpus for general use are by Gothefre-
dus and Van Leeuwen, Amst. 1668, 2 vols. fol. ;

Justinian, Roman Emperor, a.d, 527-665.
Obv., head of Emperor, -with nimbus and pearls, holding a
spear ; D N iVsTINIANVS PP. AVG. ; rev. Empero?
on horseback, Victory preceding him, with trophy over
shoulder, showing him the road : SALVS ET GLORIA
ROMANORVM; bilow, C0N0B i""JVO ^ ^""lA
by Kriiger and Mommsen, Berlin, 1869-1877 ;
the Institutiones separately, by J. B. Moyle,1890.
Justinus. 1, The historian, of uncertain
date, but who probably Uved in the time of the
Antonines, is the author of an extant work
entitled Historiarum Philippicarum Libri
XLIV. TMs work is taken from the Historiae
Philippicae of Trogus Pompeius, who lived in
the time of Augustus. The title Philippicae
was given to it because its main object was to
give the Mstory of the Macedoman monarchy,
with all its branches ; but it was written in a
digressive manner, so that it formed a kind of
universal history from the rise of the Assyrian
monarchy to the conquest of the East by Rome.
The original work of Trogus, which is lost, is
thought by some to have been a translation of
a Greek history of Timagenes, which was based
on the QiXirnriKa of Theopompus, and on the
works of Ephorus, Timaeus, Polybius, and
othera. The work of Justin is not so much an
abridgment of that of Trogus, as a selection
of such-parts as seemed to Mm most worthy of
being generaUy known. Ed. by F. RiiM, 1859 ;
A. de Gutschmid, 1886. — 2. Surnamed the
Martyr, a.d. 103-165. [Diet, of Christ. Biogr.]
Ju thungi, a tribe of the Alemanni, who dwelt
on the N. side of the Danube between Vienna
and Pesth (Amm. Marc. xvii. 6).
Juturna, whose name was transferred to the
Aeneid to the sister of Turnus (Verg. Aen. xii.
139) was an Italian goddess of fountains, ori
ginally of a spring near Lavinium. A temple
was dedicated to its nymph at Rome in the
Campus Martius by Lutatius Catulus; and
sacrifices were offered to her on the 11th of
January (Ov. Fast. i. 463). A pond in the
forum, between the temples of Castor and Vesta,
was called Lacus Juturnae. Latin writers
derived her name from juvare, because of the
healing powers of her spring (Varr. L. L.v. 71 ;
Serv. ad Aen. xii. 189), but in the oldest in
scriptions it appears as Diuturna. She is said
to have been beloved by Jupiter, who rewarded
her with immortality and the rule over the
waterB (Verg. Aen. 1. c. ; Ov. Fast. ii. 583) ; but
another tradition makes her the wife of Janus
[see p. 457, b].
Juvavum or Jovavum (Salzburg), a town in
Noricum, on the river Jovavus or Isonta (Salza) .
It was one of the towns of Noricum which
were made municipia by Claudius (Plin. iii.
146, where some MSS. write Ivaus). It was
destroyed by the Heruli in the fifth century, but
was afterwards rebuilt.
HH

466

JUVENALIS

Juvenalis , Decimus Junius, the great Roman
satirist, whose writings date between 100 and
130 A. D. or a little later, but of whose life we
have few authentic particulars. His ancient bio
graphers (the date and authors of the ' Vitae '
are quite unknown) relate that he was either
the son or the adopted son of a rich freedman.
He was born at Aqutoum (according to a tradi
tion wMch seems to be confirmed by Juv. iii.
319) at a date which cannot be exactly fixed.
By xiii. 17 Ms birth is placed in the consulship
of Fonteius, who may be the consul of 59 A.D.
or 67. He is said to have occupied himself
with rhetoric, though with no view of political
life, until middle age ; and Ms declamatory style
gives probability to the statement. He began
writing satires, moved thereto by indignation
at the vices of the age (i. 22), not earlier than
100 a.d., for he mentions the exile of Marius
Priscus, wMch took place to that year (i. 49).
He Uved frugally and simply (Sat. xi.), and
possessed a country estate or farm near Tibur
(xi. 65). He visited Egypt at some period of
his life (xv. 45) and according to the inscription
dedicated by him to Ceres Helvina at Aquinum
(C. I. L. x. 5382 ; cf. Juv. iii. 320) was at one
time tribune of a cohort, a duumvir of Aqutoum
and a flamen. The anonymous biographer ex
plains his military life and his journey to Egypt
by saying that in consequence of Ms attacks
upon a favourite actor of the emperor he was,
at the age of 80, removed from Rome by the
appointment to a mUitary command to Egypt.
The age mentioned seems most improbable for
any mititary office; but Sidonius appears to
credit the story that he suffered some sort of
exile for offence given to an actor (Sid. Apoll.
viii. 270). Suidas also bears the same testimony.
It is worthy of notice that one tradition makes
Britain Ms place of exile, and that the cohort
to wMch the above-mentioned inscription makes
Juvenal belong was stationed to Britain in
A. D. 105 and 124. Of the date or place of his
death there is no trustworthy, record. That it
was later than 127 A. d. is clear from his men
tion of AemUius Junius (xv. 27). Martial
speaks of him in friendly terms (Mart. vii. 24,
91, xii. 18). — The extant works of Juvenal con
sist of sixteen satires : the last is incomplete and
its genuineness has been doubted, but without
good reason. Juvenal is accused by some
critics of simulating a passion wMch he did not
feel, but this charge is absolutely without evid
ence. He adopts a different plan from that of
Horace, and, instead of dissuading by ridicule,
he denounces vice in the most indignant terms ;
but wMchever method may be the more efficient,
1 there is no note of unreality in the disapproba
tion of either poet. The moral corruption of
Juvenal's age was even greater than anything
known to Horace, and there was superadded
the tyranny of Domitian's reign. Each satire,
in which he paints contemporary society, is
a finished rhetorical essay, energetic, glowing,
and sonorous, and the complete set are a vivid,
and, so far as can be judged from other contem
porary evidence, a true description of life at
Rome to that period. The best annotated edi
tion of Juvenal is by J. E. B. Mayor, London,
1881, 1886 ; also Pearson and Strong, Oxford,
,1887, and text by Bucheler, Berl. 1886. Fried-
lander's Sittengeschichte Boms supplies one
of the best commentaries for readers of Ju
venal. Juventas. [Hebe.]
Juventms. 1. Celsus. [Celsus.] — 2. Late-
rensis. [Laterensis.]— 3, Thalna. [Thalna.]

LABICUM

L.

Labda (Ad$Sa), daughter of the Bacehiad
Amphion, and mother of Cypselus, by Eetion.
[Cypselus.] Labdacidae. [Labdacus.]
Labdacus (AdBSaKos), son of the Theban Mng
Polydorus, by Nycteis, daughter of Nycteus.
Labdacus lost Ms father at an early age, and
was placed under the guardianship of Nycteus,
and afterwards under that of Lycus; a brother
of Nycteus. When Labdacus had grown up to
manhood, Lycus surrendered the government to
Mm; and on the death of Labdacus, wMch
occurred soon after, Lycus undertook the
guardiansMp of Ms son Laius, the father of
Oedipus. (Paus. ix. 5, 2 ; ApoUod. iii. 8, 5 ; Eur.
H. F. 27.) — The name Labdacidae is given to
the descendants of Labdacus. [Oedipus.]
Labdalum. [Syracusae.]
Labeates, a warlike people in Dalmatia, whose
cMef town was Scodra, and in whose territory
was the Labeatis Palus (Lake of Scutari),
through which the river Barbana (Bdgana) runs
(Liv. xliii. 21).
Labeo, Antistius. 1. A Roman jurist, was
one of the murderers of Julius Caesar, and put
an end to Ms life after the battle of PMlippi,
b. c. 42 (Plut. Brut. 12).— 2. Son of the preced
ing, and a stiU more eminent jurist (54 B. c-
17 A. D.). He adopted the republican opinions
of Ms father, and was in consequence disliked
by Augustus (Tac. Ann. iii. 75 ; GeU. xtii. 12).
It is asserted by some that the L abeone insanior
of Horace (Sat. i. 3. 30) was a stroke leveUed
against tMs Labeo, in order to please the em
peror, but it could hardly refer to him, since that
satire was written not later than 37 B. C It
might refer to Ms father. Labeo wrote a large
number of works, which are cited in the Digest.
He was the founder of one of the two great
legal schools spoken of under Capito.
Labeo, Q. Fabius, quaestor urbanusB.c.196;
praetor 189, when he commanded the fleet in
the war against Antiochus ; and consul 183 (Liv.
xxxvii. 47-60, xxxix. 45).
Laberius, Decimus, a Roman eques, and the
first to give a literary character to mimes, was
born about b. c. 107, and died to 43 at PuteoU,
in Campania. At Caesar's triumphal games in
October, 45, P. Syrus, a professional mimus,
seems to have challenged aU Ms craft to a trial
of wit in extemporaneous farce, and Caesar
compelled Laberius to appear on the stage.
Laberius was 60 years old, and the profession
of a mimus was infamous. In his fine prologue
he complained of the indignity ; and he availed
himself of Ms various characters to point his
wit at Caesar. In the person of a beaten Syrian
slave he cried out, 'Marry! Quirites, but we
lose our freedom,' and all eyes were turned
upon the dictator ; and in another mime he
uttered the pregnant maxim, ' Needs must he
fear, who makes all else adread.' Caesar
awarded the prize to Syrus, and merely restored
Ms knighthood (forfeited by the acting) with a
money present to Laberius. The prologue of
Laberius has been preserved by Macrobius (Sat.
ii. 7) ; and if this may be taken as a specimen
of his style, he ranks Mgh in dramatic vigour.
Laberius made great impression on his contem
poraries, although he is depreciated by Horace
(Sat. i. 10, 6; cf. Macrob. 1. c. ; GeU. xvi. 7).
Labicum, Labici, Lavicnm, Lavici (Labica-
nus : Colonna), an ancient town in Latium
among the Alban hills, fifteen miles SE. of

LABIENUS
Rome, was an ally of the Aequi ; was taken and
was colonised by the Romans, B. c. 418 (Dionys.
v. 61; Liv. iii. 25, iv. 45; Strab. pp. 230, 237).
The road from Rome to Labicum (Via Labi-
cana) started from the Esquiline gate.
Labienus. 1. T., tribune of the plebsB.c. 68.
Under pretence of avenging his uncle's death,
who had joined Saturninus (100), he accused
Rabirius of treason. Rabirius was defended by
-Cicero. [Rabirius.] In his tribuneship Labie
nus was entirely devoted to Caesar's interests,
and when Caesar went into Transalpine Gaul in
58, he took Labienus with him as his legatus.
Labienus continued with Caesar during the
greater part of his campaigns in Gaul, and was
the ablest officer he had. On the breaMng out
of the CivU war to 49, he deserted Caesar and
joined Pompey. His defection caused the
greatest joy among the Pompeian party; but
he disappointed the expectations of his new
friends, and never performed anything of im
portance. (Cic. ad jiff. vii. 11, 12, 13, viii. 2.) He
fought against Ms old commander at the battle
of PharsaUa to Greece, 48, at the battle of
Thapsus in Africa, 46, and at the battle of
Munda to Spain, 45. He was slain to the last
of these battles (Appian, B. C. ii. 105). — 2. Q,.,
son of the preceding, joined Brutus and Cassius
after the murder of Caesar, and was sent by
them toto PartMa to seek aid from Orodes, the
Parthian Mng. Before he could obtain an
answer from Orodes, the news came of the
battle of Philippi, 42. Two years afterwards
he persuaded Orodes to entrust Mm with the
command of a Parthian army ; and Pacorus, the
son of Orodes, was associated with him in the
command. In 40 they crossed the Euphrates,
and defeated Decidius Saxa, the lieutenant of
Antony, obtained possession of Antioch and
Apamea, and penetrated into Asia Minor. But
in the following year, 39, P. Ventidius, the most
able of Antony's legates, defeated the PartMans.
Labienus fled to disguise toto CiUcia, where he
was apprehended, and put to death. (Dio Cass.
xlviii. 24, 39 ; Appian, B. C. v. 65, 133 ; Flor. iv.
9; Plut. Ant. 30, 33.) — 3. T., an orator and
historian to the reign of Augustus, either son or
grandson of No. 1. He retained aU the repub
lican feehngs of Ms family, and took every op
portunity to attack Augustus and Ms friends.
His enemies obtained a decree of the senate
that all Ms writings should be burnt ; where
upon he shut Mmself up in the tomb of his
ancestors, and thus perished, about A. D. 12.
(Sen. Contr. 10, praef. 4 ; Suet. Cat 16.)
Labranda (to AdBpavSa: AaBpavSeis, Aa-
BpavSijvbs, Labrandenus), a town to Caria, 68
stadia N. of Mylasa, celebrated for its temple
of Zeus Stratios or Labrandenus, on a Mil near
the city (Hdt. v. 119; Strab. p. 659).
Labro, a seaport of Etruria mentioned only
in Cic. ad Q. F. ii. 5. It seems to be Liburnum
(= Portus Pisanus), which was also Portus Her
culis Labroms, now Livorno [Pisae].
Labus or Labutas (AdBos or AaBoiras : Sobad
Koh, part of the Elburz), a mountain of Parthia,
between the Coronus and the SaripM Montes
(Pol. x. 29).
Labynetus (AaBivnros), a name given by
Herodotus to more than one of the Babylonian
monarchs. The Labynetus mentioned in i. 74
as mediating a peace between Cyaxares and
Alyattes, appears to be the same as Nabopolas-
ser : the Labynetus mentioned in i. 77, 188,
as a contemporary of Cyrus and Croesus seems
to be Nabomdus, the grandson (not, as Hdt.
says, the son) of the former [see p. 156, b],

LACONICA

467

Labyrinthus. [See Diet, of Antiq. s. v.]
Lacedaemon (AaKeSaipav), son of Zeus and
Taygete, was married to Sparta, the daughter
of Eurotas, by whom he became the father of
Amyclas, Eurydice, and Asine. He was king of
the country which he called after his own name,
Lacedaemon, while he called the capital Sparta
after the name of his wife. (Paus. iii. 1, 20;
Apollod. iii. 10, 3.) [Sparta.]
Lacedaemonius (AaKeSaipbvios), son of Ci
mon, so named in honour of the Lacedaemonians
(Plut. Cim. 16, Per. 29).
Lacedas (AaKr\Sas), or Leocedes (Hdt. vi. 127),
king of Argos, and father of Melas (Hdt. I. c.)
Lacetani, a people in Hispania -Tarraconen
sis at the foot of the Pyrenees (Plin. iii. 22;
Liv. xxi. 23).
Lachares (Aaxdpws), an Athenian dem
agogue, made hhnself tyrant of Athens, B.C. 296,
when the city was besieged by Demetrius.
When Athens was on the point of falling into
the hands of Demetrius, Lachares made Mb
escape to Thebes with the treasures of which he
had robbed even the temples at Athens, and
according to Pausanias was murdered for the
sake of Ms wealth. This must have been many
years later if Polyaenus is right in maMng him
play the traitor at Cassandrea in 279. (Plut.
Demetr. 33 ; Paus. i. 25, 7 ; Polyaen. vi. 7, 2.)
Laches (Adxys), an Athenian commander in
the Peloponnesian war, is first mentioned in
B.C. 427 (Thuc. iii. 86). He was recalled in
426 and accused by Cleon of peculation (Thuc.
iii. 115 ; Ar. Vesp. 240, 836 : Dem. C. Timocr. p.
740, § 127). After Cleon's death he appears as
¦commissioner for making the peace, com
manded the troops sent to help Argos, and was
slain at Mantinea (Thuc. v. 19, 61, 74). A dia
logue of Plato bears his name.
Laehesis, one of the Fates. [Moerae.J
LaciaorLaciadae (AaKia, AaKidSai-.AaKidSris,
AaKievs), a demus in Attica, belonging to the
tribe Oeneis, W. of and near to Athens.
Laclnlum (AaKiviov &Kpov), a promontory on
the E. coast of Bruttium, a few mUes S. of
Croton, and forming the W. boundary of the
Tarentine gulf. It possessed a celebrated tem
ple of Juno, who was worshipped here under
the surname of Lacinia. The remains of tMs
temple are still extant, and have given the
modern name to the promontory, Capo delle
Golonne or Capo di Nao (vabs). Hannibal
dedicated in this temple a bilingual inscription
(in Punic and Greek),which recorded the history
of his campaigns, and of which Polybius made
use in writing his history. (Strab. p. 261 ; Pol.
ni. 33, 56; Liv. xxiv. 3, xxviii. 46.)
Lacippo (Alecippe), a town in Hispania
Baetica not far from the sea, and W. of Malaca.
Lacmon or Lacmus (AaKpav, AdKpos), the
north part of Mount Pindus, in wMch the river
Aous rises (Hdt. ix. 92; Strab. p. 271).
Lacobriga. 1. (Lobera), a town of the Vac
caei in the N. of Hispania Tarraconensis on
the road from Asturicato Tarraco. — 2, (Lagoa),
a town on the SW. of Lusitania, E. of the
Prom. Sacrum.
Laconica (AaKaviKi)), sometimes called
Laconia by the Romans, a country of Pelopon
nesus, was bounded on the N. by Argolis
and Arcadia, on the W. by Messenia, and on
the E. and S. by the sea. The whole
country of Laconica is bounded on the W. by
the range of Mount Taygetus, which extends in
an unbroken line, traversed only by difficult
mountain roads, from the N. to its southern
point at the promontory of Taenarum ; on the
r HH2

468 LACONICUS
N. it was separated from Arcadia by the I
mountainous district of Sciritis, and from Ar- |
golis by Mount Parthenius : it waB cut through
its whole length by Mount Parnon, which ran
down, though in a less unbroken line than Tay-
getus, to the Promontory of Malea, separating
the plain of the Eurotas from Ctnuria. This
latter district, forming the eastern coast of
Laconica was only acquired by Sparta about
550 B.C., and in the earUer times the territory of
Lacedaemon was the oblong vaUey district or
plain between Taygetus and Parnes, through
which the Eurotas flows into the Laconian
guU. This valley was called ' hollow Lacedae
mon,' and described also as full of ravines
(KriTdeo-ffa) where it is narrowed by spurs from
the enclosing hills (Od. iv. 1 ; Strab. pp. 367,
368). It had rich corn-land and vines and mul
berries, being fertile, especially on the slopes of
the Mils and in the widening plain below
Sparta. On the other hand, the country on the
E. of Parnon was hilly and rough, with no
agricultural value. There were valuable mar
ble quarries near Taenarus. Off the coast
shell-fish were caught, which produced a purple
dye inferior only to the Tyrian. Laconica is
well described by Euripides in Ms Cresphontes
(Fr. 12) as difficult of access to an enemy. On
the N. the country could only be invaded by the
valleys of the Eurotas and the Oenus ; the
range of Taygetus formed an almost insuperable
barrier on the west, and the want of good har
bours on the east coast protected it from
invasion by sea on that side. Gytheum was
the chief harbour of. Laconica. The most
ancient inhabitants of the country are said to
have been Cynurians and Leleges. They were
conquered and gradually absorbed by the
Achaeans, who were the inhabitants of the
country in the heroic age. The Dorians after
wards invaded Peloponnesus and became the
ruling race to Laconica. At first they settled
in Sparta, nominaUy at peace with the old
inhabitants of Amyclae, Pharis, Geronthrae,
Las, and Aegys, but gradually they acquired
the mastery, and a part of the old people
of the country who submitted on terms became
subjects of the Dorians under the name of
Perioeci (TlepioiKoi), while others, called Helots,
were reduced to serfdom. [Diet, of Antiq. art.
Helotes ; Perioeci.] The general name for
the tohabitants is Lacones (AdKaves) or Lace-
daemonii (AaKeSaipbvioi) ; but the Perioeci are
frequently called Lacedaemonii, to distinguish
them from the Spartans [Sparta].
Laconicus Sinus (KbXiros AajcaviKbs), a gulf
, in the S. of Peloponnesus, into which the
Eurotas faUs, beginning W. at the Prom. Tae-
narum and E. at the Prom. Malea.
Lactantius, a celebrated Christian writer
about 250-330 a.d. [Diet, of Christ. Biogr]
Lactarius Mons or Lactis Mons, a mountain
in Campania, belonging to the Apennines, four
miles E. of Stabiae, so called because the cows
which grazed upon it produced excellent milk
(Galen. Meth. Med. v. 12). Here Narses gained
a victory over the Goths, a.d. 553 (Procop. B ,G.
iv. 35). The name is preserved in the town
Lettere at its foot.
Lacydes (AafcvS-ns), a native of Cyrene, suc
ceeded Arcesilaus as president of the Academy
at Athens. The place where Ms instructions
were delivered was a garden, named the Lacy-
deum (AaKvSeiov) , provided for the purpose by his
friend Attalus Philometor, king of Pergamum.
TMs alteration in the locality of the school
seems to have contributed to the rise of the

LAELIUS
name of the New Academy. He died about 215.
(Diog. Laert. iv. 60; Cic. Ac. ii. 6, Tusc. v. 37.)
Lade (AdS-n), an island off the west coast of
Caria, opposite to MUetus and to the bay into
which the Maeander falls. It was celebrated
for the defeat of the Ionians by the Persians B.C.
494. (Hdt. vi. 8 ; Thuc. viii. 17 ; Strab. p. 635.)
Ladon (AdSav), the dragon wMch guarded the
apples of the Hesperides, was the offspring of
Typhon and Echidna, or of Ge, or of Phorcys
and Ceto. Was slam by Heracles, and the
representation of the battle was placed by Zeus
among the stars. (Hes. Th. 333 ; Hyg. Ast. ii. 6.)
Ladon (AdSav). 1. A river to Arcadia, rising
near Clitor, and faUing toto the Alpheus be
tween Heraea and Phrixa. In mythology
Ladon is husband of Stymphalis, and father of
L>phne and Metope. (Hes. Th. 844 ; Paus. viii.
20, 1.) — 2. A river in Elis, rising on the fron
tiers of Achaia and faUing into the Peneus.
Laeetani (wrongly written Laletani), a people
on the east coast of Hispania Tarraconensis,
near the mouth of the river Rubricatus (Llobre-
gat). Their cMef town was Barcino. (Strab.
p. 159 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 18 ; Plin. iii. 22.)
Laelaps. [Cephalus.]
Laelianus, one of the tMrty tyrants, emperor
in Gaul after the death of Postumus, a.d. 267,'
was slain by his own soldiers, who proclaimed
Victorinus in his stead (Eutrop. ix. 7).
Laelius. 1. C, was from early manhood the
friend and companion of Scipio Africanus the
elder, and fought under him in almost all his
campaigns. He commanded the fleet in the
capture of New Carthage, B.C. 210 (Pol. x. 3;
Liv. xxvi. 42) ; commanded the left wing at the
battle of Baecula (208) ; commanded the fleet in
the defeat of Adherbal off Gades in 206 (Liv.
xxviii. SO) ; took an active part in the African
campaign 204-201 ; was praetor of Sicily 196 ;
consul 190, and obtained the province of Cisal
pine Gaul (Liv. xxxvii. 47). — 2. C, surnamed
Sapiens, son of the preceding. His intimacy
with Scipio Africanus the younger was as
remarkable as his father's friendship with the
elder, and it obtained an imperishable monu
ment in Cicero's treatise Laelius sive de Ami-
citia. He was born about 186, was tribune of
the plebs 151; praetor 145; and consul 140.
Though not devoid of military talents, as his
campaign agatost the Lusitanian Viriathus
proved (Cic. Brut. 21, 84, Off.ii. 11, 40), he was
more of a statesman than a soldier, and more
of a philosopher than a statesman. - From Dio
genes of Babylon, and afterwards from Panae
tius, he imbibed the doctrines of the Stoic
school (Cic. Fin. ii. 8, 24) ; his father's friend
Polybius was his friend also; the wit and idiom
of Terence were pointed and pohshed by his
and Scipio's conversation ; and the satirist
Lucilius was his familiar companion. The
political opinions of Laelius were different at
different periods of his Ufe. He endeavoured,
probably during his tribunate, to procure a re-
division of the public land, but he desisted from
the attempt, and either for this forbearance, or
more probably for Ms pMlosopMcal tempera
ment, received the appellation of the Wise or-
the Prudent (Plut. Tib. Gracch. 20; Hor.
Sat. ii. 1, 72). He afterwards became a strenu
ous supporter of the aristocratical party.
Several of his orations were extant in the time
of Cicero, but were characterised more by
smoothness than by power. — Laelius is the
principal interlocutor in Cicero's dialogue De
Amicitia, and is one of the speakers in the De
Senectute and in the De Bepublica. His two

LAENAS
daughters were married, the one to Q. Mucius
Scaevola, the augur, the other to C. Fannius
Strabo. The opinion of his worth seems to
have been universal, and it is one of Seneca's
injunctions to his friend Lucilius' to live like
Laelius ' (Sen. Ep. 104).
Laenas, Popillus. The Laenates were a
a family of the plebeian gens Popilia, for the
most part unfavourably distinguished for their
sternness, cruelty, and haughtiness of character.
For the traditional origin of the surname see
Cic. Brut. 14, 56. 1. M., four times consul, B.C.
S59, 356, 850, 348. In his third consulship
(850) he won a hard-fought battle against the
Gauls, for wMch he celebrated a triumph — the
first ever obtained by a plebeian. (Liv. vii. 28.)
—2. M., praetor 176, consul 172, and censor 159.
Li Ms consulsMp he defeated the Ligurian
mountaineers ; and when the remainder of the
tribe surrendered to him, he sold them all as
slaves. (Liv. xUi. 22.) — 3. C, brother of No. 2,
was consul 172. He was afterwards sent as
ambassador to Antiochus, Mng of Syria, whom
the senate wished to abstain from hostilities
agatost Egypt. The Mng read the letter of
the senate and promised to take it into consi
deration. Popilius straightway described with
his cane a circle to the sand round the king,
and ordered him not to stir out of it until he
had given a decisive answer. TMs boldness so
impressed Antiochus, that he yielded to the
demand of Rome. (Liv. xiv. 12 ; VeU. Pat. i.
10; Cic. Phil. viii. 8, 23.)— 4. M., son of No. 2,
consul B.C. 139, in the next year defeated by
the Numanttoes (Liv. Ep. 55). — 5. P., consul
132, the year after the murder of Tib. Gracchus.
He was charged by the victorious aristocratical
party with the prosecution of the accomphces
of Gracchus ; and to this task he showed aU the
hardheartedness of Ms family. He subsequently
withdrew himself, by voluntary exile, from the
vengeance of C. Gracchus, and did not return
to Rome tiU after Ms death. (Cic. Lael. 11,
37, pro Dom. 81, 82 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 7.)
Laertes (Aaeprris), Mng of Ithaca, was son
of Acrisius and Chalcomedusa, and husband of
Anticlea, by whom he became the father of
Odysseus and Ctimene. He took part in the
Calydonian hunt, and to the expedition of the
Argonauts. He was stiU alive when his son
returned to Ithaca after the fall of Troy.
Laertius, Diogenes. [Diogenes.]
Laestrygones (Aaiarpvybves), a savage race
of cannibals, whom Odysseus encountered in his
wanderings (Od. x. 81). They were governed
by Antiphates and Lamus. The Greeks placed
them on the E. coast of the island in the plains
of Leontini, which are therefore called Lae-
strygonii Campi. (Strab. pp. 20, 22 ; Plin. iii.
89.) The Romans, however, and more especi
ally the Roman poets, who regarded the Prom.
Circeium as the Homeric island of Circe, trans
planted the Laestrygones to the S. coast of
Latium in the neighbourhood of Formiae, which
they supposed to have been built by Lamus,
the king of this people. [Formiae.]
Laevi or Levi, a Ligurian people in GaUia
Transpadana on the river Tictous (Pol. ii. 17).
Laevinus, Valerius. 1. P., consul b.c. 280,
had the conduct of the war agatost Pyrrhus.
The Mng wrote to Laevinus, offering to arbitrate
between Rome and Tarentum; but Laevinus
bluntly bade him to return to Epirus. An
Epirot spy having been taken in the Roman
lines on the banks of the Siris, Laevinus showed
Mm the legions under arms, and bade him tell
Ms master, if he was curious about the Roman

LAMACHUS

469

men and tactics, to come and see them. In the
battle which followed, Laevinus was defeated.
(Liv. Ep. 18 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 16 ; Dionys. xviii. 1.)
— 2. M., praetor 215, crossed over to Greece
and carried on war against Philip. He con
tinued in the command to Greece tiU 211, when
he was elected consul in his absence. In his
consulship (210) he carried on the war in Sicily,
and took Agrigentum. He continued as pro
consul in Sicily for several years, and in 208
made a descent upon the coast of Africa. He
died 200, and his sons Publiu6 and Marcus
honoured his memory with funeral games and
gladiatorial combats, exhibited during four suc
cessive days in the forum. (Liv. xxxi. 50.) —
3, C, son of No. 2, was by the mother's side
brother of M. Fulvius Nobilior, consul 189.
Laevinus was himself consul in 176, and carried
on war against the Ligurians. (Pol. xxii. 12,
14 ; Liv. xiii. 6, xliii. 14^)
Lagoe or Lagbe (Aaybri, AdyBrj), a city in
Phrygia on the road from Cibyra to Termessus.
(Liv. xxxviii. 15 writes Lagon for Lagoen.)
Lagus (Aayos), a Macedonian of obscure
birth, was the father, or reputed father, of Pto
lemy, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy.
He married Arsinoe, a concubine of Philip of
Macedon, who was said to have been pregnant
at the time of their marriage, on which account
the Macedonians generally looked upon Ptolemy
as the son of PMlip. (Paus. i. 6, 2 ; Curt. ix. 8.)
Lais (Acus), the name of two celebrated Gre
cian Hetaerae, or courtesans. 1. The elder, a
native probably of Corinth, lived in the time
of the Peloponnesian war, and was celebrated
as the most beautiful woman of her age She
was notorious also for her avarice and caprice.
(Athen. pp. 544, 585, 587.) — 2. The younger, was
the daughter of Timandra, and was probably
born at Hyccara in Sicily. According to some
accounts she was brought to Corinth when
seven years old, having been taken prisoner in
the Athenian expedition to Sicily, and bought
by a Corinthian. She was a contemporary and
rival of Phryne. She became enamoured of a
Thessalian named Hippolochus, or Hippostra-
tus, and accompanied him to Thessaly. Here,
it is said, some Thessalian women, jealous of
her beauty, enticed her into a temple of Aphro
dite, and there stoned her to death. (Plut.
Ale. 9 ; Paus. ii. 2, 5 ; Athen. p. 589.)
Laius (Adios), son of Labdacus, lost his father
at an early age, and was brought up by Lycus.
[Labdacus.] When Lycus was slain by Am
phion and Zethus, Laius took refuge with
Pelops in Peloponnesus. After the death of
Amphion and Zethus, Laius returned to Thebes,
and ascended the throne of his father. He
married Jocaste, and became by her the father
of Oedipus, by whom he was slain. For details
see Oedipus.
Lalandus, a district on the borders of Phrygia
and Galatia, near Amorium, on the Lalandum
Flumen, which flows from the S. into the
Sangarius, a little SE. of Pessinus. Recent
discoveries of inscriptions have made it prob
able that this is the true reading iorAlandrum
Flumen in Liv. xxxviii. 18, and Mandri Fontes
for Alandri Fontes in ch. 16.
Laletani. [Laeetani.]
Lamachus (Adpaxos), an Athenian, son of
Xenophanes, was the coUeague of Alcibiades
and Nicias in the great Sicilian expedition, B.C.
415. In the councils of the generals Lamachus's
plan was the boldest — to endeavour to capture
the city by an immediate attack while it was
unprepared — and tMs might possibly have

470

LAMETUS

ended successfully, but Lamachus was over
borne by his colleagues. He fell under the
walls of Syracuse, in a sally of the besieged.
He appears amongst the dramatis personae of
Aristophanes as the brave and somewhat blus
tering soldier. Plutarch describes him as brave,
but so poor that on every fresh appointment
he had difficulty in procuring his outfit. (Thuc.
vi. 8, 49, 101 ; Arist. Ach. 565, 960, 1070 ; Plut.
Nic. 16, Ale. 18, 20.)
Lametus (Lamato), a river to Bruttium, near
Croton, which falls into the Lameticus Sinus.
Upon it was the town Lametini (S. Eufemia).
Lamia (Aapia). 1. [Empusa.] — 2. An Athe
nian courtesan, mistress of Demetrius Polior
cetes (Plut. Demetr. 16).
Lamia, Aelius. TMs family claimed a de
scent from the mythical hero, Lamus. 1. L., a
Roman eques, supported Cicero in the suppres
sion of the Catilinarian conspiracy, B.C. 63, and
was accordingly banished by the influence of
the consuls Gabinius and Piso in 58. He was
subsequently recalled from exile, and during the
civil wars espoused Caesar's party. (Cic. pro
Sest. 12, 29, ad AU. xiii. 45, ad Fam. xi. 16 ;
Val. Max. i. 8.) — 2. I., son of the preceding,
and the friend of Horace, was consul A.D. 3.
He was made praefectus urbi in 32, but he died
in the following year. (Dio Cass. Iviii. 19 ; Tac.
Ann. vi. 27 ; Hor. Od. i. 26, iii. 17.) — 3. L., was
married to Domitia Longina, the daughter of
Corbulo ; but during the lifetime of Vespasian
he was deprived of her by Domitian, who sub
sequently married her. Lamia was put to
death by Domitian after Ms accession to the
throne. (Dio Cass. lxvi. 3 ; Suet. Dom. i. 10.)
Lamia (Aapia : AapLeis, Aapidrrjs : Zeitun
or Zeituni), a town to PhtMotis in Thessaly,
situated on the small river Achelous, and fifty
stadia inland from the Maliac gulf, on which
it possessed a harbour, called Phalara (Strab.
pp. 433, 435). It has given its name to the war
wMch was carried on by the confederate Greeks
against Antipater after the death of Alexander,
B.C. 323. The confederates under the command
of Leosthenes, the Athenian, defeated Anti
pater, who took refuge to Lamia, where he was
besieged for some months. Leosthenes was
MUed during the siege; and the confederates
were obliged to raise it in the foUowing year
(322), in consequence of the approach of Leon-
natus. The confederates under the command
of Antiphitos defeated Leonnatus, who was
slain in the action. Soon afterwards Antipater
was joined by Craterus ; and thus strengthened
he gained a decisive victory over the confede
rates at the battle of Cranon, which put an
end to the Lamian war. (Diod. xviii.; Pol.
ix. 29.) _
Laminium (Laminitanus), a town of the Car-
petani in Hispania Tarraconensis, ninety-five
miles SE. of Toletum (Ptol. ii. 6, 57).
Lampa or Lappa (Adprrri, Adiririj : Aapirdios,
Aapireis, near Argyropolis), a town in the N.
of Crete, a little inland, S. of Hydramum
(Strab. p. 475 ; Ptol. iii. 17, 10).
Lampea (f) Adpireia) or Lampeus Mons, a
part of the mountain range of Erymanthus,
on the frontiers of Achaia and Elis.
Lampetie (Aapireriri), daughter of Helios by
the nymph Neaera. She and her sister Phae-
thusa tended the flocks of their father in Sicily.
In some legends she appears as one of the
sisters of Phaethon. [Helios.]
Lampon (Adpirav), an Athenian, a celebrated
soothsayer and interpreter of oracles. In con
junction with Xenocritus, he led the colony

LANGOBARDI
which founded Thurii in Italy, B.C. 448. (Diod.
xii. 10 ; Aristoph. Av. 521, 988.)
Lamponla, or -ium (Aapirdveia, -dviov), a
town of Mysia, in the Troad, near the borders
of Aeolia (Hdt. v. 26 ; Strab. p. 610).
Lampra, Lamprae, or Lamptrae (Aapirpd,
Aapirpai, Aapirrpai : Aaprrpeis : Lamorica), a
demus on the W. coast of Attica, near Asty
palaea, belonging to the tribe Erechtheis.
Lampridius, Aelius. [Scriptores Histo-
RIAE AUGUSTAE.]
Lampsacus (Adp-tyaxos : AapifiaKrivbs : Lap-
saki, Ru.), an important city of Mysia, in Asia
Minor, on the coast of the Hellespont, possessed
a good harbour. It stood on the site of a town
called Pityusa or Pityeia, wMch existed before
the colonisation by Iomans. (II. ii. 829 ; Strab.
p. 589.) It was celebrated for its wine ; and
was one of the cities assigned by Xerxes to
Themistocles for Ms maintenance (Thuc. i.
138 ; Plut. Them. 29). It was the chief seat of
the worsMp of Priapus ; and the birthplace of
the Mstorian Charon, the phUosophers Adi-
mantus and Metrodorus, and the rhetorician
Anaximenes. Lampsacus was a colony of the

Coin of Lampsacus, 2nd cent. B.C..
Obv., head of bearded Dionysus; rev., aam^-akhNun^
Apollo with lyre; magistrate's name, 2OKPAT0Y TOY
SENO*ANOY.
Phocaeans : the name of the surrounding dis
trict, Bebrycia, connects its old tohabitants
with the Thracian Bebryces.
Lamus (Adpos), son of Poseidon, and king
of the Laestrygones, was said to have founded
Formiae, to Italy. [Formiae.]
Lamus (Adpos : Lamas), a river of CUicia,
the boundary between Cilicia Aspera and Cilicia
Campestris ; with a town of the same name
(Strab. p. 671).
Lancia (Lancienses). I. (Sollanco or SoU
landa, near Leon), a town of the Astures in
Hispania Tarraconensis, mne miles E. of Legio.
— 2. Surnamed Oppidana, a town of the Vet-
tones to Lusitania, not far from the sources
of the river Munda.
Langobardi or Longobardi, corrupted into
Lombards, a German tribe of the Suevic race.
They dwelt originaUy on the left bank of the
Elbe, near the river Saale ; but they afterwards
crossed the Elbe, and dwelt on the E. bank of
the river, where they were for a time subject
to Maroboduus in the reign of Tiberius. (Tac.
Ann. xii. 17, Germ. 40 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 106 ; Strab.
p. 290.) Of their wanderings after tMs there
is no record for four centuries ; but, Uke most
of the other German tribes, they migrated south
wards, and in the second half of the fifth
century appeared again on the N. bank of the
Danube, in Upper Hungary. Here they de
feated and almost annihilated the HeruU. In
the middle of the sixth century they crossed
the Danube, at the invitation of Justinian, and
settled in Pannonia. Here, after thirty years'
conflict, they destroyed the Gepidae. In a.d.
568, Alboin, their king, led Ms nation across
the Julian Alps, and conquered the plains of

LANICE
N. Italy, wMch have thence received the name
of Lombardy. Here he founded the kingdom
of the Lombards, which existed for upwards of
two centuries, till its overthrow by Charles the
Great. — Paulus Diaconus, who was a Lombard
by birth, derives their name of Langobardi
from their long beards : others take it to mean
' having long battle-axes ' ; but modern pMlo-
logists generally reject both these etymologies,
and suppose the name to have reference to their
dwelling on the banks of the Elbe, Bbrde
signifying a plain on the bank of a river.
Lanice (Aavi/af), nurse of Alexander the
Great^and sister of Clitus (Arrian, iv. 9).
Lanuvium (Laniivinus : Lavigna), an an
cient city in Latium, situated on a MU of the
Alban Mount, not far from the Appia Via, and
subsequently a Roman municipium (Dionys. v.
61 ; Liv. viii. 14), yet its cMef magistrate, as at
Aricia, Tusculum, and other places, retained the
old name of dictator (Cic. pro Mil. 10, 27). It
possessed an ancient temple of Juno Sospita.
[See p. 463, a.] Under the empire it obtained
importance as the birthplace of Antoninus Pius.
Laocoon (AaoKbav), a Trojan, who plays a
prominent part to the post-Homeric legends,
was a son of Antenor or Acoetes, and a priest
of the Thymbraean Apollo. He tried to dissuade
Ms countrymen from drawing toto the city the
wooden horse wMch the Greeks had left behind
them when they pretended to saU away from
Troy. But, as he was preparing to sacrifice a
bull to Poseidon, suddenly two serpents were
Been swimming towards the Trojan coast from

LAODICE

471

Laocoon. (From the group by AgeBander and Atheno-
dorus, now in the Vatican.)
Tenedos. They made for Laocoon, who, wMle
all the people took to flight, remained with his
two sons standing by the altar of the god. The
serpents first coUed around the boys, and then
around the father, and thus aU three perished.
The serpents then glided away to the acropolis
of Troy, and disappeared behind the shield of
Tritonis. The reason why Laocoon suffered
tMs fearful death is differently stated. Accord-
tog to some, it was because he had run Ms
lance into the side of the horse ; according to
others, because, contrary to the will of Apollo,
he had married and begotten chUdren ; or,
according to others again, because Poseidon,
betog hostUe to the Trojans, wanted to show to
the Trojans in the person of Laocoon what fate

all of them deserved. (Verg. Aen. ii. 201 ;
Tzetz. ad Lye. 847; Hyg. Fab. 185; Quint.
Smyrn. xii. 398.) Sophocles wrote a play on
this subject, of which a few fragments remain
—among them the line quoted in Aristoph.
Ban. 665. His death also formed the subject of
many ancient works of art ; and a magnificent
group, engraved above, representing the father
and his sons entwined by the serpents, is pre
served to the Vatican. [Agesandbr.]
Laodamas (AaoSdpas). 1. Son of Alcinous,
kmg of the Phaeacians, and Arete (Od. vii.
110>-~*- Son of Eteocles, and king of Thebes,
m whose reign the Epigoni marched against
Thebes. In the battle agatost the Epigoni, he
slew their leader Aegialeus, but was himself
slam by Alcmaeon. Others related that, after
the battle was lost, Laodamas fled to the
Encheleans in Illyricum. (ApoUod. iii. 7, S;
Paus^ix. 5, 7; Hdt. v. 61.)
Laodamia (AaoSdpeia). 1. Daughter of Acas-
tus, and wife of Protesilaus. When her hus
band was slain before Troy, she begged the
gods to be aUowed to converse with him for
only tMee hours. The request was granted.
Hermes led ProtesUaus back to the upper
world, and when Protesilaus died a second
time, Laodamia died with him. (Ov. Her. xiii.,
Pont. iii. 1, 110 ; Lucian, Dial. Mart, xxiii. 1.)-
A later tradition states that, after the second
death of Protesilaus, Laodamia made an image
of her husband, to which she payed divine
honours ; but as her father Acastus interfered,
and commanded her to burn the image, she
herself leaped into the fire (Hyg. Fab. 103,
104). — 2. Daughter of Bellerophontes, became
by Zeus the mother of Sarpedon, and was MUed
by Artemis (H. vi. 197).
Laodice (AaoSUri). 1. Daughter of Priam
and Hecuba, and wife of Helicaon. Some relate
that she feU in love with Acamas, the son of
Theseus, when he came with Diomedes as
ambassador to Troy, and that she became by
Acamas the mother of Munitus. On the death
of this son, she leaped down a precipice, or was
swallowed up by the earth. ( II. iii. 123 ; Paus.
x. 26 ; Tzetz. ad Lye. 513, 547.)— 2. Daughter
of Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra (II. ix. 146),
caUed Electra by the tragic poets. [Electra.]
— 3. Mother of Seleucus Nicator, the founder
of the Syrian monarchy. — 4. Wife of Antiochus
II. Theos, king of Syria, and mother of Seleu
cus Callinicus. For detaUs, see p. 76, b. — 5. Wife
of Seleucus Callinicus, and mother of Seleucus
Ceraunus and Antiochus the Great. — 6. Wife of
Antiochus the Great, was a daughter of Mithri
dates IV. king of Pontus, and granddaughter of
No. 4. — 7. Wife of Achaeus, the cousin and
adversary of Antiochus the Great, was a sister
of No 6. — 8. Daughter of Antiochus the Great
by his wife Laodice [No. 6]. She was married
to her eldest brother Antiochus, who died in Ms
father's lifetime, 195. — 9. Daughter of Seleucus
IV. PhUopator, was married to Perseus, king of
Macedoma. — 10. Daughter of Antiochus IV.
Epiphanes, was married to thei mpostor Alex
ander Balas. — 11. Wife and also sister of
Mittoidates Eupator (commonly called the
Great), king of Pontus. During the absence o£
her husband, she was unfaithful to him, and on
Ms return attempted his life by poison. Her
designs were, however, betrayed to Mithridates,
who put her to death (Justin, xxxvii. 3). —
12. Another sister of Mithridates Eupator,
married to Ariarathes VI., king of Cappadocia,
after whose death she married Nicomedes, king
of Bithynia.

472

LAODICEA

Laodicea (AaoSiKeia: AaobiKeis, LaodicenBis,,
Laodicenus), the name of six Greek cities in
Asia, four of which (besides another now un
known) were founded by Seleucus I. Nicator,
and named in honour of Ms mother Laodice,
the other two by Antiochus II. and Antiochus I.
or HI. [See Nos. 1 and 5.]— 1. L. ad Lycum (A.
7rpos rip AiKip, Eski-Hissar, Ru.), a city of Asia
Minor, stood on a ridge of MUb near the S. bank
of the river Lycus (Choruk-Su), a tributary of
the Maeander, a little to the W. of Colossae, and
to the S. of Hierapolis, on the borders of Lydia,
Caria, and Ptoygia, to each of which it is
assigned by different writers ; but after the
definitive division of the provinces, it is reckoned
as belonging to Great Phrygia, and under the
later Roman emperors it was the capital of
Phrygia Pacatiana. It was founded by Anti
ochus II. Theos, on the site of a previously
existing town, and named in honour of Ms wife
Laodice. It passed from the kings of Syria to
those of Pergamum, and from them to the
Romans, to whom Attalus III. bequeathed his
kingdom, and who included it to the province
of Asia. At first it was comparatively an insig
nificant place, and it suffered much from the
frequent earthquakes to which its site seems
to be more exposed than that of any other
city of Asia Minor, and also from the Mith
ridatic war (Appian, Bell. Mithr. 20). Under
the later Roman republic and the early em
perors, it rose to importance ; and, though more
than once almost destroyed by earthquakes, it
was restored by the aid of the emperors and
the munificence of its own citizens, and became,
next to Apamea, the greatest city in Ptoygia,
and one of the most flourisMng in Asia Minor.
(Plin. v. 105; Strab. p. 578; Tac. Ann. xiv. 27.)
The magmficent ruins of the city comprise an
aqueduct, a gymnasium, several theatres, and
an almost perfect stadium. This prosperity was
owing in great measure to its situation on the
traffic routes from Asia to the coasts. It stood
at the junction of roads leading from Ephesus
and from Smyrna through Cibyra to Attalea,
and also by way of Apamea to Nicomedia in the
north and Iconium or Ancyra in the east. It
was enriched also by its trade in wool and
manufacture of cloth (Strab. I.e. ; Cic. ad Fam.
ii. 17, iii. 5). [For its importance in the Mstory
of the Church, see Diet, of the Bible.] — 2. L.
Catacecaumene or Combusta (A. r) KaraKeitav-
pevri, i.e. the burnt : Ladik, Ru.), a city of Ly
caonia, N. of Iconium, on the Mgh road from
the W. coast of Asia Minor to the Euphrates,
and in the Byzantine period having direct com
munication with Dorylaeum and the north.
Whether its name is due to its having been
burnt and rebuilt is not recorded. It can have
no connexion with the volcanic district called
KaraKeKavpevn, which is to quite another part
of Asia Minor. [See p. 207.] — 3. L. ad Mare
(A. iirl rri BaXdrrn : Ladikiyeh), a city on the
coast of Syria, about fifty miles S. of Antioch,
was built by Seleucus I. on the site of an earlier
city, caUed Ramitha or Aeu/d) 'Aktt). It had
the best harbour in Syria, and was celebrated
for its traffic in wine and fruit. In the civil
contestB during the later period of the Syrian
kingdom, Laodicea obtained virtual indepen
dence, to which it was confirmed probably by
Pompey, and certainly by Julius Caesar, who
greatly favoured the city. In the civil wars,
after Caesar's death, the Laodiceans were
severely punished by Cassius for their ad
herence to Dolabella, and the city again suffered
in the Parthian invasion of Syria, but was

LAOMEDON
recompensed by Antony with exemption from
taxation. Herod the Great bmlt the Laodiceans
an aqueduct, the ruins of which stiU exist. It
is mentioned occasionally as an important city
under the later Roman empire ; and, after the
conquest of Syria by the Arabs, it was one of
those places on the coast which stiU remained
to the hands of the Greek emperors, and with
a Ctoistian population. It was taken and
destroyed by the Arabs in 1188. It is now a
TurMsh village, with considerable ruins of the
ancient city. (Strab. pp. 751, 752.) — 4. L. ad
Libanum (A. AiBavov, irpbs Ai&avtp), a city of
Coele-Syria, at the N. entrance to the narrow
valley (avXdv), between Libanus and Antili-
banus. During the possession of Coele-Syria
by the Greek kings of Egypt, it was the border
fortress of Syria, and the chief city of a district
called Laodicene. (Strab. p. 755 ; Phn. v. 82.) —
5. A city in the SE. of Media, near the boundary
of Persis, founded either by Antiochus I. Soter
or Antiochus H. the Great (Strab. p. 524 ; Phn.
vi. 115).— 6. In Mesopotamia (Plin. vi. 117).
Laddocus (AaoSbKos). 1. Son of Bias and
Pero, took part in the expeditions of the Argo
nauts, and of the Seven agatost Thebes. (Ap.
Rh. i. 119 ; ApoUod. iii. 6, 4.)— 2. Son of Ante
nor (II. iv. 87).
Laomedon (AaopeSav). 1. King of Troy, son
of Hus and Eurydice, and father of Priam,
Hesione, and other chUdren (II. xx. 286 ;
ApoUod. iii. 12, 3). Poseidon and Apollo, who
had displeased Zeus, were doomed to serve
Laomedon for wages. Accordingly, Poseidon
built the waUs of Troy, while ApoUo tended the
king's flocks on Mount Ida. When the two
gods had done their work, Laomedon refused
them the reward he had promised them, and
expeUed them from Ms dominions. (17. xxi.
441-457 ; Hor. Od. iii. 3, 21.) Poseidon to wrath
let loose the sea over the lands, and also sent a
sea-monster to ravage the country. The Homeric
account states that Heracles was induced to
build a waU as a protection against the sea-
monster by the promise mentioned below. This
is expanded by a later tradition (Schol. ad loc.)
into a story like that of Andromeda, that by
command of an oracle the Trojans were obliged,
from time to time, to sacrifice a maiden to the
monster ; and on one occasion it was decided
by lot that Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon
Mmself, should be the victim. But it happened
that Heracles was just returning from Ms ex
pedition agatost the Amazons, and he promised
to save the maiden if Laomedon would give
him the horses which Tros had once received
from Zeus as a compensation for Ganymedes.
(17. v. 265.) Laomedon promised to give them,
but again broke his word, when Heracles had
killed the monster and saved Hesione. Here
upon Heracles sailed with a squadron of six
ships agatost Troy, kUled Laomedon, with aU
Mb sons, except Podarces (Priam), and gave
Hesione to Telamon. ( 17. v. 640, xx. 145 : Diod.
v. 32, 49 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 6.) It wUl be seen
that, excepting the episode of Hesione, all the
potots in Laomedon's story appear to the Biad.
The account of the wall built by Heracles has
all the appearance of a tradition derived from
an ancient wall agatost encroachments of the
sea. Priam, as the son of Laomedon, is caUed
Laomedon tiades ; and the Trojans, as the sub
jects of Laomedon, are called Laomedontiadae.
— 2. Of Mytilene, was one of Alexander's
generals, and after the Mng's death (B.C. 328),
obtained the government of Syria. He was
afterwards defeated by Nicanor, the general of

LAPETHUS
Ptolemy, and deprived of Syria. (Arrian, An.
m. 6 ; Diod. xviii. 39.)
LapethuB or Lapathus (AdirnBos, AdiraBos :
AairriBios, AairnBeis : Lapitho or Lapta), an
important town on the N. coast of Cyprus, on a
river of the same name, E. of the Prom. Crom-
myon (Strab. p. 682 ; Ptol. v. 14, 4 ; Plin. v. 130).
Laphria, a surname of Artemis. [See p.
128, a.] *
Laphystius (AcHptWios), a mountain to
Boeotia, between Coronea and Orchomenus, on
which was a temple of Zeus Laphystius (Paus.
i. 24, 2, ix. 84, 5)._
Lapidei Campi. [Campi Lapidei.]
Lapithae (Aairiflai), an ancient race, with a
mytMcal ancestor Lapithes, son of ApoUo
(Diod. iv. 69), dwelling in Thessaly, to the lower
-valley of the Peneus, who are described as

Tolumnius. From

Lapitha and Centaur. (From a painting on marble at Herculaneum.)
being akin to the Pelasgians — i.e. they were pre- Larentia,
Mstoric inhabitants of that district. In the
Iliad they are mentioned only as a warlike race
among the combatants defending the Greek
waU, and one of their leaders is named Piri
thous (77. xu. 128, 181). In the Odyssey there
is mention of their fight with the Centaurs,
who had gone to the house of Pirithous, the
king of the Lapithae (xxi. 295), and this became
the most famous part of their legendary Ms
tory. According to the f uU development of the
story, the Lapithae were governed by Pirithous,
who, being a son of Ixion, was a half-brother of
the Centaurs. The Centaurs, therefore, de
manded their share to their father's kingdom,
and a war arose between them, wMch was at
length terminated by a peace. But when
Pirithous married Hippodamia, and invited the
Centaurs to the marriage feast, the latter, fired
by wine and urged on by Ares, attempted to
carry off the bride and the other women.
Thereupon a bloody conflict ensued, in wMch
the Centaurs were defeated by the Lapithae.
(Strab. pp. 439-441 ; Diod. iv. 70 ; Ov. Met. xii.
210; Hor. Od. i. 18, 5.) It is probable that
many of the detaUs were found in the CycUc
poets, and that the story arose out of fights
between the Lapithae and ruder mountain
tribes, who appear as the Centaurs, and whom
they drove back. A further Dorian tradition
tells that Heracles helped the Dorians against
the Lapithae, who were defeated. [Aegimius.]
The Attic legend makes Theseus help Pirithous
and the Lapithae against the Centaurs. [The
seus.] It is likely that the story of Heracles
has to do with Dorian victories over the Lapi-

LARES 478
thae, some of whom were at one time or other
driven southwards from Thessaly into Attica;
and this may have been at the time of the
Dorian movement towards the Peloponnesus.
The part which the Lapithae had to formmg
the population of Attica is signified by the
heroon of Pirithous to Attica (Paus. i. SO, 4),
and by Ms connexion in Attic legends with
Theseus ; and several Athenian families traced
their descent from the Lapithae. The fight of
the Lapithae and Centaurs was a favourite
subject in art. Pausanias mentions a painting
of it in the temple of Theseus at Athens, and
a famous sculpture on the temple of Zeus at
Olympia (Paus. i. 17, 2, v. 10, 8). [Centauri.]
Lar or Lars, was an Etruscan title or prae-
nomen, borne^for instance, by Porsena and
the Etruscans it passed
into some Roman families,
whence we read of Lar
Herminius, who was con
sul B.C. 448. This word
signified lord, king, or hero
in the Etruscan. (Liv. ii.
9, iii. 65, iv. 17.)
Lara. [Labunda.]
Laranda (™ AdpavSa:
Larenda or Caraman), a
considerable town in the
S. of Lycaonia, on the
road from Iconium to Se-
leucia, at the N. foot of
M. Taurus, in a fertile dis
trict; taken by storm by
Perdiccas, but afterwards
restored. It was used by
the Isaurian robbers as
one of their strongholds.
(Strab. p. 569 ; Diod.
xvni. 22 ; Amm. Marc.
xiv. 2.)
[Acca Larentia.]
Lares, Roman tutelary deities of the house
hold and aU that belonged to it, and also (as L.
Compitales, L. Viales) of roads and crossways
[see below]. Their original significance, how
ever, is by no means certain. In Latin litera
ture they are so closely connected with the
Penates as to be almost equivalent to them ;
but there i3 little doubt that the two classes of
deities were originaUy far more distinct than
they appear to be to writers of Cicero's time
and later. They have been often compared to
the Greek r)paes ; but tMs again is with some
reason regarded as part of a later tendency to
accommodate Latin religion to certain ideas of
Greek philosophy. It is commonly said that
the name is the same as the Etruscan Larth or
Lars, and that therefore Lares means ' lords ' ;
but it is by no means certain that the word
is of Etruscan origin at aU. The oldest Latin
form is Lases, under wMch title the Lares are
invoked in the Arval hymns ; and, though tMs
word may some day be proved to be borrowed
from the Etruscans, our present knowledge of
the Etruscan language does not warrant more
than conjecture. The Lares to old formulas
appear to be the gods of country places with
sacred groves (Cic. Legg. ii. 8, 19), whence it is
deduced that the Lar was first the protector of
the whole property, including the domus and
familia of the Roman landowner, and then, as
Lar Familiaris, was particularly comiected
with the household. It is, however, more natu
ral that the worship should extend from the
household to the community than conversely.
A somewhat different view of their origin traces

474

LARES

them to a worsMp of ancestors, on the theory
that the Lares were spirits of ancestral founders,
who were in old times actually buried within
the precincts of the house (Serv. ad Aen. vi.
152; cf. Cic. Legg. ii. 23, 58; laid. Orig. xv.ll ;
August. C. D. ix. 11). Support may be found
for this view in the traditions which make Lara
or Larunda the mother of the Lares and also a
deity of the underworld, and Mania mother
alike of Lares and Manes [Lakunda ; Mania],
On the other hand, the legend of the birth of
Servius TuUius from the Lar FamUiaris (Dionys.
iv. 2 ; PUn. xxxvi. 204) does not agree with the
theory that the Lar was the spirit of an ances
tor, nor is there any proof of the antiquity of
such a beUef . Another view deserves consider
ation, and is perhaps right : that the Lar Fami-
liaris was originaUy only another name for the
Genius Domus [see Genius], and that the two
Lares Compitales of the neighbourhood were
afterwards united with him in the household
worship. In pre-Ciceronian times the Lar
FamUiaris was spoken of in the singular, as the
guardian of the house. He is introduced in
the prologue of the Aulularia of Plautus
in person, watcMng over the fortunes of the
house, and acting in much the same way as a
( brownie ' would act in northern legends (cf .
Trinumm. 39). As he belonged to the house,
his name was used for the house itself (Hor.
Od. i. 12, 43; SaU. Cat. 21; Mart. xi. 82, 2;
Stat. Silv. ii. 3, 16). In Cicero and afterwards
the name appears to the plural (perhaps for the
reason mentioned above), and often associated
with the Dei Penates or gods of the household
store (Cic. pro Dom. 41, 108 ; Bep. v. 5, 7), the
ideas of Penates and Lares being apparently as
closely connected as our 'hearth and home.'
In the private worship of the household, images
of the Lares were placed in a shrine (sacrarium
or lara/rium), to wMch offerings were made at
meal-time : the Lares were crowned and re
ceived special offerings on Kalends, Ides and
Nones, or on the birthday of the master of the
house [Diet, of Ant. art. Lararium]; their
images were polished with wax and therefore
' renidentes ' (Hor. Epod. 2, 66 ; cf. Juv. xii. 87).
The bride on her first entry, or a member of the
family returning from abroad, paid honour to
them. Besides this private worship the Lares
Compitales or Viales, called collectively Lares
Publici (Plin. xxi. 11), were honoured by the
commumty. These deities were two in number,
probably because one belonged to each intersect
ing road : in mythology, they were the twin
sons of Mercury and Lara or Larunda. They
were the protectors, not merely of the crossways,
but of the neighbourhood generally. [For the
offerings, see Diet, of Ant. art. Compitalia.]
The same worsMp existed in old times at in
tersecting vici of Rome, where shrines of the
Lares were placed ; but Augustus gave it greater
importance and associated Ms own Genius with
the two Lares Compitales (Ov. Fast. v. 145 ;
Hor. Od. v. 5, 39 ; Genius). The state had its
Lares praestites, and protection was sought
by traveUers from Lares permarini, to whom a
temple to the Campus Martius was dedicated,
B.C. 179. A temple to the state Lares on the
Via Sacra near the Palatine was dedicated by
Augustus to replace an ancient altar (Ov. Fast.
v. 129, vi. 791 ; Mon. Ancyr. iv. 7). In art, the
Lares were represented by two figures with the
toga girt up (incincti, succincti, Ov. Fast. ii.
634 ; Pers. v. 31), crowned with wreaths, bearing
a drinking-horn or rhyton to their hands and
sometimes a patera. Sometimes a dog is placed

LARISSA
by them to represent watchfulness (Ov. Fast.
v. 142). In a painting from Pompeii, Vesta
stands between them, and the Gemus is repre
sented by a snake below.
Lares (Adpris : Alarbous), a city of N. Africa,
in the Carthaginian territory (Byzacena), SW.
of Zama; a place of some importance at the
time of the war with Jugurtha (SaU. Jug. 90;
Ptol. iv. 3, 28).
Largus, Scribonius._ [Sckibonius.]
Larinum (Larinas, -atis : Larino), a town of
the Frentani (whence the inhabitants are caUed
Larinates cognomtoe Frentani; Plin. in. 105),
on the river Tifernus, and near the borders of
Apulia, subsequently a Roman municipium
(Cic. pro Cluent. 4, 10), possessed a consider
able territory extending dowu to the Adriatic
sea. The speech of Cicero pro Cluentio enters
largely into the local affairs of Larinum.
Larissa (Adpio-tra), the name of several Pelas
gian places, whence Larissa is called to my
thology the daughter of Pelasgus (Paus. u.
24, 1). I. In Europe. 1. (Larissa or Larza),
an important town of Thessaly, in Pelasgiotis,
situated on the Peneus, to an extensive plain.
It was once the capital of the Pelasgi, and had
a democratical constitution, and hence alUed
itself to Athens in the Peloponnesian war (Thuc.
ii. 22 ; Ar. Pol. v. 6), but subsequently became
subject to the Macedonians. It retained its
importance under the Romans, and was the
seat of the district council or diet wMch the

Coin of Larissa in Thessaly. (Early in 4th cent. B.C.)
Obv., head of nymph Larissa: rev., AAPI2AION, horse (a
common type for the equestrian people ol Thessaly).
Thessalians were allowed to retain for their
local affairs. (Appian, B. C. ii. 88; Plut. Caes.
48 ; cf. Liv. xxxvi. 8, xUi. 38.) After the time
of Constantine the Great it became the capital
of the province of Thessaly. — 2. Surnamed
Cremaste (f) Kpepao-ri)), another important
town of Thessaly, to Phthiotis, situated on a
height, whence probably its name, and distant
20 stadia from the Maliac gulf (Strab. pp.
485, 440). II. In Asia. 1. An ancient city on
the coast of the Troad, near Hamaxitus (Thuc.
viii. 101 ; Strab. p. 620).— 2. L. Phriconis (A.
r) QpiKavis, also ai Ar)pio-o-ai), a city on the
coast of Mysia, near Cyme (hence called r) irepl
rr/v Kipi)v), of Pelasgian origin, but colonised
by the Aeolians, and made a member of the
Aeolic confederacy. It is probably the Larissa
mentioned by Homer (17. ii. 841 ; Strab. p. 621).
It was also called the Egyptian Larissa (ri
Aiyvirria), because Cyrus the Great settled in
it a body of Ms Egyptian mercenary soldiers
(Xen. Hell. iii. 1, 7).— 3. L. Ephesia (A. r)
'E<peo"i'o), a city of Lydia, in the plain of the
Cayster, on the N. side of M. Messogis, NE. of
Ephesus ; with a temple of Apollo Larissaeus
(Strab. pp. 440, 620). — 4. In Assyria, an ancient
city on the E. bank of the Tigris, some distance
N. of the mouth of the river Zabatas or Lycus,
described by Xenophon (Anab. iii. 4). It was
deserted when Xenophon saw it ; but its brick

LARISSUS
waUs still stood, 25 feet thick, 100 feet high,
and 2 parasangs ( = 60 stadia = 6 geog. miles),
in circuit. The site of Larissa is supposed to
be that of the ruins near Nimroud, the same
' site as that of Nineveh. — 5. In Syria, called by
the Syrians Sizara (2i(apa: Kulat Seijar), a
city in the district of Apamene, on the W. bank
of the Orontes, about half-way between Apamea
and Epiphania.
Larissus or Larisus (Adpio-aos, Adpiaos : Bis-
so), a small river forming the boundary between
Achaia and Elis, rises to Mt. Scollis, and flows
into the Ionian sea.
Larius Lacus (Lake of Como), a large lake
in GaUia Transpadana, running from N. to S.,
tMough which the river Adda flows (Verg.
Georg. n. 159 ; Strab. p. 192). After extending
about fifteen miles, it is divided into two
branches, of which the one to the SW. is about
eighteen miles to length, and the one to the
SE. about twelve miles. At the extremity of
the SW. branch is the town of Comum ; and at
the extremity of the SE. branch the river Adda
issues out of the lake. The beauty of the
scenery is praised by Pliny, who had more than
one viUa on its banks (Plin. Ep. ix. 7). One,
which he named Comoedia, is placed by some at
Bellagio, on the promontory which divides the
two branches of the lake ; and another, called
Tragoedia, at Lenno, on the W. bank. The
intermitting fountain of wMch Pliny gives an
account (Ep. iv. 30) is stiU caUed Pliniana.
Lars Tolumnius. [Tolumnius.]
Lartia Gens, patrician, distinguished at the
beginning of the republic through two of its
members, T. Lartius, the first dictator, and Sp.
Lartius, the companion of Horatius on the
wooden bridge. The name soon after dis
appears entirely from the annals. The Lartii
were probably of Etruscan origin, and their
name connected with the Etruscan word Lar
or Lars. [LaeJ
Larunda, Lara, or Lala was regarded as
mother of the Lares and = Mania : she was also
to the old Roman reUgion a deity of the under
world and bore the names Muta or Tacita to
signify the BUence of the dead, just as the
Manes are often caUed ' silent.' She was prob
ably also a goddess of fountains and therefore
called daughter of the river Almo. From tMs
later Roman mythology, connecting the form
Lala with the Greek XaXeiv and endeavouring
to account for the name ' Silent,' evolved the
legend that she was a nymph who informed
Juno of the connexion between Jupiter and Ju-
turna ; hence the attempt to derive her name
from XaXeiv. Jupiter deprived her of her tongue,
and ordered Mercury to conduct her toto the
lower world. On the way thither, Mercury feU
to love with her, and she afterwards gave birth
to two Lares. (Ov. Fast. ii. 599-616; Varro,
L. L. ix. 61 ; Macrob. i. 7, 34 ; Lactant. i. 29,
35; Mania.)
Larvae. [Lemubes.]
Larymna (Adpvpva), the name of two towns
on the river Cephissus, on the borders of
Boeotia and Locris, and distinguished as Upper
and Lower Larymna. The latter was at the
mouth of the river and the former inland.
Las (Aas : Ep. Adas : Passava), an ancient
town of Laconia, on the E. side of the Laconian
gulf, ten stadia from the sea, and S. of Gytheum.
It is said to have been once destroyed, by the
Dioscuri, who hence received the surname of
Lapersae, or the destroyers of Las. Under the
Romans it was a place of no importance.
Lasaea (Aacraia), a town in the E. of Crete,

LATICM

475

not far from the Prom. Samonium, mentioned
in the Acts of the Apostles (xxvii. 81.
Lasion (Aao-W : Aao-idvios : Lala), a fortified
town in Elis, on the frontiers of Arcadia, and
not far from the confluence of the Erymanthus
and the Alpheus. This town was a constant
source of dispute between the Eleans and Arca
dians. (Xen. Hell. iii. 2, 30, vii. 4, 18.)
Lasthenes (Aao-Bevvs). 1. An Olynthian,
who, together with Euthycrates, betrayed his
country to Philip of Macedon, by whom he had
been bribed, B.C. 347 (Dem, Phil. iii. p. 126, de
Cor. p. 241; Diod. xvi. 53).— 2. A Cretan, a
principal leader in the war with the Romans.
He was defeated and taken prisoner by Q. Me
teUus, 67 (Veil. Pat. ii. 34).
Lasus (AdVos), one of the principal Greek
lyric poets, was a native of Hermione, in Argo
lis. He is celebrated as the founder of the
Athenian school of dithyrambic poetry, and as
the teacher of Pindar. He was contemporary
with Simonides, like whom he lived at Athens,
under the patronage of Hipparchus. It would
appear that Lasus introduced a greater freedom,
both of rhythm and of music, into the dithy
rambic ode ; that he gave it a more artificial
and more mimetic character; and that the
subjects of his poetry embraced a wider range
than had been customary. (Aristoph. Vesp.
1410, Schol. ad loc. ; Hdt. vii. 6 ; Suid. s. v.)
Latera or Laterna Stagnum (Etang de
Maguelonne et de Perots), a lake formed by
the river Ledus in the territory of Nemausua
in Gallia Narbonensis, connected with the sea
by a canal (Plin. ix. 29 ; Mel. ii. 5).
Laterensis, Juventius, was one of the accu
sers of Plancius, whom Cicero defended, B.C. 54.
[Plancius.] He was praetor in 51. He served
as a legate in the army of M. Lepidus, and
when the soldiers of Lepidus passed over to
Antony, Laterensis put an end to Ms life.
(Appian, B. C. iii. 84.)
Lathon, Lethon, Lethes, Lethaeus (AdBav
Doric, Ai)Bav, AnBaios), a river of Cyrenaica to
N. Africa, falling into a Lacus Hesperidum,
near the city of Hesperis or Berenice, in the
region which the early Greek navigators identi
fied with the gardens of the Hesperides (Strab.
pp. 647, 836 ; Ptol. iv. 4, 4 ; Plin. v. 31).
Latialis or Latiaris. [Jupiteb.]
Latinus. 1. King of Latium, son of Faunus
and the nymph Marica, brother of Lavinius,
husband of Amata, and father of Lavinia, whom
he gave in marriage to Aeneas. [Lavinia.] This
is the common tradition ; but according to
Hesiod he was a son of Odysseus and Circe, and
brother of Agrius, king of the Tyrrhenians
(Hes. Th. 1013) ; according to Hyginus he was
a son of Telemachus and Circe (Hyg. Fab. 127) ;
while others describe Mm as a son of Heracles,
by a Hyperborean woman, who was afterwards
married to Faunus, or as a son of Heracles by
a daughter of Faunus (DionyB. i 43). Latinus
as the mythical founder of the Latins was iden
tified with Jupiter Latiaris. — 2. A celebrated
player in mimes (Diet, of Ant. s. v.) in the reign
of Domitian, with whom he was a great favour
ite, and whom he served as a delator. He fre
quently acted as mimus with Thymele as mima.
(Suet. Dom. 15 ; Juv. i. 35 ; Mart. ii. 72, ix. 29.)
Latium (r) Aarivrj), a country to Italy, inha
bited by the Latini. The old derivation pro
posed for the name, Latinus (Varro, L. L. v.
82), latere, because Saturn there hid himself
(Verg. Aen. viii. 32; Ov.Fast. i. 238) may safely
be rejected. It is probably connected with
irXaris (to which root belong latus, side, and

476

LATIUM

later, brick) and means the plain or flat country.
This name belongs geographically to the more
level country lying between the sea on the West
and the offshoot of the Apennines caUed the
Sabine hills on the East, and separated from
the Mgher land of Etruria by the Tiber and
limited to the South by the Volscian hills ; and
this was the extent of country occupied by the
old Latins. But in historical times there are
two further extensions. (1) The territory of
Latium was subsequently extended southwards ;
and long before the conquest of the Latins by
the Romans, it stretched from the Tiber on the
N., to the Prom. Circeium and Anxur or Tarra-
cina on the S. Even in the treaty of peace
made between Rome and Carthage in B.C.
509, we find Antium, Circeii, and Tarra-
cina, mentioned as belonging to Latium. The
name of Latium antiquum or vetus was given to
the country from the Tiber to the Prom.
Circeium (Plin. iii. 56 ; Strab. p. 228). (2) The
Romans still further extended the territories of
Latium, by the conquest of the Hernici, Aequi,
Volsci, and Aurunci, as far as the Liris on
the S., and even beyond this river to the
town Sinuessa and to Mt. Massicus. This
new accession of territory was called Latium
novum or adjectum (Plin. iii. 59: Strab. pp.
231-237). — Latium, therefore, to its widest sig
nification was bounded by Etruria on the N.,
from wMch it was separated by the Tiber ; by
Campania on the S., from wMch it was separated
by the Liris ; by the Tyrrhene sea on the W. ;
and by the Sabine and Samnite tribes on the E.
The greater part of this country is an extensive
plain of volcanic origin, out of which rise an
isolated range of mountains known by the name
of Mons Albanus, of which the Algidus and
the Tusculan Mils are branches. Part of this
plain, on the coast between Antium and Tarra-
cina, which was at one time well cultivated,
became a marsh in consequence of the rivers
Nymphaeus, Ufens, and Amasenus finding no
outlet for their waters [Pomptinab Paludes] ;
but the remainder of the country was celebrated
for its fertility in antiquity. — The ancient
Latins [for whose origin see p. 453], called
Prisci Latini, to distinguish them from the
later Latins, the subjects of Rome, formed a
league or confederation, consisting of thirty
cantons [Diet, of Ant. art. Pagus]. The
town of Alba Longa, for wMch a Trojan ori
gin was in later times invented, was the head
of the league [Alba Longa]. That the Sa
bines, who eventually coalesced with the
Latins to form the state of Rome, had in the
first place occupied part of Latium by conquest,
is a probable conclusion both from the Roman
traditions of Titus Tatius and from many an
cient Roman institutions, civil and religious, of
a Sabine origin ; and some have even suggested
that the destruction of Alba Longa took place
in tMs Sabine invasion. Again, there are
traces of an Etruscan conquest of part of
Latium in the name of Tusculum itself and in
the stories of the Etruscan kings at Rome; and
it is possible, as many have thought, that
Etruscan occupation of towns in Latium coin
cided with the period assigned in the legends to
the reigns of the Tarquins and Servius TuUius.
The most probable view of the stages by wMch
Rome extended her influence to Latium seems
to be as follows. She first subdued the Latin
states near the Tiber and Amo, Antemnae,
Crustumerium, Ficutoea, MeduUia, Caenina,
Corniculum, Cameria, CoUatia, and then pro
ceeded to the conquest and destruction of her

LATRO
rival, Alba Longa, after which she was acknow
ledged as the head of the Latin League of ttorty
states. Fidenae was long disputed by the
Romans and the Etruscans of Veii. The
difference made in the position of the Latin
towns was that whereas to old times Alba
Longa was merely a chief city among others of
equal rights, who probably combined to appoint
a federal commander for their united contingents
of troops, Rome stood on the footing of being
equal to all the rest together. The Roman
forces amounted to half the federal army, and
she received half the land and spoU taken in
war. Henceforth the Latin festival was con
verted into a Roman one, which is the sigmfica-
tion of Livy's statement that Tarquin originated
the Feriae Latinae (Liv. v.,17 ; Diet, of Ant.
s. v.). TheXattos asserted their independence,
and commenced a struggle with Rome, which,
though frequently suspended and apparently
terminated by treaties, was as often renewed,
and was not brought toa final close tiU B.C. 340,
when the Latins were defeated by the Romans
at the battle of Mt. Vesuvius. The Latin League
was now dissolved, and the supremacy of Rome
was completely estabUshed over all the Latin
towns, but with special arrangements according
to the will of the Romans as to what rights and
what land each town should retain, or whether
it should become merely a Roman municipium.
In some the old Latin name of dictator was stUl
retained (Cicero Mil. 10, 27). [For details see
Diet, of Ant. art. Latinitas.] — The old Latin
towns were built for the most part on isolated
hUls, the sides of which ,were made by art
steep and almost inaccessible. They were sur
rounded by walls built of greatTpolygonal stones,
the remains of which excite our astomshment.
Latmicus Sinus (6 AarptKbs KbXiros), a gulf
on the coast of Ionia, in Asia'Mtoor, into which
the river Maeander f eU, named from M. Latmus,
which overhangs it. Its width from Miletus,
wMch stood on its S. side, to Pyrrha, was about
thirty stadia (Strab. p. 635). Through the
changes effected on this coast by the Maeander,
the gulf is now an inland lake, called Akees-
Chai or Ufa-Bassi.
Latmus (Adrpos : Monte diPalatia), a moun
tain to Caria, extending to a SE. direction from
the S. side of the Maeander to the NE. of
Miletus and the Sinus Latmicus. It was the
mythological scene of the story of Selene and
Endymion, who is hence caUed by the Roman
poets ' Latmius heros ' and ' Latmius venator : '
he had a temple on the mountain, and a cavern
in its side was shown as his grave. [Endymion.]
Latobici, a Celtic people to the SW. of Pan
nonia on the river Savus, in the modern Car-
niola (Ptol. ii. 15, 2 ; Plin. in. 148).
Latobrigi, a people in Gallia Belgica, men
tioned, along with the Tulingi and Rauraci,
as neighbours of the Helvetii. They dwelt be
tween Bale and Berne. (Caes. B. G. i. 5, 29.)
Latona. [Leto.]
Latopolis (AarbiroXts : Esneh, Ru.), a city of
Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, be
tween Thebes and ApollonopoUs, with a temple
of the god Khnem. According to Strabo the
inhabitants worshipped the Nile-fish caUed
latus (Strab. pp. 812, 817).
Latro, M. Porcius, a Roman rhetorician in
the reign of Augustus, was a Spaniard by birth,
and a friend and compatriot of the elder Seneca,
by whom he is frequently mentioned. His
school was much frequented at Rome, and he
numbered among his pupils the poet Ovid. He
died B. c 4. (Sen. Controv. i. 13-24, ii. 10, 8.)

LAUMELLUM
Laumellum (Lomello), a town of Gallia
Transpadana between VerceUae and Ticinum
(Ptol. iii 1, 86).
Laureacum or Lauriacum (Lorch, near Ens)
a strongly fortified town on the Danube in
Noricum Ripense, the headquarters of the second
legion, and the station of a Roman fleet (Amm,
Marc. xxxi. 10).
Laurentia, Acca. [Acca Laubentia.]
Laurentius Lydns. [Lydus.]
Laurentum (Laurens, -ntis), one of the most
ancient towns of Latium, situated between
Ostia and Ardea, near the sea (Liv. i. 1;
Dionys. i. 45 ; Strab. p. 229). It was supposed
to have derived its name from groves of laurels,
which (apparently like the eucalyptus) were
found to counteract the unhealthtoess of its
marshes (Herodian, i. 12). According to Virgil,
it was the residence of king Latinus and the
capital of Latium ; and it is certain that it was
a place of importance in the time of the Roman
kings, as it is mentioned to the treaty between
Rome and Carthage in b. c. 509. The younger
Pliny and the emperor Commodus had villas
at Laurentum (Plin. Ep. ii. 17). It seems
to have been, at any rate in winter, a healthy
place, notwithstanding the marshes in the
neighbourhood. These marshes supplied the
tables of the Romans with exceUent boars
(Verg. Aen. x. 107, 709; Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 42;
Mart. x. 87, 5). — In the time of the Antonines
Laurentum was utoted with Lavinium, from
which it was only six mUes distant, so that the
two formed only one town, wMch was called
Laurolavinium, and its inhabitants were named
Laurentes Lavtoates. The site of Laurentum
was probably at, or near, Torre di Paterno.
Lauretanus Portus, a harbour of Etruria,
between Populonia and Cosa (Liv. xxx. 89).
Lauriacum. [Laureacum.]
Laurium (Aabpiov, Aaipeiov), to the S. of
Attica, a httle N. of the Prom. Sunium, included
aU the hilly metaUiferous district S. of a Une
drawn from Thoricus to Anaphystus. It was
celebrated for its silver mines, wMch to early
times were so productive that every Athenian
citizen received annuaUy ten drachmae. On
the advice of Themistocles, the Athenians
appUed this money to equip 200 triremes, shortly
before the invasion of Xerxes. In the time of
Xenophon the produce of the mines was 100
talents. They graduaUy became less and less
productive, and in the time of Strabo they
yielded nothing. (Hdt. vii. 144 ; Thuc. u. 55 ;
Xen. Mem. iii. 6, 12 ; Strab. p. 399 ; Diet, of
Ant. art. Metalla.) At the present time the
mines are worked for lead, and also within
recent years it has been found possible to obtain
silver by re-melting the imperfectly smelted
scoriae thrown out by the old Greeks. It is
curious that when these refuse heaps were re
moved, a flower sprang up unknown to modern
botany, whose seeds must have lain dormant
since the old mining works.
Lauron (Laury, W. of Xucar in Valencia), a
town in the E. of Hispania Tarraconensis, near
the sea and the river Sucro, celebrated on ac
count of its siege by Sertorius, and as the place
where Cn. Pompey, the Younger, was put to
death after the battle of Munda (Appian, B. C.
i. 109 ; Plut. Sert. 18, Pomp. 18).
Laus (Aaos : Aaivos), a Greek city in Lucania,
situated near the mouth of the river Laus, which
formed the boundary between Lucania and Brut-
tium. It was founded by the Sybarites, after
their own city had been taken by the inhabitants
of Croton, b. c. 510, but it had disappeared to

LEARCHUS

477

the time of Pliny. (Strab. p. 253 ; Plin. iii. 72.)
— The gulf into which the river Laus flowed
was also called the gulf of Laus.
Laus Pompeii (Lodi Vecchia), a town in
GaUia Cisalpina, NW. of Placentia, and SE. of
Mediolanum. It was founded by the Boii (Plin.
iii. 124), and was probably made a municipium
by Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompeius
Magnus, and caUed by his name.
Lausus, 1. Son of Mezentius, king of the
Etruscans, slain by Aeneas (Verg. Aen. vii. 649,
x. 790).— 2. Son of Numitor and brother of Ilia,
kiUed by Amulius (Ov. Fast. iv. 55).
Lautulae, a village of the Volsci in Latium,
in a narrow pass between Tarracina and Fundi
(Liv. vii. 89).
Laverna, the Roman goddess of tMeves and
impostors. A grove was sacred to her on the
Via Salaria, and she had an altar near the Porta
Lavernalis, which derived its name from her.
(Varr. L. L. v. 163; Hor. Ep. i. 16, 60; Petron.
140 ; Arnob. iii. 26.)
Lavicum. [Labicum.]
Lavinia, daughter of Latinus and Amata, be
trothed to Turnus (Tubnus], but afterwards
given in marriage to Aeneas, by whom she be
came the mother of Aeneas Silvius (Liv. i. 1).
Lavinium (Laviniensis : Pratica), an ancient
town of Latium, three miles from the sea and
six mUes E. of Laurentum, on the Via Appia,
and near the river Numieus, which divided its
territory from that of Ardea. It is said to have
been founded by Aeneas, and to have been
caUed Lavinium, to honour of Ms wife Lavinia,
the daughter of Latinus. (Liv. i. 1 ; Dionys. i.
45; Strab. p. 229). It was an old reUgious
centre for the Latins, having a temple of Venus
common to the nation and administered by
priests from Ardea (Strab. p. 282), and it was
the sanctuary of the Penates of the Latin people
(Varro, L. L. v. 144). Lavinium was at a later
time united with Laurentum. [Laurentum.]
Lazae or Lazi (AS£ai, Aa£oi), a people of Col-
cMs, S. of the Phasis (Ptol. v. 10, 5).
Leaena (Aeaiva), an Athenian hetaera, be
loved by Aristogiton or Harmodius. On the
murder of Hipparchus she was put to the tor
ture ; but she died under her sufferings without
making any disclosure, and, if we may believe
one account, she bit off her tongue, that no
secret might be wrung from her. The Athenians
honoured her memory, and to particular by a
bronze statue of a lioness (Xeaiva) without a
tongue, on the Acropolis between the Propylaea
and the temenos of Artemis Brauronia. (Paus.
i. 23, 2 ; Plut. de Garrul. 8 ; Polyaen. viii. 45.)
Leagrus (Ae'aypos), son of Glaucon, com
manded the Athenians who made the first un
successful attempt to colonise Ennea Hodoi
(AmpMpoUs), and feU at Drabescus (Hdt. ix.
75 ; Thuc. i. 100 ; Paus. i. 29, 4). His grandson
is ridiculed to the lines of Plato quoted by
Athen. p. 68.
Leander (AeiavSpos or Ae'acSpos), the famous
youth of Abydos, who was in love with Hero, the
priestess of Aphrodite in Sestus, and swam every
night across the Hellespont to visit her, and re
turned before daybreak. Once during a stormy
night he perished in the waves. Next morning
Ms body was washed on the coast of Sestus.
Hero threw herself into the sea. TMs story is
the subject of the poem of Musaeus, entitled
De Amore Herois et Leandri [Musaeus], and
is also mentioned by Ovid (Her. xviii. 19), Virgil,
(Georg. iii. 258), and Statius (Theb. vi. 535).
Learchus (Aeapxos). 1, [Athamas.] — 2. Of
Rhegium, one of those Daedalian artists who

478

LEBADEA

stand on the confines of the mythical and his
torical periods. One account made Mm a pupil
of Daedalus ; another, of Dipoenus and Scyllis
(Paus. iii. 17, 6).
Lebadea (AeBdSeia : Livadhia), a town to
Boeotia, W. of the lake Copais, between Chae
ronea and Mt. Helicon, at the foot of a rock
from wMch the river Hercyna flows. In a cave
of this rock, close to the town, was the cele
brated oracle of Trophonius. (Hdt. i. 46, viii.
134 ; Strab. p. 413 ; Paus. ix. 89, 1.)
Lebedos (AeBeSos: AeBeSios), one of the
twelve cities of the Ionian confederacy, to Asia
Minor, stood on the coast of Lydia, between
Colophon and Teos, ninety stadia E. of the pro
montory of Myonnesus (Strab. pp. 633, 643).
It was said to have been built at the time of the
Ionian migration, on the site of an earlier Carian
city; and it flourished, cMefly by commerce,
until Lysimachus transplanted most of its in
habitants to Ephesus. In Horace's time it was
a proverb for desolation. (Paus. i. 9, 8, vii. 3, 2 ;
Hor. Ep. i. 11,7.) Near it were mineral springs
(Hdt. i. 142 ; Thuc. viii. 19), which exist near
Ekklesia, but no traces remain of the city.
Leben or Lebena (AeBr)v, AeBf)va), a town on
the S. coast of Crete, ninety stadia SE. of Gor-
tyna, of which it was the harbour. It possessed a
celebrated temple of Asclepius. (Strab. p. 478.)
Lebinthus (AeBivBos : Lebiiha), an island in
the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades, NE. of
Amorgos (Strab. p. 487).
Lechaeum (to Aexdiov : Aexatos), one of the
two harbours of Corinth, with wMch it was con
nected by two long walls. It was twelve stadia
from Corinth, amlwas situated on the Corinthian
gulf. It had a temple of Poseidon, who was
hence called Lechaeus. [Cobinthus.]
Lectum (rb AeKrbv : C. Baba or S. Maria),
the SW. promontory of the Troad, is formed
where the W. extremity of M. Ida juts out into
the sea, opposite to the N. side of the island of
Lesbos. It was the S. limit of the Troad ; and,
under the Byzantine emperors, the N. limit of
the province of Asia. An altar, was shown here
in Strabo's time, said to have been erected by
Agamemnon to the twelve chief gods of Greece.
(17. xiv. 294 ; Hdt. ix. 114 ; Strab. p. 605.)
Lecytlms (Ar)KvBos), a town in the peninsula
of Sithonia near Torone, taken by Brasidas
(Thuc. iv. 115).
Leda (A^Sa), daughter of Thestius, whence
she is caUed Thestias, and wife of Tyndareus,
king of Sparta (Eur. I. A. 49 ; Paus. iii. 13, 8).
According to the best known, but post-Homeric,
legend, Zeus visited Leda in the form of a swan ;
and she brought forth two eggs, from the one of
which issued Helen, and from the other Castor
and PoUux. [For the various accounts of the
birth of Helen and her brothers, see Dioscuri ;
Helena.] The origin of the myth is not easy
to trace. There is no connexion to mythology
between Zeus and the swan, which is the sacred
bird of Apollo in the ' Hyperborean ' story ; the
swan is also a symbol of Aphrodite as goddess
of love. Perhaps the origin may be that the
Bwan being a bird which breeds on the Eurotas,
there was a local myth about it transferred to
Zeus. Others imagine a totem of a swan tribe.
That Leda represents a local deity is probable
enough, but of what nature is as doubtful as
the theory that she was the night and her
daughter Helen the moon is unsatisfactory.
Ledon (AeSav), a town in Phocis, NW. of
Tithorea ; the birthplace of Philomelus, the
commander of the Phocians to the Sacred war ;
it was destroyed in tMs war (Paus. x. 2, 8, 88).

LEMNOS
Ledus or Ledum (Les or Lez, near Mont-
pellier), a small river to GaUia Narbonensis
(Plin. ix. 29; Avien. Or. Mar. 590; Lateba).
Legae (Ar)ytu or Ar)yes), a people on the S.
shore of the Caspian sea. A branch of them
was found by the Romans in the N. mountains
of Albania, at the time of Pompey's expedition.
(Strab. p. 503; Plut. Pomp. 35.)
Legio Septima Gemina (Leon), a town in
Hispania Tarraconensis, in the country of the
Astures, originally the headquarters of the
legion so called (Ptol. ii. 6, 80 ; Tac. Hist. ii.
67, 86, iii. 7).
Leitus (AfjiTos), son of Alector or Alectryon,
by Cleobule, father of Peneleus, one of the Ar
gonauts, commanded the Boeotians in the war
against Troy (II. ii. 494, xvii. 602 ; Paus. ix. 4, 3).
Lelantus Campus (to Ar)Xavrov ireSiov), a
plain in Euboea, between Eretria and Chalcis,
for the possession of which these two cities often
contended. It contained warm springs and
mines of iron and copper. (Strab. pp. 58, 447.)
Leleges (AeXeyes), a race wMch to early
times inhabited parts of Greece, Asia Minor,
and the islands. The traditions about them
vary greatly. In Homer they appear as an
Asiatic race helping the Trojans (27. x. 429, xx.
96): Herodotus connects them with the Carians,
and places them in the islands, subject to
Minos (i. 171) : Pausanias also connects them
with the Carians, and places them in Pylus and
Laconia (i. 39, 1, iii. 1, 1, iv. 1, 36, vii. 2, 7).
Strabo, who cites Aristotle, distinguishes them
from Pelasgians, and says that they existed in
Asia connected with Carians, and also in Acar
nania, Locris, Boeotia, Megaris, and Leucas
(Strab. p. 321). The inference from these
accounts is that the Leleges were a wandering,
seafaring people of Carian rather than Greek
origin. Their supposed settlement in many
parts of Greece may be due to trading stations
or to piratical enterprises. Some writers hold
that they may have really been akin to the Greek
races who have been mentioned, and not aUied
in origin to the Carians, who were not Greek.
Their mythical ancestor was Lelex, king of
Laconia. (Paus. iii. 1, 1.)
Lelex. [Leleges.]
Lemannus or Lemanus Lacus (Lake of Ge
neva), a large lake formed by the river Rho-
danus, was the boundary between the old
Roman province to Gaul and the land of the
Helvetii. Its greatest length is fifty-five miles,
and its greatest breadth six miles. (Caes. B. G.
i. 8 ; Mel. ii. 5 ; Strab. p. 271.)
Lemnos (Arjpvos : Ahpvios, fern. Aijpvids : Sta-
limene, i.e. eh rdv Ar)pvov), one of the largest
islands in the Aegaean sea, was situated nearly
midway between Mt. Athos and the Hellespont,
and about twenty-two miles SW. of Imbros.
Its area is about 147 square miles. In the
earliest times it appears to have contained only
one town, which bore the same name as the
island (II. xiv. 230) ; but at a later period we
read of two towns, Myrina (Palaeo Castro) on
the W. of the island, and Hephaestia or He-
phaestias (nr. Bapanidi) on the NW., with a
harbour. (Hdt. vi. 140; Ptol. iii. 18,4; Plin.
iv. 73.) Lemnos was sacred to Hephaestus, who
is said to have fallen here, when Zeus hurled
him down from Olympus. Hence the workshop
of the god is sometimes placed in this island.
[Hephaestus, p. 398.] The legend has all the
appearance of being derived from volcanic phe
nomena, and it was generally considered that
MosycMus in Lemnos was once a volcano ; but
this is demed by recent geologists, who assert

LEMONLA.
that the fires spoken of as issuing from it (An-
timach. ap. Schol. ad Nicandr. Ther. 472;
Lycophr. 227; Hesych. s.v.) must have been
gaseous. — The most ancient inhabitants of
Lemnos, according to Homer, were the Thracian
Sinties (II. i. 594, Od. viii. 294; Strab. p.
3S1, 36). When the Argonauts landed at
Lemnos, they are said to have found it inhabited
only by women, who had murdered all their
husbands, and had chosen as their queen Hyp
sipyle, the daughter of Thoas, the king of the
island. [Hypsipyle.] Some of the Argonauts
settled here, and became by the Lemnian
women the fathers of the Minyae, the later
tohabitants of the island. The Minyae are said
to have been driven out of the island by the
Pelasgians, who had been expelled from Attica.
(Hdt. iv. 145, vi. 137 ; Ap. Rh. i. 608.) These
Pelasgians are further said to have carried
away from Attica some Athenian women ; but
as the children of these women despised their
haU-brothers, born of Pelasgian women, the Pe
lasgians murdered both them and their cMldren.
Tn consequence of tMs atrocity, and of the
former murder of the Lemnian husbands by
the wives, Lemnian deeds became a proverb
in Greece for all atrocious acts. (Hdt. vi. 128 ;
Aesch. Cho. 623 ; Eur. Hec. 887.) Lemnos was
afterwards conquered by one of the generals
of Darius ; but MUtiades deUvered it from the
Persians, and made it subject to Athens, in
whose power it remained for a long time. There
was a labyrinth to Lemnos, buUt by Smilis and
Theodorus about the time of the first Olympiad
(PUn. xxxvi. 84). The principal production of
the island was a red earth called terra Lemnia
or sigillata, employed by the ancient physicians
as a remedy for wounds and the bites of ser
pents, and still much valued for its supposed
medicinal virtues.
Lemonla, one of the country tribes of Rome,
named after a viUage Lemonium, situated on
the Via Latina beyond the Porta Capena.
Lemo vices, a people in GaUia Aquitanica,
between the Bituriges and Arverni, whose chief
town was Augustoritum, subsequently caUed
Lemovices, the modern Limoges (Caes. B. G.
vii. 4; Strab. p. 190).
Lemovii, a people of Germany, mentioned
along with the Rugii, who inhabited the shoreB
of the Baltic to the modern Pomerania (Tac.
Germ. 43).
LemureB, spectres or spirits of the dead.
The good spirits of the dead were caUed Dii
Manes or Lares : the souls of the wicked or of
those who for any reason could not rest were
caUed Lemures or Larvae. They were said
to wander about at night as spectres, and to
torment and frighten the living, and to haunt
houses with evil omen. (Ov. Fast. v. 419, 473 ;
Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 209 ; Pers. v. 185 ; Apul. de Deo
Socr. p. 237 ; Mart. Cap. ii. 162 ; Serv. ad Aen.
m. 63.) In order to propitiate them the Romans
celebrated the festival of the Lemuralia or
Lemuria with a curious and primitive method
of laying or expelling the ghosts by walking
barefoot and throwing black beans over the
shoulder. [Diet, of Antiq. s.v.]
Lenaeus (Arivaios), a surname of Dionysus,
from Xvvbs, the wine- press.
Lentia (Linz), a town in Noricum, on the
Danube. Lentienses, a tribe of the Alemanni, who
lived on the N. shore of the Lacus Brigantinus
(Lake of Constance), in the modern Linzgau.
Lento, Caesennius, one of Antony's seven
agrarian commissioners (septemviratus) in B.C.

LENTULUS

479

44, for apportioning the Campanian and Leon-
tine lands, whence Cicero terms him divisor
Italiae. (Phil. xi. 6, 18, xii. 9, 23).
Lentulus, Cornelius, one of the haughtiest
patrician families at Rome ; bo that Cicero coins
the words Appietas and Lentulitas to express
the qualities of the aristocratic party (ad Fam.
iii. 7). — 1. L., consul b.c, 327; legate in the
Caudine campaign, 821 ; and dictator 820,
when he avenged the disgrace of the Fureulae
Caudinae. This Was indeed disputed (Liv. ix.
15) ; but his descendants at least claimed the
honour for him, by assuming the agnomen of
Caudinus. — 2. L., surnamed Caudinus, pontifex
maximus, and consul 237, when he triumphed
over the Ligurians. He died 213. (Eutrop. iii.
2.) — 3. P., surnamed Caudinus, served with P.
Scipio in Spain, 210 ; praetor 204 ; one of the
ten ambassadors sent to Philip of Macedon,
196. (Liv. xxxiii. 85.) — i. P., praetor in Sicily
214, and continued in his province for the two
following years. In 189 he was one of ten
ambassadors sent into Asia after the submission
of Antiochus. (Liv. xxiv. 9, xxxvii. 55.) — 5. Cn.,
quaestor 212 : curule aedile 204 ; consul 201 ;
and proconsul in Hither Spain 199 (Liv. xxxi.
50). — 6. L., praetor in Sardinia 211; succeeded
Scipio as proconsul in Spain, where he remained
for eleven years, and on his return was only
allowed an ovation, because he only held pro
consular rank. He was consul 199, and the
next year proconsul in Gaul. (Liv. xxxi. 49.) —
7. L., curule aedile 168 ; consul 156 ; censor
147 (Cic. Brut. 20).— 8. P., curule aedile. with
Scipio Nasica 169 ; consul suffectus with C.
Domitius 162, the election of the former consuls
betog declared informal. He became princeps
senatus, and must have lived to a good old age,
since he was wounded to the contest with C.
Gracchus in 121. (Liv. xliv. 18 ; Cic. in Cat. iv.
6.) — 9. P., surnamed Sura, the man of chief
note in Catiline's party. He was quaestor to
Sulla in 81 ; before him and L. Triarius, Verres
had to give an account of the monies he had
received as quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. He
was soon after himself called to account for
embezzlement of public money, but was ac
quitted. It is said that he got his cognomen of
Sura from Ms conduct on this occasion ; for
when Sulla caUed him to account, he answered
by scornfully putting out his leg, 'like boys,'
says Plutarch, ' when they make a blunder in
playing at ball' (Plut. Cic. 17). Other per
sons, however, had borne the name before
(Liv. xxii. 31). In 75 he was praetor; and
Hortensius, pleading before such a judge, had
no difficulty in procuring the acquittal of
Terentius Varro, when accused of extortion.
In 71 he was consul. But in the next year he
was ejected from the senate, with 63 others, for
infamous life and manners. (Dio Cass. Ixviii.
17 ; Gell. v. 6.) It was this, probably, that led
him to join Catiline and his crew. From his
distinguished birth and high rank he calculated
on becoming chief of the conspiracy. When
Catiline quitted the city for Etruria, Lentulus
was left as ctoef of the home conspirators, and
his irresolution probably saved the city from
being fired. For it was by his over-caution
that the negotiation was entered into with the
ambassadors of the Allobroges, who betrayed
the conspirators. The well-known sequel will
be found under the life of Catiline. Lentulus
was deposed from the praetorship, and was
strangled in the Capitoline prison on the 5th of
December. (Sail. Cat. 32, 43, 55.)— 10. P., sur
named Spinther. He received this nickname

480

LENTULUS

from Ms resemblance to the actor Spinther.
(Plin. vii. 54 ; Val. Max. ix. 14.) Caesar com
monly calls him by this name (B.G. i. 15) ; not
so Cicero ; but there could be no offence in it,
for he used it on his coins when he was pro
praetor in Spain ; and his son bore it after him.
He was curule aedile in 63, the year of Cicero's
consulship, and was entrusted with the care of
the apprehended conspirator, P. Sura [No. 9].
His games were long remembered for their
splendour ; but his toga, edged with Tyrian
purple, gave offence. (Sail. Cat. 47 ; Cic. Off.
ii. 16.) He was praetor in 60 ; and by Caesar's
interest he obtained Hither Spain for his next
year's province, where he remained into part of
58. In 57 he was consul, which dignity he also
obtained by Caesar's support. In his consul
ship he moved for the immediate recall of
Cicero, brought over his colleague MeteUus
Nepos to the same views ; and his services were
gratefully acMiowledged by Cicero. (Cic. ad Att.
iii. 22, Fam. i. 1-9.) He had thus, notwith
standing his obligations to Caesar, openly taken
part with the aristocracy. He received Cilicia
as his province, but he attempted in vain to
obtain a decree of the senate charging him
with the office of restoring Ptolemy Auletes,
the exiled king of Egypt. (Cic. ad Att. iv. 1 ;
Plut. Pomp. 49.) He remained as pro-consul
in Cilicia from 56 till July, 53, and obtained a
triumph, though not till 51. On the breaMng
out of the CivU war in 49, he joined the Pompeian
party. He fell into Caesar's hands at Corfinium,
but was dismissed by him uninjured. He then
joined Pompey in Greece ; and after the battle
of Pharsalia, he followed Pompey to Egypt,
and got safe to Rhodes, at which point (unless
Cic. ad Fam. ix. 18 records his death) he dis
appears from history (Cic. ad Fam. xii. 14;
Caes.a.C iii.102). — 11. P., surnamed Spinther,
son of No. 10, elected into the coUege of
augurs in 57 (Dio Cass, xxxix. 17) : followed
Pompey's fortunes with his father. He was
pardoned by Caesar, and returned to Italy. In
45 he was divorced from Ms abandoned wife,
Metella. (Comp. Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 239.) After
the murder of Caesar (44) he joined the con
spirators. He served with Cassius against
Rhodes; with Brutus to Lycia. (Plut. Caes.
67 ; App. B.C. iv. 72, 82 ; Cic. ad Att. xiii. 10.)
— 12. Cn., surnamed Clodianus, a Claudius
adopted into the Lentulus family. He was
consul in 72, with L. Gellius PubUcola. In the
war with Spartacus both he and his colleague
were defeated — but after their consulship. With
the same colleague he held the censorship in
70, and ejected 63 members from the senate for
embezzlement and other offences, among whom
were Lentulus Sura [No. 9] and C. Antonius,
afterwardB Cicero's colleague in the consulship,
though many of them, being acquitted by the
courts, were afterwards restored (Cic. pro Clu.
42, 120 ; Val. Max. v. 9). Lentulus supported
the Manilian law, appointing Pompey to the
command agatost Mithridates. As an orator,
he concealed Ms want of talent by great skill
and art, and by a good voice (Cic. Brut. 66,
235). — 13. L., surnamed Crus, appeared in 61
as the chief accuser of P. Clodius, for violating
the mysteries of the Bona Dea. In 58 he was
praetor, and in 49 consul with C. Marcellus.
He was raised to the consulship in consequence
of his being a known enemy of Caesar. He
did all he could to excite his wavering party to
take arms and meet Caesar ; he caUed Cicero
cowardly; blamed him for seeking a triumph
at such a time (Cic. ad Fam. vi. 6, ad Att. xi.

LEO
6) ; urged war at any price, in the hope, says
Caesar (B.C. i. 4), of retrieving his ruined for
tunes and becoming another SuUa. It was
mainly at Lentulus's instigation that early to
the year the violent measures passed the senate
which gave the tribunes a pretence for flying to
Caesar at Ravenna (Plut. Caes. 33). He him
self fled from the city at the approach of
Caesar, and afterwards crossed over to Greece.
After the battle of PharsaUa, he fled to Egypt,,
and arrived there the day after Pompey's mur
der. On landing he was apprehended by young
Ptolemy's ministers, and put to death in prison.
(Caes. B.C. iii. 104; Plut. Pomp. 80.)— 14. L.,
surnamed Niger, flamen of Mars. In 57 he was
one of the priests to whom was referred the
question whether the site of Cicero's house was
consecrated ground. In 56 he was one of the
judges in the case of P. Sextius, and he died in
the same year, much praised by Cicero (ad Att.
iv. 6). — 15. L., son of the last, and also flamen
of Mars. He defended M. Scaurus, to 54, when
accused of extortion : he accused Gabinius of
Mgh treason, about the same time, but was sus
pected «f coUusion. In the Philippics he is
mentioned as a friend of Antony's (Phil. iii. 10).
— 16. Cossus, surnamed Gaetulicus, consul b.c.
1, was sent toto Africa to a.d. 6, where he de
feated the Gaetuli ; hence his surname. On the
accession of Tiberius, a.d. 14, he accompanied
Drusus, who was sent to quell the mutiny of
the legions to Pannonia. He died 25, at a very
great age, leaving behind him an honourable
reputation. (Tac. Ann. i. 27, iii. 59, iv. 29, 44.)
— 17. Cn., surnamed Gaetulicus, son of the last,
consul A.D. 26. He afterwards had the com
mand of the legions of Upper Germany for ten
years, .and was very popular among the troops.
In 39 he was put to death by order of CaUgula,
who feared his influence with the soldiers.
(Suet. Galb. 6, Claud. 9; Dio Cass. lix. 22;
Plin. Ep. v. 8 ; Mart, praef. ad Lib. i.) He
was a historian and a poet : but we have only
three lines of his poems extant, unless he is the
author of nine epigrams to the Greek Anthology,
inscribed with the name of GaetuUcus.
Leo or Leon (Aeow). 1. King of Sparta, about
600 b.c. (Hdt. i. 65). — 2. Also caUed Leonides
(AeaviSns), of Heraclea on the Pontus, disciple
of Plato, was one of the conspirators who, with
their leader, CMon, assassinated Clearchus,
tyrant of Heraclea, B.C. 353 (Just. xvi. 5). — 3.
Of Byzantium, a rhetorician and historical
writer of the age of Philip and Alexander the
Great. (Suid. s.v.) — 4. Diaconus or the Deacon,
a Byzantine Mstorian of the 10th century. His
history, to ten books, includes the period from
the Cretan expedition of Nicephorus Phocas, in
the reign of the emperor Romanus II., A.D. 959,
to the death of Joannes I. Zimisces, 975. His
history, though faulty to style, is a valuable
contemporary record. (Ed. by Hase, Paris,
1818; by Migne, 1868.) — 5. Grammaticus, one
of the writers who continued the Byzantine his
tory from the period when Theophanes leaves
off. His work, entitled Chronographia, extends
from the accession of Leo V. the Armenian,
813, to the death of Romanus Lecapenus, 944.
(Edited with Theophanes by Combeiis, Paris,
1655.) — 6. Leo was also the name of six Byzan
tine emperors. Of these Leo VI., surnamed the
PhUosopher, who reigned 886-911, is celebrated
in the history of the later Greek literature.
He wrote especially a valuable treatise on Greek
tactics (ed. by Meursius, 1612 ; transl. by
Burscheid, 1781). He is also celebrated in the
history of legislation. As the Latin language

LEOBOTES
had long ceased to be the official language of
ihe Eastern empire, Basil, the father of Leo,
had formed and partly executed the plan of
issuing an authorised Greek version of Jus
tinian's legislation. This plan was carried out
by Leo. The Greek version is known under
the title of BaoiXiKal Aiard^eis, or shortly,
Bao-iAiKai (in Latin, Basilica), which means
1 Imperial Constitutions ' or ' Laws.' The pub
lication of this authorised body of law in the
Greek language led to the gradual disuse of the
compilations of Justinian in the East. But the
Roman law was thus more firmly established to
Eastern Europe and "Western Asia.
Leobotes. [Labotas.]
Ledchares (Aeaxdpr/s), an Athenian statuary
and sculptor, was one of the great artists of the
later Athenian school, at the head of which
were Scopas and Praxiteles. He flourished
B.C. 852-888. He was associated with Scopas,
Bryaxis, and Timotheus in the sculptures of
the Mausoleum. His most famous work seems
to have been Ms statue of the rape of Gany
mede (Plin. xxxiv. 79). The original work was
in bronze. Of the extant copies to marble, the
best is one, half the size of life, to the Vatican.
[See cut on p. 357.]
Leocorium (AeaKbpiov), a shrine in Athens,
in the Ceramieus, erected in honour of the
daughters of Loos. Hipparchus was murdered
here. (JThuc. i. 20, vi. 57 ; Ael. V. H. xii. 28.)
Leodamas (AeaSdpas), an Attic orator, edu
cated in the school of Isocrates, and greatly
praised by Aeschines (c. Ctes. § 138).
Leonica, a town of the Edetani in the W. of
Hispania Tarraconensis.
Leonidas (AeaviSas). 1. I., King of Sparta,
B.C. 491-480, was one of the sons of Anaxan-
drides by his first wife, and, according to some
accounts, was twin-brother to Cleombrotus.
He succeeded his half-brother Cleomenes I.,
B.C. 491, Ms elder brother Dorieus also having
previously died. When Greece was invaded by
Xerxes, 480, Leonidas was sent to make a stand
against the enemy at the pass of Thermopylae.
He took with him 300 Spartans — choosing those
who had sons, so that their famUies did not risk
extinction — about 2000 Helots, and he was
joined on the way by 2000 Arcadians and 700
from Corinth and other towns, and the same
number from Thespiae, so that the whole force
at his disposal was somewhat m }re than 5000,
besides 400 Thebans whom he had compsUed
to join Mm as a sort of pledge from their city.
The Persians in vain attempted to force their
way through the pass of Thermopylae. They
were driven back by Leonidas and Ms gallant
band with immense slaughter. At length the
MaUan EpMaltes betrayed the mountain path
of the Anopaea to the Persians, who were thus
able to fall upon the rear of the Greeks. When
it became known to Leonidas that the Persians
were crossing the mountain, he dismissed all
the other Greeks, except the Thespian and
Theban forces, declaring that he and the Spar
tans under Ms command must needs remain in
the post they had been sent to guard. Then,
before the body of Persians, who were crossing
the mountain under Hydarnes, could arrive to
attack Mm in the rear, he advanced from the
narrow pass and charged the myriads of the
enemy with his handful of troops, hopeless now
of preserving their lives, and anxious only to
sell them dearly. In the desperate battle whi ih
ensued, Leonidas himself fell soon. His body
was rescued by the Greeks, after a violent
struggle. On the hillock in the pass, where the

LEONTINI

481

remnant of the Greeks made their last stand, a
lion of stone was set up in his honour. It was
not a barren heroism, for the moral effect in
discouragement to the Persians and encourage
ment to the Greeks was of great importance in
the issue. (Hdt. vii. 175, 202-225 ; Paus. iii. 4,
14; Diod. xi. 4; Cic. Fin. ii. 19, 80, Tusc. i.
42, 49.) — 2. II., King of Sparta, was son of the
traitor Cleonymus. He acted as guardian to
Ms infant relative, Areus II., on whose death
he ascended the throne, about 256. Being op
posed to the projected reforms of his contempo
rary Agis IV., he was deposed, and the throne
was transferred to his son-in-law, Cleombrotus ;
but he was soon afterwards recalled, and caused
Agis to be put to death, 240. He died about
236, and was succeeded by his son, Cleomenes
III. (Plut. Agis, 8-21; Cleom. 1-3).— 3. A
kinsman of Olympias, the mother of Alexander
the Great, was entrusted with Alexander's edu
cation before he became the pupil of Aristotle.
He trained the young prince in hardy and self-
denying habits. There were two excellent cooks
(said Alexander afterwards) with which Leonidas
had furnished him — a night's march to season
his breakfast, and a scanty breakfast to season
his dinner (Plut. Alex. 22, 25). — 1. Of Tarentum,
the author of upwards of 100 epigrams to the
Doric dialect. His epigrams formed a part of
the Garland of Meleager. They are chiefly
inscriptions for dedicatory offerings and works
of art. Leonidas probably lived in the time of
Pyrrhus. — 5. Of Alexandria, also an epigram
matic poet, under Nero and Vespasian. In the
Greek Anthology, 43 epigrams of little merit
are ascribed to him.
Leonnatus (Aeovvdros), a Macedonian of a
princely family in Pella, one of Alexander's
most distinguished officers. He saved Alex
ander's life to India to the assault on the city
of the MaUi After the death of Alexander
(b.c. 303), he obtained the satrapy of the Lesser
or HeUespontine Phrygia, and in the following
year he crossed over into Europe, to assist
Antipater against the Greeks ; but he was de
feated by the Athenians and their allies, and
fell in battle. (Arrian, iv. 12, 21 ; Curt. viii. 14,
x. 7, 9 ; Diod. xviii. 12-15.)
Leontes. [Lita.]
Leontiades (AeofTidSr;s). 1. A Theban, com
manded at Thermopylae the forces supplied by
Thebes to the Grecian army, B.C. 480 (Hdt. vii.
205). — 2. A Theban, assisted the Spartans in
seizing the Cadmea, or citadel of Thebes, in
382. He was slain by Pelopidas in 379, when
the Spartan exiles recovered possession of the
Cadmea. (Xen. Hell. v. 2-4 ; Diod. xv. 25.)
Leontlni (oi Aeovrivoi : Aeovrivos : Lentini),
a town to the E. of Sicily, about five miles from

Coin of Leontirii, of 5th cent. B.C.
Obv., aeontinon (in archaic characters) : head of Apollo :
beneath, lion and laurel leaves; rev., chariot, the
charioteer being crowned by Victory: beneath, a lion
(the symbol of the city).
the sea, NW. of Syracuse, was situated upon
the smaU river Liasus. It was built upon two
I I

482

LEONTIUM

hills, which were separated from one another
by a valley, in which were the forum, the
senate-house, and the other public buildings,
while the temples and the private houses occu
pied the hills. The rich plains N. of the city,
Leontini Campi, were some of the most fertile
in Sicily, and produced abundant crops of most
excellent wheat. Leontini was founded by
Chalcidians from Naxos, B.C. 730, only six years
after the foundation of Naxos itself (Thuc. iv.
3; Diod. xii. 53, xiv. 14). It never attained
much political importance, in consequence of
its proximity to Syracuse, to which it soon be
came subject, and whose fortunes it shared
(Strab. p. 278). At a later time it joined the
Carthaginians, and was taken and plundered by
the Romans. Under the Romans it sank into
insignificance (Liv. xxiv. 89; Cic. Verr. ii. 66).
Gorgias was a native of Leontini.
Leontium (Aebvriov), an Athenian hetaera,
the disciple and mistress of Epicurus, wrote a
treatise against Theophrastus. She had a
daughter, Danae, who was also a hetaera. (Cic.
N. D. i. S3, 93 ; Diog. Laert. xu. 4.)
Leontium (Aebvriov), a town to Achaia, be
tween Pharae and Aegium (Pol. ii. 41).
Leontopolis (AeovrbiroXis, Aebvrav irbXis).
1. A city in the Delta of Egypt, S. of Thmuis,
and NW. of Athribis, was the capital of the
Nomos Leontopolites, and probably of late
foundation, as no writer before Strabo mentions
it (Strab. pp. 802, 812).— 2. [Nicephobium.]
Leoprepides. [Simonides, 2.]
Leos (Aeds), one of the heroes eponymi of the
Athenians, said to have been a son of Orpheus.
The phyle or tribe of Leontis derived its name
from him. According to the popular legend,
once, when Athens was suffering from famine
or plague, the Delphic oracle ordetod that the
daughters of Leos should be sacrificed, and
the father complied with the command. The
Athenians afterwards erected the Leocorium
(from Aei&s and Kupai) to them. Their names
were Praxithea, Theope, and Eubule. (Paus. i.
5, 2, x. 10^ 1 ; Plut. Thes. 13 ; Diod. xv. 17.)
Leosthenes (Aeuo-Bevris), an Athenian com
mander of the combined Greek army in the
Lamian war. In the year after the death of
Alexander (b.c. 323), he defeated Antipater near
Thermopylae ; Antipater thereupon threw him
self toto the small town of Lamia. Leosthenes
pressed the siege with the utmost vigour, but
was killed by a blow from a stone. His loss
was mourned by the Athenians as a public
calamity. He was honoured with a public
burial in the Ceramieus, and his funeral oration
was pronounced by Hyperides. (Diod. xvii. Ill,
xviii. 8-18 ;_ Paus. i. 29, 13.)
Leotychides (AearvxiSris, Aevrvx'iSris, He
rod.). 1. King of Sparta, B.C. 491-469. He
commanded the Greek fleet in 479, and defeated
the Persians at the battle of Mycale. He was
afterwards Bene with an army into Thessaly to
punish those who had sided with the Persians ;
tut in consequence of Ms accepting the bribes
of the Aleuadae, he was brought to trial on his
return home, and went into exile to Tegea, 469,
where he died. He was succeeded by his
grandson, Archidamua II. (Hdt. vi. 65-72 ; Paus.
iii. 4, 7). — 2, Grandson of Archidamus II., and
son of Agis II. There was, however, some
suspicion that he was in reality the fruit of an
intrigue of Alcibiades with Timaea, the queen of
Agis ; in consequence of which he was excluded
from the throne, mainly through the influence of
Lysander, and his uncle, Agesilaus II., was sub
stituted in his room (Xen. Hell, iii. 8; Paus. iii. 8).

LEPIDUS
Lepidus Aemilius, the name of a distin
guished patrician family. 1. M., aedile B.C.
192 ; praetor 191, with Sicily as Ms province ;
consul 187, when he defeated the Ligurians ;
pontifex maximus 180; censor 179 with M.
Fulvius NobiUor; and consul a second time
175. He was six times chosen by the censors
princeps senatus, and he died 152, full of years
and honours. (Liv. xl. 42-46, Epit. 48.) Lepidus
the triumvir is called by Cicero (Phil. xiii. 7)
the pronepos of this Lepidus ; but he would
seem more probably to have been Ms abnepos,
or great-great-grandson. — 2. M., consul 137,
carried on war in Spain against the Vaccaei, but
unsuccessfully. Since he had attacked the
Vaccaei in opposition to the express orders of
the senate, he was deprived of Ms command,
and condemned to pay a fine. He was a man
of education and refined taste. Cicero, who had
read his speeches, speaks of him as the greatest
orator of his age (Brut. 25, 86, 97).— 3. M., the
father of the triumvir, was praetor to Sicily in
81, where he earned a character by his oppres
sions only second to that of Verres. In the
civil wars between Marius and Sulla he belonged
at first to the party of the latter, but he after
wards came forward as a leader of the popular
party. In his consulsMp, 78, he attempted to
rescind the laws of SuUa, who had lately died,
but he was opposed by Ms colleague Catulus,
who received the powerful support of Pompey.
In the following year (77) Lepidus took up arms,
and marched agatost Rome. He was defeated
by Pompey and Catulus, under the walls of the
city, to the Campus Martius, and was obUged to
take to flight. Finding it impossible to hold Ms
ground to Italy, Lepidus sailed with the re
mainder of his forces to Sardinia ; but, repulsed
even to this island by the propraetor, he died
shortly afterwards of chagrin and sorrow, wMch
is said to have been increased by the discovery
of his wife's infidelity^ (Appian, B. C. i. 105, 107 ;
Plut. Sull. Si, 38, Pomp. 15.)— 4. Mam., sur
named Livianus, because he belonged originally
to the Livia gens, consul 77, belonged to the
aristocratical party, and was one of the influ
ential persons who prevailed upon SuUa to
spare the life of the young Julius Caesar (Suet.
Jul 1).— 5. M., consul 66, with L. Volcatius
TuUus, the same year to wMch Cicero was
praetor. He belonged to the aristocratical
party, but on the breaMng out of the CivU war
in 49, he retired to Ms Formian villa to watch
the progress of events. (SaU. Cat. 18 ; Dio
Cass, xxxvi. 25.) — 6. L, Aemilius Paulus, son
of No. 3, and brother of M. Lepidus, the triumvir.
His surname of Paulus was probably given him
by his father, to honour of the great Aemilius
Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia. But since
he belonged to the f amUy of the Lepidi, and not
to that of the Pauli, he is inserted to this place
and not under Paulus. Aemilius Paulus did
not foUow the example of his father, but began
Ms public career by supporting the aristocratical
party. His first act was the accusation of Cati
line to 68. He was quaestor in Macedonia 59 ;
aedile 55 ; praetor 58 ; and consul 50, along with
M. Claudius MorceUus. Paulus was raised to
the consulsMp, on account of his betog an enemy
of Caesar, but Caesar gained Mm over to his side
by a bribe of 1500 talents, which he is said to have
expended on a magnificent basiUca which he had
begun to his aedUeship, and wMch Ms son com
pleted. After the murder of Caesar (44), Paulus
joined the senatorial party. He was one of the
senators who declared M. Lepidus a public
enemy, on account of Ms having joined Antony ;

LEPIDUS
and, accordingly, when the triumvirate was
formed, his name was set down first in the pro
scription list by his own brother. The soldiers,
however, who were appointed to kill him, allowed
him to escape. He passed over to Brutus in
Asia, and after the death of the latter repaired
to Miletus. Here he remained, and refused to
go to Rome, although he was pardoned by the
triumvirs. (Appian, B. C. ii. 26, iv. 12, 87 ; Suet.
Jul. 29; Plut. Caes. 29, Pom%. 58.)— 7. M.
Aemilius Lepidus, the Triumvir, brother of
the last. On the breaMng out of the Civil war
(49), Lepidus, who was then praetor, joined
Caesar's party ; and as the consuls had fled with
Pompey from Italy, Lepidus was the highest
magistrate remaining to Italy. During Caesar's
absence in Spain, Lepidus presided at the
comitia to which the former was appointed dic
tator. In the foUowing year (48) he received
the province of Nearer Spain. On Ms return to
Rome to 47, Caesar granted him a triumph, and
made him his magister equitum ; and in the
next year (46), Ms coUeague in the consulship.
In 44 he received the government of Narbonese
Gaul and Nearer Spain, but hod not quitted the
neighbourhood of Rome at the time of the dic
tator's death. Having the command of an army
near the city, he was able to render M. Antony
efficient assistance ; and the latter to conse
quence allowed Lepidus to be chosen pontifex
maximus. Lepidus soon afterwards repairedto
Ms provinces of Gaul and Spain. He remained
neutral in the struggle between Antony and the
senate ; but he subsequently joined Antony,
when the latter fled to Mm to Gaul after his
defeat at Mutina. TMs was to the end of May,
43 ; and when the news reached Rome, the
senate proclaimed Lepidus a public enemy. In
the autumn Lepidus and Antony crossed the
Alps at the head of a powerful army. Octavian
(afterwards Augustus) joined them ; and in the
month of October the celebrated triumvirate
was formed by wMch the Roman world was di
vided between Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus.
[See p. 150, b.] In 42 Lepidus remained in
Italy as consul, wMle the two other triumvirs
prosecuted the war against Brutus and Cassius.
In the fresh division of the provinces after the
battle of PhiUppi, Lepidus received Africa, where
he remained till 86. In this year Octavian
summoned him to Sicily to assist him in the
war agatost Sex. Pompey. Lepidus obeyed, but,
tired of betog treated as a subordinate, he re
solved to make an effort to acquire Sicily for
himself and to regain Ms lost power. He was
easUy subdued by Octavian, who spared his life,
but deprived him of his triumvirate, Ms army,
and his provinces, and commanded that he
should live at Circeu, under strict surveillance.
He allowed Mm, however, to retain Ms dignity
of pontifex maximus. He died B.C. 13. Augustus
succeeded him as pontifex maximus. Lepidus
was fond of ease and repose, and it is not im
probable that he possessed abUities capable of
effecting much more than he ever did. (Appian,
B. C. ii., iii, v. ; Dio Cass, xli.-xlix. ; Index to
Cicero.)— 8. Paulus Aemilius Lepidus, son of
No. 6, with whom he is frequently confounded.
His name is variously given by the ancient
writers, but Paulus Aemilius Lepidus (in full
Paul. Aem. L. f. M. n. Lepidus) seems to be
the most correct form. He probably fled with
Ms father to Brutus, but he afterwards made
Ms peace with the triumvirs. He accompanied
Octavian in his campaign againBt Sex. Pompey
in Sicily in 36. In 34 he was consul suffectus.
In 22 he was censor with L. Munatius Plancus,

LEPONTII

483

and died while holding this dignity. He com
pleted the basilica begun by his father. He is
best known from the beautiful poem of Pro-
pertius on the death of his wife, Cornelia,
daughter of CorneUus Scipio and Scribonia
(Appian, B.C. v. 2; Suet, inj, 16: Veil. Pat. ii.
95 ; Propert. v. 11). — 9. M. Aemilius Lepidus,
son of the triumvir [No. 7] and Junia, formed a
conspiracy in SO, for the purpose of assassinating
Octavian on his return to Rome after the battle
of Actium. Maecenas, who had charge of the
city, became acquainted with the plot, seized
LepiduB, and sent him to Octavian in the East,
who put him to death. His father was ignorant
of the conspiracy, but his mother was privy to
it. Lepidus was married twice : his first wife
was Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir, and
his second Servilia, who put an end to her life
by swallowing burning coals when the conspiracy
of her husband was discovered. (Veil. Pat. ii.
88 ; Suet. Aug. 19.) — 10. Q. Aemilius Lepidus,
consul 21 with M. Lollius (Hor. Ep. i. 20, 28).
— 11. L. Aemilius Paulus, son of No. 8 and
Cornelia, married Julia, the grandaughter of
Augustus. [Julia, No. 6.] Paulus is therefore
called the progener of Augustus. He was con
sul A.D. 1 with C. Caesar, his wife's brother.
He entered into a conspiracy against Augustus,
of the particulars of which we are not informed
(Suet. Jul. 19, 64). — 12. M. Aemilius Lepidus,
brother of the last, consul A.D. 6 with L. Arrun
tius. He lived on the most intimate terms with
Augustus, who employed Mm in the war against
the Dalmatians in a.d. 9. After the death of
Augustus, he was also held in high esteem by
Tiberius. (Dio Cass. Iv. 25 ; Tac. Ann. i. 13, iv.
20.) — 13. M. Aemilius Lepidus, consul with T.
Statilius Taurus in A.D. 11, must be carefully
distinguished from the last. In A.D. 21 he ob
tained the province of Asia. (Tac. Ann. iii. 22,
82.) — 14. Aemilius Lepidus, the son of 11 and
Julia, the granddaughter of Augustus, and con
sequently the great-grandson of Augustus. He
was one of the minions of the emperor Caligula.
He married Drusilla, the favourite sister of the
emperor ; but he was notwithstanding put to
death by Caligula, a.d. 39. (Suet. Cal. 24, 36.)
Lepontii, a people inhabiting both sides of
the Alps, the valleys at the head of Lakes
Maggiore and Como, and also those on the
northern side of that part of the chain. Hence
Pliny makes their southern branch neighbours
of the Salassi, who lived about Ivrea, and
placed their northern settlements about the
sources of the Rhone (Plin. iii. 134) ; and Caesar
(B. G. iv. 24) can correctly speak of their occu
pying the sources of the RMne, since the
western branch of the Rhine (the Vorder Bhein)
rises scarcely 20 miles E. of the Rhone glacier,
and it is by no means impossible that the
settlements of the Lepontii may have extended
far enough E. to include the sources of the
Hinter Bhein also. It is probable that they
were a Rhaetian tribe, part of wMch crossed
the Alps, while part remained on the north
side (Strab. pp. 204, 206). Their name is re,
tained to the Val Leventina — that is, the
upper valley of the Ticinus — tend in the ' Le-
pontine Alps,' wMch are the part of the main
chain lying between the passes of the Simplon
and the Bernardino. The strange statement
of Ptolemy (iii. 1, 38), that the Lepontii lived
in the Cottian Alps, is perhaps explained by the
fact that Oscela (Domo d'Ossola) was, as he
states, one of their chief towns, and that he
confused this place with Ocelum, which is in
the Cottian district. 112

484

LEPREA

Leprea (AeVpea), daughter of Pyrgeus, from
whom the town of Lepreum in Elis was said to
nave derived its name. [Lepbeum.] Another
tradition derived the name from Lepreus, a son
of Pyrgeus. He was a grandson of Poseidon,
and, both in his strength and Ms powers of
eating, a rival of Heracles, by whom he was
conquered and slain. (Paus. v. 5, 4.)
Lepreum (Aeirpeov, Aeirpeos : Aeirpedrris :
Strovitzi), a town of Elis in Triphylia, situated
40 stadia from the sea, was said to have been
founded to the time of Theseus by Minyans
from Lemnos, who drove out the Caucones.
After the Messenian wars it was subdued by
the Eleans with the aid of Sparta ; but it re
covered its independence in the Peloponnesian
war, and was assisted by the Spartans against
Elis. (Hdt. iv. 148, ix. 28; Thuc. v. 31; Xen.
Hell. iii. 2, 25 ; Strab. p. 345.) At the time of
the Achaean League it was subject io Elis
(Pol. iv. 77-80).
Q. Lepta, a native of Cales to Campania,
and praef ectus f abrum to Cicero in Cilicia B.C. 51.
He joined the Pompeian party in the Civil war,
and is frequently mentioned to Cicero's letters.
(Cic. ad Fam. iii. 7, v. 10, &c.)
Leptines (Aeirrivris). 1. A Syracusan, son
of Hermocrates, and brother of Dionysius the
elder, tyrant of Syracuse. He commanded his
brother's fleet in the war against the Car
thaginians B.C. 397, but was defeated by Mago
with great loss. In 390 he was sent by Diony
sius with a fleet to the assistance of the Lu
canians against the Italian Greeks. Some time
afterwards he gave offence to the tyrant, and
on this account was banished from Syracuse.
He thereupon retired to Thurii, but was sub
sequently recalled by Dionysius, who gave Mm
Mb daughter in marriage. In 863 he com
manded the right wing of the Syracusan army
in the battle agamst the Carthaginians near
Cronium ; in which he was killed. (Diod. xiv.
48-72, xv. 7, 17.) — 2. A Syracusan, who joined
with Calippus in expelling the garrison of the
younger Dionysius from Rhegium, 851. Soon
afterwards he assassinated Calippus, and then
crossed over to Sicily, where he made himself
tyrant of Apollonia and Engyum. He was ex
pelled in common with the other tyrants by
Timoleon ; but his life was spared and he was
sent into exile at Corinth, 342. (Diod. xvi.
45, 72; Plut. Timol. 24.)— 3. An Athenian,
known only as the proposer of a law taking
away all special exemptions from the burden of
public charges (areXeiai rav Xeirovpyidv),
against wMch the celebrated oration of Demo
sthenes is directed, usually known as the oration
against Leptines. This speech was delivered
355 ; but the law must have been passed above
a year before, as we are told that the lapse of
more than that period had already exempted
Leptines from all personal responsibility.
Hence the efforts of Demosthenes were directed
solely to the repeal of the law, not to the
punishment of its proposer. His arguments
were successful, and the law was repealed. —
4. A Syrian Greek, who assassinated with his
own hand, at Laodicea, Cn. Octavius, the chief
of the Roman, deputies, who had been sent into
Syria, 162. Demetrius caused Leptines to be
seized, and sent as a prisoner to Rome ; but
the senate refused to receive him, being de
sirous to reserve this cause of complaint. (Pol.
xxxii. 4-7 ; Appian, Syr. 4-7.)
Leptis (Aeirris). 1. Leptis Magna or Neapo
lis (r) Aeirrls pzydXn, NediroXis : Lebda), a city
cn the coast of N. Africa, between the Syrtes, E.

LESBOS
of Abrotonum, and W. of the mouth of the little
river Cinyps, was a Phoenician colony, with a
flourishing commerce, though it possessed no
harbour. With Abrotonum and Oea it formed
the African Tripolis. The Romans made it a
colony : it was the birthplace of the emperor
Septimius Severus : and it continued to flourish
till a.d. 366, when it was almost ruined by an
attack from a Libyan tribe. Justinian did
something towards its restoration ; but the
Arabian invasion completed its destruction.
Its ruins are still considerable. (SaU. Jug.
19, 77-79; Strab. p. 835; Tac. Hist. iv. 50;
Procop. de Aed. vi. 4.)— 2. Leptis Minor or
Parva (Aeirrls f) piKpd : Lamta, Ru.), usually
called simply Leptis, a Phoenician colony on
the coast of Byzacium, to N. Africa, between
Hadrumetum and Thapsus : an important '
place under the Carthaginians and the Romans
(Bell. Afr. 7 ; Caes. B. G. ii. 38 ; Sail. Jug. 19).
Lerina (St. Honor at), an island off the coast
of Gallia Narbonensis, opposite Antipolis.
Lema or Lerne (Aepvn), a district in Argolis,
not far from Argos, in which was a marsh and
a small river of the same name. It was cele
brated as the place where Heracles killed the
Lernean Hydra. [See p. 396.]
Lero (St. Marguerite), a small island off the
coast of Gallia Narbonensis (Ptol. ii. 10, 21).
Leros (Aepos : Aepios), a small island, one of
the Sporades, opposite to the mouth of the
Sinus Iassius, on the coast of Caria. Its in
habitants, who came originally from Miletus,
bore a bad character. (Strab. p. 487.) Besides
a city of the same name, it had in it a temple
of Artemis, where the transformation of the
sisters of Meleager into guinea-fowls took place,
in memory of which guinea-fowls were kept in
the court of that temple (Ant. Lib. 2 ; Ov. Met.
viii. 533 ; Athen. p. 655).
Lesbonax (AeaBdvaQ. 1. Son of Potamon of
Mytilene, a philosopher arid sopMst, in the time
of Augustus. He was the father of Polemon,
the teacher and friend of the emperor Tiberius.
Lesbonax wrote several political orations, of
which two have come down to us, one entitled
Ilepl rov iroXepov KopivBiav, and the other npo-
rpeirriKbs Xbyos, both of which are not unsuc
cessful imitations of the Attic orators of the
best times. They are printed in the coUections
of the Greek orators [Demosthenes], and sepa
rately by Orelli, Lips. 1820. — 2. A Greek gram
marian, of uncertain age, but later than No. 1,
the author of an extant work on grammatical
figures (Ilepl axripdrav), published by Valcke-
naer in Ms edition of Ammonius.
Lesbos (AeaBas : Aea Bias, Lesbius : Mytilene,
Metelin), the iargest, and by far the most im
portant, of the islands of the Aegaean along the
coast of Asia Minor, lay opposite to the Gulf
of Adramyttium, off the coast of Mysia, the
direction of its length being NW. and SE. It is
intersected by lofty mountains, and indented
with large bays, the chief of which, on the W.
side, runs more than half way across the island.
It had three chief headlands, Argennum on the
NE., Sigrium on the W., and Malea on the S.
Its valleys were very fertile, especially in the N.
part, near Methymna; and it produced corn,
oil, and wine renowned for its excellence.
It was called by various names, the chief of
which were, Issa, Pelasgia, Mytanis, and
Macaria (Strab. p. 60 ; Diod. iii. 55, v. 81) : the
late Greek writers called it Mytilene, from
its chief city, and this name has been preserved
to modern times. When Diodorus (v. 80)
speaks of the earliest inhabitants as Pelasgians,

LESBOTHEMIS
he merely expresses the fact that they were
people of whose coming no tradition survived.
In the great Aeolic migration the island was
colonised by the first detachment of Aeolians,
who founded in it a Hexapolis, consisting of
the six cities, Mytilene, Methymna, Eresus,
Pyrrha, Antissa, and Arisbe, afterwards reduced
to five through the destruction of Arisbe by the
Methymnaeans. The Aeolians of Lesbos after
wards founded numerous settlements along the
coast of the Troad and in the region of Mt. Ida,
and at one time a great part of the Troad seems
to have been subject to Lesbos. The chief facts
in the history of the island are connected with
its principal city, Mytilene, which was the
scene of the struggles between the nobles and
the commons. [Alcaeus, Pittacus.] At the
time of the Peloponnesian war, Lesbos was
subject to Athens. After various changes, it
feU under the power of Mithridates, and passed
from Mm to the Romans (II. xxiv. 544 ; Od. iv.
342; Hdt. i. 151; Thuc. ii. 9; Strab. pp. 617-
620). The island is most important in the early
Mstory of Greece, as the native region of the
Aeolian school of lyric poetry. It was the
birthplace of the musician and poet Terpandeb,
of the lyric poets Alcaeus, Sappho, and others,
and of the dithyrambic poet Arion. Other
forms of literature and pMlosophy early and
long flourished to it : the sage and statesman
Pittacus, the Mstorians Hellanicus and Theo
phanes, and the pMlosophers TheopMastus and
Phanias, were all Lesbians.
Lesbdthemis (Aeo-$6Bepis), a sculptor of an
cient date, and a native of Lesbos (Athen. pp.
182, 635).
Lesches or Lescheus (AeVx^s, Aeirxevs), one
of the so-caUed CycUc poets, son of Aeschylinus,
a native of Pyrrha, to the neighbourhood of
MytUene, and hence called a Mytilenean or a
Lesbian (Paus. x. 25, 5). He flourished about
B.C. 708, and was usuaUy regarded as the author
of the Little Hiad ('IAias r) ixdaaav or 'IAias
puKpd). Aristotle, however (Poet. 23), does not
name its author ; and the Lesbian HeUanicus,
who would probably have claimed it for a
countryman if he could, assigns it to the Spartan
Cinaethon. The Little Iliad consisted of four
books, and was intended as a supplement to the
Homeric Hiad. It related the events after the
death of Hector, the fate of Ajax, the exploits
of Philoctetes, Neoptolemus, and Odysseus, and
the reception of the wooden horse within the
walls of Troy. The actual capture of the city,
called The Destruction of Troy ('IXiov nepais),
wMch formed the continuation of the story was
by another author, Arctinus. Hence Aristotle,
alluding to the want of unity, remarks that the
Little Hiad furnished materials for eight trage
dies, wMlst only one could be based upon the
Iliad or Odyssey of Homer.
Lethaeus (A-nBaios). 1. A river of Ionia, in
Asia Minor, flowing S. past Magnesia into the
Maeander (Strab. p. 554).— 2. A river in the S.
of Crete, flowing past Gortyna. — 3. [Lathon.]
Lethe (Ar)Bij), the persomfication of oblivion,
caUed by Hesiod a daughter of Eris (Th. 227),
i.e. the forgetfulness of former kindnesses which
ensues from a quarrel. A river in the lower
world was likewise called Lethe. The souls of
the departed drank of this river, and thus
forgot all they had said or done to the upper
world. [Hades.]
Lethe, a river in Spain. [See Limaea.]
Leto (Arird), called Latona by the Romans,
is described by Hesiod as a daughter of the Titan
Coeus and Phoebe, a sister of Asteria, and the

LETO

485

mother of Apollo and Artemis by Zeus, before
his marriage to Hera (Th. 405, 921 ; cf. 11. xiv.
327). In Homer, though nothing is said of the
place or manner of the birth, she is spoken of
as the mother by Zeus of Apollo and Artemis.
She, like her children, sides with the Trojans ;
she and Artemis heal the wounded Aeneas in
the temple of Apollo in Troy, which implies a
tradition that the tMee deities were associated
in a temple there, and also seems to ascribe to
her a share to the healing powers of Apollo
Paeonius. (II. i. 86, v. 447, xx. 40, 72, xxi. 497 ;
Od. xi. 818.) The stories of the offence given
to her by Niobe and by Tityus are also alluded
to, but both in what are considered later parts
of the poems (II. xxiv. 607 ; Od. xi. 580). Her
fame and her story increased as the worship of
Apollo grew in importance through the Hellenic
nation. The wanderings of the patient and
gentle goddess persecuted during her pregnancy
by Hera, who seems already to be the wife of
Zeus, and aU the scenes and associations of the
birth of the twin deities are dwelt upon by post-
Homeric poets. AU the world being afraid of
receiving Leto on account of Hera, who had
sent the serpent Pytho to follow her, she wan
dered about tiU she came to Delos, which was
then a floating island, and bore the name of

Leto (Latona). (From a painted vase.)
Asteria or Ortygia. When Leto arrived there,
Zeus fastened it by adamantine chains to the
bottom of the sea, that it might be a secure
resting-place for Ms beloved, and here she gave
birth to Apollo and Artemis. The bed of Leto
was by the Inopus, a smaU stream of Delos
which Alexandrian traditions made an offshoot
from the Nile passing under the sea (Strab. p.
271; CaUim. Hymn. Del. 206), and near her
sacred lake ; it was shadowed by a palm tree
(cf. Od. vi. 152) and a laurel which sprang up
for her shelter, and all the land put forth flowers
in joy at the birth (Hymn, ad Apoll. Del. 119 ;
Hdt. ii. 170; Eur. Hec. 459, Ion, 918, I. T.
1100; CaUim. Hymn. Del. 260). Some addi
tions have grown partly out of the other name
of the island, Ortygia (quail island) : that Leto
took the form of a quail in order to reach the
island ; or that her sister, Asteria, flying from
the love of Zeus, was changed toto a quail and
then into the floating island which received
Leto. Leto is most commonly taken to be the
goddess of night (from Xav&dveiv) ; hence she
gives birth to light deities who come forth as it
were from the womb of night, Apollo, Artemis
(as moon-goddess), and Asteria, goddess of
stars : with this view agree her epithets Kvavb-
ireirXos (dark-robed), peiXixos (gentle), and the
expression that she is ' kind to men and to the

486

LEUCA

immortal gods ' (Hes. Th 407). — From their
mother ApoUo is frequently called Letoius or
Latoius, and Artemis (Diana) Leto'ia, Letois,
Latois, or Latoe'.
Leuca (to AevKd), a town at the extremity of
the Iapygian promontory in Calabria, with a
stinking fountain, under which the giants who
were vanquished by Heracles are said to have
been buried. The promontory is stUl caUed
Capo di Leuca. (Strab. p. 281.)
Leucae, Leuca (Aevxai, Aef««): Lefke), a
smaU town on the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor,
near Phocaea, built by the Persian general
Tachos in b. c 852, and remarkable as the scene
of the battle between the consul Licinius Cras
sus and Aristonicus, in 131 (Diod. xv. 18 ;
Strab. p. 646).
Leucas or Leucadia (AevKds, AevKaSia : Aev-
xdSios : Santa Maura), an island in the Ionian
sea, off the W. coast of Acarnania, about twenty
mUes in length, and from five to eight miles to
breadth. It has derived its name from the
numerous calcareous hills which cover its sur
face. It was originaUy umted to the mainland
at its NE. extremity by a narrow isthmus.
Homer speaks of it as a peninsula, with a town
Nericus (Od. xxiv. 377). According to Strabo
(p. 322) its first inhabitants were Teleboans and
Leleges. Subsequently the Corinthians under
Cypselus, between B. c. 665 and 625, founded a
new town, called Leucas in the NE. of the
country near the isthmus, in which they settled
1000 of their citizens, and to which they re
moved the inhabitants of Nericus, wMch lay a
little to the W. of the new town. (Strab. I. c. ;
Thuc. i. 30.) The Corinthians also cut a canal
through the isthmus and thus converted the
peninsula into an island. This canal was after
wards filled up by deposits of sand ; and to the
Peloponnesian war it was no longer available
for ships, which during that period were con
veyed across the isthmus on more than one
occasion (Thuc. iii. 81, iv. 8). The canal was
opened again by the Romans (Liv. xxxiii. 17).
At present the channel is dry to some parts, and
has from three to four feet of water in others.
The town of Leucas was a place of importance,
and during the war between PhUip and the
Romans was at the head of the Acarnanian
league, and the place where the meetings of the
league were held. It was in consequence taken
and plundered by the Romans, B. c. 197. The
remains of this town are stUl to be seen. The
other towns in the island were Hellomenum
('EXXbpevov) on the SE. coast, and Phara (bapd),
on the SW. coast.— At the S. extremity of the
island, opposite Cephallenia, was the celebrated
promontory, variously called Leucas, Leucatas,
Leucdtes, or Leucate (C. Ducato), on which
was a temple of Apollo, who hence had the
surname of Leucadius (Verg. Aen. iii. 274;
Propert. iii. 11, 69). At the annual festival of
the god it was the custom to cast down a cri
minal from this promontory into the sea: to
break his fall birds of all kinds were attached
to him, and if he reached the sea uninjured,
boats were ready to pick him up (Strab. p.
452 ; Ov. Her. xv. 167, Trist. v. 2, 77 ; Cic.
Tusc. iv. 18, 41). This appears to have been
an expiatory rite ; and it gave rise to the well-
known story that lovers leaped from this rock,
in order to seek relief from the pangs of love.
Thus Sappho is said to have leapt down from
this rock, when in love with Phaon ; but this
weU-known story does not stand the test of
examination. [Sappho.]
Leuce (AevKr\), an island in the Euxine sea,

LEUCOSYRI
near the mouth of the Borysthenes, sacred to
AcMUes. [Achilleus Dromos.]
Leuci, a people in the SE. of GaUia Belgica,
S. of the Mediomatrici, between the Matrona
and MoseUa. Their cMef town was Tullum
(Tout). (Caes. B. G. i. 40 ; Strab. p. 193.)
Leuci Montes, caUed by the Romans Albi
Montes, a range of mountains in the W. of
Crete. [Albi Montes.]
Leucippe. [Alcathoe.]
Leucippides (AevKiirirtSes), i.e. Phoebe and
Hilaira, the daughters of Leucippus. They
were priestesses of Athene and Artemis, and
betrothed to Idas and Lynceus, the sons of
Aphareus ; but Castor and Pollux carried them
off and married them. [Dioscuri, p. 298, a.]
Leucippus (AeiKiiriros). 1. Son of Oenomaus.
For details, see Daphne. — 2. Son of Perieres
and Gorgophone, brother of Aphareus, and
prince of the Messemans, was one of the Caly
donian hunters. By Ms wife PMlodice, he had
two daughters, Phoebe and Hilaira, usuaUy
called Leucippides. (Paus. iii. 26, 3 ; Ov. Met.
viii. 306 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 8.) — 3. A Grecian phUo
sopher, the founder of the atomic theory of the
ancient philosophy, wMch was more fully deve
loped by Democritus. Where and when he was
born we have no data for deciding. MUetus,
Abdera, and EUs have been assigned as his birth
place ; the first, apparently, for no other reason
than that it was the birthplace of several natural
philosophers ; the second, because Democritus
came from that town ; the third, because he was
looked upon as a disciple of the Eleatic school.
The period when he Uved is equaUy uncertain.
He is caUed the teacher of Democritus. (Diog.
Laert. ix. 30, 34.) For the doctrines ascribed to
him, see Democritus.
Leucon (AeiKav). 1. Son of Poseidon or
Athamas and Themisto, and father of Erythrus
and Evippe (ApoUod. i. 9, 2 ; Hyg. Fab. 157).
— 2. A powerful king of Bosporus, who reigned
b. c. 393-353. He was in close alliance with the
Athenians, to whom he gave the right of sMpping
corn without export duty before any others were
supplied, and as in years of scarcity tMs gave
them the means of obtaining a plentiful supply
unattainable by other nations, the Athenians in
return admitted him and his sons to the citizen
ship of Athens, with immunity from aU liabilities
of a citizen (Dem. Lept. p. 466, §§ 30, 38 ; Strab.
p. 810 ; Diod. xiv. 93, xvi. 91). — 3. An Athenian
poet, of the Old Comedy, a contemporary of
Aristophanes (Suid. s. v. ; Athen. p. 843).
Leuconium (AevKdviov), a town to the island
of Chios (Thuc. viii. 24).
Leuconoe (AevKovbrj), daughter of Minyas,
usually caUed Leucippe. [Alcathoe.]
Leucopetra (AewcdVeTpa : C. dell' Armi), a
promontory in the SW. of Bruttium, on the
Sicilian straits, and a few miles S. of Rhegium,
to whose territory it belonged (Strab. p. 259).
Leucophrys (AevKbippvs). 1. A city of Caria,
in the plain of the Maeander, close to a curious
lake of warm water, and having a temple of
Artemis Leucophryne (Xen. Hell. iv. 8 ; Strab.
p. 647 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 62). — 2. A name given to
the island of Tenedos, from its white cliffs.
Leucophryne. [Leucophrys.]
Leucosia or Leucasla (Piana), a small island
in the S. of the gulf of Paestum, off the coast of
Lucania, and opposite the promontory Posidium,
said to have been called after one of the Sirens
(Strab. pp. 123, 252, 258).
Leuoosyri (AeuxoVupoi, i.e. Wliite Syrians),
was a name early applied by the Greeks to the
inhabitants of Cappadocia, who were of the

LEUCOTHEA
Syrian race, in contradistinction to the Syrian
tribes of a darker colour beyond the Taurus
(Hdt. i. 72, vii. 72 ; Strab. pp. 552, 787). After
wards, when Cappadoces came to be the common
name for the people of S. Cappadocia, the word
Leucosyri was applied specifically to the people
in the N. of the country (aft. Pontus) on the
coast of the Euxine, between the rivers Halys
and Iris : these are the White Syrians of Xeno
phon (Anab. v. 6).
Leucothea (AevKO&ea), a sea goddess, was pre
viously Ino, the wife of Athamas. She was also
regarded as a goddess of the dawn, and was
nurse of Dionysus. [Athamas ; Matuta.]
Leucothoe, daughter of the Babylonian king
Orchamus and Eurynome, was beloved by
Apollo. Her amour was betrayed by the j ealous
Clytia to her father, who buried her alive ;
whereupon ApoUo metamorphosed her into an
incense shrub. (Ov. Met. iv. 208.)
Leuctra (rd AevKrpa: Lefka or Lefkra), a
small town in Boeotia, on the road from Plataeae
to Thespiae, memorable for the victory which
Epaminondas and the Thebans here gained over
Cleombrotus and the Spartans, B. c. 371 (Xen.
Hell. vi. 4, 7 ; Diod. xv. 54 ; Paus. ix. 13, 8 ;
Plut. Pelop. 20, 21).
Leuctrnm (AeCuTpoi'). 1. Or Leuctra (Leftro),
a town to Messenia, on the E. side of the Mes
senian gulf, between Cardamyle and Thalama,
on the small river Pamisus. The Spartans and
Messenians disputed for the possession of it.
(Strab. p. 860 ; Paus. iii. 21, 7.) — 2. A town to
Achaia, dependent on Rhypae (Strab. p. 387).
Lexo vii or Lexobii, a people in Gallia Lugdu-
nensis, on the Ocean, W. of the mouth of the
Sequana. Their capital was Noviomagus
(Lisieux). (Caes. B. G. iii. 9, 11 ; Strab. p. 189.)
Liba (r) AiBa), a city of Mesopotamia, between
Nisibis and the Tigris (Pol. v. 51).
Libanius (AiBdvios), a distinguished Greek
sophist and rhetorician, was born at Antioch,
on the Orontes, about a. d. 314. He studied at
Athens, and afterwards set up a school of rhe
toric at Constantinople, wMch was attended by
so large a number of pupUs that it excited the
jealousy of the other professors, who charged
Libanius with being a magician, and obtained
Ms expulsion from Constantinople about 346.
He then went to Nicomedia, where he taught
with equal success, but also drew upon himself
an equal degree of maUce from Ms opponents.
After a stay of five years at Nicomedia, he was
recaUed to Constantinople. Eventually he took
up his abode at Antioch, where he spent the
remainder of his life. Here he received the
greatest marks of favour from the emperor
Julian, 362, and afterwards from Theodosius ;
but his enjoyment of life was disturbed by ill
health, by misfortunes in his family, and more
especially by the disputes in which he was in
cessantly involved, partly with rival sophists,
and partly with the prefects. He was the
teacher of St. Basil and St. Chrysostom, with
whom he always kept up a friendly connexion ;
for although a pagan and entirely devoted to the
study of pagan literature, he made no difference
between Christian and pagan pupils. The year
of his death is uncertain, but from one of his
epistles it is evident that he was alive in 391,
and it is probable that he died a few years after,
in the reign of Arcadius. The extant works of
Libanius are : 1. Models for rhetorical exercises
(Tlpoyopvao-pdrav irapaSeiypara). 2. Orations
(Ad70<), sixty-seven to number. 3. Declama
tions (MeAeVai), i.e. orations on fictitious sub
jects, and descriptions of various Mnds, fifty in

LIBER

487

number. 4. A Life of Demosthenes, and argu
ments to the speeches of the same orator. 5.
Letters ('EiriirroXai), of which a very large
number is still extant. Many of these letters
are extremely interesting, being addressed to
men such as the emperor Julian, Athanasius,
Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, and Chrysostom. The
style of Libanius is superior to that of the other
rhetoricians of the fourth century. He took
the best orators of the classic age as his models,
and we can often see in him the disciple and
happy imitator of Demosthenes ; but he is not
free from affectation, and we rarely find in him
that simplicity of style which constitutes the
great charm of the best Attic orators. As far
as the Mstory of his age is concerned, some of
his orations, and still more his epistles are of
great value : such as the oration in which he re
lates the events of his own life ; the eulogies on
Constantius and Constans ; the orations on
Julian ; several orations describing the condition
of Antioch, and those which he wrote against
his professional and political opponents. The
best edition of the orations and declamations is
by Reiske, Altenburg, 1791-97, 4 vols. 8vo, and
the best edition of the epistles is by Wolf,
Amsterdam, 1738, fol.
LIbanus (d AlBavos, to AlBavov: Heb. Le
banon, i.e. the White Mountain : Jehel Libnan),
a lofty and steep mountain range on the confines
of Syria and Palestine, dividing Phoenice from
Coele-Syria. It extends from above Sidon,
about Tat. 83^° N., in a direction NNE. as far
as about lat. 34£°. Its highest summits are
covered with perpetual snow (between Beirut
and Tripoli it reaches a height of nearly 12,000
feet) ; its sides were in ancient times clothed
with forests of cedars, of which only scattered
trees now remain, and on its lower slopes grow
vines, figs, mulberries, and other fruits : its
wines were highly celebrated in ancient times.
It is considerably lower than the opposite range
of Antilibanus. In the Scriptures the word
Lebanon is used for both ranges, and for either
of them ; but in classical authors the names
Libanus and Antilibanus are distinctive terms,
betog applied to the W. and E. ranges respec
tively. (Strab. pp. 742, 755 ; Ptol. v. 15.)
Libarna or Libarnum, a town of Liguria on
the Via Aurelia, NW. of Genua (Plin. iii. 49).
Libentina or Lubentina, a surname of Venus
by which she is described as the goddess of
pleasure (Varro, L. L. v. 6 ; Cic. N. D. ii. 23).
Liber, or Liber Pater, a name frequently
given by the Roman poets to the Greek Bacchus
or Dionysus, who was accordingly regarded as
identical with the Italian Liber. But the god
Liber, and the goddess Libera were ancient
Italian divinities, presiding over the cultivation
of the vine and the fertility of the fields. It
has been remarked before [p. 453, a] that there ib
a difference of opinion as to whether the culti
vation of the vine existed in Italy before the
beginning of Greek colonisation in the eighth
century b. c, or was introduced by Greek
settlers. There is not much evidence either
way. The fact that libations of milk existed
in an old ritual instead of wine may point to a
time when the people of Italy were herdsmen
and had no vines, but it does not tell us at what
date this was so. Whatever the truth may be,
it is probable that the ceremonies at Lavinium
mentioned by Varro (ap. August. G. D. vii. 21)
belonged to Liber as an ancient Latin deity of
fruitfulness in trees and nature generally, and
eventually of vines to particular. He was wor
shipped probably by libations (whether Curtius

488 LIBERIA
be correct or not in connecting Ms name with
libare) and with the images (oscilla) hung up
in trees, which were symbols perhaps of human
sacrifices in early times, and were continued
when Liber was almost entirely confused with
Dionysus (Verg. Georg. ii. 382 ; Diet, of Ant.
art. Oscilla). It is not easy to determine whe
ther the connexion of Liber and Libera with
Ceres was due to true Italian ritual or to Greek
influence. A temple to these three divinities
was vowed by the dictator, A. Postumius, in
B. c. 496, and was built near the Circus Flami
nius ; it was afterwards restored by Augustus,
and dedicated by Tiberius (Tac. Ann. ii. 49 ;
Dionys. vi. 17) ; but this may possibly have been
due to a growing tendency to identify Liber
with Dionysus and Libera with Persephone, and
so to connect both with Ceres = Demeter (Cic.
N. D. ii. 24, 62). The union of Liber in some
places with Jupiter as Jupiter Liber was pro
bably of older date [see p. 464, b]. Although the
Greek Dionysus (as Bacchus) almost entirely
took the place of the old Italian god, yet Liber
was stiU recognised beside Bacchus with a cer
tain personality, just as Hercules existed in his
Roman as well as in his Greek form. There is
no doubt that, whatever the etymology, there
was a disposition to connect Liber and after
wards Bacchus with freedom and free gifts, which
might not unnaturally be ascribed to the wine-
god. Hence on the festival of the Liberalia,
on March 17, the boys assumed the toga libera
(Ov. Fast. iii. 371). For the festival see Diet.
of Ant. art. Liberalia ; it must be recollected
that the Bacchanalia was a festival of Greek
origin and did not belong to the Italian Liber.
Libera. [Liber.]
Libertas, the personification of Liberty, was
worshipped at Rome as a divinity. A temple
was erected to her on the Aventine by Tib.
Sempronius Gracchus. Another was built by
Clodius on the spot where Cicero's house had
stood. A third was erected after Caesar's vic
tories in Spain. From these temples we must
distinguish the Atrium Libertatis, which was in
the N. of the Forum, towards the Quirinal. This
building under the republic served as an office
of the censors, and also contained tables with
laws inscribed upon them. It was rebuilt by
Asinius Pollio, and then became the repository
of the first public library at Rome. (Liv. xxiv.
16 ; Dio Cass, xxviii. 17, xliii. 44, xlvii. 25, lxiii.
29.) — Libertas is usually represented in works
of art as a matron, with the pilleus or conical
cap [Diet, of Ant. art. Pilleus], the symbol of
liberty, or a wreath of laurel.
Libethrldes. [Libethrum.]
Libethrius Mons (to AiBr)8piov opos), a moun
tain in Boeotia, a branch of Mt. Helicon, forty
stadia from Coronea, possessing a grotto of the
Libethrian nymphs, adorned with their statues,
and two fountains, Libethrias and Petra (Paus.
ix. 34, 4).
Libethrum (AeiPriBpov, rd AeiB-nBpa, to AlBri-
Bpa), an ancient Thracian town in Pieria in
Macedonia, on the slope of Olympus, and SW.
of Dium, where Orpheus is said to have lived.
TMs town and the surrounding country were
sacred to the Muses, who were hence called
Liblthrides ; and it is probable that the wor
ship of the Muses under this name was trans
ferred by Pierian Thracians from this place to
Boeotia. (Strab. pp. 410, 471 ; Paus. ix. 30, 9 ;
Verg. Eel. vii. 21 ; Liv. xliv. 5.)
Libitina, an Italian divinity, who was ap
parently originally a goddess of the earth, and
its delights, especially of gardens: hence she

LLBO
was identified with Venus, who had gardens
under her protection (Varro, B. B. i. 1, 6,L.L. vi.
20) ; and there was a temple of Venus, the Lucus
Libitinae. Possibly Libitina may have been
a goddess of trees generally, including vines.
Venus at any rate was included in the Vinalia,
though that may be due to other causes. As
most goddesses of the earth were also goddesses
of the underworld (e.g. Demeter and Isis ; cf.
also Aphrodite, p. 85, a), so Libitina was also
goddess of the dead, and this attribute prevailed
to the exclusion of all others, perhaps when
her other attributes were transferred to Venus
Libitina. As the goddess of the dead, when
the Greek religion had influenced the Roman,
she was sometimes identified with Persephone
(Plut. Nem. 12, Q. B. 23). Her temple at Rome
in her grove (Lucus Libitinae) was a repository
of everything necessary for burials, and persons
might there either buy or hire those things.
Hence a person undertaMng the burial of a per
son (an undertaker) was called libitinarius, and
his business libitina; hence the expression libi-
tinam exercere, or facere, and libitina funeri-
bus non sufficiebat (i.e. they could not all be
buried). (Val. Max. v. 2, 10; Liv. xl. 19, xii.
21; Hor. Od. iii. SO, Sat. ii. 6, 19 ; Juv. xii.' 121;
Mart. viii. 43, x. 97.) According to an old
regulation ascribed to Servius Tullius, partly
intended to secure a register of deaths, it was
ordained that for every person who died, a piece
of money should be deposited in the temple of
Libitina. Thus money was caUed lucar Libi
tinae, and hence Horace (Sat. ii. 6, 19) calls
the unhealthy autumn ' quaestus Libitinae.'
(Dionys. iv. 19 ; Suet. Ner. 39 ; Diet, of Ant.
art. Lucar.)
LIbo, Scribonius, a plebeian family. 1. L.,
tribune of the plebs, B.c. 149, accused Ser. Sul
picius Galba on account of the outrages wMch
he had committed against the LusitaMansJ

Coin of the Scribonian Gens.
Obv., head of Fortuna; LIBO BONEVENT (Bonna Even-
tus) : rev., PUTEAL SCBIBON ; an altar-like puteal with
lyres and -wreath, below which some trace a pair of
tongs as symbol of Vulcan, god of lightning.
[Galba, No. 6.] It was perhaps this Libo who
consecrated the Puteal Scribonianum or Pu-
teal Libonis, of which we so frequently read in
ancient writers. The Puteal was an enclosed
place in the Forum, near the Areus Fabianus,
and was so called from its being open at the
top, like a, puteal or well. It was dedicated in
very ancient times, because the spot had been
struck by lightning; it was subsequently re
paired and re-dedicated by Libo, who erected in
its neighbourhood a tribunal for the praetor, in
consequence of which the place was frequented
by persons who had lawsuits, such as money
lenders and the like. (Comp. Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 35,
Epist. i. 19, 8.) It appears on the coins of the
Scribonian Gens.— 2. L., 'the father-in-law of
Sex. Pompey, the son of Pompey the Great.
On the breaking out of the Civil war in 49, he
naturaUy sided with Pompey, and was entrusted
with the command of Etruria. Shortly after
wards he accompanied Pompey to Greece, and
was actively engaged in the war that ensued.

LIBON
On the death of Bibulus (48) he had the chief
command of the Pompeian fleet. (Caes. B. G.
iii. 15-24 ; Dio Cass. xii. 48.) In the civil wars
which followed Caesar's death, he followed the
fortunes of his son-in-law, Sex. Pompey. In 40,
Octavian married his sister, Scribonia, and this
marriage was followed by a peace between the
triumvirs and Pompey (89). When the war
was renewed in 36, Libo for a time continued
with Pompey, but, seeing his cause hopeless, he
deserted him in the following year. In 34, he
was consul with M. Antony. (Appian, B. C. v
52-73, 139 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 38.)
Libon (AiBav), an Elean, the architect of the
great temple of Zeus in the Altis at Olympia,
about B.C. 450 (Paus. v. 10, 3).
Libui, Libici or Lebicii (AefieKioi, AiPiKol),a
Gallic tribe in GalUa Transpadana who occu
pied the territory about the entrance to Val
Sesia, and Val d' Aosta ; their chief town was
VerceUae (Pol. ii. 17 ; Ptol. hi. 1, 36 ; Liv.
xxi. 38; PUn. iii. 123).
Liburnia, a district of Hlyricum, along the
coast of the Adriatic sea, was separated from
Istria on the NW. by the river Arsia, and from
Dalmatia on the S. by the river Titius, thus
corresponding to the W. part of Croatia, and
the N. part of the modern Dalmatia. The
country is mountainous and unproductive, and
its inhabitants, the Liburni, supported them
selves chiefly by commerce and navigation, and
also by piracy. They were sMlful saUors, and
they appear to have been the first people who
had the sway of the waters of the Adriatic.
They took possession of most of the islands of
tMs sea as far as Corcyra, and had settlements
even on the opposite coast of Italy. Their
sMps were remarkable for their swift saUing,
and hence vessels built after the same model
were called Liburnicae or Liburnae naves.
(Liv. x. 2, xiii. 48 ; Caes. B. C. iii. 5 ; Hor.
Epod. i. 1 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Navis.) The
Liburnians were the first Hlyrian people who
submitted to the Romans. Being hard pressed
by the Iapydes on the N. and by the Dalma
tians on the S., they sought the protection of
Rome. Hence we find that many of their
towns were immunes, or exempt from taxes.
The islands of the coast were reckoned a part of
Liburnia and are known as Liburnides or Li
burnicae Insulae. [Illyricum.]
Libya (AiBin), daughter of Epaphus and
Memphis, from whom Libya (Africa) is said to
have derived its name. By Poseidon she be
came the mother of Agenor, Belus, and Lelex.
(Paus. i. 44, 3 ; ApoUod. ii. 1, 4.)
Libya (AiBiv : Ai0ves, Libyes). 1. The Greek
name for the continent of Africa to general.
[Africa.] — 2. L. Interior (A. r) ivrbs), the
whole interior of Africa, as distinguished from
the well-known regions on the N. and NE.
coasts. — 3. Libya, specifically, or Libyae No
mos (AiBvtis vopbs), a district of N. Africa, be
tween Egypt and Marmarica, so caUed because
it once formed an Egyptian Nomos. It is
sometimes caUed Libya Exterior. (Plin. v. 39,
50 ; Aegyptus ; Africa.)
Libyci Montes (to AiBvKbv bpos : Jebel Sel-
seleh), the range of mountains which form the
W. margin of the valley of the Nile. [Aegyptus.]
' Libycum Mare (rb AiBvKbv ireXayos), the
part of the Mediterranean between the island of
Crete and the N. coast of Africa (Strab. pp.
122,488). Libyphoenlces (AiBvipoiviKes, AiBotyoiviKes),
a term applied to the people of those parts of
N. Africa in which the Phoenicians had founded

LICINIUS 489
colonies, and especially to the inhabitants of
the Phoenician cities on the coast of the Cartha
ginian territory : it is derived from the fact that
these people were a mixed race of the Libyan
natives and the Phoenician settlers (Liv. xx.
22 ; Diod. xx. 55).
Libyssa (AiBvoaa : Herekeh ?), a town of Bi
thynia, in Asia Minor, on the N. coast of the
Sinus Astacenus, W. of Nicomedia, celebrated
as the place where the tomb of Hannibal was to
be seen (Ptol. v. 1, 18 ; Plin. v. 148).
Licates or Licatii, a people of Vindelicia on
the E. bank of the river Licus or Licia (Lech),
one of the fiercest of the Vindelician tribes
(Strab. j>. 206),
Lichades (AiyaSes : Ponticonesi), three small
islands between Euboea and the coast of Locris,
caUed Scarphia, Caresa, and Phocaria. [See
Lichas, No. 1.]
Lichas (Ai'xas). I. An attendant of Heracles,
brought Ms master the poisoned garment wMch
destroyed the hero. [See p. 400, a.] Heracles,
in anguish and wrath, threw Lichas into the
sea, and the Lichadian islands were believed to
have derived their name from him. (Strab. pp.
426, 447 ; Ov. Met. ix. 155.)— 2. A Spartan, son
of ArcesUaus, was proxerus of Argos, and is
frequently mentioned to the Peloponnesian
war. He was famous throughout Greece for
Ms hospitality, especiaUy in his entertainment
of strangers at the Gymnopaedia. (Thuc. v.
14, 22, 76, viii. 18 ; Xen. Mem. i. 2, 61.)
Licia or Licus. [Licates.]
Licinia. 1. A Vestal virgin, accused of incest,
together with two other Vestals, Aemilia and
Marcia, B.C. 114. L. MeteUus, the pontifex
maximus, condemned Aemilia, but acquitted
Lictoia and Marcia. The acquittal of the two
last caused such dissatisfaction that the people
appointed L. Cassius Longinus to investigate
the matter ; and he condemned both Licinia and
Marcia (Macrob. i. 10).— 2. Wife of C. Sem-
promus Gracchus, the celebrated tribune. —
3. Daughter of Crassus the orator, and wife of
the younger Marius.
Licinia Gens, a celebrated plebeian house, to
which belonged C. Licinius Calvus Stolo, whose
exertions threw open the consulship to the ple
beians. Its most distinguished families at a
later time were those of Crassus, Lucullus
and Murena. There were likewise numerous
other surnames in the gens, which are also given
in their proper places.
Licinius. 1. C. Licinius Calvus, surnamed
Stolo, which he derived, it is said, from the care
with which he dug up the shoots that sprang up
from the roots of his vines (Varro, B. B. i. 2).
He brought the contest between the patricians
and plebeians to a happy termination and thus
became the founder of Rome's greatness. He
was tribune of the people from B.C. 376 to 367,
and was faithfully supported in Ms exertions by
his colleague L. Sextius. The laws which he
proposed were : (1) That in future no more con
sular tribunes should be appointed, but that
consuls should be elected, one of whom should
always be a plebeian. (2) That no one should
possess more than 500 jugera of the public land,
or keep upon it more than 100 head of large
and 500 of small cattle. (3) A law regulating
the affairs between debtor and creditor. (4) That
the Sibylline books should be entrusted to a
college of ten men (decemviri), half of whom
should be plebeians. [Diet, of Ant. art. Leges
Liciniae.] These rogations were passed after
a most vehement opposition on the part of the
patricians, and L. Sextus was the first plebeian

490

LICINIUS

who obtained the consulsMp, 366. Licinius
himself was elected twice to the consulship, 364
and 361. Some years later he was accused by
M. Popilius Laenas of having transgressed his
own law respecting the amount of public land
which a person might possess. He was con
demned and sentenced to pay a heavy fine.
(Liv. vi. 35, 42, vii. 1, 9, 16 ; Val. Max. viii. 6, 3.)
— 2. C. Licinius Macer, an annalist and an orator,
was a man of praetorian dignity, who, when im
peached (66) of extortion by Cicero, finding that
the verdict was against him, forthwith committed
suicide before the formalities of the trial were
completed. His Annates commenced with the
very origin of the city, and extended to twenty-
one books at least ; but how far he brought
down his Mstory, is unknown. (Val. Max. ix.
12 ; Plut. Cic. 9 ; Cic. Brut. 82, 238, Legg. i. 7 ;
Liv. iv. 7, vii. 9.) — 3. C. Licinius Macer Calvus,
son of the last, a distinguished orator and poet,
was born in 82, and died about 47 or 46, in his
35th or 36th year. His most celebrated oration
was delivered against Vatinius, who was de
fended by Cicero, when he was only 27 years of
age. So powerful was the effect produced by
this speech, that the accused utarted up in the
midst of the pleading, and passionately ex
claimed, 'Rogo vos, judices, num, si iste diser-
tus est, ideo me damnari opcrteat ? ' His poems
were full of wit and grace, and possessed suffi
cient merit to be classed by the ancients with
those of CatuUus. His elegies, especially that
on the untimely death of his mistress QuintiUa,
have been warmly extolled by Catullus, Pro-
pertius, and Ovid. Calvus was remarkable for
the shortness of Ms stature, and hence the
vehement action in which he indulged while
pleading was in such ludicrous contrast with his
insignificant person, that even his friend
Catullus has not been able to resist a joke, and
has presented Mm to us as the ' Salaputium
disertum,' 'the eloquent Tom Thumb.' (Cic.
Brut. 82, 279, 283 ; Quint, x. 1, 115 : CatuU. 96 ;
Propert. ii. 19, 40 ; Ov. Am. iii. 9, 61.)
Licinius, Roman emperor a.d. 307-324, whose
full name was Publius Flavius Galerius
Valerius Licinianus Licinius. He was a
Dacian peasant by birth, and the early friend
and companion in arms of the emperor Galerius,
by whom he was raised to the rank of Augustus,
and invested with the command of the Hlyrian
provinces at Carmentum, on the 11th of Novem
ber, A.D. 307. Upon the death of Galerius in
811, he concluded a peaceful arrangement with
Maximinus II., in virtue of which the Helles
pont and the Bosporus were to form the boun
dary of the two empires. In 313 he married
at Milan, Constantia, the sister of Constantine,
and in the same year set out to encounter
Maximinus, who had invaded his dominions.
Maximinus was defeated by Licinius near
Heraclea, and died a few months afterwards at
Tarsus. Licinius and Constantine were now
the only emperors, and each was anxious to
obtain the undivided sovereignty. Accordingly
war broke out between them in 315. Licinius
was defeated at Cibalis in Pannonia, and after
wards at Adrianople, and was compelled to
purchase peace by ceding to Constantine
Greece, Macedonia, and Illyricum. This peace
lasted about nine years, at the end of which
time hostilities were renewed. The great battle
of Adrianople (July, 323), followed by the re
duction of Byzantium, and a second great
victory achieved near Chalcedon (September),
placed Licinius at the mercy of Constantine,
who, although he spared his Ufe for the moment,

LIGARIUS
soon found a convenient pretext for putting him
to death, 324. (Vict. Caes. 40, 41 ; Zosim. ii.
7-28 ; Eutrop. x. 3.)
Licinus. 1. A Gaul by birth, was taken
prisoner to war, and became a slave of Julius
Caesar, whose confidence he gained so much as
to be made Ms dispensator or steward. Caesar
gave Mm Ms freedom. He also gained the
favour of Augustus, who appointed him in b.c.
15 governor of his native country, Gaul. By
the plunder of Gaul and by other means he
acquired enormous wealth, and hence his name
is frequently coupled with that of Crassus. He
lived to see the reign of Tiberius. (Dio Cass.
Liv. 21; Suet. Aug. 67; Juv. i. 109.) To tMs
Licinus, and not, as the scholiast says, to the
barber of Hor. A.P. 301, refers the couplet :
Marmoreo tumulo Licinus jacet, at Cato parvo,
Pompeius nulio ; quis putet esse deos ?
and the answer, of later date :
Saxa premunt Licinum : levat altum fama Catonem,
Pompeium tituli : credimus esse deos.
— 2. Clodius Licinus, a Roman annalist, who
lived about the beginning of the first century
b.c, wrote the history of Rome from its capture
by the Gauls to Ms own time (Suet. Gr. 20 ;
Liv. xxix. 22). This Clodius is frequently con
founded with Q. Claudius Quadrigarius. [Quad-
rigarius.]— 3. L. Porcius Licinus, plebeian
aedile, 210, and praetor 207, when he obtained
Cisalpine Gaul as Ms province (Liv. xxvi. 6,
xxvii. 46). — 4. L. Porcius Licinus, praetor 193,
with Sardinia as his province, and consul 184,
when he carried on war agatost the Ligurians
(Liv. xl. 34).— 5. Porcius Licinus, a Roman
poet, who probably lived to the latter part of
the second century b.c. (Gell. xix. 9).
Licymnia, spoken of by Horace (Od. ii. 12,
13 seq.), is said by old commentators to be
meant for Terentia, the wife of Maecenas, but
it is unlikely that he should have ventured so
to write about her, and the name is probably
imaginary. Licymnius (AtKipvios). 1. Son of Electryon
and the Phrygian slave Midea, and consequently
half-brother of Alcmene. He was married to
Perimede, by whom he became the father of
Oeonus, Argeus, and Melas. He was a friend
of Heracles, whose son Tlepolemus slew him —
according to some, unintentionally, and accord
ing to otherB, in a fit of anger. (Pind. Ol. vii. 29 ;
Apollod. ii. 8, 2 : Paus. ii. 22, 8, iii. 15, 4.)— 2.
Of Chios, a dithyrambic poet, of uncertain date.
Some writers place him before Simonides ; but
it is perhaps more likely that he belonged to
the later Athenian dithyrambic school about
the end of the fourth century B.C. (Ar. Bhet. iii.
12; Athen. pp. 564, 603).— 3. Of Sicily, a rhe
torician, pupil of Gorgias, and teacher of Polus
(Plat. Phaedr. p. 267 ; Ar. Bhet. iii. 2, 13).
Lide (AiSn), a mountain of Caria, above
Pedasus (Hdt. i. 175).
Ligarius, Q., was legate, to Africa, of C.
Considius Longus, who left him to command of
the province, B.C. 50. Next year (49) Ligarius
resigned the government of the province into
the hands of L. Attius Varus. Ligarius fought
under Varus against Curio to 49, and against
Caesar himself in 46. After the battle of Thap-
sus, Ligarius was taken prisoner at Adrumetum ;
his life was spared, but he was banished by
Caesar. Meantime, a public accusation was
brought against Ligarius by Q. Aelius Tubero.
The case was pleaded before Caesar himself in
the forum. Cicero defended Ligarius in a speech
still extant, in which he maintains that Ligarius

LIGER
had as much claim to the mercy of Caesar as
Tubero and Cicero himself. Ligarius was par
doned by Caesar, who was on the point of setiing
out for the Spanish war. Ligarius joined the
conspirators who assassinated Caesar in 44.
Ligarius and his two brothers perished in the
proscription of the triumvirs in 48. (Cic. pro
Lig., ad Fam. vi. 18, ad Att. xiii. 12, 19; App.
B.G. ii. 118 ; Plut. Cic. 39, Brut. 11.)
Liger or Ligeris (Loire), one of the largest
rivers in Gaul, rises in M. Cevenna, flows
through the territories of the Arverni, Aedui, and
Carnutes, and falls into the Atlantic between
the territories of the Namnetes and Pictones
(Caes. B.G. vii. 5 ; Strab. p. 189 ; TibuU. i. 7,
11 ; Lucan, i. 438).
Liguria (r) Aiyvo-rucr), r) Aiyvo-rlvri), a dis
trict of Italy, was, in the time of Augustus,
bounded on the W. by the river Varus, and the
Maritime Alps, which separated it from Trans
alpine Gaul ; on the SE. by the river Maera,
which separated it from Etruria ; on the N. by
the river Po, and on the S. by the Mare Ligusti-
cum. The country is very mountainous and
unproductive, as the Maritime Alps and the
Apennines run tMough the greater part of it.
The mountains run almost down to the coast,
leaving only space sufficient for a road, which
formed the highway from Italy to the S. of
Gaul. The chief occupation of the inhabitants
was the rearing and feeding of cattle. The
numerous forests on the mountains produced
exceUent timber, wMch, with the other products
of the country, was exported from Genua, the
principal town of the country. The tohabitants
were called by the Greeks Ligyes (Aiyves) and
Ligystini (Aiyvo-rivoi) and by the Romans
Ligures (sing. Ligus, more rarely Ligur). It
is probable that the Ligurians, like the Iberians,
were remains of a people who occupied great
part of SW. Europe before the arrival of Aryan
nations, and afterwards were graduaUy com
pressed into the strips of coastland to the S. of
Gaul and N. of Italy. A part of the same
race formed the native population of Corsica.
The Greeks probably became acquainted with
them first from the Samians and Phocaeans,
who visited their coasts for the purposes of
commerce ; and so powerful were they con
sidered at this time that Hesiod names them,
along with the Scythians and Ethiopians, as a
great people (Hes. ap. Strab. p. 300). Tradi
tion also related that Heracles fought with the
Ligurians on the plain of stones near MassUia
(Aesch. ap. Strab. p. 183) ; and even a writer so
late as Eratosthenes gave the name of Ligystice
to the whole of the W. peninsula of Europe
(cf. Hdt. v. 9 ; Thuc. vi. 2 ; Strab. p. 203). So
widely were they believed to be spread that the
Ligyes in Germany and Asia were supposed to
be a branch of the same people. The Ligurian
tribes were divided by the Romans into Ligures
Transalpini and Cisalpini. The tribes which
inhabited the Maritime Alps were called in
general Alpini, and also Capillati or Comati,
from their custom of allowing their hair to
grow long (Dio Cass. liv. 24 ; Lucan, i. 442).
The tribes which inhabited the Apennines were
called Montani. The names of the principal
tribes were : — On the W. side of the Alps, the
Salves or Salluvii, Oxybii, and Deciates; on
the E. side of the Alps, the Intemelii, Ingauni,
and Apuani near the coast, the Vagienni,
Salassi, and Taurini on the upper courBe of
the Po, and the Laevi and Marisci N. of the
Po. — The Ligurians were small of stature, but
strong, active and brave. In early times they

LIMAEA

491

served as mercenaries in the armies of the-
Carthaginians, and subsequently they carried
on a long and fierce struggle with the Romans.
Their country was invaded for the first time by
the Romans in b.c. 288; but itwas not till after
the termination of the second Punic war and
the defeat of Philip and Antiochus that the
Romans were able to devote their energies to
the subjugation of Liguria. It was many years,
however, before the whole country was finally
subdued. Whole tribes, such as the Apuani,
were transplanted to Samnium, and their place
supplied by Roman colonists. The country
was divided between the provinces of GaUia
Narbonensis and Gallia Cisalpina ; and in the
time of Augustus and of the succeeding em
perors, the tribes in the mountains were placed
under the government of an imperial procura
tor, called Procurator or Praefectus Alpium
Maritimarum. It formed the 9th region.
Under Diocletian the 11th region (Trans
padana) was included with the 9th under the
single name Liguria, with Mediolanum (Milan)
as its chief town.
Ligusticum Mare, the name originally of the
whole sea S. of Gaul and of the NW. of Italy,
but subsequently only the E. part of this sea,
or the Gulf of Genoa, whence later writers
speak only of a Sinus Ligusticus (Strab. p. 122).
Lilaea (AiXaia : AiXaievs), an ancient town in
Phocis, near the sources of the Cephissus
(Strab. p. 4" 7; Paus. ix. 24, x. 33).
Lilybaeum (AiXvBaiov : Marsala), a town in
the W. of Sicily, with an excellent harbour,
situated on a promontory of the same name (C
Boeo or di Marsala), opposite to the Prom.

Coin of Lilybaeum.
Obv., head of Apollo ; rev., aiaybaitan ; Lyrs.
Hermaeum or Mercurii (C. Bon) in Africa, the
space between the two being the shortest dis
tance between Sicily and Africa. The town of
Lilybaeum was founded by the Carthaginians
about B.C. 397, and was made the principal Car
thaginian fortress to SicUy. It was surrounded
by massive walls and by a trench 60 feet wide
and 40 feet deep. On the destruction of Seli
nus in 249, the inhabitants of the latter city
were transplanted to LUybaeum, which thus
became still more powerful. Lilybaeum was
besieged by the Romans in the first Punic war,
but they were unable to take it ; and they only
obtained possession of it by the treaty of peace.
Under the Romans Lilybaeum continued to be
a place of importance. At Marsala, which
occupies only the S. half of the ancient town,
there are the ruins of a Roman aqueduct, and a
few other ancient remains. (Pol. i. 42 ; Strab.
pp. 122, 265 ; Diod. v. 2, xiii. 54.)
Limaea, Limia, Limius, Belion (Lima), a,
river in Gallaecia in Spain, between the Durius
and the Minius, which flowed into the Atlantic
Ocean. It was also called the river of Forget-
fulness (b rr)s Ai)Bris, Flumen Oblivionis) ; and
it is said to have been so called, because the
Turduli and the Celts on one occasion lost her©

492

LIMENIA

their commander, and forgot the object of their
expedition. This legend was so generally be
hoved that it was with difficulty that Brutus
Gallaicus could induce his soldiers to cross the
river when he invaded GaUaecia, B.C. 136. On
the banks of this river dwelt a small tribe called
Limici. (Strab. p. 153 ; Plin. iv. 115 ; Sil. Ital.
i. 285, xvi. 476 : Plut. Q. B. 34.)
Limenia (Aipevla: Limna),s,townoi Cyprus,
a little S. of Soli (Strab. p. 683).
Limites Roniani, the name of a continuous
series of fortifications, consisting of castles,
walls, earthen ramparts, and the like, which the
Romans erected along the Rhine and the
Danube, to protect their possessions from the
attacks of the Germans. [Germania ; Rhaetia.]
Limnae (Aipvai, Aipvaios). 1. A town in
. Messenia, on the frontiers of Laconia, with a
temple of Artemis, who was hence surnamed
Limnatis. TMs temple was common to the
people of both countries; and the outrage
which the Messenian youth committed against
some Lacedaemonian maidens, who were sacri
ficing at this temple, was the occasion of the
first Messenian war. Limnae was situated in
the Ager DentheUatis, which district was a
subject of constant dispute between the Lace
daemonians and Messenians after the re-
establishment of the Messenian independence
by Epaminondas. (Strab. p. 257 ; Paus. iii. 2,
6, iv. 31, 3 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 43.) — 2. A town in
the Thracian Chersonesus on the Hellespont,
founded by the Milesians. — 3. See Sparta.
Limnaea (Aipvaia: Aipvaios), a town to Acar
nania, on the road from Argos Amphilochicum
to Stratos, and near the Ambracian gulf, on
which it had a harbour (Thuc. ii. 80; Pol. v. 5).
Limonum. [Pictones.]
Llmyra (rh Aipvpa: Ru. N. of Phineka ?), a
city in the SE. of Lycia, on the river Limyrus,
twenty stadia from its mouth (Strab. p. 666 ;
Ov. Met. ix. 646).
Limyrus (Aipvpos : Phineka 1), a river of
Lycia, flowing into the bay W. of the Sacrum
Promontorium (Phineka Bay) : navigable as
far up as Limyra. Recent travellers differ as
to whether the present river Phineka is the
Limyra or its tributary the Arycandus. (Strab.
p. 666 ; Plin. y. 100.)
Lindum (Lincoln), a town of the Coritani, in
Britain, on the road from Londinium to Ebora
cum, and a Roman colony. The modern name
Lincoln has been formed out of Lindum
Colonia. (Ptol. ii. 3, 30.)
Lindus (AivSos : AivSios : Lindo, Ru.), on the
E. Bide of the island of Rhodes, was one of the
most ancient Dorian colonies on the Asiatic
coast. It is mentioned by Homer (II. ii. 656),
with its kindred cities, Ialysus and Camirus.
These three cities, with Cos, Cnidus, and Hali
carnassus, formed the original Hexapolis, in the
SW. corner of Asia Minor. Lindus stood upon
a mountain to a district abounding in vines and
figs, and had two celebrated temples, one of
Athene surnamed AivSia, and one of Heracles.
It was the birthplace of Cleobulus, one of the
seven wise men, to whom is ascribed the
' swallow-song ' which the boys of Lindus used
to sing when they went round collecting gifts at
the return of summer (Athen. p. 860). It re
tained much of its consequence even after the
foundation of Rhodes. [Rhodus.] Inscriptions
of importance have been found in its Acropolis.
(Hdt. ii 182 ; Diod. v. 58, xii. 75 ; Strab. p. 655.)
Lingones. 1. A powerful people to Trans
alpine Gaul, whose territory extended from the
foot of Mt. Vogesus and the sources of the Ma-

LIRIS
trona and Mosa, N. as far as the Treviri, and S.
as far as the Sequani, from whom they were
separated by the river Arar. The emperor Otho
gave them the Roman franchise. Their cMef
town was Andematurinum, afterwards Lingones
(Langres). (Caes. B. G. iv. 10; Pol. ii. 19, 9;
Lucan, i. 395; Strab. p. 193, who, however,
seems to be mistaken in placing the Medioma-
trici, instead of the Leuci, next to the Lingones.)
 2. A branch of the above-mentioned people,
who migrated into Cisalpine Gaul along with
the Boii, and shared the fortunes of the latter.
[Boil] They dwelt E. of the Boii as far as the
Adriatic sea in the neighbourhood of Ravenna.
(Pol. ii. 17 ; Liv. v. 35.)
Linternum. [Liternum.]
Linus (Aivos), is represented in mythology as
a hero whose early death is lamented in a dirge,
' the song of Linus,' which was sung as a har
vest song as early as the time of Homer (II.
xviii. 570). Although he was clearly originally
a harvest deity, yet his connexion with the
song gives him in mythology a musical paren
tage, and he is described in the Argive tradition
as the son of Apollo by Calliope, or by Psama-
the daughter of the king of Argos. The Theban
tradition makes Mm the son of Urania, and Ma
father is Amphimarus, son of Poseidon, which
points to an earlier or ' Pelasgian ' origin.
(Paus. i. 43, 7, ii. 19, 7, ix. 29, 3.) Argive tra
dition related, that Linus was exposed by his
mother after his birth, and was brought up by
shepherds, but was afterwards torn to pieces by
dogs. Psamathe's grief at the occurrence be
trayed her misfortune to her father, who con-
demned her to death. Apollo, indignant at the
father's cruelty, visited Argos with a plague ;
and, in obedience to an oracle, the Argives en
deavoured to propitiate Psamathe and Linus
by means of sacrifices. Matrons and virgins
sang dirges which were caUed Xivot, and the
festival was called Arneis because Linus had
grown up among lambs. According to the
Boeotian tradition Linus was killed by Apollo,
because he had ventured upon a musical contest
with the god ; and every year, before sacrifices
were offered to the Muses, a funeral sacrifice
was offered to him, and dirges (AiVoi) were sung
in his honour. A somewhat similar, but later,
tradition makes him teach Heracles, who
struck him with a lyre when he was reproved,
and killed him. (Theocr. xxiv. 108 ; Diod. iii.
67; ApoUod. ii. 4, 9; Athen. p. 164.) His tomb
was claimed by Argos and by Thebes, and like
wise by Chalcis in Euboea. (Hes. ap. Clem.
Alex. p. 330 ; Apollod. i. 3, 2 ; Paus. ii. 19, 7 ;
Verg. Eel. iv. 57.) In the myth of Linus,
which in some respects resembles those of
Hyacinthus, Adonis, and Glaucus, the death of
the vegetation under the hot summer sun
seems to be symbolised. Linus as a god of
vegetation became identified with the vegeta
tion itself, and especially the corn, and it is
likely enough that in the earliest rites there
were sacrifices such as belonged to many primi
tive harvest superstitions; but the song only
remained. Among shepherds he was in the same
manner invoked to give increase of lambs.
Lipara and Liparenses Insulae. (Aeoliae.]
Liparis (Alirapis), a small river of Cilicia,
flowing past Soloe (Plin. v. 98).
Liquentia (Livenza), a river in Venetia in
the N. of Italy between Altinum and Concordia,
which flowed into the Sinus Tergestinus (Serv.
ad Aen. ix. 679).
Liris (Garigliano), more anciently called
Clanis, or Glanis, one of the principal rivers

LISSUS
m central Italy, rises in the Apennines W. of
lake Fucinus, flows first through the territory
of the Marsi in a SE.-ly direction, then turns
SW. near Sora, and at last flows SE. into the
Sinus Caietanus near Minturnae, forming the
boundary between Latium and Campania. Its
stream, except where its course was winding
and tranquil, was sluggish ; whence the ' Liris
quieta aqua ' and the ' taci turnus amnis ' (Hor.
Od. i. 81, 8; cf. Sil. It. iv. 848).
Lissus (Aicro-o's : Alamos, Aio-creis). 1. (Ales-
sio), a town to the S. of DaMiatia, at the mouth
of the river Drilon, founded by Dionysius of
Syracuse, B.C. 385. It was situated on a hill
near the coast, and possessed a strongly fortified
acropolis, caUed Acrolissus, wMch was con
sidered impregnable. The town afterwards fell
into the hands of the Blyrians, and was eventu
ally colonised by the Romans. (Diod. xv. IS ;
Pol. ii. 12; Strab. p. 316 ; Caes. B.C. iii. 26.)—
2. A small river in TMace, W. of the Hebrus.
Lista (S. Anatoglia), a town of the Sabines,
S. of Reate, is said to have been the capital of
the Aborigines, from which they were driven
out by the Sabines (Dionys. i. 14).
Lita (Litani), a river of Syria which rises in
Antilibanus, near Heliopolis (Baalbee), and
flows into the sea a Uttle N. of Tyre. It is some
times wrongly called Leontes. (Ptol. v. 15.)
Litana Silva (Silva di Luge), a large forest
on the Apennines in Cisalpine Gaul, SE. of
Mutina, to which the Romans were defeated
by the Gauls, b.c. 216 (Liv. xxin. 24, xxxiv. 22).
Liternum or Linternum (Patria), a town on
the coast of Campania, at the mouth of the
river Clanius or Glanis, wMch in the lower part
of its course takes the name of Lit emus (Patria
or Clanio), and which flows through a marsh
to the N. of the town called Literna Palus.
The town was made a Roman colony B.C. 194,
and was recolonised by Augustus. It was to
tMs place that the elder Scipio Africanus
retired when the tribunes attempted to bring
him to trial, and here he is said to have died.
His tomb was shown at Liternum ; but some
maintained that he was buried in the family
sepulctoe near the Porta Capena at Rome.
(Strab. p. 243 ; Liv. xxxii. 29, xxxvni. 52 ; Sen.
Ep.m; Val. Max. v. 3, 1.)
Lityerses (AiTt/e'p<r?)s), was said to have been
the son of Midas who dwelt at Celaenae in
Phrygia, and compelled all strangers who came
past Ms fields to work at his harvest, but if
they f aUed to surpass him in Ms work he cut
off their heads and Md their bodies in the
sheaves, over which a harvest-song was sung.
Heracles vanquished him in reaping and slew
Mm, and his memory was preserved to a har
vest-song caUed Lityerses. (Schol. ad Theocr. x.
41 ; Athen. pp. 615, 619 : Eustath. ad Hom. p.
1164; PoUux, iv. 54; Suid. s. v.; cf. Linus.)
The myth points to superstitions apparent in
the folk-lore of many countries, of which some
remnants stiU exist. Lityerses was, no doubt,
originally a god of the corn to whom human
sacrifice was made, possibly in some places the
sacrifice of anyone who chanced to pass when
the last sheaf was cut. TMs sacrifice, in a
less savage generation, was replaced by a figure
placed in the last sheaf, or by the last sheaf
itself made up more or less in the shape of a
human figure, such as still is the bundle of
corn from the last sheaf called ' the maiden ' in
parts of Scotland. The old 'Lityerses' song
remained, and the myth of his contests and Ms
.death was invented to account for tMs custom ;
for it must be recollected that the victim sacri-

LIVIA

493

ficed to the harvest god, whether a human being
or an animal or a dummy figure, would repre
sent for the time being the corn-deity himself.
Livia. 1. Sister of M. Livius Drusus, the
celebrated tribune, B.C. 91, was married first to
M. Porcius Cato, by whom she had Cato Uti-
censis, and subsequently to Q. Servilius Caepio,
by whom she had a daughter, Servilia, the
mother of M. Brutus, who killed Caesar.— 2.
Livia Drusilla, the daughter of Livius Drusus
Claudianus [Drusus, No. 3], was married first
to Tib. Claudius Nero: and afterwards to
Augustus, who compelled her husband to
divorce her, B.C. 38. She had already borne
her husband one son, the future emperor
Tiberius, and at the time of her marriage with
Augustus was six months pregnant with
another, who subsequently received the name
of Drusus. She never had any children by
Augustus, but she retained his affection till his
death. It was generaUy believed that she caused
C. Caesar and L. Caesar, the two grandsons of

Augustus, to be poisoned, in order to secure the
succession of her own children, though no
evidence against her was alleged except that
their death was convenient for her schemes
(Tac. Ann. i. 3, 10 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 101, 102 ; Dio
Cass. Iv. 11). If she was unscrupulous in the
pursuit of her objects, she deserves credit for
councils of clemency both to Augustus and
Tiberius (Dio Cass. lvi. 47, lviii. 2 ; Veil. Pat.
ii. 130). On the accession of her son Tiberius
to the throne, she at first attempted to obtain
an equal share in the government ; but this the
jealous temper of Tiberius would not brook.
He commanded her to retire altogether from
public affairs, and soon displayed even hatred
towards her. When she was on her death-bed
he refused to visit her. She died in A.D. 29, at
the age of 82 or 86. Tiberius took no part in
the funeral rites, and forbade her consecration,
which had been proposed by the senate, but
was not carried out till the reign of Claudius.
(Tac. Ann. v. 1, 2 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 5 ; Suet. Tib.

494

LIVIA

SO, 61.) — 3. Or Livilla, the daughter of Drusus
senior and Antonia, and the wife of Drusus
junior, the son of the emperor Tiberius. She
was seduced by Sejanus, who persuaded her to
poison her husband, A.D. 23. Her guilt was not
discovered tiU the fall of Sejanus, eight years
afterwards, 81. (Suet. Claud. 1 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 48,
84, iv. 1, vi. 2.) — 4. Julia Livilla, daughter of
Germanicus and Agrippina. [Julia, No. 7.]
Livia Gens, plebeian, but one of the most
Ulustrious houses among the Roman nobility.
The Livii obtained eight consulships, two cen-
aorsMps, three triumphs, a dictatorship, and a
mastership of the horse. The most distin
guished families are those of Drusus and
Salinator. Livius, T., the Roman historian, was born
at Patavium (Padua), in the N. of Italy, B.C. 59.
The greater part of his life appears to have
been spent in Rome, but he returned to Ms
native town before his death, wMch happened
at the age of 76, in the fourth year of Tiberius,
a.d. 17. (Mart. i. 61, 3 ; Plut. Caes. 47 ; Euseb.
Chron. 1958, 2033 ; Sen. Ep. 100, 9 ; Quint, x.
1, 39.) His literary talents secured the pa
tronage and friendship of Augustus; he became
& person of consideration at court, and by his
¦advice Claudius, afterwards emperor, was in
duced in early Ufe to attempt historical compo
sition (Liv. iv 29 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 84 ; Suet.
Claud. 417). EventuaUy, Ms reputation rose
so Mgh and became so widely diffused, that a
Spaniard travelled from Cadiz to Rome solely
for the purpose of beholding him, and having
gratified his curiosity in this one particular,
immediately returned home (Plin. Ep. ii. 3).
The great and only extant work of Livy is a
History of Rome, termed by Mmself Annates
(xliii. 13), extending from the foundation of the
city to the death of Drusus, B.C. 9, comprised in
142 books. Of these 35 have descended to us ;
but of the whole, with the exception of two, we
possess Epitomes, which must have been drawn
up by one who was well acquainted with his
subject. By some they have been ascribed to
Livy himself, by others to Florus ; but there is
nothing in the language or context to warrant
either of these conclusions ; and external evi
dence is altogether wanting. From the cir
cumstance that a short introduction or preface
is found at the beginning of books i, xxi. and
xxxi., and that each of these marks the commence
ment of an important epoch, the whole work
has been divided into decades, containing ten
books each. This arrangement was of a later
date, and cannot be traced earlier than Vic-
, torianus. Livy Mmself speaks merely of books
(x. 81, xxi. 1). The first decade (books i.-x.) is
entire. It embraces the period from the foun
dation of the city to the year b.c. 294, when the
subjugation of the Samnites may be said to have
been completed. The second decade (books
xi.-xx.) is altogether lost. It embraced the
period from 294 to 219, comprising an account,
among other matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus
and of the first Punic war. The third decade
(books xxi.-xxx.) is entire. It embraces the
period from 219 to 201, comprehending the
whole of the second Punic war. The fourth
decade (books xxxi.-xl.) is entire, and also one-
half of the fifth (books xli.-xlv.). These 15
books embrace the period from 201 to 167, and
develop the progress of the Roman arms to
Cisalpine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece, and Asia,
ending with the triumph of Aemilius PauluB.
Of the remaining books nothing remains except
inconsiderable fragments, the most notable

LIVIUS
being a few chapters of the 91st book, concern
ing the fortunes of Sertorius. The composition
of such a vast work necessarily occupied many
years ; and we find indications which throw
some light upon the epochs when different sec
tions were composed. Thus to book i. (c. 19)
it is stated that the temple of Janus had been
closed twice only since the reign of Numa, for
the first time in the consulsMp of T. Manlius
(B.C. 235), a few years after the termination of
the first Punic war ; for the second time by
Augustus Caesar, after the battle of Actium, in
29. But we know that it was shut again by
Augustus after the conquest of the Canta-
brians, in 25 ; and hence it is evident that the
first book must have been written between the
years 29 and 25. Moreover, since the last book
contained an account of the death of Drusus, it
is evident that the task must have been spread
over 17 years, and probably occupied a much
longer time. — The style of Livy may be pro
nounced almost faultless. The narrative flows
on in a calm but strong current ; the diction
displays richness without heaviness, and sim
plicity without tameness. There is, moreover,
a distinctness of outline and a warmth of
colouring to all his delineations, whether of
living men in action, or of things inanimate,
wMch never fail to caU up the whole scene
before our eyes. (For the verdict of antiquity
see Sen. Suas. vi. 21 ; Tac. Agr. 10 ; Quint, x.
1, 101.) — In judging of the merits of Livy as a
Mstorian, we are bound to ascertain, if possible,
the end which he proposed to himself. No one
who reads Livy with attention can suppose that
he ever conceived the project of drawing up a
critical history of Rome. His aim was to offer
to Ms countrymen a clear and pleasing narra
tive, wMch, wMle it gratified their vanity, should
present what he honestly believed himself to be
a true account, or, at least, not improbable. To
effect this purpose he studied with care the
writings of some of his more celebrated prede
cessors on Roman Mstory. Where his authorities
were in accordance with each other, he generally
rested satisfied with this agreement; where
their testimony was irreconcileable, he was con
tent to point out their want of harmony, and
occasionally to offer an opinion on their com
parative credibility. But in no case did he ever
dream of ascending to the fountain head. He
never attempted to test the accuracy of his
authorities by examining monuments of remote
antiquity, of which not a few were accessible to
every inhabitant of the metropoUs. Thus, it is
perfectly clear that he had never read the
Leges Regiae, nor the Commentaries of Servius
TuUius, nor even the Licinian Rogations ; and
that he had never consulted the vast coUection
of decrees of the senate, ordinances of the
plebs, treaties, and other state papers,- wMch
were preserved in the city. Nay, more, he did
not always consult even all the authors to whom
he might have resorted with advantage, Buch as
Fabius Pictor and Piso. And even those
writers whose authority he foUowed he did not
use in the most judicious manner. His chief
authorities, where he had not Polybius as his
guide, were Valerius Antias (whom he does
not at first mistrust ; see p. 78), Licinius Macer,
Claudius Quadrigarius, Coelius Antipater (espe
cially for the Hannibalian war), and Aelius
Tubero ; and in some cases his acceptance of
conflicting accounts has led to inconsistencies.
Other mistakes also have been noticed, arising
from his never having acquired even the ele
ments of the military art, of jurisprudence, or

LIVIUS
of political economy, and from imperfect know
ledge of geography. But while we fully ac
knowledge these defects in Livy, we cannot
admit that his general good faith has ever been
impugned with any show of justice. We are
assured (Tac. Ann. iv. 34) that he was fair and
liberal upon matters of contemporary history ;
we know that he praised Cassius and Brutus,
that Ms character of Cicero was a Mgh eulogium,
and that he spoke bo warmly of the unsuccess
ful leader to the great Civil war, that he was
sportively styled a Pompeian by Augustus. It
is true that to recounting the domestic strife
wMch agitated the republic for nearly two cen
turies, he represents the plebeians and their
leaders in the most unfavourable hght. But
tMs arose, not from any wish to pervert the
truth, but from ignorance of the exact relation
of the contending parties. It is manifest that
he never can separate in Ms own mind the
spirited plebeians of the infant commonwealth
from the base and venal rabble wMeh thronged
the forum to the days of Marius and Cicero ;
wMle in Uke manner he confounds those bold
and honest tribunes who were the champions
of Uberty with such men as Saturmnus or
Sulpicius, Clodius or Vatinius. The modern
tendency to treat Livy to Roman history which
has passed beyond the legendary period as an
authority who may be Ughtly set aside when he
does not agree with an adopted theory cannot
be too strongly condemned. A conspicuous
instance of this — and there are others — is the
hasty rejection of Ms account of Hannibal's
descent into Italy, wMch more scientific investi
gation has shown to be in all probability correct
[see p. 380, b]. — There remains one topic to which
we must advert. We are told by Quintilian
(i. 5, § 56, viu. 1, § 3) that Asinius Pollio had
remarked a certain Patavinity to Livy. Scholars
have given themselves a vast deal of trouble to
discover what this term may indicate, and
various hypotheses have been propounded ; but
if there is any truth to the story, it is evident
that PoIUo must have intended to censure some
provincial peculiarities of expression, wMch we,
at aU events, are to no position to detect.
Editions of the text of Livy are by Madvig, 1866,
1876 ; H. J. MiiUer, 1881 ; with commentaries,
by Drakenborch, 1746; Weissenborn, 1878.
Livius Andronicus. [Andronicus.]
Lix, Liza, Lixus (Ai|, Ai|a, A({os: Al-
Araish), a city on the W. coast of Mauretania
Tingitana, to Africa, at the mouth of a river of
the same name; it was a place of some com
mercial importance.
Locri, sometimes caUed Locrenses by the
Romans, the inhabitants of Locris (r) AoKpis),
were an ancient people in Greece, said to be
descended from the Leleges, with wMch some
HeUenic tribes were intermingled at a very
early period. They were, however, in Homer's
time regarded as HeUenes; and according to
tradition even Deucalion, the founder of the
HeUenic race, was said to have Uved in Locris,
in the town of Opus or Cynos. In historical
times the Locrians were divided into two dis
tinct tribes, differing from one another in cus
toms, habits, and civilisation. Of these the
Eastern Locrians, called Epicnemidii and
Opuntii, who dwelt on the E. coast of Greece,
opposite the island of Euboea, were the more
ancient and more civilised ; while the Western
Locrians, caUed Ozolae, who dwelt on the Cor-
intMan gulf, were a colony of the former, and
were more barbarous. Homer mentions only
the E. Locrians. (II. ii. 527-535 ; Pind. 01. ix.

LOCRI

495

68 ; Thuc. i. 5 ; Strab. pp. 822, 425.) At a later
time there was no connexion between the
Eastern and Western Locrians ; and in the
Peloponnesian war we find the former siding
with the Spartans, and the latter with the
Athenians. — 1. Eastern Locris, extended from
Thessaly and the pass of Thermopylae along
the coast to the frontiers of -Boeotia, and was
bounded on the W. by the mountain range of
Cnemis, Ptoum, and Messapium, which sepa
rated their country from Doris and Phocis.
The inhabitants were called indifferently Locri
Epicnemidii ('EirtKvripiSiot), from the fact of
their dwelling by Mt. Cnemis, and Locri
Opuntii from their cMef town, Opus. The
latter name was most commonly used in his
torical times ; the former is sometimes written
Hypocnemidii ('TiroKvripiSioi). It has often, but
erroneously, been supposed that the name
Epicnemidii denoted those who dwelt in the N.
of Locris, and the name Opuntii those who dwelt
in the S. Locris was a fertile and cultivated
strip of land. In 456 the Locrians became per
force allies of Athens, but followed the lead of
Thebes in the Peloponnesian war, and again to
the Theban wars with Sparta to 895 and 870.
Ajax, son of Oileus, was the national hero of the

Coin of Locri Opuntii.
Obv... head of Persephone; rev., onoNTlQN; Ajax, son of
Oileus, as a -warrior.
Opuntian Locrians [Ajax, 2]. — 2. Western
Locris, or the country of the Locri Ozolae
('OCbXai), was bounded on the N. by Doris, on
the W. by Aetolia, on the E. by Phocis, and on
the S. by the Corinthian gulf. The origin of
the name of Ozolae is uncertain. The ancients
derived it from b£eiv ' to smeU,' on account of
the undressed skins worn by the inhabitants, or
on account of the great quantity of asphodel
that grew in their country, or from the stench
arising from mineral springs, beneath which
the centaur Nessus is sj,id to have been buried
(Paus. x. 38, 1 ; Strab. p. 427) ; or from ofoi,
vine-branches. The country is mountainous,
and for the most part unproductive. Mt. Corax
from Aetolia, and Mt. Parnassus from Phocis,
occupy the greater part of it. The Locri
Ozolae resembled their neighbours, the Aeto
lians, both in their predatory habits and in
their mode of warfare. They were divided into
several tribes, and are described by Thucydides
as a rude and barbarous people, even in the Pe
loponnesian war. From B.C. 315 they belonged
to the Aetolian League. (Thuc. i. 5, iii. 94 ; Pol.
xviii. 30.) Their chief town was Amphissa.
Locri Epizephyrii (AoKpol 'Eiri(e(pbpioi :
Motta di Burzano), one of the most ancient
Greek cities in Lower Italy, was situated m the
SE. of Bruttium, N. of the promontory of
Zephyrium, from which it was said to have
derived its surname Epizephyrii, though others
suppose this name given to the place simply
because it lay to the W. of Greece. It was
founded by the Locrians from Greece, B.C. 633.
Strabo expressly says that it was founded by the
Ozolae, and not by the Opuntii, as most writers

496

LOCUSTA

related : but his statement is not so probable
as the common one. (Pind. Ol. x. 18, xi. 19 ;
Strab. p. 259 ; Paus. iii. 19, 12 ; Pol. xii. 5-12 ;
Verg. Aen. iu. 399). The inhabitants regarded
themselves as descendants of Ajax Oileus ; and
as he resided at the town of Naryx among the
Opuntii, the poets gave the name of Naryeia to
Locris (Ov. Met. xv. 705), and called the
founders of the town the Narycii Locri (Verg.
Aen. iii. 399). For the same reason the pitch
of Bruttium is frequently called Naryeia (Verg.
Georg. ii. 438). Locri was celebrated for the
excellence of its laws, which were drawn up by
Zaleucus soon after the foundation of the city.
[Zaleucfs.] The town enjoyed great pro
sperity down to the time of the younger Diony
sius, who resided here for some years after Ms
expulsion from Syracuse, and committed the
greatest atrocities against the inhabitants. It
suffered much in the wars agatost Pyrrhus and
in the second Punic war. The Romans allowed

Coin of Locri Epizephyrii.
Obv., head of Zens ; rev., aokpon ; Roma (poma) crowned
by Fides (niSTIS). Probably struck in 274 B.C., after de
feat of Pyrrhus, when the Romans conceded indepen
dence to the Locri.
it to retain its freedom and its own constitu
tion, which was democratical (see coin) ; but it
gradually sank in importance, and is rarely
mentioned in later times. Near the town was
an ancient and wealthy temple of Proserpina.
Locusta, or, more correctly, Lucusta, a
woman celebrated for her skill in concocting
poisons. She was employed by Agrippina in
poisoning Claudius, and by Nero for despatch
ing Britannicus. She was rewarded by Nero
with ample estates; but under the emperor
Galba she was executed with other malefactors
of Nero's reign. (Juv. i. 71 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 66,
xiii. 15 ; Suet. Ner. 33 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 34.)
Lollia Paulina, granddaughter of M. Lollius,
mentioned below, and heiress of his immense
wealth. She was married to C. Memmius
Regulus ; but the emperor Caligula sent for
her, divorced her from her husband, and mar
ried her, but soon divorced her again. After
Claudius had put to death his wife Messalina,
Lollia was one of the candidates for the vacancy,
but she was put to death by Agrippina. (Tac.
Ann. xii. 1 ; Suet. Cal. 25, Claud. 26.)
Lollianus (AoXXiavbs), Greek Bophist in the
time of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, was a
native of Ephesus, and taught at Athens.
Lollius. 1. M. Lollius Palicanus, tribune
of the plebs, B.C. 71, and an active opponent of
the aristocracy (Cic. Verr. i. 47, ii. 41). — 2. M.
Lollius, consul 21, and governor of Gaul in 16.
He was defeated by some German tribes who
had crossed the Rhine. Lollius was subse
quently appointed by Augustus as tutor to Ms
grandson, C. Caesar, whom he accompanied to
the East, b.c. 2. Here he incurred the dis
pleasure of C. Caesar, and is said in consequence
to have put an end to his life by poison. (Tac.
Ann. i. 10; Veil. Pat. ii. 97, 102.) Horace
addressed an Ode (iv. 9) to Lollius, and two
Epistles (i. 2, i. 18) to the eldest son of Lollius.

LONGINUS
Londinium, also called Oppidum Londini-
ense, Lundinium, or Londinum (London), the
capital of the Cantii to Britain, was situated on
the S. bank of the Thames in the modern
Southwark, though it afterwards spread over
the other side of the river. It is not men
tioned by Caesar, probably because Ms line of
march led him in a different direction; and
its name first occurs in the reign of Nero,
when it iB spoken of as a flourishing and popu
lous town, frequented by Roman traders, and
the chief emporium for commerce in Britain,
although neither a Roman colony nor a munici
pium (Tac. Ann. xiv. 33). On the revolt of the
Britons under Boudicca or Boadicea, a.d. 62, the
Roman governor Suetonius Paulinus abandoned
Londinium to the enemy, who massacred the
inhabitants and plundered the town. From the
effects of this devastation it gradually re
covered, and the number of roads mentioned
in the Itinerary as converging upon it mark it
as an important place in the reign of Antoninus
Pius, indeed as the second town of Britain in
consideration. It was surrounded with a waU
and ditch by Constantine the Great or Theo
dosius, the Roman governor of Britain ; and
about tMs time it was distinguished by the
surname of Augusta (Amm. Marc, xxvii. 8,
xxviii. 3). Londinium had now extended so
much on the N. bank of the Thames, that it
was called at this period a town of the Trino
bantes, from which we may infer that the new
quarter was both larger and more populous
than the old .part on the S. side of the river.
The wall built by Constantine or Theodosius
was on the N. side of the river, and is con
jectured to have commenced at a fort near the
present site of the Tower, and to have been
continued along the Minories, to Cripplegate,
Newgate, and Ludgate. London was the central
point from wMch aU the Roman roads in
Britain diverged. It possessed a Milliarium
Aureum [Diet, of Ant. s.v.], from which the
miles on the roads were numbered. A fragment
of this Milliarium is the celebrated ' London
Stone.' Longanus (St. Lucia), a river in the NE. of
Sicily between Mylae and Tyndaris, on the
banks of wMch Hiero gained a victory over
the Mamertines (Pol. i. 9 ; Diod. xxii. 13).
Longinus, a distinguished Greek philosopher
and grammarian of the third century of our
era. He was called Cassius Longinus or
Dionysius Cassius Longinus. The place of
Ms birth is uncertain ; he was brought up with
care by his uncle Fronto, who taught rhetoric
at Athens, whence it has been conjectured that
he was a native of that city. He afterwards
visited many countries, and became acquainted
with all the illustrious pMlosophers of Ms age,
such as Ammonius Saccas, Origen the disciple
of Ammonius (not to be confounded with the
Christian writer), Plotinus, and Amelias. He
was a pupil of the two former, and was an
adherent of the Platonic philosophy. On his
return to Athens he opened a school, which
was attended by numerous pupils, among whom
the most celebrated was Porphyry. He seems
to have taught philosophy and criticism, as
well as rhetoric and grammar ; and the extent
of his information was so great that he was
called ' a living library ' and ' a walking mu
seum.' After spending a considerable part of
his life at Athens he went to the East, where he
became acquainted with Zenobia, of Palmyra,
who made him her teacher of Greek literature,
and eventuaUy her principal adviser. It was

LONGINUS
mainly through his advice that she threw off
her allegiance to the Roman empire. On her
capture by Aurelian to 273, Longinus was put to
death by the emperor. Longinus was probably
the greatest philosopher of his age, but it is
doubtful whether any of his works, except a few
fragments, survive. The treatise On the Sublime
(Tlepl iSifiovs), a great part of which is stiU
extant, is ascribed to Mm ; but most critics now
believe it to be the work of an earlier writer
(according to some, Dionysius of Halicarnassus).
By whatever author, it is written in an exceUent
style, and is among the best pieces of literary
criticism to Greek. Ed. by 0. John, 1867.
Longinus, Cassius. [Cassius.]
Longobardi. [Langobardi.J
Longiila. 1, (Longulanus : Buon Biposo), a
town of the Volsoi to Latium, not far from
CorioU, and belonging to the territory of
Antium, but destroyed by the Romans at an
early period (Liv. U. 33).— 2. A town to Sam
nium (Liv. ix. 39).
Longus (Abyyos), a Greek sophist, earlier
than the fourth or fifth century of our era, is
the author of TloipeviKa Ta Karl. Aaipviv Kal
XXbnv, or Pastoralia de Daphnide et Chloe.
Ed. by Passow, Lips. 1811.
Lopadusa (AoirdSovaa: Lampedusa), an
island to the Mediterranean, between Melita
(Malta) and Byzaetom in Africa (Strab. p. 834).
Lorlum or Lorii, a smaU place in Etruria
with an imperial villa, twelve mUes NW. of
Rome on the Via AureUa, where Antoninus
Pius was brought up, and where he died (Vit.
Ant. P. 12).
Loryma (to Adpvpa : Aplotheki, Ru.), a city
on the S. coast of Caria, close to the promontory
of Cynossema (C. Aloupo), opposite to Ialysus
in Rhodes, the space between the two being
about the shortest distance between Rhodes
and the coast of Caria (Thuc. viu. 43 ; Strab. p.
652 1 Liv. xiv. 10).
Lotis, a nymph, who, to escape the embraces
of Priapus, was metamorphosed into a tree
called after her Lotus (Ov. Met. ix. 347).
Lotophagi (Aarorpdyoi, i.e. lotus-eaters).
Homer, in the Odyssey, represents Odysseus as
coming in his wanderings to a coast inhabited
by a people who fed upon a fruit called
lotus, the effect of which was that everyone
who ate it lost all wish to return to his na
tive country, but desired to remain there with
the Lotophagi, and to eat the lotus (Od. ix. 94).
Afterwards, in historical times, the Greeks
found that the people on the N. coast of Africa,
between the Syrtes, and especially about the
Lesser Syrtis, used to a great extent, as an
article of food, the fruit of a plant which they
identified with the lotus of Homer, and they
caUed these people Lotophagi (Hdt. iv. 177;
Xen. Anab. iii. 2, 25 ; PUn. v. 4). To this day,
the inhabitants of the same part of the coast of
Tunis and Tripoli eat the fruit of the plant
wMch is supposed to be the lotus of the
ancients, and drink a wine made from its juice,
as the ancient Lotophagi are also said to have
done. TMs plant, the Zizyphus Lotus of the
botanists (or jujube-tree), is a prickly branch
ing shrub, with fruit of the size of a wild plum,
of a saffron colour and a sweetish taste. The
ancient geographers also place the Lotophagi in
the large island of Meninx or Lotophagitis
(Jerbah), adjacent to this coast. They carried
on a commercial intercourse with Egypt and
with the interior of Africa, by the very same
caravan routes which are used to the present
day. TMs lotus shrub must be carefully dis-

LUCANUS

497

tinguished from the sacred Egyptian lotus
flower, a water lily of the NUe, which appears
both as a symbol of Egyptian deities and to
works of art.
Loxias (Ao£fas), a surname of ApoUo, prob
ably derived from his ambiguous oracles (Xb£a),
though some have referred it to Ae'yeic.
Loxo (Ao£d), daughter of Boreas, one of the
Hyperborean maidens who brought the worship
of Artemis to Delos, whence the name is also
used as a surname of Artemis herself.
Lua, also called Lua Mater or Lua Saturni,
one of the early Italian divinities, and a goddess
of the earth; she is, like Ops, connected with
Saturn, as his wife or feminine counterpart.
The arms taken from a defeated enemy were de
dicated to her, and burnt as a sacrifice, with a
view of averting calamity; with which rite may
be compared the devotio of the hostile armies
to Tellus (Liv. viii. 1, xiv. 33 ; Gell. xiii. 23).
Luca (Lucensis : Lucca), a Ligurian city in
Upper Italy, at the foot of the Apennines and
on the river Ausus, NE. of Pisae. It was
included in Etruria by Augustus ; but in the
time of Julius Caesar it was the most southerly
city in Liguria, and belonged to Cisalpine Gaul.
It was made a Roman colony B.C. 177. It was
the place where Caesar, Pompey and Crassus
met B.C. 56. (Liv. xxi. 59 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15 ; Cic.
ad Fam. xiii. 13 ; Suet. Jul. 24.) There are
remains of a large amphitheatre ; but its real
importance dates from the middle ages.
Lucania (Lucanus), a district in Lower Italy,
was bounded on the N. by Campania and Sam
nium, on the E. by Apulia and the gulf of Ta
rentum, on the S. by Bruttium, and on the
W. by the Tyrrhene sea. It was separated from
Campania by the river Silarus, and from Brut
tium by the river Laus, and it extended along
the gulf of Tarentum from Thuru to Metapon-
tum. The country is mountainous, as the
Apennines run through the greater part of it ;
but towards the gulf of Tarentum there is an
extensive and fertile plain. Lucania was cele
brated for ite exceUent pastures (Hor. Ep. i.
28) ; and its oxen were the finest and largest in
Italy. The swine also were good ; and a pecu-
Uar kind of sausage was known at Rome under
the name of Lucanica. The coast of Lucania
was inhabited chiefly by Greeks whose cities
were numerous and flourishing. The most im
portant were Metapontum, Heraclea, Thurii,
Buxentum, Elea or Velia, Posidonia or
Paestum. The original inhabitants were called
by the Greeks Oenotrians [see p. 453]. The
Lucanians proper were Samnites, a brave and
warlike race, who left their mother-country and
settled both in Lucania and Bruttium to the
fifth century B.C. They not only expelled or
subdued the Oenotrians, but they gradually
acquired possession of most of the Greek cities
on the coast. (Strab. pp. 262-255 ; Diod. xiv.
91, 101, 102.) They are first mentioned in B.C.
396 as the allies of the elder Dionysius in his
war against Thurii. They were on the side of
Rome during most part of the Samnite wars,
but, having been disappointed in not obtaining
the possession of Greek cities in Lucania
promised them by Rome, they joined Pyrrhus,
and were subdued by the Romans after
Pyrrhus had left Italy. Before the Becond Punic
war their forces consisted of 30,000 foot and
3000 horse : but in the course of this war, in
which they took the side of Hannibal, their
country was repeatedly laid waste, and never
recovered its former prosperity.
Lucanus, M. Annaeus, usually caUed Lucan,
EE

498

LUCANUS

a Roman poet, was born at Corduba in Spain,
a.d. 39. His father was L. Annaeus Mella, a
brother of M. Seneca, the philosopher. Lucan
was carried to Rome at an early age, where his
education was superintended by the most
eminent preceptors of the day. His talents
developed themselves at a very early age, and
excited such general admiration as to awaken
the jealousy of Nero, who, unable to brook
competition, forbade him to recite in public.
Stung to the quick by tMs proMbition, Lucan
embarked in the famous conspiracy of Piso,
was betrayed, and, by a promise of pardon, was
induced to turn informer. He began by de
nouncing his own mother Acilia (or Atilia), and
then revealed the rest of his accomplices with
out reserve. But he received a traitor's
reward. After the more important victims had
been despatched, the emperor issued the man
date for the death of Lucan, who, finding escape
hopeless, caused his veins to be opened. When,
from the rapid effusion of blood, he felt Ms
extremities becoming chill, he began to repeat
aloud some verses which he had once composed,
descriptive of a wounded soldier perishing by a
like death, and, with these lines upon his lips,
expired, a.d. 65, in the twenty-sixthyear of his
age. (Life of Lucan by Suetonius, and [prob
ably] by Vacca ; cf . Quintil. x. 1, 90 ; Mart. xiv.
194; Serv. ad Aen. i. 382.) — Lucan wrote
various poems, the titles of which are preserved,
but the only extant production is a heroic poem,
in ten books, entitle&Pharsalia, in which the pro
gress of the struggle between Caesar and Pompey
is fuUy detaUed, the events, commencing with
the passage of the Rubicon, being arranged in
regular chronological order. The tenth book is
imperfect, and the narrative breaks off abruptly
in the middle of the Alexandrian war, but we
know not whether the conclusion has been lost,
or whether the author ever completed Ms task.
The whole of what we now possess was certainly
not composed at the same time. In the earlier
portions, written when he was still in favour
with the emperor, we find liberal sentiments
and the preference of Pompey to Caesar ex
pressed in more moderate terms, accompanied
by praise of Nero ; but, as we proceed, the
blessings of freedom are loudly proclaimed,
and the invectives against tyranny and against
Caesar are couched to bitter language, probably
aimed at the emperor. The work contains
great beauties and great defects. It is charac
terised by copious diction, lively imagination,
and a bold and maacuUne tone of thought, with
scattered lines or passages which rise to real
magnificence ; but it is at the same time dis
figured by extravagance, far-fetched conceits,
and unnatural similes. The best editions are
by Weber, Lips. 1821-1881, and by Haskins,
London, 1889.
Lucanus, Ocellus. [Ocellus.]
Lucceius. 1. L., friend and neighbour of
Cicero. His name frequently occurs at the
commencement of Cicero's correspondence with
Atticus, with whom Lucceius had quarrelled
(ad Att. i. 8, 5, 10, ii. 11, 14). Cicero attempted
to reconcUe his two friends. In B.C. 63 Lucceius
accused Catiline ; and in 60 he became a candi
date for the consulship, along with Julius
Caesar, who agreed to support him ; but he lost
his election in consequence of the aristocracy
bringing in Bibulus, as a counterpoise to
Caesar's influence. Lucceius seems now to
have withdrawn from public life and to have
devoted himself to literature. He was chiefly
engaged in the composition of a history of

LUCIANUS
Rome, from the Social war. In 55 he had
nearly finished the history of the Social, and
of the first Civil, war, when Cicero wrote to his
friend, pressing him to devote a separate work
to the period from Catiline's conspiracy to
Cicero's recall from banishment (ad Fam. v.
12). Lucceius promised compliance with Mb
request, but he appears never to have written
the work (ad Att. iv. 6). On the breaMng out
of the Civil war in 49, he espoused the side of
Pompey. He was subsequently pardoned by
Caesar and returned to Rome, where he con
tinued to live on friendly terms with Cicero (ad ¦.
Fam. v. 13). — 2. C, surnamed Hirrus, of the
Pupinian tribe, tribune of the plebs 53, pro
posed that Pompey should be created dictator.
In 52 he was a candidate with Cicero for the
augurship, and to the following year a candi
date with M. Caelius for the aedilesMp, but he
failed in both. On the breaking out of the
Civil war in -49, he joined Pompey. He was
sent by Pompey as ambassador to Orodes, Mng
of Parthia, but he was thrown into prison by
the Parthian Mng. He was pardoned by
Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, and
returned to Rome. (Cic. ad AU. viii. 5, 11 ;
Caes. B. C. i. 15, iii. 82 ; Dio Cass. xlu. 2.)
Lucenses Callaici, one of the two chief tribes
of the Callaici or GaUaeci on the N. coast of
Hispania Tarraconensis, derived their name
from their town Lucus Augusti.
Lucentum (Alicante), a town of the Contes
tant on the coast of Hispania Tarraconensis
(Plin. iii. 19).
Lucena (Lucerinus : Lucera), sometimes
called Nuceria, a town in Apulia on the borders
of Samnium, SW. of Arpi, was situated on a
steep hUl, and possessed an ancient temple of
Minerva (Strab. pp. 264, 284 ; Plm. iii. 16). In
the war between Rome and Samnium, it was
first taken by the Samnites (b.c. 321), and next
by the Romans (319) ; but having revolted to
the Samnites in 314, all the inhabitants were
massacred by the Romans, and their place
supplied by 2500 Roman colonists (Liv. ix. 26 ;
Veil. Pat. i. 14; Diod. xix. 72). Having thus
become a Roman colony, it continued faitMul
to Rome in the second Punic war (Pol. in. 88,
100; Liv. xxii. 9, xxvii. 10). In the time of
Augustus it had declined in prosperity ; but was
still .of sufficient importance in the tMrd cen
tury to be the residence of the praetor of Apulia.
Lucianus (AovKiavbs), usually caUed Lucian,
a Greek writer, born at Samosata, the capital
of Commagene, in Syria. The dates of his birth
a"nd death are uncertain ; but it has been con
jectured, with much probability, that he was
born about a.d. 120, and he probably lived till
towards the end of that century. We know
that some of his more celebrated works were
written in the reign of M. Aurelius. Lucian's
parents were poor, and he was at first ap
prenticed to Mb maternal Uncle, who was a
statuary. He afterwards became an advocate,
and practised at Antioch. Being unsuccessful
to this calling, he employed himself in writing
speeches for others, instead of delivering them
himself. But he did not remain long at An
tioch ; and at an early period of Ms Ufe he set
out upon his travels, and visited the greater
part of Greece, Italy, and Gaul. In these
journeys he acquired a good deal of money as
well as fame by lectures on rhetoric delivered
in various towns. On Ms return to his native
country, probably about Ma fortieth year, he
abandoned the rhetorical profession, the arti
fices of which, he teUs us, were foreign to his

LUCIANUS
temper. He stUl, however, occasionally tra
velled ; for it appears that he was in Achaia
and Ionia about the close of the PartMan war,
160-165 ; on which occasion, too, he seems to
have visited Olympia and beheld the self-
immolation of Peregrinus. About the year 170,
or a Uttle previously, he visited the false oracle
of the impostor Alexander, in Paphlagonia.
Late in life he obtained the office of procurator
of part of Egypt, wMch office was probably
bestowed on him by the emperor Commodus.
The nature of Lucian's writings inevitably pro
cured Mm many enemies, by whom he has
been painted to very black colours. According
to Suidas he was surnamed the Blasphemer,
and was torn to pieces by dogs, as a punish
ment for Ms impiety ; but on this account no
reliance can be placed. — As many as eighty-
two works have come down to us under the
name of Lucian; but several of these are
spurious. The most important of them are his
Dialogues. They are of very various degrees
of merit, and are treated in the greatest pos
sible variety of style, from seriousness down to
the broadest humour and buffoonery. Their
subjects and tendency, too, vary considerably ;
for while some are employed in attacMng the
heathen pMlosophy and rehgion, others are
mere pictures of manners without any polemic
drift. Our limits only aUow us to mention a
few of the more important of these Dialogues : —
The Dialogues of the Gods, twenty-six in
number, consist of short dramatic narratives of
some of the most popular incidents to the
heathen mythology. The reader, however, is
generaUy left to draw his own conclusions from
the story, the author only taking care to put it
to the most absurd point of view. — In the
Jupiter Convicted a bolder style of attack is
adopted ; and the cynic proves to Jupiter's face
that, everything betog under the dominion of
fate, he has no power whatever. As tMs dia
logue shows Jupiter's want of power, so the
Jupiter the Tragedian strikes at Ms very exist
ence, and that of the other deities. — The Vita-
rum Audio, or Sale of the Philosophers, is an
attack upon the ancient pMlosophers. In this
humorous piece the heads of the different
sects are put up to sale, Hermes being the
auctioneer. — The Fishermanis a sort of apology
for the preceding piece, and may be reckoned
among Lucian's best dialogues. The ptolo-
sophers are represented as having obtained a
day's life for the purpose of taking vengeance
npon Lucian, who confesses that he has bor
rowed the chief beauties of Ms writings from
them. — The Banquet, or the Lapithae, is one
of Lucian's most humorous attacks on the
pMlosophers. The scene is a wedding-feast, at
wMch a representative of each of the principal
phflosopMc sects is present. A discussion en
sues, wMch sets aU the pMlosophers by the ears,
and ends to a pitched battle. — The Nigrinus is
also an attack on ptolosophic pride; but its
main scope is to satirise the Romans, whose
pomp, vain-glory, and luxury are unfavourably
contrasted with the simple habits of the Athe-
mans. — The more miscellaneous class of Lu
cian's dialogues, in which the attackB upon
mythology and pMlosophy are not direct but
incidental, or which are mere pictures of
manners, contains some of his best. At the
head must be placed Timon, wMch may per
haps be regarded as Lucian's masterpiece. —
The Dialogues of the Dead are perhaps the
best known of all Lucian's works. The subject
affords great scope for moral reflection, and for

LUCILIUS

409

satire on the vanity of human pursuits. Wealth,
power, beauty, strength, not forgetting the vain
disputations of philosophy, afford the mate
rials. — The Icaro-Menippus is in Lucian's best
vein, and a masterpiece of Aristophanic humour.
Menippus, disgusted with the disputes and
pretensions of the philosophers, resolves on a
visit to the stars, for the purpose of seeing how
far their theories are correct. By the mecha
nical aid of a pair of wings he reaches the
moon, and surveys thence the miserable passions
and quarrels of men. Hence he proceeds to
Olympus, and is introduced to the Thunderer
himself. Here he is witness of the manner in
which human prayers are received in heaven.
They ascend by enormous vent-holes, and be
come audible when Jupiter removes the covers.
Jupiter Mmself is represented as a partial
judge, and as influenced by the largeness of
the rewards promised to him. At the end he
pronounces judgment against the philosophers,
and threatens in four days to destroy them
aU. — Charon is a dialogue of a graver turn
than the preceding. Charon visits the earth
to see the course of life there, and what it is
that always makes men weep when they enter
Ms boat. Mercury acts as his cicerone. — Lu
cian's merits as a writer consist to his know
ledge of human nature; his strong common
sense ; the fertility of his invention ; the raci-
neas of Ma humour, and the simplicity and
Attic grace of Ms diction. There was abund
ance to justify his attacks in the systems
against wMch they were directed. Yet he
establishes nothing in their stead. His aim is
only to pull down ; to spread a universal
scepticism. Editions of Lucian by Hemster-
huis and Reitz, Amst. 1743, 4 vols. 4to ; by
Lehman, Lips. 1821-1831, 9 vols. 8vo : text by
Jacobitz, 1874 ; select dialogues by E. Abbott,
1877 ; Heitland, 1878 ; Jerram, 1879.
Lucifer. [Hesperus.]
Lucilius. 1. C, was born at Suessa of the
Aurunci, B.C. 148. He served in the cavalry
under Scipio in the Numantine war ; lived
upon terms of the closest familiarity with
Scipio and Laelius ; and was either the maternal
grand-uncle or, which is lesa probable, the
maternal grandfather of Pompey the Great.
He died at Naples, 103, in the 46th year of his
age. Lucilius was the first to impress upon
Roman satire its character of personal invec
tive, foUowing in this the Old Attic Comedy ;
but as this method of attack was not admitted
upon the stage, the invective of Lucilius was
Uterary, and not dramatic like that of Aristo
phanes. He gave to Roman satire that form
which afterwards received fuU development in
the hands of Horace, Persius, and Juvenal.
Horace, while he censures the harsh versifica
tion and the slovenly haste with which Lucilius
threw off his compositions, acknowledges with
admiration the fierceness and boldness of his
attacks upon the vices and follies of his con
temporaries. (Hor. Sat. i. 4, 6, i. 10, 1, ii. 1,
16, 62 ; Juv. i. 165 ; Pers. i. 114.) Cicero, Varro,
and Quintilian differ from Horace in giving
praise to the style as well as the matter of his
writings (Cic. de Or. i. 16, 72 ; Quintil. x. 1, 93 ;
Gell. vi. 14). The Satires of Lucilius were
divided into thirty books. Upwards of 300
fragments from these have been preserved, but
the greatest number consist of isolated coup
lets, or single lines. It is clear from these
fragments that his reputation for caustic
pleasantry was by no means unmerited, and
that to coarseness and broad personalities he
EI 2

600

LUCILLA

in no respect fell short of the licence of the Old
Comedy, wMch would seem to have been, to a
certain extent, Mb model. The fragments were
published separately, by Franciscus Dousa,
Lug. Bat. 4to, 1597 ; by L. MUUer, Lips. 1872 ;
by C. Lachmann, Berl. 1876.— 2. Lucilius
Junior, probably the author of an extant poem
in 640 hexameters, entitled Aetna, wMch ex
hibits throughout great command of language,
and contains not a few brilliant passages. Its
object is to explain upon philosophical prin
ciples, after the fashion of Lucretius, the causes
of the various volcanic phenomena. Lucilius
Junior was the procurator of SicUy, and the
friend to whom Seneca addresses his Epistles,
Ms Natural Questions, and Ms tract On Provi
dence, and whom he strongly urges to select
this very subject of Aetna as a theme for his
muse (Sen. N.Q. iii. 1, Ep. 26, 46, 59, 79).
The Aetna was originaUy printed among Virgil's
poems ; it is included in Wernsdorf 's Poet. Lat.
Mm. and is edited separately by Munro, 1867.
Liicilla, Annia, daughter of M. Aurelius and
the younger Faustina, was born about A.D. 147.
She was married to the emperor L. Verus, and
after Ms death (169) to Claudius Pompeianus.
In 183 she engaged in a plot against her brother
Commodus, which having been detected, she
was banished to Capreae, and there put to
death. (Dio Cass. lxxi. 1, lxxii. 4.)
Liicina, the goddess of light, or rather the
goddess that brings to light, and hence the god
dess that presides over the birth of children.
Hence she was identified both with Juno and
with Diana, and became a surname to both
these goddesses. Lucina corresponded to the
Greek goddess Bithyia. [Artemis, Diana,
Juno, Ilithyia.]
Lucretia, the wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus,
whose rape by Sex. Tarquinius led to the de-
tMonement of Tarquinius Superbus and the
establishment of the republic. [Tarquinius.]
Lucretia Gens, originally patrician, but sub
sequently plebeian also. The surname of the
patrician Lucretii was Triciptinus, one of
whom, Sp. Lucretius Triciptinus, the father of
Lucretia, was elected consul, with L. Junius
Brutus, on the establishment of the republic,
B.C. 509. The plebeian families are known by
the surnames of Gallus, Ofella, and Vespillo,
but none of them is of sufficient importance to
require notice.
Lucretllis, a pleasant mountain in the
country of the Sabines (Hor. Od. i. 17, 1), over
hanging Horace's villa, a part of the modern
Monte Gennaro. [See p. 428, a.]
T. Lucretius Carus, the Roman poet, respect
ing whose personal Mstory our information is
both scanty and suspicious. Jerome, in his
additions to the Eusetian CMonicle, fixes B.C.
95 or 99 as the date of his birth, adding that he
was driven mad by a love potion, that during
his lucid intervals he composed several works
which were revised by Cicero, and that he
perished by Ms own hand in his 44th year.
Donatus, in his Life of VirgU, places the death
of Lucretius in Virgil'B 15th year, which would
assign 99 for the year of his birth and 55 for
that of his death. It is probable that both
Donatus and Jerome copied their statements
from the lost portion of Suetonius de Vir.
Illustr. ; if so, the authority is not so late as it
would appear to be. The story of the madness,
wMch is adopted by Tennyson, must thus have
been current in the time of Suetonius, and may
have some elements of truth to it, though the
poem is not such as would be written after the

LUCRINUS
mind began to fail. That Cicero edited the
poem is nowhere else directly stated, but Munro
haB shown that there is some reason for be
lieving it to be true. At any rate Cicero had
already studied it within a few months of the
death of Lucretius — that is, almost as soon as
the book was published (ad Q. Fr. ii. 11). The
writings of Lucretius are mentioned with praise
also by Ovid (Am. i. 15, 23), by Statius (Silv.
ii. 7, 76), and by Quintilian (x. 1, 87). Horace
alludes to their influence (Sat. i. 5, 101), and
that he was admired also by Virgil is clear from
the numerous passages in wMch Ms diction is
imitated. — The work which has immortalised
the name of Lucretius is a philosopMcal didactic
poem, composed in heroic hexameters, divided
into six books, containing upwards of 740O
lines, addressed to C. Memmius Gemellus, who
was praetor in 58, and is entitled De Berum,
Natura. Lucretius showed his admiration for
the teaching of Empedocles (i. 729), and, of his
own countrymen, for Ennius (i. 117) and
Cicero, whose Aratea he imitates in some
passages ; but his great master was Epicurus,
for whom he expresses the most profound reve
rence (iii. 3-30). Epicurus maintained that the
unhappiness and degradation of mankind arose
in a great degree from the slavish dread wMch
they entertained of the power of the gods, and
from terror of their wrath ; and the fundamental
doctrine of Ms system was, that the gods, whose
existence he did not deny, lived in the enjoy
ment of absolute peace, and totaUy indifferent
to the world and its inhabitants. To prove
this position he adopted the atomic theory of
Leucippus, according to which the material
universe was not created by the Supreme Being,
but was formed by the union of elemental
particles wMch had existed from aU eternity,
governed by certain simple laws. He further
sought to show that aU those striking pheno
mena which had been regarded by the vulgar
as direct manifestations of divine power, were
the natural results of ordinary processes. [Epi
curus.] To state clearly and develop fully
the leading principle of tMs phUosophy, in such
a form as might render the study attractive to
his countrymen, was the object of Lucretius,
his work being simply an attempt to show that
there is notMng to the history or actual condi
tion of the world which does not admit of
explanation without having recourse to the
active interposition of divine beings. This
creed is set forth by Lucretius to liberate men
from fear of the gods and of death, and to give
them peace of mind. Marvellous sMU is dis
played in the manner in which abstruse specu
lations and teclmicaUties are luminously set
forth in sonorous verse ; and the severity of the
subject is relieved from time to time by magnifi
cent bursts of poetry, as fine as anything in the
Latin language. Apart from the attractions of
Lucretius as one of the greatest of Latin poets,
it has interested modern science to trace out
resemblances between the modern atomic theory
and that which Lucretius expounds. Editions
by Lambinus, 1570 ; Lachmann, 1850 ; Munro,
1864, 1886.
Lucrinus Lacus, was properly the inner port
of the Sinus Cumanus or Puteolanus, a bay on
the coast of Campania, between the promontory
Misenum and Puteoli, running a considerable
way inland. But at a very early period the
Lucrine lake was separated from the remainder
of the bay by a dike eight stadia in length,
which was probably formed originally by some
volcanic change, and was subsequently rendered

LUCULLUS

501

more complete by the work of man. (Diod. iv.
22 ; Strab. p. 245.) Being thus separated from
the rest of the sea, it assumed the character of
an inland lake, and is therefore called Lacus by
the Romans. Its waters stiU remained salt,
and were celebrated for their oyster beds (Hor.
Epod. ii. 49, Sat. U. 4, 32 ; Juv. iv. 141), Behind
the Lucrine lake was another lake called Lacus
Avernus. In the time of Augustus, Agrippa
made a communication between the lake Aver
nus and the Lucrine lake, and also between the
Lucrine lake and the Sinus Cumanus, thus
forming out of the three the celebrated JuUan
Harbour (Dio Cass, xlviii. 50 ; Suet. Aug. 16 ;
VeU. Pat. ii. 79; Verg. Georg. ii. 161). The
Lucrine lake was filled up by a volcanic erup
tion in 1538, when a conical mountain rose in
its place, caUed Monte Nuovo. The Avernus
thus became again a separate lake, and there is
no trace of the dike to the Gulf of Pozzuoli.
Lucullus, Licinius, a celebrated plebeian
famUy. 1. L., the grandfather of the conqueror
of Mithridates, was consul b.c. 151, together
with A. Postumius Albinus, and carried on war
in Spain against the Vaccaei (Cic. Brut. 21, 81 ;
Liv. Ep. 48). — 2. L., son of the preceding, was
praetor, 103, and carried on war unsuccessfully
against the slaves to Sicily. On Ms return to
Rome he was accused, condemned, and driven
toto exUe. (Cic. Verr. iv. 66 ; Flor. iii. 19, 11.) —
3. L., son of the preceding, and celebrated as
the conqueror of Mithridates. He was probably
born about 110. He served with distinction in
the Marsic or Social war, and accompanied
SuUa as Ms quaestor toto Greece and Asia, 88.
When SuUa returned to Italy after the conclu
sion of peace with Mithridates to 84, LucuUus
was left behind to Asia, where he remained till
SO. In 79 he was curule aedUe with Ms younger
brother Marcus. So great was the favour at
tMs time enjoyed by Lucullus with SuUa, that
the dictator, on Ms death-bed, not only confided
to hhn the charge of revising and correcting his
Commentaries, but appointed Mm guardian of
his son Faustus, to the exclusion of Pompey :
a circumstance wMch is said to have first given
rise to the enmity that ever after subsisted
between the two. In 77 LucuUus was praetor,
and at the expiration of tMs magistracy ob
tained the government of Africa, where he
distinguished himself by the justice of his
administration. In 74 he was consul with M.
Aurelius Cotta. In this year the war with
Mithridates was renewed, and LucuUus received
the conduct of it. He carried on this war for
eight years with great success. The detaUs are
given under Mithridates, and it is only neces
sary to mention here the leading outlines. Lu
cuUus defeated Mithridates with great slaughter,
and drove him out of his hereditary dominions
and compelled him to take refuge to Armenia
with his son-in-law Tigranes (71). He after
wards invaded Armenia, defeated Tigranes, and
took Ms capital Tigranocerta (69). In the next
campaign (68) he again defeated the combined
forces of Mithridates, and laid siege to Nisibis ;
but in the spring of the following year (67), a
mutiny among his troops compeUed him to
Taise the siege of Nisibis, and return to Pontus.
Mithridates had already taken advantage of his
absence to invade Pontus, and had defeated his
lieutenants Fabius and Triarius to several suc
cessive actions. But Lucullus on his arrival
was unable to effect anything agatost Mithri
dates, in consequence of the mutinous disposi
tion of his troops. The adversaries bf LucuUus
availed themselves of so favourable an occasion,

and a decree was passed to transfer to Acilius
Glabrio, one of the consuls for the year, the
province of Bithynia and the command against
Mithridates. But Glabrio was wholly incom
petent for the task assigned him: on arriving
in Bithynia, he made no attempt to assume the
command, but remained quiet within the con
fines of the Roman province. Mithridates
meanwhile ably availed himself of this position
of affairs, and Lucullus had the mortification
of seeing Pontus and Cappadocia occupied by
the enemy before his eyes, without being able
to stir a step in their defence. But it was still
more gaUing to his feelings when, in 66, he was
called upon to resign the command to his old
rival Pompey, who had been appointed by the
Manilian law to supersede both Mm and Glabrio.
Lucullus did not obtain his triumph till 68, in
consequence of the opposition of his enemies.
He was courted by the aristocratical party, who
sought in Lucullus a rival and antagonist to
Pompey; but he soon began to withdraw
gradually from public affairs, and devote him
self more and more to a life of mdolence and
luxury. He died in 57 or 56. Previous to his
death he had faUen into a state of complete
dotage, so that the management of his affairs
was confided to Ms brother Marcus. The name
of Lucullus is ahnost as celebrated for the
luxury of his latter years as for Ms victories
over Mithridates. He amassed vast treasures
to Asia, and these supplied him the means,
after Ms return to Rome, of gratifying Ms taste
for luxury and magnificence. His gardens in
the suburbs of the city were laid out in a style
of extraordinary splendour ; but still more re
markable were his villas at Tusculum and in
the neighbourhood of Neapolis. In the con
struction of the latter, with its parks, fish-ponds,
&c, he had laid out vast sums in cutting
through Mils and rocks, and throwing out
advanced works into the sea. So gigantic, in
deed, was the scale of these labours for objects
apparently so insignificant, that Pompey called
him, to derision, the Roman Xerxes. He is
said to have spent nearly £2000 on a single
dinner at Rome ; and even during his cam
paigns the pleasures of the table had not been
forgotten, for he was the first to introduce
cherries into Italy, which he had brought with
him from Cerasus in Pontus. LucuUus was a
patron of literature, and inclined to literary
pursuits. He collected a valuable library, which
was opened to the use of the literary public ;
and here he MmseU used to associate with the
Greek philosophers and literati, and would enter
warmly into their discussions. Hence the pic
ture drawn by Cicero at the beginning of the
Academics was probably to a certain extent
taken from the reality. His constant companion
from the time of his quaestorship had been
Antiochus of Ascalon, from whom he adopted
the precepts of the Academic school of philo
sophy. His patronage of the poet Archias is
well known. He composed a history of the
Marsic war in Greek. (Life of Lucullus, by-
Plutarch; Dio Cass, xxxiv. xxxv. ; Cic. Acad. i.
1, ii. 1.)— 4. L. or M., son of the preceding and
of Servilia, half-sister of M. Cato, was a mere
child at Ms father's death. His education was
superintended by Cato and Cicero. After
Caesar's death he joined the republican party,
and fell at the battle of Philippi, 42. (Cic. ad
Att. xiii. 6 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 71.)— 5. M., brother
of No. 3, was adopted by M. Terentius Varro,
and consequently bore the names of M. Teren
tius Varro Lucullus. He fought under SuUa

502-

LUCUMO

in Italy, 82 ; was curule aedile with his brother,
79 ; praetor, 77 ; and consul, 73. After his con
sulship he obtained the province of Macedonia.
He carried on war against the Dardanians and
Bessi, and penetrated as far as the Danube.
On Ms return to Rome he obtained a triumph,
71. He was a strong supporter of the aristo
cratical party. He pronounced the funeral
oration of Ms brother, but died before 49.
(Plut. Sull. 27, Lucull. 43 ; Flor. iii. 4, 7 ; Cic.
pro Dom. 52.)
Lucumo. [Tarquinius.]
Ludias. [Lydias.]
Lugdunensis Gallia. [Gallia.]
Lugdunum (Lugdunensis). 1. (Lyon), the
chief town of Gallia Lugdunensis, situated at
the foot of a hill at the confluence of the Arar
(Saine), and the Rhodanus (Bhone), is said to
have been founded by some fugitives from the
town of Vienna, further down the Rhone. In
the year after Caesar's death (b.c. 43) Lugdu
num was made a Roman colony by L. Munatius
Plancus, and became under Augustus the
capital of the province, and the residence of the
Roman governor (Dio Cass. xlvi. 50 ; Strab. p.
192). Being situated on two navigable rivers,
and being connected with the other parts of
Gaul by roads which met at this town as their
central point, it soon became a wealthy and
popMous place, and is described by Strabo as
the largest city in Gaul next to Narbo. It
received many privileges from the emperor
Claudius ; but it was burnt down in the reign
of Nero (Sen. Ep. 91 ; Tac. Ann. xvi. 13). It
was, however, soon rebuilt, and continued to
be a place of great importance till a.d. 197,
when it was plundered and the greater part of
it destroyed by the soldiers of Septimius
Severus, after his victory over his rival Albinus
in the neighbourhood of the town (Herodian,
iii. 23). From this blow it never recovered
during the Roman dominion, and was more and
more thrown into the shade by Vienna. Lug
dunum possessed a vast aqueduct, of which the
remains may still be traced for miles, a mint,
and an imperial palace, in which Claudius was
born, and in which many of the other Roman
emperors resided. At the tongue of land
between the Rhone and the Arar stood an altar
dedicated by Drusus to Rome and the genius of
Augustus, a.d. 12. For this altar the cantons
annuaUy chose the ( priest of the three Gauls ' ;
here the Celtic diet met [see p. 354, a] ; and here
Caligula instituted contests in rhetoric ; prizes
being given to the victors, and contumelious
punishments inflicted on the vanquished (Juv.
i. 44; Suet. Gal. 20; Dio Casa. lix. 22). Lug
dunum is memorable in the Mstory of the
CMistian Church as the seat of the bishopric of
Irenaeus, and on account of the persecutions
which the Christians endured here in the
second and third centuries. — 2. L. Batavorum
(Leyden), the chief town of the Batavi.
[Batavi.] — 3. L. Convenarum (St. Bertrand de
Gomminges), the chief town of the Convenae to
Aquitania. [Convenae.]
Luna. [Selene.]
Luna (Lunensis : Luni), an Etruscan town,
situated on the left bank of the Maera, about
four miles from the coast, originally formed
part of Liguria, but became the most northerly
city of Etruria when Augustus extended the
boundaries of the latter country as far as the
Maera. The town itself was never a place of
importance, but it possessed a large and com
modious harbour at the mouth of the river,
called Lunae Portus (Gulf of Spezzia). In

LUPUS
B.C. 177 Luna was made a Roman colony, and
2000 Roman citizens were settled there (Liv.
xii. 13). In the Civil war between Caesar and
Pompey it had sunk into utter decay, but was
colonised a few years afterwards (Lucan, i.
586 ; Strab. p. 222). Luna was celebrated for
its white marble, which now takes its name-
from the neighbouring town of Carrara. The
quarries appear not to have been worked before
the time of Julius Caesar ; but this marble was
much used for public buildings in the reign of
Augustus. The wine and the cheeses of Luna
also enjoyed a high reputation (Mart. xiii. 30).
Lunae Montes (to rr)s XeX-hvns Spos), a
range of mountains wMch some of the ancient
geographers believed to exist in the interior of
Africa, covered with perpetual snow, and con
taining the sources of the Nile (Ptol. iv. 8, 3, 6).
Luperca. [Lupercus.]
Lupercus was merely another name for the
Italian rural deity Faunus, who was also caUed
Inuus (i.e. the god who gives fruitfulness to
the flocks). The title Lupercus has been ex
plained by many writers as meaning ' the pro
tector of the flocks from wolves ' (lupus-arceo) ;
but on the whole it is likely that a more recent
interpretation is right which makes the word
only an equivalent of lupus (cf . nov—erca) ; and
that the name of ' wolves ' was given to Faunus
and to his priests owing to some primitive wor
ship of the wolf as a woU-god, whether that is
to be regarded as a relic of totemism or not.
These rites were celebrated in the cave of the
Lupercal under the Palatine, and with them
were connected the stories of the nurse of Ro
mulus and Remus, who is called sometimes
Acca Larentia, sometimes Lupa or Luperca
(Arnob. iv. 3 ; Lactant. i. 20), and sometimes.
appears as an actual she-wolf. It is likely that
these stories of the wolf-nurse are more recent
than the rites and the priesthood, and grew out
of them. [See Diet, of Ant. art. Lupercalia,.
Luperci.] For an account of the deity, see
Faunus. Lupia. [Luppia.J
Lupiae or Luppiae, (Leuc), a town to Cala
bria, between Brundusium and Hydruntum
(Strab. p. 282).
Lupodunum (Ladenburg ?), a town in Ger
many on the river 'Nicer (Neckar) (Auson.
Mosel. 423).
Luppia or Lupia (Lippe), a navigable river
in the NW. of Germany, which faUs toto the
RMne at Wesel in Westphalia, and on which
the Romans built a fortress of the same name.
The river Eliso (Alme) was a tributary of the
Luppia, and at the confluence of these two
rivers was the fortress of Aliso. (Veil. Pat. ii.
105; Tac. Ann. i. 60 ; Strab. p. 291.)
Lupus, Rutilius. 1. P., consul, with L.
Julius Caesar, in B.C. 90, was defeated by the
Marsi, and slain in battle (App. B. G. i. 40, 43 ;
Flor. iii. 18).— 2. P., tribune of the plebs, 56,
and a warm partisan of the aristocracy. He
was praetor in 49, and was stationed at Terra-
cina with three cohorts. He afterwards crossed
over to Greece. (Caes. B. G. i. 24, iii, 55.) — 3.
Probably to the reign of Tiberius, the author of
a rhetorical treatise in two books, entitled De
Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis, which
appears to have been originally an abridgment
of a work by Gorgias of Athens, one of the
preceptors of young M. Cicero, but which has
evidently undergone many changes (Quint, ix.
2, 102). Its chief value is derived from the
numerous translations which it contains of
striking passages from the works of Greek ¦

LURCO
orators now lost.— Edited by Ruhnken along
with Aquila and Julius Ruffinianus, Lug. Bat.
1768, reprinted by Frotscher, Lips. 1831; by
Draheim, Berl. 1874.
Lurco, M. Aufldius, tribune of the plebs,
B.C. 61, the author of a law on bribery (de
Ambitu). He was the maternal grandfather of
the empress Livia, wife of Augustus. He was
the first person in Rome who fattened pea
cocks for sale (Plin. x. 45).
Luscinus, Fabricius. [Fabricius.]
Lusi (Aovaoi) a town in the N. of Arcadia,
had a temple of Artemis Lusia (Paus. viii. 18,
8 ; Pol. iv. 18).
Lusitania, Lusitani. [Hispania.]
Lusones, a tribe of the Celtiberi in Hispania
Tarraconensis, near the sources of the Tagus.
Lutatius Catulus. [Catulus.]
Lutatius Cerco. [Cerco.]
Lutetia, or, more commonly, Lutetia Pari-
siorum (Paris), the capital of the Parish in
GaUia Lugdunensis, was situated on an island
in the Sequana (Seine), and was connected
with the banks of the river by two wooden
bridges (Caes. B. G. vi. 3, vii. 58; Strab. p.
194). Under the emperors it became a place of
importance, and the cMef naval station on the
Sequana. Here Julian was proclaimed em
peror, AJ5. 360 (Amm. Marc. xvii. 2, xx. 4).
Lycabettus (AvKaBvrrbs : Mt. St. George), a
mountain in Attica, belonging to the range of
PenteUcus, close to the waUs of Athens on the
NE. of the city, and on the left of the road
leading to Marathon. [Athenae, p. 140.]
Lycaeus (AvkuIos), or Lyceus, a lofty moun
tain to Arcadia, NW. of Megalopolis, from the
summit of wMch a great part of the country
could be seen. It was one of the chief seats of
the worsMp of Zeus, who was hence surnamed
Lycaeus (Paus. vui. 38). Here was a temple of
Zeus ; and here also was celebrated the festival
of the Lycaea (Diet, of Ant. s. v.). Pan was
likewise called Lycaeus, because he was born
and had a sanctuary on this mountain.
Lycambes. [Archilochus.]
Lycaon (AvKaav), king of Arcadia, son of
Pelasgus by MeUboea or CyUene. The tradi
tions about Lycaon represent Mm in very
different lights. Some describe him as the
first civUiser of Arcadia, who built the town of
Lycosura, and introduced the worsMp of Zeus
Lycaeus. But he is more usuaUy represented
as an impious Mng, with fifty sons as impious
as himself. Zeus visited the earth in order to
punish them. The god was recognised and
worsMpped by the Arcadian people. Lycaon
resolved to murder Mm ; and to order to try if
he were really a god, served before him a dish
of human flesh. Zeus pushed away the table,
and the place where this happened was after
wards called Trapezus. Lycaon and all his
sons, with the exception of the youngest (or
eldest), Nyctimus, were killed by Zeus with a
flash of Ughtning, or according to others, were
changed into wolves. (Paus. viii. 2 ; Callisto.)
It is open to question whether in these stories
we have reminiscences of ancient human sacri
fices to the Pelasgian Zeus, or of a superstition
akin to the northern wehr-wolf stories, or of
pastoral rites of the Arcadians for protection
against wolves, like the Roman Lupercalia : it
is possible that aU these origins may have a
part in the myth : it is also possible that the
name itself may originally have meant ' light,'
in connexion with the Lycaean Zeus, and may
have been falsely referred to wolves. — Callisto,
the daughter of Lycaon, is said to have been

LYCIA 5os
changed into the constellation of the Bear,
whence she is called by tho poets Lycaonis
Arctos, Lycaonia Arctos, or Lycaonia Virgo,
or by her patronymic Lycaonis.
LycaSnia (AvKaovia : AvKdoves : part of Kara-
man), a district of Asia Minor, assigned, under
the Persian empire, to the satrapy of Cappa
docia, but considered by the Greek and Roman
geographers the SE. part of Phrygia ; bounded
on the N. by Galatia, on the E. by Cappadocia,
on the S. by Cilicia Aspera, on the SW. by
lsauria (which was sometimes reckoned as a
part of it) and by Phrygia Paroreioa, and on
the NW. by Great Phrygia. It was a long
narrow strip of country, its length extending in
the direction of NW. and SE. ; Xenophon, who
first mentions it, describes its width as extend
ing E. of Iconium (its chief city) to the borders
of Cappadocia, a distance of 30 parasangs,
about 110 miles. It forms a table-land between
the Taurus and the mountains of Phrygia,
deficient in good water, but abounding in flocks
of sheep. The people, who were perhaps akin
to the Pisidians, spoke a language mentioned
to the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 11) as a dis
tinct dialect: they were warlike, and especi-
ally skilled in archery. After the overthrow of
Antiochus the Great by the Romans, Lycaonia,
which had belonged successively to Persia and
to Syria, was partly assigned to Eumenes, and
partly governed by native chieftains, the last of
whom, Antipater, a contemporary of Cicero,
was conquered by Amyntas, king of Galatia, at
whose death, to B.C. 25, it passed, with Galatia,
to the Romans (Dio Cass. liii. 26). In Trajan's
reign it was united to the province of Cappa
docia (Ptol. v. 6), its chief town being Iconium.
In the fourth century a.d. it was a separate
province. Lyceum. [Athenae, p. 144, b.]
Lyceus. [Apollo, p. 89, b.]
Lychnitis. [Lychnidus.]
Lychnidus, more rarely Lychnidium or
Lychnis (AixviSos, AvxviSiov, Avxvis : Avxvi-
Sios ; Achrita, Ochrida), a town of Hlyricum,
was the ancient capital of the Dessaretii, but
was in the possession of the Romans as early
as their war with king Gentius. It was situated
in the interior of the country, on a height on
the N. bank of the lake Lychnitis (Avxviris,
or r) AvxviSia Xipvri), from which the river Drilon
rises. The town was strongly fortified, and
contained many springa. (Liv. xxvii. 32, xliii.
9 ; Strab. p. 323.) In the middle ages it was
the residence of the Bulgarian kings, and called
Achris or Achrita, whence its modern name.
Lycia (AvKla : AiKios, Lycius : Meis), a smaU,
but most interesting, district on the S. side of
Asia Minor, jutting out into the Mediterranean
in a form approaching to a rough semicircle,
adjacent to parts of Caria and Pamphylia on the
W. and E., and on the N. to the district of Ciby-
ratis in Phrygia, to wMch, under the Byzantine
emperors, it was considered to belong. It was
bounded on the NW. by the little river Glaucus
and the gulf of the same name, on the NE. by
the mountain called Climax (the N. part of the
same range as that called Solyma), and on the
N. its natural boundary was the Taurus, but its
limits in this direction were not strictly defined.
The N. parts of Lycia and the district of Ciby-
ratis form together a high table-land, which is
supported on the N. by the Taurus ; on the E.
by the mountains called Solyma (Taktalu-
Dagh), which run from N. to S. along the E.
coast of Lycia, far out into the sea, forming the
SE. promontory of Lycia, caUed Sacrum Pr.

504

LYCIA

(0. Khelidonia) ; the summit of this range is
7800 feet high, and is covered with snow : the
SW. and S. sides of this table-land are formed
by the range called Massicytus (Aktar Dagh),
which runs SE. from the E. side of the upper
course of the river Xanthus : its summits are
about 4000 feet high ; and its S. side descends
towards the sea in a succession of terraces, ter
minated by bold cliffs. The mountain system
of Lycia is completed by the Cragus, which fills
up the space between the W. side of the Xan
thus and the Gulf of Glaucus, and forms the
SW. promontory of Lycia: its summits are
nearly 6000 feet Mgh. The chief rivers are the
Xanthus (Bchen-Chai), wMch has its sources
in the table-land S. of the Taurus, and flows
from N. to S. between the Cragus and Massicy
tus, and the Limyrus, whioh flows from N. to
S. between the Massicytus and the Solyma
mountains. The valleys of these and the smaller
rivers, and the terraces above the sea in the S.
of the country were fertile in corn, wine, oil,
and fruits, and the mountain slopes were
clothed with splendid cedars, firs, and plane-
trees : saffron also was one chief product of
the land. The general geographical structure
of the peninsula of Lycia, as connected
with the rest of Asia Minor, bears no little
resemblance to that of the peninsula of Asia
Minor itself, as connected with the rest of
Asia. According to the tradition preserved by
Herodotus, the most ancient name of the country
was Milyas (r) MiXvds), and the earliest inha
bitants (probably of the Syro- Arabian race) were
caUed Milyae, and afterwards Solymi : subse
quently the Termilae, from Crete, settled to the
country : and lastly, the Athenian Lycus, the
son of Pandion, fled from Ms brother Aegeus
to Lycia, and gave his name to the country.
(Hdt. i. 173.) Homer, who gives Lycia a pro
minent place in the Iliad, represents its chief
tains, Glaucus and Sarpedon, as descended from
the royal family of Argos (Aeolids) : he does
not mention the name of Milyas ; and he speaks
of the Solymi as a warlike race, inhabiting the
mountains, against whom the Greek hero Belle
rophontes is sent to fight, by his relative the
king of Lycia (II. vi. 171-184, x. 430, xii. 312 ;
Od. v. 282.) Besides the legend of BeUerophon
and the Chimaera, Lycia is the scene of another
popular Greek story, that of the Harpies and
the daughters of Pandarus ; and memorials of
both are preserved on the Lycian monuments
now in the British Museum. On the whole, it
is clear that Lycia was colonised by an immi
grant Hellenic race (probably from Crete), which
, drove the native Solymi into the mountains
further inland, and that its historical inhabit
ants were Greeks, though with a mixture of
native blood. The earlier names were preserved
in the district in the N. of the country called
Milyas, and in the mountains called Solyma.
The Lycians always kept the reputation they
have in Homer, as brave warriors. They and
the Cilicians were the only people W. of the
Halys whom Croesus did not conquer, and they
were the last who resisted the Persians. [Xan
thus.] Under the Persian empire they must
have been a powerful maritime people, as they
furnished fifty stops to the fleet of Xerxes.
After the Macedonian conquest, Lycia formed
part of the Syrian kingdom, from which it was
taken by the Romans after their victory over
Antiochus III. the Great, and given to the
Rhodians. It was soon restored to independ
ence, and formed a flourishing federation of
cities, each having its own republican form of

LYCOPHRON
government, and the whole presided over by a
chief magistrate, called AvKidpxris. There was
a federal council, composed of deputies from the
twenty-three cities of the federation, to which
the six chief cities, Xanthus, Patara, Pinara,
Olympus, Myra, and Tios, had three votes each,
certain lesser cities two each, and the rest one
each : this assembly determined matters relat
ing to the general government of the country,
and elected the Lyciarches, as well as the judges
and the inferior magistrates. (Strab. pp. 664,
665.) Internal dissensions at length broke up
this constitution, and the country was united
by the emperor Claudius to the province of
Pamphylia (Suet. Claud. 25 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 17).
It was separated from Pamphylia in 313 A.D.,
and governed by a praeses of its Own. [See
also Xanthus.]
Lycius (Aukios). [Apollo.]
Lycomedes (AvKopifSTis). 1. A king of the
Dolopians, to the island of Scyros, near Euboea.
It was to Ms court that Achilles was sent dis-
guised as a maiden by his mother Thetis, who
was anxious to prevent his going to the Trojan
war. Here Achilles became the father of Pyr
rhus or Neoptolemus by Deidamla, the daugh
ter of Lycomedes. Lycomedes treacherously
killed Theseus by thrusting him down a rock.
[Achilles; Theseus.] — 2. An Arcadian general,
a native of Mantinea and one of the chief foun
ders of MegalopoUs, b. c. 370. He afterwards
showed jealousy of Thebes, and formed a sepa
rate alliance between Athens and Arcadia, in
366. He was murdered in the same year on Ms
return from Athens, by some Arcadian exUes.
(Xen. Hell. vii. 1, 2S ; Diod. xv. 59.)
Lycon (AiKav). 1. An orator and demagogue
at Athens, was one of the accusers of Socrates
and prepared the case agatost him. When the
Athenians repented of their condemnation of
Socrates, they put Meletus to death and
banished Anytus and Lycon. [Socrates.] — 2.
Of Troas, a Peripatetic phUosopher, and the
pupil of Straton, whom he succeeded as the head
of the Peripatetic school, B.C. 272. He held that
post for more than forty-four years, and died at
the age of 74. He enjoyed the patronage of
Attalus and Eumenes. He wrote on the boun
daries of good and evil (Cic. Fin. v. 5, 18).
Lycophron (AvKbippav). 1. Younger son of
Periander, tyrant of Corinth, by his wife Melissa.
For details see Periander. — 2. A citizen of
Pherae, where he put down the government of
the nobles and established a tyranny about B.C.
405. He afterwards endeavoured to make him
self master of the whole of Thessaly, and in
404 he defeated the Larissaeans and others of
the Thessalians, who opposed him. (Xen. Hell.
ii. 3, 4 ; Diod. xiv. 82.)— 3. A son, apparently,
of Jason, and one of the brothers of Thebe, wife
of Alexander, the tyrant of Pherae, in whose
murder he took part together with his sister and
his two brothers, Tisiphonus and Pitholaus, 359.
On Alexander's death the power appears to have
been wielded mainly by Tisiphonus, though
Lycophron had an important share in the go
vernment. Lycophron succeeded to the supreme
power on the death of Tisiphonus, but to 352
he was obliged to surrender Pherae to Philip,
and withdraw from Thessaly. — 4. A grammarian
and poet, was a native of Chalcis in Euboea,
and lived at Alexandria, under Ptolemy Phil
adelphus (b. c. 285-247), who entrusted to him
the arrangement of the works of the comic
poets in the Alexandrian library. Lycophron
himself wrote a work on Comedy. Ovid (Ibis,
538) states that he was killed by an arrow. —

LYCOPOLIS
Lycophron wrote a number of tragedies ; but
the only one of his poems which has come down
to us is the Cassandra or Alexandra. This is
a long iambic monologue of 1474 verses, in
which Cassandra is made to prophesy the fall
of Troy, the adventures of the Grecian and
Trojan heroes, with other mythological and his
torical events, going back as early as the fables
of Io and Europa, and ending with Alexander
the Great. The work has no pretensions to
poetical merit. It is simply a cumbrous store
of traditional learning. Its obscurity obtained
for its author the name d SKoreivbs. It is useful
for mythological reference ; but for this purpose
the Scholia of Isaac and John Tzetzes are far
more valuable than the poem itself. Editions
by Potter, Oxon. 1697, tol. ; Bachmonn, Lips.
1828_; Ktokel, 1880.
Lycopolis (r) Aixav irbXis: Siout, Ru.), a
city of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the
NUe, between HermopoUs and Ptolemais, said
to have derived its name from the circum
stance that an AetMopian army was put to
flight near it by a pock of wolves (Diod. ii. 88 ;
Ael. H. A. x. 28).
Lyeorea (AvKdpeia: AvKapeis, Avxdpios,
AvKapeirris), an ancient town at the foot of Mt.
Lyeorea (Liakura), wMch was the southern of
the two peaks of Mt. Parnassus. [Parnassus.]
Lycoris. [Cytheris.]
Lycortas (AwcopTas), of MegalopoUs was the
father of Polybius, the Mstorian, and the close
friend of PMlopoemen, whose poUcy he always
supported. He is first mentioned in B.C. 189,
as one of the ambassadors sent to Rome ; and
Ms name occurs for the last time to 168. (Justin.
xxxii. 1.)
Lycosura (AvKbaovpa: AvKoaovpeis: Paleo-
krambavos or Sidhirokastro near Staid), a
town to the S. of Arcadia, and on the NW.
slope of Mt. Lycaeus, and near the small river
Plataniston, said by Pausanias to have been
the most ancient town to Greece, and to have
been founded by Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus
(Paus. viu. 2, 4, 38).
Lyctus (AiKTos : Auktios), sometimes called
XyttUS (Ai/ttos), a town to the E. of Crete, SE.
of Cnossus, situated on a height of Mt. Argaeus,
eighty stadia from the coast. Its harbour was
called Chersonesus. It is mentioned to the
Hiad (U. 64, xvn. 611). It was generally con
sidered to be a Spartan colony, and its inhabi
tants were celebrated for their bravery (Arist.
Pol. n. 7). It was conquered and destroyed
by the Cnbssians, but it was afterwards rebuUt
(Poi iv. 53 ; Strab. p. 476).
Lycurgus (AvKOvpyos). 1. Son of Dryas,
and king of the Edones to Thrace. He is
famous for Ms persecution of Dionysus and
Ms worsMp to Thrace. Homer relates that,
in order to escape from Lycurgus, Dionysus
leaped into the sea, where he was kindly re
ceived by Thetis; and that Zeus thereupon
blinded the impious Mng, who died soon after
wards, hated by the immortal gods (H. vi.
130). TMs story has received many additions
from later poets. Some relate that Dionysus, on
his expeditions, came to the kingdom of Ly
curgus, but was expelled by the impious king.
Thereupon the god drove Lycurgus mad, in
which condition he killed his son Dryas, and
also hewed off one of Ms legs, supposing that he
was cutting down vines. [Dionysus, pp. 293,
294.] The country now produced no fruit ; and
the oracle declaring that fortuity should not be
restored unless Lycurgus were killed, the
Edonians carried him to Mount Pangaeus,

LYCURGUS 605
where he was imprisoned in a cave (Soph. Ant.
955 ; ApoUod. iii. 5, 1). Afterwards he was torn

Madness of Lycurgus. (Part of relief on a sarcophagus :
Osterley, Detikm. ii. 37.)
[Lycurgus is swinging his axe over his -wife, whom he is
made to take for a vine. Two Furies with torches are
driving him to madness, and a panther of Dionysus
seems about to attack him.]
to pieces by horses or by panthers (Hyg. Fab.
132). — 2. King in Arcadia, son of Aleus and
Neaera, brother of Cepheus and Auge, husband
of Cleophile, Eurynome, or Antinoe, and father
of Ancaeus, Epochus, AmpMdamas, and Iasus.
Lycurgus killed Areithous, who used to fight
with a club. Lycurgus bequeathed tMs club to
Ms slave Ereuthalion, his sons having died
before him (II. vii. 142). — 3. Son of Pronaxand
brother of AmpMthea, the wife of Adrastus
(Paus. iii. 18, 12). He took part in the war of
the Seven against Thebes, and fought with
AmpMaraus. He is mentioned among those
whom Asclepius called to life again after their
death. — 4. King of Nemea, son of Pheres and
Periclymene, brother of Admetus, husband
of Eurydice or AmpMthea, and father of
Opheltes. Lycurgus (AvKovpyos). 1. The Spartan legis
lator. Of his history we have no certain infor
mation; and there are such discrepancies
respecting him in the ancient writers, that
many modern critics have denied his real
existence altogether. There is no warrant
for any such denial, though it is probable that
the appropriate name given to Ms father is
altogether fictitious (Aristotle, indeed, in Pol.
iv. 11 = p. 1296, seems to place Lycurgus
among the middle-class citizens), and that
some of the institutions ascribed to him belong
to a later date. The more generally received
account about him was as follows. Lycurgus
was the Bon of Eunomus, king of Sparta, and
brother of Polydectes. The latter succeeded
his father as king of Sparta, and afterwards
died, leaving his queen with chUd. The ambi
tious woman proposed to Lycurgus to destroy
her offspring if he would share the throne with
her. He seemingly consented ; but when she
hod given birth to a son (Charilaus), he openly
proclaimed him king ; and as next of Mn, acted
as his guardian. But to avoid all suspicion of
ambitious designs, with which the opposite
party charged him, Lycurgus left Sparta, and
set out on Ms celebrated travels, which have
been magnified to a fabulous extent. He is
said to have visited Crete, and there to have
studied the wise laws of Minos. Next he went
to Ionia and Egypt, and is reported to have
penetrated into Libya, Iberia, and even India.
In Ionia he is said to have met either with
Homer himself, or at least with the Homeric
poems, which he introduced into the mother
country. The return of Lycurgus to Sparta
was hailed by all parties. Sparta was in a state
of anarchy, and he was considered the man

506

LYCURGUS

who alone could cure the diseases of the state.
He undertook the task; yet before he set to
work, he strengthened himself with the autho
rity of the Delphic oracle, from which he is said
to have obtained ordinances (rhetrae) on which
he based Ms reforms, as foUows : ' Found a
temple to Zeus and Athene ; arrange the tribes
and Obes to the number of 30 [i.e. 10 Obes in
each of the tMee tribes — probably an older
institution]; appoint the Gerousia and Arch-
agetae (= kings). Convoke assemblies of the
people between Babyca and Cnacion, and there
propose and enact laws by the will of the
people.' The reform seems not to have been
carried altogether peaceably. According to one
legend Lycurgus lost an eye in a personal
attack made upon him. The new division of
the land among the citizens must have violated
many existing interests. But all opposition
was overborne, and the whole constitution,
miUtary and civil, was remodelled. After
Lycurgus had obtained for his institutions an
approving oracle of the national god of Delphi,
he exacted a promise from the people not to
make any alterations in his laws before his
return. And now he left Sparta to finish Ms
life in voluntary exile, in order that his country
men might be bound by their oath to preserve
his constitution inviolate for ever. Where and
how he died nobody could tell. He vanished
from the earth like a god, leaving no traces
behind but Ma spirit ; and he was honoured as
a god at Sparta with a temple and yearly
sacrifices down to the latest times. The date
of Lycurgus is variously given, but it was
probably a few years before 800 B.C. (Hdt. i.
65; Plut. Lycurgus; Strab. pp. 364, 482;
Arist. Pol. v. 12 = p. 1316 ; [Xen.] Bep. Lac. x.
8; cf. Thuc. i. 18.) — Lycurgus was regarded
tMough all subsequent ages as the legislator of
Sparta, and therefore almost all the Spartan
institutions were ascribed to Mm as their
author. We therefore propose to give here a
sketch of the Spartan constitution, referring for
details to the Diet, of Antiq. ; though we must
not imagine that this constitution was entirely
the work of Lycurgus. The Spartan constitu
tion was of a mixed nature : the monarchical
principle was represented by the Mngs, the
aristocracy by the senate, and the democratical
element by the assembly of the people, and
subsequently by their representatives, the
ephorB. The kings had originally to perform
the common functions of the kings of the
heroic age. They were high priests, judges,
and leaders in war ; but in all of these depart
ments they were to course of time superseded
more or less. As judges they retained only a
particular branch of jurisdiction, that referring
to the succession of property. As military
commanderB they were to some extent restricted
and watched by commissioners sent by the
senate ; the functions of high priest were cur
tailed least, perhaps because least obnoxious.
In compensation for the loss of power, the
Mngs enjoyed great honours, both during their
life and after their death. The senate or
Gerousia consisted of 30 members, one from each
Obe, all elected except the two kings, who were
ex officio members, and represented eachhis own
Obe. In their functions they replaced the old
council of the nobles as a sort of privy council
to the kings, but their power was greater, since
the votes of the Mngs were of no greater weight
than those of other senators ; they had the right
of originating and discussing all measures
before they could be submitted to the decision

of the popular assembly ; they had, in conjunc
tion (later) with the ephors, to watch over the
due observance of the laws and institutions ;
and they were judges in aU criminal cases,
without being bound by any written code. For
all this they were not responsible, holding their
office for life. — But with all these powers, the
elders formed no real aristocracy. They were
not chosen either for property qualification or
for noble birth. The senate was open to the
poorest citizen, who during sixty years had been
obedient to the laws and zealous to the per
formance of hiB duties. — The mass of the
people — that is, the Spartans of pure Doric
descent — formed the sovereign power of the
state. The popular assembly consisted of
every Spartan of tMrty years of age, and of un
blemished character; only those were excluded
who had not the means of contributing their
portion to the syssitia. They met at stated
times, to decide on aU important questions
brought before them, after a previous discussion
in the senate. They had no right of amend
ment, but only that of simple approval or rejec
tion, which was given in the rudest form
possible, by shouting. The popular assembly,
however, had neither frequent nor very im
portant occasions for directly exerting their
sovereign power. Their chief activity consisted
in delegating it ; hence arose the importance of
the ephors, who were the representatives of the
popular element of the constitution. The five
epliors answer in many potots to the Roman
tribunes of the people. Their appointment is
included by Herodotus among the institutions
of Lycurgus, but it is probable that Aristotle is
right in dating these later, from the reign of
Theopompus. [Diet, of Ant. art. Ephori.] Their
appointment was perhaps a concession to the
people, at first as overseers of the markets and
as magistrates who might check iUegal oppres
sion by kings or great men. Subsequently they
absorbed most of the power in the state. To
Lycurgus was ascribed also a prohibition to use
written laws or to have any coinage but iron :
but these traditions must refer to later customs,
since there were neither coins nor written
laws in Greece as early as Lycurgus. — With
reference to. their subjects, the few Spartans
formed a most decided aristocracy. On the
conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, part
of the ancient inhabitants of the country, under
name of the Perioici, were allowed indeed to
retain their personal liberty, but lost aU civil
rights, and were obliged to pay to the state a
rent for the land that was left them. But a
great part of the old inhabitants were reduced
to a state of perfect slavery, different from that
of the slaves of Athens and Rome, and more
similar to the villa-nage of the feudal ages.
These were called Helots. They were allotted,
with patches of land, to individual members of
the ruling class. They tilled the land, and paid
a fixed rent to their masters, not, as the perioici,
to the state. The Spartans formed, as it were,
an army of invaders in an enemy's country,
their city was a camp, and every man a soldier.
At Sparta, the citizen only existed for the state ;
he had no interest but the state's, and no
property but what belonged to the state. It
was a fundamental principle of the constitution
that aU citizens were entitled to the enjoyment
of an equal portion of the common property.
TMs was done in order to secure to the common
wealth a large number of citizens and soldiers
free from labour for their sustenance, and able
to devote their whole time to warlike exercises,

LYCUS
in order thus to keep up the ascendency of
Sparta over her perioici and helots. The
Spartans were to be warriors and nothing but
warriors. Therefore, not only all mechanical
labour was thought to degrade them ; not only
was husbandry despised and neglected, and
commerce prevented, or at least impeded, by
proMbitive laws and by the use of iron money ;
but also the nobler arts and sciences were so
effectually stifled that Sparta is a blank in the
history of the arts and literature of Greece.
The state took care of a Spartan from his cradle
to Ms grave, and superintended his education
in the minutest points. This was not confined
to his youth, but extended throughout his
whole life. The syssitia, or, as they were called
at Sparta, phiditia, the common meals, may be
regarded as an educational institution; for at
these meals subjects of general interest were
discussed and political questions debated. The
youths and boys used to eat separately from
the men, in their own divisions. — 2. A Lacedae
monian, who, though not of the royal blood,
was chosen king, in B.C. 220, together with
AgesipoUs HI., after the death of Cleomenes.
It was not long before he deposed Ms colleague
and made Mmself sole sovereign, though under
the control of the Ephori. He carried on war
against PMlip V. of Macedon, and the Achaeans.
He died about 210, and Machanidas then made
himself tyrant. (Pol. iv. 2, 85, v. 21, 91 ; Paus.
iv. 29.) — 3. An Attic orator, son of Lycophron,
who belonged to the noble family of the Eteo
butadae, was born at Athens, about B.C. 396.
He was a disciple of Plato and Isocrates. In
public Ufe he was a warm supporter of the
poUcy of Demosthenes, and was universally
admitted to be one of the most virtuous citizens
and upright statesmen of his age. He was
Tamias or manager of the pubUc revenue from
338 to 326, and discharged the duties of this
office with such ability and integrity, that he
raised the public revenue to the sum of 1200
talents. One of his laws enacted that bronze
statues should be erected to Aeschylus, So
phocles, and Euripides, and that copies of their
tragedies should be preserved in the public
arcMves. He died wMle holding the office of
President of the Theatre of Dionysus, in 323.
A fragment of an inscription containing an
account of Ms administration of the finances is
stiU extant. There were fifteen orations of Ly
curgus extant in antiquity; but only one has
come down to us entire, the -oration against Leo-
crates, which was delivered in 332. Leocrates,
who had fled from Athens after the battle of
Chaeronea, was indicted for treason. The ora
tion is printed in the various collections of the
Attic orators. [Demosthenes.]
Lycus (AiKos). 1. Son of Poseidon and Ce-
laeno, who was transferred by his father to the
Islands of the Blessed (ApoUod. iii. 10, 1). By
Alcyone, the sister of Celaeno, Poseidon begot
Hyrieus, the father of the following. — 2. Son
of Hyrieus and Clonia, and brother of Nycteus.
Polydorus, Mng of Thebes, married the daughter
of Nycteus, by whom he had a son Labdacus ;
and on his death he left the government of
Thebes and the guardiansMp of Labdacus to his
father-in-law. Nycteus afterwards fell to battle
against Epopeus, king of Sicyon, who had carried
away his beautiful daughter Antiope. Lycus
succeeded Ms brother in the government of
Thebes, and in the guardianship of Labdacus.
He surrendered the kingdom to Labdacus when
the latter had grown up. On the death of Lab
dacus soon afterwards, Lycus again succeeded

LYDIA

507

to the government of Thebes, and undertook
the guardianship of Laius, the son of Labdacus
(Paus. ii. 6, 2, ix. 5, 5). Lycus marched against
Epopeus, whom he put to death (accordmg to
other accounts Epopeus fell in the war with
Nycteus), and he carried away Antiope to Thebes.
She was treated with the greateBt cruelty by
Dirce, the wife of Lycus ; in revenge for which
her sons by Zeus— Amphion and Zethus— after
wards put to death both Lycus and Dirce.
[Amphion.]— 3. Son of No. 2, or, according to
others, son of Poseidon, was also king of Thebes.
In the absence of Heracles, Lycus attempted to
kill his wife Megara and her children, but was
afterwards put to death by Heracles (Eur. H. F.
31 ; Hyg. Fab. 82).— 4. Son of Pandion, and
brother of Aegeus, Nisus, and Pallas. He was
expelled by Aegeus, and took refuge to the
country of the Termilae, which was called Lycia
after him. He was honoured at Athens as a
hero, and Pauaanias asserts that the Lyceum
derived its name from him. (It is more prob
ably connected with Apollo Lyceus.) He is said
to have introduced the Eleusinian mysteries
into Andania in Messenia. He is sometimes
also described as an ancient prophet, and the
family of the Lycomedae, at Athens, traced
their name and origin from him. (Hdt. i. 173,
vii. 92 ; Paus. i. 19, 4, iv. 1, 2, 20, x. 12 ; Aristoph.
Vesp. 408.) — 5. Son of Dascylus, and king of
the Mariandynians, who received Heracles and
the Argonauts with hospitality (Ap. Rh. ii. 139).
— 6. Of Rhegium, the father, real or adoptive,
of the poet Lycophron, was a historical writer
to the time of Demetrius Phalereus.
Lycus (AiKos), the name of several rivers
which are said to be so called from the impetuo
sity of their current. 1. (Kilij), a little river
of Bithynia, faUing into the sea S. of Heraclea
Pontica (Xen. An. vi. 2, 3). — 2. (Germeneh-
Chai), a considerable river of Pontus, rising to
the mountains on the N. of Armenia Minor, and
flowing W into the Iris at Eupatoria (Strab.
pp. 529, 547). — 3. (Choruk-Su), a considerable
river of Phrygia, flowing from E. to W. past
Colossae and Laodicea toto the Maeander (Hdt.
vii. 30; Strab. p. 578).— 4. (Nahr-el-Kelb), a
river of Phoenicia, falling toto the sea N. of
Berytus. — 5. (Great Zab or Ulu-Su), a river of
Assyria, rising in the mountains on the S. of
Armenia, and flowing SW. into the Tigris, just
below Larissa (Nimroud). The same as the
Zabatus of Xenophon. (Curt. iv. 9 ; Xen. An. ii.
5,1.) Lydda (rd AiSSa, r) AiSS-n : Lud), a town of
Palestine, SE. of Joppa, and NW. of Jerusalem,
at the junction of several roads which lead from
the sea-coast, was destroyed by the Romans in
the Jewish war, but soon after rebuilt, and
called Diospolis (Jos. B. J. ii. 19, 3, iii. 4, 8).
Lydia (AvSia : AvSbs, Lydus), a district of
Asia Minor, in the middle of the W. side of the
peninsula, between Mysia on the N. and Caria
on the S., and between Phrygia on the E. and
the Aegaean Sea on the W. The name had a
widely-extended meaning when applied to the
old Lydian kingdom; but of Lydia strictly so-
called the N. boundary, towards Mysia, was the
range of mountains which form the N. margin
of the valley of the Hermus, called Sardene, a.
SW. branch of the Phrygian Olympus : the E.
boundary towards Phrygia was an imaginary
line : and the S. boundary towards Caria was
the river Maeander, or, according to some autho
rities, the range of mountains which, under the-
name of Messogis (Kastane Dagh) forms the N.
margin of the valley of the Maeander, and is a.

508

LYDIA

NW. prolongation of the Taurus. From the E.
part of tMs range, in the SE. corner of Lydia,
another branches off to the NW., and runs to
the W. far out into the Aegaean Sea, where it
forms the peninsula opposite to the island of
CMos. This chain, which is called Tmolus
(Kisilja Musa Dagh), divides Lydia into two
unequal valleys ; of which the S. and smaller is
watered by the river Cayster, and the N. forms
the great plain of the Hermus : these vaUeys
are very beautiful and fertile, especiaUy that of
the Hermus. The E. part of Lydia, and the
adjacent portion of Phrygia, about the upper
course of the Hermus and its tributaries, is an
elevated plain, showing traces of volcanic action,
and hence called Catacecaumene (KaraKeKav-
pevri). In early times the country had another
name, Maeonia (Mr/oviri, Maiovia), by wMch
alone it is known to Homer (17. ii. 865, v. 43, x.
431) ; and this name was afterwards applied
specifically to the E. and S. part of Lydia, and
then, in contradistinction to it, the name Lydia
waa uaed for the NW. part (Strab. pp. 620, 625,
678, 680). It is a probable suggestion that the
original Lydia of the lower Hermus was con
quered by the Maeonians, a people of Phrygian
origin, before the Homeric period, and that when
Gyges established a national Lydian kingdom
he restored the old name to the whole country.
In the mythical legends the common name of
the people and country, Lydi and Lydia, is
derived from Lydus, the son of Atys, the first
king. The Lydians appear to have been a race
closely connected with the Carians and the
Mysians, with whom they observed a common
worsMp in the temple of Zeus Carius at Mylasa :
they also practised the worship of Cybele, and
other Ptoygian customs. Some modern writers
believe them to have been a people of Semitic
origin, and find in this an explanation of the
name, which is Oriental, and of some charac
teristics in their customs and religion. This
would account for the tradition in Hdt. iii- 7
whioh derives one of the Lydian dynasties from
Ninus. Amidst the uncertainties of the early
legends, it is clear that Lydia was a very early
seat of Asiatic civilisation, and that it exerted
a very important influence on the Greeks. The
Lydian monarchy, which was founded at Sardis,
' before the time of authentic history, grew up
toto an empire, under which the many different
tribes of Asia Minor W. of the river Halys
were for the first time united. Tradition men
tioned three dynasties of kings: the Atyadae,
wMch ended (according to the computations
of chronologers) about B. c. 1221 ; the Hera-
• clidae, which reigned 505 years, down to 716 ;
and the Mermnadae, 160 years, down to 556.
Only the last dynasty can be safely regarded as
historical, and the fabulous element has a large
place in the details of their historv : their
names and computed dates were : — (l) Gyges,
B. c. 716-678 ; (2) Ardys, 678-629 ; (3) Sadyat-
tes, 629-617 ; (4) Alyattes, 617-560 ; (5) Croe
sus, 560 (or earlier)-546 ; under whose names
an account is given of the rise of the Lydian
empire in Asia Minor, and of its overthrow by
the Persians under Cyrus. Under these kings
the Lydians appear to have been a higMy
civilised, industrious, and wealthy people, prac
tising agriculture, commerce, and manufactures,
and acquainted with various arts ; and exercis
ing, through their intercourse with the Greeks
of Ionia, an important influence on the progress
of Greek civilisation. Among the inventions,
or improvements, which the Greeks are said to
have derived from them, were the weaving and

LYGDAMIS
dyeing of fine fabrics (II. iv. 141 ; Claud, de
Bapt. Pros. i. 270) ; various processes of metal
lurgy ; the use of gold and silver money, which
the Lydians are said first to have coined, the
former from the gold found on Tmolus and from
the golden sands of the Pactolus (Hdt. i. 94) ; and
various metrical and musical improvements, es
pecially the scale or mode of music caUed the
Lydian, and the form of the lyre caUed the maga-
dis. (Diet, of Antiq. art. Musica.) The Lydians
had also public games similar to those of the
Greeks. Their high civilisation, however, was
combined with a lax morality, and, after the Per
sian conquest, when they were forbidden by
Cyrus to carry arms, they sank gradually toto a
state of effeminate luxuriousness, and their
very name and language had almost entirely
disappeared by the commencement of our era.
Under the Persians, Lydia and Mysia formed the
second satrapy : after the Macedonian conquest,
Lydia belonged to the kings of Syria, and
(after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the
Romans) to those of Pergamum, and so passed,
by the bequest of Attalus III., to the Romans,
under whom it formed part of the province of
Asia. — On the tradition that Etruria was colo
nised by the Lydians, see Etruria. Hence
the Roman poets use Lydian as equivalent to
Etruscan (Verg. Aen. n. 781, ix. 11).
Lydiades (AvSidSris), a citizenof Megalopolis,
who, though of an obscure family raised himself
to the sovereignty of his native city, about B. c.
244. In 234 he voluntarily abdicated the sove
reignty, and permitted Megalopolis to join the
Achaean League as a free state. He was one
of the noblest characters to the later Greek Ms
tory. He was elected several times general of
the Achaean League, and became a formidable
rival to Aratus. ' He fell in battle against Cleo
menes, 226. (Pol. ii. 44, 51 ; Plut. Arat. 30, 35,
37, Gleom. 6; Paus. viii. 27.)
Lydias or Ludias (AvStas, Ion. AvSins, Aou-
Slas : Karasmak or Mavronero), a river in Ma
cedonia, rises in Eordaea, passes Edessa, and
after flowing through the lake on wMch Pella is
situated, falls into the Axius, a short distance
from the Thermaic gulf. In the upper part of
its course it is called the Eordaean river ('Eop-
SaiKos iroTapbs) by Arrian. (Eur. Bacch. 565 ;
Strab. p. 830.) Herodotus (vii. 127) by mistake
makes the Lydias unite with the HaUacmon,
the latter of wMch is W. of the former.
Lydus (AiiSos), son of Atys and Callithea, and
brother of Tyrrhenus, the mythical ancestor of
the Lydians (Hdt. i. 7 ; Dionys. i. 27).
Lydus, Joannes Laurentius, was born at
Philadelphia, in Lydia (whence he is called
Lydus or the Lydian), in a.d. 490. He held
various public offices, and lived to an advanced
age. He wrote : 1. Ilepl prpidv avyyparpri, De
Mensibus Liber, of which there are two epi-
tomae, or summaries, and a fragment extant
2. nepl dpxav k. t. A. De Magistratibus Bei-
publicae Bomanae. 8. Ilepi Sioaijpeidv, De
Ostentis (ed. Wachsmuth, 1868). The work De
Mensibus is a historical commentary on the
Roman calendar, with an account of the various
festivals, derived from a great number of
authorities, most of which have perished. Of
the two summaries of this curious work, the
larger one is by an unMiown hand, the shorter
one by Maximus Planudes. The work De
Magistratibus was thought to have perished,
but was discovered by ViHoison in the suburbs
of Constantinople, to 1785. The best edition of
the complete works is by Bekker, Bonn, 1837.
Lygdamis (AiySapis). 1. Of Naxos, a dis-

LYGH
languished leader of the popular party of the
island in the struggle with the oligarchy. He
conquered the latter, and obtained thereby the
chief power to the state. He assisted Pisistratus
to his third return to Athens ; but during Ms
absence Ms enemies seem to have got the upper
hand again ; for Pisistratus afterwards subdued
the island, and made Lygdamis tyrant of it,
about B.c. 540. In 532 he assisted Polyorates
in obtaining the tyranny of Samos. (Hdt. i. 61,
64 : Ar. Pol. v. 5 ; 'AB. iroX. 15.)— 2. Father of
Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, the con
temporary of Xerxes. — 3. Tyrant of Halicar
nassus, the son of Pistodelis, and the grandson
of Artemisia. Herodotus is said to have taken
an active part to delivering Ms native city from
the tyranny of tMs Lygdamis.
Lygii or Ligii, an important people in Ger
many, between the Viadus (Oder) and the Vis
tula, to the modern Silesia and Posen, were
bounded by the Burgundiones on the N., the
Goths on the E., the Bastarnae and Osi on the
W., and the Marsingi, Silingae, and Semnones
on the S. They were divided toto several tribes,
the chief of wMch were the Manimi, Dum,
Elysu, Burii, Arii, Naharvali, and Helveconae.
They first appear in Mstory as members of the
great Marcomannic league formed by Marobo-
duus to the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius.
In the third century some of the LygU migrated
with the Burgundians westwards, and settled in
the country bordering on the RMne. (Tac.
Germ. 43, Ann. xn. 29; Strab. p. 290; Dio
Cass, lxvii. 5.)
Lyncestis (Airy/njo-Tis), a district in the SW.
of Macedonia, N. of the river Erigon, and upon
the frontiers of Hlyria. Its inhabitants, the
Lyncestae, were Hlyrians, and were originally
an independent people, who were governed by
their own princes, said to be descended from
the famUy of the BaccMadae. The Lyncestae
appear to have become subject to Macedonia
by a marriage between the royal f amiUes of the
two countries. The ancient capital of the
country was Lyncus (r) AiyKos), though Hera
clea at a later time became the chief town in
the district. (Thuc. ii. 99, iv. 83, 124 ; Strab.
pp. 823, 326.) Ovid speaks of a river near
Lyncus, the waters of which were said to be as
intoxicating as wine (Ov. Met. xv. 329).
Lynceus (AvyKeis). 1. One of the 50 sons of
Aegyptus, whose Ufe was saved by his wife
Hypermnestra, when all his other brothers
were murdered by the daughters of Danaus on
their wedding night. [Aegyptus.] A rite at
Argos was derived from this story (or the story
from the rite), a torch procession, said to com
memorate the fact that Lynceus, when he had
escaped safely to Lyrcea, gave a signal to
Hypermnestra of Ms arrival, by waving a
torch (Paus. ii. 25, 4). Danaus kept Hyper
mnestra to strict confinement, but was after
wards prevailed upon to give her to Lynceus,
who succeeded him on the throne of Argos.
According to a different legend, Lynceus slew
Danaus and all the sisters of Hypermnestra,
to revenge for his brothers (Paus. ii. 16, 1 ;
ApoUod. n. 1, 5; Ov. Her. 14). Lynceus was
succeeded as king of Argos by Ms son Abas. —
2. Son of Aphareus and Arene, and brother of
Idas, was one of the Argonauts, and famous for
Ms keen sight.. He is also mentioned among
the Calydonian hunters, and was slain by Pollux.
(Apollod. i. 8, 2 ; Ap. Rh. i. 151 ; Pind. Nem. x.
61 ; Hor. Sat. i. 2, 90 ; Ep. i. 1, 28 ; Idas.)— 3.
Of Samos, the disciple of Theophrastus, and
brother of the Mstorian Duris, was a contem-

LYSANDER

509-

porary of Menander, and Ms rival in comic-
poetry (Athen. viii. p. 287 ; Plut. Dem. 27 ; Suid.
s.v.). Lyncus, king of Soythia, or, according to
others, of Sicily, endeavoured to murder Tri
ptolemus, who came to him with the gifts of
Ceres, but metamorphosed by the goddess into
a lynx (Ov. Met. v. 650 ; Serv. aiAen. i. 327).
Lyrcea or Lyrceum (AvpKela, AipKeiov), a
smaU town in Argolis, situated on a mountain of
the same name (Strab. p. 271 ; Paus. ii. 25, 4).
Lyrnessus (Avpvnaabs), a town in the interior
of Mysia mentioned by Homer : deatroyed be
fore the time of Strabo (II. ii. 690, xix. 60, xx. 92 ;
Aesch. Pers. 824 ; Strab. p. 612).
Lysander (AiaavSpos). 1. A Spartan, was of
servile origin, or at least the offspring of a mar
riage between a freeman and a woman of inferior
condition. (Ael. V.H. xii. 43; Athen. p. 271.)
He obtained the citizenship, and became one of
the most diatinguiahed of the Spartan generals
and diplomatists. In b.c. 407 he was appointed
navarchus, and succeeded Cratesippidas in the
command of the fleet off the coasts of Asia
Minor. He fixed Ms headquarters at Ephesus,
and soon obtained great influence, not only with
the Greek cities, but alao with Cyrus, who
suppUed Mm with large sums of money to pay
his saUors. Next year, 406, he was succeeded
by Callicratidas. In one year the reputation
and influence of Lysander had become so great
that Cyrus and the Spartan allies to Asia
requested the Lacedaemonians to appoint Ly
sander again to the command of the fleet. The
Lacedaemonian law, however, did not allow the
office of navarchus to be held twice by the
same person ; and, accordingly, Aracus was sent
out in 405, as the nominal commander-in-chief,
wMle Lysander, virtually invested with the
supreme direction of affairs, had the title of
vice-admiral (iiriaroXeis). In tMs year he
brought the Peloponnesian war to a conclusion,
by the defeat and capture of the Athenian fleet
off Aegospotami. Only eight Athenian ships
made their escape, under the command of Conon.
He afterwards sailed to Athens, and to the
spring of 404 the city capitulated; the long
waUs and the fortifications of the Piraeus were
deatroyed, and an oligarchical form of govern
ment was established, known by the name of
' The Thirty.' Lysander was now by far the most
powerful man in Greece, and he displayed more
than the usual pride and haughtiness which dis
tinguished the Spartan commanders in foreign
countries. He was passionately fond of praise,
and took care that Ms exploits should be cele
brated by the most illustrious poets of his time.
He always kept the poet Choerilus in his
retinue ; and his praises were also sung by
Antilochus, Antimachus of Colophon, and
Niceratus of Heraclea. He was the first of the
Greeks to whom Greek cities erected altars as
to a god, offered sacrifices, and celebrated festi
vals. (Plut. Lys. 18 ; Paus. vi. 3, 14 ; Athen. p.
690.) His power and ambition caused the
Spartan government uneasiness, and accord
ingly the Ephors recalled him from Asia Minor,
to which he had again repaired, and for some
years kept him without any public employment.
On the death of Agis II. in 397, he secured the
succession for Agesilaus, the brother of Agis,
in opposition to Leotychides, the reputed son
of the latter. He did not receive from Agesilaus
the gratitude he had expected. He was one of
the members of the council, 30 to number,
which was appointed to accompany the new
king in his expedition into Asia in 896. Agesi-

510

LYSANDRA

laus purposely thwarted all Ms designs, and
refused all the favours which he asked. On Ms
return to Sparta, Lysander resolved to bring
about the change he had long meditated in the
Spartan constitution, by abolishing hereditary
royalty, and making the ttoone elective. He is
said to have attempted to obtain the sanction
of the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, and Zeus Am
mon, but without success. He does not seem
to have ventured upon any overt act, and his
enterprise was cut short by Ms death in the
foUowing year. On the breaking out of the
Boeotian war in 395, Lysander was placed at
the head of one army, and the king Pausanias
at the head of another. Lysander marched
against Haliartus, and perished in battle under
the walls, 395. (Plut. Lysander ; Xen. Hell, ii.,
iii.). — 2. A Spartan ephor banished by the
Lacedaemonians (Cic. Off. ii. 23, 80).
Lysandra (AiWeSpa), daughter of Ptolemy
Soter and Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater.
She was married first to Alexander, the son of
Cassander, king of Macedonia, and after Ms
death to Agathocles, the son of Lysimachus.
After the murder of her second husband, B.C.
284 [Agathocles, No. 3], she fled to Asia, and
besought assistance from Seleucus. The latter
in consequence marched against Lysimachus,
who was defeated and slain in battle 281.
(Paus. i. 9, 10 ; Plut. Demetr. 31.)
Lysanias (Avaavias). 1. Tetrarch of Abilene,
was put to death by Antony, to gratify Cleopatra,
B.C. 36 (Dio Cass. xlix. 32). — 2. Apparently a
descendant of the last, tetrarch of Abilene at
the time when Jesus Ctoist entered upon Ms
ministry (Luke, in. 1).
Lysias (Auo-ias), an Attic orator, was born at
Athens about B.C. 459. (This is the date in
Dionys. Lys. 12, and [Plut.] Vit. Lys. ; but it
is conjectural ; and some writers put the birth
of Lysias as late as 444.) He was the son of
Cephalus, who was a native of Syracuse, and
had taken up his abode at Athens, on the
invitation of Pericles. At the age of 15, Lysias
and Ms brothers joined the Athenians who went
as colonists to Thurii in Italy, 444, or foUowed
them later. He there completed his education
under the instruction of two Syracusans, Tisias
and Nicias. He afterwards enjoyed great
esteem among the Thurians, and seems to have
taken part in the administration of the city.
After the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily, he
was expelled by the Spartan party from Thurii,
as a partisan of the Athenians. He now
returned to Athens, 412. During the rule of
the Thirty (404) he was looked upon as an
a enemy of the government, his large property
was confiscated, and he was ttoown into prison ;
but he escaped, and took refuge at Megara (cf.
Lys. inEratosth. §16). He joined Thrasybulus
and the exiles, and in order to render them
effectual assistance he sacrificed all that re
mained of Ms fortune. He gave the patriots
2000 drachmas and 200 shields, and engaged a
band of 300 mercenaries. Ttoasybulus pro
cured Mm the Athenian franchise, which he had
not possessed hitherto, since he was the son of
a foreigner : but he was afterwards deprived of
tMs right because it had been conferred without
a probouleuma. Henceforth he lived at Athens
as an isoteles, occupying himself, as it appears,
solely with writing judicial speeches for others,
and died in 378, at the age of 80. — Lysias wrote
a great number of orations ; and among those
which were current under his name the ancient
critics reckoned 230 as genuine. Of these 84
only are extant; and of these three are only

LYSICRATES
fragmenta : of the remaining 81 those c.
Andoc, Alcib. 2, pro Polystr., pro Milite, and
the Funeral Oration are probably spurious.
Most of these orations were composed after Ms
return from Thurii to Athens. The only one
which he delivered himself is that against
Eratosthenes, 403. The language of Lysias is
perfectly pure, and may be regarded as one of
the best specimens of the Attic idiom. All the
ancient writers agreed that Ms orations were
distinguished by grace and elegance, in what
was caUed ' the plain style,' i.e. that which uses
the language of ordinary life and avoids grandi
loquence. Its style is clear and lucid ; and his
delineations of character striking and true to
life. The orations of Lysias are contained in
the collections of the Attic orators. [Demo-
sthenes.J Separate edition by Scheibe, 1886.
Lysicrates, Choragic Monument op, vul
garly caUed the ' Lantern of Demosthenes,' was
dedicated by Lysicrates to B.C. 335-34, as we
learn from an inscription on the architrave,
which records
that 'Lysicrates,
son of Lysithei-
des of Cicynna,
was choragus,
when the boys
of the tribe of
Acamantis con
quered, when
Theon played the
flute, when Lysi-
ades wrote the
piece, and when
Evaenetus was
archon.' It was
the practice of the
victorious chor-
agi to dedicate to
Dionysus the tri
pods which they
had gained in the
contests in the
theatre. Some
of these tripods
were placed upon
smaU temples,
which were erec
ted either in the
precincts of the
theatre, or to a
street which ran
along the eastern side of the Acropolis, from
the Prytaneium to the Lenaeum, or sacred
enclosure of Dionysus near the theatre, and
which was hence called the ' Street of Tripods.'
(Paus. i. 20, § 1.) Of these temples only two
now remain : the monument of ThrasyUus, and
the monument of Lysicrates, which stood in
the street itself. It appears that this street
was formed entirely by a series of such monu
ments, and that from the inscriptions engraved
on the architraves the dramatic chronicles or
didascaliae were mainly compiled. The monu
ment of Lysicrates is of the Corinthian order.
It is a small circular building on a square base
ment, of white marble, and covered by a cupola,
supported by six Corinthian columns. Its
whole height was 84 feet, of which the square
basis was 14 feet (not shown in the cut), the
body of the buUdtog to the summit of the
columns 12 feet, and the entablature, together
with the cupola and apex, 8 feet. There was
no access to the interior, which was only six
feet in diameter. The frieze, of which there
are casts in the British Museum, represents the

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates,
restored.

LYSIMACHIA
destruction of the Tyrrhenian pirates by Dio
nysus and his attendants.
Lysimachia or -ea (Avaipaxia, Avaipdxeia :
Avaipaxeis). 1. (Eksemil), an important town
on the NE. of the gulf of Melas, and on the
isthmus connecting the Thracian Chersonesus
with the mainland, was founded B. c. 309 by
Lysimachus, who removed to his new oity the
greater part of the inhabitants of the neigh
bouring town of Cardia (Strab. pp. 134, 881;
Diod. x. 29 ; Pol. v. 84). It was subsequently
destroyed by the Thracians, but was restored
by Antiochus the Great (Liv. xxxiii. 88). Under
the Romans it greatly declined ; but Justinian
built a strong fortress on the spot, which he
called Hexanulinm ('E£ap'tXiov), doubtless from
the width of the isthmus, under which name it
is mentioned in the middle ages. — 2. A town in
the SW. of Aetolia, near Pleuron, situated on a
lake of the same name, wMch was more an
ciently called Hydra (Strab. p. 460).
Lysimachus (Avaipaxos),iing of Ttoace, was
a Macedonian by birth, and one of Alexander's
generals, but of mean origin, Ms father Agatho
cles having been originally a Penest or serf in
SicUy (Arrian, Anab. vi. 28). He was early
distinguished for his undaunted courage, as well
as for Ms great activity and strength of body.
We are told by Q. Curtius that Lysimachus,
when hunting in Syria, had MUed a lion of im
mense size single-handed ; and this circum
stance is regarded by that writer as the origin of a
fable gravely related by many authors, that on
account of some offence, Lysimachus had been
shut up by order of Alexander to the same den
with a Uon, but, though unarmed, had succeeded
to destroying the animal, and was pardoned by

LYSIPPUS

511

Coin of Lysimachus, King of Thrace, ob. B.C. 281.
Obv., head of Alexander, with horn of Ammon [see p. 50] ;
rev., Athene holding Victory; BA2IAEQ2 ayximaxoy.
the Mng to consideration of Ms courage (Curt.
viu. 1, 15 ; Plut. Demetr. 27 ; Paus. i. 9, 5 ; Sen.
de Ir. iii. 17). In the division of the provinces,
after the death of Alexander (b. c. 323), Thrace
and the neighbouring countries as far as the
Danube were assigned to Lysimachus. For some
years he was actively engaged to war with the
warlike barbarians that bordered his province
on the N. At length, to 315, he joined the
league wMch Ptolemy, Seleucus and Cassander
had formed against Antigonus ; but he did not
take any active part to the war for some time.
In 306 he took the title of Mng, when it was
assumed by Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, and
Cassander. In 302 Lysimachus crossed over
into Asia Minor to oppose Antigonus, wMle
Seleucus also advanced agamst the latter from
the East. In 301 Lysimachus and Seleucus
effected a junction, and gained a decisive vic
tory at Ipsus over Antigonus and Ms son Deme
trius (Diod. xx. 106). Antigonus fell on the
field, and Demetrius became a fugitive. The
conquerors divided between them the dominions
of the vanquished ; and Lysimachus obtained for
his share aU that part of Asia Minor extending
from the Hellespont and the Aegaean to the
heart of Phrygia. In 291 Lysimachus crossed
the Danube and penetrated toto the heart of

the country of the Getae ; but he was reduced
to the greatest distress by want of provisions,
and was ultimately compelled to surrender with
Ms whole army. Dromichaetes, king of the
Getae, treated him with the utmost generosity,
and restored him to liberty. In 288 Lysimachus
united with Ptolemy, Seleucus and Pyrrhus in
a common league against Demetrius, who had
for some years been in possession of Macedonia,
and was now preparing to march into Asia.
Next year, 287, Lysimachus and Pyrrhus in
vaded Macedonia. Demetrius was abandoned
by Ms own troops, and was compelled to seek
safety in flight. Pyrrhus for a time obtained
possession of the Macedonian throne, but he
was expelled by Lysimachus in 286. Lysima
chus was now to possession of all the dominions
to Europe that had formed part of the Mace
donian monarchy, as well as of the greater part
of Asia Minor. He remained in undisturbed
possession of these vast dominions till shortly
before Ms death. His downfall was occasioned
by a dark domestic tragedy. His wife Arsinoe,
daughter of Ptolemy Soter, had long hated her
stepson Agathocles, and at length, by false ac
cusations, induced Lysimachus to put his son
to death (Just. xvii. 1). This bloody deed
alienated the minds of his subjects, and many
cities of Asia broke out into open revolt. Ly-
sandra, the widow of Agathocles, fled with her
children to the court of Seleucus, who forthwith
invaded the dominions of Lysimachus. The
two monarchs met to the plain of Corus (Coru-
pedion), and Lysimachus feU in the battle that
enaued, 3. c. 281. (Paua. i. 10 ; Appian, Syr. 62.)
He was in Ms eightieth year at the time of Ms
death. — Lysimachus founded Lysimachia, on
the HeUespont, and
also enlarged and re
built many other cities.
Lysimelia (r) Avaipe-
Xeia Xipvri), a marsh
near Syracuse to Sicily,
probably the same as
the marsh anciently
called Syraco from
wMch the town of Sy
racuse is said to have
derived its name (Thuc.
viu. 53; Theocr. xvi.
84; Syracusae.)
Lysinoe (Avaivbri :
AgelanV), a town in
Pisidia, S. of the lake
Ascania (Liv. xxxviii.
Lysippus (Avatiriros),
of Sicyon, one of the
greatest Greek sculp
tors, was a contempo
rary of Alexander the
Great. Originally a
simple workman in
bronze (faber aera-
rius), he rose to the
eminence wMch he
afterwards obtained by
the direct study of na
ture (Plin. xxxiv. 61).
He reiected' many of . Marble copy of the
., "»j«»'>'=" -uia,..j " Apoxyomenus of Lysippus.
the old conventional (Vatican.)
rules which the early
artists followed. He foUowed the school of
Polyclitus, but changed the canons of it in
many points, especially in making the head
smaller and the body more slender. He aimed
at idealising human beauty rather than that

612

LYSIS

of the gods, and at representing the grace and
mobility of the male figure. He made statues
of gods, it is true, and among them of Zeus ;
but even in this field of art Ms favourite subject
was the human hero Heracles. The works of
Lysippus are said to have amounted to the
enormous number of 1500. They were almost
all, if not all, in bronze ; in consequence of
which none of them are extant. He made sta
tues of Alexander at all periods of life, and in
many different positions, which exercised con
siderable influence on succeeding art. Alexan
der's edict is well known, that no one should
paint him but Apelles, and no one make Ms
statue but Lysippus. (Plin. vii. 125 ; Hor. Ep.
ii. 1, 240 ; Cic. Fam. v. 12.)
Lysis (ASo-is), an eminent Pythagorean phi
losopher, who, driven out of Italy in the perse
cution of his sect, betook Mmself to Thebes,
and became the teacher of Epaminondas, by
whom he was held in the highest esteem (Paus.
ix. 13 ; Cic. de Or. iii. 84, 189, Off. i. 44, 155).
Lysis, a river of Caria, only mentioned by
Livy (xxxviii. 15).
Lysistratus, of Sicyon, the brother of Ly
sippus, was a sculptor, and devoted himseU to the
maMng of portraits. He was the first who took
a cast of the human face in gypsum ; and from
this mould he produced copies by pouring into
it melted wax (Plin. xxxv. 153).
Lystra (i) Aiiarpa, to Aiarpa : Khatyn-serai,
Ru.), a city of Lycaonia, on the confines of
Isauria (Act. Apost. xiv. 8, 21 ; Plin. v. 147).

M.
Macae (Moral). 1. A people on the E. coast
of Arabia Felix, probably about Muscat (Ptol.
vi. 7, 14). — 2. An inland people of Libya, in the
Regio Syrtica — that is, the part of N. Africa be
tween the Syrtes (Hdt. iv. 175).
Macalla, a town on theE. coast of Bruttium,
which was said to possess the tomb and a sanc
tuary^ of Philoctetes (Lycophr. Alex. 927).
Macar or Macareus (Moirap or MaKapeis). 1.
Son of Helios (or Crinacus) and Rhodos, fled
from Rhodes to Lesbos after the murder of
Tenages (II. xxiv. 544 ; Diod. v. 56). — 2. Son of
Aeolus, who committed incest with Ms sister
Canace. [Canace.] — 3. Son of Jason and
Medea, also called Mermerus or Mormorus (Hyg.
Fab. 239). — 4. Of Lesbos, father of Issa, hence
called Macareis (Diod. v. 81 ; Ov. Met. vi.
124). Macaria (Maxapia), daughter of Heracles and
Deianira (Pous. i. 32 ; Eur. Heracl.).
Maccabaei (MaiocajSaTbi), the descendants of
the family of the heroic Judas Maccabi or Mac-
cabaeus, who successfully resisted the tyranny
of Antiochus in Judaea. [For their Mstory see
Diet, of the Bible.]
Macedonia (MaKeSovia: MaKeSdVes), a country
in Europe, said to have derived its name from
Macednus, or Macedon, a son of Zeus, and Thyia,
a daughter of Deucalion (ApoUod. iii. 8, 1). The
name first occurs in Herodotus, but another form
was Macttia (MaKeria) ; and accordingly the
Macedonians are sometimes called Macetae
(Hesych. s. v. ; Sil. It. xiii. 878 ; Stat.'SiZu. iv. 6).
The country is said to have been originaUy named
Emathia. Herodotus understood by the name
Macedonis only the country to the S. and W. of
the river Lydias (Hdt. vii. 127) ; but the boun
daries of the ancient Macedonian monarchy, be
fore the time of Philip, the father of Alexander,
were : on the S. Olympus and the Cambunian

MACEDONIA
mountains, which separated it from Thessaly and
Epirus ; on the E. the river Strymon, which
separated it from Thrace (Thuc. ii. 99) ; and on
the N. and W. Illyria and Paeonia, from which
it was divided by no weU defined limits.
Macedonia was greatly enlarged by the con
quests of Philip. He added to his kingdom
Paeonia on the N., so that the mountains
Scordus and Oberlus now separated it from
Moesia; a part of Thrace on the E. as far as
the river Nestus, which Thracian district was
usually caUed Macedonia adjecta ; the penin
sula Chalcidice on the S. ; and on the W. a
part of Blyria, as far as the lake Lychnitis.
On the conquest of the country by the Romans,
B.C. 168, Macedonia was divided into four dis
tricts, paying a land tax to Rome : they were
quite independent of one another and had each
a repubUcan form of government and a general
councU : — (1) the country between the Strymon
and the Nestus, with a part of Thrace E. of the
Nestus, as far as the Hebrus, and also includ
ing the territory of Heraclea Sintica and Bisal-
tice, W. of the Strymon: the capital of this
district waB Amphipolis ; (2) the country be
tween the Strymon and the Axius, exclusive of
those parts already named, but including
Chalcidice: the capital Thessalonica ; (3) the
country between the Axius and Peneus: the
capital Pella ; (4) the mountainous country in
the W. : the capital Pelagonia. (Liv. xiv. 17, 18,
30). After the conquest of the Achaeans, in
146, Macedonia was formed into a Roman pro
vince, and Thessaly and Hlyria were incorpo
rated with it ; but at the same time the district
E. of the Nestus was again assigned to Thrace.
The Roman province of Macedoma accordingly
extended at first as far S. as the province of
Achaia, including in its limits Epirus; but
under the empire its SE. limit was the Sinus
Maliacus, and Epirus was detached from it.
Thus it extended on the Aegaean coast from the
river Nestua to Oeta and the Sinus Maliacus
and on the Adriatic coast from the river Drilon
to the Aous (Ptol. iii. 17, 7.) It was originally
governed by a proconsul ; it was made by
Tiberius one of the provinces of the Caesar ;
but it was restored to the senate by Claudius.
Under Diocletian four provinces were carved
out of Macedonia : (1) Thessaly ; (2) Epirus
Nova (the Hlyrian coast) ; (3) Macedonia
Prima ; (4) Macedonia Secunda or Salutaris.
— Macedonia may be described as a large
plain, surrounded on tMee sides by lofty moun
tains. Through this plain, however, run many
smaller ranges of mountains, between wMch are
wide and fertUe valleys, extending from the
coast far into the interior. The cMef moun
tains were Scordtjs, or Scardus, on the NW.
frontier, towards Hlyria and Dardania ; further
E. Orbelus and Scomius, which separated it
from Moesia; and Rhodope, which extended
from Scomius in a SE. direction, forming the
boundary between Macedonia and Ttoaee. On
the S. frontier were the Cambunh Montes and
Olympus. The chief rivers were in the direc
tion of E. to W., the Nestus, the Strymon, the
Axius, the largest of all, the Ludlas or Lydias,
and the Haliacmon. — The great bulk of the
inhabitants of Macedonia consisted of Thracian
and Blyrian tribes. At an early period some
Greek tribes settled in the S. part of the
country. They are said to have come from
Argos, and to have been led by Gauanes,
Aeropus, and Perdiccas, three descendants of
Temenus, the Heraclid. Perdiccas, the youngest
of the brothers, was looked upon as the founder

MACELLA
of the Macedonian monarchy (Hdt. viii. 188). A
later tradition, however, regarded Caranus, who
was also a Heraclid from Argos, as the founder
of the monarchy. These Greek settlers inter
married with the original inhabitants of the
country. The dialect which they spoke was
akin to the Doric, but it contained many
barbarous words and forms ; and the Macedo
nians were accordingly never regarded by the
other Greeks as genuine Hellenes. Moreover,
it was only in the S. of Macedonia that the
Greek language was spoken; in the N. and
NW. of the country the Hlyrian tribes con
tinued to speak their own language and to
preserve their ancient habits and customs.

Coin of Macedonia, after Roman conquest.
Obv., head of Artemis in shield ; rev., makeaoniqn
nPQTiis and club of Heraoles, surrounded by oak-
wreath. This is a coin of the first region, struck when
the Roman senate gave the Macedonian regions the
right of coining silver, in 158 B.C.
Very Uttle is known of the Mstory of Mace
donia tUl the reign of Amyntas I., who was a
contemporary of Darius Hystaspis ; but from
that time their Mstory is more or less intimately
connected with that of Greece, tiU at length
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great,
became the virtual master of the whole of
Greece. The conquests of Alexander extended
the Macedomon supremacy over a great part of
Asia ; and the Macedonian Mngs continued to
exercise their sovereignty over Greece tiU the
conquest of Perseus by the Romans, 168,
brought the Macedonian monarchy to a close.
The detaUs of the Macedoman Mstory are
given in the lives of the separate kings.
Macella (Macellaro), a smaU fortified town
m the W. of SicUy, about fifteen miles E. of
Segesta (Pol. i. 24).
Macer, Aemilius. 1. A Roman poet, a
native of Verona, died to Asia, B.C. 16. He
wrote a poem or poems upon birds, snakes, and
medicinal plants, to imitation, it would appear,
of the Theriaca of Nicander (Serv. ad Eel. v.
1 ; Quintil. x. 1, 87 ; Ov. Trist. iv. 10, 43). The
work now extant entitled Aemilius Macer de
Herbarum Virtutibus belongs to the middle
ages. — 2. We must carefully distinguish from
AemiUus Macer of Verona a poet Macer who
wrote on the Trojan war, and who must have
been alive in a.d. 12, since he is addressed by
Ovid in that year (ex Pont. U. 10, 2.) — 3. A
Roman jurist, who lived in the reign of Alex
ander Severus. He wrote several works, ex
tracts from which are given in the Digest.
Macer, Clodius, was governor of Africa at
Nero's death, a.d. 68, when he laid claim to the
ttoone. He was murdered at the instigation of
Galba by the procurator Trebonius Garucianus.
(Tac. Hist. i. 7, iv. 49; Suet. Galb. 11.)
Macer, Licinius. [Licinius.]
Macestus (M-dKnaros: Simaul-Su, and lower
Susugherli), a considerable river of Mysia,
rises to the NW. of Phrygia, and flows N.
tMough Mysia into the Rhyndacus (Strab. p.
676). It is probably the same river wMch
Polybius (v. 77) calls Megistus (Meyiaros).

MACRINUS 518
Machaerus (Maxaipovs: Maxaipirris), a
strong border fortress in the S. of Peraea, in
Palestine, on the confines of the Nabathaei : a
stronghold of the Sicarii in the Jewish war
(Jos. Ant. xiii. 16, B. J. vii. 6).
Machanidas, tyrant of Lacedaemon, suc
ceeded Lycurgus about b.c. 210. Like Ms pre
decessor, he had no hereditary title to the
crown, but ruled by the swords of Ms mercen
aries alone. He was defeated and slain in
battle by Philopoemen, the general of the
Achaean League in 207. (Pol. xi. 11, xiii. 6 ;
Pluti Philop. 10.)
Machaon (Maxdav), son of Asclepius [see
p. 131], was married to Anticlea, the daughter
of Diocles, by whom he became the father of
Gorgasus, Nicomachus, Alexanor, Sphyrus, and
Polemocrates. Together with his brother
Podalirius he went to Troy with thirty ships,
commanding the men who came from Tricca,
Ithome, and Oechalia. In tMs war he acted as
the surgeon of the Greeks, and also distin
guished himself in battle. He was himself
wounded by Paris, but was carried from the
field by Nestor (II. ii. 729, iv. 193, xi. 505, 512,
598). Later writers mention Mm as one of
the Greek heroes who were concealed in the
wooden horse (Verg. Aen. ii. 268) and he is
said to have cured Philoctetes (Tzet. ad Lye.
911; Propert. ii. 1, 59). He was killed by
Eurypylus, the son of Telephus, and received
divine honours at Gerenia (Paus. iv. 3, 2).
Machlyes (Ma^Aues), a people of Libya, near
the Lotophagi, on the W. side of the lake
Triton, in what was afterwards caUed Africa
Propria (Hdt. iv. 179 ; Ptol. iv. 14, 11).
Machon (Wldxav), of Corinth or Sicyon, a
comic poet, flourished at Alexandria, where he
gave instructions respecting comedy to the
grammarian Aristophanes of Byzantium (Athen.
pp. 241, 664).
Macistus or Macistum (MoWtos, MaKiarov :
MaKiarios), a town of Elis in Triphylia, NE. of
Lepreum, originaUy called Platanistus (LTAaTa-
viarovs), and founded by the Caucones (Hdt. iv.
148 ; Strab. pp. 343, 345).
Macoraba (Ma/copajSa : Mecca), a city in the
W. of Arabia Felix ; probably a sacred city of
the Arabs before the time of Mohammed.
Maera (Magra), a small river rising to the
Apennines and flowing toto the Ligurian sea
near Luna, wMch, from the time of Augustus,
formed the boundary between Liguria and
Etruria (Strab. p. 222 ; PUn. iii. 48).
Macrianus, one of the TMrty Tyrants, a dis
tinguished general, who accompanied Valerian
in his expedition against the Persians, a.d. 260.
On the capture of that monarch, Macrianus was
proclaimed emperor, together with his two sons
Macrianus and Quietus. He assigned the
management of affairs in the East to Quietus,
and set out with the younger Macrianus for
Italy. They were encountered by Aureolus on
the confines of Thrace and Illyria, defeated and
slain, 262. Quietus was shortly afterwards
slain in the East by Odenathus (Trebell. Trig.
Tyr. 12)_.
Maori Campi. [Campi Macri.]
Macrinus, M. Opilius Severus, Roman em
peror, April, A.D. 217-June, 218. He was born
at Caesarea in Mauretania, of humble parents,
A D. 164, and rose at length to be praefect of the
praetorians under Caracalla. He accompanied
Caracalla in Ms expedition against the Par
thians, and was proclaimed emperor after the
death of Caracalla, whom he had caused to be
assassinated. He conferred the title of Caesar
LL

514

MACRO

upon his son Diadumenianus, and at the same
time gained great popularity by repealing some
obnoxious taxes. But in the course of the same
year he was defeated with great loss by the
Parthians, and was obliged to retire into Syria.
WMle here Ms soldiers, with whom he had be
come unpopular by enforcing among them order
and discipline, proclaimed Elagabalus as em
peror. With the troops which remained faithful
to him, Macrinus marched agatost the usurper,
but was defeated, and fled in disguise. He was
shortly afterwards seized in Chalcedon, and put
to death, after a reign of 14 months. (Vit.
Macrin. ; Dio Cass, lxxxviii. 11-41.)
Macro, Naevius Sertorius, a favourite of
the emperor Tiberius, was employed to arrest
the powerful Sejanus in a.d. 31, after whose
death he was praefect of the praetorians during
the remainder of Tiberius's reign and the earUer
part of Caligula's. Macro was as cruel as
Sejanus. He laid informations; he presided at
the rack ; and he lent Mmself to the most
savage caprices of Tiberius during the last and
worst period of his government. During the
Ufetime of Tiberius he paid court to the young
Caligula ; and he promoted an intrigue between
his wife Ennia and the young prince. It was
rumoured that Macro shortened the last mo
ments of Tiberiua by atifling him with the
bedding as he recovered unexpectedly from a
swoon. But Caligula became jealous of Macro,
and compelled him to Mil himself with his wife
and children, 38. (Tac. Ann. vi. 15, 29, 45-50 ;
Suet. Tib. 73 ; Dio Cass, lviii. 9-28, lix. 1-10.)
MacrSbii (MaKpbBioi, i.e. Long-lived), an
Aethiopian people in Africa, placed by Hero
dotus (iii. 17) on the shores of the S. Ocean,
i.e. probably beyond the S. frontier of Egypt
(cf. Plin. vi. 190 ; Mel. iii. 9).
Macrocephali (WlaKpoKecpaXoi), i.e. ' the peo
ple with long heads,' a tribe in the Caucasus
(Strab. PP^43, 520; Plin. vi. 11).
Macro bius, the grammarian, whose full name
was Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius Macro-
bius. AU we know about him is that he lived
in the age of Honorius and Theodosius, that he
was probably a Greek, and that he had a son
named EustatMus. He states in the preface to
his Saturnalia that Latin was to Mm a foreign
tongue, and hence we may fairly conclude that
he was a Greek by birth, more especially as we
find numerous Greek idioms in his style. He
may be the same as the Macrobius who in 399
was praefect of Spain, and in 422 was praef.
sacri cubiculi. H bo, he must have been con
verted to Christianity before he held the latter
» office and after he wrote Ms books, which are
clearly the work of a pagan (God. Theodos. vi.
8, 1, xvi. 10, 15). His extant works are : — (1)
Saturnaliorum Conviviorum Libri VIL, con
sisting of a series of dissertations on Mstory,
mythology, criticism, and various points of
antiquarian research, supposed to have been
delivered during the holidays of the Saturnalia
at the house of Vettius Praetextatus, who was
invested with the highest offices of state under
Valentinian and Valens. The form of the work
is avowedly copied from the dialogues of Plato,
especially the Banquet : in substance it bears
a strong resemblance to the Nodes Atticae of
A. Gellius. The first book treata of the feativals
of Saturnus and Janus, of the Roman calendar,
&c. The second book commences with a collec
tion of bons mots, ascribed to the most celebrated
wits of antiquity; to these are appended a
series of essays on matters connected with the
pleasures of the table. The four following

MAECENAS
books are devoted to criticisms on VirgU. The
seventh book is of a more misceUaneous cha
racter than the preceding.— (2) Commentarius
ex Cicerone in Somnium Scipionis, a tract
much studied during the middle ages. The
Dream of Scipio, contained in the sixth book of
Cicero's De Bepublica, is taken as a text, which
suggests a succession of discourses on the
physical constitution of the universe, according
to the views of the Neo-Platonists, together
with notices of some of their peculiar tenets on
mind as well as matter. — (3) De Differentiis et
Societatibus Graeci Latinique Verbi, a treatise
purely grammatical, of which only an abridg
ment is extant, compiled by a certain Joannes.
— The best editions of the works of Macrobius
are by Grotiovius, Lug. Bat. 1670; L. Janus,
1852 ; and Eyssenhardt, Lips. 1868.
Macrones (MdKpaves), a warUke Caucasian
people on the NE. shore of the Pontus Euxinus
(Hdt. ii. 104, vii. 78 ; Plin. vi. 11).
Mactorlum (MaKrdpiov : Mcucrapivos), a town
in the S. of Sicily, near Gela (Hdt. vn. 153).
Macynia (MaKvvla : MaKvveis), a town in the
S. of AetoUa, near the mountain TapMassus, E.
of Calydon and the Evenus (Strab. pp. 451, 460).
Madiamtae (MaSiavTrai, DHaSirjvmoi, yiaSirivol:
O. T. Midianim), a powerful nomad people m
the S. of Arabia Petraea, about the head of the
Red Sea (see Diet, of the Bible).
Madytus (MaSuTos : MaSirios : Maito), a sea
port town on the Thracian Chersonesus (Strab.
p. 331 ; Liv. xxxi. 16).
Maeander (MaiavSpos : Mendereh or Meinder,
or Boyuk-Mendereh, i.e. the Great Mendereh,
in contradistinction to the Little Mendereh,
the ancient Cayster), has its source in the
mountain called Aulocrenas, above Celaenae,
in the S. of Phrygia, close to the source of the
Marsyas, which immediately joins it. [Celae
nae.] It flows to a general W. direction, with
various changes of direction, but on the whole
with a slight inclination to the S. After leaving
Phrygia, it flows paraUel to Mt. Messogis, on
its S. side, forming the boundary between Lydia
and Caria, and at last falls into the Icarian
Sea between Myus and Priene. Its whole length
is above 170 geograpMcal mUes. The Maeander
is deep, but narrow, and very turbid ; and
therefore not navigable far up. Its upper course
lies cMefly through elevated plains, and partly
in a deep rocky valley : its lower course, for the
last 110 miles, is through a beautiful wide plain,
through which it flows in those numerous wind
ings that have made its name a descriptive
verb (to meander), and which it often inundates.
The alteration made in the coast about its
mouth by its aUuvial deposit was observed by
the ancients, and it has been continually going
on. [See Latmicus Sinus and Miletus.] The
chief tributaries of the Maeander were, on the
right or N. side, the Cludrus, Lethaeus, and
Gaeson, and, on the left or S. side, the Obrimas,
Lycus, Harpasus, and Marsyas. (II. ii. 869;
Hes. Th. 839 ; Hdt. vii. 26 ; Xen. An. i. 2, 7 ;
Strab. p. 577 ; Ov. Met. viii. 162.)— As a god
Maeander is described as the father of the
nymph Cyane, who was the mother of Caunus.
Hence the latter is called by Ovid (Met. ix.
578) Maeandrius juvenis.
Maecenas, C. Cilnius, was born some time
between B.C. 73 and 63; and we learn from
Horace (Od. iv. 11) that his birthday was the
18th of April. His family, though belonging
whoUy to the equestrian order, was of high
antiquity and honour, and traced its descent
from the Lucumones of Etruria. His paternal

MAECENAS
ancestors, the Cilnii, are mentioned by Livy
(x. 3, 5) as having attained great power and
wealth at Arretium about B.C. 801. The mater
nal branch of the family was also of Etruscan
origin, and it was from them that the name of
Maecenas was derived, it being customary
among the Etruscans to assume the mother's as
well as the father's name. It is in allusion to
this circumstance that Horace (Sat. i. 6, 3)
mentions both his avus maternus atque pater-
nus as having been distinguished by command
ing numerous legions ; a passage, by the way,
from which we are not to infer that the ancestors
of Maecenas had ever led the Roman legions.
Although it is unknown where Maecenas re
ceived his education, it must doubtless have
been a careful one. We leam from Horace that
he was versed both to Greek and Roman litera
ture ; and Ms taste for literary pursuits was
shown, not only by Ms patronage of the most
eminent poets of Ms time, but also by several
performances of Ms own, both in verse and
prose. It has been conjectured that he became
acquainted with Augustus at ApoUonia before
the death of Julius Caesar; but he is men
tioned for the first time in B.C. 40, and from
tMs year his name constantly occurs as one of
the cMef friends and ministers of Augustus.
Thus we find Mm employed in B.C. 37 in nego
tiating with Antony ; and it was probably on
tMs occasion that Horace accompamed him to
Brundusium, a journey which he has described
in the fifth Satire of the first book. During the
war with Antony, which was brought to a close
by the battle of Actium, Maecenas remained
at Rome, betog entrusted with the administra
tion of the civU affairs of Italy. During this
time he suppressed the conspiracy of the
younger Lepidus. It is probable, therefore, that
he was not present at the battle of Actium;
but it seems that he had intended to go to the
war, for it is better to refer Hor. Epod. i. to
that battle than, as some critics do, to the
SiciUan expedition against Sext. Pompeius. On
the return of Augustus from Actium, Maecenas
enjoyed a greater share of Ms favour than ever,
and, in conjunction with Agrippa, had the
management of all public affairs. It is related
that Augustus at this time took counsel with
Agrippa and Maecenas respecting the expe
diency of restoring the republic ; that Agrippa
advised Mm to pursue that course, but that
Maecenas strongly urged him to establish the
empire. For many years Maecenas was trusted
and honoured by Augustus ; but between B.C.
21 and 16 he seems to have lost the favour of
the emperor, and after the latter year he retired
entirely from public life. The cause of this
estrangement i3 enveloped in doubt. Dio
Cassius attributes it to an intrigue carried on
by Augustus with Terentia, Maecenas's wife, but
the authority of Suetonius is better, and we
should probably accept his account of the
matter, that Maecenas had revealed to his wife
that the conspiracy of her brother Murena had
been discovered, and thus the conspirators were
warned. This was regarded as an indiscretion
which forfeited confidence, and Maecenas was
not made praef ectus urbi when that office was
conatituted, to 16, though in previoua years he
had as minister of Augustus, done much that
would have belonged to the post. (Suet. A ug.
66 ; Dio Cass. liv. 19.) Maecenas died B.C. 8,
and was buried on the Esquiline. He left no
children, and he bequeathed Ms property to
Augustus, who had continued or renewed his
friendship, though without official appointments.

MAECIUS

515

Bust of Maecenas.

— Maecenas had amassed an enormous fortune.
He had purchased a tract of ground on the
Esquiline hill, which had formerly served as a
burial-place for the lower orders (Hor. Sat. i.
8, 7). Here he had planted a garden and buUt
a house, remarkable for its loftiness, on account
of a tower by which it was surmounted, and
from the top of which Nero is said to have
afterwards contemplated the burning of Rome.
In this residence he seems to have passed the
greater part of Ms time, and to have visited
the country but seldom. His house was the
rendezvous of all the
wits of Rome; and
whoever could contri
bute to the amusement
of the company was
always welcome to a
seat at his table. But
Ms really intimate
friends consisted of
the greatest geniuses
and most learned men
of Rome ; and if it was
from his universal in
clination towards men
of talent that he ob
tained the reputation
of a literary patron, it
was by his friendship
for such poets as Vir
gil and Horace that
he deserved it. Vir
gil was indebted to
Mm for the recovery of his farm, which had
been appropriated by the soldiery in the divi
sion of lands, in B.C. 41 ; and it was at the
request of Maecenas that he undertook the
Georgics, the most finished of all his poems.
[Vergilius.] To Horace he was a still greater
benefactor. He presented him with the means
of comfortable subsistence, a farm in the Sabine
country. If the estate was but a moderate one,
we learn from Horace himself that the bounty
of Maecenas was regulated by his own con
tented views and not by his patron's want of
generosity. [For the relation between Horace
and Maecenas, see Horatius.] — Of Maecenas's
own literary productions only a few fragments
exist. From these, however, and from the
notices which we find of his writings in ancient
authors, we are led to tiiink that we have not
suffered any great loaa by their deatruction;
for, although a good judge of literary merit to
others, he does not appear to have been an
author of much taste Mmself. In his way of
life Maecenas was addicted to every species of
luxury. We find several aUusions in the ancient
authors to the effeminacy of his dress. He was
fond of theatrical entertainments, especially
pantomimes, as may be inferred from his pa
tronage of BathyUus, the celebrated dancer,
who was a freedman of his. That moderation
of character which led Mm to be content with
his equestrian rank, probably arose from Ms
love of ease and luxury, or it might have been
the result of more prudent and political views.
As a politician, the principal trait in Ms cha
racter was fidelity to his master, and the main
end of all his cares was the consolidation of the
empire. But at the same time he recommended
Augustus to put no check on the free expression
of public opinion, and above all to avoid that
cruelty which for so many years had stained
the Roman annals with blood.
Maedi. [Maedica.J
Maecius Tarpa. [Tarpa.] 112

516

MAEDICA

Maedica (MaiSiKi)), ' the country of the
Maedi, a powerful people in the W. of Thrace,
on the W. bank of the Strymon, and the S.
slope of Mt. Scomius. They frequently made
inroads into the country of the Macedonians,
till at length they were conquered by the latter,
and their land incorporated with Macedonia.
(Thuc. ii. 98 ; Strab. pp. 316, 331 ; Liv. xxvi. 25.)
Maelius, Sp., the richest of the plebeian
knights, employed Ms fortune in buying up
corn to Etruria in the great famine at Rome to
B.C. 440. This corn he sold to the poor at a
small price, or distributed it gratiiitously.
Such liberality gained him the favour of the
plebeians, but at the same time exposed Mm to
the hatred of the ruUng class, particularly of
the praef ectus annonae, C. Minucius. Accord
ingly to the foUowing year he was accused of
having formed a conspiracy for the purpose of
seizing the kingly power. Thereupon Cincin
natus was appointed dictator, and C. Servilius
Ahala, the master of the horse. MaeUus was
summoned to appear before the tribunal of the
dictator ; but as he refused to go, Ahala, with
an armed band of patrician youths, rushed into
the crowd, and slew him. His property was
confiscated, and his house pulled down ; its
vacant site, which was called the Aequimae-
Hum, continued to subsequent ages a memorial
of Mb fate. Later ages fuUy believed the story
of Maelius's conspiracy, and Cicero repeatedly
praises the glorious deed of Ahala. But Ms
guilt is very doubtful. Ahala was brought to
trial, and only escaped condemnation by a volun
tary exile. (Liv. iv. 13 ; Cic. de Sen. 8, 28, de
Bep. ii. 27 ; Flor. i. 26 ; Val. Max. vi. 3.)
Maenaca (MaivdKri), a town of Hispania Bae
tica on the coaat, the most westerly colony of
the Phocaeans (Strab. p. 156).
Maenades (MaivaSes), a name of the Bac
chantes, from paivopai, (to be mad,' because
they were frenzied in the worship of Dionysus.

MaBnade or Bacchante, with snake-bound hair. (Thiersch,
Ueber die hellcnischen bemalten Vasen.)
Maenalus (to MaivaXov or MaivdXiov bpos :
Boinon), a mountain in Arcadia, which ex
tended from Megalopolis to Tegea, was cele
brated as the favourite haunt of the god Pan
(Strab. p. 388 ; Paus. viii. 36, 7 ; Verg. Eel. viii.
22). From this mountain the surrounding
country was called Maenalia (WlaivaXia) ; and
on the mountain was a town Maenalus (Thuc.

MAERA
v. 64 ; Paus. iii. 11, 7). The mountain was so
celebrated that the Roman poets frequently
use the adjectives Maenalius and Maenalis as
equivalent to Arcadian.
Maenius. 1. C, consul, B.C. 338, with L.
Furius Camillus. The two consuls completed
the subjugation of Latium; they were both
rewarded with a triumph; and equestrian
statutes were erected to their honour in the
forum (Liv. viii. 13). The statue of Maenius
was placed upon a column, which is spoken of
by later writers under the name of Columna
Maenia, and which appears to have stood near
the end of the forum, on the Capitoline.
Maenius was dictator to 320, and censor to 318.
In his censorship he allowed balconies to be
added to the various buUdings surrounding the
forum, in order that the spectators might obtain
more room for beholding the games which were
exhibited in the forum; and these balconies
were called after him Maeniana (Diet, of
Antiq. s. v.). — 2. The proposer of the law,
about 286, wMch required the patres to give
their sanction to the election of the magistrates
before they had been elected, or, to other words,
to confer, or agree to confer, the imperium on
the person whom the comitia should elect (Cic.
Brut. 14). — 3. A contemporary of LuciUus, was
a great spendthrift, who squandered all his
property, and afterwards supported himself by
playing the buffoon. He possessed a house in
the forum, wMch Cato to Ms censorship (184)
purchased of Mm, for the purpose of building
the Basilica Porcia. (Hor. Sat. i. 1, 101, i. 3, 21,
Epist. i. 15, 26.)
Maenoba (MaivoBa), a town in the SE. of
Hispania Baetica, near the coast, on a river of
the same name (Mel. ii. 6, 7 ; Strab. p. 143).
Maeon (Wlaiav), son of Haemon of Thebes.
He and Lycophontes were the leaders of the
band that lay in ambush agatost Tydeus, in the
war of the Seven against Thebes. Maeon was
the only one whose life was spared by Ty
deus. Maeon in return buried Tydeus,
when the latter was slain. (II. iv. 394;
Paus. ix. 18, 2.)
Maeonia. [Lydia.]
Maeonides. [Homerus.]
Maeotae. [Maeotis Palus.]
Maeotis Palus (r) M.aiar is Xipvrf. Sea
of Azov), an inland sea on the borders of
Europe and Asia, N. of the Pontus Euxi
nus (Black Sea), with wMch it communi
cates by the Bosporus Cimmerius. Its
form may be described roughly as a tri
angle, with its vertex at its NE. extremity,
where it receives the waters of the great
river Tanais (Don) : it discharges its super
fluous water by a constant current into the
Euxine. The ancients had very vague no
tions of its true form and size : the earlier
geographers thought that both it and the
Caspian Sea were gulfs of the great N.
Ocean (Hdt. iv. 86 ; Strab. pp. 125, 307,
493 ; Plin. iv. 24). The ScytMan tribes on
its banks were called by the collective
name of Maeotae or Maeotici (Maiarai,
MatariKoi). The sea had also the names of
Cimmerium or Bosporicum Mare. Aeschy
lus (Prom. 731) applies the name of Maeotic
Strait to the Cimmerian Bosporus (ai/Xav
MaiariKbs). Maera (Ma?pa). 1. The dog of Icarius, the
father of Erigone. [Icarius, No. l.J— 2.
Daughter of Proetus and Antea, a companion
of Artemis, by whom she was killed, after she
had become by Zeus the mother of Locrus (Od.

MAESA
xi. 325). — 3. Daughter of Atlas, was married to
Tegeates, the son of Lycaon. Her tomb was
shown both at Tegea and Mantinea in Arcadia
(Paus. viii. 12, 4).
Maesa, Julia, sister-in-law of Septimius
Severus, aunt of Caracalla, and grandmother of
Elagabalus and Alexander Severus. She was
a native of Emesa in Syria, and seems, after
the elevation of Septimius Severus, the husband
of her sister Julia Domna, to have lived at the
imperial court until the death of Caracalla,
and to have accumulated great wealth. She
contrived and executed the plot which trans
ferred the supreme power from Macrinus to her
grandson Elagabalus. When she foresaw the
downfall of the latter, she prevailed on him to
adopt Ms cousin Alexander Severus. By
Severus she was treated with the greatest
respect; she enjoyed the title of Augusta
during her life, and received divine honours
after her death. [Elagabalus ; Severus.]
Maeson (Mataav), a comic actor, of Megara
(whether the SicUian or the Grecian Megara is
disputed), from whom came the term aKuppara
paiaaviKd, for coarse jokes (Athen. p. 659). To
him was attributed the proverb,
'Apt' evepyeair/s 'Ayapipvova S-naav 'Axaioi.
Maevius. [Bavtus.]
Magaba, a mountain in Galatia, 10 Roman
miles E. of Ancyra (Liv. xxxviii. 19).
Magas (Mdyas), king of Cyrene, was a step
son of Ptolemy Soter, being the son of Berenice
by a former marriage. He was a Macedonian
by birth; and he seems to have accompanied
Ms mother to Egypt, where he soon rose to a
Mgh place to the favour of Ptolemy. In B.C.
308 he was appointed to the command of the
expedition destined for the recovery of Cyrene
after the death of OpheUas. The enterprise
was successful, and Magas obtained the govern
ment of the province. At first he ruled it only
as a dependency of Egypt, but after the death
of Ptolemy Soter he not only assumed the
character of an independent monarch, but
even made war on the Mng of Egypt. He
married Apama, daughter of Antiochus Soter
by whom he had a daughter, Berenice, after
wards the wife of Btolemy Euergetes. He died
258. (Paus. i. 7 ; Athen. p. 550 ; Justin, xxvi. 3.)
Magdolum (MdySoXov, MdySaXov : O. T.
Migdol), a city of Lower Egypt, near the NE.
frontier, about twelve miles SW. of Pelusium :
where Pharaoh Necho defeated the Syrians,
according to Herodotus (u. 159).
Magetobria or Admagetobriga, a town on
the W. frontiers of the Sequani, near wMch the
Gauls were defeated by the Germans shortly be
fore Caesar's arrival in Gaul (Caes. B. G. i. 31).
Magi (Mdyoi), the name of the order of
priests and reUgious teachers among the Medes
and Persians. There is strong evidence that a
class similar to the Magi, and in some cases
bearing the same name, existed among other
Eastern nations, especiaUy the Chaldeans of
Babylon ; nor is it at all probable that either
the Magi or their religion were of strictly
Median or Persian origin: but in classical
literature they are presented to us almost
exclusively to connexion with Medo-Persian
history. Herodotus represents them as one of
the six tribes into which the Median people
were divided (Hdt. i. 101, 107, 140). Under the
Median empire, before the supremacy passed to
the Persians, they were so closely connected
with the throne, and had so great an influence
in the state, that they evidently retained their

MAGNENTIUS

517

position after the revolution; and they had
power enough to be almost successful in the
attempt they made to overttoow the Persian
dynasty after the death of Cambyses, by putting
forward one of their own number as a pretender
to the throne, alleging that he was Smerdis, the
son of Cyrus, who had been put to death by his
brother Cambyses (Hdt. iii. 67-68). It is clear
that this was a plot to restore the Median supre
macy. The defeat of this Magian conspiracy by
Darius the son of Hystaspes and the other Per
sian nobles was followed by a general massacre
of the Magi, wMch was celebrated by an annual
festival (Ta Mayoipbvia), during which no Magian
was permitted to appear to public. Still their
position as the only ministers of religion re
mained unaltered. The breaking up of the
Persian empire must have greatly altered their
condition; but they continue to appear in
Mstory down to the time of the later Roman
empire, and from them we get our word magic
(ri payiKi), i.e. the art or science of the Magi). —
The constitution or the reformation of the Magi
as an order is ascribed by tradition to Zoroaster,
as the Greeks and Romans called him. He is
said to have restored the true knowledge of the
supreme good principle (Ormuzd), and to have
taught his worship to the Magi, whom he
divided into tMee classes, learners, masters,
and perfect scholars. [Zoroaster.] They
alone could teach the truths and perform the
ceremonies of religion, foretell the future, inter
pret dreams and omens, and ascertain the will
of Ormuzd by the arts of divination. They had
tMee chief methods of divination : by calling up
the dead, by cups or dishes, and by water.
The forms of worship and divination were
strictly defined, and were handed down among
the Magi by tradition. Like all early priest
hoods, they seem to have been the sole posses
sors of all the science of their age. To be
instructed in their learning was esteemed the
highest of privileges, and was permitted, with
rare exceptions, to none but the princes of the
royal family. Their learning became cele
brated at an early period in Greece, by the
name of payeia, and was made the subject of
speculation by the pMlosophers, whose know
ledge of it seems, however, to have been very
limited ; while their high pretensions, and the
tricks by which their knowledge of science
enabled them to impose upon the ignorant,
soon attached to their name among the Greeks
and Romans that bad meaning which is stiU
connected with the words derived from it.
Magna Graecia. [Graecia.]
Magna Mater. [Rhea.]
Magnentius, Roman emperor in the West,
a.d. 350-353, whose full name was Flavius
Popilius Magnentius. He was a German by
birth, and after serving as a common soldier was
eventually intrusted by Constans, the son of
Constantine the Great, with the command of the
Jovian and Herculian battalions who had re
placed the ancient praetorian guards when the
empire was remodelled by Diocletian. He
availed Mmself of his position to organise a
conspiracy against the weak and profligate Con
stans, who was put to death by his emissaries. .
Magnentius thereupon was acknowledged as
emperor in all the Western provinces, except
Elyria, where Vetranio had assumed the purple.
Constantius hurried from the frontier of Persia
to crush the usurpers. Vetranio submitted to
Constantius at Sardica in December, 350.
Magnentius was first defeated by Constantius
at the sanguinary battle of Mursa on the Drave,

518

MAGNES

in the autumn of 351, and was obliged to fly
into Gaul. He was defeated a second time in
the passes of the Cottian Alps, and put an end
to his own life about the middle of August, 353.
Magnentius was a man of commanding stature
and great bodily strength ; but not one spark of
virtue relieved the blackness of Ms career as a
sovereign. The power wMch he obtained by
treachery and murder he maintained by extor
tion and cruelty. (Vict. Caes. 41, 42 ; Zosim.
ii. 41-54.)
Magnes (Mdyvris), one of the most important
of the earlier Athenian comic poets of the Old
Comedy, was a native of the demus of Icaria or
Icarius, to Attica. He flourished B. c. 460, and
onwards, and died at an advanced age, shortly
before the representation of the Knights of
Aristophanes — that is, in 423. (Aristoph. Equit.
524.) He is said to have won a prize for comedy
eleven times. He was famed for Ms mimetic
dances (which formed one of the stages in the
growth of comedy) : for these he used choruses
representtog animals (to one play, frogs) ; and
in this found an imitator in Aristophanes.
Magnesia (Mayvriaia: Mdyvris, pi. Mdy-
VTjres). 1. The most easterly district of Thes
saly, was a long narrow slip of country, extend
ing from the Peneus on the N. to the Pagasaean
guU on the S., and bounded on the W. by the
great Thessalian plain. It was a mountainous
country, as it comprehended the Mts. Ossa and
Pelion. Its inhabitants, the Magnetes, are said
to have founded the two cities in Asia mentioned
below. — 2. M. ad Sipylum (M. irpbs 'SiiriXa or
vtrb SiiriXa '¦ Manissa, Ru.), a city to the
NW. of Lydia, in Asia Minor, at the foot of the
NW. declivity of Mount Sipylus, and on the S.
bank of the Hermua, is famous in Mstory as the
scene of the victory gained by the two Scipios
over Antiochus the Great, wMch secured to the
Romans the empire of the East, B. c. 190. After
the Mithridatic war, the Romans made it a
libera civitaa. It suffered, with other cities of
Asia Minor, from the great earthquake in the
reign of Tiberius ; but it was still a place of
importance to the fifth century. (Strab. p. 622 ;
Liv. xxxvii. 87 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 47.) — 3. M. ad
Maeandrum (M. r) irpbs MaidvSpa, M. <hr!
MaidvSpa : Inek-bazar, Ru.), a city in the SW.
of Lydia, in Asia Minor, was situated on the

Coin of Magnesia ad Maeandrum (2nd cent. B.C.).
Obv., head of Artemis ; rev., MArNHTfiN ; Apollo beside tri
pod ; below these, Maeander pattern, magistrate's
name, EY*HM02 HAY2ANI0Y ; whole in oak-wreath.
river Lethaeus, a N. tributary of the Maeander.
It was destroyed by the Cimmerians (probably
about B. c. 700) and rebuilt by colonists from
Miletus, so that it became an Ionian city by
race as well as by position. It was one of the
cities given to Themistocles by Artaxerxes. It
was celebrated for its temple of Artemis Leu-
cophryene (see coin), one of the most beautiful
in Asia Minor, the ruins of which exist. (Hdt.
i. 161, iii. 122 ; Diod. xi. 57 ; Strab. pp. 686, 647.)
Magnopolis (MayvbrcoXis), or Eupatoria
Magnopolis, a city of Pontus, in Asia Minor,

MAGO
near the confluence of the rivers Lycus and Iris,
begun by Mithridates Eupator and finished by
Pompey (Strab. p. 556 ; Appian, Mithr. 78, 115).
Mago (Mdyav). 1. A Carthaginian, said to
have been the founder of the military power of
Carthage, by introducing a regular discipline.
and organisation into her armies (Just, xviii.
7, xix. 1). He flourished from b. c. 550 to 500,
and was probably the father of HamUcar, who
was slain in the battle against Gelo at Himera.
[Hamilcar, No. 1.]— 2. Commander of the Car
thaginian fleet under Himilco to the war agatost
Dionysius, 396. When Himilco returned to
Africa after the disastrous termination of the
expedition, Mago appears to have been invested
with the chief command in Sicily. He carried on
the war with Dionysius, but to 392 was compeUed
to conclude a treaty of peace, by wMch he aban
doned his allies the Sicilians to the power of
Dionysius. In 383 he again invaded SicUy, but-
was defeated by Dionysius and slain in the
battle. (Diod.xiv. 59,95,xv. 15.) — 3. Commander
of the Carthaginian army in Sicily in 344. He
assisted Hicetas to the war against Timoleon ;
but, becoming apprehensive of treachery, he
sailed away to Carthage. Here he put an end
to his own life, to avoid a worse fate at the hands
of his countrymen, who, nevertheless, crucified
his lifeless body (Plut. Timol. 17-22).— 4, Son
of Hamilcar Barca, and youngest brother of the
famous Hannibal. He accompanied Hannibal
to Italy, and after the battle of Cannae (216)
carried the news of this great victory to Car
thage. (Pol. iii. 71, 79, 114 ; Liv. xxi. 54, xxii.
2, 46.) But, instead of returning to Italy, he
was sent into Spain with a considerable force
to the support of Ms other brother Hasdrubal,
vfho was hard pressed by the two Scipios (215).
He continued in tMs country for many years ;
and after his brother Hasdrubal quitted Spain
in 208, in order to march to the assistance of
Hannibal in Italy, the command to Spain de
volved upon him and upon Hasdrubal, the son
of Gisco. After their decisive defeat by Scipio
at Silpia in 206, Mago retired to Gades, and
subsequently passed the winter in the lesser of
the Balearic islands, where the memory of Ms
sojourn is still preserved in the name of the
celebrated harbour, Portus Magonis, or Port
Mahon. (Liv. xxviii. 23-87 ; Appian, Hisp.
25-37.) Early in the ensuing summer (205)
Mago landed in Liguria, where he surprised the
town of Genoa. Here he maintained himself
for two years, but in 203 he was defeated with
great loss to Cisalpine Gaul, by QuintUius
Varus, and was himself severely wounded.
Shortly afterwards he embarked Ms troops to-
order to return to Africa, but he died of Ms
wound before reacMng Africa. (Liv. xxx. 18 ;
App. Hisp. 37 ; Zonar. ix. 18.) Cornelius Nepos
(Hann. 7, 8), in opposition to all other autho
rities, represents Mago as surviving the bottle
of Zama, and says that he perished in a ship
wreck, or was assassinated by his slaves. — -5.
Surnamed the Samnite, was one of the chief
officers of Hannibal in Italy, where he held for
a considerable time the chief command in Brut
tium (Liv. xxv. 15). — 6. Commander of the
garrison of New Carthage when that city was
taken by Scipio Africanus, 209. Mago was sent,
a prisoner to Rome (Pol. x. 8-19; Liv. xxvi.
44-51). — 7. A Carthaginian of uncertain date,
who wrote a work upon agriculture in the Punic
language, in twenty-eight books. So great was
the reputation of this work even at Rome, that
after the destruction of Carthage, the senate
ordered that it should be translated into Latin

MAGONIS PORTUS
by competent persons, at the head of whom was
D. Silanus. It was subsequently translated toto
Greek, with some abridgment and alteration, by
Cassius Dionysius of Utica. Mago's precepts
on agricultural matters are conttouaUy cited by
the Roman writers on those subjects in terms
of the highest commendation. (Varro, B. B.
i. 1, 10 ; Plin. xviii. 22 ; Colum. B. B. i. 1, 18.)
Magonis Portus, [Mago, No. 4.]
Magontiacum. [Mogontiacum.]
Maharbal (MadpJ3as), son of Himilco, and
one of the most disttogmshed officers of Han
nibal in the second Punic war. He is first
mentioned at the siege of Saguntum. After
the battle of Cannae he urged Hannibal to
push at once with his cavalry upon Rome
itself ; and on the refusal of Ms commander, he
is said to have observed, that Hanmbal knew
how to gain victories, but not how to use them.
(Liv. xxi. 12, 45, xxii. IS, 46, 51 ; Flor. u. 6.)
Maia (Maia or Maids). 1. Daughter of
Atlas and Pleione, was the eldest of the Plei
ades, and the most beautiful of the seven
sisters. In a grotto of Mt. CyUene to Arcadia
she became by Zeus the mother of Hermes.
Arcas, the son of Zeus by CalUsto, was given to
her to be reared. [Pleiades.] — 2. With tMs
deity was sometimes confused an old Italian
goddess Maja (= Bona Dea, Ops or Fauna)
worshipped at Rome. She is mentioned in
connexion with Vulcan, and was regarded by
some as the wife of that god, though it seems
for no other reason but because a priest of
Vulcan offered a sacrifice to her on the 1st of
May. [Bona Dea.]
Majorianus, Julius Valerius, Roman em
peror to the West, a.d. 457—461, was raised to
the empire by Ricimer. His reign was cMefly
occupied to making preparations to invade the
Vandals to Africa ; but the immense fleet wMch
he had coUected for this purpose in the harbour
of New Carthage to Spain was destroyed by the
Vandals to 460. Thereupon he concluded a
peace with Genseric. His activity and popu
larity excited the jealousy of Ricimer, who
compeUed him to abdicate and then put an end
to his life (Procop. Vand. i. 7).
Majuma. [Constantia, No. 3.]
Malaca (Malaga), an important town on
the coast of Hispania Baetica, and on a river
of the same name (Guadalmedina), was
founded by the Phoenicians, and has always
been a flourishing place of commerce (Strab.
pp. 156-163 ; Avien. Or. Mar. 426).
Malalas. [Malelas.]
Malanga (MaAa7-ya), a city of India, prob
ably the modern Madras (Ptol. vii. 1, 92).
Malchus (MdXxos), of PMladelphia to Syria,
a Byzantine Mstorian and rhetorician, wrote a
Mstory of the empire from a.d. 474 to 480, of
which we have extracts, published along with
Dexippus by Bekker and Niebuhr, Bonn, 1829.
Malea (MaAea axpa : C. Maria), the S.
promontory of the island of Lesbos (Thuc. iii.
4 ; Xen. Hell. i. 6, 26; Strab. p. 617).
Malea, (MaAea or MaAe'ai : C. St. Angelo or
Malea), a promontory on the SE. of Laconia,
separating the ArgoUc and Laconic gulfs ; the
passage round it was dreaded by sailors. Here
was a temple of Apollo, who hence bore the
surname Maledtes. (Hdt. i. 82 ; Strab. p. 368.)
Malelas, or Malalas, Joannes ('luavvris b
MaXeXa or MaAdAa), a native of Antioch, and a
Byzantine historian, Uved shortly after Justi
nian the Great. The word Malalas signifies in
Syriac an orator. He wrote a chronicle of
universal Mstory from the creation of the world

MAMERCUS

619

to the reign of Jusbinian inclusive. Edited by
Dindorf, Bonn, 1881.
Malene (MaXr)vri), a city of Mysia, only men
tioned by Herodotus (vi. 22).
Maliacus Sinus (MaXioxbs k6xvos: Bay of
Zeitun), a narrow bay in the S. of Thessaly,
running W. from the NW. point of the island
of Euboea. On one side of it is the pass of
Thermopylae. It derived its name from the
Malienses, who dwelt on its shores. It is some
times called the Lamiacus Sinus, from the
town of Lamia in its neighbourhood. (Hdt. iv.
88 ; Thuc. iii. 96 ; Paus. i. 4, 3.)
Malis (MaAls yr), Ionic and Att. M-rjXls yi) :
MaAieus or MrjAieus, Maliensis), a district in the
S. of Thessaly, on the shores of the Maliacus
Sinus, and opposite the NW. point of the
island of Euboea. It extended as far as the
pass of Thermopylae. Its inhabitants, the
Malians, were Dorians, and belonged to the
Amphictyonic League (Hdt. vii. 198).
Malli (MaAAoi), an Indian people on both
sides of the Hydraotes : their capital is sup
posed to have been on the site of the fortress of
Mooltan (Arrian, An. vi. 7-14 ; Strab. p. 701).
Mallus (MaAAo's), a city of Cilicia, on a hill a
little E. of the mouth of the river Pyramus,
was said to have been founded at the time of
the Trojan war by Mopsus and AmpMlochus.
It had a port called Magarsa. (Strab. p. 675.)
Maluginensis, a celebrated patrician family
of the Cornelia gens in the early ages of the re'
public, the members of which frequently held
the consulship. It disappears from history
before the time of the Samnite wars. They
sometimes united the surnames of Cossus and
Maluginensis. — 1. Ser. Cornelius Cossus Malu
ginensis, consul B.C. 485, in which year Sp.
Cassius was condemned (Liv. ii. 41). — 2. His
son, L. CorneUus Maluginensis, consul B.C. 459 ;
fought against the Aequi and Volsci (Liv. iii.
22-24). — 3. P. CorneUus Maluginensis, consular
tribune in 397 and 390 (Liv. v. 16, 86).
Malva. [Mulucha.]
Mamaea, Julia, a native of Emesa in Syria,
was daughter of JuUa Maesa, and mother of
Alexander Severus. She was a woman of
integrity and virtue, and brought up her son
with the Utmost care. She was put to death by
the soldiers along with her son, a.d. 285.
[Elagabalus ; Severus.]
Mamercus. 1. Son of king Numa, accord
ing to one tradition, and son of Mars and
Silvia, according to another. [Mars.]. — 2.
Tyrant of Catana, when Timoleon landed in
Sicily, B.C. 344. After his defeat by Timoleon
he fled to Messana, and took refuge with
Hippon, tyrant of that city. But when Timo
leon laid siege to Messana, Hippon took to
flight, and Mamercus surrendered, stipulating
only for a regular trial before the Syracusans.
But as soon as he was brought into the
assembly of the people there, he was con
demned by acclamation, and executed like a
common malefactor. (Plut. Timol. IS, 30, 84 ;
Diod. xvi. 69, 82.)
Mamercus or Mamercinus, Aemilius, a dis
tinguished patrician family which professed to
derive its name from Mamercus in the reign of
Numa. 1. L., thrice consul : namely, B.C. 484,
478, 473.-2. Tib., twice consul, 470 and 467.
—3. Mam., thrice dictator, 487, 433, and 426.
In Ms first dictatorship he carried on war
against the Veientines and Fidenae. Lar
Tolumnius, the king of Veii, is said to have
been killed in single combat to this year by
CorneUus Cossus. In his second dictatorship

520

MAMERS

AemiUus carried a law limiting to eighteen
months the duration of the censorsMp, wMch
had formerly lasted for five years. This measure
was received with great approbation by the
people ; but the censors then to office were so
enraged at it, that they removed him from his
tribe, and reduced him to the condition of an
aerarian (Liv.iv. 17-34). — 4. L., a distinguished
general in the Samnite wars, was twice consul,
341 and 829, and once dictator, 335. In Ms
second consulsMp he took Privernum, and
hence received the surname of Privernas (Liv.
viii. 1, 16, 20).
Mamers. [Mars.]
Mamertini, [Messana.]
Mamertlum (Mamertini), a town in Bruttium,
of uncertain site (Strab. p. 261).
Mamilia Gens, plebeian, was originally a
distinguished family in Tusculum. They traced
their name and origin to Mamilia, the daughter
of Telegonus, the founder of Tusculum, and the
son of Odysseus and the goddess Circe (Liv. i.
49 ; Dionys. iv. 45.) It was to a member of this
family, Octavius Mamilius, that Tarquinius
betrothed his daughter; and on his expulsion
from Rome, he took refuge with Ms son-in-
law, who, according to the tradition preserved
by Livy, roused the Latin people against the
infant republic, and perished in the great
battle at the lake RegiUus (Liv. ii. 15, 19). In
B.C. 458, the Roman citizenship was given to
L. MamiUus the dictator of Tusculum, because
he had two years before marched to the assist
ance of the city when it was attacked by
Herdonius (Liv. iii. 18, 29). The gens was
divided into three families, Limetanus, Tur-
rinus, and Vitulus, but none of them were
of much importance. Among them was Q.
Mamil. Vitulus, who took Agrigentum B.C. 262
(Pol. i. 17), and C. Mamil. Limetanus, tribune
b.c. 110 (SaU. Jug. 40, 65).
Mammilla, the name of a patrician family of
the Cornelia gens, which was never of much
importance in the state.
Mamurius Veturius. [Veturius.]
Mamurra, a Roman eques, born at Formiae,
was the commander of the engineers (praefedus
fabrum) in Julius Caesar's army in Gaul. He
amassed great riches, the greater part of which,
however, he owed to Caesar's liberality. He
was the first person at Rome who UBed columns
of solid marble for his house, and covered
the walls with layers of marble (Plin. xxxvi.
48). He was in bad repute for licentious
ness, and was violently attacked by Catullus
in his poems, who called him decoctor Formi-
¦ anus (xii. 4). Mamurra seems to have been
alive in the time of Horace, who caUs Formiae,
in ridicule, Mamurrarum urbs (Sat. i. 5, 37),
from which we may infer that Ms name had
become a byword of contempt. (See pp. 210,
211 ; Cat. xxix. 15, lvii. 2 ; Suet. Jul. 78 ; Cic.
Att. vii. 7, xiii. 52.)
Manajjenita. [Genita Mana.]
Mancia, Helvius, a Roman orator, about
B.C. 90, who was remarkably ugly, and whose
name is recorded cMefly to consequence of a
laugh being raised against him on account of
his deformity by C. Julius Caesar Strabo, who
was opposed to him on one occasion to some law
suit (Cic. de Or. ii. 66, 266).
Mancinus, Hostilius. 1. A., was praetor
prbonus B.C. 180, and consul 170, when he had
the conduct of the war against Perseus, king of
Macedonia. He remained in Greece for part of
the next year (169) as proconsul. (Liv. xliii.
4-17 ; Pol. xxviii. 8.) — 2, L., was legate of the

MANES
consul L. Calpurnius Piso (148) in the siege of
Carthage, in the third Punic war. He was
consul 145. (App. Pun. 110 ; Liv. Ep. 51.)— 3.
C, consul 137, had the conduct of the war
against Numantia. He was defeated by the
Numantines, and purchased the safety of the
remainder of Ms army by making a peace with
the Numantines. The senate refused to recog
nise it, and went through the hypocritical
ceremony of delivering Mm over to the enemy,
by means of the fetiales. TMs was done with
the consent of Mancinus, but the enemy refused
to accept Mm. On his return to Rome Manci
nus took Ms seat in the senate, as heretofore,
but was violently expelled from it by the
tribune P. Rutilius, on the ground that he had
lost his citizensMp. As the enemy had not
received him, it was a disputed question whether
he was a citizen or not by the Jus Postli/minii,
(see Did. of Ant. s. v. Postliminium), but the
better optoion was that he had lost Ms civic
rights, and they were accordingly restored to
him by a lex. (Cic. de Or. i. 40, 141, Off. iii. 80,
109 ; Veil. Pat. U. 1 ; App. Hisp. 79-83.)
Mandane. [Cyrus.]
Mandonius. [Indibilis.]
Mandri Fontes, a town in Ptoygia, a day's
march NE. of Anabura. It is wrongly written Al-
andri Fontes in some editions (Liv. xxxvui. 16).
Mandrupium, Mandropus, or Mandrupolis
(MavSpoiiroXis), a town to the S. of Phrygia, on
the lake Caralitis.
Mandubii, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis,
in Burgundy, whose chief town was Alesia.
Manduria (MavSipiov in Plut. : Casal Nuovo),
a town in Calabria, in the territory of the Sal-
lentines, on the road from Tarentum to Hy-
druntum, and near a small lake, which is said
to have been always fuU to the edge, whatever
water was added to or taken from it (Phn. ii.
226), a phenomenon wMch is still observed by the
inhabitants. Here Archidamus m., king of
Sparta, was defeated and slain to battle by the
Messapians and Lucanians, B. c. 838 (Plut. Ages.
3 ; Paus. iii. 10, 5). It was taken by Fabius
Maximus, b. c. 209, and never recovered its pro
sperity (Liv. xxvii. 15).
Manes (i.e. the ' good beings'), was the name
given to the spirits of the dead (Fest. p. 146 ;
Non.p. 66; Serv. aAAen. ii. 268). They were re
garded as disembodied and immortal, and were
worsMpped probably from the earliest times :
hence they were spoken of as Dii Manes. They
were represented as dwelling beneath the earth
under the guardianship of Mania (who was
also called Lara or Larunda), the mother of the
Lares (Varro, L. L. ix. 61; PUn. xxxii. 2;
Larunda). It was an ancient custom in all
towns of Italy to dig a pit, caUed Mundus, like
an inverted sky (cf. Ov. Fast. iv. 820; Plut.
Bom-. 10), which was supposed to represent the
abode of the gods of the underworld, and es
pecially of the Manes. Such a pit was on the
Palatine hill at Rome, and was the Mundus of
the old Palatine state (Fest. p. 258). The stone
laid over this, and caUed lapis manalis, was
regarded as the door of the underworld, tMough
which the Dii Manes passed (Paul. p. 128). At
the festivals of the gods of the underworld —
that is, of Dis Pater, Ceres, and Proserpina, as
weU as of the Manes — this stone was removed :
the ceremony was called ' Mundus patet,' and
took place three times a year — on August 24,
October 5, and November 8. As the Manes
then came forth from the earth these days were
unlucky for business and for marriage, and, to
propitiate the dead, offerings were made, called

MANBTHO
inferiae, especially at the parentalia in Febru
ary (see Did. of Ant. s.v.). The Manes were
joined with the other powers of the underworld
as the deities to whom the enemies' host was
devoted to destruction by the ceremony of
devotio (Liv. viii. 6, 9, 10, x. 28 ; Val. Max. i.
7, 8), which shows the existence of a very old
superstition that the spirits of the dead could
work death. [For the connexion of the Gemus
with^the Dii Manes, see p 860, a.]
Manetho (MaveBds or MaveBdv), an Egyptian,
a native of Sebennytus, and priest of Heliopolis,
who lived to the reign of the first Ptolemy
(283-246 B. a). He was the first Egyptian who
gave to the Greek language an account of the
religion and history of his country. He based
Ms information upon the ancient works of
the Egyptians themselves, and more especially
upon their sacred books. The work in which
he gave an account of the theology of the
Egyptians and of the origin of the gods and
the world bore the title of TW $vaiKav
'Eiriropr). His historical work was entitled a
History of Egypt. It was divided toto three
parts or books. The first contained the Mstory
of the country previous to the thirty dynasties,
or what may be termed the mythology of Egypt,
and also of the first dynasties. The second
opened with the eleventh, twelfth, and concluded
with the nineteenth dynasty. The ttord gave
the Mstory of the remaining eleven dynasties,
and concluded with an account of Nectanebus,
the last of the native Egyptian kings. TMs
work of Manetho is lost; but large extracts,
wMch provide a list of the dynasties, have been
preserved by the ecclesiastical writers Georgius
SynceUus and Eusebius. The original work
contained an account of the Mngs arranged in
order to thirty dynasties with a notice of the
duration of each. In recent times the general
correctness of Manetho's information has been
proved by the deciphering of the Meroglyphics,
and Ms list, though the names are sometimes
corrupted, is a guide for assigning to the names of
kings upon the monuments their true place in
the dynasties, and a most important aid to com
puting the chronology. The fragments are col
lected by C. MiiUer, Frag. Hist. — There exists
an astrological poem, entitled ' AiroreXeapariKa,
to six books, wMch bears the name of Manetho ;
but it is spurious, and cannot have been written
before the fifth century of our era. Edited by
Axt and Rigler, Cologne, 1832 ; KocMy, 1858.
Mania. [Manes.]
Manillas. 1. M., was consul E. c 149, the
first year of the tMrd Punic war, and carried on
war agatost Carthage. He was celebrated as a
jurist, especiaUy as framer of deeds of pur
chase (Cic. de Or. i. 58, 246 ; Varro, B. B. ii.
2, 5), and is one of the speakers to Cicero's
De Bepublica (i. 12). — 2. C, tribune of the
plebs, B. c. 66, proposed the law granting to
Pompey the command of the war against Mith
ridates and Tigranes, and the government of the
provinces of Asia, CiUcia, and Bithynia. TMs
DiU was warmly opposed by Q. Catulus, Q. Hor
tensius, and the leaders of the aristocratical
party, but was supported by Cicero in an ora
tion wMch has come down to us. At the end of
Ms year Manilius was brought to trial by the
aristocratical party, and was condemned ; but
of what offence he was accused is uncertain.
(Cic. pro Leg. Manil. ; Dio Cass, xxxvi. 25 ;
VeU. Pat. u. 33; Appian, Mithr. 97; Plut.
Pomp. 30.) — 3. Manilius is the name generally
given to the author of the Astronomica, a poem
in five books written to the reign of Tiberius.

MANTINEA

521

It has more to do with astrology than with as
tronomy, but is valuable for its learning and for
the insight which it gives into the views enter
tained on that subject. The name of the author
is only gathered from the later MSS., wMch vary
between Manilius, Manlius, and Mailtos. Edi
tions by Bentley, 1789; Jacob, Berl. 1846.
Manila Gens, an ancient and celebrated patri
cian gens at Rome. The cMef families were
those of Acidinus, Torquatus, and Vulso.
Manliana (MavXlava : Miliana, Ru.), a city
of importance in Mauretania Caesariensis, where
one of Pompey's sons died (Ptol. iv. 2, 25).
M. Manlius, consul b. c. 892, took refuge in
the Capitol when Rome was taken by the Gauls,
in 890. One night, when the Gauls endeavoured
to ascend the Capitol, Manlius was roused from
his sleep by the cackling of the geese in the
temple of Juno ; collecting hastily a body of
men, he succeeded in driving back the enemy,
who had just reached the summit of the hill.
From tMs he is said to have received the sur
name of Capitolinus. In 385, he defended the
cause of the plebeians, who were suffering from
the harsh treatment of their patrician creditors.
The patricians accused Mm of aspiring to royal
power, and he was thrown into prison by the
dictator Cornelius Cossus. The plebeians put
on mourning for their champion, and were ready
to take up arms to his behalf. The patricians
in alarm liberated Manlius ; but this act of con
cession only made him bolder, and he still
championed the cause of the plebeians. In the
foUowing year the patricians charged him with
high treason, and brought him before the people
assembled in the Campus Martius ; but as the
Capitol wMch had once been saved by him could
be seen from this place, the court was removed
to the Poetelinian grove outside the Porta No-
mentana. The patricians succeeded in procur
ing his condemnation, and the tribunes threw
Mm down the Tarpeian rock. Thenceforth, it
was said, none of the Manlia gens bore the
praenomen of Marcus. (Liv. v. 47, vi. 14 ; Cic.
Bep. ii. 27,49.)
L. Manlius, also caUed Mailtos and Manilius,
probably belonged to the age of SuUa, and wrote
on mythology after the manner of Euhemerus
(Dionys. i. 19; Plin. x. 4 ; Varro, L. L. v. 31).
Mannus, a son of Tuisco, was regarded by the
ancient Germans, along with his father, as the
founder of their race. They ascribed to Man
nus three sons, from whom the three tribes of
the Ingaevones, Hermiones, and Istaevones, or
Iscaeones, derived their names (Tac. Germ. 2).
Mantiana Palus. [Arsissa Palus.]
Mantinea (Mavriveia, in Hom. MavTiven :
Mavriveis) , one of the most ancient and important
towns in Arcadia, situated on the smaU river
Ophis, near the centre of the E. frontier of the
country. It is celebrated in history for the great
battle fought under its walls between the Spartans
and Thebans, in which Epaminondas fell, B.C. 362.
According to tradition, Mantinea (which is men
tioned to II. ii. 607) was founded by Mantineus,
the son of Lycaon, but it was formed in reality
out of the union of four or five hamlets. (Paus.
viii. 8, 4 ; Xen. Hell. v. 2, 6 ; Strab. p. 337.) Till
the foundation of Megalopolis, it was the largest
city to Arcadia, and it long exercised a kind of
supremacy over the other Arcadian towns ; but
after the battle of 418 (Thuc. v. 65, 81), the
Mantineans renounced their claim to this su
premacy. In 385 the Spartans under Agesipolis
attacked the city, and destroyed it by turning
the waters of the Ophis against its waUs, which
were built of bricks, and the inhabitants were

522

MANTIUS

dispersed in villages (Xen. Hell. v. 2, 6; Diod.
xv. 5). After the battle of Leuctra the city re
covered its independence, and the walls were
rebuilt (Xen. Hell. vi. 5, 3). At a later period it
joined the Achaean League, but notwithstanding
formed a close connexion with its old enemy
Sparta, in consequence of which it was severely
punished by Aratus, who put to death its lead
ing citizens and sold the rest of its inhabitants
as slaves (Pol. ii. 57 ; Paus. viii. 8, 11). It never
recovered the effects of this blow. Its name
was now changed into Antigonla, in honour of
Antigonus Doson, who had assisted Aratus in
his campaign against the town. The emperor
Hadrian restored to the place its ancient appel
lation, and rebuilt part of it in honour of his
favourite Antinous, the Bithynian, who derived
his family from Mantinea. The ruins belong
to the buildings of the fourth century B.C. The
plain, formerly well drained and fertile (Homer,
II. ii. 607, calls it ipareivi)), is now swampy.
Mantius (Mdvrios), son of Melampus, and
brother of Antiphates. [Melampus.]
Manto (Man-di, -oiis). 1. Daughter of the
Theban soothsayer Tiresias, was herself pro
phetess of the Ismenian
Apollo at Thebes. After
the capture of Thebes
by the Epigoni, she was
sent to DelpM with
other captives, as an
offering to Apollo, and
there became the pro
phetess of this god.
Apollo afterwards sent
her and her companions
to Asia, where they
founded the sanctuary
of Apollo near the place
where the town of Co
lophon was afterwards
built. Rhacius, a Cre
tan, who had settled
there, married Manto,
and became by her the
father of Mopsus. Ac
cording to Euripides,
she had previously be
come the mother of
Amphilochus and Tisi-
phone, by Alcmaeon,
the leader of the Epi
goni. Being a pro
phetess of Apollo, she
is also called Daphne,
i.e. the laurel virgin.
• (Apollod. iii. 7, 4 ; Paus.
vii. 3, 1, ix. 33, 1 ;
Strab. p. 443.) — 2. Daughter of Heracles, was
likewise a prophetess, and the person from
whom the town of Mantua received its name
(Verg. Aen. x. 199).
Mantua (Mantuanus : Mantua), a town in
Gallia Transpadana, on an island in the river
Mincius, was not a place of importance, but is
i celebrated because Virgil, who was born at the
, neighbouring village of Andes, regarded Mantua
as Ms birthplace. It seems to have been on
friendly terms with Rome to the second Pumc
war (Liv. xxiv. 10), and later became a munici
pium. After the death of Caesar, Octavian as
signed some of the lands of Cremona to his
soldiers, and, as these were not sufficient, took
some of the Mantuan territory also, wliich was
the occasion of Virgil's loss of property. It was
originally an Etruscan city, and is said to have
derived its name from Manto, the daughter of

MARATHON
Heracles. (Verg. Aen. x. 200, Eel. ix. 28,
Georg. ii. 198 ; Strab. p. 213 ; Plin. iii. 130.)
Maracanda (to MapdKavSa: Samarkand),
the capital of the Persian province of Sogdiana
was seventy stadia in circuit. It was here that
Alexander the Great MUed his friend Clitus.
(Strab. p. 517 ; Arr. An. iii. 30.)
Maraphii (Mapdcpioi), one of the tMee noblest
tribes of the Persians, standing, with the Maspii,
next to honour to the Pasargadae (Hdt. i. 125).
Marathesium (Mapa6f)aiov), a town on the
coast of Ionia, between Ephesus and Neapolis ;
it belonged to the Samians, who exchanged it
with the Ephesians for NeapoUs, which lay
nearer to their island. The modern Scala Nova
marks the site of one of these towns, but it is
doubtful which (Strab. p. 639).
Marathon (MapaBdv. MapaBdvios), a demus
in Attica belonging to the tribe Leontis, was
situated near a bay on the E. coast of Attica,
22 miles from Athens by one road, and 26 miles
by another. It originally belonged to the Attic
tetrapolis, and is said to have derived its name
from the hero Marathon. This hero, according
to one account, was the son of Epopeus, Mng of

Plan of the Plain of Marathon.
Sicyon, who having been expelled from Pelo
ponnesus by the violence of his father, settled
in Attica ; wMle, according to another account,
he was an Arcadian who took part in the expe
dition of the Tyndaridae against Attica, and
devoted himself to death before the battle.
(Paus. i. 32, 4, ii, 1, 1 ; Plut. Thes. 32.) It is
mentioned as a notable place in Od. vii. 80.
The site of the ancient town of Marathon was
probably not at the modern vUlage of Marathon,
but at a place called Vrana, a little to the S. of
Marathon. Marathon was situated to a plain,
which extends along the seashore, about six
miles in length, and from tMee mUes to one
mile and a half to breadth. It is surrounded
on the other three sides by rocky Mils and
rugged mountains. Two marshes bound the
extremity of the plain ; the northern is more
than a square mile in extent, but the southern

MARATHUS
is much smaller, and is almost dry at the con
clusion of the great heats. Through the centre
of the plain runs a small brook. In this plain
was fought the celebrated battle between the
Persians and Athenians, b.c. 490. The Persians
were drawn up on the plain, and the Athenians
on some portion of the high ground above the
plain, their headquarters being in the enclosure
of Heracles, which overlooked the enemies'
position (Hdt. vi. 108 ; Paus. i. 82). The tumu
lus raised over the Athenians who fell in the
battle is stiU to be seen.
Marathus (MdpaBos), an important city on
the coast of Phoenicia, opposite to Aradus and
near Antaradus (Strab. p. 753) ; it was destroyed
by the people of Aradus to the time of the
Syrian king Alexander Balas, a little before
B.C. 150 (Diod. Frag, xxxiii.).
Marcella. 1. Daughter of C. Marcellus and
Octavia, the sister of Augustus. She was thrice
married: first, to M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who
separated from her in B.C. 21, in order to marry
Julia, the daughter of Augustus ; secondly, to
Julus Antonius, the son of the triumvir, by
whom she had a son Lucius ; tMrdly, to Sext.
Appuleius, consul a.d. 14, by whom she had a
daughter, Appuleia Varilia (Plut. Ant. 87 ; Dio
Cass. liii. 1, liv. 6; Suet. Aug. 63; Tac. Ann. ii.
50).— 2. Wife of the poet Martial. [Martialis.]
Marcellinus, the author of the Life of Thucy
dides. [Thucydldes.J
Marcellus, Claudius, an iUustrious plebeian
family. 1. M., celebrated as five times consul,
and the conqueror of Syracuse. In his first

MARCELLUS

528

This coin, struck by P. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus
[see below, No. 12], has on the obverse the head of Mar-
ceUus, the Conqueror of Syracuse. The reverse re-
J resents him carrying the spolia opima to the Temple of
upiter Feretrius, with MARCELLVS COS. QVINQ.
consulship, b.c. 222, MarceUus and his colleague
conquered the Insubrians in Cisalpine Gaul,
and took their capital Mediolanum. MarceUus
distinguished himself by slaying in battle with
his own hand Britomartus or Viridomarus, the
king of the enemy, whose spoils he afterwards
dedicated as spolia opima in the temple of
Jupiter Feretrius. TMs was the third and last
instance in Roman history in which such an
offering was made (Pol. ii. 34 ; Plut. Marc. 6 ;
Val. Max. ii. 3, 5 ; Propert. v. 10, 40).— In 216
Marcellus was appointed praetor, and rendered
important service to the Roman cause in the S.
of Italy after the disastrous battle of Cannae.
He was mainly answerable for the important
repulse of Hannibal from Nola, and for the
successful resistance in Campania in the foUow
ing years. He had been destined for a com
mand in Sicily, but he remained in the S. of
Italy, with the title of proconsul. In the
course of the same year he was elected consul
in the place of Postumius Albinus, who had
been killed in Cisalpine Gaul ; but as the senate
declared that the omens were unfavourable,
MarceUus resigned the consulsMp. In 214
Marcellus was consul a third time, and still
continued in the S. of Italy, where he carried
on the war with ability, but without decisive
results. In the summer of this year he was

sent into Sicily, since the party favourable to
the Carthaginians had obtained the upper hand
in many of the cities in the island. After
taking Leontini, he proceeded to lay siege to
Syracuse, both by sea and land. His attacks
were vigorous and unremitting ; but though he
brought many powerful military engines against
the walls, these were rendered wholly unavailing
by the superior skill and science of Archimedes.
Marcellus was at last compelled to turn the
siege into a blockade. It was not tiU 212 that
he obtained possession of the place. It was
given up to plunder, and Archimedes was one
of the inhabitants slain by the Roman soldiers.
The booty found in the captured city was
immense ; and MarceUus also carried off many
of the works of art with which the city had
been adorned, to grace the temples at Rome.
This was the first instance of a practice which
afterwards became so general. In 210 he was
consul a fourth time, and again had the conduct
of the war against Hannibal. He fought a
battle with the Carthaginian general near
Numistro in Lucania, but without any decisive
result. In 202 he retained the command of his
army with the rank of proconsul. In 208 he
was consul for the fifth time. He was slain to
a cavalry reconnaissance near Venusia, at the
age of 60, and was buried with due honours by
order of Hannibal (Liv. xxvii. 28 ; Pol. x. 32 ;
Val. Max. i. 6). — Marcellus appears to have
been harsh, unyielding, and cruel ; but he was
a brave and experienced officer, and to him as
much as to any other single commander was
due the successful resistance which the Romans
made to Hannibal after Cannae (Plut. Mar
cellus ; Liv. xxii.-xxvii.). — 2. M., son of the pre
ceding, accompanied his father as military tri
bune, in 208, and was present with him at the
time of his death. In 204 he was tribune of
the people ; in 200 curule aedile ; in 198 prae
tor ; and in 196 consul. In his consulship he
carried on the war against the Insubrians and
Boii in Cisalpine Gaul (Liv. xxxv. 5). He was
censor in 189, and died 177 (Liv. xxxvii. 58,
xii. IS). — 3. M., consul 183, carried on the war
against the Ligurians (Liv. xxxix. 54).— 4. M.,
son of No. 2, was thrice consul, first in 166,
when he gained a victory over the Alpine tribes
of the Gauls ; secondly, in 155, when he
defeated the Ligurians; and tMrdly, in 152,
when he carried on the war against the Celti
berians to Spain. In 148 he was sent ambassador
to Masinisaa, king of Numidia, but was ship
wrecked on the voyage, and perished. (Liv. xiv.
44, Ep. 48, 50 ; Pol. xxxv. 2 ; Strab. p. 141.)—
5. M., an intimate friend of Cicero, is first
mentioned as curule aedile with P. Clodius in
56. He was consul in 51, and showed himself
a bitter enemy to Caesar. Among other ways
in which he displayed his enmity, he caused a
citizen of Comum to be scourged, in order to
show his contempt for the privileges lately
bestowed by Caesar upon that colony (Cic. ad
Att. v. 11 ; Suet. Jul. 28). But the animosity
of Marcellus did not blind him to the impru
dence of forcing on a war for which his party
was unprepared ; and at the beginning of 49 he
in vain suggested the necessity of making levies
of troops, before any open steps were taken
against Caesar. His advice was overruled, and
he was among the first to fly from Rome and
Italy (Cic. ad Fam. viii. 13 ; Caes. B.G. i. 2),
After the battle of Pharsalia (48) he withdrew
to Mytilene, where he gave himself up to
rhetoric and philosophy. At length, in 46, in a
full assembly of the senate, C. Marcellus, the

524

MARCELLUS

cousin of the exUe, threw Mmself at Caesar's
feet to implore the pardon of his kinsman, and
Ms example was followed by the whole body of
the assembly. Caesar yielded to tMs demonstra
tion of opinion, and Marcellus was declared to
be forgiven. Cicero thereupon returned thanks
to Caesar, in the oration Pro Marcello, which
has come down to us. Marcellus set out on Ms
return ; but he was murdered at the Piraeus,
by one of his own attendants, P. Magius Chilo
(Cic. ad Fam. vi. 6 ; ad Att. xiii. 10-22).— 6.
C., brother of the preceding, was consul 49. He
is constantly confounded with Ms cousin, C.
Marcellus [No. 8], who was consul in 50. He
accompanied his colleague, Lentulus, in Ms
flight from Rome, and eventually crossed over
to Greece. In the following year (48) he com
manded part of Pompey's fleet ; but this is the
last we hear of him (Dio Cass. xU.'l-3; Caes.
B.C. i. 1-5, 14, 25).— 7. C, uncle of the two
preceding, was praetor in 80, and afterwards
succeeded M. Lepidus in the government of
Sicily. His administration of the province is
frequently praised by Cicero in his speeches
against Verrea, as affording the most striking
contrast to that of the accused. Marcellus
himself was present on that occasion, as one of
the judges of Verres (Cic. Verr. ii. 3, 21). — 8.
C, son of the preceding, and first cousin of M.
MarceUus [No. 5], whom he succeeded in the
consulship, 50. He enjoyed the friendship of
Cicero from an early age, and attached Mmself
to the party of Pompey, notwithstanding his
connexion with Caesar by his marriage with
Octavia. In his consulshipto>was~the advocate
of aU the most violent measures against Caesar ;
but when the war actually broke out, he dis
played the utmost timidity and helplessness.
He could not make up Ms mind to join the
Pompeian party in Greece ; and after much
hesitation he at length determined to remain in
Italy. He readily obtained the forgiveness of
Caesar, and thus was able to intercede with
the dictator in favour of his cousin, M. Mar
cellus [No. 5]. He must have lived till near
the close of 41, as his widow, Octavia, was
pregnant by him when betrothed to Antony in
the following year (Dio Cass, xlviii. 31). — 9. M.,
son of the preceding and of Octavia, the
daughter of C. Octavius and sister of Augustus,
was born in 43. As early as 39 he was betrothed
in marriage to the daughter of Sex. Pompey ;
but the marriage never took place, as Pompey's
death, to 35, removed the occasion for it. In
27 he seems, with Tiberius, to have been one of
the leaders of the boys in the ' Trojan ' game,
» celebrated by order of Augustus, on which
Virgil, as an eye-witness, probably founded his
description. [Did. of Ant. art. Trojae Ludus.]
Augustus, who had probably destined the young
MarceUus as his successor, adopted him as Ms
son in 25, and at the same time gave him his
daughter Julia in marriage. In 23 he was curule
aedile, but in the autumn of the same year he
was attacked by the disease of which he died
shortly after at Baiae, notwithstanding all the
skill and care of the celebrated physician
Antonius Musa. He was in the twentieth year of
his age, and was thought to have given so much
promise of future excellence, that Ms death was
mourned as a public calamity. Augustus him
self pronounced the funeral oration over Ms
remains, which were deposited in the mauso
leum lately erected for the Julian family (Dio
Cass. liii. 28, 81; Propert. iii. 18, 30). At a
subsequent period (14) Augustus dedioated in
Ms name the magnificent theatre near the

MARCIA
Forum Olitorium, of which the remains are
stiU visible. But the most durable monument
to the memory of MarceUus is to be found to
the well-known passage of Virgil (Aen. vi. 861-
887), which must have been recited to Augustus
and Octavia before the end of 22. — 10. M.,
caUed by Cicero, for distinction's sake, the
father of Aeserninus (Brut. 36), served under
Marius in Gaul to 102, and as one of the lieu
tenants of L. Julius Caesar to the Marsie war,
90 (Cic. Brut. 36; App. B.C. i. 40).— 11. M.
Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus, son or grand
son of No. 10, quaestor in Spain in 48, under
Q. Cassius Longinus, took part in the mutiny
of the soldiers agatost Cassius (Bell, Alex. 57-
64; Dio Cass. xiii. 15). — 12. P. Cornelius
Lentulus Marcellinus, son of No. 10, must
have been adopted by one of the Cornelii
Lentuli. He was one of Pompey's lieutenants
in the war agatost the pirates, B.C. 67 (App.
Mithr. 95). — 13. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Mar
cellinus, son of the preceding, was praetor 59,
after which he governed the province of Syria
for nearly two years, and was consul 56, when
he showed Mmself a friend of the aristocratical
party, and opposed all the measures of the
triumvirate (Dio Cass, xxxix. 16).
Marcellus, Eprius, born of an obscure family
at Capua, rose by his oratorical talents to dis
tinction at Rome to the reigns of Claudius,
Nero, and Vespasian. He was one of the prin
cipal delators under Nero, and accused many
of the most disttogtoshed men of Ms time (Tac.
Ann. xiii. 23, xvi. 23, 26, 28, 33). He was brought
to trial to the reign of Vespasian, but was
acquitted, and enjoyed the patronage and favour
of tMs emperor as weU. In a.d. 69, however,
he was convicted of having taken part in the
conspiracy of Alienus Caecina, and therefore
put an end to his own life (Dio Cass. lxvi. 16).
Marcellus, Nonius. [Nonius Marcellus.]
Marcellus Sidetes, a native of Side, in Pam
phylia, lived to the reigns of Hadrian and Anto
ninus Pius, a.d. 117-161. He wrote a long
medical poem to Greek hexameter verse, con
sisting of 42 books, of which two fragments re
main (ed. Lehrs, 1846).
Marcellus, Ulpius, a jurist, lived under Anto
ninus Pius and M. Aurelius. He is often cited
in the Digest.
Marcia. 1. Wife of M. Regulus (SU. It.
vi. 403, 576).— 2. Wife of M. Cato Uticensis,
daughter of L. Marcius Philippus, consul B.C.
56. It was about 56 that Cato is related to
have ceded her to his friend Q. Hortensius, with
the approbation of her father. She continued
to live with Hortensius tiU the death of the
latter, to 50, after which she returned to Cato
(App. B. C. ii. 99 ; Plut. Cat. Min. 25 ; Lucan,
ii. 329). — 3. Wife of Fabius Maximus, the friend
of Augustus, learnt from her husband the secret
visit of the emperor to his grandson Agrippa,
and informed Livia of it, in consequence of
which she became the cause of her husband's
death, a.d. IS or 14 (Tac. Ann. i. 5 ; Ov. Fast.
vi. 802). — 4. Daughter of Cremutius Cordus.
[Cordus.] — 5. The favourite concubine of Com
modus, organised the plot by wMch the emperor
perished. [Commodus.] She subsequently be
came the wife of Eclectus, Ms chamberlain,
also a conspirator, and was eventually put to
death by Julianus, along with Laetus, who also
had been actively engaged in the plot.
Marcia Gens, claimed to be descended from
Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome. [Ancus
Marcius.] Hence one of its families subse
quently assumed the name of Rex, and the

MARCIANA
heads of Numa Pompilius and Ancus Maroius
were placed upon the coins of the March. But
notwithstanding these claims to such high
antiquity, no patricians of this name, with the
exception of Coriolanus, are mentioned to the
early history of the republic [Coriolanus] ; and
it was not tiU after the enactment of the Lici-
nian laws that any member of the gens obtained
the consulship. The names of the most dis
tinguished families are Censorinus, Phlllppus,
Rex, and Rutllus.
Marciana, the sister of Trajan, and mother
of Matadia, who was the mother of Sabina, the
wife of the emperor Hadrian.
Marcianopolis (MapKiavobrcoXis : Devna), an
important city in the interior of Moesia Inferior,
W. of Odessus, founded by Trajan, and named
after his sister Marciana. It was situated on
the Mgh road from Constantinople to the
Danube (Amm. Marc, xxvii. 6, 12).
Marcianus. 1. Emperor of the East a.d.
450—457, was a native of Thrace or lUyricum,
and served for many years as a common soldier
in the imperial army. Of his early Mstory we
have only a few particulars ; but he had attained
such distinction at the death of Theodosius II.
in 450, that the widow of the latter, the cele
brated Pulcheria, offered her hand and the
imperial title to Marcian, who thus became
Emperor of the East. Marcian was a man of
resolution, and when Attila sent to demand
the tribute wMch the younger Theodosius had
engaged to pay, the emperor repUed, ' I have
iron for AttUa, but no gold.' Attila swore
vengeance; but he first invaded the Western
Empire, and Ms death, two years afterwards,
saved the East. In 451 Marcian assembled the
councU of Chalcedon, to wMch the doctrines of
the Eutychians were condemned. He died in
457, and was succeeded by Leo (Procop. Vand.
i. 4; Priscus, pp. 39, 72).— 2. Of Heraclea to
Pontus, a Greek geographer, of uncertain date,
but who perhaps Uved to the 5th century of
the Christian era. He wrote a work in prose,
entitled A Periplus of the External Sea, both
eastern and western, and of the largest
Islands in it. The ' External Sea ' he used to
opposition to the Mediterranean. This work
was in two books ; of wMch the former, on the
E. and S. seas, has come down to us entire;
but of the latter, wMch treated of the W. and
N. seas, we possess only the last tMee chapters
on Africa, and a mutUated one on the distance
between Rome and the principal cities to the
world. In tMs work he chiefly foUows Ptolemy.
He also made an epitome of the Periplus of Ar-
temiodorus of Ephesus [Artemiodorus, No. 4],
of which we possess the introduction, and the
periplus of Pontus, Bithynia, and Paphlagonia.
Marcianus likewise published an edition of
Menippus with additions and corrections. [Me-
nippus.] The works of Marcianus are edited
by Miiller, in the Geographi Graeci Minores,
and separately by Hoffmann, Marciani Peri
plus, Sio., Lips. 1841.
Marcianus, Aelius, a Roman jurist, who lived
under CaracaUa and Alexander Severus. His
works are frequently cited in the Digest.
Marcianus Capella. [Capella.]
Marcius, an Italian seer, whose prophetic
verses (Carmina Marciana) were first dis
covered by M. Atilius, the praetor, in b.c. 213.
They were written in Latin, and two extracts
from them are given by Livy, one containing a
prophecy of the defeat of the Romans at Cannae,
and the second, commanding the institution of
the Ludi Apolltoares. The Marcian prophecies

MAREA

525

were subsequently preserved in the Capitol
with the Sibylline books. Some writers men
tion only one person of this name, but others
speak of two brothers, the Marcii.
Marcius. [Marcia Gens.]
Marcius Mons or Maecius (Tb MdpKiov Spos),
the scene of the defeat of Volscians and Latins
by Camillus, B.C. 889. Plutarch says that it is
about 25 miles from Rome, and Livy (who calls
it Maecius) places it near Lanuvium. Some
writers make it the modern Colle di Due Torri.
(Plut. Cam. 88 ; Liv. vi. 2.)
Marcodurum (Duren on the Boer), the scene
of a victory of Civilis, some distance west of
Cologne (Tac. Hist. iv. 28).
Marcomanni (that is, men of the mark or
border) a powerful German people of the Suevic
race, originally dwelt in the SW. of Germany,
between the Rhine and the Danube, on the
banks of the Main ; but under the guidance of
their chieftain Maroboduus, who had been
brought up at the court of Augustus, they mi
grated toto the land of the Boii, a Celtic race,
who inhabited Bohemia and part of Bavaria.
Here they settled after subduing the Boii, and
founded a powerful kingdom, which extended S.
as far as the Danube. [Maroboduus.] At a
later time, the Marcomanni, to conjunction
with the Quadi and other German tribes, carried
on a long and bloody war with the emperor M.
Aurelius, which lasted during the greater part
of Ms reign, and was only brought to a conclu
sion by his son Commodus purchasing peace of
the barbarians as soon as he ascended the
throne, a.d. 180. (Tac. Germ. 42; Dio Cass.
lxvii. 7 ; Amm. Marc. xix. 6.)
Mardene or Mardyene (MapSvvf), MapSvnvt)),
a district of Persis, extending N. from Taocene
to the W. frontier and to the sea-coast. It
seems to have taken its name from some branch
of the great people caUed Mardi or Amardi, who
are found in various parts of W. and central
Asia ; for example, in Armenia, Media, Margi
ana, and, under the same form of name as those
to Persis, to Sogdiana. (Hdt. i. 125 ; Strab. p.
524; Ptol. vi. 4, 8.)
Mardi. [Amardi, Mardene.]
Mardonius (MapSbvios), a distinguished Per
sian, was the son of Gobryas, and the son-in-
law of Darius Hystaspis. In B.C. 492 he was
sent by Darius, with a large armament, to punish
Eretria and Athens for the aid they had given
to the Ionians. But Ms fleet was destroyed by
a storm off Mt. Athos, and the greater part
of his land forces was cut to pieces by the
Brygians, a Thracian tribe. On the acceasion
of Xerxes, Mardonius was one of the chief insti
gators of the expedition against Greece, with
the government of which he hoped to be in
vested after its conquest ; and he was appointed
one of the generals of the land army. After
the battle of Salamis (480), he became alarmed
for the consequences of the advice he had given,
and persuaded Xerxes to return home with the
rest of the army, leaving 300,000 men under
Ms command for the subjugation of Greece.
He was defeated in the following year (479),
near Plataeae, by the Greek forces under Pau
sanias, and was slain in the battle. (Hdt. vi.
43, 94, vii. 5, 9, 82, viii. 100-144, ix. 1-65.)
Mardus. [Amardus.J
Mardyene, Mardyem. [Mardene.]
Marea, -ea, -la (Mapen, Mapefa, Mapia:
Mapedrris, Mareota : Mariiit, Ru.), a town of
Lower Egypt, in the district of Mareotis, on the
S. side of the lake Mareotis, at the mouth of a
canal (Thuc. i. 104 ; Diod. ii. 681 ; Athen. pp.

526

MAREOTIS

25, 33). It was a frontier garrison under the
Pharaohs on the side of Libya, but declined in
importance afterwards.
Mareotis (Mapedris: Mareoticus). Also
called Mapedrris Ubpos, a district of Lower
Egypt, on the extreme NW., on the borders of
the Libyae Nomos; it produced good wine
{Strab. p. 796; Colum. B. B. iii. 2; Verg.
Georg. ii. 91 ; Hor. Od. i. 37, 14).
Mareotis or Marea (or -ia) Lacus (>'/
Mapearts, Mapeia, Mapla Xipvn : Birket-Mariut,
or El-Kreit), a considerable lake in the NW. of
Lower Egypt, separated from the Mediterra- .
nean by the neck of land on which Alexandria
stood, and supplied with water by the Canopic
branch of the Nile, and by canals. It was less
than 300 stadia (30 geog. miles) long, and more
than 150 wide. It was surrounded with vines,
palms, and papyrus. It served as the port of
Alexandria for vessels navigating the Nile.
Mares (Mopes), a people of Asia, on the N.
coaat of the Euxine, aerved in the army of Xerxea,
equipped with helmets of wickerwork, leathern
shields, and javelins (Hdt. iii. 94, vii. 79).
Maresa, Marescha (Mapjjcrd, Mapitrd,
Mapiaad, Mapeaxd: prob. Ru. SSW. of Beit
Jibrin), an ancient fortress of Palestine, to the
S. of Judaea, of some importance in the Mstory
of the early kings of Judah and of the Macca
bees. The Parthians had destroyed it before
the time of Eusebius ; and it is probable that
its ruins contributed to the erection of the city
of Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin), which was
afterwards built on the site of the ancient
Baetogabra, two Roman miles NW. of Maresa,
[See Diet, of the Bible, art. Mareshah.]
Marescha. [Maresa.]
Margiana (r) Mapyiavr) : the S. part oi Khiva,
SW. part of Bokhara, and NE. part of Khoras-
san), a province of the ancient Persian empire,
and afterwards of the Greco-Syrian, Parthian,
and Persian kingdoms, in Central Asia, N. of
the mountains called Sariphi (Ghoor), a part of
the chain of the Indian Caucasus, which
divided it from Aria ; and bounded on the E.
by Bactriana, on the NE. and N. by the river
Oxus, which divided it from Sogdiana and
Scythia, and on the W. by Hyrcania. It
received its name from the river Margus (Mur-
ghab), which flows through it, from SE. to-
NW., and is lost in the sands of the Desert of
Khiva. On this river, near its termination,
stood the capital of the district, Antiochia
Margiana (Merv). With the exception of the
districts round this and the minor rivers, which
produced exceUent wine, the country was for
«the most part a sandy desert. Its chief tohabi
tants were the Derbices, Parni, Tapuri, and
branches of the great tribes of the Massagetae,
Dahae, and Mardi. The country became
known to the Greeks by the expeditions of
Alexander and Antiochus I., the first of whom
founded, and the second rebuilt, Antiochia ;
and the Romans of the age of Augustus ob
tained further information about it from the
returned captives who had been taken by the
Parthians and had resided at Antiochia. (Strab.
p. 516 ; Ptol. vi. 10 ; Plin. vi. 46.)
Margites. [Homerus, p. 425, b.]
Margum or Margus, a fortified place in
Moesia Superior, W. of Viminacium, situated
on the river Margus (Morava) at its confluence
with the Danube. Here Diocletian gained a
decisive victory over Carinus. The river
Margus, which is one of the most important of
the southern tributaries of the Danube, rises in
Mt. Orbelus. (Eutrop. ix. 13, x. 20.)

MARIUS
Margus. [Margiana.]
Maria. [Marea, Mareotis.]
Mariaba (MapiaBa: Marib), the chief town
of the Sabaei in SW. Arabia (Strab. pp. 768,
778). It is uncertain whether this is the same
place as the Mariaba mentioned by Strabo p.
782 (where some read Marsiaba) as the furthest
point reached by Aelius Gallus, and as belonging
to the tribe Rhamanitae. On the whole, it is
probable that they were identical, and that the
Rhamanitae were merely a branch of the Sabaei.
It is likely that the Mariba of Plin. vi. 160 is
also the same place.
Mariamma (Mapidppri, -idpn, -idpvn), a city
of Coele-Syria, some miles W. of Emesa,
assigned by Alexander the Great to the terri
tory of Aradus (Arrian, An. ii. 14, 18).
Mariamne. [Herodes.]
Mariamne Turris, a tower at Jerusalem,
built by Herod the Great.
Mariana, a Roman colony on the E. coast of
Corsica founded by C. Marius (Plin. iii. 80 ; Mel.
ii. 7, 19 ; Sen. Cons, ad Helv. 8), the ruins of
which are extant under their ancient name at
the mouth of the river Goto.
Mariana Fossa. [Fossa.]
Mariandyni (Mapiai/Bwof), an ancient people
of Asia Minor, on the N, coast, E. of the river
Sangarius, to the NE. part of Bithynia. With
respect to their ethnical affinities, it seems
doubtful whether they were connected with the
Thracian tribes (the Thyni and Bithyni) on the
W., or the Paphlagonians on the E. ; but the
latter appears the more probable. (Hdt. iii. 90,
vii. 72; Strab. pp. 345, 542; Xen. An. 4, 4;
Aesch. Pers. 938.)
Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena), a moun
tain in Hispania Baetica, properly only a
western offshoot of the Orospeda. The eastern
part of it was caUed Saltus Castulonensis, and
derived its name from the town of Castulo.
(Ptol. ii. 4, 15 ; cf. Strab. p. 142.)
Marica, a Latin nymph, the mother of
Latinus by Faunus, was worshipped by the
tohabitants of Minturnae in a grove on the
river Liris. Hence the country round Min
turnae is called by Horace (Od. iii. 17, 7)
Maricae litora.
Marinus (Maplvos). 1. Of Tyre, a Greek
geographer, who lived to the middle of the
second century of the Christian era, and was
the immediate predecessor of Ptolemy. Mari
nus was undoubtedly the founder of mathe
matical geography in antiquity ; and Ptolemy
based his work upon that of Marinus. [Ptole
maeus.] The chief merit of Marinus was, that
he put an end to the uncertainty that had
hitherto prevailed respecting the positions of
places, by assigning to each its latitude and
longitude. — 2. Of Flavia Neapolis, in Palestine,
a pMlosopher and rhetorician, the pupil and
aucceasor of Proclus, whose Life he wrote, a work
stiU extant, edited by Boissonade, Lips. 1814.
Marisus (Marosch), caUed Maris (Mdpis) by
Herodotus, a river of Dacia, which according to
the ancient writers falls into the Danube, but
in reality it falls into the Theiss, and, along
with this river, into the Danube (Hdt. iv. 49 ;
Strab. p. 304).
Maritima, a seaport town of the Avatici,
and a Roman colony in Gallia Narbonensis
(Mel. ii. 5 ; Ptol. ii. 18, 8).
Marius. 1. C, who was seven times consul,
was born to B.C. 157, near Arpinum, of an
obscure fanuly. His father's name was C.
Marius, and his mother's Fulcinia; and Ms
parents, as weU as Marius himself, were clients

MARIUS
of the noble plebeian house of the Herennii.
So indigent, indeed, was the family, that
young Marius is said to have worked as a
common peasant for wages, before he entered
the Roman army. (Comp. Juv. viii. 246 ; Plut.
Mar. 8 ; Plin. xxxui. 150.) He distinguished
himself so much by his valour at the siege
of Numantia to Spain (134), as to attract the
notice of Scipio Africanus, who is said to have
foretold Ms future greatness (Cic. pro Balb.
20, 47 ; Val. Max. ii. 2, 3). His name does not
occur again for fifteen years; but in 119 he was
elected tribune of the plebs, when he was
38 years of age. In this office he came for
ward as a popular leader, and proposed a law to
give greater freedom to the people at the elec
tions ; and when the senate attempted to over
awe him, he commanded one of his officers to
carry the consul MeteUus to prison. He now
became a marked man, and the aristocracy op
posed him with aU their might. He lost Ms
election to the aedilesMp, and with difficulty
obtained the praetorsMp; but he acquired in
fluence by Ms marriage with Julia, the sister
of C. Julius Caesar, the father of the future
ruler of Rome. In 109 Marius served to Africa
as legate of the consul Q. MeteUus in the war
against Jugurtha, where he was soon regarded
as the most distinguished officer in the army
(SaU. Jug. 46 ff.). He also ingratiated himself
with the soldiers, who praised Mm in their
letters to their friends at Rome. His popularity
became so great that he resolved to return to
Rome, and become at once a candidate for the
consulsMp; but it was with great difficulty
that he obtained from MeteUus permission to
leave Africa. On his arrival at Rome he was
elected consul with an enthusiasm wMch bore

527

down all opposition before it ; and he received
from the people the province of Numidia, and
the conduct of the war against Jugurtha (107).
(Sail. Jug. 73.) On Ms return to Numidia he
carried on the war with great vigour ; and in the
foUowing year (106) Jugurtha was surrendered
to Mm by the treachery of Bocchus, king of
Mauretania. [Jugurtha.] Marius sent Ms
quaestor SuUa to receive the Numidian Mng
from Bocchus (SaU. Jug. 103 ff.). This circum
stance sowed the seeds of the personal hatred
which afterwards existed between Marius and
SuUa, since the enemies of Marius claimed for
SuUa the merit of bringing the war to a close by
obtaining possession of the person of Jugurtha.
Meantime Italy was threatened by a vast horde
of barbarians, who had migrated from the N. of
Germany. The two leading nations of wMch
they consisted were called Cimbri and Teutones,
both probably of German race, though numbers
of Celts had joined them, and Celtic leaders
were prominent in their battles. Among these
Celtic contingents were the Ambrones, and
some of the Swiss tribes, such as the Tigurtoi
The whole host is said to have contained
300,000 fighting men, besides a much larger
number of women and cMldren. They had
defeated one Roman army after another, and it
appeared that nothing could check their pro
gress. Everyone felt that Marius was the only
man capable of saving the state, and he was
accordingly elected consul a second time
during his absence in Africa. Marius entered
Rome in triumph on the 1st of January. Mean
time the threatened danger was for a while
averted. Instead of crossing the Alps, the
Cimbri marched into Spain, which they ravaged
for the next two or three years. But as the
return of the barbarians was constantly ex

pected, Marius was elected consul a third time
in 103, and a fourth time in 102. In the latter
of these years the Cimbri returned into Gaul.
The barbarians now divided their forces. The
Cimbri marched round the northern foot of the
Alps, in order to enter Italy by the NE., cross
ing the Tyrolese Alps by the defiles of Triden
tum (Trent). The Teutones and Ambrones, on
the other hand, marched against Marius, who
had taken up a position in a fortified camp on
the Rhone. The decisive battle was fought
near Aquae Sextiae (Aix). The carnage was
dreadful. The whole nation was annihilated,
for thoae who did not fall in the battle put an
end to their own lives. The Cimbri, meantime,
had forced their way into Italy. Marius was
elected consul a fifth time (101), and joined the
proconsul Catulus in the N. of Italy. The two
generals gained a great victory over the enemy
on a plain called the Campi Raudii, near Ver
ceUae (Vercelli). The Cimbri met with the
same fate as the Teutones ; the whole nation
was destroyed. Marius was received at Rome
with unprecedented honours. He was hailed as
the saviour of the state ; his name was coupled
with the gods in the libations and at banquets,
and he received the title of third founder of
Rome. The reform of Marius wMch had the
most lasting effect was the reorganisation of
the army. The richer classes now shrank from
military service, and the middle class had
almost disappeared. Accordingly Marius ad
mitted all free-born citizens to the infantry,
and abolished all old distinctions of rank.
AU recruits went through the same severe drill,
like that of the gladiators, devised by P.
RutiUus Rufus, so that the army was composed
of professional soldiers, no longer a militia.
The old distribution of maniples was re
placed by making the cohort the unit. The
cavalry was henceforth composed of foreign
troops, Ttoacians, Africans and Gauls, and the
light-armed troops were drawn from Liguria and
the Balearic isles. Hence it is said with some
truth that with Marius began the mercenary
army. [For details see Did. of Antiq. art.
Exercitus.] — Hitherto the career of Marius
had been a glorious one; but the remainder
of his life is full of horrors, and brings out
the worst features of Ma character. In order
to secure the consulship a sixth time, he
entered into close connexion with two of the
worst demagogues that ever appeared at Rome,
Saturninus and Glaucia. He gained his object,
and waB consul a sixth time to 100. In this
year he drove into exUe his old enemy MeteUus ;
but shortly afterwards, when Saturninus and
Glaucia took up arms against the state, Marius
crushed the insurrection by command of the
senate. [Saturninus.] For the next few years
Marius took little part in public affairs. He
possessed none of the qualifications which were
necessary to maintain influence in the state
during a time of peace, being an unlettered
soldier, rude in manners, and arrogant in
conduct. The general result of Ms policy
showed his incapacity for politics. As the
event proved, he had really acted so as to
undermine what remained of the Gracchan
constitution and to pave the way for a reaction
towards oligarchy. The Social war again caUed
him into active service (90). He served as
legate of the consul P. Rutilius Lupus; and
after the latter had faUen in battle, he defeated
the Marsi in two successive engagements.
Marius was now 67, and his body had grown
stout and unwieldy ; but he was still as greedy

528

MARIUS

of honour and distinction as he had ever been.
He had set Ms heart upon obtaining the com
mand of the war against Mithridates, wMch the
senate had bestowed upon the consul Sulla at
the end of the Social war (88). In order to
gain his object, Marius aUied himself to the
tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus, who brought for
ward a law for distributing the Italian allies,
who had just obtained the Roman franchise,
among all the Roman tribes. As those new
citizens greatly exceeded the old citizens in
number, they would of course be able to carry
whatever they pleased in the comitia. The law
was carried notwithstanding the violent opposi
tion of the consuls, and the tribes, in which
the new citizens now had the majority, ap
pointed Marius to the command of the war
against Mithridates. Sulla fled to his army,
wMch was stationed at Nola ; and when Marius
sent thither two military tribunes to take the
command of the troops, Sulla not only refused
to surrender the command, but marched upon
Rome at the head of Ms army. Marius was now
obliged to take to flight. After wandering
along the coast of Latium, he was at length
taken prisoner in the marshes formed by the
river Liris, near Minturnae. The magistrates of
this place resolved to put him to death, to
accordance with a command which SuUa had
sent to all the towns in Italy. A Gallic or
Cimbrian soldier undertook to carry their
sentence into effect, and with a drawn sword
entered the apartment where Marius was
confined. The part of the room in which Marius
lay was in the shade ; and to the frightened
barbarian the eyes of Marius seemed to dart out
fire, and from the darkness a terrible voice
exclaimed — ' Man, durst thou murder C.
Marius ? ' The barbarian immediately threw
down his sword, and rushed out of the house.
(Plut. Mar. 37 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 19 ; Cic. Fin. ii.
32.) Straightway there was a revulsion of feel
ing among the inhabitants of Minturnae. They
got ready a stop, and placed Marius on board.
He reached Africa in safety, and landed at
Carthage ; but he had scarcely put his foot on
shore before the Roman governor sent an officer
to bid him leave the country. TMs last blow
almost unmanned Marius : his only reply was
¦ — 'Tell the praetor that you have seen C.
Marius a fugitive sitting among the ruins of
Carthage.' Soon afterwards Marius was joined
by his son, and they took refuge in the island of
Cercina. During this time a revolution had
taken place at Rome, to consequence of which
Marius was enabled to return to Italy. The
consul Cinna (87), who belonged to the Marian
party, had been driven out of Rome by Ms
colleague Octavius, and had subsequently been
deprived by the senate of the consulate. Cinna
collected an army, and resolved to recover his
honours by force of arms. As soon as Marius
heard of these changes he left Africa, and joined
Cinna in Italy. Marius and Cinna now laid
siege to Rome. The failure of provisions com
pelled the senate to yield, and Marius and
Cinna entered Rome as conquerors. The most
frightful Bcenes followed. The guards of
Marius Btabbed everyone whom he did not
salute, and the streets ran with the blood of the
noblest of the Roman aristocracy. Among the
victims of Ms vengeance were the great orator
M. Antonius and his former colleague Q.
Catulus. Without going tMough the form of
an election, Marius and Cinna named them
selves consuls for the foUowing year (86). But
he did not long enjoy the honour: he was now

MAROBODUUS
to his 71st year ; his body was worn out by the
fatigues and sufferings he had recently under
gone ; and on the 18th day of his consulship
he died of an attack of pleurisy, after seven
days' illness. (Plut. Marius ; Sail. Jug. II. c. ;
App. B. C. i. 29,40, 55; Liv. Ep. 66-80.)— 2. C,
the son of the preceding, but only by adoption.
He foUowed in the footsteps of his father, and
was equally distinguished by merciless severity
against his enemies. He was consul to 82,
when he was 27 years of age. In this year he
was defeated by Sulla near Sacriportus on the
frontiers of Latium, whereupon he took refuge
in the strongly fortified town of Praeneste.
Here he was besieged for some time ; but after
SuUa's great victory at the Colltoe gate of
Rome over Pontius Telesinus, Marius put an
end to Ms own life, after maMng an unsuccess
ful attempt to escape. (Plut. Sull. 28-32 ; App.
B.C. i. 87-94 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 26, 27.)— 3. The
false Marius. [Amatius.] — 4. M., a friend
and neighbour of Cicero, who addressed four
letters to him (Fam. vii. 1-4).— 5. M. Marius
Gratidianus. See Gratidius, No. 2. — 6. Ma
rius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, was tried and
condemned for extortion. The younger Pliny
and the historian Tacitus prosecuted. (Plin.
Ep. ii. 11 ; Juv. i. 49, viii. 120.) — 7. M. Aurelius
Marius, one of the TMrty Tyrants, was the
fourth of the usurpers who in succession ruled
Gaul, in defiance of GalUenus. He reigned
only two or three days, but there are coins of
his extant. (Treb. PoU. Trig. Tyr. vii.)— 8.
Marius Celsus. [Celsus.]— 9. Marius Maxi
mus, a Roman historian, who lived about a.d.
165-230, and wrote a continuation of Suetonius'
biographies of the emperors from Nerva to
Elagabalus. His work has perished, but it was
much used by the writers of the Historia
Augusta, who often insert extracts from it.
He is usuaUy identified with a Marius Maximus
who appears in inscriptions as holding Mgh
offices, a praetor and a praefectus urbi (C. I. L.
1450, 1452), and there is no reason against it. —
10. Marius Victorinus. [Victorinus.]
Marmarica (ri MappapiKr) : MappapiSai : E.
part of Tripoli and NW. part of Egypt), a
district of N. Africa, between Cyrenaica and
Egypt, but by some ancient geographers
reckoned as a part of Cyrenaica, and by others
as a part of Egypt; wMle others, again, caU
only the W. part of it, from the borders of
Cyrenaica to the Catabathmus Magnus, by the
name of Marmarica, and the E. part, from the
Catabathmus Magnus to the Sinus Plinthinetes,
Libyae Nomos. Inland it extended as far as
the Oasis of Ammon. It was, for the most
part, a sandy desert, intersected with low ranges
of MUs. — Its inhabitants were caUed by the
general name of Marmaridae. Their chief
tribes were the Adyrmachidae and Giligammae,
on the coast, and the Nasamones and Augilae
to the interior. (Strab. pp. 131, 798.1
Marmarlum (Mappdpiov. Mappdpios: Mar-
mari), a place on the SW. coast of Euboea, with
a temple of ApoUo Marmarius, and celebrated
marble quarries, which belonged to Carystus.
Ma.ro, Vergilius. [Vergilius.]
Maroboduus — the Latinised form of the Ger
man Marbod — king of the Marcomanni, was a
Suevian by birth, and was born about B.C. 18.
He was sent to his boyhood with other hostages
to Rome, where he attracted the notice of
Augustus, and received a liberal education.
After Ms return to his native country, he suc
ceeded in establishing a powerful kingdom in
central Germany, along the N. bank of the

MARON
Danube, from Regensberg nearly to the borders
of Hungary, which stretched far into the in
terior. His power excited the jealousy of
Augustus, who had determined to send a for
midable army to invade Ms dominions ; but the
revolt of the Pannonians and Dalmatians (a.d.
6) prevented the emperor from carrying his
design toto effect. Maroboduus eventually be
came an object of suspicion to the other Ger
man tribes, as a king who ruled too much after
a Roman pattern ; and was at length expeUed
from his dominions by Catualda, a chief of the
Gothones, about a.d. 19. He took refuge in
Italy, and Tiberius aUowed Mm to pass the
remainder of Ms Ufe at Ravenna. He died in
85, at the age of 53 years. (Tac. Ann. ii. 44-46,
62; VeU. Pat. U. 108; Strab. p. 290.)
Maron (Mdpav), son of Evanthes, and grand
son of Dionysus and Ariadne, priest of ApoUo
at Maronea in Thrace. He appears to Homer
as the hero of sweet wine, and gives to Odysseus
the cask wMch he carries with him to the
Cyclops (Od. ix. 197). In tMs Homeric story
it seems that Dionysus is hardly yet recognised
as a deity [see p. 293, b]. Thrace is the country
from wMch wine comes to the Homeric heroes,
and Ismarus was known to the Greeks as an
early home of the vine. Hence Maron is a
personification of the viticulture of Ismarus,
and Ms father Evanthes is really the local
Dionysus (cf . Eur. Cycl. 141) ; but in the Odyssey
Maron is priest, not of Dionysus, but of ApoUo.
Other stories connect Maron with Oenopion
(i.e. with Cretan viticulture), and he appears
as = SUenus, or one of the companions of Diony
sus. (Propert. n. 32, 14 ; Athen. p. 33 ; Diod. i.
18 ; Norm. Dionys. xiv. 99.)
Maronea (Mapdveia: Mapavelrns : Marogna),
a town on the S. coast of Ttoace, situated on

Coin of Maronea in Thrace (early in 8rd cent. B.C.).
Obv., horse ; mapo ; rev., vine of Dionysus and caduceus ;
Em ikesio (magistrate's name).
the N. bank of the lake Ismaris and on the
river Sthenas, more anciently caUed Ortagurea
(Hdt. vii. 109 ; Diod. i. 20 : PUn. iv. 42). It be
longed originaUy to the Cicones, but afterwards
received colonists from CMos. It was cele
brated for its excellent wine, and it is possible
that Maron and Maronea are merely other
forms of the name Is-marus. [Ismarus, Maron.]
Marpessa (Mdpirriaaa), daughter of Evenus
and Alcippe. For detaUs see Idas.
Marpessa (Mdpirnaffa), a mountain to Paros,
from wMch the celebrated Parian marble was
obtained. Hence Virgil (Aen. vi. 471) speaks of
Marpesia cautes. [Paros.]
Marrucini, a brave and warlike people to
Italy, of the Sabellian race, occupying a narrow
sUp of country along the right bank of the river
Aternus, and bounded on the N. by the Vestini,
on the W. by the Paeligni and Marsi, on the S.
by the Frentani, and on the E. by the Adriatic
sea. Their chief town was Teate, and at the
mouth of the Aternus they possessed, in com
mon with the Vestini, the seaport Aternum.
Along with the Marsi, PaeUgni, and the other

MARS 529
Sabellian tribes they fought against Rome ; and
together with them they submitted to the
Romans in b.c. 804 (Liv. ix. 41 ; App. B.C. i. 89,
52; Strab. p. 241).
Marr&vium or Marfivium. 1. (8. Benedetto),
the chief town of the Marsi (who are therefore
called gens Maruvia, Virg. Aen. vii. 750), situated
on the E. bank of the lake Fucinus, and on the
road between Corfinium and Alba Fucentia.
Under the Romans it waB a flourisMng munici
pium. (Strab. p. 241 ; Plin. iii. 106.)— 2. A town
of the Aborigines in the country of the Sabines,
not to be confounded with No. 1 (Dionys. i. 14).
Mars, though in Latin literature completely
identified with Ares and invested with aU the
Greek myths belonging to that deity, was an
ancient Italian god to no way connected with
Ares, identified with him after the Greek my
thology prevaUed, merely because both had
come to be regarded as peculiarly gods of war.
The oldest form of his name seems to have been
Maurs, of which Mavors and Mars were varia
tions, and the name was also reduplicated toto
Marmar and Mamers and Mamurius. The
god was addressed also as Marspiter or Maspiter
(Mars-pater). Of all the theories of his original
significance the most probable is that Mars was
primarily the god of the year, and especially of
the spring season of the year, representing the
strength of nature to its productions and births.
Hence some have connected Ms name with Mas
(i.e. manly vigour), wMle several modern writers
who regard Mm as the sun-god and equivalent
to ApoUo derive his name from the root mar
(cf. pappaipa), to shine. There are, no doubt,
certain aspects of the worship of Mars wMch
present resemblances to that of Apollo and
make it likely that he was sometimes regarded
to Italy as a light-giving god, perhaps as god of
the sun, and therefore probably caUed Mars
Lucetius in some inscriptions. Among the
points to which the old mythology and ritual of
Mars are compared with those of Apollo are
the expulsion of winter and darkness by Mars
in the spring by the clashing of the Salian
shields [cf. p. 88, b], and in the curious rites of
the Mamuralia or Equirria. But these resem
blances may just as easily be traced to the
conception of Mars as the god of the year, and
particularly of the vigorous growth of the year
to spring. Hence Mars was worshipped espe
cially to his own month, March, the time of
returning spring, to somewhat the same way as
the return of ApoUo was celebrated at Delphi,
and Mamurius Vetus may well have symbolised
the old season and the darkness of winter
driven out by the new [Did. of Ant. art.
Equirria and Salii], For the same reason
Mars was honoured with offerings of first-fruits
in spring, and on special occasions by the dedi
cation of everytMng born to a particular spring
— the Ver Sacrum of Umbro-SabeUian tribes,
which is said to have caused various ancient
migrations [Diet, of Ant. s.v. For the story
of Anna Perenna, as indicating a connexion of
Mars with the year, see p. 72]. It was natural
that the aspect assumed by Mars and his wor
sMp should vary according to the character and
requirements of the community. Among herds
men he was — like other deities to some extent
associated with him, such as Faunus or Luper
cus — a god who averted evil from herds, and by
agriculturists as one who helped their field
labours ; and in tMs character he was specially
invoked in the old ritual of the Fratres Arvales
[Diet, of Ant. s.v.], and the ploughing ox was
sacred to him. But the warlike tribes, as the
MM

530

MARSI

Umbro-SabeUian nations were extending their
conquests over Italy, regarded Mm more as their
protector in war and leader in battle. Hence
he was Mars Gradivus : that is, Mars who
strides forward to the fight=t)oiipios "Apris
(Serv. ad Aen. iii. 35). To tMs (whether or not
it was the original use) belonged the war-dances
of the Salii and their clasMng of shields
[Diet, of Ant. s.v.] ; and the horse, as the war
like animal (bellator equus) was sacrificed to
him (cf. Ov. Fast. i. 698 ; Verg. Georg. iii. 83).
Mars was particularly the Sabine god (as Mars-
Quirinus), but he was also a Latin god, second
only to Jupiter and (at one time) Janus. Hence
in the combination of both races at Rome there
was a twofold settlement of this deity, the
Mars of the Palatine associated with Picus and
Faunus and with the story of Romulus and
Remus, and the Mars-Quirinus of the Quirinal ;
and, while Jupiter of the Capitol became the
supreme god of the city, and the provinces of
agriculture &c. passed to other deities, Mars
became gradually more exclusively the god of
war, and when Greek mythology predominated
was recognised as equivalent to Ares in aU
respects, though in ritual Ms original character
istics were traceable. He had Ms femtoine
counterpart in Nerio, the Sabine goddess of
strength (cf. Suet. Tib. 1 ; Gell. xiii. 23), and
from the myth of his sacred marriage with her
was regarded as one of the deities who presided
over marriage. It was perhaps for tMs reason
that he was associated, too, with Juno, who was
also worshipped on March 1st [see p. 463]. The
legend that Mars was born from Juno, through
the operation of a flower (Ov. Fast. v. 253) is
due to Greek mythology. The most character
istic sanctuaries of Mars were the shrine in the
Begia [Did. of Ant. s.v.], where the sacred
spears were kept, the movement of which was
an omen of the utmost gravity (Liv. xl. 19 ;
Gell. iv. 6) ; the Temple of Mars at the Porta
Capena, from which the procession of knights
started on July 15th; and Ms altar in the
Campus Martius, where sacrifice was offered at
the Equirria. Some trace of his stiU older
worship under the symbol of a tree is traceable
in the sacred oak of Mars (Suet. Vesp. 5), and
the sacred fig wMch gave him the name Mars
Ficanus. Of all the animals sacred to him the
wolf was most regarded : the wolf was a symbol
of Rome ; was connected with the myths of her
founder ; was an omen speciaUy noticed in
battle (Liv. x. 27, xxii. 1). Some have taken the
wolf as signifying winter subdued by Mars, or
have compared the connexion of ApoUo with
the wolf. It is more probable that it was the
sacred animal of some of the tribes, particularly
of the Hirpini (whose name was derived from
herpus = lupus), and that its dedication to Mars
is a survival of that Buperstition. [For the
representations of Mars, see Ares.]
Marsi. 1. A brave and warlike people of the
Sabellian race, dwelt in the centre of Italy, in
the high land surrounded by the mountams of
the Apennines, to which the lake Fucinus is
situated. Along with their neighbours the
Paeligni, Marrucini, &c, they concluded a peace
with Rome, B.C. 304. (Pol. ii. 24, 12 ; Liv. ix.
45.) Their bravery was proverbial ; they were
the prime movers of the celebrated war waged
against Rome by the Socii or Italian allies in
order to obtain the Roman francMse, and
known by the name of the Marsic or Social
war. Their chief town was Marruvium. — The
Marsi appear to have been acquainted with the
medicinal properties of several of the plants

MARSYAS
growing upon their mountains, and to have em
ployed them as remedies agatost the bites of
serpents, and to other cases (Verg. Aen. vii.
750 ; Hor. Epod. xvii. 29 ; SU. It. viii. 495 ; Plin.
xxi. 78; Gell. xvi. 11). Hence they were re-.
garded as magicians, and were said to be de
scended from a son of Circe (Plin. vii. 15).
Others again derived their origin from the
Phrygian Marsyas, simply on account of there-
semblance of the name (Plin. iii. 108). — 2. A
people to Germany, appear to have dwelt ori
ginaUy on both banks of the Ems, and to have
been only a tribe of the Cherusci, although
Tacitus makes them one of the most ancient
peoples in Germany. They joined the Cherusci
to the war against the Romans wMch termi
nated to the defeat of Varus, but were subse
quently driven into the interior of the country
by Germanicus. (Tac. Germ. 2, Ann. i. 50, 56.)
Marsigni, a people in the SE. of Germany,
of Suevic extraction (Tac. Germ. 43).
Marsus, Domitius, a Roman poet of the Au
gustan age. He was livtog after the death of
Virgil, but died before b. c. 8 (Ov. Pont. iv. 16,
3). He seems to have been a friend of Maecenas
(Mart. viu. 56, 21), but is not mentioned by
Horace, though some critics tMnk that the
awkward lines Hor. Od. iv. 4, 20-22, are intro
duced to ridicule the Amazonis of Marsus. He
wrote poems of various Mnds, but his epigrams
were the most celebrated of Ms productions.
Hence he is frequently mentioned by Martial,
who speaks of him in terms of the Mghest ad
miration (Mart. iv. 29, v. 5, vii. 99). He wrote
a beautiful epitaph on Tibullus, which has come
down to us :
' Te quoque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle,
Mors juvenem campos misit ad Blysios,
Ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores,
Aut caneret forti regia bella pede.'
Marsyas (Mapaias). 1. A mythological per
sonage, connected with the earliest period of
Greek music. He is variously called the son of
Hyagnis, or of Oeagrus, or of Olympus. Some
make him a satyr, others a peasant. AU agree
in placing him in Phrygia. The following is the
outhne of his story: — Athene having, wMle
playing the flute, seen the reflection of herself
in water, and observed the distortion of her
features, threw away the instrument in disgust.
It was picked up by Marsyas, who no sooner
began to blow through it than the flute, having
once been inspired by the breath of a goddess,
emitted of its own accord the most beautiful
strains. Elated by his success, Marsyas was
rash enough to challenge ApoUo to a musical
contest, the conditions of which were that the
victor should do what he pleased with the van
quished. The Muses, or, according to others,
the Nysaeans, were the umpires. ApoUo played
upon the cithara and Marsyas upon the flute ;
and it was not tiU the former added Ms voice
to the music of his lyre that the contest was
decided in Mb favour. As a just punishment
for the presumption of Marsyas, Apollo bound
Mm to a tree, and flayed him alive. His blood
was the source of the river Marsyas, and Apollo
hung up his skin in the cave out of wMch that
river flows. His flutes (for, according to some,
the instrument on wMch he played was the
double flute) were carried by the river Marsyas
into the Maeander, and again emerging in the
Asopus, were thrown on land by it in the Sicy-
onion territory, and were dedicated to Apollo
in his temple at Sicyon. (Hdt. vii. 26; Xen.
An. i. 2, 8 ; Diod. iii. 58 ; Paus. ii. 7, 9 ; Ov. Met.
vi. 382, 400; Hyg. Fab. 167; ApoUod. i. 4, 2.)

MARSYAS
The fable evidently refers to the struggle be
tween the citharoedio and auloedic styles of
music, of wMch the former was connected with
the worsMp of Apollo among the Dorians, and
the latter with the rites of Cybele to Ptoygia.
In the fora of ancient
cities there was frequently
placed a statue of Mar
syas, which was probably
intended to hold forth an
example of the severe
punishment of arrogant
presumption. The statue
of Marsyas in the forum
of Rome is well known by
the allusions of Horace
(Sat. i. 6, 120), Juvenal
(ix. 1, 2), and Martial (ii.
64, 7).— 2. A Greek Ms
torian, was the son of
Periander, a native of
PeUa to Macedonia, a
contemporary of Alexan
der, with whom he is
said to have been edu
cated. His principal work
was a Mstory of Macedo
nia, to ten books, from
^Tarsyas. (From a statue the earUest times to the
D^^Sf.tfSSrp'S wars of Alexander. He
2, tav. 14.) also wrote other works,
the titles of wMch are
given by Suidas. (Diod. xx. 50 ; Suid. s. v.) — 3,
Of Philippi, commonly caUed the Younger, to
-distinguish him from the preceding, was also a
Greek historian. The period at which he
flourished is uncertain. (Athen. p. 467.)
Marsyas (Mapo-iW). 1. A small and rapid
river of Phrygia, a tributary of the Maeander,
took its rise, according to Xenophon, in the
palace of the Persian Mngs at Celaenae, beneath
the AcropoUs, and feU toto the Maeander,
-outside of the city. PUny, however, states that
its source was to the valley caUed Aulocrene,
about ten mUes from Apamea Cibotus, wMch
city was on or near the site of Celaenae. (Xen.
An. i. 2, 8 ; Plin. v. 106 ; Hdt. vii. 28 ; Curt. iii.
1 ; Strab. p. 578.) Some modern travellers have
identified it with the tosigmficant Lidja, but it
is more probably the larger Hudaverdi. The
explanation of Mr. Hogarth (Journ. Hell. Stud.
1888) is that the Maeander was the united river
formed by the junction of the streams of the
Marsyas, Orgas, and Obrimas rising from tMee
separate springs about Apamea), and acquired
its separate name after the point where the
lowest springs, the Obrimas = Lidja (also called
&eppd or ' hot springs ') joined the other two.
— 2. (Chinar-Chai), a considerable river of
Caria, having its source to the district called
Idrias, flowing NW. and N. tMough the middle
of Caria, past Stratonicea and Alabanda, and
falling toto the S. side of the Maeander, nearly
-opposite to TraUes (Hdt. v. 118). — 3. In Syria,
a smaU tributary of the Orontes, toto wMch it
falls on the E. side, near Apamea (PUn. v. 81).
— 4 (or Massyas). A name given to the exten
sive plain to Syria through which the upper
course of the Orontes flows, lying between the
ranges of Casius and Lebanon, and reaching
from Apamea on the N. to Laodicea ad Libanum
on the S. (Strab. pp. 753, 755).
Martialis. 1. M. Valerius, the epigramma
tic poet, was born at Bilbilis in Spain, in the
third year of Claudius, A. D. 43. He came to
Rome in the thirteenth year of Nero, 66 ; and
after residing to the metropoUs thirty-five years,

MARTIALIS 581
he returned to the place of Ms birth, to the third
year of Trajan, 100. It is likely enough that he
left Rome because Trajan did not approve of
the obscenity which marked many of his poems.
At Bilbilis he possessed an estate given to Mm,
perhaps in admiration for Ms genius, by a
wealthy lady named Marcella (xii. 81), who was
probably only a patronesa, though aome believe
her to have been Ms second wife ; that he was
married to her cannot be inferred from the ex
pressions either in this epigram or in xii. 21,
though it is not contradicted by them. His
first, and perhaps his only, wife was named
Cleopatra (iv. 22: unless that be a fancy
name). He lived certainly to 101, perhaps to
104, but not later (Plin. Ep. iii. 21). His fame
was extended and his books were eagerly sought
for, not only in the city, but also in Gaul, Ger
many, and Britain ; he secured the patronage
of the emperors Titus and Domitian, and re
ceived for himself, although apparently without
family, the privileges accorded to those who
were the fathers of tMee cMldren (jus trium
liberorum), together with the rank of tribunus
and the rights of the equestrian order (ii. 92,
iii. 95, v. 13). His circumstances appear to have
been easy during Ms residence at Rome, for he
had a house in the city and a suburban villa
near Nomentum (iii. 4, vi. 43, xii. 57) ; yet he
complains of poverty (i. 77, iii. 88), whence some
have imagined, that this was Ms wife's property,
that he was divorced from her, and that bo he
became poor ; but of all this there is no definite
proof. — The extant works of Martial consist of
a collection of short poems, all included under
the general appeUation Epigrammata, upwards
of 1500 to number, divided into fourteen books.
Those which form the last two books, usually
distinguished respectively as Xenia and Apo-
phoreta, amounting to 350, consist of distichs,
descriptive of a vast variety of small objects,
chiefly articles of food or clotMng, such as were
usually sent as presents among friends during
the Saturnalia, and on other festive occasions.
In addition to the above, nearly all the printed
copies include thirty-three epigrams, forming a
book apart from the rest, which has been com
monly known as Liber de Spectaculis, because
the contents relate to the shows exhibited by
Titus and Domitian, but there is no ancient
authority for the title. These three collections
were first published, and then Martial proceeded
to coUect and publish his other epigrams to
bookB, sometimes singly and sometimes several
at one time. The Liber de Spectaculis and the
first nine books of the regular series involve a
great number of historical aUusions, extending
from the games of Titus (80) down to the return
of Domitian from the Sarmatian expedition, in
January, 94. The tenth book was published
twice : the first edition was given hastily to the
world ; the second, that which we now read (x. 2),
celebrates the arrival of Trajan at Rome, after
Ms accession to the tMone (99). The eleventh
book seems to have been written mostly under
Domitian, and published under Nerva. After
a silence of tMee years (xii. prooem.), the twelfth
book was despatched from Bilbilis to Rome (xii
3, 18), and must therefore be assigned to 101. —
It is well known that the word Epigram, which
originally denoted simply an inscription, was
in process of time applied to any brief metrical
effusion, whatever the subject might be, or
whatever the form under wMch it was presented.
Martial, however, first placed the epigram upon
the narrow basis which it now occupies, and
from Ms time the term has been in a great
M M 2

532

MARTINIANUS

measure restricted to denote a short poem, in
wMch all the thoughts and expressions converge
to one sharp point, which forms the termination
of the piece. Martial's epigrams are distin
guished by singular fertility of imagination,
prodigious flow of wit, and delicate felicity of
language ; and from no source do we derive more
copious information on the national customs
and social habits of the Romans during the first
century of the empire. But, however much we
admire the genius of the author, we feel no re
spect for the character of the man. The servile
adulation with which he loads Domitian proves
that he was a courtier of the lowest class ; and,
however much we may be attracted by the bril
liancy and grace of much of his poetry, it is
impossible to condone the obscenity which is
scattered broadcast over Ms writings, evidently
with no idea of moral censure but rather from
impurity of thought. — The best edition of Mar
tial is by Friedlander (Lips. 1886), whose Sit-
tengeschichte Boms provides also an exceUent
commentary on Martial and Juvenal ; select
epigrams by Paley and Stone, 1881 ; Stephen
son, 1888 ; books i. and ii. by J. E. B. Mayor.
— 2. Gargilius, a contemporary of Alexander
Severus, who is cited by Vopiscus (Prob. ii. 7).
He wrote on husbandry and medicinal herbs,
and on veterinary art, following Pliny to many
points. The fourth book of the Medicina Plinii
(i.e. extracts on medicine from Pliny) was made
up of excerpts from GargUius Martialis. Part
of Ms work on gardens was found by A. Mai on
a palimpsest in the Royal Library at Naples.
Martinianus, was elevated to the dignity of
Caesar, by Licinius, when he was making pre
parations for the last struggle against Constan
tine. After the defeat of Licinius, Marttoianus
was put to death by Constantine, a.d. 323. (Vict.
de Caes, 41.)
Martius Campus. [Roma.]
Martyropolis, or Maipheracta (Maprvpb-
waXis : Meia Farekin), a city of Sophene, to
Armenia Major, on the river Nymphus, a tribu
tary of the Tigris; under Justinian, a strong
fortress, and the residence of the first Dux
Armeniae (Procop. de Aed. iii. 2).
MaruUus, C. Epidius, tribune of the plebs,
B.C. 44, removed, to conjunction with his col
league L. CaeBetius Flavus, the diadem wMch
had been placed upon the statue of C. Julius
Caesar, and attempted to bring to trial the
persons who had saluted the dictator as Mng.
Caesar, in consequence, deprived him of the
tribunate, and expeUed him from the senate.
(Dio Cass. xliv. 9 ; Suet. Jul. 79 ; Veil. Pat. ii.
68 ; Cic. Phil. xiii. 15, 31.)
Mariivium. [Marruvium.]
Marus (Mareh), a river flowing into the
Danube near Carnuntum (Tac. Ann. ii. 63).
Mascas (Macr/cas, MaaKas: Wady-el-Seba),
an E. tributary of the Euptoates, to Mesopo
tamia, mentioned only by Xenophon (Anab. i.
5), who describes it as surrounding the city of
Corsote, and as being 35 parasangs from the
Chaboras. Mases (MoVtjs : Macr^Tios), a town on the S.
coast of Argolis, the harbour of Hermione (II.
ii. 562 ;_ Strab. p. 376 ; Paus. ii. 86, 2).
Masinissa (Maaaavdaans), king of the Nu-
midians, was the son of Gala, king of the Mas-
sylians, the easternmost of the two great tribes
into wMch the Numidians were at that time
divided ; but he was brought up at Carthage,
where he appears to have received an education
superior to that usual among his countrymen.
In B.C. 212 the Carthaginians persuaded Gala

MASINISSA
to declare war agatost Syphax, king of the
neighbouring tribe of the Massaesylians, who
had lately entered toto an aUiance with Rome.
Masinissa was appointed by his father to com
mand the invading force, with which he attacked
and totaUy defeated Syphax. In the next year
(211) Masinissa crossed over into Spain, and
supported the Carthaginian generals there with
a large body of Numidian horse. He fought on
the side of the Carthaginians for some years ;
but after their great defeat by Scipio in 206, he
secretly promised the latter to support the Ro
mans as soon as they should send an army into
Africa. (Liv. xxvii. 20, xxvni. 13, 16, 35 ; Pol.
xi. 21 ; Appian, Hisp. 25, 27.) In Ms desertion
of the Carthaginians he is said to have been
also actuated by resentment against Hasdrubal,
who had previously betrothed to him his beau
tiful daughter Sophonisba, but violated his en
gagement in order to bestow her hand upon
Syphax, whose alUance the Carthaginians now
preferred to that of Masinissa. — During the
absence of Masinissa to Spain, his father Gala
had died, and the tlirone had been seized by a
usurper ; but Masinissa on his return soon ex
peUed the usurper and obtained possession of
the Mngdom (Liv. xxix. 29). He was now at
tacked by Syphax and the Carthaginians, who
were anxious to crush him before he could
receive assistance from Rome. He was re
peatedly defeated by Syphax and Ms generals,
and with difficulty escaped falling into the
hands of Ms enemies. But the arrival of Scipio
in Africa (204) soon changed the posture of
affairs. Masinissa instantly joined the Roman
general, and rendered the most important ser
vices to him during the remainder of the war.
He took a prominent part in the defeat of the
combined forces of Syphax and Hasdrubal, and
to conjunction with Laelius he reduced Cirta,
the capital of Syphax. Among the captives
that fell toto their hands on tMs occasion was
SophoMsba, the wife of Syphax, and the same
who had been formerly promised to marriage
to Masinissa himself. The story of Ms hasty
marriage with her, and its tragical termination,
is related elsewhere. [Sophonisba.] In the
decisive battle of Zama (202), Masinissa com
manded the cavalry of the right wing, and con
tributed in no smaU degree to the successful
result of the day. (Liv. xxx. 29-35 ; Pol. xv. 12.)
On the conclusion of the final peace between
Rome and Carthage, he was rewarded with the
greater part of the territories wMch had be
longed to Syphax, to addition to Ms hereditary
dominions (Liv. xxx. 44 ; Pol. xv. 18). From
this time till the commencement of the third
Punic war there elapsed an interval of more
than 60 years, during the whole of wMch
period Masinissa continued to reign with un
disputed authority over the countries thus
subjected to his rule. At length, in 150, he
declared open war against Carthage, and these
hostilities led to the outbreak of the third Punic
war. Masinissa died in the second year of the
war, 148. On his death-bed he had sent for
Scipio Africanus the younger, at that time
serving in Africa as a military tribune, but
he expired before Ms arrival, leaving it to the
young officer to settle the affairs of Ms Mng
dom. He died at the advanced age of 90,
having retained in an extraordinary degree his
bodily strength and activity to the last, so that
in the war against the Carthaginians, only twb
years before, he commanded his army in person.
His character has been often assailed for his
desertion of the Carthaginians, and it must be

MASIUS
admitted that he was not a man of scrupulous
faith. But, on the other hand, it must be re
membered that as a native prince he had reason
to hate Carthaginian oppression, and that per
sonally he had wrongs and want of faith on
their part to resent. It is impossible to deny
Ms claims to respect for the vigour and success
of Ms rule and his unconquerable energy and
fortitude. He was the father of a numerous
family; but three only of Ms legitimate sons
survived him, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa.
Between these three the kingdom was portioned
out by Scipio, according to the dying directions
of the old Mng. (Pol. xxxvii. 8; App. Pun.
71, 106; Val. Max. vin. 13; Cic. de Sen. 10;
SaU. Jug. 5.)
Masius Mons (to MoVioi' Spos: Karajeh
Dagh), a mountain chain in the N. of Mesopo
tamia, between the upper course of the Tigris
and the Euptoates, running from the main
chain of the Taurus SE. along the border of
Mygdonia (Strab. p. 506).
Maso, C. Papirius, consul B.C. 231, carried
on war agatost the Corsicans, whom he sub
dued ; and from the booty obtained to tMs war
he dedicated a temple to Fons. Maso was the
maternal grandfather of Scipio Africanus the
younger, Ms daughter Papiria marrying Aemi-
Uus Paulus. (Val. Max. iii. 6, 5.)
Massa, Baebius, or Bebius, was accused by
Pliny the younger and Herennius Senecio of
plundering the province of Baetica, of wMchhe
had been governor, a.d. 93. He was condemned,
but escaped punishment by the favour of Do
mitian, and from this time he became one of
the informers and favourites of the tyrant. (Tac.
Hist. iv. 50, Agr. 45 ; Juv. i. 34 ; Mart. xu. 29.)
Massaesyli or -ii. [Mauretania : Numidia.]
Massaga (to Mdaoaya), the capital city of
the Indian people Assaceni.
Massagetae (Mao-o-ayerai), a wUd and warlike
people of Central Asia, to Scyttoa intra Imaum,
N: of the Jaxartes (the Araxes of Herodotus)
and the Sea of Aral, and on the peninsula be
tween tMs lake and the Caspian. Their country
corresponds to that of the Kirghiz Tartars to
the N. of Independent Tartary. Some of the
ancient geographers give them a greater extent
towards the SE., and Herodotus appears to in
clude under the name aU the nomad tribes of
Asia E. of the Caspian. They appear to have
been of the Turkoman race ; their manners and
customs resembled those of the Scythians in
general, except that they had a practice of
killing and eating their aged people. (Hdt.
i. 201-214 ; Strab. p. 512 ; Arrian, An. iv. 16.)
Their cMef appearance to ancient Mstory is
in connexion with the expedition undertaken
agatost them by Cyrus the Great, to wMch
Cyrus was defeated and slain. [Cyrus.]
Massani (Maao-avoi), a people of India, on
the lower Indus, near the Island of Pattalene
(Diod. xv. 102).
Massicus Mons, a range of MUs to the NW.
of Campania near the frontiers of Latium, cele
brated for its exceUent wine, the produce of the
vineyards on the southern slope of the moun
tain, which have a volcanic soil. The celebrated
Falerman wine came from the eastern side of
tMs mountain. (Verg. Georg. ii. 143, Aen. vii.
724 ; Hor. Od. i. 1, 19 ; Col. Ui. 8.)
Massicytus or Massicytes (Mao-o-mirris), one
of the principal mountain chains of Lycia.
Massilia (Mao-o-a\i'a : MaoaaXidrris, MassiU-
ensis : Marseilles), a Greek city to Gallia Nar
bonensis, on the coast of the Mediterranean, in
the country of the Salyes. It was situated on

MASSILIA

633

a promontory, which was connected with the
mainland by a narrow isthmus, and was washed
on three sides by the sea. Its exceUent harbour,
called Lacydon (Mel. ii. 5), the old port, was
formed by a small inlet of the sea, about half a
mile long and a quarter of a mile broad. This
harbour had only a narrow opening, and before
it lay an island, where ships had good anchorage.

W!SPw,/|i

Plan of the Neighbourhood of Marseilles.
A, site of the modern town ; B, mount above the citadel ;
C, modern port ; D, Pont Neuf ; E, citadel ; F, Catalan
village and harbour; G, Port l'Endoome ; H, I. d'lf;
I, Rateneau I. ; K, Pomegues I.
Massilia was founded by the Phocaeans of Asia
Minor about b.c. 600, according to the tradi
tions, by friendly agreement with the natives,
and soon became a very flourishing city. (Athen.
p. 576 ; Justin, xliii. 3.) It extended its dominion
over the barbarous tribes in its neighbourhood,
and planted several colonies on the coast of
G-aul and Spam, such as Antipolis, Nicaea,
and Emporium. Its naval power and com
mercial greatness soon excited the jealousy of
the Carthaginians, who made war upon fche city,
but the Massilians not only maintained their
independence, but defeated the Carthaginians
in a sea-fight (Thuc. i. 13 ; Paus. x. 8, 6). At
an early period they cultivated the friendship
of the Romans, to whom they always continued
faithful allies. Accordingly when the SE.
corner of Gaul was made a Roman province,
the Romans allowed Massilia to retain its inde
pendence and its own constitution. (Liv. xxi. 20 ;
Pol. iii. 95 ; Cic. pro Font. 1 ; Caes. B. G. i. 35.)
This constitution was aristocratic. The city
was governed by a senate of 600 persons called
Timuchi. Prom these were selected 15 presi
dents, who formed a sort of committee for
carrying on the ordinary business of the govern
ment, and three of these were intrusted with

Coin of Massilia (4th cent. B.C.).
Obv., head of Artemis, crowned -with olive wreath; rev.,
massa, lion.
the executive power. (Strab. p. 179 ; Cic. de Bep.
i. 27, 43.) The inhabitants retained the religious
rites of their mother couutry, and they honoured
especially the Ephesian Artemis, whose statue
was said to have been brought from Ephesus
together with the shoot of the first olive planted
at Massilia. Massilia was for many centuries
one of the most important commercial cities in
the ancient world. In the civil war between
Caesar and Pompey (b.c. 49), it espoused the

534

MASSIVA

cause of the latter, but after a protracted siege,
in which it lost its fleet, it was obhged to sub
mit to Caesar. (Caes. B. C. i. 34-36, ii. 1-22 ;
Dio Cass. xU. 25.) Its inhabitants had long
paid attention to literature and pMlosophy;
and under the early emperors it became one of
the cMef seats of learning, to wMch the sons of
many iUustrious Romans resorted to complete
their studies, but it never regained its old im
portance under the Roman empire. — The modern
Marseilles occupies the site of the ancient town,
but contains no remains of ancient buildings.
Massiva, 1. A Numidian, grandson of Gala,
king of the Massylians, and nephew of Masi
nissa, whom he accompanied into Spain (Liv.
xxvii. 19). — 2. Son of Gulussa, and grandson of
Masinissa, was assassinated at Rome by order
of Jugurtha, because he claimed the Mngdom of
Numidia (Sail. Jug. 35 ; Liv. Ep. 64).
Massiirius Sabinus. [Sabinus.]
Massyli or -ii. [Maubetania : Numidia.]
Mastanabal or Manastabal, the youngest of
the tMee legitimate sons of Masinissa, between
whom Numidia was divided by Scipio after the
death of the aged king (b.c. 148). He died before
Ms brother Micipsa, and left two sons, Jugurtha
and Gauda. (App. Pun. 106 ; Sail. Jug. 5, 65.)
Mastaura (ra Mdaravpa : Mastavro, Ru.), a
city of Lydia on the borders of Caria, near Nysa
(Strab. p. 650).
Mastiani (Mao-riavoi), a people on the S. coast
of Spain between Calpe and Nova Carthago
(Pol. iii. 33).
Mastusia. 1. The SW. point of the Thracian
Chersonesus, opposite Sigeum. — 2. A mountain
of Lydia, on the S. slope of which Smyrna lay.
Maternus, Curiatius, a Roman rhetorician
and tragic poet (Tac. Dial. 2, 5, 11).
Maternus Firmicus. [Firmicus.]
Matho. 1. One of the leaders of the Cartha
ginian mercenaries to their war agatost Carthage,
after the conclusion of the first Punic war, b.c.
241. He was eventually taken prisoner and
put to death (Pol. i. 69-88). — 2. A pompous,
blustering advocate, ridiculed by Juvenal and
Martial (Juv. i. 30 ; Mart. iv. 80, vii. 10).
Matho, Fomponius. 1. M'., consul b.c. 233,
carried on war agatost the Sardinians, whom
he defeated. In 217 he was magister equitum ;
to 216 praetor ; and in 215 propraetor to Cis
alpine Gaul (Liv. xxn. 33, xxiv. 10). — 2. M.,
brother of the preceding, consul 231, also carried
on war against the Sardinians. He was likewise
praetor in 217. He died in 204. (Liv. xxix. 38.)
— 3. M., probably son of No. 2, aedile 206, and
praetor 204, with Sicily as his province (Liv.
xxxi. 12).
Matiana (Manavf), Mariavoi, -i)vr), -vvoi,
Hdt.), the SW.-most district of Media Atro
patene, along the mountains separating Media
from Assyria, of which the inhabitants were
called Matiani. The great salt lake of Spaura
(Mariavri Xipvri : Lake of Urmi) was in this
district. Their territory extended up into Ar
menia^ £Hdt. iii. 94, v. 52 ; Strab. pp. 73, 509.)
Matimus, a Roman money-lender and banker
(Cic. ad Att. v. 21 ; Scaptius).
Matinus, a mountain in Apulia, running into
the sea,was one of the offshoots of Mons Garga-
nus, and is frequently mentioned by Horace to
consequence of Ms being a native of Apulia
(Hor. Od. i. 28, 3, iv. 2, 27, Epod. 16, 28).
Matisco (Macon), a town of the Aedui to
GalUa Lugdunensis on the Arar (Caes. B. G.
vii. 90, viii. 4).
Matlus Calvena, C, a Roman eques, and a
friend of Caesar and Cicero. After Caesar's

MAURETANIA
death he espoused the side of Octavianus, with
whom he became very intimate. (Cic. adFam.
xi. 27, 28, ad Att. ix. 11, xiv. 1, xvi. 11 ; Suet.
Jul. 52 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 60.)
Matron (Mdrpav), of Pitana, a celebrated
writer of parodies upon Homer, probably Uved
a little before the time of Philip of Macedon
(Athen.J>p.5, 31, 699).
Matrona (Marne), a river in Gaul, which
formed the boundary between GaUia Lug
dunensis and Belgica, and wMch faUs toto the
Sequana, a little S. of Paris (Caes. B. G. i. 1).
Mattiaci, a people to Germany, who dwelt
on the B. bank of the RMne, between the Main
and the Lahn, and were a branch of the Chatti.
They were subdued by the Romans, who, to
the reign of Claudius, had fortresses and sUver-
mtoes to their country. After the death of
Nero they revolted agatost the Romans and
took part with the Chatti and other German
tribes to the siege of Moguntiacum. (Tac.
Germ. 29, Ann. xi. 20, Hist. iv. 37.) From tMs
time they disappear from history; and their
country was subsequently inhabited by the
Alemanni. Their chief towns were Aquae
Mattiacae (Wiesbaden), and Mattiacum (Mar
burg), wMch must not be confounded with
Mattium, the capital of the Chatti. A sort of
pomade caUed Mattiacae pilae was imported
by the Romans from their country (Mart.
xiv. 27 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Sapo).
Mattium (Maden), the chief town of the
Chatti, situated on the Adrana (Eder), was
destroyed by Germanicus (Tac. Ann. i. 56).
Matuta, commonly caUed Mater Matuta,
was an old Italian goddess of the dawn, and
her name is connected with mane, matutinus
(Lncret. v. 656 ; Fest. p. 122). Like other
goddesses of light, she was a goddess of child
birth and therefore invoked by women. Hence
she was worsMpped by married women at
the Matralia on the 11th of June (Varro, L.L.
v. 106 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 475). She was also
worshipped as a goddess of the sea and of
harbours, like Ino Leucothea, with whom she
was identified. [Did. of Ant. art. Matralia.]
A temple was dedicated to Matuta at Rome in
the Forum Boarium by king Servius, and was
restored by the dictator CamUlus, after the
taking of Veii (Liv. v. 19, xxv. 7). Other noted
seats of her worsMp were at Satricum in the
Volscian territory, and at Pisaurum (Liv. vi.
S3 ; C. I. L. i. 177).
Mauretania or Mauritania (r) Mavpovo-ia:
Mavpoiaioi, Mavpoi, Maurusn, Mauri), the
W.-most of the divisions of N. Africa, lay be
tween the Atlantic on the W., the Mediter
ranean on the N., Numidia on the B., and
Gaetulia on the S. ; but the districts embraced
under the names of Mauretania and Numidia
respectively were of very different extent at
different periods. The earliest known inhabi
tants of all N. Africa W. of the Syrtes were the
Gaetulions, who were displaced and driven
inland by peoples of Asiatic origin, who are
found in the earliest historical accounts settled
along the N. coast under various names ; their
cMef tribes being the Mauri or Maurusn, W. of
the river Malva or Malucha (Muluia or Mo-
halou) ; thence the Massaesylu, to (or nearly
to) the river Ampsaga (Wady-el-Kebir), and the
Massylii between the Ampsaga and the Tusca
(Wady-Zain), the W. boundary of the Cartha
ginian territory. Of these people, the Mauri,
who possessed a greater breadth of fertile
country between the Atlas and the coasts, seem
to have applied themselves more to the settled

MAURI
pursuits of agriculture than their kindred neigh
bours on the E., whose unsettled warUke habits
were moreover confirmed by their greater ex
posure to the intrusions of the Phoenician
settlers. Hence arose a difference, which the
Greeks marked by applying the general name
of No^Ses to the tribes between the Malva and
the Tusca ; whence came the Roman names o-
Numidia for the district, and Numidae for its
people. [Numidia.] Thus Mauretania was at
first only the country W. of the Malva, and
corresponded to the later district of Mauretania
Tingitana, and to the modern empire of
Maroeco, except that the latter extends further
S. ; the ancient boundary on the S. was the
Atlas. The Romans first became acquainted
with the country during the war with Jugurtha,
B.c 106 ; of their relations with it, till it became
a Roman province, about S3, an account is given
under Bocchus. During this period the Mng-
dom of Mauretania had been increased by the
addition of the W. part of Numidia, as far as
Saldae, which Julius Caesar bestowed on Bogud,
as a reward for his services in the African war.
A new arrangement was made about 25, when
Augustus gave Mauretania to Juba II., in
exchange for his paternal kingdom of Numidia.
(Tac. Ann. iv. 23 ; Dio Cass. lix. 25 ; Suet. Gal.
26 ; Strab. pp. 828, 831, 840.) Upon the murder
of Juba's son, Ptolemaeus, by Caligula (a.d. 40),
Mauretania became finaUy a Roman province,
and was formally constituted as such by Clau
dius, who added to it nearly half of what was
stiU left of Numidia — namely, as far as the Am
psaga — and divided it toto two parts, of wMch
the W. was caUed Tingitana, from its capital
Tingis (Tangier), and the E. Caesariensis from
its capital Julia Caesarea (Zershell), the boun
dary between them being the river Malva, the
old limit of the Mngdom of Bocchus I. (Dio
Cass. Ix. 9 ; Plin. v. 2 ; Tac. Hist. i. 11.) The
latter corresponded to the W. and central part
of the modern regency (and now French colony)
of Algiers. These ' Mauretaniae duae ' were
governed by an equestrian procurator. In the
later division of the empire under Diocletian
and Constantine, the E. part of Caesariensis,
from Saldae to the Ampsaga, was erected into
a new province, and called M. Sitifensis from
the inland town of Sitifi (Setif) ; at the same
time the W. province, M. Tingitana, seems to
have been placed under the same government
as Spain, so that we stiU find mention of the
'Mauretaniae duae,' meaning now, however,
Caesariensis and Sitifensis. From a.d. 429 to
534 Mauretania was in the hands of the Van
dals, and to 650 and the foUowing years it was
conquered by the Arabs. Its cMef physical
features are described under Afeica and Atlas.
Mauri. [Maueetania.]
Mauricianus, Junius, a Roman jurist, lived
under Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-161). His works
are cited in the Digest.
Mauricus, Junius, an intimate friend of
Pliny, was banished by Domitian, but recaUed
from exile by Nerva (Phn. Ep. iv. 22; Tac.
Hist. iv. 40, Agr. 4,5).
Mauritania. [Maueetania.]
Maurus, Terentianus. [Tekentianus.]
Maurusii. [Maueetania.]
Mausolus or Maussolus (MaiaaXos or Maia-
traXos), Mng of Caria, was the eldest son of
Hecatomnus, whom he succeeded to the sove
reignty, B.C. 377. In 362 he took part in the
general revolt of the satraps against Artaxerxes
Mnemon, and availed himself of that oppor
tunity to extend his dominions. In 358 he

MAXIMIANUS

535

joined with the Rhodians and others in the war
waged by them against the Athenians, known
by the name of the Social war. He died in
853, leaving no children, and was succeeded by
his wife and sister Artemisia. The extravagant
grief of the latter for his death, and the honours
she paid to his memory — especiaUy by the erec
tion of the costly monument which was called
from Mm the Mausoleum — are related else
where. [Aktemisia.] (For an account of the
Mausoleum, see Diet, of Ant. s.v.)
Mavors. [Mass.]
Maxentius, Roman emperor a.d. 806-812,
whose full name was M. Aurelius Valerius
Maxentius. He was the son of Maximianus
and Eutropia, and received in marriage the
daughter of Galerius ; but he was passed over
in the division of the empire which followed the
abdication of Ms father and Diocletian in
a.d. 305. Maxentius, however, did not tamely
acquiesce in this arrangement, and, being sup
ported by the praetorian troops, who had been
recently deprived of their exclusive privileges,
he was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 306.
He summoned Ms father, Maximianus, from his
retirement in Lucania, who again assumed the
purple. The military abilities of Maximianus
were of great service to his son, who was of in
dolent and dissolute habits. Maximianus com
pelled the Caesar Severus, who had marched
upon Rome, to retreat to haste to Ravenna, and
soon afterwards treacherously put him to death
(307). The emperor Galerius now marched in
person against Rome, but Maximianus com
pelled him likewise to retreat. Soon afterwards
Maxentius, having shaken off his father's con
trol, crossed over to Africa, which he ravaged
with fire and sword, because it had submitted
to the independent authority of a certain
Alexander. Upon his return to Rome Maxen
tius openly aspired to dominion over all the
Western provinces, and declared war against
Constantine, aUeging, as a pretext, that the
latter had put to death his father Maximianus.
He began to make preparations to pass into
Gaul ; but Constantine anticipated his move
ments, and invaded Italy. The struggle was
brought to a close by the defeat of Maxentius at
Saxa Rubra near Rome, October 27th, 312.
Maxentius tried to escape over the Milvian
bridge into Rome, but perished in the river.
Maxentius is represented as a monster of
rapacity, cruelty, and Mat. (Zos. ii. 9-18 ; Zonar.
xii. 33, xni 1.)
Maxiliia, a town in Hispania Baetica, where
bricks were made so Ught as to swim upon water.
See Calentum.
Maxima Caesariensis. [Beitannia.]
Maximianopolis (Ma£iptavoiiroXis : O. T.
HadadRimmon). 1. A city of Palestine, in the
valley of Megiddo, a little to the SW. of Megiddo.
— 2. Also called Forsulae, a town in Thrace
on the Via Egnatia, NE. of Abdera (Procop.
de Aed. iv. 11).
Maximianus. I., Roman emperor, a.d. 286-
305, whose full name was M. Aurelius Valerius
Maximianus. He was born of humble parents
in Pannonia, and had acquired such fame by his
services to the army, that Diocletian selected
this rough soldier for his colleague, and
created him first Caesar (285), and then Augus
tus (286), conferring at the same time the
honorary appeUation of Herculius, while he
Mmself assumed that of Jovius. The subse
quent history of Maximian has been fully
detailed in former articles. [Diocletianus;
Constantinus I. ; Maxentius.] It is sufficient

536

MAXIMINUS

to relate here that, after having been compelled
to abdicate, at MUan (305), he was again in
vested with the imperial title by his son Max
entius, to the following year (306), to whom he
rendered important services in the war with
Severus and Galerius. Having been expeUed
from Rome shortly afterwards by Ms son, he
took refuge in Gaul with Constantine, to whom
he had given Ms daughter Fausta to marriage.
Here he again attempted to resume the im
perial throne, but was easily deposed by Con
stantine (308). Two years afterwards he en
deavoured to induce Ms daughter Fausta to
destroy her husband, and was in consequence
compelled by Constantine to put an end to his
own life (Zosim. ii. 7-11 ; Zonar. xii. 31-33). —
II., Roman emperor, A.D. 305-311, usuaUy called
Galerius. His full name was Galerius Va
lerius Maximianus. He wasborn near Sardica
in Dacia, and was the son of a shepherd. He
rose from the ranks to the highest commands in
the army, and was appointed Caesar by Dio
cletian, along with Constantius CMorus, in 292.
At the same time he was adopted by Diocletian,
whose daughter Valeria he received in marriage,
and was entrusted with the command of Hlyria
and Thrace. In 297 he undertook an expe
dition against, the Persian monarch Narses, in
wMch he was unsuccessful, but in the foUowing
year (298) he defeated Narses with great slaugh
ter, and compelled him to conclude a peace.
Upon the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian
(305), Galerius became Augustus or emperor.
In 307 he made an unsuccessful attempt to
recover Italy, which had owned the authority of
the usurper Maxentius. [Maxentius.] He died
in 311. He was a cruel persecutor of the
Ctoistians ; and it was at Ms instigation that
Diocletian issued the ordinance (303) wMch for
so many years deluged the world with innocent
blood. (Zosim. ii. 8-11 ; Zonar. xii. 31-34 ;
Euseb. H. E. x. 1-3.)
Maximinus. I., Roman emperor a.d. 235-
238, whose full name was C. Julius Verus
Maximinus, was born to a village on the con
fines of Thrace, of barbarian parentage. Brought
up as a shepherd, he attracted the attention of
Septimius Severus, by Ms gigantic stature and
marvellous feats of strength, and was permitted
to enter the army. He rose to the highest rank
to the service ; and on the murder of Alexander
Severus by the troops in Gaul (235), he was
proclaimed emperor. He immediately bestowed
the title of Caesar on his son Maximus. During
Ms reign he carried on war against the Germans
with success ; but Ms government was charac-
g terised by a degree of oppression and cruelty
hitherto unexampled. The Roman world at
length tired of this monster. The senate and
the provinces gladly acknowledged the two
Gordiani, who had been proclaimed emperors
in Africa; and after their death the senate
itself proclaimed Maximus and Balbinus em
perors (238). As soon as Maximinus heard
of the elevation of the Gordians, he hastened
from Ms winter-quarters at Sirmium. Having
crossed the Alps, he laid siege to Aquileia, and
was there slain by his own soldiers along with
his son Maximus, in April. The most extra
ordinary tales are related of the physical powers
of Maximinus, which are almost incredible. His
height exceeded eight feet. The circumference
of his thumb was equal to that of a woman's
wrist, so that the bracelet of his wife served
him for a ring. It is said that he was able
single-handed to drag a loaded waggon, could
with Ms fist knock out the teeth, and with a

MAXIMUS
kick break the leg, of a horse (Script. Aug.
Maximin. Duo ; Herodian, vii. viii.). — II., Ro
man emperor 305-314, originaUy called Daza,
and subsequently Galerius Valerius Maxi
minus. He was the nephew of Galerius by a
sister, and in early life was a shepherd in his
native Illyria. Having entered the army, he
rose to the highest rank in the service ; and
upon the abdication of Diocletian in 305, he was
adopted by Galerius and received the title of
Caesar. In 308 Galerius gave Mm the title of
Augustus ; and on the death of the latter in
311, Maximinus and Licinius divided the East
between them. In 313 Maximinus attacked the
dominions of Licinius, who had gone to MUan,
to marry the sister of Constantine. He was,
however, defeated by Licinius near Heraclea,
and fled to Tarsus, where he soon after died.
Maximinus surpassed all his contemporaries
in the profligacy of Ms private life, in the
general cruelty of his administration, and in the
hatred with which he persecuted the Christians.
(Zosim. ii. 8 ; Euseb. H E. ix. 2.)
Maximus. 1. Of Ephesus or Smyrna, one
of the teachers of the emperor JuUan, to whom
he was introduced by Aedesius. Maximus was
a pMlosopher of the Neo-Platonic school, and,
like many others of that school, both beUeved
in and practised magic. On the accession of
Julian, Maximus was held to Mgh honour at
the court, and accompanied the emperor on his
fatal expedition against the Persians, which he
had prophesied would be successful. In 364
he was accused of having caused by sorcery the
iUness of the emperors Valens and Valentinian,
and was ttoown into prison, where he was ex
posed to cruel tortures. He owed Ms Uberation
to the philosopher Themistius. In 371
Maximus was accused of taking part in a con
spiracy against Valens, and was put to death
(Amm. Marc. xxix. 1). — 2. Of Epirus, or per
haps of Byzantium, was also an instructor of
the emperor Julian in philosophy and heathen
theology. He wrote in Greek, De insolubilibus
Oppositionibus, published by H. Stephanus,
Paris, 1554, appended to the edition of Diony
sius Halicarnassus, as weU as other works.
Maximus, Fabius. 1. Q. Fabius Maximus
Rullianus, was the son of M. Fabius Am
bustus, consul B.C. 360. Fabius was master of
the horse to the dictator L. Papirius Cursor in
325, whose anger he incurred by giving battle
to the Samnites during the dictator's absence,
and contrary to his orders. Victory avaUed
Fabius notMng to exculpation. A hasty flight
to Rome, where the senate, the people, and his
aged father interceded for him with Papirius,
barely rescued Ms life, but could not avert his
degradation from office. (Liv. vhi. 29-35 ; Val.
Max. ii. 7.) In 322 Fabius obtained his first
consulship. ,It was the second year of the
second Samnite war, and Fabius was the most
eminent of the Roman generals in that long
and arduous struggle for the empire of Italy.
In 315 he was dictator, and was completely
defeated by the Samnites at Lautulae. In 810
he was consul for the second time, and carried
on the war against the Etruscans. In 308 he
was consul a tMrd time, and is said to have
defeated the Samnites and Umbrians. (Liv.
ix. 22-42 ; Diod. xx. 27-44.) He was censor in
304, when he seems to have confined the liber-
tini to the four city tribes, and to have increased
the political importance of the equites (Liv.
ix. 46). In 297 he was consul for the fifth
time, and in 296 for the sixth time. In the
latter year he commanded at the great battle

MAXIMUS
of Sentinum, when the combined armies of the
Samnites, Gauls, Etruscans, and Umbrians
were defeated by the Romans. (Liv. x. 21-80.)
— 2. Q. Fabius Maximus Gurges, or the
Glutton, from the dissoluteness of Ms youth,
son of the last. His mature manhood atoned
for his early irregularities. (Juv. vi. 267 ;
Macrob. ii. 9.) He was consul 292, and was
completely defeated by the Pentrian Samnites.
He escaped degradation from the consulate,
only through his father's offer to serve as Ms
lieutenant for the remainder of the war. In a
second battle the consul retrieved his reputa
tion, and was rewarded with a triumph, of
wMch the most remarkable feature was old
Fabius riding beside his son's chariot. (Plut.
Fab. 24 ; Dionys. xvi. 15.) He was consul the
second time 276. Shortly afterwards he went
as legatus from the senate to Ptolemy Phil
adelphus, king of Egypt. He was consul a
third time, 265. — 3. Q. Fabius Maximus, with
the agnomens Verrucosus, from a wart on Ms
upper lip, Ovicula, or the Lamb, from the
mildness or apathy of his temper, and Cunc-
tator, from his caution in war, was grandson
of Fabius Gurges (Plut. Fab. i. ; Varr. B. B.
ii. 1). He was consul for the first time 233,
when Liguria was his province; censor 230;
consul a second time 228 ; opposed the agrarian

law of C. Flaminius 227 ; was dictator for hold
tog the comitia to 221 ; and to 218 was legatus
from the senate to Carthage, to demand repara
tion for the attack on Saguntum. In 217,
immediately after the defeat at Trasimenus,
Fabius was appointed dictator. From tMs
period, so long as the war with Hannibal was
merely defensive, Fabius became the leading
man at Rome. On taking the field he laid
down a simple and immutable plan of action.
He avoided all direct encounter with the
enemy ; moved Ms camp from MgMand to
MgMond, where the Numidian horse and
Spanish infantry could not follow him ; watched
Hannibal's movements with unrelaxing vigil
ance, and cut off his stragglers and foragers.
The narratives of Ms enclosure of Hannibal in
one of the upland vaUeys between Cales and
the Vulturnus, and the Carthaginian's adroit
escape by driving oxen with blazing faggots
fixed to their horns up the MH-sides, are well-
known. But at Rome and in his own camp the
caution of Fabius was misinterpreted. It is
probable, also, that a more forward strategy
was now advisable to prevent Hannibal from
carrying out his projects, though the tactics of
P'abius were of the highest value in order to give
the Romans time to regain some confidence after
Trasimene. The expedient, however, which was
adopted was absurd : the people divided the com
mand between him and M. Minucius Rufus, his
master of the horse. Minucius was speedily
entrapped, and would have been destroyed by
Hanmbal had not Fabius generously hastened
to Ms rescue. Fabius was consul for the third
time to 215, and for the fourth time to 214. In
213 he served as legatus to his own son, Q.
Fabius, consul to that year, and an anecdote is
preserved which exemplifies the strictness of
the Roman discipUne. On entering the camp
at Suessula, Fabius advanced on horseback to
greet his son. He was passing the lictors when
the consul sternly bade Mm dismount. ' My
son,' exclaimed the elder Fabius, ' I wished to
see whether you would remember that you were
consul.' (Liv. xxiv. 44.) Fabius was consul
for the fifth time to 209, in which year he
retook Tarentum. In the closing years of the

537
second Punic war Fabius appears to leBS
advantage. The war had become aggressive
(and rightly so) under a new race of generals.
Fabius disapproved of the new tactics; he
dreaded the political supremacy of Scipio, and
was his uncompromising opponent to his scheme
of invading Africa. He died in 203. (Life
by Plutarch; Pol. iii. 87-106; Liv. xx.-xxx. ;
Appian, Annib. 11-16 ; Cic. de Sen. 4, 17.)— 4.
Q. Fatous Maximus, elder son of the preceding,
was praetor 214 and consul 213. He was
legatus to the consul M. Livius Salinator 207.
He died soon after this period, and his funeral
oration was pronounced by Ms father. (Cic.
N. D. iii. 32.) — 5. Q. Fabius Maximus Aemi
lianus, was by birth the eldest son of L. Aemi
lius Paulus, the conqueror of Perseus, and was
adopted by No. 3. Fabius served under his
father (Aemilius) in the Macedonian war, 168,
and was despatched by him to Rome with the
news of Ms victory at Pydna. (Pol. xxix. 6.)
He was praetor in Sicily 149-148, and consul
in 145. Spain was his province, where he
encountered, and at length defeated, Viriathus.
Fabius was the pupil and patron of the historian
Polybius. (Pol. xviii., xxxii. 8-10; Liv. xliv.
35.) — 6. Q. Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus,
son of the last. He was consul 121 ; and he
derived Ms surname from the victory which he

gained to tMs year over the Allobroges and
their aUy, Bituitus, king of the Arverni in
Gaul. He was censor in 108. He was an
orator and a man of letters. (Cicero Mur.
36, 75 ; Plin. vii. 166.)— 7. Q. Fabius Maximus
Servilianus, was adopted from the gens Ser-
viUa by No. 5. He was uterine brother of Cn.
Servilius Caepio, consul in 141. He himself
was consul in 142, when he carried on war with
Viriathus. (Appian, Hisp. 70.)
Maximus, Magnus Clemens, Roman em
peror, a.d. 383-388, in Gaul, Britain, and Spain,
was a native of Spain. He was proclaimed
emperor by the legions in Britain in 383, and
forthwith crossed over to Gaul to oppose
Gratian, who was defeated by Maximus, and
was shortly afterwards put to death. Theo
dosius found it expedient to recognise Maximus
as emperor of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, in order
to secure Valentinian in the possession of Italy.
Maximus, however, aspired to the undivided
empire of the West, and accordingly in 387 he
mvaded Italy at the head of a formidable army.
Valentinian was unable to resist him, and fled
to Theodosius in the East. Theodosius forth
with prepared to avenge his colleague. In 388
he forced Ms way through the Noric Alps, took
Aquileia by storm and there put Maximus to
death. Victor, the son of Maximus, was de
feated and slain in Gaul by Arbogates, the
general of Theodosius. (Zosim. iv. 35 ff. ; Oros.
vii. 34 ff.)
Maximus, Petronius, Roman emperor, a.d.
455, belonged to a noble Roman family, and
enjoyed some of the highest offices of state
under Honorius and Valentinian III. In con
sequence of the violence offered to his wife by
Valentinian, Maximus formed a conspiracy
against this emperor, who was assassinated,
and Maximus Mmself proclaimed emperor in
Ms stead. His reign, however, lasted only two
or three months. Having forced Eudoxia, the
widow of Valentinian, to marry him, she re
solved to avenge the death of her former hus
band, and accordingly Genseric was invited to
invade Italy. When Genseric landed at the
mouth of the Tiber, Maximus was slain by a
band of Burgundian mercenaries, commanded

538

MAXIMUS

by some old officers of Valentinian. (Procop.
B. Vand. i. 4, 5 ; Sidon. Ep: i. 9, ii. 13.)
Maximus Planiides. [Planudes.]
Maximus Tyrius, a native of Tyre, a Greek
rhetorician and Platonic philosopher, lived
during the reigns of the Antonines and of
Commodus. Some writers suppose that he was
one of the tutors of M. Aurelius ; but it is more
probable that he was a different person from
Claudius Maximus, the Stoic, who was the
tutor of this emperor. Maximus Tyrius appears
to have spent the greater part of Ms life in
Greece, but he visited Rome once or twice.
There are extant forty-one Dissertations
(AiaXe£eis or Abyoi) of Maximus Tyrius on theo
logical, ethical and other phUosophical subjects,
written in an easy and pleasing style, but not
characterised by much depth of thought. The
best edition is by Reiske, Lips. 1774-5, 2 vols.
Maximus, Valerius. [Valebius.]
Maxula. [Ades.]
Maxyes (Md£ves), a people of N. Africa, on
the coast of the Lesser Syrtis, on the W. bank
of the river Triton, who claimed descent from
the Trojans. They shaved the right side of the

MEDEA
other writers, by Hecate, the daughter of Perses.
(Hes. Th. 961 ; Apollod. i. 9, 23 ; Diod. iv. 45).
She was celebrated for her skill in magic. The
most important parts of her story are given-
under Absybtus, Aegonautae, and Jason. It
is enough to state here that when Jason came
to fetch the golden fleece, she fell to love with
the hero, assisted him to accomplishing the ob
ject for wMchhe had visited ColcMs, and after
wards fled with him as Ms wife to Greece ; that
they were driven from Iolcus because she had
deceived the daughters of Pelias into MUing
their father [see p. 458, b], and went to Corinth,
where Medea, having been deserted by Jason
for the youthful daughter of Creon, Mng of
Corinth, took fearful vengeance upon her
faithless spouse by murdering the two children
whom she had by him, and by destroying Ms
young wife by a poisoned garment; and that
she then fled to Athens to a chariot drawn by
winged dragons. So far her story has been
related in the articles mentioned above. Her
flight from Corinth is represented to the an
nexed cut. The old man on the left is Creon ;
before Mm is his daughter Creusa faUing to

Medea. (From a Bar-

us at Mantua. Carli, Dissertazioni due, Mantova, 1785.)

head, and painted their bodies with vermUion.
(Hdt. iv. 191.)
Mazaca. [Caesaeea, No. 1.]
Mazara (Ma£dpa : Mafapalos : Mazzara), a
town on the W. coast of Sicily, situated on a
river of the same name, between Lilybaeum
and Selinus, and founded by the latter city,
was taken by the Romans in the first Punic war
(Diod. xiii. 54, xxiii. 9).
Mazices (Md(mes), a people of N. Africa, in
Mauretania Caesariensis, on the S. slope of M.
Zalacus (Ptol. iv. 2, 19 ; Lucan, iv. 681). They,
as well as the Maxyes, are thought to be the
ancestors of the Amazirghs.
Mecyberna (MriKiBepva : MriKvBepvdios :
Molivo), a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice, at
the head of the Toronaic gulf, E. of Olynthus,
of which it was the seaport. From this town
part of the , Toronaic gulf was subsequently
called Sinus Mecybernaeus. (Hdt. vii. 122 ;
Thuc. v. 39 ; Strab. p. 330.)
Medaba (Mr)SaBa), a city of Peraea in Pales
tine. Medaura, Ad Medera, or Amedera (Haidra),
a city of N. Africa, on the borders of Numidia
and Byzacena ; a Roman colony, and the birth
place of Appuleius. (Appul. Apol. p. 443 ;
Ptol. iv. S, 30 ; Procop. de Aed. vi. 6.)
Medea (Mf)Seia), daughter of Aeetes, king of
Colchis, by the Oceanid Idyia, or, according to

the ground ; then the children of Medea to
front of a terminal head of Neptune; then
Medea with sword to hand ; and finally Medea
maMng off in the serpent-car. At Athens she
is said to have married King Aegeus, or to
have been beloved by Sisyphus. Zeus him
self is said to have sued for her, but in vain,
because Medea dreaded the anger of Hera ; and
the latter rewarded her by promising immor
tality to her cMldren. Her chUdren are, ac
cording to some accounts, Mermerus, Pheres
or Thessalus, Alcimenes, and Tisander ; accord
ing to others, she had seven sons and seven
daughters, while others mention only two
children, Medus (some caU Mm Polyxenus) and
Eriopis, or one son, Argus. (ApoUod. i. 9, 28 ;
Diod. iv. 54.) Respecting her flight from
Corinth, there are different traditions. In the
Attic story, she fled to Athens and married
Aegeus, but when it was discovered that she
plotted to poison Theseus she escaped and went
to Asia, the inhabitants of which were called
after her Medes (Paus. ii. 3, 7 ; Plut. Thes.
12 ; Ov. Met. vii. 391). Others relate that she
first fled from Corinth to Heracles at Thebes,
who had promised her Ms assistance while yet
in Colchis, ill case of Jason betog unfaithful to
her. She cured Heracles, who was seized with
madness ; and as he could not afford her the
assistance he had promised she went to Athens.

MEDEON
(Diod. iv. 54.) She is said to have given birth
to her son Medus after her arrival in Asia,
where she had married a Mng ; whereas others
state that her son Medus accompanied her
from Athens to Colchis, where her son slew
Perses, and restored her father Aeetes to his
kingdom. The restoration of Aeetes, however,
is attributed by some to 'Jason, who accom
panied Medea to Colchis. (Diod. iv. 55 ; Tac.
Ann. vi. 41 ; Hyg. Fab. 26 ; Just. xiii. 2.)
Another legend makes her the wife of AchiUes
in Elysium (Schol. ad Eur. Med. 10, ad Ap.
Rh. iv. 814).
Medeon (MeSedv: MeSedvios). 1. OrMedion
(Katuna), a town in the interior of Acarnania,
near the road which led fromLimnaeato Stratos
(Thuc. iii. 106 ; Pol. ii. 2, 3).— 2. A town on the
coast of Phocis near Anticyra, destroyed to the
Sacred war, and never rebuilt (Paus. x. 3, 2).
— 3. A town to Boeotia, mentioned by Homer,
situated at the foot of Mt. Phoenicus, near On-
chestus and the lake Copais (H. U. 501 ; Strab.
p. 410). — 4. A town of the Labeates to Dal
matia, near Scodra (Liv. xliv. 23).
Media (r) Mr/Sla : MijSos, Medus), an important
country of W. Asia, occupying the extreme W.
of the great table-land of Iran, and lying
between Armenia on the N. and NW., Assyria
and Susiana on the W. and SW., Persis on the
S., the great desert of Aria on the E., and
PartMa, Hyrcania, and the Caspian on the NE.
Its boundaries were, on the N. the Araxes, on
the W. and SW. the range of mountains caUed
Zagros and Parachoatras (Mts. of Kurdistan
and Louristan), which divided it from the
Tigris and Euphrates vaUey, on the E. the
Desert, and on the NE. the Caspii Montes
(Elburz M.), the country between which and the
Caspian, though reckoned as a part of Media,
was possessed by the Gelae, Mardi, and other
independent tribes. Media thus corresponded
nearly to the modern province of Irak-Ajemi.
It was for the most part a fertile country, pro
ducing wine, figs, oranges and citrons, and
honey, and supporting an exceUent breed of
horses. It was weU peopled, and was altogether
one of the most important provinces of the
ancient Persian empire. (Strab. pp. 522-526.)
After the Macedonian conquest, it was divided
toto two parts, Great Media ( r) peydXi] MvSia),
and Atropatene. [Ateopatene.] The earliest
Mstory of Media is involved in much obscurity.
Herodotus and Ctesias (to Diodorus) give
different chronologies for its early kings (Hdt.
i. 95 ; Diod. ii. 24, 32). Ctesias mokes Aebaces
the founder of the monarchy, about B.C. 842,
and reckons eight kings from him to the over
throw of the Mngdom by Cyrus. Herodotus
reckons only four kings of Media : namely, (1)
Deioces, b.c. 710-657 ; (2) Pheaoktes, 657-635 ;
(3) Cyaxaees, 635-595 ; (4) Astyages, 595-560.
The last Mng was dethroned by a revolution
which transferred the supremacy to the Persians,
who had formerly been the subordinate people
to the united Medo-Persian empire. [Cybus.]
The Medes made more than one attempt to re
gain their supremacy ; the usurpation of the
Magian Pseudo-Smerdis was no doubt such an
attempt [Magi] ; and another occurred in the
reign of Darius II., when the Medes revolted,
but were soon subdued (b.c. 408). With the
rest of the Persian empire, Media f eU under the
power of Alexander ; it next formed a part of
the kingdom of the Seleucidae, from whom it
was conquered by the Parthians, in the second
century B.C., from wMch time it belonged to
the Parthian, and then to the later Persian

MEDIOLANUM

539

empire. The people of Media were a branch
of the Indo-Germanic family, and nearly allied
to the Persians; their language was a dialect
of the Zend, and their religion the Magian.
According to Herodotus they were at first
called Arii (Hdt. vii. 62) . They were divided into
six tribes, the Buzae, Parataceni, Struchates,
Arizanti, Budii, and Magi. In the early period
of their history, they were eminent warriors,
especially as mounted archers (Xen. Anab. ii.
1, 7) ; but the long prevalence of peace, wealth
and luxury reduced them to a by-word for
effeminacy. — It is important to notice the use
of the names Medus and Medi by the Roman
poets, for the nations of Asia E. of the Tigris in
general, and the Parthians in particular (Hor.
Od. ii. 16, 6).
Mediae Murus (to Mr/Sias KaXoipevov reixos),
an artificial wall, which ran from the Euphrates
to the Tigris, at the point where they approach
nearest, a little above 33° N. lat. and divided
Mesopotamia from Babylonia. It is described
by Xenophon (Anab. ii. 4), as being twenty
parasangs long, 100 feet high, and twenty
thick, and was built of baked bricks, cemented
with asphalt. Its erection was ascribed to
Semiramis, and hence it was also called to
^epigdpiSos Siareixio-pa. (Strab. pp. 80, 529.)
Mediolanum (Mediolanensis), more fre
quently called by Greek writers Mediolanium
(MeSioXdviov), the names of several cities
founded by the Celts. 1. (Milan), the capital
of the Insubres to Gallia Transpadana, was
situated in an extensive plain between the rivers
Tictous and Addua (Liv. v. 34 ; Strab. p. 213).
It was taken by the Romans B.C. 222, and after
wards became a municipium (Pol. ii. 34 ; Eutrop.
iii. 6 ; Oros. iv. 13 ; Tac. Hist. i. 70 ; Plin. iii.
138). It was a head-quarters of military
government in North Italy from which the
movements of the barbarians across the Alps
could be watched, as appears even in the time
of Augustus (Suet. Aug. 20). On the new
division of the empire made by Diocletian, it
became the residence of his colleague Maximi
anus, and continued to be the usual residence
of the emperors of the West (Eutrop. ix. 27 ;
Zos. ii. 10, 17), tiU the irruption of Attila — who
took and plundered the town — induced them to
transfer the seat of government to the more
inaccessible town of Ravenna. Mediolanum
was at this time one of the first cities of the
empire ; it possessed an imperial mint, and was
the seat of an archbishopric. It is celebrated
in ecclesiastical history as the see of St.
Ambrose. On the fall of the Western empire,
it became the residence of Theodoric the Great
and the capital of the Ostrogothic kingdom,
and surpassed even Rome itself in populous-
ness and prosperity. It received a fearful blow
in A.D. 539, when, in consequence of having
sided with Belisarius, it was taken by the Goths
under Vitiges, a great part of it destroyed, and
its inhabitants put to the sword (Procop. B.G.
ii. 8, 21). It, however, gradually recovered from
the effects of this blow, and was a place of im
portance under the Lombards. — 2. (Saintes), a
town of the Santones in Aquitania, NE. of the
mouth of the Garumna; subsequently called
Santones after the people, whence its modern
name (Strab. p. 190 ; Amm. Marc. xv. 11). — 3.
(Chateau Meillan), a town of the Bituriges
Cubi to Aquitania, NE. of the town last men
tioned. — 4. (Evreux), a town of the Aulerci
Eburovices in the N. of Gallia Lugdunensis, S.
of the Sequana, on the road from Rotomagus
to Lutetia Parisiorum; subsequently called

540

MEDIOMATRICI

Civitas Ebroicorum, whence its modern name
(Ptol. ii. 8, 11). — 5. A town of the Segusiani in
the S. of GaUia Lugdunensis.— 6. A town in
GaUia Belgica, on the road from Colonia Tra-
jana to Colonia Agrippina. — 1. (Malpas ?), a
town in Britain between Deva (Chester) and
Uriconium (Wroxeter).
Mediomatrlci, a people to the SE. of Gallia
Belgica on the Mosella, S. of the Treviri,
originally extended to the RMne, but to the
time of Augustus they had been driven from
this river by the Vangiones, Nemetes, and other
German tribes. Their chief town was DivodQ-
rum (Metz). (Caes. B.G. iv. 10; Strab. p. 193.1
Mediterraneum Mare. [Intebnum Mabe.)
Meditrina, a Roman divinity of the art of
healing, to whose honour the festival of the
Meditrinalia was celebrated in the month of
October (Did. of Ant. art. Meditrinalia).
Medma, or Mesma (MeSpa, Meopa), a Greek
city of Southern Italy on the W. coast of
Bruttii, founded by the Locrians (Strab.
p. 256 ; Scyl. p. 4). Its name is probably pre
served to the river Mesima.
Med5acus or Meduaeus, a river in Venetia
to the N. of Italy, formed by the union of two
rivers, the Medoacus Major (Brenta) and
Medoacus Minor (Bacchiglione), which falls
into the Adriatic sea near Edron, the harbour
of Patavium (Liv. x. 2 ; Plin. iii. 121).
Medobriga (Marvao, on the frontiers of Por
tugal), a town in Lusitania, on the road from
Emerita to Sc&l&bis (Bell. Alex. 48; Plin. iv. 118).
Medocus. [Amadocus.]
Medon (MeoW). 1. Son of Oileus, and
brother of the lesser Ajax, fought against Troy,
and was slain by Aeneas (II. ii. 727, xiii. 693, xv.
832). — 2. Son of Codrus. [Codeus.]
Mediili, a people in Aquitania, S. of the
mouth of the Garumna, in the modern Medoc.
There were excellent oysters found on their
shores (Auson. Epist. iv. v. vii).
Medulli, a people on the E. frontier of Gallia
Narbonensis and in the Maritime Alps, in whose
country the Druentia (Durance) and Duria
(Dora Biparia) took their rise (Strab. p. 203).
Medullia (Medullinus : Sunt' Angelo), a
colony of Alba, in the land of the Sabines, situ
ated between the Tiber and the Anio. Tar
quinius Priscus incorporated their territory
with the Roman state (Liv. i. S3, 38 ; Dionys.
ii. 36, vi. 34).
Medullinus, Furius, an ancient patrician
family at Rome, the members of which held
the highest offices of state in the early times of
the republic (Liv. ii. 39, 43, 54).
. Medullus, a mountain in Hispania Tarra
conensis, near the Minius (Flor. iv. 12).
Medus, a son of Medea. [Medea.]
Medus (M?)5os), a small river of Persis, flow
ing from the confines of Media, and falling into
the Araxes near Persepolis (Strab. p. 729).
Medusa. [Goegones.]
Megabazus or Megabyzus (MeydBafys,
MeydBv^os). 1. One of the seven Persian nobles
who conspired against the Magian Smerdis, B.C.
521. Darius left him with an army in Europe,
when he recrossed the Hellespont, on his return
from Scythia, 506. He subdued Perinthus and
the other cities on the Hellespont and the coast
of Thrace (Hdt. iii. 70, iv. 143, v. 1-16).— 2. Son
of Zopyrus, and grandson of the above, was one
of the commanders in the army of Xerxes, 480.
He afterwards commanded the army sent against
the Athenians in Egypt, 458 (Hdt. vii. 82 ; Thuc.
i. 109). Megabocchus, C, was tried together with

MEGARA
T. Albucius for extortion in Sardinia (Cic.
Fragm. pro Scaur, ii. 40), apparently one of
the Catilinarian conspirators (Cic. ad Att. ii. 7).
Megacles (MeyaKXijs). 1. A name borne by
several of the Alcmaeonidae. The most import
ant of these was the Megacles who put to death
Cylon and his adherents, after they had taken
refuge at the altar of Athene, b.c 612. [Cylon.]
 2. A Syracusan, brother of Dion, and brother-
in-law of the elder Dionysius. He accompanied
Dion in his flight from Syracuse, 358, and after
wards returned with him to Sicily.
Megaera, [Eumenides.]
Megalia or Megaris, a small island to the
Tyrrhene sea, opposite Neapolis (Plin. iii. 82).
Megalopolis (r) MeyaXi) irbXis, MeyaXbiroXis :
MeyaXoiroXiTvs). 1. (Sinano),the most recent,
but the most important of the cities of Arcadia,
was founded on the advice of Epaminondas,
after the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, and was
formed out of the inhabitants of thirty-eight
villages. It was situated to the district
Maenalia, near the frontiers of Messenia, on
the river Helisson, wMch flowed through the
city, dividing it into two nearly equal parts.
It stood on the site of the ancient town Orestion
or Orestia ; was fifty stadia (six miles) to cir
cumference; and contained, when it was be
sieged by Polysperchon, about 15,000 men
capable of bearing arms, which would give us
a population of about 70,000 tohabitants.
Megalopolis was for a time subject to the Mace
donians ; but soon after the death of Alexander
the Great, it was governed by a series of native
tyrants, the last of whom, Lydiades, voluntarily
resigned the government, and united the city
to the Achaean League, B.C. 234. It became in
consequence opposed to Sparta, and was taken
and plundered by Cleomenes, who MUed or
drove into banishment all its tohabitants, and
destroyed a great part of the city, 222. After
the battle of Sellasia in the following year, it
was restored by Philopoemen, who again col
lected the inhabitants ; but it never recovered
its former prosperity. Philopoemen and the Ms
torian Polybius were natives of Megalopolis. The
ruins of its theatre, once the largest in Greece,
are important in archaeology, particularly as
regards the disputed question of a raised stage.
The excavations of 1890-91 by the British School
of Athens have explored the theatre, and dis
covered the ground plan of the adjoining Ther-
silion or great assembly hall of the Arcadians,
and of the Agora and temple of Zeus across the
river. — 2. A town in Caria. [Apheodisias.] — 3.
A town in Pontus. [Sebastia.] — 4. A town in
the N. of Africa, in Byzacena ; it was taken and
destroyed by Agathocles.
Meganira. [Metaniba.]
Megapenthes (MeyairevBris). 1. Son of Proe
tus, father of Anaxagoras and Iphianira, and
king of Argos. He exchanged his dominion for
that of Perseus, so that the latter received
Tiryns instead of Argos. (Paus. ii. 18, 4 ;
Apollod. ii. 4.) — 2. Son of Menelaus by an
Aetolian slave, Pieris or Teridae. Menelaus
brought about a marriage between Megapenthes
and a daughter of Alector. According to a
Rhodian tradition, Megapenthes expelled Helen
from Argos, who thereupon fled to Polyxo at
Rhodes. (Od. iv. 11 ; Paus. iii. 19, 2.)
Megara, wife of Heracles. [See p. 396, a.]
Megara (to Me'yapa, in Lat. Megara, -ae, and
pi. Megara, -orum : Meyapeis, Megarensis). 1.
(Megara), the capital of Megaeis, was situated
8 stadia (1 mile) from the sea opposite the island
Salamis, about 26 miles from Athens and 31

MEGARA
miles from Corinth. It consisted of three parts :
(1) the ancient Pelasgian citadel, called Caria,
said to have been built by Car, the son of
Phoroneus, which was situated on a hill NW.
of the later city. This citadel contained the
ancient and celebrated Megaron (peyapov) or
temple of Demeter, from which the town is
supposed to have derived its name. (Paus. i.
39, 5.) (2) The modern citadel, situated on a
lower MU to the SW. of the preceding, and called
Alcathoe, from its reputed founder Alcathous,
son of Pelops (Paus. i. 42 ; Ov. Met. vii. 443, viii.
7). (S) The town properly so called, situated at
the foot of the two citadels, said to have been
founded by the Pelopidae under Alcathous, and
subsequently enlarged by a Doric colony under
Alethes and Athemenes at the time of Codrus.
Its seaport was Nisaea (Nfo-aia), which was
connected with Megara by two walls, eight
stadia in length, built by the Athenians when
they had possession of Megara, B.C. 461-445
(Thuc. i. 103) ; but as Pegae also belonged to
the Megarians they, like the Corinthians, had
ports on both seas, and a through traffic.
Nisaea is said to have been built by Nisus, the
son of Pandion ; and the inhabitants of Megara
are sometimes called Nisaean Megarians (oi
Niu-dioi Meyapeis) to distinguish them from the
Hyblaean Megarians (oi 'TBXaToi Meyapeis) in
SicUy. In front of Nisaea lay the small island

MEGARIS 541
democratical form of government established
(Plut. Q. Gr. 18). After the Persian wars,
Megara was for some time at war with Corinth,
and was thus led to form an alliance with
Athens, and to receive an Athenian garrison
into the city, 461; but the oligarchical party
having got the upper hand the Athenians were
expelled, 441. In the Peloponnesian war it
suffered greatly, and in 424 was only saved
from capture by the approach of Brasidas
(Thuc. iii. 51, iv. 56, 109). Megara after this
gradually declined in power, partly from these
party quarrels, but also because she was a small
state in comparison with her neighbours. The
city was taken and it„ walls destroyed by
Demetrius Poliorcetes ; it was taken again by
the Romans under Q. MeteUus; and in the
time of Augustus it had ceased to be a place of
importance. — Megara is celebrated as the city
of Theognis, and, in the history of philosophy,
as the seat of a philosophical school, usually
called the Megarian, which was founded by
Euclid, a native of the city, and a disciple of
Socrates. [Euclides, No. 2.] — 2. A town in
Sicily on the E. coast, N. of Syracuse, founded
by Dorians from Megara in Greece, B.C. 728, on
the site of a small town Hybla, and hence
called Megara Hyblaea, and its inhabitants
Megarenses Hyblaei (Meyapeis 'TBXaToi). From
the time of Gelon it belonged to Syracuse-

¦Minoa (Mivaa), wMch added greatly to the
security of the harbour. — In the most ancient
times Megara and the surrounding country are
said to have been inhabited by Leleges. It
subsequently became annexed to Attica ; and
Megaris formed one of the four ancient divisions
of Attica. (Strab. p. 392.) It was next con
quered by the Dorians, and was for a time sub
ject to Corinth (Hdt. v. 76) ; but it finally
asserted its independence, and rapidly became
a wealthy and powerful city (Paus. vi. 19, 13).
To none of these events can any date be assigned
with certainty. An inscription mentions the
victory of Orsippus of Megara at Olympia in
720 b.c, the first athlete who ran entirely
naked : it states also that he won back much
territory (probably from Corinth) for his own
city (G. I. G. 1050 ; cf. Paus. i. 44, 1). Its power
at an early period is attested by the flourishing
colonies which it founded, of which Selymbeia,
Chalcedon, and Byzantium, and the Hyblaean
Megara to Sicily, were the most important.
Its navy was a match for that of Athens, with
which it contested the island of Salamis ; and
it was not till after a long struggle that the
Athenians succeeded in obtaining possession of
this island. The government was originaUy an
aristocracy as in most of the Doric cities ; but
Theagenes, who put himself at the head of the
popular party, obtained the supreme power
about B.C. 620 (Arist. Pol. v. 5, 9=p. 1805).
Theagenes was afterwards expelled ; and a

Megara.
(Hdt. vii. 156 ; Thuc. vi. 4 ; Strab. p. 269.) It-
was taken and plundered by the Romans in the
second Punic war, and from that time sank
into insignificance, but it is still mentioned by
Cicero under the name of Megaris. [Hybla.]
Megareus (Meyapeis), son of Onchestus, also
called a son of Poseidon and Oenope, of Hippo-
menes, of Apollo, or of Aegeus. He was a
brother of Abrote, the wife of Nisus, king of
Megara, and the father of Evippus, Timalcus,
Hippomenes, and Evaechme. Megara is said
to have derived its name from him. (Paus. i.
39 ; Ov. Met. x. 605.)
Megaris (r) Meyapis ori) MeyapiKr/, sc. yr}), a
small district in Greece between the Corinthian
and Saronic gulfs, originally reckoned part of
Hellas proper, but subsequently included in the
Peloponnesus. It was bounded on the N. by
Boeotia, on the E. and NE. by Attica, and on
the S. by the territory of Corinth. It contained
about 143 square miles. The country was very
mountainous ; and its only plain was the one
in which the city of Megara was situated,
which was called to AevKbv ireSiov (Schol. ad
Od. v. 333). It was separated from Boeotia by
Mt. Cithaeron, and from Attica by the moun
tains called the Horns (to Kepara) on account
of their two projecting summits (Strab. p. 395 ;
Diod. xiii. 65). The Geranean mountains ex
tended through the greater part of the country,
and formed its S. boundary towards Corinth
(Thuc. i. 105 ; Paus. i. 40, 7). There were two

542

MEGASTHENES

roads through these mountains from Corinth,
one called the Scironian pass, which ran along
the Saronic gulf, passed by Crommyon and
Megara, and was the direct road from Corinth
to Athens (Strab. p. 391 ; Hdt. viii. 71 ; Paus.
i. 44, 7 ; Eur. Hipp. 1208) ; the other ran along
the Corinthian gulf, passed by Geranea and
Pegae, and was the road from Corinth toto
Boeotia. The only town of importance in
Megaris was its capital, Megara. [Megaea.]
Megasthenes (MeyaaBevns), a Greek writer
who was sent by Seleucus Nicator as ambassador
to Sandracottus, king of the Prasii, where he
resided some time. He wrote a work on India,
in four books, entitled Indica (ra 'IvSlko), to
wMch later Greek writers were chiefly indebted
for their accounts of the country. (Strab. pp.
70, 702; Arrian, An. v. 6; Athen. p. 153.)
Meges (Meyris), son of Phyleus, and grandson
of Augeas, was one of the suitors of Helen, and
led his bands from Dulichium and the Echi-
nades against Troy (II. ii. 625, v. 69, xv. 520;
Paus. x. 25, 2).
Megiddo (MayeSSd, Maye5<6 : Lejjun ?), a
considerable city of Palestine, on the river
Kishon, in a valley of the same name, wMch
formed a part of the great plain of Jezreel or
Esdraelon, on the confines of Galilee and
Samaria. It was probably the same place
wMch was called Legio under the Romans.
[See Diet, of the Bible.]
Megistani, a people of Armenia, in the dis
trict of Sophene, near the Euptoates.
Megiste (Meylo-rri), an island off Lycia, oppo
site AntipheUus (Strab. p. 666 ; Liv. xxxvn. 22).
Mela, river. [Mella.]
Mela, Fabius, a Roman jurist, often cited
in the Digest ; probably of the Augustan age.
Mela, Mella, M. Annaeus, the youngest son
of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rhetorician, and
brother of L. Seneca, the philosopher, and of
Gallic By his wife AciUa he had at least one
son, the celebrated Lucan. After Lucan's death,
A.D. 65, Mela laid claim to Ms property ; and as
he was rich, he was accused of being privy to
Piso's conspiracy, and anticipated a certain
sentence by suicide. (Tac. Ann. xv. 48; Dio
Cass. lxii. 25.)
Mela, Pomponius, the first Roman author
who composed a formal treatise upon Geo
graphy, was a native of Spain, and probably
flourished under the emperor Claudius (iii. 49).
His work is entitled De Situ Orbis Libri III.
It contains a brief description of the whole
world as known to the Romans. The text is
often corrupt, but the style is simple, and the
•Latinity is pure; and although everything is
compressed within the narrowest limits, we find
the monotony of the catalogue occasionally
diversified by animated and pleasing pictures.
Editions by Parthey, Berlin, 1867 ; Frick, Lips,
1880. Melaena Acra (r) MeXaiva &Kpa). 1. (Kara
Burnu, which means the same as the Greek
name, i.e. the Black Cape), the NW. promon
tory of the great peninsula of Ionia : formed by
Mt. Mimas ; celebrated for the miUstones hewn
from it (Strab. p. 645).— 2. (C. San Nicolo), the
NW. promontory of the island of Chios. — 3.
(Tshili) a promontory of Bithynia, a little E. of
the Bosporus, between the rivers Rhebas and
Artanes; also called KaXivaKpov and BiBvvias
&Kpov (Ap. Rh. ii. 651).
Melaenae (MeXaivat : MeXaiveis). 1. Or
Melaeneae (MeXaiveai), a town in the W. of
Arcadia on the Alpheus, NW. of Buphagium,
and SE. of Heraea (Paus. viii. 26, 8).— 2. A

MELAMPUS
demus in Attica, on the frontiers of Boeotia, be
longing to the tribe Antiochis.
Melambium (MeXapBiov), a town of Thessaly
in Pelasgiotis, belonging to the territory of
Scotussa (Pol. xviii. 3).
Melampus (MeXapirovs). 1. Son of Amythaon
by Idomene, or by Aglaia, or by Rhodope,
and a brother of Bias (ApoUod. i. 9, 1 ; Diod.
iv. 68). He was looked upon by the ancients
as the first mortal who was endowed with
prophetic powers, as the person who first
practised the medical art, and who estab
lished the worship of Dionysus in Greece (Hdt.
ii. 49). He is said to have been married to
Iphianassa, by whom he became the father of
Mantius and Antiphates (Od. xv. 225; Diod.
I.e.). Abas, Bias, Manto, and Pronoe are also
named by some writers as his chUdren. Before
his house there stood an oak tree containing a
serpent's nest. The old serpents were Mlled by
his servants, but Melampus took care of the
young ones and fed them carefuUy. One day,
when he was asleep, they cleaned his ears with
their tongues. On Ms waMng he perceived, to
his astonishment, that he now understood the
language of birds, and that with their assistance
he could foretell the future. In addition to this
he acquired the power of prophesying from the
victims that were offered to the gods ; and, after
having an interview with Apollo on the banks
of the Alpheus, he became a most renowned
soothsayer. During his residence at Pylos Ms
brother Bias was one of the suitors for the hand
of Pero, the daughter of Neleus. The latter
promised his daughter to the man who should
bring Mm the oxen of IpMclus, which were
guarded by a dog whom neither man nor aMmal
could approach. Melampus undertook the task
of procuring the oxen for his brother, although
he knew that the thief would be caught and
kept in imprisonment for a year, after which he
was to come into possession of the oxen. TMngs
turned out as he had said; Melampus was
thrown into prison, and to his captivity he
learned from the wood-worms that the building
to which he was imprisoned would soon break
down. He accordingly demanded to be let out,
and as Phylacus and IpMclus thus became
acquainted with Mb prophetic powers, they
asked him to what manner IpMclus, who had no
children, was to become a father, Melampus, on
the suggestion of a vulture, advised IpMclus to
take the rust from a knife and drink it to water
during ten days. (Paus. iv. 36, 2 ; ApoUod. i.
9, 12.) This was done, and IpMclus became
the father of Podarces. Melampus now received
the oxen as a reward for Ms good services, drove
them to Pylos, and thus gained Pero for his
brother. Afterwards Melampus obtained pos
session of a third of the kingdom of Argos in
the following manner : — In the reign of Anax
agoras, king of Argos, the women of the kingdom
were seized with madness, and roamed about
the country in a frantic state. Melampus cured
them of their frenzy, on condition that he and
Ms brother Bias should receive an equal share
with Anaxagoras in the kingdom of Argos.
Melampus and Bias married the two daughters
of Proetus, and ruled over two-thirds of Argos.
(Hdt. ix. 34 ; Apollod. ii. 2, 2 ; Strab. p. 346 ;
Ov. Met. xv. 322; Pboetcs.) — 2. The author of
two little Greek works of no value, entitled
Divinatio ex Palpitatione and De Naevis
Oleaceis in Corpore. He lived probably in the
third century b.c. at Alexandria. Edited by
Franz, in Scriptores Physiognomiae Veteres,
Altenburg, 1780.

MELANCHLAENI
Melanchlaeni (MeXdyx Xaivoi), a people to
the N. of Sarmatia Asiatica, about the upper
course of the river Tanais (Don), resembling
the Scythians in manners, though of a different
race. Their name was derived from their dark
clothing. (Hdt. iv. 20, 100 ; Ptol. v. 9, 19.)
Meianippe (MeXaviirirn), daughter of Chiron,
also called Evippe. Betog with child by Aeolus,
she fled to mount Pelion ; and in order that
her condition might not become known, she
prayed to be metamorphosed into a mare.
Artemis granted her prayer, and in the form of
a horse she was placed among the stars. (Ari
stoph. Thesm. 512; Hyg. Fa 6. 86.) Another
account describes her metamorphosis as a
punishment for having despised Artemis, or for
having divulged the counsels of the gods (Hyg.
Astr. ii. 18). Her story was the subject of two
tragedies by Euripides, MeXavlinrri i) aotyh, and
MeXaviirirn r) Seaparts (see Fragm. of Euri
pides, ed. Dtodorf). The former was imitated
by Ennius, the latter by Accius. (Cic. Tusc.
iii. 9, 20 ; Off. i. 81, 114 ; Juv. viii. 229 ; Aeolus.)
Melamppe seems sometimes to be confused
-with Arne, the mother of Aeolus and Boeotus
by Poseidon.
Melanippides (MeXav nnrlSris). 1. A dithy
rambic poet of Melos, contemporary of Pindar
(Suid. s.v.). — 2. A later dithyrambic poet of the
same place, who lived about B.C. 470-420. He
is MgMy praised by Xenophon (Mem. i. 4, 3).
He died at the court of Perdiccas. (Plut. Mus.
p. 1141; Arist. Bhet. iii. 9; Athen. p. 616.)
Fragm. in Bergk, Pod. Lyr. Graec.
Melanippus (MeAararcros), son of Astacus of
Thebes, who, to the attack of the Seven on his
native city, slew Tydeus and Mecisteus. His
tomb was shown to the neighbourhood of Thebes
on the road to Chalcis. (Hdt. v. 67 ; Aesch. Sept.
409 ; Paus. ix. 18, 1.1
Melanopus (MeXdvairos), son of Laches, went
on an embassy to Mausolus, King of Caria, cap
tured a vessel of Naucratis, and iUegaUy retained
the prize money. He had also been accused
of embezzlement during an embassy to Egypt.
(Dem. c. Timocr. pp. 703, 740, §§ 12, 127.)
Melanogaetuli. [Gaetulia.]
Melanthius (MeXavBios). 1. Also called Me-
lantheus, son of DoUus, was a goat-herd of
Odysseus, who sided with the suitors of Pene
lope, and was MUed by Odysseus (Od. xvii. 212,
xxii. 474). — 2. An Athenian tragic poet, of
whom little is known beyond the attacks made
on him by Aristophanes and the other comic
poets. The most important passage respecting
him is in the Peace of Aristophanes (796, &c).
He was celebrated for his wit, of which several
specimens are preserved by Plutarch (Symp. pp.
631, 633). — 3. Or Melanthus, a Greek painter
of the Sicyonian school, was contemporary with
ApeUes (b.c. 332), with whom he studied under
PampMlus. He was one of the best colourists
of all the Greek painters (Plin. xxxv. 50, 76).
Melanthius (MeAoVflios, prob. Melet-Irma),
a river of Pontus, in Asia Minor, E. of the
Prom. Jasonium ; the boundary between Pontus
Polemoniacus and Pontus Cappadocius.
Melanthus or Melanthius (MeXavBos), one
of the Nelidae, and king of Messenia, whence
he was driven out by the Heraclidae, on their
conquest of the Peloponnesus; and, following
the instructions of the Delphic oracle, took
refuge in Attica. In a war between the Athe
nians and Boeotians, Xanthus, the Boeotian
Mng, challenged Thymoetes, king of Athens
and the last of the Thesidae, to single combat.
Thymoetes declined the challenge on the

MELEAGER

543

ground of age and infirmity. Melanthus under
took it on condition of being rewarded with
the throne in the event of success. So ran the
story, which strove afterwards to disguise the
violent change of dynasty. He slew Xan
thus, and became king, to the exclusion of the
Thesidae. According to Pausanias, the con
queror of Xanthus was Andropompus, the
father of Melanthus; according to Aristotle, it
was Codrus, his son. (Hdt. i. 147, v. 65 ; Arist.
Pol. v. 10 ;_ Paus. ii. 18, iv. 5, vii. 1.)
Melantii Scopuli, rocky islets near Myconus
in the Aegaean sea (Strab. p. 636 ; Ap. Rh. iv.
1707^. Melas (Me'Aas), the name of several rivers
whose waters were of a dark colour. 1. (Mauro
Nero or Mauro Potamo), a small river to Boeo
tia, which rises seven stadia N. of Orchomenus,
becomes navigable almost from its source, flows
between Orohomenus and Aspledon, and loses
the greater part of its waters in the marshes con
nected with lake Copais. A small portion of its
waters fell in ancient times into the river Cephis-
sus (Strab. p. 467). — 2. A river of Thessaly in the
district Malis, flows near Heraclea and Trachis,
and falls into the Maliac gulf (Hdt. vii. 198 ;
Strab. p. 428).— 3. A river of Thessaly in Phthi
otis, falls toto the Apidanus (Lucan, vi. 374). —
4. A river of Thrace, flows first SW., then NW.,
and faUs N. of Cardia toto the Melas Sinus (Hdt.
vi. 41)  5. (Manavgat-Su), a navigable river,
fifty stadia (five geog. miles) E. of Side, was
the boundary between Pamphylia and Cilicia.
— 6. (Kara-Su, i.e. the Black Biver), to Cappa
docia, rises in M. Argaeus, flows past Mazaca,
and, after forming morasses, falls into the
Halys, and not (as Strabo says) into the Eu
phrates. (Ptol. v. 6, 8 ; Strab. p. 538.)
Melas Sinus (Me'Aas KbXiros : Gulf of Saros),
a gulf between the coast of Thrace on the NW.
and the Thracian Chersonesus on the SE., into
which the river Melas flows.
Meldi or Meldae, a people in GaUia Lugdu
nensis upon the river Sequana (Seine), near
Paris (Ptol. n. 8, 15; Strab. p. 194; Plin. iv.
107). If the reading Meldi in Caesar, B. G. v.
5, is correct, it must be assumed that there was
a people of the same name on the coast near
Itius Portus.
Meleager (MeAe'a-ypos). 1. Son of Oeneus
and Althaea, the daughter of Thestius, husband
of Cleopatra, and father of Polydora. He was
one of the most famous Aetolian heroes of Caly
don, and distinguished himself by his skill in
throwing the javelin. He took part in the
Argonautic expedition. At the time of his re
turn home, the fields of Calydon were laid
waste by a monstrous boar, which Artemis
had sent against the country, because Oeneus,
the Mng of the place, once neglected to offer up
a sacrifice to the goddess. No one dared en
counter the terrible animal, till at length
Meleager, with a band of other heroes, slew the
animal ; but the Calydonians and Curetes quar
relled about the head and hide, and at length
waged open war against each other ; and in this
fight the brother of Althaea, a prince of the
Curetes, was slain by Meleager. The warfare
continued, and the Calydonians were always
victorious so long as Meleager went out with
them. But when his mother Althaea pronounced
a curse upon Mm, Meleager stayed at home
with his wife, Cleopatra. The Curetes now
began to press Calydon very hard. It was in
vain that the old men of the town made him
the most brilhant promises if he would again
join in the fight, and that his father, his sisters,

544 MELEAGER
and his mother supplicated him. At length,
however, he yielded to the prayers of Ms wife,
Cleopatra : he put the Curetes to flight, but he
never returned home, for the Erinnys, who had
heard the curse of his mother, overtook Mm.
Such is the more ancient form of the legend, as
we find it in Homer (17. ix. 527, seq.). In the
later traditions Meleager collects the heroes
from all parts of Greece to join him in the
hunt. Among others was the fair maiden
Atalanta ; but the heroes refused to hunt with

Meleager. (From a painting at Pompeii.)

her, until Meleager, who was in love with her,
overcame their opposition. Atalanta gave the
animal the first wound, and it was at length
slain by Meleager. He presented the hide to
Atalanta, but the sons of Thestius took it from
her, whereupon Meleager in a rage slew them.
TMs, however, was the cause of his own death,
which came to pass in the following way. When
he was seven days old the Moerae appeared,
declaring that the boy would die as soon as the
piece of wood which was burning on the hearth
should be consumed. Althaea, upon hearing

> MELIA
their brother. Two of them, Gorge and Deianira,
through the mediation of Dionysus, were not
metamorphosed. (ApoUod. i. 8, 2; Diod. iv.
84 ; Hyg. Fab. 171 ; Anton. Lib. 2 ; Ov. Met.
viii. 450, 531.) The story of the burning log is
clearly not known to Homer, but is at least as
old as Phrynichus (Paus. x. 31, 2). The meta
morphosis of the
Meleagrides was
mentioned by So
phocles, who said
that amber came
from their tears
(Plin. xxxvii. 41).
Some later tradi
tions make Ares
the father of Me
leager (Ov. I.e. ;
Hyg. I.e.). Me
leager is repre
sented to paint
ings and in sculp
ture (especially
in the statues at
Rome and Berlin)
as a young man
with a hunting
spear and a dog
by his side. A
group by Scopas
in the temple at
Tegea is men
tioned by Pausa
nias (vui. 45, 4).
The boar-hunt is
a favourite sub
ject for sculp
tures in relief. —
2. Son of Neo
ptolemus, a Ma-

Meleager (Berlin).

Althaea and the Fates. (Zoega, Bassi rilievi.

tMs, extinguished the firebrand, and concealed
it in a cheBt. Meleager Mmself became invul
nerable; but after he had killed the brothers
of his mother, she lighted the piece of wood,
and Meleager died. Althaea, too late repenting
of what she had done, put an end to her-fife ;
and Cleopatra died of grief. The sisters of
Meleager wept unceasingly after his death,
until Artemis changed them into guinea-hens
(/ieAea7p(Ses), wMch were transferred to the
island of Leros. Even in tMs condition they
mourned during a certain part of the year for

cedonian officer in the service of Alexander the
Great. After the death of Alexander the Great
(b.c. 32S) Meleager resisted the claims of Per
diccas to the regency, and was eventually asso
ciated with the latter in this office. Shortly after
wards, however, he was put to death by order of
Perdiccas. (Arrian, A n. i. 4, 20, iii. 11; Curt.
x. 21-29.) — 3, Son of Eucrates,
the celebrated writer and col
lector of epigrams, was a native
of. Gadara to Palestine, and
lived about B.C. 60. There are
131 of his epigrams in the
Greek Anthology. An account
is given under Planudes.
Meletus or Melitus (MeXij-
ros: MeXiros), an obscure tragic
poet, but notorious as one of
the accusers of Socrates, was
an Athenian, of the Pitthean
demus. He is represented by
Plato and Aristophanes and
their scholiasts a3 a frigid and
licentious poet, and a wortWess
and profligate man. In the
accusation of Socrates it was Meletus who laid
the indictment before the Archon Basileus ;
but to reality he was the most insignificant of
the accusers; and according to one account
he was bribed by Anytus and Lycon to take
part in the affair. Soon after the death of
Socrates, the Athenians repented of their in
justice, and Meletus was stoned to death. (Plat.
Apol. pp. 25, 26 ; Athen. p. 651 ; Diod. xiv. 87 i
Diog. Laert. ii. 43,)
Melia (Mexta), anymph, daughter of Oceanus,
became by Inachus the mother of Phoroneus

MELIBOEA
and Aegialeus or Pegeus ; and by SilenuB the
mother of the centaur Pholus ; and by Poseidon
of Amycus. She was carried off by Apollo, and
became by him the mother of Ismenius, and of
the seer Tenerus. She was worshipped in the
Ismenium, the sanctuary of Apollo, near Thebes.
(Paus. ix. 10, 26 ; Strab. p. 413 ; ApoUod. ii. 5,
4). In the plural form, the Meliae or Meliades
(MeAiai, MeAidSes) are the nymphs who, along
with the Gigontes and Erinnyes, sprang from
the drops of blood that fell from Uranus and
were received by Gaea (Hes. Th. 187).
Meliboea (MeXiBoia: MeXiBoeis). 1. A town
on the coast of Thessaly to Magnesia, between
Mt. Ossa and Mt. Pelion, is said to have been
buUt by Magnes, and to have been named
MeUboea in honour of his wife (Hdt. vn. 188 ;
Strab. p. 443). It is mentioned by Homer (II.
ii. 717) as belonging to the dominions of Philo-
ctetes, who is hence caUed by Virgil (Aen. iii.
401) dux Meliboeus. It was celebrated for its
purple dye (Lucret. ii. 499 ; Virg. Aen. v. 251).
— 2, A small island at the mouth of the river
Orontes in Syria.
Melicertes. [Palaemon.]
Melinno (MeXivva), a lyric poetess of Locri
to S. Italy who wrote the ode to Rome begin
ning XaTpe pot 'Papa, wMch has been wrongly
ascribed to Erinna. She Uved to the third
century B.C.
Melissus (Me'Aio-o-os). 1. Of Samos, a Greek
philosopher, the son of Ithagenes, was, accord
ing to the common account, the commander of
the fleet opposed to Pericles, B.C. 440 (Plut.
Per. 26). He belonged to the Eleatic school,
and was apupil of Parmemdes (Arist. de Xenoph.
Gorg. et Meliss. 1). — 2. A Latin grammarian
and a comic poet, was a freedman of Maece
nas, and was entrusted by Augustus with the
arrangement of the Ubrary to the portico of
Octavia (Suet. Gramm. 21).
Melita or Melite (MeXirn : MeArraTos, Meli-
tensis). 1. (Malta), an island in the Medi
terranean sea, situated 58 miles from the
nearest point of SicUy, and 179 miles from the
nearest point of Africa. Its greatest length is
17i mUes, and its greatest breadth 9J miles.
The island was first colonised by the Phoeni
cians, who used it as a place of refuge for their
stops, on account of its exceUent harbours. It
afterwards passed toto the hands of the Cartha
ginians, but was taken possession of by the
Romans to the second Punic war, and annexed
to the province of SicUy (Liv. xxi. 51). The
Romans, however, appear to have neglected the
island, and it is mentioned by Cicero as a fre
quent resort of pirates (Cic. Verr. iv. 46). It
contained a town of the same name founded by
the Carthaginians, and two celebrated temples,
one of Juno on a promontory near the town,
and another of Heracles in the SE. of the island.
The inhabitants manufactured fine cloth, which
was to much request at Rome. They also ex
ported a considerable quantity of honey; and
from this island, according to some authorities,
came the catuli Melitaei, the favourite lapdogs
of the Roman ladies (Strab. p. 277 ; Athen. p.
518) : PUny, iii. 151, beUeves that they came
from the Adriatic island. — 2, (Meleda), a smaU
island in the Adriatic sea off the coast of Ulyria
(Dalmatia), NW. of Epidaurus (Ptol. ii. 16, 14 ;
Plin. iii. 141). — 3. A demus in Attica, wMch also
formed part of the city of Athens, was situated
S. of the inner Ceramieus, and probably in
cluded the MU of the Museum. One of the
gates of Athens was caUed the Melitian gate,
because it led to this demus. [See p. 142.] — i.

MEMMIA

545

A lake in AetoUa near the mouth of the Ache
lous, belonging to the territory of the town
Oeniadae. Melitaea, Melitea or Melitia (MeAiTata, Me-
Xireia, MeXiria : MeXiraieis), a town of Thes
saly, in Phthiotis, on the N. slope of Mt. Othrys,
and near the river Empeus. It is said to have
been called Pyrrha in more ancient times, and
the tomb of Hellen, son of Deucalion, was in
its market-place (Thuc. iv. 78 ; Strab. p. 432).
Melite (MeXirri), a nymph, one of the Nereids
(II. xviii. 42 ; Hes. Th. 246).
Melitene (MeXirrivr)), a district of Eastern
Cappadocia, celebrated for its fertility. The
town Melitene (Malatia) stood near the Eu-
pMates at the junction of roads leading from
Pontus to Mesopotamia and from Cappadocia
to Amida to Armenia (Strab. p. 537 ; Tac. Ann.
xv. 26 ; Procop. de Aed. iii. 4). It was the
station of the TweUth Legion (Fulminata)
after 70 A. D., and in the later division of pro
vinces was the capital of Armenia Secunda. In
A. D. 577 the Romans defeated Chosroes near it.
Melito (MeXlrav), bishop of Sardes in the
reign of M. Aurelius. (Diet, of Christ. Biogr.)
Mella or Mela (Mella), a river in GaUia
Transpadana, flowing by Brixia and falling into
the Ollius (CatuU. 77, 33 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 278).
Mellaria. 1. A town of the Bastuli in His
pania Baetica between Belon and Calpe, on the
road from Gades to Malaca (Plut. Sertor. 12 ;
Strab. p. 140; Ptol. ii. 4, 6; Plin. iii. 7).— 2. A
town in the same province, considerably N. of
the former, on the road from Corduba to
Emerita (PUn. iii. 14).
Melodunnm (Melun), a town of the Senones
in GalUa Lugdunensis, on an island of the Se
quana (Seine), and on the road from Agendicum
to Lutetia Parisiorum (Caes. B. G. vii. 58).
Melos (MrjAos : Mf)Xios : Milo), an island in
the Aegaean sea, and the most westerly of the
group of the Cyclades, whence it was caUed
Zephyria by Aristotle (Plin. iv. 70). It is about
seventy mfles N. of the coast of Crete, and
3ixty-five E. of the coast of Peloponnesus. Its
length is about fourteen miles from E. to W.,
and its breadth about eight miles. It contains
on the N. a deep bay, which forms an excellent
harbour, and on wMch was situated a town,
bearing the same name as the island. The
island is of volcanic origin; it contains hot
springs and mines of sulphur and alum (Athen.
p. 43 ; Plin. xxxv. 174). Its soil is very fertile,
and it produced in antiquity, as it does at pre
sent, abundance of corn, oU, wine, &c. It was
first colonised by the Phoenicians, who are said
to have caUed it Byblus or Byblis, after the
Phoenician town Byblus. It was afterwards
colomsed by Lacedaemonians, or at least by
Dorians ; and consequently in the Peloponnesian
war it embraced the side of Sparta. (Hdt. viii.
48 ; Thuc. v. 84-116 ; Diod. xii. 80 ; Strab. p.
484.) In B. c. 426 the Athenians made an un
successful attack upon the island ; but in 416
they obtained possession of the town after a
siege of several months, killed all the adult
males, sold the women and children as slaves,
and peopled the island by an Athenian colony.
— Melos was the birthplace of Diagoras, the
atheist, whence Aristophanes calls Socrates also
the Melian (Nub. 830). The 'Venus of Milo,'
now in the Louvre, was found here in 1820.
Melpomene. [Musae.]
Memini, a people to Gallia Narbonensis, on
the W. bank of the Durentia, whose chief town
was Carpentoracte (Carpentras).
Memmia Gens, a plebeian gens at Rome,
NN

546

MEMMIUS

whose members do not occur in history before
b. c. 178. They pretended to be descended
from the Trojan Mnestheus (Virg. Aen. v. 117).
Memmius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs B. c.
Ill, was an ardent opponent of the oligarchical
party at Rome during the Jugurthine war.
Among the nobles impeached by MemmiuB were
L. Calpurnius Bestia and M. AemUius Scaurus.
Memmius was slain by the mob of Saturninus
and Glaucia, while a candidate for the consul
ship in 100 (Cic. Cat. iv. 2 ; Appian, B. C. i. 82 ;
SaU. Jug. 27-34).— 2. C. Memmius Gemellus,
tribune of the plebs 66, curule aedUe 60, and
praetor 58. He belonged at that time to the
Senatorian party, since he impeached P. Vati-
nius, opposed P. Clodius, and was vehement in
Ms invectives against Julius Caesar. But be
fore he competed for the consulship, 54, he had
been reconciled to Caesar, who supported him
with all his interest. Memmius, however, again
offended Caesar by revealing a certain coalition
with Ms opponents at the comitia. He was im
peached for ambitus, and, receiving no aid from
Caesar, withdrew from Rome to Mytilene, where
he was living in the year of Cicero's procon
sulate. Memmius married Fausta, a daughter
of the dictator SuUa, whom he divorced after
having by her at least one son, C. Memmius.
[No. 3.] He was eminent both in literature and
in eloquence. Lucretius dedicated Ms poem,
De Berum Natura, to him. He was a man of
profligate character, and wrote indecent poems
(Plut. Lucull. 37 ; Cic. ad Att. i. 18, iv. 15-18,
ad Fam. xiii. 1-3 ; PUn. Ep. v. 3 ; Ov. Trist.
ii. 433; Gell. xix. 9). — 3. C. Memmius, son of
the preceding, was tribune of the plebs 54, when
he prosecuted A. Gabinius for malversation in
his province of Syria, and Domitius Calvtous
for ambitus at his consular comitia. Memmius
was stepson of T. Annius Milo who married Mb
mother, Fausta, after her divorce. He was consul
suffectus 34 (Val. Max. viii. 1, 3 ; Dio Cass. xlix.
42 ; Cic. ad Q. Fr. iii. 2). — 4. P. Memmius
Regulus, consul suffectus a.d. 81, afterwards
praefect of Macedonia and Achaia. He was the
husband of LoUia Paulina, and was compelled
by Caligula to divorce her. (Tac. Ann. xii. 23 ;
Suet. Gal. 25 ; Dio Cass. Ux. 12.)
Memnon (Mepvav). 1. The beautiful son of
Tithonus and Eos (Aurora), and brother of
EmatMon. He does not belong to the Iliad,
but is mentioned in the Odyssey as the hand
somest of mortals and as the slayer of Anti-
lochus (Od. iv. 187, xi. 522). As son of the Dawn
he comes in all variations of the myth from the
land of the sun ; but tMs is placed sometimes
• in the extreme south, sometimes in the east.
Memnon is brought into the Trojan story by
Arctinus in his Aethiopis : he was a prince of
the EtMopians, who came to the assistance of
his uncle Priam, for Tithonus and Priam were
half-brothers, both being sons of Laomedon by
different mothers. He came to the war in
armour made for him by Hephaestus, and slew
AntUochus, the son of Nestor, but was himself
slain by Achilles, after a long and fierce combat.
While the two heroes were fighting, Zeus
weighed' their fates, and the scale containing
Memnon's sank. (Quint. Smyrn. i. ; Diet. Cret.
iv. 2, 3 ; cf. Pind. Pyth. vi. 31, Ol. ii. 83, Nem.
iii. 63, vi. 50.) Details have been added by a
succession of poets. The mother of Memnon
was inconsolable at Ms death. She wept for
him every morning ; and the dew-drops of the
morning are the tears of Eos. To soothe the
grief of his mother, Zeus caused a number of
birds to issue out of the funeral pile on which

MEMNON
the body of Memnon was burmng, wMch, after
flying thrice around the burning pile, divided
into two separate companies, wMch fought so
fiercely, that half of them fell down upon the
ashes of the hero, and thus formed a funeral
sacrifice for him. These birds were caUed
Memnonides, and, according to a story current
on the Hellespont, they visited every year the
tomb of the hero. At the entreaties of Eos,
Zeus conferred immortality upon Memnon (Ov.
Met. xiii. 576-622 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 493, 755 ;
Paus. x. 31, 2). — The weighing of the fates,
which recalls the Homeric weighing of the fates
of Hector and AcMUes (II. xxii. 209), gave the
name to the Vvxoo-rao-ia of Aeschylus, inwMch
the mothers of the two heroes stand on either
side each entreating for her son (Plut. de Aud.
Poet. 17 ; Pollux, iv. 130). There are besides
various traditions belonging to different
countries as to the country whence Memnon
came, and the place and manner of Ms burial.
Ctesias says that Memnon was sent by the Mng
of Assyria to aid Ms feudatory Priam, wMle
the Egyptians said that he had come directly
from Egypt (Diod. ii. 22) . The stories are harmo
nised in a later tradition wMch makes Memnon
come from EtMopia and Egypt to Susa (where
he bmlt the citadel called Memnonium) and
thence to Troy (Paus. x. 31 ; cf. Hdt. v. 53, vii.
151). The body of Memnon was saved from
dishonour and borne away for burial, like that
of Sarpedon in 11. xvi. 667. In the play of
Aeschylus Eos herself, by a mechanical contriv
ance, was shown bearing it away (Poll. iv. 130) ;
in another account it is wafted to its grave near
the Aesepus by the winds (Quint. Smyrn. ii.
549) ; in another, the Ethiopians themselves
carry it home to Tithonus (Diod. ii. 22). Tombs
of Memnon were shown to Egypt, on the bankB
of the Phrygian Aesepus, and at Paltus on the
Syrian coast (Strab. pp. 587, 728). It must re
main a matter of doubt how far the connexion
of the myth with different places may have
been due to accidental similarity of local names.
At Susa, for instance, it is certain that the
acropoUs was caUed to Mepvbviov, and it is pos
sible that the story may have been subsequently
attached to it. The most famous of all the tra
ditions is that wMch represented a colossal
Btatue near Thebes as the figure of Memnon the
son of Eos. The statue is really that of Amen.
hotep III. (or AmenopMs), who reigned in the
eighteenth dynasty, about 1480 b.c. It was placed
there beside another statue of Thi, the wife of
Amenhotep, and a Mesopotamian princess, and
was the work of a royal architect and minister,
who bore the same name as Ms master ; at some
time or other it began to give forth a musical
note when it was touched by the rising sun — ex
plained by modern writers as due to ' the sudden
change of temperature creating currents of air,
wMch pressed tMough crevices of the stone
and caused a melancholy singing note.' It may
have been an attempt to account for it, and some
likeness in the name, which attached the story
of Memnon bewailed by his mother the Dawn
to tMs statue : not, however, as it appears, at a
very early date. The name to Mepvbviov had
been applied when Strabo visited the place and
heard the musical note (not recorded before Ms
time), though he does not definitely state the
vocal statue to be Memnon's. A little later it
is frequently aUuded to as Memnon's statue
(Plin. xxxvi. 68 ; Tac. Ann. u. 61 ; Juv. xv. 5 ;
Lucian, Tox. 27). Pausanias (i. 42) in describ
ing it notices correctly that the Egyptians them
selves called it the statue, not of Memnon, but

MEMNONIUM
of Phamenoph (i.e. Amenophis). On the statue
were inscribed also verses by visitors, mostly of
the first and second cent. a. d. (C. I. G. 4738).
Herodotus (ii. 106) mentions with disapproval
a conjecture that a monument between Smyrna
and Ephesus (really Hittite : see p. 218, b) was
a figure of Memnon. It may be noted as a
curious coincidence that the recently- discovered
correspondence of Amenhotep IH. and IV.
shows that they were intimately connected by
aUiance and by marriage with kings of Babylon,
Assyria, and Mesopotamia, and also with the
prince of a country apparently near Paltus in
Syria. In art the weighing of the fates of
Memnon and AchiUes is a favourite subject for
vase paintings, as is also the bearing of the body
of the dead Memnon : to some he is carried by
Eos ; to one, like Sarpedon, by Death and Sleep.
— 2. A native of Rhodes, joined Artabazus,
satrap of Lower Phrygia, who had married his
sister, to Ms revolt agatost Darius Ochus.
When fortune deserted tie insurgents they fled
to the court of Philip. Mentor, the brother of
Memnon, being high to favour with Darius,
interceded on behalf of Artabazus and Memnon,
who were pardoned and again received toto
favour. On the death of Mentor, Memnon, who
possessed great military skill and experience,
succeeded him to his authority, wMch extended
over all the W. coast of Asia Minor (about b. c.
336). When Alexander invaded Asia, Memnon
defended Halicarnassus agatost Alexander, untU
it was no longer possible to hold out. He then
coUected an army and a fleet, with the design of
carrying the war toto Greece, but died at Myti
lene in 333, before he could carry his plan toto
execution. His death was an irreparable loss
to the Persian cause ; for several Greek states
were prepared to join Mm, had he carried the
war toto Greece. (Arrian, An. i. 12-23, ii. 1 ;
Diod. xvi. 34, 52, xvii. 18-21.) — 3. A native of
Heraclea Pontica, wrote a large work on the
Mstory of that city. Of how many books it
consisted we do not know. Photius had read
from the ninth to the sixteenth inclusive, of
wMch portion he has made a tolerably copious
abstract. The first eight books he had not read,
and he speaks of other books after the sixteenth.
The ninth book began with an account of the
tyrant Clearchus, the disciple of Plato and Iso
crates, and the sixteenth book came down to the
time of Julius Caesar, after the latter had ob
tained the supreme power. The work was prob
ably written to the time of Augustus, and cer
tainly not later than the time of Hadrian or the
Antonines. The Excerpta of Photius are pub
lished separately, by OreUi, Lips. 1816.
Memnonium. [Memnon.]
Memphis (Mepepis, MeV<p: O. T. Moph: Me/t-
tpirns, Memphites ; to Egyptian Men-ruf er, ' the
good abode ' ; Menf and Metrahenny, Ru.), a
great city of Egypt wMch stood on the left
(W.) bank of the Nile, about ten miles above
the pyramids of Jizeh, near the N. limit of the
Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, a nome of which
(Meprplrris) was named after the city. It was
connected by canals with the lakes of Moeris
and Mareotis. It was the chief seat of the
worsMp of Ptah (whom the Greeks identified
with Hephaestus). It was of unknown an
tiquity, its foundation being ascribed to Menes,
and was the capital of the third, fifth, seventh
and eighth dynasties. It ranked during the
great period of Thebes as second only to that
city, and after the downfaU of Thebes re
mained the wealthiest and most important city
of Egypt (though it was partially destroyed by

MENANDER

547

Cambyses in B.C. 524) until Alexandria super
seded it. In the time of its splendour it is said
to have been 150 stadia in circumference, and
half a day's journey in every direction. Of the
splendid buildings with which it was adorned,
the chief were the palace of the Pharaohs ; the
temple-palace of the god-bull Apis ; the temple
of Serapis, with its avenue of sphinxes, now
covered by the sand of the desert; and the
temple of Ptah. (Hdt. ii. 99, 114, 136, 153, 154 ;
Diod. i. 50 ; Strab. pp. 803-817.)
Menaenum or Menae (Menenius Cic, Mena-
ninus Plin., but on coins Menaenus ; Mineo), a
town on the E. coast of Sicily, S. of Hybla, the
birthplace and residence of the Sicel chief
Ducetius, who was long a formidable enemy of
the Greek cities in Sicily. [Ducetius.] On' his
f aU the town lost all its importance. (Diod. xi.
78, 88, 90 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 22, 42).
Menalippus. [Melanippus.]
Menander (MevavSpos), of Athens, the most
distinguished poet of the New Comedy, was
the son of Diopithes and Hegesistrate, and
flourished in the time of the successors of
Alexander. He was born B.C. 342. His father,
Diopithes, commanded the Athenian forces on
the HeUespont in the year of Ms son's birth.
Alexis, the comic poet, was the uncle of Me
nander, on the father's side; and we may
naturally suppose that the young Menander
derived from Ms uncle his taste for the comic
drama, and was instructed by him to its rules
of composition. His character must have been
greatly influenced by Mb intimacy with Theo
phrastus and Epicurus, of whom the former
was his teacher and the latter his intimate
friend. His taste and sympathies were alto
gether with the philosophy of Epicurus; and
to an epigram he declared that ' as Themisto
cles rescued Greece from slavery, so Epicurus
from unreason.' From Theoptoastus, on the
other hand, he must have derived much of that
skiU to the discrimination of character which
we so much admire
in the Gharacteres
of the pMlosopher,
and wMch formed
the great charm of
the comedies of
Menander. Of the
actual events of
Ms life we know
but little. He en
joyed the friend
ship of Demetrius
Phalereus, whose
attention was first
drawn to him by
admiration of his
works. Ptolemy,
the son of Lagus,
was also one of Ms admirers ; and he invited
the poet to his court at Alexandria ; but
Menander seems to have declined the prof
fered honour. He died at Athens B.C. 291, at
the age of fifty-two, and is said to have been
drowned while swimming in the harbour of
Piraeus. Notwithstanding Menander's fame as
a poet, his public dramatic career was not
eminently successful ; for, though he composed
upwards of 100 comedies, he only gained the
prize eight times. His preference for vivid
delineation of character instead of eoarse jest-
tog may have been the reason why he was not
so great a favourite with the common people as
his principal rival, Philemon, who is said,
moreover, to have used unfair means of gain-
nn 2

Bust of Menander. I Visconti,
Icon, Gr. vi. 8.)

5-18

MENAPII

tog popularity. Menander appears to have
borne the popular neglect very lightly, in the
consciousness of Ms superiority ; and once, when
he happened to meet Philemon, he is said to
have asked him, 'Pray, Philemon, do you not
blush when you gain a victory over me ? ' The
neglect of Menander's contemporaries has been
amply compensated by his posthumous fame.
His comedies retained their place on the stage
down to the time of Plutarch, and the unani
mous consent of antiquity placed Mm at the
head of the New Comedy, and on an equality
with the great masters of the various kinds of
poetry. It is clear that in the New Comedy
Menander had much more scope for an inge
nious plot than was attainable to the older
comedy : in the first place, because it was no
longer a political pasquinade attacking known
persons, under real or feigned names, but a
picture of social life, in which the characters
were typical, and whatever satire was used was
directed at manners, not at persons ; and
secondly, the Chorus, which was an impedi
ment to the plot, was abandoned. Menander
seems to have been sMlful in the invention and
development of his story — usually an intrigue
or love-story — clever in his character-drawing,
polished and witty in his dialogue. His come
dies were imitated by the Roman dramatists, by
Plautus in the Bacchides, Stichus, and Poe-
nulus, and still more by Terence, who was little
more than a translator of Mena,nder. But we
cannot form from any one play of Terence a
fair notion of the corresponding play of Menan
der, as the Roman poet frequently compressed
two of Menander's plays into one by what was
called Contaminatio. Of Menander's comedies
only fragments are extant, edited by Meineke,
in Fragm. Comic. Graec.
Menapii, a powerful people to the N. of
Gallia Belgica, originally dwelt on both banks
of the Rhine, but were afterwards driven out of
their possessions on the right bank by the
Usipetes and Tenchteri, and inhabited only the
left bank near its mouth, and W. of the Mosa
(Caes. B.G. ii. 4, iv. 4, 22, 38 ; Tac. Hist. iv. 28 ;
Strab. pp. 194, 199). Their country was covered
with forests and swamps. They had a fortress
near the Mosa caUed Castellum Menapiorum
(Cassel, a little N. of Hazebroucky
Menas (Mr/vds), also called Menodorns (Mrivb-
Sapos) by Appian, a freedman of Pompey the
Great, was one of the principal commanders of
the fleet of Sext. Pompey in his war against
Octavian and Antony, B.C. 40. In 39 he tried
in vain to dissuade Ms master from concluding
a peace with Octavian and Antony ; and, at an
entertainment given to them by Sextus on
board his ship at Misenum, Menas suggested to
him to cut the cables of the vessel, and, running
it out to sea, despatch both his rivals. The
treacherous proposal, however, was rejected by
Pompey. (Dio Cass, xlviii. 30, 36-45 ; Appian,
B. C. v. 56, 66, 70-73 ; Plut. Ant. 32 ; Veil.
Pat. ii. 78, 77.) On the breaking out of the
war again to 38, Menas deserted Pompey and
went over to Octavian. In 86 he returned to
his old master's service ; but in the course of
the same year he again played the deserter,
and joined Octavian. In 85 he accompanied
Octavian in the Pannonian campaign, and was
slain at the siege of Siscia. (Dio Cass, xlviii. 54,
xlix. 1, 37 ; App. B. C. v. 77-101 ; Suet. Aug.
74.) According to the old scholiasts, this
Menas is the person so vehemently attacked by
Horace in his fourth Epode. It is difficult to
reconcile with this Horace's description of the

MENEDEMUS
person attacked in the Epode as 'tribunus
militum.' There is less difficulty to accepting
the tradition that the ficMeness of Menas is
alluded to in Od. iii. 3, 16.
Mende or Mendae (MeV87j : MevSaios), a town
on the W. coast of the Macedonian peninsula
Pallene and on the Thermaic gulf, was a colony
of the Eretrians, and was celebrated for its
wine. It was for some time a place of consider
able importance, but was ruined by the foun
dation of Cassandria. (Hdt. vii. 123 ; Thuc. iv.
123, 130 ; Paus. x. 5, 27 ; Liv. xxxi. 45.)
Mendes (MeVB-ijs : Mev5r)o-ios : Ru. near Ma-
tarieh), a considerable city of the Delta of
Egypt, on the S. side of the lake of Tanis
(Menzaleh), and on the bank of one of the
lesser arms of the NUe, named after it
MevSr)aiov arbpa: the seat of the worsMp of
the sacred ram Mendes, whose worship the
Greeks connected with that of Pan. Mendes
became the capital of the 29th and 30th dynas
ties. (Hdt. ii. 42, 46 ; Diod. i. 84 ; Strab. p. 802.)
Menecles (MeveKXrjs). 1. Of Alabanda, a
celebrated rhetorician. He and his brother
Hierocles taught rhetoric at Rhodes, where the
orator M. Antonius heard them, about B.C. 94
(Cic. Brut. 95, 325, de Or. n. 23 ; Strab. p.
661). — 2. A historian of Barce mentioned by
Athenaeus, p. 184.
Menecrates (MeracpaTTjs). 1. A Syracusan
physician at the court of PhiUp, king of Mace
don, B.C. 359-336. He made himself ridiculous
by calling Mmself 'Jupiter,' and assuming
divine honours. There is a tale that he was.
invited one day by Philip to a magmficent
entertainment, where the other guests were
sumptuously fed, whUe he himself had nothing
but incense and libations, as not being subject.
to the human infirmity of hunger. He was at
first pleased with his reception, but afterwards
perceiving the joke, and finding that no more
substantial food was offered him, he left the
party to disgust. (Athen. p. 289 ; Ael. V. H. xii.
51.) — 2. Tiberius Claudius Menecrates, a
physician mentioned by Galen, composed more
than 150 medical works, of which only a few
fragments remain.
Menedemns (MeveSripos), a Greek pMlosopher,
was a native of Eretria, and though of noble
birth was poor, and worked for a Uvelihood.
either as a Mulder or as a tent-maker. Accord
ing to one story he seized the opportunity
afforded by his being sent on some military
service to Megara, to hear Plato, and aban
doned the army to addict himself to pMlosophy ;
but it may be questioned whether he was old
enough to have heard Plato. According to
another story, he and Ms friend Asclepiades
got their livelihood as mUlers, working during
the night, that they might have leisure for
philosophy in the day (Athen. p. 168). The two
friends afterwards became disciples of Stilpo at.
Megara. From Megara they went to Elis, and
placed themselves under the instruction of
some disciples of Phaedo. On his return to
Eretria Menedemus established a school of
pMlosophy, which was called the.Eretrian. He
did not, however, confine himself to plulo-
sophical pursuits, but took an active part in the
political affairs of his native city, and came to-
be the leading man to the state. He went on
various embassies to Lysimachus, Demetrius,
and others ; but being suspected of the
treacherous intention of betraying Eretria into
the power of Antigonus, he quitted his native
city secretly, and took refuge with Antigonus
m Asia. Here he starved himself to death in

MENELAI PORTUS
the 74th year of Ms age, probably about B.C.
277. (Diog. Laert. ii. 125-144; Strab. p. 393.)
Of the pMlosophy of Menedemus Uttle iB known,
except that it closely resembled that of the
Megarian school. [Euclides, No. 2.]
Menelai, or -us, Portus (MeveXaios Xlpnv,
Mcce'Aaos: Marsa - Toubrouk, or Bas-el-
MilhrV), an ancient city on the coast of
Marmarica, to N. Africa, founded, according to
tradition, by Menelaus. It is remarkable as
the place where Agesilaus died. (Hdt. ii. 119 ;
Strab. pp. 40, 838 ; Nep. Ages. 8.)
Menelaium. [Thekapae.]
Menelaus (Meve'Aaos, MeveXews, or MeveXas).
1. Son of PUsthenes or Atreus, and younger
brother of Agamemnon. His early life is
related under Agamemnon. He was king of
Lacedaemon, and married to the beautiful
Helen, by whom he became the father of Her
mione. When Helen had been carried off by

MENESTHEI PORTUS

549

Menelaus and Helen. (Millingen, Ane. Uned. Mon. pi.
Paris, Menelaus and OdyBseus saUed to Troy to
order to demand her restitution. Menelaus
was hospitably treated by Antenor, but the
journey was of no avail ; and the Trojan Anti-
machus even advised his feUow-citizens to Mil
Menelaus and Odysseus (H. xi. 139). Thereupon
Menelaus and his brother Agamemnon resolved
to march against Troy with all the forces that
Greece could muster. In the Trojan war
Menelaus was under the special protection of
Hera and Athene, and distinguished Mmself by
Ms bravery in battle (II. ii. 581, iv. 8, 129, v.
50, 576, xui. 614). He MUed many iUustrious
Trojans, and would have slain Paris also in
single combat, had not the latter been carried
off by Aphrodite to a cloud (12. iii. and iv.).
Menelaus was one of the heroes concealed in
the wooden horse; and as soon as Troy was
taken he and Odysseus hastened to the house
of Deiphobus, who had married Helen after the
death of Paris, and put him to death in a bar
barous manner (Od. iv. 280, viii. 518; Verg. Aen.
vi. 523). Menelaus is said to have been secretly
introduced into the chamber of Deiphobus by
Helen, who thus became reconciled to her
former husband. He was among the first that
sailed away from Troy, accompanied by his
wife Helen and Nestor ; but he was eight years
wandering about the shores of the Mediterra
nean and in Egypt, before he reached home
(Od. iii. 276-312, iv. 125, 228 ; cf. Hdt. ii. 113,
116; Paus. x. 25 2 Strab. p. 801). He ar

rived at Sparta on the very day on which
Orestes was engaged in burying Clytaemnestra
and Aegisthus (Od. iv. 865). Henceforward he
lived with Helen at Sparta to peace and
wealth, and his palace shone in its splendour
like the sun or the moon. When Telemachus
visited Sparta to inquire after his father,
Menelaus was solemnising the marriage of his
daughter Hermione with Neoptolemus, and of
Ms son Megapenthes with a daughter of
Alector (Od. iv. 1-80 ; Paus. iii. 14, 6). In the
Homeric poems Menelaus is described as a
man of an athletic figure ; he spoke little, but
what he said was always impressive ; he was
brave and courageous, but milder than Aga
memnon, inteUigent and hospitable. According
to the prophecy of Proetus in the Odyssey
(iv. 561), MenelauB and Helen were not to die,
but the gods were to conduct them to Elysium ;
for Helen was the daughter and Menelaus the
son-in-law of Zeus. Menelaus was worshipped
as a hero at Therapne, where his tomb and that
of Helen were shown. Respecting the tale that
Helen never went to Troy, but was detained in
Egypt, see Helena. [For the conjectural
history of the rule of the Pelopidae to the
Peloponnesus see Mycenae and Tieyns ; and
for the Trojan war see Teoja.] — 2. Son of
Lagus, and brother of Ptolemy Soter, held
possession of Cyprus for his brother, but was
defeated and driven out of the island by Deme
trius Poliorcetes, B.C. 306 (Diod. xx. 21-53 ;
Plut. Demetr. 15-17). — 3. A Greek mathemati
cian, a native of Alexandria, the author of an
extant treatise in three books, on the Sphere.
He made astronomical observations at Rome in
the first year of the emperor Trajan, A.D. 98.
Menelaus (MeveXaos), a city of Lower Egypt,
on the Canopic branch of the NUe, named after
the brother of Ptolemy the son of Lagus. It
was made the capital of the district between
the lakes of Moeris and Mareotis (vopbs Meve-
Xairris). ^Strab. pp. 801, 803.)
Menemus Lanatus. 1, Agrippa, consul,
b.c 503, conquered the Sabines. It was owing to
Ms mediation that the first great rupture
between the patricians and plebeians, when the
latter seceded to the Sacred Mount, was brought
to a happy and peaceful termination to 493 ;
and it was upon this occasion he is said to have
related to the plebeians Ms well-known fable of
the belly and the members (Liv. ii. 16, 32 ;
Dionys. v. 44, 49). — 2. T., consul 477, was de
feated by the Etruscans. He had previously
allowed the Fabii to be destroyed by the
Etruscans, although he might have assisted
them with Ms army. For this act of treachery
he was brought to trial by the tribunes and
condemned to pay a fine. He took his punish
ment so much to heart, that he shut himself up
in the house and died of grief. (Liv. ii. 51
Dionys. ix. 18-27 ; Gell. xviii. 21.)
Menes or Mena (Mr)vris), first king of Egypt,
according to tradition. Herodotus records of
him that he built Memphis on a piece of ground
which he had rescued from the river by turning
it from its former course, and erected therein a
magnificent temple to Hephaestus (Ptah).
Diodorus tells us that he introduced into
Egypt the worship of the gods and the pra6tice
of sacrifices, as well as a luxurious style of
livtog. His date is placed at 4000-4500 b.c. (Hdt.
ii. 4, 99 ; Diod. i. 43, 45, 89 ; Plut. Is. et Os. 8.)
Menesthei Portus (Puerto de S. Maria), a
harbour in Hispania Baetica, not far from
Gades, with an oracle of Menestheus, who is
said to have settled in Spain (Strab. p. 140).

650

MENESTHEUS

Menestheus (Meveo-Beis). 1. Son of Peteos,
an Athenian king, who led the Athenians against
Troy. With the assistance of the Tyndarids, he is
said to have driven Theseus from his kingdom,
but to have been afterwards expelled by the
Theseids and to have died in Spain. (H. ii. 552,
iv. 327 ; Paus. i. 17, 6, ii. 25, 6 ; Plut. Thes. 32 ;
Strab. p. 140.) — 2. Son of Iphicrates, the famous
Athenian general, by the daughter of Cotys,
king of Thrace. He married the daughter of
Timotheus ; and in 356 was chosen commander
in the Social war, his father and his father-in-
law being appointed to aid him with their
counsel and experience. They were all three
impeached by their colleague, Chaees, for
alleged misconduct and treachery in the cam
paign; but Iphicrates and Menestheus were
acquitted. (Nep. Iph. 3, Tim. 3 ; Diod. xvi. 21.)
Meninx or Lotophagitis, aft. Girba (Mrjviyt,
Aaroipayirts, Aaroipayav vr)o-os : Jerbah), a
considerable island, close to the coast of Africa
Propria, at the SE. extremity of the Lesser
Syrtis, with two cities, Meninx (Menaz) on the
NE., and Girba, or Gerra, on the SW. It was
the birthplace of the emperors Vibius Gallus
and Volusianus. (Strab. pp. 25, 123, 157, 834;
Aurel. Vict. Ep. 31.)
Menippe (Meviwirri), daughter of Orion and
sister of Metioche. These two sisters put
themselves to death in order to propitiate the
two Erinnyes who had visited Aonia with a
plague. They were metamorphosed by Perse
phone and Hades toto comets, and the Aonians
erected to them a sanctuary near Orchomenos.
(Ov. Met. xiii. 685 ; Ant. Lib. 25.)
Menippus (MeWrros). — 1. Usurped the rule
of Oreus in Euboea, with the aid of Philip of
Macedon (Dem. de Cor. pp. 248, 252 ; Diod. xvi.
74). — 2. An officer of Philip V. of Macedon
(Liv. xxvii. 32, xxviii. 5: Pol. x. 42). — 3. An
envoy from Antiochus to Rome; afterwards
incited and aided the Aetolians in their war
with Rome (Liv. xxxiv. 57, xxxv. 82, 50). — 4,
A Cynic philosopher, and originally a slave, was
a native of Gadara in Coele-Syria. He seems to
have been a hearer of Diogenes, and flourished
about B.C. 60. He amassed great wealth as a
usurer, but was cheated out of it aU, and com
mitted suicide. We are told that he wrote
nothing serious, but that his books were full of
jests ; whence it would appear that he was one
of those Cynic philosophers who threw all their
teaching into a satirical form. In this character
he is several times introduced by Lucian. His
works are lost ; but we have considerable frag
ments of Varro's Saturae Menippeae, written
#in imitation of Menippus. (Diog. Laert. ii. 99,
Vi. 101.) _
Mennis, a city of Adiabene, in Assyria, only
mentioned by Curtius (v. 1).
Menodotus (Mjjj/o'o'otos), a phyBician of Nico
media in Bithynia, who was a pupil of
Antiochus of Laodicea, and tutor to Herodotus
of Tarsus ; he belonged to the medical sect of
the Empirici, and lived probably about the
beginning of the second century after Christ.
Menoeceus (MeyoiKeils). 1. A Theban, grand
son of Pentheus, and father of Hipponome,
Jocasta, and Creon (Eur. Phoen. 10 ; Apollod.
ii. 4, 5). — 2. Grandson of the former, and son of
Creon. He put an end to his life because Tire-
sias had declared that his death would bring
victory to his country, when the seven Argive
heroes marched against Thebes. His tomb was
at Thebes near the Neitian gate. (Eur. Phoen.
768, 930 ; Paus. ix. 25 ; ApoUod. iii. 6, 7.)
Menoetius (Mevotrios). 1. Son of Iapetus

MERCURIUS
and Clymene or Asia, and brother of Atlas,
Promethus, and Epimetheus. He was MUed by
Zeus with a flash of lightning, to the battle
with the Titans, and was hurled into Tartarus.
(Hes. Th. 507; Apollod. i. 2, 3.)— 2. Son of
Actor and Aegina, husband of Polymele or
Sthenele, and father of Patroclus, who is hence
called Menoetiades. Menoetius fled with the
young Patroclus, who had slain the son of Am-
phidamas, to Peleus in Phthia, and had him edu
cated there. (II. xi. 770, xxiii. 85 ; Strab. p. 425.)
Menon (Mevav). — 1. A noble of Pharsalus
in Thessaly who aided the Athenians at Eion
(Thuc. ii. 22, iv. 102 ; Dem. c. Arist. pp. 686,
687). — 2. A Thessalian adventurer, was one of
the generals of the Greek mercenaries to the
army of Cyrus the Younger when the latter
marched into Upper Asia agatost Ms brother
Artaxerxes, B.C. 401. After the death of Cyrus
he was apprehended along with the other
Greek generals by Tissaphernes, and was put to
death by lingering tortures, which lasted for a
whole year. His character is drawn to the
blackest colours by Xenophon. He is the same
as the Menon introduced to the dialogue of
Plato which bears his name. (Xen. An. i. 1, 10,
ii. 6, 21 ; Diod. xiv. 19, 27.)
Mens, a personification of mind, worsMpped
by the Romans, had a sanctuary on the Capitol.
Mentesa (Mentesanus), surnamed Bastia,
a town of the Oretani in Hispania Tarraconen
sis, on the road from Castulo to Carthago Nova
(Liv. xxvi. 17 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 59).
Mentor (Mevrap). 1. Son of Alcimus and
faithful friend of Odysseus, frequently mentioned
in the Odyssey (ii. 226, in. 13, xxiv. 445).— 2.
A Greek of Rhodes, who, with his brother
Memnon, rendered active assistance to Arta
bazus. When the latter found himself com
pelled to take refuge at the court of Philip,
Mentor entered the service of Nectanabis,
king of Egypt. He was sent to the assistance
of Tennes, king of Sidon, in Ms revolt against
Darius Ochus ; and when Tennes went over to
the Persians, Mentor was taken toto the service
of Darius. He rose rapidly in the favour of
Darius, and eventually received a satrapy, in
cluding all the western coast of Asia Minor.
His influence with Darius enabled him to pro
cure the pardon of his brother Memnon. He
died in possession of his satrapy, and was suc
ceeded by his brother Memnon. [Memnon.]
(Diod. xvi. 42-52 ; Arrian, An. vii. 419.) — 3.
The most celebrated silver-chaser among
the Greeks, who must have lived before B.C.
356, since some of his work perished with the
temple of Ephesus in that year. His works
were vases and cups, which were most highly
prized by the Romans (Plin. vii. 127, xxxiii.
154; Propert. i. 14, 2; Mart. xi. 15, 5; Cic.
Verr. iv. 18, 38 ; Juv. viii. 104).
Menyllus (MeVuAAos) commanded at Muny»
chia for Antipater after the Lamian war (Diod.
xviii. 18; Plut. Phoc. 28-31).
Mercurii Promontorium. [Hekmaeum.]
Merciirius, a Roman divinity of commerce
and gain, especially the tutelary god of the
mercatores and their guild (collegium). The
character of the god is clear from his name,
which is connected with merx and mercari.
It is, however, doubtful whether he was a god
of the original settlers at Rome of the Latin
and Sabine stock. There is more reason to
believe that his worship was introduced by the
Etruscans, possibly first in consequence of the
development of the corn trade with Etruria and
with Sicily (Liv. ii. 84), and grew in importance

MERCURIUS
under the Tarquins, as the commerce was ex
tended not only to Magna Graecia but also to
Carthage. The equivalent god of commerce
among the Etruscans was caUed Turms (pro
bably an Etruscan word, not a corruption of
Hermes), and it is likely that the Romans
adopted the worship of that deity, but substi
tuted a name formed from their own language.
The earliest temple to Mercury was built near
the Circus Maximus, B.C. 493 (Liv. ii. 21, 27),
where Ms festival was celebrated, together with
that of Maia, on the Ides of May (Macrob. i. 12,
19). Besides this, numerous shrines of the god
were set up in streets frequented by traders,
and various names were appUed to the statues
to them : e.g. Mercurius Malevolus, M. Sobrius,
M. Epulo (Fest. pp. 161, 296 ; C. I. L. vi. 522),
some of which may refer to the character which
the sculptor gave in each case to the statue.
Hence one street was called Sobrius Vicus,
which some have curiously explained as being
named from the absence of wine-shops in the
street, or because milk, and not wine, was of
fered (Fest. p. 297). The title Epulo designated
Mercury as one of the deities honoured with
banquets by the Epulones. Merchants also
visited the weU near the Porta Capena, to wMch
magic powers were ascribed ; and with water
from that weU they used to sprinkle themselves
and their merchandise, that they might be
absolved from guUt of lying, and make a
large profit (Ov. Fast. v. 673). The name of
Mercury's WeU clung even to the middle ages
to tMs spot, wMch is still traceable. The Ro
mans of later times identified Mercurius, the
patron of merchants and tradespeople, with the
Greek Hermes (as god of gain), and transferred
all the attributes and myths of the latter to the
former. The Fetiales, however, never recogmsed
the identity, and instead of the caduceus used
a sacred branch as the emblem of peace. [Diet.
of Ant. art. Sagmina.] For the Greek myths
transferred to Mercurius, and for representa
tions of Mm to works of art, see Heemes.
Mercurius Trismegistus. [Heemes Teis-
MEGISTUS.] Meriones (Mnpib'vris), a Cretan hero, son of
Molus, who, conjointly with Idomeneus, led the
Cretans to 80 ships agatost Troy. He was one
of the bravest heroes to the Trojan war, and
usually acted together with Idomeneus. Later
traditions relate that on Ms way homeward he
was ttoown on the coast of SicUy, where he was
received by the Cretans who had settled there ;
whereas according to others he returned safely
to Crete, and was buried and worsMpped as a
hero, together with Idomeneus, at Cnossus. (II.
Li. 651, viu. 264, xvn. 669 Diod. iv. 79.)
Mermerus (Meppepos). 1. Son of Jason and
Medea, also called Macareus or Mormorus, was
murdered, together with Ms brother Pheres, by
Ms mother at Corinth (Apollod. i. 9, 28 ; Diod.
iv. 54). — 2. Son of Pheres, and grandson of
Jason and Medea (Od. i. 260).
Mermessus or Myrmessus (Meppriaabs,
Mvppnao-bs), also written Marmessns and
Marpessus, a town of Mysia, in the territory
of Lampsacus, not far from Polichna; the
native place of a sibyl (Paus. x. 12, 2 ; Suid. s.v).
Merobaudes, Flavius, a general and a poet,
whose merits are recorded in an inscription on
the base of a statue dug up in the Ulpian forum
at Rome in the year 1812 or 1813. We learn
from the inscription that the statue was erected
to a.d. 435. He wrote a,Laus Christi, and some
Mstorical poems, especially on Aetius, of which
fragments were discovered by Niebuto upon a

MESEMBRIA

551

palimpsest belonging to the monastery of St.
Gall, and were published by him at Bonn, 1823 ;
also inJWeber's Corp. Poet. Lat.
Meroe (Mep<jr; : pts. of Nubia and Sennar),
the island, so caUed, and almost an island in
reality, formed by the rivers Astapus (Blue
Nile) and Astaboras (Atbarah), and the portion
of the Nile between their mouths, was a district
of Ethiopia. Its capital, also called Meroe,
stood near the N. point of the island, on the E.
bank of the Nile, below the modern Shendy,
where the plain, near the village of Assour, is
covered with ruins of temples, pyramids, and
other works, to a style olosely resembling the
Egyptian. Standing in a fertile district, rich
to timber and minerals, at the foot of the high
lands of Abyssinia, and at the junction of two
great rivers, Meroe became at a very early
period a chief emporium for the trade between
Egypt, N. Africa, EtMopia, Arabia, and India,
and the capital of a powerful state. From
Meroe, in the eighth century B. c, was founded
the EtMopian dynasty (the twenty-fifth), which
reigned at Thebes [see p. 80, bj. The power at
Meroe was generally to the hands of a ruling
caste of priests, who chose a king from among
themselves, and bound him to govern according
to their laws ; until king Ergamenes (about B.C.
300) threw off the yoke of the priests (whom he
massacred) and converted Mb kingdom into an
absolute monarchy. — For further details see
Aethtopia, and Aegyptus.
Merom Lacus. [Semechonitis.]
Merope (Mepbirrj). 1. One of the Heliades
or sisters of Phaethon (Ov. Met. ii. 340 ; Hyg.
Fab. 154). — 2. Daughter of Atlas, one of the
Pleiades, and wife of Sisyphus of Corinth, by
whom she became the mother of Glaucus. In
the constellation of the Pleiades she is the
seventh and the least visible star, because she
is ashamed of having had intercourse with a
mortal man (ApoUod. i. 9, 3, iii. 10, 1 ; Ov. Fast.
iv. 175). — 3. Daughter of Cypselus, wife of
Cresphontes, and mother of Aepytus. For
details, see Aepytus.
Merops (Mepoty). 1. King of the island of
Cob, husband of the nymph Ethemea, and father
of Eumelus. His wife was killed by Artemis,
because she had neglected to worship that
goddess. Merops, to order to rejoin Ms wife,
wished to make away with himself, but Hera
changed him into an eagle, whom she placed
among the stars. (Eur. Hel. 384 ; Hyg. Astr. ii.
16 ; Ant. Lib. 15.)— 2. King of the Ethiopians,
by whose wife, Clymene, HeUos became the
father of Phaethon (Strab. p. 33 ; Ov. Met. i.
763). — 3. King of Rhyndacus, on the Hellespont,
also caUed Macar or Macareus, was a celebrated
soothsayer, and father of Clite, Arisbe, Amphius,
and Adrastus Ol. ii. 831, xi. 329 ; Strab. p. 586).
Morula, L. Cornelius, was flamen dialis, and,
on the deposition of L. Cinna in B.C. 87, was
elected consul in his place. On the capture of
Rome by Marius and Cinna at the close of the
same year, Morula put an end to his own Ufe.
(App. B. C. i. 65-75 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 58 ; Plut.
Mar. 41, 45.)
Mesambria (Meo-apBplri : Bushehr), a penin
sula on the coast of Persis, near the river
Padargus, the present Abu-shir.
Meschela (Meo-xe'Aa: prob. near Bonah), a
large city on the coast of N. Africa, said to have
been founded by Greeks returning from the
Trojan war. It was taken by Eumachus, the
Ueutenant of Agathocles (Diod. xx. 57).
Mesembria (Meo-vpBpia, Herod. Meo-apBplrt :
MeffripBpiavbs). 1. (Missivri or Messuri), a

552

MESENE

celebrated town of Thrace on the Pontus Euxi
nus, and at the foot of Mt. Haemus, founded by
the inhabitants of Chalcedon and Byzantium to
the time of Darius Hystaspis, and hence called
a colony of Megara, since those towns were
founded by the Megarians (Hdt. vi. 33 ; Strab.
p. 319 ; Ptol. in. 10, 8).— 2. A town to Thrace,
but of much less importance, on the coast of
the Aegaean sea, and in the territory of the
Cicones, near the mouth of the Lissus, and the
most westerly of the Samothracian settlements
on the mainland (Hdt. vii. 108).
Mesene (Meo-r/vf), i.e. Midland), a name given
to that part of Babylonia which consisted of
the great island formed by the Euphrates, the
Tigris, and the Royal Canal; containing the
greater part of Babyloma (Strab. p. 84).
Mesoa or Messoa. [Spaeta.]
Mesogis. [Lydia, p. 507, b.]
Mesomedes (Meo-opr)Sris), a lyric and epigram
matic poet under Hadrian and the Antonines,
was a native of Crete, and a freedman of Ha
drian, whose favourite Antinous he celebrated
in a poem. A salary wMch he had received
from Hadrian, was diminished by Antoninus
Pius. Three poems of his are preserved to the
Greek Anthology.
Mesopotamia (Meo-OTroTa^fa, r) Mean rav
irorapav : O. T. Aram Naharaim, i.e. Syria be
tween the Bivers : LXX Merroirorapta Svpias :
Al-Jesira, i.e. The Island), a district of W.
Asia, named from its position between the
Euphrates and the Tigris, of which rivers the
former divided it from Syria and Arabia on
the W., the latter from Assyria on the E. : on
the N. it was separated from Armenia by a
branch of the Taurus, called Masius, and on
the S. from Babylonia by the Median WaU.
The name was probably first used by the Greeks
in the time of the Seleucidae (Arrian, vii. 7 ; Tac.
Ann. vi. 43) , In earlier times the country was
reckoned a part, sometimes of Syria, and some
times of Assyria. Nor in the division of the
Persian empire was it recognised as a distinct
country, but it belonged to the satrapy of Baby
lonia. Excepting the mountainous region on
the N. and NE. formed by the chain of Masius,
and its prolongation parallel to the Tigris, the
country formed a vast plain, broken by few
hills, well watered by rivers and canals, and
very fertile, except in the S. part, wMch was
more like the Arabian Desert, on the opposite
side of the Euptoates. Besides corn, and fruit,
and spices (e.g. the amomum), it produced fine
timber, and supported large herds of cattle ; to
the S., or desert part, there were numerous wild
, animals, such as wild asses, gazeUes, ostriches,
and lions. Its chief mineral products were
naphtha and jet (Curt. v. 1, 12 ; Strab. xvi. 747).
The N. part of Mesopotamia was divided into
the districts of Mygdonia and Oseoene. It
belonged successively to the Assyrian, Baby
lonian, Persian, Macedonian, Syro-G-recian,
Parthian and later Persian empires, but at
times formed part of the Roman empire. Trajan
conquered it in 115, when he formed the three
provinces called Armenia, Assyria, and Meso
potamia ; but Hadrian relinquished it. Aurelius
reconquered it, and founded a colony .at Sin-
gara; Sept. Severus founded others at Nisibis
and Rhesaena. (Dio Cass, lxviii. 22, lxxv. 1, 3 ;
Eutrop. viii. 6.) It was really of small value
to Rome, and little else but a battlefield.
Jovian finally gave it up to the Persians (Amm.
Marc. xxv. 9). — In a wider sense the name is
sometimes applied to the whole country between
the Euphrates and the Tigris.

MESSALLA
Mespila (?) Me'oTriAa : Ru. at Ktmyounjik,
6pp. to Mosul, Layard), a city of Assyria, on
the E. side of the Tigris, wMch Xenophon
(Anab. iii. 4) mentions as having been formerly
a great city, inhabited by Medes, but in Ms
time faUen toto decay. It had a wall six para-
sangs in circuit, composed of two parts : namely,
a base fifty feet thick and fifty Mgh, of polished
stone full, of sheUs (the limestone of the country),
upon wMch was built a brick wall fifty feet
thick and 100 high. It had served, according
to tradition, as the refuge for the Median queen
when the Persians overthrew the empire of the
Medes, and it resisted all the efforts of the Per
sian king to take it, untU a thunderstorm fright
ened the inhabitants into a surrender.
Messa (Meaaa, MeVo-77 : Mezapo), a town
and harbour in Laconia near C. Taenarum
(II. u. 502 ; Paus. iii 25, 9). '
Messabatene or -ice (Meo-o-aBaTnvfi, Meoaa-
BariKr) : Meo-aaBdrai), a small district on the
SE. margin of the Tigris and Euptoates valley,
on the borders of Media, Persis, and Susiana,
reckoned sometimes to Persis and sometimes
to Susiana. The name is derived from the moun
tain passes in the district. (Strab. pp. 524, 744.)
Messalina. [Messallina.]
Messalla, less correctly Messala, the name
of a distinguished f amUy of the Valeria gens at
Rome. They appear for the first time on the
consular Fasti in B.C. 263, and for the last in
a.d. 506. — 1. M' . Valerius Maximus Corvinus
Messalla, was consul B.C. 263, and, to con
junction with his colleague M. Otacilius, carried
on the war with success against the Cartha
ginians to Sicily. The two consuls concluded a
peace with Hiero. In consequence of Ms re
lieving Messana he obtained the cognomen of
MessaUa. His triumph was distinguished by
two remarkable monuments of Ms victory — by a
pictorial representation of a battle with the
Sicilian and Punic armies, which he placed in
the Curia Hostilia, and by a sun-dial (Horo
logium), from the booty of Catana, wMch was
set up on a column betond the rostra, in the
forum. MessaUa was censor in 252. (Pol. i. 16,
17 ; Liv. En. 16 ; Plin. vii. 214, xxxv. 22.)— 2. M.
Valerius Messalla, consul 226 (Zonar. xviii.
19). — 3. M. Valerius Messalla, praetor pere-
grinus 194, and consul 188, when he had the
province of Liguria (Liv. xxxiv. 54, xxxviii. 42,
xiii. 28). — 4. M. Valerius Messalla, consul
161, and censor 154 (Val. Max. ii. 9, 9). — 5. M.
Valerius Messalla Niger, praetor 68 ; consul
51 ; and censor 55. He belonged to the aristo
cratical party. He married a sister of the
orator Q. Hortensius. (Dio Cass, xxxvii. 46;
Caes. B. G. i. 2 ; Cic. ad Fam. viii. 2.) — 6. M.
Valerius MessaUa, son of the preceding ; con
sul 58 ; belonged, like Mb father, to the aristo
cratical party ; but in consequence probably of
Ms enmity to Pompey, he joined Caesar in the
Civil war, and served under him in Africa. He
was in Mgh repute for his skUl to augury, on
wMch science he wrote. (Cic. ad Fam. vi. 18, ad
Att. iv. 16 ; Dio Cass. xl. 17, 45; Bell. Afr. 28;
GeU. xiii. 14.) — 7. M. Valerius Messalla Cor
vinus, son of the preceding, was educated
partly at Athens, where probably began his
intimacy with Horace and L. Bibulus (Hor.
Sat. i. 10, 81 ; App. B. C. iv. 88). After Caesar's
death (44) he joined the republican party, and
attached Mmself especially to Cassius, whom,
long after, when he had become the friend of
Octavianus, he was accustomed to call 'my
general' (Tac. Ann. iv. 34; Dio Cass, xlvii.
24 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 71). MessaUa was proscribed,

MESSALLA
but since his Mnsmen proved Ms absence from
Rome at the time of Caesar's assassination, the
triumvirs erased his name from the list, and
-offered him security for his person and property.
MessaUa, however, rejected their offers, followed
Cassius into Asia, and at PMlippi, in the first
day's battle, turned Octavianus's flank, stormed
his camp, and narrowly missed taking him
prisoner (Plut. Brut. 41). After the death of
Brutus and Cassius, MessaUa, with a numerous
body of fugitives, took refuge in the island of
Thasos. His foUowers, though defeated, were
not disorganised, and offered him the command.
But he induced them to accept honourable
terms from Antony, to whom he attached him
self until Cleopatra's influence made Ms ruto
certain and easy to be foreseen. MessaUa then
again changed his party, and served Augustus
effectively to SicUy, 36 ; against the Salassians,
a mountain tribe lying between the Graian and
the Pennine Alps, 84; and at Actium, 31.
(App. B. C. v. 102-113; Dio Cass. xlix. 38;
Strab. p. 189.) A decree of the senate had
abrogated Antony's consulsMp for 31, and
MessaUa was appointed to the vacant place.
He was proconsul of Aquitania to 28-27, and
obtained a triumph for his reduction of that
province. Shortly before or immediately after
Ms administration of Aquitama, MessaUa held
a prefecture to Asia Minor. He was deputed by
the senate, probably to 30, to greet Augustus
with the title of ' Pater Patriae ' ; and the
opening of Ms address on that occasion is pre
served by Suetonius (Aug. 58 ; cf. Ov. Fast.
U. 127, Trist. U. 39; Dio Cass. lvi. 8, 41).
During the disturbances at the comitia to 27,
Augustus nominated Messalla to the revived
¦office of warden of the city ; but he resigned it
to a few days. MessaUa soon afterwards with
drew from aU pubUc employments except his
augurstop, to which Augustus had speciaUy
appointed him, although, at the time of Ms ad
mission, there was no vacancy to the augural
coUege. About two years before his death,
which happened about the middle of Augustus's
reign, B.C. 3-a.d. 8, MessaUa's memory failed
him, and he often could not recall his own
name (Tac. Dial. 17). His tomb was of remark
able splendour. Messalla was distinguished
as much to the literary as in the poUtical
world of .Rome. He was a patron of learning
and the arts, and was himself a historian, a
poet, a grammarian, and an orator. He wrote
commentaries on the civil wars after Caesar's
death, and a genealogical work, De Bomanis
Familiis. (Plut. Brut. 40, 41, 45, 53; Tac.
Ann. iv. 34; Suet. Aug. 74; Plin. xxxiii. 50.)
The treatise, however, De Progenie Augusti,
which sometimes accompanies Eutropius and
the minor Roman Mstorians, is the forgery of a
much later age. MessaUa's poems were of a
satirical or even licentious character (PUn. Ep.
v. 3). His writings as a grammarian were
numerous and minute, comprising treatises on
construction and lexicography, andonthe powers
and uses of single letters (Quint, i. 7, 37). His
eloquence reflected the character of Ms age.
More smooth and correct than vigorous or
original, he persuaded rather than convinced,
and conciliated rather than persuaded (Quint.
iv. 1, 8). He recommended and practised
translation from the Greek orators; and his
version of the Phryneol Hyperides was thought
to exhibit remarkable skill in either language
(Quint, x. 5, 2). His political eminence, the
wealth he inherited or acquired in the civil
wars, and the favour of Antony and Augustus,

MESSALLINA

553

rendered Messalla one of the principal persons
of his age, and an effective patron of its litera
ture. His friendship for Horace and his inti
macy with Tibullus are well known. In the
elegies of the latter poet, the name of MessaUa
is continually introduced. (Hor. Od. iii. 21,
Sat. i. 6, 42, A. P. 871 ; Tib. i. 7, iv. 1.) The
dedication of the Ciris, a doubtful work, is not
sufficient proof of his friendship with Virgil;
but the companion of ' Plotius and Varius, of
Maecenas and Octavius ' (Hor. Sat. i. 10, 81),
cannot well have been unknown to the author
of the Eclogues and Georgics. He directed
Ovid's early studies (ex Pont. iv. 16), and
Tiberius sought Mb acquaintance in early man
hood, and took him for his model in eloquence.
— 8. M. Valerius Messalla Barbatus Appi-
anus, was consul B.C. 12, and died to Ms year
of office. He was the father (or grandfather) of
the empreBS MessaUina. (Dio Cass. liv. 28 ;
Suet. Claud. 26.) — 9. L. Valerius Messalla
Volesus, consM a.d. 5, and afterwards pro
consul of Asia, where his cruelties drew on him
the anger of Augustus and a condemnatory
decree from the senate (Tac. Ann. iii. 68). —
10. L. Vipstanus Messalla, legionary tribune
to Vespasian's army, a.d. 70, was brother of
Aquilius Regulus, the notorious delator in
Domitian's reign (Plin. Ep. i. 5). He is one of
Tacitus' authorities for the history of the civil
wars after Galba's death, and a principal inter
locutor in the dialogue De Oratoribua. (Tac.
Hist. ni. 9, 18, iv. 42, Dial. 15-25.)
MessaUina, or Messalina. 1. Statilia,
granddaughter of T. Statilius Taurus, cos.
a.d. 11, was the tMrd wife of the emperor
Nero, who married her in a.d. 66. She had
previously espoused Atticus Vestinus, whom
Nero put to death without accusation or
trial, merely that he might marry Messal-
lina (Tac. Ann. xv. 68 ; Suet. Ner. 35, Oth.
10).— 2. Valeria, daughter of M. Valerius Mes
saUa Barbatus and of Domitia Lepida, was
the third wife of the emperor Claudius. She

Bust of MessaUina, wife of Claudius. (From the
Capitol, Eome.)
married Claudius, to whom she was previously
related, before his accession to the empire.
Her profligacy and licentiousness were noto-

554

MESSANA

rious ; and the absence of virtue was not con
cealed by any sense of shame or regard for
decorum. She was as cruel as she was profli
gate ; and many members of the most illustrious
famflies of Rome were sacrificed to her fears or
her hatred. She long exercised an unbounded
empire over her weak husband, who alone was
ignorant of her infidelities. For some time she
was supported in her career of crime by the
freedmen of Claudius; but when Narcissus,
the most powerful of the emperor's freedmen,
perceived that he should probably fall a victim
to Messallina's intrigues, he determined to get
rid of her. The insane folly of MessaUina
furnished the means of her own destruction.
Having conceived a violent passion for a hand
some Roman youth, C. Silius, she publicly
married Mm with all the rites of a legal conu-
bium during the absence of Claudius at Ostia,
a.d. 48. Narcissus persuaded the emperor that
Silius and MessaUina would not have dared
such an outrage had they not determined also
to deprive him of empire and life. Claudius
wavered long, and at length Narcissus Mmself
issued Messallina's death-warrant. She was put
to death by a tribune of the guards in the
gardens of LucuUus. (Tac. Ann. xi. 26-38 ; Dio
Cass. Ix. 14-31 ; Suet. Claud. 17-39 ; Juv. vi.
115-185, x. 333, xiv. 831.)
Messana (Meo-aiivri, Meatrdva Dor. : Me<r-
o-dvios : Messina), a celebrated town on the
NE. coast of Sicily, on the straits separating
Italy from this island, wMch are here about
four miles broad. It was originally a town of
the Sicels, and was called Zanele (ZdyKXri), or
a sickle, on account of the shape of its harbour,
which is formed by a singular curve of sandy
shore. The first Greek colonists were, according
to Thucydides, pirates from the Chalcidian town
of Cumae in Italy, who were joined by Chalci-
dians from Euboea, and, according to Strabo,
by Naxians ; but these two accounts are not
contradictory, for since Naxos in Sicily was also
a colony from Chalcis, we may easily suppose
that the Naxians joined the other Chalcidian s
in the foundation of the town (Thuc. vi. 4 ;
Strab. p. 268 ; Paus. iv. 23, 7 ; Diod. iv. 85).
Since the people of Zanele helped the Chalci-
dians to found Rhegium, in conjunction with
Messenians expelled during the first Messenian
war, Zanele itself must have been founded
between 735 (the date of Naxos) and the end of
the first Messenian war. [Rhegium.] Zanele
soon became bo powerful that it founded the
town of Himera, about B.C. 648. After the
capture of Miletus by the Persians, the inhabi-
, tants of Zanele invited the Ionians, who had
been expelled from their native country, to
settle on their 'beautiful coast' (KaXii aKrf),
Hdt. vi. 22); and a number of Samians and
other Ionic Greeks accepted their offer. On
landing in the S. of Italy, they were persuaded
by Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, to take posses
sion of Zanele during the absence of Scythes,
the tyrant of the city, who was engaged in the
siege of some other Sicilian town. But their
treachery was soon punished; for Anaxilaus
himself shortly afterwards drove the Samians
out of Zanele, and made himself master of the
town, the name of which he changed into
Messana or Messene, both because he was him
self a Messenian, and because he transferred to
the place a body of Messenians from Rhegium.
(Hdt. vi. 22, vii. 164; Thuc. I.e.; Strab. I.e.;
Diod. xi. 48.) Anaxilaus died 476 ; and about ten
years afterwards (466) his sons were driven out
of Messana and Rhegium, and republican

MESSAPIA
governments established in these cities. Messana
now enjoyed great prosperity for several years,
and to consequence of its excellent harbour
and advantageous position, it became a place of
great commercial importance. The Athenians
failed in their attempt to seize it in 415 (Thuc.
vi. 48, 74). But to 396 it was taken by the
Carthaginians, who destroyed the town because
they saw that they should be unable to main
tain so distant a possession against the power
of Dionysius of Syracuse (Diod. xiv. 56-58).
Dionysius began to rebuild it in the same year,
and besides collecting the remains of the former
population, he added a number of Locrians,
Messenians, and others, so that its tohabitants
were of a very mixed kind. After the banish
ment of the younger Dionysius, Messana was
for a short time free, but it fell into the power
of Agathocles about 312 (Diod. xix. 65, 102).
Among the mercenaries of tMs tyrant were a
number of Mamertini, an Oscan people from
Campania, who had been sent from home under
the protection of the god Mamers or Mars to
seek their fortune in other lands. These
Mamertini were quartered in Messana ; and
after the death of Agathocles (282) they made
themselves masters of the town, killed the male
inhabitants, and took possession of their wives,
their cMldren, and their property. The town
was now called Mamertina, and the inhabitants

Coin of Messana (5th cent. B.C.).
Obv., ME2SAN10N ; hare, dolphin below; rev., biga drawn
by mules ; charioteer crowned by Victory. (Anaxilaus-
won a victory with mules at Olympia, and introduced
hares into Sicily.)
Mamertini ; but its ancient name of Messana
continued to be to more general use (Pol. i. 7 ;
Diod. xxi. 18 ; Cic. Verr. ii. 5, 46, iii. 6). The
new inhabitants could not lay aside their old
predatory habits, and in consequence became
involved in a war with Hiero of Syracuse, who
defeated them in several battles, and would
probably have conquered the town, had not the
Carthaginians come in to the aid of the Mamer
tini, and, under the pretext of assisting them,
taken possession of their citadel. The MameiH
tini had at the same time applied to the Romans
for help, who gladly availed themselves of the
opportunity to obtain a footing in Sicily. Thus
Messana was the immediate cause of the first
Punic war, 264. (Pol. i. 10 ; Diod. xxiii. 1 : Liv.
Ep. 16.) The Mamertini expelled the Cartha
ginian garrison, and received the Romans.
Messana then passed under the Roman do
minion, but nominaUy as a civitas foederata,
retaining its own land and subject to tribute
only in time of war (Cic. Verr. v. 22, 56 ; Plut.
Pomp. 10). It was the headquarters of the
fleet of Sextus Pompeius, and, probably on
that account, lost its privUeges, and simply
received the Roman franchise as an oppidum
civium Bomanorum (Plin. iii. 88), but still
continued a flourishing place, and as late as the
Gothic wars was an important fortress (Ptol.
iii. 8, 9 ; Procop. B.G. i. 8, iii. 89).
Messapia (Meao-airia), the Greek name o£
Calabbia.

MESSAPIUM
.pium (to Meo-ffdiriov opos), a mountain
in Boeotia on the E. coast, near the town
Anthedon, from which Messapus is said to have
sailed to the S. of Italy (Strab. p. 405).
Messapus (MeVo-aTros), a Boeotian, from
whom Messapia in the S. of Italy was believed
to have derived its name (Strab. I.e.).
Messene (Meo-o-r)vrj), daughter of Triopas, and
wife of Polycaon, whom she induced to take
possession of the country which was called
after her, Messenia. She introduced there the
worship of Zeus and the mysteries of the great
goddess of Eleusis (Paus. iv. 1, 3, 27).
Messene (Meao-r)vri : Meo-o-hvios). 1. (Mavro-
mati), the later capital of Messenia, was
founded by Epaminondas B.C. 869, and com
pleted and fortified within the space of eighty-
five days. It was situated at the foot of the
steep hiU of Ithome, which was celebrated as a
fortress in the Mstory of the Messenian wars,
and now formed the acropolis of the new city.
(Paus. iv. 27 ; Diod. xv. 66.) Messene was one
of the most strongly fortified cities of Greece.
It was surrounded by massive walls built
entirely of stone and flanked with numerous
towers (Paus. iv. 31). There are stiU consider
able remains of some of these towers, as well
as the foundations of the waUs, and of several
pubUc buUdings. The northern gate of the
city is extant, and opens into a circular court,
62 feet to diameter. The city was supplied
with water from a fountain caUed Clepsydra,
stUl a fine spring. — 2. See Messana.
Messenia (Meaarivia : Meao-hvios ; in older
writers Meo-crnvri : Od. xxi. 15 ; cf. Pind. Pyth.
iv. 126), a country to Peloponnesus, bounded on
the E. by Laconia, on the N. by EUs and
Arcadia, and on the S. and W. by the sea. It
was separated from Laconia by Mt. Taygetus ;
but part of the W. slope of Taygetus belonged
to Laconia ; and it is difficult to determine the
exact boundaries between the two countries, as
they were different at different periods. In the
most ancient times the river Nedon formed the
boundary between Messenia and Laconia to
wards the sea ; but later the true frontier Une
was further SE., at a woody hollow caUed
Choerius, twenty stadia S. of Abia (Paus. iv. 1),
to the mountain district which Tacitus speaks
of as Ager DentheUates (Ann. iv. 43). The
river Neda formed the N. frontier between
Messenia and EUs. The area of Messenia is
about 1162 square mUes. It was for the most
part a mountainous country, and contained only
two plains of any extent, in the N. the plain of
Stenyclerus, and to the S. a still larger plain,
through which the Pamisus flowed, and which
was caUed Macaria or the Blessed, on account
of its great fertility (Strab. p. 361). There
were, however, many smaUer valleys among the
mountains ; and the country was much less
rugged and far more productive than the neigh
bouring Laconia. Hence Messenia is described
by Pausanias as the most fertile country in
Peloponnesus ; and it is praised by Euripides
on account of its climate, which was neither too
cold in winter nor too hot in summer (Eur. ap.
Strab. p. 366). The most ancient inhabitants
of Messenia were Leleges, intermingled with
Argives. According to tradition Polycaon, the
younger son of Lelex, married the Argive Mes
sene, a daughter of Triopas, and named the
country Messene in honour of his wife. This
is the name by which it is called in Homer,
who does not use the form Messenia. Five
generations afterwards Aeolians settled in the j
country, under the guidance of Perieres, a, son ,

MESSENIA

555

of Aeolus. His son Aphareus gave a home to
Neleus, who had been driven out of Thessaly,
and who founded the town of Pylos, which
became the capital of an independent sove
reignty. For a long time there was properly no
Messenian kingdom. The western part of the
land belonged to the dominions of the Neleid
princes of Pylos, of whom Nestor was the most
celebrated, and the eastern to the Lacedae
monian monarchy. Thus it appears to have
remained tiU the conquest of Peloponnesus by
the Dorians, when Messenia fell to the share of
Cresphontes, who destroyed the kingdom of
Pylos, and united the whole country under his
sway. The ruling class were now Dorians, and
they continued to speak the purest Doric down
to the latest times. The Spartans soon coveted
the more fertile territory of their brother
Dorians ; and after many disputes between the
two nations, and various inroads toto each
other's territories, open war at length broke
out. This war, called the first Messenian war,
lasted twenty years, B.C. 743-723 ; and notwith
standing the gallant resistance of the Messenian
king, Aristodemus, the Messenians were obliged
to submit to the Spartans after the capture of
their fortress Ithome, and to become their sub
jects. [Abistodemus.] After bearing the yoke
thirty-eight years, the Messenians again took
up arms under their heroic leader Aristomenes.
[Aristomenes.] The second Messenian war

Coin of Messenia (4th cent. B.C.).
Obv., head ol Demeter ; rev., ME22ANICN ; figure of Zeus-
bearing the eagle (supposed to be copied from the statue
by Ageladas).
lasted seventeen years, b.c. 685-668, and termi
nated with the conquest of Ira and the complete
subjugation of the country. Most of the Mes
senians emigrated to foreign countries, and
those who remained behind were reduced to the
condition of Helots or serfs. In this state they
remained till 464, when the Messenians and
other Helots took advantage of the devastation
occasioned by the great earthquake at Sparta
to rise against their oppressors. This third
Messeman war lasted ten years, 464-455, and
ended by the Messenians surrendering Ithome
to the Spartans on condition of their betog
allowed a free departure from Peloponnesus.
They settled at Naupactus on the Corinthian
gulf apposite Peloponnesus, which town the
Athenians had lately taken from the Locri
Ozolae, and gladly granted to such deadly
enemies of Sparta. At the conclusion of the
Peloponnesian war (404) the unfortunate Mes
senians were obliged to leave Naupactus and
take refuge to Italy, Sicily, and other countries ;
but when the supremacy of Sparta was over
thrown by the battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas
resolved to restore the independence of Mes
senia. He accordingly gathered together the
Messenian exiles from the various lands in
which they were scattered ; and in the summer
of 369 he founded the town of Messene at the
foot of Mt. Ithome. [Messene.] Messenia
was never again subdued by the Spartans, and
it maintained its independence tiU the conquest

556

MESTLETA

of Greece by the Romans, 146, when it formed
part of the province of Achaia.
Mestleta or Mestchetha (Mtzkheth) a city of
Iberia, in Asia, on the river Cyrus.
Mestra (Mf)o-rpa), daughter of Erysichthon,
and granddaughter of Triopas, whence she is
called Triopeis by Ovid. She was sold by her
hungry father, that he might obtain the means
of satisfying his hunger. In order to escape
from slavery, she prayed to Poseidon, who loved
her, and who conferred upon her the power of
metamorphosing herseU whenever she was sold.
According to one tradition she became after
wards the wife of Autolycus (Ov. Met. viii.
738-878; Tzetz. ad Lye. 1393; Ant. Lib. 17,
-where the name is Hypermestra; cf. Ebysi-
chthon). Messogis [Lydia, p. 507, b].
Metagonitis (MeTa7oji'iTis : Merayavhai, Me-
tagomtae), a name applied to the N. coast of
Mauretania Tingitana (Marocco), between the
Fretum Gaditanum and the river Mulucha ; de
rived probably from the Carthaginian colonies
(peraydvia) settled along it (Ptol. iv. 2, 10;
Pol. ui. 33). There was on this coast a promon
tory called Metagonium, the modern Bas-el-
Harsbah (Strab. p. 827 ; Mel. i. 7, 1).
Metallinum or Metellinum (Metalltoensis :
Medellin), a Roman colony to Lusitania on the
Anas, near Augusta Emerita (Plin. iv. 17).
Metanira (MeTaVeipa), wife of Celeus, and
mother of Triptolemus, received Demeter on her
arrival in Attica. Pausanias called her Mega-
naera. (Hymn, in Ger. 161 ; ApoUod. i. 5, 1 ;
Paus. i. 39, 1.) For details see Celeus.
Metaphrastes, Symeon ('Svpedv b Meratppd-
<rrris), a Byzantine writer, lived in the ninth and
tenth centuries, and held Mgh offices at the
Byzantine court. His surname Metaphrastes
was given to him on account of Ms having com
posed a paraphrase of the LiveB of the Saints.
He wrote a Byzantine Mstory, entitled Annates,
beginning with the emperor Leo Armenus, a.d.
813, and finishing with Romanus, the son of

METELLA
Diod. iv. 67.) - Pythagoras transferred his school
to Metapontum and died there. In 415 they
aUied themselves to the Athenians. (Thuc. vi.
44, vii. 33.) Its fertility was so great that the
people of Metapontum dedicated a golden har
vest at Delphi (Strab. p. 264). It feU toto the

Coin of Metapontum (4th cent. B.C.).
Obv., aeyki ; head of Leucippus, the founder ; rev., ear of
corn, as sign of fertility.
hands of the Romans with the other Greek
cities in the S. of Italy in the war agatost
Pyrrhus ; but it revolted to Hannibal after the
battle of Cannae (Liv. xxii. 61). From the
time of the second Punic war it disappears
from history, and was in ruins in the time of
Pausanias (vi. 19, 11).
Metaurnm. [Metaueus, No. 2.]
Metaurus. 1. (Metaro), a smaU river to Um
bria, flowing toto the Adriatic sea, but rendered
memorable by the defeat and death of Has
drubal, the brother of Hannibal, on its banks,
B.C. 207. It rises in the group of ApenMnes
called Monte Nerone, and flows forty- five miles
toto the sea, two miles S. of Fano. (Strab.
p. 227 ; SU. It. viii. 449 ; Hor. Od. iv. 4, 387.)— 2.
(Marro), a river on the E. coast of Bruttium,
at whose mouth was the town of Metaurum.
Metella, Caecilia. 1. Daughter of Met. Mace-
donicus [No. 3], married Scipio Nasica (consul
111 B.C.). Her grandson was MeteUus Scipio
[No. 15] (Cic. Brut. 58, 212).— 2. Daughter of
Met. Balearicus [No. 5], married App. Claud.
Pulcher, and was mother of P. Clodius, Cicero's
enemy [Claudius, No. 21]. — 3. Daughter of Met.
Edited | Calvus [No. 4] and mother of LucuUus (Plut.

Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 963
by Bekker, Bonn,
1838. Metapontum,the
Roman name for
the Greek Meta-
pontium(MeTa?rdV- Ttov : MerarbvTios,
Metapontinus :
Torre di Mare), a
celebrated Greek
city to the S. of
• Italy, on the Ta-
rentirie gulf, and
on the E. coast of
Lucania, is said to
have been origin
ally called Meta-
"bum (MeraBov). It
was an Achaean
colony, under the
command of a
leader named Leu
cippus, but pro
bably occupied the
site of an older
city (which would
account for tradi
tions of its early Tomb ol Caecilia Metella, on the Appian Way. (See Metella, No. 6.)
settlement by Pylians of the time of Nestor or Lucull. 1).— 4. Daughter of Met. Dahnaticus
by Phocians) which had been destroyed before [No. 9], married first to Scaurus, secondly to
tne Achaeans of Sybaris and Crotona founded a Sulla, who avenged upon Athens an affront
newcitythereabout700B.c. (Strab. pp. 222, 264 ; offered to her by the Athenians (Plut Sull 6

METELLUS

r.57

13, 22, 35 ; Cic. Scaur. 45).— 5. Daughter (pro
bably) of Met. Nepos [No. 14], wife of P. Len
tulus Spinther, the younger, from whom she
was divorced in 45 (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, SS9 ; Cic.
ad Att. xi. 15, 23. xii. 52, xiii. 7).— 6. Daughter
of Met. Creticus [No. 16], and wife of Crassus,
the son of the triumvir, to whose memory the
magnificent tomb on the Appian Way was raised.
MeteUus, a distinguished plebeian family of
the Caecilia gens at Rome. 1. L. Caecilius
MeteUus, consul B.C. 251, carried on the war in
Sicily agatost the Carthaginians. In the foUow
ing year he gained a crreat victory at Panormus
over Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian general. The
elephants which he took in this battle were
exhibited to his triumph at Rome. (Pol. i. 39, 40 ;
Plin. vii. 139). MeteUus was consul a second
time to 249, and was elected pontifex maximus
to 243, and held this dignity for twenty-two years.
He must therefore have died shortly before the
beginmng of the second Punic war. In 241 he
rescued the PaUadium when the temple of Vesta
was on fire, but lost his sight to consequence.
(Ov. Fast. vi. 436; Dionys. ii. 66; Val. Max.
i. 4, 4). He was dictator in 224, for the purpose
of holding the comitia. — 2. Q. Caecilius
MeteUus, son of the preceding, was plebeian
aedile 209; curule aedUe 208; served in the
army of the consul Claudius Nero 207, and was
one of the legates sent to Rome to convey the
joyful news of the defeat and death of Has
drubal ; and was consul, with L. Veturius Philo,
206. In his consulsMp he and his coUeague
carried on the war agatost Hannibal to Brut
tium, where he remained as proconsul during
the foUowing year. In 205 he was dictator for
the purpose of holding the comitia. MeteUus
survived the second Punic war many years, and
was employed to several public commissions.
(Liv. xxviii. 9, xxxix. 24 ; Cic. Brut. 14, 67 ; Val.
Max. vii. 2, 3.)— 3. ft. CaeciUus MeteUus
Macedonicns, son of the last, was praetor 148,
and carried on war to Macedonia against the
usurper Andriscus, whom he defeated and took
prisoner. He next turned his arms against the
Achaeans, whom he defeated at the beginning
of 146. On his return to Rome to 146 he
triumphed, and received the surname of Mace-
donicus. MeteUus was consul in 143, and re
ceived the province of Nearer Spain, where he
carried on the war with success for two years
agatost the Celtiberi. He was succeeded by
Q. Pompeius to 141. MeteUus was censor 131.
He died 115, fuU of years and honours. He is
frequently quoted by the ancient writers as an
extraordinary instance of human felicity. He
had filled all the highest offices of the state
with reputation and glory, and was carried to
the funeral pile by four sons, three of whom
had obtained the consulship to his lifetime,
whUe the fourth was a candidate for the office at
the time of Ms father's death. (Liv. Ep. 49, 50,
52, 53, 59; VeU. Pat. i. 11; Cic. Fin. v. 27, 82;
Paus. vii. 13, 15.) — 4. L. Caecilius MeteUus
Calvus, brother of the last, consul 142 (Cic. ad
Att. xii. 5 ; Val. Max. viii. 5). — 5. ft. Caecilius
Metellus Balearicus, eldest son of No. 3, was
consul 123, when he subdued the inhabitants
of the Balearic islands, and received in conse
quence the surname of Balearicus. He was censor
120. (Liv. Ep. 60 ; Diod. v. 17 ; Strab. p. 167.)—
6. L. Caecilius Metellus Diadematus, second
son of No. 3, has been frequently confounded
with Metellus Dahnaticus, consul 119 [No. 9].
Metellus Diadematus received the latter sur
name from his wearing for a long time a
bandage round Ms forehead, in consequence of

an ulcer. (Cic. post Bed. ad Quirit. 8, 6 ; Plut.
Cor. 11.) He was consul 117. — 7. M. Caecilius
Metellus, third son of No. 3, was consul 115,
the year in which his father died. In 114 he
was sent into Sardinia as proconsul, and sup
pressed an insurrection in the island, in con
sequence of which he obtained a triumph in
118, on the same day as Ms brother Caprarius.
(Eutrop. iv. 25.)— 8. C. Caecilius Metellus
Caprarius, fourth son of No. 3. The origin of
his surname is quite uncertain. He was
consul 118, and carried on war in Macedonia
agatost the Thracians, whom he subdued. He
obtained a triumph in consequence in the same
year, and on the same day with his brother
Marcus. He was censor 102 with his cousin
Metellus Numidicus. (Veil. Pat. ii. 8; Tac.
Germ. 37.) — 9. L. Caecilius Metellus Dal-
maticus, elder son of No. 4, and frequently
confounded, as has been already remarked, with
Diadematus [No. 5], was consul 119, when he
subdued the Dalmatians, and obtained in con
sequence the surname Dahnaticus. With the
booty obtained in this war he repaired the
temple of Castor and Pollux. He was censor
with Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus in 115, and he
was also pontifex maximus. (Cic. Clu. 42, 119.)
He was alive in 100, when he is mentioned as
one of the senators of high rank who took up
arms against Saturninus (Liv. Ep. 62 ; Appian,
Illyr. 11; Plut. Pomp. 2).— 10. ft. Caecilius
Metellus Numidicus, younger son of No. 4,
was one of the most distinguished members of
Ms family. The character of Metellus stood
very high among his contemporaries ; in an
age of growing corruption Ms personal integrity
remained unsullied ; and he was distinguished
for his abUities in war and peace. He was one
of the chief leaders of the aristocratical party
at Rome. He was consul 109, and carried on
the war against Jugurtha in Numidia with
great success. [Juguetha.] He remained to
Numidia during the following year as pro
consul; but, as he was unable to bring the
war to a conclusion, his legate, C. Marius, in
dustriously circulated reports in the camp and
the city that Metellus designedly protracted
the war for the purpose of continuing in the
command. These rumours had the desired
effect. Marius was raised to the consulship,
Numidia was assigned to him as Ms province,
and MeteUus saw the honour of finishing the
war snatched from his grasp. [Maeius.] On
Ms return to Rome in 107 he was received with
the greatest honour. He celebrated a splendid
triumph, and received the surname of Nu
midicus. In 102 he was censor with his cousin
Metellus Caprarius. In 100 the tribune
Saturninus and Marius resolved to ruin Me
tellus. Saturninus proposed an agrarian law,
to which he added the clause that the senate
should swear obedience to it within five days.
after its enactment, and that whosoever should
refuse to do so should be expelled the senate and
pay a heavy fine. Metellus refused to take the
oath and was therefore expelled the senate;
but Saturninus, not content with this, brought
forward a bill to punish him with exile. The
friends of Metellus were ready to take up arms
in his defence ; but Metellus quitted the city
and retired to Rhodes, where he bore his mis
fortune with great calmness. He was, how
ever, recalled to Rome in the following year (99),
on the proposition of the tribune Q. Calidius.
The orations of Metellus are spoken of with
praise by Cicero, and they continued to be read
with admiration to the time of Fronto. (Sail.

558

METELLUS

Jug. 43-88; Plut. Marius; Flor. iii. 16; Liv.
Ep. 65, 69 ; App. B. C. i. 28-33 ; Cic. pro Balb.
5, 11.)— 11. Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos, son
of Balearicus [No. 5], and grandson of Mace-
donicus [No. 3], appears to have received the
surname of Nepos because he was the eldest
grandson of the latter. MeteUus Nepos exerted
himself in obtaining the recaU of his kinsman
Metellus Numidicus from banishment to 99,
and was consul to 98 with T. Didius. In this
year the two consuls carried the Lex Caecilia
Didia. (Cic. post Bed. in Sen. 15, ad Att. ii. 9.)
— 12. ft. Caecilius Metellus Pius, son of
Numidicus [No. 10], received the surname of
• Pius on account of the love wMch he displayed
for Ms father when he besought the people to
recall Mm from banishment in 99. He was
praetor 89, and was one of the commanders in
the Marsic or Social war. He was still to arms
in 87, prosecuting the war against the Samnites,
when Marius landed in Italy and joined the
consul Cinna. The senate, in alarm, sum
moned Metellus to Rome; but as he was
unable to defend the city against Marius and
Cinna he crossed over to Africa. After re
maining in Africa three years he returned to
Italy and joined Sulla, who also returned to
Italy in 83. In the war wMch followed agatost
the Marian party, Metellus was one of the
most successful of Sulla's generals, and gained
several important victories both in Umbria and
in Cisalpine Gaul. In 80 MeteUus was consul
with Sulla himself, and in the following year
(79) he went as proconsul toto Spain, in order
to prosecute the war against Sertorius, who
adhered to the Marian party. Here he re
mained for the next eight years, and found it
so difficult to obtain any advantages over
Sertorius that the senate sent Pompey to Ms
assistance with proconsular power and another
army. Sertorius, however, was a match for
them both, and would probably have continued
to defy all the efforts of Metellus and Pompey
if he had not been murdered by Perperna and
his friends to 72. [Sektoeius.] MeteUus was
pontifex maximus, and, as he was succeeded in
this dignity by Julius Caesar in 63, he must
have died either in tMs year or at the end of
the preceding. (SaU. Jug. 64 ; Plut. Mar. 42,
Sertor. 12-27 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 15, 28-30.)— 13. ft.
Caecilius Metellus Ceier, elder son of Nepos
[No. 11]. In 66 he served as legate in the
army of Pompey to Asia ; and was praetor in
63, the year in which Cicero was consul (Cic.
Sull. 23, 65). During Ms year of office he
afforded warm and efficient support to the
aristocratical party. He prevented the con
demnation of C. Rabirius by removing the
mUitary flag from the Janiculum. He co
operated with Cicero in opposing the schemes
of Catiline ; and, when the latter left the city
to make war upon the republic, Metellus had
the charge of the Picentine and Senonian dis
tricts. By blocking up the passes he prevented
Catiline from crossing the Apennines and pene
trating into Gaul, and thus compelled him to
turn round and face Antonius, who was march
ing against him from Etruria. In the following
year, 62, Metellus went with the title of pro
consul into the province of Cisalpine Gaul,
which Cicero had relinquished because he was
unwilling to leave the city. In 60, Metellus
was consul with L. Afranius, and opposed all
the efforts of his colleague to obtain the ratifi
cation of Pompey's acts in Asia, and an assign
ment of lands for his soldiers. He died in
59, and it waE suspected that he had been poi

soned by Ms wife Clodia, with whom he lived
on the most unhappy terms, and who was a
woman of the utmost profligacy. (SaU. Cat.
57 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii., xxxviii. ; cf . Index to
Cicero.) — 14. Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos,
younger son of the elder Nepos [No. 11]. He
served as legate of Pompey in the war against
the pirates and in Asia from 67 to 64. He
returned to Rome in 63 in order to become a
candidate for the tribunate, that he might
thereby favour the views of Pompey. ¦ His
election was opposed by the aristocracy, but
without success. His year of office was a stormy
one. One of his first acts in entering upon Ms
office on the 10th of December, 63, was a violent
attack upon Cicero. He maintained that the
man who had condemned Roman citizens
without a hearing ought not to be heard him
self, and accordingly prevented Cicero from
addressing the people on the last day of Ms
consulsMp, and only allowed him to take the
usual oath, whereupon Cicero swore that he
had saved the state. In the foUowing year (62)
Metellus brought forward a bill to summon
Pompey, with his army, to Rome, to order to
restore peace ; but on the day on wMch the MU
was to be read the two parties came to open
blows, and MeteUus was obliged to take to
flight. He repaired to Pompey, with whom he
returned to Rome in 61. He was praetor to
60, and consul to 57 with P. Lentulus Spinther.
Notwithstanding Ms previous enmity with
Cicero, he did not oppose his recaU from exUe.
In 56 Metellus administered the province of
Nearer Spain, where he carried on war against
the Vaccaei. He died in 55. MeteUus did
not adhere strictly to the poUtical principles of
his family. He did not support the aristocracy,
like Ms brother; nor, on the other hand, can
he be said to have been a leader of the demo
cracy. He was, in fact, little more than a
servant of Pompey, and, according to Ms
bidding, at one time opposed and at another
supported Cicero. [See Index to Cicero ; Dio
Cass, xxxvii. 38-51, xxxix. 1-7, 54.]— 15. ft.
Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio, the adopted
son of MeteUus Pius [No. 12], He was the son
of P. Scipio Nasica, praetor 94, and grandson
of Caecilia Metella, daughter of Macedomcus
[No. 3]. Hence his name is given in various
forms. Sometimes he is caUed P. Scipio
Nasica, sometimes Q. Metellus Scipio, and
sometimes simply Scipio or Metellus. (Cic.
Brut. 58, 212 ; Dio Cass. xl. 51.) He was tri
bune of the plebs in 59, and was a candidate
for the consulship along with Plautius Hyp-
saeus and Milo to 53. He was supported by
the Clodian mob, since he was opposed to Milo ;
but in consequence of the disturbances in the
city the comitia could not be held for the elec
tion of consuls. After the murder of Clodius
at the beginning of 52 Pompey was elected sole
consul. In the course of the same year Pompey
married Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio, and
on the 1st of August he made Ms father-in-law
Ms colleague to the consulsMp. Scipio showed
his gratitude by using every effort to destroy
the power of Caesar and strengthen that of
Pompey. He took an active part to aU the
proceedings which led to the breaking out of
the CivU war to 49 ; and in the division of the
provinces made among the Pompeian party he
obtained Syria, to which he hastened without
delay. After plundering the province in the
most unmerciful manner, he crossed over into
Greece in 48 to join Pompey. He commanded
the centre of the Pompeian army at the battle

METHANA
of Pharsalia. After the loss of the battle he
fled, first to Corcyra and then to Africa, where
he received the cMef command of the Pompeian
troops. He was defeated by Caesar at the de
cisive battle of Thapsus in 46. He attempted
to escape by sea, but his squadron having been
overpowered by P. Sittius, he put an end to
his own life. MeteUus Scipio never exhibited
any proofs of striking abilities either in war or
in peace. In pubUc he showed himself cruel,
vindictive, and oppressive; in private he was
mean, avaricious, and licentious, even beyond
most of Ms contemporaries. (Plut. Pomp. 55,
Caes. 80, Cic. 15 ; App. B. C. ii. 60-100 ; Caes.
B. C. i. 1-4, iii. 31, Bell. Afric. 79.)— 16. ft.
CaeciUus Metellus Creticus, was consul 69,
and carried on war against Crete, wMch he
subdued to the course of three years. He re
turned to Rome in 66, but was unable to obtain
a triumph, to consequence of the opposition of
Pompey, to whom he had refused to surrender
Ms command to Crete, wMch Pompey had
claimed to virtue of the Gabinian law, wMch
had given Mm the supreme command in the
whole of the Mediterranean. MeteUus, how
ever, would not relinquish his claim to a
triumph, and accordingly resolved to wait to
the neighbourhood of the city tiU more favour
able circumstances. He was stUl before the
city to 68, when the conspiracy of CatUine
broke out. He was sent toto Apulia to prevent
an apprehended rising of the slaves ; and in the
foUowing year, 62, after the death of Catiline,
he was at length permitted to make his
triumphal entrance toto Rome, and received
the surname of Creticus. MeteUus, as was to
be expected, joined the aristocracy to their
opposition to Pompey, and succeeded to pre
venting the latter from obtaining the ratifica
tion of Ms acts to Asia. (Liv. Ep. 98-100 ;
Flor. to. 7, iv. 12 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 34 ; Dio Cass.
xxxvi. 1; SaU. Cat. 30.) — 17. L. CaeciUus
Metellus, brother of the last, was praetor 71,
and as propraetor succeeded Verres to the
government of Sicily to 70. He defeated the
pirates, and compeUed them to leave the island.
His administration is praised by Cicero ; but he
nevertheless attempted, in conjunction with Ms
brothers, to sMeld Verres from justice. He was
consul 68 with Q. Marcius Rex, but died at the
beginning of the year. (Cic. Verr. iii. 53, 122,
v. 21, 55 ; Dio Cass. xxxv. 4.)— 18. M. CaeciUus
Metellus, brother of the two last, was praetor
69, in the same year that Ms eldest brother was
consul. The lot gave Mm the presidency in the
court de pecuniis repetundis, and Verres was
very anxious that Ms trial should come on
before Metellus. (Cic. Verr. i. 8, 9.)— 19. L.
Caecilius MeteUus Creticus, was tribune of
the plebs, 49, and a warm supporter of the
aristocracy. He did not fly from Rome with
Pompey and the rest of Ms party ; and he at
tempted to prevent Caesar from taMng posses
sion of the sacred treasury, and only gave way
upon being threatened with death. (Plut. Caes.
35, Pomp. 62; Caes. B. C. i. 33; Dio Cass.
xh. 17 ; App. B. C. ii. 41 ; Lucan, iii. 114.)
Methana. [Methone, No. 4.]
Metharme (MeBdppn : daughter of king Pyg
malion, and wife of Cinyras. See Cinybas.
Methone (MeBdvn,: MeBavaios). 1. Or Mo-
thone (MoBdvti : Modon), a town at the SW.
corner of Messenia, with an exceUent harbour,
protected from the sea by a reef of rocks, of
which the largest was caUed Mothon. The
ancients regarded Methone as the Pedasus of
Homer (H. ix. 294). After the conquest of Mes-

METIS

559

senia, it became one of the Lacedaemonian
harbours, and is mentioned as such in the Pelo
ponnesian war. The emperor Trajan made it a
free city. (Strab. p. 359; Paus. iv. 85.)— 2.
(Eleutherokhori), a Greek town in Macedonia
on the Thermaic gulf, forty stadia NE. of Pydna,
was founded by the Eretrians, and is celebrated
from Philip having lost an eye at the siege of
the place. After its capture by Philip it was
destroyed, but was subsequently rebuilt, and is
mentioned by Strabo as one of the towns of
Macedonia. (Thuc. iv. 129, vi. 7 ; Strab. p. 830;
Diod. xvi. 81.) — 3. A town in Thessaly men
tioned by Homer, which does not occur to
historical times (II, ii. 716). The ancients
placed it in Magnesia. — 4. Or Methana
(MeoWa : Methana or Mitone), an ancient town
to Argolis, situated on a peninsula of the same
name, opposite the island of Aegina. The
peninsula runs a considerable way into the sea,
and is connected with the mainland by a
narrow isthmus, lying between Troezen and
Epidaurus. The town lay at the foot of a
mountain of volcanic origin. (The name
appears as MeBdvn in Thuc. iv. 45 ; but, accord
ing to Strabo, not in all MSS. In Strab. p. 374,
and Paus. n. 34, it is MeBava.)
Methora (Meflopa, MbSovpa r) rav ®eav : Ma-
tra, the sacred city of Krishna), a city of India
intra Gangem, on the river Jomanes (Jumna),
was a great seat of the worship of the Indian
god whom the Greeks identified with Heracles
(Arrian, Ind. 8 ; Plin. vi. 69).
Methydrium, (MefliiBpioi/ : Me8u5pieus),atown
in central Arcadia, 170 stadia N. of Megalopolis
(Paus. viii. 35, 36; Thuc. v. 58).
Methymna (fi Mr)Bvpva, MeBvpva, the former
generally in the best writers ; also on coins the
Aeolic form MaBvpva: Mi)Bvpvdios, MeBvpvaios :
Motivo), the second city of Lesbos, stood at the
north extremity of the island, and had a good
harbour. It was the birthplace of the musician
and dithyrambic poet Arion, and of the historian

Coin of Methymna (4th cent. B.C.).
Obv., head of Athene ; rev., magymnaion ; lyre inclosed in
a square.
Hellanicus. The celebrated Lesbian wine came
from its neighbourhood. In the Peloponnesian
war it remained faithful to Athens, even during
the great Lesbian revolt [Mytilene] : afterwards
it was sacked by the Spartans (b.c 406) and
never quite recovered its prosperity, though in
the time of Diocletian it was reckoned among
the chief towns of the Insularum Provincia.
(Hdt. i. 151; Thuc. iii. 2, 18; Liv. xiv. 31;
Hierocl. p. 686.)
Motion (Mnriav), son of Erechtheus and
Praxithea, and husband of Alcippe. His sons,
the Metionidae, expelled their cousin Pandion
from his kingdom of Athens, but were them
selves afterwards expelled by the sons of Pan
dion. (Apollod. iii. 15 ; Paus. i. 5, 3.)
Metis (Mr)ris), the personification of pru
dence, is described as a daughter of Oceanus
and Tethys, and the first wUe of Zeus. Afraid
lest she should give birth to a cMld wiser and
more powerful than himself, Zeus devoured her
in the first month of her pregnancy. After-

560

METIUS

wards he gave birth to Athene, who sprang
from Ms head. [See p. 138, a.]
Metius. [Mettius.]
Meton(Me'TO»),an astronomer of Athens, who,
to conjunction with Euctemon, introduced the
cycle of nineteen years, by which he adjusted
the course of the sun and moon, since he had
observed that 235 lunar months correspond
very nearly to nineteen solar years. The begin
ning of this cycle has been placed B.C. 432. [See
further in Did. of Ant. art. Calendarium.]
We have no detaUs of Meton's life, with the
exception that Ms father's name was Pausa
nias, and that he feigned insanity to avoid sail
ing for Sicily in the ill-fated expedition of
which he is stated to have had an evil pre
sentiment. (Ael. V. H.x.7; Diod. xii. 36.)
Metrodorus (M)7Tp(iSa>pos). 1. Of Cos, son of
Epicharmus, and grandson of Thyrsus. Like
several of that family, he addicted himself
partly to the study of the Pythagorean philo
sophy, partly to the science of medicine. He
wrote a treatise upon the works of Epicharmus.
He lived about B.C. 460. (Iambi. Vit. Pyth. 34.)—
2. Of Lampsacus, a contemporary and friend
of Anaxagoras. He wrote on Homer, the lead
ing feature of his system of interpretation being
that the deities and stories in Homer were to
be understood as allegorical modes of repre
senting physical powers and phenomena. He
died 464. (Diog. Laert. ii. 11.)— 3. Of Chios, a
disciple of Democritus, or, according to other
accounts, of Nessus of Chios, lived about
330. He was a pMlosopher of considerable re
putation, and professed the doctrines of the
Sceptics in their fullest sense. He also studied,
if he did not practise, medicine, on which he
wrote much. He was the instructor of Hippo
crates and Anaxarchus. (Diog. Laert. ix.
58 ; Cic. Acad. ii. 23, 73.) — 4. A native of
Lampsacus or Athens, was the most distin
guished of the disciples of Epicurus, with whom
he lived on terms of the closest friendship. He
died 277, in the fifty-third year of his age, seven
years before Epicurus, who would have ap
pointed him Ms successor had he survived him.
The philosophy of Metrodorus appears to have
been of a more grossly sensual kind than that
of Epicurus. Perfect happiness, according to
Cicero's account, he made to consist in having
a well-constituted body. He found fault with
his brother Timocrates for not admitting that
the appetite was the test and measure of every-
tMng that pertained to a happy life. He was
the author of several works, quoted by the
ancient writers. (Cic. Tusc. v. 37, 109, N. D. i.
¦ 40, 118, Fin. ii. 28, 92 ; Diog. Laert. x. 22.) —
5. Of Scepsis, a pMlosopher, who was raised
to a position of great influence and trust by
Mithridates Eupator, being appointed supreme
judge without appeal even to the king. Subse
quently he was led to desert his allegiance,
when sent by Mithridates on an embassy to
Tigranes, king of Armenia. Tigranes sent Mm
back to Mithridates, but he died on the road.
According to some accounts he was despatched
by order of the king ; according to others he
died of disease. He is frequently mentioned by
Cicero ; he seems to have been particularly cele
brated for his powers of memory. In conse
quence of his hostility to the Romans he was
surnamed the Boman-hater. (Cic. de Or. ii. 88,
360 ; Strab. p. 609.)— 6. Of Stratonice in Caria,
was at first a disciple of the school of Epicurus,
but afterwards attached himself to Carneades.
He lived about 110. (Diog. Laert. x. 9; Cic.
Acad. ii. 6, 16.)

MICIPSA
Metropolis (MnrpbiroXis). 1. The ancient
capital of Phrygia, but in historical times an
inconsiderable place. (Strab. pp. 576, 663 ;
Athen. p. 574 ; Liv. xxxviii. 15.) It stood be
tween Celaenae and Synnada and to the great
road from Ephesus to the Cappadocian Caesarea.
Its site is, according to Ramsay, half-way be
tween the modern towns Tatarli and Haidarli.
— 2. In Lydia (Turbali, Ru.), a city to the
plain of the Ca);ster, between Ephesus and
Smyrna, 120 stadia from the former and 200
from the latter (Strab. p. 632). — 3. (Kastri), a,
town of Thessaly in Histiaeotis, near the Pe-
neus, and between Gomphi and Pharsalus,
formed by the union of several small towns, to
which Ithome also belonged (Strab. p. 438;
Caes.- B. C. iii. 81). — 4. Another town of Thes
saly, near Gyrton (Liv. xxxvi. 10). — 5. A town
of Acarnania in the district AmpMlochia, be
tween the Ambracian gulf and the river Ache
lous (Pol. iv. 64).
Mettius or Metius. 1. Curtius. [Cuetius.]
— 2. Fuffetius, dictator of Alba in the reign of
Tullus Hostilius, third king of Rome. After the
combat between the Horatii and Curiatii had
determined the supremacy of the Romans, Met
tius was summoned to aid them in a war with
Fidenae and the Veientines. On the field of
battle Mettius drew off Ms Albans to the MUs,
and awaited the issue of the battle. On the
following day the Albans were all deprived of
their arms, and Mettius himself, as the punish
ment of Ms treachery, was torn asunder by
chariots driven in opposite directions. (Liv. i.
23-28 ; Dionys. iii. 5-30.)
Metulum, the chief town of the Iapydes in
IUyricum, was near the frontiers of Liburnia,
and was situated on two peaks of a steep
mountain. Augustus nearly lost his life in re
ducing tMs place, the inhabitants of which
fought agatost him with the most desperate
courage. (Strab. p. 207 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 35.)
Mevania (Mevanas, -atis : Beragna), an
ancient city in the interior of Umbria on the
river Tinea, was situated on the road from
Rome to Ancona to a very fertile country, and
was celebrated for its breed of beautiful white
oxen. It was a strongly fortified place, though
its walls were built only of brick. (Liv. ix. 41 ;
Tac. Hist. iii. 55 ; Verg. Georg. ii. 146 ; Lucan,
i. 473; Strab. p. 227 ; Plin. xxxv. 173.)
Mezentius (Meo-ecTios), king of the Tyrrhe
nians or Etruscans, at Caere or AgyUa, was ex-
peUed by his Bubjects on account of his cruelty,
and took refuge with Turnus, Mng of the Rutu-
lians, whom he assisted to the war agatost
Aeneas and the Trojans. Mezentius and his
son Lausus were slain in battle by Aeneas.
TMs is the account of Virgil (Verg. Aen. viii.
480, x. 689, 785, 800). Livy and Dionysius, how
ever, say nothing about the expulsion of Me
zentius from Caere, but represent him as an
ally of Turnus, and relate that Aeneas disap
peared during the battle agatost the Rutulians
and Etruscans at Lanuvium. Dionysius adds
that Ascanius was besieged by Mezentius and
Lausus ; that the besieged in a saUy by night
slew Lausus, and then concluded a peace with
Mezentius, who from henceforth continued to
be their ally. (Liv. i. 2 ; Dionys. i. 64.) Another
tradition states that Mezentius demanded from
the Latins the produce of their vineyards, but
they vowed the firstfruits to Jupiter and so won
the victory (Plut. Q. B. 45 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 881 ;
Maorob. iii. 5 ; see p. 464, b).
Micipsa (Mwttyas), Mng of Numidia, the eldest
of the sons of Masinissa. After the death of

MICON
the latter (b.c. 148) the sovereign power was
divided by Scipio between Micipsa and his two
brothers, Gulussa and Mastanabal, in such a
manner that the possession of Cirta, the capital
of Numidia, together with the financial ad
ministration of the kingdom, fell to the share
of Micipsa. It was not long, however, before
the death of both his brothers left him in pos
session of the undivided sovereignty of Nu
midia, which he held from that time without
interruption tUl his death. His rule was mild
and equitable, and he encouraged literature and
art. (Diod. xxxv. Sail. Jug. 5-11 ; Flor. iii. 2 ;
Strab. p. 882.) He died to 118, leaving the
kingdom to Ms two sons, Adherbal and Hiem
psal, and their adopted brother Juguetha.
Micon (MlKav), of Athens, son of Phanochus,
was a very distinguished painter and also a
sculptor, contemporary with Polygnotus, about
B.C. 460. Several of his pictures are mentioned
by Pausanias as in the Stoa Poecile and the
Temple of Theseus (i. 17, 18), and by Pliny
(xxxv. 59). Among Ms statues Pausanias men
tions Callias the pancratiast at Olympia (vi. 6, 1).
Midaeum (MtSdeiov), a city of Ptoygia
Epictetus, between Dorylaeum and Pessinus ;
the place where Sextus Pompeius was captured
by the troops of Antony, B.C. 35 (Strab. p. 576 ;
Dio Cass. xlix. 18).
Midas (MiSas), son of Gordius and Cybele, is
said to have been a wealthy but effeminate Mng
of Phrygia, a pupil of Orpheus, and a promoter
of the worship of Dionysus (Hdt. i. 14 ; Paus. i.
4, 5; Strab. p. 304). His
wealth is aUuded to in a
story connected with his
ctoldhood, for it is said that
wMle a cMld, ants carried
gratos of wheat into his
mouth, to indicate that one
day he should be the richest
of aU mortals (Cic. Div. i.
86, 78; Ael. VH. xu. 45).
He is said to have buUt the
town of Ancyra, and as king
of Phrygia he is called Bere-
cynthius heros (Ov. Met.
xi. 106). There are several
stories connected with Mi
das, of which the following
are the most celebrated. (1)
Silenus, the companion and
teacher of Dionysus, had
gone astray in a state of in
toxication, and was caught
by country people to the
rose gardens of Midas. He
was bound with wreaths of
flowers and led before the
king. These gardens were
in Macedonia, near Mount
Bermion or Bromion, where
Midas was king of the
Briges, with whom he after
wards emigrated to Asia,
where their name was
changed toto Ptoyges. Mi
das received SUenus Mndly ;
and, after treating him with
hospitality, he led him back
to Dionysus, who allowed
Midas to ask a favour of Mm.
Midas in his foUy desired that all tMngs which
he touched should be changed into gold. The
request was granted; but as even the food
wMch he touched became gold, he implored the
god to take Ms favour back. Dionysus ac-

MIDAS

561

cordingly ordered him to bathe in the source of
Pactolus near Mount Tmolus. This bath saved
Midas, but the river from that time had an
abundance of gold in its sand. (Hyg. Fab. 191 ;
Ov. Met. xi. 90 ; Verg. Eel. vi. 18.)— (2) Midas,
who was himself related to the race of SatyrB,
once had a visit from a Satyr, who indulged in
all kinds of jokes at the king's expense. There
upon Midas mixed wine in a well ; and when
the Satyr had drunk of it, he fell asleep and
was caught. (Paus. i. 4, 5 ; Athen. p. 45.) This
well of Midas was at different times assigned to
different localities. Xenophon (Anab. i. 2, § 18)
places it in the neighbourhood of Thymbrium
and Tyraeum, and Pausanias at Ancyra. — (8)
Once when Pan and ApoUo were engaged in a
musical contest on the flute and lyre, Midas was
chosen to decide between them. The king
decided in favour of Pan, whereupon Apollo
changed his ears into those of an ass. Midas
contrived to conceal them under his Phrygian
cap, but the servant who used to cut Mb hair
discovered them. The secret so much harassed
this man that, as he could not betray it to a
human being, he dug a hole in the earth, and
whispered into it, ' King Midas has ass's ears.'
He then filled the hole up again, and his heart
was reUeved. But on the same spot a reed
gTew up, wMch to its wMspers betrayed the
secret. (Hyg. Fab. 191 ; Ov. Met. xi. 146 ; Pers.
i. 121 ; cf. Aristoph. Plut. 287.) Midas is said
to have killed himself by drinking the blood of
an ox (Strab. p. 61). — The rock tomb of Midas, so

Tomb of Midas at Dogan-lu in Phrygia.
called, is SW. of Pessinus between Orcistus and
Conni, and is interesting as one of the earliest
specimens of sculptured architecture, adorned
with ornaments chiefly composed of squares. —
It is probable that the stories of Midas grew
00

562

MIDEA

out of his patronage of the worsMp of Dionysus
as Sabazius. The musical contest, like that of
Maesyas, represents a rivalry between the flutes
of the Phrygian orgies and the lyre of Apollo's
worshippers; the story of the ass's ears may
have arisen from Midas being shown to Satyric
drama with pointed ears like a Satyr, by ex
aggeration compared to ass's ears, perhaps in
allusion to the ass which appeared to proces
sions, bearing Silenus.
Midea or Midea (MtSeia, MiSea : MiSedrns),
a town to Argolis, of uncertain site, destroyed by
the Argives, is said to have been caUed Perse
polis, because it had been fortified by Perseus.
Midianitae. [Madianitae.]
Midias (MeiSias), an Athenian of wealth and
influence, was a violent enemy of Demosthenes,
the orator. In B.C. 354 Midias assaulted De
mosthenes when he was discharging the duties
of Choregus, during the celebration of the
great Dionysia. Demosthenes brought an ac
cusation agatost Midias ; but the speech wMch
he wrote for the occasion, and which is extant,
was never delivered, since Demosthenes
dropped the accusation, to consequence of his
receiving the sum of thirty minae.
Mieza (Mie£al Mie£ebs), a town of Macedonia
in EmatMa, SW. of Pella, and not far from the
frontiers_of Thessaly (Ptol. iii. 13, 39).
Milanion (MeiXavlav), husband of Atalanta.
For details, see Atalanta.
jMiletopolis (MiX-qrbiroXis : Muhalich, or
Hamamlil Ru.), a city of Mysia, in Asia
Minor, at the confluence of the river Rhyn-
dacus and Macestus, and somewhat E. of the
lake which was named after it, Lacus Miletopo-
litis (MiXi)ToiroX7Tis xlpv-n: Lake of Maniyas).
TMs lake, also called Aphnitis, lies some mUes
W. of the larger lake of Artynia (Abullionte).
(Strab. pjp. 575, 681 ; Plin. v. 123, 142.)
Miletopolis. [Bobysthenes.]
Miletus (MiXriTos), son of Apollo and Aria of
Crete. Being beloved by Minos and Sarpedon,
he attached himself to the latter, and fled from
Minos to Asia, where he built the city of
Miletus (ApoUod. iii. 1, 2; Paus. vii. 2, 3).
Ovid (Met. ix. 442) calls him a son of ApoUo
and Deione, and hence Deionides.
Miletus (Mf Aijtos, Dor. MlXaros : MiXi)o-ios,
and on inscriptions, MeiA.<j<nos:Milesius). 1. One
of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, belonged
territorially to Caria and politicaUy to Ioma,
being the S.-most of the twelve cities of the
Ionian confederacy. It is mentioned by Homer
as a Carian city ; and one of its early names,
Lelegeis, is a sign that the Leleges also formed
a part of its population. (II. ii. 867 ; Hdt. i. 146 ;
Strab. p. 664; Plin. v. 112.) Its first Greek
colonists were said to have been Cretans who
were expeUed by Minos ; the next were led to
it by Neleus at the time of the so-called Ionic
migration. Its name was probably transferred
from the Cretan Miletus (No. 2), though tra
ditionally taken from the leader of the colonists
[see above]. It was in earlier times caUed
Pityusa (ILTuoOo-a) , and Anactoria ('AvaKropia),
The city stood upon the S. headland of the
Sinus Latmicus, opposite to the mouth of the
Maeander, and possessed four distinct harbours,
protected by a group of islets, called Lade, Dro-
miseus, and Perne. The city wall enclosed two
distinct towns, called the outer and inner ; the
latter, which was also called Old Miletus, stood
upon an eminence overhanging the sea, and was
of great strength. Its territory extended on
both sides of the Maeander, as far apparently
as the promontories of Mycale on the N. and

MILO
Posidium on the S. It was rich in flocks ; and
the city was celebrated for its woollen fabrics,
the Milesia vellera (Athen. pp. 28, 428, 691 ;
Verg. Georg. iii. 306, iv. 335). At a very early
period it became a great maritime state, ex
tending its commerce throughout the Mediter
ranean, and even beyond the PiUars of Her
cules, but more especiaUy to the direction of
the Euxine,, along the shore of which the
MUesians planted several important colonies,
such as Cyzicus, Sinope, Abydos, IstropoUs,
Tomi, Olbia or Borysthenes, Apollonia, Odessus,
and Panticapaeum. Naucratis to Egypt was
also a colony of Miletus. It also occupies a
Mgh place in the early history of Greek litera
ture as the birthplace of the philosophers
Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, and of
the historians Cadmus and Hecataeus. After the
rise of the Lydian monarchy, Miletus, by its
naval strength, resisted the attacks of Alyattes
and Sadyattes for eleven years, but feU before
Croesus, whose success may perhaps be ascribed
to the intestine factions which for a long period
weakened the city (Hdt. i. 17-20). With the
rest of Ionia, it was conquered by Harpagus,
the general of Cyrus, to B.C. 557 (Hdt. i. 141);
and under the dominion of the Persians it still
retained its prosperity till the great Ionian
revolt, of which MUetus was the centre [Aeista-
gobas ; Histiaeus], and after the suppression
of which it was destroyed by the Persians (B.C.
494). (Hdt. vi. 6 ; Strab. p. 635.) After the
battle of Mycale it recovered its liberty and

Coin of Miletus.
Obv., head of Apollo, laureate; rev., lion standing and
looking hack at star ; in front, monogram, Ml ; below,
magistrate's name, MNA2EA2 (didrachma, B.C. 800-250).
eventually gained sufficient importance to offer
(though in vain) resistance to Alexander the
Great, which brought upon it a second ruin
(Arrian, An. i. 18). Under the Roman empire it
stiU appears as a place of some consequence,
until its final destruction by the Turks. (Tac.
Ann. iv. 63.) — Its ruins are difficult to discover,
on account of the great change made in the coast
and harbour by the river Maeander. [Maean-
deb.] They are on the site of the viUage of
Palatia, on the S. bank of the Mendereh — 2.
Miletus in Crete, on the NE. coast, mentioned
by Homer (II. ii. 647), but not standing in
Strabo's time (Strab. p. 479).
Milichus (MeiXixos), a small river in Achaia,
which flows by the town of Patrae, and is said
to have been originally called Amilichus ('Apel-
Xixos) on account of the human victims sacri
ficed on its banks to Artemis (Paus. vii. 19, 9).
Milo or Milon (MiXav). 1. Of Crotona, son
of Diotimus, an athlete, famous for his extra
ordinary bodily strength. He was six times
victor in wrestling at the Olympic games, and
as often at the Pythian; but having entered
the lists at Olympia a seventh time, he was
worsted by the superior agUity of his adversary.
By these successes he obtained great distinc
tion among his countrymen, so that he was
even appointed to command the army which
defeated the Sybarites, B.C. 511. Many stories
are related by ancient writers of MUo's extra-

MILO
ordinary feats of strength : such as his carrying
a heifer of four years old on his shoulders
through the stadium at Olympia, and after
wards eating the whole of it in a single day.
The mode of his death is thus related : as he
was passing through a forest when enfeebled
by age, he saw the trunk of a tree which had
been partially split open by woodcutters, and
attempted to rend it further, but the wood closed
upon his hands, and thus held him fast, in which
•state he was attacked and devoured by wolves.
(Hdt. iii. 137 ; Diod. xii. 9 ; Paus. vi. 14 ; Athen.
p. 412; Gell. xv. 16; Cic. de Sen. 10.)— 2. A
general in the service of Pyrrhus king of Epirus,
who sent him forward with a body of troops to
garrison the citadel of Tarentum, previous to
his own arrival in Italy. When Pyrrhus finally
qmtted that country and withdrew into Epirus,
he still left Milo to charge of the citadel of
Tarentum, together with Ms son Helenus.
(Zonar. viii. 2 ; Just. xxv. 3.) — 3. T. Annius
Milo Papinianus, was the son of C. Papius
Celsus and Annia, and was adopted by Ms
maternal grandfather, T. Annius Luscus. He
was born at Lanuvium, of which place he
was to B.C. 53 dictator or cMef magistrate.
MUo was a man of a daring and unscrupulous
character; and as he was deeply in debt, he
resolved to obtain a wealthy province. For
tMs purpose he connected himself with the
aristocracy. As tribune of the plebs, B.C. 57,
he took an active part to obtaining Cicero's
recall from exUe, and from tMs time he carried
on a fierce and memorable contest with P.
Clodius. In 53 MUo was candidate for the
consulsMp, and Clodius for the praetorship of
the ensuing year. Milo supported the senate in
opposition to the popular party, which favoured
Pompey and Caesar, at present the joint rulers
of the state ; and since Pompey wished to
become temporary dictator, for reasons at this
time approved by Caesar, he hoped to make
the affray on the Appian road a handle for
getting rid of MUo. [Pompeius.] Each of the
candidates kept a gang of gladiators, and there
were frequent combats between the rival ruffians
to the streets of Rome. At length, on the 20th
of January, 52, Milo and Clodius met apparently
by accident at BovUlae on the Appian road.
An affray ensued between their foUowers, to
which Clodius was slain. At Rome such tumults
foUowed upon the burial of Clodius that Pompey
was appointed, not indeed dictator, but sole
consul to restore order to the state. Pompey
immediately brought forward various laws to
connexion with the late disturbances. As soon
as these were passed Milo was formally
accused. AU Pompey's influence was directed
against him ; but Milo was not without hope,
since the Mgher aristocracy, from jealousy of
Pompey, supported him, and Cicero undertook
his defence. His trial opened on the 4th of
April, 52. He was impeached on three counts —
de Vi, de Ambitu, or bribery, and de Sodalitiis
or Ulegal interference with the freedom of elec
tions. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, a consular,
was appointed quaesitor by a special law of
Pompey's, and all Rome and thousands of spec
tators from Italy thronged the forum and its
avenues. But Milo's chances of acquittal were
wholly marred by the virulence of his adver
saries, who insulted and obstructed the wit
nesses, the process, and the conductors of the
defence. Pompey availed himself of these
disorders to line the forum and its encompass
ing hills with soldiers. Cicero was intimidated,
and Milo was condemned. Had he even been

MILTIADES

563

acquitted on the first count, de Vi, the two
other charges of bribery and conspiracy awaited
him. He therefore went into exile. Cicero,
who could not deliver, re-wrote and expanded
the defence of Milo — the extant oration — and
sent it to him at MarseUles. Milo remarked,
' I am glad this was not spoken, since I must
have been acquitted, and then had never known
the delicate flavour of these Marseilles mullets.'
Caesar refused to recall Milo from exile in 49,
when he permitted many of the other exUes to
return. In the following year (48) M. Caelius,
the praetor, had, during Caesar's absence, pro
mulgated a bill for the adjustment of debts,
and needing desperate allies, invited Milo to
Italy. At the head of a band of criminals
and runaway slaves, Milo appeared in the S.
of Italy, but was opposed by the praetor,
Q. Pedius, and slain under the walls of an
obscure fort to the district of Thurii. — Milo, in
57, married Fausta, a daughter of the dictator
Sulla. She proved a faithless wife, and Sallust,
the historian, was soundly scourged by Milo for
an intrigue with her. (See Index to Cicero ;
Plutarch's Lives of Pompey, Cicero, and Caesar ;
Dio Cass, xxxix. 6-21 ; App. B. C. ii. 16-24, 48.)
Miltiades (MiXriaSris). 1. Son of Cypselus,
was a man of considerable distinction in Athens
in the time of Pisistratus. The Doloncians, a
Thracian tribe dwelling in the Chersonesus,
being hard pressed in war by the AbsintMans,
applied to the Delphic oracle for advice, and
were directed to admit a colony led by the man
who should be the first to entertain them after
they left the temple. This was Miltiades, who,
eager to escape from the rule of Pisistratus,
gladly took the lead of a colony under the
sanction of the oracle, and became tyrant of
the Chersonesus, which he fortified by a wall
built across its isthmus. In a war with the
people of Lampsacus he was taken prisoner,
but was set at liberty on the demand of Croesus.
He died without leaving any children, and his
sovereignty passed into the hands of Stesagoras,
the son of Ms half-brother Cimon. Sacrifices
and games were instituted in his honour, in
which no Lampsacene was suffered to take
part. (Hdt. vi. 34, 38, 103.)— 2. Son of Cimon
and brother of Stesagoras, became tyrant of
the Chersonesus on the death of the latter, being
sent out by Pisistratus from Athens to take
possession of the vacant inheritance. By a
stratagem he got the cMef men of the Cherso
nesus into his power and tMew them into
prison, and took a force of mercenaries into his
pay. In order to strengthen his position still
more, he married Hegesipyla, the daughter of
a Thracian prince named Olorus. (Hdt. vi. 39.)
He joined Darius Hystaspis on his expedition
against the Scythians, and was left with the
other Greeks in charge of the bridge over the
Danube (Hdt. iv. 137). When the appointed
time had expired, and Darius had not returned,
Miltiades recommended the Greeks to destroy
the bridge and leave Darius to his fate. Some
time after the expedition of Darius an inroad of
the Scythians drove Miltiades from his posses
sions; but after the enemy had retired, the
Doloncians brought him back. It appears to
have been between this period and his with
drawal to Athens that Miltiades conquered
and expelled the Pelasgian inhabitants of
Lemnos and Imbros, and subjected the islands
to the dominion of Attica. Lemnos and Imbros
belonged to the Persian dominions ; and it is
probable that this encroachment on the Persian
possessions was the cause which drew upon
o o 2

564

MILVIUS

Miltiades the hostility of Darius, and led him
to fly from the Chersonesus, when the Phoeni
cian fleet approached, after the subjugation of
Ionia. Miltiades reached Athens in safety, but
his eldest son, Metiochus, fell into the hands of
the Persians. At Athens MUtiades was ar
raigned, as being amenable to the penalties
enacted against tyranny, but was acquitted.
When Attica was threatened with invasion by
the Persians under Datis and Artaphernes,
Miltiades was chosen one of the ten generals.
Miltiades by his arguments induced the polem-
arch Callimachus to give the casting vote in
favour of risking a battle with the enemy, the
opinions of the ten generals being equally di
vided. Miltiades waited till Ms turn came,
and then drew his army up to battle array on
the ever memorable field of Marathon. [Ma-
eathon.] After the defeat of the Persians
Miltiades endeavoured to urge the Athenians
to measures of retaliation, and induced them
to entrust to Mm an armament of seventy ships,
without knowing the purpose for which they
were designed. He proceeded to attack the
island of Paros, for the purpose of gratifying a
private enmity. His attacks, however, were
unsuccessful ; and after receiving a dangerous
hurt in the leg, while penetrating into a. sacred
enclosure on some superstitious errand, he was
compelled to raise the siege and return to
Athens, where he was impeached by Xanthippus
for having deceived the people. His wound
had turned into a gangrene, and betog unable
to plead his cause in person, he was brought
into court on a couch, his brother, Tisagoras,
conducting his defence for him. He was con
demned, but on the ground of Ms services to
the state the penalty was commuted to a fine
of 50 talents, the cost of the equipment of the
armament. Being unable to pay this, he was
thrown into prison, where he died of his
wound. The fine was paid by his son Cimon.
(Hdt. vi. 132-186; Nep. Miltiades.)
Milvius Pons. [Roma.]
Milyas (r) MiXvds : MiXiai, Milyae), was origi
naUy the name of all Lycia (Hdt. i. 178) ; but
it was afterwards applied to the high table-land
in the N. of Lycia, between the Cadmus and the
TauruB, and extending considerably into Pisidia.
Its people seem to have been the descendants
of the original inhabitants of Lycia (Hdt. vii.
77 ; Strab. pp. 570, 573, 667). After the defeat
of Antiochus the Great, the Romans gave it to
Eumenes, Mng of Pergamus (Liv. xxxviii. 39),
eventually it became part of the province called
Lycia-Pamphylia or Pamphylia.
Mimallones (MipdxXoves), the Macedonian
name of the Bacchantes, or, according to others,
of Bacchic Amazons. Ovid (Ars Am. i. 541)
uses the form Mimallonides.
Mimas (Mipas), 1. A giant, said to have been
killed by Ares, or by Zeus, with a flash of
lightning. The island of Prochyte, near Sicily,
was supposed to rest upon Ms body. (Eur. Ion,
215; Hor. Od. iii. 4, 53; SU. It. xii. 147;
Gigantes.) — 2. Son of Amyous and Theano,
companion of Aeneas (Verg. Aen. x. 702). — 3.
A mountain in the peninsula of Erythrae
on the coast of Ionia, which terminates in
the promontory Melaena. Its -spurs run also
S. and W. to the promontories of Coryceum
and Argennum, but its name belongs to the
N. part of the range. (Od. iii. 172 ; Thuc.
viii. 34 ; Strab. pp. 613, 645 ; Ov. Met. ii. 222.)
Mimnermus (Mlpveppos), a celebrated elegiac
poet, generally called a Colophonian, but pro
perly a native of Smyrna, was descended from

MINERVA
those Colophonians who reconquered Smyrna.
from the Aeolians. He flourished from about B.C.
634 to 600. (Strab. p. 643 ; Athen. pp. 470, 597.)
He was a contemporary of Solon, who, in an ex
tant fragment of one of his poems, addresses
him as still living. Only a few fragments of
Mimnermus have come down to us. They
belong chiefly to a poem entitled Nanno, and
are addressed to the flute-player of that name.
The compositions of Mimnermus form an epoch
in the history of elegiac poetry. Before Ms
time the elegy had been devoted chiefly either
to warlike or national, or to convivial and joy
ous subjects. Archilochus had, indeed, occa
sionally employed the elegy for lamentation,
but Mimnermus was the first who systemati
cally made it the vehicle for plaintive, mournful,
and erotic themes. A double motive for his
strain of melancholy may be found in the con
dition of his country, at that time under Lydian
dominion, and in his own disappointment in
love. The instabiUty of human happiness, the
helplessness of man, the cares and miseries to
which life is exposed, the brief season that man
has to enjoy himself to, the wretchedness of
old age, are plaintively dwelt upon by him,
wMle love is held up as the only consolation
that men possess. As an erotic poet he was
held in high estimation to antiquity. (Hor.
Epist. ii. 2, 100.) The fragments are published
separately by Bach, Lips. 1826.
MInaei (Mivdloi), one of the cMef peoples of
Arabia, dwelt on the W. coast of Arabia Felix,
and to the interior of the peninsula, and carried
on a large trade in spices, incense, &c. (Strab.
pp. 768, 776 ; Plin. xii. 54).
Minas Sabbatha (MeiVos SaBarBd), a fort in
Babylonia, built in the time of the later Roman
empire, on the site of Seleucia, wMch the
Romans had destroyed (Zos. iii. 23).
Mineras (Mincio), a river in GaUia Transpa
dana, flows tMough the lake Benacus (Lago
di Garda), and falls into the Po, a little below
Mantua (Verg. Eel. vii. 13, Georg. iii. 15, Aen.
x. 286; Strab. p. 209 ; Liv. xxxii. SO).
Mindarus (MivSapos), a Lacedaemonian, suc
ceeded Astyochus to the command of the
Lacedaemonian fleet, B.C. 411. He was defeated
and slain by the Athenians near Cyzicus to
the following year. (Thuc. viii. 85, 104 ; Xen.
Hell. i. 1, 16; cf. Hippoceates, No. 5.)
Minerva, a Roman goddess, afterwards iden
tified with Athene. The Greek goddess is
spoken of to a separate article. [Athene.]
Minerva was one of the great Roman divinities.
Her name seems to be of the same root as
memini, mentio, moneo, comminiscor, pevos,
Sec. ; and she is accordingly the thinking, calcu
lating, and inventive power personified. Her
name takes practicaUy the same form in Etrus
can, Menerfa or Menfra, but it would be diffi
cult to reconcile a theory that the Romans
borrowed both the name and the personality
of the goddess -from the Etruscans with the
fact (as it appears) that Minerva was an
ancient Italian deity worsMpped from early times
in Sabine and Latin communities, e.g. at Reate
(Dionys. i. 14 ; Varr. L.L. v. 74.) Accordingly,
it is usually held that the worsMp of Minerva
was established at Rome by the Latins and
Sabines; and that Jupiter was the first, Juno
the second, and Minerva the third in the number
of the Capitoline divinities. Tarquto, the son
of Demaratus, was believed to have united the
three divinities in one common temple, and
hence, when repasts were prepared for the gods,
these three always went together. The Etrus-

MINERVAE CASTRUM
cans regarded her as a goddess of lightning, and
tMs was the origin of her being said to wield the
thunderbolts of her father, Jupiter. In the
genuine Italian view she was worshipped as
the patroness of aU the arts and trades, and at
her Roman festival she was particularly invoked
by all who desired to distinguish themselves in
any art or craft, such as painting, poetry, the
art of teaching, medicine, dyeing, spinning,
weaving, and the like. (Ov. Fast. iii. 809-884 ;
August. G. D. vii. 16.) This character of the
goddess may be perceived also from the pro
verbs ' to do a thing pingui Minerva,' i.e. to do
a thing in an awkward or clumsy manner ; and
sms Minervam (docet), of a stupid person who
presumed to set right an inteffigent one (Cic.
Ac. i. 5, 18). The same characteristic was sup
posed to lie at the root of the old custom
of driving a naU (clavus annalis) on the Ides
of September into that side of the temple of
Jupiter on which stood the cella of Minerva :
the purpose was to preserve a record of years,
and Minerva was thus designated as goddess of
memory (Liv. vii. 3). As the Greek influence was
felt and a resemblance was traced between
Minerva the maiden goddess of arts and the
Greek Athene, the Romans began to regard her
as also, like Athene, a goddess of war. Hence
she was represented with a helmet, sMeld, and
a coat of maU ; and the booty made to war was
frequently dedicated to her. (Liv. xiv. 33 ;
PUn. vn. 97.) Minerva was further beUeved
to be the inventor of musical instruments,
especiaUy wind instruments, as used to war,
which were accordingly subjected to a sort of
purification every year on the last day of the
festival of Minerva (Ov. Fast. vi. 654 ; Varr.
L. L. vi. 17). There is reason, however, to
think that the goddess honoured to this tubi-
lustrium was Nerio, associated with Mars.
This festival lasted five days, from the 19th to
the 23rd of March, and was called Quinquatrus,
because it began on the fifth day after the Ides
of the month. [Diet, of Ant. art. Quinqua
trus^] Moreover, the schools, to honour of the
goddess of learning, had a five days' hoUday at
the greater Quinquatrus to March, and at the
end of the hoUdays the new boys brought their
entrance fee, wMch was caUed Minerval. [Did.
of Ant. art. Ludus Litterarius.] The most
ancient temple of Minerva at Rome was prob
ably that on the Capitol ; another existed on
the Aventtoe ; and she had a chapel at the foot
of the CaeUan hiU, where she bore the name of
Capta, a name which was borrowed from
Falerii (cf. Ov. Fast. iii. 843), and can only sig
nify ' The prisoner,' whatever its origin may be.
As goddess of wisdom, and from a comparison
with 'ABi]vd BovXaia, Minerva was in later
times regarded as watcMng over the Senate,
and at Constantinople her statue stood before
the Curia (Zos. v. 24). For the Greek myths
and for representations to art, see Athene.
Minervae Castrnm or Minervlum (Castro),
a hiU on the coast of Calabria, where Aeneas is
said to have landed (Strab. p. 281).
Minervae Promontorium (Punta delta
Campanella or delta Minerva), a rocky pro
montory to Campania, running out a long way
toto the sea, six miles SE. of Surrentum, on
whose summit was a temple of Minerva, which
was said to have been built by Odysseus, and
wMch was still standing to the time of Seneca.
Here the Sirens are reported to have dwelt.
The Greeks regarded it as the NW. boundary
of Oenotria. (Strab. p. 247 ; Plin. iii. 62.)
Minio (Mignone), a small river in Etruria,

MINOS

665

which rises near Satrium, and falls into the
Tyrrhene sea between Graviscae and Centum
Cellae (Verg. Aen. x. 185 ; Mel. ii. 4, 9).
Minius (Minho), a river in the NW. of
Spain, rising to the Cantabrian mountains,
also called Baenis, derived its name from the
minium or vermilion carried down by its
waters. (Strab. p. 153; Plin. iv. 112.)
Minoa (Mivda). 1. A small island in the
Saronic gulf, off the coast of Megaris, and oppo
site a promontory of the same name, was
united to the mainland by a bridge, and
formed, with the promontory, the harbour of
Nisaea. [Megaba.] — 2. A town on the E.
coast of Laconia, and on a promontory of the
same name, NE. of Epidaurus Limera. — 3. A
town on the W. part of the N. coast of Crete,
between the promontories Drepanum and
Psacum. (Ptol. iii. 17, 7.) — 4. A town on the
E. part of the N. coast of Crete, belonging to
the territory of Lyctus, and situated on the
narrowest part of the island (Strab. p. 475;
Ptol. in. 17, 5). — 5. A town in Sicily. See
Heeaclea Minoa.
Minos (Mivas). 1. Son of Zeus and Europa,
brother of Rhadamanthus, was the king and
legislator of Crete, ruling especially at Cnossus,
to friendly intercourse with Zeus. After his
death he became one of the judges of the
shades to Hades. He was the father of Deuca
lion and Ariadne, and, according to Apollo
dorus, the brother of Sarpedon. (II. xiii. 450 ;
xiv. 322 ; Od. xi. 321, 567, xvii. 523. xix. 178 ;
Hes. Th. 948 ; cf. Strab. p. 476.) Many other
stories were added by later poets, or attached
to Ms name from old local legends. He is
described as the husband of Pasiphae, a
daughter of Helios, by whom he was the father
of Catreus, Deucalion, Glaucus, Androgeus,
Acalle, Xenodice, Ariadne, and Phaedra. After
the death of Asterius, king of Crete, who married
Europa and adopted her children, Minos aimed
at the supremacy of Crete, and declared that it
was destined to Mm by the gods ; in proof of
wMch, he asserted that the gods always
answered his prayers. Accordingly, as he was
offering up a sacrifice to Poseidon, he prayed
that a bull might come forth from the sea, and
promised to sacrifice the animal. The bull
appeared, and Minos became king of Crete.
(Others say that Minos disputed the govern
ment with Ms brother, Sarpedon, and con
quered.) But Minos, who admired the beauty
of the buU, did not sacrifice him, and substituted
another in his place. Poseidon therefore ren
dered the bull furious, and made Pasiphae
conceive a passion for the animal. Daedalus
enabled Pasiphae to gratify her passion, and
she became by the buU the mother of Mino-
taurus, a monster with a human body and a
buU's head, or, according to others, with a
bull's body and a human head. The monster
was kept in the labyrinth at Cnossus, con
structed by Daedalus. Daedalus fled from
Crete to escape the wrath of Minos and took
refuge in Sicily. Minos followed him to Sicily,
and was there slain by Cocalus and Ms daugh
ters. (Hdt. vii. 170 ; Diod. iv. 78 ; cf. Ar. Pol.
ii. 10, 4 ; Cocalus.) — In another story, Minos, in
order to avenge the wrong done to his son
Androgeus [Andbogeus] at Athens, made war
against the Athenians and Megarians. He
subdued Megara, and compeUed the Athenians
either every year or every nine years to send
him as a tribute seven youths and seven
maidens, who were devoured in the labyrinth
by the Mtootaurus. The monster was slain by

566

MINOTAURUS

Theseus. (Plut. Thes. 15-19; Diod. iv. 60;
Paus. i. 17, 3; Ov. Ariadne, 104.) — Minos is
further said to have divided Crete toto tMee
parts, and to have ruled nine years. The Cre
tans traced their legal and political institutions

Theseus and Minotaur. (From a painted vase.)
to Minos. He is said to have been instructed
in the art of lawgiving by Zeus himself ; and
the Spartan Lycurgus was believed to have
taken the legislation of Minos as Ms model. In
his time Crete was a powerful maritime state ;
and Minos not only checked the piratical pur
suits of Ms contemporaries, but made himself
master of the Greek islands of the Aegaean. In
this connexion comes the story of Ms getting
possession of Megara through the treachery of
Scylla, daughter of king Nisus, who for love of
Minos cut off the lock of her father's hair on
which Ms power depended. [Nisus.] — The
more philosophical historians accept the tradi
tions of an ancient king Minos of Crete, and
regard him as a ruler of Crete considerably
before the Dorianmigration, and as the organiser
of a powerful navy by means of which he put
down piracy in the Aegaean, and extended his
empire northwards along the coast of Greece
and through the islands, from which he had
driven out the Carians ; and who even at
tempted to conquer Sicily (Thuc. i. 4, 8 ; Ar.
Pol. n. 10 = p. 1271, iv. 10=p. 1329). It is not
improbable that this account is mainly true,
and that the legends of Cocalus conceal an old
maritime invasion of Sicily by the Cretan Mng,
and those of Nisus and of Androgeus a con-
¦ quest which made Megara and Attica at one
time tributary to Crete. Later writers, at
tempting to reconcile contradictions in the
legends, altered the genealogy, and made a
Minos I. son of Zeus and lawgiver, who married
Itone, daughter of Lyctius, by whom he had a
son Lycastus. Lycastus by Ida was father of
Minos II., who married Pasiphae', gathered a
navy, and was connected with various legends
mentioned above. (Diod. iv. 60 : Apollod. ii. 1,3.)
Herodotus (vii. 169) recounts a tradition that
Minos after Mb translation from the world
visited the Cretans with famine and pestilence,
because they had aided the Greeks against
Troy. Minotaurus. [Minos.]
Mintha (MivBrj), a daughter of Cocytus,
beloved by Hades, was metamorphosed by
Demeter or Persephone into a plant called after
her mintha, or mint. In the neighbourhood of
Pylos there was a Mil called Minthe, and at its

MINUCIUS
foot there was a temple of Pluto, and a grove
of Demeter. (Ov. Met. x. 729 ; Strab. p. 344.)
Minturnae (Minturnensis : Trajetta), an
important town in Latium, on the frontiers of
Campania, was situated on the Appia Via, and.
on both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth
of tMs river. It was an ancient town of the-
Ausones or Aurunci, but surrendered to the
Romans of its own accord, and received a
Roman colony B.C. 296. It was subsequently
recolonised by Julius Caesar. (Liv. viii. 10, ix.
25, x. 21 ; Cic. ad Att. v. 1, xvi. 10.) In its
neighbourhood was a grove sacred to the nymph
Marica, and also extensive marshes (Paludes
Minturnenses), formed by the overflowing of
the river Liris, in which Marius was taken
prisoner. [See p. 528, a.] The neighbourhood of
Minturnae produced good wine. There are the
ruins of an amphitheatre and of an aqueduct at
the modern Trajetta.
Minucianus (MivovKiavbs). 1. A Greek
rhetorician, was a contemporary of the cele
brated rhetorician Hermogenes of Tarsus (fl..
a.d. 170), with whom he was at variance. — 2. An
Athenian, the son of Nicagoras, was also a
Greek rhetorician, and lived in the reign of
GaUienus (a.d. 260-263.) He was the author
of several rhetorical works, and a portion of his
Texvr] pnropiKr) is extant, and is pubUshed in
the mnth volume of Walz's Bhetores Graeci.
Minucius Augurinus. [Augueinus.]
Minucius Basilus. [Basilus.]
Minucius Felix. [Felix.]
Minucius Rufus. 1. M., consul B.C. 221,
when he carried on war against the Istrians.
In 217 he was magister equitum to the dictator
Q. Fabius Maximus. The cautious policy of
Fabius displeased Minucius ; and accordingly,,
when Fabius was called away to Rome,.
Minucius disobeyed the positive commands of
the dictator, and risked a battle with a portion
of Hannibal's troops. He was fortunate
enough to gain a victory; to consequence of
which he became so popular at Rome, that a.
biU was passed, giving him equal miUtary
power with the dictator. The Roman army
was now divided, and each portion encamped
separately under its own general. Anxious for
distinction, Minucius eagerly accepted a battle
wMch was offered Mm by Hannibal, but was
defeated, and his troops were only saved from
total destruction by the timely arrival of Fabius,
with all his forces. Thereupon Minucius
generously acknowledged his error, gave up his
separate command, and placed himself again
under the authority of the dictator. He fell at
the battle of Cannae in the following year. (Liv.
xxii. 8, 22-30 ; Pol. iii. 101 ; Plut. Fab. 4-11.)'
— 2. Q., plebeian aedile 201, praetor 200, and
consul 127, when he carried on war against the
Boii with success. In 189 he was one of the
ten commissioners sent into Asia after the
conquest of Antiochus the Great; and in 183
he was one of the three ambassadors sent into
Gaul. (Liv. xxxii. 27, xxxvii. 55.) — 3. M., praetor
197 (Liv. xxxii. 27, xxxiv. 53). — 4. M., tribune
of the plebs 121, brought forward a bill to
repeal the laws of C. Gracchus (Flor. iii. 15).
This Marcus Minucius and Ms brother Quintus
are mentioned as arbiters between the tohabi
tants of Genua and the Viturii, in a very
interesting inscription, which was discovered in
the year 1506, about ten miles from the modern
city of Genoa (G.I.L, i. 199). — 5. Q., consul
110, obtained Macedonia as his province, carried
on war with success agatost the barbarians to
Thrace, and triumphed on his return to Rome-

MINUCIUS
He perpetuated the memory of his triumph by
building the Porticus Minucia, near the Circus
Flaminius. (Cic. Phil. ii. 34, 84.)— The Minucia
Via, leading from Rome to Brundusium (Cic.
Att. ix. 6 ; Hor. Ep. i. 18, 20), was made by
Minucius Augurinus, consul B.C. 305.
Minucius fhermus. [Theemus.]
Minyae (Miviai), an ancient Greek race,
who originally dwelt in Thessaly. lolcos, in
Thessaly, was one of their original seats.
Their ancestral hero, Minyas, is said to have
migrated from Thessaly into the N. of Boeotia,
and there to have established the empire of
the Minyae, with the capital Orchomenos.
[Oechomenos.] When the Arnaeans were
pressed southwards by the Thesprotians, they
drove out the Minyae from the south of Thes
saly and from Boeotia. Some of the Minyae
colonised Lemnos and Imbros, some settled in
Attica, and some in the vaUey of the Eurotas,
where they seem to have been joined by some
of their kinsmen who were to turn driven from
Lemnos and Attica. They withstood the Dorians
in Sparta for some time, but e ventuaUy migrated
again, some to Triphylia to the west of Pelo
ponnesus, and some to Melos and Thera. (Hdt.
i. 146, iv. 145-148; Thuc. i. 12; Paus. ii. 29,
iv. 27, vn. 9, ix. 86 ; Strab. p. 337.) The stories
of the Argonauts (most of whom were tradi-
tionaUy sprung from this race), saUtog to
various lands, probably to some extent grew
out of these migrations of the Minyae. [See
pp. 106, 107.]
Minyas (Mivias), son of Chryses, and the
ancestral hero of the races of the Minyae.
The accounts of his genealogy vary very much
to the different traditions, for some call him a
son of Orchomenus or Eteocles, others of
Poseidon, Aleus, Ares, Sisyphus, or Halmus.
He is further called the husband of Tritogenia,
Clytodora, or Phanosyra. Orchomenus, Pres-
bon, Athamas, Diochthondas, Eteoclymene,
Periclymene, Leucippe, Arsinoe, and Alcathoe
or Alcithoe, are mentioned as his children.
His tomb was shown at Orchomenos in Boeotia.
(Paus. ix. 36, 38 ; Schol. ad Pind. Ol. xiv. 4, Pyth.
iv. 69.) A daughter of Minyas was Minyeias
(-adis) or Mineis (-idis). (Ov. Met. iv. 32.)
Mirobrlga. 1. A town of the Celtici in
Lusitania, on the ocean (Ptol. ii. 5, 6). — 2. A
Roman municipium to the territory of the
Turduli, in Hispania Baetica, on the road
from Emerita to Caesaraugusta (Ptol. ii. 4, 13).
Misenum (Punta di Miseno), a promontory
to Campania, S. of Cumae, said to have derived
its name from Misenus, the companion and
trumpeter of Aeneas, who was drowned and
buried here (Verg. Aen. vi. 163, 212; Propert.
v. 18, 3). The bay formed by this promontory
was converted by Augustus into an excellent
harbour, and was made the principal station of
the Roman fleet on the Tyrrhene sea. A town
sprang up around the harbour, and here the
admiral of the fleet usuaUy resided. (Tac. Ann.
iv. 5, xiv. 3, xv. 51, Hist. ii. 100 ; Suet. Aug.
49; Plin. Ep. vi. 16, 20). The inhabitants
were called Misenates and Misenenses, but the
name Misenates most frequently signifies the
men of the fleet. The Roman nobles had pre
viously built villas on the coast. Here was the
villa of C. Marius, purchased by Lucullus,
which afterwards passed into the hands of the
emperor Tiberius, who died at this place. (Plut.
Mar. 34 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 50 ; Suet. Tib. 72.)
Misitheus, the father-in-law of the emperor
Gordian III., who married Ms daughter
Sabinia TranquiUina in a.d. 241. He accom-

MITHRIDATES

567

panied Gordian in his expedition against the
Persians, whom he defeated ; but in the course
of tMs war he was cut off either by disease or
by the treachery of his successor Philippus, 243
(Zos. i. 16).
Mithras (MlBpas), the god of light and of the
sun among the Persians (Strab. p. 732), whose
worship was widely spread over Asia Minor,
and took root in many Greek towns of Asia
and the islands after the wars of Alexander.
It was first introduced to the Romans through
the wars of Pompey with the Cilician pirates
(Plut. Pomp. 24). Its influence in Italy was
continually increased by Roman legionaries
returning from Eastern service during the first
and second centuries of our era. The first
shrine of Mithras in Italy of which record is
preserved is that at Ostia dating from the
reign of Antoninus Pius. In the time of
Septim. Severus the worsMp of Mithras was
added to the observances of the Domus Augusta
(C. I. L. vi. 2271). Mithras was spoken of as
Sol Invictus, a style which Aurelian, the son of
a priestess of Mithras, sometimes adopted.
Though Mittoas was thus adopted as sun-god
by the Romans towards the decline of pagan
ism, Ms peculiar Oriental rites were retained.
His sanctuary was a cave, real or artificial,
explained as signifying that Mithras was born
from a rock (Lyd. Mens. iii. 26) : it is more
likely that it symboUses the world of darkness
against which the sun-god fights. A bull was
sacrificed in these caves and the blood purified
the worshippers (Did. of Ant. art. Taurobo-
lium), who passed tMough various grades of
initiation as KbpaKes, Kpbipioi, Xeovres and
Xeatvai (the lion seems to mean the sun),
'HXibSpopoi, and finally Patres or 'AeToi. The
initiated were regarded as purified from the
earth by these rites and by the fastings and
penances which they endured. The god is
commonly represented as a handsome youth,
wearing the Phrygian cap and attire, and
kneeling on a bull which is thrown on the
ground, and whose throat he is cutting. Fre
quently (as in the complete relief from which

The Sacrifice of Mithras. (From a relief now in the
Louvre.)
the engraving is taken) the grotto in wMch the
sacrifice is offered is shown.
Mithridates or Mithradates (MiBpiSdrns or
MiBpaSdrris), a common name among the Medes

568

MITHRIDATES

and Persians, probably connected with that of
Mithras the god of light. 1. I., Mng, or, mora
properly, satrap of Pontus, was son of Ariobar
zanes I., and was succeeded by Ariobarzanes
II., about B.C. 363. The kings of Pontus
claimed to be lineally descended from one of
the seven Persians who had conspired against
the Magi, and who was subsequently estab
lished by Darius Hystaspis in the government
of the countries bordering on the Euxine sea.
(Xen. Cyr. viii. 8, 4 ; Diod. xv. 90, xix. 40 ; Pol.
v. 43.)— 2. II., king of Pontus (337-302), suc
ceeded Ms father Ariobarzanes H., and was the
founder of the independent kingdom of Pontus.
After the death of Alexander the Great, he was
for a time subject to Antigonus; but during
the war between the successors of Alexander,
he succeeded in establishing his independence.
He died at the age of 84. (Diod. xvi. 90, xx.
Ill ; Appian, Mithr. 9, 112 ; Strab. p. 562.)— 3.
III., Mng of Pontus (302-266), son and succes
sor of the preceding. He enlarged Ms paternal
domtoions by the acquisition of great part of
Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. He was suc
ceeded by Ms son Ariobarzanes III. (Diod. xx.
111.)— 4. IV., Mng of Pontus (about 240-190),
son and successor of Ariobarzanes HI. He
gave Ms daughter Laodice to marriage to
Antiochus IH. He was succeeded by his son
Pharnaces I. (Pol. iv. 56, v. 48, 90.)— 5. V.,
king of Pontus (about 156-120), surnamed
Euergetes, son and successor of Pharnaces I.
He was the first of the kings of Pontus who
made an aUiance with the Romans, whom he

Stater of Mithridates VI., King of Pontus, B.C. 120-63.
Obv., head of Mithridates VI. ; rev., BASIAE0.2 MI0PAAATOY
eyiiatopoz ; stag feeding ; sun and crescent moon. The
ivy wreath is supposed to refer to the title ' New Dio-
nysus ' which the Asiatic citieB gave to Mithridates.
assisted to the third Punic war and in the war
against Aristonicus (131-129). He was assassi
nated at Sinope by a conspiracy among his
own immediate attendants. (App. Mithr. 12,
56 ; Just, xxxviii. 5 ; Strab. p. 477.)— 6. VI.,
king of Pontus (120-63), surnamed Eupator,
also Dionysus, but more commonly the Great,
was the son and successor of the preceding,
' and was only eleven years old at the period of his
accession. We are told by Justin that on
ascending the throne he found himself assailed
by the designs of his guardians, but that he
succeeded in eluding their machinations, partly
by a courage and address beyond his years,
partly by the use of antidotes agatost poison, to
which he began thus early to accustom MmseU.
For the same reasons he devoted much of his
time to hunting, and took refuge to the remo
test and most unfrequented regions, under
pretence of pursuing the pleasures of the chase.
Whatever truth there may be to these accounts,
it is certain that when he attained to manhood,
he not only had great skiU to martial exercises
and a frame inured to hardsMps, but his
naturally vigorous intellect had been improved
by careful culture. As a boy he had been
brought up at Sinope, where he had probably
received the elements of a Greek education ;
and so powerful was Ms memory that he is

said to have learnt the incredible number of
twenty-two languages, and to have been able in
the days of his greatest power to transact busi
ness with the deputies of every tribe subject to
his rule in their own peculiar dialect (Just.
xxxvii. 2; Strab. p. 545; Plin. xxv. 5; Gell.
xvii. 17). The first steps of his career were
marked by blood. He is said to have murdered
his mother, to whom a share in the royal
authority had been left by Mithridates Euer
getes ; and this was followed by the assassination
of Ms brother (App. Mithr. 112 ; Memn. 30).
In the early part of Ms reign he subdued the
barbarian tribes between the Euxine and the
confines of Armenia, including the whole of
Colchis and the province caUed Lesser Armenia,
and even extended his conquests beyond the
Caucasus. He assisted Parisades, king of the
Bosporus, against the Sarmatians and Roxo-
lani, and rendered the whole of the Tauric
Chersonese tributary to Ms Mngdom. After
the death of Parisades, the kingdom of Bosporus
itself was incorporated with his dominions.
He was now in possession of such great power
that he began to deem Mmself equal to a con
test with Rome itself. Many causes of dissen
sion had already arisen between them, but
Mithridates had hitherto submitted to the
mandates of Rome. Even after expeUing
Ariobarzanes from Cappadocia, and Nicomedes
from Bithynia in 90, he offered no resistance to
the Romans when they restored these monarchs
to their kingdom. But when Nicomedes, urged
by the Roman legates, invaded the territories
of Mithridates, the latter made preparations for
immediate hostilities. His success was rapid
and striking. In 88, he drove Ariobarzanes
out of Cappadocia, and Nicomedes out of
Bithyma, defeated the Roman generals who
had supported the latter, made himself master of
Phrygia and Galatia, and at last of the Roman
province of Asia. During the winter he issued
the sanguinary order to aU the cities of Asia to
put to death, on the same day, all the Roman
and Italian citizens who were to be found
within their walls. So hateful had the Romans
rendered themselves, that these commands
were obeyed with alacrity by almost all the
cities of Asia, and 80,000 Romans and Italians
are said to have perished in tMs fearful mass
acre. (App. Mithr. 22; Plut. Sull. 24 ; Cic. pro
Flacc. 24 ; Liv. Ep. 78 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 14.)
Meantime Sulla had received the command of
the war against Mithridates, and crossed over
into Greece in 87. Mithridates, however, had
resolved not to await the Romans to Asia, but
had already sent his general, Archelaus, into
Greece, at the head of a powerful army. Athens,
Achaia, Boeotia and Laconia declared them
selves his supporters. The war proved un
favourable to the king. Archelaus was twice
defeated by SuUa with immense loss, near
Chaeronea and Orchomenos in Boeotia (86).
About the same time Mithridates was himself
defeated to Asia by Fimbria. [Fimbeia.] These
disasters led Mm to sue for peace, which Sulla
was wilUng to grant, because he was anxious to
return to Italy, which was entirely to the
hands of his enemieE. Mithridates consented
to abandon all his conquests in Asia, to pay a
sum of 8000 talents, and to surrender to the
Romans a fleet of seventy ships. Thus ended
the first Mithridatic war (84). (App. Mithr.
29-63 ; Plut. Sull. 11-25, Lucull. 4.)— Shortly
afterwards Murena, who had been left to com
mand of Asia by SuUa, invaded the domtoions
of Mithridates (83), under the flimsy pretext

MITHRIDATES

5G9

that the king had not yet evacuated the whole
of Cappadocia. In the following year (82)
Murena renewed his hostile incursions, but
was defeated by Mithridates on the banks of
the river Halys. But Murena received peremp
tory orders from Sulla to desist from hostili
ties, and peace was again restored. This is
usually called the second Mithridatic war
(App. Mithr. 64-67).— Mithridates, however,
was well aware that the peace between him
and Rome was in fact a mere suspension of
hostilities ; and that the republic would never
suffer the massacre of her citizens in Asia to
remain ultimately unpunished. No formal
treaty was ever concluded between Mithridates
and the Roman senate ; and the king had in
vain endeavoured to obtain the ratification of
the terms agreed on between him and Sulla.
The death of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia,
at the beginning of 74, brought matters to a
crisis. That monarch left his dominions by
will to the Roman people ; and Bithynia was
accordingly declared a Roman province : but
Mithridates asserted that the late king had left
a legitimate son by his wife Nysa, whose pre
tensions he immediately prepared to support
by his arms. He had employed the last few
years in forming a powerful army, armed and
disciplined in the Roman manner ; and he now
took the field with 120,000 foot soldiers, 16,000
horse, and a vast number of barbarian auxili
aries. This was the beginning of the third
Mithridatic war. The two Roman consuls,
Lucullus and Cotta, were unable to oppose his
first irruption. He traversed Bithynia without
encountering any resistance ; and when at
length Cotta ventured to give him battle under
the walls of Chalcedon, the consul was totally
defeated both by sea and land. Mithridates
then proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus both by
sea and land. Lucullus marched to the relief
of the city, cut off the king's supplies, and
eventually compelled him to raise the siege,
early in 73. On his retreat Mithridates suffered
great loss, and eventually took refuge in Pontus.
Hither Lucullus followed him in the next year.
The new army, which the king had collected,
was entirely defeated by the Roman general ;
and Mithridates, despairing of opposing the
further progress of Lucullus, took refuge in the
dominions of his son-in-law Tigranes, the king
of Armenia. Tigranes at first showed no dis
position to attempt the restoration of his father-
in-law ; but being offended at the haughty
conduct of Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus
had sent to demand the surrender of Mithri
dates, the Armenian king not only refused this
request, but determined to prepare for war with
the Romans. Accordingly, in 69, Lucullus
marched into Armenia, defeated Tigranes and
Mithridates near Tigranocerta, and in the next
year (68) again defeated the allied monarchs
near Artaxata. The Roman general then
turned aside into Mesopotamia, and laid siege
to Nisibis. Here the Roman soldiers broke
out into open mutiny, and demanded to be led
home ; and Lucullus was obliged to raise the
siege, and return to Asia Minor. Meanwhile
Mithridates had taken advantage of the absence
of Lucullus to invade Pontus at the head of a
large army. He defeated Fabius and Triarius,
to whom the defence of Pontus had been com
mitted ; and when Lucullus returned to Pontus,
he was unable to resume the offensive in con
sequence of the mutinous spirit of his own
soldiers. Mithridates was thus able before the
close of 67 to regain possession of the greater

part of his hereditary dominions. (App. Mithr.
69-90 ; Plut. Lucull. 7-35 ; Cicero Leg. Manil.
3.) In the following year (66) the conduct of
the war was entrusted to Pompey. Hostilities
were resumed with greater vigour than ever.
Mithridates was obliged to retire before the
Romans, but was surprised and defeated by
Pompey; and as Tigranes now refused to
admit him into his dominions, he resolved to
plunge with his small army into the heart of
Colchis, and thence make his way to the Palus
Maeotis and the Cimmerian Bosporus. Arduous
as this enterprise appeared, it was successfully
accomplished; and he at length established
himself without opposition at Panticapaeum,
the capital of Bosporus. He had now nothing
to fear from the pursuit of Pompey, who turned
his arms first against Tigranes, and afterwards
against Syria. Unable to obtain peace from
Pompey, unless he would come in person to
make his submission, Mithridates conceived
the daring project of marching round the N.
and W. coasts of the Euxine, through the wild
tribes of the Sarmatians and Getae, and having
gathered round his standard all these barbarian
nations, to penetrate into Italy itself. But
meanwhile disaffection had made rapid progress
among his followers. His son Pharnaces at
length openly rebelled against him. He was
joined both by the whole army and the citizens
of Panticapaeum, who unanimously proclaimed
him king ; and Mithridates, who had taken
refuge in a strong tower, saw that no choice
remained to him but death or captivity. Here
upon he took poison, which he constantly
carried with him ; but his constitution had been
so long inured to antidotes, that it did not pro
duce the desired effect, and he was compelled
to call in the assistance of one of his Gau
lish mercenaries to despatch him with his
sword. He died in 63. His body was sent by
Pharnaces to Pompey at Amisus, as a token of
his submission ; but the conqueror caused it to
be interred with regal honours in the sepulchre
of his forefathers at Sinope. He was 68 or 69
years old at the time of his death, and had
reigned fifty-seven years, of which twenty-five
had been occupied, with only a few brief
intervals, in one continued struggle against
the Roman power. The estimation in which
he was held by his adversaries is the strongest
testimony to his great abilities : Cicero calls
him the greatest of all kings after Alexander,
and in another passage says that he was a
more formidable opponent than any other mon
arch whom the Roman arms had yet encoun
tered. (App. Mithr. 97-111; Dio Cass, xxvii.
3-13 ; Plut. Pomp. 32-41 ; Cic. pro Muren.
15 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 18.)— 7. Kings of Parthia.
[Arsaces, 6, 9, 13.] — 8. Of Pergamum, son of
Menodotus ; but his mother having had an
amour with Mithridates the Great, he was
generally looked upon as in reality the son of
that monarch. The king himself bestowed
great care on his education ; and he appears as
early as 64 to have exercised the chief control
over the affairs of his native city. At a subse
quent period he served under JuliuB Caesar in
the Alexandrian war (48) ; and after the defeat
of Pharnaces in the following year (47), Caesar
bestowed upon Mithridates the kingdom of the
Bosporus, and also the tetrarchy of the Gala-
tians. But the kingdom of the Bosporus still
remained to be won, for Asander, who had
revolted against Pharnaces, was in fact master
of the whole country, and Mithridates having
attempted to expel Asander, was defeated and

570

MITHRIDATIS REGIO

slain. (Bell. Alex. 26-82, 78 ; Strab. p. 625 ;
Dio Cass. xiii. 41-43.)
Mithrldatis Regio (MiBpiSdrov x^Pa)>
in Sarmatia Asiatica, on the W. side of the
river Rha (Volga), so called because it was the
place of refuge of the last Mithridates, in the
reign of Claudius (Tac. Ann. xii. 15 ; Ptol. v.
9, 19).
Mitylene. [Mytilene.]
Mnaseas (Mvaaeas), of Patara in Lycia — not
of Patrae in Achaia — was a pupil of Erato
sthenes, and a grammarian of considerable
celebrity. He wrote two works, one of a
chorographical description, entitled Periplus
(TlepiirXovs), and the other a coUection of oracles
at DelpM. (Suid. s.v. ; Athen. pp. 158, 296, 530.)
Mnasilochus (MvatriXoxos), an Acarnanian
leader, sided with Antiochus in 191, and sur
rendered to the Romans after the battle of Mag
nesia (Liv. xxxvi. 11, xxxviii. 38 ; Pol. xxii. 26).
Mnasippus (Mvdiriiriros), a Lacedaemonian
in command of the fleet at Corcyra in 373, was
slain to a battle (Xen. Hell. vi. 2.)
Mneme. [Musae.J
Mnemosyne. [Musae.]
Mnesarchus (Mvi)o-apxos). 1. [Pythagobas.]
— 2. A Stoic philosopher, a disciple of Panaetius,
flourished about B.C. 110, and taught at Athens.
Among his pupils was Antiochus of Ascalon.
(Cic. Fin. i. 2, 6, Acad. ii. 22, 69.)
Mneslcles (MvntriKXris), one of the great
Athenian artists of the age of Pericles, was the
architect of the Propylaea of the Acropolis,
[See pp. 11, 12 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Propylaea.]
Mnesimachus (Mvnio-paxos), a poet of the
Middle Comedy (Athen. pp. 301, 322, 329).
Mnesitheus (Mvr)o-tBeos), a physician, was a
native of Athena, and lived probably in the
fourth century B.C., as he is quoted by the comic
poet Alexis. He is frequently mentioned by
Galen and others.
Mnester (Mvr)o-rrip), a celebrated pantomime
actor in the reigns of Caligula and Claudius,
was one of the lovers of MessaUina, and was put
to death on the ruin of the latter (Tac. Ann. ix.
4, 36 ; Snet. Cal. 36, 55, 57).
Mnestheus, a Trojan, who accompanied
Aeneas to Italy, and was the ancestral hero of
the Memmii (Verg. Aen. v. 117).
Moabltis (MaaBtris, MbBa : MaaBirai, Moa-
bltae : O. T. Moab, for both country and people),
a district of Arabia Petraea, E. of the Dead
Sea, from the river Arnon (Wady-el-M ojib, the
boundary between Palestine and Arabia) on the
N., to Zoar, near the S. end of the Dead Sea,
on the S., between the Amorites on the N., the
Midianites on the E., and the Bdomites on the
S. — that is, before the Israelitish conquest of
Canaan. [See Diet, of the Bible.]
Modestinus, Herennius, a Roman jurist, and
a pupil of Ulpian, flourished in the reigns of
Alexander Severus, Maximinus and the G-ordi-
ans, A.D. 222-244. Though Modestinus is
the latest of the great Roman jurists, he ranks
among the most distinguished. There are 345
excerpts to the Digest from his writings.
Modestus, Julius, a grammarian who wrote
early in the first century a.d. (Suet. Gr. 20 ;
Gell. iii. 9, 1 ; Mart. x. 21, 1).
Modestus, a military writer, the author of a
Libellus de Vocabulis Bei Militaris, addressed
to the emperor Tacitus, a.d. 275 : brief, and
presents no features of interest. Printed in
all the collections of Scriptores de Be Militari.
Modicia (Monza), a town in Gallia Transpa
dana, on the river Lambrus, N. of Mediolanum
Milan), where Theodoric built a palace, and

MOESIA
Theodolinda, queen of the Langobards, a splen.
did church, which still contains many of the
gifts of this queen (Paul. Langob. iv. 22, 49).
Modin (MoSelv, -eeiv, or -leip), a village on a-
mountain N. of Lydda or Diospolis, on the
extreme NW. of Judaea, celebrated as the
native place of the Maccabei (Jos. Ant. xii. 8, 1).
Modra (ra MbSpa : Mudurlu), a town of
Bithynia near the source of the river Gallus
(Strab. p. 543).
Moenus, Moenis, Maenns, or Menus (Main),
a river in Germany, wMch rises to the Sudeti
Montes, flows through the territory of the Her.
munduri and the Agri Decumates of the Romans,
and falls into the RMne opposite Mogontiacum
(Mainz) (Tac. Germ. 28 ; Mel. ui. 3, 3).
Moeris or Myris (Molpis, Mipis), a Mng of
Egypt, who, Herodotus teUs us, reigned some
900 years before his own visit to that country,
wMch seems to have been about B.C. 450. The
Greek writers state of Moeris that he formed
the lake known by Ms name, and joined it by a
canal to the Nile, in order to receive the waters
of the river when they were superabundant,
and to supply the defect when they did not rise
sufficiently. In the lake he buUt two pyramids
on each of which was a stone statue, seated on
a throne, and intended to represent himself
and his wife. (Hdt. ii. 13, 101, 149 ; Diod. i. 52 ;
Strab. pp. 789, 809.) The real author of these
works was Amenemhat III., who lived about
2300 B.C. (1000 years earlier than the date given
by Herodotus). He had the enormous basin
formed in the Fayum for the storage of water
protected by dykes and communicating with
the river by a canal with locks to regulate the
flow. He also built the Labyrinth [Diet, of
Ant. s.v.]. The Egyptian word meri means ' a
basin,' and from this a confused account of a
king of that name was adopted by the Greeks.
Moeris (MoTpis), commonly called Moeris
Atticista, a distinguished grammarian of the
time of Hadrian, the author of a work stiU
extant, entitled Aegeis 'ArriKai, though the
title varies somewhat in different manuscripts.
His treatise is a sort of comparison of the Attic
with other Greek dialects ; consisting of a list
of Attic words and expressions, iUustrated by
those of other dialects, especially the common
Greek. Edited by Pierson, 1759 ; Bekker, 1833.
Moeris Lacus. [Moeris.]
Moero (Moipd), or Myro (Mvpd), a poetess of
Byzantium, wife of Andromachus surnamed
Philologus, and mother of the grammarian and
tragic poet Homerus, lived about B.C. 300. She
wrote epic, elegiac, and lyric poems. (Suid. s.v.;
Athen. p. 490.)
Moerocles (MoipoKXi)s), an Atheman orator, a
native of Salamis, was a contemporary of
Demosthenes, and like him an opponent of
Philip and Alexander (Dem. F.L. p. 435 ; Arrian,
An. i. 10, 7).
Moesia, caUed by the Greeks Mysia (Mvcrfa,
also M. ri iv Eipdirn, to distingish it from Mysia
in Asia), a country of Europe, was bounded on
the S. by Haemus, which separated it from
Thrace, and by M. Orbelus and Scordus, which
separated it from Macedonia, on the W. by M.
Scordus and the rivers Drinus and Savus,
which separated it from IUyricum and Pan
nonia, on the N. by the Danube, wMch sepa
rated it from Dacia, and on the E. by Pontus
Euxinus, thus corresponding to the present
Servia and Bulgaria (Dio Cass. Ii. 27 ; Ptol.
iii. 9, 60). This country was subdued in the
reign of Augustus, about 29 b.c. (Liv. Ep. 184,
135; Dio Cass. Ii. 25; Flor. ii. 26), but doea

MOGONTIACUM
not appear to have been formally constituted a
Roman province tiU near the end of the reign,
about a.d. 6 (Dio Cass. Iv. 29 ; Ov. Trist. ii. 197).
Tacitus (Ann. i. 80) mentions a legatus Moesiae
a.d. 14. It was originaUy only one province,
but in the reign of Domitian was formed into two
provinces, called Moesia Superior and Moesia
Inferior, the former being the western and the
latter the eastern half of the country, and
separated from each other by the river Cebrus
or Ciabrus, a tributary of the Danube. When
Aurelian surrendered Dacia to the barbarians,
and removed the tohabitants of that province
-to the S. of the Danube, the middle part of
Moesia was caUed Dada Aureliani ; and this
new province was divided into Dacia Bipensis,
the district along the Danube, and Dacia In
terior, the district S. of the latter as far as the
frontiers of Macedonia. In the reign of
Valens, some of the Goths crossed the Danube
and settled to Moesia. These Goths are some
times caUed Moeso-Goths, and it was for their
use that UlphUas translated the Scriptures
into Gothic about the middle of the fourth
century. The original tohabitants of the
country, called Moesi by the Romans, and My si
(MvaoC) by the Greeks, were a TMacian race,
and were divided toto several tribes, such as
the Tktballi, Peucini, &c. (Strab. p. 295).
Mogontiacuni, Moguntiacum or Magontia-
cum (Mainz or Mayence), a town on the left
bank of the Rhine, opposite the mouth of the
river Moenus (Main), was situated in the terri
tory of the Vangiones, and was subsequently
the capital of the province of Germania Prima.
It was a Roman municipium, and was founded,
or at least enlarged and fortified, by Drusus.
It was occupied by a strong Roman garrison,
and continued to the downfaU of the empire
to be one of the cMef fortresses on the Rhine.
(Tac. Hist. iv. 15, 24 ; Amm. Marc. xv. 11.)
Moirae (Mdipai), caUed Parcae by the Romans,
the Fates. Moira properly signifies ' a share,'
and as a personifica
tion ( the deity who
assigns to every man
his fate or his share.'
Homer speaks of the
Mo7pat as personal
deities once (27. xxiv.
49), and again of a
single Molpa who spins
the thread of life (II.
xxiv. 209) : to the
Odyssey (vii. 197) there
is once mention of
the spinning deities
(KAoSCes) who are pre
sent at the time of
birth. ATffa is men
tioned there also, and
it is possible that in
this passage Aitra Aibs
may be regarded, like
at Delphi [see below],
pany with two KXdBes.

MOIRAE

571

makes them daughters of Night and sisters of
Krjpes and Death; whereas under the more
orderly reign of Zeus they are daughters of
Zeushimself and Themis (Hes. Th. 217, 904 ; cf.
Apollod. i. 3, 1), and three in number, viz.
Clotho, or the spinning fate ; Lachesis, or the
one who assigns to man his fate ; and Atropos,
or the fate that cannot be avoided. Later
writers give other genealogies: thus they are
called children of Erebus and Night, of Cronos
and Night, of Ge and Oceanus, or lastly of
\ n.iii kr or Necessity (Cic. N.D. iii. 17 ; Tzetz.
ad Lye. 406 ; Plat. Bep. p. 617). In Homer
the conception of the supreme rule of the
Fates is as uncertain as is their personality : in
some passages all the gods, even Zeus, observe
the decree of Fate (II. xix. 87) ; in others the
Fate is rather an attribute of Zeus signifying
Ms predestined wiU (II. xvii. 321), and it is even
hinted that fate may be altered by Zeus (It.
xvi. 435), and that things may possibly happen
virep poipav (II. xx. 80, 336). But the con
ception which prevailed was of an unalterable
decree. The fate assigned to every being by
eternal laws takes its course without obstruc
tion ; and Zeus, as well as the other gods and
men, must submit to them. (Aesch. Pr. 516,
Eum. 835, 962 ; cf . Verg. Aen. v. 798, xii. 147 ;
Ov. Met. xv. 781.) They assign to the Erinnyes,
who inflict the punishment for evil deeds, their
proper functions ; and with them they direct
fate according to the laws of necessity, whence
they are sometimes- called the sisters of the
Erinnyes. — The Moirae, as the divinities of the
duration of human Ufe, which is determined by
the two points of birth and of death, are con
ceived either as goddesses of birth or as god
desses of death, and hence their number was
two, as at Delphi with Zeus as Moipayerris (Paus.
x. 24, 4) ; but even here the number of three dei
ties is preserved, and the conception became uni
versal of three sister Fates (as of three Hours,
three Graces, &c). The distribution of the func-

The Moirae or Parcae (Fates) and Prometheus. (Viscouti, Mus. Pio Clem. vol. iv. tav. 84. >

the Zevs Moipayerris
is the third in com-
In Homer Moira is
fate personified, which, at the birth of man,
spins out the thread of his future life, fol
lows his steps, and directs the consequences of
Ms actions according to the counsel of the gods.
But the personification of his Moira is not
complete; for he mentions no particular ap
pearance of the goddess, no attributes, and no
parentage. His Moira is therefore quite syn
onymous with Aisa (ATira). — In Hesiod the per
sonification of the Moirae is more complete,
but to speaking of the darker Titan dynasty he

tions among them was not strictly observed, for
we sometimes find all described as spinning,
although this should.be the function of Clotho
alone, who is moreover often mentioned alone
as the representative of aU. As goddesses of
birth, who spin the ttoead of the beginning of
life, and prophesy the fate of the newly born,
they are mentioned along with Ilithyia, with
whom, and also with the Hours, they appear as
helpers at the birth of a child (Pind. Ol. vi. 42,
Nem. vii. 1 ; Eur. I. T. 207, Bacch. 99 ; Paus.
viii. 21, 2 : see also Hobae and Ilithyia).. As
goddesses of death, they appear also with the
Keres and the Erinnyes (Hes. Scut. 258 ; Paus.

572

MOLIONE

ii. 11, 4). In some ancient works of art they
appear, not with their several attributes, but as
three crowned deities with sceptres in token of
their sovereignty (as on the altar of the Twelve
Gods, now in the Louvre) ; but usually in works
of art they are represented with different attri
butes : Clotho with a spindle or a roll (the book
of fate) ; Lachesis pointing with a staff to the
globe ; and Atropos with a pair of scales, or a
sun-dial, or shears. The Parcae in Latin liter
ature received all the mythology and attributes
of the Greek Moirae. OriginaUy Parca was
especiaUy the goddess of birth, her name being
probably derived a pariundo (though some take
it to be from pledo, as weaving the ttoead) ;
but with her were associated the deities Nona
and Decima presiding over different months of
the birth, and subsequently the name Parcae
was applied to the three Fates collectively, of
whom Nona and Decima were charged with the
birth, and the third, Morta, with death (Varro,
ap. GeU. iii. 16). The abstract noun fatum
meant the spoken word or decree of Heaven,
equivalent to the aXaa Aibs (Serv. ad Aen. x. 628,
xii. 808), but though the neuter form prevailed in
literature, the popular and ceremonial language
retained Fati and Fatae. Fata Scribunda
was the goddess who watched over the birth
{included among the Carmentes as betog pro
phetic) and wrote down the destiny of the child.
Molione. [Moliones.]
Moliones or Molionidae (MoXioves, MoXiove,
MoXioviSai), that is, Eurytus and Cteatus, so
called after their mother Molione. They are
also called Adoridae or Actorione ('AKropiave)
after their reputed father Actor, the husband of
Molione, though they were generally regarded
as the sons of Poseidon. The Moliones, when
yet boys, took part to an expedition of the
Epeans agatost Neleus and the Pylians (II.
xi. 709, 750, xxiii. 638 ; Ov. Met. viii. 308). They
are represented as nephews of Augeas, king of
the Epeans. When Heracles inarched against
Augeas, the latter entrusted the conduct of the
war to the Moliones ; but as Heracles was taken
iU, he concluded peace with Augeas, whereupon
his army was attacked and defeated by the
Molionidae. In order to take vengeance, he
afterwards slew them near Cleonae, on the fron
tiers of Argolis, when they had been sent from
Elis to sacrifice at the Isthmian games, on
behaU of the town. (Pind. Ol. xi. 34 ; Paus.
viii. 14, 6 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 2.) — The Moliones are
mentioned as conquerors of Nestor in the
chariot race, and as having taken part in the
Calydonian hunt. Cteatus was the father of
(Ampbimachus by Theronice ; and Eurytus, of
Thalpius by Theraphone. Their sons Amphi-
machus and Thalpius led the Epeans to Troy.
(Paus. v. 3, 4.) Later traditions describe them
as born out of an egg, and as having only one
body, but two heads (Athen. ii. 58; Plut. de
Fratr. Am. 1).
Molo, surname of Apollonius, the rhetorician
of Rhodes. [Apollonius, No. 2.]
Molon (MaXoui/), satrap of Media under Antio
chus the Great, against whom he revolted. He
was defeated near Babylon B.C. 220, and put an
end to his own life. (Pol. v. 40-54.)
Molochath. [Mulucha.]
Molossi (MoXoaaoi), a people in Epirus, who
inhabited a narrow slip of country, called after
them Molossia (MoXoo-tria) or Molossis, which
extended from the Aous, along the W. bank of
the Arachthus, as far as the Ambracian gulf.
The Molossi were a Greek people, who claimed
descent from MdIossus, the son of Pyrrhus

MONOECI PORTUS
(Neoptolemus) and Andromache, and are said to
have emigrated from Thessaly into Epirus,
under the guidance of Pyrrhus (Plut. Pyrrh.
1; Just. xvii. 3). In their new abodes they
intermingled with the original inhabitants of
the land and with the neighbouring Hlyrian
tribes, in consequence of which they were re
garded by the other Greeks as half barbarians.
They were, however, by far the most powerful
people in Epirus, and their kings gradually ex
tended their dominion over the whole of the
country. (Hdt. vi. 127 ; Thuc. ii. 80 ; Liv. vto.
24.) The first of their kings who took the title
of king of Epirus was Alexander, who perished
in Italy B.C. 326. [Epmus.] The ancient
capital of the Molossi was Passabon, but Am-
beacia afterwards became their chief town, and
the residence of their Mngs. (Plut. Pyrrh. 5 ;
Liv. xiv. 26.) The Molossian hounds were cele
brated in antiquity, and much prized for hunt
ing (Verg. Georg. iii. 405 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 114).
Molus (MbXos), son of Deucalion and father
of Mebiones (II. x. 269, xiii. 279 ; ApoUod. iii.
Molycrium (MoXvKpeiov, also MoXvKpeia, Mo-
XvKpia : MoXiKpios, MoXvKpieis, MoXvKpdios), a
town in the most southerly part of AetoUa, at
the entrance of the Corinthian gulf, gave the
name of RMum Molycrium ('Piov MoXvKpiov) to
the neighbouring promontory of AntirrMum.
It was founded by the Corinthians, but was
afterwards taken possession of by the AetoUans.
(Thuc. ii. 84 ; Strab. p. 336.)
Momemphis (Mdpepipis : Panouf-Khet, or
Manouf-et-Seffli, i.e. Lower Memphis), the
capital of the Nomos Momemphites to Lower
Egypt, stood on the E. side of the lake Mareotis
(Strab. p. 803).
Monius (Mdpos), the god of cruel mockery
and censure, is not mentioned by Homer, but is
caUed to Hesiod the son of Night. He is said
to have found fault with the man formed by
Hephaestus, because a little door had not been
left in his breast, so as to enable one to look
toto his secret thoughts. (Hes. Th. 214 ; CaUim.
Hymn. Apoll. 113 ; Lucian, Hermotim. 20.)
Mona. 1. (Anglesey) An island off the coast of
the Ordovices in Britain, one of the chief
seats of the Druids, was invaded by Suetonius
PauUnus, a.d. 61, and conquered by Agricola,
78. (Tac. Agr. 15, 18, Ann. xiv. 29 ; Ptol. iii.
412 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 7.) — 2. See Monapia.
Monaeses. 1. A Parthian general mentioned
by Horace (Od. iii. 6, 9) is probably the same
as Surenas, the general of Orodes, who defeated
Crassus. — 2. A Parthian noble, who deserted to
Antony and urged Mm to invade Parttoa, but
soon afterwards returned to the Parthian king
Phraates. — 3. A general of the Parthian king
Vologeses I., in the reign of Nero.
Monapia or Monarina (Isle of Man), an
island between Britannia and Hibernia (Plin.
iv. 103). It is probable that Caesar means
tMs island when he speaks of Mona as half
way between Britain and Ireland (B.G. v. 18).
Monda or Munda (Mondego), a river of
Spain, flowing into the ocean between the Tagus
and Durius (Plin. iv. 115 ; Mel. ui. 1, 7).
Moneta. [Juno.]
Momma (Movlpri), a Greek woman, either of
Stratonicea, in Ionia, or of Miletus, was the wife
of Mithridates, but was put to death by order of
this monarch, when he fled into Armenia, B.C.
72 (App. Mithr. 21, 27, 48 ; Plut. Lucull. 18).
Monoeci Portus, also Herculis Monoeci
Portus (Monaco), a port-town on the coast of
Liguria, just within the province of GaUia Nar-

MONTANUS
foonensis (of which the boundary was the river
Var), between Nicaea and Albium Intemelium,
founded by the Massilions, was situated on a
promontory (hence the arx Monoeci of Verg.
Aen. vi. 801), and possessed a temple of Her
cules Monoecus, from whom the place derived
its name (Strab. p. 202; Amm. Marc. xv. 10, 9).
The harbour, though small and exposed to the
SE. wind (Lucan, i. 405), was of importance, as
it was the only one on tMs part of the coast of
Liguria (Tac. Hist. iii. 42 ; Val. Max. i. 6, 7).
A little above Monoeci Portus Augustus marked
the highest point of the difficult coast road
wliich he had made there by a trophy (Tropaea
Alpium ; Plin. iii. 136 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 2) inscribed
with the names of conquered Alpine tribes :
hence the name of the modern Turbia.
Montanus, Curtius, was exiled by Nero,
a.d. 67 ; but was soon afterwards recalled at
his father's petition. On the accession of Ves
pasian, he vehemently attacked in the senate
the notorious delator, Aquilius Regulus. (Tac.
Ann. xvi. 28, 33, Hist. iv. 40-43.) If he is the
same person as the Curtius Montanus satirised
by Juvenal (iv. 107, 181, xi. 84), Montanus to later
Ufe suUied the fair reputation wMch, according
to Tacitus, he enjoyed in youth ; for Juvenal
describes him as a corpulent epicure, a parasite
of Domitian, and a wind-bag (bucca). Hence
some suggest that Juvenal alludes to a Junius
Montanus, who appears in an inscription as
consul suffectus in a.d. 81.
Montanus Julius, a writer of elegiac and
epic poetry, contemporary with Ovid (Ov.
Pont. iv. 16, 11 ; Sen. Gontr. vii. 16, 27 ; Sen.
Ep. 122).
Montanus, Votienus, of Narbo, an orator and
declaimer in the reign of Tiberius, was named
the ' Ovid ' of the rhetorical schools. He
was convicted on a charge of majestas, and
died an exUe in the Balearic islands, a.d. 25.
(Tac. Ann. iv. 42 ; Sen. Contr. vii. 20, ix. 28.)
Mopsia or Mopsopia, an ancient name of
PamphyUa, derived from Mopsus, the mythical
leader of certain Greeks supposed to have
settled to PamphyUa, as also to Cilicia and
Syria, after the Trojan war, whose name appears
more than once in the geographical names in
CUicia. (See Mopsuceene, Mopsuestia.)
Mopsium (Mbinov), a town of Thessaly to
Pelasgiotis, on a hill of the same name between
Tempe and Larissa (Strab. p. 441 ; Liv. xUi. 61).
Mopsucrene (Mbtyov Kpiivn or Kpiivai, i.e. the
Spring of Mopsus), a city of Cilicia Campestris,
on the S. slope of the Taurus, and twelve Roman
mUes from Tarsus, the place where Constan
tine died, a.d. 364 (Ptol. v. 7, 7 ; Sozom. \. 1).
Mopsuestia (Mbtyov earia, Motyoveoria, i.e.
the Hearth of Mopsus, also Mbtyov irbXis and
Mbij/os : Motyedrns : Mampsista, in the middle
ages : Messis), an important city of CUicia
Campestris, on both banks of the river Pyramus,
twelve Roman miles from its mouth, on the
road from Tarsus to Issus, in the beautiful
plain called rb 'AXijiov ireSiov, was a civitas
libera under the Romans. The two parts of the
city were connected by a handsome bridge built
by Constantius over the Pyramus. (Strab. p.
676 ; Cic. ad Fam. iii. 8 ; Arrian, An. ii. 5.) In
ecclesiastical history it is notable as the birth
place of Theodore of Mopsuestia.
Mopsus (Mbii/os). 1. Son of Ampyx or Am
pycus by the nymph Chloris (Hes. Scut. 181).
He was one of the Lapithae of Oechalia or Ti-
taeron (Thessaly), and took part in the combat
at the wedding of Pirithous. He was one of
the Calydonian hunters, and also one of the I

MORS

578

Argonauts, and was a famous prophet among the
Argonauts. He was afterwards worshipped as
an oracular hero. (Pind. Pyth. iv. 886; Ap.
Rh. i. 65 ; Paus. v. 17, 4 ; Strab. p. 443 ; Hyg.
Fab. 14 ; Ov. Met. viii. 316, xii. 456.)— 2. Son
of Apollo and Manto, the daughter of Tiresias,
and also a celebrated seor. He contended in
prophecy with Calchas at Colophon, and showed
himself superior to the latter in prophetic
power. [Calchas.] He founded MaUos in
CUicia, in conjunction with the seer Amphilo
chus. A dispute arose between the two seers
respecting the possession of the town, and both
fell in combat by each other's hand. Mopsus
had an oracle at Mallos, which existed to the
time of Strabo (Strab. p. 675; Plut. Def. Or. 45).
Morgantlum, Morgantina, Murgantia,
Morgentia (Mopydvriov, Mopyavrivn ¦ Mopyav-
titos, Murgentinus), a town in Sicily founded
by the Morgetes, after they had been driven out
of Italy by the Oenotrians. According to Livy
(xxiv. 27) tMs city was situated on the E. coast ;
but according to other writers it was situated in
the interior of the island, SE. of Agyrium, and
near the Symaethus. The neighbouring country
produced good wine. (Strab. pp. 257, 270;
Diod. xi. 78 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 18, 43.)
Morgetes (Mbpyrires), an ancient people in
the S. of Italy. According to Strabo they dwelt
in the neighbourhood of Rhegium, but being
driven out of Italy by the Oenotrians crossed
over to Sicily and there founded the town of
Morgantium. According to Antiochus, Morges
was the successor of the Oenotrian king Italus,
and hospitably received Siculus, who had been
driven out of Latium by the Aborigines, in con
sequence of which the earlier Oenotrians were
called Italietes, Morgetes and Siculi. (Strab.
p. 257 ; Antioch. ap. Dionys. 1, 12.)
Morimene (Mopipevh), the NW. district of
Cappadocia, on the banks of the Halys, assigned
under the Romans to Galatia. Its meadows
were entirely devoted to the feeding of cattle.
(Strab. pp. 534, 540.)
Morini, a people in Gallia Belgica, W. of the
Nervii and Menapii, and the most northerly
people in all Gaul, whence Virgil calls them
extremi hominum (Aen. viii. 727) . They dwelt
on the coast, opposite Britain, and at the nar
rowest part of the channel between Gaul and
Britain, which is hence sometimes called Fre-
tum Morinorum or Morinum. They were a
warlike people (Caes. B.G. iv. 21; Dio Cass.
Ii. 21). Their chief town was Gesoeiacum.
Morius (Mdpios), a small river in Boeotia, a.
S. tributary of the Cephissus, at the foot of Mt.
Thurion near Chaeeonea. .
Mormo (Moppd, also MoppoXvKn, Moppo-
XvKeTov), a female spectre, with which the
Greeks used to frighten children (Aristoph.
Ach. 582, Pax, 474 ; Theocr. xv. 40).
Morpheus (Mopipeis), the son of Sleep, and
the god of dreams. The name signifies the
fashioner or moulder, because he shaped or
formed the dreams which appeared to the
sleeper (Ov. Met. xi. 685).
Mors, called Thanatos (®dvaros) by the
Greeks, the god of death. In the Homeric
poems Death does not appear as a distinct
divinity, though he is described as the brother
of Sleep, together with whom he carries the
body of Sarpedon from the field of battle to the
country of the Lycians (II. xiv. 231, xvi. 672).
In Hesiod he is a son of Night and a brother of
Ker and Sleep, and Death and Sleep reside in
the lower world (Hes. T.h. 211, 756 ; cf. Verg.
Aen. vi. 277). In the Alcestis of Euripides,(75,

574

MORSIMUS

843), where Death comes upon the stage, he
appears as an austere priest of Hades in a dark
robe (some propoBe peXdpirrepos for peXdp-
ireirXos, comparing Hor. Sat. ii. 1, 58), and with
the Bacrificial sword, with wMch he cuts off a
lock of a dying person, and devotes it to the
lower world. Many of the later poets describe
Death as a sad or terrific betog ; but the best
artists of the Greeks, avoiding anything that
might be displeasing, abandoned the idea sug
gested to them by the poets, and represented
Death under a more peaceful aspect. On the
chest of Cypselus, Night was represented with
two boys, one black and the other wMte ; and
at Sparta there were statues of both Death and
Sleep (Paus. iii. 18, v. 18). Both were usually
represented as slumbering youths, or as winged
deities (Saipoves), and with torches turned upside
down (cf. Verg. Aen. vi. 224).
Morsimus (Mbpaipos), a tragic poet, son of
Philocles and father of the elder Astydamas,
ridiculed by Aristophanes (Ban. 181; Suid.
s.v.). Morychus (Mbpvxos), a tragic poet, a con
temporary of Aristophanes, noted for his glut
tony (Aristoph. Ach. 887, Vesp. 504).
Mosa (Maas or Meuse), a river in Gallia Bel
gica, rises in Mt. Vogesus, in the territory of the
Lingones, and falls into the Vahalis or W. branch
of the RMne (Caes. B.G. iv. 10 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 3).
Moscha (Mbaxa • Muscat), a seaport on the
NE. coast of Arabia Felix, SW. of Syagrus, the
easternmost promontory of the peninsula (Bas
el-Had) ; a chief emporium for the trade be
tween India and Arabia (Ptol. vi. 7).
Moschi (Mbtrxot), a people of Asia, whose ter
ritory (ti Moo-xiKfy> formed originally the S. part
of Colchis, but at the time of Augustus was
divided between Colchis, Iberia, and Armenia
(Hdt. iii. 94, vii. 78 ; Strab. p. 497).
Mosohici Montes, or -Icus Mons (to Moo-y.hc&
upn : Mesjidi), a range of mountains extending
S. and SW. from the main chain of the Caucasus
to that of the Anti-Taurus, and forming the
boundary between Colchis and Iberia : named
after the Moschi, who dwelt among them
(Strab. pp. 61, 492, 548; Ptol. v. 6, 13).
Moscnion (Mocrx'iav), a Greek physician, the
author of a short Greek treatise ' On Female
Diseases,' is supposed to have lived in the be
ginning of the second century after Christ.
The work is edited by Dewez, Vienn. 1793.
Moschus (Mbn-xos)> 9^ Syracuse, a grammarian
and bucolic poet, lived about B.C. 250, or a little
later. He was a pupil of Bion. In genius he
comes far behind Theocritus, whom he imitates.
But his lament for Bion has great melody and
"pathos. His style labours under an excess of
polish and ornament. For editions see Bion.
Mosella (Mosel or Moselle), a river in Gallia
Belgica, rises in Mt. Vogesus, and falls into the
RMne at Confluentes (Goblenz). This river
forms the subject of a descriptive poem by
Ausonius (cf. Flor. iii. 10).
Mosteni (Moo-rvvot, Mbariva, Movo-T-fivri,
Mvo-T7)vri), a city of Lydia, in the Hyrcanian
plain, SE. of Thyatira, was one of the cities of
Asia Minor destroyed by the great earthquake
of A.D. 17. Its coins are numerous. (Tac. Ann.
ii. 47 ; Ptol. v. 2, 16.)
MoBychlus. [Lemnos.]
Mosynoeci (MoaivoiKot, Moooivomoi), or Mo-
syni or Mossyni (Moavvoi, Moaavvoi), a people
on the N. coast of Asia Minor, to Pontus, E. of
the Chalybes and the city of Cerasus, celebrated
for their warlike spirit and savage customs,
which are described by Xenophon (Anab. iv. 4,

MUGILLA
v. 4). Their name was derived from the conical
wooden houses in which they dwelt. Their
government was curious : a king chosen by
them was strictly guarded in a house higher
than the rest, and maintained at the public cost ;
but as soon as he displeased the commons, they
literally stopped the supplies, and starved him to
death. (Hdt. vii. 78; Strab. p. 549 ; Diod. xiv. 80.)
Mothone. [Methone.]
Motuca or Motyca (Mbrovica: Mutycensis:
Modica), a town in the S. of Sicily, W. of the
promontory Pochynus and near the sources of
the river Motychanus (Fiume di Bagusa).
Since both Cicero and Pliny caU the inhabitants
Mutycenses, it is probable that Mutyca is the
more correct form of the name. (Cic. Verr. in.
43, 51 ; Plin. to. 91; Ptol. iii. 4, 14.)
Motya (Morin : Morvaios), an ancient town in
the NW. of SicUy, situated on a smaU island
(S. Pantaleo) only six stadia from the coast,
with which it was connected by a mole. It was
founded by the Phoenicians in the territory of
the Elymi. It possessed a good harbour, and
was in early times one of the most flourishing
cities of Sicily. It afterwards passed into the
hands of the Carthaginians, was taken from
them by Dionysius of Syracuse, and was finaUy
captured by the Carthaginian general Himilco,
who transplanted all its inhabitants to the town
of Lilybaeum, which he had founded in its
neighbourhood, B.C. 397. (Thuc. vi. 2; Diod.
xiv. 47, 55.)
Motychanus. [Motuca.]
Mucia, daughter of Q. Mucius Scaevola, the
augur, consul B.C. 95, married Cn. Pompey, by
whom she had two sons, Cneius and Sextus, and
a daughter, Pompeia. She was divorced by
Pompey in 62. She next married M. Aemilius
Scaurus, a stepson of the dictator Sulla. In 39,
Mucia went to Sicily to mediate between her
son Sex. Pompey and Augustus. She was
living at the time of the battle of Actium, 31.
Augustus treated her with great respect. (Cic.
ad Fam. v. 2; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 49, lvi. 38;
Suet. Jul. 50.)
Mucianus. 1. P. Licinius Crassus Dives
Mucianus, was the son of P. Mucius Scaevola,
and was adopted by P. Licinius Crassus Dives.
He was consul B.C. 131, and carried on the war
against Aristonicus in Asia, but was defeated
and killed. He succeeded Scipio Nasica as
pontifex maximus. He was distinguished both
as an orator and a lawyer. (Gell. i. 18; Val.
Max. viii. 7 ; Cic. de Or. i. 37, 216.)— 2. Licinius
Mucianus, three times consul, in a.d. 52, 70, and
75. On Nero's death to 68, Mucianus had the
command of the province of Syria ; and he ren
dered efficient aid to Vespasian when the latter
resolved to seize the imperial throne. As soon
as Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, Mucianus
set out for Europe to oppose ViteUius : but the
Vitellians were entirely defeated by Antonius
Primus [Peimus], before Mucianus entered
Italy. Antonius, however, had to surrender all
power into the hands of Mucianus, upon the
arrival of the latter at Rome. Mucianus was
an orator and a historian. His powers of ora
tory are greatly praised by Tacitus. He made
a collection of the speeches of the republican
period, which he published in eleven books of
Acta and three of Epistolae. The subject of
his history is not mentioned ; but it appears to
have treated chiefly of the East. (Tac. Hist. i.
10, ii. 76, iii. 53, iv. 80 ; Suet. Vesp. 6, 18.) He
is often cited by Pliny.
Mucius Scaevola. [Scaevola.]
Mugilla (Mugillanus), a town in Latium from

MULCIBER
wMch a family of the Papirii probably derived
their name Mugillanus (Dionys. viii. 86).
Mulciber. [Vulcanus.]
Mulucha, Malva, or Molochath (MoXoxdB :
Muluwi), the largest river of Mauretania, rising
in the Atlas, and flowing N. by E. toto the
Gulf of Melillah, successively the boundary
between the Mauri and the Massaesylii,
Mauretania and Numidia, Mauretania Tingitana
and Mauretania Caesariensis. (Strab. pp. 827,
829 ; Ptol. iv. 1, 7.) [Maueetania.]
Mummius. 1. L., tribune of the plebs, b.c.
187, and praetor 177 (Liv. xxxvii. 54, xii. 8). —
2. L., surnamed Achaious, son of the last, was
praetor 154, when he carried on the war suc-
cessfuUy to Further Spain, agatost the Lusita
nians. He was consul to 146, when he won for
Mmself the surname of Achaicus, by the con
quest of Greece, and the estabUshment of the
Roman province of Achaia. After defeating
the army of the Achaean League at the Isthmus
of Corinth, he entered Corinth without oppo
sition. The city was burnt, rased, and aban
doned to pillage : the native CortotMans were
sold for slaves, and the rarest specimens of
Grecian art were given up to the rapacity of
an ignorant conqueror. Polybius the Mstorian
saw Roman soldiers playing at draughts upon
the far-famed picture of Dionysus by Aristides ;
and Mummius himself was so unconscious of
the real value of his prize, that he sold the
rarer works of painting, sculpture, and carving,
to the king of Pergamum, and exacted secu
rities from the masters of vessels who conveyed
the remainder to Italy, to replace by equiva
lents any picture or statue lost or injured to
the passage. (Pol. ni. 32, xl. 7-11 ; VeU. Pat. i.
13.) He remained to Greece during the greater
part of 145 with the title of proconsul. He
arranged the fiscal and municipal constitution
of the newly acquired province, and won the
confidence and esteem of the provincials by
Ms integrity, justice, and equanimity. He
triumphed to 145. He was censor to 142 with
Scipio Africanus the younger. The political
opinions of Mummius inclined to the popular
side. (Cic. Mur. 14, Off. u. 22 ; Paus. vii. 12.)
— 3. Sp., brother of the preceding, and Ms,
legatus at Corinth in 146-145, was an intimate
friend of the younger Scipio Africanus. In
poUtical opinions Spurius was opposed to his
brother Lucius, and was a Mgh aristocrat. He
composed etMcal and satirical epistles, wMch
were extant in Cicero's age, and were probably
to the style wMch Horace afterwards cultivated
so successfully. (Cic. de Bep. i. 12, ad Att.
xin. 6, de Amic. 19, 27.)
Munatius Plancus. [Plancus.]
Munda. 1. A Roman colony and an important
town to Hispania Baetica, situated on a small
river, and celebrated on account of two battles
fought in its neighbourhood — the victory of Cn.
Scipio over the Carthaginians in b.c. 216, and
the important victory of JuUus Caesar over the
sons of Pompey in 45. The town had fallen
into decay as early as the time of Pliny. The
site of the ancient town is usuaUy supposed
to be the modern village of Monda, SW. of
Malaga ; but Munda was more probably in the
neighbourhood of Cordova, and there are ruins
of ancient walls and towers between Martos,
Alcandete, Espejo, and Baena, which are con
jectured to be the remains of Munda. (Strab.
p. 141 ; Plin. ui. 12 ; Liv. xxiv. 42 ; Dio Cass.
xliii. 39.) — 2. A river. See Monda.
Munychia (Movvvxia), a hill in the peninsula
of Piraeus, which formed the citadel of the

MURENA

675

ports of Athens. It was strongly fortified, and
is frequently mentioned in Athenian history.
At its foot lay the harbour of Munychia, one
of the three harbours in the peninsula of Pi
raeus fortified by Themistocles. The names
of these three harbours were Piraeus, Zea, and
Munychia. [See map on p. 142.] The hill of
Munychia contained several public buildings.
Of these the most important were : — (1) a temple
of Artemis Munychia, to which persons accused
of crimes agatost the state took refuge ; (2) the
Bendideum, the sanctuary of the Thracian
Artemis Bendis, in whose honour the festival of
the Bendidea was celebrated; (3) the theatre
on the NW. slope of the hill. (Strab. p. 395;
Paus. i. 1, 4.)
Murcia, Murtea, Murtia. [Venus.]
Murcus, L. Statius, was Caesar's legatus B.C.
48, and praetor 45. He went into Syria after Ms
year of office expired ; and after Caesar's death
became an active supporter of the republican
party. Cassius appointed him prefect of the
fleet. After the ruin of the republican party at
Philippi, to 42, Murcus went over to Sex.
Pompey to Sicily. Here he was assassinated
by Pompey's order at the instigation of Ms
freedman Menas, to whom Murcus had borne
himself loftily. (Caes. B. C. iii. 15 ; App. B. C.
iv. 58-86, 100-117, v. 15, 70 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 19 ;
VeU. Pat. ii. 77.)
Murena, Licinius. The name Murena is
said to have been given in consequence of P.
Licinius, praetor to 104, having a great liking
for the lamprey (murena), and building tanks
(vivaria) for them (PUn. ix. 170 ; Macrob. ii.
11). — 1. P., a man of some literary knowledge,
lost his life in the wars of Marius and Sulla,
b.c. 82 (Cic. Brut. 67, 90).— 2. L., brother of
the preceding, served under Sulla in Greece,
to the Mithridatic war. After Sulla had
made peace with Mithridates (84), Murena was
left as propraetor in Asia. Anxious for dis
tinction, Murena sought a quarrel with Mithri
dates : and after carrying on the war for two
years, was at length compeUed by the strict
orders of Sulla to stop hostilities. Murena re
turned to Rome, and had a triumph in 81.
(App. Mithr. 64 ; Cic. pro Leg. Manil. 3, 7.) —
3. L., son of the last, served under his father
in the second Mithridatic war, and also under
LucuUus in the third Mithridatic war. In 65
he was praetor, in 64 propraetor of GaUia Cis
alpina, and in 63 was elected consul with D.
Junius Silanus. Serv. Sulpicius, an unsuc
cessful candidate, instituted a prosecution
agatost Murena for bribery (ambitus), and he
was supported to the matter by M. Porcius
Cato, Cn. Postumius, and Serv. Sulpicius the
younger. Murena was defended by Q. Horten
sius, M. TuUius Cicero, who was then consul,
and M. Licinius Crassus. The speech of Cicero,
which is extant, was delivered in the latter part
of November. The orator handled his subject
skilfuUy, by making merry with the formulae
and the practice of the lawyers, to which class
Sulpicius belonged, and with the paradoxes of
the Stoics, to which sect Cato had attached
himself. Murena was acquitted, and was consul
in the following year, 62. (Plut. Lucull. 16-19,
Cat. Min. 21 ; Cic. pro Murena; ad Att. xii.
21, xiii. 6.)— 4. A. Terentius Varro Murena,
probably the son of the preceding, was adopted
t>y A. Terentius Varro, whose name he took,
according to the custom in such cases. This
is the common and on the whole most probable
account, inferred from the mention of him in
Dio Cass. v. 3, Suet. Tib. 8, and VeU. Pat.

576

MURGANTIA

ii. 91. But there is no certain authority for his
parentage, and there is some difference in the
names given to him. Hence some believe that
he was a real and not an adopted Varro. It is
impossible to accept tMs view without rejecting
the authority of Dio, who caUs him Licinius
Murena. If he was born a Licinius and adopted
by Varro, he might be spoken of either as Lici
nius or as Terentius, and there is nothing im
possible in his sister also taking the name
Terentia. Again, there is no authority for sup
posing that a Varro would take the cognomen
Murena. In the civil wars he is said to have
lost his property (Schol. ad Hor. Od. ii. 2),
and C. Proculeius, a Roman eques, is said to
have given him a share of his own property.
This Proculeius is called the brother of Varro,
but, if we take the words of Horace literally,
Proculeius had more than one brother. The
plural, however, may be merely generalising.
Again, it is not necessary to suppose that he
was a brother; for it was common enough
among the Romans to call cousins by the name
of brothers (frater patruelis and J rater). That
Proculeius was brother (or cousin) of Murena,
and also of Terentia the wife of Maecenas, is
stated by Dio Cassius (liv. 3). It is a further
question whence Murena obtained wealth
enough to fit him for the position of augur (see
Hor. Od. iii. 19), for which the portion likely
to have come from Proculeius would scarcely
suffice ; and it has been conjectured with much
probability that the great Varro (M. Terentius
the scholar and antiquarian) who died about 28
B.C., and was very wealthy, may have left his
property, or much of it, to Murena. Horace
mentions also a villa of Murena's at Formiae
about 38 B.C. This, however, must have be
longed to him before any bequest from Varro
(Hor. Sat. i. 5, 38). It is probable, though not
absolutely certain, that Murena was the Teren
tius Varro who subdued the Salassi in the Alps,
and founded the town of Augusta (Aosta) in
their territory (Dio Cass. liii. 25 ; Strab. p. 206),
and was consul suffectus to 23 (C. I. L. p. 450).
In 22 he was involved in the conspiracy of
Fannius Caepio, and was condemned to death
and executed, notwithstanding the intercession
of Proculeius and Terentia, the sister of Mu
rena. Horace (Od. ii. 10) addresses Murena by
the name of Licinius, and probably intended
to give him some advice as to betog more
cautious in his speech and conduct (cf. Sen.
Ep. 19). His execution is mentioned by Dio
Cass. liv. 3, Suet. Tib. 8, Tac. Ann. i. 10. (For
the consequences to his brother-in-law, see
Maecenas.) Murgantia. 1. See Moeoantium.— 2. A
town in Samnium, E. of Bovianum (Liv. x. 17).
Murgis, a town in Hispania Baetica, on the
frontiers of Tarraconensis, and on the road from
Acci to Malaga (Ptol. ii. 4, 11).
Mursa or Mursia (Esseck, capital of Slavo-
nia), an important town to Pannonia Inferior,
situated on the Dravus, not far from its junction
with the Danube, was a Roman colony founded
by the emperor Hadrian (hence Aelia Mursa),
and was the residence of the governor of Lower
Pannonia (Ptol. ii. 16, 8). Here Magnentius
was defeated by Constantius II., a.d. 351.
Mursella, or Mursa Minor, a town in Panno
nia Inferior, only ten miles W. of the great
Muraa. Mus, Decius. [Decius.]
Musa, Antonius, a celebrated physician at
Rome about the beginning of the Christian era.
He was brother to Euphorbus, the physician to

MUSAE
king Juba, and was himself the physician to-
the emperor Augustus. He had been originally
a slave. When the emperor was seriously iU,
and had been made worse by a hot regimen and
treatment, B.C. 23, Antonius Musa succeeded in
restoring him to health by means of cold bath
ing and cooling drinks, for which service he
received from Augustus and the senate a large
sum of money, and the permission to wear a
gold ring, and also had a statue erected in his
honour near that of Aesculapius by pubUc
subscription. He seems to have been attached
to tMs mode of treatment, to which Horace
alludes (Epist. i. 15, 3), but failed when he
appUed it to the case of M. MarceUus, who died
under his care a few months after the recovery
of Augustus, 23. (Dio Cass. liii. 80 ; Suet. Aug.
59, 81 ; Plin. xix. 128, xxv. 77, xxx. 117.) He
wrote several pharmaceutical works, wMch are
frequently quoted by Galen, but of which
nothing except a few fragments remain. There
are, however, two short Latin medical works
ascribed to Antonius Musa, but these are
generally considered to be spurious.
Musa or Muza (MoSiro, MovQa: prob. Mou-
shid, N. of Mokha), a port of Arabia Felix, on
the W. coast, near the Straits of Bab-el-
Mandeb (Ptol. vii. 15).
Miisae (Movrrai), the Muses, were, according
to the earliest writers, the inspiring goddesses
of song, and, according to later notions, divini
ties presiding over the different kinds of poetry,
and over the arts and sciences. They were
originally nymphs of wells and springs, which
were regarded as sacred and inspiring, and were
in the earliest times honoured with choruses
and dances. (Thus one of the altars of the
Muses at Athens was sacred to The Muses of
the Ilissus.) Hence the nymphs themselves
were supposed to be the sources of song and
poetry. Such wor
ship was common
in Thracia and
Boeotia, and it
was especially
important at the
plenteous springs
•of Mt. Heli
con, Aganippe
and Hippocrene.
They were thus -
brought into con
nexion with the
great deities of
that country , with
Dionysus, and
more especiaUy
with Apollo, who
represented their
characteristics as
being the god at
once of prophetic
and of poeti
cal inspiration.
Hence he is the
leader of the
Muses (Mowtr-
rv-vcVuc • M TI 1. Clio, the Mnse of History. (From
¦ ™ ' V.. , »• statue now in Sweden.)
i. 603 ; Pind.
Nem. v. 23 ; Paus. v. 18, 4 ; p. 89, b). They not
only taught the poet his art (Hes. Th. 22), but,
as gifted with oracular power, they came to be
regarded as teaching arts and knowledge in
general. — 1. Genealogy of the Muses. The
most common notion was that they were the
daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, and born
in Pieria, at the foot of Mt. Olympus (II. ii.

MUSAE

A

577

491, Od. i. 10 ; Hes. Th. 52, 915 ; ApoUod. i. 3,
1). There were other traditions of their betog
daughters of Uranus and Ge (in aUusion to the
origin of springs), or of Pierus, from their
worship in Pieria and their names Pierides or

in Hesiod, who states the names of all the nine,
and these nine names became the usual ones.
They are Olio, Futerpe, Thalia, Melpomene,
Terpsichore, Erato, Polymnia or Polyhymnia,
Urania, and Calliope. In some looal tradi-

. Euterpe, the Mnse of Lyric Poetry.
(From a statue in the Vatican.)

3. Thalia, the Muse of Comedy.
(From a statue in the Vatican.)

Melpomene, the Muee of Tragedy.
(From a statue in the Vatican.)

Pieriae nymphae (Cic. N.D. ii. 21, 54). — 2.
Number of the Muses. That there were nine
Muses instead of the usual three (according to
the number of Graces, Hours, &c.) was probably
due to the form which the choruses took round

tions the number three was asserted. Pausanias
and Plutarch speak of three Muses at one time
honoured on Helicon (where their names were
said to be Melete, Mneme, and Aoide), at
Delphi and at Sicyon (Paus. ix. 29 ; Plut.

i. Terpsichore, the Muse of the Choral Dance.
(From the ApotheoBia of Homer, in the
British MuBeum.)

6. Erato, the Muse of Erotic
Poetry. (From a statue in
the Vatican.)

7. Polymnia, the Muse of the
Sublime Hymn. (From a
statue in the Louvre.)

the sacred springs, in three rows of three
maidens. In the Iliad the Muses are spoken of
sometimes in the singular, sometimes to the
plural, but without definite number. Nine
Muses are first mentioned to Od. xxiv. 60, and

Symp. ix. 14) ; and Cicero (l.c.) speaks of four
Muses as belonging to one tradition ; but there
is no sufficient reason for regarding the number
nine, which eventuaUy prevailed, as a more
recent tradition than the others. — 3. Nature
*PP

r

MUSAE

. tl

Character of the Muses. In Homer's
yms they are the goddesses of song and
jbetry, and live in Olympus. There they sing
the festive songs at the repasts of the immortals.
They bring before the mind of the mortal poet
the events which he has to relate, and confer
upon Mm the gift of song. (II. i. 604, ii. 484,
Od. i. 1, viii. 63 ; Hes.
Th. 22.) There is no
reason to doubt that the
earliest poets to their
invocation of the Muse
or Muses were perfectly
sincere, and actually
beUeved to their betog
inspired by the god
desses ; though in later
times the invocation of
the Muses was conven
tional. There are traces
of a contest between
the worsMp of the
Muses and other local
myths ; thus Thamyris,
who presumed to excei
the Muses, was deprived
by them of the gift
they had bestowed on
him, and punished with
blindness (17. ii. 594;
ApoUod. i. 3, 3); the
Sirens, who likewise
ventured upon a contest
with them, were de-
8. Urania, the MuBe of As- priVedof the feathers of
tronomy. (From a statue f, . . /T, • « .
now in Sweden.) their wings (Pans. ix. 34,
2). The nine daughters
of Pierus, who. presumed to rival the Muses,
were changed toto birds. The earUest worship
of the Muses is perhaps correctly assigned to
Thrace and Pieria about Mt. Olympus, whence
it was introduced toto Boeotia (Strab. pp. 410,
471) ; and the names of mountains, grottoes,
and weUs, connected with their worsMp to the
North, were
likewise trans
ferred to the
South. Pierus,
a Macedonian,
is said to have
been the first
who intro
duced the wor
sMp of the
nine Muses,
from Thrace to
Thespiae, at
the foot of Mt.
Helicon (Paus.
xxix. 2).' It is
possible that
to this story is
concealed the
fact that the
Thracian wor
sMp of nine
Muses super
seded a Boeo
tian worship of
tMee. Near
Mt. Helicon, EpMaltes and Otus are said to have
offered the first sacrifices to them. In the same
place there was a sanctuary with their statues, the
sacred weUs Aganippe and Hippocrene, and on
Mt. Libethrion,wMch is connected with Helicon,
there was a sacred grotto of the Muses. At
Thespiae they had a temple and statues, and the

Calliope, the Mubo of Epic Poetry.
(From a statue In the Vatican.)

MUSAEUS
Thespians celebrated a solemn festival of the
Muses on Mt. Helicon, caUed Musea (Paus. ix.
29, 1, xxxi. 3; Plut. Amat. p. 748; O.I.G. 1585).
Mt. Parnassus was likewise sacred to them,
with the Castalian spring, near which they had
a temple. At Athens there was an altar of the
Muses to the Academy, besides that to the
'Muses of the Ilissus' near the river. At
Sparta they had a temple at wMch sacrifices
were offered before a war, because they inspired
the martial music of the Spartans (Paus. in.
17). At Troezen (where they were caUed Ardal-
ides, from a mythical Ardalus who introduced
their worsMp), they shared an altar with
Hypnus, the god of sleep (Paus. ii. 31, 4). The
sacrifices offered to the Muses consisted of
Ubations of water or milk, and of honey (Schol.
ad Oed. Col. 100 ; Serv. ad Eel. vii. 21). The
various surnames by which they are designated
by the poets are for the most part derived from
the places which were sacred to them or in
which they were worshipped, wMle some are
descriptive of the sweetness of their songs. —
4. Bepresentations of the Muses in works of
art. In the most ancient works of art we find
only three Muses, and their attributes are
musical instruments, such as the flute, the lyre,
or the barbiton. Later artists gave to each of
the nine sisters different attributes as weU as
different attitudes. (1) Clio, the Muse of Ms
tory, appears to a sitting attitude, with an open
roll of paper, or an open chest of books; (2)
Euterpe, the Muse of lyric poetry, with a flute ;
(3) Thalia, the Muse of comedy and of merry
or idyllic poetry, appears with a comic mask, a
shepherd's staff, a wreath of ivy, and a tam
bourine ; (4) Melpomitne, the Muse of tragedy,
with a tragic mask, the club of Heracles, or a
sword; her head is surrounded with vine leaves,
and she wears the cothurnus ; (5) TerpsichSre,
the Muse of choral dance and song, appears
with the lyre and the plectrum ; (6) Erato, the
Muse of erotic poetry and mimic imitation,
sometimes also has the lyre ; (7) Polymnia, or
Polyhymnia, the Muse of the subUme hymn,
usuaUy appearB without any attribute, to a pen
sive attitude ; (8) Urania, the Muse of astro
nomy, with a staff pointing to a globe ; (9)
Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry, appears with
a tablet and stylus, and sometimes with a roll
of paper. — The ItaUan Camenae or Casmenae
were nymphs of springs and of prophecy, and
were therefore identified with the Greek Muses.
When the worship of the Muses superseded
that of the native Camenae, all the Greek
attributes and legends were adopted by Roman
poets, who used the names Musae and Camenae
as synonyms. [Camenae.]
Musaeus (Movaaws). 1. A semi-mythological
personage, to be classed with Olen, Orpheus,
and Pamphus. He was regarded as the author
of various poetical compositions, especially
connected with the mystic rites of Demeter at
Eleusis, over which the legend represented him
as presiding in the time of Heracles (Diod. iv.
25). He was reputed to belong to the famUy
of the Eumolpidae, betog the son of Eumolpus
and Selene (Philochorus, ap. Schol. ad Ar.
Ban. 1065). In other variations of the myth
he was less definitely caUed a TMacian. Accord
ing to other legends he was the son of Orpheus,
of whom he was generaUy considered as the
imitator and disciple. Some accounts gave him
a wife, Deioce, and a son, Eumolpus (Suid. s.v. ;
Serv. ad Aen. vi. 667 ; Diod. I.e.). There was a
tradition that the Museum in Piraeus bore that
name from having been the place where Musaeus

MUSAGETES
was buried (Paus. i. 25, 8). Among the nume
rous compositions attributed to him by the
ancients the most celebrated were Ms Oracles.
Onomacritus, in the time of the Pisistratidae,
made it his business to collect and arrange the
oracles that passed under the name of Musaeus,
and was banished by Hipparchus for interpo
lating to the coUection oracles of his own
making. (Hdt. vii. 6, viii. 96 ; Ar. Ban. 1031 ;
Paus. i. 22, x. 9.) — 2. A grammarian, the author
of the celebrated poem on the loves of Hero
and Leander. NotMng is known of the writer ;
but it is certain that the poem is a late pro
duction, perhaps not earlier than the fifth
century of our era. Edited by Passow, Lips.
1810; and by Schaefer, Lips. 1825.
Mfisagetes. [Apollo.]
C. Musonius fiufus, a Stoic pMlosopher, was
the son of a Roman eqnes, and was banished by
Nero to the island of Gyaros, to a.d. 66, under
the pretext of his having been privy to the con
spiracy of Piso. He returned from exUe on
the accession of Galba, and seems to have been
held in Mgh estimation by Vespasian, as he
was aUowed to remain at Rome when the other
ptolosophers were bamshed from the city. (Tac.
Ann. xv. 71 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 57, lxvi. 13.)
Musti (Moio-rri), a town in the Carthaginian
territory (Zeugitana), near the river Bagradas,
on the road from Carthage to Sicca Veneria
(Ptol. iv. 3, 33).
Muthul (Melleg), a river of Numidia, the
boundary between the kingdoms of Jugurtha
and Adherbal. It joins the Bagradas. (Sail.
Jug. 48.)
Mutilus, C. Paplus, one of the principal
Samnite generals to the Marsic war, B.C. 90-89
(App. B.C. i. 40-51).
Mutina (Mutinensis ; Modena), an important
town in GalUa Cispadana, on the Mgh road
from Mediolanum to the S. of Italy, was ori
ginaUy a Celtic town, and was the first place
wMch the Romans took away from the Boii. It
is mentioned at the beginning of the second
Punic war (B.C. 218) as a fortified place to-
habited by the Romans (Liv. xxi. 25, xxvii. 21 ;
Pol. in. 40) ; but it was not tUl 183 that it was
made a Roman colony (Liv. xxxix. 55). Mutina
is celebrated to the history of the Civil war
after Caesar's death. Decimus Brutus was be
sieged here by M. Antomus from December, 44,
to April, 43 ; and under its waUs the battles were
fought to wMch the consuls Hirtius and Pansa
perished. Hence this war was called the Bellum
Mutinense. (App. B.C. iii. 49-72 ; Suet. Aug. 9.)
The best wool in aU Italy came from the neigh
bourhood of Mutina (Strab. p. 218).
Mutunus Tutunus, an old Italian deity of
fruitful marriage, worshipped by the symbol of
the phaUus, and compared by Roman writers with
Priapus (Arnob. iv. 7 ; cf. Indigetes, p. 443, a).
Mycale (MvKaXn : Samsun), a mountain in
the S. of Ionia to Asia Minor, N. of the mouth
-of the Maeander. It forms the W. extremity of
M. Messogis, and runs far out into the sea,
¦opposite to Samos, forming a sharp promontory,
which was called Mycale or Trogilium (Tpay-
(Xiov, TpayiXiov : C. S. Maria). This cape
and the SE. promontory of Samos (Posidonium)
overlap one another, and the two tongues of
land are separated by a strait only seven stadia
(little more than three-fourths of a mile) in
width, which is renowned in Greek history as
-the scene of the victory gained over the Persian
fleet by Leotychides and Xanthippus, B.C. 479.
There seems to have been a city of the same
name on or near the promontory. On the N.

MYCENAE

579

side of the promontory, near Priene, was the
great temple of Poseidon, which was the place
of meeting for the Panionic festival and Am-
phictyony. (II. ii. 869; Hdt. i. 148; Thuc. i.
14 ; Strab. p. 621 ; Paus. v. 7, 3.)
Mycalessus (MvKaXnaobs : MvKaXr)o-(Tios), an
ancient and important city in Boeotia, men
tioned by Homer, was situated on the road from
Aulis to Thebes. In b.c. 413 some Thracian
mercenaries in the pay of Athens surprised and
sacked the town, and butchered the inhabitants.
From this blow it never recovered, and was in
ruins in the time of Pausanias. It possessed a
celebrated temple of Demeter, who was hence
surnamed Mycalessia. (II. ii. 498 ; Hymn.
Apoll. 224 ; Thuc. vii. 29 ; Strab. p. 404 ; Paus.
ix. 19.) The ruins of the waUs and towers and
the position of the gateways are still traceable.
Mycenae, sometimes Myeene (MvKijvai, Mb-
kt)vii : MvKijvdios : Karvata), an ancient town in
Argolis, about six miles NE. of Argos, and nine
and a quarter miles inland from Tiryns, was
situated on a spur rising from the valley of
the CepMasus, at the NE. corner of the plain
(hence described in Odyssey iii. 263 as pvxf
"Apyeos). Traditionally it was founded by Per
seus ; its massive walls were regarded as the
work of the Cyclopes (Strab. p. 377 ; Paus. ii.
15, 16; Eur. LA. 1500); but there is little
doubt that Mycenae was an offshoot from the
older Tieyns, which it eventually surpassed in
importance. It was built in a secure position
on the MUside commanding the passes
through which several very ancient roads have
been discovered leading to Corinth and the
Corinthian gulf. It is therefore a reasonable
conclusion that the princes of Tiryns [see
Pelops ; Tibyns] built Mycenae as an outpost
to give them the trade routes to the Corinthian
gulf, and that this practical command of the
commerce from both seas caused it to outstrip
TirynB in prosperity and to become the cMef
city of the Pelopidae ; hence in the Homeric
age and story it is regarded as the capital of
Agamemnon and the first city in all Greece
(II. ii. 569, iv. 52, vii. 180, xi. 46). After the
conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, it
ceased to be a place of importance, but is
mentioned as sending a Bmall contingent of
troops to Thermopylae and to Plataeae (Hdt.
vii. 202, ix. 28). At length, to 468, Argos, having
recovered from her former defeats by Sparta,
began to strengthen her dominion and attacked
Mycenae, angry, as some relate, because the
Mycenaeans had helped the Greek armies
against Persia (Paus. ii. 16, 5). The massive
waUs resisted all attacks, but the inhabitants
were at length compelled by famine to abandon
their town. They effected their escape without
a surrender, and took refuge, some at Cleonae,
some in Achaia, and others in Macedonia.
(Diod. xi. 65 ; Strab. p. 877 ; Paus. vii. 25, 3.)
The chief known remains of the ancient city
were until recent years part of the fortifications,
especially the 'Lion Gate,' and some 'bee
hive ' tombs, often called treasuries. The ex
cavations carried out by Schiiemann in 1876,
and continued in later years, were of the utmost
importance, not only for the history of Mycenae
and of the Peloponnesus in pre-Dorian times,
but also for the study of Greek archaeology,
and for the light which is thrown on the
Homeric poems. The walls of the citadel of
Mycenae enclose a tringular space : the walls of
the lower city start from the SW. side of the
citadel. The oldest part of the walls is of
Cyclopean masonry resembling that at Tiryns,
p p 2

580

MYCENAE

and this occurs to the lower city also, though
less ttock. In the gates and towers part of the
work is of more carefully hewn blocks, and to
one part of the wall the masonry is polygonal
[see Did. of Ant. art. Murus]. The ' Lion '
gate, wMch formed the cMef entrance, was on

Lion Gate of Mycenae.

the east side, and was so contrived that, as at
Tiryns, the invader had to pass through a
narrow exposed passage before he reached the
actual gate. The (now headless) lions carved on
the triangular slab above the lintel form, with the
column between them, are a style of decoration
exactly resembling sculptures which have been
found in Phrygia. On the summit of the citadel
further excavations by the Greek Archaeo
logical Society, in 1886, revealed the palace of
the kings, of which the ground-plan was like
that of the palaces at Tiryns and Troy; and
near it, and partly overlapping, a Doric temple of
about the sixth or seventh century b.c. Of the
' beehive ' tombs (like those at Menidi, Orcho
menus, Pharis, and Volo) seven altogether
have been found in the lower city, the largest
being the falsely named ' Treasury of Atreus.'
They consist of a long passage leading to a
vaulted chamber or tholos, with a smaller
square chamber adjoining [Did. of Ant. art.
Sepulcrum]. They seem in their form to
copy primitive Phrygian huts, as described by
Vitruvius ; and this is another sign of con
nexion with Phrygia. Since these graves had
been rifled, there was great importance in
ScMiemann's discovery of five graves within
the citadel, not far from the Lion Gate, where
a sixth has since been found. These are prob
ably the six graves traditionally said to be
the graves of Agamemnon and his companions
and Atreus, though Pausanias seems to have
thought that the tradition referred to the
beehive tombs (Paus. ii. 10). There is good
reason to think that, whether Agamemnon is
buried there or not, there is a considerable
interval of time between the earlier and later
graves. The real importance, however, lies in
the discovery of the rich store of gold and
silver works of art and pottery which these
graves contained, the product of a civilisation
which extended probably from about 1500 to
1000 b.c. TMs ' Mycenaean ' art has been
traced along the east coast of Greece from
Amyclae to Thessaly, in the islands and part of
the opposite Asiatic coast. It seems to point
to an origin mainly Lydian and Phrygian, per
haps with some Carian admixture ; it is ap
parently the art described in the Iliad, con-

MYLAE
taining, among other tMngs, examples of the
inlaid metal-work which appeared in the
shield of AchiUes. [For further account of the
history of the pre- Dorian rulers at Mycenae see
Pelopidae and Tieyns.]
Myeene (MvKT)vn), daughter of Inachus and
wife of Arestor, from whom the town of Myce
nae was believed to have derived its name (Od.
ii. 120; Paus. ii. 16, 3).
Mycerinus (MvKepivos; the Egyptian Men-
kau-Ra), son of Cheops (Chufu), king of Egypt,
succeeded his uncle Chephren (Khaf-Ra) on
the throne, in the fourth dynasty (Memphite),
about 3600 B.C. According to Herodotus his
conduct formed a strong contrast to that of his
father and uncle, being as mild and just as
theirs had been tyrannical. On the death of
his daughter, he placed her corpse within the
hoUow body of a wooden cow, which was
covered with. gold. Herodotus teUs us that it
was stUl to be seen at Sais in Ms time. We
further hear that, being warned by an oracle
that he should die at the end of six years,
because he had been a gentle ruler and had not
wreaked the vengeance of the gods on Egypt,
Mycerinus, indignant at this injustice, gave
himself up to revelry, and strove to double his
aUotted time by turning night toto day. (Hdt.
ii. 129-134 ; Diod. i. 64 ; Athen. p. 438.) The
pyramid of Mycerinus, or Men-kau-Ra, is to the
SW. part of the plain of Gizeh. The coffin
containing the body of the Mng is in the
British Museum.
Myconus (MiKovos : MvKbvios : Mycono), a
small island in the Aegaean sea, one of the
Cyclades, SE. of Tenos and E. of Delos, never
attained any importance to Mstory, but is cele
brated in mythology as one of the places where
the giants were defeated by Heracles. The
island was poor and unproductive, and its in
habitants were rapacious, whence the proverb
Mvk6vios yeirav (Athen. p. 7 ; Suid. s.v.). It
contained two towns, a promontory caUed
Phorbia, and a mountain named Di/mastus.
The large number of bald persons in this island
was considered worthy of record by several
ancient writers (Strab. p. 487 ; Plin. xi. 130).
Mygdon (M.iySav), son of Acmon, a Phry
gian king, who fought with Otreus and Priam
against the Amazons, and from whom some of
the Phrygians are said to have been called
Mygdonians. He had a son Coroebus, hence
called Mygdonides. (It. iii. 186 ; Paus. x. 27.)
Mygdonia (MtrySoeia : MiySoves). 1. A dis
trict in the E. of Macedonia, bordering on the
Thermaic gulf and the Chalcidic peninsula.
Its people were of Thracian origin. (Hdt. vii.
123 ; Thuc. i. 58.)— 2. A district in the N. of
Asia Minor, between M. Olympus and the coast,
in the E. of Ptoygia and Mysia and the W. of
Bithynia, named after the Thracian people,
Mygdones, who formed a settlement here, but
were afterwards subdued by the Bithyni (Strab.
pp. 295, 550, 575). Hence Mygdonius is used
in the Latin poets for Phrygian (Hor. Od. ii. 12,
22). — 3. The NE. district of Mesopotamia,
between M. Masius and the Chaboras, which
divided it from Osroene. From its great ferti
lity, it was also called Anthemusia ('AvBepovcria),
(Strab. p. 747 ; Pol. v. 31.)
Myia (Mum), daughter of Pythagoras and
Theano, and wife of Milon of Crotona (Suid.
s.v.). A letter addressed to a certain Phyllis
is extant under her name.
Mylae (MvXai : MvXoSos, MvXatrris). 1. (Me-
lazzo), a town on the E, part of the N. coast of
SicUy, situated on a promontory running out

MYLASA
far into the sea, with a harbour and citadel.
It was founded by Zanele (Messana), and con
tinued subject to the latter city. (Strab. p. 272.)
It was off Mylae that C. Duilius won his victory
in 260, and Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sex.
Pompeius, b.c. 36 (Pol. i. 23; App. B.C. v.
195). — 2. A town of Thessaly in Magnesia, of
uncertain site.
Mylasa or Mylassa (t& Mixacra, MiXacro-a :
MvXaaeis: Melasso, Ru.), a very ancient inland
city of Caria (Hdt. i. 171), lay eighty stadia from
the coast at the Gulf of lassus, to a fertile
plain, on and at the foot of an isolated rock of
wMte marble, which furmshed the material for
the temples and other public buildings of the
city. Among them were two temples of Zeus,
Zeus Osagos, and Zeus Labrandenus. (Strab. p.
658 ; Paus. viii. 10.) Under the Romans it was
made a free city (Pol. xvi. 24 ; Liv. xxxviii. 89).
In the civU wars, it was taken and partly de
stroyed by Labienus. Its remains are very ex
tensive, and include the ruins of one of the
temples of Zeus on the rock which formed the
Acropolis. Myndus (MivSos : MivSios: prob. Port Gu-
¦mishlu, Ru.j, a Dorian colony on the coast of
Caria, to Asia Minor, founded by settlers from
Troezene, probably on the site of an old town
of the Leleges, which continued to exist under
the name of Palaemyndus. Myndus stood at
the W. end of the peninsula on which Halicar
nassus stood. (Paus. ii. 30 ; Strab. p. 658.)
My6n or Myonia (Miav, Mvovia : Mvovevs),
a town of the Locri Ozolae, situated on a con
siderable height thirty stadia from Amphissa,
and in one of the passes wMch lead from Aetolia
toto Phocis (Thuc. hi. 101 ; Paus. x. 38, 8).
Myonnesus (Mvbwnaos : C. Hypsili) a pro
montory of Ioma, with a town and a little
island of the some name, S. of Teos and W. of
Lebedus, and forming the N. headland of the
Gulf of Ephesus. Here the Romans, under the
praetor L. AemUius, gained a great naval vic
tory over Antiochus the Great, B.C. 190. (Thuc.
hi. 42 ; Strab. p. 643 ; Liv. xxxviu. 27.)
Myos Hormos (b Mvbs bppos, i.e. probably
Muscle-port, rather than Mouse-port, for pvs is
also the Greek for muscle, and tMs sheU-fish is
very common on the W. coast of the Red Sea),
aft. Veneris Portus ('AcppoSiriis bppos), an im
portant seaport town of Upper Egypt, buUt by
Ptolemy II. Ptoladelphus on a promontory
of the same name, six or seven days' journey
from Coptos. (Diod. ui. 39; Strab. pp. 760,
815 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 14.) Its position is occupied by
the modern Abou-Shaar.
Myra or Myron (™ and i) Mipa, r) Mipav :
Mvpeis : Myra, Grk., Dembre, Turk., Ru.), one
of the cMef cities of Lycia, and, under the later
Roman empire, the capital of the province, was
buUt on a rock twenty stadia from the sea, and
had a port caUed Andriaca ('AvSpiaKi)) (Strab.
p. 666). St. Paul touched here on Ms voyage to
Rome (Ads, xxvii. 5, 6). There are stiU magni-
ficent ruins of the city, to great part hewn out
of the rock.
Myriandus (MvpiavSos), a Phoenician colony
in Syria, on the E. side of the Gulf of Issus, a
day's journey from the CUician Gates (Xen.
An. i. 4, 6 ; Arrian, An. ii. 6, 1). It probably
stood a Uttle S. of Alexandria, at a spot where
there are ruins. Herodotus caUs the GuU of
Issus S MvpiavSiKbs KbXTOs (iv. 38).
Myrina (ii Mvpiva, or Mipiva, Mipivva, Mvpivn:
MvptvaTos). 1. (SandarlikT), a very ancient
and strongly fortified city on the W. coast of
Mysia, founded, according to mythical tradi-

MYRON

581

tion, by Myrinus or by the Amazon Myrina, and
colonised by the Aeolians, of whose confederacy
it formed a member (Hdt. i. 149 ; Strab. p. 505).
Within its territory, at Gryneum, was an ancient
oracle of Apollo. It was also called Smyrna,
and, under the Roman empire, Sebastopolis :
it was made by the Romans a civitas libera.
It was destroyed by earthquakes under Tiberius
and Trajan, but each time rebuilt. (Liv. xxxiii.

Coin of Myrina (2nd cent. B.C.).
Obv., head of ApoUo ; rev., mypinaiqn; Apollo with pa-
tera ; before him omphalos and vase ; laurel wreath
surrounding.
30 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 47 ; Oros. vii. 12.) It was the
birthplace of the epigrammatic poet Agathias.
— 2. [See Lemnos.]
Myrlea (MipXeta : MvpXeavbs : Amapoli, Ru.,
a little distance inland from Mudanieh), a city
of Bithynia, not far from Prusa, founded by the
Colophonians, and almost rebuilt by Prusias I.,
who caUed it Apamea after his wife. The
Romans colonised it under Julius Caesar and
Augustus. _ (Strab. pp. 563, 564 ; Plin. v. 149.)
Myrmecides (MvppriKiSns), a sculptor and
engraver, of Miletus or Athens, is generally
mentioned in connexion with CaUicrates, like
whom he was celebrated for the minuteness of
his works. [Callicbates.] His works in ivory
were so smaU that they could scarcely be seen
without placing them on black hair. (Varro,
L. L. ix. 62 ; Cic. Acad. ii. 38 ; Suid. s.«.)
Myrmecium (MvppiiKiov), a MUesian colony
of the Chersonesus Taurica, situated on a pro
montory of the same name a little N. of Panti
capaeum (Strab. p. SIO ; Ptol. iii. 6, 4).
Myrmidon (MvppiSdv), son of Zeus and Eury-
medusa, daughter of Clitos, whom Zeus deceived
to the disguise of an ant. Her son was for this
reason called Myrmidon (from pbppi)£, an ant),
and was regarded as the ancestor of the Myr
midons in Thessaly. He was married to Pisi-
dice, by whom he became the father of Antiphus
and Actor. __ (ApoUod. i. 7. 3 ; Ap. Rh. i. 56.)
Myrmidones (MvppiSbves), an Achaean race
in PhtMotis to Thessaly, whom AchiUes ruled
over and who accompanied this hero to Troy.
They are said to have inhabited originaUy the
island of Aegina, and to have emigrated with
Peleus into Thessaly; but modern critics on
the contrary suppose that a colony of them
emigrated from Thessaly into Aegina. In
Homer's time they are Thessalians. (II. ii. 681,
xvi. 65, xix. 278; Strab. pp. 875, 483.) The
Myrmidones disappear from history at a later
period. The ancients derived their name either
from a mythical ancestor Myemtdon, or from
the ants (pvppriKes) to Aegina, which were sup
posed to have been metamorphosed into men
to the time of Aeacus. [Aeacus.]
Myrcinus (MipKivos), a town on the N. side
of the Strymon, near Mt. Pangaeus, founded
by Histiaeus (Hdt. v. 28, 97, 124 ; Thuc. iv. 102).
Myron (Mipav). 1. Tyrant of Sicyon, the
father of Aristonymus, and grandfather of Cli
sthenes. He gained the victory at Olympia in
the chariot-race in B.C. 648. (Hdt. vi. 120;

582

MYRON

Paus. vi. 19.) — 2. One of the most' celebrated of
the Greek sculptors, was born at Eleutherae,
in Boeotia, about 480. He is also called an
Athenian, because Eleutherae had been ad
mitted to the Athenian franchise. He was the
disciple of Ageladas, the fellow-disciple of Poly
cletus, and a younger contemporary of PMdias.
He flourished about 431, the time of the begin
ning of the Peloponnesian war. The cMef
characteristic of Myron seems to have been his
power of expressing a great variety of forms.
Not content with the human figure in its most
difficult and momentary attitudes, he directed
Ms art towards various other animals, and he
seems to have been the first great artist who
did so. In some matters of detail he is said to
have retained some of the roughness, or rather
conventionalism, of earlier art, from which
Phidias freed himseU (Plin. xxxiv. 58). His
great works were nearly all to bronze. The
most celebrated of Ms statues were his Disco
bolus and his Cow. Of his Discobolus (see
Lucian, Philopseud. 18 ; Quintil. ii. 13, 8) there
are marble copies in existence. Of these copies
one is in the
British Museum,
which was found
to the grounds of
Hadrian's Tibur-
tine villa, in 1791 ;
another in the
Massimi palace
at Rome. The
Cow of Myron
was celebrated in
many popular
verses, and the
Greek Anthology
still contains no
less than thirty-
Bix epigrams
upon it (cf. Au-
son. Epigr, 58).
The Cow was
represented as
lowing, and the
statue was placed
on a marble base,
in the centre of
the largest open
place in Athens,
where it still stood in the time of Cicero (Cic.
Verr. iv. 60). In the time of Pausanias it was
no longer there; it must have been removed
to Rome, where it was stiU to be seen to the
temple of Peace in the time of Procopius (B.
G. iv. 21). Myron was the author of a group
representing the scene between Marsyas ana
Athene when she cast away the flute (Plin.
xxxiv. 57 ; perhaps alluded to, but differently
described, by Paus. i. 24, 1). It is now believed
by many critics that the statue of Marsyas in
the Lateran Museum at Rome is a marble
copy from tMs group, of which a relief on a
marble vase in the museum at Athens is doubt
less also a representation.— 3. Of Priene, the
author of an account of the first Messenian
war, probably Uved not earlier than the third
century B.C. (Paus. iv. 6; Athen. pp. 657).
Myronides (MvpaviSris) a skilful and success
ful Athenian general. In b.c. 457 the Corin
thians had invaded Megara in order to draw
away the Athenian forces from the war with
Aegina. The rest of the Athenian forces were
in Egypt, but Myronides raised an army of
boys and old men, defeated the Corinthians,
and repulsed them from Megara. In 456 he

Copy of the Discobolus of Myron.

MYSCELUS
defeated the Boeotians at Oenophyta, and gave
Athens the supremacy over Phocis and most
of the Boeotian towns. (Thuc. i. 105, 106, 108 ;
iv. 95 : Aristoph. Eccl. 303.)
Myrrha (Mippa) or Smyrna, daughter of
Cinyras and mother of Adonis. For details see
Adonis. Myrrhinfis (Mvpptvovs : Moppivoiaios), a de
mus on the E. coast of Attica, belonging to the
tribe Pandionis, a little S. of the promontory
Cynosura. It is said to have been built by a
hero Colaenus, and it contained a temple of
Artemis Colaenis. (Paus. i. 31, 4.)
Myrsilus (Mipo-iXos). 1. [Candaules.]— 2. A
Greek Mstorical writer of uncertain date, a
native of Lesbos, from whom Dionysius of Hali
carnassus borrowed a part of his account of
the Pelasgians (Dionys. i. 23; Strab. pp. 60,
610). Myrsmus. [Myetuntium.]
Myrtilis, a town of the Turdetani on the
Anas in Lusitania, possessing the Jus Latii.
Myrtilus (Mupri'Aos), son of Hermes by Cleo-
bule, Clytia, Phaetusa, or Myrto. He was the
charioteer of Oenomaus Mng of Elis, whom he
betrayed when Pelops contended with his
master in the chariot-race. He was afterwards
thrown into the sea by Pelops near Geraestus
in Euboea ; and that part of the Aegaean is said
to have thenceforth been caUed after him the
Myrtoan sea. [Oenomaus; Pelops.] At the
moment he expired, he pronounced a curse upon
the house of Pelops, which was henceforward
tormented by the Erinnyes. His father placed
him among the stars as Auriqa. (Soph. El.
509 ; Eur. Or. 993 ; Paus. ii. 18, v. 1, viu. 14 ;
Tzetz. ad Lye. 156 ; Hyg. Fab. 84, Astr. ii. 13.)
Myrtis (Mipris), a lyric poetess, a native of
Anthedon, in Boeotia, said to have instructed
Pindar, and to have contended with him for
the palm of superiority. This is alluded to in
an extant fragment of Cortona. There were
statues in her honour to various parts of Greece.
(Anth. Pal. ix. 26 ; Suid. s.v. TllvSapos.)
Myrtoum Mare (to Mud-tow ireXayos), the
part of the Aegaean sea, S. of Euboea, Attica
and Argolis, which derived its name from the
small island Myrtus, though others suppose it
to come from Myrtilus, whom Pelops threw toto
this sea. [Myetilus.]
Myrtuntium (Mvproivriov : Mvproio-ios),
caUed Myrsinus (Mvpaivos) in Homer, a town
of the Epeans in Elis, on the road from EUs to
Dyme (IL ii. 616; Strab. p. 341).
Myrtus. [Myetoum Maee.]
Mys (MBs), an artist who engraved the battle
of the Lapithae and the Centaurs and other
figures on the sMeld of PMdias's colossal bronze
statue of Athena Promachos, in the Acropolis
of Athens (Paus. i. 28, 2). He is mentioned as
one of the most distinguished engravers (Plin.
xxxiii. 154 ; Mart. xiv. 95).
Mysceius (Mio-KeXos, or MirrKeXXos), a native
of Achaia, and, according to Ovid (Metam. xv.
1), a HeracUd, and the son of an Argive named
Alemon. He founded Croton in Italy, B.C. 710,
in accordance with the Delphic oracle. The
oracle had commanded him to build a city
where he should find rain with fine weather.
For a long time he thought it impossible to
fulfil the command of the oracle, till at length
he found in Italy a beautiful woman in tears ;
whereupon he perceived that the oracle was
accomplished, and founded Croton on the spot.
Accordmg to Antiochus he had so much better
an opinion of the site of Sybaris that he begged
the oracle to let him be founder of that city, but

MYSI
was bidden to be content with the directions
given to him (Antioch. ap. Strab. p. 262 ; Dionys.
ii. 59j Suid. s. v.).
Mysi (Mvo-oQ, a people akin to the tribes of
Thrace, regarding whom the early traditions
varied: some accounts representing them as
having migrated in early times, before the Trojan
war, from Thrace into Asia Minor, while others
speak of a reflex migration, of Mysians and
Teucrians occupying Thrace and the dispos
sessed Thracians crossing to Asia. The original
Mysians are said to have come from Lydia, and
to have spoken a language half Lydian, half
Phrygian (Xanth. ap. Strab. p. 572 ; Hdt. vii.
20-75). It is probable that the Mysians really
were a Lydian race and closely connected with
the Teucri, and that, besides occupying the ter
ritory caUed Mysia, they sent a considerable
horde across the Bosporus to Thrace, which
may have resulted to some tribes from Thrace
crossing into parts of Asia [cf . Bithynia]. The
name of the Moesi on the Danube, caUed also
Mvo-oi (H. xin. 5), pointed to the connexion of
Thracians with Mysians (Strab. p. 295). They
are mentioned in the Iliad as allies of the
Trojans (ii. 858, x. 430). The Mysians are de
scribed by ancient writers as a hardy warlike
race, and are contrasted with the effeminate
Lydians and Phrygians (dBpoSiairot AvSoi,
oMovrio-Tal Mvaol, Aesch. Pers. 40, 52 ; cf. Xen.
An. iii. 2, 28, Mem. in. 5, 26). Hence it is likely
that the weU-known proverb MvoSiv Xeia=&
helpless victim, or prey to the spoiler (Dem. de
Cor. p. 248, § 72 ; Plut. Theaet. p. 209 ; Ar. Bhet.
i. 12), was not, as is often said, derived from the
character of the people, but rather from an old
tradition that during the absence of Telephus
and the Mysian warriors in the Trojan war their
country was plundered by pirates (Harpocrat.
s.v. Mvaav). But, if this was the origin of the
proverb, it affixed a stigma on the Mysians, and
Cicero (pro Flacc. 27, 65) cites it as a proof that
the Mysians were regarded as contemptible.
Mysia (r) Mvaia, poet. Mvals dia : Mvtrbs,
Mysus and Mysius : Chan Karasi, the NW.
district of Anadoli), a district of Asia Minor,
caUed also the Asiatic Mysia (Mvaia i) 'Aaiavr)),
in contradistinction to Moesia on the banks of
the Danube. OriginaUy it meant of course the
territory of the Mysi, but in the usual division
of Asia Minor, as settled under Augustus, it
occupied the whole of the NW. corner of the
peninsula, between the HeUespont on the NW. ;
the Propontis on the N. ; the river Rhyndacus
and M. Olympus on the E., which divided it
from Bithynia and Phrygia ; M. Temnus, and
an imaginary line drawn from Temnus to the S.
side of the Elaitic Gulf, on the S., where it
bordered upon Lydia ; and the Aegaean sea on
the - W. It was subdivided into five parts :
(1) Mysia Minor (M. r) ptxpd), along the N.
coast. (2) Mysia Major (M. r) peydxri), the SE.
inland region, with a smaU portion of the coast
between the Troad and the Aeolic settlements
about the Elaitic Gulf. (3) Troas (r) Tpads),
the NW. angle, between the Aegaean and HeUes
pont and the S. coast along the foot of Ida.
(4) Aeolis or Aeolia (i) AioXis or AloXla), the
S. part of the W. coast, around the Elaitic Gulf,
where the chief cities of the Aeolian confederacy
were planted ; but applied in a wider sense to
the W. coast in general ; and (5) Teuthrania
(r) TevBpavia), the SW. angle, between Temnus
and the borders of Lydia, where, in very early
times, Teuthras was said to have established a
Mysian kingdom, which was early subdued by
the Mngs of Lydia ; this part was also called

MYTILENE

683

Pergamene, from the celebrated city of Pee-
gamum, which stood in it (Strab. pp. 564, 615).
This account applies to the time of the early
Roman empire; the extent of Mysia, and its
subdivisions, varied greatly at other times. In
the heroic ages we find the great Teucrian
monarchy of Troy in the NW. of the country,
and the Phrygians along the HeUespont. For the
probable origin of the Mysians see Mysi. The
Mysia of the legends respecting Telephus is the
Teuthrani'an kingdom in the S., only with a
wider extent than the later Teuthrania (Strab.
p. 615). Under the Persian empire, the NW.
portion, which was still occupied in part by
Phrygians, but chiefly by Aeolian settlements,
was called Ptoygia Minor, and by the Greeks
Hellespo:(Tus. Mysia was the region S. of
the chain of Ida, and both formed, with Lydia,
the second satrapy (Hdt. iii. 90). In the division
of the empire of Alexander the Great, Mysia
fell, with Thrace, to the share of Lysimachus,
B.C. 311, after whose defeat and death, in 281, it
became a part of the Greco-Syrian kingdom,
with the exception of the SW. portion, where
Philetaerus founded the kingdom of Peegamum
(280), to which kingdom the whole of Mysia was
assigned, together with Lydia, Phrygia, Caria,
Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia, after the defeat
of Antiochus the Great by the Romans in 190.
With the rest of the kingdom of Pergamum,
Mysia f eU to the Romans in 183, by the bequest
of Attalus HI., and formed part of the province
of Asia (Cic. pro Flac. 27, 65). Under the
later empire, Mysia formed a separate procon
sular province, under the name of Hellespontus.
The country was for the most part mountainous ;
its chief chains being those of Ida, Olympus,
and Temnus, which are terminal branches of
the NW. part of the Taurus chain, and the
union of which forms the elevated land of SE.
Mysia. Their prolongations toto the sea form
several important bays and capes : namely,
among the former, the great gulf of Adramyt
tium (Adramytti), which cuts off Lesbos from
the continent, and the Sinus Elaiticus (G. of
Chandeli) ; and, among the latter, Sigeum
(C. Yenicheri) and Lectum (G. Baba), at the
NW. and SW. extremities of the Troad, and
Cane (C. Coloni) and Hydria (Fokia), the N.
and S. headlands of the Elaitic Gulf. Its
rivers are numerous — some of them consider
able, in proportion to the size of the country ;
and Borne of first-rate importance in history and
poetry: the chief of them, beginning on the E.,
were Rhyndacus and Macestus, Taesius,
Aesepus, Geanicus, Rhodius, Simois and Sca-
mandee, Satnois, Evenus, and Caicus. The
peoples of the country, besides the general ap
pellations mentioned above, were known by the
following distinctive names : the Olympieni or
Olympeni ('OXvpiririvoi, OXvpirrivoi), in the dis
trict of Olympene at the foot of M. Olympus ;
next to them, on the S. and W., and occupying
the greater part of Mysia Proper, the Abretteni,
who had a native divinity called by the Greeks
Zebs ' ' ABperrrpibs (Strab. p. 574) ; the Trimen-
thuritae, the Pentademitae, and the Myso-
macedones, all to the region of M. Temnus.
Mysius (Bergamo), a tributary of the river
Caicus in Mysia, or rather the upper part of the
Caicus itself (Strab. p. 616).
Myson (Miaav), of Chenae, is enumerated by
Plato as one of the seven sages, in place of Peri
ander (Protag. p. 343).
Mystia, a town in the SE. of Bruttium, a
little above the Prom. Cocintum.
Mytilene or MItylene (MvriXr)vr), MirvXi)vn :

584

MYTTISTRATUM

the former is the ancient form, and the one
usually found on coins and inscriptions ; the
latter is sometimes found on inscriptions, and
is the commoner form in MSS. : MvriXnvaios,
Mitylenaeus : Mytilene or Metelin), the chief
city of Lesbos, stood on the E. side of the
island opposite the coast of Asia, upon a pro
montory which was once an island, and both
sides of which formed excellent harbours. It
was colonised by the first detachment of immi
grants in the Aeolian migration from Greece,
traditionaUy under Penthilus, son of Orestes ;
but they are said to have dispossessed people
who are called Pelasgians (Strab. pp. 440, 582,
617). Important hints respecting its political
history are furnished by the fragments of the
poetry of Alcaeus, whence (and from other
sources) it seems that, after the rule and over
throw of a series of tyrants, the city was nearly
ruined by the bitter hatred and conflicts of the
factions of the nobles and the people, tiU Pitta
cus was appointed to a sort of dictatorsMp, and
the nobles were expelled. [Alcaeus; Pitta
cus.] Meanwhile, the city had grown to great
importance as a naval power, and had founded
colonies on the coasts of Mysia and Thrace.

Coin of Mytilene.
Obv., female head, hair in ephendone; rev., lyre with
MYTI.
At the beginning of the seventh century B.C.,
the possession of one of these colonies, Sigeum
at the mouth of the Hellespont, was disputed to
war between the Mytilenaeans and Athenians,
and assigned to the latter by the award of
Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Among the other
colonies of Mytilene, were Achilleum, Assos,
Antandrus, &c. Mytilene submitted to the
Persians after the conquest of Ionia and Aeolis,
and furnished contingents to the expeditions of
Cambyses against Egypt and of Darius against
Scythia (Hdt. iv. 97). It was active to the
Ionian revolt, after the failure of which it again
became subject to Persia, and took part in the
expedition of Xerxes against Greece. After the
Persian war it formed an aUiance with Athens,
-and rematoed one of the most important mem
bers of the Athenian confederacy, retaining its
independence tUl the fourth year of the Pelo
ponnesian war, B.C. 428, when it headed a revolt
of the greater part of Lesbos, the progress and
suppression of which forms one of the most
interesting episodes in the Mstory of the Pelo
ponnesian war. (Thuc. iii. 1-30 ; Diod. xii. 55.)
TMs event destroyed the power of Mytilene.
Its subsequent fortunes cannot be related to
detail here. It fell under the power of the
Romans after the Mithridatic war. Respecting
its important position in Greek literary history
see Lesbos.
Myttistratum. [Amesteatus.]
Myiis (MuoCj : Mvoitnos : Palatia, Ru.), the
least city of the Ionian confederacy, stood to
Caria, on the S. side of the Maeander, thirty
stadia from its mouth, and very near Miletus.
Its original site was probably at the mouth of
the river; but its site gradually became an

NABIS
unhealthy marsh ; and by the time of Augustus
it was so deserted by itB inhabitants that the
few who rematoed were reckoned as citizens of
Miletus. (Strab. pp. 632, 636.)

N.
Naarmalcha or Nahrmalcha (NaappAxxas,
NappidXxas, i.e. the King's Canal : o BcuriXeios
irorapbs, r) BaaiXiKii Sidpv£, flumen regium :
Nahr-al-Malk or Ne Gruel Melek), the greatest
of the canals connecting the Euphrates %nd the
Tigris, was situated near the N. limit of Baby
lonia, a little S. of the Median WaU, to lat.
33° 5' about. Its formation was ascribed to a
governor named Gobares. It was repaired upon
the building of Seleucia at its junction with
the Tigris by Seleucus Nicator, and again under
the Roman emperors Trajan, Severus, and
Julian. (Hdt. i. 193 ; Strab. p. 747 ; Plin. vi. 120.)
Nabalia or Navalia (Yssel), a river flowing
into L. Flevo (Zuyder Zee). The conference of
Civilis and CereaUs took place on the bridge
over it. (Tac. Hist. v. 26; Ptol. ii. 11, 28.)
Nabarzanes (\Sa$ap(dvi)s), a Persian, con
spired along with Bessus against Darius, the
last king of Persia. He waB pardoned by
Alexander. Nabataei, Nabathae (NaBardioi, lSa$drai :
O. T. Nebaioth), an Arabian people, descended
from the eldest son of Ishma'e'l, had their
original abodes in the NW. part of the Arabian
peninsula, E. and SE. of the Moabites and
Edomites, who dwelt on the E. of the Dead
Sea and in the mountains reaching from it to
the Persian Gulf. In the changes effected
among the peoples of these regions by the
Babylonian conquest of Judaea, the Nabo-
thaeans extended W. toto the Sinai'tic peninsula
and the territory of the Edomites, wMle the
latter took possession of the S. of Judaea
[Idumaei] ; and hence the Nabathaeans of
Greek and Roman history occupied nearly the
whole of Arabia Petraea, along the NE. coast
of the Red Sea, on both sides of the Aelanitic
Gulf, and to the Idumaean mountains (M. of
Seir), where they had their celebrated rock-
hewn capital, Petba. At first they were a
roving pastoral people ; but, as their position
gave them the command of the trade between
Arabia and the W., they prosecuted that trade
with great energy, establishing regular caravans
between Leuce Come, a port of the Red Sea,
in the NW. part of Arabia, and the port of
Rhinocolura (El-Arish) on the Mediterranean,
upon the frontiers of Palestine and Egypt.
(Strab. pp. 760-779.) Sustained by this traffic,
a powerful monarchy grew up, which resisted
all the attacks of the Greek kings of Syria, and
which, sometimes at least, extended its power
as far N. as Syria. [Aeetas.] Under Augustus
the Nabathaeans are found, as nominal subjects
of the Roman empire, assisting AeUus Gallus
in his expedition into Arabia Felix, through
which, and tMough the journey of Athenodorus
to Petra, Strabo derived important information
(Strab. p. 780). Under Trajan the Nabathaeans
were conquered by A. Cornelius Palma, and
Arabia Petraea became a Roman province, A.D.
105-107 (Dio Cass. lix. 2). In the fourth cen
tury it was considered a part of Palestine, and
formed the diocese of a metropolitan, whose
see was at Petra. The Mohomedon conquest
finally overthrew the power of the Naba
thaeans, and their very name disappeared.
Nabis (NojSis), succeeded in making himself

NABONASSAR
tyrant of Lacedaemon on the death of Macha-
nidas, b. c. 207. He carried the licence of
tyranny to the furthest possible extent. All
persons possessed of property were subjected to
incessant exactions, and the most cruel tortures
if they did not succeed to satisfying his rapa
city. One of his engines of torture resembled
the maiden of more recent times ; it was a
figure resembling his wife Apega, so constructed
as to clasp the victim and pierce Mm to death
with the naUs with wMch the arms and bosom
of the figure were studded (Pol. xiii. 7). The
money wMch he got by these means and by the
plunder of the temples enabled him to raise a
large body of mercenaries, whom he selected
from among the most abandoned and reckless
vUlatos. With these forces he was able to ex
tend Ms sway over a considerable part of Pelo
ponnesus ; but Ms further progress was checked
by Flamininus, who after a short campaign com
pelled him to sue for peace (195). (Pol. xx. 13 ;
Liv. xxxiv. 33-43.) The tyrant, however, was
allowed to retain the sovereignty of Sparta, and
soon after the departure of Flamininus from
Greece, he resumed hostUities. He was opposed
by Philopoemen, the general of the Achaean
League, and was soon afterwards assassinated
by some AetoUans sent to Ms assistance (192).
(Liv. xxxv. 12-35 ; Paus. viii. 50.)
Nabonassar (tiaBovdaapos), Mng of Babylon,
whose accession to the throne was fixed upon
by the Babylonian astronomers as the era from
which they began their calculations. TMs is
called the Era of Nabonassar, and was dated
on the 26th of February, B. c 747.
Nabrissa or Nebrissa, surnamed Veneria, a
town of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica, near
the mouth of the Baetts.
Nacolla (VlaKbXeia, or -ia, or tiaKdXeia : Sidi-
ghasi), a town of Ptoygia Epictetus, on the W.
bank of the river Thymbrius, between Dory-
laeum and Cotyaeum, was the place where the
emperor Valens defeated Ms rival Procopius,
A. D. 366 (Strab. p. 576 ; Amm. Marc. xxvi. 6.)
Naevius, Cn., an ancient Roman poet, of
whose life few particulars have been recorded.
He was probably a native of Campania, and was
born somewhere between B. c 274 and 264. He
appears to have come to Rome early, and he
produced Ms first play to 235. He was attached
to the plebeian party, and, with the Ucence of
the Old Attic Comedy, he made the stage a
veMcle for his attacks upon the aristocracy. He
attacked Scipio and the MetelU, but he was
indicted by Q. MeteUus and ttoown into prison,
to which circumstance Plautus aUudes to his
Miles Gloriosus (U. 2, 56). Whilst in prison he
composed two plays, the Hariolus and Leon, in
which he recanted his previous imputations, and
thereby obtained Ms release through the tri
bunes of the people. (GeU. iii. 3 ; Ascon. in Cic.
Verr. i. 29.) His repentance, however, did not
last long, and he was soon compelled to expiate
a new offence by exUe. He retired to Utica,
and it was here, probably, that he wrote Ms
poem on the first Punic war ; and here it is cer
tain that he died, either in 204 or 202 (Cic. Brut.
15, 60 ; Euseb. Chron.). — Naevius was both
an epic and a dramatic poet. Of his epic poem
on the first Pumc war a few fragments are stiU
extant. It was written in the Satumian metre,
and was of the nature of a versified chronicle
(Cic. de Sen. 14, 40; Suet. Gramm. 2). The
poem appears to have opened with the story of
Aeneas's flight from Troy, his visit to Carthage
and amour with Dido, together with other
legends connected with the early Mstory both of

NAR

585

Carthage and of Rome. It was important as
leading the way to Roman epic poetry, and was
used both by Ennius and Virgil [see p. 24, b].
His dramatic writings comprised both tragedies
and comedieB, most of whioh were freely adapted
from the Greek ; but his efforts to start a na
tional drama on Italian subjects (praetextae)
was more important. Among these plays were
Clastidium (on the victory of MarceUus, b. c.
222) and Bomulus. Even in the Augustan age
Naevius was still a favourite with the admirers
of the genuine old school of Roman poetry; and
the lines of Horace (Ep. ii. 1, 68) show that Mb
works, if not so much read as formerly, were
still fresh in the memories of men. His epitaph,
preserved by GeUius, expresses his feeling for
national, as opposed to Greek, literature : —
' Mortales immortales flere si f oret fas,
Merent Divae Camenae Naevium poetam.
Itaque postquam est Orcino traditus thesauro
Obliti sunt Romani loquier Latina lingua.'
Fragments to Klussman, Jena, 1843; VaMen,
Lips. 1854 ; Ribbeck, Bom. Trag. 44.
Naevius Sertorius Macro. [Maceo.]
Naharvali, a tribe of the Lygii in Germany,
probably dwelt on the banks of the Vistula. In
their country was a grove sacred to the worship
of two divinities called Alces, whom Tacitus
compares with Castor and Pollux (Germ. 43).
Nahrmalcha. [Naaemalcha.]
Naiade3. [Nymphae.]
Naisus, Naissus, orNaesus (Na'iabs, Naio-o-bs,
Nditro-os : Nisch), an important town of Upper
Moesia, situated on anE. tributary of the Mar
gus, and celebrated as the birthplace of Con
stantine the Great. It was enlarged and
beautified by Constantine, was destroyed by
Attila, but was rebuilt and fortified by Justtoian.
Namnetae or Namnetes, a people on the W.
coast of Gallia, on the N. bank of the Liger,
wMch separated them from Aquitania. Their
chief town was Cbndivincum, afterwards Nam
netes (N antes). (Caes. B.G. iii. 9; Strab. p. 190.)
Namusa, Aufidlus, a Roman jurist, one of
the numerous pupils of Serv. Sulpicius.
Nantuatae or Nantuates, a people to the
SE. of Gallia Belgica, who lived on the Rhone
vaUey a little above the beginning of the Lake
of Geneva, i.e. between Villeneuve and Mar-
tigny. An inscription places them at S. Mau
rice. (Caes. B. G. iii. 1 ; Strab. p. 204.) The
reading to Caes. B. G, iv. 10, which gives their
name, is faulty.
Napaeae. [Nymphae.]
Naparis (Jalomitza), a northern tributary of
the Danube.
Napata (Ndirara : prob. El-Kab, Ru., at the
great bend of the Nile to the SW., between the
fourth and fifth cataracts), the capital of an
Aethiopian kingdom N. of that of Meroe, was
the southernmost point reached by Petronius,
under Augustus (Strab. p. 820).
Napoca or Napfica (Napocensis or Napucen-
sis ; Clausenberg), a Roman colony in Dacia,
on the high road between Patavissa and Opta-
tiana (G. I. L. iii. 860, 865).
Nar (Nerd), a river to central Italy, rises in
M. Fiscellus, on the frontiers of Umbria and Pice
num, flows in a south-westerly direction, forming
the boundary between Umbria and the land of
the Sabini, and after receiving the Velinus
(VeUno) and Tolenus (Turano), and passing by
Interamna and Narnia, falls into the Tiber, not
far from Ocriculum (Strab. p. 227 ; Tac. Ann. i.
79). It was celebrated for its sulphureous
waters and white colour (sulphurea Nar albus
aqua, Virg. Aen. vii. 517).

586

NARAGGARA

Naraggara (Wapdyapa: Kassir Jebir, Ru.),
one of the most important inland cities of
Numidia, between Thagura and Sicca Venena,
was the scene of Scipio's interview with Hanni
bal before the battle of Zama (Liv. xxx. 29).
Narbo Martins, at a later time Narbona
(Narbonensis : Narbonne), a town in the south
of Gaul and the capital of the Roman province
of Gallia Narbonensis, was situated on the river
Atax (Aude), also called Narbo, and at the head
of the lake Rubresus or Rubrensis (also called
Narbonitis), which was connected with the sea
by a canal. By this means the town, wMchwas
twelve miles from the coast, became a seaport.
It was made a Roman colony in the consul
ship of Q. Marcius Rex, B. c. 218, and was the
first colony founded by the Romans in Gaul.
The actual founder was L. Licinius Crassus.
(VeU. Pat. i. 15; Cicero Font. 5, 13, Brut. 43,
160.) Julius Caesar also settled here the
veterans of his tenth legion, whence it received
the name of Colonia Decumanorum (Suet. Tib.
4). It was a handsome and populous town, the
residence of the Roman governor of the pro
vince, and a place of great commercial import
ance. The tin from the N. of Spain and from
Britain was brought overland to Narbo as well
as to Massilia (Diod. v. 38).
Narbonensis Gallia. [Gallia.]
Narcissus (Niip/dcrtros). 1. A beautiful youth,
son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph
Liriope of Thespiae. He was wholly inacces
sible to the feeling of love; and the nymph
Echo, who was enamoured of Mm, died of grief.
[Echo.] One of Ms rejected lovers, however,
prayed to Nemesis to punish him for his unfeel
ing heart. Nemesis accordingly caused Nar
cissus to fall in love with Ms own image re
flected to a fountain. But as he could not

NaroiSBUB. (From a Pompeian painting. His death is
signified by Eros -with inverted torch.)
approach it, he gradually pined away, and was
changed into the flower which bears Ms name.
(Ov. Met. iii. 341-510.) TMs is the most poeti
cal version of the story. Conon (Narrat. 24)
makes Narcissus merely a hard-hearted lover
who is driven by the gods to suicide, and from
whose blood sprang up the flower. Pausanias
(ix. 31), giving the more usual version, adds the
rationalising account that Narcissus fell in love
with his twin sister. It is easy to see how
myths could arise in many countries of love

NARYX
inspired by a reflected image and of the re
flected image (as in other popular superstitions)
being the presage of death. The narcissus
flower was probably connected with the
myth of the youth who thus wasted away, be
cause it was the symbol of early death as betog
the flower gathered by Persephone before she
was carried off by Hades, and hence sacred to
Demeter and Kore (Hymn, ad Ger. 15 ; Soph.
0. G. 682 ; Paus. ix. 31, 6). Possibly also, as
some have thought, a narcotic fragrance per
ceived in the flower contributed to form the
idea. — 2. A freedman and secretary of the em
peror Claudius, over whom he possessed un
bounded influence. He long conmved at the
irregularities of MessaUina ; but fearing that the
empress meditated his death, he betrayed to
Claudius her marriage with C. Silius, and ob
tained the order for her execution, A.D. 48.
After the murder of Claudius, Narcissus was
put to death by command of Agrippina, 54. He
had amassed an enormous fortune, amounting,
it is said, to 400,000,000 sesterces, equivalent to-
3,125,0002. of our money. (Tac. Ann. xi. 80-65,
xiii. 1 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 15-34 Juv. xiv. 329.)— 3.
A celebrated athlete, who strangled the emperor
Commodus, 192. He was afterwards exposed
to the lions by the emperor Severus. (Dio Cass.
lxxii. 22, lxxiii. 16.)
Narisci or Varisci, a small but brave people
in the S. of Germany, of the Suevic race, dwelt
W. of the Marcomanni and E. of the Hermun-
duri, and extended from the Sudeti Montes on
the N. to the Danube on the S., thus inhabiting
part of the Upper Palatinate and the Fichtel-
gebirge (Tac. Germ. 42 ; Dio Cass. lxxi. 21).
Narmalcha. [Naaemalcha.]
Narnia (Narniensis : Narni), a town to Um
bria, situated on a lofty MU, on the S. bank of
the river Nar, originaUy caUed Nequinnm, was
made a Roman colony B. c 299, when its name
was changed into Narnia, after the river (Liv.
x. 9; Plin. iii. 113). This town was strongly
fortified by nature, betog accessible only on the
E. and W. sides. On the W. side it could otoy
be approached by a very lofty bridge wMch
Augustus built over the river. (Mart. vii. 93 1
Procop. B. G. i. 17.)
Naro, sometimes Nar (Narenta), a river to
Dalmatia, which rises in M. Albius, and falls
toto the Adriatic sea (Ptol. ii. 16, 5).
Narona, a Roman colony in Dalmatia, situated
on the river Naro, on the road to DyrrhacMum
(Cic. ad Fam. v. 9, 10 ; Ptol. ii. 17, 12, viii. 7, 8).
Narses, king of Persia. [Sassanidae.]
Narses (Napo-i)s), a celebrated general and
statesman in the reign of Justinian, was a
eunuch. He put an end to the Gothic dominion
in Italy by two briUiant campaigns, a. d. 552,
553, and annexed Italy again to the Byzantine
empire. He was rewarded by Justinian with
the government of the country, which he held
for many years. He was deprived of tMs office
by Justin, the successor of Justinian, where
upon he invited the Lombards to invade Italy.
His invitation was eagerly accepted by their
Mng Alboin; but it is said that Narses soon
after repented of Ms conduct, and died of grief
at Rome shortly after theLombards had crossed
the Alps (668). Narses was 95 years of" age at
the time of Ms death (Procop. B. G. ii. IS, iii., iv.).
Narthacium (NapBaKiov), a town in Thessaly,
on M. Narthacius, SW. of Pharsalus (Xen. Hell.
iv. 3; Ptol. iii. 13,46).
Naryx, also Narycus or Naryoium (Ndpv£,
NapvKos, NapiKiov: NapiKios, IS apvKaios : Ta-
landa or Talanti), a town of the Locri Opuntii

NASAMONES
on the Euboean sea, the reputed birthplace of
Ajax, son of Oileus, who is hence called Nary-
cius heros (Strab. p. 425 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 468).
Since Locri Epizephyrii in the S . of Italy claimed
to be a colony from Naryx in Greece, the town
of Locri is called Naryeia by the poets, and the
pitch of Bruttium Naryeia (Verg. Aen. iii. 399,
Georg. ii.i&Q; Plin. xiv. 127, 128).
Nasamones (Nao-apaves), a powerful but
savage Libyan people, who dwelt originally on
the shores of the Great Syrtis, but were driven
inland by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and
afterwards by the Romans. An interesting ac
count of their manners and customs, especially
of their ancestor- worsMp, is given by Herodotus
(iv. 172), who also tells (ii. 32) a curious story
respecting an expedition beyond the Libyan
Desert, undertaken by five Nasamonian youths
who reached a large river, possibly the Niger,
and a country of dwarfs. [Nigeie.J
Nasica, Scipio. [Scipio.]
Nasidienus, a wealthy (beatus) Roman, who
gave a supper to Maecenas which Horace ridi
cules to the eighth Satire of his second book.
It appears from v. 58, that Rufus was the cog
nomen of Nasidienus.
Nasidlus, Q. or L., was sent by Pompey, in
B.C. 49, with a fleet of sixteen sMps to relieve
MassiUa, when it was besieged by D. Brutus
(Caes. B. C. n. 3-7) . He was d ef eated by Brutus,
and fled to Africa, where he had the command
of the Pompeian fleet. He served in Sicily
under Sex. Pompey, whom he deserted in 35.
He joined Antony, and commanded part of his
fleet in the war with Octavian, 31 (App. B. C. v.
139 ; Dio Cass. 1. 13).
Naso, Ovidius, [Ovroius.]
Nasus or Nesus. [Oeniadae.]
Nat iso (Natisone), a river in Venetia in the N.
of Italy, flowing by Aquileia, and falling into the
Sinus Tergestinus (Strab. p. 214 ; Plin. iii. 126).
Natta or Nacca, ' a fuller,' the name of a
famUy of the Pinaria gens (Cic. Div. i. 12, U. 20).
Naucrates (NavKpdrijs), of Erythrae, a Greek
rhetorician, and a pupil of Isocrates, is one of
the orators who competed (b. c. 352) for the
prize offered by Artemisia for the best funeral
oration deUvered over Mausolus (GeU. x. 68).
Naucratis (NaiKparts : NavKparirns : Ne-
bireh, Ru.), a city in the Delta of Egypt, to the
Nomus of Sals, near the W. bank of the Canopic
branch of the NUe, which was hence caUed also
Naucraticum Ostium (Hdt. n. 97, 179 ; Ptol. iv.
5, 9; Plin. v. 61; Strab. pp. 801, 803, 808).
Strabo probably meant (p. 803) that it lay on
the E. side of the canal by which it was reached.
It was a colony of the Milesians, and re
matoed a pure Greek city, where Greeks were
permitted to settle and trade. Naucratis was
probably founded early in the seventh cen
tury B. c. From Herodotus it appears to have
been to existence before the time of Amasis.
It probably lost its prosperity to the time of
Apries and regained it under Amasis. Its im
portance was much lessened by the foundation
of Alexandria, though Ptolemy Philadelphus
added to its buildings and fortifications. Under
the Roman empire it feU into decay, and was
revived before the end of the tMrd century. All
its remains belong to an earlier date. It was
the birthplace of Athenaeus and Julius Pollux. —
The site of Naucratis , was excavated by Mr.
Petrie to 1886, 1888, with important results to
archaeology and to the history of Greek life in
Egypt. The temples of ApoUo and of the
Dioscuri were identified, but the most remark
able building was the HeUenion (cf. Hdt. ii. 178),

NAUPLIUS

587

which served alike as a fortified storehouse and
factory and as a place of refuge for the Greeks
in Egypt in times of danger. The enclosure
measured 870 feet by 746, with walls 60 feet
thick, and had within it two large buildings, one
of them fitted to hold stores and serve as a keep
or stronghold in extremity. A great number of
Greek works in scarabs, in pottery, and in sta
tuettes ha3 been found in these excavations.
Naucydes (NavKiSns), an Argive sculptor, son
of Mothon, and brother and teacher of Polycle
tus II. of Argos, flourished B.C. 420 (Paus. ii. 22).
Naulochus (NaiXoxos), that is, a place where
ships can anchor. 1. A naval station on the E.
part of the N. coast of Sicily between Mylae
and the promontory Pelorus (Suet. Aug. 16 ;
App. B. C.v. 116).— 2. A smaU island off Crete,
near the promontory Sammonium. — 3. A naval
station belonging to Mesembria in Thrace.
Naumachius (Navpdxios), a gnomic poet, of
uncertain date, some of whose verses are pre
served by Stobaeus.
Naupactus (Nau-iraicTos : NauiroiKTios : Le-
panto), an ancient and strongly fortified town
of the Locri Ozolae near the promontory Antir-
rhium, possessing the largest and best .harbour
on the whole of the N. coast of the Corinthian
gulf. It is said to have derived its name from
the Heraclidae having here built the fleet with
which they crossed over to the Peloponnesus
(Strab. p. 428 ; Paus. x. 38, 10). After the Per
sian wars it fell into the power of the Athenians,
who settled here the Messenians who had been
compelled to leave their country at the end of
the third Messenian war, b. c. 455 ; and during
the Peloponnesian war it was the headquarters
of the Athenians to all their operations against
the W. of Greece (Thuc. i. 103, ii. 83). At the
end of the Peloponnesian war the Messenians
were obliged to leave Naupactus, which passed
into the hands first of the Locrians and after
wards of the Achaeans. It was given by Philip
with the greater part of the Locrian territory
to Aetolia, but it was again assigned to Locris
by the Romans. (Liv. xxxvi. 80 ; Ptol. iii. 15, 3.)
Nauplia (NavirXla : NavirXieis : Nauplia), the
port of Argos, situated on the Saronic gulf, was
never a place of importance to antiquity, and
was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. The in
habitants had been expelled by the Argives as
early as the second Messenian war on suspicion
of favouring the Spartans, who to consequence
settled them at Methone in Messenia. (Paus.
ii. 38, iv. 35 ; Strab. p. 368.) At the present day
NaupUa is a flourishing seaport.
Nauplius (NaiirXios). 1. Of Argos, son of
Poseidon and Amymone, a famous navigator,
and the founder of the town of Nauplia (Paus.
ii. 38, 2). — 2. Son of Clytoneus, was one of the
Argonauts and a descendant of the preceding
(Ap. Rh. i. 134).— 3. King of Euboea, and father
of Palamedes, Oeax, and Nausimedon, by Cly
mene. Catreus had given his daughter Cly
mene and her sister Aerope to Nauplius, to be
carried to a foreign land ; but Nauplius married
Clymene, and gave Aerope to Plisthenes, who
became by her (according to some accounts) the
father of Agamemnon and Menelaus. His son
Palamedes had been condemned to death by the
Greeks during the siege of Troy ; and as Nau
plius considered his condemnation to be an act
of injustice, he watched for the return of the
Greeks, and as they approached the coast of
Euboea he lighted torches on the dangerous
promontory of Caphareus. The sailors thus
misguided suffered shipwreck and perished in
the sea or by the sword of Nauplius. (Apollod.

588

NAUPORTUS

ii. 1, 4 ; iii. 2, 2 ; Tzetz. ad Lye. 384 ; Hyg.
Fab. 116.)
Nauportus (Ober or Upper Laibach), an an
cient and important commercial town of the
Taurisci, situated on the river Nauportus (Lai
bach), a tributary of the Savus, in Pannonia
Superior. The town fell into decay after the
foundation of Aemona (Laibach), which was
only fifteen miles from it. The name of Nau-
, portus is said to have been derived from the
Argonauts having sailed up the Danube and the
Savus to this place and here built the town;
and it is added that they afterwards carried
their stops across the Alps to the Adriatic sea,
where they again embarked. (Strab. pp. 207,
314 ; Tac. Ann. i. 20; VeU. Pat. ii. 110.)
Nausicaa (Navo-iKda), daughter of Alcinous,
king of the Phaeacians, and Arete, who con
ducted Ulysses to the court of her father, when
he was shipwrecked on the coast (Od. vi. 16).
Nausithous (NavaiBoos), son of Poseidon and
Periboea, the daughter of Eurymedon, was the
father of Alcinous and Rhexenor, and king of
the Phaeacians, whom he led from Hyperia to
Ttoinacia to the island of Scheria, to escape
from the Cyclopes (Od. vi. 7, vii. 56, viii. 564).
Nautaca (Nairaxa : Naksheb or Kesh), a city
of Sogdiana, near the Oxus, towards the E. part
of its course (Arrian, An. iii. 28).
Nautes. [Nautia Gens.]
Nautia Gens, an ancient patrician gens,
claimed descent from Nautes, a companion of
Aeneas, who brought with Mm the PaUadium
from Troy, wMch was placed under the care of the
Nautii at Rome. The Nautii, all of whom were
surnamed Butili, frequently held the Mghest
offices of state in the early times of the repubUc,
but, like many of the other ancient gentes, they
disappear from Mstory about the time of the
Samnite wars. (Verg. Aen. v. 704 ; Dionys. vi. 4.)
Nava (Nahe), a W. tributary of the Rhine in
Gaul, which falls toto the RMne at Bimgen.
Navalia. [Nabalia.]
Navius, Attus, a renowned augur in the time
of Tarquinius Priscus. TMs king proposed to
double the number of the equestrian centuries,
and to name the three new ones after himself
and two of his friends, but was opposed by Na
vius, because Romulus had originally arranged
the equites under the sanction of the auspices.
The tale then goes on to say that Tarquinius
thereupon commanded him to divine whether
what he was thinking of could be done, and that
when Navius, after consulting the heavens, de
clared that it could, the king held out a whet
stone and a razor to cut it with. Navius im
mediately cut it. His statue was placed in the
comitium, on the steps of the senate-house, the
place where the miracle had been wrought, and
beside the statue the whetstone was preserved.
(Liv. i. 36; Dionys. iii. 70 Cic. Div. i. 17,
N. D. ii. 3.)
Naxos (Ndf oy : Nc££ios). 1. (Naxia), an island
in the Aegaean sea, and the largest of the Cy
clades, is situated nearly half way between the
coasts of Greece and Asia Minor. It is about
eighteen miles in length and twelve in breadth.
It was very fertile to antiquity, as it is to the
present day, producing an abundance of corn,
wine, oU, and fruit. It was especially celebrated
for its wine, and hence plays a prominent part
in the legendB about Dionysus. Here the god
is said to have found Ariadne after she had been
deserted by Theseus. [Dionysus.] The marble
of the island was also much prized, and was
considered equal to the Parian. — Naxos is fre
quently caUed Dia (Ala) by the poets, wMch

NAZARETH
is said to have been the old name of the
island (Ov. Met. iii. 690). It was likewise
caUed Strongyle (S,rpoyyiXrj) on account of
its round shape, and Dionysias (Aiovvo-tds)
from its connexion with the worsMp of

Coin of the island of NaxoB (6th cent. B.C.).
Obv., cantharus wreathed with grapes: rev., incuse
square.
Dionysus (Diod. v. 50). It is said to have been
originally inhabited by Thracians and then by
Carians, and to have derived its name from a
Carian chief, Naxos. In the Mstorical age it
was inhabited by Ionians who had emigrated
from Athens (Hdt. viii. 46). Naxos was con
quered by Pisistratus, who estabUshed Lygda
mis as tyrant of the island about B. c 540 (Hdt.
i. 61, 64). The Persians in 501 attempted, at the
suggestion of Aristagoras, to subdue Naxos;
and upon the failure of their attempt, Arist
agoras, fearing punishment, induced the Ionian
cities to revolt from Persia. In 490 the Per
sians, under Datis and Artaphernes, conquered
Naxos, and reduced the tohabitants to slavery
(Hdt. v. 30). The Naxians recovered their in
dependence after the battle of Salamis (480).
They were the first of the allied states whom
the Athenians reduced to subjection (471), after
wMch they are rarely mentioned in history
(Thuc. i. 98, 137; Paus. i. 27, 6). The chief
town of the island was also called Naxos ; and
we also have mention of the small towns of
Tragaea and Lestadae. — 2. A Greek city on the
E. coast of SicUy, S. of Mt. Taurus, was founded
B. c. 735 by the Chalcidians of Euboea, and was
the first Greek colony established m the island
(Thuc. vi. 3 ; Strab. p. 267 ; Diod. xiv. 88). It
grew bo rapidly in power that in only five or six
years after its foundation it sent colonies to
Catana and Leontini. It was for a time subject

Coin of Naxos in Sicily (5th cent. B.C.).
Obv,, head of bearded Dionysus ; rev.. Silenus with wine
cup and thyrsus ; ivy at his side.
to Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, and afterwards
to Hiero of Syracuse (Hdt. vii. 154 ; Diod. xi.
49) ; but it soon recovered its independence,
carried on a successful war agatost Messana,
and was subsequently an aUy of the Athenians
against Syracuse. In 403 the town was taken
by Dionysius of Syracuse and destroyed. Nearly
fifty years afterwards (358) the rematos of the
Naxians scattered over SicUy were collected by
Andromachus, and a new city was founded on
Mt. Taurus, called Taueomenium.
Naxuana (Na^ovdva : Nakshivan), a city of
Armenia Major, on the Araxes (Ptol. v. 13, 12).
Nazareth, Nazara (NaCapeB, or -er, or -di

NAZIANZUS
NaCapcuos, Nafcopaior, Nazarenus, Nazareus : en-
Nasirah), a city of Palestine, to Galilee, S. of
Cana, on a hill N. of the plain of Esdraelon.
[See Diet, of Bible.]
Nazianzus (ISaCiav&s : \SaCiav(i)vbs : Nenizi),
a city of Cappadocia, on the road from Arehe-
lais to Mazara, celebrated as the diocese of the
Father of the Church, Gregory Nazianzen.
Neaera (Neaipa), the name of several nymphs
and maidens mentioned by the poets.
Neaethus (Neaifloj : Nieto), a river in Brut
tium to the S. of Italy, falUng toto the Taren-
tine gulf a little N. of Croton. Here the captive
Trojan women are said to have burned the
ships of the Greeks. (Strab. p. 262.)
Nealces (NeaAjojs), a painter who flourished
to the time of Aratus, B.C. 245 (Plut. Arat. 18 ;
Plin. xxxv. 142).
Neandria (NedvSpeia : ISeavSpe'is, pi.), a
town of the Troad, on the HeUespont, probably
an Aeolian colony. By the time of Augustus
it had disappeared. (Strab. pp. 604, 606.)
Neanthes (NedvBns), of Cyzicum, lived about
B.C. 241, was a disciple of the Milesian Philiscus,
who had been a disciple of Isocrates. He was
a voluminous writer, principally of history.
(C. Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Graec.)
Neapolis (NeairoXis : N€oiroA(T7)r, Neapoli-
tanus). 1. In Europe. 1. (Napoli or Naples),
a city in Campania to Italy, on the W. slope of
Mt. Vesuvius and on the river Sebethus, was
founded by the Chalcidians of Cumae, on the
site of an ancient place called Parthenope
(TlapBevbirn,), after the Siren of that name.
Hence we find the town called Parthenope by
Virgil and Ovid (Georg. iv. 564 ; Met. xv. 711).
The year of the foundation of Neapolis is not
recorded. It was called the ' New City,' accord
ing to Strabo, because it afterwards received
additional Chalcidian and Athenian colonists
(Strab. p. 246). It is likely that Palaeopolis
mentioned by Livy (viii. 22) was the old quar
ter, also called Parthenope, and the original
settlement, and that was afterwards superseded

NEARCHUS

589

Coin of Neapolis in Campania (about 300 B.C.).
Obv., head of Parthenope ; rev., neoitoaitun ; man-headed
buU crowned by victory.
to importance by the more recent settlement.
It iB conjectured with probabUity that the site
of the first settlement, Palaeopolis or Parthe
nope, was on the hill of Pausilypus (Posilippo).
The new town was close to the river Sebethus,
and occupied the site of the eastern part of
Naples. In B.C. 327 the town was taken by the
Samnites, and in 290 it passed into the hands
of the Romans, who allowed it, however, to
retain its Greek constitution. At a later period
it became a municipium (Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 30),
and under the empire, before the time of Clau
dius, a colony (Petron. 44, 76). Under the
Romans the two quarters of the city were
united, and the name of Palaeopolis disap
peared. It continued to be a prosperous and
flourisMng place till the time of the empire ;
and its beautiful scenery, and the luxurious life
of its Greek population, made it a favourite
residence with many of the Romans. In the

reign of Titus the city was destroyed by an
earthquake, but was rebuilt by this emperor in
the Roman style. The ancient city extended
further E. than the modern city; but the
modern city, on the other hand, extends further
N. and W. than the ancient one, since the island
of Megaris, on whioh the Castel dei Ovo now
stands, was situated in ancient times between
the hill of Pausilypus and Neapolis. In the
neighbourhood of Neapolis there were warm
baths, the celebrated villa of Lucullus, and
the ViUa Pausilypi or Pausilypum, bequeathed
by Vedius PoUio to Augustus, which has given
its name to the celebrated grotto of Posilippo
between Naples and Pozzuoli, at the entrance
of which the tomb of Virgil is still shown.
[Pausilypus.]— 2. A part of Syracuse. [Syea-
cusae.] — 3. (Napoli), a town on the W. coast
of the island of Sardinia, celebrated for its
warm baths (Ptol. iii. 8, 7).— 4. (Kavallo), a
seaport town in Thrace, subsequently Mace
donia Adjecta, on the Strymonic gulf, be
tween the Strymon and Nessus (Strab. p.
330). — II. In Asia and Africa. 1. (Scala
Nuova, or near it), a small Ionian city on the
coast of Lydia, N. of Mycale and SW. of
Ephesus. The Ephesians, to whom it at first
belonged, exchanged it with the Samians for
Maeathestum. — 2, 3. Two towns of Caria, the
one near Harpasa, the other on the coast, per
haps the new town of Myndus. — 4. (Tutinek 1
Ru.), in Pisidia, S. of Antioch ; afterwards
reckoned to Galatia. — 5. In Palestine, the
Sychem or Sychar of Scripture (Svxep, 3vxdp,
~2,iKlpa, Joseph. : Nablous), one of the most
ancient cities of Samaria, stood in the narrow
valley between Mts. Ebal and Gerizim, and was
the reUgious capital of the Samaritans, whose
temple was built upon Mt. Gerizim. This
temple was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, B.C.
129. Its fuU name, under the Romans, was
Flavia Neapolis. It was the birthplace of Jus
tin Martyr. — 6. A small town of Babylonia, on
the W. bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the
opening of the King's Canal. — 7. In Egypt.
[Caene]. — 8. In N. Africa, on the W. coast of
the Great Syrtis, by some identified with Leptis
Magna, by others with the modern Tripoli. —
9. (Nabal), a Phoenician colony, on the E.
coast of Zeugitana, near the N. extremity of the
great gulf which was called after it Sinus Nea-
politanus (Gulf of Hammamet). Under the
Romans it was a libera civitas, and, according
to Ptolemy, a colony. (Ptol. iv. 3, 11.)
Nearchus (Neapxos), a distinguished friend
and officer of Alexander, was a native of Crete,
but settled at AmpMpolis (Arrian, Ind. 18 ;
Diod. xix. 19). He was banished by Philip for
participating in the intrigues of Alexander.
After the death of Philip he was recalled, and
treated with the utmost distinction by Alex
ander. He accompanied the king to Asia ; and
in B.C. 325 he was entrusted by Alexander with
the command of the fleet which he had caused
to be constructed on the Hydaspes. Upon
reaching the mouth of the Indus, Alexander
sent round his sMps by sea from thence to the
Persian gulf, under the command of Nearchus,
who set out on the 21st of September, 326,
and arrived at Susa in safety in February, 325.
(Arrian, Ind. 19-42, Anab. vii. 4, 5 ; Strab. pp.
721, 725 ; Plut. Alex. 68.) He was rewarded
with a crown of gold for his distinguished ser
vices, and at the same time obtained in marriage
a daughter of the Rhodian Mentor and of Bar-
sine, to whom Alexander himself had been pre
viously married. In the division of the provinces

590

NEBO

after the death of Alexander, he received the
government of Lycia and Pamphylia, which he
held as subordinate to Antigonus. (Just. xiii.
4 ; Diod. I, c.) — Nearchus left a history of the
voyage, the substance of wMch has been pre
served to us by Arrian, who has derived from it
the whole of the latter part of his Indica.
Nebo, a mountain of Palestine, on the E. side
of the Jordan, opposite to Jericho. [Did. of the
Bible .]
Nebrodes Montes (Monte di Madonia), a
chain of mountains in SicUy, running through
the island, and a continuation of the Apen
nines (Strab. p. 274 ; Sil. It. xiv. 236).
Necessltas, called Ananke ('AvdyKv) by the
Greeks, is not persomfied by Homer, but appears
subsequently as a
powerful goddess,
whom not even the
gods could resist
(Plat. Symp. p.
195, .Rep. x. p. 616).
On the Acrocorin
thus there was a
temple of 'AvdyKri
and Bia, which no
one could enter
(Paus. ii. 4, 6). In
Horace saeva Ne-
cessitas precedes
Fortuna, carrying
in her brazen hand
nails with which
she fixes the de
crees of fate (Od.
i. 35, 17, iii. 24, 5).
Neco or Necho
(NeKiiSs, riexas,
Ne/taDj, Nexads,
Nexad), the Egyp
tian Neku. 1. Son
of Tefnekt, was
defeated and im
prisoned by Sarda
napalus, but after
wards released and made king of Sais and
MempMs. According to Hdt. ii. 152, he was
put to death by Sabacon. He was grandfather
of Psammetichus = Psamthek I. (Herodotus
represents him as father of Psammetichus.) —
2. Son of Psammetichus, whom he succeeded
on the throne of Egypt in B.C. 612. His reign
was marked by considerable energy and enter
prise. He began to dig the canal intended
to connect the Nile with the Arabian gulf,
wMch had been projected before by Seti I. and
Ramses II. ; but he desisted from the work,
according to Herodotus, on being warned by
an oracle that he was constructing it only for
the use of the barbarian invader. It started
from the Pelusiac branch, a little north of
Bubastis, and went towards the gulf of Suez.
But the greatest and most interesting enter
prise with wMch his name is connected is the
circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians
in his service, who set sail from the Arabian
gulf and accomplished the voyage is somewhat
more than two years, entered the Mediterranean,
and returned to Egypt through the Straits of
Gibraltar. His military expeditions were dis
tinguished at first by brilliant success, which
was followed, however, by the most rapid and
signal reverses. On Ms march against the
Babylonians and Medes, whose joint forces had
recently destroyed Nineveh, he was met at
Magdolus (Megiddo) by Josiah, Mng of Judah,
who was a vassal of Babylon. In the battle

Hecessitas. (Causei, Museum
Romanum, vol. i. tav. 28.)

NELEUS
which ensued, Josiah was defeated and mortally
wounded, and Necho advanced to the Euphrates,
where he conquered the Babylonians and took
Carchemish or Circesium, where he appears to
have established a garrison. After the battle
at Megiddo, he took the town of Cadytis, prob
ably Jerusalem. In 606 Nebuchadnezzar
attacked Carchemish, defeated Necho, and would
appear also to have invaded Egypt itself. In
596 Necho died, and waB succeeded by Ms son
Psammis or Psammuthis=Psamthek II. (Hdt.
ii. 158, iv. 42 ; Diod. i. 33 ; Strab. p. 804.)
Nectanabis, Nectanebus, or Nectanebes
(NeKrdvaBis, NeKrdveBos, NeKraveBns = Nekht-
Hor-Heb). 1. King of Egypt, the first of the
three sovereigns of the Sebennite dynasty, suc
ceeded Nepherites on the throne about B.C. 378,
and in the following year successfuUy resisted
the invasion of the Persian force under Phar
nabazus and IpMcrates, having won a victory
near Mendes (Diod. xv. 41-43 ; Nep. Iph. 2).
He died after a reign of fourteen years, and was
succeeded by Tachos.— 2.= Nekht-Neb-Ef. The
nephew of Tachos, deprived the latter of the
sovereignty in 361, with the assistance of Age
silaus. For some time he defeated aU the
attempts of Artaxerxes IH. (Ochus) to recover
Egypt, btfUbe was at length defeated MmseU,
and despairing of making any further resistance,
he fled into Aethiopia, 350. Nectanabis was
the third king of the Sebennite dynasty, and
the last native sovereign who ever ruled in
Egypt. (Plut. Ages. 37-40 ; Diod. xv. 92 ; Paus.
iii. 10 ; Athen. pp. 150, 616.)
Neda (NcSa: Buzi), a river in Peloponnesus,
rises in Arcadia in Mt. Cerausion, a branch of
Mt. Lycaeus, and falls toto the IoMan sea after
forming the boundary between Arcadia and
Messenia, and between Messenia and EUs
(Strab. p. 344 ; Paus. iv. 20, 1).
Negra or Negrana (ra iSeypava : El-Nokra,
N. of Mareb), a city of Arabia Felix, destroyed
by AeUus GaUus (Strab. p. 781).
Neleus (Nr/Xeis). 1. Son of Tyro, the daughter
of Salmoneus. Poseidon once visited Tyro in
the form of the river- god Enipeus, and she be
came by Mm the mother of PeUas and Neleus
(Od. xi. 234-255). To conceal her shame she
exposed the two boys, but they were found and
reared by some countrymen. They subse
quently learnt their parentage ; and after the
death of Cretheus, king of "lolcos, who had
married their mother, they seized the throne of
lolcos, excluding Aeson, the son of Cretheus
and Tyro. But Pelias soon afterwards expelled
his brother, and thus became sole king. (Apollod.
i. 9, 8 ; Diod. iv. 68.) Thereupon Neleus went
with Melampus and Bias to Pylos, which Ms
uncle Aphareus gave to him, and of which he
thus became king. Several towns of tMs name
claimed the honour of being the city of Neleus
or of his son Nestor, such as Pylos to Messenia,
Pylos in Elis, and Pylos in Triphylia ; the firBt
of which is probably the one mentioned by
Homer in connexion with Neleus and Nestor
[Pylos, No. 1.] Neleus was married to Chloris,
a daughter of Amphion of Orchomenos, accord
ing to Homer, and a Theban woman accordmg
to others. By her he became the father of
Nestor, Chromius, Periclymenus, and Pero.
He had in all twelve sons (II. xi. 692; Od.
I.e.). When Heracles had MUed Iphitus, he
went to Neleus to be purified ; but Neleus,
who was a friend of Eurytus, the father of
Iphitus, refused to grant the request. In order
to take vengeance, Heracles afterwards marched
agatost Pylos, and slew aU the sons of Neleus,

NEMESIS

591

cent aqueduct, now called Font du Gard, some
miles from the town, consisting of tMee rows
of arches, raised one above the other, and 180
feet to height.

NELIDES
with the exception of Nestor : some later
writers add that Neleus himself was also killed.
(H. xi. 690; Hyg. Fab. 10; ApoUod. ii. 6, 2.)
Neleus was now attacked, and his dominions
plundered by Augeas, king of the Epeans :
but the attacks of the latter were re
pelled by Nestor. The descendants of
Neleus, the Nelldae, were eventuaUy ex
pelled from their kingdom by the Hera
clidae, and migrated for the most part to
Athens. — 2. The younger son of Codrus,
disputed the right of Ms elder brother
Medon to the crown on account of his
lameness, and when the DelpMc oracle
declared to favour of Medon, he placed
himself at the head of the colonists who
migrated to Ionia, and himself founded
MUetus. His son Aepytus headed the
colonists who settled to Priene. Another
son headed a body of settlers who re
inforced the inhabitants of Iasus, after
they had lost a great number of their
citizens in a war with the Carians (Hdt.
ix. 97 ; Paus. vn. 2, 1). — 3. Of Scepsis,
the son of Coriscus, was a disciple of Bronze medal of Nemausus.
Aristotle and Theophrastus, the latter of obv-j heads, probably of AugnBtus and Agrippa, with IMP. P. p.
„l,  !,„„„„„+!  j i.„ i.:  !..-„ -i.-t  j DIVI F. ; rev., crocodile chained to a palm tree, probably

whom bequeathed to him Ms Ubrary, and
appointed him one of Ms executors. The
Mstory of the writings of Aristotle as con
nected with Neleus and Ms heirs is related on
p. 119, a.
Nelides, Neleiades, and Neleius (NvXeiSiis,
N7)A7jIo57js, NjjA-fcos), patronymics of Neleus,
by wMch either Nestor, the son of Neleus, or
AntUochus, Ms grandson, is designated.
Nemausus (Nemausensis : Nisrnes), one of
the most important towns of GaUia Narbo
nensis, was the capital of the Arecomici and a
Roman colony. It was situated inland E. of
the Rhone on the Mgh road from Italy to Spain,
and on the S. slope of M. Cevenna. (Strab. p.
186 ; Ptol. ii. 10, 10 ; PUn. Hi. 37.) It was
celebrated as the place from which the family
of the Antonines came. Though rarely men
tioned by ancient writers, the Roman rematos
at Nisrnes, wMch are some of the most perfect
N. of the Alps, prove that the ancient Nemausus

Aqueduct IPont du Gard).

commemorating the conquest of Egypt, with COL. NEM,
Nemea (Neyiea, Ion. Nepen) a valley in Argo-
Us between Cleonae and Phlius, celebrated to
mytMcal story as the place where Heracles
slew the Nemean Uon. [See p. 896.] In tMs
vaUey there was a temple of Zeus Nemeus sur
rounded by a sacred grove, in which the Nemean
games were celebrated every other year. (See
Did. of Antiq, art. Nemea.)
Nemesianus, M. Aurelius Olympius, a
Roman poet, probably a native of Africa,
flourished at the court of the emperor Carus
(a.d. 283), carried off the prize to all the poetical
contests of the day, and was judged second to
the youthful prince Numerianus alone, who
contended with Mm (Vopisc. Car. 11, 2). Ne
mesianus was the author of poems upon fishing,
hunting, and aquatics; all of which have
perished, with the exception of a fragment of
the Cynegetica (extending to 325 hexameter
lines), which, to so far
as neatness and purity
of expression are con
cerned, in some degree
justifies the admira
tion of Ms contem
poraries. Edited, with
' the poem of Grattius,
by Stern, 1882, and to
Bahrens, Poet. Lat.
Mm. 1879.
Nemesis (Nepeo-is),
a Greek goddess, is
most commonly de
scribed as a daughter
of Night, though some
caU her a daughter of
Erebus or of Oceanus
(Hes. Th. 223). _ She
is a personification of
the moral reverence
for law, of the natural
fear of committing a
culpable action, and
hence of conscience
(II. xiii. 121). In later

was a large and flourishing city. Of these | writers, as Herodotus and Pindar, Nemesis
remains the most important are the amphi- measures out happiness and unhappiness to
theatre, the Maison Carrie, a name given to a mortals ; and he who is blessed with too many
beautiful CorintMan temple, and the magnifi- ! or too frequent gifts of fortune, is visited by

592

NEMESIUS

her with losses and sufferings, in order that he
may become humble. This notion arose from
a belief that the gods were envious of excessive
human happiness. (Hdt. i. 34 ; iu. 40 ; Pind. Ol.
viii. 86, x. 44.)
Nemesis was
thus a check
upon extrava
gant favours
conferred upon
man by Tyche
or Fortune ; and
from this idea
lastly arose that
of her being an
avenging and
punishing fate,
who, like Jus
tice (Dike) and
the Erinnyes,
sooner or later
overtakes the
recHess sinner.
She is fre-

Nemesis and Elpis. (From the
ChigiVase.)

quently mentioned under the surnames Adrastia
[Adeastia, No. 2] and Rhamnusia or Rhamnusis,
the latter of which she derived from the town
of Rhamnus in Attica, where she had a cele
brated sanctuary. For the tradition that Zeus be
got by Nemesis at Rhamnus an egg from which
Helena and the Dioscuri sprang see p. 388, a.
Nemesius (Wtpeaios), the author of a Greek
treatise On the Nature of Man, bishop of
Emesa, to Syria, probably lived at the end of
the fourth or beginning of the fifth century
after Christ. Edited by Matthaei, Halae, 1802.
Nemetacum. [Nemetocenna.]
Nemetes or Nemetae, a people on the RMne,
whose chief town was Noviomagus, subsequently
Nemetae (Speyer or Spires). (Caes. B.G. i. 51,
vi. 25 ; Tac. Germ. 28.]
Nemetocenna or Nemetacum (Arras), the
chief town of the Atrebates in Gallia Belgica,
subsequently Atrebates, whence its modern
name (Caes. B.G. viii. 46).
Nemorensis Lacus. [Aricia.]
Nemossus. [Aeveeni.]
Nenia (less correctly Naenia), i.e. a dirge or
lamentation, chaunted at funerals, was personi
fied at Rome and worsMpped as a goddess.
She had a chapel outside the waUs of the city,
near the Porta Vimtoalis. [Indigetes, p. 443, b.]
Neobule. [Aechtlochus.]
Neocaesarea (NeoKaio-apeia : NeoKaiffapeis,
Neocaesariensis : Niksar), the capital, under
the Roman empire, of Pontus Polemoniacus,
"to Asia Minor, stood on the river Lycus, sixty-
three Roman miles E. of Amasia (Plin. vi. 8).
Neon (NeW : Nedvios, Neavaios : Velitza), an
ancient town to Phocis at the E. foot of Mt.
Tithorea, a branch of Mt. Parnassus, was
eighty stadia from Delphi across the mountains.
Neon was destroyed by the Persians under
Xerxes, but was subsequently rebuilt and named
Tithorea (TtBopea: TiBopeis) after the moun
tain on which it was situated. (Hdt. viii. 83 ;
Strab. p. 439.) It was destroyed in the Sacred
war, and was rebuilt, but remained an unim
portant though fortified place (Paus. x. 2, 4).
Neontichos (Neov reixos, i.e. New Wall).
1. (Ainadsjik), one of the twelve cities of Aeolis,
on the coast of Mysia, to Asia Minor, stood on
the N. side of the HermuB, on the slope of
M. Sardene, 80 stadia from Larissa (Hdt. i. 149 ;
Strab. p. 621). — 2. A fort on the coast of Thrace,
near the Chersonesus (Xen. An. vii. 6, 8).
Neoptolemns (NeoirrbXepos). 1. Also called

NEOPTOLEMUS
Pyrrhus, son of Achilles and Deidamia, the
daughter of Lycomedes (Od. xi. 491 ; ApoUod.
iii. 13, 8) ; according to some he was a son of
AcMUes and Iphigenia, and after the sacrifice
of his mother was carried by his father to the
island of Scyros (Tzetz. ad Lye. 133). The name
of Pyrrhus is said to have been given to him
by Lycomedes because he had fair (irvppbs) hair,
or because AchiUes, while disgmsed as a girl,
had borne the name of Pyrrha (Paus. x. 26;
Serv. ad Aen. ii. 469). He was caUed Neopto
lemus — that is, young or late warrior — either
because he had fought in early youth or because
he had come late to Troy. From his father he
is sometimes caUed Achillides, and from his
grandfather or great-grandfather, Pelides and
Aeacides. Neoptolemus was brought up in
Scyros in the palace of Lycomedes, and was
fetched from thence by Ulysses to join the
Greeks to the war against Troy, because it had
been prophesied by Helenus that Neoptolemus
andPMlocteteswere necessary for the capture of
Troy (Soph. Phil. 115). At Troy Neoptolemus
showed himseU worthy of his great father. He
was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden
horse (Od. xi. 508-521). At the capture of
the city he MUed Priam at the sacred hearth of
Zeus, and sacrificed Polyxena to the spirit of
his father (Eur. Hec. 523 ; Verg. Aen. ii. 527).
When the Trojan captives were distributed
among the conquerors, Andromache, the widow
of Hector, was given to Neoptolemus, and by
her he became the father of Molossus, PieluS,
Pergamus, and Amphialus (Paus. i. 11, 1).
Respecting Ms return from Troy and the sub
sequent events of Ms life the traditions differ.
It is related that Neoptolemus returned
home by land, because he had been fore
warned by Helenus of the dangers wMch the
Greeks would have to encounter at sea. Ac
cording to Homer, Neoptolemus Uved to PhtMa,
the kingdom of Ms father, and here he married
Hermione, whom her father Menelaus sent to
him from Sparta (Od. iv. 5). According to
others, Neoptolemus himseU went to Sparta to
receive Hermione, because he had heard a
report that she was betrothed to Orestes (Paus.
iii. 25, 26). Most writers relate that he aban
doned Ms native kingdom of Phthia, and settled
in Epirus, where he became the ancestor of the
Molossian kings (Paus. i. 11 ; Verg. Aen. in. 388 ;
cf. Pind. Nem. iv. 51). Shortly after Ms mar
riage with Hermione, Neoptolemus went to
DelpM, where he was murdered ; but the reason
of Ms visiting DelpM as weU as the person by
whom he was slam are differently related.
Some say he went to plunder the temple of
Apollo ; others, to present part of the Trojan
booty as an offering to the god ; and others
again, to consult the god about the means
of obtaining children by Hermione. Some
relate that he was slain at the instigation of
Orestes, who was angry at betog deprived of
Hermione ; and others, by the priest of the
temple, or by Machaereus, the son of Daetas.
His body was buried at DelpM ; and he was
worshipped there as a hero (Pans. x. 24, 6). —
2. I., King of Epirus, was son of Alcetas I., and
father of Alexander I., and of Olympias, the
mother of Alexander the Great. Neoptolemus
reigned in conjunction with Ms brother Arymbas
or Arrybas tiU his death, about B.C. 360 (Paus.
i. 11). — 3. II., King of Epirus, son of Alexander
I., and grandson of the preceding. At his
father's death in 326, he was probably a mere
infant, and his pretensions to the throne were
passed over to favour of Aeaoides. It was not

NEPETE
tiU 302 that the Epirots, taking advantage of
the absence of Pyrrhus, the son of Aeacides,
rose in insurrection against him, and set up
Neoptolemus to his stead. The latter reigned
for the space of six years, but was obliged to
share the throne with Pyrrhus to 296. He was
shortly afterwards assassinated by Pyrrhus.
(Plut. Pyrrh. 4, 5.) — 4. A Macedonian officer
of Alexander the Great, after whose death he
obtained the government of Armenia. In 821
he revolted from Perdiccas, and joined Craterus,
but he was defeated by Eumenes, and was slain
in battle by the hands of the latter. (Arrian,
An. U. 27 ; Plut. Eum. 4-7.) — 5. A general of
Mithridates (App. Mithr. 17).
Nepete, Nepe, or Nepet (Nepesinus : Nepi),
an ancient town of Etruria, but not one of the
twelve cities, was situated near the Saltus
Ciminius and was regarded as one of the keys
and gates of Etruria (claustra portaeque
Etruriae, Liv. vi. 9). It appears as an ally of
the Romans at an early period, soon after the
capture of Rome by the Gauls, and was subse
quently made a Roman colony (Liv. vi. 21 ;
VeU. Pat. i. 14). There are stUl remains at
Nepi of the waUs of the ancient city.
Nephele (NetpeXri), wife of Athamas and
mother of Ptoixus and HeUe. Hence HeUe is
called Nepheleis by Ovid. For detaUs see
Athamas. Nephelis (NeipeXis), a small town and pro
montory on the coast of CUicia Aspera, between
Anemurium and Antiochia (Ptol. v. 8, 1).
Nepheris (Ne<pepis), a fortified town to the
immediate neighbourhood of Carthage, on a
rock near the coast (Strab. p. 834).
Nepos, Cornelius, the contemporary andfriend
of Cicero, Atticus, and Catullus, was probably a
native of Verona, or of some neighbouring viUage,
and died during the reign of Augustus. No
other particulars with regard to his personal
history have been transmitted to us. He is
known to have written the foUowing pieces, all
of wMch are now lost, except a portion of
No. 7. (1) Chronica, an Epitome of Universal
History, probably in three books, to which
CatuUus appears to aUude to dedicating his
poems to Cornelius Nepos (Catull. i. 5; GeU.
xvn. 21). From the mention in Catullus they
seem to have been pubUshed not later than
63 B. c, before Varro and Atticus wrote Epitomes
of the same kind. (2) Exemplorum Libri,
probably a coUection of remarkable sayings and
doings. (3) De Viris Hlustribus, perhaps the
same work as the preceding, quoted under a
different title. (4) Vita Giceronis. (5) Epistolae
ad Ciceronem. (6) Vita Catonis, a larger work
aUuded to to Nep. Cat. 3, 5. (7) His greatest
work, De Viris Hlustribus, in at least sixteen
books (Charis. G. L. i. 141 ; cf. Gell. xi. 8), in
wMch Lives of Romans and foreigners were
placed side by side. Of this work the part en
titled Vitae Excellentium Imperatorum sur
vives, and also the Lives of Atticus and Cato the
Censor, wMch belonged to the section including
Mstorians. The Vitae Excellentium Impera
torum has erroneously been regarded as
spurious because the heading in the MSS. seems
to name AemUius Probus as the author. The
mistake arose from a dedicatory epigram written
by Probus to Theodosius, and inserted for some
reason after the Life of Hannibal. Hence the
copyists of the MS. derived their incorrect head-
mg. As regards the objection that the Latinity
is marked by colloquial idioms unsuited to a
learned contemporary of Cicero, and that the
whole style is inferior, it has been well remarked j

NEREIS

593

that the style of the Bell. Africanum and Hispa-
niense and even of Varro differs quite as much
from that of Cicero and Caesar. Nepos is clear
and fair in Ms narration, but often inaccurate
in history. Best edition by Nipperdey (revised
by Lupus, Berl. 1879) ; others by Macmichael,
Lond. 1878 ; Lindsay, New York, 1889.
Nepos, Julius, last emperor but one of the
West, a.d. 474-475, was raised to the throne by
Leo, the emperor of the East. Nepos deposed
Glycerius, who was regarded at Constantinople
as a usurper [Glycerius] ; but he was in his
turn deposed in the next year by Orestes, who
proclaimed his son Romulus. Nepos fled into
Dalmatia, where he was killed in 480.
Nepotianus, Flavius Popilius, son of Eu-
tropia, the half-sister of Constantine the Great,
was proclaimed emperor at Rome to a.d. 350,
but was slain by MarceUinus, the general of
Magnentius, after a reign of twenty-eight days.
Neptunus, caUed Poseidon by the Greeks.
The Greek god is spoken of to a separate article.
[Poseidon.] Neptunus was the chief sea-
divinity of the Romans. As the early Romans
were not a maritime people, they had little con
ception of the phenomena of the sea and few
myths about it. Hence nearly all the Italian
mythology connected with water refers to deities
of riverB and springs. Some writers even think
that Neptunus was originally a god of rato, but
this theory rests on the uncertain etymology
from veipos. The name in Etruscan is Nethuns
and the Romans may possibly have borrowed
his worship from Etruria. That the Etruscans
regarded him as a sea-god is clear from the fact
that they describe Poseidon by the name of
Nethuns. To Romans he was at any rate a god
of the sea before the introduction of the worsMp
of Poseidon (under the name of Neptunus) in
the first lectisternium, B. C. 899 (Liv. v. 13). In
Roman mythology, too, his wife's name was
Salacia, the goddess of the salt sea (Varro,
L. L. v. 72 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 144 ; cf. Cic. Tim.
fr. 11). Neptunus with all the other history
and attributes of the Greek Poseidon received
also the patronage of horses and equestrian
exercises and an altar in the Circus Flaminius.
His festival was on the 23rd of July. His temple
stood to the Campus Martius, not far from the
septa. At his festival the people formed tents
(umbrae) of the branches of trees, in which
they enjoyed themselves in feasting and drink
ing (Diet, of Ant. art. Neptunalia). When a
Roman commander set sail with a fleet, he first
offered up a sacrifice to Neptunus, which was
tMown into the sea. In the Roman poets Nep
tunus is completely identified with the Greek
Poseidon, and accordingly all the attributes of
the latter are transferred by them to the former.
Neratius Priscus, a Roman jurist, who lived
under Trajan and Hadrian. It is said that
Trajan sometimes had the design of making
Neratius his successor in place of Hadrian. He
enjoyed a high reputation under Hadrian, and
was one of his consUiarii. His works are cited
in the Digest.
Nereis or Nereis (Nripets, in Hom. Nrjp^is),
in Verg. Eel. vii. 37, Nerine, a sea-nymph,
and used especially in the plural, Nereides
(NnpetSes, Nr/piiiSes), to indicate the fifty
daughters of Nereus and Doris. The Ne
reides were the sea-nymphs of the Medi
terranean ( = vipipai &Xiai, Soph. Phil. 1470),
to contradistinction to the Naiades, or the
nymphs of fresh water, and the Oceanides, or
the nymphs of the great ocean. Their names
are not the same in all writers (77. xviii. 39-48 :

594

NEREIU8

Hes. Th. 240-263 ; Verg. Aen. v. 825 ; cf. Pind.
Isthm. vi. 6 ; Ov. Met. ii. 10 ; ApoUod. i. 2, 7).
One of the most celebrated was Thetis, the
mother of AchiUes. They are described as
lovely divinities (Hes. Th. 240), imagined prob
ably from the play of the waves chasing each

Nereid. iMusco Borbonico, vol. vi. tav. xxxiv.)
other, and as dwelling with their father at the
bottom of the sea, and were believed to be pro
pitious to all sailors, and especiaUy to the Ar
gonauts (Ap. Rh. iv. 859, 930 ; Apollod. i. 9, 25)
They were worshipped in several parts of
Greece, but more especially in seaport towns
(Paus. ii. 1, 7 ; iii. 26, 5). They are frequently
represented in works oE art : in the older black-
figured vases as maidens fully clothed ; so also
on the sculptures of the ' Nereid-monument '
from Xanthus, now in the British Museum, in
which the drapery seems intended to suggest a
rapid, flowing movement ; but most examples of
fully-developed art show the Nereids as youth
ful, beautiful, and naked maidens ; and they are
often grouped with Tritons, or riding on sea-
monsters, as in the work of Scopas (Plin. xxxvi.
26). But there was a different
conception among the Romans, of
maidens with fishes' tails, like
mermaids, and sometimes with
scales over all the body (Plin.
ix. 9 ; cf. Hor. A. P. 5).
Nereius, a name given by the
poets to a descendant of Nereus.
Neritum or Neritum (Nereti-
nus: Narbo), a town of the
Salentini to Calabria.
Nereus (Nrjpeus),son of Pontus
and Gaea, and husband of Doris,
by whom he became the father
of the fifty Nereides. He is de
scribed as the wiBe and unerring i
old man of the sea, at the bottom \
of which he dwelt ( II. xviii. 141 ;
Od. xxiv. 58; Hes. Th. 233). He
was believed to have, like other
¦deities of the sea, the power of
prophesying the future and of
appearing to mortals in different
shapes. Heracles accordingly ob
tains his counsel as to what route
wfll bring him to the Hesperides ;
but he had first to subdue him in
wrestling (Apollod. ii. 5, 11). The
same account is given of Proteus
in the story of Odysseus, and of
Glaucus in that of the Argonauts. So also
Horace makes him prophesy to Paris (Od. i. 15).
VirgU (Aen. ii. 418) mentions the trident as his
attribute, and the epithets given him by the
poets refer to Ms old age, his kindliness, and
his trustworthy knowledge of the future. In

NERO
works of art, Nereus, like other sea-gods, is re
presented with pointed sea-weeds taking the
place of hair in the eye-brows, the chin, and
the breast. His body less frequently has partly
the form of a fish ; or it ends in the coUs of a
serpent, as to the annexed cut.
Nericus. [Leucas.]
Nerine. [Neeeis.]
Nerio, Neriene, or Nerienis. [Maes.]
Neritum, Neritus. [Ithaca.]
Nerium, also caUed Celticum (G. Finis-
terre), a promontory in the NW. corner of
Spain, and to the territory of the Nerii, a
tribe of the Celtic Artabri, whence the pro
montory is also caUed Artabrum (Strab.
p. 137).
Nerius, Cn., accused P. Sestius of bribery,
jj. c 56 (Cic. ad Q. Fr. ii. 3, 5).
Nero, Claudius. Nero is said to have
signified ' brave ' in the Sabine tongue (Suet.
Tib. 1 ; Gell. xiii. 22). 1. Tib., one of the
four sons of App. Claudius Caecus, censor
B. c. 312, from whom aU the Claudii Nerones
were descended (Suet. Ner. 3). — 2. C, a
celebrated general in the second Pumc war.
He was praetor 212, and was sent toto Spain to
oppose Hasdrubal, who eluded his attack, and
he was succeeded by Scipio Africanus (Liv.
xxvi. 17 ; Appian, Hisp. 17). Nero commanded
one of the tMee armies which drew together
round Capua in 212; he was legatus under
Marcellus in 209 (Liv. xxvn. 14). In 207 he
was consul with M. Livius Salinator, and
marched into the S. of Italy agatost Hannibal,
with whom he fought an indecisive battle at
Grumentum, and then followed Hannibal toto
Apulia, and encamped opposite to him at
Canusium. Having heard of Hasdrubal's arri
val, he secretly broke up Ms camp, marched
toto the N. of Italy, effected a junction with
Ms colleague M. Livius to Picenum, and pro-

Nereus. (Panofka, Mus&e Blacas, pi. 20.)
ceeded to crush Hasdrubal before his brother
Hannibal could come to his assistance. Has
drubal was defeated and slain on the river
Metaurus (Liv. xxvii. 41-51 ; App. Annib. 52).
This great battle, which probably saved Rome,
gave a lustre to the name of Nero, and con-

NERO

eecrated
Romans.

it among the recollections of the

595

Quid debeas, o Roma, Nerombus,
Testis Metaurum flumen et Hasdrubal
Devictus. Horat. Od. iv. 4.
Nero was censor, 204, with M. Livius.— 3. Tib.,
praetor, 204, with Sardtoia for Ms province ;
and consul, 202, when he obtained Africa as
Ms province, but his fleet suffered so much at sea
that he was unable to join Scipio in Africa (Liv.
xxx. 39). — 4. Tib., served under Pompey in the
war agatost the pu-ates, B. c. 67. He is probably
the Tib. Nero who recommended that the mem
bers of the conspiracy of Catiline, who had been
seized, should be kept confined till Catiline was
put down (Sail. Cat. 50 ; App. B. C. ii. 5).— 5.
Tib., father of the emperor Tiberius, was pro
bably the son of the last. He served as quaes
tor under Caesar (48) to the Alexandrine war
(Dio Cass. xiii. 40). He sided with L. Antonius
in the war of Perusia (41) ; and when this town
surrendered, he passed over to Sex. Pompey to
SicUy, and subsequently to M. Antony in Achaea
(ib. xlviii. 15). On a reconcUiation being effected
between Antony and Octavian at the close of the
year (40), he returned with his wife to Rome.
Livia, who possessed great beauty, excited the
passion of Octavian, to whom she was surren
dered by her husband, being then six months
gone with chUd of her second son Drusus.
Nero died shortly after, and left Octavian the
guardian of Ms two sons. (Tac. Ann. i. 10, v. 1 ;
Dio Cass, xlvni. 44.)
Nero. 1. Roman emperor, a.d. 54-68, was
the son of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and of
Agrippina, daughter of Germamcus Caesar and

of the arts, and made verses ; but he was
indolent and given to pleasure, and had no
inclination for laborious studies. On the death
of Claudius (54), Agrippina secured the suc
cession for her son, to the exclusion of Bri
tannicus, the son of Claudius. His mother
wished to/ govern in the name of her son, and
her ambition was the cause of Nero's first
crime. Jealousy tliUB arose between Nero and
his mother, which soon broke out into a quarrel,
and Agrippina threatened to join Britannicus
and raise him to Ms father's place ; whereupon
Nero caused Britannicus to be poisoned, at an
entertainment where Agrippina and Octavia
were present (55). During the early part of
Nero's reign, the government of Rome was in
the hands of Seneca and of Burrhus, the
praefect of the praetorians, who opposed the
ambitious designs of Agrippina, and exercised
a better influence on the young emperor (Tac.
Ann. xiii. 12; Suet. Ner. 10). But he soon
indulged his licentious inclinations without
restraint. He neglected his wife for the
beautiful but dissolute Poppaea Sabina, the
wife of Otho. TMs abandoned woman aspired
to become the emperor's wife; but since she
had no hopes of succeeding to her design while
Agrippina lived, she used all her arts to urge
Nero to put Ms mother to death. Accordingly
in 69 Agrippina was assassinated by Nero's
order, with the approbation at least of Seneca
and Burrhus, who saw that the time was come
for the destruction either of the mother or the
son. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 7.) Though Nero had no
longer anyone to oppose him, he felt the
punishment of his guilty conscience, and said
that he was haunted by his mother's spectre
(Suet. Ner. 34). He attempted to drown his
reflections in fresh riot, in which he was en
couraged by a band of flatterers. He did not,
however, immediately marry Poppaea, being
probably restrained by fear of Burrhus and

j>ust of Nero.
sister of Caligula. Nero's original name was
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, but after the
marriage of his mother with her uncle, the
emperor Claudius, he was adopted by Claudius
(a.d. 50), and was caUed Nero Claudius Caesar
Drusus Germanicus. Nero was born at
Antium, on the 15th of December, A.D. 37.
Shortly after his adoption by Claudius, Nero,
being then sixteen yeare of age, married Oc
tavia, the daughter of Claudius and MessaUina
(53). Among his early instructors was Seneca.
Nero had some talent and taste. He was fond

Coin of Nero, Eoman Emperor, A.D. 51-68.
Obv., head of Nero : NEEO CAESAR AVG. IMP. ; rev.,
' Decursio ' (Bee Diet, of Ant. B.v.) : DECVE.
Seneca. But the death of Burrhus to 62, and
the retirement of Seneca from public affairs,
which immediately followed, left Nero more at
liberty. Accordingly he divorced his wife
Octavia, and in eighteen days married Poppaea.
Not satisfied with putting away his wife, he
falsely charged her with adultery, and banished
her to the island of Pandataria, where she was
shortly after put to death. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 64.)
— In 64 the great fire at Rome happened. Its
origin is uncertain, for it is hardly credible
that the city was fired by Nero's order, as some
ancient writers assert (Dio Cass. lxii. 17, 18 ;
Suet. Ner. 88). Tacitus (Ann. xv. 38) does
not support the accusation of Nero. Out of
the fourteen regiones into which Rome was
divided, three were totally destroyed, and in
seven others only a few half-burned houses
remained. The emperor set about rebuilding
the city on an improved plan, with wider
streets. He found money for Ms purposes by
acts of oppression and violence, and even
temples were robbed of their wealth. With
these means he began to erect his sumptuous QQ2

596

NERO

golden palace, on a scale of magnitude and
splendour wMch almost surpasses belief. The
vestibule contained a colossal statue of himself
120 feet high. The odium of the conflagration
wMch the emperor could not remove from
himself, he tried to ttoow on the Christians,
who were then numerous in Rome, and many
of them were put to a cruel death. — The
tyranny of Nero at last (65) led to the orgam-
sation of a formidable conspiracy against him,
usually called Piso's conspiracy, from the name
of one of the principal accomplices. The plot
was discovered, and many distinguished per
sons were put to death, among whom were Piso
Mmself, the poet Lucan, and the pMlosopher
Seneca, though the latter appears to have
taken no part in the plot. (Tac. Ann. xv. 72.)
In the same year, Poppaea died of a kick
wMch her brutal husband gave her in a fit of
passion when she was with child. Nero now
married Statilia MessaUina. The history of
the remainder of Nero's reign is a catalogue of
his crimes. Virtue in any form was the object
of his fear ; and almost every month was
marked by the execution or banishment of
some distinguished man. Among his other
victims were Thrasea Paetus and Barea So
ranus, both men of high rank, but of spotless
integrity. (Lb. xvi. 21.) In 67 Nero paid a
visit to Greece, and took part in the contests
of both the Olympic and Pythian games. He
began a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth,
but the works were afterwards suspended by
his own orders (Dio Cass, lxiii. 6-17.) While
in Greece he sent orders to put to death Ms
faitMul general Domitius Corbulo, which the
old soldier anticipated by stabbing himself.
The Roman world had long been tired of its
oppressor ; and the storm at length broke out
in Gaul, where Julius Vindex, the governor,
raised the standard of revolt. His example
was foUowed by Galba, who was governor of
Hispania Tarraconensis. Galba was pro
claimed emperor by Ms troops, but he only
assumed the title of legatus of the senate and
the Roman people. Soon after these news
reached Rome, Nymphidius Sabinus, who was
praefectus praetorio along with Tigelltous, per
suaded the troops to proclaim Galba. Nero
was immediately deserted. He escap'ed from
the palace with a few freedmen, and made Ms
way to a house about four miles from Rome,
which belonged to Ms freedman Phaon. Here
he gave himself a mortal wound, when he
heard the trampling of the horses on which his
pursuers were mounted. The centurion on
entering attempted to stop the flow of blood,
but Nero only said, ' It is too late. Ib this your
fidelity ? ' and almost at the same moment
expired (Suet. Ner. 49). — Nero's progress to
crime is easUy traced, and the lesson is worth
reading. Without a good education, and with
no talent for his high station, he was placed in
a position of danger from the first. He was
sensual, and fond of idle display, and then he
became greedy of money to satisfy his ex
penses ; he was timid, and by consequence he
became cruel when he anticipated danger ;
and, like other murderers, Ms first crime, the
poisoning of Britannicus, made him capable of
another. But, contemptible and cruel as he
was, there are many persons who, in the same
situation, might run the same guilty career.
He was only in Ms thirty-first year when he
died, and he had held the supreme power for
eighteen years and eight months. He was the
last of the descendants of Julia, the sister of

NERVA
the dictator Caesar. — The most important ex
ternal events in the reign of Nero were the
conquest of Armenia by Domitius Corbulo
[Coebulo], and the insurrection of the Britons,
which was quelled by Suetonius Paulinus.
[Paulinus.] — 2. Eldest son of Germanicus and
Agrippina, fell a victim to the ambition of
Sejanus, who resolved to get rid of the sons of
Germanicus in order to obtain the imperial
throne for himself. Drusus, the brother of
Nero, was persuaded to second the designs of
Sejanus, in hopes that the death of Ms elder
brother would secure Mm the succession to the
throne. There was no difficulty in exciting the
jealousy of Tiberius; and accordingly in a.d.
29, Nero was declared an enemy of the state,
was removed to the island of Pontia, and was
there either starved to death or perished by
Ms own hands. (Tac. Ann. Ui. 29, iv. 8, 59-67,
v. 3 ; Dio Cass, lviii. 8.)
Nertobriga. 1. (Valera la Vieja), a town in
Hispania Baetica, with the surname Concordia
Julia (Plin. iii. 14 ; Ptol. ii. 4, 13), probably the
same place which Polybius calls (xxxv. 2) Erco-
brica ('EpKbBpiKa). — 2. (Almuna) a town of the
Celtiberi in Hispania Tarracon. (Ptol. ii. 6, 58).
Nerulum, a fortified place in Lucania on
the Via Popilia (Liv. ix. 20).
Nerva, Cocceius. 1. M., consul b.c 36,
brought about the reconciliation between M.
Antonius and Octavianus, 40 (App. B.G. v. 60;
Dio Cass, xlviii. 54), and is the same as the
Cocceius mentioned by Horace (Sat. i. 5, 28). —
2. M., probably the son of the preceding, and
grandfather of the emperor Nerva. He was
consul in a.d. 22. In 33 he resolutely starved
himseU to death, notwithstanding the entreaties
of Tiberius, whose constant companion he was
(Tac. Ann. iv. 58, vi. 26 ; Dio Cass. lviu. 21). He
was a celebrated jurist and is often mentioned
to the Digest. He was notable also as having
charge of public works under Tiberius, and
especially of aqueducts (Frontto. Aquaed. 2).
He was the originator of the tunnel (Grotta di
PosUipo) on the road leading from Naples to
Baiae [Pausilypus]. — 3. ffi., the son of the
last, and probably father of the emperor, was
also a celebrated jurist, and is often cited to the
Digest under the name of Nerva FUius. —
4. M., Roman emperor, a.d. 96-98, was born at
Narnia, in Umbria, a.d. 32. He was consul
with Vespasian, 71, and with Domitian, 90. On
the assassination of Domitian, in September,
96, Nerva, who had probably been privy to the

Coin of Nerva, Roman Emperor, A.D. 96-98.
Obv., head of Nerva : IMP. NEEVA CAES. AVQ. P. M.
TE. P. COS. II. P.P. ; rev., Justice seated : IVSTITIA
AVGVST.
conspiracy, was declared emperor at Rome
by the people and the soldiers, and Ms ad
ministration at once restored tranquility to the
state. He stopped proceedings against those
who had been accused of treason, and allowed
many exiled persons to return to Rome. The
informers were suppressed by penalties, and
some were put to death. At the commence
ment of his reign, Nerva swore that he
would put no senator to death ; and he kept Ms
word, even when a conspiracy had been formed

Bust of Nerva.

NERVII
agatost his life by Calpurnius Crassus. Though
Nerva was virtuous and humane, he did not pos
sess much energy and vigour, and Ms feeble
ness was shown by a mutiny of the Praetorian
soldiers. The sol
diers demanded
the punishment of
the assassins of
Domitian, which
the emperor at first
refused, but he was
obliged to put Pe-
tronius Secundus
and Parthenius to
death, or to permit
them to be mas
sacred by the sol
diers. Nerva felt
his weakness, and
Bhowed Ms noble
character and his
good sense by ap
pointing as Ms
successor a man
who possessed both
vigour and abUity
to direct pubUc
affairs. He adopted
as his son and suc
cessor, without any
regard to Ms own
Mn, M. Ulpius
Trajanus, who was
then at the head of an army in Germany.
Nerva died suddenly on January 27, a.d. 98, at
the age of sixty-five years. (Dio Cass, lxviii.)
Nervii, a powerful and warlike people in
¦GaUia Belgica, whose territory extended from
the river Sabis (Sambre) to the Ocean, and
part of wMch was covered by the wood Ar-
duenna. They were divided toto several smaller
tribes, the Centrones, Grudii, Levaci, Pleu-
moxn and Geiduni. In B.C. 58 they were de
feated by Caesar with such slaughter that out
of 60,000 men capable of bearing arms only 500
were left. (Caes. B.G. ii. 15, v. 38, vi. 2.)
Nesactlum, a town to Istria on the Arsia,
taken by the Romans B.C. 177 (Liv. xii. 11).
Nesis (Nisita), a smaU island off the coast of
Campania between PuteoU and Neapolis, and
-opposite Mount PausUypus. It was a favourite
residence of some of the Roman nobles (Cic. ad
Att. xvi. 1-4 : Stat. Silv. iii. 1, 148).
Nessonis (Neo-o-avis), a lake in Thessaly, a
httle S. of the river Peneus, and NE. of Larissa,
is in summer merely a swamp, but in winter is
not only full of water, but even overflows its
banks. Nessoms and the neighbouring lake
Boebeis were regarded by the ancients as
rematos of the vast lake, wMch was supposed
to have covered the whole of Thessaly, tiU an
outlet was made for its waters through the
rocks of Tempe (Strab. p. 430).
Nessus (NeVo-os), a centaur, who carried
Deiamra across the river Evenus, but, attempt
ing to run away with her, was shot by Heracles
with a poisoned arrow, which afterwards be
came the cause of his own death. See p. 400, a.
Nestor (Ne<rTtt>p),ktogof Pylos, son of Neleus
and Chloris, husband of Eurydice and father of
Pisidice, Polycaste, Perseus, Stratius, Aretus,
Echephron, Pisistratus, AntUochus, and Thrasy-
medes (Od. iU. 413, 452, 464, xi. 285 ; Apollod.
i. 9, 9). Some relate that, after the death of
Eurydice, Nestormarried Anaxibia, the daughter
of Atreus, and sister of Agamemnon ; but this
Anaxibia is elsewhere described as the wife of

NICAEA

597

Strophius, and the mother of Pylades (Paus.
ii. 29, 4). When Heracles invaded the country
of Neleus, and slew his sons, Nestor alone was
spared, either because he was absent from
Pylos, or because he had taken no part in
carrying off from Heracles the oxen of Gery
ones (II. xi. 692; Apollod. ii. 7, 3; Faus. iii.
26, 6). In his youth and early manhood, Nestor
was a distinguished warrior. He defeated both
the Arcadians and Eleans. He took part in
the fight of the Lapithae against the Centaurs,
and he is mentioned among the Calydonian
hunters and the Argonauts (II. i. 260, iv. 319,
vii. 133, xi. 706, xxiii. 630 ; Ov. Met. viii. 618 ;
Val. Flacc. i. 380). Although far advanced in
age, he sailed with the other Greek heroes
against Troy. Having ruled over three gene
rations of men, his advice and authority were
deemed equal to those of the immortal gods, and
he was renowned for his wisdom, his justice,
and his knowledge of war (II. i. 273, ii. 870, xi.
627). After the fall of Troy he returned home,
and arrived safely in Pylos, where Zeus
granted to him the full enjoyment of old age,
surrounded by brave sons (Od. iii. 165, iv. 209).
Various towns to Peloponnesus, of the name of
Pylos, laid claim to being the city of Nestor.
On this point see Neleus.
Nestorides (Neo-Top/Srjs), i.e. a son of Nestor,
as AntUochus and Pisistratus.
Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople a.d.
428. [See Did. of Christian Biog.]
Nestus, sometimes Nessus (N/otos : Mesta
by the Greeks, Karasu by the Turks), a river
in Thrace, which rises in Mount Rhodope, flows
SE., and faUs into the Aegaean sea W. of Abdera
and opposite the island of Thasos. The Nestus
formed the E. boundary of Macedonia from
the time of PMlip and Alexander the Great.
(Hes. Th. 341 ; Thuc. ii. 69; Strab. p. 331.)
Nesus. [Oeniadae.]
Netum (Netmus : Noto Antique near Noto),
a town in SicUy, SW. of Syracuse, and a de
pendency of the latter. In Cicero's time it was
a foederata civitas, and afterwards held Latin
rights (Cic. Verr. iv. 26, v. 22; Ptol. iii. 4, 13).
Neuri (NeSpoi, ISevpoi), a people of Sarmatia
Europaea, whom Herodotus describes as not of
Scythian race, though they followed Scythian
customs. Having been driven out from their
earlier abodes by a plague of serpents, they
settled to the NW. of the sources of the Tyras
(Dniester). They were skUful to enchant
ments. (Hdt. iv. 17, 51, 100, 125 ; Mel. ii. 1, 7.)
Nevirnum. [Noviodunum, No. 2.]
Nicaea (tiiKata : ISiKaieis, NiKaeis, Nicaeen-
sis, Nicensis). 1. (Iznik, Ru.), one of the most
celebrated cities of Asia, stood on the E. side
of the lake Ascania (Iznik) to Bithynia (Strab.
p. 565). Its site appears to have been occupied
to very ancient times by a town called Attaea,
and afterwards by a settlement of the Bot-
tiaeans, called Ancore or Helicore, which was
destroyed by the Mysians (Steph. B. s.v.). Not
long after the death of Alexander the Great,
Antigonus built on the same spot a city which
he named after himself, Antigonea ; but Lysi
machus soon after changed the name into
Nicaea, to honour of his wife. Under the Mngs
of Bithynia it was often the royal residence,
and it long disputed with Nicomedia the rank
of capital of Bithynia. The Roman emperors
bestowed upon it numerous honours and bene
fits, which are recorded on its coins. Its posi
tion, at the junction of several of the cMef
roads leading through Asia Minor to Constanti
nople, made it the centre of a large traffic. It

598

NICANDER

is famous to ecclesiastical history as the seat
of the great Oecumenical Council which Con
stantine convoked in a.d. 325. In the very
year of the great Council, Nicaea was over
thrown by an earthquake, but it was restored
by the emperor Valens to 368. Under the later
emperors of the East, Nicaea long served as
the bulwark of Constantinople against the
Arabs and Turks: it was taken by the Seljuks
in 1078, and became the capital of the Sultan
Soliman ; it was retaken by the First Crusaders
in 1097. After the taking of Constantinople
by the Venetians and the Franks, and the
foundation of the Latin empire there to 1204,
the Greek emperor Theodorus Lascaris made
Nicaea the capital of a separate kingdom, to
which Ms followers maintained themselves
with various success against the Latins of Con
stantinople on the one side, and the Seljuks of
Iconium on the other, and to 1261 regained
Constantinople. At length, in 13S0, Nicaea
was finally taken by Orchan, the son of the
founder of the Ottoman empire, Othman. Iznik,
the modern Nicaea, iB a poor viUage of about
100 houses; but the double waUs of the ancient
city still remain almost complete, exhibiting
four large and two small gates. There are also
the remains of the two moles which formed the
harbour on the lake, of an aqueduct, of the

Coin of Nicaea in Bithynia.
Obv., head of Julius Caesar ; nikaieon ; rev., Nike ; Eni
taiov o viriov UAN2A. (Struck B.C. 48-47.)
theatre, and of the gymnasium. — 2, A city of
India, on the river Hydaspes (Jelum) bmlt
by Alexander to commemorate his victory
over Porus (Arrian, v. 19; Strab. p. 698). —
3. A fortress of the Epicnemidian Locrians
on the sea, near the pass of Thermopylae,
wMch it commanded. From its important
position, it is often mentioned in the wars
of Greece with Macedonia and with the'Ro-
mans. In the former, its betrayal to Philip
by the Thracian dynast Phalaecus led to the
Sacred War, B.C. 346 ; and after various
changes, it is found, at the time of the wars
with Rome, in the hands of the Aetolians. (Dem.
Phil. ii. p. 153 ; Diod. xvi. 59 ; Strab. p. 426 ;
Pol. x. 42 ; Liv. xxviii. 5.)— 4. In Illyria.
[Nicia.] 6. (Nizza, Nice), a city on the coast
of Liguria, a Uttle E. of the river Var ; a colony
of Massilia, and Bubject to that city ; hence it
was considered as belonging to Gaul, though it
was just beyond the frontier (Strab. pp. 180,
184 ; Pol. xxxiii. 4 ; Ammian. xv. 11).
Nicander (NiWBpos). 1. King of Sparta,
son of Charilaus, and father of Theopompus,
reigned about B.C. 809-770. (Paus. iii. 7, 4.) —
2. An AetoUan who sought for Mb country
men the alliance of Philip of Macedon and
Antiochus. He was General of the Aetolian
League in 190 b.c, and went afterwards as
ambassador to Rome. (Liv. xxxv. 12, xxxvi.
29, xxxviii. 4; Pol. xx. 10, xxii. 18.)— 3. A
Greek poet, grammarian, and physician, was a
native of Claros near Colophon in Ionia,
whence he is frequently called a Colophonian.

NICEPHORUS
He succeededMs father as one of the hereditary
priests of ApoUo Clarius (Nicand. Alexiph. v.
11). He appears to have lived about B.C. 185—
135. Of the numerous works of Nicander only
two poems are extant : one entitled Theriaca
(OvptaKd), wMch consists of nearly 1000 hexa
meter lines, and treats of venomous animals.
and the wounds inflicted by them; and another
entitled Alexipharmaca ('AXe^itpdppaxa), which
consists of more than 600 hexameter lines, and
treats of poisons and their antidotes. Among
the ancients his authority, in aU matters rela
ting to toxicology seems to havebeen considered
high. His works are frequently quoted by
Pliny, Galen, and other ancient writers. Among
his lost works was the 'Erepoioipeva, which was
one of Ovid's sources for Ms Metamorphoses. His
style is harsh and obscure ; and his works are
now scarcely ever read as poems, and are only
consulted by those who are interested in points
of zoological and medical antiquities. Editions
by Schneider, who published the Alexiphar
maca to 1792, Halae, and the Theriaca to 1816,
Lips., revised by Keil, 1856.
Nicanor (ISmdvap). 1. Son of Parmenion, a
distinguished officer to the service of Alexander,
died during the king's advance into Bactria,
B.C. 380 (Arr. An. i. 4, 14, iii. 21-25; Diod.
xvii. 57). — 2. A Macedonian officer, who, in the
division of the provinces after the death of
Perdiccas (321), obtained the government of
Cappadocia. He attached himself to the party
of Antigonus, who made him governor of Media.
and the adjoining provinces, which he continued
to hold until 312, when he was deprived of
them by Seleucus. (Diod. xvui. 39, xix. 92, 100.)
— 3. A Macedoman officer under Cassander, by
whom he was secretly despatched, immediately
on the death of Antipater, 319, to take the com
mand of the Macedonian garrison at MunycMa.
Nicanor arrived at Athens before the news of
Antipater's death, and thus obtained possession
of the fortress. Soon afterwards he surprised the
Piraeus also, and placed both fortresses in the
hands of Cassander in 818. Nicanor was after
wards despatched by Cassander with a fleet to
the Hellespont, where he gained a victory over
the admiral of Polysperchon. On his return to
Athens he incurred the suspicion of Cassander,
and was put to death. (Diod. xvni. 64-75;
Plut. Phoc. 33.)
Nicarchus (Nbrapxos), the author of tMrty-
eight epigrams to the Greek Anthology, ap
pears to have Uved at Rome near the beginmng
of the second century of the Christian era.
Nicator, Seleucus. [Seleucus.]
Nice (N/ki)), Victory. [Nike.]
NIcephorium (N iKi/tpipiov). 1. (Bakkah), a
fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Euptoates,
near the mouth of the river Bilecha (el Be'likh),
and due S. of Edessa, built by order of Alex
ander, and probably completed under Seleucus.
It is doubtless the same place as the Callinicus
or Callinicum (KaXXiviKos or -ov), the fortifica
tions of which were repaired by Justinian. Its
name was again changed to Leontopolis, when
it was adorned with fresh buildings by the
Emperor Leo. (Strab. p. 747 ; Ptol. vii. 1, 12 ;
Procop. Aed. ii. 7.) — 2. A fortress on the Pro
pontis, belonging to the territory of Pergamum.
NIcephorius (Nuoupdpios), a river of Armenia
Major, on which Tigranes built his residence
Tigeanoceeta. It was a tributary of the
Upper Tigris; probably the Centeites, or a
small tributary of it. (Tac. Ann. xv. 4.)
Nicephorus (NiKi)tpbpos). 1. Callistus Xan-
thopulus, the author of the Ecclesiastical His.'

NICER
tory, was born in the latter part of the thirteenth
century, and died about 1350. Edited by
Ducaeus, Paris, 1630,2 vols. fol. — 2. Gregoras.
[Geegoeas.]— 3. Patriarcha, originaUy the
notary or cMef secretary of state to the em
peror Constantine V., was raised to the patri
archate of Constantinople in 806. He was
deposed in 815, and died in 828. Several of
tos works have come down to us, of which the
most important is entitled Breviarium Histo-
ricum, a Byzantine history, extending from 602
to 770. Edited by Gedner, 1882.
Nicer (Neckar), a river in Germany falling
into the Rhine at the modern Mannheim
(Amm. Marc, xxvni. 2 ; Auson. Mosell. 423).
Niceratus (Ni/cTJparos). 1. Father of Ni
cias, the celebrated Athenian general. — 2. Son of
Nicias, put to death by the TMrty Tyrants, to
whom Ms great wealth was no doubt a tempta
tion. — 3. A Greek writer on plants, one of the
foUowers of Asclepiades of Bithynia.
Nicetas (Nurtiras). 1. Acominatus, also called
Choniates, because he was a native of Chonae,
formerly Colossae, to Phrygia, one of the most
important Byzantine historians, lived in the
latter half of the 12th, and the former half
of the 13th centuries. He was present at the
capture of the city by the Latins to 1204, of
which he has given us a faithful description.
He escaped to Nicaea, where he died about
1216. The history of Nicetas consists of ten dis
tinct works, each of which contains one or more
books, of which there are twenty-one, giving the
Mstory of the emperors from 1118 to 1206.
Editions by Bekker, Bonn, 1835 ; by Migne,
Paris, 1865. — 2. Eugenianus, Uved probably
towards the end of the 12th century, and wrote
The History of the Lives of Drusilla and
Charicles, wMch is the worst of the Greek ro
mances that have come down to us. Published
for the first time by Boissonade, Paris, 1819.
Nicia (Enza), a tributary of the Po to Gallia
Cisalpina. Nicias (Nucins). 1. A celebrated Athenian
general during the Peloponnesian war, was the
son of Niceratus, from whom he inherited a
large fortune. His property was valued at 100
talents. (Xen. Mem. ii. 5, 2 ; Lys. Arist. Bon.
47; Athen. p. 272.) From this cause, combined
with Ms unambitious character, and his aver
sion to all dangerous innovations, he naturaUy
belonged to the party of the aristocracy. He
was several times associated with Pericles as
strategus ; and Ms great prudence and high
character gained for Mm considerable influence.
On the death of Pericles he came forward more
openly as the opponent of Cleon, and the other
demagogues of Athens ; but from his military
reputation, the mildness of his character, his
honesty and uprightness of character, and the
liberal use wMch he made of Ms great wealth,
he was looked upon with respect by aU classes
of the citizens. He waB a man of strong
reh'gious feeling, and Aristophanes ridicules him
in the Equites for his timidity and superstition
(Eq. 28, 80, 112, 358). His characteristic
caution was the distinguistong feature of his
mihtary career ; and his military operations
were almost always successful (Thuc. hi. 51,
91, iv. 42, 130). He frequently commanded the
Athenian armies during the earlier years of
the Peloponnesian war. After the death of
Cleon (b.c. 422) he exerted aU his influence to
bring about a peace, which was concluded to
the following year (421), (Thuc. v. 15-24). For
the next few years Nicias used all his efforts to
induce the Athenians to preserve the peace,

NICIAS

599

and was constantly opposed by Alcibiades,
who had now become the leader of the popular
party. Li 415, the Athenians resolved on
sending their great expedition to Sicily, and
appointed Nicias, Alcibiades and Lamachus to
the command. Nicias disapproved of the ex
pedition altogether, and did all that he could to
divert the Athenians from tMs course. But his
representations produced no effect ; and lie set
sail for Sicily with his colleagues. Alcibiades
was soon afterwards recalled [Alcibiades] ; and
the sole command was thus virtually left in the
hands of Nicias. His early operations were
attended with success. He defeated the Syra
cusans in the autumn, and employed the winter
in securing the co-operation of several of the
Greek cities, and of the Sicel tribes to the
island. In the spring of next year he re
newed Ms attacks, seized Epipolae, and com
menced the circumvallation of Syracuse.
About this time Lamachus was slain, in a
skirmish under the walls. AU the attempts
of the Syracusans to stop the circum
vallation failed. The works were nearly com
pleted, and the doom of Syracuse seemed
sealed, when Gylippus, the Spartan, arrived to
SicUy. [Gylippus.] The tide of success now
turned; and Nicias found himself obliged to
send to Athens for reinforcements, and re
quested at the same time that another com
mander might be sent to supply his place, as
his feeble health rendered Mm unequal to the
discharge of his duties. The Athenians voted
reinforcements, which were placed under the
command of Demosthenes and Eurymedon ;
but they would not allow Nicias to resign Ms
command. Demosthenes, upon his arrival in
Sicily (413), made a vigorous effort to recover
Epipolae, wMch the Athenians had lost. He
was nearly successful, but was finally driven
back with severe less. Demosthenes now
deemed any further attempts agatost the city
hopeless, and therefore proposed to abandon
the siege and return to Athens. To tMs
Nicias would not consent. He professed to
stand in dread of the Athenians at home ; but
he appears to have had reasons for believing
that a party amongst the Syracusans them
selves were likely in no long time to facilitate
the reduction of the city. But meantime
fresh succours arrived for the Syracusans;
sickness was maMng ravages among the Athe
nian troops, and at length Nicias himself saw
the necessity of retreating. Secret orders were
given that everything should be in readiness
for departure, when an eclipse of the moon
happened. The credulous superstition of Nicias
led to the total destruction of the Athenian
armament. The soothsayers interpreted the
event as an injunction from the gods that they
should not retreat before the next full moon,
and Nicias resolutely determined to abide by
their decision. The Syracusans resolved to
bring the enemy to an engagement, and in a
decisive naval battle defeated the Athenians.
They were now masters of the harbour, and the
Athenians were reduced to the necessity of
making a desperate effort to escape. The
Athenians were again decisively defeated ; and
having thus lost their fleet, they were obliged
to retreat by land. They were pursued by the
enemy, and were finaUy compelled to surrender.
Both Nicias and Demosthenes were put to
death by the Syracusans. (Thuc. vi. vii. ; Plut.
Nicias ; Diod. xii. 83 ff.) — 2. The physician of
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who offered to the
Roman consul to poison the king, for a certain

600

NICOCHARES

reward. Fabricius not only rejected Ms base
offer with indignation, but immediately sent
him back to Pyrrhus with notice of his
treachery. He is sometimes, but erroneously,
caUed Cineas. (GeU. iii. 8 ; Zonar. ii. 48.)— 3. A
Coan grammarian, who lived at Rome in the
time of Cicero, with whom he was intimate
(Cic. ad AU. vii. 8 ; Suet. Gramm. 14). — i. A
celebrated Athenian painter, flourished about
B.C. 320. He was the most distinguished
disciple of Euphranor. His works seem to
have been all painted in encaustic. One of his
greatest paintings was a representation of the
infernal regions as described by Homer. He
refused to seU this picture to Ptolemy, although
the price offered for it was 60 talents. (PUn.
xxxv. 130-133 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Pictura.)
Nicochares (SiKoxdpris), an Athenian poet of
the Old Comedy, the son of Philonides, was
contemporary with Aristophanes (Suid. s.v.).
Nicocles (NikokXtjs). 1. King of Salamis
to Cyprus, son of Evagoras, whom he suc
ceeded B.C. 374. Isocrates addressed him a
long panegyric upon his father's virtues, for
wMch Nicocles rewarded the orator with the
magnificent present of twenty talents. Scarcely
any particulars are known of the reign of
Nicocles. He is said to have perished by a

Coin of Cyprus, struck by Nicocles about B.C. 874.
Obv., BA, female head wearing the taenia; rev., NI, head
of Aphrodite, turreted.
violent death, but neither the period nor
circumstances of tMs event are recorded. (Isocr.
Evagoras ; Diod. xv. 47.) — 2. Prince or ruler
of Paphos, in Cyprus, during the period which
followed the death of Alexander. He was at
first one of those who took part with Ptolemy
against Antigonus ; but having subsequently
entered into secret negotiations with Anti
gonus, he was compelled by Ptolemy to put an
end to his own life, 310. (Diod. xix. 59, xx. 21.)
— 3. Tyrant of Sicyon, was deposed by Aratus,
after a reign of only four months, 251 (Plut.
Arat. 3; Paus. ii. 8, 3).
Nicocreon (NiKOKpeav), king of Salamis in
Cyprus, at the time of Alexander's expedition
into Asia. After the death of Alexander he
took part with Ptolemy. agatost Antigonus, and
was entrusted by Ptolemy with the chief com
mand over the whole island. Nicocreon is said
to have ordered the philosopher Anaxarchus to
be pounded to death in a stone mortar, to
revenge for an insult wMch the latter had
offered the king, when he visited Alexander at
Tyre. (Diod. xix. 59-79 ; Cic. Tusc. ii. 22, 52 ;
Dio;?. Laert. ix. 59.)
Nicolaus Chalcocondyles. [Chalcocondy
les.] Nicolaus Damascenus, a Greek historian,
and an intimate friend both of Herod the
Great and of Augustus. He was, as his name
indicates, a native of Damascus, and a son of
Antipater and Stratonice. He received an
excellent education, and he carried on Ms
philosophical studies to common with Herod, at
whose court he resided. In B.C. 13 he accom
panied Herod on a visit to Augustus at Rome ;
on which occasion Augustus made Nicolaus a
present of the finest fruit of the palm-tree,

NICOMEDES
wnich the emperor called Nicolai — a name by
wMch it continued to be known down to the
Middle Ages. Nicolaus rose so high to the
favour of Augustus, that he was on more than
one occasion of great service to Herod, when
the emperor was incensed agatost the latter.
(Plut. Symp. viii. 4 ; Athen. p. 652 ; Suid. s.v.)
Nicolaus wrote a large number of works, of
wMch the most important were : (1) A Life of
himself, of which a considerable portion is stUl
extant. (2) A universal history, wMch consisted
of 144 books, of wMch we have only a few frag
ments. (3) A Life of Augustus, from which we
have some extracts made by command of Con
stantine Porphyrogenitus. He also wrote com
mentaries on Aristotle, and other phUosopMcal
works, and was the author of several tragedies
and comedies: Stobaeus has preserved a
fragment of one of Ms comedies, extending to
forty-four lines. Edition of his fragments by
Orelli, Lips. 1804; Dindorf, Hist. Gr. 1870.
Nicomachus (NiKbpaxos). 1. A ypappareiis
at Athens employed to transcribe the laws
of Solon, with which he tampered for his
own gain by bribes. He was to exile
during the rule of the Thirty, after wMch he
returned, and was prosecuted for misconduct
in Ms transcription of the laws. (Lys. c.
Nicom.; Xen. Hell. i. 7, 35.)— 2. Father of
Aristotle. [See p. 116, a.] — 3. Son of Aristotle
by the slave HerpyUis. He was himself a
philosopher, and wrote some pMlosopMcal
works. A portion of Aristotle's writings bears
the name of Nicomachean Ethics [p. 118]. — 4.
CaUed Gerasenus, from his native place,
Gerasa in Arabia, was a Pythagorean, and the
writer of a Life of Pythagoras, now lost. His
date is inferred from his mention of TMasyUus,
who lived under Tiberius. He wrote on arith
metic and music ; and two of his works on
these subjects are stUl extant. The work on
arithmetic is edited by Nobbe, Lips. 1828 ;
Hoche, 1868. The work on music was printed
by Meursius to Ms collection, Lugd. Bat. 1616,
and in the collection of Meibomius, Amst.
1652. — 5. Of Thebes, a celebrated painter, was
the elder brother and teacher of the great
painter Aristides. He flourished B.C. 360, and
onwards. He was an elder contemporary of
Apelles and Protogenes. He is frequently
mentioned by the ancient writers in terms of
the highest praise. Cicero says that in Ms
works, as well as in those of EcMon, Proto
genes and Apelles, a perfect method had been
attained. (Cic. Brut. 18, 70 ; Plin. xxxv. 108.)
Nicomedes (NiKopfiSris). 1. I., king of Bi
thynia, was the eldest son of Zipoetes, whom he
succeeded b.c. 278. With the assistance of the
Gauls, whom he invited toto Asia, he defeated
and put to death his brother Zipoetes, who had
for some time held the independent sovereignty
of a considerable part of Bithynia. The rest of
Ms reign appears to have been undisturbed,
and under his sway Bithynia rose to a high
degree of power and prosperity. He founded
the city of Nicomedia, which he made the
capital of his Mngdom. The length of his
reign is uncertain, but he probably died about
250. (Liv. xxxviii. 16 ; Memn. 16-22.) He was
succeeded by Ms son Zielas. — 2. II., surnamed
Epiphanes, king of Bithynia, reigned B.C.
149-91. He was the son and successor of
Prusias II., and fourth in descent from the
preceding. He was brought up at Rome, where
he succeeded in gaining the favour of the
senate (Liv. xiv. 44). Prusias, in consequence,
became jealous of Ms son, and sent secret

NICOMEDIA
instructions for his assassination. The plot
was revealed to Nicomedes, who thereupon
returned to Asia, and declared open war
against his father. Prusias was deserted by
Ms subjects, and was put to death by order of
his son, 149. (App. Mithr. 4-7; Just, xxxiv. 4 ;
Strab. p. 624.) Of the long and tranquil reign
of Nicomedes few events have been transmitted
to us. He courted the friendship of the Ro
mans, whom he assisted in the war against
Aristonicus, 181. He subsequently obtained
possession of PapMagonia, and attempted to
gain Cappadocia, by marrying Laodice, the
widow of Ariarathes VI. He was, however,
expelled from Cappadocia by Mithridates ;
and he was also forced by the Romans to
abandon Paphlagonia, when they deprived
Mithridates of Cappadocia (Just, xxxviii. 1).
— 3. III., surnamed Pbtlopatob, king of
Bithynia (91-74), son and successor of Nico
medes II. Immediately after his accession, he
was expeUed by Mithridates, who set up
agatost him his brother Socrates ; but he was
restored by the Romans to the following year
(90). At the instigation of the Romans,
Nicomedes now proceeded to attack the do
mtoions of Mithridates, who expeUed him a
second time from his kingdom (88). This was
the immediate occasion of the first Mithridatic

NICOPOLIS

001

Nicomedes HI., King of Bithynia, B.C. 91-74.
Obv., head of Nicomedes III. ; rev., basiaecs Eni#AN0YS
NIKOMHAOY; Zeus with sceptre, holding out wreath;
eagle on thunderbolt. Date 214 of Bithynian and Pontic
era, whioh began B.C. 297. Therefore date of coin B.C. 83.
war ; at the conclusion of wMch (84) Nicomedes
was again reinstated in Ms kingdom. He
reigned nearly ten years after tMs second re
storation. Caesar, as a young man, was sent to
Ms court by M. Minucius Thermus, B.C. 81. (Plut.
Caes. i. ; Suet. Jul. 2, 49 ; p. 181, b.) He died
at the beginning of 74, and, having no cMldren,
by Ms wiU bequeathed his kingdom to the
Roman people (App. Mithr. 7-19 ; Plut. Sull.
22, 24 ; Eutrop. vi. 6).
Nicomedia (NiKopriSeia: NiKopriSebs, fem.Ni-
Siaaa : Izmid or Iznikmid, Ru.), a eele-

Coin of Nicomedia.
Obv., head of Sept. Severus ; avt. v. CEN. cevhpos. n.C. ;
rev., Sarapis seated ; nikomhaehn aic neukopun.
brated city of Bithynia, to Asia Minor, built by
king Nicomedes I. (B.C. 264), at the NE. corner
of the Sinus Astacenus (Gulf of Izmid : comp.
Astacus). It was the chief residence of the

kings of Bithynia, and it soon became one of
the most splendid cities of the then known
world. Under the Romans it was a colony,
and a favourite residence of Beveral of the
later emperors, especially of Diocletian and
Constantine the Great. Though repeatedly
injured by earthquakes, it was always restored
by the munificence of the emperors. (Strab. p.
563; Paus. v. 12, 5; Vict. Caes. 39; Amm.
Marc. xxii. 9, 12.) Like its neighbour and
rival, Nicaea, it occupies an important place
to the wars against the Turks ; it is also me
morable in history as the scene of Hannibal's
death. It was the birthplace of Arrian.
Nicon (Nfoaii'), a Tarentine, who put Taren
tum in the hands of Hannibal, in B.C. 212, was
kiUed when the Romans recovered the city, 209
(Liv. xxv. 8, xxvi. 39, xxvii. 16 ; Pol. viii. 26).
Niconia or Niconium, a town to Scythia on
the Tyras (Dniester), (Strab. p. 306).
Nicophon and Nicophron (NiicocpSy, Ni/cd-
ippav), an Athenian comic poet, a contemporary
of Aristophanes (Suid. s.v. ; Athen. p. 126).
Nicopolis (NtKbiroXts : NiKoiroXtTiis, Nicopo-
litanus). 1. (Paleoprevyza, Ru.), a city at the
SW. extremity of Epirus, on the point of land
which forms the N. side of the entrance to the
Gulf of Ambracia, opposite to Actium. It was
built by Augustus in memory of the battle of
Actium, and was peopled from Ambracia,
Anactorium, and other neighbouring cities, and

Coin of Nicopolis in Epirus.
Obv., head of Augustus ; [k]tisma kaizap. a.; rev., Nike;
IEPA NIKOnOA.
also from Aetolia. Augustus also built a temple
of Apollo on a neighbouring hill, and founded
games in honour of the god, which were held
every fifth year. [See map, p. 14.] The city was
received into the Amphictyonic League in place
of the Dolopes. It is spoken of both as a
libera civitas and as a colony. (Dio Cass. Ii.
12 ; Suet. Aug. 12, 18 ; Strab. p. 324 ; Paus. v.
23, vi. 18, x. 38 ; Tac. Ann. v. 10.) It had a
considerable commerce and extensive fisheries.
It was made the capital of Epirus by Constan
tine, and its buildings were restored both by
Julian and by Justinian. — 2, (Nicopoli), a city
of Moesia Inferior, on the Danube, built by
Trajan in memory of a victory over the Dacians,
and celebrated as the scene of the great defeat
of the Hungarians and Franks by the sultan
Bajazet, on Sept. 28, 1396 (Amm. Marc. xxxi.
5). — 3. (Enderez), a city of Armenia Minor, on
or near the Lycus, and not far from the sources
of the Halys, founded by Pompey on the spot
where he gained his first victory over Mithri
dates : a flourisMng place in the time of
Augustus: restored by Justinian (Strab. p.
555, App. Mithr. 101, 105; Bell. Alex. 36).
—4. A city to the NE. corner of Cilicia, near
the junction of the Taurus and Amanus. — 5.
(Kars, Kiassera, or Caesar's Castle, Ru.), a
city of Lower Egypt, about two or three miles
E. of Alexandria, on the canal between Alexan
dria and Canopus, was built by Augustus in
memory of the last victory over Antonius.
Here also, as at Nicopolis opposite to Actium,

602

NICOSTRATUS

Augustus founded a temple of Ajkdlo, with
games every fifth year. It seems to have be
come a mere suburb of Alexandria. (Strab. p.
795 ; Dio Cass. Ii. 11.) — 6. (Nevrekup), a town
in Thrace, at the mouth of the Nestus.
Nicostratus (Ni/cdV-rpaTor), the youngest of
the three sons of Aristophanes, was himself a
comic poet. His plays belonged both to the
Middle and the New Comedy. (Athen. pp. 108,
118, 230, 597.)
Nigeir, Nigir, or Nigris (Niyeip, Nlyip, a
compounded form of the word Geir or Gir, which
seems to be a native African term for a river to
general), changed, by a confusion which was the
more easily made on account of the colour of
the people of the region, into the Latin word
Niger, a great river, vaguely conceived by
Greek and Roman geographers to the interior
of Western Aethiopia from reports of river
basins in that direction. They refer cMefly to
the rivers called Joli-ba, Quorra, and Niger,
though nothing can have been known of its
actual course as far as the Atlantic. As early
as the time of Herodotus, we find a statement
concerning a river of the interior of Libya
which seems identical with the Nigeir or
Quorra [Nasamones.] Herodotus, like his
informants, inferred from the course of the
river, and from the crocodiles in it, that it was
the Nile ; but it can hardly be any river but
the Quorra. The opinion that the Niger was
a W. branch of the Nile prevailed very gener
ally in ancient times ; but by no means univer
sally. Pliny gives the same account in a very
confused manner, and makes the Nigris (as he
calls it) the boundary between N. Africa and
Aethiopia. This confusion probably arose from
the name being used of more than one of the
larger rivers flowing S. from the Atlas [cf.
Gee]. Pliny, however, makes it join the NUe
(v. 30, viii. 77). Ptolemy makes the Nigeir rise
not far from its real source (allowing for the
imperfect observations on which his numerical
latitudes and longitudes are founded) and adds,
what modern discoveries render a very remark
able statement, that a branch of the Nigeir
communicates with the lake Libya (AiBvii),
which he places in the position of lake
Tchad. The Tchadda, therefore, represents the
branch of the Nigeir spoken of by Ptolemy,
whose informants, however, inverted the direc
tion of its stream. It is further remarkable
that Ptolemy places on the Nigeir a city named
Thamondocana in the exact position of Tim
buetoo, and that the length of the river com
puted from his position agrees very nearly with
its real length. (Ptol. iv. 6, 14 ; cf. Strab. p. 826 ;
Mel. iii. 19, 9.) The error of connecting the Niger
and the Nile revived after the time of Ptolemy.
Niger, C. Pescennius, was governor of Syria
in the reign of Commodus, on whose death he
was saluted emperor by the legions in the East,
a.d. 193. But in the foUowing year he was de
feated and put to death by Septimius Severus.
(Dio Cass, lxxii. 8, lxxin. 13, lxxiv. 6 ; Spart.
Pescenn. Niger.)
Nigira (Niyeipa, Ptol.), a city on the N. of the
river Nigeir, and the capital of the Nigeitae.
Nigir. [Nigeir.]
Nigritae or -etes (Ni7pireu, Ni7pn-ai AlBlo-
ires, ISiyp-qres), according to the meaning of the
native word, was ' the river-people.' They
dwelt in the basin of the upper Niger. (Strab.
pp. 131, 826 ; Ptol. iv. 6, 16.)
Nigritis Lacus (Niypiris Xtpvri), a lake in
the interior of Africa, out of which Ptolemy
represents the river Nigir as flowing. The

NIKE
lake Debu, S. of Timbuetoo, though not actu-
aUy the source of the Niger, is probably the lake-
referred to. (Ptol. iv. 6, 27.)
Nike (Nfo7j), called Victoria by the Romans,
the .goddess of victory, is described as a
daughter of the giant Pallas and Styx, and as
a sister of Zelus (zeal), Cratos (strength], and
Bia (force). (Hes. Th. 382.) It is probable
that in earlier mythology she was rather an
attribute of one or other of the greater deities
than a separate personality : especiaUy an
attribute of Athens at Athens. In the develop
ment of the myth comes the story that when
Zeus began the fight agatost the Titans, and
called upon the gods for assistance, Nike and
her two sisters were the first who came for
ward, and Zeus, as a reward for their zeal,

Nike, Victory. (From an ancient gem.)
caused them ever after to Uve with him in
Olympus (Hes. l.c. ; ApoUod. i. 2, 2). She is
often represented to ancient works of art,
especially with other divinities, such as Zeus
and Athene, and with conqueringjheroes, whose
horses she guides. She is shown as a winged
figure and often carries a palm or a wreath.
Sometimes she is raising or decorating a trophy.
A favourite attitude in the Roman period
showed Nike holding a sMeld on which Bhe is
inscribing a record of victory. When she is
represented as an attribute of a great deity,
Zeus or Athene, she is a small winged figure
supported to the hand of the god. On Greek
vases it is common to denote the successful
issue of any sort of contest by a winged figure
of Victory hovering above. Among the famous
statues of Nike were that of Paeonius at Olym
pia mentioned by Paus. v. 10, 26 — and the
greater part of the figure is stUl extant there ;
the statue from Samothrace, now in the
Louvre, if the restoration (partly based on a
coin of Demetrius) is right, formerly blowing
a trumpet held in the right hand. For Athene-
Nike see p. 139, a, and for her temple at Athens
(Nike-Apteros) see p. 13, a. At Rome there was
an ancient worship of Victoria (apparently
equivalent to that of the Sabine goddess
Vacuna) on the Palatine (Liv. xxix. 14 ; Dionys.
i. 32). Moreover as one of the Indigetes, Vica-
Pota ( = Victoria) was worsMpped [p. 443, a].
Another temple of Victory was dedioated in

NILUPOLIS
the Samnite wars, b.c. 294 (Liv. x. 88). The
great statue of Nike by Paeonius at Olympia
has been in part recovered. [Paeonius.] A
famous statue of Victory was set up by Augus
tus in the Curia Julia (Suet. Aug. 100 ; Dio
li. 22). The figures of Victory repre-

NINUS

60S

Victoria. (Bronze Victory in British Museum ; from
Rome. A little over full size.)
sented to Greek f asMon appear frequently on
Roman coins, medals, and monuments.
NilupoliS or Nilus (Ne/Aou irbXts, NeiXos), a
city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, to the
Nomos HeracleopoUtes, was buUt on an island
in the NUe, 20 geographical miles NE. of Hera-
cleopoUs. There was a temple here to which,
as throughout Egypt, the river NUe was wor
sMpped as a god. (Ptol. v. 5, 57.)
Nilus (NelXos: 2We), the great river of Egypt.
The origin of the word is probably the Semitic
Nahar or Nahal, meaning river. In Homer
the river is caUed Atyvirros (Od. iii. 300, iv.
477) ; but the name NelXos occurs in Hesiod
(Th. 338), and Hecataeus (Fr. 279). This river,
one of the most important in the world, flows
through a channel wMch forms a sort of cleft
extending N. and S. through the high rocky
and sandy land of NE. Africa. After leaving
the great lakes, the discovery of wMch belongs
to recent years, the Nile has a course to the
general direction of NNE. as far as Khartum,
when this main branch, which is called the
Bahr-el-Abiad, ie. White Biver, receives
another large river, the Bahr-el-Azrek, i.e.
Blue Biver, the sources of which are in the
MgMands of Abyssinia : this is the middle
branch of the NUe system, the Astapus of the
ancients. The third, or E. branch, called
Tacazze, the Astabobas of the ancients, rises
also in the highlands of Abyssinia in about 11°
40' N. lat., and 39° 40' E. long., and joins the
NUe (i.e. the main stream formed by the union
of the Abiad and the Azrek), to 17° 45' N. lat.,
and about 34° 5' E. long. : the point of junction
was the apex of the island of Meroe. Here
the united river is about two miles broad.
Hence it flows through Nubia, in a magnificent
rocky vaUey, falling over six cataracts, the
N.-most of which, called the First Cataract (i.e.
to a person going up the river), is and has
always been the S. boundary of Egypt. Of its
course from tMs point to its junction with the
Mediterranean a sufficient general description
has been given under Aegyptus (p. 21). The
branches into wMch it parted at the S. point of

the Delta were, to ancient times, three in num
ber, and these again parted into seven (whence
the epithets eirrdiropos, Mosch. ii. 51 ; septem-
plex, Ov. Met. v. 187 ; septemgeminus, Catull.
xi. 7), of which, Herodotus tells us, five were
natural and two artificial. These seven mouths
were nearly all named from cities which stood
upon them : they were called, proceeding from
E. to W., the Pelusiac, the Tanitic or Saitic,
the Mendesian, the Phatnitic or Pathmetic or
Bucolic, the Sebennytic, the Bolbitic or Bolbi-
tine, and the Canobic or Canopic. (Hdt. ii. 17 ;
Scylax, p. 43 ; Strab. p. 801 ; Diod. i. 83 ; Ptol.
iv. 5, 10 ; PUn. v. 64 ; Mel. i. 9, 9.) Through
the alterations caused by the alluvial depo
sits of the river, they have now all stofted
their positions, or dwindled into little channels,
except two, and these are much diminished,
namely, the Damiat mouth on the E. and the
Bosetta mouth on the W. Of the canals con
nected with the NUe in the Delta, the most
celebrated were the Canobic, which connected
the Canobic mouth with the lake Mareotis and
with Alexandria, and that of Ptolemy (after
wards called that of Trajan) which connected
the Nile at the beginning of the Delta with the
bay of Herobpolis at the head of the Red Sea :
the formation of the latter is ascribed to king
Necho, and its repair and improvement succes
sively to Darius the son of Hystapes, Ptolemy
Philadelphus and Trajan. [Seep. 21, b.] That
the Delta (and indeed the whole alluvial soil of
Fgypt) has been created by the Nile cannot be
doubted ; but the present small rate of deposit
proves that the formation must have been
made long before the historical period. From
the dark alluvial soil came the native name of
Egypt, Chemi or Kamit, ' the black land ' :
whence, perhaps, the erroneous notion that the
name NetAos meant ' black.' The periodical rise
of the river has been spoken of under Aegyp
tus. It has been ascertained from the ancient
records on the rocks of Semneh of the inunda
tions that to the 12th dynasty (2300 B.C.), the
rise of the Nile was twenty-seven feet above its
highest point in our own time, and its average
rise twelve feet above the present average. The
difference seems to have been caused by the
giving way of the rocks at Silsilis, and the result
was to deprive the plains of Ethiopia above
that point of much of their fertUity. It was in
the same dynasty that the great works for
water-storage were carried out in the Fayum.
[See Moeris Lacus.] The ancient theories
concerning this periodic rise, caused by tropical
rains in the interior, may be found to Hdt. ii.
19-26 (cf . Plin. v. 58). It was not an uncommon
error to later Greek and Roman geographers to
describe the Nile as having its sources some
where in Western Africa (Plin. v. 51, vni. 77 ;
Dio Cass. lxxv. 13 ; Solto. 35). ButitwasweU
known that the sources of the Nile were a pro
blem as insoluble as they have remained till
quite recent years (Hor. Od. iv. 14, 45).
Greek writers noted that the Egyptians deified
the Nile, and took the utmost care to preserve
its water from poUution (Hdt. ii. 101 ; Diod. i.
6-26). The famous statue (now in the Vatican)
of the Nile as a river-god is a reclining figure of
majestic appearance, pillowed on a sphynx, and
holding a cornucopia ; sixteen children, repre
senting branches and affluents, play around;
the sacred crocodile and the ichneumon are
below. It is a design of the Hellenistic period.
Ninus, or Ninns, the reputed founder of the
city of Ninus or Nineveh. An account is given
under Semiramis. (Cf. Assyria,)

604

NINUS

Ninus or Ninus, NInive (Hdt. i. 198, ii. 150,
Nivos ; Assyr. Ninua ; 0. T. Nineveh ; LXX
Niveii), titvevi ; Tac. Arm. xii. 13, Ninus ; Ptol.
viii. 21 tfivos ri Kal Nivevl ; Amm. Marc, xviii. 7,
Ninive ; Lucan, iii. 215, Ninaus), the capital of
the Assyrian monarchy, stood on the E. side of
the Tigris, at the upper part of its course, to the
district of Aturia. For the early history of the
monarchy see Assyria. Nineveh became the
capital of the Assyrian kings in the reign of
Rimmon-mirari (known to the Greeks as Ninus)
about 1330 b.c, replacing the older capital
Assur on the Zab (wMch was called Kalakh in
Hebrew and Larissa in Xenophon, and is now
marked by the ruins of Niimrud). Nineveh is
said by Strabo to have been larger than Baby
lon, and Diodorus (who incorrectly places it on
the Euphrates), describes it as an oblong quad
rangle of 150 stadia by 90, making the circuit
of the walls 480 stadia (more than 55 statute
miles) ; if so, the city was twice as large as
London together with its suburbs. (Strab. p.
737 ; Diod. ii. 3, 7.) But the statements of
Diodorus on this subject cannot have much
weight. A more correct estimation gives about
eight and a half miles for its circumference
exclusive of suburbs. The waUs of Nineveh are
described as 100 feet high, and tMck enough to
allow three chariots to pass each other on them :
with 1500 towers, 200 feet in height. The city
is said to have been entirely destroyed by fire
when it was taken by the Medes and Babylo
nians, about B.C. 606. In the time of Xenophon

NIOBE
tions in an almost unknown character, caUed,
from its shape, cuneiform or arrow-headed.
Since the year 1843 those shapeless mounds
have been shown to contain the remains of
great palaces, on the walls of which the scenes
of Assyrian life and the records of Assyrian
conquests are sculptured; wMle the efforts
wMch had long been made to decipher the
cuneiform inscriptions found to Persia and
Babylonia, as weU as Assyria, have been
crowned with remarkable success and have
given the means of ascertaining the early
history and the reUgion of Assyria. The excava
tions conducted by Sir H. Layard and M. Botta
in 1843, 1845, brought to Ught the sculptured
remains of immense palaces, not only at the
traditional site of Nineveh — naxo.erj,Kouyunjik
and Nebbi- Yunus, opposite to Mosul, and at
Khorsabad, about ten mUes to the NNE.— but
also in a mound, 18 miles lower down the river,
in the tongue of land between the Tigris and
the Great Zab, wMch still bears the name of
Nimrud [see above.] These excavations have
been pursued at various times since, especially
in 1876. Many pieces of sculpture obtained
from the ruins may be seen in the British
Museum. Ninyas (Nivias), son of Ninus and Semiramis.
See Semiramis.
Niobe (ISibBv). 1- Daughter of Tantalus by
the Pleiad Taygete or the Hyad Dione (Ov.
Met. vi. 174 ; Hyg. Fab. 9). She was the sister
of Pelops, and the wife of Amphion, king of

The Group of Niobe. (Zannoni, Gal. di Firenzc, serie 4, vol. 1.)

the ruins, then completely desolate, were called
Mespila, Xenophon (An. iii. 4, 10) describes
the walls as of brick, built on a foundation of
XiBos KoyxoXidrifs (apparently todusial lime
stone). He gives the circuit as six parasangs
(about 20 miles), wMch probably included the
ruined vUlages in the suburbs. The site is
mentioned by Arrian (Ind. 42), and Nineveh is
classed among old ruined cities by Pausanias
(viii. S3, 2). A Roman colony, however, was
established on or near its site, and called Ninus
or Niniva Claudiopolis (see Tac. Ann. xii. 13 ;
Amm. Marc, xviii. 7 ; and coins of Trajan, Maxi
minus, Severus, and Gordian). Of all the
great cities of the world none was thought to
have been more utterly lost than the capital of
Assyria. Tradition pointed out a few shapeless
mounds opposite Mosul on the Upper Tigris, as
all that remained of Nineveh ; and a few frag
ments of masonry were occasionally dug up
there and elsewhere in Assyria, bearing toscrip-

Thebes, by whom she became the mother of six
sons and six daughters. Betog proud of the
number of her children, she deemed herself
superior to Leto, who had given birth to only
two children. ApoUo and Artemis, indignant
at such presumption, slew aU her children with
their arrows. For nine days their bodies lay
in their blood without anyone burying them,
for Zeus had changed the people toto stones ;
but on the tenth day the gods themselves
buried them. Niobe herself, who had gone to
Mount Sipylus, was changed into stone, and
still periodically wept for her children to streams
which trickled down the rock. (II. xxiv. 602-
617; cf. Apollod. iii. 5, 6; Soph. Ant. 824;
Paus. viii. 2, 7 ; Ov. Met. vi. 155-842.) This is
the Homeric story, which later writers have
greatly modified and enlarged. The number
and names of the children of Niobe vary very
much to the different accounts; for while
Homer states that their number was 12, Hesiod

NIOBE
and others mentioned 20, Alcman only 6,
Sappho 18, and Herodotus 4 ; but the most
commonly received number in later times ap
pears to have been 14 — namely, 7 sons and
7 daughters (ApoUod., Ov., II. cc. ; Ael. V. H. xii.
36; Gell. xx. 6; Schol. ad Eur. Phoen. 156;
Eustath. Hom. p. 1367; Hyg. Fab. 11; Tzetz.
ad Lye. 520). According to Homer all the
ctoldren of Niobe fell by the arrows of ApoUo
and Artemis ; but later writers state that one of
her sons, Amphion or Amyclas, and one of her
daughters, Meliboea, were saved, but that Meli-
boea, having turned pale with terror at the
sight of her dying brothers and sisters, was
afterwards called CMoris (Apollod. l.c. ; Paus.
n. 21, 9, v. 16, 3). The time and place at
wMch the children of Niobe were destroyed are
likewise stated differently. According to Homer,
they perished in their mother's house. Accord
ing to Ovid, the sons were slain while they
were engaged to gymnastic exercises in a plain
near Thebes, and the daughters during the
funeral of their brothers. This is owing to the
fact that the story also belonged to Thebes, where

NISIBIS

605

Head of Niobe from the Florentine group.
AmpMon reigned, and the tombs of Niobe's
children were shown at Thebes (Paus. ix. 16,
17). Others make Niobe, after the death of
her cMldren, go from Thebes to Lydia, to her
father Tantalus on Mount Sipylus, where Zeus,
at her own request, changed her into a stone,
which during the summer always shed tears.
The idea of the slaughter of the cMldren by
ApoUo is probably a poetical myth of streams
flowing down a rock-face from the melted snow
to spring and dried up by the heat of the
summer sun; but the localisation at Mount
Sipylus has a more definite cause. Here were
rock sculptures with the figures of the goddess
Cybele, which the author of the description in
the Hiad must have seen himself. Pausanias
(i. 21, 5) says that he saw it ; but of course in
Ms time, as in the time of the Hiad, it was
connected with the legend of Niobe. It is
Ukely that tMs was one of the two sculp
tured figures (probably Hittite) mentioned by
Herodotus ii. 106, of wMch the other was the
so-caUed Sesostris [see p. 216, a]. He cannot
have visited them himself, since he places them
together, whereas one is on the road from
Phocaea to Sardis, the other on the road from
Ephesus to Sardis. — The story of Niobe and
her cMldren was frequently taken as a subject

by ancient artists. It was carved in relief on
the throne of Zeus at Olympia ; but the most
famous representation was a work of which a
copy is still extant: the group of Niobe and
her children, which filled the pediment of the
temple of ApoUo Sosianus at Rome (Plin.
xxxvi. 28). There was a dispute even in Pliny's
time whether the author of the original was
Scopas or Praxiteles, which is continued at the
present day. Most authorities believe that
Scopas was the sculptor of the original, but
some have traced a resemblance in type to
that of the Hermes of Praxiteles. The copy of
this group (which possibly follows a detailed
description to the lost Niobe of Sophocles) is
now at Florence, and consists of the mother,
who holds her youngest daughter on her knees,
and thirteen statues of her sons and daughters,
besides a figure usually called the pedagogus of
the children. The central figures of tMs group
are given on p. 604.
Niphates (b Nupdrns, i.e. Snow-mountain :
Balan), a mountain chain of Armenia, form
ing an E. prolongation of the Taurus from
where it is crossed by the Euphrates towards
the Lake of Van, before reaching which it
turns to the S., and approaches the Tigris
below Tigranocerta ; thus surrounding on the
N. and E. the basin of the highest course of
the Tigris (wMch is enclosed on the S. and
SW. by Mount Masius), and dividing it from
the vaUey of the Arsanias (Murad) or S.
branch of the Euphrates. The continuation of
Mount Niphates to the SE. along the E. margin
of the Tigris vaUey is formed by the mountains
of the Carducto (Mountains of Kurdistan).
(Strab. pp. 522, 529; Ptol. v. 13, 4; Verg.
Georg. iii. 30 ; Hor. Od. ii. 9, 20.) Some Roman
poets mistook it for a river (Lucan, iii. 245 ;
Juv. vi. 409 ; SU. xiii. 765). The geographers
give no countenance for the idea that there
was a river of the same name, and perhaps
the error may have grown out of a misunder
standing of the passages in Virgil and Horace,
which might easily be supposed to refer to a
river. Nlreus (Nipeus), son of Charopus and Aglaia,
was, next to AchiUes, the handsomest among
the Greeks at Troy. He came from the island
of Syme (between Rhodes and Cnidus). Later
writers relate that he was slain by Eurypylus
or Aeneas. (II. ii. 671; Diod. v. 53; Diet.
Cret. iv. 17 ; Hyg. Fab. 113, 276.)
Nisaea. [MegaeaJ
Nisaea, Nisaei, Nisaeus Campus (Niaaia,
Ni<ra?oi, to Nioaiov ireSiov). These names are
found in the Greek and Roman writers used for
various places on the S. and SE. of the Cas
pian : thus one writer mentions a city Nisaea
in Margiana, and another a people Nisaei to
the N. of Aria; but most apply the term
Nisaean Plain to a plain to the N. of Great
Media, near Rhagae, the pasture-ground of a
great number of horses of the finest breed,
wMch supplied the studs of the king and nobles
of Persia. It seems not unlikely that this breed
of horses was caUed Nisaean from their original
home to Margiana (a district famous for its
horses) and that the Nisaean plain received its
name from the horses kept in it. (Strab. pp.
529, 536 ; Suid. s.v.)
Nisibis (Nio-tBis : \Sio-iBnvbs). 1. Also Antio
chia Mygdoniae (O.T. Aram Zoba? Ru. nr.
Nisibin), a celebrated city of Mesopotamia,
and the capital of the district of Mygdonia,
stood on the river Mygdonius (Nahr-al-Huali)
tMrty-seven Roman miles SW. of Tigranocerta,

006

NISUS

in a very fertile district. It was the centre
of a considerable trade, a metropolis of the
province of Mesopotamia after the time of
Alex. Severus, and was of great importance as
a military post. In the successive wars between
the Romans and Tigranes, the Parthians, and
the Persians, it was several times taken and
retaken, until at last it fell into the hands of
the Persians in the reign of Jovian. (Strab. pp.
622, 747 ; Plut. Lucull. 32 ; Dio Cass, lxviii.
23, lxxv. 2 ; Amm. Marc. xxv. 9.) — 2. A city of
Aria, at the foot of Mount Paropamisus (Ptol.
v. 18, 11).
Nisus (N?o*os) 1. King of Megara, was son
of Pandion and Pylia, brother of Aegeus, PaUas,
and Lycus, and husband of Abrote, by whom
he became the father of Scylla. When Megara
was besieged by Minos, Scylla, who had fallen
to love with Minos, puUed out the purple or
golden hair which grew on the top of her
father's head, and on which his life depended.
Nisus thereupon died, and Minos obtained pos
session of the city. Minos, however, was so
horrified at the conduct of the unnatural
daughter, that he ordered Scylla to be fastened
to the poop of his sMp, and afterwards drowned
her to the Saronic gulf. (ApoUod. iii. 15, 5-8 ;
Paus. U. 34, 7 ; Schol. ad Eur. Hippol. 1090.)
According to others, Minos left Megara in
disgust ; ScyUa leapt into the sea, and swam
after Ms ship ; but her father, who had been
changed into a sea-eagle (haliaeetua), pounced
down upon her, whereupon she was metamor
phosed into either a fish or a bird called Ciris
(Ov. Met. viii. 6-151 ; Verg. Georg. i. 404 ; Hyg.
Fab. 198). — Scylla, the daughter of Nisus, is
sometimes confounded by the poets with Scylla
the daughter of Phorciis (Verg. Eel. vi. 74).
Hence the latter is sometimes erroneously
called Niaeia virgo, and Nislia. [Scylla.] —
Nisaea, the port town of Megara, is supposed
to have derived its name from Nisus, and the
promontory of Scyllaeum from Ms daughter.
The Megarian tradition (Paus. i. 39, 6) records a
dispute for the sovereignty of Megara between
Nisus and Sciron, decided by Aeacus, the
arbitrator, in favour of Nisus, who was to be
Mng while Sciron was to be general. In tMs
tradition Nisus had a daughter Iphinoe, whose
husband, Megareus, succeeded Nisus to the
Mngdom ; nothing is known in this Megarian
account of the war with Minos. The story of
Scylla and her treachery appears, therefore, to
be mainly of Athenian origin, with an end very
common in Attic stories (especially to those
which refer to the children of Pandion), the
vnetamorphosis of the cMef actors into birds. —
2. Son of Hyrtacus, and a friend of Euryalus.
The two friends accompanied Aeneas to Italy,
and perished in a night attack against the
Rutulian camp. (Verg. Aen. ix. 176 ff.)
Nisyrus (ISio-ovpos : Nikero), asmall island in
the CarpatMan Sea, a little distance off the
promontory of Caria called Triopium, of a round
form, eighty stadia (eight geographical miles) in
circuit, and composed of lofty rocks, the highest
betog 2271 feet high. Its volcanic nature gave
rise to the fable respecting its origin, that
Poseidon tore it off the neighbouring island of
Cos to hurl it upon the giant Polybotes [p.
865, a]. It was celebrated for its warm springs,
•wine, and mill-stones. Its capital, of the same
name, stood on the NW. of the island, where
considerable ruins of its Acropolis remain.
(Strab. pp. 488, 650.) Its first inhabitants are
said to have been Carians ; but already in the
heroic age it had received a Dorian population,

NIXI
like other islands near it, with which it is men
tioned by Homer as sending troops to the
Greeks. It received other Dorian settlements
in the Mstorical age (II. ii. 676 ; Diod. v. 54 ;
Hdt. vii. 99). At the time of the Persian war,
it belonged to the Carian queen Artemisia ; it
next became a tributary aUy of Athens ; though
transferred to the Spartan aUiance by the issue
of the Peloponnesian war, it was recovered for
Athene by the victory at Cnidus, B.C. 394 (Diod.
xiv. 84). After the victory of the Romans over
Antiochus the Great, it was assigned to Rhodes ;
and, with the rest of the Rhodian republic, was
united to the Roman empire about B.C. 70.
Nitiobriges, a Celtic people in Gallia Aqui
tanica between the Garumna and the Liger,
whose fighting force consisted of 5000 men
(Caes. B.G. vii. 46 ; Strab. p. 190 ; Ptol. ii. 7, 4).
Their cMef town was Aginnum (Agen).
Nitocris (NiraKpis). 1. A queen of Babylon,
mentioned by Herodotus (i. 185-189), who
ascribes to her many important works at
Babylon and its vicinity. It is supposed that
she was the wife of Nebuchadnezzar, who
reigned B.C. 604-562 [Babylon].— 2. or Nit-
aquest, a queen of Egypt, was elected to the
sovereignty in place of her brother, Men-ka-
Ra, of the sixth dynasty, whom the Egyptians
had killed, about 3060 B.C. The story in Hero
dotus is that to order to take revenge upon the
murderers of her brother, she built a very long
chamber under ground, and when it was
finished invited to a banquet in it those of the
Egyptians who had had a principal share in
the murder. While they were engaged in the
banquet she let in upon them the waters of the
Nile by means of a large concealed pipe, and
drowned them aU, and then, in order to escape
punishment, threw herself into a chamber full
of ashes (Hdt. ii. 100). Manetho describes her
as the most beautiful woman in Egypt and the
builder of the third pyramid, by wMch we
are to understand that she finished the tMrd
pyramid, which had been begun by Men-ka-
Ra, or Myceeinus, 600 years before. This
agrees with the fact that the pyramid, which
contains two sarcophagus chambers, has been
enlarged since its first buUdtog. Nitocris was
the last sovereign of the sixth dynasty, and'her
reign corresponds with a period of confusion
which might be explained by the circumstances
in her story.
Nitriae, Nitrariae (Nirpf oi, Nirpia, \sirpaiai :
Wadi-en Natrun), the celebrated natron lakes
in Lower Egypt, wMch lay to a valley on the
SW. margin of the Delta, and gave to the
surrounding district the name of the Nopbs
NiTpiarns or Ntrpidrr)S, and to the inhabitants,
whose chief occupation was the extraction of
the natron from the lakes, the names of
Nirpiarai (Plin. xxxi. Ill ; Strab. p. 803; Ptol.
iv. 5, 25). This district was (according to
Strabo) the cMef seat of the worship of Serapis,
and the only place in Egypt where sheep were
sacrificed. Nixi Dii, were (probably erroneously) sup
posed to be gods who, in conjunction with
Lucina, aided in cMldbirth (Ov. Met. ix. 294 ;
Fest. p. 174). Festus says that there were
three statues in the Capitol before the ceUa of
Minerva to a kneeling attitude which were said
to have been brought by Acilius from Syria,
and to represent deities aiding in cMldbirth.
It is altogether contrary to ordinary mythology
that male deities should preside over child
birth, and it is supposed that these statues were
really only kneeling figures supporting a slab

NOBILIOR
•(as telamones) which had formed part of the
spoils in the Syrian war and the significance of
which had been misinterpreted.
Nobilior, FuIvIub. The Fulvii were a plebeian
famUy with the name Paetinus, and the name
of Nobilior was first assumed for distinction by
No. 1. — 1. Ser., consul B.C. 255, with M. Aemi
lius Paulus, about the middle of the first Punic
war. The two consuls were sent to Africa, to
bring off the survivors of the army of Regulus.
On their way to Africa they gained a naval
victory over the Carthaginians; but on their
return to Italy, they were wrecked off the coast
of Sicily, and most of their ships were destroyed.
(Pol. i. 36; Eutrop. ii. 22.) — 2. M., grandson of
the preceding, curule aedile 195 ; praetor 193,
when he defeated the Celtiberi in Spain, and
took the town of Toletum (Liv. xxxv. 7, 22,
xxxvi. 21, 39) ; and consul 189, when he received
the conduct of the war against the Aetolians.
He took the town of Ambracia, and compeUed
the Aetolians to sue for peace (Pol. xxii. 8-15 ;
Liv. xxxviii. 3-85, xxxix. 22). On Ms return to
Rome to 187, he celebrated a most splendid
triumph. In 179 he was censor with M.
Aemilius Lepidus, the pontifex maximus.
Fulvius NobUior had a taste for literature and
art ; he was a patron of the poet Ennius, who
accompanied him to his Aetolian campaign ;
and he belonged to that party among the
Roman nobles who were introducing into the
city a taste for Greek Uterature and refinement
(Cic. Tusc. 1, 2, de Orat. iii. 63). He was
therefore attacked by Cato the censor, who
made merry with his name, calling him mobilior
instead of nobilior. Fulvius, in his censorship,
erected a temple to Hercules and the Muses to
the Circus Flaminius, as a proof that the state
ought to cultivate the liberal arts; and he
adorned it with the paintings and statues
wMch he had brought from Greece upon his
conquest of Aetolia (Cic. pro Arch. 11, 27 ;
Plin. xxxv. 66; Macrob. i. 12). — 3. M., son of
No. 2, tribune of the plebs 171 ; curule aedile
166, the year to which the Andria of Terence
was performed ; and consul 159 (Liv. xhi. 32).
— 4. ft., also son of No. 2, consul 153, when he
had the conduct of the war against the Celti
beri to Spain, by whom he was defeated. He
was censor to 136. He inherited his father's
love for Uterature : he presented the poet En
nius with the Roman franchise when he was
a triumvir for founding a colony. (App. Hisp.
45-47 ; Pol. xxxv. 4; Cic. Brut. 20, 79.)
Nola (Nolanus : Nolo), one of the most
ancient towns in Campania, twenty-one Roman
miles SE. of Capua, on the road from that place
to Nuceria. Its origin is doubtful. Hecataeus
calls it an Ausonian city (Steph. Byz. s.v.),
which merely means that he considered it very
ancient. It seems to have received a colony
from Cumae, since it is called Chalcidian (Just.
xx. 1, Sil. It. xii. 161). Other writers asserted
an Etruscan origin (Veil. Pat. i. 7). It is quite
possible that there was an old Italian city on
that spot ; occupied by Etruscan invaders and
subsequently colonised from Cumae, if the
statement of Justin and Silius is to be accepted.
In B.C. 327 Nola was sufficiently powerful to
send 2000 soldiers to the assistance of Neapolis.
In 313 the town was taken by the Romans
(Liv. viii. 23, ix. 28). It retained the Oscan
language (in wMch its name was Nuvia) tiU
after the Punic wars, though on coins the Greek
lettering appears earlier. It remained faithful
to the Romans even after the battle of Cannae,
when the other Campanian towns revolted to

NONIUS

607

Hannibal ; and it was allowed in consequence
to retain its own constitution as an ally of the
Romans (Liv. xxiii. 14-46). In the Social war
it fell into the hands of the confederates, and
was taken by Sulla (Liv. Ep. 99), and probably
received a military colony. It was again
colonised by Augustus, and also by Vespasian.
The emperor Augustus died at Nola (Plin. iii.
68; Suet. Aug. 98; Tac. Ann. i. 5). It was
still a wealthy city after Alaric invaded Italy
(Aug. C. D. i. 10), but was destroyed by
Genseric, a.d. 455). In the neighbourhood of

Coin of Nola, about

Obv., head of Pallas : the helmet has on it an olive wreath
and (probably) an owl ; rev., noaaiqn ; man-headed buU.
The coinage of Nola ceased alter 311 B.C.
the town some of the most beautiful Campanian
vases have been found in modern times.
According to an ecclesiastical tradition, church
bells were invented at Nola, and were hence
called Campanae.
Nomentanus, mentioned by Horace, as pro
verbially noted for extravagance and a riotous
mode of living. The Scholiasts tell us that his
full name was L. Cassius Nomentanus (Hor.
Sat. i. 1, 102, ii. 8, 23, 25, 60).
Nomentum (Nomentanus: Mentana), ori
ginally a Latin town founded by Alba, but
subsequently a Sabine town, fourteen (Roman)
mUes from Rome, from which the Via Nomen-
tana (more anciently Via Ficulensis) and the
Porta Nomentana at Rome derived their name.
The neighbourhood of the town was celebrated
for its wine. (Verg. Aen. vi. 773 ; Liv. i. 38, iv.
22, viii.^14 ; Dionys. ii. 53, v. 61 ; Mart. x. 48.)
Norma (rd Nbpia), a mountain to Arcadia on
the frontiers of Laconia, is said to have derived
its name from a nymph Noxnia.
Nomius (Nbpios), a surname of divinities
protecting the pastures and shepherds, such as
Apollo, Pan, Hermes, and Aristaeus.
Nonacris (NdvaKpis '. NavaKpidrris, NavaKpt-
etis), a town in the N. of Arcadia, NW. of Phe-
neus, was surrounded by lofty mountains, in
which the river Styx took its origin. The town
is said to have derived its name from Nonacris,
the wife of Lycaon. (Hdt. vi. 74 ; Paus. viii. 17,
6.) From this town Hermes is called Nona-
criates, Evander Nonacrius, Atalanta Nona-
cria, and Callisto Nonacrina virgo, as Arcadian
(Ov. Met. ii. 409, vni. 426, Fast, v. 97).
Nonius Marcellus, a Latin grammarian, a
native of Thubursicum Numidarum in Africa
(see subscriptions of his work, and G. I. L. viu.
4878). He cannot be the Marcellus of Auson.
Prof. Burd. 19. He probably lived early in the
fourth century A.D., since in one MS. there is a
note of a commentary on Ms work by a certain
Julius Tryphonianus, a.d. 402. His work en
titled De Gompendiosa Doctrina is in twenty
books, of which the sixteenth is lost. It is
intended as a book of reference to explain diffi
culties of words which occur in Latin authors,
playing the parts both of a glossary and a
manual of antiquities. His citations from
books which have perished, especially those of
early writers, make Ms work extremely valuable,

608

NONIUS

as giving a clue in many cases alike to the
language and subject matter.
Nonius Sufenas. [Sueenas.]
Nonnus (Nbvvos). 1. A Greek poet, was a
native of Panopolis in Egypt, and Uved in the
fifth century of the Christian era. Respecting
his life nothing is known, except that he
became a Ctoistian. He is the author of an
enormous epic poem, which has come down to
us under the name of Dionysiaca or Bassarica
(Aiovvo-iaxd or Bao-ffapiKd), and wMch consists of
forty-eight books. The work is not without
poetic spirit, though somewhat turgid to style.
It supplies information on the growth and
development of the myths of Dionysus. Edited
by Graefe, Lips. 1826, and by A. Kb'chly, Lips.
1858. Nonnus also made a paraphrase of the
Gospel of St. John in hexameter verse, which
is likewise extant. Edited by Heinsius, Lugd.
Bat. 1627. — 2. Theophanes Nonnus, a Greek
medical writer who lived in the tenth century
after Christ. The work is entitled a ' Compen
dium of the whole Medical Art,' and is com
piled from previous writers. Edited by Ber
nard, Gothae et Amstel. 1794, 1795, 2 vols.
Nora (to; Napa: Napavbs, Norensis). 1.
(Pula), one of the oldest cities of Sardinia,
founded by Iberian settlers under Norax (Paus.
x. 17, 5), stood on a promontory now caUed
C. di Pula, twenty miles S. of Cagliari (Cic.
Scaur. 1, 2 ; Ptol. iii. 313). — 2. A mountain
fortress of Cappadocia, on the borders of
Lycaonia, on the N. side of the Taurus, noted
for the siege sustained in it by Eumenes
against Antigonus. Some modern travellers
place it at Zengibar Kalesi, others on the N.
side of Hassan Dagh. In the time of Strabo,
who calls it tiripoarrobs, it was the treasury of
Sisinas, a pretender to the throne of Cappa
docia (Strab. p. 537 ; Plut. Eum. 10).
Norba (Norbanensis, Norbanus). 1. (Norma),
a strongly fortified town in Latium on the
slope of the Volscian mountains midway be
tween Cora and Setia, originally belonged to
the Latin and subsequently to the Volscian
League (Dionys. v. 61, vii. 13). As early as
B.C. 492 the Romans founded a colony at Norba.
In the Punic wars it was faittoul to Rome.
It espoused the cause of Marius in the CivU
war, and was destroyed by fire by its own
inhabitants, when it was taken by one of Sulla's
generals. (Liv. ii. 34, xxvii. 10 ; App. B. C.
i. 94.) There are stiU remains of polygonal
walls, and a subterraneous passage at Norma.
— 2. Surnamed Caesarea or Caesariana
(Cacere), a Roman colony in Lusitania on
•the left bank of the Tagus, NW. of Augusta
Emerita. The bridge built by order of Trajan
over the Tagus at this place is stiU extant. It
is 600 feet long by twenty-eight wide, and con
tains six arches. (Ptol. ii. 5, 8 ; Plin. iv. 117.)
— 3. (Conversano), in Apulia, between Barium
and Tarentum.
Norbanus, C, tribune of the plebs, B.C. 95,
when he accused Q. Servilius Caepio of
majestas, but was himself accused of the same
crime in the foUowing year, on account of dis
turbances wMchtook place at the trial of Caepio
(Cic. de Or. ii. 48, 199, 200). In 90 or 89,
Norbanus was praetor in Sicily during the
Marsic war ; and in the civil wars he espoused
the Marian party. He was consul to 83, when
he was defeated by SuUa near Capua. In the
following year, 82, he joined the consul Carbo in
Cisalpine Gaul, but their united forces were
entirely defeated by Metellus Pius. Norbanus
escaped from Italy, and fled to Rhodes, where

NOVESIUM
he put an end to his life, when his person was
demanded by SuUa. (App. B. C. i. 82-91 ; VeU.
Pat. ii. 25 ; Plut. Sull. 27.)
Norbanus Flaccus, [Flaccus.]
Noreia (Napi)eia : Neumarkt in Styria), the
ancient capital of the Taurisci or Norici to
Noricum, from which the whole country prob
ably derived its name. It was situated in the
centre of Noricum, a Uttle S. of the river
Noarus, and on the road from Virunum to
Ovilava. It is celebrated as the place where
Carbo was defeated by the Cimbri, B.C. 118.
It was besieged by the Boii in the time of
Julius Caesar. (Caes. B. G. i. 5 ; Strab. p. 214.)
Noricum (i.e. Noricum Regnum), a Roman
province S. of the Danube, was bounded on the
N. by the Danube, on the W. by Raetia and
Vindelicia, on the E. by Pannonia, and on the
S. by Pannoma and Italy. ,It was separated
from Raetia and VtodeUcia by the river Aenus
(Inn), from Pannonia and the E. by M. Cetius,
and from Pannonia and Italy on the S. by the
river Savus, and the Alpes Carnicae. It thus
corresponds to the greater part of Styria and
Carinthia, and a part of Austria, Bavaria, and
Salzburg. Noricum was a mountainous coun
try, for it was not only surrounded on the
S. and E. by mountains, but a continuation of
the Raetian Alps, sometimes caUed Alpes
Noeicae (in the neighbourhood of Salzburg),
ran right through the province. In those
mountains a large quantity of exceUent iron
was found; and the Noric swords were cele
brated in antiquity. Gold also is said to have
been found in the mountains in ancient times.
(Hor. Od. i. 16, 9, Epod. xvii. 71 ; Mart. iv. 55 ;
Ov. Met. xiv. 711 ; Strab. pp. 208, 214.) The
dominant race in the country were Celts,
divided into several tribes, of wMch the
Taurisci, also caUed Norici, after their capital
Noreia, were the most important. The bulk of
the population was Hlyrian, subordinate to the
Celtic tribes ; the whole country was styled a
Mngdom, and the name Noricum Regnum was
retained after its conquest by the Romans (G. I.
L. iii. 4828). They were conquered by the
Romans b.c. 16 (Dio Cass. liv. 20), after the
subjugation of Raetia by Tiberius and Drusus,
and their country was formed toto a Roman
province. In the later division of the Roman
empire into smaller provinces, Noricum was
formed into two provinces, N. Bipense, along
the bank of the Danube, and N. Mediterra-
neum, separated from the former by the moun
tains which divide Austria and Styria: they
both belonged to the diocese of IUyricum and
the prefecture of Italy. The Roman colonies
and chief towns were Virunum and Ovilava:
other important places were Celeia, Jovavum
and Lauriacum.
Nortiaor Nurtia, an Etruscan divinity of
Fortune, worshipped at Volsinii, where a nail
was driven every year into the wall of her tem
ple, for the purpose of marking the number of
years (Liv. vii. 3 ; Juv. x. 74).
Nossis, a Greek poetess, of Locri in Italy,
lived about B.C. 810, and is the author of twelve
epigrams in the Greek Anthology.
Notus. [Venti.]
Novaria (Novarensis : Novara), a town in
Gallia Transpadana, situated on a river of the
same name (Gogna), subsequently a Roman
municipium (Ptol. iii. 1, 3 ; Tac. Hist. i. 70).
Novensiles or Noveusides Dii. [Indigetes,
p. 442.]
Novesium (Neuss), a fortified town of the
Ubii on the Rhine, and on the road leading

NOVIODUNUM
from Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) to Castra
Vetera (Xanten). The fortifications were re
stored by Julian, in a.d. 359. (Amm. Marc, xxvii.)
Noviodununi, a name given to many Celtic
places from their being situated on a hill (dun).
1. (Nouan), a town of the Bituriges Cubi in
Gallia Aquitanica, E. of their capital, Avaricum.
(Caes. B. G. vii. 12.) — 2. (Nevers), a town of
the Aedm to GaUia Lugdunensis, on the road
from Augustodunum to Lutetia, and at the
confluence of the Niveris and the Liger, whence
it was subsequently caUed Nevirnum, and thus
acquired its modern name (Caee._B. G. vii. 55).
—3. A town of the Suessones in Gallia Belgica,
probably the some as Augusta Suessonum.
[Augusta, No. 6.] — 4. (Nion), a town of the
Helvetii to GalUa Belgica, on the N. bank of
the Lacus Le maims, was made a Roman colony
by Julius Caesar, B.C. 45, under the name of
Colonia Equestris [p. 391, b.] — 5. (Isaczi), a
fortress to Moesia Inferior on the Danube, near
wMch Valens built .Ms bridge of boats across
the Danube in his campaign agatost the Goths.
Noviomagus. 1. (Castelnau de MSdoc), a
town of the Bituriges Vivisci in GaUia Aqui
tanica, NW. of Burdigala (Ptol. ii. 7, 8).— 2.
(Lisieux), a town of the Lexovti (Ptol. ii. 8,
2). — 3. (Spires), the capital of the Nemetes.
[Nemetes.] — 4. (Neumugen), a town of the
Treviri to GaUia Belgica on the Mosella. — 5.
(Nimwegen), a town of the Batavi.
Novius, Q., a writer of AteUone plays, a con
temporary of the dictator Sulla (Macrob. i.
10 ; GeU. xv. 13).
Novum Comum. [Comum.]
Nox. [Nyx.]
Nuba Palus (SovBa Xipvn), a lake in Cen
tral Africa, receiving the great river Gir,
according to Ptolemy (iv. 6, 14).
Nubae, Nubaei (NovBai, lSov0diot), an African
people, situated on the W. side of the NUe, S.
of MeroS — that is, to the N. central part of
Nubia ; the Nubae were governed by princes
of their own, independent of Meroe. By the
reign of Diocletian they had advanced north
wards as far as the frontier of Egypt. (Strab.
pp.786, 819 ; Ptol. iv. 7, 30.)
Nuceria (Nucerlnus). 1. (Nocera), surnamed
Alfaterna, probably from an Oscan tribe of
wMch Nuceria was the cMef town, a town to
Campania on the Sarnus (Sarno), and on the
Via Appia, SE. of Nola, and nine (Roman)

NUMANTIA

6C9

Coin of Nuceria Alfaterna In Campania, about 2B0 B.C.
Obv., head with ram's horn ; name of town in Oscan
letters ; rev., one of the Dioscuri standing beside his
horse.
miles from the coast, was taken by the Romans
to the Samnite wars, and was again taken by
Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, when it
was burnt to the ground (Diod. xix. 65 ; Strab.
p. 247 ; Liv. xxiii. 15, xxvii. 3). It was subse
quently rebuUt, and both Augustus and Nero
planted here colonies of veteranB (Tac. Ann.
xiii. 31). — 2. Surnamed Camellaria (Nocera), a
town to the interior of Umbria, on the Via Fla-
minia (Strab. p. 227). — 3. (Luzzara), a small
town to Gallia Cispadana on the Po, NE. of
Brixellum (Ptol. iii. 1, 46). — 4. A town of

Bruttium, whose coins have a Greek inscrip
tion. _ Its site is fixed by the modern Nocera.
Nuithones, a people of Germany, dwelling
on the right bank of the Albis (Elbe), SW. of
the Saxones, and N. of the Langobardi, in the
modern Mecklenburg (Tac. Germ. 40.)
Numa, Marcius. I. A friend of Numa
Pompilius, whom he is said to have accompanied
to Rome, where Numa made him the first Pon
tifex Maximus. Marcius aspired to the kingly
dignity on the death of Pompilius, and he
starved himself to death on the election of
Tullus Hostilius. (Plut. Num. 5 ; Liv. i. 20.)
His name combines the two names of Numa
and Ancus Marcius, and belongs to the tradi
tions of the origin of the Roman religious rites.
— 2. Son of the preceding, is said to have mar
ried Pompilia, the daughter of Numa Pom
pilius, and to have become by her the father of
Ancus Marcius. Numa Marcius was appointed
by TuUus HostUius praefectus urbi. (Plut.
Num. 21, Coriol. 1 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 17.)
Numa, Pompilius, the second king of Rome,
who belongs to legend, and not to history. He
was a native of Cures to the Sabine country,
and was elected king one year after the death
of Romulus, when the people became tired of
the interregnum of the senate. He was re
nowned for his wisdom and his piety: and it
was generaUy believed that he had derived his
knowledge from Pythagoras. His reign was
long and peaceful, and he devoted his chief
care to the establishment of religion among his
rude subjects. He was instructed by the Ca-
mena Egeria, who visited him in a grove near
Rome. [Egeria.] He was revered by the
Romans as the author of their whole religious
worship. It was he who first appointed the
pontiffs, the augurs, the flamens, the virgins of
Vesta, and the Salii. He founded the temple
of Janus, wMch remained always shut during his
reign. The length of his reign is stated differently.
Livy makes it f orty-ttoee years ; Polybius and
Cicero, tMrty-nine years. The sacred books of
Numa, in which he prescribed all the religious
rites and ceremonies, were said to have been
buried near Mm in a separate tomb, and to have
been discovered by accident, 500 years after
wards, in B.C. 181. They were carried to the city-
praetor PetUius, and were found to consist of
twelve or seven books in Latin on religious
ordinances, and the same number of books in
Greek on philosophy : the latter were burnt on
the command of the senate, but the former
were carefully preserved. (Plut. Numa ; Liv.
i. 18-21 ; Cic. de Bep. ii. 13-15 ; Dionys. ii. 58 ;
Val. Max. i. 1, 12.) The story of the discovery
of these books is evidently false; and the
books which were ascribed to Numa, and which
were extant at a later time, were evidently
nothing more than works containing an account
of the ceremonial of the Roman religion. The
story of the reign of Numa himself arose from
the desire to ascribe the foundation of the
Roman religion to a sacerdotal monarch, and
Ancus was introduced to supply the military
events belonging to the same period and to
make Numa, the religious founder, an entirely
peaceful king.
Numana (Umana), a town in Picenum, on
the road leading from Ancona to Aternum,
founded by the Siculi, and subsequently a
municipium (Ptol. iii. 1, 21; Sil. It. vni. 431).
Numantia (Numantinus : Guarray), the
capital of the Pelendones, to Hispania Tarraco
nensis, and the most important town to all Celti-
beria, was situated near the sources of the
RR

610

NUMENIUS

Durius, on a small tributary of this river, and
on the road leading from Asturica to Caesar-
augusta (Plin. iii. 26 ; Strab. p. 162). It was
strongly fortified by nature, being buUt on a
steep and precipitous, though not lofty, MU, and
accessible by only one path, which was defended
by ditches and palisades. It was twenty-four
stadia in circumference, but was not surrounded
by regular walls, which the natural strength of
its position rendered unnecessary. It was long
the head-quarters of the Celtiberians in their
wars with the Romans ; and its protracted siege
and final destruction by Scipio Africanus the
younger (B.C. 133) is one of the most memorable
events in the early Mstory of Spain. (App.
Hisp. 48-98; Eutrop. iv. 17 ; cf. Cic. Off. i. 11.)
Numenius (Novpiivias), of Apamea in Syria, a
Pythagoreo-Platonic philosopher, about 150
a.d., who was highly esteemed by Plotinus and
his school, as weU as by Origen. His object
was to trace the doctrines of Plato up to Pytha
goras, and at the same time to show that they
were not at variance with the dogmas and mys
teries of the Brahmins, Jews, Magi, and Egyp
tians. Considerable fragments of Mb works
have been preserved by Eusebius, in his Prae-
paratio Evangelica.
Numerianus, M. Aurelius, the younger of the
two sons of the emperor Carus, who accompanied
his father in the expedition against the Persians,
A. D. 288. After the death of his father, wMch
happened in the same year, Numerianus was
acknowledged as joint emperor with his brother
Carinus. The army, alarmed by the fate of
Carus, who was struck dead by lightning, com
pelled Numerianus to retreat towards Europe.
During the greater part of the march, which
lasted for eight months, he was supposed to be
confined to his litter by an affection of the eyes ;
but the suspicions of the soldiers having become
excited, they forced their way into the imperial
tent, and discovered the dead body of their
prince (Vopis. Numer. ; Eutrop. ix. 12 ; Zonar.
xii. 30). Arrius Aper, praefect of the praeto
rians, and father-in-law of the deceased, was
arraigned of the murder in a military council,
held at Chalcedon, and, without betog permitted
,to speak in Ms own defence, was Btabbed to the
heart by Diocletian , whom the troops had already
proclaimed emperor. [Diocletianus.]
Numicius or Numicus (Bio Torto), a small
river in Latium flowing toto the Tyrrhene sea
between Lavinium and Ardea. It was connected
in legends with the deaths both of Aeneas and
of Anna, and with the worship of Jupiter In-
# diges [see pp. 25, a ; 72, a ; 442, b].
Numidia (NovpiSia, -)\ Nopafiia and NopaSucfi :
Nopds, Numida, pi. ISopdSes or NopdSes AlBves,
Numidae : Algier), a country of N. Africa, wMch,
in its original extent, was divided from Maure
tania on the W. by the river Malva or Moluc-
hath (Wed Muluya), and on the E. from the
territory of Carthage (aft. the Roman province
of Africa) by the river Tusca ; its N. boundary
was the Mediterranean, and on the S. it extended
indefinitely towards the chain of the Great Atlas
and the country of the Gaetuli (App. Pun. 106 ;
Sail. Jug. 19, 92). Intersected by the chain of
the LesBer Atlas, and watered by the streams
running down from it, it abounded in fine pas
tures, which were early token possession of by
wandering tribes of Asiatic origin, who from
their occupation as herdsmen were caUed by the
Greeks, here as elsewhere, NopdSes, and this
name was perpetuated to that of the country.
A sufficient account of these tribes, and of their
connexion with their neighbours on the W., is

NYCTIMENE
given under Maueetania. The fertiUty of the
country, inviting to agriculture, graduaUy gave
a somewhat more settled character to the people ;
and at their first appearance to Roman history
we find their two great tribes, the Massylians
and the Massaesylians, forming two monarcMes,
which were united into one under Masinissa,
b. c. 201. (For the Mstorical details, see Masi
nissa). On Masinissa's death to 148, his king
dom was divided, by his dying directions, be
tween Ms three sons, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and
Gulussa; but it was soon reunited under
Micipsa, in consequence of the death of both
Ms brothers. His death, in 118, was speedily
foUowed by the usurpation of Jugurtha, an ac
count of which and of the ensuing war with the
Romans is given under Juguetha. On the
defeat of Jugurtha in 106, the country became
virtuaUy subject to the Romans, but they per
mitted the family of Masinissa to govern it with
the royal title (see Hiempsal, No. 2; Juba,
No. 1), until B. c. 46, when Juba, who had es
poused the cause of Pompey to the civil wars,
was defeated and dettooned by Julius Caesar,
and Numidia was made a Roman province.
(Bell. Afr. 97 ; Dio Cass, xliii. 9 ; App. B. C. ii.
100.) In B. c. 30 Augustus restored Juba II. to
his father's kingdom of Numidia ; but in B. c.
25 he exchanged it for Mauretania, and Numidia
was then contracted so as to retain only that
part of the ancient Numidia which lay to the E.
of' the river Ampsaga and to extend as far as
the borders of Cyrenaica. (Plin. v. 22 ; Ptol. iv.
2, 1 ; Strab. p. 840.) It was again diminished
by near a half, under Claudius (see Maure
tania) ; and henceforth, until the ATab conquest,
the senatorial province of Numidia denotes the
district between the river Ampsaga on the W.
and the TuBca on the E. : its capital was Cirta
(Constantineh). [Afeica, p. 32, a.] The country,
in its later restricted limits, is often distinguished
by the name of New Numidia or Numidia Pro
per. The Numidians furnished the best light
cavalry to the armies, first of Carthage, and
afterwards of Rome.
Numidicus Sinus (NovpiSmbs KbXvos : Bay
of Storah), the great gulf E. of Pr. Tretum
(Seven Capes), on the N. of Numidia.
Numistro (Numistranus), a town in Lucania
near ApuUa (Liv. xxvii. 2 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 74).
Numitor. [Romulus.]
Nnrsia (Nursinus : Noreia), a town in the
N. of the land of the Sabines, situated near the
sources of the Nar and amidst the Apennines,
whence it is called by Virgil (Aen. vii. 716) fri-
gida Nursia (cf. Sil. It. viii. 417). It was the
birthplace of Sertorius and of the mother of
Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 1 ; Plut. Sert. 2).
Nycteis (Ni/ktijis), that is, Antiope, daughter
of Nycteus, and mother of Amphion and Zethus.
[Antiope; Nycteus.]
Nycteus (NvKreis), son of Hyrieus by the
nymph Clonia, and husband of Polyxo, by whom
he became the father of Antiope ; though, ac
cording to some, Antiope was the daughter of
the river-god Asopus (Od. xi. 259 ; ApoUod.
iii. 10, 1 ; Ant. Lib. 25). Antiope was carried
off by Epopeus, king of Sicyon; whereupon
Nycteus, who governed Thebes, as the guardian
of Labdacus, invaded Sicyon with a Theban
army. Nycteus was defeated, and being severely
wounded, he was carried back to Thebes, where,
before Ms death, he appototed his brother Lycus
guardian of Labdacus, and at the same time re
quired him to take vengeance on Epopeus.
(Paus. ii. 6, 2 ; Hyg. Fab. 7 ; Lycus.)
Nyctimene, daughter of Epopeus, Mng of

NYMPHAE
Lesbos, or, according to some, of Nycteus.
Pursued and dishonoured by her father, she
concealed herself in the shade of forests, where
she was metamorphosed by Athene into an owl.
(Ov. Met. ii. 590; Hye. Fab. 204.)
Nymphae (isipipat). The worship of the
Nymphs was handed down among the most pri
mitive beliefs of the Greeks and Romans, and
is Ulustrated by similar superstitions in almost
every nation. _ The early Greeks and Romans,
like other nations to an early stage of civilisa
tion, saw in all the phenomena of ordinary na
ture some manifestation of the deity : springs,
rivers, grottoes, trees, and mountains, all seemed
to them fraught with Ufe ; and all were only the
visible embodiments of so many divine agents.
¦Over these salutary and beneficent powers of
nature watched so many divinities. But the
conception of the nymphs (though, as divine,
they are often caUed Beat : H. xxiv. 616) differed
from that of the great ' Nature ' deities in being
strictly localised : each spring had its own
¦nymph, or company of nymphs, who could give
or refuse the f ertUising stream — who might irri
gate the land or destroy it by a flood. TMs
beUef clearly belongs to an earUer stage than
the conception of deities with wide provinces
and varied functions, but it was firmly rooted
in local traditions, and lasted on beside the later
mythology, or in some cases was absorbed into
it, so that the newer great deity assumed the
character of the nymph of the spot, who there
upon was represented to myth as a friend or
attendant of the goddess by whom she was
superseded. Homer speaks of them as deities
admitted to Olympus (H. xx. 8), but it is only
on a special occasion when every divine betog
is caUed to the councU. In the Odyssey (vi.
123, ix. 154, xn. 218, xiii. 856, xvii. 240) they are
the deities of special hills or fountains, honoured
in their own abode; and so Hesiod expresses
the old beUef to nymphs as guarding the
powers of nature when he calls them the chUd
ren of the earth (Th. 130, 187). When in
Homer they are caUed ' children of Zeus '
(Kovpai Aibs : II. vi. 420, Od.xni. 356), it is clear
that nothing more definite is meant than that
they partook of the divine nature. Already in
Homer Artemis (who has to do with woods and
streams, having herself, as the Arcadian Artemis,
been partly developed from Arcadian stories of
nymphs) is the deity who is specially attended
by nymphs, now her subordinates, or com
panions to the dance (Od. vi. 105), just as at a
later time Dionysus as god of trees has Ms at
tendant nymphs. While it is true that every
hiU and every tree might have its nymph as well
as every spring, yet the water nymphs were
those who were most regarded, and who had
more distinctive personality, inasmuch as the
scarcity or abundance of water was more im
portant than anything else in nature to the
herdsmen and agriculturists. Nymphs may,
however, be classed under various heads, ac
cording to the different parts of nature of wMch
they are the representatives. 1. Nymphs of
the watery element. To these belong first the
nymphs of the ocean, Oceanides ('nKeavivai,
'CKeavlSes, viuipai aXiai), who were regarded as
the daughters of Oceanus (Hes. Th. 346, 364 ;
Aesch. Pr. 136; Soph. Phil. 1470); and next
the nymphs of the Mediterranean or inner sea.
[Neeeides.] The rivers were represented by
the Potameides (Tlorapri'tSes), who, as local
divinities, were named after their rivers, as
Acheloides, Anigrides, Ismenides, Amnisiades,
PactoUdes (Ap. Rh. 1219; Verg. Aen. viii. 70;

NYMPHAEUM

611

Ov. Met. vi. 16 ; Paus. i. 81, v. 5). The nymphs
of fresh water, whether of rivers, lakes, brooks,
or springs, were also designated by the general
name Naiades (Nr/tSes), though they had, in
addition, specific names (Kprivaiai, Tlriyaiai,
'EXeiovbpoi, AipvariSes, or AipvdSes). (Od.
xvu. 240 ; Theocr. v. 17.) Even the rivers of
the lower regions were described as having their
nymphs ; hence we read of Nymphae infernae
paludis and Aoernales (Ov. Met. v. 240, Fast.
ii. 610). Many of these nymphs presided over
waters or Bprings which were believed to inspire
those who drank of them. The nymphs them
selves were therefore thought to be endowed
with prophetic power, and to inspire men with
the same, and to confer upon them the gift of
poetry. [Camenae.] There was a belief among
Greeks and Romans (analogous to much that
appears in popular stories everywhere about
water-fairies) that the mortal who saw the
nymph was bereft of Ms senses : hence the ex
pression vvptpbXi)irros = frenzied, and in Latin
lymphatus or lymphaticus, the names Lym-
phae and Nymphae being origtoally the same
and used interchangeably (Hor. Sat. i. 5, 97 ;
Varr. L. L. vii. 87 ; C. I. L. v. 3106).— 2.
Nymphs of mountains and grottoes, caUed
Oreades ('OpeidSes, 'OpoSepvidSes), but some
times also by names derived from the particular
mountains they inhabited (e.g. KiBaipaviSes,
TlnXidSes, KopvKtai). (Od. ix. 154 ; Theocr. vii.
137 ; Verg. Aen. i. 168, 500 ; Paus. ix. 3, x. 82 ;
Ap. Rh. i. 550.) — 3. Nymphs of forests, groves,
and glens, were beheved sometimes to appear
to and frighten solitary travellers. They are
designated by the names 'AXo-riffies, 'TXriapoi,
AvXavidSes, and Nairdiai. — 4. Nymphs of trees,
were believed to die together with the trees
which had been their abode, and with wMch
they had come into existence. They were called
Dryades and Hamadryades (ApvdSeS, 'Apa-
SpvdSes or 'ASpvdSes), from Spvs (cf. MeXiai, Hes.
Th. 187). All these nymphs had their special
haunts and abodes to watery glades, in groves,
in caves and grottoes. Here sacrifices were
offered of goats, lambs, milk, and oil, but never
of wine. (Od. xvii. 240 ; Theocr. v. 12, 53, 139,
140 ; Serv. ad Georg. iv. 380, ad Eel. v. 74.)
From these local nymphs of springs and woods
was developed another class with more definite
history and personality, such as Circe and
Calypso, who were divine in nature but differed
from goddesses in betog localised in some parti
cular place on the earth : a similar development
was the conception of the nymph who presided
over a particular town, e.g. Cyrene. It may be
observed that the vvptpn is sometimes called
Bebs, though the Bebs is never called viptpn.
Nymphs were in archaic art represented (as
were all goddesses) fully clothed ; but as art
progressed it was customary to show them less
and less clothed and at last whoUy naked.
They appear as companions or attendants of
country deities, such as Pan ; often also with
Hermes, as a favourite deity of ' herdsmen ; or
with Artemis, the goddess of woods and Mils ;
or in their prophetic! character with Apollo.
Nymphaeuni (\Svp<pa7ov, i.e. Nymphs'
abode). 1. A mountain by the river Aous, near
Apollonia, in IUyricum. — 2. A port and pro
montory on the coast of Hlyricum, three Roman
mUes from Lissus (Caes. B. C. iii. 26). — 3. (C.
Ghiorgi), the SW. promontory of Acte or Athos,
in Chalcidice. — 4. A seaport town of the
Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea) on the Cim
merian Bosporus, 25 stadia (2J geographical
mUes) from Panticapaeum (Strab. p. 309 ; App.
EE 2

012

NYMPHAEUS

Mithr. 106; Ptol. iii. 6, 3). — 5. A place on the
coast of Bithynia, thirty stadia (three geogra
phical miles) W. of the mouth of the river
Oxines. — 6. A place in Cilicia, between Celen-
deris and Soloe.
Nymphaeus (Nipipaios). 1. (Ninfa or
Nimpa), a small river of Latium, falling into
the sea above Astura ; of some note as contri
buting to the formation of the Pompttoe
marshes (Phn. iii. 57). It now no longer
reaches the sea, but falls into a little lake,
called Lago di Monad. — 2. Also called Nym-
phius (Basilimfa), a small river of Sophene in
Armenia, a tributary of the upper Tigris, flow
ing from N. to S. past Martyropolis, in the
vaUey between M. Niphates and M. Masius
(Amm. Marc, xviii. 9 ; Procop. B. P. i. 8, 21).
NymphidlUB Sabinus, commander of the
praetorian troops, together with Tigelltous,
attempted, on the death of Nero, A.D. 68, to seize
the throne, but was murdered by the friends of
Galba (Tac. Ann. xv. 72, Hist. i. 5, 25, 37;
Plut. Galb. 8-15).
Nymphis (Siptpis), son of Xenagoras, a
native of the Pontic Heraclea, Uved about b.c.
250, and wrote a work on Alexander and Ms
successors, in twenty-four books, and a Mstory
of Heraclea in tMrteen books (Suid. s. v.).
Nymphodorns (NvpipbSapos). 1. A native of
Abdera and brother-in-law of Sitalces, king of
Thrace: the Athenians made him their pro-
xenus in 431, and he negotiated a reconcili
ation between them and Perdiccas (Hdt. vii.
137; Thuc. i. 29). — 2. A Greek Mstorian of
Amphipolis, of uncertain date, the author of a
wort on the Laws or Customs of Asia (Niipipa
'Atrlas). — 3. Of Syracuse, likewise a historian,
Uved about the time of PhUip and Alexander
the Great. He wrote & Periplus of Asia, and a
work on Sicily (Athen. pp. 19, 265).
Nysa (Nt/tra), was the name of the mountain
on wMch Dionysus was supposed to have been
nursed by the nymphs [see p. 294, a]. Hence
the name was applied to several MUs or towns
where early culture of the vine gave rise to
local traditions of the cMldhood of the wine-
god ; or, conversely, the stories may have become
attached to places which bore the same name
as a Mount Nysa connected with the worship of
Dionysus. It is, however, noticeable that most
of the places of this name are supposed to have
been early homes of the vine. Among the
places so named whose position can be fairly
determined are the foUowing: — 1. (Sultan-
Hisar), a town in Caria, on the southern slope of
Mount Messogis (which was famed for wine), on
a small stream wMch faUs into the Maeander
from the north (Strab. p. 650). It was said to
have been formerly called Athymbra and to
have taken its name from Nysa one of the
wives of Antiochus (Steph. Byz. s. v. Avribxe ia) ;
but that may be only a later attempt to
account for the name. — 2. A mountain and
town in Ttoace, which is the Nysa connected
with Dionysus in the Hiad (vi. 133 ; cf. Plin.
iv. 36 ; see p. 295, a). — 3. A village on the slopes
of HeUcon, in Boeotia (Strab. p. 405). — 4. A
mountain and town to India, connected in
myth with the journeys of Dionysus (p. 294),
and in reaUty with the earliest culture of the
vine (Arr. An. v. 1, 2, vi. 2, 3 ; Strab. p. 687).
— 5. A town to Aethiopia near Meroe. The
Homeric hymn xxxiv. speaks of Dionysus as
being reared on a mountain in the uttermost
parts of Phoenicia (i.e. far south), near the
river Aegyptus. Herodotus, foUowing the same
tradition, speaks of Dionysus being carried to

OASIS
Nysa, beyond Egypt, to the cinnamon country
(prob. Somaliland), and there, he says, were
festivals of Dionysus (Hdt. iii. 97, 111).
Nysaeus, Nysius, Nysens, or Nysigena, a
surname of Dionysus, derived from Nysa, a
mountain or city (see above) where the god
was said to have been brought up by nymphs.
Nyseides or Nysiades, the nymphs of Nysa,
who are said to have reared Dionysus, and
whose names are Cisseis, Nysa, Erato, Eriphia,
Bromia, and Polyhymno (Ov. Met. iii. 314,
Fast. in. 769 ; ApoUod. iii. 4, 3).
Nyssa (Nu0-o"a), a city of Cappadocia, on the
W. side of the Halys, not far from the river, on
the road from Parnassus to Mazara. It was the
bishopric of Gregory of Nyssa. (Ptol. v. 7, 8.)
Nyx (Ni5|), caUed Nox by the Romans, was a
partial personification of Night, in which
much of the abstract idea still remained and
the aUegory was to a great extent recognised as
such. Homer caUs her the subduer of gods and
men, and relates that Zeus himself stood in awe
of her (II. xiv. 259). In the ancient cosmo-
gomes Night is one of the very first created
beings, for she is described as the daughter of
Chaos, and the sister of Erebus, by whom she
became the mother of Aether and Hemera.
She is further said to have given birth, without
a husband, to Moros, the Keres, Thanatos,
Hypnos, Dreams, Momus, Oizys, the Hespe
rides, Moerae, Nemesis, and simUar bemgs
(Hes. Th. 123, 211, 748 ; cf. Aesch. Eum. 821).
In the later poets Night is sometimes described
as a winged goddess, and sometimes as riding
in a chariot, covered with a dark garment and
and accompanied by the stars to her course.

O.

Oanus ("flavos : Frascolari), a river on the S.
coast of Sicily, near Camarina (Pind. Ol. v. 25).
Oar us ("Oopor), a considerable river men
tioned by Herodotus as rising in the country of
the Thyssagetae, and falling into the Palus
Maeotis (Sea of Azov) E. of the Tanais (Don)
(Hdt. iv. 128). As there is no river wMch very
well answers tMs description, Herodotus prob
ably refers to one of the E. tributaries of the
Don, such as the Sal or the Manyteh.
Oasis ("Oaais, Aiiaais, and in later writers
"nacris) is the Greek form of an Egyptian word
Uah, an inhabited place, wMch was used to
denote an island in the sea of sand of the
great Libyan Desert: the word has been
adopted toto our language. The Oases are
depressions in the great table-land of Libya,
preserved from the inroad of the shifting
sands by steep Mils of limestone round them,
and watered by springs, which make them
fertUe and habitable. With the substitution of
these springs for the Nile, they closely resemble
that greater depression to the Libyan table
land, the valley of Egypt. The chief specific
applications of the word by the ancient writers
are to the two Oases on the W. of Egypt, wMch
were taken possession of by the Egyptians at
an early period. — 1. Oasis Minor, the Lesser or
Second Oasis ("Oaais MiKpd, or i) Sevrepa : Uah
el-Bahariye), lay W. of Oxyrynchus, and a
good day's journey from the SW. end of the
lake Moeris. It was reckoned as belonging to
the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt ; and formed
a separate Nomos. (Ptol. iv. 5, 87; Strab. p.
814.)— 2. Oasis Major, the Greater, Upper, or
First Oasis ("O. peydX-n, r) irpdrn, r\ ova O.,
and, in Herodotus, irbXis "Oacris and v5j<ros

OAXES
J/laKdpav, Uah el-Dakhel), is described by
Strabo as seven days' journey W. of Abydos,
wMch apphes to its N. end, as it extends over
more than 14° of latitude. It belonged to
Upper Egypt, and, Uke the other, formed a
distinct nome : these two nomes are mentioned
together as ' Duo Oasitae ' (at Sio 'Oao-irai) (Hdt.
iii. 26, iy. 152 ; Strab. 1. c. ; Plin. v. 50). When
the ancient writers use the word Oasis alone,
the Greater Oasis must generally be under
stood. TMs Oasis contains considerable ruins
of the ancient Egyptian and Roman periods. It
is about level with the valley of the Nile ; the
Lesser is about 200 feet higher than the Nile, in
nearly the same latitude.— 3. A still more cele
brated Oasis than either of these was that called
Ammon, Hammon, Ammonium, Hammonis
Oraculum, from its being a cMef seat of the
worsMp and oracle of the god Ammon. It was
caUed by the Arabs in the middle ages Santa-
riah, and now Siwah. It is about six mUes
long, and tMee wide : its cMef town, Siwah, is
to 29° 12' N. lat., and 26° 17' E. long. : its
distance from Cairo is twelve days, and from
the N. coast about 160 statute miles : the
ancients reckoned it twelve days from Mem
phis, and five days from Paraetonium on the N.
coast. It was inhabited by various Libyan
tribes, but the ruling people were a race
kindred to the Aethiopians above Egypt, who,
at a period of unknown antiquity, had intro
duced, probably from Meroe, the worship of
Ammon : the government was monarcMcal.
The Ammomans do not appear to have been
subject to the old Egyptian monarchy. Cam
byses, after conquering Egypt in B.C. 525, sent
an army agatost them, which was overwhelmed
by the sands of the Desert. In b.c. 331,
Alexander the Great visited the oracle, wMch
haUed him as the son of Zeus Ammon (Arrian.
An. hi. 4 ; Curt. iv. 33). The oracle was also
visited by Cato of Utica. Under the Ptolemies
and the Romans, it was subject to Egypt, and
formed part of the Nomos Libya. The most
remarkable objects in the Oasis, besides the
temple of Ammon, were the palace of the
ancient Mngs, abundant springs of salt water
(as weU as fresh) from which salt was made,
and a weU, caUed Fons Solis, the water of
wMch was cold at noon, and warm in the
morning and evening. Ruins of the temple of
Ammon are still standing at Siwah.
Oax.es. [Oaxus.]
Oaxus ("Oa|os : 'Oafios), caUed Axus ("Afos)
by Herodotus, a town to the interior of Crete
on the river Oaxes (wMch flows into the sea to
the centre of the N. coast of Crete) and near
Eleutherna, is said to have derived its name
from Oaxes or Oaxus, who was, according to
some accounts, a son of AcacalUs, the daughter
of Minos, and, according to others, a son of
ApoUo by Anchiale (Hdt. iv. 154 ; Verg. Eel. i.
66 ; Serv. ad loc.).
Obila (Avila), a town of the Vettones in
Hispania Tarraconensis (Ptol. ii. 5, 9).
Oblivionis Flumen. [Limaea.]
Obrimas (Koja-Chai or Sandukli Ghai), an
E. tributary of the Maeander, in Phrygia (Liv.
xxxviu. 15 ; Plin. v. 106).
Obringa ('OBpiyKas), a W. tributary of the
RMne, forming, according to Ptol. ii. 10, 17, the
boundary between Germania Superior and
Inferior. It is probably the small river Ahr,
which joins the RMne near Bemagen, between
Bonn and Andernach.
Obsequens, Julius, the name prefixed to a
fragment entitled DeProdigiis or Prodigiorum

OCEANUS

013

Libellus, containing a record of the phenomena
classed by the Romans under the general
designation of Prodigia or Ostenta. The
series extends in chronological order from the
consulsMp of Scipio and Laelius, b.o. 190, to
the consulship of Fabius and Aelius, b.c. 11.
The materials are derived from an abridgment
of Livy, whose very words are frequently em
ployed. With regard to the compiler we know
nothing. He probably wrote in the fourth cen
tury a.d.— Editions by Scheffer, Amst. 1679,
and by Oudendorp, Lugd. Bat. 1720.
Obuoola, Obuciila, or Obulcula (Monclova),
a town in Hispania Baetica, on the road from
Hispalis to Emerita and Corduba (Ptol. U. 4,
4 ; Plin. iii. 12).
Obulco (Porcuna), surnamed Pontificense, a
Roman municipium in Hispania Baetica (Strab.
pp. 141, 160 ; Ptol. ii. 4, 11).
Ocalea ('Xl/coAta, 'aKaXen, also 'nKaXeia,
'ClKaXeai : 'ClKaXeis), a town to Boeotia, between
HaUartus and Alalcomenae, situated on a river
of the same name faUing into the lake Copais,
at the foot of the mountain Tilphusion (II. ii.
501 ; Hymn. Apoll. 242 ; Strab. p. 410).
Oceanides. [Nymphae.]
Oceanus ('aKeavbs), to the oldest Greek
poets is the god of the water wMch was
believed to surround the whole earth, and which
was supposed to be the source of aU the rivers
and other waters of the world. In the Home
ric mythology Ocean is the father of aU tMngs,
even of the gods (Beav yeveffis), and not only
the source from which heaven and earth alike
arose, and from wMch aU streams were still
derived, but also the bounding limit of every-
tMng (II. xiv. 200, 246, 302 ; cf. Aristot. Met.
A. p. 983), and he has Ms feminine counterpart,
Tethys, who is the mother of all things. In
Hesiod he is not, as to Homer, the primary source,
but is the son of Heaven and Earth, the hus
band of Tethys, and the father of all the river-
gods and water-nymphs of the whole earth
(Th. 133, 337). Another difference in Hesiod
is that, instead of aU streams coming from
Oceanus, and none flowing in, the Styx pours
one-tenth of her water into the underworld,
but nine-tenths into the ocean ; yet Styx also
is pictured as originaUy deriving her water
from Ocean, since she is the chief of the
daughters of Oceanus and Tethys (Hes. Th.
361, 789). As to the physical idea attached by
the early Greeks to the word, it seems that they
regarded the earth as a flat circle, which was
encompassed by a river perpetuaUy flowing
round it, and tMs river was Oceanus. Out of
and into this river the sun and the stars were
supposed to rise and set ; and on its banks were
the abodes of the dead (Od. x. 508). The con
ception of Ocean as a stream appears in poetry
long after Homer ; but Herodotus rejects the
idea (ii. 23, iv. 8). From this notion it natur
ally resulted that, as geographical knowledge
advanced, the name was applied to the great
outer waters of the earth, in contradistinction ,
to the inner seas, and especiaUy to the Atlantic,
or the sea without the Pillars of Hercules (h e£a
BaXdrra, Mare Exterius) as distinguished from
the Mediterranean, or the sea within that limit
(r) ivrbs BdXarra, Mare Internum) ; and thus
the Atlantic is often simply caUed Oceanus.
The epithet Atlantic (% 'ArXavriK^i BaXairira,
Herod,, b 'A. irbvros, Eurip. ; Atlanticum Mare)
was applied to it from the mythical position of
Atlas being on its shores. The other great
waters wMch were denoted by the same term
are described under their specific names.

614

OCELIS

Ocelis ("Oki/Xis: Ghela), a harbour and
emporium, at the SW. point of Arabia Felix,
at the entrance to the Red Sea (Ptol. i. 7, 4).
Ocellus ('OKeXXos), a Lucanian, and a Pytha
gorean, who wrote a work nepi rijs rov iravrbs
(pvaeas (On the Nature of the Whole). Ed.
by MuUach, 1846.
Ocelum. 1. A town in the NE. of Lusitania
between the Tagus and the Durius, whose
inhabitants, the Ocelenses, also bore the name
of Lancienses (Plin. iv. 118). — 2. (Oulx), a
town in the Cottian Alps, was the last place in
Cisalpine Gaul before entering the territories of
king Cottius (Caes. B.G. i. 10 ; Strab. p. 179).
It is on the route over the pass of Mt. Genevre,
five miles from Scingomagus (Cesanne), and
twelve from Brigantium (Briangon), on the
ItaUan side of the pass. — 3. A promontory in
Britain, probably SpumHead (Ptol. ii. 3,6).
Ocha ( Oxv), the Mghest mountain in Euboea,
in the S. of the island near Carystus, run
ning out into the promontory Caphareus. Eu
boea is said to have been once called Ocha.
(Strab. pp. 445, 446.)
Ochus. [Aetaxeexes HI.]
Ochus ("Oxos^nxos : Tedjend), a great river
of Central Asia, flowing from the N. side of the
Paropamisus (Hindoo Koosh), according to
Strabo, through Hyrcania, toto the Caspian ; ac
cording to PUny and Ptolemy, through Bactria,
paraUel with the Oxus (Strab. p. 509 ; Ptol. vi.
11, 2 ; Plin. vi. 48 ; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6).
Ocilis ("OkiXis), a town of the Celtiberi, pro
bably Ocana (App. Hisp. 47).
Ocriculum (Ocriculanus : nr. Otricoli, Ru.),
an important municipium to Umbria, situated
on the Tiber near its confluence with the Nar,
and on the Via Flaminia, leading from Rome
to Narnia, &c. There are ruins of an aqueduct,
an amphitheatre, and temples near the modern
Otricoli. (Liv. ix. 41 ; xxii. 11 ; Strab. p. 226 ;
Tac. Hist, iii.- 78; PUn. Ep. vi. 25.)
Ocrisia or Oclisia, mother of Servius TuUius.
For details, see Tullius.
Octavia. 1. Sister of the emperor Augustus,
was married first to C. MarceUus, consul B.C.
50, and subsequently, upon the death of the
latter, to Antony, the triumvir, in 40. This
marriage was regarded as the harbinger of a
lasting peace. Augustus was warmly attached
to his sister, and she possessed all the charms
and virtues Ukely to secure a lasting influence
over the mind of a husband. Her beauty was
universally allowed to be superior to that of
Cleopatra, and her virtue was such as to excite
admiration to an age of growing licentiousness
and corruption. For a time Antony seemed to
forget Cleopatra ; but he soon became tired of
Ms virtuous wife, and upon Ms return to the
East, he forbade her to follow Mm. When at
length the war broke out between Antony and
Augustus, Octavia was divorced by her hus
band ; but instead of resenting the insults she
had received from Mm, she brought up with
care his children by Fulvia and Cleopatra. She
died B.C. 11. (App. B.C. v. 64, 67, 98, 95, 138 ;
Dio CaBS. xlvii. 7, xlviii. 31, li. 15. liv. 35 ; Plut.
Ant. 81-87.) Octavia had five chUdren, three
by MarceUus, a son and two daughters, and
two by Antony, both daughters. Her son, M.
Marcellus, was adopted by Augustus, and was
destined to be Ms successor, but died in 23.
[Maecellus, No. 9.] The descendants of her
two daughters by Antonius successively ruled
the Roman world. The elder of them married
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and became the
grandmother of the emperor Nero ; the younger

OCTAVIUS
of them married Drusus, the brother of the em
peror Tiberius, and became the mother of the
emperor Claudius, and the grandmother of the-

Octavia, the sister of Augustus, and wife of M. Antonius..
Obv., head of M. Antonius : M. ANTONIVS M.F. M. N.-
AVGVR. IMP. TER. ; rev., head of Octavia : COS.
DESIGN. ITER. ET TER. IIIVIR R. P. C. (Aureus,
struck at Alexandria B.C. 86-34.)
emperor Caligula. [Antonia.] — 2. The daughter
of the emperor Claudius, by Ms tMrd wife, Valeria
MessalUna, was born about A.D. 42. She was at
first betrothed by Claudius to L. SUanus, who
put an end to Ms Ufe, as Agrippina hod destined
Octavia to be the wife of her son, afterwards
the emperor Nero. She was married to Nero
to a.d. 53, but was soon deserted by her young
and profligate husband for Poppaea Sabina.
After living with the latter as Ms mistress for
some time, he resolved to recognise her as Ms
legal wife ; and accordingly he divorced Octa
via on the alleged ground of sterUity, and then
married Poppaea, a.d. 62. Shortly afterwards.
Octavia was falsely accused of adultery, and
was banished to the little island of Pandataria,.
where she waB,put to death. Her untimely end
excited general commiseration. Octavia is
the heroine of a tragedy found among the-
works of Seneca. The author was more prob
ably Curiatius Maternus. [Nero.]

Octavia, the wife of Nero.
Obv. headof Nero, laureate ;[nepq]kaay. kais. 2EBA. r-EP.
AY. ; rev., head of Octavia, draped : oktaoyia sebast.
l.a. (year 4=A.D. 57). (Struck at Alexandria.)
Octavianus. [Augustus.]
Octavius. 1. Cn., surnamed Rnfus, questor
about B.C. 230, may be regarded as the founder
of the family. The Octavii originaUy came
from the Volscian town of Velitrae, where a
street and an altar bore the name of Octavius.
(Suet. Aug. 2.) — 2. Cn., son of No. 1, plebeian
aedile 206, and praetor 205, when he obtained
Sardinia as his province. He was actively em
ployed during the remainder of the second
Punic war, and he was present at the battle of
Zama. (Liv. xxix. 36, xxx. 24, xxxi. 8, 11,
xxxiv. 45, xxxvi. 16.) — 3. Cn., son of No. 2, was
praetor 168, and had the command of the fleet
in the war against Perseus. He was consul
165. In 162 he was one of the three ambassa
dors sent into Syria, but was assassinated at
Laodicea, by a Greek of the name of Leptines,.
at the instigation, as was supposed, of Lysias,
the guardian of the young king Antiochus V.
A statue of Octavius was placed on the rostra-
at Rome, where it was in the time of Cicero.
(Liv. xliv. 17-35, xiv. 38 ; Pol. xxviii. 3, 5 ; Veil.
Pat. i. 9; Cic. Fin. i. 7.)— 4. Cn., son of No. 3,
consul 128. — 5. M., perhaps younger son of
No. 3, was the colleague of Tib. Gracchus in the.

OCTAVIUS
tribunate of the plebs, 183, when he opposed
tos tribunitian veto to the passing of the agra
rian law. He was to consequence deposed from
Ms office by Tib. Gracchus. (Plut. Tib. Gracch.
10.) — 6. Cn., a supporter of the aristocratical
party, was consul 87 with L. Cornelius Cinna.
After Sulla's departure from Italy in order to
carry on the war against Mithridates, a vehe
ment contest arose between the two consuls,
which ended to the expulsion of Cinna from the
city, and his being deprived of the consulship.
Cinna soon afterwards returned at the head
of a powerful army, accompamed by Marius.
Rome was compeUed to surrender, and Octa
vius was one of the first victims in the massa
cres that followed. His head was cut off and
suspended on the rostra. (App. B.C. i. 64-71 ;
Cic. Cat. iii. 10, N.D. ii. 5.)— 7. L., son of No.
6, consul 75, died to 74, as proconsul of CUicia,
and was succeeded to the command of the pro
vince by L. LucuUus (Plut: Lucull. 6). — 8.
Cn., son of No. 7, consul 76. — 9. M., son of No.
8, was curule aedile 50, along with M. Caelius.
On the breaking out of the Civil war to 49, Oc
tavius espoused the aristocratical party, and
served as legate to M. Bibulus, who had the
supreme command of the Pompeian fleet.
After the battle of Pharsalia, Octavius sailed to
Hlyricum; but having been driven out of this
country (47) by Caesar's legates, he fled to
Africa. He was present at the battle of Actium
(31), when he commanded part of Antony's
fleet. (Caes. B.C. in. 5; Dio Cass. xiii. 11;
Plut. Ant. 65.) — 10. C, younger son of No. 1,
and the ancestor of Augustus, rematoed a sim
ple Roman eques, without attempting to rise
any Mgher in the state (Suet. Aug. 2). — 11.
C, son of No. 10, and great-grandfather of
Augustus, Uved to the time of the second Punic
war, to which he served as tribune of the sol
diers. He was present at the battle of Cannae
(216), and was one of the few who survived the
engagement. (Frontto. Strat. iv. 5, 7 ; Suet.
Aug. 2.) — 12. C, son of No. 11, and grandfather
of Augustus, Uved quietly at his villa at VeUtrae,
without aspiring to the dignities of the Roman
state (Suet. Aug. 2, 4, 6). — 13. C, son of No.
12, and father of Augustus, was praetor 61, and
in the foUowing year succeeded C. Antonius in
the government of Macedonia, wMch he adminis
tered with equal integrity and energy. He
returned to Italy in 59, and died the following
year at Nola, in Compania, to the same room
to wMch Augustus afterwards breathed his last.
By Ms second wife Atia, Octavius had a daugh
ter and a son, the latter of whom was subse
quently the emperor Augustus. [Augustus.]
— 14. L., a legate of Pompey in the war against
the pirates, 67, was sent by Pompey into Crete
to supersede Q. MeteUus to the command of
the island ; but MeteUus refused to surrender
the command to him. [Metellus, No. 16.]
Octavius Balbus. [Balbus.]
Octodiirus (Octodurensis : Martigny), a town
of the Veragri to the country of the Helvetii, is
situated at the point where the valley of the
Drance joins the upper Rhone vaUey. Caesar
put Galba there B. c. 56 to keep open for the
traders the pass of the Great St. Bernard, the
approach to which by the valley of the Drance
is completely commanded by Martigny. Galba
was attacked by the natives and forced to re
treat. (Caes. B. G. Ui. 1.) The ancient town, like
the modern one, was divided by the Drance into
two parts. The inhabitants had the Jus Latii
(Plin. in. 135). Under Diocletian conjointly
with Moutiers it was the chief town of the

ODRYSAE

615

division of the diocese Galliarum wMch was
called Alpes Graiae et Poeninae and was the
residence of a praeses.
Octogesa, a town of the Hergetes in Hispania
Tarraconensis, near the Iberus, probably S. of
the Sicoris (Caes. B. C. i. 61). '
Oc tolophus. 1. A town of Lyncestis in Mace
donia (Liv. xxxi. 86).— 2. A town in Perrhaebia
(Liv. xliv. 8).
Ocypete. [Haepyiae.]
Ocyrhoe ('ClKvpbii). 1. One of the daughters
of Oceanus and Tethys.— 2. Daughter of the
centaur Chiron, possessed the gift of prophecy,
and is said to have been changed into a mare.
Odenathus, the ruler of Palmyra, checked
the victorious career of the Persians after the
defeat and oapture of Valerian, a. d. 260, and
drove Sapor out of Syria (Procop. Pers. ii. 5).
In return for these services, Gallienus bestowed
upon Odenathus the title of Augustus. He was
soon afterwards murdered, not without the
consent, it is said, of his wife Zenobia, 266. He
was succeeded by Zenobia.
Odessus ('OSno-o-bs : 'OSritro-lrris, 'OSrjo-o-eis) :
(Varna), also called Odyssus and Odissus at a
later time, a Greek town to Thracia (to the later
Moesia Inferior) on the Pontus Euxinus nearly
due E. of Marcianopolis, was founded by the
Milesians to the territory of the Crobyzi in the.

Coin of Odessus.
Obv., head of Caracalla, laureate : ayt. k. m. avp. cevh-
poc antcneinoc ; rev., figure of Serapis (according to
others, of Pluto) with cornucopia and patera, standing
at an altar: oahcceitun.
reign of Astyages, king of Media (b.c. 594-559).
The town had a good harbour, and carried om
an extensive commerce. (Strab. p. 319 ; Diod.
xix. 73 ; Ov. Trist. i. 9, 37 ; C. I. L. iii. 762.)
Odoacer, usually called king of the Heruli,
was the leader of the barbarians who overttoew
the Western empire A. D. 476. He took the title
of king of Italy, and reigned till his power was
overthrown by Theodoric, king of the Goths.
Odoacer was defeated to tMee decisive battles
by Theodoric (489-490), and took refuge in Ra
venna, where he was besieged for three years. He
capitulated on condition that he and Theodoric
should be joint kings of Italy ; but Odoacer was
soon afterwards murdered by his rival (Procop.
B. G. i. 1, ii. 6 ; Jordan. Beb. Goth. pp. 128-141).
Odomantlce ('OSopavriK-ii), a district in the
NE. of Macedonia between the Strymon and
the Nestus, inhabited by the Thracian tribe of
the Odomanti or Odomantes (Hdt. vii. 112 ;
Thuc. ii. 101).
Odrysae ('OSpio-ai), the most powerful people
in Thrace, dwelt, according to Herodotus, on
both sides of the river Artiscus, a tributary cf
the Hebrus, but also spread further W. over the
whole plain of the Hebrus. Soon after the
Persian wars Teres, king of the Odrysae, ob
tained the sovereignty over several of the other
Thracian tribes, and extended tos dominions as
far as the Black Sea. He was succeeded by his
son, Sitalces, who became the master of almost
the whole of Ttoace. His empire comprised all

616

ODYSSEA

the territory from Abdera to the mouths of the
Danube, and from Byzantium to the sources of
the Strymon ; and it is described by Thucydides
as the greatest of all the Mngdoms between the
Ionian gulf and the Euxine, both in revenue
and opulence (Hdt. iv. 92 ; Thuc. ii. 96 ; Strab.
p. 331, 38). Sitalces assisted the Athenians in
the Peloponnesian war against Perdiccas, king
of Macedonia. [Sitalces.] He died b. c 424,
and was succeeded by his nephew Seuthes I.
On the death of the latter, about the end of the
Peloponnesian war, the power of the Odrysae
declined. For the subsequent history of the
Odrysae see Thracia.
Odyssea ('05i5ero-eia), a town of Hispania
Baetica, N. of Abdera amidst the mountains of
Turdetania, with a temple of Athene, said to
have been built by Odysseus (Strab. pp. 149, 157).
Odysseus ('O8uo-<rei5s), called to Latin TTlixes
(less correctly written Ulysses, though that ia
the form which has prevailed in modem times),
one of the principal Greek heroes in the Trojan
war. According to the Homeric account, he
was a son of Laertes and Anticlea, the daughter
of Autolycus, and was married to Penelope, the
daughter of Icarius, by whom he became the
father of Telemachus (II. iii. 201 ; Od. i. 329,
xi. 85, xvi. 118). But according to a later tradi
tion he was a son of Sisyphus and Anticlea,
who, being with cMld by Sisyphus, was married
to Laertes, and thus gave birth to him either
after her arrival in Ithaca or on her way thither
(Soph. Phil. 417, Aj. 190; Ov. Met. xiii. 32;
Plut. Q. Gr, 43). Hesiod (Th. 1013, 1014) makes
Mm by Circe father of Agrius, Latinus and (if
1014 is genuine) of Telegonus. Later traditions
state that besides Telemachus, Odysseus became
by Penelope the father of Arcesilaus or Ptoli-
porthus ; and by Circe the father of Agrius,
Latinus, Telegonus, and Cassiphone ; by Calypso
of Nausithous and Nausinous or Auson, Tele
gonus, and Teledamus ; and lastly, by Evippe
of Leontophron, Doryclus or Euryalus. (Paus.
viii. 12, 3 ; Serv. ad Aen. iii. 171 ; Eustath. ad
Hora. p. 1796 ; Schol. ad Lycophr. 795 ; Parthen.
Erot. 8.) The name Odysseus = the angry
(bSiao-opai) : in Od. xix. 407 it is said that Ms
grandfather Autolycus gave the name because
he Mmself was often at enmity with Ms fellow-
men : to Od. i. 60 there seems to be connexion
traced between his name and the anger of the
gods which made Mm a wanderer. His wrath
against the suitors is a reason not unfittingly
suggested. The story ran as foUows. As a
young man, Odysseus went to see his grand
father Autolycus near Mt. Parnassus. There,
to the chase, he was wounded by a boar in
the knee, by the scar of which he was subse
quently recognised by Euryclia (Od. xix.
418 ff .). Even at that age he was distinguished
for courage, for knowledge of navigation, for
eloquence and for sMU as a negotiator ; and,
on one occasion, when the Messenians had
carried off some sheep from Ithaca, Laertes
sent him to Messene to demand reparation.
He there met with Iphitus, who was seeMng
the horses stolen from Mm, and who gave Mm
the famous bow of Eurytus. This bow Odys
seus used only in Ithaca, regarding it as too
great a treasure to be employed in the field,
and it was so strong that none of the suitors
was able to handle it (Od. xxi. 14 ff.). Accord
ing to some accounts he went to Sparta as one
of the suitors for Helen ; and he is said to have
advised Tyndareus to make the suitors swear
that they would defend the chosen bride
groom against anyone who should insult him

ODYSSEUS
on Helen's account. Tyndareus, to show Mm
his gratitude, persuaded Mb brother Icarius to
give Penelope in marriage to OdyBseus ; or,
according to others, Odysseus gained her by
conquering his competitors to the foot-race
(ApoUod. iii. 10, 9 ; Paus. 12, 2). Homer, how
ever, mentions nothing of all tMs, and states
that Agamemnon, who visited Odysseus in Ithaca,
prevailed upon him only with great difficulty
to join the Greeks in their expedition against
Troy (Od. xxiv. 16). Other traditions relate
that he was visited by Menelaus and Aga
memnon, and that Palamedes more especiaUy
induced him to join the Greeks. When Pala
medes came to Ithaca, Odysseus pretended to
be mad : he yoked an ass and an ox to a plough,
and began to sow salt. Palamedes, to try
him, placed the infant Telemachus before the
plough, whereupon the father could not con
tinue to play his part. He stopped the plough,
and was obliged to fulfil the promise he had
made when he was one of the suitors of Helen.
This occurrence is said to have been the cause
of his hatred of Palamedes. (Tzetz. ad Lye.
818 ; Hyg. Fab. 95 ; cf . Aesch. Ag. 841.) Betog
now himself pledged to the undertaMng, he
contrived to discover Achilles, who was con
cealed among the daughters of king Lycomedes.
[Achilles.] Before, however, the Greeks
sailed from home, Odysseus in conjunction
with Menelaus went to Troy for the purpose of
inducing the Trojans to restore Helen and her
treasures (17. iii. 206; Menelaus). When
the Greeks were assembled at Aulis, Odysseus
joined them with twelve ships and men from
Cephallene, Ithaca, Neriton, Crocylia, Zacyn-
thus, Samos, and the coast of Epirus (H. ii.
303, 631). He it was who (according to post-
Homeric tradition) persuaded Clytaemnestra to
send Iphigenia to Aulis (Diet. Cret. i. 20 ; cf .
Eur. I. A. 100). During the siege of Troy he
distinguishedhimself as a valiant and undaunted
warrior, but more particularly as a prudent and
eloquent negotiator (II. ii. 139, iii. 202, iv.
494, vii. 168, ix. 169, 225, x. 231-563, xiv. 82,
xix. 155 ; Od. xiii. 295). After the death of
AcMUes, Odysseus contended for his armour
with the Telamonian Ajax, and gained the
prize (Philostr. Her. x. 12 ; Od. iv. 280, viii.
494.) This story, which suppUes the theme of
the Ajax of Sophocles, appears first to Od. xi.
545 ; cf. Ov. Met. xiii. 1. The statement in the
Odyssey that the Trojans adjudged the arms is
explained by the Aethiopia of Arctinus, where
it is said that the captives were asked who had
injured Troy most, and answered, Odysseus. In
the Lesser Hiad the judgment is given without
design by two Trojan women conversing. He is
said by some to have devised the stratagem of
the wooden horse, and he was one of the heroes
concealed witton it. He is also said to have
taken part in carrying off the palladium. (Verg.
Aen. u. 164 ; Quint. Smyrn. x. 854.) But the
most celebrated part of his story consists of
his adventures after the destruction of Troy,
which form the subject of the Homeric poem
caUed after him, the Odyssey. After the cap
ture of Troy he set out on Ms voyage home,
but was overtaken by a storm and thrown upon
the coast of Ismarus, a town of the Cicones, in
Thrace, N. of the island of Lemnos. He plun
dered the town, but several of his men were
cut off by the Cicones. Thence he was driven
by an N. wind towards Malea and to the Loto
phagi on the coast of Libya. Some of his com
panions were so much delighted with the taste
of the lotus that they wanted to remain in the

ODYSSEUS

country, but Odysseus compelled them to em
bark again, and contmued Ms voyage. In one
day he reached the goat-island, situated N. of
the country of the Lotophagi. He there left
behind eleven ships, and with one he saUed to

617

Odysseus offering wine to the Cyclops. (From a statuette
in the Vatican.)
the neighbouring island of the Cyclopes (the
western coast of SicUy), where with twelve
companions he entered the cave of the Cyclops
Polyphemus, a son of Poseidon and Thoosa.
TMs giant devoured one after another six of
the companions, and kept the unfortunate
Odysseus and the six others as prisoners in Ms

Odysseus and TireBias. (From a relief of the Roman period
now in the Louvre.)
•cave. Odysseus contrived to make the monster
drunk with wine, and then with a burning pole
-deprived him of his one eye. He now succeeded
in making Ms escape with his friends, by con
cealing himself and them under the bodies of

the sheep which the Cyclops let out of Ms
cave. In tMs way he reached Ms ship. The
Cyclops implored his father, Poseidon, to avenge
him, and henceforth the god of the Bea pursued
the wandering king with implacable enmity.
(Od. i. 68, ix. 527.) Others represent the death
of Palamedes as the oause of Poseidon's anger.
[Palamedes.] Odysseus next arrived at the
island of Aeolus; and the god on his departure
gave him a bag of winds, which were to carry
Mm home; but the companions of Odysseus
opened the bag, and the winds escaped, where
upon the ships were driven back to the island
of Aeolus, who indignantly refused all further
assistance. After a voyage of six days, Odysseus
arrived at Telepylos, the city of Lamus, in
which Antiphates ruled over the Laestrygones,
a cannibal race. He escaped from them with
only one stop; and Ms fate now carried him
to a western island, Aeaea, the land of the
sorceress Circe. Part of Ms people were sent
to explore the island, but they were changed by
Circe into swine. Eurylochus alone escaped.
and brought the sad news to Odysseus, who was
taught by Hermes how to resist the magie
powers of Circe. He succeeded in liberating
his companions, who were changed back again
into men. When at length Odysseus begged
for leave to depart, Circe desired him to descend
into Hades and to consult the seer Tiresias.
He now sailed W. across the river Oceanus, and
having landed on the other side in the country
of the Cimmerians, where Helios does not shine,
he entered Hades, and asked TireBias how he
should reach Ms native land. Tiresias told
him of the danger and difficulties arising from
the anger of Poseidon, but gave him hope that
all would yet turn out well, if he and Ms com
panions would leave the herds of Helios in
Thrinacia unharmed. Odysseus now returned
to Aeaea, where Circe treated them kindly, told
them of the dangers that yet awaited them, and
of the means of escaping. The wind which Bhe
sent with them carried them to the island of
the Sirens, somewhere near the W. coast of
Italy. The Sirens sat on the shore, and
with their sweet voices attracted all that
passed by, and then destroyed them. Odys
seus, to escape this danger, fiUed the ears
of his companions with wax, and had Mm
self fastened to the mast of Ms ship, until
he was out of reach of the SirenB' song.
His ship next sailed between ScyUa and
Charybdis, two rocks between Thrinacia
and Italy. As the ship passed between
them, ScyUa, the monster inhabiting the
rock of the same name, carried off and de
voured six of the crew. From thence he
came to Thrinacia, the island of Helios, who
there kept his sacred herds of oxen. Mind
ful of the advice of Tiresias and Circe,
Odysseus wanted to saU past, but his com
panions urged him to land. He made them
swear not to touch any of the cattle ; but
as they were detained in the island by
storms, and were hungry, they MUed
the finest of the oxen while Odysseus
was asleep. After some days the storm
abated, and they sailed away, but soon
another storm came on, and their ship
was destroyed by a thunderbolt. All
were drowned with the exception of Odys
seus, who saved himself by means of the mast
and planks, and after ten days reached the
island of Ogygia, inhabited by the nymph
Calypso. She received him with kindness, and
wished to marry him, promising immortality

618and eternal youth, if he would consent, and
forget Ithaca. But Mb love of home was too
strong. Athene, who hod always protected
Mm, induced Zeus to promise that her favourite
hero, notwithstanding the anger of Poseidon,
should one day return to his native island, and
take vengeance on the suitors of Penelope.
Hermes carried to Calypso the command of
Zeus to dismiss Odysseus. The nymph
obeyed, and taught Mm how to build a raft
[Diet, of Ant. art. Batis], on wMch, after re
maining eight years with her, he left the
island. In eighteen days he came to sight of
Scheria, the island of the Phaeacians, when
Poseidon sent a storm wMch cast him off the
raft. By the assistance of Leucothea and
Athene he reached Scheria by swimming. Here
he slept on the shore, until he was awoke by
the voices of maidens. He found Nausicaa,
the daughter of king Alcinous, who conducted
the hero to her father's court. He was there
honoured with feasts, and the minstrel Demo-
docus sang of the faU of Troy, which moved
Odysseus to tears, and, betog asked why he

ii I **F

Odysseus and the Sirens. (From a vase in the British Museum.)
wept, he related his whole history. At length
he was sent home in a stop. One night as he
had fallen asleep to his ship, it reached the
coast of Ithaca ; the Phaeacians who had
accompanied Mm carried him on shore, and
left him. He had now been away from Ithaca
i for twenty years. During Ms absence his
father Laertes, bowed down by grief and old
age, had withdrawn into the country; Ms
mother, Anticlea, had died of sorrow ; his son,
Telemachus, had grown up to manhood, and Ms
wife, Penelope, had rejected all the offers that
had been made to her by the importunate
suitors from the neighbouring islands. For
the last few years more than a hundred nobles
. of Ithaca, Same, Dulichium, and Zacynthus
had been suing for the hand of Penelope, and
in their visits to her house had treated all that
it contained as if it had been their own. That
Odysseus might be able to take vengeance upon
them, it was necessary that he should not be
recognised. Athene accordingly disguised him
as a beggar. He was Mndly received by Eu-
maeus, the swineherd, a faithful servant of his
house. MeanwMlehis son, Telemachus, returned
irom Sparta and Pylos, wMther he had gone to

ODYSSEUS seek news of Ms father. Odysseus made Mmself
Miown to him, and with him planned revenge.
StiU disguised as a beggar, he accompanied
Telemachus and Eumaeus to the palace, where
his dog Argus alone recognised Mm. The plan
of revenge was now carried into effect. Penelope-
was persuaded to promise her hand to him who
should conquer the others in shooting with the
bow of Odysseus. As none of the suitors was
able to bend this bow, Odysseus himself took it
up and then began to attack the suitors. He
was supported by Athene and his son, and all
fell by his hands. He now made himself
known to Penelope, and went to see Ms aged
father. In the meantime the report of the
death of the suitors was spread abroad, and their
relatives rose in arms against their slayer ; but
Athene, who assumed the appearance of Men
tor, brought about a reconcihation between the
people and the Mng. — It has already been
remarked that to the Homeric poems Odysseus
is represented as a prudent, cunning, inventive,
and eloquent man, but at the same time as a
brave, bold, and persevering warrior, whose
courage no misfor
tune or calamity
could subdue ; but
later poets describe
him as deceitful,
intriguing, and with
out personal cou
rage (Soph. Aj. 80 ;
Verg. Aen. ii. 164 ;
Ov. Met. xni. 6 ft).
Of the close of Ms
Ufe the Homeric
poems give no infor
mation, except the
prophecy of Tiresias,
who promised him
a happy old age,
to which a painless
death should come
upon him ' from the
sea.' (Od. xi. 135) ;
but later writers
give us different ac
counts. Telegonus,
the son of Odysseus
by Circe, was sent
out by Ms mother to
seek his father. A storm cast him upon Ithaca,
wMch he began to plunder to order to obtain
provisions. Odysseus and Telemachus attacked
him, but he slew Odysseus, and Ms body was
afterwards carried to Aeaea. The i£ iiXhs of
the prophecy was thus interpreted to mean the
arrival of Telegonus by sea, or the slaying of
Odysseus by a weapon made from a fish. It is
probable that to the original it only meant
' away from the sea,' i.e. his wanderings being
over. At the entreaty of the remorseful son,
Circe made Telemachus and Penelope immor
tal. Telegonus was married to Penelope and
Telemachus to Circe (see the argument, in
Proclus, of the lost Telegonia by Eugamon;
cf. Diet. Cret. vi. 15; Hyg. Fab. 127; Hor. Od.
in. 29, 8). A Thesprotian legend made Odys
seus, before these events, go away to Thes
protia, to fight for that nation agatost the
Brygians, and marry Callinice, their queen;
some time after wMch he returned to Ithaca
and met his death there. — In works of art
Odysseus is commonly represented as wear
ing a conical cap (iriXiSiov, pilleus), such as
belonged to artisans (hence to Hephaestus and
Daedalus) and to sailors (hence to Odysseus

OEA
and Charon). [See cut on p. 617.] It is asserted
by Pliny (xxxv. 108) that Nicomachus, the
painter of the fourth century B.C., was the first
who gave Odysseus this distinguishing mark.
Oea ('Eda, Ptol. : Oeensis : Tripoli ? Ru.), a
city on the N. coast of Africa, in the Regio
Syrtica (i.e. between the Syrtes), was one of the
three cities of the African TripoUs, and, under
the Romans, a colony by the name of Aelia
Augusta FeUx. It had a mixed population of
Libyans and Sicilians. (Tac. Hist. iv. 50 ; Ptol.
iv. 3, 12 ; Amm. Marc, xxviii. 6.)
Oea (Ota), a town to the island of Aegina,
twenty stadia from the capital.
Oeagrus, or Oeager (Otaypos), king of Ttoace,
was the father, by the Muse Calliope, of Orpheus
and Linus (ApoUod. i. 8, 2 ; Ov. Ib. 484). Henoe
the sisters of Orpheus are called Oeagrides, in
the sense of the Muses. The adjective Oea-
grius is used by the poets as equivalent to Thes
salian, Oeagrius Haemus, Oeagrius Hebrus.
Oeanthe or Oeanthia (OidvBi), OidvBeia:
Olav&eis : Galaxidhi), a town of the Locri
Ozolae near the entrance of the Crissaean guU
(Thuc. iii. 101 ; Pol. iv. 57 ; Paus. x. 38, 9).
Oeaso or Oeasso (Oyarzun), a town of the
Vascones on the N. coast of Hispania Tarra
conensis situated on a promontory of the same
name, and on the river Magrada (Strab. p. 161).
Oeax (0?a|), son of Nauplius and Clymene,
and brother of Palamedes and Nausimedon
(Eur. Or. 432 ; ApoUod. U. 1 ; Palamedes).
Oebalus (OtBaXos). 1. Son of Cynortas, hus
band of Gorgophone, and father of Tyndareus,
Pirene, and Arene, was Mng of Sparta, where he
was afterwards honoured with an heroum. Ac
cording to some he was son of Perieres and
grandson of Cynortas, and was married to the
nymph Batea, by whom he had several cMldren
(Paus. iii. 1, 5, U.2, 3, iv. 2,3; ApoUod. ii. 10, 4).
The patronymic Oebalides is not only applied to
Ms descendants.but to the Spartans generaUy, as
Hyactothus, Castor, PoUux, &c. The feminine
patronymic Oebalis and the adjective Oebalius
are appUed in the same way. Hence Helen is
called by the poets Oebalis, and Oebalia pellex ;
the city of Tarentum is termed Oebalia arx,
because it was founded bytheLacedaemomans;
and since the Sabines were, according to one
tradition, a Lacedaemonian colony, we find the
Sabine Mng Titus Tatius named Oebalius Titus,
and the Sabine women Oebalides matres. (Ov.
Fast. i. 260, Ui. 230.)— 2. Son of Telon by a
nymph of the stream Sebethus, near Naples,
ruled to Campania.
Oechalia (OlxaXia : OixaXieis, OixaXidrns).
1. A town to Thessaly on the Peneus near Tricca
(H. ii. 596, 730 ; Paus. iv. 2, 3, iv. 33, 4).— 2. A
town in Thessaly, belonging to the territory of
TracMs (Strab. p. 339).— 3. A town in Messenia
on the frontier of Arcadia, identified by Pausa
nias with Carnasium, by Strabo with Andania
(Strab. pp. 339, 350, 360, 448; Paus. iv. 2, 33).
— 4. A town of Euboea, to the district Eretria
(Soph. Trach. 74; Paus. I.e.).— The ancients
were divided in opinion which of these places
was the residence of Eurytus, whom Heracles
slew. The original legend probably belonged to
the ThessaUan Oechalia, and was thence trans
ferred to the other towns [Heeacles, p. 399, b].
Oedipus (OlSiirovs), son of Laius and Iocasta
(in the Od. Epicaste) of Thebes. There is an
aUusion to Oedipus Mng of Thebes in the Iliad,
but he is described as dying a violent death and
betog buried at Thebes (II. xxiii. 659). The
outlines of his story as it afterwards prevaUed,
are known to the writer of the Odyssey, where

OEDIPUS

019-

there is mention of EpicaBte wedding her son
and hanging herself when the truth was known
(Od. xi. 271), but as the banishment of Oedipus
from Thebes is not suggested there is nothing
in the Odyssey contradictory of the slight
notice in the Hiad. The attack of Polynices
upon Thebes is mentioned in II. iv. 378. In
Hesiod there is no reference to the story except
the mention of the Sphinx as the bane of
Thebes (Th. 328), and of the war of the heroes
against the city who fell ' fighting for the flocks
of Oedipus' (Op. 162). The story was more
fully developed to later epics, the Oedipodeia,
the Cypria and the Thebaid ; but to the first-
of the three (as cited by Paus. ix. 5, 11), the
four children of Oedipus are not born from
Iocasta, but by a second wife, Eurygameia. The
Attic tragedians seem first to have introduced
the birth of Antigone, Ismene and their two-
brothers from Iocasta to increase the tragic
horror. Oedipus is mentioned by Pindar to ex
emplify an instance of reverse of fortune (Ol. ii.
35 ; cf. Pyth. iv. 263). The story of Oedipus as
it comes to us from the tragedians is as foUows.
Laius, son of Labdacus, was king of Thebes,.
and husband of Iocasta, a daughter of Menoe-
ceus and sister of Creon. An oracle had in
formed Laius that he was destined to perish by
the hands of Ms own son. Accordingly, when
Iocasta gave birth to a son, they pierced his
feet, bound them together, and exposed the
cMld on Mount Cithaeron. There he was
found by a shepherd of king Polybus of Corinth,
and was called from his swoUen feet Oedipus.
He was carried to the palace, and the king
and his wife Merope (or Periboea) brought him
up as their own child. Once, however, Oedi
pus was taunted by a Corinthian with not being
the king's son, whereupon he proceeded to
Delphi to consult the oracle. The oracle
replied that he was destined to slay his father
and commit incest with his mother. Thinking
that Polybus was Ms father, he resolved not to
return to Corinth; but on Ms road between
DelpM and DauUs he met his real father, Laius.
PolyphonteB, the charioteer of Laius, bade
Oedipus make way for them; whereupon a
scuffle ensued to which Oedipus slew both
Laius and his charioteer. In the meantime
the Sphinx had appeared in the neighbourhood.
of Thebes. Seated on a rock, she put a riddle
to every Theban that passed by, and whoever
was unable to solve it was MUed by the monster.
This calamity induced the Thebans to proclaim
that whoever should deliver the country of the
Sphinx, should be made Mng, and should
receive Iocasta as Ms wife. Oedipus came
forward, and when he approached the Sphinx
she gave the riddle as follows : ' A betog with
four feet has two feet and tMee feet, and only
one voice ; but its feet vary, and when it has
most it is weakest.' Oedipus solved the riddle
by saying that it was man, who in infancy
crawls upon all fours, in manhood stands erect
upon two feet, and to old age supports his tot
tering legs with a staff. The Sphinx, enraged
at the solution of the riddle, thereupon threw
herself down from the rock. Oedipus now ob
tained the Mngdom of Thebes, and married his
mother, by whom he became the father of
Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismene. In
consequence of this incestuous aUiance, the
country of Thebes was visited by a plague.
The oracle ordered that the murderer of Laius
should be expeUed. Oedipus accordingly pro
nounced a solemn curse upon the unknown
murderer, and declared Mm an exile ; but when

«20

OEDANES

he endeavoured to discover him, he was told by
the seer Tiresias that he himself was both the
parricide and the husband of his mother.
Iocasta now hanged herself, and Oedipus put
out his own eyes (Soph. Oedipus Tyrannus;
ApoUod. iii. 5, 8). An interval of several years
is supposed to elapse between the events of the
Oed. Tyr. and those of the Oed. Coloneus. From
the aUusions to what happened in this interval it
appears that Oedipus lived on at Thebes, blind
but not altogether unhappy, with Creon as
regent. Then after long years the popular
feeling began to regard Ms presence as a poUu-
tion. Oedipus was banished : his sons did not
interfere to save him, but his daughters volun
tarily went into exile with him : Antigone led
him to Athens, and Ismene foUowed. Mean
time an oracle came from DelpM that the
safety of Thebes depended on Oedipus remain
ing there and being buried there at his death ;
the two sons no longer acquiesced in the rule
of Creon and disputed the throne ; the citizens
supported Eteocles, and Polynices was exiled.
Creon attempted to take Oedipus by force
back to Thebes, but Theseus gave his protection
and to Theseus only the secret of his death and
burial was known (Soph. Oed. Coloneus). The
grave of Oedipus was in the precinct of the
Eumenides on the SE. slope of the Areiopagus
(Paus. i. 28, 7 ; Val. Max. v. 3) ; but there was
also a chapel (ripqov) of Oedipus at Colonus
(Paus. i. 30, 4). Pausanias prefers to accept
the Homeric account of Oedipus as dying at
Thebes, and imagines that his bones were
removed to Athens. The Boeotian story makes
¦Oedipus die at Thebes, but the Thebans re
fused him burial. His body was carried to
¦Ceos in Boeotia, thence to the precincts of a
sanctuary of Demeter at Eteonus, where the
oracle declared that it might remain, and his
tomb there was called the Oedipodeum (Schol.
ad 0. C. 91). Aristides (p. 284) speaks of Ms
being buried, as a blessing to Attica, at Colonus.
The story of Oedipus forms the subject of three
celebrated plays of Sophocles, and was also
taken by Aeschylus for the subject of a trilogy, of
wMch the Septem c. Th. only remains. Seneca
wrote a tragedy, the Oedipus, in which he fol
lows Sophocles closely. The chief difference
is that Oedipus goes into voluntary exile after
he has blinded himself. CorneiUe, Dryden and
Voltaire wrote plays on the same subject.
Oedanes. [Dyardanes.]
Oeneon (Oivedv : Olveavebs), a seaport town
of the Locri Ozolae (Thuc. iii. 95).
Oeneus (Olveis), son of Portheus, husband of
Althaea, by whom he became the father of
Tydeus and Meleager, and was thus the grand-
lather of Diomedes. He was king of Pleuron
and Calydon to AetoUa (II. v. 813, ix. 543, xiv.
115). TMs is Homer's account ; but according
to later authorities he was the son of Porthaon
and Euryte, and the father of Toxeus, whom he
MUed ; also of Thyreus (Phereus), Clymenus,
Periphas, Agelaus, Meleager, Gorge, Eury-
mede, Melanippe, Mothone, and Deianira.
His second wife was Melanippe, the daughter
-of Hipponous, by whom he had Tydeus accord
ing to some accounts, though according to
others Tydeus was Ms son by Ms own daughter,
Gorge. (Apollod. i. 7, 10, i. 8, 4 ; Diod. iv. 35;
Ap. Rh. 192; Hyg. Fab. 14.) He is said to
have been deprived of his kingdom by the sons
of Ms brother Agrius, who imprisoned and Ul
used him. He was subsequently avenged by
Diomedes, who slew Agrius and his sons, and
restored the kingdom either to Oeneus Mmself

OENOMAUS
or to Ms son-in-law Andraemon, as Oeneus was
too old. Diomedes took his grandfather with
him to Peloponnesus, but some of the sons, who
lay in ambush, slew the old man, near the altar
of Telephus in Arcadia. Diomedes buried his
body at Argos, and named the town of Oenoe
after Mm. According to others Oeneus Uved to
extreme old age with Diomedes at Argos, and
died a natural death (Apollod. i. 8, 5 ; Ant.
Lib. 37 ; Diod. iv. 65). Homer knows nothing
of aU this ; he merely relates that Oeneus once
neglected to sacrifice to Artemis, in conse
quence of wMch she sent a monstrous boar
into the territory of Calydon, which was hunted
by Meleager. BeUerophon was hospitably en
tertained by Oeneus, and received from Mm a
costly gtoile as a present (H. vi. 216, ix. 632).
Oeniadae (OividSat: Trigardon or Tri-
khardo), an ancient town of Acarnania, situated
on the Achelous near its mouth, and surrounded
by marshes caused by the overflowing of the
river, wMch thus protected it from hostUe
attacks (Thuc. ii. 102). Unlike the other cities
of Acarnania, Oeniadae espoused the cause of
the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. At the
time of Alexander the Great, the town was

Coin of Oeniadae.
Obv., head of Zeus; rev., oiniaaai ; head of river-god
Achelous, partly human, partly bull.
taken by the Aetolians, who expelled the in
habitants ; but the AetoUans were expeUed in
their turn by PhUip V., Mng of Macedoma, who
surrounded the place with strong fortifications.
The Romans restored the towns to the Acarna-
nians. The fortress Nesus or Nasus belonging
to Oeniadae was situated on a smaU lake near
it. (Diod. xviii. 8 ; Pol. iv. 65 ; Liv. xxxviii.
11 ; Paus. iv. 25 ; Strab. p. 459.)
Oenides, a patronymic from Oeneus given to
Meleager, his son, and Diomedes, his grandson.
Oenoanda or Oeneanda, a town of Asia
Minor, in the district of Cabalia, subject to
Cibyra (Strab. p. 631 ; Liv. xxxviii. 87).
Oenobaras (OiVo/3i£pas), a tributary of the
Orontes, flowing tMough the plain of Antioch,
in Syria (Strab. p. 751).
Oenoe (Olvbv : Olvoaios). 1. A demus of
Attica, belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis,
near Eleutherae on the frontiers of Boeotia,
frequently mentioned in the Peloponnesian war
(Hdt. v. 74 ; Thuc. ii. 18).— 2. A demus of
Attica, near Marathon, belonging to the tribe
Aiantis, and also to the Tetrapolis. — 3. A
fortress of the CorintMans, on the Corinthian
gulf, between the promontory Ohnioe and the
frontier of Megaris. — 4. A town to ArgoUs, W.
of Argos, on the road to Mantinea. A. battle
was fought here in 888 b.c, in which the
Argives and Athenians defeated the Lacedae
monians (Paus. i. 16, 1, ii. 15, 2, x. 10, 4). — 6.
A town in Elis, near the mouth of the SeUeis.
— 6. A town in the island Icarus or Icaria.
Oenomaus (Olvbpaos). 1. Xing of Pisa in
Elis, was son of Ares and Harpinna, the
daughter of Asopus, and husband of the Pleiad
Sterope, by whom he became the father of
Hippodamia (ApoUod. iii. 10, 1 ; Paus. v. 10, 2,

OENONE
vi. 21, 6). An oracle had deolared that he should
perish by the hands of his son-in-law ; and as
Ms horses were swifter than those of any other
mortal, he declared that all who came forward
as suitors for Hippodamia's hand should con
tend with him in the chariot-race, that whoever
conquered should receive her, and that whoever
was conquered should suffer death. The race
course extended from Pisa to the altar of
Poseidon, on the CorintMan isthmus. The
suitor started with Hippodamia to a chariot,
and Oenomaus then hastened with Ms swift
horses after the lovers. He had overtaken and
slain many a suitor, when Pelops, the son of
Tantalus, came to Pisa. Pelops bribed Myrti
lus, the charioteer of Oenomaus, to take out
the ltoch-ptos from the wheels of his master's
chariot, and he received from Poseidon a
golden chariot and swift horses. In the race
which foUowed, the chariot of Oenomaus broke
down, and he fell out and was MUed. Thus
Pelops obtained Hippodamia and the kmgdom
of Pisa. (Soph. El. 504 ; Paus. vi. 21 ; Diod.
iv. 73 ; Hyg. 1. c. ; Schol. ad Ap. Rh. i. 752 ; ad
Pind. Ol. i. 114 ; Ov. Ib. 365.) There are some
variations to this story, such as, that Oeno
maus was himself in love with his daughter,
and for tMs reason slew her lovers (Tzetz. ad
Lye. 156; Hyg. Fab. 253). Myrtilus also is
said to have loved Hippodamia, and as she
favoured the suit of Pelops, she persuaded
MyrtUus to take the ltoch-ptos out of the
wheels of her father's chariot. As Oenomaus
was breathing his last he pronounced a curse
upon MyrtUus. This curse had its desired
effect, for as Pelops refused to give to MyrtUus
the reward he had promised, or as MyrtUuB had
attempted to dishonour Hippodamia, Pelops
thrust him down from Cape Geraestus. Myr
tUus, wtole dying, likewise pronounced a curse
upon Pelops, which was the cause of all the
calamities that afterwards befeU Ms house.
[Pelops.] The tomb of Oenomaus was shown
on the river Cladeus to Elis. His house was
destroyed by lightning, and only one pUlar of it
rematoed standing (Paus. v. 20, 3, vi. 21, 3). —
2. Of Gadara, a Cynic phUosopher, who flour
ished to the reign of Hadrian, or somewhat
later, but before Porphyry. He wrote a work
to expose the oracles. Considerable fragments
are preserved by Eusebius (Praep. Ev. v. 18, vi.
7).— 3. A tragic poet. [Diogenes, No. 5.]
Oenone (Olvdvri), daughter of the river-god
Cebren, and wife of Paris, before he carried off
Helen. [Paris.]
Oenone or Oenopia, the ancient name of
Aegina. Oenophyta (to; Olvb<pvra : Inia), a town to
Boeotia, on the left bank of the Asopus, and on
the road from Tanagra to Oropus, memorable
for the victory gained by the Athenians over
the Boeotians, B.C. 456 (Thuc. i. 108, iv. 95).
Oenopides (OiVon-iojjs) of CMos, a distin
guished astronomer and mathematician, per
haps a contemporary of Anaxagoras. Oeno
pides derived most of Ms astronomical know
ledge from the priests and astronomers of
Egypt, with whom he Uved for some time. He
obtained from tMs source Ms knowledge of the
obliquity of the ecUptic, the discovery of wMch
he is said to have claimed. The length of the
solar year was fixed by Oenopides at 365 days
and somewhat less than nine hours. He is said
to have discovered the 12th and 23rd proposi
tions of the 1st book of EucHd, and the quad
rature of the meniscus. (Diod. i. 98 ; Ael. V. H.
x. 7 ; Censorin. 19.)

OETA 621
Oenopion (Olvoiriav), son of Dionysus and
husband of the nymph Helice, by whom he
became the father of Thalus, Euanthes, Melas,
Salagus, Athamas, and Merope, Aerope or
Haero. Some writers call Oenopion a son of
Rhadamanthus by Ariadne, and a brother of
Staphylus. From Crete he migrated with his
sons to Chios, which Rhadamanthus had assigned
to him as his habitation. (Paus. vii. 4, 6 ; Diod.
v. 79 ; Schol. ad Ap. Rh. iii. 996.) When he was
kmg of Chios, the giant Orion sued for the hand
of his daughter Merope. As Oenopion refused,
Orion violated Merope, whereupon Oenopion put
out his eyes, and expeUed him from the island.
Orion went to Lemnos; he was afterwards
cured of Ms blindness, and returned to Chios
to take vengeance on Oenopion. But the
latter was not to be found in CMos, for Ms
friends had concealed Mm in the earth, so that
Orion, unable to discover him, went to Crete.
(Apollod. i. 4, 3 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 34 ; Orion.)
Oenotri, Oenotria. [Italia.]
Oenotrides, two islands in the Tyrrhene sea,
off the coast of Lucania, and opposite the town
of Elea or Velia (Strab. p. 252 ; Plin. iii. 85).
Oenotropae. [Anius.]
Oenotrus (Olvarpos), youngest son of Lycaon,
according to tradition, emigrated with a colony
from Arcadia to Italy, and gave the name of
Oenotria to the district to which he settled
(Pau6. viii. 3, 5 ; Verg. Aen. i. 532, iii. 165, vii.
85; Strab. p. 253). [For the probable origin
of the name Oenotria, see p. 453, a.]
Oenus (Olvovs : Kelesina), a river in Laconia,
flowing into the Eurotas, N. of Sparta. There
was a town of the same name upon this river,
celebrated for its wine. (Pol. ii. 65 ; Liv. xxxiv.
28; Athen. p. 31.)
Oenussae (Olvovoo-ai, Olvovaai), 1. A group
of islands lying off the S. point of Messenia,
opposite to the port of Phoenicus: the two
largest of them are now called Sapienza and
Cabrera (Plin. iv. 55).— 2. (Spalmadori or
Egonuses, a group of five islands between
Chios and the coast of Asia Minor (Hdt. i. 165 ;
Thuc. viii. 24).
Oeonus (Olavbs), son of Licymnius of Midea
to Argolis, first victor at Olympia, in the foot
race, was killed at Sparta by the sons of
Hippocoon, but was avenged by Heracles, whose
kinsman he was. He was honoured with a
monument near the temple of Heracles. (Pind.
Ol. xi._66; ApoUod. ii. 7, 3; Paus. iii. 15.)
Oeroe ('Clepbri), a stream wMch flows into the
CorintMan gulf at Creusis. It rises in Cithae
ron, and passes near Plataeae. (Paus. ix. 4, 3.)
Oescus (Isker or Esker) called Oscius
("Oo-kios) by Thucydides, and Scius (Skios) by
Herodotus, a river in Moesia, wMch rises in Mt.
Scomius according to Thucydides, but in reality
on the W. slope of Mt. Haemus, and flows into
the Danube near a town of the same name
(Oreszovitz). (Hdt. iv. 49; Thuc. ii. 96.)
Oesyma (Oiiripri : Olavpaios) caUed Aesyma
(Aio-iprj) by Homer (II. viii. 804), a town to
Thrace between the Strymon and the Nestus,
a colony of the Thasians (Thuc. iv. 107).
Oeta (OXr-n, rd Olraiav oSpea : Katavothra),
a rugged pile of mountains in the S. of Thes
saly, an eastern branch of Mt. Pindus, extended
S. of Mt. Othrys along the S. bank of the Sper-
cMus to the Maliac gulf at Thermopylae, thus
forming the N. barrier of Greece. Strabo and
Livy give the name of Callidromus to the
eastern part of Oeta, an appellation which does
not occur to Herodotus and the earlier writers.
Respecting the pass of Mt. Oeta, see Thermo-

622

OETYLUS

pylae. Oeta was celebrated in mythology as
the mountain on which Heracles was burnt [p.
400]. From this mountain the S. of Thessaly
towards Phocis was called Oetaea (Oir aia) and
its inhabitants Oetaei (OiVaioi). (Hdt. vii. 217 ;
Thuc. iii. 92 ; Strab. p. 428 ; Liv. xxxvi. 15.)
Oetylus (OtrvXos : OiriXios : Vitylo), also
caUed Tylus (TiXos), an ancient town in La
conia, on the Messenian gulf, S. of Thalama,
called after an Argive hero of tMs name (27.
U. 585; Strab. p. 360; Paus. iii. 21, 7).
Of ella, a man of sound sense and of a straight
forward character, whom Horace contrasts with
the Stoic quacks of his time (Sot ii. 2, 3).
Ofella, Q. Lucretius, originaUy belonged to
the Marian party, but deserted to Sulla, who
appointed Mm to the command of the army
employed in the blockade of Praeneste, B.C. 82.
OfeUa became a candidate for the consulship
in the foUowing year, although he had not yet
been either quaestor or praetor, thus acting in
defiance of one of Sulla's laws. He was in
consequence put to death by Sulla's orders.
(Dio Cass, xxxiv. 134; App. B.C. i. 88, 101;
Plut. Sull. 29, 33 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 27.)
Ofillns, a distingtoshed Roman jurist, was
one of the pupils of Servius Sulpicius, and a
friend of Cicero and Caesar (Cic. ad Att. xui.
37, ad Fam. vii. 21). His works are often cited
in the Digest.
Oglasa (Monte Cristo), a small island off the
coast of Etruria (PUn. iii. 80).
Ogulnii, Q. and Cn., two brothers, tribunes
of the plebs, B.C. 300, carriedalaw bywtochthe
number of the pontiffs was increased from four
to eight, and that of the augurs from four to
nine, and which enacted that four of the pon
tiffs and five of the augurs should be taken
from the plebs (Liv. x. 6-9). Q. Ogulnius was
sent to Epidaurus B.C. 298 to bring Asclepius
to Rome [p. 121, b].
Ogygia f&yvyia), the mythical island of Ca
lypso, is placed by Homer in the navel or central
point of the sea, far away from all lands. Later
writers placed it in the Ionian sea, near the pro
montory of Lacinium, to Bruttium, or to the
island of Gozo. (Od. i. 50, v. 55, 268, xii. 448 ;
Strab. pp. 44, 299 ; PUn. iii. 96.)
Ogygus or Ogyges ('ayiyris), sometimes
called a Boeotian autochthon, and sometimes
son of Boeotus, and king of the Hectenes, is
said to have been the first ruler of the territory
of Thebes, wMch was called after him Ogygia.
In Ms reign the waters of lake Copais rose above
its banks, and inundated the whole valley of
Boeotia. This flood is usuaUy caUed after him
, the Ogygian. (Paus. ix. 5, 1 ; Ap. Rh. iii. 1177 ;
Serv. ad Eel. vi. 41.) The name of Ogyges is
also connected with Attic story, for to Attica
an Ogygian flood, borrowed, apparently, from
Thessalian tradition, is likewise mentioned,
and he is described as the father of the Attic
hero Eleusis and as the father of Daira, the
daughter of Oceanus. In the Boeotian tradi
tion he was the father of Alalcomenia, Thelxi-
noea, and AuUs. (Paus. i. 38, 7, ix. 33, 4;
Strab. p. 884.) Bacchus is called Ogygius
deus, because he was born at Thebes.
Ogyria ("{lyvpis), an island of the Eryttoean
Sea (Indian Ocean), off the coast of Carmania,
at a distance of 2000 stadia, noted as the alleged
burial-place of the ancient king Eryttoas (Strab.
p. 766 ; Mel. iii. 8, 6).
O'icles or Oicleus ('OiKXfjs, 'Oi'K\€i5s), son of
Antiphates, grandson of Melampus and father
of Amphiaraus, of Argos. He is also called a
son of Amphiaraus or a son of Mantius, the

OLEN
brother of Antiphates. Oicles accompanied
Heracles on Ms expedition agatost Laomedon
of Troy, and was there slain in battle. Accord-
tog to other traditions he returned home from
the expedition, and dwelt to Arcadia, where he
was visited by Ms grandson Alcmaeon, and
where his tomb was shown. (Od. xv. 241 ;
Diod. iv. 32 ; ApoUod. ii. 6, 4 ; Paus. viii. 86, 4.)
Oileus ('OiXeiij), son of Hodoedocus and Lao-
nome, grandson of Cynus, and great-grandson
of Opus, was a Mng of the Locrians, and mar
ried to Eriopis, by whom he became the father
of Ajax, who is hence caUed Ollides, Oiliades,
and Ajax Oilei. Oileus was the father of
Medon by Rhene, and is mentioned among the
Argonauts. (II. ii. 527, xiii. 697, 712; Ap.Rh.
i. 74.) Olba or Olbe ("OX|8i; : Uzendjaburdj), an
ancient inland city of CiUcia, to the mountains
above Soloe, and between the rivers Lamus
and Calycadnus. Its foundation was ascribed
to Ajax the son of Teucer, whose descendants,
the priests of the ancient temple of Zeus, once
ruled over aU Cilicia Aspera (Strab. p. 672.). In
later times it belonged to Isauria, and was
the see of a bishop, and its name appears as
Oropi. Olbasa ("OX0ao-a), a city in Pisidia, on the
road from Seleucia to Laranda, N. of Lagoe
and NW. of Isionda (Ptol. v. 5, 8).
Olbe. [Olba.]
Olbia ('Oxpia). 1. (Eoubes, near Hyeres),
a colony of Massilia, on the coast of Gallia
Narbonensis, on a Mil caUed Olbianus, E.
of Telo Martius (Toulon). (Strab. pp. 180,
184.) — 2. (Terra Nova) a very ancient city,
near the N. end of the E. side of the island
of Sardinia, with the only good harbour
on this coast, and therefore the usual land
ing-place for persons coming from Rome. A
mythical tradition ascribes its foundation to the
Thespiadae. (Paus. x. 17, 5 ; Diod. iv. 29 ; Cic.
ad Q. Fr. u. 3, 6 ; Claud. B. Gild. 519.)— 3. In
Bithynia [Astacus.] The gulf of Astacus was
also called from it Sinus Olbianus.— 4. A for
tress on the frontier of Pamphylia, on the coast,
west of Attalia. — 5. [Borysthenes.]
Olcades, an ancient people to Hispania Tar
raconensis, N. of Carthago Nova, near the
sources of the Anas, to a part of the country
afterwards inhabited by the Oretani. Hannibal
transplanted some of the Olcades to Africa.
Their chief town was Althaea. (Pol. iii. 14;
Liv. xxi. 5.)
Olcinium (Olciniatae : Dulcigno), an ancient
town on the coast of Hlyria, SW. of Scodra,
belonging to the territory of Gentius (Ptol. n.
17, 6 ; Liv. xiv. 26).
Olearus. [Oliaeus.]
Oleastrum. 1. A town of the Cosetani, in
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Der-
tosa to Tarraco, probably the place from wMch
the plumbum Oleastrense derived its name
(PUn. xxxiv. 164 ; Itin.). — 2. A town in His
pania Baetica, near Gades (Plin. iii. 15).
Olen ('{1x4)11), a mythical personage, said to
be a Lycian, who is represented as the earUest
Greek lyric poet, and the first author of sacred
hymns in hexameter verse. He is closely con
nected with the worship of Apollo, of whom, to
one legend, he was made the prophet, and the
hymns sung at Delos from time immemorial
were ascribed to him. His connexion with
ApoUo is also marked by Ms being caUed Hy
perborean. [See p. 484, b.] Of the hymns
which went under his name Pausanias mentions
those to Here, to Achaeia, and to Hithyia ; the

OLENUS
last was m celebration of the birth of Apollo and
Artemis. (Hdt. iv. 35; Paus. i. 18, 5, n. 18, 8,
v. 7, 8, ix. 27, 2, x. 7, 8; CaUim. Del. 804.)
Olenns ("{IXevos : '{IXevtos). 1. An ancient
town m Aetolia, near New Pleuron, and at the
foot of Mt. Araoynthus, is mentioned by Homer,
but was destroyed by the AetoUans at an early
period. (II. ii. 688 ; Strab. pp. 451, 460.)— 2. A
town in Achaia, between Patrae and Dyme,
refused to join the Achaean League on its
restoration, to B.C. 280. In the time of Strabo
the town was deserted. (Strab. pp. 384, 386,
888 ; Paus. vii. 18, 22.)
Olenus ("{IXevos), son of Hephaestus and
father of the nymphs Aege and HeUce, who
brought up Zeus. Aege being really identical
with Amalthea, the epithet Olenia Capella is
given to the goat Amalthea. (Hyg. Astr. 13.)
Olgassys ("OXyaoo-vs : Al-Gez Dagh), a lofty,
steep, and rugged mountain chain of Asia
Minor, extending nearly W. and E. through the
E. of Bithynia, and the centre of PapMagonia
to the river Halys, nearly paraUel to the chain
of Olympus, of which it may be considered as a
branch. Numerous temples were built upon it
by the PapMagonions. (Strab. p. 562.)
Oliarns or Olearus ('axiapos, axiapos: 'axtd-
pios: Antiparos), a small island to the Aeg
aean sea, one of the Cyclades, W. of Paros,
colonised by the Phoenicians, is celebrated in
modern times for its stalactite grotto, which is
not mentioned by ancient writers (Strab. p.
485 ; Verg. Aen. Ui. 126).
Oligyrtus ('OXtyvpros), a fortress in the NE.
of Arcadia on a mountain of the some name
(Pol.iy. 11, 70).
Olisipo (Lisbon), a town in Lusitania, on the
right bank of the Tagus near its mouth, and a
Roman mumcipium with the surname Felicitas
JuUa. It was celebrated for its swift horses.
(Plin. iv. 113, viu. 166 ; Varr. B. B. ii. 1, 19 ;
Col. vi. 27.) Its name is sometimes written
T/lyssippo (Mel. hi. 1, 6), because it was sup
posed to be the town wMch Ulysses founded
to Spain ; but the town to wMch this legend
referred was in the mountains of Turdetania.
[Odyssea.] Olizon ('OXi(dv), a town of Thessaly, on the
Pagasaean gulf (II. U. 717; Strab. p. 436).
Ollius (Oglio), a river to GalUa Transpadana,
faUs into the Po (PUn. iii. 118).
Olmiae ('OXpiai), a promontory in the terri
tory of Corinth, which separated the Corinthian
and Alcyonian gulfs (Strab. p. 380).
Oloosson ('OXootro-dv : 'OXooo-trbvios : Elas-
sona), a town of the Perrhaebi to Thessaly, to
the district of Hestiaeotis. Homer (H. ii. 739)
caUs it ' wMte,' an epithet wMch it obtained,
according to Strabo, from the whiteness of its
soil. (Strab. p. 440 ; Procop. Aed. iv. 14.)
Olophernes ('OXotpepvris), sometimes caUed
Holophernes. 1. Son of Ariamnes and father
of Aeiaeathes I., Mng of Cappadocia. — 2. Sup
posititious son of Ariarathes IV., got possession
of the Mngdom of Cappadocia for a time in B.C.
157, and ruled oppressively (Ptol. xxxii. 20;
App. Syr. 47 ; Diod. Eel. 3).
Olorus ("OXopos). 1. King of Thrace, whose
daughter married Mtltiades. — 2. Apparently
grandson of the above, and father of Thucy
dides (Thuc. iv. 104).
Olophyxus ('oxb<pvf,os : 'OXo<t>i^ios), a town
of Macedonia, on the peninsula of Mt. Athos
(Thuc. iv. 109; Hdt. vii. 22; Strab. p. 331).
Olpae or Olpe ("OXirai, 'OXirf) : 'OXiraios). 1.
(Arapi), a town of the AmpMlochi in Acarnania,
on the Ambracian gulf, NW. of Argos AmpM- ,

OLYMPIA

fitifl

locMcum (Thuc. i. 107-118).— 2. A town of
the Locri Ozolae (Thuc. iii. 101).
Olurus ("OXovpos : 'OXoipios). 1. A town in
Achaia, near Pellene, on the Sicyonian frontier
(Xen. Hell. vii. 4,17).— 2. Also Oluris ("OXovpis),
called Dorium (Adptov) by Homer, a town in
Messenia (II. ii. 694 ; Strab. p. 350).
Olus ('OAoCj : 'OAoiWios), a town and harbour
on the E. coast of Crete, near the promontory
of Zephyrium (Paus. ix. 40, 3 ; Ptol. iii. 17, 5).
Olybrius, Anicius, Roman emperor a.d. 472,
was raised to this dignity by Ricimer, who
deposed Anthemius. He died in the course of
the same year, after a reign of 3 months and
18 days. His successor was Glycerius.
Olynipene, and Olympeni, or Olympieni
( 'OXvpirnvii, 'OXvpirnvol, 'OXvpirivvoi), the
names of the district about the Mysian Olympus,
and of its inhabitants (Strab. pp. 571, 576).
Olympia (^OXvpirta) the name of a small
plain in Elis, in which the Olympic games
were celebrated. It was surrounded on the N.
and NE. by the hUl Cronus or Cronius, on the
S. by the river Alpheus, and on the W. by the
river Cladeus. In this plain was the sacred
precinct of Zeus, called Altis ("AXris, an old
Elean form of aXffos), originaUy, no doubt, as
its name signified, a sacred grove. This great
enclosure, surrounded by a wall, was 750 feet
long by 550 broad, stretching on the north up to
the base of the hUl Cronus, and situated at the
angle formed by the confluence of the rivers
Alpheus and Cladeus, 300 stadia distant from
the town of Pisa. The Altis with its temples
and statues and the pubUc buildings to the im
mediate neighbourhood formed what was called
Olympia; but there was no town of this name.
Since the beginning of the German excavations
in 1875, it has become possible to trace the
ground plans of nearly aU the buildings as they
were described by Pausanias (book vi.) ; and
this alone, apart from the sculptures which have
been recovered, has made the undertaking one
of the highest interest and the results of the
greatest archaeological value. Nearly the cen
tral point of the enclosure of the Altis was the
great altar of Zeus, a large elliptical base of
undressed stone, above wMch are layers of ashes
of the victims. To the SW. of the altar is the
great temple of Zeus, the plan of which is per
fectly established by the excavations. The
foundations are complete, and many of the
columns, overthrown by earthquakes, lie beside
their bases. The temple was begun by the
architect Libon of EUs to the sixth century B.C.,
and completed in the middle of the fifth cen
tury. It is a Doric peripteros (i.e. having a single
row of columns both at the sides and ends),
with six columns at each end (' hexastyle ') and
thirteen at the sides. So much of the sculptures
of the pediments and metopes has been dis
covered that they can be fairly reconstructed.
The S. pediment, ascribed by Pausanias to
Paeonius, represents the chariot race between
Pelops and Oenomaus ; the W. pediment,
ascribed to Alcamenes, represents the fight of
Centaurs and Lapithae. The labours of HeracleB
form the subject of the metopes. In the temple
stood originaUy the great statue of the Olympian
Zeus in gold and ivory by Phidias. Prominent
among the statues in front of the temple through
wMch the processions passed to reach the
temple itself, and of which in many cases the
inscribed verses remain, were the Eretrian bull'
by PhUesias to the NE., and the great statue of
Nike by Paeonius to the SE. TMs famous statue
which towered above those who approached.

624
the temple has been in part recovered. [Paeo
nius]. To the N. of the temple of Zeus was
the sanctuary of Pelops, a grove with a ter
raced wall and a chapel within it, of which
some remains of masonry survive. NW. of the
Pelopion is the circular PMUppeum, built by
Philip of Macedon after the battle of Chaeronea;

OLYMPIA mained such to the end ; others were restored to
stone. The statue of Zeus by PMdias, the cMef
glory of the great temple, has perished, but
the cMef ornament of the Heraeum, the Hermes
by Praxiteles, was found in situ, and is now
to the museum of Olympia [Praxiteles].
The Prytaneum, altered at various periods,

and immediately N. of the Pelopion is the
Heraeum or temple of Hera. This seems to
be the most ancient temple at Olympia. Its
plan is like that of the temple of Zeus, though
it is much smaUer as well as older. It has,
however, sixteen columns at the sides. The
columns were originaUy wooden; some re-

stood NW. of the Heraeum; the plan can be
partially reconstructed from the scanty remains.
In it the Olympian victors were entertained.
Very little remains of the Metroon or temple of
the Mother of the Gods, to the E. of the
Heraeum ; stiU further east are yet the bases
of the statues of Zeus (caUed Zanes) erected

OLYMPIAS
from the proceeds of fines for breaches of rules;
and N. of these is the long line of Treasuries,
twelve to number, belonging to various Greek
states, built like miniature temples, to which
were stored offerings of the different states and
equipment for the games. The eastern front of
the Altis was the great entrance Portico coUed
the ' Echo Colonnade,' affording shelter to the
spectators, built to the Macedonian period on
the site of an older portico : the foundations of
both can be distinguished. The sanctuary of
Hippodamia seems to have stood in the SE.
corner of the Altis. To the S. of the Altis is
the Bouleuterium or senate-house, in which were
the altars and statues of Zeus Horkios, before
wMch the combatants took a solemn oath that
they would observe the rules of the games. The
oldest part of the Bouleuterium is an oblong
hall of the sixth century with an apse to the
west: a corresponding hall was buUt later
paraUel with it, and the two were afterwards
connected by a square buUding. Later stiU and
of the Roman period is the portico wMch fronts
them. The other important buildings outside
the Altis are the great Palaestra on the west
(of wMch the ground plan is traceable) adjoining
the Gymnasium, where those who aspired to con
tend went through a month's training before
hand. To the south another gymnasium has
been discovered. Outside the NE. corner of
the Altis was the Stadium, communicating with
it by a covered way [Did. of Ant. art. Stadium].
To the SE. of tMs was the Hippodrome. Outside
the SW. corner ore the rematos of the buUding
erected by Leonidas of EUs in the fourth
century B.C., and enlarged to the Roman period.
Near this the foundations of the heroum of
lamus have been found and the altar used to
divination by the Iamidae. The Byzantine
church, of which the remains are between the
Leonideum and the Palaestra, was built over or
adjoining older buildings which were possibly
priests' houses. [For an account of the Olympic
games, see Did. of Antiq. art. Olympia, Hippo-
dromus, Pancratium, Pentathlon^]
Olympias ('OXvpirids), wiie of Philip II., king
of Macedonia, and mother of Alexander the
Great, was the daughter of Neoptolemus I.,
king of Epirus. She was married to PMlip B.C.
359. (Just. vii. 6, 10 ; Plut. Alex. 2 ; Diod. xix.
51.) The numerous amours of Philip, and the
passionate and jealous character of Olympias
occasioned frequent disputes between them ;
and when Phihp married Cleopatra, the niece
of Attalus (337), Olympias withdrew from Mace
donia, and took refuge at the court of her brother
Alexander, king of Epirus. It was generally
believed that she lent her Bupport to the assas
sination of Philip, 336 ; but it is hardly credible
that she evinced her approbation of that deed
in the open manner asserted by some writers,
(Just. ix. 5, 7 ; Plut. Alex. 9, 19 ; Athen. p. 557.)
After the death of PhiUp she returned to Mace
donia, where she enjoyed great influence through
the affection of Alexander. On the death of the
latter (323), she withdrew from Macedonia,
where her enemy Antipater had the undisputed
control of affairs, and took refuge in Epirus.
Here she continued to Uve, as it were, in exile,
until the death of Antipater (319) presented a
new opening to her ambition. She gave her
support to the new regent, Polysperchon, in
opposition to Cassander, who had formed an
alliance with Eurydice the wife of Philip Arrhi
daeus, the nominal Mng of Macedonia. (Diod.
xviu. 49-65.) In 317 Olympias, resolving to ob
tain the supreme power in Macedonia, invaded

OLYMPUS

625

t that country, along with Polysperchon, de
feated Eurydice to battle, and put both her and
her husband to death. Olympias followed up
her vengeance by the execution of Nicanor, the
brother of Cassander, as well as of 100 of his
leading partisans among the Macedonian nobles.
Cassander, who was at that time in the Pelo
ponnesus, hastened to turn Mb arms against
Macedonia. Olympias on his approach threw
herself (together with Roxana and the young
Alexander) into Pydna, where she was closely
blockaded by Cassander throughout the winter.
At length in the spring of 316, she was com-
peUed to surrender to Cassander, who caused
her to be put to death. (Diod. xix. 11-51 ; Just.
xiv. 5, 6; Paus. ix. 7, 2.) Olympias was not
without something of the grandeur and lof tineas
of spirit which distinguished her son, but her
ungovernable passionB led her to acts of sangui
nary cruelty that disgrace her name.
Olympieum. [Athenae, p. 148.]
Olympiodorus ('OXvpiribSapos). 1. A native
of Thebes in Egypt, who Uvea in the fifth cen
tury after Christ. He wrote a work in twenty-
two books (entitled 'Io-TopiKol Xbyoi), which
comprised the history of the Western empire
under the reign of Honorius, from a. d. 407 to
October a.d. 425. Olympiodorus took up the
history from about the point at which Eunapius
had ended. [Eunapius.] The original work of
Olympiodorus is lost, but an abridgment of it
has been preserved by Photius. After the death
of Honorius, Olympiodorus removed to Byzan
tium, to the court of the emperor Theodosius.
Hierocles dedicated to this Olympiodorus his
work on Providence and Fate [Hierocles]. — 2.
A Peripatetic philosopher, who taught at Alex
andria, where Proclus was one of his pupils. — 3.
The last philosopher of celebrity in the Neo-
Platonic school of Alexandria. He lived in the
first half of the sixth century after Christ, in
the reign of the emperor Justinian. His Life ot
Plato and commentaries on several of Plato's
dialogues are still extant. — 4. An Aristotelian
philosopher, the author of a commentary on the
Meteorologica of Aristotle, which is still ex
tant, lived at Alexandria, in the latter half of
the sixth century after Christ. Like SimpUcius,
to whom, however, he is inferior, he endeavours
to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. — 5. An Athe
nian general, who opposed Cassander's attempts
upon AthenB, B.C. 298. In 288 he expelled the
Macedonian troops of Demetrius from Athens.
(Paus. i. 25, 2, i. 29, 13, x. 18, 7, x. 34, 3.)
Olympius ('OXipirios), the Olympian, occurs
as a surname of Zeus, and in general of all the
gods who lived in Olympus, to contradistinction
to the gods of the lower world.
Olympius Nemesianus. [Nemesianus.]
Olympus ("OXvpiros), the name of two Greek
musicians, of whom one is mythical, and the
other Mstorical. — 1. The elder Olympus belongs
to the mythical genealogy of Mysian and Phry
gian fluteplayers — Hyagnis, Marsyas, Olympus
— to each of whom the invention of the flute
was ascribed, under whose names we have the
mythical representation of the rivalry between
the Phrygian auletic music, used in the worship
of Cybele, and the Greek citharoedio music.
Olympus was said to have been a native of
Mysia, and to have lived before the Trojan war.
Olympus not unfrequently appears on works of
art as a boy, sometimes instructed by Marsyas,
and sometimes as witnessing and lamenting Ms
fate. (Apollod. i. 4, 2 ; Hyg. Fab. 165, 273 ; Ov-
Met. vi. 893 ; Suid. s. ».)— 2. The true Olympus
was a Phrygian, and perhaps belonged to a
S S

626

OLYMPUS

famUy of native musicians, since he was said to
be descended from the first Olympus. He
flourished about B. c 660-620. Though a Phry
gian, Olympus must be reckoned among the
Greek musicians, for all the accounts make
Greece the scene of his artistic activity; and
he may be considered as having naturalised in
Greece the music of the flute, previously almost
peculiar to Ptoygia. (Plut. de Mus. pp. 1133-
1140.) Olympus ("OXvpiros). 1. (Grk. Elymbo,
Turk. Semavat-Evi, i.e. Abode of the Celes
tials). The E. part of the great chain of
mountains which extends W. and E. from the
Acroceraunian promontory on the Adriatic to
the Thermaic Gulf, and wMch formed the N.
boundary of ancient Greece proper. In a wide
sense, the name is sometimes appUed to aU that
part of tMs chain which lies E. of the central
range of Pindus, and which is usuaUy caUed
the Cambunian mountains ; but strictly speak
ing Mount Olympus is the extreme E. part of
the chain, which, striking off from the Cam
bunian mountains to the SE., skirts the S. end
of the sUp of coast caUed Pieria, and forms at
its termination the N. waUof the vale of Tempe.
Its shape is that of a blunt cone, with its outline
picturesquely broken by minor summits ; its
height is about 9700 feet, and its cMef summit
is covered with perpetual snow. From its posi
tion as the boundary between Thessaly and
Macedoma, it is sometimes reckoned to the
former, sometimes to the latter (Hdt. vii. 128 ;
Strab. p. 329). — In the Greek mythology, Olym
pus was the chief seat of the third dynasty of
gods, of wMch Zeus was the head. It was a
really local conception with the early poets, to
be understood literally, that the gods dwelt on
Olympus. Even the fable of the giants scaling
heaven must be understood to tMs sense ; not
that they placed PeUon and Ossa upon the top
of Olympus to reach the stUl Mgher heaven, but
that they piled PeUon on the top of Ossa, and
both on the lower slopes of Olympus, to scale
the summit of Olympus itself, the abode of the
gods. Homer describes the gods as having
their several palaces on Olympus (H. xi. 76 ; cf .
Hes. Th. 62) ; on the summit is the council-
chamber, where they meet in solemn conclave
(II. viii. 3) ; the Muses entertain them with the
lyre and song. They are shut in from the view
of men upon the earth by a wall of clouds, the
gates of which are kept by the Hours ( II. v. 749,
viu. 393). In the Odyssey it is described as a
peaceful abode unshaken by storms (Od. vi. 42).
The same conceptions are found to Hesiod, and
to a great extent in the later poets ; with whom,
however, even as early as the lyric poets and the
tragedians, the idea becomes less material, and
the real abode of the gods is gradually trans
ferred from the summit of Olympus to the vault
of heaven (i.e. the sky) itseU. Since locally the
same idea attached to certain other high moun
tains, the same name was given to them. Thus
Lycaeus to Arcadia was sometimes colled
Olympus (Paus. viii. 38, 2), and especially tMs
was the case with 2. The Mysian Olympus
("OXvpTos b Micrios : Keshish Dagh, Ala Dagh,
Ishik Dagh, and Kush Dagh), a chain of lofty
mountains to the NW. of Asia Minor, forming,
with Ida, the W. part of the northernmost Une of
the mountain system of that pemnsula. It ex
tends from W. to E. through the NE. of Mysia
and the SW. of Bithynia, and thence, inclining
a Uttle northwards, it first passes through the
centre of Bithynia, then forms the boundary
between Bithynia and Galatia, and then extends

OMBI
through the S. of Paphlagoma to the river Halys.
Beyond the Halys, the mountains to the N. of
Pontus form a continuation of the chain. (Strab.
p. 574 ; Hdt. i. 36, vii. 74.)— 3. (Yanar Dagh),
a volcano on the E. coast of Lycia, above the
city of Phoenicus (Yanar). The names of the
mountain and of the city are often interchanged.
[Phoenicus.] — There were two mountains of the
same name to Cyprus, and one to Lesbos.
Olynthus ("OXvvBos : 'OXivBios : Aio Mamas),
a town of Macedonia to Chalcidice, at the head
of the Toronaic gulf, and a Uttle distance from
the coast, between the peninsulas of PaUene
and Sithonia (Strab. p. 330 ; Mel. u. 2, 9). It
was the most important of the Greek cities on
the coast of Macedonia, though we have no
record of its foundation. It afterwards fell
into the hands of the Thracian Bottiaei, when
they were expeUed from their own country by
the Macedonians (Hdt. vii. 122 ; Strab. p. 447).
It was taken by Artabazus, one of the generals
of Xerxes, who peopled it with Chalcidians
from Torone ; but it owed its greatness to
Perdiccas, who persuaded the inhabitants of
many of the smaUer towns to Chalcidice to
abandon their own abodes and settle to Olyn
thus (Thuc. i. 58, 65, u. 79). This happened
about the commencement of the Peloponnesian
war ; and from this time Olynthus appears as a
prosperous and flourishing town, with a popula
tion of 5000 inhabitants capable of bearing
arms. It became the head of a confederacy of
aU the Greek towns in tMs part of Macedoma,
and it long maintained its independence against
the attacks of the Athenians, Spartans and
Macedonians; but to B.C. 879 it was compelled
to submit to Sparta, after carrying on war with
this state for four years. When the supremacy
of Sparta was destroyed by the Thebans, Olyn
thus recovered its independence, and even
received an accession of power from Philip, who
was anxious to make Olynthus a counterpoise
to the influence of Athens in the N. of the
Aegaean. With this view Philip gave Olynthus
the territory of Potidaea, after he had wrested
tMs town from the Athenians to 356. But
when he had sufficiently consolidated Ms power
to be able to set at defiance both Olynthus and
Athens, he threw off the mask, and laid siege
to the former city. The Olynthians earnestly
besought Athens for assistance, and were
warmly supported by Demosthenes to Ms Olyn-
tMac orations ; but as the Athenians did not
render the city any effectual assistance, it was
taken and destroyed by Philip, and aU its
inhabitants sold as slaves (347). [Pbtlippus.]
Olynthus was never restored, and the rem
nants of its inhabitants were at a later time
transferred by Cassander to Cassandrea. At
the time of its prosperity Olynthus used the
town of Mecyberna as its seaport.
Omana or Omanum ("Opava, "Opavov). 1. A
celebrated port on the NE. coast of Arabia
Felix, a little above the easternmost point of the
peninsula, Pr. Syagros (Bas el Had), on a large
gulf of the same name. The people of this
part of Arabia_ were caUed Omanitae £Opa-
vhai), or Omani, and the name is stUl preserved
in that of the district, Oman. (Ptol. vi. 15.) — 2.
(Prob. Schai/na), a seaport town in the E. of
Carmania; the chief emporium for the trade
between India, Persia, and Arabia (Plin. vi. 149).
- Omanitae and Omanum. [Omana.]
Ombi COpBot : 'OpBtrat : Kourn Ombou, i.e.
Hill of Ombon, Ru.), the last great city of
Upper Egypt, except Syene, from wMch it was
distant about thirty miles, stood on the E,

OMPHALE
Iiank of the Nile, in the Ombites Nomos, and
was celebrated as one of the chief seats of the
worsMp of the crocodUe (the crocodile-headed
god Sebek). Juvenal's 15th Satire mentions a
reUgious fight between the people of Ombi and
those of Tentyra, during a festival at Ombi
(Juv. xv. 35 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 73 ; Ael. H. A. x. 21).
Omphale ('OpipdXii), daughter of the Lydian
king Iardanus, and wife of Tmolus, after whose
death she undertook the government herself.
When Heracles, to consequence of the murder
¦of Iphitus, was afflicted with a serious disease,
and was informed by the oracle that he could
-only be cured by serving some one for wages
for the space of three years, Hermes sold
Heracles to Omphale. The hero became
enamoured of Ms mistress, and, to please her,
he is said to have spun wool and put on the
garments of a woman, whUe Omphale wore

ONOMACRITUS

027

Omphale and Heracles. (Farnese Group, now at Naples.)
Ms lion's skto. She bore Heracles several
chUdren. (Diod. iv. 31 ; ApoUod. n. 6, 3 ; Ov.
Fast. n. 305, Her. ix. 53.) For possible ex
planations of tMs myth, see p. 400, b.
Omphalium ('OpupaXiov : 'OpjpaXirris), a town
to Crete in the neighbourhood of Cnossus
.(Diod. v. 70).
On. [Heliopolis.]
Onatas ('Ovdras), of Aegina, a famous
sculptor of the later and best period of Aegine
tan art, which stUl preserved somewhat of the
archaic stiffness or rigidity as compared with
the Attic style of Phidias which succeeded it.
The work of Onatas was to the earlier part of
the fifth century B.C. His great statues were
the ' Black Demeter ' at Phigalia to bronze, a
female figure to black drapery with a horse's
head (Paus. viu. 42, 1), a bronze ApoUo at
Pergamum (Paus. viii. 42, 7), and two groups
of statues, described by Pausanias, at Olympia,
which are held by modern critics to resemble to
subject and arrangement the pediments of
Aegina now at Munich : viz. the group of heroes
at Troy casting lots for the fight with Hector,
and the group of Tarenttoe warriors round
the body of Opis the Peucetian Mng (Paus. v.
27, 8).
Oncae ("OyKat), a village to Boeotia near

Thebes, from which one of the gates of Thebes
derived its name ('07Kaiai), and which con
tained a sanctuary of Athene.
Onceuin ("OyKeiov) a town in Arcadia on the
river Ladon with a temple of Demeter Erinnys
(Paus. viii. 25, 4).
Onchesmus or Onchismus ("Oyxyo-pos, "O7-
Xio-pos : Orchido), a seaport town of Epirus in
Chaonia, opposite the W. extremity of Corcyra.
The ancients derived its name from Anchises,
whence it is named by Dionysius the ' Harbour
of Anchises' ('Ayxlo-ov Xip-nv). From this
place Cicero calls the wind blowing from Epirus
towards Italy Onchesmitea. (Strab. p. 324 ; Cic.
ad Att. vii. 2.)
Onchestus ('Oyxvo-rbs : 'Oyxh<rrios). 1.
An ancient town of Boeotia, said to have been
founded by Onchestus, son of Poseidon, was
situated a little S. of the lake Copais near
Haliartus. It contained a celebrated temple
and grove of Poseidon, and was the place of
meeting of the Boeotian Amphictyony. The
ruins of this town are stiU to be seen on the
SW. slope of the mountain Faga. (II. ii. 506 ;
Pind. Isthm. i. 44 ; Strab. p. 412 ; Paus. ix.
26, 5.) — 2. A river in Thessaly which rises in
the neighbourhood of Eretria, and flows by
Cynoscephalae, and falls toto the lake Boebeis
(Pol. xviii. 3 ; Liv. xxxii. 6).
Onesicritus ('Ovrio-iKpiros), a Greek historical
writer, who accompanied Alexander on his
campaigns in Asia, and wrote a history of them,
which is frequently cited by later authors. He
is caUed by some authorities a native of Asty
palaea, and by others of Aegina. (Diog. Laert.
vi. 75; Arrian, Ind. 18.) When Alexander
constructed his fleet on the Hydaspes, he
appointed Onesicritus chief pilot of the fleet, a
post which he held during the descent of the
Indus and throughout the voyage to the Persian
gulf, which was conducted under the command
of Nearchus (Arrian, An. vi. 2, 6, vii. 5, 9 ; Plut.
Alex. 66). Though an eye-witness of much
that he described, it appears that he intermixed
many fables and falsehoods with his narrative
(Strab. pp. 70, 698).
Oningis or Oringis. [Oeingis.]
Oniros ("Ovetpos), the Dream-God, was a
personification of dreams. According to the
Odyssey, Dreams dwell on the dark shores of
the W. Oceanus, and the deceitful dreams come
tMough an ivory gate, whUe the true ones
issue from a gate made of horn (Od. xix. 562,
xxiv. 12). Hesiod calls dreams the cMldren
of Night, Sleep and Death being their brothers
(Th. 12). SimUarly in Eur. Hec. 71 (rightly
punctuated), the 'mother of dusky- winged
dreams ' is Night, not Earth. Dreams were
controUed by Hermes, since they were in some
sense messages. Ovid calls them cMldren of
Sleep, and names three, who pervade the
earth and appear to various forms to sleepers
(Met. xi. 633) : Morpheus, Icelus or Phobetor,
and Phantasus. [For dream-oracleB see Did.
of Ant. art. Oraculum.]
Onoba, surnamed Aestuaria (Huelva), a sea
port town of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica,
between the mouths of the Baetis and Anas,
on an aestuary formed by the river Luxia.
There are remains of a Roman aqueduct at
Huelva. (Strab. p. 143 ; Ptol. ii. 4, 5.)
Onochonus ('Ovbxavos: Sophaditikos), a river
of Thessaly which joins the Apidanus from the
W. (Hdt. vii 129).
Onomacritus ('OvopdKptros), an Athenian,
who occupies an interesting position in the
Mstory of the early Greek religious poetry.
s s 2

628

ONOMARCHUS

He lived about B.C. 520-485. He enjoyed the
patronage of Hipparchus, until he was detected
by Lasus of Hermione (the dithyrambic poet) in
making an interpolation to an oracle of
Musaeus, for which Hipparchus banished Mm.
He seems to have gone into Persia, where the
Pisistratids, after their expulsion from Athens,
took him again into favour, and employed him
to persuade Xerxes to engage in Ms expedition
against Greece, by reciting to Mm all the
ancient oracles which seemed to favour the
attempt. (Hdt. vii. 6.) It appears that Ono-
macritus had made a collection and arrange
ment of the oracles ascribed to Musaeus, and
that he was the real author of some of the
poems which went under the name of Orpheus
(Paus. i. 22, viii. 31, 37, ix. 35). Tzetzes speaks
of him as one of those who arranged the books
of Homer under Pisistratus, and thus he has
been set down by Wolf and others as one of the
* Diasceuastae ' of Homer.
Onomarchus ('Ovbpapxos), general of the
Phocians in the Sacred war, succeeded Ms
brother Philomelus in tMs command, B.C. 353.
In the foUowing year he was defeated to Thes
saly by Philip, and perished in attempting to
reach by swimming the Athenian ships, which
were lying off the shore, B.C. 352. His body fell
into the hands of PhUip, who caused it to be
crucified, as a punishment for his sacrilege in
the Sacred war. (Diod. xvi. 31-61 ; Paus. x. 2,
5 ; Just. viii. 1.)
Onosander ('Oi/oVai/Spos), the author of a cele
brated work on mUitary tactics (entitled StrparTj-
yiKbs Xbyos), which is still extant. AU subse
quent Greek and Roman writers on the Same
subject made tMs work their text-book. He
lived about a.d. 50. In Ms style he imitated Xe
nophon with some suocess. Edited by Schwebel,
Niirnberg, 1761 ; and by Kochly, Lips. 1860.
Onu-gnathus ("Ovov yvdBos: Elaphonisi),
an island and a promontory on the S. coast of
Laconia (Strab. p. 863 ; Paus. iii. 22, 23).
Onuphis COvovtpts), the capital of the Nomos
Onuphites in the Delta of Egypt (Hdt. ii. 166).
Opheiion ('{KpeXlav), an Athenian comic poet,
of the Middle Comedy, B.C. 380 (Athen. pp.
43, 66, 67, 106).
Ophelias ('0(peXXas), of Pella in Macedonia,
was one of the generals of Alexander the Great,
after whose death he foUowed the fortunes of
Ptolemy. In B.C. 822, he conquered Cyrene, of
which city he held the government on behalf
of Ptolemy for some years. But soon after
313 he tMew off his allegiance to Ptolemy, and
continued to govern Cyrene as an independent
state for nearly five years. In 308 he formed an
* aUiance with Agathocles, and marched against
Carthage; but he was treacherously attacked
by Agathocles near this city, and was slain.
(Diod. xx. 40-42 ; Just. xxii. 7 ; Suid. s. v.)
Opheltes ('OtpeXr-ns). 1. Also called Arche
morus. [Abchemoeus.] — 2. One of the Tyr
rhenian pirates, who attempted to carry off
Dionysus, and were therefore metamorphosed
into dolphins [p. 294].
Ophlon('0(pfe»<). 1. One of the oldest of the
Titans, was married to Eurynome, with whom
he ruled over Olympus, but being conquered
by Cronos and Rhea, he and Eurynome were
thrown toto Oceanus or Tartarus (Ap. Rh. i.
503 ; Tzetz. ad Lye. 1191).— 2. Father of the
centaur Amyous, who is hence called Ophid-
nodes (Ov. Met. xii. 245).
Ophionenses or Ophienses ('Oipiove7s, 'OQie'is),
a people of Aetolia (Strab. pp. 451, 465).
Ophir. [See Diet, of the Bible.]

OPIS
Ophis ("Otpis), a river in Arcadia, which flowed
by Mantinea (Paus. viii. 8, 4).
Ophiiisa or Ophiussa ('O<j>ibeo-o-a, 'O<piovo-o-a,
'0<ptovo-a,i.e. abounding in snakes). 1. [Pity-
usae.] — 2. Or Ophiussa (perhaps Palanea), a
town of European Scythia, on the left bank of
the Tyras (Dneister). (Strab. p. 306.)— 3. A
Uttle island near Crete.— 4. (Afsia or Babbi),
a small island in the Propontis (Sea of Mar
mora), NW. of Cyzicus and SW. of Procon-
nesus. — 5. [Rhodus.] — 6. [Tenos.]
Ophrynlum ['Otppweiov : prob. Fren-Kevi), a
smaU town of the Troad, near the lake of
Pteleos, between Dardanus and Rhoeteum, with
a grove consecrated to Hector (Hdt. vii. 43 ;
Strab. p. 595 : Xen. An. vii. 8, 5).
Opici. [Osci.]
Opilius Macrinus. [Maceinus.]
Opilius, Aurelius, the freedman of an Epi
curean, taught at Rome, first pMlosophy, then
rhetoric, and finally, grammar. He gave up
his school upon the condemnation of RutUius
Rufus (b.c. 92), whom he accompamed to
Smyrna. He composed several learned works,
one of which, named Musae, is referred to by
A. Gellius. (Suet. Gramm. 6; Gell. i. 25.)
Opimius. 1. ft., consul b.c. 154, when he
subdued some of the Ligurian tribes N. of the
Alps, who had attacked Massilia. He was
notorious in Ms youth for his riotous Uving,
and was described by LuciUus as ' f ormosus et
famosus.' (Pol. xxxui. 5-8; Cic. de Or. ii. 68,
277 ; Non. s.v. Fama.) — 2. L., son of the pre
ceding, was praetor 125, in which year he took
Fregellae, which had revolted against the
Romans. He belonged to the high aristocratical
party, and was a violent opponent of C.
Gracchus. He was consul in 121, and took the
leading part in the proceedings which ended in
the murder of Gracchus. Opimius and his
party abused their victory most savagely, and
are said to have killed more than 3000 persons.
For details see p. 871, b. In the foUowing year
(120), he was accused of having put Roman
citizens to death without trial; but he was
defended by the consul C Papirius Carbo, and
was acquitted. (Liv. Ep. 61 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 25,
106.) In 112 he was at the head of the com
mission wMch was sent into Africa in order to
divide the domtoions of Micipsa between Ju
gurtha and Adherbal, and was bribed by
Jugurtha to assign to Mm the better part of
the country. Three years after, he was con
demned under the law of the tribune C.
MamiUus Limetanus, by which an inquiry was
made into the conduct of all those who had re
ceived bribes from Jugurtha. (SaU. Jug. 16, 40 ;
Veil. Pat. ii. 7.) Opimius went toto exile to
Dyrrhachium in Epirus, where he Uved for
some years, hated and insulted by the people,
and where he eventually died to great poverty.
He ricMy deserved his punishment, and met
with a due recompense for his cruel and fero
cious conduct towards C. Gracchus and his
party. Cicero, on the contrary, who, after his
consulsMp, had identified Mmself with the
aristocratical party, frequently laments the fate
of Opimius. The year in which Opimius was
consul (121) was remarkable for the extra
ordinary heat of the autumn, and thus the
vintage of this year was of an unprecedented
quality. This wine long remained celebrated
as the Vinum Opimianum. (Cic. Brut. 83,
287.) _
Opis ('fliris), an important commercial city
of Assyria, in the district of ApoUoniatis, at
the confluence of the Physcus (Odorneh) with

OPITERGIUM
the Tigris ; not mentioned after the Christian
era (Hdt. i. 189 ; Xen. An. vii. 7 ; Strab. pp. 80,
529). _ ** '
Opitergium (Opiterglnus : Oderzo), a Roman
colony in Venetia to the N. of Italy, on the river
Liquentia, and on the Mgh road from Aquileia
to Verona. In the Marcomannio war it was de
stroyed by the Quadi, but it was rebuilt, and
afterwards belonged to the Exarchate. From it
the neighbouring mountains were caUed Montes
Opitergini. (Strab. p. 214 ; Lucan, iv. 462 ; Tac.
Hist. iii. 6; Amm. Marc. xxix. 6.)
Oppianus ('Oiriricu'd's), the name of the authors
of two Greek hexameter poems stiU extant, one
on fishing, entitled Halieutica ('AXievriKa),
and the other on hunting, entitled Cynegetica
(KvirnyeriKd). Modern critics have shown that
these two poems were written by two different
persons of this name. 1. The author of the
Halieutica was born either at Corycus or at
Anazarba, in CUicia, and flourished about A.D.
180. The poem consists of about 3500 hexame
ter lines, divided into five books, of wMch the
first two treat of the natural Mstory of fishes,
and the other tMee of the art of fishing. — 2.
The author of the Cynegetica was a native of
Apamea or PeUa, to Syria, and flourished a
Uttle later than the other Oppianus, about A.D.
206. His poem, wMch is addressed to the em
peror Caracalla, consists of about 2100 hexame
ter lines, divided toto four books. Editions of
the two poems by Schneider, Lips. 1813, and
l>y F. Lehrs, 1846. There is also a prose para
phrase by Eutechnius of a poem on fowling
('l^evTiKa) attributed to Oppianus, but the
authorsMp of the original is doubtful.
OppiUS. 1. C, tribune of the plebs B. c. 213,
carried a law, under pressure of the second Punic
war, to curtaU the expenses and luxuries of
Roman women. TMs law was repealed in 195,
notwithstanding the vehement opposition of the
elder Cato (Liv. xxxiv. 1-8 ; Val. Max. ix. 1, 3 ;
Tac. Ann. Ui. 33). — 2. ft., a Roman general in
the Mithridatic war, B. c. 88, fell into the hands
of Mithridates, but was subsequently surren
dered by the latter to SuUa (Liv. Ep. 78 ; App.
Mithr. 17, 20, -112).— 3. P., quaestor to M. Aure
lius Cotta in Bithynia, b. c. 74, was accused of
misappropriation of supplies and also of draw
ing his sword upon Ms commander ; he was tried
in 69 and defended by Cicero to a speech of wMch
only a few fragments remain (Dio Cass, xxxvi.
23 ; QuintU. v. 13, 17). — 4. C, an intimate friend
of C. Julius Caesar, whose private affairs he
managed to conjunction with CorneUus Balbus
(Cic. ad Att. ix. 7, 13, xi. 17, xii. 19, ad Fam.
ii. 16). Oppius wrote a Life of Caesar (Plut.
Pomp. 10 ; Suet. Jul. 53), and of Scipio Afri
canus the elder (GeU. vi. 1, 2). Some believed
¦Oppius to have been the author of the continua
tion of Caesar's Commentaries (the Bell. Alex.,
Afr. and Hisp.). TMs is untenable as regards
the two last and improbable as regards the first.
The style of the African and Spanish Wars is
too poor to be the work of a man with the re
putation of Oppius, and it is clear that the
authorwas present in both wars, whereas Oppius
at that time was at Rome. There is thought
to be some indication to Bell. Alex. (3, 1 ; 19, 6)
that the author was present (which was not the
¦case with either Hirtius or Oppius), but the
-evidence here is not conclusive [cf. Htetius].
Ops, a Roman goddess of plenty and fertility,
as is indicated by her name, wMch is connected
with opimus, opulentus, inops, and copia. She
was regarded as the wife of Saturnus, and the
jrotectress of everything connected with agri-

ORCHOMENUS 629
culture. (Varro, L. L. vi. 22 ; Macrob. i. 10, 18.)
As goddess of the earth and its fruits, Ops was
also a goddess of the underworld, which is in
dicated by the ancient custom that her wor
shippers paid their vows crouoMng down and
touching the earth (Macrob. i. 10, 12, iii. 9, 12),
whioh was the attitude of the Greeks in invok
ing Hades and Persephone (II. ix. 564). In the
three days' summer festival held by the Fratres
Arvales, Ops was worshipped with offerings of
first-fruits and sacrifices under the name of Sea
Dia (who is identified with Ops). [For the ritual
see Did. of Ant. art. Fratres Arvales.] As
goddess of seed-time she was called Ops Con-
siva, whence her August festivals are called
Opiconsivia. Her worship was intimately con
nected with that of Saturnus, and it is probable
that the festival of the Opalia in the Forum on
December 17, during the period of the Satur-
naUa, were held to the temple of Saturn. The
temple of Ops was on the Capitol (Liv. xxxix.
22 ; Plin. vi. 174 ; C. I. L. vi. 507). Here was
the treasury of which Cicero speaks (Phil. ii. 37,
93). There was also a sacrarium of Ops in the
Regia, wMch contained sacred vesBels of the
most ancient form [Diet, of Ant. art. Praef eri-
culum]. Her worship was intimately connected
with that of her husband Saturnus, for she had
both temples and festivals in common with him ;
but she had Ukewise a separate sanctuary on
the Capitol, and in the Vicus Jugarius, not far
from the temple of Saturnus, she had an altar
in common with Ceres.
Opus ('Oirovs, cont. of 'Oirbeis: 'Oiroivrios).
1. (Talanda or Talanti ?), the capital of the
Opuntian Locrians, was situated, according to
Strabo (p. 425), fifteen stadia (two mileB) from the
sea, and sixty stadia from its harbour Cynos ;
but, according to Livy (xxviii. 6), it was otoy one
mile from the coast. It was the birthplace of
Patroclus (II. xviii. 326). The bay of the Eu-
boean sea near this town was called Opuntius
Sinus. [Locri.] — 2. A small town in Elis.
Ora. 1. (rfOpa) a city of Carmania, near the
borders of Gedrosia (Ptol. vi. 8, 14).— 2. ("Hpa),
a city to the N.W. of India, near the sources of
the Indus (Arrian, An. iv. 27).
Orae. [Oeitae.]
Orbelus ("OpBr)Xos), a mountain to the NE. of
Macedonia, on the borders of Ttoace, extends
from Mt. Rhodope along the Strymon to Mt.
Pangaeus (Hdt. v. 16 ; Strab. p. 329).
Orbilius Pupillus, a Roman grammarian and
schoolmaster, the teacher of Horace, who gives
him the epithet of plagosus from the severe
floggings wMch his pupils received from him.
(Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 71). He was a native of Bene-
ventum, and after serving as an apparitor of the
magistrates, and also as a soldier in the army,
settled at Rome to the fiftieth year of his age,
in the consulship of Cicero, b. c. 63. He Uved
nearly 100 years, but had lost Ms memory long
before Mb death. (Suet. Gramnm. 9.)
Orbona, an ancient Italian goddess who by
slaying cMldren rendered parents childless.
She was invoked (to avert her wrath) to the
Indigitamenta. (Tertull. ad Nat. ii. 15 ; Arnob.
iv. 7.) Her sanctuary is mentioned by Cic.
N. D. iii. 25, 63 (cf. Plin. ii. 16) as on the Via
Sacra. Orcades Insulae (Orkney and Shetland
Isles), a group of several small islands off the
N. coast of Britain, with which the Romans
first became acquainted when Agricola sailed
round the N. of Britain (Tac. Agr. 10 ; Ptol. ii.
3; 31).
Orchomenus ('Opxipevos : 'Opxopevios). 1.

630

ORCHOMENUS

(Scripu), an ancient, wealthy, and powerful city
of Boeotia, the capital of the Minyean empire
in the prehistorical ages of Greece, and hence
called by Homer the Minyean Orchomenos
('Opx- Mivbeios, II. ii. 511). It was situated
NW. of the lake Copais, on the river Cephissus,
and was buUt on the slope of a MU on the
summit of wMch stood the acropolis. It is said
to have been originaUy called Andreis ('AvSpijts),
from Andreus, the son of Peneus, who emigrated
from the Peneus in Thessaly; to have been
afterwards called Phlegya ($Xeyia), from PMeg-
yas, a son of Ares and Chryse ; and to have
finally obtained its later name from Orchomenus,
son of Zeus or Eteocles and the Danaid Hesione,
and father of Minyas (Paus. ix. 34-36). This
Orchomenus was regarded as the real founder
of the Minyean empire, which before the time
of the Trojan war extended over the whole of
the W. of Boeotia. Orchomenus, the ruling
town of aU tMs district, is described as one of
the wealthiest cities in Greece (II. ix. 381).
According to the legends of Thebes it was
Heracles who freed that city from its subjection
to Orchomenus (Paus. ix. 37, 2 ; Strab. p. 414 ;
Diod. iv. 18). After the Trojan war the power
of the Minyae was overthrown by immigrants
from Thessaly, and Orchomenus became merely
a member of the Boeotian League, subordinate
in power to Thebes. [Boeotia.] Orchomenus
eontinued to exist as an independent town tiU
B. c. 367, when it was taken and destroyed by
the Thebans, and its inhabitants murdered or
sold as slaves (Diod. xv. 79 ; Paus. ix. 15, 3).
In order to weaken Thebes, it was rebuilt at the
instigation of the Athenians, but was soon de
stroyed again by the Thebans, and, although it
was again restored by PMUp to 338, it never re
covered its former prosperity, and to the time
of Strabo was to ruins. The most celebrated
buUding in Orchomenus was the so-caUed trea
sury of Minyas, wMch, like the similar monu
ments at Mycenae, was reaUy a tomb of the an
cient princes. It was completely excavated
and explored by Schiiemann in 1880. It had a
passage, or dromos, leading to the vaulted or bee
hive chamber and another spare room, remark
able for its beautUuUy-decorated ceUing. The
decorations, "as weU as the general form of the
tombs, Bhow the connexion of the Orchomenus
of that date as regards art and civiUsation with
Mycenae [see p. 580, a]. Orchomenus possessed
a very ancient temple of the Charites or Graces ;
and here was celebrated in the most ancient
times a musical festival which was frequented
by poets and singers from all parts of the Hel-
, lenic world (Pind. Pyth. xii. 45 ; Theocr. xvi.
104). There was a temple of Heracles seven
stadia N. of the town, near the sources of the
river Melas. Orchomenus is memorable on ac
count of the victory which Sulla gained in its
neighbourhood over Archelaus, the general of
Mithridates, B.C. 85. — 2. (Kalpaki), an ancient
town of Arcadia, mentioned by Homer with the
epithet iroXipijXos, to distinguish it from the
Minyean Orchomenus (II. ii. 605 ; cf. Ov. Met.
vi. 413), is said to have been founded by Orcho
menus, son of Lycaon (Paus. viii. 8, 3). It was
situated on a hiU NW. of Mantinea, and its
territory included the towns of Methydrium,
Theisoa, TeutMs, and the Tripolis. In the
Peloponnesian war Orchomenus sided with
Sparta, and was taken by the Athenians (Thuc.
v. 61). After the battle of Leuctra the Orcho-
menians did not join the Arcadian confederacy,
to consequence of its hatred against Mantinea.
In the contests between the Achaeans and

ORESTES
AetoUans, it was taken successively by Cleo
menes and Antigonus Doson ; but it eventually
became a member of the Achaean League. (Pol,
ii. 46, 54, iv. 6 ; Liv. xxxu. 5.)
Orcus. [Hades.]
Ordessns ('OpSno-o-bs), a tributary of the Ister-
(Danube) in Scythia, but cannot be identified
with any modern river (Hdt. iv. 48).
Ordovices, a people of Britain, opposite the
island Mona (Anglesey), occupying the N. por
tion of Wales (Tac. Ann. xii. 33, Agr. 18).
Oreades. [Nymphae.]
Orestae ('Opeo-rai), a people to the N. of
Epirus on the borders of Macedonia, inhabiting'
the district named after them, Orestis or 0res~
tias. They were originaUy independent, but
were afterwards subject to the Macedonian
monarchs. They were declared free by the
Romans to their war with Philip. Accordtog-
to the legend, they derived their name from
Orestes, who is said to have fled into this country.
after murdering Ms mother, and to have there
founded the town of Argos Oresticum. (Thuc.
u. 80 ; Strab. pp. 326, 434 ; Pol. xvm. 30.)
Orestes ('Opeo-rris). 1. Son of Agamemnon:
and Clytaemnestra, and brother bf Chrysothe-
mis, Laodice (Electra), and IpManassa (Iphi-
gema). The Homeric account only tells us that
to the eighth year after Ms father's murder
Orestes came from Athens to Mycenae and
slew the murderer of Ms father (Od. iii.
306 ; cf. i. 30, 298, iv. 546). From Od. xi. 542.
it appears that Orestes was not to Mycenae at
the time of Ms father's murder. To tMs story
much is added by later writers. Thus it is said
that at the murder of Agamemnon it was in
tended to despatch Orestes also, but that by
means of Electra he was secretly carried to-
Strophius, Mng to Phocis, who was married to-
Anaxibia, the sister of Agamemnon. According:
to some, Orestes was saved by his nurse, who
aUowed Aegisthus to MU her own child, suppos
ing it to be Orestes (Pind. Pyth. xi. 25 ; Aesch.
Cho. 732). In the house of Strophius, Orestes
grew up with the king's son Pylades, with
whom he formed that close and intimate friend-
sMp which has become proverbial. Betog fre
quently reminded by messengers from Electra,
of the necessity of avenging his father's death,
he consulted the oracle of Delphi, wMch
strengthened him in his plan. He therefore re
paired to secret to Argos. Here he pretended
to be a messenger of Strophius who had come
to announce the death of Orestes and brought.
the ashes of the deceased (Soph. El. 11, 85, 296,
531, 1346; Eur. El. 1245, Orest. 162, 804). In
Homer it is not said that Orestes slew Clytae
mnestra as weU as Aegisthus, and the inference
from the unqualified praise of Ms action in the
Odyssey is that he did not MU his mother ; but
in the tragedians, after visiting his father's.
tomb, and sacrificing upon it a lock of his hair,
he made MmseU known to his sister Electrar
and soon afterwards slew both Aegisthus and
Clytaemnestra to the palace. Immediately
after the murder of his mother he was seized
with madness. He now fled from land to land,
pursued by the Erinnyes of Ms mother. At
length by Apollo's advice, he took refuge with
Athene at Athens. The goddess affoided him
protection, and appointed the court of the Areio
pagus to decide Ms fate. The Erinnyes brought-
forward their accusation, and Orestes made the
command of the DelpMc oracle his excuse.
When the court voted, and was equally divided,
Orestes was acquitted by the command of Athene:
(Aesch. Eumenides). According to another

ORESTHEUS
modification of the legend, Orestes asked ApoUo |
how he could be delivered from Ms mad
ness and incessant wandering. The god advised
him to go to Tauris in ScytMa, and to fetch
from that country the image of Artemis, which'
was believed to have fallen there from heaven,
and to carry it to Athens (Eur. Iph. Taur. 79,
968 j cf. Paus. ni. 16, 6). Orestes and Pylades
accordingly went to Tauris, where Thoas was
Mng. On their arrival they were seized by the
natives, to order to be sacrificed to Artemis, ac
cording to the custom of the country. But
IpMgenia, the priestess of Artemis, was the
sister of Orestes, and, after recognising each
other, aU three escaped, with the statue of the
goddess. After Ms return to Peloponnesus
Orestes took possession of Ms father's kingdom
at Mycenae, wMch had been usurped by Aletes
or Menelaus. When Cylarabes of Argos died
without leaving any heir, Orestes also became
Mng of Argos. The Lacedaemomans likewise
made him their king of their own accord, be
cause they preferred him, the grandson of Tyn
dareus, to Nicostratus and Megapenthes, the
sons of Menelaus by a slave. The Arcadians
and Phocians increased his power by allying
themselves with him (Paus. ii. 18, 5, iii. 1, 4 ; cf.
Pind. Pyth. xi. 24). He married Hermione, the
daughter of Menelaus, and became by her the
father of Tisamenus. The story of Ms marriage
with Hermione, who had previously been married
to Neoptolemus, is related elsewhere. [Her
mione ; Neoptolemus.] He died of the bite of
a snake M Arcadia (Schol. ad Eur. Orest. 1640),
and his body, in accordance with an oracle, was
afterwards carried from Tegea to Sparta, and
there buried. His bones are said to have been
found at a later time in a war between the
Lacedaemomans and Tegeatans, and to have
been conveyed to Sparta (Hdt. i. 67 ; Paus. Ui.
11, 8, vni. 54, 3). According to the Arcadian
story Orestes had dwelt during Ms time of mad
ness to Arcadia having gone there from Mycenae
to obedience to an oracle (Paus. viii 5, 4). To
tMs there is a further addition that to Ms frenzy
he gnawed off one of Ms fingers, a story which
seems to have originated to the name of a tomb
near MegalopoUs called AojcriXov pvijpa (Paus.
viu. 34, 2). — 2. Regent of Italy during the short
reign of his infant son Romulus Augustulus, a.d.
475-476. He was born in Pannonia, and served
for some years under AttUa ; after whose death
he rose to eminence at the Roman court. Hav
ing been entrusted with the command of an army
by Julius Nepos, he deposed this emperor, and
placed Ms own son Romulus Augustulus on the
tMone; but to the foUowing year he was defeated
by Odoacer and put to death. [Odoacer.] — 3.
L. Aurelius Orestes, consul b. c. 126, received
Sardtoia as his province, where he remained
upwards of three years. C. Gracchus was
quaestor to Orestes in Sardtoia (Plut. C. Gracch.
1, 2).— 4. Cn. Aufldius Orestes, consul b.c. 71,
originaUy belonged to the AureUa gens, whence
Ms surname of Orestes, and was adopted by Cn.
Aufidius, the Mstorian. (Cic. Off. n. 17 ; Eutrop.
vi. 8). .
Oresteum, Orestheum, or Orestnasmm
('Opeo-reiov, 'OpeaBeiov, 'OpeaBdaiov), a town to
the S. of Arcadia m the district Maenalia, near
MegalopoUs (Thuc. v. 64 ; Paus. viii. 44, 2).
Orestheus ('Opeo-Bevs), a legendary king of
the Locri Ozolae, son of Deucalion. His dog
brought forth a log of wood, wMch Orestheus
buried : from it sprang up the shoots (o£oi) of
the vine. Hence the name of his people. (Paus.
x. 81, 1 ; Lochx)

ORIBASIUS

631

Orestias. 1. The country of the Orestae.
[Orestae.] — 2. A name frequently given by the
Byzantine writers to Hadrianopolis in Thrace.
Orestilla, Aurelia. [Aurelia.]
Orotani, a powerful people in the SW. of
Hispania Tarraconensis, bounded on the S. by
Baetica, on the N. by the Carpetani, on the W.
by Lusitania, and on the E. by the Bastetani
(Plim iii. 25). Their cMef town was Castulo.
Oreus ('apebs : 'apelrris : Orsi), a town in the
N. of Euboea, on the river Callas, at the foot
of the mountain Telettoium, and in the district
Hestioeotis, was itself originaUy caUed Hestiaea
or Histiaea. According to some it was a colony
from the Attic deme Histiaea (Strab. p. 445).
After the Persian wars Oreus, with the rest of
Euboea, became subject to the Athenians ; but
on the revolt of the island, in b.c. 445, Oreus
was taken by Pericles, its inhabitants expelled,
and their place supplied by 2000 Athenians
(Thuc. i. 114 ; Diod. xii. 7, 22). Oreus was an
important place, and its name frequently occurs
to the Grecian wars down to the dissolution of
the Achaean League (Xen. Hell. v. 4, 56 ; Dem.
de Cor. pp. 248, 252 ; Diod. xix. 75 ; Pol. xvui.
30 ; Liv. xxxi. 46).
Orfltus, 1. Ser. Cornelius, consul a.d. 51,
was put to death in Nero's reign through the
informer Regulus (Tac. Ann. xii. 41, Hist. iv.
42). — 2. Faccius, a centurion of Corbulo's army
(Tac. Ann. xiu. 86, xv. 12).
Orgetdrlx, the noblest and richest among
the Helvetii, formed a conspiracy to obtain the
royal power B.C. 61, and persuaded his country
men to emigrate from their own country.
Two years were devoted to making the neces
sary preparations ; but the real designs of
Orgetorix having meantime become known, and
the Helvetii having attempted to bring him to
trial, he suddetoy died, probably, as was sus
pected, by Ms own hands. (Caes. B. G. i. 2, 26 ;
Dio Cass, xxxviii. 31.)
Oribasius ('OpeiBdo-ios or 'OptBdatos), an
eminent Greek medical writer, born about A.D.
325, either at Sardis in Lydia, or at Pergamum
to Mysia. He was an intimate friend of the
emperor JuUan, and was almost the only
person to whom Julian imparted the secret of
his apostasy from Christianity. He accom
panied Julian in Mb expedition against Persia,
and was with him at the time of his death, 368.
The succeeding emperors, Valentinian and
Valens, confiscated the property of Oribasius
and banished him. He was afterwards recalled
from exile, and was alive at least as late as 395.
Of the personal character of Oribasius we know
little or nothing, but it is clear that he, was
much attached to paganism and to the heathen
pMlosophy. He was an intimate friend of
Eunapius, who praises him very MgMy, and
wrote an account of Ms life. We possess at
present three works of Oribasius : (1) Gollecta
Medicinalia (Zvvayayal 'larpiKai), or some
times Hebdomecontabibloa ('Ef}Sopi)Kovrd-
BiBXos), wMch was compUed at the command
of JuUan, when Oribasius was stiU a young
man. It contains but Uttle original matter, but
is very valuable on account of the numerous
extracts from writers whose works are no
longer extant. More than half of this work is
now lost, and what remains is in some confu
sion. There is no complete edition of the work.
(2) An abridgment (Svvotf/is) of the former work,
to nine books. It was written thirty years
after the former. (3) Euporista or De facile
Parabilibus (Evirbpiara), in four books. Both
tMs and the preceding work were intended as

632

ORICUM

manuals of the practice of medicine. The best
edition is by Daremberg, Paris, 1851-1876.
Oricumor Oricus ("apiKov,"apiKos : 'aplKtos :
Ericho), an important Greek town on the coast
of Illyria, near the Ceraunian mountains and
the frontiers of Epirus (Hdt. ix. 92 ; Pol. vii.
19 ; Hor. Od. iii. 7, 5 ; Propert. i. 8, 20 ; Caes.
B. C. iii. 11). According to tradition it was
founded by the Euboeans, who were cast here
by a storm on their return from Troy; but,
according to another legend it was a Colchian
colony (Scymn. 440 ; Ap. Rh. iv. 12-16). The
town was strongly fortified, but its harbour was
not very secure. It was destroyed in the civil
wars, but was rebuilt by Herodes Atticus. The
turpentine tree (terebinthus) grew in the
neighbourhood of Oricum (Verg. Aen. x. 136).
Origenes, usually called Origen, one of the
most eminent of the early Christian writers,
born at Alexandria, a.d. 186. [See Diet, of
Christian Bioar.]
Oringis, Onrngis or Aurinx, a wealthy town
in Hispania Baetica, with silver mines, near
Munda (Liv. xxiv. 42, xxviii. 8 ; Plin. iii. 3).
Orion ('Opiav), son of Hyrieus, of Hyria, in
Boeotia, a handsome giant and hunter (Od. xi.
309), said to have been called by the Boeotians
Candaon (Strab. p. 404 ; Tzetz. ad Lye. 328).
In the Homeric story he is carried off by Eos
on account of his beauty [cf. p. 316, b], but the
gods were angry with him and Artemis slew
him with her arrows in Ortygia (Od. v. 121).
The story given by most later writers is that
he came to Chios (Ophiusa), and fell in love
with Aero, or Merope, the daughter of Oeno
pion, by the nymph Helice. He cleared the
island from wild beasts, and brought the spoils
of the chase as presents to Mb beloved ; but as
Oenopion constantly deferred the marriage,
Orion once, when intoxicated, offered violence
to the maiden. Oenopion now implored the
assistance of Dionysus, who caused Orion to be
thrown into a deep sleep by satyrs, to which
state Oenopion deprived him of his sight.
Being informed by an oracle that he should
recover Ms sight if he would go towards the
east and expose his eye-baUs to the rays of the
rising sun, Orion followed the', sound of a
Cyclops' hammer, went to Lemnos, where
Hephaestus gave to him Cedalion as his guide.
Having recovered his sight, Orion returned to
Chios to take vengeance on Oenopion ; but as
the latter had been concealed by his friends,
Orion was unable to find him, and then pro
ceeded to Crete, where he lived as a hunter
with Artemis. (Apollod. i. 4, 3 ; Parthen. Erot.
20 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 34). The cause of Ms death,
•which took place either in Crete or CMos, is
differently stated, but, as in the Odyssey,
Artemis is in most accounts the author of his
death. It is possible that he was a local god of
the woods and of hunting whose worship was
displaced by that of Artemis. According to
some, he was beloved by Artemis, and Apollo,
indignant at his sister's affection for him,
asserted that she was unable to hit with her
arrow a distant point which he showed her in the
sea. She thereupon took aim, and hit it, but the
point was the head of Orion, who had been swim
ming in the sea. (Hyg. I. c.) Another account,
which Horace follows (Hor. Od. iii. 4, 72 ; cf.
Apollod. i. 4, 5 ; Serv. tsAAen. i. 539), states that
he attempted to violate Artemis, and was
killed by the goddess with one of her arrows.
Lastly, the story followed by Ovid states that
he boasted he would conquer every animal, and
would clear the earth from all wild beasts ; but

OROANDA
the earth sent forth a scorpion which destroyed
him (Ov. Fast. v. 537). Asclepius attempted to
recall him to life, but was slain by Zeus with a
flash of lightning. The accounts of his parent
age and birthplace vary in the different
writers, for some call him a son of Poseidon
and Euryale, and others say that he was born
of the Earth, or a son of Oenopion. He is
further called a Theban, or Tanagraean, but
probably because Hyria, his native place, some
times belonged to Tanagra and sometimes to
Thebes. (Apollod. i. 4, 3 ; Hyg. 1. c. ; Strab. p.
404 ; Paus. ix. 20, 3.) After his death, Orion
was placed among the stars, where he appears
as a giant with a girdle, sword, a Uon's sMn and
a club (II xviii. 486, xxii. 29; Od. v. 274). The
constellation of Orion set at the commence
ment of November, at which time storms and
rain were frequent; hence he is often called
imbrifer, nimbosus, or aquosus.
Orion and Orus ('apiav and'ilpoj), names of
ancient grammarians, who are sometimes con
founded with each other. It appears that tMee
writers of these names are to be distinguished.
— 1. Orion, a Theban grammarian, who taught at
Caesarea, to the fifth century a.d. and is the
author of a lexicon, still extant, pubUshed by
Sturz, Lips. 1820. — 2. Orus, of MUetus, a gram
marian, lived in the second century a.d.,
and was the author of the works men
tioned by Suidas. — 3. Orus, an Alexandrine
grammarian, who taught at Constantinople
about the middle of the fourth century a.d.
Orippo, a town in Hispania Baetica, on the
road between Gades and Hispalis (Plin. iii. 3).
Orltae, Horitae, or Orae fapeirai, rapai), a
people of Gedrosia, who inhabited a district on
the coast nearly two hundred mUes long,
abounding in wine, corn, rice, and palm-trees,
the modern Urboo on the coast of Beloochistan.
Some of the ancient writers assert that they
were of Indian origin, while others say that,
though they resembled the Indians in many of
their customs, they spoke a different language.
(Arrian, Ann. vi. 21 ; Strab. 720 ; Curt. ix. 10, 6.)
Orithyia. [Boreas.]
Ormenus ("Oppevos), son of Cercaphus,
grandson of Aeolus and father of Amyntor, was
believed to have founded the town of Orme-
nium, in Thessaly. From him Amyntor is
sometimes called Ormenides, and As'tydamia,
his grand-daughter, Ormenis.
Omeae ('Opveai : 'Opvedrvs), an ancient
town of Argolis, near the frontiers of the terri
tory of PMius, and 120 stadia from Argos (H.
ii. 734, vi. 7 ; Paus. ii. 25, 6, v. 25, 5 ; Strab. p.
882). The inhabitants were at an early time
reduced to the condition of Perioeci or depen
dents of Argos, and apparently were the first
people in Argolis so reduced ; for the Argives
used the term 'Opvearai as equivalent to
TlepioiKoi (Hdt. viii. 73). They had, however,
sufficient independence of action to be called
allieB of Argos in the Peloponnesian war, B.C.
418 ; but in 416 the Lacedaemonians placed the
Argive exiles, with some supports of their own
men, in Omeae. The citizens of Argos soon
afterwardB attacked the town and destroyed it.
(Thuc. vi. 7.)
Ornens ('Opveis), son of Erechtheus, father
of Peteus, and grandfather of Menestheus;
from Mm the town of Omeae was believed to
have derived its name (II. ii. 571 ; Paus. ii. 25, 5).
Oroanda ('OpbavSa : 'OpoavSeis, or -iKbs, Oro-
andensis), a mountain city of Pisidia, SE. of
Antiochia, from which the Oroandicus tradus
obtained its name (Liv. xxxviii. 18, 37).

OROATIS
Oroatis ('Opodris : Tab.), the largest of the
minor rivers wMch flow into the Persian Gulf,
formed the boundary between Susiana and
Persis (Strab. p. 727).
Orobiae ('OpoBlai), a town on the coast of
Euboae, not far from Aegae, with an oracle of
Apollo (Strab. p. 445).
Orodes COpdSiis), the name of two kings of
PartMa. [Arsaces XIV., XVII.]
Oroetes ('Opolriis), a Persian, was made
satrap of Sardis by Cyrus, which government-
he retained under Cambyses. In B.C. 522, he
decoyed Polycrates into his power by speci
ous promises, and put Mm to death. (Hdt. i.
69, ffi. 89 ; Thuc. i. 18 : Arist. Pol. i. 10.) But
betog suspected of aiming at the establishment
of an independent sovereignty, he was himself
putto death by order of Darius (Hdt. iii. 120-128.)
Orontes ('Opbvriis). 1. (Nahr-el-Asy), the
largest river of Syria (whence Juv. ui. 62 uses
its name to express the Syrian people), has two
chief sources to Coelesyria, the one in the Anti-
Ubanus, the other further N. in the Libanus ;
flows NE. toto a lake S. of Emesa, and thence
N. past Epiphania and Apamea, tiU near
Antioch, where it suddenly sweeps round to
the SW. and faUs toto the sea at the foot of M.
Pieria. According to tradition its earlier name
was Typhon (Tvipdv), and it was caUed Orontes
from the person who first buUt a bridge over it.
(Strab. p. 750.) — 2. A mountain on the S. side
of the Caspian, between Parthia and Hyrcania
(Ptol. vi. 2, 4). — 3. A people of Assyria, E. of
Gaugamela (Plin. vi. 30).
Oropus ('apairbs : 'Opdirios : Oropo), a town
on the eastern frontiers of Boeotia and Attica,
near the Euripus, originaUy belonged to the
Boeotians, but was at an early time seized by
the Athenians, and was long an object of con
tention between the two peoples (Paus. i. 34,
,1). The Boeotians got possession of it in 412
(Thuc. viu. 60) ; PhiUp gave it to the Athenians
after Chaeronea, but to 312 Cassander handed
it over to the Boeotians (Diod. xix. 77 ; Strab.
p. 404). At a later time Pausanias speaks of it
as belonging to Attica. Its seaport was Del
phinium, at the mouth of the Asopus, about one
mile and a half from the town.
Orosius, Paulus, a Spanish presbyter, a
native of Tarragona, Uved under Arcadius and
Honorius. Having conceived a warm admira
tion for St. Augustine, he passed over toto Africa
about a.d. 413. The foUowing works by Orosius
are stiU extant. (1) Historiarum adversus
Paganos Libri VII, dedicated to St. Augus
tine, at whose suggestion the task was under
taken. The Pagans having been accustomed
to complain that the ruin of the Roman empire
must be ascribed to the wrath of the ancient
deities, whose worship had been abandoned,
Orosius, upon Ms return from Palestine, com
posed this history to demonstrate that from the
earUest epoch the world had been the scene of
calamities as great as the Roman empire was
then suffering. The work, which extends from
the creation down to a.d. 417, is, with excep
tion of the concluding portion, extracted from
various authorities. For Roman history he
used chiefly an abridged Livy, and Florus ; for
the imperial period cMefly Eutropius, but also
Tacitus and Suetonius ; for general history
Justto is his main authority. The later part of
his Mstory is of value as giving information on
many potots not procurable now from other
sources. Edited by Havercamp, Lugd. Bat.
1738;byZangermeister,Vienna,1882. [For other j
-writings of Orosius see Did. of Christian Biog.]

ORPHEUS

683

Orospeda ('Op6o"ireSa), a mountain chain in
the SW. of Hispania Tarraconensis, between
Castulo and Carthago Nova. It is the modern
Sagra Sierra. (Strab. p. 161.)
Orpheus ('Op<peus), a mythical personage,
was regarded by the Greeks as the most cele
brated of the early poets who Uved before the
time of Homer. It is possible that he may have
had arealexistenceas the author or bard of very
ancient religious hymns. Such hymns were
ascribed to Olen, Musaeus, Philammon, and
Orpheus; and around all these names, and
especially around the last, mythical stories
gathered. Orpheus is not mentioned to the
Homeric or Hesiodic poems, but had attained
to great celebrity in the lyric period, at any rate
as early as Ibycus, in the middle of the sixth
century B.C.- (Ibyc. Fr. 22) ; and by Pindar he
is called ' the Father of songs ' (Pyth. iv. 177 ;
cf. Plat. Apol. p. 41). There were numerous
legends about Orpheus, but the common story
ran as follows. Orpheus, the son of Oeagrus
and Calliope, lived in Thrace at the period of
the Argonauts, whom he accompanied in their
expedition (Pind. l.c. ; cf. Plat. Symp. p. 179).
Presented with the lyre by Apollo, and in
structed by the Muses in its use, he enchanted
with its music, not only the wild beasts, but the
trees and rocks upon Olympus, so that they
moved from their places to follow the sound of
Ms golden haip (Aesch. Ag, 1629 ; Eur. Med.
543, Bacch. 561 ; Hor. Od. i. 12, 7). The power
of his music caused the Argonauts to seek Ms
aid, which contributed materially to the success
of their expedition : at the sound of his lyre the
Argo glided down into the sea ; the Argonauts
tore themselves away from the pleasures of
Lemnos; the Symplegadae, or moving rocks,
which threatened to crush the ship between
them, were fixed in their places ; and the Col-
chian dragon, which guarded the golden fleece,
was lulled to sleep : other legends of the same
kind may be read in the Argonautica, which
bears the name of Orpheus. After his return
from the Argonautic expedition he took up his
abode to a cave near Thrace, and employed
himseU in the civilisation of its wild inhabi
tants. There is also a legend of his having
visited Egypt. The legends respecting the
loss and recovery of his wife, and Ms own
death, are very various. His wife was a
nymph named Agriope or Eurydice. In the
older accounts the cause of her death is not
referred to. The legend followed in the well-
known passages of Virgil and Ovid, which
ascribes the death of Eurydice to the bite of a
serpent, is no doubt of high antiquity ; but the
introduction of Aristaeus into the story cannot
be traced to any writer older than Virgil him
self. (Verg. Georg. iv. 464-527 ; Ov. Met. x.
1 ; cf. Plat. Symp. p. 179, Bep. p. 620 ; Diod.
iv. 25 ; Paus. ix. 30, 4 ; Hyg. Fab. 164.) He
followed Ms lost wife into the abodes of Hades,
where the charms of his lyre suspended the
torments of the damned, and won back his wife
from the most inexorable of all deities ; but his
prayer was only granted upon this condition,
that he Bhould not look back upon his restored
wife tiU they had arrived in the upper world :
at the very moment when they were about to
pass the fatal bounds, the anxiety of love over
came the poet ; he looked round to see that
Eurydice was following him ; and he beheld
her caught back into the infernal regions. His
grief for the loss of Eurydice led Mm to treat
with contempt the Thracian women, who in
revenge tore him to pieces under the excite-

634

ORPHEUS

ment of their BacchanaUan orgies. After Ms
death, the Muses coUected the fragments of his
body, and buried them at Libethra at the foot
of Olympus, where the nightingale sang sweetly
over Ms grave. His head was ttoown into -the
Hebrus, down which it rolled into the sea, and
was borne across to Lesbos, where the grave in
wMch it was interred was shown at Antissa.
His lyre was also said to have been carried to
Lesbos ; and both traditions are simply poetical
expressions of the Mstorical fact that Lesbos
was the first great seat of the music of the lyre :
indeed Antissa itself was the birthplace of Terp-
ander, the earliest Mstorical musician. The
astronomers taught that the lyre of Orpheus
was placed by Zeus among the stars, at the
intercession of ApoUo and the Muses (Hyg.
Astr. ii. 7). In these legends there are some
points wMch are sufficiently clear. The inven
tion of music, in connexion with the services
of Apollo and the Muses ; its first great applica
tion to the worsMp of the gods, which Orpheus
is therefore said to have introduced ; its power
over the passions, and the importance wMch
the Greeks attached to the knowledge of it, as
intimately allied with the very existence of all

Orpheus. (From a mosaic.)
social order — are probably the chief elementary
ideas of the whole legend. But then comes in
one of the dark features of the Greek religion,
in wMch the gods envy the advancement of
man in knowledge and civilisation, and punish
anyone who transgresses the bounds assigned
to humanity : or the conflict was viewed, not as
between the gods and man, but between the
worshippers of different divinities : between
ApoUo, the symbol of pure inteUect, and Dio
nysus, the deity of the senses ; hence Orpheus,
* the servant of ApoUo, falls a victim to the
jealousy of Dionysus and the fury of his wor
shippers. — Orphic Societies and Mysteries.
About the time of the first development of Greek
phUosophy, societies were formed, consisting of
persons called the followers of Orpheus (oi
'OpipiKoi), who, under the pretended guidance of
Orpheus, dedicated themselves to the worsMp
of Diqnysus. They performed the rites of a
mystical worship, but instead of confining their
notions to the initiated, they published them to
others, and committed them to literary works.
Hence Orpheus is spoken of as the originator
of mysteries (Eur. Hipp. 953, Bhes. 944;
Aristoph. Ban. 1082). The Dionysus to whose
worship the Orphic rites were annexed was
Dionysus Zagreus, closely connected with
Demeter and Core (Persephone) [see p. 296].
The OrpMo legends and poems related in great
part to tMs Dionysus, upon whom the Orphic

ORTOSPANA
mystics founded their hopes of the purification
and ultimate immortality of the soul. But
their mode of celebrating this worship was very
different from the popular rites of BacchuB.
The OrpMc worshippers of Bacchus did not
indulge in unrestrained pleasure and frantic
enthusiasm, but rather aimed at an ascetic
purity of life and manners. The Orpheus
of this mythology has an Oriental and
Egyptian character, differing altogether from
Orpheus the servant of Apollo and the Muses.
— Many poems ascribed to Orpheus were cur
rent as early as the time of the Pisistratids.
[Onomacritus.] They are often quoted by
Plato, and the allusions to them to later writers
are very frequent (Plat. Grat. p. 402, Phileb.
p. 66, Bep. p. 364 ; Paus. ix. 30). The extant.
poems which bear the name of Orpheus are
the forgeries of Christian grammarians and
pMlosophers of the Alexandrian school ; but
among the fragments, wMch form a part of the
coUection, are some genuine remains of that
OrpMc poetry which was known to Plato, and
wMch must be assigned to the period of Ono
macritus, or perhaps a little earUer. The
Orphic literature which in this sense may be
called genuine seems to have included Hymns,
a Theogony, Oracles, &c. The apocryphal
productions which have come down to us are:
(1) Argonautica, an epic poem to 1884 hexame
ters, giving an account of the expedition of the
Argonauts. (2) Hymns, eighty-seven or eighty-
eight in number, in hexameters, evidently the-
productions of the Neo-Platonic school. (3)
Lithica (AiBiko), treats of properties of stones,
both precious and common, and their uses in
divination. (4) Fragments, cMefly of the Theo
gony. It is in this class that we find the
genuine remains of the Uterature of the early
Orphic theology, but intermingled with others-
of much later date. — Editions by Hermann,
1805, Gesner, 1764 ; the Lithica by Abel, 1881.
Orthia ('OpBia), a name under wMch Artemis
was worshipped at Limnaeum to Laconia, where
boys were Bcourged at her altar. TMs rite is-
usually explained as having replaced human
sacrifices of an earlier period [see p. 128] ; but-
some modern writers connect it with the severe
ordeals through which boys are made to pass in
many uncivUised tribes at the time of puberty.
Orthosia ('OptWia). 1. A city of Caria, on
the Maeander, with a mountain of the same
name, where the Rhodians defeated the Carians,
b. c 167 (Strab. p. 650 ; Pol. xxx. 5 ; Liv. xiv. 25).
— 2. A city of PhoeMce, S. of the Eleutherus,
12 Roman miles from Tripolis (Strab. p. 753).
Orthrus ("Opflpos), the two-headed dog of
Geryones, who was begotten by Typhon and
Echidna, and was slain by Heracles. [See p.
898, b.]
Ortona ("Oprav). 1. An ancient town of La
tium, on the borders of the Aequi, not far from
Mt. Algidus. It was taken by the Aequi in b.c.
481 and 457. (Liv. ii. 43, iii. 30 ; Dionys. viu. 91,
x. 26.) It was probably destroyed soon after
wards, as it is not mentioned again. — 2. (Ortona
a Mare), a town of the Frentani on the Adriatic
coast between the rivers Aternus and Sagrus
(Strab. p. 242 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 19).
Ortospana or -um ('Oprbo-irava : probably
Cabul), a considerable city of the Paropamisa
dae, at the sources of a W. tributary of the river
Coes, and at the junction of three roads, one
leading N. into Bactria, and the others S. and
E. into India. It was also called Carura or
Cabura. (Strab. pp. 514, 723; Ptol. vi. 18, 5;
Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6.)

ORTYGIA
Ortygia ('Op-ri^fa). 1. The ancient name of
Delos. Since Artemis (Diana) and ApoUo were
born at Delos, the poets sometimes caU the
goddess Ortygia, and give the name of Ortygiae
boves to the oxen of ApoUo. The ancients con
nected the name with Ortyx (yOpTu|) a quail.
[See p. 485, b.] — 2. An island near Syracuse.
[Syracusae.] — 3. A grove near Ephesus, to
which the Ephesians asserted that ApoUo and
Artemis were born. Hence Propertius colls the
Cayster, wMch flowed near Ephesus, Ortygius
Cayster. [Ephesus.]
Orus. [Horus; Orion.]
Osca. 1. (Huesca in Arragonia), an important
town of the Hergetes and a Roman colony in
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tar
raco to Ilerda , with silver mines ; whence Livy
speaks of argentum Osciense, though these
words may perhaps mean sUver money coined
at Osca (Ptol. U. 6, 68 ; Liv. xxxiv. 10, 46, xl.
48; Plut. Sert. 14.)— 2. (W. of Huescar in
Granada), a town of the Turdetani in Hispania
Baetica (Ptol. ii. 4, 12).
Oscela. [Leponth.]
Osci or Opici ('OiriKot), appear in very early
times to have inhabited a large port of central
Italy, from wMch they had driven out the SicuU.
The earUest Greek colonists of the Campanian
coast found the people, whom they caUed 'OiriKoi
in possession of that country (Thuc. vi. 4 ; Ar.
Pol. vii. 10). The Ausones seem to have been
a branch of the Oscans. In language the Oscans
(whose name means ' peasant labourers ') belong
to the stock from which come the Samnites, but
they were subdued by a later Samnite immigra
tion. By a strange mistake Strabo (p. 288) re
presents the Fabulae Atellanae as acted at
Rome to the Oscan language. TMs language
would have been uninteUigible at Rome (Liv. x.
10 ; GeU. xvu. 17 ; Macrob. vi. 4, 23), but the
plays to question were caUed Osci ludi, because
they hod their origin to the Oscan town Atella,
and the Oscan country was regarded as the
scene of the play.
Osi, a people to Germany, probably in the
mountains between the sources of the Oder and
the Gran, tributary to the Sarmatians, spoke
the Pannoman language (Tac. Germ. 28, 43).
Osicerda. [Ossigerda.]
Osiris ("Oo-ipis), the great Egyptian divinity,
and husband of Isis. His worship, with that of
Isis, was the most widely extended in Egypt
(HdtT ii. 42), and the most MgMy regarded, be
cause the mysteries of these deities contained
the most important secrets of Egyptian wisdom.
In Egyptian mythology Ra (Amen-Ra or Khem
Ra), the Sun, was father of Shu, the Air ; Seb,
the son of Shu (whom the Greeks caUed Cronus
and the Latins Saturnus) was the Earth ; Osiris
was the son of Seb and signified Water, and
also in a mystic sense stood for the Past or
completed existence. It was natural in Egypt
above aU countries that the god who was the
son of the Earth-deity and himself the deity of
Water should be the god of aU fruitfulness. On
the other hand, as god of the past, Osiris repre
sented the deceased, as Ra represented the
reigning, Mng. Moreover, from tos connexion
with the earth and its fruits, as well as from
his being the deity of the past, he was the cMef
deity of the underworld. According to the
story of his life upon earth, he is said to have
been originally king of Egypt, and to have re
claimed his subjects from a barbarous life by
teaching them agriculture and enacting wise
laws. He afterwards travelled toto foreign
lands, spreading, wherever he went, the bless-

OSTIA

6S5

togs of civilisation. On his return to Egypt, he
was murdered by Ms brother Typhon (Set), who-
shut him up in a chest, poured to molten lead,
and then cut his body toto pieces, and threw them
into the Nile. After a long search Isis dis
covered the mangled remains of her husband,
and buried them at Abydos, in Upper Egypt.
Then with the assistance of her son Horus, she
defeated Typhon, and recovered the sovereign
power, which Typhon had usurped. [See Isis ;
Horus.] Osiris was thus regarded as the god
of the dead and, tMough his son Horus, of
renewed life. TMs mythology finds its counter
part in the mysteries of Dionysus-Zagreus [see
p. 296], whose story presents many similarities.
Hence Osiris was identified with Dionysus by
the Greeks. The ' voyage of Osiris,' when in hie
feast at Abydos he was launched in a sacred
ship on the lake has also perhaps some remi
niscence in the myths of Dionysus [see p. 294].
Osismii, a people in GalUa Lugdunensis, at
the NW. extremity of the coast, and to the
neighbourhood of the modern Quimper and
Brest (Caes. B. G. iii. 9 ; Strab. p. 195).
Osroene ('Oo-porivi) : 'Oo-poi)vot, pi. : Pashalik
of Orfah), the W. of the two portions into which
N. Mesopotamia was divided by the river Cha-
boras (Khabour), which separated it from
Mygdonia on the E. and from the rest of Meso
potamia on the S. : the Euphrates divided it, on
the W. and NW., from the Syrian districts of
Chalybonitis, Cyrrhestice, and Commagene ;
and on the N. it was separated by M. Masius
from Armenia (Procop. Pers. i. 17 ; Dio Cass.
xl. 19 ; Amm. Marc. xxiv. 1). Its name was said
to be derived from Osroes, an Arabian chieftain,
who, in the time of the Seleucidae, estabUshed
over it a petty principality, with Edessa for its
capital, which lasted tiU the reign of Caracalla.
For its Mstory see Abgarus.
Ossa ("Oo-o-o : Kissavo, i.e. ivy-clad), a cele
brated mountain to the N. of Magnesia, in
Thessaly, connected with PeUon on the SB., and
divided from Olympus on the NW. by the vale
of Tempe. It is one of the highest mountains
in Greece, but much less lofty than Olympus.
(Od. xi. 812 ; Hdt. vii. 129 ; Strab. pp. 430, 442.)
It is mentioned by Homer, to the legend of the
war of the Giants ; respecting wMch see
Olympus. Osset, with the surname Constantia Julia a
town in Hispania Baetica, on the right bank of
the Baetis, opposite Hispalis (Plin. iii. 11).
Ossigerda or Osicerda (Ossigerdensis), a town
of the Edetani to Hispania Tarraconensis, and
a Roman municipium (Plin. iii. 24).
Ossigi (Maquiz), a town of the Turduli in
Hispania Baetica, on the spot where the Baetitt
first enters Baetica (Plin. iii. 10).
Ossondba (Estoy, N. of Faro), a town of the
Turdetani in Lusitania, between the Tagus and
Anas (Ptol. ii. 5, 3).
Osteodes, probably also TTstica ('Oo-redSi)s
vrjo-os : Alicur), an island at some distance from
the N. coast of Sicily, opposite the town of Soli,
and west of the Aeolian islands (Diod. v. 11).
Pliny and Ptolemy distinguish Osteodes from
Ustica, but there is only one island to fit the
two names (Plin. iii. 92 ; Ptol. iii. 4, 17).
Ostia (Ostiensis : Ostia), a town at the mouth
of the river Tiber, and the harbour of Rome,
from wMch it was distant sixteen miles by land,
was situated on the left bank of the left arm of
the river. It was founded by Ancus Martius,
the fourth king of Rome (who is said to have
established the salt-works there), was a Roman
colony, and eventually became an important

«36

OSTIA

and flourishing town, and a permanent station
of the Roman fleet. (Liv. i. 33, xxii. 11, xxv.
20, xxvii. 22 ; Dionys. iii. 44 Cic. Bep. ii. 3, 18 ;
Strab. p. 232.) In the civil wars it was destroyed
by Marius, but it was soon rebuilt with greater
splendour than before (App. B. C. i. 67). The
«mperor Claudius constructed a new and better
harbour on the right arm of the Tiber, which
was enlarged and improved by Trajan (Dio Cass.
Ix. 11 ; Suet. Claud. 20 ; Juv. xii. 75). This new
harbour was called simply Portus Bomanus or
Portus Augusti, and around it there sprang up
a flourishing town, also called Portus (which in
the reign of Constantine was made an episcopal
see) : the inhabitants Portuenses. The old town
of Ostia remained for some time a populous city,
and was adorned with a forum and other build
ings by Hadrian, Sept. Severus, Aurelian and
Tacitus (Vopis. Aurel. 45, Tac. 10) ; but in the
later empire Ostia gradually declined, and its
harbour became choked with sand. The ruins
of Ostia are between two and three miles from
the coast, as the sea has groduaUy receded in
-consequence of the accumulation of sand de
posited by the Tiber.
Ostia Nili. [Nilus.]
Ostorius Scapula, [Scapula.]
Ostra (Ostranus), a town in Umbria, in the
territory of the Senones (Ptol. iii. 1, 51).
Otacllius Crassus. 1. M., consul b. c. 263,
when he besieged Syracuse and forced Hiero to
make a treaty with Rome. He was again consul
in 246. (Ptol.i. 16.)— 2. T., brother of the pre
ceding, consul in 261. — 3. T., a Roman general
during the second Punic war, was praetor B. c.
217, and subsequently propraetor in Sicily. In
215 he crossed over to Africa, and laid waste the
Carthaginian coast. He was praetor for the
-second time 214, and his command was pro
longed for three years. He died in Sicily, 211.
(Liv. xxii. 10, 56, xxiv. 7, xxv. 31, xxvi. 22.)
Otacllius Pilutus, L. [Voltacilius.J
Otanes ("Otojtjs). 1, A Persian, son of Phar-
naspes, was the first who suspected the impos
ture of Smerdis the Magian, and took the chief
part in organising the conspiracy against the
pretender (b. c. 521). After the accession of
Darius Hystaspis, he was placed in command of
the Persian force which invaded Samos for the
purpose of placing Syloson, brother of Poly
crates, in the government. (Hdt. in. 68, 141 ;
Strab. p. 638.) — 2. A Persian, son of Sisamnes,
succeeded Megabyzus (b.c. 506) in the command
of the forces on the Bea-coast, and took Byzan
tium, Chalcedon, Antandrus, and Lamponium,
as well as the islands of Lemnos and Imbros.
He was probably the same Otanes who is men
tioned as a son-in-law of Darius Hystaspis, and
as a general employed against the revolted
Ionians in 499. (Hdt. v. 102, vi. 6.)
Otho, L. ROSCIUS, tribune of the plebs B.C.
67, was a warm supporter of the aristocratical
party. He opposed the proposal of GabiniuB
to bestow upon Pompey the command of the
war against the pirates ; and in the same year
he proposed and carried the law wMch gave to
the equites a special place at the public spec
tacles, in fourteen rows or seats (in quattuor-
decim gradibus sive ordinibus) next to the
place of the senators, which was in the or
chestra. This law was very unpopular ; and in
Cicero's consulship (63) there was such a riot
occasioned by the obnoxious measure, that it
required all his eloquence to allay the agitation.
(VeU. Pat. ii. 32 ; Cic. pro Muren. 19, ad Att.
ii. 1 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 32 ; Hor. Epod. iv. 15, Ep.
i. 1, 62 ; Juv. iii. 159, xiv. 324.)

OTHO
Otho, Salvius. 1. M., grandfather of the
emperor Otho, was descended from an ancient
and noble family of the town of Ferentinum,
in Etruria. His father was a Roman eques;
Ms mother was of low origin, perhaps even a'
freedwoman. TMough the influence of Livia
Augusta, in whose house he had been brought
up, Otho was made a Roman senator, and
eventually obtained the praetorship, but was
not advanced to any higher honour (Suet. Oth.
1 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 50). — 2. L., son of the pre
ceding, and father of the emperor Otho, stood
so Mgh to the favour of Tiberius and resembled
tMs emperor so strongly in person, that it was
supposed by most that he was his son. He was
consul suffectus to a.d. 33 ; was afterwards pro
consul in Africa ; and in 42 was sent toto Illy
ricum, where he restored discipline among the
soldiers, who had lately rebeUed against Clau
dius. At a later time he detected a conspiracy
which had been formed against the life of
Claudius. (Suet. Oth. 1, Galb. 6.)— 3. L., sur
named Titianus, elder son of No. 2, was consul
52, and proconsul in Asia 63, when he had
Agricola for Ms quaestor. It is related to the
honour of the latter that he was not corrupted
by the example of Ms superior officer, who
indulged in every kind of rapacity (Tac. Agr. 6).
On the death of Galba to January 69, Titianus
was a second time made consul, with Mb brother
Otho, the emperor. On the death of the latter,
he was pardoned by Vitellius (Tac. Hist. i. 75,
ii. 23, 39, 60). — 4. M., Roman emperor from
January 15th to April 16th, a.d. 69, was the

Coin of Otho, Roman Emperor, A.D. 69.
Obv., head ol Otho, IMP. M. OTHO CAESAR AVGVS. TR.
P. ; rev.. Victory, VICTORIA OTHONIS. (Denarius.)
younger son of No. 2. He was born to the
early part of 32. He was of moderate stature,
and had an effeminate appearance. He was
one of the companions of Nero in his debauch
eries ; but when the emperor took possession
of Ms wife, the beautiful but profligate Poppaea
Sabina, Otho was sent as governor to Lusitania,
which he admtoistered with credit during the
last ten years of Nero's life. Otho attached
himself to Galba when he revolted agatost
Nero, in the hope of being adopted by him and
succeeding to the empire. But when Galba
adopted L. Piso, on the 10th of January, 69,
Otho formed a conspiracy against Galba, and
was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers at
Rome, who put Galba to death. Meantime
Vitellius had been proclaimed emperor at
Cologne by the German troops on the 3rd of
January ; and his generals forthwith set out for
Italy to place their master on the throne.
When these news reached Otho, he marched
toto the north of Italy to oppose the generals
of ViteUius. The fortune of war was at first in
his favour. He defeated Caecma, the general
of Vitellius, to more than one engagement ; but
his army was subsequently defeated in a deci
sive battle near Bedriacumby the united forces
of Caecina and Valens. He had sufficient
forces to continue the contest, but declared that
he desired not to involve Ms country to more
bloodshed or to risk the lives of his friends, and

OTHRYADES
put an end to Ms own life at BrixeUum, in the

Bust of Otho.
thirty-seventh year of Ms age. (Suet. Otho ;
Plut. Otho ; Tac. Hist, i, U. ; Dio Cass, lxiv.)
Othryades ('OBpvdSris). 1. [Panthous.] — 2.
A Spartan, one of the 300 selected to fight with
an equal number of Argives for the possession
of Thyrea. Othryades was the only Spartan
who survived the battle, and was left for dead.
He spoUed the dead bodies of the enemy, and
remained at Ms post, wMle Alcenor and Chro-
mius, the two survivors of the Argive party,
hastened home with the news of victory, sup
posing that aU their opponents had been slain.
As the victory was claimed by both sides, a
general battle ensued, to wMch the Argives
were defeated. Othryades slew himself on the
field, being ashamed to return to Sparta as the
one survivor of her 300 champions. (Hdt. i 82 ;
Thuc. v. 41 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 663 ; Anth. Pal. i. 63.)
Othrys ("OBpvs), a lofty range of mountains
in the S. of Thessaly, which extended from Mt.
Tymphrestus, or the most southerly part of
Pindus, to the E. coast and the promontory
between the Pagasaean gulf and the N. point
of Euboea. It shut in the great ThessaUan
plain on the S. (Hdt. vii. 129 ; Strab. p. 432 ;
Verg. Aen. vn. 675 ; Lucan, vi. 337.)
Ottorocorra ('OTropoKbppas), amountain range
of Serica at the east of the Emodi Montes
(Ptol. vi. 16, 2), apparently the Pe-Li/ng Moun
tains of China. The name of the Attacori,
who are compared to the Hyperborei, is another
form of the same word (Plin. vi. 55).
Otus, and his brother, Ephialtes, are better
known by their name of the Aloldae. [Aloeus.]
P. Ovidius Naso, the Roman poet, was born
at Sulmo, to the country of the Paeligni, on
March 20, B.C. 43 (Ov. Am. ii. 1, 1, hi. 15, 11,
Pont. iv. 14, 49, Trist. iv. 10, 5). He was
descended from an ancient equestrian family,
but possessing only moderate wealth (Trist. ii.
113, iv. 10, 7). He, as well as his brother
Lucius, who was exactly a year older than Mm
self, was destined to be a pleader, and received
a careful education to qualify him for that
calling. He studied rhetoric under Arellius
Fuscus and Porcius Latro, and attained to con
siderable proficiency to the art of declamation.
But the bent of his genius showed itself very
early. The hours which should have been spent

OVIDIUS 637
in the study of jurisprudence were employed
to cultivating Ms poetical talent. The elder
Seneca, who had heard him declaim, tells us
that his oratory resembled a solutum carmen,
and that anything in the way of argument was
irksome to him (Sen. Controv. ii. 10, 8). His
father denounced his favourite pursuit as lead
ing to inevitable poverty; but the death of his
brother, at the early age of twenty, probably
served m some degree to mitigate his father's
opposition, for the patrimony wMch would have
been scanty for two might amply suffice for one
(Trist. iv. 10, 35). Ovid's education was com
pleted at Athens, where he made himself
thoroughly master of the Greek language (Trist.
i. 2, 77, Pont. ii. 10, 21). Afterwards he tra
velled with the poet Macer, in Asia and Sicily.
It is a disputed point whether he ever actuaUy
practised as an advocate after his return to-
Rome. The picture Ovid himself draws of Ma
weak constitution and indolent temper prevents
us from thinking that he ever foUowed his pro
fession with perseverance, if indeed at all. The
same causes deterred him from entering the
senate, though he had put on the latus clavus
when he assumed the toga virilis, as being by
birth entitled to aspire to the senatorial dignity
(Trist. iv. 10, 29). He became, however, one of
the Triumviri Capitales; and he was subse
quently made one of the Centumviri, or judges
who tried testamentary and even criminal
causes ; and to due time he was promoted to be
one of the Decemviri, who assembled and pre
sided over the court of the Centumviri (Trist.
U. 93, iy. 10, 33, Pont. iii. 5, 23, Fast. iv. 383).
— Such is all the account that can be given of
Ovid's business Ufe. He married twice in early
life at the desire of his parents, but he speedily
divorced each of Ms wives in succession (Trist.
iv. 10, 69). The restraint of a wife was irksome
to a man like Ovid, who was devoted to gal
lantry and licentious life. His third marriage
was a happier one : he was sincerely attached
to his wife (whose name is thought to have been
Fabia), and she remained faithful to Mm in his
exile. He had a legitimate daughter, who was
twice married (Trist. iv. 10, 75). Her name is
not mentioned ; for it is certain that she was
not, as some have stated, the Perilla of whom
he speaks to Trist. iii. 7. Ovid was a grand
father before he lost his father at the age of
ninety; soon after whose decease Ms mother
also died. TiU his fiftieth year Ovid continued
to reside at Rome, where he had a house near
the Capitol, occasionally taking a trip to Ms
Pelignan farm. Much speculation has been
wasted on the question who the Corinna cele
brated to the Amores was. In Trist. iv. 10, 60,
he says that it was not a real name, and long
afterwards, to the fifth century a.d., Sidonius
ApoUtoaris imagined the allusions to her to be
designedly mysterious, and started the notion
that she was Julia, the daughter of Augustus
(Sid. ApoU. xxiii. 159). That this Julia should
have been the mistress of Ovid is improbable,
and there is no evidence for it ; on the contrary
he speaks of Corinna in a way in which he
certainly would not have ventured to speak of
the emperor's daughter, even under a feigned
name. The suggestion of Sidonius should
therefore be absolutely rejected. It is not even
certain that Corinna represents a real mistress
of Ovid, and it is quite allowable to hold, as
many modern critics do, that Corinna was only
' a name round which Ovid grouped many ex
periences and memories, and sometMng of a
continuous story.' Ovid enjoyed not only the

638

OVIDIUS

friendship of a large circle of distinguished
men, but the regard and favour of Augustus
and the imperial family. But in A.D. 1 Ovid
was suddenly commanded by an imperial edict
to transport himself to Tomi (Kustindje), a
town on the Euxine, near the mouths of the
Danube, on the very border of the empire
, (Trist. iv. 8, 83, iv. 10, 97). He underwent no
, trial, and the sole reason for his banishment is
j stated by some writers to have been Ms having
published Ms poem on the Art of Love (Sidon.
xxiii. 157; Vict. Epit. i. 27). The real cause
of his banishment has long exercised the inge-
nmty of scholars. The publication of the Ars
Amatoria may well have offended Augustus,
who wished to advocate marriage and domestic
Ufe among Ms subjects (Trist. ii. 7, 112), but
the poem had been published nearly ten years
previously; and, moreover, whenever Ovid
alludes to that, the ostensible cause, he in
variably couples with it another which he
mysteriously conceals, ' duo crimina carmen et
error ' (Trist. ii. 207). He says repeatedly that
it was error, not scelus or f acinus (Trist. i. 3,
37, iii. 1, 52, iv. 10, 90). Hence it can scarcely
have been owing to a guilty intrigue with the
younger Julia, as some have supposed. The
clue may possibly be given in his words wMch
blame his eyes as guilty for having witnessed a
crime (Trist. ii. 103, iii. 5, 49, Pont. iii. 3, 74),
And it is a probable explanation that he had
become acquainted with Julia's profligacy by
accident, and by concealing it had given offence
to Livia, or Augustus, or both. Ovid draws an
affecting picture of the miseries to which he
was exposed to his place of exile (Trist. i. 3),
which was a relegatio, not an exsilium pro
perly so called, i.e. he retained Ms civitas and
Mb property, but could not, until the sentence
was revoked, leave the place assigned for his
residence (Trist. ii. 137, v. 11). He complains
of the inhospitable soil, of the severity of the
climate, and of the perilB to wMch he was
exposed when the barbarians plundered the
surrounding country and insulted the very
walls of Tomi. He supplicated Augustus to
change Ms place of banishment, and besought
his friends to use their influence in his behalf.
In the midst of all his misfortunes, however,
he sought some relief in the exercise of his
poetical talents. Not only did he finish his
Fasti in his exile, besides writing the Ibis, the
Tristia, Ex Ponto, &c, but he likewise ac
quired the language of the Getae, in which he
composed some poems in honour of Augustus.
These he publicly recited, and they were received
with tumultuous applause by the Tomitae. With
his new fellow-citizens, indeed, he had succeeded
in rendering himself highly popular, insomuch
that they honoured Mm with a decree declaring
him exempt from all public burdens. He died
at Tomi in the sixtieth year of Ms age, a.d. 18.
— The following is a list of Ovid's works,
arranged, as far as possible, in chronological
order : — (1) Amorum Libri III, the earUest of
the poet's works. According to the epigram
prefixed, the work, as we now possess it, is a
second edition, revised and abridged, the former
one having consisted of five books. (Ed. L.
Miiller, 1867.) (2) Epistolae Hero'idum, twenty-
one to number. (Ed. by Palmer, 1874 ; Shuck-
burgh, 1879.) Of these it is generally held with
some reason that the epistle of Sappho, and the
last six in pairs each of an epistle and an
answer (viz. Paris, Helena, Leand.er, Hero,
Acontius, Cydippe), are by an imitator, though
some critics think that the last Bix may be a

work of Ovid's later years. Most of the others
(including also a Sappho) are mentioned by
Ovid Mmself in Amor. ii. 18, 21-40 ; where he
also says that answers were written by Sabinus.
(3) Ars Amatoria, or De Arte Amandi, written
about B.C. 2. At the time of Ovid's banish
ment this poem was ejected from the pubUc
libraries by command of Augustus. (Ed. by
Williams, 1884.) (4) Bemedia Amoris, to one
book. (5) To the poems of this period belongs
the Medicamina Faciei, an advice to ladies on
their toilet, of which only portions remain (cf .
A. A. iii. 205). (6) Metamorphoseon Libri XV.
This, the greatest of Ovid's poems to bulk and
pretensions, appears to have been written be
tween the age of forty and fifty, and for its
matter is indebted to Alexandrian authors,
especially to Nicander and Parthenius. It
consists of such legends or fables as involved a
transformation, from the Creation to the time
of Julius Caesar, the last being that emperor's
change into a star. It is thus a sort of cycUc
poem, made up of distinct episodes, but con
nected into one narrative thread with much
skill. (Ed. by Haupt, Korn, and H. J. MiiUer
1871-78, and Zingerle, Prague, 1885.) (7) Fasto-
rum Libri XII, of wMch only the first six are
extant. This work was incomplete at the time
of Ovid's banishment. Indeed, he had perhaps
done little more than collect the materials for
it; for that the fourth book was written in
Pontus appears from ver. 88. The Fasti is a
sort of poetical Roman calendar, with its appro
priate festivals and mythology, and the sub
stance was probably taken in a great measure
from the old Roman annalists. The work shows
a good deal of learning, but it has been observed
that Ovid makes frequent mistakes in his astro
nomy, from not understanding the books from
which he took it. (Ed. by Merkel, 1841, 1873 ;
Peter, Lips. 1879 ; Paley, 1888 ; HaUam, 1881.)
(8) Tristium Libri V, elegies written during
the first four years of Ovid's banishment. They
are cMefly made up of descriptions of Ms
afflicted condition, and petitions for mercy.
The tenth elegy of the fourth book is valuable,
as containing many particulars of Ovid's life.
(Ed. by Owen, 1889.) (9) Epistolarum ex Ponto
Libri IV, are also in the elegiac metre, and
much the same in substance as the Tristia, to
which they were subsequent. It must be con
fessed that age and misfortune Beem to have
damped Ovid's genius both in this and the pre
ceding work. Even the versification is more
slovenly, and some of the lines very prosaic.
(10) Ibis, a satire of between 600 and 700 elegioe
verses, also written in exile. The poet inveighs
in it against an enemy who had traduced him.
The title, Ibis, was taken from a poem of the
same kind by Callimachus. Though the variety
of Ovid's imprecations displays learning and
fancy, the piece leaves the impression of an
impotent explosion of rage. The title and plan
were borrowed from CaUimachus. (11) Of the
Halieuticon, on fishes, written during his exile
(Plin. xxxii. 11, 152), only fragments remain. Of
his lost works, the most celebrated was his tra
gedy, Medea, of wMch otoy two lines remain.
The Nux, or complaint of the walnut tree, is not
Ovid's, but is of an early date under the empire.
The Consolatio adLiviam, or Epicedion Drusi,
is also in late MSS. wrongly attributed to Ovid.
It seems to be the work of an early imitator of
Ovid, though some writers assign it to the
fifteenth century a.d. since no earlier MS. of
it has been discovered. It is not without poeti
cal merit. — That Ovid possessed a great poetieal

OXIA
jenius is unquestionable ; which makes it the
more to be regretted that it was not always
under the control of a sound judgment. He
possessed great vigour of fancy, warmth of
colouring, and marvellous facility of composi
tion, but it must not be supposed that tMs
f acUity implies unstudied art. Ovid is a master
of form and grace of diction. His verses and
their subjects reflect the grace and polish, and
the artificiality also, of the most polished society
of the Augustan age ; indeed, he was the first
to depart from that pure and correct taste
wMch characterises the Greek poets and their
earlier Latin imitators. His writings abound
with those conceits which we find so frequently
in the Italian poets. — Editions of Ovid's com
plete works are by Burmann, Amsterdam, 1727 ;
by Merkel, Lips. 1878 ; by Lindemann, 1867.
Oxia Palus, or Oxianus Lacus (the Sea of
Aral), the lake or inland sea formed by the
rivers Jaxartes and Oxus (Amm. Marc, xxiii.
6, 59). Ptolemy (vi. 12, 3) knows of it as
il 'a^eiavij Xipvrj, but has been misinformed as
to its size and importance.
Oxii Montes (rd "a£eia, or Ov£eta, opt) :
prob. Ak-tagh), a range of mountains between
the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes : the N. boundary
of Sogdiana towards Scythia (Ptol. vi. 12, 1).
Oxus or Oaxus (Tn£os, *aa£os : Jihoun or
Amou), a great river of Central Asia, rose,
according to some of the ancient geographers,
on the N. side of the Paropamisus M. (Hindoo
Koosh), and, according to others, in the Emodi
M., and flowed NW., forming the boundary
between Sogdiana on the N. and Bactria and
IVCargiana on the S., and then, skirting the N.
of Hyrcania, it feU toto the Oxia Palus (Sea of
Aral). The Greek geographers wrongly repre
sented the principal arms of the Oxus as flow
ing toto the Caspian. It is thought that they
were misled by the deep bay at the south of the
inland sea, and also by an old river bed trace
able for nearly 500 mUes through the desert to
the Caspian Sea. TMs no doubt was once a
branch of the Oxus, but only in prehistoric
times. (Strab. p. 509 ; Plin. vi. 52 ; cf. Pol. x.
48 ; Amm. Marc. xxhi. 6, 52 ; Ptol. vi. 9.) By
a similar mistake they made the Ochus and
even the Jaxartes reach the Caspian.
Oxybli, a Ligurian people on the coast of
Gallia Narbonensis, W. of the Alps, and be
tween the Flumen Argenteum (Argens) and
Antipolis (Antibes). They were neighbours of
the Salluvn and Deciates. (Strab. p. 185.)
Oxylus fO£vXos), the leader of the Heraclidae
in their invasion of Peloponnesus, and subse
quently king of Elis. [See p. 302, b.]
Oxyrhynchus ('O£ipvyxos : Behneseh, Ru.),
a city of Middle Egypt, on the W. bank of the
canal which runs paraUel to the Nile on its W.
side (Bahr Yussuf) ; the capital of the Nomos
OxyrhyncMtes, and cMef seat of the worship of
the fish called oxyrynchus (Strab. p. 812 ; Ptol.
iv. 5, 59 ; Amm. Marc. xxii. 16 ; Ael. H. A. 46).
Ozogardana, a city of Mesopotamia on the
Euphrates, the people of which preserved a
lofty throne or chair of stone, which they caUed
Trajan's judgment-seat (Amm. Marc. xxiv. 2).

PACUVIUS

639

Pacaris. [Hypacyeis.]
Pacatiana. [Phrygia.]
Pacatus, Drepanius, a Roman rhetorician
and a friend of Ausomus, wrote a panegyric on
Theodosius. — Ed. Bahrens, 1874.

Paccius or Paccius Antiochus, a physician
about the beginning of the Christian era, who
was a pupil of Philonides of Catana, and lived
probably at Rome. He made a large fortune
by the sale of a certain medicine of his own
invention, the composition of which he kept a
secret. At his death he left his prescription as
a legacy to the emperor Tiberius, who ordered a
copy of it to be placed in all the public libraries.
P aches (Tldxris), an Athenian general in the
Peloponnesian war, took Mytilene and reduced
Lesbos, B.C. 427. On his return to Athens he
was brought to trial, and, perceiving Ms con
demnation to be certain, drew his sword and
stabbed himself in the presence of his judges.
(Thuc. iii. 18-49 ; Diod. xii. 55 ; Plut. Nic. 6.)
Pachymeres, Georgius, a Byzantine writer,
was born about a.d. 1242 at Nicaea, but spent
the greater part of his life at Constantinople.
He wrote several works, the most important of
wMch is a Byzantine History, containing an
account of the emperors Michael Palaeologus
and AndronicuB Palaeologus the elder, in thir
teen books. — Edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1885.
Pachynus or Pachynum (Capo Passaro), a
promontory at the SE. extremity of Sicily, and
one of the three promontories which gave to
Sicily its triangular figure, the other two being
Pelorum and Lilybaeum. By the side of
Pachynus was a bay, which was used as a har
bour, and which is called by Cicero Portus
Pachyni (Porto di Palo). (Strab. pp. 265, 272 ;
Ov. Fast. iv. 479, Met. xiii. 725.)
Pacilus , the name of a family of the patrician
Furia gens, mentioned in the early history of
the republic (Liv. iv. 12, 22, ix. 38).
Pacorus. 1. Son of Orodes I., king of Parthia.
His history is given under Arsaces XIV. —
2. King of Parthia. [Arsaces XXIV.]
Pactolus (TlaKraXOs : Sarabat), a small but
celebrated river of Lydia, rose on the N. side of
Mt. Tmolus, and flowed N. past Sardis into the
Hermus, which it joined tMrty stadia below
Sardis. The golden sands of Pactolus have
passed into a proverb. Lydia was long the gold
country of the ancient world to the Greeks, its
streams forming so many gold ' washings ; ' and
hence the wealth of the Lydian kings, and the
alleged origin of gold money to that country.
But the supply of gold was only on the surface,
and by the beginning of our era it was so far ex
hausted as not to repay the trouble of collecting
it. (Hdt. v. 101 ; Xen. Cyr. vi. 2, 1 ; Strab. p.
554 ; Soph. Phil. 392 ; Verg. Aen. x. 142.)
Pactyas (TlaKrias), a Lydian, who on the
conquest of Sardis (b.c. 546) was charged by
Cyrus with the collection of the revenues of the
province. When Cyrus left Sardis on Ms return
to Ecbatana, Pactyas induced the Lydians to
revolt agatost Cyrus ; but when an army was
sent against him he first fled to Cyme, then to
MytUene, and eventually to Chios. He was
surrendered by the Chians to the Persians.
Pactye (TlaKTiri : St. George), a town in the
Thracian Chersonesus, on the Propontis, thirty-
bix stadia from Cardia, to which Alcibiades
retired when he was banished by the Athenians,
B.C. 407 (Hdt. vi. 36 ; Nep. Ale. 7).
Pactyica (TlaKTviKi)), the country of the Pac-
tyes (Tldxrves), in the NW. of India, W. of the
Indus, and to the 13th satrapy of the Persian
empire, is probably the NE. part of Afghan-
. istan, about Jellalabad (Hdt. iii. 93, vii. 67).
M. Pacuvius, one of the early Roman trage
dians, was born about B.C. 220, at Brundisium,
and is said to have been the son of the sister of
Ennius (Euseb. Chron. 156, 3 ; Cio. Brut. 64,

640

PADUS

229). Pacuvius appears to have been brought
up at Brundisium, but he afterwards repaired
to Rome. Here he devoted himself to painting
and poetry, and obtained so much distinction
in the former art that a painting of bis in the
temple of Hercules, in the Forum Boarium, was
regarded as only inferior to the celebrated
painting of Fabius Pictor (PUn. xxxv. 19 ; GeU.
xiii. 2, 2). After living many years at Rome
(for he was still there in Ms eightieth year), he
returned to Brundisium, on account of the
failure of his health, and died in Ms native
town, to the ninetieth year of his age, B.C. 130
(Gell. i. 24). We have no further particulars of
Ms life, save that his talents gained him the
friendship of Laelius, and that he lived on the
most intimate terms with Ms younger rival,
Accius. Pacuvius was universally allowed by
the ancient writers to have been one of the
greatest of the Latin tragic poets. (Varro, ap.
Gell. vii. 14 ; Cic. Opt. Gen. Or. 1, 6, Brut. 74,
258 ; Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 56 ; Pers. i. 77 ; Mart. xi.
91 ; Quintil. x. 1, 97.) He is especially praised
for the loftiness of Ms thoughts, the vigour of
his language, and the extent of his knowledge.
Hence we find the epithet dodus frequently
applied to him. His tragedies were taken from
the great Greek writers ; but he did not confine
himself, like his predecessors, to a mere transla
tion of the latter, but worked up his materials
with more freedom and independent judgment.
Some of the plays of Pacuvius were not based
upon the Greek tragedies, but belonged to the
class called Praetextatae, in which the subjects
were taken from Roman story. One of these
was entitled Paulus, which had as its hero L.
Aemilius Paulus, the conqueror of Perseus,
king of Macedonia. — The fragments of Pacuvius
are published by Bothe, Poet. Lat. Scenic.
Fragm. Lips. 1834, and by Ribbeck, 1871.
Padus (Po), the chief river of Italy, whose
name (by a doubtful etymology) is said to have
been of Celtic origin, and to have been given it
on account of the pine trees (to Celtic padi)
which grew on its banks (Plin. iii. 122). In the
Ligurian language it was called Bodencus or
Bodincus. Almost all later writers identified
the Padus with the fabulous Eridanus, from
wMch amber was obtained ; and hence the
Roman poets frequently give the name of Eri
danus to the Padus. The reason of this identi
fication appears to have been that the Phoenician
vessels received at the mouths of the Padus
the amber which had been transported by land
from the coasts of the Baltic to those of the
Adriatic. The Padus rises from two springs on
the E. side of Mt. Vesula (Monte Viso) in the
' Alps, and flows with a general easterly direction
through the great plain of Cisalpine Gaul, which
it divides into two parts, Gallia Cispadana and
GaUia Transpadana. Its importance to N.
Italy gained for it the title ' King of Rivers '
(Verg. Georg. i. 482), and Strabo believed it to
be the largest river in Europe after the Danube
(Strab. p. 204). It receives numerous affluents,
which drain the whole of this vast plain, de
scending from the Alps on the N. and the
Apennines on the S. These affluents, increased
in the summer by the melting of the snow on
the mountains, frequently bring down such a
large body of water as to cause the Padus to
overflow its banks. Hence through a long
course of centuries the embankments of the
river have been constantly raised to meet the
silting up of the bed until it flows often high
above the adjacent plain. Pliny states that
works to reUeve the overflow by cutting addi-

PAEONES
tional channels were made by the Etruscans
during their occupation of that country (Plin.
iii. 120). The whole course of the river, includ
ing its windings, is about 450 mileB. About
twenty miles from the sea the river divides
itself toto two main branches, of which the N.
one was caUed Padoa (Maestra, Po Grande,
or Po delle Fornaci) and the S. one Olana
(Po d'Ariano) ; and each of these now falls
into the Adriatic by several mouths. The
ancient writers enumerate seven of these
mouths, some of which were canals. They lay
between Ravenna and Altinum, and bore the
following names, according to Pliny, beginning
with the S. and ending with the N. (1) Padusa,
also caUed Augusta Fossa, was a canal dug by
Augustus, wMch connected Ravenna with the
Po. (2) Vatrenus, also caUed Eridanum Ostium
or Spineticum Ostium (Po di Primaro), from
the town of Spina at its mouth. (3) Ostium
Caprasiae (Porto Interito di bell' Ochio). (4)
Ostium Sagis (Porto di Magnavacca). (5)
Olane or Volane, the S. main branch of the
river, mentioned above. (6) Padoa, the N. main
branch, subdivided into several small branches
called Ostia Carbonaria. (7) Fossae Philistinae,
connecting the river, by means of the Tartarus,
with the Athesis. (PUn. l.c.)
Padusa. [Padus.]
Paean (Tlaidv, Tlavhav, Tlaiav), m Homer the
physician of the gods (II. v. 401, 899) ; later a
designation of Apollo and of Asclepius.
Paeania (Uaiavia: Tlaiavieis), a demus to
Attica, on the E. slope of Mt. Hymettus, belong
ing to the tribe Pandionis. It was the demus
of the orator Demosthenes.
Paemani, a people of German origin in GaUia
Belgica (Caes. B. G. ii. 4).
Paeones (Tlaioves) , a powerful Thracian people,
who in early times were spread over a great part
of Macedonia and Thrace. According to a legend
preserved by Herodotus, they were of Teucrian
origin ; and it is not impossible that they were
a branch of the great Phrygian people, a portion
of which seems to have settled in Europe [Phry
gia]. In Homer the Paeonians appear as allies
of the Trojans, and are represented as having
come from the river Axius (.27. ii. 848, xvi. 287,
xxi. 139). In Mstorical times they inhabited
the whole of the N. of Macedoma, from the
frontiers of Hlyria to some little distance E. of
the river Strymon. Their country was caUed
Paeonia (ncuocfo). The Paeonians were divided
into several tribes, independent of each other,
and governed by their own cMef s ; though at a
later period they appear to have owned the
authority of one king. The Paeonian tribes on
the lower course of the Strymon were subdued
by the Persians, B. c. 513, and many of them
were transplanted to Phrygia ; but the tribes in
the N. of the country maintained their independ
ence. (Thuc. ii. 99 ; Pol. v. 97 ; Strab. pp. 313,
318, 331.) They were long troublesome neigh
bours to the Macedonian monarchs, whoBe ter
ritories they frequently invaded and plundered ;
but they were eventuaUy subdued by PMlip,
the father of Alexander the Great, who aUowed
them nevertheless to retain their own monarchs
(Diod. xix. 2, 4, 22, xvii. 8). They continued to
be governed by their own Mngs till a much later
period ; and these kings were often virtuaUy in
dependent of the Macedonian monarchy. Thus
we read of their king Audoleon, whose daughter
Pyrrhus married. After the conquest of Mace
donia by the Romans, 168, the part of Paeonia
E. of the Axius formed the second, and the part
of Paeonia W. of the Axius formed the third,

PAEONIUS
of the four districts into which Macedonia was
divided by the Romans.
Paeonius (Tlaidvtos). 1. Of Ephesus, an archi
tect, probably lived between b. c. 420 and 880.
In conjunction with Demetrius, he finaUy com
pleted the great temple of Artemis, at Ephesus,
which Chersiptoon had begun ; and, with Daph
nis the Milesian, he began to build at MUetus
a temple of ApoUo, of the Ionic order. The
latter was the famous Didymaeum, or temple
of Apollo Didymus, the ruins of which are stUl
to be seen near Miletus. The former temple,
in which the Branchidae had an oracle of ApoUo,
was burnt at the capture of MUetus by the army
of Darius, 498. The new temple, which was on
a scale only inferior to that of Artemis, was
never finished. (Hdt. vi. 19 ; Paus. vii. 5, 4 ;
Strab. p. 634.)— 2. Of Mende, to Ttoace. His
fame rests on Ms sculptures at the temple of
Zens at Olympia about 436 b.c. He executed
the statues and metopes of the east front, wMle
Aloamenes executed those of the west (Paus. v.
10, 6). According to an inscription found re
cently at Olympia on the base of his statue of
Nike, the pediments of the east front were as
signed to Paeonius as betog successful to a
competition. Presumably he held the first place
and Aloamenes the second to this competition
of artists. The eastern pediment represented
the chariot-race of Pelops. The German exca
vations have recovered his great statue of Nike
dedicated by the Messemans (Paus. v. 26, 1), of
wMch the head and arms only have perished.
Paeoplae (naioVAai), a Paeoman people on
the lower course of the Strymon and the An-
gites, who were subdued by the Persians, and
transplanted to Phrygia by order of Darius, B.C.
513. They returned to their native country
with the help of Aristagoras, 500 ; and we find
them settled N. of Mt. Pangaeus in the expedi
tion of Xerxes, 480. (Hdt. v. 15, vii. 113.)
Faerisades or Parisades (Tlaipto-dSris or riapi-
o-dSr)s), the name of two kings of Bosporus.
1. Son of Leucon, succeeded his brother Spar
tacus B. c. 349, and reigned thirty-eight years.
He continued the same friendly relations with
the Athenians which were begun by his father
Leucon. (Diod. xvi. 52 ; Dem. Phorm. p. 909 ;
Strab. p. 310.) — 2. The last monarch of the first
dynasty that ruled to Bosporus. The pressure
of the Scythian tribes induced Paerisades to
cede Ms sovereignty to Mithridates the Great.
The date of tMs event cannot be placed earlier
than 112, nor later than 88. (Strab. I. c.)
Paestanus Sinus. [Paestum.]
Paestum (Paestanus), origtoally caUed Posi-
donia (Tloo-eiSavia : Tloo-etSavidriis), was a city

PAETUS

641

Coin of Paestum (Posidonia), of 6th cent. B.C.
Obv., M0C[=n OE]EliA ; Poseidon with trident ; rev,,
nOMElAA (=nO£ElAA).
to Lucania, situated between four and five miles
SE. of the mouth of the Silarus, and near the
bay which derived its name from the town
(TloaeiSavidrns KbXiros, Paestanus Sinus : G. of
Salerno). It was colonised by the Sybarites, pro
bably during the time of their prosperity between
650 and 510 B.C. (Strab. p. 251 ; Sybaris.) It
soon became a powerful and flourishing city

(Hdt. vi. 127) ; but after its capture by the Luca
nians (between 488 and 424), it gradually lost the
characteristics of a Greek city, and its inhabit
ants at length ceased to speak the Greek lan
guage. Its ancient name of Posidonia was pro
bably changed toto that of Paestum at thiB time.
Under the supremacy of the Romans, who
founded a Latin colony at Paestum about B. c.
274, the town gradually sank in importance (Liv.
Ep. 14, xxii. 86, xxvi. 39 ; Veil. Pat. i. 14 ; Cic.
ad Att. xi. 17) ; and in the time of Augustus it
is only mentioned on account of the beautiful
roses grown in its neighbourhood (Verg. Georg.
iv. 118 ; Propert. iv. 5, 59). The ruins of Paes
tum are magnificent, especiaUy those of its two
temples in the Doric style, among the most
perfect and beautiful in existence. For a de
scription of the larger temple of Paestum, see
Diet, of Ant. art. Templum.
Paesus (Uaiobs), a town in the Troad, men
tioned by Homer, but destroyed before the time
of Strabo, its population having been trans
planted to Lampsacus. Its site was on a river
of the same name (Beiram-Dere) between
Lampsacus and Parium. (II. ii. 828, v. 612 ;
Hdt. v. 117.)
Paetinus, the name of a family of the Fulvia
Gens, which was eventually superseded by the
name of Nobilior. [Nobilior.]
Paetus, a cognomen in many Roman gentes,
signified a person with a slight cast in the eye.
Paetus, Aelius. 1. P., probably the son of
Q. Aelius" Paetus, a pontifex, who fell in the
battle of Cannae. He was plebeian aedile B. c.
204 ; praetor 203 ; magister equitum 202 ; and
consul 201. In Ms consulship he fought a battle
with the Boii, and made a treaty with the In«
gauni Ligures. In 199, he was censor with P.
Scipio Africanus. He afterwards became an
augur, and died 174, during a pestilence at Rome.
(Liv. xxix. 88, xxxi. 4, xii. 26.) He is mentioned
as one of the Roman jurists. — 2. Sex., brother
of the last, curule aedile 200 ; consul 198 ; and
censor 193 with Cn. Cethegus. He was a jurist
of eminence, and a prudent man, whence he got
the cognomen Catus. He is described in a line
of Ennius as 'Egregie cordatus homo Catus
Aelius Sextus.' (Cic. de Or. i. 45, 212, Brut.
20, 78 ; Liv. xxxii. 7, xxxiv. 44.) He is enume
rated among the old jurists who collected or
arranged the matter of law, which he did in a
work entitled Tripartita or Jus Aelianwm.
TMs was a work on the Twelve Tables, wMch
contained the original text, an interpretation,
and the Legis actio subjoined (Pompon. Dig. i.
2, 2, 38). — 3. Q., son of No. 1, was elected augur
174, and was consul 1 67, when he laid waste the
territory of the Ligurians (Liv. xiv. 16).
Paetus, P. Autronius, was elected consul for
b. c. 65 with P. Cornelius Sulla ; but he and
SuUa were accused of bribery by L. Aurelius
Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus, and con
demned. Their election was accordingly de
clared void, and their accusers were chosen
consuls in their stead. Enraged at his disap
pointment, Paetus conspired with Catiline to
murder the consuls Cotta and Torquatus ; and
this design is said to have been frustrated solely
by the impatience of Catiline, who gave the
signal prematurely before the whole of the con
spirators had assembled. [Catilina.] Paetus
afterwards took an active part in the Catilinarian
conspiracy, which broke out in Cicero's consul
ship, 63 (Sail. Cat. 18; Dio Cass, xxxvi. 27).
After the suppression of the conspiracy Paetus
was brought to trial for the share he had had
to it ; he was condemned, and went into exile
TT

642

PAETUS

to Epirus, where he was living when Cicero
himself went into banishment in 58. Cicero
was then much alarmed lest Paetus should make
an attempt upon Ms life. (SaU. Cat. 47 ; Cicero
Sull. 6, ad Att. iii. 2, 7.^
Paetus, C. Caesennius, sometimes called
Caesomus, consul a.d. 61, was sent by Nero in
63 to the assistance of Domitius Corbulo in
Armenia. He was defeated by Vologeses, king
of Parthia, and purchased peace of the Par
thians on the most disgraceful terms. (Tac.
Ann. xv. 6-25 ; Dio Cass, lxxii. 21 ; Suet. Ner.
39.) After the accession of Vespasian, he was
appototed governor of Syria, and deprived
Antiochus IV., king of Commagene, of Ms king
dom (Joseph. B. J. vii. 7).
Paetus Thrasea. [Thrasea.]
Pagae, [Pegae.]
Pagasae, called by the Romans Fagasa, -ae
(Tlayaffai: Angistri, near Volo), a town of
Thessaly, on the coast of Magnesia, and on the
bay caUed after it Sinus Pagasaeus or Pagasi-
CUS (Tlayao-riTiKbs KbXiros : G. of Volo). It was
the port of lolcos, and afterwards of Pherae,
and is celebrated to mythology as the place
where Jason built the ship Argo. [Jason.]
Hence some of the ancients derived its name
from iriiyvvpi ; but others connected the name
with the fountains (irriyai) in the neighbourhood
.(Strab. p. 496 ; Diod. xvi. 31 ; Propert. i. 20, 17).
— The adjective Pagasaeus is applied to Jason
on account of his building the stop Argo, and
to Apollo because he had a sanctuary at Pagasae.
The adjective is also used in the general sense
of Thessalian; thus Alcestis, the wife of Ad
metus, is called by Ovid Pagasaea conjux.
Pagrae (Tldypai : Bagras), a city of Syria, on
the E. side of Mt. Amanus, at the foot of the
pass caUed by Ptolemy the Syrian Gates, on the
road between Antioch and Alexandria : the
scene of the battle between Alexander Balas
and Demetrius Nicator, b. c. 145 (Strab. p. 751 ;
Ptol. v. 15, 12).
Pagus (Tldyos), a remarkable conical hill,
about 500-600 feet high, a Uttle N. of Smyrna',
was crowned with a shrine of Nemesis, and had
a celebrated spring. (Paus. v. 12, 1.)
Palaemon (TlaXalpav). 1. In Greek legends
son of Athamas and Ino, and originaUy called
Melicertes. When Ms mother, who was driven
mad by Hera, had thrown herself, with her
boy, into the sea, both were changed toto marine
divinities, Ino becoming Leucothea, and MeU-
certes Palaemon. (Eur. Iph. Taur. 271;
ApoUod. iii. 4, 3 ; Hyg. Fab. 2 ; Ov. Met. iv.
520, xiii. 919.) [For detaUs see Athamas.]
According to some, Melicertes after his apo
theosis was called Glaucus, whereas according to
another verBion Glaucus is said to have leaped
into the sea from Ms love of Melicertes [see p.
366, b]. The body of Melicertes, according to
the common tradition, was washed by the waves,
or carried by dolpMns into the port Schoenus
on the CorintMan isthmus, or to that spot on the
coast where the altar of Palaemon subsequently
stood. There the body was found by his uncle,
Sisyphus, who ordered it to be carried to
Corinth, and on the command of the Nereides
he instituted the Isthmian games and sacrifices
of black bulls in honour of the deified Palae
mon. (Paus. i. 44, 11, ii. 1, 8 ; Tzetz. ad Lye.
107, 229 ; PMlostr. Her. 19, Icon. ii. 16.) In
the island of Tenedos, it is said that children
were sacrificed to him, and this strengthens
the conclusion, which it is hard to resist, that
m the name Melicertes we have the Phoenician
Melcart, whose worsMp was spread by Phoeni-

PALAESTINA
cian traders over the coasts and islands of the
Aegaean and Mediterranean. It is by no means
improbable that the story of the death of the
child Melicertes grew out of the Phoenician
custom of sacrificing a child to their deity, and
that when the worship of Poseidon ousted that
of Melcart, as regards the province of the sea,
the name of the Phoenician deity was retained
in the myth which had thus grown up. The
Romans identified Palaemon with their own
god Portunus, or Portumnus. [Portunus.] —
2. ft. Remmius Palaemon, a grammarian in
the reigns of Tiberius, CaUgula, and Claudius.
He was a native of Vicentia (Vicenza), in the
north of Italy, and was originally a slave ; but
having been manumitted, he opened a school
at Rome, where he became the most celebrated
grammarian of Ms time, though his moral
character was infamous. (Suet. Gramm. 23;
Juv. vi. 451, vii. 215.) He was also success
ful in the cultivation of vines (Plin. xiv. 41),
Palaeopolis. [Neapolis.]
Palaepnatus (TlaXaicparos). 1. Of Athens, a
mytMcal epic poet of the pre-Homeric period.
The time at which he lived is uncertain, but
he appears to have been usually placed after
Phemonoe [Phemonoe], though some writers
assigned Mm even an earUer date. — 2. Of
Abydus, a Mstorian, lived to the time of Alex
ander the Great (Suid. s.v.). — 3. A Greek Peri
patetic pMlosopher and grammarian, probably
of Alexandria, in the fourth century a.d. His
most celebrated work was entitled Troica
(Tpa'iKd), wMch is frequently referred to by the
grammarians. — There is extant a smaU work
to fifty-one sections, entitled TlaXaicparos irepl
diriarav, or On Incredible Tales, giving a
brief account of some of the most celebrated
Greek legends. It is an abstract of a much
larger work, which is lost. The original work
is referred to to Ciris, 88 : ' Docta Palaephatia
testatur voce papyrus.' He foUows the Euhe-
meristic method of trying to rationalise the
myths toto Mstory. The best edition is by Wester-
mann, in the Mythographi, Brunswick, 1843.
Palaerus (TlaXaipbs : TlaXaipeis), a town on
the coaBt of Acarnania near Leucas (Thuc. ii.
30 ; Strab. p. 450).
Palaeste (Palasa), a town of Epirus, a Uttle
S. of the Acrocerauman mountains : here Caesar
landed his forces when he crossed over to Greece
to carry on the war agatost Pompey (Lucan,
Phars. v. 460).
Palaestina (naA.ain-T/i'7; : Palestine). [For the
geography and earlier history of Palestine see
Diet, of the Bible.] From b.c. 63, when Pompey
took Jerusalem, the country was subject to the
Romans. At the death of Herod, Ms Mngdom
was divided between Ms sons as tetrarchs, under
the sanction of Augustus, Archelaus receiving
Judaea, Samaria, and Idumaea, Herod Antipas
GaUlee and Peraea, and Philip Batanaea,
Gaulonitis, and Trachonitis ; all standing to
the Roman empire in a relation of virtual sub
jection, which successive events eonvertedinto
an integral union. First, A.D. 7, Archelaus was
deposed by Augustus, and Judaea was placed
under a Roman procurator: next, about 81,
Philip died, and Ms government was united to
the province of Syria, and was to 37 again con
ferred on Agrippa I., with the title of king, and
with the addition of Abilene, the district round
Damascus. In 89, Herod Antipas was banished
to Gaul, and Ms tetrarchy was added to the
kingdom of Herod Agrippa; and two years
later he received from Claudius the government
of Judaea and Samaria, and thus Palestine was

PALAMEDES
reunited under a nominal king. On his death,
in 44, Palestine again became a part of the
Roman province of Syria under the name of
Judaea, which was governed by a procurator.
The Jews were, however, most turbulent sub
jects of the Roman empire, and at last they
Iiroke out into a general rebellion, which, after
a. most sanguinary war, was crushed by Vespa
sian and Titus; and the latter took and de
stroyed Jerusalem in a.d. 70. [Titus.] Under
Constantine, Palestine was divided afresh into
the three provinces of P. Prima in the centre, P.
Secunda to the N., and P. Tertia the S. of
Judaea, with Idumaea. [Arabia, p. 90, b.]
Palamedes (IlaAa/i7)S7)s). 1. Son of Nauplius
and Clymene, and brother of Oeax. He joined
the Greeks to the expedition against Troy ; but
Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus, envious
of his fame, caused a captive Phrygian to write
to Palamedes a letter to the name of Priam,
and bribed a servant of Palamedes to conceal
the letter under his master's bed. They then
accused Palamedes of treachery ; upon search-
tog Ms tent they found the letter wMch they
themselves had dictated; and thereupon they
.caused him to be stoned to death. When Pala
medes was led to death, he exclaimed, ' Truth, I
lament thee, for thou hast died even before
me.' (Eur. Orest. 432 ; Schol. ad loc. ; Philostr.
Her. 10 ; Ov. Met. xiii. 56.) According to some
traditions, it was Odysseus alone who hated
and persecuted Palamedes (Xen. Mem. iv. 2,
S3; Hyg. Fab. 105). The cause of this hatred
is also stated variously. Accordmg to the
usual account, Odysseus hated him because he
had been compelled by Mm to join the Greeks
agatost Troy [see p. 616, b.]. Another story is
that Odysseus had been censured by Palamedes
for returning with empty hands from a foraging
excursion into Thrace (Serv. ad Aen. ii. 81).
There are other versions also of his death be
sides the commonly received story stated above.
Some say that Odysseus and Diomedes induced
Mm to descend into a weU, where they pre
tended they had discovered a treasure, and when
lie was below they cast stones upon Mm, and
kUled him (Diet. Cret. U. 15) ; others state that
he was drowned by them wMle fisMng (Paus.
x. 31, 2) ; and others, that he was killed by
Paris with an arrow (Dar. Phryg. 28). His brother
Oeax wrote the news on an oar (oiaQ, which
floated to Ms father Nauplius (Eur. Orest. l.c. ;
ApoUod. U. 1). For the vengeance taken upon
the Greeks, see Nauplius. The story of Pala
medes, which is not mentioned by Homer,
seems to have been first related to the Cypria,
and was afterwards developed by the tragic
poets (fragments remain of plays by Aeschylus
and Euripides entitled Palamedes, and of the
Nauplius by Sophocles), and lastly by the
sopMsts, who liked to look upon Palamedes as
their pattern. The tragic poets and sophists
describe Mm as a sage among the Greeks, and
as a poet; and he is said to have invented
Ughthouses, measures, scales, the discus, dice,
the alphabet (Eur. Fragm. 581 ; Paus. ii. 20,
3; PhUostr. I.e.).— 2. A Greek grammarian, was
a contemporary of Athenaeus, who introduces
Mm as one of the speakers to his work.
Palatlnus Mons. [Roma.]
Palatium. [Roma.]
Pale (TldXri : TlaXeis, Ion. TlaXees, Att. IlaA^s,
in Polyb. TlaXaieis : nr. Lixuria, Ru.), one of
the cities of CephaUenia, on a height opposite
Zacynthus (Hdt. ix. 28 ; Strab. p. 456 ; Pol. v. 3).
Pales, an old Italian goddess of pastoral life,
of flocks and shepherds, by the side of whom

PALINURUS

043

there seems to have been at one period a male
deity of the same name (Serv. ad Georg. iii.
1 ; Arnob. iii. 40), though the masculine form
had certainly fallen early into disuse, and the
goddess only was worshipped in the April festi
val. Her name is connected with the root of
paseo, pabulum, and also with that of Pala
tium. That ib to say that while Pales was the
deity whom shepherds regarded as their pro
tectress and the giver of increase to their
flocks, the Palatine MU was originaUy the settle
ment and fortress of a pastoral community.
Her festival on April 21, called properly Pari-
lia (a word formed from Pales) and less cor
rectly Palilia, was a ceremony for thelustration
or purification of flocks and herds at the open
ing of spring; and as such it was always
regarded in the country, though at Rome itself,
owing to the tradition that Romulus began his
city on that day, it was solemnised as the birth
day of the city. The Bpecial rites themselves
of purification by passing through fires of
lighted straw [see Did. of Ant. art. Parilia],
may be paralleled by similar observances in
many countries (e.g. the ' St. John's Fires ' of
more northern countries).
Palicanus, Lollius. [Lollius.]
Palice, a town of Sicily founded by Ducetius,
leader of the Siculi, B.C. 453, near the sulphurous
lake of the Palici [Lago di Naftia], 15 miles W.
of Leontini : destroyed soon after the death of
Ducetius (Diod. xi. 88, 90 ; Palici).
Palici (TlaXiKoi), were Sicilian gods whom
Aeschylus represents as the twin sons of Zeus
and the nymph Thalia, the daughter of Heph
aestus. According to the legend thus adopted
and transformed by the Greeks, Thalia, from
fear of Hera, prayed to be swallowed up by the
earth ; her prayer was granted ; but in due
time she sent forth from the earth twin boys,
who were called TlaXiKol, from rov irdXiv
iKerrBai (see Fragments of Aesch. Aetneae, ap.
Macrob. v. 19). It is clear, however, that these
were reaUy deities of the Sicel race and not of
Greek introduction, nor can it reasonably be
doubted that the names Palici and DeUi are
SicUian words of no Greek origin. Their sup
posed descent from Hephaestus (in another
version they were sons of Hephaestus by Aetna)
expresses probably the truth that the springs,
of which they were the deities, were hot springs
of volcanic origin. They were worshipped in
the neighbourhood of Mt. Aetna, near PaUce,
and not far from the sources of the river Sym-
aethus, and to the earUest times human sacri
fices were offered to them. Near their sanctuary
there gushed forth from the earth two sulphu
reous fountains, called DeUi, or brothers of the
Palici, at wMch solemn oaths were taken.
The oaths were written on tablets, and thrown
into one of the fountains ; if the tablet swam on
the water, the oath was considered to be true,
but if it sank down, the oath was regarded as a
perjury, and was believed to be punished
instantaneously by bhndness or death. This
sanctuary was also oracular and was an asylum
for runaway slaves. These twin deities whom
native tradition seemed to regard as sons of the
Sicilian deity Adranus, were protectors of
agriculture and of sailors. (Diod. xi. 79 ; Strab.
p. 275 ; Cic. N.D. iii. 22 ; Verg. Aen. ix. 585 ;
Ov. Met. v. 406 ; Macrob. l.c.)
Palimbothra, a city on the Ganges, appa
rently the modern Patna (Strab. p. 70; Ar
rian, Ind. 10 ; Ptol. vii. 1, 73).
Palinurus (G. Palinuro), a promontory on
the W. coast of Lucania, said to have derived its
t t 2

644 PALLACOPAS
name from Palinurus, son of Jasus, and pilot
of the ship of Aeneas, who fell into the sea, and
was murdered on the coast by the natives (Verg.
Aen. v. 833, vi. 337 ; Strab. p. 252).
Pallacopas (TlaXXaKbiras), a canal in Baby
lonia, cut from the Euptoates, at a point 800
stadia (eighty geog. miles) S. of Babylon, west
ward to the edge of the Arabian Desert, where
it lost itseU in marshes (Arrian, vii. 21, 1).
Pallidas (TlaXXdSas), the author of a large
number of epigrams in the Greek Anthology,
was a pagan and an Alexandrian grammarian.
He lived at the beginning of the fifth century A.D.,
for in one of Ms epigrams (No. 115) he speaks
of Hypatia, daughter of Theon, as stiU alive.
Hypatia was murdered in A.D. 415.
Palladium (naAAi£8ioi')l properly any image
of Pallas Athene, but generaUy applied to an
image of this goddess wMch was kept hidden
and secret and was revered as a pledge of the
safety of the town where it existed. Among
these ancient images of Pallas none is more
celebrated than the Trojan Palladium, concern
ing which there was the following tradition,
developed no doubt gradually by post-Homeric
writers (nothing is said about the PaUadium in
the Hiad or the Odyssey). Athene was brought
up by Triton ; and when his daughter, Pallas,
and Athene were once wrestling together, Zeus
interfered in the struggle, and suddenly held
the aegis before the face of Pallas. PaUas, whUe
looking up to Zeus, was wounded by Athene,
and died. Athene to her sorrow caused an
image of the maiden to be made, round which
she hung the aegis. When Electra had come
as a suppliant to the Palladium, Zeus hurled it
down from heaven upon the earth, because it had
been suUied by the hands of one who was no
longer a pure maiden. The image fell upon
the earth at Troy, when Hus was just begin
ning to build the city. Hus erected a sanctuary
to it. According to some, the image was dedi
cated by Electra, and according to others it
was given by Zeus to Dardanus. The image
itself is said to have been three cubits in height,
with its legs close together, and holding to its
right hand a spear, and in the left a spindle and
a distaff. (Apollod. iii. 12, 3 ; Dionys. i. 69 ;
Schol. ad Eur. Orest. 1129.) This Palladium
remained at Troy until Odysseus and Diomedes
contrived to carry it away, because the city could
not be taken so long as it was in possession
of that sacred treasure. The earliest men
tion of tMs robbery of the PaUadium from
Troy is preserved by Proclus from Lesches (cf.
Conon, Nan: 84 ; Verg. Aen. ii. 164). It is quite
t possible that this story (Paus. i. 28, 9) arose
from an attempt to explain the name of the
law court for accidental homicide called Palla-
dion. According to some accounts Troy con
tained two PaUadia, one of which was carried
off by Odysseus and Diomedes, whUe the other
was conveyed by Aeneas to Italy, or the one
taken by the Greeks was a mere imitation,
wMle that which Aeneas brought to Italy was
the genuine image (Dionys. I.e. ; Paus. u. 23,
5 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 421). But this twofold PaUa
dium was probably a mere invention to account
for its existence in more than one place.
Several towns both in Greece and Italy claimed
the honour of possessing the genuine Trojan
Palladium : as, for example, Argos and Athens,
where it was believed that Demophon took it
from Diomedes on Ms return from Troy.
[Demophon.] In Italy the cities of Rome,
Lavinium, Luceria, and Siris likewise pretended
to possess the Trojan Palladium. (Strab. p.

PALLAS
264 ; Plut. Camill. 20 ; Toe. Ann. xv. 41 ;
Serv. ad Aen. U. 166.) The story was not un-
frequently a subject for vase paintings. It
was also painted by Polygnotus at Athens
(Paus. i. 22, 8). It appears among the scenes
in the Tabula Hiaca.
Palladius (TlaXXdSios). 1. Rutilius Taurus
Aemilianus, lived some time to the fourth
century A.D., and was the author of a treatise
De Be Bustica, in the form of a Farmer's
Calendar, the various operations connected with
agriculture and a rural Ufe being arranged in
regular order, according to the seasons to wMch
they ought to be performed. It is comprised
in fourteen books: the first is introductory,
the twelve foUowing contain the duties of the
twelve months in succession, commencing with
January ; the last is a poem, in eighty-five ele
giac couplets, upon the art of grafting (De Insi-
tione). A considerable portion of the work is
taken from Columella. The work was very
popular to the middle ages. Edited to the
Scriptores Bei Busticae by Schneider, Lips.
1794, and by J. C. Schmitt, Wurtzb. 1876.— 2.
Surnamed Iatrosophista, a Greek medical
writer of Alexandria, who Uved after Galen. —
3. Of Methone, a sophist who lived to the
reign of Constantine. — 4. A rhetorician and
poet, who lived at the end of the fourth cen
tury A.D.. and apparently imitated Ausonius. —
5. Bishop of Helenopolis, a.d. 400. (See Diet.
of Christian Biography.)
Pallantia (PaUantinus : Palencia), the cMef
town of the Vaccaei in the N. of Hispania Tar
raconensis, and on a tributary of the Durius
(Ptol. ii. 6, 50).
Pallantias and Pallantis-- Aurora, the
daughter of the giant Pallas. [Eos.]
PaUantium (TlaXXdvriov : TlaXXavrteis), an
ancient town of Arcadia, near Tegea, said to have
been founded by PaUas, the son of Lycaon.
Evander is said to have come from this place,
and to have caUed the town wMch he founded on
the banks of the Tiber Pallanteum (afterwards
Palantium and Palatium), after the Arcadian
town. (Paus. viii. 43, 44 ; Hes. ap. Steph. s.v, ;
Liv. i. 5.) On the foundation of Megalopolis,
most of the inhabitants of PaUantium settled
in the new city, and the town remained almost
deserted, tiU it was restored by Antoninus Pius,
and exempted from taxes on account of its sup
posed connexion with Rome (Paus. 1. c. ; Strab.
p. 485).
Pallas. [Athene.]
Pallas (nrfAAas). 1. One of the Titans, son
of Crius and Eurybia, husband of Styx, and
father of Zelus, Cratos, Bia, and Nice (Hes. Th.
376, 883 ; ApoUod. i. 2, 2).— 2. A giant, slato by-
Athene in the battle with the gods (ApoUod. i.
6, 2). — 3. According to some traditions, the
father of Athene, who slew him when he at
tempted to violate her [p. 188, b]. — 4. Son of
Lycaon, and grandfather of Evander, is said to
have founded the town of PaUantium in Arcadia
(Paus. viu. 8, 44). Servius (ad Aen. viii. 44)
calls him a son of Aegeus. Hence Evander is
caUed by the poets Pallantius heros. — 5. Son
of Evander, and an ally of Aeneas, was slam by
the Rutulian Turnus (Verg. Aen. viu. 104, xi.
140). — 6. Son of the Athenian Mng Pandion,
and father of Clytus and Butes. His two sons
were sent with Cephalus to implore assistance
of Aeacus against Minos. PaUas was slato by
Theseus. The celebrated famUy of the PaUan-
tidae at Athens traced their origin from tMs
Pallas. (Paus. i. 22, 28 ; Apollod. iii. 15, 5 ; Eur.
Hipp. 85; Plut. Thes. 3.)

PALLAS
Pallas, a favourite freedman of the emperor
Claudius. In conjunction with another freed
man, Narcissus, he administered the affairs of
the empire. After the death of MessaUina,
PaUas persuaded the weak emperor to marry
Agrippina, and as Narcissus had been opposed
to this marriage, he now lost his former power,
and Pallas and Agrippina became the rulers of
the Roman world. It was Pallas who persuaded
Claudius to adopt the young Domitius (after
wards the emperor Nero), the son of Agrippina ;
and it was doubtless with the assistance of
PaUas that Agrippina poisoned her husband.
Nero soon after his accession became tired of
Ms mother's control, and as one step towards
emancipating himself from her authority, he
deprived PaUas of aU his public offices, and dis
missed him rrom the palace in 56. He was
suffered to Uve unmolested for some years, tUl
at length Ms immense wealth excited the rapa
city of Nero, who had him removed by poison
to 63. (Tac. Ann. xi. 29, xii. 2, 25, 65,'xni. 28,
xiv. 65 ; Dio Cass. lxi. 3, lxii. 14 ; Suet. Claud.
28.) His wealth, wMch was acquired during the
reign of Claudius, had become proverbial, as we
see from the line in Juvenal (i. 107), ' ego pos-
sideo plus Pallante et Lictois.' The brother of
Pallas was Antonius or Claudius FeUx, who was
appototed by Claudius procurator of Judaea.
[Felix, Antonius.]
Pallas Lacus. [Triton.]
Pallene (TlaXXiivn). 1. (naAAijj/cuos, TlaXX-fi-
vios : Kassandra), the most westerly of the
three peninsulas running out from Chalcidice
to Macedonia. It is said to have been formerly
called PMegra (QXeypa), and on the narrow
isthmus wMch connected it with the main-land,
stood the important town of Potidaea. (Hdt. vii.
123 ; Thuc. iv. 120 ; Pind. Nem. i. 100 ; Strab.
p. 330.) — 2. (TlaXXriveis, re,re\j UaXXr)vdios),a
demus in Attica belonging to the tribe AntiocMs,
was situated on one of the slopes of Pentelicus,
a few miles SW. of Marathon. It possessed a
temple of Athene surnamed Pallenis (TlaXXnvis)
from the place, and in its neighbourhood took
place the contest between Pisistratus and the
party opposed to Mm. (Hdt. i. 61.)
Palma (Palma), a Roman colony on the SW.
coast of the island Baleoris Major (Majorca).
Palmaria (Palmaruola), a smaU uninhabited
island off the coast of Latium and the promon
tory Circeium (PUn. in. 81).
Palmyra (TldXpvpa : TlaXpvprjvbs, Palmyre-
nus: O. T. Tadmor: Tadmor,B.n.), a celebrated
city of Syria, stood in an oasis of the great
Syrian Desert, wMch from its position must have
been to the earliest times a halting-place for
the caravans between Syria and Mesopotamia.
Here Solomon built the city which was called
in Hebrew Tadmor. It Ues to 34° 18' N. lat. and
38° 14' E. long., and was reckoned 237 Roman
miles from the coast of Syria, 176 NE. of Da
mascus, 80 E. of Emesa, and 113 SE. of Apamea.
With the exception of a tradition that it was
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, we hear nothing
of it till the time of the government of the East
by M. Antonius, who marched to surprise it, but
the tohabitants retreated with their moveable
property beyond the Euphrates (Appian, B. C.
v. 9). Under the early Roman emperors it was
a free city and a great commercial emporium.
Its position on the border between the Parthian
and Roman dominions gave it the command of
the trade of both, but also subjected it to the
injuries of war. Under Hadrian and the Anto
nines it was Mghly favoured and reached its
greatest splendour (Plin. v. 88). The Mstory

PAMPHILUS

645

of its temporary elevation to the rank of a
capital, in the third century, is related under
Odenathus and Zenobia. On its capture by
Aurelian, in 270, it was plundered, and soon
afterwards an insurrection of its inhabitants led
to its partial destruction. After that time it
was made a rppoipiov or frontier fortress, and
was further fortified by Justinian (Steph. Byz.
s. v. ; Procop. de Aed. ii. 11). In the Arabian
conquest it was one of the first cities taken ;
but it was stiU inhabited by a small population,
chiefly of Jews, tiU it was taken and plundered
by Timour (Tamerlane) in 1400. It has long
been entirely deserted, except when a horde of
BedoMns pitch their tents among its splendid
ruins. Those ruins, which form a most striking
object in the midst of the Desert, are of the
Roman period, and decidedly inferior in the
style of architecture, as well as in grandeur of
effect, to those of Baalbek [Heliopolis], the
sister deserted city of Syria. The finest remains
are those of the temple of the Sun ; the most
interesting are the square sepulchral towers of
from three to five stories. The streets and the
foundations of the houses are traceable to some
extent; and there are several inscriptions in
Greek and in the native Pahnyrene dialect, be
sides one in Hebrew and one or two in Latin.
The surrounding district of Palmyrene con
tained the Syrian Desert from the E. border of
Coelesyria to the Euphrates (Ptol. v. 15, 24).
PaltUS (TtdXros : Belde), a town on the coast
of Syria between Aradus and Laodicea (Strab.
pp. 728, 735 ; Cic. ad Fam. xii. 131.
Pambotis Lacus (TlapBdns Xipvn : Janina
L.\, a lake to Epirus not far from Dodona.
Pamisus (Tldpio-os). 1. A southern tributary
of the Peneus to Thessaly (Hdt. vii. 129).— 2.
(Pirnatza), the chief river of Messenia, rises in
the E. part of the country, forty stadia E. of
Ithome, flows first SW., and then S. through the
Messenian plain, and faUs into the Messenian
gulf (Strab. pp. 267, 366).— 3. A smaU river to
Laconia, faUs into the Messenian gulf near
Leuctra. It was at one time the boundary be
tween Laconia and Messenia (Strab. p. 361).
Pammenes (Uappevris), a Theban general
in whom Epaminondas placed confidence. He
was entrusted by the Thebans with the defence
of Megalopolis in 371 and in 352 b. c. (Paus.
viii. 27, 2; Diod. xv. 14). When Philip was
sent as a hostage to Thebes he was put under
the charge of Pammenes (Plut. Pelop. 26).
Pamphia or Pamphium (Uaptpia, Tldpcpiov),
a village of Aetolia, destroyed by the Macedo
nians (Pol. v. 8, 13).
Pamphila (Tlap<piXri), a female historian of
considerable reputation, who lived in the reign
of Nero. She is described by Suidas as a na
tive of Epidaurus, by Photius as an Egyptian.
Her principal work, of which Photius has given
some extracts, was a kind of Historical Miscel
lany (entitled %ippiKrav iaropiKav vnopvnpArav
Xbyoi). Modern scholars are best acquainted
with the name of Pamphila from a statement
to her work preserved by A. Gellius (xv. 28),
by which is ascertained the year of the birth of
Hellanicus, Herodotus, and Thucydides respec
tively. Pamphllus (Tldprpi Xos). 1. A disciple of
Plato, who is only remembered by the circum
stance that Epicurus, when a young man, at
tended his lectures at Samos (Diog. Laert. X.
14 ; Cic. N. D. i. 26, 70).— 2. An Alexandrian
grammarian, of the school of Aristarchus, and
the author of a lexicon, which is supposed by
some scholars to have formed the foundationof

646

PAMPHOS

the lexicon of Hesychius. He appears to have
lived in the first century of our era. — 3. A phi
losopher or grammarian of Nicopolis, the author
of a work on agriculture, of which there are
considerable fragments in the Geoponica. — 4.
Presbyter of Caesarea, in Palestine, celebrated
for Ms friendship with Eusebius, who, as a me
morial of this intimacy, assumed the surname
of Pamphilus. [Diet, of Christian Biogr.]
— 5. Of AmpMpolis, one of the most distin
guished of the Greek painters, about b. c. 390-
350. He was the disciple of Eupompus, the
founder of the Sicyonian school of painting, or,
rather, the artist from whose time Sicyonic
painting began to take a high rank. Pamphilus
evidently did much to extend this reputation.
It is probable that his special distinction con
sisted in development of the encaustic method
of painting (Plin. xxxv. 74, 123 ; cf. Did. of
Ant. art. Pictura). Of his own works we have
most scanty accounts ; but as a teacher of his
art he was surpassed by none of the ancient
masters. His course of accurate and compre
hensive instruction extended over ten years, and
the fee was no less than a talent. Among those
who paid ttos price for his tuition were ApeUes,
MelantMus, and Pausias (Plin. xxxv. 76).
Pamphos (Tldpcpas), a mythical poet, placed
by Pausanias later than Olen, and much earlier
than Homer. His name is connected particu
larly with Attica. (Paus. vii. 21, 9, ix. 27, 2.)
Pamphylia (TlapxpvXia : TldpcpvXos, Tlapjpi-
Aios, Pamphylius), to its original and more
restricted sense, was a narrow strip of the S.
coast of Asia Minor, extending in a sort of arch
along the Sinus Pamphylius (G. of Adalid),
between Lycia on the W., and Cilicia on the
E., and on the N. bordering on Pisidia. Its
boundaries, as commonly stated, were Mt.
Climax on the W., the river Melas on the E.,
and the foot of Mt. Taurus on the N. ; but the
statements are not very exact : Strabo gives to
the coast of Pamphylia a length of 640 stadia,
from Olbia on the W. to Ptolemais, some dis
tance E. of the Melas, and he makes it a very
narrow strip (p. 667). It was a belt of moun
tain coast land, intersected by rivers flowing
down from the Taurus to a short course, but
several of them with a considerable body of
water ; the chief of them, going from W. to E.,
were the Cataeehactes, Cesteus, Euryme
don, and Melas [No. 6], aU navigable for some
distance from their mouths. The tohabitants
were a mixture of races, whence their name
TldprpvXoi, of all races (the genuine old form :
the other in -tot is later). Besides the abori
ginal inhabitants, of the Semitic famUy, and
CUicians, there were very early Greek settlers
and later Greek colonies in the land (Hdt. vii.
91 ; Strab. p. 668). Tradition ascribed the first
Greek settlements to Mopsus, after the Trojan
war, from whom the country was in early times
called Mopsopia (Plin. v. 96). It was suc
cessively a part of the Persian, Macedonian,
Greco-Syrian, and Pergamene kingdoms, and
passed by the will of Attalus HI. to the Romans
(B.C. 130), under whom it was made a province
(Dio Cass. Mi. 26, liv. 34) ; but tMs province
of Pamphylia was united with Lycia and called
Lycia-Pamphylia under Claudius (Dio Cass.
Ix. 17). Under Galba Pamphylia was united to
Galatia (Tac. Hist. ii. 9).
i« Pamphylmm Mare, Pamphylius Sinus (to
TlapcpiXiov ireXayos, TlapjpiXios KbXiros : Gulf
of Adalid), the great gulf formed to the S.
coast of Asia Minor by the Taurus chain and
by Mt. Solyma, between the Pr. Sacrum or

PAN
Chelidonium (G. Khelidonia), the SE. point of
Lycia, and Pr. Anemurium (C. Anemour), the S-
point of Cilicia. Its depth from N. to S., from.
Pr. Sacrum to Olbia, is reckoned by Strabo at
367 stadia (S6'7 geog. nines), wMch is too little
(Strab. pp. 121, 125, 666).
Pamphylus. [Doris, p. 302, b.]
Pan (Tldv), the great god of flocks and shep
herds among the Greeks. In mythology he is
usuaUy described as the son of Hermes (a
shepherd deity in Arcadia ; see p. 406) by the
daughter of Dryops (Hom. Hymn. vii. 34).
Herodotus (ii. 145) speaks of Mm as born from
Hermes and Penelope. He was perfectly de
veloped from his birth; and when his mother
saw Mm, she ran away through fear; but
Hermes carried him to Olympus, where aU the
gods were delighted with him, and especiaUy
Dionysus. From Ms deUghttog all the gods,
the Homeric hymn derives his name. He was
origtoally only an Arcadian god ; and Arcadia.
was always the principal seat of tos worBtop.
From this country his name and worsMp after
wards spread over other parts of Greece ; but
at Athens Ms worsMp was not introduced till
the time of the battle of Marathon, when he
is said to have appeared to the courier Pheid-
ippides and promised aid if the Athenians
would worship Mm (Hdt. vi. 105 ; Paus. viii
54, 5). His grotto at Athens was in the rocks,
on the NW. side of the Acropolis, and he had
also a shrine near the Ilissus. In Arcadia he
was the god of forests, pastures, flocks, and
shepherds, and dwelt in grottoes, wandered on
the summits of mountains and rocks, and to
valleys, either amusing Mmself with the chase,
or leading the dances of the nymphs. As the
god of flocks, both of wild and tame animals,
it was his province to increase and guard them ;
but he was also a hunter, and hunters owed
their success or failure to him. The ATcadian
hunters used to scourge the statue of the god
if they had been disappointed in the chase
(Theocr. vii. 107). During the heat of mid-day
he used to slumber, and the peasants feared to*
disturb his rest (Theocr. i. 16). He was espe
cially a god of Nature, and hence associated
with the Great Mother, Cybele (Pind. Pyth.
iii. 77). Hence in later times he was supposed
to be the god of the umverse, and that signifi
cation was given to Ms name. As the god of
everything connected with pastoral life, he was
fond of music, and the inventor of the syrinx
or shepherd's flute, wMch he himself played to
a masterly manner, and to wMch he instructed
others also, such as Daphnis. He is thus said
to have loved the poet Pindar, and to have sung
and danced his lyric songs, to return for wMch
Pindar erected to him a sanctuary in front of
his house. Pan, like other gods who dwelt to
forests, was dreaded by travellers, to whom he
sometimes appeared, and whom he startled with
sudden awe or terror. His supposed dreadful
shout was doubtless imagined from the unex
plained sounds heard in the depths of forests.-
Hence sudden fright without any visible cause-
was ascribed to Pan, and was called a Panic
fear (cf. Eur. Bhes. 86). He was at the same
time believed to be possessed of prophetic-
powers, and to have even instructed ApoUo
in this art. WhUe roaming in Ms forests he
fell in love with Echo, by whom or by Pitho he
became the father of lynx [see p. 308]. The
shepherd's pipe (o"0pry|) was a special attribute
of Pan, and hence grew up the myth that he
loved the Arcadian nymph Syrinx, that she waa
changed toto a reed by the bonks of Ladon, and

PANACEA
that the reed-pipe was named after her (Ov.
Met. i. 691). Fir trees were sacred to Mm, as
the god of mountain forests, and so arose the
myth that the nymph Pitys, whom he loved,
had been changed toto that tree. The sacri
fices offered to him consisted of cows, rams,
lambs, milk, and honey (Theoor. v. 58 ; Anth.
Pal. ii. 630, 697, vi. 96, 239, vii. 59). At Athens,
in his grotto under the Acropolis, there was an
annual festival with a torch-race, and the Arca
dian custom was to keep fire always burning
on Ms altar (Hdt. vi. 105 ; Paus. viii. 37, 11).
From this some modern writers deduce that
Pan was origtoally an Arcadian god of light ;
but if he was regarded as a light-god at all it
was probably a development of the Orphio
religion. The Arcadian custom may perhaps
merely indicate that he was the god of the
shepherd's home and hearth in Arcadia. Pan
is often brought into connexion (as are other
deities and nymphs of the country) with
Dionysus, and is represented to Ms trato. He
was supposed to have accompamed Mm to
India, and to have aided him to battle by the
terrors of his voice. He was credited also with

PANDION

647

Pan -with syrinx. (Prom a baB-relief.)
attendant deities or demons of the wood and
country, called Panes or Panisci (Cic. N. D. in.
17, 43 ; Suet. Tib. 43). The Romans identified
with Pan their own god Inuus or Faunus
[Faunus ; Lupeecus]. In works of art Pan is
represented as a sensual being, with horns,
puck-nose, and goat's feet, sometimes to the
act of dancing, and sometimes playing on the
syrinx. [See also cut on p. 308.]
Panacea. [Asclepius.]
Panachaicus Mons (to TlavaxaiKbv opos :
Voidia), a mountain in Achaia, 6300 feet high,
immediately behind Patrae.
Panactnm (TtdvaKrov), a town on the frontiers
of Attica and Boeotia, originaUy belonged to
Boeotia, and, after betog a frequent object of
contention between the Athenians and Boeo
tians, at length became permanently annexed
to Attica (Paus. i. 25, 6).
Panaenus (Udvatvos), a distinguished Athe
nian painter, who flourished B.C. 448. He was
the nephew of Phidias, whom he assisted in
decorating the temple of Zeus at Olympia.
He was also the author of a series of paintings
of the battle of Marathon, in the Poecile at
Athens (Paus. v. 11, 5 ; Plin. xxxv. 58).
Panaetins (Tluvairios). 1. A native of Rhodes
(Strab. p. 655), and a celebrated Stoic philoso
pher, studied first at Pergamum under the
grammarian Crates, and subsequently at Athens
under the Stoic Diogenes of Babylon and his dis
ciple Antipater of Tarsus. He afterwards went

to Rome, where he became an intimate friend
of Laelius and of Scipio Africanus the younger
(Cic. Div. i. 8, 6, Fin. iv. 9, 28, Tusc. iv. 2, 4).
In b.c. 144 he accompanied Scipio on the em
bassy whioh he undertook to the kings of
Egypt and Asia to aUiance with Rome.
Panaetius succeeded Antipater as head of the
Stoic school, and died at Athens, at all events
before 111 (Cic. de Or. i. 11, 45). The principal
work of Panaetius was his treatise on the
theory of moral obligation (nepi tou KaB4)K0vros),
in three books, from which Cicero took the
greater part of his work De Officiis. Panaetius
had softened down the harsh severity of the
older Stoics, and, without giving up their
fundamental definitions, had modified them so
as to make them applicable to the conduct of
life. — 2. Of Leontini, made himself tyrant of
that city B.C. 608 (Polyaen. v. 47), and was the
earliest of the tyrants in Sicilian towns.
Panaetolium, a mountain to Aetolia near
Thermon, in which town the general assembly
of the Aetolians was held. [Aetolia.]
Panda, a river in the country of Siraces M
Sarmatia Asiatica (Tac. Ann. xii. 16).
Pandareos (TlavSdpeas), son of Merops of
Miletus, is said to have stolen from the temple
of Zeus in Crete the golden dog which He
phaestus had made, and to have carried it to
Tantalus. When Zeus sent Hermes to Tantalus
to claim the dog back, Tantalus declared that
it was not in his possession. The god, how
ever, took the animal by force, and threw
Mount Sipylus upon Tantalus. Pandareos fled
to Athens, and thence to Sicily, where he
perished with Ms wife Harmothoe. The story
of Pandareos derives more interest from that of
his three daughters. For the story of the eldest
and best known see Aedon ; the other daughters
of Pandareos, Merope and Cleodora (according
to Pausanias, Camira and Clytia), were, as is
told in the Odyssey, deprived of their parents
by the gods, and remained as helpless orphans
in the palace. Aphrodite, however, fed them
with milk, honey, and wine. Hera gave them
beauty and understanding far above other
women. Artemis gave them dignity, and
Athene skill in the arts. But retribution was
stUl due for their father's crime, and, when
ApModite went up to Olympus to arrange the
nuptials for her maidens, they were carried off
by the Harpies, and given as servants to the
Erinyes. (Od. xx. 65-78 ; Paus. x. 30, 1 ; Eu-
stath. ad Horn. p. 1875.)
Pandarus (UdvSapos). 1. A Lycian, son of
Lycaon, commanded the inhabitants of Zelea
on Mt. Ida in the Trojan war. He was dis
tinguished in the Trojan army as an archer,
and was said to have received Ms bow from,
Apollo. He was slato by Diomedes, or, accord
ing to some, by Sthenelus. He was afterwards
honoured as a hero at Pinara in Lycia. (II. ii.
824, iv. 88, v. 290 ; Strab. p. 665 ; Philostr. Her.
iv. 2.) — 2. Son of Alcanor, and twin-brother of
Bitias, was a companion of Aeneas, and was
Blain by Turnus (Verg. Aen. ix. 672, 758).
Pandataria (Vendutene), a small island off
the coast of Campania, to which Julia, the
daughter of Augustus, among other state pri
soners, was banished (Strab. pp. 123, 233 ; Tac.
Ann. i. 53, xiv. 63 ; Suet. Tib. 53).
Pandemos. [Aphrodite, p. 86, b.]
Pandion (TIavSiav). 1. I., king of Athens;
son of Erichthonius, by the Naiad Pasithea,
was married to Zeuxippe, by whom he became
the father of Procne and Philomela, and of the
twins Erechtheus and Butes. In a war against

648

PANDORA

Labdacus, king of Thebes, he called upon
Tereus of Daulis in Phocis, for assistance, and
afterwards rewarded him by giving . him his
daughter Procne in marriage. [Tereus.] It
was in his reign that Dionysus and Demeter
were said to have come to Attica. (Thuc. ii.
29 ; Apollod. iii. 14, 6 ; Paus. i. 5, 3.)— 2. II., Mng
of Athens, son of Cecrops and Metiadusa.
Being expelled from Athens by the Metionidae,
he fled to Megara, and there married Pylia,
the daughter of Mng Pylas. When the latter,
in consequence of a murder, migrated toto
Peloponnesus, Pandion obtained the govern.
ment of Megara, where Ms grave and ripipov
were shown (Paus. i. 43, 6). He became the
father of Aegeus, PaUas, Nisus, Lycus, and a
natural son, Oeneus, and also of a daughter,
who was married to Sciron. After his death
his four sons, called the Pandidnidae (TlavSiovi-
Sai), returned from Megara to Athens, and ex
pelled the Metionidae. Aegeus obtained
Athens, Lycus the E. coast of Attica, Nisus
Megaris, and PaUas the S. coast. His statue
was placed at Athens among those of the
eponymic heroes. (Eur. Med. 660 ; Apollod.
iii. 15, 1 ; Paus. i. 5, 29.)
Pandora (UavSdpa), the name of the first
woman on earth. When Prometheus had
stolen the fire from heaven, Zeus in revenge
caused Hephaestus to make a woman out of
earth, who by her charms and beauty should
bring miseryupon the human race. Aphrodite
adorned her with beauty; Hermes bestowed
upon her boldness and cunning ; and the gods
called her Pandora, or Allgifted, as each of the
gods had given her some power by which she
was to work the ruin of man. Hermes took
her to Epimetheus, who made her his wife, for
getting the advice of his brother Prometheus
that he should not receive any gifts from Zeus.
In the house of Epimetheus was a closed jar,
wMch he had been forbidden to open. But the
curiosity of a woman could not resist the temp
tation to know its contents ; and when she opened
the lid all the evils incident to man poured out.
She had only time to shut down the lid, and
prevent the escape of hope. (HeB. Th. 571,
Op. 50.) Later writers relate that the box con
tained all the blessings of the gods, which
would have been preserved for the human race
had not Pandora opened the vessel, so that the
winged blessings escaped (Hyg. Fab. 142).
Pandosia (TlavSoo-la). 1. (Kastri), a town of
Epirus, in the district Thesprotia, on the river
Acheron, to the territory of the Cassopaei
(Strab. pp. 256, 824).— 2. (Gastel Franco ?), a
town in Bruttium near the frontiers of Lucania,
either upon or at the foot of three hills, was
originally a residence of native Oenotrian
chiefs. It was here that Alexander of Epirus
fell, B.C. 826, in accordance with an oracle, for
here also there was a stream called Acheron.
(Strab. p. 256 ; Liv. viii. 24 ; Justin, xii. 2.)— 3.
A town of Lucania, near Heraclea (Plut. Pyrrh.
16). Pandrosos. [Aglaurus.]
Paneas. [Caesarea, No. 2.]
Paneum or -ium (Jldveiov, Tldviov, i.e. Pan's-
abode), the Greek name of the cave, in a moun
tain at the S. extremity of the range of Anti
libanus, out of which the river Jordan takes its
rise, a little above the town of Paneas or
Caesarea Philippi. The mountain, in whose S.
side the cave is, was called by the same name ;
and the surrounding district was called Paneas.
(Jos. Ant. xv. 10).
Pangaeum or Pangaeus (Tlayyaiov, Hay

PANNONIA
yaios : Pangea), a celebrated range of moun
tains in Macedonia, between the Strymon and
the Nestus, in the neighbourhood of Philippi,
with gold and silver mines ; famous also for its
roses (Hdt. v. 16 ; Thuc. ii. 99 ; Aesch. Pers. 494 ;
Verg.. Georg. iv. 462 ; Plin. iv. 42).
Panhellenius. [Zeus.]
Fanionium. [Mycale : and Did. of Ant.
s.v. Panionia.]
Panium (Tldviov), a town on the coast of
Thrace, near Heraclea (Suid. s.v.).
Pannonia, one of the most important of the
Roman provinces between the Danube and the
Alps, was separated on the W. from Noricum
by the Mons Cetius, and from Upper Italy by
the Alpes Juliae, on the S. from Blyria by the
Savus, of the E. from Dacia by the Danube,
and on the N. from Germany by the same
river. It thus corresponded to the eastern part
of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the
whole of Hungary between the Danube and
the Save, Slavonia, and a part of Croatia and
Bosnia. The mountains to the S. and W. of
the country on the borders of Hlyria, Italy, and
Noricum, belonged to the Alps, and are there
fore called by the general name of the AlpeB
Pannonicae, of which the separate names are
Ocra, Carvancas, Cetius, and Albii or Albani
Montes. The principal rivers of Pannonia,
besides the Danube, were the Dravus (Drave),
Savus (Save), and Arrabo (Baab), aU of which
flows toto the Danube. — The Pannonians
(Pannonii), sometimes called Paeonians by the
Greek writers, were probably of Hlyrian origin,
and were divided into numerous tribes. They
were a brave and warlike people, but are
described by the Roman writers as cruel, faith
less, and treacherous. They maintained their
independence of Rome, till Augustus, after his
conquest of the lUyrians (b.c. 35), turned Ms
arms against the Pannonians, who were shortly
afterwards subdued by his general Vibius (Dio
Cass. xlix. 35-38). In A.D. 7 the Pannonians
joined the Dalmatians and the other Hlyrian
tribes to their revolt from Rome, and were with
difficulty conquered by Tiberius, after a desper
ate struggle, which lasted three years (a.d.
7-9) (Dio Cass. Iv. 28-38; VeU. Pat. u. 110;
Suet. Tib. 16). It was after the termination of
this war that Pannonia appears to have been
reduced to the form of a Roman province, and
was garrisoned by several Roman legions. The
dangerous mutiny of these troops after the
death of Augustus (a.d. 14) was with difficulty
quelled by Drusus. From tMs time to the end
of the empire, Pannonia always contained a
large number of Roman troops, on account of
its bordering on the Quadi and other powerful
barbarous nations. The towns Carnuntum,
Siscia, and Poetovio stood near its border-Une.
We find at a later time that Pannonia was the
regular quarters of seven legions (Tac. Ann. i.
16 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 125). In consequence of tMs
large number of troops always stationed in the
country, several towns were founded and
numerous fortresses were erected along the
Danube. Pannonia originally formed only one
province, but about 102 A.D. was divided into
two provinces, caUed Pannonia Superior and
Pannonia Inferior. These were separated
from one another by a straight line drawn from
the river Arrabo S. as far as* the Savus, the
country W. of this line being P. Superior, and
the part E. P. Inferior. Each of the provinces
was governed by a separate propraetor; but
they were frequently spoken of in the plural
under the name of Pannoniae. The Danube

PANOMPHAEUS
formed the limit and the colomes Mursia and
Aquincum were founded as outposts by Ha
drian (C. I. L. Ui. p. 415). The native settle
ments were vUlages (vid) grouped in cantons
(pagi). The larger towns were of Roman
origin, either colonies or municipia, some of
which were first established as outposts or
fortresses, and afterwards increased. In the
fourth century the part of P. Inferior between
the Arrabo, the Danube, and the Dravus, was
formed toto a separate provtoce with cMef
towns Sopianae (Ftlnfkirchen) and Aquincum
(Alt-Ofen), by Galerius, who gave it the name
of Valeria in honour of his wife. But as P.
Inferior had thus lost a great part of its terri
tory, Constantine added to it a portion of P.
Superior, comprising the upper part of the
course of the Dravus and the Savus. P.
Superior was now called Pannonia I., with
cMef towns Savaria and Siscia, and P. Inferior
Pannonia II., with cMef town Sirmium ; and
all three Ponnonian provinces (together with
the two Noric provinces and Dalmatia) be
longed to the six Hlyrian provinces of the
Western Empire. In the middle of the fifth
century Pannonia was taken possession of by
the Huns. After the death of AttUa it passed
into the hands of the Ostrogoths, and subse
quently toto those of the Lombards.
Panomphaeus (TlavopcpdXos), i.e. the author of
all signs and omens, a surname of Zeus, who
had a sanctuary on the HeUespont between
Capes Rhoeteum and Sigeum (II. vM. 250 ; Ov.
Met. xi. 198).
Fanope (Tlav(mii), a nymph of the sea,
daughter of Nereus and Doris.
Panopeus (Tlavoirevs), son of Phocus and
Asteropaea, accompanied AmpMtryon on his
expedition against the Taphians or Teleboans,
and took an oath not to embezzle any part of
the booty ; but having broken Ms oath, he was
punished by Ms son Epeus becoming unwarlike.
He was one of the Calydonian hunters. (II.
xxni. 665 ; Paus. u. 29, 4; Ov. Met. viu. 312.)
Panopeus or Phanoteus, (Uavoireis, Horn.),
Panopeae (Tlavoireai), or Panope (Uavbm),
Thuc. ; Tlavoireis : Agio Vtasi), an ancient town
to Phocis on the CepMssus and near the frontiers
of Boeotia, twenty stadia W. of Chaeronea, said
to have been founded by Panopeus, son of
Phocus (Hes. ap. Strab. p. 424 ; Hdt. vin. 34 ;
Ov. Met. in. 19).
Panopdlis. [Chemmis.]
Panoptes. [Argus.]
Panormus (Tldvoppos), that is, ' AU-Port,' or
a place always fit for landing, the name of
several harbours. 1. (TlavoppiT-ns, Panormlta,
Panormitanus : Palermo), an important town
on the N. coast of SicUy and at the mouth of
the river Orethus, was founded by the Phoeni-

PANTICAPAEUM

649

Coin of Panormus in Sicily (before 254 B.C.).
Obv. , head of Persephone and dolphins ; rep., horse's head ;
name of town in Punic characters.
cians, and at a later time received its Greek
name from its exceUent harbour (Thuc. vi. 2 ;
Diod. xxii. 10). From the Phoenicians it

passed into the hands of the Carthaginians, in
whose power it remained for a long time, and
who made it one of the cMef stations for their
fleet (Diod. xi. 20, xiii. 88, xv. 17). It was taken
by the Romans in the first Punic war, B.C. 254
(Pol. i. 21, 88). It became a municipium with
immunities from taxation and considerable inde
pendence. Cicero notices its commercial pro
sperity (Verr. ii. 26, iii. 6, v. 7) ; but after the war
with Sextus Pompeius it lost its independence,
and was made a Roman colony. (Strab. p. 272.)
—2. (Pwto Baphti), the principal harbour on
the E. coast of Attica, near the demus Prasiae,
and opposite the S. extremity of Euboea.— 3.
(Tekieh), a harbour in Achaia, fifteen stadia E.
of the promontory Rhium (Thuc. ii. 86 ; Paus.
vij. 22, 10). — 4. A harbour in Epirus, in the
middle of the Acroceraunian mountains (Strab.
p. 824). — 5. (Nr. Mylopotamo, Ru.), a town and
harbour on the N. coast of Crete. — 6. The outer
harbour of Ephesus formed by the mouth of the
river Cayster (Strab. p. 689 ; Ephesus).
Pansa, C. Vibius, a friend and partisan of
Caesar, was tribune of the plebs b.c. 51, and
was appointed by Caesar in 46 to the govern
ment of Cisalpine Gaul as successor to M.
Brutus. Caesar subsequently nominated him
and Hirtius consuls for 43. Pansa was consul
in that year along with Hirtius, and fell before
Mutina in the month of April. The details are
given under Hietius.
Pantacyas, Pantagias, or Pantagies (Tlavr-
axias : Fiume diPocari), a small river on the
E. coast of SicUy, flowing toto the sea between
Megara and Syracuse (Verg. Aen. iii. 689 ; Ov.
Fast. iv. 471).
Pantaleon (UavraXeav). 1. Son of Omphalion,
king or tyrant of Pisa to Elis at the period of
the tMrty-fourth Olympiad (b.c. 644), assembled
an army, with which he made Mmself master
of Olympia, and assumed by force the sole
presidency of the Olympic games. The Eleans
on tMs account would not reckon this as one of
the regular Olympiads. Pantaleon assisted the
Messenians to the second Messenian war.
(Paus. vi. 21, 22 ; Strab. p. 862.)— 2. A king of
Bactria or the Indo-Caucasian provinces, whose
date, from Ms coins, is put at about 120 B.C.
Panthea. [Abeadatas.]
Pantheum. [Roma.]
Panthous contr. Panthus (TldvBoos, TldvBovs),
one of the elders at Troy, husband of Ptoontis,
and father of Euphorbus, Polydamas, and
Hyperenor (II. iii. 146, xiv. 450, xvii. 24, 40, 81).
Hence both Euphorbus and Polydamas are
caUed Panthoides. He was origtoally a priest
of Apollo at Delphi, and was carried to Troy by
Antenor, on account of Ms beauty. He continued
to be a priest of Apollo, and is called by VirgU
(Aen. ii. 319) Othryades, or son of Othryas.

Coin of Pantioapaeum in the Tauric Chersonesus (about
B.C. 860).
Obv., head of Pan (the Greeks erroneously connected the
name, which Ib probably Scythian, with the god Pan) ;
rev., nAN ; a griffln with spear in its mouth ; below, a
stalk of corn, to signify the corn trade of the town.
Panticapaeum (TlavrMdiraiov : TlavriKawdios,
TlavTLKairateis, TlavriKairidrris '. Kertsch), a
town to the Tauric Chersonesus, was situated

650

PANTICAPES

on a MU twenty stadia in circumference, on the
Cimmerian Bosporus, and opposite the town of
Phanagoria in Asia (Strab. pp. 309-311 ; Appian,
Mithr. 107). It was founded by the Milesians,
about B.C. 541, and from its position and excel
lent harbour soon became a place of great
commercial importance. It was the residence
of the Greek kings of the Bosporus, and hence
is sometimes called Bosporus. Justinian caused
it to be surrounded with new walls. (Strab. p.
495 ; Diod. xx. 24 ; Plin. iv. 78 ; Procop. Aed.
iii. 7.) Remains of Greek art of the greatest
value to archaeology have been found here, and
are now for the most part at St. Petersburg.
Pantieapes (TlavriKdirris : Samara ?) a river
fa European Sarmatia, which, according to
Herodotus, rises in a lake, separates the agri
cultural and nomad Scythians, flows through
the district Hylaea, and falls into the Bory
sthenes (Hdt. iv. 18, 47, 54; Plin. iv. 83).
Panyasis (Tlaviao-is). 1. A Greek epic poet,
was a native of Halicarnassus, and a relation of
the Mstorian Herodotus, probably Ms uncle.
Panyasis was put to death by Lygdamis, the
tyrant of HaUcarnassus, about B.C. 457. The
most celebrated of his poems was Heraclea
or Heracleas, which gave a detailed account
of the exploits of Heracles. It consisted of
fourteen books and 9000 verses. Another poem
bore the name of Ionica ('laytKa), and con
tained 7000 verses; it related the Mstory of
Neleus, Codrus, and the Ionic colonies. In
later times the works of Panyasis were exten
sively read, and much admired ; some Alexan
drine grammarians ranked him with Homer,
Hesiod, Pisander, and Antimachus, as one of
the five principal epic poets (Suid. s. v. ; Paus.
x. 8, 5). The scanty fragments which remain
give no means of determining the poetical merit
of Ms work (ed. Gaisford, 1823 ; Diibner, 1840).
— 2. A pMlosopher, also a native of Halicar
nassus, who wrote two books ' On Dreams '
(Ilepl bveipav), was perhaps a grandson of the
poet (Suid. s. v.).
Paphlagonia (TlaipA.a'yoi'i'a : TlacpXaydv, pi.
-bves, PapMago), a district on the N. side of
Asia Minor, between Bithynia on the W. and
Pontus on the E., being separated from the
former by the river Parthenius, and from the
latter by the Halys; on the S. it was divided by
the chain of Mount Ormtoius (at some periods
by Mount Olgassys) and the bend of the Halys
from Phrygia, in the earlier times, but from
Galatia afterwards ; and on the N. it bordered
on the Euxine. These boundaries, however,
are not always exactly observed. Xenophon
brings the PapMagonians as far E. as Themi-
scyra and the Jasonian promontory (Xen. An. v.
6, 1 ; cf. Strab. p. 548). It appears to have been
known to the Greeks to the mythical period.
The Argonautic legends mentioned Paphlagon,
the son of Phineus, as the hero eponymus of
I the country. In the Homeric Catalogue, Pylae-
' menes leads the PapMagonians, as allies of the
Trojans, from the land of the Heneti, about
the river Parthenius, a region famed for its
. mules : and from tMs Pylaemenes the later
' princes of Paphlagonia claimed their descent,
and the country itself was sometimes called
Pylaemenia (II. ii. 851, v. 577, xiii. 656 ; Plin.
vi. 5). Herodotus twice mentions the Halys as
the boundary between the PapMagonians and
the Syrians of Cappadocia ; but we learn also
from him and from other authorities that the
PapMagonians were of the same race as the
Cappadocians (i.e. the Semitic or Syro-Arabian)
and quite distinct, to their language and their

PAPHUS
customs, from their Thracian neighbours on the
W. (Hdt. i. 72, ii. 104; Plut. Lucull. 23.)
They were good soldiers, especially aB cavalry ;
but uncivilised and superstitious. The country
had also other inhabitants, probably of a
different race : namely, the Heneti and the
Caucones ; and Greek settlements were estab
lished on the coast at an early period. The
PapMagonians were first subdued by Croesus.
(Hdt. i. 28, iii. 90.) Under the Persian empire
they belonged to the third satrapy, but their
satraps made themselves independent and
assumed the regal title, maintaining them
selves to this position (with a brief interruption,
during which Paphlagonia was subject to-
Eumenes) untU the conquest of the country by
Mithridates, who added the E. part of his own
kingdom, and made over the W. part to Nico
medes, king of Bithynia, who gave it to tos son
Pylaemenes (App. Mithr. 11, 12 ; Strab. p.
540; Justin, xxxvii. 1-4). After the faU of
Mithridates the part of PapMagonia nearer the
coast which had belonged to Mithridates was
by Pompey's arrangement, B.C. 65, included in
the province of Pontus ; the interior was left to-
the native princes, as tributaries to Rome ; but,
the race of these princes becoming soon extinct,
the whole of Paphlagonia was made Roman, and
Augustus made it a part of the province of
Galatia. (Strab. pp. 541, 544, 562 ; Ptol. v. 4,
5.) PompeiopoUs was its pnrpbiroXis. It was
made a separate province under Constantine ;
but the E. part, from Sinope to the Halys, was
assigned to Pontus, under the name of Helles-
pontus. Paphlagonia was a mountainous
country, being intersected from W. to E. by
three chains of the Olympus system : namely,
the Olympus itself on the S. border, Olgassys in
the centre, and a minor chain with no specific
name nearer to the coast. The belt of land
between tMs last chain and the sea was very-
fertile, and the Greek cities of Amastris and
Sinope brought a considerable commerce to its
shore ; but the inland parts were chiefly covered
with forests, wMch were celebrated as hunting
grounds. The country was famed for its horses
and mules, and to some parts there were exten
sive sheepwalks; and its rivers were particularly
famous for their fish (Strab. p. 547).
Paphus (Tldcpos), son of Pygmalion by the
statue into which life had been breathed by
Aphrodite. From him the town of Paphus de
rived its name ; and Pygmalion himself is caUed
the Paphian hero. (Ov. Met. x. 290.)
Paphus (Tldcpos : Tldcptos), the name of two
towns on the W. coast of Cyprus, near each
other, and called respectively ' Old Paphos,'
(TlaXaliracpos) and 'New Paphos ' (Tldcpos vea).
Old Paphos was situated near the promontory
Zephyrium, ten stadia from the coast, where
it had a good harbour; whUe New Paphos
lay more inland, in the midst of a fertile plain,
sixty stadia from the former (Hes. Th. 192 ;
Mel. ii. 7; Lucan, viii. 456; Strab. p. 683;
Corunt. N. D. 24 ; Serv. ad Aen. x. 61). It has
been said that there was a PapMan river Boca-
rus, but there is reason to think that tMs is a
confusion with a river Bocarus in the island
Salamis (Strab. p. 394). Old Paphos was the
chief seat of the worship of Aphrodite, who is
said to have landed at this place after her
birth among the waves, and who is hence fre
quently called the Paphian goddess (Paphia).
Here she had a celebrated temple, the high
priest of which exercised a kind of religious
superintendence over the whole island. Every
year there was a grand procession from New

PAPIAS
Paphos to the temple of the goddess in the old
city. The foundation of Old Paphos and its
temple and temple services are fully described
by Tacitus (Hist. ii. 2). The founder was
Cinyeas, though Tacitus notices an ancient
tradition of a mythical founder, Aerias, which,
he says, others regard as a name of the god
dess. OriginaUy there were two priestly f ami-
Ues, the Cinyradae and the Tomiradae, but
eventually the office belonged solely to the
descendants of Cinyras. The image of the
goddess was a conical stone (cf. Serv. ad Aen.
i. 724 ; Ptolostr. Vit. Apoll. iii. 58). This cone
appears in the Semitic fashion to have been
anointed with oil, for a recently discovered
inscription mentions a festival of the temple
called iXaioxpio-riov. There con be no doubt
of the Phoenician origin of Old Paphos, and
that the worsMp of Aphrodite was introduced
here from the East. Herodotus (i. 106) speaks
of the temple of Aphrodite in Cyprus as estab
Ushed in imitation of the Syrian temple at
Ascolon. New Paphos, on the other hand, was
a different foundation, traditionaUy by Aga-
penor on his return from Troy (Strab. p. 683 ;
Paus. viii. 5, 2). When Paphos is mentioned
by later writers without any epithet, they usu
ally mean the New City ; but when the name
occurs in the poets, we are generaUy to under
stand the Old City, as the poets, for the most
part, speak of the place to connexion with the
worship of Aphrodite. Old Paphos was des
troyed by an earthquake to the reign of Augus
tus, but was rebuUt by order of the emperor,
and called Augusta (Dio Cass. Uv. 23 ; cf. Sen.
Ep. 91). Under the Romans New Paphos
was the capital of one of the four districts toto
wMch the island was divided. The excavations
carried on by the EngUsh archaeologists in
1887 and later years, and described in the Hel
lenic Journal, have shown that the temple had
even the character not so much of a Greek or
Roman as of a Phoenician temple with large
open courts and several small chambers. It is
worthy of remark as supporting the statements
of ancient writers, especiaUy of Tacitus, that
fragments of marble cones have been found,
and that an altar (now to the British Museum)
has been found, said to be suitable for the sacri
fice of small victims such as Tacitus mentions.
It is probable that there was another altar for
incense (cf . Od. vui. 302 ; Hymn, ad Ven. 58 ;
Verg. Aen. i. 4, 15).
Fapias, bishop of Hierapolis. [Diet, of
Christian Biography]
Papinianus, Aemilius, a celebrated Roman
jurist, was praefectus praetorio under the em
peror Septimius Severus, whom he accompanied
to Britain. The emperor died at York a.d. 211,
and is said to have commended Ms two sons
CaracaUa and Geta to the care of Papinian.
(Spart. Carac. 8.) On the death of Ms father,
CaracaUa dismissed Papinian from Ms office,
and shortly afterwards put him to death. There
are 582 excerpts from Papinian's works in the
Digest. These excerpts are from the thirty-
seven books of Quaestiones (a work arranged
according to the order of the Edict), the
nineteen books of Besponsa, the two books of
Definitiones, the two books De Adulteriis, a
single book De Adulteriis, and a Greek work
or fragment wMch probably treated of the office
of Aedile both at Rome and to other towns.
No Roman jurist had a higher reputation than
Papinian. Nor is Ms reputation unmerited. It
was not solely because of Ms high office, Ms
penetration and his knowledge, that he left a

PARAETONIUM

651

great name ; his excellent understanding, guided
by integrity of purpose, has made him the model
of a true lawyer.
Paplnius Statius. [Statius.]
Papiria Gens, patrician and plebeian. The
patrioian Papirii were divided toto the families
of Crassus, Cursor, Maso, and Mugillanus;
and the plebeian Papirii into those of Carbo,
Paetus, and Turdus. Of these the families of
Carbo, Cursor, Maso, and Mugillanus, alone
require mention.
Papirianae Fossae, a village in Etruria on
the Via Aemilia, between Luna and Pisa.
Papirius, C. or Sex., the author of a supposed
coUection of the Leges Regiae, called Jus Papi-
rianum, or Jus Civile Papirianum. . He ia
said to have lived in the reign of Tarquinius
Superbus. (Dionys. iii. 36 ; Liv. i. 20, 82.)
Papius Mutilus. [Mutilus.]
Pappua (Tlainroia), a lofty rugged mountain
on the extreme border of Numidia, perhaps the
same as the Thammes of Ptolemy, and as the
mountain abounding with wild cats, near the
city of Melitene, to wMch Diodorus Siculus.
refers (xx. 58), but without mentioning its name
(Procop. B. V. ii. 4, 7).
Pappus (Tldmros), of Alexandria, one of the
later Greek geometers, is said by Suidas to-
have lived under Theodosius (a.d. 379-395).
Of the works of Pappus, the only one which has
come down to us is his celebrated Mathe
matical Collections (MaBnpartKav cvvayayav
BiPXla). What remains of the work is edited
by F. Hultsch, Berl. 1875.
Papremis (Tldirpnpi s), a city of Lower Egypt,
capital of the Nomos Papremites, and sacred to-
the Egyptian god whom the Greeks identified
with Ares (Hdt. ii. 59, 71).
Papus, Aemilius. 1. M., dictator b.c. 321
(Liv. ix. 7).— 2. Q., twice consul, 282 and 278 ;
and censor 275. In both Ms consulships and
in his censorship he had as colleague C. Fabri
cius Luscinus. (Dionys. xviii. 5.)— 3. L., consul
225, defeated the Cisalpine Gauls with great
slaughter. He was censor 220 with C. Flami
nius. (Pol. ii. 23 ; Eutrop. iii. 5.)
Paracheloitis (TlapaxeXairis), the name of
the plain in Acarnania and Aetolia, through
which the Achelous flows.
Parachoathras (TlapaxodBpas, ra Tlapa-
xbaBpa'. Mts. of Louristan), a part of the
chain of mountains forming the E. margin ef
the Tigris and Euphrates valley, was the boun
dary between Susiana and Media. The same
name is given to an E. branch of the chain,
forming the boundary between Parthia and the
desert of Carmania. Strabo places it too far N.
(Ptol. vi. % 3; Strab. pp. 511, 514, 522.)
Paraetacene (TlapaiTOKiivfi : TlapaiTaxalT
Tlapairattrivoi, Paraetacae, Paraetaceni), the
name of various mountainous regions in the
Persian empire, is the Greek form of a Persian
word signifying mountainous. 1. The best
known of those districts was on the borders of
Media and Persis, and was inhabited by a people
of Median origin, who are mentioned several
times by the historians of Alexander and Ms
successors (Strab. p. 736 ; Arrian, iii. 19 ; cf. .
Hdt. i. 101). — 2. A district between the rivers
Oxus and Jaxartes, on the borders of Bactria
and Sogdiana (Arrian, iv. 21 ;_ Curt, viii 14).
Paraetonium or Ammonia (jlapairbvtov, it
'Appavia: El-Bareton or Marsa-Labeit), an
important city on the N. coast of Africa, be
longed to Marmarica to its widest sense, but
politically to Egypt — namely, to the Nomos
Libya : hence this city on the W. and Pelusium

652

PARAGON

on the E. are called ' cornua Aegypti.' It
stood near • the promontory Artos or Pythis
(Bas-el-Hazeit), and was reckoned 200 Roman
miles W. of Alexandria, and 1300 stadia N.
of Ammonium in the Desert (Siwah), wMch
Alexander the Great visited by the way of
Paraetomum (Strab. p. 709 ; Arrian, An. iv. 8,
3 ; Ov. Met. ix. 772; Lucan, in. 295). The city
was forty stadia to circuit. It was an important
seaport, a strong fortress, and a seat of the wor
ship of Isis. It was restored by Justinian, and
continued a place of some consequence till its
destruction by Mehmet AU, in 1820.
Paragon Sinus (Uapdyav KbXiros : Gulf of
Oman), a gulf of the Indicus Oceanus, on the
coast of Gedrosia (Ptol. vi. 8, 7).
Paralia. [Attica, p. 148.]
Par aius (TldpaXos), the younger of the two
legitimate sons of Pericles. He and his brother
XantMppus were educated by their father with
the greatest care, but they both appear to have
been of inferior capacity, which was not compen
sated by worth of character, though Paralus
seems to have been better than his brother.
They both fell victims to the plague, B.C. 429.
(Plut. Pericl. 24, 36 ; Plat. Ale. i. p. 118, Protag.
p. 319 ; Athem p. 505.)
Farapotamii or -la (Tlapairordptoi, -apla : Be-
Ussi), an ancient town to Phocis, situated on a
steep Mil, and on the left bank of the river
CepMssus, from which it derives its name (cf.
II. n. 522). It was near the frontiers of Boeotia,
being only forty stadia from Chaeronea and
sixty stadia from Orchomenus. It was de
stroyed by Xerxes, but was rebuUt, and was
destroyed a second time in the Sacred war.
(Hdt. viii. 33 ; Paus. x. 3, 1 ; Strab. p. 424.)
Paravaei (Tlapaiaioi), an Epirot tribe on the
banks of the Aous (Thuc. ii. 80 ; Arrian, An.
1,7). Parcae. [Moirae.]
Parentium (Parenzo), a town in Istria, with
a good harbour, inhabited by Roman citizens,

PARIS
she-bear. Thereupon he carried the boy home,
and brought him up along with his own chUd,
and caUed him Paris (Bur. Troad. 921). When
Paris had grown up, he distinguished MmseU
as a valiant defender of the flocks and shep
herds, and hence received the name of Alex
ander, i.e. the defender of men. He also
succeeded to discovering his real origin, and
was received by Priam as Ms son. It was said
that Priam was holding funeral games for Paris,
whom he believed to be dead. The king's
servants seized a buU for the prize from the
herds of Paris, who therefore took part in the
games and conquered his brothers. They were
about to attack him in anger, when Cassandra
declared that he was really Paris, the son of
Priam (Apollod. iii. 12, 5). He now married
Oenone, the daughter of the river-god Cebren,
by whom, according to some, he became the
father of Corythus. The most celebrated event
to the life of Paris was Ms abduction of Helen.
This came to pass to the foUowing way. Once
upon a time, when Peleus and Thetis solem
nised their nuptials, all the gods were invited
to the marriage, with the exception of Eris, or
Strife. Enraged at her exclusion, the goddess
threw a golden apple among the guests, with
the inscription, * To the fairest ' (Tzetz. ad Lye.
93). Thereupon Hera, Aphrodite and Athene
each claimed the apple for herself. Zeus
ordered Hermes to take the goddesses to Mount
Gargarus, a portion of Ida, to the beautiful
shepherd Paris, who was there tending Ms
flocks, and who was to decide the dispute. The
goddesses accordingly appeared before him.
Hera promised him the sovereignty of Asia and
great riches, Athene great glory and renown in
war, and Aphrodite the fairest of women for
his wife. Paris decided to favour of Aphrodite,
and gave her the golden apple. (II. xxiv. 29
Schol. ad Eur. Hec. 642, Troad. 925, Hel. 28.
Hyg. Fab. 92.) This judgment called forth in
Hera and Athene fierce hatred agatost Troy.

Judgment of Paris. From a vase (Overbeok, x. 8). Hermes is leading up the three goddesses, who offer
respectively Eros (love), a helmet (warlike fame), and a Uon (sovereignty).

but not a Roman colony, thirty-one miles from
Pola (Ptol. iii. 1, 27).
Paris (Tldpis), also caUed Alexander ('AA.e'|ai'-
. Spoj), was the second son of Priam and Hecuba.
Before Ms birth Hecuba dreamed that she had
brought forth a firebrand, the flames of which
spread over the whole city (Eur. Andr. 298 ;
Cic. Div. i. 21 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 320 ; Paus. x.
12, 1). Accordingly as soon as the child was
bom, he was given to a shepherd, who was to
expose him on Mount Ida. After the lapse of
five days, the shepherd, on returning to Mount
Ida found the chUd still alive, and fed by a

Under the protection of Aphrodite, Paris now
sailed to Greece, and was hospitably received
in the palace of Menelaus at Sparta. Here he
succeeded in carrying off Helen, the wife of
Menelaus, who was the most beautiful woman
in the world. [For the various accounts of the
abduction and the voyage to Troy see Helena.]
The abduction of Helen gave rise to the Trojan
war. Before her marriage with Menelaus, she
had been wooed by the noblest cMefs in all
parts of Greece. Her former suitors now re
solved to revenge her abduction, and sailed
against Troy. [Agamemnon.]— Homer describes

PARIS
Paris as a handsome man, fond of music, and a
skilful archer, even showing courage in war
sometimes, but often dUatory and cowardly,
and detested by his own friends for having
brought upon them the fatal war with the
Greeks (II. iii. 16, 37, vi. 326, vii. 2, 400). He
fought with Menelaus before the waUs of Troy,
and was defeated, but was carried off by Aphro
dite (II. iii. 58). He is said to have killed AcMUes,
either by one of his arrows or by treachery in
the temple of the Thymbraean ApoUo (II. xxii.
359 ; Diet. Cret. iv. 11 ; Serv. ad Aen. iii. 86, 822 ;
Achilles). On the capture of Troy, Paris was
wounded by PhUoctetes with an arrow of
Heracles, and then returned to his long aban
doned wife Oenone. But she, remembering the
wrongs she had suffered, or being prevented
by her father, refused to heal the wound. He
then went back to Troy and died. Oenone
quickly repented, and hastened after him with
remedies, but came too late, and in her grief
hanged herself (Soph. Phil. 1426; ApoUod.
in. 12, 6; Diet. Cret. iv. 19). According to
others she tMew herself from a tower, or (as
in the account foUowed by Tennyson) rushed
into the flames of the funeral pile on which
the body of Paris was burning (Lycophr. 65 ;
Tzetz. ad Lye. 61; Qmnt. Smyrn. x. 467).—
Paris is represented to works of art as a beauti
ful youth, sometimes with a Phrygian cap, as
in the ^Egina marbles, and usually so distin-

Paris. (Aegina Marbles.)
guished in reliefs of the Graeco-Roman period
and in Pompeian paintings.
Paris, the name of two celebrated panto
mimes. 1. The elder Paris lived in the reign
of the emperor Nero, with whom he was a great
favourite. He was originaUy a slave of Domitia,
the aunt of the emperor, and he purchased Ms
freedom by paying her a large Bum of money.
Paris was afterwards declared, by order of the
emperor, to have been free-born (ingenuus),
and Domitia was compeUed to restore to him
the sum which she had received for Ms free
dom. When Nero attempted to become a panto
mime, he put Paris to death as a dangerous
rival. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 19-27 ; Dio Cass. briu.
18 ; Suet. Ner. 54.) — 2. The younger Paris,
and the more celebrated of the two, was a
native of Egypt, and Uved in the reign of
Domitian, with whom, and also with the popu
lace, he was a great favourite. He was put to
death by Domitian, because he had an intrigue
with Domitia, the wife of the emperor. (Dio
Cass. Ixvii. 3 ; Suet. Dom. 3, 10 ; Mart. xi. 13.)
Parisii. [Lutetia Parisioeum.]

PARMENIDES 658
Parium (to Tldpiov : Tlapidvbs, Tlapinvbs, Tla-
piaveis : Kemer, Ru.), a city of Mysia, on the
N. coast of the Troad, on the Propontis, be
tween Lampsacus and Priapus, was founded by
a colony from Miletus, mingled with natives of
Paros and Erythrae, and became a flourishing
seaport, having a better harbour than that of
Priapus (Strab. p. 588; Paus. ix. 27, 1; cf.
Hdt. v. 117 ; Xen. An. vii. 2, 7). Under Au
gustus it was made a Roman colony, by the
name of Colonia Pariana JuUa Augusta. It
was a renowned seat of the worship of Eros,
Dionysus, and ApoUo. The surrounding dis
trict was caUed ri Tlapiavt}.
Parma (Parmensis: Parma), a town in
GaUia Cispadana, situated on a river of the
same name and on the Via Aemilia, between
Placentia and Mutina, was originally a town of
the Boii, but was made a Roman colony B.C.
183, along with Mutina, and from that time
became a place of considerable importance
(Liv. xxxix. 55). It suffered some injury in the
Civil war after Caesar's death, but was enlarged
and embellished by Augustus, and received the
name of Colonia Julia Augusta (Plin. iv. 48,
v. 141). The country around Parma was origin
aUy marshy ; but the marshes were drained by
the consul Scaurus, and converted into fertile
land. The wool of Parma was particularly
good (Mart. xiv. 155 ; Colum. vii. 2, 8).
Parmenides (TlappeviS-ns), a distinguished
Greek phUosopher, was a native of Elea in
Italy. According to Plato, Parmenides, at the
age of sixty-five, came to Athens to the Pan
athenaea, accompanied by Zeno, then forty
years old, and became acquainted with Socrates,
who at that time was quite young. Supposing
Socrates to have been nineteen or twenty years
of age at the time, we may place the visit of
Parmenides to Athens in B.C. 448, and conse
quently his birth in 513. (Plat. Parrnen. p.
127, Soph. p. 217, Theaet. p. 183 ; Diog. Laert.
ix. 21-25, where the chronology is not quite the
same : cf. Athen. p. 505 ; Macrob. i. 1.) Parme
nides was regarded with great esteem by Plato
and Aristotle ; and his fellow-citizens thought
so MgMy of him that, it is said, they bound
their magistrates to render obedience to the
laws wMch he had enacted for them (Plat. ll.c. ;
Arist. Metaph. a, 5 = p. 986, b ; Diog. Laert.
ix. 23). Xenophanes had already taught Ms
views of the unity of Being in opposition to the
dualism and motion of Heraclitus and the Ionian
school. Parmenides, his pupil and successor
to the Eleatic school, pursued the same line.
The phUosophical opinions of Parmenides were
developed in a didactic poem, in hexameter
verse, entitled On Nature, of which only frag
ments remain. In this poem he maintained
that the phenomena of sense were delusive ;
and that it was only by mental abstraction that
a person could attain to the knowledge of the
only reality, a One and All, a continuous and
self-existent substance, wMch could not be per
ceived by the senses. But although he believed
the phenomena of sense to be delusive, never
theless he sought to arrive at an explanation
of the world of sense, and in Ms theory, which
formed the second part of Ms poem, he pro
pounded two elements or principles of origin —
one that which belongs to light and heat, the
other that of darkness and cold. The bright
or warm was analogous to fire, the cold or dark
to earth. The world as perceived by our
senses arose from a union of these two princi
ples under a power analogous to Love.
Yet such a world as tMs has not the real betog

«54

PARMENION

of absolute unity, and practicaUy human know
ledge of real existence is unattainable. — Edition
of the fragments of Parmenides iB by Ka^sten,
•to Philosophorum Graec. Veterum Oper. Beli-
quiae, Amstelod. 1835.
Parmenion (Tlappeviav). 1. Son of PMlotas,
a distinguished Macedonian general to the ser
vice of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the
Great. In 346 he was employed by Philip in
the siege of Halus (Dem. F.L. p. 392). Philip
held him to high esteem, and used to say of
him, that he had never been able to find more
than one general, and that was Parmenion
(Plut. Apophth. p. 177). In Alexander's in
vasion of Asia, Parmenion was regarded as
second to command. At the three great battles
of the Granicus, Issus and Arbela, while the
king commanded the right wing of the army,
Parmenion was placed at the head of the left,
and contributed essentially to the victory on
aU those memorable occasions. The confidence
reposed in Mm by Alexander appears to have
been unbounded, and he is continually spoken
¦of as the most attached of the Mng's friends,
and as holding, beyond aU question, the second
place in the state. But when PMlotas, the
only surviving son of Parmenion, was accused
in Drangiana (b.c 330) of being privy to the
plot against the king's life, he not only con
fessed his own guilt, when put to the torture,
but involved Ms father also in the plot.
Whether the king really believed in the guilt
¦of Parmenion, or deemed his life a necessary
sacrifice to policy after the execution of Ms
son, he caused Ms aged friend to be assassi
nated in Media before he could receive the
tidings of Ms son's death (Arrian, Anab. iii.
26; Curt. vii. 2, 11; Diod. xvii. 80 ; Plut. Alex.
49 ; Justin, xii. 5). The death of Parmenion,
at the age of seventy years, will ever remain
one of the darkest stains upon the character of
Alexander. It is questionable whether even
PMlotas was really concerned in the conspi
racy, and we may safely pronounce that Par
menion had no connexion with it. — 2. Of Mace
donia, an epigrammatic poet, whose verses
were included in the coUection of Philip of
Thessalonica ; whence it is probable that he
flourished in, or shortly before, the time of
Augustus. Parnassus (Tlapvatro-bs, Tlapvacrbs, Ion. Tlap-
vrio-bs), the name, in its widest signification, of
a range of mountains which extends from Oeta
and Corax SE. through Doris and Phocis, and
under the name of Girphis (Kipcpis) terminates
at the Corinthian gulf between Cirrha and
Anticyra. But in its narrower sense, Parnassus
indicates the Mghest part of the range (about
¦8000 feet above the sea) a few miles N. of
Delphi. Its two Mghest summits were called
Tithorea (TiBopea: Velitza), and Lyeorea
(AvKdpeia : Liakura), the former being NW.
and the latter NE. of Delphi ; and hence Par
nassus is frequently described by the poets as
double-headed. Immediately above Delphi the
mountain forms a semicircular range of lofty
rocks, at the foot of which the town was built.
These rocks were called Phaedriades (QaiSpidSes)
or the ( Resplendent,' from their facing the S.,
and thus receiving the fuU rays of the sun
during the most brilliant part of the day. The
sides of Parnassus were well wooded : at its
foot grew myrtle, laurel and olive-trees, and
higher up firs; and its summit was covered
with snow during the greater part of the year.
It contained numerous caves, glens, and ro
mantic ravines. It is celebrated as one of the

PAROPAMISUS
chief seats of Apollo and the Muses, and an
inspiring source of poetry and song [p. 578, b].
On Mount Lyeorea was the Corycian cave, from
wMch the Muses are sometimes called the
Corycian nymphs. Just above Delphi was the
far-famed Castalian spring, which issued from
between two cliffs, catted Nauplia and Hy-
amplia [Delphi]. The mountain also was
sacred to Dionysus [p. 295], Between Par
nassus proper and Mt. CirpMs was the vaUey
of the Plistus, through which the sacred road
ran from Delphi to Daulis and Stiris; and
at the potot where the road branched off to
these two places (caUed rrxio-rif) Oedipus slew
Ms father Laius [p. 619, b]. — 2. A town to the
NW. of Cappadocia, on the road between
Ancyra and Archelais. Its position has been
fixed with some probabUity close to the Halys,
at some fords a little above the modern Tchikm
Aghyl. The road at this point branched, S. to
Archelais, and along the river to Nyssa and so
to Megara. (Pol. xxv. 4, 8. 9.)
Parnes (Tidpvns, gen. TldpvriBos : Ozia or No-
zia), a mountain in the NE. of Attica, to some
parts nearly as high as 5000 feet, was a con
tinuation of Mount Cithaeron, from which it
extended eastwards as far as the coast at
Rhamnus. It was weU wooded, abounded to
game, and on its lower slopes produced excellent
wine. It formed part of the boundary between
Boeotia and Attica ; and the pass through it
between these two countries was easy of access,
and was therefore strongly fortified by the
Athenians. On the summit of the mountain
there was a statue of Zeus Pornethius, and
there were likewise altars of Zeus Semaleos and
Zeus Ombrius or Apemius. (Strab. p. 404 ; Paus.
i. 32, 1.)
Parnon (Tldpvav ; Malevo), a mountain 6335
feet high, forming the boundary between La
conia and Teg_eatis in Arcadia [p. 468, a].
Paropamisadae (Uapoirapio-dSai) or Farapa-
nisadae, the collective name of several peoples
dweUing in the S. slopes of Mount Paropamisus
[see next article], and the country they in
habited (Ptolemy mentions among the tribes of
this district the Bolitae, Ambautae, Parsii, and
Pargyetae). It was divided on the N. from
Bactria by the Paropamisus ; on the W. from
Aria, and on the S., from Drangiana and Ara
chosia, by indefinite boundaries ; and on the E.
from India by the river Indus : thus correspond
ing to the E. part of Afghanistan and the strip
of the Punjab W. of the Indus. Under the
Persian empire it was the north-easternmost
district of Ariana. It was conquered by Alex
ander, when he passed through it on his march
to India; but the people soon regained their
independence, though parts of the country were
nominally included to the limits of the Graeco-
Syrian and Bactrian Mngdoms. It is a rugged
mountain region, intersected by branches of the
Paropamisus. In the N. the climate is bo
severe that, according to the ancient writers,
confirmed by modern travellers, the snow almost
buries the houses ; but in the S. the valleys of
the lower mountain slopes yield all the pro
ducts of the warmer regions of Asia. In its N.
was the considerable river Cophes or Cophen
(Cabul), flowing toto the Indus, and having a
tributary, Choas, Choes, or Choaspes (No. 2).
The cMef cities were Ortospana and Alexandria,
the latter founded by Alexander the Great.
(Strab. pp. 691, 725 ; Ptol. vi. 18 ; Diod. xvii.
82 ; Arrian, An. v. 8 ; Curt. vii. 8, 15.)
Paropamisus (Tlapoirdpio-jjs, and several other
forms, of wMch the truest is probably Tlapa-

PAROPUS
trdvicros : Hindoo-Koosh), is the name of a part
of the great mountain-chain which runs from
W. to E. through the centre of the S. portion
of the highlands of Central Asia, and divides
the part of the continent wMch slopes down to
the Indian Ocean from the great central table
land of Tartary and Thibet. It is a prolonga
tion of the chain of Anti-Taurus. The name
was appUed to that part of the chain between
the Sariphi M. (Af. of Kohistan) on the W. and
M. Imaus (Himalaya) on the E., or from about
the sources of the river Margus on the W. to
the point where the Indus breaks through the
chain on the E. They were, rightly, believed by
the ancients to be among the Mghest moun
tains to the world, and, wrongly, to contain the
sources of the Oxus and the Indus: the last
statement betog an error wMch naturally arose
from confounding the cleft by wMch the Indus
breaks through the chain with its unknown
source. (Strab. p. 689 ; Ptol. vi. 11, 17 ; Plin.
vi. 60.) When Alexander the Great crossed
these mountains, his foUowers, regardtog the
actoevement as equivalent to what a Greek
considered as the Mghest geographical adven
ture — namely, the passage of the Caucasus —
conferred tMs glory on their cMef by simply
applying the name of Caucasus to the mountain
chain wMch he had thus passed (Arrian, An.
v. 5) ; and then, for the sake of distinction, this
chain was called Caucasus Indicus, and tMs
name has come down to our times to the native
form of Hindoo-Koosh, and to others also. The
name Paropamisus is also appUed sometimes to
the great south branch (Soliman M.) which
skirts the valley of the Indus on the W., and is
more specifically caUed Paryeti or Parsyetae.
Paropus (Paroptous), a smaU town to the
interior of SicUy, between Panormus and Ther
mae (Pol. i. 24 ; PUn. in. 92).
Parorea (Tlapdpeta). 1. A town to Ttoace on
the frontiers of Macedonia, whose inhabitants
were the same people as the Paroraei of Pliny
(Liv. xxxix. 27, xUi. 51). — 2. Or Paroria (rio-
papia), a town to the S. of Arcadia, N. of
MegalopoUs, founded by Paroreus, son of Tri-
colonus, and grandson of Lycaon, the tohabi
tants of wMch took part to the buUding of
MegalopoUs (Paus. viu. 27, 3, viii. 35, 6).
Faroreatae (Tlapmpedrai), the most ancient
inhabitants of the mountains in TriphyUa to
Elis, expeUed by the Minyae (Strab. p. 346).
Parorios. [Phrygia.]
Faros (Tldpos : Tldpios : Paro), an island to
the Aegaean sea, one of the larger of the Cy
clades, was situated S. of Delos and W. of
Naxos, being separated from the latter by a
channel five or six miles wide. It is about
tMrty-six mUes in circumference. It is said to
have been originaUy colomsed by Cretans, but
was afterwards inhabited by Ionians, and be
came so prosperous, even at an early period, as
to send out colonies to Thasos and to Parium on
the Propontis (Thuc. iv. 104; Strab. pp. 315,
487). In the first invasion of Greece by the
generals of Darius, Paros submitted to the
Persians ; and after the battle of Marathon,
Miltiades attempted to reduce the island, but
failed in Ms attempt, and received a wound, of
wMch he died. [Miltiades.] After the defeat
of Xerxes, Paros came under the supremacy of
Athens and shared the fate of the other Cyclades.
Its name rarely occurs in subsequent history.
The most celebrated production of Paros was
its marble, which was extensively used by the
ancient sculptors. It was cMefly obtamed from
a mountain called Marpessa (Athen. p. 205;

PARSICI 655
Plin. xxxvi. 62 ; Diod. ii, 52 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 471 ;
Hor. Od. i. 19, 6). The Parian figs were also
higldy prized. The cMef town of Paros was
situated on the W. coast, and bore the same
name as the island. The ruins of it are still to
seen at the modern Paroikia. Paros was the
birthplace of the poet Archilochus. — In Paros

Coin of Paros.
Obv., head of Demeter ; rev., nApi, and magistrate's name :
figure of a goat.
was discovered the celebrated inscription called
the Parian Chronicle, which is now preserved
at Oxford. The inscription is cut on a block of
marble, and to its perfect state contained a
chronological account of the principal events in
Greek history from Cecrops, B.C. 1582, to the
archonship of Diognetus, 264 (G. I. G. ii. p. 293).
Farrhasia (nappa<n'a : riappcia-ioi), a district in
the S. of Arcadia, in which the towns Lycosura,
Trapezus, and PMgalia were situated. The
Parrhasii are said to have been one of the
most ancient of the Arcadian tribes. At the
time of the Peloponnesian war they were under
the supremacy of Mantinea, but were rendered
independent of that city by the Lacedaemonians.
(Thuc. v. 33; Xen. Hell. vii. 1, 28; Strab. p.
388 ; Paus. vi. 8, 3, viii. 27, 4.) Homer (II. ii.
608) mentions a town Parrhasia, said to have
been founded by Parrhasus, son of Lycaon, or
by Pelasgus, son of Arestor. — The adjective
Parrhasius is frequently used by the poets as
equivalent to Arcadian.
Parrhasius (riappdVios), one of the most cele
brated Greek painters, was a native of Ephesus,
the son and pupil of Evenor. He practised his
art cMefly at Athens, and by some writers he
is caUed an Athenian, probably because the
Athenians had bestowed upon him the right of
citizenship. He lived about B.C. 400. Parrha
sius did for painting, at least in pictures of gods
and heroes, what had been done for sculpture
by Phidias to divine subjects, and by Polyclitus
in the human figure : he estabUshed a canon of
proportion, wMch was foUowed by all the artists
that came after him (Plin. xxxv. 67 ; Cic. Brut.
18, 70 ; Diod. xxvi. 1 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Pic-
tura). Several interesting observations on the
principles of art which he followed are made in
a dialogue with Socrates, as reported by Xeno
phon (Mem. in. 10). The character of Parrha
sius was marked in the Mghest degree by that
self-consciousness wMch often accompanies
great artistic genius. In epigrams inscribed on
his works he not only made a boast of his
luxurious habits, but he also claimed the honour
of having assigned with his own hand the
precise limits of the art, and fixed a boundary
which never was to be transgressed. Respect
ing the story of his contest with Zeuxis, see
Zeuxis. Among the works of Parrhasius was
a picture of the Athenian Demos so drawn as
to show the prevailing characteristics of the
people (Plin. xxxv. 68).
Parsici Montes (to Tlapo-wd bpn, Bushkurd
M. in the W. of Beloochistan), a chain of
mountains running NE. from the Paragon
Stous (G. of Oman) and forming the boundary

656

PARSII

between Carmania and Gedrosia. At the foot
of these mountains, to the W. of Gedrosia, were
a people caUed Parsidae, with a capital Parsis
(perhaps Serbah). (Ptol. vi. 21, 5.)
Parsii. [Paropamisadae.]
Parsyetae or Pargyetae (Tlapo-u^Toi), a
people on the borders of Arachosia and the
Paropamisadae, with a mountain of the same
name, which is probably identical with the
P aeyeti M. and with the Soliman mountains
(Ptol. vi. 18, 3).
Parthalis, or Pertalis, the chief city of the
Calingae, a tribe of the Gangaridae, to India
intra Gangem, at the head of the Sinus Gange-
ticus (Sea of Bengal). (Plin. vi. 65.)
Parthanum (Partenkirchen), a town of
Raetia between Augusta Vindelicorum and
Veldidena. Partheni. [Paethini.]
Parthenias (TlapBevias), also called Par-
thenia, a smaU river in Elis, flowing into the
Alpheus E. of Olympia (Paus. vi. 21, 7).
Parthenium (UapBeviov). 1. A town in Mysia,
S. of Pergamum (Xen. An. vii. 8, 15 ; Plin. v.
126). — 2. (Felenk-burun), a promontory in the
Chersonesus Taurica, on which stood a temple
of the Tauric Artemis, from whom it derived
its name. In tMs temple human sacrifices
were offered to the goddess. (Strab. p. 808.)
Parthenium Mare (to TlapBeviKbv ireXayos),
the SE. part of the Mediterranean, between
Egypt and Cyprus (Amm. Marc. xiv. 8, 10).
Parthenius (TlapBevios), of Nicaea, a cele
brated grammarian, is said by Suidas to have
been taken prisoner by Cinna, in the Mithridatic
war, to have been manumitted on account of
Ms learning, and to have lived to the reign of
Tiberius. H this statement is true, Parthenius
must have attained a great age, since there
were 77 years from the death of Mithridates to
the accession of Tiberius. Parthenius taught
Virgil Greek ; and he seems to have been very
popular among the distinguished Romans of his

PARTHENON
nius wrote many poems, but the only one of his
works which has come down to us is to prose,
and entitled Ilepl iparmav iraBnpdrav. It con
tains thirty-six brief love-stories which' ended to
an unfortunate manner. It is dedicated to Cor
nelius GaUus, and was compiled for his use. —
Editions by Westermann, to the Mythographi,
Brunswick, 1843 ; Hercher, 1858.
Parthenius, chamberlain of Domitian, assas
sinated a.d. 97 (Dio Cass, lxvii. 15; Suet.
Dom. 16), was one of the lesser poets of the time
(Mart. v. 6, 2, ix. 50, 3).
Parthenius (TlapBevios). 1. A mountam on
the frontiers of ArgoUs and Arcadia, through
which was an important pass leading from
Argolis to Tegea. This pass is still caUed Par
theni, but the mountain itself, which rises to
the height of 3993 feet, bears the name of Boino.
It was on this mountain that Telephus, the son
of Heracles and Auge, was said to have been
suckled by a hind ; and it was here also that the
god Pan is said to have appeared to Phidip-
pides, the Atheman courier, shortly before the
battle of Marathon. (Hdt. vi. 105 ; Paus. i. 28,
4, viii. 6, 4 ; Strab. p. 876.) — 2. (also TlapBevns :
Chati-Su or Bartan-Su), the cMef river of
Paphlagonia, rises in Mt. Olgassys, and flows
NW. into the Euxine mnety stadia W. of Amas
tris, forming in the lower part of its course the
boundary between Bithynia and PapMagonia
(H. ii. 854 ; Hes. Th. 344 ; Hdt. ii. 104 ; Strab.
p. 543).
Parthenon (b TlapBevdv, i.e. the virgin's
chamber), one of the finest and, in its influ
ence upon art, one of the most important edifices
ever built, the temple of Athene Parthenos on
the Acropolis of Athens [see p. 12]. It was
erected, under the administration of Pericles,
on the site of the older temple of Athene, burnt
during the Persian invasion, and was completed
by the dedication of the statue of the goddess,
B.C. 438. Its architects were Ictinus and Calli
crates, but aU the works were under the super-

The Parthenon restored.

time. The emperor Tiberius imitated Ms poems, I intendence of Phidias. [Ictinus ; Phidias.]

and placed Ms works and statues in the public
libraries along with the most celebrated ancient
writers. Parthenius exercised considerable in
fluence on the poets of the period : on Virgil —
who is said to have translated or adapted the
Moretum from a poem of Parthenius (Cod.
Ambros.) — and stiU more upon Gallus. Parthe-

It was built entirely of Pentelic marble : its
dimensions were, 228 English feet long, 101
broad, and 65 Mgh : it was 50 feet longer than
the edifice wMch preceded it. Its architecture
was of the Doric order, and of the purest kind.
It consisted of an oblong central building (the
cella or veds), surrounded on all Bides by a peri-

' PARTHENOPAEUS
style of piUars, 46 in number, 8 at each end and
17 at each side (reckoning the corner pillars
twice), elevated on a platform, which was as
cended by 3 steps all round the building.
WitMn the porticoes at each end was another
row of 6 pillars, standing on a level with the
floor of the cella, and 2 steps higher than that
of the peristyle. The ceUa was divided into
two chambers of unequal size. The eastern
and larger chamber approached from the east
by a pronaos or portico was 100 Greek feet in
length, and was therefore caUed the Hecatom-
pedos (a name sometimes applied, like Parthenon,
to the whole temple). It was furflier divided off
by two paraUel rows of nine piUars : towards its
western end was the statue of Athene by Phidias
in ivory and gold (chryselephantine). The other
chamber to the west, having also a pronaos as
its western approach, was the Parthenon proper.
In this chamber were kept the vessels used to
processions, the clothes, jewels, and furniture
for the temple use. It answered to the Opis-
thodomos or hinder-chamber of a temple, but if
the theory that the old temple was rebuUt is
correct [see, however, p. 11], the opisthodomos
wMch acted as the treasury was in the old
temple, and, as far as its use as treasury was
concerned, supphed the place of a true opistho
domos to the new temple. Both these cham
bers had toner rows of piUars (to two stories, one
over the other), sixteen to the former and four
in the latter, supporting the partial roof, for
the ceUa of a temple had its centre open to
the sky. [See Diet, of Ant. art. Templum.]
Technically, the temple is called peripteral

PARTHIA

657

of beams if the roof had been of wood), were
filled with sculptures to high relief, 92 in all,
14 on each front, and 82 on each side, represent
ing subjects from the Attic mythology, among
which the battle of the Athenians with the Cen
taurs forms the subject of the 15 metopes from
the S. side, which are now to the British
Museum. One of these metopes is figured
on p. 218. (3) Along the top of the external
wall of the cella, under the ceiling of the peri
style, ran a frieze sculptured with a representa
tion of the Panathenaic procession, in low relief.
A large number of the slabs of this frieze were
brought to England by Lord Elgin, with the 15
metopes just mentioned, and a considerable
number of other fragments, including some of
the most important, though mutilated, statues
from the pediments ; and the whole collection
was purchased by the nation in 1816, and de
posited in the British Museum, where may also
be seen excellent models of the ruins of the
Parthenon and of the temple as conjecturaUy
restored. The worst of the injuries which it
has suffered from war and pillage was inflicted
in the siege of Athens by the Venetians to 1687,
when a bomb exploded in the very centre of the
Parthenon, and threw down much of both the
side walls. Its ruins are still, however, to suffi
cient preservation to show the beauty of its
perfect construction.
Parthenopaeus (TlapBevoiraios), one of the
seven heroes who accompanied Adrastus in his
expedition against Thebes. He is sometimes
called a son of Ares or MUanion and Atalanta
(Apollod. iii. 9, 2 ; Eur. Suppl. 888), sometimes of

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Qk MsE^y

ir^S

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ff t "Jwfji
r^ij
i^%
M
Ptivl
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J^Jl ^.JX^ji^
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P%ftfe
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Panathenaic Procession. (From the Frieze of the Parthenon.)
octastyle hypaethral. It was adorned, within
and without, with colours and gilding, and
with sculptures which are regarded as the
masterpieces of ancient art. Besides the great
statue of Athene, the other sculptures were
executed under the direction of PMdias by dif
ferent artists, as may stUl be seen by differences
in their style ; but the most important of them
were doubtless from the hand of PMdias Mm
self. (1) The tympana of the pediments (i.e.
the mner flat portion of the triangular gable-
ends of the roof above the two end porticoes)
were fiUed with groups of detached colossal
statues, those of the E. or principal front re
presenttog the birth of Athene, and those of the
W. front the contest between Athene and Po
seidon for the land of Attica. (2) In the frieze
of the entablature (i.e. the upper of the two
portions into wMch the surface between the
columns and the roof is divided), the metopes
between the triglyphs (i.e. the square spaces
between the projections answering to the ends
Meleager and Atalanta, and sometimes of Talaus
and Lysimache (Hyg. Fab. 70, 79 ; Paus. ii. 20, 4).
His son, by the nymph Clymene, who marched
agatost Thebes as one of the Epigoni, is called
Promacbus, Stratolaus, Thesimenes, or Tlesi-
menes. Parthenopaeus was killed at Thebes
by Asphodicus, Amphidicus or Periclymenus.
(Aesch. Sept. c. Theb. 526 ; ApoUod. iii. 6, 8 ;
Paus. ix. 18.)
Parthia, Parthyaea, Parthiene (noptiia,
UapBvaia, TlapBvnvi) : TldpBoi, TlapBvaioi, Parthi,
Parthieni: Khorassan), a country of Asia, to
the SE. of the Caspian. Its extent was different
at different times ; but, as the term was gene
rally understood by the ancient geographers, it
denoted the partly mountainous and partly
desert country on the S. of the mountains which
hem in the Caspian on the SE. (M. Labuta), and
which divided Parthia on the N. from Hyrcania.
On the NE. and E., a branch of the same chain,
caUed Masdoranus, divided it from Aria ; on the
S. the deserts of Parthia joined those of Car-
UU
658

PARTHIA

mania, and further westward the M. Parachoa-
thras divided PartMa from Persis and Susiana :
on the W. and NW. it was divided from Media
by boundaries wMch cannot be exactly marked
out (Strab. pp. 514, 515 ; Ptol. vi. 5, 1 ; Pol. x.
28; Plin. vi. 41). Of tMs district, only the N.
part, in and below the mountains of Hyrcania,
seems to have formed the proper country of the
Parthi, who were a people of ScytMan origin.
The ancient writers tell us that the name means
exiles (Justin, xii. 1). They were a very war
like people, and were especially celebrated as
mounted archers. Their tactics, of which the
Romans had fatal experience in their first wars
with them, became so celebrated as to pass into
a proverb. Their mail-clad horsemen spread
like a cloud round the hostile army, and poured
to a shower of darts ; and then evaded any
closer conflict by a rapid flight, during which
they stUl shot their arrows backwards upon the
enemy. (Dio Cass. xl. 15, 22 ; Plut. Crass. 24 ;
Hor. Od. i. 19, 11, ii. 13, 17 ; Verg. Georg. iii.
31; Ov. A. A. i. 209.) Under the Persian
empire, the PartMans, with the Chorasmii,
Sogdii, and Arii, formed the sixteenth satrapy :
under Alexander and the Greek Mngs of Syria,
Parthia and Hyrcania together formed a satrapy.
About B. c. 250 they revolted from the Seleu
cidae, under a chieftain named Arsaces, who
founded an independent monarchy, the history
of which is given under Aesaces. During the
period of the downfall of the Syrian kingdom,
the Parthians overran the provinces E. of the
Euphrates, and about B. c. 130 they overthrew
the Mngdom of Bactria, so that their empire
extended over Asia from the Euptoates to the
Indus, and from the Indian Ocean to the Paro-
Eamisus, or even to the Oxus ; but on this N.
¦ontier they had to maintain a continual con
flict with the nomad tribes of Central Asia. On
the W. their progress was checked by Mithri
dates and Tigranes, tiU those kings fell succes
sively before the Romans, who were thus brought
toto collision with the Parthians. After the
memorable destruction of Crassus and his army,
b. c. 53 [Ceassus], the Parthians threatened
Syria and Asia Minor ; but their progress was
stopped by two signal defeats which they suf
fered from Antony's legate Ventidius, in 89 and
38. The preparations for renewing the war with
Rome were rendered fruitless by the contest for
the PartMan throne between Phraates IV. and
Tiridates, which led to an appeal to Augustus,
and to the restoration of the standards of
Crassus, b. c. 20 : an event to which the Roman
poets often allude to terms of flattery to Au
gustus, almost as if he had conquered the Par
thian empire. It is to be observed that the
poets of the Augustan age use the names Parthi,
Persae, and Medi indifferently. The PartMan
empire had now begun to decline, owing to civil
contests and the defection of the governors of
provinces, and had ceased to be formidable to
the Romans. There were, however, continual
disputes between the two empires for the pro
tectorate of the kingdom of Armenia. In con
sequence of one of these disputes Trajan in
vaded the Parthian empire, and obtained pos
session for a short time of Mesopotamia ; but
his conquests were surrendered under Hadrian,
and the Euptoates again became the boundary
of the two empires. There were other wars at
later periods, which resulted in favour of the
RomanB, who took Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and
made the district of Osroene a Roman province.
The exhaustion which was the effect of these
vrarB at length gave the Persians the opportunity

PARYSATIS
of throwing off the PartMan yoke. Led by
Artaxerxes (Ardshir) they put an end to the
PartMan Mngdom of the Arsacidae, after it had
lasted 476 years, and estabUshed the Persian
dynasty of the Sassanidae, a.d. 226. [Aksaces ;
Sassanidae.] Parthini or Partheni (UapBivoi, TlapBnvoi),
an Hlyrian people near DyrrhacMum (Strab.
p. 326 ; Pol. ii. 11 ; Liv. xxix. 12).
Paryadres (TlapvdSpris : Kara-bel Dagh, or
Kut-Tagh), a mountain chain of W. Asia, run
ning SW. and NE. from the E. of Asia Minor
into the centre of Armenia, and forming the
chief connecting link between the Taurus and
the mountains of Armenia. It was considered
as the boundary between Cappadocia (i.e. Pontus
Cappadocius) and Armenia (i.e. Armenia Minor).
The name seems sometimes to extend so far NE.
as to include M. Abus (Ararat) to Armenia.
(Strab. pp. 497, 548; Ptol. v. 13, 5.)
Paryeti Montes (to TlapvriTav Spn, from the
Indian word paruta, i.e. a mountain : Soli-
man M.), the great mountain chain wMch runs
N. and S. on the W. side of the vaUey of the
Indus, and forms the connecting Unk between
the mountains which skirt the N. coast of the
Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, and the
paraUel chain, further N., caUed the Paropa
misus or Indian Caucasus ; or, between the E.
extensions of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus sys
tems, in the widest sense. TMs chain formed
the boundary between Arachosia and the Paro
pamisadae : it now divides Beloochistan and
Afghanistan on the W. from Scinde and tlie
Punjab on, the E., and it meets the Hindoo-
Koosh to the NE. corner of Afghanistan, be
tween Cabul and Peshawur.
Parysatis (Tlapicraris or napuo-aT«),daughter
of Artaxerxes I. Longhnanus, king of Persia,
was given by her father in marriage to her own
brother Darius, surnamed Ochus, who to B.C.
424 succeeded Xerxes II. on the throne of
Persia. The feeble character of Darius threw
the ctoef power toto the hands of Parysatis,
whose administration was little else than a
series of murders. Pour of her sons grew up
to manhood. The eldest of these, Artaxerxes
Mnemon, was born before Darius had obtained
the sovereign power, and on tMs pretext Pary
satis sought to set aside his claims to the
throne in favour of her second son Cyrus.
Failing in tMs attempt, she nevertheless inter
posed, after the death of Darius, 405, to prevent
Artaxerxes from putting Cyrus to death, and
prevailed with the Mng to aUow him to return
to Ms satrapy in Asia Minor. (Ctes. Pers. 57 ;
Plut. Art. 1 ; Xen. An. i. 1.) After the death
of Cyrus at the battle of Cunaxa (401), she did
not hesitate to display her grief for the death
of her favourite son by bestowing funeral
honours on his mutilated rematos; and she
subsequently succeeded to getting toto her
power all the authors of the death of Cyrus,
whom she put to death by the most cruel tor
tures. She afterwards poisoned Statira, the
wife of Artaxerxes. (Ctes. 59-62 ; Plut. Art. 4-
19.) The feeble and indolent Mng was content
to banish her to Babylon ; and it was not long
before he recalled her to his court, where she
soon recovered all her former influence. Of
this she availed herself to turn Ms suspicions
against Tissaphernes, whom she had long hated
as having been the first to discover the designs
of Cyrus to his brother, and who was now put
to death by Artaxerxes at her instigation, 896.
She appears to have died soon afterwards.
(Plut. Art. 20 ; Diod. xiv. 80.)

PASARGADA
Pasargada or -ae (Tlao-apydSa, Tlao-apydSai :
Murghab), the older of the two capitals of
Persis (the other and later being Persepolis), is
said to have been founded by Cyrus the Great,
on the spot where he gained his great victory
¦over Astyages (Strab. p. 780). The tomb of
Cyrus stood here in the midst, of a beautiful
park. Strabo describes it as lying to the hoUow
part of Persis, on the river Cyrus, SE.of Perse
polis, and near the borders of Carmania (Strab.
1. c. ; Arrian, vi. 29) . It has been identified with
the great sepulchral monument at Murghab,
NE. of Persepolis. [See p. 265, b.]
Pasargadae (IIao-ap7d5at), the most noble of
the three chief tribes of the ancient Persians,
the other two being the Maraphii and Maspii.
The royal house of the Achoemenidae were of
the race of the Pasargadae (Hdt. i. 125 ; Ptol.
vi. 8, 12). They had their residence chiefly to
and about the city of Pasaegada.
Faslas, a Greek painter, belonging to the
Sicyonian school (Plin. xxxv. 145).
Pasion (Tlacriav), a wealthy banker at Athens,
was origtoally a slave of Antisthenes and
.Archestratus, who were also bankers. In their
service he displayed great fidehty as well as
aptitude for business, and was manumitted as
a reward (Dem. pro Phorm. p. 957). He after
wards set up a banking concern on Ms own
account, by which, together with a sMeld manu
factory, he greatly enriched himself, whUe he
continued all along to preserve his old character
for integrity, and Ms credit stood high through-
out Greece. He did not, however, escape an
accusation of fraudulently keeping back some
money which had been entrusted to Mm by a
foreigner from the Euxine. The plaintiff's case
is stated in an oration of Isocrates (TpairefrriKbs),
stiU extant. Pasion did good service to Athens
with Ms money on several occasions. He was
rewarded with the freedom of the city, and was
enroUed in the demus of Acharnae. He died at
Athens to B.C. 370, after a lingering Utoess,
accompanied with failure of sight. Towards
the end of Ms Ufe Ms affairs were administered
to a great extent by Ms freedman Phormion, to
whom he let his banking shop and sMeld manu
factory, and settled to Ms wiU that he should
marry his widow ArcMppe, with a handsome
dowry, and undertake the guardianship of his
younger son Pasicles. His elder son, ApoUo-
dorus, grievously diminished tos patrimony
by extravagance and lawsuits. (Dem. pro
Phorm. p. 958, a. Aphob. i. p. 816.)
Pasiphae (Tlcuxicpdri), daughter of Helios (the
Sun) and Perseis, and a sister of Circe and
Aeetes, was the wife of Minos, by whom she
became the mother of Androgeos, Catreus,
DeucaUon, Glaucus, AcaUe, Xenodice, Ariadne,
and Phaedra (Ap. Rh. iii. 999 ; Paus. v. 25, 9 ;
Ov. Met. xv. 501). Hence Phaedra is called
Pasiphaeia (Ov. Met. xv. 500). Respecting
the passion of Pasiphae for the bull, and the
birth of the Minotaurus, see Minos.
Pasiteles (Tlao-ireXris). 1. A statuary, who
flourished about B.C. 468, and was the teacher
of Colotes, the contemporary of Phidias (Paus.
i. 20, 2). — 2. A sculptor of the highest distinc
tion, was a native of Magna Graecia, and ob
tained the Roman franchise with his country
men to B.C. 90. He worked at Rome from
about 60 to 30. Among his most famous pupils
were Stephanus and Menelaus (Plin. xxxv.
156). Pasiteles also wrote a treatise to five
"books upon celebrated works of sculpture and
¦chasing. Pasithea (Tlam8ea). 1. One of the Chaeites,

PATERCULUS

659

or Graces, also called Aglaia (II. xiv. 268). —
2. One of the Nebeids.
Pasitigris (Tlao-irlypris or Tlaoiriypis : prob.
Karoon), a considerable river of Asia, rising in
the mountains E. of Mesobatene, on the con
fines of Media and Persis, and flowing first W.
by N. to M. Zagros or Parachoathras ; then,
breaking through this chain, it turns to the S.,
and flows through Susiana into the head of the
Persian Gulf, after receiving the Eulaeus on its
W. side (Strab. p. 729).
Passaron (ria<r<rdpcw : near Dhramisius, S W.
of Joannina), a town of Epirus in Molossia,
and the ancient capital of the Molossian kings
(Plut. Pyrrh. 5). It was destroyed by the
Romans, together with seventy other towns of
Epirus, after the conquest of Macedonia, B.C.
168 (Liv. xiv. 26-34).
Passienus Crispus. [Ceispus.]
Passienus Paulus. [Paulus.]
Fataeci (TldraiKoi), Phoenician tutelary di
vinities whose dwarfish figures were attached
to Phoenician ships, either at the prow or stern
(Hdt. ni. 37 ; Hesych. and Suid. s.v).
Patala, Patalene. [Pattala, Pattalene.]
Fatara (™ ndVapa : Tlarapeis : Patara, Ru.),
a chief city of Lycia, was a flourishing seaport,
on a promontory of the same name (ij Tlardpav
&Kpa), 60 stadia E. of the mouth of the Xanthus
(Strab. p. 666). It was early colonised by Do
rians from Crete, and became a chief seat of the
worship of ApoUo, who had here a celebrated
oracle, which uttered responses in the winter
only, and from whose son Patarus the name of
the city was mythically derived (Hdt. i. 182 ;
Serv. ad Aen. iv. 148 ; Hor. Od. iii. 4, 64 ; Ov.
Met. i. 515). It was restored and enlarged by
Ptolemy Philadelphus, who called it Arsinoe,
but it rematoed better known by its old name.
Patavium (Patavlnus: Padova or Padua),
an ancient town of the Veneti in the N. of
Italy on the Medoacus Minor, and on the road
from Mutina to Altinum, was said to have been
founded by the Trojan Antenor (Strab. p. 212 ;
Tac. Ann. xvi. 21 ; cf. Liv. i. 1 ; Verg. Aen. i.
247; Mel. ii. 4, 2). It became a flourishing and
important town in early times, and was powerful
enough to B.C. 302 to drive back the Spartan
prince Cleonymus with great loss, when he at
tempted to plunder the surrounding country
(Liv. x. 2). Under the Romans Patavium was
the most important city to the N. of Italy, and
by its commerce and manufactures (of which
its wooUen stuffs were the most celebrated) it
attained great opulence. According to Strabo
it possessed 500 citizens whose fortune entitled
them to the equestrian rank. It was plundered
by Attila ; and, in consequence of a revolt of
its citizens, it was subsequently destroyed by
AgUolf, Mng of the Lombards, and razed to the
ground ; hence the modern town contains few
rematos of antiquity. — Patavium was the birth
place of the historian Livy. — In its neighbour
hood were the Aquae Patavimae, also called
Aponi Pons, respecting which see p. 92, b.
Paterculus, C. Velleius, a Roman historian,
was probably born about B.C. 19, and was
descended from a distinguished Campanian
family. He adopted the profession of arms,
and, soon after he had entered the army, he
accompanied C. Caesar in his expedition to the
East, and was present with the latter at his
interview with the PartMan king, in A.D. 2.
Two years afterwards, a.d. 4, he served under
Tiberius in Germany, succeeding his father in
the rank of Praefectus Equitum, having pre
viously filled in succession the offices of tribune
uu 2

660 PATERNUS
of the soldiers and tribune of the camp. For
the next eight years Paterculus served under
Tiberius, either as praefectus or legatus, to the
various campaigns of the latter in Germany,
Pannonia, and Dalmatia, and, by his activity
and ability, gained the favour of the future
emperor. His name, with the praenomen C,
occurs as ' legatus Augusti legionis HI. Au-
gustae' on an African milestone (C. I. L. viii.
10311). He was quaestor a.d. 7, but he con
tinued to serve as legatus under Tiberius. He
accompanied his commander on Ms return to
Rome in 12, and took a prominent part to the
triumphal procession of Tiberius, along with
Ms brother, Magius Ceier. The two brothers
were praetors to 15. (Veil. Pat. ii. 101, 104,
111, 113, 114, 121, 124.) Paterculus was alive
in 30, as he drew up his history in that year for
the use of M. Vinicius, who was then consul ;
and it is conjectured, with much probability,
that he perished to the following year (31),
along with the other friends of Sejanus. The
favourable manner in which he had spoken in
his Mstory of this minister would be sufficient
to involve him in his ruin. The work of Pater
culus, which has come down to us, is a brief
historical compendium in two books, and bears
the title C. Velleii Paterculi Historiae Bo-
manae ad M. Vinicium Cos. Libri II. The
beginning of the work is wanting, and there is
also a portion lost after the eighth chapter of
the first book. The object of this compendium
was to give a brief view of universal history,
but more especially of the events connected
with Rome, the Mstory of which occupies the
main portion of the book. It begtos with the
colonisation of Magna Graecia, and brings the
history of Rome to the end of the Punic warB
in the first book ; but as he nears his own times
he grows more diffuse. His authorities seem
to be Cato's Origines, the Annals of Hortensius,
Atticus, Nepos, Trogus, SaUust, and Livy, from
whom, however, he often dissents. He does not
attempt to give a consecutive account of aU the
events of Mstory ; he seizes only upon a few of
the more prominent facts, which he describes
at length. He is generally trustworthy in tos
account of isolated facts, but lacks judgment,
and is an annalist rather than a historian.
His work is valuable for confirmatory evidence,
and particularly for its account of the Greek
colonies to Italy. The worst feature is Ms
wholesale and indiscriminate praise of Tiberius,
which makes his court Mstory of no authority.
His style has not literary finish, and is often
too ornate and pretentious, reflecting partly
haste, partly some tendency to affectation.
Only one manuscript of Paterculus has come
down to us ; and the text is in a very corrupt
state. — Editions by Orelli, Lips. 1835 ; Kritz,
1840 ; Halm, 1876.
Paternus, Tarruntenus, a jurist, is probably
the same person who was praefectus praetorio
under Commodus, and was put to death by the
emperor on a charge of treason. He was the
author of a work in four books, entitled De Be
Militari or Militarium, from which there are
two excerpts in the Digest. (Lamprid. Comm.
4 ; Veget. B. M. i. 8.)
Patmos (Tldrpos : Patmo), one of the islands
called Sporades, in the Icarian Sea, at about
equal distances S. of Samos, and W. of the
Prom. Posidium on the coast of Caria, cele
brated as the place to which the Apostle John
was banished, and in which he wrote the Apo
calypse. The natives stiU affect to show the
cave where St. John saw the apocalyptic visions

PATROCLUS
(to cririiXaiov rns diroKaXfyeas). On the E_
side of the island was a city with a harbour.
(Strab. p. 488; PUn. iv. 69.)
Patrae (norpai, Tlarpees Herod. : IloTpeiJs ;
Patras), one of the twelve cities of Achaia, was-
situated W. of Rhium, near the opening of the
Corinthian gulf. It is said to have been origi
nally called Aroe ('Ap<rn), and to have been
founded by the autochthon Eumelus ; and after
the expulsion of the Ionians to have been taken
possession of by Patreus, from whom it derived
its name. (Hdt. i. 145; Strab. pp. 337, 386;
Paus. vii. 18, 2.) The town is rarely mentioned
in early Greek history, and was chiefly of im
portance as the place from wMch the Pelopon-
nesians directed their attacks against the
opposite coast of Aetolia. It was the only
Achaean city which took the side of Athens
(Thuc. v. 52; Plut. Ale. 15). Patrae was one
of the four towns which took the leading part in
founding the second Achaean League. In con
sequence of assisting the AetoUans against the
Gauls in B.C. 279, Patrae became so weakened
that most of the tohabitants deserted the town
and took up their abodes in the neighbouring
villages (Pol. v. 2, 3, 28; Paus. vii. 18, 6).
Under the Romans it continued to be an in
significant place till the time of Augustus, who
rebuilt the town after the battle of Actium,
again collected its inhabitants, and added to
them those of Rhypae (Paus. vii. 18, 7 ; Plin.
iv. 11). Augustus further gave Patrae dominion
over the neighbouring towns, and even over
Locris, and also bestowed upon it the privUeges
of a Roman colony : hence we find it caUed
Colonia Augusta Aroe Patrensis (C. I. L. iii.
498). Strabo describes Patrae in his time as a
flourishing and populous town with a good
harbour; and it was a common landing-place
for persons sailing from Italy to Greece. Pau
sanias (vii. 21, 14) mentions its trade to cotton
stuffs, and also its worsMp of Aphrodite ; both
may perhaps be remains of an old Phoenician
admixture in the population. He also says that
the women were twice as numerous as the men.
The modern Patras is stiU an important place,
but contains few rematos of antiqmty.
Patrocles (TlarpoKXijs), a Macedonian general
in the service of Seleucus I. and Antiochus I.,
Mngs of Syria. Patrocles held, both under
Seleucus and Antiochus, an important govern
ment over some of the E. provinces of the
Syrian empire. During the period of his hold
ing this position, he coUected accurate geo-
grapMcal information, which he afterwards
published to the world ; but though he is fre
quently cited by Strabo, who placed the utmost
reliance on Ms accuracy, neither the title nor
exact subject of his work is mentioned. It
seems clear, however, that it included a general
account of India, as well as of the countries on
the banks of the Oxus and the Caspian Sea.
Patrocles regarded the Caspian Sea as a gulf
or inlet of the ocean, and maintained the possi-
bUity of sailing thither by sea from the Indian
Ocean. (Diod. xix. 100; Plut. Demetr. 47;
Strab. pp. 68, 74, 508, 689.)
Fatrocli Insula (TlarpbKXov vfjeros : Gadaro-
nesi or Gaidronisi), an island off the coast of
Attica, near Senium (Paus. i. 1 ; Strab. p. 398).
Patroclus (UdrpoKXos or TlarpoKXrjs), the
friend of AcMUes, was son of Menoetius of
Opus, and grandson of Actor and Aegina,
whence he is called Actorides (17. xi. 608;
Ov. Her. i. 17, Met. xiii. 273). Aeacus, the
grandfather of AcMUes, was a brother of Menoe
tius, so that Achilles and Patroclus were Mns-

PATRON
men as well as friends (II. xvi. 14). While still
a boy Patroclus involuntarily slew Clysonymus,
son of Amphidamas. In consequence of tMs
accident he was taken by his father to Peleus
at Phthia, where he was educated together
with AchiUes. (II. xxiii. 85 ; ApoUod. Ui. 13, 8 ;
•Ov. Pont. i. 3, 73.) He is said to have taken
part in the expedition against Troy on account
of his attachment to AchiUes. He fought
bravely against the Trojans, until his friend
withdrew from the scene of action, when Pa
troclus foUowed his example. But when the
Greeks were hard pressed, he begged Achilles
to allow him to put on his armour, and with his
men to hasten to the assistance of the Greeks.
AcMUes granted the request, and Patroclus
succeeded to driving back the Trojans and ex-
tingmshtog the fire wMch was raging among
the ships. He slew many enemies, and thrice
made an assault upon the waUs of Troy ; but
on a sudden he was struck by ApoUo, and be
came senseless. In this state Euphorbus ran
him through with his lance from betond, and
Hector gave Mm the last and fatal blow (II.
xvi.). Hector also took possession of Ms armour.
A long struggle now ensued between the Greeks
and Trojans for the body of Patroclus ; but the
former obtained possession of it, and brought it
to AchiUes, who vowed to avenge the death of
Ms friend. Thetis protected the body with
ambrosia agatost decomposition, until AchiUes
could burn it with funeral sacrifices (II. xix. 88).
His ashes were coUected in a golden urn wMch
Dionysus hod once given to Thetis, and were
deposited under a mound, where the remains
of AchiUes were afterwards buried. Funeral
games were celebrated to Ms honour (17. xxin. ;
Od. xxiv. 74; Tzetz. ad Lye. 273). AchiUes
and Patroclus met again in the lower world ;
or, according to the tradition given by Pau-
samas, they continued after their death to live
together to the island of Leuce (Od. xxiv. 15 ;
Paus. Ui. 19, 11).
Patron, an Epicurean pMlosopher, Uved for
-some time to Rome, where he became acquainted
with Cicero and others. From Rome he re
moved to Athens, and there succeeded Phaedrus
as president of the Epicurean school, B.C. 52.
(Cic. ad Fam. xiU. 1, ad Att. v. 11, 19.)
Pattala. [Pattalene.]
Fattalene or Fatalene (noTToArj^, naTa-
Xr)vf) : Lower Scinde), the name of the great
¦delta formed by the two principal arms by
wMch the Indus faUs toto the sea (Strab. pp.
¦691, 701; Ptol. -rii. 1, 55; Plin. vi 80). At the
apex of the delta stood the city Pattala or
Pat ala (prob. Brahmanabad).
Patulcius. [Janus.]
Fatumus (TlaTovpos : O. T. Pithom : the
Egyptian Pa-Thmu), on the E. margin of the
Egyptian Delta, between Bubastes and Succoth,
but nearer the latter and not far from the com
mencement of Necho's canal from the Nile to
the Red Sea. It was buUt by the IsraeUtes
-durtog their captivity (Exod. i. 11), and either
for that reason, or because it stood on the edge
of the desert, is called by Herodotus (ii. 158)
r) 'Apa0ir) irbXis.
Paulina or Paullina. 1. Lollia. [Lollia.]
— 2. Fompeia, wife of Seneca the philosopher,
and probably the daughter of Pompeius Paul
inus, who commanded to Germany in the reign
¦of Nero. When her husband was condemned to
death, she opened her veins, wisMng to die with
him. After the blood had flowed some time,
Nero commanded her veins to be bound'up ; she i
lived a few years longer, but with a, palenecs I

PAULUS 661
wMch testified how near she had been to death.
(Tac. Ann. xv. 63, 64; cf. Dio Cass. lxi. 10,
lxii. 25.)
Paulinus. 1. Pompeius, commanded in
Germany along with L. Antistius Vetus in a.d.
68, and completed the dam to restrain the
inundations of the RMne which Drusus had
commenced 63 years before. Seneca dedicated
to him Ms treatise De Brevitate Vitae ; and
the Pompeia Paulina whom the pMlosopher
married was probably the daughter of this
Paulinus. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 53, xv. 18; Sen.
Brev. Vit. 18.)— 2. C. Suetonius, propraetor to
Mauretania to the reign of the emperor Claudius,
a.d. 42, when he conquered the Moors who had
revolted, and advanced as far as Mt. Atlas (Dio
Cass. Ix. 9). He had the command of Britain
in the reign of Nero, from 59 to 62. For the
first two years aU his undertakings were suc
cessful ; but during his absence on an expedition
agamst the island of Mona (Anglesey), the
Britons rose in rebellion (61). They at first
met with great success, but were conquered by
Suetonius on his return from Mona. [Bou
dicca.] In 66 he was consul ; and in 68 he
was one of Otho's generals to the war against
ViteUius. It was agatost his advice that
Otho fought the battle at Bedriacum. He
was pardoned by Vitellius after Otho's death,
by a plea wMch did not redound to his honour.
(Tac. Hist. i. 87, 90, ii. 23-41, 44, 60.)
Paullus or Faulus, a Roman cognomen to
many gentes, but best toiown as the name of a
family of the Aemilia gens. The name was
origtoally written with a double I, but subse
quently with only one 7.
Paulus (TlaSXos), Greek writers. 1. Aegi
neta, a celebrated medical writer, of whose
personal Mstory nothing is known except that
he was born to Aegina, and that he traveUed a
good deal, visiting, among other places, Alexan
dria. He probably lived in the latter half of
the seventh century after Christ. He wrote
several works to Greek, of wMch the principal
one is stiU extant, with no exact title, but com
monly called De Be Medica Libri Septem.
This work is chiefly a compilation from former
writers. Edited by Brian, Paris, 1855. There
is an excellent English translation by Adams,
London, 1834, seq. — 2. Of Alexandria, wrote
to a.d. 278, an Introduction to Astrology
(Elo-ayay^) eis t^v diroreXeo-pariKiiv), which has
come down to us : edited by Schatus or Schato,
Wittenberg, 1586. — 3. Of Samosata, bishop of
Antioch, about a.d. 260. [Did. of Christian
Biogr.y—i. Silentiarius, so caUed because he
was one of the silentiarii (ushers who kept
order to the palace) under the emperor Jus
tinian. He wrote various poems, of which the
foUowing are extant : — (1) A Description of
the Church of St. Sophia ("EKcppcuris rov vaov
rijs dyias ~2,ocpias), consisting partly of iambics,
partly of hexameters. This poem gives a descrip
tion of the magnificent building wMch forms
its subject, and was recited by its author at
the second dedication of the church (a.d. 562),
after the restoration of the dome, which had
fallen in. Edited by Graefe, Lips. 1822, and
by Bekker, Bonn, 1837, in the Bonn edition of
the Byzantine historians. (2) A Description
of the Pulpit ("EKcppacrts rov dpBavos), and
printed with it a supplement to the former
poem. (3) Epigrams, eighty-three in aU,
given to the Anthologia.
Paulus, Aemilius. 1. M., consul b.c. 802,
and magister equitum to the dictator Q. Fabius
Maximus RulUanus, 301 (Liv. x. 1).— 2. M.,

662

PAULUS

consul 255 with Ser. Fulvius Paetinus NobUior,
about the middle of the first Punic war. See
Nobllioe, No. 1. — 3. L., son of No. 2., consul
219, when he conquered Demetrius of Pharos,
and compelled him to fly for refuge to Philip,
king of Macedonia (Pol. iii. 16, iv. 37 ; Appian,
Illyr. 8). He was consul a second time to 216
with C. Terentius Varro. This was the year of
the memorable defeat at Cannae. [Hannibal.]
The battle was fought against the advice of
Paulus ; and he was one of the many distin
guished Romans who perished in the en
gagement, refusing to fly from the field when
a tribune of his soldiers offered him his horse.
Hence we find in Horace (Od. i. 12) : ' ani-
maeque magnae prodigum Paulum superante
Poeno' (Liv. xxii. 35-49; Pol. iii. 107-116).
Paulus was a staunch adherent of the aristo
cracy, and was raised to the consulship by the
latter party to counterbalance the influence of
the plebeian Terentius Varro. — 4. L., after
wards surnamed Macedonicus, son of No. 3,
was born about 230 or 229, since at the time of
Ms second consulsMp, 168, he was upwards of
sixty years of age. He was one of the best
specimens of the Roman nobles. He would
not condescend to flatter the people for the
offices of the state, maintained with strictness
severe discipline to the army, was deeply
skilled in the law of the augurs, to whose col
lege he belonged, and maintained throughout
life a pure and unspotted character. He was
elected curule aedile 192 ; was praetor 191, and
obtained Further Spain as his province, where
he carried on war with the Lusitani ; and was
consul 181, when he conquered the Ligauni, a
Ligurian people. For the next ttorteen years
he Uved quietly at Rome, devoting most of Ms
time to the education of his cMldren. He was
consul a second time in 168, and brought the
war against Perseus to a conclusion by the
defeat of the Macedonian monarch near Pydna,
on the 22nd of June. Perseus shortly after
wards surrendered himself to Paulus. [Pee-
seus.] Paulus remained in Macedonia during
the greater part of the foUowing year as pro
consul, and arranged the affairs of Macedonia,
in conjunction with ten Roman commissioners,
whom the senate had despatched for the pur
pose. Before leaving Greece, he marched into
Epirus, where, in accordance with a cruel com
mand of the sonato, he gave to his soldiers seventy
towns to be piUaged, because they had been in
aUiance with Perseus. The triumph of Paulus,
wMch was celebrated at the end of November,
167, was the most splendid that Rome had yet
seen. It lasted three days. Before the
triumphal car of Aemilius walked the captive
monarch of Macedonia and his children, and
behind it were two sons of Aemilius, Q. Fabius
Maximus and P. Scipio Africanus the younger,
both of whom had been adopted into other
famUies. But the glory of the conqueror was
clouded by family misfortune. At this very
time he lost his two younger sons : one, twelve
years of age, died only five days before Mb
triumph, and the other, fourteen years of age,
only three days after his triumph. The loss
was all the severer, since he had no son left to
carry Ms name down to posterity. In 164
Paulus was censor with Q. Marcius Philippus,
and died in 160, after a long and tedious illness.
The fortune he left behind Mm was so small as
scarcely to be sufficient to pay his wife's dowry.
The Adelphi of Terence was brought out at
the funeral games exhibited in his honour.
Aemilius Paulus was married twice. By Ms

PAUSANIAS
first wife, Papiria, the daughter of C. Papirius-.
Maso, consul 231, he had four children, two-
sons one of whom ' was adopted by Fabius-
Maximus and the other by P. Scipio, and two
daughters, one of whom was married to Q.
Aelius Tubero, and the other to M. Cato, son
of Cato the censor. He afterwards divorced
Papiria ; and by his second wife, whose name
is not mentioned, he had two sons, whose death
has been mentioned above, and a daughter,
who was a cMld at the time that her father was
elected to Ms second consulsMp. (Plut. Life of
Aem. Paul; Pol. xxix.-xxxu. ; Liv. xliv. 17-
xlvi. 41.)
Paulus Diaconus (Paul Warmfrid), a Lom
bard by birth, deacon of the church of AquUeia.
Some time after the conquest of the Lombards
by Charles the Great, a.d. 774, he became a.
monk at Mte. Cassino. Besides ecclesiastical
works, he wrote (1) a History of the Lombards
which, though uncritical to its acceptance of
strange legends, is of considerable value ; (2) a
Roman Mstory mostly from Eutropius ; (3) an
abridgment of the glossary which Festus made
as an epitome of Verrius Flaccus. Since a
great part of Festus is lost, tMs work of Paulus
is of great value, and is edited by K. O. MiiUer,
1880, together with the text of Festus. [See p.
342, a.]
Paulus, Julius. 1. One of the most distin
guished of the Roman jurists, has been sup
posed, without any good reason, to be of Greek
origin. He was in the auditorium of Papinian,
and consequently was acting as a juriBt to the
reign of Septimius Severus. He was exUed by
Elagabalus, but he was recaUed by Alexander
Severus when the latter became emperor, and
was made a member of his consUium. Paulus
also held the office of praefectus praetorio : he-
survived his contemporary Ulpian. Paulus.
was perhaps the most fertUe of all the Roman
law writers, and there is more excerpted from
him in the Digest than from any other jurist,
except Ulpian. Upwards of seventy separate
works by Paulus are quoted in the Digest. Of
these his greatest work was Ad Edictum, in
eighty books (Diet, of Antiq. art. Pandectae).
— 2. A poet in the reign of Hadrian (GeU. v. 4,
xvi. 10, xix. 7).
Paulus, Passienus, a contemporary and
friend of the younger Pliny, was a distinguished
Roman eques, and was celebrated for Ms
elegiac and lyric poems. He belonged to the
same municipium (Mevania in Umbria) as Pro
pertius, whom he numbered among his ances
tors. (Plin. Ep. vi. 15, vii. 6, ix. 22.)
Pausanias (Tlavo-avias). 1. A Spartan of the
Agid branch of the royal famUy, the son of
Cleombrotus and nephew of Leonidas. Several
writers incorrectly call him king, but he only suc
ceeded his father Cleombrotus in the guardian
ship of his cousin Plistarchus, the son of Leo
nidas, for whom he exercised the functions of
royalty from B.C. 479 to the period of his death.
(Hdt. ix. 10 ; Thuc. i. 94, 132.) In 479 when the
Athenians called upon the Lacedaemonians for-
aid against the Persians, the Spartans sent a
body of 5000 Spartans, each attended by seven
Helots, under the command of Pausanias. At-
the Isthmus Pausanias was joined by the other
Peloponnesian allies, and at Eleusis by the
Athenians, and forthwith took the command of
the combined forces, the other Greek generals
forming a sort of council of war. The allied
forces amounted to nearly 110,000 men. Near
Plataeae in Boeotia, Pausanias defeated the
Persian army under the command of Mordo-

PAUSANIAS

663

nius. This decisive victory secured the inde
pendence of Greece. Pausanias received as his
reward a tenth of the Persian spoils. (Hdt. ix.
10-85; Diod. xi. 29-83.) In 477 the confederate
Greeks sent out a fleet under the command of
Pausanias, to follow up their success by driving
the Persians completely out of Europe and the
islands. Cyprus was first attacked, and the
greater part of it subdued. From Cyprus Pau
sanias sailed to Byzantium, and captured the
city (Thuc. i. 94). The capture of this city
afforded Pausanias an opportunity for the
execution of the design which he» had appa
rently formed even before leaving Greece.
Already he had shown Ms arrogant spirit to
putting Ms own name as the author of the
victory at Plataeae on the tripod dedicated at
Delphi (Thuc. i. 132). Dazzled by his success
and reputation, his station as a Spartan citizen
had become too restricted for Ms ambition. His
position as regent was one wMch must terminate
when the king became of age. He therefore
aimed at becoming tyrant over the whole of
Greece, with the assistance of the Persian king.
(Hdt. v. 32 ; Thuc. i. 128.) Among the prisoners
taken at Byzantium were some Persians con
nected with the royal family. These he sent to
the Mng, with a letter, in wMch he offered to
bring Sparta and the rest of Greece under his
power, and proposed to marry tos daughter. His
offers were gladly accepted, and whatever amount
of troops and money he required for accomplish
ing Ms designs was promised. Pausanias now
set no bounds to Ms arrogant and domineering
temper. The aUies were so disgusted by his
conduct that they aU, except the Pelopon-
nesians and Aeginetans, voluntarily offered to
transfer to the Athenians that pre-eminence of
rank which Sparta had hitherto enjoyed. In
tMs way the Athenian confederacy first took its
rise. Reports of the conduct and designs of
Pausanias reached Sparta, and he was recaUed
and put upon his trial: but the evidence re
specting Ms meditated treachery was not yet
thought sufficiently strong. Shortly afterwards
he returned to Byzantium, without the orders
of the ephors, and renewed tos treasonable
intrigues. He was again recaUed to Sparta, was
again put on his trial, and again acquitted. But
even after this second escape he stUl continued
to carry on Ms intrigues with Persia. At length
a man who was charged with a letter to Persia,
having Ms suspicions awakened by noticing that
none of those sent previously on similar errands
had returned, counterfeited tho seal of Pau
sanias and opened the letter, in which he found
directions for Ms own death. He carried the
letter to the ephors, who prepared to arrest
Pausanias ; but he took refuge to the temple of
Athene Chalcioecus. The ephors stripped off
the roof of the temple and buUt up the door :
the aged mother of Pausanias is said to have
been among the first who laid a stone for this
purpose. When he was on the point of expiring,
the ephors took him out lest his death should
pollute the sanctuary. He died as soon as he
got outside, B.C. 469. He left three sons behind
Mm, Plistoanax (afterwards king), Cleomenes
and Aristoeles. (Thuc. i. 94-134 ; Diod. xi. 44 ;
Nepos, Pausanias.) — 2. Son of Plistoanax, and
grandson of the preceding, was king of Sparta
from B.C. 408 to 394. In 403 he was sent with
an army into Attica, and favoured the cause of
Thrasybulus and the Athenian exiles, in order
to counteract the tyrannical plans of Lysander,
and restore peace to Athens. (Xen. Hell. ii. 4,
38; Plut. Lys. 21; Arist. 'AB. iroX. 38.) He

had with Mm Spartan commissioners, whose
numbers are variously stated by Xenophon and
Aristotle as ten or fifteen. In 895 Pausanias
was sent with an army agatost the Thebans ;
but in consequence of the death of Lysander,
who was slain under the walls of Haliartus, on
the day before Pausanias reached the spot, the
king agreed to withdraw his forces from Boeotia.
On his return to Sparta he was impeached, and
seeing that a fair trial was not to be hoped for,
went into yoluntary exile, and was condemned
to death. He was living in Tegea in 385, when
Mantinea was besieged by his son Agesipolis,
who succeeded him on the throne. (Xen. Hell.
iii. 5, 17-25, v. 2, 3-6.)— 3. King of Macedonia,
the son and successor of Aeropus. He was
assassinated in the year of his accession by
Amyntas II., 394. (Diod. xiv. 84.) — 4. A pre
tender to the throne of Macedonia, made his
appearance in 867, after Alexander H. had been
assassinated by Ptolemaeus. Eurydice, the
mother of Alexander, sent to request the aid of
the Athenian general, IpMcrates, who expelled
Pausanias from the kingdom (Nep. Iphicr. 3). —
5. A Macedonian youth of distinguished family,
from the province of Orestis. Having been
shamefuUy treated by Attalus, he complained
of the outrage to Philip ; but as Philip took no
notice of Ms complaints, he directed his venge
ance against the king himself. He shortly
afterwards murdered Philip at the festival held.
at Aegae, 836, but was slain on the spot by some
officers of the king's guard. Suspicion rested
on Olympias and Alexander of having been
privy to the deed ; but with regard to Alexander
at any rate the suspicion is probably totaUy
unfounded. There was a story that Pausanias,
while meditating revenge, having asked the
sophist Hermocrates which was the shortest
way to fame, the latter replied, that it was by
MUing the man who had performed the greatest
achievements. (Diod. xvi. 93 ; Justin, ix. 6 ;
Plut. Alex. 9.) — 6. The traveller and geographer,
was perhaps a native of Lydia. He lived under
Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius, and wrote his
celebrated work in the reign of the latter em
peror. This work, entitled 'EXXaSos Tlepi^iyno-is,
a Periegesis (or Itinerary) of Greece, is in ten
books, and contains a description of Attica and
Megaris (i), Corinthia, Sicyonia, Phliasia, and
Argolis (ii), Laconica (iii.), Messenia (iv.), Elis
(v vi.), Achaea (vii.), Arcadia (viii.), Boeotia (ix.),
Phocis (x.). The work shows that Pausanias
visited most of the places in these divisions of
Greece, a fact wMch is clearly demonstrated by
the minuteness and particularity of his descrip
tion. The work is an Itinerary, and has no
merits either of style or composition. Pausa
nias gives no general description of a country
or even of a place, but he describes the things
as he comes to them. He is above all things an
antiquarian, and dweUs with most pleasure on
objects of antiquity and works of art, such as
buildings, temples, statues, and pictures. He
also mentions mountains, rivers, and fountains,
and the mythological stories connected with
them, which, indeed, are Ms chief inducements
to speak of them. He records all the traditions
he hears simply, with little sifting or criticism.
Hence Ms work, of very great value for the
study of Greek art, is no less indispensable for
the history of Greek religion and folk-lore.
With the exception of Herodotus, there is no
writer of antiquity who has comprehended so
many valuable facts in a small volume. — Edi
tions are by Siebelis, Lips. 1822-1828, 5 vols.
8vo, and by Schubart and Walz, Lips. 1838-40,

664

PAUSIAS

3 vols. 8vo, revised 1881 ; translation of that
part which refers to Athens, with an exceUent
commentary, by Harrison and VerraU, 1890.
Pausias (Tlavo-ias), one of the most distin
guished Greek painters, was a contemporary of
Aristides, Melanthius, and Apelles (about B.C.
360-330), and a disciple of Pamphilus. He had
previously been instructed by Ms father Brietes,
who Uved at Sicyon, where also Pausias passed
his life. The department of the art wMch
Pausias most practised was painting to en
caustic with the cestrum. His favourite
subjects were small panel-pictures, cMefly of
boys. One of Ms most celebrated pictures was
the portrait of Glycera, a flower-girl of his
native city, of whom he was enamoured when a
young man. Most of his paintings were prob
ably transported to Rome with the other trea
sures of Sicyonian art, in the aedileship of
Scaurus, when the state of Sicyon was com
pelled to sell all the pictures which were public
property, in order to pay its debts. (Plin. xxxv.
123-128; Paus. ii. 27,3.)
Pansilypus Mons (Posilipo), the western
part of the ridge behind Naples, which formed
a barrier between Neapolis and Puteoli. To
facflitate the communication with Puteoli and
Baiae the ridge was pierced by a tunnel called
Crypta NeapoUtana (Sen. Ep. 57), now Grotta
di Posilipo, 2244 feet long, twenty-one broad,
and in some places seventy feet high. Its con
struction is assigned to M. Cocceius Nerva, the
superintendent of aqueducts under Tiberius
(Strab. p. 245 ; Neeva, p. 596, b). The name of
the hill (nauo-iA.uiro» = ' grief-assuaging ') was de
rived from a villa so called which Vedius Pollio
possessed in the neighbourhood and which he
bequeathed to Augustus. (Dio Cass. liv. 23;
Plin. ix. 167.) Its ruins are probably those now
seen on Capo di Posilipo. On the MUs above
the E. entrance of the tunnel there is a tomb
wMch tradition declares to be the tomb of
Virgil. [Veegilius.]
Pauson (Tlaitrav), a Greek painter, who ap
pears from the description of Aristotle (Poet.
2, § 2) to have lived somewhat earlier than the
time of tMs pMlosopher. The statement of the
scholiast that he is the Pauson mentioned by
Aristophanes (Ach. 854, Plut. 602) does not
seem very probable.
Pausuiae (Pausulairus : Monte dell' Olmo),
a town in the interior of Picenum between
Urbs Salvia and Auximum, on the river Cluen-
tus (Plin. iii. 111).
Pax. [Ieene.]
Pax Julia or Pax Augusta (Beja), a Roman
colony in Lusitania, and the seat of a Conventus
juridicus (Ptol. ii. 5, 5 ; Plin. iv. 117).
Paxi (Paxo and Antipaxo), the name of two
small islands off the W. coast of Greece,
between Corcyra and Leucas (Pol. ii. 10).
Fedaeum or Pedaeus (ri^Saw), a town of
the Troad (II. xiii. 172).
Pedalium (TtijSdXiov). 1. (C. Greco), a pro
montory of Caria, on the W. side of the Sinus
Glaucus, called also Artemisium from a temple
of Artemis upon it (Mel. i. 16 ; Plin. v. 108 ;
Strab. p. 651). — 2. (Capo delta Grega), a pro
montory on the E. side of Cyprus.
Fedasa (Ir^Saera : TTnSacreis), a very ancient
city of Caria, was originally a chief abode of the
Leleges. Alexander assigned it to Halicar
nassus. At the time of the Roman empire it
had entirely vanished, though its name was pre
served in that of the district around its site —
namely, Pedasis (TfojoWs). (Hdt. v. 121, vi.
20; Plin. v. 107; Strab. p. 651.) Its site was

PEGASUS
probably a little ENE. of Theangela, some
distance E. of Halicarnassus.
Pediaeus (TleSiaios : Pidias),a, river of Cyprus
wMch flows into the sea near Salamis.
Pedasus (Tl-iiSao-os), a town of Mysia on the
Satniois, mentioned by Homer. It was de
stroyed by the time of Strabo, who says that it
was a settlement of the Leleges on M. Ida. (II.
vi. 35, xx. 92, xxi. 87 ; Strab. pp. 584, 605.)
Pedianus, Asconius. [Asconius.]
Pedius. 1. Q., the great-nephew of the
dictator C. Julius Caesar, betog the grandson of
Julia, Caesar's eldest sister (Suet. Jul. 83). He
served under Caesar in Gaul as his legatus,
B.C. 57 (Caes. B. G. ii. 1). In 55 he was a
candidate for the curule aedUesMp with Cn.
Plancius and others, but he lost Ms election
(Cic. pro Plane. 7, 22). In the CivU war he
fought on Caesar's side. He was praetor in 48,
and in that year he defeated and slew Milo in
the neighbourhood of Thurii. In 45, he served
agatost the Pompeian party in Spain. In
Caesar's wiU Pedius was named one of his heirs
along with his two other great-nephews, C. Octa-
viuB and L. Pinarius, Octavius obtatoing ttoee-
fourths of the property, and the remaining one-
fourth being divided between Pinarius and
Pedius :the latter resigned his share of the
inheritance to Octavius. After the faU of the
consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, at the battle of
Mutina to AprU, 43, Octavius marched upon
Rome at the head of an army, and to the month
of August he was elected consul along with
Pedius. The latter forthwith proposed a law,
known by the name of the Lex Pedia, by
which all the murderers of Julius Caesar were
punished with aquae et ignis interdictio
Pedius was left in charge of the city, while
Octavius marched into the N. of Italy. He
died towards the end of the year shortly after the
news of the proscription had reached Rome.
(Caes. B. C. iii. 22 ; App. B. C. in. 94, iv. 6 ;
Cic. ad Att. ix. 14.)— -2. Sextus, a Roman
jurist, frequently cited by Paulus and Ulpian,
Uved before the time of Hadrian.
Pednelissus (TleSvriXio-o-bs : Ru. near Syrt),
a city to the interior of Pisidia, on the Eury
medon. It formed an independent state, but was
almost constantly at war with Selge. (Strab.
pp. 570,667; Pol. v. 72.)
Pedo Albinovanus. [Albinovanus.]
Feducaeus, Sex. 1. Propraetor to Sicily,
b.c. 76 and 75, to the latter of which years
Cicero served under him as quaestor (Cic. Verr.
ii. 64, iii. 93). — 2. Son of the preceding, and an
intimate friend of Atticus and Cicero. In the
Civil war Peducaeus sided with Caesar, by
whom he was appointed in 48 to the govern
ment of Sardinia. In 89, he was propraetor
in Spain. (Cic. ad Att. vii. 14, ix. 10, xiii. 1,
xvi. 11 ; App. B. C. ii. 48, v. 54.)
Pedum (Pedanus: Gallicano), an ancient
town of Latium on the Via Labicana, wMch
fell into decay soon after the Latin war (Liv. ii.
39, vii. 12, viii. 12-14 ; Dionys. 61).
Fegae or Fagae (nij-yai : Psatho), a town of
Megaris on the Corinthian gulf (Strab. p. 384 ;
Thuc. i. 108, 114).
Pegasis (Uriyacrls), i.e. sprung from Pegasus,
was applied to the fountain Hippocrene, which
was called forth by the hoof of Pegasus (Ov.
Trist. iii. 7, 15). The Muses are also called
Pegasides, because the fountain Hippocrene was
sacred to them (Propert. iii. 1, 19).
Pegasus (Tliiycuros). 1. The winged horse,
whose origin is thus related. When Perseus
struck off the head of Medusa, with whom

PEGASUS
Poseidon had had intercourse, there sprang
from her Chrysaor and the horse Pegasus.
According to Hesiod, Pegasus was so named
because he was born near the sources (irrtyat) of
Oceanus: it is more likely to mean 'the
horse of springs or fountains' [see below].
He ascended to the seat of the immortals,
and afterwards Uved in the palace of Zeus,
for whom he carried thunder and lightning
(Hes. Th. 281-286 ; Apollod. ii. 8, 4 ; Ov. Met.
iv. 783). According to the story at Corinth,
where Pegasus was particularly noted and
was represented on the coins of the state (see
p. 251), Pegasus to Ms flight after his birth
rested at Acrocorinthus and drank at the weU
Pirene. Since, in order to MU the Chimaera,
it was necessary for BeUerophon to obtain
possession of Pegasus, the soothsayer Polyidus
advised him to spend a night to the temple
of Athene at Corinth. As BeUerophon was
asleep in the temple, the goddess appeared to
Mm to a dream, commanding him to sacrifice
to Poseidon, and gave him a golden bridle.
When he awoke he found the bridle, offered
the sacrifice, and caught Pegasus wMle he
was drinMng at the well (Pind. 07. xm. 63-92).
According to Pausanias, Athene herself tamed
and bridled Pegasus, and surrendered him to
BeUerophon (Paus. n. 4, 1). After he had
conquered the Chimaera, he endeavoured to
rise up to heaven upon Ms winged horse, butfeU
down upon the earth. [Belleeophon.] Pe-
| gasus, however, continued tos flight to heaven. —
The connexion of Pegasus with the Muses in
Greek mythology was simply that he produced
with Ms hoof the inspiring fountain Hippo-
I crene. The story about this fountain runs as
foUows. When tie Muses engaged in a contest
with the daughters of Pierus on Mount Heli
con, all became darkness when the daughters of
Pierus began to sing ; whereas durtog the song
of the Muses, heaven, the sea, and aU the
rivers stood stiU to Usten, and HeUcon rose
heavenward with deUght, until Pegasus, by
command of Poseidon, stopped its ascent by
McMngit with Ms hoof. From this Mck there
arose Hippocrene, the inspiring weU of the
Muses, on Mount Helicon, which, for this
reason, Persius caUs fons caballinus (Pers.
Prol. 1; cf. Ov. Met. v. 256; Strab. p. 379;
Paus. ix. 31, 3 ; Ant. Lib. 9). In later myths
Pegasus is described as the horse of Eos ; and
to the legends of the stars he is placed among

Pegasus and BeUerophon at the fountain of Hippocrene.
(From a relief in the Spada Palace.)
them as the heavenly horse (Tzetz. ad Lye.
17 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 457 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 18). The
myths of Pegasus are explained by many
modern writers as originating from ideas of the
thundercloud, the clouds being supposed to be

PELASGI 665
connected with Poseidon [see p. 162, h], and so
far this agrees with the idea of Hesiod, who
makes Mm the thunder-bringing horse of Zeus;
but it is possible that the true origin may have
been simpler. Poseidon was specially wor
shipped to Thessaly as the god of horses and also
as the god who (as water-god) caused springs
to break forth on the earth. It is far from
unhkely that the first beginning of the myth
may have been the hoof-marks of Thessa
lian horses trampling round a sacred spring of
Poseidon, and that the story may have travelled
with the Dorians southwards, and may have
become localised at the various places. There
was a weU Hippocrene created in the same way
by the hoof of Pegasus at Troezen as well as on
Helicon and at Corinth (Paus. ii. 81, 9). The
idea of Pegasus being the horse of the Muses,
upon which poets soar aloft, is modern. It has
not been traced to any earlier poem than the
Orlando Innamorato of Boiardo to the fifteenth
century. In ancient sculptures and paintings
Pegasus was a favourite subject, especiaUy his
bridling by BeUerophon and the combat with
the Ctomaera [see p. 162]. — 2. A Roman jurist,
one of the followers or pupils of Proculus and
praefectus urbi under Domitian (Juv. iv. 76).
The Senatusconsultum Pegasianum, which was
passed to the time of Vespasian, when Pegasus
was consul suffectus with Pusio, probably took
its name from him.
Peiso Lacus. [Pelso Lacus.]
Pelagonia (TleXayovia : TleXdyoves, pi.), a
district in Macedonia. The Pelagones were an
ancient people, probably of Pelasgic origin, and
seem originally to have inhabited the valley of
the Axius, since Homer calls Pelagon, a son of
Axius (II. xxi. 140). The Pelagones afterwards
migrated westwards to the Erigon, the country
around which received the name of Pelagoma,
wMch thus lay S. of Paeonia (Strab. pp. 327,
331, 434; Ptol. iii. 13, 34). The chief town of
tMs district was also called Pelagonia (now
Vitolia or Monastir), wMch was under the
Romans the capital of the 4th division of
Macedonia. It was situated on the Via Egnatia,
not far from the narrow passes leading into
Hlyria (Liv. xiv. 29).
Pelasgi (UeXacryoi) : the earliest inhabitants
of Greece are distinguished by this name ; but
the accounts of them vary in ancient writers,
and have been variously interpreted by modem
Mstorians. In the Hiad they are known as
dwelling in Asia Minor, allied to the Trojans,
with a town caUed Larissa (11. ii. 840) ; Argos is
caUed Pelasgian (ii. 681), and in the Odyssey
(xix. 177) Pelasgians are found to Crete. Above
aU, the Zeus who is worshipped in the groves of
Dodona is the Pelasgian Zeus (II. xvi. 233),
with which Hesiod agrees in calling Dodona
Pelasgian (Hes. ap. Strab. p. 327). Herodotus
supports the view that they were the most
ancient inhabitants of Greece when he says
that TleXaoyia was the original name of Hellas
(ii. 56) : he assigns a Pelasgian origin to the
Arcadians, the Athenians, the Aeolians and the
Ionian people of ancient Achaea (i. 146, vii. 94,
95, viii. 44). He distinguishes sharply between
Pelasgi and Hellenes as different races with
different languages (i. 57, 58), and he mentions
them as dwelling in Mstorical times at Crestone
in Thrace and at Antandrus in the NW. of
Asia Minor. Thucydides agrees with Herodotus
in making Pelasgia the old name of most of
Hellas (i. 3) : like Hellanicus (Fr. 1), he identi
fies them with the Tyrrhenians and speaks of
Pelasgians in Lemnos (iv. 109). Some have

666

PELASGIOTIS

thought that the name Larissa is a mark of Pel
asgian settlement, and that, since towns of that
name are found in Thessaly, at Argos, Elis,
Ephesus, and in Crete (Strab. pp. 440, 620) it
would follow that Pelasgi once spread over
these various parts of the Aegaean coast. The
most probable explanation of all this is that
the term Pelasgi expresses a period rather than
a race : i.e. that the Greeks caUed by this name
generally all the preMstoric races of Greece
and the Aegaean coasts, and ascribed to them
buildings and towns which belonged to a time
before the Achaean age. Hence also forms of
reUgion inherited from prehistoric tribes are
caUed Pelasgian, as that of Zeus at Dodona, of
the Cabiri in Thrace [p. 177], and some part of
the Thesmophoria at Athens. It is not neces
sary to suppose, nor is it probable, that all these
peoples belonged to the same race. Some may
have been Semitic, to which race some modern
writers have assigned the Pelasgi ; but others
may have been akin to the HeUenes, though an
earlier immigration, and differing widely in
dialect. The races called Pelasgian who
existed to historic times were apparently relics
of earlier races who dwelt on side by side with
Hellenic states speaking what was to them a
barbarian tongue. To ascribe a Pelasgian
origin to Athenians or Arcadians merely
expresses that they were an ancient race, and
the TleXacryiKbv at Athens implies the admixture
of the later dominant people with an earlier
race of whose origin nothing was known. It
was natural also that the Greek settlers to Italy
should regard those ' Aboriginal ' peoples whose
buildings resembled the so-caUed Pelasgian
stone waUs of Greece as belonging to the ' Pe
lasgi ' of their own country.
Pelasgiotis (TteXao-yiaris), a district in
Thessaly, between Hestiaeotis and Magnesia.
[Thessalia.] Pelasgus, the mythical ancestor of the
Pelasgi, who was regarded in Arcadia as
autochthonous, or as a son of Zeus (Paus. ii.
14, 3 ; Apollod. ii. 1, 1) ; at Argos as founder
and king of Argos, and son of Phoroneus
(Aesch. Suppl. 251 ; Paus. 1, 14, 2), and in
Thessaly as son of Poseidon and Larissa (Dionys.
i. 17). [Pelasgi].
Pelendones, a Celtiberian people in Hispania
Tarraconensis, between the sources of the
Durius and the Iberus (Ptol. ii. 6, 54).
Pelcthronium (TleXeBpbviov), a mountainous
district to Thessaly, part of Mt. Pelion, where
the Lapithae dwelt, and which is said to have
derived its name from Pelettoonius, king of
the Lapithae, who invented the use of the
> bridle and the saddle (Strab. p. 299 ; Verg.
Georg. iii. 115 ; Hyg. Fab. 274 ; Plin. vii. 202).
Peleus (TlnXeis), son of Aeacus and Endeis,
was Mng of the Myrmidons at PhtMa in Thes
saly. He was a brother of Telamon, and step
brother of Phocus, the son of Aeacus by the
Nereid Psamathe. (17. xvi. 16, xxi. 189, xxiv.
535 ; cf. Ov. Met. vii. 477, xii. 365 ; Ap. Rh. ii.
869.) Peleus and Telamon resolved to get rid
of Phocus, because he excelled them in their
military games, and Telamon, or, according to
some, Peleus, murdered their step-brother.
The two brothers concealed their crime by
removing the body of Phocus, but were never
theless found out, and expelled by Aeacus from
Aegina. (Apollod. in. 12, 6 ; Diod. iv. 72 ; Paus.
ii. 29, 7.) Peleus went to PhtMa in Thessaly,
where he was purified from the murder by
Eurytion, the son of Actor, married his daugh
ter Antigone, and received with her a third of

PELEUS
Eurytion's kingdom. Others relate that he-
went to Ceyx at Trachis ; and as he had come
to Thessaly without companions, he prayed to
Zeus for an army, and the god, to please
Peleus, changed the ants (pipp-nKes) into
men, who were accordingly called Myrmi
dons. (Apollod. Ui. 13, 1; Ov. Met. xi. 266;
Tzetz. ad Lye. 175). Peleus accompanied
Eurytion to the Calydonian hunt, and involun
tarily killed Mm with Ms spear, to consequence
of wMch he fled from PhtMa to Iolcus, where he
was again purified by Acastus, the king of the
place. WMle residing at Iolcus, Astydamia,.
the wife of Acastus, feU to love with him ; but
as her proposals were rejected by Peleus, she
accused him to her husband of having at
tempted her virtue. Acastus, unwUUng to
stain Ms hand with the blood of the man whom
he had hospitably received, and whom he had
purified from Ms guUt, took Mm to Mt. PeUon,
where they hunted wild beasts; and when
Peleus, overcome with fatigue, had faUen
asleep, Acastus left him alone, and concealed
Ms sword, that he might be destroyed by the
wild beasts. When Peleus awoke and sought.
Ms sword, he was attacked by the Centaurs,
but was saved by Chiron, who also restored to
him his sword. (Hes. Fragm. 31 ; Pind. Nem.
iv. 55, v. 25 ; ApoUod. iii. 13, 3.) In some ac
counts the temptress, instead of Astydamia, is
Hippolyte, daughter of Cretheus (Pind. 7.c. ;
Hor. Od. iii. 7, 18). Wtole on Mt. Pelion,
Peleus married the Nereid Thetis, by whom he
became the father of AchiUes. He won her
with the aid of Chiron after she had tried to
escape by changing into various shapes. The
gods took part in the marriage solemnity ;
Chiron presented Peleus with a lance, Poseidon

Peleus and Thetis. (From a painted vase.)
with the immortal horses Balius and Xanthus,
and the other gods with arms (II. xvi. 143,
xviii. 84 ; ApoUod. iii. IS, 5). Eris or Strife
was the only goddess who was not invited to
the nuptials, and she revenged herself by
throwing an apple among the guests, with the
inscription ' To the fairest.' [Paeis.] Homer
mentions AchUles as the only son of Peleus
and Thetis, but later writers state that she had
already destroyed by fire six cMldren of whom
she was the mother by Peleus, and that as she
attempted to make away with AcMUes, her
seventh child, she was prevented by Peleus
(Ap. Rh. iv. 816; Lycopto. 178). After tMs
Peleus, who is also mentioned among the
Argonauts, in conjunction with Jason and the
Dioscuri, besieged Acastus and Iolcus, slew
Astydamia, and over the scattered limbs of her
body led Ms warriors into the city (Ap. Rh. i.

PELIADES
91 ; Apollod. iii. 18, 7). The flocks of Peleus
were at one time worried by a wolf, which
Psamathe had sent to avenge the murder of
her son Phocus, but she herself afterwards, on
the request of Thetis, turned the animal into
stone (Ov. Met. xi. 891 ; Ant. Lib. 88). Peleus,
who had in former times joined Heracles in his
expedition agatost Troy, was too old to accom
pany his son AcMUes against that city; he
remained at home and survived the death of
his son (17. xvm. 481 ; Od. xi. 495).
Peliades (TleXiaSes), the daughters of Pelias.
See Pelias.
Fellas (TleXlas), son of Poseidon and Tyro,
a daughter of Salmoneus. Poseidon once
visited Tyro in the form of the river-god Eni
peus, with whom she was to love, and she be
came by him the mother of Pelias and Neleus.
(Od. xi. 234; ApoUod. i. 9, 8). To conceal her
shame, the mother exposed the two boys, but
they were found and reared by some country
men. They subsequently learnt then- parent
age ; and after the death of Cretheus, king of
Iolcus, who had married their mother, they
seized the tMone of Iolcus, to the exclusion of
Aeson, the son of Cretheus and Tyro. Pelias
soon afterwards expeUed his own brother Ne
leus, and thus became sole ruler of Iolcus.
After PeUas had long reigned over Iolcus, Jason,
the son of Aeson, came to Iolcus and claimed
the Mngdom as Ms right. In order to get rid
of him, Pelias sent him to ColcMs to fetch the
golden fleece. Hence arose the celebrated ex
pedition of the Argonauts. After the return of
Jason, PeUas was cut to pieces and boiled by
Ms own daughters (the Peliades), who had been
told by Medea that to tMs manner they might
restore their father to vigour and youth. [See
cut, p. 458.] His son Acastus held funeral games
in Ms honour at Iolcus, and expeUed Jason
and Medea from the country. [For detaUs, see
Jason ; Medea ; Aegonautae.] The names of
several of the daughters of Pelias are recorded.
The most celebrated of them was Alcestis, the
wife of Admetus. [Alcestis.]
Felldes (Tli)XeiSris ¦ TlriXeiav), a patronymic
from Peleus, generaUy given to his son Achilles,
more rarely to Ms grandson Neoptolemus.
Peligni, or Paeligni, a brave and warlike
people of Sabine origin to central Italy, bounded
SE. by the Marsi, N. by the Marrucini, S. by
Samnium and the Frentani, and E. by the
Frentani likewise. [See p. 453, b.] The climate
of their country was cold (Hor. Od. iii. 19, 8.),
but it produced a considerable quantity of
flax and was celebrated for its honey. The
PeUgni, like their neighbours, the Marsi, were
regarded as magicians. Their principal towns
were Coefinium and Sulmo. They offered a
brave resistance to the Romans, but concluded
a peace with the republic along with their
neighbours the Marsi, Marrucini and Frentani
in B.C. 304 (Liv. viii. 6, 29, ix. 41, 45). They
took an active part in the Social war (90, 89),
and their chief town, Corfinium, was destined by
the allies to be the new capital of Italy in place
of Rome. They were subdued by Pompeius
Strabo (Liv. Ep. 73, 76). They are mentioned
by Tacitus as siding with Vespasian against
VitelUus (Hist. iii. 59).
Pelinaeus Mons (to TleXivaiov Spos, or
TleXX-nvawv : M. Elias), the Mghest mountain
of the island of CMos, a little N. of the city of
Chios, with a celebrated temple of Zevs
TleXivaTos (Strab. p. 465).
Pelinna, or more commonly Pelinnaeum
(TleXlvva, TleXivvaiov ; Gardhiki), a town of

PELLENE

667

Thessaly to Hestiaeotis, on the left bank of the
Peneus, was taken by the Romans in the war
with Antiochus (Pind. Pyth. x. 4 ; Strab. p. 487"
Liv. xxxvi. 10, 14).
Pelion, more rarely PellOS (rb Tli)Xtov bpos :
Plessidhi or Z agora), a lofty range of moun
tains of Thessaly in the district of Magnesia,.
was situated between the lake Boebeis and the
Pagasaean gulf, and formed the promontories of
Sepias and Aeantium (Hdt. vii. 129 ; II. ii.
744). Its sides were covered with wood, and on
its summit was a temple of Zeus Actaeus, where
the cold was so severe that the persons who
went to procession to this temple once a year
wore thick skins to protect themselves. Mt.
Pelion was celebrated in mythology. The.
giants in their war with the gods are said to-
have attempted to heap Ossa and Olympus on
PeUon, or Pelion and Ossa on Olympus in order
to scale heaven. [Olympus.] Near the summit.
of this mountain was the cave of the Centaur
Chiron, who was fitly represented as dwelling
here, because abundance of medicinal plants
grew upon the mountain, and he was celebrated
for his skill in medicine. (II. ii 743, xvi. 148 ;
Chteon.) On Pelion also the timber was f eUed
with wMch the ship Argo was built. [Aego
nautae.] Pella (TleXXa : TleXXaios, Pellaeus). 1. (Ala-
klisi), an ancient town of Macedonia in the dis
trict Bottiaea, was situated upon a hill, and
upon a lake formed by the river Lydias, 120'
stadia from its mouth (Hdt. vii. 123 ; Thuc. ii.
94). It continued to be a place of small im
portance till the time of Philip, who made it his
residence and the capital of the Macedonian
monarchy, and adorned it with many public
buUdings. It is frequently mentioned by sub
sequent writers on account of its being the
birthplace of Alexander the Great (Strab. pp.
320, 323, 830 ; Juv. x. 168 ; Lucan, x. 20). It
was the capital of one of the four districts into
which the Romans divided Macedonia [see p.
512, b], and was subsequently made a Roman
colony under the name of Co7. Jul. Aug. Pella
(Liv. xiv. 29; G.I. G. 1997).— 2. (Fahil), the
southernmost of the ten cities which composed
the Decapolis inPeraea — that is, to Palestine E.
of the Jordan — stood five Roman miles SE. of
Scythopolis, and was also called Bovtis (Plin.
v. 74 ; Joseph. B. J. iii. 8, 3). It was taken by
Antiochus the Great, to the wars between
Syria and Egypt, and was held by a Macedonian
colony, till it was destroyed by Alexander Jan-
naeus on account of the refusal of its inhabi
tants to embrace the Jewish religion. It was
restored and given back to its old inhabitants
by Pompey (Pol. v. 70 ; Jos. B. J. i. 4, 8, Ant.
xiv. 4, 4). It was the place of refuge of the
Christians who fled from Jerusalem before its
capture by the Romans. — 3. A city of Syria cn
the Orontes, formerly called Pharnace, was
namedPeUaby the Macedonians, and afterwards
Apamea (No. 1).— i. In Phrygia. [Peltae.]
Pellana. [Pellene, No. 2.1
Peliene (UeXX-fivn, Dor. TleXXdva: TieXXi)-
veis). 1. A city to Achaia bordering on Sicyo
nia, the most easterly of the twelve Achaean
cities, was situated on a hill sixty stadia from
the city, and was strongly fortified. Its port-
town was Aristonautae. The ancients derived
its name from the giant Pallas, or from the
Argive Pellen, the son of Phorbas. (Hdt. i.
145 ; Strab. p. 386 ; Paus. vii. 26, 12.) It is
mentioned in Homer ; and the inhabitants of
of Scione in the peninsula of Pallene in Mace
donia professed to be descended from the Pel-

668

PELODES

lenaeans in Achaia, who were sMpwrecked on
the Macedonian coast on their return from
Troy (II. ii. 574 ; Thuc. iv. 120). In the Pelo
ponnesian war Pellene sided with Sparta. In
the later wars of Greece between the Achaean
and Aetolian Leagues, the town was several
times taken by the contending parties. — Be
tween PeUene and Aegae there was a smaUer
town of the same name, where the celebrated
Pelle nian cloaks (TleXXiiviaKal x^otMu) were
made, which were given as prizes to the victors
to the games at this place (Pind. 07. ix. 98;
Strab. I. c.) — 2. Usually called Pellana, a
town in Laconia on the Eurotas, about fifty
stadia NW. of Sparta, on the road to Megalo
poUs, belonging to the Spartan Tripolis (Strab.
p. 386 ; Xen. Hell. vii. 5, 9 ; Pol. iv. 81).
Pelodes (TlnXdSiis Xipiiv, to App. TlaXbeis :
Armyro), a port-town belonging to Buttootum
in Epirus, and on a bay which probably bore the
same name (Strab. p. 324).
Pelopia. [Aegisthus; Thyestes.]
Pelopidas (TleXoiriSas), the Theban general
and statesman, son of Hippoclus, was descended
from a noble family and inherited a large
¦estate, of which he made a Uberal use. He
lived always to the closest friendsMp with
Epaminondas, to whose simple frugality, as he
could not persuade him to share his riches, he is
said to have assimilated Ms own mode of Ufe.
He took a leading part in expeUing the Spar
tans from Thebes, B.C. 379 ; and from this time
until his death there was not a year in which
he was not entrusted with some important
command. He was noted as a brilliant leader
of cavalry. In 371 he was one of the Theban
commanders at the battle of Leuctra, so fatal to
the Lacedaemonians, and joinedEpaminondas in
urging the expediency of immediate action. In
369, he was also one of the generals to the first
invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans.
Respecting Mb accusation on his return from
tMs campaign see p. 316, b. In 368 Pelopidas
was sent again to Thessaly, on two separate
occasions, to consequence of complaints against
Alexander of Pherae. On Ms first expedition
Alexander of Pherae sought safety in flight;
and Pelopidas advanced into Macedonia to
arbitrate between Alexander II. and Ptolemy
of Alorus. Among the hostages whom he took
with him from Macedonia was Philip, the
father of Alexander the Great. On Mb second
visit to Thessaly, Pelopidas went simply as an
ambassador, not expecting any opposition, and
unprovided with a military force. He was
seized by Alexander of Pherae, and was kept
in confinement at Pherae tiU his liberation in
867, by a Theban force under Epaminondas.
In the same year in wMch he was released he
was sent as ambassador to Susa, to counteract
the Lacedaemonian and Athenian negotiations
at the Persian court. In 864, the Thessalian
towns again applied to Thebes for protection
against Alexander, and Pelopidas was appointed
to aid them. His forces, however, were dis
mayed by an eclipse of the sun (June 13), and
therefore, leaving them behind, he took with
him into Thessaly only 300 horse. On his
arrival at Pharsalus he collected a force which
he deemed sufficient, and marched against
Alexander, treating lightly the great disparity
of numbers, and remarking that t was better
as it was, since there would be more for him to
conquer. At Cynoscephalae a battle ensued,
to wMch Pelopidas drove the enemy from their
ground, but he himself was slain as, burning
with resentment, he pressed rasMy to attack

PELOPS
Alexander in person. The Thebans and Thes-
salians made great lamentations for his death,
and the latter, having earnestly requested
leave to bury torn, celebrated Ms funeral with
splendour. (Plut. Pelopidas ; Nep. Pelopidas ;
Xen. Hell. vii. ; Diod. xv. 62-81.)
Peloponnesus (fi TleXoirbvvncros : Morea), the
S. part of Greece or the peninsula wMch was
connected with HeUas proper by the isthmus of
Corinth. It is said to have derived its name
Peloponnesus or the ' island of Pelops,' from
the mythical Pelops. [Pelops.] TMs name
does not occur to Homer. In his time the
peninsula was sometimes caUed Apia, from
Apis, son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, and
sometimes Argos ; wMch names were given to
it on account of Argos being the cMef power in
Peloponnesus at that period. Peloponnesus
was bounded on the N. by the Corinthian gulf,
on the W. by the Ionian or SiciUan sea, on the
S. by the Libyan, and on the W. by the Cretan
and Myrtoan seas. On the E. and S. there are
three great gulfs, the Argolic, Laconian, and
Messenian. Peloponnesus was divided toto
various provinces, aU of wMch were bounded
on one side by the sea, with the exception of
Aec AD1A, wMch was to the centre of the country.
The political divisions of post- Homeric times
were decided in great measure by the mountain
system — a great range of wMch the summits
are Erymanthus, Aroamus, and CyUene, run
ning from West to East and separating the up
land of Arcadia from Achaia ; from this range
run others to the S. and SE. : from the E.
extremity the mountains of ArgoUs ending to
the prom, of ScyUaeum, and the more impor
tant Parnon running more nearly S. through
Laconia : from the central Aroanius a range
of which Taygetus is the most important part
runs S. and ends to Taenarum. From the west
comes down the range through which Alpheus,
the only river navigable for boats, cuts its
way : this range bends round so as to join Tay
getus and form the S. limit of Arcadia. The
provinces thus parted off were Achaia in the
N., Elis in the W., Messenia in the W. and
S., Laconia in the S. and E., and Coetnthia in
the E. and N. A detaUed account of the geo
graphy of the peninsula is given under these
names. The area of Peloponnesus is computed
to be 7779 English mUes ; and it probably con
tained a population of upwards of a million in
the flourishing period of Greek history. — Pelo
ponnesus was to some extent umted under the
early Achaean princes : it again had a period
of union under the Achaean League until its
conquest by the Romans. [For its earUer Ms
tory see Achaei; Doees ; Pelops : for its later
history see the account of the various states.]
Pelops (IleAoiJ/), grandson of Zeus, and son
of Tantalus and Dione, the daughter of Atlas
and the favourite of Poseidon. Some writers
call Ms mother Euryanassa or Clytia. He was
married to Hippodamia, by whom he became
the father of Atreus, Thyestes, Dias, Cynos-
urus, Corinthius, Hippalrnus (Hippalcmus or
Hippalcimus), Hippasus, Cleon, Argius, Alca
thous, AeUus, Pittneus, Troezen, Nicippe, and
Lysidice. (Pind. 07. i. 70 ; Eur. Or. 1 ; Apollod.
ii. 4, 5 ; Paus. vi. 22, 5 ; Hyg. Fab. 83.) Chrys
ippus was Ms son by Axioche. Pelops was
king of Pisa in Elis, and from him the great
southern peninsula of Greece was believed to
have derived its name Peloponnesus. Accord
ing to a tradition which became very general in
later times, Pelops was a Phrygian, who was
expelled by nus from Phrygia (hence called by

PELOPS
Ovid, Met. viu. 622, Pelopeia arva), and there
upon migrated with his great wealth to Pisa.
(Pind. 01. i. 24, ix. 9 ; Thuc. i. 9 ; Soph. Aj.
1292 ; Paus. ii. 22, 4, v. 1, 5.) Others describe
him as a PapMagonion, and call the PapMago
nians themselves rteAoir/jioi (Ap. Rh. ii. 358;
Diod. iv. 74). Homer (II. ii. 101), speaking of
the transmission of the sceptre to Agamemnon,
makes Pelops the first recipient of it from the
gods, but does not mention his native country.
The legends about Pelops consist mainly of the
story of his betog cut to pieces and boUed ; of
Ms contest with Oenomaus and Hippodamia,
and of his relation to Ms sons. (1) Pelops cut
to pieces and boiled (Kpeovpyta TleXoiros).
Tantalus, the favourite of the gods, once invited
them to a repast, and on that occasion MUed
Ms own son, and having boUed him set the
flesh before them that they might eat it. But
the immortal gods, knowing what it was, did
not touch it ; Demeter alone, being absorbed by
grief for her lost daughter, consumed the
shoulder of Pelops. Hereupon the gods ordered
Hermes to put the limbs of Pelops into a
cauldron, and thereby restore him to life.
When this was done, Clotho took him out of
the cauldron, and as the shoulder consumed by
Demeter was wanting, the goddess supplied its
place by one made of ivory ; his descendants
(the Pelopidae), as a mark of their origin, were
believed to have one shoulder as white as ivory.
(Pind. Ol. i. 25 ; Tzetz. ad Lye. 152 ; Hyg.
Fab. 83 ; Verg. Georg. Ui. 7 ; Ov. Met. vi. 404.)
[For tMs myth see further under Tantalus.]
(2) Contest with Oenomaus and Hippodamia.
As an oraole had declared to Oenomaus that
he should be MUed by his son-to-law, he re
fused to give his fair daughter Hippodamia in
marriage to anyone. But since many suitors
appeared, Oenomaus declared that he would
bestow her hand upon the man who should
conquer him to the chariot-race, but that he
should kill aU who were defeated by him (Pind.
Ol. i. 70). Among other suitors Pelops also
presented himself, but when he saw the heads
of Ms conquered predecessors stuck up above
the door of Oenomaus, he was seized with fear,
and endeavoured to gain the favour of Myrtilus,
the charioteer of Oenomaus, promising him
half the kingdom if he would assist him to
conquering Ms master. Myrtilus agreed, and
left out the linch-pins of the chariot of Oeno
maus. In the race the chariot of Oenomaus
broke down, and he was thrown out and MUed.
Thus Hippodamia became the wife of Pelops.
But as Pelops had now gained Ms object, he
was unwUling to keep faith with Myrtilus ; and
accordingly as they were driving along a cliff he
threw MyrtUus into the sea. As MyrtUus sank,
he cursed Pelops and his whole race. (Soph. El.
504 ; Paus. v. 17, 4 ; Hyg. Fab. 84 ; Myetilus.)
Pelops returned with Hippodamia to Pisa in
EUs, and soon also made himself master of
Olympia, where he restored the Olympian
games with greater splendour than they had
ever been celebrated before (Pind. 01. ix. 10 ;
Paus. v. 8, 2). (3) The sons of Pelops. Chrys
ippus was the favourite of his father, and was
in consequence envied by his brothers. The
two eldest among them, Atreus and Thyestes,
with the connivance of Hippodamia, accord
ingly murdered Chrysippus, and threw his body
into a weU. Pelop.s, who suspected his sons of
the murder, expeUed them from the country.
Hippodamia, dreading the anger of her husband,
fled to Midea in Argolis, from whence her
remains were afterwards conveyed by Pelops to

PELTAE

669-

Olympia. (Schol. ad Eur. Or. 800, ad Eur.
Phoen. 1760 ; Paus. v. 8, 1, vi. 20, 4 ; Hyg.
Fab. 85, 248.) Pelops, after his death, was
honoured at Olympia above all other heroes.
His tomb with an iron sarcophagus existed on
the banks of the Alpheus, not far from the
temple of Artemis near Pisa. The spot on
which his sanctuary (TleXbiriov) stood in the
Altis was said to have been dedicated by
Heracles, who also offered to him the first
sacrifices. The magistrates of the Eleans
likewise offered to him there an annual sacri
fice, consisting of a black ram, with special
ceremonies (Paus. v. 13 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 2). The
name of Pelops was so celebrated that it was
constantly used by the poets in connexion with
Ms descendants and the cities they inhabited.
Hence we find Atreus, the son of Pelops, caUed
Pelopeius Atreus, and Agamemnon, the grand
son or great-grandson of Atreus, caUed Pelo
peius Agamemnon. In the same way Iphi-
genia, the daughter of Agamemnon, and Her
mione, the wife of Menelaus, are each called by
Ovid Pelopeia virgo. Virgil (Aen. ii. 193) uses
the phrase Pelopea moenia to signify the cities
to Peloponnesus whichPelops and his descend
ants ruled over ; and in like manner Mycenae
is called by Ovid Pelopeiades Mycenae. — To
these traditional accounts of Pelops must be
added the evidence from archaeological dis
coveries, especially those of recent years at.
Mycenae and Tieyns. These discoveries tend
to confirm the tradition of a Lydian or Phry
gian origin for the dynasty which reigned to
those cities (resemblances in art and architec
ture which have been traced between the
rematos found to these cities and to Asia Minor
have been noticed under Mycenae). On the
whole there is good ground for the story that
the founder of the Pelopid dynasty came from
Asia Minor : possibly, as tradition stated, from
the country of Mount Sipylus; and that the
civilisation of the Achaean princes (perhaps
also their gold) was brought from that country.
The traces of Egyptian and Phoenician in
fluence on their works of art may be ascribed
to commercial intercourse.
Peloris, Pelorias, or Pelorus (TleXapis,
TleXwpids, TliXapos : C. Faro), the NE. potot
of Sicfly, was NE. of Messana on the Fretum
Siculum, and one of the three promontories
wMch formed the triangular figure of the island.
According to the usual story it derived its name
from Pelorus, the pUot of Hannibal's ship, who
was buried here after being killed by Hannibal
in a fit of anger (Mel. ii. 7, 17 ; Val. Max. ix.
8, 1) ; but the name was more ancient than
Hannibal's time, being mentioned by Thucy
dides (iv. 25). On the promontory there was a
temple of Poseidon, and a tower, probably a
lighthouse, from which the modern name of the
Cape (Faro) has come.
Pelorus (TleXapos : prob. Lori or Luri), a
river of Iberia in Asia, probably a S. tributary
of the Cyrus (Kour). (Dio Cass, xxxvii. 2.)
Pelso or Peiso (Plattensee), a great lake in
Pannonia, the waters of which were conducted
toto the Danube by the emperor Galerius, who
thus gained a great quantity of fertile land for
his newly formed province of Valeria (Aurel.
Vict. Caes. 40 ; Plin. iii. 146).
Peltae (TleXrat : TleXrrivbs), an ancient and
flourisMng city of Asia Minor, in the N. of
Phrygia, ten parasangs from Celaenae (Xeno
phon), and the »ame place as the Pella of the
Peutinger Table, twenty-six Roman miles N. or
NE. of Apamea Cibotus, to the conventus of

•070

PELTUINUM

which it belonged. The surrounding district
is called by Strabo'Vo TleXrnvbv ireSiov. (Xen.
An. i. 2, 10 ; Strab. p. 576.) Its site is between
Kara Agatchlar and Yaka Keni.
Peltuinum (Peltuinas, -atis : Ansedonia), a
town of the Vestini in Italy (Plin. iii. 107).
P clusium (TlriXoio-iov : Egypt. Peremoun or
Peremai ; O. T. Sin : all these names are
derived from nouns meaning mud : Tl7jXovcr-
idrns; Pelusiota: Tineh, Ru.), a celebrated
city of Lower Egypt, stood on the E. side of the
easternmost mouth of the NUe, which was
caUed after it the Pelusiac mouth, twenty stadia
(two geogr. mUes) from the sea, in the midst of
morasses, from wMch it obtained its name
(Strab. p. 802; Ptol. iv. 6, 11, viii. 15, 11). As
the key of Egypt on the NE., and the frontier
city towards Syria and Arabia, it was strongly
fortified, and was the scene of many battles and
sieges in the wars of Egypt with Assyria,
Persia, Syria, and Rome, from the defeat of
Sennacherib near it by Sethon down to its
capture by Octavianus after the battle of
Actium (Strab. p. 604 ; Hdt. ii. 10 ; Diod. xv.
42, xvi. 43 ; Val. Max. ix. 1). Later it was the
capital of the district of Augustamnica. It was
the birthplace of the geographer Ptolemy.
Penates (strictly Dii Penates), the household
gods to the old ItaUan religion, both those of a
private family and those of the state, as the
great family of citizens. Hence we have to dis
tinguish between private and public Penates.
The name is connected with penus, the house
hold store of food, and cella penaria, the
store-room, which they protected and blessed
with increase. They were two to number,
and their images stood in old Roman houses
in the atrium (Varro, L. L. v. 162), the hearth
being for them, as for Vesta, their altar (Serv.
ad Aen. xi. 211). In later times they were
placed to the Mnder part or penetrate of the
house, whence Cicero, wMle he gives the true
etymology from penus, suggests also a false
one from penetrate (Cic. N. D. ii. 27, 68 ; cf.
Fest. p. 208; Serv. ad Aen. iii. 12). A pecu-
Uar sanctity attached to the place where their
images stood ; those who tended it or even
stepped into it should be chaste and pure
(Colum. xii. 4, 3 ; cf. Verg. Aen. i. 703). The
two state Penates of Rome had a temple in
the Velia, in which their images stood —
according ,to Dionysius i. 67, figures of two
young men with spears in their hands. Accord
ing to a tradition which probably started after
the legends from Greek cities of Italy began
to have their influence, the Penates were
brought from Troy to Lanuvium (where, no
«doubt, as in a religious centre of the Latin
religion, there was a specially ancient wor
ship of those true Italian deities), and it was
further imagined that the Penates had reached
Troy from Samothrace and were the Beoi
peyaXoi or Cabiri (Dionys. i. 67; Macrob. iii.
.4, 7, 9). To this should probably be referred
the expression of Virgil ' Cum patribus popu-
loque, Penatibus et Magnis Dis ' (Aen. viii.
679). For the private worship of the Penates
on the hearth a perpetual fire was kept up in
their honour, and the table always contained
the salt-cellar and the firstlings of fruit for
these divinities. Every meal that was taken in
the house thus resembled" a sacrifice offered to
the Penates, beginning with a purification and
ending with a libation which was poured either
on the table or upon the hearth. [Compare
Laees.] Peneis. [Daphne.]

PENEUS
Peneleos (TtriveXeas), son of Hippalcmus and
Asterope, and one of the Argonauts. He was
the father of Opheltes, and is also mentioned
among the suitors of Helen. (Apollod. i. 9, 16 ;
Paus. ix. 5, 8.) He was one of the leaders of
the Boeotians in the war against Troy, where he
slew Bioneus and Lycon, and was wounded by
Polydamas. (II. ii- 494, xix. 487.) He is said
to have been slato by Eurypylus, the son of
Telephus. Penelope (Tli)veXbirri, TleveXbirr), TlnveXbireia),
daughter of Icarius and Periboea of Sparta,
married Odysseus, king of Ithaca. [Respecting
her marriage, see Icaeius, No. 2.] By Odysseus
she had an only chUd, Telemachus, who was an
infant when her husband saUed agatost Troy.
During the long absence of her husband she
was beleaguered by numerous and importunate
suitors, whom she deceived by declaring that
she must finish a large robe wMch she was
making for Laertes, her father-to-law, before
she could make up her mind. During the day
time she accordingly worked at the robe, and

Penelope. (British Museum.)
in the night she undid the work of the day.
By this means she succeeded to putting off the
suitors. But at length her stratagem was
betrayed by her servants ; and when, in conse
quence, the faithful Penelope was pressed more
and more by the impatient suitors, Odysseus at
length arrived to Ithaca, after an absence of
twenty years. [For details see Odysseus.]
While the Odyssey describes Penelope as the
type of a faithful wife, some later writers repre
sent her as the reverse, and relate that by
Hermes or by the suitors she became the
mother of Pan (Lycophr. 772; Schol. ad
Hdt. ii. 145 ; Cic. ND. iii. 22, 55). They add
that Odysseus on his return repudiated her,
whereupon she went to Sparta, and thence to
Mantinea, where her tomb was shown in after-
times (Paus. viii. 12, 3). According to another
tradition, she married Telegonus, after he had
killed his father (Hyg. Fab. 127).
Peneus (Tlnveibs). 1. (Salambria or SaU
amria), the chief river of Thessaly, and one
of the most important in all Greece, rises near
Alalcomenae in Mt. Lacmon, a branch of Mt.
Pindus, flows first SE. and then NE. and after
receiving many affluents, of wMch the chief
were the Enipeus, the Lethaeus, and the Tita
resius, forces its way through the vale of Tempo

PENIUS
between Mts. Ossa and Olympus toto the sea.
[Tempe.] As a god Peneus was called a son of
Oceanus and Tethys (Hes. Th. 343). By the
Naiad Creusa he became the father of Hypseus,
Stilbe, and Daphne. Cyrene also is called by
some Ms wife, and by others Ms daughter ; and
hence Peneus is described as the genitor of
Aristaeus (Verg. Georg. iv. 855).— 2. (Gas-
tuni), a river in EUs, which rises on the frontiers
of Arcadia, flows by the town of Elis, and falls
toto the sea between the promontory Chelonatas
and_Ichthys (Strab. p. 338).
Penlus, a little river of Pontus falling into
the Euxine (Ovid, Pont. iv. 10, 47).
Penninae Alpes. [Alpes.]
Pennus, Junius. I. M.., praetor b.c. 201
(Liv. xxix. 11, xxxi. 4).— 2. M., son of No. 1,
praetor to Nearer Spain 172, consul 167 (Liv.
xhi. 9, xly. 16).— 3. M., son of No. 2, tribune in
126, carried, to opposition to C. Gracchus, a
law expelling aliens (peregrini) from Rome
(Cic. Off. Ui. 11, 47, Brut. 28, 109).
Pentapolis (TlevrdiroXis), the name for any

PEOS

671

sequence killed by the hero. Thereupon Dio
medes, a relative of Thersites, threw the body
of Penthesilea into the river Scamander ; but,
accordmg to other accounts, AcMUes himself
buried it on the banks of the Xanthus. (Tzetz.
ad Lye. 997 ; Amazones.)
Pentheus (TlevBeis), son of Echlon and
Agave, the daughter of Cadmus. He suc
ceeded Cadmus as king of Thebes ; and having
resisted the introduction of the worship of
Dionysus into his kingdom, he was driven mad
by the god, his palace was hurled to the ground,
and he himself was torn to pieces by his own
mother and her two sisters, Ino and Autonoe,
who in their Bacchic frenzy believed him to
be a wild beast. The place where Pentheus
suffered death is said to have been Mt. Cithae
ron or Mt. Parnassus. It is related that Pentheus
got upon a tree, for the purpose of witnessing
in secret the revelry of the Bacchic women,
but on being discovered by them was torn to
pieces. (Eur. Bacchae; Ov. Met. iii. 513;
ApoUod. iii. 5, 2; Hyg. Fab. 184; Nonn. Dionys.

The dying Penthesilea supported by Achilles. (From a sarcophagus found at Salonica.and now in Paris.

association of five cities, was applied specifically
to the five chief cities of Cyrenaica in N.
Africa, Cyrene, Beremce, Arsinoe, Ptolemais,
and ApolloMa, from wMch, under the Ptole
mies, Cyrenaica received the name of Penta-
poUs, or Pentapolis Libyae, or, in the Roman
writers, PentapoUtana Regio. [Cyeenaica.]
When the name occurs alone, tMs is its usual
meaning ; the other appUcations of it are rare.
Penteleum (TlevreXeiov), a fortified place in
the N. of Arcadia near Pheneus (Plut. Gleom.
17, Arat. 39).
Pentelicus Mons (rb TlevreXiKbv bpos : Pen-
teli), a mountain to Attica, celebrated for its
marble, wMch derived its name from the demus
of Pentele (TlevreX-n), lying on its S. slope. It
is a branch of Mt. Parnes, from which it runs
in a SE.-ly direction between Athens and Mara
thon to the coast. It was also called Brilessus
(BpiXrio-crbs). (Thuc. ii. 23 ; Strab. p. 399.)
Penthesilea (TlevBeo-iXeia), daughter of Ares
and Otrera, and queen of the Amazons (Hyg.
Fab. 112; Just. U. 4). After the death of
Hector, she came to the assistance of the Tro
jans, but was slain by AcMUes, who mourned
over the dying queen on account of her beauty,
youth, and valour (Diet. Cret. iii. 15, iv. 2 ;
Pane. v. 11, 2 ; Quint. Smyrn. i. 40). Thersites
ridiculed the grief of AcMUes, and was to con-

xlv. 46.) According to a Corinthian tradition,
the women were afterwards commanded by an
oracle to discover that tree, and to worship it
like the god Dionysus ; and accordingly out of
the tree two carved images of the god were
made. (Paus. ii. 2, 6.) This gives some sup
port to a theory advocated by some modern
writers, that Pentheus was origtoally Dionysus
himself,' the god of trees, and especiaUy of
vine-trees, torn by winter storms. It is simpler
to explain the myth as signifying the resistance
offered in certain districts to the worship of
Dionysus, when it was first introduced, of which
resistance Damascus, Lycurgus and Pentheus
are the types [see p. 294, b].
Penthilus (UevBiXos), son of Orestes and
Erigone, is said to have led a colony of Aeolians
to Ttoace. He was the father of Echelatus
and Damasias. (Paus. ii. 18, 5 ; Strab. p. 582.)
Pentri, one of the most important of the
tribes in Samnium, were conquered by the
Romans along with the other Samnites, and
were the only one of the Samnite tribes who
remained faithful to the Romans when the rest
of the nation revolted to Hannibal in the second
Punic war (Liv. ix. 31, xxii. 61). Their cMef
town was Bovianum.
Peos Artemidos (Tleos, probably corrupted
from Sirios, cave, 'AprepiSos: Beni Hassan,

672

PEPARETHUS

Ru.), a city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt
on the E. bank of the NUe, nearly opposite to
Hermopolis the Great on the W. bank. It is
remarkable as the site of rock-hewn catacombs,
the walls of wMch are covered with sculptures
and paintings of importance for elucidating
Egyptian antiquities.
¥ej>axeihUB(Tleirdpii8os: TleirapiiBios'. Piperi),
s, smaU island to the Aegaean sea, off the coast
of Thessaly, and of Halonesus, with a town of
the same name upon it and two other smaU
places (Thuc. iii. 89; Strab. p. 436). It pro
duced a quantity of wine. It is mentioned in
connexion with Halonesus in the war between
PMlip and the Athenians. [Halonesus.]
Pephnus (Tlecpvos), a town of Laconia, on the
E. coast of the Messenian gulf, some way N.
of Oetylus (Paus. iii. 26, 2).
Pephredo (TlecppnSd). [Geaeae.]
Pepuza (Tleirov(a : Ru. near Yannik Euren),
a city in the W. of PMygia, on the road be
tween Eumeneia and Stektorion.
Peraea (j) Tlepata, sc. yr) or xt"Pa, th-e country
on the opposite side), a general name for any
district belonging to or closely connected with a
country, from the main part of wMch it was sepa
rated by a sea or river, was used specificaUy for —
1. The part of Palestine E. of the Jordan to gene
ral, but usually to a more restricted sense, for a
part of the region — namely, the district between
the rivers Hieromax on the N., and Amon
on the S. — 2. Peraea Rhodiorum (q Tlepaia
rav 'PoSiuv), also called the Rhodian Cherso
nese a district in the S. of Caria, opposite to
the island of Rhodes, from Mt. Phoenix on the
W. to the frontier of Lycia on the E. (Strab. p.
651 ; Pol. xvii. 2, 6 ; Liv. xxxii. 33). TMs strip
of coast, which was reckoned 1500 stadia in
length (by sea), and was regarded as one of the
finest spots on the earth, was colonised by the
Rhodians at an early period, and was always in
close pohtical connexion with Rhodes even
under the successive rulers of Caria ; and'after
the victory of the Romans over Antiochus the
Great, B.C. 190, it was assigned, with the whole
of Carian Doris, to the independent republic of
the Rhodians. [Rhodus.] — 3, P. Tenediorum
(Tlepaia TeveSiav), a strip of the W. coast of
Mysia, opposite to the island of Tenedos, be
tween C. Sigeum on the N. and Alexandria
Troas on the S. (Strab. p. 596).
Percote (TlepKdrri, formerly TlepKdirn, accord
ing to Strabo : Borgas or Burgus, Turk., and
Percate, Grk.), a very ancient city of Mysia,
between Abydos and Lampsacus, near the
HeUespont, on a river called Percotes, to a
beautiful situation (II. ii. 835, xi. 229 ; Xen.
•Hell. v. 1, 23 ; Strab. p. 590).
Perdiccas (TlepS'iKKas) 1. I., the founder of
the Macedonian monarchy, according to Hero
dotus, though later writers represent Caranus
as the first king of Macedonia, and make Per
diccas only the fourth. [Caeanus.] According
to Herodotus, Perdiccas and his two brothers,
Gauanes and Ae'ropus, were Argives of the race
of Temenus, who settled near Mt. Bermius,
from whence they subdued the rest of Mace
donia (Herod, viii. 137, 138). It is clear, how
ever, that the dominions of Perdiccas and his
immediate successors comprised but a very
smaU part of the country subsequently known
under that name (Thuc. ii. 99). Perdiccas
was succeeded by his son Argaeus. — 2. II.,
Mng of Macedonia, from about B.C. 454 to 413,
was the son and successor of Alexander I.
Shortly before the beginning of the Pelopon
nesian war Perdiccas was at war with the

PERDIX
Athenians, who sent a force to support his
brother Philip and Derdas, a Macedonian
chieftain, agatost the king, while the latter es
poused the cause of Potidaea, which had
shaken off the Athenian yoke, b.c. 432 (Thuc.
i. 57-63; Diod. xii. 34). In the foUowing year
peace was concluded between Perdiccas and
the Athenians, but it did not last long, and he
was during the greater part of his reign on
hostUe terms with the Athenians. In 429 his
dominions were invaded by Sitalces, king of
the powerful Thracian tribe of the Odrysians,
but the enemy was compeUed, by want of pro
visions, to return home. (Thuc. U. 95-101 ; Diod.
xii. 50.) It was to great part at his instigation
that Brasidas to 424 set out on his celebrated
expedition to Macedonia and Ttoace. In the fol
lowing year (423), however, a misunderstanding
arose between Mm and Brasidas, in consequence
of which he abandoned the Spartan alliance,
and concluded peace with Athens. (Thuc. iv. 82,
103, 124-132.) Subsequently we find Mm at
one time in aUiance with the Spartans, and at
another time with the Athenians; and it is
evident that he joined one or other of the
beUigerent parties according to the dictates of
Ms own interest at the moment (Thuc. v. 80,
vi. 7, vii. 9). — 3. III., king of Macedonia, B.C.
364-359, was the second son of Amyntas II., by
his wife Eurydice. On the assassination of
Ms brother Alexander U. by Ptolemy of Alorus,
367, the crown of Macedonia devolved upon
him by hereditary right, but Ptolemy virtuaUy
enjoyed the sovereign power as guardian of
Perdiccas till 364, when the latter caused
Ptolemy to be put to death, and took the
government into his own hands (Just. vii. 4 ;
Diod. xv. 77, xvi. 2). Of the reign of Perdiccas
we have very little information. We learn otoy
that he was at one time engaged to hostiUties
with Athens on account of AmpMpoUs, and
that he was distinguished for his patronage of
men of letters (Aesch. F.L. 29). He feU in
battle agatost the Hlyrians, 359.-4. Son of
Orontes, a Macedonian of the provtoce of
Orestis, was one of the most distinguished of
the generals of Alexander the Great. He ac
compamed Alexander throughout tos campaigns
in Asia ; and the Mng on his death-bed is said
to have taken the royal signet ring from Ms
finger and given it to Perdiccas (Curt. x. 5, 4 ;
Just. xii. 15). After the death of the king
(323), Perdiccas had the chief authority en
trusted to him under the command of the new
Mng Arrhidaeus, who was a mere puppet to Ms
hands, and he still further strengthened his
power by the assassination of his rival Me
leager. [Meleagee.] The other generals of
Alexander regarded him with fear and sus
picion ; and at length his ambitious schemes
induced Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, to
unite in a league and declare open war against
Perdiccas. Thus assailed on aU sides, Per
diccas determined to leave Eumenes in Asia
Minor, to make head agatost their common
enemies in that quarter, wtole he himself
marched into Egypt against Ptolemy, He ad
vanced without opposition as far as Pelusium,
but found the banks of the NUe strongly forti
fied and guarded by Ptolemy, and was repulsed
in repeated attempts to force the passage of
the river ; in the last of wMch, near Memphis,
he lost great numbers of men. Thereupon his
troops, who had long been discontented with
Perdiccas, rose in mutiny and put him to death.
(Diod. xviii. 14-36 ; Just. xii. 6, 8.)
Perdix (ne'p5i|), the sister of Daedalus and

PEREGRINUS
mother of Talos, the legends of whose death
appear to have grown out of an attempt to
explain the presence of Daedalus, as type of
primitive art, in Crete as weU as Attica. [Dae
dalus.] For the story, see Talos. Perdix her
self probably formed some part of the myths
about birds, prevalent especiaUy at Athens and
generally connected with somethtog to the notes
or habits of birds. It was probably a misinter
pretation of the legend wMoh made Perdix the
nephew of Daedalus with the same story as
Talos (Ov. Met. vin. 241).
Peregrinus Protens, a Cyme philosopher,
born at Parium, on the HeUespont, to the reign
of the AntontoeB. After a youth spent in debau
chery and crimes, he visited Palestine, where
he turned Christian, and by dint of hypocrisy
attained to some authority to the Church. He
next assumed the Cynic garb, and returned to
his own native town, where, to obUterate the
memory of Ms crimes, he divided Ms inheri
tance among the populace. He again set out
on his travels, and after visiting many places,
and adopting every method to make himself
conspicuous, he at length resolved on pubUcly
burning himself at the Olympic games, and
carried Ms resolution toto effect to the 236th
Olympiad, aj>. 165. Lucian, who was present
at the strange self -immolation of Peregrinus,
has left us an account of his life. GelUus, who
attended Ms lectures at Athens, commends the
sincerity of Ms character and teaching. (GeU.
xi. 12 ; Lucian, de Mart. Peregrin)
Perenna, Anna. [Anna.]
Perennis, succeeded Paternus to a.d. 183, as
sole praefect of the praetorians, and, Commo
dus betog completely sunk to debauchery and
sloth, virtually ruled the empire. Having, how
ever, rendered himself obnoxious to the soldiery,
he was put to death by them in 186 or 187.
Dio Cassius represents Perennis as a man of
pure and upright life ; but the other Mstorians
charge him with having encouraged the emperor
to Ms career of profligacy. (Dio Cass, lxxii. 9 ;
Vit. Commod. 5, 6.)
Perga (Tlepryr) : Tlepyaios : Murtana, Ru.), an
ancient and important city of PamphyUa, lay a
Uttle inland, NE. of Attalia, between the rivers
Catarrhactes and Cestrus, sixty stadia (six geog.
miles) from the mouth of the former. It was
a celebrated seat of the worship of Artemis
(Strab. p. 667; CaUin. Hymn, in Dian. 187).
On an eminence near the city stood a very
ancient and renowned temple of the goddess,
at which a yearly festival was celebrated ; and
the coins of Perga bear images of the goddess
and her temple. Under the later Roman em
pire, it was the capital of PamphyUa Secunda.
It was the first place in Asia Minor visited by
the apostle Paul on his first missionary jour
ney (Acts, xiii. 13 ; see also xiv. 25). There are
considerable ruins of the city about sixteen
miles NE. of Adalia.
Pergama, Pergamia, Pergamon = Uium
[Teoja]. Pergamum, 1. less usually Pergamus (nep-ya-
pov to Polybius, Strabo, Appian, Josephus,
AeUan and Plutarch ; r) Tlepyapos to Dio Cas
sius and Ptolemy : Bergavma), a celebrated city
of Asia Minor, the capital of the kingdom of
Pergamus, and afterwards of the Roman pro
vince of Asia, was situated to the district of S.
Mytia called Teuthrania, in one of the most
beautiful and fertile vaUeys in the world. It
stood on the N. bank of the river Caicus, at a
spot where that river receives the united waters
of two smaU tributaries, the SeUnus, wMch

PERGAMUM

673

flowed through the city, and the Cetius, which
washed its walls. The navigable river Caicus
connected it with the Bea, at the Elaitic Gulf,
from which its distance was somewhat less
than twenty miles. (Strab. pp. 619, 624 ; Plin. v.
126 ; Paus. vi. 16, 1 ; Liv. xxxvii. 18.) It was
built at the foot, and on the lowest slopes, of
two steep hills, spurs of Mt. Pindasus (Paus.
ii. 26, 8 ; Plin. v. 126), on one of which stood
the upper town, or acropoUs, the Mghest por
tion of which was the original settlement with
a wall of its own. The upper town was en
larged after the kingdom was established,
and spread under Eumenes II. still further.
Under the Roman dominion the town extended
over a large area in the plain. In this upper
town the most noticeable buildings were the
central Agora with the great altar of Zeus, the
temple of Dionysus to the south, and to the
north the great temple of Athene, beyond
which was the famous library. North of this
was the Augusteum or temple of Augustus and
Rome, later known as the Trojaneum, a vast
building on a terrace 300 yards long. N. of tMs,
and on the highest point, was the smaller Julian
temple. The theatre stood on the western
slope below the library and the temple of
Athene, and to the west of it was a great ter
race running aU along the slope from the
temple of Dionysus to that of Augustus. Much
further down the south slope was the gym
nasium, which belonged to the lower town.
TMs lower town occupied much of the ground
now covered by the modern town and conse
quently not excavated, and it extended across
the river Selinus, on the W. side of which were
an amphitheatre, circus, Roman theatre, and
stiU further west the temple of Asclepius. — The
origin of the city is lost in mythical traditions,
which ascribed its foundation to a colony from
Arcadia under the Heracleid Telephus, and its
name to Pergamus, a son of Pyrrhus and
Andromache, who made himself king of Teu
thrania by killing the Mng Arius in stogie com
bat (Paus. i. 4, 5, i. 11, 2). At all events, it was
already in the time of Xenophon a very
ancient city, with a mixed population of Teu-
thranians and Greeks (Xen. An. vii. 8, 8, Hell.
Ui. 1, 6) ; but it was not a place of much im
portance until the time of the successors of
Alexander. After the defeat of Antigonus at
Ipsus, in 301, the NW. part of Asia Minor was
united to the Thracian kingdom of Lysimachus,
who enlarged and beautified the city of Perga
mum, and used the acropoUs as a treasury on
account of its strength as a fortress. The
command of the fortress was entrusted to
Phtletaeeus, who, towards the end of the
reign of Lysimachus, revolted to Seleu
cus, king of Syria, retaining, however, the
fortress of Pergamum in his own hands ; and
upon the death of Seleucus, in 280, Philetaerus,
established himself as an independent ruler.
This is the date of the commencement of the
Mngdom of Pergamus, though the royal title
was only assumed by the second successor of
PMletaerus, Attalus I., after Ms great victory
over the Gauls. The successive kings of
Pergamum were : Phtletaeeus, 280-263 ; Eu
menes I., 263-241; Attalus I., 241-197; Eu
menes II., 197-159 ; Attalus II. Philadelphus,
159-138 ; Attalus HI. Phtlometoe, 138-133.
For the outline of their history see the articles.
The kingdom reached its greatest extent after
the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the
Romans, in B.C. 190, when the Romans be
stowed upon Eumenes II. the whole of Mysia,
XX

674

PERGAMUS

Lydia, both Phrygias, Lycaonia, Pisidia and
Pamphylia. It was under the same Mng that
Pergamum reached the height of its splendour,
and that the celebrated Ubrary waB founded,
which for a long time rivaUed that of Alexan
dria, and the formation of which occasioned
the invention of parchment, charta Perga-
mena. TMs library was afterwards united to
that of Alexandria, having been presented by
Antony to Cleopatra. During its existence at
Pergamum, it formed the centre of a great
school of literature, which rivaUed that of
Alexandria. On the death of Attalus III. in
B.C. 133, the kingdom, by a bequest in Ms wiU,
passed to the Romans, who took possession of
it in 130 after a contest with the usurper Ari
stonicus, and erected it into the province of
Asia, with the city of Pergamum for its capital,
which continued in such prosperity that PUny
caUs it ( longe clarissimum Asiae.' The temple
of Augustus at Pergamum was the chief
sanctuary of the imperial worship in the pro
vince of Asia : the people of Pergamum were
the chief temple-servants or veaKbpot of the
emperors (Tac. Ann. iv. 87 ; Dio Cass. U. 20 ;
C.I.G. 1720, 2810). The city was an early seat
of Christianity, and is one of the Seven
Churches of Asia. Under the Byzantine em
perors, the capital of the province of Asia was
transferred to Ephesus, and Pergamum lost
much of its importance. Among the celebrated
natives of the city were the rhetorician Apollo
dorus and the physician Galen. But the most
important proofs of the ancient splendour of
Pergamum and of the magnificence of Attalus
and Eumenes as patrons of art have been
afforded by the excavations undertaken by the
Prussian Government and carried out by
Hamann, Conze, and others in 1871-1878.
These excavations have established the sites of
the buildings mentioned above, and have re
covered to great measure their dimensions and
plans, so that a reconstruction of the arcM-
tecture can be made with tolerable certainty.
Besides this, important sculptures of the Per-
gamene school have been recovered : especiaUy
the splendid colossal sculptures in high relief,
now at Berlin, from the platform of the great
altar of Zeus built by Eumenes II. They repre
sent the battle of the gods and giants [see cut on
p. 364]. In these, as also in the statues of
vanquished Gauls dedicated by Attalus (of
which the best known are the ' Dying Gaul ' to
the Capitol of Rome, often called the ' Dying
Gladiator,' and another at Venice), the tendency
of the Pergamene school to portray dramatically
pathos, passion and excitement is evident
[Did. of Ant. art. Statuaria Ars], — 2. A very
ancient city of Crete, the foundation of wMch
was ascribed to the Trojans who survived their
city. The legislator Lycurgus was said to have
died here, and his grave was shown. The site
of the city is doubtful. Some place it at
Pera/ma. others at Platania. (Verg. Aen. in.
133 ; Veil. Pat. i. 1 : Plut. Lye. 32.)
Pergamus. [Peegamum.]
Perge. [Peega.]
Periander (TleplavSpos). 1. Son of Cypselus,
whom he succeeded as tyrant of Corinth, B.C.
625, and reigned forty years, to B.C. 585. His
rule was mild and beneficent at first, but after
wards became oppressive. According to the
common story this change was owing to the
advice of Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus,
whom Periander had consulted on the best
mode of maintaining his power, and who is
said to have taken the messenger through a

PERICLES
corn-field, cutting off, as he went, the tallest
ears, and then to have dismissed torn without
committing himself to a verbal answer (Hdt. v.
92). The action, however, was rightly inter
preted by Periander, who proceeded to rid him
self of the most powerful nobles to the state.
He made his power dreaded abroad as weU as
at home ; and besides Ms conquest of Epi
daurus, mentioned below, he kept Corcyra to
subjection, and he planted a colony at Poti-
daea. He was, Uke many of the other Greek
tyrants, a patron of Uterature and pMlosophy;
and Arion and Anacharsis were in favour at
his court. He was very commonly reckoned
among the Seven Sages, though by some he
was excluded from their number, and Myson of
Chenae in Laconia was substituted to his room.
The private life of Periander was marked by
misfortune and cruelty. He married Melissa,
daughter of Procles, tyrant of Epidaurus.
She bore him two sons, Cypselus and Lyco
phron, and was passionately beloved by him ;
but he is said to have MUed her by a blow
during her pregnancy, having been roused to a
fit of anger by a false accusation brought
against her. His wife's death embittered the
remainder of his days, partly through the re
morse which he felt for the deed, partly through
the alienation of his younger son, LycopMon,
inexorably exasperated by his mother's fata
The young man's anger had been cMefly ex
cited by Procles, and Periander in revenge
attacked Epidaurus, and, having reduced it,
took his father-to-law prisoner. Periander sent
Lycophron to Corcyra ; but when he was him
self advanced in years, he summoned Lyco
phron back to Corinth to succeed to the ty
ranny, seeing that Cypselus, his elder son, was
unfit to hold it, from deficiency of understand
ing. Lycophron refused to return to Corinth,
as long as his father was there. Thereupon
Periander offered to withdraw to Corcyra, if
LycopMon would come home and take the
government. To tMs he assented; but the
Coreyraeans, not wishing to have Periander
among them, put Lycophron to death. Perian
der shortly afterwards died of despondency, at
the age of eighty, and after a reign of forty
years, according to Diogenes Laertius. He was
succeeded by a relative, Psammetichus, son of
Gordias. (Hdt. iii. 48-53, v. 92 ; Ar. Pol. v. 12.)
— 2. Tyrant of Ambracia, was contemporary
with Ms more famous namesake of Corinth, to
whom he was also related, betog the son of
Gorgus, who was son or brother to Cypselus.
Periander was deposed by the people, probably
after the death of the Corinthian tyrant (585).
(Ar. Po7. v. 4, 10 ; Ael. V.H. xii. 35.)
Periboea (TteptBoia). 1. Wife of Icarius, and
mother of Penelope. [Icaeius, No. 2.] —
2. Daughter of Alcathous, and wife of Telamon,
by whom she became the mother of Ajax and
Teucer. Some writerB call her Eriboea. (Paus.
i. 42, 1.) — 3. Daughter of Hipponous, and wife
of Oeneus, by whom she became the mother of
Tydeus. [Oeneus.] — 4. Wife of king Polybus
of Corinth (Apollod. iii. 5, 7).
Pericles (TlepiKXris). 1. The greatest of Athe
nian statesmen, was the son of Xanthippus, and
Agariste, both of whom belonged to the noblest
families of Athens. The fortune of his parents
procured for him a careful education, which Ms
extraordinary abilities and dUigence turned to
the best account. He received instruction from
Damon, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras. With
Anaxagoras he lived on terms of the most inti
mate friendsMp, till the pMlosopher was com-

PERICLES

675

pelled to retire from Athens. From this great
and original thinker Pericles was believed to
have derived not only the cast of his mind, but
the character of his eloquence, wMch, to the
elevation of its sentiments and the purity and
loftiness of its style, was the fitting expression
of the force and dignity of his character and
the grandeur of Ms conceptions. Of the oratory
of Pericles no specimens remain to us, but it is
described by ancient writers as characterised
by singular force and energy. He was described
as thundering and hghtning when he spoke, and
as carrying the weapons of Zeus upon his
tongue. (Aristoph. Ach. 503; Cic. de Or. iii.
84 ; Plut. Moral, p. 118 ; QuintU. x. 1, 82.) In
B.C. 469, Pericles began to take port in pubUc
affairs, forty years before Ms death, and was soon
regarded as the head of the more democratical
party to the state, to opposition to Cimon
(Aristot. 'A8. iroX. 27). He gained the favour of
the people by the laws which he got passed for
their benefit. It was at his instigation that his
friend Ephialtes proposed to 461 the measure
by wMch the Areopagus was deprived of those
functions wMch rendered it formidable as an
antagonist to the democratical party. TMs
success was foUowed by the ostracism of Cimon,
who was charged with Laconism ; and Pericles
was thus placed at the head of public affairs at
Athens. His other cMef democratic measures
were the opening of the archonsMp to the
Zeugitae as weU as to the wealttoer classes,
and even to men below the Zeugitae, the pay
ment of Dicasteries to order to attract aU citizens
to take port to legal business, and a system of
state doles (analogous to those which were
pushed to an extreme to a later age at Rome) by
grants of money at festivals sufficient to provide
the poorer citizens with seats to the theatre and
with food for the festal days. Pericles was dis
tinguished as a general as weU as a statesman,
and frequently commanded the Athenian ar
mies to their wars with the neighbouring states.
In 454 he commanded the Athenians in their
campaigns agatost the Sicyonians and Acarna-
nians ; in 448 he led the army wMch assisted
the Phocians in the Sacred war ; and to 445 he
rendered the most signal service to the state by
recovering the island of Euboea, wMch had
revolted from Athens. Cimon had been pre
viously recaUed from exUe, without any oppo
sition from Pericles, but had died in 449. On
Ms death the aristocratical party was headed
by Thucydides, the son of Melesias, but on the
ostracism of the latter in 444, the organised
opposition of the aristocratical party was broken
up, and Pericles was left without a rival.
Throughout the remainder of his political course
no one appeared to contest Ms supremacy ; but
the boundless influence wMch he possessed was
never perverted by him to sinister or unworthy
purposes. So far from betog a mere selfish
demagogue, he neither indulged nor courted the
multitude. The next important event in which
Pericles was engaged was the war against
Samos, wMch had revolted from Athens, and
wMch he subdued after an arduous campaign,
440. The poet Sophocles was one of the
generals who fought with Pericles against
Samos. (Thuc. i. 115-117 ; Diod. xii. 27.) For
the next ten years tiU the outbreak of the
Peloponnesian war, the Athenians were not
engaged in any considerable military operations.
Durtog this period Pericles devoted especial
attention to the Atheman navy, as her supre
macy rested on her maritime superiority, and
he adopted various judicious means for consoU-

dating her empire over the islands of the
Aegaean. He strengthened the hold of Athens
in various districts by establishing the settle
ments of citizens called Gleruchies, to Euboea
and in Thracian Chersonese, and by planting
colonies at Amphipolis, Sinope, and even in
Italy at Thurii. The funds derived from the
tribute of the allies and from other sources were
to a large extent devoted by Mm to the erection
of those magnificent temples and public buUd-
ings which rendered Athens the wonder and
admiration of Greece. Under Ms adminis
tration the Propylaea, and the Parthenon, and
the Odeum were erected, as well as numerous
other temples and public buildings. With the
stimulus afforded ty these works architecture
and sculpture reached their highest perfection,
and some of the greatest artists of antiquity
were employed in erecting or adorning the
buildings. The cMef direction of the public
edifices was entrusted to Phidias. [Phidias.]
These works, caUing into activity almost every
branch of industry and commerce at Athens,
diffused universal prosperity wMle they pro-
ceeded, and thus contributed in tMs, as well as
in other ways, to maintain the popularity and
influence of Pericles. But he BtiU had many
enemies, who were not slow to impute to him
base and unworthy motives. From the comic
poets Pericles had to sustain numerous attacks.
They exaggerated his power, spoke of his party
as Pisistratids, and called upon him to swear
that he was not about to assume the tyranny.
His Mgh character and strict probity, however,
rendered aU these attacks harmless. But as his
enemies were unable to ruin his reputation by
these means, they attacked him through his
friends. Thus at the beginning of the Pelo
ponnesian war his friends Phidias and Anaxa
goras, and Ms mistress Aspasia, were aU accused
before the people. Phidias was condemned and
cast toto prison [Phidias] ; Anaxagoras was
also sentenced to pay a fine and quit Athens
[Anaxagoeas] ; and Aspasia was only acquitted
through the entreaties and tears of Pericles.
(Plut. Pericl. 24 ; Diod. xii. 39 ; Athen. p. 589.)
The Peloponnesian war has been falsely as
cribed to the ambitious schemes of Pericles.
It is true that he counselled the Athenians not
to yield to the demands of the Lacedaemonians,
and he pointed out the immense advantages
which the Athenians possessed to carrying on
the war ; but he did this because he saw that
war was inevitable, and that as long as Athens
retained the great power which she then
possessed, Sparta would never rest contented.
On the outbreak of the war in 431 a Pelopon
nesian army under Archidamus invaded Attica ;
and upon his advice the Athenians conveyed
their moveable property into the city, and their
cattle and beasts of burden to Euboea, and
aUowed the Peloponnesians to desolate Attica
without opposition. Next year (430), when the
Peloponnesians again invaded Attica, Pericles
pursued the same policy as before. In this
summer the plague made its appearance in
Athens. The Athenians, being exposed to the
devastation of the war and the plague at the
same time, began to turn their thoughts to
peace, and looked upon Pericles as the author
of all their distresses, inasmuch as he had per
suaded them to go to war. Pericles attempted
to calm the public ferment ; but such was the
irritation against him that he was sentenced to
pay a fine. (Thuc. ii. 64 ; Plut. 7.c.) The ill
feeling of the people having found this vent,
Pericles soon resumed Ms accustomed sway,
xxa

676

PERICLTMENUS

and was again elected one of the generals for
the ensuing year (429). Meantime Pericles
had suffered in common with Ms feUow-citizens.
The plague carried off most of his near con
nexions. His son Xanthippus, a profligate and
undutiful youth, Ms sister, and most of Ms
intimate friends died of it. StiU he maintained
unmoved his caMi bearing and pMlosopMc com
posure. At last his only surviving legitimate
son, Paralus, a youth of greater promise than
his brother, fell a victim. The firmness of
Pericles then at last gave way ; as he placed
the funeral garland on the head of the lifeless
youth he burst toto tears and sobbed aloud.
He had one son remaining, his cMld by Aspasia ;
and he was aUowed to enrol this son to his own
tribe and give him his own name. In the
autumn of 429 Pericles Mmself died of a linger
ing sickness. When at the point of death, as
his friends were gathered round his bed, recall
ing his virtues and enumerating his triumphs,
Pericles overhearing their remarks, said that
they had forgotten his greatest praise : that no
Athenian through his means had been made to
put on mourning. He survived the commence
ment of the war two years and six months.
(Thuc. ii. 65.) The name of the wife of Pericles is
not mentioned. She had been the wife of Hip
ponicus, by whom she was the mother of CaUias.
She bore two sons to Pericles, Xanthippus and
Paralus. She lived unhappily with Pericles,
and a divorce took place by mutual consent,
when Pericles connected himself with Aspasia.
Of Ms strict probity he left the decisive proof
in the fact that at his death he was found not
to have added a single drachma to Ms heredi
tary property. The people by a revulsion of
feeling showed their honour for Ms memory by
a decree which legitimatised his son by Aspasia.
— 2. Son of the preceding, by Aspasia, was one
of the generals at the battle of Arginusae, and
was put to death by the Athenians with the
other generals, 406.
Periclyinenus (TlepiKXipevos). 1. One of the
Argonauts, was son of Neleus and Chloris, and
brother of Nestor (Od. xi. 285). Poseidon gave
him the power of changing himself into different
forms, and conferred upon him great strength,
but he was nevertheless slain by Heracles at
the capture of Pylos. (Apollod. i. 9, 9 ; Ov.
Met. xii. 556-576; Ap. Rh.' i. 156.)— 2. Son of
Poseidon and CMoris, the daughter of Tiresias,
of Thebes. In the war of the Seven against
Thebes he was believed to have MUed Parthe
nopaeus ; and when he pursued AmpMaraus, the
latter by the command of Zeus was swallowed
up by the earth. (Eur. Phoen. 1157 ; Paus. ix.
18, 6 ; Amphiaeaus.)
Perieres (Tlepi4)pr)s), son of Aeolus and
Enarete, king of Messene, was the father of
Aphareus and Leucippus by Gorgophone. In
some traditions Perieres was called a son of
Cynortas, and besides the sons above mentioned
he is also the father of Tyndareos and Icarius.
(Apollod. i. 7, 8, iii. 10, 3 ; Paus. iv. 2, 2.)
Perilaus (TleplXaos), son of Icarius, and
brother of Penelope (Paus. viii. 84, 2).
Perilius (TlepiXXos), a statuary, was the maker
of the bronze buU of the tyrant Phalaris, re
specting which see further under Phalaeis.
Like the makers of other instruments of death,
Perilius is said to have become one of the vic
tims of Mb own handiwork. (Ov. A. A. i. 658.)
Perinthus (TlipivBos : UepivBios : Eregli), an
important town in TMace on the Propontis,
was founded by the Samians about b.c. 559 (Plut.
Q. G. 56). It was situated twenty-two miles

PERPERNA
W. of Selymbria on a small peninsula, and was
built on the slope of a MU with rows of houses
rising above each other like seats in an amphi
theatre. It is celebrated for the obstinate
resistance which it offered to PMlip of Macedon,
at which time it was a more powerful place than
Byzantium. (Diod. xvi. 74 ; Plut. Phoc. 14 ;
Procop. Aed. iv. 9.) Under the Romans it stiU
continued to be a flourishing town, being the
point at which most of the roads met leading to
Byzantium. The commercial importance of
the town is attested by the number of its coins
which are still extant. At a later time, but not
earlier than the fourth century of the Ctoistian
era, we find it called Heraclea, wMch occurs
sometimes alone without any addition and some
times in the form of Heraclea Thraciae or
Heraclea Perinthus.
Periphas (Tleplcpas), an Attic autochthon, pre
vious to the time of Cecrops, was a priest of
Apollo, and on account of his virtues was made
king of the country. In consequence of the
honours paid to him, Zeus wished to destroy
him, but at the request of ApoUo he was
changed by Zeus into an eagle, and Ms wife
into a bird. (Ant. Lib. 6 ; Ov. Met. vii. 400.)
Periphetes (Tlepicpijrris), son of Hephaestus
and Anticlea, surnamed Corynetes — that is,
Club-bearer — was a robber at Epidaurus, who
slew travellers with an iron club. Theseus at
last killed him and took his club for Ms own
use. [Theseus.]
Permessus (Tleppncro-bs : Kef atari), a river in
Boeotia, wMch descends from Mt. Helicon,
unites with the Olmius, and falls into the lake
Copais near Haliartus (Strab. pp. 407, 411).
Perne (Tlepvri), a little island off the coast of
Ionia, opposite to the territory of MUetus, to
which an earthquake united it (PUn. ii. 204).
Pero (Ttnpd), daughter of Neleus and CMoris,
was married to Bias, and celebrated for her
beauty (Od. xi. 286 ; Paus. x. 31, 9).
Perorsi (Ilepopcroi), a people on the coast of
Africa, opposite the Ins. Fortunatae (Ptol. iv. 6,
16). Perperena (Tlepirepiiva, and other forms), a
small town of Mysia, S. of Adramyttium, near
which were copper-mines and celebrated vine
yards. Said to be the place at which Thu
cydides died. (Strab. p. 607 ; Plin. v. 122.)
Perperna or Perpenna. I. M., praetor b.c.
135, when he carried on war agatost the slaves
in SicUy; and consul 130, when he defeated
Aristonicus in Asia, and took him prisoner.
He died near Pergamum on his return to Rome
in 129. (Liv. Ep. 59 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 4 ; Just.
xxxvi. 4.) — 2. MT, son of the last, consul 92,
and censor 86. He is mentioned by ancient
writers as an instance of longevity. He attained
the age of 98 years, and died to 49, the year in
which the Civil war broke out between Caesar
and Pompey. (Val. Max. viii. 13 ; Dio Cass.
xii. 14 : Plin. vii. 156.) He took no prominent
part to the agitated times to wMch he lived. —
3. M. Perperna Vento, son of the last, joined
the Marian party in the Civil war, and was
raised to the praetorsMp. After the conquest
of Italy by SuUa, in 82, Perperna fled to SicUy,
which he quitted, however, upon the arrival of
Pompey shortly afterwards. On the death of
SuUa, in 78, Perperna joined the consul M.
Lepidus in his attempt to overthrow the new
aristocratical constitution, and retired with him
to Sardinia on the failure of this attempt.
Lepidus died to Sardinia in the foUowing year,
77, and Perperna with the rematos of his army
crossed over to Spain and joined Sertorius.

PERRHAEBI
Perperna was jealous of the ascendency of
Sertorius, and after serving under him some
years he and his friends assassinated Sertorius
at a banquet to 72. His death brought the war
to a close. Perperna was defeated by Pompey,
taken prisoner, and put to death. (App. B. C.
i. 107-115 ; Plut. Pomp. 10, 20, Sert. 15-27.)
Perrhaebi (JleppaiBoi or TlepaiBoi), a powerful
and warlike people, who from prehistoric times
occupied a part of Thessaly. According to
Strabo they had been driven to the more
mountainous north of Thessaly from the south
by the Lapithae (Strab. pp. 61, 489, 440);
migrated from Euboea to the mainland, and
settled in the districts of Hestiaeotis and
Pelasgiotis. Hence the northern part of this
country is frequently caUed Perrhaebia (nep-
paiB'ia, TlepaiBla), though it never formed one
of the regular ThessaUan provinces. (Thuc. iv.
78 ; Liv. xxxi. 43.) Homer places the Perrhaebi
in the neighbourhood of the Thessalian Dodona
and the river Titaresius (17. ii. 749) ; and at a
later time the name of Perrhaebia was applied
to the district bounded by Macedonia and the
Cambunian mountains on the N., by Pindus on
the W., by the Peneus on the S. and SE., and
by the Peneus and Ossa on the E. The Per
rhaebi were members of the Amphictyomc
League. At an early period they were subdued
by the Lapithae ; at the time of the Pelopon
nesian war they were subject to the Thessalians,
and subsequently to Philip of Macedon; but at
the time of the Roman wars in Greece they
appear independent of Macedoma.
Perrhldae (TlepplSat), an Attic demus near
Aphidna, belonging to the tribe AntiocMs.

PERSEPHONE

617

when the city was taken by Aratus, B.C. 248.
(Paus. ii. 8, 4, vii. 8, 8 ; Athen. pp. 162, 607.)
Perse (Tlepori), daughter of Oceanus, and wife
of Helios (the Sun), by whom she became the
mother of Aeetes and Circe (Od. ix. 189;
Hes. Th. 356, 956). Also called the mother
of Pasiphae and Perses (Apollod. i. 9, 1).
Perseis. [Hecate.]
Persephone (Tlepaecpbvn.), called Proserpina
by the Romans, the daughter of Zeus and
Demeter. In Homer she is caUed Persephonia
(Tlepcrecpbveia) ; the form Persephone first
occurs to Hesiod. But besides these forms of
the name, we also find Persephassa, Pherse-
phassa, Persephatta, Phersephatta, Pherre-
phassa, Pherephatta, and Phersephonia. The
Latin Proserpina is probably only a corruption
of the Greek, for which later etymologists
sought an explanation in the word proserpo,
signifying the germination of the seed (August.
C. D. iv. 8, vii. 20 ; Amob. iii. 38). The name
Kore (Kbpri, Ion. Koiprj), that is, the Daughter,
namely, of Demeter, was adopted in Attica
when the Eleusinian mysteries were introduced,
and the two were frequently caUed The Mother
and the Daughter (f) Mnri/p Kal n Kbpri).
Homer describes her as the wife of Hades, and
the dread and terrible queen of the Shades,
who rules over the souls of the dead, along with
her husband (II. ix. 457, 565 ; Od. x. 494, xi.
634). Her epithets in the Iliad are iiraivf)
(which is best explained as meaning ' awful'),
and in the Odyssey iiraivl) and dyavii (by which
the same idea is intended), and once dyvi].
Hence she is caUed by later writers Juno In-
ferna, Averna, and Stygia; and the Erinnyes are

Persephone enthroned. (Gerhard, Archaolog. Zeit. tav. 11.)

Persabora or Perisabora (Tlepo-aBdpa:
Anbar), a fortified city of Babylonia, on the W.
side of the Euphrates, where the canal caUed
Maarsares left the river (Zos. iii. 17).
Persae. [Pebsis.]
Persaeus (Tlepo-dios), a Stoic pMlosopher,
was a native of Cittium in Crete, and a disciple
of Zeno. He lived for some years at the court
of Antigonus Gonatas, with whom he was in
high favour. Antigonus appointed him to the
¦cMef command to Corinth, where he was slain

said to have been her daughters by Pluto. In
tMs account Homer probably follows the older
conception of the goddess, whose very name is
by some writers connected with death. There is
no trace in the Homeric poems of her being
regarded as the daughter of Demeter ; stiU less
of her being in any sense a beneficent deity.
Homer speaks of her as the daughter of Zeus
(Od. xi. 217), and it is possible that he regarded
her as the daughter of Zeus and Styx, as some
traditions did (ApoUod. i. 3, 1). Her grim

678

PERSEPOLIS

character appears also in the ancient Arcadian
worsMp, where she was called Aecriroiva, and
was described as the daughter of Demeter
Erinys and Poseidon (Paus. viii. 37). Her
abode, the realm of the dead, is described in
the Hiad as beneath the earth ; in the Odyssey
the entrance to it seems to be placed at the
western extremil-y of the earth, on the frontiers
of the lower world, The story of her being
carried off by Hades or Pluto against her will
is not mentioned by Homer, unless those are
right who believe that the Homeric epithet
KXvrbtraXos, applied to Hades, has tMs refer
ence (77. v. 654 ; Schol. ad loc). The earUest
definite mention of it is in Hesiod (Th. 912). The
manner to wMch she was carried off while she
was gathering flowers (traditionally the narcissus
as the flower of death : see p. 586, b), the scene
of tMs event, the wanderings of her mother in
search of her, and the worsMp of the two god
desses in Attica at the festival of the Eleusinia,
are related under Demetee. In the mystical
theories of the Orphics, Persephone is described
as the all-pervading goddess of nature, who
both produces and destroys everyttong; and
she is therefore connected, or identified with,
other mystic divinities, such as Isis, Rhea,
Ge, Hestia, Pandora, Artemis, Hecate. This
mystic Persephone is further said to have be
come by Zeus the mother of Dionysus, Iacchus,
Zagreus or Sabazius. (Schol. ad Aristoph.
Ban. 326 ; Nonn. Dionys. xxxi. 67 ; Cic. N. D.
iii. 23, 58 ; Diod. iv. 4). The Romans adopted
the legends of Persephone, whom they called
Proserpina [see above], but compared her with
their own deity Libera [see p. 488, a]. The
myth of Persephone, as fully developed in the
Hymn to Demeter, and in later poems, ex
pressed the renewal of vegetation in spring,
especially of the corn, after it has been buried
underground to the winter, and this again in
the mysteries was probably carried further so
as to symbolise a future life [see more fully on
pp. 277, b ; 375, b]. It was natural, therefore,
that the festivals of the goddess should be in
the autumn seed-time, at the Greater Eleusinia,
and in the spring at the Anthesphoria and at
the Lesser Eleusinia [see Did. of Ant. s.vv.].
The death of the vegetation was symbolised by
the marriage of Persephone, or Kore, with
Hades or Pluto, a marriage which preserved in
its story the old form of marriage by capture.
Persephone is often represented enthroned with
Hades [see cuts on pp. 375, 376] ; often she is
distinguished by a diadem or a calathus on her
head : often she has a torch or crossed torches
in her hand ; her symbols are also a cornucopia,
ears of corn, the pomegranate, or a cock (proba
bly as theherald of the dawn, i.e. of a new life).
Persepolis (TleprreiroXis, Tlepo-aliroXis : in the
middle ages, Istakhar : now Takhti-Jemshid,
i.e. Throne of Jemshid, is the Greek name of
the great city wMch succeeded Pasargada as
the capital of Persis and of the Persian empire
(Strab. p. 729 ; Diod. xvii. 70 ; Curt. v. 4, 6 ;
Ptol. vi. 4, 4). It is not mentioned by the
earlier Greek Mstorians who wrote before the
Macedonian conquest. Neither Herodotus,
Xenophon, nor Ctesias speaks of Persepolis,
though they mention Babylon, Susa, and Ecba
tana, as the capitals of the empire. The most
probable explanation of this silence is that
ambassadors or refugees from foreign states
were received by the Great King either at his
winter quarters to Susa, or at his summer
residence in Ecbatana; and that he came to
Persepolis, a temperate region, in spring, partly

PERSEUS
for reUgious ceremonies and partly to receive
tribute and offerings of first-fruits, and to con
sider the reports of his cMef officials. Its
foundation is sometimes ascribed to Cyrus the
Great, but more generaUy to Ms son Cambyses.
On the great platform stood the vast range of
palaces and haUs, to wMch the Mngs received
their officers and deputations to state, and
sacrificed at the fire-altars. Here were stored
the treasures accumulated from long years of
tribute which Alexander found, and also the
Avesta, which Darius is said to have placed
there written in gold letters on 12,000 ox-hides.
Over the plain below the palace-platform ex
tended the city itself, occupied by traders and
artisans. PersepoUs was also a royal burial-
place. It was greatly enlarged and adorned by
Darius I. and Xerxes, and preserved its splen
dour tiU after the Macedonian conquest, when
it was burnt; Alexander, as the story goes,
Betting fire to the palace with Ms own hand, at
the end of a revel, at the instigation of the
courtesan Thais, b.c. 331. It was situated to
the heart of Persis, in the part caUed HoUow
Persis (ko'iXi) Tlepcrts), not far from the border of
the CarmanianDesert, in abeautif ul and healthy
vaUey, watered by the river Araxes (Bend-
Emir), and its tributaries the Medus and the
Cyrus. Its wealth and importance were nearly,
though not entirely, destroyed by Alexander's
occupation; but it was plundered again by
Antiochus, 164 B.C., and in later times under
the name of Istakhar was for some centuries
the residence of a PartMan viceroy. Its ruins
are to the Mghest degree striMng and full of
interest, and are important for the history of
ancient Persian art. The numerous sculptured
figures represent the kings of Persia, but do
not, like the sculptures of Egypt and Assyria,
describe historical events. An examination of"
the ruins has shown that the citadel with a
triple waU, which Diodorus mentions, had no
real existence.
Perses (Tlepo-ris). 1. Son of the Titan Crius-
and Eurybia, and husband of Asteria, by whom
he became the father of Hecate (Hes. Th. 409 ;
ApoUod. i. 2, 2).— 2. Son of Perseus and
Andromeda, described by the Greeks as the
founder of the Persian nation (Hdt. vn. 61;
ApoUod. U. 4, 5).— 3. Son of HeUos (the Sun)
and PerBe, and brother of Aeetes and Circe
(Apollod. ii. 4, 5).
Perseus (Tlepaeis), the famous Argive hero
(perhaps, as some think, origtoally a deity of
light or of the sun), was a son of Zeus and
Danae, and a grandson of Acrisius (II. xiv.
820). An oracle had told Acrisius that he was
doomed to perish by the hands of Danae's son ;
and he therefore shut up his daughter to
an ¦ apartment made of brass or stone. But
Zeus having changed himself into a shower
of gold, came down through the roof of the
prison, and became by her the father of Per
seus. From this tradition, which is commonly
held to signify the rays of the sun streaming
toto a chamber, Perseus is sometimes called ¦
aurigena (Soph. Ant. 944 ; Lycophr. 838 ; Ov.
Met. v. 250; Hor. Od. iii. 16). As soon as
Acrisius discovered that Danae had given birth
to a son, he put both mother and son into a
chest, and threw them into the sea (Simonid.
Fr. 7) ; but Zeus caused the chest to land to
the island of Seriphos, one of the Cyclades,
where Dictys, a fisherman, found them, and
carried them to Polydectes, the king of the
country. They were treated with Mndness;
but Polydectes having afterwards fallen to love

PERSEUS

679

with Danae, and wishing to get rid of Perseus,
who had meantime grown up to manhood, sent
him away to fetch the head of Medusa, one of
the Gorgons. Guided by Hermes and Athene,
Perseus first went to the Graeae, the sisters of
the Gorgons, took from them their one tooth
and their one eye [see p. 371, b] and would not
restore them untU they showed him the way to
the nymphs who possessed the winged sandals,
the magic wallet, and the helmet of Hades,
which rendered the wearer mvisible. Having
received from the Nymphs these gifts, from
Hermes a sicMe, and from Athene a mirror, he
mounted toto the air, and come to the Gorgons,
who dwelt near Tartessus on the coast of the
Ocean. [Goegones.] He found them asleep,
and cut off the head of Medusa, looking at her
reflection in the mirror, for a sight of the
monster herself would have changed Mm into
stone. Perseus put her head into the waUet
wMch he carried on Ms back, and as he went
away he was pursued by the other Gorgons ;
but Ms helmet, wMch rendered him invisible,
enabled him to escape in safety. (Hes. Scut.
220-230; Eur. El. 460 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 12 ; Paus.
v. 18. 1.) Perseus then proceeded to Aethiopia,
where he saved and married Andromeda.
[Andeomeda.] Perseus is also said to have
come to the Hyperboreans, by whom he was
hospitably received, and to Atlas, whom he
changed by means of the Gorgon's head into
the mountain of the same name. On his re
turn to Seriphos, he found his mother with
Dictys in a temple, whither they had fled from
the violence of Polydectes. Perseus then
went to the palace of Polydectes, and changed
him and aU Ms guests into stone. (Pind. Pyth.
xii. 10 ; Strab. p. 487.) Dictys was made king.
Perseus gave the winged sandals and the hel
met to Hermes, who restored them to the
nymphs and to Hades, and the head of Gorgon

Perseus and Medusa.
(From a Terra-cotta in the British Museum.)
to Athene, who placed it to the middle of her
shield or breastplate. He then went to Argos,
accompanied by Danae and Andromeda. Acri
sius, remembering the oracle, escaped to
Larissa, to the country of the Pelasgians ; but
Perseus followed Mm in order to persuade him
to return. Some writers state that Perseus, on
his return to Argos, found Proetus, who had
expeUed Ms brother Acrisius, in possession of
the kingdom ; and that Perseus slew Proetus,
and was afterwards MUed by Megapenthes, the
son of Proetus (Ov. Met. v. 236 ; Hyg. Fab.
244). The more common tradition, however,
relates that when Teutamidas, Mng of Larissa,

celebrated games in honour of his guest
Acrisius, Perseus, who took part in them, acci.
dentally hit the foot of Acrisius with the
discus, and thus killed him (Paus. ii. 16, 2).
Acrisius was buried outside the city of Larissa,
and PerseuB, leaving the kingdom of Argos to
Megapenthes, the son of Proetus, received
from him in exchange the government of
Tiryns. According to another account, Per
seus remained in Argos, and successfully op
posed the introduction of the Bacchic orgies
(Paus. ii. 20, 4). An Italian tradition made the
chest with Danae and her son float to the coast of
Italy, where king Pilumnus married Danae and
founded Ardea (Verg. Aen. vii. 410 ; Serv. ad Aen.
vii. 872, viii. 845). Perseus is said to have founded
the towns of Midea and Mycenae. By Andro
meda he became the father of Perses, Alcaeus,
Sthenelus, Heleus, Mestor, Electryon, Gorgo-
phone, and Autochthe. Perseus was worshipped
as a hero in several places. Herodotus speaks
of a temple and statue of Perseus at Chemmis
to Egypt (ii. 91).
Perseus or Perses (Tlepo-eis), the last Mng of
Macedonia, was the eldest Bon of Philip V., and
reigned eleven years, from B.C. 178 to 168.
Before his accession he persuaded his father to
put to death his younger brother Demetrius,
whom he suspected that the Roman senate in
tended to set up as a competitor for the tMone
on the death of Philip. Immediately after his
accession he began to make preparations for
war with the Romans, which he knew to be
inevitable, though seven years elapsed before
actual hostilities commenced. The war broke
out in 171. The first year of the war was
marked by no striking action. The consul P.
Licinius Crassus first suffered a defeat to Thes
saly in an engagement between the cavalry of
the two armies, but subsequently gained a
slight advantage over the king's troops. — The
second year of the war (170), in which the con
sul A. Hostilius Mancinus commanded, also
passed over without any important battle, but
was on the whole favourable to Perseus. — The
third year (169), in which the consul Q. Mar
cius Philippus commanded, again produced no
important results. The length to which the
war had been unexpectedly protracted, and the
iU success of the Roman arms, had by this
time excited a general feeling in favour of the
Macedonian monarch ; but the ill-timed avarice
of Perseus, who refused to advance the sum of
money wMch Eumenes, king of Pergamus,
demanded, deprived Mm of this valuable ally ;
and the same unseasonable niggardliness like
wise deprived him of the services of 20,000
Gaulish mercenaries, who had actually ad
vanced toto Macedonia to Ms support, but
retired on failing to obtain their stipulated pay.
He was thus obliged to carry on the contest
against Rome single-handed. — The fourth year
of the war (168) was also the last. The new
consul, L. AemUius Paulus, defeated Perseus
with great loss to a decisive battle fought near
Pydna on June 22, 168. Perseus took refuge
to the island of Samothrace, where he shortly
afterwards surrendered with his children to
the praetor Cn. Octavius. When brought be
fore AemiUus, he is said to have degraded
Mmself by the most abject supplications : but
he was treated with kindness by the Roman
general. The following year he was carried to
Italy, where he was compelled to adorn the
splendid triumph of Mb conqueror (Nov. 30,
167), and afterwards cast into a dungeon, from
whence, however, the intercession of Aemilius

680

PERSIA

procured Ms release, and he was permitted to
end his days in an honourable captivity at Alba.
He survived his removal thither a few years,
and died, according to some accounts, by volun
tary starvation, while others — fortunately with
less probability — represent him as falling a
victim to the cruelty of Ms guards, who de
prived him of sleep. Perseus had been twice
married : the name of Ms first wife, whom he
is said to have kiUed with Ms own hand in a fit
of passion, is not recorded; his second, Lao
dice, was the daughter of Seleucus IV. Philo-

Perseus, King of Macedonia.
Obv., head of Perseus; rev., basiaeos xiepseoz- eagle on
thunderbolt, surrounded by oak-wTeath.
pator. He left two children : a son, Alexander,
and a daughter, both apparently by his second
marriage, as they were mere cMldren when
carried to Rome. Besides these, he had
adopted his younger brother PMlip, who was
regarded by him as the heir to Ms throne,
and became the partner of his captivity. (Liv.
xl.-xliv. ; Pol. xxiv., xxvi., xxvii., xxix.)
Persia. [Peesis.]
Persici Montes. [Pabsici Montes.]
Persicus Sinus, Persicuni Mare (6 Tlepo-iKbs
KbXiros, 11 Tlepo-iKi) BdXatraa, and other forms :
the Persian Gulf), is the name given by the
later geographers to the great gulf of the
Mare Erythraeum (Indian Ocean), extending
in a SE. direction from the mouths of the
Tigris, between the NE. coast of Arabia and
the opposite coast of Susiana, Persis, and Car-
mama, to the narrow strait formed by the
long tongue of land which projects from the
N. side of Oman in Arabia, by which strait it
is connected with the open guU of the Indian
Ocean called Paragon Sinus (Gulf of Oman).
The earlier Greek writers know nothing of it.
Herodotus does not distinguish it from the
Erythraean Sea. The voyage of Alexander's
admiral Nearchus from the Indus to the Tigris
made it better known, but stUl the ancient
geographers in general give inaccurate state
ments of its form. (Strab. pp. 78, 727, 765;
Ptol. vi. 8, 1, vi. 19, 1 ; Plin. vi. 41 ; Mel. iii. 8.)
, Persides (Tlepo-eiSris, Tlepo-nidSris), a patrony
mic given to the descendants of Perses.
Persis, and very rarely Persia (i) Tlepcris,
and ri Tlepo-mii, sc. yrj, the fern, adjectives, the
masc. being Tlepo-iKbs, from the ethnic noun
Tlepatis, pi. Tlepaai, fem. Tlepais, Latin Persa
and Perses, pi. Persae, Persia), originally a
small mountainous district of W. Asia, lying
on the NE. side of the Persian Gulf, and Bur-
rounded on the other sides by mountains and
deserts. On the NW. and N. it was separated
from Susiana, Media and Parthia by the little
river Oroatis, or Orosis, and by M. Parachoa-
thras; and on the E. from Carmania by no
deftoite boundaries in the Desert. The only
level part of the country was the strip of sea-
coast called Persis Paralia : the rest was
intersected with branches of M. Parachoathras,
the valleys between which were watered by
several rivers, the cMef of wMch were the

PERSIS
Abaxes, Cypbus, and Medus : in this part of
the country, which was called Koile Persis,
stood the capital cities Pasaegada and Peese-
polis, The country has a remarkable variety
of climate and of products: the N. moun
tainous regions being comparatively cold, but
with good pastureB, especiaUy for camels ; the
middle slopes having a temperate climate and
producing abundance of fruit and wine; and
the S. strip of coast being intensely hot and
sandy, with little vegetation except the palm-
tree (Strab. p. 727 ; Arrian, Ind. 39 ; Plin. vi.
115). The inhabitants were a coUection of
nomad peoples of the Indo-European stock, who
called themselves by a name which is given in
Greek as Artaei (Hdt. vii. 61) and wMch, like the
kindred Median name of Arii ("Apioi), signifies
noble or honourable, and is applied especiaUy
to the true worshippers of Ormuzd and fol
lowers of Zoroaster : it was, in fact, rather a
title of honour than a proper name ; the true
coUective name of the people seems to have
been Paraca. According to Herodotus, they
were divided into three classes or castes : first,
the nobles or warriors, containing the three
tribes of the Pasaegadae, who were the most
noble, and to whom the royal family of the
Achaemenidae belonged, the Maraphu and the
Maspii; secondly, the agricultural and other
settled tribes — namely, the Panthialaei, Deru-
siaei, and Germanii ; thirdly, the tribes wMch
rematoed nomadic — namely, the Daae, Mardi,
Dropici, and Sagartu, names common to other
parts of W. and Central Asia. The Persians
had a close ethnical affinity to the Medes, and
foUowed the same customs and religion [Magi;
ZoeoasteeJ. The simple and warlike habits
which they cultivated in their native moun
tains, preserved them from the corrupting
influences wMch enervated their Median
brethren ; so that from betog, as we find them
at the beginning of their recorded Mstory, the
subject member of the Medo-Persian Mngdom,
they obtained the supremacy under Cyeus, the
founder of the great Persian Empire, B.C. 559.
An account of the revolution by wMch the
supremacy was transferred from the Medes to
the Persians is given under Cyeus. At this
time there existed to W. Asia two other great
kingdoms : the Lydian, which comprised nearly
the whole of Asia Minor, W. of the river Halys,
wMch separated it from the Medo-Persian
territories ; and the Babylonian, wMch, besides
the Tigris and Euphrates valley, embraced
Syria and Palestine. By the successive con
quest of these Mngdoms, the dominions of
Cyrus were extended on the W. as far as the
coast of the Euxine, the Aegaean, and the
Mediterranean, and to. the frontier of Egypt.
Turning his arms in the opposite direction, he
subdued Bactria, and effected some conquests
beyond the Oxus, but fell in battle with the
Massagetae. [Cyeus.] His son Cambyses
added Egypt to the empire. [Cambyses.]
Upon his death the Magian priesthood made
an effort to restore the supremacy to the Medes
[Magi ; Smeedis], which was defeated by the
conspiracy of the seven Persian chieftains,
whose success conferred the crown upon
Darius, the son of Hystaspes. This king was
at first occupied with crusMng rebellions to
every part of the empire, and with the two
expeditions against Scythia and Cyrenaica, of
which the former entirely failed, and the latter
was only partially successful. He conquered
Thrace ; and on the E. he added the valley of
the Indus to the kingdom ; but in this quarter

PERSIUS
the power of Persia seems never to have been
milch more than nominal. The Persian em
pire had now reached its greatest extent, from
Ttoace and Cyrenaica on the W. to the Indus
on the E., and from the Euxine, the Caucasus
(or rather a little below it), the Caspian, and
the Oxus and Jaxartes on the N. to Aethiopia,
Arabia, and the Erythraean Sea on the S., and
it embraced, in Europe, Thrace and some of
the Greek cities N. of the Euxine ; in Africa,
Egypt and Cyrenaica ; in Asia, on the W.,
Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria, the several districts
of Asia Minor, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria,
Babylonia, Susiana, Atropatene, Great Media ;
on the N., Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactriana, and
Sogdiana ; on the E., the Paropamisus, Ara
chosia, and India (i.e. part of the Punjab and
Scinde) ; on the S., Persis, Carmania and Ged
rosia ; and in the centre of the E. part, Par-
tiiia. Aria, and Drangiana. The capital cities
of the empire were Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana
in Media, and — though these were seldom, if
ever, used as residences — Pasargada and Per-
sepoUs to Persis. (See the several articles.)
Of this vast empire Darius undertook the
organisation, and divided it into twenty satra
pies, of which a full account is given by Hero
dotus. For the other detaUs of his reign, and
especiaUy the commencement of the wars with
Greece, see DAEros. Of the remaining period
of the ancient Persian history, till the Mace
donian conquest, a sufficient abstract will be
found under the names of the several kings, a
Ust of whom is now subjoined : — (1) Cyeus,
b.c. 559-529 : (2) Cambyses, 529-522 : (3) Usur
pation of the pseudo-SMERDis, seven months,
522-521 : (4) Daeius I . son of Hystaspes, 521-
485 : (5) Xeexes I., 485-465 : (6) Usurpation of
Aetabanus, seven months, 465-464 : (7) Aeta-
xeexes I. Longlmanus, 464-425 : (8) Xebxes
II., two months : (9) Sogdianus, seven months,
425-424 : (10) Ochus, or Daeius II. Nothus,
424-405 : (11) Abtaxebxes H. Mnemon, 405-
359 : (12) Ochus, or Aetaxeexes III., 359-338 :
(13) Aeses, 338-336: (14) Daeius UI. Codo-
mannus, 336-331 [Alexandee]. Here the
ancient Mstory of Persia ends, as a kingdom ;
but, as a people, the Persians proper, under
the influence especiaUy of their religion, pre
served their existence, and at length regained
their independence on the downfall of the
Parthian Empire [Sassanidae]. — In reading
the Roman poets it must be remembered that
they constantly use Persae, as weU as Medi,
as a general term for the peoples E. of the
Euptoates and Tigris, and especially for the
Parthians. A. Persius Flaccus, the poet, was a Roman
Tmight connected by blood and marriage with
persons of the Mghest rank, and was born at
Volaterrae in Etruria on the 4th of December,
a.d. 34. The particulars of his life are derived
from the Vita A. Persii Flacci by Valerius
Probus, probably prefixed to Ms edition of
Persius. There is, no ground for the statement
sometimes made that the Life was by Suetonius.
He received the first rudiments of education in
Mb native town, remaining there untU the age
of 12, and then removed to Rome, where he
studied grammar under the celebrated Remmius
Palaemon, and rhetoric under Verginius Fla
vius. He was afterwards the pupU of Cornutus
the Stoic, who became the guide, philosopher
and friend of his future life. While yet a youth
he was on familiar terms with Lucan, with
Caesius Bassus the lyric poet, and with other
men of Uterary eminence (Vit. Pers. ; Quint, x.

PERUSIA

681

1, 9 ; Mart. iv. 29, 7). He was tenderly beloved
by the high-minded, Paetus Thrasea, and seems
to have been well worthy of such affection. He
died on the 24th of November, a.d. 62, before
he had completed his 28th year. (Vita Persii,
ascribed to Probus.) The extant works of
Persius, who, we are told, wrote seldom and
slowly, consist of six short Satires, extending in
all to 650 hexameter lines, and were left in an
unfinished state. They were slightly corrected
after his death by Cornutus, while Caesius
Bassus was permitted, at his own earnest re
quest, to be the editor. In boyhood Persius had
written some other poems, which were destroyed
by the advice of Cornutus. Few productions
have ever enjoyed more popularity than the
Satires, especially in the middle ages ; but it
would seem that Persius owes not a little of his
fame to a cause which naturally might have
produced an effect directly the reverse — to the
multitude of strange terms, proverbial phrases,
far-fetched metaphors, and abrupt transitions
which everywhere embarrass our progress. The
difficulty experienced to removing these impedi
ments necessarily impresses both the words and
the ideas upon everyone who has carefully
studied his pages, and hence no author clings
more closely to the memory. In judging of the
ability of Persius it must be recollected that
the writings which he has left are what would
have been regarded as the poems of Ms imma
turity if Ms life had been of an average length.
He is an imitator of Horace, whose influence
appears throughout the six Satires, and it is an
imitation marked by stiffness, with none of the
grace and ease of the original. But there are
signs of power in the arrangement of his sub
ject, and in the success with which he some
times concentrates a number of thoughts in a
few telling words. Here and there are short
passages of real force and merit : for instance,
a promise of really powerful poetry seems to be
given by the single line —
' Virtutem videant intabescantque relicta.' (iii. 38.)
The best editions are by O. Jahn, 1844 ; Contog-
ton and Nettleship, 1874 and 1893.
Pertinax, Helvius, Roman emperor from
January 1st to March 28th, A.D. 193, was of
humble origin, born at Alba Pompeia, in Ligu
ria, at first a schoolmaster, afterwards, through
the interest of his father's friend Lollius Avitus,
obtained the post of centurion, and, having dis
tinguished himself in the Parthian wars, in
Britain and in Moesia, rose to the highest miU-
tary and civil commands in the reigns of M.
Aurelius and Commodus. On the murder of
Commodus on the last day of December, 192,
Pertinax, who was then sixty-six years of age, was
reluctantly persuaded to accept the empire. He
commenced his reign by introducing extensive
reforms into the civil and military administra
tion of the empire; but the troops, who had
been accustomed both to ease and licence under
Commodus, were disgusted with the discipline
which he attempted to enforce upon them, and
murdered their new sovereign after a reign of
two months and twenty-seven days. (Capitol.
Pertinax ; Dio Cass. lxxi. S-lxxiii. 10.) On his
death the praetorian troops put up the empire
to sale, which was purchased by M. Didius Sal
vius Julianus. [See p. 286, a.]
Perusia (Perusinus: Perugia), an ancient
city in the E. part of Etruria between the lake
Trasimenus and the Tiber, and one of the twelve
cities of the Etruscan confederacy. There is
no improbability to the statement of Servius

682

PESCENNIUS

that it was an Umbrian city wMch fell into the
hands of the Etruscans (Serv. ad Aen. x. 201).
It was situated on a hill, and was strongly
fortified by nature and by art. In conjunction
with the other cities of Etruria, it long resisted
the power of the Romans, and at a later period
it was made a Roman colony (Liv. ix. 37, x. 30,
xxiii. 17). It is memorable in the civU wars as
the place in which L. Antonius, the brother of
the triumvir took refuge, when he was no longer
able to oppose Octavianus in the field, and where
he was kept closely blockaded by Octavianus
for some months, from the end of B. c. 41 to the
spring of 40. Famine compelled it to surren
der ; but one of its citizens having set fire to his
own house, the flames spread, and the whole
city was burnt to the ground. The war between
L. Antonius and Octavianus is known, from the
long siege of this town, by the name of the
Bellum Perusinum. (App. B. C. v. 32-49;
Dio Cass, xlviii. 14 ; Lucan, i. 41 ; Propert. i.
22, 3.) It was rebuilt and colonised anew by
Augustus, from whom it received the surname
of Augusta. In the later time of the empire it
was the most important city in all Etruria, and
long resisted the Goths. (Dio Cass. l.c. ; Strab.
p. 226 ; Procop. B. G. i. 16, iv. 33.) Part of the
walls and some of the gates of Perusia still re
main. The best preserved of the gates is now
caUed Arco d 'Augusta, from the inscription
Avgvsta Peevsia over the arch ; the whole
structure is at least sixty or seventy feet high.
Several interesting tombs with valuable re
mains of Etruscan art have been discovered in
the neighbourhood of the city.
Pescennius Niger. [Nigeb.]
Pessinus or Pesinus (Tleo-oivovs, Tleaivovs :
Tleffffivoivrios, fern. Tleooivovvris : Bala Hissar,
twelve mfles SSE. of Sivri Hissar), a city of
Asia Minor, in the SW. corner of Galatia, on the
S. slope of M. Dindymus, was celebrated as a
chief seat of the worship of Cybele, under the
surname of Agdistis, whose temple, crowded
with riches, stood on a MU outside the city
(Paus. i. 4, 5 ; Strab. p. 567). In this temple
was a wooden (Livy says, stone) image of the
goddess, which was removed to Rome, to satisfy
an oracle in the Sibylline books (Liv. xxix. 10).
The worship of the goddess was still continued
by the priestly order called Galli, who were
rulers of the state (Liv. xxxviii. 18 ; Pol. xx. 4).
Under Constantine the city was made the capital
of the province of Galatia Salutaris, but it
declined, as its neighbour, JustinianopoUs (Sivri
Hissar), grew to importance, until the sixth
century, after which it is not mentioned.
Petalia or Petaliae (Petalius), a rocky island
?off the SW. coast of Euboea at the entrance
into the Euripus (Strab. p. 444).
Petelia or Petilia (TLerriXia: Petellnus:
Strongoli), an ancient Greek town on the E.
coast of Bruttium, founded, according to tradi
tion, by Philoctetes (Strab. p. 254 ; Virg. Aen.
iii. 402). It was situated N. of Croton, to whose
territory it originally belonged, but it was
i afterwards conquered by the Lucanians. It re
mained faithful to the Romans when the other
cities of Bruttium revolted to Hannibal, and it
was not till after a long and desperate resistance
that it was taken by one of Hannibal's generals
(Liv. xxiii. 20, 30 ; Pol. vii. 1 ; Sil. It. xii. 431).
It was repeopled by Hannibal with Bruttians ;
but the Romans subsequently collected the re
mains of the former population, and put them
in possession of the town (App. Ann. 29, 57).
Petoon (Tleredv : Tleredvtos), a small town in
Boeotia, between Thebes and Anthedon, de-

PETRA
pendent upon Haliartus, according to some, and
upon Thebes, according to others (II. ii. 500 ;
Strab. p. 410).
Peteos (Tlereds), son of Orneus, and father of
Menestheus, was expelled from Athens by
Aegeus, and went to Phocis, where he founded
Stiris (II. ii. 552; Paus. ii. 25, 5; Plut. Thes. 32).
PetiliusorPetillius. 1. Capitolinus. [Ca
pitolinus.]— 2. Cerealis. [Ceeealis.]— 3. Spu-
rinus. [Spueinus.]
Petosiris (Tlerbo-ipis), an Egyptian priest and
astrologer, generally named along with Nech-
epsos, an Egyptian king. The two are said to
be the founders of astrology. Some works on
astrology were extant under his name. Like our
own Lilly, Petosiris became the common name
for an astrologer. (Juv. vi. 580.)
Petovio, P?oetovio.]
Petra (rj Tlerpa : Tlerpaios, Petraeus, later
Petrensis), the name of several cities built on
rocks, or in rocky places. — 1. A place in Elis,
not far from the city of Elis. The sepulchral
monument of the phUosopher Pyrrho was shown
here (Paus. vi. 24, 5). — 2. (Casa delta Pietra),
also called Petraea and Petrme (the people
Tlerpivoi and Petrini), an inland town of Sicily,
on the road from Agrigentum to Panormus (Cic.
Verr. iii. 39 ; Plin. iii. 91 ; Diod. xxiii. 18). It
is probable that its site is marked by Petralia,
eight miles W. of Gangi, the ancient Engyum.
— 3. A town on the coast of Hlyricum, with a
bad harbour (Caes. B. C. iii. 42). — 4. A city of
Pieria in Macedonia, in the passes between
Pydna and Pythium in Thessaly (Liv. xxxix. 26,
xiv. 41). — 5. A fortress of the Maedi, to Thrace
(Liv. xl. 22). — 6. (PI. neut.), a place in Dacia,
on one of the three great roads which crossed
the Danube. — 7. In Sogdiana, near the Oxus
(Q. Curt. vii. 11). — 8. By far the most celebrated
of all the places of this name was Petra or
Petrae (Wady-Musa), in Arabia Petraea, the
capital, first of the Idumaeans, and afterwards
of the Nabathaeans. It lies to the E. of Arabia
Petraea, in the district caUed under the empire
Palaestina Tertia, in the midst of the moun
tains of Seir, at the foot of Mt. Hor, just half
way between the Dead Sea and the head of the
Aelanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, in a valley, or
rather ravine, surrounded by almost inaccessible
precipices, which is entered by a narrow gorge
on the E., the rocky waUs of wMch approach
so closely as sometimes hardly to permit two
horsemen to ride abreast. On the banks of the
river which runs through this ravine stood the
city itself, a mile in length, and half a mile to
breadth between the sides of the valley, and
some fine ruins of its pubUc buildings still re
main. But this is not, all : the rocks which sur
round, not only the main vaUey, but aU its lateral
ravines, are completely honeycombed with ex
cavations, some of which were tombs, some
temples, and some private houses, at the en
trances to which the surface of the rock is sculp
tured into magnificent arctotectural facades
and other figures, whose details are often so weU
preserved as to appear but just chiseUed, while
the effect is wonderfuUy heightened by the bril
liant variegated colours of the rock, where red,
purple, yellow, sky-blue, black, and white are
seen in distinct layers. (Diod. ii. 48, xix. 97 ;
Strab. p. 779 ; Plin. vi. 144.) These ruins are
cMefly of the Roman period, when Petra had
become an important city as a centre of the
caravan traffic of the Nabathaeans. At the
time of Augustus, as Strabo learnt from a friend
who had resided there, it contained many
Romans and other foreigners, and was governed

PETREIUS
by a native prince. It had maintained its in
dependence against the Greek kings of Syria,
and retained it under the Romans, till the time
of Trajan, by whose lieutenant, A. Cornelius
Palma, it was taken (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 14). It
was the chief city of Arabia Petraea, and under
the later empire it was the capital of Palaestina
Tertia. [See p. 96, b.]
M. Petreius, a man of great military experi
ence, is first mentioned in b.c. 62, when he
served as legatus to the proconsul C. Antonius,
and commanded the army in the battle to which
Catiline perished (SaU. Cat. 59, 60). He be
longed to the aristocratical party, and in 55 he
was sent into Spain along with L. Afranius as
legatus of Pompey, to whom the provinces of
the two Spains had been granted. Soon after
the commencement of the CivU war in 49, Caesar
defeated Afranius and Petreius to Spain, where
upon the latter joined Pompey in Greece. After
the loss of the battle of Pharsalia (48) Petreius
crossed over to Africa, and took an active part
to the campaign in 46, which was brought to an
end by the defeat of the Pompeian army at the
battle of Thapsus. Petreius then fled with
Juba, and, despairing of safety, they feU by each
other's hands. (Caes. B. C. i. 38, 63 ; Bell. Afr.
18, 91 ;_Apg. B. C. ii. 42,95, 100 ; Suet. Jul. 75.)
Petrocorii, a people to GaUia Aquitanica, in
the modern Perigord. Their country contained
irdn-mtoes, and their cMef town was Vesunna
(Pirigueux). (Caes. B. G. vii. 75 ; Plin. iv. 109.)
Petronius, C, or T., surnamed Arbiter, an
accomplished voluptuary at the court of Nero.
He was one of the chosen companions of Nero,
and was regarded as director-in-chief of the
imperial pleasures, the judge whose decision
upon the merits of any proposed scheme
of enjoyment was held as final (Elegantiae
arbiter). The influence thus acquired excited
the jealous suspicions of Tigellinus : he was
accused of treason, and, believing that de
struction was inevitable, he resolved to die
as he had Uved, and to excite admiration by
the frivolous eccentricity of Ms end. Having
caused his veins to be opened, he from time to
time arrested the flow of blood by the applica
tion of bandages. During the intervals he con
versed with Ms friends, and even showed him
self to the pubUc streets of Cumae, where these
events took place ; so that at last, when he sank
from exhaustion, his death (a. d. 66), although
compulsory, appeared to be the result of natural
and gradual decay. He is said to have des
patched to his last moments a sealed document
to the emperor, taunting him with his brutal ex
cesses. (Tac. Ann. xvi. 18, 19 ; Plin. xxxvii. 20.) —
There is little reason to doubt (though some
critics have disputed it) that this Petronius was
the author of a work bearing the title Petronii
Arbitri Satyricon, wMch is a sort of charac
ter-novel, composed of a series of fragments,
cMefly to prose, but interspered with numerous
pieces of poetry, and therefore in form is a
Satira Menippea [Did. of Ant. art. Satira]. It
was originally in twenty books, of which parts
of books xv. and xvi. remain, in which the adven
tures of a certain Encolpius and Ms companions
in the S. of Italy, chiefly in Naples or its envi
rons, are made a veMcle for exposing the false
taste and vices of the age. Unfortunately the
vices of the personages introduced are depicted
with such fideUty that we are perpetually dis
gusted by the obscenity of the descriptions.
The longest section is generally known as the
Supper of Trimalchio, presenting us with a
detailed account of a fantastic banquet, such as

PHAEAX

683

the gourmands of the empire were wont to ex
hibit, given by a rich parvenu. The great lite
rary ability of the author is seen in his skilful
drawing of the characters, who preserve their
appropriate manner of speech ; in the wit and
humour of the dialogue, and in his power of
giving a vivid, though generally most unattrac
tive, picture of the manners of the age. The
metrical parts are intended as parodies. The
best edition is by Bucheler, Berl. 1862 (a smaller
edition, 1882). The Supper of Trimalchio is
edited separately, with a German translation,
by Friedlander, 1892.
Peuce (TleiKi) : Piczina), an island in Moesia
Inferior formed by the two southern mouths of
the Danube, of which the most southernly was
also caUed Peuce, but more commonly the Sacred
Mouth. This island was said by the ancients
to be as large as Rhodes. It was inhabited by
the Peuclni, who were a tribe of the Bastarnae,
and took their name from the island. (Strab. p.
105 ; Ptol. iii. 10, 2.)
Peueela, Peucelaotis(neiMce'Aa, TlevKeXaarts :
Pekheli or Pakholi), a city and district in the
NW. of India intra Gangem, between the rivers
Indus and Suastus (Strab. p. 698 ; Arrian, Ind. 1).
Peucestas (TlevKearas), a Macedonian, and a
distinguished officer of Alexander the Great.
He had the cMef share in saving the life of
Alexander in the assault on the city of the Malli
in India, and was afterwards appointed by the
king to the satrapy of Persia. In the division
of the provinces after the death of Alexander
(b.c. 323) he obtained the renewal of his govern
ment of Persia. He fought on the side of Eu
menes against Antigonus (317-316), but dis
played insubordination in these campaigns.
Upon the surrender of Eumenes by the Argyr-
aspids, Peucestas fell into the hands of Anti
gonus, who deprived Mm of Ms satrapy. (Arrian,
An. vi. 9-30, vii. 23 ; Diod. xix. 44-48.)
Peucetia. [Apulia.]
Peuclni. [Peuce.]
Phacium ($dKtov : $aKieis : Alifaka), a moun
tain fortress of Thessaly in the district Hesti
aeotis on the right bank of the Peneus, NE. of
Limnaea (Thuc. iv. 78; Liv. xxxii. 13).
Phacusa (Kesem or Pa-kesem, in O. T.
Goshen ; Fakoos) was a sacred town of the god
Supt = Horus, and therefore caUed Pe-Supt.
Under the Ptolemies it was an emporium for
Asiatic trade (Strab. p. 805).
Phacussa ($aKovcro-a: Fecussa), one of the
Sporades (Plin. iv. 68).
Phaea (d>aia), the name of the sow of Crom-
myon in Megaris, which ravaged the neighbour
hood, and was slain by Theseus (Plut. Thes. 9).
Phaeaces (QaiaKes, QalriKes), a fabulous people
immortalised by the Odyssey, who inhabited the
island Scheria (Sxepia), situated at the extreme
western part of the earth, and who were go
verned by king Alcinous. [Alcinous.] They
are described by Homer as a people fond of the
feast, the lyre, and the dance, and hence their
name passed into a proverb to indicate persons
of luxurious and sensual habits. Thus a glutton
is called Phaeax by Horace (Ep. 1. 15, 24).—
The ancients identified the Homeric Scheria
with Corcyra. [See p. 249, b].
Phaeax (*oia|), an Athenian orator and
statesman, a contemporary and rival of Nicias
and Alcibiades (Plut. Ale. 13). In 422 B. c. he
went on an embassy to Sicily and Italy (Thuc.
v. 4, 5). Some critics maintain that the extant
speech against Alcibiades, commonly attributed
to Andocides, was written by Phaeax. The
internal evidence is, however, against its being

684

PHAEDON

the work of any contemporary author, whether
Phaeax or Andocides, and it is held with prob
ability by recent critics that it was the work of
a later sopMst.
Phaedon (QalSav), a Greek philosopher, was
a native of Elis, and of Mgh birth, but was
taken prisoner, probably about B.C. 400, and was
brought to Athens. It is said that he ran away
from Ms master to Socrates, and was ransomed
by one of the friends of the latter. Phaedon
was present at the death of Socrates, while he
was stiU quite a youth. He appears to have
lived in Athens some time after the death of
Socrates, and then returned to Elis, where he
became the founder of a school of philosophy.
He was succeeded by Plistanus, after whom the
Elean school was merged in the Eretrian (Diog.
Laert. ii. 105; Gell. ii. 18). The dialogue of
Plato wMch contains an account of the death
of Socrates bears the name of Phaedon.
Phaedra (QalSpa), daughter of Minos by Pasi
phae or Crete, and the wife of Theseus. She
was the stepmother of Hippolytus, the son of
Theseus, with whom she fell to love ; but having
been repulsed by Hippolytus, she accused him
to Theseus of having attempted her dishonour.
After the death of Hippolytus, his innocence
became known to his father, and Phaedra made
away with herself. For details see Hippolytus.
Phaedriades. [Paenassus.]
Phaedrias (QaiSplas), a town in the S. of Ar
cadia, SW. of MegalopoUs, fifteen stadia from
the Messenian frontier.
Phaedrus (QdiSpos). 1. An Epicurean pM
losopher, and the president of the Epicurean
school during Cicero's residence in Athens, B. c.
80. He died to 70, and was succeeded by Patron.
(Cic. de Fin. i. 5, 16, ad Fam. xiii. 1, ad Att.
xiii. 39.) He was the author of a work on the
gods (Ilep! Bedv), of which an interesting frag
ment was discovered at Herculaneum in 1806,
and pubhshed by Petersen, Hamb. 1833. Cicero
was largely indebted to this work for the mate
rials of the first book of the De Natura Deorum.
— 2. The Latin Fabulist, of whom we know
nottong but what is collected or inferred from
Ms fables. He was originally a slave, and was
brought from TMace, apparently from Pieria
(iii. Prol. 17), to Rome, where he learned the
Latin language. As the title of his work is
Phaedri Aug. Liberti Fabulae Aesopiae, we
must conclude that he had belonged to Augustus,
who manumitted him. Under Tiberius he ap
pears to have undergone some persecution from
Sejanus (ib, 34). The fables extant under the
name of Phaedrus are ninety-seven in number,
written to iambic verse, and distributed into five
' books, and probably an abridgment of a larger
collection. Most of the fables are, no doubt,
renderings of old fables from Greek or other
sources, known as ' Aesopian.' [Aesopus ;
Babeius.] Many of the fables, however, refer
to contemporary events and names (e.g. iii. 10) ;
and Phaedrus himself, to the prologue to the
fifth book, intimates that he had often used the
name of Aesop only to recommend his verBes.
The expression is generally clear and concise,
and the language, with some few exceptions,
pure and correct, as we should expect from a
Roman writer of the Augustan age. — There is
also another collection of thirty-two fables, en
titled Epitome Fabularum, which was first
published at Naples, in 1809, by Cassitti. This
appears to have been another abridgment of
the original coUection, and adds thirty fables
which are not transmitted in the MSS. which
give the five books of Phaedrus. They are

PHAETHON
printed as an appendix to the Fables of Phaedrus.
It cannot be asserted positively that they are
by Phaedrus, but they are in his manner. A
prose version of the fables of Phaedrus by a
writer of the tenth century who called himself
Romulus supplies paraphrases of several fables
which appear to neither of the above-mentioned
collections.— Editions of Phaedrus by Pithoeus,
Autun, 1596; Bentley, 1726; L. MiiUer, 1868;
Riese, 1885.
Phaenarete, [Soceates.]
Phaenias. [Phanias.]
Phaestus ($aio-rbs : Qaltrrios). 1. A town to
the S. of Crete near Gortyna, twenty stadia
from the sea, with a port-town Matala or
Matalia, said to have been built by Phaestus,

Coin ol Phaestus in Crete (about 400 B.C.).
Obv., Heracles fighting the hydra: the crab at his feet;
rev., *aistion ; the bull of the story of Europa.
son of Heracles, who came from Sicyon to
Crete (Paus. ii. 6, 7). It is mentioned by
Homer (II. ii. 648). According to other ac
counts Minos formed the town from a coUection
of villages (Diod. v. 78 ; Strab. p. 479). It was
destroyed by Gortyna. It was the birthplace
of Epimenides, and its inhabitants were cele
brated for their wit and sarcasm (Athen. p.
261). — 2. A town of Thessaly to the district
Thessaliotis (Liv. xxxvi. 16).
Phaethon (9ae8av), that is, 'the stoning,'
occurs in Homer as an epithet of Helios (the
Sun), and is used by later writers as a proper
name for Helios (II. xi. 734 ; Ap. Rh. iv. 1236;
Verg. Aen. v. 105) ; but it is more commonly
known as the name of a son of HeUos by
the Oceanid Clymene, the wife of Merops,
or a son of Helios by Prote, or, lastly,
a son of Helios by the nymph Rhode or
Rhodos (Hyg. Fab. 134 ; Tzetz. Chil. iv. 137).
The story of Phaethon is most fuUy described
by Ovid (Met. i. 751— ii. 400) and by Nonnus
(Dionys. xxxviii. 98), but it is earUer than the
great Attic tragedians, for it formed the subject
of the Heliades of Aeschylus and the Phaethon
of Euripides, of both wMch plays some frag
ments remain. He received the significant
name of Phaethon from Ms father, and was
afterwards presumptuous enough to re
quest Ms father to allow Mm for one day
to drive the chariot of the sun across the
heavens. Helios was induced by the entreaties
of Ms son and of Clymene to yield, but the
youth being too weak to check the horses, they
rushed out of their usual track, and came so
near the earth as almost to set it on fire.
Thereupon Zeus killed him with a 'flash of
lightning, and hurled Mm down into the river
Eridanus. His kinsman Cycnus became a
swan ; his sisters, the Heliadae or Phaethon-
tiades, who had yoked the horses to the
chariot, were changed into poplars and their
tears. into amber. [Heliadae.] In the original
mythology Phaethon was the sun himself and
the myth probably grew from the observation
of the hot noon-day sun sinking rapidly to the

PHAETHONTIADES
Eridanus, the river of the extreme west, and
from an attempt also to explain the difference
between the wMte races and the Aethiopians.
The fall of Phaethon from his quadriga is

PHALARIS 685
Phthiotis in Thessaly on the Sinus Maliacus,
served as the harbour of Lamia.
Phalaris (QdXapis), ruler of Agrigentum in
Sicily, has obtained a proverbial celebrity as o.

Phaethon. (From a rehef on a sarcophagus. Zannoni, Gal. di Firenze, serie 4, vol. ii.)

represented in more than one ancient rehef :
the figures of his guide Phosphorus, of his
mother Clymene, of the river-god Eridanus
and of Cycnus are introduced.
Phaetnontiades. [Heliadae.]
Phaethusa. [Heliadae.]
Phagres ($dypi)s : Orfan or Orfana), an
ancient and fortified town of the Pierians to
Macedonia at the foot of Mount Pangaeon
(Hdt.vn. 112 ; Thuc. ii. 99 ; Strab. p. 331).
Phalaecus (QdXaiKos). 1. Son of Onom-
archus, succeeded his uncle PhayUus as leader
of the Phocians in the Sacred war, B.C. 351. In
order to secure Ms own safety, he concluded a
treaty with Philip, by wMch he wa3 aUowed to
withdraw toto the Peloponnesus with a body of
8000 mercenaries, leaving the unhappy Pho
cians to their fate, 346. (Diod. xvi. 38-59 ; Paus.
x. 2, 7.) Phalaecus now assumed the part of a
mere leader of mercenary troops, to which
character we find him engaging to various
enterprises. He was slato at the siege of
Cydonia to Crete (Diod. xvi. 63). — 2. A lyric
and epigrammatic poet of Alexandria, some of
whose epigrams are preserved to the Greek
Anthology. The hendecasyUabic metre wMch
he especiaUy used is sometimes caUed Phalae-
cian. (Athen. p. 440 ; Terentian. p. 2440.)
Phalaesiae ($aXaio-iai), a town to Arcadia, S.
of MegalopoUs on the road to Sparta, twenty-
stadia from the Laconian frontier (Paus. vUi.
35, 3).
Phalanna (bdXawa : &aXavvdios : Karad-
joli), a town of the Perrhaebi to the Thessalian
district of Hestiaeotis on the left bank of the
Peneus, not far from Tempe (Strab. p. 440;
Liv. xUi. 54).
Phalanthus (QdXavBos), son of Aracus, was
one of the Lacedaemonian Partheniae, or the
offspring of some marriages with slaves, which
the necessity of the first Messenian war
had induced the Spartans to permit. [See
Did. of Antiq. art. Partheniae.] As the
Partheniae were looked down upon by their
fellow-citizens, they formed a conspiracy under
Phalanthus, against the government. Their
design having been detected, they went to
Italy under the guidance of Phalanthus, and
founded the city of Tarentum, about B.C. 708.
Phalanthus was afterwards driven out from
Tarentum by a sedition, and ended Ms days at
Brundisium. (Strab. pp. 278, 282 ; Ar. Pol. v.
7 ; Paus. x. 10 ; Hor. Od. ii. 6.)
Phalara (rd $dXapa: $aXapevs), a town of

cruel and inhuman tyrant ; but we have little
real knowledge of his Ufe and history. His
reign probably began about B.C. 570, and is said
to have lasted sixteen years. He was a native
of Agrigentum, and appears to have been
raised by Ms fellow-citizens to some high office
in the state, of which he afterwards availed
himseU to assume a despotic authority (Ar.
Bhet. ii. 20, Po7. v. 10). He was engaged to
frequent wars with his neighbours, and ex
tended his. power and dominion on all sides,
though more frequently by stratagem than by
open force. He perished by a sudden outbreak
of the popular fury, in which it appears that
Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron, must have
borne a conspicuous part (Diod. Fr. p. 25 ; Cic.
Off. ii. 7, 26 ; Tzetz. Chil. v. 956). No circum
stance connected with Phalaris is more cele
brated than the brazen buU to which he is said
to have burnt alive the victims of his cruelty,
and of which we are told that he made the first
experiment upon its inventor PeriUus. This
latter story has much the air of an invention of
later times ; but the fame of this celebrated
engine of torture was inseparably associated
with the name of Phalaris as early as the time
of Pindar. (Pind. Pyth. i. 185 ; cf. Diod. xiii.
90; Pol. sii. 25.) Pindar also speaks of
Phalaris himself in terms which clearly prove
that Ms reputation as a barbarous tyrant was
then already fully established, and all subse
quent writers, until a very late period, allude to
him in terms of similar import. But in the
later ages of Greek literature, there appears to
have existed or arisen a totally different tradi
tion concerning Phalaris, which represented
him as a man of a naturally mild and humane
disposition, and only forced into acts of severity
or occasional cruelty by the pressure of cir
cumstances and the machinations of his enemies.
He appears at the same time as an admirer of
literature and philosophy, and the patron of
men of letters. Such is the aspect under
wMch his character is presented to us in two
declamations ascribed to Lucian, and still more
striMngly in the well-known epistles which
bear the name of Phalaris himself. These
epistles are now remembered chiefly on account
of the hterary controversy to which they gave
rise, and the masterly dissertation to which
Bentley exposed their spuriousness. They
are evidently the composition of some sophist ;
though the period at wMch this forgery was
composed cannot be determined. The first

686

PHALARIUM

author who refers to them is Stobaeus. Edited
by Schaefer, Lips. 1823 ; Hercher, 1873.
Phalarium (QaXdpiov), a fortress named
after Phalaris near the S. coast of Sicily,
situated on a hill forty stadia E. of the river
Himera (Diod. xix. 118).
Phalasarna (to QaXdo-apva), a town on the
NW. coast of Crete (Strab. p. 574).
Phalerum (QdXripov: QaXr/peis), the most
easterly of the harbours of Athens, and the one
chiefly used by the Athenians before the Persian
wars. [See Pieaeus, and plan on p. 142.]
Phaldria (QaXapia), a fortified town of
Thessaly in Hestiaeotis, N. of Tricca on the
left bank of the Peneus (Liv. xxxii. 15).
Phanae ($oW, ri bavaia &Kpa : G. Mastico),
the S. point of the island of Chios, celebrated
for its temple of Apollo, and for its excellent
wine (Strab. p. 645).
Phanagoria (bavaybpeia, and other forms :
Phanagori, Ru., near Taman, on the E. side of
the Straits of Kaffa), a Greek city, founded by
a colony of Teians under Phanagoras, on the
Asiatic coast of the Cimmerian Bosporus. It
became the great emporium for all the traffic
between the coasts of the Palus Maeotis and
the countries on the S. side of the Caucasus,
and was chosen by the kings of Bosporus as
their capital in Asia. (Strab. p. 495 ; Ptol. v. 9,
6 ; App. Mithr. 108.) It had a temple of
Aphrodite, and its neighbourhood was rich in
olive yards. In the sixth century of our era, it
was destroyed by the surrounding barbarians.
(Procop. B. G. iv. 5.)
Phanaroea (Qavdpota), a great plain of
Pontus in Asia Minor, enclosed by the moun
tain chains of Paryadres on the E., and Lithrus
and Ophlimus on the W., was the most fertile
part of Pontus (Strab. pp. 73, 547, 556).
Phanias or Phaenias (Qavias, $aivtas), of
Eresos in Lesbos, a distinguished Peripatetic
philosopher, the immediate disciple of Aristotle,
and the contemporary, fellow-citizen, and
friend of TheopM-astus. He flourished about
B.C. 336. Phanias does not seem to have
founded a distinct school of Ms own, but he
was a most diligent writer upon every depart
ment of pMlosophy, as it was studied by the
Peripatetics, especially logic, physics, Mstory,
and literature. His works, all of which are
lost, are quoted by later writers. One of his
works most frequently cited was a sort of
chronicle of his native city, bearing the title of
Tlpvrdveis 'Epeoioi. (Strab. p. 618 ; Plut. Sol.
14, 32, Them. 7, 73 ; Athen. p. 883 ; Suid. s. v.)
Phandcles ($avoKXi)s), one of the best of the
later Greek elegiac poets, probably lived in the
time of Philip and Alexander the Great. He
seems only to have written one poem, which
was entitled "Epares ?) KaXoi (Plut. Symp. p.
671; Athen. p. 603). The work was upon
paederastia; but the subject was so treated
as to exhibit the retribution which fell upon
those who addicted themselves to the practice.
We still possess a considerable fragment from
the opening of the poem, which describes the
love of Orpheus for Calais, and the vengeance
taken upon him by the Thracian women. — The
fragments of Phanocles are edited by Bach,
with those of Hermesianax and PMletas, Halis
Sax. 1829 ; and by Schneidewin, Delect. Poe's.
Graec. p. 158.
Phanodemus (QavbSripos), the author of one
of those works on the legends and antiquities
of Attica known under the name of Atthides.
His age and birthplace are uncertain, but we
know that he Uved before the time of Augustus,

PHARNACES
as he is cited by Dionysius of Halicarnassus
(Dionys. i. 61 ; Plut. Them. 13, Cim. 12.)
Phanote (Gardhiki), a fortified town of
Epirus to Chaonia near the Hlyrian frontier
(Liv. xliii. 23 ; Pol. xxvii. 14).
Phaon ($dav), a boatman at Mytilene, is said
to have been originally an ugly old man ; but
in consequence of his carrying Aphrodite across
the sea without accepting payment, the goddess
gave him youth and beauty (Ael. V.H. xii. 18 ;
Palaeph. 49; Lucian, Dial. Mart. 9). -After
this Sappho is said to have faUen in love with
him, and to have leaped from the Leucadian
rock when he slighted her. [Sappho.] For the
possible origin of this story, see Leucas.
Pharae (i>apai or Oipai). 1. (Qapaiebs or
$apeis), an ancient town in the W. part of
Achaea, and one of the twelve Achaean cities,
was situated on the river Pierus, seventy stadia
from the sea and 150 from Patrae. It was one
of the states which took an active part in reviv
ing the Achaean League in b.c. 281. Augustus
included it in the territory of Patrae. (Hdt. i.
145 ; Strab. p. 388 ; Paus. vn. 22, 1.)— 2. (iapai-
rris, iapaidrns, Qapdrns : Kalamata), an' an
cient town in Messenia mentioned by Homer.
on the river Nedon, near the frontiers of La
conia, and about six miles from the sea. In
B.C. 180 Pharae joined the Achaean League
together with the towns of Thuria and Abia.
It was annexed by Augustus to Laconia. (17.
v. 543, ix. 151; Strab. p. 388; Paus. iv. 30,
2.) — 3. Originally Pilaris ($dpis : Qaplrris,
$apidrr)s), a town in Laconia in the valley of
the Eurotas, S. of Sparta (Paus. iii. 20, 3).
Pharbaethus (QdpBaiBos : Horbeyt 1 Ru.).
the capital of the Nomos PharbaetMtes in
Lower Egypt, lay S. of Tanis, on the W. side
of the Pelusiac branch of the NUe (Hdt. ii.
166; Strab. p. 802).
Pharcadon (bapKaSdv), a town of Thessaly,
in the E. part of Hestiaeotis (Strab. p. 438).
Pharis. [Phaeae, No. 3.]
Pharmacussae (^appoKovoo-ai). 1. Two small
islands off the coast of Attica, near Salamis, in
the bay of Eleusis (Strab. p. 395), now called
Kyradhes or Megali and Mikri Kyra : on one
of them was shown the tomb of Circe. — 2.
Pharmacusa ($apKpaKovira : Pharmakonisi),
an island off the coast of Asia Minor, 120
stadia from Miletus, where Mng Attalus died,
and where Julius Caesar was taken prisoner by
pirates (Suet. Jul. 4 ; Plut. Caes.).
Pharnabazus (QapvaBaQos), son of Pharnaces,
succeeded his father as satrap of the Persian
provinces near the Hellespont. In B.C. 411 and
the following years, he rendered active assist
ance to the Lacedaemonians in their war
against the Athenians. (Thuc. viii. 6, 8, 39, 99-
109 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1-3 ; Diod. xin. 49-68.) When
Dercyllidas, and subsequently AgesUaus, passed
over into Asia to protect the Asiatic Greeks
against the Persian power, we find Pharnabazus
connecting himself with Conon to resist the
Lacedaemonians. In 874 Pharnabazus invaded
Egypt in conjunction with Iphicrates, but the
expedition failed, chiefly through the dilatory
proceedings and the excessive caution of Phar
nabazus. [Iphiceates.] The character of
Pharnabazus is distinguished by generosity and
openness. He has been charged with the
murder of Alcibiades ; but the latter probably
fell by the hands of others. [Alcibiades.]
Pharnaces (Qapvix-ns). 1. King of Pontus,
was the son of Mithridates IV., whom he suc
ceeded on the throne, about B.C. 190. He
carried on war for some years with Eumenes,

PHARNACIA
king of Pergamus, and Ariarathes, king of
Cappadocia, but was obliged to conclude with
them a disadvantageous peace in 179. The
year of his death is uncertain ; it is placed by
conjecture to 156. (Pol. xxv. 2, xxvi. 6, xxvii.
15 ; Strab. p. 545.) — 2. King of Pontus, or more
properly of the Bosporus, was the son of Mith
ridates the Great, whom he compelled to put
an end to his Ufe in 68. [Mithridates VI.]
After the death of his father, Pharnaces has
tened to make his submission to Pompey, who
granted him the Mngdom of the Bosporus, with
the titles of friend and ally of the Roman
people. In the Civil war between Caesar and
Pompey, Pharnaces seized the opportunity to
reinstate himself in his father's dominions, and
made himself master of the whole of Colchis
and the lesser Armenia. He defeated Domi-
tiuB Calvinus, the lieutenant of Caesar in Asia,
but was shortly afterwards defeated by Caesar
himself to a decisive action near Zela (47). The
battle was gained with such ease by Caesar
that he informed the senate of Ms victory by
the words, Veni, vidi, vici (App. Mithr. 110-
120 ; Dio Cass. xiii. 45 ; Bell. Alex. 65-77). In
the course of the some year, Pharnaces was
again defeated, and was slain by Asander, one
of Ms generals. [Asandee.]
Pharnacia (•bapvaKia: Kheresoun or Kera-
sunda), a flourisMng city of Asia Minor, on the
coast of Pontus Polemoniacus, was buUt near
(some think, on) the site of Cerasus, probably
by Pharnaces, the grandfather of Mithridates
the Great, and peopled by the transference to
it of the inhabitants of Cotyora. It had a large
commerce and extensive fisheries ; and in its
neighbourhood were the iron mines of the
Chalybes. It was strongly fortified, and was
used by Mithridates, in the war with Rome, for
the place of refuge of his harem. (Strab. pp.
548-551 ; Plut. Lucull. 18 ; Arrian, Peripl.
Pont. Eux. p. 17.)
Pharsalus (idpcraXos, Ion. $dpo-nXos: i>apod-
Xios : Pharsa or Fersala), a town to Thessaly
to the district Thessaliotis, not far from the
frontiers of Phthiotis, W. of the river Enipeus,
and on the N. slope of Mt. Narthacius. It was
divided into an old and a new city, and contained

PHASIS

687

(Od. iv. 355.) When Alexander the Great
planned the city of Alexandria, on the coast
opposite to Pharos, he caused the island to
be united to the coast by a mole seven stadia
in length, thus forming the two harbours
of the city. [Alexandeia.] The island was
chiefly famous for the lofty tower built upon it
by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, for a lighthouse,
whence the name of pharus was applied to aU
similar structures. The island was well peo
pled, according to Julius Caesar, but soon after
wards Strabo tells us that it was inhabited only
by a few fishermen (Strab. p. 791). — 2. (Lesina
or Hvar), an island of the Adriatic, off the
coast of Dalmatia, E. of Issa, with a Greek
city of the same name (Civita Vecchia, Ru.),
which was taken and destroyed by the Romans
under Aemilius Paulus, but probably rebuilt,
as it is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name
of PhariaJPol. ii. 11, iii. 16 ; Strab. p. 315).
Pharusil (^apoicrtoi), a people in the interior
(probably near the W. coast) of N. Africa, who
carried on a considerable traffic with Mauretania
(Strab. pp. 131, 828 ; Ptol. iv. 6, 17).
Phasaelis (Qao-atiXis : prob. Ain-el-Fusail),
a city of Palestine, in the valley of the Jordan,
N. of Jericho, built by Herod the Great (Jos,
Ant. xvi. 5, 2).
Phaselis (*a<rj]Ais, Qao-nXirns : Tekrova,
Ru.), an important seaport town of Lycia, near
the borders of Pamphylia, stood on the gulf of
Pamphylia, at the foot of Mt. Solyma, in a
narrow pass between the mountains and the
sea. It was founded by Dorian colonists, and
from its position, and its command of three
fine harbours, it soon gained an extensive com
merce (Hdt. ii. 178 ; Strab. p. 667). It did not
belong to the Lycian confederacy, but had an
independent government of its own. It became

Coin of Pharsalus (4th cent. B.C.).
06u.,headof Athene; rev., *AP2; Thessalian horseman:
below, teae*anto (backwards), probably the engraver's
name.
a strongly fortified acropolis (Strab. pp. 431-
434; Liv. xliv. 1). In its neighbourhood, NE.
of the town and on the other side of the
Enipeus, was a celebrated temple of Thetis,
caUed Thetidium. Near Pharsalus was fought
the decisive battle between Caesar and Pompey,
B.C. 48, wMch made Caesar master of the Ro
man world. It is frequently caUed the battle
of Pharsalia, which was the name of the terri
tory of the town.
Pharus ($>dpos). 1. (Pharos or Baudhat-el-
tin, i.e. Fig-garden), a small island off the
Mediterranean coast of Egypt, mentioned by
Homer, who describes it as a whole day's sail
distant from Aegyptus, meaning, prob
ably, not Egypt itself, but the river Nile.

Coin of Phaselis in Lycia (6th cent. B.C.).
Obv., prow of galley in the shape of a boar's head; rev.,
*AS, stem of galley in incuse square.
afterwards the head-quarters of the pirates who
infested the S. coasts of Asia Minor, and was
therefore destroyed by P. Servilius Isauricus
(Cic. Verr. iv. 10, 21 ; Eutrop. vi. 3) ; and though
the city was restored, it never recovered its
importance. Phaselis is said to have been the
place at which the light quick vessels called
<pdo-n.Xoi were first built, and the figure of such
a ship appears on its coins.
Phasis (#Seris). 1. (Faz or Bioni), a re
nowned river of the ancient world, rose in the
MoscMci M. (or according to some in the Cau
casus, where, in fact, its chief tributaries rise),
and flowed westward through the plain of
Colchis into the E. end of the Pontus Euxinus
(Black Sea), after receiving several affluents,
the chief of wMch were the Glaucus and the
Rion: the name of the latter was sometimes
transferred, as it now is, to the main river. It
was navigable about thirty-eight miles above
its mouth for large vessels, and for small ones
further up, as far as Sarapana (Sharapan),
whence goods were conveyed in four days across
the Moschici M. to the river Cyrus, and so to
the Caspian. It was spanned by 120 bridges,

688

PHAVORINUS

and had many towns upon its banks. Its
waters were celebrated for their purity and for
various other supposed qualities, some of a very
marveUous nature ; but it was most famous in
connexion with the story of the Argonautic
expedition. [Aegonautae.] Some of the early
geographers made it the boundary between
Europe and Asia (Strab. p. 497 ; Hdt. iv. 40) ;
it was afterwards the NE. limit of the Mngdom
of Pontus, and under the Romans it was re
garded as the N. frontier of their empire in W.
Asia. Another notable circumstance connected
with it is that it has given name to the pheasant
(phasianus, cpaciavbs, (pacriaviKbs bpvis), wMch
is said to have been first brought to Greece
from its banks, where the bird is still found in
great numbers (Mart. iii. 57, 16 Plin. x. 132).
— When the geography of these regions was
comparatively unknown, it was natural that
there should be a doubt as to the identification
of certain celebrated names ; and thus the name
Phasis, Uke Araxes, is applied to different rivers.
The most important of these variations is Xeno
phon's application of the name Phasis to the
river Araxes in Armenia (Anab. iv. 6). — 2.
Near the mouth of the river, on its S. side, was
a town of the same name, founded and fortified
by the Milesians as an emporium for their com
merce, and used under the kings of Pontus,
and under the Romans, as a frontier fort, and
now a Russian fortified station, under the name
of Pati. Some identify it with Sebastopolis,
but most likely incorrectly. (Strab. pp. 498,
500 ; Ptol. v. 10, 2.)
Phavorinus. [Favoeinus.]
Phayllus (QdvXXos). 1. A celebrated athlete
of Crotona, who had thrice gained the victory
at the Pythian games. He fought at the battle
of Salamis, B.C. 480, in a stop fitted out at his
own expense. (Hdt. viii. 47; Paus. x. 9, 2;
Plut. Alex. 34.) He is said to have cleared
fifty-five feet in jumping (Anth. Pal. ii. p. 851 ;
Suid. s.v). It is suggested that (if true at all)
it may have been by the ' hop, step, and jump.'
[Did. of Ant. art. Pentathlum.] — 2. A Pho-
cian, brother of Onomarchus, whom he suc
ceeded as general of the Phocians in the Sacred
war, 352. He died in the following year, after
a long and painful iUness. PhayUus made use
of the sacred treasures of Delphi with a far
more lavish hand than either of his brothers,
and he is accused of bestowing the consecrated
ornaments upon his wife and mistresses. (Diod.
xvi. 35-38, 61 ; Paus. x. 2, 6.)
Phazania (Fezzan), a district of Libya In
terior. [Gaeamantes.]
Phazemon (QaQtipdv: prob. Marsiwan), a
, city of Pontus in Asia Minor, NW. of Amasia,
and the capital of the W. district of Poritus,
caUed Phazemonitis (QafapoviTis), which lay
on the E. side of the Halys, S. of Gazelonitis,
and was celebrated for its warm mineral springs.
Pompey changed the name of the city to Nea
polis, and the district was called Neapolitis :
but these names seem to have been soon
dropped. (Strab. pp. 553, 560.)
Phea ("petal, 4>ea, $eal : <Peaios), a town on
the frontiers of Elis and Pisatis, with a harbour
situated on a promontory of the same name,
and on the river Iardanus. In front of the
harbour was a small island caUed Pheas (<pe(as).
(17. vii. 135 ; Od. xi. 297 ; Strab. p. 350.)
Pheca or Pheeadum, a fortress in Thessaly in
the district Hestiaeotis (Liv. xxxi. 41, xxxii. 14).
Phegeus (Qriyeis), king of Psophis in Arcadia,
father of Alphesiboea or Arsinoe, of Pronous and
Agenor, or of Temenus andAxion. He purified

PHERECRATES
Alcmaeon after he had MUed Ms mother, and
gave him his daughter Alphesiboea to marriage.
Alcmaeon presented Alphesiboea with the cele
brated necHace and peplus of Harmonia ; but
when Alcmaeon afterwards wished to obtain
them again for tos new wife Callirrhoe, he was
murdered by the sons of Phegeus, by their
father's command. Phegeus was himself subse
quently put to death by the sons of Alcmaeon.
For details see Alcmaeon.
Phellus (GeXXos or QeXXbs : 4>eAAiTrjs : Ru
near Saaret), an inland city of Lycia, on a
mountainbetween Xanthus and AntipheUus ; the
latter having been at first the port of Phellus,
but afterwards eclipsing it (Strab. p. 666).
Phellusa, a small island near Lesbos.
Phemius (Q-fipios), a celebrated minstrel, son
of Terpius, who entertained with Ms song the
suitors in the palace of Odysseus to Ithaca
(Od. i. 154).
Phemonoe ($npovbri), amythicalGreekpoetess
of«the ante-Homeric period, was said to have
been the daughter of ApoUo, and Ms first
priestess at Delphi, and the inventor of the
hexameter ver6e. There were poems wMch
went under the name of Phemonoe, Uke the old
religious poems which were ascribed to Orpheus,
Musaeus, and the other mythological bards.
(Paus. x. 5, 7, x. 6, 7 ; Strab. p. 419.)
Pheneus(*eVeosor<i>e>'Eo's: Qevedrns: Fonia),
a town in the NE. of Arcadia, at the foot of Mt.
CyUene, and on the river Aroanius. Its territory
was called Pheneatis (Qevedris). There were
extensive marshes in the neighbourhood, the
waters of which were partly carried off by a
subterraneous channel, which was supposed to
have been made by Heracles. (Paus. viii. 14,
3 ; Catull. 68, 109 ; Plin. xxxi. 54 ; cf . p. 400, b.)
The town was of great antiquity. It is mentioned
by Homer, and was said to have been built by
an autochthon Pheneus. It contained a strongly
fortified acropolis with a temple of Athene Tri-
toma ; and in the town itself were the tombs of
IpMcles and Myrtilus, and temples of Hermes
and Demeter. (II. ii. 605 ; Paus. vui. 14, 15 ;
Verg. Aen. viii. 165.)
Pherae (<bepai : Qepdios : Valestino), an ancient
town of Thessaly, in the SE. of the Pelasgian
plain, W. of Mt. Pelion, SW. of the lake Boebeis,
and ninety stadia from its port-town, Pagasae on
the Pagasaean gulf. Pherae is celebrated in
mythology as the residence of Admetus, and in
history on account of its tyrants, who extended
their power over nearly the whole of Thessaly.
(II. ii. 711 ; Thuc. ii. 22 ; Strab. pp. 403, 439.)
Cf these the most powerful was Jason, who was
made Tagus or generalissimo of Thessaly about
B.C. 874. Jason was succeeded to 870 by Ms
two brothers Polydorus and Polyphron. The
former was soon after assassinated by Poly
phron. The latter was murdered in Ms turn,
in 369, by his nephew Alexander, who was
notorious for Ms cruelty, and who was put to
death in 367 by his wife Thebe and her three
brothers. [Jason ; Alexandee, p. 47, b.] In
b.c. 191 Pherae was taken by Antiochus, and
shortly afterwards surrendered to the Romans
under Acilius Glabrio (Liv. xxxvi. 9, 14),
Pherae. [Phaeae.]
Pherecrates (4>epeKpaTjjs), of Athens, one of
the best poets of the Old Comedy, was contempo
rary with the comic poets Cratinus, Crates, Eu
polis, Plato, and Aristophanes, betog somewhat
younger than the first two, and somewhat older
than the others. He gained his first victory
B.C. 438, and he imitated the style of Crates,
whose actor he had been. Crat.es and Phere-

PHERECYDES
crates, like Epicharmus, very much modified
the coarse satire and vituperation of which tMs
sort of poetry had previously been the vehicle,
and constructed their comedies on the basis of
a regular plot, and with more dramatio action,
satirising types of character, not actual persons.
Pherecrates did n ot, however, abstain altogether
from personal satire, for we see by the frag
ments of his plays that he attacked Alcibiades,
the tragic poet MelantMus, and others (Athen.
pp. S43, 538). He forestalled in the Crapatali
the idea, which Aristophanes expressed in the
Frogs, of laying the scene of his play in the
underworld. Phereorates invented a new metre,
wMch was named, after Iton, the Pherecratean,
The system of the verse is ' _ 1/ i. _
wMch may be best explained as a choriambus,
with a spondee for its base, and a long syllable
for its termination. The metre is very frequent
in the choruses of the Greek tragedians, and in
Horace, as, for example — Grato Pyrrha sub
antro. The extant titles of the plays of Phere
crates are eighteen. (Fragments in Meineke,
Fr. Com. Gi:)
Pherecydes (^epeKiSns). 1. Of Syros, an
island in the Aegaean, an early Greek philo
sopher or rather theologian. He Uved in the
sixth century B.C. He is said to have obtained
his knowledge from the secret books of the
Phoenicians, and to have travelled in Egypt.
Almost aU the ancient writers who speak of him
state that he was the teacher of Pythagoras.
The most important subject which he is said to
have taught was the doctrine of the Metempsy
chosis adopted by Pythagoras. He gave an
account of tos views in a work (Ilepl cpicreas Kal
irepl Beav) which was extant in the Alexandrian
period. It was written in prose, which he is
said to have been the first to employ in the
explanation of ptolosophical questions. (Diog.
Laert. i. 116-122; Arist. Met. xiii. 4 = p. 1092, b;
Cic. Tusc. i. 16, 38; Plut. Sull. 36.)— 2. Of
Leros, one of the most celebrated of the early
Greek logographers. He Uved to the former
half of the fifth century B.C., and was a con
temporary of HeUanicus and Herodotus. Most
of Ms life was spent at Athens, whence he is
caUed indifferently the Lerian or the Athenian.
His principal work was a Mstory of the mytho
logy and antiquities of Attica, to ten books. It
began with a theogony, and then proceeded to
give an account of the heroic age and of the
great f amities of that time. — His fragments have
been collected by Sturtz, Pherecydis Frag-
menta, Lips. 1824, 2nd ed. ; and by C. and T.
Miiller, to Fragm. Hist. Graec. vol. i.
Pheres (*>Epr)s). 1. Son of Cretheus and Tyro,
and brother of Aeson and Amythaon ; he was
married to Periclymene, by whom he became the
father of Admetus, Lycurgus, Idomene, and Pe-
riapis. He was beUeved to have founded the
town of Pherae in Thessaly. (Od. xi. 259 ;
Apollod. i. 9, 11.) — 2. Son of Jason and Medea
(Paus. U. 3, 6).
Pheretiades (QepriridSris), i.e. a son of Pheres,
is especially used as the name of Admetus (II.
ii. 763).
Pheretima (Qeperipa), wife of Battus III., and
mother of Arcesilaus III., successive kings of
Cyrene. After the murder of her son by the
Barcaeans [Battiadae, No. 6], Pheretima fled
into Egypt to Aryandes, the viceroy of Darius
Hystaspis, and representing that the death of
ArcesUaus had been the consequence of Ms sub
mission to the Persians, she induced him to
avenge it. Ou the capture of Barca by the

PHIDIAS

089

Persian army, she caused those who had the
principal share in her son's murder to be
impaled, and ordered the breasts of their
wives to be cut off. Pheretima then returned
to Egypt, where she died. (Hdt. iv. 162, 200-
205.) Pheron or Pheros (Qepav, 4>ep£s),the Greek
name for the son of Sesostris ( = Ramses II.).
This king of Egypt was really Meneptah II.,
who succeeded on the death of Ramses (or
Sesostris), about 1300 B.C., and won great vic
tories over the Libyans and their allies the
Aquasha and Shardana, whom some believe to
be the Achaeans and Sardinians. By some
authorities he is thought to be the Pharaoh of
the Exodus. The Greek name $epav seems to
be a misconception of the title Pharaoh.
Herodotus has a story, which is not confirmed
by the Egyptian monuments, that he was visited
with blindness as a punishment for his impiety
in throwing a spear into the waters of the Nile
when it had overflowed the fields. By attend
ing to the directions of an oracle he was cured,
and he dedicated an obelisk at Heliopolis to
gratitude for his recovery (Hdt. ii. 111). Pliny
tells us that this obelisk, together with another,
also made by him but broken in its removal,
was to be seen at Rome to the Circus of Cali
gula and Nero at the foot of the Vatican hill.
Pliny calls the Pheron of Herodotus Nen-
coreus : Diodorus gives him his father's name,
Sesostris (Plin. xxxvi. 74 ; Diod. i. 59).
Phidias ($eiSlas), the great Greek sculptor.
Of his personal history we possess but few
details. He was a native of Athens, and the
son of Charmides, and was born about the time
of the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490. He began
to work as a sculptor about 464, and one of his
first great works was the statue of Athene
Promachos, which may be assigned to about
460. TMs work must have established his re
putation ; but it was surpassed by the splendid
productions of his own hand, and of others
working under his direction, during the admini
stration of Pericles. That statesman not only
chose Phidias to execute the principal statues
which were to be set up, but gave him the
direction of all the works of art which were to
be erected. Of these works the chief were the
Propylaea of the Acropolis (built by the archi
tect Mnesicles), and, above all, the temple of
Athene on the Acropolis, caUed the Paethe-
non (of which Ictinus and Callicrates were the
architects), on which, as the central point of
the Athenian polity and religion, the highest
efforts of the best of artists were employed.
There can be no doubt that the sculptured
ornaments of tMs temple, the remains of which
form the glory of the British Museum, were
executed under the immediate superintendence
of Phidias ; but the colossal statue of the
divinity made of ivory and gold, which was en
closed within that magnificent shrine, was the
work of the artist's own hand. The statue
was dedicated in 438. Having finished his
great work at Athens, he went to Elis and
Olympia, which he was now invited to adorn.
He was there engaged for about four or five
years from 437 to 434 or 433, during which time
he finished his statue of the Olympian Zeus,
the greatest of all his works. On his return
to Athens, he fell a victim to the jealousy
against his great patron, Pericles, which was
then at its height. The party opposed to
Pericles, tMnking Mm too powerful to be over
thrown by a direct attack, aimed at him in the
persons of his most cherished friends, Phidias,
YY

690

PHIDIAS

Anaxagoras, and Aspasia. [Peeicles.] Phi
dias was first accused of peculation, but this
charge was at once refuted, as, by the advice of
Pericles, the gold had been affixed to the statue
of Athene in such a manner that it could be
removed and the weight of it examined. The
accusers then charged Phidias with impiety, in
having introduced into the battle of the Ama
zons, on the shield of the goddess, his own
likeness and that of Pericles. On this latter
charge Phidias was ttoown into prison, where
he died, in 432 (Plut. Pericl. 31). PMdias had
executed a statue of Athene for Pallene in
Achaia (Paus. vii. 27, 1) ; and the colossal statue
of Athene Promachos on the Acropolis of
Athens [see p. 11] ; but more famous than
these was the statue of Athene in the Parthe
non, to which reference has already been made.
The statue was of that kind of work which the
Greeks called chryselephantine : that is, the
statue was formed of plates of ivory laid upon
a core of wood or stone, for the flesh parts,
while the drapery and other ornaments were of
solid gold. The statue stood in the foremost
and larger chamber of the temple (prodomus).
It represented the goddess standing, clothed
with a tunic reaching to the ancles, with her
spear in her left hand and an image of Victory
four cubits high in her right : she was girded
with the aegis, and had a helmet on her head,
and her shield rested on the ground by her
side. The height of the statue was twenty-six
cubits, or nearly forty feet, including the base
(Paus. i. 24 ; Plin. xxxvi. 18). The eyes were
of a kind of marble, nearly resembling ivory,
perhaps painted to imitate the iris and pupil
(Plat. Hipp. Maj. p. 290, b). The weight of the
gold, upon the statue, which, as above stated,
was removable at pleasure, is said by Thucy
dides to have been forty talents (ii. 13). — Still
more celebrated than his statue of Athene was
the colossal ivory and gold statue of Zeus
wMch Phidias made for the great temple of
this god in the Altis or sacred grove at Olym
pia. , This statue was regarded as the master
piece, not only of Phidias, but of the whole
range of Grecian art ; and was looked upon
not so much as a statue, but rather as if it
were the actual manifestation of the present
deity. It was placed in the prodomus or front
chamber of the temple, directly facing the en
trance. It was only visible, however, on great
festivals ; at other times it was concealed by a
magnificent curtain. The god was represented
as seated on a throne of cedar wood, adorned
with gold, ivory, ebony, stones, and colours,
crowned with a wreath of olive, holding in his
right hand an ivory and gold statue of Victory,
and in his left' hand supporting a sceptre,
which was ornamented with all sorts of metals,
and surmounted by an eagle. The throne was
brilliant both with gold and stones, and with
ebony and ivory, and was ornamented with
figures both painted and sculptured. The
statue almost reached to the roof, which was
about sixty feet in height. The idea which
Phidias essayed to embody in this his greatest
work was that of the supreme deity of the
Hellenic nation, no longer engaged in conflicts
with the Titans and the Giants, but having laid
aside his thunderbolt, and enthroned as a con
queror, in perfect majesty and repose, ruling
with a nod the subject world. It is related
(Strab. p. 534; Val. Max. iii. 7) that when
Phidias was asked what model he meant to
follow in making his statue, he replied, that of
Homer (II. i. 528-530) :

PHIDON
*H, Kal Kvaverpiv iir' bcppvai vevae Kpoviav.
kpBpbaiai S' b\pa xdirai ineppdaavro dvaxros
Kparbs air' dBavdroio' peyav S' eXeXi£ev "OXvpirov.
The statue was removed by the emperor Theo
dosius I.to Constanttoople,where it was destroyed
by a fire to a.d. 475.— The distinguishing
character of the art of Phidias was beauty of
the sublimest order, especially to the represen
tation of divinities, and of subjects connected
with their worship. While on the one hand he
set himself free from the stiff and unnatural
forms which, by a sort of religious precedent,
had fettered his predecessors of the archaic
school, on the other hand he did not aim at
representtog the typical beauty of face and
form which is seen in the works of Polyclitus,
and still more in those of Praxiteles. In dignity
and largeness of style he stood pre-eminent.
[See further to Diet, of Ant. art. Statuaria Ars.]
PMdippides or Philippides (QeiSiirirlbris,
fyiXtiririSris), a courier, was sent by the Athe
nians to Sparta in B.C. 490, to ask for aid against
the Persians, and arrived there on the second
day from his leaving Athens. On his return to
Athens, he related that on his way to Sparta
the god Pan had met him on Mt. Parthenium,
near Tegea, and caUing him loudly by name
had bidden Mm ask the Athenians why they
paid him no worship, though he had been hither
to their friend, and ever would be so. (Hdt. vi.
105; Paus. i. 28, 4, viii. 54, 6; Nep. Milt. 4.)
In consequence of this revelation, they dedi
cated a temple to Pan after the battle of
Marathon, and honoured him thenceforth with
annual sacrifices and a torch-race. [Pan.]
Phidon ($e{Sav). 1. Son of Aristodamidas,
and king of Argos, restored the supremacy of
Argos over Cleonae, Phlius, Sicyon, Epidaurus,
Troezen, and Aegina, and aimed at extending
his dominions over the greater part of the Pelo
ponnesus. Plutarch tells a story of his trying
(though unsuccessfully) to obtain 1000 picked
youths from Corinth, whom he intended to put
to death, and so reduce the power of the Corin
thians. The story is improbable in its details,
but seems to indicate some claim to supremacy
over Corinth also (Plut. Am. 2). The Pisatans
invited him, according to the received text of
Pausanias, to the 8th Olympiad (B.C. 748), to aid
them in excluding the Eleans from their usurped
presidency at the Olympic games, and to cele
brate them jointly with themselves. The invi
tation quite fell in with the ambitious pretensions
of Phidon, who succeeded in dispossessing the
Eleans and celebrating the games along with
the Pisatans ; but the Eleans not long after
defeated him, with the aid of Sparta, and re
covered their privilege. Thus apparently feU
the power of Phidon ; but as to the details of
the struggle we have no information. The most
memorable act of Phidon was his introduction
of copper and silver coinage, and a new scale of
weights and measures, which, through his in
fluence, became prevalent in the Peloponnesus,
and ultimately throughout the greater portion
of Greece. (Hdt. vi. 127 ; Ephorus, ap. Strab.
p. 858 ; Ar. Pol. v. 10, p. 1810 ; Paus. vi. 22, 2 ;
Diog. Laert. viii. 14 ; Ael. V. H. xii. 10.) The
coinage of Phidon is said to have been struck in
Aegina, with the type of a tortoise (a symbol of
the Phoenician Astarte). [Diet, of Ant. art.
Pondera.] There is considerable doubt about
the date of Phidon. The date assigned to the
earliest Greek coins is the seventh cent. B.C.,
which agrees with Hdt. vi. 127, where Phidon
I the tyrant of Argos who regulated measures in

PHIGALIA
the Peloponnesus and interfered at Olympia is
said to be the father of one of the suitors of
Agariste. This would bring Phidon near to the
time of Clisthenes of Sicyon, and would pre
clude an earlier date for his reign than the
middle of the seventh cent. B.C. It has been
suggested that the text of Pausanias is corrupt
and that 01. 28, instead of 8 (i. e. 658 B.C.), should
be read. The suggestion that there was an
earlier Phidon also is not satisfactory. — 2. An
-ancient Corinthian legislator of uncertain date.
Phigalia (GiyaXia, QiydXeia, QiyaXea : 4>i-yo>
Xeis : Pavlitza), at a later time called Phiaha,
a town to the SW. corner of Arcadia on the
frontiers of Messenia and Elis, and upon the
river Lymax. It is said to have derived its
name from Phigalus, son of Lycaon, its founder
(Paus. viii. 89, 2 ; Steph. B. s. v.). It was taken
by the Spartans B.C. 559, but was afterwards
jrecovered by the PhigaUans with the help of

PHILA

091

are standing. The temple is 125 feet long by
46 broad. In 1812 the frieze round tho interior
of the inner cella was discovered, containing a
series of sculptures in alto-rilievo, representing
the combat of the Centaurs and the Lapithae,
and of the Greeks and the Amazons [see cut on
p. 59]. The height of the frieze was a little
more than two feet, and the total length about
100 feet. The sculptures were found on tho
ground under the spot which they originally
occupied, and were much injured by their fall,
and by the weight of the ruins lying upon them.
They were purchased for the British Museum
in 1814, where they are preserved. About 8&
miles from Phigalia (according to Paus. viii.
42, 1) under the hill Elaeum was the ancient
sanctuary of the 'Black' Demeter, a cave in
which was an image of the goddess with a
horse's head [see p. 277, b]. A natural tunnel
through which the river Neda (Vontziko) runs,

Remains of the Temple of Apollo at

near Phigalia.

the Oresthasians. It is frequently mentioned
in the later wars of the Achaean and Aetolian
Leagues (Paus. viii. 39, 4 ; Diod. xv. 40 ; Pol.
iv. 3, 79). — Phigalia, however, owes its celebrity
in modern times to the remains of a splendid
temple in its territory, situate about six miles
NE. of the town at Bassae on Mt. Cotylum.
This temple was built by Ictinus, the contem
porary of Pericles and PMdias, and the archi
tect, along with Callicrates, of the Parthenon
at Athens. It was dedicated to Apollo Epi-
curius, or the Deliverer, because the god had
delivered the country from the pestilence
•durtog the Peloponnesian war. Pausanias de
scribes tMs temple as the most beautiful one in
all Peloponnesus after the temple of Athene at
Tegea. It is a Doric hexastyle [see Diet, of
Ant. art. Templum], but with fifteen columns
at the sides, and therefore thirty-eight columns
in the whole outer circuit, of which all but three

now called Stomion tes Panagias, is shown as
the site of this sanctuary. It is about three
miles W. of Phigalia.
Phila (iiXa), daughter of Antipater, the
regent of Macedonia, was married to Craterus
in B.C. 322, and after the death of Craterus, who
survived his marriage with her scarcely a year,
she was again married to the young Demetrius,
the son of Antigonus. When Demetrius was
expelled from Macedonia in 287, she put an end
to her own life at Cassandrea. She showed
nobility of character in her endeavours to pro
mote peace and to check oppression. She left
two children by Demetrius : Antigonus, Bur-
named Gonatas, and a daughter, Stratonice, mar
ried first to Seleucus, and afterwards to his son
Antiochus. (Plut. Demetr. 14-45; Diod. xx. 93.)
Phila (4>/A.a: QiXaios, ^iXarns). A town of
Macedonia in the province Pieria, situated on a
steep hiU on the Peneus between Dium and
y Y2

692

; PHILADELPHIA

Tempe and at the entrance into Thessaly, built
by Demetrius II. and named after his mother
PMla (Liv. xiii. 67 ; Steph. B. s. v.).
Philadelphia (QiXaSeXcpela : QiXaSeXcpebs).
1. (Allah Shehr, Ru.), a city of Lydia, at the foot
of M. Tmolus, on the little river Cogamus, SE,
of Sardis. It was built by Attalus Philadel
phus, king of Pergamus. It suffered severely
from earthquakes ; so that in Strabo's time
(under Augustus) it had greatly declined. In
the reign of Tiberius, it was almost destroyed
by one of these visitations. (Strab. p. 628 ; Tac.
Ann. ii. 47 ; Steph. B. s. v.) It was an early
seat of Christianity, and its church is one of
the seven to which the Apocalypse is addressed
(Rev. iii. 7). — 2. A city of Cilicia Aspera, N. of
Claudiopblis (Ptol. v. 8, 5). — 3. In Palestine,
[Rabbatamana.] Philadelphus (QiXdSeXcpos), a surname of
Ptolemaeus II. king of Egypt [Ptolemaeus]
and of Attalus II. king of Pergamum [Attalus].
Phllae (<J>(Aai : Jesiret-el-Birbeh, i. e. the
Island of Temples), an island to the Nile, just
above the First Cataract (of Syene), on the S.
boundary of the country towards Aethiopia.
It was inhabited by Egyptians and Ethiopians
jointly, and was covered with magnificent
temples, whose splendid ruins stUl remain. It
was celebrated in Egyptian mythology as the
burial-place of Osiris and Isis. (Strab. pp. 40,
80S, 818, 820 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 74 ; Diod. i. 22 ; Sen.
Q. N._ iv. 1_; Plin. v. 59.)
Philaeni (<frtXaivoi), two brothers, citizens of
Carthage, of whom the following story is told.
A dispute having arisen between the Cartha
ginians aod Cyrenaeans about their boundaries,
it was agreed that deputies should start at a
fixed time from each of the cities, and that the
place of their meeting, wherever it might be,
should thenceforth form the limit of the two
territories. The Philaeni were appointed for
this service on the part of the Carthaginians,
and advanced much further than the Cyrenaean
party. The Cyrenaeans accused them of having
set forth before the time agreed upon, but at
length consented to accept the spot which they
had reached as a boundary-line, if the Philaeni
would submit to be buried alive there in the
sand. Should they decline the offer, they were
willing, they said, on their side, if permitted to
advance as far as they pleased, to purchase for
Cyrene an extension of territory by a similar
death. The Philaeni accordingly then and
there devoted themselves for their country, in
the way proposed. The Carthaginians paid
Mgh honours to their memory, and erected
altars to them where they had died ; and from
these, even long after all traces of them had
vanished, the place still continued to be called
' The Altars of the Philaeni.' (Sail. Jug. 75 ;
cf. Val. Max. v. 6, 4 ; Strab. pp. 171, 836 ; Sil.
It. xv. 701.) Our main authority for this story
is SaUust, who probably derived his information
from African traditions during the time that he
was proconsul of Numidia. The Greek name
by wMch the heroic brothers have become
known to us — QlXaivoi, or lovers of praise — may
have been framed to suit the tale, or the tale to
explain the name.
Phllagrius (QiXdypios), a Greek medical
writer, born in Epirus, lived after Galen and
before Oribasius, and therefore probably in the
third century after Christ. He wrote several
Works, of which only a few fragments remain.
Philammon (QiXdppav), a mythical poet and
musician of the pre-Homeric period, was said
to have been the son, of Apollo and the nymph

PHILEMON
Chione, or Philonis, or Leuconoe. (Theocr..
xxiv. 118 ; Hyg. Fab. 161 ; Ov. Met. xi. 317.)-
By the nymph Agriope, who dwelt on Par
nassus, he became the father of Thamyria and
Eumolpus (Eur. Bhes. 916 ; Apollod. i. 3, 3 ;
Paus. iv. 33, 3). He is closely associated with.
the worship of Apollo at Delphi, and with the
music of the cithara. He is said to have
established the choruses of girls, who, in the
Delphian worship of ApoUo, sang hymns in
which they celebrated the births of Latona,
Artemis, and Apollo. Pausanias relates that
in the most ancient musical contests at DelpM,
the first who conquered was Chrysothemis of
Crete, the second was Philammon, and the next.
after him his son Thamyris. (Paus. x. 7, 2-r
Plut. Mus. pp. 1132, 1133.)
Philargyrius Junius, or Philargyrus, or
Junilius Flagrius, an early commentator upon
Virgil, who wrote upon the Bucolics and
Georgics. His observations are less elaborate
than those of Servius, and have descended to
us in a mutilated condition. The period when
he flourished is altogether uncertain. They are
printed in the edition of Virgil by Burmann.
Phile or Philes, Manuel (MavovijX b *i\tjs),.
a Byzantine poet, and a native of Ephesus, was
born about a.d. 1275, and died about 1340. His
poem, De Animalium Proprietate, chiefly ex
tracted from AeUan, is edited by De Paw,
Traj. Rhen. 1739, and his other poems on
various subjects by Wernsdorf, Lips. 1768.
Phileas (QiXeas), a Greek geographer of
Athens, whose time cannot be determined with
certainty, but who probably belonged to the-
older period of Athenian literature (Macrob.
v. 20 ; Avien. Or. Mar. 42). He was the author
of a Periplus, which was divided into two parts,.
one on Asia, and the other on Europe.
Philemon (<bixir\pav). 1. An aged Phrygian
and husband of Baucis. Once upon a time,
Zeus and Hermes, assuming the appearance of
ordinary mortals, visited Phrygia ; but no one
was willing to receive the strangers, until the
hospitable hut of PMlemoh and Baucis was
opened to them, where the two gods were kindly
treated. Zeus rewarded the good old couple
by taking them to an eminence, while all the
neighbouring district was visited with a sudden
inundation. On that eminence Zeus appointed
them the guardians of his temple, and allowed
them both to die at the same moment, and then
changed them into trees (Ov. Met. viii. 620-
724). — 2. An Athenian poet of the New Comedy,
was the son of Damon, and a native of Soli in
Cilicia, but at an early age went to Athens, and
there received the citizenship (Strab. p. 671).
He was born about 360 B.C., a little earlier than
Menander, whom, however, he long survived.
He began to exhibit about B.C. 330. He was
the first poet of the New Comedy in order of
time, and the second in celebrity; and he
shares with Menander the honour of its inven
tion, or rather of reducing it to a regular form.
Philemon lived nearly 100 years. (Diod. xxiii.
7 ; Lucian, Macrob. 25 ; Val. Max. ix. 12, 6 ;
Suid. s. v.) The manner of Ms death is dif
ferently related : some ascribing it to excessive
laughter at a ludicrous incident ; others to joy
at obtaining a victory in a dramatic contest;
while another story represents him as quietly
called away by the goddesses whom he served,,
in the midst of the composition or representa
tion of his last and best work. Although there
can be no doubt that Philemon was inferior to-
Menander as a poet, yet he was a greater-
favourite with the Athenians, and often con-

PHILETAERUS
¦quered his rival in the dramatic contests.
[Menandek.] The extant fragments of Phile
mon display much liveliness, wit and practical
knowledge of life. His favourite subjects seem
to have been love intrigues, and Ms characters
were the standing ones of the New Comedy,
with which Plautus and Terence have made us
familiar. The Mercator and Trinummus of
Plautus are adapted from Philemon's plays
^Epiropos and ®rio-avpbs. The number of his
plays was ninety-seven ; the number of extant
titles, after the doubtful and spurious are re
jected, amounts to about fifty-three ; but it is
very probable that some of these should be
¦ assigned to the younger Philemon. The frag
ments of Philemon are printed with those of
Menander by Meineke, in tos Fragmeuta
¦Comicorum Graecorum. — 3. The younger Phile
mon, also a poet of the New Comedy, was a son
of the former, in whose fame nearly all that
belongs to him has been absorbed ; so that, al
though he was the author of fifty-four dramas,
there are only two short fragments, and not one
title, quoted expressly under his name. — 4. The
author of a Ae£iKbv rexvoXoyiKbv, the extant
portion of which was first edited by Barney,
Lond. 1812, and afterwards by Osann, Berlin,
1821. The author informs us that Ms work was
intended to take the place of a similar Lexicon
by the grammarian Hyperechius. The work of
Hyperechius was arranged in eight books, ac
cording to the eight different parts of speech.
Ptolemon's lexicon was a meagre epitome of
this work ; and the part of it wMch is extant
consists of the first book and the beginning of
the second. Hyperechius Uved about the
middle of the fifth century of our era, and Phi
lemon may probably be placed in the seventh.
Philetaerus (QiXeraipos). 1. Founder of the
kingdom of Pergamus, was a native of Tieium
in PapMagonia (Strab. pp. 543, 623). He is
first mentioned in the service of Docimus, the
general of Antigonus, from which he passed
into that of Lysimachus, who entrusted him
with the charge of the treasures wMch he had
deposited in the strong fortress of Pergamum.
Towards the end of the reign of Lysimachus he
declared to favour of Seleucus ; and, after the
¦death of the latter (B.C. 280), he took advantage
¦of the disorders to Asia to establish himself in
virtual independence. At his death he trans
mitted the government to his nephew Euiienes.
He lived to the age of 80, and died apparently
in 263 (Lucian, Macrob. 12). — 2. An Athenian
poet of the so-caUed Middle Comedy. He wrote
twenty-one plays (Suid. s. v.).
Philetas (¦biX-nras), of Cos, the son of Tele
phus, a distinguished Alexandrian poet and
grammarian, flourished during the reign of the
first Ptolemy, who appointed him tutor of his
Ms son, Ptolemy H. Philadelphus. His death
may be placed about B.C. 280. PhUetas seems
to have been naturally of a very weak consti
tution, which at last broke down under exces
sive study. He was so remarkably thin as to
become an object for the ridicule of the comic
poets, who represented him as wearing leaden
soles to his shoes, to prevent his being blown
away by a strong wind. (Athen. pp. 401, 552 ;
Plut. An Seni sit ger. Besp. p. 791 ; Ael. V.H.
ix. 14.) His poetry was chiefly elegiac. Of all
the writers in that department he was esteemed
the best after Callimachus, to whom a taste
less pedantic than that of the Alexandrian
-critics would probably have preferred him, for,
to judge by his fragments, he escaped the
snare of learned affectation. These two poets

PHILIPPIDES

693

formed the chief models for the Roman elegy ;
and Propertius expressly states in one passage
that he imitated Philetas in preference to
Callimachus (Propert. iv. 1, 1). The elegies of
Philetas were chiefly amatory, and a large por
tion of them was devoted to the praises of his
mistress Bittis, or, as the Latin poets give the
name, Battis. Besides poems, Philetas wrote
in prose on grammar and criticism. His most
important grammatical work was entitled
"AraKra. The fragments of Philetas have
been collected by Bach, with those of Her-
mesianax and Phanocles, Halis Sax. 1829.
Phileus. [Pythius.]
Philinus (4>iAiVos). 1. A Greek of Agrigen
tum, accompanied Hannibal in his campaigns
against Rome, and wrote a history of the Punic
wars, in whicli he exhibited much partiality
towards Carthage (Nep. Hann. 13 ; Pol. i. 14,
iii. 26). — 2. An Attic orator, a contemporary of
Demosthenes and Lycurgus. He. is mentioned
by Demosthenes to his oration against Midias,
who calls Mm the son of Nicostratus, and says
that he was trierarch with him (Dem. Meid. p.
566, § 161). Three orations of Philinus are
mentioned by the grammarians (Harpocrat. s.v.).
— 3. A Greek physician, born in the island of
Cos, and the reputed founder of the sect of
the Empirici, probably lived in the third cen
tury B.C. He wrote a work on part of the
Hippocratic collection, and also one on botany.
Philippi (d>(Ai7T7roi : QiXiirirebs, $iXnrirf[o-ios,
$iXnncrivbs : Filibah or Felibejik), a celebrated
city in Macedonia Adjecta [see p. 512, b], was
situated on a steep height of Mt. Pangaeus, and

Coin of Philippi (4th cent. B.C.).
Obv., head of Heracles in lion-skin ; rev., fclAinnnN, tripod,
and palm above it.
on the river Gangas or Gangites, between the
rivers Nestus and Strymon. It was founded by
Philip on the site of an ancient town Crenides
(KpwviSes), a colony of the Thasians, who
settled here on account of the valuable gold
mines in the neighbourhood. (Strab. p. 331 ;
App. B.C. iv. 105, 107.) Philippi is celebrated
in history in consequence of the victory gained
here by Octavianus and Antony over Brutus
and Cassius, B.C. 42, and as the place where
the Apostle Paul first preached to Europe, a.d.
53. [For its importance in the history of the
Church, see Did. of the Bible.] It was made a
Roman colony by Octavianus after the victory
over Brutus and Cassius, under the name of
Col. Augusta Julia Philippensis ; and it was
under the empire a flourishing city (Dio Cass.
Ii. 4 ; C.I.L. iii. 600). Its seaport was Datum
or Datus on the Strymonic gulf.
Phllippides (QiXiiririSiis). 1. See Phidip-
pides.— 2. Of Athens, the son of Philocles, is
mentioned as one of the six principal comic
poets of the New Comedy by the grammarians.
He wrote about B.C. 323. Philippides seems
to have deserved the rank assigned to him, as
one of the best poets of the New Comedy.
He attacked the luxury and corruptions of his
age, defended the privileges of his art, and
made use of personal satire with a spirit ap
proaching to that of the Old Comedy (Plut.

694

PHILIPPOPOLIS

Demetr. 12, 26, Amat. p. 780). His death is
said to have been caused by excessive joy at
an unexpected victory (Gell. iii. 15) : similar
tales are told of the deaths of other poets, as,
for example, Sophocles, Alexis, and Philemon.
The number of his dramas is stated at forty-
five. (Suid. s.v.)
Philippopolis (QiXiirirbiroXts). 1. (Philippo-
poli), an important town in Thrace founded by
Philip of Macedon on the site of a place
previously called Eumolpias or Poneropolis.
It was situated in a large plain SE. of the
Hebrus on a hill with three summits, whence
it was sometimes called Trimontium. (Amm.
Marc. xxvi. 10, 4 ; Ptol. iii. 11, 12 ; Tac. Ann.
iii. 38.) Under the Roman empire it was the
capital of the province of Ttoacia in its nar
rower sense, and one of the most important
towns in the country. — 2. A city of Arabia, near
Bostra, found by the Roman emperor Philippus
(Aurel. Vict. Caes. 28).
Philippus (QlXiiriros). I. Minor historical
persons. 1. Son of Alexander I. of Macedonia,
and brother of Perdiccas II., against whom he
rebelled in conjunction with Derdas. The rebels
were aided by the Athenians, B.C. 432. (Thuc. i.
57, ii. 95, 100.)— 2. Son of Herod the Great,
King of Judaea, by his wife Cleopatra, was
appointed by his father's will tetrarch of
Ituraea and Trachonitis, the sovereignty of
which was confirmed to him by the decision of
Augustus (Jos. Ant. xvii. 8, xviii. 2). He con
tinued to reign over the dominions thus en
trusted to his charge for thirty- seven years
(b.c. 4-a.d. 34). He founded the city of Cae
sarea, surnamed Paneas, but more commonly
known as Caesarea Philippi, near the sources
of the Jordan, which he named in honour of
Augustus. [Caesabea, No. 2.] — 3. Son of
Herod the Great, by Mariamne, whose proper
name was Herodes Philippus. [See Diet, of
the Bible.] II. Kings of Macedonia.
I., son of Argaeus, was the third king, ac
cording to Herodotus and Thucydides, who, not
reckoning Caeanus and his two immediate
successors (Coenus and Thurimas or Tnrim-
mas), look upon Perdiccas I. as the founder of
the monarchy. Philip left a son, named Aero-
pus, who succeeded him (Hdt. viii. 187 ; Thuc.
ii. 100; Just. vii. 2). — II., youngest son of
Amyntas H. and Eurydice, reigned B.C. 359-
336. He was born in 382, and was brought up
at Thebes, whither he had been carried as a
hostage by Pelopidas, and where he received
a most careful education. He thus became ac
quainted with Greek literature and pMlosophy,
with Greek politics, and with the Greek method
of war. (Diod. xvi. 2 ; Plut. Pelop. 26 ; Just.
vii. 5.) According to some accounts he was for
a time a hostage with the IUyrians before he
went to Thebes. Upon the death of his
brother Perdiccas III., who was slain in battle
against the IUyrians, Philip obtained the
government of Macedonia, at first merely as
regent and guardian to Ms infant nephew,
Amyntas ; but within two years he was enabled
to set aside the claims of the young prince,
and to assume for himself the title of king,
B.C. 358. Macedonia was beset by dangers on
every side. Its territory was ravaged by the
IUyrians on the W., and the Paeonians on the
N., while Pausanias and Argaeus took advantage
of the crisis to put forward their pretensions
to the throne. Philip was fully equal to the
emergency. By Ms tact and eloquence he

PHILIPPUS
sustained the failing spirits of the Macedonians,.
while at the same time he introduced among
them a stricter military discipline, and orga
nised their army on the plan of the phalanx.
He first turned tos arms against Argaeus, the-
most formidable of the pretenders, since h&
was supported by the Athenians. He defeated
Argaeus in battle, and then concluded a peace
with the Athenians. He next attacked the
Paeonians, whom he reduced to subjection,
and immediately afterwards defeated tho IUy
rians in a decisive battle, and compelled them
to accept a peace, by which they lost a portion
of their territory (Diod. xvi. 4). Thus in the
short period of one year, and at the age of
twenty-four, had Philip delivered himself from
his dangerous position, and provided for the-
security of his kingdom. But energy and
talents such as his were not satisfied with
mere security, and henceforth his views were
directed, not to defence, but to aggrandise
ment. He first sought to obtain possession
of the various Greek cities upon the Mace
donian coast. Soon after his accession he
had withdrawn Ms garrison from AmpMpolis,.
and had declared it a free city, because the
Athenians had supported Argaeus with the
hope of recovering AmphipoUs, and Ms con
tinuing to hold the place would have inter
posed difficulties in the way of a peace with
Athens, which was at that time an object of
great importance to Mm. But he had never
meant seriously to abandon this important
town ; and accordingly, having obtained pre
texts for war with the Amphipolitans, he laid
siege to the town and gained possession of it
in 357. (Dem. Olynth. ii. pp. 11, 19, Phil. p. 70 ;
Aristocr. p. 659 ; [Dem.] Hal. p. 83.) The
Athenians had sent no assistance to Amphi
polis, because PhUip in a secret negotiation
with the Athenians, led them to believe that
he was willing to restore the city to them when
he had taken it, and would do so on condition
of their making him master of Pydna. After
the capture of Amphipolis, he proceeded at
once to Pydna, which seems to have yielded to-
him without a struggle, and the acquisition of
which, by his own arms, and not through the-
Athenians, gave him a pretext for declining to
stand by his secret engagement with them.
The hostile feeling which such conduct neces
sarily excited against Mm at Athens, made it
most important for Mm to secure the good wfll
of the powerful town of Olynthus, and to de
tach the OlyntMans from the Athenians. Ac
cordingly he gave to the OlyntMans the town of
Potidaea, which he took from the Athenians in
356. Soon after this, he attacked and took a
settlement of the Thasians, called Crenides,
and, having introduced into the place a num
ber of new colonists, he named it PMlippi after
Mmself. One great advantage of this acquisition
was, that it put Mm in possession of the gold
mines of the district, from which he is said to
have derived annually a thousand talents (Diod.
xvi. 8 ; Strab. p. 823). From this point there
is for some time a pause to the active opera
tions of Philip. In 354 he took Methone after
a lengthened siege, in the course of which he
himself lost an eye (Diod. xvi. 81, 84 ; Dem.
Olynth. i. p. 12). The capture of this place
was a necessary preliminary in any movement
towards the S., lying as it did between him and
the Thessalian border. He now marched into.
Thessaly to aid the Aleuadae against Lyco
phron, the tyrant of Pherae. The Phocians.
sent a force to support Lycophron, but they

PHILIPPUS

were defeated by PMlip, at Pagasae, B.C. 352,
and their general Onomarchus slain. This
victory gave PMlip the ascendency in Thessaly.
He established at Pherae what he wished the
Greeks to consider a free government, and
then advanced southward to Thermopylae.
The pass, however, he found guarded by a
strong Athenian force, and he was compelled,
or at least thought it expedient, to retire. He
now turned his arms agatost Thrace, and suc
ceeded to estabUsMng tos ascendency in that
country also. Meanwhile PMlip's movements
in Thessaly had opened the eyes of Demo
sthenes to the real danger of Athens and Greece,
and his first PhUippic (delivered in 352) was
his earUest attempt to rouse Ms countrymen
to energetic efforts against their enemy ; but
he did not produce much effect upon the
Athenians. In 849 PMlip commenced his
attacks on the Chalcidian cities. Olynthus, to
alarm, applied to Athens for aid, and Demo
sthenes, to his three Olynthiac orations, roused
the people to efforts agatost the common
enemy, not very vigorous at first and fruitless
to the end. In the course of three years PhiUp
gained possession of all the Chalcidian cities,
and the war was brought to a conclusion by the
capture of Olynthus itself in 348. In the fol
lowing year he concluded peace with the
Athenians on the basis that he kept all that he
had gained, and that the Phocians were ex
cluded from the alliance. The consent of the
Athenians to tins treaty was obtained by the

095

Gold stater of Philippus K., King of Macedonia,
B.C. 359-836.
06c, head of Apollo -with "laurel wreath; rev., *lAinnoY;
charioteer in Diga. (These coins were the $.\Cirir.uii., called
by Horace ' regale nomisma, Philippi,' Ep. ii. 1, 234.)
assurances of PMlocrates and Aeschines, their
ambassadors, who had been bribed by Philip
(Dem. F.L. p. 439). In 346 he marched into
Phocis, and brought the Phocian war to an end.
The Phocian cities were destroyed, and their
place to the Amphictyonic council was made
over to the king of Macedoma, who was ap
pointed also, jointly with the Thebans and
Thessalians, to the presidency of the Pythian
games. Ruling as he did over a barbaric na
tion, such a recognition of his Hellenic charac
ter was of the greatest value to him, especially
as he looked forward to an invasion of the
Persian empire to the name of Greece, united
under Mm in a great national confederacy.
During the next few years Philip steadily
pursued his ambitious projects. He was en
gaged in war with Ttoace and with Illyria :
and he pushed his influence into the Pelopon-
nese by lending troops to aid the Argives in
driving back the Spartans (Dem. de Pac. 61 ;
PM1. ii. p. 69). From 342 to 340 he was en
gaged in an expedition in Thrace, and attempted
to bring under his power aU the Greek cities
in that country (Diod. xvi. 74, 75). In the last
of these years he laid siege to Perinthus and
Byzantium ; but the Athenians, who had long
viewed Philip's aggrandisement with fear and
alarm, now resolved to send assistance to these
cities. Phocion was appointed to the com
mand of the armament destined for this

service, and succeeded in compelling Philip to
raise the siege of both the cities (889). Philip
now proceeded to carry on war against his
northern neighbours, and seemed to give him
self no further concern about the affairs of
Greece. Against the Triballi he was unsuc
cessful, and received a wound in the thigh
(Just. ix. 2). But meanwhile his hirelings were
treaoherously promoting his designs against
the liberties of Greece. In 889 the Amphic-
tyons declared war against the Locrians of
Amphissa for having taken possession of a
district of the sacred land ; but as the general
they had appototed to the command of the
Amphictyonic army was unable to effect any
thing against the enemy, the Amphictyons at
their next meeting in 888 conferred upon
Philip the command of their army. PMlip
straightway marched through Thermopylae and
seized Elatea. The Athenians heard of his
approach with alarm ; they succeeded, mainly
through the influence of Demosthenes, in
forming an alliance with the Thebans ; but
their united army was defeated by Philip in
the month of August, 338, in the decisive battle
of Chaeronea, wMch put an end to the inde
pendence of Greece. He used his victory, as
before in the defeat of the Phocians, with
moderation. Thebes was forced to acknowledge
the independence of other Boeotian cities and
to receive a Macedonian garrison, but escaped
destruction : Athens had merely to acknowledge
his hegemony in Greece, and received the town
of Oropus as a present. PMlip now seemed to
have within Ms reach the accomplishment of
of the great object of his ambition, the invasion
and conquest of the Persian empire. In a
congress held at Corinth, which was attended
by deputies from every Grecian state with the
exception of Sparta, war with Persia was deter
mined on, and the king of Macedonia was
appointed to command the forces of the national
confederacy. In 337 Philip's marriage with
Cleopatra, the daughter of Attalus, one of his
generals, led to the most serious disturbances
in his family. Olympias and Alexander with
drew in great indignation from Macedonia ;
and though they returned home soon after
wards, they continued to be on hostilp terms
with PMlip. MeanwhUe, Ms preparations for
his Asiatic expedition were not neglected, and
early in 336 he sent forces into Asia, under
Parmenion, to draw over the Greek cities to his
cause (Diod. xvi. 91 ; Just. ix. 5). But in the
summer of this year he was murdered at a
grand festival which he held at Aegae, to
solemnise the nuptials of his daughter with
Alexander of Epirus. His murderer was a
youth of noble blood, named Pausanias, who
stabbed him as he was walking in the pro
cession. The assassin was immediately pur
sued and slain by some of the royal guards.
His motive for the deed is stated by Aristotle
to have been private resentment against PMlip,
to whom he had complained in vain of a gross
outrage offered to him by Attalus. Olympias
and Alexander were suspected (probably un
justly) of being implicated in the plot. [Olym
pias.] Philip died in the forty-seventh year of Ms
age and the twenty-fourth of his reign, and was
succeeded by Alexander the Great. Philip had
a great number of wives and concubines. Be
sides Olympias and Cleopatra, we may mention,
(1) Ms first wife, Audata, an IUyrian princess,
and the mother of Cynane ; (2) Phila, sister of
Derdas and Machatas, a princess of Elymiotis ;
(3) Nicesipolis of Pherae, the mother of Thessa-

C96lonica ; (4) Philinna of Larissa, the mother of
ArrMdaeus; (5) Meda, daughter of Cithelas,
king of Thrace; (6) Arsinoe, the mother of
Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, with whom she was
pregnant when she married Lagus. To these
numerous connexions temperament as weU as
policy seems to have inclined him. He was
strongly addicted, indeed, to sensual enjoy
ment of every kind ; but his passions, however
strong, were always kept in subjection to his
interests and ambitious views. He was fond
of science and literature, in the patronage of
which he appears to have been liberal ; and his
appreciation of great minds is shown by Ms
connexion with Aristotle. In the pursuit of
his political objects he was, as we have seen,
unscrupulous, and ever ready to resort to du
plicity and corruption ; but when we consider
the numerous instances of his humanity and
clemency, we may admit that he does not
appear to disadvantage by the side of other
conquerors. (For authorities see the public
orations of Demosthenes; Aesch. F. L. and
c. Ctes. ; Isocr. Phil. ; Diod. xvi. ; Just, vii.-ix. ;
Plut. Dem., Phoc, Alex.) — III., the name of
Philip was bestowed by the Macedonian army
upon ArrMdaeus, the bastard son of PMlip II.,
when he was raised to the throne after the
death of Alexander the Great. He accordingly
appears in the list of Macedonian kings as
Philip HI. For his life and reign see Aebhi-
eaeus. — IV., eldest son of Cassander, whom
he succeeded on the throne, B.C. 296. He
reigned only a few months, and was carried off
by a consumptive disorder (Paus. ix. 7 ; Just.
xv. 4, xvi. 1). — V., son of Demetrius II., reigned
B.C. 220-178. He was only eight years old at

Coin of Philippus V., King of Macedonia, B.C. 220-178.
Obv., head of Philip; rev., basueos aiAinnoY; club, sur
rounded by oak- wreath.
the death of Ms father, Demetrius (229) ; and
the sovereign power was consequently assumed
by Ms uncle Antigonus Doson, who, though he
certainly ruled as king rather than merely as
guardian of his nephew, was faithful to the
interests of Philip, to whom he transferred
#the sovereignty at his death in 220, to the
exclusion of his own cMldren. (Pol. ii. 45, 70,
iv. 2 ; Just, xxviii. 4.) PMlip was only seven
teen years old at the time of his accession, but
he soon showed that he possessed ability and
wisdom superior to his years. In consequence
of the defeat of the Achaeans and Aratus by
the Aetolians, the former applied for aid to
Philip. This was granted ; and for the next
three years Philip conducted with distinguished
success the war against the Aetolians. This
war, usually called the Social war, was brought
to a conclusion in 217, and at once gained for
Philip a distinguished reputation throughout
Greece, while his clemency and moderation
secured Mm an equal measure of popularity.
(Pol. iv., v.) But a change came over Ms
character soon after the close of the Social
war. He became suspicious and cruel; and
having become jealous of his former friend and

PHILIPPUS counsellor, Aratus, he caused him to be re
moved by a slow and secret poison in 213. (Pol.
viii. 10-14 ; Plut. Arat. 52.) Meantime he had
become engaged in war with the Romans. In
215 he concluded an alliance with Hannibal ;
but he did not prosecute the war with any
activity against the Romans, who on their part
were too much engaged with their formidable
adversary in Italy to send any powerful arma
ment against the Macedonian king. (Liv. xxiii.
83-39 ; Pol. vii. 9.) In 211 the war assumed a
new character in consequenee of the aUiance
entered toto by the Romans with the Aetolians.
It was now carried on with greater vigour and
alternate success ; but as Philip gained several
advantages over the Aetolians, the latter people
made peace with Philip in 205. In the course
of the same year the Romans likewise con
cluded a peace with Philip, as they were
desirous to give their undivided attention to
the war in Africa. It is probable that both
parties looked upon this peace as little more
than a suspension of hostilities. Such was
clearly the view with which the Romans had
accepted it ; and PMlip not only proceeded to
carry out Ms views for his own aggrandisement
in Greece, without any regard to the Roman
alliances in that country, but he even sent a
body of auxiliaries to the Carthagtoians in
Africa, who fought at Zama under Hannibal.
As soon as the Romans had brought the second
Punic war to an end, they again declared war
against Philip, 200. This war lasted between
three and four years, and was brought to an
end by the defeat of Philip by the consul
Flamininus at the battle of Cynoscephalae in
the autumn of 197. [Flamininus.] By the
peace finally granted to Philip (196) the king
was compelled to abandon all his conquests,
both in Europe and Asia, surrender Ms whole
fleet to the Romans, and limit his standing
army to 5000 men, besides paying a sum of
1000 talents. (Pol. xviii. 27 ; Liv. xxxiii. 30.)
Philip was now effectually humbled, and en
deavoured to cultivate the friendsMp of the all-
powerful republic. But towards the end of his
reign he determined to try once more the
fortune of war, and began to make active pre
parations for this purpose. His dechning years
were embittered by the disputes between Ms
sons Perseus and Demetrius ; and the former
by forged letters at length persuaded the king
that Demetrius was plotting agatost his life,
and induced Mm to consent to the execution of
the unhappy prince. PMlip was struck with
the deepest grief and remorse when he after
wards discovered the deceit that had been
practised upon him. He believed himself to be
haunted by the avenging spirit of Demetrius,
and died shortly after, imprecating curses upon
Perseus. (Liv. xl. 6, 21, 54 ; Pol. xxiv. 7, 8.)
His death took place in 179, in the fifty-ninth
year of his age, after a reign of nearly forty-two
years.

HI. Family of the Marcii Philippi.
1. Q. Marcius Philippus, praetor 188, with
Sicily as his province, and consul 186, when he
carried on war in Liguria with his coUeague Sp.
Postumius Albinus. He was defeated by the
enemy in the country of the Apuani, and the
recollection of his defeat was preserved by the
name of the Saltus Marcius. In 169, Philippus
was consul a second time, and carried on the war
to Macedonia against Perseus, but accomplished
nothing of importance. [Peeseus.] In 164,
Philippus was censor with L. Aemilius Paulus,

PHILIPPUS
and in his censorship he set up in the city a
new sun-dial. (Liv. xxxviii. 35, xxxix. 20, xiii. 37,
xliv. 1-16; Plin. vii. 214.)— 2. L. Marcius
Philippus, was a tribune of the plebs, 104,
when he brought forward an agrarian law, and
was consul in 91 with Sex. Julius Caesar. In
' this year Philippus, who belonged to the popu
lar party, opposed with the greatest vigour the
measures of the tribune Drusus, who at first
enjoyed the full confidence of the senate. But
his opposition was all in vain ; the laws of the
tribune were carried. Soon afterwards Drusus
began to be regarded with mistrust and sus
picion; Philippus became reconciled to the
senate, and on Ms proposition a senatus con-
sultum was passed, declaring aU the laws of
Drusus to be null and void, as having been
carried against the auspices. [Drusus.] In the
civil wars between Marius and Sulla, Philippus
took no part. He survived the death of Sulla ;
and he is mentioned afterwards as one of those
who advocated sending Pompey to conduct the
war in Spain agatost Sertorius (Plut. Pomp.
17). Ptolippus was one of the most distin
guished orators of tos time (Hor. Epist. i. 7,
46 ; Cic. de Or. U. 78). In this respect he was
reckoned only inferior to Crassus and Antonius.
He was a man of luxurious habits, which Ms
wealth enabled Mm to gratify : his fish-ponds
were particularly celebrated for their magnifi
cence and extent, and are mentioned by the
ancients along with those of LucuUus and
Hortensius lYarr. B. B. to. 8, 10). Besides his
son, L. Philippus, who is spoken of below, he
hod a stepson, Gellius Publicola [Publicola].
— 3. L. Marcius Philippus, son of the preced
ing, was consul in 56. Upon the death of C.
Octavius, the father of Augustas, Philippus
married his widow Atia, and thus became the
stepfather of Augustus. Philippus was a
timid man. Notwithstanding his close connex
ion with Caesar's family, he remained neutral
to the civil wars ; and after the assassination
of Caesar, he endeavoured to dissuade Ms step
son, the young Octavius, from accepting the
inheritance which the dictator had left Mm.
(VeU. Pat. ii. 60; Suet. Aug. 8 ; App. B. C. iii.
10, 13.) He lived till Ms stepson had acquired
the supremacy of the Roman world. He
restored the temple of Hercules and the Muses,
and surrounded it with a colonnade, which is
frequently mentioned under the name of
Porticus Philippi (Clari monimenta Philippi,
Ov. Fast. vi. 801 ; cf. Suet. Aug. 29).
IV. Emperors of Borne.
1. M. Julius Philippus I., Roman emperor
A.D. 244-249, was an Arabian by birth, and
entered the Roman army, in which he rose to
Mgh rank. He accompanied Gordianus III. in
his expedition agatost the Persians ; and upon
the death of the exceUent Misitheus [Misi
theus] he was promoted to the vacant office of
praetorian praefect. He availed Mmself of the
influence of his high office to excite discontent
among the soldiers, who at length assassinated
Gordian, and proclaimed Philippus emperor,
•244. Philippus proclaimed his son Caesa;,
¦concluded a disgraceful peace with Sapor
founded the city of Philippopolis, and then
returned to Rome. In 245 he was engaged in
prosecuting a successful war against the Carpi,
on the Danube. In 248, rebellions, headed by
Iotapinus and Marinus, broke out simultane
ously in the East and in Moesia. Both preten
ders speedily perished, but Decius having been
¦despatched to recall the legions on the Danube

PHILISCUS

697

to their duty, was himself forcibly invested
with the purple by the troops, and compelled by
them to march upon Italy. Philippus having
gone forth to encounter his rival, was slain near
Verona either in battle or by his own soldiers.
The great domestic event of the reign of
Philippus was the exhibition of the Secular
Games, which were celebrated with even more
than the ordinary degree of splendour, since
Rome had now, according to the received tradi
tion, attained the thousandth year of her exig
ence (a.d. 248). (Aurel. Vict. Caes. xxviii. ;
Eutrop. ix. 3; Zonar. xii. 19.) — 2. M. Julius
Philippus II., son of the foregoing, was a boy
of seven at the accession (244) of his father, by
whom he was proclaimed Caesar, and three
years afterwards (247) received the title of
Augustus. In 249 he was slain, according to
Zosimus, at the battle of Verona, or murdered,
according to Victor, at Rome by the praetorians
when totelUgence arrived of the defeat and
death of the emperor. (Aur. Vict. Caes. xxviii. ;
Zos. i. 22.) V. Literary.
1. Of Medma, in the S. of Italy, a Greek
astronomer, and a disciple of Plato. His obser
vations, which were made in the Peloponnesus
and in Locris, were used by the astronomers
Hipparchus, Geminus the Rhodian, and Ptol
emy. (Plin. xviii. 312; Vitruv. ix. 7.)— 2. Of
Thessalonica, an epigrammatic poet, who,
besides composing a large number of epigrams
Mmself, compiled one of the ancient Greek
Anthologies. The whole number of epigrams
ascribed to him in the Greek Anthology is
nearly ninety ; but of these six (Nos. 36-41)
ought to be ascribed to Lucilius, and a few
others are manifestly borrowed from earlier
poets, wMle others are mere imitations. The
Anthology ('AvBoXoyia) of Philip, in imitation
of that of Meleager, and as a sort of supplement
to it, contains chiefly the epigrams of poets who
lived in, or shortly before, the time of Philip.
The earliest of these poets seems to be Philo-
demus, the contemporary of Cicero, and the
latest Automedon, who probably flourished
under Nerva. Hence it is inferred that Philip
flourished under Trajan.
Philiscus (QiXio-Kos). 1. Of Abydos, was
sent by Ariobarzanes, satrap of Ptoygia, B.C.
368, as envoy to mediate between the Thebans
and Spartans. A congress was held at Delphi
wMch led to nothing. Philiscus seems to have
made the mission a pretext for levying merce
naries for Ariobarzanes, who was meditating a
revolt. Philiscus afterwards exercised a
tyranny over Greeks in Asia Minor, and was
assassinated at Lampsacus. (Xen. Hell. vii. 1 ;
Diod. xv. 70.) — 2. An Athenian poet of the
Middle Comedy, of whom little is known. He
must have flourished about B.C. 400, or a little'
later, as tos portrait was painted by Parrha
sius (Plin. xxxv. 70). — 3. Of Miletus, an orator
or rhetorician, and the disciple of Isocrates,
wrote a Life of the orator Lycurgus, and an
epitaph on Lysias (Suid. s. «.)— 4. Of Aegina,
a Cynic philosopher, was the disciple of Dio
genes the Cynic, and the teacher of Alexander
in grammar (Diog. Laert. vi. 73).— 5. Of Cor
cyra, a distinguished tragic poet, and one of the
seven who formed the Tragic Pleiad at Alex
andria, was also a priest of Dionysus, and in
that character he was present at the coronation
procession of Ptolemy Philadelphus in B.C.
284. He wrote forty-two dramas. (Athen.
p 198; PUn. xxxv. 106.)— 6. Of Rhodes, a

098

PHILISTINAE FOSSAE

sculptor, several of whose works were placed in
the temple of Apollo, adjoining the portico of
Octavia at Rome. One of these statues was
that of the god himself : the others were Latona
and Diana, the nine Muses, and another statue
of Apollo, without drapery (Plin. xxxvi. 84).
He probably lived about B.C. 146.
Philistinae Fossae. [Padus.]
Philistlon (<biXioriav). 1. Of Nicaea or
Magnesia, a mimographer, who flourished in
the time of Augustus, about a.d. 7 (Suid. s.v.).
— 2. A physician, born either at one of the
Greek towns in Sicily, or at Locri Epizephyrii
in Italy, was tutor to the physician Chrysippus
of Cnidos and the astronomer and physician
Eudoxus, and therefore must have Uved in the
fourth century B.C. (Diog. Laert. viii. 8, 89 ;
Gell. xvii. 11).
PMlistus ($iXio-TOs), a Syracusan, son of Ar-
chonides or Archomenides, was born probably
about B.C. 435 (Suid. s.v. ; Paus. v. 23, 6). He
assisted Dionysius in obtaining the supreme
power, and stood so high in the favour of the
tyrant that the latter entrusted him with the
charge of the citadel of Syracuse. But at a
later period he excited the jealousy of the
tyrant by marrying, without his consent, one of
the daughters of his brother Leptines, and was
in consequence banished from Sicily. He at
first retired to Thurii, but afterwards estab
lished himself at Adria, where he composed his
history (Diod. xv. 7). He was recalled from
exile by the younger Dionysius soon after his
accession, and quickly succeeded in establishing
his influence over the mind of the latter. He
exerted all his efforts to alienate Dionysius
from Ms former friends, and not only caused
Plato to be sent back to Athens, but ultimately
succeeded in effecting the banishment of Dion
also. PMlistus was unfortunately absent from
Sicily when Dion first landed in the island
and made himself master of Syracuse, B.C. 356.
He afterwards raised a powerful fleet, with
which he gave battle to the Syracusans, but
having been defeated, and finding himself cut
off from all hopes of escape, he put an end to
his own life (Plut. Dion, 11-35 ; Diod. xvi. 11,
16). PMlistus wrote a History of Sicily, which
was one of the most celebrated historical works
of antiquity, though unfortunately only a few
fragments of it have come down to us. He is
accused of an inclination to favour tyranny and
palliate the injustice of princes (Plut. Dion,
36 ; Nep. Dion, 3). It consisted of two por
tions, which might be regarded either as two
separate works, or as parts of one great whole,
a circumstance which explains the discrepancies
M the statements of the number of books of
wMch it was composed. The first seven books
comprised the general history of Sicily, com
mencing from the earliest times, and ending
with the capture of Agrigentum by the Cartha
ginians, B.C. 406. The second part, which
formed a sequel to the first, contained the his
tory of the elder Dionysius in four books, and
that of the younger in two : the latter was
necessarily imperfect. In point of style PMlis
tus is represented by the concurrent testimony
of antiquity as imitating and even closely
resembling Thucydides, though still falling far
short of his great model (Cic. ad Q. Fr. ii. 13 ;
Quintil. x. 1, 74). — The fragments of Philistus
have been collected by Goeller in an appendix
to Ms work De Situ et Oriqine Syracusarum,
Lips. 1818, and by C. Miiller, in the Fragm.
Hiit. Graec. Paris, 1841.
Philo (QiXav). 1. An Academic philosopher,

PHILO
was a native of Larissa and a disciple of Clito-
machus. After the conquest of Athens by
Mithridates he removed to Rome, where he
settled as a teacher of philosophy and rhetoric,
and had Cicero as one of his hearers (Cic. ad
Fam. xiii. 1, Brut. 89, 306). His works sup
plied Cicero with materials for Ms account of
the New Academy in the Academica (cf. Cic.
Ac. i. '4, 13, ii. 4, 11). — 2. Byblius, also called
Heeennius Byblius, a Roman grammarian,
and a native of Byblus to Phoenicia, lived in
the time of Vespasian. He wrote many works,
which are cited by Suidas and others ; but his
name is chiefly connected with a translation of
the writings of the Phoenician Sanchuniathon
which was ascribed to Mm. [Sanchuniathon.]
 3, Of Byzantium, a celebrated mechanician,
and a contemporary of CtesibiuB, flourished
about B.C. 146. He wrote a work on military
engineering, of which the fourth and fifth books
have come down to us. (Ed. KocMy and
Riistow, 1853.) There is also attributed to tins.
Philo a work On the Seven Wonders of the
World: i.e. the Hanging Gardens, the Pyra
mids, the statue of Jupiter Olympius, the WaUs-
of Babylon, the Colossus of Rhodes, the Temple
of Artemis at Ephesus, and, we may presume
from the prooemium, the Mausoleum ; but the
last is entirely wanting, and we have only a
fragment of the Ephesian temple. The work,
however, is probably by a different, and later,
writer. Edited by OreUi, Lips. 1816. — 4. Ju-
daeus, the Jew, was bom at Alexandria, and
was descended from a priestly family of dis
tinction. He had already reached an advanced
age, when he went to Rome (a.d. 40) on an
embassy to the emperor Caligula, in order to
procure the revocation of the decree which
exacted from the Jews divine homage to the
statue of the emperor. "We have no other
particulars of the life of Philo worthy of record.
His most important works treat of the books of
Moses, and are generally cited under different
titles. His great object was to reconcile the
Sacred Scriptures with the doctrines of the
Greek philosophy, and to point out the con
formity between the two. He maintained that
the fundamental truths of Greek pMlosophy
were derived from the Mosaic revelation ; and
in order to make the latter agree more per
fectly with the former, he had recourse to an
allegorical interpretation of the books of Moses.
Philo adopted Eastern views of emanation, and
his doctrines on the emanation of the forces of
the world from the LogoB, or creative wisdom
of God, influenced on the one hand the Gno
stics, on the other the later school of Neo-
Platonists. The best edition of his works is by
Mangey, Lond. 1742, two vols. fo. — 5. A Mega
rian pMlosopher, was a disciple of Diodorus
Cronus, and, a friend of Zeno. — 6. Of Tarsus.
in CUicia, a celebrated physician, frequently
quoted by Galen and others. — 7. Artists. (1)-
Son of Antipater, a statuary who lived in the
time of Alexander the Great, and made the
statue of Hephaestion, and also the statue of
Zeus Ourios, which stood on the shore of the
Black Sea, at the entrance of the Bosporus,
near Chalcedon, and formed an important land
mark for sailors. It was still perfect in the
time of Cicero (in Verr. iv. 58, 129), and the
base has been preserved to modern times, bear
ing an inscription of eight elegiac verses.
Other works are alluded to by Pliny (xxxiv. 91). —
(2) A great architect at Athens in the time of
the immediate successors of Alexander. He-
built for Demetrius Phalereus, about B.C. 318,,

PHILO
the portico of twelve Doric columns to the
great temple at Eleusis. [See pp. 311, 312.] He
also constructed for the Athenians, under the
administration of Lycurgus, a basin (arma
mentarium) in the Piraeus in which 1000 ships
could lie (Plin. vii. 125 ; GIL. ii. 1054). This
work, which excited the greatest admiration,
was destroyed in the taking of Athens by SuUa,
but afterwards restored. (Plut. Sull. 14 ; Val.
Max. viu. 12, 2 ; Strab. p. 895.)
Philo, Q. Publilius, a distinguished general
in the Samnite wars, and the author of one of
the great reforms in the Roman constitution.
He was consul B.C. 389, with Ti. Aemilius
Mamercinus, and defeated the Latins, over
whom he triumphed. In the same year he was
appointed dictator by his coUeague Aemilius
Mamercinus, and, as such, proposed the cele
brated Publiliae Leges, which were a most
important step to equalising the patrician and
plebeian orders, by ordaining that one of the
censors must be a plebeian,' and by making the
decrees of the plebs binding. (Did. of Antiq.
art. Publiliae Leges.) In 837 Philo was the
first plebeian praetor, and in 332 he was censor
with Sp. Postumius Albinus. In 327 he was
consul a second time, and carried on war in the
S. of Italy. He was continued to the command
for the following year with the title of procon
sul, the first instance to Roman history in
which a person was invested with proconsular
power. He took Palaepolis to 326. In 320 he
was consul a third time, with L. Papirius Cur
sor, and carried on the war against the Sam
nites. (Liv. viii. 15-26, ix. 7-15 ; Diod. xix. 56.)
Philo, L. Veturius. 1. L., consul b.c. 220,
with C. Lutatius Catulus ; dictator 217 for the
purpose of holding the comitia ; and censor 210
with P. Licimus Crassus Dives, and died wtole
holding this office (Liv. xxii. 33, xxvii. 6). — 2,
L., praetor 209, with Cisalpine Gaul as his pro
vince. In 207 he served under Claudius Nero
and Livius SaUnator in the campaign against
Hasdrubal. In 206 he was consul with Q.
CaeciUus Metellus, and to conjunction with his
colleague carried on the war against Hannibal
to Bruttium. He accompanied Scipio to Africa,
and after the battle of Zama, 202, was sent to
Rome to announce the news of Hannibal's de
feat. (Liv. xxvhi. 9-11, xxx. 38, 40.)
Philochares (QiXoxapys), a painter, men
tioned by Pliny (xxxv. 28), is supposed by some
to be the same as the brother of Aeschines
of whose artistic performances Demosthenes
speaks contemptuously (F. L. p. 329).
PMldchorus (Qixbxopos), a celebrated Athe
nian writer, cMefly known by his Atthis, or
work on the legends, antiquities, and history of
Attica. He was a person of considerable im
portance in his native city, and was put to death
by Antigonus Gonatas when the latter obtained
possession of Athens, about B.C. 260. (Suidas
s.v.) His most important work, the Atthis,
consisted of seventeen books, and related the
history of Attica, from the earliest times to the
reign of Antiochus Theos, B.C. 261. The work
is frequently quoted by the scholiasts, lexico
graphers, and other later authors. — The frag
ments have been published by Siebelis, Lips.
1811, and by Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Graec.
Philocles (QiXokXtis). 1. An Athenian tragic
poet, the sister's Bon of Aeschylus ; his father's
name was PhUopithes. He is said to have
composed 100 tragedies. In the general cha
racter of his plays he was an imitator of
Aeschylus, and that he was not unworthy of
Ms great master may be inferred from the fact

PHILOCTETES

699'

that he gained a victory over Sophocles when
the latter exhibited his Oedipus Tyranuus, B.C.
429. Philocles was frequently ridiculed by the
comic poets. One of his plays, called Tereus,.
on the story of Philomela, is alluded to in
Aristoph. Av. 281 ; in Ar. Vesp. 462 it is
insinuated that his lyrics were unmusical, and
the scholiast says that he was nicknamed XoXtt.
— 2. Joined with Conon in command of the
Athenian fleet after the battle of Arginusae.
He was cruel to his prisoners, for which Lys
ander put him to death after Aegospotami.
(Xen. Hell. i. 7, 1, ii. 1, 80 ; Plut. Lys. 13.)
Philocrates (QiXoKpdrris). 1. Son of EpM
altes, went in 890 with ships to aid Evagoras
of Cyprus. His squadron was captured by
Teleutias, the Spartan admiral. (Xen. Hell. iv.
8, 24.) — 2. An Athenian orator, was one of the
venal supporters of Philip in opposition to
Demosthenes (Dem. de Cor. p. 230).
Philoctetes (<piAo/c-Hjt?)s), a son of Poeas
(whence he is called Poeantiades, Ov. Met.
xiii. 313) and Demonassa, the most celebrated
archer in the Trojan war. He led the warriors
from Methone, Thaumaeia, Meliboea, and Oli-
zon, against Troy, in seven ships. But on Ms
voyage thither he was left behind by his men
in the island of Lemnos, because he was iU of
a wound which he had received from the bite of
a snake ; and Medon, the son of Oileus and
Rhene, undertook the command of Ms troops.
(II. U. 716 ; Od. ni. 190, viii. 219.) This is all
that the Homeric poems relate of Philoctetes,
with the addition that he returned home to
safety ; but the cyclic and tragic poets have
added numerous details to the story. Thus
they relate that he was the friend and armour-
bearer of Heracles, who instructed him in the
use of the bow, and who bequeathed to him his
bow, with the poisoned arrows. These presents
were a reward for his having erected and set
fire to the pile on Mt. Oeta, where Heracles
burnt himseU. (Diod. iv. 38; Hyg. Fab. 36;
Philostr. Her. 5 ; Ov. Met. ix. 232.) Philoctetes
was also one of the suitors of Helen, and thus
took part in the Trojan war. On his voyage to
Troy, while staying in the island of Chryse, he
was bitten by a snake. TMs misfortune hap
pened to him when he was showing to the
Greeks the altar of Athene Chryse, or while he
was looking at the tomb of Troilus in the temple
of Apollo Thymbraeus, or as he was pointing
out to his companions the altar of Heracles.
(Soph. Phil. 1327,; Philostr. Im. 17; Diet. Cret.
ii. 14.) According to some accounts, the wound
to his foot was not inflicted by a serpent, but
by Ms own poisoned arrows (Serv. ad Aen, iii.
402). The wound is said to have become ulcer
ated, and to have produced such an intolerable
stench that the Greeks, on the advice, of
Odysseus, abandoned Philoctetes, and left him
alone on the solitary coast of Lemnos, or (ac
cording to the account which Proclus cites
from the Cypria, and which Euripides followed
in Ms Philoctetes) on the island of Tenedos.
He remained in this island till the tenth year
of the Trojan war, when Odysseus and Diomedes
came to fetch him to Troy, as an oracle had
declared that the city could not be taken with
out the arrows of Heracles. He accompanied
these heroes to Troy, and on his arrival Apollo
sent him into a deep sleep, during which Ma-
chaon (or Podalirius, or both, or Asclepius
Mmself) cut out the wound, washed it with
wine, and applied healing herbs to it. (Quint.
Smyrn. x. 180; Soph. Phil. 1426; Propert. ii.
1, 61.) Philoctetes was, thus cured, and soon

'700

PHILODEMUS

after slew Paris, whereupon Troy fell into the
hands of the Greeks (Apollod. iii. 12, 6). On
his return from Troy he is said to have been
•cast upon the coast of Italy, where he settled,
and built Petelis and Crimissa. In the latter
place he founded a sanctuary of Apollo Alaeus,
to whom he dedicated his bow. (Strab. p. 254.)
Philodemus {&t\68iifios), of Gadara, in Pales
tine, an Epicurean philosopher and epigram
matic poet, contemporary with Cicero. The
Greek Anthology contains thirty-four of his
¦ epigrams, which are chiefly of a light and
.amatory character, and which quite bear out
Cicero's statements concerning the licentious
ness of his matter and the elegance of his
manner. (Cic. in Pis. 28, 29.) Philodemus is
also mentioned by Horace (Sat. i. 2, 121).
Philolaus (<bi\6\aos), a distinguished Pytha
gorean philosopher, was a native of Croton or
Tarentum. He was a contemporary of Socrates,
and the instructor of Simmias and Cebes at
Thebes, where he appears to have lived many
years. (Plat. Phaed. p. 61 ; Diog. Laert. viii.
N4.) Pythagoras and his earliest successors
did not commit any of their doctrines to
writing, and the first publication of the Pytha
gorean doctrines is pretty uniformly attributed
to Philolaus. He composed a work on the
Pythagorean philosophy in three books, which
Plato is said to have procured at the cost of
100 minae through Dion of Syracuse, who pur
chased it from Philolaus, who was at the time
in deep poverty. (Diog. Laert. I.e. ; Gell. iii.
17.) Plato is said to have derived from this
work the greater part of his Timaeus. Some
fragments have been collected by Bockh of
which those from the work Ilepl tyvxys are
generally considered to be spurious.
Philomela (^iXojxi\Xa), daughter of king Pan
dion in Attica, who, being dishonoured by her
brother-in-law, Tereus, was metamorphosed into
a nightingale. The story is given under Tereus.
Philomelium or Philomelum ($tAojj,-f)Aiov7 or
in the Pisidian dialect QiKofirjUii} : ^t\ofj.7}Kevs,
Philomelensis or Philo meliensis : prob. Ah-
Shehr, Ru.), a city of Phrygia Parorios, on the
borders of Lycaonia and Pisidia, mentioned by
Cicero (ad Fam. iii. 8, xv. 4), said to have been
named from the numbers of nightingales in its
neighbourhood. In the division of the provinces
under Constantine, it belonged to Pisidia.
{Strab. p. 663 ; Procop. Hist. Arc. 18.)
Fh.il6m.elus (4>i \6/j.rj Aos), a general of the
Phocians in the Phocian or Sacred war, per
suaded his countrymen to seize the temple of
Delphi, and to apply its riches to the purpose of
defending themselves against the Amphictyonic
forces, B.C. 357. He commanded the Phocians
¦during the early years of the war, but was slain
in battle in 353. He was succeeded in the com
mand by his brother Onomarchus. (Diod. xvi.
23; Paus. x. 2, 8.)
Pliilonides ($iAo>v18t}s), an Athenian poet of
the Old Comedy, who is, however, better known
on account of his connexion with the literary
history of Aristophanes. Several of the plays of
Aristophanes were brought out in the names of
Callistratus and Pliilonides [cf. p. 115]. It
-appears that Aristophanes used the name of
Pliilonides for the Banqueters and the Frogs.
Philonome. [Tenes?]
Philopoemen (&L\oiroifi7}v), of Megalopolis in
Arcadia, one of the few great men that Greece
produced in the decline of her political inde
pendence, who is called by Roman admirers ' the
last of the Greeks' (Plut. PMlop. 1, Arat. 24).
The great object of his life was to infuse into

PHILOPOEMEN.
the Achaeans a military spirit, and thereby to
establish their independence on a firm and
lasting basis. He was the son of Craugis, a
distinguished man at Megalopolis, and was
born about B.C. 252. He lost his father at an
early age, and was brought up by Cleander, an
illustrious citizen of Mantinea, who had been
obliged to leave his native city, and had taken
refuge at Megalopolis. He received instruction
from Ecdemus and Demophanes, both of whom
had Btudied the Academic philosophy under
Arcesilaus. At an early age he became dis
tinguished by his love of arms and his bravery
in war, showing a remarkable capacity for
strategy (Liv. xxxv. 28; Plut. Philop. 7). He
is said to have studied especially the Tactics
of Evangelus and the histories of Alexander's
campaigns (Plut. ib. 4). His name first
occurs in history in B.C. 222, when Megalopolis
was taken by CleomeneB (Plut. ib. 5), and
in the following year (221) he fought with con
spicuous valour at the battle of Sellasia, in
which Cleomenes was completely defeated. In
order to gain additional military experience, he
soon afterwards sailed to Crete, and served for
some years in the wars between the cities of
that island. On his return to his native
country, in 210, he was appointed commander
of the Achaean cavalry: and in 203 he was
elected strategus or general of the Achaean
League, and laboured successfully at military
reforms which brought the army into an ex
cellent state of efficiency (Pol. x. 24). In this
year he defeated Machanidas, tyrant of Lace
daemon, and slew him in battle with his own
hand (Pol. xi. 13). In 201 he was again elected
general of the league, when he defeated Nabis,
who had succeeded Machanidas as tyrant of
Lacedaemon. Soon afterwards. Philopoemen
took another voyage to Crete, and assumed the
command of the forces of Gortyna. He did not
return to Peloponnesus till 194. He was made
general of the league in 192, when he again
defeated Nabis, who was slain in the course of
the year by some Aetolian mercenaries. It is
said that when Diophanes, the Achaean general,
and Flamininus were marching to Sparta in
191 to crush some attempt at revolt, Philopoe
men hurried thither in advance, and, having
quieted the city, in duced the Roman and Achaean
troops to pass it by; and that when the
Spartans in gratitude offered him 120 talents
(the proceeds of the estate of Nabis) he refused
the present, as unbecoming a man of honour.
Philopoemen was re-elected general of the
league several times afterwards ; but the state
of Greece did not afford him much further
oprjortunity for the display of his military
abilities. The Romans were now in fact the
masters of Greece, and --Philopoemen clearly
saw that it would be an act of madness to offer
open resistance to their authority. At the
same time, as the Romans still recognised in
words the independence of the league, Philo
poemen offered a resolute resistance to all their
encroachments upon the liberties of his country,
whenever he could do so without affording
them any pretext for war. In 188, when he
was general of the league, he took Sparta,
whose troops had attacked Las, a town which
had joined the league. He demanded the sur
render of the instigators, and failing to obtain
them treated Sparta with great severity. He
razed the walls and fortifications of the city,
abolished the institutions of Lycurgus, and
compelled the citizens to adopt the Achaean
laws in their stead. In 183 the Messenians

PHILOSTEPHANUS
revolted from the Achaean League. Philo
poemen, who was general of the league for the
eighth time, hastily collected a body of cavalry,
and pressed forward to Messene. He feU in
with a large body of Messenian troops, by
whom he was taken prisoner, and carried to
Messene. Here he was thrown into a dungeon,
and was compelled by Dinocrates to drink
poison. The news of Ins death filled the whole
of Peloponnesus with grief and rage. An
assembly was immediately held at Megalopolis ;
Lycortas was chosen general, and in the follow
ing year he invaded Messenia, which was laid
waste far and wide ; Dinocrates and the chiefs
of his party were obliged to put an end to their
lives. The remains of Philopoemen were con
veyed to Megalopolis in solemn procession ; and
the urn which contained the ashes was carried
by the historian Polybius. (Plut. Philop. 21 ;
Liv. xxxix. 49 ; Pol. xxiv. 9, 12.) His remains
were then interred at MegalopoUs with heroic
honours; and soon afterwards statues of him
were erected in most of the towns belonging to
the Achaean League. It does not detract from
the nobility of PhUopoemen's character and
the purity of his aims, that in much of his
military success he was really playing the game
of the Romans. His true policy, if it had been
possible, would have been to combine with the
Spartans and Messenians instead of fighting
against them, and to oppose a united Greece to
the Romans. But the opportunity for this had
probably been irretrievably lost long before
when Aratus rejected the overturesof Cleomenes
[see p. 97, a]. The contest with Sparta in the
time of Machanidas and Nabis was unavoid
able. (Life by Plutarch; Paus. viii. 49-52;
references to Polybius and Livy, as above.)
Philostephanus (^iXoorecpavos), of Cyrene,
an Alexandrian writer of history and geography,
the friend and disciple of Callimachus, flourished
under Ptolemy H. Philadelphus, about B.C.
249 (Athen. pp. 293, 297, 331).
Philostorgius (QiXocrrbpyios), a native of Bo-
rissus in Cappadocia, was born about A.D. 358.
He wrote an ecclesiastical history, from the
heresy of Arius in 300, down to 425. Philo
storgius was an Arian, which is probably the
reason why his work has not come down to us.
It was originally in twelve books ; and we still
possess an abstract of it, made by Photius.
Philostratus ($iXb<TTparos), the name of a
distinguished family of Lemnos, of which there
are mentioned three persons in the history
of Greek literature. 1. Son of Verus, taught
at Athens ; but we know nothing about him,
with the exception of the titles of his works,
given by Suidas. He could not, however, have
lived in the reign of Nero, according to the
statement of Suidas, since his son was not born
till the latter part of the second century. — 2.
Flavius Philostratus, son of the preceding,
and the most eminent of the three, was born
about A.D. 182. He studied and taught at
Athens, and is usually caUed the Athenian, to
distinguish him from the younger Philostratus
[No. 3], who more usually bears the surname
of the Lemnian. Flavius afterwards removed to
Rome, where we find him a member of the
circle of Uterary men whom the philosophic
Julia Domna, the wife of Severus, had drawn
around her. It was at her desire that he wrote
the Life of ApoUonius. He was alive in the
reign of the emperor Philippus (244-249). The
following works of Philostratus have come down
to us : — (1) The Life of Apollonius of Tyana
(ra is rbv Tuavea 'AiroXXdviov), in eight books.

PHILOXENUS

701

[See Apollonius, No. 7.] (2) Lines of the
Sophists (Bioi Socpicrrdv), in two books, contains
the history of philosophers who had the charac
ter of being sophists, and of those who were in
reality sophists. It began with the Life of Gor
gias, and comes down to the contemporaries of
Philostratus in the reign of Philippus. (3)
Heroica or Heroicus ('HpaiKa, 'HpaiKds), is in
the form of a dialogue, and gives an account of
the heroes engaged in the Trojan war. (4)
Imagines (EUbves), in two books, contains an
account of various paintings. This is the
author's most pleasing work, exhibiting great
richness of fancy, power and variety of delinea
tion, and a rich exuberance of style ; but there
is doubt whether he is describing real or imagi
nary works of art. (5) Epistolae ('Eirio-ToXat),
seventy-three in number, chiefly amatory. The
best editions of the collected works of Philo
stratus are by Olearius, Lips. 1709, and by
Kayser, Lips. 1870, 1871. — 3. Philostratus,
the younger, usually caUed the Lemnian, as
mentioned above, was a son of Nervianus and of
a daughter of Flavius Philostratus, but is erro
neously called by Suidas a son-in-)aw of the
latter. He enjoyed the instructions of his
grandfather and of the sophist Hippodromus.
He visited Rome, but he taught at Athens, and
died in Lemnos. He wrote several works, and
among others one entitled Imagines, in imita
tion of his grandfather's work, of which a portion
is still extant (printed in Kayser's edition of
Philostratus No. 2).
Philotas (4>iXdras), son of Parmenion, enjoyed
a high place in the friendship of Alexander,,
and in the invasion of Asia obtained the chief
command of the eraipoi, or native Macedonian
cavalry. He served with distinction in the
battles of the Granicus and Arbela, and also on
other occasions ; but in B.C. 330, while the army
was in Drangiana, he was accused of being privy
to a plot which had been formed by a Macedo
nian, named Dimnus, against the king's life.
There was no proof of his guilt ; but a confession
was wrung from him by the torture, and he was.
stoned to death by the troops after the Macedo
nian fashion. [Pabmenion.]
Phildtimus ($iXbripos), an eminent Greek
physician, pupil of Praxagoras, and fellow- pupil
of Herophilus, lived in the fourth and third
centuries B.C.
Philoxenus ($iXb£evos). 1. A Macedonian
officer of Alexander the Great, received the
government of Cilicia from Perdiccas in 321
(Arrian, An. iii. 6,6; Diod. xviii. 39).— 2. Of
Cythera, one of the most distinguished dithy
rambic poets of Greece, was born B.C. 435 and
died 380, at the age of fifty-five. He was
reduced to slavery in his youth, and was
bought by the lyric poet Melanippides, by
whom he was educated in dithyrambic poetry.
After residing some years at Athens, he went to-
Syrf-cuse, where he speedily obtained the favour
of Dionysius, and took up his abode at his
court. But soon afterwards he offended Dion
ysius, and was cast into prison (Cic. ad Att. iv.
6) ; an act of oppression which most writers
ascribe to the wounded vanity of the tyrant,
whose poems Philoxenus not only refused to
praise, but, on being asked to revise one of
them, said that the best way of correcting it
would be to draw a black line through the whole
paper. Another account ascribes his disgrace
to too close an intimacy with the tyrant's mis
tress, Galatea; but this looks like a fiction
arising out of a misunderstanding of the object
of his poem entitled Cyclops or Galatea, which.

702

PHILDS

was written after his departure from Sicily, and
intended as a literary revenge upon Dionysius,
who was wholly or partially blind of one eye.
After some time he was released from prison,
and restored outwardly to the favour of Diony
sius ; but he finally left his court, and is said
to have spent the latter part of his life in Ephe
sus. — Of the dithyrambs of Philoxenus by far
the most important was his Cyclops or Galatea,
the loss of which is greatly to be lamented.
Philoxenus also wrote another poem, entitled
Deipnon (Aeiirvov) or the Banquet, which
appears to have been the most popular of his
works, and of which we have more fragments
than of any other. This poem was a most
minute and satirical description of a banquet,
and the subject of it was furnished by the
luxury of the court of Dionysius. Philoxenus
was included in the attacks which the comic
poets made on aU the musicians of the day,
for their corruptions of the simpUcity of the
ancient music ; but we have abundant testi
mony to the high esteem in which he was held
both during his life and after his death. (Suid.
s.v. ; Diod. xiv. 46.) Fragments of his poems
by Bippart, Lips. 1843, and in Bergk's Poet. Lyr.
Graec. — 3. The Leucadian, Uved at Athens
about the same time as Philoxenus of Cythera,
with whom he is frequently confounded by the
grammarians. He was the son of Eryxis, and
his son also bore that name. Like his more
¦celebrated namesake, the Leucadian was ridi
culed by the poets of the Old Comedy, and
seems to have spent a part of his life in Sicily.
The Leucadian was a most notorious parasite,
glutton, and effeminate debauchee ; but he
seems also to have had great wit and good-
humour, which made him a favourite at the
tables which he frequented. (Aristoph. Ban.
934 ; Schol. ad loc.) — 4. A celebrated Alexan
drian grammarian, who taught at Rome (Suid.
s. v.), and wrote on Homer, on the Ionic and
Laconian dialects, and several other grammati
cal works, among which was a Glossary, which
was edited by H. Stephanus, Paris, 1573. — 5.
An Aegyptian Burgeon, who wrote several
valuable volumes on surgery. He must have
Uved in or before the first century after Christ.
— 6. A painter of Eretria, the disciple of Nico
machus, who painted for Cassander a battle of
Alexander with Darius (Plin. xxxv. 110).
Philus, Furius. 1. P., was consul b.c. 223
with C. Flaminius, and accompanied his col
league in his campaign against the Gauls hi the
N. of Italy. He was praetor 216, when he com
manded the fleet, with which he proceeded to
Africa. In 214 he was censor with M. Atilius
Regulus, but died at the beginning of the follow
ing year. (Liv. xxii. 35; xxv. 2.) — 2. L., consul
136, received Spain as his province, and was
commissioned by the senate to deliver up to the
Numantines C. Hostilius Mancinus, the consul
¦of the preceding year. Philus, like his contem
poraries Scipio Africanus the younger and
Laelius, was fond of Greek literature and refine
ment. He is introduced by Cicero as one of
the speakers in his dialogue De Bepublica.
(Val. Max. iii. 7, 5 ; Cic. Off. iii. 30, 109, Bep.
iii. 18, 28.)
Philyllius (QiXbXXtos), an Athenian comic
poet, belongs to the latter part of the Old
Comedy and the beginning of the Middle
(Athen. p. 700).
Philyreis (QiXvpnls: prob. the little island
off C. Zefreh, E. of Kerasunt-Ada), an island
off the N. coast of Asia Minor (Pontus), E. of
the country of Mosynoeci, and near the promon-

PHINTIAS
tory of Zephyrium, where Chteon was nurtured
by his mother Philyra (Ap. Rhod. ii. 1231).
Philyres (QlXvpes), a people on the coast of
Pontus, near the island Philybeis.
Phineus (Qivebs). 1. Son of Belus and An-
chinoe, and brother of Cepheus. He was slain
by Perseus. For detafls see Andbomeda and
Pebseus. — 2. Son of Agenor, and king of
Salmydessus in Thrace. He was first married
to Cleopatra, the daughter of Boreas and
-Orithyia, by whom he had two children, Oryi-
thus (Oarthus) and Crambis ; but their names
are different in the different legends: Ovid
caUs them Polydectus and Polydorus. (Schol.
ad Soph. Ant. 977 ; Ov. Ib. 273.) Afterwards
he was married to Idaea (some call her Dia,
Eurytia, or Idothea), by whom he again had
two sons, Thynus and Mariandynus (ApoUod.
iii. 15, 3). — Phineus was a blind soothsayer, who
had received his prophetic powers from Apollo,
but was blinded because he had revealed the
counsels of Zeus (Apollod. i. 9, 21). He is most
celebrated on account of his being tormented
by the Harpies, who were sent by the gods to
punish him on account of his cruelty towards
his sons by the first marriage. His second wife
falsely accused them of having made an attempt
upon her virtue, whereupon Phineus put out
their eyes, or, according to others, exposed them
to be devoured by wild beasts, or ordered them
to be half buried in the earth, and then to be
scourged. (Soph. Ant. 973; Diod. iv. 44.)
Whenever a meal was placed before Phineus,
the Harpies darted down from the air and
carried it off ; later writers add that they either
devoured the food themselves, or rendered it
unfit to be eaten. [Habpyiae.] "When the Ar
gonauts visited Thrace, Phineus promised to
instruct them respecting their voyage, if they
would deliver him from the monsters. This
was done by Zetes and Calais, the sons of Boreas,
and brothers of Cleopatra. [See p. 106, a.]
Phineus now explained to the Argonauts the
further course they had to take, and especiaUy
cautioned them against the Symplegades. Ac
cording to another story, the Argonauts, on their
arrival at Thrace, found the sons of Phineus
half buried, and demanded their liberation,
which Phineus refused. A battle thereupon
ensued, in which Phineus was slain by Hera
cles. The latter also delivered Cleopatra from
her confinement, and restored the kingdom to
the sons of Phineus; and on their advice he
also sent the second wUe of Phineus back to
her father, who ordered her to be put to death.
(Diod. 1. c. ; Apollod. iii. 15, 8.) Some tradi
tions, lastly, state that Phineus was killed by
Boreas, or that he was carried off by the Har
pies into the country of the Bistones or Mil-
chessians (Strab. p. 302). Those accounts in
which Phineus puts out the eyes of his sons
add that they had their sight restored to them
by the sonsof Boreas, or by Asclepius.
Phinopolis (QivbiroXts), a town in Thrace on
the Pontus Euxinus near the entrance to the
Bosporus (Strab. p. 819 ; Plin. iv. 45).
Phintias (Qivrias). 1. A Pythagorean, the
friend of Damon, who was condemned to die by
Dionysius the elder. For detaUs see Damon. —
2. Tyrant of Agrigentum, who established his
power over that city during the period of con
fusion which foUowed the death of Agathocles
(b.c. 289). He founded a new city on the S.
coast of SicUy, to which he gave his own name,
and whither he removed the inhabitants from
Gela,_which he destroyed. (Diod. xxii. 2.)
Phintias (Qivrtas: Alicata), a town on the

PHINTONIS INSULA
S. coast of Sicily, midway between Agi-igentum
and Gela [see preceding article]. It never rose
to importance, but had a good harbour. (Diod.
xxiv. 1 ; Cic. Verr. iu. 88, 192.)
Phintonis Insula (Isola di Figo), an island
between Sardinia and Corsica (Plin. iii. 83).
Phlegethon or Pyriphlegethon (iXeyeBav,
TlvptcpXeyeBav), i. e. the flaming, a river in the
lower world, in whose channel flowed flames
instead of water. [Aohebon ; Styx.]
Phlegon (QXeyav), a native of Tralles in
Lydia, was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian,
whom he survived (Spartian, Hadr. 16). The
only two works of Phlegon which have come
down to us are a small treatise on wonderful
events (Ilepl Bavpacriav), and another short
treatise on long-Uved persons (Ilepl paKpofiiav),
which gives a list of persons in Italy who had
attained the age of a hundred years and up
wards. Besides these two works Phlegon
wrote many others, of which the most import
ant was an account of the Olympiads in seven
teen books, from Ol. 1 to 01. 229 (a.d. 137).—
Editions by Westermann in his Paradoxo-
graphi, Brunsvig. 1839, and by KeUer, 1877.
Pnlegra. [Pallene.]
Phlegraei Campi (rd 4>Xeypa7a ireSla, or ?j
QXeypa : Solfatara), the name of the volcanic
plain extending along the coast of Campania
from Cumae to Capua. The frequent outbursts
¦of flame and of hot springs gained for it the
name ' burning plains,' and it was beheved that
the giants were buried beneath it. (Strab.
p. 245 ; Diod. v. 71 ; SU. It. viii. 540, xii. 148.)
It was also (or part of it) named Laboriae or
Laborinus Campus (Terra di Lavoro), perhaps
on account of its great fertility and its constant
cultivation (Plin. xvni. Ill) ; but the name is I
in some MSS. Leboriae.
Phlegyas ($Xeyias), son of Ares and Chryse,
the daughter of Halmus, succeeded Eteocles in
the government of Orchomenos in Boeotia,
which he called after himself Phlegyantis. He
was the father of Ixion and Coronis, the latter
-of whom became by Apollo the mother of
Asclepius. Enraged at this, Phlegyas set fire
to the temple of the god, who killed him with
his arrows, and condemned him to punishment
in the lower world. (Hom. Hymn. xv. 3 ; Pind.
Pyth. in. 8 ; Apollod. ii. 26, 4 ; iii. 5, 10 ; Serv.
ad Aen. vi. 618.) Phlegyas is represented as
the mythical ancestor of the race of the
Phlegyae, a branch of the Minyae, who emi
grated from Orchomenos in Boeotia and settled
in Phocis, but the adoption of the worship of
Asclepius in other countries caused variations
in the story of Phlegyas himseU [see p. 131, a].
Phliasia. [Phlius.]
Phlius (QXiois, -ovvtos: $Xido-ios), the chief
town of a smaU province in the NE. of Pelopon
nesus, whose territory Phliasia ($Xiao-la), was
bounded on the N. by Sicyonia, on the W. by
Arcadia, on the E. by the territory of Cleonae,
and on the S. by that of Argos. The greater
part of this country was occupied by mountains,
caUed Coelossa, Carneates, Arantinus, and
Tricaranon. According to Strabo (p. 382; cf.
H. ii. 571), the most ancient town in the
country was Araethyrea, which the inhabitants
deserted, and afterwards founded Phlius ; while
Pausanias says nothing about a migration, but
relates that the town was first called Arantia
from its founder Aras, an autochthon, after
wards Araethyrea from the daughter of Aras,
and finaUy Phlius, from Phlius, a grandson of
Temenus (Paus. ii. 12, 4). Phlius was originally

PHOCAEA

70S

into the hands of the Dorians, with whom part
of the Argive population intermingled, while
part migrated to Samos and Clazomenae.
During the greater part of its history it re
mained faithful to Sparta. "When Aratus or-
g'™1^ 'he Achaean League, Cleonymus, tyrant
of Phlius, abdicated and united his city to the
league (Pol. ii. 44).
Phlygonium (4>Xuybviov), a town in Phocis,
destroyed in the Phocian war (Paus. x. 8, 2).
«. KT?caea„ (QdKaia : QaKaeis, Phocaee'nsis :
a™ -B°',SaUed Karaja-Fokia, i. e. Old Fokia,
bW. or Gouges or New Fokia), the northern
most of the Ionian cities on the W. coast of Asia
Minor stood at the W. extremity of the tongue
of land which divides the Sinus Elaiticus (G. of
Fonges), on the N, from the Sinus Hermaeus
(G-. of Smyrna), on the S. It was said to have
been founded by a band of colonists, mainly

Coin ol Phocaea (about 568 B.C.).
Obv., a seal l$cl><v) ; rev., incuse square.
Phocian, under two Athenian leaders, Philo-
genes and Damon. It was originally within
the limits of Aeolis, in the territory of Cyme ;
but the Cymaeans voluntarily gave up the site
for the new city, which was soon admitted into
the Ionian confederacy on the condition of
adopting oecists of the race of Codrus. (Strab.
pp. 632, 633; Paus. vii. 3, 5; Plin. v. 119.)
Admirably situated, and possessing two ex
ceUent harbours, Naustathmus and Lampter,
Phocaea became celebrated as a great maritime
state — according to Herodotus, i. 1 63, the earliest
of the Greek states who rivaUed the Phoenicians
in distant voyages — and especially as the founder
of the furthest Greek colonies towards the W.,
namely Massilia in Gaul, and the still more
distant, though far less celebrated, city of
Maenaca in Hispania Baetica. After the Per
sian conquest of Ionia, Phocaea had so de
clined that she could only furnish three ships
to support the great Ionian revolt (Hdt. vi. 11) ;
but the spirit of her people had not been ex
tinguished : when the common cause was hope
less, and their city was besieged by Harpagus,
they embarked, to seek new abodes in the dis
tant W., and bent their course to the colony of
Aleria or Alalia in Corsica, which they had
founded twenty years before. They had bound
themselves by an oath never to return to their
native land until an iron bar which they threw
into the sea should float again (Hdt. i. 165 ;
Hor. Epod. xvi. 17-26) ; but during the voyage
a portion of the emigrants resolved to return to
their native city, which they restored, and
which recovered much of its prosperity, as is
proved by the rich booty gained by the Romans
when they plundered it under the praetor
Aemilius. (Liv. xxxvii. 31, 32; Pol. xxii. 27.)
The town and territory was restored to the in
habitants (Liv. xxxviii. 39), after which it does
not appear as a place of any consequence in
history, except as the seat of a bishopric under
Smyrna, though it remained a free state (Dio
Cass. xii. 25 ; Lucan, v. 53). — Care must be
taken not to confound Phocaea with Phocis, or
the ethnic adjectives of the former QaKaeis and
Phocaeensis, with those of the latter, $aKeis
and Phocensis: some of the ancient writers

inhabited by Argives. It afterwards passed | themselves have fallen into such mistakes

704

PHOCION

(Lucan. 1. c). The name of Phocaean is often
used with reference to Massilia ; and the people
of Marseilles stiU affect to regard themselves
as Phocaeans.
Phocion (buKlav), the Athenian general and
statesman, son of Phocus, was a man of humble
origin, and appears to have been born in B.C.
402. He studied under Plato and Xenocrates.
He distinguished himself for the first time
under his friend Chabbias, in 376, at the battle
of Naxos, but he was not employed promi
nently in any capacity for many years after
wards. In 354 (according to some, in 350)
he was sent into Euboea in the command of a
small force, in consequence of an application
from Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria. Here he
won the victory of Tamynae, a brilliant success
in spite of the treachery of Plutarchus, though
the whole campaign was fruitless (Aesch.
Ctes. 88; Plut. Phoc. 13), and he was subse
quently employed on several occasions in the
war between the Athenians and Philip of
Macedon. In 339, being sent with 120 triremes
to the Hellespont, he raised the siege of Byzan
tium, and caused Philip to retire. He fre
quently opposed the measures of Demosthenes,
and recommended peace with Philip ; but he
must not be regarded as one of the mercenary
supporters of the Macedonian monarch. His
virtue is above suspicion, and his public con
duct was always influenced by upright motives.
When Alexander was marching upon Thebes,
in 335, Phocion rebuked Demosthenes for his
invectives against the king. (Plut. Phoc. 16 ;
Diod. xvii. 15.) The true explanation of his
policy seems to be that he represented the
party at Athens which believed opposition to
Macedonia in the existing state of Greek power
and polities to be absolutely hopeless, and had
come to the conclusion that the wisest course
was to acquiesce in this necessity instead of
trying to rouse Greece to a war which was,
as he thought, certain to fail ; aud after the
destruction of Thebes he advised the Athenians
to comply with Alexander's demand for the
surrender of Demosthenes and other chief
orators of the anti-Macedonian party. This
proposal was indignantly rejected by the people,
and an embassy was sent to Alexander, which
succeeded in deprecating his resentment. Ac
cording to Plutarch, there were two embassies,
the first of which Alexander refused to receive,
but to the second he gave a gracious audience,
and granted its prayer, chiefly from regard to
Phocion, who was at the head of it. Alexander
ever continued to treat Phocion with the utmost
consideration, and to cultivate his friendship.
(Arrian, i. 10, 8 ; Plut. Phoc. 17 ; Diod. l.c.)
He also pressed upon him valuable presents;
but Phocion persisted in refusing them, begging
the king to leave him no less honest than he
found him. After Alexander's death, Phocion
opposed vehemently, and with all the caustic
bitterness which characterised him, the pro
posal for war with Antipater. Thus, to Hyper
ides, who asked him tauntingly when he would
advise the Athenians to go to war, he answered,
' When I see the young willing tb keep their
ranks, the rich to contribute of their wealth,
and the orators to abstain from pilfering the
public money.' (Plut. Phoc. 29, SO.) When
Alexander, the son of Polysperchon, led his
army to Athens in 318, Phocion was suspected
of having advised him to occupy the Piraeus ;
and there is reason to think that Phocion
did advocate this step, as he had before
favoured the occupation by Nicanor, from fear

PHOCIS
of what would ensue to himself and his party
at Athens if the democratic party prevailed-
Being therefore accused of treason by Agnon-
ides he fled, with several of his friends, to-
Alexander, who sent them with letters of recom
mendation to his father, Polysperchon. (Diod.
xviii. 65 ; Plut. Phoc. 33.) The latter, willing
to sacrifice them as a peace-offering to the
Athenians, sent them back to Athens for the
people to deal with them as they would. Here
Phocion was sentenced to death. To the last
he maintained his calm and dignified and
somewhat contemptuous bearing. When some
wretched man spat upon him as he passed to
the prison, ' WiU no one,' said he, ' check this.
fellow's indecency ? ' To one who asked him
whether he had any message' to leave for his
son Phocus, he answered, ' Only that he bear
no grudge against the Athenians.' And when
the hemlock which had been prepared was
found insufficient for all the condemned, and
the jailer would not furnish more until he was
paid for it, ' Give the man his money,' said
Phocion to one of his friends, ' since at Athens
one cannot even die for nothing.' He perished
in 317, at the age of eighty-five. (Plut. Phoc. 34-
37; Diod. xviii. 67; Nep. Phoc. 2, 3.) The
Athenians are said to have repented of their
conduct. A brazen statue was raised to the
memory of Phocion, and Agnonides was con
demned to death. (Plut. Phoc. 38.) There
can be no doubt of Phocion's honesty of pur
pose and patriotic motives, excepting only in
his negotiations with Nicanor and Polysperchon.
His opposition to Demosthenes, however honest,
was a mistaken policy, and against the true
interests of his country, if there was any real
prospect of resisting Philip successfully. Pho
cion undoubtedly thought that there was no-
such prospect ; and his philosophical views, to
some extent anticipating the views of the Stoics,
tended to a cosmopolitanism which would
make it easier for him to acquiesce in the
possibility of Greek states admitting the Mace
donian suxiremacy, which, it must not be for
gotten, by no means involved that subversion of
all their institutions which the Greeks would
have suffered from their conquest by a reaUy
' barbarous ' nation, such as the Persians.
Phocis (f] $aKls : $>aKrjes Horn., QaKees Hdt.
^aKr/s Attic, or less correctly $aKe?s, Phocenses
by the Romans), a country in North Greece,
was bounded on the N. by the Locri Epicnemidii
and Opuntii, on the E. by Boeotia, on the W.
by the Locri Ozolae and Doris, and on the S.
by the Corinthian Gulf. At one time it
possessed a narrow strip of country on the
Euboean sea with the seaport Daphnus, between
the territory of the Locri Ozolae and Locri
Opuntii. (Strab. pp. 424, 425.) It was a moun
tainous and unproductive country, and owes
its chief importance in history to the fact of its
possessing the Delphic oracle. Its chief moun
tain was Paenassus, situated in the interior of
the country, to which, however, Cnemis on its
N. frontier, Cibphis S. of Delphi, and Helicon
on the SE. frontier all belonged. The princi
pal river in Phocis was the Cephissus, the
valley of which contained almost the only fertile
land in the country with the exception of the
celebrated Crissaean plain in the SE. on the
borders of the Locri Ozolae. — Among the
earliest inhabitants of Bhocis we find mentioned
Leleges, Thracians, Abantes, and Hyantes.
Subsequently, but still in the prehistorical
period, the Phlegyae, an Achaean race, a branch
of the Minyae at Orchomenos, took possession

PHOCRA
of the country ; and from this time the main
bulk of the population continued to be Achaean,
although there were Dorian settlements at
Delphi and Bulis. The Phocians are said to
have derived their name from an eponymous
ancestor Phocus [Phocus], and they are men
tioned under this name in the Hiad. The
Phocians were natural enemies of Thebes, and
in 456 they readily joined the Athenian aUiance.
From similar motives they aided the Spartans
in S95, but after Leuctra were forced into
alliance with Thebes. They refused, however,
to send any contingent to Mantinea in 362, and
this added to the hostility of the Thebans
towards Phocis, which displayed itself fully in
the Phocian or Sacred war. The Phocians
having cultivated a portion of the Crissaean
plain, which the Amphictyons had declared in
B.C. 585 should lie waste for ever, the Thebans
availed themselves of this pretext to persuade
the Amphictyons to impose a fine upon the
Phocians, and upon their refusal to pay it, the
Thebans further induced the council to declare
the Phocian land forfeited to the god at Delphi.
Thus threatened by the Amphictyonic councU,
backed by the whole power of Thebes, the
Phocians were persuaded by Philomelus, one
of their citizens, to seize Delphi, and to make
use of the treasures of the temple for the pur
pose of carrying on the war. They obtained
possession of the temple in B.C. 357. The war
which ensued lasted ten years, and was carried
on with various success on each side. The
Phocians were commanded first by Philomelus,
b.c. 356-353, afterwards by his brother Ono
marchus, 353-352, then by Phayllus, the
brother of the two preceding, 352-351, and
finally by Phalaecus, the son of Onomarchus,
351-346. The Phocians received some sup
port from Athens, but their chief dependence
was upon their mercenary troops, which the
treasures of the Delphic temple enabled them
to hire. The Amphictyons and the Thebans,
finding at length that they were unable with
their own resources to subdue the Phocians,
called in the assistance of PhUip of Macedon,
who brought the war to a close in 346. The
conquerors inflicted the most signal punish
ment upon the Phocians, who were regarded
as guUty of sacrilege. All their towns were
razed to the ground with the exception of Abae,
and the inhabitants distributed in villages con
taining not more than fifty inhabitants each.
The two votes which they had in the Amphic
tyonic council were taken away and given to
Phihp. [For further account of the above
events, see Philippus.]
Phocra ($<j«pa) a mountain of N. Africa, in
Mauretania Tingitana, a northerly spur of the
Atlas range (Ptol. iv. 1).
Phocus ($&kos). 1. Son of Ornytion of
Corinth, or, according to some, of Poseidon, is
said to have been the leader of a colony from
Corinth into the territory of Tithorea and Mt.
Parnassus, which derived from him the name
of Phocis (Paus. ii. 4, 3, x. 1, 1).— 2. Son of
Aeacus and the Nereid Psamathe, husband of
Asteria or Asterodia, and father of Panopeus
and Crissus (Hes. Th. 1004). He was murdered
by his half-brothers, Telamon and Peleus.
[Peleus.] According to some accounts the
country of Phocis derived its name from him.
(Paus. ii. 29, 2.) — 3. Son of Phocion. [Phocion.]
Phocylides ($uKvXi$ns), of Miletus, an Ionian
poet, contemporary with Theognis, was born
b.c. 560. His poetry was chiefly gnomic ; and
the few fragments of it which we possess dis-

PHOENICE

705

play that contempt for birth and station, and
that love for substantial enjoyment, which
always marked the Ionian character. (Arist.
Pol. iv, 8 ; Suid. s.v.) Among the longer pieces
in hexameters is a satire on women resembling
that of Simonides. The fragments, which are
eighteen in number, are included in all the chief
coUeotions of the lyric and gnomic poets. Some
of these collections contain a didactic poem, in
217 hexameters, entitled Tloinpa vovBermbv, to
which the name of Phocylides is attached, but
which is undoubtedly a forgery, probably by an
Alexandrian Christian of Jewish origin.
Phoebe (*o£/3tj). 1. Daughter of Uranus and
Ge, became by Coeus the mother of Asteria
and Leto (Latona). (Hes. Th. 136, 404 ; ApoUod.
i. 1, 8.) — 2. Daughter of Tyndareos and Leda,
and a sister of Clytaemnestra (Eur. I. A. 50 ;
Ov. Her. viii. 77).— -3. Daughter of Leucippus,
and sister of HUaira, a priestess of Athene, was
carried off with her sister by the Dioscuri, and
became by PoUux the mother of Mnesileos
(Paus. ii. 22, 6 ; ApoUod. iii. 10, 8 ; cf. p. 298, a).
— 4. [Aktemis.]
Phoebidas (poiBlbas), a Lacedaemonian, who,
in B.C. 382, was appointed to the command of
the troops destined to reinforce his brother
Eudamidas, who had been sent against Olyn
thus. On his way Phoebidas halted at Thebes,
and treacherously made himself master of the
Cadmea. The Lacedaemonians fined Phoebidas
100,000 drachmas, but nevertheless kept pos
session of the Cadmea. In 378 he was left by
AgesUaus as harmost at Thespiae, and was
slain in battle by the Thebans. (Xen. Hell. v.
2, 24, v. 4, 41 ; Diod. xl. 20, S3 ; Plut. Ages. 23.)
Phoebus. [Apollo.]
Phoenice (ioiviK-n : Phoenicia is only found
in a doubtful passage of Cicero [de Fin. iv. 20,
56] : $o!vi|, pi. QolviKes, fern. $oivtcro-a, Phoenix,
Phoenices; also, the adj. Punicus, though
used specifically in connexion with Carthago,
is etymologicaUy equivalent to QolviQ, a country
of Asia, on the coast of Syria, extending from
the river Eleutherus (Nahr-el-Kebir) on the
N. to below Mt. Carmel on the S., and bounded
on the E. by Coelesyria and Palestine (Plin.
v. 75). It was a mountainous strip of coast
land, not more than ten or twelve miles broad,.
hemmed in between the Mediterranean and
the chain of Lebanon, whose lateral branches,
running out into the sea in bold promontories,
divided the country into valleys, which are
weU watered by rivers flowing down from
Lebanon, and are extremely fertile. Of these
rivers the most important are, to one going
from N. to S., the Eleutherus (Nahr-elKebir) ;
the Sabbaticus (Arka) ; the river of TripoUs.
(Kadisha); the Adonis (Nahr-Ibrahim), S.
of Byblus; the Lycus (Nahr-el-Kelb), N. of
Berytus; the Magoras (Nahr-Beirut),by Bery
tus; the Tamyras (Nahr-el-Damur), between
Berytus and Sidon; the Leo, or Bostrenus
(Nahr-elAuly), N. of Sidon ; the larger river
Lita (Litani), which flows from Heliopolis
SSW., through Coele-Syria, and then, turning
westwards, falls into the sea N. of Tyre ; the
Belus, or Pagida (Numan or Bahwin), by
Ptolemais, and the Kishon (Kishon), N. of Mt.
Carmel. Of the promontories referred to,
omitting a number of less important ones, the
chief were : Theu-prosopon (Basesh-Shukah),
between Tripolis and Byblus, Pr. Album (Bas-
el-Abiad, i.e. White Cape), S. of Tyre, and
Mt. Carmel, besides those occupied by the
cities of Tripolis, Byblus, Berytus, Sidon, Tyrus,
and Ptolemais. This conformation of the
ZZ

706

PHOENICE

coast and the position of the country rendered
it admirably suited for the home of great mari
time states ; and accordingly we find the cities
of Phoenicia at the head, both in time and im
portance, of all the naval enterprise of the
ancient world. For the history of those great
cities, see Sidon, and Tybus. As to the country
in general, there is some difficulty about the
origin of the inhabitants and of their name. In
the O. T. the name does not occur ; the people
seem to be included under the general designa
tion of Canaanites, and they are also named
specifically after their several cities : as the
Sidonians, Giblites (from Gebal, i.e. Byblus),
Sinites, Arkites, Arvadites, &c. The name
QoiviKri (Od. iv. 83) is first found in Greek writers
as early as Homer, and is derived by some from
the abundance of palm trees in the country
(cpoivi^, the date-palm), and by others from the
purple-red (cpoivi^) which was obtained from a
fish on the coasts, and was a celebrated article
of Phoenician commerce ; by others from the
complexion of the inhabitants ; the mythical
derivation is from Phoenix, the brother of
Cadmus. The people were of the Semitic
race, and are said to have dwelt originally
on the shores of the Erythraean sea. Their
language was a dialect of the Aramaic, closely
related to the Hebrew. Their written characters
formed the basis of the Greek alphabet, and
hence they were regarded by the Greeks as the
inventors of letters (p. 178, b). Other inventions
in the sciences and arts are ascribed to them :
such as arithmetic, astronomy, navigation, the
manufacture of glass, and the coining of money.
In the Homeric poems the Phoenicians are the
artistic workers in gold and silver. From them
the Greeks borrowed the types for all such
workmanship, for armour, and for patterns on
vases, many of which the Phoenicians had
themselves adopted from Egypt. [For their
early influence on Greek religion, see Aphbo-
bite ; Hebacles.] Respecting Phoenician
literature, we know of little beyond the cele
brated work of Sanchuniathon. In the sacred
history of the Israelitish conquest of Canaan,
in that of the Hebrew monarchy, and in the
earliest Greek poetry, we find the Phoenicians
already a great maritime people. Early formed
into settled states, supplied with abundance of
timber from Lebanon, and placed where the
caravans from Arabia and the E. came upon
the Mediterranean, they carried over to the
coasts of this sea the products of those countries
as well as of their own, which was rich in
metals, and the shores of which furnished
the materials of glass and the purple-fish
* already mentioned. Their colonies and trading
stations were, especially for their trade in
purple dye, planted throughout the Aegaean
coast and the islands. [See Cypbus ; Cbeta ;
Gbaecia.] They were in possession of the
chief places in the Propontis and Bosporus
until, in the eighth century B.C., the Milesians
ousted them from those districts. Their
voyages and their settlements extended beyond
the PiUars of Hercules, to the W. coasts of
Africa and Spain,, and even as far as our own
islands, according to some accounts [but see p.
171, b]. Within the Mediterranean they planted
numerous colonies, on its islands, on the coast
of Spain, and especially on the N. coast of
Africa, the chief of which was Cabthago ; they
had also settlements on the Euxine and in Asia
Minor. In the E. seas, we have records of
their voyages to Ophtb, in connexion with the
navy of Solomon, and to the coasts of Africa

PHOENIX
under the kings of Egypt. [Afbica, p. 31, b.]
They were successively subdued by the As
syrians, Babylonians, Persians, Macedonians,
and Romans ; but neither these conquestB nor
the rivalry of Carthage entirely ruined their
commerce, which was still considerable at the
Christian era; on the contrary, their ships
formed the fleet of Persia and the Syrian kings,
and partly of the Romans. [Sidon; Tykus.]
Under the Romans, Phoenice formed a part of
the province of Syria ; and, under the E. em
pire, it was erected, with the addition of Coele-
Syria, into the province of Phoenice Libanesia
or Libanensis.
Phoenice ($oiv'ik-i) : Finiki), an important
commercial town on the coast of the Epirus in
the district Chaonia, 56milesNW. of Buthrotum,
in the midst of a marshy country (Strab. p. 324 ;
Pol. ii. 5, 8 ; Liv. xxix. 12). It was strongly
fortified by Justinian (Procop. Aed. iv. 1).
Phoenicia. [Phoenice.]
Phoenlcium Mare (rb QoivIkiov ireXayos : 2i-
Soviri BdXaaoa), the part of the Mediterranean
which washes the coast of Phoenice.
Phoenicus (Qoivikovs : QoiviKoivrios, $otvi-
Koio-crtos). 1. Also Phoenix (QoiviQ, a harbour
on the S. of Crete, visited by St. Paul during
his voyage to Rome (Acts xxvU. 12 ; Strab.
p. 475). — 2. A harbour in Messenia, opposite the
islands Oenussae (Paus. iv. 34, 12). — 3. A sea
port of the island of Cythera.— 4. (Chesmeh or
Egri Limanl), a harbour of Ionia, in Asia
Minor, at the foot of Mt. Mimas (Thuc. viii. 34 ;
Liv. xxxvi. 45). — 5. (Deliktash, Ru.), a flourish
ing city in the S. of Lycia, on Mt. Olympus,
with a harbour below it. It is a little to the
E. of Patara (Liv. xxxvii. 16). It was some
times called Olympus (Strab. p. 666). Having
become, under the Romans, one of the head
quarters of the pirates, who celebrated here the
festival and mysteries of Mithras, it was de
stroyed by Servilius Isauricus. [Vatia.]
Phoenicusa. [Aeoliae Insulae.]
Phoenix (*ofi/i{). 1. Son of Agenor by Agriope
or Telephassa, and brother of Europa, but
Homer makes him the father of Europa (B.
xiv. 321). Being sent by his father in search
of his sister, who was carried off by Zeus, he
settled in the country, which was called after
him Phoenicia (Apollod. iii. 1, 1 ; Hyg. Fab.
178). — 2, Son of Amyntor by Cleobule or Hippo
damia, and king of the Dolopes, took part in
the Calydonian hunt. His father Amyntor
neglected his legitimate wife, and attached
himseU to a mistress ; whereupon Cleobule
persuaded her son to seduce her rival. When
Amyntor discovered the crime, he cursed
Phoenix, who shortly afterwards fled to Peleus.
Peleus received him kindly, made him the
ruler of the country of the Dolopes, on the
frontiers of Phthia, and entrusted to him his
son Achilles, whom he was to educate. He
afterwards accompanied Achilles on his expedi
tion against Troy. (H. ix. 447-480.) According
to another tradition, Phoenix did not dishonour
his father's mistress, but she merely accused
him of having made overtures to her, in con
sequence of which his father put out his eyes.
But Peleus took him to Chiron, who restored
to him his sight. (Apollod. in. 18, 8.) Phoenix
moreover is said to have called the son of
AchiUes Neoptolemus, after Lycomedes had
called him Pyrrhus (Paus. x. 26, 4). Neoptole
mus was believed to have buried Phoenix at
Eion in Macedonia or at Trachis in Thessaly
(Strab. p. 428).— 3. A fabulous bird Phoenix,
which, according to a tale told to Herodotus

PHOENIX
(ii. 7-3) at Heliopolis in Egypt, visited that place
once in every 500 years, on his father's death,
and buried him in the sanctuary of Helios.
For this purpose the Phoenix was believed to
come from Arabia, and to make an egg of myrrh
as large as possible ; this egg he then hollowed
out and put into it his father, closing it up
carefuUy, and the egg was believed then to be
of exactly the same weight as before. This
bird was represented as resembling an eagle,
with feathers partly red and partly golden. It
is further related that when his life drew to a
¦close, he built a nest for himself in Arabia, to
which he imparted the power of generation, so
that after his death a new phoenix rose out of
it. As soon as the latter was grown up, he,
like his predecessor, proceeded to Heliopolis in
Egypt, and burned and buried his father in the
temple of Helios. (Tac. Ann. vi. 34.) — Accord
ing to a story which has gained more currency
in modern times, the Phoenix, when he arrived
at a very old age (some say 500 and others 1461
years), committed himself to the flames (Lucian,
de Mart. Per. 27 ; Philostr. Apollon. iii. 49). —
Others, again, state that only one Phoenix Uved
at a time, and that when he died a worm crept
forth from his body, and was developed into a
new Phoenix by the heat of the sun. His death,
further, took place in Egypt after a life of 540
years. (Plin. x. 4; Tzetz. Chil. v. 397.)—
Another modification of the same story relates
that when the Phoenix arrived at the age of
500 years, he built for himseU a funeral pile,
consisting of spices, settled upon it, and died.
Out of the decomposing body he then rose
again, and having grown up, he wrapped the
remains of his old body up in myrrh, carried
them to HeliopoUs, and burnt them there. (Ov.
Met. xv. 392-407 ; Stat. Silv. ii. 4, 36.) Similar
stories of marveUous birds occur in many parts
of the East : as, in Persia, the legend of the bird
Simorg, and, in India, that of the bird Semendar.
Phoenix ("pofyi£), a small river in MaUs, flow
ing into the Asopus near Thermopylae (Hdt.
vii. 200 ; Strab. p. 428). — 2. A river further N.
in Thessaly, which flows into the Apidanus
{Lucan, vi. 374 ; Plin. iv. 30). — 3. A harbour in
Crete. [Phoenicus, No. 1.]
Phoetiae or Phytia ($oire7ai, gonial, $vria,
Thuc), a town in Acarnania on a hiU, W. of
Stratus (Thuc. iii. 146; Pol.iv. 63).
Pholegandros (QoXeyavSpos : Polykandro),
an island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades,
between Melos and Sicinos (Strab. p. 484).
Pholoe (<boX&i) : Olono), a mountain forming
the boundary between Arcadia and Elis ; being
a S. continuation of Mount Erymanthus, in
which the rivers SeUeis and Ladon took their
origin (Strab. pp. 336, 357). It is mentioned as
one of the seats of the Centaurs. [Pholus.]
Pholus (<p<f\os), a Centaur, a son of Silenus
and the nymph Melia. He was accidentally
slain by one of the poisoned arrows of Heracles.
The mountain, between Arcadia and Elis,
where he was buried was caUed Pholoe after
him. For details of his story see p. 397, a.
Phorbantia. [Aegates.]
Phorbas ($bpfias). 1. Son of Lapithes and
Orsinome, and brother of Periphas. The
Rhodians, in pursuance of an oracle, are said
to have invited him into their island to deliver
it from snakes, and afterwards to have wor
shipped him as a hero. From this circum
stance he was called Ophiuchus, and is said by
some to have been placed among the stars.
(Diod. v. 58 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 14.) According to
another tradition, Phorbas went from Thessaly

PHORMISIUS

707

to Olenos, where Alector, king of Elis, made
use of his assistance againBt Pelops, and
shared his kingdom with him. Phorbas then
gave his daughter Diogenia in marriage to
Alector, and he himself married Hyrmine, a
sister of Alector, by whom he became the
father of Augeas and Actor. (Paus. v. 1, 8 ;
ApoUod. ii. 5, 5.) He is also described as a
bold boxer, and is said to have plundered tho
temple of Delphi along with the Phlegyae, but
to have been defeated by Apollo (Ov. Met. xi.
414 ; Schol. ad H. xxiii. 660).
Phorcides, Phorcydes, or Phorcynides,
that is, the daughters of Phorcus and Ceto, or
the Gorgons and Graeae. [Gokgones and
Gkaeae.] Phorcus, Phorcys, or Phorcyn (QbpKos,
QbpKvs, QbpKvv). 1. A sea-deity to whom a
harbour in Ithaca was dedicated. He is called
the father of the nymph Thoosa (Od. i. 71, xiii.
96, 345). Other writers call him a son of
Pontus and Ge, and a brother of Thaumas,
Nereus, Eurybia, and Ceto (Hes. Th. 287 ;
Apollod. i. 2, 6). By his sister Ceto he became
the father of the Graeae and Gorgones, the
Hesperian dragon, and the Hesperides ; and by
Hecate or Cratais, he was the father of Scylla
(Hes. Th. 270, 333).— 2. Son of Phaenops,
commander of the Phrygians of Ascania,
assisted Priam in the Trojan war, but was slain
by Ajax (II. ii. 682, xvii. 312; Paus. x. 26, 6).
Phormion (Qoppiav). 1. A celebrated Athe
nian general, the son of Asopius. He is first
mentioned as one of the generals sent to rein
force the Athenians at Samos in 440 B.C. In
432 he commanded in the siege of Potidaea
and aftewards in Chalcidice (Thuc. i. 64, 117,
ii. 29). In 430 he was sent with thirty ships to
Ambracia, and then to Naupactus, to blockade
the Gulf of Corinth. He particularly dis
tinguished himself, and with far inferior
forces gained some brilliant victories over the
Peloponnesian fleet in B.C. 429. In the ensuing
winter he landed on the coast of Acarnania,
and advanced into the interior, where he also
gained some successes. (Thuc. ii. 80-92, 102 ;
Diod. xii. 37, 47.) He died before 428 (Thuc.
iii. 7), and was commemorated by a statue on the
Acropolis (Paus. i. 28, 10). Pausanias men-
tions that the Athenians on one occasion paid
his debts, because he refused to go on an
expedition while he was in debt to anyone.
Aristophanes alludes to his hardy and temperate
character (Aristoph. Pax, 348, Lys. 804 ; cf.
Athen. p. 419). — 2. A Peripatetic philosopher of
Ephesus, of whom is told the story that he dis
coursed before Hannibal on the military art
and the duties of a general. When his admir
ing audience asked Hannibal what he thought
of him, the latter replied that of all the old
blockheads whom he had seen none could match
Phormion (Cic. de Orat. ii. 18, 75).
Phormis or Phormus (Qbppis, Qbppos), a
native of Maenalus in Arcadia, removed to
Sicily, where he became intimate with Gelon,
whose children he educated. He distinguished
himself as a soldier, both under Gelon and
Hieron his brother. In gratitude for his
martial successes, he dedicated gifts to Zeus at
Olympia, and to Apollo at Delphi. He is
associated by Aristotle with Epicharmus, as
one of the originators of comedy, or of a parti
cular form of it. (Arist. Poet. 5 ; Paus. v. 27 ;
Athen. p. 652 ; Suid. s. v.)
Phormisius (tyoppiffios), one of the party of
Theramenes, who adopted the Lacedaemonian
views, and proposed that only landowners z z 2

708

PHORONEUS

should have the franchise. (Argument to Lys.
Ilepl TJjs iroXireias : Arist. 'AB. iroX. 34.)
Phoroneus ($opaveis), son of Inachus and
the Oceanid Melia or Archia, was a brother of
Aegialeus and the ruler of Argos. He was
married to the nymph Laodice, by whom he
became the father of Niobe, Apis, and Car.
(Paus. i. 39, 4 ; ApoUod. ii. 1, 1 ; Hyg. Fab.
143.) According to other writers his sons were
Pelasgus, Iasus, and Agenor, who, after their
father's death, divided the kingdom of Argos
among themselves (Eustath. ad Hom. p. 385).
Phoroneus is said to have been the first who
offered sacrifices to Hera at Argos, and to have
united the people, who until then had Uved in
scattered habitations, into a city which was
called after him dffrv $opaviKov (Paus. ii. 15,
5). The patronymic Phoronides is sometimes
used for Argives in general, and especially to
designate Amphiaraus and Adrastus.
Phoronis (bopavls), a surname of Io, who
was either a descendant or a sister of Phoroneus
(Ov. Met. i. 668).
Phosphorus. [Hespebus.]
Photius (<bdrios), patriarch of Constantinople
in the ninth century of our era, played a distin
guished part in the political and religious history
of his age. After holding various high offices
in the Byzantine court, he was, although a
layman, elected patriarch of Constantinople in
a.d. 858, in place of Ignatius, who had been
deposed by Bardas, who was all-powerful at
the court of his nephew Michael III., then a
minor. The patriarchate of Photius was a
stormy one, and full of vicissitudes. The
cause of Ignatius was espoused by the Romish
Church ; and Photius thus became one of the
great promoters of the schism between the
Eastern and Western Churches. In 867
Photius was himself deposed by the emperor
Basil I., and Ignatius was restored ; but on the
death of Ignatius in 877, Photius, who had
meantime gained the favour of Basil, was
again elevated to the patriarchate. On the
death of BasU, in 886, Photius was ac
cused of a conspiracy against the Ufe of the
new emperor, Leo VI., and was banished
to a monastery in Armenia, where he
seems to have remained till his death. Photius
was one of the most learned men of his time,
and in the midst of a busy life found time for
the composition of numerous works, several of
which have come down to us. Of theBe the
two most important are (1) Myriobiblion seu
Bibliotheca (MvpioBl$Xiov $ BiBXioB-liKrj). It
may be described as an extensive review of
ancient Greek literature by a scholar of
• immense erudition and sound judgment. It is
an extraordinary monument of literary energy,
for it was written while the author was engaged
in an embassy to Assyria, at the request of
his brother Tarasius, who desired an account
of the books which Photius had read in his
absence. It contains the analyses of or ex
tracts from 280 volumes, and many valuable
works are only known to us from the account
which Photius has given of them. The best
edition of this work is by Bekker, BerUn, 1824-
1825. (2) The Lexicon or Glossary, which
has reached us in an imperfect state, but is of
great value for its citation of authors and for
the light which it throws on many Greek
terms. It was first published by Hermann,
Lips. 1808, and subsequently at London, 1822,
from the papers of Porson. Photius likewise
wrote many theological works, some of which
have been published, and others remain in MS.

PHRIXUS
Phraata or PhraaBpa (rd &pdara, and other
forms), a great city of Media Atropatene, the
winter residence of the Parthian kings, especi
aUy as a refuge in time of war, lay SE. of Gaza,
near the river Amardus (Appian, Parth. p. 80 ;
Dio Cass. xlix. 25). The mountain fortress of
Vera (Ovepa), which was besieged by Antony,
was probably the same place (Strab. p. 523).
Phraataces, king of Parthia. [Arsaces
XVI.] Phraates, the name of four kings of Parthia.
[Aesaces, V. VH. XH. XV.]
Phranzaor Phranzes, Georgius (QpavrCrjox
$pavr£ris), the last, and one of the most import
ant, of the Byzantine historians, was frequently
employed on important public business by Con
stantine XIII., the last emperor of Constanti
nople. On the capture of Constantinople by
the Turks, in 1453, Phranza was reduced to
slavery, but succeeded in making his escape.
He subsequently retired to a monastery, where
he wrote his Chronicon. This work extends
from 1259 to 1477, and is a valuable authority
for the history of the author's time, especially
for the capture of Constantinople. — Edited by
Aiter, Vienna, 1796, by Bekker, Bonn, 1838.
Phraortes (fypabprris), second king of Media,
and son of Deioces, whom he succeeded,
reigned from B.C. 656 to 634. [Media.] He
first conquered the Persians, and then subdued
the greater part of Asia, but was at length
defeated -and kUled whUe laying siege to Ninus
(Nineveh). He was succeeded by his son
Cyaxares. (Hdt. i. 73, 102.)
Phricium (fypiKiov), a mountain in the E. of
Locris near Thermopylae (Strab. pp. 582, 621).
Phriconis. [Cyme ; Larissa, 2.]
Phrixa ($p£|o, #pffai, ©pff ai : Paleofanaro),
a town of Elis in Triphylia on the borders of
Pisatis, was situated upon a steep hiU on the
river Alpheus, and was thirty stadia from
Olympia. It was founded by the Minyae, and
is said to have derived its name from Phrixus.
(Paus. vi. 21, 6 ; Strab. p. S4S.)
Phrixus (#pf|os), son of Athamas and
Nephele, and brother of HeUe. In conse
quence of the intrigues of his stepmother, Ino,
he was to be sacrificed to Zeus; but Nephele
rescued her two chUdren, who rode away
through the air upon the ram with the golden
fleece, the gift of Hermes. Between Sigeum
and the Chersonesus, HeUe feU into the sea
which was caUed after her the HeUespont. A
fine Pompeian painting (Mus. Borb. vi. 19}
shows the exact moment described by Ovid
(who possibly had the picture in his mind) :
Paene simul periit dum volt succurrere lapsae
Frater et extentas porrigit usque manus.
(Fast. iii. 871.) Phrixus arrived in safety
in Colchis, the kingdom of Aeetes, who
gave him his daughter Chalciope in marriage.
Phrixus sacrificed the ram which had carried
him, to Zeus Phyxius or Laphystius, and gave
its fleece to Aeetes, who fastened it to an oak
tree in the grove of Ares. (Paus. i. 24, 2 ; Schol.
ad Ap. Rh. ii. 653.) This fleece was afterwards
carried away by Jason and the Argonauts.
[Jason.] By Chalciope Phrixus became the
father of Argus, Melas, Phrontis, Cytissorus,
and Presbon. (ApoUod. i. 9, 1 ; Hyg. Fab. 14.)
Phrixus either died of old age in the kingdom
of Aeetes, or was killed by Aeetes in conse
quence of an oracle (Ap. Rh. ii. 1151 ; Hyg.
Fab. 8). Pausanias (ix. 34, 5) gives a story that
either Phrixus or his son Presbon returned to
Orchomenos. Herodotus in his account of the

PHRIXUS
myth (yn. 197) mentions that the people of
Phthiotis used to offer a human victim from
the family of the Athamantidae to Zeus Laphys
tius. It is not unlikely that the story of
Phrixus in part arose from this rite of sacrifice
to the Minyan Zeus. It is held by some
mythologists that the ram commonly offered to
Zeus symboUsed the clouds, and that the
jgolden ram meant the wealth-giving clouds of

PHRYGIA

709

Phrixus riding on a ram across the Hellespont, with
Helle, fallen Into the sea. (Pompeian painting.)
¦spring. Phrixus in this view signified the
spring rains, and therefore his mother is
Nephele or Cloud ; and he is drawn towards the
land of the sun [see also p. 107, a],
Phrixus (<ppi£os), a river in ArgoUs, which
flows into the Argolic gulf between Temenium
and Lerna (Paus. ii. 86, 6).
Phrygia Mater, a name frequently given to
-Cybele, because she was especiaUy worshipped
in Phrygia. [Rhea.]
Phrygia (topvyta: $>pi\, pi. Qpiyes, Phryx,
"Phryges), a country of Asia Minor, which was
of very different extent at different periods.
According to the division of the provinces
¦under the Roman empire, Phrygia formed the
E. part of the province of Asia, and was
bounded on the W. by Mysia, Lydia, and Caria,
on the S. by Lycia and Pisidia, on the E. by
Lycaonia (which is often reckoned as a part of
Phrygia) and Galatia (which formerly belonged
to Phrygia), and on the N. by Bithynia. With
Teference to its physical geography and its
early history, Phrygia formed the W. part (as
Cappadocia did the E.) of the great central
table-land of Asia Minor, supported by the
chains of Olympus on the N. and Taurus on the
¦S., and breaking on the W. into the ridges
-which separate the great valleys of the Hee-
mus, the Maeandeb, &c, and which form the
headlands of the W. coast. This table-land
itself was intersected by mountain-chains, and
watered by the upper courses and tributaries of
the rivers just mentioned in its W. part, and in
its N. part by those of the Rhyndacus and
Sangaeius. These parts of the country were
very fertile, especially in the vaUey of the

Sangarius, but in the S. and E. the streams
which descend from Taurus lose themselves in
extensive salt marshes and salt lakes, some of
which are still famous, as in ancient times, for
their manufactures of salt. — There has been
much dispute about the origin of the Phrygians.
Their claim to a high antiquity is indicated by
the story in Herodotus (ii. 2) of the experiment
made by Psammetichus, king of Egypt, on the
first spontaneous speech of children, which
was held to show that they were the most
ancient of people. Their own legends of a great
flood, to escape which their king, Nannacus,
built an ark, are also significant (Zosim. vi. 10 ;
Suid. s. v. NdvvaKos). Greek writers represent
the Phrygians as a Thracian tribe, called in
Europe Briges, who either before or shortly
after the Trojan war migrated into Asia (Hdt.
vii. 73 ; Strab. pp. 295, 471, 680). Other evi
dence on the question is to be sought in the
character of the people — warlike in the Homeric
age, but the reverse afterwards — in their mixed
reUgions, and in their monuments, on which
much Ught has been thrown in recent years.
On the whole, the most probable theory is that
to which Mr. Ramsay has been brought by his
researches in Asia Minor — that the Phrygians
were, as Greek tradition related, a European
people who crossed the HeUespont before the
period of the Trojan war, and estabUshed a
kingdom in Asia Minor, W. of the Halys ; they
were a race of hardy warriors, of Aryan descent,
and their special deity was akin to Zeus, and
was variously caUed Osogo or Papas (Father)
or Bronton (Thunderer) ; the people whom
they found in possession and conquered were a
Semitic nation, who practised the orgiastic
worship of a female deity (the Greek Cybele),
with rites of an Oriental character, and with
temples served by slaves [cf. p. 86, bj; the
capital of this nation is conjectured to have
been Pteria in Cappadocia [Ptebia]; the in
vading Phrygians probably occupied first the
sea-coast on the Asiatic side of the Hellespont,
and then, as they pressed inwards, reduced the
Semitic people, but adopted much of their
reUgion (just as the Galatians afterwards did),
combining it also with their own, and gradually
degenerated themselves in courage and manli
ness. Some early reliefs of armed warriors
which have been discovered in Phrygia are
taken to represent the invaders before they
adopted the softer and weaker manners of the
shepherd people whom they conquered. The
Uon sculptures resembUng those of Mycenae
[p. 580, a], and the sculptured tombs, such as that
of Midas, belonged to the ruling dynasty which
the invaders established. If the above conjec
tures are weU founded, it is not unlikely that
the stories of the wars with Amazons reaUy
represent the struggle which the invaders,
whose deity was a god and whoBe right of in
heritance was male, waged against a race who
worshipped a goddess served by female temple-
slaves, and who counted their descent through
the mother (by ' Mutterrecht '). The invaders
left their name in the coast district which they
first occupied in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus —
namely, Phrygia Minor or Phrygia Helles-
pontus. — The kingdom of Phrygia was con
quered by Croesus, and formed part of the
Persian, Macedonian, and Syro-Grecian em
pires ; but under the last the NE. part, adjacent
to Paphlagonia and the Halys, was conquered
by the Gauls, and formed the W. part of
Galatia; and a part W. of this, containing
the richest portion of the country, about the

710

PHRYNE

Sangarius, was subjected by the kings of Bithy
nia ; this last portion was the object of a contest
between the kings of Bithynia and Pergamus,
but at last, by the decision of the Romans, it
was added, under the name of Phrygia Epicte
tus (*. iirUrriTos, i.e. the acquired Phrygia),
to the kingdom of Pergamus, to which the
whole of Phrygia was assigned by the Romans,
after the overthrow of Antiochus the Great in
B.C. 190. With the rest of the kingdom of
Pergamus, Phrygia passed to the Romans by
the testament of Attalus III., and thus became
a part of the province of Asia, B.C. 130. — As
to the distinctive names : the inland district
usually understood by the name of Phrygia,
when it occurs alone, was also called Great
Phrygia or Phrygia Proper, in contradistinction
to the Lesser Phrygia or Phrygia on the HeUes
pont ; and of this Great or Proper Phrygia,
the N. part was called, as just stated, Phrygia
Epictetus, and the S. part, adjacent to the
Taurus, was caUed, from its position, Phrygia
Paroreios (*. irapbpeios), a district of mountain
valleys between Polybotus and Tyriaeum, in the
SE. of Phrygia, with chief towns Antiochia and
Apollonia. At the division of the provinces in
the fourth century, the last mentioned part,
also called Phrygia Pisidicus, was assigned to
Pisidia ; and the SW. portion, about the Mae
ander, to Caria ; and the remainder was divided
into Phrygia Salutaris (or Secunda) on the E.,
with Synnada, Eucarpia, and Dorylaeum for its
chief towns, and Phrygia Pacatiana (or Prima)
on the W., with the chief town Laodicea, ex
tending N. and S. from Bithynia to Pamphylia.
— Phrygia was rich in products of every kind.
Its mountains furnished gold and marble ; its
vaUeys oil and wine; the less fertile hills in
the W. afforded pasture for sheep, whose wool
was celebrated (Strab. pp. 578, 579) ; and the
marshes of the SE. furnished abundance of salt.
Phryne (fypivrj), one of the most celebrated
Athenian hetairae, was a native of Thespiae in
Boeotia. Her beauty procured for her so much
wealth that she is said to have offered to rebuild
the walls of Thebes, after they had been de
stroyed by Alexander, if she might be allowed to
put up this inscription on the walls : — ' Alexan
der destroyed them, but Phryne, the hetaira,
rebuilt them.' She had among her admirers
.many of the most celebrated men of the age of
Philip and Alexander, and the beauty of her
form gave rise to some of the greatest works of
art. The most celebrated picture of ApeUes,
his ' Venus Anadyomene ' [Apelles], is said to
have been a representation of Phryne, who, at
a festival at Eleusis, entered the sea with di
shevelled hair. The Cnidian Venus of Praxiteles,
"who was one of her lovers, was modelled from
her. (Athen. pp. 558, 567, 583, 585, 590 ; Ael.
V. H. ix. 32 ; Propert. ii. 6, 5 ; PUn. xxxiv. 71.)
Phrynichus (*pw(Y0j). 1. An Athenian,
and one of the early tragic poets, is said to have
been the disciple of Thespis. He gained his
first tragic victory in B.C. 511, twenty-four years
after Thespis (535), twelve years after Choerilus
(523), and twelve years before Aeschylus (499) ;
and his last in 476, on which occasion Themi
stocles was his choragus, and recorded the
event by an inscription (Plut. Them. 5). The
play is supposed to have been the Phoenissae,
which had the same subject as the Persae of
AeschyluB. Phrynichus probably went, like
other poets of the age, to the court of Hiero,
and there died. In all the accounts of the rise
and development of tragedy, the chief place
after Thespis is assigned to Phrynichus; and

PHYCUS
the improvements which he introduced in the
internal poetical character of the drama en
title him to be considered as the real mventor
of tragedy. For the light BacchanaUan stories
or satyr plays which are supposed to have
been exhibited by Thespis he substituted
serious subjects, taken either from the heroic
age, or the heroic deeds which Ulustrated the
history of his own time. In these he aimed
not so much to amuse the audience as to move
their passions ; and so powerful was the effect
of his tragedy on the capture of Miletus, that
the audience burst into tears, and fined the
poet 1000 drachmae, because he had exhibited
the sufferings of a kindred people, and they even
passed a law that no one should ever again
make use of that drama. He was celebrated
especially for the beauty of his lyrical choruses
(Aristoph. Av. 748, Ban. 910, Thesmoph. 166).
Phrynichus was the first poet who introduced-
masks representing female characters in the
drama. He also paid particular attention to
the dances of the chorus. In the drama of
Phrynichus, however, the chorus stUl retained
the principal place, and it was reserved for
Aeschylus and Sophocles to bring the dialogue
and action into their due position. — 2. A comic
poet of the Old Comedy, was a contemporary
of Eupolis, and flourished B.C. 429 (Aristoph.
Ban. 14, Schol. ad loc). — 3. An Athenian
general, son of Stratonides, who was sent with
a fleet to Asia Minor in 412 B.C. (Thuc. vin. 25).
In the following year he endeavoured to streng
then the position of the oligarchical party by
calling in the Spartans, and he was assassinated
in the Agora (Thuc. viii. 92). — 4. A Greek
sophist and grammarian, described by some as
an Arabian, and by others as a Bithynian, lived
under M. Aurelius and Commodus. His great
work was entitled ^ocpio-riKi) irapaffKevi) in
thirty-seven books, of which we still possess a
fragment, published by Bekker, in his Anecdota
Graeca, Berol. 1814, vol. i. He also wrote a
Lexicon of Attic words ('EKXoyii {iripdrav Kal
bvopdrav 'ArriKav), edited by Lobeck, Lips. 1830.
Phrynnis (Qpiwis), or Phrynis (Qpvvis), a
dithyrambic poet, of the time of the Pelo
ponnesian war, was a native of Mytilene, but
flourished at Athens. His innovations, effemi
nacies, and frigidness, are repeatedly attacked
by the comic poets (Aristoph. Nub. 971 ; Plut.
Mus. p. 1146). Among the innovations which
he made, was the addition of two strings to the
heptachord. He was the first who gained the
victory in the musical contests estabUshed by
Pericles in connexion with the Panathenaic
festival, probably in B.C. 445.
Phthia. [Phthiotis.]
Phthiotis (QBiaris: iBidrris), a district in
the SE. of Thessaly, bounded on the S. by the
Maliac gulf, and on the E. by the Pagasaean
gulf, and inhabited by Achaeans. [Thessalia.]
Homer calls it Phthia (*Wrj), and mentions a
city of the same name, celebrated as the resi
dence of Achilles (II. i. 155, ii. 683 ; Strab. pp.
S83, 430). Hence the poets call AchUIes
Phthius heros, and Peleus Phthius rex.
Phthira (ra $Blpa, QBeipiov bpos), a mountain
in Caria, formmg a part or a branch of Latmus,
inhabited by a people called QBlpes (II. ii. 868
Strab. p. 635).
Phtblrdphagi (QBeipbcpayot, i.e. eaters of
lice), a Scythian people near the Caucasus, oi-,
according to some, beyond the river Rha, in
Sarmatia Asiat. (Strab. pp. 449, 492; Plin. vi. 14).
Phya. [Pisistbatus.]
Phycus (*ukoCs : Bas-Sem or Bas-el-Kazat),

PHYLACE
a promontory on the coast of Cyrenaica, a
little W. of Apollonia and NW. of Cyrene. It
is the northernmost headland of Libya E. of the
Lesser Syrtis, and the nearest point of this
coast to that of Europe, the distance from
Phycus to Taenarum, the S. promontory of
Peloponnesus, being 208 miles. There was a
small town of the same name on the head
land. (Strab. pp. S63, 837 ; Lucan, ix. 40 ; Plin.
v. 32.£
Phylace (QvXdKi)). 1. A small town of Thes
saly, in Phthiotis, on the N. slope of Mt. Othrys,
the birthplace of Protesilaus. (27. ii. 695, xiii.
696 ; Od. xi. 290 ; Strab. p. 483.)— 2. A town
of Epirus, in Molossia (Liv. xiv. 26).— 3. A town
in Arcadia on the frontiers of Tegea and
Laconia (Paus. viii. 54, 1).
Phylacus (GiXaKos), son of Deion and Dio-
mede, and husband of Periclymene or Clymene,
the daughter of Minyas, by whom he became
the father of Iphiclus and Alcimede (II. ii.
705 ; ApoUod. i. 9, 4). He was beUeved to be
the founder of the town of Phylace, in Thes
saly. Either from its name or that of the
town, his descendants, Phylacus, Iphiclus, and
Protesilaus, are called Phyladdae.
Phylarchus (QiXapxos), a Greek historical
writer, and a contemporary of Aratus, was
probably a native of Naucratis in Egypt, but
spent the greater part of his Ufe at Athens
(Athen. p. 58). His great work was a history
in twenty-eight books, which embraced a period
of fifty-two years, from the expedition of
Pyrrhus into Peloponnesus, B.C. 272, to the
death of Cleomenes, 220. Phylarchus is vehe
mently attacked by Polybius (U. 56), who
charges him with falsifying history through his
partiaUty to Cleomenes and his hatred against
Aratus and the Achaeans. The accusation is
probably not unfounded, but it might be re
torted with equal justice upon Polybiua, who
has faUen into the opposite error of exaggera
ting the merits of Aratus and his party, and
depreciating Cleomenes. The fragments of
Phylarchus have been collected by Miiller,
Fragm. Histor, Graec. Paris, 1840 and 1868.
Phylas (QiXas). 1. King of the Dryopes, was
attacked and slain by Heracles, because he had
violated the sanctuary of Delphi. By his
daughter Midea, Heracles became the father
of Antiochus. (Paus. i. 5, 2, iv. 34, 6 ; Diod. iv.
37.) — 2. Son of Antiochus, and grandson of
Heracles and Midea, was married to DeiphUe,
by whom he had two sons, Hippotas and Thero
(Paus. U. 4, 3). — 3. King of Ephyra in Thes
protia, and the father of Polymele and Astyoche,
by the latter of whom Heracles was the father
of Tlepolemus (II. xvi. 181 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 6).
Phyle (PvX'fi: QvXdo-ios: Fill), a demus in
Attica, and a strongly fortified place, belonging
to the tribe Oeneis, was situated on the con
fines of Boeotia, and on the SW. slope of Mt.
Parnes, about thirteen mUes from Athens. It
is placed in a narrow defile 2100 feet above the
sea level, and overlooks the plain of Athens
and the city itself. The remains of the walla
are still visible. It is memorable as the place
which Thrasybulus and the Athenian patriots
seized, soon after the end of the Peloponnesian
war, B.C. 404, and from which they directed
their operations against the Thirty Tyrants at
Athens. [Thrasybulus.]
Phyleus (QvXeis), son of Augeas, was ex
peUed by his father from Ephyra, because he
gave evidence in favour of Heracles. [See p.
397, b.] He then emigrated to DuUchium (II.
xv. 530, xxiii. 637). By Ctimene or Timandra

PICENUM

711

he became the father of Meges, who is hence
called Phylides (Paus. v. 8, 4).
Fhyllidas (QvXXiSas), a Theban, secretary to
the polemarchs who held the Cadmeia after
b.c. 382. He used his opportunities to aid the
movement of liberation, and introduced Pelo
pidas and his associates to the house of Leonti-
ades. (Xen. Hell. v. 4, 2 ; Pelopidas.)
Phyllis. [Demophon, No. 2.]
Phyllis (QiXXis), a district in Thrace, S. of
the Strymon, near Mt. Pangaeus (Hdt. vii. 113).
Phyllus (QvXXos : Petrino), a town of Thes
saly in the district Thessaliotis, N. of Metro
polis (Strab. p. 435).
Physcon. [Ptolemaeus.]
Physcus ($io-Kos). 1. (Marmoras), a town
on the S. coast of Caria, in the Rhodian terri
tory, with an exceUent harbour, used as the port
of Mylasa, and the landing-place for travellers
coming from Rhodes (Strab. pp. 652, 663). — 2.
(Odorneh), an E. tributary of the Tigris in
Lower Assyria. The town of Opis stood at its
junction with the Tigris. (Xen. An. ii. 4, 25.)
Phytaeum ($iratov : Qvraios), a town in
Aetolia, on the lake Trichonis (Pol. v. 7).
Phytia. [Phoetiae.]
Piceni. [Picenum.)
Picentes. [Picenum.]
Picentia (Picentinus : Vicenza), a town in
the S. of Campania at the head of the Sinus
Paestanus, and between Salernum and the
frontiers of Lucania, the inhabitants of which
were compelled by the Romans, in consequence
of their revolt to Hannibal, to abandon then-
town and live in the neighbouring villages
(Strab. p. 251). Between the town and the
frontiers of Lucania there was an ancient
temple of the Argive Juno, said to have been
founded by Jason the Argonaut. — The name
of Picentmi was not confined to the inhabi
tants of Picentia, but was given to the inhabi
tants of the whole coast of the Sinus Paestanus,
from the promontory of Minerva to the river
Silarus (Strab. l.c. ; Plin. iii. 70). They were a
portion of the Sabine Picentes, who were
transplanted by the Romans to this part of
Campania after the conquest of Picenum, B.C.
268, when they founded Picentia.
Picentini. [Picentia.]
Picenum (Picentes, sing. Picens, more rarely
Picentini and Piceni), a country in Central
Italy, was a narrow strip of land along the N.
coast of the Adriatic, and was bounded on the
N. by Umbria, from which it was separated by
the river Aesis, on the W. by Umbria and the
territory of the Sabines, and on the S. by the
territory of the Marsi and Vestini, from which
it was separated by a range of hills and by the
river Matrinus (Strab. p. 240; Plin. iii. 110).
It is said to have derived its name from the
bird picus, which directed the Sabine immi
grants, under the vow of a Ver Sacrum, into
the land (Plin. I.e.; Strab. I.e.). That this
points to the existence of an ancient tribal
totem or sacred animal is by no means impos
sible. [Picus.] The inhabitants of the south
ern portion of Picenum in the neighbourhood
of Interamnium and Adria and the river Vo-
manus had a special name Praetuttii (Praetu-
tianus Ager), from which the modern Abruzzi
is derived (Plin. l.c. ; Liv. xxii. 9, xxvii. 43),
but the part of this district between the Vo-
manus and Matrinus was distinguished as Ager
Hadrianus. Picenum formed the fifth region in
the division of Italy made by Augustus, and
extended as far as the river Aternus. The
country was traversed by a number of hUls of

712

PICTI

moderate height, eastern offshoots of the Apen
nines, and was drained by several smaU rivers
flowing into the Adriatic through the vaUeys
between these hills. The country was upon the
whole fertUe, and was especiaUy celebrated for
its apples ; but the chief employment of the in
habitants was the feeding of cattle and swine.
— The Picentes, as already remarked, were Sa
bine immigrants ; but the population of the
country appears to have been of a mixed na
ture. The Umbrians were in possession of the
land when it was conquered by the Sabine
Picentes, and some of the Umbrian population
became intermingled with their Sabine con
querors. In addition to this the S. part of the
country was for a time in the possession of the
Liburnians, and Ancona was occupied by
Greeks from Syracuse. In B.C. 299 the Pi
centes made a treaty with the Romans ; but
having revolted in 269, they were defeated by
the consul Sempronius Sophus in the following
year, and were obliged to submit to the Roman
supremacy. (Flor. i. 19 ; Liv. Ep. 15; Eutrop.
ii. 16.) A portion of the people was trans
planted to the coast of the Sinus Paestanus,
where they founded the town Picentia. [Pi
centia.] Two or three years afterwards the
Romans sent colonies to Firmum and Castrum
Novum in Picenum, in order to secure their
newly conquered possession. The Picentes
fought with the other Socii against Rome in the
Social or Marsic war (90-89), and received the
Roman franchise at the close of it. (App. B.G.
i. 38-48; Flor. iii. 18.)
Picti, a people inhabiting the northern part
of Britain, appear to have been either a tribe of
the Caledonians, or the same people as the
Caledonians, though under another name. It
is supposed by many that their name was given
by the Romans because the Picti painted their
bodies [cf. p. 171, b], but it is quite as prob
able that (like that of the Pictones) it is a
Celtic name. They are first mentioned by the
rhetorician Eumenius in an oration addressed
to Constantinus Chlorus, a.d. 296; and after
this time their name frequently occurs in the
Roman writers, and often in connexion with
that of the Scoti. In the next century we find
them divided into two tribes, the Dicaledonae
or Dicaledones, and the Verturiones. (Amm.
Marc. xx. 1, xxvi. 4.) [Verturiones is the MS.
reading, not Vecturiones, and is supported by
the name Verterae in Westmoreland.]
Pictones, subsequently Pictavi, a powerful
people on the coast of Gallia Aquitanica, whose
territory extended N. as far as the Liger
(Loire), and E. probably as far as the river
JJreuse. Their chief town was Limonum, sub
sequently Pictavi (Poitiers). (Caes. B. G. iii.
11, vii. 4 ; Strab. p. 190.)
Pictor, Fabius. 1. C, painted the temple of
Salus, which the dictator C. Junius Brutus
Bubulcus contracted for in his censorship, B.C.
307, and dedicated in his dictatorship, S02.
This painting, which must have been on the
waUs of the temple, was probably a representa
tion of the battle which Bubulus had gained
against the Samnites. This is the earliest
Roman painting of which we have any record.
It was preserved till the reign of Claudius,
when the temple was destroyed by fire. In
consequence of this painting C. Fabius
received the surname of Pictor, which was
borne by his descendants. (PUn. xxxv. 19;
Dionys. xvi. 6 ; Val. Max. viu. 14, 6.)— 2. C, son
of No. 1, consul 269.-3. IT. (i.e. Numerius),
also son of No. 1, consul, 266. — 4. ft., son of

PICUS
No. 2, was the most ancient writer of Roman
history in prose (Liv. i. 44, U. 40 ; Dionys. i.
6, vii. 71). He served in the Gallic war, 225,
and also in the second Punic war (Pol. iii. 9 ;
Liv. xxii. 7 ; Eutrop. iii. 5 ; PUn. x. 71). After
the battle of Cannae he was sent to consult the
oracle of Delphi (Liv. xxii. 57 ; Plut. Fab. Max.
18). His history was written in Greek, which
was then the only language of learning and
literature, and was the channel of communica
tion with writers outside the Italian penin
sula. The History of Fabius began with
the arrival of Aeneas in Italy, and came
down to his own time. Polybius (i. 14, 58)
speaks of his History as marked by some
partiality, though not from design. That he
was used as an authority by Livy and Diodorus
there can be little doubt, though to what
extent is a disputed question. For Polybius he
was the chief authority in the account of the
second Punic war. There seems to have been
a Latin version or abridgment of his history
(Gell. v. 4), to which Cicero probably aUudes
(de Or. ii. 12, 51). The order in which Cicero
alludes to this version implies that it was made
after Cato's Origines, whether by Fabius Pictor
himself in his old age, or by some one else is
uncertain. Some have attributed it to No. 6.
—6, ft., praetor 189, and flamen Quirinalis
(Liv. xxxvii. 47, xiv. 44).— 6. Ser., is said by
Cicero to have been well skilled in law, litera
ture, and antiquity. He lived about B.C. 150.
He wrote a wort De Jure Pontificio, in several
books. (Cic. Brut. 21, 81; Gell. i. 12, x. 15;
Macrob. iii. 2, 3.)
Picumnus and Pilumnus, two Roman divi
nities, were regarded as two brothers, and as
the beneficent gods of matrimony in the rustic
religion of the ancient Romans were wor
shipped in the Indigitamenta. [See p. 443, a.]
They were originally the Italian deities of the
grain or meal store and of the fertilisation of
the fields : Picumnus was identified with
Sterquilinius, the god who presided over the
manuring of fields, and Pilumnus presided
over the pounding of grain with the pestle,
or pilum (Serv. ad Aen. ix. 4 ; Isid. Or. iv. 11).
Hence the two deities were supposed to supply
strength and growth to chUdren. A couch was
prepared for them in the house in which there
was a newly-born child. Pilumnus was be
lieved to ward off all sufferings from the infant
with his pilum, and Picumnus conferred upon
the infant prosperity (Varro, ap. August. C. D.
vi. 9 ; Non. p. 528). The account cited from
Varro states that at the time of chUdbirth
these twin deities, associated with a third caUed
Deverra, were supposed to prevent the incur
sion of SUvanus, who represented wild forest
life. Three men in the character of these gods
went round the house where the child was
born : the first two smote the threshold with a
hatchet and a pestle ; the third swept it with a
broom. Picus, a Latin prophetic divinity, is de
scribed as a son of Saturnus or Sterculus, as
the husband of Canens, and the father of
Faunus. In some traditions he was called the
first king of Italy. He was a famous sooth
sayer and augur, and as he made use in his
prophetic art of a picus (a woodpecker), he
himself was also called Picus. He was repre
sented in a rude and primitive manner as a
wooden piUar with a woodpecker on the top of
it, but afterwards as a young man with a wood
pecker on his head. Pomona, it is said, was
beloved by Mars, and when Circe's love for him

PIERIA
¦was not requited, she changed him into a wood
pecker, who, however, retained the prophetic
powers which he had formerly possessed as a
man. (Ov. Met. xiv. 314, Fast. ni. 87 ; Verg.
-*««•, vii. 190; Plut. Q. B. 21.) In the stories
of Pious there seems to be a combination of
various popular beUefs. The woodpecker was
a bird of prophetic power sacred to Mars, in his
character of the agricultural god : hence Picus
is at one time the agricultural deity son of
Saturnus or Sterculus; at another the wood
pecker itself ; while in other traditions he par
takes of the warlike character of Mars and is
represented as a warrior king of Italy.
Plena (Iliepfa : Tliepes). 1. A narrow slip of
country on the SE. coast of Macedonia, extend
ing from the mouth of the Peneus in Thessaly
to the Haliacmon, and bounded on the W. by
Mount Olympus and its offshoots. A portion
of these mountains was called by the ancient
writers Pierus, or the Pierian mountain.
The inhabitants of this country, the Pieres,
were a Thracian people, and ore celebrated in
the early history of Greek poetry and music,
since their country was one of the earUest
seats of the worship of the Muses, and
Orpheus is said to have been buried there.
(II. xiv. 226; Hes. Th. 53; Ap. Rh. i. 23.)
After the estabUshment of the Macedonian
kingdom in Emathia in the seventh century
B.C. Pieria was conquered by the Macedonians,
and the inhabitants were driven out of the
country. — 2. A district in Macedonia E. of the
Strymon near Mount Pangaeus, where the
Pierians settled who had been driven out of
their original abodes by the Macedonians, as
already related. They possessed in this dis
trict the fortified towns of Phagres and Perga
mum. (Hdt. vii. 112; Thuc. n. 99; Strab. p.
S31.) — 3. A district on the N. coast of Syria, so
called from the mountain Pieria, a branch of
the Am anus, a name given to it by the Mace
donians after their conquest of the East. In
this district was the city of Seleucia, which is
distinguished from other cities of the same
name as Seleucia in Pieria. (Strab. pp. 749, 751.)
Pierides (IliepiSes). 1. A surname of the
Muses, which they derived from Pieria, near
Mt. Olympus, where they were first worshipped
among the Thracians. Some derived the name
from an ancient king Pierus, who is said to have
emigrated from Thrace into Boeotia, and to
have estabUshed their worship at Thespiae.
Pieris also occurs in the singular. [See p.
578, b.] — 2. The nine daughters of Pierus, king
of Emathia (Macedonia), whom he begot by
Euippe or Antiope, and to whom he gave the
names of the nine Muses. [Musae.] They
afterwards entered into a contest with the
Muses, and, being conquered, they were changed
into birds called Colymbas, Iyngx, Cenchris,
Cisaa, Chloris, Acalanthis, Nessa, Pipo, and
Dracontis. (Ov. Met. v. 300-678; Paus. ix.
29,2; Ant Lib. 9.)
Pierus (Tliepos). 1. Mythological. [Ptebides.]
— 2. A mountain. [Piebia, No. 1.]
Pietas, a personification of faithful attach
ment, love, and veneration among the Romans.
At first she had only a small sanctuary at
Rome, but in B.C. 191 a larger one was built.
She is represented on Roman coins as a matron
throwing incense upon an altar, and her attri
butes are a stork and children. She is some
times represented as a female figure offering
her breast to an aged parent, there being a
tradition that the temple was dedicated in
memory of a daughter who thus supported her

PINARIA 713
mother in prison. (Plin. vii. 121; Val. Max.
v. 417.)
Pietas Julia. [Pola.]
Pigres (Tllypns), of Halicarnassus, either the
brother or the son of the celebrated Artemisia,
queen of Caria. He is said by some writers to
have been the author of the Margites and the
Batrachomyomachia(Su.id\.s.v.; Plut. deHerod.
Malign. 48, p. 878 ; cf. p. 425, b.)
Pilia, the wife of T. Pomponius Atticus, to
whom she was married on February 12, B.C. 56.
In the summer of the foUowing year she bore
her husband a daughter, who subsequently
married Vipsanius Agrippa. (Gia. ad AU. iv. 16,
v. 19, vi. 1, ad Q. Fr. ii. 8.)
Pilorus (TllXapos), a town of Macedonia in
Chalcidice, at the head of the Singitic gulf
(Hdt. vii. 122). 6 S
Pilumnus. [Picumnus.]
Pimplea (TlipirXeia), a town in the Mace
donian province of Pieria, sacred to the Muses,
who were hence caUed Pimpleides (Strab. pp.
410, 471 ; Lycophr. 273). Horace (Od. i. 26, 9)
uses_ Pimplea for Pimpleis.
Pinara (t& Uivapa : Uivapeis : Minara), an
inland city of Lycia, some distance W. of the
river Xanthus, at the foot of Mt. Cragus. Here
Pandarus was worshipped as a hero (Strab. p.
665 ; Plin. v. 101). There are fine remains of
the city and sculptured rock-tombs.
Pinaria Gens, one of the most ancient pa
trician gentes at Rome, traced its origin to a
time long previous to the foundation of the
city. The legend related that when Hercules
came into Italy he was hospitably received, on
the spot where Rome was afterwards built, by
the Potitii and the Pinarii, two of the most
distinguished families in the country. The
hero, in return, taught them the way in which
he was to be worshipped ; but as the Pinarii
were not at hand when the sacrificial banquet
was ready, and did not come till the entrails of
the victim were eaten, Hercules, angrily ex
claiming 'Tpeis Se ireivdaere, determined that
the Pinarii should in all future time be excluded
from partaking of the entrails of the victims,
and that in all matters relating to his worship
they should be inferior to the Potitii. (Liv. i. 7 ;
Dionys. i. 40 ; Diod. iv. 21 ; Macrob. iii. 6, 12 ;
Serv. ad Aen. viii. 269.) These two families
continued to be the hereditary priests of Her
cules till the censorship of App. Claudius (b.c.
312), who, as the story says, induced the Potitii
to communicate the knowledge of the sacred
rites to public slaves, in whose charge they
remained thenceforth, whereat the god was so
angry that the whole Pofcitia gens, containing
twelve families and thirty grown-up men,
perished within a year, or according to other
accounts within thirty days, and Appius him
self became blind (Liv. ix. 29). The Pinarii
did not share in the guilt of communicating the
sacred knowledge, and therefore did not receive
the same punishment as the Potitii, but con
tinued in existence to the latest times. The
story may have arisen partly from a fancied
etymology of the name of the Pinarii, partly
from an attempt to account for the disappear
ance of a family who traditionally had held the
priesthood. The worship of Hercules by the
Potitii and Pinarii is described as a sacrum
gentilitium belonging to these gentes; but it
was a sacrum publicum entrusted by the state
to these families. If it had been a sacrum
privatum it would, as has justly been re
marked, have ceased altogether when the family
who administered it died out, instead of being

714

PINARIUS

entrusted to the public slaves. The Pinarii
were divided into the families of Mamercinus,
Natta, Posca, Buaca, and Scarpus, but none
of them obtained sufficient importance to re
quire a separate notice.
Pinarius, I., the great-nephew of the dicta
tor C. Julius Caesar, being the grandson of
Julia, Caesar's eldest sister. In the will of the
dictator, Pinarius was named one of his heirs
along with his two other great-nephews, C.
Octavius and L. Pinarius, Octavius obtaining
three-fourths of the property, and the remain
ing fourth being divided between Pinarius and
Pedius. (Suet. Jul. 83 ; App. B.C. iii. 22.)
Pinarus (Tlivapos), a river of Cilicia, rising in
M. Amanus, and faUing into the gulf of Issus
near Issus, between the mouth of the Pyramus
and the Syrian frontier (Strab. p. 676).
Pindarus (TlivSapos), the greatest lyric poet
of Greece, was born either at Thebes or at
Cynoscephalae, a village in the territory of
Thebes, about B.C. 522. His family was one of
the noblest in Thebes, and seems also to have
been celebrated for its skill in music. The
father or uncle of Pindar was a flute-player,
and Pindar at an early age received instruction
in the art from the flute-player Scopelinus.
But the youth soon gave indications of a genius
for poetry, which induced his father to send
him to Athens to receive more perfect instruc
tion in the art. Later writers tell us that his
future glory as a poet was miraculously fore
shadowed by a swarm of bees which rested
upon his lips while he was asleep, and that this
miracle first led him to compose poetry. (Paus.
ix. 23, 2 ; Ael. V.H. xii. 45.) At Athens Pindar
became the pupil of Lasus of Hermione, the
founder of the Athenian school of dithyrambic
poetry. He returned to Thebes before he com
pleted his twentieth year, and is said to have
received instruction there from Myrtis and
Corinna of Tanagra, two poetesses, who then
enjoyed great celebrity in Boeotia. It is said
that Corinna objected to his earlier poems that
they had too little mythology ; but in the next
poem he went to the opposite extreme of too
profuse reference to myths, and she advised
him ' to sow with the hand and not with the
sack ' (Plut. de Glor. Athen. 14). With both
these poetesses Pindar contended for the prize
in the musical contests at Thebes, and he is
said to have been defeated five times by
Corinna. Pindar began his career as a poet at
an early age, and was soon employed by different
states and princes in all parts of the Hellenic
world to compose for them choral songs for
special occasions. He received money and
t presents for his works, but without sacrificing
his independent position as a great poet. The
earliest of his extant poems appears to be the
tenth Pythian ode, which he wrote at the age
of twenty in praise of Hippocleas, winner of a
Pythian race B.C. 502. It was composed at the
instance di Thorax, a prince of Larissa, be
longing to the family of the Aleuadae. He
composed poems for Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse,
Alexander, son of Amyntas, king of Macedonia,
Theron, tyrant of Agrigentum, ArcesUaus, king
of Cyrene, as well as for many free states and
private persons. He was courted especially by
Alexander, king of Macedonia, and Hiero,
tyrant of Syracuse ; and the praises which he
bestowed upon the former are said to have
been the chief reason which led his descendant,
Alexander, the son of Philip, to spare the house
of the poet when he destroyed the rest of
Thebes. Pindar wrote the seventh Pythian ode

PINDARUS
in B.C. 490, the year of the battle of Marathon,
in honour of the Athenian Megacles, winner of
a chariot race. Between that year and the
battle of Salamis only three of his extant odes
were written — the tenth and eleventh Olympian
and the fifth Nemean. This was in honour of
the Aeginetan Pytheas, winner in the boys'
contest at the Nemean games. It is the earliest-
of those odes (one fourth of the whole number)
which honour Aeginetan victors and sing the
praises of the heroic Aeacidae of Aegina. Sicily
claimed even a larger share of his work ; for
fourteen of his odes were written in honour of
Sicilian victors. These date after the battle of
Salamis, when Pindar was nearly forty years of
age. It was probably about that time that he
visited Hiero, at whose court he spent four
years (476-472), Agrigentum, Camarina, and
Himera. It is even possible that he went to
Cyrene, which is celebrated in more than one
of his odes : notably in one of his finest, the
fourth Pythian, written to celebrate the victory
of Arcesilas, king of Cyrene, in the chariot
race — which deserves mention, not only for its
beautiful poetry, but also as a good instance of
Pindar's manner of introducing a mythological
story. It wiU be seen that though Pindar's
home was Thebes, he frequently left it to visit
princes and great men who courted his friend
ship and employed his services. With Athens
he probably was well acquainted : the Athenians
were grateful for his praises of their city
(Dithyr. 4 = Fragm. 46), and made him their
irpb^evos, besides setting up his statue and
making him great presents of money (Paus. i.
8, 4 ; Isocr. irepl 'AvriS. § 166). He is said to
have died in the theatre of Argos at the age of
80. The latest work of his which can be dated
is the fourth Olympian, which seems to have
been written B.C. 452. A pecuUar honour was
paid to him at Delphi, where he was formaUy
summoned to the sacred feast, and his descen
dants were admitted to it as his representatives.
[Diet, of Ant. art. Theoxenia.] At Delphi,
too, an iron chair was preserved on which, as it
was said, he used to sit (Paus. x. 24, 4). The
only poems of Pindar which have come down
to us ' entire are his Epinieia, or triumphal
odes. But these were but a small portion of
his works. Besides his triumphal odes he
wrote hymns to the gods, paeans, dithyrambs,
odes for processions (irpoo-bSia), songs of maidens
(irapBeveia), mimic dancing songs (viropxilpara),
drinking songs (mbXia), dirges (Bpr)voi), and
encomia (iyKdpia), or panegyrics on princes.
Of these we have numerous fragments. Most
of them are mentioned in the weU-known lines
of Horace (Od. iv. 2) :
Sen per audaces nova dithyrambos
Verba devolvit, numerisque fertur
Lege solutis :
Seu deos (hymns and paeans') regesve (encomia)
canit, deorum
Sanguinem : . . .
Sive quos Elea domum reducit
Palma caelestes (the Epinieia) : . . .
Flebili sponsae juvenemve raptum
Plorat (the dirges).
In all of these Pindar excelled, as we see from
the numerous- quotations made from them by
the ancient writers, though they are generally
of too fragmentary a kind to allow us to form
a judgment respecting them. Our estimate of
Pindar as a poet must be formed almost exclu
sively from his Epinieia, which were composed
in commemoration of some victory in the public
games. The Epinieia are divided into four

PINDASUS
books, celebrating respectively the victories
gamed in the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and
Isthmian games. In order to understand them
properly we must bear in mind the nature of
the occasion for which they were composed
and the object which the poet had in view. A
victory gained in one of the four great national
festivals conferred honour, not only upon the
conqueror and his family, but also upon the
city to which he belonged. It was accordingly
celebrated with great pomp and ceremony.
Such a celebration began with a procession to
a temple, where a sacrifice was offered, and it
ended with a banquet and the joyous revelry
called by the Greeks comus (Kupos). For this
celebration a poem was expressly composed,
which was sung by a chorus. The poems were
sung either during the procession to the temple
or at the comus at the close of the banquet.
Those of Pindar's Epinician odes which consist
of strophes without epodes were sung during
the procession, but the majority of them appear
to have been sung at the comus. In these odes
Pindar rarely describes the victory itself, as the
scene was famUiar to all the spectators, but he
dwells upon the glory of the victor, and cele
brates chiefly either his wealth (oXBos) or his
skill (ape-rh.} — his wealth, if he had gained the
victory in the chariot race, since it was only the
wealthy that could contend for the prize in this
contest ; his skill, if he had been exposed to
peril in the contest. — Editions of Pindar by
Dissen, 1843 ; Donaldson, 1868; C. T. Mommsen,
1864 ; Bergk, 1878 ; Bury, 1892 ; Fennell, 1893 ;
GUdersleeve ; Transl. by Myers, 1874.
Pindasus (TlivSao-os), a S. branch of Mount
Temnus in Myria, extending to the Elaitic
gulf, and containing the sources of the river
Cetius (Plin. v. 126).
Pindenissus (TlivSevio-cros), a town of eastern
Cilicia on a spur of Mount Amanus, which was
taken by Cicero after a siege of two months
(Cic. ad Att. v. 20, ad Fam. ii. 10, xv. 4).
Pindus (TlivSos). 1. A lofty range of moun
tains in northern Greece, a portion of the
great backbone which runs through the centre
of Greece from N. to S. (Hdt. i. 56, vii. 129 ;
Strab. pp. 327, 428, 430). The name of Pindus
was confined to that part of the chain which
separates Thessaly and Epirus, and its most
northerly and also highest part was called
Lacmon. — 2. One of the four towns in Doris,
near the sources of a small river of the same
name which flowed through Locris into the
Cephissus (Strab. p. 427 ; Plin. iv. 28).
Pinna (Pinnensis : Civitd di Penna), the
chief town of the Vestini at the foot of the
Apennines, surrounded by beautiful meadows.
It stood by the Romans in the Social war. It
was a municipium, but was made a colony by
Augustus. (Plin. iii. 107 ; Sil. It. viii. 517.)
Pinnes, Pmneus, or Pineus, was the son of
Agron, king of Hlyria, by his first wife, Triteuta.
At the death of Agron (b.c. 231), Pinnes, who
was then a chUd, was left in the guardianship of
his stepmother Teuta, whom Agron had
married after divorcing Triteuta. When Teuta
was defeated by the Romans, the care of
Pinnes devolved upon Demetrius of Pharos ;
but when Demetrius in his turn made war
against the Romans and was defeated, Pinnes
was placed upon the throne by the Romans,
but was compelled to pay tribute. (Liv. xxii.
33 ; Dio Cass, xxxiv. 46, 151 ; App. Illyr. 7, 8.)
Pintuaria (Tlivrovapia : Teneriffe), one of
the Insulae Fortunatae (Canary Is.) off the W.
coast of Africa, also caUed Convallis, and,

PIRENE

715

from the perpetual snow on its peak, Nivaria.
[Fortunatae Insulae.]
Piraeeus or Piraeus (LTeipaieuj : Porto Leone
or Porto Dracone), the most important of the
harbours of Athens, was situated in the penin
sula about five mileB SW. of Athens. This
peninsula, which is sometimes called by the
general name of Piraeeus, contained three
harbours, Piraeeus proper on the W. side, by
far the largest of the three, Zeaon the E. side
separated from Piraeeus by a narrow isthmus,
and Munychia (Pharnari) still further to the
E. The northern portion of the Piraeeus
proper (or the great harbour) seems to have
been used by the merchant vessels, and the
Cantharus, where the ships of war were
stationed, was on the S. side of the harbour
near the entrance : the docks, called Aphro-
disium, were in the middle of the E. side, and
derived their name from the temple of Aphro
dite built on that part of the shore by Conon
after the battle of Cnidus (Paus. i. 1, 3; cf.
Schol. ad Aristoph. Pac. 145). It was through
the suggestion of Themistocles that the
Athenians were induced to make use of the
harbour of Piraeeus. Before the Persian wars
their principal harbour was Phalerum, which
was not situated in the Piraean peninsula at
all, but lay to the E. of Munychia. [Phaleeum.]
At the entrance of the harbour of Piraeeus
there were two promontories, the one on the
right hand called Alcimus ("AXKipos), on which
was the tomb of Themistocles (Paus. i. 1, 2 ;
Plut. Them. 82), and the other on the left
called Edionea ('HeTi^yeia), on which the Four
Hundred erected a fortress (Thuc. viii. 90),
The entrance of the harbour, which was narrow
by nature, was rendered still narrower by two
mole-heads, to which a chain was attached to
prevent the ingress of hostile ships. The town
or demus of Piraeeus was surrounded with
strong fortifications by Themistocles, and was
connected with Athens by means of the cele
brated Long Walls under the administration of
Pericles. [See p. 140, b.] The town possessed
a considerable population, especiaUy of Metoeci
who were attracted in large numbers by the
facUities for trade. The most important of its
public buildings were : the Agora Hippodamia,
the market buUt by Hippodamus of Miletus,
which stood in the centre of the town ; the
temples of Zeus Soter and Athene Soteira
(Paus. i. 1, 3 ; Strab. p. 395 ; Plin. xxxiv. 74),
and a temple of the Syrian Aphrodite. The
Scholiast to Aristophanes cited above speaks of
five haUs (crroai), the largest of which is men
tioned by Thucydides (viii. 90). The Phreattys,
where those who had gone into exile for man
slaughter, were tried for a new offence of the
same kind [Diet, of Ant. art. Phonos], lay on
the E. side of the peninsula to the S. of Zea.
[For a map of the harbour see p. 142.]
Pirene (Tleip-h\vn), a celebrated fountain at
Corinth, which, according to tradition, took its
origin from Pirene, a daughter of Oebalus, who-
here melted away into tears through grief for
the loss of her son, Cenchrias. At this fountain
BeUerophon is said to have caught the horse
Pegasus. It gushed forth from the rock in the
Acrocorinthus, was conveyed down the hill by
subterraneous conduits, and fell into a marblo
basin, from which the greater part of the town
was supplied with water, The fountain was
celebrated for the purity and salubrity of its
water, and was so highly valued that the poets
frequently employed its name as equivalent to
that of Corinth itself. (Strab. p. 379 ; Pegasus.)

716 PIRESIAE
Piresiae (TleipecriaC), a town of Thessaly, S. of
the Peneus, on the river Pannisus and on the
road from Tricca to Pharsalus.
Pirithous (neipi'floos), son of Ixion or Zeus
by Dia, was king of the Lapithae in Thessaly,
and married to Hippodamia, by whom he be
came the father of Polypoetes (27. ii. 741, xiv.
317). When Pirithous was celebrating his mar
riage with Hippodamia, the intoxicated Centaur
Eurytion or Eurytus carried her off, and this
act occasioned the celebrated fight between
the Centaurs and Lapithae, in which the Cen
taurs were defeated. (B. i. 263 ; Od. xi. 630, xxi.
295; Ov. Met. xii. 210.) Pirithous once in
vaded Attica, but when Theseus came forth to
oppose him, he conceived a warm admiration
for the Athenian king, and from this time a
most intimate friendship sprang up between
the two heroes. Theseus was present at the
wedding of Pirithous, and assisted him in his
battle agamst the Centaurs. Hippodamia
afterwards died, and each of the two friends
resolved to wed a daughter of Zeus. With the
assistance of Pirithoiis, Theseus carried off
Helen from Sparta, and placed her at Aethra
under the care of Phaedra. Pirithous was still
more ambitious, and resolved to carry off
Persephone, the wife of the king of the lower
world. Theseus would not desert his friend in
the enterprise, and the two friends descended
to the lower world. Here they were seized by
Pluto and fastened to a rock, where they both
remained tiU Heracles delivered Theseus, who
had made the daring attempt only to please
his friend, but Pirithous remained for ever a
prisoner (amatorem trecentae Pirithoum co-
hibent catenae, Hor. Od. iii. 4, 80). Pirithous
was worshipped at Athens, along with Theseus,
as a hero. [Theseus.]
PIrus (IleTpos), or Pierus (Tliepos : Kame-
nitza), the chief river of Achaia, which falls
into the gulf of Patrae, near Olenus (Strab. pp.
342, 386).
Pirustae (neipoB<rTat), a people in IUyria,
•exempted from taxes by the Romans, because
they deserted Gentius and passed over to the
Romans (Strab. p. 314 ; Liv. xiv. 26).
Pisa (riiira : Tlio-drr)s), the capital of Pisatis
(IlicrSTis), the middle portion of the province
of Elis in PeloponneBus. [Elis.] In the most
ancient times Pisatis formed a union of eight
states, of which, in addition to Pisa, we find
mention of Salmone, Heraclea, Harpinna, Cy-
¦cesium and Dyspontium. (Strab. p. 856.) Pisa
itself was situated N. of the Alpheus, at a very
«hort distance E. of Olympia (Hdt. ii. 7 ; cf.
Pind. Ol. ii. S), and, in consequence of its
» proximity to the latter place, was frequently
identified by the poets with it. The history of
the Pisatae consists of their struggle with the
Eleans, with whom they contended for the
presidency of the Olympic games. [Elis.]
The Pisatae obtamed this honour in the 8th
Olympiad (b.c. 748) with the assistance of
Phidon, tyrant of Argos, and also a second time
in the 34th Olympiad (644) by means of their
own king Pantaleon. In the 52nd Olympiad
(572) the struggle between the two peoples was
brought to a close by the conquest and destruc
tion of Pisa by the Eleans. So complete was
the destruction of the city, that not a trace of it
was left in later times, and some persons, as we
learn from Strabo, even questioned whether it
had ever existed, supposing that by the name
of Pisa the kingdom of the Pisatae was alone
intended (Strab. l.c. ; cf. Paus. vi. 22, 2). Even
after the destruction of the city, the Pisatae

PISANDER
did not relinquish their claims, and in the
104th Olympiad (364), they had the presidency
of the Olympic games along with the Arca
dians, when the latter people were making war
with the Eleans.
Pisae, more rarely Pisa (Pisanus: Pisa), one
of the most ancient and important of the cities
of Etruria, was situated at the confluence of
the Arnus and Ausar (Serchio), about six miles
from the sea ; but the latter river altered its
course in the tweUth century, and now flows into
the sea by a separate channel. According to
some traditions, due perhaps to simUarity of
name, Pisae was founded by the companions
of Nestor, the inhabitants of Pisa in Elis, who
were driven upon the coast' of Italy on their
return from Troy; whence the Roman poets
give the Etruscan town the surname of Alphea.
(Strab. p. 222; Verg. Aen. x. 179; Claud. Bell.
Gild. 483.) Pliny (iii. 50) speaks of it as
founded by Pelops ; Dionysius caUs it a Pelas
gian city (i. 20) . It would seem that Pisa passed
into the hands of the Ligyae, and from them
into those of the Etruscans. It then became
one of the twelve cities of Etruria, and was
down to the time of Augustus the most north
ern city in the country. Pisa was an aUy of
Rome in B.C. 225 (Pol. ii. 27), and is mentioned
in the Ligurian wars as the head-quarterB of
the Roman legions (Liv. xxxiii. 43, xxxv. 22).
In b.c. 180 it was made a Latin colony, and
appears to have been colonised again in the
time of Augustus, since we find it caUed in
inscriptions Colonia Julia Pisana (Liv. xl. 43).
Its harbour, called Portus Pisanus, between
the mouth of the Arnus and the modern Leg
horn, was much used by the Romans ; and in
the time of Strabo the town of Pisa was stiU a
place of considerable importance on account of
the marble quarries in its neighbourhood and
the quantity of timber which it yielded for ship
building (Strab. p. 223). About three miles N.
of the town were mineral springs, called Aquae
Pisanae (Plin. ii. 227), which have been identi
fied with the modern Bagni di S. Giuliano,
between Pisa and Lucca.
Pisander (TleiaavSpos). 1. Son of Polyctor,
and one of the suitors of Penelope (Od. xvni.
298, xxii. 268 ; Ov. Her. i. 91).— 2. An Athenian,
of the demus of Acharnae, lived in the time of
the Peloponnesian war, and was attacked by
the comic poets for his rapacity and cowardice
(Aristoph. Pax, 339, Av. 1556, Athen. p. 415 ;
Ael. V.H. i. 27). In 412 he comes before Us as
the chief ostensible agent in effecting the revo
lution of the Four Hundred. In all the
measures of the new government, of which he
was a member, he took an active part ; and
when Theramenes and others withdrew from it,
he sided with the more violent aristocrats, and
was one of those who, on the counter-revolu
tion, took refuge with Agis at Decelea. (Thuc.
vi. 27, 60, viii. 49, 63, 89 ; Diod. xiii. 34.) His
property was confiscated, and it does not ap
pear that he ever returned to Athens. — 3. A
Spartan, brother-in-law of Agesilaus II., who
made him admiral of the fleet in 395. In the
following year he was defeated and slain in the
Bea-fight off Cnidus, against Conon and Phar
nabazus. (Xen. Hell. iii. 4, 29, iv. 3, 10.)— 4. A
poet of Camirus in Rhodes, flourished about
B.C. 648-645 (Strab. pp. 655, 688). He was the
author of a poem in two books on the exploits
of Heracles, called Heraclea ("UpdKXeia) (Paus.
ii. 37, viii. 22 ; Athen. p. 469 ; Schol. ad Ar.
Nub. 1034). The Alexandrian grammarians
thought so highly of the poem that they re-

PISATIS
ceived Pisander, as well as Anthnachus and
Panyasis, into the epic canon together with
Homer and Hesiod. Only a few Unes of it
have been preserved. In the Greek Anthology
we find an epigram attributed to Pisander of
Rhodes, perhaps the poet of Camirus. — 5. A
poet of Laranda, in Lycia or Lycaonia, was
the son of Nestor, and flourished in the reign
of Alexander Severus (a.d. 222-235). He wrote
a poem, called 'HpaiKal Beoyaplat, which prob
ably treated of the marriages of gods and
goddesses with mortals, and of the heroic pro
geny thus produced. (Zosim. v. 29 ; Macrob. v. 2.)
Pisatis. [Pisa.]
Pisanrum (Pisaurensis : Pesaro), an ancient
town of Umbria, near the mouth of the river
Pisaurus (Foglia), on the road to Ariminum
(Plin. in. 113). It was colonised by the Ro
mans in B.C. 186, and probably a second time
by Augustus, since it is caUed in inscriptions
Colonia Julia Felix (Liv. xxxix. 44).
Pisaurus. [Pisaueum.] p.
Pisidia (r) Tlio-iSticii : Tlio-iSiis, pi. Tlio-lSai,
also Tleio-iSai, Ilio-eiSai and TIioiSikoi, Pisida pi.
Pisidae, or Peisidae), an inland district of
Asia Minor, bounded by Lycia and Pamphylia
on the S. ; CiUcia on the SE. ; Lycaonia and
Isauria (the latter often reckoned a part of
Pisidia) on the E. and NE. ; Phrygia Parorios
on the N., where the boundary varied at dif
ferent times, and was never very definite ; and
Caria on the W. It was a mountainous region,
formed by that part of the main chain of Mt.
Taurus which sweeps round in a semicircle
parallel to the shore of the Pamphylian gulf ;
the strip of shore itself, at the foot of the moun
tains, constituting the district of Pamphylia.
The inhabitants of the mountains were a war
like aboriginal people, related apparently to the
Isaurians and CUicians. They maintained
their independence, under petty chieftains,
against aU the successive rulers of Asia Minor.
(Xen. An. i. 1, 11, ii. 1, 4 ; Strab. pp. 130, 569-
571, 670; Liv. xxxv. 13.) The Romans never
subdued the Pisidians in their mountain for
tresses, though they took some of the towns on
the outskirts of their country ; for example,
Antiochia, which was made a colony with the
Jus Italicum. In fact the N. part, in which
Antiochia stood, had originaUy belonged to
Phrygia, and was more accessible and more
civilised than the mountains which formed the
proper country of the Pisidians. Nominally,
the country was considered a part of Pam
phyUa, tUl the new subdivision of the empire
under Constantine, when Pisidia was made a
separate province. On the S. slope of the
Taurus, several rivers flowed through Pisidia
and PamphyUa, into the Pamphylian gulf, the
chief of which were the Cestrus and the Catar
rhactes ; and on the N. the mountain streams
form some large salt lakes : namely, Ascania
(Adjituz) S. of Antiochia, Caralis (Kerelu) SE.
of Ascania, and Trogitis (Sighla) further to the
SE., in Isauria. Special names were given to
certain districts, which are sometimes spoken
of as parts of Pisidia, sometimes as distinct
countries : namely, CabaUa, in the SW. along
the N. of Lycia; MUyas, the district NE. of
Lycia and NW. of PamphyUa, and Isauria, in
the E. of Pisidia, on the borders of Lycaonia.
PIsistratidae (Tleio-to-rpariSai), the sons of
Pisistratus. The name is used sometimes to
indicate only Hippias and Hipparchus, and
sometimes in a wider application, embracing
the grandchildren and near relations of Pisi
stratus (as by Herod, yiii. 52, referring to a

PISISTRATUS

71T

time when both Hippias and Hipparchus were
dead). Pisistratus (Tleio-lo-r paros), the youngest son
of Nestor and Anaxibia, was a friend of Tele
machus, and accompanied him on his journey
from Pylos to Menelaus at Sparta (Od. iii. 400).
Pisistratus (TleiaiorpaTos), an Athenian, son
of Hippocrates, was so named after Pisistratus,
the youngest son of Nestor, since the family of
Hippocrates was of Pylian origin, and traced
their descent to Neleus, the father of Nestor.
The mother of Pisistratus was cousin to the
mother of Solon. Pisistratus grew up equally
distinguished for personal beauty and for
mental endowments. The relationship between
him and Solon naturally drew them together,
and a close friendship sprang up between them.
It is commonly said, on the authority of Plu
tarch (Sol. 8), that Pisistratus not only assisted
Solon by his eloquence in persuading the
Athenians to renew their struggle with the
Megarians for the possession of Salamis, but
afterwards fought with bravery in the expe
dition which Solon led against the island. It
is, however, difficult to suppose that the dis
tinguished services of Pisistratus against the
Megarians can have been in Solon's expedition
of 600 B.C., i.e. seventy-three years before the
death of Pisistratus, especially as Herodotus
seems to speak of him as commanding in the
capture of Nisaea, which would imply that
he was not then in his early youth. It is sug
gested, with probability, that the exploits of
PisistratuB agamst the Megarians (recorded
by Herodotus and Aristotle) were not in the
campaign of 600, but in one several years
later, possibly about 565, in which the Athe
nians a second time took Salamis and Nisaea,
which had been recaptured by the Megarians
(Plut. Sol. 12). In this war it is not unlikely
that Pisistratus was mparriybs, though the
sentence in Arist. 'A8. IloA. 17 is ambiguous
(cf. Hdt. i. 59 ; Arist. 'AB. TloX. 14). When
Solon, after the establishment of his con
stitution, retired for a time from Athens, the
old rivalry between the parties of the Plain,
the Highlands and the Coast broke out into
open feud. The party of the Plain, comprising
chiefly the landed proprietors, was headed by
Lycurgus and MUtiades, Bon of Cypaelus ; that
of the Coast, consisting of the wealthier classes
not belonging to the nobles, by Megacles, the
son of Alcmaeon ; the party of the Highlands,
which aimed at more of political freedom and
equality than either of the two others, was the
one at the head of which Pisistratus placed
himself, because they seemed the most likely
to be useful in the furtherance of his ambitious
designs. His liberality, as well as his military
and oratorical abUities, gained him the support
of a large body of citizens. Solon, on his return,
quickly saw through the designs of Pisistratus,
who listened with respect to his advice, though
he prosecuted his schemes none the less dili
gently. When Pisistratus found his plans
sufficiently ripe for execution, he one day made
his appearance in the agora with his mules and
his own person exhibiting recent wounds, pre
tending that he had been nearly assassinated
by his enemies as he was riding into the
country. An assembly of the people was forth
with called, in which one of his partisans pro
posed that a body-guard of fifty citizens, armed
with clubs, should be granted to him. (Hdt. i.
59 ; Plut. Sol. 30 ; Arist. 'AB. TloX. 14.) It was
in vain that Solon opposed this ; the guard was
given him. Through the neglect or connivance

718

PISISTRATUS

of the people Pisistratus took this opportunity
of raising a much larger force, with which he
seized the citadel, B.C. 560, thus becoming what
the Greeks called Tyrant of Athens. Having
secured to himself the substance of power, he
made no further change in the constitution, oZ
in the laws, and governed ably and moderately.
His first usurpation lasted but a short time
(probably five years, as Aristotle reckons it).
Before his power was firmly rooted, the fac
tions headed by Megacles and Lycurgus com
bined, and Pisistratus was compelled to evacuate
Athens. (Hdt. i. 60 ; Arist. I. c.) He remained
in banishment B.C. 555-551 (if we take the
' twelfth year ' of Arist. 'AB. TloX. to mean the
twelfth year after his first establishment).
Meantime the factions of Megacles and Lycur
gus revived their old feuds, and Megacles made
overtures to Pisistratus, offering to reinstate
him in the tyranny if he would connect himself
with him by receiving his daughter in marriage.
The proposal was accepted by Pisistratus, and
the foUowing stratagem was devised for ac
complishing his restoration, according to the
account of Herodotus. A damsel named Phya,
of remarkable stature and beauty, was dressed
up as Athene in a full suit of armour, and
placed in a chariot, with Pisistratus by her
side. The chariot was then driven towards the
city, heralds being sent on before to announce
that Athene in" person was bringing back
Pisistratus to her Acropolis. The report spread
rapidly, and those in the city, believing that
the woman was really their tutelary goddess,
worshipped her, and admitted Pisistratus. (Hdt.
i. 59, 60 ; Plut. Sol. 29, 30 ; Arist 'AB. TloX.
14.) Pisistratus nominally performed his part
of the contract with Megacles ; but in conse
quence of the insulting manner in which he
treated his wife, Megacles again made common
cause with Lycurgus, and Pisistratus was a
second time compelled to evacuate Athens, B.C.
545, after six years of power (Hdt. i. 61 ; Arist.
'Afl. TloX. 15). He retired to Thrace, where he
dwelt near Pangaeus, and employed the next
ten years in making preparations to regain his
power. At the end of that time he transferred
his head-quarters to Eretria in Euboea, where
he gathered forces of Eretrians and Thebans, and
of troops supplied by Lygdamis of Naxos, who
aided him in peraon. With these he invaded
Attica, and defeated his opponents near the
temple of Athene at PaUene, and then entered
Athens without opposition. Lygdamis was re
warded by being restored as tyrant of Naxos,
which island Pisistratus conquered. [Lygda
mis.] Having now become tyrant of Athens for
..the third time, Pisistratus adopted measures to
secure the undisturbed possession of his su
premacy. Aristotle mentions a story that he
disarmed the democratic party by a stratagem :
having engaged their attention by a public
speech, he induced them to follow him to a spot
more convenient for hearing, and in the mean
time their arms, which had been piled, were
removed by the guards of Pisistratus ('A0. IloA..
15). He took a body of foreign mercenaries
into his pay, and seized as hostages the children
of several of the principal citizens, placing them
in the custody of Lygdamis, in Naxos. He
maintained at the same time the form of Solon's
institutions, only taking care, as his sons did
after him, that the highest offices should always
be held by some member of the family. He
not only exacted obedience to the laws from his
subjects and friends, but himself set the
example of submitting to them. On one occa

sion he even appeared before the Areopagus to
answer a charge of murder, which, however, was
not prosecuted. (Arist. Pol. v. 12 = p. 1315 ;
Plut. Sol. 31.) There is abundant testimony
to the just and moderate character of his rule.
He encouraged commerce and agriculture with
occasional aids both by remission of taxes and
by presents of seed. For such expenses and
for his public worka funds were provided by a
tax on produce of 10 per cent, (according to
Aristotle, 'AB. TloX. 16 : Thucydides vi. 54, speaka
of a 5 per cent, tax; but there he seems to
refer to the rule of Hippias and Hipparchus).
He took pains himself to terminate disputes
among the agriculturists, and he maintained
the state in peace. (Hdt. i. 59 ; Thuc. vi. 54 ;
Arist. 'Afl. IloA. 16.) In spite, however, of the
prosperity which Athens enjoyed, there was
doubtless an underlying impatience of des
potism which broke out against the later and
harsher rule of Hippias. Athens was indebted
to Pisistratus for many stately and useful build
ings. Among these may be mentioned a temple
to the Pythian Apollo, and a magnificent temple
to the Olympian Zeus, which remained un
finished for several centuries, and was at
length completed by the emperor Hadrian.
[See p. 143, a.] Pisistratus also encouraged
literature in various ways. It was apparently
under his auspices that Thespis introduced at
Athens his rude form of tragedy (B.C. 535), and
that dramatic contests were made a regular
part of the Attic Dionysia. [For the accounts
of his work in connexion with the Homeric
poems, see Homeeus.] Pisistratus is also said
to have been the first person in Greece who
collected a library, to which he generously
allowed the public access. By his first wife
Pisistratus had two sons, Hippias and Hippar
chus. By his second wife, Timonassa, he had
also two sons, Iophon and Thessalus who are
rarely mentioned. He had also an illegitimate
son, Hegesistratus, whom he made tyrant of
Sigeum, after taking that town from the My
tilenaeans. Pisistratus died at an advanced
age in 527, and was succeeded in the tyranny
by his eldest son Hippias : but Hippias and his
brother Hipparchus appear to have adminis
tered the affairs of the state with so little out
ward distinction, that they are frequently
spoken of as though they had been joint
tyrants. They continued the government on
the same principles as their father. Thucydides
(vi. 54) speaks in terms of high commendation
of the virtue and intelligence with which their
rule was exercised till the death of Hipparchus.
Hipparchus inherited his father's literary
tastes. Several distinguished poets lived at
Athens under the patronage of Hipparchus, as,
for example, Simonides of Ceos, Anacreon of
Teos, Lasus of Hermione, and Onomacritus.
After the murder of Hipparchus in 514, an
account of which is given under Harmodius, a
great change ensued in the character of the
government. Under the influence of revengeful
feelings and fears for his own safety Hippias
now became a morose and suspicious tyrant.
(Thuc. vi. 57-60; Arist. 'AB. TloX. 19.) He put
to death great numbers of the citizens, and
raised money by extraordinary imposts. His
old enemies the Alcmaeonidae, to whom Me
gacles belonged, availed themselves of the
growing discontent of the citizens, and, after
one or two unsuccessful attempts, they at length
succeeded, supported by a large force under
Cleomenes, in expelling the Pisistratidae from
Attica. Hippias and his connexions retired to

PISO

719

Sigeum, 510 (Hdt. v. 65). The family of the
"tyrants was condemned to perpetual banish
ment, a sentence which was maintained even in
after-times, when decrees of amnesty were
passed. Hippias afterwards repaired to the
court of Darius, and looked forward to a
restoration to his country by the aid of the
Persians. He accompanied the expedition sent
under Datis and Artaphernes, and pointed out
to the Persians the plain of Marathon as the
most suitable place for their landing (Hdt. vi.
102, 107). He was now (490) of great age. Ac
cording to some accounts he fell in the battle
of Marathon; according to others he died at
Lemnos on his return. (Suid. s.v. 'lira-fas ;
Cic. ad Att. ix. 10; Just. ii. 9.) Hippias was
the only one of the legitimate sons of Pisis
tratus who had chUdren ; but none of them
attained distinction.
Piso, Calpurnius, the name of a distin
guished plebeian family. The name of Piso,
like many other Roman cognomens, is con
nected with agriculture, the noblest and most
honourable pursuit of the ancient Romans : it
comes from the verb pisere or pinsere, and re
fers to the pounding or grinding of corn (Plin.
xviii. 10). — 1. Was taken prisoner at the battle
of Cannae, B.C. 216, and sent by Hannibal to
Rome to negotiate the exchange of prisoners
(Liv. xxii. 61) ; was praetor urbanus 211, and
afterwards commanded as propraetor in Etru
ria, 210 (Liv. xxvn. 21). Piso in his praetor
ship proposed to the senate that the Ludi
ApoUinares, which had been exhibited for the
first time in the preceding year (212), should be
repeated and should be celebrated in future
annually. The senate passed a decree to this
effect. The estabUshment of these games by
their ancestor was commemorated on coins by
the Pisones in later times (Liv. xxvi. 23). — 2. C,
son of No. 1, was praetor 186, and received
Further Spain as his province. He returned to
Rome in 184, and obtained a triumph for a vic
tory he had gained over the Lusitaniand Celti
beri. He was consul in 180, and died during
his consulship, not without suspicion of poison.
(Liv. xxxix. 6, 30, xl. 37.)
Pisones with the agnomen Caesoninus.
3. L., received the agnomen Caesoninua, be
cause he originaUy belonged to the Caesonia
gens. He was praetor in 154, and obtained
the province of Further Spain, but was defeated
by the Lusitani. He was consul in 148, and
was sent to conduct the war against Carthage,
in which he showed Uttle ability; he was
succeeded in the command in the following
year by Scipio. (App. Hisp. 56, Pun. 110.) —
4. L., son of No. 3, consul 112 with M. Livius
Drusus. In 107 he served as legatus to the
consul, L. Cassius Longinus, who was sent
into Gaul to oppose the Cimbri and their allies,
and he feU together with the consul in the
battle in which the Roman army was utterly
defeated by the Tigurini in the territory of the
Allobroges (Oros. v. 15). This Piso was the
grandfather of Caesar's father-in-law, a circum
stance to which Caesar himself aUudes in
recording his own victory over the Tigurini at
a later time (Caes. B.G. i. 7, 12). — 5. I., son of
No. 4, never rose to any of the offices of state, and
is only known from the account given of him by
Cicero in his violent invective against his son.
He married the daughter of Calventius, a na
tive of Cisalpine Gaul, who came from Placentia
and settled at Rome ; and hence Cicero calls
his son in contempt a semi-Placentian (Pis,

23, 53). — 6. L , son of No. 5, appears in Cicero
(who perhaps somewhat exaggerates his faults)
as an unprincipled debauchee and a cruel and
corrupt magistrate. He iB first mentioned in
59, when he was brought to trial by P. Clodius
for plundering a province of which he had the
administration after his praetorship, and he
was only acquitted by throwing himself at the
feet of the judges (Val. Max. viii. 1, 6). In the
same year Caesar married his daughter Cal
purnia, and through his influence Piso ob
tained the consulship for 58, having for his
coUeague A. Gabinius, who was indebted for
the honour to Pompey. Both consuls sup
ported Clodius in his measures against . Cicero,
which resulted in the banishment of the orator.
The conduct of Piso in support of Clodius
produced that extreme resentment in the mind
of Cicero which he displayed against him on
many subsequent occasions. At the expiration
of his consulship Piso went to his province of
Macedonia, where he remained during two
years (57 and 56), plundering the province in
the most shameless manner. In the latter of
these years the senate resolved that a successor
should be appointed ; and in the debate in the
senate which led to his recall, Cicero attacked
him in the most unmeasured terms in an ora
tion which has come down to us (De Provinciis
Consularibus). Piso on his return (55) com
plained in the senate of the attack of Cicero,
and justified the administration of his pro
vince, whereupon Cicero reiterated his charges
in a speech which is likewise extant (In Piso-
nem), Cicero, however, did not venture to
bring to trial the father-in-law of Caesar. In
50 Piso was censor with Ap. Claudius Pulcher.
On the breaking out of the Civil war (49) Piso
accompanied Pompey in his flight from the
city ; and although he did not go with him
across the sea, he still kept aloof from Caesar.
He subsequently returned to Rome, and re
mained neutral during the remainder of the
Civil war. After Caesar's death (44) Piso at
first opposed Antony, but is afterwards men
tioned as one of his partisans. (Caes. B.C. i. 3 ;
Dio Cass. xU. 16 ; App. B.C. ii. 135, iii. 54.)—
7. L., son of No. 6, was consul 15, and after
wards obtamed the province of Pamphylia;
from thence he was recalled by Augustus in 11,
in order to make war upon the Thracians, who
had attacked the province of Macedonia. He
was appointed by Tiberius praefectus urbi, and
was a companion of his revels. While retain
ing the favour of the emperor without conde
scending to servility, he at the same time
earned the good-will of his fellow-citizens by
the integrity and justice with which he
governed the city. He died in A.D. 82, at the
age of eighty, and was honoured, by a decree
of the senate, with a public funeral. (Tac.
Ann. vi. 16, 17; Dio Cass. Uv. 21, 34, lviii. 19;
Veil. Pat. ii. 98 ; Suet. Tib. 42 ; Plin. xiv. 145.)
It was to this Piso and his two sons that
Horace addressed his epistle on the Art of
Poetry. Pisones with the agnomen Frugi.
8. L., received from his integrity and con
scientiousness the surname of Frugi, which is
perhaps nearly equivalent to our 'man of
worth.' He was tribune of the plebs, 149, in
which year he proposed the first law for the
punishment of extortion in the provinces (Cic.
Brut. 27, 106). He was consul in 133, and
carried on war against the slaves in Sicily
(Val. Max. ii. 7, 9). He was a staunch sup-

720

PISO

porter of the aristocratical party, and offered a
strong opposition to the measures of C. Grac
chus. Piso was censor, but it is uncertain in
what year (Plin. xni. 37). He wrote Annals,
which contained the history of Rome from the
earliest period to the age in which Piso himself
Uved (Cic. I.e.; GeU. xi. 14).— 9. L., son of No.
8, served with distinction under his father in
Sicily in 133, and died in Spain about 111,
whither he had gone as propraetor (Cic. Verr.
- iv. 25). — 10. L., son of No. 9, was a colleague
of Verres in the praetorship, 74, when he
thwarted many of the unrighteous schemes of
the latter (Cic. Verr. i. 46).— 11. C, son of No.
10, married TuUia, the daughter of Cicero, in
63, but was betrothed to her as early as 67.
He was quaestor in 58, when he used every
exertion to obtain the recaU of his father-in-
law from banishment ; but he died in 57 before
Cicero's return to Rome. He is frequently
mentioned by Cicero in terms of gratitude on
account of the zeal which he had manifested
in his behalf during hie banishment (Cic. ad
AU. i. 3, ii. 24, ad Fam. xiv. 1).
Pisones without an agnomen.
12. C, consul 67, belonged to the high aristo
cratical party, and in his consulship opposed
with the utmost vehemence the law of the
tribune Gabinius for giving Pompey the com
mand of the war against the pirates. In 66
and 65, PiBO administered the province of Nar-
bonese Gaul as proconsul, and while there
suppressed an insurrection of the Allobroges.
In' 63 he was accused of plundering the pro
vince, and was defended by Cicero. The latter
charge was brought against Piso at the insti
gation of Caesar, and Piso, in revenge, im
plored Cicero, but without success, to accuse
Caesar as one of the conspirators of Catiline.
(Plut. Pomp. 25, 27; Dio Cass, xxxvi. 20;
Sail. Cat. 49.)— 13. M., usually called M. Pu-
pius Piso, because he was adopted by M. Pu-
pius, when the latter was an old man. He
retained, however, his family-name Piso, just
as Scipio, after his adoption by Metellus, was
called Metellus Scipio. [Metellus, No. 15.]
On the death of L. Cinna, in 84, Piso married
his wife, Annia. In 83 he was appointed quaes
tor to the consul L. Scipio; but he quickly
deserted this party, and went over to SuUa,
who compeUed him to divorce his wife on ac
count of her previous connexion with Cinna
(Veil. Pat. ii. 41). After his praetorship, the
year of which is uncertain, he received the
province of Spain with the title of proconsul,
and on his return to Rome in 69, enjoyed the
honour of a triumph. He served in the Mithri-
* datic war as a legatus of Pompey. (Dio Cass.
xxxvii. 44; Cie. ad Att. i. 12-18.) He was
elected consul for 61 through the influence of
Pompey. In his consulship Piso gave great
offence to Cicero, by not asking the orator first
m the senate for his opinion, and by taking P.
Clodius under his protection after his violation
of the mysteries of the Bona Dea. Cicero
revenged himself on Piso, by preventing him
from obtaining the province of Syria, which
had been promised him. Piso, in his younger
days, had so high a reputation as an orator
that Cicero was taken to him by his father, in
order to receive instruction from him. He
belonged to the Peripatetic school in philo
sophy, in which he received instructions from
Staseas. (Cic. N.D. i. 7.)— 14. Cn., a young
noble who had dissipated his fortune by his
extravagance and profligacy, and therefore

joined Catiline in what is usually called his
first conspiracy (66). [For details see p. 207, b.J
The senate, anxious to get rid of Piso) sent him
into Nearer Spain as quaestor, but with the
rank and title of propraetor. Here he was
murdered by his escort; and some supposed
that this was done at the instigation of Pompey.
(Dio Cass, xxxvi. 27; SaU. Cat. 18, 19.1—15.
Cn., fought against Caesar in Africa (46), and
after the death of the dictator joined Brutus
and Cassius. He was subsequently pardoned,
and returned to Rome; but he disdained to
ask Augustus for any of the honours of the
state, and was, without solicitation, raised to
the consulship in 23. (Tac. Ann. u. 43.) — 16.
Cn., son of No. 15, inherited all the pride and
haughtiness of his father. He was consul B.C.
7, and was sent by Augustus as legate into
Spain, where he made himself hated by his
cruelty and avarice. Tiberius after his acces
sion was chiefly jealous of Germanicus, his
brother's son ; and accordingly, when the east
ern provinces were assigned to Germanicus in
A.D. 18, Tiberius conferred upon Piso the com
mand of Syria, in order that the latter might
do every thing in his power to thwart and op
pose Germanicus. Plancina, the wife of Piso,
was also urged on by Livia, the mother of the
emperor, to vie with and annoy Agrippina.
Germanicus and Agrippina were thus exposed
to every species of insult and opposition from
Piso and Plancina, and when Germanicus feU
iU in the autumn of 19, he beUeved that he had
been poisoned by them. Piso on his return to
Rome (20) was accused of murdering Germani
cus : the matter was investigated by the senate ;
but before the investigation came to an end,
Piso was found one morning in his room with
his throat cut, and his sword lying by his side.
It was generally supposed that, despairing of
the emperor's protection, he had put an end to
his own life ; but others beUeved that Tiberius
dreaded his revealing his secrets, and accord
ingly caused him to be put to death. The
powerful influence of Livia secured the acquit
tal of Plancina. (Tac. Ann. ii. 43, 55, 57, 69, 74,
80, iii. 10-18 ; Dio Cass. lvii. 18 ; Suet. Tib. 15, 52,
Gal. 2.)— 17. C, the leader of the well-known
conspiracy against Nero in a.d. 65. Piso him
self did not form the plot ; but as soon as he
had joined it, his great popularity gained him
many partisans. He possessed most of the
qualities which the Romans prized, high birth,
an eloquent address, liberality and affability ;
and he also displayed a sufficient love of mag
nificence and luxury to suit the taate of the
day, which would not have tolerated austerity
of manner or character. The conspiracy was
discovered by MUichus, a freedman of Flavius
Scevinus, one of the conspirators. Piso there
upon opened his veins, and thus died. (Tac.
Ann. xiv. 65, xv. 48-59; Dio Cass. lxii. 24;
Suet. Ner. 36; Schol. ad Juv. v. 109.) It is
probable that the poem De Laude Pisonis refers
to this Piso [see No. 19]. — 18. L., surnamed
Licinianus, was the son of M. Licinius Crassus
Frugi, and was adopted by one of the Pisones.
On the accession of Galba to the throne, he
adopted as his son and successor Piso Licini
anus ; but the latter only enjoyed the distinc-
tinction four days, for Otho, who had hoped to
receive this honour, induced the praetorians to
rise against the emperor. Piso fled for refuge
into the temple of Vesta, but was dragged out
by the soldiers, and despatched at the threshold
of the temple, a.d. 69. (Tac. Hist. i. 14, 34, 48 ;
Dio Cass. Ixiv. 5 ; Suet. Galb. 17.)— 19. T. Cal-

PISTOR
purnius Sioulus, a poet in Nero's reign, who
wrote seven Eclogues in imitation of Virgil and
Theocritus. He praises the prosperous open
ing of Nero's reign, whom he calls ' deus ' as
well as 'juvenis' (i. 44, iv. 85). Editions by
Keene, Lond. 1887, and in Pod. Lat. Min. It
is probably right to assign to him also the
poem De Laude Pisonis, which used to be as
cribed to Saleius Bassus. It is interesting for
its description of the game Latrunculi [Diet.
of Ant. s.v.]. Editions by C. F.^Weber, 1859,
and in Pod. Lat. Min.
Pistor — that is, the ' pounder '—a surname of
Jupiter at Rome, which probably was applied
to him as the destroyer by thunderbolts ; but a
later tradition arose from a false connexion
with the more famiUar meaning ' baker ' ; and
the common story was that, when the Gauls
were besieging Rome, the god suggested to the
besieged the idea of throwing loaves of bread
among the enemies, to make them beUeve that
the Romans had plenty of provisions, and thus
caused them to give up the siege (Ov. Fast. vi.
843 ; Lactont. i. 20, S3).
Pistoria or Pistorium (Pistoriensis : Pistoia),
a small place in Etruria, on the road from Luca
to Florentia, rendered memorable by the defeat
of Catiline in its neighbourhood (Plin. iii. 52 ;
SaU. Cat. 57).
Pitana. [Sparta.]
Pitane (Jlirdvv : Tchanderluk), a seaport
town of AeoUs, on the coast of the Elaitic gulf,
at the mouth of the Evenus or, accordmg to
some, of the Caicus ; almost destroyed by an
earthquake under Titus (Hdt. i. 149 ; Strab.
pp. 581, 607; Ov. Met. vii. 357). It was the
birthplace of the Academic phUosopher Arcesi
laus. Pithecfisa. [Aenaeia.]
PItho (TleiBd), caUed Suada or Suadela by
the Romans, the personification of Persuasion.
She was worshipped as a divinity at Sicyon,
where she was honoured with a temple in the
agora, because she had persuaded Apollo and
Artemis to return (Hdt. vin. Ill ; Paus. U. 7, 7).
Pitho also occurs as a surname of Aphrodite,
whose worship was said to have been introduced
at Athens by Theseus, when he united the
country communities into towns. At Athens
the statues of Pitho and Aphrodite Pandemos
stood close together, and at Megara the statue
of Pitho stood in the temple of Aphrodite ; so
that the two divinities must be conceived as
closely connected. Pitho, in fact, was per
sonified as the intercessor who made prayers to
a deity effectual (Paus. ii. 22, 3).
Pithon (TliBav, also UeiBav and UiBav). 1.
Son of Agenor, a Macedonian officer of Alex
ander the Great. He received from Alexander
the government of part of the Indian provinces,
in which he was confirmed after the king's
death. In B.C. 316, he received from Antigonus
the satrapy of Babylon. He afterwardB fought
with Demetrius against Ptolemy, and was slain
at the battle of Gaza, 312. (Arrian, vi. 6 ; Curt.
ix. 8 ; Diod. xix. 56, 80, 85.) — 2. Son of Crateuas
or Crateas, a Macedonian officer of Alexander
(Just. xiu. 4), who is frequently confounded
with the preceding (Arrian, vi. 28, 4). After
Alexander's death he received from Perdiccas
the satrapy of Media. He accompanied Per
diccas on his expedition to Egypt (321), but he
took part in the mutiny against Perdiccas
which terminated in the death of the latter
(Diod. xviii. 36). Pithon rendered important
service to Antigonus in his war against Eu
menes; but after the death of Eumenes, he

PITYUS

721

begp.n to form schemes for his own aggrandise
ment, and was put to death by Antigonus, 816
(Diod. xix. 18).
Pitinum (Pitinas, -atis). 1. A municipium
in the interior of Umbria on the river Pisaurus,
whence its inhabitants are called in inscriptions
Pitinates Pisaurenses. — 2. (Pettino), a town
on the borders of the Sabini and Vestini, on
the road from Amiternum to Prifernum.
Pittacus (TliTrcucbs), one of those early culti
vators of letters who were designated as ' the
Seven Wise Men of Greece,' was a native of
Mytilene in Lesbos, and was born about B.C.
652. He was highly celebrated as a warrior, a
statesman, a philosopher, and a poet. He is
first mentioned, in public life, as an opponent
of the tyrants of Mytilene. [Alcaeus.] in
conjunction with the brothers of Alcaeus, he
overthrew and killed the tyrant Melanchrus,
B.C. 612. In 606 he commanded the Mytile
naeans in their war with the Athenians for the
possession of Sigeum, on the coast of the
Troad, and signalised himself by kiUing in
single combat Phrynon, the commander of the
Athenians. This feat Pittacus performed by
entangling his adversary in a net, and then
despatching him with a trident and a dagger,
exactly after the fashion in which the gladiators
called retiarii long afterwards fought at Rome
(Strab. p. 600). This war was terminated by
the mediation of Periander, who assigned the
disputed territory to the Athenians ; but the
internal troubles of Mytilene still continued.
The supreme power was fiercely disputed
between a succession of tyrants and the aristo
cratic party headed by Alcaeus and his brother
Antimenidas, and the latter were driven into
exile. [Alcaeus.] As the exiles tried to effect
their return by force of arms, the popular
p*arty chose Pittacus as their ruler, with abso
lute power, under the title of Aesymnetes
(Plut. Sol. 14). He held this office for ten years
(589-579), and then voluntarily resigned it,
having by his administration restored order to
the state and prepared it for the safe enjoy
ment of a republican form of government. He
lived in great honour at Mytilene for ten years
after the resignation of his government, and
died in 569, at an advanced age. Of the pro
verbial maxims of practical wisdom which
were current under the names of the seven
wise men of Greece, two were ascribed to
Pittacus: namely, XaXeirbv itrBXbv eppevai and
Kaipbv yvaBi. (Ar. Pol. ii. 9, 9; Plat. Prot. p.
443 ; Paus. x. 24, 1.)
Pittheus (TlirBeis), king of Troezen, was
son of Pelops and Dia, father of Aethra, and
grandfather and instructor of Theseus. When
Theseus married Phaedra, Pittheus took Hippo
lytus into his house. His tomb and the chair
on which he had sat in judgment were shown
at Troezene down to a late time. He is said
to have taught the art of speaking, and even to
have written a book upon it. Aethra, as his
daughter, is called Pittheis. (Paus. ii. 30, 8 ;
Strab. p. 374; Ov. Her. x. 31.)
Pityia (Tlirieia: prob. Shamelik), a town
mentioned by Homer, in the N. of Mysia,
between Parium and Priapus, evidently named
from the pine forests in its neighbourhood (II.
ii. 289 ; Strab. p. 588).
Pityonesus (Tlirvbvncros : Anghistri), an
island off the coast of Argolis (Plin. iv. 57).
Pityus (Tlirvovs: Pitzunda), a Greek city,
in Sarmatia Asiatica, on the NE. coast of the
Euxine, NW. of Dioscurias. In the time of
Strabo, it was a considerable city and port. It
3A

722 PITYUSA
was afterwards destroyed by the neighbouring
tribe of the Heniochi, but it was restored, and
long served as an important frontier fortress
of the Roman empire. (Strab. p. 496 ; Arrian,
Peripl. p. 18 ; PUn. vi. 16 ; Zosim. i. 32.) __
Pityusa, Pityussa (Tlirvova-a, Tlirvovocra,
contracted from irirvbeooa, fern, of irtrvbeis)]
i.e. abounding in pine-trees. 1. (Petsa), a small
island in the Argolic gulf (Paus. ii. 84, 8 ; Plin.
;T_ 55). — 2. The name of two islands off the S.
coast of Spain, W. of the Baleares. The larger
of them was called Ebusus (Iviza), the smaller
Ophiussa (Formentera) : the latter was unin
habited. (Diod. v. 17 ; Strab. p. 167 ; Liv. xxviii.
3V; PUn. iii. 76.)
• Pixodarus (Tli^dSapos), prince or kmg of
Caria, was the youngest of the three sons of
Hecatomnus, all of whom successively held
the sovereignty of Caria. Pixodarus obtamed
possession of the throne by the expulsion of
his sister Ada, the widow and successor of her
brother Idbieus, and held it for five years, B.C.
340-385. He was succeeded by his son-in-law
Orontobates (Strab. pp. 656, 657).
Placentia (Placentinus : Piacenza), a Roman
colony in Cisalpine Gaul, founded at the same
time as Cremona, B.C. 219 (Pol. iii. 40; Liv. Ep.
20 ; Veil. Pat. i. 14). It was situated in the
territory of the Anamares, on the right bank of
the Po, not far from the mouth of the Trebia,
and on the road from Mediolanum to Parma.
It was besieged in vain by Hasdrubal, but a
few years afterwards was taken and destroyed
by the Gauls (Liv. xxvii. 39, xxxi. 10). It was,
however, soon rebuilt by the Romans, and be
came an important place. It seems to have
received a fresh colony under Augustus, and
continued to be a flourishing town down to the
time of the Goths. Its prosperity was partly
due to its position close to the river Po, on
which it had a port (Liv. xxi. 57 ; Tac. Hist. ii.
19 ; Plin. iii. 115 Strab. p. 215).
Plaola (TlXaKiri, Ion. : TlXaKi-nvbs), an ancient
town, in Mysia, E. of Cyzicus, at the foot of Mt.
Olympus, seems to have been early destroyed
(Hdt. i. 51).
Placidia, Galla. [Galla.]
Placitus, Sex., the author of a short Latin
work, entitled De Medicina (or Medicamentis)
ex Animalibus, consisting of thirty-four chap
ters, each of which treats of some animal whose
body was supposed to possess certain medical
properties. As might be expected, it contains
numerous absurdities, and is of little or no
value or interest. The date of the author is
uncertain, but he is supposed to have lived in
the fourth century after Christ. The work is
printed by Stephanus in the Medicae Artis
Principes, Paris, fol. 1567, and elsewhere.
Placus (TlXaKos), a mountain of Mysia, above
the city of Thebe (11. vi. 397, xxii. 479). The
name had disappeared in Strabo's time (Strab.
p. 614).
Planar ia (prob. Canaria, Canary), one of
the islands in the Atlantic called Foetunatae.
Planasia (Pianosa), an island between Cor
sica and the coast of Etruria, to which Augustus
banished his grandson Agrippa Postumus (Tac.
Ann. i. 3, 6, ii. 39).
Planciades, Fulgentius. [Fulgentius.]
Plancina, Munatia, the wife of Cn. Piso,
who was appointed governor of Syria in a.d. 18.
While her husband used every effort to thwart
Germanicus, she exerted herself equally to
annoy and insult Agrippina. She was en
couraged in this conduct by Livia, the mother
of the emperor, who saved her from condemna-

PLANCUS
tion by the senate when she was accused along
with her husband in 20. [Piso, No. 16.] She
was brought to trial again in S3, a few years
after the death of Livia, and, having no longer
any hope of escape, she put an end to her own
life. (Tac. Ann. ii. 43, 75, in. 9, 17, vi. 32 ; Dio
Cass, lviii. 22.) . .
PlanciUB, Cn., first served in Africa under
the propraetor A. Torquatus, subsequently, in
B c 60 under the proconsul Q. Metellus in
Crete, and next, in 62, as military tribune in the
army of C. Antonius in Macedoma. In 58 he
was quaestor in Macedonia under the propraetor
L Appuleius, and here he showed great kind
ness to Cicero when the latter came to this
province during his banishment. He was tri
bune of the plebs in 56; and was elected curule
aedile with A. Plotius in 54. But before Plan
cius and Plotius entered upon their office they
were accused by Juventius Laterensis and L.
Cassius Longinus, of the crime of sodalitiwm,
or the bribery of the tribes by means of illegal
associations and agencies [Diet, of Ant. art.
Ambitus], in accordance with the Lex Licmia,
which had been proposed by the consul Licinius
Crassus in the preceding year. Cicero defended
Plancius i*i an oration still extant, and obtained
his acquittal. Plancius espoused the Pompeian
party in the civil wars, and after Caesar had
gained the supremacy lived in exile in Corcyra.
(Cic. pro Plancio ; ad Fam. iv. 14, xiv. 1, 3.)
Plancus, Munatius, the name of a dis
tinguished plebeian family. The surname Plan
cus signified a person having flat splay feet
without any bend in them. 1. L., was a friend
o Julius Caesar, and served under him both in
the Gallic and the Civil wars (Caes. B. G. v. 24).
Caesar shortly before his death nominated him
to the government of Transalpine Gaul for B.C.
44 with the exception of the Narbonese and
Belgic portions of the province, and also to the
consulship for 42, with D. Brutus as his col
league. After Caesar's death Plancus hastened
into Gaul, and took possession of his province.
Here he prepared at first to support the senate
against Antony, but when Lepidus joined An
tony, and their united forces threatened to
overwhelm Plancus, the latter, in spite of
Cicero's dissuasion, was persuaded by Asinius
Pollio to follow his example, and to unite with
Antony and Lepidus. Plancus during his
government of Gaul founded the colonies of
Lugdunum and Raurica. (Cic. ad Fam. x. 1-24 ;
App. B. C. iii. 46, 74, 81, 97; Pint. Ant. 18.)
He was consul in 42 accordmg to the arrange
ment made by Caesar, and he subsequently
foUowed Antony to Asia, where he remained
for some years, and governed in succession the
provinces of Asia and Syria (App. B. C. iv. 37 ;
Veil. Pat ii. 67). He deserted Antony in 32,
shortly before the breaking out of the civil war
between the latter and Octavian (Plut. A/nt.
56). He was favourably received by Octavian,
and continued to reside at Rome during the
remainder of his life. It was on his proposal
that Octavian received the title of Augustus in
27 ; and the emperor conferred upon him the
censorship in 22 with Paulus Aemilius Lepidus.
Both the public and private life of Plancus was
stained by numerous vices. In his political
action he was unprincipled as weU as undecided
(VeU. Pat. ii. 88). One of Horace's odes (Od.
i. 7) is addressed to him. — 2. T., surnamed
Bursa, brother of the former, was tribune of
the plebs B.C. 52, when he supported the views
of Pompey, who was anxious to obtain the
dictatorship. With this object he did every-

PLANUDES
-thing in his power to increase the confusion
which foUowed upon the death of Clodius. At
the close of the year, as soon as his tribunate
had expired, Plancus ,was accused by Cicero of
vis and was condemned. After his condemna
tion Plancus went to Ravenna in Cisalpine
Gaul, where he was kindly received by Caesar.
Soon after the beginning of the Civil war he
was restored to his civic rights by Caesar ; but
he appears to have taken no part in the Civil
war. After Caesar's death Plancus fought on
Antony's side in the campaign of Mutina. He
was driven out of PoUentia by Pontius Aquila,
the legate of D. Brutus, and in his flight broke
his leg. (Cic. Phil. vi. 4, x. 10, xi. 6, xiii. 12 ; Dio
Cass. xl. 49, xlvi. 8&; Plut. Pomp. 55.)— 3. Cn.,
brother of the two preceding, praetor elect 44,
was charged by Caesar in that year with the
assignment to his soldiers of lands at Buthro-
tum in Epirus. As Atticus possessed property
in the neighbourhood, Cicero commended to
Plancus with much earnestness the interests of
his friend. He was praetor in 43, and was
allowed by the senate to join his brother Lucius
[No. 1] in Transalpine Gaul, but caught a
fever and was sent back to Rome. (Cic. ad Att.
xvi. 16, ad Fam. x. 15, 17, 21.)— 4. L. Plautius
Plancus, brother of the three preceding, was
adopted by a L. Plautius, and therefore took his
praenomen as weU as nomen, but retained his
original cognomen, as was the case with MeteUus
Scipio [Metellus, No. 15], and Pupius Piso
[Piso, No. 13]. Before his adoption his praeno
men was Caius. He was included in the pro
scription of the triumvirs, 43, with the consent
of his brother Lucius, and was put to death.
(Val. Max. xi. 8, 5; App. B. G. iv. 12; Plin.
xiii. 25.)
Planudes Maximus, was one of the most
learned of the ConstantinopoUtan monks of the
last age of the Greek empire, and was greatly
distmguished as a theologian, grammarian, and
rhetorician ; but his name is now chiefly in
teresting as that of the compUer of the latest
of those coUections of minor Greek poems,
which were known by the names of Garlands
or Anthologies (Zrecpavoi, 'AvBoXoyiai). Pla
nudes Uved at Constantinople in the first half
of the fourteenth century, under the emperors
Andronicus II. and III. Palaeologi. In a.d.
1327 he was sent by Andronicus II. as ambassa
dor to Venice. As the Anthology of Planudes
was not only the latest compiled, but was also
that which was recognised as The Greek An
thology until the discovery of the Anthology
of Constantinus Cephalas, this is chosen as the
fittest place for an account of the Literary
History of the Greek Anthology. 1. Materials.
The various collections to which their com-
pUers gave the name of Garlands and Antholo
gies were made up of short poems, chiefly of
an epigrammatic character, and in the elegiac
metre. The earUest examples of such poetry
were furnished by the inscriptions on monu
ments, such as thoae erected to commemorate
heroic deeds, the statues of distinguished men,
especiaUy victors in the pubUc games, sepul
chral monuments, and dedicatory offerings in
temples (dvaBiipara) ; to which may be added
oracles and proverbial sayings. At an early
period in the history of Greek literature, poets
of the highest fame cultivated this species of
composition, which received its most perfect
development from the hand of Simonides.
Thenceforth, as a set form of poetry, it became
a fit vehicle for the brief expression of thoughts
and sentiments on any subject; until at last

723
the form came to be cultivated for its own sake,
and the literati of Alexandria and Byzantium
deemed the ability to make epigrams an essen
tial part of the character of a scholar. Hence
the mere trifling, the stupid jokes and the
wretched personalities which form so large a
part of the epigrammatic poetry contained in
the Greek Anthology.— 2. The Garland of
Meleager. At a comparatively early period in
the history of Greek literature, various persons
collected epigrams of particular classes, and with
reference to their use as historical authorities ;
but the first person who made such a collection
solely for its own sake, and to preserve epigrams
of aU kinds, was Meleageb, a Cynic phUosopher
of Gadara, m Palestine, about B.C. 60. He en
titled it The Garland (Xrecpavos), with reference
to the common comparison of small beautiful
poems to flowers. The same idea is kept up in
the word Anthology (dvBoXoyia), which was
adopted by the next compiler as the title of his
work. The Garland of Meleager was arranged
in alphabetical order, according to the initial
letters of the first line of each epigram. He
included in this coUection poems by forty-six
authors of various dates from Archilochus to
his own contemporaries, and also compositions
of his own. — 3. The Anthology of Philip of
Thessalonica, was compiled in the time of
Trajan, with the view of adding to the Gar
land of Meleager the epigrams of more recent
writers. — 4. Diogenianus, Straton, and Dio
genes Laertius. Shortly after Philip, in the
reign of Hadrian, the learned grammarian,
Diogenianus of Heraclea, compiled an Antho
logy, which is entirely lost. It might have
been well if the same fate had befallen the very
poUuted collection of his contemporary, Straton
of Sardis. About the same time Diogenes
Laertius collected the epigrams which are inter
spersed in his Lives of the Philosophers into
a separate book. — 5. Agathias Scholasticus, of
Myrina, who lived in the time of Justinian,
made a coUection entitled KiKXos iiriypap-
pdrav. It was arranged in seven books, ac
cording to subjects. The poems included in it
were those of recent writers, and chiefly those
of Agathias himself and of his contemporaries,
such as Paulus Silentiarius and Macedonius.—
6. The Anthology of Constantinus Cephalas,
or the Palatine Anthology. Constantinus
Cephalas appears to have lived about four cen
turies after Agathias, and to have flourished in
the tenth century, under the emperor Con
stantinus Porphyrogenitus. The labours of
preceding compilers may be viewed as merely
supplementary to the Garland of Meleager,
but the Anthology of Constantinus Cephalas
was an entirely new collection from the pre
ceding Anthologies and from original sources.
Nothing is known of Constantine himself. The
MS. of the Anthology was discovered by the
French scholar Saumaise, or Salmasius, in 1606,
in the library of the Electors Palatine at
Heidelberg. It was afterwards removed to the
Vatican, with the rest of the Palatine library
(1623), and has become known under the name
of the Palatine Anthology. The MS. was
restored to its old home at Heidelberg after
the peace of 1815.— 7. The Anthology of Pla
nudes was an extract from the collection of
Cephalas, divided into seven books, each of
which, except the fifth and seventh, is sub
divided into chapters according to subjects,
and these chapters are arranged in alphabetical
order. The contents of the books are as fol
lows: — (1) Chiefly iiriSeiKTiKa : that is, displays
3a2

724

PLATAEA

of skill in this species of poetry, in 91 chapters.
(2) Jocular or satiric (oKairriKa), chaps. 53. (3)
Sepulchral (iiriripBia), chaps. 32. (4) Inscrip
tions on statues of athletes and other works of
art, descriptions of places, &c, chaps. 33. (5)
The Ecphrasis of Christodorus, and epigrams
on statues of charioteers in the Hippodrome at
Constantinople. (6) Dedicatory (dvaBnpariKd),
chaps. 27. (7) Amatory (eparmd). This abridg
ment by Planudes was the most complete
anthology known until the discovery of the
Palatine MS. of Cephalas, which then super
seded it. — Edition of the Palatine Anthology
by Jacobs, Lips. 1813-1817 ; Tauchnitz edition,
Lips. 1872; Diibner, Paris, 1864.
Plataea, more commonly Plataeae (TlXaraia,
TlXaraiai : TlXaraieis), an ancient city of Boeo
tia, on the N. slope of Mount Cithaeron, not far

Battle of Plataea.
a. Persians : b. Athenians ; e. Lacedaemonians ; d. Various Greek allies ; I. First Position
occnpied by the opposing armies ; II. Second position ; UI. Third position ; A. Boad
from Plataea to Tnebes ; B. Boad from Megara to Thebes ; C. Persian camp ; D. Ery-
thrae ; E. Hysiae.

from the sources of the Asopus, and on the
frontiers of Attica. It was said to have been
founded by Thebes; and its name was com
monly derived from Plataea, a daughter of
Asopus. (II. u. 504; Thuc. iii. 61; Strab. p.
411 ; Paus. ix. 1, 1.) The town, though not
large, played an important part in Greek
history, and experienced many striking vicissi
tudes of fortune. At an early period the
Plataeans deserted the Boeotian confederacy
and placed themselves under the protection of
Athens (Hdt. vi. 108 ; Thuc. iii. 68), and when
the Persians invaded Attica, in B.C. 490, they
sent 1000 men to the assistance of the Athe
nians, and had the honour of fighting on their
side at the battle of Marathon. Ten years

PLATO
afterwards (480) their city was destroyed by-
the Persian army under Xerxes at the instiga
tion of the Thebans ; and the place was stiU in
ruins in the following year (479), when the-
memorable battle was fought in their territory
in which Mardonius was defeated, and the
independence of Greece secured. (Hdt. ix.
25-70.) In consequence of this victory, the
territory of Plataea was declared inviolable,.
and Pausanias ana the other Greeks swore to-
guarantee its independence (Thuc. ii. 71;
Plut. Aristid. 19 ; Strab. p. 412 ; Paus. ix. 2, 4).
The sanctity of the city was still further secured
by its being selected as the place in which the
great festival of the Eleutheria was to be cele
brated in honour of those Greeks who had
faUen in the war. [See Did. of Antiq. art.
Eleutheria.] The Plataeans further received
from the Greeks.
the large sum of
eighty talents. Pla
taea now enjoyed a
prosperity of fifty
years; but in the
third year of the
Peloponnesian war
(429) the Thebans-
persuaded the
Spartans to attack
the town, and after
a siege of two-
years at length suc
ceeded in obtaining
possession of the
place (427). (Thuc.
ii. 1, 71, iii. 20, 52„
68.) Plataea was
now razed to the
ground. Its ""in
habitants sought
refuge at Scione
and afterwards at
Athens ; but it was
again rebuilt after
the peace of Antal
cidas (387). (Thuc.
v. 32 ; Plut. Lys.
14 ; Paus. ix. 1, 4.}
It was destroyed
the third time by
its inveterate ene
mies the Thebans
in 872 (Paus. ix. 1,
5; Diod. xv. 48 j
Isocr. Plataic. ^
13). It was once
more restored un
der the Macedo
nian supremacy,
and continued in
existence till a very

late period. Its walls were rebuilt by Justinian
(Procop. Aed. iv. 2).
Platamodes (TTXaTapdSns : G. Kivia), a
promontory in the W. of Messenia (Strab,
p. 848).
Pla.ta.na, -nm, -ns (TlXardvri, TTXdravov*
TlXaravos), a fortress in Phoenicia, in a narrow
pass between Lebanon and the sea, near the
river Damuras or Tamyras (Darhur). (Pol. v.
68 ; Jos. Ant. xvi. 11, 1.)
Platea (IIAarea, also -e?a, -eiai, -aia: Bomba),
an island on the coast of Cyrenaica, in N. Africa,
the first place taken possession of by the Greek
colonists under Battus.
Plato (Tlxdrav), the comic poet, was a
native of Athens, contemporary with Aristo-

PLATO

725

rphanes, Phrynichus, Eupolis, and Pherecrates,
and flourished from B.C. 428 to 389. He ranked
among the best poets of the. Old Comedy.
Prom the expressions of the grammarians, and
from the large number of fragments which are
preserved, it is evident that his plays were only
second in popularity to those of Aristophanes.
He attacked in many of his plays public
characters of the day : e.g. demagogues in the
Hyperbolus and the Gleophon, and a contem
porary poet in the Cinesias. Purity of lan
guage, refined sharpness of wit, and a combina
tion of the vigour of the Old Comedy with
the greater elegance of the Middle and the
New, were his chief characteristics. Suidas
gives the titles of thirty of his dramas. With
the Gleophon he won the third prize in 405 B.C.,
when Aristophanes was first with the Frogs,
and Phrynichus second with the Muses. —
Fragments in Meineke, Fr. Com. Graec.
Plato (IlAolTa)i/),the phUosopher, was born on
the seventh day of ThargeUon (= May 26th)
B.C. 428 (if we foUow the statements of Hermo-
dorus and Apollodorus : see Diog. Laert. iii. 2,
-6.) Athens was probably his birthplace, though
some say Aegina (Diog. Laert. I.e.). His father,
Aristo, claimed descent from Codrus, and the an
cestors of his mother, Perictione, were related to
.Solon. Plato himself mentions the relationship
of Critias, his maternal uncle, with Solon
(Charm, p. 155). OriginaUy, we are told, he
was named after his grandfather Aristoeles, but
in consequence of the fluency of his speech, or,
as others have it, the breadth of his chest, he
acquired that name under which alone we know
him (Diog. Laert. iii. 4). One story made
bim the son of ApoUo ; another related that
bees settled upon the lips of the sleeping child
(Cic. Div. i. 46, 78). He is said to have con
tended, when a youth, in the Isthmian and
other games, as weU as to have made attempts
in epic, lyric, and dithyrambic poetry, and not
to have devoted himself to philosophy till a
later time, probably after Socrates had drawn
him within the magic circle of his influence.
Plato was instructed in grammar, music, and
gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers
of that time. He was thus by birth and educa
tion inclined to the aristocratic and cultivated
classes at Athens; but though he had great
-opportunities for a favourable start in political
.contests by the help of his connexions, especi
ally of Critias, the most powerful of the Thirty,
he preferred a Ufe of phUosophic study. At
the same time it would be a mistake to suppose
that he never took any part in pubUc Ufe. He
must necessarily (as Grote points out) have
.served in military posts after he was eighteen,
and the military service of 409-403 B.C. was
constant and severe. Plato's birth and means
probably placed him in the cavalry. There is
abundant evidence from the Bepublic as weU
as from his letters that he had no aversion
for such active employment, and some indica
tion of his having once thought of political life,
though there is no warrant for believing that
he ever spoke or acted as a politician. What
ever inclinations that way he may have had
were diverted by his disappointment and dis
gust at the tyranny of the Thirty, and he
sought refuge in philosophy. At an early age
he had become acquainted, through Cratylus,
with the doctrines of Heraclitus, and through
other instructors with the philosophical dogmas
¦of the Eleatics and of Anaxagoras. In his
twentieth year he is said to have betaken him
self to Socrates, and became one of his most

ardent admirers (cf. Diog. Laert. iii. 5 ; Xen,
Mem. iii. 6, 1). Pausanias (i. SO, 8) preserves a
story that Socrates on the night before Plato
first became his pupil, dreamed that a swan,
the bird of Apollo, flew into his lap. After the
death of Socrates (899) he withdrew to Megara,
where he probably composed several of his
dialogues, especially those of a dialectical
character. He next went to Cyrene through
friendship for the mathematician Theodorus,
and is said to have visited afterwards Egypt,
Sicily, and the Greek cities in Lower Italy,
about 888 B.C. (Plat. Epist. vii. p. 324), in his
desire to see new countries, especially Mount
Etna. More distant journeys of Plato into the
interior of Asia, to the Hebrews, Babylonians,
and Assyrians, to the Magi and Persians, are
mentioned only by writers on whom no reliance
can be placed (Clem. Alex. adv. Gent. p. 46).
To this tradition Cicero (Tusc. iv. 19, 43) seems
to refer. His journey to Egypt is not men
tioned by any writer before Cicero (de Bep. i.
10, 15, de Fin. v. 29, 87) ; but there is no doubt
that he visited Cyrene, and no improbability in
his going thence to Egypt. Plato, during his
residence in Sicily, became acquainted, through
Dion, with the elder Dionysius, but very soon
feU out with the tyrant, who disliked his free
exposition of social and political truths. It is
impossible to reject altogether the story of his
being sold into slavery (though of short dura
tion). The best attested account is that Diony
sius handed him over to the Spartan envoy
Pollis to be taken to Greece, with secret
instructions that he should be sold as a slave,
that he was sold at Aegina and was purchased
for twenty or thirty minae and freed by
Anniceris, whom he had known at Cyrene.
(Plut. Dion, 5 ; Diog. Laert. iii. 17 ; Nep.
Dion, 2.) The story is given differently by
Diodorus (xv. 7), who says that Plato was sold
by orders of Dionysius in the slave market at
Syracuse, and freed by his friends, who sub
scribed twenty minae for the price. After his
return to Athens, about 386, he began to teach,
partly in the gymnasium of the Academy and
its shady avenues, near the city, between the
exterior Ceramieus and the hill Colonus
Hippius, and partly in his garden, which was
situated at Colonus. He taught without
exacting fees, and his lectures were mainly in
the form of lively dialogue ; yet on the more diffi
cult parts of his doctrinal system he probably
deUvered also connected discourses. The more
narrow circle of his disciples assembled them
selves in his garden at common simple meals
(Diog. Laert. ii. 8 ; Ael. V. H. ii. 18, iii. 35), and
it was probably to them alone that the inscription
said to have been set up over the vestibule of
the house, ' Let no one enter who is unacquainted
with geometry,' had reference (Tzetz. Chil.
viii. 972). Among his pupils were his nephew
Speusippus, Xenocrates of Chalcedon, Aristotle,
Heraclides Ponticus, Hestiaeus of Perinthus,
PhUippus the Opuntian, and others, men from
the most different parts of Greece. To the
wider circle of those who, without attaching
themselves to the more narrow community of
the school, sought instruction and incitement
from him, such distinguished men as Chabrias,
Iphicrates, Timotheus, Phocion, Hyperides,
Lycurgus, and Isocrates, are said to have
belonged. Whether Demoathenea was of the
number is doubtful (cf. [Dem.] Epist. v. Cic.
de Or. i. 20, 89, Or. 4, 16, de Off. i. 1, 4).
Cicero clearly has no doubt of it, but he refers
to the letters of Demosthenes as his authority,

726

PLATO

and these are probably spurious. Plato's
occupation as an instructor was twice inter
rupted by his voyages to Sicily; first when
Dion, probably soon after the death of the
elder Dionysius, persuaded him to make the
attempt to win the younger Dionysius to
philosophy ; the second time, a few years later
(about 360), when the wish of his Pythagorean
friends, and the invitation of Dionysius to
reconcile the disputes which had broken out
between him and his step-uncle Dion, brought
him back to Syracuse. His efforts were both
times unsuccessful, and he owed his own safety
to nothing but the earnest intercession of
Archytas. That Plato cherished the hope of
realising through the conversion of Dionysius
his idea of a state in the rising city of Syracuse
was a belief pretty generaUy spread in anti
quity, which finds some confirmation in the
expressions of the philosopher himself, and
of the seventh Platonic letter (which, though
spurious, is written with the most evident
acquaintance with the matters treated of).
(Plut. Dion, 11-20; Diog. Laert. Ui. 21, 25;
[Plat.] Epist. iii., vii.) With the exception of
these two visits to Sicily, Plato was occupied
from the time when he opened the school in
the Academy in giving instruction and in the
composition of his works. He died in the
82nd year of his age, B.C. 347. According to
some he died while writing ; according to others,
at a marriage feast. According to his last will
his garden remained the property of the school,
and passed, considerably increased by subse
quent additions, into the hands of the Academic
school, who kept as a festival his birthday as
well as that of Socrates. Athenians and
strangers honoured his memory by monuments.
Still he had no lack of enemies and enviers.
He was attacked by contemporary comic poets,
as Theopompus, Alexis, Cratinus the younger,
and others; by one-sided Socratics, as Anti
sthenes, Diogenes, and the later Megarics, and
also by the Epicureans, Stoics, certain Peripa
tetics, and later writers eager for detraction.
Thus even Antisthenes and Aristoxenus charged
him with sensuality, avarice, and sycophancy ;
and others with vanity, ambition, and envy
towards other Socratics, Protagoras, Epichar
mus and Philolaus. (Diog. Laert. iii. 26, 35 ;
Athen. pp. 59, 424, 507, 509, 589.) But the
admiration is better attested, and the character
which his admirers have drawn is substantiated
by his writings. — The Writings of Plato.
These writings have come down to us complete,
and have always been admired aB a model of
the union of artistic perfection with philo
sophical acuteness and depth. They are in the
form of dialogue. Plato was not the first
writer who employed this style of composition
for philosophical instruction : Zeno the Eleatic
had already written in the form of question and
answer ; Alexamenus the Teian and Sophron in
the mimes had treated ethical subjects in the form
of dialogue; and in later periods Xenophon,
Aeschines, Antisthenes, Euclides, and other So
cratics also made use of the analogical form. But
Plato has handled this form not only with
greater mastery than anyone who preceded him,
but, in aU probabUity, with the distinct inten
tion of keeping by this very means true to the ad
monition of Socrates, not to communicate in
struction, but to lead to the spontaneous dis
covery of it, and he is the first who has made this
style of writing a literary model. The advan
tages which he found in this method were that
he was able to make Socrates a central figure,

that he could more easily argue out every
question, from all points of view, and that he
had full scope for his dramatic power of draw
ing character. Various arrangements of the
dialogues of Plato have been proposed, but none
of them can be maintained by any convincing
arguments. There is no ground for the beUef
that Plato arranged them on any scheme, so as
to form a consecutive series, and the probabUi-
ties are aU the other way. The arrangement,
therefore, which assumes progressive stages of
philosophy from one dialogue to another will
te wisely rejected; nor is there any warrant
for saying that certain dialogues belong to-
certain periods of Plato's life because this or
that view is apparent in them. Even if the
adoption of any doc brine, such as that of Ideas,
or of avdpvricris, could be assigned to a particular
date (which is, to say the least, doubtful), there
would stiU remain the possibiUty of a later
revision of the dialogue in question. Of exter
nal evidence as to date there is none, and the
guidance from mention of historical events in
the dialogues themselves is scanty and pre
carious. The utmost that can be said is that
there are some arguments for the arrangement
which places the following dialogues in theearUer
period, i.e. before, or near, the time of the death
of Socrates : viz. Laches, Hippias Major and
Minor, Lysis, Ion, Charmides, Meno, Alci
biades I., Cratylus, Euthydemus, Protagoras,
Euthyphron, Gorgias : after the death of
Socrates, Apology (which is not, however, a
dialogue), Crito. The foUowing seem to belong
to a later date, between his first and second
journeys to Sicily: viz. Theaetetus, Sophistes,
Politicus, Parmenides, Menexenus (a funeral
oration), Symposium, Phaedrus, Phaedo,
Philebus, Bepublic, Timaeus, Critias, and,
lastly, the Laws, which occupied several
years in writing, and was pubUshed after his
death. Of these Hippias Minor, Alcibiades I.
and Menexenus are rejected by many critics
and may be set down as doubtful. The
foUowing are certainly spurious: viz. Alci
biades II., Axiochus, Clitophon, Demodocus,
Epinomis, Erastae, Eryxias, Hipparchus,
De Justo, Minos, Siayphus, Theages, De
Virtute. In this list of spurious works the
Letters also must be included. The dialogues
which are directly cited by Aristotle as written
by Plato are : Bepublic, Timaeus, Laws,
Phaedo, Phaedrus, Symposium, Gorgias,
Meno, Hippias I. ; but it is obvious that his
silence does not condemn the others, and
several which have not his testimony are
universaUy accepted as Plato's work. Some,
however, of the dialogues which have been
admitted as certainly genuine in the above list
have been objected to by one critic or another.
—The Philosophy of Plato. The nature of
this work wiU allow only a few brief remarks.
upon this subject. Plato, like Socrates, was
penetrated with the idea that wisdom is the
attribute of the Godhead; that philosophy,
springing from the impulse to know, is the
necessity of the intellectual man, and the
greatest of the blessings in which he partici
pates. When once we strive after Wisdom
with the intensity of a lover, she becomes the
true consecration and purification of the soul,
adapted to lead us from darkness to the
true day. An approach to wisdom, however,
presupposes an original communion with
Being, truly so called ; and this communion
again presupposes the divine nature of immor
tality of the soul, and the impulse to become*

PLATO
like the Eternal. This impulse is the love
which generates in Truth, and the development
of it is termed Dialectics. Out of the phUoso-
phical impulse which is developed by Dialectics
not only correct knowledge, but also correct
action springs forth. Socrates' doctrine re
specting the unity of virtue, and that it consists
in true, vigorous, and practical knowledge, is
intended to be set forth in the Protagoras and
the smaller kindred dialogues. They are de
signed, therefore, to introduce a foundation for
ethics, by the refutation of the common views
that were entertained of morals and of virtue.
For although not even the words ' ethics ' and
' physics ' occur in Plato, and even dialectics are
not treated of as a distinct and separate province,
yet he must rightly be regarded as the origi
nator of the threefold division of philosophy,
inasmuch as he had before him the decided
object to develop the Socratic method into a
scientific system of dialectics that should
supply the grounds of our knowledge as well as
of our moral action (physics and ethics).
Accordingly, the Theaetetus, Sophistes, Par
menides, and Cratylus, are principaUy dialecti
cal ; the Protagoras, Gorgias, Politicus, Phile-
bus, and the Bepublic, principaUy ethical ; while
the Timaeus is exclusively physical. Plato, in
developing the Socratic view of the true con
ception of objects, was influenced both by the
Eleatic doctrine of the unchangeable unity of
real existence [Paejienldes] and the Heracli-
tean theory of a perpetual flow and change in
human life [see p. 403], whence foUowed the
question, how could there be absolute know
ledge of the objects of sense which were per
petually changing (Aristot. Met. A. 6). This
question Plato solved by his doctrine of Ideas,
which became the central port of his system.
The objects which our senses perceive are
indeed changeable with each perception and
unreal, but each of these is an imperfect copy
of a perfect original which has a real immutable
and eternal existence in another world ; and
the perfect original was caUed an ISea or
eiSos, because it was the true form or arche
type; and inasmuch as there was only one
' idea ' or archetype of each class of things,
' ideas ' were sometimes caUed evdSes or povdSes
i.e. 'unities' (Phileb. p. 15). The highest of
all was the ' idea ' of Good, which was the
cause of aU perfection (but yet nothing personi
fied). The body being a hindrance to the
contemplation of these unchangeable realities
which are the only absolute knowledge, the
phUosopher frees himself as far as posaible from
the disturbance of senses. Further, as an aid
to conceiving these true 'ideas,' the human
soul has a certain power of ' recollection '
(dvdpvrio-is) of the sight which it enjoyed of
them before it was linked to the human body.
The vision has been to a great extent forgotten,
but stiU the recoUection is stirred by the sight
of the imperfect copy and is strengthened when
the mind abstracts itself from the world of
sense, and exercises its reason. — His system of
ethics was founded upon his dialectics, as
remarked above. Hence he asserted that, not
being in a condition to grasp the idea of the Good
with fuU distinctness, we are able to approxi
mate to it only so far as we elevate the power
of thinking to its original purity. — Complete
editions of Plato by Stallbaum, Lips. 1850-1877 ;
Baiter and OreUi, Zurich, 1839-1874 ; by C. F.
Hermann, Lips. 1874. Translation by Jowett,
Oxford, 1881. Among the numerous editions
of separate treatises are the Gorgias by W. H.

PLAUTUS 727
Thompson ; Apology by Biddell ; Apology and
Phaedo by W. Smith ; Phaedo by Archer Hind ;
Theaetetus by Campbell ; Phaedrus by W. H.
Thompson ; Sophistes and Politicus by Camp.
bell ; Philebus by H. Jackson.
Plator. 1. Commanded Oreum for Philip b.o.
207 and betrayed the town to the Bomans
(Liv. xxviii. 6).— 2. Brother of Gentius king of
Illyria, and son of Pleuratus (Liv. xliv. 80).
According to Polybius, xxix. 5, his name was
Pleuratus. Plautia Gens, a plebeian gens at Rome. The
name is also written Plotius, just as we have
both Clodius and Claudius. The gens was
dividedinto the families of Hypsaeus, Proculus,
Silvanus, Venno, Venox. Although several
members of these families obtained the consul
ship, none of them are of sufficient importance
to require a separate notice.
Plautianus, Fulvius, an African by birth,
the fellow-townsman of Septimius Severus.
He served as praefect of the praetorium under
this emperor, who loaded him with honours and
wealth, and virtually made over much of the
imperial authority into his hands. Intoxicated
by these distinctions, Plautianus indulged in
the most despotic tyranny, and perpetrated
acts of cruelty almost beyond belief. In a.d.
202 his daughter Plautilla was married to
CaracaUa; but having discovered the dislike
cherished by CaracaUa towards both his daugh
ter and himself, and looking forward with
apprehension to the downfall which awaited
him upon the death of the sovereign, he formed
a plot against the life both of Septimius and
Caracalla. His treachery was discovered, and
he was immediately put to death, 203. His
daughter, Plautilla, was banished first to Sicily,
and subsequently to Lipara, where she was
treated with the greatest harshness. After the
murder of Geta, in 212, Plautilla was put to
death by order of her husband. (Dio Cass. lxxv.
14, Ixxvi. 2, lxxvii. 1.)
Plautilla. [Plautianus.]
Plautius. 1. A., a man of consular rank,
who was sent by the emperor Claudius in a.d.
43 to subdue Britain. He remained in Britain
four years, and subdued the S. part of the
island. He obtained an ovation on his return
to Borne in 47. (Tac. Agr. 14. ) It was alleged
against his wife, Pomponia, that ahe had become
a convert to Christianity, and Plautius was
commissioned to inquire into the charge, which
he reported to be disproved (Tac. Ann. xiii.
32). — 2. An early writer of comedies, who is
mentioned by Varro as having written plays
which were sometimes reckoned among those of
Plautus (GeU. iii. 3, 10). — 3. A Roman jurist,
who lived about the time of Vespasian, and is
cited by subsequent jurists.
Plautus, T. Maecius, the most celebrated
comic poet of Rome, was a native of Sarsina,
a smaU village in Umbria. His name has been
much disputed. Festus (p. 238) explains the
name Plotus as meaning in the Umbrian lan
guage 'flat-footed' and mentions as bearing
that name the poet of Sarsina, called (as it
appears in the abridgment of Paulus) Accius.
Hence the great comedian was commonly
known in modern times as M. Accius Plautus
until Ritschl, from a comparison of Plaut.
Merc. 6, and the conclusion of the Casina,
Menaechmi, and Epidicus in,, the Ambrosian
MS., with GeU. iii. 3, 9, deduced the name
Maecius, which is now almost universally
accepted. It is suggested with some proba
bility that it was formed from the word maccus,

728

PLAUTUS

a buffoon, given as a nickname to Plautus, and
adopted by him when he became a Roman
citizen. The date of his birth is uncertain, but
it may be placed about B.C. 254. Cicero (de
Sen. 50) speakB of Plautus as having been an
old mail in 191 B.C. He probably came to Rome
at an early age, since he displays such a perfect
mastery of the Latin language, and an ac
quaintance with Greek literature, which he
could hardly have acquired in a provincial
town. When he arrived at Rome he was in
needy circumstances, and was first employed
in the service of the actors. With the money
he had saved in this inferior station he left
Rome and set up in business : but his specu
lations failed ; he returned to Rome, and his
necessities obliged him to enter the service of
a baker, who employed him in turning a hand-
mill (Gell. iii. 3, 14). While in this degrading
occupation he wrote three plays, the sale of
which to the managers of the public games
enabled him to quit his drudgery, and begin his
literary career. He was then probably about
thirty years of age (224), and accordingly began
to write comedies a few years before the break
ing out of the second Punic war. He continued
to write for about forty years, and died in 184,
when he was seventy years of age (Cic. Brut,
60). His contemporaries at first were Livius
Andronicus and Naevius, afterwards Ennius
and CaeciUus : Terence did not rise into notice
till almost twenty years after his death. During
the long time that Plautus held possession of the
stage, he was always a great favourite of the
people ; and he expressed a bold consciousness
of his own powers in the epitaph which he
wrote for his tomb, and which has come down
to us : —
Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, comoedia lugct,
Scena deserta, dein risus, ludns jocusque
Et numeri innumeri simul omnes collacrumaruDt. (GeU. i. 24, 3.)
Plautus wrote a great number of comedies,
and in the last century of the repubhc
there were 130 plays which bore his name.
Most of these, however, were not considered
genuine by the beat Roman critics. There
were several works written upon the subject,
and of these the most celebrated was the trea
tise of Varro entitled Quaestiones Plautinae.
It appears that towards the end of the republic
there had been a tendency to reckon as ' Plau-
tine ' all old palliatae comediae, and Varro
limited the undoubted comedies of the poet to
twenty-one, which were hence called the Fabu-
lae Varronianae. These Varronian comedies
are no doubt those which have come down to
our own time, with the loss of one. At present
we possess only twenty comedies of Plautus ;
but there were originally twenty-one in the
manuscripts, and the Vidularia, which was the
twenty-first, and which came last in the collec
tion, was torn off from the manuscript in the
middle ages. The titlea of the twenty-one
Varronian plays are: 1. Amphitruo. 2. Asi-
naria. 3. Aulularia. 4. Gaptivi. 5. Curcu-
lio. 6. Casina. 7. Gistellaria. 8. Epidicus.
9. Bacchides. 10. Mostellaria. 11. Menaech
mi. 12. Miles. 13. Mercator. 14. Pseudolus.
15. Poenulus. 16. Persa. 17. Budens. 18.
Stichus. 19. Trinummus. 20. Truculentus.
21. Vidularia. This is the order in which
they occur in the manuscripts, though probably
not the one in which they were originaUy
arranged by Varro. The present order is
evidently alphabetical ; the initial letter of the
title of each play is alone regarded, and no

attention is paid to those which f oUow : hence
we find Gaptivi, Curculio, Casina, Cistel-
laria : Mostellaria, Menaechmi, Miles, Mer
cator : Pseudolus, Poenulus, Persa. The play
of the Bacchides forms the only exception to
the alphabetical order. It was probably placed
after the Epidicus by some copyist, because he
hod observed that Plautus in the Bacchides
(ii. 2, 36) referred to the Epidicus aa an earlier
work. The names of the comedies are either
taken from some leading character in the play,
or from some circumstance which occurs in it :
those titles ending in aria are adjectives,
giving a general description of the play : thus
Asinaria is the ' Ass-Comedy.' The comedies
of Plautus enjoyed unrivalled popularity among
the Romans, and continued to be represented
down to the time of Diocletian. The continued
popularity of Plautus through so many centuries
was owing, in a great measure, to his being a
national poet. Though he founds his plays
upon Greek models, the characters in them
act, speak, and joke like genuine Romans, and
he thereby secured the sympathy of his audience
more completely than Terence could ever have
done. Whether Plautus borrowed the plan of
all his plays from Greek models, it is imposs
ible to say. The Bacchides, Poenulus and (ac
cording to some) the Stichus, were taken from
Menander; the Casina and Budens from
DiphUus ; the Mercator and the Trinummus,
and possibly also the Mostellaria, from PhUe-
mon ; the Asinaria from DemophUus. But in
all cases Plautus allowed himself much greater
liberty than Terence ; and in some instances
he appears to have simply taken the leading
idea of the play from the Greek, and to have
fiUed it up in his own fashion. It has been
inferred from a well-known line of Horace
(Epist. ii. 1. 58), ' Plautus ad exemplar Siculi
properare Epicharmi,' that Plautus took great
pains to imitate Epicharmus. But there is no
correspondence between any of the existing
plays of Plautus and the known titles of the
comedies of Epicharmus ; and the verb pro
perare has reference only to the Uveliness and
energy of Plautus's style, in which he bore a
resemblance to the 'SicUian poet. There is
abundant testimony to the esteem in which
Plautus was held alike by the educated Romans
and by the general public. Horace (de Arte
Pod. 270), indeed, expresses a less favourable
opinion of Plautus ; but it must be recoUected
that the taste of Horace had been formed by a
different school of Uterature, and that he disliked
the ancient poets of his country. Moreover, it
is probable that the censure of Horace does not
refer to the general character of Plautus's
poetry, but merely to his inharmonious verBes
and to some of his jests. Cicero (de Off. i.
29, 104) places his wit on a par with that of the
Old Attic Comedy (cf. Apoll. Sidon. xxiii. 148).
By moderns Plautus has not only been admired
but has been selected for imitation by many of
the best poets. Thus the Amphitruo (the only
play of Plautus which has a mythological plot)
has been imitated by Moliere and Dryden ; the
Aulularia by Moliere in his Avare ; the Mos
tellaria by Regnard, Addison, and others ; the
Menaechmi by Shakspeare in his Comedy of
Errors; the Trinummus by Lessing in his
Schatz; and so with others. — Of the present
complete editions the best are by Ritschl, 1848,
1884; Fleckeisen, 1859, 1874; Ussing, 1875.
Among useful editions of separate plays are the
Aulularia and Menaechmi by Wagner, 1876,
1878 ; the Captivi by Sonnenschein. 1880 ; the

PLAVIS
Mostellaria by Ramsay, 1869, and by Sonnen-
schein, 1884 ; the Miles Gloriosus by Tyrrell,
1885 ; the Trinummus by Wagner, 1875, and
by Sloman, 1883 ; the Truculentus by Stude-
mund, 1868.
Plavis (Piave), a river in Venetia in the N.
of Italy, which flows past Bellunum and falls
into the sea at Altinum, W. of Aquileia.
Pleiades (IlAeiaSes or neAeia5es),the Pleiads,
are usually called the daughters of Atlas and
Pleione, whence they bear the name of the
Atlantides (Hes. Op. 3S8, 614 ; Hyg. Ast. ii.
21 ; Apollod. iii. 10). They were called Ver-
giliae by the Romans a (name which some
connected with ver as the season of their
rising), and also Suculae (i.e. the herd of little
pigs) : they were also known as Sidus Pari-
licium, because they shone at the time of the
festival Parilia. (PUn. xviii. 246 ; Serv. ad Aen.
i. 744 ; Fest. p. 872.) They were the sisters of
the Hyades, and seven in number, six of whom
are described as visible, and the seventh as
invisible. The Pleiades are said to have made
away with themselves from grief at the death
of their sisters, the Hyades, or at the fate of
their father, Atlas, and were afterwards placed
as stars at the bock of Taurus, where they
formed a cluster resembling a bunch of grapes,
whence they were sometimes caUed Bbrpvs.
According to another story, the Pleiades were
virgin companions of Artemis, and, together
with their mother, Pleione, were pursued by the
hunter Orion in Boeotia; their prayer to be
rescued from him was heard by the gods, and
they were metamorphosed into doves (7reAet-
dSes) and placed among the stars. (Pind. Nem.
U. 11 ; Athen. p. 490 ; Diod. iii. 59.) The story of
the lost Pleiad was that Merope, the seventh of
the sisters, hid her Ught in mortification because
she alone had married a mortal (Sisyphus) and
become subject to mortality (Ov. Fast. iv. 170).
The rising of the Pleiades in Italy was about
the beginning of May, and their setting about
the beginning of November. Hence the Pleiads
were connected with the fertilising rains of
spring, with the seed-time of autumn and also
with autumn storms, and different parts of the
myth are traceable to these different points of
view. They are daughters of Atlas because the
Tain-clouds associated with them rise out of the
western sea, and in the pursuit by Orion there
is reference to the stormy time of autumn. It
is likely that in the Homeric story of the doves
who brought ambrosia from the western ocean
there is allusion to the Pleiads and their aid to
the summer harvests (Od. x. 59; Athen. I. c).
The story of the ' lost Pleiad ' here appears in
the mention of one dove being kiUed in the
passage of the rocks, and their name — usuaUy
connected with irXeiav = ' many in number '
(Hyg. Fab. 192) — is not improbably referred to
ireXeiai (doves). Their names are Electra,
Maia, Taygete, Alcyone, Celoeno, Sterope, and
Merope. Pleiae (IIAeroi), a town in the SW. of La
conia between Asopus and Acriae (Liv. xxxv.
27). Plemmyrlum (TlXeppipiov : Punta di Gi
gante), a promontory on the S. coast of Sicily,
immediately S. of Syracuse. [Syracusae.]
Pleione (UX-nUvri), a daughter of Oceanus,
and mother of the Pleiades by Atlas. [Atlas ;
Pleiades.] Pleunioxii, a small tribe in Gallia Belgica,
subject to the Nervii (Caes. B. G. v. 39).
Pleuratus (UXeiparos), king of Illyria, was
the son of Scerdilaidas. His name occurs as

PLINIUS

729

an ally of the Romans in the second Punic
war, and in their subsequent wars in Greece.
(Pol. xviii. 80, xxii. 4 ; Liv. xxvi. 24.)
Pleuron (TlXevpdv : UXevpdvios : Gyphtokas-
tron), an ancient oity in Aetolia, and one of
the most important in the country, was situ
ated at a little distance from the coast, NW.
of the mouth of the Evenus, and on the S.
slope of Mt. Aracynthus. It was originally
inhabited by the Curetes. (II. ii. 639, xiii.
217, xiv. 116; Strab. pp. 450, 451.) This an
cient city was abandoned by its inhabitants
when Demetrius II., King of Macedon, laid
waste the surrounding country, and a new city
was built under the same name to the W. of the
ancient one. (Strab. I. c; Paus. vii. 11, 3.)
The two cities are distinguished by geographers
under the names of Old Pleuron and New
Pleuron respectively. The ruins of the later
town are remarkable.
Plinius. 1. C. Plinius Secundus, the
author of the Historia Naturalis, distin
guished as Pliny the Elder, was born a.d.
23, at Novum Comum (Como) in the N. of
Italy. He came to Rome while still young,
and being descended from a family of wealth
and distinction, he had the means at his dis
posal for availing himself of the instruction of
the best teachers to be found in the imperial
city. At the age of about 23 he went to Ger
many, where he served under L. Pomponius
Secundus, of whom he afterwards wrote a
memoir, and was appointed to the command of
a troop of cavalry (praefectus alae). (Tac. Ann.
i. 69 ; Plin. Ep. iii. 5.) It appears from notices
of his own that he travelled over most of the
frontier of Germany, having visited the Cauci,
the sources of the Danube, &c. (Plin. xii. 98,
xvi. 2, xxii. 8). It was in the intervals snatched
from his military duties that he composed his
treatise De Jaculatione equestri. At the same
time he began a history of the Germanic wars,
which he afterwards completed in twenty
books (Plin. Ep. iii. 5). He returned to Rome
with Pomponius (52), and applied himself to
the study of jurisprudence. The greater part
of the reign of Nero he spent in retirement,
chiefly, no doubt, at his native place. It may
have been with a view to the education of his
nephew that he composed the work entitled Stu-
diosus, an extensive treatise in three books, occu
pying six volumes, in which he marked out the
course that should be pursued in the training
of a young orator, from the cradle to the com
pletion of his education and his entrance into
public life. During the reign of Nero he
wrote a grammatical work in eight books, en
titled Dubius Sermo (PUn. Ep. iii. 5) ; and
towards the end of the reign of this emperor
he was appointed procurator in Spain. Ha
was here in 71, when his brother-in-law died,
leaving his son, the younger Pliny, to the
guardianship of his uncle, who, on account of
his absence, was obliged to entrust the care of
him to Virginius Rufus. Pliny returned to
Rome in the reign of Vespasian, shortly before
73, when he adopted his nephew (Plin. Ep. y.
8). He had known Vespasian in the Germanic
wars, and the emperor received him into the
number of his moat intimate friends. It was
at this period of his life that he wrote a con
tinuation of the History of Aufidius Bassus, in
thirty-one books, carrying the narrative down
to his own times. Of his manner of life at
this period an interesting account has been
preserved by his nephew (Epist. iii. 5). It
was his practice to spend a portion of the

"780

PLINIUS

night by candlelight. Before it was light he
betook himself to the emperor Vespasian, and
after executing such commissions as he might
be charged with, returned home and devoted
the time which he still had remaining to study.
After a slender meal he would, in summer-time,
lie in the sunshine while some one read to him,
he himself making notes and extracts. He never
read anything without making extracts in this
way, for he used to say that there was no book
so bad but that some good might be got out
of it. He would then take a cold bath, and
after a slight repast sleep a very little, and
then pursue his studies till dinner-time. Dur
ing this meal some book was read to and
commented on by him. At table, as might be
supposed, he spent but a short time. Such
was his mode of life when in the midst of the
bustle and confusion of the city. When in re
tirement in the country, the time spent in the
bath was nearly the only interval not allotted
to study, and that he reduced to the narrowest
limits, for during all the process of scraping
and rubbing he had some book read to him, or
himself dictated. When on a journey he had a
secretary by his side with a book and tablets.
By this incessant application, persevered in
throughout life, he amassed an enormous
amount of materials, and at his death left to
his nephew 160 volumina of notes (electorum
com/mentarii), written extremely small on both
sides. With some reason might his nephew
say that, when compared with Pliny, those who
had spent their whole lives in literary pursuits
seemed as if they had spent them in nothing
else than sleep and idleness. From the ma
terials which he had in this way collected he
compiled his celebrated Historia Naturalis,
which he published about 77. The details of
Pliny's death are given in a letter of the
younger Pliny to Tacitus (Ep. vi. 16). He
perished in the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius
which overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii,
in 79, being 56 years of age (Plin. Ep. iii. 5, 7).
He was at the time stationed at Misenum in
the command of the Roman fleet ; and it was
his anxiety to examine more closely the extra
ordinary phenomenon which led him to sail
to Stabiae, where he landed and perished.
The only work of Pliny which has come down
to us is his Historia Naturalis. By Natural
History the ancients understood astronomy,
meteorology, geography, mineralogy, zoology,
botany — in short, every thing that does not
relate to the results of human skill or the pro
ducts of human faculties. Pliny, however,
has not kept within even these extensive limits.
He has broken in upon the plan implied by the
title of the work, by considerable digressions
on human inventions and institutions (book
vii.), and on the history of the fine arts (xxxv.-
xxxvii.) Minor digressions on similar topics
are also interspersed in various parts of the
work, the arrangement of which in other re
spects exhibits but little scientific discrimina
tion. It comprises, as Pliny says in the pre
face, 20,000 matters of importance, drawn from
100 selected authors, to whose observations he
added many of his own. The authors used by
him whose writings are still extant are Ari
stotle (chiefly through the medium of Pompeius
Trogus and Nigidius Figulus), Theophrastus,
Cato, Varro, Vitruvius, Columella, and Mela.
On botany lie seems to have relied a good deal
on Sextius Niger, who was largely used also by
Dioscorides. The whole work is divided into
thirty-seven books, the first of which consists

of a dedicatory epistle to Titus, followed by a.
table of contents of the other books. When it
is remembered that this was not the result of
the undistracted labour of a life, but written in
the hours of leisure secured from active pur
suits, and that, too, by the author of other
extensive works, it is, to say the least, a won
derful monument of human industry. It may
easily be supposed that Pliny, with his inordi
nate appetite for accumulating knowledge out
of books, was not the man to produce a really
scientific work. He was not even an origi
nal observer. The materials which he worked
up into his huge encyclopaedic compilation
were almost all derived at second-hand, though
doubtless he has incorporated the results of
his own observation in a larger number of in
stances than those in which he indicates such
to be the case. Nor did he, as a compUer,
show either judgment or discrimination in the
selection of his materials, so that in his ac
counts the true and the false are found inter
mixed. His love of the marvellous, and his
contempt for human nature, lead him constantly
to introduce what is strange or wonderful, or
adapted to illustrate the wickedness of man,
and the unsatisfactory arrangements of Provi
dence. His work is extremely valuable to us
from the vast number of subjects treated of,
with regard to many of which we have no other
sources of information. But what he teUs us
is often unintelligible, from his retailing ac
counts of things with which he was himself
personally unacquainted, and of which he in
consequence gives no satisfactory idea to the
reader. Though a writer on zoology, botany,
and mineralogy, he has no pretensions to be
caUed a naturalist. His compilations exhibit
scarcely a trace of scientific arrangement ; and
frequently it can be shown that he does not
give the true sense of the authors whom he
quotes and translates, giving not uncommonly
wrong Latin names to the objects spoken of
by his Greek authorities. — Editions of Pliny's
Natural History, with a commentary, are by
Hardouin (Paris, 1685, 5 vols. 4to ; 2nd edit.
1723, 3 vols, fol.) ; critical editions by Sillig,
Gotha, 1853 ; by Jan, Leips. 1870 ; by Detlessen,
1873. There is a French translation by De
Grandsagne, with notes by Cuvier and others,
Paris, 1833). — 2. C. Plinius Caecilius Secun
dus, frequently caUed Pliny the Younger, was
the son of C. Caecilius and of Plinia, the
Bister of the elder Pliny. He was born at
Comum in a.d. 61 ; and having lost his father
at an early age, he was adopted by his uncle,
as has been mentioned above. His education
was conducted under the care of his uncle, his
mother, and his tutor, Virginius Rufus. From
his youth he was devoted to letters. In his
fourteenth year he wrote a Greek tragedy.
He studied eloquence under QuintUian. His
acquirements finally gained him the reputation
of being one of the most learned men of the
age ; and his friend Tacitus, the historian, had
the same honourable distinction. He was also
an orator. In his nineteenth year he began to
speak in the Forum, and he was frequently em
ployed as an advocate before the court of the
Centumviri and before the Roman senate. He
filled numerous offices in succession. While a
young man he served in Syria as tribunus
militum, and was there a hearer of the Stoic
Euphrates and of Artemidorus. He was sub
sequently quaestor Caesaris, praetor in or
about 93, and consul 100, in which year he
wrote his Panegyricus, which is addressed to

PLINTHINE
Trajan. In 103 he was appointed propraetor
of the province Pontica, where he did not stay
quite two years. Among his other functions
he also -discharged that of curator of the chan
nel and the banks of the Tiber (C.I.L. v.
5262 ; cf. PUn. Ep. v. 14). He was twice mar
ried. His second wife was Calpurnia, the
granddaughter of Calpurnius Fabatus, and an
accomplished woman : she was considerably
younger than her husband, who has recorded
her kind attentions to him (PUn. Ep. iv. 19, vi.
4, viii. 10). He had no children by either wife
born aUve. The Ufe of Pliny is chiefly known
from his letters. So far as this evidence shows,
he was a kind and benevolent man, fond of
hterary pursuits, and of building on and im
proving his estates. He was rich, and he spent
liberally. He was a kind master to his slaves.
His body was feeble, and his health not good.
Nothing is known as to the time of his death.
The extant works of PUny are his Panegyricus
and the ten books of his Epistolae. The
Panegyricus is a somewhat bombastic eulogium
on Trajan. PUny coUected his own letters, as
appears from the first letter of the first book,
which looks something like a preface to the
whole coUection. It is not an improbable con
jecture that he may have written many of his
letters with a view to pubhcation, or that when
he was writing some of them the idea of future
pubUcation was in his mind. However, they
form a deUghtful coUection, and make us ac
quainted with many interesting facts in the life
of Pliny and that of his contemporaries. The
letters from Pliny to Trajan and the emperor's
repUes form the whole of the tenth book : let
ters 15-121 belong to the period of his Bithy-
nion governorship. The letter on the punish
ment of the Christians (x. 97) and the emperor's
answer (x. 98) are of the greatest interest and
value from their bearing on the history of the
Church in the first century. — Edition of the
Epistolae and Panegyricus by KeU, Leips. 1853
and 1870. Editions of the Epistolae are by
Cortius and LongoUus, Amsterdam, 1734, and
by Gierig, Lips. 1800; by Db'ring, 1843; book
Ui. by Mayor, 1880 ; i. and U. by Cowan, 1889.
Plinthine (TiXivBivn), a city of Lower Egypt,
on the bay called from it Sinus Plinthinetes
(UXivBiviiTris KbXiros), was the W.-most city of
Egypt (according to its narrower Umits) on the
frontier of Marmarica. It stood a Uttle N. of
Taposiris (Abousir). (Strab. p. 799. )
Plistarchus (UXeio-rapxos), king of Sparta,
was the son and successor of Leonidas, who
was killed at Thermopylae, B.C. 480. He
reigned from 480 to 458, but being a mere chUd
at the time of his father's death, the regency
was assumed by his cousin Pausanias. It
appears that the latter continued to administer
affairs in the name of the young king till his
own death, about 467 (Hdt. ix. 19).
Plisthenes (TlXeio-Bevns), son of Atreus, and
husband of Aerope or Eriphyle, by whom he
became the father of Agamemnon, Menelaus,
and Anaxibia; but Homer makes the latter
the chUdren of Atreus. [See Agamemnon,
Atbeus.] Plistia (Prestia), a village in Samnium in the
vaUey between M. Tifata and Taburnus (Liv.
ix. 21).
Plistoanax or Plistonax (TTXeio-rodval, IIAei-
o-Ta>a£), king of Sparta, was the eldest son of
the Pausanias who conquered at Plataea, B.C.
479. On the death of Plistarchus, in 458,
without issue, Plistoanax succeeded to the
throne, being yet a minor (Thuc. i. 107). He

PLOTINUS

781

reigned from 458 to 408. In 445 he invaded
Attica; but the premature withdrawal of his
army from the enemy's territory exposed him
to the suspicion of having been bribed by
Pericles. He was punished by a heavy fine,
which he was unable to pay, and was therefore
obliged to leave his country (Thuc. ii. 21, iii.
26; Plut. Per. 22). He remained nineteen
years in exile, taking up his abode near the
temple of Zeus on Mt. Lycaeus in Arcadia, and.
having half his house within the sacred pre
cincts that he might enjoy the benefit of the
sanctuary. During this period his son Pau
sanias, a minor, reigned in his stead. The
Spartans at length recalled him in 426, in
obedience to the injunctions of the Delphic
oracle. But he was accused of having tampered
with the Pythian priestess to induce her to
interpose for him, and his alleged impiety in
this matter was continually assigned by his
enemies as the cause of all Sparta's mis
fortunes in the war ; and therefore it was that
he used all his influence to bring about peace
with Athens in 421 (Thuc. v. 16). He was suc
ceeded by his son Pausanias.
Plistus (TiXeurrbs: Xeropotamo), a small
river in Phocis, which rises in Mt. ParnasBus,
flows past Delphi, where it receives the smaU
stream Castaha, and faUs into the Crissaean
gulf near Cirrha (Strab. p. 418 ; Delphi).
Plotina, Pompeia, the wife of the emperor
Trajan, and a woman of extraordinary merit
and virtue. As she had no children, she per
suaded her husband to adopt Hadrian. She
died in the reign of Hadrian, who honoured her
memory by mourning for her nine days, by
building a temple in her honour, and by com
posing hymns in her praise. (Plin. Paneg. 38 ;
Dio Cass. lxix. 10 ; Hadeianus.)
Plotinopolis (nAwTij^-TroAis), a town in
Thrace on the road from Trajanopolis to Had-
rianopolis, founded by Trajan, and named in
honour of his wife, Plotina (Ptol. iii. 11, 13 ;
Procop. Aed. iv. 11).
Plotlnus (UXarivos), the originator of the
Neo-Platonic system, was born at Lycopolis in
Egypt, about a.d. 203. The details of his life
have been preserved by his disciple Porphyry
in a biography which has come down to us.
From him we learn that Plotinus began to
study philosophy in his twenty-eighth year, and
remained eleven years under the instruction of
Ammonius Saccas. In his thirty-ninth year
he joined the expedition of the emperor Gordian
(242) against the Persians, in order to become
acquainted with the philosophy of the Persians
and Indians. After the death of Gordian he
fled to Antioch, and from thence to Rome (244).
Intent on philosophical study, he lived on the
scantiest fare and restricted his hours of sleep
to the briefest time possible. For the first ten
years of his residence at Rome he gave only
oral instruction to a few friends ; but he was
at length induced, in 254, to commit his instruc
tions to writing. In this manner when, ten
years later (264), Porphyry came to Rome and
joined himself to Plotinus, twenty-one books of
veryvariouscontentshadbeen already composed
by him. During the six years that Porphyry
lived with Plotinus at Rome, the latter, at the
instigation of Amelius and Porphyry, wrote
twenty-three books on the subjects which had
been discussed at their meetings, to which ten
books were afterwards added. The correction
of these books was committed by Plotinus him
self to the care of Porphyry. On account of
the weakness of his sight, Plotinus never read

732

PLOTIUS

them through a second time, still less corrected
them ; intent simply upon the matter, he was
alike careless of orthography, of the division of
the syUables, and the clearness of his hand
writing. The fifty-four books were divided by
Porphyry into six En/neads, or sets of nine
books. Plotinus was eloquent in his oral com
munications, and impressive in manner. He was
regarded with admiration and respect by men
of science such as the philosophers AmeUus, Por
phyry, the physicians Paulinus, Eustochius, and
Zethus the Arab: He also enjoyed the favour of
the emperor Gallienus and the empress Salonina,
and almost obtained from them the rebuilding
•of two destroyed towns in Campania, with the
view of their being governed according to the
laws of Plato. He died at Puteoli in 262. The
philosophical system of Plotinus is founded
upon Plato's writings, with the addition of
various tenets drawn from the Oriental philo
sophy and religion. He appears, however, to
avoid studiously aU reference to the Oriental
origin of his tenets ; he endeavours to find them
aU under the veil of the Greek mythology, and
points out here the germ of his own phUosophi-
-cal and reUgious convictions. He was the real
founder of the Neo-Platonic school. In his
system of Pantheism vovs or thought is an
¦emanation from the divine essence, and in it
resides all true Being, which is analogous to the
Platonic Ideas : the soul of the world, which, as
nature, unites with the corporeal world, pro
ceeds from the vovs, but the material world is
an imperfect copy of a world incomprehensible
by the senses. In man the soul is an emana
tion from the world-soul, which descends into
the human body, and whose highest perfection
is to be liberated from it and purified from all
that is sensuous. Plotinus is not guUty of that
commixture and falsification of the Oriental
mythology and mysticism which is found in
Iamblichus, Proclus, and others of the Neo-
Platonic school. — Editions of the Enneads of
Plotinus are by Kreuzer, Oxonii, 1835 ; by Kirch-
hoff, 1856 ; by Miiller, 1878.
Plotius, whose full name was Marius Plo
tius Sacebdos, a Latin grammarian, the author
of De Metris Liber, who probably lived towards
the end of the third century of the Christian
era, in the reign of Diocletian. His work is
published by Putschius in the Grammaticae
Latinae Auctores, Hannov. 1605, and by Gais-
ford in the Scrvptores Latini Bei Metricae,
Oxon, 1837.
Plotus Gallus ; Plot. Griphns ; Plot. Tucca.
[Gallus ; Gbiphus ; Tucca.]
Plutarchus (nAoii-rapxos). 1. Tyrant of Ere-
«tria in Euboea, whom the Athenians assisted in
B.C. 354 against his rival, Callias of Chalcis.
The Athenian army was commanded by Pho
cion, who defeated Callias at Tamynae ; but
Phocion having suspected Plutarchus of
treachery, expelled him from Eretria. (Plut.
Phoc. 12 ; Dem. de Pac. 5.) — 2. The biographer
and philosopher, was born at Chaeronea in
Boeotia. The year of his birth is not known ;
but we learn from Plutarch himself that he
was studying philosophy under Ammonius at
the time when Nero was making his progress
through Greece, in a.d. 66 ; from which we may
assume that he was a youth or a young man at
that time. He spent some time at Rome and
in other parts of Italy, but he tells us that he
-did not learn the Latin language in Italy,
because he was occupied with public commis
sions and in giving lectures on philosophy;
and it was late in life before he busied himself

PLUTARCHUS
with Roman literature. He was lecturing at
Rome during the reign of Domitian, but the
statement of Suidas that Plutarch was the
preceptor of Trajan ought to be rejected.
Plutarch spent the later years of his Ufe at
Chaeronea, where he discharged various magis
terial offices, and held a priesthood. The time
of his death is unknown, but probably took
place early in Hadrian's reign. — The work
which has immortalised Plutarch's name is his
Parallel Lives (Bi'oi napc!AA7)Aoi) of forty-six
Greeks and Romans. The forty-six Lives are
arranged in pairs ; each pair contains the Life
of a Greek and a Roman, and is foUowed' by a
comparison of the two men : in a few pairs the
comparison is omitted or lost. He seems to
have considered each pair of Lives and the
Parallel as making one book (BiBXiov), The
forty-six Lives are the following : — (1) Theseus
and Romulus; (2) Lycurgus and Numa; (3)
Solon and Valerius Publicola ; (4) Themistocles
and Camillus; (5) Pericles and Q. Fabius
Maximus ; (6) Alcibiades and Coriolanus ; (7)
Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus ; (8) Pelopidas
and MarceUus ; (9) Aristides and Cato the
Elder ; (10) Philopoemen and Flamininus ; (11)
Pyrrhus and Marius ; (12) Lysander and Sulla ;
(13) Cimon and LucuUus ; (14) Nicias and
Crassus; (15) Eumenes and Sertorius; (16)
AgesUaus and Pompeius ; (17) Alexander and
Caesar ; (18) Phocion and Cato the Younger ;
(19) Agis and Cleomenes, and Tiberius and
Gaius Gracchus ; (20) Demosthenes and Cicero;
(21) Demetrius Poliorcetes and M. Antonius ;
(22) Dion and M. Junius Brutus. There are
also the Lives of Artaxerxes Mnemon, Aratus,
Galba, and Otho, which are placed in the edi
tions after the forty-six Lives. Perhaps no work
of antiquity has been so extensively read in
modern times as Plutarch's Lives. The reason
of their popularity is that Plutarch has rightly
conceived the business of a biographer: his
biography is true portraiture. Other biography
is often a dull, tedious enumeration of facts in
the order of time, with perhaps a summing up
of character at the end. The reflections of
Plutarch are neither impertinent nor trifling :
his sound good sense is always there : his
honest purpose is transparent : his love of
humanity warms the whole. His work is and
will remain the book of those who can nobly
think and dare and do. (The best edition of
the Lives is by Sintenis, revised issue, Lips.
1875. Among separate editions of particular
Lives those of Themistocles and Demosthenes
by Holden supply most useful commentaries.)
— Plutarch's other writings, above sixty in num
ber, are placed under the general title of
Moralia or Ethical works, though some of them
are of an historical and anecdotal character,
such as the essay on the Malignity (KaKoiiBeia)
of Herodotus, which neither requires nor merits
refutation, and his Apophthegmata, many of
which are of little value. Eleven of these
essays are generally classed among Plutarch's
historical works : among them also are his
Boman Questions or Inquiries, his Greek
Questions, and the Lives of the Ten Orators.
But it is likely enough that several of the essays
which are included in the Moralia oi Plutarch
are not by him. At any rate, some of them ore
not worth reading. The best of the essays
included among the Moralia are of a different
stamp. There is no philosophical system in
these essays : pure speculation was not Plu
tarch's province. His best writings are practi
cal, and their merits consist in the soundness

PLUTO
of his views on the ordinary events of human
life, and the benevolence of his temper. — Edi
tions of the Moraliabj Wyttenbach, 1795-1821;
by Hercher, 1851. Editions of the complete
works of Plutarch by Reiske, Lips. 1774-1782,
and by Hutten, 1791-1805.— 3. The younger,
was a son of the last, and is supposed by some
to have been the author of several of the works
which pass usually for his father's, as e.g. the
Apophthegmata (Tzetz. Chil. i. 14, ad Lye. 658).
— 4. An Athenian, son of Nestorius, presided
with distinction over the Neo-Platonic school at
Athens in the early part of the fifth century, and
was surnamed the Great. He numbered among
his disciples Syrianus of Alexandria, who suc
ceeded him as head of the school, and Proclus
of Lycia. He wrote commentaries, which are
lost, on the Timaeus of Plato, and on Aristotle's
treatise On the Soul. He died at an advanced
age, about AJ>. 430. (Suid. s. v. TlpbKXos : Marin.
Vit. Prod. 12.)
Pluto. [Hades.]
Plutus (IIAoStos), the personification of
wealth, is described as a son of lasion and De
meter. [Lasion.] That Wealth should be the
offspring of the Earth-goddess expresses the idea
that riches come from the earth — primarily
from agriculture, but also from metals. The
same idea was the cause of the name TlXoirav
being given to Hades, the god of the earth and
of the underworld [see p. 375, b]. Zeus is said
to have deprived Plutus of sight, that he might
not bestow his favours on righteous men ex
clusively, but that he might distribute his gifts
blindly and without any regard to merit (Ar.
Plut. 90 ; Schol. ad Theocr. x. 19). At Thebes
there was a statue of Tyche or Fortune, at
Athens one of Irene or Peace, and at Thespiae
one of Athene Ergane, and in each of these
coses Plutus was represented as the child of
those divinities, symbohcaUy expressing the
sources of wealth, from good fortune, peace and
industry (Paus. i. 8, 2, ix. 16, 2, ix. 26, 8). A
copy of the statue of Irene and Plutus is now
at Munich. [Cephisodotus.] He seems to
have been also represented as u. boy with a
cornucopia. Pluvialia (TTXovirdXa, Ptol. : prob. Ferro), one
of the islands in the Atlantic caUed Foetunatae.
Pluvius, i.e. the sender of rain (TibuU. i. 7,
26), a surname of Jupiter among the Romans
(also PluviaUs and Imbricitor), to whom sacri
fices were offered during long protracted
droughts. [Jupiteb.]
Pnytagoras (Tlvvray bpas). 1. Eldest son of
Evagoras, king of Salamis in Cyprus, was assas
sinated along with his father, B.C. 374. [Ev-
agobas.] — 2. King of Salamis in Cyprus, prob
ably succeeded Nicocles, though we have no
account of his accession, or his relation to the
previous monarchs. He submitted to Alexan
der in 332, under whom he served with a fleet
at the siege of Tyre. (Diod. xvi. 46; Arrian,
An. ii. 20; Curt. iv. 3, 11 ; Athen. p. 167.)
Podalirlus (TloSaXeipios), son of Asclepius
and Epione or Arsinoe, and brother of Machaon,
along with whom he led the ThessaUans of Tricca
against Troy. He was, like his brother, skilled
in the medical art. On his return from Troy he
was oast by a storm on the coast of Syros in
Caria, where he is said to have settled. He was
worshipped as a hero on Mt. Dria. [Machaon.]
Podarces (TloSdpKris). 1. The original name of
Priam. [Pbiamus.]-— 2. Son of Iphiclus and
grandson of Phylacus, was a younger brother
of Protesilaus, and led the ThessaUans of
Phylace against Troy (II. u. 695).

POLEMON

783

Podarge. [Habpyiae.]
Poeas (Tlotas), son of Phylacus or Thaumacus,
husband of Methone, and the father of PhUo-
ctetes, who is hence called Poeantiades,
Poeantiusheros, Poeantia proles, and Poeante
satus. Poeas is mentioned among the Argo
nauts, and is said to have killed with an arrow
Talaus in Crete. He set fire to the pile on
which Heracles was burnt, and was rewarded
by the hero with his arrows. [Hebacles ;
Philoctetes.] Poemander (TloipavSpos), son of ChaeresUaus
and Stratonice, was the husband of Tanagra, a
daughter of Aeolus or Aesopus, by whom he be
came the father of Ephippus and Leucippus. He
was the reputed founder of the town of Tanagra
in Boeotia, hence called Poemandria. When
Poemander had inadvertently killed his own son,
he was purified by Elephenor. (Strab. p. 404.)-
Poemanenus (Uoipavrivbs ; ethnic, the same :
prob. Maniyas), a fortified place in Mysia, S. of
Cyzicus, with a celebrated temple of Asclepius
(Steph. Byz. s. v. ; Plin. v. 123).
Poetovio, sometimes written Petovio (Pet-
tau), a town in Pannonia Superior (Western
Pannonia) on the frontiers of Noricum, and on
the Dravus (Drave), was at first a fortress, and
then a Roman colony with the surname Ulpia,
having been probably enlarged and made a
colony by Trajan, and station of the legion XIII.
Gemina (Tac. Hist. ni. 1 ; Amm. Marc. xiv. 37 ;
C. I. L. in. p. 439).
Pogon (Tldyav), the harbour of Troezen in
ArgoUs (Strab. p. 87S).
Pola (Fold), an ancient town in Istria, situ
ated on the W. coast, and near the promontory
Polaticum, which was the most southerly point
in the country. According to tradition Pola,
was founded by the ColchiaK*" who had been
sent in pursuit of Medea (Strab. pp. 46, 209,
216 ; Mel. ii. 3, 13). It was subsequently a Ro
man colony, with the surname Pietas Julia,
and became an important commercial town,
being united by good roads with Aquileia and
the principal towns of IUyria (Plin. iii. 129).
It was here that BeUsarius assembled his fleet
to cross to Ravenna, a.d. 544 (Procop. B. G. iii.
10). Its importance in antiquity is attested by
its magnificent ruins, of which the principal are
those of an amphitheatre, of a triumphal arch
(Porta aurea), erected to L. Sergius by his wife.
Salvia Postuma, and of several temples.
Polemon (TloXepav). 1. I., king of Pontus
and the BoBporus, was the son of Zenon, the
orator of Laodicea. As a reward for the services.
rendered by his father as weU as himself he was
appointed by Antony in B.C. 39 to the govern
ment of a part of Cilicia ; and he subsequently
obtained in exchange the kingdom of Pontus.
(App. B. C. v. 75 ; Dio CaBs. xlix. 25, 33 ; Strab.
p. 578.) He accompanied Antony in his expe
dition against the Parthians in 86. After the
battle of Actium he was able to make his peace
with Octavian, who confirmed him in his kingdom
(Dio Cass. liii. 25). About the year 16 he was
entrusted by Agrippa with the charge of re
ducing the kingdom of Bosporus, of which he
was made king after conquering the country
(Dio Cass. Uv. 24). HiB reign after this was.
long and prosperous ; he extended his do
minions as far as the river Tanais ; but having
engaged in an expedition against the barbarian
tribe of the Aspurgians he was not only de
feated by them, but taken prisoner, and put to
death (Strab. pp. 493, 495, 556). By his second
wife, Pythodoris, who succeeded him on the
throne, he left two sons, Polemon II., and

734

POLEMON

Zenon, king of Armenia, and one daughter, j
who was married to Cotys king of Thrace —
2. II., son of the preceding and of Pythodoris,
waa raised to the sovereignty of Pontus and
Bosporus by Caligula in a.d. 39. Bosporus was
afterwards taken from him by Claudius, who
assigned it to Mithridates, while he gave Pole
mon a portion of Cilicia in its stead, 41. In 62
Polemon was induced by Nero to abdicate the
throne, and Pontus was reduced to the con
dition of a Roman province. (Dio Cass. lix. 12,
Ix. 8 ; Suet. Ner. 18.) — 3. Brother of Attalus, a
Macedonian officer in the army of Alexander
the Great. He was suspected of complicity in
the plot of which Philotas was accused, but he
was acquitted or pardoned (Arr. An. iii. 27 ;
Curt. vii. 2, 1). After the death of Alexander
he became a partisan of Perdiccas, under whose
brother, Alcetas, he served (Diod. xviii. 45, xix.
16) until 320, when he shared the defeats and
captivity of Attalus. [Attalus, No. 2.] — 4. Of
Athens, an eminent Platonic philosopher, was
the son of Philostratus, a man of wealth and
political distinction. In his youth Polemon
was extremely profligate ; but one day, when he
was about thirty, on his bursting into the school
of Xenocrates, at the head of a band of reveUers,
his attention was so arrested by the discourse,
which chanced to be upon temperance, that he
tore off his garland and remained an attentive
listener, and from that day he adopted an abste
mious course of life (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 253), and
continued to frequent the school, of which, on
the death of Xenocrates, he became the head,
B.C. 315. He died in 273 at a great age. He
esteemed the object of philosophy to be to
exercise men in things and deeds, not in dia
lectic speculation. He placed the sum-mum
bonum in living according to the laws of nature.
(Diog. Laert. iv. 16 ; Athen. p. 44 ; Cic. de Fin.
iv. 2, 6, 16, v. 1, 5.) — 5. Of Athens by citizen
ship, but by birth either of Ilium, or Samos, or
Sicyon, a Stoic philosopher and an eminent
geographer, surnamed Periegetes (b irepitiyiirrts),
lived in the time of Ptolemy Epiphanes, at the
beginning of the second century B.C. In philo
sophy he was a disciple of Panaetius. He made
extensive journeys through Greece, to collect
materials for his geographical works, in the
course of which he paid particular attention to
the inscriptions on votive offerings and on
columns. As the collector of these inscriptions,
he was one of the earlier contributors to the
Greek Anthology. Athenaeus and other writers
make very numerous quotations from his works.
They were chiefly descriptions of different parts
of Greece ; some were on the paintings pre
served in various places, and several are con
troversial, among which is one against Erato
sthenes. (Athen. pp. 436, 442.) — 6. Antonius, a
celebrated sophist and rhetorician, flourished
under Trajan, Hadrian, and the first Antoninus,
and was in high favour with the two former
emperors. He was born of a consular family,
at Laodicea, but spent the greater part of his
life at Smyrna. His most celebrated disciple
was Aristides. Among his imitators in subse
quent times was Gregory Nazianzen. His style
of oratory was imposing rather than pleasing,
and his character was haughty and reserved.
During the latter part of his life he was so
tortured by the gout that he resolved to put an
end to his existence ; he had himself shut up in
the tomb of his ancestors at Laodicea, where
he died of hunger, at the age of sixty-five.
(PhUostr. Sophist, p. 530 ; Suid. s.v.) The only
extant work of Polemon is the funeral orations

POLLIO
for Cynaegirus and Callimachus, the generals
who fell at Marathon, which are supposed to be
pronounced by their fathers. These orations
are edited by OreUi, Lips. 1819.-7. The author
of a short Greek work on Physiognomy, which
is still extant. He must have lived in or before
the third century after Christ, as he is men
tioned by Origen, and from his style he cannot
be supposed to have lived much earlier than
this time. His work consists of two books : in
the first, which contains twenty-three chapters,
after proving the utility of physiognomy, he
lays down the general principles of the science ;
in the second book, which consists of twenty-
seven chapters, he goes on to apply the
principles he had before laid down, and de
scribes in a few words the characters of the
courageous man, the timid, the impudent, the
passionate, the talkative, &c— Edited by Franz
in his Scriptores Physiognomoniae Veteres,
Altenburg, 1780.
Polemonium (TloXepjhviov : TloXepavios, and
TloXepavteis : Buleman), a city on the coast of
Pontus in Asia Minor, built by king Polemon
(probably the second), on the site of the older
city of Side, at the mouth of the river Sidenus
(Poleman Chai), and at the bottom of a deep
gulf, with a good harbour. It was the capital
of the kingdom of Polemon, comprising the
central part of Pontus, E. of the Iris, which was
hence called Pontus Polemoniacus. (PUn. vi.
11 ; Ptol. v. 6, 4 ; Amm. Marc. xxii. 8.)
Polias. [Athene.]
Polichna (TloXixvi), Dor- TioXlxva : TloXtxvi-
rris), a town : — 1. In the NW. of Messenia, W.
of Andania (Paus. iv. 33, 6).— 2. In the NE.
of Laconia (Pol. iv. 36).— 3. In Chios.— 4. In
Crete, whose territory bordered on that of
Cydonia (Hdt. vii. 170 ; Thuc. ii. 85).— 5. In
Mysia, in the district Troas, on the left bank of
the Aesepus near its source (Strab. p. 603).
Pollens (TloXieis), ' the protector of the city,'
a surname of Zeus.
Poliorcetes, Demetrius. [Demetrius.]
Polites (TloXirris), son of Priam and Hecuba,
and father of Priam the younger, was a valiant
warrior and famed for his swiftness of foot.
He was slain by Pyrrhus. (H. xiii. 533, xv. 339 ;
Verg. Aen. ii. 526, v. 564.)
Politorium, a town in the interior of La
tium, destroyed by Ancus Martius (Liv. i.. S3;
Dionys. iii. 43 ; PUn. iii. 68).
Polla, Argentaria, the wife of the poet
Lucan. [Lucanus.]
PoUentia (Pollentinus). 1. (Polenzd), a
town of the Statielli in Liguria at the confluence
of the Stura and the Tanarus, and subse
quently a Roman municipium (Plin. ui. 49).
It was celebrated for its wool. In its neigh
bourhood Stilicho gained a victory over the
Goths under Alaric (Claudian, B. Get. 580-647;
Oros. vii. 37). — 2. A town in Picenum probably
identical with Urbs Salvia (Plin. Ui. 111). — 8.
(Polienza), a Roman colony on the NE. point
of the Balearis Major. [Baleaees.]
PoUentia, a deity worshipped by the Romans
among the Indigetes, who was supposed to
supply strength to the growing child (Liv.
xxxix. 7 ; Plaut. Cas. iv. 4, 8 ; cf. Indigetes).
Pollio, Annius, was accused of treason
(majestas) towards the end of the reign of
Tiberius, but was not brought to trial. He was
subsequently one of Nero's intimate friends,
but was accused of taking part in Piso's con
spiracy against that emperor in a.d. 68, and
was banished. (Tac. Ann. xv. 56, 71.)
Pollio, C. Asinius, a distinguished orator,

POLLIO
poet and historian of the Augustan age. He
was born at Rome in B.C. 76, and became dis
tinguished as an orator at an early age. At the
age of twenty-two he prosecuted C. Cato (Tac.
Dial. 34). On the breaking out of the Civil war he
joined Caesar, and in 49 he accompanied Curio
to Africa. After the defeat and death of Curio,
he crossed over to Greece, and fought on
Caesar's side at the battle of Pharsalia (48).
He also accompanied Caesar in his campaigns
against the Pompeian party in Africa (46) and
Spain (45). He returned with Caesar to Rome,
hut was shortly afterwards sent back to Spain,
with the command of the Further Province, in
order to prosecute the war against Sex. Pom
pey. He was in his province at the time of
Caesar's death (44). He took no part in the
war between Antony and the senate ; but when
Antony was joined by Lepidus and Octavian in
43, PoUio espoused their cause, and persuaded
L. Plancus in Gaul to follow his example. In
the division of the provinces among the trium
virs, Antony received the Gauls. The adminis
tration of the Transpadane Gaul was committed
to PoUio by Antony, and he had accordingly
the difficult task of settling the veterans in the
lands which had been assigned to them in this
province. It was upon this occasion that he
saved the property of the poet VirgU at Mantua
from confiscation, whom he took under his
protection from his love of literature. In 40
PoUio took an active part in effecting the
reconcUiation between Octavian and Antony at
Brundusium. In the same year he was consul ;
and it was during his consulship that Virgil
addressed to him his 4th Eclogue. In 39
Antony went to Greece, and sent Pollio with a
part of his army agamst the Parthini, an IUy-
rian people. PoUio defeated the Parthini and
took the Dalmatian town of Salonae; and in
consequence of his success obtained the honour
of a triumph on the 25th of October in this
year. (Hor. -Od. U. 1, 16 ; G. I. L. i. p. 461.) He
gave his son, Asinius GaUus, the agnomen of
Saloninus after the town which he had taken.
It was during his Hlyrian campaign that Virgil
addressed to him the 8th Eclogue. From this
time PoUio withdrew altogether from political
life, and devoted himself to the study of Utera
ture. He stUl continued, however, to exercise
his oratorical powers, and maintained his
reputation for eloquence by his speeches both
in the senate and in the courts of justice. He
died at his Tusculan viUa, a.d. 4, in the 80th
year of his age, preserving to the last the full
enjoyment of his health and of aU his faculties.
(Hieron. ad Euseb. Ghron. 2020 ; cf . Tac. Dial.
17; Sen. Gontr. 4, 5.) — Pollio deserves a dis
tinguished place in the history of Roman
literature, not so much on account of his works,
as of the encouragement which he gave to
Uterature. He was not only a patron of Virgil,
Horace (see Od. ii. l),and other great poets and
writers, but he has the honour of having been
the first person to estabUsh a public library at
Rome, upon which he expended the money he
had obtained in his IUyrian campaign (Plin.
xxxv. 10). None of PoUio's own works have
come down to us, but they possessed sufficient
merit to lead his contemporaries and successors
to class his name with those of Cicero, Virgil
and SaUust, as an orator, a poet and an
historian. Catullus (xii. 9) describes him in his
youth as 'leporum disertus puer et facetiarum,'
and Horace speaks of him in the fuU maturity
of his powers (Od. ii. 1, 13) as ' Insigne maestis
praesidium reis et consulenti, PoUio, curiae ; '

POLLUX

736

and we have also the testimony of Quintilian,
the two Senecas and Tacitus to the greatness
of his oratorical powers (Quint, x. 1, 118 ; Sen.
Contr._ 4, 8 ; Sen. Ep. 100, 7 ; Tac. Dial. 21).
— Pollio wrote the history of the Civil wars in
seventeen books (Suid. s. v.). It began with
the consulship of Metellus and Afranius, B.C.
60, in which year the first triumvirate was
formed, and appears to have come down to the
time when Augustus obtained the undisputed
supremacy of the Roman world (Hor. Od. ii. 1,
24 ; Sen. Suas. vi. 15, 24 ; Suet. Jul. 80 ; Tac.
Ann. iv. 34).— As a poet Pollio was best known
for his tragedies, which are spoken of in high
terms by Virgil and Horace, but which probably
did not possess any great merit, as they are
hardly mentioned by subsequent writers
(Verg. Eel. iii. 86, viii. 10 ; Hor. Od. ii. 1, 9 ;
Sat. i. 10, 42). It has been asserted by some
modern critics that Pollio was the author of the
Bellum Africanum ; but the theory is improb
able and has no support. — PoUio also enjoyed
great reputation as a critic, but he is chiefly
known in this capacity for the severe judgment
which he passed upon his great contemporaries.
Thus he pointed out many mistakes in the
speeches of Cicero (Quint, xii. 1, 22), censured
the Commentaries of Caesar for their want of
historical fidelity (Suet. Jul. 56), and found
fault with SaUust for affectation in the use of
antiquated words and expressions (Suet.
Gramm. 10 ; Gell. x. 26). He also complained
of a certain Patavinity in Livy, respecting
which some remarks are made in the life of
Livy [p. 495, a]. Pollio had a son, C. Asinius
Gallus Saloninus. [See p. 855, b.] Asinius
Gallus married Vipsania, the former wife of
Tiberius, by whom he had several children :
namely, (1) Asinius Saloninus ; (2) Asinius
Gallus ; (3) Asinius Pollio, consul a.d. 23 ; (4)
Asinius Agrippa, consul a.d. 25; (5) Asinius
Ceier. "
Pollio, VediUS, a Roman eques and a friend
of Augustus, was by birth a freedman, and has
obtained a place in history on account of his
riches and his cruelty. He was accustomed to
feed his lampreys with human flesh, and when
ever a slave displeased him, the unfortunate
wretch was forthwith thrown into the pond as
food for the fish. On one occasion Augustus
was supping with him, when a slave had the
misfortune to break a crystal goblet, and his
master immediately ordered him to be thrown
to the fishes. The slave fell at the feet of
Augustus, praying for mercy; and when the
emperor could not prevail upon Pollio to pardon
him, he dismissed the slave of his own accord,
and commanded all PoUio's crystal goblets to
be broken and the fish-pond to be filled up.
Pollio died B.C. 15, leaving a large part of his
property to Augustus. It was this Pollio who
built the celebrated villa of Pausilypum near
Naples. (Dio Cass. liv. 23 ; Sen. de Ira, iii.
40 ; Plin. ix. 77 ; Tac. Ann. i. 10, xii. 60.)
Pollusca (TloXXoio-Ka), a city of Latium near
Corioli taken and retaken in the Volscian wars,
after which it disappears from history (Liv. ii.
33, 39 ; Dionys. vi. 91, viii. 36).
Pollux or Polydeuces. [Dioscubi.]
Pollux, Julius ('loiXios TloXvSeiKris). 1. Of
Naucratis in Egypt, was a Greek sophist and
grammarian. He studied rhetoric at Athens
under the sophist Adrian, and afterwards
opened a private school in this city, where he
gave instruction in grammar and rhetoric. At
a later time he was appointed by the emperor
Commodus to the chair of rhetoric at Athens.

786

POLUS

He died during the reign of Commodus at
the age of fifty-eight. He seems to have been
attacked by many of his contemporaries on
account of the inferior character of his ora
tory, and especially by Lucian in his 'Pnrbpav
SiSdffKaXos. PoUux was the author of several
works, all of which have perished with the
exception of the Onomasticon. This work is
divided into ten books, each of which contains
a short dedication to the Caesar Commodus : it
was therefore published before A.D. 177, since
Commodus became Augustus in that year.
Each book forms a separate treatise by itself,
containing the most important words relating
to certain subjects, with short explanations of
the meanings of the words. The alphabetical
arrangement is not adopted, but the words are
given according to the subjects treated of in
eachbook. — Editions by LederUnandHemsters-
huis, Amsterdam, 1706; by Dindorf, Lips.
1824 ; and by Tmm, Bekker, Berol. 1846.— 2.
A Byzantine writer, the author of a Chronicon
which treats at some length of the creation of
the world, and is therefore entitled 'Icrropta
cpvo-iK-fi. It is a universal history, beginning
with the creation of the world and coming down
to the time of the writer. — Edited by Hardt,
Munich, 1792.
Polus (nSAos). 1. A sophist and rhetorician,
a native of Agrigentum. He was a disciple of
Gorgias, and wrote a treatise on rhetoric, as
well as other works mentioned by Suidas. He
is introduced by Plato as an interlocutor in the
Gorgias (cf. Plat. Phaedr. p. 267).— 2. A cele
brated tragic actor, the son of Charicles of
Sunium, and a disciple of Archias of Thurii. It
is related that at the age of 70, shortly before
his death, he acted in eight tragedies on four
successive days. (Plut. Dem. 28.)
Polyaegjos (TloXiaiyos : Polybos or Anti-
•melos), an uninhabited island in the Aegaean
sea, near Melos (Plin: iv. 70 ; Ptol. iii. 15, 28).
Polyaenus (rioAi5o.ii>os). 1. Of Lampsacus, a
mathematician and a friend of Epicurus, adopted
the philosophical system of his friend, and,
although he had previously acquired great
reputation as a mathematician, he now main
tained with Epicurus the worthlessness of
geometry (Cic. Ac. ii. 33, Fin. i. 6).— 2. Of
Sardis, a sophist, lived in the time of Julius
Caesar. He is the author of four epigrams in
the Greek Anthology. His full name was
Julius Polyaenus. — 3. The Macedonian, the
author of the work on Stratagems in war
(SrparnyiipaTa), which is stiU extant, lived
about the middle of the second century of the
Christian era. Suidas calls him a rhetorician,
. and we learn from Polyaenus himself that he
was accustomed to plead causes before the
emperor. He dedicated his work to M. Aure
lius and Verus, while they were engaged in the
Parthian war, about a.d. 163, at which time, he
says, he was too old to accompany them in their
campaigns. This work is divided into eight
books, of which the first six contain an account
of the stratagems of the most celebrated Greek
generals, the seventh of those of barbarous or
, foreign people, and the eighth of the Romans.
Parts, however, of the sixth and seventh books
are lost, so that of the 900 stratagems which
Polyaenus described, only 838 have come down
to ub. The work is written in a clear and
pleasing style, though somewhat tinged with
the artificial rhetoric of the age. It contains
a vast number of anecdotes respecting many
of the most celebrated men in antiquity;
but its value as a historical authority is very

POLYAENUS
much diminished by the little judgment which
the author evidently possessed, and by our
ignorance of the sources from which he took his
statements. — Editions by Casaubon, 1589 ;
Coray, 1809 ; Wolflinn, 1860 ; Wescher, 1867.
Polybius (TloXiBios). 1. The historian, the
son of Lycortas, and a native of Megalopolis, in
Arcadia, was born about B.C. 204. His father,
Lycortas, was one of the most distinguished men
of the Achaean League : and Polybius received
the advantages of his father's instruction in
political knowledge and the mUitary art. He
must also have reaped great benefit from his
intercourse with Philopoemen, who was a friend
of his father's, and on whose death, _ in 182,
Polybius carried the urn in which his ashes
were deposited. In the foUowing year Polybius
was appointed one of the ambassadors to Egypt,
but he did not leave Greece, as the intention of
sending an embassy was abandoned. From this
time he probably began to take part in public
affairs, and he appears to have soon obtained
great influence among his countrymen, and as
Hipparch attained a position which ranked
second in the state. He advised neutrality in
the war between Rome and Macedon. After
the conquest of Macedonia, in 168, the Roman
commissioners who were sent into the S. of
Greece commanded, at the instigation of CaUi-
crates, that 1000 Achaeans should be carried to
Rome, to answer the charge of not having
assisted the Romans against Perseus. This
number included all the best and noblest part
of the nation, and among them was Polybius.
They arrived in Italy in B.C. 167, but, instead of
being put upon their trial, they were distributed
among the Etruscan towns. Polybius was
more fortunate than the rest of his countrymen.
He had probably become acquainted in Greece
with Aemilius Paulus, or his sons Fabius and
Scipio, and the two young men now obtained
permission from the praetor for Polybius to
reside at Rome in the house of their father,
Paulus. Scipio was then eighteen years of age,
and soon became warmly attached to Polybius.
Scipio was accompanied by his friend in all his
military expeditions, and received much advan
tage from his experience and knowledge. Poly
bius, on the other hand, besides finding a Uberal
patron and protector in Scipio, was able by his
means to obtain access to pubUc documents,
and to accumulate materials for his great his
torical work. After remaining in Italy seven
teen years, he returned to the Peloponnesus in
151, with the surviving Achaean exiles, who
were at length allowed by the senate to revisit
their native land. He did not, however, remain
long in Greece. He joined Scipio in his cam
paign against Carthage, and was present at the
destruction of that city in 146. Immediately
afterwards he hurried to Greece, where the
Achaeans were waging a mad and hopeless war
against the Romans. He appears to have
arrived in Greece soon after the capture of
Corinth, and he exerted aU his influence to
alleviate the misfortunes of his countrymen,
and to procure favourable terms for them. His
grateful fellow-countrymen acknowledged the
great services he had rendered them, and
statues were erected to his honour at Megalo
polis, Mantinea, PaUantium, Tegea, and other
places. The base of the statue erected to him
by the state of Elis was found at Olympia by
the German explorers in 1877. Polybius seems
now to have devoted himself to the composi
tion of the great historical work for which he
had long been coUecting materials. At what

POLYBIUS

737

period of his life he made the journeys into
foreign countries for the purpose of visiting the
places which he had to describe in his history,
it is impossible to determine. He tells us
(iii. 59) that he undertook long and dangerous
journeys into Africa, Spain, Gaul, and even as
far as the Atlantic, on account of the ignorance
which prevailed respecting those parts. Some
of these countries he visited while serving
under Scipio, who afforded him every facility
for the prosecution of his design. At a later
period of his life he visited Egypt likewise.
He probably accompanied Scipio to Spain in
134, and was present at the fall of Numantia,
since Cicero states (ad Fam. v. 12) that Poly
bius wrote a history of the Numantine war.
He died at the age of eighty-two, in consequence
of a fall from his horse, about 122. — The His
tory of Polybius consisted of forty books, of
which the first five books, and extracts from
the other thirty-five books, survive. Books i.
and ii. form the Introduction, taking up the
history where Timaeus left off, at 264 B.C. They
contain some account of the first Punic war and
the Achaean League. The remainder of the
work fell into two parts. The first comprised a,
period of thirty-five years, beginning with the
second Punic war and the Social war in Greece,
and ending with the conquest of Perseus and
the downfall of the Macedonian kingdom, in
168. This was in fact the main portion of his
work, and its great object was to show how the
Romans had in this brief period of fifty-three
years conquered the greater part of the world,
and to demonstrate that they were marked out
as the rulers of nations, and fitted for a uni
versal empire. With the f aU of the Macedonian
kingdom the supremacy of the Roman dominion
was decided, and it was vain for the other
nations of the world to resist. In this first
part book Ui. relates the second Punic war as
far as Cannae ; iv. and v. deal with the wars
in Greece and Syria. Books vi.-xxx. described
the progress of Roman conquest to the
battle of Pydna, B.C. 168. The second part of
the work, which formed a kind of supplement
to the former part, comprised the period from
the conquest of Perseus, in 168, to the fall of
Corinth, in 146. The history of the conquest
of Greece seems to have been completed in the
thirty-ninth book ; and the fortieth book prob
ably contained a chronological summary of
the whole work. The History of Polybius is
one of the most valuable works that have come
down to us from antiquity. His early training
had taught him to appreciate military opera
tions as weU as political measures, and the
leading part which he took in his own country
enabled him to judge of the characters and
motives of the great actors in history in a way
which no mere scholar or rhetorician could do.
To these qualifications were added the inestim
able advantage of intimate friendship with
the greatest men of Rome, and the opportunities
of learning at first hand aU that those who
directed the civil and military actions of the
republic could teU him. No one could have a
better claim to write a history of the second
and third Punic wars than the man who pos
sessed all the information that the Scipios and
Aemilii had stored up of the second, and was
himself an eye-witness of the conclusion of the
third. These materials he supplemented by
every means in his power. Thus he not only
coUected with accuracy and care an account of
the events that he intended to narrate, but he
also studied the history of the Roman constitu

tion, and made distant journeys to become
acquainted with the geography of the countries
that he had to describe in his work. A char
acteristic feature of his work, which distin
guishes it from all other histories which
have come down to us from antiquity,
is its didactic nature. Hia object was to
teach by the past a knowledge of the future,
and to deduce from previous events lessons
of practical wisdom. Hence he caUs his
work a Pragmateia (irpaypareta), and not
a History (icrropia). The value of history con
sisted, in his opinion, in the instruction that
might be obtamed from it. Thus the narrative
of events became in his view of secondary
importance ; they formed only the text of the
political and moral discourses which it was the
province of the historian to deliver. Excellent,
however, as these discourses are, they materially
detract from the merits of the history as a
work of art; their frequent occurrence inter
rupts the continuity of the narrative, and
destroys, to a great extent, the interest of the
reader in the scenes which are described.
Moreover, he frequently inserts long episodes,
which have little connexion with the main
subject of his work, because they have a didactic
tendency. Thus we find that one whole book
(the sixth) was devoted to a history of the
Roman constitution ; and the thirty-fourth book
seems to have been exclusively a treatise on
geography. The style of Polybius bears the
impress of his mind; and, as instruction and
not amusement was the great object for which
he wrote, he did not seek to please his readers
by the choice of his phrases or the composition
of his sentences. Hence the later Greek critics
were severe in their condemnation of his style.
Of the extracts which have been preserved
from the lost books (vi.-xl.) aome are of con
siderable length, such as the account of the
Roman army, which belonged to the sixth
book. There have been discovered at different
times four distinct collections of extracts from
the lost books. The first collection, discovered
soon after the revival of learning in a MS.
brought from Corfu, contained the greater part
of the sixth book, and portions of the following
eleven. In 1582 Ursinus published at Antwerp
a second collection of Extracts, entitled Ex-
eerpta de Legationibus, which were made in
the tenth century of the Christian era. In
1634, Valesius published a third collection of
extracts from Polybius, also taken from the
Excerpta of Constantinus, entitled Excerpta
de Virtutibus et Vitiis. The fourth collection
of extracts was published at Rome in 1827 by
Angelo Mai, who discovered in the Vatican
library at Rome the section of the Excerpta
of Constantinus Porphyrogenitus entitled Ex
cerpta de Sententiis. — Editions of Polybius,
with a commentary, by Schweighaeuser, Lips.
1789-1795 ; of the text alone, by Bekker
(Berol. 1844, 2 vols. 8vo), who has added the
Vatican fragments ; Dindorf, 1866 ; Hultsch,
1871. Edition of portion of the history, with a
commentary, by Strachan Davidson, 1890. Livy
did not use Polybius till he came to the second
Punic war, but from that time he followed him
very closely. Cicero likewise chiefly followed
Polybius in the account which he gives of the
Roman constitution in his De Bepublica. The'
History of Polybius was continued by Posi-
donius and Strabo. [Poseoonius ; Stbabo.]
Besides the great historical work of which we
have been speaking, Polybius wrote (2) The
Life of Philopoemen, in three books ; (8) a
3B

738

POLYBOTES

treatise on Tactics; (4) A History of the
Numantine War. — 2. A freedman of the em
peror Augustus, read in the senate the will of
the emperor after his decease (Suet. Aug. 101).
— 3. A favourite freedman of the emperor
ClaudiuB. He was the companion of the studies
of Claudius, and on the death of his brother,
Seneca addressed to him a Gonsolatio, in which
he bestows the highest praises upon his literary
attainments. Polybius was put to death through
the intrigues of MessaUina, although he had
been one of her paramours (Suet. Claud. 28).
Polybotes (TloXvBdriis), one of the giants
who fought against the gods, was pursued by
Poseidon across the sea as far as the island of
Cos. There Poseidon tore away a part of the
island, which was afterwards called Nisyrion,
and throwing it upon the giant buried him
under it. [Gigantes.]
Polybotus (TloXiBoros : Bulawadin, Ru.), a
city of Great Phrygia, E. of Synnada (Procop.
Hist. Arc. 18 ; Hierocl. p. 677).
Polybus (TlbXvBos). 1. King of Corinth, by
whom Oedipus was brought up. [Oedipus.]
He was the husband of Periboea or Merope.
Pausanias makes him king of Sicyon, and
describes him as a son of Hermes and Chthono-
phyle, and as the father of LysianaBsa, whom
he gave in marriage to Talaus, king of the
Argives. (Soph. 0. T. 770 ; Apollod. in. 5, 7 ;
Paus. ii. 6, 8.) — 2. A Greek physician, was one
of the pupils of Hippocrates, who was also his
son-in-law, and lived in the island of Cos, in
the fourth century B.C. With his brothers-in-
law, Thessalus and Dracon, Polybus was one
of the founders of the ancient medical sect of
the Dogmatici. He was sent abroad by Hippo
crates, with his fellow-pupils, during the time
of the plague, to assist different cities with his
medical skill, and he afterwards remained in
his native country. He has been supposed,
both by ancient and modern critics, to be the
author of several treatises in the Hippocratic
collection. Polycarpus (TloXiKapiros), Bishop of Smyrna
[Did. of Christian Biography],
Polycles (TIoXvkXijs), the name of two artists.
The elder Polycles was probably an Athenian,
and flourished about B.C. 370 (Plin. xxxiv. 50).
The younger Polycles is placed by Pliny in 155.
He was an Athenian sculptor, and with his two
sons, Timocles and Timarchides (also sculptors),
settled at Rome. Among his works were a
statue of Agesarchus the wrestler at Olympia ;
a statue of Juno, which was placed in the por
tico of Octavia at Rome, when that portico was
erected by Metellus Macedonicus, and (probably)
a Hermaphrodite which Pliny callB famous.
(Paus. vi. 12, 8 ; Plin. xxxiv. 52, 80, xxxvi. 35.)
The Hermaphrodite is by some attributed to the
elder Polycles, but on the whole it is more
likely that it belongs to the later period. The
two sons of the younger Polycles were authors
of the statue of Asclepius ac Elatea (Paus. x.
34, 6).
Polyclitus (TloXiKXeiros). 1. The Elder, of Ar
gos, probably by citizenship, and of Sicyon, prob
ably by birth, was one of the most celebrated
sculptors of the ancient world. He was the pu
pil of the great Argive sculptor Ageladas, under
whom he had Phidias and Myron for his fellow-
disciples. He was somewhat younger than
Phidias, and about the same age as Myron.
He flourished about b.c 452-412. Of his
personal history we know nothing further. As
an artist, he stood at the head of the schools of
Argos and Sicyon, and approached more nearly

POLYCLITUS
than any other to an equaUty with Phidias, the
great head of the Athenian school. The essen
tial difference between these artists was that
Phidias was unsurpassed in making the images
of the gods, Poly-
clitus in those of
men. One of the
most celebrated
works of Polycli-
tus was his Dory-
phorus or Spear-
bearer, a youthful
figure, but with the
full proportions of
a man. This was
the statue which
became known by
the name of The
Canon, because in
it the artist had
embodied a perfect
representation of
the ideal of the hu
man figure (Plin.
xxxiv. 55). Another
of his great works
was his ivory and
gold statue of Hera
in her temple be
tween Argos and
Mycenae. The god
dess was seated on
a throne, her head
crowned with a
garland, on which
were worked the
Graces and the
Hours, the one

Doryphorus, after Polyclitus.
(Naples.)

hand holding the symbolical pomegranate, and
the other a sceptre, surmounted by a cuckoo, a
bird sacred to Hera (Paus. ii. 17, 4). This statue
was accepted as fixing the type of Hera, just as
the great Btatues of
Phidias at Olympia
and Athens fixed
the types of Zeus
and Athene. [See
the head of the
Farnese Hera on
p. 393.] It is no
ticed of Polyclitus
that he particu
larly adopted the
attitude of resting
on one foot with
the other more
lightly pressed
(PUn. xxxiv. 56), so
as to give an easy
and graceful pose.
In grace of form
he excelled, so that
Quintilian notices
that he gave ideal
beauty to the hu
man form, but did
not express the
full grandeur and
majesty of the di
vine (xii. 10, 7).
In this, no doubt,
he contrasts him
with Phidias. His
finish was perfect,

Marble copy of the Amazon of
Polyclitus. Berlin Museum.)

point in which Cicero
regarded him as unsurpassed (Brut. 18, 70).
With the exception of the Hera, the statues of
PolycUtus were in bronze. It is possible to

POLYCRATES
judge of the form of some of them from marble
copies. Of these the most generally recognised
are the Doryphorus, the Diadumenus and the
Amazon. In the department of toreutic, the
fame of Polyclitus no doubt rested chiefly on
the golden ornaments of his statue of Hera ;
but he also made smaU bronzes (sigilla), and
drinking-vessels (phialae).—2. The Younger,
also a sculptor of Argos, of whom very little is
known, because his fame was eclipsed by that
of his more celebrated namesake. His work
may be dated about 400-865 B.C. He was
pupil, and younger brother or nephew, of
Naucydes. His statues were mainly of athletes,
set up at Olympia, where the inscribed bases of
two have recently been discovered. (Paus. ii.
22, 8, vi. 6, 1, vi. 7, 8.) Pausanias mentions one
statue of a different character, that of a Zeus
PhUios at Megalopolis (viu. 81, 2). He was dis
tinguished as an architect, for there is little
doubt that the buUding of the theatre and
tholus in the precincts of the temple of As
clepius at Epidaurus (Paus. ii. 27, 5) should be
ascribed to him and not to the elder Polyclitus.
— 3. Of Larissa, a Greek historian, and one of
the numerous writers of the history of Alex
ander the Great. — 4. A favourite freedman of
Nero, who sent him into Britain to inspect the
state of the island.
Polycrates (TloXvKpdrris). 1. Of Samos,
one of the most ambitious of the Greek
tyrants. With the assistance of his brothers,
Pantagnotus and Syloson, he made himself
master of the island towards the latter end
of the reign of Cyrus. At first he shared
the supreme power with his brothers ; but
he shortly afterwards put Pantagnotus to
death, and banished Syloson. Having thus
become sole despot, he raised a powerful fleet,
which dominated the whole of the eastern
Aegaean, and by his piratical enterprises accu
mulated vast riches. He had formed an aUiance
with Amasis, king of Egypt, who, however,
finaUy renounced it through alarm at the
amazing good fortune cf Polycrates, which
never met with any check or disaster, and which
therefore was sure, sooner or later, to incur the
envy of the gods. Such, at least, is the account
of Herodotus, who has narrated the story of
the rupture between Amasis and Polycrates in
his most dramatic manner. In a letter which
Amasis wrote to Polycrates, the Egyptian
monarch advised him to throw away one of his
most valuable possessions, in order that he
might thus inflict some injury upon himself.
In accordance with this advice Polycrates threw
into the sea a seal-ring of extraordinary beauty,
but in a few days it was found in the belly of a
fish, which had been presented to him by a
fisherman. In the reign of Cambyses, the
Spartans and Corinthians sent a powerful force
to Samos, in order to depose the tyrant, but
their expedition faUed, and after besieging the
city forty days, they left the island. The power
of Polycrates now became greater than ever.
The great works which Herodotus, saw at Samos
were probably executed by him. He lived in
great pomp and luxury, and, like others of the
Greek tyrants, was a patron of literature and
the arts. The most eminent artists and poets
found a ready welcome at his court, and his
friendship for Anacreon is particularly cele
brated. But in the midst of all his prosperity
he fell by the most ignominious fate. Oroetes,
the satrap of Sardis, had formed a deadly hatred
against Polycrates. By false pretences, the
satrap contrived to allure him to the mainland,

POLYDORUS

739

where he was arrested soon after his arrival,
and crucified, 522. (Hdt. iii. 89, 54, 120 ; Strab.
pp. 687, 638 ; Paus. viii. 14, 8 ; Cic. Fin. v. 80,
92.) — 2. An Athenian rhetorician and sophist
of some repute, a contemporary of Socrates and
Isocrates, taught first at Athens and afterwards
at Cyprus. He was the teacher of Zoilus. He
wrote : (1) an accusation of Socrates, which was
a declamation on the subject composed some
years after the death of the philosopher (Diog.
Laert. ii. 88). (2) A defence of Busiris. The
oration of Isocrates entitled Busiris is ad
dressed to Polycrates, and points out the faults
which the latter had committed in his oration
on this subject. (3) An obscene poem, which he
published under the name of the poetess
Philaenis, for the purpose of injuring her repu
tation (Athen. p. 385).
Polydamas (UoXvSdpas). 1. Son of Panthous
and Phrontis, was a Trojan hero, a friend of
Hector, and brother of Euphorbus (II. xvi.
584, xviii. 249, xxii. 100).— 2. Of Scotussa in
Thessaly, son of Nicias, conquered in the Pan
cratium at the Olympic games, in Ol. 93, B.C.
408. His size was immense, and the most mar
vellous stories are related of his strength : how
he killed without arms a huge and fierce lion on
Mt. Olympus ; how he stopped a chariot at full
gallop, &c. His reputation led the Persian
king Darius Ochus to invite him to his court,
where he performed similar feats (Paus. vi. 5,
4, vii. 27, 6). — 3. Of Pharsalus in Thessaly, was
entrusted by his fellow-citizens, about B.C. 375,
with the supreme government of their native
town. He afterwards entered into a treaty
with Jason of Pherae. On the murder of Jason,
in 370, his brother Polyphron put to death
Polydamas. (Xen. Hell. vi. 1, 2.)
Polydectes (TloXvSeKriis). 1. King of the
island of Seriphos, was son of Magnes, and
brother of Dictys. He received kindly Danae
and Perseus, when the chest in which they had
been exposed by Acrisius floated to the island
of Seriphos. (Pind. Pyth. xii. 10 ; Apollod. i.
9, 6 ; Paus. i. 22, 6.) His story is related under
Pebseus. — 2. King of Sparta, was the eldest
son of Eunomus, the brother of Lycurgus the
lawgiver, and the father of Charilaiis, who suc
ceeded him. Herodotus, contrary to the other
authorities, makes Polydectes the father of
Eunomus. (Hdt. viii. 131 ; Paus. iii. 7, 2 ; Plut.
Lye. 2.)
Polydeuces (noAu5eu/o7j), one of the Dios
curi, and the twin brother of Castor, caUed by
the Romans PoUux. [Dioscuri.]
Polydorus (IloAi/Baipos). 1. King of Thebes,
son of Cadmus and Harmonia, husband of
Nycteis, and father of Labdacus. — 2. The
youngest among the 6ons of Priam and Laotoe,
was slain by Achilles (11. xx. 407, xxii. 46).
This is the Homeric account ; but later tradi
tions make him a son of Priam and Hecuba,
and give a different account of his death. One
tradition relates that when Ilium was on the
point of falling into the hands of the Greeks,
Priam entrusted Polydorus and a large sum of
money to Polymestor or Polymnestor, king of
the Thracian Chersonesus. After the destruc
tion of Troy, Polymestor killed Polydorus for
the purpose of getting possession of his trea-
sures, and cast his body into the sea. His body
was afterwards washed up on the coast, where
it was found and recognised by his mother
Hecuba, who, together with other Trojan cap
tives, took vengeance upon Polymestor by-
putting out his eyes and killing his two children,
(Eur. Hecuba; Verg. Aen. iii. 49; Ov. Met.
3b2

740

POLYEUCTUS

xiii. 432.) Another tradition stated that Poly
dorus was entrusted to his sister Ilione, who was
married to Polymestor. She brought him up
as her own son, while she made everyone else
believe that her own son, Deiphilus or Deipylus,
was Polydorus. The Greeks, anxious to des
troy the race of Priam, promised to Polymes
tor Electra for his wife, and a large amount of
gold, if he would kill Polydorus. Polymestor
was prevailed upon, and he accordingly slew his
own son. Polydorus, thereupon, persuaded his
sister Ilione to kill Polymestor. Pacuvius wrote
a tragedy Iliona. (Cic. Ac. ii. 27, Tusc. i. 44 ;
Hor. Sat. iii. 3, 61.) — 3. King of Sparta, was
the son of Alcamenes and the father of Eury-
crates, who succeeded him. He assisted in
bringing the first Messenian war to a conclu
sion, B.C. 724. He was murdered by Polem-
archus, a Spartan of high family, but his name
was precious among his people on account of
his justice and kindness. Crotona and the
Epizephyrian Locri were founded in his reign.
— 4. Brother of Jason of Pherae, obtained the
supreme power along with his brother Poly-
phron, on the death of Jason in B.C. 370, but
was shortly afterwards assassinated by Poly-
phron. [Jason.] — 5. A sculptor of Rhodes, one
of the associates of Agesander in the execu
tion of the celebrated group of the Laocoon.
[Agesander.] Polyeuctus (TloXievKros), an Athenian orator,
of the demus Sphettus, was a political friend
of Demosthenes, with whom he worked in re
sisting the Macedonian party (Dem. Phil. iii.
p. 129 ; Arist. Bhet. iii. 10, 7 ; Plut. Dem. 10).
Polygnotus (TloXiyvaros), one of the most
celebrated Greek painters, was a native of the
island of Thasos, and was honoured with the
citizenship of Athens, on which account he is
sometimes called an Athenian. His father,
Aglaophon, was his instructor in his art, and
he had a brother, named Aristophon, who was
also a painter. Polygnotus lived on intimate
terms with Cimon and his aister Elpinice, and
he probably came to Athens in B.C. 463, after
the subjugation of Thasos by Cimon. He ap
pears to have beer? at that time an artist of
some reputation, and he continued to exercise
his art almost down to the beginning of the
Peloponnesian war (431). He was called by
some the inventor of painting (Theophrast. ap.
Plin. vii. 205), as being the first who raised
painting to the position of an art above that of
the handicraftsman. His work was between
the years 475 and 430 B.C. The famous paint
ings in the Lesche, or hall of the Cnidians at
Delphi, representing the Fall of Troy and the
scenes of the underworld (Paus. x. 25-81),
were probably executed not later than 470,
since they are mentioned by Simonides, who
died in 467. The period of his greatest artistic
activity at Athens seems to have been that
which elapsed from his removal to Athens (463)
to the death of Cimon (449), who employed him
in the pictorial decoration of the public build
ings with which he began to adorn the city,
such as the temple of Theseus, the Anaceum,
and the Poecile. He appears to have re
turned to Athens about 435, where he executed
a series of paintings in the Propylaea of the
Acropolis. The Propylaea were commenced in
437, and completed in 432. The subjects of the
pictures of Polygnotus were almost invariably
taken from Homer and the other poets of the
epic circle. They were historical pictures, and
it was remarked that Polygnotus excelled as
a painter of character (Arist. Poet. 6; Plin.

POLYPHRON
xxxv. 58). His pictures were without back
ground, as tinted outlines on the white wall
without shading, but the beauty of the drawing.
and the admirable conception of character in
his figures won for them admiration undimi
nished in the age of Pausanias.
Polymedium (TloXvpijSiov), a town in Mysia>-
between Assus and the Prom. Lectum (Strab.
pp. 606, 616 ; Plin. v. 123).
Polyhymnia. [Polymnia.]
Polyidus (TloXiiSos). 1. Son of Coeranus,
grandson of Abas and great-grandson of Me
lampus. He was, like hia ancestor Melampua,.
a celebrated soothsayer at Corinth, and is de
scribed as the father of Euchenor, Astycratla,,
and Manto (II. xiii. 663). When Alcathous had.
murdered his own son, Callipolis, at Megara, he
was purified by Polyidus, who erected at Me
gara a sanctuary to Dionysus, and a statue of
the god. — 2. A dithyrambic poet of the most
flourishing period of the later Athenian dithy
ramb, and also skilful as a painter, was con
temporary with PhUoxenus, Timotheus, and.
Telestes, about B.C. 400.
Polymestor or Polymnestor. [Polydorus.]
Pdiymnestus, or Polynmastus (TloXipvrfo--
ros), the son of Meles of Colophon, was an epic,,
elegiac and lyric poet, and a musician. He
flourished B.C. 675-644. He belongs to the
school of Dorian muaic, which flourished at
this time at Sparta, where he carried on the
improvements of Thaletas. The Attic come
dians attacked his poems for their erotic
character (Aristoph. Eq. 1287). As an elegiac
poet, he may be regarded as the predecessor of
his fellow-countryman, Mimnermus.
Polymnia or Polyhymnia. [Musae.]
Polynices (TloXweiKiis), son of Oedipus and
Jocasta, and brother of Eteocles and Antigone.
His story is given under Eteocles and Adras
tus. Polyphemus (IloAiJ<f>7)^os). 1. Son of Pos
eidon and the nymph Thoosa, was one of the
Cyclopes in Sicily. [Cyclopes.] He is repre
sented as a gigantic monster, having only one
eye, in the centre of his forehead, caring nought
for the god's, and devouring human flesh. He
dwelt in a cave near Mt. Aetna, and fed his-
flocks upon the mountain. He fell in love
with the nymph Galatea (Theocr. Id. xi. ; Ov.
Met. xiii. 780), but as she rejected him for Acis,
he destroyed the latter by crushing him under
a huge rock. [Acis.] In the Homeric story, when
Odysseus was driven upon SicUy, Polyphemus
devoured some of his companions, and Odys
seus would have shared the same fate had he
not put out the eye of the monster while he
was asleep. [Odysseus.] — 2. Son of Elatus or
Poseidon and Hippea, was one of the Lapithae
at Larissa in Thessaly. He was married to
Laonome, a sister of Heracles. He was also
one of the Argonauts, but being left behind by
them in Mysia, he founded Cios, and fell in
battle against the Chalybes. (II. i. 264 ; Ap. Rh.
i. 1241 ; Apollod. i. 9, 16.)
Polyphontes (TloXvcpbvrris), one of the de
scendants of Heracles who slew Cresphontes,
king of Messene, married his wife Merope and
took possession of his kingdom. He was slain
by Aepytus, son of Cresphontes. (Pol. iv. 22 ;
Apollod. ii. 8, 4.)
Polyphron (UoXicppav), brother of Jason of
Pherae, succeeded to the supreme power with
his brother Polydorus on the death of Jason in
B.C. 370. Shortly afterwards he murdered
Polydorus. He exercised his power with great
cruelty, and was murdered in his turn, 369, by

POLYPOETES
his nephew Alexander, who proved a still greater
tyrant. [Jason; Alexander.]
Polypoetes (UoXviroirris), son of Pirithous
-and Hippodamia, was one of the Lapithae, and
joined the Greeks in the Trojan war (Strab.
pp. 489, 441).
Polyrrhenia or -lum (noAupprji/fa : UoXvppi)-
nios), a town in Crete, whose territory embraced
the whole western corner of the island. It
possessed a sanctuary of Dictynna, and is said
to have been colonised by Achaeans and Lace
daemonians. (Strab. p. 479 ; Pol. iv. 58 ; Plin.
iv. 59.)
Polysperchon (TloXvcrTepxav), a Macedo
nian, and an officer of Alexander the Great,
who distinguished himself at Issus and Gau-
. gamela and accompanied Alexander in his
Indian campaigns (Arrian, iii. 11, v. 11, vi. 5).
In B.C. 323 he was appointed by Alexander
second in command of the army of invalids and
veterans which Craterus had to conduct home
to Macedonia. He afterwards served under
Antipater in Europe, and so great was the
¦confidence which the latter reposed in him,
that Antipater on his deathbed (319) appointed
Polysperchon to succeed him as regent and
guardian of the king, while he assigned to his
own son Cassander the subordinate station of
ChiUarch (Diod. xviii. 48). Polysperchon soon
became involved in war with Cassander,
who was dissatisfied with this arrangement.
It was in the course of this war that Poly
sperchon surrendered Phocion to the Athe
nians, in the hope of securing the adherence
of Athens, [Phocion.] Although Polysperchon
was supported by Olympias, and possessed
great influence with the Macedonian sol-
-diers, he proved no match for Cassander,
and was obUged to yield to him possession
of Macedonia about 316 (Diod. xviii. 57, 69,
xix. 57, 74). For the next few years Polysper
chon is rarely mentioned, but in 310, he again
assumed an important part by reviving the
long-forgotten pretensions of Heracles, the son
of Alexander and Barsine, to the throne of
Macedonia. Cassander marched against him,
but, distrusting the fidelity of his own troops,
he entered into secret negotiations with Poly
sperchon, and persuaded the latter, by promises
and flatteries, to murder Heracles. (Diod. xx.
.28; Just. xv. 2.) From this time he appears
•to have served under Cassander ; but the period
of his death is not mentioned.
Polytimetus (TloXvripnros : Zerafschan), a
considerable river of Sogdiana, which vanished
"Underground near Maracanda (Samarkand),
or was lost in the sands of the steppes (Strab.
p. 518).
Polyxena (TloXv^ev-q), daughter of Priam and
Hecuba, was beloved by Achilles. When the
Greeks, on their voyage home, were stiU
lingering on the coast of Thrace, the shade of
AchiUes appeared to them, demanding that
Polyxena should be sacrificed to him. Neopto
lemus accordingly sacrificed her on the tomb
of his father. It was related that Achilles had
promised Priam to bring about a peace with
the Greeks, if the king would give him his
daughter Polyxena in marriage ; and that when
AchiUes had gone to the temple of the Thym-
braean Apollo, for the purpose of negotiating
the marriage, he was treacherously killed by
Paris. (Eur. Hec. 40 ; Ov. Met. xiii. 448 ; Hyg.
Fab. 110.) Another tradition stated that
AchiUes and Polyxena fell in love with each
other when Hector's body was delivered up to
Priam ; and that Polyxena fled to the Greeks

POMPEII

741

after the death of Aohilles, and killed herself
on the tomb of her beloved with a sword.
(Philostr. Her. 19, 11.)
Polyxenidas (noXv^evtSas), a Rhodian in the
service of Antiochus III., king of Syria, whose
fleet he commanded in 192 and 190 B.C. He
was defeated by C. Livius off Corycus, and by
Aemilius Regillus at Myonnesus. (Liv. xxxvi.
43, xxxvii. 28 ; App. Syr. 21-27.)
Polyxo (TloXv^d). 1. The nurse of queen
Hypsipyle in Lemnos, was . celebrated as a
prophetess (Ap. Rh. i. 668 ; Hyg. Fab. 16).—
2. An Argive woman, married to Tlepolemus,
son of Heracles (Paus. iii. 19, 10), followed her
husband to Rhodes, where, according to some
traditions, she is said to have put to death the
celebrated Helen. [Helena.]
Polyzelus (noAtiCijAos). 1. Brother of Hieron,
the tyrant of Syracuse. [Hiebon.] — 2. , Of
Rhodes, a historian, of uncertain date, wrote a
history of his native country (Athen. p. 361 ;
Plut. Sol. 15). — 3. An Athenian comic poet,
belonging to the last period of the Old Comedy
and the beginning of the Middle. (Meineke,
Fr. Com. Graec.)
Pomona, the Italian divinity of the fruit of
trees, hence called Pomorum Patrona. She is
represented by the poets as beloved by several
of the rustic divinities, such as Silvanus, Picus
and Vertumnus (Ov. Met. xiv. 623). For the
myth of her union with the last, see Vertum
nus. Her worship must originally have been
of considerable importance, since a special
priest, under the name of flamen Pomonalis,
was appointed to attend to her service. (Varro,
L. L. vii. 45 ; Fest. p. 154.) There was a
sanctuary for her worship (Pomonal) between
Ardea and Ostia (Fest. p. 250).
Pompeia. 1. Daughter of Q. Pompeius Rufus,
son of the consul of B.C. 88, and of Cornelia,
the daughter of the dictator Sulla. She married
C. Caesar, subsequently the dictator, in 67, but
was divorced by him in 61, because she was
suspected of intriguing with Clodius, who
stealthily introduced himself into her hus
band's house whUe she was celebrating the
mysteries of the Bona Dea. [Clodius.] — 2.
Sister of Cn. Pompey, the triumvir, married
C. Memmius, who was killed in the war against
Sertorius, in 75. — 3. Daughter of the triumvir
by his third wife Mucia. She married Faustus
Sulla, the son of the dictator, who perished in
the African war, 46. She afterwards married
L. Cornelius Cinna. As her brother Sextus
survived her, she must have died before 35. —
4. Daughter of Sex. Pompey, the son of the
triumvir and of Scribonia. At the peace of
Misenum in 39 she was betrothed to M. Mar
cellus, the son of Octavia, the sister of Octavian,
but was never married to him. She accom
panied her father in his flight to ABia, 36. —
5. Paulina. [Paulina.]
Pompeianus, Tib. Claudius, son of a Roman
knight originally from Antioch, rose to the
highest dignities under M. Aurelius. He was
consul in 173 A.D. and held a command also in
the war against the Marcomanni. Aurelius
gave him his daughter Lucilla in marriage.
He lived to the reign of Severus. (Dio Cass.
lxxi. 3, lxxiii. 3 ; Vit. M. Anton. 20 ; Pert. 2.)
Pompeii (Tlopirliiot, Tlopnaia, Tlopirri'ia : Pom
peianus), a city of Campania, was situated on
the coast, at the mouth of the river Sarnus,
and at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius ; but in conse
quence of the physical changes which the
surrounding country has undergone, the ruins
of Pompeii are found at present about two

742

POMPEII

miles from the sea. Pompeii was first in the
hands of the Oscans, and afterwards of the
Tyrrhenians. (Strab. p. 247 ; Plin. iii. 62.) It
is mentioned as a port in B.C. 310 (Liv. ix. 38),
and as taking part in the Social war, during
which it was captured by Sulla (App. B. G. i. 39,
50 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 16). Afterwards it became a
Roman municipium and received a colony in
the reign of Augustus. It was populous
(having apparently nearly 30,000 inhabitants)
and flourishing (Tac. Ann. xv. 22 ; Sen. Q. N.
vi. 1), and a favourite resort. Among others
Cicero had a villa (Pompeianum) there (Cic. Ac.
ii. 8, ad Att. i. 20, ad Fam. vii. 3, xii. 20) ; but
Pompeii never rose above the rank of a second-
rate provincial town, and its great importance
is due to the manner in which the circumstances
of its destruction ensured the preservation of
its remains till their excavation in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries. Pompeii was partly
destroyed by an earthquake in a.d. 63, but was
overwhelmed in 79, along with Herculaneum
and Stabiae, by the great eruption of Mt.
Vesuvius. (Dio Cass. lxvi. 23 ; cf. Plin. Ep. vi.
16, 20.) The lava did not reach Pompeii, but
the town was covered with successive layers of
ashes and other volcanic matter, on which a soil
was gradually formed. Thus a great part of
the city has been preserved with its market
places, theatres, baths, temples, and private
nouses, and the excavation of these has thrown
great Ught upon many points of antiquity, such
as the construction of Roman houses, and in
general all subjects connected with the private
life of the ancients. The first traces of the
ancient city were discovered in 1689, rising
above the ground, but it was not tiU 1721 that
the excavations were commenced. These have
been continued with various interruptions down
to the present day, and now about one-third of
the city is exposed to view. It was surrounded
by walls, which were nearly two miles in cir
cumference, surmounted at intervals by towers,
and containing eight gates. These walls had
been partly demolished during the peace of the
early empire and a suburb called 'Pagus
Augustus Felix ' had grown up outside the
gate of Herculaneum, by which room was made
for the colony planted by Augustus. The
'streets are narrow, the widest not exceeding
twenty-four feet in width, and many have high
stepping-stones for foot-passengers crossing
from one raised foot-path to the other [see Did.
of Ant. art. Via]; they are usually straight, but
the street which connects the Forum with the
gate of Herculaneum, and is continued by the
street of tombs, takes a sinuous course. The
* Forum is distant about four hundred yards from
this gate. At its North end stands the temple
of Jupiter on an elevated podium ; at the South
the Basilica and the Tribunals : it is bounded
on the West by the temple of Venus, and on the
East by the Pantheon or temple of Augustus,
the council-chamber (Curia), the temple of
Mercury and the Chalcidicum, a building
erected by a priestess named Eumachia, which
may possibly have been used as an exchange.
There was a smaller triangular forum in the
S. of the city not far from the gate of Stabiae
and adjoining the greater and smaller theatres ;
close to the great theatre was the temple of Isis,
in which a small statue of the deity was found ;
the amphitheatre has been discovered in the
SE. angle of the town between the gate of
Nocera and that of the Sarnus. It is impossible
here to enter into details regarding the many
private houses which have been discovered with

POMPEIUS
much of their fittings and decorations in good".
preservation, and have proved of the greatest
value for the elucidation of Roman domestic
architecture [see Diet, of Ant. art. Domus].
There can be little doubt that much of the
Pompeii now to be seen was a restoration after
the earthquake of 63. The oldest remains,
however, are of a very early period, especially
the older parts of the walls, built of large blocks.
of travertine, and a Doric temple near the
theatre, known as the ' Greek ' temple, which.
is assigned to the 6th cent. B.C.
Pompeiopolis (TlopirrfioiiroXis), the name of
several cities founded or enlarged by Pompey.
1. (Tosh Kbpri), an inland city of Paphlagonia,
SW. of Sinope, on the river Amnias (676'A;
Irmak), a W. tributary of the Halys (Strab.
p. 562).— 2. [POMPELON.]— 3.^ [SOLOE.]
Pompeius. 1. ft. Pompeius, said to have
been the son of a flute-player, was the first of
the famUy who rose to dignity in the state. He
was consul in 141, when he carried on war
against the Numantines in Spain. Having
been defeated by the enemy in several engage
ments, he concluded a peace with them ; but
on the arrival of Mb successor in the command,
he disowned the treaty, which was declared.
invalid by the senate. He wa3 censor in 131
with Q. Metellus Macedonicus. (App. B.C. vi.
76; Cic. Fin. u. 17, Off. iii. 30.)— 2. Q. Pom
peius Rufus, either son or grandson of the
preceding, was a zealous supporter of the
aristocratical party. He was tribune of the
plebs 100, praetor 91, and consul 88, with L.
SuUa. When Sulla set out for the East to
conduct the war agfinst Mithridates, he left
Italy in charge of Pompeius Rufus, and
assigned to him the army of Cn. Pompeius
Strabo, who was stiU engaged in carrying on
war against the Marsi. Strabo, however, who-
was unwilling to be deprived of the command,
caused Pompeius Rufus to be murdered by the
soldiers. (Cic. pro Dom. 31, Brut. 89 ; App.
B.C. i. 57.) — 3. Q. Pompeius Rufus, son of
No. 2, married Sulla's daughter, and was mur
dered by the party of Sulpicius and Marius in
the Forum, during the consulship of his father,
88 (Plut. Sull. 8).— 4. ft. Pompeius Rufus, son
of No. 3 and grandson of the dictator Sulla,
was tribune of the plebs 52, when he dis
tinguished himself as the great partisan of the
triumvir Pompey, whom he assisted to obtain
the sole consulship. Rufus, however, on the
expiration of his office was accused of via, was
condemned, and went into exile at Bauli in
Campania (Cic. ad Fam. viii. 1, 4 ; Dio Cass.
xl. 45).— 5. ft. Pompeius Rufus, praetor 6S„
was sent to Capua to watch over Campania and
Apulia during CatUine's conspiracy. In 61 he
obtained the province of Africa, with the title
of proconsul. — 6. Sex. Pompeius, married
Lucilia, a sister of the poet C. LucUius. — 7.
Sex. Pompeius, elder son of No. 6, never
obtained any of the higher offices of the state,
but acquired great reputation as a man of learn
ing, and is praised by Cicero for his accurate
knowledge of jurisprudence, geometry, and the
Stoic philosophy (Cic. Brut. 47, 175).— 8, Sex.
Pompeius, a descendant of No. 7, consul a.d.
14, with Sex. Appuleius,. in which year the
emperor Augustus died. He seems to have
been a patron of literature. Ovid addressed
him several letters during his exile (Ov. Pont.
iv. 1, 5). — 9. Cn. Pompeius Strabo, younger
son of No. 6, and father of the triumvir. He
was quaestor in Sardinia 103, praetor 94, and
propraetor in SicUy in the foUowing year. He

POMPEIUS

743

was consul 89, when he carried on war with
success against the allies, subduing the greater
number of the Italian people who were stiU in
arms. Towards the end of the year he brought
forward the law (Lex Pompeia) which gave to
all the towns of the Transpadani the Jus Latii
or Latinitas. [Diet, of Ant. art. Latinitas.]
He continued in the S. of Italy as proconsul in
the foUowing year (88), and when Pompeius
Rufus [No. 2] was appointed to succeed him in
the command of the army, Strabo caused him
to be assassinated by the troops. Next year
(87) the Marian party obtained the upper hand.
Strabo was summoned by the aristocratical
party to their assistance ; and though not active
in their cause, he marched to the relief of the
city, and fought a battle near the Colline Gate
with Cinna and Sertorius (Veil. Pat. ii. 21).
Shortly afterwards he was kUled by lightning.
His avarice and cruelty had made him hated
by the soldiers to such a degree that they tore
his corpse from the bier and dragged it through
the streets. Cicero describes him (Brut. 47)
' as worthy of hatred on account of his cruelty,
avarice, and perfidy' (cf. Flor. iii. 18). He
possessed some reputation as an orator, and
still more as a general. He left behind him a
considerable property, especiaUy in Picenum. —
10. Cn. Pompeius Magnus, the Triumvir, son
of No. 9, was born on the 30th of September,
B.C. 106, in the consulship of Atilius Serranus
and ServUius Caepio, and was consequently a
few months younger than Cicero, who was born
on the 3rd of January in this year, and six years
older than Caesar. He fought under his father
in 89 against the ItaUans, when he was only
seventeen years of age, and continued with him
tiU his death two years afterwards. For the
next few years the Marian party had possession
of Italy ; and accordingly Pompey, who adhered
to the aristocratical party, was obliged to keep
in the background, and was only saved from an
indictment by the intervention of Carbo. But
when it became known, in 84, that SuUa was
on the point of returning from Greece to Italy,
Pompey hastened into Picenum, where he raised
an army of three legions. Although only
twenty-three years of age, Pompey displayed
great mUitary abUities in opposing the Marian
generals by whom he was surrounded; and
when he succeeded in joining Sulla in the
course of the year (83), he was saluted by the
latter with the title of Imperator. During the
remainder of the war in Italy Pompey distin
guished himself as one of the most successful
of SuUa's generals, and when the war in Italy
was brought to a close, Sulla sent Pompey
against the Marian party in SicUy and Africa.
Pompey first proceeded to Sicily, of which he
easUy made himself master (82) : here he put
Carbo to death. In 81 Pompey crossed over to
Africa, where he defeated Cn. Domitius Aheno
barbus and the Numidian king Hiarbas, after a
hard-fought battle. On his return to Rome, in
the same year, he was received with enthusiasm
by the people, and was greeted by Sulla with
the surname of Magnus, a name which he bore
ever afterwards, and handed down to his chil
dren. Pompey, however, not satisfied with this
distinction, sued for a triumph, which Sulla at
first refused, but at length, overcome by Pom
pey's importunity, he allowed him to have his
own way. Accordingly Pompey, who had not
yet held any public office, and was still a simple
eques, entered Rome in triumph in September,
81, and before he had completed his twenty-
fifth year. Pompey continued faithful to the

aristocracy after Sulla's death (78), and sup
ported the consul Catulus in resisting the
attempts of his colleague Lepidus to repeal the
laws of Sulla ; and when Lepidus had reoourse
to arms in the following year (77), Pompey took
an active port in the war against him, and
succeeded in driving him out of Italy. — The
aristocracy, however, now began to fear the
young and successful general; but since Ser
torius in Spain had for the last three years
successfully opposed Metellus Pius, one of the
ablest of Sulla's generals, and it had become
necessary to send the latter some effectual
assistance, the senate, with considerable re
luctance, determined to send Pompey to Spain,
with the title of proconsul, and with equal
powers to MeteUus. Pompey remained in
Spain between five and six years (76-71) ; but
neither he nor MeteUus was able to gain any
decisive advantage over Sertorius. But when
Sertorius was treacherously murdered by his
own officer Perperna, in 72, the war was speedily
brought to a close. Perperna was easily de
feated by Pompey in the first battle, and the
whole of Spain was subdued by the early part
of the following year (71). Pompey then re
turned to Italy at the head of his army. In
his march towards Rome he fell in with the
remains of the army of Spartacus, which M.
Crassus had previously defeated. Pompey cut
to pieces these fugitives, and therefore claimed
for himself, in addition to all his other exploits,
the glory of finishing the Servile war. Pompey
was now a candidate for the consulship ; and
although he was ineligible by law, inasmuch as
he was absent from Rome, had not yet reached
the legal age, and had not held any of the lower
offices of the state, still hie election was certain.
His military glory had charmed the people ;
and as it waB known that the aristocracy looked
upon Pompey with jealousy, they ceased to
regard him as belonging to this party, and
hoped to obtain through him a restoration of
the rights and privileges of which they had
been deprived by Sulla. Pompey was accord
ingly elected consul, along with M. Crassus;
and on the 31st of December, 71, he entered
the city a second time in his triumphal car, a
simple eques. Pompey now found it necessary
to secure power beyond the control of the
senate either by force or by the aid of the
opposite party. He chose the latter course as
safer than a coup d'btat, and openly broke with
the aristocracy. Thus in his consulship (70) he
was regarded as the popular hero. He pro
posed and carried a law restoring to the
tribunes the power of which they had been
deprived by Sulla. He also afforded his aU-
powerful aid to the Lex Aurelia, proposed
by the praetor L. Aurelius Cotta, by which
the judices were to be taken in future from
the senatus, equites, and tribuni aerarii, in
stead of from the senators exclusively, as Sulla
had ordained. In carrying both these measures
Pompey was strongly supported by Caesar,
with whom he was thus brought into close
connexion, and Crassus joined the coalition. —
For the next two years (69 and 68) Pompey
remained in Rome. In 67 the tribune A.
Gabinius brought forward a bill proposing to
confer upon Pompey the command of the war
against the pirates, with extraordinary powers.
This bill was opposed by the aristocracy with
the utmost vehemence, but was notwithstand
ing carried. [Gabinius.] The pirates were at
this time masters of the Mediterranean, and
had not only plundered many cities on the

744
coasts of Greece and Asia, but had even made
descents upon Italy itself. As soon as Pompey
received the command, he began to make his
preparations for the war, and completed them
by the end of the winter. His plans were
formed with great skiU and judgment, and were
crowned with complete success. In forty days
he cleared the western sea of piratea, and
restored communication between Spain, Africa,
and Italy. He then followed the main body of
the pirates to their strongholds on the coast of
Cilicia, and after defeating their fleet, he
induced a great part of them, by promises of
pardon, to surrender to him. Many of these he
settled at Soli, which was henceforward called
Pompeiopolis. The second part of the cam
paign occupied only forty-nine days, and the
whole war was brought to a conclusion in the
course of three months ; so that, to adopt the
panegyric of Cicero (pro Leg. Man. 12),' Pompey
made his preparations for the war at the end of
the winter, entered upon it at the commence
ment of spring, and finished it in the middle of
the summer.' Pompey was employed during
the remainder of this year and the beginning of
the following in visiting the cities of Cilicia and
Pamphylia, and providing for the government
of the newly-conquered districts. — During his
absence from Rome, Pompey was appointed to
succeed Lucullus in the command of the war
against Mithridates (66). The bill conferring
upon him this command was proposed by the
tribune C. Manilius, and was supported by
Cicero in an oration which has come down to
us (pro Lege Manilia). Like the Gabinian
law, it was opposed by the whole weight of
the aristocracy, but was carried triumphantly.
[Manilius.] The power of Mithridates had
been broken by the previous victories of Lucul
lus, and it was only left to Pompey to bring the
war to a conclusion. On the approach of
Pompey, Mithridates retreated towards Ar
menia, but he was defeated by the Roman
general ; and as Tigranes now refused to receive
him into his dominiona, Mithridates resolved to
plunge into the heart of Colchis, and from
thence make his way to his own dominiona in
the Cimmerian Bosporus. Pompey now turned
his arms against Tigranes ; but the Armenian
king submitted to him without a contest, and
was allowed to conclude a peace with the re
public. It was bad policy as well as bad faith
to fix, as he did, the boundary of the Roman
dominion towards Parthia at Oruros, 200 miles
E. of the Euphrates, instead of making that
river the limit ; and it led to difficulties with
the Parthians afterwards. In 65 Pompey set
out in pursuit of Mithridates, but he met with
much opposition from the Iberians and Alba
nians ; and after advancing as far as the river
Phasis (Faz), he resolved to leave these savage
districts. [Mithridates, p. 569.] He accord
ingly retraced his steps, and spent the winter at
Pontus, which he reduced to the form of a
Roman province. In 64 he marched into Syria,
deposed the king Antiochus Asiaticus, and
made that country also a Roman province. In
63 he advanced further south, in order to
establish the Roman supremacy in Phoenicia,
Coele-Syria, and Palestine. The Jews refused
to submit to him, and shut the gates of Jerusa
lem against him; and it was not till after a
siege of three months that the city was taken.
Pompey entered the Holy of Holies, the first
time that any human being except the high-
priest had dared to penetrate into this sacred
spot. It was during the war in Palestine that

POMPEIUS Pompey received intelligence of the death of
Mithridates. [Mithridates VI.] Pompey
spent the next winter in Pontus; and after
settling the affairs of Asia, he returned to Italy
in 62. He disbanded his army almost immedi
ately after landing at Brundisium, and thus
calmed the apprehension of many who feared
that, at the head of his victorious troops, he
would seize upon the supreme power. He did not,
however, return to Rome till the following year
(61), and he entered the city in triumph on the
30th of September. He had just completed his
forty-fifth year, and this was the third time that
he had enjoyed the honour of a triumph. — With
this triumph the first and most glorious part of
Pompey's life may be said to have ended.
Hitherto his life had been an almost uninter
rupted succession of military glory. But now
he was called upon to play a prominent part in
the civil commotions of the commonwealth, a
part for which neither his natural talents nor
his previous habits had in the least fitted him.
It would seem that, on his return to Rome,
Pompey hardly knew what part to take in the
politics of the city. He had been appointed to
the command against the pirates and Mithri
dates in opposition to the aristocracy, and they
still regarded him with jealousy and distrust*
At the same time he was not disposed-to unite
himself to the popular party, which had risen
into importance during his absence in the
East, and over which Caesar possessed un
bounded influence. The object, however,
which engaged the immediate attention of
Pompey was to obtain from the senate a ratifi
cation for all his acts in Asia, and an assign
ment of lands which he had promised to his
veterans. The senate, glad of an opportunity
to put an affront upon a man whom they both
feared and hated, resolutely refused to sanction
his measures in Asia. This was the unwisest
thing they could have done. If they had
known their real interests, they would have
sought to win Pompey over to their side, as a
counterpoise to the growing and more dangerous
influence of Caesar. But their short-sighted
policy threw Pompey into Caesar's arms, and
thus sealed the downfall of their party. Caesar
promised to obtain for Pompey the ratification
of his acts ; and Pompey, on his part, agreed to
support Caesar in all his measures. That they
might be more sure of carrying their plans into
execution, Caesar prevailed upon Pompey to
become reconciled to Crassus, with whom he
was at variance, but who, by his immense
wealth, had great influence at Rome. The
three agreed to assist one another against their
common enemies ; and thus was first formed the
first triumvirate. — This union of the three most
powerful men at Rome crushed the aristocracy
for the time. Supported by Pompey and
Crassus, Caesar was able in his consulship (59)
to carry all his measures. Pompey's acts in
Asia were ratified, and Caesar's agrarian law,
which divided the rich Campanian land among
the poorer citizens, enabled Pompey to fulfil
the promises he had made to his veterans. In
order to cement their union more closely,
Caesar gave to Pompey his daughter Julia in
marriage. Next year (58) Caesar went to his
province in Gaul, but Pompey remained in
Rome. While Caesar was gaining glory and
influence in Gaul, Pompey was graduaUy losing
the confidence of aU parties at Rome. The
senate hated and feared him ; the people had
deserted him for their favourite Clodius ; and
he had no other resource left but to strengthen

POMPEIUS
his connexion with Caesar. Thus he came to
be regarded as the second man in the state, and
was obliged to abandon the proud position
which he had occupied for so many years.
According to an arrangement made with
Caesar, Pompey and Crassus were consuls for
a second time in 55. Pompey received as his
provinces the two Spains, Crassus obtained
Syria, while Caesar's government was prolonged
for five years more — namely, from the 1st of
January, 53, to the end of the year 49. At the
end of his consulship Pompey did not go in
person to his provinces, but sent his legates,
L. Afranius and M. Petreius, to govern the
Spains, while he himself remained in the
neighbourhood of the city. His object now
was to obtain the dictatorship, and to make
himself the undisputed master of the Roman
world. Caesar's increasing power and influence
had at length made it clear to Pompey that a
struggle must take place between them sooner
or later. The death of his wife Julia, in 54, to
whom he was tenderly attached, broke one link
which still connected him with Caesar ; and
the fall of Crassus in the foUowing year (53), in
the Parthian expedition, removed the only
person who had the least chance of contesting
the supremacy with them. In order to obtain
the dictatorship, Pompey secretly encouraged
the civU discord with which the state was torn
asunder ; and such frightful scenes of anarchy
foUowed the death of Clodius at the beginning
of 52, that the senate had now no alternative
but calling in the assistance of Pompey, who
was accordingly made sole consul in 52, and
succeeded in restoring order to the state. Soon
afterwards Pompey became reconciled to the
aristocracy, and was now regarded as their ac
knowledged head. The history of the civU war
which followed is related in the Life of Caesar.
It is only necessary to mention here, that after
the battle of PharsaUa (48) Pompey sailed to
Egypt, where he hoped to meet with a favour
able reception, since he hod been the means of
restoring to his kingdom the father of the
young Egyptian monarch. The ministers of
the latter, however, dreading Caesar's anger if
they received Pompey, and likewise Pompey's
resentment if they forbade him to land, resolved
to release themselves from their difficulties by
putting him to death. They accordingly sent
out a small boat, took Pompey on board, and
rowed for the shore. His wife and friends
watched him from the ship, anxious to see in
what manner he would be received by the king,
who was standing on the edge of the sea with
his troops ; but just as the boat reached the
shore, and Pompey was in the act of rising
from his seat, in order to step on land, he was
stabbed in the back by Septimius, who had
formerly been one of his centurions, and was
now in the service of the Egyptian monarch.
Pompey was killed on the 29th of September,
B.C. 48, and had just completed his fifty-eighth
.year. His head was cut off, and his body,
which was thrown out naked on the shore, was
buried by his freedman Philippus, who had
accompanied him from the ship. The head was
brought to Caesar when he arrived in Egypt
soon afterwards, but he turned away from the
sight, shed tears at the melancholy death of his
rival, and put his murderers to death. (Plut.
Pompeius ; Strab. pp. 555-560.) Pompey was
married five times. The names of his wives
were : (1) Antistia ; (2) Aemilia ; (3) Mucia ;
(4) Julia; (5) Cornelia. — 11. Cn. Pompeius
Magnus, elder son of the triumvir by his third

POMPONIUS

745

wife, Mucia. In the Civil war in 48, he com
manded a squadron of the fleet in the Adriatic
Sea. After his father's death, he crossed over
to Africa, and after remaining there a short time,
he sailed to Spain in 47. In Spain he was
joined by his brother Sextus and others of his
party, who had fled from Africa after their defeat
at Thapsus. Here the two brothers collected
a powerful army, but were defeated by Caesar
himself at the battle of Munda, fought on the
17th of March, 55. Cneius escaped from the
field of battle, but was shortly afterwards
taken prisoner, and put to death. (Plut! Ant.
25; Bell. Hisp. 39; Strab. p. 141.)— 12. Sex.
Pompeius Magnus, younger son of the trium
vir by his third wife, Mucia, was born 75. After
the battle of Pharsalia he accompanied his
father to Egypt, and saw him murdered before
his eyes. After the battle of Munda and the
death of his brother, Sextus lived for a time in
concealment in the country of the Laeetani,
between the Iberus and the Pyrenees ; but
when Caesar quitted Spain, he collected a body
of troops, and emerged from his lurking-place.
In the civil wars which foUowed Caesar's
death the power of Sextus increased. He ob
tained a large fleet, became master of the sea,
and eventuaUy took possession of Sicily. His
fleet enabled him to stop all the supplies of
corn which were brought to Rome from Egypt
and the eastern provinces, and such scarcity
began to prevail in the city that the triumvirs
were compelled by the popular discontent to
make peace with Pompey. This peace was
concluded at Misenum in 39, but the war was
renewed in the following year. Octavian made
great efforts to coUect a large and powerful
fleet, which he placed under the command of
Agrippa. In 36 Pompey's fleet was defeated
off Naulochus, with great loss. Pompey him
self fled from Sicily to Lesbos and from Lesbos
to Asia. Here he was taken prisoner by a body
of Antony's troops, and carried to Miletus,
where he was put to death (35), probably by
command of Antony, though the latter sought
to throw the responsibility of the deed upon his
officers. (Dio Cass. xiv. 9, xlviii. 17, xlix. 11 ;
App. B. C. ii. 105, iii. 4, v. 144.)
Pompeius Festus. [Festus.]
Pompeius Trogus. [Justinus.]
Pompelon (Pamplona) , which name is equiva
lent to Pompeiopolis, so called by the sons of
Pompey, was the chief town of the Vascones m
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Astu-
rica to Burdigala (Strab. p. 161 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 67 ;
PUn. iii. 25).
Pompilius. [Numa ; Andronicus.]
Pomponia. 1. Sister of T. Pomponius Atti
cus, was married to Q. Cicero, the brother of
the orator, B.C. 68. The marriage proved an
extremely unhappy one. Q. Cicero, after lead
ing a miserable life with his wife for almost
twenty-four years, at length divorced her at the
end of 45 or in the beginning of the following
year. [Ciceeo, No. 6.]— 2. Daughter of T. Pom
ponius Atticus. She is ako called Caecilia (be
cause her father was adopted by Q. Caecilius)
and likewise Attica. She was born in 51, and
she was stiU quite young when she was married
to M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Her daughter Vip-
sania Agrippina married Tiberius, the successor
of Augustus.
Pomponiana. [Stoechades.]
Pomponius, Sextus, a distinguished Roman
juriat, who lived under Antoninus Pius and M.
Aurelius. Some modem writers think that
there were two jurists of this name. The works

746

POMPONIUS

of Pomponius are frequently quoted in the
Digest. Pomponius Atticus. [Atticus.]
Pomponius Bononiensis, the most celebrated
writer of Fabulae Atellanae, was a native of Bo
nonia (Bologna) in northern Italy, about B.C.
91 (Macrob. i. 10, 3, vi. 9, 4 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 9, 6).
Pomponius Mela. [Mela,]
Pomptinae Paludes (Tlovrivai xlpvat : Palu-
di Pontine, in English the Pontine Marshes),
the name of a low marshy plain on the coast of
Latium between Circeii and Terracina, said to
have been so called after an ancient town
Pontia, which disappeared at an early period.
The plain is about thirty miles long, and from
seven to eight miles in breadth. The marshes
are formed chiefly by the rivers Nymphaeus,
Ufens, and Amasenus, and some other small
streams, which, instead of finding their way into
the sea, spread over this plain. (Strab. p. 233 ;
cf. Verg. Aen. vii. 801 ; Sil. It. viii. 379.) Hence
the plain is turned into a vast number of
marshes, the miasmas arising from which are
exceedingly unhealthy in the summer. At an
early period, however, they appear not to have
existed at all, or at any rate to have been con
fined to a narrow district. There was a tradi
tion that originaUy there were twenty-three
towns situated in this plain (Plin. iii. 59). On
the other hand, Theophrastus states that in his
time the promontory of Circeii, which had been
an island (hence by some considered the Homeric
island of Circe), began to be united to the main
land by aUuvial deposits (Theophr. H.P. v. 8, 3 ;
Plin. iii. 58). It is certainly improbable that
the district was ever habitable and fertile within
the period of history ; and the cornfields of the
Pomptinus ager (Liv. ii. 34, iv. 25, vi. 5, 21)
were probably never more than the borderland
of the marshes. There was, however, a suffi
ciently sound tract in the marshy plain to
admit of the construction of the Via Appia in
312, and no doubt the formation of the canal
helped to preserve the road. This was a navi
gable canal, parallel with the road from Forum
Appii to Feronia (Hor. Sat. v.). That the
marshes had a tendency to spread is clear from
the not very successful attempts which were
made to drain them by the consul Cethegus in
160, by Julius Caesar and by Augustus. (Liv.
Ep. 46 ; Suet. Jul. 44 ; Plut. Caes. 58 ; Dio Cass.
xliv. 5 ; Hor. A. P. 65.) Juvenal mentions the
marshes as a haunt of highwaymen (iii. 807),
no doubt, because they were thinly inhabited.
Subsequently the marshes again spread over
the whole plain, and the Via Appia entirely dis
appeared ; and it waa not until the pontificate
# of Pius VI. that any serious attempt was made
to drain them. The works were begun in 1778,
and the greater part of the marshes was drained ;
but the plain is still unhealthy in the great
heats of the summer.
C. Pomptinus, was praetor b.c 68, when he
was employed by Cicero in apprehending the
ambassadors of the Allobroges. He afterwards
obtained the province of Gallia Narbonensis,
and in 61 defeated the Allobroges, who had
invaded the province. He triumphed in 54, after
suing in vain for this honour for some years.
(SaU. Cat. 45 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 47, xxxix. 65.)
Pons, a common name for stations on the
Roman roads at the passage of rivers, some of
which stations on the more important roads grew
into villages or towns. 1. Pons Aelius (New
castle-upon-Tyne), in the N. of Britain. — 2. P.
Aeni (Pfunzen) in Vindelicia, at the passage of
the Inn, was a fortress with a Roman garrison.

PONTIUS
 3. p. Aureoli (Pontirolo), in GaUia Transpa
dana on the road from Bergamum to Medio
lanum, derived its name from one of the Thirty
Tyrants who was defeated and slain by Claudius
in this place (Aur.Vict. Caes. 33).— 4. P. Campa-
nus, in Campania between Sinuessa and Urbana
on the Savo. — 5. P. Mosae (prob. Maastricht)
in the N. of Gaul (Tac. Hist. iv. 66).— 6. P.
Saravi (Saarbruck), on the road from Divo-
durum (Metz) to Argentoratum (Strassburg).
Pontia (Ponza), a rocky island, about five
miles long, off the coast of Latium opposite
Formiae, which was taken by the Romans from
the Volscians, and colonised, b.c. 313 (Liv. ix.
28 ; Strab. p. 233). Under the Romans it was
used as a place of banishment for state crimi
nals (Suet. Tib. 54, Gal. 15). There is a group
of smaller islands round Pontia, which are some
times called Insulae Pontiae (Plin. in. 82).
Ponticus, an epic poet and a friend both of
Ovid and Propertius. He wrote a poem on
the Theban legendary wars, which Propertius
praises as being in the Homeric style. (Propert.
i. 7, 1, i. 9, 9 ; Ov. Trist. iv. 10, 47.)
Pontinus (Tlovrivos), a river and mountain in
Argolis near Lerna, with a sanctuary of Athene
Saitis. C. Pontius, son pf Herennius Pontius, the
general of the Samnites in B.C. 321, defeated the
Roman army under the two consuls T. Veturius
Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus in one of
the mountain passes in the neighbourhood of
Caudium. The survivors, who were completely
at the mercy of the Samnites, were dismissed
unhurt by Pontius. They had to surrender
their arma, and to pass under the yoke ; and as
the price of their deliverance, the consuls and
the other commanders swore, in the name of
the republic, to a humiliating peace. The Ro
man state, however, refused to ratify the treaty.
Nearly thirty years afterwards, Pontius was de
feated by Q. Fabius Gurges (292), was taken
prisoner, and was put to death after the triumph
of the consul (Liv. ix. 1).
Pontius Aquila. [Aquila.]
Pontius Pilatus, was the sixth procurator of
Judaea, and the successor of Valerius Graius
(Tac. Ann. xv. 44). He held the office for ten
years in the reign of Tiberius, from a.d. 26 to
36, and it was during his government that
Christ taught, suffered, and died. By his tyran
nical conduct he excited an insurrection at
Jerusalem, and at a later period commotions in
Samaria also, which were not put down without
the loss of life. The Samaritans complained of
his conduct to Vitellius, the governor of Syria,
who deprived him of his office, and sent him to
Rome to answer before the emperor the accusa
tions that were brought against him. Eusebius
states that Pilatus put an end to his own life
early in the reign of Caligula, worn out by the
many misfortunes he had experienced (Euseb.
H. E. ii. 7). An old tradition (possibly founded
on a similarity of name) says that he drowned
himself in the lake on Mt. Pilatus near Lucerne,
having wandered thither from a place of banish
ment in Gaul. The early Christian writers
refer to an official report, made by Pilatus to
the emperor Tiberius, of the condemnation and
death of Christ. It is very doubtful whether
this document was genuine ; and it is certain
that the Acts of Pilate, as they are called, which
are extant in Greek, as well as hiB two Latin
letters to the emperor, are the productions of a
later age.
Pontius Telesinus. 1. A Samnite, and com
mander of a Samnite army, with which he fought

PONTUS
against Sulla. He was defeated by SuUa in a
hard-fought battle near the Colline gate, B.C. 82.
He fell in the fight ; his head was cut off, and
carried under the walls of Praeneste, to let the
younger Marius know that his last hope of
succour was gone. (Veil. Pat. ii. 27.)— 2. Brother
of the preceding, was shut up in Praeneste with
the younger Marius, when his brother was de
feated by Sulla. After the death of the elder
Pontius, Marius and Telesinus, finding it im
possible to escape from Praeneste, resolved to
die by one another's hands. Telesinus fell
first, and Marius put an end to his own life, or
was slain by his slave. [Marius.]
Pontus (o Ubvros), the NE.-most district of
Asia Minor, along the coast of the Euxine, E.
of the river Halys, having originally no specific
name, was spoken of as the country iv Tlbvra,
on the Pontus (Euxinus), and hence acquired
the name of Pontus, which is first found in
Xenophon's Anabasis (v. 6, 15). The term,
however, was used very indefinitely until the
settlement of the boundaries of the country as
a Roman province. Originally it was regarded
as a part of Cappadocu, but its parts were
best known by the names of the different tribes
who dwelt along the coast, and of whom some
account is given by Xenophon, in the Anabasis.
We learn from the legends of the Argonauts,
who are represented as visiting this coast, and
the Amazons, whose abodes are placed about
the river Thermodon, E. of the Iris, as weU as
from other poetical allusions, that the Greeks
had some knowledge of these SE. shores of the
Euxine at a very early period. A great acces
sion to such knowledge was made by the
information gained by Xenophon and his com
rades, when they passed through the country
in their famous retreat and long afterwards
the Romans became weU acquainted with it by
means of the Mithridatic war, and Pompey's
subsequent expedition through Pontus into the
countries at the foot of the Caucasus. Tradi
tion said that this district was subdued by
Ninus (Diod. ii. 2). It was under the rule of
the Persian kings after Cyrus the Great (Hdt.
in. 94, vii. 77). Its subsequent name, Pontus,
first acquired a political rather than a terri
torial importance, through the foundation of a
new kingdom in it, about the beginning of the
fourth century b.c, by Ariobarzanes I. The
history of the gradual growth of this kingdom
until, under Mithridates VI., it threatened the
Roman empire in Asia, is given under the names
of its kings, of whom the following is the list : —
(1) Ariobarzanes I., exact date unknown ; (2)
Mithridates I., to b.c. 363 ; (3) Ariobar
zanes II., 363-337 ; (4) Mithridates II.,
337-302 ; (5) Mithridates III., 302-266 ; (6)
Abiobabzanes HX, 266-240? (7) Mithri
dates IV., 240-190? (8) Pharnaces I., 190-
156? (9) Mithridates V. Euebgetes, 156-
120 ? (10) Mithridates VI. Eupator, 120-
63; (11) Phaenaces H., 63-47. After the
death of Pharnaces, the reduced kingdom re
tained a nominal existence under his son
Darius, who was made king by Antony in B.C.
89, but was soon deposed ; and under Pole
mon I. and Polemon II., till about >a.d. 62,
when the country was constituted by Nero a
Roman province (Suet. Ner. 18 ; Eutrop. vii.
14). Of this province the W. boundary was the
river Halys, which divided it from Paphlagonia ;
the furthest E. limit was the Isis (a small river
not far S. of the Phasis), which separated it
from Colchis; on the S. it was divided from
Galatia, Cappadocia, and Armenia Minor by

PONTUS

747

the great chain of the Paryadres and by its
branches. It was divided into the three dis
tricts of Pontus Galaticus, in the W., border
ing on Galatia, P. Polemoniacus in the centre,
so called from its capital Polemonium, and P.
Cappadocius in the E. bordering on Cappadocia
(Armenia Minor). Li the new division of the
provinces under Constantine, these three dis
tricts were reduced to two : Helenopontus in
the W., so called in honour of the emperor's
mother, Helena, and Pontus Polemoniacus in
the E. The country was also divided into
smaller districts, named from the towns they
surrounded and the tribes who peopled them.
Pontus was a mountainous country : wild and
barren in the E., where the great chains
approach the Euxine; but in the W. watered
by the great rivers Halys and Iris and their
tributariea, the valleya of which, as well as the
land along the coast, are extremely fertile. Be
sides corn and olives, it was famous for its fruit
trees, and some of the best of our common
fruits are said to have been brought to Europe
from this quarter : for example, the cherry (see
Cerasus). The sides of the mountains were
covered with fine timber, and their lower slopes
with box and other shrubs. The E. part was
rich in minerals, and contained the celebrated
iron mines of the Chalybes.. (Strab. pp. 545,
549 ; Theophrast. HP. iv. 5, viii. 4, ix. 16, xix.
17; Xen. An. iv. 8, 16.) Pontus was peopled
by numerous tribes, belonging probably to very
different races, though the Semitic (Syro-
Arabian) race appears to have been the prevail
ing one, and hence the inhabitants were included
under the general name of Leucosybi. [The
chief of these peoples are spoken of in separate
articles.] Pontus Euxinus, or simply Pontus (b Tlbvros,
Tlbvros Ev^eivos : to TlovriKbv TleXayos, Mare
Euxlnum : the Black Sea, Turk. Kara Deniz,
Grk. Maurethalassa, Russ. Tcheriago More
or Czarne-More, all names of the same mean
ing, and supposed to have originated from the
terror with which it was at first regarded by
the Turkish mariners, as the first wide expanse
of sea with which they became acquainted), the
great inland sea enclosed by Asia Minor on the
S., Colchis on the E., Sarmatia on the N., and
Dacia and Thracia on the W., and having
no other outlet than the narrow Bosporus
Thracius in the SW. corner. It lies between
28° and 41° 30' E. long., and between 41° and
46° 40' N. lat., its length being about 700 miles,
and its breadth varying from 400 to 160. Its
surface contains more than 180,000 square
miles. It receives the drainage of an immense
extent of country in Europe and in Asia, but
much the greater portion of its waters flows
from the former continent by the following
rivers : the Ister or Danubius (Danube), whose
basin contains the greater part of central
Europe ; the Tyras or Danastris (Dniester)?
Hypanis or Bogus (Boug), Borysthenes (Dnie
per), and Tanais (Don), which drain the im
mense plains of S. Bussia, and flow into the N.
side of the Euxine, the last of them- (i.e. the
Tanais) through the Palus Maeotis (Sea of
Azov). The space thus drained is calculated at
above 860,000 square miles, or nearly one-fifth
of the whole surface of Europe. In Asia, the
basin of the Euxine contains, firBt, the trian
gular piece of Sarmatia Asiatica between the
Tanais on the N., the Caucasus on the S., and
on the E. the Hippici M., which form the water
shed dividing the tributaries of the Euxine
from those of the Caspian : the waters of this-

748

POPILLIUS

space flow into the Tanais and the Palus
Maeotis, and the largest of them is the Hypanis
or Vardanes (Kuban), which comes down to the
Palus Maeotis and the Euxine at their junction,
and divides its waters between them ; next we
have the narrow strip of land between the
Caucasus and the NE. coast of the sea ; then,
on the E., Colchis, hemmed in between the
Caucasus and Moschici M., and watered by the
Phasis ; and lastly, on the S., the whole of that
part of Asia Minor which lies between the
Paryadres and Antitaurus on the E. and SE.,
the Taurus on the S., and the highlands of
Phrygia on the W., the chief rivers of this
portion being the Iris ( Yeahil Irmak), the Halys
(Kizil Irmak), and the Sangarius (Sakariyeh).
The whole of the Asiatic basin of the Euxine
is estimated at 100,000 square miles. As might
be expected from this vast influx of fresh water,
the water is much less salt than that of the
ocean. A curious prediction was founded upon
this great influx by Polybius (iv. 39-43) — that
the Euxine would in time become choked up
and converted into dry land by the deposits of
all these rivers (cf. Strab. pp. 49, 50). The
great bank of which he speaks as being one
Clay's sail off the mouths of the Danube, is not
mentioned by other writers and has no exist
ence now. The waters which the Euxine
receives from the rivers that flow directly into
it, and also from the Palus Maeotis (Sea of
Azov) through the Bosporus Cimmerius (Straita
of Kaffa or Yenikaleh), find their exit at the
SW. corner, through the Bosporus Thracius
(Channel of Constantinople), into the Pro
pontis (Sea of Marmara), and thence in a
constant rapid current through the Helles-
pontus (Straits of Gallipoli or Dardanelles)
into the Aegeum Mare (Archipelago). — The
Argonautic and other legends show that the
Greeks had some acquaintance with this sea at
a very early period. It is said that they at first
called it "Af evos (inhospitable), from the savage
character of the peoples on its coast, and from
the supposed terrors of its navigation, and
that afterwards, on their favourite principle of
euphemism (i.e. abstaining from words of evil
omen), they changed its -aame to EH^evos, Ion.
¦Eflfeu/os (hospitable) (Ov. Trist. iv. 4, 55 ;
cf . Scymn. 734 ; Strab. p. 298 ; Mel. i. 19, 6 ;
Plin. vi. 1.) The Greeks of Asia Minor, espe
cially the people of Miletus, founded many
colonies and commercial emporiums on its
shores, and as early as the Persian wars we
find Athens carrying on a regular trade with
these settlements in the corn grown in the
great plains on its N. side (the Ukraine) and in
,the Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea), which have
-ever since supplied W. Europe with large quan
tities of grain. The history of the settlements
themselves will be found under their several
names. The Romans had a pretty accurate
knowledge of the sea. An account of its
coasts exists in Greek, entitled Periplus Maris
Euxini, ascribed to Arrian, who lived in the
reign of Hadrian. [Abrianus.]
Popillius laenas. [Laenas.]
Poplicola. [Publicola.]
Poppaea Sabina. [Sabina.]
Poppaeus Sabinus. [Sabinus.]
Populonia, or -ium (Populoniensis : Populo-
nia), an ancient town of Etruria, situated on a
lofty hill, sinking abruptly to the sea, and form
ing a peninsula. According to one tradition it
was founded by the Corsicans ; but according
to another it was a colony from Volaterrae, or
-was taken from the Corsicans by the Volater-

PORPHYRION
rani. (Strab. p. 223 ; Verg. Aen. x. 174 ; Serv.
ad loc.) It was not one of the twelve Etruscan
cities, and was never a place of political im
portance ; but it carried on an extensive com
merce, and was the principal seaport of Etruria.
Part of its trade was in iron obtained from the
opposite island of Ilva (Liv. xxviii. 45). It was
destroyed by Sulla in the civil wars, and was
almost in ruins in the time of Strabo, but is
mentioned as an existing town by Pliny (iii. 50).

Coin of Populonia in Etruria (early in 5th cent. B.C.).
Obv., Gorgon's head; rev., plain.
There are still remains of the walls of the
ancient Populonia, showing that the city was
only about 14 mile in circumference.
Porcia. 1. Sister of Cato Uticensis, married
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul B.C. 54, who
was slain in the battle of PharsaUa. She died
in 46. (Plut. Cat. i. 41 ; Cic. ad Att. ix. 3, xui.
37, 48.) — 2. Daughter of Cato Uticensis by his
first wife, Atilia. She was married first to M.
Bibulus, consul 59, to whom she bore three
children. Bibulus died in 48; and in 45 she
married M. Brutus, the assassin of Julius Caesar.
She inherited all her father's republican prin
ciples, and likewise his courage and firmness
of will. She induced her husband on the night
before the 15th of March to disclose to her the
conspiracy against Caesar's life, and she is re
ported to have wounded herself in the thigh in
order to show that she had a courageous soul
and could be trusted with the secret. (Plut.
Cat. 25, 73, Brut. 2, 13, 15, 23 ; App. B. C. iv.
136 ; Dio Cass. xliv. 13.) She put an end to her
own life after the death of Brutus, in 42. The
common tale was, that her friends, suspecting
her design, had taken all weapons out of her
way, and that she therefore destroyed herself
by swaUowing live coals. (Plut. Brut. 53 ;
Mart. i. 43 ; Dio Cass, xlvii. 49 ; Val. Max. iv.
6, 5.) The real fact may have been that she
suffocated herself by the vapour of a charcoal
fire, which we know was a frequent means of
self-destruction among the Romans.
Porcifera (Polcevera), a river of Liguria,
about two miles W. of Genoa (Plin. iii. 48).
Porcius Cato. [Cato.]
Porcius Festus. [Festus.]
Porcius Latro. [Latro.]
Porcius Licinus. [Licinus.]
Pordoselene or Poroselene (TlopSocreXiivri,
UopocreXiivi)), the largest of the group of islands
called Hecatonnesi, which lie between Lesbos
and the coast of Asia Minor (Strab. p. 618;
Ptol. v. 2, 5 ; Plin. v. 187).
Porphyrio, Pomponius, one of the most valu
able among the ancient commentators on Ho
race. He lived after Festus and Aero, probably
in the third or fourth century a.d. — Ed. by
Meyer, Leips. 1874.
Porphyrion (Uopcpvptav), one of the giants
who fought against the gods. When he at
tempted to offer violence to Hera, or to throw
the island of Delos against the gods, Zeus
hurled a thunderbolt at him, and Heracles
completed his destruction with his arrows.
[Gigantes.]

PORPHYRIS
Porphyris (riop<pupfe), an earlier name of the
island of Nisyrus.
Porphyrites Mons (Tloprpvplrris : Gebel
Dokhan), a range of mountains on the W. shore
of the Red Sea opposite the most southerly
part of Arabia (Ptol. iv. 5, 27)
Porphyrius (nopcfwpios), usually called Por
phyry, the celebrated antagonist of Christianity,
was a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Platonic
school. He was born a.d. 283 either in Batanea
in Palestine or at Tyre. His original name was
Malchua, the Greek form of the Syro-Phoenician
Melech, a word which signified king. The
name Porphyrius (in allusion to the usual
colour of royal robes) was subsequently devised
for him by his preceptor Longinus. After
studying under Origen at Caesarea, and under
Apollonius and Longinus at Athens, he settled
at Rome in his thirtieth year, and there be
came a diligent disciple of Plotinus, who en
trusted him with the task of correcting aud
arranging his writings. [Plotinus.] After re
maining in Rome six years, Porphyry, for the
sake of his health, took a voyage to SicUy, where
he Uved for some time. It was during his resi
dence in Sicily that he wrote his treatise against
the Christian religion, in fifteen books. After
wards he returned to Rome, where he continued
to teach until his death, which took place about
305 or 306. Late in life he married Marcella,
the widow of one of his friends, and the mother
of seven chUdren, with the view, as he avowed,
of superintending their education. As a writer
Porphyry deserves considerable praise. His
style is clear, and his learning was most exten
sive. His most celebrated work was his treatise
against the Christian rehgion ; but of its nature
and merits we are not able to judge, as it has
not come down to us : it was destroyed by
order of the emperor Theodosius. Among
his extant works his Life of Pythagoras and
Life of Plotinus are the best known.
Porphyrins, Publilius Optatianus, a Roman
poet of smaU merit, who lived in the age of
Constantine the Great. He was praefectus
urbi in 329 and 833. His verses are in the
highest degree artificial, many of them puzzles
in the acrostic and other forms rather than
poetry. He was brought into notice by a
Panegyric upon Constantine. — Ed. by L. Miiller,
Leips. 1877, and partly in Wernsdorf, Pod.
Lat. Min.
Porsenna or Porsena,* Lars, king of the
Etruscan town of Clusium, marched against
Rome at the head of a vast army, in order to
restore Tarquinius Superbus to the throne.
He took possession of the hiU Janiculum, and
would have entered the city by the bridge which
connected Rome with the Janiculum, had it not
been for the superhuman prowess of Horatius
Codes, who kept the whole Etruscan army at
bay, while his comrades broke down the bridge
behind him. [Cocles.] The Etruscans pro
ceeded to lay siege to the city, which soon began
to suffer from famine. Thereupon a young
Roman, named C. Mucius, resolved to deliver
his country by murdering the invading king.
He accordingly went over to the Etruscan
camp, but, ignorant of the person of Porsenna,
kUled the royal secretary instead. Seized, and
threatened with torture, he thrust his right
hand into the fire on the altar, and there let it
burn, to show how Uttle he heeded pain. Asto-

PORTUNUS

749-

* The quantity of the penultimate is variable. It
is short in Horace and Martial, bat long in Virgil
(Hor. gpod. xvi. 4 , Mart. xiv. 98 ; Verg. Aen, viii.
646.)

nished at his courage, the king bade him depart
in peace ; and Scaevola, as he was henceforward
called, told him, out of gratitude, to make peace
with Rome, since 300 noble youths had sworn
to take the life of the king, and he was the first
upon whom the lot had fallen. Porsenna there
upon made peace with the Romans, and with
drew his troops from the Janiculum after
receiving twenty hostages from the Romans.
Such was the tale by which Roman vanity con
cealed one of the earliest and greatest disasters
of the city. (Liv. ii. 9-15; Plut. Popl. 16;
Dionys. v. 21.) The real fact is, that this war
was an invasion by the Etruscan king for
purposes of conquest, not from any desire to re
store the Tarquins : otherwise their restoration
would have been a condition of the treaty.
This part of the story appears to be an episode
introduced to glorify the establishment of the
republic, and possibly the real wars of Porsenna
may have been at a different period. But
whenever the war occurred, Rome was com
pletely conquered by Porsenna. This is ex
pressly stated by Tacitus (Hist. iii. 72), and is
confirmed by other writers. Dionysius states
(v. 34) that the Romans acknowledged the
supremacy of Porsenna by sending him a
sceptre, a royal robe, and an ivory chair. Pliny
teUs us (xxxiv. 139) that so thorough was the
subjection of the Romans that they were ex
pressly prohibited from using iron for any other
purpose but agriculture. The Romans, how
ever did not long remain subject to the Etrus
cans. After the conquest of Rome, Aruns, the
son of Porsenna, proceeded to attack Aricia,
but was defeated before the city by the united
forces of the Latin cities, assisted by the Greeks
of Cumae (Liv. ii. 15 ; Dionys. v. 36, vii. 2-11).
The Etruscans appear, in consequence, to have
been confined to their own territory on the
right bank of the Tiber, and the Romans to
have availed themselves of the opportunity to
recover their independence. — The tomb of Por
senna at Clusium, of great size and magnifi
cence, is described by Pliny (xxxvi. 91), and
remains of it have been discovered at Chiusi.
[Clusium; Did. of Ant. art. Labyrinthus.]
Porthaon (TlopBdav), son of Agenor and Epi-
caste, was king of Pleuron and Calydon in
Aetolia, and married to Euryte, by whom he
became the father of Oeneus, Agrius, Alcathous,
Melas, Leucopeus, and Sterope. [Oeneus.]
Porthmus (TlbpBpos : Porto Bufalo), a har
bour in Euboea, belonging to Eretria, opposite
to Oropus (Dem. Phil. iii. p. 119, de Cor. p.
248 ; Plin. iv. 64).
Portunus or Portumnus, originaUy the god
of portae and portus, i.e. of doors, gates and
harbours (as being the river or maritime
entrances (Paul. p. 56). He was thus at first
identical with Janus, and, like him, represented
with a key in his hand [Janus, p. 457, a] : but
gradually the harbour-god was distinguished
from the god of gates, and Portunus received a
separate worship as the protecting deity who
guarded the harbour and was invoked to grant
a safe return to the haven. (Cic. N. D. ii. 26,,
56 ; Verg. Aen. v. 241.) When Greek mytho
logy influenced that of the Romans, Portunus
became identified with the Greek sea-god
Palaemon or Melicertes [Palaemon], and
sometimes with Neptunus. Portunus had a
temple on the Tiber near the Pons Aemilius,,
and another near Ostia, whence he was con
nected with the river god Tiberinus ; but it is
probably a mistake to say that he was identi
fied with Tiberinus. The two names appear as

750

PORUS

distinct in the same calendar of festivals. The
festival of the Portunalia at which Portunus
was worshipped took place on the 17th of
August. [Did. of Ant. s.v.]
Porus (Ttdpos) king of the Indian provinces
E. of the river Hydaspes, offered a formidable
resistance to Alexander when the latter
attempted to cross this river B.C. 827. The
battle which he fought with Alexander was one
of the most severely contested which occurred
during the whole of Alexander's campaigns.
Porus displayed great personal courage in the
battle, and when brought before the conqueror,
he proudly demanded to be treated in a manner
worthy of a king. This magnanimity at once
conciliated the favour of Alexander, who not
only restored to him hia dominions, but in
creased them by large accessions of territory.
From this time Porus became firmly attached
to his generous conqueror, whom he accom
panied to the Hyphasis. In 321 Porus was
treacherously put to death by Eudemus, who
commanded the Macedonian troops in the
adjacent province. We are told that Porus
was a man of gigantic stature — not less than
five cubits in height — distinguished for personal
strength and prowess in war. (Arrian, v. 18 ;
Plut. Alex. 60; Curt. viii. 14.)
Poseidon (TlocreiSuv), called Neptunus by
the Romans, was the god of the sea. (In so far
as he was distinguished from Oceanus, his rule
referred to the Mediterranean : otherwise it
was generally over all seaa.) His name is
connected with irbros, irbvros and irorapbs,
according to which he is the god of the flowing
waters, whether of land or sea : hence his
epithet cpvrdXpios, as nourisher of plants. Ac
cording to the genealogy recognised by the
earliest Greek poets, he was a son of Cronos
and Rhea (whence he is called Cronius, and by
Latin poets Saturnius). He was accordingly a
brother of Zeus, Hades, Hera, Hestia and
Demeter, and it was determined by lot that
he should rule over the sea. (II. xv. 187-191 ;
Hes. Th. 453, 464.) Like his brothers and
sisters, he was, after his birth, swallowed by his
father Cronos, but thrown up again (Apollod. i.
1, 5, i. 2, 1). According to the story given by
Pausanias (viii. 8, 2), he was concealed by
Rhea, after his birth, among a flock of lambs,
and his mother pretended to have given birth
to a young horse, which she gave to Cronos to
devour. In the Homeric poems Poseidon is
described as equal to Zeus in dignity, but less
powerful. He resents the attempts of Zeus to
intimidate him ; he even threatens his mightier
brother, and once conspired with Hera and
.Athene to put him into chains ; but oh other
occasions we find him submissive to Zeus. (II.
i. 309, viii. 210, xv. 165-190, 209-212 ; Od. xiii.
148.) The palace of Poseidon was in the depth
of the sea near Aegae in Achaia, where he kept
his horses with brazen hoofs and golden manes
(II. xiii. 21 ; Od. v. 381). With these horses he
drives in a chariot over the waves of the sea,
which become smooth as he approaches, and
the monsters of the deep recognise him and
play around his chariot (II. xiii. 27; Verg.
Aen. v. 817 ; Ap. Rh. iii. 1240). Although he
generally dwelt in the sea, still he also appears
in Olympus in the assembly of the gods (II.
xx. 13). — Poseidon in conjunction with Apollo
is said to have built the walls of Troy for
Laomedon, whence Troy is called Neptunia
Pergama (II. vii. 452 ; Eur. Andr. 1014 ; Ov.
Fast. i. 525). Laomedon refused to give theBe
gods the reward which had been stipulated, and

POSEIDON
even dismissed them with threats. Poseidon
in consequence sent a sea monster, which was
on the point of devouring Laomedon's daughter
when it was killed by Heracles, and he con
tinued to bear an implacable hatred against
the Trojans. [Hesione.] He sided with the
Greeks in the war against Troy, sometimes
witnessing the contests from the heights of
Thrace, and sometimes interfering in person,
asssuming the appearance of a mortal hero and
encouraging the Greeks, while Zeus favoured
the Trojans (II. xiii. 12, 44, xiv. 136). In the
Odyssey, Poseidon is hostile to Odysseus,
whom he prevents from returning home be
cause he had blinded Polyphemus, a son of
Poseidon by the nymph Thoosa (Od. i. 20, v.
286, 366, xi. 101 ; Ov. Trist. i. 2, 9).— Being the
ruler of the sea, he is described as gathering
clouds and caUing forth storms, but at the same
time he has it in his power to grant a successful
voyage and save those who are in danger ; and
all other marine divinities are subject to him.
As the sea surrounds and holds the earth,
he himself is described as the god who holds
the earth (yarl)oxos), and who has it in his
power to shake the earth 'Evvoaiyaios, ivocri-
X®av, Kivryr^p yds, rivdicrap yaias, so that
Hades feared lest he should tear up its founda
tion and reveal the depths below (II. xx. 57).
In this belief it is possible also that there may
have been some perception of the fact that
earthquakes are more frequent and violent near
the sea-coast.— Among the many local stories
of Poseidon the most famous is the legend of
the naming of Athens. It is said that when
Poseidon and Athene disputed as to which of
them should give the name to the capital of
Attica, the gods decided that it should receive
its name from the deity who should bestow
upon man the most useful gift. Poseidon then
created the horse, and Athene called forth the
olive tree ; in consequence of which the honour
was conferred upon the goddess. (Hdt. viu.
55 ; Apollod. iii. 14 ; Serv. ad Georg. i. 12.) It
should be noticed as regards this story that
Poseidon is really Erechtheus, the local deity
of Athens who has been transformed into a
hero. The myth probably expresses the fact
that Poseidon, or Poseidon-Erechtheus, was
worshipped by the old Ionian (or so-called
Pelasgian) inhabitants of Attica, and after the
later immigration occupied a subordinate place
in the festivals of the city. At Colonus the
worship of Athene was united with the (prob
ably) older worship of Tloo-eiSdv "imrtos. — The
following legends also respecting Poseidon
deserve to be mentioned. In conjunction with
Zeus he fought against Cronos and the Titans ;
and in the contest with the Giants he pursued
Polybotes across the sea as far as Cos, and
there killed him by throwing the island upon
him (Apollod. i. 6, 2 ; Paus..i. 2, 4). He further
crushed the Centaurs, when they were pursued
by Heracles, under a mountain in Leucosia, the
island of the Sirens (Apollod. ii. 5, 4). He
sued together with Zeus for the hand of Thetis ;
but he withdrew when Themis prophesied that
the son of Thetis would be greater than his
father (Apollod. iii. 18, 5 ; Tzetz. ad Lye. 178).
At the request of Minos, king of Crete, Poseidon
caused a buU to rise from the sea, which the
king promised to sacrifice; but when Minos
treacherously concealed the animal among a
herd of oxen, the god punished Minos by
causing his wife Pasiphae to fall in love with
the bull (Apollod. iii. 1, 3). — Poseidon was
married to Amphitrite, by whom he had three

POSEIDON
children, Triton, Rhode, and Benthesioyme ;
but he had also a vast number of children by
other divinities and by mortal women [see
especially Demeter ; Tyro]. It is, no doubt,
because the sea is rough and stormy that
many of the children of Poseidon are described
as rough and passionate, or even savage and
gigantic [see Amyous, Antaeus, Busiris,
Cercyon, Cycnus, Procrustes, Sciron.]—
Poseidon seems to have been worshipped
originaUy by the oldest branches of the Ionic
race in especial. It is possible that when they
were an inland people mainly he was the god
of running streams and wells, and that as they
occupied more and more sea-coast towns his
worship took particularly the form, which
eventually everywhere prevailed, appropriate
to the god of the sea. In Thessaly, a well-
watered country, without many sea-ports, his
character was rather that of a god of rivers, who
was therefore a lover of nymphs ; and, as the
ThessaUans were in early times an equestrian
people, it naturaUy happened that Poseidon was
accepted by them as the god of horses; and
other circumstances also may have contributed
to this — the impression of the horses' hoofs
trampling round the sacred streams and springs,
which led also to the stories of Hippocrene
[Pegasus] ; and perhaps also the idea of horses
shaking the earth in their gallop. This is a
more likely origin of his being regarded as the
god of horses than the comparison of crested
waves with horses. In this aspect he was n.
'bnrios, or Xinrios aval; : he was honoured in
chariot races, as at the Isthmian games, and the
giver of famous horses (H. xxiii. 277 ; Pind. 01.
i. 40, Pyth. vi. 43 ; Eur. Phoen. 1707 ; Soph.
O. C. 712; Paus. i. 30, 4, vi. 20, 8, viii. 25, 5).
The worship of Poseidon was specially notice
able in Thessaly, of which country he was
indeed the national god, and it belonged, no
doubt, to the early inhabitants, the so-caUed
Pelasgian races. Poseidon, as their traditions
recorded, not only gave them their rivers and
their horses, but he made their land, by cleaving
the way through Tempe for the waters to
escape. (Hence his epithet irerpdios : Pind.
Pyth. iv. 138.) Thence it had spread to
Boeotia, and was probably supreme there
before it was superseded by the worship of
Apollo and of Dionysus. In Attica, as has been
seen, it was established at a very early time,
and in the Peloponnesus also, which is said to
have been an oiKvr-lipiov TlooeiSdvos in pre-
Dorian times (Diod. xv. 49), it held an im
portant place. It may have been brought
thither by the old Ionian settlers from Asia, —
to which country it was again brought back to
be celebrated in the great Panionian festival
— or it may have been planted in various
centres of the Peloponnesus by races coming
southwards from Thessaly : for instance, from
the race of Pelias and Neleus may have arisen
the worship of Poseidon at Pylos (Od. iii. 5) ;
from the Lapithae that in Attica. The most
famous seats of this worship in the Pelopon
nesus were Aegae and Helice in Achaia (H.
vin. 503 ; Hdt. i. 145 ; Paus. vii. 25, 7), and it is
remarkable that Helice was destroyed by an
earthquake in 873 B.C. (Strab. p. 384) : possibly
it had a reputation for earthquakes in earlier
times ; at Onchestus (Paus. ix. 26, 6) ; at
Calausia and at other cities which united in the
Isthmian games ; especially also at Taenarum
and Malea (Ap. Rh. iii. 1240) the promontories
of Lacedaemon, whence probably it was carried
to Tarentum (Hor. Od. i. 28, 29), having been

751
adopted by the Dorians from their predecessors.
[For the worship of Poseidon at Athens, see
Erechtheum.]— The attribute of Poseidon,
which distinguishes him,also in works of art,
was especially the trident (Od. v. 291 ; Apollod.
i. 2, 1), with which his various works of power
are done, the rocks are cleft, the horse or the
spring of water is produced from the earth, and
the depths of the sea are stirred. It is gener
ally held that the form of his trident was
merely adopted from the three-pronged weapon
with which the fisher struck the tunny— and
this seems to be the idea of Aeschylus when he
calls the trident of Poseidon IxBvBbXos (Sept.
123) : on the other hand, a recent writer has
brought arguments to show that it was a
development of the sceptre, headed by a lotus
or fleur-de-lys, such as was commonly painted
on vases as an emblem of power for Zeus, Hades
on Poseidon. The bull was also an attribute,
symbolising the roar of the stormy sea, whence
Poseidon had the epithet raipeos or raipeios
(that the hunting of the bull was the sport in
early times of the ThessaUans may also have had
something to do with this connexion) ; bulls were
sacrificed to him (Od. iii. 1), and the ministers
of his sacrifices at Ephesus were called ravpot
(Athen. p. 245). On the other hand, the dolphin
belonged to him as the symbol of his power to
calm the sea (Ael.
H. A. xii. 45). In
art he never ap
pears enthroned,
but usually as a
standing figure
with the trident :
sometimes he is
fully clothed :
sometimes he is
naked : in the coin
of Paestum [see
p. 641], as in the
medal engraved
here, he is naked
except for a cloak
thrown over his
arm, and on the re
verse the attribute
of the bull also
appears. In the
colossal statue of Poseidon in the Lateran
Museum the god ia standing, naked, with the
trident in his left hand and a rudder in his
right, one foot is resting on a ship joined to
which is a dolphin's head. All these are
common attributes, as may be gathered from
coins (see coin
of Hadrian, en
graved here) ;
but in this sta
tue most of
them appear to
be restorations.
The typical
head of Posei
don resembles
that of Zeus,
but has less of
repose in it.
The contest be
tween Posei
don and Athene Poseidon (Neptune). (Coin at Hadrian.
was the subject
of the sculptures on the W. pediment of the
Parthenon, and probably that treatment of it
is illustrated by the painting on a vase found
at Kertch which is now at St. Petersburg.

Poseidon. (From a medal ol
Demetrius Poliorcetes.)

752

POSIDIPPUS

Posidippns (noo-eiSiir7ros, TlooiSiinros). 1.
An Athenian comic poet of the New Comedy,
was a native of Cassandrea in Macedonia. He
was reckoned one of the six most celebrated
poets of the New Comedy. In time, he was
the last of all the poets of the New Comedy.
Among his plays was one entitled AiSvpoi,
which was possibly the original of the Men
aechmi of Plautus. He began to exhibit dramas
in the third year after the death of Menander —
that is, in B.C. 289. (Fragments in Meineke, Fr.
Com. Gr.) — 2. An epigrammatic poet of the
Alexandrian period. His epigrams formed a
part of the Garland of Meleager, and twenty-
two of them are preserved in the Greek Antho
logy- Posidium (Tloo-eiStov), the name of several
promontories sacred to Poseidon. 1. (Punta
delta Licosa), in Lucania, opposite the island
Leucoaia, the S. point of the gulf of Paestum
(Strab. p. 252). — 2. In Epirus, opposite the
NE. point of Corcyra (Ptol. iii. 14, 4 ; Strab. p.
324). — 3. (C. Stavros), in Thessaly, forming
the W. point of the Sinus Pagasaeus. , It is the
promontory which Livy (xxxi. 46) calls Zela-
sium. (Strab. p. 330, 32 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 17.)— 4.
(C. Helene), the SW. point of Chios (Strab. p.
644). — 5. (Marmaras), on the SW. coast of
Caria, between Miletus and the Iassius Sinus,
with a town of the same name upon it (Strab.
pp. 633, 651; Plin. v. 112).— 6. On the W.
coast of Arabia, with an altar dedicated to
Poseidon by Ariston, whom Ptolemy had sent
to explore the Arabian gulf (Diod. iii. 42 ;
Strab. p. 776). — 7. (Posseda), a seaport town in
Syria, in the district Cassiotis (Strab. p. 751 ;
Plin. v. 79).
Posldonia. [Paestum.]
Posidonium or Posidium (TlotreiSdviov : C.
Possidhi), a promontory on the SW. coast of
the peninsula Pallene in Macedonia, not far
from Mende (Thuc. iv. 129; Liv. xliv. 11).
Posidonius (TlooetSdvtos), a distinguished
Stoic philosopher, was a native of Apamea in
Syria. The date of his birth is not known with
any exactness, but it may be placed about B.C.
135. He studied at Athens under Panaetius,
after whose death (112) Posidonius set out on
his travels. After visiting most of the coun
tries on the coast of the Mediterranean, he
fixed his abode at Rhodes, where he became
the president of the Stoic school. He also took
a prominent part in the political affairs of
Rhodes, and was sent as ambassador to Rome
in 86. Cicero, when he visited Rhodes, received
instruction from Posidonius (Cic. Tusc. ii. 25,
N. D. i. 3, Fin. i. 2, ad AU. ii. 1 ; Plut. Cic. 4).
.Pompey also had a great admiration for Posi
donius, and visited him twice, in 67 and 62
(Plut. Pomp. 42). To the occasion of his first
visit probably belongs the story that Posidonius,
to prevent the disappointment of his distin
guished visitor, though severely afflicted with
the gout, held a long discourse on the topic that
pain is not an evil. In 51 Posidonius removed
to Rome, and appears to have died soon after,
at the age of eighty-four. Posidonius was a
man of extensive and varied acquirements in
almost all departments of human knowledge.
Cicero thought so highly of his powers that he
requested him to write an account of his con
sulship. As a physical investigator he was
greatly superior to the Stoics generally, attach
ing himself in this respect rather to Aristotle.
His geographical and historical knowledge was
very extensive. He cultivated astronomy with
considerable diligence. He also constructed a

POTIDAEA
planetary machine, or revolving sphere, to-
exhibit the daily motions of the sun, moon, and
planets. His calculation of the circumference
of the earth differed widely from that of
Eratosthenes. He made it only 180,000 stadia,
and his measurement was pretty generaUy
adopted. None of the writings of Posidonius
has come down to us entire. His fragments are
collected by Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1810.
Postumia Castra (Salado), a fortress in
Hispania Baetica, on a hill near the river
Salsum (Bell. Hispan. 8).
Postumia Gens, patrician, was one of the
most ancient patrician gentes at Rome. Its
members frequently held the highest offices of
the state, from the banishment of the kings to
the downfall of the republic. The most dis-j
tinguished family in the gens was that of
Albus or Albinus ; but we also find early in the
republic families of the names of Megellus and
Tubertus (Liv. iv. 27, ix. 44). A Postumins
Megellus was consul in 262, and took Agrigen
tum (Pol. i. 17).
Postumus, whose full name was M. Cassianus
Latinius Postumus, stands second in the list
of the so-called Thirty Tyrants. Being nomi
nated by Valerian governor of Gaul, he
assumed the title of emperor in A.D. 258, while
Valerian was prosecuting his campaign against
the Persians. Postumus maintained a strong
and just government, and preserved Gaul from
the devastation of the warlike tribes upon the
eastern border. After reigning nearly ten
years, he was slain by his soldiers in 267, and
Laelianus proclaimed emperor in his stead.
(Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. ii.; Aurel. Viet.
Caes. 32 ; Oros. vii. 22.)
Postumus, M. Curtius, was made tribune of
the soldiers by Caesar at the recommendation
of Cicero (Cic. ad Q. Fr. ii. 15, iii. 1). He
afterwards became a warm adherent of Caesar,
and was disliked and suspected by Cicero,
though sometimes courted by him (Cic. ad Att.
ix. 2, 5, 6, xii. 49, xiv. 9, ad Fam. vi. 12).
Postverta or Postvorta. [Indigetes, p.
443, a.J
Potami or Potamus (Tlorapol, Tlorapbs r
Tlordpios : Keratia), a demus in the S. of
Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, where
the tomb of Ion was shown (Paus. i. 81, 3 ;
Stra_b._p. 398).
Pot amon (Tlordpuov). 1. A rhetorician of
Mytilene, lived in the time of Tiberius Caesar,
whose favour he enjoyed (Strab. p. 617). — 2.
A philosopher of Alexandria, who is said to
have introduced at Rome an eclectic sect of
philosophy. He appears to have lived at Rome
a little before the time of Plotinus, and to have
entrusted his chUdren to the guardianship of
the latter. (Suid. s.v. ; Diog. Laert. Proem. 21.)
Potentia (Potentinus ; S. Maria di Po-
tenza). 1. A town of Picenum on the river
Flosis, between Ancona and Castellum Firma-
num, was made a Roman colony in B.C. 184
(Liv. xxxix. 44 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15 ; Strab. p. 241).
— 2. (Potenza), a town of Lucania on the Via
Popilia, E. of Forum Popilii (Ptol. iii. 1, 70;
Plin. iii. 98).
Pothinus, a eunuch, the guardian of the-
young king Ptolemy, recommended the assassi
nation of Pompey, when the latter fled to
Egypt, B.C. 48. Pothinus plotted against Caesar
when he came to Alexandria shortly afterwards,.
and was put to death by Caesar's order. (Caes.
B. C. in. 108, 112 ; Dio Cass. xiii. 39 ; Lucan,
viii. 484, x. 333.)
Potidaea (TloriSaia : TloriSaidrris : Kas-

POTIDANIA
Sandra), a town in Macedonia on the narrow
isthmus of the peninsula Pallene, was a strongly
fortified place and one of considerable import-
tance (Hdt. vii. 128 ; Thuc. i. 56, 68 ; Strab. p.
330, 25-28). It was a colony of the Corinthians,
and must have been founded before the Persian
wars, though the time of its foundation is not
recorded. It afterwards became tributary to
Athens, and its revolt from the latter city in
B.C. 432 was one of the immediate causes of
the Peloponnesian war. It was taken by the
Athenians in 429 after a siege of more than two
years, its inhabitants expelled, and their place
supplied by Athenian colonists. (Thuc. ii. 58, 70,
iv. 120.) In 856 it was taken by Philip, who
destroyed the city and gave its territory to the
Olynthians. Cassander, however, built a new
city on the same site, to which he gave the
name of Cassandrea (KaffcrdvSpeia : Kaooav-
Speis), andwhichhe peopled with the remains of
the old population and with the inhabitants of
Olynthus and the surrounding towns, so that it
soon became the most flourishing city in all
Macedonia. (Dem. Phil. u. p. 170 ; Strab. I. c).
It was taken and plundered by the Huns, but
was restored by Justinian.
Potidania (UoriSavia.), a fortress in the NE.
of Aetolia, near the frontiers of Locris ^Thuc.
in. 96 ; Liv. xxvni. 1).
Potitii. [PiNARLi. Gens.]
Potltus, the name of an ancient and cele
brated famUy of the Valeria Gens. This f amUy
disappears about the time of the Samnite wars,
but the name was revived at a later period by
the Valeria gens, as a praenomen : thus we find
mention of a Potitus Valerius Messalla, who was
consul suffectus in B.C. 29.
Potniae (Tlorviai : Tlorvieis), a small town in
Boeotia on the Asopus, ten stadia S. of Thebes,
on the road to Plataea (Xen. Hell. v. 4, 51 ;
Paus. ix. 8, 1). The adjective Potniades (sing.
Potniaa) is an epithet frequently given to the
mares which tore to death Glaucus of Potniae.
[Glaucus, No. 1.]
Praaspa. [Phraata.]
Practius (TlpdKTios : Bergas), a river of the
Troad, rising in M. Ida, and flowing into the
HeUespont, N. of Abydus (II. ii. 835 ; Strab. p.
590 ; Arrian, An. i. 12, 6).
Praeneste (Praenestinus : Palestrina), one
of the most ancient towns of Latium, was
situated on a steep and lofty hill, about twenty
mUes SE. of Rome, with which it was connected
by a road caUed Via Praenestina. It probably
existed before the Greek colonisation, but it
claimed a Greek origin, and was said to have
been founded by Praenestus, the grandson of
Odysseus (Steph. Byz. s. v. ; Solin. 2, 9).
Another tradition ascribed its foundation to
Caeculus, son of Vulcan (Verg. Aen. vii. 678).
Strabo speaks of it as a Greek town, and asserts
that it was formerly called TloXvorerpavos, for
which Pliny writes Stephane (Strab. p. 238;
Plin. iii. 64). The traditions which imply a
foundation by the earlier inhabitants of Italy
are older and probably truer. Dionysius (v. 61)
speaks of it as an important member of the
Latin confederation. In very early times (from
B.C. 499), according to Livy, it was an ally of
Rome (Liv. ii. 19, iii. 8), but after the Gallic
invasion appears as an enemy of the Romans,
and, being strongly fortified by nature and by-
art, frequently resisted their attacks (Liv. vi.
21). After the Latin war Praeneste lost some
territory, but remained nominally independent
till after the Social war, when it received the
franchise (App. B. C. i. 65) and became a

PRATINAS

753

Roman colony (Cic. Cat. i. 8). It was here that
the younger Marius took refuge, and was for a
considerable time besieged by Sulla's troops.
Praeneste possessed a very celebrated and
ancient temple of Fortuna, with an oracle,
which is often mentioned under the name of
Praenestinae sortes (Ov. Fast. vi. 61 ; Lucan,
ii. 194 ; Cic. Div. ii. 41 ; Fortuna). In conse
quence of its lofty situation Praeneste was a
cool and healthy residence in the great heats
of summer (frigidum Praeneste, Hor. Od. iii.
4, 22; Juv. iii. 190), and was therefore much
frequented at that season by the wealthy
Romans. The remains of the ancient walls
and some other antiquities are still to be seen
at Palestrina. The fragments of a Roman
Calendar, called Fasti Praenestini, were found
here in 1771, and are probably those which
Verrius Flaccus set up in the forum of Praeneste
(Suet. Gramm. 17; C. I. L. i. p. 311).
Praesus (Tlpdio-os : Tlpaioios), an inland town
in the E. of Crete, belonging to the Eteocretes,
which was destroyed by the neighbouring town
of Hierapvtna (Strab. pp. 475, 478).
Praetoria Augusta. [Augusta, No. 4.]
Praetutii (Tlpairoirrioi), a tribe of Picenum,
whose district lay on the N. side of the river
Vornanus. Their chief city was Interamnium
(Pol. iii. 88 ; Liv. xxii. 9 ; Plin. iii. 110).
Pras (Jlpas, gen. Tlpavrbs '¦ U.pdvres), a town
of Thessaly, in the W. of the district Phthiotis,
on the NE. slope of Mt. Narthacius (Xen. Hell.
iv. 319).
Prasiae (Tlpao-iai: Tlpaaieis). 1. Or Prasia
(Tlpaoia), a town of the Eleuthero-lacones, on
the E. coast of Laconia, was taken and
destroyed by the Athenians in the second year
of the Peloponnesian war (Thuc. ii. 56 ; Strab.
pp. 368, 374 ; Paus. iii. 24, 3).— 2. (Prassa), a
demus in Attica, S. of Stiria, belonging to the
tribe Pandionis, with a temple of Apollo (Thuc.
viii. 95).
Prasias Lacus (Upao-ids Xipv-n : Batkovo), a
lake in Thrace between the Strymon and Nestus,
and near the Strymonic gulf, with silver mines
in the neighbourhood.
Prasii, Praesii, and Parrhasli (Tlpdaioi:
Sanscrit, Prachinas, i.e. people of the E.
country), a great and powerful people of India
on the Ganges, governed at the time of Seleu
cus I. by king Sandbocottus. Their capital
city was Palibothra (Patna), and the extent
of the kingdom seems to have embraced the
whole valley of the upper Ganges, at least as
far down as that city. At a later time the
monarchy declined, so that in Ptolemy we only
find the name as that of the inhabitants of a
small district, called Prasiaca (TlpaoiaKi)), about
the river Soa (Strab. pp. 702, 703 ; Plin. vi. 68 ;
Diod. xvii. 93 ; Curt. ix. 2 ; Plut. Alex. 62).
Prasodis Mare (TlpaodSris BaXao-tra or KbX
iros), the SW. part of the Indian Ocean, about
the promontory Prasum.
Prasum (Tlpdaov aKpariipiov : i.e. ' the green
headland ' : C. Delgado), a promontory on the
E. coast of Africa in lo|° S. lat., in the district
Zingites (Zind), appears to have been the
S.-most point to which the ancient knowledge
of this coast extended.
Pratinas (Ttparivas), one of the early tragic
poets at Athens whose combined efforts brought
the art to its perfection, was a native of Phlius,
and was therefore by birth a Dorian. It is not
stated at what time he went to Athens, but he
was older than Choerilus and younger than
Aeschylus, with both of whom he competed for
the prize in the seventieth Olympiad, according
3C

754 PRAXAG0RA3
to Suidas, i.e. between 500 and 495 B.C.

By

the same writer he is said to have invented
Satyric drama : that is to say, he introduced the
practice of adding a satyr-play to be acted in
connexion with the preceding tragedy or tra
gedies. The Chorus of Satyrs belonged to the
earliest phase of drama, and it was possibly
with the object of preserving this that he
separated the satyr-chorus from the tragedy (as
we should now understand it), and confined it
to the lighter satyric drama. He is said to have
written sixty plays, of which only scanty frag
ments remain. His satyric dramas were ranked
by Pausanias next to those of Aeschylus (Paus.
ii. 13, 6 ; Suid. s. v. Tlparivas). He aho stood
high as writer of lyrical pieces, of which frag
ments, one of some length, remain (Bergk,
Poet. Lyr. 953).
Praxagoras (Tlpafaybpas), a celebrated physi
cian, was a native of the island of Cos, and lived
in the fourth century B.C. He belonged to the
medical sect of the Dogmatici, and was cele
brated for his knowledge of medical science in
general, and especially for his attainments in
anatomy and physiology. (Gal. ii. p. 905 ; Plin.
xxvi. 10.)
Praxias (Tlpa^ias), an Athenian sculptor of
the age of Phidias, but of the more archaic
school of Calamis, commenced the execution of
the statues in the pediments of the great temple
of Apollo at Delphi — Artemis, Leto and Apollo
with the Muses, Dionysus and the Thyiades,
and Helios at his setting — but died while he was
still engaged upon the work. His date may be
placed about B.C. 448 and onwards. (Paus. x.
19, 3.)
Praxidice (Tlpa^iSlKri), i.e. the goddess who
carries out the objects of justice, or watches that
justice is done to men. Sometimes Praxidice
seems to be merely Dike herself, regarded as
having attained her ends : for instance, when
Menelaus arrived in Laconia, on his return
from Troy, he set up a statue of Praxidice near
Gytheum, not far from the spot where Paris, in
carrying off Helen, had founded a sanctuary of
Aphrodite Migonitis (Paus. iii. 22, 2). In other
traditionB there seems to have been (as so often
appears in Greek mythology), a triad. These
three Praxidicae were workers of justice and
had a shrine near HaUartus in Boeotia (Paus.
ix. 33, 4). In some accounts they are daughters
of Ogyges, and their names are Alalcomenia,
Thelxinoa, and Aulis (Suid. s. v. Tlpa£iS'tKri).
Pausanias seems to connect the death of Sulla
with the working of Alalcomenia in retribution
for his severities in Greece (Paus. ix. 33, 6).
Praxilla (Tlpd^iXXa), of Sicyon, a lyric poetess,
who flourished about B.C. 450, and was one of
the nine poetesses who were distinguished as
the Lyric Muses. Her scolia were among the
most celebrated compositions of that species.
She belonged to the Dorian school of lyric
poetry, but there were also traces of Aeolic
influence in her rhythms, and even in her dia
lect. (Suid. s. v. ; Athen. p. 694 ; Paus. iii. 13, 3.)
Praxiphanes (Tlpa£i<pdvris), a Peripatetic
philosopher, a native either of Mytilene or of
Rhodes, was a pupil of Theophrastus, and lived
about B.C. 322. Epicurus is said to have been
one of his pupils. Praxiphanes paid especial
attention to grammatical studies, and is hence
named along with Aristotle as the founder and
creator of the science of grammar. (Clem. Alex.
i. p. 365 ; __Strab. p. 655.)
Praxiteles (Tlpa^ireXris), one of the greatest
Greek sculptors. He was a son of Cephisodotus,
also a famous sculptor, and some modern writers

PRAXITELES
argue (but not conclusively) that 'Pasiteles,'
whom Pausanias (v. 20, 1) mentions as a sculptor
of Paros, was reaUy Praxiteles, and grandfather
of the great sculptor. However that may be,
Praxiteles was a citizen of Athens, born about
890 B.C., and contemporary with Scopas, with
whom he stands at the head of the later Attic
school, so caUed in contradistinction to the
earlier Attic school of Phidias. Without at
tempting those sublime impersonations of divine
majesty in which Phidias had been so inimitably
succeBaful, Praxitelea was unsurpassed in the
exhibition of the softer beauties of the human
form. While Phidias was supreme in his at
tainment of the grandest and noblest ideas,
Praxiteles was equally so in his representation
of beauty of face and form. In the estimation
of ancient writers his most beautiful work was
his marble statue of Aphrodite, which was dis
tinguished from the other statues of the goddess
by the name of the Cnidians, who purchased

Copy (in Capitol at Rome) of the Satyr of Praxiteles,
it (Plin. xxxvi. 20). The statue at Munich is a
copy of this, and the Venus de' Medici is an
imitation. [See cuts on p. 86.] It was always
esteemed the most perfectly beautiful of the
statues of the goddess. Many made the voyage
to Cnidus expressly to behold it. So highly
did the Cnidians themselves esteem their
treasure, that when king Nicomedes offered
them, as the price of it, to pay off the whole of
their heavy public debt, they preferred to en
dure any suffering rather than part with the
work which gave their city its chief renown.
It was afterwards carried to Constantinople,
where it perished by fire in the reign of Justi
nian (Zonar. xiv. 2). Praxiteles modeUed it from
Phryne, of whom also he made more than one
portrait statue. His famous statue of Apollo
Sauroctonos (Plin. xxxiv. 70), of a delicate and
highly idealised beauty, is also represented by
a copy. [See cut on p. 89.] Another of the
celebrated works of Praxiteles was his statue
of Eros (Paus. ix. 27, 3 ; Cic. Verr. iv. 2, 4). It
was preserved at Thespiae where it was dedi-

PRAXITHEA
cated by Phryne ; and an interesting story is
told of the manner in which she became
possessed of it. Praxiteles had promised to
give Phryne whichever of his works she might
choose, but he was unwilling to teU her which
of them, in his own opinion, was the best. To
discover this, she sent a slave to tell Praxiteles
that a fire had broken out in his house, and
that most of his works had already perished.
On hearing this message, the artist rushed out,
exclaiming that all his toil was lost if the fire
had touched his Satyr or his Eros. Upon this
Phryne confessed the stratagem, and chose the
Eros. This statue was removed to Rome by
Caligula, restored to Thespiae by Claudius, and
carried back by Nero to Rome, where it stood
in Pliny's time in the schools of Octavia, and it
finaUy perished in the fire which destroyed that
buUding in the reign of Titus. (Paus. i. 20, 2 ;
Dio Cass. Ixvi. 24.) Of the Satyr of Praxiteles

PRIAPUS

7C5

The Hermes of Praxiteles. (Original statue now
at Olympia.)
a copy exists in the statue of the Faun in the
Capitol at Rome. But, above all, since the
discovery of the Hermes at Olympia, the su
preme skill of Praxiteles in delineating beauty
of form can be seen in an original work. This
statue, which represented Apollo bearing the
infant Dionysus on his left arm, and holding up
(probably) a bunch of grapes in his right hand
(Paus. v. 17, 3), was found by the German
archaeologists in 1877, fairly preserved, and is
now in the museum at Olympia. — Praxiteles
had two sons, who were also distinguished
sculptors, Timarchus and Cephisodotus.
Praxlthea (Upa^iBea), daughter of Phrasimus
and Diogenla, was the wife of Erechtheus, and
mother of Cecrops, Pandorus, Metion, Orneus,
Procris, Creusa, Chthonia, and Orithyia.
[Erechtheus.] Preciani, a people in Gallia Aquitania at the
foot of the Pyrenees (Caes. B. G. iii. 27).
Prelius, or Prilius Lacus (Lago di Casti-
glione), a lake in Etruria near the coast, be
tween Vetulonia and RuseUae. It was fed and

drained by a river of the same name. (Cic.
Mil. 27 ; Plin. iii. 51.)
Premnis, Premis, or Primis (Tlpripvis : Ibrim),
a town on the Nile in Aethiopia near the limit
of the Roman empire, which was taken by Pe
tronius in his expedition (Strab. p. 820 ; Ptol.
iv. 7, 19 ; Plin. vi. 181).
Prepesinthus (Upeireo-ivBos : Despotiko), one
of the smaller Cyclades, between Oliaros and
Siphnos (Strab. p. 485).
Priamides, that is, a son of Priam, by which
name Hector, Paris, Helenus, Deiphobua, and
the other sons of Priam, are called.
Priamus (Uplapos), the king of Troy at the
time of the Trojan war. He was a son of Lao
medon and Strymo or Placia. His original
name is said to have been Podarcea, i.e. ' the
swift-footed,' which was changed into Priamus,
' the ransomed ' (from irplapai), because he was
the only surviving son of Laomedon and was
ransomed by his sister Hesione after he had
fallen into the hands of Heracles. He is
said to have been first married to Arisbe, tho
daughter of Merops, by whom he became the
father of Aesacus [Arisbe] ; but afterwards
he gave up Arisbe to Hyrtacus, and married
Hecuba, by whom he had the following chUdren :
Hector, Alexander or Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus,
Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, Hipponous, Poly
dorus, Troilus, Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, and
Cassandra. By other women he had a great
many children besides. According to the Ho
meric tradition, he was the father of fifty sons
(nineteen of whom were children of Hecuba), to
whom others add an equal number of daughters.
(II. xxiv. 495.) In the earlier part of his reign,
Priam is said to have supported the Phrygians
in their war against the Amazons (II. iii. 184 ;
Amazones). When the Greeks landed on the
Trojan coast Priam was already advanced in
years, and took no active part in the war (11.
xxiv. 487). Once only did he venture upon the
field of battle, to conclude the agreement re
specting the single combat between Paris and
Menelaus (II. iii. 250). After the death of
Hector, Priam, accompanied by Hermes, went
to the tent of AchiUes to ransom his son's body
for burial and obtained it. His death is not
mentioned by Homer, but is related by later
poets. When the Greeks entered Troy, the
aged king put on his armour, and was on the
point of rushing against the enemy, but he was
prevailed on by Hecuba to take refuge with
herself and her daughters, as a suppliant at the
altar of Zeus. While he was tarrying in the
temple, his son Polites, pursued by Pyrrhus,
rushed into the sacred spot, and expired at the
feet of his father, whereupon Priam, overcome
with indignation, hurled his spear with feeble
hand against Pyrrhus, but was forthwith killed
by the latter. (Eur. Troad. 17; Verg. Aen. ii.
512.) — Virgil mentions (Aen. v. 564) another
Priam, a son of Polites, and a grandson of king
Priam. [Diet, of Ant. art. Trojae Ludus.]
Priansus (Tlpiavtros : Tlpidvo-ios, Tipiavaieis),
a town in Crete on the S. coast nearly due S.
of Gnosus and E. of Leben, confounded by
Strabo with Praesus (Strab. p. 478). Its name
appears on coins and in inscriptions.
Priapus (Upiairos), son of Dionysus and Aphro
dite. It is said that Aphrodite, who was in love
with Dionysus, went to meet the god on his re
turn from India, but soon abandoned him, and
proceeded to Lampsacus on the Hellespont, to
give birth to the child of the god. Hera caused
her to give birth to a child of extreme ugliness,
who was named Priapus. (Paus. ix. 81, 2;
Sc2

756 PRIAPUS
Steph. Byz. s.v. "ABapvos, Adp^aKos.) Accord
ing to Strabo (p. 587) he was son of Dionysus
and a nymph. The earUest Greek poets do
not mention this divinity. He was worshipped
more especially at Lampsacus, Parium, and
Cyzicus on the Hellespont, whence he is some
times called Hellespontiacus. (CatuU. 18;
Ver". Georg. iv. 110.) The true account seems
to be that Priapus was originally worshipped
under the image of the phaUus as the deity who
gave fertility, especially to gardens, vineyards,
and aU trees. Hence he was identified with
Dionysus and the Asiatic Bacchic rites, and
thereupon was in myth represented as a son of
Dionysus when the worship of that god pre
vailed, but sometimes as Dionysus himself
under another name (Athen. p. 30). In some
rites he was connected with other gods of
fertiUty, Hermes and Eros ; and also with Sile-
nus (whence the ass was sacrificed to both).
He was regarded as the promoter of fertility,
not only in vegetation, but also in aU animals
connected with an agricultural life ; and in this
capacity he was worshipped as the protector of
flocks of sheep and goats, of bees, of the vine,
of all garden produce, and even of fishing. The
worship of Priapus was accepted in Italy with
that of Dionysus and Aphrodite, and he was re
garded especially as the protector of gardens,
in which his image was commonly placed.
(Verg. l.c ; Hor. Sat. i. 8 ; Plin. xix. 50 ; G. I. L.
vi. 564.) In mystic theology he was recognised
as symbolising the doctrine of regeneration and
future life ; whence his image was placed on
tombs, and he appears in sepulchral inscrip
tions — ' Deus Priapus ego sum mortis et vitai
locus ' (Henzen, 5756; C. I. L. v. 3634). The
sacrifices offered to him consisted of the first-
fruits of gardens, vineyards, and fields ; of milk,
honey, cakes ; rams, asses, and fishes. He was
represented in carved images, mostly in the
form of hermae, or carrying fruit in his garment,
with either a sickle or cornucopia in his hand.
The hermae of Priapus in Italy, like those of
other rustic divinities, were usually painted red ;
whence the god is called ruber or rubicundus.
Priapus (Tlpiairos, Ion. Tlpirfiros : Tlpiairnvis :
Karaboa, Ru.), a city of Mysia, on the Pro
pontis, E. of Parium, with a small but excellent
harbour. It was a colony of the Milesians, and
a chief seat of the worship of Priapus. The
surrounding district was called Priapis (Tlpiairis)
and Priapene (Tlpiaic-qvii). (Thuc. viii. 107 ;
Strab. p. 587 ; Plin. v. 141.)
Priene (Tlpi-fivij : Tlpirfveis, Tlpvkvios : Pri-
eneus, pi. Prienenses : Samsun, Ru.), one of the
twelve Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor,
» stood in the NW. corner of Caria, at the S. foot
of M. Mycale, and on the N. side of the Sinus
Latinicus (Hdt. i. 142, vi. 6). Its foundation
was ascribed mythically to the Neleid Aepytus,
in conjunction with Cadmeans, from whom it
was also called Kabpi) (Paus. vii. 2, 7 ; Strab.
p. 636). It stood originally on the seashore, and
had two harbours and a small fleet, but the
change in the coast by the aUuvial deposits of
the Maeander left it some distance inland
(Strab. p. 579). It was of much religious im
portance in connexion with the Panionian
festival on M. Mycale, at which the people of
Priene took precedence in virtue of their being
the supposed descendants of those of Helice in
Greece Proper (Strab. p. 639). The city was
also celebrated aa the birthplace of Bias.
Prifernum, a town of the Vestini on the E.
coast of- central Italy.
Primus, M. Antonius, a native of Tolosa in

PEISCIANUS
Gaul, was condemned for forgery (falsum) in
the reign of Nero, was expeUed the senate, of
which he was a member, and was banished
from the city. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 40 ; Dio Cass.
Iv. 9.) After the death of Nero (68), he was.
restored to his former rank by Galba, and ap
pointed to the command of the seventh legion,
which was stationed in Pannonia. He was one
of the first generals in Europe who declared in
favour of Vespasian ; and he rendered him the
most important services. In conjunction with
the governors of Moesia and Pannonia, he in
vaded Italy, gained a decisive victory over the
ViteUian army at Bedriacum, and took Cre
mona, which he allowed his soldiers to pillage
and destroy. (Tac. Hist. ii. 86, iii., iv.; Dio
Cass. lxv. 9-18.) He afterwards forced his way
into Rome, notwithstanding the obstinate resis
tance of the ViteUian troops, and had the
government of the city till the arrival of Mu
cianus from Syria. [Mucianus, No. 2.] We
learn from Martial, who was a friend of Antonius
Primus, that he was aUve at the accession of
Trajan (Mart. x. 23).
Priscianus, a Roman grammarian, surnamed
Caesariensis, because he was born at Caesarea.
in Mauretania. He lived in the sixth cent. A.D.,
in the reign of Anastasius, and taught grammar
at Constantinople. He was celebrated for the
extent and depth of his grammatical knowledge,
of which he has left the evidence in his work on
the subject, entitled Commentariorum gram-
maticorum Libri XVIII, addressed to his
friend and patron, the consul Julianus. The
first sixteen books treat upon the eight parts of
speech recognised by the ancient grammarians,
letters, syllables, &o. The last two books are
on syntax. This treatise soon became the
standard work on Latin grammar, and in the
epitome of Rabanus Maurus obtained an exten
sive circulation. His terminology forms the
basis of much that is still maintained. His
work is also valuable for its citations from
ancient writers. Of the earlier grammarians
those whom he chiefly follows are the Greek
writer Apollonius and the Latin Flavius Caper.
The other works of Priscianus stiU extant are : —
(1) A grammatical catechism on twelve lines of
the Aeneid, manifestly intended as a school
book. (2) A treatise on accents. (3) A treatise
on the symbols used to denote numbers and
weights, and on coins and numbers. (4) On the
metres of Terence. (5) A translation of the
Tlpoyvpvdo-para (Praeexercitamenta) of Her
mogenes. (6) On the declensions of nouns. (7) A
poem on the emperor Anastasius in 812 hex
ameters, with a preface in twenty-two iambic
lines. (8) A piece De Ponderibus et Mensuris,
inverse. (9) An Epitome phaenomenon, or De
Sideribus, in verse. (10) A free translation of
the Periegesis of Dionysius hi 1427 Unes,
manifestly made for the instruction of youth.
(11) A couple of epigrams. — The best edition of
Priscianus is byKrehl, Lips. 1819-20, 2 vols..
8vo, and in Keil's Gramm. Lat. 1855.
Priscianus Lydus, a writer of the Neo-Plato
nic school of phUosophy in the reign of Jus
tinian. When that emperor suppressed the
schools of philosophy at Athens, Priscian with
six others went to the court of Chosroes, whose
interceBaion secured their safe return to Greece.
Priscian wrote a paraphrase and commentary
on the physics of Theophrastus (Metaphrasis
in Theophrastum), and answers (solutionis) to
questions on philosophy proposed by Chosroes.
All that remains of his works has been edited.
by I. Bywater, Berlin, 1886.

PRISCIANUS
"Priscianus, Theodorus, a physician, and a
pupil of Vindicianus, lived in the fourth cen
tury after Christ. He is supposed to have lived
at the court of Constantinople, and to have
attained the dignity of Archiater. He is the
author of a Latin work, entitled Berum Medi-
carum Libri Quatuor, pubhshed in 1532, both
at Strasburg and at Basel.
Priscus (npi'o-Kos), a Byzantine historian, was
a native of Panium in Thrace, and was one of
the ambassadors sent by Theodosius the
Younger to Attila, a.d. 445. He died about 471.
Priscus wrote an account of his embassy to
Attila, enriched by digressions on the life and
reign of that king. The work was in eight
books, but only fragments of it have come down
to us. Priscus was an exceUent and trust-
-worthy historian, and his style was remarkably
¦elegant and pure. — The fragments are published
by Bekker and Niebuhr, 1829 ; and by Miiller,
Fragm. Hist. Graec.
Priscus, Helvldrus, son-in-law of Thrasea
Paetus, and, like him, distinguished by his love
of virtue, philosophy, and liberty. He was
¦quaestor in Achaia during the reign of Nero,
and tribune of the plebs a.d. 56. When Thrasea
was put to death by Nero (66), Priscus was
banished from Italy. He was recalled to Rome
by Galba (68) ; but in consequence of his free
dom of speech and love of independence, he was
again banished by Vespasian, and was shortly
afterwards put to death by order of this em
peror. (Tac. Ann. iv. 5, 43, Dial. 5 ; Suet.
Vesp. 15 ; Dio Cass. Ixvi. 12.) His life was
written by Herennius Senecio at the request of
his widow, Fonnia ; and the tyrant Domitian,
in consequence of this work, subsequently put
¦Senecio to death, and sent Fannia into exile
{PUn. Ep. vii. 19, 5 ; Dio Cass, lxvii. 13). Pris
cus left a son, Helvidius, who was put to death
by Domitian.
Priscus, Servilius. The Prisci were an an
cient family of the ServiUa gens, and fiUed the
lighest offices of the state during the early
years of the repubUc. They also bore the
agnomen of Structus, which is always appended
to their name in the Fasti, tUl it was supplanted
by that of Fidenas, which was first obtained by
Q. ServUius Priscus Structus, who took Fidenae
in his dictatorship, B.C. 435, and which was also
borne by his descendants.
Priscus, Tarquinius. [Tarquinius.]
Prista (npio-Tn : Eustschuk), a town in Moesia
on the Danube (Ptol. ni. 10, 10).
Privernum (Privemas, -atis : Piperno), an
ancient town of Latium on the river Amasenus,
belonged to the Volscians (Verg. Aen. xi. 540).
It was conquered by the Romans at an early
period, and was subsequently made a colony
(Liv. vii. 42, viii. 11).
Proaeresius (Tlpoaipecnos), a teacher of rhe
toric, was a native of Armenia, and was born
about a.d. 276. He first studied at Antioch
under Ulpian, and afterwards at Athens under
Julianus. He became at a later time the chief
teacher of rhetoric at Athens, and enjoyed a
high reputation. He died 368, in his ninety-
second year. (Suid. s.v. ; Vit. -Soph. i. p. 73.)
Probalinthus (TlpoBdXivBos : Tipo BaXicr tos), a
demus in Attica, S. of Marathon, belonging to
the tribe Pandionis (Strab. p. 383).
Probatia (TlpoBaria), a river of Boeotia,
which, after passing Lebadea, and receiving
its tributary the Hercyna, flowed into the lake
Copais. Probus, Aemilius. [Nepos, Cornelius.]
Probus, M. Aurelius, Roman emperor a.d.

PROCLUS

75T

276-282, was a native of Sirmium in Pannonia,
and rose to distinction by his military abilities.
He was appointed by the emperor Tacitus
governor of the whole East, and, upon the
death of that sovereign, the purple was forced
upon his acceptance by the armies of Syria.
The downfall of Florianus speedily removed
his own rival [Florianus], and he was enthu
siastically hailed by the united voice of the
senate, the people, and the legions. The reign
of Probus presents a series of the most brilliant
achievements. He defeated the barbarians on
the frontiers of Gaul and Illyricum, and in
other parts of the Roman empire, and put down
the rebeUions of Saturninus at Alexandria, and
of Proeulus and Bonosus in Gaul. But, after
crushing all external and internal foes, he was
killed at Sirmium by his own soldiers, who had
risen in mutiny agamst him because he had
employed them in laborious public works.
Probus was as just and virtuous as he was war.
lUce, and is deservedly regarded as one of the
greatest and best of the Roman emperors. (Life
in Script. Hist. Aug. ; Zosim. i. 64!)
Probus, Valerius. 1. Of Berytus, a Roman
grammarian, who Uved in the time of Nero.
His chief works were editions of Lucretius,
Virgil, Horace and Persius with annotations, -
which he wrote frequently in shorthand (notae).
The Life of Persius is taken from his edition.
Much of his criticism was given orally and pre
served by his pupils. (Gell. ix. 9, 12, xiii. 21 ;
Suet. Gramm. 24; Mart. iii. 2, 12; Serv. ad
Georg. i. 277.) To this Probus we may assign
those annotations on Terence from which
fragments are quoted in the Scholia on the
dramatist. — 2. Under the same name appears
a grammatical treatise of no great value called
Grammaticae Institutiones. Since it speaks
of the Baths of Diocletian it cannot be dated
before the fourth century. He may possibly
be the Probus who was a friend and correspon
dent of Lactantius.
Procas, one of the fabulous kings of Alba
Longa, succeeded Aventinus, and reigned
twenty-three years : he was the father of
Numitor and Amulius (Liv. i. 3).
Prochyta (Procida), an island off the coast
of Campania near the promontory Misenum, is
said to have been torn away by an earthquake
either from this promontory or from the neigh
bouring island of Pithecusa or Aenaria (Strab.
pp. 60, 123, 248, 258; Plin. ii. 203; Verg. Aen.
ix. 715 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 89).
Procles (TlpoKXris), one of the twin sons of
Aristodemus. For details see Eurysthenes.
Proclus (UpbKXos) — surnamed Diadochus
(AidSoxos), the Successor, from his being re
garded as the genuine successor of Plato in
doctrine — was one of the most celebrated
teacherB of the Neo-Platonic school. He was
born at Byzantium a.d. 410, but was brought
up at Xanthus in Lycia, to which city his
parents belonged, and which Proclus himself
regarded as his native place. He studied at
Alexandria under Olympiodorus, and after
wards at Athens under Plutarchus and Syri-
anus. At an early age his philosophical attain
ments attracted the attention and admiration
of his contemporaries. He had written his
commentary on the Timaeus of Plato, as well
as many other treatises, by his twenty-eighth
year. On the death of Syrianus Proclus suc
ceeded him in his school, and inherited from
him the house in which he resided and taught.
Marinus in his Life of Proclus records, ivith in
tense admiration, the perfection to which his

758

PROCNE

master attained in all virtues. The highest of
these virtues were, in the estimation of Marinus,
those of a purifying and ascetic kind. From
animal food he almost totally abstained ; fasts
and vigils he observed with scrupulous exacti
tude. The reverence with which he honoured
the sun and moon would seem to have been
unbounded. He celebrated all the important
religious festivals of every nation, himself com
posing hymns in honour, not only of Grecian
deities, but of those of other nations also. It
was of course not surpriaing that such a man
ahould be favoured with varioua apparitions
and miraculous interpositions of the gods. He
used to tell how a god had once appeared and
proclaimed to him the glory of the city. But
the still higher grade of what, in the language
of the school, was termed the theurgic virtue
he obtained by his profound meditations on the
oracles, and the Orphic and Chaldaic mysteries,
into the highest secrets of which he was
initiated by Asclepigenia, the daughter of Plu
tarchus, who alone was in complete possession
of the theurgic knowledge and discipline,
which had descended to her from the great
Nestorius. He profited so much by her instruc
tions, as to be able, according to Marinus, to
call down rain in a time of drought, to stop an
earthquake, and to procure the immediate
intervention of Asclepius to cure the daughter
of his friend Archiadas. Proclus died A.D. 485.
During the last five years of his life he had
become superannuated, his strength having
been exhausted by his fastings and other ascetic
practices. As a philosopher Proclus enjoyed
the highest celebrity among his contempo
raries and successors, but his writings are
characterised by vagueness, and mysticism.
His main object was to systematise and bring
into a complete form the theological and cosmo-
logical tenets handed down by preceding Neo-
Platonists, especially those of Plotinus and
Iamblichus. — The edition of Cousin (Paris, 6
vols. 8vo, 1820-1827) contains the following
treatises of Proclus : — On Providence and
Fate ; On Ten Doubts about Providence ; On
the Nature of Evil ; a Commentary on the
Alcibiades, and a Commentary on the Par
menides. The other principal works of Proclus
are : — On the Theology of Plato, in six books :
Theological Elements : a Commentary on the
Timaeus of Plato ; nve Hymns of an Orphic
character. Proclus was also a mathematician
and grammarian. His Commentaries on the
first book of Euclid, and on the Works and
Days of Hesiod are still extant.
Procne (TlpbKvri), daughter of king Pandion
»of Athens, and wife of Tereus. Her story is
given under Tereus.
Proconnesus (TlpoKbvvT)cros, or npoutcW-no-os,
i.e. Fawn-island, Marmara), an island of the
Propontis (Sea of Marmara), off the N. coast
of Mysia, NW. of the peninsula of Cyzicus or
Dolionis. A neighbouring island was called Ela-
phonnesus ('EXatpbvvncros, i.e. Deer-island) ;
and the two were distinguished by the names
of Old and New Proconnesus. (Strab. pp. 587,
589 ; Scyl. p. 35 ; Hdt. iv. 14, vi. 83.) Pliny (v.
151) considers the two names to belong to the
same island. The island was celebrated for its
marble, and hence its modern name. It was
the native place of the poet Aristeas.
Procopius (ripoKoVioj). 1. A native of
Cilicia, and a relative of the emperor Julian,
served with distinction under Constantius II.
and Julian. Having incurred the suspicions of
Jovian and of his successor Valens, Procopius

PROCULEIUS
remained in concealment for about two years ;
but in a.d. 365 he was proclaimed emperor at
Constantinople, while Valens was staying at
Caesarea in Cappadocia. Both parties pre
pared for war. In the following year (866) the
forces of Procopius were defeated in two great
battles. Procopius himself was taken prisoner,
and put to death by order of Valens. — 2. An
eminent Byzantine historian, was born at
Caesarea in Palestine about a.d. 500. He went
to Constantinople when stUl a young man, and
there obtained so much distinction as an advo
cate and a professor of eloquence, that he
attracted the attention of Belisarius, who ap
pointed him his secretary in 527. In this
capacity Procopius accompanied the great hero
on his different wars in Asia, Africa, and Italy,.
being frequently employed in state business of
importance, or in conducting military expedi
tions. Procopius returned with Belisarius to
Constantinople a Uttle before 542. His eminent-
talents were appreciated by the emperor Justi
nian, who conferred upon him the title of
illustris, made him a senator, and in 562 created
him prefect of Constantinople. Procopius died
about the same time as Justinian, 565. — As a
historian Procopius deserves great praise. His
style is good, and generaUy fuU of vigour. His
works are : — (1) Histories ('lo-oropiai), in eight-
books ; viz. two On the Persian War, contain
ing the period from 408-553, and treating more
fully of the author's own times ; two On the War
with the Vandals, 395-545; four On the Gothic
War, or properly speaking, only three books,
the fourth (eighth) being a sort of supplement
containing various matters, and going down to
the beginning of 553. It was continued by
Agathias till 559. The work is extremely in
teresting ; the descriptions of the habits &c. of
the barbarians are faithful and done in a
masterly style. — (2) On tlie Public Buildings
erected by Justinian (Kricrpara), in six books :
a work equally interesting and valuable in its
kind, though overloaded with flattery of the
emperor. — (3) Anecdota ('AveKSora), a collection
of anecdotes, some of them witty and pleasant,
but others moat indecent, reflecting upon Justi
nian, the empress Theodora, Belisarius, and
other emment persons. It is a complete
Ghronique Scandaleuse of the court of Con
stantinople, from 549 tUl 562. — (4) Orationes,.
probably extracts from the History, which is
rather overstocked with harangues and speeches..
— The collected works of Procopius are edited
by Dindorf , Bonn,. 3 vols. 8vo, 1888-1838.
Procris (TlpbKpis), daughter of Erechtheus and
wife of Cephalus. For details see Cephalus.
Procrustes (npiwcpotWijs), that is, ' the
Stretcher,' a surname of the famous robber
Polypemon or Damastes. He used to tie aU
travellers who fell into his hands upon a bed : if
they were shorter than the bed, he stretched their
limbs till they were of the same length ; if they
were longer than the bed, he made them of the
same size by cutting off some of their Umbs.
He was slain by Theseus, on the Cephissus in
Attica. The bed of Procrustes has paased into-
a proverb. [Theseus.]
C. Proculeius, a Roman eques, one of the
frienda of Augustus, was sent by the latter, after
the victory at Actium, to Antony and Cleopatra
(Plut. Ant. 78). It is of this Proculeius that
Horace speaks (Od. ii. 2). He is said to have
divided his property with his brothers (perhaps
cousins) Caepio and Murena, who had lost
their property in the civU wars. [Murena.}
Proculeius put on end to his Ufe by taking

PROCULUS
gypsum, when suffering from a disease in the
stomach. Proculus, the jurist, was the contemporary of
the jurist Nerva the younger, who was probably
the father of the emperor Nerva (Pompon. Dig.
i. 2, 2, 52). The fact that Proculus gave his
name to the school or sect (Proculiani or Pro-
culeiani, as the name is also written), which
was opposed to that of the Sabinioni, shows
that he was a jurist of note. Proculus is often
cited, and there are thirty-seven extracts from
him in the Digest from his eight books of Epi
stolae. He appears to have written notes on
Labeo. Some writers suppose that Proculus is
the Licinius Proculus who was praefectus
praetorio under Otho.
Proculus, Julius, a Roman senator, is said
in the legend of Romulus to have informed the
sorrowing Roman people, after the strange de
parture of their king from the world, that Ro
mulus had descended from heaven and appeared
to him, bidding him tell the people to honour
him in future as a god under tiie name of Qui
rinus. [Romulus.]
Prodicus (TlpbSiKos), the celebrated sophist,
was a native of IuUs in the island of Ceos
(Plat. Protag. p. 315). He Uved in the time of
the Peloponnesian war and subsequently ; but
the date cannot be determined either of his
birth or of his death. Prodicus came frequently
to Athens on the public business of his native
city. He is mentioned in the Clouds of Aristo
phanes, which belongs to B.C. 423 ; he was one
of the teachers of Isocrates, and he was alive at
the time of the death of Socrates (399). (Plat.
Apol. p. 19.) It is probable that no weight
should be attached to the statement of Suidas
that Prodicus was put to death by the Athe
nians as a corrupter of the youth. He is men
tioned both by Plato and Xenophon with more
respect than the other sophists. Like Prot
agoras and others he traveUed through Greece,
deUvering lectures for money, and in this way
he amassed a large fortune (Xen. Symp. iv. 62).
He paid especial attention to the correct use of
words, and some have supposed this to be mere
idle hair-spUtting; yet it is possible that, though
he was ridiculed for it by Plato, he may have
done service thereby to dialectics. (Plat.
Euthyd. p. 277, Cratyl. p. 384, Charmid. p.
163.) We have the substance of one of his lec
tures preserved by Xenophon in the well-known
fable called ' The Choice of Heracles ' [see p.
395, b], and it must be confessed that its teach
ing is such as to raise, not to debase, the minds
of the youth.
Proerna (Tlpbepva : Gynaekokastro), a, town
of southern Thessaly, SW. of Pharsalus, on the
W. slope of M. Narthacius, near the sources of
the Apidanus (Strab. p. 434 ; Liv. xxxvi. 14).
Proetides. [Proetus.]
Proetus (Tlpbiros), son of Abas and Ocalea,
and twin-brother of Acrisius. In the dispute
between the two brothers for the kingdom of
Argos, Proetus was expeUed (Paus. ii. 25, 7),
whereupon he fled to lobates in Lycia, whose
daughter, Antea or Stheneboea, he married
(II. vi. 160 ; Serv. ad Eel. vi. 48). With the
assistance of lobates, Proetus was restored to
his kingdom, and took Tiryns, which was now
fortified by the Cyclopes. [Tiryns.] Acrisius
then shared his kingdom with his brother, sur
rendering to him Tiryns, Midea and the coast
of ArgoUs (Paus. ii. 16, 2). By his wife Proetus,
besides a son Megapenthes, had three daughters,
Lysippe, Iphinoe, and Iphianassa, who are often
mentioned under the general name of Proe-

PROMETHEUS

759

tides. When these daughters arrived at the
age of maturity, they were stricken with mad
ness, the cause of which is differently related.
Some say that it was a punishment inflicted
upon them by Dionysus, because they had
despised his worship (Apollod. ii. 4, 1 ; Diod. iv.
68) ; others relate that they were driven mad
by Hera, because they presumed to consider
themselves more handsome than the goddess,
or because they had stolen some of the gold of
her statue (Serv. I. c). It is clear from the
passage in Virgil (Eel. vi. 48) that in some tra
ditions their madness took the form of their
imagining themselves to be cows. It seems not
unlikely that this story may have grown out of
some old custom in the locality of women who
worshipped Hera putting horns on their heads
to symbolise the goddess of the crescent moon
[see p. 394, a] ; whence the tradition may have
survived of women driven by Hera into this
form of madness. The frenzy spread to the
other women of Argos, till at length Proetus
agreed to divide his kingdom between Mel
ampus and his brother Bias, upon the former
promising that he would cure the women of
their madness. Melampus then chose the most
robust among the young men, gave chase to
the mad women, amid shouting and dancing,
and drove them as far as Sicyon. During
this pursuit, Iphinoe died, but the two other
daughters were cured by Melampus by means
of purifications, and were then married to Mel
ampus and Bias. (Hdt. ix. 34.) The place
where the cure was effected upon his daughters
is not the same in aU traditions, some mention
ing the well Anigros, others the fountain Clitor
in Arcadia, or Lusi in Arcadia (Strab. p. 436 ;
Paus. viii. 18, 3 ; Ov. Met. xv. 325). Another
and stiU more famous story tells that when
BeUerophon came to Proetus to be purified of
a murder which he had committed, the wife of
Proetus fell in love with him ; but, as BeUero
phon declined her advances, she charged him
before Proetus with having tried to seduce her.
Proetus then sent BeUerophon to lobates in
Lycia, with a letter desiring him to murder
BeUerophon. [Bellerophon.] — According to
Ovid (Met. v. 238) Acrisius was expeUed from
his kingdom by Proetus, and Perseus, the
grandson of Acrisius, avenged his grandfather
by turning Proetus into stone by means of the
head of Medusa. [Perseus.]
Prometheus (TlpopriBeis), according to the
Greek genealogies son of the Titan Iapetus and
Clymene, and brother of Atlas, Menoetius, and
Epimetheus (Hes. Th. 508). Other accounts
make his mother Asia, one of the Oceanides
(Apollod. i. 2, 2; Lycophr. 1283). Aeschylus,
with a deeper allegorical meaning, makes him
the son of Themis (Aesch. Pr. 18, 207). Pro
metheus was beyond all doubt originally a god
of fire, akin to Hephaestus, with whom and
with Athene he was closely connected in ritual
at Athens. Thus Prometheus and Hephaestus
were worshipped at a common altar in the
sanctuary of Athene in the Academy, and it is
said that in the sculptures there Prometheus
was represented as the superior of the two fire-
gods, holding the sceptre (Schol. ad Soph. Oed.
Col. 55). All three deities, because they were
deities of light and fire, were honoured with a
torch-race [Did. of Ant. art. Lampadedromia],
And as fire was regarded as the source of all
crafts and inventions (cf. Plin. xxxvi. 200), so
all three deities were patrons of handicrafts,
and Prometheus, like Athene, was specially
gifted with wisdom (whence his name, which

760

PROMETHEUS

signified ' forethought'). But from this original
conception of the fire-god sprang many myths,
some bearing aU the marks of old popular
stories, which were graduaUy welded into a
more or less consecutive story by the poets. It
may be seen that the name of the god irvpcpbpos,
'the flre-bringer ' (cf. Soph. 0, C. 56), provided
a starting-point for the myth of the robbery of
fire from heaven. The story of Hesiod is as
follows. Once, in the reign of Zeus, when gods
and men were disputing with one another at
Mecone (afterwards Sicyon), Prometheus, with
a view of deceiving Zeus, cut up a bull and
divided it into two parts : he wrapped up the
best parts and the intestines in the skin, and at
the top he placed the stomach, which is one of
the worst parts, while the second heap consisted
of the bones covered with fat. (It may be noticed
that the office of presiding at sacrifice belonged
to Prometheus as fire-god.) When Zeus pointed
out to him how badly he had made the division,
Prometheus desired him to choose, but Zeus,
seeing through the stratagem of Prometheus,
chose the heap of bones covered with the fat.
The father of the gods avenged himself by with
holding fire from mortals, but Prometheus stole
it in a hollow tube (vdpBri£, ferula). This fire
he stole from the hearth of Zeus (Hes. Op. 51),
or from the lightning (Lucret. v. 1090), or from
the sun (Serv. ad Eel. vi. 42), or from the work
shop of Hephaestus and Athene (Plat. Protag.
p. 321). Zeus thereupon chained Prometheus
to a pillar, where an eagle consumed in the
daytime his liver, which was restored in each
succeeding night. Prometheus was thus ex
posed to perpetual torture ; but Heracles killed
the eagle and delivered the sufferer, with the
consent of Zeus, who in this way had an oppor
tunity of allowing his son to gain immortal
fame. Further, in order to punish men Zeus
gave Pandora as a present to Epimetheus, in
consequence of which diseases and sufferings
of every kind befell mortals. [For details, see
Pandora.] This is an outline of the legend
about Prometheus, as contained in the poems
of Hesiod. (Hes. Th. 521, Op. 47; cf. Hyg.
Ast. ii. 15 ; ApoUod. ii. 5, 11.) — Aeschylus, in
his trilogy Prometheus, added various new
features to this legend. Although Prometheus
belonged to the Titans, he is nevertheless repre
sented by Aeschylus as having assisted Zeus
against the Titans (218). But when Zeus
wanted to extirpate the whole race of man,
whose place he proposed to fill by an entirely
new race of beings, Prometheus prevented the
execution of the scheme, and saved mankind
from destruction (228). Prometheus further
deprived them of their knowledge of the future,
SSnd gave them hope instead. He taught them
the use of fire, made them acquainted with
architecture, astronomy, mathematics, writing,
the treatment of domestic animals, navigation,
medicine, the art of prophecy, working in metal,
and all the other arts (248, 445). But, as he had
acted in all these things contrary to the will of
Zeus, the latter ordered Hephaestus to chain
him to a rock in Scythia, which was done in the
presence of Cratos and Bia, two ministers of
Zeus. Prometheus, however, stiU continued to
defy Zeus, and declared that there was a decree
of fate, according to which Zeus was destined to
be dethroned by his own son. As Prometheus
steadfastly refused to give any explanation of
this decree, Zeus hurled him into Tartarus,
together with the rock to which he waa chained.
After the lapse of a long time, Prometheus
returned to the upper world, to endure a fresh

PROPERTIUS
course of suffering, for he was now fastened to
Mt. Caucasus, and his Uver devoured by an
eagle, as related in the Hesiodic legend. (It is
remarkable that the natives of the Caucasus
stiU have a tradition that a giant dwells on the
summit of Mt. Elbruz : but the eagle has been
transformed into a cock which visits him every
morning at sunrise.) The state of suffering was
to last for Prometheus until some other god, of
his own accord, should take his place, and
deacend into Tartarus for him (1025). This
came to pass after Heracles had slain the eagle,
when Chiron, who had been incurably wounded,
desired to go into Hades, and Zeus aUowed
him to supply the place of Prometheus (Apollod.
ii. 5, 4). According to other accounts, Zeus him
self delivered Prometheus, after the Titan had
been at length prevailed upon to reveal to Zeus
the decree of fate, which was that, if he should
become by Thetis the father of a son, that son
should deprive him of the sovereignty (Apollod.
iii. 13, 5 ; Hyg. Fab. 54). There was also a
legend which related that Prometheus had
created man out of earth and water, either at
the very beginning of the human race, or after
the flood of DeucaUon, when Zeus is said to
have ordered him and Athene to make men out
of the mud, and the winds to breathe Ufe into
them. Prometheus is said to have given to
men a portion of all the qualities possessed by
the other animals (Hor. Od. i. 16, 13 ; ApoUod.
i. 7, 1 ; Ov. Met. i. 81). The kind of earth out
of which Prometheus formed men was shown
in later times near Panopeus in Phocis (Paus.
x. 4, 3). _
Promona (Tlpapbva : Petrovacz), a mountain
fortress of the Liburni at the N. of Dalmatia,
between Burnum and Salona. Its name is pre
served in the hill called now Promina, and its
site may be the modern Demis (App. Hlyr.
12, 2)_.
Pronapldes (TlpovairiS-ns), an Athenian, is
said to have been the teacher of Homer. He is
enumerated among those who used the Pelasgio
letters, before the introduction of the Phoe
nician, and is characterised as a graceful com
poser of song.
Pronax (Tlpavat,), son of Talaus and Lysi-
mache, brother of Adrastus and Eriphyle, and
father of Lycurgus and Amphithea. According
to some traditions the Nemean games were
instituted in honour of Pronax.
Pronni (Tlpbvvot : Tlpovvaios), a town on the
E. coast of Cephallenia, and one of the four
towns of the island (Thuc. ii. 30 ; Pol. v. 3 ;
Strab. p_. 455).
Pronomus (Upbvopos), of Thebes, son of
Oeniadas, was one of the most distinguished
auletic musicians of Greece at the time of the
Peloponnesian war. He was the instructor of
Alcibiades in flute-playing. He invented a new
sort of flute, the compass of which was such
that melodies could be played upon it in all the
three modes of music, the Dorian, the Phry
gian, and the Lydian, for each of which a
separate flute had been necessary.
Pronous (Upbvoos), son of Phegeus, and
brother of Agenor, in conjunction with whom
he slew Alcmaeon. [For details, see Agenor
and Alcmaeon.]
Proniiba, a surname of Juno among the
Romans, describing her as the deity presiding
over marriage. [Juno.]
Propertius, Sex., the Roman poet, was prob*
ably born about B.C. 51. He comes in age
between Tibullus and Ovid (Ov. Trist. ii. 465,
iv. 10, 58). He teUs us that he was a native of

PROPERTIUS
Umbria, where it borders on Etruria (i. 22, 9, v.
1, 64), but nowhere mentions the exact spot.
It was probably the town of Asisium (cf. v. 1,
125, where Asisi should be read), where other
Propertii are mentioned in inscriptions. As
regards his name, by himself and other authors
he is spoken of simply as Propertius. The
praenomen Sextus is derived from Donatus
(Vit. Vergil, 45). The idea that he was Sex.
Aurelius Propertius is derived from the head
ings of some MSS., but is generally discredited.
It is suggested that it started from a confusion
with AureUus Prudentius. The inscriptions
where it occurs are said to be spurious. He
was not descended from a family of any dis
tinction, and he was deprived of his paternal
estate by an agrarian division of 41 B.C. (v. 1,
127 ; cf. iii. 84, 55). At the time of this mis
fortune he had not yet assumed the toga virilis,
and was therefore under sixteen years of age.
He had already lost his father, who is conjec
tured to have been one of the victims sacrificed
after the taking of Perusia; but this notion
does not rest on any satisfactory grounds. We
have no account of Propertius's education; but
from one of his elegies (v. i.) it would seem that
he was destined to be an advocate, but aban
doned the profession for that of poetry. The
history of his life, so far as it is known to us, is
the history of his amours, nor can it be said
how much of this is fiction. He began to write
poetry at a very early age, and the merit of
his productions soon attracted the attention and
patronage of Maecenas. This was most prob
ably shortly after the death of Antony, in 30,
when Propertius was about twenty-one. It was
probably in 32 or 31 that Propertius first be
came acquainted with his Cynthia. She was a
native of Tibur, and her real name was Hostia
(Apul. Apol. 10 ; cf . Mart. viii. 73, 5, xiv. 189 ;
Juv. vi. 7). As Propertius (ui. 20, 8) aUudes to
her ductus amis, it is probable that she was a
grand-daughter of Hostius, who wrote a poem on
the Istrian war. [Hostius.] She seems to have
inherited a considerable portion of the family
talent, and was herself a poetess, besides being
skilled in music. It appears that Propertius sub
sequently married, probably after Cynthia's
death, and left legitimate issue, since the younger
Pliny twice mentions Passienus Paulus as de
scended from him. This must have been through
the female line. The year of Propertius's death
is altogether unknown. — Propertius resided on
the Esquiline, near the gardens of Maecenas (iv.
•23, 4). He seems to have cultivated the friend
ship of his brother poets, as Ponticus, Bassus
Ovid, and others. He mentions Virgil (iii. 34,
63) in a way that shows he had heard parts of
the Aeneid privately recited. But though he
belonged to the circle of Maecenas, he never
once mentions Horace. He is equally silent
about TibuUus. His not mentioning Ovid is
best explained by the difference in their ages ;
for Ovid aUudes more than once to Propertius,
and with evident affection (Trist. iv. 10, 45, v.
1, 17). — As an elegiac poet, a high rank must be
awarded to Propertius, and among the ancients
it was a disputed point whether the preference
should be given to him or to TibuUus. It is
true that he follows the Alexandrine school of
learned poets, adopting their somewhat pedantic
and affected display of mythological research,
and claiming to be the Roman Callimachus
(v. 1, 63), whom, as well as Philetas and other
of the Greek elegiac poets, he made his model.
But Propertius had a fervour and originality
which gave him a rank far above the school of

PROSPER

761

artificial poets, and some of his elegies (e.g. v. 11)
have a poetry unsurpassed by any of the Latin
elegiac poets. In this metre he uses the licence
admitted in Greek elegy. TibuUus generaUy,
and Ovid almost invariably, close their penta
meter with a word contained in an iambic foot ;
Propertius, especially in his first book, fre
quently ends with a word of four or five
syllables. The elegy on Hylas is an instance
of the melody which he could produce under
these conditions. — Most editors now foUow
Lachmann in dividing the work into five books.
Book i. (the book on Cynthia, which was pub
lished first) is the same in all editions ; but
book ii. of the MSS. is divided at the ninth
elegy : so that book ii. 10-84 of the MSS. be
comes book iii., and the third and fourth books
are numbered iv. and v. An argument for the
division of book ii. is found in iii. 13, 25. —
Editions of Propertius by Lachmann, 1816 ;
Hertzberg, 1844, 1845; Paley, 1872; Bahrens,
1880 ; A. Palmer, 1881 ; select elegies by Post-
gate, 1881.
Prophthasia (TlpocpBaoia : prob. Peshawarun,
Ru.), the N.-most city of Drangiana, on the
borders of Asia, was probably the place where
Pbjlotas was put to death.
Propontis (r/ Upoirovris : Sea of Marmara),
so called from its position with reference to the
Pontus (Euxinus), and thus more fully de
scribed as i) irpb rov Tlbvrov rov Ev^eivov
BdXaooa, and ' Vestibulum Ponti,' is the small
sea which united the Euxine and the Aegaean
[Pontus Euxinus] and divides Europe (Thracia)
from Asia (Mysia and Bithynia). It is of an
irregular oval shape, running out on the E.
into two deep gulfs, the Sinus Astacenus (G. of
Ismid) and the Sinus Cianus (G. of Modonia),
and containing several islands. It received the
waters of the Rhyndacus and other rivers of
E. Mysia and W. Bithynia, flowing from Mt.
Ida and Olympus ; and several important
Greek cities stood on its shores, the chief of
which were Byzantium and Heraclea Perin
thus on the N., and Cyzicus on the S. Its
length is calculated by Herodotus at 1400
stadia (140 geog. miles) and its greatest breadth
at 500 stadia (50 g. m.) which is very near the
truth. (Hdt. iv. 85 ; Strab. pp. 563, 574, 583 ;
Aesch. Pers. 876 ; Plin. iv. 76, v. 141 ; Mel. i. 1,
3, 19.)
Proschium. [Pylene.]
Proserpina. [Persephone.]
Prospalta (to TlpbtriraXTa : TlpocrirdXTios), a
demus in the S. of Attica, belonging to the tribe
Acamantis. Prosper, a celebrated ecclesiastical writer,
was a native of Aquitania, and lived during the
first half of the fifth century. Many of his
theological works are extant [for which see
Diet, of Christ. Biogr.], and he also left a
Chronicle which is of value since its last thirty
years supply information not to be obtamed
elsewhere. It is called Chronicon Gonsulare,
and extendB from A.D. 379, the date at which
the Chronicle of Jerome ends, down to 455, the
events being arranged according to the years of
the Roman consuls. We find short notices
with regard to the Roman emperors, the Roman
bishops, and political occurrences in general,
but the troubles of the Church are especiaUy
dwelt upon, and above all the Pelagian heresy.
The Chronicon Imperiale, comprehended with
in the same limits as the preceding (379-465),
which treats of the period arranged according
to the reigna of the emperors, is erroneously as
cribed to Prosper. It was probably not written

762

PROSYMNA

by Prosper of Aquitania, and is.assigned by most
critics to Prosper Tiro, who, it is imagined,
flourished in the sixth century. There are
likewise several poems which have come down
to us under the name of Prosper. — The best
edition of Prosper's works is the Benedictine,
Paris, 1711.
Prosymna (Tlpbtrvpva : Tlpoovpvaios), an an
cient town of Argolis, with a temple of Hera,
N. of Argos (Strab. p. 873; Stat. Theb. iv. 44).
Prota (IlpaiTa : Prote), an island in the Pro
pontis near Chalcedon (Steph. Byz. s.v. XoAkitis).
Protagoras (Tlparaybpas), a celebrated so
phist, was born at Abdera, in Thrace (Plat.
Protag. pp. 316, 349, Bep. p. 606), probably
about B.C. 480, and died about 411, at the age
of nearly seventy years. It is said that Prot
agoras was once a poor porter, and that the
skill with which he had fastened together, and
poised upon his shoulders, a large bundle of
wood, attracted the attention of Democritus,
who conceived a liking for him, took him under
his care, and instructed him in philosophy.
(Diog. Laert. ix. 53, x. 8 ; Gell. v. 3 ; Athen.
p. 354.) This well-known story, however, ap
pears to have arisen out of the statement of
Aristotle, that Protagoras invented a sort of
porter's knot for the more convenient carrying
of burdens. It cannot be true that he was
patronised or instructed by Democritus, who
was twenty years younger than Protagoras
himself. Protagoras was the first who called
himself a sophist (i.e. in the original sense of
the name, one who professed to teach skill and
practical Ufe instead of only theory and abstract
truth) ; and he is is said to have been the first
who taught for pay. He practised his pro
fession for the space of forty years. He must
have come to Athens before B.C. 445, since
he drew up a code of laws for the Thurians,
who left Athens for the first time in that
year (Diog. Laert. ix. 50). Whether he accom
panied the colonists to Thurii, we are not
informed ; but at the time of the plague (430)
we find him again in Athens. Between his
first and second visit to Athens, he had spent
some time in Sicily, where he had acquired
great fame ; and he brought with him to Athens
many admirers out of other Greek cities through
which he had passed (Plat. Protag. p. 315).
His instructions were so highly valued that he
sometimes received one hundred minae from a
pupil; and Plato says that Protagoras made
more money than Phidias and ten other sculp
tors. In 411 he was accused of impiety by
Pythodorus, one of the Four Hundred. His
impeachment was founded on his book on the
gods, which began with the statement: 'Re
specting the gods, I am unable to know whether
they exist or do not exist.' The impeachment
was foUowed by his banishment, or, as others
affirm, only by the burning of his book. (Diog.
Laert. ix. 52 ; Cic. N. D. i. 23.) His profession
being to fit for practical life, it followed that
his object was to enable his pupils to persuade
others to take their view, whatever it might be,
since at that time success in political life de
pended upon skilful oratory and upon the power
to maintain in speech, if need be, a bad cause
(rbv Hirra Xbyov Kpeirra iroieiv). — Protagoras
wrote a large number of works, of which the
most important were entitled Truth ('AX-liBeia)
and On the Gods (Tlepl ®eav). The first con
tained the theory that ' Man is the measure of
aU things ' (i.e. that everything is, as regards
each man, what it appears to him to be ; and
so that absolute truth, independent of opinion,

PROTEUS
could not exist) refuted by Plato in the Theaete
tus. Plato gives a vivid picture of the teaching of
Protagoras in the dialogue that bears his name
(cf. Plat. Theaet. pp. 156, 160 ; Cic. Ac. ii. 46,
142, N. D. i. 2, 12). Protagoras was especially
celebrated for his skill in the rhetorical art..
By way of practice in the art he was accustomed
to make his pupils discuss Theses (communes
loci) ; an exercise which is also recommended
by Cicero (Brut. 12, 45).
Protesilaus (TlpareaiXaos), son of Iphiclus
and Astyoche, belonged to Phylace in Thessaly.
He is called Phylacius and Phylacides, either
from his native place, or from his being a grand
son of Phylacus. He led the warriors of several
Thessalian places against Troy, and was the
first of all the Greeks who was killed by the
Trojans, being the first who leaped from the
ships upon the Trojan coast. (It. ii. 695 ; Ov.
Met. xii. 67.) According to the common tra
dition he was slain by Hector. Protesilaus is
most celebrated in ancient story for the strong
affection existing between him and his wife
Laodamia, the daughter of Acastus. [For de
tails see Laodamia.] His tomb was shown near
Eleus, in the Thracian Chersonesus, where a
magnificent temple was erected to him. There
was a belief that nymphs had planted elm-
trees around his grave, which died away when
they had grown sufficiently high to see Troy,
and that fresh shoots then sprang from the
roots. There was also a sanctuary of Protesi
laus at Phylace, at which funeral games were
celebrated. (Hdt. vii. 33, ix. 116, 120 ; Plm. xvi.
99 ; Strab. pp. 296, 394, 432, 595.) Euripides
made the story of Protesilaus the subject of a
tragedy, of which only fragments remain.
Proteus (Tlpareis), the prophetic old man of
the sea, is described in the earliest legends as a
subject of Poseidon, whose flocks (the seals) he
tended. According to Homer he lived in the
island of Pharos, at the distance of one day's
journey from the river Aegyptus (Nile) ; whereas
Virgil places his dwelling in the island of Car-
pathos, between Crete and Rhodes. At midday
Proteus rose from the sea, and slept in the
shadow of the rocks of the coast, with the
monsters of the deep lying around him. Any
one wishing to learn from him the future, was
obliged to catch hold of him at that time : as
soon as he was seized, he assumed every possible
shape, in order to escape the necessity of
prophesying, but whenever he saw that his
endeavours were of no avail, he resumed his
usual form, and told the truth. After finishing
his prophecy he returned into the sea. (Od. iv.
351 ff. ; Verg. Georg. iv. 886 ff.) Homer as
cribes to him a daughter Idothea. — Later tra
ditions describe Proteus as a son of Poseidon,
and as a king of Egypt, who had two sons, Tele
gonus and Polygonus or Tmolus. His Egyptian
name is said to have been Cetes, for which the
Greeks substituted that of Proteus, and his
wife's name was Psamathe. These names seem
to have been taken from Krjros (a sea-monster)
and \pdpa8os (sand), as relics of the older myth
to which they belonged. Besides the above-
mentioned sons, Theoclymenus and Theonoe are
likewise called his children (Eur. Hel. 9, 18).
He is said to have hospitably received Dionysus-
during his wanderings. Hermes brought to him
Helena after her abduction, or, according to
others, Proteus himself took her from Paris,
gave to the lover a phantom, and restored the
true Helen to Menelaus after his return from
Troy. (Hdt. ii. 112, 118; Eur. Helena; Diod..
i. 62 ; see p. 888, a.)

PROTOGENES
Protogenes (Uparoyevi)s), a celebrated Greek
painter. He was a native of Caunus, in Caria,
a city subject to the Rhodians, and flourished
B.C. 332-300. (Paus. i. 3, 4; Plin. xxxv. 101.)
He resided at Rhodes almost entirely ; the only
other city of Greece which he is said to have
visited is Athens, where he executed one of his
great works in the Propylaea. Up to his
fiftieth year he is said to have Uved in poverty
and in comparative obscurity, supporting him
self by painting ships. It has been suggested
that he originaUy made pictures of ships as
votive offerings for escape from shipwreck.
His fame had, however, reached the ears of
ApeUes, who, upon visiting Rhodes, made it his
first business to seek out Protogenes. As the
surest way of making the merits of Protogenes
known to his feUow-citizens, ApeUes offered
him for his finished works the enormous sum
of fifty talents apiece, and thus led the Rhodians
to understand what on artist they had amongst
them. Protogenes was distinguished by the
care with which he wrought up his pictures.
It is said that in his picture of a satyr resting
he introduced a partridge so naturally painted
that it absorbed all the attention of those who
came to see the picture, and that Protogenes,
annoyed at this, painted out the bird. His
masterpiece was the picture of Ialysus, the
tutelary hero of Rhodes, on which he is said to
have spent seven years, or even, according to
another statement, eleven ; and to have painted
it four times over. This picture was so highly
prized even in the artist's lifetime that when
Demetrius PoUorcetes was using every effort
to subdue Rhodes, he refrained from attacking
the city at its most vulnerable point, lest he
should injure this picture, which had been
placed in that quarter. (Plut. Demetr. 22;
Ael. V. H. xii. 41.) There is a celebrated story
about this picture, relating to the accidental
production of one of the most effective parts of
it, the foam at the mouth of a tired hound.
The artist, it is said, dissatisfied with his re
peated attempts to produce the desired effect,
at last, in his vexation, dashed the sponge, with
which he had repeatedly effaced his work,
against the faulty place; and the sponge
charged as it was by repeated use with the
necessary colours, left a mark in which the
painter recognised the very foam which his art
had faUed to produce (Plin. I. c).
Prdtogenia (Tlpanoyeveia), daughter of Deu
calion and Pyrrha, and wife of Locrus ; but
Zeus carried her off, and became by her the
father of Opus (ApoUod. i. 7, 2; Schol. ad
Pind. Ol. ix. 85.)
Provincia. [Gallia, p. 353, b.]
Proxenus (Tlpb^evos). 1. A Boeotian, was a
disciple of Gorgias, and a friend of Xenophon.
Being connected by the ties of hospitality with
the younger Cyrus, the latter engaged him in
his service. He was seized by Tissaphernes
and put to death, with the other Greek generals.
It was at the invitation of Proxenus that Xeno
phon was induced to enter the service of Cyrus.
(Xen. An. i. 1, 11, ii. 6, 16, v. 3, 5.)— 2. Of Tegea,
took a leading part in opposition to Sparta and
in the scheme for founding Megalopolis. He
was kiUed in a disturbance at Tegea. (Xen. Hell.
vi. 5, 6; Paus. vii. 27, 2.)— 3. An Athenian
general in the Sacred war, B.C. 347 (Aesch.
F.L.ol). ,. L
Priidentius, Aurelius Clemens, the earliest
of the Christian poets of any celebrity, was a
native of Spain, and was born a.d. 348. After
practising as an advocate, and discharging the

PRYTANIS

763

duties of a civil and criminal judge in two impor
tant cities, he received from the emperor Theodo
sius, or from Honorius, a high military appoint
ment at court ; but as he advanced in years, he
became sensible of the emptiness of worldly
honour, and earnest in the exercises of religion.
His poema, which are composed in a great
variety of metres, have much of the artificiality
which belonged to the time, and great fondness
for obscure allegory; but in vigour of poetry
and in style he not only stands before other
Christian writers of Latin verse, but shows more
genius than any contemporary poet, even than
Ausonius and Claudian, though in his versifi
cation he is inferior to them. His poem on
martyrdom (Peristephanon) is his most power
ful. — Editions of Prudentius are by Arevalus,
Rom. 1788 and 1789; by Obbarius, Tubing.
1845 ; and by Dressel, Leips. 1860.
Prusa or Prusias (Tlpovoa : Tlpovateis :
Broussa), a great city of Bithynia, on the N.
side of M. Olympus, fifteen Roman miles from
Cius and twenty-five from Nicaea, was built by
Prusias, king of Bithynia, or, according to some,
by Hannibal (Strab. p. 564; Plin. v. 148). It
was a prosperous city under the Roman em
perors and celebrated for its warm baths (Plin.
Ep. x. 85; Athen. p. 43).
Prusias (Tlpovo-las). 1. I., king of Bithynia
from about B.C. 228 to 180, though the date
neither of his accession nor his death is exactly
known. He was the son of Zielas, whom he suc
ceeded. He appears to have been a monarch
of vigour and ability, and raised his kingdom
of Bithynia to a much higher pitch of power
and prosperity than it had previously attained.
(Pol. iv. 50, v. 90, viii. 17, xxii. 27.) It was at
his court that Hannibal took refuge ; and when
the Romans demanded the surrender of the
Carthaginian general, the kii, i, basely gave his
consent, and Hannibal only escaped faUing into
the hands of his enemies by a voluntary death
(Nep. Hann. 10 ; Just, xxxii. 4).— 2. II., king
of Bithynia, son and successor of the preced
ing, reigned from about 180 to 149. He courted
assiduously the alliance of the Romans. He
carried on war with Attalus, king of Pergamus,
with whom, however, he was compelled by the
Romans to conclude peace in 154. He was
slain in 149 by order of his son Nicomedes, as
is related in the Life of the latter. [Nico
medes H.] Prusias is described to us as a
man in whom personal deformity was combined
with a character the most vicious and degraded.
His passion for the chase is attested by the
epithet of the 'Huntsman' (Kvvriybs). (Pol.
xxiv. 1, xxix. 3, xxxvii. 2 ; Just, xxxiv. 4.)

Coin of Prusias I., King of Bithynia, ob. A.D. 149.
Obv., head ot Prusias : rev., BA2UE0S npOYJiov; Zeus
standing -with sceptre.
Prymnesia or Prymnesus (Tlpvpvrio-ia, TIpv-
uvno-bs, Tlpvpvrio-o-bs : Seulun, near Afiom Kara
Hissar), a city in the N. of Phrygia, which ap
pears, from its coins, to have been a seat of the
worship of Midas as a hero (Ptol. v. 2, 24).
Prytanis (Tlpiravis), king of Sparta, of the
Proclid line, was the son of Eurypon, and
fourth king of that race.

764 PSAMATHE
Psamathe (VapdBrt). 1. Daughter of Nereus
and Doris, and mother of Phocus (Hes. Th. 260,
1004 ; Ov. Met. xi. 381, 398).— 2. [Peotbus.] ^
Psamathiis (VapaBovs, -ovvros: VapaBovv-
rios, VapaBoio-ios), a seaport town in Laconia
near the promontory Taenarum (Strab. p. 353).
Psammenitus (VappiiviTos)=Psa,m.thek HI.,
king of Egypt, succeeded his father, Amasis, in
B.C. 526, and reigned only six months. He was
conquered by Cambyses in 525, and his country
made a province of the Persian empire. His
life was spared by Cambyses, but as he was
detected shortly afterwards in endeavouring to
excite a revolt among the Egyptians, he was
compeUed to put an end to his life by drinking
bull's blood. (Hdt. iii. 10, 13-15.)
Psammis (Vdppis) =J?sa,mthek II., king of
Egypt, succeeded his father, Necho, and reigned
from B.C. 601 to 595. He carried on war against
Ethiopia, and died immediately after his re
turn from the latter country. He was suc
ceeded by his son Apries. (Hdt. ii. 159-161.)
Psammitichus or Psammetichus (Vappl-
rixos or Vappi)Tixos), the Greek form of the
Egyptian Psamthek I., king of Egypt about
B.C. 666, and founder of the Saitic dynasty. He
was the great-grandson of Technactis (Tefnekt),
who had in vain opposed the establishment of
the Ethiopian power in Egypt in 738. Psam
mitichus was originally one of the twelve
petty kings who obtained an independent
sovereignty. Having been driven into banish
ment by the other kings, he took refuge in the
marshes ; but shortly afterwards, with the aid
of some Ionian and Carian pirates, he con
quered the other kings, and became sole ruler
of Egypt (Hdt. ii. 149-152). A clue to the
manner in which he obtained the power which
the Ethiopian dynasty had held, and so restored
peace and union to Egypt, is afforded by the
monuments, which state that he married the
heiress of the Ethiopian dynasty, Shep-en-apet.
Having thus established his power, his object
was to secure his frontiers, and therefore he
provided a settlement for his Greek mercen
aries on the Pelusiac or eastern branch of the
Nile, a little below Bubastis ; for he appears to
have mainly relied upon them for the mainte
nance of his power. In order to facilitate in
tercourse between the Greeks and his other
•subjects, he ordered a number of Egyptian
children to live with them, that they might
learn the Greek language ; and from them
sprang the class of interpreters (Hdt. ii. 154).
The employment of foreign mercenaries by
Psammitichus gave great offence to the mili
tary caste in Egypt ; and being indignant at
other treatment which they received from him,
they emigrated in a body of 240,000 men, into
Ethiopia, where settlements were assigned to
them by the Ethiopian king (Hdt. ii. 30 ; Diod.
i. 67). It must, therefore, have been chiefly with
his Ionian and Carian troops that Psammitichus
carried on his wars against Syria and Phoenicia.
He laid siege to the city of Azotus (the Ashod of
Scripture) for twenty-nine years, till he took it
(Hdt. ii. 157). As Psammitichus had displeased a
large portion of his subjects by the introduc
tion of foreigners, he seems to have paid
especial court to the priesthood. He built the
southern propylaea of the temple of Hephaes
tus at Memphis, and a splendid aula, with a
portico round it, for the habitation of Apia, in
front of the temple.
Psebo (VeBd : Thana), a lake in Aethiopia
SE. of Meroe, the source of the Astapus (Strab.
p. 822).

PSYCHE
Pselcis (VeXKis : Dakke),the chief city in the
Dodecaschoenus— that is, the N. part of Aethi.
opia, which was adjacent to Egypt, to which it
was regarded by the Romans as belonging.
The city stood on the W. bank of the Nile,, be
tween Syene and Tachompso, the latter of
which was so far eclipsed by Pselcis as to ac
quire the name of Contrapselcis. Under the
later empire, Pselcis was garrisoned by a body
of German horsemen. (Strab. p. 820 ; Dio Cass.
Psellus (VeXXos). 1. Michael Psellus, the
elder, of Andros, flourished in the ninth cen
tury after Christ. He was a learned man, and
an eager student of the Alexandrian philo
sophy. He was probably the author of some
of the works which are ascribed to the younger
Psellus.  2. Michael Constantius Psellus,
the younger, a far more celebrated person,
flourished in the eleventh century of our era.
He was born at Constantinople 1020, and lived
at least till 1105. He taught philosophy, rhe
toric, and dialectics, at Constantinople, where
he stood forth as almost the last upholder of
the falling cause of learning. The emperors
honoured him with the title of Prince of the
Philosophers. His works are both in prose
and poetry, on a vast variety of subjects, and
distmguished by an eloquence and taste which
are worthy of a better period. They are edited
by Migne, 1863.
Psillis (VlXXis), a river of Bithynia, which
flows into the Propontis between Artane and
Calpe (Strab. p. 543).
Psophis (Vacpis : VacpiSios : Tripotamo), a
town in the NW. of Arcadia, on the river Ery
manthus, is said to have been originally caUed
Phegia (Paus. viii. 24, 2). It sided with the
Aetolians against the Achaeans, but was taken
B.C. 219 by Philip, king of Macedonia, who was
then in alliance with the Achaeans (Pol. iv. 70).
Psyche (Vvxfi), ' the soul,' occurs in the later
times of antiquity as a personification of the
human soul, and hence as pursued by Eros as
personified love. Upon this is built the myth
related by Apuleius (Met. iv. 28-vi. 24). Psyche
was the youngest of the three daughters of a
king, and excited by her beauty the jealousy
and envy of Venus. In order to avenge her
self, the goddess ordered Cupid to inspire
Psyche with a love for the most contemptible
of all men : but Cupid was so smitten with her
beauty that he himself -fell in love with her.
He accordingly conveyed her to a charming
spot, where unseen and unknown he visited
her every night, and left her as soon as the day
began to dawn. Psyche might have continued
to enjoy this state of happiness, if she had
attended to the advice of her lover, who told
her never to give way to her curiosity, or to
inquire who he was. But her jealous sisters
made her believe that in the darkness of night
she was embracing some hideous monster, and
accordingly once, while Cupid was asleep, she
drew near to him with a lamp, and, to her
amazement, beheld the most handsome and
lovely of the gods. In her excitement of joy
and fear, a drop of hot oil fell from her lamp
upon his shoulder. This awoke Cupid, who
censured her for her mistrust, and escaped.
Psyche's happiness was now gone, and after
attempting in vain to throw herself into a river,
she wandered about from temple to temple,
inquiring after her lover, and at length came to
the palace of Venus. There her real sufferings
began, for Venus retained her, treated her as
a slave, and imposed upon her the hardest and

PSYCHIUM
most humiliating labours. Psyche would have
perished under the weight of her sufferings,
had not Cupid, who still loved her in secret,
invisibly comforted and assisted her in her
toUs. With his aid she at last succeeded in
overcoming the jealousy and hatred of Venus :

PTOLEMAEUS

765

Psyche. (From an ancient gem.)
she became immortal, and was united to him
for ever. It is not difficult to recognise in this
beautiful story the idea of which it is merely the
mythical embodiment ; for Psyche is evidently
the human soul, which is purified by passions
and misfortunes, and is thus prepared for the
enjoyment of true and pure happiness. [Cf.
Apuleius, p. 94, a.] In works of art Psyche is
usually represented as a maiden with the wings
of a butterfly, but in the beautiful group of
Eros and Psyche in the Capitol, both are re
presented without wings.
Psychium (Vvxiov), a town on the S. coast of
Crete (Ptol. Ui. 17, 4).
Psylli CViXXoi), a Libyan people, the earliest
known inhabitants of the district of N. Africa
caUed Cyrenaica, who Uved on the shores of the
Greater Syrtis, W. of the Nasamones.
Psyra (to Vvpd : -Vipios : Psara), a small
island of the Aegaean sea, forty stadia (four
geogr. miles) in circuit, lying fifty stadia (five
geogr. mUes) W. of the NW. point of Chios. It
had a city of the same name. (Od. in. 171 ;
Strab. p. 645.)
Psyttalea (¦VvrraXeia: Lipsokutali), a small
island off the Attic coast, between Salamis and
the Peiraeus. [Salamis.]
Pteleos (TlreXeas), a smaU lake in Mysia,
near Ophrynium, on the coast of the Hellespont
(Hdt vii. 42 ; Strab. p. 595).
Ptelenm (TlreXebv : TlreXedrrfS, TlreXeoio-tos).
1. (Ftelia), an ancient seaport town of Thessaly
in the district Phthiotis, at the SW. extremity
of the Sinus Pagasaeus, was destroyed by the
Romans (H. U. 697 : Strab. p. 433; Liv. xiii. 6).
— 2. A town in EUs Triphylia, said to have been
a colony from the preceding (H. ii. 594 ; Strab.
p. 349). — 3. A fortress of Ionia, on the coast of
Asia Minor, belonging to Erythrae (Thuc. viii.
24 ; PUn. v. 115).
Ptolemaeus (TlroXepdios) usuaUy caUed Pto
lemy. I. Minor historicalpersons. 1. Nephew
of Antigonus, king of Asia. He carried on
war in Greece on behalf of Antigonus, but in
810 he abandoned the cause of his uncle and
concluded a treaty with Cassander and Ptolemy
the son of Lagus. He soon gave offence to the
Egyptian king, and was in consequence com

pelled to put an end to his life by poison, B.C.
809 (Diod. xix. 57-87, xx. 27).— 2. Son of Lysi
machus, king of Thrace. He was the eldest of
the three sons of that monarch by his last wife,.
Arsinoe, and the only one who escaped faUing,
into the hands of Ptolemy Ceraunua (Just. xxiv.
2.) — 3. Son of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, by his
wife Antigone, the stepdaughter of Ptolemy
Soter. When only fifteen years of age he was
left by his father in charge of his hereditary
dominions when Pyrrhus himself set out on
his expedition to Italy, 280. At a later time he
fought under his father in Greece, and was
slain in the course of Pyrrhus's campaign in
the Peloponnesus, 272. (Just, xviii. 1, xxv. 4 ;
Plut. Pyrrh. 28, 30.) — 4, Surnamed Philadel
phus, aon of M. Antony, the Triumvir, by
Cleopatra. After the death of Antony, SO,.
his life was spared by Augustus, at the inter
cession of Juba and Cleopatra, and he was,
brought up by Octavia with her own children.
(Dio Cass. Ii. 15 ; Plut. Ant. 87.)
II. Kings of Egypt.
I., surnamed Soter, the Preserver, but more
commonly known as the son of Lagus, reigned
B.C. 823-285. His father, Lagus, was a Macedo
nian of ignoble birth, but his mother, Arsinoe,
had been a concubine of Philip of Macedon, on
which account it seems to have been generally
believed that Ptolemy was in reality the off
spring of that monarch (Curt. ix. 8, 22 ; Paus.
i. 6, 2). Ptolemy is mentioned among the
friends of the young Alexander before the death
of Philip. He accompanied Alexander through
out his campaigns in Asia, and was always
treated by the king with the greatest favour.
He was sent to arrest Bessus; in aU the
Indian campaigns his name is among the most
prominent, and he is said to have saved the
life of Alexander by discovering a plot against
his life (Curt. viii. 1, 45). In the march through
Gedrosia he had command of a division, and ho
accompanied Alexander on his last expedition,,
against the Cossaeans (Curt. ix. 10, 5 ; Arr. An.
vii. 4, 15). He therefore held a leading place
among the officers of Alexander, and on the
division of the empire which followed Alex
ander's death (323) Ptolemy obtained the
government of Egypt. In 321 his dominions
were invaded by Perdiccas, the regent ; but the
assassination of Perdiccas by his mutinous
soldiers soon delivered Ptolemy from this
danger. (Curt. x. 6, 13 ; Just. xiii. 2.) In the
following year Ptolemy enlarged his dominions
by seizing upon the important satrapy of
Phoenicia and Coele-Syria. It was probably
during this expedition that he made himself

Coin of Ptolemaeus I. Soter, King of Egypt, B.C. 323-285.
Obv., head of Ptolemy I. ; rev., basiaeox nTOAEMAlOY
eagle on thunderbolt.
master of Jerusalem, by attacking the city on
the Sabbath day (Jos. Ant. xii. 1). A few
years afterwards (316) Ptolemy entered into an
aUiance with Cassander and Lysimachus
against Antigonus, whose growing power had

766

PTOLEMAEUS

excited their common apprehensions. In the
war which followed, Antigonus conquered
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia (315, 814) ; but
Ptolemy recovered these provinces by the
defeat of Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, near
Gaza, in 312. (Diod. xix. 57-105.) In 311
hostilities were suspended by a general peace.
This peace, however, was of short duration, and
Ptolemy appears to have been the firat to re
commence the war. He crossed over to Greece,
where he announced himself as the liberator of
the Greeks, but he effected little. In 306
Ptolemy was defeated by Demetrius in a great
sea-fight off Salamis in Cyprus. In conse
quence of this defeat, Ptolemy lost the import
ant island of Cyprus, which had previously
been subject to him. Antigonus was so much
elated by this victory as to aasume the title of
king, an example which Ptolemy, notwith
standing his defeat, immediately foUowed.
(Diod. xx. 19-53 ; Plut. Demetr. 18.) Anti
gonus and Demetrius foUowed up their success
by the invasion of Egypt, but were compelled
to return to Syria without effecting any thing.
Next year (305) Ptolemy rendered the most
important assistance to the Rhodians, who
were besieged by Demetrius ; and when Deme
trius was at length compelled to raise the siege
(304), the Rhodians paid divine honours to the
Egyptian monarch as their saviour and pre
server (Sarr^p), a title which appears to have
been now bestowed upon Ptolemy for the first
time. (Diod. xx. 81-100 ; Paus. i. 8, 6 ; Athen.
p. 696.) Ptolemy took comparatively little part
in the contest which led to the decisive battle
of Ipaus, in which Antigonus was defeated and
slain (301). The latter years of Ptolemy's
reign appear to have been devoted almost
entirely to the arts of peace, and to promoting
the internal prosperity of his dominions. In
285 Ptolemy abdicated in favour of his youngest
son Ptolemy Philadelphua, the child of his
latest and most beloved wife, Berenice, exclud
ing from the throne hia two eldest sons,
Ptolemy Ceraunus and Meleager, the offspring
of Eurydice (Just. xvi. 2). The elder Ptolemy
survived this event two years, and died in 283.
His reign is variously estimated at thirty-eight
or forty years, according as we include or not
these two years which followed his abdication.
— The character of Ptolemy has been generally
represented in a very favourable light by
historians, and there is no doubt that if we
compare him with his contemporary and rival
potentates he appears to deserve the praises
bestowed upon his mildness and moderation.
But it is only with thiB important qualification
that they can be admitted : for there are many
evidences that he 'did not shrink from any
measure that he deemed requisite in order to
carry out the object of his ambition. But as a
ruler Ptolemy certainly deserves the highest
praise. By his able and vigorous administra
tion he laid the foundations of the wealth and
prosperity which Egypt enjoyed for a long
period. Under his fostering care Alexandria
quickly rose to the place designed for it by its
founder, that of the greatest commercial city of
the world. Not less eminent were the services
rendered by Ptolemy to the advancement of
literature and science. In this department,
indeed, it is not always easy to distinguish the
portion of credit due to the father from that of
his son : but it seems certain that to the elder
monarch belongs the merit of having originated
those literary institutions which assumed a
more definite and regular form, as weU as a

more prominent place, under his successor.
Such appears to have been the case with the
two most celebrated of all, the Library and the
Museum of Alexandria. The first suggestion of
these important foundations is ascribed by
some writers to Demetrius of Phalerus, who
spent all the latter years of his life at the court
of Ptolemy. But many other men of hterary
eminence were also gathered around the Egyp
tian king: among whom may be especially
noticed the geometer Euclid, the phUosophers
Stilpo of Megara, Theodorus of Cyrene, and
Diodorus surnamed Cronus ; as well as the
elegiac poet Philetas of Cos, and the gram
marian Zenodotus. To the last two we are told
Ptolemy confided the Uterary education of hia
son Philadelphus. Many anecdotes sufficiently
attest the free intercourse which subsisted
between the king and the men of letters by
whom he was surrounded, and prove that the
easy famiUarity of his manners corresponded
with his simple and unostentatious habits of
Ufe. We also find him maintaining a corre
spondence with Menander, whom he in vain
endeavoured to attract to his court, and send
ing overtures, probably of a simUar nature, to
Theophrastus. Nor were the fine arts neg
lected: the rival painters AntiphUus and
ApeUes both exercised their talents at Alex
andria, where some of their most celebrated
pictures were produced. — Ptolemy was himself
an author : he composed a history of the wars
of Alexander, which is frequently cited by later
writers, and is one of the chief authorities
which Arrian made the groundwork of his own
history. — II., Philadelphus (b.c. 285-247), the
son of Ptolemy I. by his wife Berenice, was
born in the island of Cos, 309. (Theocr. xvii. 58;
Schol. ad loc). He was a pupil of Zenodotus
and Philebus. His long reign was marked by
few events of a striking character. He was
engaged in war with his half-brother, Magas,
who had governed Cyrene aa viceroy under
Ptolemy Soter, but on the death of that
monarch not only aaserted his independence,
but even attempted to invade Egypt. MagaB
was supported by Antiochus II., king of Syria;
and the war was at length terminated by a
treaty, which left Magas in undisputed posses
sion of Cyrenaica, while his infant daughter
Berenice was betrothed to Ptolemy, the son of
Philadelphus. (Just. xxvi. 3; Paus. i. 7, 3.)
Ptolemy also concluded a treaty with the
Romans. He was frequently engaged in hosti
lities with Syria, which were terminated towards
the close of his reign by a treaty of peace, by
which Ptolemy gave his daughter Berenice in
marriage to Antiochus II. Ptolemy's chief
care, however, was directed to the internal
administration of his kingdom, and to the
patronage of literature and science. The in
stitutions of which the foundations had been
laid by his father quickly roae under his foster
ing care to the highest prosperity. The
Muaeum of Alexandria became the resort and
abode of all the most distinguished men of
letters of the day, and in the library attached
to it were accumulated all the treasures of
ancient learning. Among the illustrious names
which adorned the reign of Ptolemy, may
be mentioned those of the poets Philetas and
Theocritus, the philosophers Hegesias and
Theodorus, the mathematician Euclid, and the
astronomers Timocharis, Aristarchus of Samos,
and Aratus. Nor was his patronage confined to
the ordinary cycle of Hellenic literature. By
his interest in natural history he gave a

PTOLEMAEUS

stimulus to the pursuit of that science which
gave birth to many important works, while he
himself formed collections of rare animals
within the precincts of the royal palace. He
encouraged expeditions for trade and commerce
with Aethiopia and with India. (Diod. i. 87, 88 ;
Plin. vi. 68 ; cf . Theocr. xv.) It was during his
reign also, and perhaps at his desire, that Ma
netho gave to the world in a Greek form the
historical records of the Egyptians ; and accord
ing to a weU-known tradition, it was by his
express command that the Holy Scriptures of the
Jews were translated into Greek. The new
cities or colonies founded by Philadelphus in
different parts of his dominions were extremely
numerous. On the Red Sea alone we find at
least two bearing the name of Arsinoe, one
called after another of his sisters, Philotera, and
two cities named in honour of his mother, Bere
nice. The same names occur also in Cilicia
and Syria : and in the latter country he founded
the important fortress of Ptolemais in Palestine.
All authorities concur in attesting the great
power and wealth to which the Egyptian
monarchy was raised under PliUadelphus. He
possessed at the close of his reign a standing
army of 200,000 foot, and 40,000 horse, besides
war-chariots and elephants; a fleet of 1500
ships, and a sum of 740,000 talents in his
treasury; whUe he derived from Egypt alone
an annual revenue of 14,800 talents. His do
minions comprised, besides Egypt itself, and
portions of Ethiopia, Arabia and Libya, the im
portant provinces of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria,
together with Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, and the
Cyclades ; and during a great part at least of
his reign, CUicia and PamphyUa also. Before
his death Cyrene was reunited to the monarchy
by the marriage of his son Ptolemy with Bere
nice, the daughter of Magas. The private Ufe
and relations of PhUadelphus do not exhibit
his character in as favourable a light as we
might have inferred from the splendour of his
administration. He put to death two of his
brothers ; and he banished his first wife, Arsinoe,
the daughter of Lysimachus, to Coptos in Upper
Egypt on a charge of conspiracy. After her
Temoval Ptolemy married his own sister Ar
sinoe, the widow of Lysimachus : a flagrant
violation of the religious notions of the Greeks
of that age : which, however, was frequently
imitated by his successors. He evinced his
affection for Arsinoe, not only by bestowing her
name upon many of his newly-founded colonies
[Arsinoe], but by assuming himself the sur
name of Philadelphus, a title which some
writers referred in derision to his unnatural
treatment of his two brothers. By this second
marriage Ptolemy had no issue ; but his first
wife had borne him two sons — Ptolemy, who
succeeded him on the throne, and Lysimachus;
and a daughter, Berenice, whose marriage to
Antiochus II., king of Syria, has been already
mentioned. — III., Euergetes (b.c. 247-222),
eldest son and successor of Philadelphus.
Shortly after his acceasion he invaded Syria, in
order to avenge the death of his sister Berenice.
[Berenice, No. 2.] He met with the most
striking success. He advanced as far as Baby
lon and Susa, and after reducing aU Meso
potamia, Babylonia, and Susiana, received the
submission of all the upper provinces of Asia as
far as the confines of Bactria and India. From
this career of conquest he was recalled by the
news of seditions in Egypt, and returned to
that country, carrying with him an immense
booty, comprising, among other objects, all the

767

statues of the Egyptian deities which had been
carried off by Cambyses to Babylon or Persia.
(Diod. i. 46-55 ; Just, xxvii. 1.) These he re
stored to their respective temples, an act by
which he earned the greatest popularity with
his native Egyptian subjects, who bestowed on
him in consequence the title of Euergetes (the
Benefactor), by which he is generaUy known.
While the arms of the king himself were thus
successful in the East, his fleets reduced the
maritime provinces of Asia, including Cilicia,
PamphyUa, and Ionia, as far as the Hellespont,
together with Lysimachia and other important
places on the coast of Thrace which continued
for a long period subject to the Egyptian rule.
Concerning the events which followed the re
turn of Euergetes to his own dominions (pro
bably in 243) we are almost wholly in the dark ;
but it appears that the greater part of the
eastern provinces speedUy fell again into the
hands of Seleucus, while Ptolemy retained pos-
seBsion of the maritime regions and a great

Coin of Ptolemaeus III. Euergetes, King of Egypt,
B.C. 247 222.
Obv., head of Ptolemy III. ; rev., nTOAEMAIOY BA2IAEQZ ;
cornucopia surmounted by rays.
part of Syria itaelf. He soon obtained a valu
able ally in the person of Antiochus Hierax, the
younger brother of Seleucus, whom he sup
ported in his wars against his elder brother.
He was unfriendly to Macedonia, and hence
was led to support Aratus and the Achaean
League, until the unfortunate policy which
Aratus adopted, of seeking the alliance of Mace
donia, caused Ptolemy to ally himself with
Clomenes (Plut. Arat. 24, 41, Cleom. 22). We
find Euergetes maintaining the same friendly
relations as his father with Rome (Eutrop. iii. 1).
During the latter years of his reign he subdued
the Ethiopian tribes on his aouthern frontier,
and advanced as far as Adule, a port ou the
Red Sea, where he established an emporium,
and set up an inscription commemorating the
exploits of his reign. To a copy of this, acci
dentally preserved to us by an Egyptian monk,
Cosmas Indicopleustes, we are indebted for
much of the scanty information we possess
concerning his reign. Ptolemy Euergetes is
scarcely less celebrated than his father for his
patronage of literature and science ; he added so
largely to the library at Alexandria that he has
been sometimes erroneously deemed its founder.
Eratosthenes, Apollonius Rhodius and Aristo
phanes the grammarian flourished at Alexan
dria during hiB reign — sufficient to prove that
the Uterature and learning of the Alexandrian
school still retained their former eminence. By
his wife Berenice, who survived him, Euergetes
left three children : (1) Ptolemy, his successor ;
(2) Magas; and (3) Arsinoe, afterwards married
to her brother Ptolemy Philopator.— IV., Philo
pator or Tryphon (b.c. 222-205), eldest son and
successor of Euergetes. He was very far from
inheriting the virtues or abilitiea of his father,
and his reign was the commencement of the
decline of the Egyptian kingdom, which had

768

PTOLEMAEUS

been raised to such a height of power and pro
sperity . by his three predecessors. Its first
beginning was stained with crimes of the darkest
kind. He put to death his mother, Berenice,
and his brother, Magas, and his uncle Lysima
chus, the brother of Euergetes. Cleomenes,
the exiled king of Sparta, fell under his suspi
cion, and being thrown into prison, and having
failed to escape, put an end to his own life. (Pol.
v. 34-39; Plut. Cleom. 33-37.) He then gave
himself up without restraint to a life of indo
lence and luxury, while he abandoned to his
minister, Sosibius,the care of all.politieal affairs.
The latter seems to have been, as incapable as
his master, and the kingdom was allowed to
fall into a state of the utmost disorder, of which
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was not
slow to avail himself. In the first two cam
paigns (219, 218), Antiochus conquered the
greater part of Coele-Syria and Palestine, but
in the third year of the war (217), he was com
pletely defeated by Ptolemy in person at the
decisive battle of Raphia, and was glad to con
clude a peace with the Egyptian monarch. On
his return from his Syrian expedition, Ptolemy
gave himself up more and more to every species
of vice and debauchery. His mistress, Agatho
clea, and her brother, Agathocles, divided with
Sosibius the patronage and distribution of all

Coin of Ptolemaeus IV. Philopator, King of Egypt,
B.C. 222-205.
Obv., head of Ptolemy IV.; rev., iitoaemaioy tlAOnATO-
P02 ; eagle on thunderbolt.
places of honour or profit. Towards the close
of his reign Ptolemy put to death his wife,
Arsinoe. His debaucheries shortened his life.
He died in 205, leaving only one son, a child of
five years old. — We find Ptolemy following up
the policy of his predecessors, by cultivating
the friendship of the Romans, to whom he fur
nished large supplies of corn during their
struggle with Carthage. Plunged as he was in
vice and debauchery, Philopator appears to
have still inherited something of the love of
letters for which his predecessors were so con
spicuous. We find him associating on familiar
terms with philosophers and men of letters,
and especially patronising the distinguished
grammarian Aristarchus, and he wrote a tragedy
called Adonis (Diog. Laert. vii. 177).— V., Epi
phanes (b.c 205-181), son and successor of
Ptolemy TV. He was a child of five years old
at the death of his father, 205. Philip, king of
Macedonia, and Antiochus III. of Syria deter
mined to take advantage of the minority of
Ptolemy, and entered into a league to divide
his dominions between them. In pursuance of
this arrangement Antiochus conquered Coele-
Syria, while Philip reduced the Cyclades and
the cities in Thrace which had still remained
subject to Egypt. In this emergency the
Egyptian ministers had recourse to the power
ful intervention of the Romans, who com
manded both monarchs to refrain from further
hostilities, and restore all the conquered cities.
In order to evade this demand without openly
opposing the power of Rome, Antiochus con

cluded a treaty with Egypt, by which it was.
agreed that the young king should marry Cleo
patra, the daughter of Antiochus, and receive
back the Syrian provinces as her dower. (Pol.
xv. 20-33, xvi. 39, xviii. 33 ; Just. xxx. 2, xxxi. 1 ;
Liv. xxxi. 2, 9.) This treaty took place in 199,
but the marriage was not actually solemnised
until six years after. The administration of
Egypt was placed in the hands of Aristomenes,
a man who was every way worthy of the charge.
As early, however, as 196 the young king was,
declared of full age, and the ceremony of his
Anacleteria, or coronation, was solemnised with
great magnificence. It was on this occasion
that the decree was issued which has been pre
served to us in the celebrated inscription known
as the Rosetta stone, a monument of great
interest in regard to the internal history of
Egypt under the Ptolemies, independently of
its importance as having afforded the key to the
discovery of hieroglyphics. In 193 the mar
riage of Ptolemy with the Syrian princess-
Cleopatra was solemnised at Raphia (Liv. xxxv.
13). Ptolemy, however, refused to assist his-
father-in-law in the war against the Romans,
which was at this time on the eve of breaking
out, and he continued steadfast in his aUiance
with Rome. But he derived no advantage
from the treaty which concluded it, and Antio
chus still retained possession of Coele-Syria
and Phoenicia. As long as Ptolemy continued
under the guidance and influence of Aristo
menes, his administration was equitable and
popular. Gradually, however, he became es
tranged from Ms able and virtuous minister,
and threw himself more and more into the
power of flatterers and vicious companions, un
til at length he was induced to rid himself of
Aristomenes, who was compelled to take poison
(Pol. xxiii. 16). Ptolemy seems to have fol
lowed the policy of his predecessors in offering
help to the Achaean League (Pol. xxiii. 1, 7, xxv.
7). Towards the close of his reign he conceived
the project of recovering Coele-Syria from
Seleucus, the successor of Antiochus, and
had assembled a large mercenary force for
that purpose : but having, by an unguarded
expression, excited the apprehensions of some
of his friends, he was cut off by poison in the
twenty-fourth year of his reign and the twenty-
ninth of his age, 181 (Jos. Ant. xii. 4, 11). He
left two sons, both named Ptolemy, who subse
quently ascended the throne, under the names
of Ptolemy Philometor and Euergetes II., and
a daughter, who bore her mother's name of
Cleopatra. His reign was marked by the rapid
decline of the Egyptian monarchy, for the pro
vinces and cities wrested from it during his
minority by Antiochus and Philip were never
recovered, and at his death Cyprus and Cyre
naica were the only foreign 'possessions of im
portance still attached to the crown of Egypt.
According to Varro (ap. Plin. xii. 70) it was
the prohibition by Ptolemy of the export of
papyrus (a measure dictated-by jealousy of the
library of the Pergamene kings) which led to
the 'invention' of parchment at Pergamene
(i.e. to its improved manufacture and its name
pergamena). By this Ptolemy Epiphanes must
be meant [see Diet, of Ant. art. Liber], —
VI., Philometor (b.c. 181-146), eldest son and
successor of Ptolemy V. He was a child at the
death of his father in 181, and the regency was
assumed during his minority by his mother,
Cleopatra, who, by her able administration,
maintained the kingdom in a state of tran
quillity. But after her death, in 173, the chief

PTOLEMAEUS
power feU into the hands of Eulaeus and
Lenaeus, ministers as corrupt as they were
incapable, who had the rashness to engage in
war with Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria,
in the vain hope of recovering the provinces of
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. But their army
was totaUy defeated by AntiochuB, near Pelu-
sium, and Antiochus was able to advance with
out opposition as far as Memphis, 170. The
young king himself fell into his hands, but
was treated with kindness and distinction, as
Antiochus hoped by his means to make himself
the master of Egypt. On learning the captivity
of his brother, the younger Ptolemy, who was
then at Alexandria with his sister, Cleopatra,
assumed the title of king, under the name of
Euergetes H., and prepared to defend the
capital to the utmost. Antiochus hereupon
laid siege to Alexandria ; but he was unable to
take the city, and withdrew into Syria, after
establishing PhUometor as king at Memphis,
but retaining in his hands the frontier fortress
of Pelusium. This last circumstance, together
with the ravages committed by the Syrian
troops, awakened Philometor, who had hitherto
been a mere puppet in the hands of the Syrian
king, to a sense of his true position, and he
hastened to make overtures of peace to his
brother and sister at Alexandria. It was agreed
that the two brothers shonld reign together,
and that PhUometor should marry his sister,
Cleopatra. But this arrangement did not suit
the views of Antiochus, who immediately re
newed hostilities. The two brothers were unable
to offer any effectual opposition, and he had
advanced a second time to the waUs of Alex
andria, when he was met by a Roman embassy,
headed by M. PopUUus Laenas, who haughtUy
commanded him instantly to desist from hostili
ties. (Liv. xiv. 11 ; Pol. xxvii. 17, xxviii. 16-19,
xxix. 8, 11.) Antiochus did not venture to dis
obey, and withdrew to his own dominions, 168.
Dissensions soon broke out between the two
brothers, and Euergetes expeUed PhUometor
from Alexandria. Hereupon Philometor re
paired in person to Rome, 164, where he was
received by the senate with the utmost honour,
and deputies were appointed to reinstate him
in the sovereign power. This they effected with
little opposition ; but they settled that Euergetes
should obtain Cyrene as a separate kingdom.
Euergetes, however, shortly afterwards laid
claim to Cyprus as weU, in which he was sup
ported by the Romans ; but PhUometor refused
to surrender the island to him, and in the war
which ensued, Euergetes was taken prisoner by
his brother, who not only spared his life, but
sent him back to Cyrene on condition that he
should thenceforth content himself with that
kingdom. (Pol. xxxi. 18-27, xxxui. 5 ; Liv. Ep.
46, 47.) The attention of Philometor appears
to have been, from this time, principally directed
to the side of Syria. Demetrius Soter having
sought during the dissensions between the two
brothers to make himself master of Cyprus,
Ptolemy now supported the usurper Alexander
Balas, to whom he gave his daughter Cleopatra
in marriage, 150. But when Ptolemy advanced
with an army to the assistance of his son-in-
law, Ammonius, the favourite and minister of
Alexander, formed a plot against the life of
Ptolemy, who thereupon took away his daughter
Cleopatra from her faithless husband, and be
stowed her hand on Demetrius Nicator, the
son of Soter, whose cause he now espoused.
In conjunction with Demetrius, Ptolemy carried
on war against Alexander, whom he defeated in

769

a decisive battle ; but he died a few dayB after
wards in consequence of an injury which he
had received from a fall from his horse in this
battle, 146. (Pol. xl. 12 ; Just. xxxv. 1, 2 ; App.
Syr. 67.) He had reigned thirty-five years
from the period of his first accession, and
eighteen from his restoration by the Romans.
Philometor is praised for the mildness and
humanity of his disposition. Polybius even
tells us that not a single citizen of Alexandria
was put to death by him for any political or
private offence. On the whole, if not one of
the greatest, he was at least one of the best of
the race of the Ptolemies. He left three chil
dren : (1) a son, Ptolemy, who was proclaimed
king after his father's death, under the name
Ptolemy Eupator, but was put to death almost
immediately after by his uncle Euergetes ; (2)
a daughter, Cleopatra, married first to Alex
ander Balas, then to Demetrius II., king of
Syria ; and (8) another daughter, also named
Cleopatra, who was afterwards married to her
uncle Ptolemy Euergetes. — VII., Euergetes II.
or Physcon (QicrKav), that is, Big-Belly, reigned
B.C. 146-117. His history down to the death of
his brother has been already given. In order
to secure undisputed possession of the throne,
he married his sister Cleopatra, the widow of
his brother Philometor, and put to death his
nephew, Ptolemy, who had been proclaimed
king under the surname of Eupator (Just.
xxxviii. 8). A reign thus commenced in blood
was continued in a similar spirit. Many of the
leading citizens of Alexandria, who had taken
part against him on the death of his brother,
were put to death, while the populace were
given up to the cruelties of his mercenary
troops, and the streets of the city were repeatedly
deluged with blood. Thousands of the inhabi
tants fled from the scene of such horrors, and
the population of Alexandria was so greatly
thinned that the king found himself compeUea
to invite foreign settlers from all quarters to re-
people his deserted capital. At the same time
that he thus incurred the hatred of his subjects
by his cruelties, he rendered himself an object
of their aversion and contempt by abandoning
himself to the most degrading vices. In con
sequence of these, he had become bloated and
deformed in person, and enormously corpulent,
whence the Alexandrians gave him the nick
name of Physcon, by which appellation he is
more usuaUy known (Just. l.c. ; Athen. pp. 184,
252, 549). His union with Cleopatra was not
of long duration. He became enamoured of
his niece, Cleopatra (the offspring of his wife
by her former marriage with Philometor), and
he did not hesitate to divorce the mother and
receive her daughter instead, as his wife and
queen. By this proceeding he alienated still
more the minds of his Greek subjects, and his
vices and cruelties at length produced an in
surrection at Alexandria. Thereupon he fled
to Cyprus, and the Alexandrians declared his
sister Cleopatra queen (130). Enraged at this,
Ptolemy put to death Memphitis, his son by
Cleopatra, and sent his head and hands to his
unhappy mother. But Cleopatra having been
shortly afterwards expeUed from Alexandria in
her turn, Ptolemy found himself unexpectedly
reinstated on the throne, 127. (Just, xxxviii. 9 ;
Val. Max. ix. 2 ; Oros. v. 10.) His sister Cleo
patra fled to the court of her elder sister
Cleopatra, the wife of Demetrius II., king of
Syria, who espoused the cause of the fugitive.
Ptolemy, in revenge, set up against him a pre
tender named Zabinas or Zebina, who assumed
8D

770
the title of Alexander II. But the usurper
behaved with such haughtiness to Ptolemy
that the latter suddenly changed his poUcy,
became reconciled to his sister Cleopatra, whom
he permitted to return to Egypt, and gave his
daughter Tryphaena in marriage to Antiochus
Grypus, the son of Demetrius. Ptolemy died
after reigning twenty-nine years from the death
of his brother Philometor; but he himself
reckoned the years of his reign from the date of
hia first assumption of the regal title in 170.
(Just, xxxix. 1, 2 ; Jos. Ant. xiii. 9.) Although
the character of Ptolemy Physcon was stained
by the most infamous vices, and by the most
sanguinary cruelty, he still retained that love
of letters which appears to have been hereditary
in the whole race of the Ptolemies. He had in
his youth been a pupil of Aristarchus, and not
only courted the society of learned men, but
was himself the author of a work called "Tiro-
pv-fipara, or Memoirs, which extended to twenty-
four books. He left two sons : Ptolemy, after
wards known as Soter II., and Alexander, both
of whom subsequently ascended the throne of
Egypt; and three daughters: (1) Cleopatra,
married to her brother Ptolemy Soter; (2)
Tryphaena, the wife of Antiochus Grypus, king
of Syria ; and (3) Selene, who was unmarried
at her father's death. To his natural son,
Ptolemy, surnamed Apion, he bequeathed by
his will the separate kingdom of Cyrene. — VIII,,
Soter II., and also Philometor, but more com
monly called Lathyrus or Lathurus (AdBovpos),
reigned B.C. 117-107, and also 89-81. Although
he was of full age at the time of his father's
death (117), he was obliged to reign jointly with
hia mother, Cleopatra, who had been appointed
by the will of her late husband to succeed him
on the throne. She was, indeed, desirous of
associating with herself her younger son,
Ptolemy Alexander ; but since Lathyrus was
popular with the Alexandrians, she was obliged
to give way, and sent Alexander to Cyprus.
After declaring Lathyrus king, she compelled
him to repudiate hiB sister Cleopatra, of whose
influence she was jealous, and to marry his
younger sister, Selene, in her stead. (Just, xxxix.
3 ; Paus. i. 9, 1.) After reigning ten years
jointly with his mother, he was expelled from
Alexandria by an insurrection of the people
which she had excited against him, 107 (Just.
xxxix. 4 ; Jos. Ant. xiii. 10). His brother, Alex
ander now assumed the sovereignty of Egypt,
in conjunction with his mother, while Lathyrus
was able to establish himself in the possession
of Cyprus. Cleopatra, indeed, attempted to dis
possess him of that island also, but without
_ success, and Ptolemy held it as an independent
' kmgdom for the eighteen years during which
Cleopatra and Alexander reigned in Egypt.
After the death of Cleopatra and the expulsion
of Alexander, in 89, Ptolemy Lathyrus was
recalled by the Alexandrians and established
anew on the throne of Egypt, which he occupied
thenceforth without interruption till his death,
in 81. The most important event of this period
was the revolt of Thebes, in Upper Egypt,
which was still powerful enough to hold out for
three years against the arms of Ptolemy, but at
the end of that time was taken and reduced to
the state of ruin in which it has ever since
remained (Just, xxxix. 5 ; Paus. i. 9, 8). Lathy
rus reigned in all 35£ years ; 10 in conjunction
with his mother (117-107), 18 in Cyprus (107-89),
and 7i as sole ruler of Egypt. He left only
one daughter, Berenice, called also Cleopatra,
who succeeded him on the throne: and two

PTOLEMAEUS sons, both named Ptolemy, who, though illegiti
mate, became severally kings of Egypt and
Cyprus. — IX., Alexander I., youngest son of
Ptolemy VIL, reigned conjointly with his
mother, Cleopatra, from the expulsion of his
brother, Lathyrus, B.C. 107-90. In this year
he assassinated his mother; but he had not
reigned alone a year when he was compelled
by a general sedition of the populace and mili
tary to quit Alexandria. He, however, raised
fresh troops, but was totally defeated in a sea-
fight by the rebels ; whereupon Lathyrus was
recalled by the Alexandrians to Egypt, as has
been already related. Alexander now attempted
to make himself master of Cyprus, and invaded
that island, but was defeated and slain. He
left a son, Alexander, who afterwards ascended
the throne of Egypt. (Just, xxxix. 4, 5 ; Jos.
Ant. xiii. 13, 1.) — X., Alexander II., son of the
preceding, was at Rome at the death of Ptolemy
Lathyrus, in 81. Sulla, who was then dictator,
nominated the young Alexander (who had
obtained a high place in his favour) king of
Egypt, and sent him to take possession of the
crown. It was, however, agreed, in deference
to the claims of Cleopatra Berenice, the
daughter of Lathyrus, whom the Alexandrians
had already placed on the throne, that Alex
ander should marry her, and admit her to share
the sovereign power. He complied with the
letter of this treaty by marrying Cleopatra, but
only nineteen days afterwards caused her to be
assassinated. The Alexandrians thereupon
rose against their new monarch, and put him
to death (App. Mithr. 23 ; Porphyr. ap. Euseb.
Chron. p. 117). It was probably this Alexander,
not his predecessor, who bequeathed his do
minions and his wealth to the Roman people
(Cic. de Leg. Agr. i. 4, 12; 15, 38; 16, 41).
The Romans accepted the treasure (which
apparently had been deposited at Tyre and not
yet transferred to Egypt), but, not wishing to
place Egypt in the hands of any Roman pro
consul, they did not take over that country.
— XL, Dionysus or Nothus, but more com
monly known by the appellation of Auletes,
the flute-player (in which capacity he entered
into public competition : Strab. p. 796), was an
illegitimate son of Ptolemy Lathyrus. When
the assassination of Berenice and the death of
Alexander H. had completed the extinction of
the legitimate race of the Lagidae, Ptolemy
was proclaimed king by the Alexandrians, B.C.
80. He was anxious to obtain from the Roman
senate (who might now even consider them
selves the rightful owners) their ratification of
his title to the crown, but it was not till the
consulship of Caesar (59) that he was able to
purchase by vast bribes the desired privilege.
He had expended immense sums in the pursuit
of this object, which he was compelled to raise
by the imposition of fresh taxes, and the dis
content thus excited combining with the con
tempt entertained for his character, led to his
expulsion by the Alexandrians, in 58. There
upon he proceeded in person to Rome to procure
from the senate his restoration (Suet. Jul. 54).
His first reception was promising ; and he
procured a decree from the senate commanding
his restoration, and entrusting the charge of
effecting it to P. Lentulus Spinther, then pro
consul of Cilicia. Meanwhile, the Alexandrians
sent an embassy of 100 of their leading citizens
to plead their cause with the Roman senate ;
but Ptolemy had the audacity to cause the
deputies, on their arrival in Italy, to be waylaid,
and the greater part of them murdered. The

PTOLEMAEUS

771

indignation excited at Rome by this proceeding
produced a reaction : the tribunes took up the
matter against the nobility ; and an oracle was
produced from the Sibylline books, forbidding
the restoration of the king by an armed force.
The intrigues and disputes thus raised were
protracted throughout the year 56, and at
length Ptolemy, despairing of a favourable
-result, quitted Rome in disgust, and withdrew
to Ephesus. (Dio Cass, xxxix. 12-16 ; Cic. ad
Fam. i. 1-7, ad Q. Fr. 2, 8, pro Babir. 2, 3 ;
Plut. Pomp. 49.) But in 55, A. Gabinius, who
was proconsul in Syria, was induced, by the
influence of Pompey, aided by the enormous
bribe of 10,000 talents from Ptolemy himself,
to undertake his restoration. The Alexandrians
had in the meantime placed on the throne of
Egypt Berenice, the eldest daughter of Ptolemy,
who had married Archelaus, the son of the
general of Mithridates, and they opposed Gabi
nius with an army on the confines of the
kmgdom. They were, however, defeated in
three successive battles, Archelaus was slain,
and Ptolemy once more estabUshed on the
throne, 55. One of his first acts was to put to
death his daughter, Berenice, and many of the
leading citizens of Alexandria. (Dio Cass, xxxix.
• 55-58.) He survived his restoration only 3£
years, during which time he was supported by
a. large body of Roman soldiers who had been
left behind by Gabinius for his protection
(Caes. B. C. hi. 108, 110). He died in 51, after
a reign of twenty-nine years from the date of
his first accession (Cic. ad Fam. viu. 4). He
left two sons, both named Ptolemy, and two
daughters, Cleopatra and Arsinoe. — XII., eldest
son of the preceding. By his father's wiU the
sovereign power was left to himself and his
sister Cleopatra jointly, and this arrangement
was carried into effect without opposition, 51.
Auletes had also referred the execution of his
wiU to the Roman senate, and the latter
accepted the office, confirmed its provisions,
and bestowed on Pompey the title of guardian
of the young king (Caes. B. C. ni. 108 ; Eutrop.
vi. 21). But the approach of the Civil war
prevented them from taking any active part in
the administration of affairs, which fell into
the hands of a eunuch named Pothinus. It
was not long before dissensions broke out
between the latter and Cleopatra, which ended
in the expulsion of the princess, after she had
reigned in conjunction with her brother about
three years, 48. Hereupon she took refuge in
Syria, and assembled an army, with which she
invaded Egypt. The young king, accompanied
by his guardians, met her at Pelusium, and it
was while the two armies were here encamped
opposite to one another that Pompey landed in
Egypt, to throw himself as a suppUant on the
protection of Ptolemy ; but he was assassinated,
by the orders of Pothinus, before he could
obtain on interview with the king himself. (Caes.
B. C. in. 103, 104; Plut. Bomp. 77-79; App.
B. C. ii. 84.) Shortly after, Caesar arrived in
Egypt, and took upon himself to settle the
dispute between Ptolemy and his sister. But
as Cleopatra's charms gained for her the sup
port of Caesar, Pothinus determined to excite
an insurrection against Caesar. Hence arose
what is usuaUy called the Alexandrian war.
Ptolemy, who was at first in Caesar's hands,
managed to escape, and put himself at the head
of the insurgents, but he was defeated by
Caesar, and was drowned in an attempt to
escape by the river, 47. (Caes. B. C. iii. 106-112 ;
Dio Cass. xUi. 3-9; Bell. Alex. 1-31.)— XIII.,

youngest son of Ptolemy Auletes, waB appointed
by Caesar to reign jointly with Cleopatra, after
the death of his elder brother, Ptolemy XII.,
47 ; and although he waB a mere boy, it was
decreed that he should marry his sister, with
whom he was thus to share the power. Both
his marriage and his regal title were, of course,
purely nominal ; and in 43 Cleopatra put him to
death. (Dio Cass. xiii. 44, xliii. 27 ; Strab. p. 797.)
III. Kings of other Countries.
I. Surnamed Alorites (that is, of Alorus),
regent, or, according to some authors, king of
Macedonia. He obtained the aupreme power
by the assassination of Alexander II., the
eldest son of Amyntas, B.C. 367, but was, in his
turn, asaassinated by Perdiccas III., 364. (Diod.
xv. 7, 7 ; Plut. Pelop. 26, 27.)— 2. Surnamed
Apion, king of Cyrene (117-96), was an illegiti
mate son of Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt,
who left him by his wUl the kingdom of
Cyrenaica. At his death in 26, Apion be
queathed his kingdom by his will to the Roman
people. The senate, however, refused to accept
the legacy, and declared the cities of Cyre
naica free. They were not reduced to the
condition of a province till nearly thirty years
afterwards. (Just, xxxix. 5 ; Liv. Ep. 70 ;
Eutrop. vi. 11.) — 3. Surnamed Ceraunus on
account of his rashness (Paus. x. 19, 7), king of
Macedonia, was the son of Ptolemy I., king of
Egypt, by his second wife, Eurydice. When his
father, in 285, set aside the claim of Ceraunus to
the throne, and appointed his younger Bon,
Ptolemy Philadelphus, his successor, Ceraunus
repaired to the court of Lysimachus. After
Lysimachus had perished in battle against
Seleucus (281) Ptolemy Ceraunus was received
by the latter in the most friendly manner ; but
shortly afterwards (280) he basely assassinated
Seleucus, and took possession of the Mace
donian throne. After reigning a few months he
was defeated m battle by the Gauls under their
chief, Belgius, taken prisoner and put to death.
(Just. xvii. 2, xxiv. 1-5 ; Pol. ix. 35, 4.)— 4. Te
trarch of Chalcis in Syria, the son of Mennaeus.
He appears to have held the cities of Heliopolis
and Chalcis as well as the mountain district of
Ituraea, from whence he was in the habit of
infeating Domaacus and the more wealthy parta
of Coele-Syria with predatory incursions. He
reigned from about 70 to 40, when he was suc
ceeded by his son Lysanias (Strab. p. 753 ; Job.
Ant. xiii. 16, xiv. 3). — 5. King of Cyprus, was
the younger brother of Ptolemy Auletes, king
of Egypt, being, like him, an illegitimate son of
Ptolemy Lathyrus. He was acknowledged as
king of Cyprus at the some time that his
brother Auletes obtained possession of the
throne of Egypt, 80. He had offended P.
Clodius, by neglecting to ransom him when he
had faUen into the hands of the Cilician pi
rates ; and accordingly Clodius, when he became
tribune (58), brought forward a law to deprive
Ptolemy of his kingdom, and reduce Cyprus to
a Roman province. Cato, who had to carry
into execution this nefarious decree, sent to
Ptolemy, advising him to submit, and offering
him his personal safety, with the office of high-
priest at Paphos, and a liberal maintenance.
But the unhappy king refused these offers, and
put an end to his own life, 57. (Strab. p. 684 ;
Cic. pro Dom. viii. 20 ; Plut. Cat. 34-86, Brut.
3.) — 6. King of Epirus, was the second son of
Alexander II., king of Epirus, and Olympias,
and grandson of the great Pyrrhus. He suc
ceeded to the throne on the death of his elder
3d2

772
brother, Pyrrhus II., but reigned only a very
short time. The date of his reign cannot be
fixed with certainty, but as he was contem
porary with Demetrius II., king of Macedonia,
it may be placed between 239-229. (Just.
xxviii. 1, 3; Paus. iv.35, 3.) — 7. King of Maure
tania, was the son and successor of Juba II.
By his mother, Cleopatra, he was descended
from the kings of Egypt, whose name he bore.
The period of his accession cannot be deter
mined with certainty, but we know that he was
on the throne in a.d. 18. He continued to
reign without interruption till a.d. 40, when
he was summoned to Rome by Caligula, and
shortly after put to death, his great riches
having excited the cupidity of the emperor.
(Tac. Ann. iv. 23, 26 ; Suet. Cat. 26, 35 ; Dio
Cass. lix. 25.) IV. Literary.
1. Claudius Ptolemaeus, a celebrated mathe
matician, astronomer, and geographer. Of Pto
lemy himself we know absolutely nothing but
his date. He certainly observed in a.d. 139, at
Alexandria ; and since he survived Antoninus
he was alive a.d. 161. His writings are as
follows : — (1) MeydXrj trivra^is Ti)s aarpovopias,
UBuaUy known by its Arabic name of Almagest.
Since the Tetrabiblus, the work on astrology,
was also entitled oivra^is, the Arabs to dis
tinguish the two, probably called the greater
work peyaXri, and afterwards peyiar-n: the
title Almagest is a compound of this last
adjective and the Arabic article. The Almagest
is divided into thirteen books. It treats of the
relations of the earth and heaven ; the effect of
position upon the earth ; the theory of the sun
and moon, without which that of the stars
cannot be undertaken ; the sphere of the fixed
stars, and those of the five stars called planets.
The seventh and eighth books are the most
interesting to the modern astronomer, as they
contain a catalogue of the stars. This cata
logue gives the longitudes and latitudes of
1022 stars, described by their positions in the
consteUations. It seems that this catalogue is
in the main reaUy that of Hipparchus, altered
to Ptolemy's own time by assuming the value
of the precession of the equinoxes given by
Hipparchua aa the leaat which could be ; some
changes having also been made by Ptolemy's
own observations. Indeed, the whole work of
Ptolemy appears to have been based upon the
observations of Hipparchus, whom he con
stantly cites as his authority. The best edition
of the Almagest is by Halma, Paris, 1813, 1816,
2 vols. 4to. There are also two other volumes
by Halma (1819-1820), which contain some
of the other writings of Ptolemy. — (2) Terpa-
BiBXos o-iWafu, generally called Tetrabiblus,
or Quadripartitum de Apotelesmatibus et
Judiciis Astrorum. With this goes another
small work, caUed Kapirbs, or FrudusLibrorum
suorum, often called Centiloquium, from its
containing a hundred aphorisms. Both of these
works are astrological, and it has been doubted
by some whether they are genuine. But the
doubt merely arises from the feeling that the
contents are unworthy of Ptolemy. — (3) Kavdv
BaoiXeav, a catalogue of Assyrian, Persian,
Greek, and Roman sovereigns, with the length
of then- reigns, several times referred to by
SynceUus.— (4) *a<reis airXavdv darepav Kal
crvyayayii iirio-npaaeidv, De Apparentiis et
Significationibus inerrantium, an annual list
of sidereal phenomena.— (5, 6) De Analemmate
and Planisphaerium. These works are ob-

PTOLEMAEUS tained from the Arabic. The Analemma is a
collection of graphical processes for facilitating;
the construction of sun-dials. The Planisphere'
is a description of the stereographic projection,.
in which the eye is at the pole of the circle
on which the sphere is projected. — (7) Ilepl
viroBecrewv rav irXavapevav, De Planetarum
Hypothesibus. This is a brief statement of the
principal hypotheses employed in the Alma
gest for the explanation of the heavenly
motions. — (8) 'AppoviKav BiB^a y', a treatiBe on
the theory of the musical scale. — (9) nep!
KpiTijpiov Kal riyepoviKov, De Judicandi Facul-
tate et Animi Principatu, a metaphysical work,,
attributed to Ptolemy (ed. Hanow, Lips. 1871).
— (10) TeaypacpiK)) vcpiryno-is, in eight books,
the great geographical work of Ptolemy. This.
work was the last attempt made by the ancients
to form a complete geographical system ; it was
accepted as the text-book of the science, and-.
it maintained that position during the middle
ages and until the fifteenth century, when the
rapid progress of maritime discovery caused it
to be superseded. It was based on a work by
Maximus of Tyre (Ptol. i. 6). It contains very
little information respecting the objects of
interest connected with the different countries
and places, for, with the exception of the intro
ductory matter in the first book, and the latter
part of the work, it is a mere catalogue of the-
names of places, with their longitudes and
latitudes (in which he uses the calculations of'
Poseidonius), and with a few incidental refer
ences to objects of interest. The latitudes of
Ptolemy are tolerably correct ; but his longi
tudes are very wide of the truth, his length of
the known world, from east to west, being much
too great. It is, however, well worthy of
remark in passing, that the modern world
owes much to this error; for it tended to
encourage that belief in the practicabUity of a
western passage to the Indies which occasioned
the discovery of America by Columbus. The
first book is introductory. The next six and a
half books (ii-vu. 4) are occupied with the
description of the known world, beginning with
the West of Europe, the description of which is
contained in book u. ; next comes the East of
Europe, in book iii. ; then Africa, in book iv. ;
then Western or Lesser Asia, in book v. ; then
the Greater Asia, in book vi. ; then India, the
Chersonesus Aurea, Serica, the Sinae, and
Taprobane, in book vii. cc. 1-4. The form in
which the description is given is that of lists of
places with their longitudes and latitudes,
arranged under the heads, first, of the three
continents, and then of the several countries.
and tribes. Prefixed to each section is a brief
general description of the boundaries and
divisions of the part about to be described;
and remarks of a miscellaneous character are
interspersed among the lists, to which, however,.
they bear but a small proportion. The remain
ing part of the seventh and the whole of the
eighth book are occupied with a description of
a set of maps of the known world. These maps
are still extant, appended to the MSS. of
Ptolemy's Geography at Vienna and Venice
[Agathodaemon]. — Editions of the Geographia
of Ptolemy are by Petrus Bertius, Lugd. Bat.
1619, fol.; reprinted Antwerp, 1624, fol. ; by
F. A. Nobbe, Lips. 1845.— 2. Of Megalopolis,
the son of Agesarchus, wrote a history of king
Ptolemy IV. PhUopator (Athen. pp. 246, 425).
— 3. An Egyptian priest, of Mendes, who wrote
on the ancient history of Egypt. He probably
lived under the first Roman emperors (SynceU..

PTOLEMAIS
p. 64). — 4. Surnamed Chemnus, a grammarian
of Alexandria, flourished under Trajan and
Hadrian. An epitome of one of his works is
preserved by Photius (cf. Suid. s.v.).
Ptolemais (TlroXepais : TlroXepatrris and
IrroAe/iaeus). 1. Also called Ace ('Aieti, a cor
ruption of the native name, Acco, O. T. : Arab.
Akka, Fr. St. Jean d'Acre, Eng. Acre), a cele
brated city on the coast of Phoenicia, S. of Tyre,
and N. of M. Carmel, lies at the bottom of a
bay surrounded by mountains, in a position
marked out by nature as a key of the passage
between Coele-Syria and Palestine (Strab. p.
758). It is one of the oldest cities of Phoenicia,
being mentioned in the Book of Judges (i. 81).
Under the Persians it was made the head
quarters of the expeditions against Egypt ; but
it was not tUl the decline of Tyre that it ac
quired its great importance as a military and
¦commercial city. The Ptolemy who enlarged
and strengthened it, and from whom it obtained
its Greek name, was probably Ptolemy I. [see
p. 765]. After the change of its name, its
citadel continued to be called Ace. Under the
Romans it was a colony, and belonged to
GaUlee (Plin. v. 75). To recount its great
celebrity in medieval and modern history does
not faU within the province of this work. — 2. (At
or near El-Lahum), a small town of Middle
Egypt, in the Nomos Arsinoites, between Arsi
noe and HeracleopoUs the Great. — 3. P. Hermii
(II. i) 'Eppeiov, TlToXepaiKJ] irbXis : Menshieh,
Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of
the Nile, below Abydos, was a place of great
importance under the Ptolemies, who enlarged
and adorned it, and made it a purely Greek
city, exempt from aU pecuUarly Egyptian laws
and customs. (Strab. p. 813 ; Ptol. i. 15, 11,
iv. 5, 56.) — 4. P. Theron, or Epitheras (n.
&npav, i) iirl Biipas), a port on the Red Sea, on
the coast of the Troglodytae, which Ptolemy
Philadelphus enlarged, fortified and renamed
as an emporium for the trade with India and
Arabia. It was a great depot for ivory and for
Uve elephants. Ptolemais was remarkable in
the history of mathematical geography, inas
much as, the sun having been observed to be
directly over it forty- five days before and after
the summer solstice, the place was taken as one
of the fixed points for determining the length of
a degree of a great circle on the earth's surface.
(Strab. pp. 768-776 ; Ptol. i. 8, 1, iv. 7, 7, viu.
16, 10.)— 5. (Tolmeita or Tolometa, Ru.), on
the NW. coast of Cyrenaica, one of the five
great cities of the Libyan Pentapolis, was at
first only the port of Barca, which lay 100
stadia (10 geogr. mUes) inland, but which was
so entirely eclipsed by Ptolemais that, under
the Romans, even the name of Barca was
transferred to the latter city. From which of
the Ptolemies it took its name, we are not
informed. Its magnificence is attested by its
splendid ruins, which are now partly covered
by the sea. They are four miles in circum
ference, and contain the remains of several
temples, three theatres, and an aqueduct.
[Barca.] Ftoon (Tlrdov : Skroponeri), a mountain in
Boeotia, an offshot of HeUcon, which extends
from the SE. side of the lake Copais south
wards to the coast (Strab. p. 413).
Publicola, or Poplicula, or Poplicola, a
Roman cognomen, signified 'one who courts
the people ' (from populus and colo), and thus
'a friend of the people.' The form Poplicula
¦or Poplicola was employed down to the end of
the republic, but the name was written Publi-

PUBLILIUS

773

cola under the empire, and appears bo in the
best MSS. of Livy.
Publicola, Gellius. 1. I,, consul with Cn.
Lentulus Clodianus, B.C. 72. Both consuls
carried on war against Spartacus, but were de
feated by the latter. In 70, Gellius was censor,
and in 67 and 66 he served as one of Pompey's
legates in the war against the pirates. He be
longed to the aristocratical party. In 68 he
warmly supported Cicero in the suppression of
the Catilinarian conspiracy. In 69 he opposed
the agrarian law of Caesar, and in 57 he spoke
in favour of Cicero's recaU from exile. He was
alive in 65, when Cicero delivered his speech
against Piso, but he probably died soon after
wards. He was married twice. He must have
reached a great age, since he is mentioned as
the contubemalis of C. Papirius Carbo, who was
consul in 120. (App. B.C. i. 117 ; Plut. Pomp.
22, Cic. 26 ; Liv. Ep. 96, 98 ; Cic. ad Att. xii.
21.) — 2. L., son of the preceding by his first
wife. He espoused the republican party after
Caesar's death (441, and went with M. Brutus
to Asia. After plotting against the lives of
both Brutus and Cassius, he deserted the
triumvirs, Octavian and Antony. He was re
warded for his treachery by the consulship in
36. In the war between Octavian and Antony,
he espoused the side of the latter, and com
manded the right wing of Antony's fleet at the
battle of Actium. (Dio Cass. xlix. 54 ; Plut. Ant.
65 ; VeU. Pat. ii. 85.)— 3. Brother probably of
No. 1, is called stepson of L. Marcius Philip
pus, consul 91, and brother of L. Marcius
Philippus, consul 56. According to Cicero's
account he was a profligate and a spendthrift,
and having dissipated his property, united
himself to P. Clodius. (Cic. pro Sest. 51, 52, 110,
111. ad Att. iv. 3, ad Q. Fr. ii. 1.)
Publicola, or Poplicola, P. Valerius, took
an active part in expelling the Tarquins from
the city, and was thereupon elected consul with
Brutus (b.c. 509). He secured the liberties of
of the people by proposing several lawB, one of
the most important of which was that every
citizen who was condemned by a magistrate
should have the right of appeal to the people.
He also ordered the Uctors to lower the faacea
before the people, aB an acknowledgment that
their power was superior to that of the consuls.
Hence he became so great a favourite with the
people, that he received the surname of Popli
cola. tie was consul three times again : namely,
in 508, 507 and 504. He died in 503. He was
buried at the public expense, and the matrons
mourned for him ten months, as they had done
for Brutus. (Liv. i. 58, ii. 2-16 ; DionyB. iv. 67, v.
12, 40 ; Plut. Public.) — Hia descendants bore the
same surname, and several of them held the
highest offices of state during the early years
of the republic.
Publilia, the second wife of M. TuUius Cicero,
whom he married B.C.- 46. As Cicero was then
sixty years of age, and Publilia quite young,
the marriage occasioned great scandal. It
appears that Cicero was at the time in great
pecuniary embarrassments; and after the di
vorce of Terentia, he was anxious to contract
a new marriage for the purpose of obtaining
money to pay his debts. Publilia had a large
fortune, which had been left to Cicero in trust
for her. The marriage proved an unhappy one,
as might have been expected, and Cicero
divorced her in 45. (Cic. ad Att. xii. 82; Dio
Casa. xlvi. 18 ; cf. p. 228, b.)
Publilius Philo. [Philo.]
Publilius Syrus. [Syrus.]

774

PUBLILIUS

Publilius, Volero, tribune of the plebs b.c.
472, and again 471, effected an important
change in the Roman constitution. In virtue
of the laws which he proposed, the tribunes of
the plebs and the aediles were elected by the
comitia tributa, instead of by the comitia cen-
turiata, as had previously been the case, and
the tribes obtained the power of passing reso
lutions on matters affecting the whole nation.
It appears also (though there is some doubt
about it) that the number of the tribunes was
now for the first time raised to five, having
been only two previously. (Liv. ii. 55 ; Did. of
Ant. art. Tribuni.)
Pucmum (TIovkivov: Duino), a fortress in
Venetia, in the territory of the Carni, was
situated on a steep rock, about two miles from
the sources of the Timavus and sixteen from
Trieste. It was famous for its wine. (Plin. iii.
127, xiv._60.)
Pudicitia (AlSds), a personification of
modesty, was worshipped both in Greece and
at Rome. At Athens an altar was dedicated
to her. At Rome two sanctuaries were dedi
cated to her, one under the name of Pudicitia
patrieia, and the other under that of Pudicitia
plebeia. The former was in the Forum Boarium
near the temple of Hercules (Liv. x. 23 ; Fest.
p. 242). When the patrician Virginia was
driven from this sanctuary by the other patrician
women, because she had married the plebeian
consul L. Volumnius, she built a separate
sanctuary to Pudicitia plebeia in the Vicus
Longus. The cult of these altars is said to
have fallen into disuse in the second century
B.C. (Plin. xvii. 244 ; Propert. ii. 6, 25). Under
the empire it was common to erect altars to
ladies of the imperial family under the title of
Pudicitia, as a compliment : e.g. to Livia (Val.
Max. vi. 1, 11).
Pulcher, Claudius. [Claudius.]
Pulcheria, eldest daughter of the emperor
Arcadius, was born a.d. 399. In 414, when she
was only fifteen years of age, she became the
guardian of her brother Theodosius, and was
declared Augusta or empress. She had the
virtual government in her hands during the
whole lifetime of her brother, who died in 450.
On his death she remained at the head of
affairs, and shortly afterwards she married
Marcian, with whom she continued to reign in
common till her death in 458. Pulcheria was
a woman of ability, and was celebrated for her
piety and her public and private virtues.
[Theodostos II. ; Valentinianus III.]
Pulchrum Promontorium (KaXbv 'AKpa-
rf)piov), a promontory on the N. coast of the
•Carthaginian territory in N. Africa, where the
elder Scipio Africanus landed; probably
identical with the Apollinis Peomontorium.
Pullus, L. Junius, consul B.C. 249, in the
first Punic war. His fleet was destroyed by a
storm off Camarina, on account, it was said, of
his neglecting the auspices. In despair he put
an end to his own life. (Pol. i. 53 ; Cic. N.D.
ii. 3.)
Pupienus Maximus, M. Clodius, was elected
emperor with Balbinus, in a.d. 238, when the
senate received intelligence of the death of the
two Gordians in Africa ; but the new emperors
were slain by the soldiers at Rome in the same
year. JBalbinus.]
Pflpius, a Roman dramatist of the Augustan
age, of small merit, whose tragedies are noticed
as drawing tears from the less critical part of
the audience (' lacrimosa poemata,' Hor. Ep. i.
1,67; Aaro, ad loc).

PYDNA
Piira (Tloipa : prob. Bunpur), the capital of
Gedrosia, in the interior of the country, on the
borders of Carmania. [Gedrosia.]
Purpurariae Insulae (prob. the Madeira
group), a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean,
off the NW. coast of Africa, which are supposed
to have derived their name from the purple
muscles which abound on the opposite coast of
Africa (Gaetulia). (Plin. vi. 203.)
Purpureo, L. Furius, praetor b.c. 200, ob
tained Cisalpine Gaul as Ms province, and
gained a brilliant victory over the Gauls who
had laid siege to Cremona. He was consul
196, when he defeated the Boii. (Liv. xxxi.
47-49, xxxviii. 44, xxxix. 54.)
Puteolanum, a country-house of Cicero near
Puteoli, where he wrote his Quaestiones Aca-
demicae, and where the emperor Hadrian was
buried (Cic. ad Att. xiv. 7 ; Vit. Hadr. 25).
Puteolanus Sinus (Bay of Naples), a bay of
the sea on the coast of Campania between the
promontory Misenum and the promontory of
Minerva, which was originaUy caUed Cuma-
nus, but Puteolanus from the town Puteoli.
The NW. corner of it was separated by a dike
eight stadia in length from the rest of the bay,
thus forming the Lucbinus Lacus.
Puteoli (Puteolanus : Pozzuoli), originaUy
named Dicaearchia (AiKatapx'ia, AiKaiapxeta :
AiKaiapxevs, AiKaiapxeirvs, -x'trns), a cele
brated seaport town of Campania, situated on
a promontory on the E. side of the Puteolanus
Sinus, and a little to the E. of Cumae, was
founded by the Greeks of Cumae, B.C. 521,
under the name of Dicaearchia (Strab. p. 245 ;
Steph. Byz. s.v. ; cf. Diod. iv. 22, v. 13). In
the second Punic war it was fortified by the
Romans, who changed its name into that of
Puteoli, either from ita numerous weUs or from
the stench arising from the mineral springs in
its neighbourhood (Varro, 7J.L. v. 25 ; Strab. I.e.).
The town was indebted for its importance to its
excellent harbour, which was protected by an
extensive mole formed from the celebrated
reddish earth of the neighbouring hiUs. This
earth, caUed Pozzolana, when mixed with lime,
forms an excellent cement, which in course of
time becomes as hard in water as stone. The
mole was built on arches like a bridge, and
seventeen of the piers are still visible projecting
above the water. To this mole Caligula,
attached a floating bridge, which extended as
far as Baiae, a distance of two miles. (Suet.
Gal. xix. 32 ; Dio Cass. lix. 17.) Puteoli was
the chief emporium for the commerce with
Alexandria and with the greater part of Spain
(Liv. xxvi. 17, xxx. 22; Strab. p. 793; Suet.
Aug. 98). The town was colonised by the
Romans in B.C. 194 (Liv. xxxiv. 45 ; Plin. iii.
61), and also anew by Augustus, Nero, and Ves
pasian. It was destroyed by Alaric in A.D. 410,
by Genseric in 455, and also by Totila in 545,
but was on each occasion speedUy rebuUt.
There are still many ruins of the ancient town
at the modern Pozzuoli. Of these the most
important are the remains of the temple of
Serapis, of the amphitheatre, and of the mole
already described.
Pydna (TliSva : TlvSva'ios : Kitron), a town of
Macedonia in the district Pieria, was situated
at a small distance W. of the Thermaic gulf, on
which it had a harbour. It was originally a,
Greek colony, but it was subdued by the Mace
donian kings, from whom, however, it frequently
revolted. (Thuc. i. 61, 137 ; Strab. p. 330, 20,
22.) Towards the end of the Peloponnesian
war it was taken after a long siege by Arche-

PYGELA
laus, and its inhabitants removed twenty stadia
inland ; but at a later period we still find the
town situated on the coast (Diod. xiii. 49). It
again revolted from the Macedonians, and was
subdued by PhUip, who enlarged and fortified
the place. It was here that Olympias sustained
a long siege against Cassander, B.C. 317-316.
(Polyaen. iv. 11, 3.) It is memorable on account
of the victory gained under its walls by AemiUus
Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia,
168 (Liv. xliv. 82-46). Under the Romans it
was also caUed Citrum (Strab. I. c).
Pygela or Phygela (IliryeAa, QbyeXa), a
small town of Ionia, on the coast of Lydia, with
a temple of Artemis Munychia. Tradition
ascribed its foundation to Agamemnon. (Xen.
Hell. i. 2, 2 ; Strab. p. 639.)
Pygmaei (Tlvypaioi, i.e. men of the hdght of
a irvypii, i.e. 18$ inches), a fabulous people,
first mentioned by Homer (II. iii. 5) as dweU-
ing on the shores of Ocean, and attacked by
cranes in spring time. The fable is repeated
by numerous writers, in various forms, especi
ally as to the locality, some placing them in
Aethiopia, others in India, and others in the
extreme N. of the earth. The story is referred
to by Ovid and Juvenal, and forms the subject
of several works of art. (Arist. H. A. viii. 12 ;
Juv. xni. 167 ; Plin. v. 109, vi. 188 ; Ov. Fast.
vi. 176, Met. vi. 90.) It is possible that the
stories may have arisen from vague accounts of
the dwarfish races in the interior of Africa,
such as those which have been met with by
recent explorers between the Congo and the
Upper NUe.
Pygmalion (TlvypaXiav). 1. King of Cyprus
and father of Metharme. He is said to have
f alien in love with the ivory image of a maiden
which he himself had made, and therefore to
have prayed to Aphrodite to breathe life into
it. When the request was granted, Pygmalion
married the maiden, and became by her the
father of Paphus (Ov. Met. x. 243).— 2. Son of
Belus and brother of Dido, who murdered
Sichaeus, Dido's husband. For details see
Dido. Pylades (nuA^5r;r). 1. Son of Strophius and
Anaxibia, a sister of Agamemnon. His father
was king of Phocis, and after the death of
Agamemnon, Orestes was secretly carried to his
father's court. Here Pylades contracted that
friendship with Orestes, which became prover
bial. He assisted Orestes in murdering his
mother, Clytaemnestra, and also accompanied
him to the Tauric Chersonesus ; and he eventu
ally married his sister, Electra, by whom he
became the father of Hellanicus, Medon, and
Strophius. For detaUs see Orestes. — 2. A
pantomime dancer in the reign of Augustus,
spoken of under Bathyllus.
Pylae (riuAcu, Gates), a general name for any
narrow pass, such as Thermopylae, Pylae
Albaniae, Caspiae, &c. (See the specific names.)
Pylaemenes (TlvXatpevvs), appears to have
been in early times the name of many princes
of Paphlagonia, so as to have become a kind of
hereditary appellation (II. ii. 851, v. 576, xiii.
643 ; cf. Liv. i. 1).
Pylas. [Pylos.]
Pylene (TTvXiivrj), an ancient town of Aetolia
on the S. slope of Mount Aracynthus, on whose
site Proschium was subsequently built.
Pylos (TliXos), the name of three towns on
the W. coast of Peloponnesus. 1. A town in
the SW. of Messenia, about sixty-three miles
from Sparta, situated on the promontory of
Coryphasium forming the northern horn of the

PYLOS

775

bay of Navarino, of which the southern horn
is occupied by the town caUed Navarino in the
middle ages (the name is supposed to be
derived from the Avars), but now more usually
Neocastro. The Bpurs of Mount Aegaleos
stretch nearly down to the N. shores of the bay,
which forms the largest and safest harbour in
all Greece. It was fronted and protected by
the small island of Sphacteria (Sphagia), which
stretched along the coast about If mile,
leaving only two narrow entrances at each end.
In the second Messenian war the inhabitants of
Pylos offered a long and brave resistance to
the Spartans ; but after the capture of Ira, they
migrated to CyUene, and thence with the other
Messenians to Sicily. (Paus. iv. 8, 1, iv. 23, 1.)
The old town of Pylos, of which the ruins are
now known as Old Pylos or Old Navarino, is,

Map of the Bay of Pylos.
A, Sphacteria (Sphagia) ; B, Pylos on the promontory
Coryphasium lOld Navarino) ; C, the modern Navarirw ;
D D, Bay of Pylos (Bay of Navarino).
almost certainly, the place which was tradi-
tionaUy founded by Neleus, and the Pylos of
Homer (II. xi. 681, Od. iii. 4; Paus. iv. 36;
cf. Pind. Pyth. vi. 35). In Homer TliXos also
expresses the territory of Nestor generally (II.
xi. 711, 715). The arguments of Strabo (p. 337)
in favour of the Triphylian Elis have not much
weight. The peninsula of Coryphasium, where
stand the ruins of the old town and fortress
(some of the walls being of polygonal masonry),
is precipitous on the E. and NW. side or to
wards the lagoon, but on most of the W.
side or towards the open sea it slopes gradu-
aUy, particularly on the SW., where Demo
sthenes succeeded in preventing the landing of
Brasidas and the Lacedaemonians. The pro
montory is higher at the northern end. Below
the ruined fortress at the northern end there is a
fine cavern, called Voidhi-Kilid (BoiSb-KotXid),
' the ox's belly,' which gives name to the small
circular port immediately below it, which has

776

PYRAMIA

been already spoken of. This cavern is Bixty
feet long, forty wide, and forty high, having a roof
like a Gothic arch. The entrance is triangular,
thirty feet long and twelve high ; at the top of
the cavern there is an opening in the surface
of the hill above. This, according to the Pelo
ponnesian tradition, was the cave into which the
infant Hermes drove the cattle which he had
stolen from ApoUo [see p. 405, a]. It is mentioned
in the Homeric hymn to Hermes as situated
upon the sea-side (v. 341) ; but in Ant. Lib. 23, it
is expressly said to have been at Coryphasium.
In Ovid (Met, ii. 684) Mercury is represented as
beholding from Mount CyUene the unguarded
cattle proceeding into the fields of Pylos.
— The Day of Voidhb-Kilid is separated by a
low semicircular ridge of sand from the large
shaUow lagoon of Osmyn-Aga. As neither
Thucydides nor Pausanias says a word about
this lagoon, which now forms so striking a
feature, we may conclude that it is of recent
formation. The peninsula must, in that case
have been surrounded with a sandy plain, as
Pausanias describes it ; and accordingly, if we
suppose this to have been the site of the
Homeric Pylos, the epithet iipaBbeis, which the
poet gives to it, would be perfectly applicable.
As regards the bay occupied ana blockaded
by the Athenians in the famouB incident of the
Peloponnesian war (Thuc. iv. 3-13, 29-40), it
seems clear that Arnold and others were mis
taken in supposing that it was the lagoon of
Osmyn-Aga, originally (as they thought) open
to the sea at each end of Coryphasium. The
objections to this theory are : (1) that we should
then have three neighbouring islands instead of
only two (Prote and Sphacteria) as Thucydides
describes ; (2) that on the promontory, which
by Arnold's theory becomes Sphacteria, there
are ruins of buildings older than the date of the
war, and Thucydides describes the island as
never having been inhabited; (3) the name
Sphagia probably preserves the old name.
There is in truth no difficulty in supposing the
entrances to the Bay of Navarino to have
widened in the course of 2000 years, and as
regards the expression ov crpiKpbs, applied to
the harbour, it is not inconsistent with the
great size of Navarino. Thucydides would
have spoken thus of the largest harbour in
Greece. When Epaminondas restored the
Messenians to their country, they again occu
pied Pylos (Pol. xviii. 25 ; Liv. xxvii. 30 ; Paus.
I. c.).— 2. In Elis, at the foot of Mount ScoUis, and
about seventy or eighty stadia from the city of
Elis on the road to Olympia, near the confluence
of the Ladon and the Peneus. It is Baid to have
been founded by Pylon or Pylas of Megara, to
have been destroyed by Heracles, and to have
been afterwards rebuUt by the Eleans. (Paus.
iv. 36, 1, vi. 22, 5 ; Plin. iv. 15.)— 3. In Triphylia,
about thirty stadia from the coast, on the river
Mamaus, W. of the mountain Minthe, and N.
of Lepreum (Strab. p. 344).
Pyramia (ra Ttvpapta), a town of Argolis, in
the district Thyreatis, where Danaus is said to
have landed.
Pyramon. [Cyclopes.]
Pyramus. [Thtsbe.]
Pyramus (Ttipauos: Jihan), one of the
largest rivers of Asia Minor, rises in the Anti-
Taurus range, near Arabissus in Cataonia (the
hh,. part of Cappadocia), and, after running SE.
first underground and then as a navigable
river, breaks through the Taurus chain by a
deep and narrow ravine, and then flows SW.
through Cilicia, in a deep and rapid stream,

PYRGOTELES
about one stadium (606 feet) in width, and falls
into the sea near Mallus (Strab. pp. 53, 536).
Its ancient name is said to have been Leuco-
syrus, from the Leucosyri, who dwelt on its
banks. Pyrasus (ntipao-oj), a town of Phthiotis in
Thessaly, situated in fertile corn land, whence,
probably, its name and also the worship of
Demeter in that district (II. n. 495, Strab. p.
435). It had been destroyed before Strabo's
time, and its place was taken by the town
Demetrium in the neighbourhood (Liv. xxviii. 6).
Pyrene or Pyrenaei Montes (Tlvfrfivi), to
Tlvprivdia bpr/ : Pyrenees), a range of mountains
extending from the Atlantic to the Mediterra
nean, and forming the boundary between Gaul
and Spain. The length of these mountains is
about 270 miles in a straight line ; their breadth
varies from about forty miles to twenty ; their
greatest height is between 11,000 and 12,000
feet. The Romans first became acquainted
with these mountains by their campaigns
against the Carthaginians in Spain in the'
second Punic war. Their name, however, had
travelled eastward at a much earUer period,
since Herodotus (ii. S3) speaks of a city Pyrene
belonging to the Celts, near which the Ister
rises. The ancient writers usuaUy derived the
name from irvp, ' fire,' and then, according to a
common practice, invented a story to explain
the false etymology, relating that a great fire
once raged upon the mountains. (Strab. p.
147; Diod. v. 25; Sen. Q. N. 1.) The name
is probably connected with the Celtic Byrin
or Bryn, 'a mountain.' The continuation
of the mountains along the Mare Canta-
bricum was caUed Saltus Vasconum, and stiU
further W. Mons Vindius or Vinnius. The
Romans were acquainted with only three
passes over the Pyrenees : the one on the W.
near Carasae (Garis) not far from the Mare
Cantabicrum ; the one in the middle leading
from Caesaraugusta to Beneharnum (Bareges) ;
and the one on the E., which was most fre
quently used, near the coast of the Mediterra
nean by Juncaria (Junquera). (Strab. p. 160 ;
Liv. xxi. 23 ; Itin.)
Pyrenes Promontorium, or Prom. Veneris
(G. Creus), the SE. extremity of the Pyrenees
in Spain, on the frontiers of Gaul, derived its
second name from a temple of Venus on the
promontory ; below this was a port called Port.
Veneris or Pyrenaei Portus, now Vendres (Liv.
xxxiv. 8).
Pyretus'(nupeTc!j: Pruih), a river of Scythia
which falls into the Danube (Hdt. iv. 48).
Pyrgi. 1. (Tlvpyot or Tlipyos : Uvpylrns),
the most southernly town of TriphyUa in Elis,
near the Messenian frontier, said to have been
founded by the Minyae (Hdt. iv. 148; Strab. p.
348).— 2. (Pyrgensis : Santa Severa), an an
cient town on the coast of Etruria, was used as
the port of Caere or Agylla, and was a place of
considerable importance as a commercial em
porium. It was at an early period the head
quarters of the Tyrrhenian pirates (Serv. ad
Aen. x. 184). It possessed a very wealthy
temple of Ilithyia, which Dionysius of Syracuse
plundered in B.C. 884. (Strab. p. 226 ; Diod. xv.
14). Pyrgi is mentioned at a later time as a
Roman colony, but lost its importance under
the Roman dominion (Liv. xxxvi. 8 ; Mart. xii.
2). There are stUl remains at S. Severa of
the ancient polygonal waUs of Pyrgi.
Pyrgoteles (iu>p-yoTeA?;s), one of the most
celebrated gem-engravers of ancient Greece,
was a contemporary of Alexander the Great,

PYRICUS
who placed him on a level with Apelles and
Lysippus, by naming him as the only artist who
was permitted to engrave seal-rings for the
king (Plin. vii. 125, xxxvii. 8).
Pyricus (TlbpeiKos), a Greek painter, who
probably Uved soon after the time of Alexander
the Great. He devoted himself entirely to the
production of smaU pictures of low and mean
¦subjects. Pyriphlegethon (ru<pi<pAe-ye&W)— that is,
flaming with fire— the name of one of the rivers
in the lower world.
Pyromachus or Phyromachus (Tlvpbpaxos,
Qvpbpaxos : the latter appears to be the more
correct form : the name is so written on the
inscription). 1. An Athenian sculptor, who
executed the bas-reliefs on the frieze of the
temple of Athene Polias, about B.C. 408 (G.I.A.
i. 324). He is probably the same as the Pyro
machus mentioned by Pliny (xxxiv. 80), as
author of a sculpture representing Alcibiades
driving a chariot. — 2. A sculptor of Pergamum
(Plin. xxxiv. 84), who worked with Isigonus,
Stratonicus and Antigonus in representing the
-battles of Attalus and Eumenes against the
Gauls. The ' Dying Gaul ' (the so-caUed ' Dying
¦Gladiator ') of the Capitol is a copy from one of
these groups. It is possible that the same
sculptors may have executed the figures in the
Gigantomachia on the great altar of Pergamum
[see p. 364]. It is probable that they worked
in the reign of Eumenes II. b.c 197-159 ; not,
as some have thought, under Eumenes I.
Pyrrha (riuppa : Tlvppdios). 1. A town on the
W. coast of the island of Lesbos, on the inner
part of the deep bay named after it, and conse
quently on the narrowest part of the island
(Thuc. in. 18 ; Strab. p. 617 ; Athen. p. 88).— 2.
A town and promontory of Phthiotis in Thes
saly, on the Pagasoeon gulf and near the
frontiers of Magnesia. Off this promontory
there were two small islands, named Pyrrha
and DeucaUon. (Strab. p. 435). — 3. A small
Ionic town in Caria on the N. side of the Sinus
Latmicus and fifty stadia from the mouth of
the Maeander (Strab. p. 636).
Pyrrhi Castra (IMppou x«P°!)> a fortified
place in the N. of Laconica, where Pyrrhus
probably encamped in his invasion of the
country in B.C. 272 (Pol. v. 19 ; Liv. xxxv. 27).
Pyrrhichus (IIuppixos), a town of the Eleu-
thero-lacones, in the SW. of Laconica (Paus. in.
21, 7, Ui. 25, 1).
Pyrrho (Tlippav), the founder of the Sceptical
or Pyrrhonian school of plnlosophy, was a
native of EUs in Peloponnesus. He is said to
have been poor, and to have foUowed, at first,
the profession of a painter. He is then said
to have been attracted to philosophy by the
books of Democritus, to have attended the
lectures of Bryson, a disciple of StUpon, to
have attached himself closely to Anaxarchus,
and with him to have joined the expedition of
Alexander the Great. During the greater part
of his life he Uved in retirement, and en
deavoured to render himself independent of
aU external circumstances. (Diog. Laert. ix.
61-67 ; Paus. vi. 24, 5 ; Suid. s.v.) His disciple
Timon of Phlius extolled with admiration his
divine repose of soul (arapa^ia), and his indiffer
ence to pleasure or pain. So highly was he
valued by his feUow-citizens that they made
him their high priest, and erected a monument
to him after his death. The Athenians con
ferred upon him the rights of citizenship. — He
asserted that certain knowledge on any subject
was unattainable ; that we must not say ' This

PYRRHUS

777

is so,' but, ' This seems so ' ; and that hence
the only wisdom is a suspension of judgment
(eVox^j or chcaraXri^ia). This is the virtue which
the philosopher will strive after, and the result
will be the happiness of tranquilUty. — Pyrrho
wrote no works, except a poem addressed to
Alexander, which was rewarded by the latter
in a royal manner. His philosophical system
was first reduced to writing by his disciple
Timon. The so-called Ten Tropes (SeKa rpbiroi)
of Pyrrho, which professed to show that every
thing is relative and nothing positive, should
be ascribed to Aenesidemus. He reached the
age of ninety years, but we have no mention
of the year either of his birth or of his death.
Pyrrhus (Tlippos). 1. Mythological. [Neo
ptolemus.]— 2. I., king of Epirus, son of
Aeacides and Phthia, was born b.c. 318. His
ancestors claimed descent from Pyrrhus the
son of AchiUes, who was said to have settled in
Epirus after the Trojan war, and to have
become the founder of the race of Molossian
kinga. (Plut. Pyrrh. 1.) On the deposition
of his father by the Epirots [Aeacides],
Pyrrhus, who was then a child of only two
years old, was saved from destruction by the
faithful adherents of the king, who carried
him to Glaucias, the king of the Taulantians,
an Hlyrian people. Glaucias took the child
under his care, and brought him up with his
own chUdren. (Just. xvii. 3.) He not only
refused to surrender Pyrrhus to Cassander,
but about ten years afterwards he marched
into Epirus at the head of an army, and placed
Pyrrhus on the throne, leaving him, however,
under the care of guardians, as he was then
only twelve years of age. In the course of
four or five years, however, Cassander, who had
regained his supremacy in Greece, prevailed
upon the Epirots to expel their young king.
Pyrrhus, who was stUl only seventeen years of
age, joined Demetrius, who had married his
sister Dei'damia, accompanied him to Asia, and
was present at the battle of Ipaus, 301, in
which he gained great renown for his valour.
(Plut. Pyrrh. 4.) Antigonus fell in the battle,
and Demetrius became a fugitive ; but Pyrrhus
did not desert his brother-in-law in his mis
fortunes, and shortly afterwards went for him
as a hostage into Egypt. Here he was fortu
nate enough to win the favour of Berenice, the
wife of Ptolemy, and received in marriage
Antigone, her daughter by her first husband.
Ptolemy, who wished him to counteract the
power of Demetrius Poliorcetes, now supplied
him with a fleet and forces, with which he
returned to Epirus. Neoptolemus, who had
reigned from the time that Pyrrhus had been
driven from the kingdom, agreed to share the
sovereignty with Pyrrhus. But such an ar
rangement could not last long, and Pyrrhus
anticipated his own destruction by putting his
rival to death. This appears to have happened
in 295, in which year Pyrrhus is said to have
begun to reign. He was now twenty-three
years old, and he soon became one of the most
popular princes of his time. His daring cour
age made him a favourite with his troops, and
his affability and generosity secured the love of
his people. He seems at an early age to have
taken Alexander as his model, and to have been
fired with the ambition of imitating his ex
ploits and treading in his footsteps. His eyes
were first directed to the conquest of Mace
donia. By assisting Alexander, the son of
Cassander, against his brother, Antipater, he
obtained nossession of the whole of the Mace-

778

PYRRHUS

donian dominions on the western side of
Greece. But the Macedonian throne itself feU
into the hands of Demetrius,- greatly to the
disappointment of Pyrrhus. The two former
friends now became the most deadly enemies,
and open war broke out between them in 291.
After the war had been carried on with great
vigour and various vicissitudes for four years,
Pyrrhus joined the coalition formed in 287 by
Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus against
Demetrius. Lysimachus and Pyrrhus invaded
Macedonia ; Demetrius was deserted by his
troops, and obliged to fly in disguise, and the
kingdom was divided between Lysimachus and
Pyrrhus. (Plut. Pyrrh. 7-10; Demetr. 41.)
But the latter did not long retain his portion ;
the Macedonians preferred the rule of their old
general Lysimachus, and Pyrrhus was ac
cordingly driven out of the country after a
reign of seven months (286). For the next
few years Pyrrhus reigned quietly in Epirus
without embarking in any new enterprise. But
a life of inactivity was insupportable to him ;
and accordingly he readily accepted the invita
tion of the Tarentines to assist . them in their
war against the Romans. He crossed over to
Italy early in 280, in the thirty-eighth year of
his age. He took with him 20,000 foot, 3000
horse, 2000 archers, 500 slingers, and 20 ele
phants, having previously sent Milo, one of his
generals, with a detachment of 3000 men. As
soon as he arrived at Tarentum, he began to
make vigorous preparations for carrying on the
war, and as the giddy and licentious inhabi
tants of Tarentum complained of the severity
of his discipline, he forthwith treated them as
their master rather than as their ally, shut up
the theatre and all other pubUc places, and
compelled their young men to serve in his
ranks. In the first campaign (280) the Roman
consul, M. Valerius Laevinus, was defeated by
Pyrrhus near Heraclea, on the bank of the
river Siris. The battle was long and bravely
contested, and it was not till Pyrrhus brought
forward his elephants, which bore down every
thing before them, that the Romans took to
flight. The loss of Pyrrhus, though inferior to
that of the Romans, was still very consider
able. A large proportion of his officers and
best troops had fallen ; and he said, as he
viewed the field of battle, ' Another such vic
tory, and I must return to Epirus alone.' (Plut.
Pyrrh. 21 ; Pol. xviii. 11 ; Flor. i. 18 ; Dionys.
xviii. 1.) He therefore availed himself of his
success to send his minister Cineas to Rome
with proposals of peace, while he himself
marched slowly towards the city. His pro
posals, however, were rejected by the senate.
He accordingly continued his march, ravaging
the Roman territory as he went along. He
advanced within twenty-four miles of Rome;
but as he found it impossible to compel the
Romans to accept the peace, and two armies
had gathered near Rome, while the forces of
Laevinus still menaced his rear, he retraced his
steps, and withdrew into winter-quarters to
Tarentum. As soon as the armies were quar
tered for the winter, the Romans sent an
embassy to Pyrrhus, to endeavour to obtain the
ransom of the Roman prisoners. The ambas
sadors were received by Pyrrhus in the most
distinguished manner, and his interviews with
C. Fabricius, who was at the head of the em
bassy, form one of the most celebrated stories
in Roman history [Fabricius.] In the second
campaign (279) Pyrrhus gained another victory
near Asculum over the Romans, who were

commanded by the consuls P. Decius Mus and
P. Sulpicius Saverrio. The battle, however,
was followed by no decisive results, and the
brunt of it had again fallen, as in the previous
year, almost exclusively on the Greek troops of
the king. He was therefore unwilling to
hazard his surviving Greeks by another cam
paign with the Romans, and accordingly he
lent a ready ear to the invitations of the
Greeks in Sicily, who begged him to come to-
their assistance against the Carthaginians. The
Romans were likewise anxious to get rid of so-
formidable an opponent, that they might com
plete the subjugation of southern Italy without
further interruption. When both parties had
the same wishes, it was not difficult to find a
fair pretext for bringing the war to a conclusion.
This was afforded at the beginning of the fol
lowing year (278), by one of the servants of
Pyrrhus deserting to the Romans and proposing
to the consuls to poison his master. The con
suls Fabricius and Aemilius sent back the
deserter to the king, stating that they abhorred
a victory gained by treason. Thereupon Pyrrhus,
to show his gratitude, sent Cineas to Rome
with all the Roman prisoners without ransom
and without conditions ; and the Romans
granted him a truce, though not a formal peace,
as he had not consented to evacuate Italy.
Pyrrhus now crossed over into Sicily, where
he remained upwards of two years, from the
middle of 478 nearly to the end of 476. At first
he met with brilliant success, defeated the
Carthaginians and took Eryx ; but having failed
in an attempt upon Lilybaeum, he lost his
popularity with the Greeks, who began to form
cabals and plots against him. This led to
retaliation on the part of Pyrrhus, and to acts
which were deemed arbitrary and tyrannical by
the Greeks. His position in SicUy at length
became so uncomfortable and dangerous that
he soon desired to abandon the island. Ac
cordingly, when his Italian aUies again begged
him to come to their assistance, he gladly com
plied with their request. Pyrrhus returned to
Italy, where his troops had continued to hold
Tarentum, in the autumn of 276. (Plut. Pyrrh.
22-26 ; Dionys. xix. 6-9 ; Just, xxiii. 3.) In the
following year (275) the war was brought to a
close. Pyrrhus was defeated with great loss
near Beneventum by the Roman consul Curius
Dentatus, and was obhged to leave Italy. He
brought back with him to Epirus only 8000 foot
and 500 horse, and had not money to maintain
even these without undertaking new wars.
Accordingly, in 273, he invaded Macedonia, of
which Antigonus Gonatas, the son of Demetrius,
was then king. His only object at first seems
to have been plunder, but his success far
exceeded his expectations. Antigonus was de
serted by his own troops, and Pyrrhus thus
became king of Macedonia a second time. But
scarcely had he obtained possession of the
kingdom before his restless spirit drove him
into new enterprises. On the invitation of
Cleonymus he turned his arms against Sparta,
but was repulsed in an attack upon this city.
From Sparta he marched towards Argos in
order to support Aristeas, one of the leading
citizens at Argos, against his rival, Aristippus,
whose cause was espoused by Antigonus. In
the night-time Aristeas admitted Pyrrhus into
the city, but the alarm having been given, the
citadel and all the strong places were seized by
the Argives of the opposite faction. On the
dawn of day Pyrrhus saw that it would be
necessary for him to retreat; and as he was.

PYTHAGORAS
fighting his way out of the city, an Argive
woman hurled down from the house-top a pon
derous tile, which struck Pyrrhus on the back
of his neck. He fell from his horse stunned
with the blow, and being recognised by some of
the soldiers of Antigonus, was quickly des
patched. His head was cut off and carried to
Antigonus, who turned away from the sight,
and ordered the body to be interred with be
coming honours. (Paus. i. 13 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 81 ;
Just. xxv. 5.) Pyrrhus perished in 272, in the
forty-sixth year of his age, and in the twenty-
third of his reign. — He was the greatest warrior
and one of the best princes of his time. With
his daring courage, his military skiU, and his
kingly bearing, he might have become the most
powerful monarch of his day, if he had steadily
pursued the immediate object before him. But
he never rested satisfied with any acquisition,
and was ever grasping at some fresh object :
hence Antigonus compared him to a gambler
who made many good throws with the dice but
was unable to make the proper use of the game.
Pyrrhus was regarded in subsequent times as
one of the greatest generals that had ever lived.
Hannibal said that of aU generals Pyrrhus was
the first, Scipio the second, and himself the
third ; or, according to another version of the
story, Alexander was the first, Pyrrhus the
second, and himseU the third (Plut. Pyrrh. 8,
Flam. 21). — Pyrrhus wrote a work on the art
of war, which was read in the time of Cicero
(Cic. ad Fam. ix. 25) ; and his commentaries
are quoted both by Dionysius and Plutarch.
Pyrrhus married four wives : (1) Antigone,
the daughter of Berenice ; (2) a daughter of
Audoleon, king of the Paeonians ; (3) Bircenna,
a daughter of Bardylis, king of the Hlyrians ;
(4) Lanassa, a daughter of Agathocles of Syra-
His chUdren were : (1) Ptolemy, born

295, kUled in battle, 272; (2) Alexander, who
succeeded his father as king of Epirus; (3)
Helenus ; (4) Nereis, who married Gelo of
Syracuse; (5) Olympias, who married her own
brother, Alexander ; (6) Deidamia or Laodamia.
— 3. II., Mng of Epirus, son of Alexander II.
and Olympias, and grandson of Pyrrhus I., was
a chUd at the time of his father's death (be
tween 262 and 258). During his minority the
kingdom was governed by his mother, Olympias.
According to one account, Olympias survived
Pyrrhus, who died soon after he had grown up
to manhood ; according to another account,
Olympias had poisoned a maiden to whom
Pyrrhus was attached, and was poisoned by him
in revenge. (Just, xxviii. 3 ; Athen. p. 589.)
Pythagoras (TlvBaybpas). 1. A celebrated
Greek philosopher, was a native of Samos (Hdt.
iv. 95), and the son of Mnesarchus, who was
a merchant, or, according to other accounts, an
engraver. The date of his birth is uncertain,
but aU authorities agree that he lived in the
times of Polycrates and Tarquinius Superbus
(b c. 540-510). He studied in his own country
under Creophilus, Pherecydes of Syros, and
others, and is said to have visited Egypt and
many countries of the East for the purpose of
acquiring knowledge. It is therefore quite
permissible to accept the dates commonly
given : about 580 for his birth ; about 540 for
his coming to Italy, and about 500 for his death.
(Diog. Laert. viii. 2 ; Porphyr. Vit. Pyth. 11 ;
Iambi. Vit. Pyth. 14.) It is probable that | ploughing, and rams,
many of his travels (in which he is even said , pancy as to the prohibition of beans [see below]..
to have visited the Indians in one direction ' But temperance of all kinds seems to have been
and the Druids of Gaul in another) are fie- strictly enjoined. It is also stated that they had
titious ; but there is little doubt that he did visit common meals, resembling the Spartan sys-

779>
Egypt, and it ia by no means improbable that
he travelled to Babylon. The biographies of
Pythagoras are late and fond of dealing with
the marvellous. It is impossible to accept
with absolute confidence anything but the
statements contained in the fragments of
Philolaus, or in the writings of Aristotle and
Theophrastus, or in citations directly from them.
To these may be added as having authority
the mention of him in Herodotus, and scanty
notices in fragments of Xenophanes, Heraclitus
and Plato. No certainty can be arrived at as
to the length of time spent by Pythagoras in
Egypt or the East, or as to his residence and
efforts in Samos or other Grecian cities,
before he settled at Crotona in Italy. He
probably removed to Crotona because he found
it impossible to realise his schemes in his-
native country while under the tyranny of
Polycrates. The reason why he selected Cro
tona as the sphere of his operations it is
impossible to ascertain ; but soon after his
arrival in that city he attained extensive in
fluence, and gained over great numbers to
enter into his views. His adherents were
chiefly of the noble and wealthy classes. Three
hundred of these were formed into a select
brotherhood or club, bound by a sort of vow to
Pythagoras and each other, for the purpose of
cultivating the religious and ascetic observ
ances of their master, and of studying his
religious and philosophical theories. Every
thing that was done and taught among the
members was kept a profound secret from aU
without its pale. It was an old Pythagorean
maxim, that everything was not to be told
to everybody. There were also gradations
among the members themselves, rising from
the 'AKOvo-pariKol (Listeners), who were in the
class of the ' exoterics,' to the esoteric class of
MaB-npariKol or Students, and Philosophers.
In the admission of candidates Pythagoras is,
said to have placed great reliance on his
physiognomical discernment. If admitted, they
had to pass through a period of probation
lasting from two to five years, in which their
powers of maintaining silence were especially
tested, as well as their general temper, dispo
sition, and mental capacity. As regards the
nature of the esoteric instruction to which
only the most approved members of the fra
ternity were admitted, some have supposed
that it had reference to the political views of
Pythagoras. Others have maintained, with
greater probablity, that it related mainly to the
orgies, or secret religious doctrines and usages,
which undoubtedly formed a prominent feature
in the Pythagorean syBtem (Hdt. ii. 83), and
were peculiarly connected with the worship of
Apollo. Some of his disciples at Crotona are
said to have identified Pythagoras himself
with the Hyperborean Apollo. There were some
outward peculiarities of an ascetic kind in the
mode of life to which the members of the
brotherhood were subjected. Some represent
him as forbidding all animal food ; but all the
members cannot have been subjected to this
prohibition, since the athletic Milo, for in
stance, could not possibly have dispensed with
animal food. According to some ancient autho
rities, Pythagoras allowed the use of aU kinds of
animal food except the flesh of oxen used for
There is a similar discre-

780

PYTHAGORAS

sitia, at which they met in companies of ten.
Considerable importance seems to have been
attached to music and gymnastics in the daily
exercises of the disciples. Their whole disci
pline is represented as tending to produce a
lofty serenity and self-possession, regarding
which various anecdotes were current in anti
quity. The purity of life which was required
in the initiated is caUed by Plato TlvBaybpeios
rpbiros Biov (Bep. x. p. 600). Among the
best ascertained features of the brotherhood
are the devoted attachment of the members
to each other, and their sovereign contempt
for those who did not belong to their ranks.
It appears that they had some secret con
ventional symbols by which members of the
fraternity could recognise each other, even
if they had never met before. Clubs similar to
that at Crotona were established at Sybaris,
Metapontum, Tarentum, and other cities of
Magna Graecia. — The institutions of Pythago
ras were certainly not intended to withdraw
those who adopted them from active exertion
that they might devote themselves exclusively
to reUgious and philoaophical contemplations.
He rather aimed at the production of a calm
bearing and elevated tone of character, through
which those trained in the discipline of the
Pythagorean life should exhibit in their per
sonal and social capacities a reflection of the
order and harmony of the universe. Whether
lie had any distinct political designs in the
foundation of his brotherhood is doubtful ; but
it was perfectly natural, even without any
express design on his part, that a club such as
the Three Hundred of Crotona should gradually
•come to mingle political with other objects,
and by the facilities afforded by their secret
and compact organisation should speedily gain
-extensive political influence. That this in
fluence should be decisively on the side of
aristocracy or oligarchy resulted naturally both
from the nature of the Pythagorean institutions,
and from the rank and social position of the
members of the brotherhood. Through them,
of course, Pythagoras himself exercised a large
amount of indirect influence over the affairs
both of Crotona and of other Italian cities.
This Pythagorean brotherhood or order re-
resembled in many respects the one founded by
Loyola. It is easy to understand how this
aristocratical and exclusive club would excite
the jealousy and hostility not only of the demo
cratical party in Crotona, but also of a con
siderable number of the opposite faction. Their
political activity was the cause of their down
fall, since the hatred which they had excited
emboldened their enemies to use force for their
suppression. The populace of Crotona rose
against them ; and an attack was made upon
them while they were assembled either in the
house of Milo or in some other place of meeting.
The building was set on fire, and many of the
assembled members perished ; only the younger
and more active escaped. Similar commotions
ensued in the other cities of Magna Graecia in
which Pythagorean clubs had been formed.
As an active and organised brotherhood the
Pythagorean order was everywhere suppressed ;
but the Pythagoreans still continued to exist as
a sect, the members of which kept up among
themselves their religious observances and
scientific pursuits, while individuals, as in the
case of Archytas, acquired now and then great
political influence. Respecting the fate of
Pythagoras himself, the accounts varied. Some
say that he perished with his disciples,

others that he fled first to Tarentum, and
that, being driven thence, he escaped to Meta
pontum, and there starved himself to death.
His tomb was shown at Metapontum in the
time of Cicero. (Cic. de Fin. iv. 2, 4 ; Diog.
Laert. viii. 40; Iambi. Vit. Pyth. 249; Just.
xx. 4.) — According to some accounts Pythagoras
married Theano, a native of Crotona, and had a
daughter, Damo, and a son, Telauges, or, accord
ing to others, two daughters, Damo and Myia ;
while other notices Beem to imply that he had a
wife and a daughter grown up when he came
to Crotona. — When we come to inquire what
were the philosophical or religious opinions held
by Pythagoras himself, we are met at the out
set by the difficulty that even the authors from
whom we have to draw possessed no authentic
records bearing upon the age of Pythagoras
himself. If Pythagoras ever wrote anything,
his writings perished with him, or not long
after. The probability is that he wrote nothing.
Everything current under his name in antiquity
was spurious. It is all but certain that Phi
lolaus was the first who published the Pytha
gorean doctrines, at any rate in a written form
[Phtlolaus]. StiU there was so marked a
peculiarity running through the Pythagorean
philosophy, that there can be little question as to
the germs of the system at any rate having been
derived from Pythagoras himself. Pythagoras
resembled the philosophers of the Ionic school,
who undertook to solve by means of a single
primordial principle the vague problem of the
origin and constitution of the universe as a
whole. His predilection for mathematical
studies led him to trace the origin of all things
to number, his theory being suggested, or at all
events confirmed, by the observation of various
numerical relations, or analogies to them, in
the phenomena of the universe. Accordmg to
Philolaus, who may here be representing the
actual opinions of Pythagoras, ' Number is
that which brings what is obscure within the
range of our knowledge, rules all true order of
the universe, and allows of no error.' Further
it was held by later Pythagoreans, if not by
their founder, that since uneven numbers set a
limit to the division by two, whUe even do not,
the uneven are limiters or definers (irepaivovres) ;
the even are not. The Umiter, which imposes a
form, is held to be more perfect than that which is
unlimited, and so without definite form, though
capable of having form imposed upon it : hence
uneven numbers were regarded as lucky, and
what seems in part an arbitrary list of ten oppo-
sites was drawn up : limited and unlimited ; odd
and even ; one and many ; right and left ; rest
and motion ; masculine and feminine ; light
and darkness; good and evil; straight and
crooked; square and oblong. These antithe
tical principles were the elements (o-roixeia)
of the universe (Arist. Met. A. 5, Eth. Nic. i.
4, ii. 5), wherein these opposites were brought
together by harmony. — Musical principles like
wise played almost as important a part in the
Pythagorean system as mathematical or nu
merical ideas. The story, indeed, that Pytha
goras discovered the arithmetical relations of
the musical scale by observing accidentaUy the
various sounds produced by hammers of dif
ferent weights striking the same anvU (Diog.
Laert. viu. 12) might have been discovered to
be false if the experiment had been verified.
But there is no need to doubt his researches
into the musical scale. We find running through
the entire system the idea that order, or har
mony of relation, is the regulating principle of

PYTHAGORAS
the whole universe. The intervals between the
heavenly bodies were supposed to be determined
according to the laws and relations of musical
harmony. Hence arose the celebrated doctrine
of the harmony of the spheres : for the heavenly
bodies in their motion could not but occasion a
certain sound or note, depending on their dis
tances and velocities ; and as these were deter
mined by the laws of harmonical intervals, the
notes altogether formed a regular musical scale
or harmony. This harmony, however, we do
not hear, either because we have been accus
tomed to it from the first, and have never had
an opportunity of contrasting it with stillness,
or because the sound is so powerful as to exceed
our capacities for hearing. — The ethics of the
Pythagoreans consisted more in ascetic practice
and maxims for the restraint of the passions,
especially of anger, and the cultivation of the
power of endurance, than in scientific theory.
What of the latter they had was, as might be
expected, intimately connected with then- num
ber theory. Happiness consisted in the science
of the perfection of the virtues of the soul, or in
the perfect science of numbers. Likeness to
the Deity was to be the object of all our en
deavours, man becoming better as he approaches
the gods, who are the guardians and guides of
men. Great importance was attached to the
influence of music in controlling the force of
the passions. Self-examination was strongly
insisted on. A great feature of the religious
doctrines of Pythagoras was the metempsycho
sis, or transmigration of souls from one man, at
his death, into another man, and into animals,
and from animals to men. This doctrine Pytha
goras adopted from the Orphic mysteries, which
again were in oU probabUity more or less
derived from Egypt. The transmigration of
souls was viewed apparently in the light of a
process of purification. Souls under the do
minion of sensuaUty either passed into the
bodies of animals, or, if incurable, were thrust
down into Tartarus, to meet with expiation or
condign punishment. The pure were exalted to
higher modes of life, and at last attained to in
corporeal existence. Connected with this doc
trine is the story told by Xenophanes, that
Pythagoras interceded for a dog which was
being beaten, because, as he said, he recognised
in its cries the voice of a departed friend
(Xenoph. Fr. 7) ; and again, that Pythagoras
claimed to have been Euphorbus, a hero of the
Trojan war, whose soul had passed into his body.
(Porph. Vit. Pyth. 26 ; Diog. Laert. viii. 5 ; Hor.
Od. i. 28, 10 ; cf. Paus. u. 17, 3.) Ennius is
said to have foUowed the some doctrine, and to
have believed that the soul of Homer had
passed to him through various bodies, among
them that of a peacock, which Persius therefore
caUs 'pavo Pythagoreus ' (vi. 10). The idea
that Pythagoras believed the soul of one of his
family to have passed into a bean (Hor. Sat. ii.
6, 63) is a mere travesty of his doctrine, founded
upon a tradition that Pythagoras forbade his
disciples to eat beans (Cic. de Div. i. 30, 62 ;
Lucian, Oneir. 4) : and this tradition, moreover,
appears to be false (Aristox. ap. Gell. iv. 11). —
As regards the fruits of this system of training
or belief, it is worthy of remark, that wherever
we have notices of distinguished Pythagoreans,
we usually hear of them as men of great upright
ness, conscientiousness, and self-restraint, and
as capable of devoted and enduring friendship.
[See Archytas ; Damon and Phintias.] — 2. Of
Rhegium, one of the most celebrated sculptors
of Greece, probably flourished B.C. 480-430.

PYTHEAS

781

His most important works appear to have been
his statues of athletes (Paus. vi. 18, 1, vi. 18, 1).
Pliny notices in especial a statue at Syracuse of
a man limping (perhaps Philoctetes) with a sore
in his foot, the anguish of which was felt by
thqse who looked at the statue (Plin. xxxiv. 59).
Pytheas (TlvBeas). 1. An Athenian orator,
distinguished by his unceasing animosity against
Demosthenes. He had no political principles,
made no pretensions to honesty, and changed
sides as often as suited his convenience or his
interest. Of the part that he took in political
affairs only two or three facts are recorded.
He opposed the honours which the Athe
nians proposed to confer upon Alexander, but
he afterwards espoused the interests of the
Macedonian party. He accused Demosthenes
of having received bribes from Harpalus. In
the Lamian war, B.C. 322, he joined Antipater,
and had thus the satisfaction of surviving his
great enemy Demosthenes. He is said to have
been the author of the well-known saying, that
the orations of Demosthenes smelt of the lamp.
(Ael. V.H. vii. 7 ; Plut. Dem. 8 ; Vit. X. Or.
p. 846.) — 2. Of Massilia, in Gaul, a celebrated
Greek navigator, who sailed to the western and
northern parts of Europe, and wrote a work
containing the results of his discoveries. He
was a contemporary of Aristotle, and lived in
the middle of the fourth century B.C., for he is
quoted by Dicaearchus, a pupil of Aristotle
(Strab. p. 104). He appears to have undertaken
two voyages : one in which he visited Britain and
Thule, and of which he probably gave an ac
count in his work On the Ocean ; and a second,
undertaken after his return from his first
voyage, in which he coasted along the whole
of Europe from Gadira (Cadiz) to the Tanais,
and the description of which probably formed
the subject , of his Periplus. Pytheas made
Thule a six days' sail from Britain, and said
that the day and the night were each six
months long in Thule (Strab. p. 63 ; Plin. ii.
187). Hence some modern writers have sup
posed that he must have reached Iceland ;.
whUe others have maintained that he advanced
as far as the Shetland Islands. But either
supposition is very improbable, and neither is
necessary, for reports of the great length of the
day and night in the northern parts of Europe
had already reached the Greeks before the time
of Pytheas. There has been likewise much dis
pute as to what river we are to understand by
the Tanais. The most probable conjecture
is that upon reaching the Elbe, Pytheas con
cluded that he had arrived at the Tanais,
separating Europe from Asia. Pytheas had
discovered, probably from his voyage along
the N. German coast, that amber came from
the north ; and he seems to have been the first
person who attempted to fix the latitude of a
place by the shadow of the sun (Strab. pp.
71, 115). As regards the truth of his informa
tion, he was discredited by Strabo (pp. 63, 102,
148, 157), but probably with injustice. He
magnified distances, which, if we accept his
long voyages as authentic, may well have been
due to the slow and tentative manner of sail
ing in these unknown seas. Neither Strabo nor
Polybius (who also doubts him) had traveUed
as far, and their doubts were therefore in some
cases due to want of information. — The frag
ments of Pytheas are edited by Schmeckel,
1848. — 3. A silver-chaser, who flourished at
Rome in the age immediately following that of
Pompey, and whose productions commanded a,
remarkably high price (Plin. xxxiii. 156).

782

PYTHIAS

Pythias (TlvBids). 1. The sister or adopted
daughter of Hermias, anQ the wife of Aristotle.
— 2. Daughter of Aristotle and Pythias. [Abi-
ST0TELES.] Pythium (TliBiov). 1. A place inAttica, not
far from Eleusis (Strab. p. 392).— 2. A town of
Thessaly in the E. part of the district Hestiae
otis, which with Azorus and Doliche formed a
Tripolis (Liv. xiii. 53 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 42).
Pythius (TliBios). 1. A Lydian, the son of Atys,
was a man of enormous wealth, which he de
rived from his gold mines in the neighbourhood
of Celaenae in Phrygia. When Xerxes arrived
at Celaenae, Pythius banqueted him and his
whole army. His five sons accompanied Xer
xes. Pythius, alarmed by an eclipse of the
sun which happened, came to Xerxes, and
begged that the eldest might be left behind.
This request so enraged the king that he had
the young man immediately killed and cut in
two, and the two portions of his body placed
on either side of the road, and then ordered
the army to march between them. (Hdt. vii. 21,
38 ; Sen. de Ira, iii. 17.) — 2. One of the archi
tects of the Mausoleum of Caria (B.C. 353), and
the sculptor of the four-horse chariot of which
fragments are in the British Museum (PUn.
xxxvi. 31; Diet, of Ant. art. Mausoleum). His
name is also written Pythis,Phiteus,andPhUeus.
Pythoclides (TlvBoKXeiSris),s, musician of the
time of Pericles, was a native of Ceos, and
flourished at Athens, under the patronage of
Pericles, whom he instructed in his art (Plat.
Protag. p. 316; Plut. Per. 4, de Mus. 16).
Pythodoris (TlvBoSapis), wife of Polemon I.
king of Pontus. After the death of her hus
band she retained possession of the govern
ment. She subsequently married Archelaus,
Mng of Cappadocia, but after his death
(a.d. 17) returned to her own Mngdom, of which
she continued to administer the affairs herself
untU her death, wMch probably did not take
place until a.d. 38. Of her two sons, the one,
Zenon, became Mng of Armenia, while the other,
Polemon, succeeded her on the throne of Pontus.
(Strab. pp. 499, 555-560, 649 ; Polemon.)
Pythodorus (TlvBbSapos), an Athenian admi
ral in the Peloponnesian war. He was unsuc
cessful in Sicily b.c. 425 and was banished, but
held a command again nine years later. (Thuc.
iii. 115, iv. 2, 65, vi. 105.)
Python (TliBav). 1. The serpent which was
produced from the mud left on the earth after
the deluge of Deucalion. He lived in the
caves of Mt. Parnassus, but was slain by ApoUo,
who founded the Pythian games in commemo
ration of his victory, and received in conse
quence the surname Pythius. [Apollo, p.
88, b.] — 2. Of Catana, a dramatic poet of the
time of Alexander, whom he accompanied into
Asia, and whose army he entertained with a
satyric drama when they were celebrating the
Dionysia on the banks of the Hydaspes. The
drama was in ridicule of Harpalus and the
Athenians. (Athen. pp. 586, 595.)
Pyxites (nv^lrris : Vitzeh), a river of Pontus,
faUing into the Euxine near Trapezus (Arrian,
Peripl. Pont. p. 6 ; Plin. vi. 12).
Pyxus. [Buxentum.]

Quadi, a powerful German people of the
Suevic race, dwelt in the SE. of Germany,
between Mt. Gabreta, the Hercynian forest, the
Sarmatian mountains, and theDanube. They

QUADRATUS
were bounded on the W. by the Marcomanni,
with whom they were always closely united,
on the N. by the Gothini and Osi, on the E. by
the Iazyges Metanastae, from whom they were
separated by the river Granuas (Gran), and on
the S. by the Pannonians, from whom they
were divided by the Danube. (Tac. Germ. 42,
Ann. xii. 29; Plin. iv. 81.) They probably
settled in this district at the same time as the
Marcomanni made themselves masters of
Bohemia [Marcomanni], but we have no
account of the earlier settlements of the Quadi.
When Maroboduus, and shortly afterwards Ms
successor Catualda, had been expelled from
their dominions and had taken refuge with the
Romans in the reign of Tiberius, the Romans
assigned to the barbarians who had accom
panied these monarchs, and who consisted
chiefly of Marcomanni and Quadi, the country
between the Marus (March) and Cusus (Gusen),
and gave to them, as Mng, Vannius, who be
longed to the Quadi, whence Pliny calls the
country ' regnum Vannianum ' (Tac. Ann. n.
63; Plin. I.e.). Vannius was expeUed by his
nephews, Vangio and Sido, but this new king
dom of the Quadi continued for a long time
afterwards under Roman protection (Tac. Ann.
xii. 29). In the reign of M. Aurelius, however,
the Quadi joined the Marcomanni and other
German tribes in the long and bloody war
against the empire which lasted during the
greater part of that emperor's reign (Dio Cass.
lxxi. 8-20). The independence of the Quadi
and Marcomanni was secured by the peace
which Commodus made with them in a.d. 180.
Their name is especiaUy memorable in the
history of this war by the victory wMch M.
Aurelius gained over them in 174, when Ms
army was in great danger of being destroyed
by the barbarians, and was said to have been
saved by a sudden storm, wMch was attributed
to the prayers of his Christian soldiers. [See
p. 153, b.] The Quadi disappear from Ms
tory towards the end of the fourth century.
They probably migrated with the Suevi further
west. Quadratae (Ghivasso), a mUitary station,
mentioned in the Itineraries, between Augusta
Taurinorum (Turin) and Eporedia (Ivrea).
Quadratus, Asinius, Uved in the times of
PMlippus I. and II., emperors of Rome (a.d.
244-249), and wrote two historical works in the
Greek language. (1) A History of Rome, in
fifteen books, in the Ionic dialect, caUed XiAi-
erripis, because it related the history of the city
from its foundation to the one thousandth year
after its nativity (a.d. 248), when the Ludi
Saeculares were performed with extraordinary
pomp. (2) A History of Parthia. (Suid. s.v
KbSparos ; Dio Cass. lxx. 8 ; Zos. v. 27.)
Quadratus, Fannius. [Fannius, No. 7.]
Quadratus, L. Hinnlus, tribune of the plebs
B.c. 58, distinguished himself by his opposition
to the measures of his coUeague P. Clodius
against Cicero, and proposed Cicero's recall
and the dedication of the property of Clodius
to Ceres (Dio Cass, xxxviii. 14, 30 ; Cic. pro
Sest. 31, 68, de Dom. 48, 125).
Quadratus, TJmmidius. 1. Governor of
Syria during the latter part of the reign of
Claudius, and the commencement of the reign
of Nero, from about a.d. 51-60. In 62 he
marched into Judaea to put down disturbances
there. (Jos. Ant. xx. 5, 2, B. J. ii. 12, 5 ; Tac.
Ann. xii. 45, 49, 54.)— 2. A friend and admirer
of the younger Pliny, whom he took as his
model in oratory (PUn. Ep. vi. 11, 29, vii. 24).

QUADRIFRONS
Quadrifrons. [Janus.]
Quadrigarius, Q. Claudius, a Roman annal
ist who lived about B.C. 120-70. His work, which
•contained at least twenty-three books, com
menced immediately after the destruction of
Rome by the Gauls, and must in all probability
have come down to the death of SuUa, since
the seventh consulship of Marius was com
memorated in the nineteenth book. By Livy
he is uniformly referred to simply as Claudius
or Clodius. By other authors he is cited as
Qumtius, as Claudius, as Q. Claudius, as
Claudius Quadrigarius, or as Quadrigarius.
From the caution evinced by Livy in making
use of him as an authority, especially in
matters relating to numbers, it would appear
that he was disposed to indulge, although in a
less degree, in those exaggerations which dis
figured the productions of his contemporary
Valerius Antias. By A. Gellius he is quoted
repeatedly, and praised in the warmest terms.
(Liv. xxxiii. 10, xxxvi. 19, xxxviii. 23 ; Gell. x.
13, xiii. 29, xv. 1.) It is possible that he is the
Clodius mentioned in Cic. Legg. i. 6, 37.
Quariates, a people in GaUia Narbonensis,
on the W. slope of the Alpes Cottiae, on the
left bonk of the Durance below Brianeon.
Their name is preserved by the modern Queiras.
(Plin. Ui. 35.)
Querquetnlnm (prob. Corcollo), an old town
of Latium, NE. of Gabn (Plin. in. 69 ; Dionys.
». 61):
Qules, the personification of tranquiUity,
was worsMpped as a divinity by the Romans.
She had one sanctuary on the Via Labicana
(probably a pleasant resting-place for the weary
traveUer), and another outside the Porta
Collina. (Liv. iv. 41 ; cf. Cic. Orat. i. 1.) It is
probable that this deity is identical with the
Diva Fessonia, the protectress of the weary (cf .
August. C. D. iv. 16, 21).
Quietus, Q. Lusius, an independent Moorish
cMef, served with distinction under Trajan
both in the Docian and PartMan wars. Trajan
made Mm governor of Judaea, and raised Mm
to the consulsMp in a.d. 116 or 117. After
Trajan's death he returned to Ms native
country, but he was suspected by Hadrian of
fomenting the disturbances wMch then pre
vailed in Mauretania, and was shortly after
wards put to death by order of Hadrian. (Dio
Cass, lxvni. 8, 22, 30, 32, lxix. 2.)
Quintilius Varus. [Varus.]
Quintia (or Quinctia) Gens, an ancient
patrician gens at Rome, was one of the Alban
houses removed to Rome by TuUus HostiUus,
and enroUed by him among the patricians.
Its members often, throughout the whole his
tory of the repubUc, held the highest offices of
the state. Its three most distinguished families
bore the name of Capitolinus, Cincinnatus,
and Flaminius. [For the question of the
connexion of the Quintian gens with the
Lupercalia, see Did. of Ant. s.v.]
Quintllianus, M. Fabius, the most cele
brated of Roman rhetoricians, was born at
Calagurris (Calahorra), in Spain, a.d. 40
(Anson. Prof. Burd. i. 7). If not reared at
Rome, he completed Ms education there, where
his father also was a rhetorician (Quint, ix. 3,
73 ; Sen. Contr. 10, 2). While he was still a
very young man, he attended the lectures of
Domitius Afer, who died in 59 (Quint, x. 1,
86, xii. 11, 3). Having revisited Spain, he
returned thence (61) in the tram of Galba,
and forthwith began to practise in the law
courts, where he acquired considerable reputa-

QUINTILIANUS

783

tion. But he was chiefly distinguished as a
teacher of eloquence, bearing away the palm in
this department from aU his rivals, and asso
ciating his name, even to a proverb, with pre
eminence in the art (Plin. Ep. ii. 14, 10 ; Mart.
ii. 90, 1). Among his pupils were numbered
Pliny the Younger and the two grand-nephews
of Domitian. By this prince he was invested
with the insignia and title of consul (consula-
1-ia ornamenta), and is, moreover, celebrated
as the first public instructor who, in virtue of
the endowment by Vespasian, received a regular
salary from the imperial exchequer. (Suet.
Vesp. 3, Dom. 15; cf. Juv. vii. 186.) After
having devoted twenty years, commencing
probably with 69, to the duties of his pro
fession, he retired into private life, and
died probably about the end of the first
century. The great work of Quintilian is a
complete system of rhetoric in twelve books,
entitled De Institutione Oratoria Libri XII,
or sometimes, Institutiones Oratoriae, dedi
cated to his friend Marcellus Victorius, himself
a celebrated orator, and a favourite at court.
It was written during the reign of Domitian,
while the author was discharging his duties as
preceptor to the sons of the emperor's niece.
In a short preface to his bookseller, Trypho,
he acquaints us that he began this under-
takmg after he had retired from Ms labours as
a public instructor (probably in 89), and that
he finished his task in little more than two
years. The first book contains a dissertation
on the preliminary training requisite before a
youth can enter directly upon the studies neces
sary to mould an accomplished orator, and
presents us with a carefully sketched outline of
the method to be pursued in educating
cMldren, from the time they leave the cradle
until they pasa from the hands of the gram
marian. In the second book we find an expo
sition of the first principles of rhetoric, together
with an investigation into the nature or
essence of the art. The five foUowing are
devoted to invention and arrangement (in-
ventio, dispositio) ; the eighth, ninth, tenth,
and eleventh to composition (including the
proper use of the figures of speech) and
delivery, comprised under the general term
elocutio; and the last is occupied with what
the author considers by far the most important
portion of his project, an inquiry, namely,
into various circumstances not included in a
course of scholastic discipline, but essential to
the formation of a perfect public speaker : such
as Ms manners ; his moral character ; the
principles by which he must be guided in under
taking, in preparing, and in conducting causes ;
the peculiar style of eloquence which he may
adopt with greatest advantage ; the collateral
studies to be pursued ; the age at which it is
most suitable to commence pleading; the
necessity of retiring before the powers begin to
faU ; and various other kindred topics. This
production bears tliroughout the impress of a
clear, sound judgment, keen discrimination and
pure taste, improved by extensive reading, deep
reflection, and long practice. The diction is
highly polished, and graceful. The sections
which possess the greatest interest for general
readers are those chapters in the first book
which relate to elementary education, and the
first part of the tenth book, which furnishes
us with a compressed but valuable history of
Greek and Roman literature. There are also
extant 164 declamations under the name of
QuintAian, nineteen of considerable length;

784

QUINTILLUS

the remaining 145, which form the concluding
portion only of a collection which originally
extended to 388 pieces, are mere skeletons or
fragments. The nineteen longer declamations
are unquestionably of a later date ; and it is
improbable that the few scholars who believe
the remaining 145 to be by Quintilian are
right in their opinion. They apparently belong,
not only to different persons, but to different
periods, and neither in style nor in substance
are they valuable. They are edited by Bur-
mann, 1720. — Editions of Quintilian by Bur-
mann, 1720 ; C. Halm, 1868 ; Petersen, Oxford,
1891 : a separate edition of book x. by J. E. B.
Mayor, 1872 ; Kriiger, 1888.
Quintillus, M. Aurelius, the brother of the
emperor M. Aurelius Claudius, was elevated to
the tMone by the troops whom he commanded
at Aquileia, in a.d. 270. But as the army at
Sirmium, where Claudius died, had proclaimed
Aurelian emperor, Quintillus put an end to
his own life, seeing himself deserted by his own
soldiers, to whom the rigour of Ms discipline
had given offence. (Trebell. Claud. 10-13 ;
Eutrop. ix. 12 ; Zos. i. 47.)
T. Quintus Capitollnus Barbatus, a cele
brated general in the early history of the
repubUc, and equally distinguished in the
internal history of the °tate. He frequently
acted as mediator betvcen the patricians and
plebeians, by both of whom he was held in
the highest esteem. He was six times consul :
namely, in B.C. 471, 468, 465, 446, 443, 439.
(Liv. ii. 56, iii. 2, 66.) Several of Ms descend
ants held the consulship, but none of these
require mention except T. Quintius Pennus
Capitolinus Crispinus, who was consul 208,
and was defeated by Hannibal (Liv. xxv. 18,
xxvii. 27 ; Pol. x. 32).
Quintus, an eminent physician at Rome, in
the first half of the second century after
Christ. He was so much superior to his
medical coUeagues that they grew jealous of
his eminence, and formed a sort of coalition
against him, and forced him to quit the city by
charging him with kiUing his patients. He
died about a.d. 148.
Quintus Curtius. [Cubtius.]
Quintus Smyrnaeus (Kbivros 'Spvpvdios),
commonly called Quintus Calaber, from the
circumstance that the first copy through which
Ms poem became known was found in a con
vent at Otranto in Calabria. He was the
author of an epic poem in fourteen books,
entitled Ta peB' "Opnpov (Posthomerica), or
IlapaAenro'/xej'a 'Opiipa. Scarcely anything is
known of Ms personal history; but it appears
most probable that he lived towards the end of
the fourth century after Christ. The matters
treated of in Ms poem are the events cf the
Trojan war from the death of Hector to the
return of the Greeks. The materials for his
poem he found in the works of the earlier poets
of the Epic Cycle. In phraseology, similes, and
other technicalities, Quintus closely copied
Homer. But not a single poetical idea of his
own seems ever to have inspired him. His
gods and heroes are alike devoid of all
character : everytMng like pathos or moral
interest was quite beyond Ms powers. With
respect to chronology his poem is as punctual
as a diary. His style, however, is clear, and
marked on the whole by purity and good taste,
without any bombast or exaggeration. There
can be little doubt that his work is nothing
more than an amplification or remodelling of
the poems of Arctinus and Lesches. He appears

QUIZA
to have also made diligent use of Apollonius. — -
Edited by A. Kochly, Lips. 1853.
Quirinalis Mons. [Roma.]
Quirinus was the name under which the
Sabine and Latin god Mars was worsMpped in
old times upon the Quirinal by the people who
were settled there (whether we call them
Sabines or ' Hill ' Romans) in the same manner
as Mars was worsMpped by the Montani, or
Romans on the Palatine (Varro, L. L. v. 51 ;
Dionys. ii. 48). From the idea of his Sabine
origin he was represented as father of Modius
Fabidius the traditional founder of Cures, just
as Mars was the father of Romulus in Roman
legend (Ov.,Fast. ii. 475; iv. 56, 808). It is
likely enough that the name Quirinus was
originally an adjective in the title Mars Quiri
nus, i.e. ' Mars the god of the spear ' (quiris),
or of ' the assembled citizens,' and that in
Sabme usage it was taken as the name of the
god himself. As regards the etymology, it is an
open question whether that from quiris, or that
from Curia is correct. It is not likely that the-
old derivation of Quirinus and QMrites from the
town Cures is correct. After the complete union
of the two settlements it was natural that both
worships should be preserved, and in the reli
gious system ascribed to Numa, Jupiter, Mars
j and Quirinus were worshipped as great deities,
and for Quirinus there were a special priest,
the Flamen Quirinalis, and a special festival,
Quirinalia (Liv. i. 20; Ov. Fast. ii. 475, iv.
910). The attributes and functions of Quirinus
were the same as those of Mars, for he was the
god of agriculture as well as of war [see p. 529,
b.] Hence the Flamen Quirinalis presided also
at the festivals of Acca Larentia and RobiguB.
With Quirinus was associated Hora or Horta
Quirini (Non. p. 120 ; Plut. Q.B. 46), who was
the same as HersUia (Ov. Met. xiv. 832). This
association corresponded to the union of Mars
and Nerio [see p. 530, a]. In course of time,
since the deities Mars and Quirinus were
essentiaUy the same, the name Mars was given
generally to the great deity, and Quirinus
became the title of Romulus, the founder
and hero of the united Roman people, repre
sented as the son of Mars (Verg. Georg. iii.
27, Aen. i. 292 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 375 ; Juv. xi.
105). Quirinus, P. Sulpicius, was a native of
Lanuvium, and of obscure origin, but was raised
to the highest honours by Augustus. He was
consul B.C. 12, and subsequently carried on war
against some of the robber tribes dwelling in
the mountains of Cilicia. In B.C. 1, Augustus
appointed him to direct the counsels of his
grandson, C. Caesar, then in Armenia. (Dio
Cass. liv. 25 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 30, iii. 22 ; Strab.
p. 569.) Some years afterwards, but not before
a.d. 6, he was appointed governor of Syria, and
while in this office, according to Josephus, he
took a census of the Jewiah people (Jos. Ant.
xviii. 1, 1 ; see further in Did. of the Bible).
Quirinus had been married to Aemilia Lepida,
whom he divorced; but in a.d. 20, twenty years
after the divorce, he brought an accusation
against her (Suet. Tib. 49). The conduct of
Quirinus met with general disapprobation as
harsh and revengeful. He died m a.d. 21, and
was honoured with a public funeral. (Tac. Ann.
iii. 48.)
Quiza (Koi'i(a : Giza near Oran), a munici
pium on the coast of Mauretania Caesariensis
in N. Africa, on the river Chydemath, between
Arsenaria and Portus Magnus (Ptol. iv. 2, 3 ;
Plin. v. 19).

RABATHMOBA

R.

RAETIA

785

Babathmoba ('PaBaBpdffa, i.e. Rabbath-
Moab, O. T., also caUed Rabbah, and aft. Areo-
pohs : Babbah), the ancient capital of the
Moabites, lay in a fertile plain, on the E. side
of the Dead Sea, and S. of the river Arnon, in
the district of MoabitiB in Arabia Petraea, or,
according to the later division of the provinces,
in Palaestina Tertia (Steph. Byz. s.v.).
Rabbatamana ('VaBardpava, i.e. Rabbath-
Ammon, O. T. : Amman, Ru.), the ancient
capital of the Ammonites, lay in Peraea on a
S. tributary of the Jabbok, NE. of the Dead
Sea [see Did. of Bible, s.v.]. Ptolemy H.
PMladelphus gave it the name of Philadelphia ;
and it long continued a flourishing and splendid
city (Jos. B. J. i. 6, 3 ; PUn. v. 74 ; Amm. Marc.
xiv. 8, 8).
Rabirius. 1. C, an aged senator, was accused
in B.c. 68, by T. Labienus, tribune of the plebs,
of having put to death the tribune L. Appu
leius Saturninus in 100, nearly forty years
before. [Satuentnus.] The accusation was
set on foot at the instigation of Caesar, who
judged it necessary to deter the senate from
resortmg to arms against the popular party, by
some measure wMch would mark the sove
reignty of the people and the sanctity of the
tribunes. To moke the warning stiU more
striking, Labienus did not proceed against him
on the charge of majestas, but revived the old
accusation of perduellio, wMch had been dis
continued for some centuries. The Duoviri
Perduellionis appomted to try Rabirius were
C. Caesar himself and his relative, L. Caesar.
With such judges the result could not be doubt
ful : Rabirius was forthwith condemned ; and
the sentence of death would have been carried
into effect had he not availed Mmself of Ms
right of appeal to the people in the comitia of
the centuries. The case excited the greatest
interest ; since it was not simply the life or
death of Rabirius, but the power and authority
of the senate, which were at stake. Rabirius
was defended by Cicero ; but the eloquence of
Ms advocate was of no avaU, and the people
would have ratified the decision of the duum
virs had not the meeting been broken up by
the praetor, Q. MeteUus Ceier, who removed
the miUtary flag wMch floated on the Jamcu-
lum. (Dio Cass, xxxvn. 26-28 ; Suet. Jul. 12 ;
Cic. pro Babir.) TMs was m accordance with
an ancient custom, wMch was mtended to pre
vent the Campus Martius from being surprised
by an enemy when the territory of Rome
scarcely extended beyond the boundaries of the
city. — 2. C. Rabirius Postumus, was the son
of the sister of the preceding. He was born
after the death of Ms father, C. Curius, whence
Ms surname, Postumus; and he was adopted
by Ms uncle, whence his name, C. Rabirius.
He had lent large sums of money to Ptolemy
Auletes ; and after the restoration of Ptolemy
to his kingdom by means of Gabimus, in B.C.
55, Rabirius repaired to Alexandria, and was
invested by the kmg with the office of Dioecetes,
or chief treasurer. In this office he had to
amass money both for himself and for Gabinius ;
but his extortions were so terrible that Ptolemy
had him apprehended, either to secure him
against the wrath of the people, or to satisfy
their indignation, lest they should drive him
again from his kingdom. Rabirius escaped
from prison, probably through the connivance
of the king, and returned to Rome. Here a

trial awaited him. Gabinius had been sen
tenced to pay a heavy fine on account of his
extortions in Egypt ; and as he was unable to
pay this fine, a suit was instituted against
Rabirius, who was liable to make up the de
ficiency, if it could be proved that he had
received any of the money of which Gabinius
had illegally become possessed (Cic. pro Bab.
Post.). Rabirius was defended by Cicero, and
was probably condemned and banished. He is
mentioned at a later time (46) as servmg under
Caesar, who Bent him from Africa into Sicily,
in order to obtain provisions for his army (Bell.
Afr. 8 ; Suet. Jul. 12).— 3. A Roman epic poet,
contemporary with Ovid, who is praised by
Ovid and Paterculus, and considered worth
reading by Quintilian (Ov. Pont. iv. 16, 5;
VeU. Pat. ii. 86, 8 ; Quint, x. 1, 90). He wrote
a poem on the CivU wars. A portion of this
poem was found at Herculaneum, and was
edited by Kreyssig, under the title Carminis
Latini de bello Actiaco s. Alexandrino frag-
menta, 4to, Schneeberg, 1814. It is included
in Bahrens' Pod. Lat. Min. 1879. — 4, Epi
curean pMlosopher. [Amapinius].
L Bacillus, tribune of the plebs b.c. 56,
and a warm friend of Cicero and of Lentulus
Spinther. In the Civil war Racilius espoused
Caesar's party, and was with his army in Spam
in 48. There he entered into the conspiracy
formed against the life of Q. Cassius Longinus,
the governor of that province, and was put to
death, with the other conspirators. (Cic. ad Q.
F. n. 1, ad, Fam. i. 7 ; Bell. Alex. 52.)
Badagaisus, a ScytMan, invaded Italy at the
head of a formidable host of barbarians in the
reign of the emperor Honorius. He was de
feated by Stilicho, near Florence, in a.d. 408,
and was put to death after the battle, although
he had capitulated on condition that his life
should be spared. (Zos. v. 26 ; Oros. vii. 37.)
Baetia, or, less correctly, Rhaetia, a Roman
province S. of the Danube, was originally dis
tinct from VindeUcia, and was bounded on the
W. by the Helvetii, on the E. by Noricum, on
the N. by Vindelicia, and on the S. by Cisalpine
Gaul, thus corresponding to the Grisons in
Switzerland, and to the greater part of the
Tyrol. Raetia, like the adjoming districts, was
conquered by Drusus and Tiberius, B.C. 15, and
was at first a distinct province (Suet. Aug. 21 ;
Veil. Pat. ii. 89 ; Liv. Ep. 186). Towards the
end of the first century, however, VindeUcia,
was added to the province of Raetia, whence
Tacitus speaks of Augusta Vindelicorum as
situated in Raetia. At a later time Raetia was
subdivided mto two provinces, Baetia Prima
and Baetia Secunda, the former of which
answered to the old province of Raetia, and
the latter to that of Vindelicia. The boundaries
between the two provinces are not accurately
defined, but it may be stated in general that
they were separated from each other by the
Brigantinus Lacus (Lake of Constance) and
the river Oenus (Inn). Vindelicia ia spoken of
in a separate article. [Vindelicia.] Raetia
was a very mountainous country, since the
main chain of the Alps ran through the greater
part of the province. These mountains were
called Alpes Raeticae or Raetae, and extended
from the St. Gothard to the Orteler by the pass
of the Stelvio, and in them rose the Oenus (Inn)
and most of the chief rivers in the N. of Italy,
such as the Athesis (Adige) and the Addua
(Adda). The valleys produced corn and exceUent,
wine, the latter of which was much esteemed in
Italy. Augustus drank Raetian wine in pref er-
3 E

786

RAGAE

ence to all others. The original inhabitants of
the country, the Baeti, are said by most ancient
writers to have been Tuscans who were driven
out of the N. of Italy by the invasion of the
Celts, and who took refuge in this mountainous
district under a leader called Raetus. (Strab.
pp. 204, 292, 313; Plin. iii. 133.) [For the
question of the connexion of Raetians and
Etruscans, see p. 328, b.] In the time of the
Romans the country was inhabited by various
Celtic tribes. The Raeti are first mentioned
by Polybius (xxxiv. 10). They were a brave
and warlike people, and caused the Romans
much trouble by their marauding incursions
into Gaul and the N. of Italy. They were not
subdued by the Romans till the reign of Augus
tus, and they offered a brave and desperate
resistance against both Drusus and Tiberius,
who finally conquered them, as has been men
tioned above (cf. Hor. Od. iv. 14). The Raeti
were divided into several tribes, such as the
Lepontii, Vennones, Tridentini, &c. The
only town in Raetia of any importance was
Tbidentinum (Trent) .
Ragae or Bhagae ('Payai, 'Pdya, 'Payeid :
'Paynvbs : Bai, Ru. SE. of Tehran), the greatest
city of Media, lay in the extreme N. of Great
Media, at the S. foot of the mountains (Cas-
pius M.) which border the S. shores of the
Caspian Sea, and on the W. side of the great
pass through those mountains caUed the Cas
piae Pylae (Arrian, An. iii. 20 ; Strab. pp. 514,
624). It was therefore the key of Media to
wards Parthia and Hyrcania. Having been
destroyed by an earthquake, it was restored
by Seleucus Nicator, and named Europus
(Evpairbs). In the Parthian wars it waa again
destroyed, but it waa rebuilt by Arsaces (Strab.
p. 524), and called Arsacia ('Apo-a/cia). In the
middle ages it was stiU a great city under its
original name, slightly altered (Bai) ; and it
was finally destroyed by the Tartars in the
twelfth century. The surrounding district,
which was a rugged volcanic region, subject to
frequent earthquakes, was called 'Payiavii.
Bambacia ('PapBaKia), the chief city of the
Oritae, on the coast of Gedrosia, colonised by
Alexander the Great (Arrian, An. vi. 21).
Eamitha. [Laodicea, No. 3.]
Ramses or Bamessu, the name of thirteen
kings of Egypt of the eighteenth, nineteenth,
and twentieth dynasties. The second and third
of these kings were known to the Greeks as
Sesostbis and Rhampsinitus.
Baphana or Raphaneae ('Pacpaveai : Ba-
faniat, Ru.), a city of Syria, in the district of
Cassiotis, at the N. extremity of Lebanon (Jos.
B. J. vii. 5, 1).
Baphia or Raphea (Pacpla, 'Pdcpeia : Bepha),
a seaport town in the extreme SW. of Palestine,
beyond Gaza, on the edge of the desert. It was
restored by Gabinius. (Pol. v. 80; Strab. p.
759 ; Jos. Ant. xiii. 18, 3.)
Rasena. [Etburia.]
Batiaria (Arcer), an important town in
Moesia Superior on the Danube, the head
quarters of a Roman legion, and the station of
one of the Roman fleets on the Danube (Ptol.
iii. 9, 4 ; Procop. Aed. iv. 6).
BatomaguB, [Rotomagus.]
Raudii Campi. [Campi Raudh.]
Rauraci, a people in Gallia Belgica, bounded
on the S. by the Helvetii, on the W. by the
Sequani, on the N. by the Tribocci, and on the
E. by the Rhine. They must have been a
• people of considerable importance, as 23,000 of
them are said to have emigrated with the Hel-

RAVENNA
vetii in B.C. 58, and they possessed several
towns, of which the most important were
Augusta (Augst) and Argentovaria (Horburg).
Basilia (Bale) was in their territory (Ptol. u. 9,
18 ; Plin. iv. 106).
Bauranum (Bom or Baum, nr. Chenay), a
town of the Pictones in Gallia Aquitanica, S.
of Limonum.
Ravenna (Ravennas, -atis: Bavenna), an
important town in Gallia Cisalpina, on the
river Bedesis and about a mile from the sea,
though it is now about four mUes in the interior
in consequence of the sea having receded all
along this coast. Ravenna was situated in the
midst of marshes, and was only accessible in
one direction by land, probably by the road
leading from Ariminum. The town laid claim
to a high antiquity. It was said to have been
founded by ThessaUans, and afterwards to have
passed into the hands of the Umbrians (Strab.
pp. 214, 217), but it long remained an insignifi-
cant place. It is mentioned as being occupied
by MeteUus, the lieutenant of Sulla, in B.C. 82
(App. B. C. i. 89) ; and its name occurs fre
quently in the civil wars between Antony and
Octavian (App. B. C. iii. 42, v. 33, 50). It 'is
probable that Augustus made Ravenna a colony,
but its great importance began when he made
it one of the two chief stations of the Roman
fleet. He not only enlarged the town, but
caused a large harbour to be constructed on
the coast, capable of containing 240 triremes,
and he connected this harbour with the Po by
means of a canal called Padusa or Augusta
Fossa (Plin. iii. 119; Jordan. Get. 29). TMs
harbour was caUed Classes, and between it and
Ravenna a new town sprang up, to which the
name of Caesarea was given. All three were
subsequently formed into one town, and were
surrounded by strong fortifications. Ravenna
thus suddenly became one of the most important
places in the N. of Italy. It held the position
for the Adriatic wMch Misenum had for the
other coast of Italy, as a permanent station of
a fleet (Tac. Ann. iv. 5, Hist. ii. 100 ; Veget.
B. M. v. 1), and under the later empire was no
less important as a mUitary fortress. The
town itself, however, was mean in appearance.
In consequence of the marshy nature of the
soil, most of the houses were buUt of wood,
and since an arm of the canal was carried
tMough some of the principal streets, the
communication was carried on to a great extent
by gondolas, as m modern Venice. The town
also was very deficient m a supply of good
drinking-water ; but it was not considered un
healthy, since the canals drained the marshes
to a great extent, and the ebb and flow of the
tide prevented the waters from stagnating. In
the neighbourhood good wine was made, not
withstanding the marshy nature of the soil.
When the Roman empire was threatened by
the barbarians, the emperors of the West took
up their residence at Ravenna, wMch, on
account of its situation and its fortifications,
was regarded as impregnable. After the down
fall of the Western empire, Theodoric also
made it the capital of his kingdom ; and after
the overthrow of the Gothic dominion by
Narsee, it became the residence of the Exarchs
or the Governors of the Byzantine empire in
Italy, tiU the Lombards took the town, a.d. 752.
The modern Bavenna stands on the site of the
ancient town; the village Porto di Fuori on
the site of Caesarea ; and the ancient harbour
is called Porto Vecchio del Caudiano, but the
accumulation of alluvial deposit has pushed

REATE
-the coast further out, and Ravenna now stands
at a distance of four miles from the sea, from
which it is separated by a sandy tract covered
with pine woods.
Reate (Reatlnus : Bieti), an ancient town of
the Sabines in central Italy, said to have been
founded by the Aborigines or Pelasgians, was
situated on the Lacus Velinus and the Via
Salaria (Dionys. ii. 49). It was the chief place
of assembly for the Sabines, and was subse
quently a praefectura (Cic. Cat. iii. 2, N. D.
ii. 2). Later it was a municipium. The valley
in which Reate was situated was so beautiful
that it received the name of Tempe (Cic. ad
Att. iv. 15), and m its neighbourhood is the
celebrated waterfall which is now known under
the name of the fall of Terni. This waterfall
owed its origin to a canal constructed by M'.
Curius Dentatus, in order to carry off the super
fluous waters from the lake Velmus into the river
Nar. It falls mto tMs river from a height of 140
feet. By this undertaking, the Eeatini gained a
large quantity of land, which was called Bosea
Bura. (Verg. Aen. vii. 712; Serv. ad loc;
Varro, B. B. i. 7, 10, n. 1,16; Did. of Ant. art.
Emissarium.) — Reate was celebrated for its
mules and asses (Varro, B. B. U. 1, 8).
Rebilus, C. Caninius, was one of Caesar's
legates m Gaul B.C. 52 and 51 (Caes. B. G.
vii. 83, 90, viu. 24). He foUowed Caesar to
Italy in 49, fought in Africa m that year, and
again m 46, when he took possession of Thapsus
(Caes. B. C. i. 26, ii. 24; Bell. Afr. 86, 93). On
the last day of the year 45 he was appointed
consul to supply the place of Fabius, who had
died suddenly. The consulship, therefore, of
RebUus lasted only one day. (Cic. ad Fam. vii.
30; Suet. Jul. 76; Dio Cass. xUii. 46; Tac.
Hist. iii. 37.)
Becaranus. [Heracles, p. 401, a.]
Bediculus, a Roman divinity who had a
temple near the Porta Capena, and who received
his name from havmg induced Hanmbal, when
he was near the gates of the city, to return
(redire) southward. A place on the Appian
road, near the second milestone from the city,
was caUed Campus RedicuU. [Indigetes, p.
443, a.}
Bedones, a people in the W. of GaUia Lug
dunensis, whose cMef town was Condate
(Bennes) (Caes. B. G. U. 34, vii. 75).
Bedux. [Fortuna.]
Begalianus, Begaluanus, or Regillianus, a
Dacian, who aerved with distinction under the
emperors Claudius and Valerian. The Moesions,
terrified by the cruelties inflicted by Gallienus
on those who had taken part in the rebeUion
of Ingenuus, suddenly proclaimed Regalianus
emperor, and, with the consent of the soldiers,
in a new fit of alarm, put Mm to death, A.D.
263. Hence he is enumerated among the Thirty
Tyrants. (Vict. Caes. xxxiii. ; Trebell. Poll.
Trig. Tyr. ix.)
Begiana or Regina (Villa de Beyna), a town
in Hispania Baetica on the road from Astigi
(Ecija) to Emerita (Ptol. ii. 4, 13 ; Plin. iii. 15).
Regillum, a small place in the Sabine terri
tory, from which Appius Claudius migrated to
Rome. Its site is uncertain, as it disappeared
at an early period. (Liv. ii. 16 ; Dionys. v. 40 ;
Suet. Tib. 1.)
Regillus, Aemilius. 1. M., had been de
clared consul, with T. Otacilius, for b.c. 214, by
the centuria praerogativa, and would have been
elected had not Q. Fabius Maximus, who pre
sided at the comitia, pointed out that there was
need of generals of more experience to cope

REGULUS

787

with Hannibal. Regillus died in 205, at which
time he is spoken of as Flamen Martialis. (Liv.
xxiv. 7, xxix. 11.)— 2. L., son of the preceding,
was praetor 190, when he received the com
mand of the fleet in the war against Antiochus
(Liv. xxxvii. 14-32 ; App. Syr. 26).
Regillus Lacus (L. di Gornufelle), a lake
in Latium, memorable for the victory gained on
its banks by the Romans over the Latins, B.C.
498 (Liv. ii. 19 ; Dionys. vi. 3). It was E. of
Rome, in the territory of Tusculum, and be
tween Lavicum and Gabii. The lake with
which it is identified is a volcanic crater, which
has in modern times been drained.
Eeginum or Castra Regina (Begensburg), a
Roman fortress in Vindelicia on the Danube,
and on the road to Vindobona, was the head
quarters of a Roman legion. [Vindelicia.]
Regium Flumen. [Naarmalcha.]
Begium Lepidi, Regium Lepidum, or simply
Regium, also Forum Lepidi (Regienses a
Lepido : Beggio), a town of the Boii in Gallia
Cisalpina, between Mutina and Tarentum,
which was probably made a colony by the con
sul M. AemUius Lepidus when he constructed
the Aemilia Via through Cisalpine Gaul, though
we have no record of the foundation of the
colony (Strab. p. 216; Plin. iii. 116; Cic. ad
Fam. xi. 9 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 50).
Begni, a people on the S. coast of Britain,
in Sussex, whose chief town bore the same
name, and probably is represented by Chi
chester (Ptol. ii. 3, 28).
Regulus, M. Aquilius, was one of the dela-
tores or informers in the time of Nero, and
thus rose from poverty to great wealth. Under
Domitian he resumed Ms old trade, and became
one of the instruments of that tyrant's cruelty.
He survived Domitian, and is frequently spoken
of by Pliny with the greatest detestation and
contempt (Ep. i. 5, ii. 10, vi. 2). Martial, on
the contrary, who flattered aU the creatures of
Domitian, celebrates the virtues, the wisdom,
and the eloquence of Regulus (Mart. i. 13, 83,
112). Regulus, Atilius. 1. M., consul b.c. 335,
carried on war against the Sidicmi (Liv. viii.
16). — 2. M., consul 294, carried on war against
the Samnites (Liv. x. 32). — 3. M., consul 267,
conquered the Sallentini, took the town of
Brundusium, and obtained in consequence the
honour of a triumph (Flor. i. 20). In 256, he
was consul a second time with L. Manlius Vulso
Longus. The two consuls defeated the Cartha
ginian fleet at Ecnomus, and afterwards landed
in Africa with a large force. They met with
great and striking success ; and after Manlius
returned to Rome with half of the army, Regulus
remained in Africa with the other half, and
prosecuted the war with the utmost vigour.
(Pol. i. 29 ; Flor. ii. 2, 10.) The Carthaginian
generals, Hasdrubal, Bostar, and Hamilcar,
avoided the plains, where their cavalry and
elephants would have given them an advantage
over the Roman army, and withdrew into the
mountains. There they were attacked by
Regulus, and defeated with great loss : 15,000
men are said to have been killed in battle, and
5000 men, with eighteen elephants, to have been
taken. The Carthaginian troops retired withm
the walls of the city, and Regulus now overran
the country without opposition. (Pol. i. 30, 31.)
Numerous towns fell into the power of the
Romans, and among others Tunis, at the dis
tance of only twenty miles from the capital.
The CarthagMians in despair sent a herald to
Regulus to solicit peace. But the Roman
3e 2

788

REGULUS

general would only grant it on such intolerable
terms that the Carthaginians ' resolved to con
tinue the war and hold out to the last. (Pol.
i. 31 ; Zonar. viii. IS ; Diod. xxiii. 10.) In the
midst of their distress and alarm, success came
to them from an unexpected quarter. Among
the Greek mercenaries who had lately arrived
at Carthage, was a Lacedaemonian of the name
of XantMppus. He pointed out to the Cartha
ginians that their defeat was owing to the
incompetency of their generals, and not to the
superiority of the Roman arms, and he in
spired such confidence in the people that he
was forthwith placed at the head of their
troops. Relying on Ms 4000 cavalry and 100
elephants, Xanthippus boldly marched mto the
open country to meet the enemy. In the
battle wMch ensued, Regulus was totaUy de
feated: scarcely 2000 of Ms men escaped to
Clupea, and Regulus himself was taken pri
soner, with 500 more (255). (Pol. i. 32-34.) Of
the further history of Regulus, and his end,
nothmg is related on good authority. Polybius
says nothing about it, and does not even men
tion the embassy to Rome in which later
writers make him play the principal part. The
well-known tradition, a favourite theme with
orators and poets, relates that Regulus re
mained in captivity for the next five years, tUl
250, when the Carthaginians, after their defeat
by the proconsul Metellus, sent an embassy to
Rome to solicit peace, or at least an exchange
of prisoners. They allowed Regulus to accom
pany the ambassadors on the promise that he
would return to Carthage if their proposals were
declmed, tMnking that he would persuade Ms
countrymen to agree to an exchange of pri
soners in order to obtain hia own liberty. The
story then sets forth how Regulus at first
refused to enter the city as a slave of the
Carthaginians; how afterwards he would not
give his opinion in the senate, as he had ceased
by his captivity to be a member of that illus
trious body; how, at length, when he was
aUowed bythe Romans to speak, he endeavoured
to dissuade the senate from assenting to a
peace, or even to an exchange of prisoners,
and when he saw them wavering, from their
desire of redeeming Mm from captivity, how he
told them that the CarthagMians had given him
a slow poison, wMch would soon terminate his
life ; and how, finaUy, when the senate through
his mfluence refused the offers of the Cartha
ginians, he firmly resisted all the persuasions
of his friendB to remain m Bome, and returned
to Carthage, where he is said to have been put
to death with the most excruciating tortures.
It was related that he was placed in a chest
covered over in the inside with iron nails, and
thus perished; other writers stated that after
his eyeUds had been cut off, he was first thrown
into a dark dungeon and then suddenly exposed
to the full rays of a burning sun. When the
news of the barbarous death of Regulus reached
Rome, the senate is said to have given Hamilcar
and Bostar, two of the noblest Carthaginian
prisoners, to the family of Regulus, who re
venged themselves by putting them to death
with cruel torments. (Cic. Off. iii. 26, 99, de
Fin. v. 27, 82, pro Seat. 59, 127 ; Liv. Ep. 18 ;
Val. Max. i. 1, 14 ; Eutrop. ii. 25 ; Zonar. viii.
15 ; Hor. Qd. iii. 5 ; Sil. It. vi. 346-551.) This
celebrated tale is not mentioned by any writer
before the age of Cicero, and the silence of
Polybius may well be held to condemn it. It
seems to have been imagined by rhetoricians as a
stock instance of heroic constancy in misfortune,

RESAINA
or to have been invented by annalists in order
to excuse the cruelties perpetrated by the
family of Regulus on the Carthaginian prisoners
committed to their custody. Regulus was one
of the favourite characters of early Roman
atory. Not only was he celebrated on account
of his heroism in giving the senate advice which
secured him a martyr's death, but also on
account of his frugality and simplicity of life.
Like Fabricius and Curius he lived on his
hereditary farm, which he cultivated with Ms
own hands ; and subsequent ages loved to tell
how he petitioned the senate for Ms recaU from
Africa when he was in the full career of victory,
as his farm was going to ruin in his absence,
and Ms family was suffering from want. (Val.
Max. iv. 4, 6.) — 4. C, surnamed Serranus,
consul 257, when he defeated the Carthaginian -
fleet off the Liparean islands, and obtained
possession of the islands of Lipara and Melite
(Pol. i. 25 ; Zonar. viii, 12). He was consul a
second time in 250, with L. Manlius Vulso.
The two consuls undertook the siege of Lily
baeum, but they were foiled in their attempts
to carry the place by storm, and after losing a
great number of men, were obliged to turn the
siege into a blockade. (Pol. i. 39-48; Zonar.
viii. 15.) This Regulus is the first Atilius who
bears the surname Serranus, which afterwards
became the name of a distinct family in the
gens. The origm of this name is spoken of
under Sebranus. — 5. M., son of No. 3, was
consul 227, and again 217, in the latter of
which years he was elected to supply the place
of C. Flaminius, who had faUen in the battle of
the Trasimene lake. He was censor m 214.
(Liv. xxii. 25, 32, 34, 40, xxiii. 21, xxiv. 43 ; Val.
Max. ii. 9, 8.) Polybius (iii. 116) seems to be
in error in stating that he fell at Cannae. —
6. C, consul 225, conquered the Sardinians,
who had revolted. On Ms return to Italy he
fought against the Gauls, and f eU m the battle.
(Pol. ii. 23-28 ; Eutrop. iii. 5.)
Begulus Livineius, M. and L., two brothers,
friends and supporters of Cicero. One of them
fought under Caesar m Africa. (Cic. ad Fam.
xin. 60, ad Att. iii. 17 ; Bell. Afr. 89.)
Beii Apollinares (Biez), a Roman colony in
GaUia Narbonensis, with the surname Julia
Augusta, E. of the Druentia, NE. of Massilia
and NW. of Forum Julii (Plin. iii. 36).
Bemesiana or Bomesiana (Mustapha Pal-
anka), a town in Moesia Superior, between
Naisus and Serdica.
Remi or Rhemi, one of the most powerful
people in GaUia Belgica, inhabited the country
through which the Axona flowed, and were
bounded on the S. by the Nervii, on the SE..
by the Veromandui, on the E. by the Sues-
siones and Bellovaci, and on the W. by the
Nervii. They formed an alliance with CaeBar
when the rest of the Belgae made war against
him, b.c. 57. (Caes. B. G. ii. 3, 12, vi. 4 ; Plin.
iv. 106 ; Lucan, i. 424.) Their chief town
was Durocortorum, afterwards called Remi
(Bheims), and sometimes the residence of
Roman governors (Strab. p. 194 ; Ptol. ii. 9,
12k Remmius Palaemon. [Palaemon.]
Remus. [Romulus.]
Resaina, Besaena, Rhesaena, Resina
('Pecratva, 'Peo-tva: Bas-el-Ain), a city of
Mesopotamia, near the sources of the Chaboras,
on the road from Carrae to Nisibis. After its-
restoration and fortification by Theodosius,
it was called Theodosiopolis (0eoBo<riot}7roAis).
(Ptol. v. 18, 18 j Amm. Marc, xxxii. 5.)

RESTIO
Restio, Antius. 1. The author of a sump
tuary law of uncertain date, but passed after
the sumptuary law of the consul Aemilius
Lepidus, b.c. 73, and before that of Caesar
(Gell. ii. 24 ; Macrob. ii. 18).— 2. Probably a
son of the preceding, proscribed by the trium
virs in 43, but preserved by the fidelity of a
slave (Val. Max. vi. 8, 7).
Restitutus, Claudius, an orator in Trajan's
reign, a friend of the younger Pliny and of
Martial (Plin. Ep. iii. 9; Mart. x. 87).
Reudigni, a people in the N. of Germany
on the right bank of the Albis, N. of the Lango-
bardi (Tac. Germ. 40).
Bex, Marcius. 1. Q., praetor b.c. 144, built
the aqueduct called Aqua Marcia, which was
one of the most important at Rome (Did. of
Antiq. art. Aquaedudus). — 2. Q.. consul 118,
founded in this year the colony of Narbo
Martius in Gaul, and carried on war against the
Stoeni, a Ligurian people at the foot of the
Alps (Liv. Ep. 62; Val. Max. v. 10, 3; GeU.
xin. 19). — 3. Q., consul 68, and proconsul in
CUicia m the f oUowmg year. On his return to
Rome m 66 he sued for a triumph, but as
obstacles were thrown in the way b>y political
opponents, he remained outside the city to pro
secute Ms claims, and was stUl there when the
CatiUnarian conspiracy broke out in 63. The
senate sent him to Faesulae, to watch the
movements of C. MaUius or ManUus, Catiline's
general. (Dio Cass. xxxv. 14-17, xxxvi. 26, 31 ;
SaU. Gat. 82.)
Rha ('Pa : Volga), a great river of Sarmatia,
first mentioned by Ptolemy, who describes it as
rising m the N. of Sarmatia, in two branches,
Rha OccidentaUs and Rha Orientalis (the
Volga and the Kama), after the junction of
wMch it flowed SW., forming the boundary
between Sarmatia Asiatica and Scythia, till
near the Tanais (Don), where it suddenly
turns to the SE. and faUs mto the NW. part of
the Caspian (Ptol. v. 9, vi. 14 ; Amm. Marc.
xxii. 8, 28).
Rhadamanthys ('PaSdpavBvs), son of Zeus
and Europa, and brother of Mng Minos of
Crete (II. xiv. 322). From fear of Ms brother
he fled to Ocalea in Boeotia, and there married
Alcmene (Paus. vin. 53, 2; Diod. v. 79). In
the Homeric account he dwelt, with other
heroes of surpassing merit, in Elysium (Od. iv.
564 ; Elysium). But in later tradition he is
represented as one of the judges of the dead,
either in the Islands of the Blest (Pind. 01. ii.
75) or in Hades (Plat. Min. p. 320), since he
had m life been notable for wisdom and justice
and had won the surname b S'tKaios (Ibyc. ap.
Athen. p. 603 ; Theogn. 701). In Od. vii. 323
he is brought (? from Elysium) by the Phaea
cians to Tityus in Euboea. His name BUggests
an Egyptian source for Ms story.
Rhaetia. [Raetia.]
Rhamnus ('Papvovs, - ovvros : 'Papvoio-ios :
Obrio Kastro), a demus in Attica, belonging to
the tribe Aeantis, wMch derived its name from
the rhamnus, a Mnd of pricMy shrub. ('Papvovs
is an adjective, a contraction of bapvbets,
which comes from fidpvos.) Rhamnus was
situated on a smaU rocky peninsula on the E.
coast of Attica, sixty stadia from Marathon
(Paus. i. 33, 2 ; PUn. iv. 24). It possessed a
celebrated temple of Nemesis, who is hence
called by the Latin poets Bhamnusia dea or
virgo (Catull. Ixvi. 71; Ov. Met. iii. 406,
Trist. v. 819). Li this temple there was a
colossal statue of the goddess made by Agora-
critus, the disciple of Phidias (Strab. p. 396).

RHEA

789

Another account, but less trustworthy, relates
that the statue was the work of Phidias, and
was made out of the block of Parian marble
which the Persians brought with them to serve
as a trophy for their anticipated victory at
Marathon (Paus. I. c). There are still remains
of this temple, as well as of a Bmaller one to
the same goddess. Below the terrace on which
the temples stood remains of the city waUs can
be traced.
Rhampsinitus (PapifiivtTOs), = Ramses III.,
one of the ancient Mngs of Egypt, succeeded
by Cheops. This king is said to have possessed
immense wealth ; and in order to keep it safe
he had a treasury built of stone, respecting the
robbery of which Herodotus (ii. 121) relates a
romantic story, which bears a great resemblance
to the one told about the treasury built by the
two brothers Agamedes and Trophonius of
Orchomenus. [Agamedes.] Rhampsinitus, or
Ramses III., belongs to the twentieth dynasty
(about 1200 B.C.). His popular name was
Ra-messu-pa-neter (Ramses the god), which
the Greeks corrupted into 'Papiplviros. He won
victories over the Danau of Asia Minor (whom,
however, some take to be the Greek Danai),
the Cypriotes, and the Shardana (whom some
place m Colchis, others in Sardinia).
Bhapta (to 'Pora-To), the southernmost sea
port known to the ancients, the capital of the
district of Barbaria, or Azania, on the E. coast
of Africa. It stood on a river called Bhaptus
(Doara), and near a promontory called Bhap-
tum (Formosa), and the people of the district
were called 'Pdiptoi AlBloires. (Ptol. i. 9, 1;
Peripl. Mar. Eryth. p. 10.)
Rhaucus ('PavKos) a town in the interior of
Crete, near Mount Ida, between Gnosus and
Gortyna (Pol. xxxi. 1, xxxiii. 15 ; Scyl. p. 19).
Rhea ('Pea,' Epic and Ion. Peia, or 'Pein,
'Pen), a nature-goddess of the old Greek reli
gion, who gave fruitfulness alike of men and
beasts and vegetation. Hence in the genealo
gies of the poets she is represented as the
daughter of the Sky and the Earth (Uranus
and Ge), and the wife of Cronos, by whom she
became the mother of Hestia, Demeter, Hera,
Hades, Poseidon and Zeus. Cronos devoured
aU his chUdren by Rhea, but when she was on
the point of giving birth to Zeus, she went to
Lyctus in Crete, by the advice of her parents.
When Zeus was born she gave to Cronos a
stone wrapped up like an infant, which the god
swallowed supposing it to be Ms cMld. (Hes.
Th. 133, 453-491 ; cf. Apollod. i. 1, 5 ; Diod. v.
70.) In Homer also (II. xv. 187), Rhea is
spoken of as the wife of Cronos and mother of
Zeus, Poseidon and Hades. As appears from
this account of Hesiod, the worsMp of Rhea
belonged originally to Crete and spread thence
to other parts of Greece. Rhea was afterwards
identified by the Greeks in Asia Minor with the
great Phrygian nature-goddess, known under
the name of ' the Great Mother,' and also bear
ing other names such as Cybele, Agdistis and
Dindymene. Hence her worship became of a
wild and enthusiastic character, and various
Eastern rites were added to it, wMch were
adopted throughout the whole of Greece.
Under the name of Cybele her worsMp was
universal in Phrygia. She was in one aspect
the goddess of wild, unrestrained nature
dwellmg in the forests and mountains of
Phrygia, whence the wild beasts of the mountam
forests, the lions and panthers were represented
as her attendants, and her name itself was
connected with mountains (e.g. Dindymene

790

RHEA

from Mount Dindymus). For the same reason
the Greeks called her Mijrrip bpeia (Eur. Hipp.
144 ; Ap. Rh. i. 1119) ; and the name ' Idaean
mother ' (Ap. Rh. i. 1128 ; Verg. Aen. x. 252)
was perhaps originaUy in a general sense
' mother of forests ' (ISai) and thus particularly
connected with the Mount Ida in Crete and
the PMygian Ida. The principal seat of her
worship was Pessinus, and from Mount Agdus
(a part of Mount Dmdymus) in that district
she was caUed Agdistis (Strab. p. 567), but in
the legend of her love for Attis, which grew out
of an allegory about the productiveness of
nature, Agdistis appears as a separate person
age [see Attis]. Here she was worshipped
under the image of a rude block of stone, and
her attendant priests were the emasculated
TaXXot. In Lydia the principal seat of her
worship was Mount Tmolus, and m Lydian
legend she was called the nurse or foster-
mother of Dionysus, because as earth-goddess
she had to do with the vine as with other trees.
And, as giver of wealth, she became recognised
in the great cities which grew up as the
goddess of settled Ufe also and of towns,
whence her crown of walled cities (cf. Lucret.
ii. 625). She was conceived to be accompanied
by the Curetes, who are connected with the

Rhea, or Cybele. (From a Boman lamp.)

birth and bringing up of Zeus in Crete, and m
Phrygia by the Corybantes, the Idaean Dactyli,
Atys, and Agdistis. The Corybantes were her
enthusiastic priests, who with drums, cymbals,
horns, and in full armour, performed their orgi
astic dances in the forests and on the moun
tains of Phrygia. [Coeybantes ; Cubetes ;
Dactyli.] This form of worship of Rhea-Cybele,
borrowed from Asia, was adopted m Greece,
where her temple was caUed ' The Temple of
the Mother' (pr)rpipov). She was connected m
ritual with Dionysus, and with Demeter, her
daughter, and is even spoken of as Earth herself
(Soph. Phil. 391). At Athens in especial her
sanctuary (the Metroon : see p. 143, b), ¦wMch
was also the repository of the state arcMves,
contained her statue by Phidias (according to
Phn. xxxvi. 17, by Agoracritus) enthroned,
with cymbals in her hand and lions at her feet
(Paus. i. 3, 5 ; Arrian, Peripl. Pont. 9). It is
probable that this worship at Athens was
originally of Rhea the earth-goddess, and that
the wild Asiatic ritual was not introduced till
later. At Rome the worship of Cybele was
introduced from Pessmus in the year 204 b.c,
when by direction of the Sibyllme oracle the
sacred stone was brought from that city to

RHEGIUM
Rome as a means of driving Hannibal out of
the country (Liv. xxix. 14 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 305 J.
Claudia Qutnta). Her temple, dedicated in
191, was on the Palatine, and her festival, the
Megalesia, was celebrated m April. It is
noticeable that, as coming from PMygia, the
country of Aeneas, she was regarded as a na
tional deity, and so her temple was within the
pomerium. The fully Asiatic character of her
rites, with all their extravagance and aU their
allegory, was not introduced tiU after the end of
the Republic. [For an account of them see
Did. of Ant. art. Megalesia.] Her priests.
were the Galli, as m Phrygia. — -In art Rhea-
Cybele is represented as crowned either with
the modius or with a mural crown [see above].
She was seated on a throne with lions by her,
or drawn by lions in a chariot (cf. Lucret. ii.
610-643). Her attributes were the cymbals,
used in her worship, and the pine-tree, connected
with the story of Attis.
Rhea Silvia (also called Ilia), according to
the traditions foUowed by Roman poets and
historians, was daughter of Numitor and one
of the Vestal Virgins. (Ennius and Naevius,
however, placing her at an earUer date, called
her Ilia, and represented her as daughter of
Aeneas ; in tMs they probably foUowed a Greek
tradition : Serv. ad Aen. i. 273, vi. 778.) By
Mars she became the mother of Romulus and
Remus [Romulus], and was thrown either mto
the Anio or the Tiber by orders of AmuUus.
She was saved by the river-god and became Ms
wife and a river-goddess (Hor. Od. i. 2, 17;
Ov. Am. Ui. 6, 45 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 273). It is
suggested with great probabiUty that originaUy
Rhea Silvia = the Idaean Rhea (Idaea Mater
or Cybele), since SUvia and ISala mean the
same thmg [see preceding article]. In that
case the myth would describe the founder of
Rome as born from Mars and a goddess of the
the earth. It is true that such an interpreta
tion assigns a Greek, and therefore compara
tively later, origin to the introduction of Rhea
Silvia into the story ; but there are other signs
of Greek influence in parts of the story of
Romulus. Others take Rhea to be a corruption
of Rea, wMch they explain as meanmg ' dedi
cated to the gods,' and Silvia to be a gentUe
name. Others who seek the explanation m a
sun-myth are probably wide of the mark.
Bhebas ('PijBas, 'PiiBaios : Biva), a river of
Bithyma, in Asia Minor, falUng into the Euxme
NE. of Chalcedon (Ptol. v. 1, 5; PUn. vi. 4);
very small and msignificant m itself, but cele
brated in the Argonautic legends (Ap. Rh. ii.
650, 787_; Orph. Arg. 711).
Rhedones. [Redones.]
Rhegium ('Piiyiov: Rheglnus: Beggio), an
important city of Magna Graecia on the coast of
Bruttium in the S. of Italy, was situated on the
Fretum Siculum, or the Straits wMch separate
Italy and SicUy. The ancients derived its name
from the verb ffiyvvpi ('break'), because it was
Bupposed that Sicily was at this place torn
asunder from Italy (Strab. p. 257 ; cf. Diod. iv.
85). Rhegium was founded about the begin
ning of the first Messenian war, B.C. 748, by
AeoUan Chalcidians from Euboea and by Doric
Messenians who had quitted their native
country on the commencement of hostilities
between Sparta and Messenia (Thuc. vi. 5;
Strab. I.e.). At the end of the second Mes
senian war, 668, a large body of Messenians,
under the conduct of the sons of Aristomenes,
settled at Rhegium, which now became a
flourishing and important city, and extended

RHEGIUM
its authority over several of the neighbouring
towns. Even before the Persian wars Rhegium
was sufficiently powerful to send 3000 of its
citizens to the assistance of the Tarentines, and
in the time of the elder Dionysius it possessed a
fleet of eighty sMps of war. The government
was an aristocracy, but in the beginning of the
fifth century B.C. Anaxilaus, who was of a Mes
senian family, made Mmself tyrant of the place
(Paus. iv. 23, 6). In 494 tMs Anaxilaus con
quered Zanele in SicUy, the name of which he
changed into Messana (Diod. xi. 48 ; Arist. Pol.
v. 12; Thuc. i.e.). He ruled over the two cities,
and on his death m 476 he bequeathed his
power to Ms sons. About ten years afterwards
(466) Ms sons were driven out of Rhegium and
Messana, and repubUcan governments were
estabUshed in both cities, which now became
independent of one another (Hdt. vii. 170 ; Diod.
xi. 76). In 427 when the Athemon fleet came to
support Leontini, the Rhegians sided with the
Chalcidian cities of SicUy, and therefore their
city became the headquarters of the Athemans
(Thuc. in. 86, iv. 1, 24). But they mamtained
neutrahty during the Athenian expedition of
415 (Thuc. vi. 44, vn. 1, 58 ; Diod. liii. 3). At a
later period Rhegium mcurred the deadly
enmity of the elder Dionysius m consequence
of a personal msult wMch the inhabitants had
offered him. It is said that when he asked the
Rhegians to give him one of their maidens for
Ms wife, they repUed that they could only grant
him the daughter of their public executioner.
Dionysius carried on war agamst the city for a
long time, and after two or tMee unsuccessful
attempts he at length took the place, wMch he
treated, with the greatest severity. (Diod. xiv.
44, 87, 10-112 ; Strab. p. 258.) Rhegium never
recovered its former greatness, though it stUl
continued to be a place of considerable import
ance. The younger Dionysius gave it the name
of Phoebia, but tins name never came into
general use, and was speedily forgotten (Strab.
l.c). The Rhegians havmg applied to Rome
for assistance when Pyrrhus was in the S. of
Italy, the Romans placed in the town a garrison
of 4000 soldiers, who had been levied among
the Latm colonies m Campama. These troops
seized the town in 279, MUed or expelled the
male inhabitants, and took possession of their
wives and children. (Pol. i. 7 ; Oros. iv. 3 ; App.
Samn. in. 9.) The Romans were too much

RHENUS

791

Coin of Rhegium.
Obv., lion's scalp; rev., pesinos; seated figure, supposed
to represent the demos of the city after the expulsion
of the princes, B.C. 461 ; laurel wreath surrounding.
engaged at the time with their war against
Pyrrhua to take notice of tMa outrage ; but
when Pyrrhus was driven out of Italy, they
took signal vengeance upon these Campanians,
and restored the surviving Rhegians to their
city (Pol. i. 6, 7 ; Liv. xxxi. 1). Rhegium suf
fered greatly from an earthquake shortly before
the breaking out of the Social war, 90, but its
population was augmented by Augustus, who
settled here a number of veterans from Ms

fleet, whence the town bears in Ptolemy the
surname Julium (App. B.C. iv. 8, v. 81 ; Dio
Cass, xlviii. 18 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 9). It was a
flourishmg city under the later empire and a
strong fortress (Procop. B. G. i. 8, iii. 18), and
after the seventh century was chiefly subject to
the Greek emperors until it fell into the hands of
Robert Guiscard in 1060. Rhegium was the
place from whioh persons usually crossed over
to Sicily, but the spot at which they embarked
was called Columna Rhegina ('piiyivav orriXis :
Torre di Cavallo), and was 100 stadia N. of the
town (PUn. iii. 71 ; Strab. I.e.).
Rhenea ('Pifveia, also 'P-fivn, 'Privaia), for
merly called Ortygia and Celadussa, an island
m the Aegaean sea and one of the Cyclades,
W. of DeloB, from which it was divided by a
narrow strait only four stadia in width. When
Polycrates took the island, he dedicated it to
ApoUo, and united it by a chain to Delos ; and
Nicias connected the two islands by means of a
bridge. When the Athenians purified Delos in
B.C. 426, they removed all the dead from the
latter island to Rhenea. (Strab. p. 486 ; Delos.)
Rhenus. 1. (Bhein in German, Bhine in
English), one of the great rivers in Europe,
forming in ancient times the boundary between
Gaul and Germany, having its sources partly
in the St. Gothard, partly in the Adula group
of the Lepontine Alps [Adula Mons], from
tMee principal branches : the Vorder-Bhdn,
which rises in the mountain called Badus
(a little E. of Andermatt and the St. Go
thard) ; the Mittel-Bhein, which rises near
the Lukmanier Pass ; and the Hinter- Bhein,
which rises from the glaciers of Piz Valrhein,
the highest of the Adula group, and joins the
other two near Beichenau. The Rhine then
flows first in a westerly direction, pissing
through the Lacus Brigantinus (Lake of Con
stance), till it reaches Basilia (Basle), where
it takes a northerly direction and eventually
flows into the Ocean by several mouths. The
ancients spoke of two main arms into wMch
the Rhine was divided in entering the territory
of the Batavi, of which the one on the E.
continued to bear the name of Rhenus, while
that on the W., into which the Mosa (Maas or
Meuse) flowed, was called Vahalis (Waal).
Hence it was called bicornis (Verg. Aen. viii.
724; cf. Caes. B. G. iv. 17). But some writers
mcorrectly believed that it entered the sea by
only two mouths (Strab. p. 192). After Drusus,
in B.C. 12, had connected the Flevo Lacus
(Zuyder-Zee) with the RMne by means of a
canal (in making which he probably made use
of the bed of the Yssel), we find mention of
three branches of the Rhine. Of these the
names, as given by Pliny, are, on the W.
Helium (the Vahalis of other writers), in the
centre Rhenus, and on the E. Flevum (Plin. iv.
101). Pliny seems in this account to reckon
only two outlets besides the Flevum, reckon
ing the Mosa as one of them. Tacitus and
Mela agree with Pliny, but Ptolemy distin
guishes the Meuse from the Bhine and reckons
three outlets for the Rhine proper (Tac. Ann.
ii. 6, Hist. v. 23; Ptol. ii. 9, 4).— The Rhine is
described by the ancients as a broad, rapid and
deep river. It receives many tributaries, of
which the most important were the Arura (Aar)
and the Mosella (Moselle), on the left, and the
Nicer (Neckar), Moenus (Main) and Luppia
(Lippe) on the right. It passed through
various tribes, of which the principal on the W.
were the Nantuates, Helvetii, Sequani, Medio-
matrici, Tribocci, Treviri, Ubii, Batavi, and

792

RHESCUPORIS

Canninefates, and the principal on the E. were
the Raeti, Vindelici, Mattiaci, Sigambri,
Tencteri, Usipetes, Bructeri, and Frisii. The
length of the Rhine is stated differently by the
ancient writers. Its whole course amounts to
about 950 miles. The inundations of the Rhine
near its mouth are mentioned by the ancients.
Caesar was the first Roman general who
crossed the Rhine. He tMew a bridge of boats
across the river, probably in the neighbourhood
of Cologne. The system of embankments
against floods in the lower course of the Rhine
(near Wesel) was begun by the Romans in the
reign of Nero (Tac. Ann. xiii. 63). — 2. (Beno), a
tributary of the Padus (Po) in Gallia Cisalpina
near Bononia, on a small island of which
Octavian, Antony and Lepidus formed the cele
brated triumvirate (PUn. iii. 118 ; Caesab, p.
182, b).
Rhescuporis, Rhascuporis, or Bescuporis,
the names of several Mngs of Bosporus under
the Roman empire [see p. 170, a] .
Rhesus ('Prjo-os). 1. A river-god in Bithynia,
one of the sons of Oceanus and Tethys (27. xii.
20 ; Hes. Th. 340 ; Strab. p. 590, 602).— 2. Son
of king Eioneus in Thrace, marched to the
assistance of the Trojans in their war with the
Greeks. An oracle had declared that Troy
would never be taken if the snow-white horses
of Rhesus should once drink the water of the
Xanthus and feed upon the grass of the Trojan
plain. But as soon as Rhesus had reached the
Trojan territory and had pitched his tents late
at night, Odysseus and Diomedes penetrated
into Ms camp, slew Rhesus Mmself, and carried
off Ms horses. (H. x. 484 ; [Eur.] Bhesus ;
Verg. Aen. i. 469.) In later writers Rhesus is
described as a son of Strymon and Euterpe, or
CaUiope, or Terpsichore.
Rhianus ('Ptavbs), of Crete, a distinguished
Alexandrian poet and grammarian, flourished
B.C. 222. He wrote several epic poems, one of
which was on the Messenian wars, and was a
source of information to Pausanias as regards
that period. He also wrote epigrams, ten of
which are preserved in the Palatine Anthology,
and one by Athenaeus. His fragments are
printed in Gaisford's PoUae Minores Graeci ;
and separately edited by Nic. Saal, Bonn, 1831.
RMdagus, a tributary of the river Zioberis
in Parthia.
Rhinocolura or Bhinocoriira (ra 'PtvoKbXovpa
or 'PivoKbpovpa, and i) 'PivoKoXoipa or 'Pivo-
Kopoipa: Kasr-el-Arish), the frontier town of
Egypt and Palestine, lay m the midst of the
desert, at the mouth of the brook (El-Arish)
which was the boundary between the countries.
It was sometimes reckoned to Syriaj sometimes
to Egypt (Strab. pp. 741, 759 ; Pol. v. 80 ; Ptol.
iv. 5, 12 ; Liv. xiv. 11). Its name, ' The cut-off-
noses,' was said to be derived from its having
been the place of exile of criminals who had
first been so mutilated, under the Ethiopian
dynasty of kings of Egypt (Strab. p. 759).
Rhinthon (fPivBav), of Syracuse or Tarentum,
said to have been the son of a potter, was a
dramatic poet, of that species of burlesque tra
gedy which parodied myths, and was called
rpXvaKoypacpia or iAapoTpa7<pS/a, and flourished
in the reign of Ptolemy I., king of Egypt.
Among his followers in this style of composition
was Sciras or Sclerias of Tarentum (Athen.
p. 402). When he is placed at the head of the
composera of this burlesque drama, we are not
to suppose that he actually invented it, but
that he was the first to develop in a written
form, and to introduce into Greek Uterature, a

RHODANUS
species of dramatic composition which had
already long existed as a popular amusement
among the Greeks of southern Italy and Sicily,
and especiaUy at Tarentum. The species of
drama wMch he cultivated may be described as
an exhibition of the subjects of tragedy in the
spirit and style of comedy. A poet of this
description was called tpxiat*. TMs name, and
that of the drama itself, cpXvaKoyparpia, seem to
have been the genuine terms used at Tarentum.
Rhinthon wrote thirty-eight dramas. (Suid.
s.v.; Cic. ad Att. i. 20; Varro, B. B. iii. 3, 9.)
Rhipaei Montes (ra 'PtTaia bpn, also 'Piirai),
the name of a lofty range of mountams in the
northern part of the earth, respecting wMch
there are diverse statements m the ancient
writers. The name seems to have been given by
the Greek poets quite indefinitely to aU the moun
tains m the northern parts of Europe and Asia.
(Soph. O. C. 1247 ; cf . Verg. Georg. i. 240.) In
Aeschylus the source of the Ister is placed in
this range. Thus the RMpaei Montes are
sometimes called the Hyperborei Montes.
[Hyperborei.] The later geographical writers
place the Rhipaean mountains NE. of M.
Alaunus on the frontiers of Asiatic Sarmatia,
and state that the Tanais rises in these moun
tains. According to this account the Rhipaean
mountams may be regarded as the western
branch of the Ural Mountains. (Strab. pp.
295, 299 ; Mel. i. 19, 18 ; Plin. iv. 78.)
Rhithymna (PlBvpva : Betimo), a town on the
N. coast of Crete, between the promontories
Drepanum and Dium (Ptol. iii. 17, 7 ; Plin.
iv. 69).
Rhium ('piov : Castello di Morea), a promon
tory in Achaia, opposite the promontory of
Antirrhium (Castello di Bomelia), on the bor
ders of Aetolia and Locris, with which it formed
the narrow entrance to the CorintMan gulf,
wMch straits are now called the Little Dar
danelles. It is sometimes called 'AxatKbv 'Piov,
to distinguish it from the opposite promontory,
which was surnamed MoXvKptKbv or AiruXiKbv.
On the promontory of RMum there was a
temple of Poseidon. (Thuc. ii. 84 ; Strab. p.
855 ; Paus. vn. 22, 10.J
Rhizon or Rhizimum ('Plfav. 'Pi£oji/(tjjs :
Bisano), an ancient town in Dalmatia, situated
at the upper end of the gulf called after it Rhi-
zonaeus Sinus (G. of Cattaro). It was a
stronghold of Queen Teuta. (Pol. ii. 11 ;
Strab. p. 316 ; Liv. xiv. 26.)
Rhizus (Ptfyvs). 1. A seaport of Pontus
which was strongly fortified by Justinian. It
was a few miles W. of the river Ascurus (Pro
cop. Aed. iii. 4 ; Ptol. v. 6, 6). — 2. A town of
Magnesia in Thessaly (Strab. p. 436).
Rhoda or Rhodus ('PbSi), 'PbSos: Bozos), a
Greek emporium on the coast of the Indigetae
in Hispania Tarraconensis, founded by the
Rhodians, and subsequently occupied by the
inhabitants of Massilia (Strab. p. 654; Liv.
xxxiv. 8^.
Rhodanus (Bhone), one of the chief rivers
of Gaul, rises in a glacier W. of the St. Gothard
(included in the range called Adula by the
ancients), not far from the sources of the Vor-
der-Bhein, flows first in a westerly direction,
and after passing tMough the Lacus Lemanus,
turns to the S., passes by the towns of Lug
dunum, Vienna, Avenio and Arelate, receives
several tributaries, and finally falls by several
mouths into the Sinus Gallicus in the Medi
terranean. The number of the mouths of the
Rhone is stated differently by the ancient writers
(Strab. p. 188) ; which is not surprising, as the

RHODE
river has frequently altered its course near the
sea. Pliny mentions three mouths, of wMch
the most important was called Os Massalioti-
cum, wMle the two others bore the general
name of Libyca ora, being distinguished from
each other as the Os Hispaniense and the Os
Metapinum (PUn. iii. 33). Polybius reckons
only two, the Massaliotic and the western
branch (Pol. iii. 41). Besides these mouths
there was a canal to the E. of the Os Massali-
oticum, caUed Fossae Marianae, which was dug
by order of Marius during his war with the
Cimbri, in order to make an easier connexion
between the Rhone and the Mediterranean, as
the mouths of the river were frequently choked
np with sand (Plut. Mar. 15 ; Strab. p. 183).
The Rhone is a very rapid river, and its upward
navigation is therefore difficult, though it is
navigable for large vessels as high as Lug
dunum, and by means of the Arar still further N.
Rhode. [Rhodos.]
Rhodia and Bhodiopolis ('PoSia, 'PoSibiroXts :
'PoSieis, 'PoSioiroXirns : Eski-Hissar, Ru.), a
mountain city of Lycia, near CorydaUus, with a
temple of Asclepius (Ptol. v. 3, 6 ; Steph. Byz.
s. v.).Rhodius ('PbSios : Kodja-tschai), a small
river of the Troad, mentioned both by Homer
and Hesiod. It rose on the lower slopes of Mt.
Ida, and flowed NW. mto the HeUespont, be
tween Abydus and Dardanus, after receivmg
the SeUeis from the W. (II. xn. 20, xx. 215;
Hes. Th. 341 ; Strab. pp. 554, 595 ; PUn. v. 124).
It is identified by some with the river TliStos,
which Thucydides mentions, between Cynos
sema and Abydus (Thuc. vin. 106). Some
mode it erroneously a tributary of the Aesepus.
It is mentioned on the corns of Dardanus.
Rhodope ('PoSbirr) : Despoto-Planina), one of
the Mghest ranges of mountains m TMace, ex-
tendmg from Mt. Scomius, E. of the river Nes
tus and the boundaries of Macedonia, m a
south-easterly direction almost down to the
coast. It is Mghest m its northern part, and
is tMcMy covered with wood. (Hdt. vi. 49;
Thuc. u. 96 ; Strab. pp. 208, 313.) Rhodope,
Uke the rest of Thrace, was sacred to Dionysus,
and is frequently mentioned by the poets in
connexion with the worship of tMs god (Hor.
Od. Hi. 25, 12).
Rhodopis ('PoSdiris), a Greek courtesan, of
TMacian origin, was said to have been a f eUow-
¦slave with the poet Aesop, both of them
belonging to the Samian ladmon. She after
wards became the property of Xanthes, another
Samian, who carried her to Naucratie in Egypt,
m the reign of Amasis, and at this great sea
port she carried on the trade of a hetaera for
the benefit of her master. While thus employed,
Charaxus, the brother of the poetess Sappho,
who had come to Naucratis as a merchant, fell
m love with her, and ransomed her from slavery
for a large sum of money. She was in conse
quence attacked by Sappho m a poem (cf. Ov.
Her. xv. 63). She continued to Uve at Nau
cratis, and with the tenth part of her gains she
dedicated at DelpM ten iron spits, which were
seen by Herodotus. She is called Rhodopis by
Herodotus, but Sappho in her poem spoke of
her under the name of Doricha. It is therefore
probable that Doricha was her real name, and
that she received that of Rhodopis, which sig
nifies the 'rosy-cheeked,' on account of her
beauty. (Hdt. ii. 134, 135; Athen. p. 596;
Strab. p. 808 ; Suid. s.v.) There was a tale
current m Greece (which Herodotus rejects)
that Rhodopis built the third pyramid. This

RHODUS

793

tale confuses her with Nitocris, who lived
2400 years earlier. Another story (Ael. V.H.
xiii. 88) tells that Psammitichus III. picked up
her shoe and was so struck with it that he
sought out and married the owner. This is
merely one of the many stories of which Cin
derella is another. Psammitichus lived nearly
a century after Rhodopis. His wife also was
called Nitocris, and this suggests a confusion
between the names Doricha and Nitocris as
the origin of both stories.
Rhodos ('PbSos), sometimes called Rhode,
daughter of Poseidon and Halia, or of Poseidon
and Aphrodite, or lastly of Oceanus (Diod. v.
55 ; Pind. Ol. vii. 24 ; Telchines). From her
the island of Rhodes is said to have derived its
name, and in this island she bore to Helios
seven sons (Pind. Ol. vii. 72).
Rhodus (fi 'PbSos : 'PbSios, Rhodius : Bhodos,
Bhodes), the easternmost island of the Aegaean
or, more specifically, of the CarpatMan sea, lies
off the S. coast of Caria, due S. of the pro
montory of Cynossema (C. Aloupo), at the dis
tance of about twelve geogr. miles. Its length,
from NE. to SW. is about forty-five miles ; its
greatest breadth about twenty to twenty-five.
A chain of mountains with lateral spurs forms
the backbone of the island. The highest point,
about 4000 feet above the sea, is Mt. Atabyrus,
on which stood a temple of Zeus Atabyrius
(Strab. p. 655). In early times it was caUed
AetMaea and Ophiussa (Strab. p. 653 ; Steph.
Byz. s.v.; Plin. v. 132). The earliest Greek
records make mention of it. Mythological
stories ascribed its origin to the power of
Helios, who, because he had received no por
tion of land, raised it from beneath the waves
(Pind. Ol. vii. 55) ; and its first peoplmg to
the TelcMnea, children of Thalatta (the Sea),
upon whose destruction by a deluge, the
Heliadae were planted in the island by Helios,
where they formed seven tribes, and founded
a kmgdom, which soon became flourisMng
by their skill in astronomy and navigation,
and other sciences and arts. [Telchines.]
These traditions appear to signify the early
peophng of the island by some of the civilised
races of W. Asia, probably the Phoenicians.
After other alleged migrations into the island,
we come to its Hellenic colonisation, which is
ascribed to Tlepolemus, the son of Heracles,
before the Trojan war, and after that war to
Althaemenes. [For the legend of Helen's con
nexion with Rhodes, see p. 588, a.] Homer
mentions the tMee Dorian settlements in
Rhodes : namely, Lindus, Ialysus, and Camirus
(II. ii. 653) ; and these cities, with Cos, Cnidus,
and Halicarnassus, formed the Dorian Hexa
polis, which was estabUshed, from a period of
unknown antiquity, in the SW. corner of Asia
Minor, but after the expulsion of HaUcarnassus
became a Pentapolis (Hdt. i. 144). Rhodes soon
grew into a great maritime state, or rather
confederacy, the island being parcelled out be
tween the three cities above mentioned. The
Rhodians made distant voyages, and founded
numerous colonies, of which the chief were,
Rhoda in Iberia ; Gela, in Sicily ; Parthenope,
Salacia, Siris, and Sybaris, in Italy; settle
ments in the Balearic islands ; and, in their
own neighbourhood, Soli in CiUcia, and Gagae
and Corydalla in Lycia. During this early
period the government of each of the tMee
cities seems to have been monarchical ; but
about b.c. 660 the whole island seems to have
been united in an oligarchical republic, the
chief magistrates of which, called prytanes,

794

RHODUS

were taken from the famUy of the Eratidae, who
had been the royal family of Ialysus. [Di-
agoras: Dorieus.] Rhodes escaped thePersian
dominion as long as there was no Persian fleet ;
but it was reduced by Darius, and Rhodians
were employed in the fleet of Xerxes (Aesch.
Pers. 891 ; Diod. xi. 3). Themistocles restored
its independence (Timocr. Fr. 1). At the begin
ning of the Peloponnesian war Rhodes was one
of those Dorian maritime states which were
subject to Athens, but in the twentieth year of
the war, 412, it joined the Spartan alliance, and
the oligarcMcal party, which had been depressed
and their leaders, the Eratidae, expeUed, re
covered their former power, under Dorieua, but
remained under the control of Sparta until the
end of the Peloponnesian war. (Thuc. viii. 41,
44, 60 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 5, ii. 1 ; Diod. xiii. 69.)
In 408, the new capital, called Rhodus, was
built, and peopled from the three ancient cities
of Ialysus, Lindus, and Camirus. It stood on
the E. side of the long promontory which forms
the northernmost point of the island. At the
back of the town rose the acropolis, in front of
it the greater and lesser harbours protected by
moles, but the greater harbour was exposed
to the N. winds. The history of the island
presents a series of conflicts between the demo
cratical and oligarchical parties, and of subjec
tion to Athens and Sparta in turn, till the end
of the Social war, 355, when its independence
was acknowledged. Then followed a conflict
with the princes of Caria, during which the
island was for a time subject to Artemisia, and
again to her successor, Idrieus. During this
period there were great internal dissensions,
which were at length composed by a mixed
form of government, uniting the elements of
aristocracy and democracy. At the Macedonian
conquest, they submitted to Alexander, but
upon his death they expelled the Macedonian
garrison (Diod. xviii. 8). In the ensuing wars
they formed an alliance with Ptolemy, the son
of Lagus, and their city, Rhodes, successfully
endured a most famous siege by the forces of
Demetrius Poliorcetes (Diod. xx. 82-98), who at
length, when he raised the siege, left behind
him all his siege train, from the sale of which
they defrayed the cost of the celebrated Co
lossus, which is described under the name of its
artist, Chares. The state now for a long time
flourished, with an extensive commerce, and
with such a maritime power that it compelled
the Byzantines to remit the toll which they
levied on ships passing the Bosporus (Pol. iv.
38). From the time of Alexander it had been
the chief maritime power in the Aegaean. At
various times they occupied the islands of
Nisyroa, Andros, Tenos and Naxos (Diod. v.
54 ; App. B. C. v. 7), and when a small volcanic
island near'Thera was upheaved in 197 B.C.,
they took possession and built there a temple
to Poseidon Asphaleios, i.e. averter of earth
quakes (Strab. p. 57). At length they came
into connexion with the Romans, whose alliance
they joined (Ptol. xxx. 5 ; Liv. xiv. 25), with
Attalus, king of Pergamus, in the war against
Philip III. of Macedon. In the ensuing war
with Antiochus, the Rhodians gave the Romans
great aid with their fleet ; and in the subse
quent partition of the Syrian possessions of
Asia Minor they were rewarded by the supre
macy of S. Caria, where they had had settle
ments from an early period. [Peraea Rhodio-
rum.] A temporary interruption of their
alliance with Rome was caused by their espous-
mg the cause of Perseus (probably from fear of

RHOECUS
the growth of the Roman power ; but it was a,
false move at that time), for which they were
severely punished by the loss of their territory
on the mainland, 168 ; but they recovered the
favour of Rome by the important naval aid they
rendered in the MitMidatic war. In the CivU
wars they took part mainly with Caesar, and
suffered in consequence from Cassius, 42, but
were afterwards compensated for their losses by
the favour of Antonius. (App. B. C. iv. 60-74,
v. 7.) They were deprived of their mdependence
by Claudius, but recovered it agam under Nero
(Dio Cass. Ix. 24 ; Tac. Ann. xu. 58). Under
Vespasian Rhodes was made part of the pro
vince of Asia (Suet. Vesp. 8) ; but a separate
Province of the Islands (Insularum Provincia,
iirapxia vi)ffav) under Diocletian and after
wards included Rhodes and fifteen other islands
(C. I. L. iii. 450, 460). But earUer than tMs the
prosperity of Rhodes received its final blow
from an earthquake, which laid the city in ruins,
in the reign of Antomnus Pius, a.d. 155. — The
celebrated mediaeval Mstory of the island, as the
seat of the Knights of St. John, does not belong
to this work. The island is of great beauty
and fertility, with a delicious climate. It was
further celebrated as the home of distmguished
schools of Greek art and of Greek oratory. The
city of Rhodes was famous for the beauty and
regularity of its architecture, and the number
of statues wMch adorned it ; it was designed by
Hippodamus of Miletus. Among its treasures
of sculpture was the chariot and horses m the
temple of Helios by Lysippus ; among the great
works of the Rhodian school of sculpture was
the Laocoon [Agesandeb]. Tombs on the sites
of Camirus and Ialysus have yielded an im
portant store of antiquities, both terra-cotta
figures and pottery. Some of the Rhodian ware

Coin of Bhodes (4th cent. B.C.).
obv.. bead of the sun (Helios); rev., rose with bud (for
name of the island) ; in the field, a sphinx. I
presents striking points of similarity to that of
Naucratis. [For a description of Rhodian vase-
painting see Did. of Antiq. art. Vas.] — The
most noticeable feature in the religious wor
sMp of Rhodes was the position of HeUos as
the chief god of the island (Pind. Ol. vii. 70).
His image appeared on the Colossus and on the
coins : he was honoured by an annual sacrifice
of a team of four horses. Poseidon also was.
particularly honoured, for which two reasons
might be assigned — the maritime character of
the people, and the liability of their island to
earthquakes. [Comp. Ialysus, Lindus, and
Camtrus.] Rhoecus ('Poikos). 1. A centaur, who, in
conjunction with Hylaeus, pursued Atalanta in
Arcadia, but was MUed by her with an arrow.
The Roman poets called him Rhoetus, and re
late that he was wounded at the nuptials of
Pirithous (Apollod. iii. 9, 2). — 2. Son of Phileas
or Philaeus, of Samos, an architect and sculptor,
belonging to the earliest period in the history
of Greek art, is mentioned as the head of a
family of Samian artists. He lived about B.C.
640. He was the first architect of the great

RHOETEUM
temple of Hera at Somos, which Theodorus
completed. In conjunction with Smilis and
Theodorus, he constructed the labyrinth at
Lemnos ; and he, - and the members of his
family who succeeded him, are said to have
invented the art of casting statues in bronze.
(Hdt. m. 60; Paus. viii. 14, 5, x. 38, 8; Plin.
xxxv. 152, xxxvi. 90.)
Bhoeteum (to 'Polreiov &Kpov, r) 'Poiretds
aK-rti, Poirniai oktoI: Virg. Rhoetea Utora : C.
Intepeh or Barbieri), a promontory, or a strip
of rocky coast breaking into several pro
montories, in Mysia, on the Hellespont, near
Aeantium, with a town of the same name (prob.
Paleo Castro). (Hdt. vii. 48 ; Strab. p. 595.)
Rhoetus. 1. A centaur. [Rhoecus.]— 2. One
of the giants, who was slain by Dionysus ; he is
usuaUy called Eurytus (Hor. Od. ii. 19, 23).
BhoxolanI or Roxolani, a warlike people in
European Sarmatia, on the coast of the Palus
Maeotis, and between the Borysthenes and
the Tanais. They frequently attacked and
plundered the Roman provinces S. of the
Danube, and Hadrian was even obliged to pay
them tribute. They ore mentioned as late as
the eleventh century. They fought with lances
and with long swords wielded with both hands ;
and their armies were composed chiefly of
cavalry. (Strab. pp. 114, 294, 306 ; Tac. Hist.
i. 79.) Rhudiae. [Rudiae.]
Rhyndacus ('PvvSaicbs : Adirnas), a con
siderable river of Asia Minor. Rising m Mount
Dmdymene, m Phrygia Epictetus, it flows
N. tMough Phrygia, then turns NW., then
W. and then N. through the lake ApoUoniatis,
into the Propontis. From the point where it
left PMygia it formed the boundary of Mysia
and Bithynia (Strab. p. 576 ; Mel. i. 19 ; Plm.
v. 142). It is an error of Pliny to make it the
same river as the Lycus. Its chief tributary,
which joins it from the W. below the lake
ApoUomatis, was caUed Macestus. On the
banks of the Rhyndacus, LucuUus gained a
great victory over MitMidates, B.C. 73 (Plut.
Luc. n. ; Pol. v. 17).
Bhypes ('Pvires and other forms: 'Pmraios),
one of the twelve cities of Achaia, situated
between Aegium and Patrae (Hdt. i. 145 ; Thuc.
vn. 34). It was destroyed by Augustus and its
inhabitants removed to Patrae (Paus. vii. 18, 7 ;
Strab. p^ 387).
Rhytium ('Piriov), a town in Crete, men
tioned by Homer, in the district of Gortyna (H.
ii. 648 ; Plin. iv. 59 ; Strab. p. 479).
Ricimer, the Roman ' King-Maker,' was the
son of a Suevian chief, and was brought up at
the court of Valentinian ILL, in whose reign
he served with distinction under Aetius. In
a.d. 456 he commanded the fleet of the em
peror Avitus, with wMch he gained a great
victory over the Vandals, and in the same
year he deposed Avitus ; but as he was a bar
barian by birth, he would not assume the title
of emperor, but gave it to Majorian, intending
to keep the real power in his own hands. But
as Majorian proved more able and energetic
than Ricimer had expected, he was put to death
in 461 by order of Ricimer, who now raised
Libius Severus to the tMone. On the death of
Severus in 465, Ricimer kept the government
in his own hands for the next eighteen months ;
but in 467 Anthemius was appointed emperor
of the West by Leo, emperor of the East.
Ricimer acquiesced in the appointment, and
received the daughter of Anthemius in mar
riage; but m 472 he made war against Mb

ROMA

795

father-in-law, and took Rome by storm. An
themius perished in the assault, and Olybrius
was proclaimed emperor by Ricimer, who died,
however, only forty days after the sack of
Rome. (Procop. Vand. i. 7, 67; Evagr. ii.
7-16.) Ricina. 1. (Ricinensis), a town in Picenum,
colonised by the emperor Severus. Its mines
are on the river Potenza near Macerata (Plm.
iii. 111). — 2. One of the Ebudae Insulae, or the
Hebrides (Ptol. ii. 2, 11).
Rigodulura (Beoi), a town of the Treviri in
Gallia Belgica, distant tiu-ee days' march from
Mogontiacum (Tac. Hist. iv. 71).
Bigomagus. 1. (Prob. Trino Vecchio), a
town in Cisalpine Gaul, on the road from Tici
num (Pavia) to Augusta Taurinorum(Tjmm). —
2. (Bemagen), a town on the Rhine, between
Bonna (Bonn) and Antunnacum (Andernach).
Bobigo. [Robiqus.]
Roblgus was a divmity worsMpped for the
purpose of averting blight or too great heat
from the young cornfields (Varro, L.L. vi. 16,
B.B. i. 1, 6 : Gell. v. 12, 14 ; Paul. p. 267 ; Serv.
ad Georg. i. 151). The name was derived from
robus = rufus (red), referring to the rusty
colour of the blighted corn (cf. epvo-iBri). Bo
bigus and Flora were worshipped together as a
pair of kindred deities, Flora being possibly
called also Robiga. In later writers robigo
(blight) was personified, as if the deity were a
goddess Bobigo (Tertull. Spedac. 5 ; August.
CD. iv. 21). There is a similar personification
of robigo in Ovid, but it does not appear that
the deity was worsMpped under that feminine
name. The festival of the Robigalia was cele
brated on April 25, and was said to have been
mstituted by Numa. It was held in the sacred
grove of Robigua on the Via Nomentana, five
mflea from Rome. The offerings made by the
Flamen Quirinalis included liver-coloured pup
pies, in allusion to the red dog- star, whose in
fluence blighted the crops. (Ov. Fast. iv. 905 ;
Plin. xviii. 285 ; Did. of Ant. art. Bobigalia.)
Boma (Romanus; Borne) : A. Geographical
Situation. — Rome stands, roughly speaking,
about the middle of the Western side of Italy,
on the left bank of the Tiber, some fourteen
mUes from its mouth, and close to what was in
ancient times the boundary between Latium
and Etruria. The river in this part varies from
300 to 200 feet in breadth, and from 15 to 20
feet in depth, and from Rome to its mouth is
affected both by floods and by silting of earth
carried down. Hence, although it was suited
for the commerce of the city m early days, it
was quite inadequate when Rome was the
capital of the world, especially as traffic is not
assisted by any tide. The plain tMough which
the Tiber flows, the Roman Campagna, is apt
to mislead by its title. Broadly speaking, in
relation to the bounding ranges of the Apen
nines and the Alban hills, it is, no doubt, a
plain ; but to those who are upon it it presents
a very uneven appearance of eminences and
ravines. What was in remote ages an aUuvial
flat has been broken up by the volcanic dis
turbances which have produced hills of tufa or
of volcanic ash, subsequently sharpened and
carved out by weather and streams ; and so
far from the Tiber appearing to pass through a
wide champaign country, it flows at a con
siderable depth below the plain in its own
relatively narrow valley. Still more apt to mis
lead is the mention of the hills of Rome ; for it
is difficult for anyone who has not seen the
country to realise that, if he were to stand on

796

ROMA

the Campagna, he would be on the same level
as the Roman hills, and the city would seem to
be buUt on a plain, though, viewed from the
river, it stands for the most part on several
eminences rising from 120 to 160 feet above the
river bank. These eminences, like others m
the Campagna, are of volcanic formation, but
they have been carved out by erosion, chiefly
by the Tiber itself and by water flowing into it.
Three have thus become isolated Mils, and
these (the Palatine, Aventine, and Capitoline),
were naturaUy early occupied as defensible
positions. The others, though hiUs when seen
from the river valley, are really promontories

bases of the Palatine, Viminai, Quirinal and
Capitoline, was the site eventually of the Fo
rum Romanum ; its lower branch towards the
Tiber, separating the Palatine from the Capi
toline, was the Velabrum (whose name preserved
the recoUection of the marshes) and the Forum
Boarium ; the mdentation between the Esqui
line and the Quirinal was the Subura ; the
vaUey running E. between the bases of the
Palatine, Esquiline and Caelian was eventuaUy
occupied by the Colosseum, and the long low
vaUey wMch separates the Aventine and Pala
tine was the site of the Circus Maximus. These
natural differences of level have been modified

A, Mons

Plan of the Boman Hills.

from the Campagna jutting out into it, and on
their other side running back at a level into
the general plain. A reference to the annexed
plan will show that, further from the river than
the tMee isolated hills, come the Caelian (which
is nearly isolated), the Esquiline (which in
cludes two spurB, the Oppian and Cispian), the
Viminai and Quirinal, and, a little further
north, the Pincian, which was not included
within the Servian waUs : all these being con
nected at the back by the line of table-land.
The bays or depressions between these belong
to the floor of the Tiber valley, and were in
early times covered mainly by marahes and
pools. The central depression, between the

at various times and by different causes : the
hills, at first artificially made more pronounced
by escarpment for defence, were afterwards made
lower in appearance by levelling up m road
making, or, in the middle ages, by the accumu
lation of debris : on the other hand, the valley
between the Quirinal and Viminai was cut
wider and deeper to receive the Forum Tro-
janum. Lastly, in the present time the exi
gencies of a nineteenth century capital have
changed the natural features stUl more, under
what is called the ' piano regolatore,' and
threatens to improve away much more of the
hills of Rome. The river Tiber, besides con
tributing to the defence and the commercial

ROMA

797

prosperity of early Rome, had a great deal to
do with the shape of the city. It has been
best described as divided into five reaches : the
first, or upper reach, about £ a mile long run
ning nearly due S. ; the second making a great
bend for J of a mile to the W., and thus afford
ing space for the Campus Martius (once a wide
swamp) ; the third turnmg again at right angles
and rurming 1J mile SE., including in its
lower part the Island of the Tiber (about 800
yards x 90) ; the fourth diverted by the Aventine
for a distance of about f of a mile to the SW. ;
and the fifth running for a mile nearly due S.
to the point where the Aurelian wall left the
river. The principal wharves were placed in
these two lower reaches. As regards the MUs
on the western side of the river, the long ridge
of the Janiculum reaches a greater elevation
(260 feet) than those on the eastern side ; but
the Vatican is lower. It should be noted that
the volcanic character of aU tMs district mate
rially contributed to the magnificent strength
of Roman masonry. The tufa of the neighbour
hood was largely used from the earUest times
(as in the walls of Roma Quadrata) ; but greater
strength was gained by employmg the peperino
from Alba, as m parts of the Servian walls and
of the Cloaca Maxima, or that from Gabii, as
in the Tabularium ; but, above aU, the abund
ance of volcanic dust (' pulvis Puteol&nus,' pozzo-
lana), found aU over the Roman district as
weU as at Puteoli, wMch gave the name, pro
vided the elements of strength in the imperish
able Roman cement. The lime for this cement
was derived from the travertine (lapis Tiber-
tinus) found at Tivoli, and also much used for
Roman buildings [see Did. of Ant. art. Murus].
— B. Origin of the City. — The traditional ac
count, adopted by Livy and more generaUy
accepted than any other, was that Rome (i.e.
the earUest settlement on the Roman hills) was
a colony from Alba Longa, founded by Romulus
B.C. 753. [For the legend, see Romulus.] Of
late years, since the discovery m 1874 of several
tombs, havmg some appearance of being Etrus
can, on the Esquilme, writers of authority have
put forward the theory that there was an
Etruscan settlement on the MUs earlier than
any Latin town. As far as archaeological evi
dence goes, tMs theory cannot be said to be
substantiated as yet, and the best Roman
archaeologists reject it altogether. The evi
dence of certain traditions and myths, put
forward m its favour, may be largely dis
counted, but, for their bearing on literature, it
is worth wMle to mention them. It was said
(a) that Evander before the Trojan war brought
a colony of Pelasgians from Arcadia, and buUt
a city, PaUantium, under the Palatine (Dionys.
i. 33; Liv. i. 5; Verg. Aen. ix. 9): (b) that
Rome was founded first by colomsts from
Athens and Sicyon (Fest. p. 266) : (c) that there
were older settlements made by Romus, son of
Aeneas (Dionys. i. 72), or that there were a Ro
mulus and Romus founders of an earlier city,
and another pair of the same name who founded
a later one (Dio Cass. iii. 5) : (d) that Saturnus,
Janus, Picus and Faunus were preMstoric
kings reigning there [see the articles under
these names]. All these accounts bear the
stamp, not of traditions about some fact of
ancient Mstory, but of stories mvented, long
after the settlement of Rome, to maintain some
theory, or, account for some name or rite. Thus
(a) and (6) are evidently due to a desire to find a
Greek origin, after the relations with Greek
colonies began, and (a) is also due partly to an

attempt to explain the name Palatinus and the
rites of Faunus or Lupercus [see p. 888] ; (c)
seems to have been invented from a wish to
carry back the foundation to an earlier date so
as to reconcde conflicting cMonicles [Silvius] ;
(d) belongs to the class of fictions, like those of
Euhemerus, wMch transformedthe deities wor
shipped in the rites of the early inhabitants
into actual Mngs who once reigned there. The
received account of Romulus Mmself, in its
simplest form a Latin tradition and probably
with elements of truth in it, connected him by
descent with the Trojan Aeneas (not much be
fore the time of Naevius), because the Homeric
story was becoming famous in Italy, and prob
ably tMough the direct influence of the Cu-
maeans and their stories of their Aeolian mother-
country [cf. p. 24]. On the other hand, Pro
fessor Lanciani, insisting strongly on the truth
of the traditional colonisation from Alba, argues
from the discovery (in 1817 and 1867) of an
inhabited district near Alba, of the bronze age,
underneath a stratum of lava, that Rome was
founded by Alban shepherds migrating because
their pasture grounds had been overwhelmed
by volcanic eruptions. It is true that the evi
dence of the earliest remains at Rome and also
of the ' taboo ' of iron m much of their ancient
ritual [e.g. m that of the Arvales Fratres : Did.
of Ant. s. v.] point to the bronze age as the
period of the original settlement ; but it can
only be a guess to connect their arrival with
the volcanic disturbances at Alba. There is no
reaaon (though Mommaen on the whole dis
credits it) to reject the tradition of the first
settlers coming from Alba. However that may
be, all trustworthy evidence supports the theory
that they were primarUy Latin, and were ori
ginally village communities (probably, as was
said, emigrants from Alba), who had grouped
themselves round the Roman MUs, and built
the old Rome on the Palatine as their ring wall
or common fortress [Did. of Ant. art. Pagus].
They were probably an amalgamation of tMee
communities represented by the Tities, Ramnes,
and Luceres (of whom the last two were Latin
and the first may have been SabeUian), who
chose a common fortress on a site convenient
both for defence and for commerce. The
shepherd origin ascribed in tradition is con
firmed by the pastoral rites of the Lupercalia
and the Parilia. The origm of the name given
to the city is uncertain : some connect it with
the name of the Ramnes, others with rumon
(stream), as ' the city on the river ' [see p. 799, b].
The old-fashioned theory of a connexion with
pdprj (strength) may safely be set aside. — C. De
velopment of the City. — The fortified enclosure
ascribed to Romulus and called Roma Quad
rata, was built on the Palatine, which had
precipitous sides on the NW. and SW., and was
at that time further defended in those direc
tions by marshes. But it afforded an easier
ascent on the other sides : tMs may, as has
been suggested, have been desirable for the
shepherds, who in sudden alarms had to drive
their flocks up to the fortress. The walls, of
which there are remains at various points on
the NW. and SW. sides of the hill, are formed
of tufa blocks (see Did. of Ant. art. Murus].
It was caUed ' Quadrata ' because the form was
roughly rectangular, accordmg to the shape
of a templum, embracing the whole of the
Palatine. [See Diet, of Ant. art. Pomerium.]
The points named (Tac. Ann. xii. 24), viz.
Ara Herculis, Ara Consi, Curiae Veteres, and
SaceUum Larum, designate reapectively the

798 SW., SE., and NW. corners and the N. side
of the MU as being within the limits. In
Roma Quadrata was the Lupercal, regarded
as the oldest sanctuary in Rome, a cave,
afterwards built up as a sMine, probably near
the W. angle of the MU. Its exact site is un
known ; for the remains often shown as the
Lupercal belong to the casteUum of an aque
duct. Another sacred spot of ancient times
was the hut of Romulus near the Lupercal.
The Palatine settlement was enlarged so as
to include the district called ' the city of seven
MUs ' or Septimontium, the recollection of
which was preserved in the festival of that
name [Did. of Ant. art. Sacra], wMch was
held at seven places on the ' Montes ' of Rome.
It must be noted that these seven ' Montes '
were not those wMch were afterwards known as
the seven MUs of Rome [see above, A.] They
were (1) the Palatium, (2) the Germalus (SW.
slope of the Palatine), (8) the Velia (northern
base of the Palatine), (4) the Oppian, (5) the
Cispian, (6) the Fagutal (the depression be
tween the Oppian and Cispian) and (7) the
Subura, probably already including the Caelian
HiU, so that the seven ' Montes ' were made up
of MUs and the adjacent depressions. The
most probable account of tMs development is
that these districts had gradually grown up as
suburbs with weaker circumvaUations of their
own, and were joined on to, and numbered with,
the older Palatine ring-wall, and just as the
LupercaUa preserved the memory of the limits
of Roma Quadrata by beating the bounds, so
the limits of the extended settlement were fixed
by the festival of Septimontium. Some have
supposed that in this common settlement the
Tities occupied the fortress in the Subura, the
Ramnes the Palatine, and the Luceres the
Esquiline. Meanwhile another town, as yet
separate, had been built on the Quirinal with
the Viminai as its suburb. It is probable,
though this is disputed, that this was a
Sabine settlement [see QurarNUs]. By the
union of the people of the seven Montes (hence
called Montani) with the people of the Quiri
nal MU and the Vimmal hill (hence called
Collini), the City of Four Regions was formed
[see below, under D.] The memory of this
union was preserved by the twofold arrange
ment of many of their sacred rites [see Mabs ;
Quibinus]. The combmed population had as
a common fortress and religious centre the
Capitoline MU, which before this union had
had a wall of its own, some remains of which,
resembling the wall of Roma Quadrata, may
still be seen. The Capitoline was not reckoned
in any of the four regions, because it was
regarded as set apart for the gods of the amal
gamated settlements and had no dwelling
houses upon it. The absence of the Aventine
from the ' city of the Four Regions ' merely
implies that the houses had not yet spread so
far. The next stage in the development of
Rome was the so-called ' Servian' city, the
limits of wMch are clearly defined by the walls
which enclosed it [see below]. The chief altera
tion was that by this time the Aventine was
partially occupied for habitation and at any
rate necessary for defensive purposes, and was
therefore included within the walls, but there
was also an extension in two other parts, for
the ground to the E. and NE. of the Quirinal
and Esquiline was thenceforth part of the city,
and also the atrip along the Tiber W. of the
Palatine and SW. of the Capitol, which was
occupied by the Forum Boarium, and included

ROMA
the E. end of the Sublician bridge, thus com
municating with the outpost on the Janiculum.
The limits of the Servian walls sufficed for some
centuries, because there was room for the
growth of population in the districts which had
been very sparsely occupied when they were
first included. By the time of SuUa, however,
the whole was fully inhabited, and the houses
extended further and further beyond the waUs.
This at length necessitated an entirely new
distribution of the city, wMch Augustus carried
out in Ms Fourteen Regions [see below], Rome
no longer needmg fortification, and having
none until the whole space was enclosed by the
walls of Aurelian which are described below.
It is said that the appearance of the interior
of republican Rome was greatly affected by the
fact that the city, having been almost entirely
destroyed by the Gauls in 390 b.c, was rebuilt
after their departure hastily, without attention
to regularity and with narrow and crooked
streets. After the conquest of Carthage,
Macedonia and Syria, the city began to be
adorned with many pubUc buildmgs and hand
some private houses ; and it was still further
embellished by Augustus, who introduced
improvements into all parts, and both erected
many public buUdings himself and induced the
leading men of the day to follow his example.
So greatly had the appearance of the city im
proved during Ms long and prosperous reign
that he used to boast that he found it of brick
and would leave it of marble. StiU the main
features of the city remained the same; and
the narrow streets and mean houses formed a
strikmg and disagreeable contrast to the splen
did public buUdings and magnificent palaces
which had been recently erected. The great
fire at Rome in the reign of Nero (a.d. 64)
destroyed two-tMrds of the city. Nero avaUed
Mmself of this opportunity to indulge his
passion for buildmg, and the city now assumed
a more regular and stately appearance. The
new streets were made both wide and straight ;
the height of the houses was restricted ; and a
certain part of each was required to be built of
Gabian or Alban stone, wMch was proof
against fire. — D. Divisions of the City. — Men
tion has been made of the four Begiones or
districts of which the city consisted after the
union of the Palatine city of seven Montes
(Montani) with the Quirinal settlement
(Collini). These regions were generaUy called
the ' Servian Regions ' and were ascribed to
Servius TulUus, but (as has been pointed out)
they belonged to an earlier period of develop
ment than the ' Servian ' city, as defined by the
walls ascribed to Servius. Their names were :
(1) Suburana, comprehending the space from
the Subura to the Caelius, both inclusive ; (2)
Esquilina, comprehending the Esquiline hill ;
(3) Collina, extending over' the Quirinal and
Viminai ; (4) Palatina, comprehendmg the
Palatine hill. These seem to have been sub
divided into twenty-seven Vici, for each of
which there was an 'Argean chapel.' The
number of twenty-seven Sacella Argeorum
seems to arise from assigning nine to each of
the tMee tribes (there is no need to alter
twenty-seven into twenty-four). [For the rites
of these chapels see Did. Ant. art. Argei.] The
Aventine and other districts were added in the
' Servian ' city, and yet more afterwards [see
above, C], but no other arrangement of Regions
was made till the time of Augustus. This
emperor made a fresh division of the city into
fourteen Regions, wMch comprised both the

ROMA

ancient city of Servius TuUius and all the
suburbs which had been subsequently added.
TMs division was made by Augustus to faciU-
tate the internal government of the city. Each
region was subdivided into Vici (265 in aU),
and each Vicus had its shrine of Lares Compi
tales [Did. of Ant. art. Vicus], The names of
the Regions were :— (1) Porta Capena, at the
SE. corner of the city by the Porta Capena,
and extendmg as far as the subsequent limit
of the Aurelian waUs. It had ten Vici. (2)
Caelimontana, NE. of the precedmg, em
bracing M. CaeUus, with seven Vici. (8) Isis
et Serapis, NW. of No. 2, in the valley between
the Caelius, the Palatine and Esquiline,
in which the Colosseum was afterwards built.
It contamed eight Vici. (4) Templum Pads,
NW. of No. 3, embracing the valley between
the Esquiline, Viminai and Quirinal towards
the Palatine, mcluding the Via Sacra and the
buUdmgs on the NE. side of the Forum,
among them the Te.nple of Peace. It had
eight Vici. (5) Esquilina cum Colle Viminali,
NE. of No. 4, comprehending the whole of the
Esquiline and Vimmal, with fifteen Vici. (6)
Alta Semita, NW. of No. 5, comprismg the
Quirinal, with seventeen Vici. (7) Via Lata,

799

(domus). The middle and lower classes lived
in blocks (insulae). Each insula contained
several apartments or sets of apartments which
were let to different families, and it was fre
quently surrounded with shops. The insulae
contained several stories ; and as the value of
ground increased in Rome, they were frequently
built of a dangerous height. Hence Augustus
restricted the height of all new houses to
seventy feet, and Trajan to sixty feet. (Suet.
Aug. 80, 89 ; Dio Cass. Iv. 8 ; Aurel. Vict. Ep.
18.) No houses of any description were
allowed to be built close together at Rome, and
it was provided by the Twelve Tables that a
space of at least 2 i feet should be left between
the houses. From the Notitia Begionum it
appears that before the end of the fourth century
a.d. there were 46,602 insulae at Rome and
1790 domus. As regards the population
there is very uncertam evidence. From the
statement of the Monumentum Ancyranum
that there were 820,000 males of the plebs
urbana it has been roughly computed that in
the reign of Augustus the total population,
free and slave, exceeded one milUon, and there
is no improbabiUty in the supposition that the
population of Rome and the neighbouring Cam-

Ancient Borne restored.

W. of No. 6, between the Quirinal and Campus
Martins, bounded on the west by the Via Lata
(the modern Gorso), with fifteen Vici. (8)
Forum Bomanum, S. of No. 7, comprehendmg
the Capitolme and the vaUey between it and
the Palatine, mcludmg, therefore, tMee other
Fora, those of Julius Caesar, Augustus and
Trajan. It had thirty-four Vici. (9) Circus
Flaminius, NW. of No. 8, extendmg as far as
the Tiber, and comprehending the whole of the
Campus Martins, with thirty-five Vici. (10)
Palatium, SE. of No. 8, contammg the Palatine,
with twenty Vici. (11) Circus Maximus, SW.
of No. 10, comprehending the plain between the
Palatine, Aventine and Tiber, with the Vela-
brum and Forum Boarium, havmg eighteen
Vici. (12) Piscina Publica, SE. of No. 11,
between the CaeUan and Aventine, and extend
ing to the subsequent limits of the Aurelian
walls. It had fourteen Vici. (13) Aventinus,
NW. of No. 12, embracing the Aventine, with
seventeen Vici. (14) Trans Tiberim, the only
region on the right bank of the river, contain-
Mg the Insula Tiberina, the valley between
the river and the Janiculum, the Janiculum
itself and the Vatican. It had seventy-eight
Vici. As regards the dweUing-houses, the
richer men had their own separate town houses

pagnain the later empire amounted to 2,000,000.
— E. Walls and Gates. I. Wall of Romulus
(i.e. of Roma Quadrata). — The course of this
wall and the limits comprised within it have
been noticed under C. In it there were three
gates : (1) Porta Mugonia (which was taken
by some to mean ' cattle-gate,' from mugire :
Varr. L. L. v. 34), also called Porta vetus
Palatii, at the slope of the Palatine. Remains
with probability regarded as belonging to this
gateway were found near the point where the
Summa Via Nova joins an old lava-paved road
(discovered in 1883) leading from tne Summa
Via Sacra up to the Palatine : i.e. the gate was
not far from the Arch of Titus, but further up
the Palatme slope. (2) Porta Bomanula, at
the NW. angle of the hill near the temple of
Victory, where the Clivus Victoriae passes from
beneath the palace of Caligula, which was built
over it. The approach to this gate sloped up
from the Velabrum, and its name has been
connected with the word rumon = stream (by
those who thence derive the name of Rome), as
signifying that it was the water-gate, or access
to the river from the fortress. (3) The position
of the third gate, which Varro states to have
been the Porta Janualis, is not known. Be
sides these gates the ' stairs of Cacus ' (Scalae

800 Caci), said to have been derived from a Cacius
who lived near, are described as coming up
near the house of Romulus. They have prob
ably been rightly identified with a flight of
steps cut in the tufa rock which ascend from
the direction of the Circus Maximus (cf. Plut.
Bom. 20 ; SoUn. i. 18).— II. Walls of Servius
TuUius. — These walls enclosed, as was stated
above, not merely the seven 'montes' of the
Septimontium, but also the other suburbs
which belonged to the 'Four Regions,' and
lastly the more recent additions, among which
was the Aventine. It thus included all the hills
afterwards regarded as the ' seven Mils ' of Rome
[see above, pp. 796, 798] ; and later writers, as
Virgil in Georg. ii. 535, refer to these hills, and
not to the Septimontium, as giving the city her
title (cf. Hor. Carm. Sec. 7). The wall was, of
course, more massive and elaborate where it
crossed the level ground than where it was
following the hill. In those parts it consisted
of a ditch 30 feet deep and 100 feet wide, the
earth from which formed an agger from 30 to
50 feet high, kept up by a retaining back wall
of stone 9 feet tMck, and faced with masonry
on the side towards the ditch. The total
width of the rampart exceeded 20 feet. [See
Did. of Ant. art. Murus.] Starting from the
southern extremity of this mound at the Porta
Esquilina, the fortifications of Servius ran
along the outside edge of the Caelian and
Aventine hills to the river Tiber by the Porta
Trigemina. From this point to the Porta Flu-
mentana near the SW. extremity of the Capi
toline hill, there appears to have been no waU,
but only a stone quay formed of blocks of tufa,
the river itself being considered a sufficient
defence. At the Porta Flumentana the fortifi
cations again commenced, and ran along the
outside edge of the Capitoline and Quirinal
hills till they reached the northern extremity
of the agger at the Porta Collina, and continued
along the Campus Vhninalis to the Esquilme
gate. It was in this plain, between the CoUme
and Esquiline gates, that the most massive
fortification was employed. A great part of
it has been discovered near the railway station.
A part of the wall on the Aventine also still
remains of magnificent construction, 50 feet
high and 10i feet thick. In many parts, no
doubt, the Servian walls foUowed the line of the
older walls of the suburbs incorporated in the
city, and replaced them by stronger work. The
number of the gates m the walls of Servius is
uncertain, and the position of many of them is
doubtful. PUny, indeed, states that their num
ber was thirty-seven ; but it is almost certain
that this number includes many mere openings
tnade tMough the waUs to connect different
parts of the city with the suburbs, since the
walls of Servius had long since ceased to be
regarded. The foUowing is a list of the gates
as far as they can be ascertained : (1) Porta
Collina, at the N. extremity of the agger, and
the most northerly of all the gates, stood at
the point of junction of the Via Salaria and Via
Nomentana. Its remains have been discovered
on the site of the modern Ministero delle
Finanze, a Uttle to the S. of the road leading to
Porta Pia. This gate was also called Porta
Quirinalis or Agonalis. It was of great im
portance as being in a particularly accessible
part of the walls. The Gauls approached at
this point in 360, Hannibal in the next century,
and SuUa when he led Ms troops back m 88 ;
and it was the scene of the battle in 82 which
secured the power of SuUa and ended the last

ROMA
struggle of the Samnites. (2) P. Viminalis, S.
of No. 1, and in the centre of the agger. The
roadway tMough it was discovered m 1872 in
digging the foundations of the PubUc Offices.
(3) P. Esquilina, S. of No. 2, on the site of the
Arch of GaUienus, which probably replaced it ;
the Via Praenestina and Labicana began here.
It was discovered in 1876. (4) P. Querquetu-
lana, S. of No. 3. (5) P. Caeliomontana, S. of
No. 4, on the heights of M. Caelius, behmd the
hospital of S. Giovanni in Laterano, at the point
of junction of the two modern streets which
bear the name of S. Stefano Rotondo, and the
SS. Quattro Coronati. (6) P. Capena, one of
the most celebrated of all the Roman gates,
from which issued the Via Appia. It stood
SW. of No. 5, and at the SW. foot of the
Caelian. Its foundations were discovered near
the church of S. Gregorio, and the remains of
the Marcian aqueduct wMch passed over it and
by its leakage gamed for it the epithet ' madida.'
(Juv. iii. 11 ; Mart. Ui. 47, 1). (7, 8, 9) P. La-
vernalis, P. Bauduscula, and P. Naevia, tMee
of the most southerly gates of Rome, lying
between the Caelian and the Aventine. The
waUs of Servius probably here took a great
bend to the S., inclosmg the heights of S.
Balbina and S. Saba. (10) P. Trigemina, on
the NW. of the Aventine, near the Tiber and the
great salt-magazinea. The arch discovered in
1887 near the church of S. Maria m Cosmedm is
thought to belong to this gate. (11) P. Flu
mentana, N. of the preceding, near the SW.
slope of the Capitol and close to the Tiber.
(12) P. Carmentalis, N. of No. 11, and at the
foot of the SW. slope of the Capitoline, near the
altar of Carmenta, and leading to the Forum
Olitorium and the Theatre of MarceUus. This
gate contained two passages, of wMch the right-
hand one was called Porta Scelerata from the
time that the tMee hundred Fabii passed
tMough it, and was always avoided. (Liv. ii.
49; Ov. Fast. ii. 201.) (13) P. Batumena, N.
of No. 12, and at the N. slope of the Capitolme,
just below the Arx, leading to the Campus
Martius and the Via Flammia. The remains
of the gate and part of the wall were found
under a house in the Via di Marforio. (14) P.
Fontinalis, N. of No. 13 on the W. slope of the
Quirinal, also leading to the Campus Martius.
(15) P. Sanqualis, N. of No. 14, also on the
W. slope of the same hUl, deriving its name
from the temple of Sancus which stood near it.
[Sancus.] (16) P. Salutaris, N. of No. 15,
on the NW. slope of the same MU, near the
temple of Salus. (17) P. Triumphalis. The
position of tMs gate is quite uncertain, except
that it led, more or less directly, to the Campus
Martius. It was probably opened only for tri
umphal processions. (Cic. Pis. 23, 55 ; Jos.
B. J. vii. 5, 4.)— III. Walls of Aurelian. These
walls are essentially the same as those wMch
surround the modern city of Rome, with the
exception of the part beyond the Tiber. The
Janiculum and the adjacent suburb was the only
portion beyond the Tiber which was included
witMn the fortifications of Aurelian; for the
Vatican was not surrounded with walls tiU the
time of Leo IV., in the ninth century. The wall,
a circuit of twelve mUe6, is buUt of concrete faced
with brick. The lower part is solid ; the upper
has a passage for soldiers, vaulted overhead,
and having arches looking into the mterior.
There were 883 towers, at intervals of 45 feet,
about 70 feet high, the average height of the
waU bemg 50 feet. The top of the wall was
battlemented, but most of the battlements have

ROMA

801

perished. On the left bank of the Tiber the
walls of Aurelian embraced on the N. the Collis
Hortulorum or Pincianus, on the W. the Cam
pus Martius, on the E. the Campus Esquilinus,
and on the S. the Mons Testaceus. There were
fifteen gates in the Aurelian waUs, most of
which derived their names from the roads
issuing from them. These were, on the N.
«ide : (1) Porta Cornelia, on the Tiber in front
of the Pons Aelius. (2) Porta Flaminia, now
Porta del Popolo. (3) P. Pinciana, on the
hill of the same name. (4) P. Salaria, extant
under the same name, but restored in modern
times. Between this and No. 4 comes the mo
dern Porta Pia, called after Pius IV. (5) P. No-
mentana, leading to the ancient P. CoUina.
On the E. side : very little S. of the Via No-
mentana was the Praetorian Camp, which,
when the Aurelian waUs were built, was set in
them, projecting from them on either side : in
the angle where the wall abutted on the S. side
of the camp wall there is a blocked gateway
now called Porta Clausa, whose ancient name
is unknown. (6) P. Tiburtina, leading to the
old P. EsquiUna, now Porta S. Lorenzo. (7) P.
Praenestina or Labicana, now Porta Maggiore.
On the S. side : (8) P. Asinaria, close to the re
mains of the Domus Laterana. It has been
blocked up and the modern Porta S. Giovanni
a few yards to the E. is used instead. (9) P.
Metronis, or Metronii, or Metrovia, which has
now disappeared, probably at the entrance to
the CaeUan, between S. Stefano Rotondo and
the VUla Mattei. (10) P. Latina, now walled
up. (11) P. Appia, now Porta S. Sebastiano.
The roads tMough tMs gate and tMough No. 9,
both led to the old Porta Capena. (12) P.
Ostiensis, leading to Ostia, now Porta S. Paolo.
On the W. side : (13) P. Portuensis, on the other
side of the Tiber near the river, from wMch
issued the road to Portus. (14) P. Aurelia, on
the W. slope of the Janiculum, now Porta S.
Pancrazio. (15) P. Septimiana, near the Tiber,
on the road connecting the Janiculum with
the Vatican, was destroyed by Alexander VI.
— F. Bridges. There were eight bridges across
the Tiber, wMch probably ran m the foUowmg
order from N. to S. : — (1) Pons Aelius, wMch
was buUt by Hadrian, and led from the city to
the mausoleum of that emperor, now the bridge
and castle of St. Angelo (Dio Cass. lxix. 23).
(2) Pons Neronianus, or Vaticanus, which led
from the Campus Martius to the Vatican and
the gardens of Caligula and Nero. The re
mains of its piers may stiU be seen, when the
waters of the Tiber are low, at the back of the
Hospital of S. Spirito. (3) Pons Agrippae, at
a spot about 130 yards above the Ponte Sisto,
where the foundations of a three-arched bridge
were found in 1887, with an inscription on a
cippus near which mentioned the name of the
bridge. (4) Very Uttle below No. 3, P. Aurelius
also caUed Janiculensis, which led to the Jani
culum and the Porta Aurelia. It occupied the
site of the present ' Ponte Sisto,' which was
built by Sixtus IV. upon the ruins of the old
bridge. (5, 6) P. Fabricius and P. Cestius, the
two bridges which connected the Insula Tibe-
rina with the opposite aides of the river, the
former with the city, the latter with the jani
culum. Both are still remaining. The P. Fa
bricius, wMch was built by one L. Fabricius,
curator viarum, b. c 62 (Dio Cass, xxxviii. 45),
whose name appears m an inscription cut on one
of the arches, now bears the name of 'Ponte
Quattro Capi.' The P. Cestius, which was
probably bmlt by L. Cestius, praefectus urbi in

B. c. 46, is now called ' Ponte S. Bartolommeo.'
(7) P. Aemilius or Lapideus, wrongly called
Palatinus, below the Island of the Tiber, formed
the communication between the Palatine and
its neighbourhood and the Janiculum. It was
the earlieBt stone bridge, begun by Aemilius
Lepidus 179 b. c. and completed in 142. (8) P.
Sublicius, the oldest of the Roman bridges,
connecting the city with the Janiculum, said to
have been built by Ancus Marcius, when he
erected a fort on that hill (Liv. i. 88). It was
built of wood, whence its name, which comes
from sublicae, 'wooden beams.' It was carried
away several times by the river, but from a
feeling of religious respect was always rebuilt
of wood down to the latest times, though with
stone piers. Its site ia uncertain, but probably
led out of the Forum Boarium. Some think
that some foundations near the Marmoratum
belong to it. Others ascribe those remains to
a bridge of the emperor Probus. (9) P. Mil-
vius, or Mulvius, now ' Ponte MoUe,' was situ
ated outside the city, Mgher up the river where
the Via Flaminia crosses, and was built by
Aemilius Scaurus the censor, B. c. 109. [See
also Did. of Ant. art. Pons.] — G. Interior of
the City. I. Fora. The Fora were open
spaces of ground, paved with stones, surrounded
by buUdings, and used as market places, or for
the transaction of public business. At Rome
the number of fora increased with the growth
of the city. They were level pieces of ground
of an oblong form, and were surrounded by
buUdmgs, both private and public. They were
divided into two classes : fora civilia, in which
justice was , administered and public business
transacted, and fora venalia, in which pro
visions and other things were sold, and which
were distinguished as the Forum Boarium, Oli
torium, Suarium, Piscarium, &c. The prin
cipal fora at Rome were : 1. Forum Bomanum,
also called simply the Forum, and at a later
time distingmshed by the epithets vetus or
magnum. It ran lengthwise from the foot of
the ascent to the Capitol (Clivus Capitolinus)
near the Arch of Septimius Severus in the
direction of the Arch of Titus ; but it did not
extend so far as the latter, and came to an end
at the ascent to the Velian ridge, where was
the temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Its
shape was that of an irregular quadrangle, of
which the two longer sides were not parallel,
but were wider near the Capitol than at the
other end. This represents a space of about
200 yards by 70 ; but the central area of the
Forum, kept clear of buildings (though not of
statues and monuments) between the three
bounding roads was about 375 feet long, 150
wide at the NW. end and 110 at the SE., paved
with slabs of travertme. This was an extent
undoubtedly small for the greatnesB of Rome;
but it must be recollected that the limits of the
Forum were fixed in the early days of Rome and
never underwent any alteration, the relief being
afforded by the transference of public shows to
other places, and by the erection of basflicas for
certain business and the building of new fora
by successive Caesars. The origin of the Forum
is ascribed to Romulus and Tatius, who are said
to have fiUed up the swamp or marsh which
occupied its site, and to have set it apart as a
place for the administration of justice and for
holding the assemblies of the people. There is
no doubt that the ground was originally a marsh
(Ov. Fast. vi. 401), and it was drained by the
Cloaca Maxima. The Forum in its widest sense
included the Forum properly so called and the
3F

802

ROMA

Comitium, where the patricians met in their
comitia curiata: the Forum in its narrower
sense was originally only a market-place, and
was not used for any political purpose, but
gladiatorial shows were given in it from 216 B.C.
down to the reign of Augustus, and for this
purpose temporary wooden barriers and seats
were set up with awnings spread over them
(Liv. xxiii. 30 ; Suet. Jul. 39, Aug. 43, Tib. 7 ;
Plin. xv. 78, xix. 23). At a later time the Forum
in its narrower aense was the place of meeting
for the plebeians in their comitia tributa. The
Comitium lay between the Forum and the Curia
or senate-house, i.e. on the NE. side of the
Forum and in front of what is now the church
of S. Adriano, bounded on the E. by the Argi-
letum and the road leading from the Forum to
the Subura. Recent excavations seem to show
that it was a paved area about two feet below
the level of the Forum, from which it was reached

the slopes of the Capitoline hill, from which the
Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Con
cord looked down upon the Forum ; m front of
the Temple of Concord was the Senaculum
(probably a place of conference for senators
with officials) ; below this were the Umbilicus
Bomae, of which there are stiU the remains — a
cylindrical structure of concrete and brick, with
slabs of marble. It marked the central point
of Rome (and bo of the world in Roman esti
mation), and opposite it a little to the S. is the
probable site of the Milliarium Aureum, a
gilded pillar denoting that the great roads all
diverged from the Forum (the distances were
measured from the gates). Immediately below
was the Graecostasis, or platform on which
foreign envoys stood to listen to speeches, and
adjoining it the Rostra. [Before the time of
Julius Caesar the Graecostasis adjoined the
Rostra in its old position in the Comitium.]

Plan of the Forum.

IVal/ier &• BmttaUsc.

by tMee steps. The Rostra, or platform from
which the orators addressed the people, ori
ginally stood on the E. side of the Comitium ;
but in 44 B. c. Julius Caesar transferred the
Rostra to the W. end of the Forum. [For a de
scription, see Did. of Ant. art. Bostrd.] In the
time of Tarquin the Forum was surrounded by
a range of shops, probably of a mean character,
but they gradually underwent a change, and
were eventually occupied by bankers and money
changers. The shops on the N. side underwent
this change first, whence they were called
Novae or Argentariae Tabernae ; wMle the
shops on the S. side, though they subsequently
experienced the same change, were distin
guished by the name of Veteres Tabernae.
The buildings edging the Forum in its eventual
condition were as follows. At the SW. corner
under the Capitol was the Temple of Saturn; at
the NW. corner beyond the Arch of Severus was
the Tullianum ; between these two points were

There are remains of the curved platform of
the Graecostasis behind the Rostra. The area
of the Forum was bordered on the S. side by
the Via Sacra, beyond wMch was the magnificent
Basilica Julia, and, further E. (across the Vicus
Tuscus) the Temple of Castor ; on the N. side
of the Forum, E. of the Comitium and Curia
stood the great Basilica Aemilia ; at the E. end
of the Forum were the Temple of Julius and the
Rostra Julia, to the S. of which have been dis
covered the foundations of the Arch of Augustus ;
E. of these were the house and Temple of Vesta,
the Regia, and the Temple of Faustina, in a Une
which marked the extreme limits eastward of
the Forum ; the free space of the Forum ter
minated further west, at the Rostra Julia. — 2.
Forum Julium or Forum Caesaris, was buUt
by Julius Caesar, because the old Forum was
found too small for the transaction of pubhe
business. It was close by the old Forum, behind
the church of S. Martina. Caesar built here a,

magnificent temple of Venus Genitrix. Remains
of five arches, built of tufa blocks with kev-
stones of travertine, have been found, communi
cating with vaulted chambers, which are sup
posed to have been used as offices.— 3. Forum
Augusti built by Augustus, because the two
existing fora were not found sufficient for the
great increase of business which had taken
place. It stood behind the Forum Julium, and
its entrance at the other end was by an arch,
now called Arco de' Pantani. Augustus
adorned it with a temple of Mars Ultor, and
with the statues of the most distinguished men

ROMA

803

forum lying in the narrow strip between the
Forum Pacis and the Forum Augusti. It
was begun by Domitian, who demolished the
private buildings on this strip, and it was
finished by Nerva. It was caUed Transitorium
because it served as a passage from the Forum
Romanum to the Subura and Carinae. It was
sometimes called Forum Palladium, because a
temple of Minerva stood in it. There was also
a sanctuary of Janus Quadrifrons at the inter
section of the roads communicating with the
other fora and with the Subura [see p. 498, a].
There are some remains of these temples and

Belief from the Arch of Aurelius showing the front of the Capitoline Temple.

of the republic. There are magnificent remains
of the waU which enclosed this forum, 86 feet
high, built of blocks of peperino in three stages,
divided by string courses of travertine ; arched
doorways are traceable. — 4. The Forum Pacis
of Vespasian lay to the SE. of the Forum of
Augustus, divided from it by the street leadmg
to the Subura. In it was the Temple of Peace
dedicated by Vespasian after the end of the
Jewish war and containing spoUs from the
Jewish Temple. Part of the circuit wall of
tMs forum remains, opposite the NW. end
of the Basilica of Constantine. — 5. Forum
Nervae or Forum Transitorium, was a small

of the wall of the forum. — 6. Forum Trajani,
built by the emperor Trajan, who employed the
architect Apollodorus for the purpose. It lay
between the Forum of Augustus and the Campus
Martius. It was the most splendid of all the
fora, and considerable remains of it are still
extant. It consisted of the forum-area sur
rounded by a magnificent colonnade ; the Basi
lica Ulpia and its two Bibliothecae, between
which rose the great column 120 feet high and
the Temple of Trajan. To provide space for
these buildings the ridge of tufa rock between
the Capitoline and the Quirinal was cut away.
The column remains in situ, and also a great
/8e 2

804

ROMA

curved line of wall, part of the circuit wall, which
contained three stories of chambers. — 7. The
Forum Boarium, or cattle market, lay between
the Velabrum to the E. and the Tiber to the
W. ; to the N. lay the Capitol. In it were the
stiU existing Temple of Fors Fortuna, the Temple
of Ceres, and the still existing round Temple of
Hercules, which was at the S. end of the forum,
next to Circus Maximus. The vegetable market
(Forum Olitorium) lay outside the wall of Servius,
between the Forum Boarium and the Campus
Martius. — II. Capitolium. The Capitoline MU
had two summits : the SW. peak, on which stood
the Temple of Jupiter, being called Capitolium ;
the NE. peak, on which stood the Temple of
Juno Moneta (and now stands the Ara Goeli),
being called the Arx. The space between them
was called the Asylum, because (as the legends
said) Romulus had there established a refuge
for fugitives. In reality, before the union of
the 'Four Regions' it would seem that the
Capitoline hill belonged to the settlement in
the Quirinal, with which it was more nearly
united by the low mtervening ridge. The
approaches, however, were more difficult in
aDcient times than they became later, and the
cliffs could origmally be ascended only on the
side of the Forum, either by the Sacred Way
up to the Asylum, or by the Gradus Monetae
up to the Arx. The whole hill is said to have
been once called Mons Saturnius (Varro, L. L.
v. 41) and also Mons Tarpeius [Tabpela], but
the name ' Tarpeian Bock ' belonged to that
part of the cliff which faced the Vicus Jugarius
and the Forum, and has now been so completely
transformed as to present no idea of the steep
cliff from which criminals were thrown. [An
escarped piece of the rock on the W. side of
the hill, towards the Tiber, is often, but
wrongly, shown as the Tarpeian Rock.] The
primitive wall, of which remains are traceable,
may belong to a time when the Capitoline was
an altogether independent fortress occupied by
a settlement not as yet united either with the
Quirinal or the Palatine city ; and it appears
that the Arx had also a separate wall of its
own. The name Capitolium Vetus was ap
plied to the citadel on the Quirinal MU, which,
before the united city had its common sanc
tuary on the Capitoline, possessed a threefold
temple there to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva
(Varro, L. L. v. 158). The most ancient sanc
tuary, according to tradition, on the Capitol
was the small temple of Jupiter Feretrius, said
to have been built by Romulus on the site of a
sacred oak, which belonged to a still more
primitive cult (Liv. i. 10). It was rebuilt by
.Augustus. But the worship of the Capitoline
triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva must have
belonged also to the earliest settlements on the
hill, and gave it through all Roman history its
chief sanctity. In the Temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus on the Capitolium, the statue of
Jupiter occupied the centre chamber, but there
were two smaller ones, that on the right con
taining the statue of Minerva, that on the left
the statue of Juno. TMs temple was many
times destroyed and rebuilt. It is said to have
been first built by the Tarquins (if so, it prob
ably took the place of something earlier), and
dedicated in 509 B.C. It contained a terra
cotta statue of Jupiter of Etruscan make, and
a chariot of the same material stood on the
Pediment (Plin. xxxv. 157). It was burnt down
in the civil wars, 83, but was rebuUt by Sulla,
and was dedicated by Q. Catulus, 69. It was
burnt down a second time by the soldiers of

Vitellius, a.d. 69, and was rebuilt by Vespa
sian ; it was burnt down a third time in the
reign of Titus, 80,- and was again rebuilt by
Domitian with greater splendour than before.
The Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was the
most magmficent at Rome. Its front was
towards the Forum, above the Tarpeian Rock.
It stood on a very large elevated platform or
podium. The columns were CorintMan, of
Pentelic marble. The gates were of bronze,
and the ceUings and tiles gilt. The gUding
alone of the building cost Domitian 12,000
talents. These gilt-bronze tiles were partly
removed by Genseric, and the rest were used
by Pope Honorius in 630 to roof the Basilica
of St. Peter. In the temple were kept the
Sibyllme books. Here the consuls upon enter
ing on their office offered sacrifices and took
their vows ; and hither the victorious general
who entered the city in triumph was carried
in his triumphal car to return thanks to the
Father of the gods. Remains of the podium
have been found on this SW. peak, and in 1875
the drum of a column of Pentelic marble was
discovered there, and also the remains of a
small podium which may belong either to the
small temple of Jupiter Tonans or to that of
Jupiter Feretrius rebuilt by Augustus. The
Temple of Juno Moneta, used also as a mint
[Did. of Ant. art. Moneta], built by Camillus
B.C. 344, stood on the Arx (the NE. peak), which
is now occupied by the church of Ara Goeli.
In this space between the two peaks, called,
as has been stated, the Asylum, and on the side
of it above the Forum, stands the so-called
Tabularium, a building of which the use and
history have never been ascertained [see Diet.
of Ant. s. v.]. — III. Campi, as certain open
spaces of ground were called : 1. Campus
Martius, the 'Plain of Mars,' frequently
called the Campus simply, was, in its widest
signification, the open plam at Rome outside
the city-walls, lying between the Tiber and the
hills Capitolinus, Quirinal, and Pmcius ; but it
was more commonly used to signify the NW.
portion of the plain lying in the bend of the
Tiber, which here nearly surrounded it on three
sides, and stretchmg along the bank of the
upper reach of the river as far as was included
in the Aurelian walls. The S. portion of the
plain in the neighbourhood of the Circus Flami
nius was called Campus Flaminius or Prata
Flaminia. The Campus Martius is said to have
belonged originally to the Tarquins, and to have
become the property of the state and to have
been consecrated to Mars upon the expulsion of
the Mngs. Here the Roman youths were ac
customed to perform their gymnastic and war-
Uke exercises, and here the comitia of the
centuries were held (cf. Hor. Od. i. 8, iii. 7, 25,
iv. 1, 39, Sat. ii. 6, 49, i. 6, 126, Ep. i. 7, 59, i. 11,
4, A. P. 162 ; Mart. ii. 14, iv. 8). The Septa or
inclosure for voting purposes originaUy con
sisted of pens like sheepfolds (Juv. vi. 529), but
the Septa JuUa, begun by Julius Caesar and
completed by Agrippa (Cic. ad Att. iv. 16, Dio
Cass. liii. 23) were built of stone and adorned
with statues. Remains of travertine piers in
eight rows are visible in Via Lata under the
church of S. Maria, and the Palazzo Doria.
At a later time it was surrounded by temples,
porticoes, theatres and thermae [see under
these heads]. 2. Campus Sceleratiis, close to
the Porta Collina and within the walls of
Servius, where the Veatala who had broken
their vows of chastity were entombed alive. 3.
Campus Agrippae, probably on the SW. slope

ROMA
of the Pincian hill, E. of the Campus Martius,
on the right of the Corso, and N. of the Piazza
degli Apostoli. 4. Campus Esquilinus, out
side of the agger of Servius and near the Porta
Esquilina, where criminals were executed,
and the lower classes were buried. Recent
excavations showed the terribly insanitary
manner in which corpses had been piled up in
the ditch of the Servian fortification at this
point till they filled it up. Every kind of
refuse was also thrown out here, till Maecenas
covered the whole with a great embankment of
earth and converted the space into pleasure-
grounds known as Horti Maecenatis. The
benefit to the health of the neighbourhood is
alluded to in the lines of Horace (Sat. i. 8,
14-16).— IV. Streets and Districts. There are
said to have been in all 215 streets in Rome.
The broad streets were called Viae and Vid * ;
the narrow streets Angiportus. The chief
streets were: (1) Via Sacra, the principal
street m Rome. It began near the SaceUum
Streniae, in the valley between the Caelian and
the Esquiline, and leavmg the Flavian Amphi
theatre (Colosseum) on the left ran along the
N. slope of the Palatine; passing under the
Arch of Titus, it bent slightly to the N. (prob
ably to avoid ancient sacred buildings), skirted
the N. side of the Temple of Julius, beyond
which it turned to the S., skirtmg the narrow
E. end of the Forum, passed along the SW.
side of the Forum (i.e. between the Forum
and the BasiUca Julia), and thence by a wind-
mg courBe up the Clivus Capitolinus to the
Capitol and the Temple of Jupiter. It should
be noticed that it passes a little distance to the
N. of the temple and the house of Vesta, but
the sac-red precincts of Vesta mcluded not only
these but also a sacred grove, which probably
stretched up to the Via Sacra. Hence Horace
(Sat. i. 9, 35) speaks of the Via Sacra as
reaching the sanctuary or dweUing of Vesta.
The road was called ' sacred ' m all probability
because it led from the Forum to the most
sacred ancient places, the precincts of Vesta
and the sMme of the Penates. The part of it
brigmally, or specially, so spoken of was that be
tween the VeUa and the entrance to the Forum
(Varro, L. L. v. 47). The Summa Via Sacra
was that part which passed over the Velian ridge
by the Arch of Titus. Some have thought that
origmaUy the Via Sacra went straight from the
Regia to the S. side of the Forum and that the
deflection by the Temple of JuUus was only
made because that temple was built. This at
present wants evidence. (2) Via Lata, led
from the N. side of the Capitol and the Porta
Ratumena to the Porta Flaminia, whence the
N. part of it was called Via Flaminia. (3)
Via Nova, by the side of the W. slope of the
Palatine, led from the ancient Porta Romanula
and the Velabrum to the Forum, and was con
nected by a side street with the Via Sacra.
Starting from the rood which led from the Via
Sacra up to the Palatine near the Porta
Magonia (Summa Via Sacra) it skirted the N.
side of the hill, passed by the S. side of the
Atrium Vestae and bent round the W. side of
the Palatine to the Velabrum, near the Porta
Romanula. It has been laid bare by excava
tions from the Summa Via Nova to the church
of S. Maria Liberatrice, near the SW. angle of
the Atrium Vestae, from wMch point a flight of

805

* Vicus properly signified a quarter of the city, but
the principal street in a Vicus was frequently called
by the name of the Vicus to which it belonged.

steps lead from the Via Nova to the Forum (cf .
Ov. Fast. vi. 895). (4) Vicus Jugarius, led
from the Porta Carmentalis under the Capitol
to the Forum Romanum, which it entered near
the Basilica Julia and the Lacus Servilius. (5)
Vicus Tuscus, connected the Velabrum with
the Forum, running W. of, and nearly parallel
with, the Via Nova. It contained a great
number of shops, where articles of luxury were
sold, and its inhabitants did not possess the
best of characters (Tusci turba impia vici,
Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 228). From the Velabrum it
continued to the Circus Maximus. It derived
its namo from an early settlement there of
Tuscans, possibly shopkeepers, possibly em
ployed in the making of the Cloaca Maxima.
A tradition states the settlers to have been
soldiers of the Etruscan Caelius Vibenna,
removed to the lower city from Mons Caelius
(Varr. L. L. v. 46 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 65). Livy (ii.
14) speaks of the settlers as remnants of the
army of Porsenna. (6) Vicus Cyprius, ran
from the Colosseum valley to the Esquiline.
The upper part of it, turning on the right to
Urbius Clivus, was called Sceleratus Vicus,
because Tullia here drove her chariot over the
corpse of her father, Servius. (7) Vicus
Patricius, in the valley between the Esquiline
and the Viminai in the direction of the modern
Via Urbana and Via di S, Pudenziana. (8)
Vicus Africus, in the district of the Esquiline,
but the exact situation of which cannot be de
termined, said to have been so called because
African hostages were kept here during the
first Punic war. (9) Vicus Sandalarius, also
in the district of the Esquiline, extending as
far as the heights of the Carinae. (10) Vicus
Vitriarius or Vitrarius, in the SE. part of the
city, near the Porta Capena. (11) Vicus
Longus, in the Vallis Quirini between the
Quirinal and Viminai, now S. Vitale. (12)
Caput Africae, near the Colosseum. (13)
Subura or Suburra, a district through which
a street of the same name ran, was the whole
valley between the Esquiline, Quirinal and
Viminai. It was one of the busiest parts
of the town and contained a great number of
shops (Juv. xi. 51, Mart. v. 22), and also
brothels, from which it derived its bad reputa
tion (Pers. v. 32; Mart. vi. 66). (14) Velia,
a height near the Forum, which extended from
the Palatine near the Arch of Titus, to the
Esquilme, and which separated the valley of
the Forum from that of the Colosseum. On
the Velia were situated the Basilica of Con
stantine and the Temple of Venus and Rome.
(15) Carinae, a district on the SW. part of the
Esquiline, or the modern height of S. Pietro in
Vincoli, where Pompey, Cicero and many other
distinguished Romans lived : hence called
' lautae ' (Verg. Aen. viii. 361 , cf . Suet. Tib.
15). (16) Velabrum, a district on the W. slope
of the Palatine, between the Vicus Tuscus and
the Forum Boarium, was origmaUy a morass.
(17) Aequimaelium, a place at the E. foot of
the Capitol and by the side of the Vicus
Jugarius, where the house of Sp. Maelius is
said to have stood. (18) Argiletum, a district
S. of the Quirinal, between the Subura, the
Forum of Nerva and the Forum of Peace,
and running down to the back of the Basilica
Aemilia. It was a booksellers' quarter. Its
name was probably derived from argilla, ' white
clay ; ' but traditions spoke of a hero Argus, a
friend of Evander, who is said to have been
buried here. (19) Lautumiae, a district where
there had been old quarries, near the Robur

806

ROMA

Tullianum or Mamertine prison [see below], — rebuilt the following year. (Dionys. iv. 27 ; Ov.

V. Temples. [For the strict uses of the words
aedes and templum, see Did. of Ant. art.
Templum.] Out of the vast number of temples
in Romefof which there are said to have been 400)
the following (in alphabetical order) are the
most important to notice. Templum Aesculapii,
on the Island in the Tiber, to which sick per
sons were brought for cure. A sacred anake,
representing the god, had been brought from
Epidaurus in 292 B.C. to avert a pestilence,
and the temple built on the island, because the
snake had swum ashore there (Liv. ii. 5, Ep.
11). T. Antonini et Faustinae, at the further
end of the N. side of the Forum, built by
Antoninus Pius in honour of his wife Faus
tina, 141 a.d. It was converted into the
church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda, and most of
the old cella destroyed, but the fine Corinthian
front remains. T. Apollinis (1) on the Pala
tine, dedicated by Augustus in 28 B.C. in
memory of his victory over Sex. Pompeius in
36. It was of great magnificence both for its
architecture and its treasures. The statue of
ApoUo was by Scopas. At the sides of the portico
or peristyle were two large libraries, one for
Greek, the other for Latin books. (2) In the
Campus Martius, near the Theatre of Marcellus.
It was dedicated to the Delphic Apollo, in 428
B.C. Remains of it have been found near the
Piazza Montanara. T. Augusti, founded by
Tiberius, on the slope of the Palatine towards
the Via Nova. T. Bellonae, in which the
senate assembled to receive foreign ambassa
dors and to hear the applications of generals
for a triumph, as it was outside the pomerium.
It stood near the Circus Flaminius. T. Bonae
Deae on the SE. side of the Aventine near the
Sacrum Saxum, where Remus took the auspices
(Ov. Fast. v. 148). Aed. Castoris, the temple of
Castor and Pollux, at the SE. end of the Forum,
divided from the Basilica Julia by the Vicus
Tuscus. It was said to have been founded near
the fountain of Juturna, on the spot where the
twin gods halted in the Forum to announce
the victory of Regillus. It was vowed by
A. Postumius in that battle and dedicated by
his son in 482 B.C., restored in 119 by L. Metel
lus Dahnaticus, rebuilt by Tiberius and Drusus
after their German campaigns, a.d. 6, with
CorintMan columns of Pentelic marble, three of
which and the entablature are now standmg.
It was sometimes used as a place of meeting
for the senate (Cic. pro Scaur. 46), and as an
office for testing weights and measures. T. Ge-
reris, in which Liber and Libera were associated
with Ceres, in the Forum Boarium, near the
Circus Maximus, dedicated by the consul Sp.
Cassius in 494 B.C. Remains of it are built up
into the walls of the church of S. Maria in Cos-
medm. T. Concordiae, on the slope of the
Capitoline MU above the Forum, founded by
Camillus B.C. 367, rebuilt by Opimius in 121,
and again, B.C. 6, by Tiberius and Drusus from
the spoils of Germany. The senate often met
in it. Remains of the podium may be seen
besides fragments of columns and cornices!
T. Dianae, on the Aventine, said to have been
built by Servius TuUius, and restored by Augus
tus. T. Fidei, on the Capitol, said to have
been founded by Numa, rebuilt in the first
Punic war. Aed. Fortunae, the temple of
Fors Fortuna or Fortuna Virilis [see p. 346, a],
in the Forum Boarium, near the Porta Car
mentalis, said to have been built by Servius
TuUius. It stood close to the temple of Mater
Matuta. Both were burnt down b.c. 213 and

Fast. vi. 481 ; Liv. xxiv. 47, xxv. 7.) The exist
ing temple called that of Fortuna Virilis is by
some supposed to be the temple of Mater Ma
tuta; by others (with greater probability) it
is taken to be the temple of Portunus, which
stood near the Pons Aemilius (Kal. Aug. 17), the
modern Ponte Rotto. This temple is weU pre
served and is an Ionic temple, said to be of a date
earlier than the middle of the first century B.C.
There was also a temple of Fortuna Bedux
dedicated by Domitian in the Campus Martius,
of Fortuna Bespiciens on the Palatine, and
three temples of Fortune near the Porta Col
lina. T. Florae on the Quirinal, near the
' Tiburtina pila ' (probably a stone of Lares
Compitales), and the old slirine of Jupiter at
the Capitolium Vetus (Mart. v. 62). T. Fauni
or Jovis et Fauni in the Island of the Tiber,
dedicated 196 B.C. Aed. Herculis. A round
temple of Hercules stood in the SE. corner of
the Forum Boarium near the Ara Maxima
(Liv. x. 23 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 41 ; Macrob. in. 6),
of great antiquity, and traditionally ascribed to
Evander. It was rebuilt in the time of Au
gustus, and there is little doubt that it is the
beautiful round temple with Corinthian col
umns which stands at this spot and is often
erroneously caUed a temple of Vesta. There
was also a temple of Hercules Musarum ( =
'HpaKXijs Movo-ayerris) close to the Portico of
Octavia, between the theatre of MarceUus and
the Circus Flaminius. It was buUt by M. Ful
vius Nobilior about 187 B.C., who adorned it
with terra-cotta statues of the Muses and of
Heracles playing on the lyre (Plin. xxxvi. 66)
which he had brought from Greece. [For the con
nexion of Heracles and the Muses see p. 401, a.]
There was also a temple of Hercules Custos
in the same district. T. Honoris et Virtutis,
near the Porta Capena, founded by Marcellus
in 212 B.C. from the spoils of Syracuse : another,
founded by Marcius, stood on the Capitol.
T. Isidis et Serapis, was built in the time of
Nero in the Campus Martius near the temple
of Minerva : it was damaged by the fires in the
reigns of Nero and of Titus and was restored
by Alex. Severus. Many works of Egyptian
art have been found on this spot. Another
temple of Isis stood somewhere in the third
region. T. Jani, the most notable temple of
Janus, was at the NE. end of the Forum. [For
an account of it see p. 457, b.] The temple
of Janus Quadrifrons (a quadruple arch) stood
in the Forum Nervae at the intersection of
the road from the Forum to the Subura with
that from the Forum Pacis to the Forum
Augusti. It is thought that the remains found at
the SW. end of the Forum Nervae belong to this
temple. T. Jovis. For the temples of Jupiter
Capitolinus, Custos, Feretrius and Tonans on
the Capitolium, see above, G. II. The temple
of Jupiter Stator was said to have been origin
ally built by Romulus in gratitude for the
staying of the flight of the Romans before the
Sabines (Liv. i. 12 ; Dionys. ii. 50; Ov. Fast.vi.
793, Trist. iii. 1, 81). It was on the Palatine
between the Porta Magonia and the site of the
Arch of Titus, and between the Via Sacra and
Via Nova. Another temple of Jupiter Stator
was in the Campus Martius. A temple of
Jupiter Victor, of which it is thought that the
foundations have been discovered, stood on the
Palatine overlooking the Campus Martius. A
temple of the Asiatic Jupiter Dolichenus
[p. 464, b] stood in the Campus Martius near
the church of S. Alessio, where inscriptions

relating to it have been found (C.I.L. vi. 406-
413). T. Julii, built by Augustus in 42 B.C.
at the E. end of the Forum opposite the
temple of Castor. It stood on a high platform
(cf. Ov. Pont. ii. 2, 85). T. Junonis Monetae,
on the Arx or NE. peak of the Capitoline
MU [see above]. T. Junonis Sospitae, in the
Forum Olitorium, near the theatre of Mar
cellus, may be one of three small temples of
which remains have been found on the site
of the church of S. Niccolo. The temple of
Juno Begina was on the Aventine. T. Lu
nae, said to have been founded by Servius
TuUius on the Aventine above the Forum
Boarium (Liv. xl. 2 ; Tac. Ann. 41). T. Martis.
The temple of Mars Ultor in the centre of the
Forum of Augustus, was dedicated in B.C. 2.
It was the place where the senate deliberated

ROMA

807

Remains of Temple of Mars Ultor.

on the question of granting a triumph (as
before in the temple of Bellona). Three Corin
thian columns of Luna marble,with the architrave
above them, and a pUaster against the wall of
the forum still remain and testify to the great
beauty of the temple. There were two temples
of Mars built by Augustus on the Capitol ; a
temple of Mars m the Campus Martius, built,
or rebuilt, by D. Brutus Callaicus, consul
in 138 B.C. ; and another on the Appian Way
outside the Porta Capena. T. Magnae Matris,
on the slope of the Palatine towards the Via
Sacra, built in 191 B.C. to receive the sacred
¦stone of Cybele or Magna Mater Idaea, wMch
had meantime been placed in the temple of
Victory. Some remains of the temple have
been found near the Arch of Titus. T. Matris
Matutae, in the Forum Boarium near that
of Fortuna [see above]. T. of Minerva.
Besides the cella of Minerva in the temple of
the Capitoline Jupiter [see above], there
was a separate temple of Minerva in the
Forum of Nerva. Its marble columns were
used by Paul V. in 1606 for a chapel in
the church of S. Maria Maggiore, but part of
the apse and two Corinthian columns, and a
Telief of Minerva on the portion of entablature
still remain. The temple of Minerva Ghalci-
dica was founded by Pompey in the Campus
Martius near the Pantheon, and restored,
after damage from fire, by Domitian. Its site
is marked by the church of S. Maria sopra
Minerva. The ancient temple of Minerva
Capta [p. 565, a] was on the slope of the
Caelian, near the Colosseum. T. Minervae

Medicae, of which the remains were recently
discovered, near the Porta Praenestina (Porta
Maggiore). The Pantheon was built as a
temple to Mars, Venus, and the deified ancestors
of the Julian gens by Agrippa in 27 B.C. (Dio
Cass, lxiii. 27). The original building was
damaged by fire in 80 a.d. (Dio Cass. Ixvi. 24),
and there is record of two subsequent restora
tions, by Hadrian and by Severus. It is an error
to suppose that it was connected with the Baths
of Agrippa, from which it is separated by
an interval of twenty feet, the walls which are
imagined to be the junction being of a much
later date. The drain in the floor, which was
made another argument for the theory, is
designed to carry away the water which fell from
the opening in the roof. The temple has a fine
portico, but its great characteristic is the
magnificent dome, 142£ feet in diameter, and the
same in height from the floor, lighted by an
opening in the top, through which the sky is
seen. The dome is a solid mass standing by its
own coherence, not by the principle of the arch,
and therefore is a remarkable proof of the great
strength of Roman concrete. It was entirely
covered with marble lining, which has in great
part disappeared. Its exterior was overlaid
with tiles of gilt bronze, of which a very small
part remains, round the hypaethral opening.
The whole interior was lined with precious
marbles, some of which remain, and had fluted
marble columns. Much of this adornment was
due to Hadrian's restoration. The great bronze
doors have fortunately been left as they were.
A new question has been raised by recent dis
coveries of archaeologists, especially of the
French school, that bricks of the rotunda be
long to the time of Hadrian. If it is established
that bricks of this date are not merely surface
repairs, but integral parts of the structure, it
follows that in the present building the portico
and vestibule alone are the work of Agrippa,
the rotunda with its great dome having been
joined on to them by Hadrian, replacing the
older temple. It is argued moreover that this
explains certain anomalies of style, assigns the
domed cupola to a period when such an inno
vation was more probable, and also disposes
of the difficulty which some have felt in
understanding how a fire could lay hold on
a building such as the Pantheon now is.
The preservation of this temple is due to the
fact that it was consecrated as the church of
S. Maria ad Martyres by Boniface IV. in 608.
T. Pacis, built by Vespasian in the Forum
Pacis, mentioned above. Aed. Quirini, on the
Quirinal, near the church of S. Vitale. It was
mentioned as existing in B.C. 432 (Liv. iv. 21),
was rebuilt by Papirius Cursor in 293, and again
by Augustus in 16 (Dio Cass. liv. 19). T. Por-
tuni, in the Forum Boarium [see T. Fortunae],
T. Salutis, on the slope of the Quirinal, near the
Porta Salutaris, built by Junius Bubulcus
B.C. 104 and adorned with paintings by Fabius
Pictor, burnt down in the reign of Claudius
(Liv. ix. 43; Fest. p. 327). T. Sand, the
temple of Semo Sancus or Dius Fidius, stood
on the Quirinal, and was regarded as one of the
most ancient in Rome. The neighbouring
Porta Sanqualis was called after it. T. Saturni,
was on the Clivus Capitolinus near the Temple of
Concord, and overlooking the Forum. It waB
said to have been built by Tarquin. In it was
the treasury. [Did. of Ant. art. Aerarium.]
Part of the travertine podium, of the time of
Augustus, remains, and eight columns and
the entablature, of the age of Domitian. Some

ROMA

ROMA

809.

Walker & Bautall iC»

810

ROMA

marble steps which exist are supposed to
have been the entrance to a treasure chamber.
T. Solis, near the Spina of the Circus Maximus
(Tac. Ann. xv. 74; TertuU. Sped. 8). T.
Spei, in the Forum Olitorium, probably
one of the three smaU temples built in
the walls of S. Niccolo in Carcere. T.
Telluris, near the house of Pompey in the
Carinae (SW. slope of the Esquiline), often used
for meetings of the senate. T. Trajani, in the
Forum of Trajan [see above]. T. Vejovis, on
the island in the Tiber ; also on the Capitoline
hill. T. Veneris et Bomae, built by Hadrian,
who employed Apollodorus of Damascus as
architect. It stood at the E. end of the Forum,
on the slope of the Velia, raised on a high stylo-
bate above the Via Sacra, and was the largest,
and among the most magnificent, at Rome. It
had two cellae, one for Venus, the other for
Roma Aeterna. There are fine remains adjoin
ing the monastery of S. Francesca. T. Veneris
Erycinae, was on the Capitoline hill close to
the temple of Mars : these two were vowed by
Fabius Maximus and T. Otacilius B.C. 217
(Liv. xxii. 10). Another temple of Venus Ery-
cina was built, B.C. 181, just outside the Porta
CoUina (Ov. Fast. iv. 871 ; Liv. xl. 34). The

Temple of Vesta.
temple of Venus Genetrix, vowed in the battle
of Pharsalia, was built in the centre of the
Forum Julium, and dedicated B.C. 46. T. Ves-
pasiani, was built by Domitian on the slope of
the Capitoline hill under the Tabularium
and next to the temple of Concord; and was
restored by Sept. Severus. Three columns
(belonging to the six of the portico) with the
entablature above are still standing : they are
part of the building of Domitian. Aed. Vestae,
stands at the S. angle of the Forum. The
origmal temple was destroyed by the Gauls
B.C. 390, and three successive temples were
burnt in 241 B.C., 66 a.d. and 191 a.d. The
existing temple (preserving the ancient circular
shape, the form of the primitive house) was built
by Sept. Severus [see further under Vesta].
T. Victoriae, on the Clivus Victoriae, a N.
slope of the Palatine, was built on the site of
a very ancient altar of Victory (Dionys i 32)
It was rebuilt in 294 B.C. from the proceeds of
fines imposed by the aedUes (Liv. x. 33), and
restored by Augustus. Some remains of it were
discovered near the church of S. Maria Libera-
tnce. Volcanal : a very ancient altar to Vul
can stood on the slope of the Capitol, with
a wide space of sacred ground round it called

Area Volcani (Liv. xxxix. 46 ; Fest. p. 290 ;
C.I.L. vi. 457). The Area Volcani was used
for meetings of the people (Dionys. ii. 50, vi. 57).
Part of it was afterwards occupied by the
temple of Concord. T. Urbis or Sacrae Urbis
stood at the SE. corner of the Forum Pacis.
A square-headed doorway of travertine in the
remains of the bounding wall of the Forum
Pacis led from the side of the Basilica of Con
stantine into the T. Sacrae Urbis. The two
end walls of the temple, rebuilt by Severus,
remain. The map of the city was engraved
or painted on one of the walls of this temple.
— VI. Circi. The Circi were places for chariot-
races and horse-races. 1. Circus Maximus, fre
quently called simply the Circus, was founded
by Tarquinius Priscus, in the Vallis Murcia, be
tween the Palatine and the Aventine, and was
successively eMarged by JuUus Caesar and
Trajan. Under the emperors it contamed seats
for 385,000 persons. It was restored by Con
stantine the Great, and games were celebrated
in it as late as the sixth century. [For a full
description see Did. of Ant. art. Circus.] 2. C.
Flaminiua, erected by Flaminius in B.C. 221 in
the Prata Flaminia before the Porta Carmen
talis ; it was not sufficiently large for the popu
lation of Rome, and was there
fore seldom used. 3. C. Caii
et Neronis, erected by Cahgula
in the gardens of Agrippma on
the other side of the Tiber,
under the Vatican hill, and en
larged by Nero. 4. C. Maxen-
tii, wrongly ascribed to Cara
calla, on the Via Appia, two
miles from the gates. It was
built by Maxentius a.d. 311.
Remarkable remains of the ex
ternal wall still exist. 5. C.
Hadriani, is the title given to
a circus of which some remains
have been found near the Mau
soleum of Hadrian. Among
the Circi we may also reckon :
(i. The Stadium, likewise called
C. Agonalis and C. Alexandri,
™> "" ' in the Campus Martius, erected
by Domitian in place of the
wooden Stadium built by Au
gustus, and was restored by Alexander Severus.
Its remains stUl exist in the Piazza Navona.—
VII. Theatres. Theatres were not built at Rome
tiU a comparatively late period, and long after
the Circi. At first they were only made of
wood for temporary purposes, and were after
wards broken up ; but many of these wooden
theatres were notwithstanding constructed with
great magnificence. The splendid wooden
theatre of M. Aemilius Scaurus was capable of
containing 80,000 spectators. [Did. of Ant.
art. Theatrum.] 1. Theatrum Pompeii, the
first permanent stone theatre, was erected by
Cn. Pompey, B.C. 55, in the Campus Martius,
NE. of the Circus Flaminius, after the model
of the theatre of Mytilene. It contained seats
for 40,000 spectators. It was restored succes
sively by Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Diocle
tian, and Theodoric. Its ruins are by the
Palazzo Pio, not far from the Campo di Fiore.
2. Th. Cornelii Balbi, SE. of the preceding,
near the Tiber, on the site of the Palazzo Cenci.
It was dedicated by Cornelius Balbus in B.C.
13, was partly burnt down under Titus, but
was subsequently restored. It contained seats
for 11,600 persons. Some of its columns are
visible, built into houses in Via di S. Maria in

'Cacaberis. 3. Th. Marcelli, in the Forum Oli
torium, SE. of the preceding, between the slope
of the Capitoline and the Island of the Tiber,
on the site of the temple of Pietas. It was
begun by Julius Caesar, and dedicated by Au
gustus in B.C. 18, to the memory of his nephew
MarceUus. It was restored by Vespasian, and
perhaps also by Alexander Severus. It con
tained seats for 20,000 spectators. The re
mains of its Cavea exist near the Piazza Monta-
nara, arcades with engaged columns in two
stories supporting an entablature to each story.
There was also an Odeum, in the Campus Mar
tius, built by Domitian, and enlarged by Trajan :
it contained seats for about 11,000 persons. —
VIII. Amphitheatres. The amphitheatres, like
the theatres, were originally made of wood for
temporary purposes. They were used for the
shows of gladiators and wild beasts. The first
wooden amphitheatre was built by C. Scri-
bonius Curio (the celebrated partisan of Caesar),
and the next by Julius Caesar during his per-

ROMA

811

middle ages to the amphitheatre at Capua.
The Flavian Amphitheatre was situated in the
valley between the Caelian, the Esquiline and
the Velia, on the marshy ground which waB
previously the pond of Nero's palace. It was
begun by Vespasian, and was completed by
Titus, who dedicated it in a.d. 80, when 5000
animals of different kinds were slaughtered.
To this period belong the three tierB of open
arches on the facade and the interior up to
a level with the top of the arcades. The
highest tiers of seats and the fourth story with
pilasters belong to the third century. ' This
wonderful building covered nearly six acres of
ground, and furnished seats for 87,000 specta
tors. In the reign of Macrinus it was struck by
lightning, and so much damage was done to it
that the games were for some years celebrated
in the Stadium. Its restoration was commenced
by Elagabalus and completed by Alexander
Severus. 3. Amph. Castrense, at the SE. of
the Aurelian walls. — IX. Naumachiae. These

Amphi theatrum Flavium, or Colosseum.

petual dictatorship, e.c. 46. 1. Amph. Statilii
Tauri, in the Campus Martius, was the first
stone amphitheatre in Rome, and was built by
Statilius Taurus, b.c. 30. This edifice was the
only one of the kind until the building of the
Flavian Amphitheatre. It did not satisfy Cali
gula, who began an amphitheatre near the
Septa; but the work was not continued by
Claudius. Nero, too, a.d. 57, erected a vast
amphitheatre of wood, but this was only a
temporary building. The amphitheatre of
Taurus was destroyed in the burning of Rome,
a.d. 64, and was probably never restored, and
it is not again mentioned. [Diet, of Ant. art.
Amphitheatrum.~} 2. Amph. Flaviivm, or, as
it has been called since the middle ages, the
Colosseum or Coliseum, a name said to be de
rived from the Colossus of Nero, which once
stood near, but had been destroyed before the
name was given to the amphitheatre. It is
more likely that the name (which first appears
in the writings of Bede) was descriptive of its
vast size. The same name was applied in the

were buildings of a kind similar to the amphi
theatres. They were used for representations
of sea-fights, and consisted of artificial lakes or
ponds, with stone seats around them to accom
modate the spectators. [Diet, of Ant. art.
Na/fmachiae.] 1. Naumachia J itlii Caesaris,
in the middle part of the Campus Martius,
called the ' Lesser Codeta.' This lake was
filled up in the time of Augustus, so that we
find in later writers mention only of two Nau
machiae. 2. N. Augusti, constructed by Au
gustus on the other side of the Tiber under the
Janiculum, in the Horti Caesariani or Nemus
Caesarum. It was subsequently called the
Vetus Naumachia, to distinguish it from the
following one. 3. N. Dortiitiani, constructed
by the emperor Domitian, probably on the other
side of the Tiber under the Vatican and the
Circus Neronis. — X. Thermae. The Thermae
were some of the most magnificent buildings of
imperial Rome. They were distinct from the
Balneae, or common baths, of which there were
a great number at Rome. In the Thermae the

812

baths constituted a small part of the building.
They were, properly speaking, a Roman adapta
tion of the Greek gymnasia ; and besides the
baths they contained places for athletic games
and youthful sports, exedrae or public halls,

Elevation of Coiosseum restored.

porticoes and vestibules for the idle, and libra
ries for the learned. They were decorated with
the finest objects of art, and adorned with
fountains, and shaded walks and plantations.
[Diet, of Ant. art. Balnea.] 1. Thermae Agrip
pae, in the Campus Martius, erected by M.
Agrippa, about twenty feet behind the Pan
theon, which was supposed by some, but with
out sufficient reason, to have served originally
as a vestibule to these Thermae [see above].
On the removal of some houses in 1881 remains
of a great hall, lined and paved with marble
and with fluted columns, belonging to these
Thermae were found. 2. Th. Neronis, erected
by Nero in the .Campus Martius alongside
of the Thermae of Agrippa : they were re
stored by Alexander Severus, and were from
that time called Th. Alexandrinae. 3. Th.
Titi, on the Esquiline, near the amphitheatre
of tMs emperor, of which there are still con
siderable remains. 4. Th. Trajani, also on
the Esquiline, immediately behind the two
preceding, towards the NE. 5. Th. Com-
modianae and Th. Severianae, close to one
another, near S. Balbina, in the SE. part of the
city. 6. Th.Antoninianae (the Baths of Cara
calla), also in the SE. part of the city, behind

ROMA
the two preceding, one of the most magnificent
of all the Thermae, in which 2300 men could
bathe at the same time. The greater part of it
was built by CaracaUa, and it was completed by
Elagabalus and Alexander Severus. The re
mains of this immense buUding are among
the most remarkable in Rome. (For a fuU.
description see Diet, of Ant. art. Balnea).
7. Th. Diocletiani, in the NE. part of the city
between the Agger of Servius and the Viminai
and Quirinal, covering nearly all the ground
between the Porta ViminaUs and Porta Collma..
It was the most extensive of all the Thermae,,
containing a library, picture-gaUery, Odeum,
&c, and such immense baths that 3000 men
could bathe in them at the same time. The
great hall of the Tepidarium was transformed by
Michelangelo mto the nave of the church of
S. Maria degli Angeli, and one of the hot
rooms (laconica) forms the vestibule of the
church. 8. Th. Constantini, on the Quirinal,
on the site of the modern Palazzo Rospigliosi,
of which all traces have disappeared. The
following Thermae were smaller and less cele
brated. 9. Th. Decianae, on the Aventine.
10. Th. Suranae, erected by Trajan to the
memory of his friend Sulpicius Sura, also m
the neighbourhood of the Aventine, probably
the same as the Th. Varianae. 11. Th. Phil
ippi, near S. Matteo in Merulana. 12. Th.
Agrippinae, on the Viminai, behind S. Lorenzo.
13. Th. Caii et Ludi, on the EsquiUne, caUed
in the middle ages the Terme di Galluccio. —
XI. Basilicae. The Basilicae were buildings
which served as courts of law, and exchanges or
places of meetmg for mercliants and men of
business. 1. Basilica Porcia, erected by M.
Porcius Cato, in the Forum, adjoining the Curia,
B.C. 184. It was burnt down along with the
Curia in the riots which followed the death of
Clodius, 52. 2. B. Aemilia, also caUed Aemilia
et Fulvia, because it was built by the censors
L. Aemilius Lepidus and M. Fulvius Nobilior
in 179. It was situated in the Forum, near the
preceding one. It was restored by AemUius
Paulus in the time of Caesar, and was hence
called B. Aemilia or Pauli. It was dedicated
by Ms son Paulus Aemilius Lepidus in Ms
consulship, 34. It was burnt down twenty
years afterwards (14), and was rebuilt nomin
ally by Paulus Lepidus, but in reality by
Augustus and the friends of Paulus. The new
building was a most magnificent one ; its
columns of Phrygian marble were especially
celebrated. It was repaired by another Lepidus.
in the reign of Tiberius, a.d. 22. 3. B. Sem-
pronia, built by Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, B.C.
171, in the Forum, at the end of the Vicus
Tuscus. i. B. Opimia, in the Forum, near the
temple of Concordia. 5. B. Julia, begun by
Julius Caesar and finished by Augustus, in the
Forum, between the temples of Castor and
Saturn, probably on the site of the B. Sempronia
mentioned above. It was restored after a fire
by Sept. Severus. The building can now be
traced by the remains of marble piers, of the
cancelli and of the pavement. 6. B. Argen-
taria, in the Forum, near the Clivus Argentorius
and before the temple of Concordia, destroyed
to make room for the imperial fora. The re
mains of this building are behind S. Martina,
alongside of the Salita di Marforio. 7. B. Ulpia,
in the middle of the Forum of Trajan, of wMch
there are still considerable remains. 8. B.
Constantiana, a magnificent building, between
the temple of Peace and the temple of Rome
and Venus, of which little remains except three-

ROMA

813

vaulted chambers. [For fuller description see
Did. of Ant. art. Basilica.] — XII. Porticoes.
The Porticoes (Porticus) were covered walks,
supported by columns, and open on one side.
There were several public porticoes at Rome,
many of them of great size, which were used as
places of recreation, and for the transaction of
business. 1. Porticus Pompeii, adjoining the
theatre of Pompey, and erected to afford shelter
to the spectators in the theatre during a shower
of ram. It was restored by Diocletian, and was
hence called P. Jovia. 2. P. Argonautarum,
or Neptuni or Agrippae, erected by Agrippa in
the Campus Martius, as a thank-offering for
his naval victories, around the temple of
Neptune, and adorned with paintings represent-
Mg the story of the Argonauts. Eleven marble
columns of the temple stiU exist and traces
of a portico. 3. P. Philippi, by the side of
the T. Herculis Musarum, and the Porticus
Octaviae, built by M. Philippus, the father-in-
law of Augustus, and adorned with splendid
works of art (Plin. xxxv. 114). 4. P. Minucia
¦et Frumentaria, m the Campus Martius, near
the Circus Flammius, built by Q. Minucius
Rufus in B.C. 109, to commemorate his victories
over the Scordisci and Triballi in the preceding
year. It appears that the tesserae, or tickets,
wMch entitled persons to a share in the public
distribution of corn were given to them in the
P. Minucia. (Liv. iv. 12; VeU. Pat. ii. 818.)
5. P. Metelli, buUt by Q. MeteUus, after Ms
triumph over Perseus, Mng of Macedonia, B.C.
146. It was situated in the Campus Martius
between the Circus Flammius and the theatre
of MarceUus, and surrounded the two temples
of Jupiter Stator and Juno Regina. 6. P.
Octaviae, built by Augustus on the site of the
P. MetelU just mentioned, m honour of Ms
sister Octavia. It was a magnificent buUding,
containing a vast number of works of art and
a public library, m wMch the senate frequently
assembled ; hence it is sometimes called Curia
Octavia. It was burnt down in the reign of
Titus. Its rums are near the church of S.
Angelo m Pescaria. RemaMs also of Corinthian
columns have been found since the destruction
of the Ghetto. 7. P. Octavia, which must be
carefully distinguished from the P. Octaviae
just mentioned, was buUt by Cn. Octavius, who
commanded the Roman fleet m the war against
Perseus, Mng of Macedonia. It was situated
in the Campus Martius, between the theatre of
Pompey and the Circus Flaminius. It was
rebmlt by Augustus, and contained two rows of
columns of the Corinthian order, with brazen
-capitals, whence it was also caUed P. Corinthia.
S. P. Europae, in the Campus Martius, prob
ably N. of the Pantheon, so caUed from the
statues or frescoes m it relating to the story of
Europa (Mart. ii. 14, in. 20, vii. 32). 9. P.
Pollae, built by the sister of Agrippa m the
Campus Agrippae. In it was the map of the
Roman world wMch Agrippa caused to be
painted or carved upon the walls (Plin. iii.
17). 10. P. Livia, on the Esquiline, surround
ing a temple of Concordia (Ov. Fast. vi. 637).
11. P. Deorum Consentium, a portico forming
shrines for the twelve statues of the Dii Con
sentes [Consentes]. It was built on the slope
of the Capitol, above the temple of Saturn.
12. P. Vipsania was probably only another name
of the Porticus Pollae ( = Vipsaniae) : the neigh
bouring arch, which dripped, may have belonged
to the Aqua Virgo (Mart. iv. 18). 13. P. Me-
leagri, near the P. Europae, and also named
from the paintings or statues in it. 14. P. Boni

Eventus, in the Campus Martius, near the
Thermae of Agrippa.— XIII. Triumphal
Arches. The Triumphal Arches (Areus) were
structures peculiar to the Romans, and were
erected by victorious generals in commemoration
of their victories. They were built across the
principal streets of the city, and, according to
the space of their respective localities, consisted
either of a single archway or of a central one
for carriages, with a smaller one on each side
for foot-passengers. Ancient writers mention
twenty-one arches in the city of Rome. Of these
the most important were : 1. Areus Fabianus,
also called Forma; Fabianus, near the beginning
of the Via Sacra, built by Fabius Maximus in
B.C. 121, in commemoration of his victory over
the Allobroges. 2. A. Drusi, erected by the
senate in B.C. 9, in honour of Nero Claudius
Drusus, in Regio I., but the existing arch which
is called the ' Arch of Drusus,' over the Via
Appia, is merely an arch of the aqueduct built
by CaracaUa to supply Ms thermae, and more
highly ornamented because it crossed a road.
It is clearly of a much later date than the time
of Drusus. 8. A. Augusti, in the Forum, near
the house of Julius Caesar. 4. A. Tiberii,

Arch of Titus.

near the temple of Saturn on the Clivus Capito-
lmus, erected by Tiberius, a.d. 16, in honour of
the victories of Germanicus in Germany. 5. A.
Claudii, in the plain E. of the Quirinal, erected
across the Via Lata a.d. 51, to commemorate
the victories of Claudius in Britain. Remains
of it have been dug up at the beginning of the
Piazza Sciarra, by the Via di Pietra. 6. A.
Titi, in the middle of the Via Sacra at the foot
of the Palatine, which still exists. It was
erected to the honour of Titus, after his con
quest of Judaea, but was not finished tiU after
his death, since in the inscription upon it he is
caUed 'Divus,' and he is also represented as
being carried up to heaven upon an eagle. The
bas-reliefs of this arch represent the spoils from
the Temple of Jerusalem carried in triumphal
procession. Another Arch of Titus once stood
in the Circus Maximus. 7. A. Trajani, in the
forum of this emperor, at the point where it is
entered from the Forum of Augustus. 8. A.
Veri, on the Via Appia, erected to the honour

814

ROMA

of Verus after Ms victory over the Parthians.
9. A. Marci Aurelii, in the Via Flaminia, not
far from the Arch of Claudius, probably erected
to commemorate the victory of this emperor
over the Marcomanni. It existed under differ
ent names near the Piazza Fiano down to 1662,
when it was broken up by order of Alexander
VII. 10. A. Septimii Severi, still extant in the
Forum, at the end of the Via Sacra and the
Clivus Capitolinus before the temple of Con
cordia, near the church of SS. Sergio e Bacco,
was erected by the senate, a.d. 203, in honour
of Septimius Severus and his two sons, Cara
caUa and Geta, on account of his victories over
PartMans and Arabians. 11. A. Argentari-
orum, in the Forum Boarium (a gateway rather
than an arch), was also erected in honour of
Sept. Severus and his two sons by the silver
smiths and merchants of the district. Cara
calla erased all that referred to his brother
Geta. 12. A. Gallieni, erected to the honour
of GaUienus by a private individual, M. Aure
lius Victor, also on the Esquiline, SE. of the
Porta Esquilina. It is still extant near the
church of S. Vito. 13. A. Constantini, at the
entrance to the valley between the Palatine
and the Caelian, is still extant. It was erected
by the senate in honour of Constantine after
his victory over Maxentius, a.d. 312. It is
profusely ornamented, and many of the bas-
reliefs which adorn it were taken from one of
the arches erected in the time of Trajan.
14. A. Dolabellae, on the Caelian hill, a plain
arch of travertine, with an inscription stating
that it was erected by Dolabella in Ms consul
ship (a.d. 10). It is not a triumphal arch, nor
can it have been made for the Claudian aque
duct which passes over it, but is of a later date.
It is suggested that it may have been built for
the Aqua Marcia, and afterwards used for the
Aqua Claudia. — XIV. Curiae or Senate-Houses.
1. Curia Hostilia, frequently called Curia
simply, was built by Tullus Hostilius, and was
used as the ordinary place of assembly for the
senate down to the time of Julius Caesar. It
stood on the N. side of the Comitium. It was
burnt to the ground in the riots which followed
the death of Clodius, B.C. 52. It was, however,
soon rebuilt, the direction of the work being
entrusted to Faustus, the son of the dictator
Sulla ; but scarcely had it been finished, when
the senate, at the suggestion of Caesar, decreed
that it should be destroyed, and a temple of
Fortune erected on its site, while a new Curia
should be erected, which should bear the name
of Julia. This Curia Julia stood nearly, but
not exactly, on the site of the old one. It
was burnt, and rebuilt by Domitian, and re
built again after another fire by Diocletian. It
has been fairly established that the Curia of
Diocletian is the existing church of S. Adriano.
C. Pompeia or Pompeii, attached to the Portico
of Pompey in the Campus Martius. It was in this
Curia, at the foot of the statue of Pompey which
stood there (generally supposed to be the statue
now in Palazzo Spada), that Caesar was assas
sinated on the Ides of March.— XV. Prisons.
The only prison in the earliest times was said
to have been built by Ancus Marcius (Liv. i.
38), and was on the slope of the Capitoline,
to the right of the ascent from the Forum.
It waB called Tullianum, Bobur Tullianum,
Bobur, or Career : the name Career Mamer-
tinus, or Mamertine Prison, by which it is now
generally known, dates only from the middle
ages, and was derived from a statue of Mars
which stood near it and gave the name also to

the Via del Marforio. The name Tullianum
has nothing to do with any additions by Servius.
TuUius, as old etymologists supposed, but is
derived from tullius (a spring), and means 'the
well-house,' the lower chamber having been
originaUy a cistern for the use of the Capitol
excavated in the rock to collect the water of the
spring which still exists there. It is a circular
chamber partly hollowed in the rock, partly
built up with blocks of stone, forming originally
a vaulted or conical roof closed at the top by a
stone which was removed to let the prisoners
down into the lower chamber (or Tullianum
proper) : this is now reached by a modern stair
case. Above was a larger room, of a later date,
but still very old. Above the whole has been
built the church of S. Pietro in Carcere. In
this lower prison Jugurtha was confined and
probably died of the cold : in one or other
of the chambers captives were slam as the
triumphal procession went up to the Capitol,
and criminals were executed (e.g. the Catiline
conspirators). (Liv. xxix. 22, xxxiv. 44; Sail.
Cat. 55.) Near this prison were the Scalae
Gemoniae or steps" down which the bodies of
those who had been executed were thrown into
the Forum, to be exposed to the gaze of the
Roman populace. It is said (Liv. iii. 57) that
App. Claudius built a new prison. It is of
course possible that this may be the upper
chamber over the Tullianum : or it may have
been the prison called Lautumiae : or the
Lautumiae may have been a third state prison.
Some writers believe the Lautumiae to have
been merely another name for the TuUianum,
or for the upper part of it, but it is more Ukely
that it was a separate and more recent buUd
ing. (Liv. xxxii. 26, xxxvii. 3 ; Juv. iii. 212.) It
was, no doubt, near the Tullianum, and derived
its name from the district Lautumiae, m wMch
there had once been quarries. This is more
likely than the derivation of the name from the
Syracusan Xaropiat. — XVI. Castra or Bar
racks. 1. Castra Praetoria, in the NE. comer
of the city, on the slope of the Quirinal and
Viminai, and beyond the Thermae of Diocletian,
were built by the emperor Tiberius in the form
of a Roman camp. Here the Praetorian troops
or imperial guards were always quartered. TMs
camp was outside the city limits when it was
first made, but was incorporated in the Aure
lian walls [see above, p. 801, a]. 2. Castra Pere-
grina, on the Caelian, probably built by Septi
mius Severus for the use of the foreign troops,
who might serve as a counterpoise against the
Praetorians. 3. The barracks (castra) of the
Equites Singulares or imperial cavalry guard,
were on the Caelian hill. The remains of the
building, with many inscriptions, have been
found in the Via Tasso, near the Lateran.
4. Traces of barracks of the Cohortes urbanae
have been found in the Campus Agrippae :
there were others near the Thermae of Titus,
but the exact position for each region is un
certain. 5. Remains of the buildings forming
the stationes or headquarters of the cohorts
of Vigiles have been found on the Quirinal,
EsquUine, Aventine, and Caelian; and inter
esting remains of smaller barracks (excubi-
toria) near the church of S. Crisogono m
Trastevere. — XVII. Aqueducts. The Aque
ducts (Aquaeductus) supplied Rome with an
abundance of pure water from the hills which
surround the Campagna. The Romans at first
had recourse to the Tiber and to weUs sunk in
the city. It was not till B.C. 313 that the first
aqueduot was constructed, but their number

ROMA

was gradually increased till they amounted to
eleven. 1. Aqua Appia, was begun by the
censor Appius Claudius Caecus in B.C. 313. Its
sources were near the Via Praenestina, between
the /seventh and eighth milestones, and its
termination was at the Salinae by the Porta
Trigemina. Its length was 11,190 passus ; for
11,130 of which it was carried under the earth,
and for the remainmg sixty passus, within the
city, from the Porta Capena to the Porta Tri
gemina, it was on arches. No traces of it re
main. 2. Anio Vetus, commenced B.C. 273, by
the censor M'. Curius Dentatus, and finished
by M. Fulvius Flaccus. The water was de
rived from the river Anio, above Tibur, at a dis
tance of twenty Roman miles from the city ;
but on account of its windings its actual length
was forty-tM-ee miles, of which length less than
a quarter of a mile only (viz. 221 passus) was
above the ground. There are considerable re-
mams of this aqueduct ou the Aurelian wall,
near the Porta Maggiore, and also in the
neighbourhood of TivoU. 8. Aqua Marcia,
wMch brought the coldest and most wholesome
water to Rome, was built by the praetor Q.
Marcius Rex, by command of the senate, in
B.C. 144. It started at the side of the Via
Valeria, thirty-eight miles from Rome ; its
length was 61,710^ passus, of which only 7463
were above ground : namely, 528 on solid sub
structions, and 6935 on arches. It ended near
the Porta Capena. It was repaired by Agrippa
in Ms aedUesMp, B.C. 33 [see below No. 5], and
the volume of its water was mcreased by Au
gustus, by means of the water of a spring 800
passus from it : the short aqueduct which con
veyed tMs water was called Aqua Augusta,
but is never enumerated as a distinct aqueduct.
The supply of the Marcian water was restored
by Pius IK. m 1870, and is called ' Acqua Pia.'
4. Aqua Tepula, which was buUt by the censors
Cn. Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus
m B.C. 127, began in a spot in the Lucullan or
Tusculan land, two miles to the right of the
tenth mUestone on the Via Latina. 5. Aqua
Julia. Among the splendid public works exe
cuted by Agrippa in Ms aedUesMp, B.C. 33, was
the formation of a new aqueduct, and the resto
ration of aU the old ones. From a source two
miles to the right of the twelfth milestone on
the Via LatMa he constructed his aqueduct
(the Aqua Julia), wMch was carried for some
distance on the same arches as Nos. 3 and 4.
The water was carried along three distinct
channels, on the same substructions (which
were probably the origmal substructions of the
Aqua Marcia and Aqua Tepula newly restored),
the lowest channel being the Aqua Marcia, the
middle Aqua Tepula, and the upper the Aqua
Julia. In the city the channels were separated
and carried to different quarters. The arch
buUt by Augustus where the triple aqueduct
crosses a road is stiU to be seen close to the
Porta S. Lorenzo. It bears an inscription refer
ring to the repairs under Caracalla. The whole
course of the Aqua Julia, from its source,
amounted to 15,426 passus, partly on massive
substructions and partly on arches. 6. Aqua
Virgo, built by Agrippa to supply his baths.
Its water was as MgMy esteemed for bathing as
that of the Aqua Marcia was for drinkmg. It
commenced by the eighth milestone on the
Via CoUatma, and was conducted by a very
circuitous route, chiefly under the ground, to
the M. Pincius, whence it was carried on arches
to the Campus Martius : its length was 14,105
passus, of which 12,865 were under ground.

815

7. Aqua Alsietina, sometimes called also Aqua
Augusta, on the other side of the Tiber, was
constructed by Augustus from the Lacus Alsie-
tinus (Lago di Martignano) which lay 6500
passus to the right of the fourteenth milestone
on the Via Claudia, and was brought to the
part of the Regio Transtiberina below- the Jani
culum. Its length was 22,172 passus, of which
only 354 were on arches ; and the water was so
bad that it could only have been intended for
the supply of Augustus's Naumachia, and for
watering gardens. 8, 9. Aqua Claudia, and
Anio Novus (or Aqua Aniena Nova), the two
most magnificent of all the aqueducts, both
begun by Caligula in a.d. 36, and finished by
Claudius in a.d. 50. The Aqua Claudia com
menced near the thirty-eighth milestone on the
Via Sublacensis. Its water was reckoned the
best after the Marcia. Its length was 46,406
passus (nearly 46£ miles), of which 9567 were
on arches. The Anio Novus began at the
forty-second milestone on the Via Sublacensis.
Its length was 58,700 passus (nearly 59 miles),
and some of its arches were 109 feet high. In
the neighbourhood of the city, these two aque
ducts were united, forming two channels on the
same arches, the Claudia below and the Anio
Novus above. An interesting monument con
nected with these aqueducts is the gate now
called Porta Maggiore, which was originally a
magnificent double arch by means of which the
aqueduct was carried over the Via Labicana
and the Via Praenestina. Over the double
arch are three inscriptions, which record the
names of Claudius as the builder, and of Ves
pasian and Titus as the restorers, of the aque
duct. By the side of this arch the aqueduct
passes along the wall of Aurelian for some
distance, and then it is continued upon the
Areus Neroniani or Caelimontani, which were
added by Nero to carry the water on over the
Caelian to the Palatine, with a branch passing
toward the Colosseum. 10. Aqua Trajana,
was brought by Trajan from the Lacus Saba-
tinus (now Bracciano) to supply the Janiculum
and the Regio Transtiberina. 11. Aqua Alex-
andrina, constructed by Alexander Severus ;
its source was in the lands of Tusculum, about
fourteen miles from Rome, between Gabii and
the lake Regillus. Its small height shows that
it was intended for the baths of Severus, which
were in one of the valleys of Rome. These
eleven were the separate aqueducts of Rome :
Procopius brings the number up to fourteen by
reckoning branches drawn off from some of
them. The Aqua Crabra was a small brook
which flowed under the wall between Porta La
tina and the Lateran, and was enclosed in a
euripus or open channel at the Circus Maximus.
Several of these aqueducts have been restored
for modern use. (1) The Acqua Vergine, the
ancient Aqua Virgo, which was restored by
Pope Pius IV. and further embellished by
Benedict XIV. and Clement XIII. The chief
portion of its waters gushes out through the-
beautiful Fontana di Trevi, but it also sup
plies twelve other public fountains and the
greater part of the lower city. (2) The Aequo,
Felice, named after the conventual name of
its restorer Sixtus V. (Fra Felice), is a part
of the ancient Aqua Alexandrina. It sup
plies twenty-seven public fountains and the
eastern part of the city. (3) The Acqua
Paola, the ancient Trajana, supplies the
Trastevere and the Vatican, and feeds, among
others, the splendid fountains before St. Peter's.
(i) The Acqua Pia, restored in 1870 by

816Pius IX. to convey the water of the Aqua
Marcia.— XVIII. Sewers. Of these the most
celebrated was the Cloaca. Maxima, constructed
by Tarquimus Priscus, which was formed to
carry off the waters brought down from the ad
jacent hills into the Velabrum and valley of the
Forum. It empties itself into the Tiber nearly
opposite one extremity of the Insula Tiberina.
This cloaca was formed by three arches, one
within the other, the innermost of which is a
semicircular vault about fourteen feet in
diameter. It is still extant in its original state.
Even larger than the so-called Cloaca Maxima
is the cloaca which drained the valley of the
Circus Maximus and the ground at the base of
the Caelian, and has its opening about one
hundred yards below the Cloaca Maxima. That
which drains the Campus Martius was possibly
the largest of aU. (Plin. xxxvi. 104 ; Dionys.
iii. 68 ; Did. of Ant. art. Cloacae.) — XIX. Pa
laces. The house of Augustus was built on
the site of the house of Hortensius on the S. of
the Palatine overhanging the Circus Maximus,
where the Villa Mills now stands. The Domus
Tiberiana, which was originally a separate
house of Tiberius on the Palatine and was
afterwards united to the palace of Augustus.
It was on the W. side of the hill turned towards
the Velabrum, where a long row of vaulted
chambers, supposed to be guard-rooms, exist.
The Palatium was considerably enlarged by
Caligula, who extended the buildings a long
way beyond the Domus Tiberiana, across the
¦Clivus Victoriae, thus occupying the NW. angle
of the Palatine ; but it did not satisfy Nero's
love of pomp and splendour. Nero built two
magnificent palaces, which must be distinguished
irom one another. The first, called the Domus
Transitoria Neronis, covered the whole of the
Palatine, and extended as far as the Esquiline
to the gardens of Maecenas. This palace was
burnt to the ground in the great fire of Rome,
thereupon Nero commenced a new palace,
known by the name of Domus Aurea, which
embraced the whole of the Palatine, the Velia,
the valley of the Colosseum and the heights of
the Thermae of Titus, extended near the
Esquiline gate, and was cut through not only
by the Via Sacra but also by other streets. The
whole building, however, was not finished at the
time of Nero's death ; and Vespasian confined
the imperial palace to the Palatine, converting
the other parts of the Domus Aurea into public
or private buildings. The palace itself was not
-finished till the time of Domitian, who adorned
it with numerous works of art. This, which is
oalled the Flavian palace, occupied and filled
up the depression which divided the summits of
the Palatine. The emperor Septimius Severus
added buildings on the S. side of the Palatine,
extending into the valley towards the Caelian.
A port of this palace at the SE. base of the hill
was especially lofty and splendid, and was
oalled Septizonium, probably because it had
seven stories of colonnades. There were con
siderable remains of this Septizonium down to
the end of the sixteenth century, when Six-
tus V. caused them to be destroyed, and the
pillars brought to the Vatican. The buildings
variously called the House of Germanicus or
of Livia stand E. of the remains of the Domus
Tiberiana, and are remarkable for the preserva
tion of its form and even of some of its paint
ings ; a crypto-porticus, or covered passage, led
from it to the palace of Caligula. The Domus
Gelotiana (Suet. Gal. 18) stood on the SW.
slope of the Palatine, above the Circus, and

ROMA
contains curious writings and drawings cut into
the plaster, some of which seem to show that at
one time it was used as a paedagogium for
the imperial pages. Domus Vediliana, near
the Colosseum, was a palace of Commodus.
Among the numerous private palaces at Rome
the following were some of the most important.
Domus Ciceronis, close to the Porticus Catuli,
on the N. slope of the Palatine, was built by
M. Livius Drusus, and purchased by Cicero of
one of the Crassi. It was destroyed by Claudius
after the banishment of Cicero, but was subse
quently rebuilt at the public expense. D.Pom
peii, the palace of Pompey, was situated in the
Carinae near the temple of Tellus. It was
afterwards the residence of M. Antonius.
D. Crassi, the palace of L. Crassus the orator,
on the Palatine. D. Scauri, also on the Pala
tine, celebrated for its magnificence, subse
quently belonged to Clodius. D. Lateranorum,
on the E. confines of the Caelian, was a palace
originally belonging to the distinguished family
of the Plautii Laterani ; but after the execution
of Plautius Lateranus under Nero, it became
imperial property. It was given by SeptimiuB
Severus to his friend Lateranus, and was sub
sequently the palace of Constantine, who
adorned it with great magnificence. The mo
dern Basilica and palace of the Lateran occupies
most of its site, but there are remains of the
older palace. — XX. Horti. The Horti were
parks or gardens which were laid out by
wealthy Roman nobles on the MUs around the
city, and were adorned with beautiful buUdings
and works of art. (1) Horti Luculliani, on M.
Pincius, wMch hill was hence called CoUis
Hortorum. They were laid out by Lucullus,
the conqueror of Mithridates. In the reign of
Claudius they belonged to Valerius Asiaticus,
who was put to death tMough the influence of
MessalUna, chiefly because she coveted the
possession of these gardens. From tMs time
they appear to have belonged to the imperial
house. (2) H. Sallustiani, laid out by the
Mstorian SaUust, on his return from Numidia,
in the valley between the Quirinal and the
Pincius. (3) H. Caesaris, bequeathed by Julius
Caesar to the people, were situated on the right
bank of the Tiber at the foot of the Janiculum,
where Augustus afterwards constructed Ms
great Naumachia. (4) H. Maecenatis, in the
Campus Bsquilinus, bequeathed by Maecenas
to Augustus and frequently used by the im
perial famUy [see above, p. 805, a]. (5) H. Agrip-
pinae, on the right bank of the Tiber, at the
base of the Vatican MU, in wMch Caligula built
his Circus. It was here that Nero burnt the
CMistians in tunics covered with pitch to serve
as lights for his nocturnal games. (Tac. Ann. xv.
44 ; Juv. i. 155.) Adjoming these were : (6) H.
Domitiae, also on the right bank of the Tiber,
in which Hadrian built his Mausoleum.
(7) H. Pallantiani, on the Esquiline, laid out
by Pallas, the powerful freedman of Claudius.
(8) H. Getae, on the other side of the Tiber,
laid out by Septimius Severus. — XXI. Sepul
chral Monuments. (1) Mausoleum Augusti,
was situated in the Campus Martius and was
built by Augustus as the burial-place of the
imperial family. It was surrounded with an
extensive garden or park, and was considered
one of the most magnificent buildings of Ms
reign; but there are only some msignificant
ruins of it still extant. (2) Mausoleum Hadri-
ani, was commenced by Hadrian in the gardens
of Domitia on the right bank of the Tiber, and
was connected with the city by the Pons

Aelius ; it was finished and dedicated by Anto
ninus Pius, a.d. 140. Here were buried Hadrian,
Antomnus Pius, L. Verus, Commodus, and prob
ably also Septimius Severus, Geta, and Cara
calla. TMs buUding, stripped of its ornaments
and converted mto a fortress before the time
of Procopius (it is said, bv Belisarius), is

ROMA

817

round the piUar, which represents the emperor's
wars agamst Decebalus and the Dacians, and
is one of the most valuable authorities for
archaeological inquiries. (4) Gol. Antonini Pii,
erected in honour of Antoninus Pius after Ms
death, consisted of a column of red gramte on
a pediment of white marble, and was situated

Castle ol S. Angelo (Mausoleum of Hadrian).

the Castle of S. Angelo. (3) Sepulcrum Scipi-
onum, the burial-place of the Scipios, was
situated, left of the Via Appia, near the Porta
Capena. Most of the tombs of the distmguished
Roman famihes durmgthe RepubUcan periodlay
on the Via Appia. The tomb of the Scipios was
discovered m 1780, about 400 paces within the
modern Porta S. Sebastiano. It contained many
interesting monuments and mscriptions, which
were deposited m the Museo Pio-Clementino.
(4) Sepulcrum Gaeciliae Metellae. [See p. 556.]
(5) Sepulcrum Cestii, situated S. of the Aven
tine, near the Porta Ostiensis, being partly
within and partly without the walls of AureUan.
This monument, wMch is stiU extant, is in the
form of a pyramid, and was buUt m the time
of Augustus for a certain C. Cestius. — XXII.
Columns. Columns (Columnae) were fre
quently erected at Rome to commemorate
persons and events. (1) Columna Maeniana,
m the Forum, was erected to the honour of the
consul C. Maemus, who conquered the Latins
and took the town of Antium, B.C. 338. (2) Col.
Bostrata, also in the Forum, erected in honour
of the consul C.DuiUus, to commemorate his vic
tory over the Carthagmian fleet, B.C. 260. The
name of Rostrata was given to it from its being
adorned with the beaks of the conquered ships.
Part of its mscribed base was found near
the Arch of Severus m the sixteenth cent., and
is preserved M the Capitoline Museum. (3) Col.
Trajani, m the Forum (also called C. Cochlis,
from its spiral staircase), in which the ashes of
the emperor Trajan were deposited. This
column is stUl extant, and is one of the most
interesting monuments of ancient Rome. It
is, mcludmg the pedestal, 117 feet high. The
top was originaUy crowned with the statue of
the emperor ; it is now surmounted by that of
the apostle Peter. A spiral bas-relief is folded

m the Campus Martius, near the temple dedi
cated to this emperor. It stood not far from
the Curia Innocenziana on Monte Citorio, in
the garden of the Casa della Missione. At
present the basis only is extant, and is pre
served m the garden of the Vatican. (5) Col.
M. Aurelii Antonini, generally called the
Antonine Column, erected to the memory of
the emperor M. Aurelius, also in the Campus
Martius, and still extant. It is an imitation of
the Column of Trajan, and contains bas-reliefs
representing the wars of M. Aurelius agamst
the Marcomanm. — XXIII. Obelisks. The Obe
lisks (Obelisci) at Rome were mostly works of
Egyptian art, which were transported from
Egypt to Rome in the time of the emperors.
Augustus caused two obelisks to be brought to
Rome, one of which was erected in the Circus
and another m the Campus Martius. The
former was restored M 1589, and is called at
present the Flammian Obelisk. Its whole
height is about 116 feet, and without the base
about 78 feet. The obelisk m the Campus
Martius was set up by Augustus as a sun-dial.
It stands at present on the Monte Citorio,
where it was placed in 1792. Its whole height
is about 110 feet, and without its base 71 feet.
Another obelisk was brought to Rome by Cali
gula, and placed on the Vatican in the Circus
of Caligula. It stands at present in front of St.
Peter's, where it was placed in 1586, and its
whole height is about 182 feet, and without the
base and modern ornaments at top about 83
feet. But the largest obelisk at Rome is that
which was origmaUy transported from Helio
polis to Alexandria by Constantine, and con
veyed to Rome by Ms son Constantius, who
placed it m the Circus Maximus. Its present
position is before the north portico of the
Lateran church, where it was placed in 1588.
SG

818

ROMULEA

Its whole height is about 149 feet, and without
the base about 105 feet. There are nine other
obelisks at Rome, besides those mentioned
above. — H. Roads leading out of Rome. Of
these the most important were : (1) Via Latina,
the most ancient of the south roads, which
issued at first from the Porta Capena, and after
the time of AureUan from the Porta Latina.
It joined the Via Appia at Casilinum. (2) Via
Appia, the Great South Road, also issued from
the Porta Capena, and was the most cele
brated of all the Roman roads. It was com
menced by Appius Claudius, when censor, and
was eventually carried to Brundusium. [Appia
Via.] (3) Via Ostiensis, originally passed
tMough the Porta Trigemina, afterwards
tMough the Porta Ostiensis, and kept the left
bank of the Tiber to Ostia. (4) ViaPortuensis,
issued from the same gate as the Via Ostiensis,
and kept the right bank of the Tiber to Portus,
the new harbour founded by Claudius, near
Ostia. (5) ViaLabicana, issued from the Porta
Esquilina, and passing Labi«um fell mto the
Via Latina at the station ad Bivium, thirty
miles from Rome. (6) Via Praenestina, ori
ginally the Via Gabina, issued at first from
the Porta Esquilina, and subsequently from
the Porta Praenestina. Passmg through Gabii
and Praeneste, it joined the Via Latina just
below Anagnia. (7) Via Tiburtina, issued
originally from the Porta Esquilina, or from
the Porta Viminahs, and subsequently from
the Porta Tiburtina, and proceeded to Tibur,
from which it was continued under the name
of the Via Valeria, past Corfinium to Adria.
(8) Via Nomentana, anciently Ficulnensis, ran
from the Porta Collina, subsequently from the
Porta Nomentana, across the Anio to Nomen-
tum, and a little beyond fell Mto the Via
Salaria at Eretum. (9) Via Salaria, ran from
the Porta Collina, subsequently from the Porta
Salaria, past Fidenae to Reate and Asculum
Picenum. At Castrum Truentinum it reached
the coast, which it followed until it joined the
Via Flaminia at Ancona. (10) Via Flaminia,
the Great North Road (commenced in the cen
sorship of C. Flaminius), issued from the Porta
Flaminia, and proceeded past Ocriculum, Nar
nia and Pisaurum to Ariminum, from which
town it was continued under the name of the
Via Aemilia to Placentia and AquUeia. (11)
Via Aurelia, the Great Coast Road, issued
originally from the Porta Janiculensis. It
reached the coast at Alsium, and followed the
shore of the Lower Sea along Etruria and
Liguria by Genoa, as far as Forum Julii in
Gaul. [For the construction of Roman roads,
see Diet, of Ant. art. Viae.]
Rdmulea, a town of Samnium taken by the
Romans in the third Samnite war, B.C. 297,
after which it seems to have fallen into decay
(Liv. x. 17 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.). Its site seems to
have been near the modern Bilaccia, on the
Via Appia, between Aeclanum and AquUonia.
Romulus, was the traditional founder of
Rome, whose name expressed that of the city,
and whose story grew up out of a number of
legends connected with the origin of the city
and of the Roman people, or attempting to
explain it. [For the meanmg of his other name,
QumiNus, see that article.] The story of
Romulus commonly accepted by ancient writers
(Liv. i. 4-15 ; Dionys. i. 72-ii. 76 ; Plut. Bomu-
lua ; Fest. a.v. Boma) runs as foUows : — At Alba
Longa there reigned a long line of kings
[SHiVrcs] descended from Aeneas. The last of
these left two sons, Numitor and Amulius.

ROMULUS
Amulius, who was the younger, deprived Nu
mitor of the kingdom, but left him his life.
Fearful, however, lest the heirs of Numitor
might assert their rights, he murdered the only
son, and made the daughter, Silvia, or Rhea
Silvia, one of the Vestal virgins. Silvia was
violated by Mars, and in course of time gave
birth to twms. Amulius doomed the guilty
Vestal and her babes to be drowned in the
river. [Rhea Silvia.] The stream carried the
cradle in wMch the children were lying into the
Tiber, which had overflowed its banks far and
wide. It was stranded at the foot of the Pala
tine, and overturned on the root of a wild fig-
tree, which, under the name of the Ficus Rumi-
nalis, was preserved and held sacred for many
ages after. [For the origm of tMs tradition
see Rumina.] A she-wolf, which had come to
drink of the stream, carried them into her den
hard by, and suckled them, where they were
discovered by Faustulus, the Mng's shepherd,
who took the chUdren to Ms own house, and

Romulus and Remus suckled by the Wolf. (Prom the
Etruscan bronze statue in the Capitol.)
gave them to the care of Ms wife, Acca Laren
tia. They were called Romulus and Remus,
and were brought up with the other shepherds
on the Palatine hill. As they grew up, they
became distinguished by the beauty of then-
person and the bravery of their deeds, and
fought boldly against wild beasts and robbers.
A quarrel having arisen between these shep
herds and the herdsmen of Numitor, who stalled
their cattle on the neighbouring hUl of the
Aventine, Remus was taken by a stratagem,
during the absence of Ms brother, and carried
off to Numitor. TMs led to the discovery of
the parentage both of Romulus and Remus,
who now slew Amulius, and placed their grand
father Numitor on the tMone. — Romulus and
Remus loved their old abode, and therefore
left Alba to found a city on the banks of the
Tiber. A strife arose between the brothers
where the city should be built, and after whose
name it should be called. Romulus wished to
build it on the Palatine, Remus on the Aven
tine. It was agreed that the question should
be decided by augury; and each took his
station on the top of his chosen MU (cf. Enn.
i. 106). The night passed away, and as the day
was dawning Remus saw six vultures ; but at
sunrise, when these tidings were brought to
Romulus, twelve vultures flew by Mm. Each
claimed the augury in his own favour ; but the
shepherds decided for Romulus, and Remus
was obliged to yield. Romulus now proceeded
to mark out the pomerium of his city (see
Did. of Antiq. s.v.), and to raise the wall.
Remus, who still resented the wrong he had
suffered, leapt over the wall in scorn, where
upon he was slain by his brother (cf. Ov. Fast.
iv. 842). As soon as the city was built, Romulus

found his people too few in numbers. He
therefore set apart, on the Capitoline MU, an
asylum, or a sanctuary, m which homicides and
runaway slaves might take refuge. The city
thus became filled with men, but they wanted
women. Romulus, therefore, tried to form
treaties with the neighbouring tribes, in order
to obtain conubium, or the right of legal
marriage with their citizens; but his offers were
treated with disdam, and according to the
story, which seems to be an attempt to explain
the ancient custom of ' marriage by capture,'
he resolved to obtain by force what he could
not gain by entreaty. In the fourth month
after the foundation of the city, he pro
claimed that games were to be celebrated
in honour of the god Consus, and invited
Ms neighbours, the Latins and Sabines, to the
festival (cf. Ov. Faat. iii. 199). Suspecting no
treachery, they came m numbers, with their
wives and children. But the Roman youths
rushed upon their guests, and carried off the
maidens. Their parents returned home and
prepared for vengeance. The inhabitants of
tMee of the Latin towns, Caenma, Antemnae,
and Crustumerium, took up arms one after the
other, and were successively defeated by the
Romans. Romulus slew with Ms own hand
Acron, Mng of Caenma, and dedicated Ms arms
and armour, as spolia opima, to Jupiter. At
last the Sabme Mng, Titus Tatius, advanced
with a powerful army agamst Rome. The
fortress of the Saturnian (afterwards caUed the
CapitoUne) MU, was surrendered to the Sabines
by the treachery of Tarpeia, the daughter of
the commander of the fortress. [Tabpeia.] On
the next day the Romans endeavoured to re
cover the hill, and a long and desperate battle
was fought M the vaUey between the Palatine
and the CapitoUne. At length, when both
parties were exhausted with the struggle, the
Sabme women rushed m between them, and
prayed their husbands and fathers to be recon-
cUed. Their prayer was heard ; the two people
not only made peace, but agreed to form only
one nation. The Romans continued to dweU
on the Palatine under their kmg Romulus ; the
Sabines buUt a new town on the CapitoUne and
Quirinal MUs, where they Uved under their kmg
Titus Tatius. The two Mngs and their senates
met for deUberation in the vaUey between the
Palatine and the CapitoUne hiUs, which was
hence caUed comitium, or the place of meeting.
But tMs union did not last long. Titus Tatius
was slam at a festival at Lavmium by some
Laurentines, to whom he had refused satisfac
tion for outrages wMch had been committed by
Ms Mnsmen. Henceforward Romulus ruled
alone over both Romans and Sabines. After
Teigning thirty-seven years, he was at length
taken away from the world. One day as he
was reviewmg his people m the Campus Mar
tius, near the Goat's Pool, the sun was suddenly
ecUpsed, darkness overspread the earth, and a
dreadful storm dispersed the people (a story
wMch may have been invented to explain the
name of the festival Poplifugium or Populi-
fugium : Did. of Ant. s.v.). When dayUght
hod returned, Romulus hod disappeared, for Ms
father, Mars, had carried Mm up to heaven in a
fiery chariot (Quirinus Martis equis Ache-
ronta fugit, Hor. Od. in. 3, 15 ; cf. Ov. Fast. ii.
496 ; Liv. i. 16 ; Cic. deBep. i. 16, 25). Shortly
afterwards he appeared in more than mortal
beauty to Proculus Julius, and bade him teU
the Romans to worship him as their guardian
god under the name of Quirinus. Such was

ROMULUS

819

the glorified end of Romulus in the genuine
legend. But as it staggered the faith of a later
age, a tale was invented to account for his
mysterious disappearance. It was related that
the senators, discontented with the tyrannical
rule of their king, murdered him during the
gloom of a tempest, cut up Ms body, and carried
home the mangled pieces under their robes. —
As Romulus was regarded as the founder of
Rome, its most ancient political institutions
and the organisation of the people were ascribed
to Mm. Thus he is said to have divided the
people into three tribes, which bore the names
Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. The Ramnes
were supposed to have derived their name from
Romulus, the Tities from Titus Tatius, the Sa
bine king, and the Luceres from Lucumo, an
Etruscan chief who had assisted Romulus in
the war against the Sabines. Each tribe con
tained ten curiae, which received their names
from the thirty Sabme women who had brought
about the peace between the Romans and their
own people. Further, each curia contained 10
gentes, and each gens 100 men. Thus the
people, accordmg to the general belief, were
divided originally mto 3 tribes, 30 curiae, and
300 gentes, which mustered 3000 men, who
fought on foot, and were called a legion. Be
sides those there were 300 horsemen, called
Celeres, the same body as the Equites of a
later time. To assist him in the government
of the people Romulus is said to have selected
a number of the aged men in the state, who
were called Patres or Senatores. The council
itself, which was caUed the Senatus, originally
consisted of 100 members-; but this number
was increased to 200 when the Sabines were in
corporated in the state. In addition to the
senate, there was another assembly, consisting
of the members of the gentes, which bore the
name of comitia curiata, because they voted in
it according to their division mto curiae. — This
legendary account of the eponymous hero of
the Romans derived from stories of old folk
lore and old records interwoven with some
myths of Greek origin and others invented to
account for ancient names, customs or rites,
seems to have been first written in a historical
form by the annalist Q. Fabius Pictor, who
lived in the time of the second Punic war. The
probable origin of Rome has been mentioned
at the begmnmg of the article Roma. The
personality of Romulus seems to have been
imagmed to account for the Latin settlement
predominating at Rome instead of at the more
ancient Alba; his name appears to be formed
(as was the case with most traditions of ancient
towns, especiaUy in Greece) from that of the
town itself : very possibly it is connected with
that of the Ramnes (whose name some interpret
as meamng ' foresters '). Some writers take
Romulus and the Ramnes to represent one of
tMee races whose union or ' synoikismus '
formed the Roman people, the Sabine Titius
and Titienses representing the second, and the
Luceres the tMrd ; but there is no ground for
this supposition : all traditions agree in ascrib
ing tMs triple division to Romulus himself.
It is not unlikely that the idea of the twin
brothers Romulus and Remus may have arisen
from the ancient worship of two Lares [see p.
474, a], especially as the mother in the story is
connected with the worship of the state-hearth.
Similarly connected with a religion perhaps
even older may be the introduction of the
wolf into the story, which may represent a
tribal observance akin to totemism [cf . Hibpini ;
3g2

820 ROMULUS
Lupekcus]. But the idea of the twins being
miraculously preserved and suckled by the wolf
is merely the reappearance of a myth or fairy
tale which is met with in Greece and in the
East, and of wMch the story of Cyrus the Great
is an instance. It is possible that it may be
one of the Greek elements in the story, the
very fact of an eponymous hero worshipped as
a god bemg rather Greek than Italian in cha
racter. The rape of the Sabines is probably
what is called an ' aetiological ' myth, i.e. it was
an attempt (as was said above) to explain the
custom of marriage by capture [see Diet, of
Ant. art. Matri/moniurn]. Similarly the story
of the asylum may be an explanation of the
sacred spot between the Arx and the Capi
tolium [see p. 804, al.
Romulus Augustulus. [Augustulus.]
Romulus Silvius. [Silvius.]
Roscianum (Bossano), a fortress on the E.
coast of Bruttium, between Thurii and Pater-
num (Procop. B.G. iii. 30).
Roscillus. [Aegus.]
Roscius. 1. L., is said to have been sent as
ambassador by the Romans to Fidenae m B.C.
438. He and his tMee colleagues were killed
by the inhabitants of Fidenae, at the instiga
tion of Lar Tolumnius, Mng of the Veientes.
The statues of all four were erected in the
Rostra at Rome. (Liv. iv. 17 ; Plin. xxxiv. 23.)
— 2. Sex., of Ameria, a town in Umbria. The
father of this Roscius had been murdered at
the instigation of two of his relations and fel
low-townsmen, T. Roscius Magnus and T.
Roscius Capito, who coveted the wealth of
their neighbour. These two Roscii struck a
bargain with Chrysogonus, the freedman and
favourite of Sulla, to divide the property of
the murdered man between them. But as the
proceedmg excited the utmost indignation at
Ameria, and the magistrates of the town made
an effort to obtain from SuUa the restitution of
the property to the son, the robbers accused
young Roscius of the murder of Ms father, and
hired witnesses to swear to the fact. Roscius
was defended by Cicero (b.c. 80) in an oration
which is still extant, and was acquitted (Cic.
pro Bosc. Am.). Cicero's speech was greatly
admired at the time, and though at a later
period he found fault with it himself, as bear
ing marks of youtMul exaggeration and rhe
torical embeUishment, it displays abundant
evidence of Mb great oratorical powers (Cic.
Orat. SO, 107; Qumtil. xii. 6, 4).— 3. Gallus,
Q., the most celebrated comic actor at Rome,
was a native of Solonium, a small place in the
neighbourhood of Lanuvium (Cic. Div. i. 36,
79, ii. 31, 66). His histrionic powers procured
him the favour of many of the Roman nobles,
and, among others, of the dictator Sulla, who
presented him with a gold ring, the symbol of
equestrian rank. Roscius enjoyed the friend
ship of Cicero, who constantly speaks of him
in terms both of admiration and affection.
Roscius was considered by the Romans to have
reached such perfection in Ms own profession
that it became the fasMon to call everyone
who became particularly distinguished in his
own art by the name of Roscius (de Or. i. 28
130, iii. 26, 101, Brut. 84, 289; cf. Hor. Ep. ii.
1, 82). In his younger years Cicero received
instruction from Roscius ; and at a later time
he and Roscius often used to try which of them
could express a thought with the greatest
effect, the orator by his eloquence, or the actor
by Ms gestures. These exercises gave Roscius
so Mgh an opinion of Ms art, that he wrote a

RUBICO
work m wMch he compared eloquence and
acting. It is possible that Roscius introduced
the custom, borrowed from the Greeks, of
acting in masks (cf. Cic. de Or. iii. 69, 221).
Like Ms celebrated contemporary, the tragic
actor Aesopus, Roscius realised an immense
fortune by his profession (Plin. vii. 129;
Macrob. ii. 10). He died in 62.— One ai Cicero's
extant orations is entitled Pro Q. Boscio
Comoedo. It was dehvered before the judex
C. Piso, probably in 68, and relates to a claim
for 50,000 sesterces, which one C. Fannius
Chaerea brought agamst Roscius. — 4. Fabatus.
[Fabatus.]— 5. Otno. [Otho.]
Rotomagus (Bouen), a town on the Sequana
(Seine), the capital of the VeUocasses, m
Ptolemy called 'Par6payos (Amm. Marc. xv.
11 ; Ptol. ii. 8, 8).
Roxana ('Pco^duri), daughter of Oxyartes the
Bactrian, fell into the hands of Alexander on
his capture of the hill-fort in Sogdiana, named
' the rock,' B.C. 827. Alexander was so capti
vated by her charms, that he married her.
(Arrian, An. iv. 18 ; Curt. viii. 4 ; Plut. Alex.
47.) Soon after Alexander's death (323), she
gave birth to a son (Alexander Aegus), who
was admitted to share the nominal sovereignty
with ArrMdaeus, under the regency of Per
diccas. Before the birth of the boy she had
drawn Statira, or Barsine, to Babylon by a
friendly letter, and there caused her to be mur
dered. Roxana afterwards crossed over to
Europe with her son, and placed herseU under
the protection of Olympias. She shared the
fortunes of Olympias, and tMew herself into
Pydna along with the latter, where they were
besieged by Cassander. In 316 Pydna was
taken by Cassander; Olympias was put to
death ; and Roxana and her son were placed in
confinement in AmphipoUs. Here they were
detained under the charge of Glaucias tiU 311,
in which year, soon after the general peace
then concluded, they were murdered m accord
ance with orders from Cassander. (Plut. Alex.
77 ; Arrian. An. vn. 27 ; Diod. xvui. 3, 39, xix.
11, 52, 105 ;_ Strab. pp. 517, 794.)
Roxolani. [Rhoxolani.]
Rubellius Blandus. 1. A Roman knight of
Tibur, who taught rhetoric at Rome m the
reign of Augustus (Tac. Ann. vi. 27 ; Sen. Contr.
i. 7, 13). — 2. Grandson of No. 1, who married
Julia, daughter of Drusus and grand-daughter
of Tiberius (Tac. Ann. vi. 27, 45).— 3. Grandson
of No. 2, and son of Rubellius Plautus, as
sumed the surname of his grandfather, and
was noted for pride in Ms imperial descent
(Juv. viii. 89).
Rubellius Plautus, son of Rubellius
Blandus (No. 2), and great-grandson of Ti
berius. He excited the suspicions of Nero, and
was ordered to retire to his estates in Asia, A.D.
60, but by the orders of Nero at the instigation
of Tigellinus he was murdered there two years
afterwards. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 19, xiv. 22, 57, 59 ;
Dio Cass. Ixii. 14.)
Rubi (Rubustinus : Buvo), a town in Apulia
on the road from Canusium to Brundusium,
about twenty-eight miles SE. of the former,
and ten mUes from the coast (Hor. Sat. i. 5,
94 ; Plm. iii. 105). In tombs on the site many
vases have been found.
Rubico or Rubicon, a smaU river in Italy,
f alling'into the Adriatic a little N. of Ariminum,
formed the boundary in the republican period be
tween the province of Gallia Cisalpina and ItaUa
proper. [Gallia, p. 354, b.] It is celebrated in
history on account of Caesar's passage across

RUBRA
it at the head of his army, by which act he
declared war against the republic (App. B.C.
ii. 35 ; Plut. Caes. 82 ; Suet. Jul. 81 ; Lucan, i.
185, 213-227). A papal decree, issued in 1756,
declared the modern Lusa to be the ancient
Rubico, but the Bugone, a little further N,
has better claims to this honour.
Rubra Saxa (Prima Porta), called ' Rubrae
breves ' (sc. petrae) by Martial, a smaU place in
Etruria, nine mUes from Rome, near the river
Cremera, and on the Via Flaminia. It was
near tMs spot that the great battle was fought
in which Maxentius was defeated by Constan
tine, a.d. 312. (Liv. ii. 49 ; Cic. Phil. ii. 31 ;
Tac. Hist. iii. 79 ; Mart. iv. 64, 15.)
Rubrenus Lappa, a contemporary of Juvenal,
author of a tragedy caUed Atreus, obliged
whUe he was writing it to Uve by pawning Ms
dress (Juv. vii. 71).
Rubresus Lacus. [Narbo.]
Ruhricatus. 1. Or Ubus (Sdbous), a con
siderable river of Numidia m N. Africa, rismg
m the mountains SE. of Cirta (Constantineh),
flowmg NE., and faUing into the Mediterranean
E. of Hippo Regius (Bonah). (Ptol. iv. 3, 5.)
— 2. (Llobregat), a small river of Hispania
Tarraconensis, flowmg Mto the sea W. of Barcmo
(PUn. ui. 21).
Rubrum Mare. [Ebythbaeum Make.]
Rudiae (Rudlnus: Bugge), a town of the
SaUentines or Messapians m Calabria, the
southernmost part of ApuUa, a Uttle W. of Lu-
piae (Strab. p. 281; Ptol. m. 1, 76). Strabo
stands alone m caUMg it a Greek city, and it is
more likely that it was Messapian. It was after
wards a Roman mrmicipium. It hod no im
portance except as the birthplace of Ennius,
who is on that account caUed a * Calabrian.'
(Hor. Od.iv. 8, 20 ; Ov. A.A. Ui. 409 ; Sil. Ital.
xii. 393.) It is clear, therefore, that PUny (iii.
102) and Mela (n. 4, 7) are wrong m reckon
ing it a town of the Pediculi and outside
Calabria. Ruesium or Revessio ("Pveoiov : S. Paulien),
a town of the Vellavi or Velauni, hence called
simply Civitas VeUavorum, in GaUia Aquitanica
{in the modern Velay), on the frontiers of Au-
vergne (Ptol. U. 7, 20).
Rufinus. 1. P. Cornelius Rufinus, was consul
B.C. 290, with M'. Curius Dentatus, and m con
junction with Ms coUeague brought the Sanmite
war to a conclusion, and obtained a triumph in
consequence. He was consul a second time in
277, and carried on the war against the Sam
nites and the Greeks in Southern Italy. The
cMef event m Ms second consulsMp was the
capture of the important town of Croton. In
275, Rufinus was expeUed from the senate by
the censors C. Fabricius and Q. Aemihus Papus,
on account of Ms possessmg ten pounds of
silver plate. The dictator SuUa was descended
from tMs Rufinus. His grandson was the first
of the family who assumed the surname of
SuUa. (Liv. Ep. 11, 14 ; Eutrop. ii. 9 ; Veil.
Pat. ii. 17 ; Plu. Sull. 1 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 66.)—
2. Licinius Rufinus, a jurist, who lived under
Alexander Severus. There are in the Digest
seventeen excerpts from twelve books of Begu-
lae by Rufinus. — 3. The cMef minister of state
under Theodosius the Great, was an able, but
at the some time a treacherous and dangerous
man. He instigated Theodosius to those cruel
measures which brought ruin upon Antioch,
a.d. 390. After the death of Theodosius m 395,
Rufinus exercised paramount mfluence over
the weak Arcadius ; but towards the end of the
year a conspiracy was formed agamst him by

RUFUS

821

Eutropius and Stilicho, who induced Gainas,
the Gothic ally of Arcadius, to join in the plot.
Rufinus was in consequence slain by the troops
of Gainas. (Claudian, Bufmus ; Zos. iv. and v.)
— 4. Surnamed Tyrannius or Turranius, or
Toranus, an ecclesiastical writer of the fourth
century. [Diet, of Christian Biogr.}—5. A
grammarian of Antioch, whose treatise De
Metris Comicis (or rather extracts from it)
is contained in the Grammaticae Latinae
Audores Antiqui of Putschius, Hannov. 1605.
He was possibly also the author of a little poem
in twenty-two lines, Pasiphaes Fabula ex
omnibus Metris Horatianis, which, as the
name imports, contains an example of each of
the different metres employed by Horace. Some
have also ascribed to him the Carmen de
Ponderibus (ed. by Hultsch, Script. Metrol).
— 6. The author of tMrty-eight epigrams in the
Greek Anthology. His date is uncertain ; but
there can be no doubt that he was a Byzantine.
His verses are of the same light amatory cha
racter as those of Agathias, Paulus, Macedo-
mus, and others. [Planudes.]
Rufrae or Rufrium, a town of the Samnites,
on the borders of Campania (Verg. Aen. vii.
739 ; Liv. viii. 25 ;_ SU. Ital. viii. 568).
Rufus, Antonius, a Latin grammarian
(Quintil. i. 5, 43) and poet (Schol. ad Hor.
A. P. 268) : possibly the lyric poet mentioned by
Ovid (Pom*, iv. 16,28).
Rufus, Curtius. [Curtius.]
Rufus Ephesius, so caUed from the place
of his birth, a Greek physician, lived in the
reign of Trajan (A.D. 98-117), and wrote
several medical works, some of wMch are still
extant. Rufus, L. Caecilius, brother of P. Sulla by
the same mother, but not by the same father.
He was tribune of the plebs, B.C. 63, when he
rendered warm support to Cicero, and in parti
cular opposed the agrarian law of Rullus. In
Ms praetorship, 57, he joined most of the other
magistrates in proposing the recaU of Cicero
from banishment. (Cic. pro Sull. 22, 23 ' Dio
Cass, xxxvii. 25.)
Rufus, M. Caelius, a young Roman noble,
distinguished as an elegant writer and eloquent
speaker, but equally conspicuous for Ms profli
gacy and extravagance. Notwithstanding Mb
vices he lived on intimate terms with Cicero,
who defended him in B.C. 56 in an oration still
extant. The accusation was brought against
Mm by Sempronius Atratinus, at the instigation
of Clodia Quadrantaria, whom he had lately
deserted. Clodia charged Mm with having
borrowed money from her in order to murder
Dion, the head of the embassy sent by Ptolemy
Auletes to Rome; and with having made an
attempt to poison her (Cicero Caelio). In 52
Caelius was tribune of the plebs, and in 50
aedile. During the years 51 and 50 he carried
on an active correspondence with Cicero, who
was then in Cilicia, and some of the letters
which he wrote to Cicero at that time are pre
served m the coUection of Cicero's letters (Cic.
ad Fam. viii. 12, 14). On the breaking out of
the Civil war M 49 he espoused Caesar's side,
and was rewarded for his services by the
praetorship, in 48. Being at this time over
whelmed with debt, he availed himself of
Caesar's absence from Italy to bring forward a
law for the abolition of debts. He was, how
ever, resisted by the other magistrates and
deprived of Ms office ; whereupon he went into
the S. of Italy to join Milo, whom he had
secretly sent for from Massilia. MUo was killed

822

RUFUS

near Thurii before Caelius could jom him
[Milo] ; and Caelius Mmself was put to death
shortly afterwards at Thurii. (Caes. B. C. iii.
20-22 ; App. B. C. ii. 22 ; Dio Cass. xUi. 22.)
Rufus, Minucius. [Minucius.]
Rufus, Munatius, a friend of Cato the
younger, about whom he wrote a memoir. In
58 B.C. he accompanied Cato to Cyprus. (Plut.
Cat. Min. 9, 30 ; Val. Max. iv. 3, 2.)
Rufus, Musonius. [Musonius.]
Rufus, Sextus. [Sextus Rufus.
Rufus, Valgius. [Valgius.]
Rugii, an important people in Germany, origi
nally dwelt on the coast of the Baltic between
the Viadus (Oder) and the Vistula (Tac. Germ.
43). After disappearing a long time from his
tory, they are found at a later time in Attila's
army ; and after Attila's death they founded a
new kingdom on the N. bank of the Danube in
Austria and Hungary, the name of which is
stiU preserved m the modern Bugiland. (Prop.
B. G. ii. 14 ; Sidon. Paneg. ad Avit. 319.) They
have left traces of their name in the country
wMch they origmaUy inhabited in the modern
Biigen, Biiqenwalde, Bega, Begenwalde.
Rullus, P. Servilius, tribune of the plebs
B.C. 63, proposed an agrarian law, which Cicero
attacked in three orations which have come
down to us. It was the most extensive agrarian
law that had ever been brought forward, in
cluding the creation of a board of ten commis
sioners to carry it out, each of whom was to
have military and judicial powers Uke those of
a praetor, and powers to raise great sums by
sale of lands and of the booty in the hands of
Pompey ; there was moreover a scheme of
colonisation on a large scale, like that of C.
Gracchus. The whole measure was an attack
on the power of the senate, and was instigated
by Caesar. Cicero's attacks on it had great
effect, and the bill was so unpopular that it was
withdrawn by Rullus Mmself.
Rumina (from ruma, the breast), the goddess
who presided over the suckling of cMldren, one
of the old Italian deities worshipped in the
Indigitamenta [see p. 443, a]. She had an
ancient sanctuary on the NW. side of the Pala
tine — a sMine with the fig-tree sacred to her
(Ficus Buminalis), wMch a (probably) later
tradition connected with Romulus : that is to
say, the story of the suckling of Romulus and
Remus probably grew out of the worsMp paid
to Rumina. (Varro, B. B. ii. 2, 5, ii. 11, 5 ; Plut.
Q. B. 57, Bom. 4, 6 ; cf . Varro, L. L. v. 54 ; Liv.
i. 4 ; Plim xv. 77 ; Tac. Ann. xiii. 58.)
P. Rupilius, consul b.c. 132, prosecuted with
the utmost vehemence all the adherents of Tib.
Gracchus, who had been slain in the preceding
year. In his consulship he was sent into SicUy
against the slaves, and brought the Servile war
to a close. He remained in the island as pro
consul m the following year ; and, with ten
commissioners appointed by the senate, he
made various regulations for the government of
the province, which were known by the name
of Leges Rupiliae. [D id. of Ant. s. v.] Rupi
lius was condemned in the tribunate of C.
Gracchus, 123, on account of his Ulegal and
cruel acts in the prosecution of the friends of
Tib. Gracchus (Veil. Pat. ii. 7). He was an
intimate friend of Scipio Africanus the younger,
who obtained the consulship for him, but who
failed in gaining the same honour for his brother
Lucius. He is said to have taken Ms brother's
failure so much to heart as to have died in
consequence. (Cic. de Amic. 19, 71, Tusc iv.
17, 40.)

RUTILIUS
Ruscino (Bousillon), a town of the Tecto
sages m the SE. part of GalUa NarbonenBis,
at the foot of the Pyrenees, on the river
Ruscmo (Tet), and on the road from Spain to
Narbo. A salt-water lake near it was famed
for mullets. (Liv. xxi. 24 ; Strab. p. 182 ; Ptol.
ii. 10, 9.)
Rusellae (Rusellanus : near Grosseto, Ru.),
one of the most ancient cities of Etruria, prob
ably one of the twelve cities of the Etruscan
League, situated on an eminence E. of the lake
Prelius and on the Via Aurelia. It is first
mentioned in the time of Tarqumius Priscus.
(Dionys. iii. 51). It was taken by the Romans
m B.C. 294, when 2000 of its inhabitants were
slain, and as many more made prisoners (Liv.
x. 37). It was subsequently a Roman colony,
(PUn. iii. 51) and continued in existence till
1138, when its inhabitants were removed to
Grosseto. The walls of Rusellae stiU remain,
and are among the most ancient m Italy.
They are formed of enormous masses of traver
tine, pUed up without regard to form, with
smaU stones mserted m the mterstices. The
masses vary from six to eight feet M length,
and from four to eight m height. The area
enclosed by the waUs forms an irregular quad
rangle, between 10,000 and 11,000 feet, or about
two miles in circuit.
Rusicada (SE. of Storah, Ru.), a seaport
and Roman colony in Numidia, used especially
as the port of Cirta (PUn. v. 22; Plot. iv.
3,3). Ruspinum, a town of Africa Propria (Byza-
cium), two miles from the sea, between Leptis
Parva and Hadrumetum (Strab. p. 831 ; Plin.
v. 25 ; Bell. Afr. 6).
Russadir (Bas-ud-Dir, or C. di Tres Foreas :
Bus m ancient Punic, and Bas m Arabic, alike
mean cape), a promontory of Mauretania
Tingitana, m N. Africa, on the coast of the
Metagonitae. SE. of it was a city of the same-
name (prob. Melillah). (Plm. v. 9 ; Ptol. iv. 1,
7,)„ -
Rusticus, FablUS, a Roman Mstorian, m the
reigns of Claudius and Nero, and a friend of
Seneca JTac. Agr. 10, Ann. xui.20, xiv. 2).
Rusticus. 1. L. Junius Arulenus, more
usually called Arulenus Rusticus, but some
times Junius Rusticus. He was a friend and
pupil of Paetus Thrasea, and an ardent
admirer of the Stoic philosophy. He was put
to death by Domitian, because he had written
a panegyric upon TMasea. (Tac. Ann. xvi.
25, Hist. ni. 90, Agr. 2 ; Dio Cass, lxvii. 18 ;
PUn. Ep. i. 5, iii. 11 ; Suet. Dom. 10.)— 2. ft.
Junius, probably a grandson of the above, a
Stoic pMlosopher, and one of the teachers of
M. Aurelius, who had a great regard for him,
and raised him to the consulship (Dio Cass.
lxxi. 35; Capitol. M. Ant, Phil. 2, 6 ; C. I. L.
vi. 858).
Rusucurrum (Coleah, opposite Algier), a
considerable seaport in the E. part of Mau
retania Caesariensis, constituted a Roman
colony under Claudius (Ptol. iv. 2, 2; Plin.
v. 20).
Ruteni, a people in Gallia Aquitanica on the
frontiers of Gallia Narbonensis in the modern
Bovergne. Their chief town was Segodunum,
afterwards Civitas Rutenorum (Bodez). The
country of the Ruteni contained silver mines,
and produced excellent flax. (Plin. iv. 109;
Ptol. ii. 7, 21 ; Strab. p. 191.)
Rutilius Lupus. [Lupus.]
Rutilius Namatianus, Claudius, a Roman
poet, and a native of Gaul, lived at the

RUTILIUS
begmning of the fifth century of the Christian
era. He resided at Rome a considerable time,
where he attained the dignity of praefectus
urbi, about a.d. 413 or 414 (Cod. Theod. vi. 26,
8). He afterwards returned to his native
country, and has described Ms return to Gaul
in an elegiac poem, wMch bears the title of
Itinerarium, or De Beditu. Of this poem the
first book, consisting of 644 Unes, and a small
portion of the second, have come down to us.
It is superior both m poetical colouring and
purity of language to most of the productions of
the age ; and the passage m which he celebrates
the praises of Rome is not unworthy of the pen
of Claudian. Its versification is admirable.
Rutilius was a heathen, and attacks the Jews
and monks with no smaU severity. — Editions
by L. MiiUer, 1870, and m Pod. Lat. Min. by
A. W. Zumpt, Berlm, 1840.
P. Rutilius Rufus, a Roman statesman and
orator. He was miUtary tribune under Scipio
in the Numantine war, praetor B.C. Ill, consul
105, and legatus m 95, under Q. Mucius
Scaevola, proconsul of Asia. While acting in
tMs capacity he displayed so much honesty and
firmness m repressmg the extortions of the
publieani, that he became an object of fear and
hatred to the whole body. Accordingly, on his
return to Rome, he was impeached of malver
sation (de repetundis), found guUty, and com
pelled to withdraw mto bamshment, 92. (Cic.
Brut. 22, 85 ; 30, 113 ; pro Balb. 11, 28 ; Tac.
Ann. iv. 43.) He retired first to Mytilene, and
from thence to Smyrna, where he fixed his
abode, and passed the remamder of his days in
tranquiUity, havmg refused to return to Rome,
although recaUed by SuUa. Besides his ora
tions, Rutilius wrote an autobiography, and a
History of Rome in Greek, which contained an
account of the Numantine war, but we know
not what period it embraced. (Charis. i. 120,
125 ; Isid. Or. xxii. 11 ; Liv. xxxix. 52 ; GeU.
vi. 14.)
Ratlins, C. Marcius, was consul b.c. 357,
when he took the town of Privernum. In 356
he was appomted dictator, being the first time
that a plebeian had attamed tMs dignity. In
Ms dictatorship he defeated the Etruscans with
great slaughter. In 352 he was consul a
second time ; and m 351, he was the first ple
beian censor. He was consul for the third time
in 344, for the fourth time m 342. (Liv. vii.
16, 21, 88.) The son of tMs RutUus took the
surname of Censorinus, wMch in the next
generation entirely supplanted that of Rutilus,
and became the name of the famUy. [Censo
rinus.] Rutuba (Boyd), a river which rises in the
Col di Tenda and flows into the sea at Albium
Intemelium (Ventimiglia), on the coast of
Liguria (Luc. ii. 422 ; Plin. ui. 48).
Rutuli, an ancient people in Italy, inhabit
ing a narrow slip of country on the coast of
Latium a little to the S. of the Tiber. Their
cMef town was Ardea, which was the residence
of Turnus. They were subdued at an early
period by the Romans, and disappear from
Mstory (Dionys. v. 61; Liv. i. 56; Turnus).
Rutupaeor Ru.tu.piae (Bichborough), a port
town of the Cantii in the SE. of Britain, from
which the passage was commonly made to the
harbour of Gessoriacum in Gaul (Lucan, vi.
67 ; Ptol. ii. 3, 27 ; Amm. Marc. xx. 1, xxvii. 8).
Excellent oysters were obtamed in the neigh
bourhood of this place (Butupino edita fundo
ostrea, Juv. iv. 141). There are still several
Roman remains at Bichborough.

SABINA

Saba. [Sabaei.]
Sabacon (2oj3maiv=Shabaka or Shabatak),
according to Herodotus (ii. 187-140), a king of
Ethiopia who invaded Egypt in the reign of
the blind king Anysis, whom he detMoned and
drove into the marshes. The EtMopian con
queror then reigned over Egypt for fifty years,
but at length quitted the country in conse
quence of a dream ; whereupon Anysis regained
his kingdom. In Manetho's account there
were tMee Ethiopian Mngs who reigned over
Egypt, named Sabacon, Sebichus, and Tara-
cus, whose coUective reigns amount to forty or
fifty years, and who form the twenty-fifth
dynasty of that writer. The EtMopian dynasty
was the twenty-fifth, which displaced and put to
death Bakenraf (Bocchoris), having invaded and
occupied Egypt from Napata in Ethiopia
about 788 B.C. The invasion was led by the
priest-king Piankhi, who overthrew the various
petty princes who ruled in different parts of
Egypt. The other Mngs of the dynasty were
Shabaka (Sabacon) about 700 B.C., Shabataka,
and Taharaqa ( = Tirhakah), who reigned at
Thebes B.C. 698-666 and fought against the in
vading Assyrian kings Sennacherib, Esarhaddon
and Assurbanipal.
Sabaei or Sabae (SaBaioi, 2tt/3ai : O. T. She-
baiim), one of the chief peoples of Arabia,
dwelt in the SW. corner of the peninsula, in
the most beautiful part of Arabia Felix, the N.
and centre of the province of El- Yemen. The
Sabeans of El-Yemen were celebrated for their
wealth and luxury. (Ptol. vi. 7, 28 ; Catull. xi.
5 ; Propert. U. 10, 16 ; Verg. Georg. i. 57, Aen.
i. 416 ; Hor. Od. i. 29, 2, ii. 12, 24.) Their
country produced all the most precious spices
and perfumes of Arabia, and they carried on an
extensive trade with the East. Their capital
was at Saba, where we are told that their king
was kept a close prisoner in his palace. (Dio
Cass. liii. 29 ; Strab. p. 771.) The Homeritoe
were subsequently the dominant tribe in their
district. [Arabia, p. 96,' a; Homebitae.]
Sabate (Trevignano), a town of Etruria, on
the road from Cosa to Rome, and on the NW.
corner of a lake which was named after it
Lacus Sabatinus (Lago diBracciano). (Strab.
p. 226; Liv. vi. 4.)
Sabatini, a people in Campania, who derived
their name from the river Sabatus (Sabbato), a
tributary of the Calor, which flows into the
Vul turnus (Liv. xxvi. S3).
Sabaria or Savaria (Stein, on the Anger) a
town in the N. of Upper Pannonia, which in
the time of Augustus and Tiberius, like
Carnuntum, belonged to Noricum. Claudius
made it a colony (Plin. iii. 146 ; Ptol. ii. 15, 4).
Sept. Severus was proclaimed emperor here
(Aurel. Vict. Ep. 19).
Sabazius (SaB&Cios) a Thracian and PMy-
gian deity, identified sometimes with Zeus but
usually with Dionysus [pp. 293, b, 295, a], and
worshipped in connexion with Rhea-Cybele.
The snake was sacred to him (Theophrast.
Char. 28), either because it was taken as a
symbol of the earth and its reproduction of
fruits, or in allusion to the story of Dionysus
Zagreus [p. 296, a].
Sabelli. [Sabini.]
Sabina, the wife of the emperor Hadrian,
was the grand-niece of Trajan, being the
daughter of Matidia, who was the daughter of
Marciana, the sister of Trajan. Sabina was
married to Hadrian about a.d. 100, tMough the

824 SABINA
influence of Plotina, the wife of Trajan. The
marriage did not prove a happy one. Sabina
at length put an end to her life : for no
credence need be attached to the report that
she had been poisoned by her husband. She
was aUve in 136, and probably did not die till
138, a few months before Hadrian. She was
enrolled among the gods after her decease.
(Spart. Hadr. 1, 2, 11, 23 ; Aurel. Vict. Ep. 14 ;
Oros. vii. 13.)
Sabina, Poppaea, a woman of surpassing
beauty, but Ucentious morals, was the daughter
of T. Ollius, but assumed the name of her
maternal grandfather, Poppaeus Sabinus, who
had been consul in A.D. 9. She was first
married to Rufius Crispinus, and afterwards to
Otho, who was one of the boon companions of
Nero. The latter soon became enamoured of
her, and in order to get Otho out of the way
Nero sent him to govern the province of Lusi-
tama (58). Poppaea now became the acknow
ledged mistress of Nero, over whom she
exercised absolute sway. Anxious to become
the wife of the emperor, she persuaded Nero
first to murder his mother, Agrippina (59), who
was opposed to such a disgraceful union, and
next to divorce and shortly afterwards put to
death his innocent and virtuous wife, Octavia
(62). Immediately after the divorce of Octavia,
Poppaea became the wife of Nero. In the
following year she gave birth to a daughter at
Antium ; but the infant died at the age of four
months. In 65 Poppaea was pregnant again,
but was killed by a Mck from her brutal
husband in a fit of passion. She was enroUed
among the gods, and a magnificent temple was
dedicated to her by Nero. Poppaea was m-
ordinately fond of luxury and pomp, and took
immense pains to preserve the beauty of her
person. Thus we are told that all her mules
were shod with gold, and that 500 asses were
daily milked to supply her with a bath. (Tac.
Ann. xiii. 45, xiv. 1, 60, xv. 23, xvi. 6, 21 ; Suet.
Ner. 85 ; Dio Cass. lxi. 11, lxii. 27, lxiii. 26.)
Sabini, one of the most ancient and powerful
of the peoples of central Italy, for whom the
ancients found an eponymous hero in Sabinus,
a son of the native god Sancus. The word
Sabellus is an adjective appUed to the Samnites
and also used as an equivalent for the adjectival
Sabinus. (Liv. viii. 1 ; Verg. Georg. ii. 167,
Aen. vii. 665 ; Hor. Od. iii. 6, 37.) The Sabini,
or Sabellian race, though having a common
parentage with the Oscans and Latins, were
more closely connected with the Umbrians,
from whom they branched off at a later period
[see p. 453, a]. Eventually the Umbrian branch
of the Umbro-SabeUian stock settled on the
East of the Apennines in the district thence
forth called Umbria ; the Sabellian branch mi
grated further southward and was again sub
divided ; the Sabini proper retaining the
country between the Nar, the Anio and the
Tiber, between Latium, Etruria, Umbria and
Picenum. This district was mountainous, and
better adapted for pasturage than corn. The
chief towns were Amiternum (according to Cato,
ap. Dionys. i. 14, ii. 49, the oldest town of the
Sabines), Reate, Nursia, Cutiliae, Cures, Ere-
trum and Nomentum. From this district at
various times other migratory bands went forth,
who are described in separate articles: the
Vestini, Marsi, Marrucini, Paeligni, Frentani,
Hirpini, Picentes, and (most important and
powerful of all) the Samnites. [Samnium.]
The Sabellian tribes adopted a peculiar system
of emigration. In times of great danger and

SABINUS
distress they vowed a Ver Sacrum, or Sacred
Spring, and aU the children born in that
spring were regarded as sacred to the god, and
were compeUed, at the end of twenty years, to
leave their native country and seek a new home
in foreign lands. [Did. of Ant. art. Ver
Sacrum.] The Sabines were distmguished by
their hardy and frugal manner of life (Liv. i.
18; Cic. Vatin. 15, 87; Hor. Od. ni. 6, 88,
Epod. 2, 41; Juv. iii. 169), and their piety,
which in their use of incantations took the form
of extreme superstition (Hor. Epod. 17, 28,
Sat. i. 9, 29). [For the umon of the SabMes and
Latins see Roma.] The Sabmi proper were
subdued by M'. Curius Dentatus, B.C. 290 (Liv.
Ep. 11 ; Flor. i. 15), and m 268 received the
Roman franchise, after which date they
reckoned as part of the Roman state with full
citizenship (VeU. Pat. i. 14).
Sabinus. 1. A contemporary poet and a
friend of Ovid. Ovid informs us- that Sabmus
had written answers to six of the Epistolae
Heroidum of Ovid (Ov. Am. n. 18, 27, Pont.
iv. 16, 13.) Three answers enumerated by Ovid
in tMs passage are prmted m many editions of
the poet's works as the gentune poems of
Sabinus, but they were written by a modern
scholar, Angelus Sabinus, about the year 1467.
— 2. M. CaellUS, a Roman jurist, who succeeded
Cassius Longinus, was consul A.D. 69. He was
not the Sabinus from whom the Sabmiani took
their name [see below, No. 7]. He wrote a
work, Ad Edidum Aedilium Curulium.
There are no extracts from Caelius in the
Digest, but he is often cited, sometimes as
Caelius Sabinus, sometimes by the name of
Sabmus only (GeU. iv. 2, vi. 4).— 3. C. Calvlsras,
one of Caesar's legates in the CivU war, B.C. 48
(Caes. B. C. iii. 34). In 45 he received the
province of Africa from Caesar. Havmg been
elected praetor in 44, he obtained from Antony
the province of Africa agom ; but he did not
return to Africa, as the senate, after the depar
ture of Antony for Mutina, conferred the pro
vince upon Q. Cornificius. Sabmus was consul
39, and in thef ollowmg year commanded the fleet
of Octavian mthe war with Sex. Pompeius. He
was superseded by Agrippa m the command of
the fleet. He is mentioned at a later time as
one of the friends of Octavian. (Dio Cass.'
xlviii. 34, 46 ; App. B. C. v. 81, 96, 132.)— 4. T.
Flavius, father of the emperor Vespasian, was
one of the farmers of the taxes in Asia, and
afterwards carried on business as a money
lender among the Helvetians (Suet. Vesp. 1). —
5. Flavius, elder son of the precedmg, and
brother of the emperor Vespasian. He governed
Moesia for seven years during the reign of
Claudius, and held the important office of prae
fectus urbi during the last eleven years of
Nero's reign. He was removed from this office
by Galba, but was replaced in it on the acces
sion of Otho, who was anxious to concUiate
Vespasian, who commanded the Roman legions
in the East. He continued to retam the dig
nity under Vitellius, but when Vespasian was
proclaimed imperator by the legions in the East,
and Antonius Primus and his other generals in
the West, after the defeat of the troops of
Vitellius, were marching upon Rome, ViteUius,
despairing of success, offered to surrender the
empire, and to place the supreme power in the
hands of Sabinus till the arrival of Vespasian
The German soldiers of Vitellius, however,
refused submission to tMs arrangement, and
resolved to support their sovereign by arms.
Sabinus thereupon took refuge in the Capitol,

SABIS
where he was attacked by the ViteUian troops.
In the assault the Capitol was burnt to the
ground, Sabinus was taken prisoner, and put to
death by the soldiers in the presence of Vitellius,
who endeavoured in vain to save his life. Sa
binus was a man of distinguished reputation,
and of unspotted character. He left two sons,
Flavius Sabinus, and Flavius Clemens. (Tac.
Hist. i. 46, ii. 55, iii. 64-74, iv. 47 ; Dio Cass. Iv.
17; Suet. Vesp. 1, Vit ell. 15.) — 6. Flavius,
son of the preceding, married Julia, the daugh
ter of Ms cousin Titus. He was consul 82, with
Ms cousin Domitian, but was afterwards slam
by the latter. (Dio Cass. lxv. 17 ; Suet. Dom.
10.) — 7. Masurius, a hearer of Ateius Capito,
was a distmguished jurist in the time of Ti
berius (Gell. iv. 1, v. 6; Macrob. iii. 6, li).
This is the Sabinus from whom the school of
the Sabiniani took its name. [Capito.] There
is no direct excerpt from Sabinus in the Digest,
but he is often cited by other jurists, who com
mented upon Ms Libri tres Juris Civilis. It
is conjectured that Persius means to refer to
this work (Sat. v. 90), when he says, ( Excepto
si quid Masuri rubrica vetavit.' Masurius also
wrote numerous other works, which are cited by
name m the Digest. — 8. Hymphldius. [Nym-
phtdius.] — 9. Poppaeus, consul a.d. 9, was
appomted m the lifetime of Augustus governor
of Moesia, and was not only confirmed in tMs
government by Tiberius, but received from the
latter the provinces of Achaia and Macedonia
m addition. He continued to hold these pro-
vmces tiU Ms death, m 35, havmg ruled over
Moesia for twenty-four years. He was the
maternal grandfather of Poppaea Sabina, the
mistress, and afterwards the wife, of Nero.
(Suet. Vesp. 2 ; Tac. Ann. i. 80, iv. 46, xiii. 45.)
— 10. T. Sicinius, consul b.c. 487, fought
successfuUy agamst the Volsci. (Liv. ii. 40 ;
Dionys. viii. 64, 67.) — 11. Titius, a Roman
knight, friend of Germanicus, executed through
the influence of Sejanus (Tac. Ann. iv. 18, 68,
70, vi. 4 ; Dio Cass, lviii. 1).— 12. ft. Titurius,
one of Caesar's legates in Gaul, who perished
along with L. Aurunculeius Cotta m the attack
made upon them by Ambiorix in B.C. 54 (Caes.
B. G. ii. 5, in. 17, v. 24 ; Suet. Jul. 26).
Sabis (Sambre). 1. A broad and deep river
in GaUica Belgica and in the territory of the
Ambiani, faUing into the river Mosa (Caes. B. G.
ii. 16). — 2. A small river on the coast of Car-
mania (Mel. iii. 8).— 3. See Sapis.
Sabrata. [Abbotonum.]
Sabrina, also called Sabriana (Severn), a
river in the W. of Britain, wMch flowed by
Venta SUurum into the ocean (Ptol. ii. 3 ;
Tac. Ann. xii. 31).
Sacadas (SoxdSas), of Argos, an eminent
Greek musician, was one of the masters who
established at Sparta the second great school
of music, of which Thaletas was the founder, as
Terpander had been of the first. He gained
the prize for flute-playing at the first of the
musical contests wMch the Amphictyons es
tablished in connexion with the Pythian games
(B.C. 590), and also at the next two festivals m
succession (586, 582). Sacadas was a composer
of elegies, as well as a musician (Plut. de Mas.
8-12, pp. 1134, 1135).
Sacae (SdKai), one of the most numerous and
most powerful of the Scythian nomad tribes,
had their abodes E. and NE. of the Massagetae,
as far as Serica, in the steppes of Central Asia,
which are now peopled by the Kirghiz Khasaks,
in whose name that of their ancestors is traced
by some geographers. They were very warlike,

SAETABIS

82C

and excelled especially as cavalry, and as
archers both on horse and foot. Their women
shared in their military spirit ; and, if we are
to believe AeUan, they had the custom of
settling before marriage whether the man or
woman should rule the house, by the result of
a combat between them. In early times they
extended their predatory incursions as far W.
as Armenia and Cappadocia. They were made
tributary to the Persian empire, to the army
of which they furnished a large force of cavalry
and archers, who were among the best troops
that the kmg of Persia had. (Hdt. iv. 6, v. 113,
vii. 64 ; Xen. Cyr. v. 8, 82 ; Strab. p. 511 ; Arr.
An. iii. 8, 11.) It should be remembered that
the name of the Sacae is often used loosely for
other Scythian tribes, and sometimes for the
Scythians in general.
Sacasene (^,aKaonvii), a fertile district of Ar
menia Major, on the river Cyrus and the con
fines of Albania, so called from its having been
at one period conquered by the Sacae (Strab.
pp. 73, 509, 511, 529).
Sacastene {ZaKaffrrivii), a district of Drangi
ana, apparently, at one time occupied by the
Sacae (Arr. Peripl. Mar. Eryth. 38). It is
conjectured that the name Seistan is formed
from Sacastene.
Sacer Mons, an isolated hill in the country
of the Sabines, on the right bank of the Anio
and W. of the Via Nomentana, three mUes
from Rome, to which the plebeians repaired in
their secessions (Liv. ii. 32 ; Dionys. vi. 45).
The MU is not called by any special name at
the present day, but there is upon its summit
the Torre di Specchio.
Sacili, with the surname Martialium, a town
of the Turduli in Hispania Baetica (Plin. iii.
11). Sacra Via. [Roma, p. 805, a.]
Sacraria, a town in Umbria on the road be
tween Treba and Spoletium, supposed to be
identical with Clitumni Fanum on the river
Clitumnus. Sacriportus, a small place in Latium, of un
certain site, memorable for the victory of SuUa
over the younger Marius, B.C. 82 (App. B. C.
i. 87; VeU. Pat. ii. 26; Lucan, ii. 144).
Sacrum Promontorium. 1. (C. St. Vincent),
on the W. coast of Spain, said by Strabo to be
the most westerly point in the whole earth
(Strab. p. 137). — 2. (C. Khelidoni), a pro
montory in Lycia, near the confines of Pam
phylia, and opposite the Chelidonian _ islands,
whence it was also caUed Prom. Chelidonium
(Strab. p. 682).
SadoCUS (-SdSoKos), son of Sitalces, kmg of
Thrace, was made a citizen of Athens B.C. 431
(Thuc. ii. 29, 67 ; Sitalces).
Sadyattes (SaSvarrris), king of Lydia, suc
ceeded his father, Ardys, and reigned B.C. 629-
617 (Hdt. i. 16, 18). He carried on war with
the Milesians for six years, and at Ms death
bequeathed the war to his son and successor,
Alyattes. [Alyattes.]
Saepinum or Sepinum (Sepinas, -atis: Se-
pino), a municipium in Samnium on the road
from AUif ae to Beneventum (Liv. x. 44 ; Plm.
iii. 107). , „
Saetabis. 1. (Alcoyl), a river on the S.
coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, S. of the Sucro
(Ptol. ii. 6, 14).— 2. Or Setabis (Setabitanus :
Jativa), an important town of the Contestani
in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a Roman muni
cipium, was situated on a hill S. of the Sucro,
and was celebrated for its manufacture of linen
(Strab. p. 160 ; Plin. iii. 25, xix. 9 ; Catull. 12, 14).

828 SAGALASSUS
Sagalassus (J,ayaXacro-6s, or SeXyno-oSs :
Aghlasun), a large fortified city of Pisidia, near
the PMygian border, a day's journey SE. of
Apamea Cibotus. It lay, as its large ruins stiU
show, m the form of an amphitheatre on the
side of a hill, and had a citadel on a rock thirty
feet high. It was taken by assault by Alex
ander the Great (Arr. An. i. 18). Its inhabi
tants were reckoned the bravest of the Pisidians,
and seem, from the word AaKeSaipcoy on their
coins, to have claimed a Spartan origin (Strab.
p. 569; Liv. xxxviii. 15; Steph. s.v.). Among
the ruins of the city are the remains of a very
fine temple, of an amphitheatre, and of fifty-
two other large buildings.
Saganus (2ayav6s), a small river on the coast
of Carmania (Ptol. vi. 8, 4).
Sagaris, a river of Sarmatia Europaea, faUing
into a bay in the NW. of the Euxine, which
was called after it Sagaricus Sinus, and which
also received the river Axiaces (Ov. Pont. iv.
10, 47 ; Plin. iv. 82). The bay appears to be
that on which Odessa now stands, and the rivers
the Bol-Kouialnik and the Mal-Kouialmik.
Sagartii (^aydprioi), according to Herodotus,
a nomad people of Persia. Afterwards they
are found, on the authority of Ptolemy, in
Media and the passes of M. Zagros. (Hdt. i. 125.)
Sagra, a small river in Magna Graecia on the
SE. coast of Bruttium, falling into the sea be
tween Caulonia and Locri, on the banks of
which [see p. 258, b] a memorable victory was
gained by 10,000 Locrians over (as it was said)
120,000 Crotoniates (Strab. p. 261 ; Cic. N: D.
iii. 5 ; Just. xx. 3 ; Plin. iii. 95). This victory
appeared so extraordinary that it gave rise to
the proverbial expression, ' It is truer than what
happened on the Sagra,' when a person wished
to make any strong asseveration (Suid. s. v.).
Sagrus (Sangro), a river of Samnium, which
rises in the Marsian and Paelignian hills, and
flows, with a course of about seventy miles, into
the Adriatic N. of Histonium (Strab. p. 242;
Ptol. Ui. 1, 19).
Saguntia. 1. (Xigonza or Gigonza, NW. of
Medina Sidonia), a town in the W. part of His
pania Bastica, S. of the Baetis (Liv. xxxiv. 12 ;
Plin. iii. 16).— 2. A town of the Areyaci in His
pania Tarraconensis, SW. of Bilbilis, near the
Mons Solarius (App. B. G. i. 110 ; Plut. Sert. 21).
Saguntum, more rarely Saguntus (Sagunti-
nus : Murviedro), a town of the Edetani or Sede-
tani in Hispania Tarraconensis, S. of the Iberus
on the river Palantias, about three miles from
the coast. It is said to have been founded by
Greeks from Zacynthus, with whom Rutulians
from Ardea were intermingled, whence it is
sometimes called Ausonia Saguntus. (Strab.
f. 159 ; Liv. xxi. 7 ; Sil. Ital. i. 332.) It was
situated on an eminence in the midst of a
fertile country, and became a place of great
commercial importance. Although S. of the
Hierus, it had formed an aUiance with the Ro
mans; and its siege by Hannibal, B.C. 219, was
the immediate cause of the second Punic war.
The inhabitants defended their city with the
utmost bravery against Hanmbal, who did not
succeed in taMng the place till after a siege of
nearly eight months (Liv. xxi. 14). The greater
part of the city was destroyed by Hanmbal ;
but it was rebuilt by the Romans eight years
afterwards, and made a colony (Liv. xxviii. 89 ;
Plin. iii. 20). Saguntum was celebrated for its
manufacture of beautiful drinking-cups (Mart
1Y;t?' xW- 108; Plin- xxxv- 16°); and the figs
ol the surrounding country were much valued
in antiquity (Plin. xv. 72). The ruins of the

SALAMIS
ancient town, consisting of a theatre and a
temple of Bacchus, are extant at Murviedro,
which iB a corruption of Muri veteres.
Sals (Sdis, 2aJiri)s : Sa-el-Hdjjar, Ru.), a great
city of Egypt, in the Delta, on the E. side of
the Canopic branch of the Nile in lower Egypt
(Hdt. ii. 169). It was the capital of the twenty-
fourth and twenty-sixth dynasties, and under
the twenty-sixth dynasty (B.C. 666-528) became
the capital of all Egypt and both the residence
and the burial-place of the kings of these two-
dynasties. Its accessibility to Greek traders
increased its wealth, but after the foundation
of Alexandria all its importance passed to that
city. It was the chief seat of the worsMp of
the Egyptian goddess Nit, who had here a
splendid temple in the middle of an artificial
lake, where a great feast of lamps was cele
brated yearly by worshippers from all parts of
Egypt. The city gave its name to the Sa'ites
Nomos. Saitis (Sains), a surname of Athene, under
which she had a sanctuary on Mount Pontinus,
near Lema in Argolis (Paus. ii. 36). The name
was traced by the Greeks to the Egyptians,
among whom Athene was said to have been
caUed Sais (cf. Hdt. ii. 175).
Sala. 1. (Saale), a river of Germany, be
tween which and the Rhme Drusus died (Strab.
p. 291 ; Liv. Ep. 140). It was a tributary of
the Albis (Elbe). — 2. (Saale), also a river of
Germany, and atributary of the Moenus (Main),
wMch formed the boundary between the Her-
munduri and Chatti, with great salt springs m
its neighbourhood, for the possession of wMch
these two peoples frequently contended (Tac.
Ann. xiii. 57). — 3. (Burargag), a river m the
N. part of the W. coast of Mauretama Tingi
tana, rises in the Atlas Minor, and falls into the
Atlantic, N. of a town of the same name (Ptol.
iv. 1, 2). — 4. A town in Pannonia, on the road
from Sabaria to Poetovio. — 5. (Sheila), a town
in the N. part of the W. coast of Mauretania
Tingitana, S. of the mouth of the river of the
same name mentioned under No. 3 (Plm. v. 5).
TMs town was the furthest place in Mauretania-
towards the S. possessed by the Romans ; for
although the province nommally extended
further S., the Romans never fully subdued
the nomad tribes beyond tMs point.
Salacia. [Neptunus.]
Salacia (Alcacer do Sal), a municipium of
Lusitania, in the territory of the Turdetani, NW..
of Pax Julia and SW. of Ebora, with the sur
name of Urbs Imperatoria, celebrated for its
woollen manufactures (Strab. p. 144 ; Ptol. ii.
Salamis (SaXapis : SaXapivios). 1. (Koluri),
an island off the W. coast of Attica, from which
it is separated by a narrow channel. It forms.
the S. boundary of the bay of Eleusis. Its form
is that of an irregular semicircle towards the
W., with many small indentations along the
coast. Its greatest length, from N. to S., is
about ten miles, and its width, in its broadest
part, from E. to W., is a little more (Strab. p.
398). In ancient times it is said to have been
called Pityussa, from the pines which grew in
it, and also Sciras and CychrSa, from the names
of two native heroes (Paus. i. 36, 1). It is.
further said to have been called Salamis from
a daughter of Asopus of this name (Paus. i. 35,
2). It was colonised at an early time by the-
Aeacidae of Aegina. Telamon, the son of
Aeacus fled thither after the murder of his.
half-brother Phocus, and became sovereign of
the island. His son Ajax accompanied the

SALAMIS
Greeks with twelve Salaminian ships to the
Trojan war (II. ii. 557). Salamis continued an
independent state till about the beginning of
the fortieth Olympiad (b.c. 620), when a dispute
arose for its possession between the Megarians
and the Athenians, After a long struggle it
feU into the hands of the Megarians, but was
finally taken possession of by the Athenians
tMough a stratagem of Solon [Solon], and be
came one of the Attic demi. It continued to
belong to Athens tiU the time of Cassander,
when its inhabitants voluntarily surrendered it
to the Macedonians, 318 (Diod. xviii. 69 ; Paus.
i. 85, 2). The Athemans recovered the island
m 232 through means of Aratus, and punished
the Salammians for their desertion to the Mace
donians with great severity (Plut. Arat. 34).
The old city of Salamis stood on the S. side of
the island, opposite Aegina ; but this was after-

SALAPIA

827

galeos. (Hdt. viii. 83-90.)— 2. A city of Cyprus,
situated in the middle of the E. coast a little
N. of the river Pediaeus. It is said to have
been founded by Teucer, the son of Telamon,
who gave it the name of his native island, from
which he had been banished by his father.
[Teuceb,.] Salamis possessed an excellent
harbour, and was by far the most important
city m the whole of Cyprus. It became subject
to the Persians with the rest of the island ; but
it recovered its independence about 885 under
Evagoras, who extended his sovereignty over
the greater part of the isl and. [Cypbu s .] Under
the Romans the whole of the E. part of the
island formed part of the territory of Salamis-
In the time of Trajan a great part of the town
was destroyed m an insurrection of the Jews ;
and under Constantine it suffered still more
from an earthquake, which buried a large por-

Map ol Salamis.
A a a t> „,-,,„ fl.ot .BBIi Grecian fleet ¦ C C C, the Persian army ; D. Throne ol Xerxes ; E. New Salamis ;
AAJl'^?rS1^n ¦ ri ?if t^h S Povttalaia • H Peiraeeus ¦ I, Phalerum ; 1, Athenian ships ; 2, Lacedaemonian
F'?1^SlaSfo;nonr.esilrf1nips? fieSnetln a^d Enho'ean ships; 4 Phoenician ships; 5, Cyprian ships;
rimtf^^^^ln^UA Ionian ships; S, Persian ships ; 9, Egyptian ships; a, Prom. SUeniae or
Tropaea (Cope of St. Barbara) ; b. Prom. Sciradinm; c, Prom. Budorus.

wards deserted, and a new city of the same
name buUt on the E. coast opposite Attica, on
a smaU bay now caUed Ambelakia. Even this
new city was in rains in the time of Pausanias.
At the extremity of the S. promontory formmg
this bay was the small island of Psyttalia
(Lypsohutali), which is about a mile long, and
from 200 to 300 yards wide (Hdt. vm. 95 ;
Aesch. Pers. 447).— Salamis is chiefly memor
able on account of the great battle fought off
its coast, in which the Persian fleet of Xerxes
was defeated by the Greeks, 480 The battle
took place in the strait between the E. part ot
the island and the coast of Attica, and the
Greek fleet was drawn up in the small bay
in front of the town of Salamis. The battle
was witnessed from the Attic coast by Xerxes,
who had erected for himself a lofty throne on
one of the projecting declivities of Mt. Ae-

tion of the inhabitants beneath its ruins. It
was, however, rebuilt by Constantine, who gave
it the name of Constantia, and made it the
capital of the island (Hierocl. p. 706). A
systematic exploration of the site of Salamis
was begun by Mr. Tubbs under direction of the
British School of Athens in 1890, when the
plan of the Agora and its colonnades, the
Temenus of Zeus, and other buildings were
discovered, besides valuable finds of pottery
and some of sculpture. It is probable that the
complete excavation of the site may produce
results of great value to archaeology.
Salapia (Salapinus : Salpi), an ancient town
of Apulia, in the district Daunia, was situated S.
of Sipontum on a lake named after it (Strab.
p 284). According to the common tradition it
was founded by Diomedes, though others ascribe
its foundation to the Rhodian Elpias (Vitruv.

828

SALAPINA

i. 4, 12 ; Strab. p. 654). It is not mentioned
till the second Punic war, when it revolted to
Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, but it sub
sequently surrendered to the Romans, and
delivered to the latter the Carthaginian garrison
stationed in the town (Liv. xxiv. 20, xxvi. 88).
The original site of Salapia was at some dis
tance from the coast; but in consequence of
the unhealthy exhalations arising from the lake
above mentioned, the inhabitants removed to a
new town on the sea coast, wMch was bmlt by
M. Hostilius with the approbation of the Roman
senate, about B.C. 200 (Vitruv. I. c). This new
town served as the harbour of Arpi. The ruins
of the ancient town still exist at some distance
from the coast at the viUage of Salpi.
Salapina Palus (Lago di Salpi), a lake of
Apulia, between the mouths of the Cerbalus
and Aufidus, wMch derived its name from the
town of Salapia situated upon it, and which
M. HostiUus connected with the Adriatic by
means of a canal (Strab. p. 284; Lucan, v. 377).
Salaria, a town of the Bastetani in Hispania
Tarraconensis and a Roman colony.
Salaria Via. [Roma, p. 818.]
Salassi, a brave and warlike people in Gallia
Transpadana, in the vaUey of the Duria (Val
d' Aosta) at the foot of the Graian and Pennine
Alps, whom some regarded as a branch of the
Salyes or Salluvii m Gaul. The approaches to
the Alpine passes of the Great and Little St.
Bernard lay tMough their territory, which was
itself rendered difficult of access from the plain
of the Po by the narrowness of the remarkable
gorge (at the modern Fort de Bard) wMch
forms the only entrance to the valley. (Liv. xxi.
39 ; cf. Alpes, p. 56, a.) The Salassi defended
their territory with such obstinacy and courage
that it was long before the Romans were able
to subdue them. At length in the reign of
Augustus the country was permanently occu
pied by Terentius Varro with a powerful Roman
force ; the greater part of the Salassi were
destroyed in battle, and the rest, amounting to
36,000, were sold as slaves. Their chief town
was Augusta Praetoria (Aosta), which Augustus
colonised with soldiers of the Praetorian co
horts. (Dio Cass. Mi. 25 ; Strab. p. 205 ; Liv.
Ep. 185.)
Saldae fedxSai) Bougie), a large seaport town
of N. Africa, origmaUy the E. frontier town of
the Mngdom of Mauretania, afterwards in
Mauretania Caesariensis, and, after the division
of that province, the W. frontier town of
Mauretania Sitifensis. Augustus made it a
colony. (Strab. p. 831; Ptol. iv. 2, 9; Plin.
v. 21.)
Salduba. 1. (Bio Verde), a river in the terri
tory of the Turduli in Hispania Baetica, at the
mouth of wMch was situated a town of the
same name (Ptol. ii. 4, 11).— 2. See Caesab-
AUGUSTA. Sale (Sdxv), a town on the coast of Thraco, a
little W. of the mouth of the Hebrus (Hdt. vii.
59). v
Salebro, a place in Etruria between Cosa and
Populomum. Saleius Bassus. [Bassus.]
Salentini or Sallentini, a people in the S.
part of Calabria, who dwelt around the promon
tory Iapygium, which is hence called Salentl-
num or Salentina (Strab. p. 282). They laid
claim to a Greek origin and pretended to have
come from Crete into Italy under the guidance
of Idomeneus (Strab. I. c; Verg. Aen. iii. 400.)
They were subdued by the Romans at the con
clusion of their war with Pyrrhus, and havmg

SALLUSTIUS
revolted in the second Punic war were again
easUy reduced to subjection (Liv. Ep. 15;
Flor. i. 20 ; Zonar. viU. 7).
Salernum (Salernitanus : Salerno), an an
cient town in Campania, at the mnermost corner
of the Sinus Paestanus, was situated on a height
not far from the coast, and possessed a harbour
at the foot of the Mil (Liv. xxxii. 29 ; Strab. p.
251 ; Hor. Ep. i. 15, 1). It was made a Roman
colony at the same time as Puteoli, b.c. 194 ;
but it attained its greatest prosperity in the
middle ages, after it had been fortified by the
Lombards (Paul. Hist. Lang. ii. 17).
Salices (Ad), a town m Moesia, not far from
the mouth of the Danube, sixty-two Roman
miles from Tomi (Amm. Marc. xxxi. 7).
Salganeus or Salganea (SaXyaveis : SaXyd-
vios, SaXyaveirris), a smaU town of Boeotia on
the Euripus (the N. entrance of which it com
manded), and on the road from Anthedon to
Chalcis. (Strab. p. 403 ; Liv. xxxv. 87, 51.)
Salmae, salt-works, the name of several
towns which possessed salt-works m their
vicinity. 1. A town in Britain, probably on the
E. coast, in the S. part of LincoMBhire (Ptol.
iii. 8, 7). — 2. A town of the Suetrii in the Mari
time Alps in Gallia Narbonensis, E. of Reii
(Ptol. ui. 1, 42).
Salinator, Livius. 1. M., consul B.C. 219,
with L. Aemilius Paulus, carried on war along
with Ms colleague against the IUyrians. On
their return to Rome, both consuls were brought
to trial on the charge of having unfairly
divided the booty among the soldiers. Paulus
escaped with difficulty, but Livius was con
demned. The sentence seems to have been an
unjust one, and Livius took Ms disgrace so
much to heart that he left the city and retired
to his estate in the country, where he Uved
some years without taking any part in public
affairs. (Ptol. iii. 19 ; Zonar. viii. 20 ; App.
Illyr. 8 ; Liv. xxii. 35.) In 210 the consuls
compeUed him to return to the city, and m 207
he was elected consul a second time with
C. Claudius Nero. He shared with Ms col
league in the glory of defeating Hasdrubal on
the Metaurus. [For details, see Neko, Clau
dius, No. 2.] Next year (206) Livius was sta
tioned in Etruria, as proconsul, with an army,
and Ms imperium was prolonged for two suc
cessive years. In 204 he was censor with Ms
former colleague m the consulsMp, Claudius
Nero. The two censors had long been ene
mies, and their long-smothered resentment
now burst forth, and occasioned no small scan
dal in the state. Livius, in Ms censorship
imposed a tax upon salt, in consequence of
which he received the surname of Salinator,
which seems to have been given Mm in derision,
but which became, notwithstanding, hereditary
in Mb family. (Liv. xxix. 87 ; Val. Max. ii. 9, 6,
vii. 2, 6.)— 2. C, curule aedile 203, and praetor
202, in which year he obtained Bruttii as Ms
province. In 198 he fought under the consul
against the Boii, and in the same year was an
unsuccessful candidate for the consulsMp. (Liv.
xxix. 38, xxxv. 5, 10.)— 3. C, praetor 191, when
he had the command of the fleet in the war
against Antiochus. He was consul 188, and
obtained Gaul as his province. (Liv. xxxvi. 42,
xxxvii. 9-25 j App. Syr. 22.)
Sallentini. [Salentini.]
Sallustlus or Salustlus (SaXovo-rios), prae
fectus praetorio under the emperor Julian.
He was probably the author of a treatise Ilepl
Qewv Kal Kdcrpov, which is still extant, of the
school of the Neo-Platonists. Edited by OreUius.

SALLUSTIUS
C. Sallustlus Crispus, or Salustius. 1. The
Roman historian, belonged to a plebeian family,
and was born B.C. 86, at Amiternum, in the
country of the Sabines. He was quaestor about
59, and tribune of the plebs in 52, the year in
which Clodius was killed by Milo. In his tri
bunate he joined the popular party, and took an
active part in opposing Milo. It is said that he
had been caught by Milo in the act of adultery
with his wife, Fausta, the daughter of the dic
tator SuUa; that he had received a sound
whippmg from the husband ; and that he had
been only let off on payment of a sum of money
(GeU. xvii. 18). In 50 SaUust was expelled
from the senate by the censors, probably be
cause he belonged to Caesar's party, though
some give as the ground of his ejection from the
senate the act of adultery already mentioned
(Dio Cass. xl. 63). In the CivU war he followed
Caesar's fortune. In 47 we find Mm praetor
elect, by obtammg which digmty he was restored
to Ms rank. He nearly lost his life in a mutiny
of some of Caesar's troops in Campama, who
had been led tMther to pass over into Africa
(App. B. G. ii. 92). He accompamed Caesar m
Ms African war, 46, and was left by Caesar as
the governor of Numidia, m wMch capacity he
is charged with havmg oppressed the people,
and enriched himself by unjust means (Bell.
Afr. 8, 34 ; Dio Cass, xliii. 9). He was accused
of maladministration before Caesar, but it doeB
not appear that he was brought to trial ( [Cic]
Invect. in Sallust. 19). The charge is some
what confirmed by the fact of his becoming
immensely rich, as was shown by the expensive
gardens wMch he formed (horti Sallustiani)
on the QuirinaHs (cf. Hor. Od. ii. 2 ; Tac. Ann.
iii. 30). He retired mto privacy after he re
turned from Africa, and he passed quietly
tMough the troublesome period after Caesar's
death (Sail. Cat. 4). He died 84, about four
years before the battle of Actium. The story
of Ms morrymg Cicero's wife, Terentia, ought
to be rejected. [Tebentia.] It was probably
not tiU after Ms return from Africa that Sallust
wrote Ms historical works. (1) The Catilina,
or Bellum Catilina.ri.um, is a Mstory of the
conspiracy of Catiline during the consulship of
Cicero, 68. The mtroduction to this Mstory is
a somewhat overstramed effort to introduce
pMlosophy and morals, but the writing is not
without vigour, and there is no reason to regard
the remarks as msmcere. The history, though
not clear m its cMonology, is valuable. Sallust
was a livmg spectator of the events wMch he
describes, and considering that he was not a
friend of Cicero, and was a partisan of Caesar,
he wrote with fairness. The speeches which
he has inserted in Ms history are certamly his
own composition. [As regards his representa
tion of Caesar's action, see p. 181, b.] Editions
by Cook, 1884 ; Turner, 1887 ; Eussner, Leips.
1887. (2) The Jugurtha, or Bellum Jugurthi-
num, contains the Mstory of the war of the
Romans agamst Jugurtha, Mng of Numidia,
wMch began 111, and continued until 106. It
is likely enough that Sallust was led to write
this work from havmg resided in Africa, and
that he coUected some materials there. He
cites the Punic Books of King Hiempsal as
authority for his general geographical descrip
tion (Jug. c. 17). The Jugurthine War has a
pMlosopMcal Introduction of the same stamp
as that to the Catilina. As a history of the
campaign, the Jugurthine War is not very
trustworthy : there is a total neglect of geo-
grapMcal precision, and apparently not a very

SALMONA

829-

strict regard to chronology. Editions by Her-
zog, Leips. 1840 ; Schmalz, Gotha, 1886 ; Brook,
Lond. 1885. (3) His greatest work, which has,
perished almost entirely, was the Histories, in
five books, wMch were dedicated to Lucullus, a
son of L. Licinius Lucullus. The work com
prised the period from the consulship of M.
Aemilius Lepidus and Q. Lutatius Catulus, 78,
the year of Sulla's death, to the consulsMp of
L. Vulcatius Tullus and M. Aemilius Lepidus,
66, the year in which Cicero was praetor. TMs
work was intended as a continuation of Sis-
enna's History ; the Mstory of SuUa was omitted
(Jug. 95). The few remaining fragments com
prise four speeches and two letters. These frag
ments are included in Jordan's edition of
Sallust, 1887. (4) Duae Epistolae de Be Pub
lica ordinanda, which appear to be addressed
to Caesar at the time when he was engaged in
his Spanish campaign (49) against Petreius and
Afranius, and the Invediva (or Declamatio) in
Giceronem are attributed to SaUust, but are
probably works of a rhetorical writer of the
first century, A.D., as is also the supposed retort
of Cicero, Invect. in Sallustium. These are
also printed in Jordan's Sallust, Berl. 1887,
wMch is the best complete edition. — Some of
the Roman writers considered that Sallust
imitated the style of Thucydides (Quint, x. 1).
His language is generaUy concise and per
spicuous : perhaps his love of brevity may have
caused the ambiguity that is sometimes found
in Ms sentences. He also affected archaic
words. Though he has considerable merit as a
writer, his art is always apparent. He had no
pretensions to great research or precision about
facts. His reflections have often something of
the same artificial and constrained character as
his expressions ; yet several are forcible and
suggestive, and are familiar aphorismB, e.g.
' Idem velle idem nolle, ea demum firma.
amicitia est.' One may judge that his object
was to obtain distinction as a writer : that style
was what he thought of more than matter. He
has, however, probably the merit of being the
first Roman who aimed at writing phUosopMcal
Mstory, and who was successful in depicting
character. In Ms view of the times he was a.
pessimist, who pamted the vices of the patri
cians m the darkest colours, with, perhaps,
sometMng of bitterness from the retrospect of
Ms own life. Caesar and Cato alone are ex
cepted from the general reprobation. — 2. The
grandson of the sister of the historian, was
adopted by the latter, and inherited his great,
wealth. In imitation of Maecenas, he pre
ferred remaming a Roman eques. On the fall
of Maecenas he became the principal adviser of
Augustus. He died in a.d. 20, at an advanced
age. (Tac. Ann. i. 6, ii. 40, iii. 30 ; Sen. de Clem.
10.) One of Horace's odes (Od. ii. 2) was
addressed to him after he was in favour with
the imperial court: he is satirised for his
profligacy in Sat. i. 2, 48.
Salmacis. [Hebmaphboditus.]
Salmantica (Salamanca), called Helmantica
or Hermandica by Livy, and Elmantica by
Polybius, an important town of the Vettones in
Lusitama, S. of the Durius, on the road from
Emerita to Caesaraugusta. It was taken by
Hannibal. A bridge was built here by Trajan,
of which the piers still exiBt. (Pol. iii. 14 ; Liv.
xxi. 5 ; Ptol. ii. 5, 9.)
Salmona or Salmonia. 1. (SaXpdvr/, 2oa-
pcuvla), a town of Elis, in the district Pisa
tis, on the river Enipeus, said to have been
founded by Salmoneus (Diod. iv. 68). —

830

SALMONEUS

2. (Salme), a branch of the MoseUa (Aus. Mos.
366). Salmoneus (SaXpoiveis), son of Aeolus and
Enarete, and brother of Sisyphus (ApoUod. i.
7, 3). He was first married to Alcidice and
afterwards to Sidero ; by the former of whom
he became the father of Tyro (Od. xi. 235;
Diod. iv. 68). He originally lived in Thessaly,
but emigrated to Elis, where he buUt the town
of Salmone (Strab. p. 356). His presumption
and arrogance were so great that he deemed
himself equal to Zeus, and ordered sacrifices to
be offered to himself; nay, he even imitated
the thunder and lightning of Zeus, but the
father of the gods killed him with Ms thunder
bolt, destroyed his town, and punished him m
the lower world. This story of impiety is later
than the Odyssey, where he is called apvpwv.
(Apollod. i. 9, 7 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 585 ; Claud, in
Bufin. ii. 514 ; Hyg. Fab. 60, 61.) His daughter
Tyro bears the patronymic Salmonia.
Salmonium or Salmona (SaXpdviou, SaX-
fidvTi : C. Salmon), the most easterly pro
montory of Crete (Strab. pp. 106, 474).
Salmydessus, caUed Halmydessus also in
later times (SaXpvSricro-6s, 'AXpvSno-cris : ~2aX-
pvSiio-o-ios : Midja or Midjeh), a town of Thrace,
on the coast of the Euxine, S. of the promon
tory Thynias (Ptol. iii. 11, 4). Aeschylus
wrongly places it in Asia on the Thermodon
(Prom. 726). The name was originally applied
to the whole coast from this promontory to the
entrance of the Bosporus ; and it was from tMs
coast that the Black Sea obtained the name of
Pontus Axenos ("A^evos), or inhospitable. The
coast itself was rendered dangerous by shaUows
and marshes, and the inhabitants were accus
tomed to plunder any ships that were driven
¦upon them. (Strab. p. 319 ; Xen. An. v. 4, 12 ;
Hdt. iv. 93.)
Salo (Xalon), a tributary of the Iberus in
Celtiberia, which flowed by Bilbilis, the birth
place of Martial, who _ frequently mentions it
in his poems (Mart. i. 49, x. 20, 103).
Salodurum (Solothurn or Soleure), a town in
the E. of Gallia Belgica, on theArurius (Arar),
and on the road from Aventicum to Vindonissa.
[Helvetii.] Salona, Salonae, or Salon (Salona), an im
portant town of Illyria and the capital of Dal
matia, was situated on a smaU bay of the sea
(Lucan, viii. 104). It was strongly fortified by
the Romans after their conquest of the country,
and was at a later time made a Roman colony,
and the seat of a conventus juridicus (App.
Illyr. 11 ; Caes. B.G. iii. 9; Plin. iii. 141). The
emperor Diocletian was born at the small viUage
Dioclea near Salona [p. 288] ; and after Ms abdi
cation he retired to the neighbourhood of tMs
town, and here spent the rest of his days. The
magnificent remains of his huge palace are still
to be seen at Spalatro (Palatium), three miles S.
of Salona, where they form a town in themselves
Salonina, Cornelia, wife of Gallienus and
mother of Salonius. She witnessed with her
own eyes the death of her husband before
Milan, in a.d. 268. [Gallienus.]
Saloninus, P. Licinius Cornelius Vale-
rianus, son of GalUenusand Salonina, grandson
of the emperor Valerian. When his father and
Ms grandfather assumed the title of Augustus,
in a.d. 253, the youth received the designation
of Caesar. Some years afterwards he was left
in Gaul, and was put to death upon the capture
of Colonia Agrippma by Postumus in 259,
being about 17 years old. (TrebeU. Poll.
Sakmim. ; Zosim. i. 38.)

SALUS
Salpensa, a Latin colony in Baetica between
Hispalis (Seville) and Gades (Cadiz). The laws
of Domitian regulating its government and that
of Malaca were found in 1851 (C.I.L. 1963),
and are important for the knowledge of Roman
municipal affairs. (Did. of Ant. art. Lex
Salpensana.) Salpennm, an ancient city of Etruria, not far
from Volsimi, possibly where Orvieto now
Btands (Liv. v. 31).
Salsum Flumen, a tributary of the Baetis in
Hispania Baetica, between Attegua andAttubis
(Bell. Afr. 7).
Salvianus, an accompUshed ecclesiastical
writer of the fifth century a.d., was born in the
vicmity of Treves, and passed the latter part of
Ms life as a presbyter of the church at Mar
seilles. The foUowing works of Salvianus are
stUl extant: — (1) Adversus Avaritiam Libri
IV ad Ecclesiam Catholicam, published under
the name of Timotheus, about a.d. 440. (2) De
Brovidentia s. de Gubematione Dei et de Justo
Dei praesentique Judicio Libri VIII, written
during the inroads by the barbarianB upon the
Roman empire, 451-455. (3) Epistolae' IX,
addressed to friends upon f amUiar topics. Apart
from their bearing on theological and eccle
siastical questions, these writings are valuable
for their vivid description of the life and morals
of the period. — The best editions of these works
are by Halm, Berl. 1877, and PauUy, Vienna,
1883. Q. Salvidienus Rufus, one of the early
friends of Octavian (Augustus), whose fleet he
commanded in the war against Sex. Pompeius,
B.C. 42. In the Perusinian war (41-40) he took
an active part as one of Octavian's legates
against L. Antonius and Fulvia. He was after
wards sent into Gallia Narbonensis, from
whence he wrote to M. Antonius, offering to
induce the troops in his province to desert
from Octavian. But Antomus, who had just
been reconciled to Octavian, revealed the
treachery of Salvidienus. The latter was forth
with summoned to Rome on some pretext, and
on Ms arrival was accused by Octavian m
the senate, and condemned to death, 40. (App.
B.C. iv. 85, v. 20-35, 66; Dio Cass, xlviii. IS,
18, 33.)_
Salvias, the leader of the revolted slaves M
Sicily, better known by the name of Tryphon,
which he assumed. [Tbyphon.]
Salvius Julianus. [Julianus.]
Salvius Otho. [Otho.]
Salus, an Italian goddess, the personification
of health, prosperity, and the public welfare.
She was invoked by all communities for pro
sperity and safety in whatever might be their
undertakings : for instance, by agriculturists
(Ov. Fast. iii. 882 ; Macrob. i. 16). At Rome
in especial she was the goddess who gave
public welfare (Salus Publica or Bomana), to
whom a temple had been vowed m the year
B.C. 305 by the censor C. Junius Bubulcus
on the Quirinal MU, which was afterwards (m
601) decorated with paintings by C. Fabius
Pictor (Liv. ix. 43, x. 1; Val. Max. viii. 14).
The temple was destroyed by fire in the reign
of Claudius (Plin. xxxv. 19). She was wor
shipped publicly on April 80, in conjunction
with Pax, Concordia, and Janus. It had been
customary at Rome every year, about the time
when the consuls entered upon their office, for
the augurs and other high priests to observe
the signs for the purpose of ascertaming the
fortunes of the republic during the coming
year ; tMs observation of the signs was called

SALUSTIUS
augurium Salutis (Cic. de Leg. ii. 8, 20, Div.
i. 47,105; Tac. Ann. xii. 23; Suet. Aug. 81).
In the time of Cicero this ceremony had be
come neglected ; but Augustus restored it, and
the custom afterwards remained as long as
paganism was the religion of the state. She
was also petitioned for particular persons by a
sort of state prayer, as for Pompey B.C. 49 (Dio
Cass. xii. 6) ; and tMs was constantly done for
the emperor, who represented the state itself,
so that Salus Augusta = Salus Publica. As
goddess of health Salus was identified with
Hygiea, after the Greek influence was felt, and
was represented with the same attributes [see
p. 433, a].
Salustius. [Sallustius.]
Salyes or Salluvii, the most powerful and
most celebrated of aU the Ligurian tribes,
Mhabited the S. coast of Gaul from the Rhone
to the Maritime Alps (Strab. p. 203). They
were troublesome neighbours to MassiUa, with
wMch city they frequently carried on war.
They were subdued by the Romans in B.C. 123
after a long and obstinate struggle, and the
colony of Aquae Sextiae was founded in their
territory by the consul Sextius [p. 94, b].
Samachonitis Lacus. [Semechonitis Lacus.]
Samara. [Samabobbtva.]
Samaria (Sapdpeia : Heb. Shomron, Chaldee,
Shamrain : Sapapevs, Sapapeir-qs, Samarites,
pi. 2apape?s, Sapapeirai, Samarltae), aft. Se
baste (SeBaOTli : Sebustieh, Ru.), one of the
cMef cities of Palestine, buUt by Omri, Mng of
Israel on a MU m the midst of a plam sur
rounded by mountams, just M the centre of
Palestine W. of the Jordan. For its Mstory
before the Roman occupation, see Dictionary of
the Bible. Pompey assigned the district to
the provmce of Syria, and Gabinius fortified
the city anew. Augustus gave the district to
Herod, who greatly renovated the city of Sa
maria, wMch he called Sebaste in honour of his
patron. It had its own administration, under
control of the Roman authority. As Sebaste it
received a colony m the reign of Septimius
Severus. [For the poUtical Mstory see Palaes
tina.] Samarobriva, afterwards Ambiani (Amiens),
the cMef town of the Ambiani in GaUia Bel
gica, on the river Samara: whence its name,
wMch signifies Samara-Bridge (Caes. B. G. v.
24, 46, 53 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 8 ; Amm. Marc. xv. 11).
Sambana (SdpBava), a city of Assyria, two
days' journey N. of Sittace. In its neighbour
hood dwelt the people caUed Sambatae
(SapBdrai). (Diod. xvii. 27.)
Sambastae (SapBarrrai), a people of India
intra Gangem, on the Lower Indus, near the
island Pattalene. The fort of Sevistan or
Sehoun m the same neighbourhood has been
thought to preserve their name, and is by some
identified with the Brahman city taken by
Alexander. (Arr. An. vi. 15.)
Same or Samos (Sdpv, Sdpos), the ancient
name of Cephallenia. [Cephallenia.] It was
also the name of one of the four towns of
Cephallenia. The town Same or Samos was
situated on the E. coast, opposite Ithaca, and
was taken and destroyed by the Romans b.c.
189. (Strab. p. 455 ; Liv. xxxviii. 28.)
Samia (Sapia : Khaiaffa), a town of Elis in
the district Triphylia, S. of Olympia, between
Lepreum and the Alpheus, with a citadel
called Samicum (SapiK6v), the same as the
Homeric Arene (17. ii. 591, xi. 723 ; Strab. pp.
346, 347 ; Paus. v. 5, 3).
Saminthus (SapivBos : nr. Phiklia), a place

SAMNIUM

881

in Argolis, on the W. edge of the Argive plam,
opposite Mycenae (Thuc. v. 58).
Sammonius. [Sebenus].
Samnium (Samnites, more rarely Samnitae,
pi.), a country in the centre of Italy, bounded
on the N. by the Marsi, Paeligni, and Marrucini,
on the W. by Latium and Campania, on the S.
by Lucania, and on the E. by the Frentani and
Apulia. The Samnites were an offshoot of the
Sabines (Strab. p. 250; Varro, L. L. vii. 29;
Gell. xi. 1), who emigrated from their country
between the Nar, the Tiber, and the Anio,
before the foundation of Rome, and settled M
the country afterwards called Samnium.
[Sabini.] This country was at the time of
their migration inhabited by Opicans, whom
the Samnites conquered, and whose language
they adopted. Samnium is a country marked
by striking physical features. The greater
part of it is occupied by a huge mass of moun
tains, caUed at the present day the Matese,
which stands out from the central line of the
Apennmes. The circumference of the Matese
is between seventy and eighty miles, and its
greatest height is 6000 feet. The two most
important tribes of the Samnites were the
Caudini and Pentri, of whom the former occu
pied the S. side, and the latter the N. side of
the Matese. To the Caudini belonged the
towns of Allifae, Telesia, and Beneventum ; to
the Pentri, those of Aesernia, Bovianum, and
Sepmum. Besides these two chief tribes, we
find mention of the Caraceni, who dwelt N. of
the Pentri, and to whom the town of Aufidena
belonged ; and of the Hirpini, who dwelt SE. of
the Caudini, but who are sometimes men
tioned as distinct from the Samnites. The
Samnites were distinguished for their bravery
and love of freedom. Issuing from their
mountain fastnesses, they overran a great part
of Campania ; but it has been remarked that
these bands of adventurers gained or lost for
themselves, and their conquests did not reaUy
extend the dominion of the parent state as did
those which the Romans made. The reason of
the difference lay partly in the looseness of the
Samnite confederacy, wMch was formed of a
number of communes of herdsmen and agricul
turists who nominated representatives in an
assembly, and only on occasion of need ap
pointed a federal general. In one of the
Samnite expeditions Capua applied to the
Romans for assistance against the Samnites,
and this led to the war which broke out
between the Romans and Samnites in b.c. 343.
The Romans found the Samnites the most war
like and formidable enemies whom they had
yet encountered in Italy, and the war which
commenced m 343 was continued with few
interruptions for the space of fifty-three years.
It was not till 290, when all their bravest troops
had fallen, and their country had been
repeatedly ravaged in every direction by the
Roman legions, that the Samnites sued for
peace and submitted to the supremacy of
Rome. They never, however, lost their love of
freedom ; and accordingly they not only joined
the other Italian allies in the war against Rome
(90), but, even after the other alUes had sub
mitted, they still continued in arms. The
civil war between Marius and Sulla gave them
hopes of recovering their independence; but
they were defeated by Sulla before the gates of
Rome (82), the greater part of their troops fell
in battle, and the remainder were put to death.
Their townB were laid waste, the inhabitants
sold as slaves, and their place supplied by

832

SAMOS

Roman colonists. (App. B. C. i. 93 ; Strab. p.
249 ; Plut. Sull. 30.) .
Samos or Samus (Sdpos : Sapios, Samius :
Grk. Samos), one of the principal islands
of the Aegean Sea, lying in that portion
of it called the Icarian Sea, off the coast of
Ionia, from which it is separated only by
a narrow strait formed by the overlapping
of its E. promontory Posidium (C. Colonna)
with the westernmost spur of M. Mycale, Pr.
Trogilium (C. S. Maria). This strait, which is
little more than three-fourths of a mile wide,
was the scene of the battle of Mycale. The
island is formed by a range of mountains
extending from E. to W., whence it derived its
name, for Sdpos was an old Greek word
signifying a mountain : and the same root is
seen in Same, the old name of Cephallenia, and
Samothrace, i.e. the Thracian Samos. The
circumference of the island is about eighty
miles. It was and is very fertile, and some of
its products are indicated by its ancient names,
Dryusa, Anthemura, Melamphyllus and Cypa-
rissia (Plin. v. 135). According to the earliest
traditions, it was a chief seat of the Carians
and Leleges, and the residence of their first
king, Ancaeus, and was afterwards colonised
by Aeolians from Lesbos, and by Ionians from
Epidaurus (Paus. vii. 4, 1 ; Strab. p. 637). In
the earliest Mstorical records, we find Samoa
decidedly Ionian, and a powerful member of
the Ionic confederacy. Thucydides tells us
that the Samians were the first of the Greeks,
after the CorintMans, who paid great atten
tion to naval affairs (Thuc. i. 13). The
Samian Colaeus is said to have discovered
the passage of the Straits of Gibraltar (Hdt.
iv. 152). They early acquired such power
at sea that, besides obtaining possession of
parts of the opposite coast of Asia, they
founded many colonies : among which were
Bisanthe and Perinthus, in Thrace ; Celenderis
and Nagidus, in Cilicia; Cydonia, in Crete;
Dicaearchia (Puteoli), in Italy; and Zanele
(Messana), in Sicily. After the, government by
a heroic monarchy followed, at the end of the
seventh century B.C., an oligarchy of the land
owners (Geomori), who sent a colony to Perin
thus and defeated the Megarians ; but a revo
lution followed about 565 B.C., m which it is
said that the oppressed people of Samos joined
with the Megarian prisoners against the olig
archs: thus the island became subject to a
democracy (Plut. Q. Gr. 57), but not long
afterwards the power fell into the hands of the
most distinguished of the so-called tyrants,
Polycbates (b.c. 532), under whom its power
£,nd splendour reached their highest pitch, and
Samos would probably have become the
mistress of the Aegaean, but for the murder of
Polycrates. At this period the Samians had
extensive commercial relations with Egypt, and
they obtamed from Amasis the privilege of a
separate temple at Naucbatis. Their com
merce extended into the interior of Africa,
partly through their relations with Cyrene,
and also by meanB of a settlement which they
effected in one of the Oases, seven days'
journey from Thebes. The Samians now
became subject to the Persian empire : the
island was 'netted' in Persian fashion,
nearly all the men hunted down and destroyed,
and then Samos was handed over to Syloson,
brother of Polycrates. (Hdt. iii. 120-125.) The
Samians were governed by tyrants, with a
brief interval at the time of the Ionic revolt,
untU the battle of Mycale, wMch made them

independent, B.C. 479. They now joined the
Athenian confederacy, of which they continued
Mdependent members until B.C. 440, when an
opportunity arose for reducmg them to entire
subjection and depriving them of their fleet,
which was effected by Pericles after an obsti
nate resistance of nine months' duration. (For
the details see the Histories of Greece.) In the
Peloponnesian war, Samos held firmly to Athens

Coin ol Samos, late in 4th century B.C.
Obv. lion's scalp ; rev. 2A : HrHSlANAS (magistrate's
name) ; forepart of an ox.
to the last, and in the Mstory of the latter
part of that war the island becomes extremely
important as the head-quarters of the exiled
democratical party of the Athenians. Trans
ferred to Sparta after the battle of Aegos-
potami, 405, it was soon restored to Athens by
that of Cnidus, 894, but went over to Sparta
again in 390. Soon after, it feU into the hands
of the Persians, being conquered by the satrap
Tigranes ; but it was recovered by Timotheus
for Athens. In the Social war, the Athemans
successfuUy defended it against the attacks of
the confederated Chians, Rhodians, and Byzan
tines, and placed m it a body of 2000 clerucM,
B.C. 352. After Alexander's death, it was taken
from the Athenians by Perdiccas, 323; but
restored to them by Polysperchon 319. In the
subsequent period, it seems to have been
rather nominally than really a part of the
Greco-Syrian kingdom : we find it engaged m
a long contest with Priene on a question of
boundary, which was referred to Antiochus II.,
and afterwards to the Roman senate. In the
Macedonian war, Samos was taken by the
Rhodians, then by Philip, and lastly by the
Rhodians again, B.C. 200. In the Syrian war,
the Samians took part with Antiochus the
Great against Rome. Little further mention
is made of Samos tUl the time of Mithridates,
with whom it took part in his first war against
Rome, on the conclusion of which it was finaUy
united to the province of Asia, b.c. 84. Mean
while it had greatly declined, and during the
war it had been wasted by the mcursions of
pirates. Its prosperity was partially restored
under the propraetorship of Q. Cicero, B.C. 62,
but still more by the residence in it of Antony
and Cleopatra, 32, and afterwards of Octavi
anus, who made Samos a free state. (Plin. v.
135). It was favoured by Caligula, but was
deprived of its freedom by Vespasian, and it
sank into insignificance as early as the second
century, although its departed glory is found
Btill recorded, under the emperor Decius, by
the inscription on its coins, Sapicav irpdratv
'Icevlas. — Samos may be regarded as among the
chief centres of Ionian manners, energies,
luxury, science, and art. In very early times,
there was a native school of archaic sculpture,
at the head of which was Rhoecus, to whom
tradition ascribed the invention of casting in
metal. [Rhoecus ; Telecles ; Theodoeus.J
In the hands of the same school architecture
flourished" greatly ; the Heraeum, one of the

SAMOSATA
finest of Greek temples, was erected m a marsh,
on the W. side of the city of Samos ; and the
city itself, especially under the government of
Polycrates, was furnished with other splendid
works, among wMch was an aqueduct pierced
tMough a mountain. In pottery Samos has
given its name to the ' Samian ' ware, a red
pottery with reliefs (the successor perhaps of a
black pottery with reliefs made at Somos), which
was in vogue both in Greece and Italy in the
second century B.C., and was imitated by
potters of Gaul and Britain. In phUosophy
Pythagoras has made the name of Samos
famous; among the lesser men of literature
born in the island were the poets Asius and
Choerilus and the historian Duris.— The
capital city, also called Samos, stood on the
SE. side of the island, opposite Pr. TrogiUum,
partly on the shore, and partly rismg on the
hills beMnd in the form of an amphitheatre.
It had a mogmficent harbour, and numerous
splendid buUdmgs, among which, besides the
Heraeum and other temples, the chief were the
senate-house, the theatre, and a gymnasium
dedicated to Eros. The Heraeum of Samos,
which commemorated the tradition that Hera
was born by the river Imbrasus in Samos (Paus.
vii. 4, 4), was buUt by Rhoecus (as principal
arcMtect), M the middle of the seventh century
B.C., or (as some maintain) at the end of
that century, possibly on the site of a stiU
older temple. It was seen by Herodotus, who
speaks of it as the largest existing temple
(Hdt. hi. 60 ; cf. Paus. vn. 4), and m fact the
report of the excavations of 1880 showed a
facade of fully fifty metres. It was of the
IoMc order, as may be seen by the existing
remains — not Doric as Vitruvius states (vii.
praef. 12).
Samosata (to. S.ap6crara '. Sapocrarevs, Samo-
satensis : Samisat), the capital of the province,
and afterwards kingdom, of Commagene, m the
N. of Syria, stood on the right bank of the Eu
phrates, NW. of Edessa (Strab. p. 749). It was
taken by Antony in Ms Syrian campaign (Jos.
Ant. xiv. 15). It was strongly fortified as a
frontier post agamst Osroene (Jos. B. J. vii. 7,
1). In the first century of our era, it was the
capital of the Mngs of Commagene. It is cele
brated, m literary Mstory, as the birthplace of
Lucian, and, m Church history, as that of the
heretic Paul, bishop of Antioch, in the third
century. Samothrace, Samothraca, or Samothracia
[see Liv. xM. 50, xUv. 45, 46] (2apoBpdKn,
2apo6paKia, Ep. 2dpos Spy'to'in : ~Sap6BpaKes :
Samothraki), a small island in the N. of the
Aegaean sea, opposite the mouth of the Hebrus
m TMace, from wMch it was tMrty-eight miles
distant. It is about thirty-two miles in cir
cumference, and contams in its centre a lofty
mountam, caUed Saoce, from which Homer
says that Troy could be seen. (II. xiii. 12 ;
Plin. iv. 73.) Samothrace bore various names
in ancient times. It is said to have been called
Melite, Saonnesus, and more frequently Dar-
dama, from Dardanus, the founder of Troy, who
is reported to have settled here. (Strab. pp.
457, 472 ; Paus. vii. 4, 3.) Homer calls the
island simply Samos ; sometimes the Thracian
Samos, because it was colonised, according to
some accounts, from Samos on the coast of
Asia Minor. SamotMace was the chief seat of
the worsMp of the Cabiri, and was celebrated
for its religious mysteries, which were among
the most famous m the ancient world. [See
Cabiki, and Did. of Ant. art. Cabiria.] The

SANDROCOTTUS

883

political Mstory of SamotMace is of little im
portance. The Samothracians fought on the
Bide of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis (Hdt.
viii. 90), and at this time they possessed on
the Thracian mainland a few places, such as
Sale, Serrhion, Mesambria, and Tempyra (Hdt.
vii. 108). In the time of the Macedonian kings,
Samothrace appears to have been regarded as
a kmd of asylum, and Perseus accordingly fled
thither after Ms defeat by the Romans at the
battle of Pydna (Liv. xiv. 6).
Sampsiceramus, the name of two princes of
Emesa in Syria [Emesa], a nickname given by
Cicero to Cn. Pompeius, in allusion probably
to his talkmg much of Ms Eastern victories,
tMs name bemg selected as particularly high-
sounding (Cic. ad Att. ii. 14, 16, 17, 23).
Sanchuniathon (S,ayxoviud6a>v), said to have
been an ancient Phoenician writer, whose works
were translated (as wasxpretended) into Greek
by Philo Byblius, who Uved in the latter half
of the first century of the Christian era. A
considerable fragment of the translation of
Philo is preserved by Eusebius in the first book
of Ms Praeparatio Evangelica. Philo was
one of the many adherents of the doctrine of
Euhemerus, that aU the gods were originally
men who had distinguished themselves in their
lives as kings, warriors, or benefactors of
man, and were worshipped as divinities after
their death. TMs doctrine PMlo applied to the
religious system of the Oriental nations, and
especiaUy of the Phoenicians ; and in order to
gain more credit for Ms statements, he pre
tended that they were taken from an ancient
Phoenician writer. Sanchuniathon, he says,
was a native of Berytus, lived in the time of
Semiramis, and dedicated his work to Abibalus,
Mng of Berytus. It is probable that Sanchu
niathon never existed, and that the name was
formed from the Phoenician god Sanchon, and
was invented for an imaginary Phoenician
writer to whom Philo professed to ascribe the
materials which he had gathered from tra
ditions of various religions, Egyptian, Greek,
and especially Phoenician. — The fragments of
tMs work have been published separately by J.
C. OreUi, Lips. 1826. In 1835 a manuscript,
purporting to be the entire translation of Philo
Byblius, was discovered in a convent in Por
tugal. The Greek text was published by
Wagenfeld, Bremae, 1837.
Sancus; or Semo Sancus, an Italian di
vinity, originally a Sabine god, and identical
with Hercules and Dius Fidius. The name,
which is etymologically the same as Sandus,
and connected with Sancire, seems to justify
this belief, and characterises Sancus as a
divimty presidmg over oaths (Ov. Fast. vi.
213; Propert. v. 9, 71). Sancus also had a
temple at Rome, on the Mucialis (the S. slope
of the Quirinal), which was said to have been
consecrated in 466 B.C. by Postumius Regil-
lensis (Dionys. ix. 60) : near it was the ' Gate
of Semo ' (Porta Sanqualis ; Fest. p. 345). There
was also an altar on the island in the Tiber
dedicated to Sanco (G. I. L. vi. 567), from which
Christian writers derived their fallacious notion
that Simon Magus was worshipped at Rome
(Tertull. Apol. 13 ; Euseb. H. E. ii. 13). [See
further under Froius, and Hebacles, pp. 400,
401, b.]
Sandrocottus (ScwSpdWros), an Indian kmg
at the time Of Seleucus Nicator, ruled over the
powerful nation of the Gangaridae and Prasii
on the banks of the Ganges. He was a man of
mean origin, and was the leader of a band of

834

SANGALA

robbers, before he obtained the -supreme power.
In the troubles which followed the death of
Alexander, he extended Ms dominions over the
greater part of northern India, and conquered
the Macedonians who had been left by Alex
ander in the Punjab. His dominions were
invaded by Seleucus, who did not, however, suc
ceed in the object of his expedition, for, in the
peace concluded between the two monarchs,
Seleucus ceded to Sandroeottus not only his
conquests in the Punjab, but also the country
of the Paropamisus. Seleucus in return re
ceived 500 war elephants. (Plut. Alex. 62;
Just. xv. 4 ; Arr. An. v. 6, 2 ; Strab. pp. 702, 709,
724 ; App. Syr. 55 ; Athen. p. 18.) Megasthenes
subsequently resided for many years at the
court of Sandroeottus as the ambassador of
Seleucus. [Megasthenes.] Sandroeottus is
probably the same as the Chandragupta of
the Sanscrit writers.
Sangala (SdyyaXa), a town taken by Alex
ander in the country of the Punjab (Arr. An.
v. 22). Some identify it with Lahore.
Sangarius, Sangaris, or Sagaris (Sayyd-
pios, Sdyyapis, %dyapis : Sakariyeh), the
largest river of Asia Minor after the Halys,
had its source in a mountain called Adoreus,
near the little town of Sangia, on the borders
of Galatia and Phrygia, whence it flowed first
N. through Galatia, then W. and NW. tMough
the NE. part of Phrygia, and then N. through
Bithynia, of which it origmaUy formed the E.
boundary. It fell at last into the Euxine,
about half way between the Bosporus and
Heraclea. It was navigable in the lower part
of its course. Its chief tributaries were the
Thymbres or Thymbrus, the Bathys, and the
Gallus, flowing into it from the W. (II. iii. 187,
xvi. 719; Hes. Th. 344; Strab. p. 543; Ov.
Pont. iv. 10, 17.)
Sangia. [Sangarius.]
Sannyrlon (Savvvplwv), an Athenian comic
poet, belonging to the latter years of the Old
Comedy, and the beginnmg of the Middle. He
flourished B.C. 407 and onwards. We know
nothing of Ms personal history, except that his
excessive leanness was ridiculed by Strattis and
Aristophanes. (Athen. p. 551.)
Santones or Santoni, a powerful people in
Gallia Aquitanica, dwelt on the coast of the
ocean, N. of the Garumna. Under the Romans
they were a free people. Their chief town was
Mediolanum, afterwards Santones (Saint es).
(Caes. B. G. i. 10, iii. 11, vii. 75; Ptol. ii. 7, 17.)
Their country produced a species of wormwood
which was much valued, and also a thick
woollen cloth (Plin. xxvii. 60 ; Mart. ix. 95 ;
Juv. viii. 145).
Saocoras. [Mascas ]
Sapaei (Sonrtuoi, Sdiraioi), a people in Thrace,
on Mt. Pangaeus, between the lake Bistonis
and the coast (Hdt. vii. 110; Strab. p. 549).
Sapaudia, a district of E. Gaul, S. of the
Lake of Geneva, and extendmg to Grenoble
(Amm. Marc. xv. 11). Its name is preserved in
Savoy. Saphar, Sapphar, or Taphar (Sdcpap or" Acpap,
Sdircpap, Tacpapov : Dhafar, Ru.), one of the
chief cities of Arabia, stood on the S. coast of
Arabia Felix, opposite to the Aromata Pr. in
Africa (C. Guardafui). It was the capital of
the Homeritae, a part of which tribe bore the
name of Sapharitae or Sappharitae (Saircpapirai).
(Ptol. vi. 6, 25.)
Santra, a Roman grammarian, who lived
about the end of the Republic, and wrote on
the history of literature. He is cited frequently

SAPPHO
by later writers. (Mart. xi. 2, 7 ; Suet. Gr. 14 ;
Gell. vii. 15 ; Quint, xii. 10, 16 ; Fest. p. 277 ;
Non. 170, 21.)
Sapis (Savio), a small river in GaUia Cisal
pina, rising in the Apennines, and flowing into
the Adriatic S. of Ravenna, between the Po
and the Aternus (Strab. p. 217 ; Lucan, ii. 406).
Sapor. [Sassanidae.]
Sappho (Saircpd, or, in her own Aeolic dialect,
Vampa), one of the two great leaders of the
Aeolian school of lyric poetry (Alcaeus being
the other), was a native of MytUene, or, as some
said, of Eresos in Lesbos. Her father's name
was Scamandronymus, who died when she was
only six years old (Hdt. ii. 135). She had tMee
brothers, Charaxus, Larichus, and Eurigius.
Charaxus was violently upbraided by his sister
in a poem, because he became so enamoured of
the courtesan Rhodopis at Naucratis in Egypt,
as to ransom her from slavery at an immense
price. [Rhodopis.] It is probably an entire
mistake to deduce from Fr. 85 (where Sappho
calls FJeis ' a fair daughter ') that the poetess
was married and had children. She is speak
ing in the character of the poetical subject, not
in her own person. Sappho was contemporary
with Alcaeus, Stesichorus, and Pittacus. That
she was not only contemporary, but Uved in
friendly intercourse, with Alcaeus, is shown by
existing fragments of the poetry of both. Of
the events of her life we have scanty informa
tion. From the Parian marble (36) we learn
that political troubles drove her from Lesbos,
like other partisans of the aristocracy, and
that she went to Sicily (cf. Ov. Her. xv. 51).
As regards the well-known story, that being in
love with Phaon, and finding her love unre
quited, she leapt down from the Leucadian
rock, it seems to have been an invention of later
times evolved out of a misunderstandmg of
some of her verses, and a confusion with the
popular legend of Phaon's love for ApModite
[p. 686, b]. It is even possible that in one of her
poems she may have addressed Phaon in the
character of ApModite (though his name does
not occur in any existmg fragment), and that,
as in the case of Kleis, a too prosaic interpreter
started the error, which was first promulgated
by the comedians. (Strab. p. 452 ; Athen. pp.
69, 441.) As for the leap from the Leucadian
rock, it is a fiction, which arose from an
expiatory rite connected with the worsMp of
Apollo [p. 486, a]. At Mytilene Sappho appears
to have been the centre of a female literary
society, most of the members of which were her
pupils in poetry. [Ebinna.] Upon the mention
of these younger pupils and followers a foolish
love of scandal in a later age based an attack
against the moral character of Sappho, wMch
should be dismissed as a groundless fabrica
tion. This also was started by the comedians.
It may have been suggested in the first instance
partly by the incapacity of the Athenians to
imagine any such freedom of women in society
as was possible without any taint among the
Aeolians and Dorians, and partly from the
prurient imagination of the comedians. Read
with an intelligent mind, the poems which have
survived imply no want of purity in Sappho,
and Aristotle's approbation of the reply which
Sappho made to Alcaeus does not suggest a dis
belief in her nobility of character. Of her poeti
cal geniuB, however, there cannot be a question.
The ancient writers agree in expressmg the
most unbounded admiration for her poetry.
Even in her own age the recitation of one of
her poems so affected Solon that he expressed

SARANCAE
an earnest desire to learn it before he died
(Ael. ap. Stob. Serm. xxix. 58). The Alexan
drian school numbered her among the nine
great lyric poets, and in force and passion she
probably surpassed them aU. Her lyric poems
formed nine books, but of these only fragments
have come down to us. The longest is a splen
did ode to Aphrodite. — The fragments are
edited by Neue, Berl. 1827, and in Bergk's
Podae Lyrici, 1867.
Sarancae, Sarangae or -es (Sapdyyai, S,apay-
•yees Herod.), a people of Sogdiana (Hdt.
iii. 93).
Saravus (Saar), a small river in Gaul, flow
ing into the MoseUa on its right bank (Auson.
Mosell. 367).
Sardanapalus (SapSavairaXos), the last king
of the Assyrian empire of Nineveh. The
famUiar account of his Ufe, as derived from
Ctesias, gives a false view both of his date and
Ms character. It asserts that he passed his
time m his palace unseen by any of Ms sub
jects, dressed in female apparel, and surrounded
by concubines. At length Arbaees, satrap of
Media, and Belesys, the noblest of the Chal-
doeon priests, resolved to renounce allegiance
to such a wortMess monarch, and advanced at
the head of a formidable army agamst Nineveh.
But all of a sudden the effeminate prince threw
off Ms luxurious habits, and appeared an un
daunted warrior. Placing himself at the head
of his troops, he twice defeated the rebels, but
was at length worsted and obliged to shut him
self up in Nmeveh. Here he sustamed a siege
for two years, tUl at length, findmg it impossible
to hold out any longer, he coUected all his
treasures, wives, and concubines, and placing
them on on immense pile which he had con
structed, set it on fire, and thus destroyed both
himself and them. The enemies then obtamed
possession of the city, m the eighth century B.C.
TMs is the account of Ctesias, which has been
preserved by Diodorus Sieulus and wMch has
been foUowed by most subsequent writers and
chronologists (Diod. n. 21; Syncell. p. 359;
Agath. p. 120; August. CD. xviii. 21). Modern
writers have shown that the narrative of Ctesias
is mytMcal, and must not be received as a
genuine Mstory. The legend of Sardanapalus,
-who so strangely appears at one time sunk in
the lowest effemmacy, and immediately after
wards a heroic warrior, has perhaps been com
posed from popular stories of the god Sandon,
who was worsMpped in Asia both as a heroic
and a female divinity. The real Sardanapalus
was the Mng Assur-bani-pal, son of Esarhaddon,
-who is described m the cuneiform record as
makmg two successful expeditions against
Egypt, about the years 670-650 B.C. In the
first he defeated Taharqa (Tirhakah) who had
combined with some of the petty Mngs set up
in Egypt by Esarhaddon, to drive out all who
favoured Assyria; in the second, besides de
feating Urdameneh, Taharqa's successor, he
carried Neku [Neco, No. 1] prisoner to Nine
veh. But meantime Ms own empire had been
weakened by dissensions. The end came in
€06 B.C., when the governor of Babylon in al
liance with Cyaxares, king of Media, brought
an army against Nineveh, took the city and
rased it to the ground. Sardanapalus, or Assur-
bani-pal, with all his family perished with the
city. [See also pp. 135, 156.]
Sardemisus, a branch of M. Taurus, extend
ing southwards on the borders of Pisidia and
Pamphylia, as far as Phaselis in Lycia, whence
it was continued in the chain called Climax.

SARDINIA

835

It divided the district of Milyas from Pisidia
Proper (Plin. v. 96).
Sardi. [Sabdinia.]
Sardinia (r) SapSd or SapSdv, gen. 2ctp5oVos,
dat. 2apSo?, ace. SapSd : subsequently SapSavla,
SapSavia, or SapS-r/vta : SapSfos, SapSdnos, 2ap-
Sdvios, Sardus : Sardinia), a large island in the
Mediterranean, is in shape in the form of a
parallelogram, upwards of 140 nautical mileB
in length from N. to S.with an average breadth
of sixty. It was regarded by many of the an
cients as the largest of the Mediterranean
islands (Hdt. i. 170, v. 106 ; Scyl. p. 56 ; cf.
Strab. p. 654), and this opinion, though usually
considered an error, is now found to be correct,
since it appears by actual measurement that
Sardinia is a little larger than Sicily. Sardinia
lies in almost a central position between Spain,
Gaul, Italy, and Africa. The ancients derived
its name from Sardus, a son of a native deity
identified by the Greeks with Heracles (Paus.
x. 17, 2), who was worsMpped in the island
under the name of Sardus Pater. The Greeks
caUed it Ichnusa ('Ixvovoa) from its resem
blance to the print of a foot, and Sandaliotis
(SaySaXiuris) from its likeness to a sandal (Sil.
It. xii. 358; Paus. I.e.; Plin. iii. 85). A chain
of mountains runs along the whole of the E.
side of the island from N. to S., occupying about
one third of its surface. These mountains were
called by the ancients Insani Montes (Liv. xxx.
39 ; Claud. Bell. Gild. 513 ; to Maiv6peva "Opy,
Ptol. iii. 3, 6), a name which they probably de
rived from their wild and savage appearance,
and from their being the haunt of numerous
robbers. In the W. and S. parts of Sardmia
there are numerous plains, intersected by ranges
of smaller hills, but this part of the island
was in antiquity, as in the present day, exceed
ingly unhealthy, owing to the extensive marshes
and lagunes. (Strab. p. 225 ; Paus. x. 17, 11 ;
Mart. iv. 60, 6 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 85.) The princi
pal rivers are the Termus (Termo) in the N,
the Thyrsus (Oristano) on the W. (the largest
river in the island), and the Flumen Sacrum
(TJras) and the Saeprus (Flumendoso) on the
E. The chief towns in the island were : on the
N. coast, Tibula (Porto Polio) and Turris Li-
byssonis ; on the S. coast, Sulci and CaraUs
(Cagliari) ; on the E. coast, Olbia ; and in the
interior, Comus (Corneto) and Nora (Nurri).
— Sardinia was very fertile, but was not exten
sively cultivated, in consequence of the uncivi
lised character of its inhabitants. StiU the
plains in the W. and S. parts of the island
produced a great amount of corn, of which
a large quantity was exported to Rome
every year. Among the products of the island
one of the most celebrated was the Sardonica
herba, a poisonous plant, which was said to
produce fatal convulsions in the persons who
ate of it." These convulsions, it was said, agi
tated and distorted the mouth, so that the
person appeared to laugh, though in excrucia
ting pain : hence the well-known risus Sardo-
nicus. (Paus. x. 17, 13 ; Serv. ad Eel. vii. 41 ;
Suid. s.v. SapSdvios yeXm). No plant pos
sessing these properties is found at present in
Sardinia; and it is not impossible that the
whole tale may have arisen from a piece of bad
etymology, since we find mention in Homer of
the SapSdvtos yeXias, which cannot have any
reference to Sardinia, but is probably connected
with the verb cralpeiv, ' to grin.' The bitterness
of the Sardinian honey, which was supposed
to be caused by this herb, is still observed.
Another of the principal productions of Sar-
3h2

836

SARDINIA

dinia was its wool, which was obtained from a
breed of domestic animals between a sheep and
a goat, called musmones (povapcov : movjjjlon;
Strab. p. 225 ; Paus. l.c. ; Ael. H. A. xvi. 34). The
skms of these animals were used by the in
habitants as clothes, whence we find them often
called Pelliti and Mastrucati. Sardinia also
contained a large quantity of the precious
metals, especially silver, the mines of which
were worked in antiquity to a great extent
(Solin. 4, 4). There were likewise numerous
mineral springs ; and large quantities of salt
were manufactured on the W. and S. coasts. —
The population of Sardinia was of a very
mixed kind. To what race the original mhabi-
tants belonged we are not informed ; most
likely they were Iberians, i.e. of the same race
as the non- Aryan element in Spain and Sicily.
Phoenicians, Tyrrhenians, and Carthaginians
settled in the island at different periods. The
Greeks are also said to have planted colonies
in the island, but this account is very sus
picious. The first Greek colony is said to have
been led by Iolaus, a son of Heracles. The
story probably arose from the name of a tribe
m the island, called Iolai ('l6Xaoi, 'loXaeioi,
'loXaeis), or Ilienses ('IXteis) [see p. 445, a].
These were some of the most ancient inhabi
tants of Sardinia, and were probably not of
Greek, but of Iberian origin. Their name is

SARDES
event, the Romans availed themselves of the
dangerous war which the Carthaginians were
carrying on agamst their mercenaries in Africa,
to take possession of Sardinia, B.C. 238 (Pol.
i. 8fl, iii. 10; Liv. xxi. 1). It was now formed
into a Roman province under the government
of a praetor ; but a large portion of it was only
nominally subject to the Romans ; and it was
not till after many years and numerous revolts,
that the inhabitants submitted to the Roman
dommion. It was after one of these revolts
that so many Sardinians were thrown upon the
slave market as to give rise to the proverb,
' Sardi venales,' to indicate any cheap and
worthless commodity (Aurel. Vict. Vir. III. 65).
After 122 B.C. the island was governed by a
propraetor, whose title m 27, when the provmce
was given to the senate, became proconsul. In
A.D. 6 it was placed under an imperial procura
tor (Dio Cass. lxv. 28) : after Diocletian under a
praeses. The inhabitants of the mountains in
the E. side of the island were never completely
subdued, and gave trouble to the Romans even
in the time of Tiberius. Sardinia continued to
belong to the Roman empire till the fifth cen
tury, when it was taken possession of by the
Vandals. Sardes or Sardis (plural) [ai SdpSeis, Ion.
Sdpdies, contracted SdpSis : SdpStos, 'Xapttav6s,
%ap$iriv6s, Sardianus: Sart, Ru.], one of the

Nuraghe in Sardinia.

still preserved in the modern town of Iliola, in
the middle of the W. coast. We also find in
the island Corsi, who had crossed over from
Corsica, and Balari, who, according to Pau
sanias, were descendants of Libyan mercenaries
of the Carthaginians, who had settled in the
mountains. Probably it is to the Iberian in
habitants that the peculiar towers (called
Nuraghe) are due. Greek writers evidently re
garded them as of great antiquity. ([Aristot.]
de Mirab. 100 =p. 838 ; cf. Diod. iv. 30.) They
are built of massive stones in the form of a
truncated cone, and contain vaulted chambers
with a staircase in the thickness of the waU. At
alatertimeall these namesbecame merged under
the generaljappeUation of Sardi, although even
in the Roman period we stiU find mention of
several tribes m the island under distinct names.
The Sardi are described as a rude and savage
people, addicted to thievery and lying.— Sar-
dmia was known to the Greeks as early as B.C.
545 (Hdt. i. 170) ; and a generation later His
tiaeus of Miletus promised Darius that he
would render the island of Sardo tributary to
Ms power (Hdt. v. 106, 124). It was conquered
by the Carthaginians at an early period (Diod.
v. 35), and continued in their possession tUl the
end of the first Punic war. Shortly after this

most ancient and famous cities of Asia MMor,
and the capital of the great Lydian monarchy,
stood on the S. edge of the rich valley of the
Hermus, at the N. foot of M. Tmolus, on the
Uttle river Pactolus, thirty stadia (tMee geogr.
miles) S. of the junction of that river with the
Hermus (Hdt. v. 101 ; Aesch. Pers. 45 ; Strab.
p. 625). On a lofty precipitous rock, forming
an outpost of the range of Tmolus, was the
almost impregnable citadel which some suppose
to be the Hyde of Homer, who, though he never
mentions the Lydians or Sardis by name, speaks
of M. Tmolus and the lake of Gyges (II. xx.
385 ; Strab. p. 626). The erection of this citadel
was ascribed to Meles, an ancient king of Lydia.
(Hdt. i. 81) ; but it was probably first a western
outpost of the great Hittite empire. It was
surrounded by a triple wall, and contamed the
palace and treasury of the Lydian kings. At
the downfaU of the Lydian empire, it resisted
all the attacks of Cyrus, and was only taken by
surprise. The story is told by Herodotus, who
relates other legends of the fortress. The rest
of the city, which stood in the plam on both
sides of the Pactolus, was very slightly buUt,
and was repeatedly burnt down, first by the
Cimmerians, then by the Greeks in the great
Ionic revolt, and again, in part at least, by

SARDOUM
Antiochus the Great (Pol. v. 15, viii. 23) ; but
on each occasion it was restored. For its his
tory as the capital of the Lydian monarchy
see Lydia. Under the Persian and Greco-
Syrian empires, it was the residence of the
satrap of Lydia. The rise of Pergamum greatly
dimmished its importance ; but under the Ro
mans it was still a considerable city, and the
seat of a conventus juridicus (Plin. v. Ill), and
a place where the religious festivals of the
province of Asia (Koivbi> 'Aaias) were held for
the worsMp of Rome and Augustus (G.I.G.
5918). In the organisation of Diocletian it was
the capital of Lydia. In the reign of Tiberius,
it was almost entirely destroyed by an earth
quake, but it was restored by the emperor's aid.
(Tac. Ann. ii. 47 ; Strab. p. 627.) It was one of
the earliest seats of the CMistiari religion, and
one of the seven Churches of the province of
Asia. [Did. of the Bible.] In 1402 the city
-was destroyed by Tamerlane, and its site now
presents a melancholy scene of desolation. The
triple wall of the acropolis can stiU be traced,
and remains of the temple of Cybele, the theatre,
stadium and other buildings. The necropolis
of the city stood on the banks of the lake of
Gyges [Gygaeus Lacus], near wMch the sepul
chre of Alyattes may still be seen. [Alyattes.]
Sardoum or Sardonicum Mare (to '2ap$a>ov
or SapSdviov ireXayos), the part of the Medi
terranean sea on the W. and S. of Sardmia,
separated from the Libyan sea by a line drawn
from the promontory LUybaeum m SicUy
(Hdt. i. 166; Strab. pp. 50, 54 ; Plin. in. 75).
Sarepta or Sarephtha (Sdpeirra, SdpecpBa,
Sapairra: O. T. Zarephath: Surafend, Ser-
phant, or Tzarphand), a city of Phoemcia,
about ten miles S. of Sidon, to the territory of
which it belonged (Jos. Ant. vin. 13, 2 ; Plin.
v. 76; Did. of the Bible).
Sargetia (Strel or Strey, a tributary of the
Marosch), a river in Dacia, on wMch was situ
ated the residence of Decebalus (Dio Cass.
Ixvui. 14).
Saripni Montes (ra Sdpicpa vpn), a mountain-
range in the N. of Parthia, running eastward
from the SE. comer of the Caspian.
Sarmatae or Sauromatae (Sappdrai, Strabo ;
Savpopdrai, Hdt.), a people of Asia, dwelUng
on the NE. of the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azov),
E. of the river Tanais (Don) which separated
them from the Scythians of Europe. TMs is
the account of Herodotus, who teUs us that the
Sarmatians were allied to the ScytMans, and
spoke a corrupted form of the ScytMan lan
guage, and that their origin was ascribed to
the intercourse of ScytMans with Amazons
(Hdt. iv. 21, 110-117). Strabo also places the
Sauromatae proper between the Tanais and the
-Caspian (pp. 497, 500, 507) ; but in many
passages he makes no very distinct separation
between Sarmatians and ScytMans, The Sar
matae had before his time invaded and occupied
much of what had been Scythian territory, and
continued to push their mfluence further, so
that Tacitus (Germ. 1) speaks of them as neigh-
hours of the Germans (i.e. reaching to Poland
and E. Prussia), and Ptolemy brings them up
to the Vistula. At the same time their power
was roving and fluctuating: there were nu
merous independent and dominant tribes within
these Umits who are spoken of under their own
name, and Sarmatia in its extended sense is
rather a geographical expression than a country
of one ruling nation. [Sabmatia.]
Sarmatia (ti Sapparla: Sapparat, 2avpopd-
iai : the E. part of Poland, and S. part of

SARNUS

837

Bussia in Europe), a name first used by Mela
(ii. 4) for the part of N. Europe and Asia ex
tending from the Vistula (Wisla) and the Sab-
matici Montes on the W., which divided it
from Germany, to the Rha (Volga) on the E.,
which divided it from Scythia ; bounded on the
SW. and S. by the rivers Ister (Danube),
Tibiscus (Theiaa), and Tyras (Dniester), which
divided it from Pannonia and Dacia, and, fur
ther, by the Euxine, and beyond it by M.
Caucasus, which divided it from Colchis, Iberia,
and Albania ; and extending on the N. as far
as the Baltic and the unknown regions of
N. Europe. The part of this country which
lies in Europe corresponds to the Scythia of
Herodotus. The people from whom the name
of Sarmatia was derived inhabited at first only
a small portion of the country. [Sarmatae.]
The greater part of it was peopled by Scythian
tribes, who, before the Christian era, had
yielded to a great extent to the Sarmatian
power and name ; but some of the inhabitants
of its W. part seem to have been of German
origin, as the Venedi on the Baltic, and the
Iazyges, Rhoxolani, and Hamaxobh in S.
Bussia : the chief of the other tribes W. of the
Tanais were the Alauni or Alani Scythae, a
Scythian people who came out of Asia and
settled in the central parts of Bussia. [Alani.]
The people E. of the Tanais were not of suffi
cient importance in ancient history to require
specific mention. The whole country was divi
ded by the river Tanais (Don) into two parts,
calledrespectively Sarmatia Europaeaand Sar
matia Asiatica (r) ev Evpdirr] and r) ev 'Acria
Sapparta) ; but it should be observed that,
accordmg to the modern division of the con
tinent, the whole of Sarmatia belongs to Europe.
It should also be noticed that the Chersonesus
Taurica (Crimea), though falling within the
specified limits, was not considered as a part of
Sarmatia, but as a separate country.
Sarmaticae Portae (ai SappartKa) irixat :
Pass of Dariel), the central pass of the Cau
casus, leading from Iberia to Sarmatia (Pol. v.
9, 11). It was more commonly called Caucasiae
Portae. [Caucasus.] It was also called Cas
piae Portae (Suet. Ner. 19 ; Tac. Hist. i. 6), ap
parently through a confusion with the pass of
that name at the E. end of the Caucasus.
[Caspiae Pobtae.] The remains of an ancient
wall are stiU seen in the pass.
Sarmatici Montes (™ Sapparma 'oprf. part
of the Carpathian Mountains), a range of
mountains m Central Europe, extendmg from
the sources of the Vistula to the Danube, be
tween Germany on the W. and Sarmatia on
the E. (Ptol. ii. 11, 6).
Sarmaticus Oceanus and Pontus, Sarmati-
cum Mare (SappariKbs oiKeavSs : Baltic), a
great sea, washmg the N. coast of European
Sarmatia (Ptol. vii. 5, 2), but Roman poets
applied the name sometimes to the Black Sea
(Ov. Pont. iv. 10, 88 ; Val. Flacc. viii. 207).
Sarmizegethusa (near Vachely, also called
Gradischte, Ru.), the most important town of
Dacia, and the residence of its kings, was situ
ated on the river Sargetia (Strel or Strey)
(Dio Cass. Iviii. 9, lxviii. 8, 14). After Trajan's
conquests [Dacia] it was made a Roman colony
under the name of Col. Ulpia Trajana Aug.,
and the capital of the province in which a legion
had its head-quarters (Dio Cass. Iv. 23 ; GIL.
iii. p. 228).
Samus (Sarno), a river in Campania, flowing
by Nuceria, and falling into the Sinus Puteola
nus near Pompeii. Its course was changed by

838

SARON

the great eruption of Vesuvius, a.d. 79. On its
banks dwelt a people named SarrasteS, who are
said to have migrated from Peloponnesus.
(Strab. p. 247 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 738 ; Serv. ad loc.)
Saron. [Sabonicus Sinus.]
Saron (Sdpcov : 0. T. Sharon), a fertile plain
of Palestine, extending along the coast N. of
Joppa towards Caesarea. [Did. of the Bible.]
Saronicus Sinus CSapaviKos k6xttos, also
rrSpos, ireXayos, and irdvros: G. of Egina), a
bay of the Aegaean sea lymg between Attica
and Argolis, and commencing between the
promontory of Sunium in Attica and that of
ScyUaeum in ArgoUs. It contains within it the
islands of Aegina and Salamis. (Aesch. Ag.
317; Strab. pp. 335, 369.) Its name was tra
ditionally derived from Saron, king of Troezen,
who was supposed to have been drowned m this
part of the sea while swimming in pursuit of a
stag. The story, founded apparently in part on
the name, and in part on the rites of Artemis,
teUs that he was buried in the precincts of the
temple which he had built for Artemis, and the
neighbouring sea was called Saronis Mstead of
Phoebaea (Paus. iii. 30, 7).
Sarpedon (SapirriSdv). 1. Son of Zeus and
Europa, and brother of Minos and Rhadaman
thus. Being involved in a quarrel with Minos
about Miletus, he took refuge with Cilix, whom
he assisted against the Lycians, He after
wards became king of the Lycians, and Zeus
granted him the privilege of living three
generations. (Hdt. i. 173 ; Apollod. iii. 1, 2 ;
Paus. vii. 3, 4 ; Miletus.) — 2. Son of Zeus and
Laodamia, or, according to others, of Evander
and Deidamia, and a brother of Clarus and
Themon (II. vi. 199; Apollod. ni. 1, 1; Verg.
Aen. x. 125). He was a Lycian prince, and a
grandson of No. 1, with whom he is confused
in Eur. Bhes. 29. In the Trojan war he was
an ally of the Trojans, and distinguished Mm
self by his valour, but was slain by Patroclus
(II. v. 479, xii. 292, xvi. 480). ApoUo, by the
command of Zeus, cleansed Sarpedon's body
from blood and dust, covered it with ambrosia,
and gave it to Sleep and Death to carry into
Lycia, there to be honourably buried (II. xvi.
667; Mobs).
Sarpedon Promontorium (SapirriSdv : G. Bis
sau el Kapeh), a promontory of Cihcia, in
long. 34° E., eighty stadia W. of the mouth
of the Calyeadnus. In the peace between the
Romans and Antiochus the Great, the W.
boundary of the Syrian kingdom was fixed
here. (Strab. p. 670; App. Syr. 39; Liv.
xxxviii. 38.)
Sarpedonium Prom, (i) SapirnSovin &Kpa:
Uremia), a promontory of Thrace between the
mouths of the rivers Melas and Erginus, oppo
site the island of Imbros (Hdt. vii. 58).
Sarrastes. [Sabnus.]
Sars (Sar), a small river on the W. coast of
Hispania Tarraconensis, between the Prom.
Nerium and the Minius (Mel. iii. 1).
Sarsina (Sarsinas, -atis : Sarsina), an ancient
town of Umbria, on the river Sapis, SW. of
Arimmum, and subsequently a Roman munici
pium (Strab. p. 227 ; Plin. iii. 114), celebrated
as the birthplace of the comic poet Plautus.
Sarta CZapr-n: Sykia), a town on the E.
coast of the Sithonian promontory of Chalci
dice (Hdt. vii. 122).
Sarus (o S,dpos : Seihan), a considerable
YTm" the SE' of Asia Minor- Eisulg ii the
Anti-Taurus, m the centre of Cappadocia, it
flows S. past Comana to the borders of Cilicia,
where it receives a W. branch that has run

SASSANIDAE
nearly parallel to it ; and thence, flowmg;
tMough Cilicia Campestris in a windmg course,
it faUs into the sea a little E. of the mouth of
the Cydnus, and SE. of Tarsus. Xenophon
gives three pletMa (303 feet) for its width at its
mouth. (Xen. An. i. 4, 1 ; Strab. p. 535.) '
Saso or Sasonis Insula (Saseno, Sassono,
Sassa), a small rocky island off the coast of
Illyria, N. of the Acroceraunian promontory,
much frequented by pirates (Pol. v. 110;
Strab. p. 281 ; Plin. iii. 152).
Saspires, or -i, or Sapires (Sdcnreipes, Sacr-
rreipoi, Sdiretpes, Sdmreipes), a Scythian people
of Asia, S. of Colchis and N. of Media, in the
district of N. Armenia called Hysparatis, along
the river Acampsis (Hdt. i. 104, iv. 37, vii. 79-;
Amm. Marc. xxii. 8, 21). Apollomus Rhod. (ii.
397, 1242), wrongly places them on the coast
of the Euxine.
Sassanidae, the name of a dynasty which
reigned in Persia from A.D. 226 to a.d. 651.
1. Artaxerxes (the Ardashir or Ardshir of
the Persians), the founder of the dynasty of
the Sassanidae, reigned a.d. 226-241. He was
a son of one Papak or Pabek, an mferior
officer, who was the son of Sassan, and Ms
ancestors had been viceroys of the Persian
province, i.e. of the centre of the Iranian
people, under the supremacy of the Arsacidae.
Artaxerxes had served with distinction in the
army of Artabanus, the kmg of PartMa, was
rewarded with ingratitude, and took revenge m
revolt. He obtained assistance from several
grandees, and having met with success, claimed
the tixrone on the plea of being descended from
the ancient kings of Persia, the progeny of the
great Cyrus. The people warmly supported
his cause as he declared himself the champion
of the ancient Persian religion. In 226 Arta
banus was defeated, in a decisive battle ; and
Artaxerxes thereupon assumed the pompous
but national title of ' King of KMgs.' Perse
polis was the nominal capital of the PartMan
empire, but Ctesiphon was the real seat of
government. Henceforth the Sassanid Mngs
held themselves as equals of the Caesars,
which had never been fully the case with the
Arsacidae. It is noticed, among other tMngs,
that the Sassanidae from the first struck gold
coins, which the Arsacidae neverv had done.
One of the first legislative acts of Artaxerxes
(ArdasMr) was to restore the pure religion of
Zoroaster and fire-worship, and the power of
the Magian order. The reigning branch of the
Parthian Arsacidae was extermmated, but
some collateral branches were suffered to live
and to enjoy the privileges of Persian gran
dees, who, along with the Magi, formed a sort
of senate. Having succeeded in establishing
his authority at home, Artaxerxes demanded
from the emperor Alexander Severus the im
mediate cession of all those portions of the
Roman empire that had belonged to Persia in
the time of Cyrus and Xerxes — that is, the
whole of the Roman possessions in Asia as
weU as Egypt. A war between the two empires
was the direct consequence. After a severe
contest, peace was restored, shortly after the
murder of Alexander, in 285, each nation retain
ing the possessions which they held before the
breakmgoutof the war. — 2. Sapor I. (Shapur),,
the son and successor of Artaxerxes I., reigned
241-272. He carried on war first against,
Gordian, and afterwards against Valerian.
The latter emperor was defeated by Sapor,
taken prisoner, and kept in captivity for the
remainder of his Ufe. After the capture of

SASSANIDAE
Valerian, Sapor conquered Syria, destroyed
Antioch, and having made himself master of
the passes in the Taurus, laid Tarsus in ashes
and took Caesarea. His further progress was
stopped by Odenathus and Zenobia, who drove
the king back beyond the Euphrates, and
founded a new empire, over which they ruled
at Palmyra. In Ms reign Uved the celebrated
Mam, who, endeavouring to amalgamate the
Christian and Zoroastrian religions, gave rise
to the famous sect of the Monichaeans, who
spread over the whole East, exposing them
selves to most sangumary persecutions from
both, CM-istians and fire- worshippers. — 3. Hor
misdas I. (Hormuz), son of the preceding, who
reigned only one year, and died 274. — 4.
Varanes or Vararanes I. (Bahram or Baha-
ram), son of Hormisdas I., reigned 274-277.
He carried on unprofitable wars against Zeno
bia, and, after her captivity, was involved in a
contest with Aurelian, which, however, was
not attended with any serious results, on
account of the sudden death of Aurelian m
275. In Ms reign Mani was put to death. —
5. Varanes II. (Bahram), son of Varanes I.
reigned 277-294. He was defeated by Carus,
who took both Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and
Ms dominions were only saved from further
conquests by the sudden death of Carus
(283).— 6. Varanes III. (Bahram), elder son
of Varanes II. died after a reign of eight
months, 294. — 7. Narses (Narsi), younger
son of Varanes IX, reigned 294-303. He
carried on a formidable war agamst the em
peror Diocletian. The Roman army was com
manded by Galerius Caesar, who in the first
campaign (296) sustained most signal defeats in
Mesopotamia, and fled m disgrace to Antioch.
In the second campaign Narses was defeated
with great loss, and was obliged to conclude a
peace with the Romans, by which he ceded to
Diocletian Mesopotamia, S. Armenia as far as
lake Thospitis, mcluding all the vaUey of the
Upper Tigris, that river bemg m its lower
course the boundary between the two empires.
The Romans had also the supremacy over Iberia.
In 303 Narses abdicated M favour of his son,
and died soon afterwards. — 8. Hormisdas II.
(Hormuz), son of Narses, reigned 303-310.
During Ms reign nothmg of importance
happened regarding Rome. — 9. Sapor II. Pos
tumus (Shapur), son of Hormisdas LI., was
born after the death of his father, and was
crowned m Ms mother's womb, the Magi placing
the diadem with great solemnity upon the body
of his mother. He reigned 310-381. His reign
was signalised by a cruel persecution of the
Christians. He carried on war for many years
against Constantius II. and Ms successors.
The armies of Constantius were repeatedly
defeated ; Julian, as is related elsewhere
[Julianus], perished M battle, and the war
was at length brought to a conclusion by Jovian
ceding to the Persians the five provinces be
yond the Tigris, and the fortresses of Nisibis,
Singara, &c. Iberia and Armenia were left to
their fate, and were completely reduced by
Sapor m 365 and the following year. Sapor
lias been surnamed the Great, and no Persian
Mng had ever caused such terror to Rome as
this monarch. — 10. Artaxerxes II. (Ardishir),
the successor of Sapor II., reigned 381-385.
He was a prince of royal blood, but was not a
son of Sapor. — 11. Sapor III. (Shapur), reigned
385-390. He sent an embassy to Theodosius
the Great, with splendid presents, which was
returned by a Greek embassy headed by Sti-

889
licho going to Persia. Owing to these diplo
matic transactions, an arrangement was made
in 384, according to which Armenia and Iberia
recovered theirindependence. — 12. Varanes IV.
(Bahram), reigned a.d. 800-404, or perhaps not
so long. He was the brother of Sapor III., and
founded Kermanshah, still a flourishing town.
—13. Yesdigerd I. (Yezdijird), surnamed
Ulathim, or the Sinner, son or brother of the
preceding, reigned 404-420 or 421. He was on
friendly terms with the emperor Arcadius, who
is said to have appomted him the guardian of
his infant son and successor, Theodosius the
Younger. He concluded a peace with Arcadius
for 100 years. — 14. Varanes V. (Bahram), son
of Yesdigerd I., surnamed Gour, or the ' Wild
Ass,' on account of his passion for the chase of
that animal, reigned 420 or 421-448. He perse
cuted his Christian subjects with such severity
that thousands of them took refuge within the
Roman domimons. He carried on war with
Theodosius, which was terminated by a peace
for 100 years, which peace lasted till the twelfth
year of the reign of the emperor Anastasius.
During the latter part of his reign Varanes
carried on wars against the Huns, Turks, and
Indians, m which he is said to have achieved
those valorous deeds for which he has ever
since continued to be a favourite hero in
Persian poetry. He was accidentally drowned
m a deep water-tank together with Ms horse,
and neither man nor beast ever rose again. —
15. Yezdigerd II., son of the preceding,
reigned 448-458. The persecutions agamst the
Christians were renewed by him with unheard
of cruelty. His relations with Rome were
peaceful. — 16. Hormisdas III. (Hormuz), and
17. Peroses (Firoze), sons of the preceding,
claimed the succession, and rose in arms against
each other. Peroses gained the throne by the
assistance of the White Huns, against whom he
turned his sword in after years. He perished
in a great battle with them in 484, together
with all of Ms sons except PaUas and Cobades. —
18. Pallas (Pallash), who reigned 484-488,
had to contest the throne with Cobades. He fell
in battle fighting against his brother Cobades
in 488.— 19. Cobades (Kobad), reigned 488-498,
and again 501 or 502-531. The years from 498
till 502, were filled up by the short reign of,
20. Zames (Jamaspes). The latter was the
brother of Cobades, whom he dethroned and
compeUed to fly to the Huns, with whose assist
ance Cobades recovered Ms throne about 502.
He carried on war with success against the
emperor Anastasius ; but in consequence of the
Huns, who had previously been his auxiliaries,
turning their arms against Mm, he made peace
with Anastasius in 505, on .'receiving 11,000
pounds of gold as an indenmity. He also re
stored Mesopotamia and Ms other conquests to
the Romans, being unable to maintain his
authority there on account of the protracted
war with the Huns. About tMs time the Ro
mans constructed the fortress of Dara, the
strongest bulwark against Persia, and situated
in the very face of Ctesiphon. The war with
Constantinople was renewed in 521, in the
reign of the emperor Justin I. — 21. Chosroes I.
(Xhosru or Khosrew), surnamed Nushirwan,
or ' the generous mind,' reigned 581-579. He
carried on several wars against the Romans.
The first war was finished in 532 or 533, Jus
tinian having purchased peace by an annual
tribute of 440,000 pieces of gold. One of the
conditions of Chosroes was, that seven Greek,
but Pagan, pMlosophers who had resided some

840

SASSANIDAE

time at the Persian court, should be allowed to
live in the Roman empire without being subject
to the imperial laws against Pagans. The
second war lasted from 540 to 561. Peace was
concluded on condition of Justinian promising
an annual tribute of 40,000 pieces of gold, and
receiving m return the cession of the Persian
claimB upon Colchis and Lazica. The third
war broke out in 571, m the reign of Justin H.,
but Chosroes died before it was concluded.
Chosroes was one of the greatest Mngs of
Persia. In Ms protracted wars with the Ro
mans he disputed the field with the conquerors
of Africa and Italy, and with those very generals,
Tiberius and Mauricius, who brought Persia to
the brink of ruin but a few yearB after his
death. His empire ¦ extended from the Indus
to the Red Sea, and large tracts in Central Asia,
perhaps a portion of eastern Europe, recognised
him for a time as their sovereign. He re
ceived embassies and presents from the re
motest Mngs of Asia and Africa. His internnl
government was despotic and cruel, but of that
firm description which pleases Orientals, so
that he still lives in the memory of the Persians
as a model of justice. He provided for all the
wants of his subjects, and agriculture, trade,
and learning were equally protected by him.
He caused the best Greek, Latin, and Indian
works to be translated into Persian. — 22. Hor
misdas IV. (Hormuz), son of Chosroes, reigned
579-590. He continued the war with the Ro
mans, which had been bequeathed him by his
father, but was defeated successively by Mau
ricius and Heraclius. Hormisdas was deprived
of Ms sight, and subsequently put to death
by the Persian aristocracy. — 23. Varanes VI.
(Bahram) Shubin, a royal prince, usurped the
throne on the death of Hormisdas, and reigned
590-591. Unable to maintain the throne
against Chosroes, who was supported by the
emperor Mauricius, he fled to the Turks. —
24. Chosroes II. (Khosru) Purwiz, reigned
590 or 591-628. He was the son of Hormisdas
IV., and recovered his father's throne with the
assistance of the emperor Mauricius. After the
murder of Mauricius, Chosroes declared war
against the tyrant Phocas, and met with extra
ordinary success. In several successive cam
paigns he conquered Mesopotamia, Syria,
Palestine, Egypt, Asia Minor, and finally
pitched his camp at Chalcedon, opposite Con
stantinople. At length Heraclius saved the
empire from the brink of ruin, and m a series
of splendid campaigns not only recovered the
provinces which the Romans had lost, but
carried Ms victorious arms into the heart of the
Persian empire. Borne down by his mis
fortunes, and worn out by age and fatigue,
Chosroes resolved, in 628, to abdicate in favour
of Ms son Merdaza; but Shirweh, or Siroes,
Ms eldest son, anticipated Ms design, and at
the head of a band of conspirators seized upon
the person of his father, deposed him, and put
him to death. The Orientals say that Chosroes
reigned six years too long. No Persian king lived
in such splendour as Chosroes ; and however
extraordmary the Eastern accounts respecting
Ms^ magmficence may be, they are true in the
main, as is attested by the Western writers 
25. Siroes (Shirweh),reignedonlyeight months,
628. He concluded peace with the emperor
Heraclius. The numerous captives were re
stored on both sides. Siroes also restored the
holy cross which had been taken at the con-
SF6!* vf Jerusalem.— 26. Artaxerxes III.
(Ardasnir), the infant son of Siroes, was

SATURNINUS
murdered a few days after the death of Ms
father. He was the last male Sassanid. After
him the tMone was disputed by a host of
candidates of both sexes and doubtful descent,
who had no sooner ascended the throne than
they were hurried from it mto death or cap
tivity. — The last king was Yesdigerd III., who
was defeated and slam m 651 by Kaleb, the
general of the khalif Abu-BeM. Persia now
became a Mohammedan country.
Sassula, a town in Latium, belonging to the
territory of Tiber (Liv. vii. 19).
Satala (ra SdraXa, r) SardXa). 1. (Sadagh),a,
considerable town in the NE. of Armenia Minor,
important as the key of the mountam passes
into Pontus. It stood at the junction of four
roads leadmg to places on the Euxine, a little
N. of the Euphrates, in a valley surrounded by
mountains, 325 Roman miles from Caesarea in
Cappadocia, and 135 from Trapezus. Under the
later Roman empire, it was the station of the
15th legion. (Ptol. i. 15, 9 ; Dio Cass. Ixviii. 18 ;
Procop. Aed. iv. 3.) — 2. (Sandal), a town in
Lydia, near the Hermus, and on the road from
Sardis to Ceramon Agora.
Satarchae, a Scythian tribe on the E. coast
of the Tauric Chersonesus (Mel. ii. 1).
Saticiila (Saticulanus), a town of Samnium,
situated upon a mountain on the frontiers of
Campania, probably upon one of the furthest
heights of the mountam chain of Cajazzo (Liv.
vii. 32). It was conquered by the Romans and
colonised B.C. 313 (Liv. ix. 21, 22 ; VeU. Pat.
i. 14). Satnidis (SarviSeis : Tuzla), a river in the S.
of the Troad, rising in M. Ida, and flowing W.
into the Aegean N. of Prom. Lectum, between
Larissa and Hamaxitus. (II. vi. 34, xxi. 87:
Strab. p. 605.)
Satrae (Xdrpai), a TMacian people in the
MU country between the Nestus and the Stry
mon (Hdt. vii. 110).
Satricum (Satricanus : Casale di Conca), a
town in Latium, near Antium, to the territory
of wMch it belonged (Dionys. v. 61 ; Liv. ii.
39, vi. 7). It was destroyed by the Romans in
B.C. 348 (Liv. vii. 27), but was rebuUt by the An-
tiates (Liv. viii. 1). It was taken by Papirius
in 320, after which time it seems to have had
no importance (Liv. ix. 12, xxviii. 11).
Saturae Palus (Lago di Paola), a lake or
marsh in Latium, formed by the river Nym-
phaeus, and near the promontory Circeium.
[Pomptinae Paludes.]
Saturium or Satureium, the name of a dis
trict near Tarentum (Steph. Byz. s.v.), possibly
an old native name for the region in wMch
Tarentum was built (cf . Strab. p. 279 ; Verg.
Georg. ii. 197). There is no good authority for
the statement that there was a town of that
name. Horace uses the adjective Satureianus
(of a breed of horses : Sat. i. 6, 59) as equivalent
to Tarentinus.
Saturnia. 1. An ancient name of Italy
[Italia]. — 2. (Saturninus: Saturnia), formerly
called Aurinia, an ancient town of Etruria,
said to have been founded by the Pelasgians,
was situated in the territory of Caletra, on the
road from Rome to Cosa, about twenty miles
from the sea (Dionys. i. 20 ; Plm. iii. 52). It
was colonised by the Romans, b.c. 183 (Liv.
xxxix. 55; Ptol. iii. 1, 49). The ancient town
waB rather more than two miles in circuit, and
there are stUl remains of its waUs and tombs.
The tombs are not of the Etruscan type, and
probably were the work of an earlier race.
Saturninus I., one of the TMrty Tyrants, was

SATURNINUS
a general of Valerian, by whom he was much
beloved. Disgusted by the debauchery of Gal
lienus, he accepted from the soldiers the title of
emperor, but was put to death by the troops, who
could not endure the sternness of his discipline.
(Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 22.)— II., a native of
Gaul, and an able officer, was appointed by
Aurelian commander of the Eastern frontier,
and was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria
during the reign of Probus. He was eventually
slam by the soldiers of Probus, although the
emperor would wUlmgly have spared his life.
(Vopisc. Saturn.)
Saturninus, L. Antonius, governor of Upper
Germany in the reign of Domitian, raised a re-
beUion agamst that emperor, a.d. 91, but was
defeated and put to death by Appius Maximus,
¦the general of Domitian (Suet. Dom. 6, 7;
Dio Cass, lxvii. 11 ; Mart. iv. 11).
Saturninus, L. Appuleius, was quaestor
B.C. 104, and tribune of the plebs for the first
time 102. He entered mto a close aUiance
with Marius and Ms friends, and soon acquired
great popularity. He became a candidate for
the tribunate for the second time 100. At the
some time Glaucia, who next to Satmminus was
the greatest demagogue of the day, offered Mm
self as a candidate for the praetorsMp, and
Marius for the consulship. Marius and Glaucia
carried their elections ; but A. Nonius, a parti
san of the aristocracy, was chosen tribune
Msteod of Saturrdnus. Nonius, however, was
murdered on the same evening by the emissaries
of Glaucia and Saturrdnus ; and early the
foUowmg morning, Saturnmus was chosen to
fill up the vacancy. As soon as he had entered
upon Ms tribunate, he brought forward an
agrarian law wMch led to the bamshment of
MeteUus Numidicus, as is related elsewhere.
[Metellus, No. 10.] Saturninus proposed
other popular measures, with the object of
embarrassing the senate, such as a Lex Fru-
mentaria, reducmg the price fixed m 123 B.C.
for the dole of corn, and a law for founding
new colomes in SicUy, Achaia, and Macedonia.
By these measures he and his associates
won over the populace to their side, but
were opposed by the aristocracy and by the
moneyed classes. Saturnmus and Glaucia
went further m their schemes than Marius,
and were no longer supported by him, so
that loss of office would have been fatal to
them. In the comitia for the election of the
magistrates for the foUowing year, Saturninus
obtained the tribunate for the third time, and
along with him there was chosen a certain
EqMtius, a runaway slave, who pretended to be
a son of Tib. Gracchus. Glaucia was at the
same time a candidate for the consulship ; the
two other candidates were M. Antonius and C.
Memmius. The election of M. Antonius was
certain, and the struggle lay between Glaucia
and Memmius. As the latter seemed Ukely to
carry Ms election, Saturninus and Glaucia Mred
some ruffians who murdered him openly in the
comitia. This last act produced a complete
reaction against Saturninus and his associates.
The senate declared them public enemies, and
ordered the consuls to put them down by force.
Marius was unwilling to act against Ms friends,
but he had no alternative, and his backwardness
was compensated by the zeal of others. Driven
out of the forum, Saturninus, Glaucia, and the
quaestor Saufeius took refuge in the Capitol,
but the partisans of the senate cut off .the pipes
wMch supplied the Capitol with water. Unable
to hold out any longer, they surrendered to

SATURNUS

841

Marius. The latter did aU he could to save
their lives : as soon as they descended from tho
Capitol, he placed them for security in the
Curia Hostilia, but the mob puUed off the roof
of the senate-house, and pelted them with the
tUes till they died. The senate gave their
sanction to these proceedings by rewarding with
the citizenship a slave of the name of Scaeva
who claimed the honour of having killed Satur
ninus. (App. B. C. i. 28-32 ; Plut. Mar. 28-80 ;
Veil. Pat. ii. 12 ; Cic. pro Babir.) Nearly forty
years after these events, the tribune T. La
bienus accused an aged senator Rabirius, of
havmg been the murderer of Saturninus. An
account of this trial is given elsewhere. [Ra-
bieius.] Saturninus, Claudius, a jurist, from whose
Liber Singularis de Poenis Paganorum there
is a single excerpt in the Digest. He was
praetor under Antoninus Pius.
Saturninus, Pompeius, a contemporary of
the younger Pliny, by whom he is praised as
a distinguished orator, historian, and poet.
Several of Pliny's letters are addressed to Mm
(Plin. Ep. i. 8, v. 9, vii. 7).
Saturninus, C. Sentius. 1. Propraetor of
Macedonia during the Social war, and probably
for some time afterwards. He defeated the
TMacians, who had invaded Ms province.
(Oros. v. 18 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 93.)— 2. One of the
persons of distmguished rank who deserted Sex.
Pompeius in B.C. 35, and passed over to Oc
tavian (Veil. Pat. ii. 77 ; App. B. C. v. 189).
He was consul in 19, and was afterwards ap-
pomted to the government of Syria. Three
sons of Saturninus accompanied him as legati
to Syria, and were present with their father at
the trial of Herod's sons at Berytus in B.C. 6.
(Dio Cass. liv. 10 ; Jos. Ant. xvi. 11, 3.)— 3. Cn.
Sentius, consul suffectus a.d. 4, governor of
Syria a.d. 19 (Tac. Ann. ii. 74, 79, 81, iii. 7).
Saturninus, Venuleius, a Roman jurist, is
said to have been a pupil of Papinianus, and a
consiliarius of Alexander Severus. There are
seventy-one excerpts from his writings in the
Digest. Saturninus, L. Volusius. 1. Consul suffec
tus B.C. 12, accumulated great wealth (Tac.
Ann. iii. 30). — 2. His son, consul suffectus
a.d. 3 (Tac. Ann. xiii. 30). — 3. Q., consul a.d. 56,
and a commissioner for the census in Gaul
A.D. 61 (Tac. Ann. xiii. 25, xiv. 46).
Saturnius, that is, a son of Saturnus, and
accordingly used as a surname of Jupiter, Nep
tune, and Pluto. For the same reason the
name of Saturnia is given both to Juno and
Vesta. Saturnus, an old Italian god of agriculture,
especiaUy connected with seed-time and har
vest, Mb name being a contraction of Sae-
turnus from serere, ' to sow ' (G. I. L. i. 58).
He was naturally represented as wedded to the
earth-goddess Ops [cf. Lua], and with her as
presiding over all forms of tillage and fruit
growing (Varro, L. L. v. 57 ; Fest. p. 186 ;
Macrob. i. 7, 24). The tendency of popular
tradition to change gods of the country into
ancient kings who had benefited the land, pro
duced the version of the myth which makes
Saturn an old king of Latium or of Italy who
taught agriculture and civilisation, and m
whose reign was the golden age. When Greek
mythology was adopted, Saturn was identified
with Cbonus, who in one of his aspects was a
harvest god. Accordingly it was imagined that
Cronus, deposed by Zeus, reigned in Latium as
Saturnus. The story ran that the god came to

842

SATYRI

Italy in the reign of Janus, by whom he was
hospitably received, and that he formed a settle
ment on the Capitoline hill, which was hence
called the Saturnian hill. At the foot of that
hill, on the road leadmg up to the Capitol, there
stood in after times the temple of Saturn.
(Dionys. i. 19 ; Varro, L. L. v. 74 ; Macrob. i.
7, 28 ; Just, xliii. 1.) Saturn then taught the
people agriculture, suppressed their savage
mode of life, and introduced among them
civilisation and morality. The result was that
the whole country was called Saturnia or the
land of plenty. Saturn was suddenly removed
from earth to the abodes of the gods, whereupon
Janus erected an altar to him in the Forum.
(Verg. Aen. viii. 319-329; Ov. Fast. i. 233;
Macrob. I. c, Arnob. iv. 24.) [As regards the
old theory that Latium derived its name from
Saturn's concealment there, see p. 475, b.] The
connexion of Saturnus with Janus is indicated
in this story. It was natural that, the god of
harvest should be connected with the god who
presided over the year and its seasons [see
p. 457, a]. Saturn, like other deities of the
earth, was also worshipped as a god of the
underworld and the dead, which accounts for
the dedication of funeral urns to him. Respect
ing the festival solemnised by the Romans in
honour of Saturn, see Did. of Ant. s. v. Satur
nalia. The statue of Saturnus was hoUow and
filled with oil (Plin. xv. 32), probably to denote
the fertility of Latium m olives, and woollen
fillets were wrapped about its feet, except on
the days of Ms festival (Macrob. i. 8, 5 ; Strab.
Silv. i. 6, 4). This custom aroBe from the old
superstition of binding the image of a god to
secure his presence and favour : at his festival
he was attracted by other means. The god was
represented with a pruning knife or with a
sickle, like that of Cronus (Verg. Aen. vii.
179; Mart. vi. 6, 1). The temple of Saturn was
built in a very early period at the foot of the
slope leadmg up from the Forum to the Capitol,
on the site of an altar to Saturn of unknown
antiquity, traditionally erected by Hercules
(Dionys. i. 31, vi. 1 ; Liv. ii. 21). This temple
was rebuilt in 42 B.C. by Munatius Plancus
(Suet. Aug. 29 ; C.I.L. vi. 1316). In it was the
State treasury (aerarium Saturni), presided
over at first by quaestors and then by praefecti
[see_p. 807, b].
Satyri (Sdrvpoi), were nature-deities or dae
mons of mountain forests and streams, of a sub
ordinate or subaltern character [cf. Daemon],
and therefore especially the attendants of
Dionysus, like whom they represented the
luxuriant vital powers of nature. They are not
mentioned by Homer, but this does not prove
that they were invented after his time. On the
contrary, it is probable that their deformity is
due to traditions handed down from the most
primitive times when the powers of nature
were conceived in the form of animals of forests
and mountains. The uglier parts of mytho
logy are often passed over by Homer and re
appear in Hesiod. By Hesiod (ap. Strab. p.
471) Satyrs are described as akin to the moun
tain nymphs and the Curetes, and as a good-
for-nothing, idle race, By later writers (Xen.
Symp. v. 7 ; Nonn. Dionys. xiv. 113) they are
said to be the sons of Hermes and Iphthima,
or of the Naiads. The Satyrs are represented
with bristly hair, the nose broad and somewhat
turned upwards, the ears pointed at the top
like those of animals, with small horns growing
out of the top of the forehead, and with a tail
like that of a horse or goat. In works of art

SATYRUS
they are represented at different stages of life ;
the older ones were commonly caUed Sileni,
and the younger ones are termed Satyrisci.
The Satyrs are always described as fond of

Satyr alld Maenad swinging the infant Dionysus.
(From a terra-cotta in the British Museum.)
wine (whence they often appear either with a.
cup or a thyrsus in their hand), and of every
kind of sensual pleasure, whence they are seen
sleeping, playing musical instruments, or en
gaged in voluptuous dances with nymphs.
Later writers, especiaUy the Roman poets, con
found the Satyrs with.
the Italian Fauni, and
accordingly both Satyrs
and Fauns were repre
sented, like Pan, with
horns and goat's feet,
although originally they
were quite distinct [p.
340, b]. Satyrs usually
appear with flutes, the
thyrsus, syrinx, the
shepherd's staff, cups
or bags fiUed with wine ;
they are dressed with
the skins of animals, and
wear wreaths of vine,
ivy or fir. The most
celebrated representa
tion in antiquity was
the Satyr of Praxiteles
at Athens, which led
the way m represent
ing Satyrs in a less
repulsive form. In this
type they are youthful,
with a wanton or roguish
expression, and of their animal form notMng
remains but the pointed ears and the hair
coming down over the forehead. [See also cut
on p. 754.]
Satyrus {Zdrvpos). 1. I., king of 'Bosporus,
was son of Spartacus I., and reigned B.C. 407
or 406-398. He maintained friendly relations
with Athens. He was slain at the siege of
Theudosia in 393, and was succeeded by his son
Leucon (Diod. xiv. 93).— 2. II., Mng of Bospo
rus, was the eldest of the sons of Paerisades I.,
whom he succeeded in 311, but reigned only
nine months (Diod. xx. 22-26). — 3. A comic
actor at Athens, is said to have given instruc
tion to Demosthenes in the art of giving full
effect to his speeches by appropriate action
(Plut. Dem. 7). Demosthenes praises him for
his generosity in choosing as his gift from PMlip
the liberation of OlyntMan captives (Dem. F.L.

Satyr. (From a statue in
the Louvre.)

SAUCONNA
V- f01. § 218).— 4. A distinguished Peripatetic
phUosopher and historian, who lived in the
time of Ptolemy PMlopator, and wrote a coUec-
ion of biographies, among which were Lives of
Philip and Demosthenes, frequently cited by
ancient writers.
Sauconna. [Akab.]
Saufeius. 1. C, quaestor b.c. 100, was one
of the partisans of Saturninus, took refuge
with him in the Capitol, and was slain along
with his leader, when they were obliged to sur
render to Marius (Cic. pro Bab. 7 ; App. B. C.
i. 32). — 2. L., a Roman eques, was a friend of
Atticus, and an admirer of the Epicurean
philosophy. He had valuable property in Italy,
which was confiscated by the triumvirs, but
was restored to Mm tMough the exertions of
Atticus. (Cic. ad Att. i. 3, vii. 1, xv. 4 ; Nep.
Att. 12.)
Sauromatae. [Sarmatae.]
Sauromates (Savpopdrws), the name of seve
ral kings of Bosporus, who are for the most
part known only from their coins. We find
kings of tMs name reignmg over Bosporus from
the time of Augustus to that of Constantine.
Saverrio, P. Sulpicius. 1. Consul b.c. 304,
when he carried on the war agamst the Sani-
mtes. He was censor m 229 with Sempronius
Sophus, his former coUeague in the consulship.
In their censorship two new tribes were formed,
the Aniensis and Terentina (Liv. ix. 49, x. 9). —
2. Son of the preceding, consul 279 with P. De
cius Mus, commanded, with his colleague,
agamst Pyrrhus (Flor. i. 18, 21 ; Val. Max. ix. 1).
Savo (Savone), a river m Campania, which
flows mto the sea S. of Sinuessa (PUn. in. 6 ;
Stat. Silv. iv. 3, 36).
Savus (Save or Sau), a navigable tributary
of the Danube, which rises in the Carnic Alps,
forms first the boundary between Noricum and
Italy, and afterwards between Pannonia and
Hlyria, and faUs into the Danube near Smgi-
dunum (Strab. pp. 207, 814 ; Plin. iii. 139).
Saxa, Deciding, a native of Celtiberia, was
origmaUy one of Caesar's common soldiers
(Caes. B. C. i. 66). He was tribune of the plebs
in 44, and after Caesar's death in this year he
took an active part in supportmg the friends of
Ms murdered patron. He served under M.
Antomus m the siege of Mutma, and subse
quently under both Antomus and Octavianus
m their war against Brutus and Cassius. After
the battle of PhiUppi Saxa accompanied An
tony to the East, and was made by the latter
governor of Syria. Here he was defeated by
the younger Labienus and the Parthians, and
was slain m the flight after the battle (40).
(App. B. C. iv. 87, v. 102-107 ; Dio Cass, xlvii.
35, xlvni. 24 ; Cic. Phil. viii. 3, ix. 26, xii. 8,
xiv. 4.)
Saxa, Q. Voconius, tribune of the plebs b.c.
169, proposed the Voconia Lex, defining a wo
man's rights of property and inheritance, which
was supported by the elder Cato, who spoke in
its favour, when he was sixty-five years of age.
Respecting this law, see Diet, of Ant. s.v.
Saxa Rubra. [Rubea Saxa.]
SaxSnes, a powerful people in Germany, who
originaUy dwelt in the S. part of the Cimbric
Chersonesus, between the rivers Albis and Cha-
lusus (Trave), in the modern Holstein. They
are not mentioned by Tacitus and Pliny, since
these writers appear to have comprehended all
the inhabitants of the Cimbric Chersonesus
under the general name of Cimbri. The
Saxones first occur in history in a.d. 286, when
they are mentioned as brave and skilful sailors,

SCAEVOLA

843;

who often joined the Chauci in piratical expe
ditions against the coast of Gaul (Eutrop. vii.
18; Oros. vii. 25). The Saxones afterwards ap
pear at the head of a powerful confederacy of
German peoples who became united under the-
general name of Saxons, and who eventually
occupied the country between the Elbe, the
Rhine, the Lippe, and the German Ocean (Ptol.
ii. 11, 11). The history of their part in the
conquest of Britain does not fall within the
period here treated of.
Seaeva, Cassius, a centurion in Caesar's
army, who distinguished Mmself by his valour
at the battle of Dyrrhachium (Caes. B. C. iii.
58; Suet. Jul. 68; Val. Max. iii. 2, 28). He
survived his numerous wounds and is men
tioned as one of the partisans of Caesar, after
the death of the latter (Cic. ad Att. xiii. 23,
xiv. 10).
Scaevola, Q. Cervidius, a Roman jurist,
lived under Antoninus Pius. He wrote several
works, and there are 307 excerpts from him m
the Digest.
Scaevola, Mucius. 1. C, the hero of a
celebrated story in early Roman history. [For
the probable history of the war, see Pobsenna.]
When Kmg Porsenna was blockading Rome,
C. Mucius, a young man of the patrician class,
resolved to rid his county of the invader. He
went out of the city with a dagger hid beneath
his dress, and approached the place where
Porsenna was sitting, with a secretary by his
side, dressed nearly in the same style as the
king Mmself. Mistaking the secretary forthe
king, Mucius MUed Mm on the spot. Being
seized, he declared his name, and his design to
kUl the kmg himself, adding that there were
300 Roman youths ready to attempt his life.
In reply to the tMeats of Porsenna, Mucius,
thrUBt Ms right hand into a fire which was,
already Ughted for a sacrifice, and held it there-
without flmcMng. The king, who was amazed
at his firmness, bade Mm go away free. Por
senna being alarmed for Ms life, wMch he
could not secure against so many desperate
men, made proposals of peace to the Romans,
and evacuated the territory. Mucius received
the name of Scaevola, or left-handed, from the
loss of his right hand. The patricians gave
him a tract of land beyond the Tiber, which
was thenceforth called Mucia Prata (Liv. ii..
13). The Mucius of this story was a patrician;,
but the Mucii of the historical period were ple
beians. — 2. Q., praetor B.C. 215, had Sardinia.
for his province, where he remained for the-
next tMee years. He was decemvir sacrorum,,
and died 209. (Liv. xxiii. 24, xxvii. 8.) — 3. Q.,
probably son of No. 2, was praetor 179, with
Sicily for his province, and consul 174 (Liv.
xl. 44). — 4. P., brother of No. 3, was praetor-
with his brother 179, and consul 175. In Ms-
consulship he gained a victory over the Ligu
rians. (Liv. xl. 44, xU. 19.) — 5. P., called by
Plutarch o vopoSe'iKr-ns, probably son of No. 4,
was tribune of the plebs 141, praetor urbanus.
136, and consul 133, the year in which Tib.
Gracchus lost Ms life (Plut. Gracch. 9). In
131 he succeeded his brother Mucianus [Mucia
nus] as Pontifex Maximus (Cic. de Or. ii. 12,
52). Scaevola was distinguished for his know
ledge of the Jus Pontificituu. He was also
famed for his skill in playing at ball, as well as
at the game called Duodeeim Scripta (Cic. de
Or. i. 50, 217 ; Val. Max. viii. 8, 2 ; Quint, xi. 2,
38). His fame as a lawyer is recorded by
Cicero in several passages (Cic. de Leg. ii.
19, 47, de Or. i. 37, 170). There is no excerpt

844 SCAEVOLA
from his writings in the Digest, but he is cited
several times by the jurists whose works were
used for that compilation. — 6. ft., called the
Augur, was son of No. 3, and married the
daughter of C. Laelius, the friend of Scipio
Africanus the younger (Cic. de Amic. 8, 26,
Brut. 26, 101). He was tribune of the plebs
128, plebeian aedile 125, and as praetor was
governor of the province of Asia in 121, the
year in which C. Gracchus lost his life. He
was prosecuted after Ms return from his pro
vince for the offence of repetundae, in 120, by
T. Albucius, but was acquitted. He was consul
117. He lived at least to the tribunate of P.
Sulpicius Rufus, 88. Cicero, who was born 106,
informs us that, after he had put on the toga
virilis, his father took him to Scaevola, who
was then an old man, and that he kept as close
to Mm as he could, in order to profit by Ms
remarks (Cic. de Amic. 1). After his death
Cicero became a hearer of Q. Mucius Scaevola,
the Pontifex. The Augur was distinguished
for Ms knowledge of the law (Veil. Pat. ii. 9,
2 ; Cic. Brut. 58, 212), but none of his writings
are recorded.— Mucia, the Augur's daughter,
married L. Licinius Crassus, the orator, who
was consul 95, with Q. Mucius Scaevola, the
Pontifex Maximus ; whence it appears that the
Q. Mucius who is one of the speakers m the
treatise de Oratore, is not the Pontifex and
the coUeague of Crassus, but the Augur, the
father-in-law of Crassus. He is also one of the
speakers in the Laelius sive de Amicitia (a. 1),
and in the de Bepublica (i. 12).— 7. ft., Ponti
fex Maximus, was son of No. 5, and is quoted
by Cicero as an example of a son who aimed at
exceUence in that which had given Ms father
distinction (de Off. i. 32, 116). He was tribune
of the plebs in 106, curule aedile in 104, and
consul 95, with Licinius Crassus, the orator, as
his colleague. After his consulsMp Scaevola
was the governor (proconsul) of the province of
Asia, in which capacity he gained the esteem of
the people who were under his government.
Subsequently he was made Pontifex Maximus,
by which title he is often distinguished from Q.
Mucius the Augur. He lost his life in the con
sulship of C. Marius the younger and Cn.
Papirius Carbo (82), having been proscribed by
the Marian party, from which we may conclude
that he belonged to Sulla's party. His body
was thrown into the Tiber. (Veil. Pat. ii. 26 ;
Flor. iii. 21 ; Cic. de Or. iii. 3, 9 ; Lucan, ii.
126 ; App. B. C. i. 88.) The virtues of Scae
vola are recorded by Cicero, who, after the
death of the Augur, became an attendant
(auditor) of the Pontifex. The purity of his
moral character (Cic. de Off. iii. 15, 62), his
exalted notions of equity and fair dealing, his
abilities as an administrator, an orator, and a
jurist, place him among the first of the iUus-
trious men of all ages and countries. He was,
says Cicero, the most eloquent of jurists, and
the most learned jurist among orators (de Or.
i. 39, 180 ; cf. Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 89). He is cited
by Quintilian (xi. 2, 88) as an instance of a
man with a strong memory. Q. Scaevola the
Pontifex is the first Roman to whom we can
attribute a scientific and systematic handling
of the Jus Civile, which he accomplished in a
work in eighteen books. He also wrote a Liber
Singularis irepl '6pcov, a work on Definitions, or
perhaps, rather, short rules of law, from which
there are four excerpts in the Digest. This is
the oldest work from which there are any ex
cerpts in the Digest, and even these may have
been taken at second hand.

SCAPTIUS
Scaevus, or Scaevius Memor, a tragic poet
of the time of Domitian (Mart. xi. 9, 10 ; Schol.
ad Juv. i. 20).
Scaldis (Scheldt), an important river in the
N. of GaUia Belgica, flowing into the ocean,
but which Caesar erroneously makes a tribu
tary of the Mosa (B. G. vi. 33 ; Plin. iv. 98,
105). Ptolemy calls this river Tabudas or
Tabullaa, which name it is said to have borne
in the middle ages under the form of Tabul or
Tabula (Ptol. ii. 3, 9).
Scallabis (Santarem), a town in Lusitania,
on the road from Olisipo to Emerita and
Bracara, also a Roman colony with the sur
name Praesidium Julium, and the seat of one of
the three Conventus Juridici of the provmce
(Plin. iv. 117). The town is erroneously caUed
Scalabiscus by Ptolemy (ii. 5, 7).
Scamander (SKdpavSpos), the celebrated
river of the Troad. [Tboas.] As a mytho
logical personage, the river-god was called
Xanthus by the gods. His contest with
Achilles is described by Homer (II. xxi. 136.
foil.). Scamandrius. [Astyanax.]
Scambonidae (SKapBaviSai), a demus in-
Attica, between Athens and Eleusis, belongmg
to the tribe Leontis.
Scampa (SKdpira: Skumbi or Iacampi), a
town in the interior of Greek Dlyria, on the
Via Egnatia between Clodiana and Lychmdus.
[Illybicum.] Scandea (SKavSeia), a port-town on the E.
side of the island Cythera, forming the harbour
of the town of Cythera, from which it was ten
stadia distant. [Cytheba].
Scandia, Scandinavia or Scatinavia, the
name given by the ancients to the islands m the
Baltic, Funen, Zealand and Laaland, and
vaguely also to the coasts of Sweden and Nor
way. Even the later Romans had a very im
perfect knowledge of the Scandinavian penm-
sula, though some knowledge of the Baltic had
probably been gathered by Pytheas [seep. 781, bj.
They supposed it to have been surrounded by
the ocean, and to have been composed of several
islands called by Ptolemy Scandiae. Of these
the largest bore especiaUy the name of Scandia
or Scandinavia. It was said to have a lofty
mountain caUed Sevo, and to be washed by the
Sinus Codanus (Cattegat ?). (Mel. iii. 3, 6 ;
; Ptol. ii. 11, 33 ; Plin.' iv. 96.) TMs country
was inhabited by the HUleviones, of whom the
Suiones and Sitones appear to have been tribes
(Plin. 1. c. ; Tac. Germ. 44).
Scandila (Scandole), a small island in the
NE. of the Aegaean sea, between Peparethos
and Scyros (Plin. iv. 72 ; Mel. ii. 7, 8).
Scantia Silva, a wood in Campania, m
which were probably the Aquae Scantiae men
tioned by Pliny (Cic. de Leg. Aqr. i. 1, 3 ; PUn.
ii. 240).
Scapte Hyle (SkoittJ) Sxv), also called, but
less correctly, Scaptesyle (^Kairrrio-vXri), a
small town on the coast of Thrace opposite the
island of Thasos. It contained celebrated gold
mines, which were originally worked by the
Thasians. Thucydides, who had some property
in these mines, retired to this place after his
banishment from Athens, and here arranged
the materials for Ms Mstory. (Plut. Cim. 4, de
Exit. p. 606 ; Marcell. Thuc. 19.)
Scaptia (Scaptiensis or Scaptius), an ancient
town in Latium, which gave its name to a
Roman tribe, but disappeared at an early period
(Dionys.v. 61; Liv. vui. 17; Plin. iii. 68).
Scaptius, P., a Roman trader in Cilicia who

SCAPULA
lent money to people of Salamis in Cyprus,
and enforced usurious terms by the aid of the
troops of App. Claudius. Cicero very properly
refused to support Mm, and deprived him
of the prefecture of Salamis, which Clau
dius had given him (Cic. ad Att. v. 21, vi. 1-8
xv. 18).
Scapula, P. Ostorius. 1. Succeeded A. Plau
tius as governor of Britain, about a.d. 50. He
defeated the powerful tribe of the Silures, took
prisoner their king Caractacus, and sent him in
chains to Rome. In consequence of this
success he received the insignia of a triumph,
but died soon afterwards in the province.
(Tac. Ann. xii. 31-39, Agr. 14.)— 2. Son of the
precedmg, fought with distinction under his
father ; was accused of treason by Sosionus and
condemned to death by Nero (Tac. Ann. xii. 31,
xiv. 48, xvi. 14).
Scarbantia, or Scarabantia (Oedenburg), a
town in Pannonia Superior on the road from
Vindobona to Poetovio, and a mumcipium with
the surname Flavia Augusta (Ptol. ii. 15, 5;
PUn. iii. 146 ; C. I. L. in. 4192).
Scardona (2Kap5dva or 2Kaptioiv: Skar-
dona or Skardin), the chief town of Liburnia
in Hlyria, on the right bank of the Titius,
twelve miles from its mouth, the seat of a
Conventus Juridicus (Strab. p. 815 ; Plm. iii.
139). Scardus, Scodrns or Scordns Mons (to
SxdpSov opos : Schar), a range of lofty moun
tams to the E. of Scodra, between Illyria and
Dardania, and dividmg the head waters of the
Axius from the DrUon (Ptol. ii. 16, 1 ; Pol.
xxviu. 8 ; Liv. xUU. 20, xUv. 31.)
Scarphe, Scarphea or Scarphia (2/cap<p7),
^Kapcpeia, "ZKapcpia : ~2,Kap<pevs, ~2,Kapcpievs, ~2,Kap-
cpaios, ^Kapcpios), a town of the Epicnemidii
Locri, ten stadia from the coast, at which the
roads umted leadmg tMough Thermopylae. It
possessed a harbour on the coast, probably at
the mouth of the river Boagrius. (17. ii. 532 ;
Strab. p. 426 ; Paus. viu. 15, 3 ; Liv. xxxiii. 3.)
Scarponna (Charpeigne), a town in GaUia
Belgica on the MoseUa, and on the road from
TuUum to Divodurum (Amm. Marc, xxvii. 2).
Scato or Cato, Vettius, one of the Italian
generals in the Marsic war, B.C. 90. He de
feated the consuls L. Julius Caesar and P.
RutiUus Lupus in two successive battles. He
was afterwards taken prisoner, and was stabbed
to death by Ms own slave as he was being
dragged before the Roman general, being thus
dehvered from the ignominy and punishment
that awaited Mm. (App. B. C. i. 40-43 ; Sen. de
Benef. m. 23.)
Scaurus, Aemilius. 1. M., raised Ms family
from obscurity to the Mghest rank among the
Roman nobles. He was born in B.C. 163. His
father, notwithstanding his patrician descent,
had been obUged, tMough poverty, to carry on the
trade of a charcoal-merchant, and left his son a
very slender patrimony. The latter had thought
at first of carrying on the trade of a money
lender ; but he finaUy resolved to devote him
self to the study of eloquence, with the hope of
rising to the honours of the state. (Aurel. Vict.
de Vir. III. 72 ; Val. Max. iv. 4, 11 ; Plut. Q.B.
50.) Cicero speaks higHy of his eloquence
(Brut. 29, 111). He was curule aedile in 123.
He obtamed the consulsMp in 115, when he
carried on war with success against several of
the Alpine tribes. In 112 he was sent at the
head of an embassy to Jugurtha; and in 111
he accompanied the consul L. Calpurnius
Bestia as one of Ms legates in the war against I

SCAURUS

845

Jugurtha. The Numidian king bestowed large
sums of money upon both Bestia and Scaurus,
in consequence of which the consul granted the
king most favourable terms of peace. This
disgraceful transaction excited the greatest
indignation at Rome, and C. Mamilius, the
tribune of the plebs, 110, brought forward a
biU by which an inquiry was to be instituted
against all those who had received bribes from
Jugurtha. Although Scaurus had been one of
the most guilty, such was his influence in the
state that he contrived to be appointed one of
the three quaesitores who were elected under
the bill for the purpose of prosecuting the
criminals. But though he thus secured him
self, he was unable to save any of his accom
plices. Bestia and many others were con
demned (Sull. Jug. 15, 25, 28, 40). In 109
Scaurus was censor with M. Livius Drusus. In
Ms consulship he restored the Milvian bridge,
and constructed the Aemilian road, which ran
by Pisae and Luna as far as Dertona (Strab. p.
217). In 107, he was elected consul a second
time, in place of L. Cassius Longinus, who had
fallen in battle againBt the Tigurini. In the
struggles between the aristocratical and popular
parties, Scaurus was always a warm supportei
of the former. He was several times accused
of different offences, cMefly by his private
enemies, but such was his influence in the
state that he was always acquitted. He died
about 89. By Ms wife, Caecilia, Scaurus had
three cMldren, two sons mentioned below, and
a daughter, Aemilia, first married to M'. Gla
brio, and next to Cn. Pompey, subsequently
the triumvir. He wrote an autobiography, of
which nothing remains (Cic. Brut. 29, 112;
Plin. xxxiii. 21). — 2. M., eldest son of the pre
cedmg, and stepson of the dictator Sulla, whom
his mother, Caecilia, married after the death of
Ms father. In the third Mithridatic war he
served under Pompey as quaestor. The latter
sent him to Damascus with an army, and from
thence he marched mto Judaea, to settle the
disputes between the brothers Hyrcanus and
Aristobulus. Scaurus was left by Pompey in
the command of Syria with two legions. During
Ms government of Syria he made a predatory
incursion into Arabia Petraea, but withdrew on
the payment of 300 talents by Aretas, the king
of the country. (Jos. Ant. xiv. 3, B. J. i. 7 ;
App. Syr. 51.) He was curule aedile in 58,
when he celebrated the public games with extra
ordinary splendour. The temporary theatre
wMch he built accommodated 80,000 spectators,
and was adorned in the most magnificent
manner. The combats of wild beasts were
equally astonishmg : 150 panthers were ex
hibited in the circus, and five crocodiles and
a Mppopotamus were seen for the first time
at Rome. (Cic. Sest. 54, 116, de Off. ii. 16,
57 ; Plin. xxxvi. 114.) In 56 he was praetor,
and in the following year governed the pro
vince of Sardinia, which he plundered with
out mercy. On Ms return to Rome he was
accused of the crime of repetundae. He was
defended by Cicero, in the speech of which
fragments only remain, Hortensius, and others,
and was acquitted, notwithstanding his guilt.
(Ascon. Argum. ad Scaur.) He was accused
again in 52, under Pompey's new law against
ambitus, and was condemned. [See also refer
ences in Index to Cicero.] He married Mucia,
who had been previously the wife of Pompey,
and by her he had one son [No. 4]. —3. Younger
son of No. 1, fought under the proconsul Q.
Catulus agamst the Cimbri at the Athesis, and

846

SCAURUS

havmg fled from the field, was indignantly com
manded by Ms father not to come into his
presence ; whereupon the youth put an end to
Ms life (Val. Max. v. 8, 4 ; Front. Strut, iv. 1,
g).  4. M,, SOn of No. 2 and Mucia, the former
wife of Pompey the triumvir, and consequently
the half-brother of Sex. Pompey. He accom
panied the latter into Asia, after the defeat of
Ms fleet in Sicily, but betrayed him into the
hands of the generals of M. Antonius, in 35.
After the battle of Actium, he fell into the
-power of Octavian, and escaped death, to which
he had been sentenced, only tMough the inter
cession of his mother, Mucia. (App. B. C. v. 142 ;
Dio Cass. Ii. 2, lvi. 38.)— 5. Mamercus, son of
No. 5, was a distmguished orator and poet, but
of a lazy and dissolute character (Tac. Ami.
iii. 66, vi. 29 ; Sen. Contr. x. praef. 2J. He was
a member of the senate at the time of the
accession of Tiberius, a.d. 14, when he offended
this suspicious emperor by some remarks which
he made in the senate. Being accused of
majestas in 34, he put an end to his own Ufe
{Dio Cass, lviii. 24).
Scaurus, M. Aurelius, consul suffectus B.C.
108, and three years afterwards consular legate
in Gaul, where he was defeated by the Cimbri,
taken prisoner, and put to death (Liv. Ep. 67 ;
Tac. Germ. 37 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 12).
Scaurus, ft. Terentius, a celebrated gramma
rian who flourished under the emperor Hadrian,
and whose son was one of the preceptors of the
emperor Verus. He was the author of an Ars
Grammatica and of commentaries upon Plau
tus, Virgil, and the Ars Podica of Horace.
(GeU. xi. 15 ; Capitol. Ver. 2, 5 ; Charis. i. 133,
136.) An abstract survives of a treatise en
titled Q. Terentii Seauri de Orthographia ad
Theseum, and of another on Adverbs and Pre
positions. They are included in the Gramma-
ticae Latinae Auctores Antiqui of Putschius
(Hannov. 1605).
Sceleratus Campus. [Roma, p. 804, b.]
Scenae (Sicrjrai, i-e- the tents), a town of Meso
potamia, on the borders of Babylonia, on a canal
of the Euphrates, twenty-five days' journey
below Zeugma (Strab. p. 748). It belonged to
the Scenitae, and was probably only a collec
tion of tents or huts.
Scenitae {ZxriviTai, i.e. dwellers in tents), the
general name used by the Greeks for the Be-
dawee (Bedouin) tribes of Arabia Deserta (Plin.
vi. 125).
Scepsis (SK?i\f/is : prob. Eski- Upshi or Eski-
Shupshe. Ru.), an ancient city in the interior
of the Troad, SE. of Alexandria Troas, in the
mountains of Ida. Its inhabitants were re
moved by Antigonus to Alexandria, but being
permitted by Lysimachus to return to their
homes, they built a new city, called r) vea Kdprj,
and the remains of the old town were then
called UaXaio-Krj\f/is (Strab. pp. 603, 607, 635).
Scepsis is celebrated in literary history as the
place where certain MSS. of Aristotle and
Theophrastus were buried, to prevent their
transference to Pergamum. When dug up again,
they were found nearly destroyed by mould and
worms, and in this condition they were re
moved by Sulla to Athens. (Strab. p. 608 ; Abi-
stoteles.] The philosopher Metrodorus and
the grammarian Demetrius were natives of
Scepsis. Scerdilaidas, or Scerdilaedus (SKepSiXai&as
or ^KepBiXaiSos), king of Illyria, was in all proba-
bUity a son of Pleuratus, and younger brother
of Agron, both of them kings of that country.
After the defeat and abdication of Teuta (b.c.

SCIONE
229), he probably succeeded to a portion of her
dominions, but did not assume the title of Mng
till after the death of his nephew Pinnes (Pol.
ii. 5, 6). He carried on war for some years
agamst PMlip, king of Macedonia, and thus
appears as an aUy of the Romans. He probably
died about 205, and was succeeded by his son
Pleuratus. (Pol. v. 95-110 ; Liv. xxvi. 24, xxvii.
30, xxix. 12.)
Sehedia (SxeSm), a town of Lower Egypt, on
the canal which connected Alexandria with the
Canopic arm of the Nile (Strab. pp. 800, 803).
Schedius (2x*o~ios). 1. Son of Iphitus and
Hippolyte, commanded the Phocians in the war
agamst Troy, along with Ms brother Epi-
strophus. He was slain by Hector, and his re
mains were carried from Troy to Anticyra m
Phocis. (II. ii. 517, xvii. 306 ; Paus. x. 4, 1.)—
2. Son of Perimedes, likewise a Phocian, who
was killed at Troy by Hector (II. xv. 515 ;
Strab. p. 424).
Scheria. [Phaeaces.]
Schoenus (Sxo""" : 2x»""E"s)> a town of
Boeotia, on a river of the same name, and on
the road from Thebes to Anthedon (H. ii. 497 ;
Strab. p. 408). It was (in the Boeotian story)
the birthplace of Atalanta (Paus. viii. 35, 10 ;
Stat. Theb. vii. 267).
Schoenus (Skou/ows, -oivros). 1. A harbour
of Corinth, N. of CencMeae, at the narrowest
part of the isthmus (Strab. pp. 369, 380).— 2. A
place in the interior of Arcadia near Methy-
drium (Paus. viii. 35, 10).
Sciathus (SKiaBos : S,KidBios: Skiatho),a,smaJl
island in the Aegaean sea, N. of Euboea and E.
of the Magnesian coast of Thessaly, with a town
of the, same name upon it. It is said to have
been originally colonised by Pelasgians from
TMace (Strab. p. 436 ; Plin. iv. 72). It is fre
quently mentioned in the history of the invar
sion of Greece by Xerxes, since the Persian and
Grecian fleets were stationed near its coasts
(Hdt. vii. 176, viii. 7). It subsequently became
one of the subject allies of Athens, but attamed
such little prosperity that it only had to pay
the small tribute of 200 drachmae yearly. Its
chief town was destroyed by the last PhiUp of
Macedonia. At a later time it was restored
by Antonius to the Athenians (App. B. C. v. 7).
Scidrus (^KiSpos), a place in the S. of Italy
of uncertain site, in which some of the Sybarites
settled after the destruction of their own city
(Hdt. vi. 21).
Scillus (SkiXXovs, -ovvros : ~S,KiXXovvrios,
-%KtXXovo-ios), a town of Elis, in the district
Triphylia, on the river Selinus, twenty stadia
S. of Olympia. It was destroyed by the Eleans
in the war which they carried on against the
Pisaeans, whose cause had been espoused by
the inhabitants of Scillus (Paus. v. 6, 43, vi. 22,
4). The Lacedaemonians subsequently took
possession of the territory of Scillus ; and al
though the Eleans still laid claim to it, it was
given to Xenophon after his banishment from
Athens. Xenophon resided at this place for
more than twenty years, and erected here
a sanctuary to Artemis, which he had vowed
during the retreat of the Ten Thousand. A
statue of Xenophon was seen here by Pausanias.
(Xen. An. v. 3, 7 ; Paus. v. 6, 5 ; Strab. p. 844.)
Scing-omagus (Cesanne), a small place in
the Cottian Alps, on the Italian side of the
pass of Mt. Genevre [Alpes], about five miles
above Ocelum (Oulx).
Scidne (SKidv-q : SKiavaios, ^Kiavevs), the
cMef town m the Macedonian peninsula of Pal-
lene, on the W. coast. It is said to have been

SCIPIO

847

founded by some Pellenians of Achaia, who
settled here after their return from Troy. It
revolted from the Athenians in the Peloponne
sian war, but was taken by Cleon ; whereupon
aU the men were put to death, the women and
children sold as slaves, and the town given to
the Plataeans. (Hdt. vii. 123, viii. 128 ; Thuc. iv.
120, 133. v. 32; Strab. p. 880.)
Scipio, the name of an illustrious patrician
family of the Cornelia gens. This name, which
¦signifies a stick or staff, is said to have been
given to the founder of the family because he
served as a staff in directing his blind father
(Macrob. i. 6) . TMs family produced some of the
greatest men in Rome. The family tomb of the
Scipios was discovered in 1780, on the left of
the Appia Via, about 400 paces within the
modern Porta S. Sebastiano. The mscriptions,
of the greatest interest as specimens of early
Latin, are printed in C. I. L. i. 29-39.— 1. P.
Cornelius Scipio, magister equitum b.c. 396, and
consular tribune 395 and 394 (Liv. v. 19, 24, 31,
vi. 1). — 2. L. Corn. Scipio, consul 350 (Liv.
vii. 21).— 3. P. Corn. Scipio Barbatus, consul
328, and dictator 306. He was also pontifex
maximus (Liv. ix. 44, 46). — 4. L. Corn. Scipio
Barbatus, consul 298, when he carried on war
against the Etruscans, and defeated them near
Volaterrae. He also served under the consuls
m 297, 295, and 293 against the Samnites.
This Scipio was the great-great-grandfather of
the conqueror of Hanmbal. (Liv. x. 11, 12, 14,
25, 26, 40, 41.) His epitaph, written m Satur-
man verse, records victories in Samnium and
Lucania (C. I. L. i. 29). The genealogy of the
family can be traced with more certainty from
tMs time. — 5. Cn. Corn. Scipio Asina, son of
No. 4, was consul 260, in the first Punic war.
In an attempt upon the Liparaean islands, he
was taken prisoner with seventeen ships. He
probably recovered Ms liberty when Regulus
invaded Africa, for he was consul a second
time in 254. In tMs year he and his coUeague
A. Atilius Calatinus crossed over mto Sicily,
and took the town of Panormus. He obtained
a triumph. (Pol. i. 21, 38 ; Val. Max. vi. 6, 2, vi.
9, 11 ; Macrob. i. 6.)— 6. L. Corn. Scipio, also
son of No. 4, was consul 259. He drove the
Carthaginians out of Sardmia and Corsica, de
feating Hanno, the Carthagiman commander.
He was censor in 258. (Liv. Ep. 17 ; Eutrop. ii.
20; Val. Max. v. 1, 2; C. I. L. i. 31.)— 7. P.
Corn. Scipio Asina, son of No. 5, was consul
221, and carried on war, with Ms colleague M.
Minucius Rufus, agamst the Istri, who were
subdued by the consuls. He is mentioned again
in 211, when he recommended that the senate
should recaU all the generals and armies from
Italy for the defence of the capital, because
Hannibal was marching upon the city (Liv. xxii.
34, xxvi. 8 ; Oros. iv. 13 ; Eutrop. iii. 7). — 8. P.
Corn. Scipio, son of No. 6, was consul, with Ti.
Sempronius Longus, M 218, the first year of
the second Punic war. He sailed with an army
to Gaul, in order to encounter Hannibal before
he crossed the Alps ; but finding that Hannibal
had crossed the Rhone, and had got the start
of him by a three days' march, he resolved to
sail back to Italy, and await Hannibal's arrival
in Cisalpine Gaul. But as the Romans had an
army of 25,000 men in Cisalpine Gaul, under
the command of two praetors, Scipio sent into
Spam the army which he had brought with
him, under the command of Ms brother, Cn.
Scipio. On his return to Italy, Scipio took the
command of the army in Cisalpine Gaul, and
hastened to meet Hannibal.' An engagement

took place between the cavalry and light-armed
troops of the two armies. The Romans were
defeated ; the consul himself received a severe
wound, and was only saved from death by the
courage of his young son, Publius, the future
conqueror of Hannibal. Scipio now retreated
across the Ticinus, crossed the Po also, first
took up his quarters at Placentia, and subse
quently withdrew to the hills on the left bank
of the Trebia, where he was joined by the other
consul, Sempronius Longus. The latter re
solved upon a battle, in opposition to the advice
of his colleague. The result was the complete
defeat of the Roman army, which was obliged
to take refuge within the walls of Placentia.
In the following year 217, Scipio, whose impe
rium had been prolonged, crossed over inbo
Spain. He and Ms brother Cneius continued
in Spain till their death in 211, and did the
most important service to their country by pre
venting reinforcements being sent to Hannibal
from Spain. In 215 they transferred the war
from the Ebro to the Guadalquivir and won two
great victories at Bliturgis and Intibilis. They
fortified an important harbour at Tarraco and
regained Saguntum, and by adroit policy in
duced Syphax to turn against the Carthagini
ans in Africa ; but in 212, having to confront
three armies under Hasdrubal Barca, Has
drubal Gisgo and Mago, they enlisted 20,000
Celtiberians and divided their armies. TM6
was a fatal step : the Spaniards were untrust
worthy, and the armies of the Scipios were de
feated separately and both the brothers were
slain by the Carthaginians. (Pol. iii. ; Liv. xxi.-
xxv.; App. Annib. 5-8, Hisp. 14-16.) — 9. Cn.
Corn. Scipio Calvus, son of No. 6, and brother
of No. 8, was consul 222, with M. Claudius
Marcellus. In conjunction with Ms colleague
he carried on war agamst the Insubrians. In
218 he carried on war as the legate of Mb
brother Publius for eight years in Spain, as has
been related above. (Pol. ii. 34 ; Plut. Marcell.
6, 7.)— 10. P. Corn. Scipio Africanus Major,
son of No. 8, was born in 237. (According to
Liv. xxvi. 18 and Val. Max. iii. 7, 1, he was born
m 234, but the authority of Polybius should
be followed, who says that he was twenty-seven
when he went to Spain.) He was unquestion
ably one of the greatest men of Rome, and he
acquired at an early age the confidence and
admiration of his countrymen. His enthusi
astic mind led him to believe that he was a
special favourite of the gods; and he never
engaged in any public or private business
without first going to the Capitol, where he
sat some time alone, enjoying communication
with the gods. For all he proposed or exe
cuted he alleged the divine approval ; and
the Roman people gave credit to his assert
ions and regarded him as a being almost
superior to the common race of men (Liv.
xxvi. 19). There can be no doubt that Scipio
believed himself in the divme revelations
which he asserted to have been vouchsafed
to Mm ; and the extraordinary success which
attended all his enterprises must have deepened
this belief, and his faith in himself helped Mm
to inspire enthusiasm in others. He is first
mentioned in 218 at the battle of the Ticinus,
when he saved the life of Ms father, as has
already been related. He fought at Cannae
two years afterward (216), when he was already
a tribune of the soldiers, and was one of the
few Roman officers who survived that fatal day.
He was chosen along with Appius Claudius to
command the remains of the army, which had

848

SCIPIO

taken refuge at Canusium ; and it was owing
to his youthful heroism and presence of mmd
that the Roman nobles, who had thought of
leaving Italy in despair, were prevented from
carrying their rash project into effect (Liv.
xxii. 53 ; Val. Max. v. 6, 7). He had already
gained the favour of the people to such an ex
tent that he was elected aedile in 212, although
he had not yet reached the legal age. In 210,
after the death of his father and his uncle in
Spam, the Romans resolved to increase their
army in that country, and to place it under the
command of a proconsul. But when the people
assembled to elect a proconsul, none of the
generals of experience ventured to sue for so
dangerous a command. At length Scipio, who
was then barely twenty-seven (Pol. x. 6), offered
himself as a candidate, and was chosen with
enthusiasm to take the command. His suc
cess in Spam was striking and rapid. In the
first campaign (210) he took the important city
of Carthago Nova, and in the course of the
next three years he drove the Carthaginians
entirely out of Spain, and became master of
that country. He returned to Rome in 206,
and was elected consul for the following year
(205), although he had not yet filled the office
of praetor, and was only thirty years of age.
He was anxious to cross over at once to Africa,
and bring the contest to an end at the gates of
Carthage ; but the oldest members of the
senate, and among them Q. Fabius Maximus,
opposed his project, partly through timidity
and partly through jealousy of the youthful
conqueror. All that Scipio could obtain was
the province of Sicily, with permission to cross
over to Africa ; but the senate refused Mm an
army, thus making the permission of no practi
cal use. The allies had a truer view of the
interests of Italy than the Roman senate, and
from aU the towns of Italy volunteers flocked
to join the standard of the youthful hero.
The senate could not refuse to allow Mm to
enlist volunteers, and such was the enthusiasm
in his favour that he was able to cross over to
SicUy with an army and a fleet, contrary to the
expectations and even the wishes of the senate.
After spending the winter in Sicily, and com
pleting all his preparations for the mvasion of
Africa, he crossed over to the latter country in
the following year. Success again attended
Ms arms. The Carthaginians and their aUy
Syphax were defeated with great slaughter,
and the former were compelled to recaU Hanni
bal from Italy as the only hope of saving their
country. The long struggle between the two
peoples was at length brought to a close by the
battle fought near the city of Zama on the
I9th of October, 202, in which Scipio gained a
decisive and briUiant victory over Hannibal.
Carthage had no alternative but submission;
but the final treaty was not concluded till the
foUowing year (201). Scipio returned to Italy
in 201, and entered Rome in triumph. He was
received with universal enthusiasm, and the
surname of Africanus was conferred upon him.
The people wished to make him consul and
dictator for life, and to erect his statue in the
comitia, the rostra, the curia, and even in the
Capitol, but he prudently declined all these in
vidious distinctions (Liv. xxxviii. 56 ; Val. Max.
iv. 1, 6). As he did not choose to usurp the
supreme power, aud as he was an object of
suspicion and dislike to the majority of the
senate, he took no prominent part in public
affairs during the next few years. He was
censor in 199 with P. Aelius Paetus, and consul

a second time in 194 with Ti. Sempronius
Longus. In 193 he was one of the tMee com
missioners who -were sent to Africa to 'mediate
between Masinissa and the Carthaginians ; and
in the same year he was one of the ambassa
dors sent to Antiochus at Ephesus, at whose
court Hannibal was then residing. The tale
runs that he had there an mterview with the
great Carthaginian, who declared him the great
est general that ever lived. The compliment
was paid in a manner the most flattering to
Scipio. The latter had asked, 'Who was the
greatest general ? ' ' Alexander the Great,'
was Hannibal's reply. ' Who was the second ? '
'Pyrrhus.' 'Who the third?' 'Myself,' re
plied the CarthagMian. 'What would you
have said, then, if you had conquered me ? '
asked Scipio, in astonishment. ' I should then
have placed myself before Alexander, before
Pyrrhus, and before all other generals.' (Liv.
xxxv. 14.) It should be noticed that Scipio
alone in the senate opposed the persecution of
Hannibal after Ms fall (Liv. xxxiii. 47). — In 190
Africanus served as legate under his brother
Lucius in the war against Antiochus the Great.
Shortly after his return, he and his brother
Lucius were accused of having received bribes
from Antiochus to let the monarch off too
leniently, and of having appropriated to their
own use part of the money wMch had been
paid by Antiochus to the Roman state. It ap
pears that there were two distinct prosecutions,
and the following is the most probable Mstory
of the transaction. In 187 two PetiM, tribunes
of the people, instigated by Cato and the other
enemies of the Scipios, required L. Scipio to
render an account of all the sums of money
which he had received from Antiochus. L.
Scipio accordingly prepared his accounts, but
as he was in the act of delivering them up, the
proud conqueror of Hannibal Mdignantly
snatched them out of Ms hands, and tore them
up before the senate. But tMs haughty
conduct appears to have produced an un
favourable impression, and his brother, when
brought to trial in the course of the same year,
was declared guilty, and sentenced to pay a
heavy fine. The tribune C. Minucius Auguri
nus ordered Mm to be dragged to prison and
there detained till the money was paid ; where
upon Africanus rescued Ms brother from the
hands of the tribune's officer. The contest
would probably have been attended with fatal
results had not Tib. Gracchus, the father of
the celebrated tribune, and then tribune him
self, had the prudence to release Lucius from
the sentence of imprisonment. The successful
issue of the prosecution of Lucius emboldened
his enemies to bring the great Africanus MmseU
before the people. His accuser was M. Naevius,
the tribune of the people, and the accusation
was brought in 185. When the trial came on,
and Africanus was summoned, he proudly re
minded the people that this was the anniversary
of the day on which he had defeated Hannibal
at Zama, and called upon them to follow Mm to
the Capitol, in order there to return thanks to
the immortal gods, and to pray that they would
grant the Roman state other citizens like him
self. Scipio struck a chord which vibrated on
every heart, and was followed by crowds to the
Capitol. Having thus set all the laws at de
fiance, Scipio immediately quitted Rome, and
retired to his country seat at Liternum. The
tribunes wished to renew the prosecution, but
Gracchus wisely persuaded them to let it drop.
(Liv. xxxviii. 50-60 ; Gell. iv. 18, vii. 19 ; Val.

SCIPIO

849

Max. iii. 7, 1.) Scipio never returned to Rome.
He passed his remaining days in the cultivation
of his estate at Liternum ; and at his death is
said to have requested that his body might be
buried there, and not in his ungrateful country
(Sen. Ep. 86). Some accounts represent his
burial-place as bemg at Rome, but there was at
any rate a monument to his memory at Liternum,
which Livy saw (Liv. xxxviii. 56). The year of
Ms death is uncertain; but he probably died
M 183. Scipio married Aemilia, the daughter
of L. Aemilius Paulus, who fell at the battle of
Cannae, and by her he had four children — two
sons [Nos. 12, 18], and two daughters, the elder
of whom married P. Scipio Nasica Corculum
[No. 17], and the younger Tib. Gracchus, and
thus became the mother of the two celebrated
tribunes. [Coenelia.]— 11. L. Corn. Scipio
Asiaticus, also caUed Asiagenes or Asiagenus,
was the son of No. 8, and the brother of the
great Africanus. He served under his brother
m Spam ; was praetor m 198, when he obtamed
the provmce of Sicily, and consul m 190, with
C. Laelius. The senate had not much con
fidence m Ms abiUties, and m truth Ms capacity
was small. It was only tMough the offer of
Ms brother Africanus to accompany him as a
legate that he obtamed the province of Greece
and the conduct of the war against Antiochus.
He defeated Antiochus at Mt. Sipylus m 190,
entered Rome m triumph m the foUowmg
year, and assumed the surname of Asiaticus.
(Liv. xxviii. 3, 4, 17, xxxiv. 54, xxxvi. 45,
xxxvu. 1.) The history of Ms accusation and
condemnation has been already related m the
Life of his brother. He was a candidate for the
censorsMp m 184, but was defeated by the old
ene'my of Ms famUy, M. Porcius Cato, who
deprived Asiaticus of Ms horse at the review of
the eqmtes. (Liv. xxxix. 22, 40, 44.) — 12.
P. Corn. Scipio Africanus, elder son of the
great Africanus, was prevented by his weak
health from taking any part in pubUc affairs,
but he was elected augur m 180 B.C. (Liv.xl. 42).
Cicero praises his oratiunculae and his Greek
History, and remarks that with the greatness
of his father's mind he possessed a larger
amount of learning (Cic. Brut. 19, 77, de Off.
i. 33 ; VeU. Pat. i. 10). He had no son of his
own, but adopted the son of L. AemUius Paulus
[see below, No. 15]. His epitaph has great
poetic merit (C. I. L. i. 38). — 13. L. orCn. Corn,
Scipio Africanus, younger son of the great
Africanus. He accompanied his father into
Asia m 190, and was taken prisoner by Antio
chus. This Scipio was a degenerate son of an
illustrious sire, and only obtained the praetor
ship, m 174, through Cicereius, who had been a
scriba of Ms father, givmg way to him. In the
same year he was expeUed from the senate by
the censors. (Liv. xii. 27 ; Val. Max. iii. 5, 1,
iv. 5, 3.) — 14. L. Corn. Scipio Asiaticus, a
descendant of No. 11, belonged to the Marian
party, and was consul in 83 with C. Norbanus.
In this year SuUa returned to Italy: Scipio
was deserted by his troops, and taken prisoner
in Ms camp along with Mb son Lucius, but was
dismissed by Sulla uninjured. He was, how
ever, Mcluded m the proscription in the follow
ing year (82), whereupon he fled to Massilia, and
passed there the remainder of his Ufe. His
daughter was married to P. Sestius. (App.
B. C. i. 82, 85 ; Plut. Sull. 28 ; Flor. iii. 21 ;
Cic. pro Bab. Perd. 7, 21, Phil. xii. 11, 27.)
15. P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus
Minor was the younger son of L. Aemilius
Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia, and was

adopted by P. Scipio [No. 12], the son of the
conqueror of Hannibal. He was born about
185. In Mb seventeenth year he accompanied
his father Paulus to Greece, and fought under
Mm at the battle of Pydna, 168. (Plut. Aemil. 22.)
Scipio devoted himself with ardour to the study
of literature, and formed an intimate friendship
with Polybius when the latter came to Rome
along with the other Achaean exiles in 167.
[Polybius.] At a later period he also cultivated
the acquaintance of the philosopher Panaetius,
and he admitted the poets Lucilius and Terence
to his intimacy, and is said to have assisted
the latter in the composition of his comedies.
[Tebentius.] His friendship with Laelius,
whose tastes and pursuits were so congenial to
his own, has been immortalised by Cicero's
celebrated treatise entitled Laelius sive de
Amicitia. Although thus devoted to the study
of literature, Scipio cultivated the virtues which
distinguished the older Romans, and made
Cato the model of his conduct. If we may
believe Ms panegyrists, he possessed all the
simple virtues of an old Roman, mellowed by
the refining influences of Greek civilisation.
Scipio first served in Spain with great distinc
tion as military tribune, under the consul L.
Lucullus in 151. (Veil. Pat. i. 12 ; Flor. ii. 17.)
On the breaking out of the third Punic war in
149 he accompanied the Roman army to Africa,
agam with the rank of military tribune. By
Ms personal bravery and military sMU he re
paired, to a great extent, the mistakes of the
consul Manilius, whose army on one occasion
he saved from destruction. He returned to
Rome in 148, and had already gained such
popularity that when he became a candidate
for the aedUesMp for the foUowing year (147)
he was elected consul, although he was only
thirty-seven, and had not, therefore, attained the
legal age. (Pol. xxxv. 4.) The senate assigned
to him Africa as his province, to which he forth
with sailed, accompanied by Ms friends Poly
bius and Laelius. He prosecuted the siege of
Carthage with the utmost vigour. The Car
thagMians defended themselves with the
courage of despair, and the Romans were unable
to force their way into the city till the spring
of the following year (146). The fate of this
once magnificent city moved Scipio to tears,
and anticipating that a similar catastrophe
might one day befall Rome, he repeated the
lines of the Iliad (vi. 448) in which Hector
bewails the approaching fall of Troy. After
reducmg Africa to the form of a Roman pro
vmce, Scipio returned to Rome in the same
year, and celebrated a splendid triumph on
account of his victory. (App. Pun. 113-131 ;
Pol. xxxix.) The surname of Africanus which
he had inherited by adoption from the con
queror of Hannibal, had now been acquired by
him by his own exploits. In 142 Scipio was
censor, and in the admmistration of the duties
of his office he attempted to redress the
growing luxury and immorality of Ms con
temporaries. His efforts, however, were
thwarted by his colleague Mummius, who had
himself acquired a love of Greek and Asiatic
luxuries. (Val. Max. vi. 4, 2 : Gell. iv. 20, v. 19.)
In 139 Scipio was accused by Ti. Claudius
Asellus of majestas. Asellus attacked Mm
out of private animosity, because he had been
deprived of Ms horse and reduced to the
condition of an aerarian by Scipio in Ms cen
sorsMp. Scipio was acquitted, and the speeches
which he delivered on the occasion were held in
high esteem in a later age. (Gell. ii. 20, iii. 4,
3 1

850

SCIPIO

It

vii. 11 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 64, 258 ; 66, 268.)
appears to have been after tMs event that
Scipio was sent on an embassy to Egypt and
Asia to attend to the Roman interests in those
countries. The long continuance of the war m
Spain again called Scipio to the consulship.
He was appointed consul in Ms absence, and
had the provmce of Spain assigned to him in
134. His operations were attended with
success ; and in 133 he brought the war to a
conclusion by the capture of the city of Nu
mantia after a long siege. (App. Hisp. 48-98 ;
Eutrop. iv. 17.) He now received the surname
of Numantius in addition to that of Africanus.
During his absence in Spain Tib. Gracchus
had been put to death. Scipio was married to
Sempronia, the sister of the fallen tribune, but
he had no sympathy with his reforms, and no
sorrow for his fate. On receivmg the news of
the death of Gracchus he is said to have quoted
the Une of the Odyssey (i. 47) —
as airiXoiro Kal &XXos Srisroiavrd ye ie(ot,
and upon Ms return to Rome in 132, when he
was asked in the assembly of tribes by C. Papi
rius Carbo, the tribune, what he thought of the
¦death of Tib. Gracchus, he replied that he was
justly slain (jure caesum). His reply to the
murmurs of the populace wMch greeted this
expression of opinion, ' Taceant quibus Italia
noverca est,' showed Ms aristocratic spirit of
contempt for the Roman mob, whom he
seemed to think unfit to reckon as Roman
¦citizens, and may have contributed to the feel
ing against Mm which afterwards caused his
death. He now took the lead in opposing the
efforts of the commissioners to make the
.agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus apply also to
the lands of Latin citizens, and he proposed m
the senate (129) that aU disputes respect-
mg the lands of the allies should be taken out
¦of the hands of the commissioners appointed
under the law of Tib. Gracchus, and should be
committed to other persons. Fulvius Flaccus,
Papirius Carbo and C. Gracchus, the three
commissioners, offered the most vehement
opposition to his proposal. In the Forum he
was accused by Carbo with the bitterest invec
tives as the enemy of the people, and upon his
again expressing his approval of the death of
Tib. Gracchus, the people shouted out, ' Down
with the tyrant.' In the evenmg he went home
with the intention of composing a speech for
the following day ; but next day he was found
dead in Ms room. It is clear that the assassi
nation was contrived by some of the Gracchan
party ; but who committed the murder or who
^instigated it was never established. Suspicion
fell upon various persons : even upon Ms wife,
Sempronia, and her mother, Cornelia. Carbo,
Fulvius, and C. Gracchus were suspected by
many. Of these Carbo was most generaUy
believed to have been guUty, and is expressly
mentioned as the murderer by Cicero. (App.
B. 0. i. 19, 20; VeU. Pat. ii. 4; Plut. G.
Gracch. 10 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 40, 170, ad Fam. ix.
21, ad Q, Fr. ii. 8.) The general opinion enter
tained by the Romans of a subsequent age
respecting Scipio is given by Cicero in his work
-on the Republic, in wMch Scipio is introduced
as the principal speaker. — 16. P. Corn. Scipio
Nasica, that is, ' Scipio with the pointed nose,'
¦was the son of Cn. Scipio Calvus, who fell in
Spain m 211. [No. 9.] He is first mentioned
in 204 as a young man who was judged by the
senate to be the best citizen in the state, and
was therefore sent to Ostia along with the

Roman matrons to receive the statue of the
Idaean Mother, wMch had been brought from
Pessinus (Liv. xxxv. 10). He was curule aedile
196; praetor in 194, when he fought with
success in Further Spain; and consul 191,
when he defeated the Boii, and triumphed over
them on his return to Rome. Scipio Nasica
was a celebrated jurist, and a house was
given him by the state in the Via Sacra, in
order that he might be more easily consulted.
(Pomp. Dig. i. 2, 2, 37.)— 17. P. Corn. Scipio
Nasica CorcuTom, son of No. 16, mherited
from Ms father a love of jurisprudence, and
became so celebrated for Ms discernment and
for his Miowledge of the pontifical and civil
law that he received the surname of Corcu-
lum (i.e. ' acute ' : FeBt. s.v.). He married a
daughter of Scipio Africanus the elder. He
was consul for the first .time 162, but abdicated,
together with Ms colleague, almost immediately
after they had entered upon their office, on
account of some fault in the auspices. He was
censor 159 with M. PopUlius Laenas, and was
consul a second time in 155, when he subdued
the Dahnatians (Liv. Ep. 47). He was a firm
upholder of the old Roman habits and manners,
and in Ms second consulship he mduced the
senate to stop the buUdmg of a theatre, as
injurious to public morals. When Cato re
peatedly expressed his desire for the destruc
tion of Carthage, Scipio, on the other hand,
declared that he wished for its preservation,
since the existence of such a rival would prove
a useful check upon the licentiousness of the
multitude (Plut. Cat. Maj. 27; Aurel. Vict.
Vir. III. 44 ; App. Pun. 69, B. C. i. 28). He
was elected pontifex maximus m 150. — 18. P.
Corn. Scipio Nasica Serapio, son of No. 17, is
cMefly known as the leader of the senate in
the murder of Tib. Gracchus. He was consul
in 138, and in consequence of the severity with
which he and Ms coUeague conducted the levy
of troops, they were thrown into prison by C.
Curiatius, the tribune of the plebs. It was
tMs Curiatius who gave Nasica the nickname
of Serapio, from Ms resemblance to a person of
low rank of , this name ; but though given him
in derision, it afterwards became Ms distin
guishing surname. (Liv. Ep. 55; Val. Max.
ix. 14, 8; Plin. vii. 54.) In 133, when the
tribes met to re-elect Tib. Gracchus to the
tribunate, and the utmost confusion prevailed
in the Forum, Nasica called upon the consuls to
save the republic ; but as they refused to have
recourse to violence, he exclaimed, ' As the
consul betrays the state, do you who wish to
obey the laws foUow me,' and so saying he
rushed forth from the temple of Fides, where
the senate was sitting, followed by the greater
number of the senators. The people gave way
before them, and Gracchus was assassmated as
he attempted to escape. (App. B. C. i. 16;
Plut. Tib. Gracch. 19.) In consequence of Ms
conduct on this occasion Nasica became an
object of such detestation to the people, that
the senate found it advisable to send him on a
pretended mission to Asia, although he was
pontifex maximus, and ought not, therefore,
to have quitted Italy. He did not venture
to return to Rome, and, after wandering about
from place to place, died soon afterwards at
Pergamum. (Plut. Tib. Gh-acch. 21 ; Cic. Flacc.
31, 75.) — 19. P. Corn. Scipio Nasica, son of No.
18, was consul 111, and died during his consul
ship (SaU. Jug. 27 ; Cic. de Off. i. 80).— 20. P.
Corn. Scipio Nasica, son of No. 19, praetor 94,
is mentioned by Cicero as one of the advocates

SCIRAS
¦of Sex. Roscius of Ameria. He married
Licinia, the second daughter of L. Crassus the
•orator. (Cic. Bosc. Am. 28, 77, Brut. 58, 212.)
He had two sons, both of whom were adopted,
¦one by Ms maternal grandfather, L. Crassus, in
Ms testament, and is therefore colled L.
Licimus Crassus Scipio ; and the other by Q.
CaeciUus MeteUus Pius, consul 80, and is
therefore called Q. Caecilius MeteUus Pius
Scipio. This Scipio became the father in-law
of Cn. Pompey the triumvir, and fell in Africa
M 47. His Life is given under Metellus, No.
15.— 21. Cn. Corn. Scipio Hispallus, son of L.
Scipio, who is only known as a brother of the
two Scipios who fell m Spain. Hispallus was
praetor 179, and consul 171. (Liv. xl. 44, xii.
16.) — 22, Cn. Corn. Scipio Hispallus, son of
No. 21, was praetor m 139, when he published
an edict that aU Chaldaeans (i.e. astrologers)
should leave Rome and Italy within ten days
(Val. Max. i. 3, 2).— 23. P. Corn. Scipio, hus
band of Scribonia, who afterwards married
Octavianus (Suet. Oct. 62).— 24. P. Corn.
Scipio, son of No. 21, was consul B.C. 16
(Dio Cass. Uv. 19; Propert. v. 11, 67.)— 25.
Corn. Scipio, first son of No. 21, served under
Junius Blaesus agamst Tacfarinas (Tac. Ann.
Ui. 74). — 26. P. Corn. Scipio, son of the prece-
•dmg, husband of Poppaea Sabina, was consul
a.d. 56 (Tac. Ann. xi. 2, xii. 53, xui. 25).
Sciras or Sclerias. [Rhinthon.]
Sciras (2/cipas), a surname of Athene, under
which she had a temple m the Attic port of
.Phaleron, and m the island of Salamis. The
foundation of the temple at Phaleron is ascribed
by Pausanias to a soothsayer, Scirus of Dodona,
who is said to have come to Attica at the time
when the Eleusmians were at war with Erech
theus (Paus. i. 1, 4, i. 36, 3).
Sciritis (Stcipiris), a wild and mountainous
¦district in the N. of Lacoma, on the borders of
Arcadia, with a town Scirus (SK?pos), (also
-caUed Scirtomum) on the road from Sparta to
Tegea, originaUy belongmg to Arcadia. Its
inhabitants, the Sciritae (jt,Kipirai), formed a
special division of the Lacedaemonian army.
This body, which m the time of the Pelopon
nesian war was 600 in number, was stationed in
battle at the extreme left of the Une, formed on
jnarch the vanguard, and was usuaUy employed
on the most dangerous Mnds of service. (Thuc.
v. 33, 67 ; Xen. Cyr. iv. 2, 1, Hell. v. 2, 24 ;
Diod. xv. 32.)
Sciron (SKipaiv or ~2Keipa>v), in the Athenian
fitory, was a famous robber who infested the
¦frontier between Attica and Megaris. He not
only robbed the traveUers who passed tMough
the country, but compeUed them on the Sciro-
nian rock to wash his feet, and kicked them
into the sea whUe they were thus employed.
At the foot of the rock (accordmg to Pausanias,
and the Schol. on Eur. Hipp. 979), there was
a tortoise, wMch devoured the bodies of the
robber's victims. He was slain by Theseus.
It is noticeable that Plutarch makes no sugges
tion of the tortoise, and it has been suggested
that this part of the story grew out of vase-
pamtmgs, where the pamter put in a tortoise
(as in the British Museum vase) to indicate the
sea shore upon which Sciron was about to fall.
Diodorus supplies another explanation when he
¦says that the precipice over which he fell was
called XeXdvij (tortoise). Plutarch mentions also
the Megarean story, which is totally different.
They said that Sciron was a good and just
prince, no robber, but a punisher of robbers,
.son-in-law of CycMeus and father-in-law of

SCOPAS

851

Aeacus, and that he was slain by Theseus M
war. (Plut. T7i.es. 10 ; Paus. i. 44, 12 ; Diod. iv.
69 ; Strab. p. 391 ; Ov. Met. vii. 445.)
Soironia Saxa {SKipwviSes trerpai, also 2ki-
pdSes : Derveni Bound), large rocks on the E.
coast of Megaris, between which and the sea
there was only a narrow dangerous pass, called
the Scironian road (tj S.Kipdvri or S,Kipuv\s 6$6s :
Kaki Skala). (Strab. p. 891 ; Paus. i. 44.)
TMs road was afterwards enlarged by the
emperor Hadrian. The name of the rocks was
said to be derived from the celebrated robber
Scteon. Scironides (SKipaviSris), an Athenian general
who acted at the siege of Miletus and against
Chios m B.C. 412, 411 (Thuc. viii. 25, 80, 54).
Scirri or Sciri, a people placed by Pliny M
European Sarmatia, on the N. coast, imme
diately E. of the Vistula, in the modern Cur-
land and Samogitien ; but by others described
as a ScytMan tribe beyond the Danube, which
afterwards joined the Huns, and to which be
longed Odoacer, the conqueror of Italy (Plin.
iv. 97 ; Jornand. B. G. 49 ; Sidon. vii. 822).
Scirtomum. [Sciritis.]
Scirtus (SKipros : Daisan), a river in Meso
potamia, flowing past Edessa into a smaU lake
near Charrae. Its name, which signifies leap
ing, was derived from its rapid descent in a
series of smaU cascades. (Procop. Aed. ii. 7.)
Sclerias. [Rhtnthon.]
Scodra (Scodrensis : Seodar or Scutari), one
of the most important towns in Illyricum, on
the left bank of the river Barbana, at the SE.
corner of the Lacus Labeatis, and about
seventeen miles from the coast. It was strongly
fortified, and was the residence of the Hlyrian
Mng Gentius (Liv. xliv. 31, xiv. 26). It was a
populous town under the Romans (Plin. iii. 144)
and the capital of the district, called Praevali-
tana, of DaMiatia in the time of Diocletian.
Scodrus. [Scabdus.]
Scoedises, Scydisses, or Scordiscus (Skoi-
Sio-ris, ~2,Kvb"io-o-qs, S,KopSio-Kos : Dassim Dagh, or
Chambu-Bel Dagh), a mountain in the NE. of
Asia Minor, dividing Pontus Cappadocius from
Armenia Minor, and formmg a part of the same
range as M. Paryades (Strab. pp. 497, 548;
Ptol. v. 6, 8).
Scollis {S,k6xXis : Santameri), a rocky moun
tain between Elis and Achaia, 3330 feet high,
which joins on the E. the mountain Lampea
(Strab. p. 341). Strabo identifies it with the
Olenian rock of H. ii. 617 (Strab. p. 387).
Scoloti. [Scythia.]
Scolus (2/caA.os : S.KdXios, S,KiiiXievs). 1. An
ancient town m Boeotia, on the road from
Thebes to Aphidna in Attica, was situated on
the N. slope of Mt. Cithaeron, five or six miles
S. of the Asopus and NW. of Hysiae (II. ii. 497 ;
Strab. p. 408 : Hdt. ix. 15 ; Paus. ix. 4, 4). The
site is traceable to the right of the road from
Athens to Thebes. — 2. A small place in Mace
donia, near Olynthus (Thuc. v. 18; Strab. p.
408). Scombraria (Islote), an island in front of the
bay, on the SE. coast of Spain, which formed
the harbour of Carthago Nova. It received its
name from the scombri, or mackerel, taken off
its coast, from which the Romans prepared
their garum. (Strab. p. 159.)
Scomius or Scombrus Mons (to S,K6piov opos),
a mountain in Macedonia, which runs E. of Mt.
Scardus, in the direction of N. to S. towards
Mt. Haemus (Thuc. ii. 96).
Sc5pas (%K6iras). 1. One of the greatest
Greek sculptors, was a native of Paros, and
3i2

852

SCOPAS

appears to have belonged to a family of artists
m that island (Strab. p. 604 ; Paus. viii. 45, 5).
The period of Ms work extended over forty- four
years at least, for this was the interval be
tween Ms work at Tegea in 394 and that at
HaUcarnassus in 351. He was probably some
what older than Praxiteles, with whom he
stands at the head of that second period of
perfected art which is called the later Attic
school (M contradistinction to the earlier Attic
school of Phidias), and which arose at Athens
after the Peloponnesian war. Scopas was an
arcMtect and a statuary as well as a sculptor.
He was the architect of the temple of Athene
at Tegea, in Arcadia, which was bmlt to replace
an older temple burnt down in B.C. 394. From
the sculptures which Scopas executed for this
temple, two heads — -mutilated, but still of great
beauty and valuable for judging of the style of
Scopas — have been discovered at Tegea and are
in the Museum at Athens. The subjects of the
sculptures mentioned by Pausanias are the
Calydonian Hunt, and the fight of Telephus
and AchiUes. He was one of the artists em
ployed m executing the bas-reliefs which deco
rated the frieze of the Mausoleum at Hali
carnassus in Caria. A portion of these bas-
reUefs is now deposited in the British Museum
[Did. of Ant. art.
Mausoleum.] A
noticeable feature
in the style of
Scopas was that
he introduced the
representation of
passion which was
afterwards car
ried further by
the Pergamene
sculptors and by
later schools.
Pliny states that
the famous group
of figures repre
senting the de
struction of the
, . , sons and daugh
ters of Niobe was ascribed by some to Scopas,
by others to Praxiteles. It has been remarked
since the discovery of the origmal statue by
Praxiteles of Hermes [see p. 557], and of the
original head by Scopas, that the heads of the
Niobe group bear more resemblance to the style
of Praxiteles than to that of Scopas. On the
other hand, the passion of the subject is more
like the style of Scopas. But possibly the
group in question was merely assigned by Ro
man critics to the period of these two great
Sculptors, and was not the genume work of
either. In Pliny's time the statues stood m
the temple of ApoUo Sosianus (Plin. xxxvi. 28)
The remaining statues of this group, or copies
of them, are all m the Florence Gallery. The
most esteemed of all the works of Scopas, in
antiquity was his group which stood in the
shrme of Cn. Domitius in the Flaminian Circus
representing AcMUes conducted to the island
°- * !f 0*e*by th6 ?1Tinities of the sea. It con
sisted of figures of Neptune, Thetis, and AcMUes,
surrounded by Nereids, and attended by Tri
tons, and by an assemblage of sea monsters
(Plm. xxxvi. 26). Pliny mentions among the
famous single statues by Scopas an Apollo
S^ Vnd i' 13r argued by many that the
Apollo Citharoedus [see p. 90] is a copy of tMs
Statue, with alterations in all Drobahilitv of rhl 7ir"""J ""-^T' """>"•" paving renewea j
drapery. Of Ms other .t.U.71 / I ? alllalloe with Antony, Octavian divorced her
pery. ut ms other statues a colossal seated | the foUowing year (89)-on the very day on

Head by Scopas, from Tegea.
(Athens.)

SCRIBONIA
Ares (Plin. ib.), and a statue of Apollo Smintheus
(Strab. p. 604; cf. Apollo, p. 89, b), was par
ticularly famous in ancient times. — 2. An Aeto
lian, who held a leadmg position among his
countrymen m the war with Philip and the
Achaeans, B.C. 220. He commanded the
Aetolian army in the first year of the war ; and
he is mentioned again as general of the Aeto
lians when the latter people concluded an
alliance with the Romans (211). (Pol. iv. 5-13,
62, v. 11 ; Liv. xxxvi. 24.) After the close of
the war with PMlip, Scopas and Dorimachus
were appointed to reform the AetoUan consti
tution (204). Scopas had only undertaken the
charge from motives of ambition ; on finding
Mmself disappomted m this object, he with
drew to Alexandria. Here he was received
with favour by the mmisters of the young
king Ptolemy V., and appomted to the com
mand of the army against Antiochus the Great.
At first he was successful, but was afterwards
defeated by Antiochus at Panium, and reduced
to shut himself up witMn the waUs of Sidon,
where he was compeUed by famine to surrender.
(Pol. xiii. 1, xvi. 18, 39; Jos. Ant. xn. 3, 3.)
Notwithstandmg this Ul success he continued
in favour at the Egyptian court ; but having
formed a plot in 296 to obtain the chief adminis
tration of the Mngdom, he was arrested and
put to death (Pol. xviii. 36-38).
Scopas (SKoVaj : Aladan), a river of Galatia,
falling into the Sangarius, from the E., at Julio-
polis (Procop. Aed. v. 4).
Scordisci, a people in Pannonia Superior,
are sometimes classed among the IUyrians, but
were the remains of an ancient and powerful
Celtic tribe. They dwelt between the Savus
and Dravus. (Strab. pp. 293, 313 ; Liv. xiv. 23.)
Scordiscus. [Scoedises.]
Scoti, a people whom the later Roman
writers mention as dwellmg m Ireland. Thus
Claudian contrasts the Picti dwelling in Thule
with the Scoti dwelUng in Ierne (de TV. Cons.
Hon. 3, cf. de Laud. Stil. U. 251 ; Oros. i. 2 ;
Amm. Marc, xxvii. 8, 4 ; Isid. Or. xiv. 6). At a
later period the migration of the Scoti into
Caledonia transferred the names Scotia and
Scoti to that country.
Scotitas (S,Koriras), a woody district in the
N. of Laconia, on the frontiers of Tegeatis
(Paus. iii. 10, 6).
Scotussa (2k6tov aaa : SKorovo-crdios), a very
ancient town of Thessaly, m the district Pelas-'
giotis, near the source of the Onchestus, and
not far from the MUs Cynoscephalae, where
Flamininus gained his celebrated victory over
Philip, b.c. 197 (Strab. pp. 329, 441 ; Diod.
XJ- £5 ; Liv. xxxiii. 6, xxxvi. 9, 14). The ruins
of the ancient fortifications may be seen at
Supli, five miles N. of the raUway which runs
from Volo (Iolcus) to Phersala (Pharsalus).
Scribonia, wife of Octavianus (afterwards
the emperor Augustus), had been married twice
before. By one of her former husbands, P.
Scipio, she had two chUdren, P. Scipio, who
was consul b.c. 16, and a daughter, Cornelia,
who was married to Paulus Aemilius Lepidus,
censor b.c. 22, and whose death is lamented in
the beautiful elegy of Propertius (v. 11 ; cf. p.
483, b). Scribonia was the sister of L. Scribo-
nius Libo, who was the father-M-law of Sex.
Pompey. Augustus married her in 40, on the
advice of Maecenas, because he was then afraid
that Sex. Pompey would form an alliance with
Antony to crush Mm ; but having renewed his

SCRIBONIUS
which she had borne Mm a daughter, Julia — in
order to marry Livia. Scribonia long survived
her separation from Octavian. In a.d. 2 she
accompanied, of her own accord, her daughter
¦Julia into exUe, to the island of Pandataria.
(Suet. Aug. 62, 69; App. B. C. v. 58; VeU.
Pat. U. 100 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 27.)
Scribonius Curio. [Cubic]
Scribonius Largus. [Lakgus.]
Scribonius Libo. [Libo.]
Scribonius Proculus. [Pboculus.]
Scriptores Historiae Augustae. Under
this title a coUection was made, how or under
whose authority and editorship is not known, of
biograpMes of the emperors from Hadrian to
Numerian (117-284), by six contributors. The
Lives of Philip — Valerian have not been handed
down entire. There is considerable doubt as
to the authorsMp of the different biographies.
The Lives of Hadrian, AeUus, Didius Julianus,
Septimius Severus, Pescenmus Niger, Cara
caUa and Geta have been commonly printed
as the work of Spabtianus ; those of Antoninus
Pius, M. Antoninus PhUosophus (M. Aurelius),
Verus, Pertinax, Clodius Albmus, Macrinus,
the two Maximms, the tMee Gordians, Maxi
mus and Balbmus, as the work of Capitolinus
the Life of Avidius Cassius, as the work of
Vulcacius ; the Lives of Commodus, Diadume
nus, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, as the
work of Lampbtdius [these Lives, whoever
were their respective authors, seem to have
been written m the time of Diocletian]; the
Lives of AureUanus, Tacitus, Florianus, Probus,
Firmus, Saturnmus, Proculus, Bonosus, Carus
and Ms sons, as the work of Vopiscus ; the
Lives of Valerian, GaUienus, the so-caUed
Thirty Tyrants, Claudius and the fragments of
PhUip, Decius, Gallus and AemiUan, as the
work of Tbebellius Pollio. [These Lives
seem to have been written m the first decade
of the fourth century.] The assignment to the
authors mentioned above is grounded upon the
titles to the various biograpMes ; but these titles
have in many cases clearly been confused and
miscopied by the scribes, and therefore it is a
matter of great uncertainty wMch are correct
and wMch are misplaced. This confusion
belongs to the earlier Lives (Hadrian — Gordian
III.). Hence the apportionment of the works
of Spartianus, CapitoUnus, Lampridius and
Vulcacius lacks authority, whUe there is more
warrant for the assignment to Vopiscus and
TrebeUius PoUio of the Lives wMch are
ascribed to them. At the same time for con-
vemence and conciseness of reference the
names generaUy used are often retained, and
there seems no reasonable objection to that
course. The coUection has value as supplying
details otherwise unattainable ; but the bio
grapMes are aU feeble in style and composition,
and, worse stUl, they are so distinctly the work
of Court historians that their view of Mstory is
limited and partial, and often altogether un
trustworthy. Scnltenna (Panaro), a river in GaUia Cis
padana, rismg in the Apennmes, and flowmg to
the E. of Mutina mto the Po (Strab. p. 218 ;
PUn. M. 118 ; Liv. xii. 16).
Scupi (Uskub), a town m Moesia Superior,
on the Axius, and the capital of Dardania. It
was a frontier town towards Macedonia, and
was a Roman colony under Trajan. (Ptol. iii.
9, 6 ; Procop. Aed. iv. 4.)
Scydisses. [Scoedises.]
Scylace (SKvXdKri), or Scylaceion, an ancient
city on the coast of Mysia Mmor, E. of Cyzicus,

SCYLITZES

853

at the foot of M. Olympus (Plin. v. 142 ; Mel.
i. 19). It is one of the places whose inhabit
ants Herodotus mentions as speaking the lan
guage or dialect, differing from any Greek of
Ms own day, which he calls Pelasgian (Hdt. i.
57; Pelasgi).
Seylacium, also Scylaoeum, or Scylletium
(SKvXaKiov, ^KvXaKelov, 2KvXXr)riov : Squil-
lace), a Greek town on the E. coast of Brut
tium, was situated on two adjoining hills at a
short distance from the coast, between the
rivers Caecinus and Carcines. The common
tradition was that it was founded by Athenians
under Menestheus (Strab. p. 261 ; Plin.,iii. 95),
but others referred it to Odysseus (Serv. ad
Aen. iii. 5, 53). There is, however, no evidence
of its ever having been Greek in historical
times, and it is not mentioned among Greek
colonies in the Periplus attributed to Scylax.
It was a dependency of Crotona and afterwards
belonged to Locri. It was colonised by the
Romans B.C. 124, and again under Nerva. It
is described by Cassiodorus (Var. xii. 15), who
was born there. It had no harbour, whence
Virgil (Aen. iii. 553) speaks of it as navifra-
gum Scylaceum. From this town the Scyla-
cius or Scylleticus Sinus (SKvXXnriKbs
k6Xttos) derived its name. The isthmus which
separated this bay from the Sinus Hipponiates
on the W. coast of Bruttium, was only twenty
mileB broad, and formed the ancient boundary
of Oenotria.
Scylax (2«uA.a£), of Caryanda in Caria,
was sent by Darius Hystaspis on a voyage of
discovery down the Indus. Setting out from
the city of Caspatyrus and the Pactyican
district, Scylax reached the sea, and then sailed
W. tMough the Indian Ocean to the Red Sea,
performing the whole voyage in thirty months.
(Hdt. iv. 44.) — There is still extant a Periplus,
containmg a brief description of certain
countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa, around
the coasts of the Mediterranean and Euxine,
and bearing the name of Scylax of Caryanda.
This work has been ascribed by some writers to
the Scylax mentioned by Herodotus, and by
others to Scylax, an astronomer of Halicar
nassus, and friend of Panaetius (Cic. Div. ii.
42). Suidas (s. v.) appears to confuse the two.
It is clear from internal evidence that the
Periplus must have been composed long after
the time of Herodotus ; whilst, from its
omitting to mention any of the cities founded
by Alexander, such as Alexandria in Egypt, we
may conclude that it was drawn up before the
reign of Alexander. Hence it is probably right
to assume that the author lived about 400-350
B.C., and to suppose that he prefixed to his
work the name of Scylax of Caryanda, on
account of the celebrity of this navigator. —
This Periplus is edited by Fabricius, 1878, and
in Geogr. Graec. Minor, by C. Miiller, 1861.
Scylax (2KvXa£: Choterlek-Irmak), a river
m the SW. of Pontus, falling into the Iris,
between Amasia and Gaziura (Strab. p. 547).
Scylitzes or Scylitza, Joannes, a Byzan-,
tine Mstorian, surnamed, from his office, Curo- ,
palates, flourished a.d. 1081. His work extends '
from the death of Nicephorus I. (811), down to
the reign of Nicephorus Botaniotes (1078-1081).
The portion of the History of Cedrenus which
extends from the death of Nicephorus I.
(811) to the close of the work (1057) is found
almost verbatim in the History of _ Scylitzes.
It is a question which was the original. The
works of Cedrenus and Scylitzes are edited
together by Bekker, 1838.

854 SCYLLA
Scylla (SkvXXo), the personification of the
danger to mariners from a rock-bound coast.
In the Homeric account Scylla and Charybdis
are opposite to each other, but the place of
their dwelUng is not very clear, nor is
Charybdis distinctly personified. In later
writers ScyUa and Charybdis are localised in
the Straits of Messina between Italy and
Sicily (Strab. p. 24; PUn. in. 87), ScyUa bemg
placed at the Promontory Scyllaeum (the name
of which may very possibly have reached
Homer). Charybdis is the whirlpool (which
does actually exist now sufficiently to be a
difficulty for undecked boats) just outside the
spit of land wMch forms the harbour of
Messana (Strab. p. 268) : but the whirlpool
was apparently often supposed to be immedi
ately opposite Scyllaeum Pr. at Cape Pelorus,
nine miles further N., where there is no
doubt often a strong current (Thuc. iv. 24).
The myth which grew out of these perils of the
Bea was that m a cave Mgh up on a rock dwelt
Scylla, a daughter of Crataeis, a fearful
monster, barkmg like a dog, with twelve feet,
and six long necks and heads, each of wMch
contained tMee rows of -sharp teeth. The
opposite rock, wMch was much lower, con-
tamed an immense fig-tree, under wMch dwelt
Charybdis, who thrice every day swallowed
down the waters of the sea, and tMice tMew

ScyUa. (From a coin of Agrigentum.)
them up again : both were formidable to the
sMps which had to pass between them. (Od.
xii. 73-110, 235-259, 430-444.) Hence the pro
verb, versified by a writer of the tMrteenth cen
tury (the Alexandreis of PMlip Gualtier) :
' Incidis in ScyUam cupiens vitare Charybdim.'
(For Charybdis as a proverb for danger cf.
Hor. Od. i. 27, 19 ; Athen. p. 558 ; Cic. Phil. ii.
27, 67.) TMs is the Homeric account. Later
traditions give different accounts of Scylla's
parentage. Some describe her as a monster
with six heads of different animals, or with
tMee heads (Tzetz. ad Lye. 650 ; Eustath. p.
1719). One tradition relates that Scylla was
originally a beautiful maiden, who often played
with the nymphs of the sea, and was beloved
by the marine god Glaucus, who applied to
Circe for means to make ScyUa return his
love; but Circe, jealous of the fair maiden,
threw magic herbB into the well in which
Scylla was wont to bathe, by means of which
the lower part of her body was changed into
the tail of a fish or serpent, surrounded by
dogs, wMle the upper part remained that of a
woman. (Ov. Met. xni. 732, 905, xiv. 40-67 ;
Tibull. iii. 4, 89.) Another tradition related
that Scylla was beloved by Poseidon, and that
Amphitrite, from jealousy, metamorphosed her
into a monster (Serv. ad Aen. iii. 420).
Heracles is said to have killed her, beoause
she stole some of the oxen of Geryon; but

SCYROS
Phorcys is said to have restored her to life
(Hygr. Fab. praef. ; Eustath. I. c). Virgil (Aen.
vi. 286) speaks of several ScyUae, and places,
them in the lower world. Charybdis is de
scribed as a daughter of Poseidon and Gaea,
and a voracious woman, who stole oxen from
Heracles, and was hurled by the thunderbolt
of Zeus into the sea (Serv. ad Aen. iii. 420).
It is likely that her voice like a dog's bark M
the Odyssey, improved by later myths Mto-
dogs surroundmg her lower Umbs, was imagmed
partly from her name bemg connected with
o-KvXai, partly from the noise of waves upon.
Scylla, daughter of Mng Nisus of Megara..
For details see Nisus.
Scyllaeum (S,KvXXaiov). 1. (Sciglio), a pro
montory on the coast of Bruttium, at the N.
entrance of the Sicilian straits, where the
monster ScyUa was supposed to live [Scylla].
—2. (Scilla or Sciglio), a town m Bruttium,
on the above-named promontory. There are
stiU remains of the ancient citadel. (Plm. m.
73.)  3. A promontory m ArgoUs, on the coast
of Troezen, formmg, with the promontory of
Sunium in Attica, the entrance to the Saronic,
gulf (Paus. ii. 34, 7; Strab. p. 373). It is.
said to have derived its name from ScyUa, the.
daughter of Nisus. [Nisus.]
Soylletlcus Sinus. [Scylacium.]
Scylletium. [Scylacium.]
Scyllis. [Dipoenus.]
Scymnus (%Kvpvos), of Chios, wrote a Peri-
egesis, or description of the earth, wMch is
referred to by later writers (Steph. Byz. s. vv.
Tldpos, ''Eppdvacrcra; Schol. ad Ap. Rh. iv. 284).
This work was m prose, and consequently
different from the Periegesis in iambic metre
which has come down to us, and which many
modern writers have erroneously ascribed to
Scymnus of CMos. The poem is dedicated to
king Nicomedes, whom some modern writers.
suppose to be the same as Nicomedes HI., kmg
of Bithynia, who died B.C. 74 ; but tMs is quite
uncertam. — The poem is edited by Meineke,.
Berlm, 1846, and m C. MiiUer, Geogr. Graec.
Min. Scyros (^Kvpos : SKvpios : Scyro), an island
in the Aegaean sea, E. of Euboea, and one of
the Sporades. It contamed a town of the same
name, and a river called CepMssus. (Strab-
pp. 424, 436 ; Scyl. p. 23 ; Ptol. iii. 18, 47.) Its.
ancient inhabitants are said to have been.
Pelasgians, Carians, and Dolopians. The
iBland is frequently mentioned in the stories of
the mytMcal period. Here Thetis concealed
her son AcMUes in woman's attire among the
daughters of Lycomedes, in order to save him
from the fate which awaited him under the
walls of Troy. (Paus. i. 22, 6 ; Strab. p. 486 ;
Apollod. iii. 18, 8.) It was here also that
Pyrrhus, the son of AcMUes by Deidamla, was,
brought up, and it was from this island that.
Odysseus fetched Mm to the Trojan war (II.
xix. 826, Od. xi. 509; Soph. Phil. 239).
Acoordmg to another tradition, the island was
conquered by Achilles, in order to revenge the-
death of Theseus, who is said to have been
treacherously destroyed in Scyros by Lyco
medes (II. ix. 664; Paus. I. c; Plut. Thes.
85). The bones of Theseus were discovered by
Cimon in Scyros, after his conquest of the
island M B.C. 470, and were conveyed to
Athens, where they were preserved in the
Theseum (Thuc. i. 98; Diod. xi. 60). From
this time Scyros continued subject to Athens
tiU the period of the Macedonian supremacy ;.

but the Romans compelled the last PMlip to
restore it to Athens in 196 (Liv. xxxiii. 30).
The soU of Scyros was unproductive; but it
was celebrated for its breed of goats, and for
its quarries of variegated marble.
_ Scythia (f, 2Ku8iirij, i) SkvBLo. Ion. 2ku«tj,
V t&v ^KvBewv xdpri, Hdt. : SKievs, Scythes,
Scytha, pi. 2/ct/flai, Scythae; fern. SkvBIs,
Scythis, ScytMssa), a name applied to very
different countries at different times. The
Scythians are not named by Homer, though it
is probable that they are those whom he calls
'ImrripoXyoi and VaXaKrorpdyoi (mare-milkers
and feeders on milk ; II. xiii. 7). Hesiod (Fr.
63) speaks of Scythians as dwelling m waggons
and Uvmg on mares' mUk, and Alcaeus (Fr. 49)
calls Achilles ' ruler of Scythia ' (i.e. at Leuce).
From the Greek colonies on the Euxine
founded in the seventh century b.c. more
knowledge of the ScytMans was gamed by
Hecataeus, Hippocrates and Herodotus, who
had also visited the coasts of the Euxine. The
ScytMa of Herodotus comprises, to speak
generaUy, the SE. parts of Europe between the
CarpatMan mountains and the river Tanais
(Don). He describes the country as a square
of 4000 stadia (400 geog. mUes) each way, the
W. boundary bemg the Ister (Danube) and the
mountams of the Agathyrsi ; the S. the shores
of the EuxMe and Palus Maeotis, from the
mouth of the Ister to that of the Tanais, this
side bemg divided mto two equal parts, of 2000
stadia each, by the mouth of the Borysthenes
(Dnieper) ; the E. boundary was the Tanais,
and on the N. Scythia was divided by
deserts from the Melanchlaem, Androphagi,
and Budmi. It corresponded to the S. part
of Bussia in Europe. Herodotus says that
the inhabitants, whom the Greeks named
ScytMans, called themselves Scoloti (Sk6Xotoi).
He gives as the legend prevalent among the
Scythians themselves about their origin, that
Targitaus, the son of Zeus by a daughter of the
river Borysthenes, was the father of Leipoxais,
Arpoxais, and Colaxais. In their reign, there
feU from heaven a yoke, an axe (aayapis), a
plough-share, and a cup, aU of gold. The two
elder failed m taking them up, for they burnt
when they approached them. But the younger
did not faU, and retamed the Mngdom. From
Leipoxais descended the Auchaetae (yevos) ;
from Arpoxais the Catiari and Traspies ; from
Colaxais the Poralatai. The general name for
all ie Scoloti. TMs was exactly 1000 years
before the Mvasion of Darius. The gold was
sacred ; the country large. It extended so far
north that the continual faU of feathers (snow)
prevented tMngs from being seen. The
number of the Mngdoms was three, the
greatest of wMch had charge of the gold. Of
tMs legend, the elements seem partly Scythian,
and partly due to the country m wMch the
Scythians settled. The descent from the
Borysthenes belongs to this latter class. The
story of the sons of Targitaus is found, in its
mam features, among the present Tartars. A
tradition of the Pontic Greeks brought Heracles
with the cattle of Geryones to Scythia. TMee
sons of Heracles and Echidna were mentioned,
Agathersus, Gelonus and Scythes. The test
of supremacy was bemg able to bend the bow
wMch Heracles had left. This Scythes did,
and remained as ruler (Hdt. iv. 8-10). Aristeas
teUs also of the ScytMans as neighbours of
Hyperborei, Arimaspi, and gold-guarding
Griffins (Hdt. iv. 13). This (like the Scythian
legend) had probably a connexion with the

SCYTHIA

855

gold actually found in the Ural mountains
[Hypebbobei]. The Soythians were believed by
Herodotus to be of Asiatic origin, and his
account of them, taken in connexion with the
description given by Hippocrates of their
physical peculiarities, leaves the impression
that they were a part of the great Mongol race,
who have wandered, from unknown antiquity,
over the steppes of Central Asia. Driven out
of their abodes in Asia, N. of the Araxes, by the
Massagetae, and migrating into Europe, they
pressed upon the Cimmerians, who passed over
into Asia Minor, occupied the country about
Sinope, sacked Magnesia and took Sardis in
the reign of Ardys, B.C. 640-629 (Hdt. i. 6-15,
iv. 12 ; Callin. Fr. 2, 8 ; Strab. pp. 627, 647,
648). Except for the occupation of the N.
coast, tMs inroad of Cimmerians was temporary
and brief. The Scythians themselves made a
more formidable mvasion of Asia about the same
time. They swept over the country to Media,
where they defeated Cyaxabes, who had re
turned from the siege of Nineveh to meet them.
They spread over Asia as far as Palestine and
the borders of Egypt, from the invasion of which
they were bought off by Psammetichus. At
Ascalon they sacked the temple of Aphrodite,
who was supposed to have visited them with
a hereditary disease as a punishment. After
twenty-eight years of invasion they were driven
out by Cyaxares 607 b.c. (Hdt. i. 105). Hero
dotus adds that on their return to their own
country they found that their slaves had inter
married with their wives, and they reduced
them to submission by meeting them with whips
instead of weapons of war. [For the subsequent
invasion of Scythia by Darius, see p. 271, b.]
The Scythians were a nomad people, shep
herds or herdsmen, who had no fixed habita
tions, but roamed over a vast tract of country
at their pleasure, and accordmg to the wants
of their cattle. They lived in a kind of covered
waggons, wMch Aeschylus describes as ' lofty
houses of wicker-work, on weU-wheeled
chariots ' (Prom. 710 ; cf . Hor. Od. ni. 24, 9).
They kept large troops of horses, and were
most expert in cavalry exercises and archery ;
and hence, as the Persian king Darius found
when he invaded their country (b.c. 507), it
was almost impossible for an invading army to
act against them. They simply retreated,
waggons and all, before the enemy, harassing
Mm with their light cavalry, and leavmg
famine and exposure, in their bare steppes, to
do the rest. Like aU the Mongol race, they
were divided into several hordes, the chief of
whom were caUed the Royal Scythians, and to
these aU the rest owned some degree of allegi
ance. As regards their religion, they wor
sMpped cMefly the war-god whose symbol was
a sword, displayed aloft on a platform and
honoured by sacrifices of sheep and horses,
and of prisoners taken in war. They took
scalps from their foes and used the skulls of
the slain as drinking cups (Hdt. iv. 62-75).
Their government was a sort of patriarchal
monarchy or chieftainship. An important
modification of their habits had, however,
taken place, to a certain extent, before Hero
dotus described them. The fertility of the
plains on the N. of the Euxine, and the
influence of the Greek settlements at the
mouth of the Borysthenes, and along the coast,
had led the inhabitants of tMs part of ScytMa
to settle down as cultivators of the soil, and
had brought them into commercial and other
relations with the Greeks. Accordmgly, Hero-

856 SCYTHINI
dotus mentions two classes or hordes of
Scythians who had thus abandoned their
nomad life : first, on the W. of the Borysthenes,
two tribes of Hellenised Scythians, called
Callipidae and Alazones ; then, beyond these,
'the Scythians who are ploughers (txvBai
aporfjpes), who do not grow their corn for food,
but for sale ; ' these dwelt about the river
Hypanis (Bug) in the region now called the
Ukraine, wMch is stiU, as it was to the Greeks,
a great corn-exporting country. Again, on the
E. of the Borysthenes were 'the ScytMans
who are husbandmen' (tKvBai yeupyol), i.e.
who grew corn for their own consumption:
these were called Borysthenltae by the Greeks :
their country extended tMee days' journey E.
of the Borysthenes to the river Panticapes.
Beyond these, to the E., dwelt 'the nomad
Scythians (vopdSes ^KvBat), who neither sow
nor plough at aU.' (Hdt. iv. 16-20.) Herodotus
expressly states that the tribes E. of the Bory
sthenes were not Scythian. As regards the
history of these Scythian tribes after the time
of Herodotus, it is clear from the notice of
Thucydides that they were regarded as formid
able—indeed, irresistible— if they should ever
unite in one common purpose (Thuc. ii. 95).
ScytMan slaves were sent from the Greek
cities of the Bosporus to Athens and were used
by the state as a police (SkvBoi or ro£oVai)
[Diet, of Ant. art. Demosii]. In later times
they were gradually overpowered by the
neighbouring people, especiaUy the Sarma
tians, who gave their name to the whole
country. [Sakmatia.] At the same time the
name of Scythian was still applied in Roman
literature to the people and places N. of the
Euxine: and not, perhaps, incorrectly, since
there can be little doubt that the inhabitants
of those lands were in great measure descend
ants of the Herodotean Scythians. This use of
ScytMan is particularly noticeable in Ovid's
description of Tomi and the neighbouring
districts ; and it became geographicaUy correct
when Diocletian formed the province of Scy
thia (as part of the diocese of Thrace), con
sisting of the district between the mouths of
the Danube and Odessus (Varna), with the
chief towns Dionysopolis, Tomi and Calates.
Meanwhile, the conquests of Alexander and
his successors m Central Asia had made the
Greeks acquainted with tribes beyond the
Oxus and the Jaxartes who resembled the
ScytMans, and belonged, m fact, to the same
great Mongol race, and to whom, accordingly, the
same name was applied. [Some tribes of these
Scythians were encountered and defeated by
Alexander in Sogdiana (Arr. An. iv. 6, 11 ; Curt.
wi. 9, 22).] Hence m writers of the time of
the Roman empire the name of ScytMa
(except as regards Diocletian's province of
Scythia Minor, mentioned above) denotes the
whole of N. Asia, from the river Rha (Volga)
on the W., which divided it from Asiatic
Sarmatia, to Serica on the E., extending to
India on the S. It was divided, by M. Imaus,
into two parts, called respectively ScytMa
intra Imaum, on the NW. side of the range,
and Scythia extra Imaum on the SE. side
(Ptol. vi. 13-16). With the history of theBe
countries we are not here concerned.
Scythini (SkvBivoI), a people on the W. border
of Armenia, tMough whose country the Greeks
under Xenophon marched four days' journey.
Their territory was bounded on the E. by the
river Harpasus, and on the W. by the river
Apsarus. (Xen. An. iv. 7, 18 ; Diod. xiv. 29.)

SEDETANI
Scythinns (SkoBIvos), of Teos, turned into
verse the great work of the pMlosopher Hera
clitus, of which a considerable fragment is
preserved by Stobaeus (Diog. Laert. ix. 16;
MiiUer, Fr. Hist. Graec).
Scythopolis (¦SkvBSitoXis) : O. T. Bethshan :
Beisan, Ru.), an important city of Palestine, m
the SE. of Galilee. It stood on a MU in the
Jordan valley, W. of the river, and near one of
its fords. Its site was fertilised by numerous
springs ; and to tMs advantage, as well as to its
being the centre of several roads, it owed its
great prosperity and its importance in the his
tory of Palestine. It had a mixed population
of Canaanites, Philistines, and Assyrian settlers,
with perhaps some remnants of the Scythiahs.
Its name is probably a relic of the ScytMan
incursion (p. 855, b ; cf. Plin. v. 74 ; Did. of the
Bible, art. Bethshan). Under the later Roman
empire, it became the seat of the archbishop of
Palaestina Secunda, and it continued a flourish
ing city to the time of the first Crusade.
Scythotauri, Tanri Scythae, or Tauro-
scythae, a people of Sarmatia Europaea, just
without the Chersonesus Taurica, between the
rivers Carcinites and Hypanis, as far as the
tongue of land called Dromos AchiUeos (Ptol.
iii. 5, 25 ; Plin. iv. 85).
Sebaste (ZeBaa-rri = Augusta : 2eBao-rriv6s).
1. (Ayash, Ru.), a city on the coast of CUicia
Aspera, built for a residence by Archelaus, Mng
of Cappadocia, to whom the Romans had granted
the sovereignty of CiUcia, and named in honour
of Augustus. It stood W. of the river Lamus,
on a small island caUed Eleousa, the name of
which appears to have been afterwards trans
ferred to the city. (Strab . p. 671.)— 2. (Segikler),
a city of PMygia, NW. of Eumenia. — 3. [Cabiba.]
— 4. [Samabia.]
Sebastea (SePacrreia : Sivas), a city of Pontus,
on the upper part of the river Halys, at a
junction of roads from Comana Pontica, Nico-
poUs, Melitene, Comana Cappadociae, Mazaca
and Tavium (Strab. pp. 559, 660).
Sebastopolis (2eBao-r6iroXis : Suhe Serai),
a city of Pontus, SE. of Zela.
Sebennytus (SeBevvvros, r) 'S.eBevvvriKTi ir6-
Xis : Semennout, Ru.), a considerable city of
Lower Egypt, in the Delta, on the W. side of
the branch of the Nile called after it the Se-
bennytic Mouth, just at the fork made by tMs
and the Phatnitic Mouth, and S. of Busiris. It
was the capital of the Nomos Sebennytes or
Sebennyticus (Strab. p. 802 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 50).
Sebethus (Maddalena), a small river in Cam
pania, flowing round Vesuvius, and f aUmg mto
the Sinus Puteolanus at the E. side of Nea
polis (Stat. Silv. i. 2, 263 ; Colum. x. 134).
Sebinus Lacus (Lago Seo or Tseo), a lake in
Gallia Cisalpina, formed by the river OlUus be
tween the lakes Larius and Benacus (Plin. ii.
224). Secundus, P. Pomponius, a tragic poet in
the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius.
He was one of the friends of Sejanus, and on
the faU of that mmister, in a.d. 31, was thrown
into prison, where he remained tiU the accession
of Caligula, in 37, by whom he was released.
He was consul in 41, and in the reign of
Claudius commanded M Germany, when he
defeated the Chatti. (Tac. Ann. v. 8, xi. 18, xii.
28.) Secundus was an intimate friend of the
elder Pliny, who wrote Ms Life in two books
(Plin. vii. 8 ; Quintil. x. i. 98). His tragedies
were the most celebrated of his literary compo
sitions. Sedetani. [Edetani.

SEDIGITUS
Sedigitus, Volcatius, a didactic poet in the
middle of the second century b.c, from whose
work DePodis A. GelUus (xv. 24) has preserved
thirteen Iambic senarians, in wMch the principal
Latin comic dramatists are enumerated in the
order of merit. In this ' Canon,' as it has been
termed, the first place is assigned to CaeciUus
Statius, the second to Plautus, the tMrd to
Naevius, the fourth to Licimus, the fifth to
Attihus, the sixth to Terentius, the seventh to
Turpihus, the eighth to Trabea, the nmth to
Luscius, the tenth, ' causa antiquitatis ,' to En
nius (GeU. I.e.).
Sedulius, Coelius, of SevUle, a Christian poet,
about a.d. 450. His works are :— (1) Paschale
Carmen s. Mirabilium Divinorum Libri V,
in heroic measure. (2) Veteris et Novi Testa-
menti Collatio, a sort of hymn containing a
selection of texts from the Old and New Testa
ments, arranged m such a manner as to enable
the reader to compare the two dispensations.
(3) Hymnus de Chriato, on account of the life
and miracles of CMist. (4) De Verbi Incarna-
tione, a Cento VirgUianus. He foUows classical
Thythm and diction. — Editions are by CeUarius,
Hal. 1704 and 1739 ; Arevalus, Rome, 1794 ;
Hulmer, Vienna, 1885.
Seduni, an Alpme people m GalUa Belgica,
E. of the lake of Geneva, m the vaUey of the
Rhone, in the modern Vallais, who lived further
up the vaUey than the Veragri. Their chief
town was called Civitas Sedunorum, the modern
Sion or Sitten. (Caes. B. G. iii. 1 7 ; PUn. in.
187.) Sedusii, a German people, forming port of
the army of Ariovistus when he mvaded Gaul,
B.C. 58. They ore not mentioned at a later
period, and consequently their site cannot be
determined. (Caes. B. G. i. 51.)
Segesama or Segisamo (Segisamonensis: Sa-
samo), a town of the Murbogi or Turmodigi in
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tar
raco to Asturica (Strab. p. 162 ; Plm. iii. 25).
Segesta (Segestanus : nr. Alcamo, Ru.), the
later Roman name of the town called by the
Greeks Egesta or Aegesta ("Eyeo-ra, AXyeara,
m Virg. Acesta : 'Eyeoraios, Alyeo~Tav6s, Ace-
staeus), situated m the NW. of Sicily, near the
coast between Panormus and Drepanum. It
was a town of the Elymi, and is said to have
heen founded by Trojans on two small rivers,
to wMch they gave the names of Simois and
Scamander ; hence the Romans made it a colony
of Aeneas. (Thuc. vi. 2 ; Dionys. i. 52 ; Strab.
p. 608 : see Sicilia.) Its inhabitants were
•constantly engaged m hostiUties with SeUnus ;
and it was at their soUcitation that the Athe
nians were led to embark in their unfortunate
expedition against Sicily. The town was taken
hy Agathocles, who destroyed or sold as slaves
all its inhabitants, peopled the city with a body
of deserters, and changed its name into that of
Dicaeopolis ; but after the death of this tyrant,
the remains of the ancient inhabitants returned
to the city and resumed their former name. In
the neighbourhood of the city, on the road to
Drepanum, were celebrated mmeral springs,
caUed Aquae Segestanae or Aquae Pmtianae.
Its rums are of great beauty, especially those
of its Doric temple dating from the sixth
century B.C.
Segestes, a Cheruscan cMef tarn, the opponent
of Arminius. Private injuries embittered their
political feud, for ArminiuB carried off the
daughter of Segestes. In a.d. 9 Segestes warned
Qumtilius Varus of the movement of Arminius
agamst Mm ; but his warning was disregarded,

SEJANUS

867

and Varus perished. In 14 Segestes was forced
by his tribesmen into a war with Rome ; but he
afterwards made his peace with the Romans,
and was allowed to live at Narbonne. (Tac.
Ann. i. 55-59; Veil. Pat. ii. 118; Flor. iv. 12.)
His son's name was SegimunduB (Tac. Ann. i.
67). Segetia or Segesta. [Indigetes, p. 448, a.]
Segni, a German people in Gallia Belgica,
between the Treveri and Eburones (Caes. B.G.
vi. 32). v
Segobriga, the chief town of the Celtiberi, in
Hispania Tarraconensis, SW. of Caesaraugusta,
probably in the neighbourhood of the modern
Pnego (Ptol. ii. 6, 58 ; Strab. p. 162).
Segontia or Seguntia, a town of the Celti
beri, in Hispania Tarraconensis, sixteen miles
from Caesaraugusta (Liv. xxxiv. 19).
Segovia. 1. (Segovia), a town of the Arevaci,
on the road from Emerita to Caesaraugusta.
A magnificent Roman aqueduct is stiU extant
at Segovia. (Ptol. ii. 6, 56.)— 2. A town in His
pania Baetica on the Flumen Silicense, near
Sacili. Segusiani, one of the most important peoples
in Gallia Lugdunensis, bounded by the Allo
broges on the S., by the Sequani on the E., by
the AedM on the N., and by the Arverni on the
W. In the time of Caesar they were dependent
on the Aedui. (Caes. B. G. i. 10, vii. 64 ; Strab.
p. 186.) In their territory was the town of
Lugdunum, the capital of the province.
Segusio (Susa), the capital of the Segusim
and the residence of king Cottius, was situated
in Gallia Transpadana, at the foot of the Cottian
Alps. The triumphal arch erected at this
place by Cottius m honour of Augustus is stiU
extant. After the death of the younger Cottius
m the reign of Nero it became a Roman mum-
cipal town. (Suet. Ner. 18 ; Strab. pp. 179, 204.)
Seius Strabo. [Sejanus.]
Sejanus, Aelius, was born at Vulsinii, in
Etruria, and was the son of Seius Strabo, who
was commander of the praetorian troops at the
close of the reign of Augustus, a.d. 14 (Tac.
Ann. iv. 1 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 127). In the same
year Sejanus was made the colleague of his
father in the command of the praetorian bands,
and upon Ms father being sent as governor to
Egypt, he obtained the sole command of these
troops. He ultimately gained such influence
over Tiberius that he made him Ms confidant.
Not content with this position of influence,
Sejanus formed the design of obtaining the
imperial power. With this view he sought to
make himself popular with the soldiers, and
gave posts of honour and emoluments to his
creatures and favourites. With the same object
he resolved to get rid of all the members of the
imperial family. He seduced Livia, the wife
of Drusus, the son of Tiberius, and by promis
ing her marriage and a participation in the
imperial power, he was enabled, in a.d. 23, to
poison Drusus with her connivance and assist
ance. (Tac. Ann. iv. 8, 10.) An accident in
creased the credit of Sejanus, and confirmed
the confidence of Tiberius. The emperor, with
Sejanus and others, was feasting in a cave be
tween Amyclae and the hills of Fundi. The
entrance of the cave suddenly fell in, and
crushed some of the slaveB ; and all the guests,
in alarm, tried to make their escape. Sejanus,
resting his knees on the couch of Tiberius, and
placing his shoulders under the faUing rock,
protected his master, and was discovered in
this posture by the soldiers who came to their
reUef . After Tiberius had shut himseU up m

858 SELENE
the island of Capreoe, Sejanus had full scope
for his machinations ; and the death of Livia,
the mother of Tiberius (29), was foUowed by
the bamshment of Agrippina and her sons Nero
and Drusus. Tiberius at last began to suspect
the designs of Sejanus, and felt that it was
time to rid himself of a man who was almost
more than a rival. To cover Ms schemes and
remove Sejanus from about Mm, Tiberius made
Mm joint consul with MmseU, in 31. He then
sent Sertorius Macro to Rome, with a commis
sion to take the command of the praetorian
cohorts. Macro, after assuring Mmself of the
troops, and depriving Sejanus of Ms usual
guard, produced a letter from Tiberius to the
senate, in which the emperor expressed his
apprehensions of Sejanus. The consul Regulus
conducted him to prison, and the people loaded
him with insult and outrage. The senate on
the same day decreed his death, and he was
immediately executed. His body was dragged
about the streets, and finaUy tMown into the
Tiber. Many of the friends of Sejanus perished
at the same time, and Ms son and daughter
shared Ms fate. (Tac. Ann. iv. 41-59, 74, v.
6-9 ; Suet. Tib. ; Dio Cass. lvii. lviii. ; Juv. x.
65-86.) Selene (2eXi)vri), caUed Luna by the Romans,
was the goddess of the moon, or the moon
personified as a divine being. She is caUed a
daughter of Hyperion and TMa, and accord
ingly a sister of Helios (Sol) and Eos (Aurora) ;
but others speak of her as a daughter of
Hyperion by Euryphaessa, or of Pallas, or of
Zeus and Latona (Hes. Th. 371 ; Hymn, in
Merc. 100; ApoUod. i. 2, 2). By Endymion,
whom she loved, and whom she sent to sleep
m order to kiss Mm, she became the mother of
fifty daughters ; and to Zeus she bore Pandia,
Ersa, and Nemea. [For tMs myth see Endy
mion.] Pan is said to have wooed her in the
shape of a white ram. Selene was represented
at Elis with a crescent moon above her head
(Paus. vi. 24, 5). She drove, like her brother
HeUos, across the heavens m a chariot drawn
by two wMte horses. In later myths Selene
was identified with Artemis or Diana, and the
worship of the two became amalgamated. At
Rome Luna had an ancient temple on the
Aventine and another on the Palatine.
Selene. [Cleopatba, No. 9.]
Seleucia, (SeXevKeta : SeXevKeis : Seleueen-
sis, Seleucenus), the name of several cities in
Asia, built by Seleucus I., kmg of Syria. 1. S.
ad Tigrin (r) eirl rov Tlypriros rrorapov, irpbs
Tiypei, airb Tiypios), also called S. Babylonia
(2. v iv BaBvXavi), S. Assyriae, and S. Par-
thorum, a great city on the confines of Assyria
and Babylonia, and for a long time the capital
of W. Asia, until it was eclipsed by Ctesiphon.
It stood on the W. bank of the Tigris, N. of its
junction with the Royal Canal, opposite to the
mouth of the river Delas or Silla (Diala), and
to the spot where Ctesiphon was afterwards
buUt by the PartMans. It was a little to the
S. of the modern city of Bagdad. Perhaps a
better site could not be found in W. Asia. It
commanded the navigation of the Tigris and
EupMates, and the whole plain of those two
rivers ; and it stood at the junction of all the
cMef caravan roads by which the traffic
between E. andW. Asia was carried on. (Strab.
p. 738 ; App. Syr. 57 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 42 ; Jos.
Ant. xviii. i, 8 ; Ptol. v. 18, 8.) In addition to
these advantages, its people had, by the gift of
Seleucus, the government of their own affairs.
It was buUt in the form of an eagle with ex-

SELEUCIS
panded wmgs, and was peopled by settlers.
from Assyria, Mesopotamia, Babyloma, Syria;
and Judaea. It rapidly rose, and eclipsed.
Babylon in wealth and splendour. Even after
the PartMan Mngs had become masters of the
banks of the Tigris, and had fixed their resi
dence at Ctesiphon, Seleucia, though deprived
of much of its importance, remained a very
considerable city, and preserved its Greek
character. In the reign of Titus, it had,
according to PUny, 600,000 inhabitants (Plin.
vi. 122). It was burned by Trajan in Ms
Parthian expedition, and again by L. Verus,,
the colleague of M. Aurelius Antoninus, when
its population is given by different authorities.
as 300,000 or 400,000. It was again taken by
Severus, and from tMs blow it never recovered-
In Julian's expedition it was found entirely
deserted. (Amm. Marc. xxiv. 5.)— 2. S. Pieria (2.
limpia, ii 4v Tliepia, ri irpbs 'Avrioxeia, i) irpbs
BaXdo-o-a, ri liriBaXatroia : Ru., called Seleukeh
or Kep'se, near Suadeiah), a great city and
fortress of Syria, founded by Seleucus m April
B.C. 300, one month before the foundation of
Antioch. It stood on the site of an ancient,
fortress, on the rocks overhangmg the sea, at
the foot of M. Pieria, about four miles N. of the
Orontes, and twelve mUes W. of Antioch. Its
natural strength was improved by every known
art of fortification, to which were added aU the
works of arcMtecture and engmeering required
to make it a splendid city and a great seaport,,
while it obtamed abundant supplies from the
fertile plain between the city and Antioch.
(Strab. pp. 656, 749, 750; Pol. v. 58.) The
remains of Seleucus I. were interred at Seleu
cia, in a mausoleum surrounded by a grove.
In the war with Egypt which ensued upon the
murder of Antiochus DI. Seleucia surrendered
to Ptolemy HI. Euergetes (b.c. 246). It was
afterwards recovered by Antiochus the Great
(219) . Li the war between Antiochus VHI. and
Antiochus IX. the people of Seleucia made them
selves mdependent (109 or 108). Afterwards,
having successfuUy resisted the attacks of
Tigranes for fourteen years (84-70), they were
confirmed in their freedom by Pompey. The
city had fallen entirely into decay by the sixth
century of our era. There are considerable
ruins of the harbour and mole, of the waUs of
the city, and of its necropoUs. The surround
ing district was called Seleucis. — 3. S. Tra-
cheotis (Selefkeh, Ru.), an important city of
Cilicia Aspera, was built by Seleucus I. on the
W. bank of the river Calycadnus, about four
miles from its mouth, and peopled with the
inhabitants of several neighbouring cities. It
had an oracle of ApoUo, and annual games M
honour of Zeus Olympius. (Strab. p. 670 ;
Plin. v. 98 ; Zos. i. 57 ; Amm. Marc. xiv. 25.)
It vied with Tarsus in power and splendour,
and was a free city under the Romans. It waB
the birthplace of the pMlosophers Athenaeus
and Xenarchus, and of the sophist Alexander.
— There were other cities of the name, of less
importance, m Pisidia, PamphyUa, Palestine,
Elymais. Seleucis (2eXevKls). A beautiful and fertile
district of Syria, containing the NW. part of
the country, between M. Amanus on the N.,
the Mediterranean on the W., the districts of
Cyrrhestice and Chalybonitis on the NE., the
desert on the E. and Coelesyria and the moun
tains of Lebanon on the S. It included the
valley of the lower Orontes, and contained the
four great cities of Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea,
and Apamea, whence it was also caUed Tetra-

SELEUCUS
polis. In later times, the name was confined
to the small district N. of the Orontes; the S.
part of the former Seleuois being divided into
Cassiotis, W. of the Orontes, and Apamene, E.
of the river. (Ptol. v. 5, 15 ; Strab. p. 749.)
Seleucus (SeXevKos), the name of several
kings of Syria. I., surnamed Nicator, the
founder of the Syrian monarchy, reigned B.C.
312-280. He was the son of Antiochus, a
Macedonian of distinction among the officers of
PMhp II., and was born about 358. He accom
panied Alexander on Ms expedition to Asia,
and distinguished himself in the Indian cam
paigns. (Ar. An. v. 18, 16.) After the death of
Alexander (323) he espoused the side of
Perdiccas, whom he accompanied on Ms ex
pedition agamst Egypt ; but he took a leadmg
part m the mutiny of the soldiers wMch
ended in the death of Perdiccas (321). (App.
Syr. 57 ; Diod. xvm. 8.) In the second parti
tion of the provmces which foUowed, Seleucus
obtamed the satrapy of Babyloma. In the
war between Antigonus and Eumenes, Seleucus
afforded support to the former; but after
the death of Eumenes (316), Antigonus
began to treat the other satraps as his
subjects. Thereupon Seleucus fled to Egypt,
where he induced Ptolemy to uMte with
Lysimachus and Cassander in a league
against their common enemy. In the war
that ensued Seleucus took an active part.
At length, in 312, he recovered Babylon; and

Coin of Seleucus I. Nicator, King of Syria, B.C. 312-280.
Obv., head of Seleucus in helmet adorned with a horn and
an ear; rev., BA21AEQ2 seaeykoy; Victory crowning a
trophy.
it is from tMs period that the Syrian monarchy
is commonly reckoned to commence. (Diod.
xix. 58-91 ; App. Syr. 64.) The Seleucian era
on their coins dates from Oct. 1st B.C. 312.
Soon afterwards Seleucus defeated Nicanor,
the satrap of Media, and foUowed up his
victory by the conquest of Susiana, Media, and
some adjacent districts. For the next few
years he graduaUy extended Ms power over all
the eastern provmces wMch had formed part
of the empire of Alexander, from the Eu-
pMates to the banks of the Oxus and the Indus.
In 306 Seleucus foUowed the example of
Antigonus and Ptolemy, by formaUy assuming
the regal title and diadem (Diod. xx. 53). In
302 he joined the league formed for the second
time by Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander.
agamst Antigonus. The united forces of Seleu
cus and Lysimachus gamed a decisive victory
over Antigonus at Ipsus (301), in wMch
Antigonus himself was slam. In the division
of the spoil, Seleucus obtamed the largest
share, bemg rewarded for Ms service with a
great part of Asia Minor (which was divided
between Mm and Lysimachus) as weU as with
the whole of Syria, from the EupMc.Jes to the
Mediterranean. The empire of Seleucus was
now by far the most extensive and powerful of
those which had been formed out of the
dominions of Alexander. It comprised the

859
whole of Asia, from the remote provinces of
Baotria and Sogdiana to the coasts of Phoenicia,,
and from the Paropamisus to the central
plains of Phrygia, where the boundary which
separated him from Lysimachus is not clearly
defined. It formed a realm much larger but,
full of discordant elements, far less compact.
and united than that of the Ptolemies. Seleu
cus appears to have felt the difficulty of exer-
cismg a vigilant control over bo extensive an
empire, and accordingly, in 298, he consigned
the government of all the provinces beyond
the EupMates to Ms son Antiochus, upon
whom he bestowed the title of king, as well as
the hand of his own youtMul wife, Stratonice,
for whom the prince had conceived a violent
attachment. (App. Syr. 55-62.) In 288, the
ambitious designs of Demetrius (now become
Mng of Macedonia) once more aroused the
common jealousy of Ms old adversaries, and
led Seleucus again to unite in a league with.
Ptolemy and Lyshnachus against Mm. After
Demetrius had been driven from his kingdom.
by Lysimachus, he transported the seat of war-
mto Asia Minor, but he was compelled to sur
render to Seleucus in 286. The Syrian king
kept Demetrius in confinement till three years
afterwards, but during the whole of that time*
treated him in a friendly manner. (Plut.
Demetr. 44-50). For some time jealousies had
existed between Seleucus and Lysimachus;
but the immediate cause of the war between
the two monarchs, wMch terminated in the.
defeat and death of Lysimachus (281), is-
related in the life of the latter. Seleucus now-
crossed the HeUespont in order to take posses
sion of the throne of Macedonia, which had.
been left vacant by the death of Lysimachus ;
but he had advanced no farther than Lysima-
cMa, when he was assassmated by Ptolemy
Ceraunus, to whom, as the son of his old friend
and aUy, he had extended a friendly protection.
His death took place in the beginning of 280,
only seven months after that of Lysimachus,
and m the tMrty-second year of Mb reign. He-
was in his seventy-eighth year. (App. Syr. 62,
63 ; Just. xvii. 1 ; Paus. i. 16, 2.) Seleucus
appears to have carried out with great energy
and perseverance the projects originally
formed by Alexander himself for the Helleni-
sation of Ms Asiatic empire ; and we find him
foundmg, in almost every province, Greek or
Macedonian colonies, which became so many
centres of civilisation and refinement. Of
these no less than sixteen are mentioned as,
bearing the name of AntiocMa after Ms father ;
five that of Laodicea, from Ms mother ; seven
were called after MmseU Seleucia ; three from
the name of his first wife, Apamea : and one
Stratonica, from Ms second wife, the daughter
of Demetrius. Numerous other cities, whose-
names attest their Macedonian origin — Beroea,
Edessa, Pella, &c. — likewise owed their first
foundation to, Seleucus. — II., surnamed Calli
nicus (246-226), was the eldest son of Antio
chus II. by his first wife, Laodice.- The first
measure of his administration, or rather that of
his mother, was to put to death Ms stepmother
Berenice, together with her infant son. (Just.
xxvii. 1.) This act of cruelty produced the
most disastrous effects. In order to avenge
his sister, Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt,
invaded the dominions of Seleucus, and not
only made himself master of Antioch and the
whole of Syria, but carried Ms arms unopposed
beyond the Euphrates and the Tigris. During
these operations Seleucus kept whoUy aloof,

860 SELEUCUS
but when Ptolemy had been recalled to his
own dominions by domestic disturbances, he
recovered possession of the greater part of the
provinces which he had lost. (Just. xxvu. 2;
Polyaen. viii. 61). Soon afterwards Seleucus
became involved in a dangerous war with his
brother, Antiochus Hierax, who attempted to
obtain Asia Minor as an independent kingdom
for Mmself. This war lasted several years,
but was at length terminated by the decisive
defeat of Antiochus, who was obliged to quit
Asia Minor and take refuge in Egypt. Seleucus
undertook an expedition to the East, with the
view of reducing the revolted provinces of
PartMa and Bactria, which had avaUed them
selves of the disordered state of the Syrian
empire to tMow off its yoke. He was, how
ever, defeated by Arsaces, king of PartMa, in a
great battle wMch was long afterwardB cele
brated by the Partisans as the foundation of
their independence. After the expulsion of
Antiochus, Attalus, Mng of Pergamus, extended
Ms dominions over the greater part of Asia
Minor; and Seleucus appears to have been
engaged M an expedition for the recovery of
these provinces when he was accidentaUy
MUed by a fall from his horse, in the twenty-
first year of Ms reign, 226. He left two sons,
who successively ascended the throne, Seleucus
Ceraunus and Antiochus, afterwards surnamed
the Great. (Just, xxvii. 3; App. Syr. 66.) His
own surname of CaUinicus was probably as
sumed after Ms recovery of the provinces that

Coin of Seleucus II. Callinicus, King of Syria, B.C.

Obv., head of Seleucus; rev., basiaeqs zeaeykoy: Apollo
standing by tripod.
hod been overrun by Ptolemy. — III., surnamed
Ceraunus (226-223), eldest son and successor
of Seleucus H. The surname of Ceraunus was
given Mm by the soldiery, apparently in deri
sion, as he appears to have been feeble both in
mind and body. He was assassinated by two
of his officers, after a reign of only tMee years,
and was succeeded by his brother, Antiochus
the Great. (Pol. iv. 48, v. 40 ; App. Syr. 66.)—
IV., surnamed Philopator (187-175), was the
son and successor of Antiochus the Great.
The defeat of Ms father by the Romans, and
the ignominious peace wMch followed it, had
greatly diminished the power of the Syrian
monarchy, and the reign of Seleucus was in
consequence feeble and inglorious, and was
marked by no striking events. He was assassi
nated in 175 by one of his own ministers. He
left two children : Demetrius, who subse
quently ascended the throne; and Laodice,
married to Perseus, king of Macedonia. (App.
Syr. 45, 66.) — V., eldest son of Demetrius II.,
assumed the royal diadem on learning the
death of his father, 125 ; but his mother, Cleo
patra, who had herself put Demetrius to death,
was indignant at hearing that her son had
ventured to take such a step without her
authority, and caused Seleucus also to be
assassinated (App. Syr. 68, 69; Just, xxxix;
1).— VI., surnamed Epiphanes and also

SELINUS
Nicator (95-93), was the eldest of the five sons
of Antiochus VIII. Grypus. On the death of
Ms father, in 95, he ascended the tMone, and
defeated and slew M battle his uncle Antiochus
Cyzicenus, who had laid claim to the Mngdom.
But shortly after Seleucus was m Ms turn de
feated by Antiochus Eusebes, the son of Cyzi
cenus, and expeUed from Syria. He took
refuge in Cilicia, where he estabUshed himself
in the city of Mopsuestia ; but m consequence
of Ms tyranny, the citizens attacked and burnt
the palace, and Seleucus perished in the flames.
(App.' Syr. 69 ; Jos. Ant. xui. 13, 4.)
Selge (^eXyn: ZeXyevs: Siirk, Ru.), one of
the chief of the Mdependent mountain cities of
Pisidia, stood on the S. side of M. Taurus, on
the Eurymedon, just where the river breaks
through the mountain chain. On a rock above
it was a citadel named Keo-Be$iov: in wMch waB
a temple of Hera. Its inhabitants, who were
the most warlike of aU the Pisidians, claimed
descent from the Lacedaemonians, and inscribed
the name AaKeSaipav on their corns (Strab. p.
570). They could bring an army of 20,000 men
into the field, and, as late as the fifth century,
we find them beating back a horde of Goths
(Zos. v. 15). From a vaUey near the city, in the
heart of lofty mountams, came wine and oil and
other products of the most luxuriant vegetation.
The site of the ancient city is marked by fine
ruins. Selinus (SeXivovs, -ovvros : SeXivovvrios, 2e-
\ii/oiicrioj), one of the most important towns in

Coin of Selinus, of 5th cent. B.O.
06c, Apollo and Artemis in chariot; rev., 2EA1N0NTI0N;
the river-god Selinus with patera sacrificing at altar,
by which is a cock, sacred to Asclepius ; behind is a
bull (for the river-god), and parsley, the emblem of the
city.
Sicily, situated upon a MU on the SW. coast,
and upon a river of the same name. It is said
to have derived its name from the quantity of
wild parsley (o-eXiv6s) which grew in the neigh
bourhood. It was founded by the Dorians from
Megara Hyblaea on the E. coast of Sicily, about
B.C. 628. (Thuc. vi. 4, vii. 57 ; Strab. p. 272.) It
soon attained great prosperity. In 480 it took
part with the Carthaginians (Diod. xi. 21). In
416 the dispute with the Segestans, who sought
the aid of Athens, occasioned the Atheman ex
pedition to Sicily. After the defeat of the
Athenians, the Carthaginians came to help
Segesta, and took Selinus in 409, when most of
its inhabitants were slain or sold as slaves, and
the greater part of the city destroyed. The
population of Selinus must at that time have
been very considerable, since we are told that
16,000 men fell in the siege and conquest of the
town, 5000 were carried to Carthage as slaves,
2600 fled to Agrigentum, and many others took
refuge in the surrounding villages. The Car-
thaginianB, however, allowed the inhabitants to
return to Selinus in the course of the same year,
and it continued to be a place of secondary im
portance till 249, when it was again destroyed
by the CarthagMians and its inhabitants trans-

SELLASIA
ferred to LUybaeum. (Diod. xiii. 43-59, xxiv. 1.)
The surroundmg country produced excellent
wheat. East of Selinus on the road to Agri
gentum, were celebrated mmeral springs called
Aquae Selinuntiae, subsequently Aquae La-
bodae or Labodes, the modern Baths of
Sciacca. The rums of Selinus are of great
magnificence and important m archaeology. The
oldest temple, of a date early m the sixth cent.
B.C., had remarkable sculptures of an archaic
type on the metope (now at Palermo) ; and the
gradual refinement of art is traced m the me
topes of the later temples. The great Doric
temple of Zeus in the Agora with seventeen
columns at the sides is one of the largest Greek
temples, of wMch very considerable remains
are extant, 359 feet m length [see Did. of Ant,
art. Templum]. — 2. (Selenti), a town m CUicia,
situated on the coast and upon a rock which
was almost entirely surrounded by the sea. In
consequence of the death of the emperor Trajan
m this town, it was for a long time called
TrajanopoUs. (Strab. p. 682 ; Hierocl. p. 709.)
Sellasia (SeXXacrta or 2eA.a<rla), a town m
Lacomca, N. of Sparta, was situated near the
river Oenus, and commanded one of the prin
cipal passes leadmg to Sparta. Here the cele
brated battle was fought between Cleome
nes HI. and Antigonus Doson, B.C. 221, in wMch
the former was defeated. (Pol. U. 65-70.)
Selleis (SeXX-fieis). 1. A river in EUs, on
wMch the Homeric Ephyra stood, rising M
mount Pholoe and falUng mto the sea, S. of the
Peneus (H. ii. 659, xv. 531). — 2. A river near
Sicyon. — 3. A river m Troas, near Arisbe, and a
tributary of the Rhodius.
Selli or Helli. [Dodona.]
Selymbria orSelybria (2-nXvpBpia, 2riXv0pla,
Dor. 2aAa;ii/3pia-. SnXvpBpiavos : Selivria), an
important town M TMace, situated on the Pro
pontis. It was a colony of the Megarians, and
was founded about 660 B. c, two years before
Byzantium. (Hd. vi. 33 ; Xen. An. vii. 2, 15 ;
Strab. p. 319.) It was taken by Alcibiades m
410 (Xen. Hell. i. 1, 21). It continued to be a
place of considerable importance tUl its con
quest by Philip, the father of Alexander, from
wMch time its decUne may be dated. Under
the later emperors it was called Eudoxiapolis, in
honour of Eudoxia, the wife of Arcadius (Hierocl.
p. 632) ; but it afterwards recovered its ancient
name. Semechonitis or Samachonitis Lacus (Sepe-
Xaviris, ^apax&viris and -trcov Xipvn : O. T.
Waters of Merom : Nahr-el-Huleh), a small lake
M the N. of Palestme, the highest of the three
formed by the Jordan, both branches of which
faU mto its N. end, wMle the river flows out of
its S. end m one stream. [Diet, of the Bible,
art. Merom.]
Semele. [Dionysus.]
Semiramis (Sepipapis) and Ninus (Nivos), the
mythical founders of the Assyrian empire of
Ninus or Nmeveh. Ninus was the Greek name
for the historical Rimmon Mirari who lived
about 1330 B. c. [see p. 135, b]. According to
the Greek legends about him, related by Dio
dorus, who derives Ms account from Ctesias,
Ninus waa a great warrior, who built the town
of Ninus or Nmeveh, about B. c. 2182, and sub
dued the greater part of Asia. Semiramis was
the daughter of the fish-goddess Derceto of
Ascalon in Syria by a Syrian youth ; but being
ashamed of her frailty, she made away with the
youth, and exposed her infant daughter. But
the cMld was miraculously preserved by doves,
who fed her tUl she was discovered by the

SENA

861

shepherds of the neighbourhood. She was then
brought up by the chief shepherd of the royal
herds, whose name was Simmas, and from whom
she derived the name of Semiramis. Her beauty
attracted the notice of Onnes, one of the
king's generals, who married her. He subse
quently sent for Ms wife to the army, which
was engaged in the siege of Bactra. Upon
her arrival in the camp Bhe planned an attack
upon the citadel of the town, mounted the
walls with a few brave followers, and ob
tained possession of the place. Ninus was so
charmed by her bravery and beauty, that he re
solved to marry her, whereupon her husband
put an end to his life. By Ninus Semiramis
had a son, Ninyas, and on the death of Ninus
she succeeded him on the throne (Diod. ii. 1-20).
According to another account, Semiramis had
obtained from her husband permission to rule
over Asia for five day s, and availed herself of this
opportunity to cast the king into a dungeon, or,
as is also related, to put him to death, and thus
obtained the sovereign power (Diod. ii. 20 ; Ael.
V. H. vii. 1). Her fame tMew into the shade
that of Ninus ; and later ages loved to teU of
her marveUous deeds and her heroic acMeve-
ments. She buUt numerous cities, and erected
many wonderful buildings ; and several of the
most extraordmary works M the East which
were extant m a later age, and the authors of
which were unknown, were ascribed by popular
tradition to this queen. In Nineveh she erected
a tomb for her husband, nine stadia high, and
ten wide ; she built the city of Babylon, with
all its wonders ; and she constructed the hang
ing gardens in Media, of which later writers give
us such strange accounts (Hdt. i. 184). Besides
conquering many nations of Asia, she subdued
Egypt and a great part of Ethiopia, but was
unsuccessful in an attack which she made upon
India. After a reign of forty-two years she re
signed the sovereignty to her son Ninyas, and
disappeared from the earth, taking her flight to
heaven in the form of a dove. It is probable
that some of the myths connected with the
worship of Ishtar or Astarte, the Eastern ApMo
dite, gathered round the name of Semiramis.
Semnonea, more rarely Sennones, a German
people, described by Tacitus as the most
powerful tribe of the Suevic race, dwelt be
tween the rivers Viadus (Oder) and Albis (Elbe),
from the Riesengebirge in the S. as far as the
country around Frankfurt on the Oder and
Potsdam in the N. (Tac. Germ. 89 ; Strab. p.
290; Ptol. ii. 11,15).
Semo Sancus. [Sancus.]
Sempronia. 1. Daughter of Tib. Gracchus,
censor B.C. 169, and sister of the two cele
brated tribunes, married Scipio Africanus
minor. [Scipio.] — 2. Wife of D. JuniuB Brutus,
consul 77, was a woman of great personal at
tractions and literary accomplishments, but of
a profligate character. She took part in Cati
line's conspiracy, though her husband was not
privy to it (Sail. Cat. 25, 40).
Sempronia Gens, was of great antiquity, and
one of its members, A. Sempronius Atratinus,
obtained the consulship as early as B.C. 497,
twelve years after the foundation of the re
public. The Sempronii were divided into many
families, of which the Atbatini were patrician,
but all the others were plebeian : their names
are Asellio, Blaesus, Gracchus, Sophus,
Tuditanus. Sena (Senensis). 1. (SenigagUa), surnamed
Gallica, and sometimes called Senogallia, a
town on the coast of Umbria, at the mouth of

862

SENA

the smaU river Sena, was founded by the Se
nones, a GaUic people, and was made a colony
by the Romans after the conquest of the Se
nones, b.c. 288 (Ptol. ii. 19 ; Sil. It. viii. 453).
Near it was fought the battle in which Has
drubal was defeated and slain. [Metaueus.]
In the Civil war it espoused the Marian party,
and was taken and Backed by Pompey (App.
B. C. i. 88). — 2. (Siena), a town in Etruria and
a Roman colony, on the road from Clusium to
Florentia, is only mentioned in the times of
the emperors (Tac. Hist. iv. 45). Its import
ance, as a great city of Tuscany, dates from the
middle ages.
Sena Insula (I. de Sein), an island off the
coast of the Osismii, the W. pomt of Brittany,
which possessed an oracle of a Celtic goddess
tended by nine maidens, who could raise or lull
istorms by their chants (Mel. iii. 6).
Seneca. 1. M. Annaeus, the rhetorician, was
born at Corduba (Cordova) in Spain, about B.C.
¦61. Seneca was at Rome m the early period of
the power of Augustus, for he says that he had
heard Ovid declaimmg before Arellius Fuscus.
He afterwards returned to Spain, and married
Helvia, by whom he had three sons, L. Annaeus
Seneca, L. Annaeus Mela or Mella, the father
¦of the poet Lucan, and M. Novatus. Novatus
was the eldest son, and took the name of Junius
Gallio, upon being adopted by Junius Gallio.
Seneca was rich, and he belonged to the eques-

SENECA
who had just married her uncle, the emperor
Claudius. He now obtamed a praetorsMp, and
was made the tutor of the young Domitius,
afterwards the emperor Nero, who was the son
of Agrippina by a former husband. On the
accession of his pupil to the imperial throne
(54) after the death of Claudius, Seneca be
came one of his chief advisers (Suet. Ner. 7).
He exerted Ms influence to check Nero's vicious
propensities, but at the same time he profited
from his position to amass an immenBe fortune
(Tac. Ann. xiii. 2, 11, IS, 42 ; Dio Cass. I. c).
He supported Nero in his contests with Ms
mother, Agrippma, and was not only a party to
the death of the latter (60)', but he wrote the
letter which Nero addressed to the senate M
justification of the murder (Tac. Ann. xiv. 11).
After the death of Ms mother Nero abandoned
himself without any restramt to Ms vicious
propensities, and the presence of Seneca soon
became irksome, while Ms wealth excited the
emperor's cupidity. Burrus, the prefect of the
praetorian guards, who had always been a firm
supporter of Seneca, died m 63. His death
broke the power of Seneca, and Nero now feU
into the hands of persons who were exactly
suited to his taBte. TigeUinus and Fenmus
Rufus, who succeeded Burrus in the command
of the praetorians, began an attack on Seneca.
His enormous wealth, his gardens and viUas,
more magnificent than those of the emperor,

trian class. At a later period Seneca returned his exclusive claims to eloquence, and Ms dis-

to Rome, where he resided till Ms death, which
probably occurred near the end of the reign of
Tiberius. In character he was strict and con
servative of the old school (Sen. ad Helv. 17, 8).
In Ms writings he aimed at maintaining the
style of Cicero. Two of Seneca's works have
come down to ua. (1) Controversiarum Libri
.decern, which he addressed to his tMee sons.
The first, second, seventh, eighth, and tenth
books only are extant, and these are somewhat
mutUated : of the other books only fragments
remain. These Controversiae are rhetorical
¦exercises on imaginary cases, filled with cita
tions and anecdotes which bear out his reputa
tion for having a wonderful memory. (2) Suaso-
riarurn Liber, wMch is not complete. We
may collect from its contents what the subjects
were on which the rhetoricians of that age
exerciBed their wits : one of them is, ' Shall
Cicero apologise to M. Antonius ? Shall he
agree to burn Ms Philippics, if Antonius re-
cmires it ? ' Another is, ' Shall Alexander em
bark on the ocean?' The rhetorical themes
in themselves are trivial; but this and the
preceding work are valuable for the history of
rhetoric M the age of Augustus and Tiberius.
Editions by Gronovius, 1649 : Kiessling, 1872 •
H. J. MiiUer, Prague, 1887.— 2. L. Annaeus, the
philosopher, the son of the preceding, was born
at Corduba, probably a few years B.C., and
brought to Rome by his parents when he was
a cMld. Though he was naturally of a weak
body, he was a hard student from his youth,
-and he devoted himself with great ardour to
rhetoric and philosophy. He also soon gamed
distinction as a pleader of causes, and he
excited the jealousy of Caligula by the ability
with wMch he conducted a case in the senate
before the emperor. In the first year of the
reign of Claudius (a.d. 41) Seneca was banished
to Corsica, on account of his intimacy with
Julia, the niece of Claudius, of whom MessalUna
was jealous (Tac. Ann. xiii. 42 ; Dio Cass. lxi.
10). After eight years' residence in Corsica, he

paragement of Nero's sMU in driving and sing
ing, were all urged against him; and it was
time, they said, for Nero to get rid of a teacher.
Seneca heard of the charges against him ; he
was rich, and he Miew that Nero wanted money.
He asked the emperor for permission to retire,
and offered to surrender all that he had. Nero
affected to be grateful for Ms past services,
refused the proffered gift, and sent Mm away
with perfidious assurances of Ms respect and
affection. Seneca now altered Ms mode of
life, saw little company, and seldom visited
the city, on the ground of feeble health (he
suffered from asthma) or of being occupied
with his pMlosopMcal studies. The conspi
racy of Piso (65) gave the emperor a pretext
for putting Seneca to death, though there was
not complete evidence of Ms being a party to
the conspiracy. Seneca was at the time re
turning from Campania, and had rested at a
villa four miles from the city. Nero sent a
tribune to Mm with the order of death. With
out showing any sign of alarm, Seneca cheered
Ms weeping friends by remindmg them of the
lessons of pMlosophy. Embracing his wife,
Pompeia PauUna, he prayed her to moderate
her grief, and to console herself for the loss of
her husband by the reflection that he had lived
an honourable life. But as PauUna protested
that she would die with him, Seneca consented,
and the veins in the arms of both were opened.
Seneca's body was attenuated by age, and
meagre diet, perhaps also from his attacks of
asthma ; the blood would not flow easily, and
he opened the veins in his legs. His torture
was excessive ; and to save himself and his
wife the pain of seeing one another suffer, he
bade her retire to her chamber. His last words
were taken down in writing by persons who
were called m for the purpose, ana were after
wards published. Seneca's torments being still
prolonged, he took hemlock from Ms friend and.
physician, Statius Annaeus, but it had no effect.
At last he entered a warm bath, and as he

-„„„ „  m . /.0\ , ,r . n  "* v.wiDiv.cu, no a.v i»bl no eiiuei-tju a warm Dann, ana as ne
was recalled (49) by the influence of Agrippina, I sprinkled some of the water on the slaves

nearest to him he said, that he made a libation
to Jupiter the Liberator. He was then taken
mto a vapour stove, where he was quickly suffo
cated. (Tac^mre. xv. 60-64.) Seneca died, as
was the fasMon among the Romans, with the
courage of a Stoic, but with somewhat of a
theatrical affectation which detracts from the
dignity of the scene. Seneca's great misfortune
was to have known Nero ; and though we cannot
say that he was a truly great or a truly good
man, his character wiU not lose by comparison
with that of many others who have been placed
m equally difficult circumstances.— Seneca's
fame rests on Ms numerous writings, of wMch
the foUowing are extant :— (1) De Ira, in three
books, addressed to Novatus, probably the
earliest of Seneca's works. In the first book he
combats what Aristotle says of Anger in Ms
EtMcs. (2) De Consolatione ad Helviam Ma-
trem Liber, a consolatory letter to Ms mother,
written during Ms residence M Corsica. It is
one of Ms best treatises. (3) De Consolatione
ad Polybium Liber, also written in Corsica.
H it is the work of Seneca, it does Mm no credit.
Polybius was the powerful freedman of Claudius,
and the Consolatio is intended to comfort him
on the occasion of the loss of his brother. But
it also contams adulation of the emperor, and
many expressions unworthy of a true Stoic or
of an honest man. (4) Liber de Consolatione
ad Marciam, written after his return from
exUe, was designed to console Marcia for the
loss of her son. Marcia was the daughter of A.
Cremutius Cordus. (5) De Procidentia Liber,
or Quare bonis viris mala accidant cum sit
Providentia, is addressed to the younger Lu
cilius, procurator of SicUy. The question that
is here discussed often engaged the ancient
pMlosophers : the Stoical solution of the diffi
culty is that suicide is the remedy when mis
fortune has become Mtolerable. In this dis
course Seneca says that he mtends to prove
' that Providence hath a power over all things,
and that God is always present with us.' (6) De
Animi Tranquillitate, addressed to Serenus,
probably written soon after Seneca's return
from exile. It is M the form of a letter rather
than a treatise : the object is to discover the
means by wMch tranquillity of mind can be
obtained. (7) De Constantia Sapientis seu
quod in sapientem non cadit injuria, also
addressed to Serenus, is founded on the Stoical
doctrine of the impassiveness of the wise man.
(8) De dementia ad Neronem Caesarem Libri
duo, written at the begmning of Nero's reign.
There is too much of the flatterer M this ; but
the advice is good. The second book is incom
plete. It is in the first chapter of this second
book that the .anecdote is told of Nero's un-
wilUngness to sign a sentence of execution, and
Ms exclamation, ' I would I could neither read
nor write.' (9) DeBrevitate Vitae adPaulinum
Liber, recommends the proper employment of
time and the gettmg of wisdom as the chief
purpose of life. (10) De Vita Beata ad Gal
lionem, addressed to Ms brother, L. Junius
Gallio, is probably one of the later works of
Seneca, in which he maintains the Stoical doc
trine that there is no happiness without virtue ;
but he does not deny that other tMngs, as health
and riches, have their value. The conclusion
of the treatise is lost. (11) De Otio aut Secessu
Sapientis, is sometimes jomed to No. 10. (12) De
Beneficiis Libri septem, addressed to Aebucius
Liberalis, is an admirable treatise on the way
bf conferring a favour, and of the duties of the
giver and of the receiver. (13) Epistolae ad

SENECA 863
Lucilium, 124 in number, are not the corre
spondence of daily Ufe, like that of Cicero, but a

coUection of moral maxims and remarks with
out any systematic order. They contain much
good matter, and have been favourite reading
with many distinguished men. It is possible
that these letters, and indeed many of Seneca's
moral treatises, were written in the latter part
of his life, and probably after he had lost the
favour of Nero. That Seneca sought consola
tion and tranquillity of mind in literary occu
pation is manifest. (14) Apocolocyntosis, is a
satire against the emperor Claudius. The word
Is a play on the term Apotheosis or deification,
and is eqmvalent in meaning to PumpMnifica-
tion, or the reception of Claudius among the
pumpkins. The subject was well enough, but
the treatment has no great merit ; and Seneca
probably had no other object than to gratify Ms
spite against the emperor. (15) Quaestionum
Naturalium Libri septem, addressed to Lu
cilius Junior, is not a systematic work, but a
coUection of natural facts from various writers,
Greek and Roman, many of which are curious.
The first book treats of meteors, the second of
thunder and lightning, the third of water, the
fourth of hail, snow and ice, the fifth of winds,
the sixth of earthquakes and the sources of the
NUe, and the seventh of comets. Moral re
marks are scattered tMough the work; and
indeed the design of the whole appears to be to
find a foundation for ethics, the chief part of
pMlosophy, M the knowledge of nature (physics).
(16) Tragoediae, nine in number. They are
entitled Hercules Furens, Thyestes, Thebais or
Phoenissae, Hippolytus or Phaedra, Oedipus,
Troades or Hecuba, Medea, Agamemnon, and
Hercules Oetaeus. The titles themselves indi
cate sufficiently what the tragedies are — Greek
mythological subjects treated m a peculiar
f asMon. They are written in Iambic senarii, in
terspersed with choral parts in anapaestic and
other metres. The Octavia, which describes
Nero's ill-treatment of his wife, his passion for
Poppaea, and the exile of Octavia, is included
among Seneca's writings in one recension, but
is not his work ; for it mentions Nero's death.
These tragedies are not adapted, and certainly
were never intended for the stage. They were
designed for readmg or for recitation after the
Roman fashion, and they bear the stamp of a
rhetorical age. They contain many striking
passages, and have some merit as poems.
Moral sentiments and maxims abound, and the
style and character of Seneca are as conspicuous
here as in his prose works. — The judgments on
Seneca's writings have been as various as the
opmions about Ms character ; and both in ex
tremes. It has been said of him that he looks
best in quotations ; but this is an admission
that there is something worth quoting, which
cannot be said of all writers. That Seneca
possessed great mental powers cannot be
doubted. He had seen much of human life,
and he knew well what man was. His philo
sophy, so far as he adopted a system, was the
Stoical, but it was rather an eclecticism of
Stoicism than pure Stoicism. His style is anti
thetical, and apparently laboured ; and when
there is much labour, there is generally affecta
tion. Vet Mb language is clear and forcible;
it is not mere words : there is thought always.
It would not be easy to name any modern
writer who has treated on morality and has
said so much that is practically good and true,
or has treated the matter in so attractive a way.
Beyond question he is, with the exception of

864

SENECIO

Tacitus, the most important writer of the post-
Augustan age. From the tone and expression
of some of his writings, especiaUy of the letters
to Lucilius, some have imagined that he was
acquamted with and influenced by Christian
teaching, and there was once a tradition of
friendship with the Apostle Paul. This may
be set aside as improbable and absolutely with
out evidence. The sentiments of a Christian
character wMch are found in Ms treatises are
merely the expression of Ms philosophy, which
was a gentler form of Stoicism. — Editions of
Seneca are by J. F. Gronovius, Leiden, 1649-
1658 ; by Ruhkopf, Leipzig, 1797-1811 : by
Fickert, Leips. 1845 ; by Haase, Leips. 1852.
The Dialogues of Seneca are edited by Gertz,
Copenh. 1886 ; the Letters by Schweighauser,
1809, and by Bucheler (M part), Bonn, 1879 :
editions of the Tragedies by Peiper and Richter,
Lei-gs. 1867, and by Leo, Berl. 1878.
Senecio, Herennius, was a native of Baetica
M Spain, where he served as quaestor. He was
put to death by Domitian on the accusation of
Metius Carus, in consequence of his having
written the Life of Helvidius Priscus, wMch he
composed at the request of Fannia, the wife of
Helvidius. (Dio Cass, lxvii. 18; Tac. Agr. 2,
45 ; Plin. Ep. i. 5, iv. 7, vii. 33.)
Senia (Senensis : Segna or Zengg), a Roman
colony in Liburnia M Dlyricum, on the coast,
and on the road from Aquileia to Siscia (Tac.
Hist. iv. 45).
Senones. 1. A powerful people in GalUa
Lugdunensis, dwelt along the upper course of
the Sequana (Seine), and were bounded on the
N. by the Parish, on the W. by the Carnutes,
on the S. by the Aedui, and on the E. by the
Lingonea and Mandubii. Their chief town was
Agedincum, afterwards called Senones (Sens).
(Caes. B.G. ii. 2, v. 54. vi. 37.)— 2. Abranch (no
doubt) of the same stock at an earlier period,
which crossed the Alps about B.C. 400, in order to
settle M Italy ; and as the greater part of Upper
Italy was already occupied by other Celtic
tribes, the Senones were obliged to penetrate a
considerable distance to the S., and took up
their abode on the Adriatic sea between the
rivers Utis and Aesis (between "Ravenna and
Ancona), after expelling the Umbrians (Liv. v.
35). In this country they founded the town of
Sena. They extended their ravages into Etruria ;
and it was m consequence of the interference
of the Romans while they were laying siege to
Clusium, that they marched against Rome and
took the city, s. c. 390. From this time we
find them engaged in constant hostihties with
the Romans, till they were at length completely
subdued and the greater part of them destroyed
by the consul DolabeUa, 284. [Gallia Cisal
pina.] Sentinum (Sentinas, Sentinatis: nr. Sasso-
ferrato, Ru.), a fortified town in Umbria, not
far from the river Aesis, famous for the battle
iii the third Samnite war, B.C. 295, when Q.
Fabius defeated the Samnites and Gauls,
Decius having devoted Mmself (Liv. x. 27 ; Pol.
ii. 19).
Sentius Saturninus. [Satueninus.]
• ^.lVia%, (Sr'w"i5 '¦ 8t- George), a promontory
in the SE. of Thessaly in the district Magnesia,
on which a great part of the fleet of Xerxes was
wrecked £Hdt. vii. 113, 188 ; Strab. p. 448).
Seplasia, one of the principal streets in
Capua, where perfumes and luxuries of a similar
kind were sold (Cic. Pis. 11, 24 ; Plin. xvi. 40).
Sepphoris (Seircpupis : Sefurieh), a city of
Palestine, in the middle of Galilee, about half-

SEQUESTER
way between M. Carmel and the lake of Tiberias,
was an insignificant place until Herod Antipas
fortified it and made it the capital of Galilee
under the name of Diocaesarea. It was the
seat of one of the five Jewish Sanhedrim ; and
continued to flourish until the fourth century,
when it was destroyed by the Caesar GaUus, on
account of a revolt of its inhabitants. (Jos. Ant.
xiv. 15, 4, B.J. ii. 18, 11 ; Socr. Hist. Eccl. n.
33.) Septem Aqnae, a place m the territory of the
Sabini, near Reate.
Septem Fratres ("Eirra aSeXcpoi: Jebel
Zatout, i.e. Apes' Hilt), a mountain on the N.
coast of Mauretania Tingitana, at the narrowest
part of the Fretum Gaditanum (Straits of
Gibraltar), connected by a low tongue of land
with the promontory of Abtla, wMch is also in
cluded under the modern name (Strab. p. 827).
Septem Maria, the name given by the an
cients to the lagoons formed at the mouth of
the Po by the frequent overflows of tMs river.
Persons usually sailed through these lagoons
from Ravenna to Altinum. (Plm. iii. 120 ; Hero
dian, viii. 7.)
Septempeda (Septempedanus : San Seve-
rino), a Roman municipium m the Mterior of
Picenum, on the road from Auximum to Urbs
Salvia (Plm. Ui. Ill ; Strab. p. 241).
Septimius Geta. [Geta.1
Septimius Serenas. [Serenus.]
Septimius Severus. [Seveeus.]
Septimius Titius, a Roman poet, whom
Horace (Ep. i. 3. 9, 14) represents as havmg ven
tured to quaff a draught from the PMdaric
spring, and as baring been ambitious to achieve
distinction m tragedy. In tMs passage Horace
speaks of Mm under the name of Titius ; and
he is probably the same mdividual with the
Septimius who is addressed m the sixth Ode of
the second book, and who is introduced M the
nmth Ejpistle of the first book.
Sequana (2i)Kodvas : Sdne), one of the prin
cipal rivers of Gaul, risMg M the central parts
of that country, and flowmg through the pro
vince of GalUa Lugdunensis into the ocean op
posite Britain. It is 346 mUes in length. Its
principal affluents are the Matrona (Marne),
Esia (Oise) with its tributary the Axona (Aisne)
and Incaunus (Yonne). This river has a slow
current, and is navigable beyond Lutetia Pari-
siorum (Paris). (Caes. B.G. i. 1 ; Ptol. U. 8, 2 ;
Strab. pj>. 192, 193:)
Sequani, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia
Belgica, separated from the Helvetii by Mons
Jurassus, from the Aedm by the Arar, and
from the provmce Narbonensis by the Rhone,
inhabiting the country caUed Franche Comti
and Burgundy. In the later division of the
provinces of the empire, the country of the
Sequani formed a special provmce under the
name of Maxima Sequanorum. They derived
their name from the river Sequana, which had
its source in the NW. frontiers of their terri
tory ; but their country was chiefly watered by
the rivers Arar and Dubis. Their chief town
was Vesontio (Besangon) . They were governed
by kings of their own, and were constantly at
war with the Aedui. (Caes. B.G. i. 1, S, 10-12,
iv. 10 ; Strab. p. 192 ; Lucan, i. 425.)
Sequester, Vibius, the name attached to a
glossary wMch professes to give an account of
the geograpMcal names contained M the
Roman poets. The tract is divided mto seven
sections :— (1) Flumina; (2) Fontes; (8)
Lacus; (4) Nemora; (5) Paludes; (6) Montes;
(7) Gentes. To wMch in some MSS. an eighth

SERA
is added, containing a list of the seven wonders
of the world. Concerning the author person
ally we know nothing ; and he probably lived
not earlier than the middle of the fifth century
A.D. — Ed. by Bursian, Zurich, 1867.
Sera. ^ [Serica.]
Serapio, a surname of P. Cornelius Scipio
Nasica, consul b.c. 138. [Scipio, No. 18.]
Seraplon (Sepairiwv), a physician of Alex
andria, who lived in the tMrd century B.C. He
belonged to the sect of the Empirici, and so
much extended and improved the system of
PMlinus that the invention of it is by some
authors attributed to him. Serapion wrote
agamst Hippocrates with much vehemence ;
but neither this, nor any of his other works,
are now extant. He is several times mentioned
and quoted by Celsus, Galen, and others.
Serapis or Sarapis (Zdpairis : Serapis is the
correct Latin form), an Egyptian divinity,
whose worsMp was introduced into Greece in
the time of the Ptolemies, and into Rome with
that of Isis. The Egyptian Serapis was
origmaUy the manifestation of Osiris on earth
in the form of a bull ; but Ms separate worship

SERGIUS

865

Serapis. (From a statue In the Vatican.)
was introduced as the special Alexandrian
religion in the time of the Ptolemies, and
graduaUy superseded that of Osiris, whose
functions were transferred to him. Hence, like
Osiris [see p. 635], he was regarded as the god
of the dead and of the underworld, worsMpped
with aU the mysteries belonging to that reli
gion, and as the husband of Isis. He was also
honoured, not only as born from the sun-god,
but as the sun-god himself, and hence as god
of heaUng, and thus identified by the Greeks
not only with Hades, as god of the dead, and
with Zeus (Zeus-Serapis), as god of heaven,
but also with Asclepius, as god of healing.
His worsMp in all these characters was
accepted from Alexandria (where his temple,
the Serapieum, was particularly famous)
through Asia Minor, the islands, Greece, and at
Rome in the same manner and period as that
of Isis [see p. 450]. In art he was represented
like Hades or Pluto with a three-headed dog
and a serpent by Ms side ; but is distinguished
from Hades or Pluto by the modius or cala-
thus upon his head. Sirmlarly the head of

Zeus-Serapis resembles the Zeus type, but is
distinguished by the modius.
Serbonis Lacus. [Siebonis Lacus.]
Serdica or Sardica (Sofia), an important town
in Upper Moesia, and the capital of Dacia
Mediterranea, situate in a fertile plain near
the sources of the Oescus, and on the road
from Naissus to PMlippopolis. It was the
birthplace of the emperor Maximianus ; it was
destroyed by Attila, but was soon afterwards
rebuilt; and it bore in the middle ages the
name of Triaditza. Serdica derived its name
from the TMacian people Serdi. (Ptol. iii. 11,
12 ; Eutrop. ix. 14, 22 ; Procop. Aed. iv. 1 ;
Amm. Marc. xxx. 16.)
Serena, niece of Theodosius the Great,
foster-mother of the emperor Honorius, and
wife of StiUcho.
Serenus, Annaeus, one of the most inti
mate friends of the philosopher Seneca, who
dedicated to him his works De Tranquillitate
and De Constantia. He was praefectus vigi-
lum under Nero. (Sen. Ep. 63 ; Tac. Ann. xiii.
13.) Serenus, Q. Sammonlcus (or Samonicus),
enjoyed a high reputation at Rome, in the early
part of the third century after Christ, as a man
of taste and varied knowledge. As the friend
of Geta, by whom Ms compositions were
studied with great pleasure, he was murdered
while at supper, by command of Caracalla, a.d.
212, having written many learned works, of
wMch nothing remains. (Macrob. in. 16, 6;
Spartian. Get. 5, Carac. 4.) His son, who bore
the same name, was the preceptor of the
younger Gordian, and bequeathed to his pupil
the magnificent library which he had inherited
from Ms father. A medical poem, extending
to 115 hexameter lines, has descended to us
under the title Q. Sereni Sammonici de
Medicina praecepta saluberrima, or Prae-
cepta de Medicina parvo pretio parabili,
wMch is usuaUy ascribed to the elder Sam
monicus. It contains a considerable amount
of information, extracted from the best authori
ties, on natural Mstory and the healing art,
and mixed up with a number of puerile super
stitions, the whole expressed in plain and
almost prosaic language. — Edited by Burmann
and by Bahrens among the Podae Lat.
Minores. Serenus, A. Septimius, a Roman lyric poet,
who exercised his muse chiefly in depicting the
charms of the country and the delight of rural
pursuits. His works are lost, but are fre
quently quoted by the grammarians. — Frag
ments in Wernsdorf, Poet. Lat. Min.
Seres. [Sebica.]
Sergia Gens, patrician. The Sergii traced
their descent from the Trojan Sergestus (Virg.
Aen. v. 121). The Sergii were distinguished in
the early Mstory of the republic, and the first
member of the gens who obtamed the consul
sMp was L. Sergius Fidenas, in b.c. 437.
Catiline belonged to tMs gens. [Catilina,]
The Sergii bore also the surnames of Esquili-
nus, Fidenas, Orata, Paulus, Plancus, and
Silus ; but none of them are of sufficient im
portance to require a separate notice.
Sergius, a grammarian of uncertain date, but
later than the fourth centary after CMist, the
author of two tracts; the first entitled In
primam Donati Editionem Gommentarium;
the second, In secundam Donati Editionem
Commentaria. They are printed in the
Grammaticae Latinae Auctores antiqui of
PutscMus (Hannov. 1605, pp. 1816-1838).
3K

866 SERICA
Serica (r) 'S.v.piKii, gripes; Seres, also rarely
in the sing, %?ip, Ser), a country in the extreme
E. of Asia, famous) as the native region of the
silkworm, which was also caUed o-f)p; and hence
the adjective ' serious ' for silken. The name
was known to the W. nations at a very early
period, through the use of silk, first in W.
Asia, and afterwards m Greece. It is clear,
however, that, until some time after the com
mencement of our era, the name had no distinct
geographical signification. Serica and Seres
were simply the unknown country and people,
in the far East, from whom the article of com
merce, silk, was obtained. [Diet, of Ant. art.
Sericum.] At a later period, some knowledge
of the country was obtained from the traders,
the results of which are recorded by Ptolemy,
who names several positions that can be identi
fied with reasonable probability, but the
detaUed mention of wMch does not fall within
the object of this work. (Ptol. vi. 16, 1-6, vii.
2, 1, viii. 24, 5.) The Serica of Ptolemy cor
responds to the NW. part of China, and the
adjacent portions of Thibet and Chinese Tar-
tary. The capital, Sera, is supposed by most
to be Singan, on the Hoang-ho, but by some
Peking. The country was bounded, according
to Ptolemy, on the N. by unknown regions, on
the W. by Scythia, on the S. and SE. by India
and the Sinae. The people were said by some
to be of Indian, by others of ScytMan, origin,
and by others to be a mixed race (Paus. vi. 22,
2 ; Strab. p. 701 ; Plin. vi. 88). The Great
Wall of China is mentioned by Ammianus
Marcellinus under the name of Aggeres Serium
(Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6, 64).
Seriphus (Sepicpos : 2epl<pios : Serpho), an
island m the Aegaean sea, and one of the
Cyclades, lymg between Cythnus and Siphnus.
It was a smaU rocky island about twelve miles
in circumference. (Strab. p. 487.) It is cele
brated in mythology as the island where Danae
and Perseus landed after they had been exposed
by Acrisius, where Perseus was brought up,
and where he afterwards turned the inhabitants
into stone with the Gorgon's head. [Danae ;
Pebseus.] Seriphus was colonised by lomans
from Athens, and it was one of the few islands
which refused submission to Xerxes. At a later
time the inhabitants of Seriphus were noted
for their poverty and wretchedness, and for this
reason the island was employed by the Roman
emperors as a place of banishment for state cri
minals. (Tac. Ann. ii. 85, iv. 21 ; Juv. x. 170.)
Sermyla (2eppvXri : ^eppvXios), a town in
Macedonia on the isthmus of the peninsula
Sithonia (Hdt. vii. 122 ; Thuc. v. 18).
Serranus, Atilius. Serranus was originally
an agnomen of C. Atilius Regulus, consul B.C.
257, but afterwards became the name of a
distinct family of the Atilia gens. Most of the
ancient writers derive the name from serere,
and relate that Regulus received the surname
of Serranus because he was engaged in sowing
when the news was brought him of his eleva
tion to the consulship (Virg. Aen. iv. 845). It
appears, however, from coins, that Saranus is
the proper form of the name, and it is possibly
derived from Saranum, a town of Umbria. — 1.
C, praetor b.c. 218, the first year of the second
Punic war, was sent into northern Italy. At
a later period of the year he resigned his com
mand to the consul P. Scipio. He was an un
successful candidate for the consulship for 216.
(Liv. xxi. 26, 62 ; Pol. iii. 40.)— 2. C., curule
aedile 193, with L. Scribonius Libo. They
were the first aediles who exhibited the Mega-

SERTORIUS
lesia as ludi scenici. He was praetor 185.
(Liv. xxxiv. 54,

j — 3. A., praetor 192, when he
obtained as his province Macedonia and the
command of the fleet. He was praetor a
second time in 173. He was consul in 170.
(Liv. xxxv. 10, xU. 28, xUi. 37-47.)— 4. M.,
praetor 174, when he obtamed the province of
Sardinia (Liv. xii. 21).— 5. M., praetor 152, in
Further Spain, defeated the Lusitani. — 6. Sex.,
consul 136.— 7. C, consul 106 with Q. Servilius
Caepio, the year in which Cicero and Pompey
were born. Although a ' stultissimus homo,'
accordmg to Cicero, he was elected in prefer
ence to Q. Catulus. He was one of the
senators who took up arms against Saturninus
in 100. (Cic. pro Plane 5 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 53 ;
Gell. xv. 28.) — 8. Sex., surnamed Gavianus,
because he originaUy belonged to the Gavia
gens. He was quaestor m 63 in the consulship
of Cicero, who treated him with distinguished
favour; but in his tribunate of the plebs, 57, he
took an active part M opposmg Cicero's recall
from banishment. After Cicero's return to
Rome he put his veto upon the decree of the
senate restoring to Cicero the site on wMch his
house hod stood, but he found it advisable to
withdraw Ms opposition. (Cic. Sest. 33-43, Post
Bed. 5, ad Att. iv. 2.)
Serrhium (^eppeiov), a promontory of Thrace
in the Aegaean Sea, opposite the island of
SamotMace, with a fortress of the same name
upon it (Hdt. vii. 59 ; Liv. xxxi. 16).
Q. Sertorius, one of the most extraordinary
men in the later times of the republic, was a
native of Nursia, a Sabine vUlage, and was
born of obscure but respectable parents. He
served under Marius in the war against the
Teutones; and before the battle of Aquae
Sextiae (Aix), b.c. 102, he entered the camp of
the Teutones in disguise as a spy, for which
hazardous undertaMng Ms intrepid character
and some knowledge of the GaUic language
weU qualified him. He also served as tribunus
militum in Spam under T. Didius (97). He
was quaestor in 91, and had before this time
lost an eye in battle. On the outbreak of the
Civil war in 88, he declared himself against the
party of the nobles, though he was by no
means an admirer of his old commander, C.
Marius, whose character he weU understood.
He commanded one of the four armies wMch
besieged Rome under Marius and Cinna (App.
73.0. i. 67). He was, however, opposed to the
bloody massacre which ensued after Marius
and Cinna entered Rome, and he was so
indignant at the horrible deeds committed by
the slaves whom Marius kept as guards, that
he feU upon them in their camp, and slew
4000 of them (Plut. Sert. 5, Mar. 44). In 83
Sertorius was praetor, and either m this year
or the foUowing he went into Spain, which had
been assigned to Mm as his province by the
Marian party. After collecting a small body
of troops in Spam, he crossed over to Maure
tania, where he gained a victory over Paecia-
nus, one of Sulla's generals. In consequence of
his success M Africa, he was invited by the
Lusitani, who were exposed to the invasion of
the Romans, to become their leader. He
gained great influence over the Lusitanians
and the other barbarians in Spain, and soon
succeeded in forming an army, which for some
years successfully opposed all the power of
Rome. He also availed himself of the super
stitious character of the people among whom
he was, to strengthen Ms authority over them.
A fawn was brought to him by one of the

SERVILIA
natives as a present, which soon became bo
tame as to accompany him in his walks, and
attend him on all occasions. After SuUa had
become master of Italy, Sertorius was joined
by many Romans who had been proscribed by
the dictator, and this not only added to Ms
consideration, but brought him many good
officers. _ In 79 MeteUua Pius was sent into
Spain with a considerable force against Ser
torius ; but MeteUus could effect nothing
against the enemy. He was unable to bring
Sertorius to any decisive battle, but was con
stantly harassed by the guerilla warfare of the
latter. In 77 Sertorius was joined by M.
Perperna with fifty-tMee cohorts [Peepebna].
To give some show of form to Ms formidable
power, Sertorius estabUshed a senate of 800,
Mto which no provmcial was admitted ; but to
soothe the more distmguished Spaniards, and
to have some security for their fidelity, he
estabUshed a school at Huesca (Osca), in
Aragon, for the education of their cMldren in
Greek and Roman learnmg. The continued
-want of success on the part of MeteUus induced
the Romans to send Pompey to his assistance,
but with an independent command. Pompey
arrived m Spain M 76 with 30,000 infantry and
1000 cavalry, but even with tMs formidable
force he was unable to gam any decisive advan
tages over Sertorius. (App. B. C. i. 110.) For
the next five years Sertorius kept both Metellus
and Pompey at bay, and cut to pieces a large
number of their forces. Sertorius was at
length assassinated m 72 at a banquet by
Perperna and some other Roman officers, who
had long been jealous of the authority of their
commander. (Plut. Sertorius.)
Servilia. 1. Daughter of Q. ServUius Caepio
and the daughter of Livia, the sister of the
celebrated M. Livius Drusus, tribune of the
plebs B.C. 91. ServiUa was married twice :
first to M. Junius Brutus, by whom she became
the mother of the murderer of Caesar, and
secondly to D. Junius Silanus, consul 62. She
w^is the favourite mistress of the dictator
Caesar, and it is reported that Brutus was her
son by Caesar (Plut. Cat. 24, Brut. 5). This
tale, however, cannot be true, as Caesar was
only fifteen years older than Brutus, the former
havmg been born in 100, and the latter in 85.
She survived both her lover and her son. After
the battle of PMUppi, Antony sent her the
ashes of her son. (Suet. Jul. 50 ; Plut. Brut.
2, 5, 53.) — 2. Sister of the preceding, was the
second wife of L. LucuUus, consul 74. She
bore LucuUus a son, but, Uke her sister, she
was faitMess to her husband, and the latter,
after putting up with her conduct for some
time from regard to M. Cato Uticensis, her
half-brother, at length divorced her. (Plut.
Lucull. 38, Cat. 54.)
Servilia Gens, was one of the Alban houses
removed to Rome by Tullus HostUius. This
gens was very celebrated during the early ages
of the republic, and it continued to produce
men of influence in the state down to the
imperial period. It was divided into numerous
famiUes, of which the most important bore the
names of Ahala, Caepio, Casca, Glaucia,
Rullus, Vatia.
Servius Maurus Honoratus, or Servius
Marius Honoratus, a Latin grammarian of
the fourth century, contemporary with Macro
bius, who introduces Mm among the dramatis
personae of the Saturnalia. His most cele
brated production was a Commentary upon
Virgil. TMs, the original work of Servius, has

SESTUS

867

been largely added to. The Commentary of
Servius was supplemented by an anonymous
writer with a great deal of useful information,
drawn from earlier authorities, about Greek
and Roman legends, customs, and religion. It
is^ attached to many of the earlier editions of
Virgil, but it is edited separately by Thilo and
Hagen, Leips. 1878. We possess also the follow
ing treatises bearing the name of Servius : —
(1) In secundum Donati Editionem Inter-
pretatio. (2) De Batione ultimarum Syllab-
arum ad Aquilinum Liber. (3) Ars de centum
Metris s. Centimetrum.
Servius Tullius. [Tullius.]
Sesamus (Si)o-ap6s), a little coast river of
Paphlagonia, with a town of the same name :
both called afterwards Amasteis.
Sesostris (Seawirrpis), the name given by the
Greeks to the great king of Egypt, Ramses II.
(Ra-messu Meri-Amen), son of Seti or Menep-
tah I., and father of Meneptah II. From his
popular name, Ses or Setesu, the Greeks de
veloped the name Sesostris (in Manetho ' Se-
thosis, who is called Ramesses '). He belonged
to the nineteenth dynasty, and reigned about
1333 B.C. He was a great conqueror. In the
Greek Mstorians he is said to have subdued
Ethiopia, a great part of Asia, TMace, and
Scythia (Hdt. .ii. 102-11; Diod. i. 53-59). It
must not, however, be supposed that he ever
reached any part of Europe. From the Egyptian
monuments, including the epic poem of Pen-
taur, the court scribe, we learn that, besides Ms
successful campaigns into Ethiopia, he over
ran Syria, and in the fifth year of his reign
began his great campaigns against the Kheta —
that is, the Hittite — empire [Cetei], in the
course of which he won a great victory at
Kadesh on the Orontes. The struggle, how
ever, between the two empires was not pushed
to an end, and a treaty of aMance was event
uaUy made between Ramses and the Hittite
king. Some of the victories of Ramses are
recorded also in the rock tablets at Beyrout ;
but the monuments which Herodotus believed
Mm to have set up between Smyrna and
Ephesus (ii. 106) are Hittite. As a builder, he
was no less great than as a conqueror. He
bmlt at Abydos, Memphis, and Tnebes, espe
cially at Karnak, Luxor, and the rock temples
Abu-Simbel. He built himself also a new city,
fortress and palace at Pa-Ramessu ( = Zoan) in
the Delta, on the way to Palestine.
Sestianae Arae (C. Villano), the most
westerly promontory on the N. coast of His
pania Tarraconensis in Gallaecia, with tMee
altars consecrated to Augustus.
Sestinum (Sestinas, -iitis: Sestino), a town
in Umbria on the Apennines, near the sources
of the Pisaurus.
Sestius. [Sextius.]
Sestus (27)o-t<Ss : "Sfto-Tios : lalova), a town in
TMace, situated at the narrowest part of the
Hellespont opposite Abydos in Asia, from which
it was only seven stadia distant (Strab. p. 591).
It was founded by the Aeolians (Hdt. vii. 33).
It was celebrated in Grecian poetry on account
of the loves of Leander and Hero [Leandeb],
and in history on account of the bridge of boats
which Xerxes here built across the HeUespont.
Sestus was always reckoned a place of import
ance in consequence of its commandmg to a
great extent the passage of the Hellespont. It
was for some time in the possession of the
Persians, but was retaken by the Greeks, b.c.
478, after a long siege. The Athenians held it
tiU 404 B.C., and captured it again in 387 (Diod.
3x2

868 SETABIS
xvi. 34). It was taken by the Romans in 190
(Liv. xxxvii. 9).
Setabis. [Saetabis.]
Sethon (SeBdv), seems to have been a priest
of Ptah ( = Hephaestus) about the time of
Taharaqa I. (Tirhakah = Taracus), and the end
of the Ethiopian dynasty (twenty-fifth) in
Egypt (about 690 B.C.), who lived on into the
reign of Psamtheh or Psammetichus I. in the
twenty-sixth dynasty. He thus might have
been living in the wars with Sennacherib. [For
the history see Sabaco ; Psammetichus.] Hero
dotus relates (ii. 141) that in Sethon's reign
Sanacharibus, king of the Arabians and
Assyrians, advanced against Egypt, at which
Sethon was in great alarm, as he had insulted
the warrior class, and deprived them of their
lands, and they now refused to foUow him to
the war. But the god Hephaestus came to his
assistance ; for while the two armies were en
camped near Pelusium, the field-mice in the
night gnawed to pieces the bow-strings, the
quivers, and the shield-handles of the Assyrians,
who fled on the foUowing day with great loss.
The recoUection of this miracle was perpetuated
by a statue of the kmg in the temple of He
phaestus, holding a mouse in Ma hand, and
saying, ' Let everyone look at me and be pious.'
In tMs account Herodotus seems to have
wrongly made Sethon, or Sethos, a king, whereas
he was only a priest, though at a time when the
priestly power was great. The statue to wMch
he refers was probably one with a mouse upon
it as an emblem, as in the statues of Apollo
Smintheus, and possibly with the same mean
ing [see p. 89, b].
Setla (Setinus: Sezza or Sesse), an ancient
town of Latium in the E. of the Pontine
Marshes, origMally belonged to the Volscian
confederacy, but was subsequently taken by the
Romans and colonised (Dionys. v. 61 ; Liv. vi.
SO; Veil. Pat. i. 14). It was here that the
Romans kept the Carthaginian hostages (Liv.
xxxii. 26). It was celebrated for the exceUent
wine produced in the neighbourhood of the town,
wMch was reckoned in the time of Augustus
the finest wine in Italy (Mart. x. 86, xiu. 112 ;
Juv. x. 27 ; Strab. pp. 284, 237).
Severus, M. Aurelius Alexander, usually
called Alexander Severus, Roman emperor,
a.d. 222-235, the son of Gessius Marcianus and
Julia Mamaea, and first cousin of Elagabalus,
was born at Arce, in Phoenicia, in the temple
of Alexander the Great, to wMch Ms parents
had repaired for the celebration of a festival,
October 1, a.d. 205. His original name appears
to have been Alexianus Bassianus, the latter
appellation havmg been derived from his ma
ternal grandfather. Upon the elevation of
Elagabalus, he accompanied his mother and
the oourt to Rome, a report having been spread
abroad that he also, as well as the emperor,
was the son of Caracalla. In 221 he was
adopted by Elagabalus and created Caesar. The
names Alexianus and Bassianus were laid
aside, and those of M. Aurelius Alexander
substituted: M. Aurelius in virtue of his
adoption; Alexander in consequence, as was
asserted, of a direct revelation on the part of
the Syrian god. [Elagabalus.] On the death
of Elagabalus, on March 11, a.d. 222, Alexander
ascended the tirrone, addMg Severus to Ms
other designations, in order to mark more
explicitly the descent which he claimed from
the father of Caracalla. After reigning in peace
some years, during which he reformed many
abuses m the state, he was mvolved m a war

SEVERUS
with Artaxerxes, king of Persia, who had lately
founded the new empire of the Sassanidae on
the ruins of the Parthian monarchy. Alexander
gained a great victory over Artaxerxes in 232 ;.
but he was unable to prosecute his advantage
in consequence of intelligence havMg reached
Mm of a great movement among the German
tribes. He celebrated a triumph at Rome m
233, and in the following year (234) set out for
Gaul, which the Germans were devastating;
but before he had made any progress in the
campaign, he was waylaid by a smaU band of
mutinous soldiers, instigated, it is said, by
Maximinus, and slam, along with Ms mother, in
the early part of 235, mthe thirtieth year of his
age, and the fourteenth of Ms reign. Alexander
Severus was distinguished by justice, wisdom,
and clemency in aU public transactions, and by
the simplicity and purity of Ms private life. (Hero
dian, v. 5, 17-23, vi. 1-18 ; Lamprid. Alex. Sever.;.
Zos. i. 11-13 ; Dio Cass, lxxviii. 30, lxxx. Fr.)
Severus, A. Caecina. [Caecina.]
Severus, Cassius, an orator and satirical writer-
in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, was
born about b.c. 50 at Longula, in Latium. He-
was a man of low origin and dissolute character,.
but was much feared from the severity of
his attacks upon the Roman nobles. Towards
the end of the reign of Augustus, Severus
was banished by Augustus to the island of
Crete on account of Ms libeUous verses ; but
as he stiU continued to write Ubels, he was
removed by Tiberius m a.d. 24 to the desert
island of Seriphos, where he died in great
poverty in the twenty-fifth year of Ms exUe,
a.d. 33. (Tac. Ann. i. 72, iv. 21 ; Sen. Contr. 3,
praef. 2 ; Tac. Dial. 19 ; Qmnt. x. i. 116.) He
cannot have been, as some commentators
thought, the subject of Horace's sixth Epode,
sMce he can hardly have been more than a
boy when the Epodes were written.
Severus, Cornelius, the author of a poem
entitled Bellum Siculum, was contemporary
with Ovid, by whom he is addressed M one of
the Epistles written from Pontus (Ov. Pont . iv.
16, 9 ; Quint, x. 1, 89).
SeveruB, Flavius Valerius, Roman emperor,
a.d. 306-307. He was proclaimed Caesar by
Galerius in 305 ; and on the death of Constan
tius CMorus, in the foUowmg year, he was
further proclaimed Augustus by Galerius. Soon
afterwards he was sent agamst Maxentius, who
had assumed the imperial title at Rome. The
expedition, however, was unsuccessful ; and
Severus having surrendered at Ravenna, was
taken prisoner to Rome and compelled to put
an end to his life. [Maxentius.]
Severus Libius, Roman emperor, a.d. 461-465,
was a Lucanion by birth, and owed Ms acces
sion to Ricimer, who placed him on the throne
after the assassmation of Majorian. During
Ms reign -the real government was in the hands
of Ricimer. Severus died a natural death.
(Jordan, de Beb. Goth. 45 ; Evagr. ii. 7.)
Severus Sanctus Endelechius, a Gothic
rhetorician and poet at the end of the fourth
century. A poem of Ms on cattle, and on a
plague from wMch they suffered, in the form of
a pastoral dialogue (de Mortibus Bourn) has
considerable merit. — Ed. by Giles, London,
1838, and in Wernsdorf, Pod. Lat. Min.
Severus, L. Septimius, Roman emperor, a.d.
193-211, was born 146, near Leptis in Africa.
After holding various important military com
mands under M. Aurelius and Commodus, he
was at length appointed commander-in-chief of
the army in Pannonia and Illyria. By this

SEVERUS
army he was proclaimed emperor after the
death of Pertmax (193). He forthwith marched
upon Rome, where JuUanus had been made
emperor by the praetorian troops. Julianus
was put to death upon Ms arrival before the
city. [Julianus.] Severus then turned his
arms against Pescennius Niger, who had been
saluted emperor by the Eastern legions. The
struggle was brought to a close by a decisive
battle near Issus, M wMch Niger was de
feated by Severus, and having been shortly
afterwards taken prisoner was put to death
(194). Severus then laid siege to Byzantium,
wMch refused to submit to Mm even after
the death of Niger, and wMch was not taken
tiU 196. The city was treated harsMy by
Severus. Its waUs were levelled with the earth,
its soldiers and magistrates put to death, and
the town itself, deprived of all its political privi
leges, made over to the PerintMans. During
the continuance of tMs siege, Severus had
crossed the Euphrates (195) and subdued the
Mesopotamian Arabians. He returned to Italy,
in 196, and m the same year proceeded to Gaul
to oppose Albinus, who had been proclaimed
emperor by the troops m that country. Albinus
was defeated and slam near Lyons on the 19th
of February, 197. Severus returned to Rome
M the same year ; but after remainmg a short
time m the capital, he set out for the East to
repel the invasion of the PartMans, who were
ravagmg Mesopotamia. He crossed the Eu
phrates early m 198 ; Seleucia and Babylon
were evacuated by the enemy ; and Ctesiphon
was taken and plundered after a short siege.
After spending tMee years in the East, and
visiting Arabia, Palestine, and Egypt, Severus
returned to Rome m 202. For the next seven
years he remained tranquiUy at Rome, but in
208 he went to Britain with his sons CaracaUa
and Geta, and carried on war agamst the Cale-
domans. After remainmg two years in BritaM
he died at Eboracum (York) on the 4th of
February, 211, in the sixty-fifth year of Ms age,
and the eighteenth of his reign. (Dio Cass.
lxxiv., lxxv., lxxvi. ; Eutrop. viii. 10 ; Aurel.
Vict. xx. ; Spartian. Sever.)
Severus, Sulpicius, cMefly celebrated as an
ecclesiastical Mstorian, was a native of Aqm-
tama, and flourished towards the close of the
fourth century under Arcadius and Honorius.
He was descended from a noble famUy, and was
origmaUy an advocate; but he eventuaUy
became a presbyter of the church, and attached
himself closely to St. Martin of Tours. The
•extant works of Severus are : — (1) Historia
Sacra, an epitome of sacred Mstory, extending
from the creation of the world to the consulship
of StiUcho and AureUanus, a.d. 400. (2) Vita
S. Martini Turonensis. (3) Tres Epistolae.
<4) Dialogi duo, containing a review of the dis
sensions wMch had arisen among ecclesiastics
in the East regarding the works of Origen.
(5) Epistolae Sex.— The best edition of the
complete works of Severus is by C. Hahn,
Vienna, 1886.
Seuthes (2eu6V), the name of several Mngs
of the Odrysians m Thrace. Of these the most
important was the nephew of Sitalces, whom he
succeeded on the throne m 424. During a long
reign he raised Ms kingdom to a height of
power and prosperity, wMch it had never pre
viously attained (Thuc. ii. 97, iv. 101).
Sextia or Sestia Gens, plebeian, one of whose
members — namely, L. Sextius Sextinus Late
ranus— was the first plebeian who obtained the
consulsMp, B.C. 366.

SIBAE

869

Sextiae Aquae. [Aquae Sextiae.]
Sextius or Sestius. 1. P., quaestor B.C. 63,
and tribune of the plebs 57. In the latter year
he took an active part in obtaining Cicero's
recaU from banishment. Like Milo, he kept a
band of armed retamers to oppose P. Clodius
and his partisans; and in the following year
(56) he was accused of Vis on account of Ms
violent acts during Ms tribunate. He was de
fended by Cicero in an oration still extant, and
was acquitted on the 14th of March, chiefly in
consequence of the powerful influence of
Pompey. In 53, Sextius was praetor. On the
breaking out of the Civil war in 49, Sextius first
espoused Pompey's party, but he afterwards
joined Caesar, who sent Mm, in 48, mto Cappa
docia. He was alive in 48, as appears from
Cicero's correspondence. (Cic. pro Sestio, ad
Att. iii. 19, 20, 23, iv. 3, ad Fam. v. 6.)— 2, L,
son of the precedmg by Ms firat wife, Postumia.
He served under M. Brutus in Macedonia, but
subsequently became the friend of Augustus.
One of Horace's Odes (i. 4) is addressed to him.
(Bell. Alex. 34 ; Cic. ad Att. xiii. 2, xv. 17, 27.)
— 3. T., one of Caesar's legates in Gaul, and
afterwards governor of the province of Numidia,
or New Africa, at the time of Caesar's death
(44). Here he carried on war against Q. Cor
nificius, who held the province of Old Africa,
and whom he defeated and slew M battle. (Caes.
B.G. vi. 1, vii. 49 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 21-24 ; App.
B.C. iv. 53, v. 75.)
Sextius Calvlnus. [Calvtnus.]
Sextus Empiricus, was a physician, and re
ceived his name Empiricus from belonging to
the school of the Empirici. He was a contem
porary of Galen, and lived in the first half of
the third century of the CMistian era. Notinng
is known of his life. He belonged to the Scep
tical school of philosophy. Two of his worka are
extant: — (1) Tlvppdviai virorvirdo-eis ^) ffKeirriKo.
viropviipaTa, containing the doctrines of the
Sceptics in three books. (2) Tlpbs robs paB-npa-
tikovs dvrippiiriKoi, against the Mathematici, in
eleven books, is an attack upon all positive philo
sophy. The first six books are a refutation of
the six sciences of grammar, rhetoric, geometry,
arithmetic, astrology, and music. The remain
ing five books are directed agamst logicians, phy
sical phUosophers, and etMcal writers, and form,
m fact, a distinct work, which may be viewed
as belongmg to the 'Tirorvirdcreis. The two
works are a great repository of doubts ; the lan
guage ia as clear and perspicuous as the subject
wiU aUow. — Edited by Fabricius, Lips. 1718.
Sextus Rufus Festus, or perhaps more cor
rectly Rufius Festus alone, is the name prefixed
to an abridgment of Roman History m twenty-
eight short chapters, entitled Breviarium de
Victoriis et Brovinciis Populi Bomani, and
executed by command of the emperor Valens,
to whom it is dedicated. This work is usually
printed with the larger editions of Eutropius,
and of the minor Roman historians. [Eutbo-
pius.] Some have suggested that Rufus or
Rufius Festus the historian and Rufius Festus
Avienus are the same person ; but there is no
probability in tMs, though they may possibly
be father and son. [Avienus.]
Siatutanda (5iaT0iiTai/5a) , is given by Ptolemy
(ii. 1, 27) as the name of a town in Germany,
but there is little doubt that this is an amusing
and instructive mistake, and that Ptolemy
Mvented the town from misunderstanding the
words of Tacitus (Ann. iv. 73) ' ad sua tutan-
da digressis rebellibus.'
Sibae or Sibi (XiBai, %(Boi), a rude people in

870 SLBYLLAE
the NW. of India (in the Punjab), above the
confluence of the rivers Hydaspes (Jelum) and
Acesines (Chenab), who were clothed in skms
and armed with clubs, and whom therefore the
soldiers of Alexander regarded as descendants
of Heracles (Arrian, Ind. 5; Diod. xvii. 96;
Strab. p. 688).
Slbyllae (2iBvXXai), the name by which seve
ral prophetic women are designated. The first
Sibyl, from whom all the rest are said to have
derived their name, is called a daughter of
Dardanus and Neso (cf. Heracleit. Fr. 12).
Some authors mention only four Sibyls, the
Erythraean, the Samian, the Egyptian, and the
Sardian ; but as time went on the number grew
to ten : namely, the Babyloman, the Libyan,
the Delphian, the Cimmerian, the Erythraean,
the Samian, the Cumaean, the Hellespontian
or Trojan, the PMygian, and the Tiburtine.
The most celebrated of these Sibyls is the Cu
maean, who is mentioned under the names of
Herophile, Demo, Phemonoe, Deiphobe, De-
mophile, and Amalthea. She was consulted by
Aeneas before he descended into the lowerworld.
She is said to have come to Italy from the East,
and she is the one who, according to tradition,
appeared before king Tarquinius, offering Mm
the Sibylline books for sale (Varro, ap. Lactant.
Inst. Div. i. 6 ; Dionys. iv. 62 ; Isid. Orig. viii.
815). Respecting the Sibylline books, see Diet.
of Antiq. art. Sibyllini Libri.
Sicambri. [Sugambbi.]
Sicani, Siceli, Siceliotae, [Sicilia.]
Sicca, a friend of Cicero, who had a country
house at Vibo in Bruttium. Cicero took refuge
there twice, in 58 B.C. and in 44. (Cic. ad Att.
iii. 2, 4, viii. 12, xvi. 6.)
Sicca Veneria (prob. Al-Kaff), a consider
able city of N. Africa, on the frontier of Nu
midia and Zeugitana, built on a Mil near the
river Bagradas. It derived its name from
a temple of Venus in wMch the goddess was
worsMpped with rites peculiar to the corre
sponding Eastern deity Astarte, whence it may
be Mferred that the place was a Phoenician
settlement. (Val. Max. ii. 6, 15 ; Sail. Jug. 56 ;
Ptol. iv. 3, 30.)
Sichaeus, also called Acerbas. [Aceebas.]
Sicilia (iiiKeXta: Sicily), except Sardinians
the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.
It is probable that its original name to the
Greeks was Thrinacia (©pivama). [The idea
that Thrinacia was the Peloponnese is unten
able.] It is probable also that the name of the
island Thrinacia in the Odyssey (xi. 107, xii. 127)
is borrowed from it ; but it is clear that the
Homeric Thrinacia was conceived by the poet
as different from Sicily. It was a small island,
and it was reached after Scylla was passed :
moreover it was not the island of the Cyclopes.
The name SiKavln also appears in Od. xxiv.
307 (by many considered a later addition).
The names Trinacria or Trinacris (Verg. Aen.
iii. 440, &c.) were believed by the ancients
to express the triangular shape of the island
(Ov. Fast. iv. 420). Recently it has been
strongly urged that these names are merely
corruptions of the old Thrinacia, and them
selves gave the notion, not absolutely correct,
that the island was a perfect triangle. This
may be to some extent true. At the same time
it should not be forgotten that the words 0pica|
and Tp?va£ are the same, and therefore that,
though Thrinacia may have been the original
Greek name, there is no reason why it should
express any idea different from Trinacria. The
island is of course not a regular triangle, but

SICILIA
an irregular quadrilateral with a short fourth
side to the W. between Eryx and Libybaeum.
Still there is a rough resemblance to a three-
pointed island (wMch navigators even as early
as the writing of the Odyssey may have per
ceived) sufficient to give rise to the name,
whether Thrinacia or Trinacria, and it is on
the whole more likely that it was so called for
this reason than because it was sacred to Pos
eidon, the god of the trident. It is very likely
that the name did tend to strengthen the con
ception of a regular triangle, which found ex
pression M the name Triquetra (Lucret. i. 718 ;
Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 55) ; but, when all is said, even
those who have a modern map before them may
well recognise an approach to a triangular shape.
Its more usual name was also its proper name,
derived from its inhabitants, the Siceli, whence it
was called Sicelia (^tKeXia), which the Romans
changed into Sicilia. And from the Sicani
[see below] the island was also called Sicania
(SiKavia). — Sicily is separated from the S. coast
of Italy by a narrow channel caUed Fretum
Siculum, sometimes simply Fretum (HopBp6s),
and also Scyllaeum Fretum, of which the
modern name is _Fa.ro di Messina. The sea on
the E. of the island was also called Mare
Siculum, which was regarded as the W. portion
of the Mare Ionium. The sea on the S. was
called Mare Africum. The N. and S. sides
of the island are about 175 miles each in
length, not including the windings of the coast ;
and the length of the E. side is about 115 miles ;
the short western side, from Eryx to Lilybaeum,
which blunts the triangle and makes it a quadri
lateral, is about tiiirty mUes. The NW. end,
the Prom. Lilybaeum, is about mnety miles
from C. Bon on the coast of Africa; the NE.
point, Prom. Pelorus, is about tMee miles
from the coast of Calabria in Italy ; and the
SE. point, Prom. Pachynus, is sixty miles from
the island of Malta. Sicily formed origmaUy
part of Italy, and was torn away from it _}y
some volcanic eruption, as the ancients gene
raUy believed. [Rhegium.] A range of moun
tains, which are a continuation of the Apen
nines, extends tMoughout the island from E.
to W. The general name of tMs mountain-
range was Nebrodes Montes (Madonia), wMch
rise to a height of about 3000 feet, and of which
the Heraei Montes of Diodorus seem to be part.
But the most important feature of the island is
the separate volcanic mountain Aetna, wMch
rises to a height of 10,874 feet on the east coast,
with a base of elevated ground ninety mUes in
circumference. The detached mass of Mt. Eryx
also, in the extreme W. near Drepanum, pre
sents a bold appearance, though its height is
only 2184 feet. Otherwise the coasts at the
W. end of the island are comparatively low
and shelving. In the centre of Sicily a moun
tain-range branches off to the S. from the Ne
brodes and from the MUy country about Enna.
The SE. part of the island is an elevated lime
stone tract, broken up by valleys and ravines
with a gradual slope towards the S. and SE.
A large number of rivers flow down from the
mountains, but most of them are dry, or nearly
so, in the summer. The soil of Sicily waa very
fertile, and produced in antiqMty an immense
quantity of wheat, on which the population of
Rome relied to a great extent for their subsis
tence (Strab. p. 273 ; Diod. v. 2). So celebrated
was it even m early times on account of its
corn, that it was represented as sacred to
Demeter, and as the favourite abode of this
goddess. Hence it was in this island that her

SICILIA
daughter, Persephone, was carried away by
Pluto. [Demetee ; Peesephone.] Besides
corn the island produced excellent wine, saffron,
honey, almonds, and the other southern fruits.—
It is probable that the mention of the Cyclopes
and Laestrygones m the Odyssey was due to
reports of a rough and savage people dwelling
in Sicily. Apart from these legends the preva
lent tradition was that the Sicani, being hard
pressed by the Ligyes (Ligures), crossed the
Alps and settled in Latium ; that, being driven
out of this country by the Aborigmes with the
help of Pelasgians, they migrated to the S. of
the peninsula, where they lived for a consider
able time along with the Oenotrians ; and that
at last they crossed over to Sicily, to which
they gave their name (Sicania). They spread
oyer the greater part of the island, but in later
times were found cMefly in the interior and in the
W. and NW. parts, havmg been driven tMther
by the later mvasion of Sicels. The next im
migrants into the island are said to have been
the Elymi ("EXvpoi), who are described as a
Trojan race who came there after the fall of
Troy and settled m the country about Eryx.
The Sicels (-S.K6A.ol, Siculi) are described as hav
ing been driven out of Italy by the Oscans, and
as havmg crossed the Straits of Messina on
rafts. (Thuc. vi. 2 ; Dionys. i. 22, v. 6.) There is
much controversy as to the real origin and
nationality of these races; but Freeman is
probably right M not rejecting the views of
Thucydides and PMUstus (ap. Diod. v. 6), that
the Sicani were Iberians (i.e. of the same race
as the Ligurians and the Basques), and that
they were distmct from the Sicels (though
Schwegler and Holm regard them as identical
and as both bemg Iberian). According to this
view, the Sicani were a non- Aryan race and the
earUest inhabitants ; the Sicels were the van
guard of the Aryan settlers, who, pressed out
of Italy by later immigrants, passed over the
straits and dispossessed the Sicani and Elymi of
most of the island. There is stiU more doubt
about the Elymi. Some say they were a mixed
race of Asiatic barbarians and Ionians from
Asia Mmor : some say they were Elamites.
On the whole, it is most likely that there was
an element of truth m the story about the
Trojans, and that they were of Phrygian origin.
The cMef cities of Elymaean origin were Eryx,
Segesta, and EnteUa. Besides these settlements,
there was possibly an invasion from Crete at
a period earUer than the foundation of the
Greek colomes, which may be Mdicated in the
legend that Cretans came to Sicily under their
king, MMos, in pursuit of Daedalus, and that
they settled on the S. coast in the neighbour
hood of Agrigentum, where they founded Minoa
(afterwards Heraclea Minoa). [Minos.] The
Phoenicians likewise at an early period formed
settlements, for the purposes of commerce, on
all the coasts of Sicily, but more especially on
the N. and NW. parts. They were subse
quently obUged to retire from the greater part
of their settlements before the increasing power
of the Greeks, and to confine themselves to
Motya, Solus, and Panormus. But the most
important of all the immigrants into Sicily
were the Greeks, The first body of Greeks
who landed in the island were Chalcidians from
Euboea, and Megarians led by the Athenian
Thucles. These Greek colonists built the town
of Naxos, B.C. 735. They were soon foUowed
by other Greek colonists, who founded a num
ber of very flourishing cities : Syracuse, founded
by Corinthians in 734 ; Leontini and Catana by

871
the SicUian Naxos in 730 ; Megara Hyblea by
Megarians from Greece in 728 ; Gela by Lin-
dians from Rhodes and by Cretans in 690;
Zanele, afterwards Cai larina, by Cumaeans and
Chalcidians about 700 ; Himera, a colony from
Zanele in 648 ; Acrae, Casmenae and Camarina
from Syracuse between 650 and 599; Selinus
from Megara Hyblaea in 680, Acragas or Agri
gentum from Gela in 582. The Greeks soon
became the ruling race in the island, and re
ceived the name of Siceliotae (SiKeXidrai) to
distinguish them from the earlier inhabitants.
The Sicel towns were mostly inland : a few, of
small importance, on the N. coast. Their fusion,
and that of the other inhabitants, with the
Greeks was fairly complete before the Roman
conquest, each nationality to some extent having
influenced the other, but Greek influence and
character predominating. Meantime the Car
thaginians obtained a firm footing in Sicily.
Their first attempt was made in 480 ; but they
were defeated by Gelo of Syracuse, and
obliged to retire with great loss. It is remark
able that the Asiatic nationalities, Persia and
the Phoemcian CarthagMians, attacked the
Greek states simultaneously at opposite quar
ters: nor is it to be supposed that this was
without design and concert. In the period
after this invasion occurred the Athenian expe
dition of 415 [Sybacusae]. The second Cartha-

Coin of Sicily, third cent. B.C.
Obv., head of Demeter, whose worship "was especially
prevalent in Sicily; rev., 21KEA10TAN: Victory in a
quadriga.
ginian invasion, in 409, was more successful
than the first. They took SeUnus in this year,
and four years afterwards (405) the powerful
city of Agrigentum. They now became the
permanent masters of the W. part of the island,
and were engaged in frequent wars with Syracuse
and the other Greek cities. The struggle be
tween the Carthaginians and Greeks continued,
with a few interruptions, down to the first Punic
war ; at the close of wMch (241) the Cartha
ginians were obliged to evacuate the island, the
W. part of which now passed into the hands of
the Romans, and was made a Roman province.
The E. part still continued under the rule of
Hiero of Syracuse as an ally of Rome ; but
after the revolt of Syracuse in the second
Punic war, and the conquest of that city by
Marcellus, the whole island was made a Roman
province, and was administered by a praetor.
Under the Roman dominion more attention
was paid to agriculture than to commerce, and
consequently the Greek cities on the coast
gradually declined in prosperity and in wealth.
Augustus, after Ms conquest of Sex. Pompey,
who had held the island for aeveral years,
founded colonies at Messana, Tauromenium,
Catana, Syracuse, Thermae, and Panormus
(Strab. p. 272). On the downfaU of the Roman
empire, Sicily formed part of the kingdom of
the Ostrogoths ; but it was taken from them by
Belisarius in a.d. 536, and annexed to the By
zantine empire. It continued » provMce of

872 SICIMA
tMs empire till 828, when it was conquered by
the Saracens.
Sicima. [Neapolis, No. 5.]
Sicinius. 1. 1. Sicinius Bellutus, the leader
of the plebeians in their secession to the Sacred
Mount in B.C. 494. He was chosen one of the
first tribunea.— 2. L. Sicinius Dentatus, caUed
by some writers the Roman AcMUes (Gell. ii.
11). He is said to have fought in 120 battles,
to have slain eight of the enemy in aingle combat,
to have received forty-five wounda on the front
of hia body, and to have accompanied the
triumphs of nine generals, whose victories were
principally owing to Ms valour. He was tri
bune of the plebs in 454. He was put to death
by the decemvirs in 450, because he endeavoured
to persuade the plebeians to secede to the
Sacred Mount. The persons sent to assassinate
him feU upon him in a lonely spot, but he
killed most of them before they succeeded in
despatcMng him. (Dionys. x. 48, xi. 25-27 ;
Liv. iii. 43 ; Val. Max. ii. 3, 24.)
Sicinus (SIkivos : 3iKivirns : Sikino), a small
island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades,
between Pholegandrus and Ios, with a town of
the same name (Strab. p. 484 ; Scyl. p. 19). It
is said to have been originally called Oenoe
from its cultivation of the vine, but to have
been named Sicinus after a son of Thoas and
Oenoe (Ap. Rh. i. 623 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.). It
was probably colonised by the Ionians. During
the Persian war it submitted to Xerxes (Hdt.
viii. 4), but it afterwards formed part of the
Athenian maritime empire.
Sicoris (Segre), a river in Hispania Tarraco
nensis, which had its source in the territory of
the Cerretani, divided the Dergetes and Lace-
tani, flowed by Derda and, after receiving the
river Cmga (Cinca), fell into the Iberus, near
Octogesa (Caes. B, G. i. 40, 48 ; Lucan, iv. 13).
Siculi. [Sicilia.]
Siculum Fretum, Siculum Mare. [Sicilia.]
Siciilus Flaccus. [Flaccus.]
Sicyonia (SiKvwvia), a small district in the
NE. of Peloponnesus, bounded on the E. by the
territory of Corinth, on the W. by Achaia, on
the S. by the territory of PMius and Cleonae,
and on the N. by the Corinthian gulf. The
area of the country was probably somewhat less
than 100 square mUes. It consisted of a plain
near the sea with mountains in the interior.
Its rivers, which ran in a north-easterly direc
tion, were Sythas on the frontier of Achaia,
Helisson, SeUels, and Asopus in the interior,
and Nemea on the frontier of the territory of
Corinth. The land was fertile, and produced
exceUent oU. Its almonds and its fish were
also much prized. Its chief town was Sicyon
(%iKvdv : ^iKvdvios), which was situated a little
to the W. of the river Asopus, and at the dis
tance of twenty stadia from the sea. It ia
situated on a plateau with steep sides, afford
ing a defensible position. The harbour, which,
according to some, was connected with the city
by means of long walls, was weU fortified, and
formed a town of itself. Sicyon was regarded
as one of the most ancient cities of Greece. It
is said to have been originally called Aegialea
or Aegiali (AlyiaXeia, AlyiaXoi), after an ancient
kmg, Aegialeus (a name clearly formed from
the tribe or district); to have been subse
quently named Mecone (MriKdvri), and to have
been finally called Sicyon from an Athenian of
this name, who became Mng of the city. (Hes.
Th. 535; Strab. p. 382; Paus. ii. 6, 5.) The
story suggests that the district of Sicyon was
origmaUy only a part of the Achaean AegaUa,

SICYONIA
and became an independent state when Athe-
man influence and aid withdrew it from the
rest of Achaea. Sicyon is represented by Homer
as forming part of the empire of Agamemnon
(It. ii. 572, xxiii. 299) ; but on the mvasion of
Peloponnesus it became subject to Phalces, the
son of Temenus, and was henceforward a Dorian
state. The ancient inhabitants, however, were
formed into a fourth tribe, caUed Aegialeis, wMch
poaaessed equal rights with the tMee tribes of
the Hylleis, Pamphyli, and Dymanatae, into
which the Dorian conquerors were divided.
Sicyon, on account of the smaU extent of its
territory, never attained much political import
ance, and was generally dependent either on
Argos or Sparta. At the time of the second
Messeman war it became subject to a succes
sion of tyrants, who administered their power
with moderation and juatice for 100 years (Ar.
Pol. v. 9, 21). The first of these tyrants was
Andreas, who began to rule B.C. 676. He was
followed in succession by Myron, Aristonymus,
and Clisthenes, on whose death, about 576, a
republican form of government was established.
Clisthenes had no male children, but only a
daughter, Agariste, who was married to the
Athenian Megacles (Hdt. vi. 126 ; Paus. ii. 8, 1).
In the Persian war the Sicyonians sent fifteen
ships to the battle of Salamis, and 300 hoplites

Coin of Sicyon, fourth cent. B.C.
Obv., SE : Chimaera ; rev., dove in olive-wreath. (The
Chimaera refers to the legend of the local hero BeUero
phon ; the dove to Aphrodite, in whose temple at Sicyon
stood a statue by Canaohus.)
to the battle of Plataea (Hdt. viii. 43, ix. 28).
In the interval between the Persian and the
Peloponnesian wars, the Sicyonians were twice
defeated and their country laid waste by the
Athenians, first under Tolmides in 456, and
again under Pericles in 454. In the Pelopon
nesian war they took part with the Spartans.
Sicyon was occupied by Ptolemy in 808, and by
Demetrius Poliorcetes in 303, when its name
was changed (but only for a short time) to
Demetrias (Diod. xx. 102). In the middle of
the third century Sicyon took an active part m
public affairs in consequence of its being the
native town of Aratus, who united it to the
Achaean League in 251 (Plut. Arat, 9 ; Pol. ii. 48).
Under the Romans it graduaUy declined ; and in
the time of Pausanias, in the second century of
the Chriatian era, many of its public buildings
were in ruins. — Sicyon was for a long time one
of the cMef seats of Grecian art. It gave its
name to one of the great schools of painting,
which was founded by Eupompus, and which
produced PompMMs and Apelles. It is also
said to have been the earliest school of statuary
in Greece, which was introduced into Sicyon by
Dipoenus and Scyllis from Crete about 560;
but its earliest native artist of celebrity was Can-
achus. Lysippus was also a native of Sicyon. —
There are considerable ruins of the ancient city,
showing the position of the Acropolis, the
temple of the Dioscuri, the Stadion and the
Theatre, in wMch the tiers of seats and the

SIDA
stage have in recent years been completely
excavated by the American School at Athens.
Sida Side (SISr, SiShns, and 2i$4,Tr,s, Sidltes,
and Sidetes). 1. (Eski Adalia, Ru.) a city of
Pamphylia, on the coast, a little W. of the river
melas. It was an Aeolian colony from Cyme in
-Aeolis, and was a chief seat of the worship of
Athene, who is represented on its coins holding
a pomegranate, (o-rSTj) as the emblem of the
city. In the division of the provinces under
Constantine, it waa made the capital of Pam
phylia Prima. (Xen. An. i. 2, 12; Athen. p.
S50 ; Paus. viii. 17, 31; Cic. ad Fam. iii. 6.)—
^. The old name of Polemonium, from which a
flat district in the NE. of Pontus Polemoniacus,
along the coast, obtained the name of Sidene
{SiSrivri). Sidenus. [Polemonium.]
SldlCini, an Ausoman people in the NW. of
Campania and on the borders of Samnium, who,
bemg hard pressed by the Samnites, united
themselves to the Campanians (Liv. vii. 29;
Strab. p. 237). Their chief town was Teanum.
Sidon, gen. -onis (SiSdv, gen. ^iScTivos, SiUvos,
O. T. Zidon ; ~2i8dv, SiSdvios, SiS6vios, Sidonius :
Saida), for a long time the most powerful, and
probably the most ancient, of the cities of
Phoemce. It stood m a plam, about a mile
wide, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 200
stadia (20 geogr. mUes) N. of Tyre, 400 stadia
(40 geogr. mUes) S. of Berytus, 66 miles W. of
Damaacus, and a day's journey NW. of the
source of the Jordan at Paneas. It had a fine
double harbour, now almost fiUed with sand ;
and was strongly fortified. It was the cMef
seat of the maritime power of Phoenice, until
eclipsed by its own colony, Tyre [Tteus] ; and
its power on the land side seems to have
extended over aU Phoenice, and at one period
over a part of Palestine. In the expedition of
Xerxes agamst Greece, the Sidomans furnished
the best ships m the whole fleet, and their king
obtamed the Mghest place, next to Xerxes, in
the council, and above the king of Tyre. Sidon
received a great blow to her prosperity M the
reign of Artaxerxes HI. Ochus, when the Si
domans, havmg taken part in the revolt of
Phoemce and Cyprus, and bemg betrayed to
Ochus by their own Mng, Tennes, burnt them
selves with their city, B.C. 351. The city was
rebMlt, but the fortifications were not restored,
and the place was therefore of no further im
portance m mihtary Mstory. It shared the
fortunes of the rest of Phoenicia, and under the
Romans it retamed much of its commercial im
portance, which it has not yet entirely lost.
[Phoenice.] Sidonius Apollinaris, whose fuU name was
C Sollius Modestus Apollinaris Sidonius, was
born at Lyons about A.D. 431. At an early
age he married PapiamUla, the cMld of Flavius
Avitus; and upon the elevation of Ms father-
in-law to the imperial dignity (456), he accom
panied Mm to Rome, and celebrated Ms consul
ship in a poem stiU extant. Avitus raised
Sidonius to the rank of a senator, nominated
him prefect of the city, and caused his statue to
be placed among the effigies which graced the
library of Trajan. The downfall of Avitus
threw a cloud over the fortunes of Sidonius,
who having been shut up in Lyons, and having
endured the hardaMps of the siege, purchased
pardon by a complimentary address to the
victorious Majorian. The poet was not only
forgiven, but was rewarded with a laurelled
bust, and with the title of count. After passing
some years m retirement during the reign of I

SIGNIA 873
Severus, Sidonius was despatched to Rome
(467) in the character of ambassador from the
Arverni to Anthemius, and on this occasion
delivered a third panegyric in honour of a third
prince, which proved not less successful than
his former efforts, for he was now raised to the
rank of a patrician, again appointed prefect of
the city, and once more honoured with a statue.
But a still more remarkable tribute was soon
afterwards rendered to his talents ; for although
he was not a priest, the vacant see of Clermont
in Auvergne was forced upon his reluctant
acceptance (472) at the death of the bishop
Eparchius. During the remainder of his life
he devoted Mmself to the duties of Ms sacred
office, and especially resisted with energy the
progress of Arianism. He died in 482, or, ac
cording to others, in 484. The extant works of
Sidonius are :— (1) Garmina, twenty-four in
number, composed in various measures upon
various subjects. Of these the most important
are the three panegyrics already mentioned.
(2) Epistolarum Libri IX, containing 147
letters, many of them interspersed with pieces
of poetry. They are addressed to a wide circle
of relatives and friends upon topics connected
with politics, literature and domestic occur
rences, but seldom touch upon ecclesiastical
matters. They are imitations of the letters of
Pliny and Symmachus. The writings of Si
donius are characterised by great subtlety of
thought, expressed in phraseology abounding
with harsh and violent metaphors, and full of
learned mythology. Hence he is generally
obscure; but his works tMoughout bear the
impress of an acute and highly cultivated
intellect. — The best editions of his works are
by Sinnond, Paris, 1652, and by C. Liitiohann,
Berl. 1887.
Sidiis (SiSovs, -oSvtos: 2i5oiWios), afortified
place in the territory of Corinth, on the bay of
CencMeae, and a Uttle to the E. of Crommyon.
It was taken by the Lacedaemonians in the
Corinthian war, and retaken by Iphicrates.
(Xen. Hell. iv. 4, 13, iv. 5, 19.)
Sidussa (StSovo-o-a), a small place in Lydia,
belonging to the territory of the Ionian city of
ErytMa (Thuc. viii. 24).
Sidyma (to SiSvpa: Tortoorcar Hisar, Ru.),
a town in the interior of Lycia, on a mountain,
N. of the mouth of Xanthus (Plin. v. 101 ; Ptol.
v. 3, 5 ; Hierocl. p. 684). There are interesting
remains of the town, with valuable inscriptions.
Siga (Slya), a considerable seaport town of
Mauretania Caesariensis, on a river of the same
name, the mouth of which opened into a large
bay, which formed the harbour of the town
(Ptol. iv. 2, 2 ; Strab. p. 829).
SIgeum (Yenisheri), the NW. promontory of
the Troad, of Asia Minor, and of all Asia, and
the S. headland at the entrance of the Helles
pont, opposite to the Prom. Mastusium (C.
Helles), at the extremity of the Thracian Cher
sonese. It is here that Homer places the
Grecian fleet and camp during the Trojan war
[Teoja]. Near it was a seaport town of the
same name, which was the object of contention
between the Aeolians and the Athenians in the
war in which Pittacus distinguished Mmself by
Ms valour and in which Alcaeus lost his shield.
[Pittacus ; Alcaeus.] It was afterwards the
residence of the Pisistratidae, when they were
expelled from Athens. (Strab. p. 599; Hdt.
v. 95.)
Sigma (Sigmnus : Segni), a town in Latium
on the E. side of the Volscian mountains, said
to have been founded by Tarquinius Priscus

874

SIGRIUM

(Liv. i. 55; Dionys. iv. 63). It held a strong
position on a hill commanding the valley of the
Trerus and overlooking the plain towards
Praeneste. It was a Latin colony m the time
of the Punic wars, and was f aittiful to Rome
(Liv. xxi. i. 10) ; and it was afterwards an im
portant municipal town. It was celebrated for
its temple of Jupiter Urius, for its astringent
wine (Mart. xiii. 116; Strab. p. 237), for its
pears, and for a particular kind of tesselated
pavement, called opus Signinum. There are
still remains of the polygonal walls of the

Gate of Signia.
ancient town, including a gate which is
remarkable instance of Cyclopean building.
Sigrium (^.iypiov : Sigri), the W. promontory
of the island of Lesbos (Strab. p. 616).
Sila Silva (Aspromonte), a large forest in
Bruttium on the Apennines, extending S. of
Consentia to the Sicilian straits, a distance of
700 stadia. It was celebrated for the excellent
pitch wMch it yielded. (Strab. p. 261.)
Silanion (SiXavicuv), a distinguished Greek
sculptor, was an Athenian and a contemporary
of Lysippus, about 324. The statues of Silanion
belonged to two classes, ideal and actual por
traits. Of the former the most celebrated was
his dying Jocasta, in which a deadly paleness
was given to the face by the mixture of silver
with the bronze (Plin. xxxiv. 82). His statue
of Sappho, which stood in the prytaneum at
Syracuse m the time of Verres, is aUuded to
by Cicero in terms of the highest praise (Cic.
Verr. iv. 57, 125).
, Silanus, Junius. 1. M., was praetor 212.
In 210 he accompanied P. Scipio to Spain, and
served under Mm with great distinction during
the whole of the war in that country. He fell
in battle against the Boii in 196, fighting under
the consul M. Marcellus. (Liv. xxv. 2, xxviii. 1 ;
Pol. xi. 20-26; App. Hisp. 28, 82.)— 2. D., sur
named Manlianus, son of the jurist T. Manlius
Torquatus, but adopted by a D. Junius Silanus.
He was praetor 142, and obtained Macedonia
as his province. Being accused of extortion
by the inhabitants of the province, the senate
referred the investigation of the charges to his
own father, Torquatus, who condemned Ms son,
and banished him from his presence ; and when
Silanus hanged himself in grief, Ms father
would not attend Ms funeral. (Val. Max. v. 8,
8 ; Cic. Fin. i. 7.)— 3. M., consul 109, fought in
this year against the Cimbri M Transalpine

SILARUS
Gaul, and was defeated. He was accused in
104, by the tribune Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus,
in consequence of this defeat, but was acquitted.
(Liv. Ep. 65 ; Sail. Jug. 48 ; Flor. iii. 3, 4.) —
4. D., stepfather of M. Brutua, the murderer of
Caeaar, having married his mother Servilia.
He was elected consul in 63 for the followmg
year; and in consequence of Ms being consul
designatus, he was first asked for his opinion
by Cicero in the debate in the senate on the
punishment of the Catilinarian conspirators.
He was consul 62, with L. Licmius Murena,
along with whom he proposed the Lex Licinia
Julia. (SaU. Cat. 50 ; App. B. C. ii. 5 ; Plut.
Cic. 20, 21 ; Cic. Off. ii. 16, ad Att. i. 1, n. 9.) —
5. M., son of No. 4 and of Servilia, served in
Gaul as Caesar's legatus in 53. After Caesar's
murder in 44, he accompanied M. Lepidus over
the Alps, and m the following year Lepidus
sent him with a detachment of troops into Cis
alpine Gaul, where he fought on the side of
Antony. He was consul in 25. He had two-
sisters, one married to M. Lepidus, the triumvir,
and the other to C. Cassius, one of Caesar's
murderers. (Caes. B. 67-. vi. 1 ; Dio Cass. xlvi.
38, 51, liii. 25 ; Veil. Pat. n. 77.)— 6. M., consul
19, with L. Norbanus Balbus. In 33 Ms
daughter Claudia was married to C. Caesar,
afterwards the emperor Caligula. Silanus was
governor of Africa in the reign of CaUgula, but
was compelled by his father-in-law to put an
end to his life. Julius Graecmus, the father of
Agricola, had been ordered by Caligula to
accuse Silanus, but he decUned the odious
task. (Tac. Ann. ii. 59, iii. 24, vi. 20, Hist. iv. 48,
Agr. 4 ; Suet. Cat 12, 23.) — 7. App., consul a.d.
28 with Silius Nerva. Claudius soon after Ma
accession gave to SUanus in marriage Domitia
Lepida, the mother of his wife MessaUina, and
treated him otherwise with the greatest dis
tinction. But shortly afterwards, having re
fused the embraces of MessalUna, lie was put to
death by Claudius, on the accusationa of Mes
saUina and Narcissus. (Dio Cass. ix. 14 ; Tac.
Ann. iv. 68, vi. 9, xi. 29 ; Suet. Claud. 87.) The
first wife of Silanus was AemiUa Lepida, the
proneptis or great-grand-daughter of Augustus.
—8. M., son of No. 7., consul 46. Silanus was
proconsul of Asia at the succession of Nero in
54, and was poisoned by command of Agrippina,
who feared that he might avenge the death of
Ms brother [No. 9] and that his descent from
Augustus might lead him to be preferred to the
youthful Nero. (Dio Cass. Ix. 27 ; Tac. Ann. xiii.
1.) — 9. L., also a son of No. 7, was betrothed to
Octavia, the daughter of the emperor Claudius,
wMch roused the jealousy of Agrippina, and
when, tMough her influence,Octavia was married
to Nero, in 48, Silanus knew that Ms fate was
sealed and therefore put an end to his life
(Tac. Ann. xii. 3, 8 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 5, 81).— 10.
D. Junius Torquatus Silanus, probably also a
son of No. 7, was consul 53. He was compelled
by Nero in 64 to put an end to his life, because
he had boasted of being descended from Augus
tus. (Tac. Ann. xii. 58, xv. 35.) — 11. L. Junius
Torquatus Silanus, son of No. 8, and conse
quently the atnepos, or great-great-great-grand
son of Augustus. His descent from Augustus
rendered him an object of suspicion to Nero.
He was accordingly accused in 65, was sen
tenced to banishment, and was shortly after
wards put to death at Barium in Apulia. (Tac.
Ann. xv. 52, xvi.- 7-9.)
Silarus (Sele), a river M lower Italy, forming
the boundary between Lucania and Campania,
rises in the Apennines, and after receiving the

SILENUS
Tanager (Negri) and Color (Calore), falls into
the Sinus Paestanus a little to the N. of Paes
tum. Its water is said to have petrified plants.
(Strab. pp. 251, 252 ; Mel. ii, 4, 9.)
Silenus (2eiXnv6s). 1. (Mythological.) Si
lenus, who is famUiar in Greek and Roman
literature and art as the satyr- like half-drunken
attendant of the youthful Dionysus, or foster-
father of the infant Dionysus, was origmaUy
something quite different. In Lydia, wMch was
always recognised as his home (Lucian, Dear.
Cone. 4) he was the god of springs and running
water, and even the personification of water.
In popular belief there were several Sileni, who
were, in fact, male Naiads (among whom may
be reckoned Maesyas), and also inventors of
the flute ; but one Silcnus had a separate per-
sonaUty, and was regarded as the Lydian water-
god. As was the case with nymphs and other
nature-deities in Greece, Silenus was credited
with prophetic power. This attribute, as well
as Ms connexion with springs, appears in the
Lydian story of Midas capturing him by mixing
wine with the spring, and so extorting a pro-

SILSILIS

875

Silenus on a wine-skin. (From a bronze statue at
Naples : originally belonging to a fountain.)
pheey. [Midas.] It is probably right to under
stand the ass m the Asiatic myth of Silenus as
symbolismg Ms prophetic power, sMce Pindar
speak3 of the ass as the animal sacrificed to
the Hyperborean ApoUo (Pyth. x. 33). Even
m Greece and Italy there were traces of the
beUef m Sileni as water-deities. In the Homeric
Hymn to Aphrodite (262) they are companions
of nymphs. At Malea in Lacoma the people
believed that SUenus gave them their water,
and that he was the son of a Malean naiad
(Paus. iii. 25, 2) ; and in Italy fountains were
called ' silani,' and the water was made to flow
from the head or from the waterskm of a
sculptured SUenus (Lucr. vi. 1264). When
the worsMp of Dionysus prevailed, it was
natural that Silenus should be brought into
connexion with that deity as the tree-god,
since water gives vitality to trees ; and when
Dionysus was worshipped specially aa the god
of the vine and of wine, a transformation came
upon Silenus. Instead of being the deity of
springs, he was the drunken attendant of the

wine-god, himself a demigod or demon, like
the Satyrs : his water-skin became a wine
skin, and the ass, instead of a symbol, of
prophetic power, was travestied in Bacchic
processions, and was supposed to be needed to
carry Silenus, a drunken old man supported
by other satyrs. (Ov. A. A. i. 548; Lucian,
Bacch. 2.) His parentage, too, is Grecised:
he is the son of Hermes (Serv. ad Eel. vi. 18),
or of Pan (Nonn. Dionys. xiv. 97). In art he
is represented as an oldish man with shaggy
hair and beard, crowned with ivy : sometimes
he is seated astride on his wine-skin ; some
times he has the infant Dionysus in his arms -T
in the pictures and reliefs of Bacchic proces
sions he is riding on an ass ; sometimes also
playing on a flute (as in the cut on p. 297).
— 2. (Literary.) A native of Calatia, and a
writer upon Roman history in the second
century B.C. (Cic. Div. i. 49 ; Athen. p. 542).
Silicense Flumen, a river in Hispania Baetica
in the neighbourhood of Corduba, probably the
Guadajoz, or a tributary of the latter (Bell.
Alex. 57).
C. Silius Italicus, whose full name seems to
have been C. Gatius Silius Italicus (C. I. L. vi.
1984), a Roman poet, was born about a.d. 25.
The place of his birth is uncertain, as is also-
the import of Ms surname Italicus. Some
have taken it to mean that he was born at
Italica in Spain; but if that had been so
Martial would probably have claimed him as a
feUow-countryman. From his early years he
devoted himself to oratory and poetry, taking
Cicero as his model in the former, and Virgil
m the latter. He acquired great reputation
as an advocate, and was afterwards one of the
Centumviri. He was consul in 68, the year in
which Nero perished ; he was admitted to
famiUar intercourse with Vitellius, and was,
subsequently proconsul of Asia. (Tac. Hist.
iii. 65.) His two favourite residences were a
mansion near Puteoli, formerly the Academy
of Cicero, and the house in the vicinity of
Naples once occupied by Virgil (Mart. vii. 63,
xi. 48) ; and here he continued to live until he
had completed his seventy-fifth year, when,
suffering from an incurable disease, he starved
himself to death (PUn. Ep. iii. 7). The great
work of Silius ItaUcus was a heroic pcem in
seventeen books, entitled Punica, which has
descended to us entire. It contains a narrative
of the events of the second Punic war, from the
capture of Saguntum to the triumph of Scipio
Africanus. The materials are derived almost
entirely from Livy and Polybius. It is a dull,
heavy performance, with little in it that can
be called poetry. — Editions are by Drakenborch,
4to, Traj. ad Rhen. 1717 ; Ruperti, 2 vols. 8vo,
Goetting. 1795; Bauer, Leips. 1890; and M
Weber's Coip. Pod. Lat.
Silo, Q. Pompaedius, the leader of the Marsi
in the Social war, and the soul of the whole
undertaking. He fell in battle against Q.
Metellus Pius, B.C. 88, and with his death the
war came to an end. (App. B. C. i. 40-53;
Veil. Pat. ii. 16.)
Silo (SiXd, -ZriXd, SnXdv, SiXovv : O. T. Shi-
loh andSMlon: Seilun), a city of Palestine, in
the mountains of Ephraim. [See Did. of the
Bible.) , ,
Silsilis (2iXo-iXis : Hajjar Selseleh or Jebel
Selseleh,B,u.),a fortified station in Upper Egypt,
on the W. bank of the Nile, S. of Apollmopolis.
the Great. The name signifies the Bock or
Hill of a Chain, and is derived from the cir
cumstance of the river flowing here m a ravine

S76 SILURES
so narrow that a chain can easily be stretched
across it to command the navigation.
Siliires, a powerful people in Britain, in
habiting South Wales, long offered a formidable
resistance to the Romans, and were the only
people in the island who at a later time main
tained their independence against the English
{Tac. Ann. xii. 2 ; Beda, HE. i. 12).
Silvanus, an Italian deity of the country, very
nearly akin to Faunus and also to the agri
cultural Mars [see pp. 340, 529]. From Faunus
he differed little in attributes, except that
woods and trees were Ms especial province
(Tibull. ii. 5, 30) ; but he also presided over
flocks and herds (Verg. Aen. viii. 600), from
which, like Faunus, he drove off wolves. As god
-of the fields and homestead, he was regarded
as defender of boundaries (Hor. Epod. ii. 22).
By agriculturists he was therefore worshipped
as their protector in tMee ways : (1) as Sil
vanus Domesticus, who guarded the homestead ;
{2) as Silvanus Agrestis, who gave fertUity to
the fields ; (3) as Silvanus Orientalis, who
watched over the place where the boundary-
fence started. From the guardiansMp of the
house he assumed a character like that of a Lar
or of a Genius, so that he appears in inscriptions
with the name of some family attached (G.I.L.
vi. 645). For some reason not easy to explain,
Silvanus was speciaUy connected with the
pine-tree and cypress (Verg. Georg. i. 20)
Some have supposed that this implied a super
intendence of the dead and of fnneral rites,
and that the CoUegia Silvani had thia function,
but there is no clear evidence of this. The
attribute of the pine-tree gave Mm the name
Silvanus Dendrophorus (C. I. L. vi. 641), and
brought him mto connexion with the dendro-
phori, or pine-bearers of Cybele. A tradition
sprang up, to explain hia bearing a pine or a
cypress branch, that Silvanus loved the youth
Oyparissus, who was turned Mto a cypress-tree.
(Serv. ad Georg. i. 20 ; cf. Ov. Met. x. 120.)
Silvium (Silvinus), a town of the Peucetii in
Apulia on the borders of Lucania, twenty miles
SE._ of Venusia (Strab. p. 283 ; Diod. xx. 80).
Silvius, the son of Ascanius, is said to have
been so caUed because he was born in a wood.
All the succeeding kings of Alba bore the cog
nomen Silvius. The first trace of this line of
Alban kings is found in Alexander Polyhistor
(ap. Serv. ad Aen. viii. 330), who wrote early
in the first century B.C. The series of these
mytMcal kings is given somewhat differently
by Livy, Ovid, and Dionysius, as the following
list will show : Dionysius.
Aeneas.
Ascanius. Silvius.
Aeneas Silvius.
Latinus Silvius.
Alba. Capetusi
Capys Silvius.
Calpetus. Tiberinus.
Agrippa.AUadius. Aventinus. Procas.
Amulius.
But the lists are all due to the same cause.
The date of the fall of Troy having been fixed
at 400 years before the first Olympiad, the
inference was that Rome was fourided 432

Livy.

Ovid.

1. Aeneas.

Aeneas.

2. Ascanius.

Ascanius.

3. Silvius.

Silvius.

4. Aeneas SUvius.

5. Latinus SUvius.

Latmus.

6. Alba.

Alba.

7. Atys.

Epytus.

8. Capys.

Capys.

9. Capetus.

Capetus.

10. Tiberinus.

Tiberinus.

11. Agrippa.

Remulus.

12. Romulus Silvius

Acrota.

13. Aventinus.

Aventinus

14. Proca

Palatinus.

15. Amulius.

Amulius.

SIMONIDES
years after Aeneas started on Ms voyage. When
the story of the connexion of Aeneas with the
origin of Rome was first popularised (apparently
by Naevius) it was imagined that Romulus
directly succeeded him [see p. 797] ; but it be
came necessary to reconcile this with the
cMonology wMch made several centuries inter
vene. To fill up thiB gap, and at the same time
to maintain the descent from Aeneas, and the
colonisation of Rome from Alba, fifteen gene
rations of Alban kings were invented, with no
distinct personality or legendary history, and
with names partly (as Ascanius and Capys)
taken from Homeric or Trojan legends, partly
connected with Roman local or tribal names.
(Liv. i. 3 ; Dionys. i. 70, 71 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 609-
624.) Simmias (hippias). 1. Of Thebes, first the
disciple of the Pythagorean phUosopher Philo-
laiis, and afterwards the friend and disciple of
Socrates, at whose death he was present, having
come from Thebes, with his brother Cebes
(Plat. Phaedr. p. 242). The two brothers are
the principal speakers, besides Socrates him
self, in the Phaedo. Shnmias wrote twenty-
tMee dialogues on pMlosopMcal subjects, all of
wMch are lost. — 2. Of Rhodes, a poet and gram
marian of the Alexandrian school, flourished
about B.C. 300. The Greek Anthology contains
six epigrams ascribed to Simmias, besides tMee
short poems of that fantastic species called
griphi or carmina figurata — that is, pieces in
which the lines are so arranged as to make the
whole poem resemble the form of some object ;
those of Simmias are entitled, from their forms,
the Wings (irrepvyes) [comp. the poem of
George Herbert], the Egg (d6v), and the Hatchet
(ireXeKVs). Simois. [Teoas.] As a mythological person
age, the river-god Simois is the son of Oceanus
and Tethys, and the father of Astyochus and
Hieromneme (Hes. Th. 342 ; cf. II. v. 774, xii.
22 ;^Verg. Aen. v. 261).
Simon (Sipav). 1. One of the disciples of
Socrates, and by trade a leather-cutter. Socrates
was accustomed to visit Ms shop, and converse
on various subjects. These conversations
Simon afterwards committed to writing, in
thirty-tMee dialogues, all of which are Mat.
(Diog. Laert. ii. 122.) — 2. Of Aegina, a cele
brated atatuary in bronze, who flouriehed about
B.C. 475.
Simonides (Sipwvitiris). 1. Of Amorgos, was
the second, both in time and reputation, of the
three principal iambic poets of the early period
of Greek literature : namely, Archilochus, Si
monides, and Hipponax ; but in merit there is a
wide interval between the vigour of the warlike
and roving ArcMlochus and the stay-at-home,
somewhat commonplace Simonides. He was a
native of Samos, whence he led a colony to the
neighbouring island of Amorgos; where he
founded tMee cities, Minoa, Aegialus, and
Arcesine, in the first of which he fixed Ms own
abode. He lived about B.C. 664. The iambic
poems of Simonides were of two species, gnomic
and satirical. The most important of his extant
fragments is a satire upon women, in which he
derives the various, though generaUy bad,
qualities of women from the variety of their
origin: thus the uncleanly woman is formed
from the swine ; the cunning woman, from the
fox ; the talkative woman, from the dog, and so
on. — The beBt separate edition of the fragments
of Simonides of Amorgos is by Welcker, Bonn,
1835 ; also in Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Graec. 1866. —
2. Of Ceos, one of the most celebrated lyric

SIMPLICIUS
poets of Greece, was the perfecter of the Elegy
and Epigram, and the rival of Lasus and Pindar
in the Dithyramb and the Epinician Ode. He
was born at Iulis, in Ceos, B.C. 556, and was the
son of Leoprepes. He appears to have been
brought up to musio and poetry as a profession.
From Ms native island he proceeded to Athens,
probably on the invitation of Hipparchus, who
attached him to Ms society by great rewards
([Plat.] Hipparch. p. 228; Ael. V.H. viii. 2).
After remaMing at Athens some time, probably
even after the expulaion of Hippiaa, he went to
Thessaly, where he lived under the patronage
of the Aleuads and Scopads (Theocr. xvi. 84).
He afterwards returned to Athens, and soon
had the noblest opportunity of employing Ms
poetic powers in the celebration of the great
events of the Persian wars. In 489, he con
quered Aeschylus in the contest for the prize
wMch the Athenians offered for an elegy on
those who feU at Marathon [p. 28, a]. Ten
years later, he composed the epigrams which
were inscribed upon the tomb of the Spartans
who feU at Thermopylae, as well as an enco
mium on the same heroes (Paus. iii. 8, 2 ; Thuc.
i. 132) ; and he also celebrated the battles of
Artemisium and Salamis, and the great men
who commanded m them. He had completed
Ms eightieth year when Ms long poetical career
at Athens was crowned by the victory wMch he
gained with the dithyrambic chorus (477), being
the fifty-sixth prize wMch he had carried off.
Shortly after this he was Mvited to Syracuse by
Hiero, at whose court he Uved tUl Ms death in 467.
Simomdes was a great favourite with Hiero,
and was treated by the tyrant with the greatest
munificence. He stiU continued, when at Syra
cuse, to employ Ms muse occasionally in the
service of other Grecian states. Simonides is
said to have been the Mventor of the mnemonic
art (cf . Cic. de Or. n. 86, 352), and of the long
vowels and double letters M the Greek alphabet.
He made literature a profession, and is said to
have been the first who took money for his
poema ; and the reproach of avarice is too often
Drought agamst Mm by Ms contemporary and
rival, Pindar, as weU aa by subsequent writers,
to be altogether discredited. The cMef cha
racteristics of the poetry of Simonides were
melodious sweetness and elaborate finish, com
bined with the truest poetic conception and per
fect power of expression, though in originality
and fervour he was far inferior, not only to the
early lyric poets, such as Sappho and Alcaeus,
but also to Ms contemporary Pmdar. He was
probably both the most proUfic and the most
generally popular of the Grecian lyric poets. —
The best edition of Ms fragments in a separate
form is by SchneidewM, Bruns. 1835; also in
Bergk, Pod. Lyr. Graec. 1866. The Lamen-
tatio Danaae is separately edited by AMens,
Hanov. 1853.
Simplicms (SipirX'iKios), one of the last philo
sophers of the Neo-PlatoMc school, was a
native of CUicia and a disciple of Ammonius
and Damascius. In consequence of the perse
cutions to which the pagan phUosophers were
exposed m the reign of Justinian, SimpUcius
was one of the seven phUosophers who took
refuge at the court of the Persian Mng Chosroes.
[Peiscianus.] These philosophers returned
home about a.d. 533 in consequence of a treaty
of peace concluded between Chosroes and Jus
tinian, in wMch the former had stipulated that
the philosophers should be allowed to return
without risk, and to practise the rites of their
paternal faith. Of the subsequent fortunes of

SINGIDUNUM

87T

the seven philosophers we learn nothing ; nor
do we know where SimpUcius lived and taught.
SimpUcius wrote commentaries on several of
Aristotle's works. His commentaries on the
Categories, on the De Coelo, on the Physica
Auscultatio, and on the De Anima are extant,
and are of great value for the history of philo
sophy. In explaining Aristotle, SimpUcius
endeavours to show that Aristotle substantially
agrees with Plato even on those poMts which
the former controverts ; but though he attaches
himself too much to the Neo-Platonists, his
writings are marked by sound sense and real
learnmg. — Ed. Karsten, 1865. He also wrote a
commentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus,
which is likewise extant : ed. Enk, Vienna,
1867. The complete works by Schweighauser,
Leips. 1800.
Simyra (ra 1,ipvpa : Zamura or Sumore), a
fortress on the coast of Phoenice, a little way
N. of the mouth of the Eleutherus, of no im
portance except as being the point from which
the N. part of Lebanon was usually approached
(Strab. 753).
Sinae (Sivai), the easternmost people of Asia,.
of whom nothing but the name was known to the
western nations, till about the time of Ptolemy,
who describes their country as bounded on the
N. by Serica, and on the S. and W. by India
extra Gangem. It corresponded to the S. part
of China and the E. part of the Burmese
peninsula. (Ptol. vii. 3.)
Sinai or Sina (LXXSiva: Jebel-et-Tur), a
cluster of dark, lofty, rocky mountains m the S.
angle of the triangular peninsula enclosed
between the two heads of the Red Sea, and
bounded on the N. by the deserts on the borders
of Egypt and Palestine. [See Did. of the Bible.]
Sinda (2ivSa: SivSeis, Sindensis). 1. A city
of Pisidia, N. of Cibyra, near the river Caularis
(Strab. pp. 570, 630; Liv. xxxviii. 15).— 2, 3.
[SlNDI.] Sindl {SivSoi). 1. A people of Asiatic Sar
matia, on the E. coast of the Euxine, and at the
foot of the Caucasus. They probably dwelt in
and about the peninsula of Taman (between
the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea), and to the
S. of the river Hypanis (Kouban). They had a
capital called Sinda (Anapa 1) with a harbour
('SivSiKbs Xipiiv). Their country is called
Sij'Si/dj. They are also mentioned by the
names of Sindones and Sindiani. (Hdt. iv. 28 ;
Mel. ii. 19 ; Strab. p. 495.)— 2. A people on the
E. coast of India extra Gangem (m Cochin
China), also called Sindae (HvSai), and with a
capital city Sinda (Ptol. vU. 2, 7).
Sindice. [Sindi.J
Sindomana (Sihwan), a city of India, on the
lower course of the Indus, near the island of
Pattalene (Arr. An. vi. 15 ; Strab. p. 701).
Sindus (SivSos), a town in the Macedoman
district of Mygdoma on the Thermaic gulf, and
at the mouth of the Echedorus (Hdt. vii. 123).
Singara (to Hyyapa: Sinjar), a strongly
fortified city and Roman colony in the interior
of Mesopotamia, eighty-four Roman miles S. of
Nisibis. It lay in a dry plaM, at the foot of M.
Singaras (Simjar), an E. prolongation of M.
Masius. It was the acene of the defeat of Con
stantius by Sapor, through which the place
was lost to the Romans. (Dio Cass. xvm. 22 ;
Amm. Marc, xviii. 5.)
Singidunum (Belgrade), a town in Moesia
Superior at the confluence of the Savus and the
Danube, was a atrong fortress, and the head
quarters of a legion (Ptol. iii. 9, 3; Procop.
Aed. iv. 6).

«78

SINGITICUS

Singiticus Sinus. [Singus.]
Singus (Siyyos : Styyaios), a town in Mace
donia on the E. coast of the peninsula Sithonia,
which gave its name to the SMus Singiticus
(Hdt. vii. 122 ; Thuc. v. 18).
Sinis or Sinnis (Sivis or Xivvts), son of Poly-
pemon, Pemon or Poseidon by Sylea, the
daughter of Corinthus. He was a robber who
frequented the isthmus of Corinth and Mlled
the travellers whom he captured, by fastening
them to the top of a fir-tree, wMch he bent
down and then let spring up again. He Mm
self was kiUed in this manner by Theseus. The
name is connected with crivopai. (Apollod. iii.
16, 2 ; Paus. ii. 1, 3 ; Eur. Hipp. 977 ; Ov. Met.
vii. 440.)
Sinon (Sivaiv), son of Aesimus, or, according
to Virgil, of Sisyphus, and grandson of Auto
lycus, was a relation of Odysseus, whom he
accompanied to Troy. After the Greeks had
constructed the wooden horse, Sinon mutilated
himself, in order to make the Trojans believe
that he had been maltreated by the Greeks,
and then allowed MmseU to be taken prisoner
by the Trojans. He informed the Trojans that
the wooden horse had been constructed as an
atonement for the Palladium which had been
carried off by the Greeks, and that if they
would drag it into their own city, Asia would
gain the supremacy over Greece. The Trojans
believed the deceiver, and dragged the horse
into the city ; whereupon Sinon in the dead of
night let out the Greeks, who thus took Troy.
(Verg. Aen. ii. 77, 259 ; Diet. Cret. v. 12 ; Hyg.
Fab. 108.)
Sinope (^Zivdirri '. Sivioirevs, Sinopensis : Si
nope, Sinoub, Ru.), the most important of the
Greek colomes on the shores of the Euxine,
stood on the N. coast of Asia Minor, on the W.
headland of the great bay of which the delta

Coin of Sinope, of 5th cent. B.C.
Obv., head of nymph Sinope; rev., sino. ; sea-eagle with
dolphin.
of the river Halys forms the E. headland, and a
little E. of the northernmost promontory of
Asia Minor. Thus placed, and built on a pen
insula, the neck of which formed two fine har
bours, it had every advantage for becoming a
great maritime city. Its foundation was re
ferred mytMcally to the Argonaut Autolycus,
who was worshipped in the city as a hero, and
had an oracle ; but it appears in history as a
very early colony of the Milesians. (Strab. p
546; Ap. Rh. ii. 947; Hdt. iv. 12.) Having
been destroyed in the Mvasion of Asia by the
Cimmerians, it was restored by a new colony
from Miletus, b.c. 632, and soon became the
greatest commercial city on the Euxine. Several
colonies were established by the Sinopians on
the adjacent coasts, the chief of which were
Cotyora, Trapezus, and Cerasus. Its territory,
called SmopiB (Zivairls, also SivcoirTns), ex
tended to the banks of the Halys. At the
beginning of the Peloponnesian war the Athe
nians sent 600 colonists to strengthen it after
the Sinopians had expelled their tyrant (Plut.
i end. 20). Xenophon in his retreat found it
a prosperous city (Xen. An. v. 5, 8; cf. Diod.

SD?ONTUM
xiv. 30). It remained an independent state tUl,
it was taken by Pharnaces I., king of Pontus.-'
It was the birthplace and residence of Mithri
dates the Great, who enlarged and beautified it.
After an obstinate resistance to the Romans
under Lucullus, it was taken and plundered,
and proclaimed a free city. Shortly before the
murder of Julius Caesar, it was colonised by
the name of Julia Caesarea Felix Sinope, and
remained a flourishing city, though it never re
covered its former importance. At the time of
Constantine, it had declmed so much as to be
ranked second to Amasia. In addition to its
commerce, Sinope was greatly enriched by its
fisheries. It was the native city of the renowned
Cynic philosopher Diogenes, of the comic poet
DipMMs, and of the historian Baton. (Strab.
p. 477 ; Plin. Ep. x. 91.)
Sintica,a district in Macedonia, inhabited by
the TMacian people Sinti, extended E. of Cres-
tonia and N. of Bisaltia as far as the Strymon
and the lake Prasias. Its chief town was Hera
clea Smtica. The Sinti were spread over other
parts of ancient Thrace, and are identified by
Strabo with the Sintians {Zivries) oi Homer,
the ancient inhabitants of Lemnos. (Thuc. ii.
98 ; Liv. xiii. 51, xiv. 29 ; Strab. p. 331.)
Sinuessa (Sinuessanus : Bocca di Mandra-
gone), the last city of Latium on the confines of
Campania, to which it originally belonged, was
situated on the sea-coast, about six mUes N. of
themouthoftheVolturnus,andontheViaAppia,in the midst of a fertile country. It was colomsed
by the Romans, together with the neighbouring
town of Minturnae, B.C. 296. (Liv. x. 21.) It
possessed a good harbour, and was a place of
considerable importance (Cic. ad Att. ix. 15, ad
Fcvm. xii. 20; Hor. Sat. i. 5, 40). In its neigh
bourhood were celebrated warm baths, called
Aquae Sinuessanae (Tac. Ann. xn. 66).
Siphnus (Sicpvos : Sicpvtos : Siphno), an island
in the Aegaean sea, formmg one of the Cyclades,
SE. of Seriphus. It is of an oblong form, and
about forty miles in circumference. Its origMal
name was Merope; and it was colonised by
Ionians from Athens (Hdt. viii. 48). In conse
quence of their gold and silver mines, of wMch
the remains are stiU visible, the Siphnians
attained great prosperity, and were regarded in
the time of Polycrates as the wealthiest of the
islanders. Their treasury at DelpM, M wMch
they deposited the tenth of the produce of their
mines, was equal in wealth to that of any other
Greek state. (Paus. x. 11, 2.) Their riches,
however, exposed them to piUage ; and a party
of Samian exiles in the time of Polycrates
invaded the island, and compelled them to pay
100 talents (Hdt. iii. 57). Siphnus was one of
the few islands which refused tribute to Xerxes ;
and one of its sMps fought on the side of the
Greeks at Salamis. At a later time the mines
were less productive; and Pausanias relates
that in consequence of the Siphnians neglecting
to send the tithe of their treasure to DelpM, the
god destroyed their mMes by an inundation of
the sea. (Strab. p. 448 ; Paus. x. 11, 2.) The
moral character of the Siphnians stood low,
and hence to act like a Siphnian (iupvtdCetv)
became a term of reproach.
Sipontum or Sipuntum (Sipontinus: Si-
ponto), called by the Greeks Sipus (Siirovs,
-ovvros), an ancient town in Apulia, in the dis
trict of Daunia, on the S. slope of Mt. Garganus,
and on the coast. It is said to have been
founded by Diomede, and was of Greek origin.
(Strab. p. 284.) It was colonised by the Romans,
under whom it became a place of some com-

SIPYLUS
mercial importance (Liv. xxxiv. 25 ; App. B C
v. 56 ; Lucan, v. 877). The inhabitants were
removed from the town by king Manfred in the
thirteenth century, in consequence of the un
healthy nature of the locality, and were settled
in the neighbouring town of Manfredonia,
founded by tMs monarch.
Sipylus (StirvXos: Sipuli-Dagh), a moun
tain of Lydia, m Asia Minor, of volcanic
formation, and rent by frequent earthquakes.
It is a branch of the Tmolus, from the main
chain of which it proceeds NW. along the
course of the river Hermus, as far as Magnesia
and Sipylum. It is mentioned by Homer (II.
xxiv. 16). The ancient capital of Maeonia was
said to have been situated M the heart of the
mountain chain, and to have been caUed by the
same name ; but it was early swallowed up by
an earthquake, and its site became a little lake
called Sale or Saloe, near wMch was a tumulus,
supposed to be the grave of Tantalus. The
mountain was rich in metals, and many mines
were worked in it. (Strab. pp, 58, 579, 680 ;
Paus. vii. 24, 7.)
Siracene (SipomjW;). 1. A district of Hyr
cania. — 2. A district of Armenia Major. —
3. [Sibaceni.]
Siraceni, Siraci, Siraces (ZipaKrivol, SipaKol,
Slpatces), a powerful people of Sarmatia Asia-
tica, dwelt ra the district of Siracene, E. of the
Palus Maeotis, as far as the river Rha (Volga).
The Romans were engaged in a war with them
m a.d. 50. (Ptol. v. 9, 17 ; Strab. p. 504 ; Tac.
Ann. xii. 15.)
Sirbonis Lacus (SipPavlSos Xipvn, aft. 5ip/3a-
vis Xipvn and UpBcuv: Sabakat Bardowal), a
large and deep lake on the coast of Lower
Egypt, E. of M. Casius. Its ch-cuit was 1000
stadia. It was strongly impregnated with as-
phaltus. A connexion (caUed to expeypa) exis
ted between the lake and the Mediterranean ;
but tMs being stopped up, the lake grew con-
tinuaUy smaUer by evaporation, and it is now
nearly dry. (Hdt. ii. 6 ; Strab. pp. 760-763 ;
PUn. v. 63.) Part of the army of Darius Ochus
was swallowed up m it B.C. 350 (Diod. i. SO).
Sirenes (Seipfjves), sea-nymphs who had the
power of charming by their songs aU who heard
them. When Odysseus came near the island
on the beach of wMch the Sirens were sitting,
and endeavouring to aUure him and Ms com
panions, he stuffed the ears of Ms companions
with wax, and tied himself to the mast of his
vessel, until he was so far off that he could no
longer hear their song. [For a vase-painting
of tMs scene, see Odysseus.] According to
Homer, the island of the Sirens was situated
between Aeaea and the rock of Scylla, near the
SW. coast of Italy (Od. xii. 39) ; but the Roman
poets place them on the Campanian coast.
Homer says notMng of their number, but later
writers mention both their names and number :
some state that they were two, Aglaopheme
and Thelxiepia; and others, that there were
three, Pisinb'e, Aglaope, and Thelxiepia, or Par
thenope, Ligia, and Leucosia. They are called
daughters of Phorcus, of Achelous and Sterope,
of Terpsichore, of Melpomene, of Calliope, or of
Gaea. (Strab. pp. 22, 246, 252 ; Ap. Rh. iv.
893 ; Serv. ad Georg. iv. 562.) The Sirens are
alBO connected with the legends of the Argo
nauts and the rape of Persephone. When the
Argonauts sailed by the Sirens, the latter began
to smg, but in vain, for Orpheus surpassed
them ; and as it hod been decreed that they
should live only tiU some one hearing their song
should pass by unmoved, they threw them-

SISCIA 879
selves into the sea, and were changed into
rocks. (Apollod. i. 9, 25 ; Hyg., Fab. 141.)
Later poets represent them as provided with
wings, which they are saidi to have received at
their own request, in order to be able to search
after Persephone (Ov. Met. v. 552-563). Once,
however, they allowed themselves to be pre
vailed upon by Hera to enter into a contest
with the Muses, and being defeated, were de
prived of their wings (Paus. ix. 84, 2). The
idea of the Homeric Sirens seems to arise from
an attempt to express the deceptive beauties of
a calm sea luring men to destruction. But
there is a distinct character of the Sirens
which appears in the Attic representations of
them in epitaphs (Anth. Pal. vii. 491), and in
sculptures on tombstones. Why a Siren should
be the commonest mythological figure for
monuments of the dead is not quite clear. The
connexion may be with the destructive char
acter of the Homeric Siren, or with the myth of
Persephone and the underworld, or the Siren
of the tombstone may merely represent the
wail of the mourner.
Sirenusae, called by Virgil (Aen. v. 864) Si-
renum scopuli, three small uninhabited and
rocky islands near the S. side of the Prom.
Misenum, off the coast of Campania, which
were, accordmg to tradition, the abode of the
Sirens (Strab. p. 22).
Siris. 1, (Sinno), a river in Lucania flowing
into the Tarentine gulf, memorable for the vic
tory which Pyrrhus gained on its banks over
the Romans. — 2. (Torre di Senna), an ancient
Greek town in Lucania at the mouth of the
preceding river. It was apparently an old
Oenotrian city, though Strabo notices a tra
dition of its foundation by Trojans (p. 264).
It was occupied by Ionian colonists from Colo
phon about 690 B.C. Siris was destroyed by
the people of Sybaris and Crotona about 550
B.C., and when the country was re-settled by
Athenians from Thurii a hundred years later,
the city was built at firat on the site of Siris
and then transferred to Heraclea, three miles
distant (Diod. xii. 86 ; Strab. I.e.).
Sirmio (Sirmione), a beautiful promontory
on the S. shore of the Lacus Benacus (Lago
di Garda), on which CatuUus had an estate
(CatuM ii. 31).
Sirmium (Mitrovitz), an important city in
Pannonia Inferior, was situated on the left bank
of the Savus. It was founded by the Taurisci,
and under the Romans became the capital of
Pannonia, and the head-quarters of all their
operations in their wars against the Dacians
and the neighbouring barbarians. It contained
a large manufactory of arms, a spacious forum,
an imperial palace, &c. It was the residence
of the admiral of the first Flavian fleet on the
Danube, and the birthplace of the emperor
Probus! (Herodian, vii. 2 ; Amm. Marc. xvii. 13,
xix. 11.)
Sisapon (Almaden, in the Sierra Morena), an
important town in Hispania Baetica, N. of Cor
duba, between the Baetis and Anas, celebrated
for its silver mines and cinnabar (Strab. p. 142 ;
Cic. Phil. ii. 19).
Siscia (Sissek), caUed Segesta by Appian, an
important town in Pannonia Superior, situated
upon an island formed by the rivers Savus, Co-
lapia, and Odra, and on the road from Aemona
to Sirmium (Dio Cass. xlix. 37 ; Veil. Pat. ii.
113 ; Strab. pp. 202, 214). It was a strongly
fortified place, and was conquered by Tiberius
in the reign of Augustus, from which time it
became the most important town in all Pan-

880 SISENNA
nonia. It was probably made a colony by
Tiberius, and was colonised anew by Septimius
Severus. At a later time its importance de
clined, and Sirmium became the chief town in
Pannoma (Zosim. ii. 48).
Sisenna, L. Cornelius, a Roman annalist,
was praetor m B.C. 78, the year when Sulla died
(C.I.L. i. p. 110; Cic. Fragm. Cornel, i. 18).
During the piratical war (67) he acted as the
legate of Pompey, and havmg been despatched
to Crete in command of an army, died in that
island at the age of about 52 (Dio Caaa. xxxvi.
1; App. Mithr. 95). He is mentioned also as
a friend and defender of Verres in conjunction
with Hortensius (Cic. Verr. ii. 45, 100). His
great work, entitled Historiae, extended to more
than twelve books, which contaMed the Mstory
of his own time. Cicero pronounces Sisenna
superior as a historian to Mb predecessors, but
adds that he belonged to a period when the
true method of writing history was not under
stood (Brut. 64, 228 ; cf. de Leg. i. 7). In ad
dition to his Historiae, Sisenna translated the
Milesian tales of Aristides (Ov. Trist. ii. 443 ;
VeU. Pat. ii. 9, 5). He is probably not the same
as the Sisenna who wrote a commentary on
Plautus, cited by grammarians; since in one
place Charisius (p. 221) cites this commentator
as quoting from Virgil.
Sisygambis (ZiabyapBis), mother of Darius
Codomannua, the laat king of Peraia, fell into
the handa of Alexander, after the battle of Iaaus,
B.C. 333, together with the wife and daughters
of Darius. Alexander treated these captives
with the greatest generosity, and displayed
towards Sisygambia in particular a delicacy of
conduct wMch is one of the brightest orna
ments of hia character (Arrian, An. ii. 11 ; Plut.
Alex. 21 ; Curt. iii. 11, 21). On her part, Sisy
gambis became so strongly attached to her
conqueror, that she felt Ms death as a blow not
less severe than that of her own son, and,
overcome by this long succession of misfor
tunes, put an end to her own Ufe by voluntary
starvation (Curt. x. 5, 19 ; Diod. xvii. 118).
Sisyphus (2,[avcpos), son of Aeolus and En-
arete, whence he is called Aeolides (II. vi. 154 ;
Hor. Od. ii. 14, 20). He was married to Merope,
a daughter of Atlas or a Pleiad, and became by
her the father of Glaucus, Ornytion (or Porphy
rion), Thersander and Halmus (Apollod. i. 7, 3 ;
Paus. x. 31, 2). In post-Homeric writera, aa
the type of a crafty man, he is also caUed a aon
of Autolycus (Serv. ad Aen. ii. 79), and the
father of Odysseus by Anticlea [Anticlea] ;
whence we find Odysseus sometimes called
Sisyphides (Soph. Aj. 190, Phil. 417). The
„myths wMch make Sisyphus father of Glaucus,
and the mention of the worsMp of a deity
named 6 Tapd£imros at the Isthmus, whom
Pausanias (vi. 20, 8) believes to be Poseidon,
make it not improbable that Sisyphus was
originally a deity of that district, who, when
Ms worship was superseded by that of Poseidon,
appeared in fable as a man characterised by
the wiliness and treachery of the sea. In the
various stories about him Sisyphus is said to

SITONES
the same m all authors : some relate that it
was because he had betrayed the designs of the
gods (Serv. ad Aen. vi. 16); others, because
he had betrayed to Asopus that Zeus had car
ried off Aegina, the daughter of the latter
(Apollod. i. 9,3, iii. 12, 6; Paus. ii. 5, 1). It
appears that there was an early legend of Ms
having eecaped from Hades by his craft; for
Theognis (703) speaks of Ms coming back to
earth, ' having perBuaded Persephone by cun
ning words.' This may have been the subject
of the satyric play Sicrvcpos Apairerr)S, which
existed besides the drama caUed S'urvcpos Tlerpo-
kvXio-tiis. The story was further developed
in later writers (Eustath. ad Hom. pp. 631,
1702). Sisyphus contrived by Ms arts to chaM
Death, whom Zeus had sent to fetch him, so
that neither he himself nor other men could
die, and there was no longer any fear of the
gods, until Ares was sent and delivered Death.
Even then Sisyphus secured Mmself by direct
ing his wife not to bury him, and when she
complied with his request, Sisyphus in the
lower world complained of this seeming neglect,
and obtamed from Pluto or Persephone per
mission to return to the upper world to punish
his wife. He then refused to return to the
lower world, until Hermes carried him off by
force ; and this deceit is said to have been the
cause of Ms punishment.
Sitace or Sittace (Smkr;, SiTTa/nj), a great
and populous city of Babylonia, near the Tigris,
a little above Seleucia. It gave the name of
Sittacene to the district on the lower course of
the Tigris E. of Babylonia and NW. of Susiana.
(Strab. pp. 524, 744.)
Sitalces (SirdXKri s), kmg of the TMacian tribe
of the Odrysians, was a son of Teres, whom he
succeeded on the throne. He increased Ms do-
mMions by successful wars, so that they ulti
mately comprised the whole territory from
Abdera to the mouths of the Danube, and from
Byzantium to the sources of the Strymon (Thuc.
ii. 29, 97 ; Diod. xii. 50). At the beginnmg of
the Peloponnesian war he entered mto an al-
Uance with the Athenians, to whom he showed
Ms friendsMp by givmg up to them Corinthian
and Spartan ambassadors (Thuc. ii. 67 ; cf. Hdt.
vii. 137), and M 429 he invaded Macedoma with
a vast army, but waa obliged to retire tMough
failure of provisions (Thuc. ii. 95-101; Diod.
xii. 51). He was defeated and MUed in 424,
fighting agamst the TribaUi (Thuc. iv. 101).
Sithonia (SiBcovla), the central one of the
tMee peninsulas runnmg out from Chalcidice
m Macedonia, between the Toronaic and Sin-
gitic gulfs. The TMacians origMally extended
over the greater part of Macedonia; and the
ancients derived the name of Sithoma from a
Thracian Mng Sithon. We also find mention of
a Thracian people, Sithonii, on the shores of
the Pontus EuxMus ; and the poets frequently
use Sithonis and Sithonius M the general sense
of TMacian. (Hdt. vii. 123 ; Verg. Eel. x. 66 ;
Hor Od. i. 18, 9.)
Sitifls (Strtcpa : Setif), an inland city of
Mauretania Caesariensis, on the borders of Nu-

have built the town of Ephyra, afterwards midia, stood upon a . nili, m an extensive and
Corinth. As king of Corinth he promoted beautiful plain. It first became an important
navigation and commerce, but he was fraudu- place under the Romans, who made it a colony ;
lent, avaricious, and deceitful. His wickedness and, upon the subdivision of M. Caesariensis
during life was punished in the lower world, into two provinces, it was made the capital of
where he had to roll up MU a huge stone, which the eastern provmce, which was called after it
as soon as it reached the top always roUed down Mauretania Sitifensis. (Ptol. iv. 2, 34 ; Amm.
again. (Od. xi. 593 ; cf. Cic. Tusc. i. 5, 10; Lu- Marc xxvm. 6.)
cret iii 1018- Verg. Georg. iii. 39 ; Ov. Met. iv.1 Sitones, a German tribe in Scandmavia, be-
iB9.) The reasons for this pumshment are not I longing to the race of the Suevi, whom Tacitus

SITTACE
asserts to have been ruled by queens (Germ.
45). Sittace, Sittaoene. [Sitace.]
Sittius or Sitius, P., of Nuceria in Campama,
was connected with CatiUne, and went to Spam
in b. c. 64, from which country he crossed over
into Mauretania in the following year. It was
said that P. SuUa had sent Mm into Spam to
excite an insurrection agamst the Roman go
vernment ; and Cicero, when he defended Sulla,
in 62, was obUged to deny the truth of the
charges that had been brought agamst Sittius
(pro Sull. 20). Sittius did not return to Rome.
His property in Italy was sold to pay Ms debts,
and he continued M Africa, where he fought M
the wars of the kings of the country. He
jomed Caesar when the latter came to Africa, in
46, to prosecute the war against the Pompeian
party. He was of great service to Caesar M
tMs war, and at its conclusion was rewarded by
Caesar with the western part of Numidia, where
he settled down, distributing the land among
Ms soldiers. After the death of Caesar, Arabio,
the son of Masinissa, returned to Africa, and
MUed Sittius by stratagem. (SaU. Cat. 21 ;
Bell. Afr. 25, 93-96; App. B.C. iv. 54; Cic. ad
Att. xv. 17.)
Siuph (2ioi<p), a city of Lower Egypt, in the
Saitic nome, only mentioned by Herodotus (ii.
172). Smaragdus Mons (S.pApayo'ov Spos : Jebel
Zaburah), a mountam of Upper Egypt, near
the coast of the Red Sea, N. of Beremce. The
extensive emerald mines from wMch it obtamed
its name were worked under the ancient Mngs
of Egypt, under the Ptolemies, and under the
Romans. (Strab. p. 815 ; Plm. xxxvii. 65.) They
seem to have been exhausted, as few emeralds
of any value are now found m the neighbour
hood. Smerdis (SpepSis), accordmg to Herodotus,
was the name of the son of Cyrus, and was mur
dered by order of Ms brother, Cambyses. His
true name was Bardes, wMch appears M Aesch.
Pers. 780 as Mordus, and M Just. i. 4 as Merdis.
Ctesias calls Mm Tanyoxarces. The death of
Smerdis was kept a profound secret ; and ac
cordingly, when the Persiana became weary of
the tyranny of Cambyses, one of the Magians,
whom Herodotus caUs Patizithes, who had
been left by Cambyses M charge of Ms palace and
treasures, avaUed Mmself of the likeness of his
brother to the deceased Smerdis, to proclaim
this brother as Mng, representing him as the
younger son of Cyrus. Cambyses heard of the
revolt M Syria, but he died of an accidental
wound m the tMgh, as he was mounting Ms
horse to march agamst the usurper. According
to Herodotus tMs Magian usurper waB alao caUed
Smerdis ; but tMs is an error. His name appears
on Persian Mscriptions as Gomates or Gaumata.
The name of Sphendates which Ctesias (Pers.
8-14) gives to him iB really only a priestly title.
The false Smerdis was acknowledged as Mng
by the Persians, and reigned for seven months
without opposition. The leadmg Persian nobles,
however, were not quite free from suspicion ; and
tMs suspicion was mcreased by the Mng never
Mviting any of them to the palace, and never
appearing in pubUc. Among the nobles who
entertamed these suspicions was Otanes, whose
daughter Phaedima had been one of the wives
of Cambyses, and had been transferred to Ms
successor. The new Mng had some years be
fore been deprived of Ms ears by Cyrus for
some offence; and Otanes persuaded his
daughter to ascertain whether her master had

SMYRNA

881

really lost his ears. Phaedima found out that
such was the fact, and communicated the deci
sive Mformation to her father. Otanes there
upon formed a conspiracy, and in conjunction
with six other noble Persians, succeeded in
forcmg Ms way into the palace, where they Blew
the false Smerdis with Ms brother Patizithes in
the eighth month of his reign, 521. (Hdt. iii.
30, 61-79.) The story of the usurpation of this
Magian pretender and the combmation of nobles
whioh overthrew Mm is confirmed M itB leadmg
facts by the Mscriptions. But the character of
the struggle, which is represented as poUtical and
national between Medes and Persians, has some
times been misunderstood. It is tolerably clear
from the inscriptions that Gomates (the real
name, as has been said, of the false Smerdis)
was not a Mede. His attempt was a reUgious
movement of the Magians to estabUsh more
firmly their religion and the power of the priestly
caste, by placmg one of their own order on the
tMone. TMs attempt was defeated by the
nobles, who disliked the innovation of a priest-
king. The Aryan religion was reatored after
the slaughter of Gomates and the leadmg Magi,
and this slaughter was kept M memory, for the
terror of the Magian priests, by an annual
festival called Magophonia, during wMch no
Magian was aUowed to show himself M public.
Smilis (SpiXis), son of Euclides, of Aegina,
a sculptor of the legendary period, whose name
appears to be derived from apiX-n, a knife for
carving wood, and afterwards a sculptor's
chisel. SmUis is the legendary head of the
AegMetan school of sculpture, just as Daedalus
is the legendary head of the Attic and Cretan
schools. He is Baid to have carved the £6avov
of Hera at Samos. (Paus. vii. 4, 4.)
Smintheus. [Apollo, p. 89, b.]
Smyrna (Spipva), or Myrrha. For detaila
see Adonis.
Smyrna and m many MSS. Zmyrna (Spvpva,
Ion. Spvpvri : S,pvpvaios, Smyrnaeus : Smyrna,
Turk. Izmir), one of the most ancient and

Coin of Smyrna, of 2nd cent. B.C.
Obv., head of the Amazon Smyrna with turreted crown ;
rev., 2MYPNAICN : hpakaeiahs (magistrate's name) ;
lion, surrounded by oak-wreath.
flourisMng cities of Asia Minor, and the only
one of the great cities on its W. coast wMch
has survived to this day, stood M a position
alike remarkable for its beauty and for other
natural advantages. LyMg just about the
centre of the W. coast of Asia Minor— on the
banks of the Uttle river Meles, at the bottom of
a deep bay, the SMus Hermaeus or Smyrnaeus
(G. of Smyrna), wMch formed a safe and im
mense harbour for the largest ships up to the
very waUs of the city ; at the foot of the rich
slopes of Tmolus and at the entrance to the
great and fertile valley of the Hermus, in which
lay the great and wealthy city of Sardis— and
M the midst of the Greek colonies on the E.
shore of the Aegaean ; it was marked out by na
ture as one of the greateat emporiums for the
trade between Europe and Asia, and has pre-
3L

882

SMYRNA

served that character to the present day. There
are various accounts of its origin. The most
probable is that which represents it as an
AeoUan colony from Cyme. (Hdt. i. 150 ; Paus.
vii. 5, 1.) At an early period it fell, by a strata
gem, into the hands of the lomans of Colophon,
and remaMed an Ionian city from that time
forth : this appears to have happened before
Ol. 23 (B.C. 688). Smyrna from its position
commanded the trade of the Hermus valley, and
thus became a dangerous rival of the Lydian
Mngs at Sardis. An attempt upon the city by
Gyges waa repulaed, but Smyrna was taken and
destroyed by Alyattes ; its inhabitants were
left dwelling in vUlage communities (KapriS6v,
Strab. p. 646) for tMee centuries, but with
aometMng that could still be caUed a town, as
is clear from the mention in Pindar (Fr. 155).
At length, at the end of the fourth cent. B. c
Antigonus rebuilt the city on the SE. side of
the bay on which the old city had stood. The
new city was enlarged and beautified by Lysi-
machua, standing partly on the sea-shore and
partly on a hill caUed Mastusia. It had a
magnificent harbour, with such a depth of water
that the largest ships could Ue alongside the
quays. The city soon became one of the
greateat and most prosperous in the world. It
was especiaUy favoured by the Romans on ac
count of the aid it rendered them in the Syrian
and Mithridatic wars. It was the seat of a
conventus juridicus. In the civil wars it was
taken and partly destroyed by Dolabella, but it
soon recovered. It occupies a distinguiahed
place m the early history of CMistianity, as one
of the only two among the seven Churches of
Asia wMch St. John addresses, in the Apo
calypse, without any admixture of rebuke, and
as the scene of the labours and martyrdom of
Polycarp. In the years a.d. 178-180, a succes
sion of earthquakes, to which the city has always
been much exposed, reduced it almost to ruins ;
but it was restored by the emperor M. Aurelius
(Dio Casa. lxxi. 82). In the auccessive wara
under _ the Eaatern empire it was frequently
much injured, but always recovered ; and, under
the Turks, it has survived repeated attacks of
earthquake, fire, and plague, and still remains
the greatest commercial city of the Levant. In
addition to all her other sources of renown
Smyrna stood at the head of the cities wMch
claimed the birth of Homer. The poet was
worshipped as a hero in a magnificent building
called the Homereum ('Opfipeiov). Near the
sea-shore there stood a magnificent temple of
Cybele, whose head appears on the coins of the
¦city. Smyrna built a temple for the imperial
worship, and was a place where the festivals of
.the province of Asia belonging to Koivbv 'Airias
were celebrated. (Tac. Ann. iv. 56 ; cf. Peb-
qamum; Sabdes.)
Smyrna Trachea. [Ephesus.]
Smyrnaeus Sinus (Spvpvaiav k6xttos, Spvp-
vaiKbs kSXttos : G. of Smyrna), the great gulf
on the W. coast of Asia Minor, at the bottom of
which Smyrna stands. Its entrance lies be
tween Pr. Melaena (G. Kara Burnu) on the
W., and Phocaea (Fokia) on the E. Its depth
was reckoned at 350 stadia. It received the
river Hermus, whence it was called Hermeus
Sinus ("Eppeios k6Xttos). It is sometimes also
called MeXiirov k6Xitos, from the little river
Melea, on which Old Smyrna stood. (Strab. p.
645 ; Met. i. 17.)
Socrates (SceKpdrvs). 1. The great Athe
nian philosopher, was born in the demus
Alopece, in the immediate neighbourhood of I

SOCRATES
Athens, B.C. 469. His father, SopMoniscus, was a
sculptor, of whose proficiency notMng is known :
Ms mother Phaenarete was a midwife. In Ms
youth Socrates seems for a time to have fol
lowed the profession of Ms father. The group
of clothed Graces which was preserved m the
Acropolis was shown as his work down to the
time of Pausanias (Pans. i. 22, 8, ix. 25, 2). But
there is reason to beUeve that tMs is a confusion
of names. PUny (xxxvi. 32) clearly never enter
tamed the idea that the author of that group
was the great phUosopher. He does not even
allude to such a tradition, but says that some
considered the sculptor to be the same as the
painter Socrates. Socrates is not made M the
dialogues to speak as if he had been himself an
eminent sculptor. Some knowledge of the, art
is implied in Xen. Mem. ui. 10, but not more
than a brief period of work with Ms father
would secure. There would surely be more
reference made to the fact if he had been
eminent enough as a sculptor to be selected for
an important public work. It has been sug
gested that the idea arose from corns of Athens
with figures of the Graces, on some of wMch
the magistrate's name is Socrates. But there
is no improbability in this group bemg the
work of a Socrates distinct from the phUoso
pher. It is thought by some that the reUef of
those draped Graces M the Museo Chiaramonti
represents the Athenian group. If so, it muat
have belonged to a more archaic period of art
than the age of the philoeopher Socrates. All
that can be said is that Socrates probably
worked, Uke Ms father, as a sculptor for a time,
but certaMly soon gave up that occupation for
the work wMch has made Mm famous, and
which he thought most beneficial to himself
and his fellow-men. The personal qualities of
Socrates were marked and striking. His physi
cal constitution was healthy, robust, and en
during to an extraordinary degree. He was
capable of bearing fatigue or hardsMp, and m-
different to heat or cold, in a measure wMch
astonished aU Ms compamons. He went bare
foot m aU seasons of the year, even during the
winter campaign at Potidaea, under the severe
frosts of TMace ; and the same homely clotMng
sufficed for him in winter as well aa in summer.
In features he is represented as having been
singularly, and even grotesquely, ugly — with a
flat nose, tMck lips, and promment eyes, like a
Satyr or SUenus (Plat. Symp. p. 215, a, Theaetet.
p. 148, e; Xen. Symp. 5). Of the circum-
Btancea of Ms life we are almost wholly
ignorant; he served as a hoplite at Potidaea,
Delium, and AmpMpolis with great credit to
himself. He seems never to have fiUed any
poUtical office until 406, in which year he was a
member of the senate of Five Hundred, and
one of the Prytanes, when he refused, on the
occasion of the trial of the six generals, to put
an unconstitutional question to the vote, m
spite of all personal hazard. He displayed the
same moral courage in refusMg to obey the
order of the TMrty for the apprehension of
Leon the Salaminian. (Plat. Symp p 219
Ale. p. 194, Charm, p. 153, Loch. p. 181, Apol.
p. 82; Xen. Mem. i. 1, 18, iv. 4, 2; Diog. Laert
b 2v724'] i AP the/niddle and later part of
Ms life at least was devoted exclusively to the
self-imposed task of teacMng; excluding aU
other business, public or private, and to the
neglect of all means of fortune. His wife
Xanthippe, is represented as a woman of a
peevish and quarrelsome disposition. He never
opened a school, nor did he, Uke the sophists

SOCRATES
of his time, deliver public lectures. Every
where, m the market-place, in the gymnasia,
and in the workshops, he sought and found
opportunities for awakening and guiding in
boys, youth, and men, moral consciousness and
the impulse after seU-knowledge respectMg the
¦end and value of our actions. His object,
however, was only to aid them in developing
the germs of knowledge wMch were already
present in them, not to communicate to them
ready-made knowledge ; and he therefore pro
fessed to practise a Mnd of mental midwifery
just as his mother, Phaenarete, exercised the
corresponding corporeal art. (Plat. Theaet.
p. 149.) Unweariedly and inexorably did he
fight agamst all false appearance and conceit
of knowledge, in order to pave the way for
correct knowledge. Consequently to the men-
taUy proud and the mentally idle he appeared
an intolerable bore, and often experienced their
bitter hatred and calumny. TMs was probably
the reason why he was selected by Aristophanes
and the other comic writers to be attacked as
a general representative of pMlosopMcal and
rhetorical teacMng ; the more so as his grotesque
physiognomy admitted so weU of being imitated
mthe mask wMch the actorwore. (See Aristoph.
Nubes, and cf . Av. 1282 ; EupoUs, Fr. 9, 10, 11 ;
Diog. Laert. u. 28.) The audience at the
theatre would more readUy recogmse the pecu-
Uar figure wMch they were accustomed to see
every day in the market-place than if Prodicus
or Protagoras, whom most of them did not
know by sight, had been brought on the stage ;
nor was it of much importance either to them
or to AristophaneB whether Socrates was re
presented as teacMng what he did reaUy teach,
or somethmg utterly different. Attached to
none of the prevailing parties, Socrates found
in each of them Ms friends and Ms enemies.
Hated and persecuted by Critias, Charicles,
and others among the Thirty Tyrants, who
speciaUy referred to him M the decree wMch
they issued forbiddmg the teaching of the
art of oratory, he was impeached after their
bamshment and by their opponents. An orator
named Lycon, and a poet (a friend of TMasy-
bulus) named Meletus, had united m the
impeachment with the powerful demagogue
Anytus, an embittered antagonist of the sophists
and their system, and one of the leaders of the
band wMch, setting out from Phyle, forced
their way Mto the Piraeus, and drove out the
Thirty Tyrants. The judges also are described
as persons who had been banished, and who
had returned with TMasybulus. The cMef
•articles of impeachment were, that Socrates
was guUty of corrupting the youth, and of
despisMg the tutelary deities of the state,
putting M their place other new divmities.
At the same time it had been made a matter
of accusation against him that Critias, the
most rutMess of the Tyrants, had come forth
from Ms school. Some expressions of his,
in wMch he had found fault with the demo
cratical mode of electing by lot, had also
"been brought up against him ; and there can
be Uttle doubt that use was made of his friendly
relations with Theramenes, one of the most
mfluential of the TMrty, with Plato's uncle,
Charmides, who feU by the side of Critias in
the struggle with the popular party, and with
other aristocrats, in order to irritate against
him the party wMch at that time was dominant.
The substance of the speech which Socrates
deUvered in his defence is probably preserved
by Plato in the piece wMch goes under the

883
name of the ' Apology of Socrates.' Being con
demned by a majority of only six votes, he
expresses the conviction that he deserved to be
maintamed at the public cost in the Prytaneum,
and refuses to acquiesce m the adjudication of
imprisonment, or a large fine, or banishment.
He will assent to notMng more than a fine of
sixty mine, on the security of Plato, Crito,
and other friends. Condemned to death by
the judges, who were Mcensed by tMs speech,
by a majority of eighty votes, he departs from
them with the proteatation that he would
rather die after such a defence than Uve after
one M which he should have endeavoured to
excite their pity. The sentence of death could
not be carried into execution until after the
return of the vessel which had been sent to
Delos on the periodical Theoric mission. The
thirty days which intervened between the con
demnation of Socrates and its return were de
voted by him to poetic attempts (the first he had
made in Ms life), and to his usual conversation
with Ms friends. One of these conversations,
on the duty of obedience to the laws, Plato has
reported in the Crito, so "called after the
faitMul foUower of Socrates, who had en
deavoured without success to perBuade him to
make Ms escape. In another, imitated or
worked up by Plato in the Phaedo, Socratea
immediately before he drank the cup of hem
lock developed the grounds of his immovable
conviction of the immortality of the soul. Hfc
died with composure and cheerfulness in his
seventieth year, B.C. 399. Mr. Grote, whose
account of Socrates is here foUowed m many
particulars, has weU described Socrates as dis-
tingmshed by three peculiarities : — (1) His long
life passed in contented poverty and in public
dialectics, of which we have already spoken.
(2) His persuasion of a special reUgious mission.
He had been accustomed constantly to hear,
even from Ms childhood, what he spoke of as
a divine voice — interfering, at moments when
he was about to act, in the way of restraint,
but never m the way of instigation. Such
proMbitory warmng was wont to come upon
Mm very frequently, not merely on great, but
even on small occasions, intercepting what he
was about to do or to Bay. Though later writers
speak of this as the Daemon or Genius of
Socrates, he himself does not personify it, but
treats it merely as a ' divine sign, a prophetic
or supernatural voice.' It may be interpreted
as being a promptmg of conscience or of quick
and intuitive judgment. He was accustomed
not only to obey it implicitly, but to apeak of
it pubUcly and familiarly to others, so that the
fact was well known both to Ms friends and to
Ms enemies. (Plat. Apol. pp. 31, 40, Phaedr.
p. 242, Theaet. p. 151, Bep. p. 496 ; Xen. Mem.
i. 1, 4, iv. 8, 1-5!) (3) His great intellectual ori-
gmaUty, both of subject and of method, and
his power of stirring and forcing the germ of
inquiry and ratiocination m others. He was
the first who turned Ms thoughts and_ discus
sions distinctly to the subject of ethics, and
was the first to proclaim that ' the proper study
of manMnd ia man.' With the philosophers'
who preceded him the subject of elimina
tion had been Nature, or the Eosmos as one
undistinguishable whole, blending together cos
mogony, astronomy, geometry, physics, meta
physics, &c. In discussing etMcal subjects
Socrates employed the dialectic method, and
thus laid the foundation of formal logic, which
was afterwards explained by Plato, and system-
atised by Aristotle. The originality of Socrates
3L2

884

SODOMA

is shown by the results he achieved. Out of
Ms MteUectual school sprang, not merely Plato,
Mmself a host, but aU the other leaders of
Grecian speculation for the next half century,
and oU those who continued the great Une of
speculative philosophy down to later timea.
Euclid and the Megaric achool of phUosophers
—Aristippus and the Cyrenaic Antisthenes and
Diogenes, the first of those caUed the Cynics —
all emanated more or less directly from the
stimulus imparted by Socrates, though each
followed a different veM of thought. EtMcs
continued to be what Socrates had first made
them, a distinct branch of pMlosophy, along
side of which politics, rhetoric, logic, and other
speculations relating to man and society, gra-
duaUy arranged themselves ; aU of them more
popular as weU as more keenly controverted
than physics, which at that time presented
comparatively little charm, and still less of
attamable certaMty. There can be no doubt
that the individual Mfluence of Socrates per
manently enlarged the horizon, improved the
method, and multiplied the ascendant minds,
of the Grecian speculative world in a manner
never smce paralleled. Subsequent pMloso
phers may have had a more elaborate doctrine,
and a larger number of disciples who imbibed
their ideas ; but none of them applied the same
stimulating method with the same efficacy, and
none of them in an equal degree struck out of
other minds that fire which sets Ught to original
thought. — 2. The ecclesiastical Mstorian, was
born at Constantinople about a.d. 379. He was
a pupil of Ammonius and HeUadius, and fol
lowed the profession of an advocate m his na
tive city, whence he is surnamed Scholasticus.
The Ecclesiastical History of Socrates extends
from the reign of Constantine the Great, 306,
to that of the younger Theodosius, 439. He
appears to have been a man of less bigotry
than most of his contemporaries, and the very
difficulty of determining from internal evidence
some pointa of his religious belief may be con
sidered as argumg his comparative liberality.
His History is divided into seven books. — His
work is included in the editions of the ancient
Greek ecclesiastical historians by Valesius,
Paris, 1668, reprinted at Mentz, 1677; by
Reading, Camb. 1720.
Sodoma, gen. -orum and -ae, also -um, gen. -i,
and -i, gen. -orum (to Z65opa : ^ofioplrris,
Sodomita), an ancient city of Canaan. [See
Did. of the Bible.]
Soemis or Soaemias, Julia, daughter of Julia
Maesa, and mother of Elagabalus, either by
her husband, Sextus VariuB Marcellus, or,
according to the report industriously circulated
with her own consent, by CaracaUa. After the
accession of her son, she became Ms chosen
counsellor, and seems to have encouraged and
shared Ms foUies and enormities. She took a
place in the senate, which then for the first
time witnessed the intrusion of a woman, and
was herself the president of a sort of female
parliament, wMch held its sittings in the
Quirinal, and published edicts for the regula
tion of all matters connected with the morals,
dress, etiquette, and equipage of the matrons.
She was slain by the praetorians, in the arms
of her son, on the 11th of March, a.d. 222.
(Lamprid. Elagab. 2 ; Dio Cass. Ixxviii. 30, 38 ;
Herodian, v. 5.)
Sogdiana (ri SoySiavif. 26yStot, 3oy$iavoi:
parts of Turkestan and Bokhara, includmg the
district still called Sogd), the NE. province of
the ancient Persian empire, separated on the

SOLICINIUM
S. from Bactriana and Margiana by the upper
course of the Oxus (Jihoun) ; on the E. and N.
from ScytMa by the SogdU Comedarum and
Oscu M. (Kara-Dagh, Alatan and Ak Tagh)
and by the upper course of the Jaxartes
(Sihoun) ; and bounded on the NW. by the
great deserts E. of the Sea of Aral. The S.
part of the country was fertile and populous.
It was conquered by Cyrus, and afterwards by
Alexander, both of whom marked the extreme
limits of their advance by cities on the
Jaxartes, Cyreschata and Alexandreschata.
After the Macedonian conquest, it was subject
to the Mngs, first of Syria, and then of Bactria,
till it was overrun by the barbarians. The
natives of the country were a wUd warlike
people of the great Aryan race, resembUng the
Bactrians m their character and customs.
(Arrian, An. m. 30, iv. 16, 18 ; Curt. m. 2, 9 ;
Strab. pp. 516, 517.)
Sogdianus (2oySiav6s), was one of the Ulegi-
tMiate sons of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus.
The latter, on Ms death in b.c. 425, was suc
ceeded by Ms legitimate son, Xerxes II., but
tMs monarch, after a reign of only two months,
was murdered by Sogdianus, who now became
Mng. Sogdianus, however, was murdered M
Ms turn, after a reign of seven months, by his
brother, Ochus. Ochus reigned under the name
of Darius H. (Diod. xn. 71.)
Sogdii Montes. [Sogdiana].
Sol. [Helios.]
Soletum (Soleto), a town of Calabria, twelve
miles S. of Lupiae (Lecce). It was ruined
before the time of PUny, but the survival of its
name shows that it must have been occupied
agam (PUn. iii. 101).
Soli or Soloe (2<fo.oi). 1. (Ethnic, 2oXe6s,
Solensis : Mezetlu, Ru.), a city on the coast of
CUicia, SW. of Tarsus, between the rivers Lamus
and Cydnus, said to have been colomsed by
Argives and Lydians from Rhodes (Strab. pp.
671, 675; Xen. An. i. 2, 24; Mel. i. IS; Liv.
xxxvii. 56). It was a flourishing city in the
time of Alexander, who fined its people 200
talents for their adhesion to the Persians
(Arrian, An. U. 5, 5). The city was destroyed by
Tigranes, who probably transplanted the m-
habitants to Tigranocerta (Dio Cass, xxxvi.
20; Plut. Pomp. 28). Pompey restored the
city after Ms war with the pirates, and peopled
it with the survivors of the defeated bands;
and from this time forth it was caUed Pom
peiopolis (llopirriioviroXis.) It was celebrated
M literary history as the birthplace of the Stoic
philosopher CMysippus, of the comic poet
PMlemon, and of the astronomer and poet
Aratus. Its name has been curiously per
petuated in the grammatical word solecism
(soloecismus), which is said to have been first
applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek spoken
by the inhabitants of this city — or, as some say,
of Soli in Cyprus. (Diog. Laert. i. 2, 4;
Strab. p. 683 ; Suid. s. v. 2o"a.oi).— 2. (Ethmc,
26xios: Paleokhora, in the valley of Solea,
Ru.), a conaiderable seaport town m the W.
part of the N. coast of Cyprus, on a Uttle river
(Strab. p. 683). Accordmg to some, it was a
colony of the Athenians ; wMle others ascribed
its erection to a native prince acting under the
advice of Solon (Plut. Sol. 26). The visit of
Solon to Cyprus is mentioned by Herodotus
(v. 113). It had temples of Isis and ApModite,
and there_were mines in its vicinity.
Solicinium, a town in Roman Germany (the
Agri Decumates), on the mountain Pirus,
where ValentMian gaMed a victory over the

SOLINUS
Alemanni in a.d. 869, perhaps in the neighbour
hood of the modern Heidelberg, but the posi
tion is uncertam (Amm. Marc, xxvii. 10, xxviii.
2, xxx. 7).
Solinus, C. Julius, the author of a geo
graphical compendium, divided into fifty-seven
chapters, containmg a brief sketch of the world
as known to the ancients, diversified by histori
cal notices, remarks on the origin, habits,
religious rites and social condition of various
nations enumerated. The arrangement, and
frequently the very words, are derived from the
Natural History of PUny, but Uttle knowledge,
care or judgment is displayed in the selec
tion. We know nothmg of Solmus MmseU,
but he must have lived after the reign of
- Alexander Severus, and before that of Constan
tine. He may perhaps be placed in the reigns
of Valerian and GaUienus. It was called
Collectanea Berum Memorabilium ; but it
was revised M the sixth century with the title of
Polyhistor. — The most notable edition is that
of Salmasius, pubUshed at Utrecht in 1689,
prefixed to Ms Plinianae Exercitationes;
critical edition by Th. Mommsen, Berl. 1864.
Solis Fons. [Oasis, No. 3.]
Solis Mons. [Solois.]
Solis Promontorium (&Kpa 'Hxiov ieph : Bos
Anfir), a promontory of Arabia Felix, near
the middle of the Persian Gulf (Ptol. vi. 7, 14).
Soloe. [Soli].
Sollium (SixXiov), a town on the coast of
Acarnama, S. of Palaerus and opposite the
island of Leucas (Thuc. u. 30, m. 95).
Solois (SoXoeis : C. Cantin, Arab. Bas el
Houdik), a promontory running far out mto
the sea, m the S. part of the W. coast of
Mauretama. Herodotus beUeved it to be the
westernmost headland of all Libya. Upon it
was a Phoemcian temple of Poseidon.
Solon (%6Xuv), the great Athenian legislator,
was born about b.c. 638. By birth he was a
Eupatrid. His father, Execestides, was a de
scendant of Codrus, and Ms mother was a
cousm of the mother of Pisistratus. Execes
tides hod seriously crippled Ms reBources by a
too prodigal expenditure; and Solon found it
either necessary or convement M Ms youth to
betake himself to the life of a foreign trader.
It is likely enough that wMle necessity com
pelled him to seek a Uvelihood m some mode
or other, hia active and mqmring spirit led him
to select that pursuit wMch would furnish the
amplest means for its gratification. Solon early
distingmshed himself as a poet. His first
poems were M a Ught and amatory strain,
which afterwards gave way to the more digni
fied and earnest purpose of inculcating pro
found reflections and sage advice, or inciting
Ms countrymen to deeds of patriotism as
Tyrtaeus had done by Ms warlike songs, bo
widely, mdeed, did Ms reputation spread that
Msnome appears m aU the lists of the Wise Men.
The occasion wMch first brought Solon promi
nently forward as an actor on the political
stage was the contest between Athens and
Megara respecting the possession of Salamis.
The Ul success of the attempts of the Athe
nians to make themselves masters of the
island had led to the enactment of a law for
bidding the writing or saying anything to urge
the Athemans to renew the contest. Solon
mdignant at this dishonourable renunciat on of
their claims, Mt upon the device of Signing to
be mad : and causing a report of ""to ne
to be spread over the city, he rushed mto the
agora, and there recited a short elegiac poem

SOLON 885
of 100 lines, in which he called upon the Athe
nians to retrieve their disgrace and reconquer
the lovely island. Pisistratus (who, however,
must have been extremely young at the time)
came to the support of Ms kinsman ; the pusil
lanimous law was rescinded ; war waa declared,
and Solon himself appointed to conduct it. The
Megarians were driven out of the ialand, but a
tedious war ensued, which was finally settled
by the arbitration of Sparta. Both parties ap
pealed, in support of their claim, to the authority
of Homer (Arist. Bhet. i. 16), and there is an
improbable story, which was currently believed
m antiquity, that Solon had surreptitiously in
serted the line (II. ii. 558) which speaks of Ajax
as rangmg his sMps with the Athenians. Solon's
character was not that of a Uterary forger, nor
would the argument have helped Ms cause.
The Spartans decided in favour of the Athe
nians, about B.C. 596. Solon himself, probably,
was one of those who received grants of land in
Salamis, and this may account for his being
termed a Salaminian. Soon after these events
(about 595) Solon took a leadmg part in pro
moting hostilities on behalf of DelpM against
Cirrha, and was the mover of the decree of the
AmpMctyons by which war was declared. Ac
cording to a common story, wMch, however,
rests only on the authority of a late writer,
Solon hastened the surrender of the town by
causing the waters of the Plistus to be poisoned.
(Paus. x. 87, 7 ; Polyaen. Strat. vi. 13.) It was
about the time of the outbreak of this war that,
m consequence of the distracted state of Attica,
which was rent by civil commotions, Solon was
called upon by all parties to mediate between
them, and aUeviate the miseries that prevailed
(Plut. Sol. 12 ; 'AS. TloX. 5). He was chosen
archon 594, and under that legal title was in
vested with unlimited power for adopting auch
measures as the exigencies of the state de
manded. In fulfilment of the task entrusted
to him, Solon addressed himself to the relief of
the existing distress. This he effected with the
greatest discretion and success by Ma celebrated
disburdening ordinance (o-eicrdxBeia), a meaaure
consisting of various distinct provisions calcu
lated to reUeve the debtors with as little M-
fringement as possible on the claims of the
wealthy creditors. He showed Ms sense of the
emergency by the extreme step of cancelling
outstandmg debts : for the future he made it
Ulegal to lend money on the security of the
borrower's person, so that the selling into
slavery for debt became impossible; a limit
was placed to the rate of mterest, and also to
the accumulation of land. (Arist. 'AS. IloA. 6 ;
Plut. Sol. 15-23.) With a view to facilitate
and Mcrease trade and commerce, he altered
the standard of coinage from the Phidoman,
which circulated in the Peloponnesus and
Boeotia, to the Euboic, which was used rn
Chalcis and Eretria, then great channels of
commerce, so that the Attic currency was
adapted to that of the chief Ionian trading
centres (Arist. 'AB. TloX. 10). [For these
standards see Diet, of Ant. art. Pondera.]
It is a mistake to connect his monetary changes
with the reUefs for debtors, and to suppose that
he was debasing the coinage. The success of the
Seisachtheia and hia improvementa of commerce
procured for Solon such confidence and popu
larity that he was further charged with the
task of entirely remodeUing the constitution.
Asa preliminary step, he repealed all the laws of
Draco except those relating to bloodshed. Our
limits only aUow us to glance at the principal

886

SOLON

features of the constitution established by Solon.
It must be premised that, Solon's laws being
the origin of political liberty at Athens, it be
came customary to ascribe to him all old con
stitutional measures of which the authors were
unknown. His constitution was based upon
the timocratic principle — that is, the title, of
citizens to the honours and offices of the state
was regulated by their wealth. All the citizens
were distributed into four classes. The first
class consisted of those who had an annual m-
come of at least 500 medimni of dry or liquid
produce (equivalent to 500 drachmae, a medim-
nus being reckoned at a drachma), and were
caUed Pentaeosiomedimni. The second class
consisted of those whose incomes ranged be
tween 300 and 500 medimni or drachmae, and
were caUed Hippeis ('lirireis, 'lirirrjs), from their
being able to keep a horse, and being-bound to
perform military service as cavalry. The third
class consisted of those whose incomes varied
between 200 and 300 medimni or drachmae, and
were termed Zeugitae (Zevyirai). The fourth
class included all whose property fell short of
200 medimni or drachmae, and bore the name of
Thetes. The first three classes were liable to
direct taxation, in the form of a graduated M-
come tax. A direct tax, however, was an extra
ordinary, and not an annual, payment. The
fourth class were exempt from direct taxes, but
of course they, as weU as the rest, were Uable
to indirect taxes. In tMs arrangement the
archonsMp was restricted to the first class (i.e.
practically to Eupatrids), the second and third
classes were admitted to other offices, but the
Thetes to none. He thus limited the demo
cracy. To Solon has been ascribed the institu
tion of the Boule (BovXii), or deUberative as
sembly of Four Hundred ; but it appears from
Aristotle's 'AB. TloX. that tMs councU existed
before [see under Dkaco]. Solon, however,
transferred to it some of the functions of the
Areopagus — the mitiation of proposals for the
Ecclesia, and the dealings with foreign ambas
sadors, and he made its number 400 (100 from
each tribe) Mstead of 401, as Draco had con
stituted it. (Arist. 'AB. IloA. 8.) He greatly
enlarged the functions of the Ecclesia (Ik-
KXricria), which no doubt existed before Ms time,
though it probably possessed scarcely more
power than the assembliea wMch we find de
scribed in the Homeric poems. He gave it the
right of electing the archons and other magis
trates, and what was even more important,
made the archons and magistrates accountable
directly to it when their year of office was ex
pired. He also gave it what was equivalent to
a veto upon any proposed measure of the Boule,
though it could not itself originate any measure.
Besides the arrangement of the general political
relations of the people, Solon was the author of
a great variety of special laws, wMch do not
seem to have been arranged in any systematic
manner. Those relating to debtors and credi
tors have been already referred to. Several
had for their object the encouragement of trade
and manufactures. Foreign settlers were not
to be naturalised as citizens unless they carried
on some industrious pursuit. If a father did
not teach his son some trade or profession, the
son was not liable to maintain his father in his
old age. The council of Areopagus had a
general power to pumsh idleness. Solon for
bade the exportation of all produce of the Attic
soil except olive oil. He was the first who gave
to those who died childless the power of dis-
poamg of their property by will. He enacted

SOLUS
several laws relating to marriage, especiaUy
with regard to heiresses. The rewards which
he appointed to be given to victors at the
Olympic and Isthmian games are for that age
unusually large (500 drachmae to the former
and 100 to the latter). One of the most curious-
of Ms regulations was that wMch denounced
atimia against any citizen who on the outbreak
of a sedition remained neutral. (Arist. 'AB.
TloX. 8 ; Gell. ii. 12.) The laws of Solon were
inscribed on wooden roUers (droves) and trian
gular tablets (KvpBeis), and were set up at first
m the Acropolis, afterwards in the Prytaneum.
The Athenians were also indebted to Solon
for some rectification of the calendar. It is.
said that Solon exacted from the people a
solemn oath, that they would observe Ms laws.
without alteration for a certain space — 10 years
accordmg to Herodotus — 100 years according to
other accounts. It is related that he was him
self aware that he had been compelled to leave-
many imperfections in Ms system and code.
He is said to have spoken of his laws as being,
not the best, bu^th^bpsyEhioh the Athemans
would yio-TO"°fgTifofl "^AMrqllJ^mrj completed
his task — being, we are told, gnSffljfci annoyed
and troubled by those who came toTfWm with
aU Mnds of complamts, suggestions or critBgisms
about Ms laws — in order that he might not hian-
self have to propose any change, he absented^,
Mmself from Athens for ten years, after he had ^
obtained the oath referred to. (Arist. 'AB. TloX.
11 ; Plut. Sol. 25 ; Hdt. i. 29.) He first viaitef
Egypt ; and from thence proceeded to Cyprus
where he was received with great distinction My
Philocyprus, Mng of the Uttle town of Aepe/a-
Solon persuaded the Mng to remove from/^he
old site, and bMld a new town on the UilaM.
The new settlement was called SoU, in htonour
of the illustrious visitor. (Hdt. v. H3y!r He is.
further said to have visited Lydiadf and Ms
Mterview with Croesus was onej&f the most
celebrated stories m , mtdgjiitiyT [Cboesus.].
During the absenaerol Solon the old diasensiona
were renewed, ana shortly after his arrival at
Athens the suprime power was seized by Pisi
stratus, who, after Ms usurpation, is said to
have paid considerable court to Solon, and on
various occasions to have solicited Ms advice.
[Pisisteatus.] Solon probably died about 558,
two years after the overtMow of the constitu
tion, at the age of eighty. There was a story
current m antiqmty that, by Ms own directions,
his ashes were collected and scattered round
the island of Salamis. (Diog. Laert. i. 62 ; cf .
Plut. Sol. 32, where doubt is expressed.) Of
the poems of Solon several fragments remam.
They do not mdicate any great degree of
imaginative power, but their style is vigorous
and simple. Those that were called forth by
special emergencies appear to hxve been
marked by no small degree of energy. The
fragments of these poems are incorporated m
the coUections of the Greek gnomic poets and
in Bergk, Bod. Lyr. Graec. 1866 ; and there is
also a separate edition of them by Bach, Lugd.
Bat. 1825.
Solus (SoAous, -ovvros, contr. of S,oX6eis: 2o-
Xevrivos), caUed Soluntum (Solentinus) by the
Romans, an ancient town on the N. coast of
SicUy, between Panormus and Thermae, a colony
of the Phoemcians (Thuc. vi. 2). It feU into
the hands of Dionysius m 396 (Diod. xiv. 78),
but was recovered by the CarthagMians some
time afterwards. Under the Romans it was a
municipal town (Cic. Verr. ii. 42 ; cf . Ptol. ni.
4, 3).

SOLYMA
Solyma (ra 26xvpa). 1. (TaktaU-Dagh),
the mountam range which runs parallel to the
E. coast of Lycia, and is a southern continua
tion of M. Climax. Sometimes the whole range
is caUed Climax, and the name of Solyma is
given to its highest peak. — 2. Another name of
Jebusalem (Strab. p. 666).
Solymi. [Lycia.]
Soranus ("Tirvos), the personification and god
of sleep, is described as a brother of Death
(@dvaros, Mors), and as a son of Night. In
works of art Sleep and Death are represented
alike as two youths, sleeping or holdmg mverted
torches M their hands. [Mobs.]
Sontius (Isonzo), a river in Venetia in the N.
of Italy, riaMg in the Cormc Alps and faUing
Mto the SMus Tergestinus E. of Aquileia,
Sopater (Sdirarpos). 1. Of Paphos, a writer of
parody and burlesque ((pAuapo7pol<pos), between
B.C. 323 and 288 (Athen. p. 71). — 2. Of Apamea,
and the head for some time of the school of
Plotinus, was a disciple of Iamblithus, after
whose death (before a.d. 330) he went to Con
stantinople. Here he enjoyed the favour and
personal friendsMp of Constantine, who after
wards, however, put him to death (between a.d.
330 and 387), wishing, as was alleged, to give a
proof of the smcerity of Ms own conversion to
Christiamty. (Sozom. H. E. i. 5 ; SMd. s.v.) —
8. The younger sopMst, of Apamea, or of Alex
andria, is supposed to have Uved about 200
years later than the former. Besides Ms extant
works (sometimes wrongly ascribed to No. 2),
Photius has preserved an extract of a work, en
titled the Historical Extracts (eKXoyii), wMch
contamed a vast variety of facts and figments,
coUected from a great number of authors. The
remains of Ms rhetorical works are contaMed m
Walz's Bhetores Graed.
Sophene (2a>cpi)vii, later ScocpaVTtivti), a district
of Armema Major, lying between the ranges of
Antitaurus and Masius ; separated from Meli
tene M Armenia Mmor by the EupMates, from
Mesopotamia by the Antitaurus, and from the E.
part of Armema Major by the river NympMus
(Strab. pp. 521, 532). In the time of the Greek
Mngs of Syria, it formed, together with the
adjacent district of AciUsene, an mdependent
W. Armenian Mngdom, which was subdued
and united to the rest of Armema by Ti
granes. It was taken from Tigranes by Pom
pey and given by Nero to Sohaemus (Tac. Arm.
xiii. 7).
Sophllus (SdcpiXos), a comic poet of the
Middle Comedy, was a native of Sicyon or ot
Thebes, and Uved about B.C. 348 (Suid. s.v.).—
Fragments M Meineke, Fr. Com. Graec.
Sophocles (SocpoKXijs). 1. The great tragic
poet, was born at Colonus, a vUlage Uttle moro
than a mile to the NW. of Athens, B.C. 495. He
was tMrty years younger than Aeschylus, and
fifteen years older than Euripides. His father's
name was SophUus, or SopMUus, who traded
as an iron-worker, i.e. he employed slaves as
smiths. Sophocles received an education not
inferior to that of the sons of the most dis
tmguished citizens of Athens. In both of the
two leading branches of Greek education, music
and gymnastics, he was carefuUy trained, and
M both he gained the prize of a garland. Of
the skUl wMch he had attained in music and
dancmgm Ms sixteenth year, and of the perfec
tion of Ms bodily form, we have conclusive
evidence in the fact that, when the Athenians
-were assembled in solemn festival around the
trophy which they had set up in Salamis to
celebrate their victory over the fleet of Xerxes,

SOPHOCLES

887

Sophocles was chosen to lead, naked and with
lyre in hand, the chorus which sang the songs of
triumph (480). (Athen. p. 20.) HiB first appear
ance as a dramatist took place m 468, under
peculiarly interesting circumstances — not oMy
from the fact that SophocleB, at the age of
twenty-seven, came forward as the rival of the
veteran Aeschylus, whose supremacy had been
maintained during an entire generation, but also
from the character of the judges. The solemni
ties of the Great Dionysia were rendered more
imposing by the occasion of the return of Cimon
from his expedition to Scyros, bringing with
him the bones of Theseus. Public expectation
was so excited respecting the approaching dra
matic contest, and party feeling ran so high,
that Apsephion, the Archon Eponymus, whose
duty it was to appoint the judges, had not yet
ventured to proceed to the final act of drawing
the lots for their election, when Cimon, with
Ms nine coUeagues in the command, havMg
entered the theatre, the Archon detamed them
at the altar, and administered to them the oath
appomted for the judges in the dramatic con
tests. Their decision was in favour of Sopho
cles, who received the first prize, the second
oMy being awarded to Aeschylus, who was so-
mortified at his defeat that he left Athens and
retired to Sicily. (Plut. Cim. 8 ; G.I. G. 2374 ;
Aeschylus.) From this epoch Sophocles held
the supremacy of the Atheman stage, not with
out rivals by whom he was sometimes defeated —
even the Oedipus Tyrannus only obtained the
second prize — but even against so formidable a
rival as Euripides (whose first victory was M
441) he mamtained his place till his death as
the favourite poet of the Athemans. In 442
he was on the board of the HeUenotamiae,
or treasurers of the tribute paid by allies
(C. I. A. i. 237). The year 440 is a most im
portant era in the poet's life. In the spring of
that year he brought out the earliest of Ms
extant dramas, the Antigone, and M the same
year, but probably for reasons apart from
poetical merit, he was appointed one of the ten
strategi, of whom Pericles was the cMef, m the
war agamst Samos. It would seem that M
tMs war Sophocles neither obtained nor sought
for any mUitary reputation : he is represented
as good-humouredly repeatMg the judgment of
Pericles concerning Mm, that he understood
the maMng of poetry, but not the commandmg
of an army. It was probably for tMs reason
that Pericles sent him to look after suppUes at
Lesbos, where Ion records a meeting with Mm
(Athen. p. 604). The family dissensions which
troubled his last years are connected with a
well-known and beautiful story, concerning the
exactneas of wMch, however, there is some
doubt. Hia family consisted of two sons, Iophon,
the offspring of Nicostrate, who was a free
Atheman woman, and Ariston,Ms son by lneo-
ris of Sicyon; and Ariston had a son named
Sophocles, for whom Ms grandfather showed
the greatest affection. Iophon, who was by the
laws of Athens Ms father's rightful heir jealous
of his love for the young Sophocles and appre
hending that Sophocles purposed to bestow
upon Ms grandson a large proportion of Ms
property, is said to have summoned Ms father,
as being mentally Mcompetent, before the
PMatores [the jurisdiction in such matters
would belong to the Archon]. As Ms only reply,
Sophoclea exclaimed, ' If I am Sophoclea, 1 am
not beaide myaelf ; and if I am beside myself,
I am not Sophocles;' and then he read from
his Oedipus at Colonus, wMch was lately

888 SOPHOCLES
written, but not yet brought out, the magnifi
cent chorus, beginmng —
Evlirirov, {eve, raoSe x<^Pas>
whereupon the judges at once dismissed the
case, and rebuked Iophon for his undutiful con
duct. (Plut. An Seni sit gerend. Bespubl. 3, p.
775.) Sophocles died Boon afterwards, in 406,
m his nMetieth year. All the various accounts
of his death and funeral are of a fictitious and
legendary character. Accordmg to a foolish
story he was choked by a grape, which is
probably a too Uteral Mterpretation of the epi
gram by Simomdes saying that Socrates died
' Oivwirbv Bdxxov B^rpvv epeirr6pevos,' a para-
pMase for ' worMng at a tragedy ' (Anth. Pal.
vii. 20). Another writer related that in a public
recitation of the Antigone he sustained Ms
voice so long without a pause that, tMough the
weaknesa of extreme age, he lost Ms breath and
his life together; wMle others ascribed his
death to excessive joy at obtaimng a victory. —
In considering the development of the Greek
drama it is important to notice that Sophocles
first increased the number of actors from two
to tMee : and tMs he must have done early M
Ms career, since the change was adopted by
Aeschylus in his Orestda m B.C. 460. Sophocles
also raised the number of the chorus from twelve
to fifteen. Of the tMee additional members one
was Mtended to act as coryphaeus of the whole,
the other two to lead the sections M a divided
chorus. [See Did. of Ant. art. Tragoedia.]
His chorus takes a less leading part than the
chorus of Aeschylus : it is entirely subordinate
to the actors and does not develop the action
of the play. The subjects and style of Sophocles
are human, whUe those of Aeschylus are essen-
tiaUy heroic. The latter excite terror, pity, and
admiration, as we view them at a distance;
the former bring those some feelmgs home to
the heart, with the addition of sympathy and
self-application. No individual human being
can imagme hhnself in the position of Prome
theus, or derive a personal warnmg from the
crimes and fate of Clytemnestra; but every
one can, in feeling, share the self-devotion of
Antigone M giving up her life at the call of
fraternal piety, and the calmness wMch comes
over the spirit of Oedipus when he is reconciled
to the gods. In Aeschylus, the sufferers are
the victims of an mexorable destiny ; but So
phocles brings more prominently Mto view
those faults of their own which form one ele
ment of the destiny of wMch they are the
victims, and is more Mtent upon inculcating, as
the lesson taught by their woes, that wise
calmness and moderation, in desires and actions,
in prosperity and adversity, which the Greek
poets and pMlosophers celebrate under the
name of o-acppoo-vvn. On the other hand, he
does not, in the same manner as Euripides,
bring tragedy to the level of everyday life, nor
does he m a Uke degree use a miserable con
dition of life as a means of exciting pity [see
p. 334, b]. A characteristic difference between
the two poets is Ulustrated by the saying of
Sophocles that ' he himself represented men as
they ought to be, but Euripides exhibited them
as they are ' (Aristot. Pod. 25). A great
modern critic has weU said : ' There is no other
Greek poet whose genius belongs so peculiarly
to the best Greek time. Aeschylus has an ele
ment of Hebrew grandeur: Euripides has strong
elements of modern pathos and romance ; these
tMngs come easily home to us. But in order
fuUy to appreciate Sophocles we must place

SOPHRON
ourselves in sympathy with the Greek mmd m
its most characteristic modes of thought, and
with the Greek sense of beauty in its Mghest
purity.' — The number of plays ascribed to So
phocles was 130. He contended not only with
Aeschylus and Euripides, but also with Choe-
rilus, Aristias, Agathon, and other poets,
among whom was his own son Iophon; and
he carried off the first prize twenty or twenty-
four times, frequently the second, and never
the third. It is remarkable, as proving Ms
growing activity and success, that, of Ms 130
dramas, eighty-one were brought out after Ms
fifty-fourth year, and also that aU Ma extant
dramas, wMch of course m the judgment of the
grammarians were Ms best, belong to this latter
period of his life. The seven extant tragedies
were probably brought out in the. foUowmg
cMonological order : — Antigone, Electra, Tro-
chiniae, Oedipus Tyranrvus, Ajax, Philoctetes,
Oedipus at Colonus : the last of these was
brought out, after the death of the poet, by Ms
grandson. — Of the numerous editions of Sopho
cles, the best is that of Professor Jebb, now
nearly complete. — 2. Son of Ariston, and grand
son of the elder Sophocles, was also an Athe
nian tragic poet. The love of his grandfather
towards Mm has been already mentioned. In
401 he brought out the Oedipus at Colonus of
Ms grandfather ; but he did not begin to ex-
Mbit Ms own dramas tiU 396. — 3. Son of Sostra-
tides, was an Atheman commander M the Pelo
ponnesian war, sent to reinforce the fleet M
Sicily and to aid the popular party at Corcyra ;
was banished because he assented to the peace
m SicUy in B.C. 424 (Thuc. ui. 115, iv. 2, 46, 66).
Sophonisba, daughter of the Carthagmian
general, Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco. She had
been betrothed by her father, at a very early
age, to the Numidian prince Masimssa, but at a
subsequent period Hasdrubal, being desirous to
gam over Syphax, the rival monarch of Nu-i
midia, to the Carthaginian alliance, offered him
the hand of Ms daughter m marriage. The
beauty and accomplishments of Sophomsba pre-
vaUed over the influence of Scipio: Syphax
married her, and from that time became, under
her Mfluence, the zealous supporter and aUy of
Carthage. After the defeat of Syphax, and the
capture of his capital city of Cirta by Masinissa,
Sophonisba fell into the hands of the conqueror,
upon whom her beauty exercised so powerful an
influence, that he determined to marry her
himself. Their nuptials were accordmgly cele
brated without delay, but Scipio (who was ap
prehensive lest she should exercise the same M-
fluence overMasMiasawMch she had previously
done over Syphax) refused to ratify this ar
rangement and, upbraiding Masinissa with his
weakness, insisted on the immediate surrender
of the princess. Unable to resist this com
mand, the Numidian kmg spared her the
humiliation of captivity, by sending her a bowl
of poison, which she drank without hesitation,
and thus put an end to her own life. (Liv. xxix.
23. xxx. 3-15 ; Pol. xiv. 1, 7 ; App. Pun. 10, 27,
28 ; Zonar. ix. 11-18.)
Sophron (Sdcppaiv), of Syracuse, was the prin
cipal writer of that speoies of composition called
the Mime (jupos), which was one of the nume
rous varieties of the Dorian Comedy. He lived
about B. c. 460-420. When SopMon is called
the inventor of mimes, the meamng is, that he
reduced to the form of a literary composition a
species of amusement which the Greeks of
SicUy, who were pre-eminent for broad humour
and merriment, had practised from time Mime-

SOPHRONISCUS
morial at their pubUc festivals, and probably
also m private society. They consisted in a
delineation of ordmary character brought out
m a dramatic dialogue representing some scene
of social Ufe. The second Idyll of Theocritus is
borrowed from the 'AKecrrpiai of SopMon, and
the fifteenth (Adoniazusae) from Sophron's
lo-BpidQovo-ai. There is, however, some diffi
culty m determming whether SopMon's were
in mere prose, or in mingled poetry and prose,
or m prose with a pecuUar rhythmical move
ment but no metrical arrangement. Plato
was a great admirer of Sophron, and is said to
have been the first who made the Mimes known
at Athens. (Suidas, s.vv. Sdippav, 'Pr/yivovs;
Arist. Pod. i. 8 ; Athen. p. 505 ; cf. Hebondas.)
The best coUection of the fragments of Sophron
is by L. Botzon, Marienburg, 1867.
Sophroniscus. [Socbates.]
Sophus, P. Sempronius, consul 304, and one
of the first plebeian pontifices B. c. 800 (Liv.
xi. 45, x. 9), is mentioned as one of the earliest
jurists, and is said to have owed Ms name of
Sophus or Wise to Ms great merits (Pompon.
Dig. i. 2, 2, 37).
Sopianae (Funfkirchen), a town in Pannonia
Inferior, on the road from Mursa to Vindobona,
the birthplace of the emperor Maximinus
(Amm. Marc, ixviii. 1).
Sora. 1. (Soranus : Sera), a town in Latium,
on the right bank of the river Liris and N. of
Arpmum, with a strongly fortified citadel. It
was the most northerly town of the Volsci in La
tium, and afterwards joined the Samnites; but
it was conquered by the Romans, and was twice
colomsed by them, since the inhabitants had
destroyed the first body of colonists. (Liv. ix.
23, 43, x. 1; Diod. xix. 72, xx. 90.) Juvenal
speaks of it as a qMet country town (iii. 223).
There are stUl remains of the polygonal waUs
of the ancient town. — 2. (Zora) A town in
Paphlagoma, near Andrapa and NW. of Tavium.
It is possibly the same as Sebaste Paphlagoniae.
Soracte (Monte di S. Or este), a celebrated
mountaM m Etruria, M the territory of the
Falisci, near the Tiber, about twenty-six miles
-from Rome, the summit of wMch, M winter
covered with snow, was clearly visible from the
city. (Vides ut alta stet nive candidum
Soracte, Hor. Od. i. 9.) It rises in a bold and
abrupt form, but to a height of only 2420 feet.
On its summit was a temple of Apollo Soeanus.
Soranus. 1. A Sabme divmity worsMpped
on Mt. Soracte, the name of wMch was possibly
derived from tMs worsMp. Soranus was ap
parently a sun-god of the district, and hence
was identified with ApoUo as Apollo Soranus.
At Ms festival the worsMppers were supposed
to pass over burning embers without tojury.
(Verg. Aen. vu. 785-790; Sil. It. v. 175; PUn.
vii. 19.) The rite may have been originaUy a
sun-charm, Uke the ' St. John's fires,' and had
the additional meamng of purification from
evU mfluences wMch belonged to the similar
rites of Pales. — 2. The name of several phy
sicians, of whom the most celebrated seems to
Mwe been a native of Ephesus, and to have
practised his profession first at Alexandria, and
afterwards at Rome, in the reigns of Trajan and
Hadrian, a.d. 98-138. There are several medi
cal works stUl extant under the name of Soranua,
but whether they were written by the native of
Ephesus cannot be determined.
Sordice (Etamg de Leucate), a lake in Gallia
Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, formed
by the river Sordis (Avien. Or. Mar. 560).
Sordones or Sordi, a small people in Gallia

SOTADES 889
Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, whose
cMef town waB Ruscmo (PUn. iii. 35 ; Mel. ii. 5).
Sosibius (SualBios), a distinguished Lacedae
monian grammarian, who flourished M the reign
of Ptolemy Philadelphus (about B. c. 251), and
was contemporary with CaUimachus (Suid.
s. v. ; Athen. p. 498).
Soslgenes (Sacriyevris), the Peripatetic philo
sopher, was the astronomer employed by Julius
Caesar to superintend the correction of the
calendar (b. c. 46). He is caUed an Egyptian,
but may be supposed to have been an Alexan
drian Greek. (See Did. of Antiq. art. Calen-
darium.) Sosiphanes (Xao-icpdvris), the son of Sosicles,
of Syracuse, was one of the seven tragedians
who were called the Tragic Pleiad. He lived
about^B. c. 340-280. (Suid. s.v.)
Sosltheus (Sao-iBeos), of Syracuse or Athens,
or Alexandria in the Troad, was a distinguished
tragic poet, one of the Tragic Pleiad, and the
antagonist of the tragic poet Homer. He lived
about B. c. 284. (Suid. s. v.)
Sosistratos (SucricrrpaTos). 1. Held the
chief power at Syracuse before the rise of
Agathocles ; he was expelled by a revolution
and retired to Agrigentum, where he was assas
sinated b.c. 814 (Diod. xix. 71). — 2. Divided the
chief power at Syracuse with Ms rival, Thynion,
about B.C. 277. They caUed in Pyrrhus to aid
them when they were besieged by the Cartha
ginians (Plut. Pyrrh. 28).
Sosius. 1. C, quaestor, B. c. 66, and praetor
49. He was afterwards one of Antony's prin
cipal Ueutenants in the East. He was appointed
by Antony, in 38, governor of Syria and Cilicia
m the place of Ventidius. Like Ms predecessor
in the government, he carried on the military
operations in his province with great success.
In 37, he advanced against Jerusalem along
with Herod, and after hard fighting became
master of the city, and placed Herod upon the
tMone. In return for these services, Antony
obtained for Sosius the honour of a triumph in
34, and the consulship in 32. Sosius commanded
the left wing of Antony's fleet at the battle of
Actium. He was afterwards pardoned by Octa
vian, at the intercession of L. Arruntius. (Suet.
Aug. 17; App. B.C. v. 73; Veil. Pat. ii. 85.)
— 2. The name of two brothers (Sosii), book-
aellera at Rome in the time of Horace. They
were probably freedmen, perhaps of the Sosius
mentioned above. (Hor. Ep. i. 20, 2 ; A. P. 345.)
Sosplta. [Juno.]
Sosthenes ^S,wo-Bevns), a Macedonian officer
of noble birth, who obtained the supreme direc
tion of affairs during the period of confusion
which followed the invasion of the Gauls. He
defeated the Gauls in 280. (Just. xxiv. 5, 6.)
Sostratus (Sdcrrparos), the son of Dexi-
phanes, of Cnidus, was one of the great archi
tects who flourished during and after the Ufe of
Alexander the Great. He built for Ptolemy I.,
the son of Lagus, the celebrated Pharoa of
Alexandria. He also embellished his native
city, Cnidus, with a work which was one of the
wonders of ancient architecture : namely, a
portico, or colonnade, supporting a terrace,
which served as a promenade. (Strab. p. 791 ;
Plin. xxxvi. 83.)
Sotades (SurdS-ris). 1. An Athenian comic
poet of the so-called Middle Comedy, who must
not be confounded with the more celebrated
poet of Maronea (Athen. pp. 293, 368).— 2. A
native of Maronea in Thrace, flourished at
Alexandria about B.C. 280. He wrote lascivious
poems (caUed tpXiaKes or tcivatSoi) in the Ionic

890

SOTION

dialect, whence they were also caUed 'IuvikoX
x6yoi (Suid. s.v. ; Athen. p. 620). They were
alao called Sotadean poems (SairdSeux cfcrpaTa).
It would seem that Sotades carried Ms lascivi
ous and abusive satire to the utmost lengths,
and the freedoms which he took at last brought
him into trouble (Mart. ii. 86, 2). According to
Plutarch (Op. Moral, p. 11), he made a vehe
ment and gross attack on Ptolemy Philadelphus,
on the occasion of Ms marriage with his sister
Arsinoe, and the king tMew him into prison,
where he remained for a long time. Accordmg to
Athenaeus, the poet attacked both Lysimachus
and Ptolemy, and, having fled from Alexandria,
he waa overtaken at Caunus by Ptolemy's
general Patroclus, who shut him up in a leaden
chest and cast Mm into the sea.
Sotion (Saricuv). 1. A philosopher and a na
tive of Alexandria, who flourished at the close
of the third century B.C. He is chiefly remark
able as the author of a work (entitled AiaSoxai)
on the successive teachers in the different philo-
aophical schools (Athen. p. 162 ; Diog. Laert. v.
86). — 2. A philosopher, and also a native of
Alexandria, who lived M the age of Tiberius.
He was the instructor of Seneca, who derived
from him his admiration of Pythagoras. It was
perhaps this Sotion who was the author of a
treatise on anger, quoted by Stobaeus (Sen. Ep.
108). Sottiates or Sotiates, a powerful and warlike
people in GaMa Aquitanica, on the frontiers of
GalUa Narbonensis, were subdued by P. Crassus
Caesar's legate, after a hard-fought battle. The
modern Sos probably represents the ancient
town of tMs people. (Caes. B.G. iU. 20 ; Athen.
p. 249 j Oros. vi. 8.)
SozomenuS (2,w£6pevos), usually called Sozo-
men M EngUsh, was a Greek ecclesiastical Ms
torian of the fifth century. He was probably a
native of Bethelia or Bethel, a village near
Gaza in Palestine. His parents were CMis-
tians. He practised as an advocate at Constan
tinople, like Ms predecessor, Socrates, and he
was stiU engaged in his profession when he
wrote his History. His Ecclesiastical History,
wMch is extant, is in nine books, and is dedi
cated to the emperor Theodosius II. It begins
with the reign of Constantine, and comes down
a little later than the death of Honorius, a.d.
423. The work is incomplete, and breaks off in
the middle of a chapter. The author, we know,
had proposed to bring it down to 489, the year
M which the History of Socrates ends. Sozo-
men excels Socrates in style, but is inferior to the
. latter in soundness of judgment. The History
of Sozomen is printed along with the other Greek
ecclesiastical Mstorians. [Socbates, No. 2.]
, Sozopolis, aft. Sozupolis (2a(6iroXis, Swfoi-
iroXis : Susu, Ru.), a considerable city of Pisidia,
m a plain surrounded by mountains, N. of Ter-
messus (Hierocl. p. 672).
Sparta (Sirdprn, Dor. Sirdpra : ~2,irapr tarns,
Spartiates, Spartanus) also caUed Lacedaemon
(AaKeSaipaiv : AaKeSatp6vios, Lacedaemomus),
the capital of Laconica and the cMef city of
Peloponnesus, was situated on the right bank
of the Eurotas (Iri), about twenty miles from
the sea. It stood on a plaM which contained
within it several rismg grounds and hills. It
was bounded on the E. by the Eurotas, on the
NW. by the smaU river Oenus (Kelesina), and
on the SE. by the small river Tisia (Magula).
Both of these streams fell into the Eurotas,
wMch here for some distance is less narrowly
enclosed by the mountains on either side.
Below its confluence with the Oenus the river

SPARTA
runs for eighteen miles in a vaUey or plain
about four miles broad. On its left bank the
ground is marshy; on its right there are low
spurs runnmg down from Taygetus, and form
ing a space of ground elevated above the river
upon wMch Sparta was built. Below, the river
is again confined by mountain gorges. The
actual plam of Sparta was therefore difficult of
approach and easily defended against Mvaders.
The city was about six miles m circumference,
and consisted of several distinct quarters,
which were origmaUy separate viUages, and
wMch were never united mto one regular town.
(Thuc. i. 10 ; Paus. iii. 16, 9.) Its site ia occu
pied by the modern villages of Magula and
Psykhiko, and the principal modern town m
the neighbourhood is Mistra, wMch lies about
two miles to the W. on the slopes of Mt. Tayge
tus. During the flourishing times of Greek
independence, Sparta was never surrounded by
waUs, sMce the bravery of its citizens, and the
difficulty of access to it, were supposed to ren
der such defences needless. It was first fortified
by the tyrant Nabis, b.c. 195 (Paus. vii. 8, 5 ;
Liv. xxxiv. 27), but it did not possess regular
waUs tiU the time of the Romans. Sparta,
unlike most Greek cities, had no proper Acropo
Us, but this name, after the fortification of the
city by Nabis, waa given to one of the ateepest
Mils of the town, on the summit of which stood
the temple of Athene PoUuchos, or Chalcioeeus.
Five quarters (origmaUy distinct vUlages) are
mentioned : (1) Pitane (JUiravri), towards the N.
of the city, M wMch was situated the Agora,
containing the councU-house of the senate, and
the offices of the public magistrates (Hdt. iii.
55 ; Pind. Ol. vi. 46 ; Eur. Troad. 1112 ; Plut.
Ages. 82, de Exsil. p. 601). It was also sur
rounded by temples and other pubUc MuldMgs.
Of these the most splendid was the Persian
Stoa or portico, origmaUy buUt of the spoils
taken in the Persian war, and eMarged and
adorned at later times. (2) Limnae (Aipvai), a
suburb of the city m which stood the famous
temple of Artemis OrtMa, on the banks of the
Eurotas, probably NE. of Pitane, was originaUy
low ground covered with water. (3) Mesoa or
or Messoa (Mecr6a, Metro-da), also by the side
of the Eurotas, probably M the SE. part of
the city, containing the Dromus and the
Platanistas, which was a spot nearly surrounded
with water, and so called from the plane-trees
growing there. (4) Cynosura(Kvv6o-ovpa: Kvvocr-
ovpevs), in the SW. of the city, and S. of
Pitane. (5) Aegldae (AlyeiSai), in the NW. of
the city, and W. of Pitane. — The two principal
streets of Sparta ran from the Agora to the
extreme end of the city : these were, (1) Aphe-
tae or Aphetais ('Acperai, 'Acperais sc. 656s)r
extending m a south-easterly direction, past the
temple of Dictynna (wMch stood on the rising
ground Mcluded M New Sparta) and the tombs
of the Eurypontidae ; and (2) Skias (SKids), run
ning nearly paraUel to the preceding one, but fur
ther tothe E., and which derived its name from
an ancient tholos or skias (a circular building).
The hUls on the outskirts of the city were the
Dictynnaeum (above mentioned) on the S., the
Issorion on the W., and the Alpion on the N.
To the SE., on the left bank of the Eurotas,
was the hiU Menelaium (Hag. Elias), so caUed
from the sanctuary of Menelaus and Helen
which stood upon it (Pol. v. 22 ; Paus. iii. 19, 9 ;
Liv. xxxiv. 28). The most important remains
of ancient Sparta are the ruins of the theatre,
which was near the Agora. — In the Homeric
period, Argos was the cMef city in Peloponne-

SPARTA
sus, and Sparta is represented as subject to it.
Here reigned Menelaus, the younger brother of
Agamemnon; and, according to tradition, by
the marriage of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon,
with Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus, the
two kingdoms of Argos and Sparta became
united The Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus
made Sparta the capital of the country. La
conica fell to the share of the two sons of
Aristodemus, Eurysthenes and Procles, who
took up their residence at Sparta, and ruled
over the Mngdom conjointly. The old Mhabi-
tants of the country mamtamed themselves at
Amyclae, wMch was not conquered for a long
time. After the complete subjugation of the
country we find tMee distMct classes in the
population : the pure Dorians, who resided in
the capital, and who were caUed Spartiatae or
Spartans ; the Perioeci or old Achaean inhabi
tants (but probably with some admixture of
Dorian blood), who became tributary to the
Spartans, and possessed no poUtical rights ; and
the Helots, who were also a portion of the old
Achaean inhabitants, but were reduced to a
state of slavery. [See also Diet, of Ant. art.
Perioeci^] From various causes the Spartans
became distracted by mtestme quarrels, tiU at
length Lycurgus, who belonged to the royal
famUy, was selected by ail parties to give a new
constitution to the state. [See Lycubgus.]
Sparta extended her sway over the greater part
of Peloponnesus. In B.C. 743 the Spartans
attacked Messema, and after a war of twenty
years subdued this country, 723. In 685 the
MesseMans agaM took up arms, but at the end
of seventeen years were agaM completely sub
dued ; and their country from tMs time forward
became an mtegral portion of Laconia. [For
detaUs see Messenia.] After the cloae of the
second Messenian war the Spartans continued
their conquests m Peloponnesus. They de
feated the Tegeans, and wrested the district of
Thyreae from the Argives. At the time of the
Persian Mvasion, they were confessedly the first
people m Greece, and to them was granted by
unanimous consent the cMef command m the
war. But after the final defeat of the Persians
the haughtiness of Pausamas disgusted most
of the Greek states, particularly the Ionians,
and led them to transfer the supremacy to
Athens (477). From tMs time the power of
Athens steadily Mcreased, and Sparta possessed
little influence outside the Peloponnesus. The
Spartans, however, made several attempts to
check the rising greatness of Athens, and their
jealousy of the latter led at length to the Pelo
ponnesian war (431). This war ended m the
overtMow of Athens, and the restoration of the
supremacy of Sparta over the rest of Greece
(404). But the Spartans did not retaM this
supremacy more than thirty years. Their de
cisive defeat by the Thebans under Epaminon-
das at the battle of Leuctra (371) gave the
Spartan power a shock from wMch it never
recovered ; and the restoration of the Messenians
to their country two years afterwards completed
the humiUation of Sparta. Thrice was the
Spartan territory invaded by the Thebans, and
the Spartan women saw for the first time the
watch-fires of an enemy's camp. The Spartans
now finaUy loat their supremacy over Greece,
but no other Greek state succeeded to their
power, and about thirty years afterwards the
greater part of Greece was obUged to yield to
PMlip of Macedon. The Spartans, however,
kept haughtily aloof from the Macedonian con
queror, and refused to take part in the Asiatic

SPARTACUS 891
expedition of Ms son, Alexander the Great.
Under the later Macedonian monarchs the
power of Sparta still further declined ; the in
stitutions of Lycungus were neglected, luxury
crept into the stato, the number of citizens
diminished, and the landed property became
vested in a few families. Agis endeavoured to-
restore the ancient institutions of Lycurgus,
but he perished in the attempt (240). Cleo
menes III., who began to reign 236, was more
successful. He succeeded in putting the Ephors i
to death, and overtMowing the existing govern
ment (225) ; and he then made a redistribution
of the landed property, and augmented the
number of the Spartan citizens by admitting
some of the Perioeci to this honour. Hia re
forma infused new blood into the state; and
for a short time he carried on war with success
against the Achaeans. But the miataken poUcy
of Aratua, the general of the Achaeans, called
in the assistance of Antigonus Doson, the Mng
of Macedonia, who defeated Cleomenes at the
decisive battle of SeUasia (221), and followed
up Mb success by the capture of Sparta. Sparta
now sank into insignificance, and was ruled by
a succession of native tyrants tiU at length it
was compelled to abolish its peculiar institu
tions, and to join the Achaean League. Shortly
afterwards it fell, with the rest of Greece,
under the Roman power.
Spartacus, the name of several kings of the
Cimmerian Bosporus. 1. Succeeded the dynasty
of the Archaeanactidae in B.C. 438, and reigned
untU 431. He was succeeded by Ms son Se
leucus. (Diod. xii. 31.) — 2. Began to reign in
427 and reigned twenty years. He was suc
ceeded in 407 by Ms son Satyrus. (Diod. xiv.
93.) — 3. Succeeded Ms father, Leucon, m 353,
and died, leaving his kmgdom to Ms son, Pary-
sades, in 348 (Diod. xvi. 31, 52). — 4. Son of
Eumelus, began to reign in 804, and reigned
twenty years (Diod. xx. 100).
Spartacus, by birth a Thracian, was suc
cessively a shepherd, a soldier, and a cMef of
banditti. On one of Ms predatory expeditions.
he was taken prisoner, and sold to a tramer of
gladiators. In 73 he was a member of the
company of Lentulus, and was detained M his.
school at Capua in readiness for the games at
Rome. He persuaded Ms fellow-prisoners to
make an attempt to gain their freedom. About
seventy of them broke out' of the school of
Lentulus, and took refuge in the crater of
Vesuvius. Spartacus was chosen leader, and
was soon joined by a number of runaway slaves.
They were blockaded by C. Claudius Pulcher
at the head of 3000 men, but Spartacus at
tacked the besiegers and put them to flight.
His numbers rapidly Mcreased, and for two-
years (b.c. 73-71) he defeated one Roman army
after another, and laid waste Italy from the
foot of the Alps to the southernmost corner of
the peninsula. After both the consuls of 72
had been defeated by Spartacus, M. Licinius
Crassua, the praetor, was appomted to the
command of the war. Crassus carried on the-
contest with vigour and success, and after
gaining several advantages over the enemy, at
length defeated them on the river Silarus in a
decisive battle, in wMch Spartacus was slain. —
The character of Spartacus has been maligned
by the Roman writers. Cicero compares the
vilest of his contemporaries to him; Horace
(Od. iii. 14, 19) speaks of him as a common
robber; none recognise his greatness, but the
terror of his name survived to a late period of
the empire. Accident made Spartacus a free-

892 SPARTARIUS
looter and a gladiator ; nature hod given him
many of the qualities of a hero. The excesses
of Ms foUowers he could not always repress,
and his efforts to restrain them often cost Mm
his popularity. But he was m Mmself not less
just than he was able and vahant. (Plut.
Crass. 8-12, Pomp. 21 ; Liv. Ep. 95-97 ; App.
B.C. i. 116-121 ; Cic. Verr. v. 2, 5, ad Att. vi. 2.)
Spartarius Campus. [Cabthago Nova.]
Sparti (Siraproi from a-irelpd), the Sown-men,
was the name given to the armed men who
sprang from the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus,
and who were believed to be the ancestors of
the five oldest families at Thebes. [Cadmus;
Thebae.] Spartianus, Aelius. [Scbiptobes Histobiae
"AUGUSTAE.] Spartolus (SrdpraXos), a town M the Mace-
¦doman peninsula of Chalcidice, N. of Olynthus
(Thuc. ii. 79, v. 18).
Spauta or Capauta (tiravra: L. of TJrmi), a
large salt lake in the W. of Media, whose waters
were Bingularly bitter and acrid. It was also
called Matiana (t/lariairb. Xlpvij) from the name
of the people who dwelt round it. (Strab. p. 523.)
Speos Artemidos. [Peos Art.]
Spercheus (Sirepxeiis : Elladha), a river in
the S. of Thessaly, wMch rises in Mt. Tym-
phrestus, runs in an easterly direction tMough
the territory of the Aenianes and tMough the
district MaUs, and falls into the innermost corner
of the Sinus MaUacus (Hdt. vii. 198 ; Strab.
p. 433). As a river-god Spercheus is a son of
Oceanus and Ge, and the father of Menesthius
by Polydora, the daughter of Peleus. To this
god Peleua dedicated the hair of Ms son AcMUes,
in order that he might return in safety from
the Trojan war. (II. xvi. 174, xxiii. 142 ; Apollod.
iii. 14, 4 ; Paua. i. 87, 2.)
Spes, the personification of Hope, was wor
sMpped at Rome, where she had Beveral temples,
the most ancient of which was bmlt in B.C.
354, by the consul Atilius Calatinus, near the
Porta Carmentalis in the Forum Olitorium,
and was rebuUt in 17 a.d. (Liv. xxiv. 47 ; Tac.
Ann. ii. 49). The goddess Spes represented
especially the hope and promise of gardens,
over which she presided, as Venus did also
(with whom she was sometimea identified in art).
Hence the vegetable-market waa a fitting place
for her sanctuary (cf. Tibull. i. 1, 9). She was
represented, like Flora, crowned with flowers,
and with ears of corn. She bore also the
¦cornucopia, Uke Fortune, in conjunction with
whom she is often addressed on monumental
inscriptions : ' Spes et Fortuna valete ' (cf . 'E Airls
Kal crb Tixv peya xaipere, Anth. Pal ix. 49).
Speusippus (^irevo-tiriros), the philosopher,
was a native of Athens, and the son of Eury
medon and Potone, a sister of Plato (Diog.
Laert. iv. 1). He accompanied his uncle Plato
on his third journey to Syracuae, where he
displayed considerable ability and prudence
(Plut. Dion, 22). He succeeded Plato as pre
sident of the Academy, but was at the head
of the school for only eight years (b.c. 847-389).
He died, as it appears, of a lingering paralytic
illness. He wrote several works, all of which
are lost, in wMch he developed the doctrines of
Ms great master.
Sphacteria. [Pylos, No. 1.]
Sphaeria (Scpaipia: Poros), an island off the
coast of Troezen in Argolis, and between it and
the island of Calauria, with the lat.ter of which
it was connected by a sand-bank. Here Sphae-
rus, the charioteer of Pelops, is said to have
been buried. (Paus. U. 83, 1, v. 10, 2.)

SPOLETIUM
Sphaerus (Scpaipos), a Stoic pMlosopher,
studied first under Zeno of Citium, and after
wards under Cleanthes. He lived at Alexandria
during the reigns of the first two Ptolemies.
(Diog. Laert. viii. 177 ; Athen. p. 334.) He also
taught at Lacedaemon, and was beUeved to have
had considerable influence m moulding the
character of Cleomenes (Plut. Cleom. 2). He
was in repute among the Stoics for the accu
racy of Ms definitions (Cic. Tusc. 24, 53). He
was the author of several works, aU of wMch
are lost.
Sphendale (ScpevUdXri : ScpevSaXevs), a demus
M Attica belongmg to the tribe Hippothoontis,
on the frontiers of Boeotia between Tanagra
and Decelea.
Sphettus (2<prjTT(Js : SoWjttios), a demus in
the S. of Attica, near the silver mMes of Sumum,
belonging to the tribe Acamantis.
Sphinx (2<p£"y|, gen. Scpiyy6s), accordMg to
the Greek tradition, a she-monster, daughter
of Orthus and CMmaera, born M the country
of the Arimi, or of Typhon and Echidna, or
lastly of Typhon and CMmaera. She is said to
have proposed a riddle to the Thebans, and to
have murdered aU who were unable to guess
it. Oedipus solved it, whereupon the Sphinx
slew herself. [For details see Oedipus.] The
legend appears to have come from Egypt, but
the figure of the Sphmx is represented some
what differently M Greek mythology and art.
The Egyptian SpMnx is the figure of a lion
without wings in a lymg attitude, the upper
part of the body being that of a human bemg.
TMs SpMnx was male, and represented the god
Hor-em-khu ( = Horua, Harmachia, or Kheper).
The atatue exiated before the time of Khufu (as
is mentioned in an inscription), i.e. before the
Fourth Dynasty, which probably began about
3700 B.C. The common idea of a Greek Sphinx,
on the other hand, is that of a winged body of a
Uon, the breast and upper port being the figure
of a woman. The wmged type, probably derived
from Assyria, was the commoner ; but some terra
cotta figures of a wmgless Sphinx have been
found in Boeotia. The Sphinx in Greece was
primarily an emblem of the mysterious power
of death. Hence ahe is represented, like the
Harpy or the Siren, bearing a slain body ; and
especially she is the slayer of those who die
prematurely. Her appearance in the Theban
¦story is due to her being regarded aa both
pitiless and mysterious. Among the most re
markable Greek sculptures of the Sphinx are
those which appear in a relief recently found
at Assos. The figure of the Sphinx is a common
emblem on tombs.
Spina, a town in Gallia Cispadana, M the
territory of the Lingones, on the most southerly
of the mouths of the Po, which was called after
it Ostium Spineticum. It was a very ancient
town (Dionys. i. 18, 28), but in the time of
Strabo had ceased to be a place of any import
ance (Strab. pp. 214, 421).
Spintharus (SirivBapos), of Heraclea on the
Pontus, a tragic poet, contemporary with Ari
stophanes, who designates him as a barbarian
and a Phrygian. He was also ridiculed by the
other comic poets. (Aristoph. Av. 763 ; Suid. s.v.)
Spolatum. [Salona.]
Spoletlum or Spoletum (Spoletinus: Spo-
leto), a town in Umbria, on the Via FlamMia,
colonised by the Romans B.C. 242. It suffered
severely in the civil wars between Sulla and
Marius. At a later time it was taken by
Totila ; but its waUs, wMch had been de
stroyed by the Goths, were restored by NarseB.

SPORADES
(Liv. xxii. 9; App. B.C. i. 89; Strab. p. 227;
Procop. B.G. iii. 12.) v •>
Sporades (SiropdSes, sc. vrproi, from aireipa),
a group of scattered islands M the Aegaean sea,
off the island of Crete and the W. coast of Asia
fllinor, so called m opposition to the Cyclades,
which lay m a circle around Delos. The
division, however, between these two groups of
islands was not always defined, and we find some
of the islands at one time described as belong
ing to the Sporades, and at another time as
belonging to the Cyclades. (Strab. pp. 484, 485 ;
Spurinna, Vestritius. 1. The haruspex who
warned Caesar to beware of the Ides of March.
It is related that, as Caesar was going to the
penate-house on the fatal day, he said to
Spurinna m jest, ' WeU, the Ides of March are
come,' upon wMch the seer repUed, ' Yes, they
are come, but they are not past.' (Suet. Jul. 81 ;
Plut. Caes. 63; Val. Max. vni. 11, 2.) — 2. A
Roman general, who fought on tie side of Otho
agamst the ViteUian troops M the N. of Italy
(Tac. Hist, ii 11, 18, 26; Plut. Oth. 5). In the
reign of Trajan he gamed a victory over the
Bructeri. Spurinna Uved upon terms of the
closest friendsMp with the younger PUny, who
gives a valuable and mteresting account of the
manner m wMch Spurinna passed Ms day
(PUn. Ep. m. 1). In the same letter PUny
mentions that Spurinna wrote lyric poems ; but
there is no doubt that the four poems pub
lished as Spurinna's by Barth M 1613 are for
geries (seeWernsdorf, Pod. Lat. Min. M. 825).
Spurinus, Q. Petillius, praetor urbanus in
B.c. 181, M wMch year the books of Mng Numa
PompiUus are said to have been discovered
upon the estate of one L. PetUUus. Spurinus
obtamed possession of the books, and upon Ms
representation to the senate that they ought
not to be read and preserved, the senate
ordered them to be burnt. [Numa.] Spurinus
was consul M 176, and feU in battle against the
Ligurians. (Liv. xl. 18, 26, 29; Vol. Max. i.
Stabiae (Stabianus : Castel a Mare di Sta-
bia), an ancient town M Campania, between
Pompeu and Surrentum, wMch was destroyed
by SuUa M the Social war, but wMch con
tinued to exist as a smaU place down to the
great eruption of Vesuvius M a.d. 79, when it
was overwhelmed along with Pompeii and
Herculaneum. It was at Stabiae that the
elder PUny perished. (Ov. Met. xv. 711 ; PUn.
Ep. vi. 16.) RemaMs of some Mterest have
been excavated there [cf . Did. of Ant. art.
Torcular]. Stagirus, subsequently Stagira ('Srdyetpos,
Ta^rayeipa,7j ^rayeipa : 2rayeipirr]s : Stavro),
a town of Macedonia, M Chalcidice, on the
StrymoMc gulf and a little N. of the isthmus
wMch unites the promontory of Athos to Chal
cidice. It was a colony of Andros, was founded
B.c. 656, and waa origmaUy caUed Orthagoria
(Hdt. vu. 115 ; Thuc. iv. 88). It is celebrated
as the birthplace of Aristotle, and was in con
sequence restored by Philip, by whom it had
been destroyed (Plut. Alex. 7; Diog. Laert. v.
i; Ael. V.H. iii. 17).
Staienus, C, one of the judices at the trial
of Oppiamcus. It was believed that he took
bribes from both sides. He claimed, without
right, to belong to the Aelian gens, and there
fore adopted the Aelian cognomen Paetus. He
was condemned for exciting a mutmy among
the soldiers M Ms quaestorship. (Cic. Cluent.
36, 98, Brut. 68.)

STATIUS

893

Staphylus (SrdcpvXos), son of Dionysus and
Ariadne, or of Theseus and Ariadne, and was
one of the Argonauts. By CMysothemis he
became the father of tMee daughters, Molpa-
dia, Rhoeo, and Parthenos. (Apollod. i. 9, 16 1
Diod. v. 52 ; Dionysus.)
Stasinus (SracriVos), of Cyprus, an epic poet,,
to whom some of the ancient writers attributed
the poem of the Epic Cycle entitled Cypria
(Kiirpia), because Cyprus waa the birthplace of
ita supposed author. In the earliest historical
period of Greek Uterature the Cypria was.
accepted without question as a work of 'Homer;
and it is not tiU we come down to the times of
Athenaeus and the grammarians that we find
any mention of Stasinus (Athen. pp. 85, 834,
682). StasmuB was said to be the son-in-law
of Homer, who, accordmg to one story, com
posed the Cypria and gave it to Stasinus as
his daughter's marriage portion (Procl. Chrest.
p. 471 jAel. V. H. ix. 15) : mamfestly an attempt
to reconcUe the two different accounts, wMch
ascribed it to Homer and Stasinus. The Cypria
was the first, M the order of the events con-
tamed in it, of the poems of the Epic Cycle
relating to the Trojan war. It embraced the
period antecedent to the beginning of the Hiad,
to which it was designed to form an intro
duction, relating the marriag of Thetis, the
judgment of Paris to award the golden apple,
the rape of Helen, and the first nine years of
the war. Its substance is preserved M the
prose summary by Proclus.
Stata Mater, the deity at Rome who was
Mvoked to stay the progress of fires, and was
therefore worshipped M each vicus, under the
direction of the Magietri Vicorum (0. 1. L. vi.
763-766). Her atatue stood m the Forum
(Fest. s.v.). It iB probable that her worsMp
was merely one aspect of the worsMp of Vesta.
[Vesta.] Statielli, Statiellates, or Statiellenses, a
small tribe M Liguria, S. of the Po, whose chief
town was StatieUae Aquae (Aequi), on the road
from Genua to Placentia (Liv. xlu. 7, 21 ; Cic.
ad Fam. xi. 11).
Statilia MessaUina. [Messallina.]
Statilius Taurus. [Taubus.]
Statira (SraVeipa). 1, Wife of Artaxerxes
H., kmg of Persia, was poisoned by Parysatis,.
the mother of the king, who was a deadly
enemy of Statira (Plut. Artax. 2-19). — 2. Sister
and wife of Darius HI., celebrated as the most.
beautiful woman of her time. She was taken
prisoner by Alexander, together with her
mother-m-law, Sisygambis, and her daughters,.
after the battle of Issus, B.C. 333. They were
all treated with the utmost respect by the
conqueror, but Statira died shortly before the
battle of Arbela, 831 (Curt. iii. 3, 22-26, iv. 10,.
18-34; Arr. An. ii. 11, iv. 19).— 3. Also caUed
Barsine, elder daughter of Darius HI. [Bab-
sine.] Statius Murcus. [Mubcus.]
Statius, P. Papinius, was born at Neapolis,
about a.d. 61 (cf. Stat. Silv. v. 3, 235), and was
the son of a distmguished grammarian. He
accompanied Ms father to Rome, where the
latter acted as the preceptor of Domitian, who
held Mm in Mgh honour. Under the skilful
tuition of his father, the young Statius speedily
rose to fame, and became pecuUarly renowned
for the brilliancy of Ms extemporaneous effu
sions, so that he gained the prize tMee times
M the Alban contests (Silv. in. 5, 28); but
having, after a long career of popularity, been
vanquished m the qumquenMal CapitoUne

S94

STATONIA

games, he retired to Neapolis, the place of his
nativity, along with his wife, Claudia, whose
virtues he frequently commemorates (Silv. iii.
5, 81). It is likely, however, that the cause of
his retirement was, not personal pique, but
rather weariness of the state of Roman society,
of the recitations, and of the necessity of seek
ing court favour and patronage. He died about
a.d. 96. It haa been inferred from a passage in
Juvenal (vii. 82) that Statius, in his earlier
years at least, was forced to struggle with
poverty: but the passage, rightly understood,
¦expresses no more than the circumstances
under which poets had to find a sale for their
work, without any reference to the wealth or
poverty of Statius in particular. Statius also,
no doubt, profited by the patronage of Domi
tian (Silv. iv. 2), whom he addresses in strains
of the most fulsome adulation. The story of
the secret conversion of Statius to Christianity,
mentioned by Dante (Purgat. xxii. 89), rests on
no authority, and is M itself extremely im
probable. Dante was glad to believe possible
for the most emmeut imitator of VirgU what he
was obliged to recognise as impossible for
Virgil Mmself. The extant works of Statius
are : — (1) Silvarum Libri V, a collection of
thirty-two occasional poems, many of them of
considerable length, divided into five books.
To each book is prefixed a dedication in prose,
addressed to some friend. The metre chiefly
employed is the heroio hexameter, but four of
the pieces (i. 6, ii. 7, iv. 8, 9) are in Phalaecian
hendecasyUabics, one (iv. 5) in the Alcaic, and
one (iv. 7) M the SappMc stanza. (2) Thebaidos
Libri XII, a heroic poem in twelve books,
embodying the ancient legends with regard to
the expedition of the Seven against Thebes.
(3) AcMllddos Libri II, a heroic poem break
ing off abruptly. According to the original
plan, it would have comprised a complete
Mstory of the exploits of AcMUes, before and
after the time embraced by the Biad, but was
never fimshed. Statius may justly claim the
praise of standing in the foremost rank among
the heroic poets of the Silver Age. He is in a
great measure free from extravagance and
pompous pretensions, though he draws too
largely on his store of mythological learning ;
but, on the other hand, in no portion of his works
do we find the impress of high natural talent
¦or power ; the pieces which form the Silvae,
although evidently tMown off in haste, are
better than the ambitious poems of the Thebaid
¦or the Achilldd. — Editions of the Silvae by
Markland, Lond. 1728, and by Sillig, Dresd.
1827 : of the Thebais and Achilleis by 0.
Miiller, 1870 : of the complete works of Statius
by Bahrens and Kohlmann, Leips. 1876-1884.
Statonia (Statoniensis), a town in Etruria,
and' a Roman Praef ectura, on the river Albinia,
and on the Lacus Statoniensis, in the neigh
bourhood of wMch were stone quarries, and ex
cellent wine was produced. Near it was a lake,
wMch is probably the L. di Mezzano, a little
W. of the L. di Bolsena (L. Volsiniensis) ;
Statonia was probably between this and Tar
quinii. (Strab. p. 226 ; PUn. ii. 209 ; Vitruv. ii.
7, 8.)
Stator. [Jupitee, p. 464, a.]
Stectorium (SreKropiov : Emir Hisar) a city
of Great Phrygia, between Peltae and Syn
nada (Ptol. v. 2, 22 ; Paus. x. 27, 1).
Stellas or Stellatinus Campus, a part of the
Campania plain, N. of M. Tifata, between Cales
and the Volturnus (Liv. xxii. 13).
Stentor (Srevrap), a herald of the Greeks in

STESICHORUS
the Trojan war, whose voice was as loud as that
of fifty other men together. His name has
become proverbial for anyone shouting with
an unusuaUy loud voice. (17. v. 783 ; Juv. xui.
112.) Stentoris Lacus. [Hebrus.]
Stenyclarus (SreviKX-r/pos, Dor. SreviKXapos :
SrevvKXiipios), a town in the N. of Messenia,
NE. of Messene, which was the residence of the
Dorian kings of the country. After the time of
the third Messenian war the town is no longer
mentioned ; but its name continued to be given
to an extensive plam in the N. of Messema.
(Paus. iv. 3, 7 ; Strab. p. 861 ; Hdt. ix. 64.)
Stephane or -is ('Srecpdvri, 'Srecpdvis : Stefa-
nio), a seaport town of Paphlagoma, on the
coast of the Mariandyni, W. of SMope (Ptol. v.
4,2). Stephanus (Srecpavos). 1. An Atheman comic
poet of the New Comedy, was probably the son
of Antiphanes, some of whose plays he is said
to have exMbited (Athen. p. 469).— 2. Of By
zantium, the author of the geographical lexicon
entitled Ethnica ('EBvtKd), of which unfortu
nately we only possess an Epitome. Stephanus
was a grammarian at Constantinople, and lived
after the time of Arcadius and Honorius, and
before that of Justinian H. His work was re
duced to an Epitome by a certam Hermolaus,
who dedicated his abridgment to the emperor
Justinian H. According to the title, the chief
object of the work was to specify the gentile
names derived from the several names of places
and countries in the ancient world. But, while
this iB done in every article, the amount of
information given went far beyond this. Nearly
every article in the Epitome contains a reference
to some ancient writer as an authority for the
name of the place; but Mthe original, as we see
from the extant fragments, there were consider
able quotations from the ancient authors, be
sides a number of very interesting particulars,
topographical, Mstorical, mythological, and
others. Thus the work was not merely what it
professed to be, a lexicon of a special branch of
technical grammar, but a valuable dictionary
of geography. How great would have been its
value to us if it ''had come down to us un-
mutUated may be seen by anyone who com
pares the extant fragments of the origmal with
the corresponding articles in the Epitome.
These fragments, however, are unfortunately
very scanty, bemg oMy the last part of the
letter A, the article 'IBriplai Sio and an account
of Sicily. — The best editions of the Epitome of
Stephanus are by Dindorf, Lips. 1825, See.,
4 vols. ; by Westermann, Lips. 1839, 8vo ; and-
by Meineke, Berlm, 1849.
Sterculius, Stercutius, or Sterquilinus.
[Picumnus ; cf. Indigitamenta, p. 443, a.]
Steropes. [Cyclopes.]
Stesichorus (Sriio-lxopos), of Himera in Sicily,
a celebrated Greek poet, contemporary with
Sappho, Alcaeus, Pittacus, and Phalaris, is
said to have been bom B.C. 632, and to have
died in 552 at the age of eighty. His real name
was Tisias, the name by which he is known
being merely a surname, meaning ' organiser of
choruses ' (Suid. s.v.). Of the events of his life
we have only a few obscure accounts. Like
other great poets, Ms birth is fabled to have
been attended by an omen : a nightingale sat
upon the babe's lips and sang. He is said to
have been carefully educated at Catana, and
afterwards to have enjoyed the friendsMp of
Phalaris, the tyrant of Agrigentum. Many
writers relate the fable of Ms bemg miraculously

STESIMBROTUS
struck with blindness after writing an attack
upon Helen, and recovering his sight when he
had composed a PaUnodia. [Helena.] Another
story told of him is that he warned the citizens
of the designs of Phalaris by tellMg them the
fable of the horse and the stag, and in conse
quence had to fly from Agrigentum to Catana
(Ar. Bhet. ii. 20). He is said to have been
buried at Catana near a gate of the city which
was called after Mm the Stesichorean gate.
Stesichorus was one of the nine cMefs of lyric
poetry recogmsed by the ancients. He stands,
with Alcman, at the head of one branch of the
lyric art, the choral poetry of the Dorians. He
was the first to break the monotony of the
strophe and antistrophe by the mtroduction of
the epode, and Ms metres were much more
varied, and the structure of Ms strophes more
elaborate, than those of Alcman. His odes con
tained the elements of the choral poetry per
fected by Pindar and the tragedians. The
subjects of Ms poems were cMefly heroic (hence
' gravea Camenae,' Hor. Od. iv. 9, 8) ; he trans
ferred the subjects of the old epic poetry to the
lyric form, droppmg, of course, the continuous
narrative, and dwelling on isolated adventures
of Ms heroes. He also composed poems on other
subjects. His extant remains may be classi
fied under the foUowmg heads : — (1) MytMcal
Poems ; (2) Hymns, Encomia, Epithalamia,
Paeans ; (3) Erotic Poems, and ScoUa ; (4) A
pastoral poem, entitled Daphnis ; (5) Fables ;
(6) Elegies. The dialect of Stesichorus was
Dorian, with an Mtermixture of the Epic. — The
best edition of Ms fragments is by KleMe,
Berol. 1828.
Stesimbrotus (^rrprlpBporos), of Thasos, a
rhapsodist and historian M the time of Cimon
and Pericles, who is mentioned with praise by
Plato and Xenophon, and who wrote a work
upon Homer, the title of wMch is not known.
He also wrote some Mstorical works. (Plat.
Ion, p. 550 ; Xen. Mem. iv. 2, 10; Plut. Girni. 4,
14, 16, Per. 8, 26.)
Stheneboea (^BeveBoia), called Antea by
many writers, was a daughter of the Lycian
Mng lobates, and the wife of Proetus. Re
specting her love for BeUerophon, see Bellebo-
PHONTES. Sthenelus (SBeveXos). Son of Perseus and
Andromeda, Mng of Mycenae, and husband of
Nicippe, by whom he became the father of
Alcmoe, Medusa, and Eurystheus (17. xix. 116 ;
ApoUod. n. 4, 5). Eurystheus, as the great enemy
of Heracles, is caUed by Ovid Stheneleius
Jwstis (Ov. Her. ix. 25, Met. ix. 273).— 2. Son
of Androgeos and grandson of Mmos. He ac
companied Heracles from Paros on Ms expedi
tion agamst the Amazons, and together with
his brother Alcaeus he was appointed by Hera
cles ruler of Thasos (ApoUod. u. 5, 9).— 3. Son
of Actor, likewise a companion of Heracles in
Ms expedition against the Amazons; but he
died and was buried M Paphlagonia, where he
afterwards appeared to the Argonauts (Ap. Rh.
ii 911)— 4. Son of Capaneus and Evadne,
belonged to the family of the Anaxagondae in
Argos, and was the father of Cylarabes (17. v.
109; Paus. ii. 18, 4). He was one of the Epigoni,
by whom Thebes was taken, and he commanded
the Argives under Diomedes, in the Trojan war,
bemg the faithful friend and companion of Dio-
medis. (II. ii. 564, ix. 367, 505, xnu.511; Hor.
Od. i. 15, 3, iv. 9, 20.) He was one of the Greeks
concealed in the wooden horse (Hyg. Fab. 108),
and at the distribution of the booty he was
said to have received an image of a tMee-eyed

STIMULA

895

Zeus, which was in after-times shown at Argos
(Paus. ii. 45, 5, viii. 46, 2). His own statue and
tomb also were believed to exist at Argos.—
5. Father of Cycnus, who was metamorphosed
into a swan. Hence we find the swan caUed by
Ovid Stheneleis volucris and Sthenelda proles
(Ov. Met. ii. 368). — 6. A tragic poet, contempo
rary with Aristophanes, who attacked him in
the Wasps (Aristoph. Vesp. 1312).
Stheno. [Goegones.]
Stilicho, son of a Vandal captain under the
emperor Valens, became one of the most dis
tinguished generals of Theodosius L- On the
death of Theodosius, A.D. 395, Stilicho became
the real ruler of the West under the emperor
Honorius ; and his power was strengthened by
the death of Ms rival, Rufinus [Rufinus], and
by the marriage of Ms daughter Maria to
Honorius. His military abiUties saved the
Western empire ; and after gaining several
victoriea over the barbariana, he defeated Alaric
at the decisive battle of PoUentia, 403, and
compeUed Mm to retire from Italy. In 405 he
gained another great victory over Radagaisua,
who had invaded Italy at the head of a formid
able hoat of barbariana. It was alleged that ,
these victories raised the ambition of Stilicho, '
and that he aspired to make Mmself master of
the Roman empire ; but there is no proof of
tMs. The influence of Stilicho was undermined
by the intrigues of Olympius, who, for his own
purposes, persuaded Honorius to regard StUicho
as dangerous and disloyal. Stilicho was appre
hended and put to death at Ravenna in 408.
(Claudian, Stilicho, Serena, Bufinus; Zosim.
iv., v.)
Stilo, L. Aelius Praeconinus, a Roman
grammarian, one of the teachers of Varro and
Cicero. He received the surname of Praeco-
nmus because his father had been a praeco, and
that of Stilo on account of his compositions.
He himself was a Miight, and, as one of the
aristocratical party, accompamed Q. MeteUus
Numidicus mto exile in B.C. 100. He wrote
Commentaries on the Songs of the Salu and on
the Twelve Tables, a work De Proloquiis, &c.
He and Ms son-in-law, Ser. Claudius, may be
regarded as the founders of the study of gram
mar at Rome. (Suet. Gram. 2 ; Cic. Brut. 56,
205 ; Quint, x. 1, 99 ; GeU. i. 18, x. 21.) Some
modern writers suppose that the work on Rhe
toric ad C. Herennium, wMch is printed in the
editions of Cicero, is the work of this Aelius,
but this is probably erroneous [see Coenlfi-
cius]. Stilpo (SaiXirav), the philosopher, was a
native of Megara, and taught philosophy M
Ms native town. According to one account,
he engaged in dialectic encounters with Dio
dorus Cronus at the court of Ptolemaeus Soter ;
wMle, according to another, he did not comply
with the invitation of the Mng to visit Alex
andria. He acquired a great reputation ; and
so high was the esteem in which he was held
that Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, spared
Ms house at the capture of Megara. He is said
to have surpassed Ms contemporaries m inven
tive power and dialectic art, and to have inspired
almost all Greece with a devotion to the Me
garian philosophy. He made the idea of virtue
the especial object of Ms consideration. He
maintained that the wise man ought not only
to overcome every evil, but not even to be
affected by any. (Diog. Laert. U. 118-118 ; Sen.
Ep. 9.)
Stimula, origmaUy an Italian deity wor
sMpped among the Indigetes as the Power

896

STIRIA

wMch in cMldhood and youth incited to emula
tion or love (Aug. G. D. iv. 11) ; but, perhaps
only from some simUarity of sound, this name
was appUed also to Semele after the introduc
tion of the Bacchanalian worsMp into Italy.
TMs Stimula (= Semele) had a sanctuary near
Ostia. (Liv. xxxix. 12 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 503.)
Stirla (Sreipia: ^reipieis: Ru. on the bay
Porto Bafti), a demus in Attica, SE. of Brauron,
belonging to the tribe Pandionis, to which there
was a road from Athens called SreipiaK-ti db~6s.
It is the birthplace of Theromenes and TMo-
sybulus. (Paus. x. 45, 8 ; Strab. p. 399.)
Stobaeus, Joannes ('Iwdvviis & %roBaios), de
rived his Burname apparently from being a
native of Stobi in Macedonia. Of Ms personal
Mstory we know notMng. Even the age M
wMch he lived cannot be fixed with accuracy ;
but he must have been later than Hierocles of
Alexandria, whom he quotes. Probably he
lived not very long after him, as he quotes no
writer of a later date. We are indebted to Sto
baeus for a very valuable coUection of extracts
from earlier Greek writers. Stobaeus was a
man of very extensive readmg, in the course of
which he noted down the most interesting pas
sages. The materials wMch he had coUected
in this way he arranged, M the order of subjects,
for the use of his son Septimius. This collec
tion of extracts has come down to us, divided
into two distinct worka, of which one bears the
title of 'E/cAoyal (pvoiKal SiaXeKriKai Kal ijBiKal
(Eclogae Physicae, etc.). and the other the title
of 'AvBox6yiov (Florilegium or Sermones). The
Eclogae consist for the most part of extracts
conveymg the views of earlier poets and prose
.writers on points of physics, dialectics, and
etMcs. The Florilegium or Sermones is de
voted to subjects of a moral, political, and
economical kind, and maxims of practical
wisdom. Each chapter of the Eclogae and
Sermones is headed by a title describmg its
matter. The extracts quoted M illustration
begin usuaUy with passages from the poets,
after whom come Mstorians, orators, philo
sophers and physicians. To Stobaeus we are
mdebted for a large proportion of the fragments
that remain of the lost works of poets. Eu
ripides seems to have been an especial favourite
with Mm. He has quoted above 500 passages
from Mm M the Sermones, 150 from Sophocles,
and above 200 from Menander. In extracting
from prose writers, Stobaeus sometimes quotes
verbatim, sometimes gives only an epitome of
the passage. — Editions of the Eclogae are by
Heeren, Gotting. 1792-1801, and by Memeke,
Leipa. 1860; and of the Florilegium byGais-
ford,_Oxon. 1822, and by Memeke, Leips. 1857.
Stobi (SriBot: SrojSaTbs), a town of Mace
donia, and the most important place in the dis
trict Paeonia, was situated on the river Erigon,
at its junction with the Axius, NE. of Heraclea
(Strab. p. 329; Ptol. iii. 13, 4; Liv. xxxiii. 19,
xiv. 29). It was made a Roman colony and a
mumcipium, and under the later emperors was
the capital of the province Macedonia II. or
Salutaris (Plm. iv. 34; C. I. L. iii. 629). It was
destroyed at the end of the fourth century by
the Goths; but it is stUl mentioned by the
Byzantine writera as a fortress under the name
of Stypeum (Sriireiov). Its ruina are near the
modern Gradsko.
Stoechades Insulae (J. d'Hyires) a group of
five small islands M the Mediterranean, off the
coast of Gallia Narbonensis and E. of Massilia,
on wMch the Massiliotes kept an armed force
to protect their trade agamst pirates. The

tMee larger islands (mentioned by Pliny) were
caUed Prote, Mese or Pomponiana, and Hypaea,
the modern Porquerolle, Port Oroz, and Isle
de Levant or du Titan ; the two smaller ones
are probably the modern Batoneau and
Promegne. (Strab. p. 184 ; Tac. Hist. in. 43 ;
Lucan, iii. 516 ; P1M. ui. 35.)
Stoeni, a Ligurian people M the Maritime
Alps, conquered by Q. Marcius Rex B.C. 118,
before he founded the colony of Narbo Martius
(Liv. Ep. 62 ; Val. Max. 10, 3).
Strabo, a cognomen in many Roman gentes,
properly signified a person who sqMnted, and is
accordmgly classed with Paetus, though the
latter word did not indicate such a complete
distortion of vision as Strabo (Hor. Sat. i. 3,
45 ; Cic. N. D. i. 29 ; Plm. xi. 150).
Strabo, the geographer, was a native of
Amasia in Pontus. The date of Ms birth is un-
Miown, but may perhaps be placed about B.C.
54. He lived during the whole of the reign of
Augustus, and during the early part, at least,
of the reign of Tiberius. He is supposed to
have died about a.d. 24. He received a careful
education. He studied grammar under Aristo
demus at Nysa m Caria, and pMlosophy under
Xenarchus of Seleucia M CiUcia and Boethus
of Sidon. (Strab. pp. 650, 670.) He lived some
years at Rome, and also traveUed much M
various countries. We learn from Ms own
work that he was with Ms friend Aelius GaUus
in Egypt M B.C. 24 (pp. 110, 818). He wrote a
historical work ('Io-Topota' tiropvhpara) in forty-
three books, which is lost. It began where the
History of Polybius ended, and was probably
continued to the battle of Actium. (Strab. p.
13 ; Plut. Lucull. 28, Sull. 26.) But Ms work
on Geography (TeaypacpiKd), M seventeen books,
has come down to us entire, with the exception
of the seventh, of wMch we have only a meagre
epitome. Strabo's work, according to Ms own
expression, was not Mtended for the use of aU
persons. It was designed for aU who had had
a good education, and particularly for those
who were engaged in the Mgher departments
of administration. Consistently with this view,
Ms plan does not comprehend minute descrip
tion, except when the place or the object is of
great interest or importance; nor is Ms
descriptionlimited to the physical characteristics
of each country : it comprehends the important
poUtical events of which each country has been
the theatre, a notice of the chief cities and the
great men who have iUustrated them ; m short,
whatever was most characteristic and interest
ing M every country. Strabo's Geography is
the _ most important ancient work on that
subject wMch has been preserved, and forms a
strikmg contrast with the Geography of
Ptolemy, and the dry list of names, occasion
ally relieved by somethmg added to them, m
the geographical portion of the Natural His
tory of Pliny. It is in short a book Mtended
for reading, and it may be read : a kind of
historical geography. Strabo's language is
generally clear, except M those passages where
the text has been corrupted ; it is appropriate
to the matter, simple and without affectation.
From tMs it wiU be understood that, while Ms
work is naturaUy of no value in its mathemati
cal geography, it is interesting and extremely
valuable for its notices of topography (where,
however, he deals only with those places which
he considers most important), of history and of
customs. The first two books of Strabo are an
introduction to Ms Geography, and contain that
m which he was weakest, Ms views on the form

STRABO
and magnitude of the earth, and other subjects
connected with mathematical geography In
the third book he begins his description: he
devotes eight books to Europe ; six to Asia •
and the seventeenth and last to Egypt and
Libya. Strabo adopted the geography of
liratosthenes as his basis, but in his own work
he armed at something much more complete
comprising, as was said above, historical as well
as physical geography. With the W. of Europe
he was naturally better acquainted than Erato
sthenes had been, though it is strange to find
that he conceived the Pyrenees as runnino-
from N. to S. paraUel with the RMne (p. 177°
In Ms views of the geography of Asia and
Africa he departs little from those of Erato
sthenes, nor does he differ much in his concep
tion of the map of the world, wMch he regarded
as 'shaped Uke a cMamys,' an oblong measur
ing about 9000 mUes in length from E. to W.
and 4000 m breadth (p. 113), the habitable
earth extendmg about 400 N. of Borysthenes to
a latitude corresponding with the N. of Ierne
.(Ireland). It is to be regretted that in Ms
judgment of Ms predecessors he not only
-unduly discredits Herodotus but also (from
foUowing Polybius implicitly M tMs point)
altogether rejects the authority of Pytheas.
Yet Pytheas might have saved him from some
¦erroneous ideas about the N. of Europe.
Pytheas, for instance, was nearer the truth as
Tegards the geography of Britain, when he
¦described it as an island stretcMng away length
wise to the N., with Thule to the N. of it (Strab.
p. 114), than Strabo Mmself, who beUeved
Britam to be a triangle with its longest side,
500 mUes long, opposite the whole GalUc coast
from the RMne to the Pyrenees (that coast
bemg, as it were, flattened out Mto a continuous
Une facing mainly N.), and who placed Ireland
N. of Britam, as the most northerly point of
the world. — The best editions of Strabo are
Ly Kramer, Berl. 1847-1852 ; by C. MiiUer and
Hiibner, Paris, 1857, and the text by Memeke,
Leipa. 1866 ; selections by H. F. Tozer, 1893.
Strabo, Fannius. 1. C, consul B.C. 161 with
M. Valerius MeasaUa. In their conaulsMp the
rhetoricians were expeUed from Rome. (Gell. xv.
11.) — 2. C, son of the preceding, consul 122
(C. I. L. i. 560). He owed Ms election to the
consulsMp cMefly to the Mfiuence of C. Grac
chus, who was anxious to prevent his enemy
Opimius from obtaining the office. But in Ms
consulsMp Fanmus supported the aristocracy,
and took an active part m opposmg the mea
sures of Gracchus. He spoke agamst the pro
posal of Gracchus, who wished to give the
Roman francMse to the Latins, in a speech
¦which was regarded as a master-piece in the
time of Cicero (Cic. Brut. 26, 99). He served
M Africa, under Scipio Africanus, in 146, and in
Spam under Fabius Maximus in 142 (Plut.
Ti. Gr. 4 ; App. Hisp. 67). He owed his cele
brity M literature to his History, which was
written in Latin, and of which Brutus made an
abridgment (Cic. de Or. ii. 67, 270, Brut.
87, 299). — 3. The son-in-law of Laelius, whom
Cicero introduces as one of the speakers in the
de Bepublica and de Amicitia, was stated in
the Brutus (26, 101) to be the same as the
Mstorian Fannius, but Cicero himself corrects
this statement (ad Att. xii. 5, 3).
Strabo Seius. [Sejanus.]
Stratocles (SrparoKXris). 1. An Athenian
orator, and a friend of the orator Lycurgus.
He was a virulent opponent of Demosthenes,
whom he charged with havmg accepted bribes

STRATONICEA 897
from Harpalus. Stratocles especially distin
guished himself by his extravagant flattery of
Demetrius. (Plut. Demetr. 11, 24 ; Vit. X.
Or. p. 852.) — 2. An actor at Rome (Juv. iii. 99 ;
Quintil. xi. 8, 178).
Straton (S,rpdrc»v). I. Son of Arcesilaus, of
Lampsacus, was a distinguished Peripatetic
philosopher, and the tutor of Ptolemy PhUadel-
phus. He succeeded Theophrastus as head of
the school in B.C. 288, and, after presiding over
it eighteen years, was succeeded by Lycon. He
devoted himself especially to the study of natural
science, whence he obtained the appellation of
Physicus. Cicero, wMle speaking highly of Ms
talents, blames Mm for neglecting the most
necessary part of philosophy— that which
has respect to virtue and morals — and givmg
himself up to the investigation of nature.
Straton appears to have taught a pantheistic
system, the specific character of which cannot,
however, be determined. He seems to have
denied the existence of any god outside the
material universe, and to have held that every
particle of matter has a plastic and seminal
power, but without sensation or intelligence;
and that Ufe, sensation, and intellect, are but
forms, accidents, and affections of matter.
(Diog. Laert. v. 58 ; Cic. Acad. i. 9, 34, de Fin.
v. 5, 13.) — 2. Of Sardis, an epigrammatic poet,
and the compiler of a Greek Anthology devoted
to licentious subjects. [Planudes.]— 3. A
physician of Berytus m Phoenicia, one of
whose medical formulae is quoted by Galen. — 4.
Also a physician, and a pupil of Erasistratus in
the tMrd century B.C. (Diog. Laert. v. 3, 61).
Stratonice (SrparoviKri). 1. Wife of Anti
gonus, Mng of Asia, by whom she became
the mother of Demetrius Poliorcetes (Plut.
Demetr. 2). After the battle of Ipsus she fled
to Salamis in Cyprus with her son Demetrius.
— 2. Daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes and
Phila, the daughter of Antipater. In 300, at
which time she could not have been more than
seventeen years of age, she was married to
Seleucus, king of Syria. Notwithstandmg the
disparity of their ages, she lived M harmony
with the old king for some years, when it was
discovered that her stepson, Antiochus, was
deeply enamoured of her, and Seleucus, m
order to save the life of Ms son, which was en
dangered by the violence of his passion, gave up
Stratonice in marriage to the young prince.
She bore three children to Antiochus : (1)
Antiochus II., surnamed Theos ; (2) Apama,
married to Magas, king of Cyrene; and (3)
Stratomce. (Plut. Demetr. 31, 32, 38; App.
Syr. 59.) — 3. Daughter of the preceding and of
Antiochus I., was married to Demetrius II.,
Mng of Macedonia. She quitted Demetrius in
disgust, on account of his second marriage with
PhtMa, the daughter of Olympias, and retired
to Syria. Here she was put to death by her
nephews Seleucus II., against whom she had
attempted to raise a revolt. (Just, xxviii. 1.)
— 4. Daughter of Antiochus II., Mng of Syria,
married to Ariarathes III., king of Cappadocia
(Diod. xxxi. p. 518). — 5. One of the favourite
wives of MitMidates the Great (App. Mithr.
107). Stratonlcea (XrparoviKeia, ~STpaTOviKT] : S,rpa-
roviKtvs, Stratoniceus, Stratonicensis : Eski-
Hisar, Ru.), one of the chief inland cities of
Caria, built by Antiochus I. Soter, who forti
fied it strongly, and named it in honour of his
wife, Stratonice (Strab. p. 660). It stood E. of
Mylasa and S. of Alabanda, near the river
Marsyas, a S. tributary of the Maeander, and
3M

898 STRATONIS TURRIS
on the road from Alabanda to Idymus. It
afterwards belonged to Rhodes (Liv. xxxiU. 18,
80). Under the Romans it was a free city ; and
it was improved by Hadrian, who called it
Hadrianopolis (Steph. Byz. s. v. ; Tac. Ann. ui.
62 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 26). Near it stood the
great temple of Zeus Chrysaoreus, the centre
of the national worship of the Carians. There
is some reason to believe that Stratomcea
stood on the site of a former city, called Idriaa
and, still earlier, Chryaaoris. (Steph. Byz. s. v.
'ISpias.) Stratonis Turris. [Caesaeea, No. 3.]
Strattis (^rpdrris or S,rpdris), an Athenian
poet of the Old Comedy, from B.C. 412 to 380,
who parodied plays of Euripides (Ath. p. 551 ;
Suid. s. v.).
Stratus (Srpdros). 1. (Srpdnos: Sourovigli
near Lepanu), the chief town in Acarnania,
ten stadia W. of the Achelous. Its territory
was called Stratice. It was a strongly fortified
town, and commanded the ford of the Achelous
on the high road from Aetolia to Acarnania.
(Strab. p. 450 ; Thuc. ii. 82, iii. 106 ; Xen. Hell.
iv. 6.) Hence it was a place of military im
portance, and was at an early period taken
possession of by the Aetolians (PoL iv. 63 ;
Liv. xxxvi. 11). There are remains of its walls
and gates. — 2. A town in Achaia, afterwards
called Dyme.
Strombichides (S.rpopBix.io'ns), son of Dioti-
mus, was an Athenian admiral on the coast of
Asia B.C. 412. He recovered Lampsacus, which
had revolted, in 411. He was put to death by
the TMrty, because he opposed the policy of
Theramenes in Ms dealings with Sparta. (Thuc.
viii. 15, 30-40, 60-79 ; Lys. c. Agar. p. 130.)
Strongyle. [Naxos.]
Strongylion (SrpoyyvXlcov), a distinguished
Greek sculptor during the last thirty or forty
years of the fifth century B.C. He was famous
for Ms statues of oxen and horses. (Paus. ix.
30, 1.)
Strophades Insulae (SrpocpdSes), formerly
called Plotae (TlXasTal : Strofadia and Strivali),
two islands in the Ionian sea, off the coast of
Messenia and S. of Zacynthus (Strab. p. 359 ;
Verg. Aen. iii. 210). The Harpies were pursued
to these islands by the sons of Boreas ; and it
was from the circumstance of the latter return
ing from theae ialanda after the pursuit, that
they are suppoaed to have obtained the name of
Strophadea. [Habpyiae.]
Strophius (Srpdcptos), king of Phocia, eon of
Crissus and Antiphatia, and husband of Cydra-
gora, Anaxibia or Astyochia, by whom he
became the father of Astydamia and Pylades.
See Oeestes.
Struchates (^rpoixares), one of the six tribes
of ancient Media (Hdt. i. 101).
Strymon (Struma, by the Turks Kara-Su),
an important river in Macedonia, forming the
boundary between that country and Thrace
down to the time of PhUip. It. rose in Mt.
Scomius, flowed first S. and then SE., passed
through the lake Prasias, and, immediately S.
of Amphipolis, fell into a bay of the Aegaean
sea caUed after it Strymonicus Sinus (Hes
Th. 389 ; Aesch. Ag. 192 ; Hdt. vii. 75 ; Thuc.
ii. 96 ; Strab. p. 323). The numerous cranes on
its bankB are frequently mentioned by ancient
writers (Verg. Aen. x. 269 ; Juv. xiii. 167).
Strymonii (Srpvp6vioi), the old name, accord
ing to Herodotus, of the Bithynians, who mi
grated into Asia Minor from the banks of the
river Strymon. Bithynia was sometimes called
Strymonis (Hdt. vii. 75).

STYX
Stubera or Stymbara (2.rv$epa, SripBapa), a
town of Macedonia in the district Paeonia, on
the river Erigon (Strab. p. 327 ; Pol. xxviu. 8 ;
Liv. xxxi. 39).
Stura (Stura), a river of N. Italy, which rises
M the glaciers of the Levanna, and flows into
the Po from the N. a few mUes below Turin
(Plin. iii. 118).
Stymphalides. [Stymphalus.]
Stymphalis (2rvpcpaXis). 1. A lake in Ar
cadia. [Stymphalus.] — 2. A district in Mace
donia, between Atintania and Elimiotis (Liv-
xlv. 30).
Stymphalus (SrvpcpaXos, ^rvpcpriXos : %rvp-
cpdXios), & town in the NE. of Arcadia. The
territory of Stymphalus is a plain about six
miles in length, bounded by Achaia on the N.,
Sicyonia and Phliasia on the E., the territory of
Mantineia on the S. and that of Orchomenus
and Pheneus on the W. This plain is shut M
on all sides by mountains. On the N. rises the
gigantic mass of Cyllene, from which a project
ing spur, called Mt. Stymphalus, descends mto
the plain. (SrvpcpaXos Spos, Ptol. iii. 16, § 14 ;
Hesych. s.v. ; ' nivalis Stymphalus,' Stat. Silv. iv.
6, 100.) The mountain at the southern end of
the plain, opposite Cyllene, was called Apelau-
rum (to 'AireXavpov, Polyb. iv. 69), and at its
foot is the katavothra or subterraneous outlet
of the lake of Stymphalus (ri SrvpcpaXis Xipvn,
Strab. viii. p. 371 ; ri 2rvp<pT]Xir) Xipvn, Herod.
vi. 76). This lake is formed partly by the ram-
water descending from Cyllene and Apelaurum,
and partly by three streams wMch flow into it
from different parts of the plam, the waters of
which have not sufficient outlet by the kata
vothra. It is now called Zaraka. " The water-
which flows from it, after an underground
course of twenty-two miles, appears again a few
miles from Argos (where its ancient name was
Eraslnus), and now turns several mills belong
ing to that city. The district was one of mili
tary importance, since it commanded one of the
chief roads from Arcadia to Argolis. Its name
is said to have been derived from Stymphalus,.
a son of ElatuB and grandson of Arcas (Paus.
viii. 4, 4, viii. 22, i). It is mentioned by Homer
(17. ii. 608), and by Pmdar (Ol. vi. 169). On the
shores of the lake dwelt, according to tradition,
the birds called Stymphalides CSrvpcpaXiSes),
destroyed by Heracles. [For details, see p.
397, b.] Stymphalus was one of the cities of
the Achaean League (Pol. ii. 55, iv. 68). There
are ruins extant of the polygonal waUs of the
citadel, and the foundations of two temples:
one of these is probably the temple of Artemis,
on wMch were sculptures of the birds (Paus.
viii. 22, 5).
Styra (rd Srupa: Srvpevs : Stura), a town in
Euboea on the SW. coast, not far from Carystus,
and nearly opposite Marathon in Attica. The
inhabitants were originally Dryopes, though
they subsequently denied their descent from
this people (H. ii. 589 ; Hdt. viii. 46 ; Paus. iv.
34, 11; Strab. p. 446). They took an active
part m the Persian war, and fought at Artemi
sium, Salamis and Plataea. They afterwards
became subject to the Athenians, and paid a
yearly tribute of 1200 drachmae (Thuc. vii. 57).
The town was destroyed in the Lamian war by
the Athenian general Phaedrus ; and its terri
tory was annexed to Eretria (Strab. I.e.).
Styx (2tu£), connected with the verb o-rvyetay
to hate or abhor, is the name of the principal
river in the nether world, around wMch it flows
seven times (17. ii. 755, viii. 869, xiv. 271 ; Verg.
Georg. iv. 480, Aen. vi. 439). Styx is described

STYX
as a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. As a
nymph she dwelt at the entrance of Hades, in
a lofty grotto wMch was supported by silver
columns (Hes. Th. 361, 778). In the Iliad the
Styx is the only river of the lower world, but in
the Odyssey (x. 518), the Acheron is the chief
river, mto which PeripMegethon and Styx with its
affluent Cocytus flow. Styx was regarded as
flowingoutof Oceanus (Hes. Th. 789). By PaUas
Styx became the mother of Zelus (zeal), Nike
(victory), Bia (strength), and Kratos (power).
She was the first of oU the immortals who took
her children to Zeus to assist him against the
Titans; and m return for this her children
were aUowed for ever to Uve with Zeus, and
Styx herself became the divimty by whom the
most solemn oaths were sworn. When one of
the gods had to take an oath by Styx, Iris
fetched a cup full of water from the Styx, and
the god, while taMng the oath, poured out the
water. (H. U. 755, xiv. 271, Od. v. 185, xv. 87 ;
Hes. Th. 775; Verg. Aen. vi. 324 ; Ov. Met. iii.
290.) Styx (2tu£ : Mavra-neria), a river in the N.
of Arcadia, near Nonacris, descendmg from a
Mgh rock, and falUng into the Crathis. The
description of the mytMcal Styx, as faUing
from a high rock (17. vm. 369, xv. 37 ; Hes. Th.
785, 805), evidently suits this real stream, and
the wild and gloomy character of its ravine led
to the superstitious romance attached to it
(Paus. viii. 17, 6 ; Hdt. vi. 74). It is a mere
thread of water except when it is swelled by
the melting snow. The ancients believed that
the water of this river was poisonous ; and ac
cording to one tale Alexander the Great was
poisoned by it. It was said also to break all
vessels made of glass, stone, metal and any
other material except of the hoof of a horse
or a mule (Arr. An. vii. 27 ; Plut. Alex. 77 ;
Strab. p. 389 ; Ael. H~A. x. 40).
Suada, Suadela. [Pitho.]
Suagela (SovdyeXa), an ancient city of Caria,
near Myndus, was the burial-place of the old
kings of the country, and thence derived its
name, the Carian word crova signifying tomb,
yeXas Mng (Steph. Byz. s.v.). Strabo caUs it
Syangela (p. 611).
Suana (Sovana), a town of S. Etruria in the
vaUey of the Armima (Fiora) and about twenty
miles W. of Volsinii (Bolsena). It was a muni
cipium under the empire (Plin. iii. 52). There
are numerous ancient rock-tombs m the vaUeys
round the town.
Suasa (Suasanus : rMns near S. Lorenzo), a
muMcipium m Umbria on the Sena.
Suastus, a river of India, an affluent of the
COPHEN. Subertum or Sudertum (Sudertanus : So-
rano ?), a town in the mterior of Etruria (Liv.
xxvi. 23).
Sublaqueum (Sublacensis: Subiaco), a, pla,oe
on the Anio near its source, where stood the
celebrated viUa of Claudius and Nero (VUla
Sublacensis), from which was derived the name
of the Via Sublacensia, a branch of the Via
Tiburtina (Tac. Ann. xiv. 22). _ It derived its
name from three lakes caUed Simbrivii Lacus
or Simbruina Stagna, wMch have now disap
peared (Plin. Ui. 109; Frontin. Aquoed. 93).
It is doubtful if m ancient times there was
anythmg here which could be caUed a town,
and the district was included in the territory of
the Tibur. It was more celebrated in a later
age as the cradle of the Benedictine order.
Sublicius Pons. [Roma, p. 801, b.]
Subur. 1. A town of the Laeetam in His-

SDESSULA

899

pania Tarraconensis, E. of Tarraco. — 2. (Subu),
a river in Mauretania Tingitana, flowing past
the colony Banasa into the Atlantic Ocean
(Ptol. ii. 6, 17).
Subura or Siiburra. [Roma, p. 805, b.]
Subzupara (Zarvi), a town in Thrace on the
road from Philippopolis to Hadrianopolis.
Succabar (SovxaBappi, Ptol. : Mazunat), an
inland city of Mauretania Caesariensis, SE. of
the mouth of the Chinalaph. It was a colonia,
and is mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus
under the name of ' oppidum Sugar-baritanum.'
(Amm. Marc. xxix. 5).
Succi or Succorum Angustiae. [Haemus.]
Sucro. 1. (Xucar), a river in Hispania
Tarraconensis, rising M a S. branch of Mt.
Idubeda in the territory of the Celtiberi, and
falUng S. of Valentia into a gulf of the Mediter
ranean caUed after it Sinus Sucronensis (Gulf
of Valencia). (Strab. pp. 158, 163, 167.)— 2.
(Cullera), a town of the Edetani in Hispania
Tarraconensis, on the preceding river, and be
tween the l"berus and Carthago Nova (Strab. p.
158 ; Liv. xxvin. 24).
Sudertum. [Subebtum.]
Sudeti Montes, a range of mountains in the
SE. of Germany, M which the Albis takes its
rise. Suebi. [Suevi.]
Suel (Fuengirola), a town in Hispania Bae
tica on the road from Malaca to Gades (Ptol.
ii. 4, 7).
Suessa Aurunca (Suessanus : Sessa), a town
of the Aurunci in Latium, E. of the Via Appia,
between Minturnae and Teanum, on the W.
slope of Mons Massicus. It was situated in a
beautiful district called Vescinus ager, whence
it has been supposed that the town itself was
at one time caUed Vescia. It was made a
Roman colony M the Samnite wars, but must
have been afterwards colonised afresh, since we
find it called in inscriptions Col. Julia Felix
(Liv. ix. 28 ; Veil. Pat. i. 14 ; Plin. iii. 64). It
was the birthplace of the poet LucUiua (Juv.
i. 20). Suessa Pometia (Sueasanua, also caUed P6-
metia simply, an ancient and important town
of the Volsci M Latium, S. of Forum Appii,
conquered by the Romans under Tarquinius
Priscus, and taken a second time and sacked
by the consul ServiliuB. (Liv. i. 53, ii. 25 ;
Dionys. iv. 50 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 72 ; Verg. Aen.
vi. 776.) It was one of the twenty-three cities
situated m the plain afterwards covered by the
Pomptine Marshes, which are said mdeed to
have derived their name from this town, wMch
had ceased to exist M historical times (Fest.
s.v. Pomptina).
Suessetani, a people in Hispania Tarra
conensis, mentioned in connexion with the Sede-
tani (Liv. xxv. 34, xxviii. 24).
Suessiones or Suessones, a powerful people
in Gallia Belgica, who were reckoned the
bravest of all the Belgic Gauls after the Bello
vaci, and who could bring 50,000 men into the
field in Caesar's time. Their king Divitiacus,
shortly before Caesar's arrival in the country,
was reckoned the most powerful chief in all
Gaul, and had extended his sovereignty even
over Britain. The Suessiones dwelt in an ex
tensive and fertUe country E. of the Bellovaci,
S. of the Veromandui, and W. of the Remi.
They possessed twelve towns, of which the
capital was Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta
Suessonum or Suessones (Soissons). (Caes.
B. G. ii. 3, 12, vii. 75, viii. 6 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 11.)
Suessula (Suessuianus : Torre di Sessola),
8m2

900 SUETONIUS
a town in Samnium, on the S. slope of Mt.
Tifata (Liv. iii. 37, xxiii. 14, 31, xxv. 7, xxvi. 9).
Suetonius Paulinus. [Paulinus.]
C. Suetonius Tranquillus, the Roman his
torian, was born about the beginning of the
reign of Vespasian (Suet. Ner. 57). His father
was Suetoniue Lenis, who was a tribune of the
thirteenth legion in the battle of Bedriacum, in
which Otho was defeated (Suet. Oth. 12). Sue
tonius practised as an advocate at Rome in the
reign of Trajan. He lived on intimate terms
with the younger Pliny, many of whose letters
are addressed to him. (Plin. Ep. i. 18, 24,
iii. 8, v. 10, ix. 34, ad Traj. 94.) At the request
of Pliny, Trajan granted to Suetonius the jus
trium liberorum, for though he was married
he had not tMee children, which number was
necessary to relieve him from various legal
disabilities. Suetonius was afterwards ^ ap
pointed private secretary (Magister Episto
larum) to Hadrian, but was deprived of this
offioe by the emperor, along with Septicius
Clarus, the Praefect of the Praetorians, on the
ground of his showing too little respect to
Sabina, the emperor's wife (Spart. Hadr. 12).
Suetonius wrote many works, of which those
extant are:— Vitae Duodecim Caesarum, or
the Twelve Emperors, of whom the first is C.
Julius Caesar and the last is Domitian ; Liber
de Hlustribus Grammaticisj Liber de Claris
Bhetoribus ; Vitae Terentii, Horatii, Lucani,
Plinii Majoris. His chief work is his Lives of
the Caesars. Suetonius does not follow the
chronological order in Ms Lives, but he groups
together many things of the same kind. His
language is very brief and precise, sometimes
obscure, without any affectation of ornament.
He certainly tells a prodigious number of
scandalous anecdotes about the Caesars, but
though many were probably exaggerations,
there is no reason to doubt that Suetonius him
self believed them. As a great collection of
facts of all kinds, the work on the Caesars is
invaluable for the historian of this period. His
judgment and Ms honesty have both been
attacked by some modern critics, but on both
grounds a careful study of his work will justify
Mm The treatise De Hlustribus Grammaticis,
that De Claris Bhetoribus, and the Lives above
mentioned belonged to a series De Viris Hlus
tribus, which comprised the Lives of poets,
orators, and Mstorians. Among the lost works
was one in several books called Prata, (the name
is a translation of Xeipdv = patchwork or flowery
embroidery ; cf. Gell. Praef. 6), which was a
miscellany of information about antiquities,
natural history, &c. It is likely that some of
the works cited under separate titles by Suidas
(e.g. the book about games, of which Tzetzes
made a paraphrase, Hist. Var. vi. 874) were
merely parts of this encyclopaedic work. — The
best edition of Suetonius is by C. Roth, Leips.
1858 : the edition of Burmann, Amsterd. 1736,
is useful.Suevi or Suebi (SovriB°i), one of the greatest
and most powerful peoples of Germany, or,
more properly speaking, the collective name of
a great number of German tribes, who were
grouped together. The Suevi are described by
ancient writers as occupying the greater half of
Germany ; but the accounts vary respecting
the part of the country which they inhabited,
because the migrations of these tribes altered
at various times their geograpliical limits.
Caesar represents them as dwelling E. of the
Ubii and Sugambri, and W. of the Cherusci,
and their country as divided into 100 cantons.

SUIDAS
Strabo makes them extend in an easterly direc
tion beyond the Albis, and in a southerly as far
as the sources of the Danube. Tacitus gives
the name of Suebia to the whole of the E. of
Germany from the Danube to the Baltic. The
name, as uaed by the Romans, applied firat, and
especially, to the leadmg tribe, the Semnones,
who dwelt between the Elbe and the Oder, and
this may have been the home or centre from
which the Suevi known to Caesar had for a
time extended their settlements westward ; but
in the wider use of the name, when it referred,
as it does in Tacitus, to all upper and central
Germany, it included, besides the Semnones,
the Rugii, the VarMi, the Hermanduri, the
Marcomanni, and the Quadi. (Caes. B. G. i.
87, 51, 54, iii. 7, iv. 1 ; Tac. Ann. i. 44, Germ.
38-45 ; Strab. p. 290.) At a later time the col
lective name of the Suevi gradually disap
peared ; and the different tribes of the Suevic
race were each more usually called by their
distinctive names. In the second half of the
third century, however, we again find a people
called Suevi, emigrants probably, or adven
turers from the more eastern Suebia, dweUMg
between the mouth of the MaM and the Black
Forest, whose name is still preserved in the
modern Suabia. (Amm. Marc. xvi. 10 ; Jordan.
Get. 55.) As regards the relations of the Suevi
to the Roman empire, there was no period at
which more than a few of the tribes so desig
nated were in any sense subject to Rome. In
the first century the Suebian peoples of Bo
hemia and Moravia recognised the Roman
power [see Vannius], but the Suebians of the
Danube were always independent. [See also
Gebmania.] Sufenas, M. Nonius, tribune of the plebs in
B.C. 56, fought on Pompey's side at the battle of
Pharsalia (Cic. ad Att. iv. 15, vi. 1, viii. 15).
Sufes (Sbiba), a city of N. Africa, m the Car
thaginian territory (Byzacena).
Sufetiila (Sbitla), a city of Byzacena, S. of
Sufes, of which its name is a diminutive. It be
came, however, a much more important place,
as a chief centre of the roads in the interior of
the provmce of Africa. Its rains are magnifi
cent. Sugambri, Sygambri, Sigambri, Sycambri,
or Sicambri, one of the most powerful peoples
of Germany at an early time, belonged to the
Istaevones, and dwelt originaUy N. of the Ubu,
on the Rhine, from whence they spread towards
the N. as far as the Lippe. The Sugambri
are mentioned by Caesar, who invaded their
territory. (Caes. B. G. iv. 16, vi. 35.) They are
described as warlike people (Hor. Od. iv. 2, 36,
iv. 14, 51). They were conquered by Tiberius
in the reign of Augustus, and a large number
of them were transplanted to Gaul, where they
received settlements between the Maas and the
Rhine as Roman aubjects. The portion of the
Sugambri who remained in Germany withdrew
further S., probably to the mountainous country
in the neighbourhood of the Taunus. (Tac. Ann.
ii. 26, iv. 47, xii. 39; Dio Cass. liv. 20-36.)
Shortly afterwards they disappear from his
tory, and are not mentioned again till the time
of Ptolemy, who places them much further N.,
close to the Bructeri and the Langobardi,
somewhere between the Vecht and the Yssel
(Ptol. ii. 11, 8). At a still later period we find
them forming an important part of the con
federacy known under the name of Franci.
Suidas (2oui5ar), a Greek lexicographer, of
whom nothing is known. No certain conclu
sions as to the age of the compiler can be de-

SUIONES
rived from passages in the work, since it may
have received numerous interpolations and
additions ; but it is probable that he lived
in either the tenth or the eleventh century a.d.
He is quoted by EustatMus, who lived about
the end of the twelfth century. The Lexicon
of Suidas is a dictionary of words arranged in
alphabetical order, with some few peculiarities
of arrangement; but it contains both words
wMch are found in dictionaries of languages
and also names of persons and places, with
extracts from ancient Greek writers, gram
marians, scholiasts, and lexicographers, and
some extracts from later Greek writers. The
plan of tMs work is not well conceived : it is
Mcomplete as to the number of articles, and
exceedMgly irregular and unequal in the
execution. Some articles give full informa
tion ; others scarcely any. As to the bio-
grapMcal notices, it has been conjectured that
SMdas or the compUer got them aU from one
source, wMch, it is further supposed, may be
the Onomatologos or Binax of Hesychius of
MUetus. The Lexicon, though without merit
as to its execution, is extremely valuable both
for the literary Mstory of antiquity, for the
explanation of words, and for the citations from
many ancient writers. The best editions of the
Lexicon are by Kiister, Cambridge, 1705 ; by
Gaiaford, Oxford, 1834 ; and by Bernhardy,
HaUe, 1834 : text by Bekker, 1854.
Suiones, the general name of aU the German
tribes inhabiting ScandMavia. [Scandia.]
Sulci (Sulcitanus : S. Antioco), an ancient
town M Sardinia, founded by the CarthagMians,
and a place of considerable maritime and com
mercial importance (Paus. x. 17, 9 ; Claudian,
B. Gild. 518 ; Strab. p. 225 ; Zonar. viii. 12). It
was situated on a promontory on the SW. corner
of the island, and the neighbouring district of
the mainland is still caUed Sulcis.
Sulgas (Sorgue), a river M Gaul, descending
from the Alps, and flowmg into the Rhone near
VMdalum (Strab. pp. 185, 191).
Sulla, Cornelius, the name of a patrician
famUy. TMs family was originally called Ru
finus [Rufinus], and the first member of it who
obtamed the name of SuUa was P. Cornelius
SuUa, mentioned below [No. 1]. The origin of
the name is uncertain. Some writers suppose
that it is a word of the same signification as
Rufus or Rufinus, and refers simply to the red
colour of the hair or the complexion ; but it has
been conjectured with greater probability that
it is a dimtoutive of Sura, which was a cogno
men in several Roman gentes. There is no
authority for writing the word Sylla, as is done
by many modern writers. 1. P., great-grand
father of the dictator Sulla, and grandson of
P. Cornelius Rufinus, who was twice consul
m the Samnite wars. [Rufinus, Coenelius.]
His father is not mentioned. He was flamen
dialis, and likewise praetor urbanus in B.C.
212, when he presided over the first celebra
tion of the Ludi Apollmares (Liv. xxv. 2, 12).
— 2. P., son of No. 1, and grandfather of the
dictator SuUa, was praetor in 186 (Liv. xxxix.
6). — 3. L., son of No. 2, and father of the dic
tator Sulla, lived in obscurity, and left his son
only a slender fortune (Plut. Sull. i.). — 4. L.
surnamed Felix, the dictator, was born in 138.
Although Ms father left Mm only a small pro
perty, his means were sufficient to secure for
him a good education. He studied Greek and
Roman Uterature with diligence and success,
and appears early to have imbibed that love for
literature and art by wMch he was distinguished

SULLA

901

throughout life. At the same time he prosecuted
pleasure with equal ardour, and Ms youth, as
well as his manhood, was disgraced by the most
sensual vices. Still his love of pleasure did not
absorb all hia time, nor did it enervate his mind ;
for no Roman during the latter days of the re
public, with the exception of Julius Caesar, had
a clearer judgment, a keener discrimination of
character, or a firmer will. The slender pro
perty of SuUa was increased by the liberality
of Ms stepmother and of a courtesan named
Nicopolis, both of whom left him all their for
tune. His means, though still scanty for a
Roman noble, now enabled him to aspire to the
honours of the state. He was quaestor in
107, when he served under Marius in Africa.
Hitherto he had only been Miown for Ms pro
fligacy ; but he displayed zeal and ability in the
discharge of Ms duties, and gained the appro
bation of his commander and the affections of
the soldiers. It was to Sulla that Jugurtha was
delivered by Bocchua ; and the quaestor thus
shared with the consul the glory of bringing
this war to a conclusion. Sulla himself was so
proud of Ms share in the success, that he had a
seal-ring engraved representing the surrender
of Jugurtha, which he continued to wear till
the day of his death. Sulla continued to serve
under Marius with great distinction in the cam
paigns against the Cimbri and Teutones ; but
Marius becoming jealous of the rising fame of
Ms officer, Sulla left Marius in 102, and took a
command under the colleague of Marius, Q.
Catulus, who entrusted the chief management
of the war to Sulla. Sulla now returned to
Rome, where he appears to have lived quietly
for some years. He was praetor in 93, and in
the following year (92) was sent as propraetor
into Cilicia, with special orders from the aenate
to restore Ariobarzanes to his kingdom of Cap
padocia, from which he had been expelled by
Mithridates. Sulla met with complete success.
He defeated Gordius, the general of MitMidates,
in Cappadocia, and placed Ariobarzanes on the
throne. The enmity between Marius and SuUa
now assumed a more deadly form. Sulla's
ability and increasmg reputation had already
led the aristocratical party to look up to him as
one of their leaders ; and thus political ani
mosity was added to private hatred. In addi
tion to this, Marius and SuUa were both anxious
to obtain the command of the impending war
against Mitliridatea ; and the success which
attended Sulla's recent operations in the East
had mcreased his popularity, and , pointed him
out as the most suitable person for this im
portant command. About this time Bocchus
dedicated M the Capitol gilded figures represent
ing the surrender of Jugurtha to Sulla, at which
Marius was so enraged that he could scarcely
be prevented from removing them by force.
The exasperation of both parties became so
violent that they nearly had recourse to arms
against each other ; but the breaking out of
the Social war hushed aU private quarrels for
the time. Marius and SuUa both took an
active part in the war against the common foe.
But Marius was now advanced m years ; and
he had the deep mortification of finding that his
achievements were thrown into the shade by the
superior energy of his rival. Sulla gained some
briUiant victories over the enemy, and took
Bovianum, the chief town of the Samnites. Ho
waB elected consul for 88, and received from the
senate the command of the MitMidatic war.
The events which followed — his expulsion from
Rome by Marius, his return to the city at the

902

SULLA

head of his legionB, and the proscription of
Marius and Ma leading adherents — are related
in the Life of Marius. Sulla remained at
Rome till the end of the year, and set out
for Greece at the beginning of 87, in order
to carry on the war against MitMidates.
He landed at DyrrhacMum, and forthwith
marched against Athens, which had become
the head-quarters of the Mithridatic cause in
Greece. After a long and obstinate siege,
Athens was taken by storm on March 1, 86, and
was given up to rapine and plunder. SuUa
then marched against Archelaus, the general of
Mithridates, whom he defeated m the neigh
bourhood of Chaeronea in Boeotia ; and in the
foUowing year he again gamed a decisive vic
tory over the same general near Orchomenus.
But while Sulla was carrying on the war with
such success in Greece, his enemies had ob
tained the upper hand in Italy. The consul
Cinna, who had been driven out of Rome by his
coUeague Octavius, 60on after Sulla's departure
from Italy, had entered it again with Marius at
the close of the year. Both Cinna and Marius
were appointed consuls 86, and all the regula
tions of SuUa were swept away. Sulla, how
ever, would not return to Italy till he had
brought the war against Mithridates to a con
clusion. After driving the generals of Mithri
dates out of Greece, SuUa crossed the Helles
pont, and early in 84 concluded a peace with
the king of Pontus. He now turned his arms
against Fimbria, who had been appomted by
the Marian party as his successor in the com
mand. But the troops of Fimbria deserted
their general, who put an end to his own life.
SuUa now prepared to return to Italy. After
leavmg his legate, L. Licinius Murena, m
command of the province of Asia, with two
legions, he set sail with his own army to
Athens. While preparing for his deadly struggle
in Italy, he did nof lose Ms interest in Utera
ture. He carried with Mm from Athens to
Rome the valuable library of ApeUicon of Teoa,
wMch contained moat of the worka of Aristotle
and TheopMastus [Apellicon]. He landed at
Brundusium with 40,000 soldiers in the spring
of 83. The Marian party outnumbered him in
troops, and had every prospect of victory ; but
Cinna had been murdered the year before, and
Carbo, the oldest survivor of the Marian
party, was in Cisalpine Gaul. Two consular
armies opposed SuUa m S. Italy, but he routed
one under Norbanus at Capua, and induced the
troops of the other consul, Scipio, to desert the
Marian cause and join his standard. In Uke
manner by bribes or promises he persuaded
many of the Italian towns to espouse his cause.
In the field Ms efforts were crowned by equal
success.* and he was ably supported by several
of the Roman nobles, who espoused his cause
in different parts of Italy. Of these one of the
most distinguished was the young Cn. Pompey,
who was at the time only twenty-three years of
age. [Pompeius, No. 10.] Sulla wintered in
Campania, and in the following year (82) the
struggle was brought to a close by the decisive
victory which he gained over the Samnites and
Lucanians under Pontius Teleainua before the
CoUMe gate of Rome. Thia victory was fol
lowed by the surrender of Praeneste and the
death of the younger Mariua, who had taken
refuge in thia town. In N. Italy hia lieutenants,
MeteUua, C. Pompeius and Crassus, had been
equally successful, and the surviving leaders of
the opposite party had quitted Italy in despair.
SuUa was now master of Rome and Italy ; and

he resolved to take the most ample vengeance
upon Mb enemies, and to extirpate the popular
party. One of Ms first acts was to draw up a
list of his enemies who were to be put to death,
called a Proscriptio. It was the first instance
of.the kind in Roman history. All persons M
thia list were outlaws who might be MUed by
anyone with impunity, even by slaves ; their
property was confiscated to the state, and was
to be sold by public auction; their cMldren
and grandchUdren lost their votes in the
comitia, and were excluded from all public
offices. Further, all who MUed a proscribed
person, received two talents as a reward, and
whoever sheltered such a person was punished
with death. Terror now reigned, not only at
Rome, but tMoughout Italy. Fresh lists of
the proscribed constantly appeared. No one
was safe, for Sulla gratified his friends by
placing in the fatal lists their personal enemies,
or persons whose property was coveted by his
adherents. The confiscated property, it is true,
belonged to the state, and had to be sold by
public auction, but the friends and dependents
of Sulla purchased it at a nominal price, as no
one dared to bid against them. The number of
persons who perished by the proscriptions is
stated differently, but it appears to have
amounted to many thousands. The acts of
severity and injustice then perpetrated con
tinued long afterwards to bear fruit in civil
strife and violence, smce bands of discontented
men were always ready to f oUow any unprincipled
agitator. At the commencement of these
horrors Sulla had been appointed dictator for
as long a time as he judged to be necessary.
This was towards the close of 82. SuUa's chief
object in beMg invested with the dictatorsMp
was to carry into execution M a legal manner
the great reforms which he meditated in the
constitution and in the administration of justice.
He had no intention of abolishing the republic,
and consequently he caused consuls to be
elected for the followmg year, and was elected
to the office himself in 80, while he continued
to hold the dictatorship. At the beginning of
81, he celebrated a splendid triumph on ac
count of his victory over MitMidatea. In a
speech wMch he delivered to the people at the
close of the ceremony, he claimed for himself
the surname of Felix, as he attributed Ms
success M Ufe to the favour of the gods. The
general object of SuUa's reforms was to restore,
as far as possible, the ancient Roman constitu
tion, and to give back to the senate and the
aristocracy the power which they had lost. He
enacted that the Senatus auctoritas should be
necessary for proposals in the popular assem- ,
bly; he limited the effect of the tribune's ,
intercessio to the right of protecting plebeians,
so that they could no longer Mterfere with
legislation ; and he made it iUegal for anyone
who had been a tribune to proceed to any
other office in the state. He restored to the
senate the sole right of sitting as judices, which
had been granted before to the equestrian order,
and in other ways he strengthened the sena
torial power. Thus by increasing the number
of praetors (eight instead of six), wMch was
rendered necessary by his alterations in the
law-courts, he rendered each great officer less
powerful and more dependent on the senate ;
and the same result followed from the mcrease
in the number of quaestors, though no doubt
the larger number (20) was reqMred by the
extended provincial government. His reforms
M crimMal jurisdiction were the wisest and the

SULLA
only enduring part of his constitution. He so
largely extended as practically to reconstitute
the system of permanent courts for the trial of
particular offences (quaestiones perpetuae), in
wMch courts the praetors presided, or, if their
number was insufficient, a judex quaestionis.
In order to strengthen Ms power, SuUa estab-
Ushed military colonies tMoughout Italy. The
inhabitants of the Italian towns which had
fought against SuUa were deprived of the full
Roman francMse, and were only allowed to
retain the commercium ; their land was confis
cated and given to the soldiers who had fought
under him. Twenty-tliree legions, or, accord
mg to another statement, forty-seven legions
received grants of land in various parts of
Italy. A great number of these colonies waa
settled to Etruria, the population of which was
thus almost entirely changed. These colonies
had the strongest interest M upholding the
Mstitutions of SuUa, since any attempt to
invalidate the latter would have endangered
their newly acquired possessions. Sulla like
wise created at Rome a Mnd of body-guard for
Ms protection by givmg the citizensMp to a
great number of slaves who had belonged to
persons proscribed by Mm. The slaves thus
rewarded are said to have been as many as
10,000, and were caUed Cornelii after him as
their patron. After holding the dictatorship
tUl the beginnMg of 79, SuUa resigned tMs
-office, to the surprise of all classes. He retired
to Ms estate at PuteoU, and there, surrounded
by the beauties of nature and art, he passed the
remainder of Ms life to those literary and
sensual enjoyments M which he had always
taken so much pleasure. He died in 78 in the
sixtieth year of Ms age. He was honoured with
a public funeral, and a monument was erected
to Mm M the Campus Martius the mscription
on wMch had been composed by himself. It
stated that none of Ms friends ever did him a
Mndness, and none of Ms enemies a wrong,
without bemg fuUy repaid. — Sulla was married
five times : (1) to Hia or Julia, who bore him a
daughter, married to Q. Pompeius Rufus, the
son of Sulla's coUeague in the consulsMp in 88 ;
(2) to AeUa ; (3) to CoeUa ; (4) to Caecilia
MeteUa, who bore him a son, who died before
SuUa, and likewise twms, a son and a daughter ;
(5) Valeria, who bore him a daughter after Ms
death. (For the Life of Sulla see Plutarch's
Sulla and the references in Indices to Cicero and
SaUust.) SuUa wrote a Mstory of Ms own life
and times, caUed Commentarii Berum Gesta-
rum or "Trcopviipara (Plut. Sull. 37, Lucull. 1 ;
Suet. Gramm. 12 ; Cic. Div. i. 172). It was
dedicated to L. Lucullus, and extended to
twenty-two books, the last of which was
finished by SuUa a few days before Ms death.
The Greek Anthology contains a ahort epigram
on ApModite which is ascribed to him (App.
B. C. i. 97). — 5. Faustus, son of the dictator by
his fourth wife, CaeciUa MeteUa, and a twin
brother of Fausta, was born not long before 88,
the year in which his father obtained Mb first
consulship. He and his sister received the
names of Faustus and Fausta respectively on
account of the good fortune of their father.
(Plut. Sull. 22, 34, 37.) At the death of Ms
father to 78, Faustus and Ms sister were left
under the guardianship of L. LucuUus. Faustus
accompanied Pompey Mto Asia, and was the
first who mounted the walls of the Temple of
Jerusalem, in 63 (Jos. Ant. xiv. 4 4, B. J. i.
7 4) In 60 he exhibited the gladiatorial games
WMch his father M his last will had enjoined

SULPICIA

903

upon Mm. In 54 he was quaestor. In 52
he received from the senate the commission
to rebuild the Curia, which had been burnt
down in the tumults followmg the murder of
Clodius. He married Pompey's daughter,
and sided with his father-m-law in the Civil
war. He was present at the battle of Pharsalia,
and subsequently joined the leaders of his
party in Africa. After the battle of Thapsus in
46, he attempted to escape into Mauretania, but
was taken prisoner by P. Sittius, and carried to
Caesar. Upon his arrival in Caesar's camp he
was murdered by the soldiers in a tumult:
Faustus seems only to have resembled his
father in Ms extravagance. We know from
Cicero that he was overwhelmed with debt at
the breaking out of the Civil war. (Caes. B. C.
i. 6 ; Bell. Afr. 87, 95 ; App. B. C. ii. 100.)—
6. P., nephew of the dictator, was elected
consul along with P. Autronius Paetus for the
year 65, but neither he nor his coUeague
entered upon the office, as they were accused of
bribery by L. Torquatus the younger, and were
condemned. It was currently believed that
SuUa was privy to both of Catilme's conspira
cies, and he was accordingly accused of this
crime by his former accuser, L. Torquatus, and
by C. CorneUus. He was defended by Horten
sius and Cicero, and the speech of the latter on
his behalf is still extant. He was acquitted ;
but, Mdependent of the testimony of Sallust
(Cat. 17), his guilt may almost be inferred from
the embarrassment of his advocate. In the
Civil war SuUa espoused Caesar's cause. He
served under him as legate in Greece, and
commanded along with Caesar Mmself the
right wing at the battle of Pharsalia (48). He
died in 45. (Cic. pro Sulla, ad Fam. ix. 10, x.
17, ad Att. xi. 21, 22 ; Caes. B. C. iii. 51, 89 ;
App. B. G. ii. 76.)— 7. Serv., brother of No. 6,
took part in both of Catiline's conspiracies.
His guilt was so evident that no one was
willmg to defend him ; but we do not read that
he was put to death along with the other con
spirators. (SaU. Gat. 17, 47 ; Cic. pro Sull. 2.)
Sulmo (Sulmonensis ; Sulmona), atown of the
Paeligni, seven miles S. of Corfinium (Caes. B.
G. i. 18), and ninety miles from Rome (Ov. Trist.
iv. 10, 4), on the road to Capua. It stood in the
upland valley of the Gizio, where some smaller
streams join that river. The district of the
Paeligni was very cold in winter (Hor. Od. iii.
19, 8) : hence we find the town called by the
poets gelidus Sulmo. It is celebrated as the
birthplace of Ovid (Ov. Fast. iv. 81, Am. ii. 16 ;
Sil. It. viii. 511). It was destroyed by SuUa
(Flor. Iii. 21) but was afterwards restored, and
is mentioned as a Roman colony.
Sulpicia, a Roman poetess who flourished
towards the close of the first century A.D., cele
brated for sundry amatory effusions, addressed
to her husband Calenus. Their general character
may be gathered from the expressions of Mar
tial and Sidonius ApolUnaris, by whom they are
noticed (Mart. x. 35, 38; Sidon. ix. 262).
There is extant a aatirical poem, in seventy
hexameters, on the edict of Domitian, by
which philosophers were banished from Rome
and from Italy, which is written in the character
of Sulpicia, but is evidently the work of a later
period brought out under her name. It is
generally appended to the editions of Juvenal
and Persius, and is included in Wernsdorf's
Pod. Lat. Min.
Sulpicia Gens, was one of the most ancient
Roman gentes, and produced a succession of
distinguished men, from the foundation of the

904

SULPICIUS

republic to the imperial period. The cMef
famUies of the Sulpicii during the republican
period bore the names of Cameeinus, Galba,
Gallus, Rufus (given below), Savebeio.
Sulpicius Apollinaris, a teacher of A.
Gellius, was a grammarian (GeU. iv. 17). He
wrote epistles on learned subjects and the
metrical Arguments to the plays of Terence and
to the Aeneid, and it is possible that the Argu
ments to the plays of Plautus may also be by
his hand. His Arguments to the twelve books
of the Aendd (six lmes to each book) are
printed in Wernsdorf's Pod. Lat. Min.
Sulpicius Rufus. 1. P., one of the most dis
tinguished orators of his time, was born B.C.
124. He entered public life as a supporter of
the aristocratical party, and acquired great
influence in the state by his splendid talents,
while he was still young. In 93 he was quaes
tor, and M 89 he served as legate of the consul
Cn. Pompeius Strabo in the Marsic war. In
88, he was elected to the tribunate, but he
deserted the aristocratical party, and joined
Marius. The causes of this sudden change are
not expressly stated, but we are told that he
was overwhelmed with debt, and there can be
little doubt that he was bought by Marius.
Sulpicius brought forward a law in favour of
Marius and his party, of which an account is
given under Mabius. When SuUa marched
upon Rome at the head of Ms army, Marius and
Sulpicius took to flight. Marius succeeded in
making his escape to Africa, but Sulpicius was
discovered in a villa, and put to death. (App.
B. C. i. 58, 60 ; Plut. Sull. 10 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 18 ;
Cic. de Or. iii. 3, Brut. 63, 203.)— 2. P., prob
ably son or grandson of the last, was one of
Caeaar'a legatee in Gaul and in the Civil war.
He waa praetor in 48. Cicero addreases him in
45 as imperator. It appears that he was at
that time in Illyricum, along with Vatinius.
(Caes. B. G. iv. 22, B. G. i. 74, iii. 101 ; Cic. ad
Fam. xUi. 77.) — 3. Ser., with the surname
Lemonia, indicating the tribe to which he be
longed, was a contemporary and friend of
Cicero, and of about the same age (Cic. Brut.
40, 150). He first devoted himself to oratory,
and he studied this art with Cicero in his youth.
He afterwards studied law, and he became one
of the best jurists as well as most eloquent
orators of his age. He was quaestor of the dis
trict of Ostia, M 74 ; curule aedile 69 ; praetor
65 ; and consul 51 with M. Claudius Marcellus.
He appears to have espoused Caesar's side in
the Civil war, and was appointed, about 46, by
Caesar proconsul of Achaia (Cic. ad Fam. iv.
3). He died in-. 43 in the camp of M. Antony,
having been sent by the senate on a mission to
Antony, who waa besieging Dec. Brutus in
Mutina. Sulpicius wrote a great number of
legal works. He is often cited by the jurists
whose writings are excerpted in the Digest;
but there is no excerpt directly from him. He
had numerous pupils, the most distinguished
of whom were A. Ofilius and AUenus Varus.
There are extant in the collection of Cicero's
Epistles two letters from Sulpicius to Cicero,
one of whioh (iv. 5) is the well-known letter of
consolation on the death of Tullia, the daughter
of the orator ; the other (iv. ' 12) gives an
admirable account of the death of Marcellus.
The same book contains several letters from
Cicero to Sulpicius. He is also said to have
written some erotic poetry (Plin. Ep. v. 3, 5 ;
Ov. Trist. ii. 441).— Sulpicius left a son, Servius,
who is frequently mentioned in Cicero's corre- 1
spondence.

SURRENTUM
Summanus, an ancient Roman or Sabine
divinity, who may be regarded as the Jupiter
of the night; for as Jupiter was the god of
heaven in the bright day, so Summanus was
the god of the nocturnal heaven, and hurled
his thunderbolts during the night (Varro,
L. L. v. 74). Summanus had a temple at
Rome near the Circus Maximus (Ov. Fast. vi.
725 ; Liv. xxxii. 29 ; Plin. xxix. 57), and there
was a representation of him in the pediment of
the Capitoline temple (Cic. Div. i. 10 ; Liv. Ep..
Sunium (Sovvtov : tovvieis : G. Colonni), a
promontory forming the S. extremity of Attica,
with a town of the same name upon it (Od.
iii. 278 ; Soph. Aj. 1235 ; Paus. i. 1, 1). The
promontory faUs on three sides perpendicularly
200 feet to the sea, and on it, at the highest-
part of the promontory, was a splendid temple-
of Athene, fuUy 300 feet above the sea, eleven
columns of which are still extant, and have-
given the modern name to the cape. It was
fortified by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian
war (Thuc. viii. 4), and remains of the ancient
walls, with the temple of Athene, are stUl
extant. There is also a marble platform or
terrace, which some take to be part of a pro-
pylaeum, others to be the base of the altar of
Poseidon (cf. Aristoph. Av. 869, Eq. 557).
Sunonensis Lacus (L. Sabanjah), a lake to
Bithynia, between the Ascania Palus and the
river Sangarius, near Nicomedia (Amm. Marc.
xxvi. 8).
Superbus, Tarquinius. [Tabquinius.]
Sura, lentulus. [Lentulus, No. 9.]
Sura, L. Licinius, an intimate friend of
Trajan, and three times consul, in a.d. 98, 102
and 107. On the death of Sura, Trajan
honoured Mm with a public funeral, and erected
baths to perpetuate his memory. Two of
Pliny's letters are addressed to him. (Dio Cass.
Ixviii. 9, 15 ; Plin. Ep. iv. 30, vU. 27.)
Sura (2oSpa : Surie), a town of Syria, in the
district Chalybonitis, on the Euptoates, a little
W. of Thapsacus (Ptol. v. 15, 25.).— 2. (Sour) a
branch of the MoseUa, above Treves (Auson.
Mosell. 354).
Surani or Suarni (Sovpavoi), a people of
Sarmatia Asiatica, near the Portae Caucasiae
and 'the river Rha. Their country contained
many gold mines. (Ptol. v. 9, 20 ; Plin. vi. 30.)
Surenas, the general of the Parthians who-
defeated Crassus in B.C. 54. [Ceassus.]
Siirius ('Soipios), a tributary of the Phasis in
Colchis, the water of which had the power of
formmg petrifactions (Plin. ii. 226, vi. 13.) At
its confluence with the Phasis stood a town
named Surium (^ovpiov). The plain through.
which it flows is still called Suram.
Surrentini Colles. [Subbentum.]
Surrentum (Surrentinus : Sorrento), an
ancient town of Campania, opposite Capreae,
and situated about seven miles from the pro
montory (Prom. Minervae) separating the
Sinus Paestanus from the Sinus Puteolanus.
It was subsequently a Roman colony. The
temple of the Sirens which was supposed (prob
ably erroneously) to have given the name to the
town, stood near it ; and on the hills (Surren
tini Colles) in its neighbourhood was produced
one of the best wines in Italy, which was
strongly recommended to convaleacentB, on
account of its thinness and wholesomeness.
(Strab p. 247 ; Plin. iii. 62.) Statius describes
the villa which Ms friend Pollius Felix had
there (Silv. ii. 2), of which considerable re-
mams exist.

SUSA
Susa, gen. -orum (ra 2o0o-a: O. T. Shushan :
2ouo-ioj,SusnInus: Sus, Ru.), the winter resi
dence of the Persian kings, stood in the district
Lassia of the province Susiana, on the E. bank
ot the river Choaspes or Eulaeus (the modern
Kerkhah), and between that river and the
^asitigris^ Some, with less probability, believe
that the Eulaeus is the river to the E. of Susa
and is the Pasitigris or a branch of it. The posi
tion of the city at any rate on the E. of the
modern Kerkhah is placed beyond doubt by
the remains which have been discovered. Its
name was said to be derived from a word signi
fying My, beoauae that flower abounded in the
neighbouring plain (Athen. p. 513; Steph.
Byz. s.v.). Suaa was of a quadrangular form,
fifteen miles in circuit, and without fortifica
tions; but it had a strongly fortified citadel,
containmg the palace and treasury of the Per
sian Mngs (Strab. p. 728; Arr. An. vii. 7;
Diod. xix. 18 ; Plm. vi. 138 ; cf. Hdt. i. 188 ;
Aesch. Pera. 535). The Greek name of this
citadel, Memnonice or Memnonium (Hdt. v.
54), is perhaps a corruption of a native name,
whence may have arisen the idea of connecting
the place with the myth of Memnon [see
p. 546, b] and asserting that Tithonus founded
the city. It is also possible that the citadel
may have been bmlt for Cyrus by some Mem
non (Cassiod. vii. 15). The climate of Susa
was very hot, and hence the choice of it for the
wMter palace. It was here that Alexander and
Ms generals celebrated their nuptials with the
Persian princesses, B.C. 325 (Curt. vii. 4, 5).
The ruins of the huge palaces of Darius and
Xerxes, wMch were first excavated in 1852, pre
serve the ancient name.
Susarion (Sovcrapicov), to whom the origin of
the Attic Comedy is ascribed, was a native of
Megara, whence he removed into Attica, to the
vUlage of Icaria, a place celebrated as a seat of
the worship of Dionysus (Plut. Sol. 10 ;
C. I. A. u. p. 301 ; cf. Arist. Poet. 3, 5 ; Athen.
p. 40, b). TMs account agrees with the claim
wMch the Megarians asserted to the Mvention
of Comedy, and which was generaUy admitted.
Before the time of Susarion there was, no d oubt,
practised, at Icaria and the other Attic viUages,
that extempore jesting and buffoonery which
formed a marked feature of the festivals of
Dionysus ; but Susarion was the first who so
regulated this species of amusement, by deve-
lopMg the dialogue of the comic chorus and a
sMgle actor into a Mnd of short farce, as to lay the
foundation of Comedy, properly so called. The
Megaric Comedy appears to have flourished,
in its fuU development, aoon after B.C. 600;
and it waa introduced by Susarion into Attica
between 580-564. [See Did. of Ant. art.
Comoedia.] Susiana, -e, or Susis (i) Sovo-iavi), % Sovois :
nearly corresponding to Khuzistan), one of the
cMef provinces of the ancient Persian empire,
lay between Babylonia and Persia, and between
M. Parachoatraa and the head of the Peraian
Gulf. It was an alluvial plain formed by the
rivers Choaapes (Kerkhah) and Paaitigria
(Karun). On the Persian Gulf its coast ex
tended from the junction of the Euphrates
with the Tigris, to about the mouth of the river
Oroatis (Tab). (Strab. p. 729; Ptol. vi. 3, 1.)
It was divided from Persis on the SE. and E.
by a mountainous tract (Montes Uxii), inhabited
by independent tribes, who made even the
Mngs of Persia pay them for a safe passage.
The chief pass through these mountains was
caUed Susides or Persides Portae (Xovo-iSes

SYBARIS

905

irvXat, aiirvXat ai Tlepo-iSes, 'SovrridSes irerpat:
Polyaen. iv. 8, 27). On the N. it was separated
from Great Media by the range of Mt. Orontes
(Elwend), which contamed the sources of the
Copratas, and of one branch of the Choaspes.
On the W. it was divided from Assyria by the
range of Mt. Zagros, in which were the sources.
of some affluents of the Choaspes, and by an
imaginary line drawn S. from the end of that
range to the Tigris; and from Babylonia by the
Tigris itself. The country was mountainous
and cool in the N., and low and very hot in the
S. ; and the coast along the Persian Gulf was.
marshy. The mountains were inhabited by
various wUd and independent tribes ; and the
plains by a quiet agricultural people, of the
Semitic race, called Susii or Susiani.
Sutrium (Sutrlnus : Sutri), an ancient town
of Etruria, on the E. side of the Saltus Ciminius,
and on the road from Vulsinii to Rome, from
which it was distant ttorty-two miles. It was
taken by the Romans at an early period ; and
in B.C. 383, or seven years after the capture of
Rome by the Gauls, it was made a Roman
colony. (Liv. vi. 8 ; Diod. xiv. 117 ; Veil. Pat.
i. 14.) It was celebrated for its fidelity to-
Rome, and was in consequence besieged several
times by the Etruscans (Liv. ix. 82, x. 14). On
one occasion it was obliged to surrender to the-
Etruscans, but was retaken by CamUlus in the
same day, whence arose the proverb ire Su
trium (Liv. vi. 3 ; Plaut. Casin. iii. 1, 10).
There are still remains of the walls and tombs
of the ancient town, and of an amphitheatre of
Roman work.
Syagrus (S,iayos &Kpa : Bas Fartak), a pro
montory on the SE. of Arabia, near Moseha
(Ptol. vi. 7, 11). Its importance lay in its being
the point where land was quitted on the voyage
to India (Peripl. 30 ; Plin. vi. 100).
_ Sybaris (SvBapts). 1. (Coscile or Sibari), a
river in Lucania, flowmg by the city of the same
name, and falling into the Crathis. It was said
to have derived its name from the fountain
Sybaris, near Bura, in Achaia. (Strab. p. 386.)
— 2. (SvBapir-ns, Sybarita), a celebrated Greek

Coin oi Sybaris, early in sixth cent. B.C.
Obv., bull with head turned back: VM (=SY); rev., same,
incuse.
town in Lucania, was situated between the
rivers Sybaris and Crathis at a short distance
from the Tarentine gulf, and near the confines
of Bruttium (Strab. p. 263 ; Diod. xii. 9 ; Scymn.
p. 360). It was founded B.C. 720 by Achaeana and
Troezenians, and aoon attained an extraordinary
degree of prosperity and wealth. It carried on
an extensive commerce with Asia Minor and
other countries on the Mediterranean, and its.
inhabitants became so notorious for their love
of luxury and pleasure, that their name was
employed to indicate any voluptuary. (Athen..
pp. 518-521; Hdt. vi. 127; Suid. s.v.) At the
time of their highest prosperity their city was
fifty stadia, or nearly six miles, in circum
ference, and they exercised dominion over

806

SYBOTA

twenty-five towns, so that we are told they were
able to bring mto the field 300,000 men, a num
ber, however, wMch is , obviously incredible
(Strab. I.e.). But their prosperity was of short
duration. The Achaeans having expelled the
Troezeman part of the population, the latter
took refuge at the neighbouring city of Croton,
the inhabitants of wMch espoused their cause.
In the war which ensued between the two
states, the Sybarites were completely conquered
by the Crotoniates, who foUowed up their vic
tory by the capture of Sybaris, which they de
stroyed by turning the waters of the river
CratMs agamst the town, B.C. 510 (Diod. xii. 9 ;
Hdt. v. 44 ; Athen. p. 521 ; Scymn. pp. 337-360 ;
Strab. I.e.). The greater number of the sur
viving Sybarites took refuge in other Greek
-cities in Italy ; but a few remained near their
ancient town, and their descendants formed part
of the population of Thurii, which was founded
in 443 near Sybaris. [Thubii.]
Sybota (to; SiBora : 2uj8oVior : Syvota), a
number of small islands off the coast of Epirus,
and opposite the promontory Leucimne in
Oorcyra, with a harbour of the same name on
the main land. It was here that a naval battle
was fought between the Corcyraeans and Corin
thians, B.C. 432, just before the commencement
of the Peloponnesian war. (Thuc. i. 47-54, iii.
76 ; Strab. p. 324.)
Sychaeus or Sichaeus, also caUed Acerbas.
JAcebbas.] Syene (2vfivn : 2vnvirns and SutjWjtijs, Sy
enites : Assouan, Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt,
on the E. bank of the Nile, just below the First
Cataract. It was the S. frontier city of Egypt
towards Aethiopia, and under the Romans it
was kept by a garrison of three cohorts. From
its neighbourhood was obtained the fine red
granite called Syenites lapis. It was also an
important point in the astronomy and geo
graphy of the ancients, as it lay just under the
tropic of Cancer, and was therefore chosen aa
the place tMough which they drew their cMef
parallel of latitude. The sun was vertical to
Syene at the time of the summer solstice, and
a weU was shown in which the reflection of the
sun was then seen at noon ; or, as the rheto
rician Aristides expresses it, the disc of the sun
¦covered the well as a vessel is covered by its
lid. (Hdt. ii. 30; Strab. pp. 133, 317, 797;
P1M. xxxvi. 13 ; Ptol. v. 5, 15, viii. 15, 15.)
Syennesis (2vevveo-is), a common name of
the kings of Cilicia. Of these the most impor
tant are : — 1. A king of Cilicia who joined with
Labynetus in mediating between Cyaxares and
Alyattes, the kings respectively of Media and
Lydia, probably in b.c 610 (Hdt. i. 74).— 2. Con
temporary with Darius Hystaspis, to whom he
was tributary. His daughter was married to
Pixodarus (Hdt. iii. 90, v. 118). — 3. Contem
porary with Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon), ruled
-over CUicia, when the younger Cyrus marched
tMough Ms country in Ms expedition against
his brother Artaxerxes (Xen. An. i. 2, 21-27,
vii. 8, 25, Hell. iii. 1 ; Diod. xiv. 20).
Sygambri. [Sugambei.]
Sylla. [Sulla.]
Syllium (26xXiov : prob. Ru. near Bolkassku,
N. of Legelakhoi), a strongly fortified town of
PamphyUa, on a mountain, forty stadia (four
geographical miles) from the coast, between
Side and Aspendus (Strab. p. 667 ; Arr. An. i.
25). Sylvanus. [Silvanus.]
Sylvius. [Silvius.]
Symaethus (XipaiBos : Simeto, or Giarretta),

SYMMACHUS
a river on the E. coast of Sicily, which rises in
the chain of M. Nebrodes, and first flowing S.
skirts the base of Aetna ; then turning E., flows
into the sea eight miles S. of Catania. In the
lower part of its course it formed the boundary
between Leontini and Catana. (Thuc. vi. 65 ;
Strab. p. 272 ; Verg. Aen. ix. 584.)
Syme (^.vpn ; Svpaios, Svpeis : Symi), a smaU
island off the SW. coast of Caria, lay in the
mouth of the Sinus Doridis to the W. of the
promontory of Cynossema. (Hdt. i. 174 ; Thuc.
viii. 41 ; Strab. p. 656 ; Athen. p. 296.) It was
one of the early Dorian states, that existed in
the SW. of Asia Minor before the time of
Homer, and Nireus is said to have sailed from
it (II. ii. 671). Its connexion both with Cnidus
and with Rhodes, between wMch it lay, is indi
cated by the tradition that it was peopled by
a colony from Cmdus led by Cthomus, the son
of Poseidon and of Syme, the daughter of
Ialysus. Some time after the Trojan war, the
Carians are said to have obtaMed possession of
the island, but to have deserted it again in
consequence of a aevere drought. Ita filial
aettlement by the Dorians is ascribed to the
time of their great migration (Diod. v. 33). The
island was reckoned at tMrty-five miles in
circuit. It had eight harbours and a town,
which was also called Syme.
Symmachus, Q. Aurelius. 1. A distinguished
scholar, statesman, and orator in the latter half
of the fourth century of- the Christian era. By
his example and authority, he inspired for a
time new life and vigour into the Uterature of
his country. He was educated in Gaul, and
having discharged the functions of quaestor
and praetor, he was afterwards appointed (a.d.
365) Corrector of Lucania and the Bruttii, and
in 373 he was proconsul of Africa. His zeal for
the ancient religion of Rome checked for a
while the prosperous current of his fortunes,
and involved him in danger and disgrace.
Having been chosen by the senate to remon
strate with Gratian on the removal of the altar
of Victory (382) from their council hall, and on
the curtaUment of the sums annually allowed
for the maintenance of the Vestal Virgins, and
for the public celebration of sacred rites, he
was ordered by the indignant emperor to quit
his presence, a.nd to withdraw himself to a dis
tance of 100 miles from Rome. Nothing daunted
by this repulse, when he was appointed prefect
of the city (384) after the death of his perse
cutor, he addressed a letter to Valentinianus,
agaM urging the restoration of the pagan deities
to their former honours. This appUcation was
resisted by St. Ambrose, and was agaM un
successful. Symmachus afterwards espoused
the cause of the usurper Maximus (887) ; but
he was pardoned by Theodosius and raised to
the consulship in 391. His personal character
seems to have been unimpeachable, as he per
formed the duties of the Mgh offices which he
filled in succession with a degree of mildness,
firmness and integrity seldom found among
statesmen in that corrupt age. The extant
works of Symmachua are : (1) Epistolarum
Libri X, publiahed after his death by Ms son.
The last book contains Ms official corre
spondence, and is chiefly composed of the letters
presented by him when praefect of the city to
the emperors under whom he served. The re
maining books comprise a multitude of epistles,
addressed to a wide circle of relations, friends,
and acquaintances. (2) Novem Orationum
Fragmenta, published for the first time by
Mai from a palimpsest in the Ambrosial! Library,

SYNESIUS
Mediolan. 1815.— The best edition of the ex-
Z™?"!?' Symmachus is by Seeck, Berl,
+ j Tu *a«n<«-in.law of Boethius, and put
todeathat the same time [Theodobicus].
Synesius 2weo-ios), was a native of Cyrene,
and devoted himself to the study of Greek lite
rature, first in Ms own city, and afterwards at
Alexandria, where he was a pupil of Hypatia.
Me became celebrated for his skiU in eloquence
and poetry, as well as in philosophy, in which
he belonged to the Neo-Platonic school. About
a.d. 897, he was sent by his feUow-citizens of
Cyrene on an embassy to Constantinople, to
present the emperor Arcadius with a crown of
gold : on which occasion he delivered an ora
tion on the government of a kingdom (Trepl
BacrtXeias), wMch is still extant. Soon after
tMs he embraced Christianity, and in 410 was
ordained bishop of Ptolemais, the cMef city of
the Libyan Pentapolis. He presided over his
diocese with energy and success for about
twenty years, and died about 430. Of his ex
tant writings, besides the above-mentioned ora
tion, the most notable are the Dion, in which
he relates how he became a phUosopher ; the
Aegyptiits, which describes the evils of the
time under the gmse of an Egyptian myth, and
the QaXaxpas eyxdpiov (Praise of Baldness), an
exercise of wit in reply to the K6pris iyKdpiov
of Chrysostom. — Edition of his works by Morel,
Paris, 1633-1640.
Synnada, also Synnas (to Svvvafia : 2vvva$evs,
Synnadensis : Tschifut Cassaba), a city in the N.
of Phrygia Salutaris, at first mconsiderable, but
afterwards a place of much importance, and,
from the time .of ConstantMe, the capital of
Phrygia Salutaris. It stood in a fruitful plain,
according to Strabo (p. 577), planted with olives,
but this is said to be impossible : it was near
a mountam from wMch was quarried the
celebrated Synnodic marble, wMch was of a
beautiful wMte, with red vems and spots (2vv-
voSikos XiBos, Synnadicus lapis, caUed also
Doeimiticus, from a stiU nearer place, Docimia).
Syphax (2u<pa|), king of the Massaesylians,
the westernmost tribe of the Numidians. His
Mstory is related in the Life of Ms contempo
rary and rival, Masinissa. Syphax waa taken
prisoner by Masinissa, B.C. 203, and was sent by
Scipio, under the charge of Laelius, to Rome.
Polybius states that he was one of the captives
who adorned the triumph of Scipio, and that he
died in confinement shortly after. Livy, on the
contrary, asserts that he was saved from that
ignominy by a timely death at Tibur, whither he
had been transferred from Alba. (Pol. xvi. 23 ;
Liv. xxx. 13, 16.)
Syraco. [Sybacusae.]
Syracusae CZvpaKovtrai : tvpaxiaios, Syra-
cusanus ; Siracusa in Italian, Syracuse in
English), the wealthiest and most populous
town in SicUy, was situated on the S. part of
the E. coast, 400 stadia N. of the promontory
Plemmyrium, and ten stadia NE. of the mouth
of the river Anapus, near the lake or marsh
caUed Syraco (SvpaKd), from which it derived
its name. It was founded B.C. 734, one year
after the foundation of Naxos, by a colony of
CortotMans and other Dorians, led by Archias
the CorintMan. — Syracuse was situated on a
table-land forming the prolongation of a ridge
which branches off from the stiU more elevated
table-land of the interior, and projects quite
down to the sea, between the bay known as the
<}reat Harbour of Syracuse and the more ex
tensive bay which stretches on the N. as far as
tthe peninsula of Thapsus or Magnisi. The

SYRACUSAE 907
broad end of the kind of promontory thus
formed, which abuts upon the sea for a distance
of about 2£ miles, may be considered as the
base of a triangular plateau which extends for
above four miles into the interior, having its
apex formed by the point now called Mongi-
bellisi, which was occupied by the ancient fort
of Euryelus. This communicates, as already
stated, by a narrow ridge with the table-land of
the interior, but ia still a marked point of sepa
ration, and was the highest point of the ancient
city, from whence the table-land slopea very
gradually to the sea. Though of small eleva
tion, this plateau, called Epipolae, is bounded
on all sides by precipitous banks or cliffs, vary
ing in height, but only accessible at a few pomts.
It is divided into two portions by a slight valley
or depression running across it from N. to S.,
about a mile from the sea. — The SE. angle of
the plateau is separated from the Great Har
bour by a small tract of low and level ground,
opposite to wMch lies the island of Ortygia, a
low islet, extending across the mouth of the
Great Harbour, and originally divided by only
a narrow strait from the mainland, whilst its
southern extremity was separated from the
nearest point of the headland of Plemmyrium
by an interval of about 1200 yards, formmg the
entrance into the Great Harbour. This last
was a spacious bay, of above five miles in cir
cumference, thus greatly exceedmg the dimen
sions of what the ancients usually understood
by a port, but forming a very nearly land-locked
basin of a somewhat oval form, which afforded
a secure shelter to shipping in all weather, and
is even at the present day one of the finest
harbours in Sicily. But between the island of
Ortygia and the mainland to the N. of it was a
deep bight or iMet, forming what is called the
Lesser Port or Portus Laoceius, which, though
very inferior to the other, was still equal to the
ordinary requirements of ancient commerce. —
S. of the Great Harbour again rose the penin
sular promontory of Plemmyrium, forming a
table-land bounded, like that on the N. of the
bay, by precipitous escarpments and cliffs,
though of no great elevation. This table-land
was prolonged by another plateau at a some
what lower level, bounding the southern side
of the Great Harbour, and extending from
thence towards the interior. On its NE. angle
and opposite to the heights of Epipolae, stood
the Olympieum, overlooking the low marshy
tract which intervenes between the two table
lands, and through which the river Anapus
finds its way to the sea. The beautiful stream
of the Cyane rises in a source about lh mile to
the N. of the Olympieum, and joins its waters
with those of the Anapus almost immediately
below the temple. — The town was originally
confined to the island Ortygia (Thuc. vi. 2;
Strab. p. 269 ; Scymn. pp. 279-282), but it after
wards spread over the neighbouring mainland,
and at the time of its greatest extension under
the elder Dionysius it consisted of four distinct
quarters, each surrounded by separate waUB.
(Cic. Verr. iv. 52 ; Diod. xxvi. 19 ; Auson. Clar.
Urb. 11.) When Strabo calls it irevrdiroXis, ha
perhaps reckoned in Epipolae. These four
quarters of the city were : 1. Ortygia ('Oprvyla),
frequently called simply the Island (N5<ros or
Nijcros), an island of an oblong shape, about
a mile long and somewhat less than half a
mile broad, lying between the Great Harbour
on the W. and the Little Harbour on the E.
It was, as has been already remarked, the por
tion of the city first built, and it afterwards

908

SYRACUSAE

formed the strongest part of the city, and was
utilised by Dionysius as his fortress. Within it
he built an interior citadel, and the whole was
surrounded by double walls, which Timoleon
caused to be destroyed. It was specially sacred
to Artemis (Diod. v. 3 ; Pind. Nem. i. 3), [see
pp. 127, b, 485, b], and in it was the fountain of
Arethusa. It was originaUy separated from the
mainland by a narrow channel, wMch was sub
sequently filled up by a causeway (Thuc. vi. 3) ;
but it was severed from the mainland, probably
by the elder Dionysius, and afterwards con
nected with it by means of a bridge. — 2. Achra
dina ('AxpaSivn), or ' the Outer City,' consisted
probably of the level plain between the Great
Harbour and the foot of Epipolae, bordered

stantly use it. It has been argued with proba
bility from the language of Diodorus and Livy
(e.g. Diod. xi. 73, 76 ; Liv. xxv. 30) that AcMa-
dina was, as haa been aaid, the flat ground.
below Epipolae. But it should be mentioned.
that many writers believe it to have included
the E. part of the plateau of Epipolae ; and the
question cannot be said to be decided either
way. Achradina communicated with the Island
by a fortified entrance called Pentapyla, at the
end of the isthmus or causeway. At the time-
of the siege of Syracuse by the Athenians in the
Peloponnesian war (415), the city consisted only
of the two parte already mentioned, Ortygia.
forming the inner and Achradina the outer-
city. — 3. Tyche (T^xi), named after the temple

Plan of Ancient Syracuse (based on a map in Freeman's Sicily).
' tneSfto V™£J!-% ^SrS^Zt'iT*6- Iine Ir°m T^us to portella del Fusco, Athenian wall (double
^^%^a^oilltta^^So\^S^^tt^rV":a' CD'dir-tion <" ™ Syracusan crossJall!

on the W. by the marshes of Lysimeleia. When
the city, in the time of Gelo, spread beyond its
original limits in Ortygia, the level plain was
occupied, and became what Thucydides calls
the ' Outer City.' The Agora was in the part
nearest the Island, and was surrounded with
porticoes by Dionysius the elder (Diod. xiv 7 ¦
Cic. Verr. iv. 53, 119). Adjoining it was the
temple of Jupiter (Diod. xvi. 83) and probably
the Prytaneum (Cic. Verr. iv. 57, 125). The
name Achradina does not seem to have been
used before the end of the fifth century B.C.,
and even the later writers Plutarch and Diodo
rus use the name r\ #{« iriXis in speaking of
events of the Athenian aiege. But in speaking
of later Mstory Diodorus, Livy, and Cicero con-

of Tyche or Fortune, was situated W. of Actoa-
dma, in the direction of the port called Trogilus.
At the time of the Athenian siege of Syracuse
it was only an unfortified suburb, which is-
mentioned by Diodorus (xi. 68) as existing in
466 ; but it probably had very few houses until
Dionysius fortified the N. part of the pla
teau, after which time it became the most
populous part of the city. In this quarter stood
the gymnasium.— 4. Neapolis (Nea rrixis),
nearly SW. of Achradina. At the time of the-
Athenian siege of Syracuse, a suburb called
lememtlS, from having within it the statue and
consecrated ground of Apollo Temenites, stood
on the Mgh ground above the site in which the
theatre was afterwards built. This suburb was

SYRACUSAE
"temporarily fortified at the time of the siege
(Thuc. vi. 75). Not many years afterwards the
city was permanently extended to thia district,
•occupying both the Mgh ground of Temenitis
and the lower slopes to the S. ; and the whole
was caUed the ' New City ' (Neapolis). Nea-
poUs contamed the chief theatre of Syracuse,
wMch was the largest in all Sicily, and many
temples, and an amphitheatre of the Roman
period of which some remains exist (cf. Tac.
Ann. xiii. 49). — 5. Epipolae (al 'EiriiroXai), a
space of ground rising above the three quarters
of Achradina, Tyche, and Neapolis, which gra-
•duaUy diminished in breadth as it rose higher,
until it ended in a small conical mound. This
riaing ground was surrounded with strong waUs
by the elder Dionysius, and was thus included
in Syracuse, which now became one of the most
strongly fortified cities of the ancient world.
The Mghest potot of Epipolae was called
Euryelus (EvpirnXos), on which stood the fort
Liabdalum (AdBh'aXov). After Epipolae had
been added to the city, the circumference of
Syracuse was 180 stadia or upwards of twenty-
two EngUsh miles ; and the entire population
of the city is supposed to have amounted to
500,000 at the time of its greatest prosperity. —
There were several stone quarries {lautumiae)
in Syracuse, wMch are frequently mentioned by
ancient writers, and in wMch the Athenian
prisoners were confined. These quarries were
to Mgher ground above AcMadma, and to Neo-
polis under the S. cliff of Epipolae. From them
was taken the stone of wMch the city was
bMlt. (Thuc. vii. 86 ; Diod. xiii. 33 ; Cic. Verr.
i. 5, 14, v. 27, 68.) The so-called ' Ear of Diony
sius,' wMch is shown to the modern Latomia
Ael Paradiso, as a place where the tyrant over
heard the conversations of Ms captives, is
an invention of a writer of the Renaissance.
[Did. of Ant. art. Lautumiae.] Round the
¦Olympieum, or Temple of Zeus, wMch stood on
a height a mUe and a haU S. of Neapolis and
on the other side of the Anapus, grew up a
coUection of houses called r) iroX'txvn. It was
important as commanding the passage of the
Anapus. Some remains of the old bridge and
of the old road wMch led to Helorus, as well as
rematos of the temple itself, are still visible.
The city was suppUed with water from an
aqueduct, wMch was constructed by Gelo and
improved by Hiero. It was brought tMough
Epipolae and NeapoUs to AcMadina and Orty
gia. — The government of Syracuse was at an
-early period an aristocracy, and the political
power was in the hands of the landed pro
prietors caUed Geomori or Gamori. In course
of time the people, having increased in numbers
and wealth, expelled the Geomori and estab
lished a democracy. (Hdt. vii. 155 ; Dionys. vi.
62.) But this form of government did not last
long. Gelo espoused the cause of the aristo-
oratical party, and proceeded to restore them by
force of arms ; but on Ms approach the people
opened the gates to him, and he was acknow
ledged without opposition tyrant or sovereign
of Syracuse, B.C. 485. Under Ms rule and that
of Ms brother Hiero, Syracuse was raised to an
unexampled degree of wealth and prosperity.
Hiero died in 467, and was succeeded by his
brother Thrasybulus ; but the rapacity and
cruelty of the latter soon provoked a revolt
among his subjecta, which led to Ms deposition
and the establishment of a democratical form
of government. The next most important event
in the history of Syracuse waa the siege of the
city by the Athenians, wMch ended m the total

SYRIA

909

destruction of the great Athenian armament in
418. The democracy continued to exist in
Syracuse till 406, when the elder Dionysius
made Mmself tyrant of the city. After a long
and prosperous reign he was succeeded in 367
by his son, the younger Dionysius, who was
finally expelled by Timoleon in 843. A re
publican form of government was again estab
lished ; but it did not last long, and in 317
Syracuse fell under the sway of Agathocles.
This tyrant died in 280 ; and the city being dis
tracted by factions, the Syracusans voluntarily
conferred the supreme power upon Hiero H.,
with the title of King, in 270. Hiero cultivated
friendly relations with the Romans ; but on his
death in 216, at the advanced age of ninety-two,
his grandson, Hieronymus, who succeeded Mm,
espoused the side of the Carthaginians. A Ro
man army under Marcellus was sent against
Syracuse, and after a siege of two years, during
which Archimedes assisted Ms feUow-citizens
by the construction of various engines of war
[Archimedes]', the city was taken by Marcellus
in 212. From this time Syracuse became a
town of the Roman province of SicUy. Its
prosperity was greatly diminished by the wars
of Sex. Pompeius, and, though Augustus sent
a new colony to it in B.C. 21, these settlers occu
pied only the Island and a portion of Achradina
and Neapolis. (Strab. p. 270 ; Dio Cass. liv. 7.)
Syrgis (2vpyis), according to Herodotus, a
river of European Sarmatia, rismg in the
country of the Thyssagetae, and flowing through
the land of the Maeotae into the Palus Maeotis.
(Hdt. iv. 123). It is possibly the same as the
Hyrgis wMch he mentions elsewhere (iv. 57) as
an affluent of the Tanais.
Syria Dea (Svpin Be6s), ' the Syrian goddess,'
a name by which the Syrian Atargartis was
commonly spoken of by Greeks and Romans.
She was a goddess of the productiveness of
nature = Derceto = Astarte, and the Eastern
equivalent of Aphrodite [see p. 85, a]. The
chief seat of her worship waB Hierapolis in
Syria. The orgiastic and effeminate cult of
this temple ia described by Lucian. Her wor
sMp was introduced Mto Italy under the empire,
especially by Nero ; and she had a temple at
Rome in the Transtiberine district. (Lucian, de
Dea Syria ; Apul. Met. viii. 24 ; Suet. Ner. 56 ;
G.I.L. vi. 115, 116.)
Syria (i) Svpia : 2i5pios, Syrius : Arab. Esh-
Sham, Syria) a country of W. Asia, lying along
the E. end of the Mediterranean sea, between
Asia Minor and Egypt. In a wider sense the
word was used for the whole tract of country
bounded by the Tigris on the E., the mountains
of Armenia and Cilicia on the N., the Mediter
ranean on the W., and the Arabian Desert on
the S. ; the whole of wMch was peopled by the
Aramaean branch of the great Semitic (or Syro-
Arabian) race, who occupied a great part of the
country which had formerly belonged to the
Kheta or Hittites : hence this region is in
cluded in the O. T. under the name of Aram.
It may be well described physically as the great
triangular depression of W. Asia encircled on
the N. and NE. by the Taurus and its pro
longation to the SE., or, M other words, by the
highlands of Cilicia, Cappadocia, Armenia, and
Aria; and subsidmg on the S. and W. into the
Mediterranean and the Great Desert of Arabia.
Even a wider extent than this is often given to
Syria, so as to include the E. part of Asia
Minor, as far as the river Halys and the Euxine.
The people were of the same races, and those
of the N. of the Taurus to Cappadocia and

910 SYRIA
Pontus are called White Syrians [Leucosybi]
in contradistinction to the people of darker
complexion in Syria Proper, who are sometimeB
even called Black Syriana (Svpiot peXaves).
The Greeka thus designated as Syria the
country lying beyond Phoenicia, and included
under the same name the country of Canaan
or Palestine. Greek writers, especiaUy Hero
dotus, often not only reckoned the Phoenicians
as Syrians, but even identified Syrians with
Assyriana (Hdt. ii. 158, vii. 63). In the nar
rower sense, Syria was bounded on the W.
(beginning from the S.) by M. Hermon, at the
S. end of Antilibanus, wMch separated it from
Palestine, by the range of Libanus, dividing
it from Phoenice, by the Mediterranean, and
by M. Amanus, which divided it from Cilicia ;
on the N. (where it bordered on Cappadocia)
by the main chain of M. Taurus, almost ex
actly along the parallel of 38° N. lat., and
strikMg the Euphrates just below JuUopoUs, and
considerably above Samosata : hence the Eu-
pMates forms the E. boundary, dividing Syria,
first from a very small portion of Armenia, and
then from Mesopotamia, to about or beyond the
thirty-sixth parallel of N. lat., whence the SE.
and S. boundaries, towards Babylonia and
Arabia, in the Great Desert, are exceedingly
mdefinite. [Comp. Arabia.] The W. part of
the S. boundary ran just below Damascus,
being formed by the highlands of Trachonitis.
The name Coele Syria (r) KoiX-n Svpia : ' hoUow
Syria') was first given to the low-lying part
between Libanus and Antilibanus in the valleys
of the upper Orontes and the Lita ; but it was
extended so as to include the country E. of
Antilibanus up to, and beyond, Damascus.
The W. part of Syria was intersected by a series
of mountains, running S. from the Taurus,
under the names of Amanus, Pieeia, Casius,
Babgylus, and Libanus and Antilibanus ;
and the N. part, between the Amanus and the
Euphrates, was also mountainous. The chief
river of Syria was the Obontes, and the smaller
rivers Chalus, Chbysobehoas and Lita,
were also of importance. The valleys among
the mountains were fertile, especially in the
N. part : even the E., which is now merged in
the Great Desert of Arabia, appears to have
had more numerous and more extensive spaces
capable of cultivation, and supported great
cities, the ruins of which now stand in the
midst of sandy wastes. — Having been a part
successively of the Assyrian, Babylonian, Per
sian, and Macedonian empires, Syria fell, after
the battle of Ipsus (b.c. 301), to the share of
Seleucus Nicator, and formed a part of the
great kingdom of the Seleucidae, whose history
is given in the articles Seleucus, Antiochus,
Demetbius, &c. In this partition, however,
Coelesyria and Palestine went, not to Syria,
but to Egypt, and the possession of those pro
vinces became the great aource of contention
between the Ptolemiea and the Seleucids. By
the irruptions of the Parthians on the E., ana
the unsuccessful war of Antiochus the Great
with the Romans on the W., the Greek Syrian
kingdom was reduced to the limits of Syria
itself, and became weaker and weaker, until it
was overthrown by Tigeanes, king of Armenia,
B.C. 79. Soon afterwards, when the Romans
had conquered Tigranes as well as Mithridates,
Syria was quietly added by Pompey to the em
pire of the republic and was constituted a
province, B.C. 64 ; but its N. district, Comma
gene, was not until a later period included in
this arrangement. [Commagene.] As the E.

province of the Roman empire, and with itsv
great desert frontier, Syria was constantly ex
posed to the irruptions of the Parthians, and,
after them, of the Persians; but it long re
mained one of the most flourisMng of the pro
vinces. The attempt of Zenobia to make it
the seat of empire is noticed under Palmyba
and Zenobia. While the Roman emperors
defended this precious possession against the
attacks of the Persian kings with various suc
cess, a new danger arose, as early as the fourth
century, from the Arabians of the Desert, who
began to be known under the name of Saracens ;
and, when the rise of Mohammed had given to
the Arabs that great religious impulse which
revolutionised the E. world, Syria was the first
great conquest that they made from the E.
empire, a.d. 632-638. — In the time immediately
succeeding the Macedonian conquest, Syria
was regarded as consisting of two parts; the
N., tocludmg the whole country down to the
beginning of the Lebanon range, and the S.,
consisting of Coelesyria in its more extended
sense. The former, which was caUed Syria
Proper, or Upper Syria (ti dvca Xvpia, Syria Su
perior), was divided Mto four districta or
tetrarchies, wMch were named after their re
spective capitals, Seleucis, Antiochene, Laodi-
cene, and Apamene. The Roman province of
Syria as originally constituted by Pompey in
64 B.C. was by no means a single homogeneous
region. Owing to the different nationaUties and
interests which Syria properly bo caUed com
prised, it was at first parcelled out between the
Roman jurisdiction and a number of indepen
dent territories which were allowed to remain
within it. Under the Roman proconsul of
Syria were at first Upper Syria (with the chief

Cyrrhus, Hieropolis and Beroea), and the land
of Phoenicia including Tripolis, Byblus, Tyre
and Sidon; but Judaea was left for a time
nominally independent, except for a short time
when Gabinius broke it up into five districts.
Caesar made Judaea a client state under its
own princes, and it did not become a Roman
province (of the second rank, under a procura
tor) until a.d. 6. SimUarly Commagene was
left under its own princes until a.d. 17, and
again from 38 till 72, when it was finally joined
to the province of Syria : Chalcis retained its
own princes till 92, when Domitian added it to
the province : Abilene tUl 49 : Arethusa and
Emesa till 78 : Damascus was not included in
the province of Syria tiU 1(56. The province of
Syria under the empire was governed by an
imperial legate residing at Antioch: it was
eventually divided into ten districts, named
(mostly after their capital cities) Commagene,
Cyrrhestice, Pieria, Seleucis, Chalcidice, Chaly-
bonltia, Palmyrene, Apamene, Cassiotis, and
Laodicene ; but the last is sometimes included
under Cassiotis. (See the several articles.)
From 66 a.d. Judaea or Syria Palaestina was
recognised as a separate provmce, and at the
end of the second century Syria was divided
into two provinces, Syria Magna or Coelesyria,
and Syria Phoenice. Constantine the Great
separated the two N. districts — namely, Comma
gene and Cyrrhestice — and erected them into a
distinct province, called Euptoatensis or Eu-
phratesia ; and the rest of Syria was afterwards
divided by Theodosius II. into the two pro
vinces of Syria Prima, including the sea-coast
and the country N. of Antioch, and having that
city for its capital; and Syria Secunda, the
district along the Orontes, with Apamea for its

SYRIAE PORTAE
capital: the E. districts no longer formed a
part of Syria, but had fallen under the power
of the Persians.
Syriae Portae (ai Svpiai irvXat: Pass of
Beilan), a most important pass between Cilicia
and Syria, lying between the shore of the Gulf
of Issus on the W., and M. Amanus on the E.
Xenophon, who called the pass (or rather its
fortifications) the Gates of Cilicia and of
Syria, describes it as three stadia in length
and very narrow, with walls built from the
mountains to the sea at both ends (the CiUcian
and the Syrian), and gates M the walls. These
walls and gates are not mentioned by the his
torians of Alexander. (Xen. A n. i. 4, 4 ; Arr. An.
ii. 8 ; Strab. p. 676.)
Syrianus (Svpiav6s), a Greek philosopher of
the Neo-Platonic school, was a native of Alex
andria, and studied at Athens under Plutarchus,
whom he succeeded as head of the Neo-Platonic
school in the early part of the fifth century.
The most distinguished of his disciples was
Proclus, who regarded him with the greateat
veneration, and gave directions that at his
death he should be buried in the some tomb
with Syrianus. Syrianus wrote several works,
some of which are extant. Of these the most
valuable are the commentaries on the Meta
physics of Aristotle.
Syrinx, an Arcadian nymph, who being pur
sued by Pan, fled toto the river Ladon, and at
her own request was metamorphosed into a
reed, of wMch Pan then made his flute. [Pan.]
Syros, or Syrus (Svpos, called Sopiri by
Homer, and S.vpa by a few writers : 2vptos:
Syr a), an island to the Aegaean sea, and one of
the Cyclades, lytog between Rhenea and Cyth-
nus. It was twenty Roman miles M circum
ference, and rich in pastures, wine, and corn.
It contained two cities to Homer's time, but
only one to Ptolemy's (Od. xv. 403-414 ; Ptol.
ui. 15, 30; Strab. p. 487). The philosopher
Pherecydes was a native of Syros. The fertility
of Syros, praised by Homer, has disappeared,
apparently since the seventeenth century, and
probably from the destruction of its trees. The
present prosperity of the island is therefore
entirely due to the circumstances wMch made
it a centre of commerce since the liberation of
Greece, and the capital of the Cyclades. The
traces of two towns (confirming the account in
the Odyssey) are to be seen near the modern
Delle Grazie. It ia conjectured that some time
after the Homeric age these were abandoned
for a new city built on the site of the modern
Hermoupolis, where an inscription relating to
a temple of Poseidon has been found.
Syrtes, gen. -ldos (Svprts, gen. -iSos and -eais,
Ion. -ios), the Greek name for each of the two
great gulfs to the E. half of the N. coast of
Africa, is derived by ancient writers from crvpw,
to draw, with reference to the quicksands by
wMch, to the Greater Syrtis at least, stops were
liable to be swaUowed up ; but the more prob
able derivation is from the Arabic sert = a
sandy desert, wMch is at the present day
applied to the country along this coast, the
Regio Stetica of the ancients. Both these
gulfs were proverbially dangerous : the Greater
Syrtis from its sandbanks and quicksands, and
its unbroken exposure to the N. wmds; the
Lesser from its shelving rocky shores, its expo
sure to the NE. winds, and the consequent
variableness of the tides to it 1. Syrtis Major
(i) peydXi) Svpris : Gulf of Sidra),the E. of the
two, is a wide and deep gulf on the shores of
TripoUta and Cyrenaica, exactly opposite to the I

SYRUS

911

Ionio sea, or mouth of the Adriatic, between
Sicily and Peloponnesus. Its greatest extent
inland from N. to S. is about 110 geographical
miles ; from E. to W. about 230 geographical
miles, between Cephalae Prom. (Baa Kharra)
on the W., and Boreum Prom. (Bas Teyonas}
on the E. The Great Desert comes down close
to its shores, forming a sandy coast [Syetica
Regio].— 2. Syrtis Minor (fi piKpd 'Svpns : Gulf
of Gabes), lies in the SW. angle of the great
bend formed by the N. coast of Africa as it
drops down to the S. from the neighbourhood
of Carthage, and then bears again to the E. :
in other words, in the angle between the E.
coaat of Zeugitana and Byzacena (Tunis) and
the N. coast of Tripolitana (Tripoli). Its
mouth faces the E., between Caput Vada or
Brachodes Prom. (Bas Kapoudiah) on the N.,
and the island called Meninx or Lotophagitis
(Jerbah) on the S. In its mouth, near the N.
extremity, lie the islands of Cercina and Cer
cinitis, which were often regarded as its N.
extremity. The true width (between Bas Ka
poudiah and the E. point of Jerbah) is about
eighty geog. miles, and the greatest depth, mea
sured westward from the line joining those
points, is about sixty-five geog. miles. (Strab.
pp. 884, 835 ; Scyl. p. 48 ; Pol. i. 39, ii. 23.)
Syrtica Regio (r) SvpriKt) : W. part of Tri
poli), the special name of that part of the N.
coast of Africa wMch lay between the two
Syrtes, from the river Triton, at the bottom of
the Syrtis Minor, on the W., to the PMlaenorum
Arae, at the bottom of the Syrtis Major, on the
E. It was for the most part a very narrow
strip of sand, interspersed with salt marahea,
between the sea and a range of mountains
forming the edge of the Great Desert (Sahara),
with here and there a few spots capable of
cultivation, especially about the river Cinyps.
It was peopled by Libyan tribes, the chief of
whom were the Lotophagi, Macae, Psylli, and
Nasamones; and several Egyptian and Phoe
nician colonies were settled on the coast at an
early period. The Greeks of Cyrene disputed
with the Carthaginians the possession of this
district until it was secured to Carthage by the
self-devotion of the Philaeni. Under the Ro
mans it formed a part of the province of Africa.
It was often called Tripolitana, from its tMee
chief cities, Abbotonum, Oea, and Leptis
Magna ; and this became its usual name under
the later empire, and has been handed down to
our own time in the modern name of the Re
gency of Tripoli. (Strab. p. 834 ; Hdt. iv. 198 ;
Ov. Pont. iii. 7, 25.)
Syrus, Publilius, a slave brought from
Antioch to Rome some years before the downfall
of the republic, and deaignated, accordMg to the
usual practice, from the country of his birth.
He attracted attention while yet a youth, by
Ms beauty and his wit, was manumitted by his
master, who probably belonged to the Clodia
gens, assumed the name of Publilius from his
patron (sometimes incorrectly given as Publius),
and soon became celebrated as a mimographer,
about B.C. 45, and atiU more as an improvisa-
tore. His mimic improvisations were com
mitted to writing, and extensively circulated at
an early period ; and a collection of pithy moral
sayings extracted from his works appears to
have been used as a school-book in the boyhood
of St. Jerome. A compilation of this descrip
tion, extendmg to upwards of 800 IMes M
iambic and trochaic measures, every apo
phthegm being comprised in a single line, and
the whole ranged alphabetically, according to the

912

SYTHAS

imtial letter of the first word in each, is now
extant under the title Publii Syri Sententiae.
These proverbs have been drawn from various
sources, and are evidently the work of many
different hands ; but a considerable number
may be ascribed to Syrus and his contem-
poraries. (Plin. xxxv. 199; Macrob. ii. 7, 6;
Gell. xvii. 14 ; Sen. de Tranq. An. 11, 8 ; Cic. ad
Fam. xii. 18 ; Hieron. ad Euseb. Chron. 1974). —
The best edition of the Sententiae is by
Wb'lfflin, Leips. 1869. '
Sythas (SvBas), a river on the frontiers of
Achaia and Sicyonia (Paus. vii. 27, 12).

T.

Tabae (TaBai : TaBvvis). 1. (Dawas), a city
¦of Caria, on the borders of PMygia (Strab. pp.
570, 576 ; Liv. xxxviii. 13).— 2. (Tabbas), a city
-of Persis, in the district of Paraetacene, E. of
Ecbatana. Tabernae, [Tees Tabeenae.]
Tabuda. [Scaldis.]
Taburnus (Taburno), a mountam belonging
half to Campania and half to Samnium. Its
S. aide was very fertile, and was celebrated for
its pastures and olive grounds (Verg. Georg.
ii. 38, Aen. xii. 715). It shut in the Caudtoe
pass on its S. side.
Tacape (TaKairn : Gabes), a city of N. Africa,
in the Regio Syrtica, at the innermost angle of
the Syrtis Minor, to which the modern town
gives its present name. Under the Romans it at
first belonged to Byzacene, but it was afterwards
raised to a colony and made the W. town of
Tripolitana. It had an indifferent harbour.
A little to the W. waa the bathing place (Plin.
v. 30) called, from its warm mineral springs,
Aquae Tacipitanae (El Hammat-el-Khabs).
Tacfarinas, a Numidian in the reign of Ti
berius, had originaUy served among the auxUi-
ary troopa in the Roman army, but he deserted ;
and, having coUected a body of freebooters, he
became at length the acknowledged leader of
the Musulamii, a powerful people in the Mterior
of Numidia, bordering on Mauretania. For
some years he defied the Roman arms, in spite
of the successful campaign of Blaesus against
him ; but he was at length defeated and slain
in battle by Dolabella, a.d. 24. (Tac.4?wi. ii. 52,
iii. 73, iv. 24.)
Tachompso (Taxopv/d, also Tacompsos, Plin.,
and MeraKopv/d, Ptol.), aft. Contrapselcis, a
city in the Dodecaschoenus (that is, the part of
AetMopia immediately above Egypt), built on
an island (Derarl) near the E. bank of the
river, a little above Pselcis, which stood on the
opposite bank. [Pselcis.]
Tachos (Taxds), king of Egypt, succeeded
Acoris, and maintained the independence of
Ms country for a short time towards the end
-of the reign of Artaxerxes H., B.C. 364-861.
He invited Chabrias, the Athenian, to take the
command of Mb fleet, and Agesilaus to under
take the supreme command of all his forces.
Both Chabrias and Agesilaus came to Egypt ;
but the latter was much aggrieved in having
only the command of the mercenaries entrusted
to him. Accordingly, when Nectanabis laid
-claim to the Egyptian crown, AgesUaus deserted
Tachos, and espoused the cause of Nectanabis,
who thus became king of Egypt, B.C. 361. (Diod.
xv. 92 ; Nep. Chabr. 2 ; Xen. Ages. ii. 28 ; Plut.
Ages. 36-40.)
Tacitus. 1. Cornelius, the Mstorian :

TACITUS
whether his praenomen was C. or P. remains
doubtful. The time and place of hia birth are
unknown. "He waa a little older than the
younger Pliny, who was born a.d. 61. His
father was probably Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman
eques, who is mentioned as a procurator to
Gallia Belgica, and who died to 79 (P1M. vii.
76). Tacitus was first promoted by the em
peror Vespasian, and he received other favours
from hia eons, Titus and Domitian (Hist. i. 1).
The most probable account is that Tacitus was
appointed tribunus militum laticlavus by Ves
pasian, quaestor by Titus, and praetor by
Domitian. In 78 he married the daughter of
C. JuUus Agricola, to whom he had been be
trothed in the preceding year, wMle Agricola
was consul. In the reign of Domitian, and in
88, Tacitus was praetor, and he assisted as one
of the quindeeimviri at the solemnityof the
Ludi Seculares wMch were celebrated in that
year (Ann. xi. 11). Agricola died at Rome in
93, but neither TacituB nor the daughter of
Agricola was then with him. It is not known
where Tacitus was during the last ittness of
Agricola, but he may have been, as some think,
praetorian legate in Germany, or propraetor of
Belgica. In the reign of Nerva, 97, Tacitus
was appointed consul suffectus, in the place of
T. Virginius Rufus, who had died in that year,
and whose funeral oration he delivered. We
know that Tacitus had attatoed oratorical dis
tinction when the younger Pliny was beginning
Ms career. He and Tacitus were appototed
in the reign of Trajan (99) to conduct the
prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa.
Tacitus and Pliny were most intimate friends.
In the collection of the letters of Pltoy, there
are eleven letters addressed to Tacitus. The
time of the death of Tacitus is unknown, but
he appears to have survived Trajan, who died in
117. Nothing is recorded of any children of his,
though the emperor Tacitus claimed a descent
from the Mstorian, and ordered his works to be
placed in all (public) libraries. Aa a Mstorian
Tacitus wrote undoubtedly with a bias from Ms
intense political sympathies with the senate of
the older period as against the imperial consti
tution. His interest, too, was concentrated
upon Italy somewhat to the exclusion of the
provinces, which prevented Mm from aUowing
that the imperial rule was necessary for the
provincial government. But for acuteness of
thought, for insight into character, he is among
the greatest of historians ; and for power of
description in a few telling words he is un
rivalled. The foUowing are the extant books of
Tacitus in the order in which they were writ
ten : (1) Dialogus de Oratoribus an essay, to
show the decay of oratory under the empire,
written in the form of a dialogue, the speakers
being literary men of Vespasian's reign, Curia
tius Maternus, M. Aper, Julius Secundus, and
Vipstanus MessaUa. This was written early in
the life of Tacitus, when he was cMefly influ
enced in style by Cicero's rhetorical works.
It is probable that the time when the dialogue
was supposed to take place was a.d. 74 (Dial.
17), when Tacitus was about twenty (cf. Dial.
1), and that it was written and published about
a.d. 84, at the period of Domitian's reign when
freedom of speech was more possible (cf. Suet.
Dom. 9). The difference in diction between
this and his later works has caused many to
deny that it is a genuine work of Tacitus,
but there is no good ground for this denial.
The date accounts for the style : in acuteness of
thought it is Tacitean, and there is no one else of

TACITUS
this period who could have written it. It has
been remarked, too, that a comparison of PUn.
Ep. ix. 10, 2 with Tac. Dial. 12, shows that Pliny
wrote to Tacitus as the author of the Dialogue
isee also Plin. Ep. i. 6, 2 ; Tac. Dial. 9). Sepa
rate editions by Bahrens, Leips. 1881 ; Peterson,
Oxford, 1893.— (2) Vita Agricolae, the Life of
Agricola, which was written, as we may prob
ably conclude from the introduction, after Tra
jan's accession, i.e. after 98. TMs Life is justly
admired as a specimen of biography. It is a
monument to the memory of a good man and
an able commander and administrator, by an
affectionate son-in-law, who has portrayed in
Ms peculiar manner and with many masterly
touches, the virtues of one of the most iUus-
trious of the Romans. It is written on the
model of one of Sallust's monographs. Sepa
rate edition by Haverfield (announced), or with
Germ, by Frost, Lond. 1861; Schoene, Berl.
1889; Church and Brodripp, Lond. 1889.— (8)
Germania, or De Moribus et Populis Ger-
maniae, a treatise describing the Germanic
nations, also written early to Trajan's reign.
The main matter is the description of the
poUtical institutions, the reUgion, and the
habits, of the various tribes included under the
denomination of Germani, of wMch he had had
m all probabiUty personal means of judgMg from
official employment in the country. Separate
edition by Haverfield (announced). — (4) Histo
riae, wMch were written after the death of
Nerva, 98, and before the Annates. They com
prehended the period from the second consulsMp
of Galba, 68, to the death of Domitian, 96, and
the author designed to add the reigns of Nerva
and Trajan. The first four books alone are ex
tant to a complete form, and they comprehend
only the events of about one year. Book v. is
imperfect, and goes no further than the com
mencement of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus,
and the war of CiviUs in Germany. It is not
known how many books of the Histories there
were, but it must have been a large work if it
was aU written on the some scale as the first
five books, and probably consisted of twelve or
fourteen books. Separate editions by Simcox,
1876; A. Godley, 1887-1890.— (5) Annates (of
wMch the gemune title appears to be Ab ex-
cessu divi Augusti, though Tacitus himself de
scribes it also as annates), which commence with
the death of Augustus, 14, and comprise the
period to the death of Nero, 68, a space of fifty-
four years. The greater part of the fifth book
is lost; and also the seventh, eighth, ninth,
tenth, the begtonmg of the eleventh, and the
end of the sixteenth, wMch is the last book.
These Mat parta comprised the whole of Cali
gula's reign, the first five years of Claudius,
and the last two of Nero. Separate editions by
OrelU-Baiter, Zur. 1859 ; Furneaux, Oxf. 1884 ;
Allen, Boston, 1890. Editions of the complete
works with a commentary by OreUi, revised
by different editors, 1859-1880 ; of the text by
C. Halm, Leips. 1884. Translation by Church
and Brodripp. — 2. M. Claudius, Roman em
peror from the 25th of September, a.d. 275,
until April, A.D. 276. He was elected emperor
by the senate after the death of Aurelian, the
army having requested the senate to nominate
a successor to the imperial throne. Tacitus
was at the time seventy years of age, and was
with difficulty persuaded to accept the purple.
The high character which he had borne before
his elevation to the tMone he amply sustained
during his brief reign. He endeavoured to
repress the luxury and licentiousness of the

TAGUS

913

age by various sumptuary laws, and he himself
set an example to all around, by the abstemi
ousness, simplicity, and frugality of Ms own
habits. The only military achievement of this
reign was the defeat and expulsion from Asia
Minor of a party of Goths, who had carried
their devastation across the peninsula to the
confines of Cilicia. He died either at Tarsus
or at Tyana, about the 9th of April, 276. (Life
M the Script. Hist. August. ; Eutrop. ix. 10 ;
Aurel. Vic. Caes. xxxvi. ; Zonar. xii. 28.)
Taenarum (Taivapov : C. Matapan), a pro
montory M Laconica, forming the southerly
point of the Peloponnesus, on which stood a
celebrated temple of Poseidon, possessmg an
inviolable asylum. A little to the N. of the
temple and the harbour of Achilleus was a town
also caUed Taenarum or Taenarus, and at a
later time Caenepolis. It was situated forty
stadia from the extreme point of the promon
tory, and was said to have been built by Tae
narus, a son of Zeus, or Icarius or Elatus.
On tMs promontory was a cave, one of the
supposed entrances to the underworld (probably
so considered because of the stern and gloomy
character of its rocks), through which Heracles
is said to have dragged Cerberus to the upper
world. Here also was a statue of Arion seated
on a dolphin, since he is said to have landed
at this spot after his miraculous preservation
by a dolphin. (Hdt. i. 23 ; Thuc. i. 128, 133 ;
Pind. Pyth. iv. 77 ; Paus. in. 25, 4 ; Strab. p.
363 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 467.) In the time of the
Romans there were celebrated marble quarries
on the promontory (Strab. p. 367).
Tagae (Taryai: Dameghanl), a city men
tioned by Polybius as in PartMa, on the border
towards Hyrcania (Pol. x. 29, 3).
Tagaste (Tagilt, Ru.), an Mland town of Nu
midia, on a tributary of the Bagradas, remark
able aB the birthplace of St. Augustine.
Tages, a mysterious Etruscan betog, who is
described as a boy with the wisdom of an old
man. Once when an Etruscan, of the name of
Tarchon, waa ploughing in the neighbourhood
of Tarquinii, there suddenly rose out of the
ground Tages, the son of a Genius Jovialis, and
grandson of Jupiter. When Tages addressed
Tarchon, the latter shrieked from fear, where
upon other Etruscans hastened to him, and in
a short time aU the people of Etruria were
assembled around Mm. Tages now Mstructed
them in the art of the haruspices, and died
immediately after. The Etruscans, who had
Ustened attentively to his instructions, after
wards wrote down all he had said, and thus
arose the books of Tages, which, according to
some, were twelve in number. (Cic. Div. ii. 23,
50; Ov. Met. xv. 588; Fest. s. v. Tages.)
Traces of a later version of these books of ritual
have been found in Serv. ad Aen. i. 42, and in
Amm. Marc. xvii. 10, 2. It is still a matter of
uncertainty whether the recently discovered
Etruscan book will throw further light on the
subject. Tagus (Spanish Tajo, Portugueae Tejo,
Engliah Tagus), one of the chief rivers in
Spam, rising in the land of the Celtiberians,
between the mountains Orospeda and Idubeda,
and, after flowing m a westerly direction, falling
Mto the Atlantic. The whole course of the
Tagus exceeds 550 EngUsh miles. At its
mouth stood Olisippo (Lisbon). The ancient
writers relate that much gold sand and precious
stone were found in the Tagus. (Strab. pp. 139,
152, 162 ; Plin. iv. 115 ; Mart. x. 78 ; Catull.
xx. 30 ; Ov. Met. ii. 251.)
3N

914

TALABRIGA

Talabriga, a town in Lusitania, between
Aeminium and Lagobriga (PUn. iv. 118).
Talassio or Talassius (sometimes written
Talasius or Thalassius), an old Italian, prob
ably Sabine, deity invoked in the Indigitamenta
[Indigetes] as a god presiding over marriage.
During the bridal procession in the songs
which attended it there were cries of ' Talasse,'
as if calling for his presence [Did. of Ant. art.
Matrimonium]. Various explanations were
given. Varro connected Ms name with rdXapos,
a wool-basket, as symbolising household work
(Plut. Q. B. 31). A legend was Mvented to
account for the custom : that Talassus or Talus
was a companion of Romulus in the rape of the
Sabines. Some modern writers have connected
him with Consus, from the theory that Mb
name = BdXdcraios. But he was clearly Latin,
not Greek, and there is no reason to doubt that
he was one of the Sabine Indigetes.
Talaus (TdXaos), son of Bias and Pero, and
king of Argos. He was married to Lysimache
(Eurynome, or Lysianassa), and was father of
Adrastus, Parthenopaeus, Pronax, Mecisteus,
Aristomachus, and Eriphyle. (Paus. ii. 6, 3;
Apollod. i. 9, 13 ; Pind. Nem. ix. 14.) His name
occurs among the Argonauts, and his tomb was
shown at Argos. The patronymic Talaionides
(TaXaioviti-ns) is given to his sons Adrastus and
Mecisteus. (17. ii. 566, xxiii. 67 ; Pind. Ol. vi. 24.)
Talmis (El-Kalabsheh, Ru.), a city of the
Dodecaschoenus — that is, the district of Aethio
pia immediately above Egypt— stood on the W.
bank of the Nile, S. of PhUae, and N. of
Pselcis. Its ruins consist of an ancient rock-
hewn temple, with splendid sculptures, and of
a later temple of the Roman period, in the
midst of wMch stands the modern village.
There was a place on the opposite bank called
Contra- Talmis.
Talna, Juventius. [Thalna.]
Talos (TdXas). 1. Son of Perdix, the sister
of Daedalus. He is one of those mytMcal
persons to whom were ascribed various inven
tions or primitive works of art, of which the origin
was unknown. Talos is said to have invented
the saw, from observing the teeth of a serpent,
or (in some accounts) the backbone of a fish.
He was credited also with the Mvention of the
chisel, the compasses, and the potter's wheel.
Daedalus was jealous of his skill and tMew
him down from the AcropoUs. The place
-where he fell was marked by a tomb, wMch
Pausanias visited, on the S. side of the Acro
poUs just above the Theatre. Some writers
confused Talos and Perdix. (Paus. i. 21, 4 ;
Diod. iv. 76 ; Apollod. iii. 15, 9 ; Ov. Met. viii.
241 ; Pebdix.) — 2. A man of brass, the work of
Hephaestus. This wonderful being was given
to Minoa by Zeus or Hephaestus, and watched
the island of Crete by walMng round the island
tMice every day. Whenever he saw strangers
approaching, he made himself red hot in fire,
and then embraced the strangers when they
landed. In the Argonaut story Talos receives
the voyagers with a shower of stones. He
had a vein running down to his foot, where the
flow of blood was stopped by a nail : Medea
made this nail fall out by her magic (or, as
some said, Poeas shot it out with an arrow) and
Talos bled to death. (Apollod. i. 9, 26 ; Ap. Rh.
iv. 1638; Zenob. v. 85; [Plat.] Min. p. 820;
Schol. ad Plat. Bep. p. 425). It will be ob
served that the story of Talos burning strangers
by his embrace may well have arisen from an
image of Moloch and human sacrifices offered
to it.

TAMYRAS
Talthybius (TaXBvBtos), the herald of Aga
memnon at Troy. He was worshipped as a
hero at Sparta and Argos, where sacrifices also
were offered to him.
Tamara. 1. Or Tamaris (Tambre), a smaU
river in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the coast
of Gallaecia, falling into the Atlantic between
the Minius and the Prom. Nerium (Ptol. U. 6, 2).
— 2. (Tamerton, near Plymouth), a town of the
Damnonii in the S. of Britain, at the mouth of
the Tamarus (Ptol. ii. 8, 30).
Tamarici, a people in GaUaecia, on the river
Tamara. Tamaris. [Tamara.]
Tamarus (Tomar), a river in the S. of Bri
tain (Ptol. ii. 3, 4).
Tamassus or Tamasus (Tapaoruds, Tdpacros :
Tapao-irns, Tapudatos), probably the same as
the Homeric Temese (Od. i. 184), a town in the
middle of Cyprus, NW. of Olympus, and
twenty-nine miles SE. of Soloe, on the road
from the latter place to Tremithus, was situated
in a fertile country and in the neighbourhood
of extensive copper mines. Near it was a cele
brated plato (ager Tamaseus), sacred to Venus.
(Ov. Met. x. 644 ; Ptol. v. 14, 6.) The site is
marked by ruins in the district caUed Tamasia.
Tambrax (TdpBpag), a great city of Hyrca
nia, on the N. side of Mt. Coronus, mentioned
by Polybius (x. 81). It is perhaps the same
place wMch Strabo called TaXaBpokn (p. 508).
Tamesis or Tamesa (Thames), a river to
Britain flowtog into the sea on the E. coast, on
wMch stood Londinium (Caes. B. G. v. 11;
Tac. Ann. xiv. 82).
Tamna or Thomna (Tdpya), a city in the SW.
of Arabia Felix, the capital of the Catabani.
It maintained a caravan traffic to spices and
other products of Arabia with Gaza (Strab. p.
768 ; P1M. vi. 158, xii. 64).
Tamos (Tapds), a native of Memphis M
Egypt, was Ueutenant-governor of Ionia under
Tissaphernes (Thuc. viU. 81, 87). He after
wards attached himself to the service of the
younger Cyrus, upon whose death, he sailed to
Egypt, where he hoped to find refuge with
Psammetichus, on whom he had conferred an
obligation. Psammetichus, however, put him
to death, in order to possess himself of Ms
money and sMps. (Xen. An. i. 2, 21, ii. 1, 3j
Hell. iii. 1, 1 ; Diod. xiv. 19, 85.)
Tamphilus or Tampilus, Baebius. 1. Cn.,
tribune of the plebs, B.C. 204 ; praetor 199,
when he was defeated by the Insubrians ; and
consul 182, when he fought against the Ligu
rians with success (Liv. xxix. 87, xxxix. 23, xl.
25), — 2. M., brother of the last, was praetor
192, and served in Greece both in tMs year and
the following, in the war agatost Antiochus.
In 181 he was consul, when he defeated the
Ligurians (Liv. xl. 35-38).
Tamynae (Tapvvat: Aliveri), a town in
Euboea, on Mt. Cotylaeum, in the territory of
Eretria, with a temple of ApoUo, said to have
been built by Admetus. Here the Athenians
under Phocion gained a celebrated victory over
Callias of Chalcis, B.C. 354. (Hdt. vi. 101 ; Plut.
Phoc. 12 -t Strab. p. 447.)
Tamyraca, a town and promontory of Euro
pean Sarmatia at the innermost corner of the
Sirius Carcinites, which was also called from
this town Sinus Tamyracea (Ptol. iii. 5, 8).
Tamyras or Damttras (Tapipas, Aapovpas:
Damur), a little river of Phoenicia, rising on
Mt. Libanus, and falling into the Mediterranean
about half way between Sidon and Berytus
(Strab. p. 756; Pol. v. 68-).

TANAGER
, Tanager (Tanagro), a river of Lucania,
rising m a north-easterly direction, loses itself
under the earth near Polla for a space of about
two miles, emerging from a cleft called La
Pertusa, and finally falls into the Silarus near
IJorumPopUii. TMs disappearance is alluded
to in the epithet siccus (Verg. Georq. iii. 151 ;
cf. Phn. ii. 225).
Tanagra (Tdvaypa: TavaypaTos: Grimadha),
a celebrated town of Boeotia, situated on a
steep ascent on the left bank of the Asopus,
180 stadia from Oropus, and 200 stadia from
Plataeae, m the district Tanagraea, which was
also called Poemandris (Strab. p. 404 ; Steph.
Byz. s. v.). Tanagra was by some supposed to
be the same town as the Homeric Graea (17.
n. 498; LycopM. 644); but others identified
that town with Oropus. The most ancient
inhabitants are said to have been the Gephy
raei, who came with Cadmus from Phoenicia;
but it was afterwards taken possession of by
the Aeolian Boeotians (Hdt. v. 57). It was a
place of considerable commercial importance,
and was celebrated, among other tMngs, for its
breed of fighting cocks. At a later time it
belonged to the Boeotian confederacy. Being
near the frontiers of Attica, it was frequently
exposed to the attacks of the Athenians ; and
near it the Athenians sustained a great defeat,
B.C. 457. (Thuc. i. 108 ; Diod. xi. 81.) The
principal temple at Tanagra was that of
Dionysus : near it were those of Themis, ApMo
dite, Hermes Criophorus, and Hermes Proma-
chus, wMch last stood near the theatre (Paus.
ix. 20). The excavations on the site of Tanagra
have shown the circmt of walls, and the posi
tion of more than forty towers, of tMee gates,
and of the theatre. But far more important
was the discovery, in 1873, of the Necropolis from
wMch come the numerous terracotta statuettes,
or ' figurines,' with wMch the name of Tanagra
is now cMefly associated [see Did. of Ant. art.
Terracotta]. Tanais (Tdvais). I. (Don, i.e. Water), a
great river, wMch rises M the N. of Sarmatia
Europaea (about the centre of Bussia), and
flows to the SE. tiU it comes near the Volga,
when it turns to the SW. and faUs toto the NE.
angle of the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azov) by
two principal mouths and several smaller ones.
It was usuaUy considered the boundary between
Europe and Asia. The ancients regarded its
source as doubtful : some even fancied that it
rose to the W. near the Danube : others in the
E. near the Caucasus. Strabo rejects these
theories and correctly makes it flow from the
N. into the P. Maeotis (Strab. p. 493 ; cf . Hdt.
iv. 83). Pytheas seems to have mistaken the
Elbe for a part of the Tanais (Strab. p. 104) ;
but that is hardly more strange than the belief
of the Macedomans that the Jaxartes was the
Tanais (Strab. p. 510 ; Arr. An. iii. 30, 11).— 2.
(Ru. near Kaasatchei), a city of Sarmatia
Asiatica, on the N. side of the S. mouth of the
Tanais, at a little distance from the sea. It
was founded by a colony from MUetus, and
became a very flourisMng emporium. It re
duced to subjection several of the neighbour
ing tribes, but in its turn it became subject
to the kings of Bosporua. It was deatroyed
by Polemon on account of an attempted revolt,
and, though afterwards restored, it never re
gained its former prosperity. (Ptol. Ui. 5, 26 ;
Strab. p. 493.)
Tanaquil. [Tabquinius.]
Tanarus (Tanaro), a river of Liguria, which
rises to the Maritime Alps, is jotoed by the

TANTALUS

915

Stura, and flows into the Po a little below
Valenza (Forum Fulvii). It passes the waUs
of Asti (Plin. iii. 118).
Tanetum (Tanetanua ; Taneto), a town of
the Boii in GaUia Cispadana, between Mutina
and Parma (Pol. iii. 40 ; Liv. xxi. 26).
Tanis (Tdvts: O. T. Zoan: Tavlrns: San,
Ru.), a very ancient city of Lower Egypt, in the
E. part of the Delta, on the right bank of the
arm of the Nile which was called after it the
Tanitic, and on the SW. side of the great lake
between tMs and the Pelueiac branch of the
Nile, wMch waa alao called, after the city,
Tanis (Lake of Menzaleh). It was one of the
capitals of Lower Egypt M early times, fortified
by the Mngs of the twelfth and thirteenth
dynasties, who raised great buildings there
(about B.C. 2400).
Tantalus (TdvraXos). 1. Son of Zeus and
Pluto, daughter of Himantes (Paus. ii. 22, 3 ; Hyg.
Fab. 155). His wife is called by some Euryanassa,
by others Taygete or Dione, and by others
Clytia or Eupryto. He was the father of
Pelops, Broteas and Niobe. Tantalus is repre
sented as a wealthy kmg of Lydia, especiaUy of
the region about the Hermus and Mt. Sipylus.
He is selected by poets as the type of extreme
prosperity followed by a sudden and fearful
downfall. The causes of his punishment after
death are differently stated by the ancient
authors. According to the common account
Zeus invited hmi to his table, and communi
cated his divine counsels to Mm. Tantalus
divulged the secrets thus intrusted to him;
and he was punished in the lower world by
bemg afflicted with a raging thirst, and at the
same time placed in the midst of a lake, the
waters of which always receded from him as
soon as he attempted to drink them. Over his
head, moreover, hung branches of fruit, which
receded in like manner when he stretched out
Ms hand to reach them. (Od. iv. 77 ; Diod. iv.
74 ; Hyg. Fab. 82 ; Hor. Sat. i. 1, 68 ; Ov. Met.
iv. 457.) Another version related that there
was suspended over Ms head a huge rock ever
tMeatenMg to crush him (Pind. Ol. i. 56,
Isthm. vii. 20; Eur. Or. 5; Cic. Fin. i. 18, 60,
Tusc. iv. 16, 35). In another story Tantalus,
wishMg to test the gods, cut his son Pelops M
pieces, boUed them and set them before the
gods at a repast [Pelops]. In another, Tanta
lus stole nectar and ambrosia from the table of
the goda and gave them to his friends (PMd.
Ol. i. 60). Yet another tradition relates the
foUowing story. Rhea caused the infant Zeus
and Ms nurse to be guarded to Crete by a
golden dog, whom Zeus afterwards appointed
guardian of his temple in Crete. Pandareus
stole this dog, and, carrymg Mm to Mount
Sipylus in Lydia, gave Mm to Tantalus to take
care of. But when Pandareus demanded the
dog back, Tantalus took an oath that he had
never received it. Zeus thereupon changed
Pandareus into a stone, and threw Tantalus
down from Mount Sipylus, or, in some accounts,
buried him under the mountam (Ant. Lib.
36). This story seems to have more connexion
with the pumshment (as in Pindar) of the stone
ever about to fall upon him. The other punish
ment of Tantalus was proverbial in ancient
times, and from it the English language has
borrowed the verb ' to tantalize ' — that is, to
hold out hopes or prospects which cannot be
realised. The paintings of Polygnotus at
Delphi represented both traditions of his
punishment in Hades (Paus. x. 31, 12). The
tomb of Tantalus was shown near Mt. Sipylus.
3n 2

91C

TANUS

The patronymic Tantalides is frequently
given to the descendants of Tantalus. Hence
we find, not only Ms son Pelops, but also
Atreus, Thyestes, Agamemnon, Menela-UB, and
Orestes called by his name. [For the confirma
tion derived from archaeology of those tradi
tions which ascribe a Lydian origin to the
Pelopidae who reigned at Tiryns and Mycenae
see Pelops, p. 669, b ; Mycenae.] — 2. Son of
Thyestes, who was MUed by Atreus. Others
call Mm a son of Broteas. He was married to
Clytaemnestra before Agamemnon, and is aaid
by some to have been killed by Agamemnon
(Ov. Met. vi. 240; ApoUod. iii. 5, 6).— 3. Son
of Amphion and Niobe (Paus. ii. 18, 2; Hyg.
Fab. 88).
Tanus or Tanaus (Tdvos or Tavais : Kami), a
river in the district of Thyreatis, on the E.
coast of Peloponessus, rising in Mt. Parnon,
and falling into the Thyreatic gulf, after form
ing the boundary between Argolis and Cynuria
(Paus. ii. 88, 7).
Taoce (TadKn), a city on the coast of Persia,
near the mouth of the river Granis, used
occasionally as a royal residence. The sur
rounding district waB caUed TaoK-nvi). (Strab.
p. 728 ; Arr. Ind. 89.)
Taochi (Tdoxot), a people of Pontus, on the
borders of Armenia, who are frequently men
tioned by Xenophon in the Anabasis (iv. 4, 18,
v. 15, 17).
Taphiae Insulae, a number of small islands
M the Ionian sea, lying between the coasts of
Leucadia and Acarnama. They were also caUed
the islands of the Teleboae, and their mhabi-
tants were to like manner named Taphli
iTdcpioi) or Teleboae (TriXeBdai). The largest
of these islands was oalled Taphus (Tdcpos) by
Homer, but Taphius (Tacpiovs) or Taphiusa
(ToapioEcra) by later writers (now Megarisi).
They are mentioned to Homer as the haunts
of notorious pirates, and are celebrated to
mythology on account of the war carried on
between them and Electryon, king of Mycenae.
(Od. i. 417, xv. 427, xvi. 426 ; Hdt. v. 59 ; Strab.
p. 4590
Tapniassus (Ta<piaxr<rd's : Macrivoro and Bi-
gani), a mountain in Aetolia and Locris,
properly only a S.W. continuation of Mts.
Oeta and Corax. [Oeta.]
TapMs (Tapa, Ru.), a city of the Dodeca-
schoenua — that is, the district of AetMopia
immediately above Egypt — stood on the W.
bank of the Nile, S. of Tzitzis, and N. of Talmis.
It is also caUed TaBis and Tairis. There was a
town on the opposite bank called Contra-Taphis.
(Ptol. iv. 4, 17.)
Taphrae or Taphros (Tdtppai or Tdcppos;
Tdcpptos), a town on the isthmus of the Cherso
nesus Taurica, so called because a trench or
ditch was cut across the isthmus at this point
(Hdt. iv. 8 ; Plin. iv. 85).
Taphus. [Taphiae.]
Taposiris (Tairicreipis, Tairdcrtpis, ToHpoVipis,
i.e. the tomb of Osiris : Abousir, Ru.), a city of
Lower Egypt, on the NW. frontier, in the
Libya Nomos, W. of Alexandria, so called be
cause it claimed to be considered the burial-
place of Osiris (Strab. p. 799; Ptol. iv. 5, 34).—
Mention is also made of a Lesser Taposiris
(r) piKpaJYairdaetpis) near it (Strab. p. 800).
Taprobane (TairpoBdvr) : Ceylon), a great
island of the Indian Ocean, opposite to the S.
extremity of India intra Gangem. The Greeks
first became acquainted with it tMough the
researches of Megasthenes and Onesicritus m
the time of Alexander, and tMough information

TARENTUM
obtained by residents in India. Thia early
information spoke of its elephants, its gold and
precious stones, but greatly exaggerated ita
distance from India. The Roman geogra
phers acquired additional knowledge respect
ing the island through an embassy which was
sent from it to Rome in the reign of Claudius.
Of the accounts given of it by the ancients it is
only necessary here to state that all agree in
describing it as very much larger than it reaUy
is. Ptolemy, who gives a great deal of correct
information about the island, also exaggerates
its size. (Strab. p. 690 ; Ptol. vii. 4 ; Plin. vi. 81 ;
Met. iii. 77 ; Ov. Pont. i. 5, 80.)
Tapuri (Tdirovpot or Tmrovpoi), a powerful
people, apparently of ScytMan origin, who
dwelt in Media, on the borders of Parthia, S. of
M. Coronus. They also extended into Mar
giana, and probably further N. on the E. side of
the Caspian, where their original abodes seem
to have been in the mountains called by then-
names. (Strab. pp. 514, 520, 523 ; Ptol. vi. 10, 2 ;
Curt. vi. 4, 24.)
Tapuri ^Montes (to Tdirovpa oprf), a range of
mountains on the E. of the Caspian sea, to-
habited by the Tapuei.
Taras. [Tarentum.]
Tarbelli, one of the most important people
in Gallia Aquitanica, between the Ocean (hence
called Tarbellicum Aequor and Tarbellus
Oceanus) and the Pyrenees (hence called
Tarbella Pyrene). Their country was sandy
and unproductive, but contatoed gold and
mMeral springs. Their cMef town was Aquae
Tarbellicae or Augustae, on the Aturus (Dax
on the Adour). (Caes. B. G. iii. 27 ; Strab.
p. 190 ; Lucan, i. 421.)
Tarchon, son of Tyrrhenus, who is said to
have buUt the town of Tarquinii. [Taequinii.]
Tarentinns Sinus (Tapevrivos k6xitos : G. of
Tarentum), a great gulf in the S. of Italy,
between Bruttium, Lucama, and Calabria,
beginning W. near the Prom. LacMium, and
ending E. near the Prom. Iapygium, and
named after the town of Tarentum. According
to Strabo, it is 1920 stadia to circuit, and the
entrance to it is 700 stadia wide, which is a
fair approximation. (Strab. pp. 261, 262.)
Tarentum, caUed Taras by the Greeks
(Tdpas, -avros : Tapevr?vos, Tarentinus : To
ronto), an important Greek city in Italy,
situated on the W. coast of the peninsula of
Calabria, and on a bay of the sea about 100
stadia in circuit, forming an exceUent harbour,
and being a portion of the great Gulf of Taren
tum. The city stood in the midst of a beautiful
and fertile country, S. of Mt. Aulon and W. of
the mouth of the Galaesns. According to some
traditions, to wMch no great weight is attached,
it was originally built by the Iapygians, who
are said to have been joined by some Cretan
colonists from the neighbouring town of Uria,
and it derived its name from the mythical
Taras, a son of Poaeidon (Paus. x. 10, 6). The
greatness of Tarentum (and probably its real
origin) date from B.C. 708, when the town was
built or taken possession of by a strong body of
Lacedaemonian Partheniae under the guidance
of Phalanthus [Phalanthus]. It soon became
the most powerful and flourishing city to the
whole of Magna Graecia, and exercised a kind
of supremacy over the other Greek cities m
Italy. It carried on an extensive commerce,
possessed a considerable fleet of sMps of war,
and was able to bring into the field, with the
assistance of Hb allies, an army of 30,000 foot and
8000 horse. The city itself in its most flourish-

TARENTUM
ing period contained 22,000 men capable of
bearing arms. The government of Tarentum
was different at various periods. In the time
of Darius Hystapis, Herodotus speaks of a king
(i.e. a tyrant) of Tarentum; but at a later
period the government was a democracy. Archy
tas, who was born at Tarentum, and who lived
about B.C. 400, drew up a code of laws for Ms
native city. With the increase of wealth the
citizens became luxurious and effemMate, and
being hard pressed by the Lucanians and other
barbarians in the neighbourhood, they were
obliged to apply for aid to the mother-country.
Archidamus, son of Agesilaus, was the first
who came to their assistance, in B.C. 388 ; and
he feU M battle fighting on their behalf (Diod.
xvi. 83, 88). The next prMce whom they in
vited to succour them was Alexander, king of
Epirus, and uncle to Alexander the Great. At
first he met with considerable success, but was
eventuaUy defeated and slain by the Bruttii in
826 near Pandosia on the bonks of the Acheron.
Shortly afterwards the Tarentines had to en
counter a still more formidable enemy. Havmg
attacked some Roman stops, and then grossly
insulted the Roman ambassadors who had been
sent to demand reparation, they became in
volved M war with the powerful republic. The
Tarentines were saved for a time by Pyrrhus,

Coin of Tarentum, 3rd cent. B.C.
*Obv., head of Heracles, in lion-skin; rev., nika tapan-
T1NQN : Taras, with trident, driving a biga.
Mng of Epirus, who came to their help to 281 ;
but two years after the defeat of tMs monarch
and Ms withdrawal from Italy, the city was
taken by the Romans (272). [Pyebhus.] In
the second Punic war Tarentum revolted from
Rome to Hannibal (212) ; but it was retaken
by the Romans to 207, and was treated by
them with great severity. From this time
Tarentum declined to prosperity and wealth.
It was subsequently made a Roman colony,
and it stiU continued to be a place of consider
able importance to the time of Augustus. (App.
B.C. u. 40, v. 93 ; Tac. Ann. i. 10.) Its mhabi-
tanta retained their love of luxury and ease,
and it is described by Horace aa molle Taren
tum and imbelle Tarentum. Even after the
downfaU of the Western Empire the Greek
language was stiU spoken at Tarentum ; and it
was long one of the cMef strongholds of the By-
zantine empire in the south of Italy. The town
of Tarentum consisted of two parts : the town on
the peninsula at the entrance of the harbour was
connected with the town on the mainland by a
very low isthmus. On the NW. corner of the
pentosula, close to the entrance of the harbour,
' was the citadel; the principal part of tiietown
was situated SW. of the isthmus. The prin
cipal gate on the E. side of the .city was called
the Tfmenid gate. (Strab. p. 278; Pol. vu. 30)
The entrance to the inner harbour was closed
Try a bridge. The modern town is confined to
-The island or peninsula on wMch the citadel
stood The neighbourhood of Tarentum pro
duced the best W001 in aU J' a - Wa8
celebrated for its excellent wine, figs, pears,
and other fruits. Its purple dye was also much

TARQUINII 917
valued in antiquity. (Pol. x. 1 ; Flor. i. 18, 3 ;
Strab. p, 278 ; Scymn. p. 832.) Some part of
the district close to Tarentum was called
Saturium (Strab. p. 279; Steph. Byz. s.v.
~Sarvpiov). Hence Virgil applies this word as
an epithet of Tarentum, and Horace uses it to
describe the Tarentine breed of horses (Verg.
Georg. ii. 197 ; Hor. i. 6, 59). [Satubium.]
The remains of the ancient town are important
in archaeology. The line of walls is visible in
many places, built of large blocks; there are
remains of a Doric temple within the ancient
acropolis, of a porticus and of a Roman amphi
theatre, which stood on the neck of the isthmus,
probably on the site of the old theatre, famous
for the outbreak of hostilities with Rome. Of
special interest is the rich find of terracotta
statuettes, many of them connected with the
worship of the Chthonic Dionysus and Perse
phone. Tarichea or -eae (Tapixeia, -eai, -diai: EL
Kereh, Ru.), a town of GalUee, at the S. end of
the lake of Tiberias, strongly fortified, and with
a turbulent population, who gave the Romans
much trouble during the Jewiah war. It
obtained ita name from the quantities of the
fish of the neighbouring lakes which were
salted here. (Strab. p. 764 ; Jos. B.J. iii. 10. 1.)
Tame (Tapvr)), a city of Lydia, on M. Tmolus,
mentioned by Homer. Pliny mentions simply
a fountain of the name. (H. v. 44 ; Strab. p.
413; Plin. v. 110.)
Tarpa, Sp. Maecius, was engaged by Pom
peius to select the plays that were acted at his
games exhibited in B.C. 55. Tarpa was likewise
employed by Augustus as a censor (perhaps as
Magister Collegii) at the pubUc readinga of the
poeta in the Collegium Poetarum. (Cic. ad
Fam. vii. 1 ; Hor. Sat. i. 10, 38, A.B. 287.)
Tarpeia, daughter of Sp. Tarpeius, the go*
vernor of the Roman citadel on the Saturnian
MU, afterwards caUed the CapitolMe, waa
tempted by the gold on the Sabine bracelets
and collars to open a gate of the fortress to T.
Tatius and his Sabines. As they entered, they
threw upon her their shields, and thus crushed
her to death. She was buried on the MU, and
her memory was preserved by the name of the
Tarpeian rock, which was given to a part of the
CapitolMe (Liv. i. 11). Dionysius (ii. 40) speaks
of' a custom of offering annual libations to her,
wMch suggesta the probability that Tarpeia
waa originally some local deity worsMpped at
that spot from whom the Tarpeian rock was
named, but whese identity had been obscured
and confused in later stories. There are similar
stories of the betrayal of a fortress and its
punishment in other places. One very Uke it is
still told on the site of Gergovia in Auvergne. A
legend still exists at Rome which relates that
the fair Tarpeia ever sits in the heart of the
hill, covered with gold and jewels, and bound
by a spell.
Tarphe (Tdpcprf), a town in Locris on Mt.
Oeta, mentioned by Homer, and subsequently
called Pharygae (17. ii. 533; Strab. p. 426).
Tarquinia. [Tabquinius.]
Tarquinii (Tarquiniensis : Turchina, nr. Cor
neta), a city of Etruria, situated on a hill and
on the river Marta, SE. of Cosa and on a road
leading from the latter town to Rome. It was
one of the twelve Etruscan cities, and was prob
ably regarded as the metropolis of the Con
federation. It is said to have been founded by
Tarchon, the son or brother of Tyrrhenus, who
was the leader of the Lydian colony from Asia
to Italy (Strab. p. 219 ; Serv. ad Aen. x. 179,

918 198). It was in the neighbourhood of Tarquinii
that the seer Tages appeared, from whom the
Etruscans learnt their civil and religious polity.
[Tages ] There can be no doubt that Tarquinii
waa an 'original Etruscan city, and that Tarchon
is merely a personification of the race of the
Tyrrhenians. It was at Tarquinii that Demara
tus the father of Tarqumius Priscus, is said to
have settled. After the expulsion of Tarqumius
Superbus from Rome, the TarqutoienseB, in
conjunction with the Veientes, are said to have
espoused his cause, but to have been defeated
by the Romans (Liv. ii. 6 ; Dionys. v. 14).
From this time the Tarqumienses were fre
quently engaged in war with the Romans ; but
they were at length obliged to submit to Rome
about B.C. 310 (Liv. ix. 32-41). Tarquimi was
subsequently made a Roman colony and a
mumcipium (App. B.G. i. 49), but it gradually
decUned in importance ; and M the eighth or
ninth century of the Ctoistian era it was de
serted by its inhabitants, who founded Corneto
on the opposite MU. There are few remains
of the ancient city itself ; but the cemetery of
Tarquinu, consisting of a vast number of sub
terraneous caves in the hill on which Corneto
stands, is stUl M a state of excellent preserva
tion, and contams numerous Etruscan paint
ings : here some of the most Mterestmg remains
of Etruscan art have been discovered M modern
times. Tarquinius, the name of a family to early
Roman history to wMch the fifth and seventh
Mngs of Rome belonged. The legend of the
Tarqums ran as foUows. Demaratus, their
ancestor, belonged to the noble family of the
Bacchiadae at Corinth, and fled from Ms native
city when the power of his order was over-
tMown by Cypselus. He settled at TarquinU
in Etruria, where he had mercantUe con
nexions. He married an Etruscan wife, by
whom he had two sons, Lucumo and Aruns.
The latter died in the lifetime of Ms father, leav
ing his wife pregnant ; but as Demaratus was
ignorant of this circumstance, he bequeathed
aUMs property to Lucumo, and died Mmself
shortly afterwards. But, although Lucumo was
thus one of the moBt wealthy persons at Tar
quinii, and had married Tanaquil, who belonged
to a f amUy of the Mghest rank, he was excluded,
as a stranger, from aU power and Mfluence in
the state. Discontented with this inferior posi
tion, and urged on by Ms wife, he resolved to
leave TarquMii, and remove to Rome. He
accordingly set out for Rome, driving in a
chariot with his wife, and accompanied by a
large train of f ollowers. When they had reached
the Janiculum an eagle aeized his cap, and
after carryMg it away to a great height placed
it again upon his head. Tanaquil, who was
sMUed M the Etruscan science of augury, bade
her husband hope for the highest honour from
tMs omen. Her predictions were soon verified.
The stranger was received with welcome, and
he and Ms followers were admitted to the rights
of Roman citizens. He took the name of L.
Tarquinius, to which Livy adds Priscus. His
wealth, Ms courage and Ms wisdom gained
him the love both of Ancus Marcius and of
the people. The former appointed him guar
dian of Ms chUdren ; and, when he died, the
senate and the people unammously elected Tar
quinius to the vacant throne. The reign of
Tarquinius waa distinguished by great exploits
in war, and by great works M peace. He de
feated the Latins and Sabines ; and the latter
people ceded to him the town of Collatia, where

TARQUINIUS he placed a garrison under the command of
Egerius, the son of Ms deceased brother, Aruns,
who took the surname of CoUatihus. Some
traditions relate that Tarquinius defeated the
Etruscans likewise. Among the important
works which Tarquinius executed to peace, the
most celebrated are the vast sewers by which
the lower parts of the city were drained, and
wMch still remain [see p. 816, a]. He is also
said M some traditions to have laid out the
Circus Maximus to the valley which had been
drained by the sewers, and also to have insti
tuted the Great or Roman Games, which were
henceforth performed M the Circus. The
Forum, with its porticoes and rows of shops,
was also Ms work, and he likewise began to
surround the city with a stone waU, a work
which was finished by Ms successor, Servius
Tullius. The buildmg of the Capitoline temple
is moreover attributed to the elder Tarqutoius,
though most traditions ascribe tMs work to Ms
son, and only the vow to the father. Tarqumius
also made some changes in the constitution of
the state. He added 100 new members to
the senate who were caUed patres minorum
gentium, to distinguish them from the old
senators, who were now caUed patres majorum
gentium. He wished to add other tribes to
the tMee established by Romulus, and to caU
them after Mmself and two of Ms friends.
Hia plan was opposed by the augur Attus
Navius, who gave a convincMg proof that the
gods were opposed to Ms purpose. [Navius.]
Accordingly, he gave up Ms design of estab-
UsMng new tribes, but with each of the tMee
he associated another under the same name, so
that henceforth there were the first and second
Ramnes, Tities and Luceres. TarquMiue was
murdered, after a reign of ttorty-eight years, at
the instigation of the sons of Ancus Marcius.
But they did not secure the reward of their
crime, for Servius TuUius, with the assistance
of Tanaquil, succeeded to the vacant tMone.
(Liv. i. 34-41 ; Dionys. iU. 46-73, iv. 1 ; Cic. de
Bep. iii. 20.) TarqMMus left two sons and two
daughters. His two sons, L. Tarquinius and
Aruns, were subsequently married to the two
daughters of Servius TuUius. One of Ms
daughters was married to Servius TuUius, and
the other to M. Brutus, by whom she became
the mother of the celebrated L. Brutus, the
first consul at Rome. Servius Tullius, whose
Life is given under Tullius, was murdered
after a reign of forty-four years, by Ms son-in-
law, L. Tarqumius, who ascended the vacant
throne. — L. Tarquinius Superbus began Ms
reign without any of the forms' of election.
One of the first acts of Ms reign was to abolish
the rightB wMch had been conferred upon the
plebeians by Servius ; and at the same time aU
the senators and patricians whom he mistrusted,
or whose wealth he coveted, were put to death
or driven into exile. He surrounded himself
by a body-guard, by means of which he was
enabled to do what he liked. His cruelty and
tyranny obtained for Mm the surname of Super-
bus. But, although a tyrant at home, he raised
Rome to great influence and power among the
surrounding nations. He gave Ms daughter in
marriage to Octavius MamUius of Tusculum,
the most powerful of the Latin cMefs; and
under his sway Rome became the head of the
Latin Confederacy. He defeated the Volscians,
and took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia,
with the spoils of which he commenced the
erection of the Capitol, wMch Ms father had
vowed. In the vaults of tMs temple he de-

TARQUINIUS
posited the SibyUine books, which the king
purchased from a Sibyl or prophetess. She had
offered to sell him nine books for 800 pieces of
gold. The king refused the offer with scorn.
thereupon she went away, and burned tMee,
and then demanded the same price for the six
The king still refused. She agaM went away
and burnt tMee more, and stUl demanded the
same price for the remainmg tMee. The king
now purchased the tMee books, and the Sibyl
disappeared. He next engaged in war with
Gabii, one of the Latin cities which refused to
enter into the League. Unable to take the city
by force of arms, Tarquinius had recourse to
Btratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be
Ul-treated by his father, and covered with the
bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii. The
infatuated inhabitants intrusted him with the
command of their troops: whereupon he sent
a messenger to Ms father to inquire how he
should deliver the city into Ms hands. The
kmg, who was walking to his garden when the
messenger arrived, made no reply, but kept
striking off the heads of the tallest poppies
with Ms stick. Sextus took the Mnt. He put
to death or banished aU the leading men of the
place, and then had no difficulty in compelling
it to submit to Ms father (cf . Ov. Fast. ii. 686-
710). In the midst of his prosperity, Tar
quinius feU tMough a shameful outrage com
mitted by one of Ms sons. Tarquinius and Ms
sons were engaged to besiegtog Ardea, a city of
the RutuUans. Here, as the ktog's sons, and
their cousin, Tarqumius CoUattous, the son of
Egerius, were feasting together, a dispute arose
about the virtue of their wives. To settle the
matter they mounted their horses, and first
went to Rome, where they surprised the Mng's
daughters at a splendid banquet ; then to
CoUatia, where, though it was late to the night,
they found Lucretia, the wife of CoUatmus,
spinning amid her handmaids. The beauty and
virtue of Lucretia had fired the evU passions of
Sextus. A few days afterwards he returned to
CoUatia, where he was hospitably received by
Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In the
dead of night he entered her chamber with a
drawn sword : by ttoeatentog to lay a slave
with Ms throat cut beside her, whom he would
pretend to have killed to order to avenge her
husband's honour, he forced her to yield to
Ms wishes. As soon as Sextus had departed,
Lucretia sent for her husband and her father.
CoUattous came, accompamed by L. Brutus ;
Lucretius, with P. Valerius, who afterwards
gained the surname of PubUcola. They found
her in an agony of sorrow. She told them what
had happened, enjoined them to avenge her
dishonour, and then stabbed herself to death
(cf. Ov. Fast. ii. 725-832). They aU swore to
avenge her. Brutus tMew off Ms assumed
stupidity, and placed himself at their head.
They carried the corpse to Rome. Brutus, who
was Tribunus Celerum, summoned the people,
and related the deed of shame. AU classes were
inflamed with indignation. A decree was passed
deposing the Mng, and banishing him and Ms
fanuly from the city. The army encamped
before Ardea likewise renounced their aUe-
giance to the tyrant. Tarqtonius, with Ms two
sons, Titus and Aruns, took refuge at Caere in
Etruria. Sextus repaired to Gabii, Ms own
principality, where he was shortly after mur
dered by the friends of those whom he had
put to death. Tarquinius reigned twenty-four
years. He was banished B.C. 510. The people
of Tarquinu and Veu espoused the cause of the

TARRACO

919

exiled tyrant, and marched against Rome. The
two consuls advanoed to meet them. A bloody
battle was fought, in which Brutus and Aruns,
the son of Tarquinius, slew each other. Tar
quinius next repaired to Lara Porsena or Por
senna, the powerful king of Clusium, who
marched against Rome at the head of a vast
army. [See under Poesena.] Next Tarquinius
took refuge with his son-in-law, Mamilius Octa
vius of Tusculum, and the Latin states declared
war against Rome. The contest was decided
by the celebrated battle of the lake Regillua,
in which the Romana gained the victory by the
help of Castor and PoUux. Tarquinius himseU
was wounded, but escaped with hia life ; his
son Sextus is said to have fallen in tMs battle,
though, according to another tradition, as we
have already seen, he was slain by the inhabi
tants of Gabii. Tarquinius Superbus had now
no other state to which he could apply for
assistance. He had already survived all his
family, and he now fled to Aristobulus at
Cumae, where he died a wretched and childless
old man. (Liv. ii. 1-21 ; Dionys. v. 1-vi. 21.)
Such is the story of the Tarquins according to
the ancient writers ; but this story must not be
received as a real history. It is the attempt to
assign a definite origin to certain Roman insti
tutions, to some features in the miUtary organi
sation, and to some ancient public works in the
city, of wMch the history had been obscured by
lapse of time. There can be little doubt that
it indicates as the time when these tMngs were
carried out a period during wMch a famUy of
Etruscan origin held the chief power at Rome ;
and there is at least great probability (though
this is denied by some writers of great autho
rity) that this rule was imposed upon Rome by
the dominant, power of the Etruscans.
Tarracina (Tarracinensis : Terracina), also
called Anxur (Anxurates), an ancient town of
Latium situated fifty-eight miles SE. of Rome
on the Via Appia and upon the coast, with a
strongly fortified citadel upon a Mgh hill, on
wMch stood the temple of Jupiter Anxurus
(Liv. iv. 49 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 799 ; Hor. Sat. i. 5,
26; Lucan, iii. 84 ; Mart. v. 1, 6). It originally
belonged to the Volsci, by whom it was called
Anxur. It was conquered by the Romans, who
gave it the name of TarracMa, and it was made
a Roman colony, B.C. 829 (Liv. viii. 21 ; VeU.
Pat. i. 14). TMee miles W. of the town stood the
grove of Feronia, with a temple of this goddess.
The ancient walls of the citadel of TarracMa
are stiU visible on the slope of Montecchio.
Tarraco (Tarraconensis : Tarragona), an
ancient town on the coast of Spain situated on
a rock 760 feet high, between the river Iberus
and the Pyrenees, on the river Tulcis. It was
founded by the Massilians, and was made the
head-quarters of the brothers P. and Cn. Scipio,
in their campaigns against the Carthaginians
in the second Punic war (Liv. xxi. 61 ; Pol. x.
34). It subsequently became a populous and
flourishing town ; and Augustus, who wMtered
here (b.c. 26) after his Cantabrian campaign,
made it the capital of one of the three Spanish
provMces (Hispania Tarraconensis) and also
a Roman colony. Hence we find it called
Colonia Tarraconensis, also Col. Vidrix To-
gota and Col. Julia Vidrix Tarraconensis.
(Strab. p. 159 ; Plin. Ui. 18 ; Tac. Ann. i. 78 ;
Mart. x. 104, xiii. 118.) The modern town of
Tarragona is Mult to a great extent with the
remains of the ancient city, and Roman in
scriptions may frequently be seen embedded
M the waUs of the houses. The ancient Roman

920 TARRUNTENUS
aqueduct, having been repaired in modern
times, still supplies the city with water ; and at
a short distance to the NW. of Tarragona, along
the sea coast, is a Roman sepulchre called the
Tower of the Scipios, although the real place of
the burial of the Scipios is quite unknown.
Tarruntenus Paternus. [Pateenus.]
Tarsia (Tapo-lr) ¦ Ras Bostana), a promontory
of Carmania, on the coast of the Persian Gulf,
near the frontier of Persis. The neighbouring
part of the coast of Carmania was caUed Tar-
siana (Arr. Ind. 37).
Tarsius (6 Tdptrios : Karadere), a river of
Mysia, rising in M. Temnus, and flowing NE.,
through the Miletopolites Lacus, into the
Macestus (Strab. p. 587).
Tarsus, Tarsos (Tapcr6s, Tapcroi, Tepcrds, ®ap-
ads : Tapo-evs, Tarsensis : Tersus, Ru.), the chief
city of Cilicia, stood near the centre of Cilicia
Campestris, on the river Cydnus, about twelve
milea above ita mouth, in a very large and
fertile plain at the foot of M. Taurue, the chief
pass tMough which (Pylae Ciliciae) led down
to Tarsus. Its position gave it the full benefit
of the natural advantages of a fertile country,
and the command of an important highway of
commerce. It had also an excellent harbour,
twelve miles from the city, formed by a lagoon
into which the Cydnus flows, but thia has now
been filled up with sand. The city was of
unknown, antiquity. Some ascribed its founda
tion to the Assyrian king Sardanapalus ; others
to Perseus, in connexion with whose legend
the name of the city is fancifully derived from
a hoof (rapcrds) which the winged horse Pegasus
lost here ; and others to the Argive cMeftain
Triptolemus, whose effigy appears on the coins
of the city (Strab. p. 673 ; Staph. Byz. s.v.).
All that can be determined with certainty
seems to be that it was a very ancient city of
the Syrians, who were the earliest known in
habitants of this part of Asia Minor, and that
it received Greek settlers at an early period.
In the time of Xenophon, who gives ua the
firat historical notice of Tarsus, it was the
capital of the Cilician prince Syennesis, and
was taken by Cyrus (Xen. An. i. 2, 23). [Comp.
Cilicia.] At the time of the Macedonian in
vasion, it was held by the Persian troops, who
were about to burn it, when they were pre
vented by Alexander's arrival (Arr. An. ii. 4 ;
Curt. iii. 5). After playing an important part
as a mUitary post in the wars of the successors
of Alexander, and under the Syrian Mngs, it
became, by the peace between the Romans and
Antiochus the Great, the frontier city of the
Syrian kingdom on the NW. At the time of
the Mithridatic war, it suffered, on the one
hand, from Tigranes, who overran Cilicia, and,
on the other, from the pirates, who had their
strongholds in the mountams of Cilicia Aspera,
and made frequent incursions into the level
country. From both these enemies it was
rescued by Pompey, who made it tho capital of
the new Roman province of Cilicia, B.C. 66.
In the Civil war, it took part with Caesar, and
assumed, in his honour, the name of Juliopolis
(Bell. Alex. 66; Dio Cass, xlvii. 24). For this
the inhabitants were punished by Cassius, but
were recompensed by Antony, who made Tarsus
a free city. Under Augustus, the city obtained
immunity from taxes, through the influence of
the emperor's tutor, the Stoic Athenodorus,
who was a native of the place. It was the
scene of important eventB in the wars with the
Persians, the ArabB, and the Turks, and also in
the Crusades. The people of Tarsus were

TAUCHIRA
celebrated for their mental power, their readi
ness in repartee, and their fondness for the
study of phUosophy. Among the most dis
tinguished natives of the place were: the
Stoics Antipater, Archedemus, Heraclides,
Nestor, Zeno, and the two Athenodori; the
Academic Nestor; the Epicureana Diogenes
(celebrated for his powers of improvising), Lysias
(who was for a time tyrant of the city), and
Plutiades; the tragic poets Dionysides and
Bion ; the grammarian Artemidorus ; the his
torian Hermogenes ; the physicians Herodotus
and Philo; and, above all, the apostle Paul,
who belonged to one of several families of
Jews who had settled at Tarsus to considerable
numbers, under the Persian and Syrian kings.
Tartarus (Taprapos), son of Aether and Ge,
and by Ms mother Ge the father of the Gigantes
Typhoeus and Echidna (Hes. Th. 821 ; Apollod.
ii. 1, 2 ; Hyg. Fab. 152). [For Tartarus in the
underworld, see Hades, p. 376.]
Tartarus (Tartaro), a river of Venetia be
tween the Athesis (Adige) and the Po. Its
waters now pass by canals into these rivers.
In ancient times it had an exit, partly artificial,
to the sea, and in part of its course formed
wide marshes (Tac. Hist. iii. 9 ; P1M. iii. 121).
Tartessus (Taprr)o-o-6s : Tapri)o-o-ios), a dis
trict in the S. of Spain colonised, or occupied
for trading purposes, by the Phoenicians. It
extended on both sides of the Baetis (Guadal
quivir) in the lower part of its course, and that
river itself was sometimes caUed Tartessus
(Stesich. ap. Strab. p. 148 ; Avien. Or. Mar. i.
224). The country was rich in metals, iron,
tin, lead, silver, and (to some extent) gold ; and
it is probably (though some writers deny it) the
Tarshish of Scripture. It iB likely that a town
or port called Tarteaaua stood at the mouth of
the Baetis and was a trading station of the
Phoenicians. But it disappeared in early times,
possibly because it was superseded by Gades,
which belonged to the same district. (Hdt. i.
163, iv. 152; Strab. pp. 148, 151; Plin. iii. 7;
Mel. ii. 6.) " By some writers it was (probably
erroneously) taken to have been the ancient
name of one or other town of the district, such
as Gades or Carteia (Hdt. i. 168, iv. 152 ; Strab.
pp. 148, 151 ; Plin. iii. 7; Mel. ii. 6).
Taruscon or Tarascon (TaruscoMenses :
Tarascon), a town of the Salyes in Gaul, on
the E. bank of the Rhone, N. of Arelate, and
E. of Nemausus.
Tarvisium (Tarvisanus : Treviso), a town of
Venetia in the N. of Italy, on the river SiUs,
which became the seat of a bishopric, and a
place of importance in the middle ages.
Tatianus (Tariavis), a CMistian writer of the
second century. [Did. of Christ. Biogr.]
T. Tatius, king of the Sabmes. [Romulus.]
Tatta (i) Tdrra: Tuz-GbV), a great salt lake
in the centre of Asia Minor, on the Ptoygian
table-land, on the confines of Phrygia, Galatia,
Cappadocia, and Lycaonia. It supplies the
whole surroundMg country with salt, as it
doubtless did in ancient times (Strab. p. 568;
Plin. xxxi. 84).
Tauchira or Teuchira (Tavxeipa, Teixeipa :
Taukra, Ru.), a colony of Cyrene, on the NW.
coast of Cyrenaica, M N. Africa. Under the
Ptolemies, it was caUed Arsinoe, and was one
of the five cities of the Libyan Pentapolis. It
became a Roman colony, and was fortified by
Justinian. It waB a chief seat of the worship
of Cybele, who had here a great temple and an
annual festival. (Hdt. iv. 171 ; Strab. p. 886 ;
Procop. de Aed. vi. 3.)

TAULANTII
Taulantii (TavXdvrioi), a people of Illyria, in
the neighbourhood of Epidamnus, frequently
mentioned by the Greek and Roman writers.
One of their most powerful Mngs was Glaucias,
& contemporary of Alexander the Great, who
fought against the latter monarch, and at a
later period afforded an asylum to the infant
Pyrrhus, and refused to surrender him to Cas
sander. (Thuc. i. 24 ; Arr. An. i. 5 ; Liv. xiv. 26.)
faunus (Taunus), a range of mountains in
Germany, at no great distance from the conflu
ence of the Moenus (Main) and the Rhine (Tac.
Ann. i. 56, xu. 58 ; Mel. iii. 3).
Taurasia. 1. An ancient city of Samnium, in
the country of the Hirptoi, on the right bonk of
the Calor. It is mentioned among the towns
taken by Scipio Barbatus. — 2. [Taueini.]
Tauri, the inhabitants of the Chersonesus
Taurica (Crimea), the remnant of a people, per
haps the Cimmerians, who had retreated before
the ScytMans. They were divided into tribes
of whom some were nomad, others agricultural.
(Hdt. iv. 11, 12 ; Strab. p. 811.) They are de
scribed as a rude and savage people, addicted
to piracy (Hdt. iv. 108 ; Strab. p. 808 ; Tac. Ann.
xii. 17). In particular their reUgious rites were
cruel, accordmg to wMch they offered human
sacrifices to their goddess, whom the Greeks
identified with Aetemis [see p. 128]. Especi
aUy, sMpwrecked sailors were thus sacrificed
(Eur. I. T. ; Diod. iv. 44 ; Hdt. iv. 103 ; Ov.
Pont. ni. 2, 57). [Chersonesus.]
Taurianum (Traviano), a town of Bruttium,
on the Via PopiUa, twenty-ttoee mil pa SE. of
Vibo. Taurini, a people of Liguria dweUmg on the
upper course of the Po, at the foot of the Alps.
Their cMef town was Taurasia, afterwards
colonised by Augustus, and called Augusta
Taurinorum (Turin). (Pol. ii. 17, iii. 60 ; Liv.
xxi. 38 ; App. Annib. 5 ; Strab. p. 204.)
Tauris (Torcola), a smaU island off the coast
of Hlyria, between Pharus and Corcyra (Bell.
Alex. 47). _
Taurisci, a Celtic people in Noricum, and
probably the old Celtic name of the entire popu
lation of the country. They were subsequently
called Norici by the Romans after their capital
Noreia. [Nobiccm.]
Taurois, Tauroentium (Tavpdets, Tavpoev-
riov), a colony of tho Massaliots between Mas
siUa and Telo Martius (Toulon). Its site is
marked by the modern Tarente. (Caes. B.C. ii.
4 ; Strab. pp. 180, 184.)
Tauromenium (Tavpopeviov : Tavpopeviri)s,
Tauromemtanus : Taormima), a city on the E.

TAURUS

921

Coin of Tauromenium, 8rd cent. B.o.
Obv., head of Apollo, and star ; rev., taypomenitan ;
tripod.
coast of SicUy, situated on the MU Taurus,
from which it derived its name, between Mes
sana and Catana, and founded B.C. 358 by
Andromachus with the remains of the inhabi
tants of Naxos, whose town had been destroyed
by Dionysius nearly fifty years before. [Naxos,
No. 2.] Tauromenium soon became a large and
flourishing city; but in consequence of its
espousmg the side of Sex. Pompey against

Augustus, most of its inhabitants were expeUed
from the city, and their place Bupplied by a
colony of veterans : hence we find the town
oalled Col. Augusta Tauromenitana. From
this time Tauromenium became a place of
secondary importance. (Diod. xiv. 58, 96 ; Strab.
p. 267 ; App. B.C. v. 103-111 ; Juv. v. 98.) The
hills in the neighbourhood produced excellent
wine. There are stiU remains of the ancient
town, of which the most important is a splendid
theatre cut out of the rock, and capable of
holding from 80,000 to 40,000 spectators, from
which we may form some idea of the populous-
ness of Tauromenium.
Tauroscythae. [Scythotaubi.]
Tauriinum (Semlin), a strongly fortified town
in Pannonia at the confluence of the Savus and
the Danube (Ptol. ii. 16, 4).
Taurus, Statillus, a distinguished general of
Octavian. At the battle of Actium, b.c. 31, he
commanded the land-forces of Octavian, which
were drawn up on the shore. In 29 he defeated
the Cantabri, Vaccaei, and Astures. He was
consul in 26 ; and in 16, when the emperor went
to Gaul, the government of the city and of
Italy was left to Taurus, with the title of prae
fectus urbi. (App. B.C. v. 97-118; Ta,c. Ann. vi.
11 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 14, li. 20, liv. 19.) In the
fourth consulsMp of Augustus, 30, Taurus built
an amphitheatre of stone at his own expense.
[Roma, p. 811, a.]
Taurus (S Tavpos, from the Aramaean Tur, a
high mountain : Taurus, Ala-Dagh, and other
special names), a great mountain chain of Asia.
In its widest extent the name waB applied by
the later geographers to the whole of the great
chain wMch runs tMough Asia from W. to E.,
forming the S. margin of the great table-land
of Central Asia, which it divides from the
Mediterranean coaat of Asia Mmor, from Syria
and the Tigris and Euptoates vaUey, from the
low lands on the N. Bhore of the Indian Ocean,
and from the two great peninsulas of India
(Strab. pp. 490, 689). But in its usual signifi
cance, it denotes the mountaM chain in the S.
of Asia Minor which begins at the Sacrum or
Chelidonium Prom, at the SE. angle of Lycia,
surrounds the gulf of Pamphylia, passing
tMough the middle of Pisidia ; then along the
S. frontier of Lycaonia and Cappadocia, which
it divides from Cilicia and Commagene ; thence,
after being broken through by the EupMates,
it proceeds almost due E. through the S. of
Armenia, forming the water-shed between the
sources of the Tigris on the S. and the streams
wMch feed the upper Euphrates and the Araxes
on the N. ; thus it continues as far as the S.
margin of the lake Arsissa, where it ceases to
bear the name of Taurus, and is continued M
the chain which, under the names of Niphates,
Zagros, &c, formB the NE. margin of the
Tigris and Euphrates valley. (Strab. pp. 129,
520, 651, 666; Mel. i. 15; Plin. v. 99.) This
main chain sends off branches which are nearly
as important as itself. In the middle of the
frontier between CUicia and Cappadocia, E. of
the Cilician Gates, the Antitaurus branches
off to the NE. In the E. of Cilicia, the Ama
nus goes off to the SW. and S. Immediately
E. of the Euphrates, a branch proceeds to the
SE., forming, under the name of Masius, the
frontier between Armenia and Mesopotamia,
and dividmg the valley of the Upper Tigris
from the waters which flow tMough Meso
potamia Mto the EupMates. The Taurus is of
moderate height, for the moat part steep, and
wooded to the summit. Its general character

922 TAVIUM
greatly resembles the mountains of central
Germany. _
Tavium (Taoviov, Taiiov), the capital of the
Trocmi, in Galatia, atood on the E. side of the
Halys, but at some distance from the river, and
formed the centre of meeting for roads leading
to all partB of Asia Minor (Strab. p. 567 ; PUn.
v. 146 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.). It was therefore
a place of considerable commercial importance.
It had a temple and bronze colossus of Zeus.
The position of the city has been much dis
puted, but it seems to have been proved by the
discovery of a milestone mariring the caput
viae at the modern Nefez Keni, that this was
the site of Tavium.
Taxila or Taxiala (ra Td£iXa, Ta£laXa), an
important city of India intra Gangem, stood in
a large and fertile plain between the Indus
and the Hydaspes, and was the capital of the
Indian king Taxiles, M the time of Alexander
(Arr. An. v. 8 ; Ptol. vii. 1, 45 ; Strab. pp. 6987
714). Its position was probably at Shah Dheri,
about forty miles from the Indus, where there
are extensive rums.
Taxiles (Ta£lXr)s). 1. An Indian prince or
king, who reigned over the tract between the
Indus and the Hydaspes, at the period of the
expedition of Alexander, B.C. 327. His real
name was Mophis, or OmpMs, and the Greeks
appear to have called Mm Taxiles or Taxilas,
from the name of his capital city of Taxila.
On the approach of Alexander he hastened to
meet Mm with valuable preaenta, and waa in
conaequence confirmed in his Mngdom by the
Macedonian monarch. (Diod. xvii. 86; Curt.
viii. 12, 4 ; Arr. An. iv. 22, v. 3, 8 ; Strab. p.
698 ; Just. xui. 4.) — 2. A general in the service
of Mithridates the Great, and one of thoae in
whom he reposed the Mghest confidence (Plut.
Sull. 15, Lucull. 17).
Taygete (Tavyerrf), daughter of Atlas and
Pleione, one of the Pleiades, from whom Mt.
Taygetus in Laconia is said to have derived its
name. By Zeus she became the mother of
Lacedaemon and of Eurotas. (ApoUod. iii. 10,
1 ; Paus. ni. 1, 2.)
Taygetus or Taygetum or Taygeta (Tatye-
ros, Tavyerov, rd Tadyera pi.), a lofty range of
mountains of a wild and savage character, sepa
rating Laconica and Messenia, and extending
from the frontiers of Arcadia down to the Prom.
Taenarum. Its Mghest points were called
Taletus and Evoras, about three miles S. of
Sparta. [Laconia.]
Teanum (Teanensis). 1. Apulum (Civitate),
a town of ApuUa on the river Frento and the
confines of the Frentani, eighteen miles from
Larinum (Liv. ix. 20 ; Cic. pro Clu. 9 ; Strab.
p.,285). — 2. Sidicinum (Teano), an important
town of Campama, and the capital of the
Sidicini, situated on the N. slope of Mt.
Massicus and on the Via Praenestina, six miles
W. of Cales (Liv. xxii. 57 ; Cic. ad Att. vin.
11 ; Strab. p. 237). It waB made a Roman
colony by Augustus ; and in its neighbourhood
were some celebrated medicinal springs. There
are remains of the theatre and of the ampM-
theatre. Teams (Teapos) : Teara, Deara, or Dere), a
river of TMace, the waters of which were useful
in curing cutaneous diseases. Herodotus re
lates that it rises from thirty-eight fountains,
all flowing from the same rock, some warm and
others cold. It faUs into the Contadesdus;
this into the Agrianes ; and the latter again
into the Hebrus. (Hdt. iv. 90.)
Teate (Teatinus : Chieti), the capital of the

TEGEA
Marrucmi, situated on a steep MU on the river
Aternus, and on the road from Aternum to
Corfinium (Strab. p. 241 ; Sil. Ital. viii. 520).
Tecmessa (TeKpqa-o-a), the daughter of the
Phrygian king Teleutas, whose territory was
ravaged by the Greeks during a predatory
excursion from Troy. Tecmessa was taken
prisoner, and was given to Ajax, the son of
Telamon, by whom she had a son, Eurysaces.
[Ajax.] Tecmon (TeKpav), a town of the Molossi to
Epirus (Liv. xiv. 26 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.).
Tectaeus and Angeilon (TeKrdios Kal 'A7'ye-
Xicvv), early Greek sculptors, who are always
mentioned together. They were pupils of
Dipoenus and Scyllis, and instructors of CaUon
of Aegina, and therefore they must have lived
about B.C. 548. They were authors of a statue
of Apollo at Delos, holding in his right hand a
bow, and to Ms left figures of the tMee Graces.
(Paus. ii. 32, 5, ix. 85, 3.)
Tectosages (TeKrdo-ayes). 1. In GalUa.
[Volcae.] — 2. In Asia Minor. [Galatia.]
Tecum, Tetum or Ticis (Tecli), a river to
GaUia Narbonensis in the territory of the Sar-
dones, called Uliberis by the Greeks from a
town of this name upon the river (Mel. U. 5 ;
Plin. iii. 32).
Tedanius, a river in Illyricum, separating
Iapydia and Liburnia (Ptol. u. 16, 8).
Tegea (Teyia). 1. (Teyedrns: Piali), an
important city of Arcadia, and the capital of
the district Tegeatis (Teyearis), wMch was
bounded on the E. by Argolis and Lacomca, on
the S. by Laconica, on the W. by Maenalia,
and on the N. by the territory of Mantmea
(II. ii. 607 ; Paus. viii. 3, 4 ; Strab. p. 337). It
was one of the most ancient towns of Arcadia,
and is said to have been founded by Tegeates,
the son of Lycaon. It was formed out of nine
small townsMps, which were umted Mto one
city by Aleus, who was thus regarded as the
real founder of the city. At a later time we
find Tegea divided into four tribes, each of
which possessed a statue of ApoUo Agyieus,
who was especially honoured in Tegea. The
Tegeatae long resisted the supremacy of Sparta ;
and, according to tradition, it was not till the
Spartans discovered the bones of Orestes that
they were enabled to conquer this people. (Hdt.
i. 65-67 ; Paus. iii. 7, 3, vm. 5, 9, viii. 45-48.)
The Tegeatae sent 8000 men to the battle of
Plataea, in which they were distinguished for
their bravery (Hdt. ix. 26). They remained
faithful to Sparta in the Peloponnesian war,
but after the battle of Leuctra they joined the
rest of the Arcadians in establishing their inde
pendence. During the wara of the Achaean
League Tegea was taken both by Cleomenes,
Mng of Sparta, and Antigonus Doson, king of
Macedonia, and the ally of the Achaeans (Pol.
U. 46, 54). It contmued to be a place of im
portance to the time both of Strabo and of Pau
sanias. Its most splendid public building was
the temple of Athene, which was the largest
and most magnificent building M the Pelopon
nesus. It was erected soon after b.c. 394, to
place of a more ancient temple of tMs goddess,
wMch was burnt down in tMs year. The archi
tect was Scopas, and the sculpture in the
pediments were probably by the hand of Scopas
himself (Paus. viii. 45, 4; Scopas). Remains
of the city are found at the villages of Piali
and Haghios Sostis. At the latter a great
number of statuettes of bronze and terracotta
were dug up, whioh seem to have been offerings
to Demeter and Kore, whose temple must have

TEGIANUM
been on tMs spot. — 2. A town to Crete, said to
have been founded by Agamemnon (Veil. Pat.
Tegianum (Diano) a municipal town of Lu
cania, situated on the river Tanager (Plin. iii.
98). Telamon (TeXapdv), son of Aeacus and En-
deis, and brother of Peleus. Having assisted
Peleus in slaying their half-brother, Phocus
IFeleus], Telamon was expeUed from Aegina,
and came to Salamis. Here he was first mar
ried to Glauce, daughter of Cyctoeus, king of
the island, on whose death Telamon became
Mng of Salamis (Diod. iv. 72). He afterwards
married Periboea or Eriboea, daughter of Al
cathous, by whom he became the father of
Ajax, who is hence frequently caUed Tela-
moniades, and Telamonius heros. [Ajax.]
Telamon himself was one of the Calydonian
hunters and one of the Argonauts. He was
also a friend of Heracles, whom he joined in
his expedition agatost Laomedon of Troy, wMch
city he was the first to enter. He there erected
an altar to Heracles CaUinicus or Alexicacus.
(ApoUod. U. 6, 4; Theocr. xiii. 88; Schol. ad
Ap. Rh. i. 1289.) Heracles, in return, gave to
him Theanira or Hesione, a daughter of Laome
don, by whom he became the father of Teucer
and Trambelus. On this expedition Telamon
and Heracles also fought against the Meropes
in Cos, on account of Chalciope, the beautiful
daughter of Eurypylus, the king of the Meropes,
and against the giant Alcioneus, on the isthmus
of Corinth. Telamon likewise accompamed
Heracles on Ms expedition against the Ama
zons, and slew Melomppe (Pind. Nem. in. 65 ;
Schol. ad loc).
Telamon (Telamone), a town and harbour of
Etruria, S. of the river Umbro, said to have
been founded by Telamon on Ms return from
the Argonautic expedition (Diod. iv. 56), but
there can be little doubt that it was origmaUy
an Etruscan town. In its neighbourhood a
great victory was gamed over the Gauls in b.c.
225 (Pol. i. 27-31). It was here that Marius
landed on Ms return from Africa to 87 (Plut.
Mor. 41). Telamon is mentioned as a port in
Pliny (m. 51) and in the Itineraries of the
fourth century, but since that time there has
been nothing on the site but a poor vUlage and
ruins of Roman buildings.
Telchines (TeXxives), a famUy or tribe of
mythical beings or demons, analogous in Borne
respects to the troUs or goblins of Northern,
and the getoi of Oriental, folk-lore. They are
said to have been the cMldren of Thalassa (for
wMch reason a late writer — Eustathius, ad
Horn. p. 771 — represents them as Uke mermen,
with fins instead of feet). They came from
Crete to Cyprus and from thence to Rhodes,
where they founded Camirus, Ialysus, and
Lindus. Rhodes, which was named after them
Telchinis, was abandoned by them, because
they foresaw that the island would be inun
dated. They then spread to different directions.
Lycus went to Lycia, where he built the temple
of the Lycian ApoUo. This god had been wor
sMpped by them at Lindus, and Hera at
Ialysus and Camirus. There is a further indi
cation of their connexion with a sea-going
people in the Rhodian story that Poseidon was
intrusted to them by Rhea, and they brought
Mm up to conjunction with CapMra, a daughter
of Oceanus. Poseidon wedded Halia, the sister
of the Telchines, who bore six sons and a
daughter, Rhodos, from whom the island was
named. The sons drove ApModite from the

TELEGONUS

92S

island, and she sent madness upon them, which
caused Poseidon to bury them beneath the
earth. In their operation they are represented
in different aspects : — (1) As sorcerers and mali
cious sprites. Their very eyeB and aspect are
said to have been destructive. They had it in
their power to bring on hail, rain, and snow,
and to assume any form they pleased ; they
further mixed Stygian water with sulphur, in
order thereby to destroy animals and planta.
One account represents Zeus as destroymg
them with an inundation (Ov. Met. vii. 367) as
maUcious or BdoKavoi : another makes their
destroyer Apollo to the shape of a wolf (Serv.
ad Aen. iv. 877). (2) As inventors of agricul
ture. (3) As artists and handicraftsmen. They
are said to have invented useful arts and insti
tutions, and to have made images of the gods..
They worked in brass and iron, made the sickle
of Cronos and the trident of Poseidon (Diod-
v. 55 ; Strab. pp. 472, 653 ; Paus. ix. 19, 1 ;¦
Tzetz. Chil. vii. 124). The origin of these.
myths seems to be partly the widespread super
stition of gnomes or goblins working at metals,
or rich in metals, dwelling beneath mountains,
and acting sometimes in malice, sometimes M
kindness — but partly also the attempt to ex
plain the origin of certain works and inventions.
M Rhodes or elsewhere. It is probable that in
this aspect the Phoemcians were the originals
of the TelcMnes, and the myth is reaUy describ-
Mg how Phoenician arts and metal-workmg
were introduced by tMs maritime people from,
the side of Crete, and how the ingenious race
of artisans migrated from Rhodes to Lycia and
elsewhere. Of this last event we have no par
ticular evidence : but it is not improbable, and
the Termilae in Lycia were said to be Cretans.
[See p. 504, a.] The account of the Telchines
may be compared with that of the Idaean
Dactyli. Teleboae. [Taphiae.]
Teleboas (TijXeBdas), a river of Armenia
Major, faUMg into the EupMates; probably
identical with the Arsanias.
Teleclides (TriXeKXeiS-ns), an Athenian comic
poet of the Old Comedy, about the same time
as Crates and Cratinus, and a little earUer than
Aristophanes. He was an earnest advocate of
peace, a great admirer of the ancient manners.
of the age of Themistocles, a supporter of
Nicias, and an assaUant of Pericles (Plut. Per.
3, 16, Nic 4). Fragments of Ms plays are in
cluded in Memeke's Fragm. Com. Graec.
Teleclus (T-hXeKXos), Mng of Sparta, eighth
of the Agids, and son of Archelaus. He was.
slam by the Messenians, in a temple of Artemis
Limnatis, on the borders. His death was the
immediate occasion of the first Messeman war,
B.C. 743. (Hdt. vii. 104 ; Paus. iii. 2, 6, iv. 4, 2.>
Telegonus (T-nXeyovos), son of Odysseus and
Circe. After Odysseus had returned to Ithaca,.
Circe sent out Telegonus in search of his father.
A storm cast his sMp on the coast of Ithaca,
and being pressed by hunger he began to plun
der the fields. Odysseus and Telemachus being
informed of the ravages caused by the stranger,
went out to fight againBt him ; but Telegonus-
ran Odysseus tMough with a spear which he
had received from Ms mother. At the com
mand of Athene, Telegonus, accompanied by
Telemachus and Penelope, went to Circe in
Aeaea, there buried the body of Odysseus, and
married Penelope, by whom he became the
father of Italus. [See Odysseus, p. 618, b.]
In Italy Telegonus was believed to have been
the founder of the towns of Tusculum and!

924

TELEMACHUS

Peaeneste. He left a daughter, Mamilia, from
whom the family of the Mamilii traced their
descent. Telemachus (Tr/Xepaxos), son of Odysseus
and Penelope. He was still an infant when the
Trojan war began, and when Ms father had
been absent from home nearly twenty years,
Telemachus went to Pylos and Sparta to gather
information concerning him. He was hospit
ably received by Nestor, who sent Ms own son
to conduct Telemachus to Sparta. Menelaus
also received him kindly, and communicated
to Mm the prophecy of Proteus concerning
Odysseus. From Sparta Telemachus returned
home ; and on his arrival there he found Ms
father, whom he assisted in slaying the suitors.
[Odysseus.] Accordmg to some accounts, Tele
machus became the father of Perseptolis either
by Polycaste, the daughter of Nestor, or by
Nausicaa, the daughter of Alcinous (Eustath.
ad Hom. p. 1796 ; Diet. Cret. vi. 6). Others
relate that he was induced by Athene to marry
Circe, and became by her the father of La
tinus [see p. 618, b] ; or that he married Cassi-
phone, a daughter of Circe, but in a quarrel
with his mother-in-law slew her, for which he
was in his turn killed by Cassiphone (Tzetz.
ad Lye. 808).
Telemus (ThXepos), son of Eurymus, and a
celebrated soothsayer (Od. ix. 509 ; Ov. Met.
xui. 771 ; Theocr. vi. 23).
Telephus (Ti)Xecpos), son of Heracles and
Auge, the daughter of king Aleus of Tegea, and
priestess of Athene. As soon as he was born
lie was exposed by Ms grandfather, who was
angry because his daughter had broken the
vows of her office. In some accounts she was
set adrift, like Danae*, with her child and cast
on the Mysian coast. In other versions of the
story Telephus was reared by a Mnd (eXacpos),
and educated by king Corythus in Arcadia. On
reaching manhood, he consulted the Delphic
oracle to learn Ms parentage, and was ordered
to go to king Teuthras in Mysia. (Apollod. iii.
fl, 1 ; Diod. iv. 33 ; Hyg. Fab. 100.) He there
found his mother, and succeeded Teuthras on
the, throne of Mysia. He married Laodice or
Astyoche, a daughter of Priam; and he at
tempted to prevent the Greeks from landing on
the coast of Mysia. Dionysus, however, caused
him to stumble over a vine, whereupon he was
wounded by AchiUes. (Pind. Ol. ix. 112, Isth.
v. 62, viii. 109 ; Paus. x. 28 ; Diet. Cret. ii. 3.)
Being informed by an oracle that the wound
could only be cured by ' the wounder,' Telephus
repaired to the Grecian camp ; and as the Greeks
had likewise learnt from an oracle that without
the aid of Telephus they could not reach Troy,
AcMUes cured Telephus by means of the rust
of the spear by which he had been wounded
(Diet. Cret. ii. 10 ; Hor. Epod. xvii. 8 ; Ov. Met.
xn. 112, Bern. Am. ii). Telephus, in return,
pointed out to the Greeks the road which they
had to take. According to one story Telephus,
in order to induce the Greeks to help him, went
to Argos and snatcMng Orestes from his cradle
threatened to kill him unless Agamemnon would
persuade AcMUes to heal the wound. The story
of Telephus (unknown to the Biad) formed the
subject of numerous vase paintings, and of a
tragedy of Euripides, who was ridiculed because
he Mtroduced Telephus in so miserable and
ragged a condition (cf. Hor. A. P. 96).
Telepte. [Thala.]
Telesia (Telesinus : Telese), a town in Sam
nium in the vaUey of the Calor, on the road
from AUif ae to Beneventum, taken by Hannibal

TEMENUS
in the second Punic war, and afterwards retaken
by the Romans. It was colonised by Augustus
with a body of veterans. It was the birthplace
of Pontius, who fought against SuUa, and who
was hence surnamed Telesinus. (Liv. xxu. 13,
xxiv. 20 ; Strab. p. 250.) The ruins show a
circuit of walls about one mUe and a half to cir
cumference with several gates. They belong to
the Roman, not to the Samnite, town.
Telesilla (TeAeo-iAAo), a lyric poetess of Argos,
about b. c. 510. In the war of Argos agatost
Sparta, she not only encouraged her countrymen
by her lyre and song, but she took up arms at
the head of a band of her countrywomen, and
greatly contributed to the victory which they
gained over the Spartans. In memory of this
exploit, her atatue was erected in the temple of
Aphrodite at Argos, with the emblems of a
poetess and a heroine ; Ares was worshipped in
that city as a patron deity of women, and the
prowess of her female associates was comme
morated by the annual festival called Hybris-
tiea. The scanty remnants of her poetry are in
Bergk, Pod. Lyr. Graec. (Plut. de Mul. Virt.
p. 245 ; Paus. ii. 20, 7 ; cf. Hdt. vi. 77.)
Telesinus, Pontius, "Pontius.]
Telestas or Telestes (TeXecrras, TeAeVnjs),
of Selinus, a poet of the later Athenian dithy
ramb, about b. c. 398. A few Unes of Ms poetry
are preserved by Athenaeus (pp. 616, 626, 637).
Telethrius (TeXeBpios), a mountain to the N.
of Euboea near Histiaea (Strab. p. 445).
Teleutias (TeXevrias), half-brother of Agesi
laus II., was a Spartan admiral, who served in
the Corinthian war b. c. 393, off the coast of
AaiaB.c. 390-3 88, and againat the OlyntMansB.C.
S82 (Xen. Hell. iv. 23-25, v. 173 ; Diod. xv. 21.)
Tellenae, a town in Latium between the
later Via Ostiensis and the Via Appia, destroyed
by Ancus Marcius (Dionys. i. 16, iii. 38, 48 ;
Liv. i. 83). It was, however, partiaUy restored,
for it existed in Strabo's time (Strab. p. 231).
Some writers identify with it the rums at
Giostra, about ten miles from Rome.
Tellus. [Gaea.]
Telmessus or Telmissus (TeXpycro-ds, TeX-
pio-cds : Macri), a city of Lycia, near the borders
of Caria, on a gulf called Telmissicus SMus, and
close to the promontory Tehnissis (Strab. p.
665 ; Liv. xxxvii. 16 ; Lucan, viii. 248). There
are considerable remains on the site, of a theatre,
porticoes, and rock tombs.
Telo Martius (Toulon), a port-town of GaUia
Narbonensis on the Mediterranean, is rarely
mentioned by the ancient writers, and did not
become a place of importance tiU a late period
of the Roman empire. It may be the town
mentioned in Sil. It. xiv. 443.
Telos (TrjAos: Tf)Xios: Telos or Piskopi), a
small island of the Carpathian sea, one of the
Sporades, lay off the coast of Caria SWU of the
mouth of the Sinus Doridis, between Rhodes
and Nisyrus. It was also called Agathusa.
(Hdt. vii. 153 ; Strab. p. 488 ; Plin. iv. 69.) At
the town of Telos there are the remains of
the walls and a Greek temple converted into a
church, beside several ancient tombs.
Telphussa. [Thelpusa.]
Temenidae. [Temenus.]
Temenites. [Syeacusae.]
Temenus (Tftpevos), son of Aristomachus, was
one of the Heraclidae who invaded Pelopon-
neBus. After the conquest of the peninsula, he
received Argos as his share. His descendants,
the Temenidae, being expeUed from Argos, are
said to have founded the kingdom of Macedonia,
whence the kings of Macedonia called them-

TEMESA
selves TemeMdae. (Hdt. viii. 188 ; Thuc. ii. 99 ;
Aegos.) Temesa or Tempsa (Temesaeus or Tempsa-
nus : Torre del Piano del Casale), a town in
Bruttium on the Sinus Terinaeus, was one of
the most ancient Ausonian towns in the S. of
Italy, and is said to have been afterwards
colonised by a body of Aetolians under Thoas
(Strab. p. 225). At a still later time it was suc
cessively in the possession of the Locrians, of
the Brutbons, and finaUy of the Romans, who
colonised it in b. c. 196 (Liv. xxxiv. 45). There
was a sanctuary of Polites near it (Paus. vi. 6,
7). Temesa was famous for its copper mines
(Ov. Met. xv. 707; Stat. Silv. i. 1, 42).
Temnus. 1. (rb Trjpvov 6pos: Demirdji-
Dagh), a mountain of Mysia, extending eastward
from Ida to the borders of Phrygia, and dividing
Mysia into two ports. It contains the sources
of the Macestus, Mysius, Caicus, and Evenus.
(Strab. p. 616.)— 2. (Kayajik), a city of AeoUs,
to the NW. of Lydia, thirty miles S. of Cyme.
Its site has been identified with rematos of a
citadel, and was of considerable extent on a bill
above the station of Emin Aalim, seventeen
mUes down the river from Magnes: that is,
upon the hill side above the right bank of the
Hermus a Uttle way above the pomt where the
river enters the lower vaUey of Larissa, and a
few miles off the road from Smyrna to Cyme.
It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in the
reign of Tiberius, and is not noticed by Pliny.
Under the Byzantine empire it was called Arch-
angelos. (Strab. p. 621 ; Xen. Hell. iv. 8, 5 ;
Hdt L 149 ; Pol. v. 77 ; Tac. Ann. u. 47.)
Tempe (Tepirn, contr. of Tep.irea), a beautiful
and romantic valley to the N. of Thessaly, be
tween Mts. Olympus and Ossa, through which
the Peneus escapes Mto the sea. The scenery
of this glen is frequently praised by poets ; and
it was also celebrated as one of the favourite
haunts of ApoUo, who had transplanted his
laurel from tMs spot to Delphi. The whole
valley is rather less than five mUes to length,
and opens gradually to the E. toto a wide plain.
Tempe is also of great importance in Mstory, as
it is the only pass tMough wMch an army can
invade Thessaly from the N. In some parts the
rocka on each side of the Peneus approach so
close to each other as oMy to leave room be
tween them for the stream, and the road
is cut out of the rock to the narrowest
potot. Tempe is the only channel tMough
wMch the waters of the ThessaUan plain de
scend toto the sea ; and it was the common
opinion to antiqMty that these waters had once
covered the country with a vast lake, till an
outlet was formed for them by some great con
vulsion in nature wMch rent the rocks of Tempe
asunder. (Hdt. vii. 129 ; Strab. p. 430 ; Caes.
B.C. Hi. 34 ; CatuU. lxiv. 285 ; Ov. Met. i. 568;
Verg. Georg. U. 469 ; Hor. Od. Ui. 1, 24.) So
celebrated was the scenery of Tempe that its
name was given to any beautiful valley. Cicero
so calls a vaUey to the land of the Sabines near
Reate, through wMch the river VeUnus flowed
(Cic. ad Att. iv. 15) ; and there was a Tempe in
SicUy, tMough wMch the river Helorus flowed,
hence caUed by Ovid Tempe Heloria (Fast. iv.
477). Tempyra, a town in TMace at the foot of a
narrow mountam pass between Mt. Rhodope
and the coast (Ov. Trist. i. 10, 21 ; Liv. xxxvUi.
41.) Tencteri or Tenchteri, a people of Germany
dwelling on the RhMe between the Ruhr and
the Sieg, S. of the Usipetes, in conjunction with

TENES

925

whom their name usually occurs. They crossed
the RhMe together with the Usipetes, with the
intention of settling in Gaul; but they were
defeated by Caesar with great slaughter, and
those who escaped took refuge in the territories
of their S. neighbours, the Sugambki. The
Tencteri afterwards belonged to the League of
the Cherusci, and at a still later period they
are mentioned as a portion of the confederacy
of the Franks. (Caes. B.G. iv. 1, 4-16 ; Tac.
Germ. 82, Ann. xiii. 56, Hist. iv. 77.)
Tenea (Te«a), a town in Corinthia, about
eight miles S. of Corinth (Paus. ii. 5, 4 ; Strab.
p. 880 ; Cic. ad Att. vi. 2, 3).
Tenedos or Tenedus (TeveSos: TeveSios), a
smaU island of the Aegaean sea, off the coast of
Troas, of an importance very disproportionate
to its size, on account of its position near the
mouth of the Hellespont, from which it is about
twelve miles distant. Its distance from the
coast of the Troad was forty stadia (four geog.
mUes), andfromLesbosfifty-six stadia: its circuit
was eighty stadia. It was called, in early times,
by the names of Calydna, Leucophrys, Phoenice,
and Lyrnessus. It had an ancient temple of
ApoUo (II. i. 38, 452). The mytMcal derivation
of its usual name is from Tenes, son of Cycnus.
(Strab. p. 380 ; Diod. v. 83). It had an Aeolian

Coin of Tenedos. of 2nd cent. B.C.
Obv., double head, male and female, explained by some as,
Bacchus dimorphus ; rev., teneaiqn: double axe, owl
and grapes, suggesting a combined worship of Athene
and Dionysus, [steph. Byz. s.v. Twjeffof, cites Aristotle as
referring this type of the double axe to a decree of a
king of Tenedos that adulterers should be beheaded. It
is rightly objected that this would be a very unlikely
theme to Introduce on a coin ; more probably it refers
to a local myth imperfectly understood : cf . Paus. x . 11 . J
city of the same name, with two harbours. Its
name appears in several proverbs, such as
TeveSios ireXeKvs, T. &v6ptoiros, T. avX-nri)s, T.
Kaxdv. It appears in the legend of the Trojan
war as the station to which the Greeks withdrew
their fleet in order to induce the Trojans to
tMnk that they had departed, and to receive
the wooden horse (Verg. Aen. ii. 21). In the
Persian war it waa used by Xerxes as a naval
atation (Hdt. vi. 31). It afterwards became a
tributary ally of Athens, and adhered to her
during the whole of the Peloponnesian war, and
down to the peace of Antalcidas, by wMch it
was surrendered to the Persians (Thuc. ii. 2 ;
Xen. Hell. v. 1, 6; Demosth. c Polycl. p. 1223.)
At the Macedonian conquest the Tenedians re
gained their liberty (Arr. An. ii. 2). In the war
against Philip IH., Attalus and the Romans
used Tenedos as a naval station, and in the
Mithridatic war Lucullus gained a naval victory
over Mithridates off the island (Plut. Lucull.
3). About this time the Tenedians placed them
selves under the protection of Alexandria Troas
(Paus. x. 14, 4). The island was celebrated for
the beauty of its women (Athen. p. 609).
Tenes or Tennes (Tyvvris), son of Cycnus and
Proclea, and brother of Hemithea. Cycnua was
king of Colonae in Troas. His second wife was
Philonome, who fell in love with her stepson ;.

926

TENOS

but as he repulsed her advances, she accused
Mm to Ms father, who tMew both his son and
¦daughter in a chest into the sea. But the chest
was driven on the coast of the island of Leuco-
pMys, of which the Mhabitants elected Mm
kmg, and wMch he called Tenedos, after his own
name. Cycnus at length heard of the inno
cence of his son, kiUed PhUonome, and went to
Ms cMldren in Tenedos. Here both Cycnus and
Tenes were slain by AchiUes. Tenes was after
wards worsMpped as a hero in Tenedos. (Paus.
x. 14, 2 ; Diod. v. 83 ; Strab. p. 640.)
Tenos (Trjvos : Tiivtos : Tino), a smaU island
in the Aegaean sea, SE. of Andros and N. of
Delos. It is about fifteen miles M length. It
was origmaUy caUed Hydrussa ('XSpovcrcra) be
cause it waa well watered, and Ophiussa
{'Ocptovo-cra) because it abounded M snakes.
(Plm. iv. 66 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.) It possessed a

Coin of Tenos, of 4th cent. B.C.
Obv., head of Zeus Ammon ; rev., TH ; Poseidon with
trident and fish.
town of the same name on the site of the modem
S, Nicolo. It had also a celebrated temple of
Poseidon, wMch is mentioned in the time of the
emperor Tiberius. (Hdt. vui. 82 ; Thuc. vii. 57 ;
Strab. p. 487 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 63.) The wine of
Tenos was celebrated M antiquity and is still
valued at the present day.
Tentyra (ret Tevrvpa : Tevrvpirns, Tentyrites :
Denderah, Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt, on the
W. bank of the Nile, between Abydos and
Coptos, with celebrated temples of Hathor — the
¦Queen of Heaven (= ApModite), who was spe-
ciaUy worshipped there — of Isis, and of Typhon
<Strab. p. 814 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 6). Its people were
distinguished for their hatred of the crocodUe ;
and upon this and the contrary propensities of
the people of Ombi, Juvenal founds his fifteenth
Satire. [Ombi.] There are still magnificent re
mains of the temples of Hathor and Isis.
Teos (j) Teas : Tyios, Teius : Sighajik), one of
the Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor, re
nowned as the birthplace of the lyric poet Ana-
cbeon. It stood on the S. side of the isthmus
wMch connects the peninsula of M. Mimas with
the mainland of Lydia, at the bottom of the bay
between the promontories of Coryceum and
Myonnesus (Strab, p. 663; Hdt. i. 142). It was

Coin of Teos in Ionia, of 6th cent. B.C.
Obv., griffin (symbol of Asiatic Dionysus ; rev., ATnas
thidn : In incuse square.
a, flourishing seaport, until, to free themselves
from the Persian yoke, most of its inhabitants
retired to Abdera (Hdt. i. 168). It was still,
however, a place of importance in the time of
the Roman emperors (Mel. i. 17 ; Ptol. v. 2, 6 ;

TERENTIUS
Plin. v. 188). It had two harbours, and a cele
brated temple of Dionysus, of wMch, as well as
of the theatre, there are fine rematos.
Teredon (TepySdv : prob. Dorah), a city of
Babylonia, on the W. side of the Tigris, below
its junction with the EupMates, and not far
from its mouth. It was a great emporium for
the traffic with Arabia. It is no doubt the
Diridotis (AipiSwris) of Arrian.
Terentia. 1. Wife of M. Cicero, the orator,
to whom she bore two cMldren, a Bon and a
daughter. She was a woman of sound sense
and great firmness of character. After Cicero's
banishment to B.C. 58, Terentia by her letters
endeavoured to keep up his fainting spirits, and
exerted herself on Ms behalf among his friends
in Italy. During the Civil war, however, Cicero
was offended with her conduct to money matters,
and divorced her in 46 (ad Att. xi. 16, 24;
Plut. Cic. 41). Shortly afterwards he married
Publilia, a young girl of whose property he had
the management. Terentia could not have been
Iobb than fifty at the time of her divorce, and it
is not probable that she married again. It is
related, indeed, by Jerome that she married
Sallust the historian, and subsequently MessaUa
Corvinus (Hieron. in Jovin. i. p. 52) ; but these
marriages are not mentioned by any other
writer, and may be rejected. Terentia is
said to have attained the age of 103. — 2. Also
caUed Terentilla, the wife of Maecenas and
beUeved to be the mistress of Augustus. The
intrigue between Augustus and Terentia is
said to have disturbed the good understanding
wMch subsisted between the emperor and Ms
minister. [Maecenas.]
Terentianus Maurus, a Roman poet, prob
ably lived near the end of the second century
of our era, and was a native of Africa, as Ms
surname, Maurus, Mdicates. There is stiU
extant a poem of Terentianus, entitled De
Literis, Syllabis, Pedibus, Metris, wMch treats
of prosody and the different kinds of metre
with much elegance and sMU. The work is
edited by Santen and Van Lennep, Traj. ad
Rhen. 1825, and by Lachmann, Berol. 1886.
P. Terentius Afer, usuaUy called Terence,
the celebrated comic poet, was born at Carthage
probably about 190 B.C., and at an early age
came to Rome, where he became the slave of
P. Terentius Lucanus, a Roman senator. A
handsome person and promising talents recom
mended Terence to his master, who afforded
Mm the best education of the age, and finaUy
manumitted Mm. On his manumission, ac
cording to the usual practice, Terence assumed
Ms patron's nomen, Terentius, havMg been
previously called Publius or Publipor. His
Life in SuetoMus de Podis, is the cMef
authority. The Andria was the first play
offered by Terence for representation. The
curule aediles referred the piece to Caecilius,
then one of the most popular play-writers at
Rome. Unknown and meanly clad, Terence
began to read from a low stool his opening
scene. A few veraes ahowed the elder poet
that no ordinary writer was before Mm, and the
young aspirant, then in his twenty-seventh
year, was invited to share the couch and supper
of Ms judge. This reading of the Andria,
however, must have preceded its performance
nearly two years, for Caecilius died in 168, and
it was not acted tiU 166. MeanwhUe, copies
were in circulation, envy was awakened, and
Luscius Lavinius, a veteran and not very
successful play-writer, began Ms unwearied
attacks on the dramatic and peraonal character

TERENTIUS
of the author. The Andria was successful,
a5j ed by ia& accomplishments and good
address of Terence himself, was the means of
introducing him to the most refined and in-
teUectual circles of Rome. His chief patrons
were LaeluiB and the younger Scipio, both of
whom treated him as an equal, and are said
even to have assisted him to the composition
of Ms plays. (Suet. I.e.; ai. Cic. ad Att. vii.
8, 10; Quint, x. 1, 99.) After living some
years at Rome, Terence went to Greece, and
wtole there he translated 108 of Menander's
comedies. He never returned to Italy, and
we have various accounts of Ms death. Accord-
tog to one story, after embarking at Brundu
sium, he was never heard of more ; accordtog
to others, he died at Stymphalus to Arcadia
(Auson. Epist. xvin. 16), inLeucadia, or at Patrae
in Achaia. One of his biographers said he was
drowned, with all the fruits of his sojourn to
Greece, on Ms home-passage (see Suet. I.e.).
But the prevaiUng report was, that Ms trans
lations of Menander were lost at sea, and that
grief for their loss caused Ms death. He died
in the thirty-sixth year of Ms age, in 159 or in
the year foUowing. He left a daughter, but
nothing is known of Ms famUy. Six comedies
are aU that remain to us ; and they are prob
ably aU that Terence produced. His later
versions of Menander were, to aU likeUhood,
from their number and the short time to which
they were made, merely studies for future
dramas of Ms own. They were brought for
ward at the foUowing seasons : (1) Andria, ' the
woman of Andros,' so-called from the birth
place of Glycerium, its heroine, was first repre
sented at the Megalesian Games, on the 4th of
April, 166. It was an adaptation of Menander's
'AvSpia with some of the TlepivBia of Menander
incorporated to it (ed. Freeman and Sloman,
1886). (2) Hecyra, ' the Stepmother,' produced
at the Megalesian Games, to 165. (3) Heauton-
tvmoroumenos, ' the SeU-Tormentor,' performed
at the Megalesian Games, 163, adapted from
the 'YZavrov rtpcupovpevos of Menander (ed.
Shuckburgh, Lond. 1878). (4) Eunuchus, 'the
Eunuch,' played at the Megalesian Games, 161.
It was at the time the most popular of Terence's
comedies. It was adapted from the Evvovxos
and the K<JAa| of Menander (ed. by PapiUon,
1870). (5) Phormio, was performed in the
same year as the preceding, at the Roman
Games on the 1st of October. It was adapted
from the 'EirtSiKa(dpevos of ApoUodorus (ed.
Bond and Walpole, Lond. 1879; Dziatzko,
Leips. 1885). (6) Adelphi, 'the Brothers,' was
acted for the first time at the funeral games of
L. Aemilius PauUus, 160. It was adapted from
the 'ASeXcpoi of Menander with one scene
from the -ZwaitoBvyo-Kovres of Diphilus (ed.
Ashmore, 1893). — The comedies of Terence
have been translated toto most of the languages
of modern Europe, and m conjunction with those
of Plautus were, on the revival of the drama, the
models of playwriters. The ancient critics are
unanimous in ascribing to Terence purity and
•elegance of language, and nearly so in denying
him vis comica. But it should be recoUected
that four of Terence's six plays are more or less
sentimental comedies — in which vis comica
is not a primary element. Moreover, Terence
is generally contrasted with Plautus, with
whom he had very little in common. Granting
to the elder poet the Mghest genius for exciting
laughter, and a natural force which his rival
wanted, there will remain to Terence greater
consistency of plot and character, closer ob-

TERIDATES

927

servation of generic and individual distinctions,
deeper pathos, subtler wit, more skill and
variety in metre and in rhythm, and a wider
command of the middle region between sport
and earnest. It may be objected that Terence's
superiority in these points arises from Ms copy
ing his Greek originals. But no servile copy
is an animated copy, and we have corresponding
fragments enough of Menander to prove that
Terence retouched and sometimes improved
his model. In summMgup his merits we ought
not to omit the praise which has been univer
sally accorded him — that, although a foreigner
and a freedman, he divides with Cicero and
Caesar the palm of pure Latinity.— Editions of
the complete works by Bentley, 1726 ; Fleck-
eisen, Leips. 1857 ; Wagner, Lond. 1869 ;
Dziatzko, Leips. 1884.
Terentius Culleo. [Culleo.]
Terentius Varro. [Vaeeo.]
Teres (Typys). 1. Kmg of the Odrysae and
father of Sitalces, waa the founder of the
great Odrysian monarchy (Hdt. iv. 80, vii. 137 ;
Thuc. ii. 29). — 2. Kmg of a portion of Thrace
M the time of Philip of Macedon (Diod. xvi. 71).
Tereus (Typeis), son of Ares, king of the
Thracians in Daulis, afterwards Phocis (Thuc.
ii. 29). Pandion, kmg of Attica, who had two
daughters, Philomela and Procne, called in the
assistance of Tereus against some enemy, and
gave him his daughter Procne in marriage.
Tereus became by her the father of Itys, and
then concealed her in the country, that he
might dishonour her sister Philomela, whom he
deceived by saying that Procne was dead. At
the same time he deprived Philomela of her
tongue. [Ovid (Met. vi. 565) reverses the story
by stating that Tereus told Procne that her
sister Philomela was dead.] PhUomela, how
ever, soon learned the truth, and made it known
to her sister by a few words which ehe wove
into a peplus. Procne thereupon killed her
own aon Itys, and served up the flesh of the
child in a dish before Tereus. She then fled
with her sister. Tereus pursued them with an
axe, and when the sisters were overtaken they
prayed to the gods to change them into birds.
Procne, accordingly, became a nightingale,
Philomela a swaUow, and Tereus a hoopoo.
(Apollod. in. 14, 8 ; Tzetz. Chil. vii. 142, 459 ;
Ov. Met. vi. 424-675; Serv. ad Eel. vi. 78.)
According to some, Procne became a swallow,
Philomela a nightingale, and Tereus a hawk
(Hyg. Fab. 45). It is clear that iMb story is a
development of the older myth about Aedon,
daughter of Pandareus (Od. xix. 58; Aedon),
and that the plamtive song of the nightingale
had much to do with its origin, as even Pausa-
Mas admits (i. 41, 8).
Tergeste (Tergestinus: Trieste), a town of
Istria, on a bay in the N.E. of the Adriatic gulf,
caUed after it Tergestinus Stous. It was at
first an insignificant place, with which the
Romans became acquainted in their wars with
the Iapydes ; but under the Roman dominion
it became a town of considerable commercial
importance. It was made a Roman colony by
Vespasian. (Strab. pp. 215, 314 ; Plin. iii. 127 ;
Caea. B. G. viii. 24 ; App. Hlyr. 18.)
Teria (Typeiys ipos alirv, Horn.), a mountain
of Myaia, probably in the neighbourhood of
Cyzicua. Some identified it with a hill near
Lampsacus, on which was a temple of Cybele,
(II. ii. 829 ; Strab. pp. 565, 569.)
Terias (F. di S. Lionardo), a river in SicUy
near Leontmi (Thuc. vi. 50, 96 ; Diod. xiv. 14).
Teridates. [Tiridates.]

928

TERINA

Terina (Terinaeus : S. Eufemia), a town on
the W. coast of Bruttium, from which the Sinus
Terinaeus derived its name (Thuc. vi. 104 ;
Plin. iii. 72). It was a Greek city founded by
Croton, and was originally a place of some im
portance ; but it waa destroyed by Hannibal in
the second Punic war (Diod. xvi. 15 ; Liv. viii.
24 ; Strab. p. 256).
Termantia, Tennes, or Termesus (Termesti-
nus : Tiermes), a town of the Arevaci in His
pania Tarraconensis, originally situated on a
steep hill, the mhabitanta of which frequently
reaiated the Romans, who compelled them in
consequence to abandon the town, and build a
new one on the plain, B.C. 98 (App. Hisp.vi. 76,
99 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 45).
Termera (t& Teppepa: Assarlik), a Dorian
city to Caria, on the promontory of Termerium
(Teppepiov), the NW. headland of the Sinus
Ceramieus. Under the Romans, it was a free
city. (Hdt. v. 37 ; Strab. p. 657.)
Tennes. [Teemantia.]
Termessus (Teppyo-trds : Termessenses), a
city of Pisidia, high up on the Taurus, in the
pass tMough which the river Catarrhactes
flowed. It was almost impregnable by nature
and art, so that even Alexander did not attempt
to take it. (Strab. pp. 630, 666 ; Pol. xxii. 18 ;
Liv. xxxviii. 15.) In later times its full title
was Termessus Jovia et Eudocias. TermessuB
was recognised as a free city by the Lex An
tonia de Termessensibus (C.I.L. i. 204 ; Did. of
Ant. art. Lex Antonia.)
Terminus, a Roman divinity presiding over
boundaries and frontiers. His worsMp is said
to have been instituted by Numa, who ordered
that everyone should mark the boundaries of Ms
landed property by stones consecrated to Jupiter,
and at these boundary-stones every year sacri
fices should be offered at the festival of the Ter-
minalia (Dionys. ii. 74 ; Plut. Num. 16). The
Terminus of the Roman state origmaUy stood
between the fifth and sixth milestones on the
road towards Laurentum, near a place called
Festi. Another public Terminus stood in the
temple of Jupiter M the Capitol. It is said
that when this temple was to be founded, aU
the gods gave way to Jupiter and Juno, with
the exception of Terminus and Juventas,
whose sanctuaries the auguries would not allow
to be removed. This legend refers to his
steadfastness of position and also to the fact
that he was identified in his functions with Jupi
ter Terminalis (Liv. i. 55 ; Varro, L.L. v. 74). It
was taken as an omen that the Roman state
would remain ever undiminished and young,
and the chapels of the two divinities were in
closed within the walls of the new temple.
The statue of Terminus was merely a stone or
post placed at boundaries. Thia stone was
consecrated by a sacrifice; the blood of the
victim was poured mto a trench with the body
of the victim and offerings of fruits : the
whole waB consumed by a fire of pine-branches,
and the stone set upon the bed of ashes.
Periodical festivals were held, when the owners
of the adjacent properties crowned the stone
with garlands and offered a lamb or a pig, corn,
honey and wine. (Ov. Fast. 639 ; Hor. Epod.
n. 59 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Terminalia.)
Terpander (TepiravSpos), the father of Greek
music, and through it of lyric poetry. He was
a native of Antissa in Lesbos, and flourished
between B.C. 700 and 650 (Pind. ap. Athen. p.
685 ; Plut. de Mus. 30, p. 1141). He removed
from Lesbos to Sparta, and there introduced
Ms new system of music, and established the

TEUCER
first musical school or system that existed in
Greece. He added three strings to the lyre,
wMch before his time had only four strings,
thus maktog it seven-stringed. But other
accounts seem to show that he only raised the
scale to the compass of an octave, without
altermg the number of strings. [See Did. of
Ant. art. Lyra.] HiB music produced a
powerful effect upon the Spartans, and he was
held in high honour by them, durtog Ms life
and after his death. He was the first who
obtained a victory M the musical contests at
the festival of the Carnea (676) (Athen. p. 635).
We have only three or four fragments of the
remains of his poetry (Bergk, Poet.Lyr. Graec).
Terpsichore (Teptluxdpa), one of the nine
Muses, presided over the choral song and
dancing. [Musae.]
Terra. [Gaea.]
Terracina, more usually written Tarracina.
[Taebacina.] Tertullianus, Q. Septimius Florens, usually
called Tertullian, the Christian Apologist, a.d.
160-240. [See Did. of Christ. Biogr.]
Testa, C. Trebatius, a Roman jurist, and a
contemporary and friend of Cicero. He was
recommended by Cicero to Julius Caesar during
his proeonsulship of Gaul, and he followed
Caesar's party after the Civil war broke out
(Cic. ad Fam. xii. 5-18). Cicero dedicated to
Trebatius Ms book of Topica, which he wrote
to explain to Mm this book of Aristotle. Tre
batius enjoyed considerable reputation under
Augustus as a lawyer. In poUtics he advocated
moderate and concUiatory measures both to
Caesar and to Augustus (Justin. Inst. U. 25).
Horace addressed to him the first Satire of the
second Book. Trebatius waB a pupU of Q. Cor
nelius Maximus, and master of Labeo. He
wrote some books De Jure Civili, and De Be-
ligionibus (GeU. vii. 12 ; Macrob. iii. 7, 8).
Tethys (Trj Bvs), daughter of Uranus and
Gaea, and wife of Oceanus, by whom she be
came the mother of the Oceanides and of the
numerous river-gods (Hes. Th. 136, 337 ; ApoUod.
i. l,_3;_Ov. Fast. v. 81 ; Verg. Georg. i. 81).
Tetrica (peril, the Gran Sasso), a mountain
on the frontiers of Pisenum and the land of the
Sabines, belongMg to the great chain of the
Apennines (Verg. Aen. vii. 713; SU. It. viii.
417 ; Varro, B.B. ii. 1, 5).
Tetricus, C. Pesuvius, one of the Thirty
Tyrants, and the last of the pretenders who
ruled Gaul during its separation from the em
pire under Gallienus and his successor. He
reigned in Gaul from A.D. 267 to 274, and was
defeated by Aurelian to 274, at the battle of
Chalons, on which occasion he was believed to
have betrayed Ms army to the emperor. It is
certain that although Tetricus, along with Ms
son, graced the triumph of the conqueror, he
was immediately afterwards treated with the
greatest distinction by AureUan. (TrebeU. PoU.
Trig. Tyr. 28 ; Eutrop. ix. 9 ; Zonar. xii. 27.)
Teucer (Tempos). 1. Son of the river-god
Scamander, by the Nymph Idaea, was the first
king of Troy, whence the Trojans are sometimes
called Teucri. Dardanus of Samothrace came
to Teucer, received his daughter Batea or Arisbe
in marriage, and became his successor to the
kingdom. According to another account, Dar
danus was a native prince of Troy, and Sca
mander and Teucer immigrated into Troas from
Crete, bringing with them the worsMp of
ApoUo Smmtheus. (Hdt. vii. 122 ; ApoUod. iii.
12, 1 ; Strab. p. 604 ; Dardanus.)— 2. Son of
Telamon and Hesione, was a stepbrother of

TEUCRI
Ajax, and the best archer among the Greeks at
Troy. (II. viii. 281, xiii. 170; Soph. Ajax.)
On Ms return from the Trojan war, Telamon
refused to receive him in Salamis, because he
had not avenged the death of his brother Ajax.
Teucer thereupon saUed away in search of a
new home, which he found in the island of
Cyprus, which was given to him by Belus, Mng
of Sidon. He there founded the town of
Salamis, and married Eune, the daughter of
Cyprus, by whom he became the father of Aste
ria. (Pind. Nem. iv. 60 ; Aesch. Pers. 896 ; Paus.
ii. 29, 4 ; Hor. Od. i. 7, 21 ; cf. Ajax j Salamis.)
Teucri. [Mysia; Teoas.]
Teumessus (Tevpycro-ds), a mountain and vil
lage to Boeotia, near Hypatus, and close to
Thebes, on the road from the latter place to
Chalcis. It was from this mountaM that
Dionysus, enraged with the Thebans, sent the
fox wMch committed such devastations in their
territory. (Paus. ix. 19, 1 ; Ant. Lib. 41.)
Teuta (Tevra), wife of Agron, Mng of the
Hlyrians, assumed the sovereign power on the
death of her husband, B.C. 231. Inconsequence
of the injuries inflicted by the piratical expedi
tions of her subjects upon the ItaUan merchants,
the Romans sent C. and L. Coruncamus to
demand satisfaction, but she not oMy refused
to comply with their demands, but caused the
younger of the two brothers to be assassinated
on Ms way home. (Pol. ii. 4-8 ; Zonar. viu. 19.)
War was now declared against her by the
Romans. The greater part of her territory was
soon conquered, and she was obliged to sue for
peace, which was granted to her (b.c. 228), on
condition of her giving up the greater part of
her domtoions. (Pol. u. 9-12 ; App. Hlyr. 7.)
Teuthrania. [Mysia.]
Teuthras (TeiBpas), an ancient king of Mysia,
who married (or, according to other accounts,
adopted as Ms daughter) Auge, the daughter of
Aleus (Paus. viii. 4; Strab. p. 571). He also
received with hospitaUty her son Telephus,
when the latter came to Asia M search of his
mother. He was succeeded to the Mngdom of
Mysia by Telephus. [Telephus.]
Teuthras (TeiBpas), a mountato in the Mysian
district of Teuttoania, a SW. branch of Tem
nus. [Temnus.]
Teutoburgiensis Saltus, a range of Mils to
Germany covered with wood, extendmg N. of
the Lippe, from Osnabriick to Paderborn, and
known to the present day by the name of the
Teutoburger Wald or Lippische Wald. It is
celebrated on account of the defeat and de
struction of Varus and three Roman legions by
the Germans under Arroinius, a.d. 9. (Tac.
Ann. i. 60 ; cf. Dio Cass. lvi. 20, 21.) [Varus.]
Teutones or Teutoni, a powerful people in
Germany, who invaded Gaul and the Roman
domimons along with the Cimbri, at the end
of the second century B.C. The history of
their invasion is given under Cimbbi. The
name Teutones is not a collective name of the
whole people of Germany, but only of one par
ticular tribe, who probably dwelt on the coast
of the Baltic, near the Cimbri.
Thabor, Tabor, or Atabyrium ('AraBipiov,
LXX: 'IraBipiov, Joseph.: Jebel Tur), an
isolated mountato at the E. end of the plain of
Esdraelon to Galilee, between 1700 and 1800
feet Mgh. Its summit was occupied by a forti
fied town, under the Maccabees and the Ro
mans. [Cf ¦ Did. of the Bible.]
Thabraea or Tabraca (edBpaKa, TdBpaKa:
Tabarca), a city of Nnmidia, at the mouth of
the river Tusca, and on the frontier towards

THALES

929

Zeugitana in a well-wooded district (Ptol. vi.
8, 5 ; Juv. x. 194 ; Claud. Laud. Stil. i. 359).
Thais (Oafs), a celebrated Atheman cour
tesan, who accompanied Alexander the Great
on his expedition into Asia. Her name is best
known from the story of her having stimulated
the conqueror during a great festival at Per
sepolis, to set fire to the palace of the Persian
kings ; but this anecdote, immortalised as it has
been by Dryden's famous ode, is in all proba
bility a mere fable. (Athen. p. 576; Diod.
xvii. 72 ; Plut. Alex. 38 ; Curt. v. 7, 3.) After
the death of Alexander, Thais attached herself
to Ptolemy Lagi, by whom she became the
mother of two sons, Leontiscus and Lagus, and
of a daughter, Irene (Athen. I. c).
Thala (&dXa : Thala), a great city of Nu
midia, NE. of Theveste, and seventy-one Roman
miles NW. of Capsa (Sail. Jug. 75, 77, 80, 89 ;
Tac. Ann. iii. 21).
Thalamae (®aXdpai), a fortified town in Elis,
situated in the mountains above Pylos (Xen.
Hell. iv. 4,26; Pol. iv. 75).
Thalasslus. [Talassius.]
Thales (®aXys), the Ionic pMlosopher, a con
temporary of Solon and Croesus, and one of the
Seven Sages, was born at MUetus about B.C.
636, and died about 546, at the age of ninety,
though the exact date neither of Ms birth nor of
his death is known. He is said to have pre
dicted the ecUpse of the sun which happened in
the reign of the Lydian king Alyattes ; to have
diverted the course of the Halys to the time of
Croesus; and later, in order to unite the
Ionians when threatened by the Persians, to
have instituted a federal council in Teos. Ari
stotle preserves a story of Ms knowledge of
meteorology which was turned to a practical use
(Pol. i. 11, p. 1259). In the Usts of the Seven
Sages Ms name seems to have stood at the
head; and he displayed his wisdom both by
pohtical sagacity, and by prudence in acquiring
wealth. He waa alao one of the founders M
Greece of the study of pMlosophy and mathe
matics. In the latter science, indeed, we find
attributed to him only proofs of propositions,
which belong to the first elements of geometry,
and which could not possibly have enabled him
to calculate the echpses of the sun and the
course of the heavenly bodies. He may, how
ever, have obtamed Mb knowledge of the higher
branches of mathematics from Egypt, which
country he iB said to have visited. He may be
regarded as the founder of Greek philosophy, as.
betog the first who looked for a physical origin
of the world instead of resting upon mythology.
Thales maintained that water is the origin of
tMngs, meaning thereby that it is water out of
wMch everythmg arises, and Mto wMch every
thing resolves itself, and that the earth floated
upon the water. Thales left no works behind
him. (Hdt. i. 74, 170; Diog. Laert. i. 25;
Aristot. Metaph. i. 3, p. 983.)
Thales or Thaletas (®aXys, ®aXyras), a
musician and lyric poet, was a native of Gor
tyna in Crete. On the invitation of the Spar
tans he removed to Sparta, where, by the
influence of his music, he appeased the wrath
of Apollo (who had visited the city with a plague)
and composed the factions of the citizens, who
were at enmity with each other. He founded
the second of the musical schools which
flourished at Sparta, the first having been
established by Terpander. (Plut. de Mus. 9,
p. 1135 ; Paus. i. 14, 4.) The date of Thaletas
is uncertain, but he may probably be placed
shortly after Terpander. [Tebpander.]
3 O

930

THALIA

Thalia (®aXeia, ®aXia). 1. The Muse of
Comedy, [Musae.] — 3. One of the Nereides. —
3. One of the Charites or Graces.
Thallo. [Hoeae.]
Thalna or Talna, M\ Jnventius, was tribune
of the plebs B.C. 170 ; praetor 167 ; and consul
163, when he subdued the Corsicans. The
senate voted him the honour of a thanksgiving ;
and he was so overcome with joy at the intelli
gence, which he received as he was offering a
sacrifice, that he dropped down dead on the
spot. (Liv. xliii. 8, xiv. 16, 21.)
Thambes (®dpBys, @dppys, ®dpys), a moun
tam in the E. of Numidia, containing the source
of the river Rubricatus (Ptol. iv. 3, 16).
Thamydeni or Thamyditae (®apvSyvol,
BapvSirai), a people of Arabia Felix, on the
SMus Arabicus (Diod. iii. 44).
Thamyris or Thamyras (®dpvpts), an ancient
TMacian bard, was a son of Philammon and
the nymph Argiope. In his presumption he
challenged the Muses to a trial of skill, and
being overcome in the contest, was deprived by
them of Ms sight and of the power of singing.
He was represented with a broken lyre in Ms
hand. (II. ii. 595 ; ApoUod. 1, 8, 8 ; Paus. iv.
83, 4, ix. 30, 2, x. 7, 2; Ewc.Bhes. 925.)
Thanatos. [Mobs.]
Thapsa, a city of N. Africa, probably identical
with Rusicada.
Thapsacus (®d\j/aKos: 0. T. Tiphsah: an
Aramean word meamng a ford : ®av/aKyv6s :
Ru. at Dibsi), a city of Syria, in the province of
Chalybonitis, on the left bank of the EupMates,
2000 stadia S. of Zeugma, and fifteen parasangs
from the mouth of the river Chaboras (the
Araxes of Xenophon). At this place was the
usual, and for a long time the only, ford of
the EupMates, by which a passage was made
between Upper and Lower Asia. (Xen. An. i.
4, 11 ; Arr. An. ii. 13 ; Strab. pp. 77, 81, 746.)
Thapsus (edijios : &d\pios). 1. A city on the E.
coast of Sicily, on a penMsula of the same name
(Isola degli Magnisi), founded by Dorian
colonists from Megara, who soon abandoned it
in order to found Megara Hybla. — 2. (Demas,
Ru.), a city on the E. coast of Byzacena, in
Africa Propria, where Caesar finally defeated
the Pompeian army, and finished the Civil war,
B.C. 46 (Ptol. iv. 3, 10 ; Strab. p. 881 ; Bell.
Afr. 28). There are remarkable ruins of its
fortifications [see Did. of Ant. art. Murus].
Thasos or Thasus (®d<ros : Qdcrios : Thaso or
Tasso), an island in the N. of the Aegaean sea,
off the coast of Thrace and opposite the mouth
of the river Nestus. It was at a very early
period taken poaaession of by the Phoenicians,
on account of its valuable gold mines. Accord
ing to tradition, the Phoenicians were led by
Thasus, son of Poseidon, or Agenor, who came
from the East in search of Europa, and from
whom the island derived its name (Hdt. ii. 44,
vi. 47; Paus. v. 25, 12). Thaaos was afterwards
colonised by the Parians, B.C. 708, and among the
colonists was the poet Archilochus (Thuc. iv. 104 ;
Strab. p. 487). Besides the gold mines in Thasos
itself, the Thasians possessed stiU more valu
able gold mines at Scapte Hyle on the opposite
coast of TMace. The mines in the island had
been most extensively worked by the Phoe
nicians, but even in the time of Herodotus
they were still productive. The clear surplus
revenue of the Thasians before the Persian
conquest amounted to 200, and sometimes even
to 300, talents (46,0007, 66,0007), of which sum
the mMes in Scapte Hyle produced eighty
talents, and those in the island somewhat less

THEANO
(Hdt. vi. 46 ; Thuc. iv. 107). They possessed
at tMs time a considerable territory on the
coast of Thrace, and were one of the richest
and most powerful peoples M the N. of the
Aegaean. They were subdued by the Persians
under Mardonius, and subsequently became
part of the Atheman maritime empire. They
revolted, however, from Athens in B.C. 465, and
after sustaining a siege of tMee years, were
subdued by Cimon in 463 (Thuc. i. 100 ; Diod.
xi. 70). They were obUged to surrender to the
Athenians all their possessions in TMace, to
destroy their fortifications, to give up their
stops, and to pay a large tribute for the future.
They again revolted from Athens in 411, and
called in the Spartans, but the island was again
restored to the Athenians by Thrasybulus in
407 (Thuc. viu. 64; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 12). In
addition to its gold mines, Thasos was cele
brated for its marble and its wine. The soil,
however, is otherwise barren, and merits even
at the present day the description appUed to it
by the poet Archilochus, ' an ass's backbone,
overspread with wUd wood' (Fr. 17). The
principal town in the island, also called Thasos,
was situated on the N. coast upon tMee emi
nences. There are stiU a few remains of the

Coin of Thasos, about 400 B.C.
Obv., head of Dionysus, bearded, with ivy wreath ; ret!.,
6A2I0N : Heracles shooting.
ancient town. The site of the Agora has been
excavated, and there is a triumphal arch, ap
parently in honour of CaracaUa.
Thaumas (@aipas), son of Pontus and Ge,
and by the Oceanid Electra the father of Iris
and the Harpies. Hence Iris is caUed Thau-
mantias, Thaumantis, and Thaumantea virgo
(Hea. Th. 287 ; Ov. Met. iv. 479).
Theaetetus (Qeairyros), an Atheman, the son
of Euphronius of Sunium, is introduced as one
of the speakers to Plato's Theaetetus and So
phistes, in which dialogues he is spoken of as a
noble and weU-disposed youth, and ardent in the
pursuit of knowledge, especially in the study
of geometry.
Theagenes (®eayevys). 1. Tyrant of Megara,
obtained Ms power about B.C. 680, having es
poused the part of the commonalty against the
nobles. He was driven out before Ms death.
He gave his daughter to marriage to Cylon.
[Cylon.] — 2. A Thasian, the son of Timo-
sthenes, renowned for Ms extraordMary strength
and swiftness. He gained numerous victories
at the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isth
mian games, and is said to have won 1400
crowns. He lived about B.C. 480. (Paus. vi. 6,
5, vi. 11, 2.)
Theano (®eavd), daughter of Cisseus, wife of
Antenor, and priestess of Athene at Hion (17. v.
70, xi. 224).
Theano (®eavd), the most celebrated of the
female pMlosophers of the Pythagorean school,
appears to have been the wife of Pythagoras,
and the mother by Mm of Telauges, Mnesarchus,
Myia, and Arignote (Diog. Laert. viii. 42 ; Suid.
s.v.). Several letters are extant under her
name ; and, though they are not genuine, they

THEBAE
are valuable remains of a period of considerable
antiquity (ed. Hercher, 1878).
„J£eba?J®'''8a')' in the P°ets sometimes Thebe
(®yBy, Dor. <=Wj/3a), aft. Diospolis Magna
(AidoTroAis peydXy, i.e. Great City of Zeus), in
•O.I. Ho or No Ammon, which represents its
sacred name Nu-Amun or Amon (the city of
Amun), was the capital of Thebaia, or Upper
Egypt, and, for a long time, of the whole country.
It stood in about the centre of the Thebai'd, on
both banks of the Nile, above Coptos, and to
the Nomos Coptites. The Greek Mstorians
had exaggerated ideas of its relative antiquity
(m relation, that is, to other Egyptian cities),
and by ascribing its foundation to Menes placed
it on a level, as regards date, with far older
cities, such as MempMs and Thinis (Diod. i. 50,
xv. 45). Thebes was made their capital by the
kings of the eleventh dynasty (between 8080
and 2500 b.c). The great temple of Ammon
(the Egyptian Amun or Amen), who was speci
ally worsMpped at Thebes [Ammon], was
founded by Amenenhat I., of the tweUth dyn
asty, about 2460 B.C. Thebes was the capital
of the dynasties 11, 12, 18, 18, 19 and 20. Its
time of greatest splendour was probably in the
nineteenth dynasty, especiaUy to the reign of
Ramses II. (1330 b.c), who was a great builder
as weU as a great conqueror. Though the
capital dignity was transferred after 1100 b.c
to other cities, Bubastis, Tanis and Sais,
Thebes stUl retained its grandeur and much of
its importance. It suffered from the sack by
the Assyrian Assurbanipal [Sakdanapalus],
about 660 b.c. The sources of its wealth still
remained : for these consisted to the position
of the city, wMch stood on the banks of the
NUe as a highway for trade N. and S. and at a
junction of trade routes eastward to Myoshormos
on the Red Sea and westward to the Oases.
All these advantages combined to make Thebes
a centre of commerce until Alexandria became
the successful rival. Thebes was in great
measure destroyed and left in ruins by Ptolemy
Lathyrus B.C. 86 (Paus. i. 9, 3). The fame of
its grandeur had reached the Greeks as early
as the time of Homer, who describes it as
liaving a hundred gates, from each of wMch it
•could send out 200 war chariots fuUy armed
(H. ix. 381). It may be noted that in the time
of the Trojan war (according to the most prob
able theory as to that date), Thebes was still
the capital of the Egyptian kings ; but before
the probable date of the Odyssey the capital
was to Lower Egypt [cf. Homebus]. Homer's
epithet of ' Hundred-Gated ' (eKardpirvXoi) is
repeatedly applied to the city by later writers.
Its real extent was calculated by the Greek
-writers at 140 stadia (14 geogr. miles) in cir
cuit ; and to Strabo's time, when the transfer
ence of the seat of power and commerce to
Lower Egypt had caused it to dechne greatly,
it stUl had a circuit of eighty stadia (Diod. l.c. ;
Strab. pp. 805, 815). That these computations
are not exaggerated is proved by the existmg
ruins, wMch extend from side to side of the
Nile vaUey, here about six miles wide ; while
the rocks wMch bound the vaUey are perforated
with tombs. These rums, which are perhaps
the most magmficent to the world, enclose
within their site the four modern vUlages of
Kamak, Luxor, Medinet Habou, and Gur-
nah ¦ the two former on the E., and the two
latter on the W. side of the river.
Thebae, in Europe. 1. (®yBai : in poetry
®bBy : ®yBaios, Thebanus : Thion), the chief
•city in Boeotia, was situated in a plam SE. of

981
the lake Hylice and NE. of Plataeae. Its
acropolis, which was an oval eminence of no
great height, was called Cadmea (KaSpela), be
cause it was said to have been founded by
Cadmus, the leader of a Phoenician colony.
On each side of tMs acropolis is a small vaUey,
running up from the Theban plain mto the low
ridge of hills by which it is separated from that
of Plataeae. Of theae valleys, the one to the
W. is watered by the Dirce ; and the one to the
E. by the Ismenus; both of which, however,
are insignificant streamlets, though so cele
brated in ancient history. The greater part of
the city stood in these valleys, and was built
some time after the acropolis. Theban legends
said that the fortifications of the lower city
were constructed by Amphion and his brother
Zethus; and that when Amphion played his
lyre the stones moved of their own accord and
formed the wall. [Amphion.] The territory of
Thebes was called Thebais (QyBais), and ex
tended eastwarda as far as the Euboean sea.
No city is more celebrated in the mythical ages
of Greece than Thebes. It was here that the
use of letters was first introduced from Phoe
nicia into W. Europe. [Cadmus.] It. was the
reputed birthplace of the two great divinities
Dionysus and Hebacles. It was also the
native city of the mythical seer Tireaiaa, as
weU as of the mythical musician Amphion
It was the scene of the tragic fate of Oedipus,
and of one of the most celebrated wars m the
mythical annals of Greece. Polynices, who
had been expeUed from Thebes by Ms brother,
Eteocles, induced six other heroes to espouse
Ms cause, and marched against the city ; but
they were aU defeated and slain by the Thebans,
with the exception of Adrastus — Polynices and
Eteocles falling by each other's hands. This
is usuaUy called the war of the ' Seven against
Thebes.' [Adbastus.] A few years afterwards
the 'Epigoni,' or descendants of the seven
heroes, marched against Thebes to revenge
their fathers' death; they took the city and
razed it to the ground. It is probable that in
these stories of the foundation and early Ms
tory of Thebes there are elements of truth. It
is likely enough that the Phoenicians at an
early period established a trading station at
Thebes a few miles inland, with the fortified
citadel ascribed to the Phoenician Cadmus. In
the movement of tribes about the time of the
Dorian migrations, the Aeolian Arnaeane or
Boeotiana were puahed southwards from Thes
saly, and drove out the Cadmeans from Thebes.
If there is any chronological order in the wars
of the Seven and of the Epigoni, the former
(which is before the Trojan war : II. iv. 378)
may represent an attack by Achaean Argives
on the Cadmeans ; the story of the latter may
be based on traditions about the capture of
Thebes by the Boeotians. It ia remarked that
the number seven of the gates of Thebes is a
sacred Semitic number ; which agrees with
their traditional Phoenician origin. Thebes is
not mentioned by Homer in the catalogue of
the Greek cities which fought against Troy,
and this may point to the fact that in the
Homeric traditions of the period before the
Dorian migration Thebes was stiU Cadmean, or
mainly Phoenician, and did not cast in its lot
with the Greeks. In the Diad the Thebans
are in fact called Cadmeans (H. iv. 388, v. 807,
xxiii. 68; cf. Od. xi. 276; Thuc. i. 12). Its
government, after the abolition of monarchy,
waa an aristocracy, or rather an oligarchy,
which continued to be the prevailing form of
3o2

932

THEBAE

government for a long time, although exchanged
for that of a democracy in the period of ten
years between the Athenian success at Tanagra,
in 457 B.C., and the battle of Coronea, in 447.
Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war,
however, the oligarchy finally disappears ; and
Thebes appears under a democratical form of
government from this time tUl it becomes with
the rest of Greece subject to the Romans.
The Thebans were from an early period m-
veterate enemies of their neighbours, the Athe
nians. Their hatred of the latter people was
probably one of the reasons wMch induced
them to desert the cause of Grecian liberty in
the great struggle against the Persian power.
In the Peloponnesian war the Thebans natu
rally espoused the Spartan side, and contributed
not a Uttle to the downfaU of Athens. But, in
common with the other Greek states, they soon
became disgusted with the Spartan supremacy,
and joined the confederacy formed against
Sparta in B.C. 394. The peace of Antalcidas, in
387, put an end to hostilities m Greece ; but the
treacherous seizure of the Cadmea by the Lace-
daemoman general Phoebidas in 382, and its
recovery by the Theban exiles in 379, led to a
war between Thebes and Sparta, in wMch the
former not only recovered its independence,
but for ever destroyed the Lacedaemonian
supremacy. TMs was the most glorious period
in the Theban annals ; and the decisive defeat
of the Spartans at the battle of Leuctra, in 871,

Coin of Boeotian Thebes (first half of 5th cent. B.C.).
Obv., Boeotian shield ; rev., 6EBAI02 : Heracles stringing
his bow.
made Thebes the first power in Greece. Her
greatness, however, was mainly due to the pre
eminent abUities of her citizens Epaminondas
and Pelopidas ; and with the death of the for
mer at the battle of Mantinea, in 362, she lost
the aupremacy wMch she had so recently gained.
[Epaminondas.] Soon afterwards Philip of
Macedon began to exercise a paramount in
fluence over, the greater part of Greece. The
Thebans were induced, by the eloquence of
Demosthenes, to forget their old animosities
against the Athenians, and to joto the latter in
protectmg the hberties of Greece; but their
united forces were defeated by Philip, at the
battle of Chaeronea, in 338. Soon after the
death of PMlip and the accession of Alexander,
the Thebans made a last attempt to recover
their Uberty, but were crueUy punished by the
young king. The city was taken by Alexander
in 336, and was entirely destroyed, with the
exception of the temples, and the house of the
poet Pmdar ; 6000 inhabitants were slain, and
80,000 sold as slaves. [Alexandee.] In 316
the city was rebuilt by Cassander, with the
assistance of the Athenians. In 290 it was
taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and again
suffered greatly. Dicaearchus, who flourished
about this time, has left us an interesting
account of the city. He describes it as about
seventy stadia (about eight milea) to circum
ference), to form nearly circular, and in appear-

THELPUSA
ance somewhat gloomy. He says that it is
plentifully provided with water, and contains
better gardens than any other city in Greece ;
that it is most agreeable in summer, on account
of its plentiful aupply of cool and fresh water,
and its large gardens ; but that in winter it is.
very unpleasant, being destitute of fuel, ex
posed to floods and cold winds, and frequently
visited by heavy faUs of snow. He further
represents the people as proud and insolent,
and always ready to settle disputes by fighting,
rather than by the ordmary course of justice.
It is supposed that the population of the city
at this time may have been between 50,000 and.
60,000 souls. After the Macedonian period
Thebes rapidly declined to importance ; and it
received its last blow from Sulla, who gave half
of its territory to the Delphians. Strabo
describes it as only a village in Ms time ; and
Pausanias, who visited it in the second century
of the Christian era, says that the Cadmea,
alone was then inhabited. The ground on
which Thebes stood rises generaUy 150 feet
above the plam. TMs space is bounded on the
E. and W. by the two smaU rivers Ismenus and
Dirce (united a little below the city), between
which flowed a smaller stream, probably the
Strophia (CaUim. Hymn, in Del. 76), dividing
the city into two parts. In the western half,
and probably on the rising ground at the S. of
it, was the Cadmea. Of the seven gates three
are fairly described by Pausanias. The Elec-
trae was the gate by wMch the road from
Plataeae entered the city : i.e. it was M the
centre at the S. of the city, probably where the
present Plataean road comes in (Paus. ix. 8, 6) ;
the road to Chalcis went out by the Proetides
(Paus. ix. 18, 1) : i.e. that gate was at the NE.
of the city ; the Neitae waa oppoaite on the
NW., since it led to Onchestua across the Dirce
(Paus. ix. 25, 1, ix. 26, 5). There is not evidence
enough to determine the positions of the other
four gates, called Ogygiae, Hypsistae, Crenaeae
or Oncas, and Homoloides (Aesch. Sept. 360 ;
Eur. Phoen. 1120 ; Paus. ix. 8 ; ApoUod. M.
6, 6 ; Stat. Theb. viii. 358 ; cf. Nonn. Dionys.
v. 69.) — 2. Surnamed Phthioticae (OrjjSai ai
QBidriSes), an important city of Thessaly to the
district PhtMotis, at a short distance from the
coast, and with a good harbour (Pol. v. 99:
Liv. xxxii. 83; Strab. p. 483 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.)
Thebais. [Aegyptus.]
Thebe (®i)By 'TiroirXaKiy), a city of Mysia,
on the wooded slope of M. Placus, destroyed by
AcMUes. It was said to have been the birth
place of Andromache and Chryseis (II. i. 366,
vi. 897, xxii. 479). It existed in the historical
period, but by the time of Strabo it had faUen
into ruM, and by that of Pliny it had vanished.
Its site waa near the head of the Gulf of
Adramyttium, where a beautiful tract of coun
try was named, after it, to QyBys ireSiov. (Hdt.
vii. 42 ; Xen. An. vii. 8, 7 ; Strab. pp. 684-588 ;
Liv. xxxvii. 19.)
Theisoa (0elo-oa: Lavda). 1. A town of
Arcadia, on the N. slope of Mt. Lycaeus, in the
district of Cynuria (Paus. viii. 88, 8). — 2. A
town of Arcadia, to the district of Orchomenus
(Paus. viii. 27, 7). Perhaps the modern Kar-
kalon. Thelepte or Telepte (®eXeirry, TeXeirry:
Medinet-Kedima), a fortified town of Numidia,
lying S. of Thala on the borders of the desert
country. From it ran the road to Tacape or
Syrtis Minor. (Procop. Aed. vi. 6.)
Thelpusa or Telpnussa (®eXirovo-a, Tt'A-
tpovo-cra : TeA<poi5<fioj : nr. Vanena, Ru.), a town

THEMIS
*D '^?oaa!a on tne r!ver Ladon. It was famous
tor the worship of Demeter-Erinnys [p. 824, b],
and possessed also another temple of Demeter,
Persephone, and Dionysus. The former was
below, the city; the latter above. Temples of
Asclepius and of ApoUo Oncestes are also men
tioned. (Paus. vUi. 25, 2; Steph. Byz. s.v.
Oyiceiov.) Themis (®epis), daughter of Uranus and Ge,
was married to Zeus, by whom she became the
mother of the Horae, Eunomia, Dike (Astraea),
Irene, and of the Moerae (Hes. Th. 135, 901 •
ApoUod. i. 8, 1). In the Homeric poems,
Themis is the personification of the order of
things estabUshed by law, custom and equity :
whence she is described as reigning in the
assembUes of men, and as convening, by the
command of Zeus, the assembly of the gods.
She dweUs to Olympus, and is on friendly terms
with Hera (H. xv. 87, xx. 4, Od. ii. 68). As the
divine exponent of law and order Themis is
said to have been in possession of the DelpMc
oracle after Ge and before ApoUo (Aesch. Eum.
2 ; Paus. x. 3, 5 ; Ov. Met. i. 321). Her con
nexion with Zeus and with the lawful ordering
of the world is indicated by her sharing a
temple with Zeus and the Fates at Thebes,
Zeus and the Horae at Olympia (Paus. v. 14, 8,
ix. 25, 4). Her worsMp at Aegina, Athens, and
Troezen is particularly mentioned (Pind. Ol.
vin. 20 ; Paus. i. 22, 1, U. 31, 8). She is repre
sented on coins with a figure like that of
Athene, holding a cornucopia and a pair of
scales. Themiscyra (®epio-Kvpa : Terme), a city and
a plain on the coast of Pontus, extending E. of
the river Iris beyond the Thermodon, celebrated
in ancient myths as the country of the Ama
zons. [Amazones.] It was well watered, and
rich in pasture. The town Themiscyra stood
near the mouth of the Thermodon on the road
from Amisns to Oenoe. (Hdt. iv. 86 ; Paus. i.
2,2.)_ Themison (@epicruiv), a celebrated Greek
physician, and the founder of the medical sect
of the Methodici, was a native of Laodicea M
Syria, and Uved in the first century B.C. He
wrote several medical works, but of these only
the titles and a few fragments remain. The
physician mentioned by Juvenal was probably
a contemporary of the poet, and consequently
a different person from the founder of the
Methodici (Juv. x. 221).
Themistius (®epicrrios), a phUosopher and
rhetorician, was a PapMagoman, and lived first
at Constantinople and afterwards at Rome,
to the reigns of Constantius, JuUan, Jovian,
Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius. After hold
ing various public offices, and being employed
on many important embassies, he was made
prefect of Constantinople by Theodosius, a.d.
384, and tutor to Arcadiua. Gregory of Nazian-
zus, Ms friend and correspondent, in an epistle
stiU extant, caUs him the ' king of arguments '
(Greg. Naz. Ep. 140). The orations (ttoXitikoI
Xdyoi) of Themistius, extant in the time of
Photius, were tMrty-six to number, of which
thirty-four have come down to us in the original
Greek, and one in a Latin version. — Edited by
Dmdorf, Lips. 1832, 8vo.
Themistocles (®epto-roKXys), the celebrated
Athenian, was the son of Neocles and Abro-
tonon, a TMacian woman, and was born about
B.C. 514. In Ms youth he had an impetuous
character ; he displayed great intellectual power
combined with a lofty ambition and desire of
political distinction. He obtamed the archon-

THEMISTOCLES

933

ship in 493 B.C., and, convinced by the war with
Aegina of the importance of a strong navy, he
persuaded the Athenians to fortify Peiraeus as a
naval arsenal (Dionys. vi. 34 ; cf. Thuc. i. 93) ;
some modern writers doubt this earlier archon-
ship. The fame which Miltiades acquired by his
generalship at Marathon made a deep im
pression on Themistocles ; and he said that the
trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep.
His rival Aristides was ostracised in 483, to
which event Themistocles contributed; and
from this time he was the political leader in
Athens. In 482 he was Archon Eponymus. It
was about this time that he persuaded the
Athenians to employ the produce of the silver
mines of Laurium in building ships, instead of
distributmg it among the Athenian citizens.
(Hdt. vii. 144; Aristot. 'AB. TloX. 22; Plut.
Them. 4.) His great object was to draw the
Athenians to the sea, as he was convinced that
it was only by her fleet that Athens could
repel the Persians and obtain the supremacy in
Greece. Upon the invasion of Greece by
XerxeB, Themistocles was appointed to the
command of the Athenian fleet; and to Ma
energy, prudence, foresight, and courage the
Greeks mainly owed their Salvation from the
Persian dominion. Upon the approach of
Xerxes, the Atheniana, on the advice of Themi
stocles, deserted their city, and removed their
women, children, and infirm persons to Salamis,
Aegma, and Troezen; but as soon as the
Persians took possession of Athens, the Pelo
ponnesians were anxious to retire to the Corin
tMan isthmus. Themistocles used all his
influence in mducmg the Greeks to remain and
fight with the Persians at Salamis, and with
the greatest difficulty and by means of bribes
persuaded the Spartan commander, Eurybiades,
to stay at Salamis. (Plut. Them. 1, 10 ; Hdt.
viii. 5 ; cf. Aristot. 'AB. TloX. 23.) But as soon
as the fleet of Xerxes made its appearance, the
Peloponnesians were again anxious to sail away ;
and when Themistocles saw that he should be
unable to perBuade them to remain, he sent a
faitMul slave to the Persian commanders,
informing them that the Greeks mtended to
make their escape, and that the Persians had
now the opportunity of accomplishmg a great
enterprise, if they would only cut off the retreat
of the Greeks. The Persians believed what
they were told, and in the night their fleet
occupied the whole of the channel between
Salamis and the mainland. The Greeks were
thus compelled to fight, and the result was the
glorious victory to which the greater part of
the fleet of Xerxes was destroyed. Looking to
the character of Themistocles, it is difficult to
avoid the conclusion that in this struggle he
was securing himself for either event. If it
resulted in a Greek victory, as he doubtless
expected, he would be the saviour of his
country ; but if the battle favoured the PersianB,
he would win the gratitude of Xerxes. However
that may be, this victory, as being due to
Themistocles, established his reputation among
the Greeks. On his visiting Sparta, he was
received with extraordinary honours by the
Spartans, who gave Eurybiades the palm of
bravery, and to Themistocles the pahn of wis
dom and aMU, with a crown of olive, and the
best chariot that Sparta poaaessed. (Hdt. viii.
124 ; Plut. Them. 17.) The Athemans began
to restore their ruined city after the bar
barians had left the country, and Themistocles
advised them to rebuild the walls, and to make
them stronger than before. The Spartans sent

984 THEMISTOCLES
an embassy to [Athens to dissuade them from
fortifying their city, for which we can assign no
motive except a miserable jealousy. Themi
stocles, who was at that time Tlpoordrys rov
Sypov (i.e. one of the leaders of the popular
party : Aristot. 'AB. TloX. 23), went on an em
bassy to Sparta, where he amused the Spartans
with Uea, till the walls were far enough advanced
to be in a state of defence. It was upon his
advice also that the Athenians fortified the
port of Peiraeus. The influence of Themistocles
doea not appear to have aurvived the expulsion
of the Persians from Greece and the fortification
of the ports. He was probably justly accused
of enrichmg Mmself by unfair means, for he had
no soruples about the way of accomplishing an
end. A story is told that, after the retreat of
the fleet of Xerxes, when the Greek fleet was
wintering at Pagasae, Themistocles told the
Athenians in the pubUc assembly that he had a
scheme to propose which was beneficial to the
state, but could not be divulged. Aristides
was named to receive the secret, and to
report upon it. His report was that nothmg
could be more profitable than the scheme of
Themistocles, but nothing more unjust: the
Athemana were guided by the report of Aristides.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to reconcUe the
statement in Arist. 'At?. IloA. 25, that The-
mistoclea Mtrigued for the overtMow of
Areopagus, with the date of Ms exile from
Athens. The attack upon the Areopagus was
to 463 ; but in 471, in consequence of the
political strife between Themistocles and Ari
stides, the former was ostracised from Athens,
and retired to Argos. After the discovery of
the treasonable correspondence of Pausanias
with the Persian king, the Lacedaemonians
sent to Athens to accuse Themistocles of bemg
privy to the design of Pausanias. Thereupon
the Athenians sent off persons with the Lace
daemonians with instructions to arrest The
mistocles (466). Themistocles, hearing of what
was designed against him, first fled from Argoa
to Corcyra, and then to Epirua, where he took
refuge in the houae of Admetus, king of the
Molossi, who happened to be from home. Ad
metus was no friend to Themistocles, but Mb
wife told the fugitive that he would be protected
if he would take their child in his arms, and sit
on the hearth. The king soon came in, and
respecting his supphant attitude, raised Mm up,
and refused to surrender Mm to the Lace
daemonian and Atheman agents. Themistocles
finally reached the coast of Asia to safety.
Xerxes was now dead (465), and Artaxerxes was
on the throne. (Thuc. i. 235 ; Plut. Them. 23 ;
Nep. Them. 4.) Themistocles went up to visit
the king at Ms royal residence ; and on Mb
arrival he sent the king a letter, in which he
promised to do the king a good service, and
prayed that he might be aUowed to wait a year
and then to explain personally what brought
him there. In a year he made MmseU master
of the Persian language and the Persian usages,
and, beMg presented to the king, he obtained
the greatest influence over him, and such as no
Greek ever before enjoyed — partly owing to Ms
Mgh reputation and the hopes that he gave to
the kmg of subjecting the Greeks to the Per
sians. The king gave him a handsome allow
ance, _ after the Persian fashion ; Magnesia
suppUed Mm with bread nominally, but paid
him annually fifty talents. Lampsacus supplied
wMe, and Myus the other provisions. Before
he could accomplish anything he died ; some
say that he poisoned MmseU, findmg that he

THEOCRITUS
could not perform his promise to the Mng. A
monument was erected to Ms memory to the
Agora of Magnesia, wMch place was within Ms-
government. It is said that Ms bones were
secretly taken to Attica by Ms relations, and
privately interred there. — Themistocles un
doubtedly possessed great talents as a states
man, great political sagacity, a ready wit, and
exceUent judgment : but he was not an honest
man; and, like many other clever men with
little morality, he ended Ms career unhappUy
and ingloriously. Twenty-one letters attributed
to Themistocles are spurious.
Themistogenes (Qepicrroyevys), of Syracuse,
is said by Xenophon (Hell. M. 1, § 2) to have-
written a work on the Anabasis of Cyrus.
Some have supposed that Xenophon reaUy
refers to Ms own work under the name of
Themistogenes (cf. Plut. de Glor. Ath. p. 361).
The name, however, of Themistogenes is men
tioned by Suidaa (s.v.). [Xenophon.]
Theocles (QeoKXys), son of Hegylua, was a
Lacedaemonian sculptor, and a pupil of Dipoe
nus and Scyllis, about B.C. 550. His father was.
also a sculptor. (Paus. v. 17, 1.)
Theoclymenus (®eoKXipevos), son of Poly-
phides by Hyperasia, and a descendant of Me
lampus, was a soothsayer, and in conaequence
of a murder was obliged to take to flight, and
came with Telemachus to Ithaca (Od. xv. 256,
507, xx. 350).
Theoeosmus (@edKoo-pos), of Megara, a sculp
tor contemporary with PMdias (Paus. i. 40, 3).
Theocritus (@edKpiros), the great bucolic*
poet, was a native of Syracuse, and the son
of Praxagoras and Philinna. He visited
Alexandria towards the end of the reign of
Ptolemy Soter, where he received the instruc
tion of PhUetas and Asclepiades, and began to
distinguish himself as a poet. Other accounts
moke him a native of Cos, wMch would bring
Mm more directly toto connexion with Philetas,
(Suidas, s.v. QedKpiros). His first efforts ob
tained for him the patronage of Ptolemy PM1-
adelphus, who was associated in the kingdom
with Ms father, Ptolemy Soter, in B.C. 285, and
in whose praise, therefore, the poet wrote the
fourteenth, fifteenth, and seventeenth Idyls.
At Alexandria he became acquainted with the.
poet Aratus, to whom he addressed his sixth
Idyl. Theocritus afterwards returned to Syra
cuse, and lived there under Hiero II. It ap-
pears from the sixteenth Idyl that Theocritus
was dissatisfied, both with the want of liberaUty
on the part of Hiero in rewarding Mm for Ms
poems, and with the political state of his native
country. It may therefore be supposed that
he devoted the latter part of his life almost
entirely to the contemplation of those scenes
of nature and of country life on his represen
tations of which his fame chiefly rests. Theo
critus was the creator of bucolic poetry in
Greek, and, through imitators, such as VirgU,
in Roman literature. The bucolic Idyls of
Theocritus are of a dramatic and mimetic
character. They are pictures of the ordinary life-
of the common people of Sicily ; whence their-
name, eBr;, etSiXXta. The pastoral poems and
romances of later times are a totally different-
sort of composition from the bucolics of Theo
critus, who knows nothing of the affected
sentiment which has been ascribed to the-
imaginary shepherds of a fictitious Arcadia.
He merely exhibits shnple and faithful pictures.
of the common Ufe of the Sicilian people, in a.
thoroughly objective, although truly poetical
spirit. Dramatic simpUcity and truth are im-

THEODECTES
pressed upon the scenes exhibited to Ms
poems, into the colouring of whioh he has
thrown muoh of the natural comedy wMch is
always Been to the common Ufe of a free people.
In his dramatic dialogue he is influenced by
the mimes of Sophron, as may be seen especi
aUy m the fifteenth Idyl (Adoniazusae). [So
phron.) The poems of Theocritus of tMs olass
maybe compared with those of Heeondas.wIio
belonged, Uke Theocritus, to the Uterary school
of PMletas at Cos. In gemus, however, Theo
critus was greatly the superior. The coUection
wMch has come down to us under the name of
Theocritus consists of thirty poems, caUed by
tile general title of Idyls, a fragment of a few
Unes from a poem entitled Berenice, and
twenty-two epigrams to the Greek Anthology.
But these Idyls are not aU bucolic, and were
not all written by Theocritus. Those Idyls of
wMch the genuMeness is the most doubtful
are the twelfth, twenty-third, twenty-sixth,
twenty-seventh and twenty-ntoth; and Idyls
xiii., xvi., xvU., xxu., xxiv. and xxvi. are to Epic
Style, and have more of Epic dialect, especially
IdyU xvi. It is likely that these poems on Epic
subjects were written early in the poet's Ufe, and,
as court poems, had some of the artificial and
imitative character of the Alexandrians. In
general the dialect of Theocritus is Doric, but
two of the Idylls (xxvin. and xxix.) are to the
AeoUc. — Editions of Theocritus by Wiistemann,
Gothae, 183P; Fritzsche, Leips. 1869; Paley,
1863 ; Kynaston, 1878.
Theodectes (©eoSeirrns), of Phaselis, in Pam
phyUa, was a rhetorician and tragic poet to the
time of Philip of Macedon. He was the son of
Aristonder, and a pupU of Isocrates and Ari
stotle. The greater part of Ms life was spent
at Athens, where he died at the age of forty-
one. The people of Ms native city honoured
the memory of Theodectes with a statue to their
agora, wMch Alexander, when he stopped at
Phaselis on Ms march towards Persia, crowned
with garlands, to show Ms respect for the
memory of a man who had been associated with
himself by means of Aristotle and pMlosophy
(SMd. s.v. ; Plut. Alex. 17 ; Paus. i. 37, 3). The
passages of Aristotle to wMch Theodectes ia
mentioned show the strong regard and high
esteem to wMch he was held by the pMlosopher
(Arist. Bhet. U. 23, 13). None of the works of
Theodectes have come down to us.
Theodoretus (QeoSdpyros), bishop of Cyrus,
on the EupMates, in the fifth century. [See
Did. of Christ. Biogr.]
Theodorias. [Vacca.1
Theodoricus or Theodericus. 1. I., king of
the Visigoths from aj>. 418 to 451, was the suc
cessor of WaUia, but appears to have been the
son of the great Alaric. He feU fighting on
the side of Aetius and the Romans at the
great battle of Chalons, to which Attila was
defeated 451 (Jordan, de Beb. Goth. 34-41).— 2.
II., king of the Visigoths a.d. 452-466, second
son of Theodoric I. He succeeded to the
tMone by the murder of his brother Thoris-
mond. He ruled over the greater part of Gaul
and Spain. He was assasamated to 466 by his
brother Euric, who succeeded him on the tMone.
Theodoric II. was a patron of letters and
learned men. The poet Sidomus ApoUinaris
Uved for some time at his court. (Jordan, de
Beb Get. 43, 44; Sidon. Paneg. Amt.)—3.
Surnamed the Great, Mng of the Ostrogoths
(who appears to the Niebelungen Lied aa Die
trich of Bern, i.e. of Verona), succeeded Ms
father Theodemir, to 475. He was at first an

THEODORUS

935

aUy of Zeno, the emperor of Constantinople,
but was afterwards involved in hostilities with
the emperor. In order to get rid of Theodoric,
Zeno gave Mm permission to invade Italy, and
expel the usurper Odoacer from the country.
Theodoric entered Italy in 489, and after de
feating Odoacer in three great battles, laid
siege to Ravenna, in which Odoacer took refuge.
After a siege of three years Odoacer capitulated
on condition that he and Theodoric should rule
jointly over Italy ; but Odoacer was soon after
wards murdered by his more fortunate rival
(498). Theodoric thus became master of Italy,
which he ruled thirty-tMee years, tiU Ms death
M 526. His long reign was prosperous and
beneficent, and under his sway Italy recovered
from the ravages to which it had been exposed
for so many years. Theodoric was also a patron
of literature ; and among his ministers were
Cassiodobus and Boethius, the two last
writers who can claim a place m the literature
of ancient Rome. But prosperous as had been
the reign of Theodoric, his last days were
darkened by disputes with the Catholics, and
by the condemnation and execution of Boethius
and Symmachus, whom he accused of a con
spiracy to overthrow the GotMc dominion to
Italy. His death is said to have been hastened
by remorse. It iB related that one evenmg,
when a large fish was served on the table, he
fancied that he beheld the head of Symmachus,
and was so terrified that he took to his bed,
and died three days afterwards. Theodoric
was buried at Ravenna, and a monument was
erected to his memory by Ms daughter, Amala-
suntha. His aBhes were deposited in a por
phyry urn wMch is still to be seen at Ravenna.
(Jordan, de Beb. Get. ; Procop. de Bell. Goth. ;
Cassiodor. Chron. ; Ennod. Panegyr. Theod.)
Theodoridas (BeoSaiptSas), of Syracuse, a lyric
and epigrammatic poet, who lived about B.C.
235. He had a place to the Garland of Me
leager. There are eighteen of Ms epigrams in
the Greek Anthology.
Theodorus (@edSaipos). 1. Of Byzantium, a
rhetorician, and a contemporary of Plato, who
speaks of him somewhat contemptuously as a
tricky logician (Phaedr. p. 266). Cicero de
scribes him as excelling rather in the theory
than the practice of Ms art (Brut.l2,iS). — 2. A
pMlosopher of the Cyrenaic school to one
branch of which he gave the name of ' Theodo-
rians,' QeoSapeloi. He is usually designated by
ancient writers as the Atheist. He was a disciple
of the younger Aristippus, and was banished
from Cyrene, but on what occasion is not
stated. He then went to Athens, and only
escaped being cited before the Areopagus, by
the influence of Demetrius Phalereus. He was
afterwards banished from Athens, probably
with Demetrius (307), and went to Alexandria,
where he was employed in the service of
Ptolemy, son of Lagus, king of the Macedonian
dynasty in Egypt; it is not unlikely that he
shared the overtMow and exile of Demetrius.
While in the service of Ptolemy, Theodorus
was sent on on embassy to Lysimachus, whom
he offended by the freedom of his remarks.
One answer which he made to a threat of
crucifixion which Lysimachus had used has
been celebrated by many ancient writers :
' Employ such tMeats to those courtiers of
yours ; for it matters not to Theodore whether
he rots on the ground or in the air.' He
returned at length to Cyrene, where he appears
to have ended his days. (Diog. Laert. ii. 97-103,
116 ; Plut. de Exsil. p. 391 ; de An. Tranq. p.

936

THEODOSIOPOLIS

829 ; Suid. s.v.). — 3. A rhetorician of the age
of Augustus, was a native of Gadara, in the
country east of the Jordan. He settled at
Rhodes, where Tiberius, afterwards emperor,
durtog Ms retirement (b.c 6-a.d. 2) to that
island, was one of his hearers (Suet. Tib. 57 ;
Quintil. iii. 1, 17). He also taught at Rome ;
but whether his settlement at Rome preceded
that at Rhodes is uncertain. Theodorus was the
founder of a school of rhetoricians, called
' Theodorei,' as distinguished from the ' Apollo-
dorei,' or followers of Apollodorus of Pergamum,
who had been the tutor of Augustus Caesar at
ApoUonia (Juv. vn. 177 ; Strab. p. 625). — 4. A
Greek monk, surnamed Prodromus, who lived
M the first half of the twelfth century. Several
of Ms works have come down to us, of which
the foUowing may be mentioned : (1) A metrical
romance to nine books, on the lovea of Rhod-
anthe and Dosicles, written in iambic metre,
and exMbiting very Uttle ability. (2) A poem
entitled Galeomyomachia, to iambic verae, on
' the battle of the mice and eata ' in imitation of
the Homeric Batrachomyomachia. — Edited by
Hercher, Leips. 1873. — 5. Sculptors. (1) Of
Samos, the son of Rhoecus, and brother of
Telecles, flourished about B.C. 600, and was an
architect and sculptor (Diog. Laert. ii. 103;
Diod. i. 98). He wrote a work on the Heraeum
at Samos, in the erection of which he was prob
ably engaged as weU as Ms father. He was
also engaged with his father in the erection of
the labyrinth of Lemnos, and he prepared the
foundation of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus.
(Plin. xxxiv. 83). In conjunction with Ms
brother, Telecles, he made the wooden statue of
Apollo PytMus for the Samians, according to
the fixed rules of the Meratic style (Paua. x.
38, 3). He built also the Skias at Sparta
(Paus. iii. 12, 20). (2) The son of Telecles,
nephew of the elder Theodorus, and grandson
of Rhoecus, flourished about 560, in the times
of Croesus and Polycrates, and renowned in
sculpture and also in the arts of engraving
metals and of gem-engraving ; his works in those
departments being celebrated gold and silver
craters, and the ring of Polycrates (Hdt. i. 51,
iii. 41, vii. 27). Many writers believe that the
author of all the above-mentioned works waa
one and the aame Theodorua, of the earlier
date ; and that ia possible if we suppose the
works of art by his hand to have been made
some time before they came into the posaesaion
of Croesus and Polycrates.
Theodosiopolis (®eoSoo-ioiiroXis : Erzeroum),
a city of Armenia Major, near the sources of
the Araxes and the Euphrates ; built by Theo-
dosiua II. aa a mountain fortrees : enlarged and
strengthened by Anastasius and Justinian.
Its position made it a place of commercial im
portance. (Procop. Aed. iii. 6.)
Theodosius. I, surnamed the Great, Ro
man emperor of the Eaat, a.d. 878-895, was the
son of the general Theodosius who restored
Britain to the empire and was beheaded at
Carthage in the reign of Valens, 376. The
future emperor was born in Spain about 346.
He learned the art of war under his father,
whom he accompanied in his British campaigns.
During his father's lifetime he was raised to
the rank of Duke (dux) of Moesia, where he
defeated the Sarmatians (374) and saved the
province. On the death of his father he
retired before court intrigues to Ms native
country. He acquired a considerable miUtary
reputation in the lifetime of Ms father ; and
after the death of Valens, who fell in battle

THEODOSIUS
against the Goths, he was proclaimed emperor
of the Eaat by Gratian, who felt himaeU unable
to sustain the burden of the empire. The
Roman empire in the East was then in a
critical position ; for the Romans were disheart
ened by the defeat which they had sustained.
Thodosius, however, showed himself equal to
the position in which he was placed ; he gained
two signal victories over the Goths, and con
cluded a peace with the barbarians in 382. In
the foUowing year (383) Maximus assumed the
imperial purple in Britain, and invaded Gaul
with a powerful army. In the war which
followed Gratian was slato; and Theodosius,
who did not consider ¦it prudent to enter into a
contest with Maximus, acknowledged him as
emperor of the countries of Spain, Gaul, and
Britain, but secured to Valentinian, the brother
of Gratian, Italy, Africa, and western Blyricum.
But when Valenttoian was expeUed from Italy
by Maximus M 387, Theodosius espoused his
cause and marched toto the W. at the head of
a powerful army. After defeating Maximus to
Pannonia, Theodosius pursued him across the
Alps to AquUeia. Here Maximus was surren
dered by his own soldiers and was put to death.
Theodosius spent the wmter at MUan, and m
the foUowing year (389) he entered Rome in
triumph, accompanied by ValentMian and Ms
own son Honoriua. Two events to the life of
Theodosius about this time may be mentioned
as evidence of his uncertain character and Ms
savage temper. In 887 a riot took place at
Antioch, in which the statues of the emperor, of
his father, and of Ms wife were thrown down ;
but these idle demonstrations were quicMy
suppressed by an armed force. When Theodo
sius heard of these riots, he degraded Antioch
from the rank of a city, stripped it of its posses
sions and privUeges, and reduced it to the
condition of a vUlage dependent on Laodicea.
But in consequence of the intercession of
the senate of Constantinople, he pardoned the
city, and aU who had taken part in the
riot. The other event is a grave blot on
the fame of Theodosius. In 390, wMle the
emperor was at MUan, a serious riot broke out
at Thessalonica, in which the imperial officer
and several of his troops were murdered.
Theodosius resolved to take the moat aignal
vengeance upon the whole city. An army of
barbarians was sent to Thessalonica ; the
people were invited to the games of the Circus,
and as soon as the place was full, the soldiers
received the signal for a massacre. For tMee
hours the spectators were indiscriminately ex
posed to the fury of the soldiers, and 7000 of
them, or, as some accounts say, more than
twice that number, paid the penalty of the
insurrection. St. Ambrose, the archbishop of
Milan, represented to Theodosius his crime in
a letter, and told Mm that penitence alone
could efface his guilt. Accordingly, when the
emperor proceeded to perform his devotions in
the usual manner in the great church of Milan,
the archbishop stopped Mm at the door, and
demanded an acknowledgment of Ms guilt.
The conscience-struck Theodosius humbled
himself before the Church, which has recorded
his penance as one of its greatest victories. He
laid aside the insignia of imperial power, and in
the posture of a suppliant in the church of
Milan entreated pardon for his great sin before
all the congregation. After eight months, the
emperor was restored to communion with the
Church. Theodosius spent three years in Italy,
during which he established Valenttoian II. on

THEODOSIUS
the tMone of the West. He returned to
Constantinople towards the end of 391.
Valenttoian was slain in 392 by Arbogastes,
who raised Eugenius to the empire of the
West. TMs involved Theodosius in a new
war ; but it ended in the defeat and death both
of Eugenius and Arbogastes to 394. Theodo
sius died at Milan four months after the defeat
of Eugenius, on the 17th of January, 395. His
two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, had already
been elevated to the rank of Augusti, and it
was arranged that the empire should be divided
"between them, Arcadius having the East, and
Honorius the West. Theodosius was a firm
CathoUc, and a fierce opponent and persecutor
of the Arians and aU heretics. It was to his
reign also that the formal destruction of
paganism took place; and we stiU possess a
large number of the laws of Theodosius, prohi
biting the exercise of the pagan religion, and
forbidding the heathen worsMp under severe
Penalties, to some cases extending to death. —
I., Roman emperor of the East, a.d. 408-450,
was born to 401, and was only seven years of
age at the death of Ms father Arcadius, whom
he succeeded. Theodosius was a weak prince ;
and Ms sister, Pulcheria, who became Ms
guardian to 414, possessed the virtual govern
ment of the empire during the remainder of Ms
long reign. The principal external events to
the reign of Theodosius were the war with the
Persians, wMch only lasted a short time
(421—422), and was terminated by a peace for
100 years, and the war with the Huns, who
repeatedly defeated the armies of the emperor,
and compeUed Mm at length to conclude a dis
graceful peace with them to 447 or 448. Theo
dosius died to 450, and was succeeded by Ms
¦sister, Pulcheria, who prudently took for her
coUeague M the empire the senator Marcian,
and made him her husband. Theodosius had
been married to 421 to the accomplished
Athenais, the daughter of the sopMst Leontius,
-who received at her baptism the name of
Eudocia. Their daughter Eudoxia was married
to ValentMian m, the emperor of the West.
In the reign of Theodosius, and that of Valen
tinian m., was made the compUation called
the Codex Theodosianus. It was published in
438. It consists of sixteen books, wMch are
•divided toto titles, with appropriate rubricae or
headings; and the constitutions belonging to
each title are arranged under it to cMonological
order. The first five books comprise the
greater part of the constitution wMch relates to
Jus Privatum ; the sixth, seventh, and eighth
books contain the law that relates to the con
stitution and administration ; the ninth book
treats of criminal law i the tenth and eleventh
treat of the pubUc revenue and some matters
relating to procedure ; the twelfth, tMrteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth books treat of the
constitution and the administration of towns
and other corporations; and the sixteenth
contains the law relating to ecclesiastical
matters [Did. of Antiq. s.v.]. Edited by J.
Gothofredus, Lyons, 1665, and Leipzig,
1736-1745 ; and by Haenel, Bonn, 1842.— III.
Literary 1. Of Bithynia, a mathematician,
mentioned by Strabo and by Vitruvius, the
latter of whom speaks of Mm as the inventor
of a universal sun-dial (Strab. p. 566 ; Vitruv.
jx 9 s).  2. Of Tripolis, a mathematician and
astronomer of some diattoction, who appeara to
have flourished later than the reign of Trajan.
He wrote several works, of wMch the three
foUowing are extant, and have been edited by

THEON

987

Nizze, Berol. 1852 : (1) ^Scpaipixd, a treatise on
the properties of the sphere, and of the circles
desoribed on its surface, (2) Ilepl ypepdv Ka\
vvktwv. (8) Tlepl olKytreav. (Smd. s. v.)
Theodota (®eoSdry), an Athenian courtesan,
and one of the most celebrated persons of that
class in Greece, is introduced as a speaker in
Xenophon's Memorabilia (iii. 11). She at last
attached herself to Alcibiades, and, after his
murder, she performed his funeral rites (Athen.
pp. 220, 574).
Theognis (0e'o7><is). 1. Of Megara, an an
cient elegiac and gnomic poet, is said to have
flourished B.C. 548 or 544. He may have been
born about 570, and would therefore have been
eighty at the commencement of the Persian
wars, 490, at wMch time we know from his own
writings that he was alive. Theognia belonged
to the oligarcMcal party in his native city, and
to ita fates he shared. He was a noble by
birth, and aU Ms aympathiea were with the
nobles. They are, in his poems, the dyaBol and
itrBXol, and the commons the icaicoi and SeiXol,
terms wMch, in fact, at that period, were regu
larly used in tMs political signification, and not
to their later ethical meamng. He was banished
with the leaders of the oligarchical party, hav
ing previously been deprived of all Ms property ;
and most of Ms poems were composed while he
was an exile. Most of his pohtical verses are
addressed to a certaM Cyrnus, the son of
Polypas. The other fragments of his poetry
are of a social, most of them of a festive,
character. They place us in the midst of a
circle of friends who formed a kind of convivial
aociety; all the members of tMs society be
longed to the class whom the poet calls ' the
good.' The collection of gnomic poetry which
has come down to us under the name of Theo
gnis contams, however, many additions from
later poets. The genume fragments of Theo
gnis, with some passages wMch are poetical in
thought, have much that helps us to understand
his times. — The beat editions are by Bekker,
Lips. 1815 and 1827 ; by Orellius, Turic. 1840, and
by Bergk, 1866. — 2. A tragic poet, contemporary
with Aristophanes, by whom he is satirised.
Theon (®eav). 1. The name of two mathe
maticians who are often confounded together.
The first is Theon the elder, of Smyrna, best
known as an arithmetician, who lived in the
time of Hadrian. The second ia Theon the
younger, of Alexandria, the father of Hypatia,
beat known aa an astronomer and geometer,
who lived in the time of Theodosius the elder.
Both were pagans, a fact wMch the date of the
second makes it desirable to state; and each
held the Platomsm of his period. Of Theon of
Smyrna aU that we have left is a portion of a
work entitled TG>v Kara paByptariK^v xPVO'ip^v
els ryv rov TlXdruvos dvdyvaitriv. The portion
which now exists is M two books, one on arith
metic, and one on music ; there was a third, on
astronomy, and a fourth, nepi rrjs (v Kdcrpcp
appovias. Edited by Hiller, Leips. 1878. Of
Theon of Alexandria the following works have
come down to ua : (1) Scholia on Aratua ; (2)
Edition of Euclid ; (3) Commentary on the
Almagest of Ptolemy, addreased to his son
Epiphanius ; (4) Commentary on the Tables
of Ptolemy. Edited by Halma, Paris, 1822.
— 2. Aelius Theon, of Alexandria, a sopMst
and rhetorician of uncertain date, wrote several
works, of which one entitled Progymnasmata
(Tlpoyvpvdo-para) is still extant. It is a useful
treatise on the proper system of preparation
for the profession of an orator, accordmg to the

938

THEONOE

rules laid down by Hermogenes and Aphtbonius.
Edited by Finckh, Stuttgart, 1834.— 3. . Of
Samos, a painter who flourished from the time
of PMUp onwards to that of the successors of
Alexander. The peculiar merit of Theon was
Ms prolific fancy. (QMnt. xii. 10, 6 ; Ael. V.H.
H. ii ; Plin. xxxv. 140.)
Theonoe (Qeovdy), daughter of Proteus and
Psammmathe, also called Idothea. [Idothea.]
Theophanes (®eo<pdvys). 1. Cn. Pompeius
Theophanes, of Mytilene to Lesbos, a learned
Greek, and one of the most intimate friends of
Pompey (Caes. B. G. iii. 18 ; Strab. p. 617).
Pompey appears to have made his acquaint
ance during the Mithridatic war, and soon be
came so much attached to lum that he presented
to Mm the Roman franchise in the presence of
his army. This occurred about B.C. 62 ; and in
the course of the same year Theophanes ob-
tained from Pompey the privileges of a free
state for his native city, although it had
espoused the cause of Mithridates. (Val. Max.
viii. 14, 3 ; Cic- pro Arch. 10.) Theophanes
come to Rome with Pompey; and on the
breaMng out of the Civil war he accompamed
his patron to Greece. Pompey appointed him
commander of the Fabri, and cMefly consulted
him and Lucceius on all important matters in
the war, much to the indignation of the Roman
nobles. After the battle of PharsaUa Theo
phanes fled with Pompey from Greece, and it
was owing to his advice that Pompey went to
Egypt. After the death of Ms patron, Theo
phanes took refuge in Italy, and was pardoned
by Caesar. (Plut. Pomp. 76, 78 ; Cic. ad Att.
xv. 19.) After his death the Lesbians paid
divine honours to his memory (Tac. Ann. vi.
18). Theophanes wrote the Mstory of Pom
pey's campaigns, in wMch he represented the
exploits of his patron to the most favourable
light. — 2. M. Pompeius Theophanes, son of
the preceding, was sent to Asia by Augustus,
in the capacity of procurator, and was at the
time that Strabo wrote one of the friends of
Tiberius. The latter emperor, however, put
his descendants to death towards the end of
his reign, a.d. 33, because their ancestor had
been one of Pompey's friends, and had received
after his death divMe honours (Strab. p. 617 ;
Tac. Ann. vi. 18). — 3. A Byzantine historian,
flourished most probably in the latter part of
the sixth century of our era. He wrote, in ten
books, the history of the Eastern Empire dur
ing the Persian war under Justin II., from a.d.
567 to 581. The work itself is lost, but some
extracts from it ore preserved by Photius. — 4.
Surnamed Isaurus, also a Byzantine historian,
lived during the second half of the eighth cen
tury, and the early part of the ninth. In con
sequence of his supporting the cause of image
worship, he was banished by Leo the Armenian
to the island of SamotMace, where he died, in
318. Theophanes wrote a Chronicon, which is
stiU extant, beginmng at the accession of Dio
cletian, in 277, and coming down to 811. It
consists, like the Chronica of Eusebius and of
SynceUus, of two parts, a History arranged
accordmg to years, and a Chronological Table,
of wMch the former is very superior to the
latter. It is published in the Collections of
the Bj-zantine writers, Paris, 1655, fol., Venet
1729, fol., and by De Boor, Lips. 1883.
Theophilus (QedtpiXos). 1. An Athenian
comic poet, most probably of the Middle
Comedy (Pollux, ix. 15; Suid. s.v.).— 2. A his
torian and geographer, quoted by Josephus,
Plutarch, and Ptolemy (Jos. c Ap. i. 28 ; Plut.

THEOPHRASTUS
p. 309 ; Ptol. i. 9, 3). — 3. One of the lawyers of
Constantinople who were employed by Justinian
on his first Code, on the Digest, and on the
composition of the Institutes. [Justinianus.]
Theophilus is the author of the Greek transla
tion or parapMase of the Institutes of Justi
nian, which has come down to us. It is entitled
'Ivarirovra ®eocp(Xov 'AvriKevaapos, Instituto
Theophili Anticensoris. It became the text
for the Institutes in the East, where the Latin
language was Uttle known, and entirely dis
placed the Latin text. Edited by Reitz, Haag.
1751, 2 vols. 4to. — i. TheopMlus Protospa-
tharius, the author of several Greek medical
works, wMch are still extant. Protospatharius
waa originaUy a military title given to the
colonel of the body-guards of the emperor of
Constantinople (Spatharii), but afterwards be
came also a high civU digmty. Theophilus
probably . lived M the seventh century after
Ctoist. Of his works the two most important
are : (1) Ilepl rys rov dv&pdirov KaraffKevys,
De Corporis Humani Fabrica, an anatomical
and physiological treatise in five books. The
best edition is by GreenMU, Oxon. 1842, 8vo.
(2) nepi oiSpav, De Urinis, of which the best
edition is by GMdot, Lugd. Bat. 1703 (and
1731), 8vo.— 5. Bishop of Antioch M the second
century. — 6. Bishop of Alexandria to the fourth
century. [Diet, of Christ. Biogr.]
Theophrastus (®edcppacnos), the Greek phi
losopher, was a native of Eresus in Lesbos, and
studied pMlosophy at Athens, first under Plato,
and afterwards under Aristotle. He become-
the favourite pupil of Aristotle, who is said to
have changed his original name of Tyrtamus to-
Theophrastus (or the Divine Speaker), to indi
cate the fluent and graceful address of his pupU ;
but tMs tale is scarcely credible. Aristotle
named Theophrastus Ms auccessor in the presi
dency of the Lyceum, and in Ms will bequeathed
to him Ms library and the originals of Mb own
writings. Theoptoastus was a worthy successor
of Ms great master, and nobly sustained the
character of the school. He is said to have had
2000 disciples, and among them such men as.
the comic poet Menander. He was MgMy
esteemed by the kings PhiUppus, Cassander,
and Ptolemy, and was not the less the object of
the regard of the Atheman people, as was
decisively shown when he was impeached of
impiety ; for he was not only acquitted, but Ms
accuser would have faUen a victim to Ms
calumny had not Theoptoastus generously
interfered to save him. Nevertheless, when the
pMlosophers were bamshed from Athens, to
b.c. 305, according to the law of Sophocles, Theo
phrastus also left the city, until Philo, a disciple
of Aristotle, in the very next year, brought.
Sophocles to punishment, and procured the
repeal of the law. From this time Theophrastus
continued to teach at Athens without any fur
ther molestation till his death. He died in
278, having presided over the Academy about
thirty-five years. His age is differently stated.
Accordmg to some accounts he Uved eighty-five
years ; accordmg to others, 107 years. (Diog.
Laert. v. 36-70; Strab. p. 618; GeU. xiu. 5.)
He is said to have closed Ms life with the com
plaint respecting the short duration of human
existence, that it ended just when the insight
into its problems was begMning. The whole
population of Athens took part M Ms funeral
obsequiea. He bequeathed hia library to Neleus
of Scepais. — TheopMastus exerted himself to*
carry out the pMlosopMcal system of Aristotle,
to throw Ught upon the difficulties contained to

THEOPHYLACTUS
Ms books, and to fill up the gaps in them. With
tMs view he wrote a great number of works, the
great object of which was the development of the
Aristotelian philosophy. Unfortunately, most
of these works have perished. The foUowing
are alone extant: (1) Characteres ('HBikoI
xapaKrypes), m thirty chapters, contatoing brief,
but exceedingly clear and grapMc, descriptions of
various types of human weakneaa, wMch are
generally as easy of personal appUcation now as
they were M the third century b.c. Various
theories are held about this book : (a) that it
was composed as it stands by TheopMastus ;
(6) that it is a set of extracts from two treatises
wMch he wrote on Moral PMlosophy ('H Bmd and
nepi yB&v) ; (c) that it is a collection of fugitive
sketches which had been circulated by hi-m
' among Ms friends and were gathered by them
after Ms death. On the whole it seems most
probable that it was formed partly accordmg to
(6) and partly according to (c). (2) A treatise on
Sensuous Perception and its Objects (Tlcgl alcrBy-
creus [koI aXaByrmv]). (8) A fragment of a
work on Metaphysics (Tav perd rd cpvcriKd).
(4) On the History of Plants (nepi tpvrdv
iffropias), to ten books, one of the earliest works
on botany wMch have come down to us, and
entitle Mm to be considered the real founder of
botanical science. It was largely used by PUny.
(5) On the Causes of Plants (Tlepl cpvrwv alridv),
origMaUy to eight books, of which six are still
extant. (6) Of Stones (Tlepl XiBav).— The best
editions of the complete works of TheopMastus
are by Schneider, Lips. 1818-21, five vols., and
by Wimmer, Vratislaviae, 1842-62. The best
separate edition of the Characteres is by
Jebb, Lond. 1870. The works on Plants are
edited separately by Stackhouse, Oxf . 1814, and
by Schneider, Leips. 1821.
Theophylactus (QeocpoXaxros), surnamed
Simocatta, a Byzantine historian, Uved at Con
stantinople, where he held some pubUc offices
under HeracUus, about a.d. 610-629. His chief
work is a Mstory of the reign of the emperor
Maurice, to eight books, from the death of Ti
berius IL and the accession of Maurice, to 582,
down to the murder of Maurice and his cMldren
by Phocas in 602. Ed. by Bekker, Bonn, 1834.
There is also extant another work of Theo
phylactus, entitled Quaestiones Physicde. Ed.
by Boissonade, Paris, 1835 ; De Boor, 1886.
Theopompus (Qediropiros). 1. King of Sparta,
reigned about B.C. 770-720. He is said to have
estabUshed the ephoralty, and to have been
mainly instrumental in bringing the first Mes
senian war to a successful issue. (Paus. in. 7,
5, iv. 7, 7 ; Plut. Lye. 7 ; Arist. Pol. v. 11.)—
2. Of Chios, the Greek Mstorian, was the son of
Damasistratus and the brother of Caucalus, the
rhetorician. He was born about B.C. 378. He
accompanied his father, who was exUed on
account of his espousmg the interests of the
Lacedaemonians, but he was restored to Ms
native country to the forty-fifth year of his age
(883), to consequence of the letters of Alexander
the Great, in which he exhorted the CMans to
recaU their exiles. Before he left his native
country, he attended the school of rhetoric
wMch Isocrates opened at Chios. Ephorus the
Mstorian was afeUow-studentwithhim,butwas
of a very different character, and Isocrates used
to say of them, that Theopompus needed the
bit and Ephorus the spur. (Cic. Brut. 56, ad
Att. vi. 1, 12.) By the advice of Isocrates,
Theopompus did not devote Ms oratorical
powers to the pleading of causes, but gave his
cMef attention to the study and composition of

THERA

939

Mstory. Like his master, however, he composed
many laudatory speeohes on set subjects. Thus
M 852 he contended at HaUcarnassus with
Naucrates and his master Isocrates for the
prize for oratory given by Artemisia in honour
of her husband, and gained the victory. (GeU.
x. 18 ; Plut. Vit. X. Orat. p. 888.) On Ms re
turn to Chios in 883, Theopompus, who was a
man of great wealth as well aB learning, took
an important position in the state ; but his
vehement temper, and his support of the aristo
cratical party, soon raised against Mm a host-
of enemies. Of these one of the most formid
able was the sopMst Theocritus (Strab. p. 645)..
As long aa Alexander Uved, Ms. enemies dared
not take any open proceedings against Theo
pompus, and even after the death of the
Macedonian monarch, he appears to have
enjoyed for some years the protection of the-
royal house; but he was eventuaUy expelled
from Chios as a disturber of the public peace, ,
and fled to Egypt to Ptolemy, about 305, being
at the time seventy-five years of age. Of his
further fate we have no particulars. — None of
the works of Theopompus have come down to-
us, but the followmg were his chief works:
(1) 'EXXyviKal ioropiat or StWai-is 'EXXyviKuv,
A History of Greece, in twelve books, which
was a continuation of the History of Thucydides..
Starting from B.C. 411, where the History of
Thucydides breaks off, it embraced a period of
seventeen years down to the battle of Cnidus, in
894 (Diod. xiii. 42, xiv. 84). (2) iiAwnriKck, also
called 'Icrroplai (/car' il-oxyf), The History of
Philip, father of Alexander the Great, in fifty-
eight books, from b.c. 360 to 336. This work
contained so many digressions that Philip V.,
Mng of Macedonia, was able, by retaining only
what belonged to the proper subject, to reduce
the work from fifty-eight books to sixteen.
Fifty-three of the fifty-eight books of the
original work were extant in the ninth century
of the Christian era, and were read by Photius,.
who has preserved an abstract of the twelfth
book. (3) Orationes, wMch were cMefly Pane
gyrics, and what the Greeks caUed SvpBov-
XevriKol Xdyot. Of the latter Mnd one of the
most celebrated was addressed to Alexander on
the state of CMos. Theopompus is praised by
ancient writers for Ms diligence and accuracy.
In his descriptions of battles, it is true, he sacri
ficed exactness to ornamental writing, so that
his topography is sometimes impossible to f oUow.
He is said to have taken more pleasure M
blaming than in commending ; but the charge
of malignity brought against him (Nep. Alcib.
11 ; Plut. Lys. 30 ; Pol. viii. 12) was probably
undeserved; and it would be fairer to say that
his judgment of politicians waa severe (cf.
Dionys. Ep. ad Cn. Pomp. 6). The style of
Theopompus waa formed on the model of Iao-
cratea, and possessed the characteristic merits
and defects of Ms master. It was pure, clear,
and elegant, but deficient in vigour, loaded with.
ornament, and in general too artificial. Theo
pompus is noticed by Pliny as the earliest
Greek writer who made any definite mention of
Rome : he spoke of the capturo of the city by
the Gauls (Plin. iU. 57).— The best collections
of the fragments of Theopompus are by Wichers,
Lugd. Bat. 1829, and by C. and Theod. MiiUer
to the Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum,
Paris, 1841.— 3. An Athenian comic poet, of the
Old, and also of the Middle Comedy, was the
son of Theodectes or Theodorus, or Tisamenus,
and wrote as late as B.C. 380.
Thera (@ypa : ®ypaios : Santorin, but now

940

THERAMBO

again caUed Thera or Phera), an island in the
Aegaean sea, and the chief of the Sporades,
diatant from Crete 700 stadia, and twenty-five
Roman mUes S. of the island of Ios. Thera is
of volcanic origin, and the ancients themselves
seem to have been aware that it had not always
existed there. It is Baid to have been formed
by a clod of earth thrown from the ship Argo,
and to have received the name of CaUiste, when
it first emerged from the Bea (Ap. Rhod. iv.
1762). Its earlier name is mentioned by Hero
dotus (iv. 147 ; cf. Strab. p. 484 ; Plm. iv. 71).
Thera is said to have been origMally inhabited
by Phoenicians, but was afterwards colonised
by Lacedaemonians and Mmyans of Lemnos
under the guidance of the Spartan Theras, who
gave Ms name to the island (Hdt. I. c). Cyrene
was a colony from Thera, founded in B.C. 631.
[Cybene.] Thera remained faithful to the
Spartans, and was one of the few islands which
espoused the Spartan cause at the commence
ment of the Peloponnesian war (Thuc. ii. 31).
Thera, the largest of a group of volcanic islands,
has been likened in form to a horse-shoe ; but a
crescent with its two points elongated towards
the west would be a more exact description.
The distance round the inner curve is twelve
miles, and round the outer eighteen, making
the coast-line of the whole island thirty
miles : its breadth is in no part more than
three mUes. Opposite to Thera westward
is Therasia, which still bears the same
name. (Strab. pp. 57, 484 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.
Bypao-ia ; Plm. iv. 70.) Its circuit is 7£ miles,
its length from N. to S. about 2£ miles, and its
breadth a mile. About 1| mile S. of Therasia,
hes Aspronisi, or WMte Island, oMy a mile in
circuit, and so called from being capped with a
deep layer of pozzolana: the name of this
island is not mentioned by the ancient writers.
These three islands, Thera, Therasia, and
Aspronisi, enclose an expanse of water nearly
eighteen miles in circumference, which is in re-
aUty the crater of a great volcano. The islands
were originally united, and were subsequently
separated by the eruption of the crater. In the
centre of thia basin tMee volcanic mountains
rise, known by the name of Kamm&ni or the
Burnt (Kappewn, i. e. Kavpevy instead of KeKav-
pevy), and distinguished as the Palaea or Old,
the Nea or New, and the Mikra or Little. The
only fertiUty of the island consists in its vines,
wMch, like those of other volcanic districts, are
MgMy productive. The volcano has been active
periodically from prehistoric times to the
present day ; for, though Herodotus does not
mention the phenomenon, there are evidences of
eruptions long before his time. On the SW.
promontory of Thera (C. Akroteri) remains of
houses were recently found below the layers
of pumice, contaMing iron implements and
pottery, apparently- of - the date of Hissarlik
pottery ; and on Therasia dwellings were exca
vated belonging to a still earlier period, buried
beneath pumice, and themselves built partly of
volcanic stone. The moat remarkable eruptions
recorded in ancient times were those of B.C. 198,
when the oldest of the three volcanic islets
(Palaea Kammdni) rose -from the sea (Strab.
p. 57 ; Just. xxx. 4; Euseb. Ghron. p. 144) —
the Rhodians occupied it and built on it. a
temple to Poseidon Asphalius — and of 50-60 a.d.
(Sen. Q. N. ii. 26, vi. 4 ; Dio Cass. Ix-. 29 ; Georg.
Cedren. i. p. 197).
Therambo (QepdpBa, also QpdpBos), a town
of Macedonia, on the peninsula Pallene (Hdt.
vii. 123).

THERICLES
Theramenes (®ypapevys), an Athenian, son
of Hagnon, was a leadmg member of the olig
archical government of the 400 at Athens in
B.C. 411. In tMs, however, he does not appear
to have occupied as eminent a station as he
had hoped to fill, while at. the same time the
declaration of Alcibiades and of the army at
Samos agamst the oligarchy made it evident to
him that its days were numbered. Accordingly
he withdrew from the more violent aristocrats
and began to cabal against them ; and he sub
sequently took not only a prominent part to
the deposition of the 400, but came forward as
the accuser of Antiphon and Archeptolemus,
who had been Ms intimate friends, but whose
death he was now procuring. At the battle of
Argmusae, M 406, Theramenes held a sub-
or din ate command in the Athenian fleet, and he
was one of those who, after the victory, were
commissioned by the generals (accordmg to
their own story) to repair to the scene of action
and save as many as possible of the disabled
gaUeys and their crews. A storm, it is said,
rendered the execution of the order impracti
cable; yet, instead of trusting to tMs ground
of defence, Theramenes thought it safer to
divert the popular anger from Mmself to
others, and took a leading part in bringing
them to trial. After the capture of Athens by
Lysander, Theramenes was chosen one of the
TMrty Tyrants (404). He endeavoured to
check the tyranmcal proceedings of Ms col-
leaguea, foreseemg that their violence would be
fatal to the permanence of their power. His
opposition, however, had no effect in restrain
ing them, but only induced the desire to rid
themselves of so troublesome an associate,
whose former conduct, moreover, had shown
that no political party could depend on him,
and who had earned, by Ms trimming, the nick
name of ' Turncoat ' (KdBopvos — a boot wMch
might be worn on either foot). He waa there
fore accused by Critias before the councU as a
traitor, and when his nominal judges, favour
ably impressed by his able defence, exMbited
an evident disposition to acquit Min, Critias
Mtroduced into the chamber a number of men
armed with daggers, and declared that, as all
who were not included in the privUeged TMee
Thousand might be put to death by the sole
authority of the Thirty, he struck the name of
Theramenes out of that list, and condemned
him with the consent of allMscoUeagues. The
ramenes then rushed to the altar, which stood
in the councU-chamber, but was dragged from
it and carried off to execution. When he hod
drunk the hemlock, he dashed out the last
drops from the cup, exclaimmg, ' This to the
health of the handsome Critias ! ' (Xen. Hell.
ii. 8, 2 ; Diod. xiv. 5 ; cf. Cic. Tusc. i. 40.)
Therapnae (®epdirvai, also ®epdirvy, Dor.
®epdirva '. ®epairvdios. I. A town in Laconica,
on the left bank of the Eurotas, and a little
above Sparta. It received its name from
Therapne, daughter of Lelex, and is celebrated
in mythology as the birthplace of Castor and
Pollux, and contained temples of these divini
ties as well as temples of Menelaus and Helen,
both of whom were said to be buried here
(Pausanias, iii. 19, 9 ; Dioscuri). — 2. A town to
Boeotia, on the road from Thebes to the
Asopus. Theras. [Theea.]
Therasia. [Thera.]
Thericles (®ypmXys), a CorintMan potter,
whose works obtained such celebrity that they
became known throughout Greece by the name.

THERMA
of ®riptKXeia (sc. irorypia) or KiXtKes G^piKAeTai
(or -01), and these names were applied not only
to cups of earthenware, but also to those of
wood, glass, gold, and sUver (Athen. pp.
470-472 ; Plin. xvi. 205).
Therma (®eppy : Qepaios), a town to Mace
donia, afterwards called Thessalonica, situated
at the NE. extremity of a great gulf of the
Aegaean sea, lymg between Thessaly and the
peninsula Chalcidice, and called Thermaicus
or Thermaeus Sinus (0epMa7os koAttos), from
the town at its head. TMs gulf was also called
Macedomcus Smua : its modern name is Gulf
ofSalomki. [Thessalonica.]
Thermae (@eppai), a town to Sicily, built by
the inhabitants of Himera, after the destruction
of the latter city by the CarthagMians. For
details see Himera.
Thermaicus Sinus. [Therma.]
Thermodon (®eppidSa>v : Thermeh), a river of
Pontus, to the district of Themiscyra, the re
puted country of the Amazons, rises to a
mountain called AmazoMus M. (and still Mason
Dagh), near Phanoroea, and falls toto the sea
about thirty mUes E. of the mouth of the Iris,
after a short course, but with so large a body
of water that its breadth, according to Xeno
phon, was tMee pletMa (above 800 feet), and
it was navigable. (Xen. An. v. 6, 9, vi. 2, 1 ;
Amazones.) At ita mouth was the city of
Themis cyba.
Thermopylae, often called simply Pylae
(©epjuoiruAai, nuAai), that is, the Hot Gates or
the Gates, a celebrated pass leadmg from
Thessaly mto Locris. It lay between Mt.
CalUdromus, a part of the ridge of Mt. Oeta,
and an inaccessible morass, forming the edge of
the Malic Gulf. At one end of the pass, close
to Anthela, the mountain approached so close
to the morass as to leave room for only a single
carriage between ; tMs narrow entrance formed
the W. gate of Thermopylae. About a mile to
the E. the mountato again approached close to
the sea, near the Locrian town of Alpeni, thus
forming the E. gate of Thermopylae. The
space between these two gates was wider and
more open, and was distingmshed by its abund
ant flow of hot springs, wMch were sacred to
Heracles : hence the name of the place. Ther
mopylae was the only pass by wMch an enemy
can penetrate from northern toto southern
Greece ; whence its great importance in Grecian
Mstory. It is especiaUy celebrated on account
of the heroic defence of Leomdas and the 300
Spartans againat the mighty host of Xerxes.
They only feU because the Persians had dis
covered a path over the mountains, and were
enabled to attack them in the rear. This
mountam path began near TracMs, ascended
the gorge of the river Asopus and the hill
called Anopaea, then crossed the crest of Oeta,
and descended to the rear of Thermopylae
near the town of Alpem. In 279 B.C. the Greeks
held the pass for some time agamst the Gauls,
tiU they were taken to the rear, as Leonidas
had been. (Hdt. vii. 207-228 ; cf . Strab. p. 428 ;
Liv. xxxvi. 15 ; Paus. iv. 35, 9, x. 19-22 ; Pol.
x. 41.) , , .
Thermum or Therma (®eppov or to ®eppa), a
town of the AetoUans near Stratus, with warm
mineral springs, was regarded for some time as
the capital of the country, since it was the place
of meeting of the Aetolian Confederacy (Strab.
p. 463 ; Pol. v. 7). ,
Thermus, Minucius. 1. ft., served under
Scipio as tribunus mUitum in the war against
Hannibal in Africa to B.C. 202 ; was tribune of

THESEUS

941

the plebs 201 ; curule aedile 197 ; and praetor
196, when he carried on war with great success
in Nearer Spain. He waa consul in 198, and
carried on war against the Ligurians in this and
the two following years. On his return to
Rome in 190, a triumph was refused him,
through the influence of M. Cato, who delivered
on the occasion his two orations entitled De
decern Hominibus and De falsis Pugnis
(Gell. x. 8, xiii. 24). Thermus was MUed in
188, while fighting under Cn. Manlius Vulso
against the TMacians. (Pol. xxii. 26; Liv.
xxxviii. 41, 46 ; App. Syr. 39.)— 2. M., proprae
tor in 81, accompanied L. Murena, Sulla's
legate, into Asia. Thermus was engaged to the
siege of Mytilene, and it waa under him that
Julius Caesar served his first campaign and
gained his first laurels (Suet. Jul. 2.)— 3. ft.,
propraetor 51 and 50 to Asia, where he received
many letters from Cicero, who praises his ad-
mimstration of the province. On the breaking
out of the Civil war he espoused the side of
Pompey. (Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 58-57 ; Caes. B.C.
i. 12 ;_ App. B.C. v. 189.)
Theron (®ypwv), tyrant of Agrigentum to
Sicily, was the son of Aenesidemus, and de
scended from one of the most illustrious fami
lies in his native city. He obtamed the supreme
power about B.C. 488, and retained it tiU his
death in 472. He conquered Himera m 482,
and united this powerful city to his own domi
nions. He was in close aUiance with Gelo,
ruler of Syracuse and Gela, to whom he had
given Ms daughter Demarete in marriage ; and
he shared with Gelo in the great victory gained
over the Carthaginians in 480. On the death
of Gelo in 478, Theron espoused the cause of
Polyzelus, who had been driven into exUe by
Ms brother Hiero. Theron raised an army for
the purpose of reinstating him, but hostilities
were prevented, and a peace concluded between
the two sovereigns. (Diod. xi. 20-25,48, 53;
PMd. Ol. ii., iii. ; Hdt. vii. 165 ; Gelo.)
Thersander (®epcravSpos), son of Polymces
and Argia, and one of the Epigoni, was married
to Demonassa, by whom he became the father
of Tisamenus. He went with Agamemnon to
Troy, and was slain in that expedition by Tele
phus. His tomb was shown at Elaea to Mysia,
where sacrifices were offered to him. (Hdt.
iv. 147 ; Paus. iii. 15, 4, vii. 3, 1, ix. 3, 7, x. 10,
2.) Virgil (Aen. ii. 261) enumerates Thersander
among the Greeks concealed to the wooden horse.
Thersites (®epairys), son of Agrius, the
ugliest man and the most impudent talker
among the Greeks at Troy (H. ii. 212). Accord
ing to the later poets, he was MUed by AcMUes,
because he had ridiculed him for lamenting the
death of Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons
(Tzetz. ad Lye. 999 ; Quint. Smyrn. i. 800).
Theseus (®yaeis), the great legendary hero
of Attica, was the son of Aegeus, king of
Athens, and of Aettoa, the daughter of Pit
theus, kmg of Troezen. This, however, was
the Attic tradition, which aimed at making
Theseus a prince of Athenian descent. The
older legend of Troezen itself made Theseus
the son of Poseidon (Paus. i. 17, 3 ; Diod. iv.
59; Plut. Thes. 6 ; Eur. Hipp.881). Plutarch
M his Theseus has gathered into a connected
story various legends, some of Athenian origin,
some from other countries : (1) Ms journey from
Troezen to Athens, an Attic glorification of
their hero ; (2) the Cretan story of the Minotaur
adapted to the Attic legends ; (3) his later adven
tures, some of which are of Spartan origin.
But the story may be related consecutively as.

942 Plutarch has given it. He was brought up at
'Troezen, and when he reached maturity, he took,
by his mother's directions, the sword and san-
¦dals, the tokens which had been left by Aegeus,
and proceeded to Athens. Eager to emulate
Heracles, he went by land, displaying Ms
prowess by destroying the robbers and monsters
that infested the country. Periphetes, Sims,
Phaea the Crommyonian sow, Sciron, Cercyon,
and Procrustes fell before him. At Athens he
was immediately recognised by Medea, who
laid a plot for poisoning him at a banquet to
wMch he was invited. By means of the sword
which he carried, Theseus was recognised by
Aegeus, acknowledged aa hia son, and declared
Ms successor. The sons of PaUas, thus disap
pointed in their hopes of succeeding to the
throne, attempted to secure the succession by
violence, and declared war, but, being betrayed
by the herald Leos, were deatroyed. The cap
ture of the Marathonian bull (cf. the story of
Heracles and the Cretan bull), which had long
laid waste the surrounding country, was the
next exploit of Theseus. After tMs Theseus
went of his own accord as one of the seven
youths whom the Athemans were obliged to
send every year, with seven maidens, to Crete,
to be devoured by the Mmotaur. When
they arrived at Crete, Ariadne, the daughter
of Minos, became enamoured of Theseus, and
provided him with a sword with which he
slew the Mmotaur, and a clue of thread by
which he found his way out of the labyrinth.
Having effected Ms object, Theseus sailed away,
carrymg off Ariadne. There were various
accounts about Ariadne ; but according to the
general account Theseus abandoned her to the
island of Naxos on his way home. [Ariadne.]
He was generaUy believed to have had by her
two sons, Oenopion and Staphylus; yet this
does not agree with the account in the Odyssey,
which represents her as dying before her wed
ding with Theseus was brought about, and
apparently after her union with Dionysus (Od.
xi. 320). As the vessel in wMch Theseus sailed
approached Attica, he neglected to hoist the
"white sail which was to have been the signal
of the success of the expedition; whereupon
Aegeus, thinMng that his son had perished,
threw Mmself into the sea. [Aegeus.] The
seus thus became king of Athens. Other ad
ventures foUowed, again repeating those of
Heracles. Theseus is said to have aaaailed the
Amazons before they had recovered from the
attack of Heracles, and to have carried off their
queen Antiope. The Amazons in their turn
invaded Attica, and penetrated into Athens
itself ; and the final battle in which Theseus
overcame them was fought in the very midst
-of the city. [Amazones.] By Antiope The
seus was said to have had a son named Hippo
lytus or Demophoon, and after her death to
have married Phaedra [Hippolytus ; Phaedra].
Theseus again was one of the Argonauts (the
anachronism of the attempt of Medea to poison
him does not seem to have been noticed) ; he
joined in other famous expeditions (as in the
Calydonian hunt), and he aided Adrastus in
recovering the bodies of those slain before
Thebes. He contracted a close friendship with
Pirithous, and aided Mm and the Lapithae
against the Centaurs. With the assistance of
Pirithous he carried off Helen from Sparta
whUe she was quite a girl, and placed her at
Aphidnae, under the care of Aethra. It should
be noted that this is one of that group of
legends which appear to have started from the

THESEUS Peloponnesus and represent Theseus in the
character of a marauding chief with little of
the hero about Mm: but it was mcorporated
to the Athenian story. After this he helped
Pirithous to Ms attempt to carry off Perse
phone from the lower world. Pirithous perished
in the enterprise, and Theseus was kept to
durance until he was delivered by Heracles.
Meanwhile Castor and PoUux invaded Attica,
and carried off Helen and Aethra, Academus
having informed the brothers where they were to
be found. [For the Troezenian story of Hippo
lytus and its adoption in Attic legends see
Hippolytus.] Menestheus incited the people
agatost Theseus, who on Ms return found him
self unable to re-establish Ms authority, and
retired to Scyros, where he met with a
treacherous death at the hands of Lycomedes.
The departed hero was believed to have re
appeared to aid the Athenians at the battle of
Marathon. In 469 the bones of Theseus were
discovered by Cimon in Scyros, and brought to
Athens, where they were deposited in a temple
(the Theseum) erected to honour of the hero.
[This is not the temple now standing wMch is
often called the Theseum : see p. 143, b.] A
festival in honour of Theseus was celebrated on
the eighth day of each month, especiaUy on the
8th of Pyanepsion. — There can be no doubt
that Theseus is a purely legendary personage.
Nevertheless, in later times the Athenians
came to regard Mm as the author of a very
important political revolution in Attica. Before
his time Attica had been broken up into twelve
petty independent states or townsMps, acknow
ledging no head, and connected only by a fede
ral union. Theseus abolished the separate
governments, and erected Athens into the
capital of a single commonwealth. The festi
val of the Panathenaea was instituted to com
memorate tMs important revolution. Theseus
is said to have established a constitutional
government, retaining in Ms own hands only
certain definite powers and functions. He is
further said to have distributed the Athenian
citizens toto the three classes of Eupatridae,
Geomori, and Demiurgi. It would be a vain
task to attempt to decide whether there is any
historical basis for the legends about Theseus,
and still more so to endeavour to separate the
historical from the legendary in what has been
preserved. The Theseus of the Athenians was
a hero who fought the Amazons, and slew the
Minotaur, and carried off Helen. A personage
who should be nothing more than a wise king,
consolidating the Athenian commonwealth,
however possible his existence might be, would
have no historical reality ; rather it should be
said that Theseus was invented to account for
the growth of Mstitutions whose history was
lost ; or that a local divinity round whom many
legends had gathered was transformed toto a
national hero and further credited with the
changes in the state which had actually taken
place. The connexion of Theseus with Posei
don, the national deity of the Iomc tribes, Ms
coming from the Ionic town Troezen, forcing
his way through the Isthmus into Attica, and
establishing the Isthmia as an Ionic Panegyris,
rather suggest that Theseus is, at least in part,
the mythological representative of an Ionian
immigration into Attica, which, adding perhaps
to the strength and importance of Ionian
settlers already in the country, might easily
have led to that political aggregation of the dis
jointed elements of the state wMch is assigned
to Theseus.

THESMIA
Thesmia, Thesmophoros. [Demeter.]
Thespiae orThespia (Beo-ireial, ©eoW, ©eV-
rreta, ®ecnria: ®e<ririeis, ®ecrvidSys, Thespien-
™ : Eremo or Bimokastro), an ancient town to
-Boeotia on the SE. slope of Mt. Helicon, at no
great distance from the Crissaean Gulf, on
which stood its harbour Creusis (H. ii. 498 ;
Hdt. vm. 50 ; Paus. ix. 26, 6). Its inhabitants
aid not f oUow the example of the other Boeotian
towns in submitting to Xerxes, and a number
of them bravely fought under Leonidas at
Thermopylae, and perished with the Spartans.
Their city was burnt to the ground by the
Persians, but was subsequently rebuilt. (Hdt.
vii. 132, 200, 222, viii. 50.) In the Peloponne
sian war the Thebans made themselves masters
of the town and destroyed its walls (Thuc. iv.
133, vi. 95). The inhabitants were expeUed
altogether from the city after the battle of
Leuctra (Paus. ix. 14, 2); but the city was
afterwards rebuilt and occupied (Pol. xxvni. 1 ;
Liv. xM. 43 ; Strab. p. 410). At Thespiae was
preserved the celebrated marble statue of Eros
by Praxiteles, who had given it to Phryne, by
-whom it was presented to her native town.
[Praxiteles.] From the vicinity of the town
to Mt. HeUcon the Muses are called Thespiades,
and a vaUey close to Thespiae was sacred to
them. Helicon itself is named the Thespia
rupes (Ov. Met. v. 310 ; Varr. L.L. vii. 2). There
are considerable rematos of the waUs of the
town. Rematos of an Ionie temple and of a
theatre with a weU-preserved proscemum have
heen excavated to the VaUey of the Muses.
Thespis (©eViris), the father of Greek Tragedy,
was a contemporary of Pisistratus, and a native
of Icarus, one of the demi to Attica, where
the worsMp of Dionysus had long prevaUed.
The alteration made by Thespis, which gave
to the old Tragedy a new and dramatic cha
racter, was very simple but very hnportant.
Before Ms time the leader of the Chorus had
recited the adventures of Dionysus and had
been answered by the Chorus. Thespia in
troduced an actor (viroKpirys, or ' anawerer ')
to reply to the leader of the Chorus. It is
clear that, though the performance still re
mained, as far as can be gathered, chiefly
lyrical, and the dialogue was of comparatively
smaU account, yet a decided step towards the
drama had been made. [See Diet, of Ant. art.
Tragoedia] There is no reason to believe
Horace's statement that Thespis went about to
a waggon as a strolUng player (A.P. 276). It
is suggested that the expressions for the free
dom of jesting at the festival of the Lenaea (ret
e"{ apa\uv, e{ dpd%ns v$pi(eiv) may have given
rise to the story.
Thespius (©ecririos), son of Erechtheus, who,
according to some, founded the town of Thespiae
in Boeotia (Paus. ix. 26, 4). _
Thresproti (0eo"jrpa>Toi)> a people of Epirua,
inhabiting the diatrict caUed after them Thes
protia (@eo-irpwria) or Thesprotis (®eo-irpairis),
wMch extended along the coaat from the Am-
toacian gulf northwards as far as the river
Thyamis, and inland as fan as the territory of
the Molossi. The SE. part of the country on
the coast, from the river Acheron to the Am
bracian gulf, was caUed Cassopaea from the
town Caasope, and is sometimes reckoned as a
distinct district. The Thesproti were the most
ancient inhabitants of Epirus, and are said to
have derived their name from Thesprotus, the
son of Lycaon. Here was the oracle of Dodona,
the great centre of the Pelasgic worsMp. [Do
dona ¦ Pelasgi.] From Thesprotia issued the

THESSALIA

943

ThessaUans, who took poasession of the country
afterwards called Thessoly. In the Mstorical
period the Thesprotians were a people of
small importance, having become subject to the
kings of the Moloaaiana. (Hdt. vii. 176, viii. 47 ;
Thuc. i. 46, iv. 35, v. 22 ; Strab. p. 266 ; Molossi.)
Thessalia (0eo-o-aA.fa or QerraXla : ®eocraX6s
or ®erraX6s), the largest division of Greece,
was bounded on the N. by the Cambunian
mountains, which separated it from Macedonia ;
on the W. by Mt. Pmdua, which aeparated it
from Epirus ; on the E. by the Aegaean sea ;
and on the S. by the Maliac gulf and Mt. Oeta,
which separated it from Locris, Phocis and
Aetolia. Thessaly Proper is a large plain lying
between the Cambunian mountams on the N.
and Mt. Othrys on the S., Mt. Pindus on the W.,
and Mts. Osaa and Pelion on the E. It ia thus
shut in on every side by mountain barriers,
broken only at the NE. corner by the valley
and defile of Tempe, which separates Ossa from
Olympus, and is the only road ttoough which
an invader can enter Thessaly from the N.
Thia plain is drained by the river Peneus and
its affluents, and is said to have been originally
a vast lake, the waters of which were after
wards carried off through the vale of Tempe
by some sudden convulsion, which rent the
rocks of this valley asunder. [Peneus; Tempe.]
The lake of Nessonis at the foot of Mt. Ossa,
and that of Boebeia at the foot of Mt. Pelion,
are supposed to have been remains of this vast
lake. In addition to the plain already described
there were two other districts Mcluded under the
general name of Thessaly : one called Magnesia,
being a long narrow strip of country, extendmg
along the coast Of the Aegaean sea from Tempe
to the Pagasaean gulf, and bounded on the W.
by Mts. Ossa and Olympus ; and the other,
called Malis, being a long narrow vale at the
extreme S. of the country, lying between Mts.
Othrys and Oeta, and drained by the river
Spercheus. Thessaly is said to have been
originaUy known by the names of Pyrrha,
Aemonia and Aeolia (Hdt. vii. 176). The two
former appellations belong to mythology
[Pyrrha] ; the latter refers to the period when
the country was inhabited by Aeolians, who
were afterwards expeUed from the country by
the ThessaUans about sixty years after the
Trojan war. The ThessaUans are said to have
come from Thesprotia, but at what period their
name became the name of the country cannot
be determmed. It does not occur to Homer,
who only mentions the several principalities of
wMch it was composed (II. ii. 683, 749, 756), and
does not give any general appellation to the
country. Thessaly was divided in very early
times into four districta or tetrarchiea, a diviaion
which we still find aubaisting M the Pelo
ponnesian war. These districts were Hesti
aeotis, Pelasgiotis, Thessaliotis and Phthiotis.
They comprised, however, only the great Thes
salian plain ; and besides them, we find mention
of four other districts, viz. Magnesia, Dolopia,
Oetaea, and Malis, which was less probably
included to Thessaly. Perrhaebia was, properly
speaking, not a district, since Perrhaebi waa
the name of a Pelasgic people settled in
Hestiaeotis and Pelasgiotis. [Perrhaebi.] 1.
Hestiaeotis (''EffTiaiaT is or 'Eo-rt&ris), inhabited
by the Hestiaedae ('Eoriaiwrat or 'Eari&rai)
the rVN. part of Thessaly, bounded on the N
by Macedonia, on the W. by Epirus, on the E.
by Pelasgiotis and on the S. by Thessaliotis :
the Peneus may be said in general to have
formed its S. limit.— 2. Pelasgiotis (neAoo--

944

THESSALIA

yiwns), the E. part of the ThessaUan plain,
was bounded on the N. by Macedoma, on the
W. by Hestiaeotis, on the E. by Magnesia, and
on the S. by the Sinus Pagasaeus and Phthiotis.
The name shows that it was originaUy inhabited
by people who had been settled there to prehis
toric times, and one of the chief towns in the
district waB Larissa, which is regarded as a
specialty 'Pelasgian' name. [Pelasgi.] — 3.
Thessaliotis (0eo-o-aA[omj), the SW. part of
the Thessalian plain, so called because it was
first occupied by the Thessalians who came
across Mt. Pmdus from Thesprotia. It was
bounded on the N. by Hestiaeotis, on the W. by
Epirus, on the E. by Pelasgiotis, and on the
S. by Dolopia and Phthiotis. — 4. Phthiotis
(QBiaris), inhabited by the Phthidae (QBiarai),
the SE. of Thessaly, bounded on the N. by
Thessaliotis, on the W. by Dolopia, on the S.
by the Sinus Maliacus, and on the E. by the
Pagasaean guU. Its inhabitants were Achaeans,
and are frequently called the Achaean PhtMotae.
It is in this district that Homer places Phthia
and HeUas proper, and the dominions of AchiUes.
The other districts which were reckoned less pro
perly as part of Thessaly were : Magnesia [Mag
nesia]. — Dolopia (AoAo7r(o), inhabited by the
Dblbpes (AdXoires), a smaU district bounded on
the E. by Phthiotis, on the N. by Thessaliotis,
on the W. by Athamania, and on the S. by
Oetaea. They were an ancient people, for they
are not only mentioned by Homer as fighting
before Troy, but they also sent deputies to the
AmpMctyonic assembly. — Oetaea (Oiraia), in
habited by the Oetad (Olrdioi) and Aenianes
(Aividves), a district in the upper valley of the
Spercheus, lying between Mts. Othrys and Oeta,
and bounded on the N. by Dolopia, on the S. by
Phocis, and on the E. by Malis. — Malis [Malis].
— History of Thessaly. [For the important
legendary Mstory of Thessaly, see Centauri ;
Lapithae ; Argonautae.] The ThesBalians, as
was said above, were a Thesprotian tribe.
Under the guidance of leaders said to be
descendants of Heracles, they invaded tho W.
part of the country, afterwards called Thessa
liotis, and drove out or reduced to the con
dition of Penestae or bondsmen the ancient,
Aeolian inhabitants. The Thessalians after
wards spread over the other parts of the
country, compelling the Perrhaebi, Magnetes,
Achaean PhtMotae, &c, to submit to their au
thority and pay them tribute. The population
of Thessaly, therefore, consisted, like that of
Laconica, of tMee distinct clasBeB : (1) the
Penestae, whose condition waa nearly the same
aa that of the Helots [see Did. of Ant. art.
Penestae] ; (2) the subject people, corre
sponding to the Perioeci of Laconica ; (3) the
Thessalian conquerors, who alone had any share
M the public administration, and whose lands
were cultivated by the PeneBtae. For some
time after the conquest, perhaps down to the
time of the Persian wars (cf. Hdt. v. 63, vii. 6)
and even to 454 b.c. (cf. Thuc. i. Ill), Thessaly
was governed by Mngs said to be of the race of
Heracles. When the kingly power was abo
lished, the government in the separate cities
became oUgarcMcal, the power being chiefly in
the hands of a few great families descended
from the ancient Mngs. Of these two of the
most powerful were the Aleuadae and the Sco-
padae, the former of whom ruled at Larissa,
and the latter at Cranon or Crannon. These
nobles, who are compared to the feudal lords
of the middle ages, had Vast estates cultivated
by the Penestae ; they were celebrated for their

hospitaUty and princely mode of life, and they
attracted to their courts many of the poets and
artists of southern Greece. Chief among the-
national sports of the ThessaUans, as on
equestrian people, was the Taureia or bull-hunt-
Mg, in wMch the mounted pursuers leapt upon
the buU when he was exhausted by running
and pulled him to the ground. At an early
period the ThessaUans were united into a con
federate body. Each of the four districts into
wMch the country was divided probably regu
lated its affairs by some Mnd of provincial
councU ; and when occasion required, a chief
magistrate was elected under the name of Tagus
(Tayds), whose commands were obeyed by all the
four districts. His command was of a miUtary
rather than of a civil nature, and he seems to
have been appointed only to case of war. TMs
confederacy, however, was not of much practical
benefit to the Thessalian people, and appears
to have been used only by the ThessaUan nobles
as a means of cementing and maintaining
their power. The Thessalians never became of
muchi mportance in Grecian history. They
submitted to the PerBiana on their invasion
of Greece, and they exercised little influence
on Grecian affairs till after the end of the
Peloponnesian war. About tMs time the power
of the aristocratical families began to decUne,
and Lycophron, who had estabUshed himself as
tyrant at Pherae, offered a formidable opposi
tion to the great aristocratical families, and en
deavoured to extend Ms power over aU Thessaly.
His ambitious schemes were reaUsed by Jason,
the successor, and probably the son, of Lyco-

Coin of Thessalia, of the period of the Thessalian
Confederacy.
Obv., head of Zeus ; rev., Athene Itonis ; 9E22AA0.N noA.
pMon, who caused himself to be elected Tagus
about b.c. 874. WMle he lived the whole of
Thessaly was united as one poUtical power, and
he began to aim at maktog himself master of
all Greece, when he was assassinated, in 370,
[See more fully to Did. of Ant. art. Tagus.]
The office of Tagus became a tyranny under
Ms successors, Polydorus, PolypMon, Alexan
der, Tisiphon and Lycophron; but at length
the old aristocratical families called to the as
sistance of Philip of Macedonia, who deprived
LycopMon of his power to 858, restored the
ancient government in the different towns, and
reorganised the country in tetrarcMes and dec-
archies. The country, however, only changed
masters; for a few years later (844) PMlip
made it completely subject to Macedonia, by
placing at the head of the four divisions of the
country governors devoted to his interests, and
probably members of the ancient noble families,
who had now become little better than his
vassals. From this time Thessaly remaMed in
a state of dependence upon the Macedonian
kings, tiUthe victory of T. Flamininus at Cynos-
cephalae, in 197, again gave them a semblance
of independence under the protection of the
Romans. Thessaly was incorporated in the
province of Achaia in 27 b.c. (Pharsalus remain-

THESSALONICA
tog a free town), but in the second century of
our era it formed port of Macedonia. The
Thessalians were, however, allowed indepen
dence in their civic administration, for which a
diet was held at Larissa.
Thessalonica (©eo-o-aAovfoo.) daughter of
PMlip, the father of Alexander the Great, by
Ms wife or concubMe, Nicesipolis of Pherae.
She was taken prisoner by Cassander along
with Olympias on the capture of Pydna, in B.C.
317 ; and Cassander embraced the opportunity
to connect Mmself with the ancient royal house
of Macedonia by marrying her. By Cassander
she became the mother of tMee sons, Philip,
Antipater, and Alexander; and her husband
paid her the honour of conferring her name
upon the city of Thessalonica, which he founded
on the site of the ancient Therma. [See below.]
After the death of Cassander, Thessalonica
was put to death by her son Antipater (295).
(Paus. ix. 7, 3 ; Diod. xix. 35, 52.)
Thessalonica (®ecro-aXovlKy, also 0eo-o-nAoj'/-
Keia ; ®eo-o-aXoviicevs : Salonica), more anciently
Therma (®eppy : ©eppaios), an ancient city in
Macedonia, situated at the NE. extremity of
the Stous Thermaicus. Under the name of
Therma it was not a place of much importance.
It was taken and occupied by the Athemans a
short time before the Peloponnesian war (b.c
432) but was soon after restored by them to
Perdiccas. It was made an important city
by Cassander, who coUected in this place the
inhabitants of several adjacent towns (about
B.C. 315), and who gave it the name of Thessa-
lomca, to honour of his wife, the daughter of
Philip and sister of Alexander the Great.
(Strab. p. 330.) From this time it became a
large and flourishing city. Its harbour was
well situated for commercial intercourse with
the HeUespont and the Aegaean ; and under
the Romans it had the additional advantage of
lying on the Via Egnatia, wMch led from the
W. shores of Greece to Byzantium and the
East. It was visited by the Apostle Paul
about A-D. 53 ; and about two years afterwards
he addressed from Corinth two epistles to his
converts to the city. Theaaalonica contmued
to be, under the empire, one of the most impor
tant cities of Macedonia ; and at a later time
it became the residence of the prefect, and the
capital, of the Hlyrian provinces. It ia cele
brated at tMs period on account of the fearful
massacre of its inhabitants by order of Theo
dosius, to consequence of a riot to which some
of the Roman officers had been assaaainated by
the populace. [Theodosius.]
Tfiessalus (©eao-aXds.) 1. A Greek physi-
cion, aon of Hippocratea, paased some of his
time at the court of Archelaus, king of Mace
doma, who reigned B.C. 413-399. He was one
of the founders of the sect of the Dogmatici,
and is several times MgMy praised by Galen,
who calls him the most emment of the sons of
Hippocrates. He was supposed by some of
the ancient writers to be the author of several
of the works that form part of the Hippocratic
CoUection, which he might have compiled from
notes left by Mb father.— 2. Also a Greek
physician, was a native of Trallesin Lydia, and
one of the founders of the medical sect of the
Methodici. He Uved at Rome in the reign of
the emperor Nero, a.d. 54-68, to whom he ad
dressed one of Ms works; and here he died and
was buried, and Ms tomb was to be seen in
Pliny's time on the Via Appia. He considered
himself auperior to all Ms predecessors. He
is frequently mentioned by Galen, but always

THEVESTE

945

in terms of contempt and ridicule. None of
.his works are extant. — 3. Son of Pisistratus
(Thuc. i. 20). In Arist. 'AB. iroX. 18 he is said
to be the same as Hegesistratus, and playa the
part assigned to Hipparchus in the events which
led to Aristogeiton's conspiracy.
ThestiUS (©ecrrtos,) son of Ares and Demo-
nice or Androdice: in other accounts, son of
Agenor and grandson of Pleuron, the king of
Aetolia. He was the father of Iphiclus, Eu-
ippus, Plexippus, Eurypylus, Leda, Althaea,
and Hypermnestra. His wife is not the aame
in all traditions, some calling her Lycippe or
Laophonte, a daughter of Pleuron, and others
Deidamla. (Apollod. i. 7, 7 ; Paus. iii. 13, 5.)
The patronymic Thestiades is given to his
grandson Meleager, as well as to Ms soub, and
the female patronymic Thestias to Ms daughter
Althaea, the mother of Meleager.
Thestor (0e'o-Ta>p),son ofldmonandLaothoe,
and father of Calchas, Theoclymenus, Leucippe.
and Theonoe (II. i. 69 ; Hyg. Fab. 128). The
patronymic Thestdrides is frequently given to
his son Calchas.
Thetis (®eris), one of the daughters of Nereus
and Doris, was the wife of Peleus, by whom she
became the mother of AchiUes (17. i. 538, xviii.
35; Hes. Th. 244). As a goddess of the aea
ahe dwelt, like her sisters the Nereids, below
the waves with her father Nereus (II. i. 357,
xx. 207). She there received Dionysus on his
flight from Lycurgus, and the god, M his grati
tude, presented her with a golden urn (II. vi.
135; Od. xxiv. 75). When Hephaestus was
tMown down from heaven, he was likewise
received by Thetis. She had been brought up
by Hera, and when she reached the age of
maturity, Zeus and Hera gave her, agamst her
will, m marriage to Peleus. Such was the
Homeric story (II. xviii. 85, 432) ; but later
accounts add that Poseidon and Zeus Mmself
first sued for her hand ; but when Themis de
clared that the son of Thetis would be stronger
than Ms father, both gods deaisted from their
suit, and desired her marriage with a mortal
(Pind. Isthm. viii. 58 ; Aesch. Pr. 767 ; Ov. Met.
xi. 225, 350). Chiron informed Ms friend
Peleus how he might gain possession of her,
even if she should metamorphose herself:
for Thetis, like Proteus, had the power of
assuming any form she pleased ; and she had
recourse to this means of escaping from Peleus,
who, instructed by Chiron, held the goddess
fast till she again assumed her proper form, and
promised to marry him (Pind. Nem. iii, 60 ;
Apollod. iii. 13, 5 ; Paus. viii. 18, 1). This story,
wMch appears first m Pindar, was a favourite
subject in vase-paMting of an early date. The
wedding of Peleus was honoured with the
presence of aU the gods, with the exception of
Eris or Discord, who was not invited, and who
avenged herself by throwing among the as
sembled gods the apple which was the source
of so much misery. [Paris.] For the action
of Thetis in the story of her son see Achilles.
Theuprosdpon (0eoO Tlpdo-airov, i.e. the face of
a god : Bas-esh-Shukeh), a lofty, rugged pro
montory on the coast of Phoenice, between
Tripolis and Byblus, formed by a spur of
Lebanon, and running far out to sea. Some
travellers have fancied that they can trace in
its aide- view that resemblance to a human pro
file which its name implies. (Strab. 754, 755.)
Theveste (®eoveary : Tebessa, Ru.), a con
siderable city of N. Africa, on the frontier of
Numidia and Byzacena, at the centre of several
roads, and the station of a legion from the time
3P

946

THIA

of Augustus. It was of comparatively late origin,
and a Roman colony. Among its recently dis
covered ruins are a fine triumphal arch, and
the old walls of the city, the circuit of which
was large enough to have contained 40,000 in
habitants. (Ptol. iv. 3, 30.)
Thia (®eia), daughter of Uranus and Ge, one
of the female Titans, became by Hyperion the
mother of Helios, Eos, and Selene — that is,
Hyperion and Theia formed the pair of divinities
from whom light proceeded (Pind. Isthm. iv. 1 ;
Hes. Th. 135, 171 ; Catull. Ixvi. 44).
TMbron or Thimbron (QiBpwv, ®ipBpa>v).
1. A Lacedaemonian, sent with 3000 men, B.C.
399, to aid the Ionians against Tissaphernes.
He did his work badly, and was superseded by
DercyUidas. In 392 he was sent again to oppose
Struthos, but was defeated and slain (Xen. An.
viii. 6, l,Hell. iii. 1, 4,iv. 8, V , Diod. xiv. 36).
— 2. An officer of Harpalus, satrap of Babylon,
after whose death, in 324 (he is said by some to
have murdered Mm), he set out on a filibustering
expedition agamst Cyrene, but was eventually
put to death by an officer of Ptolemy Lagi
(Diod. xvii. 108, xviii. 19).
Thilsaphata (prob. Tell Afad, between
Mosul and Sinjar), a town of Mesopotamia,
near the Tigris (Amm. Marc. xxv. 8).
Thilutha (Tilbeh), a fort in the S. of Meso-
Sotamia, on an island in the Euphratea (Amm.
[arc. xxiv. 2).
Thinae or Thina (©Tvai, ©ira), a cMef city of
the Sinae, and a great emporium for the ailk
and wool trade of the extreme E. In the
Periplus it ia not imagined so far to the E.
as it is placed by Ptolemy. (Peripl. Mar.
Erythr. p. 36 ; Ptol. vii. 3, 6 ; Sinae.)
Thinis or TMs (0is : Sivtrys), a great city of
Upper Egypt, capital of the TMnites Nomos.
It was the Egyptain Tini, and was situated
near Abydos. It was one of the most ancient
cities in Egypt, and the capital of the first two
dynasties (b.c. 4400-4000), but its importance
was merged in that of Abydos, of which it
became a separate quarter.
Thiodamas (®etoSdpas), father of Hylas, and
king of the Dryopes (ApoUod. ii. 7, 7).
Thisbe (®io-8y), a beautiful Babylonian
maiden, beloved by Pyramus. The lovers
living in adjoining houses, often secretly con
versed with each other tMough an opening in
the waU, as their parents would not sanction
their marriage. Once they agreed to meet
at the tomb of Ninus. Thisbe arrived firat,
and wMle she was waiting for Pyramus, she
perceived a lioness which had just torn to
pieces an ox, and took to flight. In her haste
she dropped her garment, which the lioness
soiled with blood. In the mean time Pyra
mus arrived, and finding her garment covered
with blood, he imagined that she had been
murdered, and made away with himself under
a mulberry tree, the fruit of which henceforth
waB as red as blood. Thisbe, who afterwarda
found the body of her lover, likewise killed her
self. (Ov. Met. iv. 55-465.)
Thisbe, afterwards Thisbae (®lcrBy, QioBai :
QicrBaios, ©tcrBeis : Kakosia), a town of Boeotia,
on the borders of Phocis, and between Mt.
Helicon and the Corinthian gulf. It was famed
even in the time of Homer for h)s wild pigeons,
wMch are still found in abundance M the
neighbourhood of Kakosia. (H. ii. 502 ; Strab.
p. 411; Xen. Hell. vi. 4, 8; Ov. Met. xi. 330;
Stat. Theb. vii. 261.) Its rums are chiefly of
the date of Alexander.
Thisoa. [Theisoa.]

THRACIA
Thmuis (®piovis: Tmaie, Ru., near Ma/n-
sourah), a city of Lower Egypt, on a canal on
the E. side of the Mendesian mouth of the
Nile. It was a chief seat of the worship of the
god Mendes (the Egyptian Pan), under the
symbol of a goat. It was the chief city of the
Nomos Thmuites, wMch was afterwards united
with the Mendesian Nomos. (Hdt. ii. 166 ; Ptol.
iv. 5, 51.)
Thoas (®das). 1. Son of Andraemon and
Gorge, was kmg of Calydon and Pleuron, to
Aetolia, and sailed with forty ships against
Troy (II. ii. 638, iv. 529, xv. 281; Paus. v. 3, 5).
— 2. Son of Dionysus and Ariadne, was king of
Lemnos, and married to Myrina, by whom he
became the father of Hypsipyle and Sicinus
(II. xiv. 230 ; Diod. v. 79). When the Lemnian
women MUed all the men in the island, Hyp
sipyle saved her father, Thoas, and concealed
him. Afterwards, however, he was discovered
by the other women, and MUed ; or, according
to other accounts, he escaped to Taurus, or to
the island of Oenoe near Euboea, wMch was
henceforth caUed Sicinus. The patronymic
Thoantias is given to Hypsipyle, as the
daughter of Thoas. (ApoUod. i. 9, 17, iii. 6, 4.) —
3. Son of Borysthenes, and Mng of Tauris, into
whose dominions Iphigenia was carried by
Artemis, when she waa to have been sacrificed
(Ant. Lib. 27; Eur. Iphig. in Taw.). — 4.
An Aetolian who was praetor of the League in
B.C. 193, and urged the war agatost the Romans.
After the defeat of Antiochus, the Romans
made the surrender of Thoas a condition of
peace, but set Mm at liberty. In 169 he was
Mlled in a popular tumult. (Liv. xxxv. 37-45,
xxxviii. 38 ; Pol. xxviii. 4.)
Thomas Magister, a rhetorician and gram
marian, about a.d. 1810. He was a native of
Thessalonica, and lived at the court of the
emperor Andronicus Palaeologus I., where
he held the offices of marshal (Magister
Officiorum) and keeper of the arcMves
(Chartophylax) ; but he afterwards retired to
a monastery, where he assumed the name of
Theodulus, and devoted himself to the study of
the ancient Greek authors. His chief work,
wMch has come down to us, ia a Lexicon of
Attic Words (Koto aXcpdByrov ovopdrav
'ArriKcov eKXoyai), compUed from the works
of the elder grammarians, such as Phrymchus,
Ammonius, Herodian, and Moeris. — Edited by
Ritschl, HaUs Sax. 1831.
Thoricus (®dpiKos or ®opiKds: ®oplKios,
QopiKevs : Theriko), one of the twelve ancient
towns in Attica, and subsequently a demus
belonging to the tribe Acamantis, was situated
on the SE. coast a little above Sunium, and
was fortified by the Athenians towards the close
of the Peloponnesian war (Strab. p. 397 ; Xen.
Hell. i. 2, 1). It was from Thoricus that Eos
caught up Cephalus (ApoUod. ii. 4, 7), with
which some suppose the idea of Soph. O. C.
1595 to be associated. There are important
remains, especially of the theatre.
Thornax (®&pva£ : Pavla'ika), a mountain in
Laconica, NE. of Sparta, on wMch stood a
celebrated temple of Apollo (Paus. ii. 36, 1).
Thospites Lacus (©wo-mrts Xipvy : Van-
got), a lake in Armenia Major, through which
the Tigris flows. The lake, and the surround
ing district, also called Thospitis, were both
named from a city Thospia (©wcriria) at the N.
end of the lake (Ptol. v. 13, 18).
Thracia (®pd.Ky, Ion. ®pr)Ky, ®pyiicn, BpyiKty :
0paf, pi.' ©paKes, Ion. ®pr]\ and ®pyl£, pi.
®p$Kes, QpyiKes : TMax, pi'. TMooes), was in

THRACIA
¦earUer times the name of the vast space of
-country bounded on the N. by the Danube, on
the S. by the Propontis and the Aegaean, on
tb.e E. by the Pontus Euxinus, and on the W
3T * ™ nver S^y™011 and the easternmost of
the Hlyrian tribes. It was divided into two
parts by Mt. Haemus (the Balkan), running
from W. to E., and separatmg the plaM of the
lower Danube from the rivers wMch faU into
the Aegaean. Two extensive mountain ranges
branch off from the S. side of Mt. Haemus; one
running SE. towards Constantinople ; and the
other, caUed Rhodope, E. of the preceding one,
and also runnmg to a south-easterly direotion
near the river Nestus. Between these two ranges
there are many plains, which are drained by
the Hebrus, the largest river to TMace. At a
later time the name TMace was appUed to a
more limited extent of country. The district
between the Strymon and the Nestus was added
to Macedonia by PMUp, and was usually
coUed Macedoma Adjecta. [Macedonia.]
Under Augustus the port of the country N. of
the Haemus was made a separate Roman pro
vtoce under the name of Moesia [Moesia] ; but
the district between the Strymon and the
Nestus had been previously restored to TMace
by the Romans. The Roman provMce of
TMace was accordingly bounded on the W. by
the river Nestus, which separated it from
JVIacedoMa ; on the N. by Mt. Haemus, wMch
divided it from Moesia; on the E. by the
Euxine, and on the S. by the Propontis and
Aegean. — TMace, in its widest extent, was
peopled in the times of Herodotus and Thucy
dides by a vast number of different tribes ; but
their customs and characters were marked by
great uMformity. Herodotus says that, next to
the Indians, the TMacians were the most
numerous of all races, and if united under one
head would have been irresistible. He describes
them as a savage, cruel, and rapacious people,
deUghting in blood, but brave and warlike.
According to Ms account, which is confirmed
by other writers, the TMacian chiefs sold their
cMldren for exportation to foreign merchants ;
they purchased their wives; they punctured
¦or tattooed their bodies and thoBe of the women
belonging to them, as a sign of noble birth ; they
despised agriculture, and considered it most
honourable to live by war and robbery. (Hdt.
v. 3-6; cf. Strab. pp. 315-318; Liv. xxvi. 25;
Tac. Ann. ii. 64 ; Thuc. vii. 27.) Deep drinking
prevaUed among them extensively, and their
quarrels over their wine cups were notorious
¦even to the time of Augustus (Hor. Od. i. 27).
They worsMpped deities whom the Greeks iden
tified with Ares, Dionysus, and Artemis : the
great sanctuary and oracle of their god
Dionysus was to one of the loftiest summits of
Mt. Rhodope. [Dionysus.] The tribes on the
S. coast attained to some degree of civilisation,
owing to the numerous Greek colonies which
were founded in their vicinity ; but the tribes
to the interior seem to have retained their
savage habits, with little mitigation, down to
the time of the Roman empire. There is a
remarkable difference to the account of the
TMacians derived from the poems of Homer
and from early traditions. They are a civnised
people, with finely wrought armour, cultivators
of the vine (II. vi. 132, x. 436, xxUi. 560). among
whom were born the earliest Greek poets,
Orpheua, Ltoua and Musaeus. Eumolpus, like
wise who founded the Eleusmian myateries to
Attica, is said to have been a Thracian, and to
have fought against Erechtheus, king of Athens.

947
It may be, as some hold, that tMs was really a
case of civilisation receding and that the older
TMacians gained from the Phoenicians arts and
culture which they afterwards lost; but it is
not an impossible explanation that the Homeric
idea of Thracians was derived from the Asiatic
branch, who were identified with the skUf ul and
musical Phrygians. [For the TMacian emigra
tion into Asia see Pheygia.] But if without
refinements of civilisation, their history shows
them to have been a brave and spirited people,
with a remarkable stram of religious enthusiasm.
— The principal Greek colonies along the coast,
beginning at the Strymon and going eastwards,
were : Amphipolis, at the mouth of the Stry
mon ; Abdeba, a little to the W. of the Nestus ;
Dicaea or Dicaepolis, a settlement of Maronea;
Maronea itself, colonised by the Chians;
Stryme, a colony of the Thasians; Mesembeia,
founded by the SamotMacianB ; and Aenos, a
Lesbian colony at the mouth of the Hebrus.
The TMacian Chersonesus was probably colo
nised by the Greeks at an early period, but it
did not contain any important Greek settle
ment till the migration of the first Mutiades
to the country, during the reign of Pisistratus
at Athens. [Chersonesus.] On the Propontis
the two cMef Greek settlements were those of
Perinthus and Selymbria ; and on the TMa
cian Bosporus was the important town of
Byzantium. There were only a few Greek
settlements on the SW. coast of the Euxine ;
the most important were those of Apollonia,
Odessus, Callatis, Tomi, renowned as the
place of Ovid's banishment, and Istria, near
the S. mouth of the Danube. — The TMacians
are said to have been conquered by Sesostris,
Mng of Egypt, but that is a pure fiction
[Sesostris], nor can much faith be placed in
the account of their conquest by Teucrians and
Mysians (Hdt. vii. 20). The first reaUy histori
cal fact respecting them (apart from the
foundations of colonies in Thrace mentioned
above) is their subjugation by Megabazus, thft
general of Darius (Hdt. v. 1-10). After th*>
Persians had been driven out of Europe by the
Greeks, the Thracians recovered their indepen
dence; and at the beginning of the Pelopon
nesian war, almost all the Thracian tribes were
umted under the dominion of Sitalces, kmg of
the Odrysae, whose kingdom extended from
Abdera to the Euxine and the mouth of the
Danube. In the third year of the Peloponnesian
war (b.c. 429), Sitalces, who had entered into
an aUiance with the Athenians, invaded Mace
donia with a vast army of 150,000 men, but
was compelled by the failure of provisions to re
turn home, after remaining in Macedonia thirty
days (Thuc. n. 29, 95). Sitalces feU in battle
against the Triballi in 424, and was succeeded
by Ms nephew, Seuthes, who during a long
reign raised Ms kingdom to a height of power
and prosperity wMch it had never previously
attained, so that his regular revenues amounted
to the annual sum of 400 talents, in addition to
contributions of gold and silver m the form of
presents, to a nearly equal amount. After the
death of Seuthes, which appears to have hap
pened a little before the close of the Pelopon
nesian war, we find his powerful Mngdom split
up into different parts ; and when Xenophon,
with the remains of the 10,000 Greeks, arrived
on the opposite coast of Asia, another Seuthes
applied to Mm for assistance to reinstate him
in Ms dominions (Xen. An. vii.). Philip, the
father of Alexander the Great, reduced the
greater part of Thrace ; and after the death
3p2

948

THRASEA

of Alexander the country fell to the share of
Lysimachus. It subsequently formed a part of
the Macedonian dominions, but it continued to
be governed by its native princes, and was only
nommaUy subject to the Macedonian monarchs.
Even under the Romans TMace was for a long
time governed by its own cMef s. At the time
of the Moesian campaign (b.c. 29) the TMacian
Odrysae were involved in a religious war with
the Bessi for possession of the shrine of Diony
sus and its sacred grove. Crassus conferred the
custody upon the Odrysae, to whose princes he
left the rule over all the Thracian tribes S. of
the Haemus as vassal kings under the suzer
ainty of Rome. The position of the vassal king
Rhoemetalces and Ms descendants, who from
the latter part of Augustus's reign till the time
of Claudius held this power, has been compared,
not inaptly, to that of the Herods in Pales
tine. There were interruptions to this arrange
ment: in B.C. 11 Piso had, not without diffi
culty, to repress disturbances. Cotys reigned
after the death of Rhoemetalces, but was mur
dered by his uncle, Rhascuporis, who had
previously ruled part of Thrace. The Romans
interfered, Rhascuporis was put to death, and
Tiberius appointed a guardian of the young
Rhoemetalces, son of Rhascuporis (19 a.d.). Not
long after, when the Thracians resisted con
scription, he placed the control practicaUy in
the hands of this guardian. Caligula restored
the principality to Rhoemetalces II. ; but in
a.d. 46 Claudius constituted Thrace a province
under a procurator. Trajan raised it to a
higher rank as a provmce under a legatus
Augusti pro praetore.
P. Thrasea Paetus, a distinguished Roman
senator and Stoic pMlosopher, in the reign of
Nero, was a native of Patavium, and was prob
ably born soon after the death of Augustus.
He appears at an early period of his life to
have made the younger Cato Ms model, of
whose Ufe he wrote an account. He married
Arria, the daughter of the heroic Arria, who
showed her husband Caecina how to die ; and
his wife was worthy of her mother and her
husband. At a later period he gave Ms own
daughter in marriage to Helvidius Priscus, who
trod closely in the footsteps of Ms father-in-
law. Thrasea and Helvidius showed their spirit
of conservative republicanism by a custom of
celebrating the birthdays of Brutus and
Cassius; TMasea would not attend the Ne-
ronian gamea or the funeral of Poppaea, nor
would he aacrifice to the Genius of the emperor.
This roused the jealousy of Nero, and TMasea
was condemned to death by the senate by com
mand of the emperor, a.d. 66. By his execu
tion and that of Ms friend Barea Soranus,
Nero, says Tacitus, resolved to murder Virtue
herself. The panegyric of Thrasea was written
by Arulenus Rusticus, who was in consequence
put to death by Domitian. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 49,
xiv. 12, 48, xv. 20-22, xvi. 21-85, Hist. ii. 91, iv.
5, Agr. 2 ; Dio Cass, lxi.15, lxii. 26 ; Juv. v. 36 ;
Mart. i. 9.)
Thrasybulus (0pao-ii|8ouAos). 1. Tyrant of
Miletus, was a contemporary of Periander and
Alyattes, the Mng of Lydia (Hdt. i. 22, vi. 92 ;
Ar. Pol. iii. 18, v. 10). The story of the mode
in which Thrasybulus gave his advice to Peri
ander as to the best means of securing his
power is given under Peeiandee. — 2. A cele
brated Athenian, son of Lycus. He was
zealously attached to the Athenian democracy,
and took an active part in overthrowing the
oligarchical government of the 400 to B.C. 411

THRASYMACHUS
(Thuc. viii. 73). He was appointed as one of
the generals at Samos, when those who fa
voured the oligarchy were depoaed, and from
this time he took a prominent part in the con
duct of the war, especially at the battle of
Cyzicus, B.C. 410 (Thuc. viii. 75-105; Xen. Hell.
i. 1, 12). On the establishment of the Thirty
at Athens he was banished, and was living to
exile at Thebes when the rulers of Athens were
perpetrating their excesses of tyranny. Bemg
aided by the Thebans with arms and money,
he coUected a small band, crossed the frontier,
and seized the deserted fortress of Phyle. He
repelled the troops sent against him from
Athens, and, taking the offensive, marched upon
the Peiraeus, which feU into Ms hands. From
this place he carried on war for several months
against the Ten, who had succeeded to the
government, and eventually, upon the inter
vention of Pausanias, the democracy was re
stored in the autumn of 403 B.C. In 390
Ttoasybulus commanded the Atheman fleet in
the Aegaean, and was slain by the inhabitants of
Aspendus, upon whom he was levying a forced
contribution. (Diod. xiv. 94, 99 ; Xen. Hell. iv.
8, 25 ; Dem. Lept. p. 475.)— 3. Brother of Gelo
and Hiero, tyrants of Syracuse. He succeeded
Hiero in the government, B.C. 467, and was
soon afterwards expelled by the Syracusans,
whom he had provoked by his rapacity and
cruelty. He withdrew to Locri, in Italy, and
there ended his days. (Diod. xi. 67.)
Thrasydaeus (®pacrvSaios), tyrant of Agri
gentum, was the son and successor of Theron,
B.C. 472. Shortly after his accession he was
defeated by Hiero of Syracuse ; and the Agri-
gentines took advantage of this disaster to
expel him from their city. He - escaped to
Greece, but was arrested at Megara, and exe
cuted. (Diod. xi. 53.)
Thrasyllus or Thrasylus (©pdcrvXXos, ®pd-
trvXos). 1. An Athenian, who actively assisted
Ttoasybulus M opposMg the oUgarchical revo
lution in B.C. 411, and, like him, was appototed
as one of the generals at Samos. [Thrasybu
lus.] He was one of the commanders at the
battle of Arginusae, and was among the six
generals who returned to Athens and were put
to death, 406. [Arginusae.] — 2. An astrologei-
at Rhodes, with whom Tiberius became ac
quainted durtog Ms residence to that island,
and whom he ever after held in the highest
honour. In the scenes between htoi and the
emperor, as described by Tacitus, Suetonius, and
Dio, ThrasyUus is the prototype for Scott (to
Quentin Durward) of Martius Galeotti, the
astrologer of Louis XI. He confirmed the
faith of Tiberius in his skiU by casting Ms
own horoscope as well as that of his master,
and saying that he Mmself had reached a
great crisis of danger, havmg suspected, as
was the truth, that Tiberius was on the point
of havtog him thrown over a precipice. TMs
proof of prophetic power saved his life. He
died in a.d. 36, the year before Tiberius, and
is said to have saved the lives of many per
sons whom Tiberius would otherwise have
put to death, by falsely predicting for tMs
very purpose that the emperor would live a
certain period longer than Ms intended victims.
The son of tMs Thrasyllus succeeded to his
father's skill, and he is said to have predicted
the empire to Nero. (Tac. Ann. vi. 20-22;
Suet. Aug. 98, Tib. 14, 62, Col. 19 ; Dio Cass.
Iv. 11, lvii. 15, lviii. 27.)
Thrasymaehus (©pacripaxos), a native of
Chalcedon, was a sopMst, and one of the

THRASYMEDES
¦earliest cultivators of the art of rhetoric. He
was a contemporary of Gorgias. He ib intro
duced by Plato as one of the interlocutors in
the Bepublic, and is referred to several times in
•-ao ?^™H (cf- Cio- °»"a<- 12> 52> de Orat.
IU^2'-12-8 ' 9umt' iil !. 10; Athen. p. 416).
Thrasymedes (®pao-vpvSys). 1. Son of the
Pylian Nestor and Anaxibia, accompanied his
father on the expedition against Troy, and re
turned with Mm to Pylos (II. ix. 81, xvii. 878,
705 ; Od. m. 442 ; Paus. ii. 18, 7).— 2. A sculp
tor of Paros, contemporary with Phidias, whose
assistant he seems to have been. He was
author of the statue of Asclepius at Epidaurus
(Paus. ii. 27, 2).
Thrasymenus. [Tkasimenus.]
Thronium (©pdviov: Qpdvios, ®povteis), the
chief town of the Locri Epicnemidii, on the
river Boagrius, at a short distance from the
sea, with a harbour upon the coast (II. ii. 533 ;
Thuc. ii. 26 ; Strab. p. 486). It was destroyed
by Onomarchus in the Sacred war, and its in
habitants were sold Mto slavery. Its ruins
(called Palaeocaatro) are at the modern Pik-
raki. Thucydides (QovKvSlSys). 1. An Athenian
statesman, of the demus Alopece, son of Mele-
sias. After the death of Cimon (with whom he
was connected by marriage), in B.C. 449, Thucy
dides became the leader of the aristocratic
party, wMch he concentrated and more tho-
rougtoy organised in opposition to Pericles.
He was ostracised in 443, thus leaving the un
disputed poUtical ascendency to Pericles. He
left two sons, Melesias and Stephanus ; and a
son of the former of these, named Thucydides
after Ms grandfather, was a pupil of Socrates.
(Arist. 'Afl. noA. 28 ; Plut. Per. 6-16 ; Plat.
Men. p. 94 ; Athen. p. 234.)— 2. The great Athe
man historian, of the demus Halimus, was the
son of Olorna or Orolus and Hegesipyle. He
is said to have been connected with the family
¦of Cimon ; and we know that MUtiades, the
conqueror of Marathon, married Hegesipyle,
the daughter of a TMacian Mng called Olorus,
by whom she became the mother of Cimon;
and it has been conjectured that the mother of
Thucydides was a granddaughter of Miltiades
and Hegesipyle. Others suppose that Ms father,
Olorus, was connected with Olorus king of
TMace ; but a direct Thracian descent on the
father's side can hardly be possible. The fact
of the relationship of the other Thucydides to
Cimon may suggest the possibihty of a confu
sion. Accordtog to a statement of PamphUa
[Pamphila], Thucydides was forty years of age
at the commencement of the Peloponnesian
war, or B.C. 431, and accordingly he was born in
471. There is a story in Lucian of Herodotus
having read his History at the Olympic games
to the assembled Greeks ; and Suidas adds that
Thucydides, then a boy, was present, and shed
tears of emotion : a presage of hia own future
hiatorical diattoction. . The atory as it stands is
impossible, but it ia quite possible that Thucy
dides in Ms youth may have heard Herodotus
recite some parts of his History at Athens [see
Herodotus, p. 410, a]. Thucydides is said to
have been Mstructed in oratory by Antiphon,
and in philosophy by Anaxagoras. He informs
ns (iv. 105) that he possesaed gold mines in that
part of Thrace wMch is opposite to the island
¦of Thasos, and that he had influence in that
part of Thrace. This property, according to
some accounts, he had from hia ancestors ; ac
cording to other accounts, he married an heiress
of that neighbourhood. Thucydides (ii. 48)

THUCYDIDES

949

was one of those who suffered from the great
plague of Athens, and one of the few who re
covered. We have no trustworthy evidence of
Thucydides havmg distinguished himself as an
orator, though it is not unlikely that he did, for
his oratorical talent is shown by the speeches
that he has inserted in his History. He was,
however, employed in a military capacity, and
he was in command of an Athenian squadron
of seven shipa, at Thasus, B.C. 424, when Eucles,
who commanded in Amphipolis, sent for Ms
assistance against Brasidas. That general,
fearing the arrival of a superior force, offered
favourable terms to Amphipolis, which were
readily accepted. Thucydides arrived at Eion,
at the mouth of the Strymon, on the evenmg
of the same day on which Amphipolis surren
dered ; and though he was too late to save
Amphipolis, he prevented Eion from faUing
into the hands of the enemy. In consequence
of this failure, Thucydides became an exile,
probably to avoid a severer punishment ; for
Cleon, who was at this time in great favour
with the Athenians, appears to have excited
popular suspicion against him. His own words
certainly imply that, during his exile, he spent
much of his time either m the Peloponnesus
or M places which were under Peloponnesian
influence (v. 26), and his work was the result
of Ma own experience and observations. His
minute description of Syracuse and the neigh
bourhood leads to the probable conclusion that
he was personally acquainted with the localities :
and if he visited Sicily, it is probable that he
also saw some parts of southern Italy. Thucy
dides saya that he lived twenty years in exile
(v. 26), and as his exile began in 423, he may have
returned to Athens in 403, about the time when
Thrasybulus liberated Athens. Thucydides is
said to have been assaasinated at Athens soon
after his return ; but other accounts say that
he was killed by a robber in Thrace. The time
of his death is quite uncertain. In iii. 116 he
mentions eruptions of Aetna, but does not
know of the eruption of B.C. 396 (Diod. xiv.
59). It is therefore probable that he died
before that year, though possible that he Uved
on without revising the passage in question.
The time when he composed his work has been
a matter of diapute. He informa ua himaelf
that he was busy in collecting materials all
through the war from the beginning to the end
(i. 22), and of course he would register them as
he got them. Plutarch says that he wrote the
work in TMace ; but the work in the ahape in
which we have it was certainly not finished
until after the close of the war, and he waa
probably engaged upon it at the time of his
death. A needless question has been raised as
to the authorship of the eighth and last book
of Thucydides, which breaks off in the middle
of the twenty-first year of the war (411). It
differs from all the other books in containing
no speeches, and was less systematicaUy com- ) ) J
posed. Accordingly, several ancient critics
supposed that the eighth book was not by
Thucydides : some attributed it to his daughter,
and some to Xenophon or Theopompus, because
both of them continued the history. TMs is
an absurd story, not merely because nothing
can be less Uke the style of Xenophon and of
Theopompus. It may be regarded as certain
that Thucydides wrote the book, and the dif
ferences alluded to (the differences of style are
imaginary) are accounted for by the fact that it
was an unfinished work, in which he would
probably have inserted speeches. — The work of

950

THUCYDIDES

Thucydides, from the commencement of the
second book, is cMonologicaUy divided into
winters and summers, and each summer and
¦toiter make a year (ii. 1). His summer com
prises the time from the vernal to the autumnal
equinox, and the winter comprises the period
from the autumnal to the vernal equinox. The
division mto books and chapters was probably
made by the Alexandrine critics. The history
of the Peloponnesian war opens the second
book of Thucydides, and the first is introduc
tory to the history. He begtos his first book
by observing that the Peloponnesian war was
the most important event M Grecian Mstory,
wMch he shows by a rapid review of the history
of the Greeks from the earUest period to the
commencement of the war (i. 1-21). After his
introductory chapters he proceeds to explain
the aUeged grounds and causes of the war :
the real cause was, he says, the Spartan
jealousy of the Athenian power. Hia narrative
is interrupted (c. 89-118), after he has come to
the time when the Lacedaemonians resolved
on war, by a digression on the rise and progreaa
of the power of Athens ; a period which had
been either omitted by other writers, or treated
imperfectly, and with little regard to chrono
logy, as by HeUanicus in his Attic History (c.
97). He resumes his narrative (c. 119) with
the negotiations that preceded the war ; but
tMs leads to another digression of some length
on the treason of Pausanias (c. 128-134), and
the exile of Themistocles (c. 135-138). He
concludes the book with the speech of Pericles,
who advised the Athenians to refuse the de
mands of the Peloponnesians ; and his subject,
as already observed, begins with the second
book. — The work of Thucydides shows the most
scrupulous care and diligence to ascertaining
facts ; Ms strict attention to cMonology, and
the importance that he attaches to it, are addi
tional proof of his historical aocuracy. His
narrative is brief and concise to a degree wMch
makes the thought, or the crowd of thoughts,
concentrated in a short and involved sentence
often hard to understand; it generaUy con-
tams bare facts expressed to the fewest possible
words, but this stern and apparently passion
less brevity is able to produce a pathos un
surpassed by any prose writer. TMs is seen
most notably in his account of the Atheman
catastrophe at Syracuse. Few could read it
(and there are other passages almost as movMg
in the history) without agreeing with the opinion
of Gray and Macaulay (both masters of style,
especiaUy the former), that nothing finer has
been written in prose. But it is stUl more
important to notice that Thucydides is the
founder of phUosophical Mstory. He first
showed that a great historian should not merely
narrate events accurately, should not even con
tent Mmself with a critical examination of Ms
authorities, but should also try to trace the
causes of events, and their consequences, their
teacMng in politics, and the light wMch they
ttoow upon character. Many of Ms speeches
are political essays, or materials for them;
they are not mere imaginations of his own for
rhetorical effect ; they contain in many cases
the general sense of what was actually deUvered
as nearly as he could ascertain, and in many
instances he had good opportunities of knowing
what was said, for he heard some speeches
delivered (i. 22) ; but they are employed to
show the motives and sentiments of the speakers
and of their partisans or countrymen. — Edi
tions of Thucydides by Poppo, Leips. 1821,

THURH
1869 (now being re-edited by StaM) ; Arnold,.
Oxf. 1857 ; Classen, Berl. 1878 (now being re
vised by Steup) ; the first two books by SM1-
leto ; Book U. by Marchant, 1891, iii. by Bryans,.
iv. and v. by Graves, iv. by Rutherford, vi. by
Frost, vii. by Holden, 1890, and by Marchant,,
1893, viii. by Goodhart, 1893. Translation by
Jowett. Thule (®oiXy), an island to the N. part of
the German Ocean, regarded by the ancients as
the most northerly point in the whole earth.
It is first mentioned by Pytheas, the celebrated
Greek navigator of Massilia, who undertook a,
voyage to Britain, of which he gave a descrip
tion in Ms work on the Ocean. [Pytheas.] It-
is not defimtely stated by those who mention
Pytheas's account, whether he claimed to have
actuaUy visited the island, or whether he only-
derived his information from those whom he
met in Britain. (Strab. pp. 63, 104, 114, 201 -r
Plin. ii. 187.) According to Pytheas, as cited by
these writers, Thule was a six days' saU from
Britain, and the day and mght there were each
six months long, i.e. the solstitial day was
twenty-four hours long. He further stated that
in Thule and those distant parts the air was
heavy and the sea tMck and gelatinous, impene
trable to rowing. The astronomical observation,
wMch is accepted as true by Hipparchus,
Eratosthenes, Mela and PUny (Strab. ll.c ;
P1M. iv. 104 ; Mel. iii. 6), implies that Thule lay
withM the Arctic circle. It is tolerably certain
that Pytheas did not sail so far north ; but if he
took Ms account from others he may very weU
have heard of the very much greater length of
the day in summer and ita shortness in winter —
tales even may have reached him from places as
far north as the North Cape. The tMckened
aea is poBaibly a confuaed account of a frozen
ocean M the north, but may only be based on
some stories of banks of sea- weed. It is curious
that when Agricola's expedition came in sight
of the Shetlands, wMch they took to be Thule,
they imagined the conventional tMckness of the
water (Tac. Agr. 10). On the whole it is
useless to speculate whether Pytheas's account
referred to the Shetlands, Iceland, or Norway.
It is pretty clear that Ptolemy (ii. 6, 82) placed
Thule at the Shetlands : and in literature Thule
was universally accepted as the most distant
and most northerly part of the world (Verg.
Georg. i. 30).
Thuria (©ovpia), a town of Messenia on the
river Aris, ten miles from Pharae (Paus. iv.
81, 1 ; Thuc. i. 101 ; Pol. xxv. 1). Its ruins are
near the modem Veisaga, six miles from Kala-
mata. Thurii, more rarely Thurium (©oupioi, ®ov-
piov : ®oipios, ®ovpieis, Thurius, Thurinus :
Terra Nuova), a Greek city to Lucania, founded
B.C. 443, near the site of the ancient Sybaris,
which had been destroyed more than sixty
years before. [Sybaris.] It was built by the
remains of the population of Sybaris, who had
failed in their first attempt of 452, and in their
successful enterprise were assisted by colomsts
from all parts of Greece, but especially from
Athens. Among these colonists were the his
torian Herodotus and the orator Lysias, the
latter of whom, however, was only a youth at
the time, and subsequently returned to Athens.
(Diod. xii. 10; Strab. p. 268; Plut. Per. 11.)
The new city, from wMch the remains of the
Sybarites were soon expelled, rapidly attained
great power and prosperity, and became one of
the most important Greek towns in the S. of
Italy. Thus we are told that the Thurians

THYAMIS
were able to bring 14,000 foot soldiers and 1000
horse into the field agatost the Lucanians
(Diod. xiv. 101). In the Samnite wars Thurii
received a Roman garrison ; but it revolted to
Hannibal to the second Punic war. The Car-
thagtoian general, however, at a later time, not
trusting the Thunans, plundered the town, and
removed 8500 of its inhabitants to Croton (App.
Ann. 57). The Romans subsequently sent a
Latin colony to Thurii, and changed its name
mto Copiae; but it continued to retain its
original name, under which it is mentioned by

TIBERIAS

951

Coin of Thurii, of 4th cent. B.C.
Obr., head ol Pallas : figure of Scylla ou her helmet : rev.,
eOYPlON, 13011 and fish.
Caesar in the CivU war as a municipium. (Liv.
xxxiv. 53; Strab. p. 263; Caes. B. C. iii. 21.)
Thyamis i®vapis : Kalama), a river in
Epirus, flowing Mto the sea near a promontory
of the same name (Thuc. i. 46; Strab. p. 324).
Thyades. [Thyia.]
Thyamus (Qvapos : Pietala), a mountain M
Acarnania, south of Argos Amphilochicum
(Thuc. Ui. 106).
Thy atira (to ®vdreipa : Ak-hissar), a city in
the N. of Lydia, on the river Lycus. It was
formerly called Pelopeia, and received its new
name in the Macedonian period. (Strab. p.
646 ; Steph. Byz. s. v. ; Liv. xxxvn. 44.)
Thyestes (©vetrrys), son of Pelops and Hippo
damia, was the brother of Atreus and the father
of Aegisthus. See Atreus and Aegisthus.
Thyia (©via), a daughter of CastaUus or Ce-
phisseua, became by ApoUo the mother of Del
phus. She is said to have been the first to
sacrifice to Dionysus, and to have celebrated or
gies M Ms honour. (Hdt. vii. 178 ; Paus.x. 6, 2.)
It was beUeved that from her the Attic women,
who went yearly to Mt. Parnassus to celebrate
the Dionysiac orgies with the DelpMan Thy
iades, received themselves the name of Thyiades
or Thyades. There is Uttle doubt that her
story was simply an attempt to explain this
name, which is probably connected with Bva
and has the same meanMg as Maenades.
Thyillus (QiiiAAos), a Greek poet, living at
Rome about B.C. 67, and a friend of Cicero. He
seems to have been engaged on a poem about
the Eleusinian rites (Cic. ad Att.i. 9, 12, 16).
Some editions write Us name CMlius.
Thymbra (©ipBpy), a city of the Troad, N. of
Ilium Vetus, on a hill by the side of the river
Thymbrtus, with a celebrated temple of ApoUo,
who derived from tMs place the epithet Thym-
braeus (17.. x. 430, xx. 53, 151; Strab. p. 598;
cf. [Eur.] Bhes. 224). . .
Thymbria (©vpBpia), a place in Caria, on the
Maeander, four stadia E. of Myus, with a Cha-
ronium— that is, a cave containing mephitic
vapour (Strab. p. 636). _
Thymbrium (®ipBptov : Thymbnam), a smaU
town of Phrygia, a little S. of PMlomelium, on
the road to Iconium, with the so-called Fountain
of Midas (Xen. Anab. i. 2). It was re-founded

as Hadrianopolis. Its site is near the modern
Doghan Hissar.
Thy mbrius (®ipBpios : Thimbrek), a river of
the Troad, falling into the Scamander. At the
present day, it flows direct into the Hellespont ;
and, on this and other grounds, some doubt
whether the Thimbrek is the ancient river.
Thymele, an actress in the reign of Domitian
(Juv. i. 35, viii. 197).
Thymoetes (®vpokys), one of the elders of
Troy. A soothsayer had predicted that on a
certain day a boy should be born, by whom Troy
should be destroyed. On that day Paris was
born to Priam, and Munippus to Thymoetes.
Priam ordered Munippus and his mother Cylla
to be killed (17. iii. 146). Hence Virgil (Aen. ii.
31) represents Aeneas saying that it was doubt
ful whether Thymoetes advised the Trojans to
draw the wooden horae into the city in order to
revenge himself .
Thyni (®vvoi), a Thracian people, whose
original abodes were near Sahnydessus, but who
afterwards paased over into Bithynia.
Thynia (®vvia). 1. The land of the Thyni
in Thrace. — 2. Another name for Bithynia. — ¦
3. [Thynias.]
Thynias or Thynia (®wlas, ©wia). 1. (In-
ada), a promontory on the coast of TMace,
NW. of Salmydessus, with a town of the same
name (Strab. p. 319). — 2, (Kirpe), a small
islet of the Euxine, on the coast of Bithynia,
near the Prom. Calpe, also called ApoUonia and
Daphnusa (Ap. Rh. ii. 177).
Thyone. [Dionysus, p. 294, b ; Semele.]
Thyrea (®vpea), the cMef town M Cynuria,
the district on the borders of Laconia and Ar
golis, was aituated upon a height 2000 feet
above the sea-level, on the bay of the sea called
Sinus Thyreates (©vpedrys kAXttos). It was
for the possession of Thyrea that the celebrated
battle was fought between the 300 Spartans and
300 Argives. The territory of Thyrea was called
Thyreatis (®vpeans). (Strab. p. 876 ; Hdt. i.
82 ; Thuc. v. 41 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 663 ; Othryades.)
Its ruins, known as Helleniko or Tichio, show
the position of the waUa and towera.
Thyreum or Thyrrhenm (©ipeov, ®6ppetov.
Vasilios), a town to N. Acarnania, between
Anactorium and Limnaea, close to the Sinus
Ambracius (Pol. iv. 25 ; Cic. ad Fam. xvi. 5).
Thysdrus, Tisdrus, or Tusdrus (®vo-Spds:
El-Jemm, Ru.), a large fortified city of Byza
cena, NW. of the promontory Brachodes (Bas
Kapoudriwh). Under the Romans it was a free
city. 'It was here that the emperor Gordian
assumed the purple. (Ptol. iv. 3, 39 ; Herodian,
vii. 4.)
Thyssagetae (®vao-ayerai), a people of Sar
matia Asia tica, on the E. shores of the Palus
Maeotis (Hdt. iv. 22; Mel. i. 19).
Thyssus (QiWos or ®vao6s), a town of Mace
donia on the pemnsula of Acte (Hdt. vii. 22;
Thuc. iv. 109 ; Strab. p. 331).
Tiarantus, a river of Scythia and a tributary
of the Danube (Hdt. iv. 48).
Tibareni, or Tibari (TiBapyvol, TlBapoi), a
quiet agricultural people on the N. coast of
Pontus, E. of the river Iris (Hdt. ni. 94 ; Xen.
An. v. 5, 2 ; Strab. p. 527).
Tiberias. 1. (TiBeptds : TiBepieis), a city of
GalUee, on the SW. shore of the Lake of Tibe
rias, built by Herod Antipas in honour of the
emperor Tiberius. After the destruction of
Jerusalem, it became the seat of the Jewish
Sanhedrim. Near it were the warm baths of
Emmaus. (Ptol. viii. 20, 16 ; Jos. Ant. xviii. 3,
B.J. U. 21.)— 2. Gennesaret, also the Sea of

952

TIBERINUS

Galilee, to the 0. T. Chinnereth (Bahr Tuba-
riyeh), the second of the tMee lakes in Pales
tine, formed by the course of the Jordan.
[Jordanes.] Its length is eleven or twelve
geographical nules, and its breadth from five to
six. It hes deep among fertile MUs. Its surface
is 750 feet below the level of the Mediterranean.
(Paus. v. 7, 4 ; Ptol. v. 16, 4 ; Jos. B.J. iv. 26.)
Tiberinus. [Tibebis.]
Tiberinus, the deified personification of the
river Tiber, to whom various mytha attached,
some stories making him a king of Veii, others
a king of Alba who was drowned in the Tiber,
others again representing him as the son of
Janus [see p. 157, b]. The river-god Tiberinus
was addressed in solemn invocations (Cic. N.D.
iii. 20, 52 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 273), and a festival
was held in Ms honour on the Island of the Ti
ber, where he seems to have had a shrine. In
his worship he was connected, or perhaps some-
times identified, with Portunus.
Tiberiopolis (TiBepiovwoXis : near the modern
Amed.), a city of Great Ptoygia, near Eumenia,
where a worsMp of Tiberius and Livia was
estabUshed (Ptol. v. 2, 25).
Tiberis also Tibris, Tybris, Thybris, Amnis
Tiberinus or shnply Tiberinus (Tiber or Te-
vere), the chief river in central Italy, on which
stood the city of Rome. It is said to have been
originally called Albula, and to have received
the name of Tiberis in consequence of Tiberi
nus, king of Alba, having been drowned in it.
It has been supposed that Albula was the Latin
and Tiberis the Etruscan name of the river.
^ The Tiber rises from two springs of limpid
water in the Apennines, near Tifernum, and
flows in a Bouth-westerly direction, separating
Etruria from Umbria, the land of the Sabines,
and Latium. After flowing about 110 miles it
receives the Nar (Nerd), and from its confluence
with this river its regular navigation begins.
Three miles above Rome, at the distance of
nearly seventy miles from the Nar, it receives
the Anio (Teverone), and from this point be
comes a river of conaiderable importance.
Within the walls of Rome, the Tiber is about
300 feet wide and from twelve to eighteen feet
deep. After heavy rains the river in ancient
times, as at the present day, frequently over
flowed ita banks, and did considerable miscMef
to the lower parts of the city. (Liv. xxiv. 9,
xxx. 38, xxxv. 9, 21, xxxviii. 28 ; Dio Cass, xxxix.
61, liii. 20 ; cf. Cic. ad Q. Fr. iii. 7 ; Hor. Od. i.
2,13.) To guard against these dangers Augus
tus instituted the Guratores alvei Tiberis (Suet.
Aug. 87). At Rome the maritime navigation
of the river begins ; and at eighteen miles from
the city, and about four miles from the coast,
it divides into two arms, forming an island,
which was sacred to Venus and called Insula
Sacra (Isola Sagra). The left branch of the
river runs mto the sea by Ostia, which was the
ancient harbour of Rome ; but in consequence
of the accumulation of sand at the mouth of
the left branch, the right branch was widened
by Trajan, and was made the regular harbour
of the city under the name of Portus Bomanus,
Portus Augusti, or simply Portus. [Ostia.]
The whole length of the Tiber, with its windinga,
ia about 200 miles. The waters of the river
are muddy and yeUowish, whence it is frequently
called by the Roman poets flavus Tiberis.
The poets also give it the epithets of Tyrrhe-
nus, because it flowed past Etruria during the
whole of its course, and of Lydius, because the
Etruscans are said to have been of Lydian
origin.

TIBERIUS
Tiberius. 1. Emperor of Rome, a.d. 14-37.
His full name was Tiberius Claudius Nero
Caesar. He was the son of T. Claudius Nero
and of Livia, and was born on the 16th of Nov
ember, B.C. 42, before his mother married
Augustus. Tiberius was taU and strongly made,
and Ms health was very good. His face was
handsome, and his eyes were large. He was
carefully educated, and became well acquainted
with Greek and Latin literature. His master
in rhetoric was Theodorus of Gadara. Though
not without military courage, as his life shows,
he had a great timidity of character, and was
of a jealous and suspicious temper ; and these
qualities rendered Mm cruel after he had ac
quired power. There can be little doubt that
his morose reserve and Ms dissimulation had
been mcreased, if not created, by his relations
to Augustus. As emperor the difficulties of Ms
position, and the influence of Livia and still
more of Sejanus, increased Ms tendency to
jealousy and suspicion of aU who seemed rivals
or dangeroua from their popularity. The sys
tem of espionage and delation once begun could
only increase with each act of tyranny and
cruelty till his rule became a veritable reign of
terror. Yet in reading Ms Mstory, especiaUy
the tales of his monstrous and incredible licen
tiousness it must be recollected that Tacitus
and Suetonius both wrote with a strong bias
against him and his rule, and were ready to
accept as true the worst scandals which were
handed down. H Velleius was prejudiced in
the other direetion it is at least right to adopt
some partofhisless unfavourable portrait and to
imagine that the old age of Tiberius was not
so absolutely contradictory of his youth as it is
sometimes made to appear. The cruelty of Ms
rule applied only to Rome. The testimony of
Josephus and Philo shows that Ms provincial
government was just and lement. — Li B.C. 11,
Augustus compelled Tiberius, much against Ms
will, to divorce his wife Vipsania Agrippina,
and to marry Julia, the widow of Agrippa, and
the emperor's daughter, with whom Tiberius,
however, did n ot long live in harmony. Tiberius
was thus brought into still cloaer contact
with the imperial family ; but as C. and L.
Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus, were still
living, the prospect of Tiberius succeeding to
the imperial power seemed very remote. He
was employed on various mUitary services.
In 20 he was sent by Augustus to restore
Tigranes to the tMone of Armenia. It was
during this campaign that Horace addressed
one of his Epistles to Julius Florus (i. 12), who
was serving under Tiberius. In 15, Drusus and
hia brother Tiberius were engaged in warfare
with the Raeti, and the exploits of the two
brothers were sung by Horace (Od. iv. 4, 14).
[Raetia.] In 13, Tiberius was consul with P.
Quintilius Varus. In 11, while his brother,
Drusus, was fighting against the Germans, Ti
berius conducted the war against the Dalmatians
and against the Pannonians. Drusus died in
9, owing to a fall from his horse. On the news
of the accident, Tiberius was Bent by Augustus
to Drusus, whom he found just alive. Tiberius
returned to the war in Germany, and crossed
the Rhine. In 7 he was consul a second time.
In 6 he obtained the tribunitia potestas for five
years, but during this year he retired with the
emperor's permission to Rhodes, where he spent
the next seven years. Tacitus says that his
chief reason for leaving Rome was to get away
from his wife, who treated him with contempt,
and whose licentious life was no secret to her

TIBERIUS
husband; probably, too, he was unwilling to
stay at Rome when the grandsons of Augustus
were attaining years of maturity, for there was
mutual jealousy between them and Tiberius.
He returned to Rome a.d. 2. He was relieved
from one trouble during his absence, for his wife,
Julia, was banished to the island of Pandataria
{b.c 2), and he never saw her again. After the
deaths of L. Caesar (a.d. 2) and C. Caesar
(a.d. 4), Augustus adopted ¦ Tiberius, with the
view of leaving to Mm the imperial power ; and
at the same time he required Tiberius to adopt
Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus,
though Tiberius had a son Drusus by Ms wife
Vipsania. From the year of his adoption to
the death of Augustus, Tiberius was in com
mand of the Roman armies, though he visited
Rome several times. He was sent into Ger
many a.d. 4. He reduced all Hlyricum to sub
jection A.D. 9 ; and in aj>. 12 he had the honour
of a triumph at Rome for his German and
Dalmatian victories. On the death of Augustus
at Nola, on the 19th of August, a.d. 14, Tiberius,
who was on Ms way to Blyricum, waa immedi
ately summoned home by his mother, Livia.
He took the imperial power without any oppo
sition, affecting all the whUe a great reluctance.
He began Ms reign by putting to death Postu
mus Agrippa, the
surviving grandson
of Augustus, and he
alleged that it was
done pursuant to the
command of the late
emperor. When he
felt himself sure in
Ms place, he began
to strengthen the
principate. He took
from the popular as
sembly the election
of the magistrates,
and transferred it to
the senate. The
news of the death of
Head ol Tiberius. (From a Augustus roused
statue in the Vatican.) mutiny among the
legions in Pannonia, which was quelled by
Drusus, the son of Tiberius. The armies on
the Rhine under Germanicus showed a dispo
sition to reject Tiberius, and if Germanicus had
been incUned to try the fortune of a campaign.
he might have had the assistance of the Ger
man armies agatost Ms uncle. But Germanicus
restored discipline to the army by Ms firmness,
and maintained his fidelity to the new emperor.
The first year of his reign was marked by the
death of Julia, whom Augustus had removed
from Pandataria to Rhegium. The death of
Germanicus to the East, to a.d. 19, relieved Ti
berius from all fear of a rival claimant to the
tMone ; and it was believed by many that Ger
manicus had been poisoned by order of Tiberius.
From tMa time Tiberius began to indulge with
less restraint in his love of tyranny, and many
diatinguiahed senators were soon put to death
on the charge of treason against the emperor
(laesa majestas). Notwithstanding his sus
picious nature, Tiberius gave his complete confi
dence to Sejanus, who for many years possessed
the real government of the state. TMs am
bitious man aimed at the imperial power. In
23 Drusus, the son of Tiberius, was poisoned by
the contrivance of Sejanus. Three years after
wards (26) Tiberius left Rome, and withdrew
into Campania. He never returned to the city.
He left on the pretext of dedicating temples m

TIBILIS

953

Campania, but the real cause was probably his
dislike to Rome, where he knew that he was
unpopular ; and Sejanus was only too anxious
to encourage any feeling which would keep the
emperor at a distance from the city. That
Tiberius went because he wished to hide his
licentiousness in this place of retirement may
be set down as a silly invention. Rome was
not a place were licentiousness was scouted.
He took up his residence (27) in the island of
Capreae, at a short distance from the Campa
nian coast. The death of Livia (29), the em
peror' b mother, released Tiberius from one
cause of anxiety. He had long been tired of
her, because she wished to exercise authority,
and one object in leaving Rome was to be out
of her way. Livia's death gave Sejanus and
Tiberius free scope, for Tiberius never entirely
released himself from a kind of subjection to
his mother, and Sejanus did not venture to
attempt the overthrow of Livia's influence.
The destruction of Agrippina and her cMldren
was now the chief purpose of Sejanus : he finally
got from the tyrant (31) the reward that was his
just desert, an ignominious death. [Sejanus.]
The death of Sejanus was followed by the exe
cution of Ms friends; and for the remainder
of the reign of Tiberius, Rome continued to be
the scene of tragic occurrences. Tiberius died
on the 16th of March, 37, at the villa of Lucul
lus, in Misenum. He was seventy-eight years
of age, and had reigned twenty-two years. He
was succeeded by Gaius (Caligula), the son of
Germanicus, but, according to Tacitus, he had
himself appointed no successor (Tac. Ann. vi.
46), though he had appointed Gaius the heir
of his private property (Suet. Tib. 76) in con
junction with Tiberius Gemellus, whom Gaius
afterwards put to death. On the other hand,
Josephus has a story of Tiberius committing
the empire to Gaius (Ant. xviii. 6, 9). Tiberius
did not die a natural death. It was known
that his end was rapidly approaching, and
having had a fainting fit, he was supposed to
be dead. Thereupon Gaius came forth and
was saluted as emperor ; but he was alarmed
by the inteUigence that Tiberius had recovered
and called for something to eat. Gaius was so
frightened that he did not know what to do ;
but Macro, the prefect of the praetorians, with
more presence of mind, gave orders that a
quantity of clothes should be thrown on Ti
berius, and that he should be left alone. (Tac.
Ann. v. 50; Dio Cass, lviii. 28.) Suetomus
mentions a suspicion that Tiberius was poisoned
at the last by Gaius (Suet. Tib. 73, Cat 12).
Tiberius wrote a brief commentary of his own
life, the only book that the emperor Domitian
studied (Suet. Tib. 61, Dom. 20), and also Greek
poems, and a lyric poem on the death of L.
Caesar (Suet. Tib. 70).— 2. Tiberius Gemellus,
son of Drusus junior (Deusus, No. 5), twin with
another son, who died early. He was therefore
grandson of Tiberius and regarded as a danger
ous rival by Caligula, who put him to death
soon after his accession. (Suet. Tib. 54, Cal.
14, 23). It is said that Tiberius doubted his
legitimacy. This and his youth may have been
reasons against his being named successor to
the empire (Suet. Tib. 62; Tac. Ann. vi. 46).— 3.
A philosopher and sophist, of unknown time,
the author of numerous works on grammar and
rhetoric. One of his works, on the figures in
the orations of Demosthenes (Ilepl roiv irapa
AypaaBevet o~xypdriov), is still extant. — Ed.
Spengel, 1856.)
Tibilis. 1. A town of Numidia, in N. Africa,.

954 TIBISCUM
on the road from Cirta to Carthage, with warm
springs, caUed Aquae TibUitanae.— 2. (Tiflis),
a town on the Cyrus in the Asiatic Iberia.
Tibiscum, a town of Dacia and a Roman
municipium on the river Tibiscus (Ptol. iii. 8,
Tibiscus or Tiviscus (Temes), a river of
Dacia, which rises in the district of Sarmize-
getusa and joins the Danube a little below
Singidunum (Belgrade).
Tibullus, Albius, the Roman poet, was of
equestrian family. The date of his birth is un
certain ; but he died young, aoon after Virgil.
His birth is therefore placed by conjecture
B.C. 54, and his death B.C. 18. Of his youth
and education absolutely nothing is known.
The estate belongmg to the equestrian ances
tors of TibuUus was at Pedum, between Tibur
and Praeneste. This property, like that of the
other great poets of the day, Virgil and Horace,
had been either entirely or partially confiacated
during the civil wars ; yet TibuUus retained
or recovered part of it, perhaps tMough Mes
salla, and spent there the better portion of his
short, but peaceful and happy, life (Tib. i. 1,
19 ; cf. Hor. Ep. i. 4, 7). When his friend and
patron, Messalla, was going to Ms prefecture
in Asia, B.C. 30, Tibullus, after first refusing,
eventually agreed to accompany him, but fell
ill on the way at Corcyra and returned thence
to Rome (Tib. i. 1, i. 3). Afterwards, in 28, he
went to Aquitania with Messalla, who had been
sent by Augustus to suppress a formidable in
surrection wMch had broken out in this pro
vince. Part of the glory of the Aquitanian
campaign, which Tibullus celebrates in language
of unwonted loftiness, redounds, according to
the poet, to his own fame. He was present at
the battle of Atax (Aude in Languedoc), which
broke the Aquitanian rebellion (Tib. i. 7). So
ceased the active life of TibuUus; hia life ia
now the chronicle of his poetry and of the loves
which inspired it. The first Object of his
attachment is celebrated under the poetic name
of Delia : according to Apuleius (Apol. 10) her
real name was Plania. To Delia are addressed
the first six Elegies of the first book. The
poet's attachment to Delia had begun before
he left Rome for Aquitania. But Delia seems
to have been faithless during his absence from
Rome. On Ms return from Corcyra he found
her ill, and attended her with affectionate
solicitude (Eleg. i. 5), and hoped to induce her
to retire with him into the country. But first
a richer lover appears to have supplanted him
with the inconstant Delia, and afterwards
there appears a husband in Ms way. The
second book of Elegies is cMefly devoted to a
new mistress named Nemesis (cf . Ov. Am. iii.
9, 32 ; Mart. viii. 73, 7). It is probable, though
not certain, that this Nemesis is the same as
the Glycera mentioned only by Horace (Od. i.
33, 2), who reproves Mm for dwellmg so long in
his plaMtive elegies on the ' pitiless Glycera.' —
The poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibul
lus as a gentle and singularly amiable man.
To Horace especially he was an object of warm
attachment. Besides the ode which aUudes to
Mb passion for Glycera (Hor. Od. i. 33), the
Epistle of Horace to TibuUus gives the most
full and pleasing view of his poetical retreat,
and of his character : it is written by a kindred
spirit. Horace does homage to that perfect
purity of taste which distinguishes the poetry
of Tibullus : he takes pride in the candid but
favourable judgment of his own Satires. The
time of Tibullus he supposes to be shared

TIBUR
between the finishing his exquisite small poems,
which were to surpass even those of Cassius of
Parma, up to that time the models of that kind
of composition, and the enjoyment of the
country. TibuUus possessed, according to his
friend's notions, all the blessings of life — a
competent fortune, favour with the great, fame,
health ; and he seemed to know how to enjoy
aU those blessings. — The first two books alone
of the Elegies under the name of TibuUus are
of undoubted authenticity. The tMrd is the
work of another, a very inferior poet, whether
Lygdamus be a real or fictitious name. TMs
poet was much younger than Tibullus, for he
was born in the year of the battle of Mutina,
43. It is probable that he was a less gifted
member of MessaUa's literary circle : this con
nexion with the patron of TibuUus might
account for his Elegies being confused with the
genuine poems of Tibullus. The hexameter
poem on MessaUa, which opens the fourth
nook, is so bad that, although a successful
elegiac poet may have failed when he attempted
epic verse, it cannot reodUy be ascribed to a
writer of the exquisite taste of TibuUus. If it
is his, it must be supposed that it was an early
poem written in an imitative manner, when he
was under the full influence of the Alexandrian
school. The smaller Elegies of the fourth book
have all the inimitable grace and simpUcity of
Tibullus. With the exception of the thirteenth
(of wMch some lines are hardly surpassed by
Tibullus Mmself) these poems relate to the love
of a certain Sulpicia, a woman of noble birth,
for Certothus, the real or fictitious name of a
beautiful youth. Nor is there any improbabUity
in supposing that Tibullus may have written
Elegies in the name or by the desire of Sul
picia. If Sulpicia was herself the poetess, she
approached nearer to TibuUus than any other
writer of Elegies. — The first book of Elegies
alone seems to have been published during the
author's life, probably soon after the triumph
of Messalla (27). The second book probably
did not appear tiU after the death of Tibullus.
With it may have been published the Elegies of
Ms imitator, perhaps his friend and associate
in the society of Messalla, Lygdamus (if that
be a real name), i.e. the third book ; and like
wise the fourth, made up of poems belonging,
as it were, to this intimate society of Messalla :
the Panegyric by some nameless author, wMch,
feeble as it is, seems to be of that age; the
poems in the name of Sulpicia, with the con
cluding one, the thirteenth, a fragment of
Tibullus Mmself. — Editions of Tibullus by
Lachmann, Berol. 1829 ; Diasen, Gottingen, 1885 ;
Batoens, Leips. 1878 ; HUler, Leips. 1885 ;
selections by Ramsay.
Tibur (Tiburs, pi. Tiburtes, Tiburtmus:
Tivoli), one of the most ancient towns of La
tium, sixteen miles NE. of Rome, situated on
the slope of a hiU (hence called by Horace
supinum Tibur), on the left bank of the Anio,
which here forms a magmficent waterfall
(Strab. p. 238 ; Hor. Od. i. 17, 13). It is said
to have been originally built by the Siculi
(Dionys. i. 16), i.e. by the very early inhabitants
of Italy who were driven southwards into Sicily
[Sicilia], Accordmg to one tradition these earlier
occupants were expelled from their city by
Tiburtus (who renamed it), Coras, and CatiUus
or Catilus, the three aons of a Catillus who
was himself a son of Amphiaraus, and migrated
to Italy before the time of the Trojan war
(Hor. Od. i. 18, 2; Verg. Aen. vii. 670; Ov.
Fast. iv. 71, Am. iii. 6, 45; Stat. Silv. i. 8, 74;

TICHIS
Sil. It. iv. 225). In some accounts Catillus
accompanied. Evander. But it is probable
that tine theory of a colonisation by Greeks
had no foundation, and arose merely from a
tendency at a particular time to look for a
Greek origin of Italian towns which were really
of a Latm foundation. It was afterwards one
of the cMef towns of the Latin League, and was
reduced to submission in 835 (Liv. vii. 19),
but was left independent, though deprived of
territory. Hence Roman exiles could go there
(Pol. vi. 14), which explains the story in Ovid
(Fast. vi. 665 ; cf. Liv. ix. 80; App. B. C. i. 65;
Ov. Pont. i. 3, 81). Tibur remained in the posi
tion of bemg a civitas foederata until after the
Social war (B.C. 90) when it received the fran
chise [cf. Praeneste]. Tibur continued to be
a large and flourishing town, since the salubrity
and beautiful scenery of the place led many of
the most distinguished Roman nobles to build
here magnificent villas. Of these the most
splendid was the viUa of the emperor Hadrian,
to the extensive remains of which many valua
ble specimens of ancient art have been dis
covered. Here also Zenobia lived after adornmg
the triumph of her conqueror, Aurelian. Horace
had a country house in the neighbourhood of
Tibur, wMch he preferred to aU his other resi
dences. [Horatius.] The deity cMefly wor
sMpped at Tibur was Hercules : and to the
neighbourhood were the grove and temple of
the Sibyl Albunea, whose oracles were con
sulted from the most ancient times. [Albunea.]
The beautiful round temple wMch remams, in
fair preservation, is generally caUed the temple
of the Sibyl; but it may be more correct to
regard it as the temple of Vesta (who is Miown
to have had a temple at Tibur), and to regard
the neighbouring temple (now the church of
S. Giorgio) as the temple of the Sibyl. The
more important temple of Hercules Victor, the
presiding deity of Tibur, probably stood on
the site of the present cathedral.
Tiehis or Tecum. [Tecum.]
Tichiussa (Teixiovo-cra), a fortresa in the
territory of MUetus (Thuc. viii. 26, 28).
Ticinum (Tictoensis : Pavia), a town of the
Laevi, or, according to some, of the Insubres,
in GalUa Cisalpina, on the left bank of the
Ticinus. It was subsequently a Roman muni
cipium ; but it owed its greatness to the
Lombard Mngs, who made it the capital of
their dominions. The Lombards gave it the
name of Papia, wMch it stiU retains under the
slightly changed form of Pavia. (Strab. p. 217 ;
Tac. Ann. Ui. 5; Procop. B. G. U. 12, 25, iv. 32.)
Ticinus (Tessino) an important river in
GalUa Cisalpina, rises in Mons Adula, and
after flowing tMough Lacus Verbanus (Lago
Maqqiore), faUs into the Po near Ticinum.
It was upon the bank of this river that Hannibal
gained Ms first victory over the Romans, by
the defeat of P. Scipio, B.C. 218 (Strab. pp.
209, 217 ; Liv. xxi. 45 ; Pol. m. 65.)
Tifata, a mountain in Campania, E. of Capua,
near wMch the Samnites defeated the Cam-
panians, and where at a later time Sulla gamed
a victory'over the proconsul Norbanus (Liv. viu.
29 xxiii 36-43; VeU. Pat. u. 25). On this
mountain there was a temple of Diana [p. 285, a],
and also one of Jupiter, who (like Zeus Lycaeus)
was worsMpped in oak groves) on Mil-tops, as
is implied in the titles Jupiter Apennmensis,
JuDiter Culminalis, &c. [Jupiter.] _
Tifernum. 1. Tiberinum (Tifernates Tibermi,
„! • Citta di Castello), a town of Umbria, near
the sources of the river Tiber, whence its sur-

TIGRANES

055

name, and upon the confines of Etruria. Near
this town the younger PUny had a villa. (Plin.
Ep. v. 6). — 2. Metaurense (Tifernates Me-
taurenses : S. Angelo in Vado), a town in
Umbria, E. of the preceding, on the river Metau-
rus, whence its surname.
Tifernus (Biferno), a river of Samnium,
rising in the Apennines, and flowing through
the country of the Frentani into the Adriatic
(Liv. x. 30 ; Mel. ii. 4, 6).
Tigellinus Sophonius, the son of a native of
Agrigentum, owed his rise from poverty and
obscurity to his handsome person and Ms un
scrupulous character. He was banished to
Scyllaceum in Bruttii (a.d. 39-40) for an in
trigue with Agrippina and Julia Livilla, sisters
of Caligula. (Dio Cass. lix. 23.) He was prob
ably among the exiles restored by Agrippina,
after she became empress, since early to Nero's
reign he was again in favour at court, and at
the death of Burrus (63) was appointed prae
torian prefect jointly with Fenius Rufus (Tac.
Ann. xiv. 58). Tigellinus ministered to Nero's
worst passions, and of all his favourites was
the most obnoxious to the Roman people (Tac.
Ann. xv. 59, Hist. i. 72 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 13).
He inflamed his jealousy or his avarice against
the noblest members of the senate and the
most pliant dependants of the court. In 65,
Tigellinus entertained Nero in his Aemilian
gardens, with a sumptuous profligacy unaur-
paaaed even in that age, and in the same year
shared with him the odium of burning Rome,
since the conflagration had broken out on the
scene of the banquet. (Tac. Ann. xv. 87 ; Dio
Cass. lxii. 15.) It was certain death, according
to Juvenal, to describe Mm as he was (Juv. i.
155) ; and of tMs proof was given in the murder
of Thermus, who had spoken against Tigellinus
(Tac. Ann. xvi. 20), and the narrow escape of
the outspoken Apollonius of Tyana, who was
spared only from a superstitious dread of Ms
prophetic powers (PMlostr. Ap. iv. 42). On
Nero's fall he joined with Nymphidius Sabinus,
who had succeeded Fenius Rufus as praetorian
prefect, in transferring the allegiance of the
soldiers to Galba. The people clamorously
demanded Ms death. During the brief reign
of Galba his life was spared ; but on the acces
sion of Otho, he was compelled to put an end
to Ms own life. (Suet. Galb. 15 ; Tac. Hist. i. 72.)
Tigellius Hermogenes. [Hermogenes.]
Tigranes (Tiypdvys), kings of Armenia. 1.
Reigned B.C. 96-56. He united under his sway
Armenia, Atropatene, and Gordyene, and thus
raised himself to a degree of power superior to
that of Ms predeceaaors. He aaaumed the title
of King of Kings, and appeared in public accom
panied by tributary princes as attendants.
(Strab. p. 532 ; Plut. Lucull. 21 ; App. Syr. 48.)
His power was strengthened by his alliance
with Mithridates the Great, Mng of Pontus,
whose daughter Cleopatra he had married at an
early period of his reign. In consequence of
the dissensions in the royal family of Syria,
Tigranes was enabled in 83 to make himself
master of the whole Syrian monarchy from the
Euphrates to the aea. He waa now at the
summit of Ma power, and continued in the un-
diaputed possession of these dominions for
nearly fourteen years. At the instigation of
his son-in-law, Mithridates, he invaded Cappa
docia M 74, and is aaid to have carried off into
captivity no lesa than 300,000 of the inhabitants,
a large portion of whom he aettled in hia newly
founded capital of Tigranocerta. [Tigrano
certa.] In other respects he appears to have

¦956

TIGRANOCERTA

furnished little support to Mithridates in hie
war against the Romans ; but when the Romans
haughtily demanded from Mm the aurrender of
Mithridates, who had taken refuge in his domi
nions, he returned a peremptory refusal, accom
panied with an express declaration of war.
LucuUus invaded Armenia in 69, defeated the
mighty host which Tigranes led against Mm,
and followed up his victory by the capture of
Tigranocerta. In the following year (68) the
united forces of Tigranes and Mithridates were
again defeated by Lucullus (Plut. Lucull. 22-
28 ; App. Mithr. 84-86) ; but the mutinous
disposition of the Roman troops prevented Lu
cuUus from gaining any further advantages over
the Armenian Mng, and enabled the latter, not
only to regain his dominions, but also to invade
Cappadocia (Plut. Luc. 34; Dio Cass. xxxv. 15).
The arrival of Pompey (66) soon changed the
face of events. Mithridates, after his final
defeat by Pompey, once more threw himself
upon the support of his son-in-law ; but Ti
granes, who suspected him of abetting the
designs of his son Tigranes, who had rebelled
agamst his father, refused to receive him, while
he himself hastened to make overtures of sub
mission to Pompey. That general had already
advanced into the heart of Armenia under the
guidance of the young Tigranes, when the old
king repaired in person to the Roman camp,
and presenting himself as a suppliant before
Pompey, laid his tiara at his feet. By this act

Coin ol Tigranes, King of Armenia, B.C. 96-56.
Obv., Tigranes, wearing the tiara; rev. figure of the city of
Antioch, holding a palm-branch : at her feet the river
Orontes, represented as a swimmer.
of humiliation he at once conciliated the favour
of the conqueror, who treated him in a friendly
manner, and left Mm in possession of Armenia
Proper with the title of king, depriving him
only of the provinces of Sophene and Gordyene,
which he erected into a separate kingdom for
his son Tigranes. (Plut. Pomp. 32, 33 ; Dio Cass.
xxxvi. 33-36; App. Mithr. 105.) The elder
monarch was so overjoyed at obtaining these
unexpectedly favourable terms, that he not only
paid the sum of 6000 talents demanded by
Pompey, but added a large sum as a donation
to Ms army, and continued ever after the
steadfast friend of the Roman general. He
died in 56 or 55, and was succeeded by his son
Artavasdes. (Dio Cass. xl. 16).— 2. Son of
Artavasdes, and grandson of the preceding.
He was living an exile at Rome when a party
oi Ms countrymen, discontented with the rule
of Ms elder brother, Artaxias, sent to request
that he should be placed on the throne. To
this Augustus assented, and Tiberius was
charged with the duty of accomplishing it, a
task which he effected apparently without on-
position (b.c. 20). (Tac. Inn. ii. 3; Dio Cass.
liv. 9 ; Suet. Tib. 9.)
_ Tigranocerta (ra Tiypavdnepra and y Tiyp
^e..m Armenian, the City of Tigranee : Serf,
-Ku.), the later capital of Armenia, built by Ti
granes, on a height by the river Nicephorius, in

TIMAEUS
the valley between M. Masius and Niphates. It
was strongly fortified, and peopled chiefly with
Macedonians and Greeks forcibly removed from
Cappadocia and Cilicia ; but, after the defeat of
Tigranes by Lucullus under its walls, these
people were permitted to return to their homes.
The city was at the same time partiaUy de
stroyed; but it still remained a considerable
place. (Strab. pp. 522, 532, 539, 747; App.
Mithr. 67 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 50, xiv. 24.) Its site
ia placed by some modern geographers at Tell
Ermen. Tigris, gen. -ldos and -is (o Tiypis, gen. Ti-
ypiSos and Tiypios, also Tiypys, gen. Tiypyros :
Tigris), a great river of W. Asia, rises from
several sources on the S. side of that part of the
Taurus chain called Niphates, in Armenia, and
flows SE., first through the narrow vaUey be
tween M. Masius and the prolongation of M.
Niphates, and then through the great plain
which is bounded on the E. by the last-named
chain, till it falls into the head of the Persian
Gulf, after receiving the Euphrates from the W.
[Comp. Euphrates.] Its other chief tributaries,
all falling into its E. side, were the Nicephorius
or Centbites, the Lycus, the Caprus, the Phys
cus, the Gobgus, Sillas or Delas, the Gyn-
des, and the Choaspes. It divided Assyria
and Susiana on the E. from Meaopotamia and
Babylonia, and (at ita mouth) Arabia, on the
W. (Hdt. vi. 20 ; Xen. An. iv. 1, 3 ; Arr. An.
vii. 7 ; Strab. pp. 79, 529, 728 ; Verg. Eel. i. 63.)
The name ia sometimes applied to the Pasi
tigris. Tigurini, a tribe of the Helvetii, who joined
the Cimbri in invadmg the country of the AUo-
broges in Gaul, where they defeated the consul
L. Cassius Longinus, b.c. 107. They formed to
the time of Caesar the most important of the
four cantons (pagi) into which the Helvetii
were divided. [Helvetii.]
Tiliaventus (Tagliamento), a river of Ve
netia which falls into the Adriatic between
Aquileia and Concordia (Plin. iii. 126).
Tilphusium (TiXcpovcriov), a town in Boeotia,
situated upon a mountain of the same name, S.
of lake Copais, and between Coronea and Hali
artus. It derived its name from the fountain
Tilphusa, wMch was sacred to Apollo, and
where Tiresias is said to have been buried
(Paus. ix. 33, 1).
Timaeus (Tipaios). 1. The historian, was
the son of Andromachus, tyrant of Tauro
menium, in Sicily. Timaeus attained the age
of 96 ; and though we do not know the exact
date either of his birth or death, we cannot be
far wrong in placing Ms birth in b.c. 352, and
his death in 256. Timaeus received instruction
from Philiscus, the Milesian, a disciple of Iso
crates (Suid. s. v.) ; but we have no further par
ticulars of his life, except that he was banished
from Sicily by Agathocles, and passed his exile
at Athens, where he had lived fifty years when
he wrote the thirty-fourth book of his History
The great work of Timaeus was a History of
SicUy from the earliest times to 264, in which
year Polybius commences the introduction to
his work (Pol. i. 5). This History was one of
great extent. We have a quotation from the
thirty-eighth book, and there were probably
many books after this (Suid. s. vv. $ rb
iepbv trip). The value and authority of Timaeus
as a historian have been most vehemently
attacked by Polybius in many parts of his work
(Pol. n. 16, xii. 3, 5). Moat of the charges of
Polybius appear to have been well founded ;
yet he has not only omitted to mention some of

TIMAGENES
ever,PtCUliaJ «xoeUencies of Timaeus, but has
tho L gar?ed some S°od Points as deserving
great I6™!* C!^SUre- Thus itwas one "i th?
great merits of Timaeus, for which he is loudly
denounced by Polybius, that he attempted to
Sen,,;!* my4hs iu their simplest and most
wXv= r^' aa related h? the ra°st ancient
Z hZ i- ,Tlmaeus also collected the materials
nlv* history with tiie greatest diligence and
care, a fact which even Polybius is obliged to
admit, and he is praised for Ms learning and
general information by Cicero (de Orat. fi. 14).
ne likewise paid very great attention to chro
nology, and was the first writer who introduced
tne practice of recording events by Olympiads,
which was adopted by almost aU subsequent
writers of Greek Mstory. The fragments of
Timaeus have been collected by Goller, in his
De Situ et Origine Syracusarum, Lips. 1818,
and by Cor. and Theod. MiiUer, in the Frag
ment a Historic. Graec. Paris, 1841.— 2. Of
Locri, in Italy, a Pythagorean philosopher, is
said to have been a teacher of Plato (Cic. de
Fin. v. 29, de Bep. i. 10). There ia an extant
work, bearmg Ms name, written to the Doric
dialect, and entitled nepi ipvxas Kdcrpov Kal
tpvcrios : but its genuineness is very doubtful,
and it is to aU probability notMng more than
an abridgment of Plato's dialogue of Timaeus.
Ed. by Gelder, Leyden, 1836. — 3. The SopMst,
wrote a Lexicon to Plato, addressed to a certain
Gentianus, wMch is stUl extant. The time at
wMch he Uved is quite uncertain. He is usually
placed to the third century of the Christian era,
wMch produced so many ardent admirers of the
Platomc pMlosophy, such as Porphyry, Longi
nus, Plotinus, &c. The Lexicon bears the title
Ttpjaiov ffocpiu-rov irepl ruv irapa TiXdrwvi Xe£ewv.
It is very brief, but is of value for its expla
nations of words. It has been edited by Ruhn-
ken, Leyden, 1754, and agaM, Leyden, 1789 ;
and by Koch, Leipzig, 1828, and 1833.
TImagenes (Tipayevys), a rhetorician and a
Mstorian, was a native of Alexandria, from
wMch place he was carried as a prisoner to
Rome, where he was first employed as a slave
M menial offices, but bemg liberated by Faustus
Sulla, the son of the dictator, he opened a school
of rhetoric, to wMch he taught with great suc
cess. (Comp. Hor. Ep. i. 19, 15.) The emperor
Augustus induced him to write a History of his
exploits, but having offended Augustus by
sarcastic remarks upon his famUy, he was
forbidden the palace ; whereupon he burnt his
Mstorical works, gave up his rhetorical school,
and retired from Rome to the house of Ms
friend Asinius PoUio at Tusculum. He after
wards went to the East, and died at Dabanum
to Meaopotamia. (Sen. de Ira, in. 23; Plut.
de Adul. p. 68 ; Quint, x. 1 ; Suid. s. v. Tipa-
^Ttoianthes (TipdvBys), a Greek painter at
Sicyon, contemporary with Zeuxis and Par
rhasius, about B.C. 400. The masterpiece of
Timanthes was his picture of the sacrifice of
Iphigenia, to wMch Agamemnon was Painted
with his face Mdden in Ms mantle. The an
ient critics tell us that the picture showed
Iphigenia, standing by the altar, surrounded,
amolg the assistants, by Calchas, whose pro
phetic voice had demanded her sacrifice, and
whose hand waa about to complete it ; Odysseus,
Zho had brought her from her home, and Mene
laus her father's brother, all manifesting
different degrees of grief, so that, when the
rtist had painted the sorrow of Calchas, and
the deeper sorrow of Odysseus, and had added all

TIMOLEON

957

his powers to express the woe of Menelaus, his
resources were exhausted, and, unable to give
a powerful expression to the agony of the
father, he covered his head with a veil. (Plin.
xxxv. 78 ; Cic. Orat. 22 ; Quint, ii. 13.) But
this is clearly not the reason why Timanthes
hid the face of Agamemnon. Timanthes prob
ably expressed by his painting exactly what
Tennyson, in describing the same scene, ex
presses by the words ' My father held his hand
upon his face ' — the abhorrence of Agamemnon
from the saorifice which he cannot prevent (cf.
Timoleon ; Plut. Tim. 4). It is likely that the
composition of this, undoubtedly one of the most
famous and probably one of the most powerful of
ancient pictures, set the conventional method of
representing the scene, and that M the Pom
peian picture of the sacrifice of Iphigenia (Mus.
Borb. iv. 3) we have the attitude of the Aga
memnon of Timanthes preserved.
Timavus (Timavo), a small river in the N. of
Italy, forming the boundary between Istria and
Venetia, and falling into the Sinus Tergestinus
to the Adriatic, between Tergeste and Aquileia.
It formed sometimes a pool or basin near its
issue to the sea, which Livy calls the Lake of
Timavus (Liv. xii. 1). This river is frequently
celebrated by the poena and other ancient
writers, who speak of its numerous sources, its
lake, and its subterraneous passage. TMs is to
some extent confirmed by the nature of the
river, wMch bursts in several streams of con
siderable volume from the foot of a rock, and
has a course of little over a mUe before it
reaches the sea. It is believed in the country
to be the outflow of a stream which disappears
near S. Ganzian about thirteen mUes from the
reappearance, and this does not differ much
from an estimate as old as Posidonius, who says
that its subterranean course ia 130 stadia
(Strab. p. 215). That the number of mouths by
wMch it issued from the rock varied at different
times iB likely enough. Nine, seven, six, and
four are mentioned. (Verg. Aen. i. 245 ; Strab.
I. c. ; Mart. iv. 25, 6.)
Timocles (TipxiKXys), an Athenian comic poet
of the Middle Comedy, who lived at a period
when the revival of political energy, in conse
quence of the encroachments of Philip, restored
to the Middle Comedy much of the vigour and
real aim of the Old. He is conspicuous for the
freedom with which he discussed public men
and measures (Athen. pp. 224, 341). He lived
till after B.C. 324 (Suid. s. v.). Fragments in
Meineke, Fr. Com. Graec
Timocreon (TipoKpeav), oi Rhodes, a lyric
poet, celebrated for the bitter and pugnacious
spirit of his works, especially for his attacks on
Themistocles and Simonides, and also for his
great bodily strength. He was a native of
Ialysus in Rhodes, whence he was banished on
the then common charge of an inclination
towards Persia (pySicrpds) ; and in this banish
ment he was left neglected by Themistocles, who
had formerly been his friend and was connected
with him by the ties of hospitality. Timocreon
was still living after B.C. 471, since one of
his poems, of which we have a fragment, was
an attack upon Themistocles after his exile.
(Athen. pp. 415, 416 ; Plat. Gorg. p. 493 ; Plut.
Them. 21.)
Timoleon (TtpoXeav), son of Timodemus or
Timaenetus and Demariste, belonged to one of
the noblest families at Corinth. His early life
was stained by a deed of blood. We are told
that when his brother, Timophanes, whose life
he had previously saved in battle at the risk of

958

TIMOLEON

his own (Plut. Tim. 4), endeavoured to make
MmBelf tyrant of their native city, Timoleon
murdered him rather than allow him to destroy
the liberty of the state. It is related that he
visited him with two friends, who first joined
Timoleon in urging him to lay down his power,
and, faiUng M this, stabbed him, Timoleon
meanwhile standing aside with his face veiled
(Plut. Tim. 4, Beipubl. Gerend. Praecept. p.
808; Nep. Tim. 1). The murder was perpe
trated just before an embassy arrived from
several of the Greek cities of Sicily, begging
the Corinthians to send assistance to the island,
which was distracted by internal dissensions,
and was expecting an invasion of the Carthagi
nians. It is said that the CorintMans were at
the very moment of the arrival of the Sicilians
deliberating respecting Timoleon's act, and had
not come to any deciaion reapecting it; and
that they avoided the difficulty of a decision by
appointing him to the command of the SiciUan
expedition, with the singular provision, that if
he conducted himself justly in the command,
they would regard him as a tyrannicide, and
honour him accordingly ; but if otherwise, they
would punish him as a fratricide. To whatever
causes Timoleon owed his appointment, his
extraordinary aucceas juatified the confidence
wMch had been reposed in him. His Mstory
reads like a romance; and yet of the mam
facts of the narrative we cannot entertain any
reasonable doubt. Although the Corinthians
had readily assented to the request of the
Sicilians in the appointment of a commander,
they were not prepared to make many eacrifices
M their favour ; and accordingly it was only
with ten triremes and 700 mercenaries that
Timoleon saUed from Corinth to repel the
Carthaginians, and restore order to the Sici
lian cities. He reached Sicily in B.C. 344, and
straightway marched against Syracuse, of two
quarters of which he obtained possession. In
the foUowing spring (343) Dionysius, despairing
of success, surrendered the citadel to Timoleon,
on condition of his being aUowed to depart in
safety to Corinth. [Dionysius.] Timoleon
soon afterwards obtained possession of the
whole of Syracuse. He destroyed the citadel,
which had been for so many years the seat and
bulwark of the power of the tyrants, and
restored the democratic form of government.
He then proceeded to expel the tyrants from
the other Greek cities of Sicily, but was inter
rupted in this undertaking by a formidable
invasion of the Carthaginians, who landed at
Lilybaeum in 839, with an army, under the
command of Hasdrubal and Hamilcar, consist
ing of 70,000 foot and 10,000 horse. Such an
overwhelming force struck the Greeks with
consternation and dismay. So great was their
alarm that Timoleon could only induce 12,000
men to march with him against the Carthagi
nians. But with this smaU force he gained a
briUiant victory over the Carthaginians on the
river Crimisaus (339). It is said that on Ms
march to meet the enemy Timoleon met some
mules laden with parsley, which, since parsley
was used for wreaths placed on tombstones,
struck the soldiers as a bad omen ; but Timo
leon, placing a wreath of it on Ms head, ex
claimed : ' This is an omen of victory ; for at
Corinth it crowns the victora in the Iathmian
gameB.' (Plut. Tim. 26; Diod. xvi. 79.) The
terrible storm wMch beat in the face of the
Carthaginians and contributed to their defeat
was regarded by Ms troops and by others as a
mark of divine favour to Timoleon. TMs

TIMON
victory justly ranks as one of the greatest
gained by Greeks over barbarians. The booty
which Timoleon acquired was prodigious ; and
some of the richest of the spoils he sent to
Corinth and other cities in Greece, thus spread
ing the glory of his victory throughout the
mother country. Timoleon now resolved to
carry into execution his project of expeUing all
the tyrants from Sicily. Of these, two of the
most powerful, Hicetas of, Leonttoi, and
Mamercus of Catana, had recourse to the
Carthaginians for assistance, who sent Gisco to
Sicily with a fleet of seventy sMps and a body
of Greek mercenaries. Although Gisco gained
a few successes at first, the war was upon the
whole favourable to Timoleon, with whom the
Carthaginians were glad to conclude a treaty in
838, fating the river Halycus as the boundary
of the Carthaginian and Greek dominions to
SicUy. During the war with Gisco Hicetas fell
Mto the hands of Timoleon, and was slain
by Ms order. His wife and daughters were
carried to Syracuse, where they were executed
by the people, as a satisfaction to the manes of
Dion, whose wife Arete and sister Aristomache
had both been put to death by Hicetas. This
is one of the greatest stains upon Timoleon's
character, as he might easily have saved these
unfortunate women if he had chosen. After
the treaty between the Carthaginians and
Timoleon, Mamercus, being unable to maintain
himself in Catana, fled to Messana, where he
took refuge with Hippon, tyrant of -that city.
Timoleon quickly followed, and besieged Mes
sana so vigorously by sea and land that
Hippon, despairing of holdMg out, attempted
to escape by sea, but was taken and put to
death in the public theatre. Mamercus now
surrendered, stipulating only for a pubUc trial
before the Syracusans, with the condition that
Timoleon should not appear as Ms accuser.
But as soon as he was brought into the
assembly at Syracuse, the people refused to
hear Mm, and unanimously condemned him to
death. Thus almost aU the tyrants were
expelled from the Greek cities in Sicily, and a
democratic form of government established in
their place. Timoleon, however, was in reality
the ruler of Sicily, for all the states consulted
him on every matter of importance ; and the
wisdom of his rule is attested by the flourish
ing condition of the island for several years
even after his death. He did not assume any
title or office, but lived as a private citizen
among the Syracusans. Timoleon died to 837,
having become blind a short time before his
death. He was buried at the public expense to
the market-place at Syracuse, where his monu
ment was afterwards surrounded with porticoes
and a gymnasium, which was called after him
the Timoleonteum. Annual games were also
instituted in his honour. (Life of Tim, by
Plutarch and by Nepos ; cf . Diod. xvi. 65-90 ;
Polyaen. v. 8, 8.)
Timomachus (Ttpdpaxos), a distmguished
pamter, of Byzantium, lived (according to Plmy)
in the time of Julius Caesar, who purchased
two of his pictures, the Ajax and Medea, for
the immense sum of eighty Attic talents, and
dedicated them in the temple of Venus Geni-
trix (PUn. vii. 126, xxxv. 136; cf. Anth. Pal.
n. p. 667). It is held by most critics that
Timomachus belonged to the Alexandrine
period of Greek art, and that Pliny was mis
taken in supposing that the pictures which
Caesar bought were painted to Caesar's time.
Timon (Tipav). 1. The son of Timarchus of

T1MUPHANES
PhUus, a philosopher of the sect of the Scep
tics flourished m the reign of Ptolemy Phil
adelphus, about B.c. 279, and onwards. He first
studied philosophy at Megara, under Stilpon,
and then returned home andmarried. He next
went to Elis with his wife, and heard Pyrrho,
whose tenets he adopted. Driven from Elis by
straitened circumstances, he spent some time
on the Hellespont and the Propontis, and
taugnt at Chalcedon as a sophist with such
success that he realised a fortune. He then
removed to Athens, where he passed the
remainder of his life, with the exception of a
short residence at Thebes. He died at the age
of almost 90.— Timon appears to have been en
dowed by nature with a powerful and active
mmd, and with that quick perception of the
f oUies of men wMch betrays its possessor mto a
spirit of umversal distrust both of men and
truths, so as to make him a sceptic in philo
sophy and a satirist to everything. His
agnosticism (to use a modern term) is shown by
Ms saymg that man need only know tMee
things : viz. what is the nature of tMngs, how
we ore related to them, and what we can gam
from them : but, as our knowledge of tMngs
must always be subjective and unreal, we can
only Uve to a state of suspended judgment. He
wrote numerous works both in prose and
poetry. The most celebrated of Ms poems
were the satiric compositions called Silli
(criXXoi), a word of somewhat doubtful etymo
logy, but wMch undoubtedly describes metrical
compositions of a character at once ludicrous
and sarcastic. The invention of tMs species of
poetry is ascribed to Xenophanes of Colophon.
[Xenophanes.] The Silli of Timon were in
three books, M the first of wMch he spoke in
Ms own person, and the other two are to the
form of a dialogue between the author and
Xenophanes of Colophon, to which Timon pro
posed questions, to wtoch Xenophanes repUed
at length. The subject was a sarcastic account
of the tenets of all pMlosophers, living and
dead : an unbounded field for scepticism and
satire. They were M hexameter verse, and
from the way in which they are mentioned by
the ancient writers, as well as from the few
fragments of them wMch have come down to
us, it is evident that they were very admirable
productions of their kind. (Diog. Laert. ix. 12,
109-115 ; Euseb. Praep. Ev. xiv. p. 761.)— The
fragments of Ms poems are coUected by Wolke,
De Graecorum Syllis, Varsav. 1820; and by
Paul, Dissertatio de Sillis, Berol. 1821. — 2.
The Misanthrope (6 piadvBpamos), lived in the
time of the Peloponnesian war. He was an
Athenian, of the demos of Colyttus, and his
father's name waa Echecratides. In conse
quence of the Mgratitude he experienced, and
the diaappototmenta he suffered, from his early
friends and companions, he secluded himself
entirely from the world, admitting no one to
Ms society except Alcibiades, in whoae reckless
and variable disposition he probably found
pleasure in tracing and studying an image of
the world he had abandoned; and at last he is
said to have died in consequence of refusing to
suffer a surgeon to come to him to set a broken
limb One of Lucian's pieces bears his name.
(Aristoph. Av.l5iS, Lys. 809; Plut. Ant. 10;
Lucian, Timon ; Suid. s. v.)
Timophanes. [Timoleon.]
Timotheus (TipdBeos). 1. Son of Conon, the
famous general, was himself a distinguished
Athenian general. He was first appointed to a
public command to B.C. 378 ; and from this

TIRESIAS

959

time his name frequently occurs as one of the
Athenian generals down to 856. In this year
he was associated with Iphicrates, Menestheus,
and Chares in the command of the Athenian
fleet. In consequence of his failure to relieve
Samos he was arraigned in 854, and condemned
to the crushing fine of 100 talents (more than
24,0002.). Being unable to pay the fine, he
withdrew to Chalcis in Euboea, where he died
shortly after. The Athenians subsequently re
mitted nine-tenths of the penalty, and allowed
his son Conon to expend the remainder on the
repair of the walls, wMch the famous Conon
had restored. (Life of Timoth. in Nepos ; Diod.
xv. 81, xvi. 7, 21 ; Iphicbates.) — 2. Son of
Clearchus, the tyrant of Heraclea on the
Euxine, whom he succeeded in the sovereignty,
B.C. 853 (Diod. xvi. 36). There is extant a
letter addressed to him by Isocrates. — 3. A
celebrated musician and poet of the later
Athenian dithyramb, was a native of Miletus,
and the son of Thersander. He was born B.C.
446, and died in 357, in the ninetieth year of his
age. Of the details of Ms life we have very
little information. He was at first unfortunate
in Ms professional efforts. Even the Athenians,
fond as they were of novelty, were offended at
the bold innovations of Timotheus, and hissed
off Ms performance. On this occasion it is said
that Euripides encouraged Timotheus by the
prediction that he would soon have the theatres
at his feet. This prediction appears to have
been accompUshed m the vast popularity which
Timotheus afterwards enjoyed. The Ephesians
rewarded him for his dedicatory hymn to
Artemis with the sum of 1000 pieces of gold ;
and the last accomplishment by which the
education of the Arcadian youth was finished
was learning the nomes of Timotheus and
Philoxenus. (Pol. iv. 20; Athen. pp. 626, 636;
Suid. s. v.) Timotheus ia said to have died in
Macedonia. He delighted in the most artificial
and intricate forms of musical expression : the
most important of his innovations, aa the means
of introducing all the others, was Ms addition
to the number of the strings of the cithara.
[See Did. of Ant. art. Lyra.] — i. A sculptor,
whose country is not mentioned, but who
belonged to the later Attic school of the time of
Scopas and Praxiteles. He was one of the
artists who executed the bas-reliefs which
adorned the frieze of the Mausoleum. He is
also mentioned as the author of a statue of
Asclepius at Troezen and one of Artemis which
was at Rome. (Paus. ii. 32, 3 ; Plin. xxxvi. 32 ;
cf. Bbyaxis ; Leochaees.)
Tingis (y Tiyyts : Tangier), a city of Maure
tania, on the S. coast of the Fretum Gaditanum
(Straits of Gibraltar), was a place of very
great antiquity. It was made by Augustus a
free city, and by Claudius a colony, and the
capital of Mauretania Tingitana. (Strab. pp.
140, 827 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 45 ; Plin. v. 2.)
Tinia (Timid), a smaU river in Ombria,
rismg near Spoletium, and faUing into the
Tiber, after receiving the Clitumnus (Strab. p.
227 ; Sil. It. viii. 452).
Tiresias (Teipeo-ias), one of the mythical
types of prophecy from augury, among whom
were Melampus and Calchas ; but Tiresias was
the most widely celebrated soothsayer of all.
He was represented as a Theban, son of Everes
and Chariclo : hence Theocritus calls him Eue-
rides (Id. xxiv. 70). He was blind from his
seventh year, but lived to a very old age.
Various stories are told about the origin of his
blindness, each probably a local legend, but it

960

TIRIBAZUS

is difficult to say which is the oldest, or where
each was started. One story was that his
blindness was occasioned by Ms having revealed
to men things which they ought not to have
known. Another that he had seen Athene
while she was bathing, wherefore the goddess
deprived him of sight by sprinkling water upon
his face. Chariclo prayed to Athene to restore
his sight, but as the goddess was unable to do
this, she conferred upon him the power of
understandmg the voices of birds, and gave
him a staff, with the help of which he could
walk as safely as if he had his eyesight. (Apol
lod. iii. 6, 7 ; CaUim. Lav. Pall. 75.) Another
tradition accounts for his blMdness in the fol
lowing manner. Once, when on Mount Cithae
ron (others say Cyllene), he saw a male and a
female aerpent together; he atruck at them
with his staff, and as he happened to Mil the
female, he Mmself was metamorphosed into a
woman. Seven years later he agaM aaw two
serpents, and now killing the male, he again
became a man. It was for this reason that
Zeus and Hera, when disputing whether a man
or a woman had more enjoyments, referred the
matter to Tiresias, who declared that women
enjoyed more pleasure than men. Hera, in
dignant at the answer, deprived him of sight,
but Zeus gave him the power of prophecy, and
granted Mm a life which was to last for seven
or nine generations. This story is said to have
been related by Hesiod. (Tzetz. ad Lye. 682 ;
cf. Apollod. l.c. ; Ov. Met. iii. 320 ; Hyg. Fab.
75.) It seems to belong to an early date, when
serpents were symbols of prophetic and oracu
lar power, and it probably grew out of a primi
tive Boeotian superatition. In the war of the
Seven against Thebes, he declared that Thebes
would be victorious if Menoeceus would sacri
fice himself ; and durmgthe war of the Epigoni,
when the Thebans had been defeated, he ad
vised them to commence negotiations of peace,
and to avail themselves of the opportunity that
would thus be afforded them to take to flight.
He Mmself fled with them (or, according to
others, he waa carried to Delphi as a captive),
but on Ms way he drank from the well of Til-
phossa and died. (Diod. iv. 66 ; Paus. ix. 33, 1 ;
Apollod. iii. 7, 3.) His daughter, Manto (or
Daphne), was sent by the victorioua Argives to
Delphi, as a servant to Apollo. Even in the
lower world TiresiaB was believed to retain the
powers of perception, while the souls of other
mortals were mere shades, and there also he
continued to use his golden staff (Od. x. 492,
xi. 90). His tomb was shown in the neighbour
hood of the Tilphusian weU near Thebes, and
in Macedonia likewise. The place near Thebes
where he had observed the birds was poMted
out* as a remarkable spot even to later times.
(Paus. ix. 16, 1 ; cf. Soph. 0. T. 498.) The
blind seer Tiresias acts so prominent a part to
the mythical history of Greece that there is
scarcely any event with which he is not con
nected in some way or other ; and this intro
duction of the seer in so many occurrences
separated by long intervals of time was facili
tated by the belief in his long life. In Pindar
(Nem. 60) he prophesies to the parents of
Heracles ; in Sophocles, as a very old man, to
Oedipus ; and, in the stories of the Epigoni, to
the grandsons of Oedipus.
Tiribazus (TiplBa(os), satrap of Armenia in
401, hung on the retreat of the 10,000, but
without success (Xen. An. iv. 4, vii. 8 ; Diod.
xiv. 27). He succeeded Tithraustes as satrap
of W. Aaia, and favoured the views of Antal

cidas. In 386 he commanded the expedition
against Evagoeas. Some time afterwards he
conspired against Artaxerxes II., and was put
to death (Plut. Artax. 29).
Tiridates or Teridates (TypiSdrys). 1. The
second king of Parthia. [Arsaces II.] — 2.
[See Arsaces XXIII.]. — 3. Tiridates III.
[Sassanidae.] Tiro, M. Tullius, the freedman of Cicero, to
whom he was an object of tender affection.
He appears to have been a man of very amiable
disposition, and higMy cultivated intellect. (Cic.
ad Fam. xvi. 4, ad, Att. vii. 5 ; Gell. vi. 3.)
He was not only the amanuensis of the orator,
and his assistant in literary labour, but was
himself an author of no mean reputation, and
notices of several works from Ms pen have
been preserved by ancient writers. Among
them were a biography of Cicero, vindicating his
character from detraction (Plut. Cic 41, 49 ;
Tac. Dial. 17 ; Gell. iv. 10, xv. 16), a treatise on
grammar (Gell. xiii. 9), and some poetry (Cic.
ad Fam. xvi. 18). Tiro was the chief agent to
bringing together and arranging the works of
Ms illustrious patron, and in preserving his
correspondence from being dispersed and lost.
After the death of Cicero, Tiro purchased a
farm in the neighbourhood of Puteoli, where he
lived until he reached his 100th year. Tiro
was the inventor or improver of the art of
shorthand writing among the Romans, and
hence abbreviations of this description, which
are common to MSS. from the sixth century
downwards, have very generally been designated
as Notae Tironianae. [See Did. of Ant. art.
Notae.] Tiryns (Tipvvs, -vvBos : TtpvvBios), an ancient
town to Argolis, SE. of Argos, and one of the
most ancient in all Greece, is said to have been
founded by Proetus, the brother of Acrisius,who,
having returned from Lycia [Peoetus], built
the massive waUs of the city with the help of the
Cyclopes. [For the legendary connexion with
Heracles, see that article.] Tiryns was built
on a low flat-topped rock, which rises about
sixty feet above the plain of Argolis 1J mUe
from the sea-coast, Mycenae being 9J miles
further inland. The legenda point to the first
foundation of Tiryns (as a strong citadel at any
rate) by a dynasty of immigrants from Asia
Minor. Such is the natural construction of the
story of Proetus. The story of Heracles the
Tirynthian servmg the Mycenaean Eurytheus
points to the fact that Tiryns, the more ancient
city, fell under the dominion of Mycenae, a
later foundation. [For the reason why it should
do so, though apparently more favourably
situated for commerce, aee Mycenae.] In the
Persian wars the Tirynthians served at Plataea
(Hdt. ix. 28), and it is said that this dissociation
from Argos was one cause of the jealousy which
led the Argives to destroy Tiryns and Mycenae
(Paus. ii. 25, 8) ; after which time it remained
uninhabited, or at any rate unrestored. These
traditions are in many particulars confirmed by
the excavations undertaken by Dr. Schiiemann
and Dr. Db'rpfeld in 1876-1884. As regards
the relative antiquity, the waUs of Tiryns ap
pear to be older than the oldest parts of My
cenae ; they are described as ' colossal rougMy
hewn blocks, showing no vestige of later restora
tion,' and, though some have thought the style
of work to be Phoenician, the most probable view,
as at present appears, is that they should
rather be compared to remains found to Lydia.
The excavations have laid bare the whole
palace, with its gates and walls, its courts and

TIRYNS

961

its apartments for men and women. How
interesting and valuable this is for the Ulustra-
tion of the Homeric poems as regards life in
the palace of an Achaean prince may easily be
understood [aee Did. of Ant. art. Domus].
TMs palace and fortress is built on a platform
of rock 828 yards by 109, with three terraces.
on which stand the upper, middle, and lower
citadels. On the upper, to the S., is the palace ;
on the middle are smaller houses, and others,
only partially excavated, on the lowest and
smallest platform ; but it is probable that the

they had been cemented with a clay mortar, of
which the yellow dust remains. The waUs
round the lower citadel were from twenty-three
to twenty-six feet thick, and twenty-four feet
high : those round the upper citadel were even
thicker. The waU iB made more defensible by
projecting and re-entering angles with towers,
gaUeries, and chambers, and a long corridor, or
arched gallery, with arched doors. These were
at first supposed to be saUyports, whence sol
diers came out to defend the platform ; but
they have been found to communicate with

Plan ol Upper Citadel of Tiryns. (From Gardner's New Chapters on &reek History.)

main city lay, as at Troy, beneath the citadel-
MU The waUs of the palace are stiU in some
places three feet high : the outer waU of the
citadel is bmlt solely of very large _ stones
(limestone, quarried near Tiryns), bearmg out
the legend of Proetus employing Cyclopean
builders : many of the atones are from six to
ten feet long, and tMee feet in breadth and
thickness; they are not, however, absolutely
unhewn, for many are rougMy dressed with the
pick-hammer : they are arranged to some extent
to layers, and (contrary to the ideas entertained
before the later explorations) it was found that

chambers wMch were probably store-rooms.
Remarkable sMU and ingenuity have been
shown in bringmg the approaches, alike the
main entrance and the smaU rock staircase, by
a circuitous route commanded throughout by
the waUs and galleries [see plan]. The forti
fications of Tiryns are noticed in H. ii. 559.
As regards the gam to archaeology, not only
has it been made possible to realise thoroughly
the arrangement of the Homeric palace, as was
said above, but the system of decoration, the
painted ceilmgs (to Egyptian patterns), and
the vases wMch have been found have supple-
3Q

962 TISAMENUS
mented the richer discoveries of Mycenae. As
regards the Mstory, although there are striking
analogies to Phoenician architecture in the
waUs (e.g. to the walls of Carthage), yet it is
probable that those are right who regard the
remains as proving a Lydian origin for the
dynasty, so-called, of Proetus and Perseus [see
Mycenae]. Again, though some argue that
the rums testify to a much earlier destruction,
it does not yet appear that anyttong has dis
proved the statement of Pausamas, that the
destruction was in the fifth century B.C. In
deed, there are remams of a small Doric temple
of the seventh century b.c. The report of its
deserted state wMch Pausanias gives is cer
tainly borne out by the excavations, wMch seem
to show that the site was hardly, if at aU,
occupied for many centuries, untU the date of
Byzantine tombs and a Byzantine church.

Gallery at Tiryns.
Tisamenus (Ticrapevds). 1. Son of Orestes
and Hermione, was Mng of ArgoB, but was
deprived of his kingdom when the HeracUdae
invaded Peloponnesus. He was slain in a battle
against the Heraclidae, and Ms tomb was after
wards shown at HeUce, from which place Ms
remains were subsequently removed to Sparta
by command of an oracle. (Paus. ii. 18, 5, vii. 1,
3; ApoUod. ii. 8, 2.) — 2. Son of Thersander and
Demonasaa, waa king of Thebea, and the father
of Autesion (Hdt. iv. 147 ; Paus. in. 15, 4). — 3.
An Elean aoothaayer, of the family of the Cly-
tiadae. He was assured by the Delphic oracle
that he should be successful in five great con
flicts. Supposing tMs to be a promise of dis
tinction as an athlete, he devoted Mmself to
gymnastic exercises ; but the Spartans, under
standing the oracle to refer, not to gymnastic,
but to military victories, made great offers to
Tisamenus to induce him to take with their
Mngs the joint command of their armies. This
he refused to do on any terms short of receiving
the fuU franchise of their city, which the Spar-
tons eventually granted. He was preaent with
the Spartans at the battle of Plataea, B.C. 879,
wMch was the first of the five conflicts referred
to by the oracle. The second was with the
Argives and Tegeans at Tegea ; the third, with
the Arcadians at Dipaea; the fourth was the
third Messenian war (465-455) ; and the last
was the battle of Tanagra, with the Athenians
andtheir allies, to 457. (Hdt. ix. 83-86.)
Tisia (Tiaiates, pi.). 1. A town in Bruttium
in the Sila Silva, of uncertain aite (App. An.
44). — 2. (Theiss), a river of Dacia and Sarmatia,
which rises in the Montes Bastamici, and flows
into the Danube. It was also called Patisus.
Tisicrates, an eminent Greek sculptor, of
the school of Lysippus, whose works those of
Tisicrates closely imitated (Plin. xxxiv. 67).
Tisiphone. [Eumenidae.]
Tissa (Tissiensis, Tisstoensis), a town in

TITANES
Sicily, N. of Mt. Aetna (Cic. Verr. ni. 38 ; Ptol.
iii. 4, 12).
Tissaphernes (Ticro-atpepvys), a famous Per
sian, who was appointed satrap of Lower Asia
to B.C. 414. He espoused the cause of the
Spartans in the Peloponnesian war, but he did
not give them any effectual assistance, since
Ms policy was not to allow either Spartans or
Athenians to gain the supremacy, but to ex
haust the strength of both parties by the con
tinuance of the war. His plans, however, were
thwarted by the arrival of Cyrus to Asia Minor
to 407. This prince supplied the Lacedaemo
mans with effectual assistance. Tissaphernes
and Cyrus were not on good terms ; and after
the death of Darius, they were engaged in con
tinual diaputes about the cities in the satrapy
of the latter, over which Cyrus claimed do-
mmion. The ambitious views of Cyrus towards
the throne at length became manifest to Tissa
phernes, who lost no time in repairing to the
king with mformation of the danger. At the
battle of Cunaxa, in 401, he was one of the four
generals who commanded the army of Arta
xerxes, and Ms troops were the only portion of
the left wing that was not put to flight by the
Greeks. When the 10,000 had begun their
retreat, Tissaphernes professed Ms great anxiety
to serve them, and promised to conduct them
home in safety. In the course of the march he
treacherously arrested Clearchus and four of
the other generals, who were put to death.
After tMs, Tissaphernes annoyed and harassed"
the Greeks to their march, without, however,
seriously impedMg it, tiU they reached the
Carduchian Mountains, at wMch potot he gave
up the pursuit. Not long after, Tissaphernes,
as a reward for Ms great services, was Mvested
by the king, in addition to Ms own satrapy,
with aU the authority wMch Cyrus had enjoyed
M Western Asia. On his arrival he claimed
dominion over the Ionian cities, wMch applied
to Sparta for aid. Their request was granted,
and the Spartans carried on war against Tissa
phernes with success for some years under the
command successively of Thimbron, DercyUi-
das, and AgesUaus (400-395). The continued
want of success on the part of Tissaphernes led
to grievous complaints against him, and the
charges were transmitted to court, where they
were backed by aU the influence of Parysatis,
eager for revenge on the enemy of Cyrus, her
favourite son. The result was that TitMaustea
was commissioned by the king to put Tisaa-
phernea to death and to succeed him in his
government, wMch was accordingly done (395).
(Thuc. viu. ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 2, 5, iii. 1, 2, 4,
Anabasis ; Diod. xiii. 46, xiv. 23-27, 80.)
Titane (Tirdvy), a town of Sicyonia, between
Sicyon and PMius (Paus. ii. 11, 3, ii. 27, 1 ;
Steph. Byz. s.v.).
Titanes (TirSyes, sing. Tirdv, Ion. Tiryves :
fern. TtravtSes, sing. Ttravis). 1. The sons
and daughters of Uranus and Ge or Gaea
(the Earth), originaUy dwelt M heaven,
whence they are called Ovpaviaives or OupoK-
iSai. They were twelve or tMrteen in
number, who fall generaUy Mto pairs, viz. :
Oceanus and Tethys = the sea ; Hyperion and
Theia = sun and moon ; Coeus and Phoebe =
Ught or star deities ; Creios and Eurybia =
deities of strength ; Cronus and Rhea = heaven
and earth ; Themis and Mnemosyne, and Iape-
tus, who is to produce mankind (Hes. Th. 133 ;
Apollod. i. 1, 8). It is said that Uranus, the
first ruler of the world, tMew his sons, the
Hecatoncheires (Hundred-Handed) — Briareus,

TITARESIUS
Cottys, Gyes — and the Cyclopes— Arges, Ste-
ropes, and Brontes— Mto Tartarus. Gaea, in
dignant at this, produced iron, persuaded the
Titans to rise agaMst their father, and gave to
Cronus an iron sickle. They did as their
mother bade them, with the exception of
Oceanus. Cronus, with his sickle, mutilated
Ms father. [For this myth, see Ubanus.] From
the drops of Ms blood there arose the Erinnyes,
Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megaera. The Titans
then deposed Uranus, liberated their brothers
who had been cast toto Tartarus, and raised
Cronus to the tlirone. But Cronus hurled the
Cyclopes back into Tartarus, and married his
sister Rhea. Having been warned by Gaea
and Uranus that he should be dethroned by
one of Ms own cMldren, he swallowed succes
sively his chUdren Heatia, Demeter, Hera,
Pluto, and Poseidon. Rhea therefore, when
she was pregnant with Zeus, went to Crete,
and gave birth to the cMld in the Dictaean
Cave, where he was brought up by the Curetes.
When Zeus had grown up he availed himself
of the assistance of Thetis, the daughter of
¦Oceanus, who gave to Cronus a potion wMch
caused him to bring up the stone and the cMl
dren he had swallowed. [Zeus ; Cbonus.]
Umted with Ms brothers and sisters, Zeus now
began the contest agatost Cronus and the ruling
Titans. TMs contest (usuaUy caUed the Titano-
mactoa) was carried on to Thessaly, Cronus
and the Titans occupymg Mount Othrya, and
the aona of Cronua Mount Olympus. It lasted
ten years, tiU at length Gaea promised victory
to Zeus if he would deUver the Cyclopes and
Hecatoncheires from Tartarus. Zeus accord
ingly slew Campe, who guarded the Cyclopes,
and the latter furmshed him with thunder and
lightmng. The Titans then were overcome,
and hurled down Mto a cavity below Tartarua,
and the Hecatoncheirea were set to guard them.
(Hes. Th. 617, 697, 851 ; ApoUod. i. 2, 1 ; Paua. viii.
37, 3 ; cf . H. xiv. 279.) It must be observed that
the fight of the Titana is sometimes confounded
by ancient writers with the fight of the Gigantea.
[Gigantes.]— TMs myth of the Titans grew
out of an attempt to reconcUe the Greek re
ligion with those of other non-Greek nations
-who had occnpied the Greek lands before them.
Hence many of its features (especiaUy the
account of the woundtog of Uranus) are not of
a Greek character, and are ignored by Homer,
but preserved by Hesiod [see pp. 412, b, 425, a].
The Titan dynasties represent primitive alien
supreme deities who have been brought into
connexion with the supreme Zeus of the Greeks
and the other Olympian deities. In the Greek
conception of the story the Titans express the
more terrible forces of nature, and also the
struggle against the wiU of Zeus, i.e. agamst
the lawful and orderly course of tMngs (cf . 17.
vm. 478, xiv. 200, xv. 224 ; Plat. Leg. m. p.
701).  2. The name Titans is also given to
those divine or semi-divine beings who were
descended from the Titans, such as Prometheus,
Hecate, Latona, Pyrrha, and especially Helios
(the Sun) and Selene (the Moon), as the chil
dren of Hyperion and Thia, and even the de
scendants of HeUos, such as Circe.
Titaresius (Tirapycrios : Xeraghi), a river of
Thessaly, also caUed Europus, rising to Mt.
Titarus, flowing tMough the country of the
Perrhaebi, and falling into the Peneus, SE. of
Phalanna. Its waters were impregnated with
an oUy substance, whence it waa said to be a
branch of the infernal Styx. (Strab. pp. 329,
421; II- ii- 751.

TITUS 968
Tithonus (TiBuvds), aon of Laomedon and
Strymo, and brother of Priam (II. xx. 287).
By the prayera of Eoa (Aurora), who loved him,
he obtained from the gods hnmortality, but not
eternal youth, in consequence of which he
became withered and stounken in Mb old age ;
whence an old decrepit man was proverbially
called Tithonus. As he could not die, Eos
changed him into a cicada. (Hes. Th. 984 ;
Hymn, ad Ven. 219 ; Apollod. iii. 12, 4; Tzetz.
ad Lye. 18 ; Hor. Od. i. 28, 8 ; Ov. Fast. i. 461.)
[For the meaning of tMs and Mndred myths
about the Dawn, see Eos.]
Tithorea. [Neon.]
Tithraustes (TiBpaicrrys), a Persian, who suc
ceeded Tissaphernes to his satrapy, and put
him to death by order of Artaxerxes Mnemon,
b.c. 895. Being unable to make peace with
Agesilaus, he sent Timocrates, the Rhodian,
into Greece with fifty talents, to distribute
among the leading men in the several states, m
order to induce them to excite a war against
Sparta at home. (Xen. Hell. iii. 4, 25 ; Diod.
xiv. 80.)
Titianus, Julius, a Roman writer, was the
father of the rhetorician Titianus, who taught
the younger Maximinus. The elder Titianus
may therefore be placed in the reigns of Com
modus, Pertinax, and Severus. He was called
the ape of his age, because he had imitated
everything. All his works are lost. (Sidon.
Ep. i. 1 ; Capitol. Maximin. 27, 5.)
Titmius, a Roman dramatist whose produc
tions belonged to the department of the Com.
oedia Togata, is commended by Varro on account
of the skill with wMch he developed the charac
ters of the personages whom he brought upon
the stage. It appears that he was younger
than CaeciUus, but older than Terence, and
flourished about B.C. 170. (Varro, ap. Charia.
i. 241.) The names of upwards of fourteen
plays, together with a considerable number of
short fragments, have been preserved by the
grammarians. — Published in Ribbeck, Com. Lat.
Titius Septimius. [Septimius.]
Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, Roman
emperor, a.d. 79-81, commonly called by his
praenomen Titus (also, with Imperator as a cog
nomen, Titus Caesar Imperator Vespasianus),
was the son of the emperor Vespasianus and
his wife Flavia Domitilla. He was born on the
30th of December, A.D. 40. When a young man
he served as tribunua miUtum in Britain and
in Germany, with great credit. After having
been quaestor, he had the command of a legion,
and served under Ms father m the Jewish wars.
Vespasian returned to Italy after he had been
proclaimed emperor on the 1st of July, a.d. 69 ;
but Titus remained in Palestine to prosecute
the siege of Jerusalem, during wMch he showed
the talents of a general and the daring of a
soldier. The siege of Jerusalem was concluded
by the capture of the place, on the 8th of Sep
tember, 70. Titus returned to Italy in the fol
lowing year (71), and triumphed at Rome with
Ms father. He also received the title of Caesar,
and became the associate of Vespasian in the
government. Titus became attached to Be
renice, the sister of Agrippa II., when he was
in Judaea, and after the capture of Jerusalem
she followed him to Rome with her brother,
Agrippa. TMs attachment caused so much
scandal and dissatisfaction among theRomans —
not indeed from a sense of morality, but be
cause they disliked her nationality and feared
lest she should prevail upon Titus to marry
her — that Titus yielded to the popular feeling
3Q2

964

TITUS

and sent Berenice away from Rome after he
became emperor. (Suet. Tit. 7 ; Dio Cass. Ixvi.
15, 18). Titus succeeded his father in 79, and
Ms government proved an agreeable surprise
to those who had anticipated a return of the
times of Nero. He was idolised by his army
(Tac. Hist. v. 1), but he had a reputation for
severity, and even cruelty, and for licentious
ness, which made the Romans regard him as
unpromising. But Titus exerted himself M
every way to win the affection of the people.
He could control his passions, as he showed by
Ms dismissal of Berenice, and he gave proofs
of clemency by pardoning his brother, Domitian,
who intrigued against Mm, and in a still more
welcome and popular manner by checkMg de
lation : the informer was pumshed by scourgmg
and exile (Suet. Tit. 8). He assumed the office
of Pontifex Maximus after the death of his
father, and with the purpose, as he declared, of
keepmg his hands free from blood (Suet. Tit. 9).
It was recorded by his admirers that at the end
of a day on which he had benefited no one by
any gift, he exclaimed : ' I have lost a day '

Bust of Titus. (Prom British Museum.

(Suet. Tit. 8). It must be admitted that this
often quoted saying, as weU as another of Ms,
1 No one should leave Ms prince's presence dis
satisfied,' however conducive to popularity,
points rather to lavish extravagance than to
discretion. The first year of his reign is
memorable for the great eruption of Vesuvius,
which desolated a large part of the adjacent
country, and buried with lava and ashes the
towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Titus
endeavoured to repair the ravages of this great
eruption : he sent two consulars with money to
restore the ruined towns, and he appUed to this
purpose the property of those who had been de
stroyed and had left no next of kin. At the
beginning of the foUowing year (80) there was a
great fire at Rome, which lasted three days and
three nights, and destroyed the Capitol, the
library of Augustus, the theatre of Pompeius,
and other pubUc buildings, besides many
houses. The emperor declared that he should
consider all the loss as his own, and he set
about repairing it with great activity : he took
even the decorations of the imperial residences
and sold them to raise money. The eruption of

TLOS
Vesuvius was followed by a dreadful pestilence,
which the emperor sought all possible means to
mitigate. His magnificence, too, was an im
portant element in his popularity. In the same
year (80) he completed the great amphitheatre
called the Amphitheatrum Flavian um (in a later
age named the Colosseum : see p. 811), wMch
had been begun by his father; and also the
baths caUed the Baths of Titus. The dedication
of these buildings was celebrated by spectacles
wMch lasted 100 days ; by a naval battle in the
old naumachia, and fights of gladiators: on
one day alone 5000 wild animals are said to
have been exhibited, a number which we may
reasonably suspect to be exaggerated. He died,
of a fever, on the 13th day of September, 81,
after a reign of two years and two months and
twenty days. He was in the forty-first year of
his age, and in the height of his popularity,
called by Suetonius ' the darling of the whole
world ' (' amor et deliciae humani generis ' :
Suet. Tit. 1 ; cf. Eutrop. vi. 14). It is possible
that, had he lived on, tMs popularity might have
waned: for he waa spendMg lavishly, and
probably unwisely, the treasures which the
parsimony of Vespasian had gathered, and
could not have continued either his display or Ms
donations through a long Ufe. Hence Auso
nius says that he was ' felix imperii brevitate ' ;
but there is no reason, in spite of an ill-natured
suggestion of Dio (that his supposed virtue was.
only luck : Ixvi. 18), to doubt the truth of Ms cha
racter for gentleness and clemency, to which both
Suetonius and Tacitus bear testimony. (Suet.
Titus ; Tac Hist. iv. 86.) To his popularity, as
was natural, a single exception was furnished
by the Jews, who recorded in their Talmud that
his early death was a divine judgment, and
added an absurd tradition of its cause. Titus
left a daughter, Julia Sabina, married to Flavius
Sabinus, a nephew of Vespasian.
Tltyus (Tirvds), son of Gaea, or of Zeus and
Elara, the daughter of Orchomenus, was a giant
in Euboea, and a type of incontinent passion.
Instigated by Hera, he attempted to offer
violence to Leto or Artemis (Latona), when she
passed tMough Panopaeusto Pytho, but he was
MUed by the arrows of Artemis or ApoUo;
according to other accounts, Zeus destroyed him
with a flash of lightning. He was cast into
Tartarus, and there he lay outstretched on the
ground, covering nine acres, with two vultures
devouring his liver. (Od. vu. 324, xi. 576;
Apollod. i. 4, 1 ; Hyg. Fab. 55 ; Paus. in. 18, 9 ;,
Hor. Od. iii. 4, 77, iv. 6, 2.) His destruction by
the arrows of Artemis and ApoUo was repre
sented on the throne of ApoUo at Amyclae
(Paus. x. 11, 1).
Tins or Tium (Tios, Tiov), a seaport town of
Bithynia, on the river Billaeus ; a colony from
Miletus, and the native place of Philetaerus, the
founder of the Pergamene kingdom (Memn.
17 ; Mel. i. 19 ; Arr. Peripl. P. E. p. 14).
Tlepolemus (TXyirdXepos), son of Heracles
by Astyoche, daughter of Phylas, or by
Astydamia, daughter of Amyntor. He was
Mng of Argos, but, after slaying his uncle
Licymmus, he was obliged to take to flight,,
and, in conformity with the command of an
oracle, he settled in Rhodes, where he built the
towns of Lmdos, Ialysus, and Camirus. He
joined the Greeks in the Trojan war with nine
ships, but was slain by Sarpedon. (H. ii. 658,
V. 627 ; Diod. iv. 58, v. 59 ; Apollod. ii. 8, 2.)
Tios (TX&s, gen. TAa> : TXaeis, TXairys : Ru.
near Duver), a considerable city, in the interior
of Lycia, about 2J mUes E. of the river Xanthus,

TMARUS
on the road leading over M. Massicytus to
B z^ j? P- 665; Ptol- T' 8' 5! Steph.
Tmarus. [Tomarus.]
• ^n61"v (]>^os)> g°d of Mt. Tmolus in Lydia,
is described as the husband of Pluto (the
daughter of Himantes) or of Omphale, and
father of Tantalus, and is said to have decided
the musical contest between Apollo and Pan
(Apollod. u. 6, 3; Ov. Met. ix. 157)
Tmolus or Timolus (TpSiXos: Boz-Dagh), a
celebrated mountain of Aaia Minor, running E.
and W. tMough the centre of Lydia, and
dividing the plain of the Hermus, on the N,
from that of the Cayster, on the S. At its E.
end it joins M. Messogis, thus entirely enolosing
the vaUey of the Cayster. On the W., after
throwing out the NW. branch called Sipylus, it
runs far out toto the Aegaean, forming, under
the name of Mimas, the great Ioman pemnsula,
beyond wMch it is still further prolonged to
the island of CMos. On its N. side are the
sources of the Pactolus and theCogamus; on
its S. side those of the Cayster. It produced
wine, saffron, zinc, and gold. (17,. U. 873 ; Strab.
p. 591 ; Aesch. Pers. 50 ; Hdt. i. 84 ; Verg. Georg.
ii. 97.)
Togata, Gallia. [Gallia.]
Tolbiacum (Zulpich), a town of Gallia Bel
gica, on the road from Coloma Agrippina to
Treviri fTac. Hist. iv. 79).
Tolentmum (Tolinas, -atis: Tolentino), a
town of Picenum, on a height on the river
Flusor (Chienti). (PUn. Ui. 111.)
Tolerium, an ancient town of Latium, prob
ably near Labicum. It was destroyed at an
early period. (Dionys v. 61, vui. 17; Plut.
Cor. 28.)
Tolenus or Telonlus (Turano), a river in the
land of the Sabines, rismg in the country of the
Marsi and Aequi, and falling toto the Velinus
(Ov. Paai.vi.565; Oros. v. 18).
Toletum (Toledo), the capital of the Carpe-
tani to Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on the
river Tagus, wMch nearly encompasses the
town, and upon seven MUs. A tradition of the
middle ages that it was founded by Jewish
fugitives from Nebuchadnezzar may possibly
potot to an older popular belief in a Phoemcian
foundation. It was taken by the Romans under
the proconsul M. Fulvius, b.c. 192, when it is
described as a smaU but fortified town. It was
celebrated in ancient as weU as to modern
tunes for the manufactory of swords; but it
owed its greatness to the GotMc Mngs, who
made it the capital of their dominions. (Liv.
xxxv. 7, xxxix. 30 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 57 ; PUn. iii. 25.)
It stiU contains many Roman remains.
Tolistobogi, Tolistoboji. [Galatia.]
Tolmides (ToXpiSys), an Athenian comman
der, who cruised round the Peloponnesus in
B.C. 455, took Naupactus from the Locrians,
and settled the Messenians there. In 447 he
was slato at Coroneia. (Thuc. i. 103, 108, 113 ;
Diod. xi. 84, xii. 6 ; Paus. i. 27.)
Tolophon (ToXocpdv : ToXocpdvtos), a town of
Locris, on the Corinthian gulf (Thuc. iii. 101 ;
Steph. Byz. s. v.).
Tolosa (Toulouse), a town of GaUia Nar
bonensis, and the capital of the Tectosages, was
situated on the Garumna, near the frontiers of
Aquitania (Caes. B. G. i. 10, iii. 20). It was
subsequently made a Roman colony, and was
surnamed Palladia. It was a large and
wealthy town, and contained a celebrated
temple, in which great riches were deposited.
In this temple there is said to have been pre-

TORQUATUS 965
served a great part of the booty taken by
Brennus from the temple at Delphi (Strab. p.
188 ; cf . Just, xxxii. 8), which may have been
brought back (if the Btory is true) by the Tecto
sages, who served in the army pf Brennua. The
town and temple were plundered by the conaul Q.
Serviliua Caepio, in B.C. 106 ; but the subsequent
destruction of his army and his own unhappy
fate were regarded as a divine punishment for
his sacrilegious act. Hence arose the proverb,
Aurum Tolosanum habet. (Liv. Ep. 67;
Oros. v. 15, Gell. iii. 19 ; cf. Cic. N. D. in. 80.)
There are the ruins of a small amphitheatre
and some other Roman remains at the modern
town. Tolumnius, Lar, king of the Veientes, to
whom Fidenae revolted in B.C. 488, and at whose
instigation the inhabitants of Fidenae slew the
four Roman ambassadors who had been sent
to Fidenae to Mquire mto the reasons of their
recent conduct. Statues of these ambassadors
were placed on the Rostra at Rome, where they
continued till a late time. In the war wMch
foUowed, Tolumnius was slain in single combat
by Cornelius Cossus, who dedicated his spoils
m the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, the second
of the tMee instances to which the spolia opim a
were won. (Liv. iv. 17-19 ; Cic. Phil. ix. 2.)
Tomi or Tomis (Tdpoi, Tdpis: Topeis, To-
mita: Kostendje), a town of TMace (subse
quently Moesia), situated on the W. shore of the
Euxine, and at a later time the capital of
Scythia Minor. According to tradition (derived
partially from the name of the town) it was
called Tomi (from repva, ' cut '), because Medea
here cut to pieces the body of her brother
Absyrtus. It is said to have been a colony of
the Milesians. It is renowned as the place of
Ovid's banishment. (Ov. Trist. iii. 9, 33 ;
Apollod. i. 9, 25 ; Hyg. Fab. 13 ; Strab. p. 319.)
Tomorus or Tmarus (Tdpopos, Tpdpos: To-
maro), a mountain in Epirus, in the district
Molossia, between the lake Pombotis and the
river Arachthus, near Dodona. [Dodona.]
Tomyris (Tdpvpis), a queen of the Massagetae,
who dwelt south of the Araxes (Jaxartes), by
whom Cyrus waa slain in battle, B.C. 529 (Hdt
i. 205-214 ; Cyeus).
Torone (Topdvy : Topcovaios), a town of Mace.
donia, in the district Chalcidice, and on the
SW. side of the peninsula Sithonia, from which
the gulf between the peninsulas Sithoma and
Pallene was caUed Sinus Toronaicus (Hdt.
vii. 122; Thuc. iv. 110 ; Liv. xliv. 12 ; Tac. Ann.
v. 10).
Torquatus, the name of a patrician famUy of
the Manlia Gens. 1. T. Manlius Imperiosus
Torquatus, the aon of L. ManUus Capitolinus
Imperiosus, dictator B.C. 363, was a favourite
hero of Roman legendary story. ManUus is
said to have been dull of mind in Ms youth, and
was brought up by his father in the closest
retirement in the country. When the tribune
M. Pomponius accused the elder ManUus in
B.C. 362, on account of the cruelties he had
practised in his dictatorship, he endeavoured to
excite an odium against him by representing
him at the same time as a cruel father. As soon
as the younger Manlius heard of this, he hurried
to Rome, obtained admission to Pomponius
early in the mornMg, and compeUed the tribune,
by threatening him with instant death if he did
not take the oath, to swear that he would drop
the accusation againat hia father. In 361 Man
lius served under the dictator T. Qumtius
Pennus in the war against the Gaula, and in this
campaign earned immortal glory by slaying in

966 TORQUATUS
single combat a gigantic Gaul. From the dead
body of the barbarian he took the chain (torques)
wMch had adorned him, and placed it around
his own neck, and from this circumstance he
obtamed the surname of Torquatus. He was
dictator in 353, and again in 349. He was also
tMee times consul : namely, in 347, 344, and in
340. In the last of these years Torquatus and
Ms coUeague, P. Decius Mus, gained the great
victory over the Latins at the foot of Vesuvius
wMch established for ever the supremacy of
Rome over Latium. [Decius.] Shortly after
the battle, when the two armieB were encamped
opposite to one another, the consuls published
a proclamation that no Roman should engage
in smgle combat with a Latin on paM of death.
Notwithstanding thia proclamation, the young
ManUus, the son of the consul, provoked by the
insults of a Tusculan noble, Mettius Geminus,
accepted his chaUenge, slew Ms adversary, and
bore the spoils to triumph to his father. The
consul would not overlook tMs breach of disci-
pUne, and the unhappy youth was executed in
presence of the assembled army. This severe
sentence rendered Torquatus an object of
detestation among the Roman youths as long as
he lived, and the recoUection of Ms severity
was preserved by the expression M anliana im-
peria. (Liv. iv. 5, 19-28, viii. 3-12 ; Cic. Off.
iii. 81, Fin. i. 7, ii. 19, Tusc. iv. 22; GeU. i. 13.)
— 2. T. Manlius Torquatus, consul b.c 235,
when he conquered the Sardinians ; censor 231 ;
and consul a second time in 224. He possessed
the hereditary sternness and severity of Ma
family ; and we accordmgly find Mm opposing
in the senate the ransom of those Romans who
had been taken prisoners at the battle of
Cannae. In 217 he was sent into Sardinia,
where he carried on the war with success
agamst the Carthaginians and the Sardinians.
He was dictator in 210. (Liv. xxii. 60, xxiii. 40,
xxvi. 22, xxvii. 33, xxx. 39.) — 3. T. Manlius
Torquatus, consul 165 with Cn. Octavius. He
also inherited the severity of Ms anceators ; of
wMch an inatance ia related in the condemna
tion of Mb son, who had been adopted by D.
Junius Silanus. [Silanus, No. 2.] — i. L. Man
lius Torquatus, consul b.c. 65 with L. Aurelius
Cotta. Torquatus and Cotta obtained the con
sulship m conaequence of the condemnation, on
account of bribery, of P. Corneliua SuUa and
P. Autronius Paetus, who had been already
elected consuls. After Ms consulahip Torquatus
obtained the provtoce of Macedonia. He took
an active part in suppressing the Catilmarian
conspiracy in 63 ; and he also supported Cicero
when he was banished in 58. (SaU. Cat. 18 ;
Liv. Ep. 101 ; Dio Cass, xxxvi. 27 ; Cic. pro
Suit 4, 10, 12, 29.)— 5. L. Manlius Torquatus,
son of No. 4, accused of bribery (in 66) the con
suls elect, P. Cornelius Sulla and P. Autromus
Paetus, and thus secured the consulship for his
father. He was closely connected with Cicero
during the praetorship (65) and consulship (63)
of the latter. In 62 he brought a second accu
sation agaMst P. Sulla, whom he now charged
with havmg been a party to both of Catiline's
conspiracies. Sulla was defended by Hor
tensius and by Cicero in a speech which is still
extant. Torquatus, like his father, belonged to
the aristocratical party, and accordingly op
posed Caesar on the breaking out of the Civil
war in 49. He was praetor in that year, and
was stationed at Alba with six cohorts. He
subsequently joined Pompey in Greece, and in
the followmg year (48) he had the command of
Oricum intrusted to Mm, but was obliged to

TRAGIA
surrender both himself and the town to Caesar,
who, however, dismissed Torquatua unMjured.
After the battle of Pharsalia Torquatus went to
Africa, and upon the defeat of his party to that
country in 46 he attempted to escape to Spain
along with Scipio and others, but was taken
prisoner by P. Sittius at Hippo Regius and slain
together with Ms companions. (Cic. pro Sull.
1, 8-12, ad Att. iv. 16, vii. 12, ix. 8; Caes. B. C.
i. 24, Ui. 11 ; Bell, Afr. 96.) Torquatus was well
acquainted with Greek literature, and is praised
by Cicero as a man well trained to every kind
of learnmg. He belonged to the Epicurean
school of philosophy, and is introduced by
Cicero as the advocate of that school in his
dialogue De Finibus, the first book of which is
caUed Torquatus to Cicero's letters to Atticus.
— 6. Torquatus, addressed by Horace (Od. iv.
7, Ep. i. 5), is conjectured with some probabihty
to be the C. Noniua Asprenas who assumed
the name Torquatua when Augustus presented
Mm with a golden torques on the occaaion of his
taking part to a ' Ludus Trojae ' and meeting
with an accident (Suet. Aug. 43, 56). Another
theory is that he is the A. Torquatua mentioned
in the Atticus of Nepos as having taken part
to the campaign of Brutus and Cassius.
Torquatus Silanus. [Silanus.]
Toxandri or Texuandri, a people in GalUa
Belgica, between the Menapii and Morini, on
the right bank of the Scaldis (PUn. iv. 106;
Amm. Marc. xvii. 8).
Trabea, ft., a Roman comic dramatist who
occupies the eighth place in the Canon of Vol-
catius Sedigitus [Sedigitus], The period when
he flourished is uncertain, but he has been
placed about b.c. 130. No portion of his works
has been preserved with the exception of half
a dozen lmes quoted by Cicero. (Varr. ap.
Charis. i. 241 ; Cic. Tusc. iv. 31, 67.)
Trachalus, Galerius, consul a.d. 68 with
SUius ItaUcus, is frequently mentioned by his
contemporary Quintilian, as one of the most
distinguished orators of his age (Quint, x. 119 ;
Tac. Hist. i. 83, 90, ii. 60).
Trachis or Trachin (TpaXis, Ion. Tpyvis,
Tpaxiv. Tpaxivtos). 1. Also caUed Heraclea
Trachiniae, or Heraclea Phthiotidis, or
simply Heraclea ('HpaKXeia it 4v Tpaxlvais, or
'H. y evTpaxivi), a town of Thessaly to the
district MaUs, celebrated as the residence of
Heracles for a time. Heraclea was taken by
Glabrio to B.C. 191. (Hdt. vU. 176; Strab. p.
428; Thuc. Ui. 92; Diod. xii. 177; cf. H. ii.
682 ; Soph. Trachiniae, Liv. xxxvi. 24.) 
2. A town of Phocis, on the frontiers of Boeotia,
and on the slope of Mt. Helicon to the neigh
bourhood of Lebadea (Strab. p. 423 : Paus. x.
3,2). r '
Traehonltis or Trachon (Tpaxavirts, Tpd-
X<»v), the N. district of Palestine beyond the
Jordan, lay between Antilibanus and the moun
tains of Arabia, and was bounded on the N. by
the territory of Damascus, on the E. by Aurani-
tis, on the S. by Ituraea, and on the W. by
Gaulamtis. It was for the most part a sandy
desert, intersected by two ranges of rocky
mountains, called Trachones (Tpax&ves), the
caves M wMch gave refuge to numerous
bands of robbers. For its political relations
under the Asmonaean and Idumaean princes,.
see Palaestina.
Traens, or Trais (Trionto), a river of Brut
tium, on which the Sybarites were defeated by
theCrotoniates about 510 b.c [Sybaris.]
Tragia, Tragiae, or Traglas (Tpayta, Tpo-
ylcu, Tpayias), a smaU island (or more than

TRAGURIUM

one) m the Aegaean sea, near Samos, probably
eatoeTV' ^ Pharma<^sa, where Pericles
Traeurium f^ Hnt- P^ 95' Strab- P- 635).
DaWFtia £ {m™ °r ^fe), a town of
marble a'nd0'+nir'1OUm' ^lebrated for its
with the ™- ""^ °n an isW connected
Sxii 18.^trland "ft means oi a mol« CPoL
ix^"' }° '.bS™b. pp. 124, 815).
toteriirTTV,8' l <0™>«™)> ^ town in the
bv tS». S f°?-'- °n the Heb™s, founded
trZrTt M ?WI1 °if, Clli0ia' [SELINUS.]-3. A
town in Mysia, on the borders of Phrygia (Ptol.
l-ni'l'' t ™l a-,City of the drimenothyritae,
and was refounded and renamed by Trajan in
F,,™ < t *?*,eia ?xed by Eamsay at Giaour
Euren = ' Infidel Bums,' six miles E. of Ushak.
aa5^ SVM- U1P1US' Roman emperor a.d.
98-117, was born at Italica, near SeviUe, Sep
tember 18, 52 or 53 a.d. He was trained to
arms, and, after ten years' service as military
tribune, rose tMough the lower offices to the
rank of praetor in 85, served with distinction in
tne liast and m Germany, to wMch country he
was sent from Spain by Domitian on the
occasion of the revolt of Antoniua Saturntous,
legatus with the Spanish legion Adjutrix
under Ms command. He was consul in 91, and
at the close of 97 he was adopted by the
emperor Nerva, who gave Mm the rank of
Caesar and the names of Nerva and Germanicus,
and shortly after the title of Imperator, and the
tnbunitia potestas. His style and title after
Ms elevation to the imperial digmty were
Imperator Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus.
He was the first emperor who was born out of
Italy. Nerva died to January 98, and was
succeeded by Trajan, who was then at Cologne.
His accession was hailed with joy, and he did
not disappoint the expectations of the people.
He was a great soldier both in the field and in
miUtory organisation : and he was scarcely less
great as an administrator. His finances were
prosperous, partly fromMs good economy, though
partiy also from the good fortune of Dacian
mining operations. PersonaUy, he was strong
and healthy, of a majestic appearance, laborious,
and inured to fatigue. Though not a man of
letters, he had good sense, a knowledge of the
world, and a sound judgment. His mode of
livtog was very simple, and M Ms campaigns
he shared all the sufferings and privations of
the soldiers, by whom he was both loved and
feared. He was a friend to justice, and he had
a sincere desire for the happiness of the people.
Trajan did not return to Rome for some months,
being employed to settUng the frontiers on the
Rhine and the Danube. EspeciaUy, he com
pleted the fortifications of the RMne and of the
Agri Decumates, founded a new military station,
Colonia Trajana, near Vetera, and constructed
new roads by the Rhine and by the Danube, the
latter work in preparation for the Dacian war.
In 99 he proceeded to Rome, wMch he entered
on foot, accompamed by his wife, Pompeia
Plotina. In March 101 A.D. Trajan left Rome
for his campaign against the Daci. Decebalus,
king of the Daci, had compelled Domitian to
purchase peace by an annual payment of
money ; and Trajan determined on hostilities,
wMch should settle matters so as to secure the
peace of the frontier. This war employed
Trajan between two and tMee years, but it
ended with the defeat of Decebalus, who sued
for peace at the feet of the Roman emperor.
Trajan assumed the name of Daeius, and

TRAJANUS

967

entered Rome in triumph (103). In the foUow
ing year (104) Trajan commenced his second
Dacian war against Decebalus, who had ac
cepted the Roman terms merely to gain tune,
and now showed his intentions by building
forts, collecting war material, and welcoming
Roman deserters. Decebalus was completely
defeated, and put an end to Ms life (106). In
the course of tMs war Trajan built (105) a
permanent bridge across the Danube at the
modern Turn Severin. The piers were of
stone and of an enormous size, but the arches
were of wood. After the death of Decebalus
Dacia was reduced to the form of a Roman
provmce, strong forts were built in various
places, and Roman colonies were planted.
[Dacia.] The Column of Trajan at Rome was
erected to commemorate his Dacian victories.
In its sculptured iUustration of the campaign it
has a historical value which has been weU
compared to that of the Bayeux tapestry. On
Ms return Trajan had a triumph, and he ex-
Mbited games to the people for 123 days. It is
said that 11,000 animals were slaughtered during

Trajan. (Prom the bust in the British Museum.)

these amusements, and that 10,000 gladiators
fought M the arena. — About tMs ttoie Arabia
Petraea was subjected to the empire by A.
Cornelius Pahna, the governor of Syria, and an
Indian embassy came to Rome. [Arabia.] The
dominions of Agrippa II., who died a.d. 100, were
also added to the provmce of Syria. In 114
Trajan left Rome to make war on the Armenians
and the Parthians, the cause of the war bemg
that the PartMan king, Chosroes, had deposed
from the throne of Armenia Axidares, the Roman
nominee. Trajan spent the winter of 114 at
Antioch, and in the following year he invaded
the Parthian dommions. The most strikmg
and brilliant success attended his arms. In the
course of two campaigns (115-116), he con
quered the greater part of the Parthian empire,
and took the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. In
116 he descended the Tigris and entered the
ErytMaean Sea (the Persian Gulf). While he
was thus engaged the Parthians rose against.
the Romans, but were again subdued by the
generals of Trajan, Erucius Clarus, who re
duced Babylonia and burnt Seleucia, and Lusius
Quietus, who reduced Mesopotamia. On Ms

968

TRAJANI PORTUS

return to Ctesiphon, Trajan determined to give
the PartMans a kmg, and placed the diadem
on the head of Parthamaspates, son of Chosroes.
In 117 Trajan fell ill, and as Mb complaint
grew worse he set out for Italy. He Uved to
reach Selinus in CiUcia, afterwards called
Trajanopolis, where he died M August, 117,
after a reign of nmeteen years, six months, and
fifteen days. [For Ms death to this city, and
not, as Eutropius says, at Seleucia, see C. I. L.
yi. 1884.] His ashes were taken to Rome in a
golden urn, carried in triumphal procession,
and deposited under the column which bears
his name. He left no cMldren, and he was
succeeded by Hadrian. [Hadeianus.] Trajan
constructed several great reads in the provinces
and in Italy : among them was the road across
the Pomptine Marshes, wMch he constructed
with magnificent bridges over the streams. At
Ostia he built a large new basin. At Rome
he constructed the aqueduct called by his
name, built a theatre in the Campus Martius
and, above all, made the Forum Trajanum, with
its basiUcas and libraries, and his column to the
centre. Trajani Portus. [Centum Cellae.]
Trajectum (Utrecht), a town of the Batavi
on the RMne, called at a later time Trajectus
Bheni, or Trap ad Bhenum.
Tralles or Trallis (cu TpaXXe7s, y TpdXXis :
TpaXXiavds, Trallianus : Ghiuzel-Hisar, Ru.,
near Aidin), a flourishmg commercial city of Ly
dia, M Asia Minor. It stood on a plateau at the
S. foot of Mt. Messogis (with a citadel on a higher
point), on the banks of the little river Eudon, a
N. tributary of the Maeander, from which the
city was distant 80 stadia (8 geogr. mUes). It
was said to have been founded by Argives and
TMacian settlers on the site of an older town
called Anthea. (Strab. p. 648 ; Diod. xvii. 65 ;
Steph. Byz. s.v.) Under the Seleucidae it bore
the names of Seleucia and Antiochia.
Tranquillus, Suetonius. [Suetonius.]
Transcellensis Mons, a mountain of Maure
tania Caesariensis, between Caesarea and the
river Chinalaph (Amm. Marc. xxix. 5).
Trapezopolis (Tpaire&iiroXis), a town of
Phrygia, on the S. slope of Mt. Cadmus. Its site
was near the modern Assar and Kadi Keni.
Trapezus (Tpaire£ovs : Tpaire£ovvrios and
-ovcrios). 1. (Near Mavria). a city of Arcadia,
on the Alpheus, the name of which was mytM-
caUy derived from the rpdire(a, or altar, on
wMch Lycaon was said to have offered human
sacrifices to Jove. At the time of the building
of MegalopoUs, the inhabitants of Trapezua, as
was alleged, rather than be transferred to the
new city, migrated to the shores of the Euxine,
and their city fell to ruin. (Paus. viii. 3, 2 ;
ApoUod. iii. 8, 1 ; Hdt. vi. 127.)— 2. Tarabosan,
Trabezun, or Trebizond), a colony of Sinope,
at almost the extreme E. of the N. shore of
Asia Mmor. The city derived its name either
from the table-like plateau on which it was built,
or because emigrants from the Arcadian Trape
zus took some part in its settlement (Paus. xiii.
27, 4). The former is the more likely state
ment, since there is no reason why the main
body of colonists from Sinope should have
given it the name of another town. After
Sinope lost her independence, Trapezus be
longed, first to Armema Minor, and afterwards
to the kingdom of Pontus. Under the Romans,
it was made a free city, probably by Pompey,
and, by Trajan, the capital of Pontus Cappa-
docius. Hadrian constructed a new harbour ;
and the city became a place of first-rate com-

TREBONIUS
mercial importance. It was also strongly forti
fied (Tac. Ann. xui. 39, Hist. iii. 47 ; Strab. pp.
309, 320, 499, 548). It was taken by the Goths
in the reign of Valerian ; but it had recovered,
and was in a flourishing state at the time of
Justinian, who repaired its fortifications (Zosim.
i. 33 ; Procop. Aed. in. 7). In the middle ages
it was for some time the seat of a fragment of
the Greek empire, caUed the empire of Tre
bizond. .
Trasimenus Lacus (Lago di Perugia, or L.
Trasimeno), sometimes, but not correctly, writ
ten Thrasymenus, a lake in Etruria, between
Clusium and Perusia, memorable for the victory
gained by Hanmbal over the RomanB under
Flaminius, B.C. 217, at a pomt where the MUs
from Cortona extend to the margin of the lake
(Liv. xxii. 4; Strab. p. 226; Ov. Fast. vi. 770).
Trausi (Tpavo-oi), a Thracian people who
dwelt on the SE. of Mt. Rhodope (Hdt. v. 8, 4 ;
Liv. xxxviii. 41).
Treba (Trebanus : Trevi), a town in Latium
near the sources of the Anio, NE. of Anagma.
(Plin. iii. 64; Ptol. iii. 1,62).
Trebatius Testa. [Testa.]
Trebellius Pollio. [Sceiptobes Historiae
Aubustae.] Trebia (Trebbia), a smaU river in GaUia
Cisalpma, faUMg into the Po near Placentia.
It is memorable for the victory wMch Hanmbal
gained over the Romans, B.C. 218. TMs river
is generally dry to summer, but ia filled with a
rapid stream in winter, which was the season
when Hanmbal defeated the Romans. (Pol. M.
66-74; Liv. xxi. 52-56; Strab. p. 217; Lucan,
ii. 46 ; Eutrop. iii. 9 ; Flor. ii. 6, 12.)
Trebonius, C, played rather a prominent
part in the last days of the repubUc. He com
menced pubUc Ufe as a supporter of the aristo
cratical party, and in Ms quaestorsMp (b.c 60) he
attempted to prevent the adoption of P. Clodius
into a plebeian family. (Cic. ad Fam. xv. 21.)
He changed sides soon afterwards, and in Ms
tribunate of the plebs (55) he was the instru
ment of the triumvirs in propostog that Pom
pey should have the two Spains, Crassus Syria,
and Caesar the Gauls and Illyricum for another
period of five years. This proposal received
the approbation of the comitia, and is known
by the name of the Lex Trebonia. For tMs
service he was rewarded by betog appointed one
of Caesar's legates in Gaul, where he remained
till the breaking out of the CivU war in 49.
In the course of the same year he was intrusted
by Caesar with the command of the land forces
engaged in the siege of MassiUa. (Caes. B.G. v.
24, vi. 40, B.C. i. 36, ii. 1 ; Dio Cass. xh. 19.)
In 48 Trebonius was city-praetor,' and in the
discharge of his duties resisted the seditious
attempts of his coUeague, M. Caelius Rufus, to
obtain by force the repeal of Caesar's law re
specting the payment of debts. Towards the
end of 47, Trebonius, as propraetor, succeeded
Q. Cassius Longmus in the government of
Further Spain, but was expelled from the pro
vince by a mutiny of the soldiers who espoused
the Pompeian party. Caesar raised him to the
consulsMp in October, 45, and promised Mm
the provmce of Asia. (Dio Cass. xliu. 29, 46.)
In return for aU these honours and favours,
Trebonius was one of the prime movers in the
conspiracy to assassinate Caesar, and after the
murder of his patron (44) he went as proconsul
to the province of Asia. In the following year
(43) DolabeUa, who had received from Antonius
the province of Syria, surprised the town of
Smyrna, where Trebonius was then living, and

TREBULA
slew him in his bed. (Dio Cass, xlvii. 21-29 ;
Ptot. Brut. 19 ; App. B.C. ii. 113, 117, iii. 2,
Trebiila (Trebulanus). 1. (Treglia), a town
of Campania, N. of the Volturnus, in the moun
tam tract which extends from Calatia (Cajazzo)
to the Via Latina. It received the Roman
franchise in 803 b.c (Liv. x. i.)— 2. Mutusca,
a, town of the Sabmes, caUed by Virgil simply
Mutuscae (Verg. Aen. vii. 711 ; PUn iii. 108).
Its site is at Monte Leone, on the right of the
Via Solaria.— 3. Suffenas, also a town of the
Sabmes, of uncertain site.
Trerus (Sacco), a river in Latium, and a tri
butary of the Liris.
Tres Tabernae. 1. A station on the Via
Appia m Latium, between Aricia and Forum
Appn (Cic. ad Att. ii. 12).— 2. (Borghetto), a
station to Gallia Cisalpina, on the road from
Placentia to Mediolanum.
Tretum (Tpyriv. C. Bugiaroni, or Bas Seba
Bous, i.e. Seven Capes), a great promontory on
the coast of Numidia, forming the W. headland
of the SMus OlcacMtes (Bay of Storah).
Treviri or Treveri, a powerful people in
GaUia Belgica, who were faithful allies of the
Romans, and whose cavalry was the best to all
<jaul (Caes. B.G. in. 11, iv. 10, vi. 32; Tac.
Germ. 28). The river MoseUa flowed tMough
their territory. wMch extended westward from
the Rhine as far as the Remi. Their cMef
town was made a Roman colony by Augustus,
and was caUed Augusta Trevirorum (Trier or
Treves). It stood on the right bank of the
MoseUa, and became under the later empire
one of the most flourishing Roman cities N. of
the Alps. It was the capital of Belgica Prima ;
and after the division of the Roman world by
Diocletian (a.d. 292) into four districts, it be
came the residence of the Caesar who had the
government of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Here
dwelt Constantius CMorus and Ms son Con
stantine the Great, as weU as several of the
subsequent emperors. The modern city stiU
contains many interesting Roman remains.
The most important of these remains is the
Porta Nigra or Black Gate, a large and
massive building to an exceUent state of pre
servation. [Did. of Ant. art. Portae.] In
addition to tMs, there are extensive remains
of the Roman baths, of the amphitheatre, and
of the palace of ConstantMe. The piers of the
.bridge over the MoseUe are Ukewise Roman.
Triarius, Valerius. 1. L., quaestor urbonus
B.C. 81 ; and propraetor to Sardinia 77, when he
repulsed Lepidus, who had fled toto that island
after Ms unsuccessful attempt to repeal the
laws of Sulla. Triarius served under LucuUus
as one of Ms legates in the war against Mittoi-
dates, and at first gaMed considerable distinc
tion by Ms zeal and activity. In 68 Triariua
was despatched to the assistance of Fabiua,
who had been intrusted with the defence of
Pontus whUe LucuUus invaded Armenia, and
who was now attacked by Mithridates with
overwhelmmg numbers. Triarius compeUed
Mittoidates to assume the defensive, and early
in the followmg year he commenced active
operations agamst the Pontic king. Anxious
to gain the victory over Mithridates before the
arrival of LucuUus, Triarius aUowed himself
to be attacked at a disadvantage, and was de
feated with great slaughter near Zela. (App.
Mithr. 88, 112, 120 ; Plut. Pomp. 35 ; Dio Cass.
xxxv. 10-12.) — 2. P., son of the preceding, ac
cused M. Aemilius Scaurus, to 54, first of repe-
tundae and next of ambitus. Scaurus was

TRICORYTHUS 969
defended on both occasions by Cicero (Cic. pro
Scaur. 1, 2, ad Att. iv. 16, 17). — 3. C, a friend
of Cicero, who introduces him as one of the
speakers in Ms dialogue De Finibus, and praises
his oratory in his Brutus. He fought on
Pompey's side at the battle of Pharsalia. Tri
arius perished in the civil wars, probably in
Africa, for Cicero speaks in 45 of his death, and
adds that Triarius had left him the guardian of
Ms cMldren (Caes. B.C. iii. 5, 92 ; Cic. ad Att.
xii. 28).
Triballi, a powerful people m Thrace,
a branch of the Getae dwelling along the
Danube, who were defeated by Alexander the
Great, B.C. 335, and obliged to sue for peace
(Hdt. iv. 49; Thuc. iv. 101; Arr. An. 1, 2;
Strab. p. 317).
Tribocci, a German people, settled in GaUia
Belgica, between M. Vogesus and the RMne, M
the neighbourhood of Strasburg (Caes. B. G.
i. 51,_iv. 10 ; Strab. p. 198 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 17).
Tribonianus, a jurist, commissioned by
Justinianus, with sixteen others, to compile the
Digest or Pandect. For details see Justinianus.
Tricala. [Triocala.]
Tricaranon (TptKdpavov : TpiKapavevs), a for
tress in PhUasia, SE. of PhUus, on a mountain
of the same name.
Tricasses, Tricasii, Tricassini, a people in
Gallia Lugdunensis, E. of the Senones, whose
chief town was Augustobona, afterwards Tri-
cassae (Troyes). (P1M. iv. 107 ; Ptol. ii. 8, 18.)
Tricastiiii, a people in Gallia Narbonensis,
between the Cavares and Vocontii, inhabiting
a narrow slip of country between the Dr6me
and the Isere, on the banks of the Isere. They
were to the N. of the Vocontii, and Hannibal,
in his march from the ' Island ' near Valence
to the place where he crossed the Alps (as was
said above, either the M. Genevre or the Col
d' Argentiere : probably the former ; see Alpes,
Hannibal), passed first tMough the country of
the Tricastini, then tMough that of the
Vocontii, then tMough that of the Tricorii
(Liv. xxi. 84 ; Ptol. ii. 10, IS). Their chief town
was Augusta Tricastinorum, or simply Augusta
(Aouste). Tricca, subsequently Tricala (Tp'iKKy,
TptKaXa: Trikkala), an ancient town of
Thessaly to the district Hestiaeotis, situated
on the Lethaeus, N. of the Peneua. Homer
represents it as governed by the sons of
Asclepius, and it contamed in later times a
celebrated temple of tMs god. (II. ii. 729, iv.
202 ; Strab. p. 437 ; Liv. xxxii. 13.)
Trichonis (Tpixwis : Vrakhori), a large lake
in Aetolia, E. of Stratos and N. of Mt. Ara-
cynthua. Trichonium (Tpixdviov : Tptxavieis), a town
in Aetolia, E. of lake Trichonis (Strab. p. 450;
Pol. iv. 3 ; Paus. ii. 37, 8).
Triciptinus, Lucretius. [Lucbetia Gens.]
Tricoloni (TpiKdXaivot : TpiKoXcuvevs), a town
of Arcadia, a little N. of Megalopolis, of wMch
a temple of Poseidon alone remained in the
time of Pausanias (Paus. viii. 3, 4, viii. 27, 3).
Tricomia (TpiKcopia : Kaimaz), a town of the
Trocnades (possibly a union of tMee villages)
in PMygia (but afterwards assigned to Galatia
Salutaris), between Midaion and Pessinus
(Ptol. v. 2, 22).
Tricorii, a people who dwelt on the river
Drac, and whose chief town was probably the
modern St. Bonnet, on the N. side of the Col
Bayard, which leads to Gap (Vapincum). They
dwelt S. of the Vocontii [see Tricastini].
Iricorythus (TpiKdpvBos: TpiKopio-ws), a

970 TRICRANA
demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Aiantis,
between Marathon and Rhamnus.
Tricrana (TplKpava : Trikhiri), an island off
the coast of ArgoUs, near Hermione (Paus. ii.
34, 8).
Tridentum (Trent, in Italian Trento), the
capital of the Tridentini, and the chief town
of Raetia, situated on the river Athesis (Adige),
and on the pass of the Alps leadmg to Verona
(Plin. iii. 130 ; Just. xx. 5). Its greatness dates
from the middle ages, and it is chiefly cele
brated on account of the ecclesiastical council
which assembled within its waUs, A.D. 1545.
Trieres or Trieris (Tptypys: Enfeh), a small
fortress on the coast of Phoenicia, between
Tripolis and the Prom. Theuprosopon (Pol v
68; Strab. p. 754).
Trifanum, a town in Latium, between Min
turnae and Sinuessa (Liv. viu. 11).
Trinacria. [Sicilia.]
Trinemeis or Trinemia (Tpivepels, Tpivepeia :
Tpivepeis), a demus in Attica, belonging to the
tribe Cecropis, on Mt. Parnes.
Trinobantes, one of the most powerful people
of Britain, inhabiting the modern Essex. They
are mentioned to Caesar's invasion of Britain,
and they offered a formidable resistance to the
invading force sent into the island by the
emperor Claudius. (Caes. B. G. v. 20 ; Tac.
Ann. xiv. 81.)
Triocala or Tricala (TpidKaXa, TpUaXa : Tpi-
KaXTvos, Tricalinus: nr. Calata Bellota), a
mountato fortress in the interior of Sioily, near
the CrimisBUS, was in the ServUe war the head
quarters of the slaves, and the residence of
their leader Tryphon (Diod. xxxvi. 7 ; Cic. Verr.
v. 4 ; Ptol. iii. 4, 14).
Triopas (Tptdiras or TpioiJ/), son of Poseidon
and Canace, a daughter of Aeolus, or of Helios
and Rhodos, and the father of IpMmedia and
Erysichthon. Hence, his son Erysichthon is
called Triopeius, and Mb granddaughter Mestra
or Metra, the daughter of Erysichthon, Triopeis.
Triopas expeUed the Pelasgians, or original in
habitants, from the district of Dotium (Dotius
Campus), S. of Ossa in Thessaly, but was Mmself
obliged to emigrate, and went to Caria, where
he founded Cnidus on the Triopian promontory.
(Hdt. i. 174; Diod. v. 56 ; ApoUod. i. 7, 4 ; Ov.
Met. viii. 751.) His son Erysichthon was pun
ished by Demeter with insatiable hunger,
because he had violated her sacred grove ; but
the same story is also told of Triopas Mmself.
[Erysichthon.] Triopia or Triopion, an early name of
Cnidus. Triopium (Tptdirtov : C. Krio), the promontory
which terminates the peninsula of Cnidus,
forming the SW. headland of Caria and of Asia
Minor. Upon it was a temple of Apollo, sur
named Triopius, which was the centre of
union for the states of Doris. Hence it was
also caUed the Sacred Promontory. (Thuc.
viii. 35, 60 ; Mel. i. 16 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.)
Triphylia (TpicpvXia : TpicpiXtos), the S. por
tion of Elis, lyMg between the Alpheus and
the Neda, is said to have derived its name from
the three different tribes by wMch it was
peopled. [Elis.] Its cMef town was Pylos.
Tripodiscus (TpiiroSioKos : TpiiroSio-Ktos : nr.
Derweni, Ru.),atown in the interior of Megaris,
NW. of Megara, and at the, foot of Mt. Geraneia
(Thuc. iv. 70 ; Strab. p. 394 ; Paus. i. 43, 8).
Tripolis (Tpfm>A.is: TpiiroXirys) is properly
the name of a confederacy composed of three
cities, or a district containing three cities, but
it is also applied to single cities which had

TRIPTOLEMUS
some such relation to others as to make the
name appropriate. 1. In Arcadia, comprising
the tMee cities of Callia, Dipoena, and Non
acris : its name is preserved in the modern
town of Tripolitza. [Arcadia.]— 2. T. Pela
gonia, in Thessaly, comprising the three
towns of Azorus, Doliche, and PytMum (Liv.
xiii. 53). — 3. In Rhodes, comprising the three
Dorian cities, LMdus, Ialysus, and Camirus..
[Rhodus.]— 4. (Derebol), a city of Lydia, on
the Maeander, twelve milec W. of Hierapolis,,
on the road from Sardis to Laodicea (Ptol.
v. 2, 18; Hierocl. p. 669).— 6. (TireboU), a,
fortress on the coast of Pontus, on a river of the
same name (TireboU Su), ninety stadia E. of
the Prom. Zephyrium (C. Zefreh).—6. (Tri
poli, Tarabulus), on the coast of Phoenicia,
consisted of tMee distinct cities, one stadium.
(600 feet) apart, each having its own waUs, but
all united to a common constitution, having one
place of assembly, and forming to reality one
city. They were colomes of Tyre, Sidon, and
AraduB respectively. Tripolis stood about
thirty miles S. of Aradus, and about the same
distance N. of Byblus, on a bold headland
formed by a spur of Mt. Lebanon. It had a
fine harbour, and a flourishing commerce.
(Ptol. v. 15, 4 ; Strab. p. 754 ; Diod. xvi. 41.)—
7. The district on the N. coast of Africa,
between the two Syrtes, comprising the tMee
cities of Sabrata (or Abrotonum), Oea, and
Leptis Magna, and also caUed Tripolitana
Regio. [Sybtica.] Its name is preserved to
that of the regency of Tripoli, the W. part of
which answers to it, and in that of the city of
Tripoli, probably the ancient Oea.
Tripolitana Regio. [Sybtica: Tripolis,
No. 7.]
Triptolemus (TpiirrdXepos), a local hero of
Eleusis (in which character he appears in the
Homeric Hymn to Demeter), and worshipped
there as a deity connected with the sowing
of corn. He is described in the Attic story
as son of Celeus, king of Eleusis, and Metanira.
Other legends describe him as son of king
Eleusis by Cothonea, or of Oceanus and Gaea,
or of TrochUus by an Eleusinian woman ;
or Ms father is Rarus (cf. the Rarian plain)
or Dysaules. (Paus. i. 14, 2 ; Hymn, im Cer.
153; ApoUod. i. 5, 2; Hyg. Fab. 147; Serv.
ad Georg. i. 19.) By the Latin poets he is
commonly regarded as the inventor of the
plough (Verg. Georg. i. 19) ; but it is doubtful
if this was the original conception of him.
According to the most familiar Attic legend,
Celeus, the father of Triptolemus, Eubulus,
Diocles, and Demophon or Demophoon, hos
pitably received Demeter at Eleusis, when she
was wandering in search of her daughter. The
goddess, in return, wished to make his son
Demophon immortal, and placed him to the
fire in order to destroy his mortal parts ; but
Metanira screamed out at the sight, and the
child was consumed by the flames. As a com
pensation for this bereavement, the goddess
gave to Triptolemus a chariot with winged
dragons and seeds of wheat. In this chariot
Triptolemus was borne over the earth, maktog
man acquainted with the blessings of agricul
ture (Ov. Met. v. 646 ; Paus. i. 38, 6, vii. 18, 2,
viii. 4, 1), and hence of laws and civiUsation.
[Diet, of Ant. art. Thesmophoria.] On Ms
return to Attica, Celeus endeavoured to kill
him, but by the command of Demeter he was
obliged to give up Ms country to Triptolemus,
who now eBtabUshed the worsMp of Demeter,
and instituted the Thesmophoria (Apollod. I.e.).

TRITAEA
This is not the version of the Homeric Hymn to
Demeter (123, 474), wMch, as was said above,
describes him as one of the heroic cMefs or
princes of Eleusis, instructed by Demeter M her
sacred rites : the legend which makes him son
of Eleusis points to Ms local worship as hero
or deity being ancient in that district. The
period and reason of the introduction of Demo
phon and of the streugthemng by fire are not
very clear nor why Triptolemus entirely took
the place of Demophon as son of Celeus and
favourite of Demeter; but the most natural
inference is that the beUef in Triptolemus as
god of corn-sowing was a very old one, and that
his story was altered when the worship of
Demeter became supreme and he was fitted
mto the myth. In the vases of the fifth and
fourth centuries b.c Triptolemus is constantly
represented M his wmged chariot, sometimes
drawn by serpents (symbols of the powers of
the earth) ; and there is little doubt that the
myth of Triptolemus primarily signified the
introduction of corn-growing and its communi
cation from one country to another. It has
been suggested, with some probabiUty, that the
idea of Triptolemus as especiaUy the god of
ploughing arose from a confusion of him with
Osiris, the god of ploughing, and a vase now at
St. Petersburg is noticed which represents
Triptolemus in Ms serpent-chariot starting
from Egypt. In tMs view he becomes the
ploughing god in the Alexandrian period (cf.
Serv. ad Georg. i. 19). Whether Ms name
should be connected M derivation with triple
plougMng (rpis, iroXelv) is doubtful : there were
certainly three sacred plougMngs recognised by
the Athenians corresponding to the tMee actual
plougMngs for certain crops ; but, if the con
jecture is right that he was not primarUy the
god of the plough, the connexion of sound may
be accidental. On the other hand, it is quite
possible that, though primarily the distributor
of seed, he may in very early times have been
the god of the culture wMch foUowed it, and
have been named accordingly. He is repre
sented on earUer vases M Ms chariot as a full-
grown man with ears of corn to Ms hand, or
Uke a king, with a sceptre ; but in later art he
is often a youth or a boy (as M Latin poets), on
idea wMch perhaps was borrowed from that of
Iacchus to the mysteries.
Tritaea (Tplraia: Tpiratevs). I. A town of
Phocis, NW. of Cleonae, on the left bank of the
CepMssus and on the frontiers of Locris (Thuc.
to. 101). — 2. (Kastritza), one of the twelve
cities of Achaia, 120 stadia E. of Pharae and
near the frontiers of Arcadia. Augustus made
it dependent upon Patrae. (Hdt. i. 145 ; Pol.
n. 41 ; Strab. p. 386 ; Paus. vU. 226.)
Trito or Tritogenla. [Athene.]
Triton (Tpirav), son of Poseidon and Amphi
trite (or Celaeno), who dwelt with his father
and mother in a golden palace in the bottom of
the sea, or, according to Homer, at Aegae
(Hes. Th. 930 ; ApoUod. i. 4, 6). Later writers
describe him as riding over the sea on horses
or other sea-monsters. Sometimes we find
mention of Tritons in the plural. Their appear
ance is differently described ; though they are
always conceived as haying the human figure
to the upper part of their bodies, and that of a
fish to the lower part. The cMef characteristic
of Tritons to poetry as well as in works of art
is a trumpet made out of a sheU (concha), wMch
the Tritons blow as they foUow in the train of
Poseidon (Ov. Met. i. 333). It is probable
that Triton was once an independent sea-deity I

TROEZEN

971

or impersonation of the sea, represented like
the Phoenician fish-deities ; and became a son
and attendant of Poseidon when the worship
of that deity prevailed everywhere as the
supreme god of the sea.
TritonFl., Tritonis, or Tritonitis Palus (Tpi-
rcov, Tptravis, Tpiravlrts), a river and lake on
the Mediterranean coast of Libya, which are
mentioned in several old Greek legends,
especially in the mythology of Athene, whom
one account represented as born on the lake
Tritonis, and as the daughter of the nymph of
the some name and of Poseidon: hence her
surname of Tpiroyeveta [see p. 188, b]. When
the Greeks first became acquainted geographi
cally with the N. coast of Africa, they identified.
the gulf afterwards called the Lesser Syrtis
with the lake Tritonis. This seems to be the
notion of Herodotus, in the story he relates of
Jason (iv. 178, 179; Argonautae). A more
exact knowledge of the coast showed them a,
great lake beyond the inmost recess of the
Lesser Syrtis, to which the name Tritonis was
then applied. This lake had an opening to the
sea, as well as a river flowmg into it, and ac-
cordmgly the geographers represented the
river Triton as rising to a mountain, called.
Zuchabari, and forming the lake Tritonis on its-
course to the Lesser Syrtis, into wMch it fell..
The lake is undoubtedly the great salt lake, in
the S. of Tunis, now in great part dried up,,
called Sebkhat-Farun. Lucan (ix. 346) ap
pears to make Tritonis the lake or the estuary
of the river Lathon or Lethon in Cyrenaica.
[Lathon.] Trivicum (Trivico), a smaU town in Samnium,.
situated among the mountains separating Sam
nium from Apulia, in the country of the Hir-
pini (Hor. Sat. i. 5, 79).
Troas (y Tpads, sc. xdpa, the fem. of the adj.
Tpds : TpaaSeis : Chan), the territory of Ilium
or Troy, formed the NW. part of Mysia. It
was bounded on the W. by the Aegaean sea,.
from Pr. Lectum to Pr. Sigeum at the entrance
of the Hellespont ; on the NW. by the Helles
pont, as far as the river Rhodius, below Abydus ;
on the NE. and E. by the mountains wMch
border the vaUey of the Rhodius, and extend-
from its sources southwards to the main ridge-
of M. Ida, and on the S. by the N. coast of the
Gulf of Adramyttium along the S. foot of Ida;
but on the NE. and E. the boundary is some
times extended so far as to Mclude the whole
coast of the Hellespont and part of the Pro
pontis, and the country as far as the river
Granicua, thus embracmg the district of Dar
dania, and somewhat more. Strabo extends.
the boundary stiU further E., to the river
Aesepus, and also S. to the Caicus ; but tMs.
clearly results from his including in the terri
tory of Troy that of her neighbouring allies.
(II. ix. 321, xxiv. 544 ; Hdt. vii. 42 ; Strab. pp.
581-616.) The Troad is for the most part-
mountainous, bemg intersected by M. Ida and
its branches : the largest plain is that in which
Troy stood. The chief rivers were the Satnois
on the S., the Rhodius on the N., and the
Scamonder (Mendere) with its affluent the-
Simois (Dombrek) in the centre. The last two,
whose connexion with scenes M the Iliad gives.
them an importance beyond their size, ai'3
discussed more particularly under Troja.
Trocmi or -ii. [Galatia.]
Troes. [Troas.]
Troezen (Tpoitfiv, more rarely Tpoi^yvy r
Tpoi^yvtos : Dhamala), the capital of Troezenia
(Tpot£yvia), a district to the SE. of Argolis on

972

TROGILIAE

the Saronic gulf, and opposite the island of
Aegina. The town was situated at some little
distance from the coast, on which it possessed
a harbour caUed Pogon (Tldymv), opposite the
island of Calauria. Troezen was a very ancient
city, and is said to have been originally called
Poseidonia, on account of its worship of Posei
don. [Calauria.] The legend of a contest
between Poseidon and Athene for the protec
torship of Troezen, wMch ended in their agree
ing to share it (hence both appear on the coins)
probably arose from the fact that the worship
of Athene was accepted side by side with the
older worship of Poseidon. (Paus. ii. 30, 5.)
Traditionally it received the name of Troezen
from Troezen, one of the sons of Pelops ; and it
is celebrated in mythology as the place where
Pittheus, the maternal grandfather of Theseus,
Uved, and where Theseus himself was born.
In the Homeric age Troezen was for a long
time dependent upon the Mngs of Argos (H.
ii. 56), and this dependence seems to have
continued after the Dorian conquest of both
towns (Paus. ii. 30, 9), but in the Mstorical
period it appears as an independent state. It
was a city of some importance, for we read that
the Troezenians sent five ships of war to
Salamis and 1000 heavy-armed men to Plataea.
When the Persians entered Attica the Troeze
nians distinguished themselves by the kindness
with which they received the Athenians, who
were obliged to abandon their city (Hdt. viii.
41 ; Plut. Them. 10.) The friendship continued
tiU the Peloponnesian war, when the Troeze
nians allied themselves with Sparta (Thuc.
ii. 56).
Trogiliae, three small islands, named Psilon,
Argennon, and Sandalion, lying off the promon
tory of Trogilium. [Mycale.]
Trogitis Lacus. [Pisidia.]
Troglodytae (TpcoyXoSvrai, i.e. dwellers in
oaves), the name applied by the Greek geogra
phers to various uncivUised people, who had no
abodes but caves, especially to the inhabitants
of the W. coast of the Red Sea, along the
shores of Upper Egypt and Aethiopia (Hdt.
iv. 183 ; Peripl. 2-7). The whole of this coast
was called Troglodytiee (TpwyXoSvriKf)). (Agath-
arch. 61-63 ; Diod. Ui. 32, 33.) There were
also Troglodytae in Moesia, on the banks of the
Danube. The Troglodytes of the W. coast of
the Red Sea are described by Agatharchides as
a barbarous people, who wore little clothing,
had wives in common, and put to death the
aged and tofirm. They lived on the produce of
their flocks and herds. In the Periplus the
Ethiopian Troglodytea are described as of a
wild appearance and swifter than horses. This
swiftngss of foot is noticed also by Herodotus
as characterising the Ethiopian Troglodytes,
and is said to be stUl a characteristic of the
cave-dwellers in the same district. Herodotus
adds that their language was like the twittering
of bats, and that their food consisted of lizards
and other reptiles.
Trogus, Pompeius. [Justinus.]
Troilium. [Trossulum.]
Troilus (TpaitXos), son of Priam and Hecuba.
He feU by the hand of Achilles. (II. xxiv.
257 ; Verg. Aen. i. 474 ; Hor. Od. ii. 9, 16.)
Troja or Ilium (Tpofa, "IXiov : Troy, Ruins at
HissarUk); also caUed Pergama (n<Fpyap.or,
Tlepyapov or Tl4pyapa : Tpds, Tpipds, fern. Tpwds,
Trojanus ; also Tros and Troius), a name pro
perly applied only to the fortress or citadel of the
town : the cMef city of the Troad in the Homeric
age, and the capital of the dominion ruled over

TROJA
by Priam. The site of Troy has been disputed
from the time of Demetrius of Scepsis, in the
second century B.C., who denied that the then
existmg Ilium stood on the site of the Homeric
city, chiefly on the ground that the plain near
Ilium Novum, required as a battle-ground, was a
recent aUuvial deposit. Modern geologists have
shown that it is an error to regard this forma
tion of land (to any important extent) as more
recent than the Homeric age. Demetrius placed
the site at 'IAie'oji' xdpy (the vUlage of the Ilia n s)
tMee or four miles further up the Scamander.
His views did not meet with general acceptance,
and the Romans especially continued to look
upon Hium Novum as occupying the site of
their supposed mother city. At the end of the
last century, partly because Le Chevalier dis
covered a hot and cold spring near BunarbasM
which seemed to correspond to the springs
mentioned in II. xxii. 147, the hUl caUed Bali
Dagh was fixed upon as the hiU of Troy, and
this view is still maintained by some scholars
of great authority. Few disputed it at aU tiU
the excavations of Dr. Schiiemann in 1871—
1879 at Hissarlik, continued (latterly in con
junction with Dr. Db'rpfeld) in 1882-1886, led
him to revert to the oldest belief — that the
site of Dium Vetus, or the Homeric Troy, was
the same as that of Dium Novum. The ques
tion is not even now one upon wMch it is wise
to pronounce dogmatically. The supporters of
both views have M some cases pressed points
of correspondence or divergence too far, but the
objections to accepting the site at Bali Dagh,
near BunarbasM, are much more serious than
those wMch have been alleged against Hissar
lik; and if it is admitted that the Homeric
descriptions were written with considerable"
knowledge of the local features derived from
tradition or from personal knowledge (and
there is nothing to discuss if this is not
admitted), but yet were written, not by a
topographer, but by a poet with some poetical
licence of exaggeration of scale, and of re
moving or creating some natural obstacles, the
claim of Hissarlik to be regarded as the MU of
Troy is fairly established. The map of the
district given on p. 973 is taken from one con
structed by Sir C. Wilson. The main features
of the Homeric Troy and its neighbourhood are
that the town, or its Acropolis, was situated on
a hiU near the Hellespont and looking to the
island of Tenedos (It. xiii. 38) ; the Greek
camp was on the ahorea of the Hellespont, near
the mouth of the Scamander or Xanthos (i.e.
W. of Cape Rhoeteum), and with the river Sca
mander between it and the city of Troy (xiv.
31, xxiv. 850, 692) ; further, Troy was not a
great distance from this shore, since the
fighting goes on near the city and near the
camp, backwarda and forwardB over the plain
on the same day ; Idaeus goes early in the
mornmg to the camp and gets back to the
assembly at Troy just after sunrise (vii. 881,
413) ; Priam drives in the night, eats and
sleeps in AchUles' tent, and gets back to Troy
at sunrise (xxiv. 866-695) ; the Simois joins the
Scamander, and apparently on the N. side of
the city (v. 774) : that this plain reaches up to
the neighbourhood of the citadel is clear from
the description of the battle roUing up to the
walls. There are other details of topography
which do not affect the narrative and may be
imagMary, though they have an appearance of
local colouring about them. Such are the
Scaean gates leading into the plain towards the
Greek camp, and the two springs, one hot and

the other cold, which break out near it (xxii.
Dlair, W« & rV"ng ?r°<™a or ' swellMg of the
Plain (Bpuo-pbs ireSioto) between the city and
that Z,^ ^Fl B9' &* must be confessed
tbat tMs last detaU is more likelv to be
Kf AthM to„ \ careWly takL from
?iwlt']^ rT^S the sites Mentioned, the
IMeaw Kojpy of Demetrius has nothMg to
~dn"- ^V8*00^* from^sea!
rutos Tt r ?hl swamPs' and « b"s ™
ruins. It seems to have been chosen because

TROJA

978

date than can belong to the Homeric poems.
The principal objections urged against Hissar
lik were : (1) that it was not high enough to be
the ' windy ' Troy ; (2) the plain is on the wrong
side of the Scamander. As regards (1), the hill
of Hissarlik rises from the plain to a height of
50-65 feet : now it must be recollected that the
plam about it is destitute of high ground, and
tMs isolated height might well be called 'lofty,'
' windy,' &c. ; and it is just the sort of place
which in those days was chosen for a citadel —

Map of the
PLAIN OF TROY
English Miles
f  M__L____J
C. Cemetery: f Fountain: 11'. Weil.

the false theory of the coast having greatly
advanced aeemed to necessitate a site further
inland, and the name was seized upon as
evidence. Bali Dagh, no doubt, is a command-
mg height, and well suited for a fortress, but it
stands on MUy ground with no plam coming up
to it : moreover it is about twelve miles from
the Greek camp, which alone is a strong objec
tion, however much it may be argued that poets
can disregard distance and time: lastly, the
only remains here and at Eski Hissarlik cIobo
by are waUs which are of a much more recent

fVateer GrBoutallsc.

near the sea and yet safe from pirates [cf.
Tiryns]. As regards (2), it has been diacovered
that the old bed of the Mendere (Scamander)
ran further to the E. and through the E. aide
of the plam, instead of, as now, to the W. His
sarlik is 3£ miles from the Aegaean and 8|
miles from the Hellespont — a distance wMch
agrees with the Homeric narrative. TheDom-
brek-Su, which joins the Scamander N. of
Hissarlik, will answer to the ancient Simois.
Dr. ScMiemann claims to have found the
springs and washing-troughs 'in an ancient

974

TROJA

rock channel' at the foot of Hisaarlik. This
may be so, but it is unwise to press it as an
essential point. As far as the springs are con
cerned, BunarbaBM has the better evidence ;
but it is by no means unlikely that if the
natural phenomenon of hot and cold springs
was weU known further up the Scamander it
:may have been transferred in the poem to the
neighbourhood of the city ; nor again is it
much worth considering whether the swelling
of the ground which Dr. ScMiemann fixed upon
will answer to the dptao-pos ireSioto. In the
argumenta for or against it ia weU to remember
the remark of Grote, that it is a mistake ' to
apply to Homer and to the Homeric siege of
Troy criticisms which would be perfectly just
if brought to bear on the Athenian aiege of
Syracuae aa deacribed by Thucydides.' The
excavations on Hissarlik have revealed a auc-
¦cession of cities with strata, sometimes includ
ing burnt debris between them. The uppermost
is the Bium Novum, the Greek city of historical
times ; the lowest, upon the actual rock, is small
and of very rude and primitive character m its
building, its pottery, in the great rarity of metal,
and in the use of stone hatchets. Above the
ruins of this was built on a larger scale what
Schiiemann calls the Homeric Troy. Here were
found walls partly of stone, partly of brick,
with tMee gates inclosing (among other buUd
ings somewhat of the Homeric type with a
courtyard) megara and women's apartments;
further, a quantity of pottery and a considerable
find of golden vessels and ornaments. The
citadel and palace are small, the space occupied
by the walla being only 330 feet in diameter,
and it is neceaaary to admit the glorification of
the palace and its surroundings by poetry.
There is, however, no objection to the theory
that there was a lower city below the Acropolis
and enclosed by a wall, just aa was the case at
Tiryns. The objects found belong to a stage of
art distinctly inferior to the Mycenaean art,
and archaeologists of authority are disposed to
say that this city appears to belong to a date
anterior to either Tiryns or Mycenae. It is,
however, possible either that the Trojans were
less advanced in civilisation than the Greeks
who besieged them, or that there was an interval
after the fall of Troy and before the Dorian
invasion during wMch the art of Mycenae
advanced to the stage wMch is evidenced by the
Mycenaean discoveries. On the other hand,
the more recent explorations of Dr. Db'rpfeld in
1893 seem likely, when they are completed and
fully described, to give a clearer insight into
the matter. Dr. D'drpfeld has now distinguished
five ' pre-Mycenaean ' or pre-Homeric strata of
remams on the mound of Hissarlik, and that
which* he reckons aa the second of these he
dates earlier than 2000 b.c. In the sixth stra
tum (i.e. separated by tMee unimportant settle
ments from the above) he recognises the
Homeric citadel, about as large as that of TirynB,
and contaming pottery of what is caUed the
Mycenaean period. It has remains of seven
large buildings Uke the peyapa of Homer, walls
of the Mycenaean type, and a tower at the NE.
angle. If the matured report should eventually
result in ascribing to the Homeric Troy a
different stratum of remains from that upon
wMch ScMiemann fixed, it will to any case
tend to confirm his opinion that the Homeric
city really stood on Hissarlik, and will tMow
much more Ught on its date. For the nationaUty
of the Trojans, see Phrygia. — The myttocal ac
count of the kingdom of Troy is briefly as

foUows. Teucer, the first Mng, had a daughter
who married Dardanus, the cMeftain of the
country NE. of the Troad. [Dardania.] Dar
danus had two sons, Hus and Ericthonius, and
the latter was the father of Tros, from whom
the country and people derived the names of
Troas and Troes. Tros was the father of Hue,
who founded the city, which was called after
him Ilium, and also, after his father, Troja.
The next king was Laomedon, and after him
Priam. [Priamus.] In Ms reign the city was
taken and destroyed by the confederated
Greeks, after a ten years' siege. [For detaUs
see Helena, Paris, Agamemnon, Achilles,
Hector, Ajax, Odysseus, Neoptolemus,
Aeneas.] As to the Mstorical facts which may
be regarded as estabUshed, there is evidence of
a considerable city having been sacked and
burnt at a period which archaeologists put not
later than the twelfth century B.C. That this
invasion may have been an enterprise of the
Achaeans at that time is neither impossible nor
unlikely. If the interpretation of recent Egyp
tian discoveries is right which makes Achaeans
appear as assailants of Egypt in the reign of
Ramses DU., it would foUow that the Achaeans
of the tweUth or thirteenth centuries had power
and spirit enough for such an enterprise [see p.
424] : but M any case the Mstory of Tiryns and
Mycenae, as attested by their ruins, is evidence

Coin ol Ilium, during its autonomy, after B.C. 189.
Obv., head of Athene ; rev., A9HNA2 iaiaaos : magistrate's
name (Menephron, son of Menephron) ; Athene, with
spear and spindle.
to the existence of their power at that time.
There is therefore no reason why the traditions
upon which the Hiad is baaed should not be regar
ded as true in their main outUnes. It is probable
enough that to avenge an act of piracy (which
is a common and simple explanation of the rape
of Helen) the Greeks of the ' Achaean ' period
besieged and sacked Troy and thence returned
to hold their own possessions undisturbed until
the Dorian invasion. That there was no Greek
settlement upon the site of Troy until a much
later period is deduced from the remains of towns
of a low state of civUisation and of small im
portance which have been discovered above the
ruins of the second city (assumed to be Priam's).
The later towns (if Dr. ScMiemann is right in
distingMshing three or four) between the Home
ric city and the Greek ' New Ilium ' were poor
settlements with no history and no importance.
The last, an Aetolian foundation which lasted
on through the Hellenistic and Roman periods,
was visited by Xerxes and by Alexander the
Great; and has yielded some fine pieces of
sculpture from a Greek temple of Athene, and
inscriptions from the fourth century B.C. to late
Roman times. (Cf. Hdt. vii. 42 ; Strab. pp.
593, 601 ; Arr. An. i. 11, 7.) It was established
by Alexander, Lysimachus, and Julius Caesar,
who, as well as SuUa, enabled the town to
recover the damage inflicted in the Mithridatic
war by Fimbria (Strab. p. 594 ; App. Mithr. 58),

TROPHONIUS
and it was made a free oity, exempt from taxes.
(btrab. p. 595 ; Suet. Claud. 25 ; Tac. Ann.
X11\ 58-) CommerciaUy its importance was
eclipsed by that of Alexandria Troas.
irophonius (Tpocpdvios), son of Erginus,
fflng of Orchomenus, and brother of Agamedes.
-tie and his brother built the temple at Delphi
and the treasury of king Hyrieus in Boeotia.
* or details see Agamedes. Trophonius after
ms death was worshipped aa a hero, and had a
celebrated oracle in a cave to Boeotia. (See
-Did. of Antiq. art. Oraculum.)
Tros (Tpds), son of Erichthonius and Astyo-
che, and grandson of Dardanus. He was mar
ried to CalUrrhoe, by whom he became the
father of Bus, Assaracus, and Ganymedes, and
was king of Ptoygia. (II. xx. 230.) The country
and people of Troy were supposed to have
derived their name from him. He gave up his
son Ganymedes to Zeus for a present of horses.
[Ganymedes.] Trossulum (Trossulanus : Trosso), a town in
Etruria, nine mUes from Volsinu, which is said
to have been taken by some Roman equites
without the aid of foot-soldiers; whence (ac
cording to Roman etymologists) the equites
obtained the name of Trossuli (PUn. xxxiii. 9 ;
Fest. s.v. Trossuli).
Truentum, a town of Picenum, on the river
Truentus or Truenttous (Tronto). (Strab. p.
241; Mel. U. 4,6.)
Trutulensis Portus, a harbour on the NE.
coast of Britain, perhaps near the estuary Taus
(Tay). The exact site is unknown. (Tac. Agr. 38.)
Try phio dorus (TpvcptdSapos), a Greek gram
marian and poet, was a native of Egypt ; but
nothing is known of Ms personal Mstory. He
Uved probably early to the sixth century of
the Christian era. Of Ms grammatical labours
we have no record ; but one of his poems has
come down to us, entitled 'IXiov aXwcris, the
Capture of Hium, consisting of 691 lines, of
small merit. It contains a description of the
warriors to the wooden horse (whom Helen is
about to betray, but she is prevented by Athene),
and of the scenes of the sack of the city.
Editions are by Northmore, London, 1804, and
by KbcMy, Zurich, 1850.
Tryphon (Tpicpav). 1. Diodotus, a usurper
of the tMone of Syria during the reign of De
metrius II. Nicator. After the death of Alex
ander Balas in B.C. 146, Tryphon first set up
Antiochus, the infant son of Balas, as a pre
tender against Demetrius, but M 142 he
murdered Antiochus and reigned as Mng him
self. Tryphon was defeated and put to death
by Antiochus Sidetes, the brother of Demetrius,
to 139, after a reign of tMee years. [See De
metrius IL] — 2. Salvius, one of the leaders of
the revolted slaves in Sicily, was supposed to
have a knowledge of divination, for which reason
he was elected king by the slaves in 103. He
displayed considerable abilities, and in a short
time collected an army of 20,000 foot and 2000
horse, with wMch he defeated the propraetor P.
Licinius Nerva. After this victory Salvius
assumed aU the pomp of royalty, and took the
surname of Tryphon, probably because it had
fceen borne by Diodotua, the uaurper of the
Syrian tMone. He choae the atrong fortress
of Triocala as the seat of his new kingdom.
Tryphon was defeated by L. Lucullus in 102,
and was obliged to take refuge in Triocala.
But LucuUus faUed to take the place, and
returned to Rome without effecting anything
more. Lucullus was succeeded by C. Servilius ;
and on the death of Tryphon, about the aame

TUDER

975

time, the kingdom devolved upon Athenion
who was not subdued till 101. (Diod. xxxvi
Fragm. ; Flor. iii. 19.)
Tryphoninus, Claudius, a Roman jurist,
wrote under the reigns of Septimius Severus
and CaracaUa.
Tubantes, a people of Germany, allies of the
Cherusci, originally dwelt between the Rhine
andtheYssel; in the time of Germanicus on
the S. bank of the Lippe, between Paderborn,
Hamm, and the Amsberger Wald; and at a
still later time to the neighbourhood of the
Thuringer Wald between the Fulda and the
Werra. (Tac. Ann. i. 51, xiii. 55, Germ. 36 ; Ptol.
ii. 11, 23.) Subsequently they are mentioned as
a part of the great league of the Franci.
Tubero, Aelius. 1. ft., Bon-in-law of L. Ae
milius Paulus, served under the latter in Ms
war against Perseus, king of Macedonia. This
Tubero, like the rest of his f amUy, was so poor
that he had not an ounce of sUver plate, tiU
his father-m-law gave him five pounds of plate
from the spoils of the Macedonian monarch.
(Liv. xiv. 7, 8 ; Val. Max. iv. 4, 9 ; Plut. Aem.
Paul. 28.) — 2. Q., son of the preceding, was a
pupil of Panaetius, and is called the Stoic. He
had a reputation for talent and legal know
ledge. He was praetor in 123, and consul
suffectus in 118. He was an opponent of Tib.
Gracchus, as weU as of C. Gracchus, and
delivered some apeechea against the latter, 123.
(Cic. Off. iii. 15 ; Tac. Ann. xvi. 22 ; GeU. i. 22.)
Tubero is one of the speakers in Cicero's dia
logue de Bepublica. — 3. L, an intimate friend
of Cicero. He was a relation and a school-
feUow of the orator, had served with him to the
Marsic war, and had afterwards served under
his brother Quintus as legate in Asia. On the
breaking out of the Civil war, Tubero, who had
espoused the Pompeian party, received from
the senate the provmce of Africa ; but as Atius
Varus and Q. Ligarius, who likewise belonged
to the aristocratical party, would not surrender
it to him, he passed over to Pompey in Greece.
He was afterwards pardoned by Caesar, and
returned with hia aon Qumtus to Rome. (Cic.
pro Lig. 4, 7, 8, ad Q. Fr. i. 1.) Tubero culti
vated literature and philosophy. He wrote a
History, and the philosopher Aenesidemus dedi
cated to him Ms work on the sceptical
philosophy of Pyrrhon. — 4. Q., son of the pre
ceding. In 46 he made a speech before C.
Julius Caesar against Q. Ligarius, who was
defended by Cicero in a speech which is extant
(pro Q. Ligario). Tubero obtamed consider
able reputation as a jurist. He had a great
knowledge both of Jus Publicum and of Jus
Privatum, and he wrote several works on both
these divisions of law. He married a daughter
of Servius Sulpicius, and the daughter of Tubero
was the mother of the jurist C. Cassius Lon
ginus. (Quint, x. 1, 28 ; Gell. vii. 19, xiv. 2.)
Like his father, Q. Tubero wrote a History.
(Liv. iv. 23 ; Suet. Jul. 83.) Tubero the jurist
who is often cited M the Digest is this Tubero ;
but there is no excerpt from his writinga.
Tucca, Plotius, a friend of Horace and
Virgil. The latter poet made Tucca one of
Ms heirs, and bequeathed his unfimshed writ
ings to him and Varius, who afterwards pub
lished the Aendd by order of Augustus (Hor.
Sat. i. 5, 40, i. 10, 81).
Tiider (Tuders, -tis : Todi), an ancient town
of Umbria, situated on a hill near the Tiber,
and on the road from Mevania to Rome. (Plut.
Mar. 17, Crass. 6 ; Strab. p. 227 ; Plin. Ui. 113.)
It was subsequently made a Roman colony.

976

TUDITANUS

There are still remains of the polygonal waUs
of the ancient town.
Tuditanus, Sempronius. I. M., consul b.c
240, and censor 230 (Gell. xvii. 21).— 2. P., tri
bune of the aoldiera at the battle of Cannae in
216, and one of the few Roman officera who
survived that fatal day. In 214 he was curule
aedile; in 213 praetor, with Ariminum as Ms
province, and was continued in the command
for the two foUowing years (212, 211). He was
censor in 209 with M. Cornelius Cethegus,
although neither he nor his colleague had yet
held the consulsMp. In 205 he was sent into
Greece with the title of proconsul, for the pur
pose of opposing PhUip, with whom, however,
he concluded a treaty, which was ratified by the
Romans. Tuditanus was consul in 204, and
received Bruttii as Ms provMce. He waa at
firat defeated by Hannibal, but shortly after
wards he gained a decisive victory over the
Carthaginian general. (Liv. xxii. 50, 60, xxiv.
43-47, xxvii. 11, xxix. 11-13, xxxi. 2 ; App.
Annib. 26.) — 3. C, plebeian aedUe 198, and
praetor 197, when he obtained Nearer Spain as
Ms province. He was defeated by the Spaniards
with great loss, and died shortly afterwards of
a wound wMch he had received M the battle.
(Liv. xxxii. 27, xxxin. 42; App. Hisp. 39.) —
4. M., tribune of the plebs 193; praetor 189,
when he obtained SicUy as his province ; and
consul 186. In his consulship he carried on
war in Liguria, and defeated the Apuani, while
his colleague was equally succeaaf ul against the
Ingauni. He was carried off by the great
pestilence wMch devastated Rome in 174. (Liv.
xxxix. 40, 46, xii. 21.) — 5. C, praetor 132, and
consul 129. In his consulship he carried on
war against the Iapydes in Illyricum, over
whom he gained a victory chiefly through the
military skill of his legate, D. Junius Brutua.
Tuditanus was an orator and a Mstorian, and
in both obtained considerable distinction.
(Veil. Pat. ii. 4 ; App. B. C. i. 19, Hlyr. 10 ;
Cic. Brut. 25; Dionys. i. 11.)
Tulcis, a river on the E. coast of Spain, near
Tarraco (Mel. ii. 6).
Tulingi, a people of Gaul of no great import
ance, who dwelt on the Rhine between the Rau
raci and the Helvetii.
Tullia, the name of the two daughters of
Servius TuUius, the sixth Mng of Rome.
[Tullius.] Tullia, frequently called by the diminutive
Tulllola, was the daughter of M. Cicero and
Terentia, and was probably born B.C. 79 or 78.
She was betrothed in 67 to C. Calpurnius Piso
Frugi, whom she married to 68 during the
consulship of her father. During Cicero's
banishment TuUia lost her first husband. She
was married again to 56 to Furius Crassipes, a
young man of rank and large property ; but
she did not live with him long, though the time
and the reason of her divorce are alike unkown.
In 50 she was married to her third husband, P.
CorneUus Dolabella, who was a thorough pro
fligate. The marriage took place during
Cicero's absence in Cilicia, and, as might have
been anticipated, waa not a happy one. On the
breaking out of the Civil war in 49, the husband
and the father of Tullia espoused opposite
sidea. While Dolabella fought for Caesar, and
Cicero took refuge in the camp of Pompey,
TuUia remained in Italy. On the 19th of May,
49, she was delivered of a seven months' chUd,
which died soon afterwards. After the battle
of Pharaalia, Dolabella returned to Rome ; but
he continued to lead a diaaolute and profligate

TUIjIjIUS
life, and at length (46) a divorce took place by
mutual consent. At the beginning of 45 Tullia
waa delivered of a son. As soon as she was
sufficiently recovered to bear the fatigues of a
journey, she accompanied her father to Tuscu
lum, but she died there in February. Her loss
was a severe blow to Cicero. * (See Index to
Cicero.) Among the many consolatory letters
wMch he received on the occasion is the weU-
known one from the celebrated jurist Serv.
Sulpicius (ad Fam. iv. 5). To dissipate Ms
grief, Cicero drew up a treatise on Consolation.
Tullia Gens, patrician and plebeian. The
patrician TuUii were one of the Alban houses
which were transplanted to Rome to the reign
of TuUus HostUius. The patrician branch of
the gens appears to have become extinct at an
early period, for after the early times of the
republic no one of the name occurs for some
centuries, and the TuUii of a later age are not
only plebeians, but, with the exception of their
bearing the same name, cannot be regarded as
having any connexion with the ancient gens.
The first plebeian TuUiua who roae to the
honoura of the atate was M. Tullius Decula,
consul B.C. 81, and the next was the celebrated
orator M. TulUus Cicero. [Cicebo.]
Tullianum. JRoma, p. 814.]
Tullius Servius, according to the legends,
the sixth Mng of Rome. The stories about Ms
reign merely express the popular idea of the
origmal growth of the constitution, and as he
embodies a great part of tMs growth, the
history of which was lost, he is represented as a
Mng with a peaceful reign, devoted to legisla
tion and to pubUc works in the city, but also to
military organisation. The legendary account
states that Ms mother, Ocrisia, was one of
the captives taken at Corniculum, and became
a slave of TanaquU, the wife of Tarquinius
Priacua (Dionys. iv. 2 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 625). He
was born in the king's palace, and notwith-
standmg his servUe origin was brought up as
the king's son, since Tanaquil by her powers of
divination had foreseen the greatness of the
child; and Tarquinius gave Mm his daughter
in marriage, and entrusted Mm with the govern
ment. His rule was mild and beneficent, and
so popular did he become that the sons of
Ancus Marcius, fearing lest they should be
deprived of their inheritance, procured the
assassination of Tarquinius. [Tarquinius.]
They did not, however, reap the fruit of their
crime, for TanaquU, pretending that the ktog's
wound was not mortal, told the people that Tar
quinius had commanded Servius meantime to
discharge the duties of the Mngly office. Servius
began to act as king ; and when the death of
Tarquinius could no longer be concealed, he
was already in firm possession of the royal
power. The great deeds of Servius were deeds
of peace, and he was regarded by posterity as
the author of aU their civil rights and institu
tions, just as Numa was of their reUgious rites
and ordinances. TMee important events are as
signed to Servius by tradition. First, he gave
a new constitution to the Roman atate. The
two main objects of this constitution were to
give the plebs political independence, and to
assign to property that influence in the state
which had previously belonged to birth exclu
sively. In order to carry his purpose toto
effect, Servius made a twofold division of the
Roman people, one territorial, and the other
according to property. For details, see Did. of
Antiq. art. Comitia. Secondly, he was credited
with the extension of the pomerium, or boun-

TULLIUS
dary of Rome, and with the completion of the
beryian' city by incorporating with it the
Qumnal, Viminai, and EsquiUne hills and its
fortification. [Roma, p. 798J Thirdly, he estab
lished an important alliance with the Latins,
by which Rome and the cities of Latium
became the members of one great league.
1 y *-i ¦! UV, institution Servius incurred the
hostility of the patricians, who conspired against
nun with L. Tarquinius. Servius, soon after
Ms succession, had given his two daughters
in marriage to the two sons of Tarquinius
Priscus. L. Tarquinius the elder was mar
ried to a gentle wife; Aruns, the younger,
to an aspiring and ambitious woman. On
the other hand, Lucius was proud and haughty,
but Aruns unambitious and quiet. The wife
of Aruns, fearing that her husband would
tamely resign the sovereignty to his elder
brother, resolved to destroy both her father
and her husband. She persuaded Lucius to
murder his wife, and she murdered her own
husband ; and the survivors straightway married.
TuUia now urged her husband to murder her
father. A conspiracy was formed with the discon
tented patricians, and Tarquinius having entered
the senate-house arrayed to the kingly robes,
ordered the senators to be summoned to him as
their Mng. At the first news of the commo
tion, Servius hastened to the senate-house, and,
standing at the doorway, ordered! TarquMius to
come down from the throne. Tarquinius
sprang forward, seized the old man, and flung
him down the steps. The king sought refuge
in Ms house, but before he reached it, he was
overtaken by the aervants of Tarqumiua, and
murdered. Tullia drove to the senate-house,
and greeted her husband as Mng ; and as she
was returning, her charioteer puUed up, and
showed her the corpse of her father lying across
the road. She commanded him to drive on :
the blood of her father spirted over the
carriage and on her dress ; and from that day
forward the street bore the name of the Vicus
Sceleratus, or Wicked Street. Servius had
reigned forty-four years. (Liv. i. 42-46 ;
Dionys. iv. 2-12 ; Cic. de Bep. ii. 21 ; Ov. Fast.
vi. 581.)
Tullius Tiro. [Ttro.]
Tullum (Tout), the capital of the Leuci, a
people to the SE. of Gallia Belgica, between
the Matrona and MoseUa (Ptol. ii. 9, 13).
Tullus Hostilius, tMrd king of Rome, is said
to have been the grandson of Hostus HostiUus,
who feU in battle against the Sabmes in the
reign of Romulus (Liv. i. 12, 22 ; PUn. xvi. 11).
His legend ran as foUows. Tullus Hostilius
departed from the peaceful ways of Numa,
and aspired to the martial renown of Romulus.
He mode Alba acknowledge Rome's supremacy
to the war wherein the tMee Roman brothers,
the Horatii, fought with the three Alban
brothers, the Curiatii, at the Fossa CluiUa.
[Horatia Gens.] Next he warred with Fidenae
and with Veii, and being straitly pressed by
their joint hosts, he vowed temples to Pallor
and Pavor — Paleness and Panic. After the
fight was won, he tore asunder with chariots
Mettius Fufetius, the king or dictator of Alba,
because he had desired to betray Rome; and
he utterly destroyed Alba, sparing only the
temples of the gods, and bringing the Alban
people to Rome, where he gave them the
Caelian hiU to dwell on. Then he turned
himself to war with the Sabines; and being
again straitened in fight in a wood caUed
the Wicked Wood, he vowed a yearly festival

TURNUS

977

to Saturn and Ops, and to double the number
of the Salii, or priests of Mamers. And when,
by their help, he had vanquished the Sabines,
he performed his vow, and its records were the
feasts Saturnalia and Opalia. In his old age,
Tullus grew weary of warring; and when a
pestilence struck him and his people, and a
shower of burning stones fell from heaven on
Mt. Alba, and a voice as of the Alban gods came
forth from the solitary temple of Jupiter on its
summit, he remembered the peaceful and happy
days of Numa, and sought to win the favour of
the gods, as Numa had done, by prayer and divi
nation. But the gods heeded neither his prayers
nor his charms, and when he would inquire of
Jupiter Elicius, Jupiter was wroth, and smote
Tullus and his whole house with fire. — It has
been remarked that Tullus HostUius is in the
legends a sort of double of Romulus. Each adds
another people to Rome, one the Sabines, the
other the Albans ; each has a war with a Mettius.
His story seema to have grown out of a double
set of legends, explaining the origin of certain
names, and the growth of the city. But
another reign was imagined to fill up a gap
M the chronology and Hostus Hostilius, the
general of the Romulus legend, reappears as the
Mng Tullus Hostilius, who is represented as Ma
grandaon. Tunes, or Tunis (Tvvys, Tvvis : Twyo-dios :
Tunis), a strongly fortified city of N. Africa,
stood at the bottom of the Carthaginian gulf,
ten miles SW. of Carthage, at the mouth of the
little river Canada. At the time of Augustus it
had greatly declined. (Strab. p. 834 ; Pol. xiv.
10 ; Liv. xxx. 9.)
Tungri, a German people who crossed the
RMne, and settled M Gaul in the country
formerly occupied by the Aduatici and the
Eburones. Their chief town was called Adua-
taca or Atuataca Tungrorum (Tongern), on
the road from Castellum Morinorum to Colonia
Agrippina. (Tac. Germ. 2, Hist. iv. 55, 79.)
Turba. [Biperriones.]
Turdetani, the most numerous people in His
pania Baetica, dwelt in the S. of the province
on both banks of the Baetis as far as Lusitania.
They were regarded aa the most civilised people
in aU Spain, having a written code of laws.
Their country was caUed Turdetama. (Strab.
pp. 136, 139, 151 ; Pol. xxxiv. 9 ; Diod. v. 33.)
Turduli, a people in Hispania Baetica, situ
ated to the E. and S. of the Turdetani (Strab.
p. 189; Pol. xxxiv. 9).
Turia or Turium (Guadalaviar), a river on
the E. coast of Spain, flowing into fche sea at
Valentia, memorable for the battle fought on
its banks between Pompey and Sertorius
(Plut. Pomp. 18, Sert. 19 ; Plin. iii. 20).
Turiasso (Turiassonensis : Tarrazona), a
town of the Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraconenais,
on the road from Caeaarauguata to Numantia.
It poasesaed a fountain the water of which waa
said to be very excellent for hardening iron.
(Plin. iii. 24, xxxiv. 144.)
Turnus (T-dpvos). 1. Son of Daunus and
Venilia, and king of the Rutuli at the time of
the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. He was a
brother of Juturna, and related to Amata, the
wife of king Latinus ; and he fought agamst
Aeneas, because Latinus had given to the
Trojan hero his daughter Lavmia, who had
been previously promised to Turnus. He ap
pears to the Aeneid as a brave warrior ; but in
the end he fell by the hand of Aeneas. (Verg.
Aen. vii. 408, x. 76, xii. 408, 926 ; Liv. i. 2.) The
name of Turnus is not improbably connected
SR

978 TURNUS
with Tyrrhenus, and in the legends he is allied
with the Etruscan Mezentius. It is likely that
the story of his battles repreaents the struggle
of the Latin Confederation against an Etruscan
power which was at that period settled at
Ardea and Terracina.— 2. A Roman satiric
poet, was a native of Aurunca, and lived under
Vespasian and Domitian. (Mart. vii. 97, xi.
10; Sidon. ix. 216; Schol. ad Juv. i. 20.) The
thirty hexameters about Nero's reign which
have been ascribed to Turnus are a forgery of
the seventeenth century.
Turnus Herdonius. [Herdonius.]
Turones, Turoni or Turonii, a people M the
interior of Gallia Lugdunensis, between the
Aulerci, Andes and Pictones. Their cMef town
was Caesarodiinum, subsequently Turoni
(Tours) on the Liger (Loire). (Caes. B. G. ii.
35, vii. 4, 75, viii. 46 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 41 j Ptol.
ii. 8, 14.)
Turpiiianus, P. Petronius, triumvir of the
mint under Augustus. Hia name occurs on
several coina.
Turpilius, Sextus, a Roman dramatist, who
rendered Greek plays of the New Comedy in
Latin. The titles of tMrteen or fourteen of his
plays have been preserved, together with a few
fragments (ed. Ribbeck, Com. Lat.). He died,
when very old, at Smuessa in B.C. 101 (Hieron.
ad Euseb. Chron. 1914).
Turpio, L. Ambivius, a celebrated actor in
the time of Terence, in most of whose plays he
acted (Cic. de Sen. 14 ; Tac. Dial. 14).
Turris Hannibalis (Bourj Salektah, Ru.), a
castle on the coast of Byzacena, between Thap
sus and Acholla, belonging to Hannibal, who
embarked here when he fled to Antiochus the
Great (Liv. xxxiii. 48 ; Just. xxxi. 2).
Turris Stratonis. [Caesarea, No. 3.]
Tuscania (Tuscaniensis : Toscanella), a'town
of Etruria, on the river Marta, rarely mentioned
by ancient writers (Plin. iii. 52), but celebrated
in modern times on account of the great number
of Etruscan antiquities which have been dis
covered in its tombs. Among these are the in
scribed dice upon which some of the arguments
about the origM of the Etruscan language have
been based
Tusci, Tuscia. [Etruria.]
Tusculum (Tusculanus: nr. Frascati, Ru.),
an ancient town of Latium, situated about ten
miles SE. of Rome, on a lofty summit of the
mountains, which are called after the town
Tusculani Montes, and which are a continu
ation of Mons Albanus. Tusculum was one of
the most strongly fortified placea in all Italy,
both by nature and by art. It ia said to have
been founded by Telegonus, the son of Odysseus
(Dionys. -iv. 45; Ov. Fast. iii. 91, iv. 71; Pro
per* iii. 80, 4 ; Hor. Od. iii. 29, 8, Epod. i. 30) ;
and it was always one of the moat important of
the Latin towns. 'Its importance in the time
of the Roman kings is shown in the legends by
Tarquinius Superbus giving his daughter in
marriage to Octavius Mamilius, the chief of
Tuaculum (Liv. i. 49), and it waa his place of
refuge after his expulsion from Rome (Liv. ii.
15, 18). The Tusculans are represented as
friendly to Rome after this war (Liv. iii. 7, 18,
iv. 45) until the Latin war. After the Latin
war it became a Roman municipium, and was
the birthplace of several distinguished Roman
families. Cato the Censor was a native of Tus
culum. ItB proximity to Rome, its salubrity,
and the beauty of its situation made it a
favourite residence of the Roman nobles during
the summer (Strab. p. 239). Cicero, among

others, had a favourite villa at this place, which
he frequently mentions under the name of
Tusculanum, probably on the W. side, near La
Rufinella. The ruins of ancient Tusculum are
situated on the summit of the mountain about
two miles above Frascati, on the ridge, which is
really the rim of an ancient crater. The site of
the citadel is a platform 2700 feet in circum
ference, and 200 feet above the rest of the
ridge. The town itself lay W. of the citadel,
where remains of a theatre and other buildings
exist. There are remains of an ampMtheatre
between this spot and Frascati. Frascati itself
stands on the supposed site of the villa of,
Lucullus. It was occupied as a settlement
by the surviving inhabitants of Tusculum after
that city was sacked and destroyed by the
Romans in 1191 a.d.
'Tuticanus, a Roman poet and a friend of
Ovid, who had translated into Latin verse a
portion of the Odyssey relating to Phaeacia
(Ov. Pont. iv. 12; cf. iv. 16, 27).
Tyana (Tvava : Tvaveis : Kiz Hisar, Ru.), a
city of Asia Minor, stood to the S. of Cappa
docia, at the N. foot of M. Taurus, on the Mgh
road to the Cilician Gates, 300 stadia from Cy
bistra, and 400 from Mazaca, to a position of
great natural strength, which was Unproved by
fortifications (Strab. pp. 537, 587; Ptol. v. 6,
18). Under Caracalla it was made a Roman
colony. In B.C. 272 it was taken by Aurelian,
in the war with Zenobia, to whose territory it
then belonged. Valens made it the chief city
of Cappadocia Secunda. (Vopisc. Aurel. 22 ;
Hierocl. p. 700.) In its neighbourhood was a
great temple of Jupiter, by the side of a lake M
a swampy plain ; and near the temple was a
remarkable effervescing spring called Asma-
baeon (PhUostr. Apoll. i. 4; Amm. Marc.
xxiii. 6). Tyana was the native place of Apol
lonius, the supposed worker of miracles.
[Apollonius.] The S. district of Cappadocia,
in which the city stood, was called Tyanltis.
Tyche. [Fortuna.]
Tyche. [Syracusae.]
Tydeus (TuSeis), son of Oeneus, Mng of Caly
don, and Periboea. He was obliged to leave
Calydon in consequence of some murder which
he had committed. Some say that he MUed
his father's brother, Melas, Lycopeus, or Alca
thous ; others that he slew Thoas or Aphareus,
his mother's brother; others that he slew Ms
brother Olemas ; and others again that he killed
the sons of Melas, who had revolted against
Oeneus. He fled to Adrastus at Argos, who
purified him from the murder, and gave him Ms
daughter, Deipyle, to marriage, by whom he
became the father of Diomedes, who is hence
frequently called Tydides. He accompanied
Adrastus in the expedition against Thebes,
where he was wounded by Melanippus, who,
however, was slain by him. ( II. xiv. 114-132.) A
strange story is told in later authors that when
Tydeus lay on the ground wounded, Athene
appeared to him with a remedy which she had
received from Zeus, and which was to make
him immortal. . This, however, was prevented
by a stratagem of Amphiaraus, who hated Ty
deus, for he cut off the head of Melanippus and
brought it to Tydeus, who divided it and ate
the brain, or devoured some of the flesh.
Athene, seeing this, shuddered, and left Tydeus
to his fate, who consequently died, and was
buried by Macon. (Apollod. iii. 6, 8 ; Eustath.
ad Hom. p. 1278.)
Tyle, or Tylis (TiXy : Tulovo 1), a town of
TMace, on the S. side of the Haemus, where

TYLOS
the Celts established a kingdom at the end of
u 1 £?nt- E--C- Xt was oc<=upied and destroyed
by the Thracians at the time of the second
Pumc war. (Pol. iv. 46 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.)
. Tylos or Tyros (TvAos, Tipos : Bahrein), an
island in the Persian Gulf, off the coast of
Arabia, celebrated for its pearl fisheries (Strab.
p. 766 ; Arr. An. vu. 20 ; PUn. vi. 148)
Tymbres or Tembrogius (Pursek), a river of
Phrygia, rising in M. Dindymene, and flowing
paBt Cotyaeum and Dorylaeum into the San
garius. It was the boundary between Phrygia
Epictetus and Phrygia Salutaris. (Liv. xxviii.
18 ; Phn. vi. 1.) k
Tymnes (Tipvns), an epigrammatic poet,
whose epigrams were included in the Garland
of Meleager, but respecting whose exact date
we have no further evidence. There ore seven
of Ms epigrams to the Greek Anthology.
Tymphaei (Tvpcpaioi), a people of Epirus, on
the borders of Thessaly, so called from Mt.
Tymphe (Tiip;<p77), sometimes, but less correctly,
written Stymphe (^riptpy). Their country was
caUed Tymphaea (Tvpcpaia). (Strab. pp. 325.
827; PUn. iv. 6; Arr. An. i. 7.)
Tymphrestus (TvpippycrTds : Elladha), a
mountato to Thessaly, M the country of the
Dryopes, to wMch the river Spercheus rises.
[Pindus.] Tyndareus (TwSdpeccs), was son of Perieres
and Gorgophone, or, accordmg to another ac
count, son of Oebalus, by the nymph Batia or by
Gorgophone. Tyndareus and Ms brother Icarius
were expelled by their stepbrother Hippocoon
and Ms sons ; whereupon Tyndareus fled to Thes-
tius to Aetolia, and assisted him to Ms wars
agatost Ms neighboura. In Aetolia Tyndareus
married Leda, the daughter of Thestius, and
was afterwards restored to Sparta by Heracles.
(ApoUod. Ui. 10, 4 ; Paus. in. 1, 4.) By Leda,
Tyndareus became the father of Timandra,
Clytaemnestra, and Philonoe. [For the birth of
Castor and Pollux, and Helen, see Dioscuri,
Helena.] The patronymic Tyndaridae is given
to Castor and PoUux, and the female patronymic
Tyndaris to Helen and Clytaemnestra. When
Castor and PoUux had been received among the
immortals, Tyndareus invited Menelaus to come
to Sparta, and surrendered his kmgdom to Mm
Tyndaris or Tyndarium (TwSapis, TwSa-
piov. Tyndaritanua : Tindaro), a town on the
N. coast of SicUy, with a good harbour, a little
W of Messana, near the promontory of the
same name, founded by tbe elder Dionysius,
bc 396, wMch became an important place
(Diod. xiv. 78, xvi. 69; Pol. i 25; Cic Verr
iii 43 iv 39). It was the headquarters of
Agrippa, the general of Octavian, m the war
a|atost Sex. Pompeius. (App. B.C. v. 105, 109,
^^(T^veai), - to-of Triphylia in
Elis! which was taken by PMhp in the Social
war (Strab. p. 343 ; Pol. iv. 77).
Trillion or Typhoeus (Tvcpdu,v,Tvcpu>evs, con
tracted into Tvcpds), a monster of the primitive
world who was the embodiment in myth of
woria, wiiu aua]fes i.e. of the fire and
Ittm" ee^ted'fooTthe 'earth in volcanic
^Ji and of the convulsions and storms
T^ accompany volcanic disturbances. Hence
T^teus oi Typhon, is represented some
times as a fire-breathing giant, sometimes as a
wJrfr-pne His dwelling, or prison-house,
W ^differently placed in different writers
i« always in a region at one time volcanic.
According to Homer, he was concealed m
^e earth in the country of the Anmi (eiv

TYRANNION

979

Apipois, of which the Latin poets have made
Inarime), on which Zeus cast lightning (II.
ii. 782.) In Hesiod, Typhoeus (or Typhaon)
is the youngest son of Tartarus and Gaea (the
Earth), and by Echidna he became the father
of the dog Orthus, Cerberus, the Lernaean
hydra, and the Chimaera. He is described
as a monster with 100 heads, fearful eyes,
and terrible voices ; he aimed at the sove
reignty of gods and men, but was subdued,
after a fearful struggle, by Zeus, with a thun
derbolt. He begot also the winds, whence he
is also called the father of the Harpies : but the
beneficent winds Notua, Boreaa, Argestes, and
Zephyrns, were not Ms sons. (Hes. Th. 806-
825, 821-880.) Other accounts made him also
the father of the Sphinx and the Nemean lion
(ApoUod. ii. 3, 1, iii. 5, 8), as though the more
terrible monsters were born from the Earth and
the subterranean fires. Aeschylus and Pindar
describe him as living in a Cilician cave (Pind.
Ol. iv. 7, Pyth. i. 15, viii. 16; Aesch. Prom.
851). He is further said to have at one time
been engaged in a struggle with all the immor
tals, and to have been killed by Zeus with a
flash of lightning ; he was buried in Tartarus
under Mount Aetna, the workshop of Hephaes
tus, wMch is hence called by the poets Typhois
Aetna (Aesch. l.c. ; Pind. Pyth. 15-27 ; Ov.
Her. xv. 11, Fast. iv. 491). A myth related in
Apollod. i. 6, 3, and Schol. ad H. ii. 788 (but
alluded to in Hymn, ad Apoll. Pyth. 153, and
Stesich. Fr. 60) represents Typhoeus aa born
from Hera alone, in her wrath with Zeua, or
from an egg which she placed under the moun
tains of the Arimi — a myth which resembles
the stories of the hatching of dragon's eggs in
northern legends. Another representation of
Typhon comes from Egypt, and identifies him
with Set, the power of darkness (represented in
serpent or crocodile form), who slew Osiris
(Hdt. ii. 156, iii. 5). The gods, it is said, unable
to hold out against Mm, fled to Egypt, where,
from fear, they metamorphosed themselves
into animals, with the exception of Zeus and
Athene (Ov. Met. v. 321 ; Ant. Lib. 28 ; Apollod.
i. 6, 3).
Tyragetae, Tyrigetae, or Tyrangetae, a
people in European Sarmatia, probably a
branch of the Getae, dwelling E. of the river
Tyras (Strab. p. 289 ; Ptol. iii. 5, 25).
Tyrannion (Tvpavviav). 1. A Greek gram
marian, a native of Amisus in Pontus, was
originally called TheopMastus, but received from
Ms instructor the name of Tyrannion on account
of Mb domineering behaviour to Ms fellow-dis
ciples. In B.C. 72 he was taken captive by
Lucullus, who carried him to Rome. He waB
given by Lucullus to Murena, who manumitted
Mto. At Rome Tyrannion occupied himself to
teaching. He was also employed in arranging
the library of Apellicon, which Sulla brought
to Rome. This library contained the writings
of Aristotle, upon which Tyrannion bestowed
considerable care and attention. Cicero speaks
in the highest termB of the learning and ability
of Tyranmon, and Strabo speaks of having
attended his lectures, wMch muat have been at
Rome when Tyrannion was an old man. Ty
rannion amassed considerable wealth, and died
at a very advanced age of a paralytic stroke.
(Plut. Lucull. 19, Sull. 26 ; Cic. ad Att. ii. 6, iv.
4, ad Q. Fr. ii. 4 ; Strab. p. 548 ; Aristoteles.)
— 2. A native of Phoenicia, the son of Artemi-
dorus, and a disciple of the preceding. His
original name was Dioclea. Hb waa taken cap
tive in the war between Antony and Octavian,
3b 2

980

TYRAS

and was purchased by Dymas, a freedman of
the emperor. By Mm he was presented to
Terentia, the wife of Cicero, who manumitted
him. He taught at Rome, and wrote a great
number of worka, which are all loat. (Suid. s.v.).
Tyras (Tipas, Tvpys : Dniester), subsequently
called Danastris, a river in European Sarma
tia, forming in the lower part of ita courae
the boundary between Dacia and Sarmatia, and
falling into the Pontua Euxinus, N. of the
Danube. At its mouth there was a town of the
same name, probably on the site of the modern
Ackjermann. The town was originaUy Greek,
founded by Miletus. It was joined to the pro
vtoce of Moesia by Nero, b.c 56, but it was
given up by Maximinus to the Goths M 237,
under whom it became a centre of piracy. (Hdt.
iv. 51 ; Ptol. iii. 5, 17 ; Zosim. i. 42 ; Strab. p. 107.)
Tyriaeum (Tvpidiov ; Ilghin), a city of Lyca
onia, described by Xenophon (in the Anabasis)
as twenty parasangs W. of Iconium. It lay
due W. of Laodicea. (Xen. An. i. 2, 24 ; Strab.
p. 663.)
Tyro (Tvpd), daughter of Sahnoneus and Al-
cidice. She was wife of Cretheus, and beloved
by the river-god Enipeus in Thessaly, in whose
form Poseidon appeared to her, and became by
her the father of Pelias and Neleus. By Cre
theus she was the mother of Aeson, Pheres, and
Amythaon. (Od. xi. 235 ; Apollod. i. 9, 8.)
Tyrrheni, Tyrrhenia. [Eteuria.]
Tyrrhenian Mare. [Etruria.]
Tyrrhenus (Tvppyvd s or Tvpayvds), son of the
Lydian king Atys and CaUithea, and brother of
Lydus, is said to have led a Pelasgian colony
from Lydia into Italy, into the country of the
Umbrians, and to have given to the colonists
Ms name, Tyrrhenians (Hdt. iv. 94 ; Dionys. i.
27). Other traditions call Tyrrhenus a son of
Heracles by Omphale, or of Telephua and
Hiera, and a brother of Tarchon (Dionys. i. 28 ;
Tzetz. ad Lye. 1242.)
Tyrrheus, a shepherd of king Latinus. As
Ascanius was hunting, he killed a tame stag
belonging to Tyrrheus, whereupon the country
people took up arms, which was the first con
flict in Italy between the natives and the Tro
jan settlers. (Verg. Aen. vii. 488, ix. 28.)
Tyrtaeus (Tvpraios or Tipratos), described as
the son of Archembrotus, of Aphidnae in Attica,
in the seventh century introduced the Ionic elegy
Mto Sparta. According to the older tradition, the
Spartans during the second Messenian war were
commanded by an oracle to take a leader from
among the Athenians, and thus to conquer
their enemies, whereupon they chose Tyrtaeus
as their leader. (Plato, de Legg. i. p. 629 ;
Lycurg. c. Leoch. p. 211 ; Diod. xv. 66.) Later
writers state that Tyrtaeus was a lame school
master, of low family and reputation, whom the
Athenians, when applied to by the Lacedaemo
nians in accordance with the oracle, purposely
sent as the most inefficient leader they could
select, bemg unwilling to assist the Lacedaemo
nians in extending their dominion in the Pelo-
ponnesua, but little thinking that the poetry of
Tyrtaeus would achieve that victory which his
physical constitution seemed to forbid his
aspiring to (Paus. iv. 15, S ; Juat. iii. 5 ; Themist.
xv. p. 242 ; Schol. ad Hor. A. P. 402). The
poems of Tyrtaeus exercised an important
influence upon the Spartans, quieting their
dissensions at home, and animating their cou
rage in the field. In order to appease their
civil discords, he composed Mb celebrated elegy
entitled Legal Order (Evvopla : Ar. Pol. v. 7,
1 ; PauB. iv. 18, 2). But still more celebrated

TYRUS
were the poems by wMch he animated the
courage of the Spartans to their conflict with
the Messenians. These poems were of two-
kinds : namely, elegies, contamtog exhortations
to constancy and courage, and descriptions of
the glory of fighting bravely for one's native-
land ; and more spirited compositions, to the
anapaestic measure, which were intended as.
marching songs, to be performed with the music
of the flute. (Paus. iv. 14, 1 ; Athen. p. 630;
Plut. Cleom. 2 ; Hor. A. P. 402 ; Suid. s. v.)
He lived, it is said, to see the success of Ms
efforts in the entire conquest of the Messenians,
and their reduction to the condition of Helots.
His life therefore lasted down to B.C. 668, wMch
was the last year of the second Messenian war.
It has been observed that Tyrtaeus in a frag
ment of the Eunomia seems to speak of Mm
self as a Lacedaemonian, and though this might,
be explained by his having been made a citizen
of Sparta, yet Hdt. ix. 35 does not include him-
among the few foreigners who became Spartan
citizens. Hence some (following Strab. p. 362)-
have doubted the truth of his Athenian origin..
On the other hand, there is so strong a consen
sus of ancient authorities, including Plato (I.e.),
for his Atheman origin that it can hardly be-
resisted. — The fragments of Ms poems are
edited by Bach, with the remains of the elegiac
poets CaUinus and Asius, Lips. 1831, and to
Bergk's Pod. Lyr. Graec. 1866.
Tyrus (Tipos: Aram. Tura; O. T. Tsor:
.Tvpios, Tyrius : Sur, Ru.), one of the greatest-
and most famous cities of the ancient world,
stood on the coast of Phoenice, about twenty
miles S. of Sidon. It was a colony of the Sido-
nians, but gradually eclipsed the mother city,
and came to be the cMef place of all Phoenice
for wealth, commerce, and colonising activity.
Respecting its colonies and maritime enter
prise, see Phoenice and Carthago. The
Aaayrian kmg Shalmaneaer laid siege to Tyre
for five years, but without success. It was
again besieged for thirteen years by Nebuchad
nezzar, and there is a tradition that he took it,
but the matter is not quite certain. At the
period when the Greeks began to be well ac
quainted with the city, its old site had been
abandoned, and a new city erected on a small
island about haU a mile from the shore and a
mile to length, and a little N. of the remains of
the former city, which was now caUed Old Tyre-
(TlaXairvpos). This island, which Pliny esti
mated at 2§ mUes in circumference, was sepa
rated from the mainland by a channel ^ of a
mile broad (Strab. p. 756), or, according to
Diodorus and Curtius, 4 stadia (Diod. xvu. 60 ;
Curt. iv. 2). At present the breadth is only J
of a mile. With the additional advantage of its
Msular position, this new city soon rose to
a prosperity scarcely less than that of its
predecessor ; though, under the Persian Mngs,.
it seems to have ranked again below Sidon.
[Sidon.] There were two harbours : one on the
N. of the island, known as the Sidonian harbour,
the other on the S. side, known as the Egyptian
harbour (Arr. An. ii. 20 ; Strab. I.e.), the names
expressing the direction in wMch they faced.
In B.C. 322 the Tyrians refused to open their
gates to Alexander, who laid siege to the city
for seven months, and united the island on
which it stood to the mainland by a mole con
structed chiefly of the ruins of Old Tyre. This
mole has ever since formed a permanent
connexion between the island and the main
land. (Arr. ii. 17-26 ; Curt. iv. 4-27 ; Diod.
xvii. 40-45.) After its capture and sack by

TZETZES
Alexander, Tyre never regained its former con
sequence, and its commerce was for the most
part transferred to Alexandria. It was subject
to the Syrian kings, but became a free city with
its own coinage in 126 b.c, and till the time of
Augustus, when it lost its independence (Dio
^ ' llv\ 7)' Septimius Severus mode it a
Roman colony. It was the see of a bishop, and
Jerome calls it the most beautiful city of Phoe
nicia. It was a place of considerable importance
m mediaeval history, especially asone of the last
S°™ mid by the Christians on the coast of
byria. The wars of the Crusades completed its
rum, and its Bite is now occupied by a poor vil-

ULPIANUS

981

Coin of Tyre, after 12S B.C., in its period of independence.
Otc, head of Heracles; rev., typoy iepas kai
asyaoy : eagle on rudder.
lage ; and even its ruins are for the most part
covered by the sea.
Tzetzes (T(er(ys). 1. Joannes, a Greek
grammarian of Constantinople, flourished about
a.d. 1150. His writings bear evident traces of
the extent of his learnmg, and not less of the
inordtoate self-conceit with wMch they had
filled Mm. He wrote a vast number of works,
¦of wMch several are stiU extant. Of these the
two following are the most important : (1)
Hiaca, which consists properly of three poems
¦coUected mto one under the titles Ta irpb
'Opypov, to 'Opypov, Kal rd pen' "Opypov. The
whole amounts to 1676 Unes, and is written m
hexameter metre. It is a very dull composition.
Edited by Bekker, Berlm, 1816. (2) ChiUades,
consisting to its present form of 12,661 lines.
This name was given to it by the first editor,
who divided it, without reference to the contents,
into tMrteen divisions of 1000 lines, the last
foeMg incomplete. Its subject-matter is of the
most misceUaneous kind, but embraces chiefly
mythological and historical narratives, arranged
under separate titles, and without any further
connexion. The following are a few of them,
as they occur : Croesus, Midas, Gyges, Codrus,
Alcmaeon, &c. It is written in bad Greek, and
in the metre called political verse. Neverthe
less his writings are valuable for their mformo-
tion about ancient legends and myths, which he
derived from works no longer extant. Edited
by KiessUng, Lips. 1826. — 2. Isaac, brother of
the preceding, the author of a valuable com
mentary on the Cassandra oi Lycophron. The
commentary is printed in moat of the editions
of Lycophron.
Tzitzis orTzutzis (Barambram), a city in the
N. of the Dodecaschoenus — that is, the part of
AetMopia immediately above Egypt — S. of
Philae, and N. of Taphia.

U.
TJbli, a German people, who originally dwelt
on the right bank of the RMne, but were trans
ported across the river by Agrippa M B.C. 37, at
their own request, because they wished to

escape the hostilities of the Suevi (Caes. B. G.
iv. 8, 18, vi. 29 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 27, Hist. iv. 28,
Germ. 28 ; Suet. Aug. 21 ; Strab. p. 194). They
took the name of Agrippenses, from their town
Colonia Agrippina.
TJcalegon (OvKaXeycev), one of the elders at
Troy, whose house was burnt at the destruction
of the city (II. iii. 147; Verg. Aen. ii. 812).
Hence in ' Proximus ardet Ucalegon.' Juvenal
uses his name for the neighbour whose house is
on fire (iii. 199).
Ucnbis, a town in Hispania Baetica, near
Corduba (Bell. Hisp. 7).
Ufens (Uffente), a river in Latium, flowing
from the Volscian hills past Setia, tMough the
Pontine Marshes, with a sluggish atream, into
the Amasenus (Verg. Aen. vii. 801 ; Sil. It. viii.
882). Uffugum, a town in Bruttium, between Scyl-
lacium and Rhegium.
Ugernum (Beaucaire), a town in Gallia Nar
bonensis, on the road from Nemausus to Aquae
Sextiae, where Avitus was proclaimed emperor
(Strab. p. 178).
TJlia (Montemayor), a Roman municipium in
Hispania Baetica, situated upon a hill and upon
the road from Gades to Corduba (Strab. p. 141).
Uliarus or Olarionensis Insula (Oleron), an
island off the W. coast of Gaul, in the Aquita
nian Gulf (PUn. iv. 109).
Ulpianus. 1. Domitius Ulpianus, a cele
brated jurist, derived his origin from Tyre in
Phoenicia, but was probably not a native of
Tyre himself. The time of his birth is un
known. The greater part of his juristical works
was written during the reign of Caracalla,
especially the two great works Ad Edictum
and the Libri ad Sabinum. He was banished
or deprived of Ms functions under Elagabalus,
who became emperor in 217 ; but on the accession
of Alexander Severus, 222, he became the em
peror's chief adviser. The emperor conferred
on Ulpian the office of scriniorum magister, and
made him a consiliarius. He also held the office
of praefectus annonae, and he was likewise
made praefectus praetorio. (Lamprid. Elagab.
16, 4, Alex. Sev. 26, 5.) Ulpian perished in
the reign of Alexander by the hands of the
soldiers, who forced their way into the palace at
night, and killed him in the presence of the
emperor and hismother (228). (Dio Cass. lxxx.
2 ; Zosim. i. 11.) His promotion to the office
of praefectus praetorio was probably an un
popular measure. A great part of the numerous
writings of Ulpian was still extant M the time
of Justinian, and a much greater quantity is
excerpted from him by the compilers of the
Digest than from any other jurist. The num
ber of excerpts from Ulpian is said to be 2462 ;
and many of the excerpts are of great length,
and altogether they form about one-third of the
whole body of the Digest. [Diet, of Ant. art.
Pandectae^] The excerpts from Paulus and
Ulpian together make about one half of the
Digest. Ulpian's style is perspicuous, and
presents fewer difficulties than that of many
of the Roman jurists who are excerpted in
the Digest. The great legal knowledge, the
good sense, and the industry of Ulpian place
him among the firat of the Roman jurists, and
he has exercised a great influence on the juris
prudence of modern Europe, tMough the
copious extracts from his writings wMch have
been preserved by the compilers of Justinian's
Digest. We possess a fragment of a work under
under the title of Domitii Ulpiani Fragmenta ;
it is an abridgment of Ulpian's Liber Singu-

982

ULPIUS

laris Begularum. Edition by Booking, Bonn,
1855. Also a small fragment of his Insti
tutiones, included in Huschke's Jurisprud.
Antejust. — 2. Of Antioch, a sopMst, Uved to
the time of Constantine the Great, and wrote
several rhetorical works.
Ulpius Trajanus. [Trajanus.]
Ultor, ' the avenger,' a surname of Mars, to
whom Augustus built a temple at Rome in the
Forum, after takmg vengeance upon the mur
derers of Julius Caesar. [Roma, p. 807.]
Ulubrae (Ulubranus, Ulubrensis), a small
town in Latium, of uncertain site, but in the
neighbourhood of the Pontine Marshes.
Ulysses. [Odysseus.]
Umbria, caUed by the Greeks Ombrica (y
'OpBpiKri), a district of Italy, bounded on the
N. by Gallia Cisalpina, from wMch it was
separated by the river Rubicon ; on the E. by
the Adriatic sea; on the S. by Picenum, from
wMch it was separated by the river Aesis,
and by the land of the Sabines, from which
it was separated by the river Nar; and
on the W. by Etruria, from wMch it was
separated by the Tiber. Under Augustus it
formed the sixth Regio of Italy. The Apen
nines ran tMough the W. part of the country,
but it contained many fertUe plains on the
coast. For the origin of its inhabitants, the
Umbri, see Italia, p. 456, a. The Umbri were
at a very early period the most powerful people
in central Italy, and extended across the penin
sula from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhene seas.
Thus they inhabited the country afterwards
called Etruria, and we are expressly told that
Crotona, Perusia, Clusium and other Etruscan
cities were built by the Umbrians. They were
afterwards deprived of their possessions W. of
the Tiber by the Etruscans, and confined to
the country between this river and the Adriatic.
Their territories were still further diminished
by the Senones, a Gallic people, who took
possession of the whole country on the coast,
from Ariminum to the Aesis. (Dionys. i. 19, ii.
49 ; Liv. v. 35.) The Umbri were subdued by
the Romans in B.C. 307 ; and after the conquest
of the Senones by the Romans in 283, they
again obtained possession of the country on the
coast of the Adriatic. This district, however,
continued to be caUed Ager Gallicus down to a
late period. The chief towns of Umbria were
Ariminum, Fanum Fortunae, Mevania, Tuder,
Narnia, and Spoletium.
Umbro (Ombrone), one of the largest rivers
to Etruria, falling into the Tyrrhene sea, near a
town of the same name (Plin. iii. 51).
Ummidius Quadratus. [Quadbatus.]
Unelli, a maritime people on the N. coast of
GarA, on a promontory opposite Britain (the
modern Gotantin), belonging to the Armorici
(Caes. B. G. ii. 34, iii. 1 ; cf. Veneti).
Upis (Ovms). 1. A goddess of chUdbirth
identified with Artemis, and hence also repre
sented aa one of her nymphs (CaUim. Hymn.
in Dian. 240; Verg. Aen. xi. 532).
Ur. [Edessa.]
Urania. [Musae ; Aphrodite.]
Uranus (Ovpavds) or Heaven, sometimes
called a son, and sometimes the husband, of
Gaea (Earth). By Gaea Uranus became the
father of Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion,
Iapetus, Thia, Rhia, Themis, Mnemosyne,
Phoebe, Tethys, Cronos; of the Cyclopes —
Brontes, Steropes, Arges ; and of the Hecaton-
cheires — Cottus, Briareus, and Gyea. Cicero
mentions traditions that Uranus was also the
rather of Hermes by Dia, and of Aphrodite by

USIPETES
Hemera (Cic. N. D. iii. 22, 55-58). Uranus
hated Ms cMldren, and immediately after their
birth he confined them in Tartarus, in conse
quence of which he was mutilated and detMoned
by Cronos at the instigation of Gaea. Out of
the drops of his blood sprang the Gigantes, the
Erinyes, the Melian nymphs, and according to
some, SUenus, and from the foam gathering
around the part which was thrown into the sea
sprang Aphrodite. (Hes. Th. 126-193 ; Apollod.
i. 1 ; Serv. ad Aen. v. 801, ad Eel. vi. 18.) It
has been remarked above [Titanes] that the
dynasties of gods wMch Greek mythology
eventuaUy represented as preceding Zeus are
reaUythe deities of earlier tohabitants of Greek
lands whom the Greeks adopted and fitted into
their own theogony, accounting for the su
premacy of Zeus, the great Greek deity, by
representing the supreme deities of primitive
barbarous tribes as earUer racea of gods. The
savage myths attached to them are simply
the savage superstitions of these primitive
tribes, which, though preserved by Hesiod, are
unnoticed by Homer, who rejects most of the
ugly and un-Greek myths. It is suggested that
the barbarous myth of the mutUationof Uranus
was a savage representation of the separation
of earth and sky, which were regarded as having
been so jotoed as to cause darkness. It is said
that the Maoris of New Zealand have a simUar
story. Urbigenus Pagus. [Helvetii.]
Urbinum (UrbMas, -atis). I. Hortense (Vr-
bino), a town to Umbria and a municipium,
situated on a steep round rock (Tac. Hist.
iii. 62 ; Procop. B. G. ii. 29). — 2. Metaurense
( Urbania), a town in Umbria, on the river Me-
taurus, and not far from its source (Plin. iii.
114). Urbs Salvia. [Pollentia, No. 2.]
Urci, a town of the Bastetani to Hispania
Tarraconensis, on the coast, and on the road
from Castulo to Malaca (PUn. iu. 26; Ptol.
ii. 6, 14).
Urcinium (Ajaccio), a town on the W. coaat
of Corsica.
Urgo or Gorgon (Gorgona), an island off the
coast of Etruria, N. of Ilva.
Una (Urias : Oria), called Hyria ('Tpiy) by
Herodotus, a town to Calabria on the road from
Brundisium to Tarentum, was the ancient,
capital of Iapygia, and is said to have been
founded by the Cretans under Minos (Hdt. vii.
170 ; _Strab. p. 282). v
Urium, a small town to Apulia, from which
the Sinus Uriaa took its name, being the bay
on the N. side of Mt. Garganus opposite the
Diomedean islands.
Urseius Ferox, one of the most emment
jurists in the reign of Vespasian.
Urso (Osuna), a town of Hispania Baetica,
the last refuge of the Pompeians (Strab. p. 141 ;.
App. Hisp. 16).
Ursus, a contemporary of Domitian, whom
he dissuaded from killing his wife, Domitia
(Dio Cass, lxvii. 3). Statius addressed to him
a poem of consolation on the death of a favour
ite slave (Silv. ii. 6), and he also mentions him
in the Preface to the second book of his Silvae.
Uscana, a large town to Illyria, on a tribu
tary of the Aous (Liv. xliii. 10).
Usipetes or Usipli, a German people, who,
being driven out of their abodes by the Suevi,
crossed the Rhine and penetrated into Gaul ;
but they were defeated by Caesar, and com
pelled to recross the river [cf. Tencteri].
They were now received by the Sugambri, and

USTICA
allowed to dwell on the N. bank of the Lippe ;
but we afterwards find them S. of the Lippe ;
and at a still later time they become lost under
the general name of Alemanni. (Caes. B.G. iv.
4 ; Tac. Ann. i. 50, xiii. 54, Agr. 27.)
Ustica, a vaUey near the Sabine vUla of
Horace. [Horatius.]
Utica (y 'iTu/rij or OutIkt,: 'IrvKa'tos, Uti
censis : Bou-Shater, Ru.), the greatest city of
ancient Africa, after Carthage, was a Phoe
nician colony, older (and, if the cMonologers
are to be trusted, much older) than Carthage.
liike others of the very ancient Phoenician
colonies m the territory of Carthage, Utica
maintained a comparative independence, even
during the height of the Punic power, and was
f,aT ,fr-^he ally of Carthage than her subject.
(VeU. Pat. i. 2 ; Just, xviii. 4 ; Strab. p. 882.)
It stood on the shore of the N. part of the
Carthagmian GuU, a little W. of the mouth of
the Bagradaa, and twenty-aeven Roman milea
NW. of Carthage ; but its site is now inland,
to conaequence of the changes effected by the
Bagradas m the coast-Une. [Bagradas.] In
the third Punic war, Utica took part with the
Romans agamst Carthage, and was rewarded
with the greatest part of the Carthagmian
territory. (Ptol. xxxvi. 1 ; App. Pun. 75, 113.)
It afterwords became renowned to aU future
time as the scene of the last stand made by the
Pompeian party agamst Caesar, and of the
glorious, though mistaken, self-sacrifice of the
younger Cato. [Cato.]
UtlS (Montone), a river of GaUia Cisalpina,
wMch rises M the Apennmes and flows past
Forum Julu (Forli) and Ravenna toto the
Adriatic (Liv. v. 35).
Utus (Vid), a river in Moesia and a tributary
of the Danube, faUMg toto the latter river at
the town Utus.
Uxama (Osma), a town of the Arevaci in
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Astu-
ricato Caesaraugusta, fifty miles W. of Numan
tia (Ptol. ii. 6, 56; Flor. iii. 22 ; Sil. It. iii. 384).
Uxantis (Ushant), an island off the NW.
coast of Gaul
Uxellodunum (Issolu), a town of the Cadurci
to Gallia Aquitanica, situated on a steep hill,
rising out of the plain, at the foot of which a
river flowed. It was besieged and taken by
Caesar, and its inhabitants were treated with
great barbarity. ([Caes.] B.G. viii. 32-44.)
Uxentum (Uxentinua: Ugento), a town in
Calabria, NW. of the Iapygian promontory
(Ptol. iii. 1, 76 ; Plm. iii. 102).
Uxii (Offfioi), a warlike people, of predatory
habits, who had their strongholds in M. Para-
choattoas, on the N. border of Persis, M the
district caUed Ux'ia (Oiji'o), but who also ex
tended over a considerable tract of country in
Media (Arr. An. Ui. 17 ; Strab. pp. 524, 729).

V.
Vacca, Vaga, or Vaba (Oijaya, Bdya : Beja),
a city of Zeugitana in N. Africa, on the borders
of Numidia, on an E. tributary of the river
Tusca, a good day's journey S. of Utica. It
was a great emporium for the trade between
Hippo, Utica and Carthage and the interior.
It was destroyed by MeteUus in the Jugurthine
war but was restored and colonised by the
Romans. Its fortifications were renewed by
Justinian, who named it Theodorias in honour
of his wife. (Strab. p. 831 ; Ptol. iv. 3, 28 ; Sail.
Jug. 29, 47; Procop. Aed. vi. 5.)

VALENS

983

Vaccaei, a people in the interior of Hispania
Tarraconensis, occupying the modern Toro,
Palencia, Burgos, and Valladolid, E. of the
Astures, S. of the Cantabri, W. of the Celtiberi
(Liv. xxx. 7 ; Pol. iii. 14 ; Strab. p. 152 ; Diod.
v. 84 ; Plin. iii. 19). Their chief towns were
Pallantia and Intercatia.
'Vacua, Vagia, or Vacca (Vouga), a river of
Lusitania, which flows into the Atlantic a little
S. of the Douro (Plin. iv. 113;, Strab. p. 153).
Vacuna, a Sabine goddess, worshipped es
pecially in a sacied grove near the Lacus Velinus
and Reate (Plin, iii. 109) ; and also in a temple
near Horace's farm (Hor. Ep. i. 10, 49). Va
cuna was particularly regarded as the goddess of
victory, but also as a great national deity of the
Sabines (Ov. Fast. vi. 307) ; she also presided
over the works of the garden and field (hence
identified both with Venus and with Ceres), and
over the woods and hunting (hence identified
with Diana). Moreover, as goddesa of victory in
war ahe is sometimes confused with Bellona and
sometimes with Minerva (Dionys. i. 15 ; Schol.
ad Hor. I.e.).
Vada, 1. A fortress of the Batavi in Gallia
Belgica, E. of Batavodurum (Tac. Hist. v. 21).
— 2. Vada Sabbatia (Vado), a town of Liguria,
on the coast, which was the harbour of Sabbata
or Savo (Cic. ad Fam. xi. 10 ; Sbrab. p. 202).
— 3. Vada Volaterrana (Torre di Vado), a small
town on the coast of Etruria, in the territory of
Volaterrae. Vadicassii, a people in Gallia Belgica, near
the sources of the Sequana (Plin. iv. 107 ; Ptol.
ii. 8, 16).
Vadimonis Lacus (Lago di Bassano), a small
lake of Etruria of a circular form, with sul
phureous waters, and renowned for its floating
islands, a minute description of which is given
by the younger Pliny (Ep. viii. 20). It is cele
brated in history for the defeat of the Etruscans
in two great battles : first, by the dictator Pa
pirius Cursor, in B.C. 809, from the effects of
which the Etruscans never recovered (Liv. ix.
39) ; and again in 283, when the allied forces of
the Etruscans and Gauls were routed by the
consul Cornelius Dolabella (Pol. ii. 20 ; Flor. i.
13). The lake has so sMunk M dimensions M
modern times aa to be only a small stagnant
pond, almost lost in the tall reeds and bulrushes
which grow M it.
Vagienni, a small tribe in Liguria, whose
cMef town was Augusta Vagiennorum. Their
site is uncertain, but they perhaps dwelt near
Saluzzo (Plin. iii. 117).
Vahalis. [Rhenus.]
Valens, emperor of the East a.d. 364-378,
was born about a.d. 328, and was made emperor
by his brother Valentinian. [Valentinianus.]
The greater part of Valens' reign is occupied
by Ms wars with the Goths. At first he gained
great advantages over the barbarians, and con
cluded a peace with them in 870, on the con
dition that they should not cross the Danube.
In 376 the Goths were driven out of their
country by the Huns, and were allowed by
Valens to cross the Danube and settle m Thrace
and the country on the borders of the Danube
Dissensions soon arose between the Romans
and these dangerous neighbours, and in 377
the Goths took up arms under Fritigern. Va
lens collected a powerful army, and marched
against the Goths, but he was defeated by
them with immense slaughter, near Hadrian-
ople, on the 9th of August, 878. Valens was
never seen after the battle : some say he died
on the field; and others relate that he was

984

VALENS

burnt to death in a peasant's house, to which
he was carried, and which the barbarians set
fire to without knowing who waa in it. (Amm.
Marc. xxxi. 13.) The reign of Valens is im
portant in the history of the empire on account
of the admission of the Goths into the coun
tries S. of the Danube, the commencement of
the decUne of the Roman power. The furious
contests between the rival creeds of the Catho
lics and the Arians also characterise tMs reign.
Valens, Aburnius (L. Fulvius Aburnius
Valens), one of the jurists who are excerpted
in the Digest, belonged to the school of the
Sabmians. He flourished under Antoninus
Pius, and is probably the Valens mentioned in
Capitol. Ant. Pi. 12, 1.
Valens, Fabius, one of the principal generals
of the emperor ViteUius in A.D. 69, marched
into Italy through Gaul, and, after formmg a
junction with the forces of Caecina, defeated
Otho in the decisive battle of Bedriacum,
which secured for Vitellius the sovereignty of
Italy. Vitellius raised Valens and Caecina to
the consulship, and he left the whole govern
ment in their hands. Valens remained f aittiful
to ViteUius, when Antonius Primus, the gene
ral of Vespasian, marched into Italy ; but as he
had not sufficient forces to oppose Antonius
after the capture of Cremona, he resolved to
sail to Gaul and rouse the Gallic provinces to
espouse the cause of Vitellius ; but he was
taken prisoner at the islands of the Stoechades
(Hyeres), off MaasUia, and was shortly after
wards put to death at Urbinum (TJrbi/no).
(Tac. Hist. i. 7, 52-66, ii. 24-30, 56, 92, 99, iii.
40, 62 ; Plut. Oth. 6.)
Valens, Vettius, a physician in the reign of
Claudiua. He was one of the paramours of
MessaUina, and was put to death a.d. 48. (Tac.
Ann. xi. 31, 35 ; PUn. xxix. 7.)
Valentia. 1. (Valencia), the chief town of
the Edetani on the river Turia, three miles
from the coast, and on the road from Carthago
Nova to Castulo. It waa founded by Junius
Brutua, who settled here the soldiers of
Viriathus ; it was deatroyed by Pompey, but it
waa aoon afterwards rebuilt and made a Roman
colony. It continued to be an important place
down to the latest times. (Liv. Ep. 55 ; Plut.
Pomp. 18 ; Plin. iii. 20 ; Mel. ii. 6 ; Ptol. ii. 6,
62.) — 2. (Valence), a town in Gallia Narbon
ensis on the Rhone, and a Roman colony
(Plin. iii. 36 ; Ptol. ii. 10, 12).— 3. A town in the
interior of Sardmia. — 4. Or Valentium, a town
in Apulia, ten mUes from Brundusium, SE. of
Usellis (Plin. iii. 85).— 5. [Vibo.]— 6. A fifth
province of Britam, added in 369 to the four of
the Diocletian arrangement. [Bbitannia.] — 7.
Or Valentinum. [Foeum Fulvh.]
Vale%tinianus. I., Roman emperor a.d. 364-
375, was the son of Gratianus, and was born
a.d. 321, at CibaUs in Pannonia. His first wife
was Valeria Severa, by whom he became the
father of the emperor Gratianus. He held
important military commands under Julian and
Jovian; and on the death of the latter, to
February 364, Valentinian was elected emperor
by the troops at Nicaea. A few weeks after his
elevation Valentinian, by the desire of the
soldiers, associated in the empire his brother
Valens, and assigned to Mm the East, while he
himself undertook the government of the West.
Valentinian was a Catholic, though his brother
Valens was an Arian ; but he did not peraecute
either Ariana or heathens. He possessed good
abilities, prudence, and vigour of character. He
had a capacity for military matters, and was a i

VALERIA
vigilant, impartial, and laborious administrator.
The greater part of Valentinian's reign was
ocoupied by the wars against the Alemanni
and the other barbarians on the Roman fron
tiers. His operations were attended with
success. He not only drove the Alemanni out
of Gaul, but on more than one occasion crossed
the RhMe, and carried the war toto the enemy's
country. His usual residence was Treviri
(Treves). In 375 he went to Carnuntum on
the Danube, in order to repel the Quadi and
Sarmatians, who had invaded Pannonia. After
an indecisive campaign he took up his winter-
quarters at Bregetio. In this place, while
giving an audience to the deputies of the
Quadi, and speaking with great heat, he feU
down M a fit and expired suddenly, on the 17th
of November. (Amm. Marc, xxviii.-xxx. ; Zosim.
iv. 17.) — II., Roman emperor a.d. 375-392,
younger son of the preceding, was proclaimed
Augustus by the army after his father's death,
though he was then only four or five years of
age. His elder brother Gratianus, who had
been proclaimed Augustus durtog the lifetime
of their father, assented to the choice of the
army, and a division of the West was mode
between the two brothers. Valentinian had
Italy, Hlyricum, and Africa. Gratian had the
Gauls, Spain, and Britam. In 383 Gratian was
defeated and slain by Maximus, who left
Valentinian a precarious authority out of fear
for Theodosius, the emperor of the Eaat ; but
in 387 Valenttoian was expeUed from Italy by
Maximus, and fled for refuge to Theodosius.
In 388 Theodosius defeated Maximus, and
restored Valentinian to Ms authority as emperor
of the West. Theodosius returned to Con
stantinople in 391 ; and to the foUowing year
(392) Valentinian was murdered by the general
Arbogastes, who raised Eugenius to the throne.
ValentMian perished on the 15th of May, being
oMy a few months above twenty years of age.
His funeral oration waa pronounced by St.
Ambrose. — III., Roman emperor a.d. 425-455,
was born 419, and was the son of Constantius IIL
by Placidia, the siater of Honoriua and the
daughter of Theodosius I. He was declared
Augustua in 425 by Theodoaius II., and was
placed over the West, but as he was only six
years of age the government was intrusted to
hia mother Placidia. During his long reign
the empire was repeatedly exposed to the
invasions of the barbarians ; and it was only
the military abilities of Aetius which saved the
empire from ruin. In 429 the Vandals under
Genseric crossed over into Africa, which they
conquered, and of which they continued to
possession till the reign of Justinian. The
weakness of the empire during this reign was
shown also by the fact that the Britons (from
whose country the Roman troops had been
withdrawn forty years before), finding it vain
to apply to Rome for aid against the Mcursions
of the Picts, invited the Jutes under Hengest
and Horsa to help them, in 449. The Goths
likewise estabUshed themselves in Gaul; but
Aetius finally made peace with them (439), and
with their aasistance gained a great victory
over Attila and the vast army of the Huns at
Chalons in 451. [Attila.] The power and
influence of Aetius excited the jealousy and
fears of Valentinian, who murdered his brave
and faithful general in 454. [Aetius.] In the
following year the emperor himself was slain by
Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had violated.
He was a feeble and contemptible prince.
Valeria. 1. Sister of P. Valerius PubUcola,

VALERIA
advised the Roman matrons to ask Veturia, the
mother of Coriolanus, to go to the camp of
-Coriolanus in order to deprecate his resent
ment. [Coriolanus.]— 2. The last wife of
Sulla, was the daughter of M. Valerius Messalla,
and bore a daughter soon after Sulla'a death
(Plut. Popl. 35, 87).— 3. Galeria Valeria,
daughter of Diocletian and Prisca, was, upon
the reconstruction of the empire in a.d. 292,
united to Galerius, one of the new Caesars.
After the death of her husband, in 811, Valeria
rejected the proposals of his successor, Maxi
minus, who in consequence stripped her of her
possessions, and bamshed her along with her
mother. After the death of Maximinus, Valeria
and her mother were executed by order of
Licinius, 815. [Galerius.]-^4. MessaUina.
[Messallina.] Valeria Gens, one of the most ancient
patrician houaes at Rome. The Valerii were of
Sabine origin, and their anceator, Voleaua or
Volusus, is said to have settled at Rome with
Titus Tatius. One of the descendants of this
Volesus, P. Valerius, afterwards surnamed
PubUcolo, plays a distmguished part to the
story of the expulsion of the kings, and was
elected consul in the first year of the republic,
B.C. 509. From this time forward down to the
latest period of the empire, for nearly 1000
years, the name occurs more or less frequently
in the Fasti, and it was borne by the emperors
Maximinus, Maximianus, Maxentius, Diocletian,
Constantius, ConstantMe the Great, and others.
The Valeria gens enjoyed extraordinary honours
and privUeges at Rome. In the Circus a con
spicuous place, with a seUa curulis (Liv. U. 31),
was set apart for them. They were also allowed
to bury their dead within the walls (Cic. Legg.
ii. 23, 58 ; Plut. Popl. 23). The Valerii in early
times were always foremost in advocating the
Tights of the plebeians, and the laws (especially
the law of appeal) which they proposed at
various times were the great charters of the
Uberties of the second order. (See Did. of
Antiq. s. v. Leges Valeriae.) The Valeria
gens was divided into various families under
the republic, the most important of which bore
the names of Corvus, Flaccus, Laevinus,
Messalla, Publicola, and Triarius.
Valeria, a provtoce in Pannonia formed by
¦Galerius, and named to honour of his wife.
[Pannonia.] Valerianus. 1. Roman emperor a.d. 253-
260, whose full name was P. Licinius Vale
rianus. Valerian was proclaimed emperor by
the troops whom he was leadmg against the
usurper AemiUanus. Valerian proclaimed Ms
«on GaUienus Augustus, and first carried on
war against the Goths, whom he defeated (257).
But though the barbarians still ttoeatened
the Roman frontiers on the Danube and the
Rhine, the conquests of the Persians, who had
crossed the Euphrates and stormed Antioch,
compeUed Mm to hasten to the East. For a
time Ms measures were both vigorous and suc
cessful. Antioch was recovered, and the
Persian king Sapor was compeUed to fall back
hehind the Euphrates ; but the emperor, flushed
by Ms good fortune, foUowed too rashly. He
was surrounded, in the vicinity of Edessa, by
the countless horsemen of his active foe; he
was entrapped into a conference, taken prisoner
(260) and passed the remainder of Ms life in
captivity, subjected to every insult which
Oriental cruelty could devise. After death his
skin was stuffed and long preserved as a trophy
in the chief temple of the nation. (Aurel. Vict.

VALERIUS

985

Caes. 32 ; Eutrop. ix. 6 ; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 5.)
— 2. Son of the preceding, but not by the same
mother as Gallienus. He perished along with
Gallienus at Milan in 268. [Gallienus.]
Valerius. [Valeria Gens.]
Valerius, P. Asiaticus. 1. Consul suffectus
under Caligula, and consul a.d. 46 under
Claudius. He waa wealthy and had beautiful
gardens, coveted by MessaUina, who procured
an accusation of treason against him wMch led
to his death in 47. (Tac. Ann. xi. 1, xiii. 43 ;
Dio Cass. lix. 30, lx. 27-81.)— 2. Legatus of GaUia
Belgica at the death of Nero. He was son-in-
law and supporter of ViteUius. (Tac. Hist. i.
59, iv. 4, 6.)
Valerius Volusus Maximus, M' (or M.?).
1. Was a brother of P. Valerius Publicola.
He fought at the battle of L. RegiUus, and
was MUed (Liv. ii. 16, 20 ; Dionya. v. 87 ; Plut.
Popl. 20). — 2. Dictator in b.c. 494, when the
dissensions between the burghers and com
monalty of Rome de nexis were at the highest.
Valerius was popular with the plebs, and
induced them to enlist for the Sabine and
Aeqnian wars by promising that when the
enemy was repulsed the condition of the debtors
(nexi) should be aUeviated. He defeated and
triumphed over the Sabinea ; but, unable to
fulfil his promise to the commons, resigned his
dictatorship. The plebs, seeing that Valerius
at least had kept faith with them, escorted Mm
honourably home. (Liv. ii. 80, 31.) Accordmg
to Livy, he was son of the Valerius Volusus
who fought at RegiUus, but some have conjec
tured that he waa the aame man, and waa only
wounded, not killed, at Regillua. It is certamly
strange that the dictator of 494 should have
had a father active in battle in 497.
Valerius Maximus, is known to us as the
compiler of a large collection of historical anec
dotes, entitled De Fadis Dictisque Memora-
bilibus Libri IX, arranged under different
heads, the saymgs and doings of Roman
wortMes being, moreover, kept distinct in each
division from those of foreigners. He lived in
the reign of the emperor Tiberius, to whom he
dedicated his work. Of his personal history we
know nothing, except the solitary circumstance,
recorded by himself, that he accompanied Sex.
Pompeius into Asia (ii. 6, 8) — the Sextua Pom
peius who was consul a.d. 14, and afterwards
proconaul of Asia. The subjects treated ' of in
the work are miscellaneous, and it seems to
have been compiled as a collection of historical
instances for the use of rhetoricians. In some
books the topics selected for illustration are
closely allied to each other ; in others no bond
of union can be traced. Thus the first book is
entirely devoted to matters connected with
sacred rites ; the second book relates chiefly to
certain remarkable civil institutions ; the third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth, to the more prominent
social virtues ; but in the seventh the chapters
De Strategematis, De Bepulsis, are abruptly
followed by those De Necessitate, De Testa-
mentis Bescissis, De Batis Testamentis et In-
speratis. The work is by no means without
value, since it preserves a record of many
curious events not to be found elsewhere ; but,
regarded as a history, it is wholly uncritical and
shallow, so written as to flatter Tiberius wherever
it was possible, and with a violent tirade
against Sejanus, added, probably, after the faU
of that minister, though before the first publi
cation of the book. He uses as Ms chief sources,
but often confusedly, Livy, Cicero, Sallust, and
Pompeius Trogus. For the events of his own

986

VALERIUS

time the value of Ma testimony is impaired by
his desire to write only what would be likely to
please Tiberius. The work of Valerius Maxi
mus became very popular to the later times of
the empire and in the middle ages. It was
frequently abridged, and we still possess an
abridgment of it made by Julius Paris. — The
best editions of the original work are by Kempf ,
Leips. 1888, and C. Holm, Leips. 1865.
Valerius Flaccus. [Flaccus.]
Valgius Rufus, C, a Roman poet, and a con
temporary of Virgil and Horace, the latter of
whom ranks him, along with Varius, Maecenas,
and Virgil, among those friends of genius whose
approbation far more than compensated for the
annoyance caused by the attacks of his detrac
tors (Hor. Sat. i. 10, 82). He was consul suffec
tus in B.C. 12. He wrote elegies and epigrams,
and perhaps some epic poetry (Hor. Od. ii. 9 ;
Tib. iv. 1, 180 ; Serv. ad Aen. xi. 457), and books
on botany (Plin. xxv. 4) and on grammar (Gell.
xii. 13).
Vandali, Vandalii, or Vindalii, a confeder
acy of German peoples, probably of the great
Suevic race, to which the Burgundiones, Goth-
ones, Gepidae, and Rugii belonged. They
dwelt originally on the N. coast of Germany,
but were afterwards settled N. of the Marco
manni in the Riesengebirge, which are hence
called Vandalici Montes. (Capitol. M. Ant.
Phil. 17; Eutrop. viii. 13; Jordan. Get. 22.)
They subsequently appear for a short time to
, Dacia and Pannonia ; but at the beginning of
the fifth century (a.d. 409) they traversed Ger
many and Gaul, and invaded Spain. In this
eountry they subjugated the Alani, and founded
a powerful kingdom, the name of which is stiU
preserved in Andalusia (Vandalusia). In a.d.
429 they crossed over into Africa, under their
king Genseric, and conquered all the Roman
dominions in that country. Genseric subse
quently invaded Italy, and took and plundered
Rome in 455. The Vandals continued masters
of Africa till 585, when their kingdom was
destroyed by Belisarius, and annexed to the
Byzantine empire. [Belisaeius.]
Vangiones, a German people, dwelling along
the Rhine, in the neighbourhood of the modem
Worms (Caes. B. G. i. 51 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 27,
Germ. 28).
Vannius, king of the Suevi, recogmsed by
the Romans, a.d. 19, after the overthrow of
Maroboduus. He reigned for thirty years, but
was dispossessed by his nephews, Sido and
Vangio, a.d. 50. Claudius did not aid Mm with
troops, but gave him a territory in Pannonia.
(Tac. Ann. ii. 63, xii. 29, 30 ; Plin. iv. 81.)
Vapincum (Gap), a town in Gallia Nar
bonensis, S. of Cularo (Grenoble), and not far
from the Druentia (Durance). It lies just S. of
the Col Bayard, which was probably ' the first
ascent to the Alps ' on Hannibal's route (Pol.
iii. 49), and Vapincum was in all probability
the town which is mentioned both by Polybius
and by Livy as the chief town or castellum of
the natives who defended that defile (Pol. I. c. ;
Liv. xxi. 33), though Livy places it on the wrong
side of the Druentia [cf. Hannibal].
Varagri. [Vebagbi.]
Vardanes or Bardanes. [Aesaces XXL]
Vardiili, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis,
W. of the Vascones, in the modern Guipuzcoa
and Alava (Strab. p. 162 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 9; PI n.
ui. 26).
Vargunteius, a senator and one of Catiline's
conspirators, undertook, in conjunction with C.
Cornelius, to murder Cicero in b.c. 63, but their

VARRO
plan was frustrated by information conveyed to
Cicero tMough Fulvia. He was afterwards
brought to trial, but could find no one to defend
Mm. (Sail. Gat. 17, 47.)
Varia. 1. (Vicovaro), a town of the Sabines,
to the valley of the Anio, about eight miles
above Tibur, and near Horace's villa (Hor.
Ep. i. 14, 3 ; Strab. p. 237 ; Horatius, p. 428, a).
— 2. (Varea), a town of the Berones to His
pania Tarraconensis on the Iberus, wMch was
navigable from this town (Plin. iii. 21 ; Strab.
p. 162).
Varini, a people of Germany, on the right
bank of the Albis, N. of the Langobardi (Tac.
Germ. 40).
Varius. 1. ft. Varius Hybrida, tribune of
the plebs, B.C. 90, was a native of Sucro in
Spain, and received the surname of Hybrida
because his mother was a Spanish woman. In
his tribunestop he carried a lex de majestate,
in order to punish all those who had assis
ted or advised the Socii to take up arms
against the Roman people. Under this law
many distinguished senators were condemned ;
but in the following year Varius himself was
condemned under Ms own law, and was put to
death. (App. B. G. i. 57 ; Val. Max. viii. 6, 4 ;
Cic. de Or. i. 25 ; N. D. iii. 33.)— 2. L. Varius
Rufus, one of the most distinguished poets of
the Augustan age, the companion and friend of
Virgil and Horace. By the latter he is placed
in the foremost rank among the epic bards, and
Quintilian has pronounced that Ms tragedy of
Thyestes might stand a comparison with any
production of the Grecian stage. (Quint, x. 1,
98 ; Tac. Dial. 12.) He enjoyed the friendsMp
of Maecenas, and it was to the recommendation
of Varius in conjunction with that of VirgU,
that Horace waa indebted for an introduction
to the minister, about B.C. 89. Virgil appointed
Plotius Tucca and Varius Ms literary executors,
and they revised the Aeneid. Hence Varius
was alive subsequent to B.C. 19, in which year
Virgil died ; but from Verg. Eel. ix. 35 it may
be inferred that Varius was somewhat older
than Virgil. It has been inferred from Hor.
Ep. ii. 1, 247, that Varius was dead before the
second book of the Epistles was written, and
this is probably right, though the words are not
conclusive. Besides the tragedy Thyestes
Varius wrote two epic poems (cf . Hor. Sat. i. 10,
44), one De Morte on the death of Caesar
(Macrob. vi. 1, 39, vi. 2, 19), the other a pane
gyric of Augustus, from which, according to the
scholiast, Horace quotes the three lines of Ep.
i. 16, 27-29, and this poem, wMch included the
praises of Agrippa, is aUuded to in Hor. Od. i. 6.
Varro, Atacmus. [See below, Varro, No. 3.]
Varro, Cingonius, a Roman senator under
Nero, supported the claims of Nymphidius to
the tMone on the death of Nero, and was put to
death in consequence by Galba, being at the
time consul designatus (Tac. Ann. xiv. 45 ;
Hist. i. 6, 37 ; Plut. Galb. Ii).
Varro, Terentius. 1. C, consul b.c. 216
with L. Aemilius Paulus. Varro is said to have
been the son of a butcher, to have carried on
business himself as a factor in his early years,
and to have risen to eminence by pleading
the causes of the lower classes in opposition to
the opinion of all good men (Liv. xxii. 25;
Val. Max. iii. 4, 4). Notwithstanding the strong
opposition of the aristocracy, he was raised to
the consulship by the people, who thought
that it only needed a man of energy at the head
of an overwhelming force to bring the war
against Hannibal to a close, and who, moreover

VARRO
. "ad an unfounded mistrust of the aims and
motives of the senate. His colleague was L.
Aemilius Paulus, one of the leaders of the
aristocratical party. The two consuls were
defeated by Hanmbal at the memorable battle
of Cannae. [Hannibal.] The battle was fought
by Varro agamst the advice of Paulus. The
Roman army was all but annihilated. Paulus
and almost all the officers perished. Varro was
one of the few who escaped and reached Venusia
m safety, with about seventy horsemen. His
conduct after the battle seems to have deserved
praise. He proceeded to Canusium, where the
remnant of the Roman army had taken refuge,
and there adopted every precaution wMch the
exigencies of the case required. His defeat
was forgotten in the services he had lately
rendered. On Ms return to the city aU clasaea
went out to meet him, and the senate returned
Mm thanks because he had not despaired of the
commonwealth. This marked the determination
of patricians and plebeians to work heartily
together agaMst the foreign enemy. (Liv. xxii.
35-61; Pol. ui. 106-116; Plut. Fab. 14-18;
App. Ann. 17-26.) Varro continued to be em
ployed in Italy for several successive years m
important military commands till nearly the
close of the Punic war (Liv. xxiii. 32, xxvii. 85,
xxxi. 49). — 2. M. Terentius Varro Reatinus,
the celebrated writer, whose vast and varied
erudition M aMiost every department of litera
ture earned for him the title of the 'moat
learned of the Romans ' (Quint, x. i. 95 ; Dionys.
ii. 21 ; August. C. D. vi. 2 ; cf . Cic. Acad. Post.
i. 3, 9) was born at Reate B.C. 116, and was
trained under L. Aelius Stilo Praeconinus, and
afterwards by Antiochus, a pMlosopher of the
Academy. Varro held a Mgh. naval command
to the wars against the pirates and Mittoidates,
and afterwards served as the legatus of Pom
peius to Spam to the CivU war, but was com
peUed to surrender Ms forces to Caesar. (Flor.
u. 13, 29 ; Caes. B. C. i. 38, ii. 17-20.) He then
passed over Mto Greece, and shared the for
tunes of the Pompeian party till after the
battle of Pharsalia, when he obtained the
forgiveness of Caesar, who employed Mm m
superintendtog the coUection and arrangement
of the great Ubrary designed for public use.
(Suet. Jul. 44 ; Isid. Or. vi. 5.) For some years
after tMs period Varro remamed to Uterary
seclusion, passmg his time cMefly at his coun
try seats near Cumae and Tusculum, occupied
with study and composition. Caesar had
forced Antony to restore to Varro an estate
wMch he had seized (Cic. Phil. ii. 40, 103), and,
perhaps in consequence, upon the formation of
the second triumvirate his name appeared
upon the list of the proscribed ; but he suc
ceeded to maktog his escape, and, after haying
remained for some time concealed, he obtained
the protection of Octavian. His life is said to
have been saved by Fufius Calenus (App. B. C.
iv. 47), and it is probable that he recovered a
great portion of Ms estates; but most of his
magnificent library had been destroyed (Gell.
iii. 10). The remainder of his career waa passed
in tranquillity, and he continued to labour to his
favourite studies. His death took place B.C. 28,
when he was inhiseighty-mnth year. Not only
was Varro the most learned of Roman scholars,
but he was Ukewise the most voluminous of Ro
man authors. Gellius (I. c) states that Varro
claimed to have written 490 books before he
was seventy-seven : Ausonius gives in round
numbers 600 as the total number of books
written by Varro (Prof. Burd. xx. 10) ; and

987
this agrees with a list given by Jerome which
makes out the writings of Varro to oonsist of
seventy-four different works, containing alto
gether 620 books. Hence it would appear that
180 of the books were written in the last twelve
years of his Ufe. Of these works only two have
survived : — (1) De Be Bustica Libri III, still
extant, was written when the author was eighty
years old (B. B. i. 1, 1), and is the most im
portant of aU the treatises upon ancient agri
culture now extant, being far superior to the
more voluminous production of Columella, with
which alone it can be compared. Edited by
Keil, HaUe, 1849, and in the Scriptores Bei
Busticae veteres Latini, by Schneider, Lips.
1764-1797. (2) De Lingua Latina, a gram
matical treatise which extended to twenty-four
books ; but six only (v.-x.) have been preserved,
and these are to a mutilated condition. The
remains of tMs treatise are particularly valu
able, since they have been the means of
preservmg many terms and forms which would
otherwise have been altogether lost, and much
curious information is here treasured up con
nected with the ancient usages, both civil and
religious, of the Romans. Editions by Spengel,
Berl. 1826 (re-edited 1885), and by O. Miiller,
Leips. 1883. The work entitled Antiquitatum
Libri was divided into two sections : Anti-
quitatea Berum humanarum, m twenty-five
books, and Antiquitates Berum divinarum, in
sixteen books. It described the political and
religious inatitutions of Rome, and waa Varro's
great work, upon which chiefly Ms reputation
for profound learning was based; but unfor
tunately only a few fragments of it have come
down to us. With the second section of the
work we are, comparatively speaking, famUiar,
since Augustine drew very largely from tMs
source m his De Civitate Dei [cf. Indigita
menta, p. 442, b]. Varro wrote also a collec
tion of biographies called Imagines or Hebdo-
mades in fifteen books ; Disciplinae in nine
books, wMch described the 'liberal arts,' viz.
grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arith
metic, astrology, music, medicine, and archi
tecture ; and other works on pMlosophy
(Logistorici to seventy-six books), geography,
and law. Among his poetical works were the
Saturae, which were composed in a variety
of metres, with an admixture of prose
also. Varro in these pieces copied to a cer
tain extent the productions of Menippus
the Gadarene [Menippus], and hence desig
nated them as Saturae Menippcae s. Cynicae.
They appear to have been a series of dis
quisitions on a vast variety of subjects, fre
quently, if not uniformly, couched in the shape
of dialogue, the object proposed being the
inculcation of moral lessons and serious truths
in a familiar, playful, and even jocular style.
The best editions of the fragments of these
Saturae are by Riese, Leips. 1865, and
Biicheler (with Petronius), Berl. 1882. The
Sententiae Varronis, a collection of pithy
sayings, may possibly have been gathered from
the writings of Varro Reatinus ; but even that
is uncertain (ed. Devit, Padua, 1843). — 3. P., a
Latin poet of considerable celebrity, sur
named Atacinus, from the Atax, a river of
Gallia Narbonensis, his native province, was
born B.C. 32. Of his personal history nothing
further is known. He seems to have written,.
first, an epic on part of Caesar's Gallic wars,
called Bellum Sequanicum (Prise. Gr. Lat. ii.
497), and Saturae in imitation of Lucilius
(Hor. Sat. i. 10, 46) ; and at a later time to have-

988

VARUS

imitated the Alexandrian poets in the Argo-
nautae (borrowed from Ap. Rhod.), and in
elegiac love-poems. (Quint, x. 1, 87 ; Ov. Am.
i. 15, 21, Trist. ii. 439 ; Propert. ii. 34, 85 ; Prob.
ad Verg. Georg. ii. 126.)
Varus, a cognomen in many Roman gentes,
sigmfied a person who had his legs bent inwards,
and was opposed to Valgius, which signified a
person having his legs turned outward.
Varus, P. Alienus. 1, A Roman jurist, was
a pupil of Servius Sulpicius, and the only pupil
of Servius from whom there are any excerpts
to the Digest (Gell. vii. 5). The schoUast on
Horace (Sat. i. 3, 130) tells us that the ' Alf enus
vafer ' of Horace was a lawyer, and that he
was a native of Cremona, where he carried on
the trade of a shoemaker ; that he came to
Rome, where he became a pupil of Servius
Sulpicius, attained the dignity of the consulship,
and was honoured with a public funeral. It ia
probable that he is the Varus who attended the
lectures of Siron at the same time as Virgil
(Serv. ad Eel. vi. 13), and whom VirgU men
tions in the Eclogues (vi. 13, ix. 27), referring
to the time when Alfenus Varus was Octavian's
legate, and able to help him in preserving his
property (B.C. 40). — 2. A general of Vitellius, in
the Civil war in a.d. 69, and perhaps a descend
ant of the jurist (Tac. Hist. ii. 29, iii. 55, iv. 11.)
Varus, Atius. 1. P., a partisan of Pompey
in the Civil war, was stationed in Picenum on
the breaking out of the Civil war in B.C. 49.
He subsequently crossed over into Africa, and
took possession of the province, which was
then governed by Q. Ligarius. [Ligarius.]
Varus, having been propraetor of Africa, was well
acquainted with the country, and was able to
raise two legions without difficulty. Meantime,
L. Aelius Tubero, who had received from the
senate the province of Africa, arrived to take
the command ; but Varua would not allow him
to land. In the course of the same year Varus,
asaiated by Mng Juba, defeated Curio, Caesar's
legate, who had crossed over from Sicily to
Africa. [Curio.] He fought with the other
Pompeians in Africa against Caesar in 46 ; but
after the battle of Thapsus he sailed away to
Cn. Pompey in Spain, and fell at the battle of
Munda. His head was carried to Caesar. (Cic.
ad Att. viii. 13, 15, 20 ; Caes. B.C. i. 12, 18, 81 ;
App. B.C. ii. 44-46, 105; Dio Cass, xliii. 31;
Lucan, iv. 713). — 2. Q. Atius Varus, com
mander of the cavalry under C. Fabius, one of
Caesar's legates in Gaul, and probably the same
as the Q. Varus who commanded the cavalry
under Domitius, one of Caeaar's generale in
Greece in the war with Pompey (Caes. B.C.
iii. 37 ; [Caea.] B.G. viii. 28).
Varus, Quintillus. 1. Sex., quaestor b.c 49,
belonged to the Pompeian party. He fell into
Caesar's hands at the capture of Corfinium, but
was dismissed by Caesar. He afterwards fought
under Brutus and Cassius against the trium
virs ; and after the loss of the battle of Philippi,
he ordered Ms freedman to slay him (Caea. B.C.
i. 23, ii. 28; Veil. Pat. ii. 71).— 2. P., eon of the
preceding, was consul B.C. 13, and was subse
quently appointed to the government of Syria,
where he acquired enormous wealth. Shortly
after his return from Syria he was made gover
nor of Germany (probably about a.d. 7). Dru
sus had conquered a great part of central Ger
many as far as the Visurgis ( Weser) ; and
Varus received orders from Augustus to intro
duce the Roman jurisdiction into the newly
•conquered country. The Germans, however,
were not prepared to submit to the Roman yoke,

VATIA
and found a leader in Arminius, who secretly
organised a general revolt of all the German
tribes near the Visurgis. When he had
matured hia plans, he suddenly attacked
Varus, who was marching with three legions
and three squadrons of cavalry tMough a
pass of the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, a range
of hills covered with wood, wMch extends N.
of the Lippe from Osnabriick to Paderborn.
Varus had diverged into this difficult country
instead of following the safer route from Ms
summer quarters on the Visurgis (probably
near Minden) to Aliso, because a message had
arrived that a tribe had revolted in that district,
and, having no suspicion of Arminius, he thought
it would be an easy matter to suppress the
movement on his way. He seems to have
managed hie march with great carelessness and
to have been taken quite unprepared. The
battle lasted three days, and ended with the
destruction of the Roman army. Varus put
an end to his own life. The scene of the
disaster is placed by some modern writers M
the district of Venne, near the sources of the
Haute. Of the 20,000 men who comprised Ms
force only the cavalry and a few stragglers
escaped. [Cf . Germania.] When the news of
this defeat reached Rome, the whole city was
thrown into consternation ; and Augustus, who
was both weak and aged, gave way to the most
violent grief, tearing his garments and calUng
upon Varus to give him back his legions. (Tac
Ann. i. 61, 71 ; Dio Cass. lvi. 18-25 ; Suet. Aug.
23, Tib. 16 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 117.)
Varus (Var or Varo), a river in GaUia Nar
bonensis, forming the boundary between tMs
province and Italy, rises to Mt. Cema to the
Alps, and falls into the Mediterranean sea, be
tween AntipoUs and Nicaea (Mel. ii. 4 ; Ptol. ii.
10, 1 ; Lucan, i. 404).
Vasates, a people in GalUa Aquitanica, on
the Garumna, whose chief town was Cossium
(Bazas), on the road from Burdigala to Elusa.
Vascones, a powerful people on the N. coast
of Hispania Tarraconensis, between the Iberus
and the Pyrenees, in the modern Navarre and
Guipuzeoa (Strab. pp. 116, 155 ; Ptol. ii. 8, 10).
Their chief towns were Pompelon and Cala-
gurris. They fought in battle bare-headed.
Under the empire they were regarded as skilful
diviners and prophets (Sil. It. iii. 358). They
belonged to the old Iberian race. Their name
is still retained to that of the modern Basques.
Vasconum Saltus. [Pyrene.]
Vasio (Vaison), a considerable town of the
Vocontii in GalUa Narbonensis (Ptol. ii. 10.
17 ; Mel. ii. 5).
Vatia Isauricus, P. Servilius. 1. Consul
in B.C. 79, waB sent in the foUowing year as
proconsul to Cilicia, in order to clear the seas of
the pirates, whose ravages now spread far and
wide. He carried on the war with great ability
and success, and from his conquest of the
Isauri, he obtained the surname of Isauricus.
After giving CUicia the organisation of a Roman
province, he entered Rome in triumph in 74.
(Liv. Ep. 90, 93 ; Oros. v. 25 ; Flor. iii. 6 ; Strab.
pp. 667, 671). After his return Servilius took
a leading part in public affairs. In 70 he was
one of the judices at the trial of Verres ; in 66
he supported the rogation of Manilius for con
ferring upon Pompey the command of the war
against the pirates ; in 63 he was a candidate
for the dignity of pontifex maximus, but was
defeated by Julius Caesar ; in the same year
he spoke in the senate in favour of inflicting
the last penalty of the law upon the CatiU-

VATINIUS
narian conspirators ; in 57 he joined the other
nobles in procuring Cicero's recall from banish
ment; in 56 he opposed the restoration of
Ptolemy to his kingdom ; and m 55 he was
censor with M. Valerius MessaUa Niger. He
took no part in the civil wars, probably on ac
count of his advanced age, and died in 44
(Cic. Verr. i. 21, ad Fam. i. 1, xvi. 28, ad Att.
xii. 21 ; Dio Cass. xiv. 16 ; Val. Max. viii. 5, 6.
—2. Praetor 54, belonged originally to the
aristocratical party, but espoused Caesar's side
on the breaking out of the Civil war, and was
consul with Caesar in 48. In 46 he governed
the province of Asia as proconsul, during which
time Cicero wrote to Mm several letters. After
the death of Caesar to 44, he supported Cicero
and the rest of the aristocratical party, in
opposition to Antony. But he soon changed
sides again, became reconcUed to Antony, and
was made consul a second time in 41. (Caes.
B.C. iii. 21 ; App. B.C. ii. 48 ; Dio Cass. xii.
43, xiii. 17, xlviii. 4, 13.)
Vatinius. 1. P., a political adventurer in
the last days of the republic, who is described
by Cicero as one of the greatest scamps and
viUains that ever Uved. His personal appear
ance was unprepossessing ; his face and neck
were covered with swellings, to which Cicero
alludes, calling him the struma civitatis. Va
tinius was quaestor B.C. 63, and tribune of the
plebs 59, when he sold Ms services to Caesar,
who was then consul along with Bibulus. It
was Vatinius who proposed the bUl to the
people by wMch Caesar received the provMces
of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for five years.
Vatinius contmued to take an active part in
political affairs. In 56 he appeared as a wit
ness against MUo and Sestius, two of Cicero's
friends, to consequence of wMch the orator
made a vehement attack upon the character of
Vatinius, to the speech wMch has come down to
us. Vattoius was praetor in 55, and in the
foUowing year (54) he was accused by C. Li
cinius Calvus of having gained the praetorship
by bribery. He was defended on this occasion
by Cicero, in order to please Caesar, whom
Cicero had offended by his former attack upon
Vatinius. Soon afterwards Vatinius went to
Gaul, where we find him serving in 51. He
accompanied Caesar in the Civil war, and was
made consul suffectus for a few days, at the end
of December 47. At the beginmng of the fol
lowing year, he was sent into Illyricum, where
he carried on the war with success. After
Caesar's death he was compeUed to surrender
DyrrhacMum and his army to Brutus, who had
obtatoed possession of Macedonia, because his
troops declared to favour of Brutus. (Cic. in
Vatin. ; pro Sest. 53, 63, ad Q. Fr. ii. 4, iii. 9,
ad Att. ii. 6 ; [Caes.] B.G. viii. 46; Caes. B.C.
iii. 19, 100; App. B.C. iv. 75; Dio Cass, xlvii.
21.) — 2. Of Beneventum, one of the vilest and
most hateful creatures in Nero's court, equally
deformed in body and in mind. He was origin
ally a shoemaker's apprentice, next earned his
living as one of the lowest kinds of scurrae or
buffoons, and finally obtained great power and
wealth by accusing the most distinguished men
in the state. A certain kmd of drinking-cups
having nasi or nozzles, bore the name of Vati
nius, probably because they were supposed to
caricature his profile. (Tac. Ann. xv. 34 ; Juv.
v. 46 ; Mart. x. 3, xiv. 96.)
Vatrenus. [Padus.]
Vectis or Vecta (Isle of Wight), an island off
the S. coast of Britain and opposite Portus
Magnus (Porchester, near Portsmouth), with

VEII

9891

which the Romans became acquainted before
their conquest of Britain, by means of the
inhabitanta of Massilia, who were accustomed
to visit this island for the purpose of obtaining
tin. It is related by Diodorus (v. 22, 38), that
at low water the space between Vectis and the
coast of Britain was almoat entirely dry, so
that the BritonB used to bring tin to the island
in waggons. It was conquered by Vespasian M
the reign of Claudius (Suet. Vesp. 4 ; Mel. iii.
6 ; Plin. iv. 103.) Interesting remains of
Roman villas have been found at Carisbrook
and Blading.
Vedius Pollio. (Pollio.]
Vegetius, Flavius Renatus, the author of
a treatise, Bei Militaris Instituta, or Epitoma
Bd Militaris. The exact date is not estab
lished, but it was probably composed early in
the fifth century a.d. It is a question whether
the dedication to Theodosius is genuine, and
some writers maintain that it was addressed to
Valentinian III. The materials were derived,
according to the declaration of the writer him
self, from Cato the Censor De Disciplina
Militari, from Cornelius Celsus, from Fronti
nus, from Paternus, and from the imperial
constitutions of Augustus, Trajan, and Hadrian.
The work is divided into four books. The first
treats of the levying and trainmg of recruits,
including instructions for the fortification of a
camp ; the second, of the different classes into
which soldiers are divided, and especially of the
organisation of the legion ; the tMrd, of the
operations of an army to the field ; the fourth,
of the attack and defence of fortresses, and of
marine warfare. The value of this work (wMch
is a somewhat uncritical compilatiom from dif
ferent Mstorians) is much diminished by the
fact that the usages of periods the most remote
from each other are mixed together into one
confused mass, and not unfrequently, we have
reason to suspect, are blended with arrange
ments which never existed except in the fancy
of the author. Edition by C. Lang, Leips.
1885. It is probably right to ascribe to the
same Vegetius the work on veterinary art called
Mulomedicina (on the treatment of horses and
mules), though it is written in a more popular
style, as being intended for the use of less
refined readers (ed. in Schneider's Script. Bd
Busticae, Leips. 1797).
Veiento, Fabricius, was praetor a.d. 55, and
ran dogs instead of horses in the games. He
was banished a.d. 62, in consequence of his
having published several libels. He afterwards
returned to Rome, and became, in the reign of
Domitian, one of the most infamous mformers
and flatterers of that tyrant. He also enjoyed
the friendship of Nerva. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 50 ;
Dio Casa. lxi. 6 ; Plin. Ep. iv. 22 ; Juv. iii. 185 p
iv. 113.)
Veii (Veiens, -entis, Veientanus : Isola Far
nese), one of the most ancient and powerful
cities of Etruria, situated on the river Cremera,
about twelve miles from Rome. It possessed a
strongly fortified citadel, built on a hill rising
precipitously from the deep glens which bound
it, save at the single point where a narrow ridge
unites it to the city. It was one of the twelve
cities of the Etruscan Confederation, and appa
rently the largest of all. As far as we can
judge from its present remains, it was about
seven miles in circumference, which agrees with
the statement of Dionysius, that it was equal
in size to Athens. Its territory (Ager Veiens)
was extensive, and appears originaUy to have-
extended on the S. and E. to the Tiber; on the-

990 VEIOVIS
SW. to the sea, embracmg the salinae or salt
works at the mouth of the river ; and on the
W. to the territory of Caere. The Ciminian
forest appears to have been its NW. boundary ;
on the E. it must have embraced all the district
S. of Sor.-.cte and eastward to the Tiber. The
cities of Capena and Fidenae were colonies of
Veii. Veii was a powerful city at the time of
the foundation of Rome, and the most formid
able and dangerous of her neighbours (Liv. i.
15 ; Dionys. ii. 54 ; Eutrop. i. 20). The Veientes
were engaged in almost unceasing hostilities
with Rome for more than three centuries and a
half, and we have records of many wars between
the two peoples (Liv. i. 27, S3, 42, ii. 6, 42, 48, iv.
17, 31). Veii was at length taken by the dicta
tor Camillus, after a siege which is said to
have lasted ten years, during which period,
apparently, the emissarium for draining the
Alban lake was formed, and by tradition was
connected with an oracle about the aiege. The
city fell, according to the common story, by
means of a cuniculus or mine, which was carried
by CamUlus from the Roman camp under the
city mto the citadel of Veii, in the year 396.
(Liv. v. 8-22; Cic. Div. i. 44, iii. 32; Plut.
Cam. 5.) So well built and spacious was Veii,
that the Romans were anxious, after the de
struction of their own city by the Gauls in 390,
to remove to Veii, and are said to have been
only prevented from carrying their purpose
Mto effect by the eloquence of CamUlus (Liv.
v. 49). From this time Veii was abandoned ;
but after the lapse of ages it was colonised
afresh by Augustus, and made a Roman muni
cipium. The new colony, however, occupied
scarcely a third of the ancient city, and had
again sunk into decay in the reign of Hadrian.
From this time Veii disappears entirely from
history, and, on the revival of letters, even its
site waa long an object of diapute. It ia now
settled, however, beyond a doubt, that it stood
in the neighbourhood of the hamlet of Isola
Farnese, where several remains of the ancient
city have been discovered. Of these the most
interesting is its cemetery.
Veiovis, an old Italian deity, whose temple
at Rome stood between the Capitolium and the
Arx in the ' Asylum,' between the sacred groves
(' inter duos lucos ' : Ov. Fast . iii. 430 ; GeU. v.
12). He was said to be represented as ayouth-
ful god armed with arrows, and hence was by
some identified with Apollo. Hia origin and
the meaning of hia name have been varioualy
explamed. It is tolerably certain that the old
explanation, Veiovis = the little Jupiter (Ov.
Fast. iii. 445) is wrong. The prefix means
rather ' separate from,' or ( distinct from.'
Hence Veiovis or Vediovis is a deity distin
guished from Jupiter, and the most natural
inference would be that he was the Jupiter
Inferus presiding over the dead, and that the
arrows are the arrows of death : nor would it
militate against this view that he seems to have
been a deity to whom expiatory sacrifices (of a
goat) were offered. Some modern writers,
however, regard him rather as the god of the
spring-sun which was supposed to bring fevers,
and therefore as the deity who could avert such
fevers. His festival on the Capitoline MU
was celebrated in March. He had also a temple
on the Island of the Tiber, where he was wor
sMpped in conjunction with Aesculapius in
January. He had an ancient altar at BoviUae.
Velabrum. [Roma, p. 805, b.]
Velauni or Vellavi, a people in Gallia Aqui
tanica, in the modern Velay (P1M. iii. 137).

vniJNAJb'KUM
Veleda, a prophetic virgin, by birth belonged
to the Bructeri, and was regarded as a divine
being by most of the nations in central Ger
many in the reign of Vespasian. She dwelt in
a lofty tower to the neighbourhood of the river
Luppia (Lippe). She encouraged Civilis in his
revolt against the Romans, but she was after
wards taken prisoner and carried to Rome.
(Tac. Hist. iv. 61, 65, v. 22, 24, Germ. 8 ; Stat.
Silv. i. 4, 90 ; Dio Cass, lxvii. 5.)
Velia or Elea, also called Hyele ('EAe'a,
"TeXy : CastelV a Mare delta Brucca), a Greek
town of Lucania, on the W. coast between
Paestum and Buxentum, was founded by the
Phocaeans, who had abandoned their native
city to escape from the Persian sovereignty,
about b.c. 543 (Hdt. i. 164 ; Strab. p. 254). _ It
was situated about three miles E. of the river
Hales, and possessed a good harbour. It is
celebrated as the place which gave the name to
the Eleatic school of philosophy ; for Xeno
phanes established himself at Velia, and Par
menides and Zeno were born there (Diog. Laert.
ix. 2, 20). It was noted also for its mUd cli
mate (Hor. Ep. i. 15, 1). It possessed a cele
brated temple of Demeter.
Velinus (Velino), a river in the territory of
the Sabinea, rising in the central Apenmnes,
and faUing into the Nar. TMs river M the
neighbourhood of Reate overflowed its banks
and formed several smaU lakes, the largest of
which was called Lacus Velinus (Piediluco,
also Lago dei Mormori). In order to carry
off these waters, a channel was cut tMough the
rocks by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the
Sabines, by means of which the waters of the
Velinus were carried tMough a narrow gorge to
a spot where they fall from a height of several
hundred feet into the river Nar. TMs faU,
wMch is one of the most celebrated in Europe,
is known at the present day by the name of
the fall of Terni, or the Cascata dei Mormori.
(Tac. Ann. i. 79 ; Plin. iii. 17 ; Cic. ad Att. iv. 15.)
Velitrae (Veliternus : VeUetri), an ancient
town of the Volscians in Latium, but subse
quently belonging to the Latin League. It was
conquered by the Romans, and colonised at an
early period, but it frequently revolted from
Rome. It is celebrated as the birthplace of the
emperor Augustus. (Dionys. v. 61 ; Liv. ni. 41,
viii. 14 ; Diod. xiv. 34 ; Suet. Aug. 1.)
Velius Longus, a Latin grammarian, known
to us from a treatise, De Orthographia, stiU
extant, printed M the Grammaticae Latinae
Auctorea Antiqui, of Putschius, 4to, Hanov.
1605. Velius also wrote a commentary on Vir
gil, which is mentioned by Macrobius. He Uved
in the time of Trajan. (Gell. xviii. 9 ; Macrob.
iii. 6, 8.)
Vellaunodimum (Beaune), a town of the
Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis (Caes. B. G.
vii. 11).
Vellavi. [Velauni.]
Velleius Paterculus. [Paterculus.]
Vellocasses, a people in GaUia Lugdunensis,
NW. of the Parish, extending along the Se
quana as far as the ocean, their cMef town was
R\tomagus (Caes. B. G. ii. 4.)
Venafrum (Venafranus : Venafri), a town in
the N. of Samnium, near the river Volturnus,
and on the confines of Latium, celebrated for
the exceUence of its olives (Hor. Od. ii. 6, 16,
Sat. ii. 4, 69 ; Juv. v. 86 ; Mart. xiii. 98 ; Varr.
B.B. i. 2, 6). It stood on a hUl rising from the
right bank of the Volturnus, about sixteen
miles from Casinum, and on the Via Latina. A
colony was planted there under Augustus.

VENANTIUS
Venautius Fortunatus (in full Venantius
Honorius Clementianus Fortunatus), a poet of
the sixth century a.d. (535-600). He was born
at Tarvisium ( Treviso) , in Venetia, and educated
at Ravenna, and eventually became a presbyter
and bishop of Poitiers, having travelled much
over the FranMsh Mngdoms, and even to Britain
(Venant. Fort. iU. 26). He wrote an epic poem
on the life of St. Martin and a number of shorter
poems m eleven books, chiefly in the elegiac
metre— panegyrica, elegies, and hymns. His
metre ia good, and Ma writings are useful for a
description of his time He wrote also some
prose biograpMes of Samts.— Editions of his
prose works by Krusch and of Ms poems bv Leo,
Berl. 1881-1885.
Venedi or Venedae, a people in European
Sarmatia, dwellmg on the Baltic E. of the Vis
tula. The Sinus Venedlcus (Gulf of Biga),
and the Venedici Montes, a range of moun
tains between Poland and East Prussia, were
called after this people. The name is repre
sented by the Sclavomc Wends. (Tac. Germ.
46; P1M. iv. 97.)
Veneris Portus. [Pyrenes Promontorium.]
Veneris Promontorium. [Pyrenes Prom.]
Venetia. 1. A district to the N. of Italy, was
originally included under the general name of
Gallia Cisalpina, but was made by Augustus
the tenth Regio of Italy. It was bounded on
the W. by the river Athesis (Adige), which se
parated it from GaUia Cisalpina ; on the N. by
the Carnic Alps ; on the E. by the river Tima
vus, wMch aeparated it from Istria ; and on the
S. by the Adriatic Gulf. TMs country was, and
is, very fertile, and its tohabitants enjoyed
great prosperity. The cMef productions of the
country were exceUent wool, a sweet but much
prized wine, and race-horses. Dionysius, the
tyrant of Syracuse, is said to have kept a stud
of race-horses in this country. (Strab. p. 212.)
— Its tohabitants, the Veneti, frequently caUed
Heneti ('Evero'i) by the Greeks, were in Greek
traditions said to be descendants of the Paph-
lagoman Heneti, whom Antenor led into the
country after the Trojan war (H. ii. 85) ; but
tMs tale, like so many others, has evidently
arisen from the mere similarity of the name.
Others supposed the Veneti to be a branch of
the Celtic Veneti to Gaul ; but this supposition
is disproved by the express testimony of Poly
bius, that they spoke a language entirely dif
ferent from the Celtic : and that they had no
connexion with the Celts, may be inferred from
the fact that they were always on hostile terms
with the Celtic tribes settled in Italy. Hero
dotus regards them as an Lllyrian race ; and aU
writers are agreed that they did not belong to
the original population of Italy. (Hdt. i. 196,
v 9 ; Pol. ii. 17 ; Liv. i. 1 ; Strab. pp. 543, 608 ;
Scymn. p. 389 ; Verg. Aen. i. 247.) There is no
reason to suppose them to be a Sclavonic
people because their name resembled that of
the Baltic Venedi, and on the whole the most
probable view is that they were an Hlyrian people
who had held their own against the Celts, and had
progressed in trade and civilisation beyond the
more easterly Dlyrians. In consequence of
their hoetility to the Celtic tribea in their neigh
bourhood, they formed at an early period an
aUiance with Rome ; and their country waa de
fended by the Romans against their dangerous
enemies. On the conquest of the CisalpMe
Gauls the Veneti likewise became included
under' the Roman dominions, and they were
almost the only people in Italy who became the
subjects of Rome without offering any resist-

VENTI

991

ance, no doubt for the reason that they regarded
the Celtic races as their chief enemies (cf. Pol.
ii. 23, 24). In the arrangement of Augustus
Venetia and Histria formed the tenth Region,
the limits of which were the Addua on the W.,
the Carnic Alps on the N., the Arsia on the E.,
and the Po and Adriatic on the S. (Plin. iii.
126-131). The Veneti continued to enjoy great
prosperity down to the time of the Marcomannic
wars, in the reign of the emperor Aurelius ; but
from this time their country was frequently de
vastated by the barbarians who invaded Italy,
and at length, in the fifth century, many Of ita
mhabitants, to escape the ravages of the Huns
under Attila, took refuge in the islands off their
coast, on which now stands the city of Venice.
The chief towns of Venetia in ancient times
were, Patavium, Altinum, and Aquileia. ¦ The
two latter carried on an extensive commerce,
and exported, among other things, large quan
tities of amber, which was brought from the
Baltic through the interior of Europe to these
cities. — 2. A district in the NW. of Gallia Lug
dunensis (the W. coast of Brittany) inhabited by
the Veneti, who were a brave people, and the
best sailors in aU Gaul. Caesar gives an in
teresting account of the naval campaign agamst
them in B.C. 56. The name is preserved by the
modern town of Vannes. Off their coast was a
group of islands called Insulae Veneticae
(Belle He).
Venetus Lacus. [Brigantinus Lacus.]
Venilia, a nymph, daughter of Pilumnus,
sister of Amata (wife of king Latinus) and
mother of Turnus and Juturna by Daunus.
Vennones or Venonetes, a people of Raetia,
and according to Strabo the most savage of the
Raetian tribes, inhabiting the S. side of the
Alps near the sources of the Addua (Adda).
(Strab. pp. 204, 206 ; Plin. iii. 136 ; Ptol. ii. IS, 3.)
Venta. 1. Belgarum (Winchester), the chief
town of the Belgae in Britain. The modern
city contains Roman remains. — 2. Icenorum.
[Iceni.] — 3. Silurum (Caerwent), a town of the
Silures in Britain, in Monmouthshire.
Venti ("Avepot), the winds. They appear per
sonified, even in the Homeric poems, but at the
same time they are conceived as ordinary phe
nomena of nature. The master and ruler of all
the winds is Aeolus, who resides in the island
Aeolia [Aeolus] ; but the other gods also, espe
cially Zeus, exercise a power over them ( II. xii.
281). Homer mentiona by name Boreas (N.
wind), Eurus (E. wind), Notus (S. wind], and
Zephyrus (W. wind). Though possibly at one
time regarded as personal deities their distinct
personality, except in the case of Boreas, seems
to have faded away before the time of Homer.
Boreas appears M H. xx. 225 as the father of
a race of horsea, and the myths relating to him
were more clearly developed in the Attic story.
[Boreas.] Yet relics of divinity ascribed to the
winds generally are seen in the sacrifices offered
to them from the time of Homer down to the
Roman imperial period. When the funeral pile
of Patroclus could not be made to burn, Achilles
promised to offer sacrifices to the winds ; and
Iris accordingly hastened to them, and found
them feasting in the palace of Zephyrus in
Thrace. Boreas and Zephyrus thereupon
straightway crosaed the Thracian aea into Asia,
to cause the fire to blaze. (II. xxiii. 195 ; cf.
ii. 145, ix. 5 ; Od. v. 295.) According to Hesiod,
the beneficial winds, Notus, Boreas, Argestes,
and Zephyrus, were the sons of Astraeus and
Eos ; and the destructive ones are said to be the
sons of Typhoeus (Hes. Th. 378, 869). The

992

VENTI

beneficial nature of Boreas does not, however,
always appear, and Ms stormy character, re
sembling that of Typhon, seems to be indicated
by his representation with serpents' feet on the
chest of Cypselus (Paus. v. 19, 1). Later, espe
cially pMlosophical, writers endeavoured to
define the winds more accurately, according to
their places in the compass. Thus Aristotle,
besides the four principal winds (Boreas or
Aparctias, Eurus, Notus, and Zephyrus,
mentions three, the Meses, Eaikias, and Ape-
liotes, between Boreas and Eurus; between
Eurus and Notus he places the Phoenicias;

between Notus and Zephyrus he has only the
Lips ; and between Zephyrus and Boreas he
places the Argestes (Olympias or Skiron) and
the Thraskias (Ar. Meteor, ii. 6). — The winds
were represented by poeta and artists in different
ways ; the latter usually represented them as
beings with wings at their heads and shoulders.
The most remarkable monument representing
the winds is the octagonal tower of Andronicus
Cyrrhestes at Athens. Each of the eight sides
of the monument represents one of the eight
principal winds in a flying attitude. A move
able Triton in the centre of the cupola pointed
with his staff to the wind blowing at the time.
All these eight figures have wings at their
shoulders, aU are clothed, and the peculiarities

• Lips.
of the winds are indicated by their bodies and
various attributes. (1) Boreas wears a thick
chiton and is blowing on a Triton's horn, to
signify Ms power of raising storms at sea [see
under Boreas]. (2) Kaikias, the NE. wind
( = Aquilo), has a vessel from which he is dis
charging hailstones. (3) Apeliotes (=Subso-
lonus), the East wind, being regarded as kindly
in Greece, carries fruit and flowers in the sinus of
Ms robe. (4) Euros ( = Eurus or Volturnus), the
warm and ramy SE. wind, shapes clouds with
his robe. (5) Notes (= Notus or Auster) the
south wind, pours rain from his jar. (6) Lips
( = Africus), the SW. wind, wMch blows mariners
over the sea to the harbours of Peiraeus, holds
a ship's aplustre. (7) Zephyrus (= Zephyrus or

VENUS
Favonius) carries spring flowers. (8) Skiren
( = Corus or Caurus), the NW., a parching wind,,
holda a vessel from which he is suppoaed to dis
charge hot charcoal. Black lambs were offered
as sacrifices to the destructive wMds, and white
ones to favourable or good winds (Hor. Epod.
x. 23 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 120, v. 772 ; Aristoph.
Ban. 847). Boreas had a temple on the river
Ilisaua in Attica ; and Zephyrus had an altar
on the sacred road to Eleusis. An altar to the
winds has been found at Antium; and there
is mention of sacrifices offered to winds by
Roman commanders before an expedition, as-

Z ephyrus.
by Scipio at Rome and by Octavian at Puteoli.
(Liv. xxix. 27 ; App. B.C. v. 98.)
Ventidius Bassus, P., a Roman general, was.
a native of Picenum, and was taken prisoner-
by Pompeius Strabo in the Social war (b.c. 89),
and carried to Rome. When he grew up to
man's estate, he got a poor livmg by undertaking
to furnish mules and vehicles for thoae magis
trates who went from Rome to administer a
province. (Dio Cass, xliii. 51 ; Gell. xv. 4 ; Val.
Max. vi. 919.) He became known to C. Julius
Caesar, whom he accompanied into Gaul. In
the Civil war he executed Caesar's orders with
ability, and became a favourite of Ms great
commander. He obtained the rank of tribune
of the plebs, and was made a praetor for b.c. 48.
After Caesar's death Ventidius sided with M.
Antony in the war of Mutina (43), and in the
same year was made consul suffectus. (Cic. ad
Fam. x. 83, xi. 10 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 65 ; Dio Cass.
xlvii. 15, xlviii. 10; App. B.C. v. 31.) In 39>
Antony sent Ventidius into Asia, to oppose La
bienus and the Parthians. He conducted this
war with distinguished ability and success. In
the first campaign (39) he defeated the PartMans
and Labienus, the latter of whom was slain in
his flight after the battle; and in the second
campaign (38) Ventidius gained a stiU more
brilliant victory over the PartMans, who hod
again invaded Syria. Pacorus, the king's son,
fell in this battle. (Dio Cass, xlviii. 39, xlix. 21 ;
Eutrop. vu. 3.) Antony, however, far from
being pleased with the success of Ventidius,
showed great jealousy of him, and dismissed
him from Ms employment (Plut. Ant. 34). Yet
his services were too great to be overlooked;
and he had a triumph M November, 38. NotMng
more is known of him. Ventidius was often
cited as an instance of a man who rose from
the lowest condition to the highest honours
(Juv. vii. 199) : a captive became a Roman
consul and enjoyed a triumph ; but this was in
a period of revolution.
Venus, an Italian goddess, who, after the
Greek mythology influenced the Roman, was
identified with Aphrodite, and in Latin litera
ture has the same myths and characteristics
[see under Aphrodite]. Originally the Italian
Venus was a goddess of gardens and of spring.

VENUS
flowers, having somewhat the same characteris
tics aa Flora, Feronia, and Libera. Her wor
ship at Rome waa not extremely ancient : that
is to say, it is not traceable earlier than the
fourth century b. c. Her name does not occur
m the ritual of the Fratres Arvales or in the
hymns of the SalU. But she had ancient sanc
tuaries in other Latin settlements, especiaUy
at Ardea and Lavinium (Strab. p. 532 ; Plm. ni.
56), and she seems to have been regarded as the
deity who promoted union among the members
of the League. Perhaps for this reason, as
Venus Concordia, or, more probably because
both were goddesses of gardens and growth to
spring, when the Greeks Mtroduced the know
ledge of ApModite she was identified with
Venus. It is likely enough that this influence
came first from SicUy and that the itahanised
ApModite was first known as Venus Erycina.
TMs deity was naturalised at Ardea and Lavi
nium, and there the Greek stories of Aeneas took
root. When these were adopted by the Romans
the importance of Venus was increased, for
she was now regarded as the parent of the
Roman race through her son Aeneas. She was
Venus Genetrix because she had taken the
characteristics of ApModite, the goddesa of
creative power (Lucret. i. 1-38), and Venus
Victrix as giving -victory to lovers; but both
these names gained a fresh significance when
she was regarded as the mother of the Roman
people, who gave victory to their armies. The
three oldest sanctuaries of Venus at Rome were
supposed to be those of Venus Murcia, Venus
Cloacina, and Venus Libitina. For the last see
Titrtttna. The name Murcia was corrupted
toto Myrtea, as though it meant the goddess
to whom the myrtle was sacred : by many it has
been derived from mulcere, 'to soften,' and
Cloacina from a word cloare, ' to purify ' ; but it
is much more probable that both these were
names from the localities where the temples of
the goddess were situated, i.e. near the Circus
in the ValUs Murcia, and near the Cloaca
Maxima. Somewhat later, m the same district
of the Circus, Q. Fabius Gurges founded a
temple of Venus Obsequens (' the Compliant ')
B.C. 295, because she had granted Ms wishes in
the Samnite wars (Liv. x. 31 ; Serv. ad Aen. i.
720). At the beginning of the second Punic war,
the worsMp of Venus Erycina was introduced
from SicUy, and a temple was dedicated to her on
the Capitol, to which subsequently another was
added outside the CoUtoe gate. In the year
B.C. 114, a Vestal virgin was killed by lightning ;
and as the general moral corruption, especiaUy
among the Vestals, was beUeved to be the cause
of tMs disaster, the SibyUine books, upon
beinc consulted, commanded that a temple
should be buUt to Venus Verticordia ( = 'Airo-
o-rpotpia, the goddess who turns the hearts of
men) on the Via Salaria. (Ov. Fast. iv. 157 ; Val.
Max. viu. 15, 12.) Scipio Africanus the younger
founded the temple of Venus Genetrix, in which
he was afterwards foUowed by Caesar, who
added that of Venus Victrix. Hadrian identified
her with the weU-being of the state in building
the magnificent temple of Venus and Rome,
1 D. 135. Another name borne by Venus at
Rome was Calva (' the bald '), which is explained
by the story (not unknown in other countries,
e g. at Carthage), that to the Gallic siege of Rome
the women cut off their hair to make bow-strings
(Serv. ad Aen. i. 720). A less romantic explana
tion was that she was prayed to by women to
prevent their hair falling off. The month of
April, as the beginning of spring, was peculiarly

VERGILIUS

998

sacred to her, both in her old character as
goddess of gardens and in her Greek character as
goddess of love and growth.
Venusia (Venusinus : Venosa), an ancient
town of Apulia, S. of the river Aufidus, and
near Mt. Vultur, situated in a romantic country,
and memorable aa the birthplace of the poet
Horace. It seems to have been an Apulian
oity wMch had received an accession of territory
from Lucania (Plin. iii. 104; Ptol. iii. 1, 73). It
was captured by the Romans B.C. 262, and a
colony was sent to it (VeU. Pat. i. 14 ; Hor.
Sat. ii. 1, 34). It was a refuge of a remnant of
the army from Cannae, and often a headquarters
of the army (Liv. xxii. 49, xxvii. 10, 20, 41). It
was ravaged in the Social war (App. B.C. i. 52),
but recovered its prosperity, which waa favoured
by ita position on the Appian Road (Cic. ad Att.
v. 6, xvi. 5 ; Strab. p. 250).
Veragri or Varagri, a people in GaUia
Belgica, on the Pennine Alps, near the con
fluence of the Dranse and the Rhone (Caes.
B.G. iii. 1 ; Strab. p. 204 ; Liv. xxi. 38). Their
territory stretched up the Val de Bagnes and
the Val d'Entremont as far as the summit of
the pass of the Great St. Bernard. It is not
impossible that their name is preserved in
Vernayaz, at the lower end of the valley.
Verbanus Lacus (Lago Maggiore), a lake in
GaUia Cisalpina, and the largest lake in all Italy,
being about forty miles in length from N. to S. ;
its greatest breadth is eight miles. It is formed
by the river Ticinus and other streams descend
ing from the Alps, and the river Ticinus issues
from its southern extremity. (Plin. iii. 131;
Strab. p. 209.)
VerceUae (VercellenBis : Vercelli), the chief
town of the Libici in Gallia Cisalpina1, and sub
sequently a Roman municipium, and a place of
considerable importance (Strab. p. 218; Tac.
Hist. i. 70). For the battle fought near it by
Marius, see Campi Raudii.
Vercingetorix, the celebrated chieftain of the
Arverm, who carried on war with great ability
agamst Caesar in B.C. 52. The Mstory of this
war occupies the seventh book of Caesar's Com
mentaries on the Gallic War. Vercmgetorix,
who had roused the spirit of his countrymen
and had organised their defence with great skiU
and heroic courage, fell into Caesar's hands on
the capture of Alesia, was subsequently taken
to Rome, where he adorned the triumph of his
conqueror in 45, and was afterwards put to
death. (Dio Cass. xl. 41, xliii. 19; Caesar,
p. 183.)
Veretum (Veretinus : Alessano), more
anciently called Baris, a town in Calabria, on
the road from Leuca to Tarentum, and 600
stadia SE. of the latter city (Strab. p. 281;
Ptol. iii. i. 76).
Vergae, a town in the interior of Bruttium.
Vergellus, a rivulet in Apulia crossing the
plain of Cannae, which is said to have been
choked by the dead bodies of the Romans slain
in the memorable battle against Hannibal
(Flor. ii. 6, 18 ; Val. Max. ix. 2, 2).
Vergilius orVirgilms Maro, P., the Roman
poet, was born on the 15th of October, B.C. 70,
at Andes (Pietola), a BmaU vUlage near Mantua,
in Cisalpme Gaul. There is no doubt that
Vergilius is the more correct apelling : the ar
guments are as follows : inscriptions where the
name occurs in the republic and to the earlier
centuries of the empire write VergUiua, never
VirgiUus, and the same is true of the older MSS.,
as the Medicean : moreover the Greek authors
write BepylXtos or OvepyiXios. In the middle
3S

994

VERGILHJS

ages the spelling Virgilius became common and
eventuaUy prevailed, owing to fanciful deriva
tions from virgo or virga. The earliest known
instance of the spelling Virgilius is in the fifth
century A.D. (G.I.L. vi. 1710). It is therefore
better to write the Latin name Vergilius ; but
when it is Anglicised the established form,
Virgil, may reasonably be retamed. — Virgil's
father probably had a small estate wMch he
cultivated, and he is said to have supplemented
this by keeping bees. His mother's name was
Magia Polla. He was educated at Cremona
and Mediolanum (Milan), and he took the toga
virilis at Cremona on the day on which he
began his sixteenth year, in 55. It is said that
he subsequently studied at Neapolis (Naples)
under Parthenius, a native of Bithynia, from
whom he learned Greek. He was also in
structed by Siron, an Epicurean, whose lectures
were attended also by Alfenus Varus (Varus,
No. 1], at Rome, where he was also taught rhe
toric by Epidius at the same time as Octavianus.
Virgil's writings prove that he received a
learned education, and traces of Epicurean
opinions are apparent in them (e.g. Georg. ii.
490). The health of VirgU was always feeble,
and there is no evidence of Ms attempting to
rise by those means by wMch a Roman gained
distinction, oratory and the practice of arms.
After completing his education, Virgil appears
to have retired to his paternal farm. After the
battle of PMUppi (42) Octavian assigned to his
soldiers lands in various parts of Italy. Oc
tavius Musa, who was charged with this allot
ment M the Cremona district, extended the
limits so as to mclude Mantua (cf. Eel. ix. 28),
and the farm belonging to Virgil's father was as
signed to a centurion, whose name is given as
Arrius. Asinius Pollio, the legatus of Trans
padane Gaul, and Cornelius GaUus interested
themselves in Virgil, who was probably already
known to them as a poet, and advised him to
apply to Octavian at Rome. Virgil did so, his
father's farm was restored, and the first Eclogue
expresses gratitude to Octavian. But there
was a aecond apoliation when, after the war of
Perusia, Alfenus Varus became legatus in
PoUio's place. A primipilaris named MUienus
Toro got possession of the farm and Virgil
himself was nearly killed by the violence of a
certain Clodius. Virgil and his father took
refuge in a country house belonging to Siro
(Catal. 10), and thence removed to Rome, where
he wrote the Eclogues. Here Maecenas also
became interested in Virgil, who was compen
sated by Augustus. He did not, indeed, recover
his paternal estate, but land was given him
elsewhere — possibly the estate wMch he had
near Nola in Campania (Gell. vi. 20). His
friendsMp with Maecenas was soon so firmly
established that he was able to gaM the same
patronage for Horace (Hor. Sat. i. 6, 54). Ho
race, in one of Ms Satires (Sat. i. 5), in which
he describes the journey from Rome to Brun
dusium, mentions Virgil as one of the party,
and in language which shows that they were
then in the closest intimacy. The most finished
work of Virgil, his Georgica, an agricultural
poem, was undertaken at the suggestion of
Maecenas (Georg. iii. 41). The concluding
lines of the Georgica were written at Naples
(Georg. iv. 559), and the poem was completed
after the battle of Actium,B.c. 31, while Octavian
was in the East. (Comp. Georg. iv. 560, and ii.
171.) Some of his pastoral poetry seems to have
been written in the country of Tarentum (Prop.
iii. 24, 67). His Eclogues had all been com

pleted, and probably before the Georgica were
begun (Georg. iv. 565). The epic poem of Virgil,
the Aendd, was probably long contemplated
by the poet. While Augustus was to Spain (27),.
he wrote to Virgil to express Ms wish to have
some monument of Ms poetical talent. Virgil
appears to have begun the Aeneid about
this time. In 23 died Marcellus, the son of
Octavia (Caesar's sister) by her first hueband ;
and Virgil introduced into hia sixth book of
the Aeneid (883) the well-known allusion to the
virtues of this youth, who was cut off by a-
premature death. Octavia is said to have been
present when the poet was reciting this aUusion
to her son and to have fainted from her emo
tions. She rewarded the poet munificently for
Ms excusable flattery. As MarceUus did not
die till 23, these Unes were of course written
after that date, but that does not prove that
the whole of the sixth book was written so late.
A passage in the seventh book (606) appears to
allude to Augustus receivmg back the Parthian
standards, which event belongs to 20. When
Augustus was returning from Samos, where he
hod spent the winter of 20, he met Virgil at
Athens. The poet, it is said, had intended to-
make a tour of Greece, but he accompanied
the emperor to Megara and thence to Italy.
His health, which had long been decUning, was
now completely broken, and he died soon after
Ms arrival at Brundusium, on the 22nd of Sep
tember, 19, not having quite completed Ms
fifty-first year. His remains were transferred
to Naples, which had been his favourite resi
dence, and on the road from Naples to Puteoli
(PozzuoU) a monument is still shown, sup
posed to be the tomb of the poet. The inscrip
tion said to have been placed on the tomb,
Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc
Parthenope. Cecini pascua, rara, duces,
we cannot suppose to have been written by the
poet. Virgil named as heredes in Ms testa
ment his half-brother Valerius Proculus, to
whom he left one half of his property, and also
Augustus, Maecenas, L. Varius and Plotius
Tucca. It is said that to his last illness he
wished to burn the Aendd, to which he had
not given the finishing touches, but Ms friends
would not aUow him. Whatever he may have
wiahed to be done with the Aeneid, it waa pre-
aerved and publiahed by his friends Varius and
Tucca. The poet had been enriched by the
liberality of Ms patrons, and he left behind
him a considerable property and a house on
the Esquiline HUl near the gardens of Maece
nas. He used Ms wealth liberaUy, and it is
said that he supported Ms father, who became
blmd, but did not die before his son had attained
a mature age. In Ms fortunes and Ms friends
Virgil was a happy man. Munificent patronage
gave him ample means of enjoyment and of
leisure, and he had the friendship of all the
most accomplished men of the day, among
whom Horace entertained a strong affection for
him. He was an amiable, good-tempered man,
free from the mean passions of envy and
jealousy ; and in all but health he was prosper
ous. His fame, which was established M his
lifetime, was cherished after Ms death as an
inheritance in which every Roman had a share,
and hia works became school-books even before
the death of Augustus. His poems were con
sulted for chance oracles (sortes Vergilianae)
under the Roman empire (Capit, Albin. 5 ;
Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 4 ; Spartian. Hadr. 2).
The learned poems of Virgil soon gave employ-

ment to commentators and critics. Aulus
Gelhus has numerous remarks on Virgil, and
Macrobius, to Ms Saturnalia, has fined four
books (iii.-vi.) with Ms critical remarks on Vir
gil s poems. One of the most valuable commen
taries onVu-gU, in wMch a great amount of curious
and instructive matter has been preserved, is
that of Servius [Servius].— The chief authority
for the Life of Virgil, apart from casual notices
m his own poems or in those of contemporary
poets, is the biography prefixed to the commen
tary on VirgU written by Aelius Donatus M
the fourth century a.d. TMs Life was derived
by Donatus from the biography composed by
Suetonius M his de Viris Hlustribus. [Dona
tus.] Suetonius is said to have derived his
information from accounts by Varius, and by
MeUssus, who was a freedman of Maecenas
(GeU. xvii. 10). Another Life of VirgU was
compUed from the commentary of Valerius
Probus ; a third, found in Jerome, is also derived
from Suetonius ; a fourth, of unknown author-
sMp, is prefixed to the commentary of Servius
oniheAendd ; and a fifth, also of unknown date,
is found to the Bernese MS. of VirgU. The
grammarian Phocas, in the fifth century, made
a version to hexameters of Donatus's Life of
VirgU. VirgU was the great poet of the middle
ages, too, and Dante owned him for his master
and Ms model. — The ten short poems caUed
Bucolica were the earUest works of Virgil, and
probably all written between 41 and 39. These
BucoUca are notBucoUcamthe some sense as the
poems of Theocritus, wMch have the same title.
They have all a pastoral form and colouring, but
Borne of them have nothing more. They are also
called Eclogae or Selections, but there is no rea
son to suppose that tMs name originated with
the poet. Their merit consists in their versifica
tion (wMch was smoother and more poUshed than
the hexameterswMch the Romans had yet seen),
and M many natural and simple touches. But
as an attempt to transfer the Syracusan muse
toto Italy, they bear the stamp of imitations
and, however graceful and melodious, cannot
be ranked with the more genuine pastorals of
Theocritus. The fourth Eclogue, entitled Pollio,
wMch may have been written to 40, after the
peace of Brundusium, has nothing of the pas
toral character about it. It is half aUegorical,
half Mstorical and prophetical — anythmg, in
fact, but BucoUc. The first Eclogueis BucoUc in
form and M treatment, with a Mstorical basis.
The second Eclogue, the Alexis, is an amatory
poem, with a BucoUc colouring. The third,
the fifth, the seventh, and the ninth, are more
clearly modeUed on the form of the poems of
Ms Sicilian prototype; and the eighth, the
Pharmaceutria, is a direct imitation of the
original Greek. The tenth entitled Gallus,
perhaps written the last of aU, is a love poem,
wMch, if written in elegiac verse, would be
more appropriately caUed an Elegy than a Bu-
co]ic_The Georgica or 'Agricultural Poem'
in four books, written (37-30 B.C.), is a didactic
poem wMch VirgU dedicated to his patron
Maecenas. He treats of the cultivation of
the soU M the first book, of fruit trees to the
second, of horses and other cattle in the third,
and of bees M the fourth. This is generally
regarded as Ms masterpiece, and it is unques
tionably the most finished and perfect of Ms
works, showing wonderful sMU in treating the
more prosaic subjects of practical daily life and
embeUishing them with magnificent bursts of
poetry, yet so as to present a complete and
Irarmonious work. Its versificati on is the per-

VERGILIUS 995
fection of the Latin hexameter. Yet, great as
are these merits, the Aendd is the greater poem
of the two; in grandeur, to poetical matter and,
to most readers, in interest, it is superior, and
yields only to the Georgics in artistic complete
ness. The Georgics are, no doubt, based on
the works of Hesiod and Aratus, but are so
treated as to be rightly regarded as an original
poem. In the first book he enumerates the
subjects of his poem, among which is the treat
ment of bees; yet the management of bees
seems but meagre material for one fourth of
the whole poem, and the author accordingly
completed the fourth ' book with matter
somewhat extraneous — the long story of Ari
staeus. — The Aendd, or adventures of Aeneas
after the fall of Troy, is an epic poem on the
model of the Homeric poems. It waa founded
upon an old Roman tradition that Aeneas and
Ms Trojans settled M Italy, and were the
founders of the Roman name. In the first
book we have the story of Aeneas bemg driven
by a storm on the coast of Africa, and being
hospitably received by Dido, queen of Carthage,
to whom he relates in the episode of the aecond
and third booka the faU of Troy and Ms wan
derings. In the fourth book the poet has
elaborated the story of the attachment of Dido
and Aeneas, the departure of Aeneas in obedi
ence to the wiU of the gods, and the suicide of
the Carthaginian queen. The fifth book con
tains the visit to Sicily, and the sixth the
landing of Aeneas at Cumae M Italy, and his
descent to the infernal regions, where he sees
Ms father Anchises, and has a prophetic vision
of the glorious destinies of his race and of the
future heroes of Rome. In the first six books
the adventures of Odysseus M the Odyssey are
the model, and these books contain more va
riety of Mcident and situation than those which
follow. The last six books, the history of the
atruggles of Aeneas M Italy, are founded on
the model of the battles of the Iliad. Latinus,
the Mng of the Latini, offers the Trojan hero
his daughter Lavmia in marriage, who had
been betrothed to Turnus, the warlike kmg of
the RutuU. The contest is ended by the death
of Turnus, who faUa by the hand of Aeneas.
The fortunes of Aeneas and Ms final settlement
in Italy are the subject of the Aeneid ; but it is
the national epic of the Roman people, and' its
real object is to set' forth the glories of Rome
and, less directly, of the JuUan house, to which
Augustus belonged, and to foster in the Romans
a patriotic feeling and, still more, a religious
sentiment for the gods and heroes of their an
cestors. In the first book the foundation of
Alba Longa is promised by Jupiter to Venus
(Aeneid, i. 254), and the transfer of empire
from Alba to Rome ; from the line of Aeneas
wiU descend the ' Trojan Caesar,' whose empire
will only be limited by the ocean, and his
glory by the heavens. The future rivalry be
tween Rome and Carthage, and the ultimate
triumphs of Rome are predicted. The poems
abound M allusions to the Mstory of Rome ;
and the aim of the poet to confirm and embelhsh
the popular tradition of the Trojan origin of
the Roman state, and the descent of the Julu
from Venus, is apparent throughout. More
interest is excited by Turnus than by Aeneas.
It is true that it might be said of the IUad that
the character of Hector wins more admiration
than that of AchiUes ; but the cases are not
parallel, smce Aeneas is in himself a weak and
insipid personage, and unsuited to be the here
of an epic. Virgil imitated other poets besides
3s2

996

VERGINIUS

Homer, and he has occasionally borrowed from
them, especially from ApoUonius of Rhodes.
The historical colouring wMch pervades it, and
the great amount of antiquarian learnmg which
he has scattered tMough it make the Aeneid a
study for the historian of Rome. — The larger
editions of Virgil contam some short poems,
wMch are attributed to him. The Culex or
Gnat is a kind of Bucolic poem in 413 hexa
meters, often very obscure. Virgil is known to
have written a poem of tMs name (Donat. Vit. ;
Sueton. Vit. Lucan. ; Stat. Silv. ii. 7, 73) ; but
it is on the whole probable that the poem which
we have is by an imitator of Virgil. The Ciris,
or the mythus of Scylla the daughter of Nisus,
king of Megara, in 541 hexameters, borrows
from Virgil's forms, but was probably written
by an imitator of CatuUus, belonging to the
literary circle of MessaUa. The Moretum, in
123 verses, the name of a dish of various ingre
dients is a poem in hexameters, on the daily
labour of a cultivator, but it contams oMy the de
scription of the labours of the firat part of the
day, which conaiats in preparing the Moretum.
It is suggested, with probability, that this may be
a translation or adaptation by VirgU of a Greek
poem of PartheniuB. The Copa, in elegiac
verse, is an invitation by a female tavern keeper
or servant attached to a Caupona to passengers
to come in and enjoy themselves. There is no
reason against accepting this as Virgil's work.
There are alao fourteen short pieces in various
metres, classed under the general name of
Catalepton (sometimes written Catalecta).
The name is derived from a title (Kara
Xeirrbv) which Aratus gave to a set of small
poems (Strab. p. 466). They were written in
the period of Virgil and it is probable that many
are by Virgil — some the work of his earUer
years. — Editions of Virgil by Heyne, Leips.
1798; Ribbeck, Leips. 1859; Conington (re
vised by Nettleship), 1883; Sidgwick, 1890.
Verginius. [Virginius.]
Vermina, eon of Syphax. He sided with the
Carthaginians, and was attacked and defeated
by the Romans after the battle of Zama. He
made his peace with them, but much of his
territory went to Masmissa. (Liv. xxix. 831,
xxx. 36, xxxi. 11, 19.)
Verolamium or Verulamium (Old Verulam,
near St. Albans), the chief town of the Catuvel-
launi in Britain, probably the residence of the
king Cassivellaunus, which was conquered by
Caesar. It was subsequently made a Roman
municipium. It was destroyed by the Britons
under Boudicca or Boadicea, in their insurrec
tion against the Romans, but was rebuilt and
continued to be an important place.
Veromandui, a people in Gallia Belgica,
between, the Nervii and Suessiones, in the
modern Vermandois. Their chief town was
Augusta Veromanduorum (St. Quentin).
(Caes. B.G. ii. 4 ; Ptol. Ui. 9, 11.)
Verona (Veronensis: Verona), an important
town in Gallia Cisalpma, on the river Athesis
(Adige: Sil. It. viii. 595), was originally the
capital of the Euganei, but subsequently
belonged to the Cenomani. At a still later
time it was made a Roman colony, with the
surname Augusta; and under the empire it
was one of the largeat and moat flourishing
towns in the N. of Italy. It was the birthplace
of CatuUus. (Ov. Am. iii. 15, 7 ; Mart. x. 108.)
It is celebrated on account of the victory won
in its neighbourhood by Theodoric the Great
over Odoacer (Jordan. Get. 57). Theodoric
took up his residence to tMs town, whence it is

VERRES
called by the German writers of the middle
ages Dietrichs Bern, to distinguish it from Bern
in Switzerland. There are still many Roman
remains at Verona, and, among others, a mag
nificent ampMtheatre, and part of the walls
built by GaUienus a.d. 265.
Verres, C, was quaestor B.C. 82, to Cn.
Papirius Carbo, and therefore at that period
belonged to the Marian party. He, however,
deserted Carbo, embezzling at the same time
the state money which he held as quaestor, and
went over to Sulla, who Bent him to Bene-
ventum, where he was aUowed a share of the
confiscated estates. Verres next appears as
the legate of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella, praetor
of Cilicia in 80-79, and one of the most rapacious
of the provincial governors. On the death of
the regular quaestor, C. MaUeolus, Verres
became the pro-quaestor of Dolabella. In Verres
Dolabella found an active and unscrupulous
agent, and, in return, connived at his excesses.
But the pro-quaestor proved as faithless to
Dolabella as he had been to Carbo, and gave
evidence agatost hUn on Ms prosecution by
M. Scaurus in 78. Verres was praetor urbanus
in 74, and afterwarda pro-praetor in SicUy, where
he remamed nearly tMee years (73-71). The
extortions and exactions of Verres in the island
have become notorious through the celebrated
orations of Cicero. No claaa of the inhabitants
of Sicily was exempted from his avarice, his
cruelty, or Ms Msults. The wealthy had money
or works of art to yield up ; the middle classes
might be made to pay heavier imposts; and
the exports of the -vineyards, the arable land
and the loom he aaddled with heavier burdens.
By capricious changes or violent abrogation of
their compacts, Verres reduced to beggary both
the producers and the farmers of the revenue.
His tMee years' rule desolated the island more
effectuaUy than the two recent Servile wars,
and than the old struggle between Carthage
and Rome for the possession of the island. So
diligently did he employ his opportumties that
he boasted of having amassed enough for a Ufe
of opulence, even if he were compeUed to dis
gorge two-thirds of his plunder in stifling
inquiry or purchasing an acqmttal. As soon as
he left Sicily the inhabitants resolved to bring
him to trial. They committed the prosecution
to Cicero, who had been quaestor to Sicily
in 75, and had promised Ms good offices to
the SicUians whenever they might demand
them. Cicero heartily entered Mto the cause
of the Sicilians, and spared no pains to secure
a conviction of the great criminal. Verres was
defended by Hortensius, and was supported by
the whole power of the aristocracy. At fh-Bt
Ms partisans attempted to stop the prosecution
by bribes, flatteries, and menaces ; but finding
this to be impossible, they endeavoured to sub
stitute a sham prosecutor in the place of
Cicero. Hortensius therefore offered as prose
cutor Q. Caecilius Niger, who had been quaestor
to the defendant, had quarrelled with him, and
had consequently, it was alleged, the means of
exposing officially Ms abuse of the public
money. But the SicUians rejected CaecUius
altogether, not merely as no match for Hor
tensius, but as foisted Mto the cause by the
defendant or Ms advocate. By a technical
process of the Roman law, called Divinatio,
the judices, without hearing evidence, deter
mined from the arguments of counsel alone
who should be appointed prosecutor. [Diet, of
Ant. art. Divinatio.] They decided in Cicero's
favour. The oration which Cicero deUvered on

VERRUGO
this occasion was the Divinatio in Q. Cae-
cilium. The pretensions of Caecilius were
thus set aside. But hope did not yet foraake
Verres and Ms friends. Evidence for the pro
secution was to be coUected in Sicily itself.
Cicero was aUowed 110 days for the purpoee.
Verres once agaM attempted to set up a sham
prosecutor, who undertook to impeach him for
Ms former extortions in Achaia, and to gather
the evidence m 108 days. But the new prose
cutor never went even so far as Brundusium in
quest of evidence, and the design was aban
doned. Instead of the 110 days aUowed,
Cicero, assisted by his cousin Lucius, completed
Ms researches to fifty, and returned with a
mass of evidence and a crowd of witnesses
gathered from all parts of the island. Hortensius
now grasped at his last chance of an acquittal,
and it was not an unUkely one. Could the im
peachment be put off to the next year, Verres
was safe. Hortensius himself would then be
consul, with Q. Metellus for his colleague, and
M. MeteUus would be praetor urbanus. For
every firm and honest judex whom the upright
M. AcUius Glabrio, then praetor urbanus, had
named, a partial or venal substitute would be
found. Glabrio himself would give place as
quaesitor or president of the court to M.
MeteUus, a partisan, if not a kinsman, of the
defendant. It was already the month of July.
The games to be exhibited by Cn. Pompey were
fixed for the middle of August, and would
occupy a fortnight ; the Roman games would
immediately succeed them, and thus forty days
intervene between Cicero's charge and the
reply of Hortensius, who agaM, by dexterous
adjournments, would delay the proceedings
until the games of Victory and the commence
ment of the new year. Cicero therefore aban
doned aU thought of eloquence or display, and,
merely totroducMg Ms case to the first of the
Verrine orations, rested all his hopes of success
on the weight of testimony alone. Hortensius
was quite unprepared with counter-evidence,
* and after the firat day he abandoned the cause
of Verres. Before the tone days occupied to
hearing evidence were over Verres quitted the
city to despair, and was condemned in his
absence. He retired to Marseilles, retaining so
many of Ms treasures of art as to cause
eventuaUy Ms proscription by M. Antony in
43. — Of the seven Verrine orations of Cicero,
two only, the Divinatio and the Actio Prima,
were spoken, wMle the remainmg five were
compUed from the depositions after the verdict.
Cicero's own division of the impeachment is the
foUowing : 1. In Q. CaecUium or Divinatio.
1. PreUmMary- 2. Prooemium — Actio Prima —
I Statement of the Case.
These alone were spoken.
- . | 3. Verres' official Ufe to B.C. 73.
2. Orations | 4_ Juriscjicti0 SiciUensis.
founded on i g 0rat;o Frumentaria.

VESPASIANUS

997

the Deposi- g'

tions

-De Signis.
-De Suppliciis.

These were circulated as documents or mani
festoes of the cause after the flight of Verres.
Verrtigo, a town of the Volaci in Latium, of
uncertain site, perhaps at Colle Ferro, near
Segni (Liv. iv. 1, 55, v. 28 ; Diod. xiv. 11).
Verticordia. [Venus.]
Vertumnus or Vortumnus is said to have
been an Etruscan divinity whose worship was
introduced at Rome by an ancient Vulsinian
colony occupying at first the Caelian hill and

afterwards the Vicus Tuscus. But he was really
an Italian deity, worshipped by Latina and
Sabines, and the only reason for the tradition
of his Etruscan origin seems to have been that
his statue stood in the VicuB Tuscus. (Varro,
L. L. v. 74.) The name is evidently the old
present participle passive of verto, and belonged
to him as the god of the ' turmng year ' — that
is, of the seasons, whose various hues and fruits
at different times are represented by the myth
of the metamorphoses of Vertumnus ; the god
being in reality the giver of the seasonable
produce of the year, connected with the
transformation of plants and their progress
from bloBsom to fruit. (Propert. v. 2, 11 ;
Tibull. iv. 2, 13 ; Colum. x. 308.) Hence the
atory that when Vertumnus waa in love with
Pomona he assumed all posaible forma, untU at
last he gained his end by changing him
self into a handsome youth (Propert. v. 2 ; Ov.
Met. xiv. 623; Pomona). Gardeners accord
ingly offered to him the first produce of their
gardens and garlands of budding flowers. The
shrine and statue of Vertumnus stood at the
W. end of the Vicus Tuscus, where remams
have been found. It was probably from his
presence in a busy street of traders that he waa
aupposed to be connected with trade and sale
or exchange. Propertius alludes also to a
tradition that the Tiber had flowed once where
Ms sMine stood, and that he was named ' verso
ab amne ' (v. 2, 10). This story may come
partly from the name and partly from recollec
tion of the ancient draining of that quarter.
Verulae (Verulanus : Veroli), a town of the
Hernici in Latium, SE. of Aletrium, and N. of
Frusino, subsequently a Roman colony (Liv,
ix. 42).
Verulamium. [Verolamium.]
Verus, L. Aurelius, the coUeague of M. Aure
lius in the empire, A.D. 161-169. He was born
in 130, and Ms original name was L. Ceionius
Commodus. His father, L. Ceionius Commodus,
was adopted by Hadrian in 136 ; and, on the
death of Ms father in 138, he was, in pursuance
of the command of Hadrian, adopted, along with
M. Aurelius, by M. Antoninus. On the death
of Antoninus, in 161, he succeeded to the
empire along with M. Aurelius. The history
of his reign is given under Aurelius. Verus
died suddenly at Altinum, in the country of the
Veneti, towards the close of 169. He had been
married to Lucilla, the daughter of his col
league. Vescinus Ager. [Suessa Aurunca.]
Veseris, a smaU river of Campania, near
Vesuvius, on the banks of which the battle
against the Latins was fought by Manlius
Torquatus and Decius Mus B.C. 340 (Liv. viu. 8 ;
Cic. Fin. i. 1 ; Aurel. Vict. Vir. HI. 26, 28).
Vesevus. [Vesuvius.]
Vesontio (Besangon), the chief town of the
Sequani in GaUia Belgica, situated on the river
Dubis (Doubs), wMch flowed around the town,
with the exception of a space of 600 feet, on
which stood a mountam, forming the citadel of
the town, and connected with the latter by
means of waUs. Vesontio was an important
place under the Romans, and stiU contains
ruina of an aqueduct, a triumphal arch, and
other Roman remaina. (Caea. B. G. i. 38 ;
Ptol. ii. 9, 21 ; Dio Cass, xxxviii. 34.)
Vespasianus, T. Flavius Sabinus, Roman
emperor a.d. 70-79, was born in the Sabine
country on the 17th of November, a.d. 9. His
father was a man of mean condition, of Reate,
in the country of the Sabini. His mother,

998 VESPASIANUS
Vespasia Polla, was the daughter of a prae
fectus castrorum, and the sister of a Roman
senator. She was left a widow with two sons
— Flavius Sabinus and Vespasian. Vespasian
served as tribunus militum in TMace, and was
quaestor in Crete and Cyrene. He was after
wards aedUe and praetor. About this time he
took to wife Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of
a Roman eques, by whom he had two sons, both
of whom succeeded him. In the reign of
Claudius he was sent into Germany as legatus
legionis, and in 43 he held the same command
in Britain, and reduced the Isle of Wight. He
was consul in 51, and proconsul of Africa under
Nero. He was at this time very poor, and was
accused of gettmg money by dishonourable
means. But he had a great military reputation,
and he was liked by the soldiers. Nero after
wards sent him to the East (66), to conduct the
war agamst the Jews. His conduct of the
Jewish war had raised his reputation, when the
war broke out between Otho and VitelUus after
the death of Galba. He was proclaimed
emperor at Alexandria on the 1st of July, 69,

Vespasian. (From the bust at Naples.)
and soon after all through the East. Vespasian
came to Rome in the following year (70), leaving
Ms son Titus to continue the war against the
Jews. Titus took Jerusalem after a siege of
five months ; and a formidable insurrection of
the Batavi, headed by CiviUs, was put down
about the same period. Vespasian, on his
arrival at Rome, worked with great industry to
restore order in the city and in the empire. He
disbanded some of the . mutinous soldiers of
ViteUius, and mamtaMed discipline among Ms
own. He co-operated in a friendly manner
with the senate in the public administration.
The simplicity and frugality of his mode of Ufe
formed a striking contrast with the profusion
and luxury of some of Ms predecessors, and his
example is said to have done more to reform
the morals of Rome than all the laws which
had ever been enacted. He lived more like a
private person than a man who possessed
supreme power: he was affable and easy of
access to all persons. The personal anecdotes
of such a man are some of the most instructive
records of his reign. He was never ashamed
of the meanness of Ms origin, and ridiculed aU I

VESTA
attempts to make out for him a distingmshed
genealogy. When Vologeses, the PartMan
king, addressed to Mm a letter commencing in
these terms, ' Arsaces, Mng of kings, to Flavius
Vespaaianus,' the anawer began, ' Flavius Ves
pasianus to Arsaces, king of kings.' If it be
true, aa it is recorded, that he was not annoyed
at satire or ridicule, he exMbited an elevation
of character almost unparaUeled to one who
fiUed so exalted a station. He knew the bad
character of his son Domitian, and as long as
he lived he kept Mm under proper restraint.
The stories that are told of Ms avarice and of
his modes of raismg money, if true, detract
from the digmty of his character ; and it seems
that he had a taste for Uttle savings and for
coarse humour. Yet it is admitted that he was
liberal in all his expenditure for purposes of"
pubUc utiUty. In 71 Titus returned to Rome,
and both father and son triumphed together
on account of the conquest of the Jews. The
reign of Vespasian was marked by the conquest
of North Wales and the island of Anglesey by
Agricola, who was sent Mto Britain in 78.
Vespasian also busied himself to securing the
German frontier: he fortified the Agri Decu
mates and strengthened the defences of the
Limes Germanicus. [Germania.] In Italy he
reorganised the praetorian guard, forming it of
Mne cohorts levied oMy from Italians. His
financial management was marked by great
economy; but he was the author of some
remarkable pubUc works at Rome, the building
of the magnificent Temple of Peace, and the
rebuilding of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.
[Roma, pp. 803, 804.] In the summer of 79
Vespasian, whose health was failing, went to
spend some time at his paternal house in the
mountains of the Sabini, but derived no benefit
from the treatment. He stiU attended to busi
ness, just as if he had been to perfect health,
and, on feeling the approach of death, he said
that an emperor should die standing ; and in
fact he did die to tMs attitude, on the 24th of
June, 79, betog sixty-nine years of age. (Tac.
Hist. ; Suet. Vesp. ; Dio Cass, cxvi.)
Vesta, an ItaUan goddess of the hearth and
more especially of the fire on the hearth, both
in name and in nature akin to the Greek
Hestia, but worshipped by the Italian nations,
particularly by the Latins, from ancient times
independently of any connexion with Greece. It
has been well shown, especiaUy by Mr Frazer,
that the worship of Vesta had its origm m the
difficulty and the neceasity of obtaining fire in
primitive times. Hence, as even to the present
time among savage tribes, arose the custom of
keeping a fire always aUght somewhere for the
use of the community and of carrymg fire thence
for any new settlement. TMs custom was pre
served by the conservatism of religion among
civUised Greeks and Romans, after the neces
sity had ceased to exist [see Diet, of Ant. art.
Prytaneum], and the state-hearth was pre
served in each Latin state, just as in Greece ;
and m like fasMon an outgoing settlement
carried its sacred fire from the parent city.
It was natural that from these observances the
sacred flame itself should become persomfied as
a goddess (Ov. Fast. vi. 291) who presided over
the hearth of each house, and M the state-hearth
(or sanctuary of Vesta) over the whole common
wealth. Vesta was thus intimately connected
with the Penates as deities of the household and
of the state [Penates] ; and the fact that the sa
cred fire was brought from the parent city made
the Romans trace back the origm of the cult to

VESTINI
tile more ancient Latin settlements, first to
jUuiuvium and Alba, and, after the idea of a
irojan origin prevailed, to Troy itself, whence
it was supposed the saored fire of Vesta as well
as the Penates had come (Verg. Aen. ii. 296).
lo this cause belongs the ancient custom at
Home that praetors, consuls and dictators, be-
tore they began their functions, sacrificed at
-Uanuvmm, that town having been an ancient
religious centre of the Latins. At Rome, as to
other Latin cities, the sacred fire was tended and
tne service of Vesta mamtained by a body of
virgin priestesses, who lived together in a house
(Atrium Vestae) to the SE. of the Forum, and
under the NW. side of the Palatine, abutting
on the Via Nova. This house, as rebuilt under
Hadrian, was excavated in 1883, and from its
character and the mscriptions (as late as the
beginning of the fourth century a.d.) and sculp
tures found m it much additional Ught has been
thrown on the Vestal service. An account is
given in Diet, of Ant. art. Vestales : it is
enough here to notice that to all matters a
•simphcity of Ufe and of the household imple
ments was preserved wMch marks the institu
tion as being very ancient, with its pecuUar
characteristics handed down from a primitive
age. In fact it is no doubt right to assume
that the Vestals represented the daughters of
the cMef M the primitive tribe, who maintained
the state-fire in their father's hut. When
Vesta was recognised as a personal deity it be
came necessary that the priestesses should
dweU to a sort of nunnery, and that the god
dess should have a separate temple ; but tMs
Aedes Vestae preserved the shape of the primi
tive cMefs hut, and was a round buUding [see
Roma, p. 810]. The public worship of Vesta
was maintained to this temple : her private
worsMp belonged to every domestic hearth —
in the earUest Roman houses in the Atrium [see
Hid. of Ant. art. Domus, and compare Lares ;
Penates]. In her aspect as a bemgn goddess
of fire Vesta seems to have been aMn to or
identical with Stata Mater.
Vestini, a SabeUian people M central Italy,
dwelling between the Apennines and the Adriatic
sea, and separated from Picenum by the river
Matrinus, and from the Marrucini by the river
Aternus. Their country is cut to two by a spur
of the Apennines tMough wMch the Aternus
finds its way by a narrow passage. They are
mentioned M connexion with the Marsi, Mar-
ructoi, and Paehgm; but they subsequently
separated ,from these peoples, and jomed the
Sammtes to their war against Rome. They
were conquered by the Romans, B.C. 322, when
their towns Cutina and Cmgilia were taken
/Liv viii. 29) ; in 301 they made a treaty with
Rome (Liv. x. 3), and from that time appear
as faitMul aUies until the Social war, when
thev jomed the Italian states agatost Rome,
and were conquered by Pompeius Strabo to 89.
(Arm B C. i. 39, 62.) Juvenal speaks of them
as still retaining their rustic simplicity (xiv. 181 ;
cf Sil. It. vui. 513).
Vesulns (Monte Viso), the loftiest summit of
the Cottian Alps. It reaches a height of 12,641
feet and from its promment poaition, standmg
forward at a bend of the range, it waa regarded
by the ancients as the loftiest peak of the Alps,
with a further claim to special notice, that it
contained the sources of the Padus (Plin. iii.
J17 ; Mel. ii. 414 ; Verg. Aen. x. 708).
Vesuvius, also caUed Vesevus, Vesbius, or
Vesvius, the celebrated volcanic mountain in
¦Campania, rising out of the plain SE. of Nea-

VETULONIA

999

polis. There are no records of any eruption
of Vesuvius before the Christian era, but the
ancient writers were aware of its volcamc nature
from the igneous appearance of its rocks (Diod.
iv. 21 ; Strab. p. 247). The slopes of the moun
tam were extremely fertile, but the top was a
rough and Bterile plain, on wMch Spartacus and
his gladiators were besieged by a Roman army
(Flor. iii. 20, 4; Plut. Crass. 9; App. B.C. i.
116 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 80). In a.d. 68 the volcano
gave the first symptoms of agitation in an
earthquake, which occasioned considerable dam
age to several towns in its vicinity ; and on the
24th of August, a.d. 79, occurred the first great
eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the
cities of Stabiae, Herculaneum, and Pompeii.
It was in tMs eruption that the elder Pliny loat
his life. [Plinius.] The altered appearance
of the country is noticed by Tacitus (Ann. iv.
67; cf. Mart. iv. 44; SU. It. xvii. 594). The
next recorded eruption was in a.d. 203 (Dio
Cass, lxxvi. 2).
Vetera or Castra Vetera, the chief military
station of the lower Rhine, held usually by two
legions. It was not far from the junction of
the Lippe with the Rhine on the site of the
modern Birten, near Xanten. (Tac. Ann. i. 48 ;
Hist. iv. 22.)
Vetranio, commanded the legions in Illyria
and Pannonia, at the period (a.d. 350) when Con
stans was treacherously deatroyed and Mb
tMone seized by Magnentius. Vetranio was
proclaimed emperor by Ms troops ; but at the
end of ten months he resigned his pretensions
m favour of Constantius, by whom he was
treated with great kindness, and permitted to
retire to Prusa, in Bithynia, where he passed
the remaining six years of his life. (Aram. Marc.
xv. 1, xxi. 8 ; Aurel. Vict. Caes. 41, 42 ; Zosim.
ii. 43, 44.)
Vettius, L., a Roman eques, in the pay of
Cicero in B.C. 63, to whom he gave some valu
able information respecting the Catilinarian
conspiracy. He agaM appears in 59, as an in
former. In that year he accused Curio, Cicero,
L. LucuUus, and many other distinguished men,
of having formed a conspiracy to assassinate
Pompey. This conspiracy was a sheer inven
tion for the purpose of injuring Cicero, Curio,
and others ; but there is difficulty in determin-
mg who were the mventors of it. Cicero re
garded it as the work of Caesar, who used the
tribune Vatinius as his instrument. At a later
period, when Cicero had returned from exile,
and feared to provoke the triumvir, he tMew
the whole blame upon Vatinius. Vettius gave
evidence first before the senate and on the next
day before the assembly of the people ; but Ms
statements were regarded with great suspicion,
and on the foUowing morning he was found
strangled in the priaon to which the aenate had
sent him. It was given out that he had com
mitted suicide ; but the marks of violence were
visible on Mb body, and Cicero at a later time
charged Vatinius with the murder. (Suet. Jul.
17, 20 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 41, xxxviii. 9 ; Cic. in ,
Vatin. 10, 11, ad Att. ii. 24 ; App. B.C. ii. 12.)
Vettius Scato. [Scato.]
Vettones or Vectones, a people in the interior
of Lusitania, E. of the Lusitani and W. of the
Carpetani, extending from the Durius to the
Tagus (Strab. p. 152; Cass. B.C. i. 38).
Vetulonia, Vetulonium, or Vetulonii, an an
cient city of Etruria, and one of the twelve
cities of the Etruscan Confederation. From
this city the Romans are said to have borrowed
the insignia of their magistrates— the fasces,

1000

VETURIA

sella curulis, and toga praetexta — as well as the
use of the brazen trumpet in war (Dionys. iii.
51; Strab. p. 220; Flor. i. 5 ; Sil. It. viii. 483).
After the time of the Roman Mngs we find no
further mention of Vetulonia, except to the
catalogues of Pliny and Ptolemy, both of whom
place it among the inland colonies of Etruria.
Pliny also states that there were hot springs in
its neighbourhood not far from the sea, in which
fish were found, notwithstanding the warmth
of the water (Plin. ii. 227). The very site of
the ancient city was supposed to have been en
tirely lost ; but it has been discovered in this
century near a small village called Magli-
ano, between the river Osa and the Albegna,
and about eight miles inland. It appears to have
had a circuit of at least four and a half miles.
Veturia Gens, anciently called Vetusia, pa
trician and.plebeian. The Veturii rarely occur m
the later times of the republic, and after B.C.
206, when L. Veturius Philo was conaul, their
name disappears from the Fasti. The most
distmguished families in the gens bore the
names Calvinus, Cicurinus, and Philo.
Veturius Mamurius, was aaid in old traditions
to have been the armourer who made the eleven
ancilia exactly like the one that was sent from
heaven in the reign of Numa (Plut. Num. 13 ;
Ov. Fast. iii. 384 ; Dionys. ii. 71). But there is
good reason to think that this was merely an
attempt to explain the invocations of Mamurius
in the hymns of the Salii, and that Mamurius
Veturius is really = Mars Vetus [see Mars, p.
529, b]. This ' Old Mars ' was represented by
a man clothed in skms who was driven out of
the city (Lyd. iv. 36), to symbolise the old sea
son of wintry darkness driven out before the
new spring year. [See Did. of Ant. art. Salii].
Similar ceremonies to represent the driving
out of winter have been observed in the folk
lore of other countries.
Vetus, Antistius. 1. Propraetor in Further
Spain about B.C. 68, under whom Caesar served
as quaestor (Plut. Caes. 5 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 43). —
2. C, son of the preceding, quaestor in 61, and
tribune of the plebs in 57, when he supported
Cicero in opposition to Clodius. In the Civil
war he espoused Caesar's party, and we find
him in Syria in 45, fighting against Q. Caecilius
Brassus. In 34 Vetus carried on war against
the Salassi, and in 30 was consul suffectuB.
He accompanied Augustus to Spain in 25, and
on the iUness of the emperor continued the
war agamst the Cantabri and Astures, whom
he reduced to aubmiaaion. (Cic. ad Q, Fr. ii. 1 ;
Dio Cass, xlvii. 27, liii. 25 ; Flor. iv. 12, 21.) — 3.
C, son of No. 2, consul B.C. 6 ; and as he lived
to see both his sons consuls, he must have been
alive at least as late as a.d. 28. He was a friend of
Velleius Baterculus. (Dio Cass. Iv. 9 ; VeU. Pat.
ii. 43.) — 4. L., grandson of No. 3, and consul
with the emperor Nero, A.D. 55. In 58 he com
manded a Roman army in Germany, and formed
the project of connecting the MoseUa (Moselle)
and the Arar (Saone) by a canal, and thus
forming a communication between the Mediter
ranean and the Northern Ocean, as troopB
could be conveyed down the Rhone and the
Saone toto the Moselle through the canal, and
down the Moselle into the Rhine, and so into the
Ocean. Vetus put an end to his life in 65, in
order to anticipate his sentence of death, which
Nero had resolved upon. Vetus was the father-
in-law of Rubellius Plautus. (Tac. Ann. xiii.
11, 53, xiv. 57, xvi. 10.)
Viadus (Oder), a river of Germany, faUing
into the Baltic (Ptol. ii. 11, 2).

VIBULANUS
Vibilius, king of the Hermanduri, aided!
Vangio and Sido in expelling Vannius from Ms
domtoions in the reign of Claudius (Tac. Ann.
ii. 63, xii. 29; Vannius).
Vibinum, or Vibonium ('IBdvtov: Bovimo),
a town of Apulia, in the interior, seven miles S.
of Aecae and fifteen from Luceria (Pol. iii. 88 ;
Plin. 105).
ViMus Pansa. [Pansa.]
Vibius Sequester. [Sequester.]
Vibo, the Roman name of the Greek town
Hipponium ('lirirdvtov: 'liririovidrys), situated
on the SW. coast of Bruttium, and on a gulf
called after it Sinus Vibonensis or Hippo-
niates. It is said to have been founded by the
Locri Epizephyrii {Strab. p. 256 ; Scymn. p.
308 ; Scyl. iv. 12) ; but it was destroyed by the
elder Dionysius, who transplanted its inhabi
tants to Syracuse. It was afterwards restored,
and at a later time it fell into the hands of the
Bruttii, together with the other Greek cities on
this coast. (Diod. xiv. 107, xv. 24, xvi. 15.) It
was taken from the Bruttii by the Romans,
who colomsed it B.C. 194, and called it Vibo-
Valentia (Strab. l.c. ; Liv. xxi. 51 ; Veil. Pat.
i. 14). Cicero speaks of it as a municipium,
and in the time of Augustus it was one of the
most flourishmg cities in the S. of Italy (Cic.
Verr. v. 16 ; Caes. B.C. iii. 101 ; App. B.C. v.
91, 103). The waUs of the ancient fort are
traceable at Bivona: it is conjectured that
Vibo itself stood above on the site of the
modern town Monte Leone.
Vibulanus, the name of the most ancient
family of the Fabia Gens. It was so powerful
in the ea»ly times of the republic that tMee
brothers of the family held the consulship for
seven years to succession, B.C. 485-479. The
last person of the gens who bore tMs surname
was Q. Fabius Vibulanus, consul 412. TMs
Vibulanus assumed the agnomen of Ambustus,.
and his descendants dropped the name of Vibu
lanus and took that of Ambustus to its place.
In the same way Ambustus was after a time
supplanted by that of Maximus. — 1.- Q. Fabius
Vibulanus, consul 485, when he carried on war
with success against the Volsci and Aequi, and
consul a second time to 482. In 480 he fought.
under his brother Marcus [No. 8] against the
Etruscans, and was killed in battle. (Liv. ii. 41,
46 ; Dionys. viii. 77, 90, ix. 11).— 2. K., brother
of the preceding, was quaestor parricidiiin485,
and along with his coUeague, L. Valerius,.
accused Sp. Cassiu6 Viscellinus, who was M
consequence condemned by the votes of the
populus. He was consul in 484, when he took
on active port to opposing the agrarian law
wMch the tribunes of the people attempted to
bring forward. (Liv. ii. 42 ; Dionys. viii. 82-86.)
In 481 he was conaul a second time, and in 479
a third time, when he espoused the cause of the
plebeians, to whom he had become reconcUed.
As Ms propositions were rejected with acorn by
the patriciana, he and Ms house resolved to
quit Rome altogether, where they were re
garded as apostates by their own order. They
determined to found a settlement on the
banks of the Cremera, a small stream that falls
into the Tiber a few miles above Rome. Accord
ing to the legend, the consul Kaeso went before
the senate and said that the Fabii were wUling
to carry on the war against the Veientea, alone
and at their own coat. Their offer was joyfully
accepted, for the patricians were glad to see
them expose themselves voluntarily to such
dangers. On the day after Kaeso had made the
proposal to the senate, 306 Fabii, all patricians

VIBULLIUS
of one gens, assembled on the Quirinal at the
nouse of Kaeso, and from thence marched, with
the consul at their head, tMough the Porta Car-
"n11 jalis [RoMA> P- 800, b], which was afterwards
called Porta Scelerata (Serv. ad Aen. viii. 337).
-"-hey proceeded straight to the banks of the Cre-
mera, where they erected a fortress. Here they
cook up their abode along with their families and
clients, and for two years continued to devas
tate the territory of Veii. They were at length
rwSPi1^ the Veientes in 477. Ovid says
that the Fabii perished on the Ides of February ;
wit oil other authorities state that they were
destroyed on the day on wMch in a later year
tne Komana were conquered by the Gauls at
the Allia— that is, on the 15th before the Ka
lends of SextiUs, June the 18th (Liv. vi. 1 ;
lac. Hist. u. 91; Plut. Cam. 19). The whole
labia gens perished at the Cremera with the
exception of one individual, the son of Marcus,
from whom all the later Fabii were descended.
(Liv. u. 48-50 ; Dionys. ix. 14-22 ; Gell. xvii.
21; Ov. Fast. ii. 195; Fest. s. v. Scelerata
Porta.) — 3. M., brother of the two preceding,
was consul 483, and a second time 480. In the
latter year he gained a great victory over the
Etruscans, to wMch, however, his coUeague the
consul CMcinnatua and hia brother Q. Fabius
were MUed. (Liv. ii. 48-47.) — 4. Q., son of No. 3,
is said to have been the only one of the Fabii who
survived the destruction of his gens at the Cre
mera, but he could not have been left behind at
Rome on account of his youth, as the legend
relates, since he was consul ten years after
wards. He was consul to 467, a aecond time in
465, and a third time to 459. Fabius was a
member of the second decemvirate (450), and
went into exile on the deposition of the decem
virs. (Liv. ui. 1, 9, 41, 58.)
Vibullius Rufus, L, a senator and a friend
of Pompey, who mode him praefectus fabrum
in the Civil war. He was taken prisoner by
Caesar at Corfinium (49), and a second time in
Spain later to the year. When Caesar landed
to Greece in 48, he despatched Vibullius to
Pompey with offers of peace. Vibullius made
the greatest haste to reach Pompey, in order to
give him the earUest inteUigence of the arrival
of his enemy to Greece. (Cic. ad Q. Fr. iii. 1,
ad Att. vn. 24, viii. 1, 2, 11, 15 ; Caes. B. C. i.
15, 23, 38, to. 10, 11.)
VicaPota. [Nike.]
Vicentia or Vicetia, less correctly Vincentia
(Vicentinus : Vicenza), a town in Venetia, in
the N. of Italy, on the river Togisonua, between
Verona and Patavium. It was a Roman muni
cipium. (Cic. ad Fam. xi. 19 ; PUn. Ep. v. 4, 14.)
Victor, Sex. Aurelius, a Latin writer,
flourished to the middle of the fourth century
under the emperor Constantius and Ms suc
cessors. He was born of humble parents, but
rose to distinction by Ms zeal in the cultivation
of Uterature. Having attracted the attention
of JuUan when at Sirmium, he was appointed
bv that prince governor of one division of Pan
nonia (Amm. Marc. xxi. 10, 6). At a subsequent
period he was made city prefect by Theodo
sius and he is perhaps the same as the Sex.
Aurelius Victor who was consul with Valen
tMian in A.D. 373. The following works, wMch
present in a very compressed forma continuous
record of Roman affairs, from the fabulous
ages down to the death of the emperor Theodo
sius, have all been ascribed to this writer ; but
evidence upon which the determination of
authorship depends is very slender, and in all
probability the tMrd alone belongs to the Sex.

VICTORINUS

1001

Aurelius Victor whom we have noticed above.
(1) Origo Gentis Bomanae, in twenty-three
chapters, containmg the annals of the Roman
race, from Janus and Saturnus down to the era
of Romulus. It is probably a production of
some of the later grammarians who were deBi-
rous of prefixing a suitable introduction to the
series. (2) De Viris Hlustribus Urbis Bomae,
in eighty-six chapters, commencing with the-
birth of Romulus and Remus, and concluding
with the death of Cleopatra, a work of merit,
though of unknown authorship. (3) De Oaesa-
ribus, in forty-two chapters, exhibiting short-
biographies of the emperors, from Augustus to-
Constantius. There is no reason to doubt
that this was a genuine work of Aurelius Victor.
He uses Suetonius to a great extent in the-
earlier Lives. (4) Epitome de Caesaribus, in
forty-eight chapters, beginning with Augustus
and concluding with Theodosius. — Editions of
these four pieces are by Arntzenius, Amst. et
Traj. Bat. 1733, and by Schroter, Leips. 1831.
The Origo is edited separately by Sepp, Munich,.
1879, and the de Vir. Illustr. by Keil, Bresl.
1872. Victor, Publius, the name prefixed to an
enumeration of the principal buildings and
monuments of ancient Rome, distributed ac
cording to the Regions of Augustus. The true
account of this work appears to be that two
lists of the fourteen Regions of Rome were
derived from a document of the time of Con
stantine : the first was the Notitia, the later-
recension, supposed to have been made in the
latter half of the fourth century, was called the
Curiosum Urb. Bom. Begiormm. A sort of
guide-book was made up out of the Curioawm,.
with additions from other sources by writers of
the fifteenth century, and was represented as
an old work by a P. Victor.
Victoria. [Ntke.]
Victoria or Victorina, the mother of Victo
rinus, after whose death she was hailed as the-
mother of camps (Mater Gastrorum), and coins
were struck bearing her effigy. Feeling her
self unequal to the weight of empire, she trans
ferred her power to Marius, and then to Tetri
cus, by whom some say that she was slain,.
while others affirm that she died a natural
death. (Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 4, 6, 80 ; Aurel..
Vict. Caes. 33.)
Victorinus. 1. One of the Thirty Tyrants,
was third of the usurpers who in succession
ruled Gaul during the reign of Gallienus. He
was assassinated at Agrippina by one of Ms-
officers in a.d. 268, after reigning somewhat
more than a year. (Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 5 ;
Aurel. Vict. Caes. 33.) — 2. C. Marius Victori
nus, surnamed Afer from the country of his
birth, taught rhetoric at Rome in the middle of
the fourth century, with so much reputation
that his statue was erected in the Forum of
Trajan. In his old age he embraced Ctois-
tianity ; and when the edict of Julian, prohibit
ing Christians from giving inatruction in polite
literature, waa promulgated, Victorinus chose
to shut up Mb school rather than deny his reli
gion. Besides his commentaries on the Scrip
tures, and other theological works, many of
wMch are extant, Victorinus wrote : — Com
mentarius s. Expositio in Ciceronis Libros de
Inventione, the best edition of which is in the
fifth volume of Orelli's edition of Cicero. 2.
Ars Grammatica de Orthographia et Batione
Metrorum, a complete and voluminous treatise
upon metres, in four bookB, printed Mb he
Grammaticae Latinae Audores Antiqui of

1002

VICTRIX

Putschius, Hannov. 1605. The fame enjoyed by
Victorinus as a public instructor doea not gain
any acceBaion from Ms works. The exposition
•of the De Inventione is more difficult to com
prehend than the text wMch it profesaea to
-explain.— 4. Maximus Victorinus. We possess
tMee short tracts — (1) De Be Grammatica ;
(2) De Carmine Heroico ; (3) De Batione Me-
trorum — all apparently the work of the same
author, and usually ascribed in MSS. to a
Maximus Victorinus ; but whether we ought to
•consider Mm the same with the rhetorician who
flourished under Constantius, or as an inde
pendent personage, it is impossible to decide.
They were printed in the coUection of Puts-
cMub, Hannov. 1605, and in that of Lindemann,
Leips. 1831.
Victrix. [Venus.]
Viducasses, a tribe of the Armorici in Gallia
Lugdunensis, S. of the modern Caen (Ptol. ii.
8, 5 ; PUn. iv. 107).
Vienna (Viennensis : Vienne), the chief town
of the AUobroges in Gallia Lugdunensis,
situated on the Rhone, S. of Lugdunum. It
was subsequently a Roman colony, and a
wealthy and flourishmg town. Under the later
-emperors it was the capital of the province
called after it GaUia Viennensis. (Caes. B.G.
vii. 9 ; Tac. Hist. i. 65, 66 ; Mart. vii. 88.) The
modern town contains several Roman remains,
-of which the most important is a temple, sup
posed to have been dedicated to Augustus, and
now converted into a museum.
Villius Annalis. [Annalis.]
Vimmalis. [Roma.]
Vindalum, a town of the Cavares in GalUa
Narbonensis, situated at the confluence of the
Sulgas (Sorgue) and the Rhone (Strab. p. 185).
Vindelicia, the country of the Vindelici, a
Celtic people, whose territory stretched along
the N. of Raetia, bemg bounded on the N. by
the Danube, which separated it from Germany,
on the W. by the territory of the Helvetii in
Gaul, and on the E. by the river Oenus (Inn),
wMch separated it from Noricum, thus cor-
responding to the NE. part of Switzerland (the
country about the NW. end of the Lake of
Constance), the SE. of Baden, and the S. of
Wiirtemberg and Bavaria. The Vindelici were
¦subdued by Tiberius, who defeated them both
by land in the country S. of the Danube, and
in a naval battle on the Lake of Constance
(Tac. Ann. ii. 17; Suet. Aug. 21 ; Veil. Pat. ii.
39 ; Strab. pp. 193, 207, 293, 313 ; Hor. Od. iv.
-4, 18). It was made part of the Raetian pro
vince [Raetia]. In the fourth cent, a.d., when
Raetia was divided, the northern province,
-called Raetia Secunda, corresponding mainly
to the old territory of the Vindelici, had as its
chief town Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg).
Vindex, C. Julius, propraetor of Gallia
Lugdunensis in the reign of Nero, was the first
¦of the Roman governors who disowned the
authority of Nero (a.d. 68). He did not, how
ever, aspire to the empire himself, but offered
it to Galba, mtending, probably, to make Gaul
a separate and independent kingdom, freed
from the Roman yoke, and governed by himself,
as a vassal prince under Galba. Virginius
Rufus, the governor of Upper Germany,
marched with his army against Vindex. The
two generals had a conference before Vesontio
{Besangon),in which they appear to have come
to some agreement ; but as Vindex was going
to enter the town, he was attacked by the
soldiers of Virginius, and put an end to Ms
own life. (Dio Cass, lxiii. 22-26 ; Tac. Ann. xx.

VIRBIUS
74, Hist. i. 6, 8, 51, iv. 17, 57 ; Plut. Galb. 4 ;
Suet. Ner. 40, 45, Galb. 9, 11.)
Vindicius, a slave, who is said to have given
information to the consuls of the conspiracy
which was formed for the restoration of the
Tarquins, and who was rewarded to consequence
with liberty and the Roman franchise. He is
said to have been the first slave manumitted by
the Vindicta, the name of which was derived
by some persons from that of the slave ; but it
is unnecessary to point out the absurdity of tMs
etymology. (Liv. ii. 5 ; cf. Did. of Antiq. art.
Manumissio.) Vindili. [Vandili.]
Vindilis (Belle Isle), one of the islands of the
Veneti off the NW. coast of Gaul.
Vindius or Vinnius, a mountain in the
NW. of Hispania Tarraconensis, formmg the
boundary between the Cantabri and Astures
(Ptol. ii. 6, 21).
Vindobona (Vienna, Engl. ; Wien, Germ.), a
town in Pannonia, on the Danube, was origtoally
a Celtic settlement, and subsequently a Roman
municipium. Under the Romans it became a
town of importance ; it was the chief station of
the Roman fleet on the Danube, and the head
quarters of a Roman legion. It was taken and
plundered by Attila, but continued to be a
nourishing town under the Lombards. It was
here that the emperor M. Aurelius died, A.D.
180. (Ptol. ii. 15, 3; Aurel. Vict. Caes. 16;
Jordan. Get. 50.)
Vindonissa (Windisch), a town in GaUia
Belgica, on the triangular tongue of land
between the Aar and Reuss, was an important
Roman fortress in the country of the Helvetii
(Tac. Hist. iv. 61, 70). It was used as a chief
military station in Upper Germany. Several
Roman remains have been discovered on the
site of the ancient town, and the foundations
of walls, the traces of an amphitheatre, and a
subterranean aqueduct, are stUl to be seen.
Vinicius, M., was consul a.d. 30, and M 33
married Julia Livilla, the daughter of Ger
manicus. He was consul again in 45, and was
put to death in 46 at the instigation of Messal
Una. He was a patron of Velleius Paterculus.
(Tac. Ann. vi. 15, 45 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 25, 27.)
Vinius, T. , consul to a.d. 69 with the emperor
Galba, and one of the cMef advisers of the
latter during his brief reign. He recommended
Galba to choose Otho as Ms successor, but he
was notwithstanding MUed by Otho's soldiers,
after the death of Galba. (Tac. Hist. i. 6, 11,
37, 42, 48 _; Suet. Galb. 14, Vitell. 7.)
Vipsania Agrippina. 1. Daughter of M.
Vipsanius Agrippa by his first wife, Pompoma,
the daughter of T. Pomponius Atticus, the
friend of Cicero. Augustus gave her in mar
riage to his stepson Tiberius, by whom she was
much beloved ; but after she had borne Mm a
son, Drusus, Tiberius was compeUed to divorce
her by the command of the emperor, to order
to marry Julia, the daughter of the latter.
Vipsania afterwards married Asinius GaUus.
She died in a.d. 20. (Tac. Ann. i. 12, iii. 19 ;
Dio Caes. liv. 81, lvii. 2.)— 2. Daughter of M.
Vipsanius Agrippa by his second wife, Julia,
better known by the name of AgrippMa.
[Agrippina.] Vipsanius Agrippa, M. [Agrippa.]
Virbius, a Latin divinity worsMpped with
Diana in the grove at Aricia, at the foot of the
Alban Mt. [p. 284, a; cf. Diet, of Ant. art. Bex
Nemorensis]. When the Italian myths were
affected by those of Greece, and Diana was
identified with Artemis, Virbius was said to

VLRDO
J>e the same as Hippolytus, who was restored
to life by Asclepius at the request of Artemis.
-ft was aUeged that Hippolytus was placed by
Wns goddess under the care of the nymph
Aricia, and received the name of Virbius. By
tMs nymph he became the father of a son, who
was also called Virbius, and whom Ms mother
sent to the assistance of Turnus agaMst Aeneas
{ Tfijien" vii- 761; Serv- ad loc-' 0v- Met-
t v'i 5i°)- , T1"s was clearly a transferenee to
Italy of the story of Hippolytus bemg devoted
to trie service of Artemis. It is suggested with
great probabiUty that Virbius was originaUy a
a tree spirit of the sacred grove, to whom horses
(as representatives of the spirit) were sacrificed.
Hence they were to time represented as hostile
to the deity Virbius, and therefore excluded
from the grove. TMs 'taboo' was accounted
tor by maktog Virbius the same as Hippolytus,
whose death was caused by Ms horses runnMg
away. Virdo. [Vindelicia.]
Virdumarus. [Vtridomarus.]
Virgilius. [Vergilius.]
Virginia, daughter of L. Virginius, a
centurion, was a beautiful and innocent girl,
betrothed to L. IcUius. Her beauty excited
the passion of the decemvir Appius Claudius,
who got one of Ms cUents to seize the damsel
and claim her as Ms slave. The case was
brought before the decemvir for decision ; her
friends begged him to postpone Ms judgment
titt her father could be fetched from the camp,
and offered to give security for the appearance
of the maiden. Appius, fearing a riot, agreed
to let the cause stand over tiU the next day ;
but on the foUowing morning he pronounced
sentence, assigning Virginia to his freedman.
Her father, who had come from the camp,
seeing that aU hope was gone, prayed the
decemvir to be aUowed to speak one word to
the nurse to Ms daughter's hearing, in order to
ascertain whether she was really Ms daughter.
The request was granted ; VirgMius drew them
both aside, and, snatching up a butcher'a Miife
from one of the ataUs, plunged it in Mb
daughter'a breaat, exclaiming, ' There is no way
but tMs to keep thee free.' In vain did Appius
call out to stop him. The crowd made way for
him, and, holding Ms bloody knife on high, he
rushed to the gate of the city, and hastened to
the Roman camp. Both camp and city rose
agatost the decemvirs, who were deprived of
their power, and the old form of government
was restored. L. Virginius was the first who
was elected tribune, and he hastened to take
revenge upon Ms cruel enemy. By Ms orders
Appius was dragged to prison to await Ms trial,
and he there put an end to Ms own hfe in order
to avoid a more ignominious death. (Liv. in.
44-58; Dionys. xi. 28-46; Cic. Fin. u. 20, De
Vb-einia or Verginia Gens, patrician and
plebeian. The patrician Virginii frequently
filled the Mghest honours of the state during
the early years of the republic. They all bore
the cognomen of Tricostus, but none of them
are of sufficient importance to require a separate
n°Virginius, L., father of Virginia, whose
tragic fate occasioned the downfall of the
dec°emvirs, B.C. 449. [Virginia]
Virginius Rufus, consulA.D. 63, and governor
of Upper Germany at the time of the revolt of
JuUus Vindex in Gaul (68). The soldiers of
Virginius wished to raise him to the empire ;
but he refused the honour, and marched agaMst

VIRTUS

1003

Vindex, who perished before Vesontio. [Vindex.]
After the death of Nero, VirgMius supported
the claims of Galba, and accompanied Mm to
Rome. After Otho's death, the soldiers again
attempted to proclaim Virginius emperor, and
in consequence of Ma refusal of the honour he
narrowly escaped with Ms Ufe. Virginius died
in the reign of Nerva, in his third consulship,
a.d. 97, at eighty-three years of age. He was
honoured with a public funeral, and his pane
gyric was pronounced by the historian Tacitus,
who was then conaul. Hia epitaph, composed
by himself, notices his refusal of empire :
Hie situs est Rufus, pulso qui Vindice quondam
Imperium adseruit non sibi sed patriae.
The younger Pliny, of whom Virginius had
been the tutor or guardian, also mentions him
with praise. (Tac. Hist. i. 8, 77, ii. 49, 68 ;
Plut. Galb. 4, 6, 10; Dio Cass, lxiii. 24-27,
lxiv. 4, Ixviii. 2 ; Plin. Ep. ii. 1, v. 3, vi. 10, ix.
19.) Viriathus, a celebrated Lusitaman, is de
scribed by the Romans as origmaUy a shepherd
or huntsman, and afterwards a robber, or, as he
would be called in Spain in the present day, a
guerilla cMef. His character is drawn very
favourably by many of the ancient writers, who
celebrate his justice and eqmty, wMch was
particularly shown in the fair division of the
spoils he obtained from the enemy. Viriathus
was one of the Lusitanians who escaped the
treacherous and savage massacre of the people
by the proconsul Galba in B.C. 150. [Galba,
No. 2.J He was destined to be the avenger of
his country's wrongs. He coUected a formid
able force, and for several successive years he
defeated one Roman army after another. At
length, in 141, the proconsul Fabius Servilianus
concluded a peace with Viriathus, in order to
save his army, which had been enclosed by the
Lusitanians in a mountam pass, much in the
same way as their ancestors had been by the
Sanmites at the Caudine Forks. The treaty
was ratified by the senate ; but ServUius Caepio,
who had succeeded to the command of Further
Spain in 140, renewed the war, and shortly
afterwards procured the aasasaination of Viri
athus by bribing three of his friends. (App.
Hisp. 60-75; Eutrop. iv. 16; Veil. Pat. ii. 1;
Val. Max. ix. 6, 4 ; [Aurel. Vict.] Vir. Hlustr. 71 ;
Frontin. Strat. ii. 5, iii. 10, 11, iv. 5.)
Viriplaca, [Indigetes, p. 443, a.]
Viridomarus. 1. Or Britomartus, the leader
of the Gauls, slain by MarceUus. [Marcellus,
No. 1.] — 2. Or Virdumarus, a cMeftain of the
Aedm, whom Caesar had raised from a low
rank to the highest honour, but who afterwards
jomed the Gauls M their great revolt in b.c. 52
(Caes. B. G. vii. 38, 54. 63).
Viroconium or Urioconium (Wroxeter), a
town in Britain on the roads from Deva (Chester)
to Londinum and to Glevum (Gloucester). It
stood at the confluence of the Terne with the
Severn, and here Ostorius Scapula fortified a
camp for the 14th Legion as a defence of the
Welsh border (Tac. Ann. xii. 31 ; cf . Ptol. ii. 3,
19). _
Virtus, the Roman personification of manly
valour. She was represented with a short
tunic, her right breast uncovered, a helmet on
her head, a spear in her left hand, a sword in
the right, and standing with her right foot on a
helmet, wMle Honos has the laurel crown.
[See coin on p. 426.] A temple of Virtus was
built by MarceUus close to one of Honos.
[Honos."\

1004

VIRUNUM

Virunum (Mariasaal), a town in Noricum,
S. of Noreia, and a Roman colony (Plin. iii.
146; Ptol. ii. 14, 3; Steph. Byz. s.v.).
Viscellinus, Sp. Cassius. [Cassius, No. 1.]
Vistula (Vistula, Engl.; Weichsel, Germ.),
an important river of Germany, forming the
boundary between Germany and Sarmatia,
rising in the Hercynia Silva and falUng into
the Mare Suevicum or the Baltic (Ptol. viii.
10, 2 ; Mel. iii. 4 ; Plin. iv. 100). It waa first
described to the map of Agrippa (Plin. iv. 81).
Visurgis (Weser), an important river of
Germany, falling into the German Ocean.
Ptolemy makes it rise to M. Meliboeus. (Mel.
iii. 4 ; Plin. iv. 100 ; Tac. Ann. i. 70, ii. 9 ;
Strab. p. 291 ; Ptol. ii. 11, 1.)
Vitellia, a town of Latium, on the frontiers
of the Aequi, which disappears from history
after the time of the Gallic invasion (Liv. ii. 89,
v. 29 ; Dionys. v. 61).
Vitellius. 1. L., father of the emperor, was
a consummate flatterer, and by his arts he
gained promotion. After being conaul in A.D. 34,
he had been appointed governor of Syria, and
had made favourable terms of peace with
Artabanus. But all this only excited Caligula's
jealousy, and he sent for Vitellius to put Mm
to death. The governor saved himself by Ms
abject humiliation and the gross flattery which
pleased and softened the savage tyrant. He
paid the like attention to Claudius and Messal
Una, and was rewarded by being twice consul
with Claudius, and censor. (Dio Casa. lix. 27 ;
Tac. Ann. xi. 1-3, xii. 42.) — 2. L., aon of the
precedmg, and brother of the emperor, waa
conaul in 48. He was put to death by the
party of Vespasian on Ms brother's fall. (Tac.
Hist. iv. 2 ; Dio Cass. lxv. 22.) — 3. A., Roman
emperor from January 2nd to December 22nd,
a.d. 69, was the son of No. 1. He was consul
during the first six monbhs of 48, and Ma brother
Lucius during the six followmg montha. He
had some knowledge of letters and some elo
quence. His vices made him a favourite of
Tiberius, Caius Caligula, Claudius, and Nero,
who loaded him with favours. People were
much surprised when Galba chose such a man
to command the legions in Lower Germany,
for he had little military talent. Both Upper
and Lower Germany had been attached to
Virginius Rufus, and disliked the rule of Galba ;
the two legions at Moguntiacum had not taken
the oath of allegiance to him. Accordingly,
they had already been disposed to find a
nominee of their own, and when the news of
Galba's death arrived the legions of both Ger-
manies combined to acknowledge Vitellius as
Imperator, and he was proclaimed at Colonia
Agrippinensis (Cologne) on the 2nd of January,
69. His generals Fabius Valens and Caecina
marched into Italy, defeated Otho's troops at
the decisive battle of Betriacum, or Bedriacum,
and thus secured for Vitellius the undisputed
command of Italy. The soldiers of Otho, after
his death, took the oath of fidelity to Vitellius.
[Otho.] Vitellius reached Rome in July. He
did not disturb any person in the enjoyment of
what had been given by Nero, Galba, and Otho,
nor did he confiscate any person's property.
Though some of Otho's adherents were put to
death, he let the next of kin take their property.
But though he showed moderation m this part
of his conduct, he showed none in his expenses.
He was a glutton and an epicure, and his chief
amusement was the table, on which he spent
enormous sums of money. Meantime Ves
pasian, who had at first taken the oath of

VITRUVIUS
allegiance to Vitellius, waa proclaimed emperor
at Alexandria on the let of July. Vespasian
was speedily recognised by all the East; and
the legions of Hlyricum under Antonius Primus
entered the N. of Italy and declared for Ves
pasian. ViteUius despatched Caecina with a
powerful force to oppose Primus ; but Caecina
was not faithful to Ms master. Primus de
feated the Vitelliana in two battles, and after
wards took and pillaged the city of Cre
mona. Primus then marched upon Rome,
and forced his way Mto the city, after much
fighting. Vitellius was seized in the palace,
led tMough the streets with every circumstance
of ignominy, and dragged to the Gemoniae
Scalae, where he was killed with repeated blows.
Hie head was carried about Rome, and his body
was thrown into the Tiber; but it was after
wards buried by Ma wife, Galeria Fundana.
A few days before the death of Vitellius, the
Capitol had been burnt in the assault made by
his soldiers upon this building, where Flavius
Sabinus, the brother of the emperor Vespasian,
had taken refuge. (Tac. Hist. U., iii. ; Suet.
Vitell. ; Dio Cass, lxv.)
Victricium (Verrez), a town of the Salassi
on the road from Eporedia (Ivrea) to Augusta
Praetoria (Aosta).
Vitruvius Pollio, M., the author of the cele
brated treatise on Architecture, of whom we
know nothing except a few facts contained in
scattered passages of Ms own work. He ap
pears to have served as a military engineer
under Julius Caesar, in the African war, B.C. 46,
and he was broken down with age when he com
posed his work, which is dedicated to the em
peror Auguatua. Though he uauaUy speaks of
the emperor as Imperator or Caesar, he employs
also the title Augustus, which was adopted in
B.c. 27, and he mentions (iii. 2, 7) the temple of
Quirinus, which was built B.C. 16 ; but he knows
only one stone theatre at Rome (iii. 2, 2) : whence
it is inferred that the work was completed between
B.C. 16 and B.C. 13, in which year two more stone
theatres were built. He professes Ms intention
to furnish the emperor with a standard by which
to judge of the buildings he had already erected,,
as well as of those which he might afterwards
erect ; wMch can have no meaning, unless he
wished to protest against the style of architec
ture wMch prevailed to the bmldings already
erected. That this was really his intention ap
pears from several other arguments, and espe
cially from his frequent references to the un
worthy means by which architects obtained
wealth and favour, with which he contrasts his
own moderation and contentment in his more
obscure position. In a word, having apparently
few great buildings of his own to point to as
embodying his views (the basilica at Fanum is
the only work of his which is mentioned), he
desired to lay before the world in writing his
principles of architecture. His work is a valu
able compendium of those written by numerous.
Greek architects, whom he mentions chiefly in
the preface to his seventh book, and by some
Roman writers on architecture. Its chief defects
are ita brevity, of which Vitruvius himself
boasts, and which he often carries so far as to
be unintelligible, and the obscurity of the style,
arising M part from the natural difficulty of
technical language, but in part also from the
author's want of skill in writing, and sometimes
from his imperfect comprehension of his Greek
authorities. His work is entitled De Architec-
tura Libri X. In the first book, after the
dedication to the emperor, and a general descrip-

VIVTSCUS
tion of the science of arcMtecture and an ac
count of the proper education of an architect,
+16 treats of the choice of a proper site for a city,
the disposition of its plan, its fortifications, and
the several buildmgs witMn it. The second
tu- j 1S 0n tlle materials used in building. The
tm™- and fourth books are devoted to temples
and the four orders of arcMtecture employed in
them: namely, the Ionic, CorintMan, Doric,
tnn/Usoan' The flft)h book relates to public
buildings, the sixth to private houses, and the
seventh to interior decorations. The eighth
is on the subject of water : the mode of finding
it i ; its different Mnds ; and the various modes
of conveying it for the supply of cities. The
ninth book treats of various kinds of sun-dials
and other instruments for measuring time ; and
the tenth of the machines used in buUdtog,
and of mihtary engines. Each book has a pre
face, upon some matter more or less connected
with the subject; and these prefaces are the
source of most of our information about the
author. — The best editions of Vitruvius are those
by Schneider, 3 vols., Lips. 1807, 1808, 8vo ; of
Stratico, 4 vols., Udme, 1825-30, with plates
and a Lexicon Vitruvianum; by Marini, 4
vols. Rom. 1836, which has recently been re
vised by Lorentzen ; and by Rose and Muller-
Strubtog, Leips. 1867 ; translation and commen
tary by Reber, Stuttg. 1864.
Viviscus (Vevey), a town on the E. shore of
the L. Lemanus (L. of Geneva), on the road
from Aventicum (Avenches) to Octodurus
(Martigny). Vocates, a people in GaUia Aquitanica,
dweUing to the neighbourhood of the Tarusates,
Sossiates, and Elusates, S. of Bordeaux.
Vocetius (Bozberg), a mountaM to GaUia
Belgica, an eastern branch of the Jura (Tac.
Hist. i. 68).
Voconlus Saxa. [Saxa.]
Vocontii, a powerful and important people m
Gallia Narbonensis, inhabiting parts of Dau-
pMne and of Provence. They dwelt between the
TricastiM to the N. and the Tricorii to the S.
and their territory extended from Vizille (Vigi-
Uae) on the Drac to the river Drome, and far
enough S. to include Vasio (Vaison, M the de
partment of Vaucluse), wMch is mentioned as
one of their cMef towns. Livy speaks of Han
nibal passmg through the edge of the Vocontian
territory between the Tricastini and the Tricorii.
TMs ' extrema ora Vocontiorum ' was probably
the district between Vizille and Corps, about
which point he entered the territory of the
Tricorii. (Liv. xxi. 31 ; Caes. B. G. i. 10 ; Ptol.
ii. 10, 17 ; Plm. iii. 37.)
Vogesus. (Vosagus.]
Volandum, a strong fortress in Armenia
Major, some days' journey W. of Artaxata, men
tioned by Tacitus (Ann. xm. 39).
Volaterrae (Volaterranus : Volaterra), called
bv the Etruscans Velathri, one of the twelve
cities of the Etruscan Confederation, was buUt
on a lofty hiU, about 1800 English feet above
the level of the sea, risMg from a deep vaUey,
and precipitous on every side (Strab. p. 223).
The city was about four or five miles m ciremt.
It was the most northerly city of the Confede
ration, and possessed an extensive territory.
Its dominions extended eastward as far as the
territory of Arretium, wMch was fifty miles dis
tant; westward as far as the Mediterranean,
wMch was more than twenty miles off; and
southward at least as far as Populonia, which
-was either a colony or an acquisition of Vola
terrae. In consequence of possessing the two

VOLCANUS

1005

great ports of Luna and Populonia, Volaterrae,
though so far inland, was reckoned aB one of the
powerful maritime cities of Etruria. Vola
terrae is mentioned as one of the five cities
whioh, acting independently of the rest of
Etruria, determined to aid the Latins against
Tarquinius Priscus (Dionys. iii. 51); but its
name is rarely mentioned in connexion with the
Romans, and we have no record of its conquest.
Volaterrae, like most of the Etruscan cities,
espoused the Marian party against SuUa ; and
such wa6 the strength of its fortifications that
it was not till after a siege of two years that the
city fell into Sulla's hands. Cicero speaks of
Volaterrae as a municipium, and a military
colony was founded in it under the triumvirate.
(Strab. I. c. ; Liv. Ep. 89 ; Cic. pro Bosc. Am.
7, 20, pro Caecin. 1, 18, ad Fam. xiii. 4.) It
continued to be a place of importance even after
the fall of the Western Empire, and it was for
a time the residence of the Lombard kings, who
fixed their court here on account of the natural
strength of the aite. The modern town covers
but a small portion of the area occupied by the
ancient city. It contains, however, several in
teresting Etruscan remains. Of these the most
important are the massive ancient walls in which
is a double gateway, nearly thirty feet deep,
known as Porta all' Arco, and the family tomb
of the Caecmae.
Volatarrana Vada. [Vada, No. 3.]
Volcae, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia
Narbonensis, divided into the two tribes of the
Volcae Tectosages and Volcae Arecomici, ex
tendmg from the Pyrenees and the frontiers of
Aquitania along the coast as far as the Rhone.
They Uved under their own laws, without beMg
subject to the Roman governor of the provmce,
and they also possessed the Jus Latii. The
Tectosages inhabited the western part of the
country from the Pyrenees as far as Narbo, and
Arecomici the E. part from Narbo to the Rhone,
and even beyond the Rhone (Liv. xxi. 26 ; Strab.
p. 203). The chief town of the Tectosages was
Tolosa. A portion of the Tectosages left their
native country under Brennus, and were one of
the three great tribes into wMdh the Galatians
m Asia Minor were divided. [Galatia.]
Volcanus or Vulcanus (which is the later
form of the word), was the Italian god of fire.
Volcanus differed originally from Vesta in bemg
the god rather of destructive fire than of the
kindly hearth-fire ; and it is probable that the
Volcanal as one of the central sanctuaries in
an Italian town (e.g. the altar and Area Volcani
in the Comitium at Rome) was originaUy a place
for propitiatory offerings against deatructive
fire. In tMs way Volcanus was connected with
the goddess who stayed conflagrations [Stata
Mater]. That, however, m some places he was
.at one time also regarded as a god of the hearth-
fire is indicated by the story of hia son Caeculus,
and perhaps by that of Servius Tullius. But
another primitive characteristic was Ms benign
influence also as a god of summer heat, which
led to his being paired with Maia, the goddess
of spring or summer crops fostered by the sun
(Gell. xiii. 23 ; Macrob. i. 12 ; Varr. X. L. v. 84) ;
and m tMs aspect he may have been connected
with the Italian Venus even before the Greek
influence introduced this association from the
analogy of Hephaestus and ApModite. As
regards the connexion of the Italian Vulcan
with the smith's works of forging and melting,
there is no clear evidence. It is asserted that
Mulciber, a synonym of Volcanus (and possibly
once the name of another deity amalgamated

1006

VOLCATIUS

or identified with him), represents this function
of Vulcan, and is derived from mulcere, to soften
metals ; but tMs is by no means certain, and it
is possible that the connexion of Volcanus (or
Mulciber) with metal-work and the smithy is
merely part of the transference to him of aU the
attributes of Hephaestus, with whom he is en
tirely identified in literature. For all the myths
thus transferred to Volcanus, see Hephaestus.
Volcatius Gallicanus. [Scriptores His
toriae AUGUSTAE.l
Volcatius Sedigitus. [Sedigitus.]
Volci or Vulci. 1. (Voleientes, pi.: Vulci),
an Mland city of Etruria, about eighteen miles
NW. of TarquMii, was about two miles to cir
cuit, and was situated upon a hill of no great
elevation. Of the Mstory of this city we know
notMng. It is only mentioned in the cata
logues of the geographers and in the Fasti Capi-
tolini, from which we learn that its citizens, in
conjunction with the Volsinienses, were defeated
by the consul Tib. Corunconius, B.C. 280. But
its extensive sepulcMes, and the vast treasures
of ancient art which they contain, prove that
Vulci must at one time have been a powerful
and flourishing city. These tombs were dis
covered to 1828, and have yielded a greater
number of works of art than have been dis
covered in any other parts of Etruria. — 2. (Vol-
centes, Volcentani, pi. : Vallo), a town in
Lucania, thirty-six milea SE. of Paestum, on
the road to Buxentum (Liv. xxvii. 15 ; Plin. iii.
98 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 70).
Volero Publilius. [Publilius.]
Vologeses, the name of five kings of Parthia.
[Arsaces XXIII., XXVII., XXVHL, XXIX.,
XXX.] Volsci, an ancient people in Latium, but
originaUy distinct from the Latins, dwelt on
both sides of the river Liris, and extended down
to the Tyrrhene sea. Their language was
nearly aUied to the Umbrian. They were from
an early period engaged in almost unceasing
hostilities with the Romans. About 400 B.C.
they had established their power as far N. as
Antium and Veii trae, but their decline is marked
by the establishment of a Roman colony greatly
to the S. of tMs line, at Circeii, b.c. 393. They
were not completely subdued tUl B.C. 338, from
wMch time they were merged in the Roman
people, a great part being included in the
Pomptine tribe. (Liv. i. 53, ii. 33, iv. 26, viu. 14 ;
Strab. pp. 228, 231.)
Volsmii or Vulsinli (Volsmiensis : Bolsena),
caUed Velsina or Velsuna by the Etruscans,
one of the most ancient and most powerful of
the twelve cities of the Etruscan Confederation
(Liv. x. 37 ; Val. Max. ix. 1, 2), was situated on
a lofty MU on the NE. extremity of the lake
called after it, Lacus Volsiniensis and Vul-
siniensis (Lago di Bolsena). Volainii ia first
mentioned in B.C. 392, when ita inhabitants
invaded the Roman territory, but were easily
defeated by the Romans, and were glad to pur
chase a twenty years' truce on humiliating
terms (Liv. v. 32). The VolsMienaea alao carried
on war with the Romans in 311, 294, and 280,
but were on each occasion defeated, and in the
last of these yeara appear to have been finally
subdued (Liv. ix. 32-37). On their final sub
jugation their city was rased to the ground by
the RomanB, and its tohabitants were com
peUed to settle on a less defensible site in the
plain (Zonar. viii. 7). The new city, on the site
of which stands the modern Bolsena, also became
a place of importance. It was the birthplace of
Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius (Tac. Ann.

VULSO
iv. 1 ; cf. Juv. x. 74). Of the ancient city there
are scarcely any remains. It occupied the
summit of the Mghest MU, NE. of Bolsena,
above the rematos of a Roman amphitheatre.
From the Lacus Volsiniensis the river Mart;)
issues ; and the lake contams two islands.
Voltacilius, L. Pilutus or Plotus, was the
freedman of a VoltaciUus who opened a school
as a rhetorician. Pompey was among Ms
pupils, and he foUowed the Pompeian party,
supporting their cause in Ms Mstorical writings
or pampMets. He is identified by some with
the VoltaciUus Pitholaus of Macrob. ii. 2, 18,
and with the Pitholaus of Suet. Jul. 75 (Suet.
Gram/m. 27).
Volturcius, Vnlturcins, T., of Crotona, one
of Catiline's conspirators, was sent by Lentulus
to accompany the ambassadors of the AUo-
broges to Catiline. Arrested along with the
ambassadors on the Mulvian bridge, and brought
before the senate by Cicero, Volturcius turned
informer upon obtaimng the promise of pardon.
(Sail. Gat. 44-50 ; Cic. Gat. ui. 2, 4, iv. 3 ; »App.
B.C. ii. 4.)
Volumnia, wife of Coriolanus. [Cobiolanus.]
Volupia, or Voluptas, the personification of
sensual pleasure among the Romans, who was
honoured with a temple near the Porta
Romanula. Volusianus, son of the emperor Trebonianus
Gallus, upon whom his father conferred the
title of Caesar in a.d. 251, and of Augustus in
252. He was slam along with Ms father in 254.
[Gallus.] L. Volusius Maecianus, a jurist, was in the
consilium of Antoninus Pius, and was one of
the teachers of M. Aurelius. Maecianus wrote
several works ; and there are forty-two excerpts
from Ms writings M the Digest. A treatise
De Asse et Ponderibus is attributed to Mm,
but there is some doubt about the authorship.
It is edited by Bocktog, Bonn, 1831.
Volusus or Volesus, the reputed ancestor of
the Valeria gens, who ia said to have settled at
Rome with Titus Tatius. [Valeria Gens.]
Vomauus (Vomano), a small river in Pice
num. Vonones, the name of two Mngs of PartMa.
[Arsaces XVHL, XXH.]
Vopiscus, a Roman praenomen, signified a
twin-child who was born ahve, wMle the other
twin died before birth (Plin. vii. 47 ; Solto. 1).
Like many other ancient Roman praenomens,
it was afterwards used as a cognomen.
Vopiscus, Flavius. [Scriptores Historiae
Augustae.] Vosagus, Vosegus, or Vogesus (Vosges), the
range of mountains wMch extend from the
Dubis (Doubs) to the Saravus (Saar), more or
less paraUel to the course of the Rhine, and
contains the sources of the Saone, Moselle, and
Saar (Caes. B. G. iv. 10 ; Lucan, Phars. i. 397).
A Celtic deity, Vosagus, was worsMpped on its
heights. Pliny praises the fir woods of the range
(xvi. 197).
Votienus Montanus. [Montanus.]
Vulcaniae Insulae. [Aeoliae Insulae.]
Vulcanus. [Volcanus.]
Vulci. [Volci.]
Vulgientes, an Alpine people in Gallia Nar
bonensis, whose chief town was Apta Julia
(Apt). Vulsmii. [Volsinii.]
Vulso, Manlius. 1. L., consul b.c. 256 with
M. AtUius Regulus. He invaded Africa along
with his colleague. [For details see Regulus,
No. 3.] Vulso returned to Italy at the fall of

VULTUR
+£6 ?ear with half of the army> and obtained
the honour of a triumph. In 250 Vulso waa
conaul a second time with T. AtUius Regulus
Serranus, and with his colleague commenced
the siege of Lilybaeum. (Pol. i. 39-48 ; Zonar.
T1.11' 15-)— 2. Cn., curule aedUe 197, praetor
with Sicily as his province 195, and consul 189.
He was sent into Asia in order to conclude the
peace wMch Scipio Asiaticus had made with
Antiochus, and to arrange the affairs of Asia.
He attacked and conquered the Gallograeci or
Lralations m Asia Minor without waiting for
any formal instructions from the senate. His
march, which is important to the discusaion of
the topography of Aaia Minor, and haa been
carefuUy traced by Professor Ramsay, was from
Ephesus by Magnesia, Hiera Kome, Antiocheia,
Gordiu Teichos, Taboe, Eriza, Thabusion, Sinda,
MandropoUs, Lagoe, Istods, the river Taurus,
Cormasa, and Aporidos Kome to Rhocrini Fon
tes; and thence to Synnada, Beudus Vetus,
Anabura, Mandri Fontes, Abbassus, Lalandum
Flumen, Amorion, Alyattus, and Cuballum to
the Sangarius, wMch he crossed, to Ancyra, in
the country of the Tectosages, and as far as the
banks of the Halys (Liv. xxxviu. 12-27 ; Pol.
xxu. 16). He set out on his return to Italy to
188, but in Ms march through TMace he
suffered much from the attacks of the TMa
cians, and lost a considerable part of the booty
he had obtained to Asia. He reached Rome in
187. Hia triumph was a briUiant one, but his
campaign to Asia had a pernicious influence
upon the morals of Ms countrymen. He had
allowed Ms army every kMd of licence, and Ms
soldiers Mtroduced Mto the city the luxuries of
the East. (Liv. xxxviii. 37-50 ; xxxix. 6 ; Pol.
xxii. 24 ; App. Syr. 42.)
Vultur, a mountain dividing Apulia and Lu
cania near Venusia, is a branch of the Apen
nines. It is celebrated by Horace as one of the
haunts of Ms youth (Od. in. 4, 9-16 ; Lucan, ix.
185). [Horatius.] It attains an elevation of
4433 feet above the sea. From it the SE. wind
was called Vulturnus by the Romans.
Vulturnum (Castel di Volturno), a town M
Campania, at the mouth of the river Vulturnus,
was originaUy a fortress erected by the Romans
to the second Pumc war (Liv. xxv. 20, 22). At
a later time it was made a colony (Liv. xxxiv.
45; Varr. L.L. v. 5).
Vulturnus (Volturno), the chief river in
Campania, rismgMthe Apennines in Sammum,
and f ailing Mto the Tyrrhene sea. It _ has a
deep, rapid and turbid stream. Its principal
affluents are the Calor (Colore), Tamarus
(Tamaro), and Sabatus (Sabato). (Verg. Aen.
vii, 729; Ov. Met. xv. 714; Lucan, ii. 423;
Strab. pp. 238, 249.)

X.

Xanthippe. [Socrates.]
Xanthippus (s,dvBnriros). I. Son of Ariphron
and father of Pericles. In B.C. 490 he im-
neached MUtiades on his return from Ms un
successful expedition agamst the island of
Paros He succeeded Themistocles as com
mander of the Athenian fleet to 479, and com
manded the Athenians at the decisive battle of
Svcale. (Hdt. vi. 131, 136, viu. 131, ix. 114-120 ;
Plut Themist. 10.)— 2. The elder of the two
legitimate sons of Pericles, Paralus being the
vounger. For details, see Paralus.— 3. The
Lacedaemonian, who commanded the Cartha-

XENARCHUS

1007

ginians against Regulua. For details, see
Regulus, No. 8. Xanthippus appears to have
left Carthage a short time after his victory over
Regulus. Xanthus (EdvBos). 1. A lyric poet, older than
Stesichorua, who mentioned him in one at
least of Ms poems, and who borrowed from him
in some of them. Xanthus may be placed
about B.C. 650. No fragments of his poetry
survive. (Athen. p. 518 ; Ael. V. H. iv. 26.)— 2. A
Lydian historian, older than Herodotus, lived
about B.C. 480 (Athen. p. 515). The genuine
ness of the Four Books of Lydian History
which the ancients possessed under the name
of Xanthus, and of wMch some considerable-
fragments have come down to us, was ques
tioned by some of the ancient grammarians
themselves, and there has been considerable con
troversy respecting it among modern scholars.
It is certain that much of the matter in the ex
tant fragments is spurious, and the probability
appears to be that the work from which they
are taken is the production of an Alexandrian
grammarian, founded upon the genuine work
of Xanthus. (MiiUer, Fragm. Hist. Graec.)
Xanthus (EdvBos), rivers. 1. [Scamandeb.] —
2. (Echen Chai), the cMef river of Lycia, rises
in M. Taurus, on the borders of Pisidia and
Lycia, and flows S. through Lycia, between M.
Cragus and M. Massicytus, in a large plain
caUed the Plain of Xanthus (rb SdvBiov ireSiov),
falling at last into the Mediterranean aea, a.
little W. of Patara. Though not a large river,
it is navigable for a considerable part of its-
course. (H. ii. 877, v. 479 ; Strab. p. 665 ; Hdt.
i. 176; Ov. Met. ix. 645.)
Xanthus (advBos : advBios, XantMus : Gunik,
Ru.), the most famous city of Lycia, stood on the
W. bank of the river of the aame name, sixty or
seventy stadia from its mouth (Pol. xxvi. 7 ;.
Strab. p. 666; Ptol. v. 3, 5; Steph. Byz. s.v.).
Twice in the course of its history it sustained
sieges, which termmated m the self-destruction
of the tohabitants with their property, first
against the Persians under Harpagus, and long
afterwards agamst the Romans under Brutus
(Hdt. i. 176 ; Dio Cass, xlvii. 34 ; App. B. C.
iv. 18). The city was never restored after its
destruction on the latter occasion. Xanthus
was rich m temples and tombs, and other-
monuments of a most interesting character of
art. Among its temples the most celebrated
were those of Sarpedon and of the Lycian
Apollo; besides which there was a renowned
sanctuary of Latona (rb AyrSaov), near the
river XanthuB, ten stadia from its mouth, and
sixty stadia from the city. (Diod. v. 77 ; Strab.
l.c.) The splendid rMns of Xanthus were first
thorougMy explored by Sir C. Fellowes and
Ms coadjutors, and several important remains,
of its works of art are now in the British
Museum. Xenarchus (Bevapxos). 1. Son of Sophron,
and, like his father, a celebrated writer of
mimes. He lived during the Rhegian war
(b.c. 399-389), at the court of Dionysus. (Suid.
s.v. 'Pyyivovs ; Arist. Pod. 2.) — 2. An Atheman
comic poet of the Middle Comedy, who lived
as late as the time of Alexander the Great
(Suid. s.v.). Several fragments of his writings
are collected in MeMeke's Fragm. Com. Graec.
— 3. Of Seleucia in Cilicia, a Peripatetic philo
sopher and grammarian, in the time of Strabo,
who heard Mm. He taught first at Alexandria,
afterwards at Athens, and lastly at Rome, where
he enjoyed the friendship of Augustus. (Strab.
p. 670.)

1008

XENIPPA

Xenippa (prob. Uratippa), a city of Sogdiana,
mentioned by Curtius (viii. 2, 14).
Xenocles (UevoKXys). 1. An Athenian tragic
poet, son of Carcmus (who was also a tragic
poet), and a contemporary of Aristophanes, who
attacks him on several occasions. His poetry
seems to have been indifferent (Aristoph. Ban.
82, Nub. 1259), and to have reaembled the
worse parts of Euripides ; but he obtained a
victory over Euripides, B.C. 415. There was
another tragic poet of the name of Xenoclea,
a grandson of the preceding, of whom no par
ticulars are recorded. — 2. An Athenian arcM-
tect, of the demos of Cholargos, was one of the
architects who superintended the erection of
the temple of Demeter, at Eleusis, in the time
of Pericles (Plut. Per. 131.
Xenocrates (aevoKparys). I. The pMlo
sopher, was a native of Chalcedon. He was
born B.C. 396, and died 314 at the age of eighty-
two. He attached himself first to Aeschines,
the Socratic, and afterwards, whUe still a youth,
to Plato, whom he accompanied to Syracuse.
After the death of Plato he betook himself,
with Aristotle, to Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus ;
and, after his return to Athens, he was re
peatedly sent on embassies to PMlip of Mace
donia, and at a later time to Antipater during
the Lamian war. He is said to have wanted
quick apprehension and natural grace, but
these defects were more than compensated by
persevering Mdustry, pure benevolence, freedom
from all selfishness, and a moral earnestness
which obtained for Mm the esteem and con
fidence of the Athenians of Ms own age. Yet
he ia aaid to have experienced the fickleness of
popular favour, and being too poor to pay the
alien's tax (perolKtov), to have been saved from
prosecution only by the intervention of the
orator Lycurgus. (Plut. Flamin. 10, X. Orat. 1.)
He became president of the Academy even
before the death of Speusippus, who was bowed
down by sickness, and he occupied the post for
twenty-five years. — He seems in Ms develop
ment of Plato's theories to have in some tMngs
approached (as did his predecesaor Speuaippus)
to the tenets of Pythagoras, especiaUy in his
tracing the origin of tilings to number, to
unity and duality, which he symbolically caUed
the father and the mother of the gods [cf.
Pythagoras]. It was, perhaps, a trace of
Pythagorean mfluence also that he advised
his disciples to abstain from meat, lest they
should thereby take into themselves something
of the animal nature. Like Speusippus, he
reckoned Aether among the material elements
of the world. In ethics he followed Plato, and
held that virtue is the source of happmess, and
is alone of value in itself. (Diog. Laert iv
U"16; ^t- de Gael. i. 10, Top. ii. 6; Stob'.
Eel. Phys. i. 62; Cic. Tusc. v. 10, 18)— 2 A
physician of Aphrodisias in Cilicia, lived about
the middle of the first century after CMist.
13esides some short fragments of his writings
there is extant a little essay by him entitled
Ilepl rys airb rdv eviSpuv rpocprjs, ' De Ali-
mento ex Aquatilibus,' which is an mteresting
record of the state of natural history at the
time in which he lived. Edited by Franz, 1774
Lips., and by Coray, 1794, Neap., and 1814,
1 aris — 3. A aculptor of the school of Lysippus,
was the pupil either of Tisicrates or of Euthy-
erates. He also wrote works upon the art. He
flourished about B.C. 260.
Xenocritus (UevdKpiros), of Locri Epizephyrii,
in Lower Italy, a musician and lyric poet, waa
one of the leaders of the second school of Dorian

XENOPHON
music, which was founded by Thaletas, and
was a composer of Paeans (Plut. de Mus. 9,
p. 1184).
Xenophanes (Sevocpdvys) a celebrated pMlo
sopher about 576-480 B.C., was a native ol
Colophon. He was a poet as well as a pMlo
sopher, and considerable fragments have come
down to us of Ms elegies, and of a didactic
poem On Nature. According to the fragments
of one of his elegies, he had left his native land
at the age of twenty-five, and had already lived
sixty-seven years M Hellas, when, at the age of
ninety-two, he composed that elegy. He quitted
Colophon as a fugitive or exUe, and Uved some
time at Elea (Veha) in Italy, as the founder of
the Eleatic school of phUosophy. He sang in
one of Ms poems of the foundation of Velia.
(Diog. Laert. ix. 10, 18; Plat. Soph. p. 224;
AriBt. Bhet. ii. 23.) Xenophanes was regarded
in antiquity as the originator of the Eleatic
doctrine of the oneness of the umverse. The
Deity was in Ms view the animating power of
the universe, which is expressed by Aristotle
(Met. p. 986) to the words, that, looking on the
natural world, Xenophanes said, ' God is the
One.' He expressly reprobated the anttoopo-
morphic deities of Homer and Hesiod, human
alike in form and passions, and from their
imperfections deduced that the supreme Being
can only be one ; feat it-ie- clear. that M tMs hfe
did not speak of a single personal god, but of
an aU-pej?vading influence of unity — that is, he
was a pantheist rather than a deist. In Ms
physical theories of the earth havmg gradually
risen from the sea, which he based on the
observation of sheUs and fossils in the rocks,
he approached strangely near to scientific geo
logy. The earth itself, as well as man, he held
to be destined to perish. (Aristot. Xenoph.
pp. 974-977 ; Sext. Emp. Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 225.)
Xenophon (~,evocpiov). I. The Atheman, was
the son of GryUus, and a native of the demus
Erchla. The time of Ms birth is not known, but
if the story is true that Xenophon feU from Ms
horse M the flight after the battle of Delium.
b.c. 424, and was taken up by Socrates, the
pMlosopher, on Ms shoulders and carried a
distance of several stadia, Xenophon could not
weU have been born after 444. (Diog. Laert.
Xen. ; Strab. p. 403.) But the authorities for
this story are late, and it is somewhat dis
credited by Plato's mentioning that Socrates
saved the life of Laches in tMs battle (Symp.
p. 221). On the other hand, the words to Xen.
An. vi. 4, 25 seem to imply that Xenophon was
not more than tMrty in B.C. 401, and was there
fore born probably about 480 b.c. Neither is
the time of his death precisely stated ; but
Lucian says that Xenophon attained to above
the age of ninety, and Xenophon Mmself men
tions the assassination of Alexander of Pherae,
which happened in 357. In his early Ufe he
was a pupil of Socrates ; but the turntog-point
in his career came when he decided to serve in
the Greek contingent raised by Cyrus against
Artaxerxes in 401. Xenophon himself mentions
(Anab. iii. 1) the circumstances under wMch
he joined this army. Proxenus, a friend of
Xenophon, was already with Cyrus, and he
Mvited Xenophon to come to Sardis, and pro
mised to introduce him to the Persian prince.
Xenophon consulted his master, Socrates, who
adviaed Mm to consult the oracle of Delphi
for it was rather a hazardous matter for him to'
enter the service of Cyrus, who was considered
to be the friend of the Lacedaemonians and
the enemy of Athens. Xenophon went to

' XENOPHON
shnnM ' but he did not ask the god whether he
his m' 1° °i not : he Prot>ably had made up
should ¦ merely asked to what gods he
ce«A 1 ^or3fiPe in order that he might be suc-
«™i m Ms intended enterprise. Socrates
was not satisfied with his pupil's mode of con-
n« t&T5- 0raole' but as he tad got an answer,
Sardi* J"™, ^ S°< fmd Xenophon went to
sardis, wMch Cyrus was just about to leave.
tot Kf^ Cy™s mt° Upper Asia. In
bar^rf \0t °Unaxa' Cyrus lo^t his life, his
wmTuT ^00ps were d;spersed, and the Greeks
Tigris o^T °S the wide Plains between the
iSSJ^.?" E«Phrates. It was after the

treacherous

massacre of Clearchus and others of

tl,o n. i — ™"° ul ^leorcnus oi
TwS? colanders by the Persian satrap
He ISSZTS **** Xen°Pton came forward1.
for T?Jk no command in the army of Cyrus,
nor had he m fact, served as a soldier. He
was now elected one of the generals, and took
the principal part in conducting the Greeks in
*e"f^b'? r6,treat alon§ the Ti^s °™r
the high table-lands of Armema to Trapezus
(Trebizond) on the Black Sea. From Trapezus
the troops were conducted to Ctoysopolis,
which is opposite to Byzantium. The Greeks
were m great distress, and some of them under
Xenophon entered the service of Seuthes, king
of TMace. As the Lacedaemomans under
Thimbron, or TMbron, were now at war with
Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, Xenophon and
Ms troops were mvited to joto the army of
TMmbron, and Xenophon led them back out of
Asia to joM Thimbron (399). Xenophon, who
was very poor, made an expedition into the
plain of the Caicus with Ms troops before they
joined Thimbron, to plunder the house and
property of a Persian named Asidates. The
Persian, with his women, children, and all his
moveables were seized, and Xenophon, by this
robbery, replemshed Ms empty pockets (Anab.
vii. 8, 23). He teUs the story himself as if he
were not ashamed of it. In other ways also
he showed himself the prototype of an adven
turous leader of condottieri, with no ties of
country or preference of nationahty. He formed
a scheme for establishing a town with the Ten
Thousand on the shores of the Euxine ; but
that feU tMough. He jomed the Spartans, as
has been seen, and he continued in their ser
vice even when they were at war with Athens.
Agesilaus, the Spartan king, was commanding
the Lacedaemonian forces in Asia agamst the
Persians in 396, and Xenophon was with Mm
at least during part of the campaign. When
Agesilaus was recalled (394), Xenophon accom
pamed Mm, and he was on the side of the
Lacedaemonians M the battle which they fought
at Coronea (394) agaMst the Athenians. As a
natural consequence a decree of exile was passed
agatost him at Athens. It seems that he went to
Sparta with AgesUaus after thebattle of Coronea,
and soon after he settled at SciUus in EUs, not far
from Olympia, a spot of wMch he has given a
description to the Anabasis (v. 3, 7, &c). Here
he was joined by Ms wife, PMlesia, and his cMl
dren. His cMldren were educated in Sparta.
Xenophon was now a Lacedaemoman ao far aa
he could become one. His time during Mb long
residence at SciUus waa employed M hunting,
writing, and entertatoing Ms friends ; and per
haps the Anabasis and part of the Hellenica
were composed here. The treatise on Hunting
and that on the Horse were probably also written
during tMs time, when amusement and exercise
0f that kmd formed part of Mb occupation.
On Tihe downfall of the Spartan supremacy, at

1009
Leuctra in 471, Xenophon was at last expelled
from Ms qMet retreat at SciUus by the Eleans,
after remaining there about twenty years. The
sentence of banishment from Athens was re
pealed on the motion of Eubulus, but it is
uncertain in what year. There ia no evidence
that Xenophon ever returned to Athena. He
ia aaid to have retired to Corinth after his ex
pulsion from SciUus, and as we know nothing
more, we assume that he died there. In the
battle of Mantinea, wMch was fought in 862,
the Spartans and the Athenians were opposed
to the Thebans, and Xenophon's two sons,
GryUus and Diodorus, fought on the side of
the allies. GryUus fell in the same battle m
wMch Epaminondas lost Ms life. The events
alluded to in the Epilogus to the Cyropaedia
(viii. 8, 4) show that the EpUogus at least
was written after 362. The time of his
death, for reasons given above, seems to
have been later than 357. — The following is
a list of Xenophon's works. (1) The Anabasis
('AvdBacris) or the Hiatory of the Expedition
of the Younger Cyrus, and of the retreat of
the Greeks who formed part of Ms army.
It ia divided into seven books. As regards
the title it wiU be noticed that under the
name ' The March up ' (i.e. inland from the
coast of Cumoxa) is included also the much
longer account of the return march down to
the Euxtoe, This work has immortalised
Xenophon'a name. It ia a clear and f ascmating
narrative, written to a simple style, free from
affectation ; and it gives a great deal of curioua
information on the country which was traversed
by the retreating Greeks, and on the manners
of the people. It was the first work wMch
made the Greeks acquainted with some portions
of the Persian empire, and it showed the weak
ness of that extensive monarchy. The skir
mishes of the retreating Greeks with their
enemies, and the battles with some of the bar
barian tribes, are not such events as elevate the
work to the character of a military Mstory, nor
can it as such be compared with Caesar's Com
mentaries. Separate editions of the Anabasis
byKriiger,Leips.l871 ; by Cobet (revised), 1873 :
books i.-iv. by Goodwin and White, 1886 ; iv.
by Stone, 1890. There is no weight whatever
in the argument that, because Xenophon (Hell.
iii. 1, 2) speaks of the expedition of Cyrus as
havmg been related by Themistogenes, there
fore the Anabasis is not Xenophon's work.
The statement can be explained either on the
theory that Xenophon speaks of his own work
under a fictitious name (wMch was possibly the
case also with the Oeconomicus), or, more
simply, by supposMg that another account was
actuaUy written by Themistogenes. It is
known that a separate account was written by
Sophaenetus, and there may have been others.
If the latter theory is correct, it would be a
natural mference that Xenophon's Anabasis
was written after the third book of the Hel
lenica. (2) The Hellenica ('EXXyvtKd) of
Xenophon is divided into seven books, and
comprehends the space of forty-eight years,
from the thne when the History of Thucydides
ends [Thucydides] to the battle of Mantinea,
362. The Hellenica is generally a dry narra
tive of events, and there is nottong m the
treatment of them wMch gives a special mter-
est to the work. Some events of importance
are briefly treated, but a few striking incidents
are presented with some particularity. The
Hellenicaw&B not all written at the same time.
Differences are traced between the first two
3T

1010

XENOPHON

and the later books as regards the arrangement,
which in the earlier books is year by year,
while in the later events growing out of one
another are grouped together ; and, as regards
political sentiment, to the diminished admira
tion for Sparta which appears in the last tMee
books. It is clear that book vi. was written
after 357, since it mentions the death of Alex
ander of Pherae (vi. 4, 35) ;.,but the first four
books were probably written a good deal earlier.
Editions of the Hellenica by Breitenbach, 1873 ;
by Keller, 1890 ; i.-iv. by Manatt, 1888 ; l. and
ii. by Dowdall, 1890. (3) The Cyropaedia
(KvpoiraiSeia) in eight books, is a kind of poUti-
cal romance, the basis of which is the history
of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy.
It shows how citizens are to be made virtuous
and brave ; and Cyrus is the model of a wise
and good ruler. Asa history it has no authority
at all. Xenophon adopted the current stories
as to Cyrus and the chief events of Ms reign,
without any intention of subjecting them to a
critical examination ; nor have we any reason
to suppose that his picture of Persian morals
and Persian discipline is anything more than a
fiction. Xenophon's object was to represent
what a state might be, and he placed the scene
of Mb fiction far enough off to give it the
colour of possibility. His own pMlosopMcal
notions and the usages of Sparta were the real
materials out of which he constructed his po-
Utical system. The Cyropaedia is evidence
enough that Xenophon did not like the political
constitution of his own country, and that a
well-ordered monarchy or kingdom appeared to
him preferable to a democracy like Athens.
Ed. Holden, 1887. (4) The Agesilaus ('Ayytri-
Xaos) is a panegyric on Agesilaus II., Mng of
Sparta, the friend of Xenophon. The genuine
ness is disputed, not without reason, and a recent
critic holds it to be the work of a young rhe
torician of the school of Isocrates. Ed. Giith-
Ung, 1887. (5) The Hipparchicus ('lirirapxi-
k6s) is a treatise on the duties of a commander
of cavalry, and it contains many military pre
cepts. (6) The De Be Equestri, a treatise on
the Horse ('liririKy), was written after the
Hipparchicus, to which treatise he refers at the
end of the treatise on the Horse. This essay
is not Umited to horsemanship as regards the
rider : it shows how a man is to avoid being
cheated in buying a horse, how a horse is to be
trained, and the like. (7) The Cynegeticus
(KvvyyeriKds) is a treatise on hunting ; and On
the dog, and the breeding and training of dogs ;
on the various Mnds of game, and the mode of
taMng them. It is a treatise written by a
genuine sportsman who loved the exercise and
excitement of the chase, and it may be read with
pleasure by a sportsman of the present day.
(8, 9) The Bespublica Lacedaemoniorum and
BespubUca Atheniensium, the two treatises
on the Spartan and Athenian states (AaKeSai-
poviccv iroXvrela, and ' AByvaicvv iroXireia) were
both ascribed to Xenophon, but the Bespub
lica Atheniensium is certainly not by his
hand. It was written by some one of the olig
archical party, and possibly it is right to date
it as early as 420, and therefore to regard it as
the earliest Attic prose work. On the other
hand, the moBt recent critic of Xenophon
(Hartman) believes it to be by a later writer
compiling from Xenophon, Aristophanes, and
other sources of information. The same critic
denies the genuineness of the Besp. Laced.,
which is more generally accepted. (10) The
De VectigaUbus, a treatise on the Revenues of

Athens (Tldpot y irepl irpocrdSuv) is designed to
show how the public revenue of Athens may
be improved. (11) The Memorabilia of So
crates, in four books (' Airopvypoveipara 2wKpd-
rovs), was written by Xenophon to defend the
memory of Ms master against the charge of
irreUgion and of corrupting the Athenian youth.
Socrates is represented as holding a series of
conversations, in which he develops and incul
cates his moral doctrines. It is entirely a
practical work, such as we might expect from
the practical nature of Xenophon's mmd, and
it professes to exhibit Socrates as he taught.
It is true that it may exhibit only one side of
the Socratic argumentation, and that it does
not deal to subtleties of pMlosophy. Xenophon
was a hearer of Socrates, an admirer of Ms
master, and anxious to defend his memory.
The charges agaMst Socrates for wMch he
suffered were, that ' Socrates was guilty of not
beUeving in the gods which the state believed m,
and introducing other new daemons (Saipdvia) :
he was also guilty of corrupting the youtt'
Xenophon replies to these two charges specifl-
caUy, and he then goes on to show what
Socrates' mode of life was. The whole treatise
is intended to be an answer to the charge for
which Socrates was executed, and it is there
fore, m its nature, not intended to be a com
plete exhibition of Socrates. That it is a
genuine picture of the man is indisputable,
and its value therefore is very great. Ed. by
MarshaU, 1891. (12) The Apology of Socrates
('AToXoyia 2a>Kpdrovs irpbs robs SiKacrrds) is a
short apeech, contaming the reasons wMch in
duced Socrates to prefer death to life. It is
not a first-rate performance, and was probably
a rhetorical exercise much later than Xenophon.
(13) The Symposium (Svpirdo-iov), or Banquet
of Philosophers, in which Xenophon delmeates
the character of Socrates. The speakers ore
supposed to meet at the house of CaUias, a rich
Athenian, at the celebration of the great Pan
athenaea. Socrates and others are the speakers.
The piece is toteresting as a picture of an
Athenian drinking party, and of the amuse
ment and conversation with which it was di
versified. The nature of love and friendsMp
is discussed. It is probable that Plato wrote
his Symposium later, to aome extent as a cor
rective. (14) The Hiero ('lepcov f) Tvpavvmds)
is a dialogue between king Hiero and Simonides,
in wMch the Mng speaks of the dangers and
difficulties incident to an exalted station, and
the superior happiness of a private man. The
poet, on the other hand, enumerates the advan
tages which the possession of power gives, and
the means which it offers of obliging and doing
services. Ed. Holden, 1885. (15) The Oecono-
micus (O'tKovoptKds) is an exceUent treatise in
the form of a dialogue between Socrates and
Critobulus, in which Socrates gives mstruction
in the art called Oeconomic, which relates to
the administration of a household and of a
man's property. Ed. Holden, 1888. — In lan
guage as well as in politics Xenophon was a
cosmopolitan. His long residence in other
lands resulted in his losing or abandoning pure
Attic : he admits words from all dialects : hence
he cannot be adduced as an authority for strict
Attic usage, and it has been well shown by
abundant instances that his diction is in many
respects an anticipation of the common dialect
of the Macedonian period. — Editions of Xeno
phon's complete works by Sauppe, Leips. 1867 :
Henning, Leips. 1863. — 2. The Ephesian, the
author of a romance, stiU extant, entitled

XERXES
Ephesiaca, or the Loves of Anthia and Abro-
comas ('Ecpeo-iaKa, rh koto 'AvBiav Kal 'ABpo-
Kdpyv). The style of the work is simple, and
the story is conducted without confusion,
notwithstanding the number of peraonagea in
troduced. The adventures are of a very im
probable kind. The age when Xenophon lived
is uncertain. He is probably the oldest of the
Greek romance writers. Editions of his work
by Peerlkamp, Haarlem, 1818, and by Passow,
Lips. 1833.
Xerxes (Bepiys). I. King of Persia B.C. 485-
465. The name is said by Herodotus (vi. 98) to
signify * the warrior,' but it is probably the same
word as the Zend ksathra and the Sanscrit
kshatra, ' a king.' Xerxes was the son of Darius
and Atossa. Darius was married twice. By
Ms first wife, the daughter of Gobryas, he had
tMee cMldren before^he was raised to the
tMone; and by Ms second wife, Atossa, the
daughter of Cyrus, he had four children after
he had become Mng. Artabazanes, the eldest
son of the former marriage, and Xerxes, the
eldest son of the latter, each laid claim to the
succession ; but Darius decided in favour of
Xerxes, no doubt tMough the influence of his
mother, Atossa, who completely ruled Darius.
Xerxes succeeded Ms father at the beginning of
485. Darius had died to the midst of Ms pre
parations against Greece, wMch had been toter-
mpted by the revolt of the Egyptians. The
first care of Xerxes was to reduce the latter
people to subjection. He accordingly invaded
Egypt at the beginning of the second year of
Ms reign (b.c. 484), compelled the people agaM
to submit to the Persian yoke, and then returned
to Persia, leaving Ms brother Achaemenes go
vernor of Egypt. The next four years were
devoted to preparations for the invasion of
Greece. In the spring of 480 he set out from
Sardis on Ms memorable expedition against
Greece. He crossed the HeUespont by a bridge
of boats, and continued Ms march through the
TMacian Chersonese tUl he reached the plain of
Doriscus, wMch is traversed by the river Hebrus.
Here he resolved to number both Ms land and
Ms naval forces. Herodotus has left us a most
minute and interesting catalogue of the nations
eomprisMg tMs mighty army, with their various
military eqmpments and different modes of
fighting. The land forces contained forty-six
nations. (Herod, vii. 61, sqq.) In Ms march
tMough TMace and Macedoma, Xerxes received
a stiU further accession of strength; and when
he reached Thermopylae the land and sea forces
amounted to 2,641,610 fighting men. TMs does
not include the attendants, the slaves, the crews
of the provision sMps, Sec, wMch accordmg to
the supposition of Herodotus were more in
number than the fighting men ; but supposing
them to have been equal, the total number of
male persons who accompanied Xerxes to Ther
mopylae reaches the astounding figure of
5 283,220 ! Such a vast number must be dis
missed as incredible ; but, considering that this
army was the result of a maximum of effort
tMoughout the empire, and that provisions had
been collected for three years before along the
line of march, we may well believe that the
numbera of the army were greater than were ever
before assembled, and may not have fallen short
of a million. After the review at Doriscus
Xerxes continued Ms march through TMace.
On reaching Acanthus, near the isthmus of
Athos, Xerxes left Ms fleet, which received
orders to sail through the canal that had been
previously dug across the isthmus— of wMch

1011
the remains are still visible [Athos] — and await
his arrival at Therme, afterwards called Thessa
lonica. After joining his fleet at Therme,
Xerxes marched tMough Macedonia and Thes
saly without meeting with any opposition till he
reached Thermopylae. Here the Greeks re
solved to make a stand. Leonidas, king of
Sparta, conducted a land force to Thermopylae ;
and Ms colleague Eurybiades sailed with the
Greek fleet to-life N. of Euboea, and took up his
position on the N. coast, which faced Magnesia,
and was called Artemisium from the temple of
Artemia belonging to the town of Heatiaea.
Xerxes arrived in safety with his land forces
before Thermopylae, but Ms fleet was overtaken
by a violent storm and hurricane off the ceast
of Sepias, in Magnesia, by which at least 400
ships of war were destroyed, as well as an im
mense number of transports. Xerxes attempted
to force his way through the pass of Theemo-
pylae, but Mb troops were repulsed again and
again by Leonidas, till a Malian, of the name
of EpMaltes, showed the Peraians a pass over
the mountains of Oeta, and thus enabled them
to faU on the rear of the Greeks. Leomdas and
his Spartans disdained to fly, and were all slain.
[Leonidas.] On the same days on which Leo-
nidaa waa fighting with the land forces of
Xerxes, the Greek aMps at Artemiaium attacked
the Peraian fleet. In the first battle, the Greeks
had the advantage, and in the following night
the Persian ships suffered stUl more from a
violent storm. Two days afterwards the contest
was renewed, and both sides fought with the
greatest courage. Although the Greeks at the
cloae stiU maintained their position, and had
destroyed a great number of the enemy's sMps,
yet their own loss was considerable, and half
the Athenian sMps were disabled. Under these
circumstances the Greek commanders aban
doned Artemisium and retired to Salamis,
opposite the SW. coast of Attica. It was now
too late to send an army into Boeotia, and Attica
thus lay exposed to the full vengeance of the
invader. The Athenians removed their women,
cMldren, and infirm persons to Salamis, Aegina,
and Troezen. Meantime Xerxes marched
tMough Phocis and Boeotia, and at length
reached Athens. About the same time as Xerxes
entered Athens, Ms fleet arrived in the bay of
Phalerum. He now resolved upon an engage
ment with the Greek fleet. The history of tMs
memorable battle, of the previous dissensions
among the Greek commanders, and of the
glorious victory of the Greeks at the last, is re
lated elsewhere. [Salamis ; Themistocles.]
XerxeB witneaaed the battle from a lofty seat,
which waa erected for him on the ahore of the
mainland on one of the declivitiea of Mount
Aegaleos, and thus beheld with his own eyes the
defeat and dispersion of his mighty armament.
XerxeB now became alarmed for Ms own safety,
and resolved to leave Greece immediately. He
was confirmed in Ma resolution by Mardonius,
who undertook to complete the conquest with
300,000 of Ms troops. Xerxes left Mardonius
the number of troops wMch he requested, and
with the remamder set out on his march home
wards. He reached the Hellespont in forty- five
days from the time of Ms departure from Attica.
On arriving at the Hellespont, he found the
bridge of boats destroyed by a storm, and he
crossed over to Asia by ship. He entered Sardis
towards the end of the year 480. In the fol
lowing year, 479, the war was continued in
Greece ; but Mardomus was defeated at Plataea
by the combined forces of the Greeks, and on
3t2

1012

XIPHILINTJS

ZAJUBUUUS

the same day another victory was gaMed over
the Persians at Mycale in Ionia. Next year,
478, the Persians lost their last possession in
Europe by the capture of Sestos on the HeUes
pont (Hdt. vii.-ix.). Thus the struggle was vir
tually brought to an end, though the war stiU
continued for several years longer. Xerxes was
murdered in 465, after a reign of twenty years,
by Artabanus, who aspired to become king of
Persia. (Diod. xi. 69 ; Just. iii. 1 ; Ctes. Pers.
29.) He was succeeded by Ms son Artaxer
xes I. — II. The only legithnate son of Artaxer
xes I., succeeded Mb father as king of Persia in
425, but was murdered after a short reign of
only two months by his half-brother Sogdianus,
who thus became king (Diod. xii. 71).
Xiphilinus (SicptXivos), of Trapezus, was a
monk at Constantinople, and made an abridg
ment of Dio Cassius from the tMrty-sixth to
the eightieth book at the command of the em
peror Michael VII. Ducas, who reigned from
a.d. 1071 to 1078. The work is executed with
carelessness, and is oMy of value as preserving
the main facts of the original, the greater part
of which is lost. It is printed along with Dio
Cassius. Xiphouia (Bicpaivla : Capo di S. Croce), a
promontory on the E. coast of SicUy, with a
harbour (Sicpdveios Xipyv), between Catana and
Syracuse (Strab. p. 267 ; Diod. xxiii. 4).
Xois or Chois (a&is, Xdi'j: Sakkra), an
ancient city of Lower Egypt, N. of Leontopolia,
on an island of the Nile, in the Nomoa Seben-
nyticua, the aeat of the fourteenth dynasty of
Egyptian Mngs.
Xuthus (SovBos), to Attic legends is repre
sented as the son of HeUen by the nymph
Orseis, and a brother of Dorus and Aeolus. He
was Mng of Peloponnesus, and the husband of
Creusa, the daughter of Erechtheus, by whom
he became the father of Achaeus and Ion.
(Eurip'. Ion; ApoUod. i. 7, 3; Ion.) Another
version statea that after the death of Ma father,
HeUen, Xuthus was expelled from Thessaly by
his brothers, and went to Athens, where he
married the daughter of Erechtheus. After
the death of Erechtheus, Xuthus, being chosen
arbitrator, adjudged the Mngdom to his eldest
brother-in-law, Cecropa, in consequence of
which he was expelled by the other sone of
Erechtheus, and settled in Aegialus in Pelopon
nesus (Paus. vii. 1, 2). It has been toferred,
with some probabUity, from Paus. i. 31, 2, where
there is mention of the tomb of Ion at Potamoi
near Prasiae, that Xuthus was origtoally a
local hero of Potamoi, and Ms son Ion the
eponymous founder of a family, but when the
Attic atory made Ion the hero of the Ionian
raceit became necessary to give him a divine
father and a mother who represented tMs
Cecropian line : hence Xuthus is brought
in as the putative, and ApoUo as the real,
father. Xyline, a town of Pisidia, between Corbasa
and Termessus, mentioned by Livy (xxxvui.
15). v
Xynia or Xyniae (Svvia : Evvieis : Taukli),
a town of ThesBaly in the district PhtMotis,
E. of the lake of the same name (y Hvvtas
Xipvy: Nizero or Dereli). It was plundered
by the Aetolians B.c. 198. (Liv. xxxii. 18,
xxxin. 8.)
Xypete (Uvirery : avireraiav, Svirereav,
avireraiuveis, Uvirereis, avtrerios), said to
have been ancient! called Troja, a demus of ... ,. ,,
Attica belongmg to the tribe Cecropis, W. of general character of his laws was severe, but
Athens. | they were observed for a long period by the

Zabatus (zdBaros). [Lycus, No. 5.]
Zabe (ZdBy), a town and district of SE.
Mauretania, near the borders of Numidia (Pro
cop. .B. Vand. ii. 20).
Zacynthus (ZdKvvBos l ZaxivBios, Zacyn-
thius : Zante), an island M the Ionian sea, off
the coast of Elis, about forty miles in circum
ference. It contained a large and flourishing
town of the same name upon the E. coast, the
citadel of wMch was called PsopMs (Paus. viii.
24, 3j Strab. p. 458; Liv. xxvi. 14). There are
two considerable chains of mountains in the
island. The ancient writers mention M. Ela
tus, wMch is probably the same as the modern
Scopo to the SE. of the island, and wMch rises
to the height of 1509 feet. Zacynthus was cele
brated in antiquity for its pitch weUs, wMch
were visited by Herodotus, and which still
supply a large quantity of bitumen (Hdt. iv.
195). Zacynthus was inhabited by a Greek
population at an early period. It is said to
have derived its name from Zacynthus, a son
of Dardanus, who colomsed the island from
Psophis to Arcadia (Paus. I.e.). Thucydides
speaks of the Zacynthians as a colony of
Achaeans from the Peloponnese (ii. 66), and
according to an ancient tradition, the Zacyn
thians founded the town of Saguntum to Spain.
[Saguntum.] The island is frequently men
tioned by Homer, who speaks of it as the
'woody Zacynthus' (II. ii. 634, Od. i. 246, ix.
24; Strab. p. 159). It formed part of the
maritime empire of Athens, and continued
faithful to the Athenians during the Pelopon
nesian war. At a later time it was subject to
the Macedonian monarchs, and on the conquest
of Macedonia by the Romans passed toto their
hands. (Pol. v. 102 ; Liv. xxxvi 32.)
Zadracarta (ZaSpaKapra), one of the capital
cities and royal residences to Hyrcania, lay at
the SE. of the Caspian, N. of the cMef pass
through M. Coronus. It was probably on the
site of Astarabad.
Zagreus. [Dionysus, p. 296, a.]
Zagros or -US (d Zdypos and to Zdypiov
ipos, Mts. of Kurdistan), the general name for
the range of mountams forming the SE. con
tinuation of the Taurus, and the E. margin of
the Tigris and EupMates vaUey, from the SW.
side of the Lake Arsisaa (Van) M Armenia, to
the NE. aide of the head of the Persian Gulf,
and dividing Media from Assyria and Susiana.
More speoificaUy, the name Zagros was appUed
to the central part of the chain, the N. part
being caUed the mountains of the Cordueni or
Gordyaei, and the S. part ParachoatMas. (Pol.
v. 44 ; Strab. p. 522 ; Ptol. vi. 2, 4.)
Zaitha or Zautha (ZavBd), a town of Meso
potamia, on the E. bank of the EupMates,
twenty Roman mUes S. of Circesium (Zosim.
iii. 14; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 5).
Zaleucus (ZdXevKos), the lawgiver of the1
Epizephyrian Locrians, is said by some to have
been originally a alave, but is described by
othera as a man of good family. He could not,
however, have been a disciple of Pythagoras, as
some writers state, since he lived upwards of
100 years before Pythagoras. The date of the
legislation of Zaleucus is assigned to B.C. 660
(Euseb. Chron. 1356). His code is stated to have
been the first collection of written laws that
the Greeks possessed (Strab. pp. 259, 898). The

ZALMOXIS >
Lscrians, who obtained in consequence a high
reputation for legal order (Schol. ad Pind. Ol.
x- 17 ; cf. Arist. Pol. ii. 10). Among other
enactments we are told that the penalty of
adultery was the loss of the eyes (Ael. V. H.
xm. 24 ; Val. Max. v. 5, S). There ia a cele
brated atory of the son of Zaleucus having
become liable to this penalty, and the father
himself suffering the loss of one eye that his
son might not be utterly bUnded. It is further
related that among Ms laws was one forbidding
any citizen under penalty of death to enter
the senate house in arms. On one occasion,
however, on a sudden emergency in time of war,
Zaleucus transgressed his own law, which was
remarked to him by one present ; whereupon
he feU upon Ms own sword, declaring that he
would Mmself vmdicate the law (Eustath. ad
H. p. 62). Other authors teU the same story
of Charondas, or of Diocles (Diod. xii. 19 ; Val.
Max. vi. 5, 4).
Zalmoxis or Zamolxis (ZdXpo£is, ZdpoX(,is),
said to have been so caUed from the bear's skin
(ZdXpos) in wMch he was clothed as soon as he
was born. He was, according to the story cur-
Tent among the Greeks on the HeUespont, a
Getan, who had been a slave to Pythagoras in
Samos, but was manumitted, and acquired, not
oMy great wealth, but large stores of knowledge
from Pythagoras, and from the Egyptians,
whom he viaited in the course of Ms travels.
He returned among the Getae, totroducmg the
civilisation and the religious ideas which he had
gained, especially regardtog the immortality of
the soul. He was said to have Uved in a sub
terranean cave for tMee years, and after that to
have again made his appearance among the
Getae. Herodotus inclines to place the age of
Zalmoxis a long time before Pythagoras, and
expresses a doubt, not oMy about the story
itself, but as to whether Zalmoxis was a man,
or an indigenous Getan deity. The latter
appears to have been the real state of the caae.
The Getae beUeved that the departed went to
him, and it is a probable conjecture that Zal
moxis was really the same as Sabazius, the
TMacian Dionysus [Dionysus, p. 295, a].
(Porph. Vit. Pyth. 14; Hdt. iv. 95; Strab. p. 297.)
Zama Regia (Zdpa : Zamensis : Djama), a
strongly fortified city to the interior of Numidia,
on the borders of the Carthaginian territory.
It was the ordinary residence of King Juba,
who had here Ms treasury and Ms harem. It
was the scene of one of the most important
battles in the Mstory of the world, that in
wMch Hannibal was defeated by Scipio, and
the second Pumc war was ended, B.C. 202.
(Pol xv 5; Liv. xxx. 29; Bell. Afr. 91.) Strabo
teUs us that it was deatroyed by the Romans ;
but if ao, it must have been restored, for we
find it mentioned under the empire as a colony
and a bishop's see. Vitruvius speaks of a
fountain M its neighbourhood. (Strab. pp. 829,
831 ; Vitruv. vUi. 3, 24 ; PUn. v.) There were
unimportant places of the same name in Cappa
docia and Mesopotamia.
Zanele. [Messana.]
Zaradrus (Sutlej) a river of N. India, the
S. boundary of the Punjab (Ptol. vu. 1, 27).
It faUs into the Hyphasis (Gharra).
Zarangae. [Drangiana.]
Zarax or Zarex (Zdpat,, ZdpyQ. 1. The cen
tral part of the chain of mountains extending
along the E. coast of Laconica from Mt. Parnon,
on the frontiers of Argolis, down to the pro
montory Malea (Ptol. iii. 15, 10).— 2. (Jeraka),
a town on the E. coast of Laconica, at the foot

ZENO

1013

of the mountain of the aame name (Paus. iii.
24, 1 ; Pol. iv. 36).
Zariaspe. [Bactra.]
Zariaspis, an earlier, probably the native,
name for the river on which Bactra stood, and
which is usually called Bactrus. [Bactra.]
Zela or Ziela (ra ZrjXa : Zilleh), a city in the
S. of Pontus, due S. of Amasia, and on the
road from Tavium to Comana Pontica. It
stood on an artificial hill, and was strongly
fortified. Near it was an ancient and famous
temple of Anaitis and other Persian deities,
in which great religious festivals were held.
The surrounding district waa called Zeletis or
Zelitis. At Zela the Roman general Valerius
Triarius was defeated by MitMidates ; but the
city is more celebrated for another great battle,
that in which JuUus Caesar defeated Pharnaces,
and of wMch he wrote tMs despatch to Rome :
Veni: Vidi: Vici. (App. Mithr. 89; Plut.
Caes. 50_; Dio Cass. xiii. 47; Bell. Alex. 73.)
Zelasium, a ThessaUan town in the district
Phthiotis, of uncertain site.
Zelia (ZeXeia), an ancient city of Mysia, at
the foot of Mt. Ida, and on the river Aesepus,
eighty stadia from its mouth, belonging to the
territory of Cyzicus. At the time of Alexander's
invasion the headquarters of the Persian army
were fixed here. (II. ii. 824; Strab. pp. 665,
587 ; Arr. An. i. 13.)
Zeno, Zenon (Zyvaiv). 1. The founder of the
Stoic philosophy, was a native of Citium in
Cyprus, and the son of Mnaseas. He began at
an early age to study philosophy tMough the
writings of the Socratic pMloaophers, wMch
his father was accustomed to bring back from
Athens when he went ttother on trading voyages.
At the age of twenty-two, or, according to
others, of thirty years, Zeno was aMpwrecked
M the neighbourhood of Piraeus ; whereupon
he was led to settle to Athens, and to devote
himself entirely to the study of pMlosophy.
Accordmg to some writers he lost aU Ms pro
perty in the shipwreck : accordmg to others,
he still retained a large fortune ; but whichever
of these accounts is correct, Ms moderation
and contentment became proverbial, and a
recognition of Ms virtues shines tMough even
the ridicule of the comic poets. The weakness
of Ms health is said to have first determined
Mm to live 'rigorously and simply, but his
desire to make himself independent of all ex
ternal circumatances seems to have been an
additional motive, and to have led Mm to attach
himself to the Cynic Crates. In opposition to
the advice of Crates, he studied under StUpo
of the Megaric school (Diog. Laert. vii. 24) ;
and he subsequently received Mstruction from
the two other contemporary Megarics, Diodorus
Cronus and PhUo, and from the Academics
Xenocrates and Polemo. The period wMch
Zeno thus devoted to study is said to have ex
tended to twenty years. At its' close, and after
he had developed his peculiar pMlosopMcal
system, he opened his school in the porch
adorned with the paintings of Polygnotus (Stoa
Poecile), which, at an earlier time, had been a
place in which poets met. (Diog. Laert. vii. 5.)
From this place his disciples were called Stoics.
Among the warm admirers of Zeno was Anti-
gonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. The
Athenians likewise placed the greatest- confi
dence in him, and displayed the greatest esteem
for Mm; for although the weU-kn'own story
that they deposited the keys' of the fortress
with him, as the most trustworthy man, may
be a later invention, there seems ho reason for

1014

ZENO

doubting the authenticity of the decree of the
people by which a golden crown and a public
burial in the Ceramieus were awarded him.
The Athenian citizenship, however, he is said
to have declined, that he might not become
unfaithful to his native land, where in return
he was highly esteemed. We do not know the
precise dates of Zeno's birth and death. He is
said to have presided over his school for fifty-
eight years, and to have died at the age of
ninety-eight. He is also said to have been stiU
alive in the 130th Olympiad (b.c. 260). Zeno
wrote numerous works, but the writings of
Chrysippus and the later Stoics seem to have
obscured those of Zeno, and even the warm
adherents of the school seem seldom to have
gone back to the booka of its founder. Hence
it is difficult to ascertain how much of the later
Stoic phUosophy really belongs to Zeno. — The
Stoics, like earlier schools of pMlosophy, re
garded logic and physics as the necessary
foundations for ethics. Zeno (or his followers)
divided logic into rhetoric and dialectic, but
the latter, as providing the testa of truth, is the
more important. Knowledge is attained by
impressions made tMough the senses as upon
a tabula rasa. The mmd has a power of
asaent to the presentations wMch come to the
mind from a true impression ; and Zeno is said
to have iUustrated the stages by which this
asaent, i.e. the exiatence of truth, is obtained
by the gradual progresa from the flat and open
hand to the fully clenched fist. Rhetoric was
the open hand, dialectic the clenched. (Cic.
Orat. 32, 113, Acad. i. 11, 40.) In Ms theory
of physics everything that existed was corporeal,
even the soul itseU. In this, as in most of Mb
system, he aims at substituting what is material
and practical for the visionary speculations
of the Platonic school. The world consists of
matter and Reason or God : for the god of the
Stoics is the single, all-pervadMg soul of the
world, which is the moving force of matter ;
but the one cannot be separated from the
other, so that there is no dualistic tendency
in the Stoic pMlosophy. In ethics the chief
good ia virtue : but this is defined as ' living
according to reason '' or ' according to nature,'
which is, to other words, the reason of the
world. TMs virtue or life according to reason
could only be attained by the wise man, who
was to be seU-sufficing and independent of
externals, unmoved, therefore, by pain or plea
sure. Virtue is the only good thing, vice the
only evU, and all else is indifferent. But the
good and the evil are absolute, so that the
tendency of the Stoic philosophy was to put
good deeds together on an equality on one side,
and bad deeds or crimes on an equality on the
other.' Another tendency of Stoicism, which
had some poUtical importance, was towards
cosmopolitanism : that is to say, that, regard
ing all the human race as differentiated only
by virtue and vice, wisdom and folly, they were
inclined to be citizens of the world rather than
of a particular state. It was a sign, and might
in some small degree be a cause, of the break
ing down of the barriers of the numerous and
small, but intensely patriotic, Greek states which
marks the change of the Macedonian period.
— 2. The Eleatic philosopher, was a native of
Elea (VeUa) in Italy, son of Teleutagoras, and
the favourite disciple of Parmenides. He was
born about B.C. 488, and at the age of forty
accompanied Parmenides to Athens. [Par
menides.] He appears to have resided some
time at Athens, and is said to have unfolded

ZENODOTIUM
his doctrines to men Uke Pericles and CaUias
for the price of 100 minae. Zeno is said
to have taken part to the legislation of Par
menides, to the maintenance of wMch the
citizens of Elea had pledged themselves every
year by an oath. His love of freedom is shown
by the courage with which he exposed Ms life
in order to deliver his native country from a
tyrant. Whether he perished in the attempt
or survived the faU of the tyrant is a point on
wMch the authorities vary. They also state
the name of the tyrant differently. Zeno
devoted all his energies to explain and develop
the phUosophical system of Parmenides. [Par
menides.]— 3. An Epicurean pMlosopher, a
native of Sidon, was a contemporary of
Cicero, who heard him when at Athens. He
was sometimes termed Coryphaeus Epicure-
orum. He seems to have been noted for the
disrespectful terms to wMch he spoke of other
phUosophers. For instance, he called Socrates
the Attic buffoon. He was a disciple of ApoUo-
dorus, and is described as a clear-headed
thinker and perspicuous expounder of his views.
Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. After the death
of her husband, Odenathus, whom, according
to some accounts, she assassinated (a.d. 266), she
assumed the imperial diadem, as regent for her
sons, and discharged all the active duties of a
sovereign. But not content with enjoymg the
independence conceded by GaUienus and
tolerated by Claudius, she sought to include
all Syria, Asia, and Egypt within the limits of
her sway, and to make good the title wMch she
claimed of Queen of the East. By this rash
ambition she lost both her kingdom and her
liberty. She was defeated by Aurelian, taken
prisoner on the capture of Palmyra (273), and
carried to Rome, where she adorned the triumph
of her conqueror (274). Her life was spared by
Aurelian, and she passed the remainder of her
years with her sons in the vicinity of Tibur
(Tivoli). (Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 31 ; Zonar.
xii. 27.) Longinus lived at her court, and was
put to death on the capture of Palmyra.
[Longinus.] Zenobia (Zyvo$la : Chelebi or Zelebi), a city
of Chalybonitis, M Syria, on the W. bank of the
EupMates, between Sura and Circesium. It
was founded by Zenobia.
Zenobius (ZyvdBtos), lived at Rome to the
time of Hadrian, and was the author of a coUec
tion of proverbs in Greek, wMch have come
down to us. In this coUection the proverbs
are arranged alphabeticaUy, and divided into
hundreds. The last division is incomplete, the
total number coUected being 552. It is printed
to the collection of Schottus (Tlapoipiai 'EX-
XyviKai, Antwerp, 1612).
Zenodorus, a Greek artist, who made for
Nero the colossal statue of that emperor wMch
he set up to front of the Golden House and
which was afterwards dedicated afresh by
Vespasian as a statue of the Sun. It was 110
feet in height. Pliny notes that, great as was
the skill of Zenodorus to modelling and chasing,
he could not restore the old exceUence of casting
in bronze (Plin. xxxiv. 45).
Zenddotium or -la (ZyvoSdriov, ZyvoSoria), a
fortress in the N. of Mesopotamia, on the small
tributary of the EupMates caUed Bilecha, a
little above Nicephorium and below Ichnae.
It was a Macedonian settlement, and the only
one of the Greek cities of Mesopotamia wMoh
did not revolt from the Parthians at the
approach of Crassus. (Dio Cass. xl. 12 ; Plut.
Crass. 17.)

ZENODOTUS
Zenodotus (ZyviSoros). 1. Of Ephesus, a
celebrated grammarian, was the first superin-

ZEUS

1015

tendent of the great Ubrary at Alexandria, and latter, and sent the second wife of Phineus to her

the Argonautic expedition. They liberated their
sister and her children, gave the kingdom to the

flourished under Ptolemy PMladelphus about
B.C. 208. Zenodotus was employed by Phila
delphus, together with Ma two great contem-
porariea, Alexander the Aetolian and LycopMon
the Chalcidian, to coUect and revise all the
Greek poets. Alexander, we are told, undertook
the task of coUecting the tragedies, Lycophron
the comedies, and Zenodotus the poems of
Homer and of the other iUustrioua poeta.
Zenodotus, however, devoted his cMef attention
to the Hiad and Odyssey. Hence he is called
the first Beviser (AiopBairys) of Homer, and his
recension (Ai6p6a>o-ts) of the Hiad and Odyssey
obtained the greatest celebrity. The correc
tions wMch Zenodotus appUed to the text of
Homer were of tMee kinds. (1) He expunged
verses. (2) He marked them as spurious, but
left them to Mb copy. (3) He introduced new
readings or transposed or altered verses. The
great attention wMch Zenodotus paid to the
language of Homer caused a new epoch in the
grammatical study of the Greek language. The
resMts of hia Mvestigations respecting the
meamng and the use of words were contained
M two works wMch he published under the
title of a Glosaary (VXacro-ai), and a Dictionary
of barbarous or foreign pMases. — 2. Of Alex
andria, a grammarian, lived after Aristarchus,
whose recension of the Homeric poems he
attacked (SMd. s. v.).
Zephyra. [Halicarnassus.]
Zephyrium (Zecpvpiov, sc. aKparypiov, i.e. the
W. promontory), the name of several promon
tories of the ancient world. The cMef of them
were the foUowing: — I. In Europe. 1. (C.di
Brussano), a promontory in Bruttium, forming
the SE. extremity of the country, from wMch
the Locri who settled to the neighbourhood are
said to have obtatoed the name of Epizephyrii
(Strab. pp. 259, 270; Plin. iii. 74).— 2. A pro
montory on the W. coast of Cyprus (Strab. p.
683). II. In Asia. 1. In Pontus (C. Zefreh),
a headland W. of Tripolis, with a fort and
harbour of the same name (Ptol. v. 6, 11). —
2. [Caria.] — 3. In Cilicia (prob. C. Cavaliere),
a far-projecting promontory, W. of Prom. Sar
pedon (Strab. p. 671). III. In Africa (Kasser
Maarah), a headland on the NE. coast of
Cyrenaica, W. of Darnis.
Zephyrus (Zecpvpos), the personification of
the W. wind, is described by Hesiod as a son of
Astraeus and Eos (Th. 579). By the Harpy
Podarge, Zephyrus became the father of the
horses Xanthus and Balius, which belonged to
Achilles (II. xvi. 150) ; but he was married to
Chloris, whom he had carried off by force, and
by whom he had a son, Carpus. (Ov. Hast.
v. 197.) [Venti.]
ZervnthuB (ZypvvBos: ZypivBios), a town of
TMace, in the territory of Aenos (or as some say,
^Tlta^oVeh^t^pnitu:5fT^ri(K^^« ™*intt^:*^^i
BorlidaeTarementioned among theArgonauts,
sister Cleopatra, who was married to Himeus,
SlSiez, w<= f »  , -, t._.„ ^Twam with hfir

kmTof ¥aimyde"ssus, had been thrown with her
XI into prison by Phineus at the instigation of
tosecond^wif e. Here she was found by Zetes
and Calais, when they arrived at Salmydessus in

own country, Scythia. (Diod. iv. 44.) Other
accounts relate that the Boreadae delivered
Phineus from the Harpies; for it had been
foretold that the Harpies might be kiUed by
the sons of Boreas, but that the sons of Boreas
must die if they should not be able to overtake
the Harpies (Apollod. i. 9, 21). Others, again,
state that the Boreadae perished in their pur-
smt of the Harpies, or that Heraclea killed
them with Ma arrows near the island of Tenos
(Hyg. Fab. 14 ; Harpyiae). Their tombs were
said to be in Tenos, adorned with sepulcMal
stelae, one of which moved whenever the wind
blew from the north. Calais is also mentioned
as the founder of the Campanian town of Cales
(Sil. It. viii. 515).
Zethus (Zijflos), son of Zeus and Antiope, and
brother of Amphion. For detaUs aee Amphion.
Zeugis, Zeugitana Regio (y Zevyiravy : N.
part of Tunis), the N. district of Africa Propria.
[Africa.] Zeugma (Zevypa, i.e. Junction : prob. Bum-
keleh), a city of Syria, on the borders of Com
magene and Cyrrhestice, bmlt by Seleucus
Nicator, on the W. bank of the EupMates, at a
point where the river was crossed by a bridge
of boats which had been constructed by Alex
ander the Great : hence the name. Afterwards,
when the ford of Thapsacus became impassable
for travellers, on account of the hordes of
Arabs who infested the banks of the Lower
Euphrates, the bridge at Zeugma gave the
only passage over the river. (Strab. p. 746 ;
Pol. v. 43 ; Dio Cass. xl. 17 ; Procop. Aed. ii. 9 )
Zeus (Zeis), the greatest of the Greek gods,.
was primarily the god of the sky (literally the
'bright sky '), worshipped by the old Greeks on
mountam tops, such as would give an uninter
rupted view of the sky. But the commixture
of the myths and traditions of many different
national or tribal religions caused a number of
different stories to be attached to Zeus from
which the Zeus of Greek Uterature (or the
Jupiter in Latin Uterature, when the Greek
stories were adopted) has been formed. Homer
has these stories, but gives them only partially.
Zeus iB the son of Cronos and Rhea, a brother of
Poseidon, Hades (Pluto), Hestia, Demeter, Hera,
and is married to his sister Hera. When Zeus
and his brothers diatributed among themselves
the government of the world by lot, Poseidon
obtamed the sea, Hades the lower world, and
Zeus the heavens and the upper regions, but
the earth became common to all. Accordmg
to the Homeric account Zeus dwelt on Mt;
Olympus in Thessaly, wMch was believed to
penetrate with its lofty summit into heaven
itseU. He is caUed the father of gods and
men, the most Mgh and powerful among the
immortals, whom all others obey. He ia the
aupreme ruler, who with Ma counael manages
everytMng ; the founder of Mngly power, and
of law and of order, whence Dike, Themis, and
Nemesis are his assistants. For the same
reason he protects the assembly of the people
(dyopdios), the meetings of the council (BovX-
aios), and as he presides over the whole state,
so also over every house and family (epKeios).
He also watched over the sanctity of the oath
(SpKios) and the laws of hospitality (l-evtos), and
protected suppUants (iKecrtos). He avenged
those who were wronged, and punished those
who had committed a crime, for he watched the
doings and sufferings of aU men (eiritpios). He

1016was further the original source of all prophetic |
power, from whom aU prophetic signs and
sounds proceeded (iravopcpdios). Everything,
good as weU as bad, comes from Zeus ; accord-
Mg to Mb own choice he assigns good or evil to
mortals ; and fate itself was subordinate to Mm.
He is armed with thunder and lightning (the
original attributes of the god of the sky), and
the shakmg of his aegis produces storm and
tempest ; epithets of Zeus in the Homeric
poems describe him as repiriKepavvos , ipi-
ySoviros, vv/tBpeperys, the thunderer, vecpeXyye-
perys, the gatherer of clouds, and in later
writers dpBpios or verios, the sender of rain.
Hence Zebs MeiXixios (the placable) was wor
shipped at the Attic Diasia, that he might give
favourable weather for the apring cropa, and
Zebs MaipaKrys at the approach of winter, that
he might not send heavy storms. Hesiod has
adopted the myth which belonged to Crete and
to Asia Minor and has in literature superseded
the purer conception of Zeus. In tMs story
also Zeus is the son of Cronos and Rhea, and the
brother of Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and
Poseidon. Cronos swallowed his children im
mediately after their birth, but when Rhea was
pregnant with Zeus, she applied to Uranus and
Ge to save the life of the child. Uranus and

Head ol the Olympian Zeus. (From a bast in the
Vatican.)

¦Ge therefore sent Rhea to Lyctos M Crete;
requesting her to bring up her child there.
Rhea accordingly concealed Zeus in a cave of
Mourit Aegaeon, and gave to Cronos a stone
wrapped in cloth, which he swaUowed M the
beUef that it was Ms son. Cronos, by a cun
ning device of Ge or Metis, was made to vomit
up the children he had swallowed, and first of
all the stone, which was afterwards set up
by Zeus at Delphi (Hes. Th. 468-500; cf.
Paus. x. 24, 5). The infant Zeus was brought
up in Crete, nursed by Amalthea, and guarded
by the Curetes, who clashed their cymbals that
Ms cries might not be heard by his father
[Amalthea ; Curetes]. Coming to manhood
Zeus delivered the Cyclopes from the bonds
with which they had been fettered by Cronos,
and they in their gratitude provided him with
thunder and lightmng. On the advice of Ge,
Zeus also liberated the hundred-armed Gi
gantes, Briareus, Cottus and Gyes, that they
might assist him in his fight against the Titans.
The Titans were conquered and shut up in
Tartarus, where they were henceforth guarded
by the Hecatoncheires. Thereupon Tartarus
and Ge begot Typhoeus, who began a fearful
struggle with Zeus, but was conquered. [Cy- |

ZEUS clopes; Gigantes; Titanes; Typhoeus.]
Zeus now reigned supreme, and chose Metis
for Ms wife. When she was pregnant with
Athene, he took the chUd out of her body and
concealed it in his head, on the advice of Uranus
and Ge, who told him that thereby he would
retain the supremacy of the world. For if
Metis had given birth to a son, tMs son (bo fate
had ordained it) would have acquired the
aovereignty. [Athene, p. 138, a.] His position
as supreme lawgiver is represented in myth by
Mb second marriage, with Themis (Justice or
Law), from wMch sprang the Fates and the
Seasons [Horae ; Moerae]. But Ms marriage
with Hera was the ' sacred marriage,' the type
of aU marriages [see Hera, p. 393, b]. Twelve
great Olympian gods were recognised : or rather
six pairs of deities (cf. Hymn, ad Merc. 128).
It is likely that the Ust in Liv. xxii. 10, wMch
mentions the twelve deities worsMpped to Greek
fashion at ledisternia, represents the twelve
to whom the altar at Athens was erected (Thuc.
vi. 54). These were Zeus (the head of them aU),
Poseidon, Apollo, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus,
Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Athene, Artemis and
Aphrodite. The altars to twelve gods were
common in Greece, but not always to the same
twelve, including sometimes deities not usu
ally regarded as belonging to the Olympian
' dynasty.' The altar at Olympia was to the
following six pairs : Zeus and Poseidon, Hera
and Athene, Hermes and Apollo, Dionysus and
the Charites, Artemis and Alpheus, Cronus and
Rhea (Schol. ad Pind. Ol. v. 5). In the preva
lent Greek mythology, though Zeus was always
recognised as supreme god, the minister and
announcer of Ms wiU was ApoUo. — Such is the
representation of Zeus to literature, but it
must not be forgotten that tMs account, and
many other legends about him are the outcome
of a combMation of mythologies. The change
of dynasties from Uranus to Cronus and from
Cronus to Zeus represents in reaUty the par
tial acceptance of a theology belongmg to older
inhabitants of Greek lands whose supreme
gods are retained as predecessors of the Greek
Zeus. Moreover, as has been pointed out
above, the older Greek Zeus (the Zeus of the
so-caUed ' Pelasgians ') was the god of the
bright sky [cf. Jupiter], worsMpped on moun
tains such as Olympus (more than one), Ithome,
Parnes, Cithaeron, Laphystion, Ida and Samo
thrace. Many, no doubt, of the myths about
Mm refer to the phenomena of the sky : the
fight with Typhoeus, for instance, is probably
a myth from the strife of the elements, and
the story of the Cyclopes supplying him with
thunderbolts obviously refers to thunderstorms ;
but it is an error to apply tMs interpretation
as universally as some have done. The many
transformations of Zeua in his amours have
been rightly explained as no sky-phenomena,
but as additions gradually made to the story of
Zeus from the common habit of tracmg the
descent of noble families from the god. Thus
a number of separate local genealogies of this
kind gathering round the name of Zeus, from
whom these local families traced their descent,
necessitated the belief in a number of unions
between Zeus and local nymphs or mortal wo
men ; and, further, those primitive tribes who
had totemistic symbols had traditions wMch
are preserved in the stories of Zeus taking an
animal form. It is likely enough that the true
explanation of Zeus as a bull or Zeus as a
swan is given by those who say that the descent
in such tribes became a descent from Zeus =

ZEUXIDAMUS
a bull, ?r from Zeus = a swan. The earlv or
^^^^cadlSer^^S
Slum, or on Mt. Lvcaeus Hi ^ p?'rrna-
there bythe nympSsoa^Nlda SSfc?
Lycaon, son of Pelasgus erPX;i ' * HW0.
Zeus Lycaeus on MtLycaell J '^VS I
the festival of ^e L^rerL\a^St0fttrn"
£YStfAS V1?040"]; in «» festival [see Die"
of Ant. art. L</c«e?] we see Zeus dweUing to
hg ht,^,^e summit of the mountato where it
caught the first rays of the sun, and worsMpped
by rites, part of which is a rain charm, port a reUc
of human sacrifice. Those may be right who see
to this sacrifice ' the cannibal feast of a wolf-
tribe.' EspeciaUy regarded as ' Pelasgian ' was
the Zeus of Dodona to Epirus called Zebs
AcoScovdios or TleXacryiKds, who was worsMpped
origtoally without image or temple in the sa
cred oak-grove — the tree sacred to the chief
god of Aryan nations — and possessMg the
oldest oracle of Greece [for a full account, see
Did. of Ant. art. Oi-aculum]. The national
HeUeMc Zeus of the less primitive time was
worsMpped at Olympia in Elis, and the great
national Panegyris was celebrated once in four
years. There Zeus was regarded aa the father
and king of goda and men, and as the supreme
god of the HeUemc nation. His statue at
Olympia was executed by Phidias, a few years
before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war,
the sublime idea of tins great work havMg
been suggested to the artist by the words of
Homer (II. i. 527). [Phidias.]— -The Greek and
Latin poets give to Zeus or Jupiter an immense
number of epithets and surnames, wMch are
derived partly from the places where he was
worsMpped, and partly express the hopes and
aspirations of those who worsMpped Mm.
The most familiar and significant, besides
those mentioned at the beginning of the
article, are TeveBXios or Tewyrap as the
father of the nation or the family (Pind.
Pyth. iv. 167 ; Aesch. Suppl. 196) ; 'EXevBepios,
the giver of freedom, especiaUy as deUverer
from the Persian yoke (Plut. Aristid. 19 ; cf.
Pind. 01. xn. 1) ; S.arryp, the protector of
the race or of the household, to whom the
third cup of wine at the Greek dMner was
drunk (the first being to the Olympian gods,
the second to the heroes : cf. Pind. Isthm. v. 8 ;
Plat. Phileb. p. 66) ; TapyXios, who gives happy
and fruitful wedlock; TeXeios, who answers
prayer (Pind. Pyth. i. 67 ; Aesch. Ag. 973). The
eagle, the oak, and the summits of mountains
were sacred to Mm, and Ms sacrifices generaUy
consisted of goats, buUs, and cows. His usual
attributes are the sceptre eagle, t^^oW,
T„A „ «X7-,ro of Victory in his hand, and some-
and a figure ot vie™ . y olympian Zeus
times also a cornucopia. The O^P^ ^
sometimes wears a w ^ ^ ^^
Dodonaean Zeus a represented as the
works of ^f^r and kLng of gods and men,
upotent father * wag emboaied m

ZEUXIS

1017

the statue 01 »"" ^ god see Jupiter.
^Pe0tMagrr,us (Zevitoa-os). 1. King of Sparta,
Zeuxidamus (Z^0^tidae. He wa8 grand.

ommpoieiiL i».-~- wMch
accordmg to me 01ympian zeus by Phidias.
¦the!
mus (
and tenth of the""- and father of Anaxidamus,
son of Theopompus^ ... ?) _% ^ rf
who suecee aea rf g rta He was aiao
Leotychides; * s He died before Mb utheT)
named Cymsc » bidamug n (Hdt vi, 71.
leaving, a s'

Thuc

.47.)

Zeuxis (ZeC|is), the great Greek painter, who
excelled all Ms contemporaries except Parrha
sius, was a native of Heraclea (probably of the
city of tMs name on the Euxme), and was born
between 450 and 440 B. c. He came to Athens
soon after the beginning of the Peloponnesian
war, when he had already achieved a great re
putation, although a young man. (Plat. Protag.
p. 318, Gorg. p. 453, cf. Aristoph. Ach. 991.)
He passed some time in Macedonia, at the court
of Archelaus, for whom he decorated the royal
palace at Pella with paintings, probably soon
after 413 (Ael. V. H xiv. 17). He must have
spent some time in Magna Graecia, as we learn
from the story respecting the picture of Helen,
wMch he painted for the city of Croton ; and it
is also probable that he visited SicUy, as we are
told that he gave away one of his pictures to
the Agrigentines. His travels tMough Greece
itself were no doubt extensive. We find him at
Olympia, where he made an oatentatious die-
play, before the eyes of all Greece, of the wealth
wMch Ms art had brought him, by appearing in
a robe embroidered with his own name in letters
of gold (Plin. xxxv. 62). The pallia, however,
are explamed by some as bemg curtains hung
m front of his pictures. After acquiring a great
fortune by the exercise of his art, he adopted
the custom of giving away Ms pictures, because
no adequate price could be set upon them. The
time of his death is unknown. The masterpiece
of Zeuxis waa his picture of Helen, M pamtmg
which he had as Mb models the five most beau
tiful maidens of Croton, whom he was allowed
to select for this purpose. It was painted for
the temple of Hera at Croton. This picture
and its Mstory were celebrated by many poets,
who preserved the names of the five maidens
upon whom the choice of Zeuxis fell. (PUn.
xxxv. 62 ; Cic. de Invent, ii. 1.) The accurate
painting of ' still Ufe ' was a department of the
art which Zeuxis and his younger rival Parrha
sius appear to have carried ahnost to perfection.
The well-known story of the trial of skill in that
species of painting between these two artists, if
not literally true, indicates the opinion which
was held to ancient times of their powers of
imitation. In this contest the picture of Zeuxis
represented a bunch of grapes, so naturally
painted that the birds flew at the picture to eat
the fruit ; upon which the artist, confident m
this proof of his success, called upon his rival
no longer to delay to draw aside the curtain
and show his picture : but the picture of Par-
rhasius was the curtain itself, which Zeuxis had
mistaken for real drapery. On discovering Ms
error, Zeuxis honourably yielded the palm to
Parrhasius, sayMg that he himself had deceived
birds, but Parrhasius had deceived an artist
(Plin. I. c). Beaides tMs accuracy of imitation,
many of the works of Zeuxis displayed great
dramatic power. This appears to have been
especiaUy the case with his Infant Heracles
strangling the Serpent, where the chief force of
the composition consisted in the terror of Alc-
mena and Amphitryon, as they witnessed the
struggle. It is thought that this theme is repro
duced on a vase now in the British Museum.
Another picture, M wMch he showed the same
dramatic power, applied to a very different
subject, was Ms Female Hippocentaur, which
was lost in a sMpwreck off Cape Malea, on its
way to Eome, whither it had been sent by Sulla
(Lucian, Zeux. 3). The composition of tMs
picture is perhaps preserved in a mosaic from
the villa of Hadrian [see Did. of Ant. art.
Pictura].

1018

ZIOBEEIS

Zioberis (Jinjeran), a river of Parthia (Curt.
vi. 4, i\.
Zoetium or Zoeteum (ZoiVioc, Zo'neiov ; Zoi-
reieis), a town of Arcadia to the district
Eutresia, N. of Megalopolis.
Zoilus (ZaiiXos), a grammarian, was a native
f Amphipolis, and lived in the time of PhUip
of Macedon. He was celebrated for the asperity
with wMch he assailed Homer (Suid. s.v.
'Opypopdtml;). He found fault with Mm prin
cipally for introducing fabulous and incredible
stories in Ms poems. Prom the list that we
have of his writings it also appears that he
attacked Plato and Isocrates. His name became
proverbial for a captious and malignant critic.
(Ov. Bern. Am. 366 ; Ael. V. H. xi. 10.)
Zonaras, Joannes ('liodvvys 6 Zawapds), a
celebrated Byzantine Mstorian and theologian,
Uved to the tweUth century under the emperors
Alexius I. ComnenusandCalo-Joannes. Besides
his theological works there is stiU extant Ms
Annates (XpovtKdv), in eighteen books, from
the creation of the world to the death of Alexis
M 1118. It is compiled from various Greek
authors, whose very words Zonaras frequently
retains. The earUer part is cMefly taken from
Josephus ; and in the portion which relates to
Roman Mstory he has for the most part fol
lowed Dio Cassius, In consequence of the
latter circumatance tne Annals of Zonaraa are
of great importance to studying the early Ms
tory of Bome. Of the "first twenty books of
Dio Caesius we have nothmg but the abstract
of Zonaras; and even of the later books, of
wMch Xiphilinus has made a fuller epitome,
Zonaras has preserved many statements of
Dio wMch are entirely omitted by Xiphilinus. —
Editions by Du Cange, Paris, 1686, fol., and
by Dindorf, Leips. 1875.
Zone (Zdvy : Zwvdios), a town of Thrace on a
promontory of the same name to the Aegaean,
where Orpheus is said to have sung (Hdt. vii.
59 ; Ap. Bh. i. 29 ; Mel. ii. 2, 8).
Zopyrus (Zairvpds). 1. A Persian, son of
Megabyzus. After Darius Hystaspis had be
sieged Babylon for twenty months in vain,
Zopyrus resolved to gain the place for his master
by the moat extraordinary aelf-sacrifice. Ac
cordingly, one day he appeared before Darius
with Mb body mutilated in the most horrible
manner : both Mb ears and nose were cut off,
and Ms person otherwiae diafigured. After
explaining to Darius his intentions, he fled to
Babylon as a victim of the cruelty of the Per
sian Mng. The Babylonians gave hhn their
confidence, and placed him at the head of their
troops. He soon found means to betray the
city to Darius, who severely punished the in
habitants for their revolt. Darius appointed
Zopyrus satrap of Babylon -for Ufe, with the
enjoyment of its entire revenues. (Hdt. iii.

ZYGANTE3
153-160.) — 2. The Physiognomist, attributed
many vices to Socrates in an assembly of his
disciples, who laughed at Mm and at his art in
consequence ; but Socrates admitted that such
were his natural propensities, but said that
they had been overcome by philosophy. (Cic.
Tusc. iv. 37, de Fat. 5.)
Zoroaster or Zoroastres (Zccpodo-rpys), the
Zarathustra of the Zendavesta, and the Zer-
dusht of the Persians, was the reformer of the
Magian religion. There were extant in the
later Greek literature several works bearing
the name of Zoroaster ; but these writings were
forgeries of a later age, and belong to the same
class of writings as the works of Hermes Tris
megistus, Orpheus, &c. There is still extant a
coUection of oracles ascribed to Zoroaster, wMch
are, of course, spurious. They have been pub-
Ushed by MoreU, Paris, 1595, and by other
editors. Zosimus (Zdo-ipos), a Greek historian, who
Uved m the time of the younger Theodosius.
He wrote a History of the Boman empire to six
books, wMch is stiU extant. TMs work must
have been written after A.D. 425, as an event is
mentioned to it wMch took place in that year.
The first book comprises a sketch of the Mstory
of the early emperors, down to the end of the
reign of Diocletian (305). The second, tMrd,
and fourth books are devoted to the Mstory of
the fourth century, wMch is treated much less
concisely. The fifth and sixth books embrace
the period from 895 to 410, when Attalus was
deposed. The work of Zosimus is mainly
(though not altogether) an abridgment or com-
pUation of the works of previous Mstorians.
His style is concise, clear, pure, and not un-
pleasing. His cMef fault as a historical writer
is his neglect of chronology. Zosimus was a
pagan, and comments severely upon the faults
and crimes of the Christian emperors. Hence
Ms credibiUty has been assaUed by several
Christian writers. There are, no doubt, nume
rous errors of judgment to be found to the
work, and sometimes (especiaUy to the case of
Constantine) an mtemperate expression of
opimon, which sometimes exaggerates, if it
does not distort the truth. But he does not
seem fairly chargeable with deliberate inven
tion or wilful misrepresentation. — Editions by
Bekker, 1837, and by Mendelssohn, 1887.
Zoster (G. of Vari), a promontory on the W.
of Attica, between Phalerum and Sunium. It
was a sacred spot, and contained altars of Leto,
Artemis, and ApoUo (Paus. i. 31, 1).
Zygantes or Gygantes (Ziyavres, Tiyavres),
a people of Libya, whom Herodotus places on
the W. side of the lake Triton. Others men
tion a city Zygantis and a people Zyges on
the coast of Marmarica. (Hdt. iv. 194 ; Steph.
Byz. s.v.)

APPENDIX

It is thought that some of those who wish to
pursue further the subjects (apart from the
domain of the historians of Greece and Bome)
which cannot be exhaustively dealt with in a
book of tMs size, may be helped by the follow
ing list of works. It is not intended to be
anything approaching a complete bibUography
on any of the departments included in this
Dictionary. The object has been to name the
more easily procurable books among modern
authorities wMch wiU carry most students as
far as they need, and wiU themselves furnish a
more complete Ust of writers in aU languages
on their several subjects. To most of the books
mentioned below the Editor has to acknowledge
deep obligations for information, suggestions,
or references. A.
For Mythology: — Boscher's Ausfuhrliches
Lexikon der griechischen und romischen
Mythologie (wMch, however, as yet does not
extend beyond letter K). [TMs is the best
and fuUest work wMch has yet appeared, though
some of its most learned contributors are too
prone to retain the meteorological explanation
of myths, to the exclusion of that derived from
customs and rites traceable m ' folk-lore.']
PreUer-Plew's Griechische Mythologie and
PreUer-Jordan's Bom. Myth. Great assistance
and guidance may be obtained from Mann-
hardt's Mythol. Forschungen and Wald- und
Feldkulte, and from Lang's Custom, Myth
and Bitual ; also from Harrison's Mythology
and Monuments of Athens, Prazer's Golden
Bough, Dyer's Gods of Greece, and from articles
M Baumeister's Denkmdler (especially for the
representation of myths in ancient art).

For TopogTaphy :— PuUer information and
more references wiU be found to Smith's Dic
tionary of Ancient Geography. See also Bun-
bury's History of Ancient Geography, Kiepert's
Lehrbuch der alien Geographic and the Eng
lish translation. Among the more recent books
for particular countries and for the more im
portant towns are Ramsay's Historical Geo

graphy of Asia Minor, Tozer's Armenia and
Asia Minor, Torr's Bhodes in Ancient Times,
Bent's Cyclades, Tozer's Islands of the Aegean,
Harrison's Myth, and Mon. of Athens, and
Lolling's article on Athens, printed in Bau
meister's Denkmdler and in I. Miiller's Hand-
buch, Tozer's Lectures on Greece, Gardner's
New Chapters in Greek History, Schuchardt's
account of Schliemann's Excavations (transl.
by Sellers), Freeman's Sicily, Middleton's Be-
mains of Ancient Bome, O. Richter's Topo
graphic von Bom (in Baumeister and I. MiiUer),
Burn's Bome and the Campagna. A very full
bibliography for the various countries of Greece
and of the Roman Empire will be found in the
treatises of Lollmg and Jung in I. MiiUer's
Handbuch, vol. iii. For the divisions and
arrangement of Roman Provinces see Momm- .
sen's Provinces of the Boman Empire and
Marquardt's Handbuch, vol. iv.
C.
For Philosophers : — Zeller's Philosophic der
Griechen, and the translations of his works
Plato and the Older Academy and Outlines of
Greek Philosophy ; Lewes's History of Philo
sophy, Grote's Plato and Aristotle.

For Artists:— A. S. Murray's History of
Greek Sculpture and Handbook of Greek
Archaeology, and Overbeck's Geschichte der
griechischen Plastik. [See also articles in
Baumeister's Denkmdler. The most important
modern authorities are given in the articles
on Statuaria Ars and Pictura M Smith's
Dictionary of Antiquities. A Handbook of
Greek Painters by Cecil Smith is announced.]
E.
For Greek and Roman Writers :— Histories
of Greek Literature by Mahaffy, Bergk, Bern-
hardy, and Jevons : for the orators, Blass'
Attische Beredsamkeit and Jebb's Attic Ora
tors ; Teuffel and Schwabe, History of Boman
Literature (transl. by Warr), which gives a
very full bibliography, Sellar's Boman Poets of
the Bepublic and Poets of the Augustan Age.

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